M U LT U M

IN

P.Al~vo.

AN

IMPROVED GRAMMAR
OF TllA

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
•on TIIE

USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES,::;_:·,;~ ''.\
;~~

,j ;"

.

BY REV. W
rm!I OIPAL OF BURTON

ACADE~IT,

/ ..."'. :,_:' ct

•

,:,,

9i)LEG~OVE,

AND MEMBER OF THE

,-;.~' flt

BO~RD

CLEVELAND:
l'UBLISHED BY SllIITH, KNIGHT .& CO.
I

1852.

··""' /

.:. <">

., ,-;.""; ,

JtX.UU!IERS lfOil. GEAUGA OOUN'.rY.

I

\ "O

.

.:;~,.

Olf SCHOOL

•

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.c "1
INTRODUCTION.

··-··
Entered according to Act of Congress,in the y ear 1852, by
W. COLEGROVE,

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Ohio.

The following work is the resuit of an attempt to satisfy n necessity
which the author has felt during a long experience in teaching. In
presenting it to the public, it seems appropriate to point out. some of its
distinguishing features. It is hoped that the work will he found to be
recommended bJ the following characteristics:
1st. BreDity, conciseness, and acr:uracy in the definitions.
2d. Simplicity in t11e classification.
3d. Perspir:uity in t110 arrangement and aclaptedness to the purposes of
cl1t!s recitations.
4th. Freedo1nfrom superfluities.
5th. Comprehensiveness in the plan.
6th. Originality in the design and exer:ution of the work.
The grammars that have come under the .inspection of the Author
have all seemed to be defective in most of these p;trticulars, and especially

:··
in the 1st and 4th.
Several of· lhe definitions, as that of the 'f!erb, &c., are entirely new;
but many of those which will perhaps appear to be new, as those of gender,
number, case, &c., are fully sustaiued by Webster.-[See his Unabridged

l'J.£58 OJ H.IBRI8 J AUlBAJ'KS & C0.1 Ut!l.ALD llUlLDI!IG• .
1

Dictionary.)
· It bas been a leading object in the preparation of this work, to lea1Je
out a large amount of matter found in most grammars, which appears to
be only an incumbrance, and whose only use is to consume the time,
aJ1d weary and perplex the mind of the student, while it does him no
good. A specimen of this curtailment will be found in the treatment
of the tierb under the head of inflection.
It is difficult to find a good reason for sepaf<lting what hav:e been
called Adjectives and Adverbs, and beside this, authors have found it im"
possible satisfactorily to draw the line of distinction between them.
[For illustration see Webster's Grammar and many others] H ence, in
Classification, these have been united under tlie name of modifiers. But

IV

INTRODUCTION.

ia this, as in many other instances, it i8 not thought best tr> incumher the
book with all the reasons for tha Author's conclusions.
Very few new terms have been introduced, and they only where
they seem indispensable.
The snbjc't of E1wlish com osTo dem nds these · sadcafl
~~, !V.~, :.~ ·~
~
atte
y
;
. J s
than ••111!"";-X.-,._ ,.

. -;- -s ,",. : . ·

WO!' •

. :.,. .

• •

•• • •

- •'"

ii

I

'

'

'

•

'

~

-

ANALYSIS OF THE WORK.

-

.........

I

" One thing at a time" is a good rule.
The importance of analysis, or syntactical parsing, as a means of
mental discipline, of acquiring the habit of close discrimination, and
the ability rightly to apprehend the · meaning of language, can hardly
be over-estimated. That department, therefore, occupies a prominent
place in thi s work.
The collection of exercises at the end of the volume will be found
an important addition. But it is impossible in a brief introduction, to
notice all the peculiarities of the work; it must be examined, to be
understood.
The system here unfolded, is not put forth as a new one on which the
trial of experiment is yet to be made ; the experimental trial has already
b een made in the recitation room, and with results highly rntisfactory,
even without a text book. It is fully believed that a class following this
5ystem, will accomplish more in one term than they could in two, witJ1
any of the old systems.
The Author's acknowledgments are due for valuable hints to Webster,
Mandeville, Green, Wells, Chapin, Abp. Whateley, and others, though very
l ittle direct referen ce has been made to either of their works in theprepa·
tion of this. It would be impos~ible to specify precisely the amount of
obligat.ion to any one.
Finally, it remains to say that the Author is by no means indifferent
to the reception that may be given to tbis little treatise, but that he will
be extremely gratified if it shall be foi;nd to answer its design in being
adapted to the wants of the community.
BunTON, Geaugr1 Co., Ohio, July 2, 1852.

Poge.

Page .

Pronoun, .•••.••.....••.•.... 16
Preliminary Definitions, .• _. __ .13
Personal, ...... _•.....••••.
Relative, ................. .
_-:
Interrogative, .. _........... .
Possessive, ..•...... _...•.••
Grammar, .... · ------· - ------Modifyin g, ..••..•...•.••..•
Engli>h Grammar,----- - -----·
Modifier, ..... . •.....• _.•••.••
Won],···-·········-------··
Syllable, ...• -------- ..•...•..
Verb, .... ··-·····-·····-··-·
Sen tencc, .. _... __ ..• _ ..... _..
Parlici ple, ........•..... __ ...
Preposition, ..•..••...... __. _.
Phrase, ............ -----· ... .
Subject, . .. • . _.•..••.•••.. - .•
Connective, .... •. •..•..••....
Predi cate, .....•• ~ ........... .
Exclamation, _. . : .•. _......... 17
Copula............ _..•• _....•
Emotion al, ......... ... . . .. .
DIVISWNS O~ GRAMMAR.
Didactic•.••••....·.•.•....•.
Orthography, . . _...••......... 14 I"fiectio n, .•......•......•••.•
Etymology, .•..•....•.• • .••••
Root, ......... .............. .
Syntax, ..•••..••.•••....••...
Declension. .. •....•..••..•...
Prosody... •• .... . .........• • •
NOUNS.
OllTHOGD.APllY.
Number of inflection~, ....... .
Letter, .......•...•........••
Gender, .•••.••••••••••.••••
Number of sounds, ..••.....•..
~as~u~ne, .• •• •.• ....... . .._.,
Tonic,. ..•............ · · - · ···
em 1n1ne, ..................................... . .
Subtonic, .......... _•........
Remark 1, ......• _.....•...
Atonic, .......•.......•..••..
Remark 2, ........•. ; .... . .
Ambigue .. ... .. ...... ___ ..•••
Nu:niber, ........................... ·................ ..
Remark ........••...•...•..
Singular, ...•...... . •••..••.
Al phahet, .... _. ... . ...• •. ••. . 15
Plural, .......••..•...•• - •..
English Alphabet, ..••........
Rule, ..................... .
Capital Letters,. ... .• .•..•.• . •
Remarks6, .•••...•.. • ...••.
llulea 6,. . • ...•...........•..
Crise, . ...................... 18
Italic letters,._ .•.. • •...•.....
Number of case, ............ ..
Small capitals,. . ............•
Possessive 9ase, .••... •.•• - •• ,..
U uderscoring, _.. . ..........••
Rule, .... -~- ............ ··;;ff:· ·
Spelling . ..•• _.••.•••........ 16
Remarks ;} . ..• .. ..•..•• •.• ~:-"
ENGL I SH GRAMMAR,

~~:~~~~~~'- _-_-:::::: _.:::: _-:::

ETYMOLOGY.

Classificatio'lt, . ...... . •. • •.•.•

PRONOUNS.

Number of inflections, ....... .
Noun,----·--- ........... ....... ... .
Gender, number, and case, •••••
Proper noun, .... ..... _.. _... .
Person,_ .. .. ... . .......•..••.
Common noun, .... _ __ ..... ___ .. .
First perRon, ...... __ .... __ ... 19
A*

VI

ANALYSIS OF

THE

WORK.

ANA LY SIS OF 'l'HE WORK.
Puga.

T'11gc .

Second person, ____ ___ . ____ ... 19 Conditional tense._ .• _. ____ . __ . 23
CONJUGATIOJI OF Tll E COPULA. 24
Third perso n,. ____ ---------···
Dec ti vQ verb, .. __ . __ _ . ___ -. - __ _
P,er~o11s of the pronou ns,._. - - - Un ipcrsonal Yerb, ..• • - - -- ____ _
CtL::>C, . ••• ---· - - - · - --- · - - - -- -N umber of cases, ________ .....
Auxiliary verb,. •••. _.. ___. - . Principal parts. __ . __ _. _ ••... __
Nomi nat iYccase, .... - --- -- -- -·
Posses~

ive case, . ..... . . . ...... - ...

Object.ivecaEe. __ ______ --- - ---DE C LE~s 1 0N

OF THE PRONOUNS.

I , - -- - - .. . - -- . - -- - - -- - - -- - - - •
Th ou, you,.-- - ----- __ ---- -- ·H e, she, it, __________ __ ---- --Who.----------------------·

DEI\lVATION.

Primitive word,. _...... ___ .• _.
De·rlvative word, .. .. -·-·----··
Howform c<l , ____ ---- -- · · --- -Prefix, ... _.. ___ .•...•. __ __ _... 25
Suffix. ____ -------·--· - --· ••••
SYNTAX

Sentence, ___ .,. _______ ___ ...•
Number of i nfl ecti ons, _____ - . - - 20 Siruplcsentence, .. •... . . ---- ••
Comparison , _____ __ _______ - - Compound senten ce,-------- ..
Complex sentence, •. - ------- - Number of forms, ____ • _ - _- - • - •
Absolute se1Jtence, _••• __ •• •• _.
Positive degree, ______ ___ __ _ - _Conditional sentence, _. ____ •••.
Com para ti ve deg ree, ___ • ______ •
Remark, ___ • •••• • ___ . __••• 8uperlative degree, ... . ----- -- I nterrogative sentence, .••. - -- - .
Remarks 2, . __________ • __ - Imperative sentence, ••••.••••.
EXA~rrLES OF CO:\! PAUISON.
Correlative words, • ___ . ___ ••••
21
VERB S
Compact senten ce, •. • • - ·-- .•.• 2G
Nu mber of infl ections. ___ • .•..•
Subject of a sentence. _._ .• _•• T ~:~SES .
Predicate of a sentence, •••• - -- ·
Present tense, ...• ____ -------·
Remark, .•.. ·- -· •• • . ---- ...
Past tense, _____ . . __ _.. ___ .•..
Copula, ___ •. ___ •• • _ •.• •. ; .• ..
Future tense, ... .. - -··---- --- Remark, •• .• · ··--- . .•••••••
Indefinite tense•... . ___ _ .• ___ _
Adjunct, ....••• • • .•. - - -----· PA RT ICIPLES.
Logical subj ect, •••••••• -··· - CO'i\IPOUND TENSES.
Grammatical subject,_. _.. _•••.
Comp ound present tense, - - • - ••
Logical
predicate,. _. _ • __••••• Compound past ten se, ___ • ___ • _
Grammatical predicate, • ••• __ .•
Co mpoun d future te nse, ---- ... 22
P hrase, ____ • ••. -- · - .... ---· ••
Compound indefin ite tense, _.••
Prepositi onal phrase,: ___ .. ___ . 27
N U?o.l BEit OF 1'IIE VERD.
Object of preposition or verb, _.
S in gul ar 1nnnber, ..... ... . .. __ .
Inti nitive ph rm;e, _.• __ ••••••..
P lural number . •••• ---·---- __ _
Participial phrase,_ .••• _•• _.. __
N eutrnl phrase. _. • _. _. _.••. - PERSON OF T HE VERD.
First p erson, ____ ---- ____ --- · _
RULES OF SY NTAX.
Second person, ____ _________ __
Rule l, _____ ___ . - -- - __ __ •. •. _
Third p erso n,---- . .•. --- - - · - ·
Rul e 2, ----- - - -- ..• . --·· - ·-- Conjugation , __ . ______ __. _ . __ •
Remark, •• __ •• _ •.••.. _•. __ Remarks 3, ---- ---- ··-- _____ _
Rule 3, . . •..... ---- -·-· ··-- -Remark, __ _. __. _ . _. _. _. ___Infinitive verb,. ___ · --- ··- ---Two forms ... _. ___ ____ ____ _. . 23 Rule 4, ___ ____ . ... -- -- -··- --CON.JUGAT10N OF 'l'Hf: VERO I.OVE .
Remark,.- --- •. • . --- - --- · .. 28
Rule 5,. ____ . ___ _ ---· .... ____
Irregular verbs. _. __ . _________ .
Remark• 2, __. _ . __• - -- . - - - - .
CO~ J UGATIO N OF TUE VEUD WRITE.
Rule G.. ______________ __ - - --Copula, .. __ . ___ ..... ___ .. _.. _
MllDI Fl EH.S.

VII
Pngc.

PUNCT!JATION ,
Poetic accent, .••• - --·- --- ... AG
Comma, . .• • ---- ____ ... __ ...•. 29 Quantity, •. •. -- -- ••.. - ---····
Semicolon, ___ ... ___ .•. _..• _. _
L ong sy llablc, __. _ . _. ___ . ___•.
____ ·-- - ____ ••••. . .
c .. Jon,. -- - ---- ----. -- - ...•. - • A Remark,
verse, • ___ . __ . _. •. _____ . •• _
P eriod. _. _.•• ____ - - - - - - • _- _• •
R UL ES FOR P UN CT UA TION.
A rhyme, . . • . - ·-· .... ·------Rule,. . __ - .••• - . - . . - ••.••. - - Rule 1 , . --· · _ ........ --- . - · ·Blank verse, ___ •. ____ .... __ . __
Rule 2, . .. ·- ___ _ -'--- ---· . -- - -Foot, .•• ____ •••• - - ------ .... -47
I nterrogation point ,....• ---- -S ca nnin, __ .•. _ _.. _•.. _.. •. _. _
Exclamation point, .. _•. _• • .. _.
Iambus,
__ . _ •.• __ • __ •.•• ____ _
Remark,. --- __ -·- ---· .•..•.
D ash, _-·· - -- - ---· ---· _--- ••• 30 Trochee, .· ·---· ____ - -- .•. • ___ _
Small dash and breve, •• __ .••••
S po nd ee, .••. ____ ---- ---- ---·
Parenthesis, _••• ___ •.• •. _-- • _.
Pyrrhic, ---- ____ ----·--. ____ .
An apest,. _______ - ---·---. ___ •
Apostrophe, •••• __ __ •• ··-- .•••
Quofation, •.• _ ....•.• __ . _.•••
Dacty l,.---- ____ .. • . - --- ____ _
Alllphibrach,. __ . - -- __ .••. _••.
Double quotation, .... --------·
'l'ribrach, . __•.. - _ - _• - . - _. - .. Couplet, •• __ •.•. - - - ••• - .. - • .
Asterisk, &c., •• •••••• _•• _. ___ •
Triplet, .. ___ __ _______ .... ---·
Ellipsis, .... - --- • .•...••.••.• 31 Alliteration, •• • _••••• - - ___ - -- .
Stanza, . ____ ___ . ____ . .. . ___ ._.
Brace,--·---·- ..•. ---- · -·· ··Carat, .••• ---- •••• ·--- .••••.•
Nu mber of feet, ------- - ---- ..
Heroic verse, •• •• ___ . ______ .. .49
H yphen, ... _•• _•••. -- • - --- •••
Ind ex, _. • __ . _. _ . _. ____ ••• __ _
Alexandrine verse, ·-·-- -· · ___ _
Remarks on the feet,. _____ . _
Section, •••••• __ •. _.. __ ••••.•
Paragraph .••• ____ __ . ___ . _. _. •
Iambus, · ···· · · ·· ---- -- - ·- --E xamination nf partiwlar Words. Tro chee, ••• .• __ . . __ _• . • __ .• __
It,. --- ---- -- - ...••• • •.••• _. •. 32 Pyrrhic, ____ ---- • •.•.... · ---·
That, ____ - - ..•.•• --·· - --· ••••
Amphibrach, ·--- ·- -- ----. -- - What,_ . _______ ••• ___ . _• . _ • - Tribrach, . __ . ___ • ___ •. __ •.•• _
As,----·· - --- . ••..... _______ 33 Dactyl, ___ _ ---· ••••••••.••• - Then, .•••••..•••. - -- - .• · · -- ·
Anapest . •••• --·----- •••• ---- When, ____ . .•. ...• _--- -·-- •. 34
PAUSES.
~,
Caesural pause ,_ •••••• • -.•• __ .
Tban , ·-- -- ··· ···- ··- ·- -·····
F inal pause, __ •• __ •• _. _. ___ -·-.
Rath er, .• •. ---· .••• --- --···- Remarks 2. _. __ ••. ___ . _ ..•.
Both, __ __ - - -· - ·-· •..• --· · • •••
May , ca n, &c .. ... . . . . ..... .. .. 35
EXP RESSION,
There, ____ . _•• _. _• _. ___ • - •.••
Iambic rneasun',-------------Trochaic measure, ••• _ •.. • _ . _...
Where, .•.• -·- · . --- _-·- ••• . -Amphibrachic measure,_ ••• ___ .
If, - -- . - --- ----. --- ---- ... .. .
Adal'tation. _____ ---- . • • ---- •• 50
I dioms .. •... • .. -------- .... .•

t?~~e:I~: ::: _·:::: :::: ::: :::::

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

APPENDIXES.

Parsing, ---- . ... ~ -------·--- .36 A. Origin of the English lanEtymological parsin g, ••••... __
guage,. __ .---- · ---. ___ . 51
Syntactical
"
____ ----·
A." Spelling Reform, ••• • . _. _•. 5il
MODELS.
B. Nouns, ............. : ••••. 58
C. Pronouns, .•••• _________ __
Incorrect sentences .. ___ • _. ____ .
PlCULIAR PHRASES.
45 D. Preposition, _.. __ •• . ___. . . 59
PROSODY ,
D." Connectives, ...• __ - - -- ____ 60
Accent, ___ _ ___ _ . __ . ____ . ____ .46 E. Gen~~ofnoun s, ••••. . ..••. 61

••
VIII

ANALYSIS OF THE WORK.
· ~~~~~~~~~~~

Png-e,

Pugo .

F. Irregular plurals, .. - - ------~ ~ Metaplior, . . •. - - •.• - - •• - • - .• - -73
F.* Messrs., &c., . . .. ... .... ... 63 Allegory, .. - ............... - Mudilicrs, . ........... --- -.
De:;rct·s of comparisun,- .... G·1I s ,;a'lll." a vcrli '( _- - . - . - - - - List of irregular verbs, ....•. 66
K. Conjugal i o·~, in solemn style, . 6!.I
L . L ii<t nr p refixes , _. ..• - . ... - .
List of sufli xes,. ....... - ... 71
M. Elli pti cal sentences, ...•.... 72
N. Li st of co rr,.Jative words, ... .
O. Fignrcs of speech, .... _..... 73
S im; le,. ·-------- .... ----- ·- --

G.
H.
I.
J.

Ant itheois, •.• • . ..•. -... -- •..•
Hyperbole, ............ - .. - . - .
Irony,.---- ............ ···· - Metonymy, --- -- ······· · ·····
Sy necdoc11e, ...... --- . ... - --Pe rsonificalion, .........•... - •
Apos'.rophe,. •... . .. - . ....••. fo terrogation, ____ ---- ---- ....
Vision , .... ____ ........ ---- •. 74
Climax,. ... . ............... - •
Exe: cise for pars in[ ......... ..

