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~ complete ee riee of Spellin;r and &ading Boo/a, ln aix ·.qu,m~er.,;·,.. B
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THE UNION, No. t; on, CmLD'• FmsT DooK. Being the lli'st"'hr •j .erles?ot
S Sp elli11g nnd R eading Books, In eix numbers. · -· · '
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< THE UNION, No. 2; on, CmLD's SecoND nooK. ' Beiug Ibo •eeo)id o(· a; •eife•
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S THE UNION, No. 4. COntnioin~ l cRson~ fo~ R en.ding and Spe1Un8; Aritfi·.
~ mclicnl 1'ah l ~R and Rxc rci ~es ; rn~ntal Ar11h~ elic, Orthography, &c...- .Qeiog ~ the
( fourlh of n !'lerics of Sj>elling ancl Reading Books, iri six ~nm5r,rs. ta· ··l~ .~·;_;; 1~~~
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S se ries of Spt!lling and Reading B odka, in six numb_e.r_A. /'· '.. \'.' !~·~~?/:~~\.1~f-~;
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( Sc hools. Contammg a Key; Qnestmne appended to the .Secl1ons ; .E..xerci_ael! Jn,,
S Syntax nml Style; Definitions; Verhal Distinctions, wlth· !~q~atione, kc5f11eln,
(the sixth of a se ries of Common School Classics . ....':(~Yi~';:-.. -.~";.*·~-::. ·:·~.· ~~·~:~!~
' S CHALMERS' ' 'VIDENCES. EvidcncesofChrlstl'tinlty. DyTbomaac;Jh&lmer8,
<D. D. T 1J wh :ch is nddf?rl, Ren.ark s o n the Nature of Tel!lti.ml')ny"• ahd , o~ :the
S Ar!?Um " n' 1lc rivec.I from th e rorPn1Pmorativc Ili1es of the OhrlstiP n ltel~qh.~!-BJ
~ John A Uc: :1-.n11tbi e, M. D., F.R.S. r 11iladclp hia, ScHOOL EDITJo ·r, with ;Q...ueRtl<!~*" ~
( CLEVELAND'S AnA;lfS' LA ~'( ]'I ORAMMA '.;.. Art?m•'L.' t·.u. Gramruar;~Wlth
S num cr<"' U:-' Arlrlifinn s and fmprov e, ,f, :.·:, il c1:1 i.lo( nod to aul the u:oro advanced St~·.
( dent., by furth e r r. lu c idati ons of llw Ho111a11 C las!lkH. · Dy C.D. ~J11;, el~m~, A-M.;':(.'
S COT.: LY•S SPELLING DOOK, r evise r! nnd l:npro,,.erl (by ; :1eAutboi').,.._adapted
(to <tiffi?M nt cla~~cs or Pn pils: and co mpiled wilb a view to an eu.r 1tie1atJOn·la·
~ attftini~K tl1e arts ofSpe llinJ? and Readi ng.
·
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DAVENPOllT';j lllSTORY · OP TUE UN!TF::D BTATJ-:s. Til•torf- '1>( the
( Unlred Stntc11, contain in ~ nil \he evenl• ncc•s.nry lo be committed to memory '
with the Der.lnrntion of lmlepondence, tl10 Constitution of the United Btates1
~ • Tllble of Chro1wlo~y, for the use of Schools. A new edition; . correelea and
S impro\" erl. Hy Bis h o p Davenpbrt. . ·--· ·'
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PlllLADELPHIA BXl'OS!TOR. A Radical or Analytbal Expositor ~ :ile•l!fl!ed
ro convey a opecific inea of the significat.lon of wocds, tiy tracing them to .t\lelr;I
rootR, and h co1 nb inin g Derivation with Definlli on. With eomr. rul ee fot-' the
formation •i f Derivations, anrt a number of useful Syno11ymes. Dy the Reverend
SM. M. Cl'd!. nulhnr of 11 r.fother's Manunl," 11 Moral Culture,"'~.'"'· ~ (
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( 'IMl'l'H'!I INTllODUCTORY AlllTHMETlC. 1'he Litr'' Fedor.I Caleulatnr;f
S conRi sfinit of (-l,uest ions and Tables to employ the n.lml and finr:e r:t only; des~JJ.J'·
( particulnrly tn go before the s late nnu i'repnre for iL '. By J}os1vell C. Bmltb1~J>i{i,'
~ S~llTH''I NF::W GRAl\lllfAR. En2li •h ·Jr•mm•r on the l'nODUOTIV&'B>;m ~
~ I\ rn P.fht'l<i o i' lns truction r ecently artort*'rl h f;ermany and8wi!zerland.~' ~eaigo't
( for Sr.h ··ol!t and A r~ d emi e c,. By Roswe ll C. Smith. ; .
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SMITH'S GEOG RAT' UY AND ATLAS. G eo~rRr.hr on tho Prodtlctl•~ Byittem"•'
. { fhr Sl! h r,ole, Ac ad emies, and Families. Accomp1rn ed with anAUa1 · eontal~ · '
li l\faps1 all fi11 ely e11grnv e rl on steel. By Roswell C. Smith . ' ·.. ' ~- · ~!·.~t-i;\"'4
Till': i;;r;rroor. llfASTElt, AND MONTHLY ADVOCATE'OP tt>u'ol
(A new Mo11thly P eriodi cal devoted to the cause of Edueatlun,~.~·:· ~·qf"

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E.ASY EXERCISES
IN

C 0 -M P o· S I T- I 0 N
DESI GN E D

· . FOR THE USE OF BEGIN NERS.

UY JOHN FROST,/\.. M.
d

r!l01'~EsSOR

O_F nELLES LETTRRS IN TII P: lllGll SCJJOUL
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rutLADELPiII...\.

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Pill LA DELl'Jll 1':

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1839.

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PREFACE.

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this little volume.

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prepared are simply these:

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Enlete1J .according to the a.ct of Congress, in the year 1839, by JoHN
F~osT, m the clerk's office of the district court, for the eastern district of Pennsylvania.

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words of apology are required for the publication of
The circumstances und er which it was

Having recently resigned the general superintendance of
a seminary where many different branches of education were
taught, and entered upon a sphere of duty where my whole
attention is directed to the subject of Euglish Belles Lettres,
I felt more sensibly than I had ever clone before, the want of
an elementary book of instruction in Composition, suitable for
beginners.

I could lay my hand on none exactly suited to

my purpose. Those:which presented themselves seemed liable to a variety_of objections.

Some were unintelligible to

young J>.Upils; others contained methods of procedure which
I considered useless and even pernicious; and others seemed

)

suited to direct the attention of the learn er excl usively to

J,.,
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words and phrases, to the entire neglect of things; which

I

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form the substratum of th ought, and from which the
thoughts should be taught to spring, in order to the formation of a simple and natural style of expression. It occurrecl

Philadelphia:
'l'. K. &. P. G. COLLINS, Printers,
No. I Lodge Alley.

to me that by making a course of exercises on pictures and
.,
' ~-

real objects the starting point, something might be don e towards inculcating a natural and correct, as well as an easy
and graceful style of composition.

I determ ined to make

:~

vi

PREFACE .

the attempt. I submitted my plan to my respected colleague, Professor vVines, who was pleased t~ express his

approbation of it, anc~ encouraged ma to proceed. The result is tl1e small volume now offered to the public.

CONTENTS.

If my good friends, the instructors of youth, who have
smiled so graciously on my previous attempts in the preparation of school text books, shoukl regard this effort with
favor, peradventure I may risk
merous improvements."

~ second

~!

edition, " with i1u-

PART I.

In the mean time I pray such of

them as may spy out the faults,-which I dare say are numerous enough,-to direct my attention to them, as I shall
be most willing .to adopt any improvement which may
appear lo be suggested by good taste and judgment, and
pointed out in a spirit of candor.

R

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Philadelpliia, Feb, 22, 1839,

•I

~

INTRODUCTORY COURSE . OF EASY EXERCISES.
PAGE
DJECTS FOR. DESCRirTION,

I.

SECTION
SECTION

PICTURES OF 0

Oil DESCRIPTION CONTINUED,

II.

16

PICTURES OF ODJECTS F
DESCRIPTION AND R EM ARK,
J ~I p
· · aES OJ' SCENES FOR
SECTION '• •
fOTU
DESCRIPTION AND REMARK,
Iv PICTUR ES OF SCENES FOR
S

20

1i·

'8

ECTION V •
ECTS FOR DESCRIPTIV E AND NARJlAT IVE WRITING,
SECTION
'
UBJ
E AND NARRATIVE WRITING
SECTION VI. SUBJECTS FOR DESCRIPTIV

\.>

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CONTINUED,
V II DESCRIPTION OF REAL OBJECTS,
SECTION
•
JECTS
S
VI II CoMPARISON-AND DJSTINCTION oF on
'
ECTION
•
NDED ON PERSONAL
SECTION IX. Nxn ATION oF REAL INCIDENTS, Fou
-

43

64
66

68
70

OBSERVATION,

72
75

SECTION X. NARRATION FOUNDED ON TESTIMONY,
SECTION XI.
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RATION OF IMAGINARY INCIDENTS,

76

SECTION XII. LETTER WRITING,

. .,

PART II.

-~

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•

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
SECTION

XIII.

GENERAL REMARKS,

-

-

xiv., o~~PON~N:
C

SECTION
Ex e rcises m

sentence,

PA RTS OF A SF.NTENCE,
• l .
the Component Purls of a
d1 s tmgu1s img
-

-

-

-

-

Ex e rcises in the Structure of Sentences,
S ECTION Xv • ARRA NGE MENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE,
•
Subject nnd Verb,
Verb and its Obj e ct,
Position of Adjectives,
Position of Pronoun~, . Pos ition of the lnfiultive,

-

79
80

82
84
84
85
85

86
87
87

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viii

CONTENTS,
PAGE

Position of Adverbs
Posit!on of Prepositions,
Pos1t1~n of Conjunctions,
Exercises on Arrangement,
SECTION XVI. PUNCTUATION,

Comma,
.
Semicolon,
Colon,
Period,
•
•
Exercises in Punctuation,

•

•

•

SECTION XVII. QUALITIES ESSENTIAL TO A PFRFECT SENTENCE,
SECTION XVI.II. CLEARNESS AND PRECISION,

.•

•

Exercises,
Exercises,

88
88
89
89
93
93
95
95
96
96
•
99
100
. . 100

PART I.

102

Exercises,

103
104
105
106

SECTION XX. STRENGTH,

Exercises,

•

SECTION XXI. HARMONY,

INTRODUCTORY COURSE OF EASY EXERCISES.

COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our ideas in writing.
In commencing an elementary course of exercises in this art,
we propose, to the pupil, subjects which will. re_adily suggest
such ideas as may easily be expressed in a natural and unaffected manner:" 'Ve leave to a more advanced stage of
instruction that elaborate marshalling of words and sentences
which it is the province of rhetoric to perfect.
Sensible objects suggest ideas promptly; and we therefore try the experiment of presenting to the pupil a series
of pictures of familiar objects and scenes with a few simple
directions as to th e mode of rend ering each object or scene
the subject of a short essay in composition. If this essay
should, at first, consist of but one lin e, the pupil mu s t not
be discouraged. lt _wiH-a t--leas t have th e merit of bein cr
original; it willmake him fe el tlra t he is capable of w ritin::;'.
a lhought of his OWUO!la: SU ~ect which has been presenteJ
for his consideration; and th at he has thus begun to lea rn
the art of original composition.

PART III.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
SECTION XXII. GENERAL REMARKS ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
SECTION

,xx1~1.

COMPARISON, ARITJIESts, AND METAPHOR

Exercises,

..

_

.

...

SECTION XXIV. ALLEGORY AND OTHER FIGURES

Metonymy,
•
Synecdochc,
P eriphrasis,
Personification,
Apostrophe,
Hyperbole,
Irony,
Paraleipsis,
Interrogation,
Exclamation,
Exercises,

•

SECTION XXV. CONCLUDING REMARKS,

•

'

•
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SECTION XIX. UNtTY,

'.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

108

• 110
112

. 113
114
114
114
114

115

115
115
ll6
116
116

117
118

SECTION I.
PICTURES OF ODJECTS FOR DESCRIPTION.

/

V

\VE comn~ence with this little piclme of a greyhound; anti
~to e.ncourage l:lje pupil, ~ve ~resent Iii~ with _an easy model,

C:::Wtrreh-m-a-y-s6·ve to ass'Ist his efforts 111 tre atm g of the subjects suggested by the pictures which follow. Our example
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EXERCISES IN CO~IPOSITION.

11 .

will be a very simple one; such as he may follow without
difficulty.

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A Llama.
nIODEL.

" This is a picture of a greyhonnd. He is standing near
a rock, and looking forward as if just ready to start in pnrsuit
of a hare. He wears a collar on his neck with a little padlock. I suppose the collar is marked with his owner's
name. The greyhound is a beautiful animal, very slender
and well formed for running. It is a pity to use such a fine
creature for so cruel a purpose as that of hunting a poor
timid hare."
_.

D

.
.
If you a re not well ncTakc the same course with tlus f!ICt~ir~
·t ou t by in <uirin
"--1
quuinted with the history of th e d~nim a 'n 11t'. 'writing you r account /
111
mg.
•
your arents or t . lCr or uy_ re·1
•
f
b11 J- Make th e rnformaof him, o not copy th e lan ~ Ua ![C ~ nny 0 0 ." cl then write it out in
tion your own by rem embering it or a tun e, an
your own language.

H erc we· beg in with dcscribinlt the picture. '\-Ve then mak e n reurk on the animal which the picture represents, nnd conclude with
e cello on th e use to which the greyhound is sometimes appli ed.
lrcf 'jtu · can easi ly follow this or any s imilar course with the follo1Yng picture•, or write any other thoughts which they may suggest.
An Opossum.

.
.
N ice th e dove; and you m ay in fe r from
Describe the picture.
ot
wh en wil<l kills a nd cats doves.
seeing it there that jPe !' 0 ~im, ork to conj'ecture how he catches
You may set your rngcnmty a w

them.

A Deer.
· D escribe the picture. Write what you know concerning
m nl, its haliits, its native countries nn<l its uses.

A Fox.

The Fox is n very good subject: . Every one is acquuinteu with his

..

12

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

habits .nnd t~icks. P erhaps you can re member some one of the mnny
~nblcs m wl11ch Reynard plays n part; if you can, by nil means tell it

m your own_Janguage.

An Alligator.
Tliis is one of the largest of the class of nnimnls cnlled reptiles.
P erhaps in describing him you may bo nble to compare him with
som ~ other reptiles. You may also point out the particulars in which
l1e differs from the four footed animals which you have already described.

I

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

13

Thi s animal will afford nn interesting subject. H e is one of the
monkey tribe, which, in form, approaches nea rest to the human race.

A Reindeer.

The remarkable character of the R ei ndeer, and hi~ g; reat utility
lo the poor La plunder, will form n good theme for descrrptron and nar.
rat1ve.

-

A Ilnt.

Tire bnt is n good subject. After describing him perhaps you may
recollect .•omc adventure which you have hnd, with one flying into the
parlor wmdow, on n summer evening. If so, narrate the wliolo affair.

A Horse.

D cribe the horse in his wild and in Ir is domesticated state. Write
an n~~ount of his u&efu lncss to mankind., of hi s ha.bits and character>
50 far as th ey arc known to you, and r.elate any httle anecdote you
mny remember connected with the subject.
An Ourang Outang.

•.i....,;

.

--14

- ·I'

,,
. INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

15

A rum.a..

A Black l:'quirrel.
Describe the picture. 'Vrile what you know of the animal. Tell
what class of animals he belongs to, where he lives, bow he subsists,
&~
•

This is a North American an imal, often exhibited jn our mem1gories and museums. Perhaps you may have heard an_ anecdote or1
some one killed in your own stale or neighborhood, which you cap
relate.
·

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A Pointer.
The remarks on the grey hound may serve as a model for you here,
with the variations which the subject requires.

i

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i·

A Dison.
Most young persons are acquainted "Ith some facts in relntion to
this remarkable inh abitant of the Western prairies. A picture of
him may bring some of these facts to your recollection.

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A Cat tllnt hns stolen a Ilird.

Y ou have n very good hint in this l'icturc for a short dcooription
and story. A single loolt at it will set your invention nt) work.

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Th e Antelope.
This graceful anim al is found in Asia and Africa. In Persia, the
. inhabitants hunt it with the Ch etah, or hunting leopard.

- - - 4· - --

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EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

--~ · -------

..

INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

17

SECTION II.
PICTURES OF OBJECTS FOR DESCRIPTION CONTINUED.

.,

'VE will now pj.0eeed lo give you pictures of some of the
more interesting !iirds, ach of which we hope will suggest
some observalio11s, a
rernarks of your own.· Let us com·
mence with the one which is commonly denominated the
king of birds .

A Peacock.

· Beauty and pride belong to the peacock.
&ome good reflections on his character.

Y~u can easily originate

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fl.

(.
l

A Macaw.

An Engle.

The eagle's .. rapacity and boldness, nnd the circumstance of his
having been so frequ ently chosen as the favorite national emblem,
makes him nn easy subj ect- The Romans, the French, the Austrians,
nnd tho American~, have oil placed the eagle on their standard.

This beautiful South American bird will furni sh o_ccasion for a
glowing description.

A Carrier Pigeon .

. '

The peculiar habits of the carrier pigeon and his importan t uses in
eomo countries should be noticed.
A Swan.

The celebrity of th e swan, as well as his beauty, will bo found uooful in suggesting remarks.

18

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

.'

"

A llnwk.

Eagle robbing a Fish-hawk of hi s prey.

Ad
· · of tho• picture nnd of tho habits of the hawk is ensily
writtc~~cripllon

This piece of injustice on the !?art ?f. the eagle, should be ~cry
severely reprehend~d. You can easily or1gmatc som e good reflectwns
on such o. transactJOn • .

A Parrot caressed by a LaJy.

A Bir<l's Nest.
This is the bird's home. Give your ideas of the feelings with which
a bird rego.rds his home.

. Ad~1 ac?o~nt off the p~ rrol's imitative poivers may here be added
tl 1e escr1pt1on o the picture. - --to

A Vulture carrying off n serpent .

Desc ribe the picture nn d make it the subject of a story, or of reflections on the hostilities of animals .

