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FIRST )}!IANUAI_J OF

CO~IPOSITIO!~

(REUSED)

BY

EDvVIN HERBERT LEW.IS
Pu .D.,
A U1.' 11 0 lt

OF

P1:0Fi-:ssoR r N THF. LE11· 1s
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"A

l NSTl'l' UT r~ , C 111 0AGO ;

AN lNTROD lJ CTION T O T ll E S T U DY OF

J .ITERATUJt E,,,

SECON D nlAN UA I, OF co~rl' OS l TLON," ETC.

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OHIO UN IV EHSl'l Y

LIBRARY
Neill

~ark

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO.,

1902
All 1·ights reserved

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LTD.

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A FIRST MANUAL OF ·COMPOSITION

PREFACE
edition is a revised and rearranged version.
The arrangement of the former lwok was aclaptecl
to the theory that the stuclent shoukl be led to find
all his own mistakes. There can be little cloubt
that a student shoul<l lea,rn to be his own critic, out
experience shows tlia,t he mu st have more a,icl in the
first year of the hi g h school than h e was allowed in_
the origi1rnl plan of this book. The directions for
revising themes are therefore much modifi ed, the
study of punctuation is massed, and a consiclerable
number of exercises is aclclecl to each chapter.
Th e new version has six chapters. Thus it provides one clrn,pter a quarter for two years. The book
is best adapted to the first two years of the high
school; but any such book is available in the last
year of a first-class grammar school. The subjects
of the six chapters are : (1) Composition in general;
(2) Punctuation and sentence-structure; (3) Correctness in the sentence; (-1:) Description; (5) Narration; (G ) Exposition and argument.
In the first chapter the st ml en t is introduced to
the general purpose of tlie study, aml is drilled in
rep roductioll, sun1111ary, aml letter-writing. In the
second he studies sentence-structure in so far as it
uears 011 puuctuaLion; a11cl lte applies his 11ew knowl'THIS

\._~(~. ·

COPYRIGHT,

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1902,

BY TllE l\lAUMILLAN CO MPANY.

Set up and electrotyped October,
'

1902.

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No rluooll 'l\Jrrss
J. S. Cu s hill~ &. Co. Brrwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S .A.

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Vl

I' REFACE

edge in short themes. ll ere is introduced a method
which is uelievecl to lie new . Instead of correcting
faulty punctuaLion, the stud ent learns .by he,a,rt forty
typical sentences, wiLh tl1 eir pm~ct:1at10n. 1hese h e
applies as touelistones to nmny sundar sentences, an<l
ever thereafter to his own work. For example, h e
learns the sentence "Take therefore no thought for
the morrow, for the morrow will take thought for t li e
thiiws
of itself." This iixcs in l1is mind the
:::.
. differ.
ence l> etween the preposition for :~nd tlie conJunct10n
for, with their ueari11g 011 punctuation. ~n the thir<l
c luivter h e reviews the practical sille of his grammar
studies, a.ml ]earns so111etl1ing about idiom. Not all
of this chapter will l>e neecl ec1 by every pupil. Tlte
experi cii ce d teacher, now farnil iar with his. student~,
will g ive to each some sys!.cnmtic drill su1~etl to 111s
n eed . This j rnportant oral work emls the fll'st year,
no themes l>eino· r ec1uircd in the later ·weeks.
'
The In.st threeb chapters constitute the seconc.l years
work. They deal in <tn elementary way w~tlt the
types of discourse, aml the principles of umty, sequence, and cont rast as they affect each type: l n the
chapter 011 description free use is made of pictures ..
A chapter on spelling is added for systematic
study . A sh ort l esson in this subject should be
given as often as twice a week throug:hout the two
yem·s. Some systems of teaching spellin g are doubtless Letter based in psychology than others. But
after all th e important thing is to teach the subject as a subject. Ten minutes of at~e~1tion fir~ed
on te n wor<ls is worth h ours of theonzmg ·
I he
spelling l esson should, of course, <tl ways include the

PR.Eli'ACE

Vll

use of the v'{'ords in sentences. vVhen 1\frs. 1\Ialaprop spoke of "ingenuity and artifice," she exactly
hit off the m ethod by which such sentences must
co me into ex isten ce.
The periocl of life for which such books as this are
designed is important l>eyoml words, and most difficult to in struct. Neither chilu nor adolescent, the
stuclent lives in the most Rig nificant of ment<tl rnomentfl, the tra1rnition from tl1e irresponsible, sensory
ehilcl to tl 1e r esJ_Jonsible a.ml rational youth.
To
interest ;md yet to disciplin e, to stir tile imagination
arnl yet ed ucate the will - these are the difficult
aJUl disparate tasks of the teacher who works in the
lower gra<les of the secondary school. The present
writer does 110t pretend to mak e any large contribution to the solution uf the gen eral prol>lcm. But in
the last six years h e has known personally a thousand of these you nger boys aml girls, has spent
many a happy and anxious hour with them in their
studies, and now wishes god-speed to every teacher
who tries to get nearer the heart and mind of this
age .
The author is grateful to several friends for criticism in the work of r ev isiou: especially to his colleagues Messrs. P. B. Kohlsaat and L ewis Gustafson,
and to l\fr. Alfred l\J. Hitchcock of Hartford. He
must further thank Mr. Gustafson for aclapting to
their present use several o f . the selections quotecl
iu the first chapter. To Professor Frederick Starr
and to Dr. G . vV. Post h e is obliged for perm1ss10n
to reproduce certain photographs.

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CONTENTS
l' AGE

l'J!l~ FACE

v

CHAPTER I

1

COi\JPOS ITJON IN G1·: N l<:HAL

CJIA 1'TE1t Tl

48

PUN C T UA TION AND AENTENCJ<:-STHUC T U ltE

CllAPTER JH
87

ConHJ<:CTNES8 IN TllE 8ENTENc1.;

ClJ APTElt LV
D ESC IUPTIO N

.

152

.

201

.

227

CHAPTE!t V
NA !!BATION

Cll Al"I'Elt VJ
EXPOS ITI ON A ND ARGUi\llcN T

Ex1rn c 1sEs IN SPELLING

2G4-

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287

ix

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2

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

descriues somethiug, or cxplaius something, or tries
to prove somethillg. His compos ition is chiefl y narration, or d ei:::c ription, or expb11at.ion , or argument.
A cornpositin11 u sually contain s somethin g of all these
four kimli:::, bu t it is clifrfl!J a, story, a desc ription, an
ex plana.t io11, or a.n arg ument. English compositi on
is the art of n an a ting , describing, explaining, or
arguing, l1y tlte use of Ellglish 1vonh:.
4. H tlte study of En glish corn position cau h elp
u s to tell stories more in te restingly , d cscriue things
more vividly, ex plain principles more clea rly, and
prov e state ments mo re for cibly, it is certainly worth
onr " ·bil e. There are people who can tell <L story so
w e ll a.s to hold t li e h earers brea thless. Soni.e persons
ca.n describe a given rn1tn so cleve rly that a u artist
could straig J1tway drnw his picture. Some can explain a hard rul e so t hat it is clear as day . Some
ea.n almost pnw e to yon that black is white, or per1-<1wdc~ yon tn gi v l~ tlw1i1 all ~· nnr money. There a.re
01111'1' 11t·r~n11~ 1Ylw S t'l~ lll alil u to do llOIW of t.li ese
things . Ev e ry on e of us \ris11 es to be a good storyteller, a g ood d esc riber, a good explainer, a good
d ebater. Th e stmly of English composition h elps
us to accomplish these ends.
5. There is p cr11aps no part of his school work
t.lint a beginner likes Jess than writin g compositions.
Usnally he " c:m 't think of an,Ything to say," and
wh en li e does fiml something to sa.Y he discovers tha t
usi11g p en and ink_is <L slow aml diffi c ult W[LY of say-

CO)JPOS1 TlO N JN GENEl'lAL

ing it. Yet the sam e st ude11t call talk freely
enonah
b
to his mates ; very likely h e is fond of talkin g to
them. S uppose that lie goes away on a trip, ancl that
two or three of liis intinrnte friends make him promise
to wri te them letters. If h e h as lrnll n o practise in
compositi on, one of two things is sure to h appen :
either he will n ot write at all, and consequ ently will
offend those to whom he gave his word, or else h e
will write so stifH y and badl y t hat his letters will
see m not to com e fr om J1im. T11 e cleve r and h earty
g ooll fe llow of yesterday will so uml stupid and cohl
in ltis nrnss<tges of to-day. On tl1e otlier J1a11<1, if li e
lms really acc ni:::torn cd l1i111sel f Lo express hi s tl1ollg·ltts
on paper, h e will Le able to say hi s say in <t strni~·ht­
forwanl fashion. His con esponclent ;vill laug h as h e
r eads, and will remark, "That so und s just like him. "
In short, the trainell student learn s to be himself
even when h e "takes his p en in 11a11d," anll t her e <Lre
few things m or e valuable than t he power of bein O'
0
Olll' ' S SC lf'-.
6. Also h e learns to write in such a way as n ot to
be misunderstood. vVhen we taJk we d epend not
only on words, but on gesture aml t he ex pression of
the face ; but when we write we hav e to rely wholly
on words ; we have no means of communi cation
exce_rt black marks on the _paper - cold, unsympathetic black marks. The tone of a man 's voice t ells
you wheth ~ r he_ is joking or not; he may say very
reckless thmgs if he says them with a kindly look.

5

A F1US1' J!ANlJ AL OP C0MI'OS1T10N

COMPOSl'l'lON IN GENERAL

Think how hard it is, eveu in conv ersaLion, to avoid
Lei11g mi sund erstood; then see how much harder it
i::; in writin g to avoid the same mishap.
7. Being one's self aml being understood are values
t l1 at iucrea.se with increas ing years. It is extraordi11 ~trily important that men should understand each
other's statements. Tlie lmilder, the engineer, the
mercli;mt, t he lctwyer, not to mention the journalist
aml the prcaclier, must be alile to describe and narrate and expbin in a trustwortl1y fas l1ion. Business
trans:tctio ns, HO ma.tter how shrewtl in conception,
are very dependent on this art o[ sayin g exactly
w]iat one means, aml saying it in written won1s.
Bm;iness to-cby is largely carried on by correspon<lence . \Vhen an order is given, it is given in writin g, and if it can l>e misund erstood somebody may
l ose a great deaJ of money. It is said t hat a mi splaced comma r ecently cost a western merchant a
tltonsand dollars. 1
8. In society, misunderstamlings are often caused
by carelessly worded notes. Even if this misfortune
does not happen to the lady who writes in an uneducated way, a misfortune hardly less unpleasant
does befall h er ; she is to a certain extent shut out
from the respect of cultivated women.
9. There is a literary streak in everybody. Every
person has some special gift for writing or speaking .
Usually he does not know this. He may even think

Lhat h e c:innot write compositions at all. But m
eve ry school paragraphs are now and then written
wliich would do credit to many a famous author.
\Vliatever is most characteristic of each stmlent, as
different from other people; whatever gift is his, of
imag ination, or reasoning power, or feeling, or humor,
all will find some expression in his writing. Everv
human being is particularly interested in somethin ~
.
o'
is peculiarly apt in something. To find out aml
express the Lest that is jn us is to know a keen
pleasure. It is mo1:e. lt is to be of some use to
one's fellows.

4

lSee p. 68.

10. Hhetoric, or tlie study of composition, teaches
us h ow to speak and write with effect. It aims at
effectiveness. Suppose yo u are to tell an amusing
story. . In order to do it effectively you mu st pay
attent10n to many things. First you must choose a
good subject. Then you must "develop" it. you
~nu st not tell the point too soon, but must lead up to
it, so that your hearer will be on tiptoe to know how
th~ sto.ry is coming out. You make sure that everyth .m g is clea rly understood as you go along, or else
the point will be missed. Then out you come with
the point of the story, and there you stop. You do
not babble on . You let yo ur audience laugh.
11. . '1'his is only one example of what is meant by
~ffect1veness . In or<ler to produce the right effect it
is J~ ecessary to take pains with many things: the
choice of subject, the developrnent of the subject by

G

A FIRST MA NUA L OF COMP OSITION

imrts, tlt c strneturc of t he se ntences, th e choice of
WU['(ls. l [ \\"l~ take too mtt Gl1 tim e ill gett in g sta,rted,
we tire the re~td e r. If we make lou g, rambling sent en ces, ag ain we ti re him. If we choose words that
he ll oes not u11llersta11d, or use words in a wro11g
se nse, or d cscc ml to bt1 g 11age tlmt offends his taste,
we misle ~ttl or co11 fw;e or disg ust him.
12. T o li e effective we must study rn o<l.els; we
must see li ow \'v'l'iters aml speaken; prollu ce their
effec ts. \V e fit1cl that we mu st fol low ce rtain ways
of d oi i\O' t i"till gs. In writin g a formal Lusin ess letter it
will
d u to beg in with "Dear Friend." Such
lette rs Log·in with "Dear S ir," or "Dear Sirs," or
"Gentle 11 11 ." I t will not do to use ain't fo r isn't,
o r lay for lie, or set for s1:t. It will not do to write
several pa,ges of manu scrip t as if th ere were 110 pn.rts,
or" parag raphs," in what we have to say. In all these
matters we must Le govc ruetl hy goocl usage. Good
usage is th e practise of r eputn.lJl e wri ters i11 th e ch oice
0 ( words and t he forming of se nt ences and paragraphs.
13. \V e must not expect to learn all the secrets of
composi t ion quick ly . \V e sl1all beg in by imitating
the composit ion s of other peop le. After we hav e
lea rn ecl to r et ell such pieces, a nd to punctuate them
properly, we shall begin to write pieces of our o_wn.
1'lteu we shall have to do no sma.11 amount of t111nk.
O' 1, 11 t we s hall be r ea.cl)' for it.
And at eve ry
111
.
.
. turn
0 , u .
in the work we sli n.11 find use for all the carefulness
we c<Lll muster.
One secret of good writiug is care.

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CONPOSITION IN GENERAL

1

14. A ll boys and girls are by nature careless. It
is a fa ct, aud parents and teachers sometimes mention it. But care is much more easily learned than
some other things. Not every boy can learn to be a
Daniel vVebster or a, Henry Longfellow, but any
boy can learn to be careful.
15. To be sure, it is impossilJle to be careful abo ut
everythiug all at on ce . .WheJJ you are aiming a gu11
you cannot stop to see if yo ur n eckti e is st ra ight.
vVhen you write a composition yo u should think
about t he story yo u are telling, the olJject you are
describing, or the thought y ou are explaining. Your
aim is to " ge t it down" on p ap er, and in its proper
parts. But every composition should be read over
two or three tim es after it is written. On reading
it the first time, see whether it says exact ly what you
wa,nt it to say. 1£ it does n ot, clmuge it till it <loes .
On r eading it th e second time, see if t he se ntences
ancl punctuation can be improved. On the third
reading, see if any word is misspelled. Then copy it
neatly, in black ink, paying attention to the harnJwritin g . Every letter should lJe unmistakable. Your
handwriting may be a boyish scrawl, lJut you ca n
make n's different from n 's . You can dot your i's
and cross your t's. You may be sure tlu~t your
teacher will insist on dotted i's and crossed t's. H e
will treat an undotted i as au e, and an uncrossed t as
an l. After you have bee n misunderstood a few
tim es, you will yo msolf be anxious about these small

8

A

FllrnT .MANUA L OF COMPO S ITION

nrntters. You will n ot merely dot every i, but will
8ee to it tliat the d ot stands directly over the i. In
eastern languages, the presence or absence of a dot
rnay l>e a matter of life and death. It is said that
a Sha.h of P ersia once sent a message ordering his
son's tu to r to send the prin ce home. Now the Perr:;ian word mea ning to send home is jnst like a word
meanin g to lcill, except for the position of a single
dot. A sec retary rn isplaced the clot. The tutor
thought the order demanded the prince's d eath, and
li e h;ul the llreadful cleed committed.
16. Th e instructor will give special instructions
as to how the course is to be conducted. He will
tell yo u what kind of pa.per to use, and whether you
should leave a marg in on both sides or 011 one only.
He will tell you how many mistakes in spelling will
make a paper "fail to pass." It will of ten happen
tlrnt a well-written, strong, interesting composition
will fail to pass ueca use of errors in spelling. That
will b e unfortunate, but of course it will not prevent
the paper from being praised and enjoyed in other
r espects . Your instructor ·will t ell yo u whether to
fold and indorse yo ur manu script, or whether to
leave it flat. If you leave it flat, your name should
appear in the upper right-lrnnd corner of each page.
In either case every page, including the first, should
Le numbered in that corner. And when the manusc ript is hand ed in the pages should always be in their
proper order.
Nothing annoys tlie r ead er more than

COM PO S ITIO N IN GENEUAL

9

to take up a paper and find that h e is expected to
read it backwards. Every paper should have a title,
which should be umlerscored three times.
17. Compositions are usually called themes. A
theme may consist of one paragraph or of more than
one . vVhen it is only a page long it is not usually
divided into paragraphs. A paragraph is marked in
manuscript by leavii1g an inch or two blank at the
beginning of it. This blank is called the indention,
and should appear before each p:Lragraph, includin g
the first. In printing, indentions are not deep, as
you can see by looking at those of this chapter .
'I hey are the little blanks left befo re the section
numbers. It is not n ecessary to number the paragraphs, but it is n ecessary to have the manuscript
indentions d eep . In the examples which follow in
section 19, the first eleve n corn; i8t of one paragraph
each. But numbers twcl ve alld fourte ell consist of
more than one paragraph . As our work proceeds
we shall learn more about paragraphs.
18. B efore we begin to r ep roduce the examples of
section 19, a word about indep end ent studying aml
writing is in order. In studyin g spelling, one
student can be of great service to another by hearin g
him recite what he has leamed. Of co urse all such
assistance must stop as soon as the pupil begins to
recite. It is dishonest to give assistance in a recitation, and it does the person who recei ves it a great
injury. The only means by which a teacher can

10

A _li'IUS'J.' JltANUAL OJi' COMt>OS11'10N

h elp a student is by knowi11g just wlrnt nrn.tters he
n eeds to be drilled in. \Vhen it comes to ·w riting
themes, a student should never give or r eceive assistance . If he is reproducing a theme from the book,
he shonlJ tell or write exactly what he remembers,
nothing more. Honesty in this matter will not only
do him a world of good morally, but will enable the
teacher to help him where he needs help. Keep the
teacher informed of the real state of your knowledge.
He is your guide. If you are writing an original
theme, you will usually neeJ no assisfamce from
friends or books, for usually you will be telling what
you yourself have done or seen. But if it is necessary to use books, always aJd to your manuscript a
statement of these " Sources." Stealing is stealing·
Literary stealing is called plagiarism.
In many
schools it is punished by expulsion, or by posting
the names of the offenders where the school can see
the1n.
19. The following pieces are taken from various
sources.
Two or three were ·w ritten in school by
students. A number appeared in 1'he Youth's Companion, where you may have seen them already.
Nearly all of these lmve been rewritten or shortened
for use in this book.
Each piece should be stuJied first as a whole, then
in its parts. 'rry to remember the paragntphing,
when the theme contains more than one paragraph.
Try to r emember how the sentences are formed. Fix

COMPOSITION IN GENERAL

11

in mind the important words. Remember the spell•
ing of all words that end in ing or ed, or have a
double letter.
vVhen the piece has been studied, several members
of the class should give it orally. Then it should
be written from memory, and revised as directed in
15. The written revision will usually be a little
shorter than the original.
vVhen the teacher has corrected it,1 the whole
should be copied neatly.
1. THE DEATH OF THE BEAR

The bear was coming on; h e had in fact come on. I judged
that he could see the whites of my eyes. All my subsequent
reflections were confused. I raised the g un, covered the bear's
breast with the sight, a11d let drive. Then I turned, and ran
like a deer. I did not hear the bear pursuing. I looked back.
Tlie bea1· h ad stopped. li e was lying down. I then remembered that the best thing to do after having fired your gnn is to
reload it. I slipped in a charge, k eeping my eyes on the bear.
H e never stirred. I walked back suspiciously. There ·was a
quiver in the hind-legs, but no other n10tion . Still, be might be
shamming - bears often sham. To make sure, I approached,
and put a ball into his h ead. He didn't mind it now - he
minded nothin g . Death had come to him ·with a merciful
suddenness. H e was calm in d eath. In order that he might
remain so, I blew his brains ont, and then started for home. I
had killed a bear !
CI-IAHLES DUDLEY 1VARNEll: How I Hilled a Bear.
I To the Instructor: In the work of this first chapter, it is
advised that corrections should actually be made by the teacher,
not merely indicated. This is especially true of the punctuation.
The use of red ink for corrections is recommended.

12

-·
A FIB S 1' MA N UAL OF CO.MPO S ITION
2. THERE ARE GENTLEMEN l'RESENT •

One e ve nin g in th e Un ion ca mp a youu g oflicer stepped up
to w here (i eue ral Gran t and some others we re sitting. "I have
such a good story to t ell yo u. There are 110 ladies present, are
t here ?" h e said in a joking mood. Grant look ed up from lds
paper a nd eyed him steaLlily. "No, but there are gentlemen
p resent," he answered.
3. lWNNlNG ' YATER AS A GUIDE
I was n eve r lost in the woods but once. I remember t h at I
h ad read in b ooks t h a t the moss grew thickest on t he ll orth side
o f t.he trees. Upon careful examin ation I cou lu distinguish no
difference betwee n th e moss on one side of the trees and that on
t he other side. The m oss gre w all around! The thick, interlacin g branches over h ea<l concealed the sun. After wan~eriug
around in a circle for h ou rs I at last h eard t he rushmg of
water, ancl, fo ll o win g the sound, soon discoverecl the brook I
ha<l b een fi shiu g, down which I waded unti l I struck camp at
4 l' . l\I. . h a vin g left t here at 4 A .M . I was wet , cold , and hungry,
but oLherwi se all ri g h t. . . . Streams a.lways flow tow ard
greater b0<lies o[ wate r, a nd sorn ewh ere along th ese water r oad s
are far llls or se tt le mc11ts. So if yon are rea,ll y lost, foll ow t he
first sLream until it ]eallS you, as it iuvarial>ly will, to so me
road, settlement, or ca1n p.
D. C. BEARD : The Ou.tdoor Handy Book.
4. A GERMAN DUEL
Professor Virch ow w as a great German scientist, and Bismarck
was a great G ernrnn sk1tes1uan. Bismarck c hall enged Virchow
to fight a dnel. Vircl1 ow was fo m1<.l by Bi s111a rck's seco nd~ in
hi s laboratory b a rd at work on some expe riments for gettrng
rid o f tr ichinrc. Tric hin rc are small parasites t h at kill s-win e.
"Ah ! " said t he doctor, "a chall enge from I'rince Bismarck!
\ Ve il , well ! As I am t he challenged p erson , I suppose I am
pcrrni Lte<l to choose the w eapo11s. H ere are tvvo sausages. One

COMP0 8 1TION IN GENERAL

13

is p er fectly w holesom e, bnt tl 1e oth e r is fi lle1l with t richin rc a ud
is deadl y. Tlie sausages ca 1111 ot be tolu apart. L et th e Prince
do rn e the honor to choose whichever of these he wish es, ::tlld
eat it, and I will ea t t he other. " The qnarrel was dropped ,
and no on e said that Virchow was a coward.
5. AN EXPERIMENT WITH ALCOHOL
Three years ago fom h ea lt l1y spa niels were b ont on tl1e sam e
day, of different pare nts. Since t l1eu t hey have been m ade t he
subject of an interesting experiment. From tlte beg in ning two
of them h ave b een given alcohol w ith their daily food , th o ugh
not e nough to make them intox icated. Th e oth er two h a ve
been offered none. 0 1 ~e r esu lt is that; t he two alcoholics h ave
grown timid, lazy, slovenly, a nd ·weak . The other two are
brig ht, clean, and activ e . Ye t t he worst results of the li cJILOr
h ave appeared in t he offspring. Bum and Tipsy have h ad
twenty pups. :::iix of th ese w ere born dead, eig ht we re malform ed , and on ly six were l1ealthy. On the oth e r hand, t he
pair t hat were not d r ugged h a ve had sixteen pups, and of t hese
fifteen a re living anu h ea lt hy.
6. A H.TESIAN WELLS

1\foch of the earth's surface is in layers, calJed strata. Sometim es t here will l>e a layer of sa nd stone with a layer of clay on
each side. Water can trickle throng h t he sa ndstone, for it is
porous, but it cannot t r ickle t hroug h the cl ay. lf th e strata
a re flat, no water can reach t he stone. But le t us suppose t hat
they are b ent, so t h at th eir end s reac h t he earth's surface w l1 ile
t heir middle dips b elow. Th en tlie por ous sandston e form s a
tunn el. The water e nters at both e nd s of t hi s tunnel a nd
gathe rs in the middle. If a l1 ol e is drilled from th e s urface
through the clay a 11d into t l1 e sandsto ne, th e water will b urst
forth into a fou n tain, for m i11 g an artesian well. Th e height of
the water will equal t he l1 eight of the ends of the strata, l>ut
frequently it will exceed that height, owing to the downward
pressure of t he water from both sid es.

14

C'Ofl'IPOS ITIO N I N GENER A L

7. THE RAPIDITY OF STELLAR MOTIONS

col ors on th eir b odies. H e finds that thi s shadin g is just the
opposite of that fo nnd on other objec ts illumin ated from the
sk y. Most objec ts a re li g ht a bove a nd dark b elow , whereas
wild a nim als are dark aLove a nd lig ht b elow. The res ult is
th a t an a nimal has its b ri g ht side towards t h e brig ht side of the
obj ect it is on, all<l m erges indistinctly w ith th a t obj ect. This
ind ist inctness is increased by t he fact t h a t the animal has colors
h armoni zin g with its n at ural surroundings. Thus it ble nds with
the b ackground so closely as ofte n to escap e the eye altogether.
This is true not only of quadrupeds, b ut of birds, fishes, and
in sects.
10. HOW_ A BISHOP GOT MONEY

Y ear a fter year a nd generati on a fte r ge neration the st ars
a ppear in th eir pl aces, a nd th e cas ual observ er sees 11 0 mov ement. Y et t o the astronomer t hey cha nge continually with
i11 crediLle spee d. Th e swif test cannon shot , co ntras ted with
th em, would a ppear to be standing still. The earth wh eels
about th e sn11 at the r a te of nineteen miles a seco nd, but if one
of th e sta rs co uld come from Lehind, it would go sc uddin g by
the earth like a hurr ican e. On e insignificant st a r is diago nally
n earin g the earth sixty miles every second. But it is so far
away that if i t came straigh t wit h its full speed of one hundred
a nd .fifty miles a second, or n early fourteen million miles a day,
it could not a rr ive b efo re twenty-seYen thousand years.
8.

now

GRANT OVERCAME HIS ]<'EAR

As we approach ed the Lrow of th e hill from which it ·was
expect ed 'iVe could see llarri s's camp, and p ossibly find hi s men
ready form ed to meet u s, my heart k ept getting hi gh er a nd
high er u n til it felt to me as t hou gh it w as i11 rn y t hroat. T
. would have giY en a nything t hen t o Le back in Illinois, Lut I had
n ot t he moral courage to h alt and con sider wh at to d o. I k ep t
rig ht on. 'Ylrn n we reac hed a point from w hi ch th e vall ey b elow was in foll view , I h alted. The pl ace where Harris h ad
b een en camped a fe w d ays b efo re was still there, and the m arks
of a recent en camp ment were plainly visible, but the troops
w ere gone. J\£y h eart res umed its place. It occurred to m e a t
once t hat H a rri s h ad b een as much afraid of m e as I h ad bee n
of him. This w as a view of the q uestion I h ad n ever ta ken
Lefore, but it was one I n ever fo rgot afterwar ds. From th a t
event t o the close of the war, I never experi enced t repidation
upon confronting an enemy, th ough I alw ays felt m or e or less
an x ie ty. I iiever fo r got th a t h e had as mu ch r eason to fear my
forces as I his. G RA N T: P ersonal J1Jemoirs.

n.

WHY ANIMALS ARE WHITE BENE ATH

J\lr. Abbott H . Thayer, an A meric<m rtr t ist , has nmcl e th e
discovery that wild animals are protected by t he gr ad[ttion of
;
I

15

A FIR S T M AN UA L OF COM.POS I T IO N

A t on e ti111 e Bish op ·W hipple r eceived word that his son in
New :Mexico w as seri ously i II. Ile i mmedi ately hurried to him ,
a nd on his arrival th ere fo und th e boy lying on a wretc hed
bed in an adobe hut, and rap idly getti11 g worse from inattentioll . Seein g n o chance of r ecover y in such surroundings,
t he Bishop decided to tak e h im North at on ce. But here a new
difficulty a1:ose; he h ad neglected to br i ng funds. In hi s
di le nnn a he we nt t o th e ba nk , told t l1 e yo un g Mexican cashier
his story, a nd ask ed if h e wo uld honor a draft. "Anyone ca n
tell Ly lookin g at your face," sa id the cas hi er, "th at yon a re a
bishop of God , a n d t ha t yo u speak th e trut h. I sh all be glad
to accommodate you. How muc h do you want ? " The Bishop
drew five hundred dollars, a nd w as soon on hi s way .
11. HOW A PRINC E WAS DISCIP LINED
The pr esent kin g of Italy was not a t all p a mpered in hi s b oyh ooLl, if we may believe th e professor who had chief con t rol of
his schoolin g . F ro nt th e beginning lte w as sh own 11 0 undu e
respect, a11d a llowed 11 0 indul ge nce. If an y thin g 'Nas n ecessary
fo r th e lesson , the prince was compelled t o get it. If a ny thin g
fell from the t able, the prin ce had t o pi ck it up. If the p rin ce
sligh ted his studies, he w as immedi a tely and sharply reprim a nded. H e was t old on one occas ion th at if a king's so n
was a blockhead h e would re main a blockh ead , that h e was not

lG

A FIB8T NANUAL OF CONP08ITION

C011IPOSITION IN GENERAL

17

I•
I,

.i

l~

<lifferen t from a sl1 oernaker's son i 11 that respect. On another
occasion, wh en, lH_'cansc of a headache, he begged to be relieved
front exercise ou horsebac k , he -was asked whether in the eve nt
o[ a battl e that day a headache ought to prevent his appearance
at the head of his troops.

AU fly-rods are coalied with heavy, waterproof varnish. They
all 11avc Oil the butt a grip of cork for the Jrnnd, like a bicyele
gvip. Close to tJ1is grip is a metal clamp for holding a ree l,
while rings are fastened to tl1e rod every twelve inches. The
line slips through these rin gs very easily.