RECOMMENDATIONS.

From A. H.

Esq., County Clerk, antl Member of tli• Board of
School Examiners fo1· Geauga County,

GOT HA M,

Rev. W. Cor"EGROVE :-

NOTE

TO TEACHERS .

It is reco mmended in using this work, especia lly in large classes,
that the A nalysis of that portion ~ssi gned for a lesso n, should be committed tD 1ce mory fi rst, and first recited, and that afterwards indi1·iduRls
o f th e d ass, or th e whole class in con cert, be n' qnired to recite the whole
le~s'lo w ithou t qucslions fr01n the tw chcr. This being done, various
q uestions should be proposed on tho different topics.

Chardon, Jun e 19, 1852.

Si·r :-From n partial examination of your work on
Ei:glish Grammar, I can say that it is far ia advance of the text-hooks
n ow used in our schools, being much m ore concise, and better adapted to
th e capaci ty of begin ners. As a text- book, it is, in my op'. nion, far
superior lo any now in use.
Yours re8pectfully,
A. H. GOi'HAM.

F'rom Mr. {. T ucKl':lBLIN, Principal of Orwell Academy, and late S11permtendent of Common Schools in Ashtabula Cuunty.
Rev. Mr. CotEGROVE : -

Orwell. June 30, 1852.

Dear Sir :-I have examined your manuscript upon
E ng:ish Grammar with some degree of care, and I am much pleased
with it. The plan is certainly original and n ovel, and I doubt not:
y ou r work will be of great service in simplify ing our syi;tem of Grammar. The old systems are liable to many very serious objections, and
Teachers should always hail with delight any work having a t endency
to lessen the labor necessary to secure a thorough kno wledge of thl•
language. I think the brevity and completeness of the work reuder it
omin nn tly adaptacl tu th e wants of Common S chools.
Respectfully,
J . TUCKERMAN.

RE COMMENDATIONS.

x

XI

RE COMM END A TIO NS.

From ReY. E. Busm<ELL, late Tutor i1l tho JVestcrn Reseroe College.
Rev. W. CoLKGRO>E :-Dear Sir:-1 have made myself acquainted with
your "Improved Grammar," I think sufficiently to form an intelligent
estimate of its merits. There are points which I should probably treat
differently; nor am I prepared, without further reflection, fully to
endorse your view of the "Spelling Reform." Still my impressions,
regarding the book as a whole, are decidedly fayorable. It is character•
ize<l by conciseness and accuracy, and is adapted, in my estimation, to
impart a thorough knowledge of English Grammar, without exciting
that avers ion to tbe slrnly which has attended tho n@e of poor textbooks.
Yours respectfnlly,
BURTON, 0., July 2, 1852.
E . BUSHNELL

From Rev. G. T. Dw, Principal of Geauga Seminary at Chester:
Having bee n permitted to examine the manuscripc of a work on
Rnglish Grammar, by Rev. W. Colegrove, Principal of Burton Academy•
I have no hesitation in commending it to the attention and confidence
of teachers and pupils. The plan is somewhat noYel, but there is no
don-mati
c co ndemnation of whatever has preceded it. It is left to work
0
its way into public favor by the force of its own merits; and these it
ce rtai nly posses,es. It is brief, simple, comprehensive, and symme~r cal. The obscurity which many pupils have complained of finding
arounrl the wh ole subj ec t of Grammar, can h ardly be complained of
with this work at hand as a text -book. In the hands of a skillful
teacher, or even of an uuaided learner of fair capacity, the book promi,es t o afford an unusually clear view of the science of Grammar, in
return for a n cnusually small measure of time and 8tu<ly. It is hoped
that the work way meet wi th the favorable reception which it deserves.
GEO. T. DAY.
CnESTELl, G ea'Jga Co., 0., July 5, 1852.

From Mr. J. R. PERCY, Principal of Mnns on Select School.
Rev. W. Cor.&GROVE : S ir :-Your work on English Grammar, in my
estimation, possc;ses many advantages over any other work of the kind
which, in th e course of several years teaching, I have had occasion to

examine. In its arrangement it is calculated to unfold, gradually and
systematically, tb13 elements of language, from the most simple to the
most complex, and·tha.t in a manner entirely adapt~d to the capacity of
tho~e for whom it is designed.
Your work possesses both the merits of originality and correctness
and gives evidence of deep research.
'
l am, sir, with 1·espect, 4-c.,
MuNSOlf, Geauga Co., 0., July 5, 1852.
J . R. PERCY.

From Mr. 0- D. W1Lnn., Instructor of tM "Teachers' Department" in
Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, at Hiram, Portage Co.
I have examined the manuscript copy of the "Improved Grammar,'•
by Mr. Oolegrove. H e has given to the public n new system-based
upon our language as it is, rather than upon those languages from which
ours is derived. He has done away with many forms which the schools
of other days instituted-has simplified the English conjugation, and
combined .A.nalysis and Parsing into a simple and easy method. I
think it a valuable work, either as a -text-book or as a book of reference
for the Teacher.
O. D. WILBER.
Hrn..ur, July 6, 1852.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS.

,,

Language is the art of communicating ideas.
Sc-ience is classified knowledge.
Grammar. is the science of ·language .
.E'nglish grammar i8 the science of the English language.
(See App. A.)
A word is a sound, or a combination of sounds, used as
the sign of an idea; as "I," "0," "1!!'.an," "tree," &c.
A Syllable is a word, or part of a word, pronounced by a
single impulse of the voice; as "re-main," "im-pose." &c.,
A sentence is a collection of words expressing a complete
thought; as " Our time is precious."
A phrase is a combination of two or more words not
form ing a sentence ; as "in the house," "the other side," &c .
The subject of a sentence is that of which something
1s affirmed or denied; a11 "knowledge," in the sentence
"knowledge is valuable."
The predicate of a sentence is that which is affirmed
or denied of the subject ; as "valuable" in the last example ..
Tlie copula* is that which affirms or denies the predicate
of the subject; as the word "is" in the above example.

I

.'

In the sentence "Gold is yellnw." the copufa "is" affirms that the
quality indicated by the word "yellow" bdongs to, or is found in the

:\

" The copula is the word am or some of its variations, to which the
word not is sometimes added.
l

l
\

. I

I

ft

~

:I

I.

1I

•

14

DIVISIONS

OE'

ORTHOGRAPHY.

GHA~{MAIL

substance" gold." In the sentence" Silcer is n-•t 11ellmo," th e copula
"is not" deu ies that the quality'; yell w" LelongH to" Silver," &c.
t3ometimes the precl icate and copula arc Loth included in one word;
as" John s!'a,dies,'' i. e. "Juhn is 3t·udying."

Atonics.-p. t.. ch. k. f. th. (think) s.
sh. h. . . • . . • • • . .
:Sabtonics - b. d. j. g. v. th. (then) z. si. (zh.)
1. r. m. n. ng.
e (me) a (take ) a (care) a (bar) a (all) u (burn) o (go)
.. . {\ i (in) e (m et) a (at) a (pass) o (not) u (but) o (whole)
"lon z.cs .

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.
Grammar is usu ally divided into four parts, called Ortliography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of letters
and spelling .
Etymology is that part of grammar which treats of classification, de1·ivation and inflection.
Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the construction of sentences.
Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of versification.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
A letter is a character used to repr esent an elementary

sound of the voice.
In the English Language there are forty -four elementary
sounds, and these may be arranged in four classes, called
Tonics, Subtonics, Atonics and Ambigues.
A tonic clement is a free uninterrupted sound of the voice,
as the sound of a in the word rnake, &c.
.A subtonic element is a sound somewhat interrup ted by the
closing of the mouth, as the sound of m in make, &c .
An atonic elernent is a whispered articulation, as the
sound of k in rnake, &c.
An ambigue is a sound resembling both the tonics and
subtonics, as the sound of win way, &c.
RE~rAttK.-The tonics
sounds cons .?nttnts.

arc sometimes c<ded vowels anJ the other

Tile sounds arc usuall y represcnt~cl as follows:•

* The letter a represtin ts

f t:11.

s·mnds, as i11 all . .wh ,t, do!lar, b;ir, pass,

cnr•"', at, came, any, Yillng:!

•

15

1

o (move) u (tube) i (time) oi (boil) ou ( out)
{ u (full)
. •. .
•• • •
•• • •
.. ..
Ambigucs.- w (will, woo) y (yet, ye. )
An alphabet consistg of all the letters of a lang uage arranged iu a
certain order.
The E"':glish ":lphabot is extremely defective, having only twenty-six
letters with which to represe nt the forty -four sounds, and several of
th em as c, x, q, etc, are rec.lundant ;-that is. they do not represJn t any
sound which is uot represe nted by other letters.

CAPITAL LETTERS.
A capital letter should be used at the commencement, 1st,
Of every sentence ;- 2nd, Of every line of poetry ;- 3d, Of
every direct quotation; 4th, Of every important word in a
phrase used as a title or caption ;-5th, Of every proper
name ;-6th, Of all names and appellations of the Deity.
The pronoun I and the exclamation 0 should be capitals.
Iti:tlic letters are used when a word or phrase is to be
distinguished for the purpose of emphasis or otherwise.
SMALL CAPITALS are sometimes used to indicate a greater
degree of emphasis than italics.
Underscoring in writing consists in drawing a line under
such words as would be printed in italics. Small capitals are
indicated by two lines, and large capitals by three .
~has.fire
t has.five

sounds, as in her, they, met., me, pretty.
so unds, as in fir, time, machine, tin, onion.
o has eleven sounds as in nor, not; worth, done, accompt, go, whole,
move, 'volf, women, one .
u has nine sounds, as in bur, but, Russia, full, flute, use, bury, busy,
p ersuade.
y hasfour sounds, as in myrtle. my, lynx, yet
. 'l'he sound e in the word me is represented in twenty different ways, as
m me. mete, leaf, leave, meet, conceit, receive, relief, relieve, people,
k ey, kP.yecl, Cresar, subpc:ena, albino, machine, musqueto impregn quay
d_i; me ! In like rna~~er ~he sound ?f a in mal<e ha~ twe'nty reprc~enta:
t ives the sound of i rn t nne has nineteen; the souuJ of o i11 u~ has
thirteen, that of u in trntlt bas eleven, &c., &c.
"

16

ETYMOLOGY.
E'rYMOLOGY.

SPELLING.
In consequence of the defectiveness of the English alphabet, no definite rules can be given for the spelling of words.
This can only be learned by observation and a long continued
and careful use of the spelling-book and dictionary.-[See
App. A.* ]

17

An exclamation is one or more words not forming any part
of a sentence.
A n emll' inn11l excl:lnv1tinn i;;.; nn l~ tlrnt expresi;;es SOIHB emotion or

stri1 n!! fe f~ii1 1 g-. a . . tilt.! ula,s ! ps/ww ! &c .
.11 rlirla,c fr exclw11ia'i J1i i..; 011e tn it :l c1 ·.~ s nnt CXj)ie;;~ a ·1y emoti rn, as
:l."" 7JrS, n(I, alH I the naniN; of perso1 :s or things addre!~sc cl .
Au uxcln111 ·\t 0:1 i s usually an pqui,·nlc11 t !or a sentence
1

1

INFLECTION.
ETYMOLOGY.
CLASSIF I CATION.

A noun is a word u sed as a name.
A proper noun i' a name u>erl to clistingui•h an individual person or
ohject, as .Tuhn, llfnry , Boston, Lake Erie, &c.
A common noun is a mme t hat is equally applicable to any •ne of
a whole class of objects, as nuin, lwusP. , 1i~11k, &c.-[See App. B.]

A pronoun is a word used as the representative of some
other word or words.
Perso nal pronoun s are such as have the inflection called person. They .
are I , th ou, ynn, he, site, and i t. &c.
Relative pronouns are such as relate to some word in a preceding
sentence aud thus con nect the two scuteuces. They arc wit'>, which, and
that.
In terrogative pronouns are.such as are used in ask ing questions. Th~y
are who, which, and wlud.
Poss1-ss ivc pronoun s nre snch ns indicate p osses> ion. 'Th ey are mine,
thine, his, hers, ours. yo'IJ,rs. theirs.

Modifying pronoun' a1e rnch as rnmlify th e worcls which they
represent. Th ey are this, that, oome, &c.- [ Se.e App.C J

A modifier is a word used to modify or limit the meaning
of some other word, as a good man ; H e r eads well.
A ve rb is a word that may be used as the predicate of a
sentence without a copula, as he writes, &c.
A participle is a form of the verb that may be used as the.
predicate of a sentence witli a copula, as H e is writing; It is
written, &c.
A preposition is a word used to express the r elation
between other words.- [See App. D.]
A connective is a word used to connect words and sentences.
[ See App. D. 'k ]

I nflection is n ch ange in the form of words by declension,
comparison, or conjugation.
T lte root of a word is the first form of it.
D eclension signifies the usual inflections of nouns and
pron ouns.
NOUNS.
_,\Touns have three inflections, called Gender, Number and
Case.

GENDER.
Gender is the difference of words to indicate sex.
The masculine f!ender is the form of the word used to
denote the male sex ; as actor.
T he fem inine gender is the form of the word u sed to
denote the fema le sex; as actrei;s.
liDL\ltK I. The sexes arc somet im •·s <listingnishecl by u;;ing d ifferent
wnrd s, as b·1y, girl, ,!z;c, aud some : irn es by pretixi1w
some other wonl to
0

t he noun, as 11utle child, female child, &c.
R1-:,rAllK 2 Nouns denoting thin (!3 without li fe anrl some
have 11 0 gender, as house, tree, compc£11y, &c.-[::lee App. E ]

other~

NUMBER.
.ATi.miber is the difference of words to distinguish one from
more th an one; s boy, boys; ox, oxen, &c.
The singu
number is the form of the word used to
ject; as book, chair, &c .
denote on
.ral number is the form used to denote more than
one; , s boolcs, chairs, &c.
RuLE.-The plural number is u sually formed by adding s
to the singular or es when the sound of s will not r eadily
combine with the last sound of the word; as boolc, boolcs ;
cliurr,h., churches, &c .

19

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

REMArn::s l, S :1 rn c 110 :111 :.; ha v <~ only on e fnrrn n11 cl nre u . . c l lndhcriminnte !y cit.h er as ~in .~ n lar or plllrai; HR d eer , .'i.'u~r.p . swine. &c.

Tlte First Person is that form of the word which denotes
the speaker.
The Second Pason is that form of the word which denotes
the person or thing addressed.
The T!tird Person is that form of the word which denotes
the person or thing spoken of.
PERSONS OF THE PRONOUNS.-I, with its variations, is of
the first person, tlwu or you, of the second, and 7ie,' sh& and it,
of the third.
··
CASE.
NUMBER OF CAsEs.-Some of the pronouns ha~e three
Cases; the Nominative, Possessive and Obj ective.
Tlie Nominative Case is that form of the word which shows
it to be the subject of a sentence.
Tlie Possessive Case is that form of- the word which shows
the relations of ownership, &c.,
The Objective Case is that form of the word which shows
it to be the object of some verb or preposition.

18

2. Some no1111s a rc 11~~d on 'y in t.11 0 s,j ; 1~11L : r; a..: rice. wlu~at. & c.

:3. Som e nouns arc 11se.J only in the plum]: ns scis:;ors. bell"'°·'· &''•
4. ~om c 1101111'-' ro~- rn 111<-·ir idnrnh~v, ~ry irrrgnlnrly; as chilrl. children j
11u.i,,, 111e11. ; 1nnusc 1 ·m it:c ; frnf. lctwcs; ludy . laditJs . &c
5 In th e case of 111) u11s taki ·n from forc ~ ig11 hng"n.~cs . it i~ Yery
cles irnblt'. ~i n r e th e w ords l 1nvc b ~ co me English, t.hat th P fpg111ar E; Q"lish
plnrnl s sho11ld be n;. ~d; a~ rcn 1mrwton, ant nnafon s ; ba 11flit, bfLntl.ils;
datmn . rlntmn s. &r - [Ser App F.]
6. vVl1Pll a t;ilr• :ind a prope1• 11 •1me aro 1akon to.g etlwr, the p]nra]
1

terminatio11 should be ann exed t o both; as the

llfe ~s rs

Harper", &c.
[Sec A pp. F. * J

CASE.
Ca se ~s the form of a word used to denote its relation to
other words.
N mrnER OF CAsEs.-N ouns have but one case and that is
call ed th e possessive case.
The p ossessive case, is that form of the word which
d enotes the rel ations of ownership, auth orship, origin, adaptation, &c ., as J olm ' s B ook ; Webster's D ictionary; the tree's
fr uit ; cliilclren' s shoes, &c.
R c LE.-The possessive case is formed by adding an
apostrophe and th e le tter s to the r oot of a word.

DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUNS.

RE~rAt:KS.-1.

Whc11 noun s in the plural e nd ins, the po>se,siYe is
formed hy addi11 g th e a postrophe ouly.
2. The nouns conscience, ...'lloscs, Jesus , and a few oth ers, omit the

addition al sin the "ingular .
3. Som e p erson s erroutously omit the additional sin all cases where
the singular nou •1 ends in s.

PRONOUNS.
J.Y:amber of I nfie ctions.-Some of the pronouns have four
inflections, viz : Gender, Number, Case, and P erson; others
have only three, and some only one of these.
Gendei-, number and case, wh en applied to pronouns,
have th e same meaning as when applied to Nouns.
PERSON.
Person is the difference of words to dis tinguish the
speak er, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or
thing spoken of.

FmsT PERSON.
Plural.
Nominative case,

Singula1'.
Non1inritive case, I,
Po.sses:-i\'e case,
My,
Objeclini case,
Me.

Obje~tive

TVe,
Our,
Us.

PoFscssi ve case,

case,

SECOND PERSON.
Plural.

Si1•gular.
Solemn Style.

N• m.
Poss.
Ubj.

Com.m on Style.
'l1w 1t~om. You,
Thy,
ss.
Yow-,
Thee.
Ol•.i ·
You.

Norn,
Poss.
Obj.

You or Y.e
Your.
'
Y111t.

THIRD PERSON.
S:
N om. He,
Pos,. His,
Obj.
Jfon.

Plural
Tkey,
Their,
Them.

Lr.

She,
He1-,
Ht,-.

lt,
Its,
It.

Who is used both as singular and plural, and 1s thus
declined:
Nom.

fVho.

Poss.

Whose.

Obj.

Whom.

20

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

MODIFIERS.- [See App. G.]
Modifi ers have one inflection called Comparison.
Comparison is the difference of words to express degrees
of quality.
NuMDER OF FoRMs- Three forms are used, called the
Positive, Comparative and Superlative Degrees .
T lie Positive Degree is the first form or root of the word,
mid implies the comparison of the person or thing referred
to with some imaginary standard.- [ See A p. H .]
Tlte Comparative D egree is formed by adding r or er to
the positive, and implies the comparison of the person or
thing referred to with some other person or thing.
Tlie S uperlative Degree is formed by adding st or est to the
positive, and implies the comparison of the person or thing
referred to with two or more other persons or things.
RE~!ARKS - 1. In stead of changing the word, the comparison is often
effoctecl by prefixing other words; a~ marl'. and most; less and lt•ast, &c.
2. Some wo1ds arc very irregular rn their companson.