pre~.'
. This i~ th e larg?st bird llmt Aies. His habits of plunder and I. I'
~~~ti~1~ \1 ~e~~;~~i.ls of th e Andes, are good points for m'ustrati~~ ~;
Condor with hi s

11

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,

·~--------------...._..._=-- ~ -

20

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21

INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION •

;j

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SECTION III.

't

PICTURES OF SCENES FOR DESCRIPTION AND REMARK.

' ~

1
i

~~ Uoy telling about his studies at Fchool.
You can here describe the picture, und th en give an account of
our own studies nt school •
. 1
(

Doy going to School .
Describe the picture. Observe the boy in the distance chasing
butterfly. He will proLnbly be late at school.
.
·

••

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Girl learning her lesson.

1 ·'
;"..:·,

..'.,· <1
~-

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Dnys at School.

..•,

Description of picture. Old Cushioned furniture. Girl 's attention
not diverted by her pets. She seems to have nearly learned her lesson
and to be just ready to start for her school .

A full des_cr ipli on of th e picture will be rather long for one exercise .
ou cnn writc whatever pccur• to you nliout schools.
;

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------=~ - ?ii£

~

I.,-.•. "MlfW

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22

•

EXERC ISES IN CO~!POSITJON.

23

11\TRODUCTORY CO URSE.

<l

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1_:1

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Girl s at school.

D escribe the pi cture fully.

Say what you please about ~chools .

·I
'J

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Girl tellin g alJoul her studies at school.

Dcrnribe the picture, and your ·~·.

Chi ldre n promi sed-; summ e r holiday.

,.,

Description. Pleas ure of anti cipatin g a hol iday.
study harcl, and behave well.

Indu ceme nt lo

• 1

A sai li ng pnrty.

Description of tlie picture, and of a suilinz partv.

r

Boys c ngngr.tl in gymna sti c

e x e r c i se~.

Describe the pitlurc, nnd th e uses of gy mnastic exe r cises.

~t
24

"

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION • .,

25

INTROD UCTO RY COURSE.

,1.
I

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Doy learning to rea d.
A s ummer holiday.

. Plca~ure of spending holiday in a garden.
idea of a pleasant s ummer holiday.

Dcscrl!i your own

D?scriplion. Advantages and pleasures of r eading. Wh al kind of
reading you prefer. Why 1
,

.
'

lloy writing c 'lmpos iti o n.

'l'oy booth.

Description.
1hem.
·

Story of children who deserved rewards, nnd obtained

J?cscription._ .Obse.rve_tliat th e fother and mother arc both assisting
their son, by giving !11m rnformat1on. Ilut neith er of them is writing
his cxerc'isc fur him.

..
Uail shooting.

Describe the picture, with remarks on the killing of birds:
'

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26

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

27

Description. Your own recollecti ons of skating parti es, whi ch you
m ny hnve witnessed, or engaged in. Dangers attending it. Accid ents .
which you have heard, or read of.

: _·i '

r
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Doy gi ving a letter to his fathe r.

,.I

Descri pti on. Boy probably wishes to have his mistakes corrected.
Pleasures and advantages of letter-writing.
Doy r e prov:cd for a fault.

Description. · Story·. Necessity of listening submissively to reproof,
and trying to amend our faults.

Jul e !Joy a11 d ind ustri ou s boy.
Descripti on. Story of the idle boy who went out to play, while hi1
brother was learning his lessons.

i

i

Rending in th e fi cl<lo.

Describe the scene. Plcasuro of reading in the fields.
a country life.

Ek11ting pnrty.

.J

Plca~uros

of

28

EXERCISES IN CODIPOSITION,

29

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

\
:i

Studying mineralogy.

Description. Advantage of study ing mineralogy in the fi elds and
mountains. Use of a knowledge of minerals.
Studying geography.
Description. Advantages of a knowledge of gcogrnphy.
tages of usi ng the glolie i.n studying it.

Advan-

Studying batany.
Description. Botany must be studied in the fields. Use of a knowledge of the vegetable kingdom .*

Doy cxruuining a tree.

J?cscripti o!". Boy• shou ld nbs?n·e tree• nnd plants, inljniro into
tl1mr properties 1111d ugcs. A h:Lb1t of careful observation, important.
It-lends to accurate and practical knowlctlge. .
.

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lr

-· - r,""" ...... - · ·

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.PJaying with a bird, or study ing taatural hi story.

Description. Much of natural hi story may be learned from beaks.
It is well lo examine the animals themselves when we can.
*For n su mmary account of the thrr:e l\in g1loms r1f

Dook of Nnturn, published by Delknnp

&

n~tnr c.

see the Class

Ham ersley, Hartford, Connecticut.

..
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INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

30

31

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

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A winter evening.
noy in a lihrnry.

Describe the pi cture. Give nn account of the libraries you have
Been. The pleasures of using a fine library.

Pleasures of n long winter evening by the fireside, with good store
of entertaining boo~s.

' lbL:::s:Jc!J

Ne w clotl:cs.
Th e tea tablo.

Descripti on of the picture and of the pleasures of the tea table. The
pleasures of home.

The solitary grave.

Description of the stranger's grave.

Description. The g roup arc examining th e material for some new
clothes. Gratitude due to parents for their care in providing for the
wnnts of their children.

ti

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32

EXERCISES IN .COJllPOSITION.

INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

Girl in a passio n.

Dangern of s udden and violent anger. The girl offers to striko with
a bunch of keys. Refl ections.

33

Ecll ool di smissed.

Des crihe the scene and the ha ppin ess of li be rty in th e open a ir nO.er
throo hours of diligent study in !he school.

Blindfolding.

Describe picture. Offer your own conjectures as to the reason why
the litlle girl is blindfolded.

The truants.

The hnppincss of the di smiss ion from school belongs not to the
truant. H e fee ls guilty and 111i s~ rubl c wh en he secs th e g ond sch.olars
going home from school. Describe !he scene, and !hat of !he dilige nt
scholar, which follows.

The miser.

Description and reflections.

4

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34

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

35

Farm house.

Drawing.

Utility of drawing. Necessity of drawing from real objects in order
to npply the art lo useful purposes. \ V'hat trades and professions fur.
nish occasion for the use of this nrt.

Description. 1\he coun t ry boy ' s Iiome.
nnd dear to him.

'¥hat
makes it pleasant,
'

The farm er showing his boy the oak.

The coon trr boy.

Dc sc r i pti~n: Habits, .occupa tions and pleasures of the country boy.
Th e useful Ii le he leads m the summe r. I-J1s fondness for school in the winter. Describe also the scene below.

Give what you suppose may be the farm11r 's de•eription of the qua
•
lilies and uses of the oak. '

The Angler.

3G

EXERCISES IN CO~IPOSITION.

37

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

1
--

....~:~-~~-- ·~~
A sleigh ride.

Describe the picture. nnd any similar part of pleasure in which you
may remember to have taken a part; or describe just sucli a sleigh ride
as you would like to enj oy.
·
Preparing a tail for a kite.

Description of both pictures. Kite flyin g. Frightens horses
Should be in some out of the way place; in a field or pasture.

Snow-balling .

. A very m.cr~y •po rt. Attended wi th danger to the eyes.
tunes the m1m1c fight ends in a real one. Rdlcctiona.

Some.

'
fi
Feeding rabbits.

Description.

Th e
'1.'he kilc iu dnuger.

,

Remarks on keeping tame rabbits and other pets.

fami ~ h P. <l

horse.

·Reflectio!JS on tl.e cruelty of starving ammals.

4*

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EXEUCISES lN conIPOSITJON.

INTRODUCTOUY COUUSE,

39

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Doys giving an accou nt of lhr.ir sports:.

Sa turd ay afte rno on at home.

Pleasures of n snturday afternoon in the play room on n rainy day .

.D.cscription . Gi"c an account of your latest ndvent urC1!, in hoopdnvrng, a1!d ball-playing.

J~

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Blowing Fonp lml.Jh\cs.

flird 's n c: st found.

V

Description. Dcauty of bird's nests. ·The affection of the birrls
for their young.~ruclty of disturbing theq uiet of thciriiltlc ho-YllC~

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Describe the picture. Describe th e prorcss of blowing soap bub.
blee and, if you can, tell the philosophy of it.

,,

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Th e ga111bl cr 's i111pl c111 e11Lt;,

H c l k~ l.i o ns on gamLling, anti its frequent co11scqucncc, suicide.

A fo:hc r111an g o in g out.

Description.
ders.

The fi shcrmnu's occupatiou.

The ocean.

Its won-

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40

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

..

INTRODUCTORY COURSE .

41

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'I'hC sno w py ramid.

Describe the scene: Wh at made t he boys think of building a pyramid7 What pyra mi ds had they probably read of7 Give an account
of the pyramids of Egy pt.
·

Th e pl ny-gruund.

Describe th e pi cture fully. Give an account of each sport dcli ncatecl in the picture.
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The sno w image.

D escribe lhe sce ne. R emarks on snow images.

Describe the scene, a
of the oppressor.

conduct

T he lig hthouse.
Dog n1d fo x.

- --------

Dcsr.ripti on.

Uti_lity of li ght houses.

v

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42

EXERCISE S IN COMPOSITION.

INTRODUCTORY COURSE .

. •.

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43

SECTION IV.
PICTURES OF SCENES FOR DE SCRIPTION AND REMARK.

'VE will now proceed to give pictures of other scenes
for description, \Vhich may also suggest the invention of
short narratives; or furnish occas ion for general rem arks.
To each picture we will add a fe w topics for composition,
which the pupil may a<lopt or rej ect at pleasure.
Hurrying to school.

lio~~~sons

for making haste

whe~

ono is on the way to the school

Tho. hunted St a g.

De•cription. Countri es where the 8tng is hun!cd with hounds.
Story of a stag hunt. Refl ections.

I
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'

I-Jome scene. .

. Description of the scene.
rngs nt home.

R

fi
easons or delighting to epend the even.

.l

A Bear Hunt.

Description of the picture. Of th e bear. "Why he should be hunt.
ed. Dangers attending th e hunt. Refl ections.
Waobington.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

45

Il'iTRODUCTORY COURSE .

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'i

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South Americans bunting the ruma with lassos or nooses .

Duck shooting.

. J?escription. Reg ions where wild ducks ere found.
killmg, and taking lhem. Their uses.

Modes of

Description of the picture. D escr iption of a real chase of this
kind. Particulars respecting the Puma. The Guachos of the Pa1u ~
pas.

-~(.~...:­

.

\tVhite me n buying furs of Indians.

A Hawking party.

Description. _Manner of !<ii.ling birds by halVl<1'n .
g
amusement. Now out of fasluoR.

An expensive

Description. Indian s. How th ey obtain furs. 'Vhat they ex.
change them for. Usual consequences of their intcrcou1 so with the
whites. Injustice of _the whites towards th em.

.I
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Persians hnnting antelopca with chctahs or llmlling Tcopa zds.

8portsman.

. Dcs~ription. Particulars concerning the partridge
t .1c pointe rs. Dangers of shootin
. .
• Sagacity of
buys inji.;red by iccident in sportirfg.P·•~~c~~c t~~=~dotcs of men Ul)d

5

Description.

This sport compared with Fox huntin "•
0

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-INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

47

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Tiger anil boa

,,

con~trictor.

Description.
mals.

Habits of tlie boa constrictor.

How lie destroys ani-

Description.
mills.

How corn is ground in n mill . . Various kinds of

The Sportsman in danger.

Description. Probable cause of the situation of the ~portsman.
Probable result of his adventure. Reflections.

A mill.

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Tra\'ellcrs in Asia protected from tigers by fire round thei r encampment.

Description. Dangers of travelling in Asia. Fear entertained of
fire by wild beasts. Imaginary journey in Asia.

"\
, I

A scr.nc on the ocea n.

Description. Make a story of it.
sailors just about to be relieved.

- -- -· ····-

--- -

- -

Suppose these are shipwrecked

Rural sce ne.

Description. Probable character and adventures of the old traveller. His arrival at home.

48

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION .

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

,·

A green -house.

Sportsman.
Description. Sportsman looking after more birds while he loads
lii s gun. Use of gun.powder. When invented. What was used hy
•portsmcn before its invention.

Description of the picture. Description of the interior of a green
hous.e. .Its uses. The pleasure to be derived from visiting it; or from
ownmg 1t. ·.
·

An nd\'enture.

Description.

Narration of the adventu re.
A garden.

Description. Diffe.r~ nl kinds of gardens. Their uses. Pleasures
of gardening, Its utility in promoting health nnd co11tcntmcnt.

A Doo Hive.

ll•cs of Dcr.s.
Humble bees.

Their habits.

Wild bees.

Domesticated bees.
A Ship under &ail.

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50

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

Beautiful object.
of commerce.

Proof of the skill and enterprise of man.

51

Utility

, I

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A

ail / ad.

Description. Railroads a nm'iV! nvention. Their great utility.
Dangers of travellin g in the cars. Necessity of being carefol. Frequency of accidents.

A su mmer hou se.

D cscr iplion. Uses of a • um mer hQUSe. ' Ar,eount or the little girls
spending a half holiday in tho, sumn1er hous.e and how they umused
th emselves.

i!
I

A useless scare-crow.

Description. Cu nning and rapac ity of the crow.
used for frightening crows.

Ii
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.....

B

:...oc::-

A Vin eyard.

Description of the scene.

U.o•

Countri es where vin eyards nrc fonnd

of'"'"' "" "' o:o~ of w;wo. ')

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~~

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Athen s.

Description.

Refl ections.

Different means

,

52

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

INTRODUCTORY COU!lSE.

53

..

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An nd\'cnture.

Suppo~c a story._ !Joy in~istcd on climbing a tree to rob a bird's

nest. His comparno~ d1s~u a ded. Iloy would not be advised. Limb
?f the tree broke. .1 hc picture tells the rest. l\:lnkc n diffi •
you choose.
crcnt story

1(

A quarrel in the play-room.
Story of the foiling out of the children about their play. R eflec.
tions on quarrelling. The advantages of gentleness nod kindness
nmoni:- children.

Aa nUve nturc.

.

T ell another story of a hoy wl
t T
consent of his parents. H ow t!i~sw~~., t~~~~f 0 ~s;mdby ~ i thout l11e
with his life. H ow th e adven ture affected hl~;
arc y es~?rled
N ewfoundland dog. Stories of his inlrc idit . . . ' .iaracter .o t Jo
persons wh o were in dange r of being d. ro~ncJ. ll1 sa ving the lives of

'c1

Arabs li stening to a story.

Description of the scene. Arabs. · Thei r customs. F ondn ess for
etori es. Their wandering mode of li fe. T !Jcir fondness for coffee and
tobacco. Their hostility to oth er nations . Description of a caravan.
F ondn ess of the Arabians for their horses. Discuss nny one or nil of
tlwsc topics.

~

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EXERCISES IN CO!IPOSJTION.

I!STIWDUCTORY COURSE.

55

Describe tl;o scene. The woman appears lo be buying n supply of
fish from the man who is just return ed from a fi shing C;'<cursion. She
will take them to mnrket in her basket lo sell. Describe the opemtiona of each of these persons.

...,
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.F

An Indian hunting.

ondness of the Indians fi h0
Indian in the woods. '.·
or t chase. Supposed adventures of an

T

The thief detected.
ell a story of a boy who t ol I . .
'
tc~te? while hiding them
t bus sisters playthings, and was deie aseness J!nd meanness of theft. Its
crrmrnality.
•

TI

The Gipsies.

Describe the fortune telling scene and the chnrncter nnd habits ol
the gipsies ns fur as they may be known to you.

--""-11 . . . . . '

rt

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EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

, INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

'

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57

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The diligent student,

Describe the picture.
learning.

Pleasures of hard study.

Uses of book

'·'
Great wall of China.

- Write what you Ii.now about this wall, its original purpose and its
extent.

Wild elk hunted by wolves.

The sl 1Jdc11t selecting a book.

Description. Remarks on the choice of books.
books you prefer.

'Vhat kind of

Terrible situation ~f the elk.
and their depre!Iations.

Alli ga tor and Puma.

Position of the two animals meeting on the river's bank.
they regard each other. Probable result of the meeting,

How

His probable fate.

Stories of wolves

Tiger hunt.

Critical situation of the hunters described.
ing. Cliaracter of the tiger.

6

Dangers of tiger hunt-

58

EXERCISES IN COJIIPOSITION,
/

INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

5()

writing an unpleasant air of sti!Tness and constraint. ·when
he commences writing it is better . that he s~ould say whatever comes into his head in a natural though maccu~ate man•
ner, than that he should puzzle himself by ~Lint111g after
words that <lo .not come readily, or by torturmg the .c.oi;-1mon place expressions of other people into new and art1~cial
forms. The most common words are the mos~ for.c1ble;
and if the idea to be expressed is a good one, 1t will tell
better in shorcevery <lay words than in holyday terms and
\'lor<ls of "learned len<rth, anti thundering sound."
In the hints accomp~1ying the following c1~ts we <lo not
mention a description of 1he picture. The pnp1l may or may
not commence his exercise with a descriplion.
The Merry Ilnymakers.

Hay making. Its pleasures. The uses of hay. The usefolness
of agriculture. How it supports all other tradcsand professions.

SECTION V.
SUBJECTS FOR DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE WRITING,

1
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Oun next series of pictures will be fount! lo relate to several of the useful trades and professions. The pupil will
obtain information on the subjects whi ch they suggest, by
conversing with the persons who exercise these trad es and
professions; or, if that should not be found convenient, by
making inquiries of his parent or- te~cher. If any pupil
should feel disinclined to pursue the subject further than a
simple description of the picture, he may find in that species
of writing an ample field for the exercise of his best powers.
Let him note each object in the picture carefully and descrioe it. as folly and at the same · time as naturally and unaffoctedly a.s he can. Above all it .is necessary in these initia1ory exercises that he should write freely and boldly,
using such expressions as rnit his own feelings, and his own
understanding of the subject. Hereafter we shall endeavor
to give him some instruction in the art of correcting his
own composition. But the first and most important thing
is to be able to originate observations on the subjects presented and lo express them in such language as his feelings
prompt. If he feel a constant rnliritmle lest he should make
a trifling mistake, this will chill his feelings and give his

The Farmer.

The plough. Its uses. The products of the farm. Various employments, and pleasures of the farmer. His usefulness.

The Reapers.

Reaping. Different kinds of grain. · Their uses. S< asons for SO\\'ing and reaping. Thre, hing and grindi11g, D:lfcrent kinds of
uread.

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60

EXERCISES IN conlPOSl'flON.

INTROD UCTORY COURSE.

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Operations of the stone mnson. His tools. Ilcantiful edifices reared by his labor. Permanence of sto11c buildings, walls and monuments.

·1

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Ship building.

The Shcphertl.

A very ancient employment. Oflen mentioned in scripture. Co~n­
tries where there arc shepherds nt present. Pastoral pleasures. Stor~es
and an ecdotes of sheph erd s.

Difficulty of building a good ship. .Smallness of Columb.us's sh~ps.
Great improvement in ship building. Excellence of Amencan.slups.
Different kinds of ships. The Pennsylvania. The packet ships for
London Ind Liverpool.

'1'11e Fi sherman.

Th e Carpenter.

How a carpenter works. Wh at is produced by his labor.
materials, tools, &c. Ili s usefulness.

His

A lonely and laborious ~mploym e 1:t. Its dangers. The fi sherman's
pleasure on returning to lus home with a good s~pply of fi sh. Stories

The Pccllcr.

A hard Jifo. Il affords opportunities of seeing the world.
joyments and dangers. Stories.
Tho Stone 1\-Tason.

+:;;::

cz::;;:e

G*

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EXlmCISES IN

.JNTRO_D UCTORY COURSE.

CO~II'OSITION,

I

63

·1
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Th e Apothecary.

Descri be the apothecary's business. Enumerate some of his drugs
and medicines and recount their progress in the manner recommended above. , ,

The Grocer.
~rocc ric s . Enumerate many of them. Namc ·thc countries from
winch tl~ey are respectively brought. Take tea for an ex.imple nnd

recount its progress from the fi eld where it grows to your own tea
table. Do the same with sugar, coffee, rai sins, currants, dates, &c.
You may make a dozen exorcises on groceries.

!

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;/

Th e Whnlefi shcr.

Dange rs of th e wlrnlc fi shery. Its pro<ln cls. N:iture of the whale
Places where he is found . Places in the United Slates from which
the whale slii ps sai l.

_n

If
....

The Astronomer.

Astronomy. Its uses and pleasures. Astronomical inslrumente.
f'.nnmcratc some of the great asttonomcrs of past tim es, and their
discoveries.

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EXEUCISES IN CODIOSITION.

65

Cu stoms of the Turk s in dicated by ~h e pi cture: Oth c ~ ~ust~~n\~f
the Turks. Situation, climate produc!.1ons and lmt~ry .0 f ~0 . ;:;a~~
so far ns they may. be known to the WTJt ~ r. Gomparison ° 1 CIT
ncrs and habits with those of the Americans.

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The Painter.

Oue of the fine arts. Its uses and pleasures. Materials for paint.
ing. Various branch es of the nrt. Mention the countries where
painting has flourished and enumerate some of the great painters.

SECTION VI.

Lnplancle r.

La pland. Jt s situ ati on, climate, inh abitants. Their modes of !i v.
·
Th eir limited moan s of enjoy ment co mpa~c d with our .own.
rng-.
· con t en1in ·cn 1.. Vii sclom of Providence
111 11nplantmg th e lo\ C
Their
.
of country among the people of ~II nations.

SUDJECTS FOR DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE WRITING
CONTINUED.

'·

WE shall now present he learner wi.th a few subjects fur
description and narration, which have relation to the people
of dille rent countries, th eir customs and manners. The information necessary for treating th ese subjects will, of
course, be drawn from books of travels and geography antl
from. conversation with intelligent persons. The learner, lli! )
as in other cases, will be careful to make the information ~ /
comple tel y his own by study and reflection; and will express ,
himself in his own language and style.
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and customs. Umlcr the Rus~ i a n
Siberia. Its extent, climate, Ru sssan crimin als. Other parli cugove rnm cnt. Place of exile for
lars relating to the country.

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Turks.

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EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

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. Ch;ua. Its dense popu lation. , Customs of tho people. Unchnng.
rng c •aractcr of the Chinese. Productions rn nnufucturcs Internn l
commerce
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. · C 0 mi ncrce W I·u1 E'u rope and Amencq.
Enumeration
of
Ie articles of comfort and luxury which we receive from China. .

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INTRODUCTORY COURSE.

67

inu real objects, it is invaluable; and in the latte r part of lhe
volume are some excellent modela of descriptive writing.
'.\Ve will now propose some objects for des cription, beginning with several of those which are presented in the
" Lessons on Objects."
J,et the pupil first tak e in his hands a piece of glass. On
examination he will find it to be distinguished by the following properties. It is bright, cold, smooth, h ard, transparent, and brittle. Its various uses, and the manner in which
it is manufactured may be described by the pupil, so far as
they are known lo him.

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Africa ns.
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~cc u l iariti cs of the Africans. Th eir native character. Their diffmuon over all parts of the world. Their situation among th e whi~cs.
I t would be e~sy. to extend this class of subjects much
farther. But this 1s rendered unnecessary by the circum- .
stance .that a great abundance of pictures of this kind are
found 111 all our books of geography us ed in ~chools. We
\~ould recommen? to leuo hers th e practiM of making these
p1c~ur.es th e. subj ects of composition, both on account of
their 11~terest111g nature and the ease with which the learner
may discuss th em.

SECTION VII.
DE SCRIPTION OF REAL ODJECTS.

~ROM th e .description of pictures and the expression of
the ideas w.~1 1ch th ey s ugge~t, th e pup il may now proceed
t? th~ desc1L 1?1.1 of real ob eels. Jn tliis stage of iustruct10.n 111 co 1o pv?1twu , we wuul<l suggest to teacher:> th e propriety of plac; rn g. 111 th e hands of th e pupil, the little volume
of Dr. Mayo entitled" Lesso ns on Obj ects," as it gives the
m?s.t excel~ e nt and. th orough instruction in the a rt of examu:mg obj ects, discovering their qualities, distinguishing
th eir several parts and desc ribin g th e m by means of the
ap1~roprr:.:te leru_is . As a book of refere nce for th e pupil
wlule engaged 111 the useful auJ agreeable tas k of describ·

Thi s substance possesses th e qualities of opacity , ela•ticity, inflammability , toughness nn d smoothness. Its uses nre vari ous and may
form a suitable exercise for the student's ingenuity in disco1•cring or
recollecting nnd describing them.
LEATHER,

L ea ther is fl ex ible, odorou s, tough, smooth, durable, opaque, &c.
The origin nnd uses of leather will afford a fe rtile th eme for disqui.
sition.
SPONGE .

Th e pupil may perform n nnmbcr of expe ri ments " ;ith th is substance, as well as with others, which may fall under hi s noti ce, and
he m ay de•cribe these experiments and the properti es which they
d 0velope. After observing that sponge is soft and poroue, ho can pnt
it in water, and on rnising it, he will find that it takes up a qu a ntity
of the water with it. This property is descri bed by th e term absorbent. By placing the sponge in n plate with a little water in it, he will
discover that the sponge Rucks up the water, raising it above the
·height of the surrounding surface in the pl ate. This property is called capillary attract ion. The other properties an d uses of thi s su b.
stance may be discovered by similar expe riments. Processes of the
same kind may be applied to oth er substunees, or if known to th e
pupil their results mny be described without the labour of the actnnl
experiment. For example if n substance on the application of fire,
should burn with a blaze, it may be called inflammable; if it should
melt, it may be described as fu.sible, & c.
This meth od of making discover ies for him self and describing the
result is a most usefol exercise, as it not only sho ws :he studen t the
practical application and the utility of composition, but it lends him
to form e.u ct ideas of thin gs as well as to use precise term s in describing them.

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OTHER ODJECTS TO DE EXAMINED AND DESCRIDED.

'Yate r, brea d, sca ling wax, paper, rice, ivory; chalk, n quill, a pen,
n lab le, a nail, n cha ir, n penkn ife, inl<, a leaf; u hut, n book, n house, n
room, a lamp, n ca n<llcs tick, n thermometer, a teaspoon, nn inkstand,
ink, a wa fe r, a bell, a ca rt, a sleigh, s ugar, sail, a bottle, n cork, a corkscrew, a lock , a key, corn, wheat, a basket, a pitcher, arf apple, an
orange, a flower, a tree.

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INTRODUCTORY COURSE .

EXERCISES IN COMPOSI'fION.

SECTION VIII.
COMPA RISON AND DISTINCTION OF ODJECTS,
AFTER learning how lo describe a single object in appropriate lan g uage, th e pupil shonld exercise himself occasionally in comparing two objects together, am! considering the
points in which they rese mble, as well 'as those in which
th ey diffor from eac h other. \Vhen this exercise has become in so me deg re e familiar by practice he should endeavor to express its results in writing. He will thus have
made a beg inning in that species of composition which is
calle<l argumentative, since all reaso ning or argument is
foumled on the discernment of those relations of things
which are di sco vered by comparison.
L et the pupil commence with small objects such as he can
ronveniently lay before him and examine. For example a
PENRNIFE and a PAPER-FOLDER.
First, let us endearnr to
find out the points of rese mbl ance.
·
Th ese objects are both appen<lages of the writing desk,
and are us ed for cutting. Th ey may both be called tools
or impl e me nts. They are both manuf'acture<l articles. Each
ha s a handle and an elastic bla<le.
Th e 'winls of Jiffere nce are more numerous. One is
composed en tire ly of an animal substance (ivory), the other
partly of an animal s ubstance (bone) and panly of metal.
The kni!C has many parts, and the folder i8 all in one piece.
The knife has a s pring which enables us to shut it and
put it in the pocket; th e folder has no such contrivance.
Th e knife is used fur cutting a thousan<l different substances
of different <l egrees of hardness, whil e the operations of the
folder are confined to paper alone, unless one should pervert i t from its original purpose by making it perform the
duty of a frnit knife.
lf. little ingenuity and observation on the part of the pupil

G9

will enable him to find out oth er points of resem~lance anti
<lifference In these objects. He may, now try 111s pow ers
upon the following objects, adoptmg the same arrange- '1J
meu.t-whi~ is used in the model.
A-eJ A_,
C~newspaper with a /Jook.
~
.,__ J,,.n._.,.·hat respects do n hut and a bonnet'rescmblc and in what do
t icy diffe r from each other .
A chair und a sofa.
A winc.glas~ nnd n tea-cup.
A pair of s pcctuclcs and a • pyglass.
An a corn and an n pple.
.
A pin an<l a ·necdle.
A s teamboa t and a locomollve
with cars.
A canal and n railroad.
A wheelbarrow and a coach.
A barometer and n thermomcte r.
A lend pencil nnd n pen • .
Colton and wool.
Flax and silk. ·
Oil and water.

A kite and a balloon.
A bird am! a quadruped.
A fi s h a11<l n lizard.
A lrntterlly an<l a worm.
A squirrel and a bear.
A rattlesnake and n tige r.
A ca mel and a ll ama.
A lion and an eagle.
An ele ph an t and a tortoi se.
A lamb and a dove.
A rat an<l a fox.
A rabbit and a racoon.
An apple tree and n rose bush.
An oak an d a pine.
Gold an<l iron .
"Valer and air.

From observing the points of resemblance and. di stinction in obj ects , the pupil might proceed lo trace th eir analogies. :Analogy* is something m?re than the mere rese mblance of thinrrs themselves . . It 1s a resemblance or rather
coinci<lence in°the relations of things. Thus we say that th ere
. exists an analogy between a ship and a camel; bec~us e they
.bo th bear the same relation to those who r espec tivel y u se
them-that of carrier; and it is up on this analog y th at th e
beautiful ficrure is found er.I, in which th e camel is termed
"the ship ~f the desert." It is use ful to point out the va·
rious relations on which analogies are fuund e<l .
JllODEL.

Let us exam ine the analogy between the wings of a bird and the
oars of n boat. The wings of n bird arc u sed for th e purpose of motion in tho air. They nrc 111 ovcd by th o mu sc tilar powe r of th e bird
and produce their e{foct by pt1 shing th e nir back.' nn<l thus. c;'.1Tymg
the bird forward. Th e oars of a boa t arc used for urg mg 1t forward
upon the' water. They arc m oved by the str.cngth of the ro":or nnd
accomplish the obj ect for which they arc d esig ned, b.l'. pro_rell1n g t.l1e
waler in a direction opposite to t hat in wl11 ch th e boa t 1s <lr11•cn'. 'I he
r elation in res pect to which these obj ects r cs e n~blu c:~ch oth~r is th a t
of a n ins trument of motion; each of th e m bearmg ll11s relallon to th e
object w hich is moved.
• Alth ou~h nnnlo)'.?y has been <1 c fin o1l in . this .limited . sens e , it is often used
to imply th e similarity or ngrcemcnt of thrng s 111 certain rc s11ccts .

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70

EXERCISES IN

CO~IPOSITION.

Describe the analogy between the following objects.
The wings of a bird and the paddles of a steamboat. \
The main spring of a watch and the weights of a clock.
The sails of a wind-mill and the wheels of a water.mill.
A •heph crd and a minister of the gospel.
Painting and sculpture.
The shell of a tortoise and the armor of a knight.
The earth and the planet Mars.
A hive of' bees and an inhabited town.
.An island and nn oasis.

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ones, settled by his side ns soon as he wns shot, and showed her grief
in the most expressive manner.
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"But the man had not yet done with the bird whwh hchad lulled.
He took it up, and tied it to the top of a short stake, mte?dmg ~hat tl!e
sight of it should frighten away the other robbers of the farmers
peas.
"Even in this situation, however, the H en Pigeon did not forsake
the body, which was now entirely without life. Day after day she
wns seen walking slowly round the bottom of the stic_k !
"At length the kind-hearted wifo of the overseer of the farm! hear.
.i ng of the melancholy circumstance, went t.o the spot where 1t was
taking place, in order to afford to the affoct10nate H en Pigeon what
relief she could.
·u She found that the poor Hen, by her continued walk in g rou?d the
stake, had actually made a circular beaten track! She found 1~ also
still walking, but much exhausted, and yet now and then making a
.)ittle spring toward the dead Pigeon, as it still lrnng upon the s;ake!
"All the overseer's wife could do, was to take away the dead I 1geon,