12. A WORD IN SEASON

14. AN INCI\EDIBLE BOAST

A boy of eight, who had a quick and retentive memory, 'vas
boa,;ting of it to his Qnaker grandmother.
"'Tisn't 011ly in school that I can remember things. It's
everyw here," he said loftily. " I remember dates a nd places
and people's faces and their names, and signs and placards,
and all sorts of things. And in Sunday-school I always k11ow
the whole lesso n by heart."
"That's an excell ent thing, clear child," said the grandmother, placidly. " Did thee ever happen to learn the secon d
verse of the twenty-seventh cl1apter of Proverbs?"
"No, grandma," said the little boy. ''I haven' t learned any
proverbs yet, but I'll learn it to-night. It won't be anything
to do, b ecause I remember so easily."
But that 11ight hi s cheeks were redder than usual as he said
over a11d over, " Let anoth er man praise thee, and not thine
own mouth; a stra11ger, and 11ot thine own lips."

In his yonng manhood Abralnim Lincoln was noted for his
vast strength and hi s skill in wrestling. Few men could boast
of having conquered him. At one time there arose a trial in
one of the courts, in wl1ich an effort -was made to impeach the
testimony of one of the witn esses . The evidet1cc co nflicted.
Some would believe the,_ man on oath. Some woul<l not.
Finally a man with a dogged countenance was call ed to testify.
"\\T ould yon believe 11im nnd er oath?" he was asked.
"No, I wonldn't," he answered. "I heard him bragging once
that he threw Abe Lincoln in a fair and sq11are wrestle."
That settled the question, and the impeachment was successfuL
15. A GIFT TO THE WOHLD

13. THE FIX-HOD

A fly-rod is about the shape and thickness of a carriage whip,
is from eight to twelve feet lon g, aud weighs from four to ten
ounces. It is made in three sections - the butt, or hand-piece,
the joint, or second-piece, aml the tip, or end-piece -joined
together by metal bat1ds called ferrules. l<'ly-rods are sometimes made of steel, but generally of tough, springy wood, like
lancewood or barn boo. The wood may be a round, solid stick,
or it may be of small strips carefully fitted and glued together.
The split rods are six-sided or eight-sided in shape, aucl are
wrapped at sl1ort intervals with silk thread to strengthen them.

Too much honor cannot be given to those who better the
world by living in it. No one can afford to neglect the memory of a man like Henry Cort, whose machines made the iron
industry of Great Britain, or like Bessemer, whose inventions
made possible the general u se of steel. The race owes an inestimable debt to Doctor Morton for his discovery of ether, and
to Pasteur for his discovery of a cure for hydrophobia. The
world can n ever repay Professor Morse for his invention of the
telegraph. It lies in the power of everyone to make some gift.
A man died recently in the South who had devoted years of his
life to th e cnJtivation of a new and rare grape, and who, wh en
he had brought it to perfection, gave cuttings of it to all the
poor gardeners he knew. "A man,'' h e said, "should try to
leave the world richer by something. Some men leave a great
picture or a book or noble thoughts to it. I have only a grape
to give."
c

i~ !

,·\

!

!

'I

'

I

"i
i

i,t.

'1

'I

I

18

A FIBST MANUAL OF COMPO SITION
lG. Tl-IE NEW ENGLAND SUNDAY

f llid n ot wa11t it to be S:dJbath-tlay always. I was co nscio us
of a pleasure in the t li o ug ltL of games and frolics a nd co miu g
week-day de lig h ts t l1 a t; wuulu tlit across m y mind even when I
was st udy in g 111 y h y lll11 s, or trying to liste n to the mini ste r.
A nd l di ll want Lhc cOJ 1g regaLion to break up sometime.
fodeed , in .t hose bri g h t sprin g days, the last hy mn i11 t he afte r11 00 11 a h vays sou nded best, becanse with it cam e the openin g of
d oors i n to t he outside a ir, a ud the pourin g in of a mingled
sce n t of sea wi11d s a1Hl ap11l e blossoms, like an invitatio n out
into t li e freedo m of t h e beac h, t he hill sid es, t he fi.elds a nd garde ns and orcli a rds. Jn a ll Lhis I fe lt as if l were ve ry wicked.
l was afraid t hat. l loved earth be tter than 1 <lid heaven.
L ucy L A ltCO i\l: A. .N ew England Girlhood.

17. TIIE l\iYSTEH.Y OF THE SEA
From our ga rret window - and th e garret was m y u sual
retreat w hen l w a nted to get away by myself with my books o r
rn y dreams -we had t;li e distant horizon lin e of the bay, across
a quart er o( a 111il e o ( trees a nd mowing fields. vVe cou ld see
tli e whik lirealrn rs <las l1i11 g again Rt the Jo ng, i1 a 1Tow islan d just
outside t li e 11 a rLur. Co 11ld it really be t hat we h arl that endless
" Atlanti c Ocean " to look at from o ur 'vindow, to dance along
t he edge of, to wade i 11 to or batl1e in, if we chose? The map
of t he wo rld beca111 e rn ore interestin g i;o me t han a ny of the
story-books. L ucy LAR CO M: A New England Girlhood.
18. "A MISERABLE CHE AT"
Th e g irl who sat n ext to me saw my distress, and offered to
Jo my sum s fo r m e. I accepted her proposal, feelin g, however ,
t hat l was a miseraLle che:it. But I was afraid of the master,
who was tall a nd ga un t, and used to stalk acr oss the schoolroom , ri g h t over t he desk-tops, to find out if t h er e was a11y
mi sc hief goin g 01 1. Ile h a d a fe:i rfnl leath er strap, which vvas
so m etim es u sed even upon t he sh rinking palm of a little girl.

C'O.MPO S ITION I N GENERAL

19

lf h e should find out th at I was a pretend er and a deceiver, as I
kn ew th at I was, J could n ot g uess w hat mi g ht h appe n to m e.
Ile n eve r d id, l1 owever. But I 11ever liked t he g irl wh o did my
s ullls, and l fa ncied sh e h ad a decided co n tempt fo r Ill e.
Lucy LAR CO M: A J.Vew Enylanrl Gfrllworl.

19. TEARING A PIECE OF STEEL PLATE
"\Vit h the proper machinery a steel plate of co nsider a Lle
bread th and thick ness m ay be to rn ap a r t as easily as a fin e
thread. The steel plate is firmly l1 e kl betw ee n two 11eavy
clalllps in t he 111achi 11 e. The n t he pull is app li ed, t h e cla 111ps
move apa r t very slow ly, a nd t he steel is streLc lt ed. At fi.rst t l1 e
stretching is h a rdl y noticeable, and rema ins so u ntil th e pull
becomes alJo ttt G0,000 ponnds to t he square inc l1 . Now t he
plate visibl y lengt he ns, a nd i n a morn e11t see m s actuall y to flow
apart. Suddenl y, at a tension of abo ut 100,000 pounds to the
square inch, it breaks with a lou d cras h. It h as bee n obse rved
t hat a piece of st.ee l origi na ll y four inches long was stretched to
fi.ve b efore partin g, a 11d t ha t at the place of Lreak age it h ad
become narrower a nd full y one half t h i11 11er . The met<Ll becam e
a lso considerably heat ed.

20. OUR DUTY TO THE NEXT GENERATION
]f we wish our cli ildre11 to h ave healthy bodies, we must not
abu se ou r own. vVe rnust be well a nd stro ng ourse lves, live as
much as we can iu t h e fres h air, be active and busy, eat wholeso me food, avo id bad h au its of smoking :i.nd d ri nking, get a ll
th e sleep we n eed and at r eg ular ho urs, take good care of o ur
eyes, kee p the por es of t h e skin open by bathiug and exercise.
D oin g this we may be certain- n ot t h at o ur childre n will be
as sound and vigorou s as ourselves, n o, onl y certaiu that ·we
h ave don e our b est for t he m, and t h at t hey c:111not Llame u s
for a ny weakness or defec t with whi ch they w ere born.
vVENDELJ, P1ULLIPS GAH. IU RON : P ambles fo r Ilo,me and School.

OHIO UN IVERSIT Y

· Ll BRAHY

20

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMP081TION

COMPOSITION IN GENERAL

21. 'l'll F- l\lORALS OF MANNERS

23. WHAT THE CHILDREN WONDERED ABOUT

A youn g girl was r eproved for whispering in chu rcl1 , for
eating a c hoco late bonbon on the street car, for not rising when
her grandm othe r entered the room, fo r goi ng out without h er
g loves, fo r arrang in g h e r 1iair al; a co ncert, and for eatin g crea m
toasL ·w ith :t s poo n. S he replied t hat these 11mtters were tri flin g,
a nd t hat if sh e w ere to kee p her 111incl on suc h little t h ings she
sh ould soo n become self-co nscio us and affected. She waR partly
right. Thinkin g co nti nuall y of one's b ehavior is like t hinking
a lways of one's clothes or one's cleverness, and h er fa ul ts were
tri vial. But m1der the arbitrary social rul es t here is t he gene ral law t h at no one sh all attract public a.tte u t ion. Loud talkin g, eatin g, a nd toi let- m aki ng ignore the claim of society t h at
no one sh all do publicly wh at would be painful or confusing
for all to do at the same time. Good fashion s are based on t he
unselfish wish to make others happy and comfortable. Therefore ·we must think auout our manners.

A shabby old Irish washerwoman once visited her daughter's
sewing club. Th e young leader rose to r eceive her.
Long afterward one of the oth er children re minded h er of
this forgotte11 trifle, asking, with deep earnes tness :
"Was it beca use you were tired sitti11g so long, or to b e
poli te?"
"To b e polite, of co urse."
""Vould you get up if my mother came? She's older t han
l\lrs . .Flynn."
"0£ course I would."
Th e ch ild paused and then said anxiously:
" She was in j ail on ce."
"I'm very, very so rry," said the young lady, pl easantly.
"But that isn't any reaso n •vhy I sh onld h ave bad ma1111 ers,
is it?"
" 'Ve didn't any of us know, and w e've been contradicting
about it awfully! "

22. THE USE OF ANTISEPTICS

24. LINCOLN'S CHOP OF HAY

Aseptic is another word for clean. Antiseptic is another word
fo r cleaner or cleaning. Nature heals, and a n ti septic solutions
are h ealin g onl y because t hey prevent germ s a nd dirt, which
produce poiso ning. A perfectly clean wonnd h eals rapidly.
Th erefore the rn ode rn snrgeon sees that his h ands a ud his
i 11strn men ts are reudered abso lutely aseptic. U 11 broken su rface s of t h e skin exc lude ge rm s, but the slightest breaks ad mit
t h e m. Hence, if we wou ld k eep well, we mnst keep clean.
'Ve mu st g ive careful antiseptic treatmen t to slight sore throat
a rul enlarged to nsils. In cases of illn ess, everythin g in whic h
disease gc l'l11 s 111 n.y have lo<l gcd should be m ade aseptic. O ne
way to ac hi eve t hi s is to ex pose t he ar ticleR to sun aml air.
Boilin g water a 1Hl lye are not to be d esp ised, but p er h aps the
best easily obtained agen t is carboli c acid freely dilu ted ·w ith
water. Lime is a ve ry effective germicide, as well as a valuable
deotlorize r.

In the su mmer of 1857 Mr. Lincoln was sit ting in his office
when h e was visited by one of h is n eighbo rs, an exce ll en t
fa rm er, but one inclined to increase t he size of hi s crops eve n
after harvesting. He had give n, on t h is particular morning, a
glowiug account of the h ay he had put in.
"I've been cutting h ay, too," remarked ..Mr. Lincoln.
"Why, Abe, a re you farming?"
"Yes."
" \ Vhat you raise'!"
"Just h ay."
" Good crop th is year? "
"Excel.l ent ."
"II ow many tons?"
"vVell, I don't know :just h ow many tons, Simpson, but my
men stacked all they co uld outdoors, and then stored the rest
in the barn."

21

C(>MPOSltlON I N GENEBAL

22

23

A FlB S T JllAN UAL OF CO~MPOSITION

27 . ADDRESS DELIVERED BY AI3HAUAM LINCO LN AT

25. WHAT AILED .MOTHEH.
A specialist in n ervo us diseases visited a little village 011
Cape Cod. On e d ay a yo un g man called on hin1. He h ad a
w eak face, which bore sig ns of dissipation. There were rings
o n hi s fuigers, and a gold ch a in sw un g over ft gay waistcoat.
Ile cam e to co11 s nlt th e doctor aLo nt his m other.
"S he h as b een a very active ·w oman," h e said. "Sh e's had
trememlons energy all her life, but now sh e see ms to have gone
all to pieces."
"\VJ1 at work tlicl s he do? " asked the doctor.
"She was a tailoress. She u sed t o sew until two or three
o'clock in t he 111 orning."
"""\Vhat is your trade - yo ur business?" demanded the doctor.
'' ""\ Vell - 1 - l'm not in business at present. It's p retty difficult to m ak e a start, you know . "I've consid ered several differen t occ upatio n s, but I h ave not foullcl ~u1ything sui ted to my
pec uliar bent as yet. But I came to consult you about mother.
""\Vh at d o yo u t hink is the matter with h er ?"
"You!" said the doctor. "Nothin g else. She h as sapped
h er li fe for you , and uow , when you sh onlcl be supporting h er
and bri11ging comfort to h er old age, yo u are a d ead-weight
a nd a disgrace. lf she dies, you an d you only are to blame."
2G. THE WORK OF A COOKING SC HOOL

In the cookin g classes of the Pittsburg public sc hools, the
examin ations r ecently includ ed s uch q uestions as these:
"""\\Thy does a fire s m ok e, a nd what can be done to prevent it?"
"\\That elem ents do streugth-givi.11g foods con tain? Name
a food co ntai11in g albumen, on e containing gluten, and one
casein."
" \\Th y d o fri ed articles soak up grease '!"
" Name one good cut of beef for soup, one for broilin g, one
for roasti ng ."
''Jn ·w hat order should dish es be washed?"
D o not these questions show t hat the s tudy of cooking is well
worth a ny yo ung \Voman's attention?

THE DEDICATION OF THE GETTYSBURG NATIONAL
CKiV lETERY, IN 1863 1
Fourscore and seven ye ars ago, onr fat h ers brou o·h t forth on
thi s co ntine n~ ~n ew 11at ion, co nceived in liberty, a~d dedi cat ed
t o the propos1t1011 that all m en are c reated equal.
Now ":e are e ng aged in a g reat civi l war, testino- whether
that nat10u, or a n y nation so co nceived a 11d so dedi~ated, can
lo~ g e ndure. ""\V e are m et on a great battlefi eld of t h at war.
vVe. h ave com.e to d edicate a porti on of t li a t field as a fin al
res ~rn g-pl ace for t hose ·w ho here gave their liv es t hat that
nation might live. It is a ltoget h er fitting and proper tliat we
should do this.
'
Bat, in a larger sense,' ;,v e canuot d edicate -we caunot consecrate - we cannot h allow t his gro und. The bra\'e men, living
and d ead, ·w ho struggled here, have con sec rated it fa r above
our poor power to add or detract. Th e wo rld will little note,
nor long r em:mber, ·w hat ' :e s.ay h ere, but it can never forget
wh~t t hey dld h ere. It I S for u s, the li vi ng, r ather to be
dedicated h ere to the unfini sh ed work which they who fought
here h ave th us far so nob ly advanced. It is rather for us to be
h er e dedicated to the great task r ern aini11g b efore us _ that
fro m these h onored dead ·w e Lake increased d evo tio1l. to that
cause for which they gave the last full measure of d evotion _
that we h er e hi g hly resolve that t hese d ead shall not have d'ied
This address should be learn ed by h eart and written from
Two speeches were d elivered on the same occasion, one
b,y l: dwanl Everett, one by Lincoln. Of these two add resses
I~dw 111 Stanton, the secretary of war, said: " Edward Everett has
made a speech that will make three columns in the newspapers
and Mr. J~incoln has made a speech of perhaps fo r ty or fifty Jines'.
Ev.erett's 1s the s~e~ch of a scholar, polished to the last possibility.
It IS elegant and 1t 1s learned; but Lin coln's speech will be read by
a thousand m en where one reads Everett's, and will be remem? ered as 1 0~1g as anybody's speeches are remembered who speaks
m the English language ."
1

m e n~ry .

A Ji'lUST J\LA NUAL OF COj\fPO S lTTO N

24

in vain, - t hat this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of
freedom, - aml that governm e nt of the people, by the people,
for the people, s hall 11 ot perish from the earth.

20. Abridgments and Summaries. In a good piece
of writin g, e very word has its value. Yet it is often
n ecessary to make a shorter version of a good piece
of writing. For example, on the mornin g when the
Pres iden t's m essage is given to the public, every
n ewspaper prints a short summary of it and often an
abridgment of it.
An auridgment is a shortened version ; it k eeps
closely to the lang uage of the original, but spares
many sentences. A F>umnrnry is a short statement of
the substance of n, piece. lt contains only the most
important thoughts.
T o write a good summary or a good abridgment
r equires much skill. Before we attempt to write
either, let us practise at reducing sentences and
paragnqJhs which contain too many words. Then
we shall find it easier to reduce good. sentences and
paragra.p l 1s .
vVonliness consists either of extrn words which
can he cut out, or of needless r epetition.
21. Point out words that could be dropped fr om
the following sentences without injury to the meanmg:
] . The n ose is long and straight, and is almost a Grecian
nose.
2. The monk's nose is graceful like that of a Greek's.

COMPOSITION

nv

GlENE!?AL

25

3. It has the appearance of that of a very determin ed disposit;ion.
4-. This r iu g is u se<l to fasten t he chain or rope with which
they let the anc hor down with.
5. The seco nd face is altogether different, it bei ng that of a
sleepy-looking m an.
G. All these feat ures a ml th e high foreh ead go to lielp
mak e an intelligent fac e.
7. Th e mask of Beethoven is very much different from that
of St. Francis.
8. The face of Beethoven is a smooth and almost round
face, and wears a look of t h ough tf ul expression.
9. The man and the boy i11 this p icture, who are floating
whi chever way the wav e~ 111 ove t heir rn[t which t hey are 011 , a re
i11 h opes t hat some passing :;hip will :;ee t he piece of cloth t he
man is waving.
10. Th e old gen tleman, in g reat di stress and <lan ger, wavin g a sig nal, i:; out in the m i<l-oceau, drifting alone on a raft with
a sick lad, who from his appeara11 ce look s to be alm ost dead .
11. Thi s lon g a nd n a rrow face, with very prollli ne nt fea tures
and hi g h, a mple fo rehead a ucl ve ry expressiY e eyes, has a very
intelligent appearance.
12. Two men were sent to investigate abo ut the fire.
13. vVe staid for about a wee k or so.
14. It was in the year 1898 t h at there vvas a great accident
th at occurred.
1:J . We were very much disappointed to find it raining Yery
hard.
lG. The train broke through t h e bridge with her load of
human fr eight.
17. But, however, th e rnde hut had a roof.
18. She found h erself in fro11t of the path of a dozen fl yi ng
sleds.
19. H e then found his way by trees girdled in t he primeval
forest, and which marked the course of the main roads of to-day.
20. The sun was so hot t h a t when we arrived at our place
of destination our noses were burning reel.
21. Charles I broke all of his promises.

2G

27

A li'JR S 'l' 1iJAN UAL Oli' CffMPOSlTlON

UUN L'OSI'.l'lON lN GENE HAL

22. Ile fell off o( th e roof.
2'3 . l brok e a bra11 ch off of t he tree.
24. ll as it got your initials 011 it?
2!J. Eve ry seco nd tlt ere are thousands of tons of water which
go pouring over Niagara.
213. T lie hills we re Yi siLl e for 111 i les away.
27. There are no apple t rees that l remember of.

9. School had closed for t he n ex.t t en week s, aud, as the
boys were anxions to b e off in t be woods for a two '"'· eek s'
ca lllp in g, they set about makiu g t he n ece8sary preparations.
AH was excitement and co nfusion during t h e week fo llowi1 1g
the close of sc hool. They had l>ee n pla1mi11g fo r a 1011 g time,
and h ad d ecided to start as soou as they sltonl(l be released
from sch ool. At last the ti in e for s tartin g ha vi ug arrived, they
set out on their journey i 11 hig l1 spirits, t a lking of the good
time they we re goiug to hav e.
10. Now, to Le properly ell joyed, a walki11g tom should Le
taken al o11e. A ·w alkin g tonr sl1011ld be tal~e u a loue, not in
pairs or in co u1pa11y, bec ause oLh crw.i Re it is on ly a picni c. You
shou ld be alone, so t hat you ca n stop wh en yo u >~ant to or go
thiB way or that, as the .freak takes yo n. You sho uld not be in
company, b eca use yo u don 't want to walk as t houg h you we re
walking with sorn.e champion or mincing in step with som e girl.

22. The followin g sentences and paragraphs contain needless repetitions. Show this fact m each
case. llewrite if .the instructor so directs.
1. The temperat.nre was so high that we could not stay in
the car, it was so hot and closP-.
2. To judge from its appearance, the porch was very comfortable looki11 g.
3. The t ender love with which l\lary r egards th e babe shows
how much she loves it.
4 . There are a l so some very fine heavy h orses, which would
make fin e horses for drawin g heavy loads.
5. Th ere is a high sea ou \rhich floats a r aft, holding a boy
who h as fainted from exh austion, and an o lJ man. waving a
h a ndk erchi ef at a speck on the horizon, and th ere seemingly is
a high ·w ind.
(i. The sh eep r eprese nted in this picture, qnietly res ting on
the grassy plain, the sun evide ntly shining bright, are Leing
con stantly walcli ed by th e faithful sh eph erd dog sittin g n ear by,
where th e gro und appears to Le sli ghtly higher t h a n that in th e
foreg round of t he pict11re.
7. The lll ask of S t. Francis shows plainly that h e was an
intelligent man. 11.i R face is t hin a11d hag-garJ aml show s
deep thought. His fore head is wid e and hi g h and shows deep
thought, a8 well as a good Lrniu to think with.
8. This pi cture shows a li crJ of sheep, lying 01 1 the gron11cl
and proLably waiting for th eir keeper to ret urn , for h e seems
to b e absent at prese nt, lint while he is away, the h erd is guarded
by a faithful sh eph erd clog.

23. vV rite summaries of the following pieces. No
surnmary shoukl exceetl one hundred ancl fifty words.
Make use of the original language as far as possible,
but do not foil to get th e substance of the author's
thought. Aim at the really important thoughts. Nothing else will be accepted by your instructor.
1. ON THE VALUE OF GOOD PENMANSHIP

I am always r eady to consider applications fo r positions in
my office from bright, intellige nt boys from. sixtee n to eighteen
years of age. Su ch boys shonlrl h ave had a conipl ete course in
tli e comm on sc hools, and shou ld hav e some associates that will
vouch for th eir good cond uct and integrity. In my e mploy
th e re are about one hundred a nd fifty yon ng men, and they
were all able to answer the requirern ents T have stated. I
invariably ask young m en to ll1ak e tl1 eir applications iu their
own handwriting, and I make my pre liminary selections on the
score of their chirography. I r eg ret Lo say that the value of

28

A FIBST MANUAL OF C011fPOSITJON

legible penmanship in this connection is often underrated in
A in erica. In England it is otherwise. There, writing of the
copperplate style is insisted 11po11. l would advise you ng m en
seeking positions to practise good penmanship. It is a valuaLle
thing, almost a necessity. The first position that I held in New
York ·was with \Vil son G. Hunt and Company, who had advertised for an assistant bookkeeper. J was told t h at J was engaged
because of rny penmanship. That was the beginning of my
\Vall Street career. HENRY CLEWS, lia11ker, iu Success.
2. THE ADVICE OF BENJAMIN WEST

As a t est for his fitness for a place as student in the Ro.Yal
Academy, l\l orse made a thawin g from a small cast of the
Farnese H erc nles. Il e took tl1is to \Vest, who examined the
drawing care fully and 11anded it liack, saying," Very well, sir,
very well; go on a111l finish it." "Jt is finished," said t he expectant student. " Oh, 110," said the president. "Look h er e,
and h ere, and here," pointing on!; many unfinisheLl places which
liad escaped the eye of: t he yo un g arti st. J\forse qnickly observed
the defects, 8pe11t a week in further perfecting hi s drawing, and
then took it to \Vest, co nfident f.Jiat it was above criticism. The
venerable president of U1e Ac:Hle111 y be8towerl more praise than
before and, with a pl easaut smile, ha nded it back to J\forse,sayiug: "Very well, i11Lleed, sir. (~o 011 and fini sh it." "Is it not
finished?" i11q11ired the almost clisconraged student. "See,"
said \Vest," you have n ot marked that muscle, nor t he articulation of t he finger-joints." Three clays more were spent upon
the Llrawing, when it was taken back to the implacable critic.
"Very clever, indeed," 8aid \Ve st ; "very clever. Now go on
and finish it." "l cannot finish it,'' J\Iorse replied, wheu the
old man, patting him on the shoulder, said : "\Yell, I have tried
you long enough. Now, sir, you have learned more by this
drawing than yon would have accomplished in double the time
by a dozen half-finished beginnings. It i8 not many drawings,
but the character of one, which makes a thorongh draughtsman. Finish one picture, sir, and yon are a painter."
P. G. lluuEHT, JH.: Inventors .

COJ1IP081TION IN GENERAL
3. CLIMBING A MAST

Claudi11s was a very large man, a11d Barker did n ot believe it
possible that h e could drag his gigantic frame up the s 111 ooth
111.as.t beyond the s hrouds. lf it were possible, he was quite
w1ll111g to pay his money to see him do it.
Claudius put the woolen cap in his pocket, and Legan the
ascent. The steamer, as has been said was SP.hooner-rio·o·ed
·l
·
'
~
ob
'
wit 1 topsail yard8 on the fore1rta8t, Lut there were no ratlin es
in the main topmast shrouds, which were set about ten feet
below the mast-head. To this point Ciandius climbed easily
enough, using his arms and legs again8t the stiffened ropes.
A shout from the Duke hailed hi8 arrival.
"Now co mes the tug of war,'' said the Duke.
"He can never do it,'' said Barker, co nfidently.
But B~rker h ad underrated the extraordinary strength of the
man aga111st whom he was betting, and lie did llot know how
often, when a lioy, C landius had climbed high er masts t han
those of the Streak. The Doctor ·was one of t hose llatnral
athletes whose strengtl1 does not di111i11i8h for Jack of exercise,
a11d large as he wafl, and tall, he was 11ot so heavy as Barker
thought.
Now he pulled the cap out of hi s pocket and h eld it between
his teeth, as lie gripped the smooth wood between his arms and
harids and legs, and with firm and eve n motion he began to
swar m up t he bare pole.
"There - I told yo u so," said Barker . Claudi ns had slipped
nearly a foot back.
."He will do it yet,'' said the Duke, as the climber clasped his
mighty hands to the mast. Ile would not slip agaiH, for his
blood .was up, and he could almost fancy his iron grip pressed
deep mto the wood. Slowly, slowly those la8t three feet w0re
conquered, inch by inch, and the broad hand stole s tealthily
over the small wooden truck at the topmast-head till it had
a firm hold- then the other, and with the two he raised
and pushed his body up till the trnck was oppos ite his
breast.

.I,

j

,,

I

j

30

31

A FIBS '/' NA NUA L OF CONI'OSITION

C011IP OSITION I N GENERAL

"Skal to the Viki11 g ! "yelled old St urleson, th e Swedish captai n, hi s su nburn t face growing r eel \Vith tri um p h as Claudius
clapped the woolen cap over the mast-hen,d.
CRA WF'O H D : Doctor Claudius .

back the crowds, and, passin g from t he rear, vvalked down a
living ave nue of people, until J cam e in front of t li e semi circl e
of Arabs, in t he front of which stood the white man with the
gray beard. As J adva nced slowly toward him I noticed he was
pale, looked weari ed, had a gray beard, wore a bluish cap with
a fatlell go ld l1anJ ronncl it, h ad on a re<l-sleevcd waisteo<Lt, <tllll
a J_Jair of gray twee d t rousers. l would 11ave r un to liim , o nly I
was a coward in the prese nce of such a 111 01>; would hav e embraced him, only, he beiug a 11 E ngli sh man, I d id not know how
he ·wonlcl receive me; so I JiJ what cowardice and false prid e
suggested was the bei:>t t hi11 g; walked deliberately to hirn , took
oft 111 y ha t a llll said:
"Dr. Livingstone, I pres um e?"
"Yes," said he, with a kind smile, lifting hi s cap slightly.
I replace my hat on my head, <md he puts on his cap, and we
both grasp hands, a nd I then say a loud :
"J tha nk God, Doctor, J have been permitted to·see you."
Jle answered, "I feel t ha nkf ul t hat l am here to welcome
you." ll1cN HY i\ l. STA NLEY: How I Found Livingstone.