EXAMPLES OF COMPARISON.
Positive.
Large,
Gre1tt·,
Wond erful,
Ingenious.
Good,}
Well,
Bad, B~dly, }
111, Evil,

Comparative.
Larger,
Greater,
More Wonderful,
Less Ingeniou'l.
Better,
'\Vorse,

Far,

{Farther,
Further,

Fore,

Former,

Late,
J,ittle,
.Much, ~
Many,
N ear,

Later,

Old,
Hind, .

Less,
llfore,
Ne<lrcr,
{ Olrler,
Elder,

Hinder,

Superlative.
LArgPst.,

Greatest,
Most Wonderful,
Least Ingen ious,
Best,
Worst,
{ Farthest,
Furthest,
{Foremost.
First,
~ Late~t,

Lost,
Least,

!

Most,

Nearest,
Next,
Okks1-.,
Eldest,
{ Hindermost,
Hindmost.

21

VERBS. -[See Ap. J. ]

N u111'.'er of Injtections.-Verbs have three inflections;
Tense, Number and Person.
TENSES.

Tenses are forms of the verb used to indicate time.
The Present Tense* is the first form or root, and denotes
present time; as I work.
The Pa ~ t Tense is formed by adding ed to the present
(or d only, if the verb ends in <',) and denotes past time ; as
I worlced.
The Future Tense is formed by prefixing shall or will to
the present, and denotes future tirrie ; as I shall work.
The Indefi,nite Tense is formed by prefixing may, can, must,
rnight, could, would, or should to the present and indicates
no particular time; as I may work.
PARTICIPLES.
Each verb has two participles; the pr.esent, which is formed
by adding ing to the root, and the past, which in regular verbs is of the same form as the past tense.-[ See App. I.]
COMPOUND TENSES.

T!ie Compound Present
is formed by prefixing have to
the past participle, and
rs to some portion of time a part
of which is past and
rt future ; as the present day, week,
year, century, &c as I have worlced.
The Compound Past Tense is formed by prefixing had to the
past participle and refers to a past time prior to some other
past time; as I had worlced.
~somet.imes the word "d,," is prefixcrl to 'the present tense for the
purpose of emplrnsis or euphony, and th e p::i't tense _is sometime' .formed
by prefixed "did" to the 1resent instea<l of chnngrng t.l1e term10at10n,
fL)r the same rnus~ n ; thtB Present. "do go ;" P•~"t. "<lirl go."

l*

E'rYMOLOGY.

The Compound FutureTense is formed by prefixing shall,
have or will have to the past parlil:iple, and refers to a future
time prior to some other fu ture time ; as I shall have worked.
The Compound Ind1jinite 1'cnw is furmccl by prefixing may
have, can have, &c., to the pas t participle, and refers to no
particular tim e ; as I may have worked.

NUMBER OF THE VERB.
The number of a verb is the form used to show the number
of its subj ect.
The singular numbe1· is the for m that is u sed when the
subject is singular.
The plural number is the form that is u sed when the subj ect is plural.

PERSON OF THE VERB.
The person of a verb is the form u sed to show the person
of its subject.
The.first person is the form used with a subj ect of the first
person .
Th e second person is the form used with a subject of the
second person.
The third person is the form used with a subject of the
third person .
Conjugation signifies the usual inflections of the verb.
H.irnAnKs.-1 In t11e co mmon style no forms are used to show the
number and pe1son of the subj ect except that in the present ten.se, an
s is a.Idec! to indi ca te th e third pers.m si11galar number; and rn the
compound present, have is chang•:d to has for the same purpose.
2. I n the solemn style, in the present am] past te nses, est. (or st when
the verb ends in e) is arlded to d enote t !1e second person singular, also
w hekver th ey occur will is changed to ,,.;u, shall to shalt, have to hast,
ca" to c1t,,sl, &c. , fur the rnme purpose.-[See App. K.]
.
3 Forrnerl )' the third person sin gula r of the present tense ended m
elh, bu t Lh"t iemii nation is no w obsolete.

A n I nfinitive Verb is one which has the word to prefixed; as
to go.

23

ETYMOLOG Y.

· - - - - - - - - - -··-·--- ··- -- - Th e worcl to i~ omitted where the infinitive follows uitl, dare, make,
feel , see, hear, hdp, let , t!ic .
·

Two Fo1rns.-The infini tiYe verb h a.s two forms, the simple and the compound. In the simple form the word to is
prefixed to the root, and in the compound form the words trJ
Jwve arc prefix ed to the past participle.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE.
PARTICIPLES.
Present.
Past.
Loving.
Lo rnd.
Siniple Te nses.
Present, 5 Love,
{ Lo,·e3,
Past,
Luved ,
5Slrnll ]o;-e,
Futare,
{ Wi il love,
TnrleJinite, May love, &c.

INFINITIVE.
Siniple. .
Co11tpour.d.
'1-0 love. •
To have lov-ed.
Crimpountl Tenses.
SH ave luvcd,
{Has loved,
Ha<l love<l,

Shall or will havc love cl,
May have loved, &c.

ImmGULAR VERBs.-Those verbs which do not form their
past tense by adding d or ed to the present, are called irregular.-[For list see App. J .]

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB WRITE.
PARTICIPLES.
Prese11t.
Past .
Writiug.
Wr·i tten.
S ·i11iple Tenses.
5Write.
Present, { Wri1cs,
P<Lst,
Wrote,
hall write,
write,
Fi1.tttre,
{5S
Will
fn tlrfinite,

May writ

INFINITIVE .
Sirnplo.
Compoonrl.
'l'o write.
To have written.
Compnund Te·1ises.
} Have written,
{Has written,
Had written,
SI iall o·· wi 111iave written.

May have written, &c.

Tlie copula is i
ed. like a yerb, except that it has distinct plural fo1 s in the present and past tenses, and also
has the conditional tense.
CoNDITIONAL 'rENSE.-The form were, in conditional sentences, is sometimes used indiscriminately with subjects of
any person or number, and without any reference to time;
as " Were I in his place I would not do it;" "If I w01·e sure
it would not rain I would go;" "lJ lie were wise lie would shun
such company;" ".[f we were able we would not do it;" " Were

..
25

ETYMOLOGY.

SYN'l'AX.

all tlwir motives known, they mig.'it perhaps be justified,'' &c.
For the sake of distinction it is then called the conditional
tense. The form be is also used in a similar manner.

A prrjb: 1s a letter, syllable, or word joined to the beginning of a wod; as incorrect, &c.
A suCi:c is a letter, syllable, or word joined to the encl of a
word; as correctness, &c.- [For lists, &c., see App. L.

24

CONJUGATION OF THE COPULA.
PA RTieIPLES .

INFI NI TIVE.

Present.
Past
Being.
Bee11.
S imple Ten ses.
Singular.
Plnrnl.
5 Am,
Present,
Are,
(IPast,
\Va•,
\Vc!·c,
Sh all be,
Fntnrc,

/ ,1rl1fi,11itc,
.
1,
C on<l1..tiona

~

or

Will be,
May be,

Simple.
To be.

Cornpowul.
To lia ·: e been.

5 Have h11 ,•11,
l Has been ,
IIad bec:i,

~

~Were

ShJ Jl
or

h!l\'C

been,

Will
.May have u: en,

SBe, '

A defective verb is one that is used only in some of the
tenses ; as the verbs ought, quoth, &c.
A unipersrmal verb is one that is u sed only in the third
person singular; as the verbs rains, snows, &c.
An auxiliary verb is one that is u sed to form the different
tenses of other verbs; as shall, may, &c.
PRINCIPAL P ARTs.-Tbe present tense, the past tense, and
the past pa1·ticiple are called the principal parts of a verb,
because when they are known the tenses may all be readily
formed.

SYNTAX.
A sentence is a collection of words expressing a complete
thought; as " Jfen are mortal."
A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and
one predicate; as "Gold is yellow;" "The horse runs," &c.
A compound sentence is one that is composed of two or
more simple sentences; as " Time is slwrt, anrl it should be
well improved." "Tlw man who is virtuous will be lwnored."
A complex sentence is one having the subject, or predicate, or bot,h compound; as "JAMES and JOHN went;" " He
FELL and DROKE his arm;" "w ILLIAM and his FATHER DROVE
ont the rnttle and REPAIRED tlie fence."
An absolute sentenr.e is one that expresses an assertion
absolutely or positively; as "They will go." " The weather
is cold,'' &c.
A conditional sentence is one that expresses an assertion
conditio1rnlly; as "If he is honest he will return." " UnlPss
ye repent ye shalt likewise perish." " J.Vere I in liis place I
wou 1d not do it," &c.

DERIV A'I'ION.

RE~L\uK. -Th e conditional sentence consi•ts of two parts or clauses,
one pf which expre-se .. the condition, and the other the assertion dependin g upon that condit:un, See examples above.

Derivation signifies those changes by which words are
formed from other more simple ones that are called primitives
A primitive word is one that is not formed from any other
word in the language .
.A derivative word is one that is formed from some other
word or words in the language.
How FomrnD.--Derivativcs are rp.ostly form ed by means
of Prefixes and Sutfixes .

An interro!!ative se.nt~nce is one that expresses a question ;
s " Wliy did he return .2 " "Are you cert a.in it is so," &c.
An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command
r r equest, &c. ; as "I-Ionor tliy father ." "Lend me your
ssi~tance," &c .
Correlative words are such as are used in pairs and relate
to each other; as when and then, though and yet, so and as,
&c. [App.N.l

26

8 Y NT·A X,

SYNTAX.

----· - -----.A comp act st1i.lence is a compound sentence whose parts
are conncctetl by correlativ e words ; as "THouon it is strange,
YE'l' it is true ," &c.
[Sec App. M.J
Th e s1111ject of a sentence is that of which something is
affirmed or denied, and may be either a noun, a pronoun, a
phrase or a sentence; as "The SUN shines." "HE writes."
. 'To DO GOOD is comrnendab!e." "'I HAVE NOT SEEN HIM,' was
the answer."
The predicate of a sentence is that which is affirmed or
d enied of the subj ect, and may be either a noun, a prono1tn,
a modifier, a verb, a participle, a phrase, . or a sentence; as
"Ile is a MAN." "It is HE." " Gold is PRECIOUS." "They
WRITE." "The letter was WRITTEN." "His object was TO DO
GOOD." "Jlis an swer was 'I INTEND TO GO,' " &c.
REMARK. -The >erb, when nsed ns a predi,,ate is equ ivalent to 1hc
copu la aud a par1icirle ; aPd lwnce it is saiJ to comain the copula
within itself.-[S"c Whately',; Logic.]

The copula is that which affirms or denies the predicate
of the subj ect, and is always "is," ( or some of its modifications, am, are, was, &c.,) or "is not."
R~'!ARK.-The copulii never has any rnodifie·r .

An adjunct is a word, phrase or sentence, joined to some
word or phrase as a modifier; as "Smrn rne11 went INTO 'l'HE
HOUSE." In this case, "s ome" is an adjunct of "men," and
"into tlie house" is an adjunct of went.
Th e logfral sztl,ject is the subj ect with all its adjuncts; as
"TIIE CHILDREN OF THAT MAN are objects nf pit!J." Here
"The," and" ef that man," are adjuncts of" children," and
"The children of that man," is the logical subject of the
sentence.
The grammatical subject is the subject without its modifiers;
as "children" in the above sentence.
The l>gical predicate is th e predicate with all its adjuncts;
as "objects of pity,'' in the above sentence.

27

The grammatical predicate is the predicate without its
adjuncts ; as "objects" in the preceding sentence.
A phrase is two or more words not forming a sentence.
A prepositional phrase is a phrase commencing with a
preposition; as "in the house ;" "of the man," &c.
T fie obj ~ct of a preposition or a verb is the word which
answer s the question what.2 in relation to such preposition or
verb; as "mountain" in the phrase "on a high m1Juntai11,''
and" knife," in the sentence "He lost his knife," &c.
.An infinitive phrase is one that commences with an infinitive verb; as "to write a book;" "to go away," &c.
A participial phrase is one that commences with a participle; as "concerning that man;" "having entered tl;e
house." &c.
A neutral phrase is one that does not belong to either of

the preceding classes.

RULES OF SYNTAX.
RuLE 1.-The subject of a sentence should be· in the
nominative case. ExAMPLE.- " He WENT," should be written,
rather than "Him WENT," &c .
RuLE 2.-The verb or copula should be of the same person
and number as the subject. ExAMPLES.-" He WRITES,"
rather than" He WRITE:" " I AM," rather than " I ARE," &c.
REMARK.-When the subject is a noun in the singular, the verb or
copula should be in the ihird person, singular.

RuLE 3.-The object of a verb or preposition should be
in the objective case. EXAMPLES.-" I saw HIM," rather than
" I saw HE ;" "It belongs to ME,'' rather than " It belongs
to l," &c.
REMARK.-The first and third rules apply only to the pronouns, since
nouns have uo nominative o t· objective case.

RuLE 4.- When a thing belongs to two or more possesors conjointly, the last only of the names should be in .the

28

SYN TAX .

S1.N1'AX.

posscssiYC cnsc ; but when dJ)'crent t!iil7(JS of the same name

µ-rcat g•1ni11s." 7th. "Ric/1ttrrl," Grn,•n P~rker says, "Jam.is R'ltssell
Lowell is a grcril _genius." 8r.h_ Richard." G·reen Pnrker," says Ja mes
R ~ 1 . . sell L11w ll ' 1.s a, grentg cnt'ltS."
!Jth. ~l1.:!1 : 1rd Gre. n .ParkPr sa,ys,
•·Jam es. ll11ssc·ll Lo ' ••IL is a gn•nt gc:n1us"
10th. R1d1arcl Grc1•n
Pa rker say•, ·•Jam es Russell . Lowell is a great, g1•nius" 11th_ "Rir~ard
Gree n Parker," Rav~ Jarrn ·s Rus..:oell, •· Lowell is a gn! a ~ genius "
12Lh.
Jlichar<.I Green. PU:rker ">1ys. "Ju mes, Ru ~scl l Lowell is a great genius."
13th. Richard, Gi-een Purker says ''.James, ll usse ·l Lowdl is a grea t
ge ni us. " 14th. Richard, Green Parker oays ··James, Russell L owell
i ~ a great genius. "
Other ren<.lrngs might be given, but perhaps tl 1csc
will sufficl,.

Lulong to l11-o or more pcr:;ons separately considered, the

29

1

name:; of all Lhe possesso rs shoul<l be in the possessive case .
ExA~1PLE S .- " Gaylord cC: B ouglttvn'.; Store,·;" "Fuwler &;
Wells's P ub.'ications;" " lVebster' s, rValker' s, and Smalley' s
D ·ictionaries," &c.
H.EMArttc- X ouus au<.!
as mod ·til 'r.:l.

pronouns ill the possessive c1sa are always used

RuLE 5.-Pronouns should be of the same gender and
number ns the nouns which they r epresent.
RE,I.lrtK;;,-1. lllonarch>, editor,;, &c.., often use
pe rson 1n -t..- ad of the ~ i ngub r.
2. Ti1e pronou u "?Cito" i::; app1i1~d to pcir.~ons,

the pl ural of the first

"which'' to irratio11al
an imals a,,J thi,,gs without life, aml" t!tat" is applicJ to both perrnns
and th iug.s.

RuLE G.-\Vhen several individuals arc referred to, the
word which <lesignates the person addressed should be placed
first, and that which denotes the speaker, last; as "You
and Jmnes and I were present." But if anything unfavorable
is mentioned the order should be reversed; thus, "He
blamed me and James and yourself."
PU "CTUATION.
P unctu ation is the division of a eomposition by points to
m ake the meaning more evident.
lLLt; STRA'flOl'S.- " TVillimn 'l'lw1111ts is {n the lwnse." In this srntenre
the Tll<'nnin g appears to be tbat a person nnrnecl " ~Vi/lia 1n 1'/wmas" i~
in entiunc<l allll it is ~a id that /w " is in the ft vuse. " Ilut if a "'puinL" is
in;,crted aft<·r th e w1.rd " TViU imn" it appears that " TV-illiami" is ad dressed, auJ is iufurmed that a11uth cr person namcc.1 " 'J'honias" is in
th e ho i!Se. A g :1in, iu the Sl•nt e11ce fl)llowin~.-" Richard &reen Pa rker
says Juines /fosse tl Loicell is n great g enius ;" it j , impossil,]e to t ell
what the rnea ni11g uf the au1hor js Ul! til sorne " points" are inst' rted, fur
ic m 'Y be rcacl so as to give more 1ha11 a d•Jzcn ditforcnt m ean in g~. They
m:Jy \Je iudicatc <.I as lollows: l st. Hich,.rd Green Parker •ays, "Jam es
Ru:-~l'll Loweli is il grl!aLgcnius." 2nd. '· Hid1rird Green Parkt>r." says
t-ay:-: J:imt;s ltussdl LowcU, ·'is a great genius." 3J. Richarcl Grf'C n,
P (l,rker says, H Jam(:'s Russel l Lowell is a g reat genius." 4th. "Riclu1rd
Green," J'ark er sn.' s, '' Jauies Uus:wll Lowe ll i$ n great gen·ius. " St.h .
H,ich;11d Urec n. "Pa.d•er ." rnyB J11111cs ]-[u,sell Lowell " is a great ge ·
n i·us_" (i1h. ll:cliard, (;rcen l'arhcr rnys, •• James Russdl Luwcll 1s a

Th e comma (,) shows that the words between which it is
placed shoul<l not be joinec1. together in reading. It requires
a pause which varies in length according to the nature of the
composition. Sometimes it is so short as to be h ardly perceptible, and sometimes has the length of two seconds.
T lze semicolon (;) show,s that the sentence preceding it
forms a part of a compound sentence. The pause required
by a sem icolon is usually double the length of the comma in
the same style of composition.
Tlie colon (:) has the same meaning as the soimicolon, but
is seldom used. It appears to be unnecessary.
·
Tlie period (.) shows that the whole sentence is completed,
or that the letters before it are used as an abbreviation. The
pause required by the period is somewhat longer than that of
the semicolon in the same composition.

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION.
RuLE 1.-The comma should be placed between such
words as are liable to be improperly connected in reading.
R.uLE 2.- Wh en a part of a compound sentence is a complete sentence of itself, it should be separated from the other
pa:rt8 by the semicolon. ExAMPLEs.-" Vices, like shadows,
towards the evening of l'ife grow great and monstrous; "Economy is no disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little than to
outlive a great deal."
The interrogation point (?) shows that the preceding sentence is an interrogative one; as "He will .go ?"

30

31

SYNTAX .

SYN TAX.

Tlz e e.ccclamatirm point ( ! ) shows that the preceding words
express, or arc adapted to excite some emotion .

parallels, (II) and sometimes letters and figures, refer to notes
in the margin, or at the bottom of the page.
The elipsis,
*"')or(- - ) is used to denote the omission
of letters or words; as "W * * * * * m ;" "C---s ;"
&c. "So saying he departed. * * * ·'* * * * '"' Five
years after the above conversation," &c.
{shows that several lines or words
' 1.
T 1ie urace
are to be taken together.
Tlie caret (.,) shows that some word or letter has been
l
omitted; as "They were waking," &c.

R1rnARK-TIH'SC two pciints are urnJ. in the place of either of the
prcc1·1 !i ng ones.