the. presence of which thus perpetuated the sorrow of his late mate, and
wore her out with useless efforts and attendance; and when thi,; was
done, the bird, having nothing now to stay by, returned, alone, as she
was, to the old dove.cote."
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A school and n ship's crew.
A ma p and a picture.
A lamp and the sun.
Th e life of a man and a day's journey.
Autumn and old age.

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Th is exercise will probably be difficult for beginners; but--n,J
the task 9 f performing it. accurately will be of excellent service in training the reasoning powers. Sfiould it be found
imnracticable in particular instanc~s, it may be omitted in
going through the volume and taken up at the end •

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71

IN'.fRODUCTORY COURSE.

SECTION IX.
NARRATION OF REAL INCIDENTS · FOUNDED ON PERSONAL
OBSERVATION.

SuccEss in narration ilcpends upon accurate observation
and di s tinct recollection. It is believed that the preceding
exercises are well suited to bring th ese powers of the ;mind
into vi1rorous action; and consequently to improve them.
The c:reful exa mination and description of real objects,
taken singly, forms a good preparntion for observing and
describing objects and in cidents in succession or in connec·
tion, which constitutes the essenti.al part of narration.
Real incidents, observed by ·the pupil; and narrated in his
own way, seem to form the most suitable initiatory exercise in this branch of composition, inasmuch as they are
the most easy aml natural, and serve to keep the attention
more closely directed to the matter than to the style.
.

;.r-.

The points cif excellence in this little story, apart from
the interesting character of the incidents, are its simpli, city, clearpess a11cl naturalness.
These are suitable objec.ts
of imitation for a young pupil in his earlier attempts at written narrative. We will now sugges t some subj ects from
among which we presume it will not be difficult for the learn.er to selec ~one which he can handle without difficulty.
·Narrative of a journey from home to the school house including a
description of matter.rand tliings oliserved in th.e way;--...._
Narrative of the journey home from school.
\
The events of a holiday.
·
· A Christmas eve.
A New Year's day.
A visit to the Museum .
A nulling party in the woods.
A vacation in the country.
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A vacation in town.
. A sleigh rid e.
_The life, de.1 th, and burial of a tame rnbbit.
A skating party.
A sailing party, A fishing party.
A Maying party.
A morning in the flower garden.
A visit to the printing office.
A visit to the blacksmith's shop with a d_cscription of the opera.
tions of the workmen.
'visit to the shops of various artisans.
An account of the books composing the pupil's library and of the

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The Pigeon.
"A la boring man, set to watch n fi eld .of peas tl~at had been much
preyed upon by Pigeons, shot a male Pigeon winch had long hrecl
upon the farm. The mate of the poor bird, whom he had long cooed
to and fed from his own crop, nnd assisted in rearing 11umerous young

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EXERCISES Ill conIPOSITION.

particular way in which he became possessed. of each of those pre"c ntcd lo him by his fri ends.
Exhibition day al school.
Declamation day al school.
An account of the pupil's difficulties in licginning composition nnd
how they were ovc come
·
1\n account of tl1c way in which the pupil learns his lesson in Geogrnphy, Grammar, Ili story, and Natural Philosophy. ·
An account of what was seen at the last lecture on Natural Philosophy, which the pupil attended.
NurrntiveR uf whatever the pupil may have observed respecting tho.
·
hnhits of quaclrupctls, birds, reptiles or insects.
Narratives of the pupil's experience in the cultivation of plants or
trees.
A vi sit to a form house.
A visit to a library.
A walk in the woods.
A visit to th e sea shore.
A party visiting a ehip.
Pursuit of a squirrel and how he escaped. )

·we h ave offered a considerable variety of subjects, relating both lo town and country, in order that the pupil may
make his own choice of those which he may feel most
confident of being able to treat. Them will undoubtedly suggest lo his mind others of a similar character, the re:mlts of
his own experience.
·

SECTION X.
NARRATION FOUNDED ON TESTIDIONY.

'f"HE title of this section may seem rather formal.

The
obj eel of it is to make a distinction between narration of real
incidents found ed on personal observation, and th at which
i1:1 foundetl on the testimony of others. Testimony or evidence is divid ed by logical writers into two kinds, oral an<l
written. The former being given, if we may use a homely
phrase "by word of mouth," anti the latte r in writing.
Now th e information, which a pupil may receive in conve rsation res pecting uny subject on which he wishes to write,
may be considered oral testimony; that which he receives
from books, letters or other written or printed documents
is written testimony.
The pupil will perceive that by commencing the writing
of narrations founded on testimony, he at once acquires a
large supply of materials for compo ~ ilion. His occupation
now resembles that of the historian who unt.lerlakes lo for-

INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

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nish- an account of some great event or period in the annals
of the worltl. He chooses his subject and ~els himself busily at work to collect all the materials for the story by conversing with his friends and consulting his books, papers,
and letters, until he has accumulated a sufficient amount of
information to write his narrative in a regular an<l connected
form. ·
He must not be alarmed at this formidable comparison;
but recollect that the process of composition is the same
for the history of the bl"owing up of a steamboat, as for that
of the overturning of a government. The lrulh of the story
is first to be found out, and then lo be told.
One caution, however, is specially necessa ry. The pupil
is not to mistalUi transcription for composition. Re must
not copy the language of other writers. He must make the
.. information completely his own by reading or conversation;
and then write it out in his · own lan guage.
•' Without giving a model of this species of composition,
• since almost every book in the pupil's possession furnishes
many, wr. proceed lo recommend, for a first attempt, a subject familiar to moslof our young countrymen-the discovery
· of .11.mcrica by Columbus. Find out and impress upon
your memory, all the facts within your reach, relating to
, Columbus, and then write your own li!tle story of the discovery. If your fa!:ts should be fe w, your story will of
course be short. But it will be none th e less true; and, so
far as the con1po;;ition is concerned, none the less original.
· Let us instruct you a little in the process of inves tigation.
Find out from conversation or books when and wh e re Columbus was born; how he passed his early life; what led him
to suppose that there was land in th e g reat weste rn ocean;
what courts he applied lo for ass is tan ce; how he fared at
each; how and when he succeeded; how his expedition was
fitted out; wh ence and where it sa iled; wh at happened on
the voyage; and how the new world was discov ered. .
You may th en conclude with your own refl ec tions on
·the important resultR of this grand di scove ry, or you may
follow Columbus through the remainder of his career; and
close with your own view of his character and services to
mankind.
Description, in which the pupil has already had considerable prac :ice- in the preceding sec tions of this book, may be
' founded on the same kind of investigation; and we shall
accordingly propose subjects in which thi s kind of writing
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EXERCISES U( CO~IPOSITION.

INTRODUCTORY COURSE,

is mingle<l with -narration.-We now offer some suhjects to
be investigated and discussed hy the pupil.

death of Goliah, tlic conversion of St. Paul, the shipwreck of St.
Pnul, the death of St. John the Baptist, and the death of Herod.

The conquest of Mexico.
The conquest of Peru.
The first settlement of New
Englund.
The founding of P ennsylvania.
The story of Duniel Boon.
'l'hc invention of the Sleumboat.
'l'hc ilwcntion of printing.
The invention of the mariner's
·compass.
The foundation of Rome.
The gunpowder plot.
Th e origin of the celebration
of the 4th of .T uly.
Penn's treaty with the Indi ans.
Character of Lafay ette.
Lafayette's last vis it lo America.
Account of Cromwell's Usurpation.
Account of Napoleon's Usurpalion.
Account of the destruction of
Moscow.

Loss of the Steam-packet
Home.
Abdication of Charles V.
Acco'unt of the battle of Lexin gton.
Account of the battle of Bunkcr'• Hill.
Batlle of Luke Eric.
Di•covcry of New York by
Hudson.
War of King Philip.
. Taking of Louisburg.
Taking of Qucuec.
Siege of Boston.
Destruction of tea in Boston
Harbor.
Founding of Rhode l •lnnd.
Death of .Julius Crosar.
Character of William Penn.
Character of Lord Baltimore.
Discovery of Madeira.
·
Discovery of Brazil.
Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Account of the Gipsies. ,

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Most of the pupils, who attempt the writing of composition, are in possession of some history of the United States;
ancl it will be useful for them to treat subjects belonging to
our national annals even if th ey should be furnished with
no other 'materials than are to be found in the text book us ed
at school. The characters of distinguished men may be inferred to a certain extent from their leading actions, and the
pupil may easily form an opinion respecting the principal
traits of such men as Captain Smith, Roger W illiarns, W illiam Penn and Washington, from the notices of th em which
occur in a history intemled for the use of schools. The
writing of remarks on their characters, or on particular passages in their Ii ves will be a useful exercise.

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Some of the preceding subjects may be found diffi cult
on account of the pupil's want of materials. A choice
should be allowed by the teacher with reforence to this circum s tance. There is one whole class of ~ubjects however
to which thi s objection cannot apply; viz. those drawn from
the Sacred Scriptures. The reading, required for the discuss ion of these cannot fail to be useful; and the exercise of
,vriting on th em may give a directiun to the thoughts which
will prove of lasi in g utility in every point of view. The
langn age of th e Scriptures is generally so e l e~ated and peculiar, that in giving an acco unt of any of the sacred characters,
or eve nts, the pupil will naturally atln pt a different phraseoloc;y, The kind of snhjccts _to be drawn from the Scriptur;s will be sufficiently indicated by the following short
list, which will suggest many similar ones to the pupil.
Accounts of the principal e\'cnls in the li ves of Joscpb, Moses,
.Joshua, Da1·id, Solomon, Josiah, Hezek iah, Ahab, Peter, Paul, Esther,
and Ruth. Characters of th e above named personages asindicuted by
th e ir actions and by the declarations of the sacrud wri tf rS. Account
of the building- of llJbcl, the pl"g_u cs of EJ!ypt, \he departure of th_e
I sraelites frorn Egypt, the ouildmg of Solomons temple, the dedi cation of the templ e, the destruction of the cities of the plain, the

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SECTION XI.
1

' NARRATION Ok' InIAOINARY INCI!JENTS,

AT the outset of this part of his course of instruction the
ingenuous pupil may naturally inquire, "Is it right for me
to make up stories which have no foundation in truth?" Ju
answer to this query, it may be replied that nearly every
professed work of fiction is merely a supposition of facts
for the purpose of conveying some general truth; that it has
been practised by good men in all ages of the world; and
. that it is sanctioned by the highest authority, inasmuch as
the parables of holy . writ are not understood to be recorded
as literal facts,·but as supposed cases intended to inculcate
an<l illustrate great moral truths.
As no deception is inte nded by it, the pupil may therefore
eafely infer that it is lawfu l for him to task his invention in
the composition of a s tory.
·
In connection with th e pictmes in the preceding part of
the volume we have already s nggestetl the narration of some
fictitious incidents. \Ve will now ·present a few more subjects
eac h of which may serve as the foundation for a short story;
with the single remark that the more natural-the more like
reality he can render his narrative, the more _m erit it will
possess as a work of in vention .
" In general," says a writer on rhetoric, "he is the most
perfect narrator, who puts his reader most completely in the
state of the spectator; who transports him to the very spot,
marks out to him all the personages by th eir characteristic

.. .
,.
7G

features, and fills the sce ne with manners an<l actions. For
success in su ch an attempt, nothing is so necessary as an
imagination capable of receiving and retaining strong impressions." "\Vh ere this exists," <adds another writer," and
the subject to be described is an interesting one, no artifice
of language is wante<l to produce a complete effect. The
history of Joseph and his brethren, in the book of Genesis,
is written without the least art or effort, yet a more affecting
one is not to be met with, and every atlempt to embellish it
by art and ornament has failed lo produce an equal d egree
of interest. All that see ms requisite in this kind of writing
is, that the narrator should abstain from affected phraseology,
unreasonabl e <ligressious, and impertinent remarks an<l observations."
The following subj ects for fictitious narrative are proposed.
A shipwreck-An escape from captivity among the Indians-An
adventure am ong the wand ering Arabs-A hunting excursion'""7""A day
in London-A day in Paris-A sleigh ride-A Tiger hunt-Adventures of a youth going lo seek hie for.tun e-Adventures of a sailor
cost upon an uninhabited island-Adventures of a. boy lost in a.
forest.

SECTION XII.
J,ETTER WRITING.

Tms is ge1\e rally considered an easy form of composition,
a1Hl it is that in which most persons m:ike their first attempt ·
at expressing th eir thou ghts and feelings in writing. The chief
source of diffi culty in this , as in every other branch of the
art, is too much solic itude about th!H<lilgUage...aud s!yl.e.,_and
lO Q · it e ,1•nti.01 to hc,.su~)j-ecl
When a person haasom
particular business to be done-some real object to be effect•

by lhe writing of a letter, it is generally expressed in
~erspicuons

language, and in an eaRy, natural style. Bll
i the w.r-ite-1' intends mere! to compos w-h:it is call ed a

"bcautif"nl letter," he is apt to run into ·some of the worst
faults of style.
The following remarks of an English author on the epistol ary styl e in general deserve th e pupil's attention.
"A s lclters arc writtr n on all subj ects, in all states of mind, they
cann ot properly be redu ced lo any settled rules. The qualiti es of
epistolary writin g rtiost frequ ently required arc ca se and simplicity.
" Lette rs slioulJ be writt en with stri ct conformity lo nature, because
th at alone can make any compo•ition beauti ful or juot. Dut it is

77

iNTRODUCTORY COURSE,

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

natural to depart from familiarity of language upon occasions not
familiar.
"Epistolary writing possesses a kin~ ?f middle place between .th~
serious and amusing species of compos1llon. It app_ears at fir st VI C\\
to extend into a. very wide field, for there 1s no subJr.ct whatever on
which we may not convey our thoughts to the public m the form of a
letter.
.
. .
"It becomes a. distinct specie8 of composition, when 1t 1s of the easy
and familiar kind; when it is a conversation curried on upon paper
.
between friends at a distance.
"The first nnd fondam c11tul requisite is to be natural nnd simple;_for
n stiff and labored manner is ns bad in n letter ae it is in conver sati on.
'!'his however docs not bani sh sprightlin ess and wit. These ore grn ~ c­
ful in letters, just as they are in conversation, when th ey fl ow easily
anrl without being studied; when employed so as lo season a11d not to '
cloy.
.
"A person, who eith er in conversation or in letters affects to s 1une
nnd sparkle alwnys, will not please long: the style of letters s l~ould
not be too highly polished. It ~ ught to be neat and correct. All n1cety
.
.
nboul words betrays study, wl11ch should be avoided.
"The l•est letters are generally such a~ hav_c b~cn w~ilten with the
greatest facility. What the heart or the 1rnagmal!on dictates, always
flows readily. It ought at the same tu;n e to be remembered, that the
ca.se and simplicity. recomm ended in epistolary correspondence arc not
.
.
to be understood as permittin g carelessness.
In writing to the most intimate fri end, a certam d e~re e of at_tcnlion
both to the subject and style, is necsssary and bccommg. It is _w hat
we owe both to ourselves aRd to our fri end. A slovenly nnd negligent
manner of writing is n mark of want of respect. An imprudent expre~sion in conversation may be _forgotten, and pass a.way; ?ut \~e
should remember, when we take the pen in band, that' what is written remains.' "
..SUDJECTS FOR LETTERS.

1. A letter to a. relation describing the writer's .occnpations and
studies al school.
.
2. A letter to an ncquaintance describing the writer's last hohclay
. amusements.
.
3. Another giving an account of a vi sit to the ~ily:
4. Another giving an account of nn _allernoon s nde m the coun~y.

.

5. A letter to a. farm er in th e country rcqu osling him to bnng to
.
town n su11ply of fruit, b~ltc r, 1;oultry, &c. .
6. A letter to a friend m Pans, requesting lus correspondence wlule
tra veiling in Europe.
7. A letter to a fri end in Loncl on, requesting him to purchase for
the writer, certain books and prints.
.
..
8: A billet of invitation to dinn er, to spend the evenmg, to JO!ll a
riding party, &c., &e.
.
.
9. A letter to a fri end requ esting the loan of a book.
10. A letter of advi ce respecting associates and modes of spending •
leisure time,

78

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

11. ·~letter excusing the writer from accepting an invitation to join
a shooting party.
12. A letter to a friend recommending early rising.
13. A letter from a young lady to her schoolmate descanting on
her favorite books and authors.
14. Another respectin g favorite pursuits and amusements.
15. Another describing a garden.
·
16. Anoth er respecting house plants and the care of them.
17. An oth er respecting rambles in the fields, Lotanising &c.
18. A letter asking a favor·.
'
19. The answer.
20. A letter soliciting a situation as clerk.in a store.
·
21. The answer. ·
22. A letter relating the events of a journey.

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PART IL

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STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

SECTION XIII .
.GENERAL REMARKS,

'·,
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I:r may be thought that .this title shoul<l have been given
to · the first -part in the volume; inasmuch as the pnpil
has been directed to write a great number of sentences,
without any previous instruction as to the manner of con·
· structing them. Our. reasons for purposely deferring arry
systematic instruction in the rhetorical structure of sentences,
until the pupil has exercised himself freely in writing in his
own \vay, are such, however, as we deem quite satisfactory
to any one who will cons ill er attentively, the usual diffi culties of a beginner in composition and the natnral mode pf
overcoming them.
Written expression is so entirely similar to oral expression that the natural mode of instruction in each is essentially the same. In teaching a child to express him self
freely and naturally in conversation, we do not begin by
systematically inculcating the rul es of grammar; but . by
presenting to him subjects suited to his comprehension and
encour;iging him to say whatever occurs to him respecting
them. Grammar follows afterwards; and he has in a great
measm:e acquired his own language , before he commences
the process of analysing it according to scientific principles .
The method which we pursue, in teaching the art of
written expression, is founded on the same principl e. \Ve
have encouraged the pupil to write freely and boldly on a
variety of subj ects, which we consider ·well suited .to his
comprehension, his habits and associations. \Ve trust th at
he has now begun to fe el somewhat at home in the use of

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80

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EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

his pen; an<l we ~eli eve that, in consequence of this prepa-'
ratory course, he will be much less embarrassed and dishea rte ned than he otherwise would on entering upon a syste.mati c co ms e of exercises in the rh etorical structure of sentences.

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

81

A boy attentive to his studies is sure to excel." .
.
A R elatwe clause is a clause introduced by a relative pronoun, as,
"A boy wlio is attentive to his studies is sure lo excel.". .
.
A Participial clause is ~ clause introd~ ced by a parltc1plc wl11ch
describes som e other word 111 the sentence, as,
.
. .
. "A boy de voted to study is sure .to excel."
A Connective clause is a clause mtro~uced
a co~JU~,chon, as,
"A boy is sure to excel if lie be attentive to his stu~ies ..
An Absolute or independent clause, is a clause wh1eh 1s not dependent upon any other word or words in. the Bent.ence; as,
" Tlie doors being sliut, J esus stood m ~he midst.
11·

hr

SECTION XIV.
COMPONENT PARTS OF A SENTENCE,

A SENTENCE is a number ·Of wor<ls so arranged as to form
a complete proposition.
'I'hns, th e " ·ord s "A boy so di lige nt and moral as George" do not
form a sentence, because th ey do not co ntain a simple proposition or
sta tement. But," A boy so diligent and moral as George is sure to
prosper," is a sentence.

S entences are eith er Simple or· Complex.
A Simple sentence ex presses only a s imple proposition,
or contains but on e verb; as,
"~ gc in creases our d c~ ir e of Ji vin g.n

"'l'lic vivacity of l\Iary's spirit, and the warmth of her heart, had
betrayed her both into errors am! into crimes."

. A Complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences , so combined as lo make but one complete propos i- ·
tion; as
Age, though it lessens the enjoyment of life, in creases our desire of
li ving."
· "The vivacity of Mary's spirit, wliic/i. IVllS 11ot Sl(Oiciently tem.pere1l
hy sound j11d~111ent , and th e warmth of her hea rt, whi ch was not nt
nil tim es 1ind cr the restraint of di scrcli ,,n , had betrayed her both into
errors nnd into cr im es."
·

Th e clauses, me mbers, or compone nt parts of a co mpl ex
se ntence, are e ith er Prind]!al or Pal'entftetical.
The Princi]!al ela11 se is that which co ntains the leading
propos ition; and it mu s t ex press a co mplete idea, even when
separated from th e rest of th e se ntence .
A Parenth eti ca l clause is a s im ple sentence, or part of a
.
se ntence, modifying th e pri ncipal clause .
Thu s in th e precedin g se nte nces, and in those that follow,
the clauses in italics a re parenthetical.
"Ile will not be pa rdoned, un less lie r epen t."
" lV/i ile the bi·idegroo111 trzrried they all slumbered and slept."
Parenth etical or seconclnry clauses ma y be con venicnlly subdivided
into Adjective, R elative, Participial, Cu1111ect ive, l11l e1jective , Absolute, & c.
An Adjective clause is a clause introduced by an ndjcctivc, an d
forming a complex adj ecti ve; as,

In every sentence there must be a Subject, or thing
spoken of; aml a Predicate, or what is affirmed by it.
Every sentence, however short, must !~av e both n ~ubj ect and a
redicate, and even the longest sentence 1s resolvable mt~ the sa i:ne
wo parts. F or example, the following sent.ence, though. 1t contams
all the parts of speech except the inte rj e~ tion, 1s rcsol.vub!e 1~~0 a clause
denoting the subject, and a clause denoting th ~ p redicate:-. 'I'he man
of piety nnd virtue secures for himself the l11gh npp ~ob a t1on ~0~~1 of
, God and of his fellow men." H ere t)ie subject ~f discourse is the
man of piety and virtue," a clause which, could 1t be e'.'presscd by 11
·single word, would be a noun. In lik.e man.ner, the predic~te~ or what
is asserted of this man of piety and virtue, 1s," s ec ur.~s (01 hims elf. t!u
hig h approbation both of God and of his fellow men; a clause which,
could it also be expressed by a single word, would be a verb .

f

·· The Subject is always either a noun, or a wor<l, or form
.
.
.of wor<ls, equivalent in effect to a noun.
'l'he Predicate is always a verb, or a clause mcludmg a
verb, and equal in amount to a verb.
' The subject is known by putting this question, Who? or \Vhat7 to
.
tho verb; as, I read. Who reads? Answer, I.
The subject may be expressed in nny of the following ways:}, By a single noun; as,
·
~ "Jolin write•."
·
2. By t wo ?r mo~e noun ~ _joined together, either by connecti ng
words, or by simple JUxtapos1t101~j a~,
11 John, Ja.m es, and Robert, wnte.
uiKing, Lords, Commons, are all against it."
3. By a pronoun or pronouns; as,
u He runs;" "1'he boy who runs;" "He nnd I .run." .
.
4, Dy nouns joined with other words, to re.stri ct their meanmg; as,
"Brave a nd vigilant soldiers are sure of victory."
" Men of sense would not have done so."
.
"A man of gentle temper when once roused 1s more to be feared
than a passi,,nate man."
" The cities whicli once adorned the Euphrates and tlie Tigris, are
in ruins."
5. Ily the infiniti,·e; as,
" To err is human."
6. By sentences nnd clauses of sentences; as,
" .7"hat you are disappointed gives me l'ain."

8

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82

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83

EXERCISES IN COn!POSITION,

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES .

" Who .~teals my purse steals tra sh."
" 1'\!hosoever expects to find unmixed happiness on earth, looks for
what he will not find."
In all these instances tho words or dauscs printed in italics nre
complex names of th e s~1hject spoken of in their respective scntc~ces.
!hey arc, therefore, e<p11val e11t to nouns; and were there si ngle words
111 the language capable of expressing th em , these words would be

Distinguish simple from complex sentences; and, in the
· ·
latter, principal from secondary clauses.

noun s.

The predi c~ t e of a sent~nce mu~t always contain nt leas t
one verb; but 1l may contam more than one, besides other
parts of speech.
Tl.10 following are instances of verbs a nd restrictive clauses used as
pred1 ca tes: 11 Tito people mourn."
11
Tito people mourn and weep."
;: 1:1t o people mourn and weep for thtir departed rnler."
1 he people mourn and weep (~r thei.r departed ruler, with a poignancy of g n ef wl11ch pmves how lnglily they appreciated !iis character
and g ove rnment."

_vV l:en the verb of a sentence is transitive, it has joined
with 1l a word, or words describing the object of the verb;
as,
11
J ohn strikes th e tn.hle."
"Joshua conducted the Isra elites into th e promised land ."
H ero "table" an d 11 Israel ites" a rc the objects of th e verbs "strikes"
and 11 conducted."
·
·
Th e ohjcct is known by nddi11g tho interrogative 'Vlrnt7 or 'Vhom?
to th e verb; as, I uad a book. Road what? Ans. A hook.

If n parent is n . Jiterary man, his very girls will t alk learned ly.
Mun is a creature of extremes. 'l'houg l1 the middle path is generally
the sure path, there are few wise enough to find it. Thou sha lt love
the Lord thy God with all thy hea rt and with all thy streng th, and
thy neighbor as thyself. Th e history of his ow n country oug ht lo be
s tudied by every citizen. ' ·Vh cn I look at tho mind of Lord Ilacon,
it seems vast, original, penetrating, beyond all competition; but when
I look at his character, and sec a mun shuflling, wavering, m ean, I
am constrnine<l to say, u Cease from 1na11 ."

Give th eir appropriate names lo the secondary clauses, both
in the preceding example.~, and in lhc.follow-ing.
He tha.t has neve r been injured, has neve r had it in hi s power to
exercise the noblest privil ege of hero ic virtu e. A man destitute. of a
sense of duty can never be a man of honor. Thous,Uld $, wh om rndolcnce has sunk into con tcrnplible obsc urity, might have attained the
highest distinction s, if idl eness had not fru strated tho effe ct of all
their powers. True charity is not a meteor which occasionally glares,
but' a luminary whicli dispenses a steady and bc11ign influence. "V o
cannot be guilty of a greater act of uncharitableness th an to inlc_rprct
tho afflictions, which bcfal our neig hbor, as puni shm ents and .Judgments. Such is the emptin ess of human enjoyment, that we arc
alv.ays impatient of the present. Our prospects being all blighted,
what remains but that we should depart.
Bonenth these rugged olrn , , that yew tree's shnd r ,
Whore heaves th o turf in many a mouldering lt cup,
Each', in his narrow cell for eve r laid,
';I'ho ruuo forefo.th ers of tho ham let sleep.

Th e object is often expressed by an infinitive, and also
by a se ntence or part of a sentence; as,
JTc loves lo study."
II c should conside r how near he is to his end."
H erc the objects of the verbs" loves" and 11 consider" are
and " how nea r he is to hi~ encl."
11
11

11

to study"

EXERCISES IN DISTINGUISHING THE COMPONENT PARTS OF A
SENTENCE.
-

Distinguish between complete and impe1jeet sentences.
_U c who. docs . no gno'.1. IJ!' who . docs no good will certainly do
C\'l l. A c11y. butlt of bn ck. fh c city is built. of brick. When the
poor complain. "Vhon the poor complain with reason. Wh en the
poor co.rnp h~i n tho ri ch sha.nld liste n to. their cry. "Vhen the poor
complain with reaso n, the rich s ho11ld g ive hoed to their voice. His
talo.nts cxc it ~ d :~dmirali on. !~is talents, which were of a high order,
exc.1tcd ndm 1ralton. G cncr?s1l,Y w?uld l?se l ~n lf her dignity. Generosity. would lose h.n lf her d1j!n1ly, 1f 111nltce did not contribute to her
~levatton. The ship bcmg ca st away. The ship wns lost. E~pcct­
rng tn receive your reply.

<.

Ilut, if for me thou dost forsake
" Some other maid, nnd rud ely break
Her worsltipp'd im ago from its bnsr,
' To givo to me the ruined pl aceThcn fare th e wcTI. I'd rather make
M.y bower upon some icy lake,
'Vhen thawing suns beg in to shin e,
Than trust to love so false as thine.

To confess tho truth, there nro few who are fully qualified or tho
high office or governing th eir fellows.

'.Distinguish. the subject and predicaf e in the following sen·
tences; also the object where it occurs .
The city or'tho Crosa rs stand s on Reve n hills. Th at you arc di sa ppointed gives mo pain. M on of wealth arc use ful ton country. M en
of wealth who emp loy th eir ri ches for th e promotion of good objects,
deserve the a pplause of their countrym en. Men of wea lth who employ
their riches for th e promotion of good obj ec ts, without looking fo r any
reward from man, merit, and shall receive, the npprobation of a hig her
than man. · Tho opinions, the spirit, tl1e conversation, tho manners of

l

84

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES,

the parent, influence the child. Cresar came, saw, and conquered.
He and I are class fo llows. No mon is kind enouirh, gentle enough,
forbearing and forgiving enough. The hero, whom the world deems
deserving of the nam e, is tl1e man who makes a bu stle, who makes
the road smoke under his chaise and four, who manages or devastates
empires. A strong sense of duty, without any direct reference to consequences, ought to be our prevaili ng prin cipl e of action. The recollection of parental in struction cleaves lo a man, harasses him, and
throws itself continually in his way.
EXERCISES IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES,

Write a simple sentence on each

'

.~·"

of the following

subjects.

Riches-Poverty-Courage-The mind-\Var-A wise man-A
young man--Our country-\Va•hinglon-Napoleon-\Villiam Penn
-Geography-Grammar- Poetry- Dcclarnation -\Vinter-Spring
-Time-A summer day-A winter evening.

FVrite a complex sentence on each of the following subjects,
exemplifying the different lcinds ~f parentlietical clauses.
An ungrateful se rvant-An undutiful child-An old soldier-A true
pa triot-A hard creditor-A cannon-A castle-An oak-A lionAn eagle-An entertaining book -An eloquent orator-A river-A
sword-A dove-A fox- I-lope-Despair-An arm-chair-A deskTemperance-Prudonoe-Frugality-A forest-Tho bible-Music;

SECTION XV.
ARRANGE~IENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE,

The words of a sentence may be arranged either i11 Conventional or Rh etorical order.
The Conventional order is that arrangement of words
which is most usual in the language.
The Rhetorical order is that arrangement which results
from the peculiar frame of mind in which the sentiment is
spoken or written.
The conventional order seems chiefly accommodated to simple ex.
pl anation, narrative, and ded ucti on; th e rh etorical lo what admits the
exertion of fancy or of passion.
The rhetorical order is in every languogc more or less cramped by the
laws of conventional arrange ment. llut it is most fettered in languages which, like the English, admit of few inflections.
The chief olijecl of the rhetorical order seems lo be to place the
cmphatical word or words in that position in the sentence, which will
g ive th em the greatest adva ntage for fixing the attention of the henrer
or reader.

The chief laws of arrangement, both conventional and
rhetorical are th e following:-

85

SUBJECT AND VERD.

R E I
In sentences conventionally arranged, the fsnb:
ject ~~ no;~inative precedes the verb in all cases except our,
· as,
"The clouds gather?"
.
,,
"To obey is better than sacrifice.
h
b re the follow.
The cases in which the nominative follows t c ver a

init-When the sentence is inlcrronativc; as;
" Do J riches make men h? ppy?_,,
"Stnnds l Scotland wh~rc. 1l d1dl. .
2. \Vhen the sentence is "'!Perutlve, as
"Go I thou." " Read I ye.
d
3 When " suppo•ition is c lliptic~lly cxr,ressc ; a•,
·f dII k
n it" "\Vere J 1t true.
,
t
"I When
"
: prece<Ic•d bv• there '.here&' hence,
. :. 4.
thenow
ver b is
• • then, t1tus, ye '
' 80
"th r such herein therein, wherein, c., as,
nor, nei e ,
'
'
G d"
·- . ',,There• was J n man sent from o ·
·~\ u Here are I five Io.aves."
.
.
,,
-· "Hence arise I stnfes nnd dissensions.
I · 1 are deviations
1 w ac I
A fow phrases, such as said he, replied t.'ey,
from the general rule, scarcely deserve ."oltce.
I
. d'.

, UuLE II
In sentences r!ietorically arrang~d, t_ie pie dt
eate is ofte;1, for the sake of emphasis and v1vac1ty, ma e
to precede the subject.
.- "Shines forth I the cheerful sun_!" ,,,

f tho Lord'"
. "Great J is Diann of the Ephesians.
, -' " D'.essed is I he that com eth in the n"m ~ o ,,,
·
•1i,_ "Fullen, fallen, is I JJabylon tl1:1~_gr~~t
~~~~~gement would greatly
10 1
· Jn such instances, the conven t~~ 'l'hus " Di·rna of the Ephe.
> k tl
· city of the statcmcn ·
•
' .
.
d
d spiritless exclamal10n, compare
wen en io viva
. fi. 'd
sians is grcut," would b~t n gf'. ti~~ words. Jn sentences rhetorically
· " with tho above tr~nsposihion eculiarly importan t, is sometimes made
. arranged, the subJc.cl, .w en lhe sentence without its intended vcrbto stand at the b~g mni ng f<of
fan exclamation with a pronoun for
•
the predicate taking t 1e a rm 0
· its norTiinnlive; us,
.
.. "'
, 1 • "Tho rainbow-how beaut1fu 1 1t·1s.