4. TITE l\iEETLNG O.F STANLE Y AND LIVINGSTONE

S nclde11ly I 11ea r a voice on my r ig ht say:
"Good 111or ni11g, sir!"
Start.led at l1 earing t l1 is greeting in t he mid st of s uch a crowd
of black people, I t nrn sharply aro und i11 search of the man, a nd
see him at my side, with t he blackest of faces, bu t -animated
and joyous - a man d ressed in a long whi te shirt, with a t urban
of American sheetin g arou ml Iris wooll y head, and I ask:
" " rho t he mischief a re you?"
"I am S usi, the serva11t of Dr. Livingstone," said h e, smiling,
and showing a gleami ng row of tee th.
""\Vhat ! Is Dr. Livi ngsto ne here?"
" Yes, sir."
" Jn this village?"
"Yes, sir. "
" A re you sure?"
" Sure, sure, sir. " Thy, I leave him jnst now." ..
"Now, yo n S usi, rn11 , a11d te ll th e Doctor I am com ing."
"Yes, sir," and off he da rted like a madrnan . .. .
111 t he m eantime the l1 ead of the expe di tion had h alted, a nd
t he kira.ngozi was out. of t he ranks, h olJiu g l1i8 flag aloft, and
Selim sa iLl to me: "I see the Doctor, si r. 0 11 , what an old
rn an ! Jl e lrns got a white beard ." Aud I-what wo nlcl J not
have give n for a. bit of friendly wilderness, wh ere, uusee n, I
might vent my joy in so me mad freak, such as idiotically biti11g
my ha nd , t urnin g a so rn ernault, or slashin g at t rees, in orrler to
a ll ay those exci tiu g feel in gs t hat were well-nigh un contro ll ab le.
1\ly hear t beats Jast, h11t I 111nst 11ot Jet lll Y face betray my
emotions, lest it sl1 a ll detrac t frolll the dignity of a w hite man
appearin g un der sucl1 extraordin ary circumsta nces.
Sol diJ lhat wliich I t hought was most dignified. I pushed

5. THE STOI\Y O:F THE :MUT INY I N INDIA
In the Year 18G7

E ngland ha8 gone t hroug h 111aJ1y troubles and dangers, and
lias weat hered many a sto rm; b nt perh aps the lllOst terrible
danger she ever faced was t he lllu ti uy in India, which broke
out in th e year 1857.
JnLli a is t;he larges t a nd m ost tl 1ickl y peopled of the British
fo reign possessio us, and a large arrn y is n eeded to keep it i 11
order. Fort,y years ago t here were not English soldiers enoug h
for th e Jn dia.n a rm y, and so the holll e gove rnm ent was forced
to hire n ative tr oops. Th ese troo ps arc call etl Sepoys. The
Sepoys are men of vario11 s reli g io11 s. 0 1w of t heir re li gio ns
teaches its followers t hat t he cow is a sacred animal, and
a not her t each es that all good m e11 011 g ht to detes t the pig.
Now the enemies of England we11 t secretly to see t hese men,

32

A FIB8T MA NUAL OF COJlfPO S ITION

COMPOSITIO N IN GJCNERJI L

all(l to some they said t hat Liie cartridges t l1 ey u sed were
gr easc<l with t he fa t; oE t h e CO \r , while to tl1 e m en of t he oth e r
re ligi o n t h ey whi s pered tliat sw in e's fat liaJ been e mployed.
Th e SPpnys ,,·e re yc ry a ngry a n'I rose again st tl1 eir offi ce rs.
" ' lil'Lher lhc g rcascrl car Lrid gcs were t he rea l reaso n for
U1 eir muLiny is 11 ot very ce rtaill; pe rh aps Ll1 ere were other
c:w sl's. Th ey 110t onl y rose agai nst tl1 eir ofli cers, but they
rn11nlered e \·e ry English m a n, wo ma n, a nd child.
At Caw11pore, General \Vhecle r was shut u p wi th a few hun<lrecl rnen and m ore t li a n fi ve linndre<l women a nd children in
a hospital, round which ran a low 111nd wall. The reuels surro ul!ll ed t his place aml poured i11 upon th e English resiLlents a
fi re of b ull ets day a nd Hi g h t. Fro m the hour th e siege began,
t he s uffe rin g a n d t h e co ura ge of t lie English were in credible.
Th ere \Y as n o r oof Let,rne n th e gallant defenders a nd the
scorchin g sun; th e sliadow cast by th e low mud wall was but a
narrow lin e .
Th ere \.Vas onl y one well, amt it was a target fo r t he Sepoys .
Th e h eroes who d a red to draw water rlid so at the ri sk of t heir
lives ; those wl10 ret11rn ed were fevv . At last hun ger did what
the en emy n ever co 11ld have tlone. Finally th e leade rs of t he
Sepoys o ffered to JeL <: mie ra l Wh eeler a nd hi s co mpa ny go in
safoLy down tlie riv er Gan g·es if li e would onl y gi ve 11p liis
g un s, arms, and tr eas ure. Ile agreed; and th e English , leaving
t heir arm s, were m a rched dow n to t he boats.
No soon er had t li ey e n te red t he boats than the Sepoys opened
fire upon them. Many of the English were killed; the r est
were tak en back to Cawnpore, wli er e th e men were put to
death, and t h e wom e n and children sl111 t up in one la rge room.
Tli e n some Sepoys w ere sent in w it h sabres, a nd these wretches
pnt every one of t he 'NOrnen and children t o death .
ln Lu cknow, a city i n the n or th of India, the British governor
Raw that tlie 1iat;ives were going to attack his people. He put
th e ''°0 111en aml childre11 i11to the Residency, as the chi ef fo rt ress in a11 Indi a n city i s called. Th e soldiers 11 ad fo rtified
this pl ace, and we re cletcrmin ecl to die rather than let the
Sep oys do any harm t o th eir wives or little ones.

The natives in great mun be rs attack etl t he fo r tre~s agai 11
a nd again , lrn t were a lw ays dri,·en hack. Still .it was a fra rf11I
ti111 e fo r t he English. F or t hey k11 ew that if t h ese k rribl e
crowds of c ru el nat,ives 011tsicle co 11ld u11et ~ get into tl1 e pla ce,
tJ1 ey wo11ltl kill a ll the En g li sh w it l10 11 t 111 ercy. For fo11r
months t hey l1 eld out, wl1 i le di sease, l111n gr r, so rrow, a ncl
fatig ue we re p reying upon t he soldie rs a 11d Lheir wives a nd
chil d ren with in t he fo rtress.
Every 011e, fro11t Sir Il enry L rt\\TP 11 c1~, Lh<! gO\·e rnor, d ow n tn
tile liumhl l'st dn11nm er-Loy, sh owed th e: 11L1n ost p rtt i t~ 11 ce a11d
co nrage. Sir Il enry was kill ed uy th e llllrst in g o[ a s he ll in
the roo 111 in which J1 e w as sitti 11g .
As he lay dying, his pading \ror<l s to l1i s frie n<lR were,
" :M ind: 11ev er give up ; lint le t every 111 a 11 di e at hi s l•ost."
Ile kn ew well t he cru el enelll y t hey had to !lea l with .
The great and good Gen eral Il avelock, art(•r fight.i11g t\\'elve
ba.ttles on l1i s march , at last c ut l1is way inLo Luckn ow :111cl
saved t h e litLl e garri8011. Hu t ll ave lock's fo rce \\·as too s 1n :tll
to d ri ve away t he Sepoys and to put d mrn th e revolt; altll li e
in hi s turn was soon shut 11p by a 1nueli larger force of the
rebels.

33

Sir Colin Carnpbell , aHe r wa rds h1own aR Lonl Clyde, \\ a8
sent from England to h elp lii111. ' Vh e 11 t hi s gall:w t E11gli sl1
general was as ked in London wl ie n lie w ould be ready to 8ta rt
fo r India, - which is t hree thousa11d m iles away, - li e qu iet ly
replied, "To-morrow."
Th e English people within the fortress wen~ soon red uced
to terrible straits, with an aw fol d eath l1 a 11g in g over t heir
heads. At le ngt h S ir Co lin C'w1pl >ell , \\·it;h a la rge .BriLi 8li
army, brought; t he m all away Rafely afte r they h ad b een s h11t
up fo r nearly four months.
It is said that a Scottish g irl , by tli e 1rnn1 e of .Tess ie Brown,
was the fir st to recog11ize a 1i1id tl1e di11 of battle the s l1rill
so nnd of the bagpipes of t he Hi ghla nd so ldi ers, which told Lhe
iJesi ege d that t heir deliver ers w ere ll!~ar . .TeRR ie was prc8cntcrl
Lo t he ge neral on lii s entrancn into t he fo r t, a nd at t l1 e nrTi cc rs'
Lanqnet her l1 calth was clrnnk by all prese nt, \Yliile t,he pipe rs
D

34

A FIR8T .MAN UA L OF COJlIP081TION

C'OllfPO S I7 'ION TN C: RN ER AL

111 an.: li eu· around tl1e tabl e play in g the familiar air o[ "Aulll
Lang Syne."
Th e relief of Luckn o w ·was t he last great event in t he I11dian
111 ntiuy, as this rebellion was cn,lled, aml soou after the British
rule was establisl1e(l t here 111ore firmly t han ever before.

ALmrn.T F.

BLAIS DELL:

(4) Copy the lettern of :-;eutiu11s 26- 29, followin g
very carefully t he JJUn ct nation, capitalimtion, and
spacing. Do not write Chfrago l llinois for Oltica,qo,
Illinois . Do not write lVov ., 8, lDOi2, or 1Vov., Sl it.,
lDOB, or Nov . 8th . 190PJ, or Nov. 8 1902 , for th e g·i ven
form , Nov. 8, 1902.
Do not \\Tite JTours Tnd~ for
Y ours trnly. Do not write M!J D ear Sir for iliy dear
Sir.

Stories from E11ylish Uistory.

24. Letter Writing. \Vha.t we call the principle
of good rnmgc is very Rtrikiugly shown in th e matter
There are certain established
of letter writing.
forms which we must oLserve. These forms spnng
from the need of clearness ~'tnd courtesy in what we
write.
There are five parts of a letter : the hemliug , the
address, tlie sr1lutatioa, the body, the leav e-taking,
a nd the signature . These five parts VM.Y somewhat
in position or style, according to the hnd of letter.
'Ve may llistinguish five kinds of letters : th e fonna.l
Lusiness letLer, t h e formal invitation, acceptance, or
r eg rets, t h e note to :1 st r:u1 gcr, the note to an
acq uaintn,nce, ancl tlLe int imate letter or note.
The forms for all these letters except one are
pretty definitely fix e11. The one exception is the
intimate letter or uote, which can begin and end
in many ways.
25. (1) StULly carefully the followin g letters.
(2) l'oint oHt t he h eadillg, the adllress, the salutrition, the body, the leave-taking, and the signature
of e<1ch.
(:J) Hecite from memory the form of each and the
JJOt>itiou of each part.

35

26. Formal business letters.

Messrs. A. C. J\foClurg a 11d
.i\IcC:Ju rg Bnild i11g,
Chicago.
Dear Sirs :

i:Ji Sonth Prairi e Avennc
'
Chicago, lllinois,
Nov. 8, 1002.
Co.,

I write to i11qnire wh ether yo u liave in stock a11 old
copy of l31u_·ton's Anatomy of lllelancholy, a nd if so at what price
you value it. I cannot afford a cop y of t.l1 e first edition , out
\\'Olllll rathe r have an oltl Look than a 1110Llern r epri 11 t.
Very trnly yo urs,
Herbert Taylor.

J\lr. H erbert Taylor,
134 So uth Prairie Avenue
'
Chicago.
Dear Sir:

l\lcClurg Building,
Cl1icago, Illinois,
Nov. D, 1002.

\Ve have yo ur favor of Nov. 8. In reply we regre t

t 0 say t ha t we have not i 11 ;.;toc k an old copy of Burlo 11 's
1

',' 11atomy. Last week we Rold a co py of t he euitiu11 of .I 7!Hi for
$ I 0.00, and we presume we ca n pi ck you 11p a si lllilar on e for

3G

4000 \ .Yes tern Avenue,
Chi cago,

a l• oll t Lhe same pr ice. Tf yo n so desire, we will i1 1st'.·uct om
L omlon agei1 t Lo iuclnde such ft COi'Y i n l1is uext slnpmeuL.
Yo urs ve ry t ruly,
A. C. McClurg a nd Co.

37

COJlfPOSITION JN GENJCRA L

A F IU S T JlfJI JVU .AL OF COJ1LP08IT!ON

1\Ir. Marshall "Willson, P rincipal,

Sept. 12, 1902.

Dear Sir :
Graysville, P emi. ,
Dec. 18, 1902.
The 1Vfacmillan Company,
(jQ F ifth A ve nue,
Ne w York.
Ge11tle111en :
KiH<ll y sencl a copy o( Mr. Crawford's Ave l fomrt to
·
e , Pe1111 • 1 e nclose a
1\1rs. JI arns, !) (', arr1en 'I' e11· ..itce, ( •' 1··tvsv1'll
' J
<U!8
lJO
l
·
I
].
l111
llersta11u
to Le t he p rice of
money orc.ler f or •w • , vv 11c 1 .
t he book.
Yo urs truly,

I am a boy fifteen years old . l\fy father is dead,
and my motli er is not able to se nd rn e to sc l1 ool unless I can
earn m y tuition and so111etltin g bes ides. l shoulc.1 like to attend
t he " rayla11 (l J\ca(le111y if T co uld do this. I ru 11 as sLrong as
most uoys of w y age, a nu a 111 wi ll i11g to do a nytl1 i11g. l ca11
sc rub fl oo rs, clean blackuoanls, shovel coa l, wa it. on table, or
work in t he ofli ce. I e11close 111y record fro111 t he Hrown scl1 ool,
which I fini8l1 e1l last .f1u1 e. To-morrow l s hall call to see yo u
duri ng yo ur oJfice hours.
Very respectfull y yo urs,
J ohu Try.

H elen Roe.
Please adllress
Mi ss Uele11 J:.oe,
7 Garden Terrace,
Graysville, P euu.

The Faculty of Lewi s In stitute.
Gentlemen :
GG Fifth Ave nue,
N ew York ,
Dec. 20, 1902.

Miss H elen Roe,
7 Garden T errace,
Graysv ille, l'enn.
Dear 1\Iadam :
\Ve ackn owledge with th ank s your favo r of Dec ..18,
rn iclos in o- 111011 ey orc.le r for $8.00. \Ve have pleasure in se 11 du ~ g
to-c.lay, l~y Adams express, one copy of A ve Roma to !\~rs. Harns,
!) (;anle11 T errace, C:rn.ysvi lle, P enn.
The price of t hi s book is $li.00. 'Ve therefore enclose a
money order fo r $2.00, to balan ce t he account.
Yours very truly,
The Macmillan Company.

\Ve, t he undersig11ed, respectfu lly as k the privilege
of organ izing a literary socie ty, to be called the ParnaRsia11. 'Ve
enclose a copy of t he proposed con stitu tion , whic h we are ready
to sign. If furth er iufor 111ation is desired, we sha ll be g'lad to
appoi11 t a co mmittee to wait upon yo n at any time yo u may
designate.
C. R Bates,
II. B ulkley, etc.
27. Formal invitations , acceptances, and regrets.
l\fr. and Mrs. Frederick E stoff request t he pl eas1 1re of 1\Ir.
Etlward Edwarcls's co 111 pn.11y at tliuu er 0 11 Tnesday, May
sixth, at seven o'clock, to m ee t Mr. and Mrs. Frederick
Estoff, Jr.

12 P ea r Street, April twentieth, 1002.

38

A FIRST .MA NUA L OF CO MPO S ITIO N

l\Jr. Edward Edwn,rJs :tcce pts wit;h 111uch p leas m e the kind
in vitation of 1\'l r. aml Mrs. Frederi ck Estofi' to dinner for
1\fay sixt h, to lll ee t 1\1r. and Mrs. Frederick E sto ff, Jr.
14 Sycamore Street, April twen ty-thircl, 1902.

1\Ir. Edward Edwards regrets extremely that a previous
engage1ne11 t prevents hi s acceptance of Mr. an<1 Mr~. Frederick Estoffs kind in vitation to <limi er fo r May six th, to
m eet 1\lr. and 1\lrs. Frederick E stoff , ,Tr.
14 Syea111 ore Street, April twenty-tl1inl , 1!)02.

28. Notes to a stranger.

Plainfield, New J ersey,
Nov. 18, 1899.

1\ly dear Sir:
I see by the u1 orni11 g paper that a homing pigeon h~s
been found u y yo u, a nd tlrnt you are a t a loss to k11 o~v where it
belon ffS. I vent ure to s uggest, 011 notin g the m e nt10n of ~he
tiny al nminum box co ntaining a cipher message, t~1at the bud
may u elon g to t he N :wal ~\ cade.rny at ~\nnapohs. . A 1:ote
addressed to Professor I Ienn Manon, t he mveutor of the little

box, would solv e the riddl e.

Yours very truly,
H erbert T aylor.

l\fr. F . ,Jon es,
F eltvi.lle, New Jersey.

:F eltville, New J ersey,
Nov. l!J, 1899.
My dear Sir:
J. am very much obli ged to y on for the sugges tion
·
·
I \vill write to Professor
concerning the hommg pigeon.
l\l;uion a1; once.
Sincerely yours,
Frederick J ones.

1\lr. H erbert T aylor,
l'lainliel<l, New Jersey.

COMPOSIT101V JN GlENEll,AL

39

F eltville, New J er:;ey,
Nov. 25, 1899.
l\ Iy clear Sir:
You will b e pleased t o know that yo ur snggestion
abo ut the pigeon h as p roved a good one. Prufesso r 1\larion
at ou ce claimed th e bird, and arranged to h ave it shipped to
Aunapolis.
Th e li ttle fe llow had ],een so me what injured,
probably by a h awk: Wh en li e left h ere yesterday he was
apparently well except fo r th e lameness of one wing.
Mr. I I Prue rt T :tylor,
Plainfield, New J ersey.

V ery si1 1cerely yours,
l<'recl eri ck Jo nes.

New York, l\larch 30, 1871 .
To .Joseph H. Richards, Esq.:
My dear S ir,
I promised some tim e since to give you some accom 1t
of my h abits of life, so fa r at least as regards diet, exercise, aud
occupations. I am not sure t h a t it w ill be of a 11 y use to yo u,
altho ug h t h e system whi ch 1 h ave for man y yea rs observed
see ms to answer my purpose vei y well. J liave r eached a pretty
advan?ed p eriod of life, without th e uw al i11fin11itics o[ o\cl ag~,
and with my strength, activity, a ud uo<lily faculti es gen erally, iu
pretty g??d preservation. H ow fa r this may be tli e effect of m y
way of li fe, adopted long ago a nd steadil y adhereJ. to, is perhaps
u nee r tai11.
I rise earl y ; at this time of th e year about h alf-past five; in
SL'.mrn er, ha~f an hour or even a n hour earlie r. Imm ediately,
with very littl e e11 curn bra11ce of clot hing, I begin a serie s o f
exe rcises, fo r t h e most part d esign ed to expand tli e chest, an d
at the sa me tim e call into actio n all t h e nrnsc les and artic ul ations of the body. These are perfo rmed with cl 11111 b-bells the
very lightest, cover ed ·wi t h fl annel , with a pole, a horizontal ,bar,
and a light chair S'Nnn g aro und my head. After a fnll honr
and som etimes more, passed in this m rrnn er, 1 bathe from head
to foot. ·w hen at my place in th e co untry, I sometimes shorten
my exercises in tli e chamber, and, goiug out, occupy myself for

A FlRS'J' .MANUAL OJi' COJ1IP08ITIO N

CONPOS ITTO N I N GENERA L

h alf a n h o11r or m ore in so me work w hich req nires brisk exercise. AfLer my l1atl1 , i( breakfast be 11ot ready, l sit dow n to
111y stmlies ti ll J a111 ca l led..

get t eac l1 ers to feel a s we do co 11 cer11 in g t l1 e n eeds of lads in t he
lii gh scl1 00.l p er_iod. So me eve ning· soo n l sh all give niyself Lli e
pleas ure of call111 g ou yo LL to as k yo ur advice .

40

After breakfast I occ11py m yself for a while vvith my studies,
and th e n, whe n i11 tow n , I walk down to t h e office of t l1 e Evening
Post, n earl y t hree miles distant, and, a.Eter al>out t luee honrs,
ret urn , a lways walki11 g, w hatever be t he weather or the state of
t he streets. In t he co un Lry, I am engaged in my literary task s
ti ll a fee lin g o[ weariness drives m e out in to t he open air, and I
go npon n1 y farm or in to the garden arnl prune th e fruit t rees,
or perfor 111 so 111 e otl1 er work abont t he 1n whi ch t h ey need, a nd
Lhen go Lack to 111 y b ooks. T do not often drive out, preferring
to walk.
I alll, sir, truly yo nrs,
W. C. Dryant.
29. Letters to an acquaintance.
311 Central Park Avenue,
Chicago, .T u11 e 29, 1902.
l\ ly d ear l\fr. Fordyce :
I had th e great pleasm e of listening to yo ur lecture
yesterday, aud found 1u yself much impressed by your word s.
It seem s to 111 e t h at yo u understand Loys and t heir ambitio ns,
an d )1 ave t h e rig h t so rt of symp athy. l ve nture to h ope that
yo u wi ll find a good d ea l of tim e next year to speak to teachers
in thi s way.

Believe me
Sin cerely your obliged
Caleb Maxson.

41

Ve ry sincerely yo urs,
Brown Fordyce.

Dear J\Ir. Fo rdyce :

311 Central Park Ave nu e,
Chicago, July 1, 190:?.

I h ave your kind n ote of yeste rday, a nd hasten to
reply. Mrs. l\Iaxson :join s me i11 t il e wi sl1 t h at yo n sli ou l<l <lin e
:v1th us ve ry soo u, t hat we rnay liave a n U11in te rru pted evei iill g·
f~1; ~alk. Co ~Ll<l yo n co me on Tl111rsd ay of tl1is week at seve n"!
If l hursday is n ot co n ve11ient, li ow aLo ut Friday?
Si ncerely yours,
Caleb l\J axson .
l\Iy dear :Miss H oward :

l .Yi.ll you give us th e p leasure of your co nipany at
dinner n ext Thnrsday, July third, at seven?
Si JJ cerely yo urs,
A un Tanner.

61 Stillm an Street,
J u11e twenty-eighth.

l\ly dear Mrs. Ta nner:
.
. It g ives m e great pl eas ure to accept your kind in vi tat1011 to drnner fo r Thursday n ext.
Yonrs si nce rely,

223 ,Jackson P ark Terrace,
Cliicago, June !30, HI02.
My d ear Dr. Maxso n:
I w ish to t ha nk yo n ni o: t heartily for yo ur very kind
note of yesterday. Tl1 e snggestion t hat yo u m ake concerning
n ext yeu sets m e to tl1iukin g. I wish t h at I mi gh t do more to

L a nsdowne ,
Jun e t hirtieth.

El izabeth H olmes Iloward.

30. Intimate letters and notes. In tinrnte letters
an<l. notes a.re supposed Lo so und like t l1 e talk of

42

A FJHST :MANUAL OF COJ1fPOSITION

CO.i\IPOSITION IN GENERAL

the person who writes them.
They sh oul<l reveal
clrnr;wter. They sh ould be easy, 1rnturnl, kimlly.
There is no r eason why they should not be funny
at times.
They begin and encl in such manner as befits the
relations bet,veen the persons. The exmnples g iven
below show somethi ng of the variety of s~tlutation
and leave-taking in intimate notes . The note from
Dr. Holm es was written to his friend Dr. vVeir
Mitchell in mimicry of the bncl English of foreign
phrase-books for travelers. The poet Aldrich's note
is to his friend Professor Edward Morse. Stevenson's is addressed to his literary friend Mr. Sidney
Colvin, and shows tlrn,t schoolboys are not the only
persons who have to work over their Engli:::;h .
July 18, 1D02.
D ear Tom :

l\Iy dear Tom :

Fred.

000 So Ht Ii J 'rnirie A venue,
.July 17, 1DU2.

A few days after sc hool c losed 1 receiv ed a VC'ry
iuteresting box of seaweeds from a friend who is i11 Alaska.
They were too late to be showll to t he class, lrn t r knmv yo n ·w ill
h a rdl y like to rniss seei ng t hern . Suppose you co111e 1,o 1u11 ch
011 Monday, at one, if you are free. Ask your cous in Horace to
come if he is stay ing with you. Dropnte a note, please.
Faithfully yours,

G. l\l. R. Evarts.
10074 So uth Prairie,

Dear Mr. Evarts:

Jnly 17, 1902.

I am very rnuch obli ged for your kind in vit.ation to
lun ch on Monday, and shall be gfad to com e. I s11ould be
sorry to miss seeing the seaweeds. Horace we11t hom e yesterday, l am sorry to say.
Affectionately yo ur pnpi I,
l\lr. G. M. R. Evarts.

\Vhy can't yo n come to lunch to-morrow ? Both
sisters are ho111 e frorn hoardi11g-scl1ool, aml I dare say t hey will
tolerate yo n if yo u i•11t in a 11 appearance. Katy a lways has
lunch on the table at one. Send reply by bearer.
Yours,

43

Dearest Mother :

Tom Edgren.
H.iver111outb, ,July 16.

'Ve are to h ave a holiday 011 Tuesday of n ext ·we ek,
on account of the repairs that a re going on . You will see 111 e
home :Monday night in time for dinner. Jsn't tl1i s g reat luck ?
Your loving son,
l\larce l.

Jnly 18, 1902.
D ear Fred:
There is no r easo n whatever why I can't come to
lun ch to-morrow. Yo u wi ll see me prcse11t with m y appetite at
one o'clock or b efore. Give rny love to the girls.
Yours sincerely,
T om Bowlin.

Billy, Billy,

Rivermouth , Nov. 8.

\Vhat is the matter " ·ith you? Do yon reme111lie r
that you p romised to spend Saturday with m e ? And n ever a
wiuk have I had at your lordshi p, though this is Sunday evening. 1\.i-e you sick 'I
Your much disappointed relative,
l\larcel.

44

A Flll 8 '1' NA NUAL 011' CONPO S ITION

COJlf PO Sl'l'ION

I N GE NE RAL

D ear llilJ:

p~c:t JWll

Colonel d e V e r<,.ier and two other French offi cC'rs,
from Uo11rlin11 ll1 ~ 1geo 11s, llin e wi Llt 111e 011 Th11n;<lay

at !i.
l\Lak e one with us if yo u can .
Y ours t rnl y,
,J. Car t wri ght.
l\1y clear 1\Iorse :
JI; was very p leasant t o receive a let ter fr om yon the
oth er <lay. P erhaps I should have fo rnicl it pleasan ter H I had
been ab le to d ecipher it.. I don' t tltink J mastered aJ1 ythi11 g
b eyond the date, which I knew, a nd the signature, at which I
g nessed .
.
.
.
Th ere is a sin g ul ar a nd perpet ual charm ma le t ter of yo urs
_it n ever rr rmvs ol<l, a nd it n ever loses its n ovel ty. One can
b
£
say ever y mornin g as 011 e loo ks at it: " H ere's a letter o
J\lorse's 1 have n ' t r ead y et. I tl1 ink l sh all take anoLh er shy at
i t to-dav, a nd rn ayb e I sha ll be a ble in t he coHrse of a few years
to mak ~ out; vvh a t lie rn ea11 s by those t's that look lik e w 's, and
t h ose i."s th a t h aven' t any eye bro ws."
Oth er lette rs are read , and t l1rown a·way and forgot ten , but
yo urs arc kept forever - uuread. One of t hem will last a
reaso 1mLle 1na11 a lifetim e.
Y o11rs fai thfull y,
T. B. Aldrich.
April 29, 18G3.
Dear l\Ir. Sir:
I l1 ave t o receive from you the past to-m orrow the
phrases-book of th e P ortu gal language. Walkin g tlirong_h tl~e
m a il offi ce to Camhriclge, wh ere r 0nhabi t not, r a m want rn g 1t
Le fore t he day next to Lhi s mornin g's hinder side. I fi nd in it
11rn eh rib 111 ovc111en t. The En glish l lli scover to h e ver y ext raor(l i 11a ry p rPLt.y good. . . . T o th e ,Jo,;eph 1\l iUer b ook int'.ch
prefPr I t-. his, a1Hl thank th e Hame for you with all my cardiac
sc rolii clc.
1\lake believe l am faitli foo lishly yo nrs,
O. 'W . H olm es.

45
29th May.

1\1 y dear Co kin :

Still grindin g a t Ch ap. X L I bega n m a ny clays ago
on p. 9:), and alll still on p. DJ, wltich is exhil a ra t ing, bu t th e
thin g t ak es sh ape all th e sa111 e a nd shoulll lll a ke a pretty lively
ch ap te r for au e nd of it..
J une the 1 st.
B ack on p . 93. I was on 100 yesterday, bu t read it
over a11d co 11de rn 11 ed it.
lO a .m.
I li a vc worked up again t o 97, Lut liow?
E11t
it's go t to co me strai glit ! and if possible, so that I may finis h
D . Balfour in tillle fo r th e sallle m ail. . . .
J une 2d.
I a m n early dead wit h dyspepsia, ove rnrnoking, and
unremunerative ove rwork.
Last ni gh t, I we ut t o bed l>y
seve n ; woke up again about te n fo r a minu te to find m yself
light-headed a nd altogether off rn y legs; wen t to sleep again,
a nd w oke tl1is mornin g fa irly fi t . I li ave crippled 011 to p. 101 ,
but I have n 't read it yet, so do n ot boas t. ''' h at kill s me is t he
fram e of mind of on e of the ch a racters ; I cann ot ge t it t hrou g h.
Of co nrse tl1at d oes not inte rfe re wi th my t otal inabili ty to
write ; so th a t yes terd ay I was a livin g lt aH-ho nr upon a sin g le
clause and have a gall e ry of vari a11 ts t ha t would s urp rise you.
'Veil, read it with m ercy ! . . .
[Ilcre follow several p ages tellin g h ow t he story called Th e
Ebb Tide was finish ed, leaviu g the author exhausted, and sick
of Htory-wri tin g .J
IV ell, sir, here's t o you, a nd farewell.
Yours ever,

R. L. S.

31. Exercises. .,vV rite a bu:"liness lette r, a. formal
invitation, a formal acceptance, a courteous note to
a stranger, an informal in vitation t o a fri end, and an
intimate note to a school friencl.

46

A

FIRS'l' MANUAL OF C011IPOSLTION

Let every sentence Le complete. A void ru<le aLbreviations like "Yrs. recd. and contents noted."
Try in every letter to Le perfectly clear :iml courteous .
Let these letters be as real a,s possible. If you can
actually mail some of them after they are corrected,
do so. During the r est of the year let your instructor
see as mu ch of your conespondence as you are willing to have him see.
vVrite severa,l ten-word t elegrams, such as you
would like to send if you could. Perhaps yon cm1
reduce your Lusiness letter to tliis form, after t l1 e
manner of 21 aml 22. The first letter umler 26
reduces thus : "Have you old copy Durton's 'Amitorny'? v\That price ? Please answer."
32. The envelope. (1) In writing the address on
the outside of the envelope, it is unnecessary to use
any punctuation . It is not wrong, however, to use a
comnrn after each line but the last, and a period after
that. (2) Al ways give a man's initials, or first name
and rnidLlle initial. \Vrite his name as he writes it.
(3) 1\lways put J11r . Lefore a man's name unless he
lms some othe r title, and Messrs . before a firm's name.
l11 corpora,ted companies do not need the Messrs., h oweve r. The JIIacmillan C01npany is just as goo<l form
as JIIessrs. 'l'lte J1facmillan C'ompany . (4) If you are
writing to a clergyman, Jo your Lest to find out his
initi:ils. If you fail, write The R ev . JJ:fr. - - , but on
no account omit the ]Jfr. If you know that the clergyman is a doctor of <livinity, it is correct to write Rev.

COMPOSITION IN GENERAL

47

or The R ev. Lefore his mime arnl , IJ.JJ. afterward,
thus: The R ev . Archibald A. Alexander, JJ.D. This
is better form than R ev . Dr., ete. (5) In writing to
a lawyer, omit Mr. and follow the name with , Esq.
Th e same may be done in ad<lressing any gentleman
of years and honors. (6) In a<l<lressing a married
woman, write the name by which she is known in
society, thus : Mrs . John G. Guelph.
vVhen she
answer s the note, she will sign her own legal name,
thus : Anna Rice G'Uelph. A widow may be addressed
by her legal name, u,11l ess h er car<ls continue to bear
her husband's name . . (7) Let all that is written on
the envelope be very clear and distinct.
A void
abbreviations for the names of states, except P enn.
and C'onn. Every other abbreviation may be mistaken
- J1iass . for J1fiss ., N. Y . for .N.J., etc. R ememl>er
that six million letters go to the DeaLl L etter Office
each year, and that other millions go to the wrong
state before going to the right one.
Write the correct addresses of ten of your acquaintances.