Th e dash ( - ) shows that the sentence is left unfinished,
or that there is a sudden change in the thought, or that a
sig nificant pause is required. It is also frequently used
instead of a parenth esis, and, in connection with the comma,
&c., to show that a long pause should be made.
Ex . , 'IPLF.~.-ff If you will giiJe m,c yonr rL'lr:nlion I will shmo you.but stnp; I

1/0

not know

t!Mtl

yon wish to see."

" Good people all , witlt

o.neaccord, lrlJncnl fo r Madam, Blr1,i.:)e; wh~ never wa.ntcd a good word .from, tho se who .~poke her prais.r..''
G ive rnf! lzberl.t1 or ,r;i1Je me1lea,ih..''
''The rrzri1t11fo.i11 -t!t.y pnll anrl thy ]') · i:;on-m11.y ke ,p lhPe. ''
" t:u t wi11!er ha.11. ?JP.I. bri,r;'iler scPn,es ; -!te bo 1Lst:1 '!/ ,..,p/entlon; beyond
wlla~ 9 r1rgeohs ,qanmer h1u1 U'S ,'' &r. .

A small dash ( -) placed over a vowel shows it to be long,
and a breve (°) shows it to be short.
The parenthesis () includes some explanation or incidental
remark by tlie author himself.
The brnckets [] include some explanation, &c., by a person
who copies the words of an author.
T lw apostrophe (') shows tlie omission of one or more
letters ; as o'er for over, &c.
The quotation ( " ") shows that the exact words of another
are in trod need; "I wish," said he "that I had seen it before."
The douTile quotation('') is used when the passage quoted
contains a quotation; as Mr . Joh nson said "I lwve never, but
once, been completely 'used up ' in an argument."
An accent ( 1) is sometimes used to show which syllable of
a word should have the principal stress in pronouncing it;
as rein~'dn , moment, &c.
The diuresis ( ··) "hows that the vowel over which it is
placed dues not bel 1ng in the same syllable with the preceding
one ; as coiipemte, &c .
The uste;·isk, ('k) the obelisk, (t) the double obelisk (t) and

e,

A

The hythen ( - ) connects the parts of a compound word, as
book-uinder, and, when placed at the end of a line, in writing, it shows that a word has been divided.
The index ( ftiT) refers to some remarkable passage.
The section(§) shows the parts into which a book ur
chapter is divided.
The paragraph ( 1) was formerly used to show the beginning of a new subject.
EXERCISES.
The following should be punctuated in several different ways, and the
meaning that results from each rnocle.puinted out
1. James Joh1;s,H1 is a g« iod Sl·. holar
2. Do n"t geutlemen suffer the rnge of passion to <.I.rive reason from
her seat
3. There i ., nothi••g honora\Jlc that is uot innocent and nothing mean
but what. attaches g:JiJt
. .
4. I t was a •aying of S<>crat"s that we should eat and clr;nk m order
to Jive i1 istcad or livin:.; ns many do in or<lcr to Pat mid drink
5. Y Ollll-'. folks te ll what th«y J. • o 1J. oues what they hnvl' done a11J
fools what they will do
6. Wh en you have nothing to say say nothing a weak defen se
str~ngthcns y<1nru 1-po1wnt anLl silt!ncc is l!'SS i11juri ous than a bud n~oly
i. lie will go to Cle1·e 1a11d to-morrow
R J ohn Mitch l'll says it happcneJ. a we~k ago
!l. Why should he proceeJ. in this way
10. I wi,..Ji h e would sny to me it is profitless
11. William s::iid truly my tim~ isnll taken up
12. I-le is not prepnred thoruuglily to weigh tlH~ nrguments
13. 'J'IJ ,.y are uot fitted propedy to cnkr upo11 1J ,i, work
14. \Vi ,[i,.111 Jones s:1ys 'l'hormh Wil son is mi~taken
lS. Ala~ whctt a pity but wl:o rouJJ..hel p it
lfi. J ohn saiJ. William whcrn ar•l you going

SYNTAX.

32

SY N'l'AX.

EXAMINATION OF SOME PECULIAR WORDS.
IT.
'rhi s word is distinguisl1e<l for it.s very general and exten sive application . It ofte n r epresents a noun or pronoun Lf
eitl1cr gend er, number, antl person; as It is a man; It is a
woman; It is I ; It isyou; It ·i she; Itiswe ,· &c . Some times it represents a phrase, as It is best to be upri!Jht in all our
dealings , and sometim es aw hole sentence; as It is said that
TJIE E SQ L'D!At:X AR E VERY F ILTHY IN TH E I R IIADITS.

HE IS A

and ha s given abundant proof of it in tlie
rnanagement of this suit. Sometimes it is used indefinitely, as
It r<tins, &c. "Tiley fwd lorded it over the land with absolute
sway." When used at the beginning of a sentence, as "It is
best to be upright," &c., it is called an inceptive pronoun.

MAN OF TALE NTS,

THAT.
Th at is sometimes a modifier and sometimes a pronoun;
as '' That man is wise ; '' '' rle that is wise will act consistently.''
It often represents a sentence; as "He said that no one but a
fool would go to Culifornia ; " "Are you sure that lie will go ?"
This word may be repeated several times without any other
I

'l

word intervening; as that person remarked tiiat that
·l

5

1;

7

3

THAT

s

that that tlrnt that that lady parsed FOLLOWED, was that tltat
that that gentleman wished her to parse."
The 1st of the cighL "tlutts" numb1;rcd. i> a p ro noun and represent•
n. c " "lL<i !u of thu s~ nl c nre i<>ll owing ir. No. 2 is a m odifer of No. 3.
N {i. 3 is n 11o :m . the n:i:uc of th e word und e r considenition. No. 4 is a
rela tir e pro 11011 11 rl'prese utii:g No. 3. and is th e u l~ <'Ct of "fullow , rl."'
1\ o ;, is a mod ifier uf i' io . G. No. 6 is a »Oll ll, but a different word fro111
Nn. :1. Nu . 7 j, a rda tire p ron11u n rcpresemi11 g No. 6, a11di; tbe obj e.:G
of " pin scd." No. 8 isa111odi(ycr cf Jmly.

WHAT, WHOEVER, WI-IICHEVEH,, &c.
TY/w t is :i pronoun, Rnd usmilly performs tbc office of two
wor<ls at th e sam e time ; as I heard what you said. In this

case " wlwt" is the object of" heard," and also of" said,"

"1

heard what was said." In this case "wliat" is the object of
"heard," and the subject of "was sa£d." It is generally
equivalent to the two words that w!iicli. - His sometimes used
as a modifier, especially in questions; as "WHAT man is
that?" It is often employed as an exclamation. Whoever,
wliiclwver, &c., perform double offices, like what, as " Whoever doubts tltis will doubt anything."

AS.
As is a modifier or pronoun, and also performs the office
of a connective. It means like, equally, in the manner in
which, relating, when, because, so, or in tlie cliaractc:r of.
ExA).[PLEs.-'' He wrott1 a.y I di.reefed;" that is. in the nuu1n~r in tllhich,
&c. "I am AS good AS he is ;" that 1e, I am eqwJ.ll.¥ g ood, eq7lally Ii• is
go od. "As to tlte truth nf that 1 cannot .<ay ;" that is, relrJ.ting lo the
trnlh, .&c. "As he WfL.1 n~o "t t» give "P the Mft'ch, !te di.<cuvere<J. a foot
prmt in the &and;" that 1s, when he was about. &c "As l am going
lhrzt way I ctLn do t!te errand a.If 1vell as not;" .that is, beca'"·"c I am g r.1i11$f ,
&c. ': Un !tis return from Eqypt. AS I learned from the sanu a11u,,,.·ity.
he leuied a 1ml!!tty army :" tbat is, so I learned, &c. " 1 like him AS a
man but not AS <1 teacher ;" that is, in tit~ c/ur,ract.~r of a 1nan) &c _
";:;,,ch AS rep•nt •hall befnrgiven." In I his case " A~" may be cousidcred
a relative pronoun, representing "suc!t."

THEN.
Tlien is a modifier, and signifies at that time. It is the
correlative of when, and, used in connection with it, serves
as a connective ; as "When I am weak, THEN am I strong."
It may sometimes be rendered afterwards, or in the second
place; as "He wrote the lUter, THEN sealed it and carried it to
tlte post ~fjice ;" that is, in the first place he wrote the letter,
and "afterwards," or" in the second place" he sealed it, &c.
(Even here, however, if we go to the "ultimate analysis,"
we shall find it to be the correlative of when, as above.
Thus, rie wrote the letter' and when he liad written it, THEN lie
sealed it, &c.) Sometimes it may be rendered in that case, or
thrrefore; as ''If tltis be so, THEN man has a natural freedom .''
Sometimes it means at another time; as "now and then;"
that is, at one time arul at another time. Sometimes it means
that time; as "till hen;" that is, tilt that time.

-·

34

35

SYN TA X.

SYNTAX.

'vV II EN.

MAY, CAN , MUST, MIGHT, COULD, WOU LD, a '1d SHOULD.

JVhen is the correlative of then, and sig nifi es at what time.
In co nnec tion wi th tlwn it forms a conn ec tiv e; as "JV/ten I
am weak, th en am I strong; " tha t is, at what time I arn weali·,
at that time I am 1;tron7. T here is a so rt of redundancy in
this use of when and th en, for when or at what time, is the
same as ot the time in which; hence the sentence might be
written I am strong at the time in which I can wecik; thus
lea Ying out "at that time,' ' the equivalent of then. H ence
when is often u sed wi thout then. Sometimes when and then
arc both om itted; as "The sun having risen, we pursued our
j ourney;" tlrn.t is, when the sun had risen, then we, &c·

These are J.efectioe verbs, and are followed by iufinitiYes
wi th ' ·to" omitted ; as "] may go ; " i. c. , I may to go, &c.
J.fay , can, ::mcl must, have the fo rm of the present tense, and
the others that of the past te nse; but all are indefini te as to
time, and to avoid constant recourse to the " ultimate analysis," they may be considered as auxili aries, forming an indefinite tense. Shall and will are also defective verbs, in the
present tense, but are not so indefini te in relation to time.

THAN.
Th an is from the same root and means the same as tlien.
It is gcnen:tl! y to be taken in the sense of in the second or
subordinate p lace. It always follows some m odifier in the
comparaLi1·c degree, and sen es as a connective.
J flm e-~ relu.rned ,(ooner

.Jo hn ;'' that i s, Jam es
r etu1 ned soon in the .fir st place, or p'e e 11miently soo •. J o hn ret•.1rned
soon i ·t t.he .cer;mul 71lat·e, or ,r.;.uhordi.nattl,11 soon . "JVi.,d-.m. Lr.;. /Jetter tlu1n
g old; " :hat iR, 1fi.- tlo111. is g.ood p1eemi1'.ent :11, po l ,[ i« go nd :'''b"rrlinately;
( JJ', in. re::.pecl lo ,qoorl11ex.\ wiuLorn occupies a jut; t or Sl.tpen.tJr place, guld
occ11pies n scco1Lll or luu·er place.
ExA'.\tPLE S -

·'

THAY

RATHER.
Rath~r is the comparative degree of th e obsolete modifier
rath. It is fo llowed by than like other comp aratives. E xAMPLES. - " He chose to go RATHER than to stay;" i. c. , he
chose to go rath preerninent 1y, he chose to stay rath subordinately. "I would rather not do it ;" i. e., I would not do it
rath er than (th en ) I would do it rath.

B 0 TH.
B oth is a pronoun, and signifies the two. ExAMPLE . -"..lf
the blind lead the blin1, DOTH shall fall into tlie ditck " It is
often used as a modifier; as "loolc at BOTH sides."

THERE.
T !iere is usually a modifier, and signifies "in that place;"
as " I lqft hirn there." Sometimes it seems to perform the
office of an indefini te pronoun, meaning one, any one, anybody, the people, &c., as "There needs little skill in logic to
refute siich a position," &c., and sometimes it is a mere
expletive ; as " T here will be rain to-morrow, " &c.

WHERE .
Wliere is the correlative of there, and means " in wliat
place;" as " '\VIIERE your treasure is, THERE will your heart be
also."
IF.
If is properly a ve rb used imperatively, and means give,
grant, allow, admit, &c. For a full explanation of this and
similar words, see W ebster's L arge D ictionary.

IDIOM S .
A u Idiom is a mode of expression that is peculiar to a
language. The term is often applied to such expressions as
appear to be anomalous, or at least difficul t to be r econciled
with general principles, but which are sanctioned by usage .
Th e follow ing are r egarded as correct. "Many a tiine."
"]{ow a days." "Averse to." "OJ lesser note." "He was
£friving plough-"
"lVlw was you tallcing wit!i.2" "The
grain is ripe enough to cut." "This apple is not fitto eat."

36

SYNTAX .

SYNTAX.

'' Tlte goo d s sell 1.api'dly ·,, " The house is being built." t"I
,,
.
a sea ·
a gam bl er. " "He was oll'ered
.v'
heard of his being
, ·" "Under the circumstances." "The fir st
,,
" A ten J~oot J"ole
1,,. 1·id wide." "Soft siglied the flute.
two." " Open your '"•
"They came f orward, TO A MAN. "

ANALYsrs.-"He" is the subject, and '·sings" the predicate.
PARBING.-"}Ie" is a pronoun, in the third person, singular
number, masculine gender, and nominative case,.according to
Rule 1st; "sings". is a verb in the present tense, third person, singular number, according to Rule ·2.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

( 4) "They were fatigued,"

ParsinJ is an oxplanat:on of the properties and o~ces of
words It is of two kinds, Etymological and Syntactical. .
·
.
·
· t1e
l
. fo1en
. ce of words
Etymological
parsing
is
ie
. . to thell'
.
.· t
lasses and the explanation of thell' mflect10ns.
. ·
f
tence into its
appropi ta e c · '. .
r:::yntactical parsing is the sepa1at10n o a sen
. d
pa~s, and the explanation of the offices or. us~s of w~~le~
This is usually called Analysis. The other is simply c
parsing.

ANALYSIS.-" T liey" is the subject, "were'' the copula, and
"fatigued" the predicate.
PARSING.-" T li~y" is a pronoun, in the third person, plural ·
number, and nominative case, according to Rule 1 ; "were0
is the copula, in the past tense and plural number, ·
according to Rule 2; "fatigued is the past participle of
the verb fatigue.

MOD ELS OF ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
( I ) "Time is pre.cious". ·
A Nn 1srs. -This is a simple sentence.

Time is the sub.
· " precious
· . '"' " is" is the copula,
.JeC t , * · and tho predicate
is
.
.
,,
and connects "time" with "precious.
.
. . .
P ARSIN'G" - " T ·ime" is a common noun, m the h.smgula1
·d
·
b . . "is" is the copula, in the present tense, t II pe1num
Cl '
d'
t
It
le
2.
"preson and sinO'ular number, accor mg o u
'
'
b
. .
d
cious" is a modifier, in the positive egree.
( 2) "James was writi1.zg." .
A N.u ysrs.-The subj ect is "James;" the predicate is
" writ;ng," and the copula is "was ." It.is a si~ple se~tence.
PARSING. - "Jcunes" is a proper noun m th~ smgu~~I '~u~:
ber; "was" is the copula in the past tense . smgula1 ' writ
ing" is the present participle of the verb wnte.
( 3) " Ile sings."
•TV/ten the wnrd suhjeet is used AL ON E, the gra1mnotical subj ect is
ulways m eant, and. so of the p redica!c:

37

l
'

( 5) "The good little hoy is very al'f ul of his hooks."
ANALYsis.-This is a simple sentence. "The good little
hoy" is the logical subject; "is," the copula, and "verg careful of his books," the logical predicate. The grammatical
subject is "boy," and ·the adjuncts of "hoy" are "the,"
"good," and "little." The gramruatical predieate is "caref;,l," ·
and the adjuncts of" care.fut" are "very" and "of his books.,.
" Of liis books" if< a prepositional phrase ;-the preposition
is "of" which expresses the relation between "careful" and
"hooks ;"-the object of ., of" is "hooks;" and the adjnrict·
of " books" is "h.i s."

P .ARSING.- " The," is a modifier;- " good," is a modifier
in the positive degree;- " little," is the same;---" hoy,>• is a
noun in the singular number and masculine gender ;-"is,"
is the copula, in the present tense, .third person, singu.lar,
according to Rule 2 ;-"very,.'' is a modifier;'-" cariful,"
is a modifier in the positive degree;-" of, ,, is a preposition ;
"his," is a pronoun in the third ·person, singular number,
masculine gender, and possessive case;-" hooks" is a noun
in the .p lural number.
2

SYN'l'AX.
SYNTAX.

33
REMARK.-lt

is often desirable to combine these exercises as follows :·

( 6) " That beautifid~'young lady is very negligent of ii~
studies."
"That is a modifier of "b~autiful young lady;"- " beau~
tiful," is a modifie1•, in the positive degree·, and modifies
"young lady ;"-"young," is a modifier, positive degree,
and modifies " lady;"-" lady," is a noun, in the singular
number and feminine gender, and is the subj'eet <if the sentence;. "is," is the copula in the present tense, third pe:rsoll'
singular, and connects "lady" and "negligent;"-" very,"
is a modifier of "negligent;"-" negligent," is a modifier
positive deg1"ee, and is used as the predicate of the sentence ;
"of," is a preposition, and shows the relation between" negligent" and "studies;"-" her," is a pronoun, third pe1·son,
singular, feminine gender, possessive case, and modifies
"studies;"-" studies," is a noun, plural numbel', and is
used as the object of the preposition "of"
(7) " Some of the people had left the place very unwillingly."
" Some," is a. pronoun representing the word persons
understood., and. is the subject of the sentence;- " of," is a
preposition, connecting "some" and" people;"- " had left,''
is a verb in the compound past tense, and is fae predicate of
the sentence ;-"place," .is a noun, singular, and the object·
of "had left;"- " very," is a modifier of "unwillmgly ;"~
"unwillingly," is a modifier of "liad left."
·
( 8) '' My father has gone into the city this morning;
he

out

will return soon."
A NALYSis.-This is a compound sentence, composed of the
two simple sentences "My father lias gone into tlie city tliis
morning;" and ''he will retu_rn soon." They are connected by
the word "but." In the first, "father" is the grammatical subj ect, and "my," is its adjunct. "Has gone," is the grammatical predicate, and its adjuncts are "into the · city" t{nd "this

39

morning." In the second " he'.' is the subject ; will relurn,.
the grammatical predicate ; and soon, its adjunct.

(9) "I shall liavefinished tlie letter by 8 o'clock."
ANALY-srs .-This is a simple sentence . "I"·IS th e SU b'ject .
" shall have finis lied,'' the predicate ; " the letter " and " b ~
.
'
y
o' cl oc k" a d'JUncts of t h e predicate.
P AHSING.-" By" is a preposition and connects "finished"
_and "8 ~'clock." "8 o'clock" is a phrase used as a noun a~d
is t~e obJect of "by." It is the name of a particular point
of time.
( 10) " Writing compositions is a profitable exercise."
A~~LYsrs.-~

simple sentence. The grammatical subject is
and_ its adjunct is "compositions." The grammatical predicate is "exercise," and its adjuncts are "profitable"
and "a."
'
~'writing'.'

~ ARSIN~·-" Writing" is the present participle of the verb
wnte and is used as a noun;-" compositions" is a noun plu1·al and the object of "writing."