°

1

VERD AND lTS OBJECT.

In sentences conventionally arran_ged ~ tr:msi·
rb r;cedes its obj ec t, except when the ohJeCt is e 1t~er

i RuLE III

.
live ve dpby a relative pronoun or preceded by a relative
expresse
. .
pronoun as its adJ ec\l ve; as,
• A

·

scntenc~ is sc ~crnHy rntr~~

Elpeaker or wntcr w1shc& to ca

pressed.

1 icecl bv tltcrc followed. by a verb , when the

'pa.'rtiCulnr nltcntion to the sentiment cx-

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86

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

:EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

God created I the heavens and the earth"
:: If ye love I rne keep I my commandmcnis."
No account has yet reached I us of the men whom
patched."
11
W hatsoevcr blessings I he bestows."
11

I you

des.

R ULE IV.
In rhetorical sentences the object, when the
emphatic word, preceues its verb; as,
11
Silver and gold I I1ave I none, b ut such as I have/ give I to
thee."

~horn ye ig.norantly w?rship, him I declure I unto you."
. In 1 erse, cons1clerable latitude of transposition is allowed in this as
m msost ot~1e r respects, even where emphas is does not require it· 'as
:: he with extended arms his aid I implores."
'
'
'
No porte nts now our foes / amaze."
" Our harps I by Babel's streams we left."
11

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES.