P UN CTU ATION AND SE N TENCE -S TR UC T UR E

CHAPTER II
PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STRUCTURE

33. A paragraph consists of sentences. A sentence
is a statemen t, inquiry, or command. It 11as a subject and a preclica,t e. vVhcn written it l>eg ins with
:t cap ital and enc.ls with a period, or a question mark,
or an exclmnation poillt. Punctuation is a system of
ma rks by which we di ville a paragraph into sen tences,
and a sentence into groups of words, in onler to h elp
th e read er to t h e m e;tn in g .
34. B efore we can punctuate intelligently we nrnst
umlerstaml cle:1rly what a se ntence is. Mos t senten ces are state ments . Statements are n ot phrases.
Phrases :ire groups of wonls that nutke sern;e, hut clo
n ot st:ite :tnytl1ing. Flyi1117 blackbird is a p hrase .
'l'lw blackbird fli es is a st11tcme11t. Th e dot] himting
rabbits is a ph rase. 'l'he dog is lmnting rabbits is a
state mc11 t .
35. Point ont the g roups of words tlrnt make state11H.mLs, awl those t \ia,t do not.
] . Boys lik e h eroes. 2. The likin g of boys for heroes. 3.
Lheir en ern ies. 1L Th e Romans \\·ere weighing out
(; ol(l
g·o hl fo r t hei r e11 emi cs. G. Tile hero Camillus. 6. T he sword
~f Camillu s. 7. The hero Cam illus threw his sword into the

fo;·

48

49

scales. 8. In t he pass of Th errn opylrc. !). Th e brave 1\ l ilt iaclcs
peri shed in th e pass. 10. Th e lau re ls of l\ lil ti:ules. 11. Tl 1e
laure ls of l\liltiades won ld not let Tli mni s tocles sleep . 12. As
q11i et as a rn ousc . 10. As rn ad. as a hatter. 1'1. Alice attencled
:t 111 ad t ea-party. 15. To leave one in Lh e l11rch. lG. Thrif t is
good revenue. 17. In t he end, U1i .ngs wi ll mend. 18. Not
worth a brass farth in g. ID . Ui 1<l er t he rose. 20. I te ll you
11 nder t he rose. 21. Th e swayin g hr:wch cs. 22. The bran ches
arc :·maying. 2;1. Th e swayin g hr:w cli cs cas t flicke ring shad o\1·s.
2 l. A sleepi ng lion. 25. A lion is sleepi11 g. 20. W e le t a
sleepi ng lion li e. 27 . The g uard bein g asleep. 28. T he g11 arcl
was asleep. 2D. Ile succeeded iu passing t he gate, the guard
being asleep.

36. H ere are some extracts from papers written l>y
iJoys ancl g irls. Turn the phrases into sentences.

:t

1. Ili s mann er is p leasant, modes t, a nd r:iniet. A robust
fi gure a nd a frank expression . 2. A cnrions-looking face, with
hi gh forehead a nd a broad 11ose. His cl 1in is small. 3. Th e
111 ask of St. Francis has an inLelli gent £a,ce, with long cheek s
and a Lroacl forehead. A d elicate 1nouth, and its lips are
p:trted. 4. Hi s h ead is very large a1Hl rou nd like a ball. Large
eyes, aquiline nose, and r atl1 er thick lips. 5. The young person
] \rill describe is dark. Dark eyelashes and eyebrows . Very
llark, lau ghing eyes a nd a shapely nose. {l. German mu sician.
A ro und fac e with hig h forehea(l, large eyes, lwavy eyebrows.
Short, coarse Hose. 7. A per so n with curlin g h air, long face,
large fore head, clear blue eyes \r i t h a m ischievous look i n t l1 ern.
Th e expression of t l;e face al ways bright. 8. It is a most beau Wnl spot;. Just hack of our tent is a de nse wooLl. Very littl e
11nderbrn sh , bnt flow ers of a ll k imls i n profnsi on. D. In thi s
ches t t lt nre were books a nd toys a nd dolls. All rnixecl up together.

37. It hardly needs to be said that a p hrase sh ould
nev er lie punctuated as if it were a sentence, t lrnt is,
E

·I

I'

50

A FIRST ]JANUAL IN COMPOSITION

be begun with a capital and endecl with a period .
Yet when a phrase comes at the end of a sentence, it
is easy to forget that it is a part of that sentence.
Often when a beginner has written a statement and
phced a period, he :finds that he wishes to ackl a, fo"v
words. Of course he ought to erase the period with
his knife, and begin the phrase with a small letter.
H he forgets to tlo :::;o, his statemeJLt reads like this:
"She has heanLifol gulden hair. Aml Llue eyes."
38. Gnmted that we know a statement from a
I_Jhrnse, our next task is to learn tlte use of the C<t]:JitaJ
and period. B eginners are }tlWitys afraid of capitals
and periods. They feel that all they have to say is
about one thing, and so they run their state ments all
togetlter, or else separate them only Ly commas.
The Leuinner
writes like this :
b
"~'1y dog is a f;paniel his nam e is N ep, that stands for Nep.tu11e
Neptune was the sea-god, we call the dog Nep because he is so
fond of the water, h e likes to be in it all the time, once h e got
caught in the weeds and was nearly drowned."

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This brea,thless stream sounds childish, does it not?
This bad habit of running statements together without periods may be called 'The Child's Fault in Puncturition.
The group of rema,rks about the spaniel ought to
be pointed thus :

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"l\ly dog is a spaniel. His name is Nep. That stands for
Neptune . Neptune was the sea-god. \Ve call the dog N ep

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PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STRUCTURE

51

because he is so fond of t he -water. He likes to be in it aJl
tli e time. On ce he got caught iu the weeds and was nearly
cl row ned."

These sentiments are short and jerky, but they are
true sentences .
39. .Below are given some parts of school compositions in which The C l1il<l 's 1i'ault in Punctuation
occurH. Tl1 e first colullln gives the faulty pointing,
the sc concl t l1 e correct.
Reau each pair of sentences aloucl, letting the voice
fall only at periods.,
Wrong Pointing of I ndependent Corrnct Pointi11.,r1 of Independent
Statements
0/atements

1. Ro one k11ew Ulysses lmt
1. No one knew Ulysses but
hi s dog Argns, presently li e his dog Argus. Prese ntly he
made hilllself known to TelellL- lllad e himself known to Telemachus.
achus.

2. I started out on a camp2. I started out on a camping trip with a friend of rniue, ing trip wiLlt a friend of mine.
we had a spring buggy and a 'Ve had a spring buggy and a
pair of good horses.
pair of good horses .
0. On our first clay out we
did not stop u11 til dark, tlie11
'Ne camped near a fanner's
house for supper we bought a
quart of milk from there and
had it with our bread aml cold
beans.

3. On our first day out we
did not stop n11ti1 dark. Then
we camped n ear a farmer's
house. For supper we bought
a qnart of milk from there a ud
had i t with our bread and cold
beans.

4. ' Ve were ont hunting, a ll
4. 'Ve were out hunting.
of a sudden a rabbit darted 0 11li All of a sudden a rabuit darted
from behillCl a, Lush, we all out fr.o m behind a bush. We
all ye lled at once.
yel led at once.

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A F lll8T JlIA N I AL OF COMPOSITION

G. "\Ye full y ex pec t; to sec
yo u Lltis s 111111 11 er , yo 11 s11.rc ly
will 11ot lli sa1•poi 11 t ll S L11i s
year, you know you tl id last
year.

G. "\Ve fo 11 y expcc t to sPe
yon this su111n1 c r. Yo n s urely
will 110t disappoj nt n s tl1i s
year. Yon kuow yo u did hist
year.

G. Oh, P olly, I w e nt last
evenill g with rna1H111 a to tlie
ope ra, it was t he Boh e1ni a n
Gir l, I wish yo u h ad been wiLh
us, it w:is fi ne .

G. Oh, P oll y, I wen t last
eveniug with malllrna to the
opera. It was t he Jl o lie1Hia 11
Girl. I wi sh yo n h aLl been
with u s. lt was fin e I

7. A walkin g tou rshon lcl be
taken liy yo urself, if yo LL go in
pairs, it is 11ot a walki 11 g tum
liut a pic11ic, you wn,ut to Le
free to go where you pl ease .

7. A walkin g to ur sli o uld be
tak e n l>y yo urself. If yo u go
in pairs it is n ot a walki ng to 11r
but a pic11ic. You wa nt Lo be
free to go wh er e yo 1L p lease.

8. Jt isn't as 11i ce 11p h ere
n ow as i t is in su rn rn c r, t here
are o nl y a fe w du ck s around,
m ost of the ducks have gone
so 11tl1, we have partrid ge alm ost every day, Reddy l>rougltt
t hree partridges to-day, h e is
j tLs t so l> eri11g up.

8. It isn 't as nice np h ere
now as it is in s umm er. There
are only a few ducks arouud.
Most of the ducks have g one
so uth. vVe lrnve partridge a lmost every d ay. lleddy bro ug ht
three partridges to-day. H e is
j nst soberiu g up.

;rust after dark T heard a
spl ash , rny co usin vvas in th e
icy wate r, li e h a d walked
strai g ht off th e b::w k in t he
(lark.
\Ve soo n pullc<l J1 i111
o ut, he was rno.re scared tha11
Jiurt.

9. Just after dark I heard a

!).

10. That ni g ht we found an
old stage-hou se that was Jial>i talil e, we stayed t he re fo r seve ral days, th ere was plenty of
foel a 11cl it was not far to a ver y
fin e okl sprin g .

splash. ~1y cousin was in t he
Il e had walked
icy water.
s trnigh t off t he ba nk in t he
dark.
·w e soo n pnlled liim
out . Ile was m ore scared tha n
hurt.

10. That night we found
an old stage-li o use t hat was
hab ita bl e . We s tayed there for
several days. There was plenty
of foe!, and it was not far to a.
very fin e old spring.

P UNCT UA TIO N AND SEN TENCE-S TR UCT URE

lJ. "Plii l Faningto n " was

53

11. " Phil Farri ng t·o n " irn s

~notli cr boo k I raUi e r e 11j oyc d , a not l1er book I rat her nllj oyed.

ii; to l1l n[ a boy wh o was fo1111(l
by a li1111 tcr ill Mi sso uri afLer
a1 1 exp losion of a steamboat 0 11
t.li e 11 pper :Mi ss iss ippi , h e lost
h! s pal'eHts, o r ratl1 e r t hey los t
li1111 , he n1 :11rnged to get a sho re
a 11d was fo11ml by the l111n ter
as I te ll yo n, as li e g r 01\'S old e r
he w a n ts to fiud hi s par ell ts,
he stal'ts 0 11 t a11Cl finds l1 is
faLher a (lrnnkarcl i11 St. L o ui s,
hut l1i s 111 uLlwr is in Fr:L11 cc. ,

I t to ld of a boy wh o was l'o111lll
liy a 1nllltcr in 1\ Li sso u.ri afte r
a11 expl osio n 011 a steamboat on
t he npper Mississ ippi. H e Jost
his parents, o r rntli c l' tl1 ey Jos t
hi111. Ile 1n a 11 nge( l to get a~ l 1o re
a 11d was fonllJ by L iu~ llll n tn as
I tell yo u. As li e gr ows old e r
he wa nts to find. l1is pare n ts.
11.e star ts out awl find s lii s
faLlt e r a d rn11 ka l'd i 11 St. L ou is,
li11t lii s 111 otl1 e r is i 11 Fran ce.

40. Until a student Jin1-; lea rned to reacl his own
work aloud in telligen tly, h e will Le likely to make
the Child 's Error wh<~ne v e r h e wri tes.
H e will L~ parLicula,rly in danger of not st 0 ppin g
l>efo re cer tam wonls, for example 1Ie and It. L et
us seek tlie reason for this.
If you w er~ to ask yo ur t each er to say in a single
word what krnJ of statement may Le 1vri tten as a
~cnten ce, the answer would proLaLly be the word
llldl7Jendent. Yet your instructor would Le oLlio-ed
Lo tell yo u Llrnt it is not very easy to llcfino an in~l e­
pcllllen t statement. Examine two sentences :
My dog is a spaniel.

Ile is n amed N eptnn e.

Th ey seem to be quite indep emlent of each otli er.
But the sentence
Ile is nam ed N eptune

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A FIR S T 1lfA NUAL OF C0 1lfPOSITION

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P UNCTUA TIO N AND SENTENCE- S TRUCTURE

55

;/1
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is not co mpl ete in meaning. Ile might mean a man,
:L dog, or an elephant.
Yet "He is named Neptune "
is a, sentence .
vV e may call " H e is nam ed N epLune " a state ment
grammatically independent. S uch a, state ment has a
g rammatical ri g ht to begin with a capital and end
with a p eriod. If a man should ap]Jroach you and
sa,y merely :
"It fell,"

you would d oubtless Le justified 111 thinking him a
lunatic; but hi s statement woukl be a sentence.
41. \Vli en the subject of a statement is an imlependent name, like The 1nan, or John, or Courage, the
Leginn er is <1uick to see that he should ca,pitalize the
sentence . ,When the subject depends for its meaning
on what precedes, as in the case of Ile, the beginner
hesitates to capitalize. Hut any statem ent that begins
with the subject I-le, They, It, She, This, 'l'hese, or
Those, has a rig ht to stand as a se ntence .
Th e following parag raphs are correctly punctuated. They are very abrupt and "choppy," but there
is no false use of commas for perit;)ds.
Napo leo n was al ways on t i me. Ile said th at in eve ry battle
Lh ere is a 11 ick of t im e. Il e decla red t hat a ge nera.I 111 ust kn ow
just wh en the 11ick of tim e co mes. Il e said that the Austr~a1'.s
did not kn ow the va.lue of five minu tes. He said that tl11s JS
why he beat tliern.
A lady once got on a car to go from New York to Phila.delphia.. She did not kn ow it was a 11rivate car. She sat do\\'n
behind a rather sto ut gen tleman. H e presently lig hted a

cigar. Sl1 e did . not Jike tltis at all. She p resently poke to
t lt e rn a n abo ut it. She to ld him sl1 e t houg ht he must be a
foreigner. She said lie pro bably did 11 ot know th ere was a
smokin g car. H e th ere11 pon tl1 rew his cigar out of Lhe wi 11 dow.
Site was astonished to lea rn fr om tlie conductor that she was iu
Geueral Graut's private ca r. ~he has tily beat a retreat into the
11 ex t car.

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Copy the following sentences, and finish each
iHcomplete one as y ou proceed . L et th e second sentence of each pair explain tlie first; let it show what
the firs t means.
42.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
cloth.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

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·w ashiu gton

was a g reat general. Ile - - .
Victoria was empress as well as queen. Sit e - - .
Grant and Lee were schoolmates. Th ey - - .
Every gun lt as a" sig ht ." This is --.
My book has two pieces of pasteboard cove red with
Th ese are - -.
I have a wheel that I like. I t - .
'~re eujoyed t he concer t . It - -.
Please let me have so 111e sweete r apples. These - - .
I ca n't solve this proule111. I t - -.
I can't accept yo ur kind i11vitatio11. I - - .
We sold our dog. Ile - -.
Look out for the dog. Ile - - .

43. Statements frequently Login wi th conn ec tive

expressions, like but, and, altlwugh, here, there, wlterefvre, so . Are such sta tements indep endent ? Does
the conn ective interfere with ind ependen ce? Sometimes it does, and sometimes it does not, as we shall
now see .
44. Adverbial beginnings of independent statements .

New sentences often begin with adverbs.

These

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A Fll~ST .M A NUA L OF COJlIPOSlTION

often sh ow place : Iler e, 1'here, Over there, Above,
B elow, At the ri!)ht, Overhead, On the flo01·, Farther

away, .Near by.
lmlepemleut 1 egin11ings may be macle that show
1
the tirne of tlie n e w statement: Now, 1'hen, 1 0-day,
Yeste rda.!J, T o-morrow, Ininiediately, Presently, I£e1·etofore, Jiitherto, Once, Afterwards, After this, Soon,
Often, Preqiiently, Occasionally .
A n other imlepenLlcnt beginning is t h e word There.
l t is co mm on in such phrases as 'There is, 'There's,
1
1_1/wre are, There is no, There' s no, 1 lwre are no .
Certain adverbs may form indepemlent l.Jeginnings
to show whether the writer thinks his statement positively true, or prolmhly true, or possibly true. These
are: Certainly, Su.rely, D oubtless, Indeed, P erhaps,
Possibly, Probably, Anyhow, Anyway, In all probabilit,y, At least, At all events, In any case .
45. (a) \ V rite a theme of one page concerning the
sch oolroom.
Degiu several sentences with adverbs
denotin g place.
(b) \V rite a theme of one page t elling h ow you
spent yesten1ay. Begin several sentences with adverbs of time.
( c) \ V rite a theme of one page describing t he
sch oolroom . Degin several sentences with There is,
'l'here' s, There's no, 11/iere a,re, or 'l'here are no.
(d) vVrite a prophecy concerning the rest of the
scliool year.
:Uegin several sentences with such
words as Perhap s and Probably.
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PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STH UCTURE

57

46. Independent con junctions. A pure or independ en t co nJ· unction, like and, does nothi n no' but connect. Ther e are about a doze n pure conjunctions fourteen, as we shall reckon them. Th ese <.liviLle
into four groups: the ancl g roup, the but g roup, the
.~o gro up, and the either gro up.
Tho and g ro11p: a 11d, also, rn oreover, besides.
The but gronp: but, yet, still, nevertheless.
The so gro up: so, t herefo re, co11 se<1ue11 t ly.
Tlte either group: either, or; ueither, uor.

Im1 epern1en t conjunctions join things that are
spokeu of as equally important :
l. Bl 11e anrl green are both color s.
2. Either this book or that will do.

A ll independent conjunction s except the either
group may connect sen tences . A state ment beO'iJJa
ning with an independent conjunction may stand
alone.
1. It rained. A 11d, what was worse, it blew.
2. It rain ed. Also it blew.
3. It rained. Jlllureoi;er it blew.
4. It rain ed.
It rained.
G. Jt rai11ed.
7. It rained.
8. I t rained.
g, ] train ed .
10. It rain ed.
!),

B esides it l>lew.
But the rai n did uot prevent our trip.
Y et t l1 e r ai11 did not preve nt our trip.
J.V evertheless ·we went.
So we gaye np th e trip.
Th erefor e we decided to wait.
Cons equently we deferred t.he t rip.

47. There is one conn ec tive before which beginners are usually afraid to put a period. This is the

58

A FlllST NAN UA L

OF CO]fPOS11'10N

word So, meaning Therefore . It is perfectly correct
to capitalize a So-stn,tement. 1 In short sentences like
Tt l>egan to rain, so we stopped playing,

it is customary to permit the comma before so, but
it is grammatically conect to write,
It began to rain.

So we stopped pla.ying.

The period is regularly preferred when the statem ents are long.
48. And and but may begin new sentences, but
they rarely do so. \,Ye commonly use and or bitt to
join two sentences into one. Take an exampl e:
\Ve may give advice.

\Ye cannot give conduct.

These :;:;entences are very emphatic . They sound
jerky and severe . vV e join them thus :
\V e m ay give advice, but we cannot give conduct.

Here the comma before but takes the place of the
period. The comma alone ca,nnot ta,ke the place o[
the period; it can do so when followed by bid. The
conjunction but, then, does not often begin a sentence.
If the idea of bnt is wanted at the beginning of the
seutence, we use Nevertheless, or Still, or Yet, or At
the sa11ie time, or On the contrary, or On the other hand.
49. Study the following sentences, to see if tho
present punctuation could be bettered by substituting
1 But

the coujnnction so that never begins with a capital.

PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STRUCTURE

59

a comma, 'vvith but instea,d of the period. 'Ihen copy
all the sentences, making the change where it seems
desiraule.

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1. After din ner sit awhile. After supper walk a mi le. 2.
Clowns are best in their owu company. Gentlemen are best
everywhere. 3. You smile. You bite. 4. V\'e are bou11d to be
honest. \iV" e are not bound to be rich. 5. Be bold. Be uot
too bold. 6. Experience keeps a dear school. :Fools will learn
in no other. 7. God stays long. H e st rikes at last. 8. H e is
rich . Ile is not satisfied. 9. His clothes are worth pou11ds.
His wit is d ear at a penny. 10. K11owledge is a treasure.
Practise is the key to it. 11. Lips may be rosy. They mu st
be fed. 12. Samson was a strong man . He could not pay
mon ey before he h ad it. 13. Spend not where you way save.
Spare Hot where you must spe nd. 14. The fool's coat may lie
fine. It is only a fool's coat. 16 . Foppishness is vulgar. Neatness never made a fop . lo. Fine clothes never wou a position.
Clea n nails have mad e a man rich . 17. Labor makes dirty
hands. Hauds honestly dirty make clean mon ey. 18. 'Tis a
wicked world. \Ve make a part of it.

50. The comma before and frequently takes the
place of a period .
1. The clock struck one; and the mouse ran d own.
2. 'Washington r eached Yorktown, and the siege began.
:1. A rt; is long, and life is short.
4. The rain descended, and the floods ca me, and the winds
blew.

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vVhenever and seems to connect two clistinct statements, the comma is needed before it. In such a
sentence as
He stood silent a minute, and then began to speak,

the second part seems like a new statement, although
it is really only an extension of the predicate.

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A F l1fiiT Jll!I N UA L

OF C0"1IP081TION

·\\Then and jui1is two words, of co nrse tli er e should
be n o conrn1a. The following select ion sh ow8 t lt e
differe nce beLwee n a 11d joining wonl8 and aud j oining sta.temeuts :
A J>EFE CTlVE ED UC ATlON

l\lr. llea.rn is a writer and traveler. Jl e know s t he .Japan ese
la11 g 11 age ·well , <Lll(l l1 as r ecen t ly Lecorne a .ra fHLll efie ci tiz;eu.
li e sp\'aks a. ml wr.i lefi tl 1e ]a ug nage p erfect ly 11o w, ],nt was
some time in lear11i11g it. .Before h e lll astcre<l .it; h e 111et with a
p ec uliar exper ien ce, a nd W<LS much amtrncd by it.
A .Japa nefie gm 1t le1u an and sc holar wa8 ente r tainin g 1\fr.
H earn . Ile l1ad J1 crml Llmt his g ue8t was a literary man , a nd
was rn 11ch i 11 ten• sh ·ll in t.h e fact. N ow i 11 ;Japan a J11 a n of
lette rs u s urtll y h o ld s a hi g h oni ce of so111 e so rt·., a nd is in e ve ry
way a per8011 of g reat a ut hority. Hut he 1uust possess one
partic ular art., that o [ wri tin g a hand as clear a s CJ 1gravi11 g.
On e d ay t l1 e h m;t ca111 c in to t h e room w here l\fr. l [earn was,
aml 11oticml fio 111 e sl1 C'et8 of p aper on whi ch :i'dr. H earn l1a<l
,uitten cer ta in 111 e n1 o ra.11 Lla. H e looked at t he m a nn ficript ·wi th
great r espect, Lnt did n ot see m entlmsiasLic. l\lr. H earn and
J1is interpre ter 'lr er e ta lki11 g toget her late r in th e <lay, ancl were
speaking of th e h ost . Th en l\ lr. H earn learn ed t hat t li e h ost
liad r e marked," U c must have had great person al popu larity at
home Lhat t hey did n ot send him to writin g-school Lefore th ey
se nt him auroad."
Note to the teacher. J£ tim e p ermits, the prin cipl es of
pu11 ct11a,tio11 t hu s far stated should b e p11I; to t li c test at l;l1i s
point. A w eek of 1laily Lhemes ( section 851) sho11ld lie required.
Th e st111lm1t sho uld wri te o( what he did on t l1 e prev io11s 1lav.
or of so 111 et hi11 g t lm t li e saw ou that rlay. ]J e sh on ld hP
direc ted to J,eg in n o se ntence >rith and. Th e t lH' mes sh o11ld
be co rrec tl~cl in t.h c sa111 e way as the previo ns r eprodu ctions,
and shrntl1l l1 e co pi ed 11 ea l;ly. Further work w ill of course Le
11ecessary before the prin ciples are master ed.

P UNCT UA TJON AND SENTJiJNCE- 8 1'1: UC T UlUE

Gl

51. Statements that cannot be written as sentences.
A 8i mple cl eclarative se nten ce .is a sing le imlep ernicnt
8taterne nt . A comp ound sou tence is nmcle up of two
or more independen t statem ents, often j oined Ly
and ur but. There rermlins a third kind of Hentence,
Llte complex . " Wlien gnns are dangerous, they
shoukl n ot be used ." This i8 a complex senten ce.
l t cons ists of the main or indep end ent state ment
tltey sltould not be u sed, awl a cle1Jemlent statement
showing wlieu. The statement
They sl1ould u ot be used

is gramnrntically iudep emleut. It could b egin with
a capital and end with a p eriod . But 1Vh en gnns m·e
dangerous could not stand alone . It is dep emlent.
52. Almost any sl1 ort statem ent can be turned
iu to a m ere piece of a senten ce by putting on e of
cer tain words before i t . Point out the ma.in statements ancl the d ependent :
1.
2.
3.
4.
.'funs

TYhere guns are dangerous~ they should not be n sed.
G nus sho uld not be U8ed where they are dangermt8.
Wh erever ,quns are dan,r;erous, g u11fi sh o uld not be u sed.
Tli e g r eates t care should be take n in huntin g, wlterez:er
are dangerous.

5. 1'Vlten .r;w1s are dangerous, th ey slto1dd be le t a lone.
G. G1111 s s ho uld Le let a lone when tltey are dangerous.
7. Since this gnn 1iecr11n e r/011.r;erous 'rn have ne ver touched it.
8. \Ve have let this old mu sket alone ever sin ce it became dan,r;erous.

D. Ju st as the guns were getting hot anr! dangerous, the firing
ceased.

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A FI1Ui1' NANUAL OJi' COMPOSITION

PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STRUCTUBE

63

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10. The firing ceased j ust as the guns were ge tting hot and dangerous.
1J. vV !tile the guns were hol a ml danyerous, the gunueri:; rested.
12 . The gnn ners rested while the !Jllns were hot and dangerous.
13. The rifles wer e still unu sed, while the cannon were hot and
dangerous .
14. JV hile the cannon were hot and dangerous, the rifles were

still cold .
15. "\Ve left, .for r\fies are drmgerous.
Hi. Since the rifles of d eer-hunters are dangerous, vve kept ont
of the woods.
17. "\Ve kept out of the pines i11 November, since r~fles are
dan!Jerous.
18. Because the rifles were danyerous, we kept out of the

pines in November.
19. "\Ve kept out of the pines and stayed at home, because
the

r~fles

were dangernus.

20. The deer-hunters' rifles are dangerous, where.fore we keep
out of the pines.
21. Fifty deer-hunters came into the pines, whence tee presently departed.

22. The deer-hunters were banging away,so that we .felt uneasy.
23. "\Ve stayed out, lest we should stop a stray bullet.
24. If guns are dangerous, why use them?
25. vVhy use guns, {/they are dangerous?
2fi. Unless a gun is hammerless, it is dangerous.
27. A gun is dangerous un less it is hammerless.
28. Provided it is hammerless, a gun is fairly safe.
29. A g11 11 is fairly safe proPirled it is hamm erles.~.
30. A well-made g11n is fair ly safe, provided it ·is hammerless.
31. Although guns Icicle, boys like them.
32. Boys like guns, althou_qh gims are dangerous.
33. Boys like guns, even (l guns are dangerous.
3±. Ile carries his gun with raised hammers, as if he we re a
.fool.

35. Rven if gun s are dangerous, foolish persons will carry
them carelessly.

3G. Notwithstanding he has bee n warned, he will fire that old
charge.
37. He will probably get killed, notwithstanding he has been
warned.
BS. This gun has been ma<le hammerless in order that it may
be S(~fe .
39. In order that it may not scatter, this gun has been choke-

bored.
40. Hold yonr peace till yoit know which man is al .fault.
41. A lie begets a lie, till they come lo generations.
42. Agree, for the law is costly. Agree, .for fighting is still

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in.ore costly.

Dependent conjunctions are such words as ~f ancl because. They do not
connect sentences. They connect two clauses within
a sentence. vVhen a dependent conjunction begins
a sentence, we know there are to be two clauses, the
first depending on the second.
The dependent conjunctions may be arranged in
seven groups. These may be called the where group,
the when group, the beca'llse group, the if group, the
altlio'llgh group, the so that group, and the whether
group.
53. Dependent conjunctions.

'

1. The where group: where, wherever, wherein.
2. The when group: when, whenever, while, before, after,
since, until, just as, as soon as, as long as.
3. The because group: because, for, as, since, inasmuch as,
as Jong as.
4. The i.f group: if, unless, provided, provided that, except.
5. The although group: although, though, even if, grantiug .
6. The so that group: so that, in order that, that.
7. The whether group: whether, if.

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64

A FIRST M ANUAL OF COM PO SITION

PUNCTUATION A N D SENTENCE- STR UCTUR E

65

Use each d ependent conjunction in two senten ces . Let 011e scutence put the d epemlent clause
first ; let the oth er put it b st. Give sen te nces of
y o11r own, or r ep eat from memory senten ces found
in the list ahove.
55. Th e word because al ways beg in s a c] epellllcnt
clanse . The wonl for may sometimes begin a sentence, liut u ot ofteu.
56. The w ord 01 · almost n eve r begins a sentence,
tli011 gh it connects cl:rnses of equal i.mp ortance .
57 . Three clan bcre rs beset the LeQ'inner in lrnnctuatin g co mplex sta,temeuts.
Th e greates t dan ge r is tlrn,t h e will put a period
and th en capitali ze a dependent clause. Note the
followin g senten ces :

4. Th e roof of the h nt leaked
ahomi nahly in several pl aces.
While th e t ent seemed to be as
tigl1t a ud dry as yo u p lease .
G. It was Uc neral Grant
who turn ed t he tide of victory
i11 fav or of t l1 e U 11io11 ar llly .
Al tlio11 g l1 t here ·were m a ny
oth er able ge nerals on t he
Union 8icle.
G. In cam pin g on t, it is jufl t
as w ell to have a flint arnl s teel
alon g . So that if the matches
get we t you ca n m ak e a -fire
with only the h e lp of a few
dry leaves or rags . But vve
fi red some dry rags ont of a
gun an d set t he rn afire. So
that we were all right.

lVrm1!/

The second danger occurs when tl ie d epend ent
dause stands first. H ere we may forget to Legin
the dependent clause with a capital.
Th o third clanger is tha~ o[ leavin g out a n eed ed
comma after a cl epemlcnt clause which staJHl s first.
A comma is almost al ways n eed eel in tl1is position:

54.

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P oin tinq

r!f

n((fe Clause

Subonli- Right P ointin.r; of Sid1o rri'inate
Cla use

1. 'Ve didn ' t much rnind
t he loss of t he beef. Sin ce we
h ad a plenty of h a m a nd lmcon
in onr s11pply-h ox.
2. Th e n l ca1n e in dripping,
a nd lookin g like a n idiot.
H oweve r, I m a naged to put
11p with t l1 e situati on after a
fas hi on. Becan se t hPrc were
o LlH~ rs in t l1 c sa111c fi x .
ri. W e stayed in D orn r tliat;
11i g-ht; arnl \Yel'e only too g lad
t h:Lt-. \\"C di(l. 1\ s it hC'g::rn to
rai11 a hont ten a 11d rain e<l all
ll igh t.

1. " Te rli(]n't mu ch mi11d
t he loss of t h e beef, since we
h all a plenty of ham a nd bacon
in our supply-box.
2. Then I came in drippin g,
and lookin g like an idiot.
Howeve r, l managerl to p11t
11 p with t he si tnation after a
f:ishion , beca use t he re ·were
oth crfl in tl 1e same fi x.
:i. 'ye stayed in D over that
ni ght and were onl y too glatl
t hat we di(l, as i t began to
rain abo 11 t te n a11rl rained all
11ig ht.