( 11 ) " I AM READY," was the reply of tlie other ma~."
ANALYsrs.-The structure is that of a simple sentence.
The ?ram~atical subject is" I am ready ;"....,..the grammatical
predicate is "reply;"-" was" is the copula. The subject
"I am ready" is itself a sentence, of which "I" is the subj ect;- " am" the copula; and "ready" the predicate.
( 12) "To assist those who are in distress is a cltristian duty."
ANAL~srs.-This structure is also that of a simple sentence.
"To assist those who are in distress,'' is the logical subject
and " To assist" is the grammatical subject. " Those " is th~
object of" to assist," and "who are in distress" is an. adjunct
of ~·those." But "who ar(in distress" is itself a sentence of
which "who" is the subject;-" are" iii the copula; and "in

BYN'l'.AX.

43

!!YN'.llAX.

"u ;"-"which"

is a relative pronoun representing "care"
and connects the two sentences .
( 23 ) "He rifused what was offered."
"What" is the object of "refused" and the subj ect of "was
offered," thus connecting the two sim pie sentences ·
( 24) " Wait here until I see what means can be adopted."
ANALYsrs.-An imperative compound sentence with three
members, viz: "Wait here until (the time; ) (in wliich) I
(shall) see what means," and "what means can be adopted;""until" is a preposition connecting "wait" and "time;""see" is a verb in the future tense and is the predicate of the
second member, havi ng "in which" and "what means" for its
adjuncts;-" What means" is the object of "s ee" and the subj ect of the third member, in which "can b~" is the copula in
the indefinite tense.
( 25) "The boolc cost five dollars."
"Cost" is a verb in the past tense;-"dollars" is the
object of "Cost."
( 26 ) "They called kim J ohn."
.
.
"Him" is the object of called ;-- "John" is an adJunct of
"called," answerin cr the question "how.2" rather than "what?"
thus :--"How did ~hey call himl"-"They calltd him in this
manner, viz: ' J ohn.'"
( 27 ) [I] "They taught him grammar." [2] "I was tau.ght
grammar.''
In the I st, "grammar" is the object of "taught," and
"him" is the obj ect of "to" understood. In the 2d, "gram. mar" is the object of th e preposition "in" understood.
( 29) "We hear much now a-days about 'spiritualrappings.'"
" JVow-a-days" is an idiomatic phrase modifying "hear."

( 30 ) "Thcy are not wise."
"Arc not" is the copula. The inse1tion of "not" reverses
foe meaning of the copula, so that instead of affirming the

o::onnection of the subject and predicate, it affirms their separa,tion.

( 31) "Tiliree times tflree fa nine."

This sentence is correct, though censured by some authors_
"Three times tliree" is an idiomatic phrase and means the
number arising from the combination of tliree "thr.ee' s."
'£hat number is "nine.'.,

·(32) "Will you go?"-" Yes.••
"Yes" is not a modifier hut an ·eX.Clamation, and equivalent to the sentell.ee "I wiU go." -''No" is used in the same
-way.

( 33) "There is no better evidence of a" man's being a coward
J.lian his conl!ta.n t .boasting ·of hi.$ courage.''
ANALYsrs.-"Ther-e" is an expletive, and is used merely
to give a smoother turn t-0 the sentence.. It has no meaniug
in this connecti-0n. The relations of the other words will be
seen by the followin_g transposition; "No evidence of a man's
-Oeing a coward is better tltanltis constant boasting of his coura!Je.''
'fhis is a compound sentence, of which the first member ia
''No evidence of a man's b:eing a coward is better" and the oth,er
is ".tlian fiis constant boasting of hit courage ( i~ good.);,. "]Vo"
is a modifi er of "evidence ;"- evidence is 'the subject of
-''better;" "of" is a preposition connecting "evidence" and
·"being a coward;" "a" is a modifier of "man's being a coward;"--'-"man's" is a noun in the possessive cas.e and modifies·
"being .a coward," which is .an idiomatic phrase eguivalent to
the noun "cowardice" .and is the object ..of the -preposition ·~o,t/'
"is" is the copula ; and "better" is the predicate, having the
!Sense of "g.ood preeminently ;"-"than" connects the two
member~ and is .a m.odifiei· of "good," having the sense Of
Hsubpr.dinately," oi· "in the seccmd plaoe.;"~"his" is ·a pronoun .in the possessive and modifiesJ"constant boasting/'-''comt.ant" modifies "baast-i1~g ;"-'~boastinJJ" is the prese.nt

'.

44

••
45

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX,

participle of "boast," used as a noun, and is the subject of
"good" und erstood; "of his coitrage" is a prepositional phrase
modifying "boasting;" "of" connects "boasting" and "courage ;"-"courage" is the object of the preposition "of."

( 39 ) " William was chosen librarian."
Librarian is the object of ''for" understood.
( 40) "HE ?"-"Diel you say IIE ?".:-...."I said HE."
"He" in these examples is consider.ed merely as a word
and hence is a noun and ncit a pronoun. In the question, it
is the object of "say," and in the answer, of "said."

( 34) "And who is to judge of this ncessity.2-- Wky,tlt e King."

"To judge" is an indefinite verb used as a noun and
is the object of ''for" understood; the whole phrase
''for to judge" is a modifier of the predicate "appointed"
which is also understood. "W!ty" is an exclamation or fragmentary sentence, being an abbreviation of "Why do you a.o·k
tJiat question ,2" or something analagous. "King" is the subject of "appointed" understood.

( 35) "To speak plainly, tlte man was drunk."
The infinitive " to speak" has the same meaning, in this
case, as the present participle "speaking," and the words "I
say" should be supplied after " plainly." This being premised the analysis is not difficult.
( 36 ) "The more we ltave, the more we desire."

This is an abbreviated form of the sentence "Wlien we
have tlte more property, then we desire the more increase of our
property." The analysis of the expanded sentence is easy.
"There needed a new dispensati.on of religion."
( 37 ) { "There needs no better proof," &c.
"Tliere" in these and similar sentences seems to be used
exactly lik e the French indefinite pronoun "on" which signifies "one, " " any one," "any body," "people," &c.
) {" William became tlie leadei· of a party."
( 38
"William came to be the leader of a party."
These two sentences are each equivalent to the following ;
" William came to that condition continuing in which he was tlte
leader of a party. As they stand they bid defiance to
analysis.

INCORRECT SENTENCES.
( I ) "I should have been glad to liave been there,' ' is used

for "I should have been glad to be there," or "I should be
glad to have been there."
( 2) "Iron is more useful than all the metals."
( 3) "Iron is the most use/ul of all other metals."
( 4) "Tlie following was written by a person wlw had been
for man71 JIears an inma:te of tlie penitentiary for !tis own
amnsement."
( 5) " I had rather be myself the slave."
( 6) "I expected him to have come last week."
(7) "They done tlieir work well."
( 8) "I wish that I knew where my book was."
This last sentence may be corrE>cted as follows: " I wisli
that I could know where my book is."

PECULIAR PHRASES.
( 1) "A red and white fl ag." This means a flag of two
colors.- " A red and a white flag."-This means two flags,
one red, and the other white.
( 2) "He lias few friends," means that he has not many
·fri ends, or that he has none,· while "He lias a few friends,"
means that he has some, or that he is not destitute of fri ends.
( 3 ) "He is Ii. better farmer than mechanic," means that he
has more skill in farming than he has in any mechanical art·
"He is a beiter farmer tlian a mecliauic," ~ean!l that he is a
better farmer than a mechanic would Qe_,
~*

-

6

PROSODY.

PROSODY.
Accent is the peculiar force with which some syllables of a
word are pronounced; as the 1st in "holy," the 2nd in
"remain," the 4th in "representation," &c.

A Foot consists of two or three syllable 8 ,.
. .
part · t
h·
•Ormmg one of the
s m o w wh a verse is divided by the accent. It
rnsponds to a "measure" i'n music;
. as
co1··

When a word consists of several syllables, two or more accents are
often used in pronouncing it, and the strongest is called the primary
accent, d:c.

.
. their
. component
,. Scanning is the r esoI vmg
of verses m
.eet.

Poetic Accent is the peculiar force given to certain syllables
in a line of poetry; as "The man who hails you T om or
Ja ck," &c.
The Quantity of a syllable is the time occupied in pronouncin g it.
A L ong Syllab1e generally requires twice the time of a short
one; as "make," "met;" "all," "at," &c.

The Iambus is a foot consisting of two syllables the first
:slwrt, and the second lonn
h ld " &' c.
.,,. as "relai1: , " "beo,

REMA1t1t.-Quantity depends mainly upon accent and emplia8is. The
accentecl sy llal.lt> of a word is long , while the others are s!iort, and any
sy liable or word is made 101.g by emphasis.

A Verse is a line consisting of some definite number of
syllables, so arranged that the accent may recur e.t regular
intervals, as
"In human works, thou gh labored on with pain,
.A. 1lto1tsand movemeuts scarce one purpose gain."-Pope.

A Rhyme consists of two verses in which the last syllables
correspond in sound, as in the last example.
RuLE .-That two syllables may form a perfect rhyme they
should have th e same vowel, the parts following the vowel
should be the same, the parts preceding th e vowel should be
different, and the syllables should be accented.
Blank Verse is verse without rhyme, and is written in lines
of ten syll ables each; as in the following example:
"As yet 'tis midnight deep. The weary clouds,
Slow meeting, mingle mto solid gloom.
Now, while th e drowsy world lies J o~t in sleep,
L et m~ associate with the scriou3 Night,
Aud Contemplatiou, her sedate compeer;
Le t me sl 1ake off th' i11 trn~ire · care~ uf day,
And lay t.lw 1:.ed<lling sanses all n~id e."-Thnmp$on.

"~ot ~lf I so swift I the trem I bling dor;es I canjly."

th The Trochee Is a foot of two syllables, the fa-st long and
e;/.econd short). as "noble,,, "wiseky,"'
,
te Span.dee is a footo.ftwo long syllables· as ".-1 'dl·,,.. "&
Tlte p
h' ·
,.
,
,,oo ve,
c.
yrr ic is a •oot Gf two short syllables; as
"The dying gales that pant I V,pon I the trees."
T
he Anapest is a foot of three syllables, the first two short
and the last lonn
- _, ,, &c.
•
..,, ,· as "~-'e
""' ' rc,ue,
The .Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, the first lon
d
the two last short; as ''furtoU,s"
, "m-~·
u• ... 11r i ng, ., & c• g, an
.The Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the first and
third sliort, and the second long· as "rem 6:mber •• " :I'. "l 1 "&
Tio T-.'b
·
'
1
Tl!/uSu
c.
. te ri rach is a fuot of three short syllables; as
,, And thunders down impet I uo(i,8

to I the plain."

A Couplet or .Disticli consists of two verses mak1'ng
complete sense: as
;fnow then thyself; presume not God to acan .
'
e proper study of mankind is man."

A Triplet consists of three verses which rhyme to th
Alliteration is the frequent repetition 0 f th e same lge
etterer.
· as

;;up
the high .hill he heaves a huge round stone"
The lordly 11on leaves his lonely lair," ac.
•

'

. A Stanza consists of several verses, forming a regular divis10n of a poem. A sta11za is often called a verse.
Number of Feet ..-A verse may!consist of any number of

£eet from one to six.

48

PROSODY.

Th-e Heroic Verse is the most elevated and dignified kind
of Encrlish
verse , and consists of five feet, generally all
0
Iamhics; as
"Where slaves I once more I t_heir _na I ti!e land I beho},d,
e
No fiends I torment, I no ChrIS I bans thirst I for gold. -Pop ·

The Alexandrine Verse consists of six feet and is seldom
used except at the close of a passage in heroic verse ; as
" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow ;Buch as \ Crea I tion's dawn I Leheld, I thou roll I est now."-Byi·on.

REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT FEET.
Tlie Iambus is the foot most frequently used, and is regarded as the foundation of English poetry. In heroic verse
it is used in every place in the line. ·
Th,e Trochee in importance seems to rank next to the Iambus. Verses are sometimes composed entirely of Trochees; as
"Round u11 I roars the I tempest I louder," &c.

and it may be introduced in the first, third, or fourth place in
the line in heroic nrse; as
" Wanns in I the sun, refreshes in the breeze," &c. ,,
"And, staggered by the stroke, I drops the I large.ox, &c.

Tlie Pyrrliic is properly us~din the first and fourth places; as
"Nor in I the helpless orphan dread a foe."
"The dying gal@s that pant I upon I the trees."

T lie Ampliibrach is sometimes used alone ; as
"Consenting,
Repenting," &c.

but it is generally used in the last place of the line in verses
composed of other feet; as
"To sigh for ribands if thou art I so &illy;
Mark how they (irace Lord Umlirl! or I Sir Billy.',

The Tribracli is used in the third and fqllrth places; as
"And thunders clown impet

I uous to I the pliiin/'

Tke Dactyl is used in the first place; as
"Furiou,1 I he spoke, the angry chief replieq.'!

PROSODY,

.49

The Anapest is ased in every place of the line; as
".A.t the cfose I of the day,

I when the ham I let is still," &c.

PAUSES.
There: are two.pauses that are peculiar to poetry, calledthe
caesural and the final.
1'he caesu·ral pa.use occurs at or near the middle of the
line; as
"Her lively looks I a sprightly mind disclose," &c.

The.final pause occurs at the end of the line.
REMARKs.-1. Where the se11se does not. require pauses at these points
they should be extremely short.
.
2. Most people are inclined to make the final pause too long and to
neglect the caosural·eutirely.
·
·
' ·

EXPRESSION.
"Expression consists in such a choice and distribution of
poetic feet as are best adapted to the subject, and best calculated to impress sentiment upon the mind."- Webster.
T_lie Iamhic measure is best adapted to solemn and grave
subjects, and hence is used in most .sacred and devotional
compositions; as hymns, &c.
Tlie Trocliaic measure is well calculated for lively subjects; as
" Softly sweet in ·.Lydian measures,
Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures ;
War, he sung, is toil and trouble;
Honor, but an empty bubble;" &c.-Dryden.

Th~ Amphibrachic measure is best adapted to lively comic
subjects; as
"Since conju I gal passion
Has come in I to fashion,
And marriage I so blest on I the throne is,
Like Venus I I'll shine,
Be fond and I be fine,
And I Sir Trusty f shall be my I Adonis."-Addison.

PROSODY.

Adaptation.-The following exampl es exh~bit much skill
in adapting the sound of the verse to the sentiment.
"When Aj ax strives some rock's vast weight to throw,
The li ne tuo labors, and the words move •low."
"Not so where swift Camilla scours the plain,
.
Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the mam."

APPENDIXES.

"And grace and reason, sense and virtue, split
With all the rash dexterity of wit."-Pope.
"A needless Alexandrine en ds the song.
,,
That, hke a wo unded snake, drags its slow length along.

Poetic L icense.-Considering the difficulty of poetical composition it is r egarded as allowable in verse to use many
modes of expression that are not deemed elegant in prose ;
e.g. the omission of & syllable from a word, as 'gan for began; .
e'er for ever, &c.; the combination of two words, as tli"immense,
for the immense ; the u se of antiquated pronunciation ; as
smiled for smiled; also the use of a great variety of elliptical
expressions, as" He knew to sing and build the loj~y rhyme," &c.,
and the constant employment of rhetorical figures.-[See
App . O.]

[A.-Page 13.]
ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The most ancient inhabita.nts of Europe, of whom we have
any account, were called Celts, (Kelts,) a term havjng the
same origin as' the words Gael, and Gaul, and supposed to
have reference to their fair complexions. They came originally from A sia, settling in the eastern part of Europe first,
and afterwards as their necessities or inclinations prompted,
extending their emigrations westward until they reached the
Atlantic. It appears that those who first settled in England
were after a time driven from their lands by a fresh emigration
of adventurers more warlike or numerous than themselves,
and were obliged to take refuge in the Highlands of Scotland,
from whence colonies passed into Ireland. The language of
these new comers probably did not differ essentially from the
first and had some relationship to the Persian. But they
were themselves subdued after a time by the Romans, whose
language, though froin the same original stock, had by cultivation become very dissimilar to theirs. While under the
Romans (about 400 ·years) the language in England proper
became mostly Latin, but retained a large mixture of words
from the native dialect. The Roman armies being at length
withdrawn from England, the country was invaded by the
Picts and Scots from the north. In this emergency, the
Britons invited the Saxons, a ~arlike people, of Celtic origin,

52

APPEl'fDIXES.

in Germany, to come to their assistance. They did so, and
not only dro)·e back the Picts and Scots, but at length subdued
the Bri tons themselves and r emained masters of the country.
Another German tribe called the Angles or inhabitants of the
l evel country, '"hose language was much like that of the
Saxons, went over in great number s and settled in Britain,
and at leno-th gave the name Angle-land or England to the
country. These people coalesced with the Saxons,. and their
mixed language was called the Anglo-Saxon. This became
the prevailin 0o- lano-uaae,
but was essentially modified by
0
0
mixture with the provincial Latin of the -Britons. This constitutes the bll,sis, or main stock of the English language.
The Danes afterwards invaded England and subdued a large
portio1i of it, but were e.t length repulsed by King Alfred the
Great. Many of them however remained in the country
and a multitude of Danish words were incorporated with the
language. A second Danish invasion afterwards modi~ed
the language still more, and William the Conquerer, bemg
at len 0rrth established upon the English throne, introduced
the French as the language of the Court and made great
efforts to secure it~ universal adoption by the people. In
this be did not succeed, but, as ·a result, the French element
became a very important one in the national language. In
the cultivation of the Arts and Sciences a great multitude of
terms have also been borrowed in ·modern times from the
Latin, Greek, French, and other languages. Whenever a
country is subdued and the _common people are obliged to
learn a new language, they always seize upon the most simple
and elementary principles, never mastering the more artificial
and difficult; and from the frequent repetition of this process
it has happened that the structure of the English, with the
exception of us orthography, is the most simple, and least
ar tifi cial of all the morlcrn languages. The very process,
howC\·er, which has simplified the gener1>l structure, hae, in

APPENDIXES

45

that department, introduced endless and inexplicable confusion.-[ See next article. ]

[A*-Page 16.]
SPELLING REFORM.
Among the various progressive and r eformatory moveme~ts o: the pr.esent a~e there is no one whose importance
entitles 1t more 1mperat1vely to demand the attention of the
philosopher, the philan thropist, and even the private economist, than that which has been called the spelling reform.
The first, the greatest, a11d the everlasting obstacle in the
way of learning the English language is found in the defectiven.ess of its alphabet, and the entire want of system in the
spellmg of its words. This is an obstacle that .is not surmounted by one in a th.ousand ! Few persons are aware bow
small the number is, even of those who are called educated
who can be termed good spellers. And the reason of thi~
small number is not, as some suppose, . that spelling receives
less attention in the schools than formerly. Probably there
never was a time when more good spellers could be found:
.th~n at present. It is not because people do not attend to
tlus branc_h that th:y are n~t perfect in it, for every person
who acqull'es what 1s called an Academical education devotes
from three to five years of his li fe to tJi.is branclt alone Tl
d'ffi l
.
le
1 cu ty can only be met by a radical and entire chancre in
our ~rth ography. .It is the object of those engaged i~ the
spellmg_reform, to improve, or rather complete, the alphabet,
by addmg as many letters as are necessary to make the
number equal to that of the elementary sounds of the language, letting each letter invariably represent one particular
sound, and then spell eac!i word according to its pronunciution,
That is, to use just those letters in spelling a word which
repl'esent the sounds heard in pronouncing it. If this object.