V. The adjective is generally placed immediately
before the noun which it qualifi es; as,
RuLE

n

",A beautiful tree. 11 A mighty river."
'I here are four cases in which thi s order is inverted
• l. When th e adjective is used as a title, it is placed' after its noun;

"•11

Alexa nder I th e great."
Lorenzo I the magnifi cent."
2. When there ore more adjectives than one joined with the same
no~:n th ey a rc ljCnerally placed after it; as,
A man I w ise, va liant, and good.''
_3. Wl~ e n l~1 c adjective itsclfis qualified by some other word or words
with wl11ch 1l fo rm s a complex adjective it is placed after the noun,·
as,
"A scholar I respectful to his teacl1 er."
H ere .~he adjective which quali fies the noun 11 scholar" is not "re.
spcctful al?uc'. but the complex adj ective "respectful to liis teacher."
4. An adJ cct1 vc denoting ex tent is put after the clause which expresses t he measu re of extent·* as
"A wall / ten fee t hig h." '
'
11
An a~ m y. I ~flecn thousmd strong."
f The adJ cc t1ve 1s separated from its noun when it qualifies the action
0
th e vcrb, and so forms along wi th Ilic ve rb the predi cate of tho
11

/

.!I~!1
i·

Jt

··I

~I

~
II

n oun;

a~ ,

' · Ile drink s .dee p."
11
It looks strange."
RULE

VI. In rhetorical sentences, the mljective, when

• Pcrha11!"1 this rulr. 0 11 .~ht to be con sidered as onl y n specific n Jic:i ·
prcceilingi hn t ns it d1:scrih P.8 til e po sition
1e
ti v~i~ct 1 • ns well ns that of the adjec tive, it dcscn •cs to Lie scpnrntcly me n-

~Jfat l11111~ 1ed i nl1! IJ'

olfr

·,~~~~ 11 ~~

87

emphatic, begins the sentence, and is often separated from
its noun by a conside,rable distance; as,
"Great I is the Lord." ·
" Auspicious to our country I will be the change."
The articles a and the, though g enerally prefixed to adjeclive5, are
in certain cases subj oined lo them.
A or an is always put after the adjective such; it is also put after all
adjectives when they are preceded by the words, as, so, too, how; as,
"Such I a king as ours,"
.
11 As great I as he wao.''
11 So vast \ a multitude."
The is put after th e adjective all only; as,
11 All I the city assembled."
When this' and that describe a succession of objects, this is applied
to the latter or nearer, 11nd that to the former or more remote; as,
"Bashfulness and impudence ought both to be avoided; this rendering us objects of disgust, that of pity."

•' ,;c,t; t

:;

POSITION OF PRONOUNS.

VII. When the personal prononns come togeth er,
. the pronoun of the second person is placed before that of the
, ·third; and the pronoun of the first person is placecl after
those of the seconcl ancl third; as
... "..RULE

"If you and 7ullia are well, Cicero and I are well."*
RuLE VIII. The relative pronouns, with their clauses ,
are, to prevent ambiguity placed as close as possible to
their correlatives.

· ' Thus in the followin g sentence, in which the justness of the master's
character, not the servant's, i• meant to be expressed, the ord er should
be, not '"fhe master dismi ssed his s~ rvant, whom none believed to be
capable of an unjust act," but 11 The maste r, whom none believed to b•
capable of an unjust act, dism issed his se rvant."
POSITION OF .THE INFINITIVE.

IX. In conventional sentences, the infinitive is
.' placed after th e verb on which it depends thongh often separated from it by other words; as,
RULE

' "He was comm anded I to release th e prisoners."
,"He was comm nn<.led \ by th e king I to ·rclcnse the prisonern."
RULE X. In rhetorical sentences , the infinitive without
its sign is sometimes , for the sake of emphasis, made lo
occupy the first place in the sentence; as ,

"Go I I must whatever rn ny ensue."
"Avoid I it he could not by any means."
•In Lntin, the opposit e nrrnn gc mcmt o f t he pronoun of th e fir st pnrson is
.adopted. Jn thnt lnngung:c , th e instance ht!re gi vcn is, " Si tu et T ullia, \ 'B·
l~ti a, ego e t Cicero vn lemus.

·i
'

J

--· 88

- - --~i""llil---------

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

POSITION OF ADVERBS,

The words which admit of the greatest latitude, in this respect, arc
the relatives" which and whom; as,
"Millon is a poet fo I wlunn I much dcliglrl;" or,
"Millon is a poet whom I much delight I in."

RuLE XI. A<lverbs are usu·1JI
I <l
which they are inten<led to u~l/·PI ace close to the worcls '
q
} ' Jut whether they shoukl
precede or follow them
.
seems lo be regulat cl b I
except 111 the case of ad · .
. ' e Y l 1e soun<l,
prece<le.
~ ectiv es, which they generally

. Thu s we say "truly I wise,, "
.
.
e ith er" he wns graciously recci ~cd ,,erm.~ently I pious;" but we say
E11ougli is always placed ntle 1·1 ,d _or . he was received graciou~ly."
enough."
r sa JCCtive; as," The house is large I

Never commonly pre, d
.
ce cs a single verb, except be, which it follows; as,
" I-le never sings."
" \Ve are never absent.
Not only, not merely, urrd otlr cr adv b
.
•
arc placed so as cl early to . d' ' er s which nflcct whole clauses,
th~s ,
in tcate the clauses which they qualify;

He was received not on lY
ness."

I

. li courtesy, but treated wilh kindwit'

I 1.ecezve
· d willt
.

" Ile was not only
ncss."

courtesy, but treated with kind-

The foll owing collocation would b .
"Ile was not only received with e rncorrccl:" He was rcceil'cd n~t onl
. l courtesy, but wilh kindness."
Y Wtl l courtesy, but treated with kind.
ness."
I

RULE XII. A<lverbs, when em I t" 1
.
sentence aml be sep~rateu fr
) 13 ica • may 111trod uce a
rom tie wor<ls whicl1 they are
intended tu qualify; ;s,

"How cornplclcly .I I'"
· passro
· n ha s Llindcd him."
"Up J o • ti
Tl .
g. C> IC po11dcro11s dra wLridgc"
lls pos1l1on of adverbs i
. ii .
and interrogative sentences. s rno>t rcquenlly found in exclamatory

RuLE XIII. The preposition is
II
. .
atellj before its ob1'ect· but 't . I genera y place<l zmmedi,r.l · .
•
1 1s a so nol unfreq
ti
1
(!1•er it, and even at a co11si<ler·1ble 1· t
f. nen y paced
\V
.
'
' is ancc rom it· th

c rn ay c1t hcr '"Y "for I
l
d
'
ns,
or "Such conduct I am at a I sucti co n uct I .arn nt a loss to account"
.
oss o nccou ut ior."*·
,
.. The. rracti cc of sepn rR t i n ti

:1~~1;~ ~~~~~~ ~ but ohvimrsly

'

1 11

..
1

f !,!;u~~ ~ i ~~ tt~~~ 1 r1r171~~ its, ohjcct i~con~lcm ncd by
1
frn11~,~~st~!~~~~li1n,'11!11~ns1t?
~vi th the o~igi11a l id71?.~1 o~~Yo~sr ~~1a practice

on qc ncrnl prin cipl es

0 1

T/ ".•

tw ee n a \le rl.J or no111; ns

H :l r u ' ·"·

colloqurn l di sco urses but it. nf'fingc,. as
being expr essive' of th HI ' e _c r1s1blc

i:~ prc ~os1twn

1
close ly conn ec tcll with the ru::.:i'~:~~ ~~ ~

------~

or
1 ~{"o~n.nttcr.
IC

POSITlON OF CONJUNCTIONS .

RuLE

XIV. The position of conjunctions varies accord-

ing as they connect sentences, or merely parts of sentences .
Such conjunctions na than, if, though, although, that, when, lest, unless, &c., which connect clauses to which they refer; ue,
· "The Tweed is larger titan I the T eviot."
" Thougl1 J he slay m•, yet I wi.ll I trust in him."
"Let him that stnndclh take heed lest I he fo ll."
The position of conjunctions which connect sentences, is different,
according as they consist of one syllabic, or of more than one syllable. ·
•
Monosyllabic conjun ctions with the exception of then, arc placed nt
the beginning of the second sentence; as,
.. "Tho orntor was received on his entrance with great applause, great
' expectations having been formed of him. But when he began lo speak
there was a general feeling of disappointm ent."
· · "The company of profligate young men is perilous lo your wellbeing. See, then, that you carefully avoid it."
Conjunctions of ·more than one syllable, with the exception of
whersas, which is never transposed, may be tran sferred to one or more
places from tho beginning of the sentence, nccording to the preference
of Round; as,
·
. • "The castle is strongly fortifi ed, and full of brave and veteran
troops. Its governor, moreover, is the hero of many a well.fought
field. A stout nnd strenuous resistance is therefore lo be anticipated ,
It were abject cowardice, and pure folly, however, for Dritons to doubt
of ultimate success."
EXERCISES ON ARRANGEMENT.

Distinguish which of the following sentences is arranged
conventionally and which rhetorically:.-

POSITION OF PREPOSITIOSS.

ap11cnr s

89

EXERCISES IN COn!POSl'fION,

i~/::s~~~."is

prono11n as
b;;
~hen the formcr1 there ·

The red artillery flash ed far.
Far flashed the red artillery.
1 These fires shall glow still redder,,
Redder still these fires shall glow

I

. fore, is scpnrated fr om the 1atter hy intervenmg words, as often happens, the
!ipcnkcr or writer is rcducefl to the a lt e.rnath1 e either o f making the preposi·
tion follow it( subjcct, in which cnse it must he detached from ite object, or ot'
making it precede its object , in which case it must be de tached fr om its su b
jcct. The choice, in itse lf arbitrary , cnn onl y be determin ed in the ins tanco
of an}' pnrticular lan guage hy custom ..-Pidc Campbell 's Philosophy of Rhcto .
ric. b. iii. c. 4, furn full nnd satisfactory tli scusi;i io n of t he point .
•It is worthy of re mark, th:it th ough the re lat ive tha.t does not admit a pro·
posit ion he for e it , it admits it at some distan ce after it. Thus though we ca nnot say " He is the same man with that you are acquainted," we cnn say" He
is th" same man that you are a cquainted u;it!t ."

;·I

90

'·

STRUCTRUE OF SENTENCES.

H ave you sold your horscl
!!ad he told 111c in time, I would have gone with him.
I here appears to uc a mi stake
''. I will . not ag ree, " replied he: and departed.
F allen is thy throne, O Is rael!
~!Y so n, if sinn ers enti ce thee, consent thou not.
1 hy threat•, thy mercy I defy!
So a ble and excell ent a man has seldom appeared. th~~rtunate beyond his fellow is the man who has had n pious mo.

Point out in the following sentences, the conjunctions which
connect sentences and those which connect onllj parts
qf sentences; also the sentences and parts of sentences
which they respectively connect.
I go to prepare a place for you. And if I go to prepare a place for

Down came th e blow.
On they 111arch regular as rolling water.
Onward sw eep t/1e varied nations.

Correct the in!prop~r collocation qf the wor~ls in italics in
theJ ollowing conventional sentences:p;stimatc d is the ]JOpulation of J erusalem nt twenty thousand.
I here 11w1111ta~ns arc arn und about J erusalem.
l'.hc master /us "PJ>rentice dismi ssed, without a reason assigning.
Y.ou me rc•pect do not lny friend despise.
·
H e. is a ~o deserving boy, that th ere no f ear is of his success in life.
't ~liVrntcr is over and come has spring; tliat with its tlowcrs this with
I s rosl.
t
Ri se n is tlir. sun; it i ~ time for me and you to leave onr beds .
_John and you are defeated; me and Robert the judges declare to be
winn ers.

·1:110 ho use belongs to my brother, which is built of brick.
:f./'e book belongs to th e master, which contains so many fin e stories
I a ~c ~ill n ge s tands on the hill, which has t!t.e fine steeplr.; tho vii:
If~ is m th e vall ey, whence the curling smnke asce nds.
1 he vale of the Twe_cd is he_autifol exceedi r1gly.
Ile not on l'f, ca me w1tlwut his carriage but without his servant.
N,ot mcrefy i s she yo ung, but bea utiful.
1~te Cll l/ I S l! Ut 011/y fiac, but the river on which it stands.
He kept buck not only part of the truth; he uttered positive false.
I10ods .
Y o u ne ver arc in tim e for schno
Tlie lesson is rnoug h long.

·I

91

EXERCISES IN CODIPOSITION.

Tran spose t/i.e prepositions in the.following ;entences, in
as many ways as the sense will admit:It is a fo~ t about whi ch m ~n now rarcl_Y diffe r, th<ot th e paper mill
and th'.3 pnnt1ng press nre mvcnllons )or which we cann ot be too
tha11kful.
OJ my roving course of life I h;id long ngo repented; lmtfrom the
love of tra vel I could not fr ee my mind.
For all that y ou thi11k, and spea k, and do, you must at the last day
account.
To yo u I ofl ha •·e of my lot compl ained.
Su ch base co nd o.c t the very slaves whom you yesterday parted witli
would have bee n d1, gru ccd by.

you, I will come again and receive you to myself, that where I am
there you may be also.
L et us iu>t say we keep the commandments of the one, wlten wo
break the commandments of the other. F"or, unless we observe both,
we obey neither.

If there's a power above usA nd that there is nil nature cries aloud
Through all her works-he must delight in virtue.

It is of tl1e utmost importance to us, that we associa te principally
with the wise and virtuous. When therc.[fre, we choose our companion s, we ought to be extremely cautious in our selection.
\Vitbout love to God the enjoym ent of him is unattain a ble. N ow,
as, that we muy love God, it is necessa ry to know him; so, that we
may know him, it is necessary to study his works.

Transpose the conjunctions in the following sentences.
You have disregarded my counsel then take the consequences.
The city was but ill provided in th e mean s of defence. However,
it made a vigorous resistance to the bes iegers.
'l'he river is broad and dee p, and may not be crossed without peril.
It ·i.s moreover swollen by the melting of the mountain snows.

Convert by transposition the following rhetorical sentences
into conventional sentences.
Though fickle be our climate and deform ed with drippin g rain s our
scnsons, yet our sullen skies and fields without n flower I would not
exchange for warmer France w ith all her vi nes.
My fields you may set on fire, and my children give lo the sw ord;
myself you may drive forth a housclcss, childless beggar, or load with
tho fotters of slavery; but the hatred I feel to your oppression never
can you conquer.
Deep in the ocean has sunk her husband beloved. Ile thou her
comforter, who art the widow's fri end!
I On came the evening. The re was over all the land deep sil ence;
and though the sun in murky clond s went down, yet that he would not
rise at morning dawn in wonted brilliancy, none dream ed. Ilnt not
long were men thus ke pt in suspense. Defore midni g ht were hea rd
over all the district unusual noises. 'l'hc ocean became agitated with.
out nny apparent cause; down fe ll the min in torrenls--a perfect deluge.
The ground heaved; the hou ses and trees shook: up sprang a
tremendous hurricane; quick darted the lig htning. And with pale
lips man whispered, "An earthquake! an earthqu ake!" The ea rth.
quake it was: and that night the city of the Peruvians ceased to be.

l
:i

92

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

93

The earth to thee its incense yields
The lark thy welcome sings,
\Vhen, glittering in the freshened field~
The snowy muHhroom springs.
'
Here, in a _shrine that cast a dazzling light,
Sa_te fixed in thought the mighty Stagyrite.
His sacred head n radiant zodiac crowned
And various animals his sides surround. '
Virtue
Matured inclines us up to God nnd heaven
By law ?f ~weet compulsion strong nnd sdre;
~· grantat10n to the larger orb
'I he less attracts, through matter's whole domain.
Upon thy motl1cr's knee, a new born child
'Veeping thou s11.t'st whilst all around the~ .smiled·
So live, that, sir~king into death's long sleep,
'
Calm thou may st smile, whilst ull nround thee weep.
Of man's firs! disobedience and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, who~c mortal taste
Ilr?ught death into ~he world, nnd all our wo,
'V 1th loss of Eden, till one greater Man
R.estore u~, and regain the blissful soat,
Sing, Heavenly Muse! that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed
In the beginning, how the heavens and earth '
Rose out of chaos.
Such music (as 'tis said)

Before was never made·
Ilut when of old the ~ons of morning sung
\Vhile the Creator great
'
His constellations set,
And the well.balanced world on hinges hung!
l{now, God is every where·
Not to one narrow partial spot confined
Not, not to chosen Israel; he extends '
Thr~ugh all the vast infinitude of space.
At lus cor.nmand the furious tempests ri8eThe blastmg of the breath of his displeasure·
He tells the world of waters when to roar '
And, .at his b_idding, winds and seas arc c~lm.
In Hun, not man arm of flesh I trust·
In Him, whose promise never
lias failed.

yet

SECTION XVI.
PUNCTUATION,

IN speaking or reading a sentence, various pauses are
·· made for the purpose of making the construction antl meaning more distinct to the hearer.
Punctuation is the marking of these panses, by points indicative of their length.
The principal points are the Comma (,), the Semicolon(;), the Colon(:), and the Period(.).
· The Comma represents the shortest pause, and is often
used to mark the constructiou where very little interruption
of voice is allowable.
The Semicolon ·marks a longer pause than the comma,
and separates clauses less closely connected.
The Colon marks a longer pause than the semicolon, am\
indicates a still looser connection between the clauses which
it separates. ·
The Period, or foll point, is used at the end of a sentence,
to indicate that it is completed.
It i~ often said that a semicolon marks a pause double that of n
·comma, nnd a colon a pause double that of a semicolon. But no precise rule can be given on this subject. The length of the pause indi'catcd by the same point is different in different sentences; and the
proportion between the different points is by no means uniform. Besides, pauses are sometimes necessary in reading and speaking where
usage docs not warrant the insertion of any point.
· .··. 'fho insertion or omission of points is, in many cases, very much a
. ~- ' · mutter of taste. But there arc certain situations to which custom has
' ~·" ;.,, , . ." assigned tho use of particular points.

.' I .

.

.

':'.1.
i -

conmA.
· ~. l. ~Vhen · a simple sentence is long, the subject and predicate .consisting each of a number of words, a comma may,
for the sake of distinctness, be placed between them; as,
"To be constantly employed in laudable pursuits, is characteristic
of a wise man."
In general, a simple sentence does not admit of any point except the
period; as,
"Diligence is essential to our success in lifo."

2. \Vhen two or more words, whether nouns, adjectives,
9

--· -'

~ -·-4---·-

i'

94

S'j:RUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

pron.ouns, verbs! or adverbs, are connecte<l without the connect111g wor<l bemg expressed, the comma supplies the place
of that word; as,
:: Master, mistress, chil.drcn, and servants, were all in the coach."
"Alfred ~vas a brave, pious, and patriotic prince."
"Happ.)' is th~ man who honors, obeys, and enjoys God."
Send 1t to him, her, or me."
".You should seek afier knowledge steadily, patiently nnd perscvcnngly."
'

;·

3 . .flbsolute, relative, and, in general, all parenthetical
clauses, are separated from the other parts of a sentence by
commas; as,

I

I,.

:jf

::::heir general bei.ng kill ed, th~ arm~ flccl."
J he elephant, winch you sa w rn the rncnngerie look the child up

·~

with his trunk into his c:1gc."

-·I

regular."

'

"The tem perate man'• pleasures nrc durable, because they urc
"The yious man, even when persecuted, is the happy man."
"Providence has, I think, displayed a ten derness for mnnkind.'
" Paul, the great Apostle to the Gentiles, saw our Saviour in a vision
at mid-day."
" ·while the brideg room tarried, they nil slumbered and slept."
"The gulf, or bay, is dangerous."
" Th e sciences, afler a thou sand indignities, retired from the palace
of Patronage."

.·!

4. The. modifyin~ '~ords and phrases, may, however,
in short, at least, and the like, are
us ually sepnrated by commas.
5. Words d enoting the person or object addresse<l are
separated by commas; as,
"l\ly tears, 0 Ryno, arc for the <l end."
"Whercrorc, sirs, be of good cheer."

hence , besules , finally,

Q. A worJ or phrase emphatic~lly repealed is separated
by commas; as,
"A gainst thee, thee only, hnvc .I sinned."
"Turn ye, turn ye, why will ye die?"
7. The words of :rnolhcr writer cited, but not fnrmallv
introduced as a quotation, are separated by commas; as, ·
" .I pity th e man who can !ravel from Dan to Beersheba, and cry
' tis all barren.' "
8. 'Vords an<l clauses, though closely conn ec te<l in construction, are often ~eparated by a comma, when contrast
or opposition is expressed, as,
"Prosperity gains fri ends, and adversity tries them."
"He was learned , but not pedantic."

'

'•

~1 --

95

EXERCISES IN COJ\IPOSITION.

"'l'hough deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet nol dull;
Slron.g, without rage; without o'crtlowing, full."
9. When the absence of n woro is indicated in reading or
speaking by a pause, its place may be supplied by a comma;
as,
"From law nrises security; from security, inq~ry; from inquiry,
knowledge."
.
"To err is human; to forgiv e, divine."
Slrnl!COLON.

1. When a sentence consists of two parts, th e one containing a complete proposition, and the other a<lded as an
·inference or to give some explanation, the two parts are
separated by a semicolon; as,
"Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a lilll c, than to
outlive a great deal."
"The little, blcnk farm, sad and affecting in its lone and extreme
·- simplicity, smiled like the paradise of poverty; when the lark lured
thither by some green barley field, rose singing over the solitude."
2. 'When a sentence consists of several members, each
constituting a distinct propos ition, and having a dependence
i1pon each other or upon some common clause, they are
separated by semicolons; as,
"'Vis<lom hnth buildcd her house; she hath hewn out her seven
pillars; she hath killed her beasts; sho huth mingled her wine; she
hath also furni~hed her table."
COLON.