I

4-. Tl1 e roof of t he hn t leaked
ab omin aLly in several places,
whil e the teiit see med to be a8
tig l1 t a nd dry as yo u p lease.
5. It was General Grant
who tnrn ed t l1 e tirlc of vi ctory
in favor of the U11io11 army,
a lt hough t l1 ere were rn a ny
0Ll1 nr al>le ge11erals on th e
Union si<le.
G. fn ca mpin g out, i t is just
as well to have a flint a1td i:;tee l
a lo11 g, so t11at if the match es
ge t ·wet yo u ca n make a fire
with only the h elp of a few
dry leaves or rngi:;. But >Ye
firecl so me dry rags oi tt nf a
g- 1111 a nd se t t11 em afire, so t hat
we were a ll r.ig ht.

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1. 'Vhile h e was sayi ng i:;o, li e p 11ll ed ont liis waJch.
2. lVhil e En g la nd is cer tai1il y a m onarc hy, it is no ty ranny.
11

B cginu er s nsnall.IJ ne.1 lcct tv place a co mm a between
a d ependent claiise and the main statem ent w hich
.follows £t.

58 . D ependent clauses beginning with w ho , whfrlt,
that are called relative cla,uses; they mollify uouns
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66

PUNCTUATION LYD 8 JENTENCE- 8TRUCTIJRE

..1 FIR ST .MA NTTAL OF' COMPOSITION

Sometimes it is well to stop on fi ncl ing such an
· error in our work, and ask whether we did not really
wish to ma,ke an independent statement. Take an
example:

just as adjectives do. The punctuation of relative
clauses will be considered later.
59, "Afterthoughts" often play havoc with punctuation, as we saw in 57. The afterthought may
occur to the writer as a phrase, a dependent claus~,

"He ran aw ay to the wars and never came home again. And
was never even heard of."

or a part of a predicate.

Here it would be better to change the And to Indeed, and supply the missing subj ect ~

Wrong Pointing of " Afterthought s "

She h as beautiful golden hair. And blue eyes. (Phrase. )
She has beautiful golden hair. But not blue eyes. .<Phrase .)
She has beautiful golden hair. H er eyes berng blue.
(Phrase.)
.
She has beautiful golden hair.

As her mother had before

her. (Dep endent clause.)
.
She has beautiful golden hair.

And is like her mother in

this. (Part of predicate.)
She has beautiful golden hair.
(Part of predicate.)
He knows all about guns.

"He ran a way to the wars and never came home again.
Indeed, he was never heard of."
Note to the teacher. If time permits, it will be advisable
to ask for another week of daily themes at this point, before
the rules for punctuation are summarized. In th ese themes,
wron g punctuation of dependent clau ses should carefully be
pointed out to the student. (See section 83.)

So that her blue eyes mate ~t.

(Dependent clause.)
.
.
She has bea utiful golden hair.

67

60. Uses of period and comma summed up.
But lets it go unkempt.

.
Or thmks he does.

predicate.)

.

In every case the period should have been a comma; ,
and the succeeding capital a small letter.
R ight Pointing of "Afterthoughts"

She has beautiful golden hair, and blue eyes.
She h as beautiful golden hair, but not bl~e eyes .
.
She h as beautiful golden hair, her eyes bemg blue.
·.
She bas beautiful golden hair, so that her blue eyes mate it.
She has beautiful golden hair, as her mother had befo.re h~r.
She has beautiful golden hair, and is like her mother m this.
She has beautiful golden hair, but lets it go unkempt.
He knows all about guns, or thinks h e does.

We shall presently try to frame some short rules
for the use of the period and the comma. Before we
do so, let us sum up what we have learned about
these two marks.
.
\
The period is the sign of grammatical independence. It separates statements that can stand alone.
We found that beginners often use the .comma for
the period, and we called this The Child's Fault in
Pµnctuati on. We found too that beg inners often
set off a mere phrase or a dependent clause by periods, not knowing what an independent statement is.
The comma is the sign of incompleteness. It is
'. used within ,the sentence. It shows what words are

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A FIRST NAN UA L OF C01\IPOS J'/'.IO N

to ue taken together. It is t he group-maker. Th e
co mma keeps w ords <tpart tlmt do not uclong together, and tlnrn it prevents misunderstandin gs. It
is often a l1anger signal. "No, price too hi gh "
means exactly the opposite of "No price too hi gh. "
lt is said tha,t a, San Fmncisco agent t el egraphed a
Sacramento merclmnt: " 1 am offered ten t h ous;1nd
uushels wheat on your account at one dolla,r. Shall
I hu y, or is it too hig h ?" The merchant wrote hi s
answering telegram thus: "No, price too lti g \1.''
The operator wli o received t he message at f::bcrnmcnto understood it, "No p rice too hi g h," and t h e
mil-)ta,k e cost th e merchant a thous~rnd dolla rs, fo r telegraph companies d o n ot agree to transmit punctu atio n.
The conuna sl10ulll not be used too freely. vVhen
in Jou lit, omit t l1e comnrn or consult t h e t each er.
The larger th e groups of words, the better, provided
t he sense is clear. But when the eorn1mt is needeL1,
it is g r eatly n cedeLl. Every comma is important.
A goo(l reac1 er m akes sli ght l!auses in many places
wl1cre there are n o commas. Commas lrnve very
li t.Lie to do with el oc ution.
The quickest "way to master punctua,tion is to
learn exa1nples.

Our task for some time to co me is to l earn th e
following six rules for t he periOLl and t h e comma,
with t h e fo r ty examples . i\ foster t hem absolutel y.
ltemem ber to lear n uoth th e words a.ml t he puncL nation. ln r ecit in g, mention each period or comma.
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69

PUNCTUATION AN.lJ Sf!,,'N J'EN CJ1_
:- 0TBUC'TUBE

1. The perioll separates ind epeuclent
stateme nts. The co m111a c<in no t du t his unless followed uy and or biit.
61.

.R ULE

l. Man proposes.

God disposes .

!3. Wait till the time comes to strike.

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Then strike hard.

4:. Wait till the time comes to strike ' and then strike
h::ird.
Tl11·s turned the tide

G. Washmgton
.
.
won at Trenton, and this turned the tide
of war.
7. Cowards are slaves.
8. Lincoln hesitated.

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They are mastered by fear.

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He did iiot wan t a war.

D· "Lincoln " is a curious word.
the pool."

It means " colony by

Note 1. For im1 epem1cnt Lcgiu11inn·s sec 40- 50.
1ndepernleut state rneilts Le()'
\Vi. tlt •. ( l ). ll UUJlS;
b in
(2) TJ
persmml
or d emonstrative pron ouns such "S JI,e,
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-! . itis j (3) :.td verbs, such as Th en , .H,ere~ , T'1te1 .e J.
( ) im1epem1ent conJ· unctions' s uch 'l"'
1111iereJore
,/!
'- ..., Da 0
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N evertheless .

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2. Man proposes, but God disposes.

G. Washington won at Trento11.
of war.

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Note 2. Jn examples 7, 8, am1 9 th e sense forl>ids
and, but v ermits jor. See Rule 3c.
Note 3. The stm1ent al ways lms t h e ch oice between t h e period without a conjunction and the
•Jm.ma '~ith one. Senten ces ar e stronger without
COllJLl11ct1011s, smoother ·w ith them.

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A FIRST NAN UAL OF

CO~M POSITION

62 . HULi~ 2. Put a CO llllllCt uefo re and or biit if it
seems to co nn ect Llistinct statements. Put nothing
Lefore and if it seems to join only words.

PUNCTUA 'l ''JO~r A
.J..v

ND SENTENCE-STR UC'TURE

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63 .. ]{ULE 3. A dependent clause is separate u
from its main clause uy a comma or nothi11g.
(a) vVhen stanuing first, it usually Heeds a
comma.

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0. Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their
lives, and in their death they were not divided.
4. I was afraid , and went and hid thy talent in the
earth.

Note 1. Distinct statements have each a subject
and a predicate. In example 3 the first subject is
Saul and Jonathan; t he second is they .
But when the two statements have the same
subject, as in 4, it can Le omitted from the second.
Th en t h e second is called a condensed statement. A
corn.lensed statement is simply a predicate that seems .
like a distinct sta,tement. Note that went and hid
seems like one statement only.
In example 2 we have what see ms like two distinct
comma nds . . The verb is t he same for both, and is
therefore omitted from the second. The second is a
condensed co111mand.

Note 2. llforcove r, Furthermore, and B esides are
''synonyms " of and; that is, they mean about the
same as and. Nevertheless, Yet, Still, On the other
hand, and On the contrary are synonym s of bitt. All
t hese expressio ns should follow a period and begin
new sentences.

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I. Man proposes, but God disposes.
2. Be bold, but not rash.

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1. If thine enemy hunger, feed him.

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2. Though the night is dark, morning will come.

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3. When wine is in, wits are out.

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4. Where law ends, tyranny begins.

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(b) When standing last, it sometimes needs a
comma, sometimes not. '
1. I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes
all summer.
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2. Work if it shines, and rest if it rains.

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3. Rob not the poor man, because he is poor.

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4. Do right because it is right, not because it pays.

( c) vVh en for, as, an cl sinue mean because, they
follow a comma between the two statements.

I.

1. Take therefore no thought for the morrow, for the
morrow shall take thought for the things of itself.
2. Pay as you go, as you go safely so.

:J. Since 1776 we celebrate July fourth , since we celebrate the Declaration and not its formal signing.

T.h ere is :~ preposition for and a conjunction for.
Wluch r eq u1res a comma before it?

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There is a preposition as and a conjunction as.
Which requires a comma Lefore it ?

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A P'IRS1' 11tANUAL OF COUf>081TlON

64. RULE 4. J\ lernburs of a real se ries ar.e separnLud by uu 111mas, or co11juncLiuns, or boLl1 co mmas
a.ml conjun cLions.

PUNCTUA7'JON AND SENTENCE- S7'UUC1'URE

73

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65 . .Hu LE 5. Parenthe1:;es and vocatives are usually
separate'-l from the seutenee by commas .

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1. Beauty, truth , and goodness are never out of date .

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1. Without economy, said Dr. Johnson, few can be
rich.

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All was ended now, the hope , and the fear, and the
sorrow.
3. Woodsy and wild and lonesome
The swift stream wound away.
4. The man of the world dresses plainly, promises nothing, and performs much.
:). Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and
some have greatness thrust upon 'em.
G. Fear not sorrow, dea th , or life.

Note 1. A series consists of three or more elements
havi1wb the same construction.
Note 2. The conjunctions used m a series are
and, or, nor .
Note 3. vVhen the conjunction appears but once,
put a comma before it, as in example::; 1 and G.
Note !. Observe in example 1 that nothing interferes between goodness and are .
1

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2. If I got places, sir, it was because I made myself
fit for 'em.

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3. Why, sir, I'm not afraid , in ai1y case, to try.

/'

4. Well , my lord, what cannot be cured must be
endured.

.. Note 1. The words Yes and No_should al ways be
followed by some punctuation, even if t here is no
vocative.
Thus ~ve always write Yes, sfr, even though in
pronouncrng such an expression we make no pause
between the words. The same rule holds in the case
of Say. We always write 8ay, Joltn.
. Note 2. The words 1'Vell anll 1Vlty, when used as
m 3 a~1d 4, are al ways followed by a comma, even i£
there is no vocative.

~ote

Nole 5. Firm-names often omi t the comma before
and, as in Smith, Jones and Company. But this older
custom will ue displaced in time.

3. Tl1e words pedtaps, indeed, however, and
besides are usually not parenthetical. Do not set
them off except fo r unusual emphasis.

Note 6. Expressions like little old man are noL
punctuateJ..

Note 4. A t
s rong parenthesis may be set off by
curves or dashes. (See 74, 78.)

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74

66. lt ULt<; 6. A regular r elative clau~e shows which
person or thing is being spoken of. Do not punctu-

P UNCTUATION A N D SICN 1'ENCE- J:3 Tn uc T UBE

67. A general rule for the comma.

75

Use the comma

to help the reader, and not to interfere.

1. The man who hesitates is lost.

The process of forming a j uclgment is a very quick
one. The whole thought seems to Le one thing,
without parts. Th erefore when we write <L sell tcnce

2. God helps those who help themselves.

we should not indicate the end of the subject by any

number of
:3, A man is rich in proportion to the

mark of punctuation.

ate it at all.

things which he can afford to let alone.

lf our sulJj ect is SU long that
we have to put a signboa.nl to · show \vh ere it ends,
why, we had better sl10r ten our suuject.

cl"llse
·iJ.<ls
extra information
.
An extra r e1a t ive
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d
Set
it
off by a
t
alwnt something <:1 lready uml ers oo .
comma or commas to show that it is extra.

Wrong Pointing of Sul!fec t . and R (r;ht Poinlin.!J r!f Subject and
Pred icale
Prerlicule

1. There is the sky, which you can see for yourself.
2. He went to his father, who was then in New York.

a.

George Washington, who had just been chosen

.
t N w York to be inaugurated.
president, went o
e

Note 1. The clause in 3 is a. parenthesis.
Note 2. Sometimes it js hanl to tell wh ether a
. . t
ln ::i ueh eases
relati ve ebrn; e need::; a eu111111.1 u1 110 •
always co nsult the t e:1clier.
Note 3. Everyuo(ly knows what" the. sky" i~~ eans.
F vervhouy knows who "Geo rge Vv ashmg~on was,.,
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. ,·
"l11s father
Everybody knows wlmt trn exp1ess10n .
. .
'fl.1e r·el" t'1ve clauses are therefore extrn '
m e~1 11 s .
'"
they do not show which thing.

L TJ1 c eyes are ve ry 11otice 1. Th e eyes, are ve ry noticeabJe.
able.

2. Th e eyes of the person I
2. Th e eyes, of t he per son J
here d escribe, a re very n otice- he re <lescribe a re very 11oti ceable.
ab le.
:3 . To 11 a ve so 1u e mm cac3. To h a ve solll e one cacklin g at your elbow , sp oil s your kLi11g at yom elbow spoils your
walk.
walk.

4. Our chief disappointment
4. Our chief disappointment
was t he fact, that the water was th e fac t that the water
was rnnddy.
'ras lll lllldy.
;;, Th P. i11telligen t; Jac( \o f SL.
!i. Tiu \ i 11 Lei I igP11t face n[ fit.
Fra nci s, has a thin, d elicate Fra.ncis has a thin, delicate
nose ..
nose.

There is no need of m arking t h e end of a subject
by a comma. It is eq ua.lly true that there is no need
of marking the beginning of an object.

B efore an object or after a subject a comma is a nuisance.

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P UNCTUATION AND SENTENUE-S'l'RUCTUBE

A FlBS'l' J11ANU AL OF CONPOSITION

76

The following sentences sh ow clauses used as objects. Note tlmt no comma occur s before t he conj unctions that, if, whether, where, when, when these
words begin ol>ject-cbuses.
].
2.
3.
4.

I ask erl .Tohn wh ere he lmll been .
l asked .J ohn whether li e s honld be present.
.John said that he had uee n at school.
,J uhn answereLl t h at he should t ry to be present.
!). J 11eed not remirnl you t hat it is extremely ill-ured to
rnn,lrn eith er a rnan '.s physical defects or his religious opinions
the subject of ridi cnl e.
G. 1\ l r. ,lohn Burronghs declar es that" a little foot never yet
supported a great character."

68. Take ea,ch of these quotations in turn, and
r epeat the rule or rules by which it is punctuated.
Then r ecite the example which seems most like it.
1. Young people think they know everything, and therefore

th ey make positive statements. Aristotle .
2. Chicle a friend in private, but praise him in public.
Solon.

3.
4.
with
5.

A city thn.t is se t on a hill cannot be hid. ll!atthew 5: 14.
Forsa.ke not an old fri enrl , for the new is not cornparnble
him . Ecclesit1stic11..~ 9: 10.
Be 11 ot ov erco111 e of evil, but overcome evil with good .

Romans 12: 21.
G. ] [ you let yonr words xun t oo far before your deeds, th e
rlel'ds will never be able to catch up with the words . lV. T.

lfewell.
7. W e have left undone those things which we ought to

have ll one. Th e Book of Common Prayer.
8. lf th e 11\incl lead the ulilld, both shall fall in to the ditch

M ntth ew 15: 4.

77

9. R esist the_rl evil, and he wi ll fl ee fro1 11 yo u. Jam es 4 :7 .
10. Sweet childish <.lays [they were], that wer e a.s long as
twenty days a.re uow. tVonlsworth .
.11 . L e ~ l1im that thi11keth he sLanu etl1 take heed Jest he fa ll.
Fl1"sl Co nnlhwns 10: 12.
. 12. 'l'he battle-stain on a soldier's face is not vulO'ar
but the
0
dirty face of a h ousemaid is. Ruskin.
'
l :J. There are few things more co ntemptible than a rich man
who stauds npon his riches . Blackie.
14. The bravest a nd strongest m en are general ly t he most
peaceable. W. 'l'. H ewett.
·
15 . .R ender Lrnto Cresar the thi11gs which are Cresa.r's. JI.fat thew 22: 21.
~G. Poison ed by town · life th e sufferer says : " ·w ell m y
c:uldren, whom I hav e injured, shall go back to the J~ncl."
Emerson.
~7 . The Puritans hated bear-baiting, not b ecause it gave
pa.rn to t he bear, uut because it gave pleas ure to the spectators.
1lfacanlay.
18. The Indian, the sai lor, th e hunter, only'these know tire
power ofT .the• !r ands, feet, teeth ' eye"
o
1 e"" i·s
1··
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. •
!- 11iersori..
1.9. '~ 1shrng, of all e mploy rn ents is the " ·orst 1r
90 [T
.
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oun,r;.
~ · .
he biook runs] clear and cool, clear and cool by
lauglun. g shallow and dreamiJ1g pool . ];~:
'
, mr;.~ ze11.
21. They have so wn the wind, and th ey ~!r ail reap the whirlwind . Hosea 8 : 7.
,22.
. . T lte t l'.ing is true, according to th e Jaw of the l\oleLles and
Pennans, wlnch altereth not. Daniel G: 12.
20. The fathers have ea.ten sour grapes, and the cliildren's
teeth are set on edge. E zekiel 18 : 2.
24. There is a friend that sticketh closer t han a urother.
Pro11erhs 18: 24.
').
~·J- . II
_ e that spar eth th e rod h ateth his son.
Pro verbs 13: 24.
-G. He t h at repeateth a matter separateth chi ef friends.
Proverbs 17: 9.
27. The morning stars Rang together, and all the sons of Go<l
shou ted for joy. Job i)8: 7.

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78

A FW81' MANUAL OF COMP OSITION

28. In tli P lexicon 0 [ yo nt h, which fate r eserves for a bright
m r~11 hoo<l, th ere's no such word as Jail . Bulwer.
29 . }i. eep thy shop, and thy sh op will keep thee.
l all g ather
30. lle h eaps up riches, an d l mows no t w llO s 1
tl1em. Psalm 39 : G.
iH. 1\ly book rtnd h eart
.
1\1nst never part. The N ew England Pruner.
32. Byron had a h ead which staturtries loved to copy ·
Jllaca ulay.
33 . The boy stood on the burn in g d eck,
\Vhence all bnt him h afl fled. J1£rs. ffenwns .

3·1. \V e h ave Jllet th e e11e111 y, a11<l th ey a re ours. Perry .
35. My foot i s on my 11ative heath, and n1y uame is MacGregor . Scott .
:lQ. Rich a 11d rare ·were t he gems she wore. Jvfoore.
37. \ Volf, snake, a rnl crncod il e are useful as checks, scavenger::< , and pion eers. Emerson.
:is. Goel made th e c01rntry, and man made t he towu. Conper.
3fl. These are the tim es t hat try m en's sou ls. Paine.
40. That fe ll ow see111 s to me to possess lmt oue idea, and
t hat is a wrong one. Dr . .Joh11son.
41.
I foe l like oue
"\Yho t reads alone
So me banquet-hall deserted,
\ Vhose lights are fled,
·whose ga rlands dead,
And all but him departed. J1foore.
'J2. There is no snch thing as a trifling disho11 esty, but thPre
. .
]ll ay be dishon esty for a trifling ga in. P '.1ineas Barnwn .
43. Never leave ti ll to-morrow t hat which yo u can do to-l1.1y.
44. Take care of the pence, for th e pounds will take care uf
themselves.
4G. The rnm1 t hat blnsh es is not qnite a brute. Yo11ng.
'10. "J h ave n ot any proper co urage, but I shall 11 ever kt
a ll y one find it out." .11 Young Solcl'ier, quoted by Emerson .
47 . The man w ho eats i n rt hurry loses both the pleas ure of
eating and t he profit of digestion.

Blackie.

PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-S TRUCTURE

79

48. As to en rly risin g, which makes sucl1 a famou s fi 0o·ure in
so me biog rap hies, I can say little about it, as it is a vi rtue
which I was never able to practise. Bla ckie .
4_9 . .My Lord of H ereford here, whorn you call .king, is a foul
traitor. Shakspae.
50. Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest not
wlt at a day may bring forth. Prover/is 27: I.
51. Co urage, whether moral or pl1 ysical, is of t hree kinds:
conrnge to be, cournge to do, cou rage to endure. 111. 1'. H ewell.
52 . Justice, sir, is t he great interest uf man on earth. W ebster.
53. 'Tis sti ll observed tl1 ose men most; vrtlia11t a re

Vho were most modest ere t l1 ey came to war.
g~nerous, but not at other people's
expense .
.5~. The teach: r w~s hes to know whrtt you have in your
brarn'. and you give lum what you take from a piece of paper.
\

1

54. It is noble to be

Rlackie.
:>~ G · T lie b est part of a man is his little, nameless, unrememLered acts of kinduess or of love. TVonlsworlh.

N ewton was a great man without eith er telegraph, or gas,
o ~ ste~m-coac h , or rubber shoes, or lncifer matches, or ether for
his parn . Emason.
58. H e has not learned the lesso11 of l"f
1 e w l 10 cl oes not every
<lay surmount a fear. Emerson.
5.r:J . Let t he thi ng in which yo u are most sk ilful be that about
winch you are most reticent. lV. T . H ewett .
GU. A li.e whic h is half a truth is ever t he blackest of lies.
A he which is all a lie may be met and fought " ;ith
ou tright;
But a lie which is part a truth is a harder matter to fi gh t.
f; '"°
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.

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T ennyson.

69. Show where commas would help the reader.
Some sentences need no comma.
. l. ·whe~1 a f.rieml rtsks th ere i s no to-morrow. 2. " rhere
ignorance 1s bliss
'twere folly to 1u·e wi·se•
•J .
L oo I'- w lrnre I
.
. .
u

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80

PUNCTUATION AND 8ENTENCE-STR UCTURE

A FIRST MANUAL OF COJllPOSITION

point. 4. ·wli en no man is watching yo u ~e afraid of: yourself.
!). Even if a do 11 key goes traveling h e will n ot come home a
hor,;e. G. I£ anything stay let work stay. 7. You'll. be sorry
if yo n do. 8. · Since there's no use crying over spilt milk let us
laugh and be m erry. !). H e went unt il he dropped. 10. Ile
ran as far as he co11 lcl when he fe ll ex hausted.

70. Show \Vl1ere eommas are really n eeded.

Some

sentences n eed none.
1. ,Joy tc·rnperan cc and rcpoRe slam the door 011 th e do?t~r's
and charity are called th e three Ch ri.stia11
nose. 2.
- Faith lio1)e
i:
Lee and Stuart were generals. 4. Ch 1cago
graces. 3- . Grant
,
Hosto n a n<l New York are cit,ies. 5. F oxei:; ·weasels and min~rn
kill rabbits sq11irrels arnl birds. G. Grace grit :w1l gc11Li~n ':1111
cure the tobacco h ab it. 7. The tree was a la rge fl oun sh1ng
oak. 8. The rn an was a handsome burly Englishman. 9.
There was t ile 1 noon r o1111d \Jri ght a111l silvery. 10. Ile was a
lil.t.l e olll man. 11. ·what a pretty little wat,ch. 12. Th~ fox
sq uirrel is a large red squirrel but it is not a large red-sqnm:1~ 1.
JH. Sally was a fi.11 e yo u'. 1g lady. ~ 14. There ~vas a. fool;_s h
yonng lad named Sunple S1mo11. fo. See that g1 eat big do 0 1·
1

71. Show where commas are really needed.

Many

sentences n eed none.
1. The king will probably come here to-day. 2. Th ~ kin g
will come here to-tlay probably. 3. It may perhaps ram. .4.
Can it 1,ossib ly have Leen mi slaid 't 5. It mrty hav e been mislaid possibly. G. ] t rnay possibl y even probaLl y have been
rnishi<l. 7. ;Justice will sooner or late r be don e. 8. Surely
the chil1l was right. n. The st11dents however had Hot ~-eL
asscn1 I>lc(l_• lo • -''\ g 1·c"t
"
,steamer bearincr
- o down on the fi slirn lj
boat sank it. 11. Cru soe lookin g saw canoes on the shore.
12 . Caught in tl1e sarga,sso sea the hulks of steamers lay
driftin g together. 13. Lookin g down you see a forest of wo11derfnl plan(,s growing in t he s:tndy bottom. 14. Seen through
the vapor the moon seemed strangely large. 15. There are in

81

the sky about four thousand visible stars. 16. There are in
the sky about four thousand stars vi sible to the naked eye. 17.
A bow long bent must b ecome weak. 18. This bow now long
bent is growing weak. 19. The army picked up many stragglers
on the way. 20. The army by the bye picked up many
stragglers on the way here. 21. At last just before morning
th e fury of the stor m abatecl. 22. T ell me 110t in mournful
nnmbers life is but an e mpty dream. 23. This trouble for the
most part comes of putting yo ur trust in old time-tables. 24.
To-day in shor t has been a h appy one. 25. H e saved fifty
dollars or eve n more over and above expenses. 26. The light
of the nearest fixed star takes four years or thereabo uts to
reach the earth. 27. The li g ht of that sm all star seen by you
11ow at the \Jeginni11g of the twentieth ce ntury has just arriv<·d
here after 11inetee n centuries of flying through space. 28. Difficult things in fact are the only things worth doing. Blackie.
29. Let your company be a lways when possible better than your~e lf . Blnckie. 30. The act of giving up a fi xed purpose in view
of some slight inconvenience is dangerous to characte r. Blackie.

72. Show where comma,s are really need ed.
. sentence but three n eeds two commas.

I I
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1. George ·washin gton ·w hom we all kn ow about said that to
be prepared for war is a good way to preserve peace. 2. Pres i<lent Charles W . Eliot who is p resident of Ilarvard University
Lelieves that every boy has his own strong points. 3. 1\Iy head
which is aching severely tells rne to cptit work. 4. This schoolhouse which is a house to hold school iu needs better ventilation. 5. l\:ly ou ly brother who hy the way is a farmer is in
town to-day. 6. His face which vvas easy to see at that di stance was ruddy. 7. The moon which was covered with clouds
last night is bright this evenin g. S. The moons that go round
.Jupiter are invisible to tl1e naked eye. 9. My very best hat
which 1 h ave had only a week is spoiled by the rain. 10. \ Vhen
we visited th e tow n where my uncle lives we had a fine time.
11. w·hen we visited Oakland where my uncle lives we had a
fin e tillle. 12. Ile that runs may reacl.
G

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82

PUNCTUATION .AND SRNTElU/E - STHUCTUUE

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

73. The colon usually precedes a list. In force it
i8 somewhat like t he sign of equality ( = ) .
l. There were fou r eva ngelists: :I\l atthew, Mark, Luke, and
;John .
2. The secret of success is t hi s : stick to one t hing.

74. The curves enclose a strong parenthesis. They
a.r e less and less use<l every year. The comma usually
trtkes t heir place.
75. The brn.ckets show something inserted by
another person :
Ile [Henry the Eight h] was many times married.

76. The stars ('1' * *) show a long omission .

The

leaders ( ... ) show a short om ission.
77. Th e semicolon is a kind of weak period. It
joins two sentences in one, because they are closely
related in se11se. Beginners do not often need the semicolon . If you employ it at all, consult the teacher
about every case before you hand in your paper.
Remember that so far as gramnmr is concerned, the
semicolon is a period. Show where periods might be
substituted in the following:

l

I

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"
~~

English boys "pnt into Coventry" the boy who, while
hokling the bat, flinc lt es at the approach of the cricket-ball; he
is iy11orerl : 11 0 one speaks to him, wa lks with him, sits with
h irn. Few boys get " i 11 to Coventry" a second time ; they
prefer a Lroken limb to dodgin g.

78. The dash shows a sudden break, or suspense,

u:· a strong parenthesis, or a list:

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83

1. Then - but what am .l saying !
2. My native land- good night.
3. I wish cities could teach their best lesson - that of quiet
manners.
4. The boy-such was his haste-was nearly choked .
5. There were four evangelists - Matthew, .Mark, Luke, and
,John.
Do not use the dash after the comma or the colon.

79. Th~ exclamation point .(!) fo llows exclama-

tions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

0 .John! whe re are yon going?
Oh! 1 t hought; yoi t·were goiug with me.
That if; most rema rkable I
''Oh!" said he.
"Duty! honor! gratitude ! fine words t hese ! "

The question mark follows questions. Beginners are likely to forget this, and use a period. A
8ingle word i8 often a q uestion, as "vVJrnt?"
81. Remember how you began. In forming a sentence it is necessary to rememLer how the sentence
Legins . . If we fai l to remember this, we are likely
to produce what is hard to punctuate and hard
to r eacl.
80.

Remembering how we began helps us to keep one
easy, simple method of structure t h roughout the sentence. For. example it keeps us from using several
subjects where one will do. The man ·who r emembers the beginning composes smoothly, lik e t l1is:
.Judge Hugh es wrote Tom Brown at Rugby, aud a lso Tom
Brown at Oxford .

84

PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STR UCTURE

A FIHST NANUAL OF CO]fPOSITION

The man who forgets the beginning composes awkwa,nlly, like this :
Judge 11 ugh es wrote Tom Brmrn at. Rugby, a:1d also the
book called Tom Brown at Oxford was wntte11 by lnm.

The man who r emembers the beginning gives his
the
t:>
•
sentence unity of form. 'I~l ie inan who foraets

.?

beginning falls into mixed constructions.
n~ty of
form can appear in many ways. It may affect even
little phrases.
It is better to write
II e died from exposure and proliably from lack of food

than

Ile died from exposure a11d probably also h e lacke

d f

d

oo .

It is better to write
Ile got well by means of care and good nursi11 g

than
Ile got well by means of care and because he was well nursed.

It is better to write
This food was what he asked for, and what he had 1011g
needed

than
This food was what he asked for, and h e had long needeu it.

82. 'The following sentences contain mixed con-

structions.

Rewrite them as well as you can, giving

thern unity of form.
1. ,Judge Hughes ·w rote Tom Brown at Rugby, and also Tom
Brown at Ox.ford was written by hi111.