54

APPENDIXES.

b e accomplished a child of ordinary capacity may, instead of
spending five years in learning to spell, accomplish the whole
fi ve weeks !
And it will be accomplished effectually too.
Instead of being completely at a loss h-0w to spell every new
word th:it he hears, as people arc now, he will always be able,
on h earing a word spoken, to spell it correctly . And again ,
instead of being unable to pronounce a new word that he may
meet with in reading, as all r eaders are now, he will never
meet with a word in English that he cannot pronounce corr ectly at first sight. To make a very low estimate, at .least
NINE -TE NTHS of the labor and time of learning to r ead will be
saved, and the obj ect will be much better accomplished
b esides . The success of this reform will, besides being of
immense value to the high er classes, enable thousands and
millions of the poor and degraded to acquire the art of reading, which is the key to knowledge, who othe rwise can never
do it. Hence will arise those numerous advantages so often
and eloquently described that are expected to follow an
increase of in telligence among th e lower classes. And this
increase -of inteUigen.ce will not be corifi,ned to the lower classes,
for amon" the high er classes th e time which h as ·heretofore ..
0
(
•
b een lost in searching for the " key of knowledge," , leanung
to r ead,) may be employed in uaing it to unlock those rich
mental treasures th.at lie neglected on every h and because
there is not time to appropriate them after h aving looked sG
Ion()' fo r the means of doing it. But space will not permit to
enl~rge upon these advantages. Several objections are often
urged against t1~is movement, and that t~o by persons '~h.o
0twht
to know better. These will .now r.equire some attent10n..
0
( 1.) It is said that if words are sp elled as they are pronounced we sh all b.e lmable to distinguish wor.ds of the same
sound but different mea.11ings; as ".rain," "rei:n," "reign," &c,
A NswEn.- Flrsl: If th ere should be any loss in this respect
t would be more than made up in th at class of words that

.APPENDIXES.

~I

55

are now spelled alike but pronounced differently; as "bow,"
"bow ;" "mow," "mow;" "gill," "gill," &c.
For this
class, more numerous thari the other, would then be spelled
differently, and both the differ ent pronunciation and- different
meaning would be indicated. But, S econdly : If the words
in questio n were to be spelled alike, we should have no more
trouble in distinguishing them in reading than we now have
when we liear them spoken, for the speaker never stops .to spell
the word for his hearers that they may know whether he
means "rain," "rein," or "reign," &c. In such cases we
determine which meaning is intended by the connection in
which the word is used, and this we can do more easily in
reading, because we have more leisure to examine the connection. Still farther, we should have much less r eason to
apprehend difficulty from this class of words than we now
h ave from many oth ers that we never thought of fearing; fo r
no one of this class of words would have more than f our
different meanings, while the word "art," has six, "balance,"
f ourteen, "good," has fifty, "break," thirty-three, "take,"
forty-four, and " stand," more than sixty! and so of a great
multitude of others. If we can distinguish between sixty
defini tions of one word shall we be troubled by four .2
( 2.) It is said that the proposed changes will destroy, or
at least, obscure the analogies of words, so that their r elationships to each other, as that of a primitive and its deriva·
tives, cam}Ot be perceived, and thus an important means of
ascertaining the meaning of words will be lost. For example,
if "know" should be . spelled "no," its r elationship to
"k nowledge" could not be seen ; and if Philanthrop '!f should
be spelled with F instead of Pk, then Greek scholars would
not be able to perceive its derivation from the Gre_ek word
, 'p!tilos,'' and hence understand its meaning.
A NSWJi:ii.-N o intelligent Etymologist will 111ake this objection. It is grounded in misappreh ension) and is perfectly

APPEM"DIXES.

b6

APPENDIXES.

false in all its bearings. If "know" is spelled "no," then
knowlecl.'le will be spelled "nolej," and is there any less
r esemblance between "no" and "nolej," than between
"know" and "knowledge?" A gain those unacquainted with
Greek will perhaps be surprised to learn that the combination
"ph" is never used in that language at all, but that, on the
contrary, all those words derived from the Greek which are
spelled in English with "ph," have in the original a single
letter (<Jl ) to represent the sound indicated by "ph," and
that lette r too is no other than the original form of our ''f."
So then the "ph" in "philanthropy," and all similar words,
instead of showing their derivation from their Greek originals, only obscures that derivation, and also their affinity to
other words in English; for we have many words derived from
the Greek, which are spelled with "/" instead of "ph."
Compare the following:
Phrenology, Philosophy, Phalttnx, Phantasm, E"phony, Fallacio'IU;, lerocious , Fal$c, Fame, Offer, 4-c .

All these are from tht> Greek, and are spelled with an

"f," (<p ) instead of "ph." I s it po~sible to suppose that the
substitution (restoration) of "/," in the place of "ph," in
such words is going to obscure analogies and destroy the
science of Etymology? And yet this example is a fair illustration of the case, and the proposed reform instead of obsc11.ring analogies, will cause thousands of them to re-appear from
beneath the rubbish of our false and barbarous "01·thography." B ut once more: if, to the classical scholar, the
advantage and convenience of analogies be as great as it was
ever thought to be, and if the proposed reform would at once
annihilate tliern all, yet the reasons are as a thousand to one
in its fav or; for this advantage, whatever it is, (and it is
often much overrated, ) is only available to those who have
a classical education, (and who, as a consequence, are vastly
better able to do witli•ut it tlia'fe others,) and they hardly con-

51

stitute a thousandth part .of those who have to learn the
English language somehow. Now, is it fair that nine hundred and ninety-nine persons should be taxed the amount of
three years labor each, merely for the accommodation of one,
who is so fortunate as to be educated better than themselves?
( 3.) It is said·that if the proposed change in our orthography is made, all our libraries and books of every description will become useless, &c.
ANSWER.-It is not so ; and if it were, the pecuniary
advantage· of the reform would be more than enough to
replace them all in a short time with new editions. The
present generation of readers certainly would not lose their
ability to read our present books, and the generations that
should learn the new system would also be able to read them,
on the same principle that we are able to read the works of
Chaucer and Spenser, and other old books in which the
orthography differs from ours. We readily recognize an
acquaintance, though dressed in a new suit of clothes, and
we as readily r ecognize a familiar word in a new dress ; and
so children who have been instructed in the new orthography,
and have become familiar · with the words in that form, on
taking up one of our ordinary books immediately recognize
the words as old acquaintances, and read with little trouble.
In fact, it has been found by actual experience in a multitude
of instances, that a saving of more than one"half of the
time and labor of teaching children to read our common books
may be effected by teaching them the new, or Phonetic
system first, and then making the transition from that to the
old! But finally,
( 4.) It is said that the undertaking to change the orthography of the English language is chimerical; that it is an
impossibility to persuade the people to do it.
ANsWER.-The progress .that the reform has already made,
and especially within the last five years, proves such an
sertion to be groundless; There never was a time when

58

59

APPENDIXES,

APPENDIXES:.

its prospects were as fl attering as they are now. It has
already enlisted the sympathies and the efforts of a great
number of men of talent and learning and wealth, both in
this country and in England; it is receiving the favorable
notice of the Legislatures of the different States, and is
introduced into many of the common and higher schools.
Books and papers in the new style are published and scattered broadcast over the land. Legacies are left by capit.alists
for the use of the Phonetic Councils in carrying on their
operations. One of ten thousand dollars is appropriated to
publish a Phonetic Dictionary of the English language,
which is now in process of preparation, and will be published
soon. The thousands of people that have already been
persuaded to embrace the change, seem to indicate the
possibility of persuading others until the greut reformation
shall be fully consummated.

introduction ot Iiew terms, I have .in this as in other similar
cases, retained the old word, but have given it a new
definition.

(B.-Page 16.)
NOUNS.
The name of a material object is sometimes called a concrete, or substantive noun; as "horse," "book," &c.
The name of a quality apart from its substance is called
an abstract noun; as "goodness," "strengtli," &c.
A participle performing the office of a noun is called a
participial noun; as "He [03t his liealth by WORKING in the
mines ."
A noun denoting· a collection of individuals, as churcli,
school, army, &c., is called a collective noun.

( c.-Page 16.)
·PRONOUNS.
The term 1·epresentative or substitute would be more appropriate to this class of words than pronoun, but to avoid the

( n.-Page 16 .)
LIST OF PREPOSITIONS WITH DEFINITIONS.
R~MAnK.-The words in this and the following list, are many of
them contracted forms· of verbs, nouns, &c., (which have become
obsolete except in these forms,) and retain the signitications 6f their
orig-in·ils. Sometimes the word is still used in a different form, as a
v1rb, &c., as "if," which is the same as "give," &~.

About.-Around, on the outside, or near to.
Above -Higher than, more than, &c.
Across.-Intersecting, from side to side.
After.~Behind, later than, in pursuit of, . according to.
Against.-In opposition to, in provision for.
Along.--By the length of, onward.
Amid-Amidst.--In the midst, among.
Among.-Mixed or mingled with, of the number.
Around.-About, on all sides, from place to place.
At.-Near to, present in, towards, to, under, in, &c.
Ath;wart.-Across, from side to side.
Before.-In front, in presence of, preceding, in preference to.
Behind.-At the back of, r emaining, inferior to.
Below.-Lower than, inferior to.
Beneath.-Under, lower than, unworthy of.
Beside.-At the side of, distinct from, contrary to, out of.
Besides.-Distinct frorri, moreover.
Between.-In the intervening space, pertaining to the two
(or more.)
Betwixt.- Between.
Beyond.-On the farther side of, out of reach of, more than.
By.-Near to, through th"' l1'l.ea.JlS of, during, according to,
passing.

60

APPENDiXES.

Down.-From a higher to a lower place on, (or in.)
For.-in the place of, in the character of, towards, 011
account of, conducing to, against, because, with tegard to,
in quest of.
From.-Distant, departing, origin.
In.-Surrounded by, present, for the sake of, by, on, &c.
Into.-From the outside to the inside.
Of.-From, out of, belonging to, relating to, having.
On.-In contact with the surface, near to, in, at the time
of, for, by, after, attributed to, forward.
Over.-Across, above, upon, during, completely, again,
done.
Round.-On every side, about.
Since. -After, ago, because, &c.
Through.-From side to side of, by means of, across, in.
Throughout.-...:In every part of.
Till.-To, to the time of, to the time in which.
To.-In the direction of, at, with, a part of, for, on, m
comparison of, as far as, respecting, also.
Toward.-In the direction to, near.
U nder.-Beneath, subject to, less than, with the pretense of,
according to, in the state of, during, by, with.
U nclerneath.-Under, beneath.
Until.-To, to the place in which, to that degree in which.
U p.-From a lower to a higher place on.
Upon.-On, considering, incurring, by means of.
With.-By, against, in the company of, after, -among, &c.
Within.-Inside of, not beyond, during a time less than.
Without.-Not with, beyond, outside of, separate from.

[o* Page 16.J
CONNECTIVES.
And.-Add.
Although-Though.-Allow, grant, admit.

APPlHi' DIXll s.

61
Because.-By the cause, for the reason.
But.-Excepting, only, add, on the contrary.
If.-Give, grant, allow, suppose, whether or not.
Lest.-Loosed, separated, for fear that.
Nor.-Not or.
Or.-Other, either.
Therefore.-For that.
Unless.-Unloose, exce t.
Wherefore.-For which reason, for what reason.
Yet.-Get, notwithstanding, besides, still, at this time,
even, hitherto.
RxYARK.-For,

oonnocLive.

when It

means because, mn;y

I

be regrdet!

11•

[z.-Page 17.)
GENDERS OF NOUNS.
MAIOULlllll.

FEl>CININB.

Abbot,
Abbess,
Actor,
Actress,
Administrator, Administratri.r,
Adulterer,
Adulteres9,
Ambassador, Ambassadregs,
Ar bi tress,
.Arbiter,
Author,
AuthorellS,
Baro11e9s,
Baron,
Bridegroom,
Bride,
Ber:efactor,
Benefactress,
Caterer,
Oateress,
Ohanter,
Chan tress,
Conductor,
Oonductretia,
Count,
Oountess,
Czar,
Czarina,
Dauphin,
Dauphiness,
Deacon,
Deaconese,
Donna,
Don,
Duke,
Duchess,
Emperor,
Empresg,
Enchanter,
Enchantress,
Executor,
Executrix,
Giant,
Gian tess,
Governess,
Governor,
H eir,
Heiress,
Hero,
Heroine,
Hunter,
Huutcress.

?d:ASOULll'K.

Host,
Instructor,
Jew,
Landgrave,
Lion,
Marquis,
Margrave,
Negro,
• Patron,
Peer,
Poet,
Prior,
Prophet,
Prolector,
Priest,
Prin ce,
Sheperd,
Bong;iter,
Sorcerer,

Sultnn,
Tailor,
Testator,
Tiger,
Tutor,
Viscoun t,
Vot1try,
"Wido wer,

J"EM:IN!l'!X,

Hostess,
Instru ctress,
Jewess,
Landgra¥ine,
Lioness,
Marchioneas,
M:argravino,

Negress,
Patroness,

Pue "Cs.~,

Poe ·;css,
Prioress,
Prorheteill,
Protectress,
Priestess,
Priaces11,
Sheperdess,
Sc.uigstress,
Sorcrceas,
fiultana,
Tailoress,
Testatrix,
Tigress,

Tutornss,
Viscountess,
Vot.aress,
Widow.

a

APPENDIXES.

APPENDIXE S .

62

D atum,
D esideratum,
Direresis,
D ogma,
Effluvium,
Eli psis,
Emphasis,
Encomium,
Ephemeris,
Erratum,
Focus,
Formula,

DIFFERENT WORDS.
M ASCWLI!\'9.

Beau,
Iloy,
Brother,
Buck,
Drake,
Earl,
F11tbor,
l'riar or Monk,
Gander,
Gen\leman,
Hart,
H orse,
Husband,
Ring,
L ad,

l' EM!ll'l!IJt,

Bello,
Girl,
Sister,
Doe,
Duck,
Countess,
Mother,
Nun,
Goo11a,
Lady,
Roe,
Mare,
Wife,
Queen,
l ass.

){A SCVLIN!l.

VJnIJNIN Jl .

L andlorcl,
Lord,
Malo,
Man,
Master,
Master,

L andlady,
L ady,
F em ala
Woman,
Mistrern,
Mi8B,

Mister,

Misses,

Nephew,
Papa
So n,
Stag,
Uncle,
Wiznnl,

Mis~,

J.~E M I NINE .

[T.- Pagc 18.]
IRREGULAR PLURALS.
~I!iGULAR.

PLURAL,

Alumni,•
.A l urnnns,
Amanuen sis, Amanuenses,
Analyses,
Analy s1s,
4nirnalcnlum, Animalcula,
Antitheses,
A'IltiLhes is,
Apicrs, •
Apex,
Appendices,"
Appendix,
ArcanaJ *
Arcanum,
Automata,•
.Automaton ,
Axes,
Axis,
Banditti, "
Bandit,
Bases,
Basis,
Beaux,
:Reau,
Calces, •
Calx,
Cherubim,•
Cherub,
Chrysalides,
Chrysalis,
Cri1i s,
Cri>iB,
Crhcria, ~
Criterion,

SI!iGUJ.AR.

Fungu s,
Genus,
Gymn asiu m,
Hypothesis,
Jg nis fatuus,
I ndex,
Lana,
Lamina,
Medium,
Mem orarnlum,
Metamorphosis,
Miasma,
Momentum,
Mons ieur,
Nebula,
OasiH,

Parenthesis,
Pha1'3 ia,

Phenomena,"
Radii, •
Scorire, •
Scholia,"
Seraphim,~

Specula,"
Stamina,•
Stimuli,
Strata,•
Theses,
Vortices,•

R11:MUK.-Those marked thus ("] have also regular plurals.

Maid-servant,
Female-ch ild,
S.hc-goat.

Man-servant,
l\Iale-child,
He -goat,

Foci,.;

Formulre, •

Phenomenon,
Radius,
Scoria,
Scholium,
Seraph,
Speculum,
Stamen,
Stimulus,
Stratum,
Thesis,
Vortex,

N i~c e,

Mam ma,
Daughter,
Hind,
A unt,
Witch .

WORDS PUEFIXED.
l.1: ASGULINE,

Data,"
D esiderata, •
Direreses,
Dogmata,"
Effluvia, •
Elipses,
Emphases,
Encomia, "
Ephemerides,
Errata •

63

PLUUAL

F ungi,•
G enera,
Gymtrn&ia,

''1

RJpoth e~es,

I gnis futui,
lud ices, *
Larvre, ..
Lam in,ro,
Media;··
Memorand a, •
Metamorphoses,
Miasmata, •
Mome nta,~

Messieurs,
N t:bulm, •
Oases,
raren tlicsos,
PL ams,

[F.*-Page 18.J
MESSRS.
This is an abbreviation of the French Messieurs, and 1s
used as the Plural of Mr. the abbreviation of Mister. It
seems to have been adopted because the regular plural of
M'r. (Mrs.) had been previously adopted as the abbreviation
of Mistress. The pronunciation usually given of Messrs.
(i.e. Messurs, or Messyurs,) is an outrageous barbarism. If
the abbreviation is retained it should in reading, &c., be pronounced Misters; but it would be much better to use Mr's
instead of M ess1·s., and then pronounce it Misters. The
possessive case of Mr. when not joined with a name is
Mr.---'s.

[ G.-Page .20]
MODIFIER.S .
This class includes what have usually been called articles,
adj ectives and adverbs. There appears to be no necessity or
good reason for thus dividing the class. Such a division
always causes great perplexity to the student and sometimes
to the teacher.

APPENDIXES.

G4

APP:SNDIJ:EIS.

[u.-Page 20. J
DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
.
. . de,qree imp
· 11es
. a com pan·son of the person
, , or
Th e positive
tliing menti oned with some imaginary standard. I ~iat
nandard sometimes appears to be one of absolute perfection,
and in th at case the positive degree affirms only an approach
more or less near to the standard; as when we say of a body
th at it is round, we only mean to assert that it approaches.
more or less near to an ideal form of p erfect roundnes11. Hence,
evidently, one thing may approach nearer to the standard
than another, and may thus be called rounder, ~c. But
frequently the" imaginary standard" instead of bemg one of
absolute perfection, is only equal to the average degree of
the quality in the class to which it belongs. In that case the
positive de(l'ree affirms that the person or thing me ntione~,
comes f ull; up to the standard; but it is obvious that this
standard may be indefinitely surpassed. H ence, when w ~ say
that a tree is tall, we mean that it is as tall as the genetalzty of
tall trees. But another tree may of course _be ~aller, and a
third may be the t allest, &c. The terminat10n ish does not
f orm a degree of comparison, but words with tha~ ending ar~
in the positive degree and may be c?mpare~ like othe:s,
thus, sweeti1h, more sweeti1h, most sweetish ; rcd1sh, le~s redisli,
least redish, &c.