1. When a sentence consists of two parts, the one so complete in itself as to admit a full point, and the other containing. an additional remark, depemlin g upon the former
in sense, though 11ot in syntax, the connection of the remark
with the prec~ding proposi1ion is indi ca ted .by a colon; as,
"Virtue is loo lovely and usefu l lo be immured in a cell: the world
is the sphere of her action."
· ' 2 .• \Vhen a sentence which consisls of an enumeration of
particulars, eaoh separated from the other by a semicolon,
has its sense suspended till the lasl clause, that clause is disjoined from the preceding by a colon; as,
"If he has not been unfaithful lo hi s kin g; if he ha s not proved a ·
traitor to his connlry; if he has never given cause for such charges
ns have been preferred against him: why then is he afraid lb confront
his uccuscrs7"

~; ·.,

!:JG

EXERCISES IN COlllPOSITION.

~·~1

STRUCTVRE OF SENTENCES.

97

~.

1-~ .!'

~"

t

~:I

~~

'!
"

,•<
:

,.:"'

i

I

r" !

'

i
iI

'l

"

PERIOD.

Besi~es ?eing used to mark the completion of a sentence
1 penocl is placed after initials, when used alone as D'
tie
D. for ~octor of Divinity; anu after abbreviations· 'as Lat.
fior 1_,atm .
'
•
The. other marks most commonly useu are the Dash(-)
t(l:e)poin/ ef Interrogation ( ? ), the point ef Exclamatio~
·, : anu the Parenthesis ( ).
1 he Daalt marks a break in the sentence or an abrupt
'

~m;u,

"If thou art he-but 0, how fallen!"

The poin~ <?f Interrogation is put after a sentence which
as !cs a quest1011; as,
" "-'hat is it that thou hast done?"

'
'i , •

The point ef Exclamation 1s used after suduen expressions of emotion; as,
"What an admirable piece of work is man'"

The Parenthesis is sometimes u;;ed .to enclose a remark
or clau~e not e~s~nti~I to the sentence in construction, but
useful Ill explarn111g It, or introducing an important idea; as,
"!Cnow then .this truth (enough for mnn to know)
'
Virtue alone 1s happiness below."
EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION,

Correct the erro~·s and supply the defects ef Punctuation
m lite following sentences:
COMMA,

1:he tear of so:ro~v, brings its own relief.
1 o be totally rnd1ffercnt to praise or censure is a real
defect in
c h aractcr.
Old; youn.g; _and middle aged; shared a common fate.
Homer V1rg1l and Milton, arc the great epic poets.
Health, u11d pence, a moderate fortun e an I 11 fl• fi. d
th? ,elcm o.nts ?' earthly felicity.
• '
cw nen s, .stun up
I rut~1 is '.''."and arlles~; simple and sincere; uniform nnd constant.
C:harity, hke the sun brightens all its objects.
•
'J/iey .took nw~y, their furniture clothes and stock, in trade
,Y bemg admired, nnd flattered we arc oflcn corrupted. •
1d he'.( sc~ out early; and before the close of day, nrrived at the place
o f es 11nat1011.
To prevent further altercation I submitted to the term
d
Hope the balm of life, soothes us under misfortune, s, propose •

A J>lacid spirit, is like a pure stream which reflects every object, in
its just proportions.
.
A man, who is of a perverse di sposition, will misapprehend and mis.
represent, the most innocent words.
To relieve the indigent to comfort the affiicted to reward the <lcserving, is a noble, and huuinnc employment.
The most obvious remedy, is to withdraw from their wicked society.
SEMJCOLON.

Straws swim u1wn the surfocc, but pearls li e at the bollo11~.
Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her opcrat~ons, that
she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve, that knowledge will always
be progi-essive; and that all future generations will continue to make
·discoveries; of which we have not the least idea.
Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship, hell, of fierceness
and animosity.
.
As there is a worldly happiness which God perceives to be disguised misery; us there ore worldly honors which in his estimation,
are reproach, so, there is a worldly wisdom, which in his sight is foolislmess. ·
COLON.

• The scriptures give us nn attractive representation of the Deity in
these words, " God i• love."
Do not flatter yourself with the hope of perfect happiness; thero is
.
no such thing in the world.
A Divine Legislator uttering his voice from heaven, an Alm ighty
Govornur strctchinCT forth his arm to punish or reward; these are the
· considerations, whi~h overcome the world; which support integrity nnd.
chei;k guilt.

Point the following sentences:
The pleasures habits and maxims of this world are oflcn most keenly
pursued by those who exclaim most loudly against them.
The grave says Solomon is never satisfied birth youth beauty learning titles and fame are all swallowed up by the insatiable toml>.
. To net the part of a father to those upon whose helpless years no
parent of their own ever smiled to rear up the plant that was left alone
to perish in the storm to watch and superintend its growth till it flourishes and brings forth fruit this is a noble and beneficial employment
well adapted ton generous mind.
' How little does he know of true happin ess who is a stranger to that
intercourse of good offices and kind affections which by a pleasing
charm attaches men to each other and circulates joy from heart to
heart.
· Listen with reverence to every reprehension of conscience and pre.
serve the most quick and ,accurate scnsihility to right and wrong.
If ever your morul impression.s begin lo decay and your natural ab-

9*

,; I

. ./'

.I

98

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES .

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

· bliss bending from their t~1ron cs ~o ?hcer thy departing soul and lo
welcome th ee inlo evcrlastrng hab1tal1ons.

horrence of guilt to lessen you have ground to dread lhnt the ruin of
virtue is fa st approaching.

Nut clothed in purple or fine linen s tood
The wilderness-a postle he was found
O'ercanopied by wild rocks fringed with wood
'Vhcre Nature's sternest scenery darkly frown'd
There stood the seer his loin s begirt around
\Vith outstretch'd hand bare brow and vocal eye
His voice with sad solemnity of sound
More thrilling than th e eagle's startling cry
.
"Repent repent" exclaimed "Christ's kingdom drawcth nigh"

F ast by the margin of a mossy rill
That wa nder'd g urg ling down a heath clad hill
An ancient shepherd stood opprcss'd with wo
And eye'd th e ocea n's flood that fo am'd below
Where gently rocking on the rising tide
A ship's unwonted form was seen lo ride.

Divide into sentences and point tliejollowing paragraphs:

"

l'or what purpose do these charming flowers come forth is it merely
to pl ~ase o~ir eye~ with . their brilli ant colors and regale the sense of
smellin g with their odonfcrous perfumes or is it to attract th ose numerous in sects whi ch swa rm among th em and riot nmidst th eir li11uid
sweet• that flow ers were des ign ed for both these purposes is appa rent
from tl1 e sensa tions whi ch we experi ence when we vis it the deli g htful
spots where th ey g row and fr om the nssiduous eagerness whi ch the
busy bee ev in ces in roaming from flow e r lo fl ower to extract their
ba l~n y juices but th_crc is anoth er and tlrnl a more important use to
wl11ch the fl owe ry tnbc may be made subserv ien t in Reason's cu r th ey
become prea chers th e upright philos1,pher of th e land of Uz nnd th at
devou_t ad mirer of th e works of N~ture David king of I srael both :akc
occas ion to compare our unccrtum tenure of human life to th e frail
o!'d per isha bl e slate of n fl ower the prophet l sn iah represents the lran sicnt _g lory of th e cr?w n of pride as being like one of these fad ing
bea uties and our Sav iour d~rnonst~atc~ llrntan important lesson against
too u11 x10us care and ngamst pndc in drcs. may be learned from a
right cons id erati on of these gay visitants "consid er th e lili cH how
th ey &" row th ey toil n?t neither do th ey spin an d yet I say unto you
that Solomon in nil l11s glory was not arrayed lik e one of these."
\Vhalcver be th y fea r if thou knowcst the truth the truth shall o-ive
thee reli ef have the terrors of gu ilt taken hold of th ee behold the bRedce mcr has borne thy si ns in hi s own body on the tree and if thou art
willing to fo rs" lrn them th ou ~now es t with cer taint.)C that th ry s hall
~ o t be remem bered in the judg ment against thee hasl thou with weep'!'.g eyes co1111111ttcd to th e g rave the child of thy affcctionRth e virtuous
1r1cnd of thy yout h or the beloved partner whose tender nllachm ent
li g htc11 cd the loa d of li fe behold th ey are not dead thou knowcst th :1 t
th ey lire in a better reg ion with their Sav iour and th eir God th at still
th ou bol dest thy pl ace in th eir remembra nce an d th at th ou shalt soon
m ee t th em again to part no more dost thou look forward with trcmbJi11g to th e days of darkn ess th at nre lo fo ll 0 11 th y•c lf when th ou shalt
lie on th e bed of sickn ess when thy pulse shall have beco me low when
th e cold damps hav e ga thered on thy brow und the mournful looks of
t.hy a ttendan ts have told th ee th at th e hour of thy de parture is come
to the mere natural man this scene is awful and alarming but if thou
art a C hri stian if thou kn owcst and oboycst the truth thou needcst
fea r no ev il the slrndows which hang orcr th e valley of death shall retire at lhy approa ch and th ou s halt see beyon d it th e spirits of th e just
nnd an inn u 111 crablc company of angels the IUtu re companions of thy

99

My name is Norval on the Grampian ~1ills
My father feeds hi s flock a fru ga l s wam
'Vhose con•tant care was to in crease his store
And keep his 011ly son myself at homo.
·
Th e purs uit I led
Till we o'ertook the spoil.encu111bcrcd foe
vVc fou g ht and conqu cr'd e re ~ sword w~s rlr_awn
An arrow from my bow had pierced th eir chtef
Who wore that day the arm s wh ich now I wear.

SECTlON XVII.
P

... ,

QUALITIES E SSE NTIAL TO A PERFECT SENTENCE .

A pnor~:R construction of sentences is of grea~ importance in eve ry species of composition: il is _th ~ fouml ation
of <.rood writincr, so that we cannot be too stnct 111 our attentio~ to it. ln° any subj ec t, if the se ntences be perplexed,
clumsy, or feebly expressed, it will not ?nly disgt~st the
read e r, but frequently destroy the elfect which the wntr.r 111tencled to produce.
··
.
It is impossible to lay down rulrs, _ wit!~ re~ard to the pr~­
cise len crth of sentences; a short per10<l 1s li vely and forrnliar, anJ likely to he remembered: bu~ a ~ong period, if
clea rly e xpressed, requirin g more a lten tt on, 1s calculated to
make a more grave and sole mn impr_ess ion. W:ithoul much
attention, writers and speakers are liable to e rr m both these
respects. lly means of. too many ~hort sentences, the sense
is divided aml broken, uie co11nectt0n of thought weakened
and th e memory burd ened. On the other hand, long sen·
tence! fati<rue the reader' s or hea rer's attention. If a writer
is fully m;s ter of his subject, he sh.ouhl, am_l he will study a
cine mixture of lonrr anti short penmls , wl11ch pre vents an
irksq me uniformi ty~ and entertains the mind with a variety

I '
.,

~II

·I

100

EXERCISES IN CO~IPOSITION,

STRUCTURE OF SENTEJSCES.

11
~i
f!

of impres~ ions. Long sentences sh onld never be laced at
the bc.g111n111g ~f compositions of any descriptiow thrremlcr;8
?llen.t1011, and, if poss ible, his interes t must be e~cited before
sentenc e ~
a pe1so n ventures u11011 lonrr
Tl te properties_,
·
· 0 to Ul air," essential to a perfect
according
~tUle n ce ~re the four followin g: CLEARNESS and PRECISION:
NITY.-S·rnE NGTH ; and HARMONY.

HuLE II. ·words, expres~ive of things connecte<l in
thought, should be placed as near each other as possible.

SECTION XVIII.
CLF.AltNESS AND PRECISION.
EvERY Lleg~·e~ of ambiguity' ariisng from want of clear;.1es s and prec1s1~n, should be avoi<led with the greatest care·
icnce
of observin"o exac
tly tl1e, ru les. o f "ram-'
· · thIe ·1.iecess1ty
I
·
1na1, ba1H 111 t 1e arr;rn ge ment of sentences • tlio~e
1° au d
1
- wons
. t I1e seut11. c111
. ers mos t nearly re lated should be Pl·.1ce1 I 111
c1H.c, as uea r each other as possible so as t0
l
l .
ma rn t 1e1r
mutu.ll relation manifest.
'
·

RuLE Ill. The relative pronouns should be so placed in
the sentence as to leave no doubt respecting the antecedent
to which they refer.

:1
•I
i

'·

~!:1
fl

I
I

.

·~

q

,,I

1
I

I\
t~

rl
.,
;:

,.
·,

..; , ff
'I'·

', 1;
l;1
,.,
,.
..

11,

RuLE I. Ad~erbs aud qualifying phrases should be placed
as ne~r as possible lo the words of which they qualify the
meanrng.
Thi s rule '""already bee n illustrated t 0
t ·
n ccr am extent und~ the
hcacl of Arrange11teu/.
l. " Co me lo 111 c only with your lessons ,, Tl . .
·'
. IC Im prope r collocation
of the adverb only in thi s
1 0
writer directs hi s Jl~pil lo cm~~~,~~ ~ j_~cl~~~~
doubtfu l_ whether the
ot he r person, or lo come to him for no ti
or m•lru cl1o n and to no
sons. [n th e former case he should S<L o ,:~purpose but rec ite. his Jes.
lcssone." In the latte r c·isc " C
.tv,
o1 n_cl only to me with your
2 'l'I R
, '
omc o me w1l 1 yo ur less n
I "
.
te omans nnd crstoo<l libe rt ' at lea I
o son y .

t

1

m ay mea n, that the R oma ns, in

w11.~t~vcr ~1'' asll\\~cll
l

as we."

'!'hi s

und erstood the nature of liberl1
· II
sc icy were dcfie1cnt,
understood the nature of Jiliert ~~as
we; or th at the Rom ans
th e latter lo have been tho ,,,Y
1·1'ter:"' as ~r ett,er than we. Supposing
s mca mnrr t 10 w d
I Id I
ee n arranged thus: "The Roma
d .b
. or s s iou
iuvo
b
least, as we."
ns un c1stood, liuerly, us well, at

zte ab

i I
l'

EXERCISES.
llTrile a f ew sr.nlcnces introducinrr inf
l ,r l
lowi ng adverbs or adverbial 7i/11·ast~ lak~11":c' oJ t iem one of tlie folto express the 111 errninrr clea.rl1
o'11 I {'I 0Cl// e to place them so as
truly , in short, in fin r. 'i ndeccl !Ire. all Y1;." t a st, clJi efly, essential ly ,
·
•
• • y, c ice ua 11y on ti
I 1 ·
'? w 10 1c, Ill tho
Ica st, in the ma in, un<lou btcd lv, great! a . bl
r~'.' ~, politely, cleverly , cha rn;ing ly, /.;ch~:.~f1~gl~'1 ~.~;;,~~!'.'~ t" ~cn~­
~~r,~;bc~'::f.~~{,;f;~ly, preci sely, concisely, briefly, brillia~tl~, yhou~~i~

101

"The bailiff cam e into the room impatient, like n tiger who is nc\•cr
satisfi ed with any thing short of the blood of the vict im on which he
cir.lig hts to fea st, to secure his prey." In order to render tl1e mean·
ing of this sentence clear, the words following feast should he placed
immediately aflcr i111patient . The senten ce, as given ubove, may
~cem rather cxtrnv ngu ntly distorted; but it is not more so than many
which wo daily meet with, in the productions of careless writers who
figure conspicuously in the light literature of our own times.

This rule.has been sufliciently illustrated under the head of Affange-

m cu!.

•

RuLE IV. Avoid the ambiguity which arises from using
the personal pronouns too frequ ently in the same sentence.
" Th ey were summon ed, occasionally bv th eir kings, wh en compelled
by their wtmts an<l by tltei1· fears, to have recourse to their nid."

RuLE V. Avoid the use of equivocal words, or those
which convey more or less than the precise meaning intended.
Many of the words in our language nre susceptible of a double
meaning; and it is considered an offence ngainst good taste to place
them in such n situation ns to leave th e rcudcr in doubt respecting the
sense in whir.It they nre to be received.

RuLE VI. A void the use of low, inelegant or vulgar
words; of expressions which excite unpleasant associations;
of technical terms and foreign idioms.

· "The king soon found reason lo repent him of his provoking such
dangerous enemies.''-I:lu111e.
"I had as lie} say a thin g aflor him as niter anothcr."-Lowth.
"Nor would he do it to 111aintain debate, or show his wit; but plainly
tell me what stuck with liim."-Barnet.

' EXERCISES.
Correct the f ollowing scnte11ccs, in each of which there is <1
violation of the mlcs of pers11icuity or preci sion.
' Sixtus the Fourth wns, if I mistake not, n great collector of books
at least.
By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single obj ect, but
th e largeness of a wh ole vi e w.
_
May we not conj ecture, for it is but co nj ecture, something more.
Thi s kirid of wit was very mu ch in vogue amon g our cou ntrym en,
about an age or two ago, who did not practise it for any oblique reason,
but purely for the •ake of hcing witty.
Solomon, the son of David, \vho built the temple, was a wise man.

I

:•

102

EXERCISES IN COMPOSl'fION.

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

S David, the father of Sol
a11I, was a g reat wurr' OJnon, who was the immcd ' I
.
Uavul, tlic ki11g of 1'·u~.
.
ia c Successor of
harp.
sracl, who wrote the p l
sums, played upon the
\Villi am P en 11 ti
P
• ie son of Ad ·
ennsyhoania, recci1•cd Jiis cliar1:~1~~~~1;~;·~· lwho was th e found er of
iar cs the Second,

, ,

must always beso m

cessary.
.

c~i~:;~ 0~fti~~illlect101~ between tJ~e :~~~~~ 1 f:~iici~>le to form

',,

,,;-

l.~

t:
·'

f•

-.'

1

cl

u E

th:o1~:~~t~

I. ~he scene, th e sub'

'.~n".ed as

little as possibl e .

~ ect and

.
the person should be

Aft cr we ca in e !
I
welcom ed uy ali
o. unc ior, tl1ey put me o
h
ness." Correct my friend s, who rece ived rne n' . s ore, where I was
put on shore led it sta nds thus: "lhvi11
"ith the greatest kind
"co me to a
1
.
, w 1crc I w· .
'
with the greates t IUll(
. I IJ CS
''"8,,we1comcd uy
uiy Ii·:
n anc ior, I .was
I JCIHf s uu<l
RULB II. Never .. .
.
•
received
l
CIOWd llllo one ~
l1ave so
into t
Ill e con11eclio11, that th e
.enle n ce, things !h a t
y can bear to be divided
" wo or lllore sentences.
He was excccdin I I
.
l\fary, who nominal
ic!ol'cd. both by Kin \V "ll'
lwu." 'l'his s hould coli . ' · I'e1Hrrsson, lii shop ~f L.' iam and Qu een
vwu sly be divided i11to tw rn culn, lo s ucceed
plmnce with tir e rul
c.
o sentences in com

utt

r

;'
:.i'.
~:

...

.J b.

HuLE IlL Parenthc ,
middle JJf sentence:cs ~~gl1t not tu be introduced into
wnl e rs a t present is lo • . dee d th e prac tice of th
ble, wherever
as much as
"\Vh
ti
.
eat mg obi ect.
en JC par/in rn c t
J
sc n ·a ti on, that uoth I " sa t dow n (for it dcscrv
our particular obmcnt, and of rescntn11ou~cs w:re full of zeal. for
one pa ~ty in parliam c~1:. ~ga1nst th e late us ur >ati~1e• present governthe uatwn." It . [J . ' and no othe r part' l l '·,) _there was but
is o v1 ous how completely diccou _d ra ise its head in
unity of this sentence

th ~

perspicui~;~~lapi'1re1l~theses.

epo~~~~

c:,

EXERCISES.

a

C'iple amon ,' tl~~H . t_1 e re must be th e same lcoparls _of every
stric1est unfty is p,u Ls_. In a single sentence n~ec1rng prmi111plies one >
re_qu 1red; for the very nat 'a ove all, the
p a n s ; hut t1i1ero•pos1_t1011 Lo be expressed. I~re ~fa sentence
us to
. .
s~ pal Ls ought to be
.
m ,iy consist of
of
an impres sion upon
bound together,
Ti . fi
.
one Object, not
le ollow1110' ar D
u11~~~Lof a s.e~1te~c~ . e r. Ulair's rules for preserving the

lll<:~;'.'e

their natural close.
S wift in speak ing of the writings of Cicero. says, "With these
writings, young divines are more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, by many deg rees, excelled the other; at least as an
The natural dose of the sentence is al the word other; al this word
the sonso was complete, un<l the s ucceeding clause wus quite unne-

UNITY.

~ llBRE

is destroyed by the parenthesis. The remedy is a complete remodelling of tho whole into two or more sentences.
RuLE IV . Sentences ought never to be extcn<letl beyond

orator."

SECTION XIX.
cl

103

Change the form of the following sentences, so as to give
them greater unity ~by using the nominative case absolute instead of the conjunction; thus:
"My ·horse was saddled and I took a short ride," may be changed
to" My horse having been saddled, I took n short ride."
My fowling piece was taken down and cleaned, and I then shoul'
dered it and rnmlilcd out into the wocds.
A covey of partridges flew up before me; and I brought down two
of them at u single shot.
A beggar came to the door and I gave him some ml)ncy.
I was walking alone this morning, and met a gentleman, and he
came home to breakfast with me.
Henry was negligent and the monitor reported him .
The lion lay couch ed in a thick covert and a traveller passed by and
the lion s pru11 g upon him and killed him .
The ga rden was bcautifull y laid out a nd its appearance was very

I

i .

inviting.