85

2. Now, to properly enjoy a walking tour, it should be goue
upon aloue.
3. You will see no sudden jerks of the rudder, nor will any
clumsy rounding of a point be seen.
4. Miller, motio11less till now, lifts his right hand, and the
tassel is whirled round his head.
5. He disliked the idea of spending th e night in the old
co untry house, and still more to go through the tapestri ed
chamber, but it was immediately determined by him that such
an invitation must not be refused.
.
G. Howe could not bear to ack11ow ledge the defeat of hi s
:ittempts to storm, and accordingly, at five o'clock, with genuin e
British persistency, a third attack was ordered .
7. Getting rniunows with a net is quicker than to get the111
any other way.
8. :ro get the essence of one's tour we should be alone.
9. One mu st feel at ease to go this way or t hat, just as the
freak takes them.
10. I needed a recreation of the brain as well as for my body.
11. I received more ben efit out of that book than fi.0111 any
other.
12. One wants to be able to go this way or that as the freak
takes you.
13. I also noticed th e for ests, which were brown, but they
will soon be green again .
14. It is used as an office building, with stores on the first
fl oor, and has a theatre on the roof.
15. Billy, wishing to get th e bass in quickly, and in order not
to break his line, simply waded ashore with him.
16. Ou e cannot enjoy the walk when walking beside a champion walker or mince in step with a girl.
17. The chin of Beethoven is small and square, and St.
Francis has a long and pointed one.
18. \Vhen a person has read a book before and then rereads
it, I think they enjoy it more and get a greater benefit from it,
because you can't help picking up things which you had failed
to notice.

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86

A FlUST NANUAL OP COJlfPO S ITION

83. Daily themes. At this point we should have
eu1rnideraule practise iu writing short themes of our
own.
It rests with the instructor to say what
kind of themes these ::>hould Le. l£ he decides
that they should be what are called "dailies," <t
word ur two as to chilies will be in order here.
In the daily them e the student writes aLout something that lms interested him on the clay when the
theme is written, or on th e day Lefore. l>erhaps
h e saw :t Lall-game, or a street-ii g lit, or a runaway,
or an acci<lent. While t he event is fresh in his mind
lie writes an account of it. He tells the exact truth
about it. A daily theme should not offer as facts
things that neve r lmppened. The student must not
expect some extraorcliirnry thing to happen every day,
though h e may feel as one lad did who remarked,
"I don't wish accidents to occur, but they certainly
do add to a, theme." The person who keeps hil-l
eyes and ears open will see and hear things that are
well worth writing about, even if they seem trivial.
Th ere a re so many good th ings to write about that
the real problem is wlrnt not to write about. Here
are a dozen specimen titles for dailies :

.

1. What. I did yesterday. 2. l\1y dinner yesterday. 3. Why
1 \\as late. 4. A funny incident in the Latin recitation. 5. The
exercises in chapel yesterd ay. G. vVhat the principal said.
7. What I overheard in the hall. 8. What a boy brought to
school. fl. fo regard to t he school drinking-water. 10. In t.he
lnn ch room. 11. A man I saw yesterday. 12. Trees near tho
sc hoolhouse.

CHAPTER III
CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

84. By correctness in a gi vei1 sentence we mean
that the sentence is composed of correct forms of
wor<ls, put together ~n 8uch ways as good usage
approves . Correctness in the sentence means much
the same as "good grammar. " It is assumell that
the pupil has already studied something of grammar,
and that much of this chapter will be of the nature
of a review.

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85. Grammatical usage js using such forms of
words, and such coml>iuatious of them in sentences,
as are considered correct by the best writers and
speakers .

Jolin' s is a form of J olm; leaves, of leaf; him, of
lte; began and b~yun, of he.gin; drowned, of clrnwn.
Isn't jg a correct form of is not; ain't is all incorrect
form. He has begun is a correct combination; he
:ias began is an incorrect comb ination . L eaves are
is a correct combination, leaves is an inconec t.
8~. Vulgar usage. All mistakes in grammar are vulgansms. Vitlgar mc:ms "pertain in()' to the crowd "
Tl
b
•
le great mass or crowd of people l1ave, as yet, Lut
87

'\

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A

FIRST )\fA NUAL OF COMPOSITION

little L\clucation. But no man has a right to despise
rn1e1lucatcLl p e rsons, for they are o[ten the superiors
o[ educated pel'SOJJS in character, in natural aLility,
arnl i11 force of expression.
87. Literary usage. Vulgar usage is the usage of
the uneducated. At the other extreme is the lang uage of the few who write books. Th e lang~rnge of
books is called literar.IJ usage. But litera ry usage
varies a great de~il. \.Yltat may Le called .<scholastic
usarre
1iever 1)cr111itH such shorte11eLl fon11s as can't,
0
don't, doesn't, isn't, aren't. There are subjects so
serious and formal in their nature tlrnt in tre;iting
them it would sound out of place to use can't for
cannot, aml don't for do not. On the other haml,
some of the best Looks are not scholastic in tone, but
sound like the conversational language of eductited
persons.
88. Conversational usage. The language used Ly
educated persons in conversation is ca,lled conversational usage.
It is correct in all essential matters
of grammar, but it often admits such contractions as
can't, don't, isn't, I've no, and it ~~:nnetimes admits
fresh and kindly sl::i.ng.
Conversational usage is the proper model for students to follow in their oral use of English. It i:;
very of ten the proper model for them to follow in
their \vritten work. In a formal business letter
there is no place for even the best of slang, and
none for contractecl forms like can't and isn't. llut

CORRECTNESS IN T/JE SENTENCE

89

friendly letters we write iu the conversational
tone, so that we shall seem to be talking.
89. 111 conversation it i~ wmal · to "contract"
mauy verbs by leaving out or shortening some
vowel, as in don't for do not, doesn't for does not.
Vulgar usage often makes coutractions of its own
'
and one of the worst of these is the negative form
ain't, which is made to serve for am not, is not,
etc.
·
111

A very large proporLioJt of l>oys n,nd g irls say ain't.
If the study of grammar shoulcl teach them anything,
it should teach them not to do this; but to use the
proper contractions. Every grammar class shoulcl
be an auti-ain't club. It should be a club for the
promotion of isn't and such forms. But we shall
never be wholly rid of this eno r until boys have
courage to say isn't on the ]Jlttyground. Some boys
who are not afraid of a, hot ball or a rusty gun are
afraid to sn,y isn't, for fear of being thought prete11tious. Now some forms of S]Jeeclt -..vould Le pretentious in a L>oy. A lad wl10 always said "Carn1ot
you go'?" woul<l sound like a little ]Jrig. But there
is nothing priggish in r efusing to say ain't. A boy
who says isn't can play ball as well, shoot as well,
and if necessary fight as well as the boy who is content with the slovenly expression ain't.
90. The correct con versn,tional equivalents of
ain't are given below. They should be mastered
perfectly.

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A FlllST Jl!.AN UA L 011"' COMPOS ITION

I'm not
yo n're not or you aren't
he's not or he isn't

we're uot or we aren't
you're uot or yo n are n' t
they're not or they aren't

arn T not.?
arcn ' t yon?

aren't we
are 11 't you?
a.ren 't t hey?

.isn't he?

91

should form the habit of using one contraction as
fr eely as the other.
1

Give the correct contracted equivalents of ain't
Lefore the word going . Thus: "I'm not going;
you're not going, or yo u aren't going,:' etc. ; also
the same equi vale11ts Lefore sorry, l,>efore hungry,
and before complaining.
91. \\Ti th not, tlie form it is contracts to it isn't,
'tisn't, or i t's not. It 'lS no contracts in like mann er
to i 't' ,., no. Nc)tice the a1Jostro1Jhe that takes the
place of the letter i. It's is not the adjective its.
Use It's not before each of the following expressions:
Too ]ate; so bad as you think; so far after all; more than
two mil es; every man that ca n tell the trutl'. ; all that you
could wish; as thy moth er says, but as thy ueighuors say; no
shame to tell the trutl1 .

Use 'Tisn't Lefore each of the following:
.John ; nlonclay; ti1n e for d inn er; over there ; the gay coat
that makes t he gentle111an ; so; a ny such thing.

Use It's no b efore each of the following:
\ Yonder; easy task; small und ertakin g; farther than WC'
t ho1wl1 L· sio·n of: deaLl1 if a binl flies in; fun to pouml your
~
'
0
. 1
fing er; use to cry over i:;pilt 111ilk ; more than ng 1t.

The form the?'C'.s no, contracted from there i.~
no, means the Sl~me as there isn't any . The studc11L
92.

CORRECTNESS IN 'l'IIE SENTENCE

Use 1 /i ere's no before t!ie follovving:
Smol:e withont fire; art 1,l1 at ca11 111 a lrn a fool wise; going- to
111 a .Re<la11 chair; fle 11 s1! i11 grn11d1li1 1g; reason for wli inmg; app le like a russet; royal road to learning; such flatterer
as a man's se lf; lack of fuuds; s urety of success except in hard
work; man but hath enemi es; ·arguing with an east wind.

~1 eavo11

93. The forms I was not, etc., ancl was not I f! etc.,
are contracted as below:
I wasn't
..1v ou weren't
li e vvasn't

we we ren't
't
you wereu
ti
't
my wereu

I

was1 1'f; J?
'

wcrc11 t yon?

wasn't lie'?

were 11 •1; we'(
weren't yo u?
weren't they?

Use these contracted forms uefore going and befor e
angry.
94.

The following contractions should be learned:
I haven't been
you haven't been
he hasn't bee u

.l've not been
you've not been
he's not been

we haven 't been
haven't been
, they haven't Leen

we've not been
you've JJot been
th ey've not been

.)'OLL

0HAL ExELWLSE.

Give these forrns before eac h

of the following in turn :

.,
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There; going; at home; tJ 1inkinO'
of goiug · planning to go;
0
afraid of ex11m inatio11 s.
'

95. Th e literary forms tltere ltas not been any aud
th ere ltave not been any are contracted in co11 versation
t.o there ".,asn't been any, there haven't been any. The
literary forms there ltas been no a!l(1 tltere has been

92

A F IR ST MANUAL OF CONPOS L'l'ION

n one arc contracted in conversation to there's been no,
tlwrc's been none . The form th ere have been none
c:rnnot easily be pronounced in any contracted form .
Give the following sentences with proper contractions of the italic ex pressions. Supply w ords to any
blanks.
1. Il has 1101 been long si11 ce we began th e stncly of contractions. 2. It has nol bee n Lhe L1111pire's fa ult. 3. It has not always
beP.n as it is 11 ow. L! . fl has 11ol been ma 11 y days since we
reLnr!l ed from o ur vacatio n. fi. Th ere has not been any ser~ous
g-routHl fo r complain t. n. Th ere ha ve nol liee n any sen ous
g ronnlls fo r co 111 plain t. 7. Th ere has been 1~0 se rious gro uml
for co lllplain t. 8. There - - Leen n o senons grou nd s for
co rn p laint. D. Th ere has lH!en 110 douut that team-work won
th e victory. 10. Th er e - - bee n 110 doubts ~lr~t the tea m~
work wo n. 11. Th e1·e lilf s bee n 11 0 cleverer pup1l 111 sc hoo l fot
a Jong time. 12. There - - been uo cleve rer pupils than
t h ose I speak of:.
J:l. Tl1ere - - been no cases of th at
di sease lately. J.±. Th er e - - been no great generals ·w ho
did n ot attend to <l et.ail s. 1fi. Th Pre has been n o da.y thus far
wh e n we co uldn't work on t.lr e cabin. lG. Th ere has been 110
I)]'obl em ' 'Ct in our a]oebrn, t hat I harnn' t sol ved by myself.
, nerer bee"'n a resnlt wi t hout a cause. 18. 1' nere
'
17. Th ere,} hrts
hrts been 11 0 rul e wit.lt oll t a n exception. 19. Th ere has been no
reaso n for not; getl.ing m y lesso ns. 20. Tltere has been no question
in my mind a bollt the outcome.

96. The forms I have , etc ., I had, etc., may Le

contracted thus:
]'ve
yo u've
]r e's

\V e've

you 've
they've

corrnEU'J '.N E8S I N

'l'llE SEN TENCE

93

Use these con trn.cti ons Lefore a boole; a notion;
none ; no chance ). no fear). money). reason). e:i:cuse ).
interest ). anxiety .
The forms I have not, etc., I had not, et c., may be
contracted thus :
I h ave n't
yo u h ave n 't
h e h asn't

we l1avon 't
yo it haven't
th ey 11 aveu ' t

I h ad11't
yo it lra<ln't
Ir e h ad 11 ' t

w e lr acl u't
yo u l1 adn't
Ur ey hadn 't

Use those contractions before enough ). gone fa r
enoit,qh ). a dollar). the chance). any). tim e enou,ljh.
· 97. The forms have not I .'f! etc., had n ot I.'2 etc.,
may be contracted thm;:
haven 't I?
have n't we?
have n 't yo u? lraven't yo n ?
have n't they?
h asn 't h e?

h a d11't T?
lr acl11 't we?
kt<ln't yo u ? ha<ln 't yo u ?
ha dn ' t h e? hadn ' t th ey?

Use these con t ractions before enough). gon e .far
enougli)· any matches )· made a mistake)· said so.
98. Use the forms
h ave I a?
h ave we a'?
have yo u a? h ave you a 'I
h as J1 e a?
h ave they a?

l1 ad I a?
lra1l yo n a?
h ad he a 'I

ha<l we a 'I
h a.cl yo it a?
had t lr ey a?

Lefo re pencil). cliance ; good excuse). lesson to g et;
reason.
99. Use th e forms

I'd
yon'd
h e'd

we'd
you'd
th ey'd

(Notice that he' s may stand for eith er he is or
he has . )

I rave I no?
lrav e we 110?
liave yo u no? h ave yo u 11 0?
has h e no ?
h ave th ey n o?

!r ad I 110?
had we 11 0 ?
h ad you no? !r ad yo u 110 ?
h ad he 11 0? had they 110?

Lefore boolc ). sense of shame ). hop e ). better plan).
longe1· to wait.

CORRECT N E S S I N TJJJE SF:NTENCE

A F rilS T MAN UA t

100. The u se of have got is ex tremely common in
vulgar n sa,ge, wh er e it u si.rnlly rn e<tnS no m or e tban
have . The w ord got properl y means "acquire<l";
I have got means "I lw,vc acquired."
vVhen used in such senlences as ' 1 I' ve g ot none,"
the g ot se rves to lessen the fo rrn<.ility of t h e expression. S ueh sen te11 ces a,re fairly comm on m g ood
co nver sat ional u sage, though they are not so g ooll
as "I ha.ve n on e," et c.
U se the expressions
I've got n o
yo u've got 11 0
he's go t n o

w e've got no
you' ve go t i1 0
t hey' ve got 11 0

95

OF C0 1li1-'0 S l1'lON

I'd got no
yo u'd go t no
he'd got no

we'd got no
you'd got no
t hey'd got no

befor e fi sh y et; answe r; place ; outfi t; ea;planation
f r om him.
101. The principal parts of verbs. lfavin g studiell
th e conversa.tion a.l contrn,ctions of the verbs be a.ml
have, we come to the "principa.l" parts of verbs.
Each verb ha,s three chief form s, as begin, began,
beg un. These a.re called the principal parts. They
arc known as tl1 e present form, tb e past form, a.ml
Cli e past parlieiple. The pa.st va.rticiple is used wilh
have , has, had, or ani, is, are, was, were, t hus : I have

he!Jnn, i t i s begun, e tc.
102. There :ire :ibout forty verbs m u sin g whieh
we a.re obli ged to think v er y carefully of the principal prir ts. Th ese verbs a.re as foll ows : awake,
beg in, blow, break, bring , burst, catch, come, do,
<lrink, eat, How, Hy, fr eeze, give, go, g row, know,

lay , lie (to r ecline), rille,
shake, show, smg , sink,
swrng, take, teach, throw,
The principal parts of
summed up as follow s :
Present

Form after
have, etc .
a waked
awoke
beg un
began
bl
own
blew
broke
broke n
broug ht
bro ught
bnrst
burst
ca ught
caught
come
ca me
doue
Llid
drank
drunk
ate
eaten
flowed
flow ed
flown
fl ew
froze
frozen
gi ven
gave
we nt
gone
g rew
g ro\'>'ll
k11 ew
known
laid
lai1l
Past

awake
begin
blow
break
brin g
burst
catch
co me
do
drink
eat
flow
fly
freeze
g·ive
go
grow
know
la y
li e (to recline)
lay

nng , n se, run, see, set,
s it, spring , steal, swim,
wrmg, write.
the forty verbs may be

Present

ride
rin g
rise
run
see
set
shake
show
si11 g
sink
sit
sp rin g
steal
swim
swing
take
teach
U1row
wri.11 g
wr i te

Past

Form after
have , etc .
r ode
ridd en
r1111 g
r a 11 g
rise n
rose
ran.
run
saw
seen
set
set
shook
8haken
sh owed
shown
sang
sun g
sank
sunk
sat
sat
sprang
sp run g
stolen
stole
swam
SWUlll
s wun g
S \VUll g
took
taken
t.a ught
taug ht
threw
thrown
wrung
wrun g
wrote
writte n

lain

(1) L earn t.he principal parts of the v erbs in the
precediug list.
( 2) R ecite them as th ey st and in the table.
103. R ecite the parts of awalce, begin, bring catch
'
come, d o, d.
rinlc, eat, f reezf., give, go, grow, lcnow,
lie,'

9G

A FfH S'L' MANUAL OF CO.MPOSl'l'ION

ride, rin,17, rise, nm, see , shak e, show, sin,r;, sinlc, sit,
sprinf), Rteal, swim, f;alce, teach, throw, wring, write, all

in the first person, making four sentences for each,
tit us :
I a'ivake.

I awok e.

I have awaked.

I l1aJ awaked.

104. Make four sentences in like mann er for each
of the verbs blow, brealc, burst, flow, fly. Use an appropriate subj ec t for each, as
Th e ,viml blows. Th e wiuJ blew.
The wiud l1ad blown.

Tl1 e wi11J has blow11.

105. Lie. There is a verb lie which means to tell
a falsehood.
It has such J_Jreseut forms as li e alHl
lies, in "vVe lie if we say that," "He lies if he says
tha,t," and the past form lied, in "He lied." No one
often makes mist<tkes in the forms of this verb.
The other verb lie refers to ~t physical act, the
opposite of standing or sitting. Its parts are lie,
lay, lain. Learn and recite the following:
Present Forms

Pnst Forms

I lie or l am lying
yon lie or you are lying
he lies ur he is lying
we lie or we are lying
they lie or they are lying

I lay or I was lying
yon lay or you were lying
h e lay or he was lying
we lay or we were lying
they lay or they were lyi11g.

Use lil1 e fonns lies, is (or (m;) lying , lay, wa.~ (or were) l!Ji11!J
j 11 ea.ch of the blanks, rnak ing four complete sentences for e:tch
subj ect, thus: "The book lies on the table. The book is lyin~
The book lay on the table. The book was
011 the table.
lying on the taule."

COJWECTNESS IN TJJE S ENTENCE

!J7

1. A knife - - on rn y d esk. 2. S now-- on t he gron11d.
H. A wo1111decl soldier - - 011 the field. 1.1-. Soot - - 011 tlie
hParth. 5. A sloop - - ou tl 1c river. G. A trout - - on the
Lank. 7. A hammer - - on the Lench. 8. A sledge - - on
the anvil. 9. A sleeping child - - on th e bed. 10. A pin
- - on the floor. 11. Seven cats - - asleep. 12. A dead
qua,il--on the snow. 13. Four Cornish birds-- in the pantry. 14. Three French hens - -ready for roasting. 15. Two
turtle doves--slain by a hunte r. lG. A chicken--basking
in the dust. 17. The giant - - snoring. 18. The autumn
leaves - - where they fell. 19. The soldier - - where he died.
20. A W elsh rabbit;- -heavy on the sto111ach. 21. Sin-heavy on the co11scieuce. 22. The new snow - - light upon
the grass. 23. A piece of silk-- on the counter. 24. U11easy
- - th e head that wears a crown . 25. The fallen angels - thick as autumnal leaves.

Insert the proper form of lie.
1. This tree has - - here a Jong time. 2. Get up. You've
- - in bed long enough. 3. Th at sin has lon g - - heavy on
his soul. 4. 'Ve've - - in th e trenches a week, waiting for
orders. 5. I found my grammar all warped and mildewed. It
had-- out on the porch all night. G. I've - - long enough
inactive. 7. H e's not--inactive. 8. 'Ve found a knife. It
had-- so long in a ditch that the handle fell off when touch ed.
!J. The charge has been laid at the general's door that he has
--still when he ought to have moved on the enemy. 10. Your
Look has - - there all the time, just where you laid it.

106. Lay.
is lay. But
pfoce down .
Remember

The past form of lie, m eaning reclined,
there is a verb to lay which means to
Its parts are lay, laid, laid.

that the expressions LAYS DOWN and
LAID DOWN niust ab,v ays take an vbJect.
1. John comes in tired, lays down his hat, and lies clown.

2. John came in tired, laid clown his hat, and lay down.
H

,,
!

,,

1,

98

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTE'NC'E

The verL lie never takes an object, though "Ile
lay llown " means almost the same as "He laid himself clown. "
Supply the correct past of lie or lay to each Llank,
and tell which verL it belongs to.

the front row; (JG) up late; (1G) under the tree ; (17) out in
the sun; (1 8) 011t on the porch; (19) on the e ud of a log ;
(20) i u the tree-top.

l. There ]1e - - . 2. There ]1 e - - it. 3. H e --there all
tired out. 4. lle--it there a11d weut away. 5. lle --ou t
there on the cliff. G. Ile - - out some uread and cheese for
us. 7. Ki11 g Richard - - aliout him many a blow (or - aliout him with his good sword). 8. J\fany fallen lrnigl1ts-ahou.t tl1cir king. !J. The 1a11nch--alo11gside the steamer.
10. The sailors-- th e rope along the deck.

Insert the past of lay.
l. H e's - - the blame wh ere it ought to lie. 2. ·w e've - the sidewalk early, so that it will lie solid and smooth before
the frosts come. 3. The king-- his weary hea<l on his pillow
and lay thinki11g of Shakspere's remark concerning crowns a11d
l1 eads. 4. Speckle h as - - an egg, but don't touch it I let it
lie. 5. I lay down awl-- a shaw 1 across me.

The verL sit means to rest, as on a
chair, with the Locly bent at the hips. The past
form of sit is sat. In conversationa,l usage this verb
does not take an oLject, except in tlie expression.
"He sits his horse well," etc., in which sit really
means sits on.
107. Sit.

99

The verL set means chiefly to place,
aml always takes an object excep t i11 such expressions as "The sun sets," "Plaster of Paris sets
l[Uickly," ancl "lt set in to rain." lleniembe1· that
tltc verb s E'l' niust have an o~ject.
Use the past of set before eacl1 of the following
expressions :
108. Set.

(1) tlie di sh down just now; (2) the dish there :just now;
Cl) the child down there yesterday; ( 4) traps in tlte woods last
~utnurn; (5) a trap last nig ht for a ralibit; (li) tlte bolt deep
lilto the wood before I fastened it; (7) the llre going a minute
ngo; (8) the wood afire; (9) my watc!1 at ni11e last evening;
(I 0) the clock by my watch this morning; (11) my room in
order; (12) out of a pail of milk; (13) the color by the use of
. a chemical; (14) the bread to rise; (15) myself down then;
(lfi) the i11jured boy down on a log and went for help; (17) the
whole class la ug hin g; (18) the old sa il or to t el li1w yarns·
(I!)) myself to work; (20) myself down to study; (21) ~o work;
(~2) out; (2!1) out yesterday to find our cow; (24-) myself that
ktsk; (2:)) much store by that old spi 11ui11 g-whee l; (26) forth
in good spirits; (27) the lamp in a safe place Liefore J left;
(:!8) the kettle on to boil ; (20) Bridget to cook an omelet;
(30) the pitcher clown too hard.

Use the form 1-Ie sat before each of the following:

109. Supply sat or set in the blanks according to
correct usage.

(1) at breakfast; (2) still; (3) 011 the fence; ( 4) in sile11c1!;
(G) for some time \-vitl1011t saying a word; (G) liis horse lik r. n
soluier; (7) in l1is seat when th e clock struck; (8) through tho
speech; (!J) withont movin g; (10) alon e ; (11) beside the
brook; (12) in front 0£ me; (VI) on the dunce stool ; (1 ·I) in

1. The knight - - on his horse. 2. The knight - - himse][ on hi s horse. 13. The Loy - - up to play te11pi11s. 1.
The boy - - np the tenpins. 5. The cat - - up to howl.
6. The cr~t - - np a 11 owl. 7. Th e ly nx - - up 011 a limo.
8. The dog - - up a barking at sight of the lynx. 9. J __

11

I

,I

100

A F I RST

NANUAT~

down a di s h of h ot maple syrup. 10. I accidellta ll y - dow n in the Ll ish of h ot sy rnp. 11. \\Te may - - it dow 11 that
by the age of Lwe ll ty a boy's cha,racter h as become - - either
for good or fo r Lad. 12. Th ere he - -, with h ands cle ncl1 e1l
a nd teeth - -. 13. Ther e - - the setter witl1 the bird in his
111outh. 14. The p h otographer's sitter - - tw ice for hi s portrait. 15. Will yo u - - a p rice on that chair 't lG. 1 111ea11
t lt e one in which the sales ma n--just n ow. 17. H - - in
to rain. I S. W e - - in t he rain and fish ed. lD. The tide
- - i n very stro ng ly at t hat point. 20. T!te town was - - i11
a hollow. 21. Th e t rap lay in t he h ollow, w l1 ere i t '<Vas--.
~2 . A city that is - - on a hill canuot be hi d.
23. Neither
<l o men ligh t a cand le and - - it under a Lnsh el. 24. She
- - t he room to rights, arnl her tired mother - - and looked
01 1.
2:). I - - t he sca111 p dow n, a nd tl1ere lie - -. 2G. The
boy - - himRelf to w ork, a nd - - steadil y at work for a11
hour.
27. W e - - t he h en 011 h er nest, a nd th e re s he -- .
28. H ere - - t h e bear, looking fi erce enou g h to - - ns all a
shaking with fear. 20. J\s we were sittin g in a row, in came
Rover all wet, and - - dow n Leside us, - - ting up a great
dist urbance. :30. H e who l1 as n ever - - out to make so 111et hin g of him se lf must expect to see otl1ers pass him. ;3 1.
While h e - - idle, others were toiling on to the goal t hey h ad
- - befo re t!t em.

vVhen a hen is set on her nest, the hen sits . She
is t herefore "a sitting hen," and the time will perhaps come when farmers will speak of her as such.
.M eanwhile it is not in good taste to be severe with
t he exp ression "setting hen," for alm ost everybody
wlio raises hens nscs the exp ression.
110. Say. Learn the fo llowing :
said I
said you
sa.id be

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

OF COliJPOSITZON

said we
said you
said they

101

Use said (not says) in each blank.
1. - - I to you

1

2. - - I to him
3. - - 1 to h er

6. - -he to m e
7. --he to you
8. --he to her

4. - - I to t hem
5. - - 1 to John

9. - -li e to us
10. --he to them

111. The future. English verbs have no one form
referring to future time. vVe make use of various
means when we wish to sveak of an act as happening
in the future.
In common talk we lhay use present forms to refer
to the future, as in I go to town to-morrow. The progressive present, as in I arn going to town to-morrow,
is very often used as a future. And the curious
combination I arn going to go to town is also common .
In all these cases the speaker imagines t he future as
already here, just as when he says Go! now.
But what we ordinarily call the future forms of
the verb are combinations of the verb's infinitive
with shall or will.
In I shall go the ve rb is shall,
which is completed by the verbal noun, or infinitive,
go. It requires some skill to use these future phrases
co rrectly, as the verb changes from shall to will
according to the person of the subject-pronoun.
112. The pure future. The pure future makes a quiet
announcement of what is to happen.

It uses shall with the first person, will with the
second and third .

102

CORRECTNESS JN TUE SENTENCE

A FIRST }1UlNUAL OF COj\fPOSITION

Contracted P ·ttre Future,
Affirmative

1. w e shall die
2. yo u will die
3. they will die

1. I sh all die
2. you wi ll die
3. he will die

These forms a.re shortenecl to
i

I

I
I

I
I·

1. I sh'U die
2. you'll die
o.
" h e'll di e

1. we sh'll die
2. you'll die
3. they'll die

The nega,tiv e forms of the pure future are correctly contracted in two vvays, the secoml being very
i.nforma1:
] . I sh ' ll 110t di e

1. I shan't di e

2 . you'll 11 ot Jie
3. h e'll not die

2. you woll 't die
3. h e won't die

1. ""e sh'll not die

1. we shan't die
1
2. yo n won ' t die
3. th ey won't die

2. yon 'll llot di e
3. they'll n ot die

Uncontracted P ure Future,
.11jfirmalive

Uncontracted Pu.re Futu re,
Negative

1. 1 shall b e h appy to see
him
2. you will be happy to see
him
3. he will b e happy to see
him ·
1. \Ve shall b e happy to see
him
2. yo u will b e h appy to see
hint
3. they will b e happy to see
him

1. I shall not b e happy lo
see him
2. you will not be happy lo
see him
3. he will not b e h appy lo
see him
1. we shall not b e happy to
see him
2. you will 11 ot b e hap11y to
see hi 111
3. they will not b e l1a11py lo
see him

is a correc t coutrnctiou of wall (an old form of will) aut!

Contracted Pure F ttlure,
Negative

1. I sh'll be happy to see
l. l .sh 'll not be happy to
see him
him
2. you'll be happy to see
2. yon'll not be happy to see
!till l
him
3. he'll be happy to see him
:.3. l1 e'll not be happy to see
him
1. we sh 'll be happy to see
1. we sh 'll not b e h appy to
him
see hi rn
2. yo u'll be h appy to see
2. yo u'l l i1o t be h appy to see
!ti Ill
lii lll
3. they'll be happy to see
!J. they 'll not b e h appy t o
him
·ee hi1u
OR

113. A . R epeat from memory t l1 e following :

1 lVon' t

103

1uJI.

1. 1 shan't be happy to see
him
2. you won't be happy to
see him
3. h e won't be h appy to see
hi.m
1. we shan't be happy to
see him
2. yo u won't be h appy to
see him
3. th ey won't b e happy to
see 11i m

B. Give all the sentences of A, placing before ea.ch
the words "I'm quite sure that," thus: "I'm quite
sure tlrnt I shall be happy to see him."
C. Give all the affirmative sentences of A, placing
uefore each the words " A re you quite sure that,"
thus: "Are you quite sure that I shaii be happy to
see him ? "

105

A FIR 8 T MA NUA L OF COMPO S T'l'lON

UORZ? EC1'NESS I N 1'1/E S JEN1'ENCE

D. Give all th e negative sentences of A, placing
"l"
before each the words "I ' m a fTail
, tl rns : "l' Ill
afraill I shall not l>e happy to see him."
E. Give all the aJfirnmti ve sentences of A, placi11 g
before each the words "Let's suppose," thus: "Let's
suppose I shall be happy to see him."
114. Use a.11 the forms of (A) before each of the

(31) obliged to stay; (32) compelleLl to request; (!33) forc ed to
leave ; (84) required to repo rt ; (35) exc used; (0G) Jess afraid
after this; (07) worse off than at prese ut ; (08) very far away.