[r.-Page 21.]
IS "AM" A VERB 1
It will probably occasion some surprise to find what bas
been called "tlta VERD to be," in all its ·rnrieties, completely
shut out from the class called verbs. But let no one be
abrmcd. This old favorite is by no means degraded by the

65

new arrangement, but is rather advanced to a more promi nent
and honorable position. It certainly has some peculiarities
which entitle it to a place of eminence. Its use appears to"
be peculiar and different from that of any verb. It may be
th at it had originally the same meaning as the verb exist, but
the fact that both these words are retained in the language,
i~ presumptive evidence that such is not the case now, and
the more attention is directed to this point, the more evident
it will doubtless become. In those sentences where "is" or
"am" is usually supposed to mean "exist," it will be found
that the predicate is the participle "exi1ting" understood,
and that "is," &c., is only the copula as usual. Other predicates are often understood after "is,'' as in this example :
"is he ready?" ANSWER.-" He is," i. e. "he is ready."
Certainly, in this case, there is no reference to existence. It
is not "existence" but "readiness" that is affirmed of " he."
In the example "He that cometh toJ God must believe tliat HE rs,
and that he is a~rewarder," &c., there is reference to" ettistence," but because the word " existing" is not in11erted, we are
no more authorized to infer that "is" means "exist," than
we are in the other example to conclude that it means "ready."
Again, in the sentence" The wicked will DE annihilated," if
be means exist, the sentence becomee "Tile wicked will EXIST
annihilated!" What kind of an existence will that be? "A
Fairy rs an imagirtary creature." If "is" means "exists,"
th en "A Fairy EXISTS an imaginary creature." Now the
author has for a long time supposed "an imaginary creature"
to be one that does not exist; and besides, some distinguished
man has said that "Such a thing as a .fairy never did and
never can exist." "That rs a non-entity." Does "is" mean
exist in this case? If so, then "a non-entity" is not, as most
people suppose, "something wliich does not e.r:ist." [See Graham's English Synonyms, &c.

66

APPENDIXES.

APPENDIXES.
PllJCSENT,

[i.-Page 23.]
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
PRESEN'r.

Abide,
Awake,
Bear,
Beat,
Begin,
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,
Burn,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catch,
Chide,
Choose,
Cleave, (to split,)
Cling,
Clothe,
Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Crow,
Cut,
Dare,
Deal,
Dig,
Do,
Draw,
Dream,
Drink,
Drive,
Dwell,
Eat,
Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,

PAST.

PAST PART!ClIPLJC,

abode,
awoke,
bore,
beat,
began or be~un,
bent or ban ed,
bereft or bereaved,
besought,
bid or bade,
bound,
bit,
bled,
blew·,
broke,
bred,
brought,
built or buildcd,
blirnt or burned,
burst,
bought,
cast,
caught or catchecl,
chid,
chose,
clove, cleft,
clung,
clothed, clad,

abode,
awaked,
borne or born,
beaten or beat,
begun,
bent,
bereft or bereand,
besought,
bid.
bound.
bitten or bit,
bled,
blown,
broken,
bred,
brought,
built or builded,
burnt or burned,
burst,
bought,
cast,
cau~ht or catchecl,
chi den, chid,
chosen,
cloven, cleft,
clung,
clothed, clad,

came,

come,

cost,
crept,
crowed, crew,
cut,
dared, durst,
dealt, dealed,
dug, digged,
did,
drew,
dreamed, dreamt,
drank,
drove,
cl welt, dwellecl,
eat, ate,
fell,
fed,
felt,
fought,
fouud,

cast,
crept,
crowed,
cut,
dared,
dealt, doa!ed,
dug, digged,
done,
drawn,
dreamed, dreamt,
drank,
clri'ren,
dwelt, dwelled,
eaten,
fallen,
fed,
felt,
fought,
found,

Flee,
Ffao
0
Fly, '
Forsake,
Freeze,
Freight,
Get,
Gild,
Gird,
Give,
Go,
Grave,
Grind,
Grow,
Hang,
Have,
Hear,
Heave,
Hew,
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,
Keep,
Kneel,
Knit,
Know,
Lade (to load,)
Lay,
Lead,
Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie, (to recline,)
Light,
Lose,
Make,
Mean,
Meet,
Mow,
Pay,
Pen, (lo enclose,)
Put,
Quit,
Read,
Rend,
Rid,
Ride,
Riug,
Rise,
Rive,

PAS:r,

fled,
flung,
flew,
forsook:,
froze,
freighted,
got,
gilded, gilt,
girt, girded,
gave,
went,
graved,
ground,
irew,
ung,
had,
heard,
heaved, hove,
hewed,
hid,
hit,
held,
hurt,
kept,
lmccled, knelt.
knit, knitted,
knew,
laded.
laid,
led,
left,
lent,
let,
lay,
lighted. lit,
1ost,
made,
meant,
met,
mowed.
paid,
penned, pent,
put,
quit, quitted,
read,
rent,
rid,
rode,
rang, rung,
rose,
rived,

(i"f
PAST PARi'ICIPLl!,

fled,
flung,
flown,
foriakeo,
frozen,
fi:aught, f'reighte<l,
got, gotten,
·
gilded, gilt,
g!rt, girded,
given,
gone,
graven, graved,
ground,
frown,
Uni",
had,
heard,
heaved,
hewn, hewed,
hid, ft1iaden,
hit,
held,

oo:r.t,
kept,
kncelcd, knelt,
knit, knitted,
known,
laden,
laid,
led,
left,
lent,
1€t,
lain,
lighted, lit,
>Jost,
made,
meant,
met,
mowed, mown,
paid,
penned, pent,
put,
quit, quitted,
read,
rent,
rid,
rode, riddeu,
~og,

r1seu 1

r.i.veo,

APl'ENDIXES.

PRESE:l'T.
Run,
Saw,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Seethe,
Sell,
Bend,
Se~

Sit,
Shake,
Shape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shed,
Shine,
Shoe,
Shoo t,
Show,
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sl, y,
S!rnp,
8lidti,
S ling,
Slink,
Slit,
S mite,
Sow, (scrrUcr,)
Speak,
Speed,
Spell,
Spend,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick ,
Sting,

Stride,
Strike,
String,
Stri.,-e,
Strow,

PAST,
ran,

sawed,
said,
saw.
sought.
seethed, sod,
sold,
sent.
set,
sat,
shook,
shaped,
shaved,
sheared,
shed,
shiucd, shone.
shod,
shot,
showed,
shred,
shrunk, shrank,
shut,
BUD~,
BUil ~,

slew,
slept,
slid,
slung ,
slunk,
sli t, slitled,
smote,
sowed ,
spoke,
sped ,
spelled, spelt,
spent,
spilt, spilled,
spun,
epi t,
split,
spread,
sprang, sprung,
stood,
stole,
stuck,
stuug,
strod e,
struck,
strung,
Btrove,
Etrowc.d,

69

.APPENDIXES.

PAST PARTICIPU:.

PRESE!IT.
Swear,
Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,
Swim,

run,

sawn, sawed,
said,
aeen,

sought,
seethed, sodden,
sold,
sent,
set,
eat,
shaken,
Bhaped, shapen,
shaved, shaven,
shorn, sheared,
shed,
shined, shone,
shod,
shot,
shown,
shred,
shrunk,
shut,
sunf-,
sun~,

slain,
slept,
slid, slidden,
sl ung,
slu nk,
slit, slitted,
smitten, sm it,
sown, sowed,
spoken , spoke,
~pod,

spelled, &pelt,
sper·t,
spil t, spi:Jed,
spua,
spit,
split,
spread,
sprung,

stood,
stolen,
stuck,
stung,

striddeB,
struck,
stru ng,

striven,

st.rown, st.rewed,

0

PAST.
PAST PARTICIPLE.
swore,
sworn,
sweat, sweated,
sweat, sweated,
swefit,
swefit,
swe led,
swo !en, swelled,
swam, swum,
swum,
Swin~,
swung,
swung,
Take,
took,
taken,
T each,
taught,
taught,
T ear,
tore,
furn,
Tell,
told,
told,
Think,
thought,
thought,
Thrive,
throve, thrived,
thrived,
Throw,
threw,
thrown,
Thrust,
thrust,
thrust,
Tread,
trod,
t rodden, trod,
Wear,
wore,
worn,
Weave,
wove,
wo\cn, wove.
W eep,
wept,
wept,
Wet,
wet,
wet,
Whet,
whet, whetted,
whetted, whet,
Win,
won ,
won,
Wind,
wound,
wound,
Work,
worked,
worked, wrought,
Wring,
wrung,
wrung,
Write,
wrote,
written.
REMAll.K.- Compound >erbs, (as overtake, &.:c.,) are conjugated like
the simple ones from which they are derived.

[x:.-Page 22.J
CONJUGATION IN THE SOLEMN STYLE.
TIIll: VERB
Simple '1.'ensc1J.
Pres . Love11t,
Past. Lovedst,
Fut. Shall love,
Ind. Mayest love,

LOVE,
THE OOPULA,
Comp11und '1.'ens1JS. Simpla.
Compound,
Hast loved,
Art,
Hast been.
Hadst loved,
Wast,
Hadst been.
Shalt hnve loved,
Wilt b e,
Wilt have been.
Mayest have loved, Mayest be, MayEllt_have been

[L.-Page 25.J
LIST OF PREFIXES.
n.-On, in, at.
a, ab! abs.- Departure, taking from ,
pnvat10n.
ad, ac, af. a~, &c.- To.
ambi - Bot1, doubtful.
amb, am, ampbi. -.About, around.
ante.- Before.
ant, anti -Ag~inst.
be-Upon, over, ubout, to make.

bene. -Goocl, well.
all-Most, wholly.
after.- Behind, later.
a, (Greek.)-Witho11t.
ana.- .Again, up, through.
aristo.- Tbe few, best.
astro.- A star.
auto.-One's self,
npo, aph.-Frorn, awny from.

3•

.

.

70

APPENDIXES.

bi, bis-Two, twice.
male, mal.-E-vil, bad.
bio.-Life.
multi, poly.-Many.
biblio.-A book.
manu.-A hand.
chrono.-Time.
non, ne, un.-Nol, depriving.
choro.- A place.
noct.-Night.
chiro.-The hand.
ob, oc, of, &c.-In front, against, in,
cosmo.-The world.
on;
olig.-A few,
ccntu, centi, cent.-A hundred.
over.-Above, beyond:
contra.- Against, opposition.
eo, com, con, &c.-With, together. out.-Beyond, more than.
circum.-Around, about.
octo, octa, oct.-Eight.
counter .-Opposite, against, c01Tes- osteo.-A bone.
p onding.
ortho.-Right, correct.
de.-From, down, not,
oroitho.-A b ird.
di, dis, d if.- Separation, two, out, philo, phil.-A friend, lover.
not.
peri.-N ear, around.
para.-Against, near, similar.
deca .-Ten.
dia.-Through.
pan, panto, omni.-All.
duo.-Two.
pyro.-Fire, heat.
dys.-Bad, ill, difficult.
pbysico, physio.-Nature. natural.
epi.-Io, on.
pleni.-Full.
cntomo.-An insect.
penta.-Five.
e, ex, ef, drn .- Out, beyond, from.
preter .-Beyond, past, more.
p@st.-After.
en, em .-In, to make.
en.- Good, well
proto.-First.
equ i.-Equal.
pro.-For, fore, forth, out.
extra.-Beyond, uncommonly.
per.-Through, by, mauy.
fore.-Previously, before.
pre.-Before.
for.-Ap; aiost, away, asido.
quad, tctra.-Four.
geo.-1'he earth.
re.-Again, back.
retro.-Backward.
genea.-Lineage, descent.
sub, suf, &c.-Under, after.
h omo.-Of the same kind.
hetero.-Of anotl1cr kind.
semi, demi, hemi.-Half.
he pta, sept.- Sevcn .
se.-Aside, apart.
lwlio,-Thc sun.
super, supra, snr.-Above, cpon.
self.-Individually, without help.
h ex, hexa, sex.-Six.
hydro.-Water.
soli.-One alone.
hyper -O v9r, excess.
sine.--Withont
high.-Elevated, superior.
sym, syn, &c.-With, together, to.
iutcr .-Amoni:. between.
stgno.- Short.
im, in, ig, &c.-Not, in, into, on.
stereo.-Solid, firm.
theo.-God.
intro.-Withio, in to.
lnfra.-Below, under.
thenno .-Warmth.
topo.-A place.
ichthyo.-.A. fish.
juris.-LPga\, lawful
tyµo.-A type, mark, letter.
jnxta.-N eor, nex\.
trans, u\tra.-Across, beyond .
Jexi co.- A dictionary.
tri.-Three.
litho.-A. Ht<me.
uni.-Onc.
mono.-One, alone.
nnd er.-B ene.ath, inferior.
up.-Elevated, inverted.
miw, mis, (Greek. )-Hatred.
mytho.-A fable.
with.--Aga inst, from.
meta.-A change, after, according to. w 0 .-An nni ma!.
u1i s.-Wrong, erroneous.

APPENDIXES.

LIST OF SUFFIXES.
ble.-That may be; state.
bleneas. ~
bility. 5 That property or quailty that may be, capazity, state.
nee, ncy.-The .state, act of, the thing.
~mt, ent.-Contmuing, the person or thing.
ion, men t.-The act of, state of being.
ntc.-Having t~ie quality, to, to make.
age.-Rauk, office, state, allowance.
en, fy, fi :, fic.-To make, _made of.
er, or, an, tan, ix, u.ian ast ess (
ress, ee, eer, ist, ite, ine,' san,' zoo'. 5 The pel"Son who.
nr, ary, a~d, ate, i_ve, ster, ado, oso.-( Sometimes) the person o th'
~r, ~ry, 1c, al, ical, ~
. .
r m~.
Ile, rnc, ac, tial, cial. 5 (Generally) pertamrng to, relating to, like.
10
! od.-;-State, ooodition, office.
ile.-'Ihat may be, pe1taining to easily
'
ty, cy.-State, condition, reality.'
~ve.-Tendir~g to, the power or nature of.
~ .im. -D octrme, state, science, &c.
~zo. -To make, to assimilate.
~cs.- The sciences, doctrine, att.
ish.-Like, somewhat.
less.-Without, destitute of
ling, kin, cle, ule, ette.-Li ttle young
ly.-Like, in a manner.
'
'
ful, o.oe.-Full of, abounding in.
mg.-Continuingo.
ness.-The quality of, state.
ous.-Partaking of, liki>, consisting of.
f~rous.-Producing, causing.
01d.-Rcsembling, the form of.
o_ry.-Containi_ng'. t~nding to, nature of, place for.
r 1c, dom.-Jurisdtctron, possession.
ship. -Office, state, district.
ud,•.-Stalo of being, capacity.
war,J.-Iu a direction.
ure.-The act, art, state, thing.
cry, ry, Y. -Ar~, practice, place, state, possession thing.
some.-:-Pus8eBsmg a degree of.
'
cd.-D1d.
0

•O'l'llJ'U,.

ExH1rL11:s.-/n .mean a not.· ui.r.,
._ lience U<comple/o means not
&c: ; or means the person w!to, hence actor mQans the person w!to act$, .le.
n~ss rneans tli e quality of, hence bitterness signifies the quality ef L.:-011/cr, &c., kc.
~,.....

72

A PPEl(D lX ES.

[11.-Page 26.]

[ o.-Page 50. ]

ELLIP TICAL SENTENCES.
Many sentences are very elliptical; that is, ~ore or less of
the words necessary to complete the grammatical structure
and fully express the meaning are, omitted, as "~hat do
you wisli for?" ANSWER.-"A pen." That is, (Iw.sl~ for)
a pen. In this case the words within the parenth e~1s arc
said to be understood; that is, they arc at once perceived to
b e necessary fully to express the meaning of the speaker.
Not only are words simply omitted, but various other ~o.des
of abbreviation are used, as tl1 c substitution of a part1~1p~e
or infinitive phrase for a whole sentence: &c . Tins. is
especially the case in compact sentences, as m the follow'.n~
examples . "Had he assisted me, I would have done it.
. ,,
· " .lJ
u he had assisted me, then I would
have
done •it.
Tl lat JS,
.
"
"Being j ustified by faith we have peace w1tli God, &c., J. c.
" When we are justified by f aith, then," &c. "I was hungry,
and ye gave rne no meat," i. e. "Tlwugh I was liungry, yet-: :
" Sucli being the case, there is of course an encl to argun~ent.
i. c. " When such is the case, then," &c. "To deny this, lie
must forfeit euery claim to the title of an honest man." i. e.
" Whe n he shall deny this, then ," &c.

[N.- Pagc 25.]

L1ST OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.
Althongh, though .- yet.
Either. - or.
N cither.- nor,
As. - as, so.
::>o - as.
Not oo ly. - 1.Jut.
Such .- us.
Mor~, &c.-than.
J ndecd . -bnt.

When.- theu.
Where. - thero.
Therefore. - bccausc, for.
If.- thcn, yet.
U nless. -tbeu.
Now, then.- while.
·w1,. ther.-or ,
}'oras mu ch as.- thercfore.

73

FIGURES OF SPEECH.
Figures of speech are expressions whose meaning is different from the ordinary or literal signification of the words ;
as " T lie soul mounts on the wings of faitli ;" " Youth is the
morning of life," &c .
A Simile is a direct, formal comparison; as "He rushed
like a tiger on his victim," &c.
A .Metaphor is an implied comparison; as "T!tat man is a
fox; "He bridles his tongue," &c.
An Allegory is an extended or continued metaphor; as in
Psalms 80: 8-16; Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, &c.
An Antithesis is an expression of opposition or contrast;
as " Though deep, yet clear; " T hougl• gentle, yet not dull."

A Hyperbole is an exaggeration in the use of langu age, for
the purpose of making it more impressive; as "He was so
gaunt, the case of a flageolette was a palace for ltim."
Irony is mode of expression in which the literal meaning
is exactly opposite to that intended; as "Pope H ildebrand,
you know, was remarkable for Ms mee.'!fness and humility."
Metonymy is a figure in which one thing is put for another ;
as" Gray hairs (i. e. old age) should be respected."
Synecdoclie is a figure in which a part is put fo r the whole ,
or the whole for a part; as "T!tis roof (house ) sltall be liis
protection; ''Fishes have scales.'' i. ''Some or mostfi s!tes," &c,

a

Personification is a figure by which irrational animals and
things without life are represented as if they were intelligent;
as " See Winter comes to rule the varied year," &c.
Apostroplie is a direct address to some person or thing
either present or absent; as "Hail, ltoly ligltt," &c., in Milton; Tell's Address to the Mountains, &c.
Interro,qat£on is a figure in which a question is asked fo r

74

the purpose of expressing a contrary assertion more strongly;
as "Bu t when sliall we be stronger? Will it be wlien our
enemies lwve bound u:; hand and fo ot?"
Vision or I magery is the representation of events as if they
were passing before our eyes; as
"Methinks I bohold her surrou nded by her beloved charge, like a
being more than hu~&n; . t~ which; every fl:lind ~s ben•, and cv~ry eye
directed; the eager s1mphc1ty of rnfancy mhalrng fr~ ~ her lips the
sacred truths of roligion in adapted phra~e a~d ~am1!tar sto:y ;, tho
whole rule of th eir moral and religious duties i.1mp!tfied for eruuer m.fueioo . The countenance of that fond and an:u ous parent, all beammg
with delight and love, and her eye raised oecasionally to heaven in fervent supplication fo r a blessing on her work."

Climax is a figure in which the least impressive idea is
placed first, the more striking next, and so on to that which
is the most impressive; as " Wliat a piece of work is man!
how noble in rea1on; how i11finile in faculties I i11 form and
moving lww express and admirable I in action how like an angel I
in app rek ensi.on, how like a god!"