R estore the unity of thefollowi11 g di~jointed sc11tc11ces by
·
making one principal agent in each; thus:
'
"As I came into the house, my urothcr met me and gave me my
cloak, n11d my sister found an u111brclla and brou ght it to me and then
the coach came just in time fo r me to sta rt." Altered to" Coming
· into the house I was m et~by my brother with my cloak and by my sister
,with an umbrella, which I received just in time lo save my passage in
the coach."
I took a walk this morning; my sister was with me; and just as \\"C
c1me to the bridge, a horseman met us, who spurred his horse as we
passed and the horse was nea r run11ing over us.
· The travellers landed on the shnrc; th e Indians came down to welcome them; nnd brought the son of their king, who offered the hospitality of his fath er's residence, which they willin gly accepted.
James joined hi s regiment; but the ofliccrs of his mess were unfriendly lo him; and a quarrel soon took place in which an ensign
· offered him a gross insult.

;~
IJ

i

li t

104

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION,
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

105

the strongest impression. This depends on the nature of
the composition; and the kin<l of sentence which is used.
For illustration of this rule the pupil is referred to Section
SECTION

XX.

STRENGTH.

THE strength of a sentence co

r

. I .
.
1:1 such a disposition
full_y to impress th e mind of. th'e a: .s ta I t~nd most po"'.erea~l~r Wiii~ th~ meaning
wl11ch the author intends to co
"t .
nvey.
0 attain tl11s
r
I is necessary to pay attention to the fioll
.
I qua Hy,
Ru
I A
owing ru es
LE •
sentence ou11l11
to be d "
d f
·
0
wor<.ls and clauses.
iveste 0 all redundant

Of its several words and clau<es nSIS

of ~i.•¥eing content with deserving a triumph he refused the honor

2. "Never did Athens succeed belt 111
.
. .
an? esteem of all men."
er
gammg the universal love
fhe 1~ord being, in the first
I
0
the second, one of_·the words in j~~17c:ns~~~u!~ ~"'~ re omitted; und, in
express the same idea.
e e t out, because they
3. "How many nre th ere b wh
I
. .
om t iese ttdmgs of good news
were never henrd1" 'fl . . y
. .
·
11s 1s TAUT01 oor The
"t
.
wri er in1g ht as well
sny t1dmgs of tidings or news f
· .•
thus: "By whom these good
news. 1t would be better expressed
ti
.
' ings were never l1eard."
4 "Tl
. .
le very rst discovery of it strik • ti
.
.
Joy, an_d sprea ds delight through nil its fie, I . 1: ,:mnd with inward
clause 1s redu ndant.
acu lie, .
H erc Ilic second

t"d·

RUL E II. In construPting a
I
.
is to be paid to the pro.per ,. sen _e_nce, rart1cula~ attentioa
tives, &c. The sr1 litting ~·~~os111,011 o copu la_llvrs, rela..
o parl1c es, or refernn1r of t
prepos111011s to the sa me noun is to be avoi<.led.
.,
wo

u '"f hong h virtue borrow s Til'J assisfnnce f.
.
,: om, Y. ct it may often be
nccompa11i ed Llf, the advantages f r
1
wr
unc.
H
ere
we
.
I
.
o
nrc put to a
s Inn d ITl t 10og ht, bciug obliged lo rest 11. 111
1
by it sc If' w J11c
· lI Jlas no significancy !"IIa . . eo
d n l •e prcposit"ion Jirom,
governs.
' 1 JOlll C lo the noun which it
\ Ve should not omit tl 1c relalivc· ns in 11
r.
.
1. "Tl1e man I lovc:"-2 "Tl
ic ollow1ng Exmnplcs.
"The soldiers in the camp \~ere ~~epao:~~n~onsl we possessed." 3.
act."
'
or ie part th ey were lo
The c_o njun ctio!t and should not be fr,· ucn
_q
lly repented , except f. 1 r
th e purpose of giving ndditi oll"d e
in the fol lowi 11 g sen tence ., s'tiel . mp 1ins is .. 1ts repetition is proper
·
1amrn1111g 11t li II
· ·
but truth, nnd reason, and liberty, would foll witl~ 11 ~~'.~t1m to power;

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Ruu; IIT. The capital wore! or worcls ex ress·
main idea of th e scnlcuce shoulJ u
1· ' . P,
111g the
'
e so< 1sposeu as to make

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RuLE IV. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb,
preposi~ion or any other inconsiderable word . .

1. "ThP. other species of motion ore incidentally bl ended also."
2. "Every nature, you perceive,, is either too excellent to want it, or
too base to bo cnpablo of it."

RuLE V. In the members of a sentence, where two objects are either compared or contrasted, some resemblance
in the language and construction should be preserved.
"The wise man is happy when he gains hi s own npprobation; tl1c
· fool, wh en he recom mends hi mself to the applau se of tlwsc about him."
Detter thus: "The wi se mun is happy, when he gains his own approbation•; the fool, when he gains that of others.
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EXERCISES.

Correct the following sentences by striking out the redundant words or altering tlte form of Lit~ sentences, conformably to Lite preceding rules.
The voices of the people united unanimously in pronouncing him
the first man in the whole nati on.
i 8tarted from Philadelphia a11d when I got to New York, I got the
captain to get me n porter lo get my baggage, up to th e hotel for me;
and when, I got there I found no diffwulty in ge tting rooms.
The measure was considered and rega rded as a wi se, politic and
prudent measure.
\'\Then I turn the matter over in my mind and consider it fully and
carefully i.'1 all its bearings nncl relations and co nn ection s, J nm firmlv
fixed nnd resolved in my purpose of refo rmation and amendment. •
He seated himself und er th e umbra geous shade of a tree, by the
side of a clear, limpid slreurn .
Milton is a sublim e poet, Goldsm ith is a beautiful poet, and Moore
.js a voluptuous poet.
He was commanded tu release the pri•oncrs nnd let them go.
The absurd folly of his conduct and behavior, every where, upon
· · nil occasions, nt length excluded hini out of-all respectable society.
It is clcur nnd obvious that economy and frugnlity are necessary
for the acquisition nnd accumu lation of wea lth.
H e was universally res pected by ull hi s follow citizens.
This newspaper circulates generally nil over the country, and is disseminated in all parts of the land .
H e returned back again to tlic sa me town from whence he came
· forth.
'l'hc departure from, is mu ch easier than the return to, the paths of
virtue.

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EXERCISE_S IN CO~!POSITION',,

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

gc~ cf~~~n~~~~~-eubsisls between, nnd n strong nff'cction binds to\Vhal grand purpose is all this prcpnralion for?
\ Vhat a,ulhor is this line poem the production of?
' Vc h n' e h a~ a pleasant excursion very.
You have m1 sunclerElood me entirely.

which ' do not run either up on lon g or sh ort syllables, but
are co mposed of an intermixture of both.
In arranging the parts of a sentence , as well as in the
choice of words , observe th at whate ver is easy and ag reeable to the organs o f speec h, al ways sounds gn~te ful to the
. ear. 'Whil e a period is go ing on, the _te rmin at10n of e_ach
of its members forms a res t or pause Ill the pronouncm g, •
and th ese pauses should be so di stributed as to make.the
breathing easy, and, al the same tim e, should foll at such
di s tances as to bear a so rt of mu s ical proportion lo each
oth e r; but the rests should n ot be too num e rous, or placed
at intervals too m eas ured and regular, les t th e s ty le saYo r of
affec tation.
The close or cadence of th e whol e se ntence de mand s th e
greatest ca re , beca us e on thi s th e mind pauses and rests.
H ere eve ry hea rer and rea de r expec ts to be gra ti fi ed; h ere,
applause breaks forth. The rule to be obse r ved is, th at,
wh en we aim at dignity or elevation , th e so und shou!J be
m ade to grow to th e las t; the lon ges t me mbe r of the period, and the full es t and mos t sonoru us words s hould be
reserved for the co nclu sion.
Th e same rul e holds goo d in melody, whi ch h as bee n
already l aid dow n wi th res pec t to s ignifica ncy; a fa lling off is alw ays 1111 pleasa nt, and offends th e ea r.
In
general, a mu sical cl ose , requires eithe r the las t sy ll ab le, or
the las t but one to be a long sy llable. 13ut it s hould be ob- served that sentences so constructed as lo make th e so nnd
al ways s well and gro w towards th e end, g ives th e disco urse
a tone of declamation, which soon beco mes unpl easa nt to
the ear. The meas ures sh ould be fr eq uently va ri ed, and
short sentenl!es s hould be intermi xed with lung an d swelling ones,-to rend er the composition at once agreea ble and
impressive.
Though the mu sic of se nten ces d emand s co nsidernble
attention, ye t it must be kep t within bo u nds ; th ere mu st
be no affec tati on of h ~frmony, esp eci~lly if th e love of it
b etrny th e writer lo sacrifice p ers pi cuit y , precisio n, or
strength of se ntim e nt to so uml.
All unmeanin g wo rd s,
introduced merely to round a period, or comple te th e
melody, are justly regarded as blemishes in writing.

·

g~a~~~= ~~~l~~e~l ~:r ~~~cp~;~;;~cl~flJi~~. ~~~:~;~ of learning at nit

wnI~~c !n°~j1 ~~i~~·~vl~~~~<St1!~e.~ha~.l'. side of the hill, the chc.erful mnn

In pea
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spring toc~,:~~~vc~ry t 1c1r fathers; in war fathers follow their offI . . .
Sc lf esteem causes " mn n to seek his ow
a course of condu ct whi ch seems lik ely to 1nl npprotvla : vamty rnduces
•
> case o lC rs.

Divest the follo wing sentences of t!tcfr supeijluous an<ls
and other connectives.

I came home and brought with me n number f
.
books and di st ributed them amon u my litt le br0 ~l prettyd~o? amusing
.
b
icrs "tl-11 sisters, and
J ohn we nt into the gordcn and t l · I J ·
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ga th ered a ll the flowers .he could finSoa~~"'~ I "~t "1 l'ttlc. basket nncl
them to hi s mother.
roug 1 t 1cm rn nml gave
.
'l'li e vanqui shed citizens who had taken art in th
n?w terminated, were deprived of the rig!~·
l ' I etlwarl w~1ch had
l11 thcrto enjoyed; whi ch was consi dered a s w uc I iey 1U nlways
victors, which deserved the severest repro~a~~:~~ge on the part of tho
th e ir vi s itors.

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SEC TION

xxr.

HARMONY.

. To ~e~<le r our co mpositions agreeable, as w ell as intelliWble, 1t 1s n ecessary to pay so me attention to h armon
I'he word~ and. s~nte n ces s hould be so arranged as to r~~
du ce an efl ec t Sll11llar to that of good mt1s1'c 'I'! · . 1 pd
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us uepe n s
pai y up on t 1e choice of words, an<l partly upon ti
ra nge ment ?f th em. Those words are most agreea~fe al~
of smoot11 aiid 1·1qu1"d sou m ls
.th ed ea
· r, which
I · I are composed
1Iere IS a pro 11er inte r111ixt11re
.Ill
Ill w ll C I ·t.1
of vowe Is a nc1'
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co nson ants , wll 1out too many co nso nants clas hino- l
or too 1
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"' oge ier,
11
any
ope
n
vow
e
s
111 success io11
\trliate
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· • •
.ve r so n1ul s
.ire. c 1 1cu l .of pronnn c1a t1on, a rc in the sam e proporti on
hai s h a nd p amful to th e ea r · Vow els a1ld sof't ness, co nson ants strength,
to. th e so und of words·' the melocly of Ian .
gua.ge requires a Jll St proportion of eac h. Lon g words are
con 1111 on ly m ore agreeab le lo the ea r th an monos lhbles ·
a nd a mong wonls of any leng th , those are most ~n~sic~l

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rwuRATIVE LAJ>iGUAG!S.

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PART III.

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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

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SECTION XXII.

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GEl\"ERAL HEn!AR!{S ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

. A s!1.t0NG ar~d vivid !magination is nol, either in speakin
wr:t111g,. satisfied w1.th bringing before the hearer's o~
r:~rler s rnt~HI . all the c.'rcumstances immediately connected
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'\ .th the J?rrnc1~al subject, and placing them in a slriking
pornt of vrnw; .il borrows colors and forms from other obj ects, to embellish. and adorn the picture; this is done b
means of figw·at,ive lang_uag~. It is called figurative b!
canse the authors mea ning is expressed not by direct
ph!·~seology, .but und er the image of sometl;ing else.
·
I h~ assert1~11, that" _a ~ood man enjoys satisfaction and
!1ope 111_ the nrnlst of afl11cuon," is an observation expressed
Ill the s11n1~les t mann er ~ossibl e; but when it is said" That
~o th~ upn ght the~e anseth light in darkness " the same
idea. 1s expressed m fi.gura~ive language; that 'is, light is
put 111 the place of ~at1sfoct1011 and hope, and dai·lcness is
~rsed. to sug~es~ the idea of adversity. The Psalmist also,
11~ l11s ~ escn~lton of the virtuous character, makes use of
11g 111.v h g urat1ve language:
"H~ shall bP. like a tree planted by the riv ers of water
that b~111geth forth his fruit in his season; his leaf also ~hali
not wrthcr."
Though figures imply a deviation from what may be
r.eck~n ed th~ most simple form of speech, yet they ;re so
far '.1~m berng uncommon, th at on 1re ry many occasions
they.· ,11 e the mos~ natnral, and the most common method of
uttc1mg om sentim ents.
It is impossible to compose a
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tliscou1·se of any length without using them very frequ ently;
they occur even in didactic subjects.
The origin of figur es has , by som.e, bee n referred to the
poverty of lan guage; but by others, either lo th e sport of
fancy, or to the expression of passion or enthusiasm. At
any rate, and upon any theory, figures must be regarde<l
as an important part of that language which nature seems
tO dictate to man. They are not the result of long study;
nor the invention of schools; the most illiterate speak in
figures as often as the most le arned . Image ry, especially
that derived from nalnral objects, is employed by the rndest ,t
and most savage nations, not from necessity, but as a matter~
of cho ice. Specimens of this kin<l of ornament abound in
the speeches of our Indian ch iefs, and among the earl iest
· productions of the Arabians.
The oldest writings with
which we are acquainted, namel y , those which compose the
Scri11turcs of the Old T es tament, are full of figure s ; these
are deriv ed from those obj ects with whi ch, from th e time
and situation of their co untry and nation, the sacred w~iters
were most familiar.
Figures have been described lo be language that is
pron1pted either by the imagination or the passions. They
are divided into two great classes, viz. figures of words
and figures of thought. The former are called tropes, a
Greek term that signifies th e turning of a word from its
original meaning, and they consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original
and primitive me an ing, so that if the word be changed, the
figure is destroyed; thu s, in the passage already quoted,
"Light ariseth to the upright in darkness," the trope con·sists in the words light and darkn ess being substituted, the
one for satisfaction and hope , and the other for afiliction,
· on account of some analogy which they are supposed to
bear to these conditions of life. Figures of t!toug!tt suppose the wortls to be used in their proper and literal meaning; and the figure consists in the turn of thought, as is
the case in exclamations, interrogations, apostrophes and
comparisons. This distinction is of no great use, nor is
it of much importance, whether we assign to any particular
mode of expression the name of trope or fi g ure, provi<le<l.
we remember, that figurative language imports some coloring of the imagination, or some emotion of passion.
Ancient writers classed as tropes, the metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony; with them, figiwes were
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FIGURATIVE LAN GUAGE.

EXERCISES IN COllIPOSITION.

. employed to a<lvantage in orde~ to streng then the impressio.n
which we intend that any ob,1 ect s hould make. On tl11s
account, Cicero makes considerable use of iL in hi~ orations;
as in the second agains t Catiline : "On one s1<le stan<ls
mod esty, on the other impudence; on the one fidelity, on
the other der.eit; here pie ty, th e re sacrilege ; &c."
METAPHORS are the most common of all figures of s peech;
so much so, that when we say a thing is expressed figuratively, we refe r to the metaphor.
A m e taphor diffc rg from a simile in form only, uot in
subs tan ce : comparison is the fon.nd.atioi~ of both.
1!1 a
simile, the two subj P, cls arc ke pt d1 s t111ct m the expresswn,
as w ell as in the thou g ht; in a me taphor, th ey are kept distin c t in the thou 0a ht, but not in the e xpress ion. A hero res e mbl es· a lion; a nd upon that rese mbl a nce many similes
have been foundc1l by Horner ;iml oth e r poe ts. But let us
call in the aid of th e im ag in a ti o n, a ml fi gure the h.cr? to be
a lion, instead of only rese 111blin g one; b.y tl;at var~ a tion th e
simile is c!nlve rte1l in to a me t;i ph or; whi c h 1s ca rri ed on by
describing all th e qualiti es of the lion w.lti ch resemble those
of the hero. Th e p oe t, by fi g ur111 g hi s h e ro to ~e a lion,
proceeds to des:-ribe th e. l.ion in a ppea ran ce ; .bnt 111 real.1ty
he is all the while de scnb111g the hero; ;1.nd his dcscnptwn
becomes peculiarly beautiful, by expressing the virtu es and
qualities of the hero in tc rms ·whi c h properly belong not to
him but to the lion.
The uses of the m etaphor are to re nd e r the sly le more
strikin lf and anim a ted, by introdu cin g a ne w idea, in whi c h
0
for th c mom e nt th e ori rr inal see ms to be los t; to diversify
an<l va ry th e st y le, a 1~d reli eve it f~om that tedim1.s m~i­
formity whi ch would be the res ult o( a mod e of d1ct~on, Ill
whi c h e very w o rd was use <l 111 th e llle ral se nse ; an~, h.n all y ,
to enlarrre a nd ele vat e th e su b.1 ec t and bes tow d1 g111ty 011
compo s i~ion. Thus th e e xpress ion "D eatl1 <'p ares n eith e r
the ric h nor the poor," is low, when compared with the
beautiful lin es of Horace ,* express ive of the sam e i<l ea; thu s
translated into Englis h:

almosl innumerable. It is nol necessary to follow rhetoricians in all th eir several <listinctions, we shall very briefly
procee<l to treat of those forms of expression which are suug~sted .by the relation of res~ mbh~nce, conti guity, and cau~e
and eflec l. From .the relatwn o( resemblance proceed the
comparison or s1m1le, the metaphor, the all egory, and the
allusion.
'Ve tlo nol deem it advisable, b wa
~he pupil to manufac turing ·1 ures o s
i s 1c sen ences urn1s ie1 or Hs assi s tance . Figures being
the llatmal lan g ua ge ol pass10n or emotwn, should be used
only wh en pass ion or emotion prompts. We shall, therefore, me rely desc ri?e the more common fi gures, as concis ely
as possibl e , and g iv e th e rules by which th eir use is gove.rn ed a1~<l res tn c ted. Our only exe rcis es und e r thiH head,
will consi s t of a few passages, in whi ch the filfur
es occur
0
and in whic~1 th e pupil s hould be req11ire<l to point the1~
out. Ile will thus learn .to recognis e th e fi g ures as they
spont a neo usly flow from !11s pen, in \'l'riti1w; and will recolle c t. t!1 e principles which should regulate lt1 cir use in compos itwn.

SECTION

XXIII.

COMPARISON, ANTITHESIS, AND JIIETAPHOR.
CoMPARISON, or simile, is the first a1HI most natural of
rl~el?ri ca l figures. A young writer, in a ttemptin g to express

I,

his id ea s on a ny ?'oral or abstrn ct subj ect, fimls him self immedi ately prese ntin g .va rious obj P.c ts in th e na tural world by
way of compan son Ill orc.le r to e nforce and illu s trale his
vi e \\' s . Th e followin g are th e principal rul es with respect
to the use of compari sons.
l. Th ey should n ot be taken from common or vulgar
objects .
2._ Th ey ought nol lo be trite, such as comparing a violent
p ass 1011 to a te mp es t.
3: Th ey ought to be foun<led on a like ness, neith er too
obvious nor too re mot e.
~· Comparisons s houl<l not be drawn from an unknown
obj ec t, or one. of w!1i c h few people can form clear ide a s~
As comparison 1s found ed 011 the rese mblan ce, so AN:nnms 1s d ~ pcn t! s on the co ntras t or opposition of two obj ects . A11tithes1s m ay , there for e, Oil many occasions, be

111

"'Vith equal pace, impartinl fate
Knocks at th e palace, as th e collage ga le."

'·

The rules laid down with regard to m e ta phors are:
l .· They should be s uited to the nature of the subject of
whi ch we treat.
., r n11idn more requo pulsat pcdc pauperum tal>crnas , Re:gu1nqu e turres.

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" Ile scarce had ccas'd, wh en the s uperior fi end
W us moving towurcls the shore; his pond'rous shield,
Etherial te mper, massy, large, and round,
Behind him cast; th e broad ci rcum ference
llung on his shoulders li ke the moCln, whose orb
Through optic glass the Tuscn n urtist views
At cv'ning from t.h e top of Fesolc,
Or in Vuldurno, to descry new lands,
Rivers or mountains, in her s potty globe."-111ilton.