10-4:

expressions of (B).
(A)

115. Use all the forms of (A) before each of the
expressions of (B).
(A)

1. I sh'll
2. yo u'll
3. he'll

1. I sh'll not

2. yo u'll not
3. he'll not

1. we sh'Jl

l. we sh'll not

2. you'll
3. they'll

2. yo u'll not
3. they'll not

l. I sh'll not Le
26 you' ll uot l>e
3. he'll not be

we sh'll be
2. yo u'll be
3. they'll be

l. we sh'll n ot be
2. you'll not be
3. they'll not be

1. T sha u't

OR

3. he won't

l. I sha11't l>e
2. you won't l>e
3. he won't be

1. we shan't
2. yo u won't

l. we sha n't be
2. you won't be
they won't be
i) ,
C)

( B) ( l) sorry; (2) glad to co me ; (n) at l1 0111e then; (I) in
a lrnrry; (!)) afraid to say so; ((i) Ii a: Ly ; (7~ on the watch i
(R) ashamed to try ; (D) alarmed; (10) l ~o krn g fo r tro ubl r:
( 11) willi11 g to co 11fess ; (12) stay; ct:~) likely to st:iy; (1 ·1)
cnr 11 in g ofte n ; ( 1!1) la te again ; (lli) smpri se<l; ( 17) s11rn ;
(18) severe wiLh liirn; (lD) fool ed again; (20) ex1~ecLcd to
speak; (21) astonishccl at anyLhing new ; (22) expec t111 g y_on ;
(2:~) Lhrongh by fo nr ; (24) in town at Chri stmas; (2G) worr~i><l :
(20) wretched if it rains; (27 ) drown ed if we npset; (28) L1rr 1l
out l>y the11; (2D) mightily pleased; (30) asleep b efore that i

I

·:

1. T sh 'll be
2. yo n'll Le
3. h e' ll Le
}.

'I

on.

2. yo u won't

3. th ey won't
( B) (1) arrive at twelve; (2) reach Chi cago on ti me; (3) get
to Boston by.six; (4) hope for mu ch better t hin gs; (5) feel
badly; (G) like to go; (7) expect you ; (8) loo k for you tolllorrow; (9) think it strange ; (10) certai11l y try; (11) think
so; (1 2) stay, probably ; (1 3) feel pleaRed; (14) escape, probably; (15) hav e to go ; (lG) get through in time; (17) get; left;
(1 8) tell th e truth , of conrse; (Jfl) need to fea r; (20) have to
expl ain; (21) worry; (22) show s uqwi Re; (2H) s ucceed without trying; (24) wi11 without an effo rt; (25) mak e a fu ss ;
(26) make money; (27) make a des perate e ffort; (28) wonder
what the trouble is; (2D) ask why; (30) euli st; (31) fight;
(32) break the news ; (33) give in without a str uggle; (34) take
part; (35) blame you; (36) rebel.

I
i

J,

CORRECTNESS IN TJL E SEN TENCE

A F1HS 1' MANUAL Oii' COJ\!POS I1'JO N

106

If, now, a, person says,
ll'ill you, lend me a knife? and you reply, I will,. h.ow
is will used with I and you ? 1t expresses a w1llmg
116. The compliant future.

mooll.
Note the following questions and answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
!) .

Will yon lend me ::i knife? I will, with pleas ure.
Will yo u go wi t h us? We will , gl::tclly.
Will yon fo rgiverne? !will.
r
\ Vi ii yon please girn him another clmn ce? Yes', l
You wo n't let it worry yo u, will you ? l won t,

'::n.yon
.

H

wish it shouldn't.

Another name for willingness is complin,nce . 1'Vill
antl won't are here compliant. They either grant a,
wish, or they consult a person concernin g his willingness.
Sometim es will is thus used even when the other
person's wish is only supposed :
1. I will close t h e window, if yon wish .
2. J will assign yon t hi s desk , if yo u like.
3. 'Ve will study the next lesson to-morrow.

The compliant future u ses will in questions and

i
I

answers as to willingness.

\

\

Note to the teacher. J will lend you my kn~fe is not quit.e
~me as I am will ino to le11d you my knife. I'll gladly come
'·
;1
•
•
f t .•
tl ie s..
is :j ust as mnch a future as I shall be glad to corne: it is a u uie

1. Will you be our guest at t he h olidays? J - - wiLli pl easure. 2. ' Vo u't you close the doo r ? Certai nly, I - -. 3. Shall
you answer his letter ? J - -. 4. I - - a nswer this letter , if
~' OU will let me.
5. Shall l close th e window? Yes, please,
if yo u - -. G. I - - take yo u for a drive, if yo u will go.
7. -Well , then, we - - change t he subject, if yo u please. 8. Did
you say your book was lost? - - I lend you mine? I - ?.ladly, if you would like it. D. I - - put the room to rights,
11 uobody objects. 10. ! - - j ust tie the uoat, if you will wait.

118. A compliant senten ce, lik e 1Ve'll gladly do so,

means about the same as 1Ve sh'll be happy to do so .
But we cannot say . liVe'll be happy to do so. That
would mean that we consent to Le h appy !
119. The determined future. S uppose now t hat the
speaker Lloes n ot comply with a request, but refuses.
He says, I won't do as you wish; I will do as I choose.
I l e pronoun ces will and icon't strongly, as if against
opposition .
In like manner you shall and he shall express the
speaker 's determination. You shall hear rne means
I am determined that you shall hear me.
The determined future uses emphatic will in the
first person, and emphatic shall in the second and
third, thus reversing the verbs of the pure futur e.
Learn the
DETERl\IINED FUTURE OF

Affirmative

and something more.

\

117. Insert shall or will according as t h e pure
future or the compliant future is needed with I

1. I

WILL

2. you
3. he

or we.

107

go
go
go

SHALL

SHALL

go.

Negative
1. I WILL not go
2. you SHALL not go
3. he SHAL L not go

108

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

Fl UST J\I .111" UAL OF COMP OSJTlON

A

1. we w ILL not go
2. you snALL not go
3. they s 11 A LL not go

1. we WILL go
2. yonSllALLgO
3. they SHALL go

OH

}. I'll NOT go
2. you sh'll NOT go
3. he sh'll NOT go

1. we'll NOT go
2. you sh'll NOT go
3. they sh'll NOT go
Olt

1. T woN'T go
2. you S il AN'T go
3. he S HAN'T go
1. we WON'T go
2. you SHAN'T go
3. they S HAN ' T go

o not use I will or I'll unless
120. Summary. D
.
l
·illing or a. Jeternnned mooL .
you wish to ex p1 ess ,t ' '
.
Don' t sa.y I'll be glad. Say I sh'll be glad. you arc
•

.r ·

•

,

,

.

simply foretelling your gla.Jness. ' .
. '
Cultivate a luibit of saying I sh ll msteacl "'of ~ m
I'ni going to be there is passable English,
.
t
goin,r; 0 •
I'
· t be sixteen
uut I shall be there is better.
ni goi1~g o .
.
, E"nglish an.cl I'll be sixteen is worse.
to-1norrow is poor
'
Sn.y J sh'll be sixteen.
121. In questions, the correct verb for the first
person is always shall.
1. Shall 1 go? yes, you had better.
k
2 . Sha.ll I go'! Yes, please.
3. Shan't I help you'? No, than you.

109

4. Shall I be chosen, I woml er? [addresseJ to one's self].
5. Sh.all I go'? [addressed to one' R self]. Yes, I wil \.
6. Shall we all help him? he see m s to 11 ee d help.

i'
'

In other questions, the correct verb is shall or will
accorJing as the speaker should answer shall or will.

"
'I

l. Shall you be there? I shall. [Pure futm e.]
2. lVill you le11d me a knife? I will. [Compliant futnre.J
3. Sh.all yo u try to see him again? I think I shall. [Pure
future.]
4. Won't you try to sec liirn again? r will. [Compliant
future.]
f>. Yon WON ' T go, as I underst:wd it. No, I WON ' T. [Dcte rm ined :future.]
G. You proLably won't go, shall you? No, .l shan't. [Pure
future.]

Use the correct form of the pure future in the following questions:
l. - - you go to the conn try this Slimm er? 2. - - you
probably Le through Ly four'! :~. - - go to see tlt e opera
wh en it co mes? 4. - - be goin g? 5. - - go to Europe
next year? G. - - get a new dress for Comrn encemen t?
7. - - yon do as they wish? 8. - - try for that prize?
D. - - you make any excuse? 10. - - you tell the truth?

122. Should and would.
These verbs are, in
form, the past of shall and will, but have lost th eir
simple past meaning. They have two chief uses : 1
1

In addition to these two cl1ief useR, there are three minor
ones: (1) Should sometimes m eans oiight. (2) 1Vould som e~
times means past determination (Ile would go, in spite of all) .
(3) Would sometimes means a past custom (H e would go uearly
every day).

"

!.
I

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

A FIRST 1\VlNUAL OF COM~PO Sl1'10N

110

1. As pure futur es after a past verb of saying or
thinking:

111

willing to go? D. If you - - see a bear coming, what - you probably do? 10. If you would try, you - - certainly
succeed.

123. May and can. JJiay usually asserts ·p ermission.
Can usually asserts power to do. Examples:

1. .John said that h e should be sixteen next week.
2. John said that Jarnes would be seventeen .
3. John said that he should be happy to go .

1. I may go, if I wish.
2. I can go, if I try.

2. As conditional futures:

Therefore in asking, granting, or stating permission
the proper verb is rnay. Examples :

1. 1f it should rain, we should stay at homlel.
2. If he would only yield, all ·w ould be we .
3. I should like it if it should rain.
4. I said that I should like to go if I got a chance.

1. May I go? You may.
2. I mayn't go.
'

Should and would generally follow the rules for shall
~dwill.

.

Insert the pure future after the past verbs of saymg
or thinking :
1 H e said of him self that he - - go. 2. ;Jane said sh~
__· try to O'O. 3. lJid you say that you - - b~ glad to go
"'
d t . ? r; Did he say that
4 Did he say that he - - be g1a 0 go· o.
·.
afraid
he· __ be sixteen
nex t wee ]'.\. 'I· G· I v'aS
'.'
.
. that I - .
. t. .
7 Ile said he - - nuss lns tram. 8. They
nuss my ram.
·
'
.
.
Tl
ti aht
said t hey feared they - - mi ss their tram. !) . tiey rnuo
·
10. John asked whether he - - go 00 ·
it --rain.

Insert the conclitioual future.

l'

1

__ yon probably go if you had a chance? 2. - - ~on
1·
.
t
. 'I 4 - - you like
fad to go'? 3. - - you 1n1 e o go .
.
e g
.. .?
II , __ you like to go? 6. ·what, - <::ome butter . 5 · · O\\
t i
.
. tl
tt . ? 7 Do you think he - - co11se11 o
yoLl say, 18 ie ma er
.
.
.
ou still Le
go, if he were asked? 8. lf it - - ram, - - Y
b

1 Should 1/01l? is often correct in questions where most people
say lVould 1;on ? I should like an.cl S hould you like? are better
than I wonltl like aml W oultl you like?

•'

The question Can I go .f! rnqmres whether the
speaker himself has the power to go. A boy asks
himself, or someone else :
1. Can I jump as far as that?
2. Can I get over the ice without breaking through?

There are times when either can or rnay is proper.
If a bear had you pinned to th e earth, and a friend
shouted Why don't you conie on? it would make little
difference whether you said I mayn't or I can't.
Fill the blanks with can, can't, may, or rnayn't
according to your best judgment.
1. - - I ask you to come and see me? 2. - - I borrow a
knife? 3. - - we get across that rotten log? ,1. - - we
accomplish so much? 5. - - I say that you consent? G. - you come out for a walk? T mean, is yonr father willing?
7. No, I - - . :Father says no. 8. - - you come out for a
walk? I mea11, are you well enou gh? 9. No, I - - . My
cold is too bad. 10. - - you come along? Are you through

112

A FIRST llIA NU AL OF COMPOS ITION

• • ·1
11 ..._T 1 - - . I h aven't finis I.1 e d · 1.'tst11Lly111n ·
• l., O,
·
1 L
j
·
"
• ·1
1 '·\ 11.r I - -. l'm caught rn t rn urane ies.
O ll n-et dow ll ·
'· • .I.' o,
·
j
.
· r
·Y "
. . ? _ _ vo u g.,. 0 faster "v1t hont Lill trn t,
H. 'V hy clu11 't yon 1i u11 y .
, :1
. .'
1e.
? p-: 1 - - hurry.
l he doctor wont let 11
your :£ oo t ·
.J .

124. The subjunctive" were. "
in t he following sentences :

Note the ita,lic verbs

1. lf I saw how to get word to John. _I would seu d for him.
2. I wish I saw h ow to get word to lum.

In these sentences a pn.st verb is nsel~ _for the
. . te " pr·esent wish or suppos1t10n that
prcsent , to St
..
is con trnry to fact.
But in such sentences we use were for was:
0

'"

1. H .Tolin were h ere now , I sh ould like it.
2. I wish .Tobu were here now.

With if and as if, the verb were states a me 1:~
·t·
. d i·s either singular or plural. It is
suppos1 ion, an
. ,,
._
. ._
then called a past "subjunctive form, with present
meanmg .
'The following forms should be learned :
if I were
jf you were
jf h e were

if we were
if yo u were
if they w ere

if I weren't
if you weren't
\ if he weren't

if we weren't
~f you were11 ':
if they weren t

Supply the ri ght word at the place indicated by a
hla11k:
"f l cntzy. 2. She dresses as if she
1. Ile ta11rn as 1 . ie
. .
t . 4 The
- - a princess. 3. H e spends money as if.it - - ~a ei •. _ · _· I\
.
l·
'f •t __ tired. 5. It rarned as 1£ them
ch ilrl loo "s as l 1
. . .
in the ver h o u ~e.
fl
1 (' The thunder sounrls as if lt - y
oo1 . J.
.·
"f h - - a leaf before the breeze.
7. The fox runs as easily as 1 e

CORRECTNESS I N TllE SENTENCE

113

8. Fido acts as if he - - mad. D. The teacl1 er speaks as if she
- - sure the class Ullderstood the lesso n. 10. The pupil recited
as if he - - master of the subj ect. 11. It looks as if t here - to be more rain. 12. I feel as if I - - being scolded. 13. I
must act as if I - - at ease. 14. The workmen have stopped
at five, just as if it - - six. 15. Ile re marks that t he pickerel
is a greedy fish ; just as if every fish - - · n 't greedy! 16. It
isn't as if there - - 110 other books to be h ad. 17. They ran
from the poodle as if it - - a lion. 18. The red sq uirre l scolded
as if h e - - t he owner of the woods. rn. H e talks about stayin g here all th e a fternoon ; as if there - - any doubt of our
catc hing the train !

125. "Agreement.''. When a verb suggests a different person and number fr om its subject, as in
are, it disagrees with the subject in p erson and numLer, and the combinat ion is bad English.
The third singular present verb, as calls, must have
a singular subject in the third person. Noun-subj ects
are considered as being in the third person.
The present and past forms, as call, called, may
for convenience be regarded as sing ular or plural
verbs according as the subject is singular or plural.
And a plural subj ect must have a plural verb.
A verb must n ot disagree with its subject in numLer and person.
126. After There we of course say are if the subj ect
is distinctly plural in sense.

He

1. There are two of them.
2. Th ere are J ohn and his father.

But suppose we exclaim, Th ere's John! before we see
the father. VVe add, and his father. There's John
l

114

A FIRST MANUAL OF C0111P081TION

CORRECT.NESS IN l'IIE SENTB"NCE

and his fatlwr ! is in Lheory bad English, and such an
expression would not appear in the work of a careful
writer. In ordinary conversation it would pass muster, out in gen eral it is well to cultivate the very
difficult sound 'l1here are.
127. Pronouns of different persons or numbers arc
of ten separated by or or nor. Then the verb usually
agrees in person and number with the nearest.

He may think of the Uuitet1 St:1tes
as one country,
or as many states forming a union.
Collective nouns take a singular or a plural verb
according to the thought of the sentence.
129. Eaoh, every, everyone, anyone, either, neither,
require singular verbs.
The pronoun none is literally no-one, and usually
takes a singular verb. But none are is also good
English.

1. Neither he nor I am going.
2. Either I or you are going.

Wlw, which, that, take a singular or a plural
verb, according to the ·antecedent's number.
130.

This somewhat awkward construction can often bo
rtvoided by using a different verb:

1. He was a man who was always in debt.
2. He was one of those men who are always in debt.

1. Neither he nor I cau go.
2. Either l or you must go.

. 131. Two subjects joined by and may not take a
smgular verb except in a few cases, like

It can also be avoided by repeating the verb :

1.
2.
3.
4.

1. Neit.her he is goi ng, nor am L
2. Eith er I alll goi ng or yoll are.

But the first of these two sentences is quite as
awkward as the sentence it tries to correct.
128. Some nouns, like crowd, people, coniniittee, aro
called collective nouns, because they refer to mauy per·
sons or things as if collected in one whole.
A collective noun rna,y lrnve at one time a singular
meaning, at another time a plural, according as tho
speaker thinks of it. At one minute he may think
of the crowd as a, solid mass of humanity; at another
he may think of it as composed of many individual~.

115

Dread and butter is good .
His end and aim is victory.
A thread aud needle is needed.
The cup and saucer is broken.

132. rVitli is <t prepositiou, not a conjunction.
suggests a singular verb :

It

The king with all his army is marching hither.

133. Insert is or are according to the meaning of
the subject.
1. Much 1)ains - - ren111·1·ed t
J
cl
· ·
.
. . .
:1
maw a goo compos1t1011.
~· Gieat. parns - - req1m:ed to make a good composition .
~· Th~ c1~wd - - al.1 shoutmg. 4. The whole crowd __ sho 1Ltmg. .. ~· The cornnnttee - - reporting una 11 imously. 6. The
committee - - not ngreed among themselves. 7. The United
9

°

llG

A FIRST _MANUAL OF COJ1IP08l1'JON
CORRECTNESS IN TIIE SENTENCE

States __ a rep 11bHc. 8. The United States - - diffe~·~nt
· size.
·
9. 11·is cloth es - - 11eat. 10. l lt e
fro111 eac h ot11er rn
11 The (lice - - loaded. J 2. The data -r'I t1.1c - - c"st
. S U f-l'!Ch-,
. n11 t .
1'•3• The phenomenon - - strange.
14. l II}
lll
p I ie nome11a - - Stl.,," 11 g·e·· 1r:)· · 1::iare11theses
'
. - u sually set otI
]u • l >,,1·enth
eses
- - sornetrn1es cnrves [( )].
1 . •
,.
•
b y co nn las
17. Parentheses - - a 11n,me given either to cm:ves .CC )] or
to phrases, clanses, se ntences that .ar:i pa:·enth et1cal ll·t, sense.
18. Edible fungi - - hard to d1strngu1sh from p~1sonous.
19 The memoranda - - lost. 20. The annals of Clnna -.. - ed 111
· p e-1011.
·
2l . v
u·i ·11·1a1u
·· 1 s - - a g·arne.
preserv
.
. 22. Btlliards __ played on a cloth-covered table, with ivory balls.
23. Mathematics __ an illlportant study. 24. l\Ieasles - ·
2r;
con t ag10us.
._, . No news
· · - - good n ews. 2G. News - collected by reporters. 27. Alrns - - g~ve n to h~~g~L:·s.
28. Eaves - - a part of the house. 29. Riches - - '' 111oed.
30. Th e summons - - long delayed. 31. N either answer - correct. 32. N either this answer uor the other answer -.correct. 33. The formation of these rocks - - very c~r~ous.
31L The strata of rocks here - - very curious . 3G. N e1tltN
th e eaves nor the shingles - - injured by the tree tlrn,t ;'.·II.
:rn. A black and red oak - - growing side by side.. 37. l lu•
king of France aJHJ forty thousa~cl rn_en - - marchm g up the
hill. 38. The king of France, with forty tl1onsancl men, , ,
·
marclnng
up t h e }·11·11 • '39 • 'I' \\' o an cl- two - - four. 40. 1111•
.
·
d
11
41
Gray
trousers
often
worn
\n
SCISSOrS - - ll ·
·
'
•
. th
a bl ac Ic f I .oc1c -coa t . 42 . A r)air of scissors - - a conve111e11t
thing to have. 43 . T en dollars -_- ly~11 g .011 the table>.
44 . T en dollars - - a certain sum. 4b. P.tckwick Papers - a story by Dick e1rn. 4G. Either John or Jam es - - th'.} rn,:111.
47. llalf the day - - go ne. 48. Half the appl es - - gom.
(I.,.

·

•

·

134. Insert is or are, has or have, according to th

number of the pronoun.
·
2 . Ti've1·yo11e
- - ~g·on e. !3. Ea h
1. Everyon e - - gomg.
1;
of us --i1is faults. 4. All of us - - going. 5. Not all - -

117

golclthatglitters. 6. N eitherJohnnoi:h e - - t here. 7. H ers
is one of the sweet~st voices that - - been h eard in this school.
8. The best of those which - - been found is tlie smallest.
0. "Are you the man that - - apples to sell?" 10. Every
one - - kin to th e rich man. 11. Eacl1 of tliese states
- - a pa rt of th e Union. 12. None - - so blind as he that
will not see. 13. If a p erson - - going to the woods, he needs
a rubber coat. 14. If any on e - - tile chance to go to Europe,
li e ought to go. 15. 'Vhen a person - - sick, h e likes a bit
of jelly.

Certain pronouns are used
as suLjects, Lut not as objects. These are as follows:
I, he, site, we, they, wlw, · whoever.
135. Subject-pronouns.

A compound subject must consist wholly of subject forms . We can say Ile and I, but not him and
I, or lie and me.
After 11 is aml It was we use the subject-pronouns,
I, he, slie, we, they, who .
It's I.
It's lt e.
It's she.
It's we.

It's tlie_y.
It's who ?
I thought it was lt e.
I fear it's I whom you mean.

So the subject-pronouns and the predicate-pronouns are the same.
In conversation it is permissible to say It's me, but
It's I is better.
The object-pronouns are
. me, him,, her, us, th em, wlwrn, wlwniever. These words
are used as the objects of verbs, and also after prepositions.
136.

Object-pronouns.

118

A FIRST MA NUAL OF CO]fPO SITION

In John was the first rnan whoni we stopped, whom
is the obj ect of stopped . Careful speakers woul<l
not say who we stopp ed.
In W e stopped whoever canie, the word whoever is
called the sn bject of came . Then we say t lia.t the
object of stupped is the whole clause whoever came.
As a matter of fo.ct, whoever is just as much the
object of stopped as it is the subject of came. Uut
we say whoever came , not whomever came .
137. Insert we or us 111 the blanks according to
your best juJgment.
1. I s it - - that you invited? 2. Did you see both them a111l
- - tha.t same evening 'I 3. - - boys are going fishing.
4. Fath er took - - boys a-fishin g. 5. Sister wanted to go; so
fath er took - - boys and her. G. - - boys had to bait our
sister's hook. 7. She caught her h ook in a tree, and father scnL
- - boys up after it. 8. Th ere is a book cal leJ - - Girl~.
9. Th ere is another book call ed - - Two. 10. Th e witchc11
asked," "'\\Th en sh all - - three mee t again?" 11. One ohjecl
form of the perso nal pronoun is '' --." 12. I hope that they
two will ask - - fi\"e to go. rn. It was - - whom you saw.
H. They said it w as - - , but it wasn't. ] t was they t11c111·
selves. 15. Th ey mean t - - , but we couldn't admit that it wa
- - they meant.

138. Use the correct form, rne or L in the blanks.
1. They invited John and--. 2. May Sophro nia. n,nJ sit together? 3. l\lay Parker and - - get a pail oE \YnlN
4. l'lease let Sop hronia and - - sit together. 5. Can ,Joh n
aud-- cross the brid ge safely? 6. She scolded him a n1l •
7. They want them a ncl--to come. 8. Th ey mad e her nnJ
- - re~i te. !) . Sh e and - - had to recite. 1O. They and will leave soon. 11. Let us go, you and m e. L et's you nnJ
--go.

CORRECTNESS I N 1'/JE SENTENCE

119

139. Use the correct pronoun, she or her, m the
Llanks.
l. It's - - sh e is calling. She wan t s - - . 2. - - and I
were the first ones to school. 3 . - - a ud me a nd Sophronia he
asked to go. 4. I asked Sop hronia if it were - - , and she said
110.
Th~ teac he r .thought it was - -. i'5. Father Lrought - anJ m~ rn t he sleigh. G. - - a nd Kate were a lways havin g a
?ood time. 7. Her elder sister and - - are to spend Christ1uas
Ill Ly nn.
8. Kate and - - are both invited. 9. TJiey and-were all promoted with honor. 10. Ile r brothers and - - are
learning rapidly to speak well.

140. Jnsert an object form of the pronoun in each
blank.
1. Th e teacher called on him and - - .

2. The lecture was
for. them a nd - - also. 3. Th e rain fell 011 me and--. 4. I
w:uted for h er and--. 5. "'\Ve spok e with Parker and - - .

141. lnse.rt in each blank who or whom. according
to the practise of careful speakers.
l. - - did ~ou see''. 2. - - is it? 3. - - do you say? 4.
- - do you thrnk he is? 5. - - shall we ask? G. __ shall
our g· uests be?• 7. --do yotl p 1·efer·?
·
• 8 • - - a1·d you secure;')
10. - - w~s it you secu red?
10. - - are the prize-winners?
11. -?- did they elect president? 12. - - was chosen president·. .13. - - sha ll we ad mi t? H. - - shall we refuse? 15.
-.- is it ti: at picks the fhwers? 1G. " - - has lain in rn y bed?"
said the big bear. 17. " - - can help sickness?" quot.h the
drunken man. 18. - - are you helpiug in this concert? rn.
·
. •)l
~ . - - ]1as l11u· t
,can number the stars?· ~90 · - - is wl10?
'l- l
22. - - do you think I arn? 23. - - did you mean?
--L - - shall I say called? [Here Who is correct.]

142. Insert nie or I, accorJing to the construction
· in the following :
'
1. They were speaking of you and--. 2. Come along with
father and - - . 3. Father has given a horse to my brother and

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

4 . Ts there any mail for him and - - ? 5. She came
1
a(ter her and--. 6. I suppose you've studied farther than 1;
and h a ve got beyo nd - -. 7. That girl will soon stand above
yon and __ in the class. 8. Hold the umb1:ella over both you
and--, if yo n please. 9. lt was a great ]Oke on .them and
- -. 10. 1\ly brothe r said, "Streams of water ran off the ea Yes

The wrong use of lilce is, however, so common in
the South, even among well-educa,ted persons, that a
grammarian must hesitate to call it a vulgarism. It
is rather a provincialism, an expression used chiefly
in one section of the country. But every boy and
girl, northern or southern, ought to follow the example of the most careful speakers in this matter.

down on Charlie and --."

143. Insert who or whom according to the con-

struction. 2

. 't .
l 'I
1. For _ _ is it? 2. - - is it for? 3. At - - IS 1 aunec. ·
4. - - is it. ai med at? 5. With - - did you go? 6. - - 1l1<l
yon ... 0 with'/ 7. By - - w ere you sent? 8. - - were yu n
sent by? 9. - - are you speaking to? 10. To - - are you
speaking? 11. Over - - did you hold the urn ~rella? 12. - -.
did yott hold t.he tuubrella ov e r? 13. - - was 1t tl:1a~ yo u went
with? 14. For - - are you asking? 15. - - rn 1t you arc
asking for? lG. -·-was that - - you mentioned? .17., - did yon say you saw? 18. After - - were ~ou huntu'.g I }!).
- -w ere you hunting after? 20. On - - did the pu111shme11t
fall? 21. - - did the punislnneut fall on?

144. Supply object forms of pronouns in the l>lanks.
1. Don't do like - -. 2. If h er daughter acts like - - , she
will be a noble girl. 3. I can't do that Like - - . 4. 1 ca11't rnu
lik e - - . !). 1\ly brother writes like - - . G. Our brothers
all write like--.
I
I

II
l

1l

l
I

l

l

jl

ii

121

A FlRS'l' MANUAL OF C'O]fPOSITION

120

145. Literary English of the present time does not
employ like in such sentences as "Act like they do."
It insists on oiie of two forms, "Act as they do," or

else "Act like them."
1 Than is not a preposition, except in the expression than whom.
2 Th e use of who i11 snch sentences as 2 a11d 4 is so geuern,l tha_t we
may 110 t call it a vnlgarism. But in writing we should. use the strictly

grammatical form.

Use only obJect forrns of the pronoun after

LIKE.

146. Self-pronouns. Study the spelling of the selfpronouns, myself, yourself, hiniself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves.
The self-pronouns are used either as appositives or
as objects. The best usage does not p ermit their use
as suujects, though th ey may be in apposition to
subjects. We should not say "J olm and myself
went."
Study the following sentences so that you can
repeat each after hearing the first word.
l. Father, mother, and I went to N e w York. 2. They invited
him, yon, and rne. 3. J\fay rn y brother arnl J study together?
4. Father thinks it best for brother arnl me not to stu<ly
together. 5. There were Sarah, Francis, Frances, and I.

147. Forms of nouns. Most English nouns have
four written forms, as leaf, leaf's, leaves, leaves'.
These are called the singular form (lea;[) , the singular genitive or possessive (leaf's), the plural (leaves),
and the genitive or possessive plural (leaves').
The method of forming the regular plural is dis-

122

A FIRST MANUAL OF COJliPO S ITIO N

cussed in the chapter on spelling. vVe now look at
the forms which use the a,postrophe (').
148. The plural of letters and figures. Th e plural
of siugle letter s and figures, and of words spok en of
as wonls, is usually made by a<l.cling 's.
1. Dot your i's and cross yo ur t's.
2. S's a nd 3 's look alike.
3. Your com position is too full of and's .

Note that in such cases it is absolutely n ccessn,ry
to und erscor e the word in manuscript:. Underscoring
shows that the letter, figure, or word is spoken of as
a letter, figure, or word. In printing, underscoring
is r epr esented Ly italics.
R emember that 's means ownership unless the word
is underscored, and is spoken of as a word.
149. The genitive of singular and plural nouns. The
singula.r genitive of nouns is r egularly formed by
adding 's, as in J ohn's.
vVhen a word already ends in s, the 's is pronounced as an extra syllable. Thus Adanis's house
sounds exactly like Adamses house.
Pronounce conntess's, Jones's, L ewis's, Hopkins's,
Briggs's, Thomas's, Jidius's, Watts's, Dickens's .
In a very few instan ces is is customary to add only
the apostrophe to the singular n oun : for conscie1U:c'
salce, fo r goodness' salce, Jesns' words, Achilles' wrath,
I-Iercules' labors.
It is often possible to use the of-phrase insteacl of
the genitive. The inventions of Watts, the poems of

CORRECTNESS IN TIIE SENTEN CE

123

Burns, the travels of LEneas, the labors of I-Ie1·cules,
sound better to the ear than Watts's inventions,
Burns's poems, etc.
. Th e genitive of plural nouns ending in s is spelled
like the plural noun, and sounds exactly like it, but
is written with the apostrophe after . the ~' as in
ladies'.