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
They are afraid.
Time is short.
The boy is waiting.
Wisdom is precious.
The letter is written.
Gold is yellow.
The maps arc hanging.
Lead is heavy.
The boys are playing.
Iron is strong.
J ames was studious.
J olm is a workman.
They were studying.
J ames is a carpenter .
I shall be willing.
William is a blacksmith.
We shall be happy.
Thomas is a scholar.
Books may be studied.
H e is a musician.
They can be ready.
She is a milliner.
You must be careful.
It is a pity.
The house might be bought.
We are sorry.
The land could be sold.
You arc glad.

715
They would be present.
Scholars should be diligent.
I am ready.
He was waiting.
It is not certain.
The house is not white.
The roads are not good.
I write.
He writes.
James wrote.
They will write.
We shall write.
The scholars may write.
The boys have written.
Mary has written.
You had written.
The man will have written.
They must h ave written.
He writes well.

She sings sweetly.
They recited promptly.
The young horse r an away.
The oJd man lost his hat.
The poor man broke his arm.
He so~d the old farm-house.
I shall return to-morrow.
We may go to-night. '
He went into the house.
She has gone into the field.
H e fell on the ground.
The man wrote to his friends.
He cut the string with a knife.
John is very studious.
You are not very diligent.
We do try to learn.
He did go to Boston.
We did not believe tho story.

The little girls write beautifully.
The white dove broke the window.
They have returned from the fair.
The man was greatly distressed on account of his loss.
The windows of heaven were opened.
Th e poor are often wanting in the necessaries of life.
Public wisdom, on some occasions, must condescend to
give way to popular folly.
The prosperity of the wicked is not durable.
By means of their standing armies they have lost their
liberties.
Besides this powerful engine of government, he had a most
extraordinary talent of persuading men to his purposes.
He tried to deceive the people ; but he did not succeed.

76

AFPE;ND!XES.

I went to Chardon yesterday ; and I shall go to-morrow.
I shall remain at home ; but Susan will go to school.
The man who is honorable in his dealings will be respected.
Th ose who waste their time will never prosper.
He that is wise will shun t emptation.
That which is agreeable is often dangerous.
I have seen the man of whom you speak.
I had foro·otten th e circumstance which you mention.
We have Just seen the man that fell from the roof yesterday,
When I shall see it, then I will believe it.
Though he had no money, yet he found means to go.
If you will assist me, then I will undertake it.
.
As in Adam all di e, so in Christ shall all be made alive.
I wrote because it amused me.
When he had fini shed the speech he resumed his seat.
.
He left them exa,ctly where ~ie found them.
Had he asked me to assist him I would have done 1t.
Were I in his place I would resign my commission.
A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope.
J3ein 0rr conci ous of his error, he tri ed to apologize.
•
Perplexed by the difficulties of the search, he gave up m
despair.
Reduced to extreme necessity, he returned to his fath er.
Saving the fruits of his labor, he was at length able to buy
a farm.
I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat.
I have 0o-iven five -times as much as he, and yet I fear that
I have not given enough.
Let him see that something is to be gained by study, and
then he will apply himself to books.
This event having occurred, he felt unable to remain in that
place.
His fri end being much affected, he endeavored to compose
him self.

77

The horses having run away, we were obliged to go on
foot.
The provisions having been stolen, we were in great
want.

In order to succeed, it is necessary that they should seem
honest.
To overcome these difficulties he had recourse to many
subtile arts.
In order to meet this demand, he was obliged to sell his
farm.
To secure the life of his friend, he cheerfully gave up
his own.
It was not an eclips6 that caused the darkness at the crucifixion of our Lord ; for the sun and moon were not relatively
in a position to produce an eclipse; but a direct interposition
of God; for on no other supposition can we account for it.
They had not come in search of gain, for the soil was sterile
and unproductive; but they had come that they might worship God according to the dictates of their own consciences.
W e must not impute the delay to indifference, for delay
may be designed to promote our happiness.
I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill.
It is not his power, as attested by all that exists within
the limits of actual discovery, but his power as conceived
to form and uphold a universe whose outskirts arc unknown.
You were paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail
at him.
They were asleep; not alienated.
His wisdom, not his talents, attracts attenti on.
Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction.
Nay, but it's really true;
I had it from good hands, and so may you.

78

APPENDIXES.

Is James ready ? Are you prepared ?
Was it really so? H ave they no remedy?
W era they in their right mind?
Where were the other members of the party ?
Where did he make that discovery ?
What was the consequence of his rashness ?
Why arc they so careless of their health?
Who are those men on the hill yonder?
Which way is that vessel steering ?
Wherefore do they send me this message ?
Do you intend to go West, or remain in Boston?
Are you willing to assist me, or must I depend entirely
upon my own resources
Then you saw him when he fell?
.Tames return to your seat. Lay this book on the table.
Let it not be said that you have learned nothing in school
this term.
Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.
Do let me see that new book of yours.
James and his brother arrived here last night.
The teacher and the students were all much interested
ill the mbject of the lecture.
Th e man was very h appy in the selection of his subject,
and very skillful in the management of it..
The young ladies, and the young gentlemen too, were not
only willing but anxious to unite their efforts for the preservation of good order iu the school.
Well, cousin, how do you like our new situation?
Really I think it is both pleasant and beautiful.
How came you to be so fortunate as to get it?
Are vou sure of it? Yes; very sure. Will he not go ?
No. ·He refuses to go on any condition.

APPEll'DIXE S,

79

To retaliate an injury is to make two wrongs where there
was but one before.
"Time and tide stay for no man," is a saying often heard,
but seldom heeded.

THE PURITANS.-[MAcAULAY.
The puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar
character from the daily contemplation of superior beings
and eternal interests. Not content with acknowledging in
general terms an overruling Providence, they habitually
ascribed every event to the will of the Great Being, for whose
power nothing was too vast, for whose inspection nothing
was too minute. To know Him, to serve Him, to enjoy Him,
was with them the great eni of existence. They rejected
with contempt the ceremonious homage which other sects
substituted for the pure worship of the soul. Instead of
catching occasional glimpses of the Deity through an obscuring veil, they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable
brightness, and to commune with Him, face to face. Hence
originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. The
difference between the greatest and the meanest of mankind
seemed to vanish when compared with the boundless interval
which separated the whole race from Him on whom their
eyes were constantly fixed. They recognized no title to
superiority but His favor; and, confident of that favor, they
despised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the
world. If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of
God. If their names were not found in the registers of
heralds, they felt assured that they were recorded in the .
Book of Life. If their steps were not accompanied by a.
splendid train of menials, legions of ministering angels had

80

APP EN DIXE S .
APPENDIXES.

charge over them. Their palaces were houses .not made
with hands; their diadems, crowns of glory which should
never fade away. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles
and priests, they looked down with contempt; for they esteemed theroselYes rich in a more precious treasure, and
eloquent in a more sublime language, nobles by the right of
an earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of a
mightier hand.

EVENING ON THE ST. LAWRENCE.-[Sr111M.A.N.
From the moment the sun is down, everything becomes
silent on the shore which our windows overlook ; and the
murmurs of the broad St. Lawrence, more than two miles
wide immediately above us, and a little way to t~ie rig.ht
spreading to five or six miles in breadth, are so~et1mes for
an hour the only sounds that arrest our attent10n. Eve~y
evcnin rr since we have been here, black clouds and splendid
rooonli:'ht
have huno-0 over and embellished this tranquil
0
scene ; and on two of these evenings we have been attracted
to the window by the plaintive Canadian boat-song. In one
instance it arose from a solitary voyager, floating in his light
canoe, which occasionally appeared and disappeared on the
sparkling river, and in its distant course seemed no larger
th an some sportive insect. In another in.stance, . a larger
boat, with more numerous, and less melodious voices, not,
indeed, in perfect harmony, passed nearer to the shore, and
gave additional life to the scene. A few moments after, the
moon broke out from a throne of dark clouds, and seemed
to convert the whole expanse of water into one vast sheet of
glittering silver; and in the very brightest spot,. at the distance of more than a mile, again appeared a solitary boat,
but too distant to adroit of our hearing the song with which
r.he boatman was probably solacing his lonely course.

81

THE CHRISTIAN CHARACTER.-[E. CooPl!:R.
The true Christian must show that he is in earnest about
religion. In the management of his worldly affairs he must .
let it clearly be seen that he is not influenced by a worldly
mind; that his heart is not upon earth; that he pursues his
worldly calling from a principle of duty, not from a love of
gain ; and that, in truth, his treasures are in Heaven. He
must, therefore, not only "provide things honest in the sight
of all men"-not only avoid everything which is fraudulent
and unjust in his dealings with others-not only openly protest against those iniqutious practices which the custom of
trade too frequently countenances and approves-but also
he must let his moderation be known to all men. H e must
not push his gains with seeming eagerness, even to the
utmost lawful extent. He must exercise forbearance. H e
must be content with moderate profits. H e must sometimes
even forego advantages which, in themselves he might innocently ta~ e, lest he should seem to give any ground for suspec.ting that his heart is secretly set upon these things.
Thus also with respect to worldly pleasures ; he must endeavor to convince men that the pleasures which religion
furnishes are far greater than those which the world can
yield. While, therefore, he conscientiously keeps from
joining in those trifling, and, too often, profane amusements
in which ungodly men profess to seek their happiness, h e
must yet labor to show that in keeping from those things, he
is, in respect to real happiness, no loser, but even a gainer by
religion. He must avoid everything which may look like
moroseness and gloom. He must cultivate a cheerfulness of
spirit. He must endeavor to show, in his whole deportment,
the contentment and tranquility which naturally flow from
h eavenly affections, from a mind at pence with God, and
from a hope full of immortality.

82

APPENDI!EB.

SUNRISE ON THE HILLS.-[H.

83

APPE~DIXES.

w.

LONGFELLOW.

I stood upon the hills, where heaven's wide arch
Was glorious with the sun's returning march,
And woods were brightened, and soft gales
Went forth to kiss the sun-clad vales.
The clouds were far beneath me ;-bathed in light
They gathered midway round the wooded height,
And in their fading glory shone
Like hosts in battle overthrown.
As many a pinnacle with a shifting glance,
Through the gray mist thrust up its shattered lance,
And rocking on the cliff was left
The dark pine, blasted, bare and cleft.
The veil of cloud was lifted-and below
Glowed the rich valley, and the I-iver's flow
Was darkened by the forest's shade,
Or glistened in the white cascade,
Where upward, in the mellow blush of day,
The noisy bittern wheeled his spiral way.
I heard the distant waters dash,I saw the current whirl and flash;And richly, by the blue lake's silver beach,
The woods were bending with a silent reach.
Then o'er the vale, with gentle swell,
The music of the village bell
Came sweetly to the echo-giving hills,
And the wild horn, whose voice the woodland fills,
Was ringing to the merry shout
That faint and far the glen sent out,Where, answering to the sudden shot, thin smoke
Through thick-leaved branches from the dingle broke.If thou art worn and hard beset
With sorrows that thou woulJ'st forget,-

If thou would'st read a lesson that will keep

Thy heart from fainting, and thy soul from sleep,
Go to the woods and hills! No tears
Dim the sweet look that Nature wears.

'fl-IE TREADMILL SONG.---[O.

w.

HOLMES.

The stars are rolling in the sky,
'fhe earth rolls on below,
And we can feel the rattling wheel
Revolving as we go.
Then tread away, my gallant boys,
And make the axle fly!
Why should not wheels go round about
Like planets in the sky?
Wake up, wake up, my duck-legg'd man,
And stir your solid pegs ;
Arouse, arouse, my gawky friend,
And shake your spider legs ; What though you're awkward at the trade?
There's time enough to learn;
So lean upon the rail, my lad,
And take another turn.
'fhey've built us up a noble wall
To keep the vulgar out;
We've nothing in the world to do
But just to walk about;
So faster, now, you middle men,
And try to beat the ends ;
It's pleasant work to ramble round
Among one's honest friends.
Here tread upon the long man's toes;
He sha'nt be lazy here ; -

A Pl'ENDIXES.

And punch the little fellow's ribs,
And tweak that lubber's ear;He's lost them both ;-don't pull )1is hair,
Because he wears a scratch;
But poke him in the farther eye,
That is'nt in the patch.

~

APPENDIXE S .

I

THE EAGLE.

j

H ark! fellows, there's the supper bell,
And so our work is done ; It' s prett; sport-suppose we take
A round or two for fun !
If ever they should turn me out
When I have better grown,
Now hang me, but I mean t-0 have
·,.
A treadmill of my own!

TELL' S ADDRESS TO THE MOUNTAINS.
Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again ; I b old to you the hands you first beheld
To show they still are free. Methinks I bear
A spirit in your echoes answer me,
And bid your tenant welcome to bis home
Again! 0 sacred forms-bow proud you look;How high you lift your beads into the sky ! H ow buo-c you are ! how mighty and how free !
Ye arc tl1e things that tower, that sbine,-whose smile
Makes glad,-whose frown is terrible,- whose forms,
Robed, or unrobed, do all the impress wear
Of awe divine l Ye guards of liberty,l'm with you once again I I call to you
.With all my voice ! I hold my hands to you
To show th ey still arc free. I rush to yov.
As thour;h I could embrace you!

J
I

j·

85

* * * Scaling yonder peak
I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow
O'er the abyss ;-his broad expanded wings
Lay calm and motionless upon the air
~
As if he floated there without their aid,
By the sole act of his unlorded will _
That buoyed him proudly up! Insjinctively
I bent my bow; yet kept he rounding still
His airy circle as in the delight
Of measuring the ample range beneath
And round about ;-absorbed, he heeded not
The d~th that threatened him !-I could not shoot!---;;
'Twas Liberty! I turned my bow aside
And let him soar away!

..
THE THREE BLACK CROWS.-[BrnoN.
T.wo honest tradesmen meeting in the strand,
O~e took the other briskly by the hand;
"Hark ye," said he, "'tis an odd story, this,
About the crows!" "!don't know what it is,"
Replied his friend. '1 No .! I'm surprised at that:
Where I come from it is the common cb.at.
But you shall hear ; -an odd affair indeed_!
And that it happened, they are all agreed.
(Not to detain you from a thing so strange, )
A gentleman that lives not far from change,
This week, in short, (as all the alley knows,)
Taking a puke, has thrown up three black crows.
"Impossible!" "Nay, but it's really true;
I had it from good bands, and so may you."

86

.APPENDIXES.

"From whose, I pray?" So, having named the man,
Straight to inquire his curious comrade ran.
"Sir, did you tell--?" relating the affair.
"Yes, Sir; I did; and if its worth your care,
Ask Mr. Such-a-one ; he told it me;But by-the-by, 'twas two black crows; not three."
Resolved to trace so wondrous an event,
Whip to the third the virtuoso went.
"Sir,"-and so forth. "Why, yes; the thing is fact,
Though, in regard to number, not exact;
It was not two black crows; 'twas only one;
The truth of that you may depend upon;
The gentleman himself told' me the case."
"Where may I find him?" "Why, in such a place."
Away he goes; and having found him out," Sir, be so good as- to resolve a doubt."
Then to his last informant he referred,
And begged to know if true what h e bad heard.
"Did you, sir, throw up a black crow?" "Not H"
"Bless me! how people propagate a lie!
Black crows h ave been thrown up, three, two and one,.
And here I find, at last, all comes to none I
Did you say nothing of a crow at all?"
"Crow,-crow,-Perh aps I might, now I recall
The matter over." "And pray, sir, what was it?"
"Why, I was horrid sick, and, at the l ast,
I did throw up, ( and told my neighbor so,)
Something that was as black, sir, a$ a crow."

THE STRATEGEM OF A THIEF.
In Broad-street buildings on a winter's night,
Snug by his parlar fire, a gouty wight
Sat all alone; with one hand rubbing

.A..P i> END! XE

s.

87

His feet,
w·

rolled up in fleecy h
.
ow,
ith. t'other he'd beneath his nose
The Public Ledger; in whose columns grubbing
He noted all the sales of slops
'
Ships, shops, and hops,
'
G.ums, galls, and g.roceries, ginger, gin,
Tar, tallow, turm!mc, turpentine and tin .
When, lo ! a decent personage in black '
Entered, and most politely said,
" Your foot.m~n, sir, has gone his nightly track
To the Kmg's Head,
And left your door ajar; which I
Observed in passing by,
And th ought it neighborly to give you notice."
" Ten thou~and· thanks ; how nry few get,
In time of danger,
Such kind attention from a stranger!
Assuredly that fellow's throat is
Doomed to a final drop at Newgate.
He ~nows, too, (the unconscious elf, )
~h at ther;:s no .soul at home except myself."
Indeed! replied the stran o-er, (lookina grave )
b
'
" Tlien 11e ' s a double knave ·b He knows that rogues and thieves by scores
Nightly beset unguarded doors;
And see how easily might one
Of these domestic foes
Even beneath your ve:y nose
Perform his knavish tricks;
'
Enter your room, as I have done
Blow out your candles thus,-and thus,P ocket your silver candlesticks
And walk off--thus."
'
So said, so done; he made no more remark

'

88

APPENDIXES.

Nor waited for replies,
But marched off with his prize;
Leaving the gouty merchant in the dark.

WATERLOO .-[BrnoN.
There was a sound of reYelry by night,
And Belgium's capital had gathered then
Her beauty and her chivalry; and bright
The lamps shone o' er fair women and brave men;A thousand hearts beat h appily, and when
Music arose with its voluptuous swell,
Soft eyes looked love to eyes which spoke again;
And all went merry as a marriage bell ;
But hush .I hark /-a deep sound strikes like a rising knell!
Did ye not hear it? No !-'twas but the wind,
Or the ear rattling o' er the stony street;On with the dance ! let joy be unconfined;
No sleep till morn, when youth and pleasure meet,
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet-But, li ar k /-that heavy sound breaks in once more,
As if the' clouds its echo would repeat;
And nearer, clearer, deadlier than before !
Arm !-Arm!-it is,-it is,-the cannon's opening roar!
Ah! th en and there was hurrying to and fro,
A nd gathering tears, and tremblings of distress,
And cheeks all pale, which but an hour ago
Blushed at the praise of their own loveliness;
And there were sudden partings, such as press
The li fe from out young hearts, and choking sighs
Which ne' er might be repeated ;-who could guess
If ever more should meet those mutual ·eyes,
Since upon a night so sweet, such awful morn could rise!

APPENDIXES.

89

And there was mounting in hot haste; the steed,
The mustering squadron, and the clattering car,
Went pouring forward with impetuous speed,
And swiftly forming in the ranks of war;
And deep the thunder, peal on peal afar,And near, the beat of the alarming drum
Roused up the soldier ere the morning star;
While thronged the citizens, with terror dumb, [come !"
Or whispering,vith white lips "The Foe! they come, they
And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves,Dewy with nature's tear-drops,-as they pass,
Grieving,-if aught inanimate ever grieves,Over the unreturning brave,-alas !
Ere evening to be trodden like the grass
Which now beneath them, but above shall grow
In its next verdure, when this fiery mass
Of living valor rolling on the foe,
And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low.
Last noon beheld them full of lusty life,
Last eve in beauty's circle proudly gay,
The midnight brought the signal sound of strife;
The morn, the marshalling in arms,-the day
Battle's magnificently stern array!
The thunder clouds close o'er it which when rent
The earth is covered thick with other clay,
'
Which her own clay shall cover, heaped and pent,
Rider and horse,-friend, foe,-in one red burial blent.