2. They shoul<l be neilher loo inany, nor too gay nor
loo elevate<l.
'
. :l. They shoul<l not be calcu latetl to raise in the mind
d1sagr ccable, mean, or vulgar i<l eas.
.
4. The res emblanee, which is the foundation of the metar!ior, s houl~ be clear aud perspicuous, not far-fetche<l nor
difficult of <l1scovery.
'
5. T1yo met;1rh.or? shoul<l never be made to meet 011 the
s.ame ohjec~. 1 his 1s. called a mixetl metaphor. Such is
Shakspearc s express1011, to " take arms arrainst
a sea of
0
troubl es, "
6. i\Ie taphors ought not to be crowde<l or heape<l u ~n
one another, nor should they be· pursue<l too far.
p

"There is n joy_ in grief ~hen peace dwells with the sorrowful . But
th ey are \~~fled with mour~rng, 0 daug hter ofToscar, and their da 5
are fe~v. 1 hey fall aw1~y lik e the flower on which the sun looks ln
lu_s s t1 cngth, aflcr the mildew has passed over it, and its head is heav
with th e drops of nig ht.-Osszan.
Y
. " \_Vh.l'. did not I puss uwny in secret, like the flower of the rock ti int
hl1s it~ fair bend un see n, and s trows its withered leaves on ti bl t?
-Ossw 11."
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" Man liveth only in him self; hut the Lor<! liveth in :111 things:
And his pervading unity qui ckc11ctl1 the w hole erea twn.
l\lun docth one thing ut once, nor can he think two thoug hts together
But God compnsscth all things, mantling th e globe like air."

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"Ca nst thou not minister to a mind diseased?
Pluck from the m e mory a rooted sorrow?
Rase out the written troubles of the brain;
And, with so me s weet oblivions nntidotc,
Clcnnsc the foul boso m of thnt ptrilous stuff,
That weighs upon the heart1"-Slwkspea re.

" Fir:d at first sight with what the muse imparts,
Jn karlcss youth we tempt the he ig ht of a rts,
'N 111 I ~ from t he bounded lc\'cl of our mind
S ho rt views we tak e, nor sec the lc 11 gths behind·
But "' ? re advnnc'd, Li7hold, with strange s urpri~e,
New d istant scenes of e ndless science rise!
So pl eas'd at first the tow'ring Alps we try
1Hou11t o'er the vales, and seem to tren d th~ sky'
Th' e te rnal snows appear a lready past,
·
And the first clouds and mounta ins seem the last·
Ilut, these allain'd, we tremble to su rvey
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~J:h~ . g r~ wi1~g labors of tl1 ? lengthened way:
J 1_1 111crcas111g p~o s pc c t tires our wnnd'ring eyes;
Ildls peep o'er lulls, and Alps on A lps arisc!"-Pope.

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"A man too careful of danger live th in continual t? rrncn'.;

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Dul a cheerfu l expectcr of the best hath a fountum of JOY w1thm
him:
.
Y ca, tliough the breath of disnppointrnent should chill the sangume
hea rt,
Speedily g lowcth it ngaln, warmed by the live embers of hope;
Thou g h the black and heavy surge closes above the h ead for a
mom ent;
. "
Y et the happy buoyancy of Confidence riscth superior to J?cspa1r.

111pper.

"Sh e n eve r told her love
Ilut let concea lm ent, like a worm i' t1 1'• bu ·l
F eed 0 ~1 her damask check: she pin'd in th~ught;
And w1tl_1 a g;c~ n and ye llow melancholy,
She sa t like I allcncc on u monument
Smili11g at Gricf."-Sliak speare.
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1'vpper.

EXERCISES.

E x amine
tltc .following
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. and point out ;n
' t'11.em,
eac t examp c oJ t11c vumpanson, the .8.ntitliesis and the
l11elaphor."

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FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

EXERCISES IN COJ\ll'OSITION.

SECTION XXIV.
ALLEGORY AND OTHER FIGURES.

is a continued metaphor, or perhaps more
correc tly, a series of metaphors in one or more se~Jte n c~s .
In the BOth P salm, a fine allegory occurs, commencmg with
"Thou hasl brought a vine oul of Egypt; thou hasl cast out
the heathen aml planted it."
· Bi shop Lowth has, in his treatise " De Sac_ru Pocsi Hcbraeorur~,"
specifit d three forms of ull cgory that oe~nr m sacred poetry· 1 he
AN ALLEGORY

first is that whi ch rhetoricians ca ll a contmucd m etaphor; an example
of this !<ind occurs in the beg innin g of the twc lrth c hapte r of the book
of Ecc les iastes, in which old age is so adm irab ly depicted._ A eecond
kind of a llegory is that which, in. a proper an? more rcstr.icted se nse,
ma y be called ll ]Iambic. lt consists of a c?nU11u cd narrall?n of so~nc
fictitious event, accommodated by way of sumhtude to the 1llustrat1on

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EXERCISES JN COMPOSITION.

FIFURATIVB Ll\i'WUAGh.

of ccrtaim i111porbnt truth s. Allegories of th is kind nrc callctl by th e
Urcck>, apolog ucs; by the Latins, fables. Such arc the fabl es of
.!Es? P• and Pilpay, th e Indian sage; and such are th e narratives of our
Sa viour, conveyed u11der the name ·or parables. Such in later tim es
arC, Spe nse r's F airy Q uee n, whi ch consists of a sc ric~ of these alleirori cs; a~1d t!' ? vcr.l'. popular work of John B.unyan, "T!tc Pilgrim's
P1 og:ress.
I h e tlurd • pcc1 es of allegory, wl11 ch oflcn occurs in proph eti c poe try, 1s th at 111 which a double meaning is couched under the
s?m c words; or when the same discourse diiforently interpreted, des_1gnatcs d1fforcnt even ts, dissimilar in their nature und remote as to
tun e.

" 0 gentle Sleep,
Nature's sofl nurse, how have I frighted thee!
That thou no more wilt weigh my ey elids down,
And steep my senses in forg etfulness."

ME'.i:-ONYMY c~ns is ts in a change of names, by pullin g the
cause lor tl.1e e fl ect, o r the e!fec t for the cause , the adjunct
for th e suh1ec t, or the subject for the adj un ct; as,
I. II/~'"~ is put for IVa.r; Ceres for Corn; and Bacchus for wine.
2. \ _1rg 1l calls t~1 c hvo Sc1p1os the destru ction of Lybia .
. 3. Cicero says, lll tune ol battle, the laws, that is, th e judges, are
sil ent.
,
.
4. A mild and human e prin ce is nailed a 7'itus; a cruel one, a Ntro;
and a great conqueror, an .A lexander.

SvN.1::cooc11E is a fi g ure by which the whole is put fo r a
part,. or a part for the whole, a genus for a species, or a
species for a genus; as,
The farmer gets his bread by the sweat of !tis brow. Herc nre two
e:"arnplcs. of syn cdochc. IJread, which is n part of tho farmer's subs 1 stcn ~e, 1 ~ put for the whole; and by the phrase, the sweat of his brnw,
the cflcct 1s put for the cause, viz, labor,

The PERil'HRASI~ is a metonymy, in which more words
are e1.nployed than are necessary, or usual, for the purpose
of ellect; as,
. The illu striou s author of the Declaration of Independence, is used
mstead of the name Jefferson.
In dcli~>c rativc u•sc mblics, the honorable gcntlcm1?n on my lcfl or
on my rtght, 1s a coinmon expression instead of the gentleman's
nan1c.
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PrrosoPOP<EIA or PERSONIFICATION is the figure which attribut es li fo anti ac tion to inanimate objects.
Th ere arc three tl cgrccs of Personification .
.1; \Vit e·~· th e qual ities of' li ving beings arc_appropr iated to things
w1t.1011t 11.c; as, th e pro11cl banner, the insatwblc sword, the ragi11g
waves .

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Wh en inanimate objects arc represented as acting like living

bc111g~ ;

as ,

"The zephyr playing with an aspen leaf-"
" Th e vcno111 cd thorns that sentinel the leaves of the nettle.''
"The hurricane ragcth fiercely."
. 3. When a direct address is mado to an inanimate object, or when
1t 1s represented us addressing us: as,

115

Three rules are to be observed for the management of
personification.
1. The higher degrees should rarely be attempted, unl ess
when prompted by strong passion; nor con tinued when the
passion begins to Hag.
.
2. \<Ve must never in grnve compositions, personify any
object, but such as h as some dignity in its9lf, anti can make
a proper figure in the elevation to which we raise it.
3. Whenever personification is introduced, the picture
it presents should be comp lete an<l consistent with itself.
APoSTllOl'HE is an address to a n absent or · decease<l
person, as if he were present and listening to us; as ,
" Ulli.n , Carril, and Ryno, voices of the days of old! Let me hear
you, while it is dark, to plea se and awake my •oul-I hear you not,
ye sons of song; in what hall of the clouds is your rest? Do you not
touch the· shadowy harp, robed with morning mist, where the rustling
smi comes from his green headed waves?"
_"'. - The HYPERDOJ,E is nothing more than a n excess of figurative language, the effect, when it is natural, of p ass ion.
All passions are inclin ed to magnify their obj ects. Injuries
seem g re ater th an they really are, to those who Jrn ve sustained them; and dan gers are magnified to those who are in
apprehension of them.
"Victors and vanquish'd join promiscuous cri es,
And shrilling shouts, and dying groans arise;
\Vith streaming blood, the slipµ'ry field s are dy'd,
And slaughtcr'd heroes sw ell the dreadful tide."
Hol1Ea's Iliad.
The hyperbole should never be introduced in the description of any thing ordinary or familiar, for in such case it is
unnatural, being d estitute of surprise, which is its only
foundation.
The hyberbole ca n never suit a dispiriting
passion; and it should never be strained beyond tlue bounds.
Longinus compares an ov e1strainetl h yberbo le to a bowstr ing, which relaxes by overstraining and produces an
effect di redly opposite to what is intended. Finally, the
hyperbole ought to be comprehended in the fewest words
possible. lrroNY, acco rding to some writers, has been classed as a

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figure of rhetoric, but others <lo not allow it that rank: All
irony, says Dr. I'riest~y i~ ht~~or, ·but all humo~ 1s _not
irony; it generally consists rn g1v111g unde~erved praise, implying censure on the object; or conveymg censure under
th e appearance of praise: the former is the most common.
"When Frederic Il publi~hed his poe m on the art of war,
h e omitted to noti ce the Dnke of Marlborough. On that
circumstance the Monthly Review ers remarked, " that they
prcs11111ctl his majesty hacl orni _ue_d tl~e name of Marlboroiwh 1 in the catalogue of d1strn g111shed comma11tlers,
becau~e he mi 11 ht be deficient in one branch of his profession, having n:v er, on any occasion, evi nced his skill in conductin g a retreat."
.
. .
.
Th e PARALmPsrs borders on irony; tl implies an affectation of 0111ission, as wh en an orator exclaim s, "I refrain
from mentioninu the rapacity, the venality, the exceeding
corruption of th~ perso n I_ acr.m:c," &c. <? iccro ,_ in his orations makes 11111ch nse ol this figme, but 1t req uires powerful taients,_aml an ardent manner, lo do ju stice t~ it.
.
Of th e lNTEllROGATJON, there are many fiue lllSlances Ill
the poetical and prophetical parts of Seri plu re, " God is not
a man that H e should lie, nor th e so n of man tlrnt He should
repent.. Hath He saitl, ~d shall He not do it?"
ExcLAMATJON is a stronger figure than th e former, and
must be but rarely used, as it will app_ear ridiculou~, unless
where th e passions are inflam ed . C 1eero uses this figure
to express a variety of p:issions; as i11dign~tion, r~ se ntn_1cnt,
contempt, grief, and admiration. I~ has ys t~ se 111 ~1d1c11le
and irony. Thus the orator excla11n s, m h_1 s oration for
Balbus deridin g the accuser, " 0 excellent mterp rete r of
the law, m as te r of :intiquity, co;rector and amemler ·of 0~1r
constitution!" St. Paul makes use of the exclamatwn 111
ex ultation and triumph," 0 death, where is thy sting!. 0
gra\•e, wh ere is thy victory!" It is freqne_ntly used ~v.1th
nn interrogation, anti serves to prepare the rn111d by exc1trng
attention.
Another figure of speech, called by Ul_air and other crit_i cs ,
Vrs10N, is adapted also lo warm aml a1111nated compos1t101~,
by which we describe a tliin g that is past ·or absent, as if
actually passing bef•>re our eye . Thus Cicero says, "I
seem to m yself to be hold this c ity, the ornan~en t. of tl~e
earth, and the capital of all nations , snd<lenly 111volve1l ~n
one conf\auration. I see before me th e slau g htered hea ps
of citizens ''iy ing unburie<l in the mid s t of their ruined coun-

117

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

EXERCISES IN COnlPOSITION.

try. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view,
while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miser~es."
This manner of description supposes a sort of enthusiasm
which carries t.he speaker or writer in some · meas ure out of
liimse lf, and if well executed, impresses the hearer or readet·
strongly, by the force of sympathy.
. .
REPETITION is another animated figure, by which the most
material words of a sen Le nee are repeated, in order lo make
the impression the stron ge r: one of th e finest instances of
this figure is in St. Paul's second Epistle to the Corinthians,
<1 Are they Hebrews? So am I.-A re they I sraelites? So
am I.-Are thr.y the seed or Abraham? So am I.-Are they
ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool) I am more; in labors
. more ahnndant, in stripes above measure, in prisons more
fr eq 11ent, in deaths oft."
. Such arc the principal figures of rh etoric. Many others
are
nera . and des crib ed by rh etoricians, all of which,
s· •s Dr. Illair, · re beautiful or not, in proportion as they
ar
.ti
ressio ns of the sentiment or passion intended
to be heightened by th e m. Let nature and p ass ion always
speak their own language, and they will suggest figures in
abundance. But if we seek to counterfeit a warmth which
we do 11ot feel, no figur es will either supply the defect, 01·
conceal the imposture.
EXERC ISES.

Point out t!te figures of speech in the.following extracts,
and give t!tem their appropriate names.

" w· all ace was a thunderbolt of war."
"In peace, Fingal was the gale of spring.''
"Did I but purpose tu emba rk with th ee
On tlle smooth surface of u su 111111er's sea ,
While gentle zephyrs play with prosperous gales,
And fortune's favor fills the swe lling sai ls;
B11t would forsake the sh ip, und make the shore.
\Vhcn the winds wliisllc, u11u Llic tempests roar'/"

Pl'ior.
"As rusheth u foamy stream from the dark shady steep of Cromla:
when thunder is rolling above, and dark brown night rests un the hill,
so fi erce, so vast, so terrible, rus h forward th e sons of Erin. The
chief, like a whale of occa11 followed by all its billows, pours valor
forth as u stream, rolling its might along the "hore."-Ossirw.
"Like Autumn's dark storms pouri11g fmm two echoing h ill s, towards each other approached th e hcroc,; us two dark streams from
hi g h rocks meet aml roar on th e plain, loud, rough, and dark in ba llle,
meet Lochlin and lnisfail."-Ossian .

11

---------------" I found her on the floor
In nil the storm of grief, yet beautiful;
Pouri11g forth tears al such a lavish rate,
That \Vere the world on fire, they might have drown'd
The wrath · of H eaven, and quench'd the mighty ruin."

Lee,
"Swift Cam illa HCours the plain,
Flies o'er th' unbending corn, nnd skims nlong the main ."
Pope.
"Art thou, my Gregory, forever fled?
And nm I Jell lo unavailing woe?
\Vhen fortun e's storms nssnil this weary head,
'Vhc rc cnro long since has shed untimely snow,
Ah, now for comfort whither shall I go?
.
No more thy soothing voice my angui sh cheers;
Thy placid eyes with smiles no lonircr glow,
l\Iy hopes lo cherish and allay my fears."

Beattie.
"But look, th e morn, in russet mantle clad ,
'Valks o'er the dew of yon high eastward hill."
Shakspeare.

"If aught of oaten stop or past'ral song '
:May hope, cha&te Eve! lo sooth thy modest car,
Like thy own solem n •pri11gs,
Thy springs nnd dying gales ."~Col!ins.
"Night, sable goddess! from her cbon throne,
In rny lcss majesty, now stretches forth
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world."- Young.

SECTION XXV.
CONCLUDING RmlARKS.

IN the exercises and rules, composing the little volume

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CONCLUDING REnlARl{S.

EXERCISES IN COnlPOSITION.

which w e have now brought to a conclusion, we have endeavo red to furnish the pupil with the materials and methods
of proceedi ng required for making a successful be rmntn in
tie ar o com os1 ton.
e propose! no more t an this in
1e outset; and perhaps it would be more proper for us to
apologise for hav in g attempted to conuuet him so far on his
course, consitlering th e narrow limits of the volume, than to
offer any ex cuse for not endeavoring to aid his progress still
furth e r.
.
In prosecu tin g his subseq uent inquiries into th e principles
on which th e a rt of composiLion is founded, he will find it

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atlvanlageons to ~ead Dr. Gregory's" Letters on Literature,
Taste, and Composition," " Dr. A ikin's Letter to his Son,"
Dr. Blair's "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres,''
Lord K ames's "Elements of Criticism,'' Dr. Campbell's
"Pllilusophy of Rhetoric,'' Archbishop Whately's "Elements of Rhetoric," "Irving's Elements of Composition,'' Rippingham's "Rules of Composition," M'Culloch's
" Manual of English Grammar,'' and the article "Belles\
J,ettres" in Shepherd, Joyce, and Carpenter's " Systematic
Education." *
.
In connection with this, or a similar course of studies, we
would counsel the · learner to follow up the system which
we have endeavored to inculcate, of making real objects and·
incidents the subjects of composition. The following rem arks of the Rev. Mr. Joyce suggest some additional methods of improvement in this elegnot ar!·
"Ir the youth who is desirous of improvement in composition be "acquainted with the L at in or French, or any
other language than his own, he cannot do better than occa_sionally translate passages from a classical au thor, into English, a nclwhen he has clone his best, if he compares his
version with an existing transl ation, he will perceive in what
his own defects consist, and be able to correct them. In
this vie w, he might take Cicero's treat ise De A micitia, or
De l::lenectute, and compare his own efforts with the version
of Mr. .M elmoth.
"Another useful method will be, to read, or to hea r read,
· nar rativ es, or other compositions, in various styles, and then
' write tlown what he remembers in his ow 11 latiguage; and
at hrst, without much regaril to any thing except correclness of thought. ·writing down at hom e recollections of
sermons that are heartl, without attempting to remember the
preacher's expressions, and occasionally allowing the mint!
to follow its own train of ideas, has bee n reco mme nded by
p erson s who have th e mselves benditted by th e practice.
"With regard to original compositions, the youth should,
previously to his laking up his pen, fix in his mind distinctly what object he has in view, what subject he means
to discuss, what fact he intend.;; to illu strate , what moral he
wishes to enforce, or what circumstances he has to narrate.
'Vhen he has made np his mind on tliis, he wili next con.* (11 the parts of thi s vo lum.e relatin g to Structure uf~cntcnccs, and Figura• li ve la 11 g- 11nge, w e hnv e co pied fr cr. ly from th e above w o rk 1:< of Irvin g a nd
~l'Cullnc ll , n11d from ~ys t c m a ti c Etlucation, with o ut
r al acknowlcdgm t! nt.

1111 y

other than this ge11c-

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EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. /-"

sider the several ways by which his object may be attained,
and hav in g deter min ed upon what appears to him the best;
le t him pursue it without deviation. In his first essay, he
will probably be short; but modes of a pplication will, .a fter
some practice, readily occur. All he s hould chiefly rega rd
in his ea rli er attempts, is correctness in th e structure of his ,
se nten ces, and the bea rin g of his argument on the business
in h and. Youlig persons are often defec tive in breaking
down their thou ghts into sentences; but on this we have
already trea ted at large. To sit in judgment on th eir own
compositions, wh en they have not th e ass istance of u uide,
t 1ey wt to we to ay as1 e or a ew ays wh at th ey ave
c i · ··sm as
coru osed, an d th e n e xami.ne it by such mi es
t 1ey may e acquainted with. Of_ one thing they hrny be
. ce rt arn , if th ey do not themselves unde rs tand wh at th ey hav e
.4 >Written, other people ca nn ot. L eam ing to co rrect, and not
~13parin g th e ir ow n compositions, are very important points
and ca nnot be reco mmended too strongly.
Schem es have been given by W alker and others for
·
th eme-writing, but we fe el strong doubts as to the propriety
of s hacklin g the mi1Hls of young people with those kinds of
forms. If th ey atte mpt to write on a subject of imagination,
·le t th e im ag inatio n hav e fair and full pl ay for the exercise of
its powers: no ca ndid fri end will throw cold water upon the
rud es t essays. In ma llers of reaso nin g, th ey should digest
th e ir plan, and minute down their lead ing tlivisio,ns.
. ·
"To co nclude , young peo pl e will ac quire a just taste for
compos ition , by th e fr equ e nt peru sal of th'ose moral essays ,
whi c h pe ri odi cally appea red durin g the .las t century, and
which have been coll ected into volum es , and are ge nerally
kn ow n under th e de nomin ation of Briti sh Classics. Such are
the Spectator, th e H ambl er, the Guardian, Adventurer, &c.
These will enrich th e mind with a vari ety of choice sentim en ts, and will in spire the reatl er not only with a love of
wh a t is e xt:e llenl, liut with a reall iness to imitate it."
Mr. J oyce concludes by quoting Dr. J ohnson's recon:men·
tlati o n to him who would improve his English style, " to
devote his day s and ni g hts lo the pages of Addison." We
would also co mm end to his special attention the works of
Goldsmith, Edgeworth, and Was hington Irving.

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