P_lm·~ls

that do not end in s form the genitive by
addmg s, as men's, oxen's, children's .
vY ords having the same form for singular and
plural (sheep, deer) make the plural genitive by adding s' (sheeps' heads, deers' horns) .
The plural jisltes loses its childish tone when forming t he genitive, as in fishes' scales.

150. Gender and the genitive. The genitive endin gs, 's arnl s', are usually added tq masc uline and
feminine nouns, and those of common gend er, as
John's, Mary's, the doctor's.
The of-phrase may ofte n be used of persons and
. a~imals, as in the ivories of Enierson, the wings of the
bird~· but usually it r efers to inanimate obj ects, as in
the handle of the bicycle, the streets of Chicago.
To say Cliica,c;o's streets, for the streets of Chicago,
would be to speak in poetic or l ofty sty le. The
streets of Chicago have been stained with the blood
of l~eroic policemen, and a poet celebrating that
he1:01sm nug ht properly refer to "Chicag o's bloodstamed streets." But the streets of a great city are
usually a prosaic subject.

124

Ii

I

1

A FIW:3'1' MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

It is true t lutt n ewspapers often speak of Chicago's
stree ts, .America's population, etc., but t he practise is
Hot to Le in1itatccl. And no newspaper would spe:tk
of the hat's brim, the door's top, etc.
'There was, however, a time when t h e possessi vc
~f-phrase was unknown. Good usage still s~tppo r~ s
such expressions as for 11iercy's sake, the earths orln ~ ,
a day's Joiirney, a weelc's pay, a dime's wo rth, lus
fingers ' ends, at swords' points, a verb's subJect.
In the case of each pair of nouns, use one word to
modify the oth er. Do t his by putting one noun into
th e O'enit ive form by adding 's, or by putting of beo
.
fore it. Note t hat in seve ral cases either construct10n
would be right.
l. r oo f, house . 2. dog, coll ar. 3. land, d efenders . 4. A rt hur,
hook . 5. New York , government. G. A1 11e rica, seaports.
7. Geor ge \ Vashi11 gto11 , sword. 8. 111 ercy , sake. n. h olll', J'C8 L
·
10. te rn pera11 ce, cause. 11. San 1', ra11 c1sco,
s t ree' ts·_· . 19
~ - . Atl1 c 11 ·~ •
acropoli s. 13. pity, sake. 14. justice, cau se. lo. ,1ust1ce, sakP.
lG. justice, in terest. 17. America, beauty. 18. Cl eo1~atra,
b eau t y. 1!)· · n i "o·h· t ' cover. 20. honesty, powe r. 21. .l1 olll1 Cfifi,
·
~~. tree , leaves
c
, •
93.
~
family, lieaJ.. 24. Cluua, 1111s·
b ea.u t y. •)•)
fortunes. 25. C uba, liberty.

151. The group-genitive.
Such a phrase as the
lcing ~f En,qland's, in the lcing of England's crown, is
called a, group -genitive. The 's belongs to the whol e
p h rase . Such phrases are very common in moLl er.n
English. Oth er examples are : ct quarter of. a~i l~our .s
taslc, a ha?f a mile's walk, a doctor of medicine s diploma, a man of business's promptness.

I•

CORRECTNESS IN TJIE SENTENCE

125

vVe may eve n have th e 'sat the end of a r elative
clause, as in the man I saw yesterday's son; but th is
construction is much more. :twkwarcl t hau t he of-coustnwtion, as in the son qf the man I saw yesterday.
Names of firms usually form t he genitive by the
group method : 1Jfacmillan and Company's; JWm·shall Field and Cornpany' s; Ivison, Blakeman, and
J.'aylor's.

In such sentences as I left it at Smith tlie boolcseller's, we understand shop or store. H er e bookseller
is in apposition with Smitli. 1£ t he appositive is a
part of a long phrase, like the bookseller in Fiftli
a_venue, t h e whole phrase is not inclucle<l in the gen it1 ve . \ Ve then say, I _left it at Smith's, the bookseller
in Fifth avenue.
"one of t he teach ers' desk,"
"one of t he boys' father." Say the desk of one of the
Avoid such a phrase as

teachers, the father of one of the boys.

152. Adjectives modify nouns, not verbs of action.
1t is wrong to use a<ljectives with verbs of action.
1t is ba<l English to say "sleep good " for "sleep
well," or "act pretty" for "act prettily," or "was
l1urt bad " for "was badly hurt."
153. Adverbs with link-verbs. The pure link-verb
is is . S eems, appears, f eels, looks, sounds, are calle<l
half link-verbs.

. The pure link-verb rn ay Le followed by adverbs of
tun e, place, or moo<l, as in Il'e is ce1·tainly he 1·e now.
The pure link-verb cannot be used with adverbs

12G

A FlBS'l' NA N UAL OF COM.POSJTION

that imJ_Jly action . Nicely implies a.n action. \V e
m ay say The .Patient is doing nicely. _ It is bad English to say that a person is nicely. \Vheu asked how
a person is, we answer W ell, or else Doing nicel!J.
The a.dj ectiv e well means in good health.
The half link-v erbs are sometimes followed b y the
a.cl verbs w ell an<l badly, as we shall now see .
154. The link-verb feels should not often be followed by the adjectives good ancl bad. It is corred
to say The fire feels ,good to-day , or Th e cool breeze
f eels good on my hot forehead.

But

I f eel goorl means I .feel ri_qhleou.~.
I f eel bail means I f ee l wickerl.

vV e a.lmost n ever mtre to say that we feel righteo11H
or wicked.

In ordinary talk, then, we should sa,v

f eel well a,n<lfeel badly.

For example:

1. Are yo u fe elin g well to-day?
2.
3.
4.
G.

.
.
Some h ow I don't feel ver y well thrn morning.
Il e was fee1ing badly, a nd I sent him home to rest.
D on't feel badly over your co mposition.
] t made me feel badly to h ear such news.

ter the link-verb sounds we often find well
155. Af
or badly. Study the following :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
G.

That soft mu sic som1ds :1ood to my ear.
lt so nml s ,qooil to hear hi s voice again.
Your se n te nce souncls well.
It does 11ot sound icell to fin d so 111nch fault.
Th ey say h e gambles. That so unds bad.
Your seuteuce so unds badly.

CORRECTNESS IN TIJE S ENTENCE

127

156. 'l'he adverbs well awl badly are occasionally
used with lo olcs. Study the fo llowing :
1. She looks sweet. ("Looks sweetly" would mean "is gazing sweetly.")
2. The crops are looking fin e. (But " are looking fi nely" is
permitted.)
3. Harry is lookin g well t his summer. He is brown and
rosy.
4. Harry looks well this evenin g il). that black suit.
5. The sk y looks bwl to-day.
G. That prisoner looks bad. Ile h as a bad face.
7. That other prisoner looks badly. Co nfin ement has not
agreed with him.
8. n looks bad when a young fellow always wants to borrow.
9. Sally looks nice in h er p ink gingham .
10. H ow beautiful your flowers are looking! They are doing
beautifully.

157. Supply good or well according to n eed in the
following sentences :
1. Did yo u sleep - - ? 2. Doesn't this cool air make your
forehead feel - - ? 3. Doesn't this fresh a ir always m ake yo u
fee l - - ? 4. Are you fee li11 g--to-day? 5. The pie looks
G. Th e r oom looks--. 7. The pastry t astes - - .
8. The doughnuts sm ell--. 9. The boy see ms - - at heart.
10. Th e child plays heartily; h e seems--.

158. Supply nice or nicely according as the bla.nks
require adj ective or ad verb.
1. Is my boy doing - - at sch ool? 2. The fire is blazing
- - n ow. 3. How - - yo ur sweet-peas are doing ! 4. How
- - they look! 5. She ahvays selects tints so - - ! 6. This
package h as been done up--. 7. The baby is tucked up-a11d warm. 8. The boat keeps - - a nd dry. 9. His distinctions are much too--. 10. His distinction s are much too--

A FII~ ST JlfANUAL OF COJ1I PO SITION

128
m acle.

11. H ow is th e patient.? V ery well, t h ank you; h e's

doiug--- .

159. Insert bacl or badly acconling to the r eqnirc-

rncnts oE gram 111 ar.
1. That was done - -. 2. P oor R ove r is looki11 g -.-.
Th at trnmp rnea11s mischief. ll e looks - -. 4. T he y 1ppi ns a re k eepi 11 g - - t,h is winter. 5. The _docto r comes tw ice a
clay to see th e orplrnn boy. ll e was ver y sick. yesterday, a11cJ is
_ _ in need of fri e nds. G. The governor is - - spoken of.

H.

7. ]J e was hm t - -.

160.

Insert pretty or prettily according to the

rcq uirements of g r:11n1uar.
]. H ow - - sh e did t hat! 2. Our canary sings - - awl
look s very--. :\. Come now , behave--. 4. See h ow-t hat problem wo rks out. 5. The skirt is trimmeJ--.

161. Inse rt awfu.l or awfidly according to t l1 c

r equirements of g rn.rnmar. 1
1. The t each er is sometimes - - nice. 2. Th is ice-crea111 1s
_ _ o-ood. 0. Sh e's - - clever. 4. H e's - - s uccessf ul as :~
huRin~ss man. 5. It's - - likely to r ain. G. \\'11at an - little piece of candy ! 7. I'm --late. S. It's - - good of you.
2
!). I'm - - sorry. 10. My head aches - - lmdly.

162. Reference of adverbial modifiers. An ad vcrbia1 modifier should stand n ear its verb or adjecti vc.
Otherwise some other verb or adjectiv e nuy steal it.
163. Clrnnge the following sentences so that the
arJ verbia1 modifiers shall modify the right word :
i But observe that ve ry, extremely, remctrkably n,re usun,lly better
wonls tlmu Ct1t?f'11lly.
2 Awfully bodly is good " grammar," \Jut ve ry uad i11 so uncl , nncl
very poor i11 t-.ristc.

CORRECT NESS IN T f[ E S ENTENCE

129

1. Edward Everett H a le's The Jllrin Without a Country, just
rep ublished, has been ca lled t he b est sh ort story eve r writte n
Ly many co 11Lpete nt judges a nd e n t h nsiasts.
2. Erected to the m emory of .J ohn P hillips, accidentally
shot, as a mark of affection by his brothe r.
3. An uukuown Russian co mmitted suicide by shooti ng at
one of the rou lette tables a t .l\l onte Carlo yesterday.
4. \V. P. L ovett, associate editor, r eplied to questions propounded to l1in1 in a similar rn a1111er.
5. Th ey prove t hat the m erchant bought the revolver himself wit h whi ch li e was slai n at Ll1 c F a ir Store.
H. I le clidn't eve n l1 avc t he pri c<~ f'ur a l1 air cn t.
7. lt caun ot be easi ly seen wheLli e r t h e m outh a nd chin a re
as delicate as the rest of the fcaL ures b ecause of the Leard a nd
111 ns tac hes.
S. This weary and helpless man , who is adrift on a raft,
holll s his so n ·who is asleep with one ann.
!J. \V e liad to shoot the d ug in a n at;tack of di st;cmper .
10. \ Ve had plenty of time to lament leavi ng our 1unbrell as
Lehind b efo re evening .
11. I 110ticed that two persons riclin g t heir bi cycles because
their wh eels h cca111 e nnm a nagcalile 11ea rl y liad a co llisi01 1.
12. 1\lr. F . D. lfumphrey and wife r et urn ed home fro111 In gham Co unty, where they spent most of th e winter last Friday
night.
13. \ Vil! Brown h ad a hor se taken sick ·w hile at the social.
14. Th e coro net· will hold a n inquest Oil the body of t he boy
who was killed in a starch ·works elevator some time n ex t
week .
15. l\fr. Stokins of \Vashin gton street is out again, after
hei11 g co nfi ned to his h ou1 e for fiv e weeks with rheum atis m
to t he del ight of friends.
lG. SqHirrels, for in stance, an d probab ly rabbits an d l1 ares
as well, a re able to see a n ene my approaching di rectly from
Lelii 11<l without turning t he h ead.
17. vVe, ci tiiens a nil bnsin ess me n of Kam schatka, cheerfull y
reco111111entl t he K a mschatka Li(1uor Cure as a m eri tor io us
JC

130

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

and successful cure for the drink habit, as managed and directed
by Dr. C . .B. 'Yarre 11.
.
18. Th ere was a force :md a fluency to the str:1Lghtforwanl
A wl o-Saxon sentences of Presideut Roosevelt which persuaded
1
doz;~ n s of members who usually retired to the cloakrooms to
listen with close attention.

164. \Vhen ~rn. ad.verb modifies a verbal noun, it
usually soun<l.s best before the sign to or after tlic
1
verbaJ itself, as soon to come or to conie soon. '1 0 soon

come Joes not sound. so well.
165. Au adverb may modify a whole phrase or
cl a,use. ]] 1 I Certainly think so, certainly. modifies
think so. In I don't think so, not mo<l.iiies do thinlc
so. I don't think so mea,ns exactly the same as I
think not. 1
166. Only often modifies a clause, as in If only I
could get started, I should siwceed. But when only is
meant to modify a word, it should stand directly
before that word. Instead of I only ate one egg, a

ca,reful speaker would say I ate only one egg.
Insert only before the word which seems to you
to n eed modification most.
1. l thought I would take the book, not keep it. 2. I thought
J would tak e one book. 13. They are happy who are con te nt.
4. I rnen.nt it in fun. 5. ·w e found that we had three forks.
u. 1£2 she would scold me I should feel easier. 7. If2 we had
1 I think not is a pl~asn.nt variant of I clon't think so, and slu·
uents should learn to use it for variety.
2 llerc an entire cla,use needs modification, and only shouhl

stn.nd directly after if.

CORRECTNE SS I N TIIE 8EN'l'E.NCE

131

known, we shou ld have done so differe ntly! 8. I know not
where His islands liH their frouded palms in air; I know I
cannot drift beyond His love and care. 9. They who work
may eat. 10. Give me three grai ns of corn, rn oth er; t hree
grains of corn. It will keep the 1ittle life I have till the comi ng
of the morn. 11. This advice is for you a nd him. 12. \Vl1 en
Shakspere's Cassius said of Rome that there was in it but "011 e
only man," he m eant what we should call " - - one man."
13. I said that; I did not write it. 14. I said that.' a nd nothiu t>o·
else. Hi. I want a bicycle to make me supremely h appy.

167. Insert not where it seems to you mo::;t n eeded:
l. I went to find fanlt but to learn something. 2. Il e answered a word. 3. I said that it wasH't so, but tlmt l tl1ouo-ht
'
b
It wasn't so. 4. \Ve h ad what co uld be call ed rt walking to ur
I.Jut something like a picnic. G. All t l1 e foolish people are
cl ead. Li. AU that glitters is gohl. 7. Every rnaJL knows e nough
to hold his tongue. 8. All peo ple are two-faced. D. All 111en
are li ars. 10. Every one that begins h olds out. 11. 1 asked
fo.r all the books bnt for olle. 12 . .I'm a[raid that all tlie g uest<;
will come. 13. l hope that all the party will be disappointed.

168. Insert the adverb clearly in the best place, so
as to modify the verb<tl nouns :
1. To understand this problem, one must under stand what
precedes. ~. He seems to grasp the prolilelll. 3. It is hard to
describe anything. 4. To define a word is good practise.
G. Give him to understand what the trouble is.

169. Reference of pronouns to wrong antecedent.
A pronoun should n ever be far away from its antecedent.
If it is too far away, the r eatler may
misunderstand you. He may think tlie pronoun
refers to a different person or thing from what yon
meant. You can hardly tell what it means in the

132

A FIRST JlIANUAL OF COMPOS I'l'ION

following sentence; it might mean medicine, or
rheunw,tism, or smallpox.
'Ve l1 ave bee n liav i11 g th e so-call ed smallpox in our part of
t h e co 1111 ty. Thie; has bee n throu gh my falllily. I want to say
tha t r was taking yo nr Sa rsaparilla a nd JJirndelion fo r rhenrnat is111 aud I have never take11 it, a ud will gua rantee that i[ the
people will take it as a p reve11 tive they will Hever take i t.

In the following sentence which mea,ns a tiger, but
it seems a,t fir:;;t to mean a river.
Tw o boys repo rted killin g a tige1· on an isla nd in the K a nlrnkee ltiver w liich is believe d to h:we escap ed from a circus.

170. Change

the following sentences. Either
bring the italic pronoun nearer to its antececleHL,
or repeat the antecedent.
1. A bullet was fournl iu a wall which ·w as fl attened out Ly
the force of t h e shot. 2. It was the gen tle111 a u in t he a:1tum ob ile who wore a hi gh hat. f3 . There was a m an ou the otl1r r
side of ~lie p latfo rm tlwt looked r ed a11d uncomfo rtab le. 4. Th ere
was something fainiliar about the place where we at last la mlctl
from t h e boat, wh ich rnacle us t h ill k we had bee n th ere befo re.
5. l\lr. 'Vi11kle rnn down stairs to ad rnit tl1 e ge nt leman 's wi fe
u:ho was sleepi ng peace fnlly on t he sofa waiting for her to ring
th e bell. G. Gov erllor F lower having refused to co m nrnLe t he
se ntence o( Harri s, he was cx:ec ntcd at Sin g S in g last l\[onday
nwrni1w.
7. Jf fresh rnilk does not seern to agree with tho
n
chiltl, boil it. 8. The boy is at h ome with his parents whn \\WI
on a voyaµ;e at sea. !). After the doct.o r had given t hi s co11siu
t he will, he went by himself to a room and tore up t l1 e p:tprr.
1O. On e (•nvioiis person nam ed Cassius fo rm ed a conspirary
ag·ain st Ca~sar , and he was ldllecl iu the Se nate of Rome, 0 11 I.h o
fi..ftee nth of l\larch. 11. The boy in t he middle of t he piduro
has jnst rd nrne<l from hi s first voyage, who ha,s received a lie:trl y
welcome from hi s fa111ily an d friend s. 12. This picture sliuw.

CORRECTNESS IN T!lE SENTENCE

133

a n~an and a boy ly in g on a raft; adrift 011 the ocean, who a re
tryrng ~o attra~t the attentio11 of tlie passin g s hip in th e distance
by wavrng a p1ec.e of clot h. 1:3. Tl1 e 'bus was wai tiii g at t li e
depot winch earned us through g ree n m eadows, c lose to t he
shores of Lake Catherin e. H. " 'e dec ided 11 ot to take a ten t
l>eca nse we sli o.ultl proba l>ly finLl a logho use l>eloii g i1 ig to so m ~
1uni be rnmn wl11di he h ad lef t for U1e su11irn er. 15. S 11 dd cnly
a li eavy sq uall stn1ck t heir bo:tt, 11•/iiclt so nea rl y capsized li er
t lia,t tlie boys were fillecl with appre hension . JG. c. l\I. has
~)_egt.lll the work. of re1n odeling his l1 0Hse a nd wh en co inpl cted
lt will .he rn :.itcnally altereLl. H e will put in a 11 ew foundatio11
and raise it, l>csides adding to it and altering it on the iuside.

171. Some pronouns can refer to a whole statement. If you tell me J ohn is sick, and say, that is
too Lael, or it is too bad, the pronou n tltat or it ~or­

rectly refers to the whole re1Uark.
In this way the pronoun wlii"clt sometimes r efers to
a whole clause for its antecedent, as in T om, stole a
ltorse, wlticli was wiclced .
But the construc t ion is
not al ways a good one. l£ tl1c sentence had reacl
1'om stole a ltorse, wliicli 'Was pretty bad, there woult{
be uothing to tell us whether the stealing was Latl or
the horse was bad.
. In suclt cases we may impro ve the English 111
eitb er of two ·ways. W e may substitu te tltis or
tltat for wliicli, and make a n ew se11 ten ce :
Tolll stoic a l10rse.

Tli at was pretty bad.

Again, we may insert an act, a deed, a reniarlc, or
some other appropriate expression, befo re which.
T om stole a horse, a deed which was pretty bad.

13-±

A FIRST N AN l AL OF COMPO S ITION

172. Implied reference. The mi:s take Galled implied
reference gen erally consists in using a pronoun without a word t o r efer to, or a.n adjective without a
word to modify. A pronoun u1 p<Lrticular sh oul<l

hav e a. definite wo rd to r efe r to.
1 am sorry to be ohli gerl to decline yo ur kiud invitat~on to
yo nr lovely Llinuer pa.rty, which owi ng to a dreadful colu rn rny
head 111ust be postpu11 etl fo r future enjoyment.

In this sentence, which seems to r efer to par~!J·
Th e yo ung lady did not intend to he rude. She
meant that h er acceptance must be postponeLl, or the
pleasure of accepting must be postponed. But her
se nten ce cont"tins n eit her acceptance nor pleasure .
The more you study such a sentence, the worse it
seems . Th e writer simply did no thinking.
C hange the following sentences in such a way as
to cu re the implied r eference :
1. J shot a large h are last sum mer. Th ey are plentiful hc1:c·
2. Jt, was so.m e time hefo re our r ecovery was complete, 1clticli
was joyful news to ou r families.
.
a. Hi s recovery may Le slO"w, and it is thought it may lea\·
him a cripple; \)lit in time it ma.y gradually wear away . .
4 . I 11 t he hook " ll elen Gle nn " it tells of a. yoLtn g gHl who
was left with so me friend s, while h er mother traveled with two
ladies that were in her ch arge.
yo uno·
0
5. Visitors are requested to wait in the reception room un til
a.n a ttendant, of whom there are several, is ready to conduct a
pa rty ov er t he building.
G. \Y anted-An or(l'ani
st and a boy to blow the same.
0
7. "Snperior butter Gd. per pound. Nobody can touch i t.''
8. Plwsicians who performed the autopsy on Mr. Ri ce's boJy
said they found the lungs slightly congested, such as would ha\'

COlWECTNESS 1.N THE S ENTENCE

135

been produced by inhaling an irritant, gaseo us vapor, such as
chloroform.
D. Yesterday evening I saw what seemed to be an acciclen t.
On co ming neare r I perceived it to be a milk wagon caug ht
between a cable car a nd a coal wagon.
10. The face of ~he. form er is a sad face, 1/ue to the pained,
fa r-away eyes.
11. St . .Francis h as a long, 11 arrow, haggard looking face,
caused by the expression of t he eyes .
12. The face of t h e first is long allCl sad, due to the far-away
look of the eyes.
13. T o enj oy a walk propcl"l y, 0 1 H~ 11111 st 11<Jt go w iU1 a11 otlt cr
perso n. Wli e u one is a lu11 c, one ca11 111 ov< ~ as tl1 e frea k takes
one. Another o~jection is t haL when one is i n co 111pa ny with
a1:other, one must eit her k eep up with a champion walker, or
tnm ce in t.im e wit h a girl.
14. Ile called fo r help, wlticlt two men who we re walki11g
along the trac k heard.

173. Reference of verbal adjectives. Nouns and
pronouns should stand n ear t lie verLa.l adj ectives
that are meant to moLlify them.
Other-vvise the
wrong word may be moJ.ifi eLl. Study the following
sentences ancl explain why those marked "wron o- "
fail to g ive the same meaning as those marl~:cl
"right."
l. (Wrong) I coun ted seve n meteors sitting on my back
piazza.

(Rigl1 t) Sitting on my back piazza, I cou nted seven meteors.
2. (\Vro11g) Co ming up so early, t he fro st soon pi11checl the
daffodils.
(Ri g ht) Coming up so early, t he daffodil s were soon pinched
by the frost.
3. (Wrong) 'Vearing a h elmet, the policeman mistook him
for a fireman.

'I

13G

A Fla.SL' JllANUAL OF COJlf PO S I'l'lON

(Right) W eari 11 g a h elmet, he was mistaken by the poli c1•111a1t fur a fi re111 n.11.
4·. (Wro11 g) EaLin g apples i11 my orc hanl [ cou11ted SL~ \'1'11
snrnll l 'oys.
(Rigl 1t) T co unted seven small boys eatillg apples ill 111y
orchard.

A verbal adj ective must lrnve a nouu or pro11ou11
to modify. Study the follow ing sentences and slio\\'
why some are wrong.
1. C' Vro11g) B ei11g ra in y, we stayed in and played domin oes.
(Right) The weath er being rainy, we stayeJ in a lld played
do mi llOCS .
( l{igh t) Since it was rniuy, we stayed 111 aud playe<l
dominoes .
2. ( \\Trong) Belonging to the senior class, h is ideas were
respected.
(Riglit;) B elongiug to t he senior class, he had ideas that
were respec ted.
(Rig ht) Since he belonged to the senior class, his ideas \Y crc
r espected.
:;. (Wro11g) Feari11g more trouble, it was deci<lecl to sLop.
(Right) F earin g more tro uble, ·we decided to stop.
(Right) \Ve feare<l rn ore trouble, and so decided to sto p.
( l ~ight) \Ve decided to stop, for we feared more troub le ,
(Righ t) As we [eared more troub le, ·w e decided to stop.

A very few verbal adjectives, chiefl y owiny, r.:v 11sidering, and fndying, may be used without referring to a J?ersou . ·w e may say:
Owing to this troubl e, it was decided to stop.
Co11f.Jille ri11 g everyt;hin g, it see ms b es t to go ahead.
,Jud g ing by appearan ces, th at man is a tramp.

Tell of
each verlml i11 ing whether it is a noun or an ml·
jective.
174. Verbal nouns and verbal adjectives.

!

I!
II

C'ORREC1.'NESS I N 'l'HE SENTEN CE

137

l. A rolling ston e gath ers no m oss. 2. Holling up his bundl e,
~h ~ trarnp ~tarted o n. 3. Rolling is a na me applied to a process
111 iron-making. 4. '\Ve are rolliny alo ng m e rrily. G. E'ating takes
away the appetite. G. Eatinq food takes away the appetite.
7. \Vhen tl1e poet Horace spoke of a ll eating care, h e 111 ca11t destrnctive care, wony that eats i n to o nr h ea rts. 8. Th e prair ie fire
advance~ swiftly, eating up everythi ng in its course. 9. Cutting
~ut vv~ll 1s .better than sewinq up well. JO. That cutti11.r; remark
is _C1.tttmg 1111n to the heart. 11. Flyin,r; will so Ille day be accom p~1 s hed l>y man. 12. The yacht is.flying a.flying-jib. 13. I saw
h1111 nmnin?. 14. I saw his runnin!J. · 15. S he ca ught us going.
lG. She obJ ected to our going. 17. I approve of yonr actin,r; as
you do. 18. I ·h ope you don't min(l my sri.71i11.r; so. HJ. \ Vhat'f.l
tlie 111 attc r with 111y r!oin,r; , that? 20. \Vliat is t l1 e obj cc tio11 tu
my_.r;oing? 21. There was no chan ce of his .rncceerlinq. 22. Hi s
saym,r; so slw:"s that it proual> ly was so. 23. Your ans11'r:ring
that way remmds me of a story. 24. Yom· answer sets 1ne to
thinking. [ Here thinking is a noun. J 25. 1 am senr/inr; you a
book by this mail. 26. As we were saying, there is ~l ways a
best way of getting a lesso n.

People are sometimes puzzled whether to s<ty me
or niy, yoit or your, him or his before the verbal iu
ing. Shall we say rVhat's wrong with me doing that .'2
or rVhat' s wrong with my dofrig that f! Shall we use
the adjective, or the noun ? Doing is au adjective
in me doing; it is a noun iu my doing .
If we stop to think, our own common sense will
al ways answer this question. If we are thinking of
the person in action, then we should say me, or him, or
you. If we are thinking of the action itself, then we
should say my, or your, or his.
E<tch meml>er of the class should repeat the fo llo wing from memory :

138

A FJUS'l' MA.N UA L OF C:Ollll'O S J'J 'lON

\Vl1 at's
\Vlt aL's
\\Th at's
\\r hat's
going?

CO IWECTNESS JN T l! E SENTENCE

What's wrotw
in our going?
0
wro ng 111 rn y go lll g ·
'
.
. .
. · rr'I
·
. . · g? \V li ~tt's 'vro1w rn then go1111:>
wro ug lll yo1u gou1 .
'=:
' · .• .,·'/
. go111g
.. ·?· \Vh·tL'swro
no·1n.fo
wrong; i. 11 111s
' .·
1:>
.hu sgorn 1:>,· .
'
.
.
.
·
rr
'I
\ \' lmt's wron°· 111 anyones
wroug 111 1! Ct gorno .
o
.

·

?

S:1y which of the Lrnck eted words is preferable in
the given place :
y] .
Joiiw a11y s nclt Lhing !
1. 'l'l.11 11 1,_0 f. [m e ' rn .
o
. . . ·I
2. l'ictme [111 e, n1 y] d o in g any :rnch Lhu1g .
3. ll e ol>jecLs t.o [us, onr] goin g.
.
4. lle s~tw [ ns, Olli'] go in g dow n the sL reet.
G. ll e observed [i1s, ou r] comi1'.g back. .
.
.
f
t
f
[
l'
1
'oe
's]
be11w
a
o-e
ni
us
sh
ou lJ not
G. Tlte ac o
oe, .
·
1:> o
us to !tis m ora l weakness.

175. The freed or absolute noun.

li11 1l

u

Ex:rn1iue twu

1. .J oh n, b eing sick, conlll not p l a~r lmU.
.
, .
··cl·\., \ Vill l1·1J
to p 1Lc lt for h11n.
2 . J o I1u iue1
ug. s1
<

In t h e :first sentence the subject is John, am~ bei11.:1
t he sccoud seuLence, the snbJed
ts
moLl 1. l.ies i.t . 1·11
·
.
7
T z
b
·
·
c
tells
the
cu
c11111
Will, and the phrase uo in eing sic11 ,
.
. . ·l ·ur-11 had
to pitch for ,J ul111.
'
st:rnces under w }nc t vv 1
Notice Lhe clifference in punctm1tion l>ctwecn iii•
two senten ces.
The phrase John being siclc is composed of a n.oun ,
·1 v erbal ~tLlj cctive moclifyiug it, ancl a prcLl1l'at o
: i · t·1've ·1ft~r t h e verbal. The 11onn is said Lo b.o
,L< . ice '
'
·
I· t
fr~ed from the sentence, l>ec~wse it is neither 811 Jje.
Or fl·eed noun

adjectiv e, but is n eith er a subjeet nor an object.
Taken with its ver bal adjective it usually shows the
ci rcumstauces of so1ue actiun.
The a!Jsolute nouu is often an awkward constructio n. It is not good English to say John sickening,
Will had to pitcli for hint. vV e say :
J.• Tolm was sick, a 11d \ Vill had to pitch for l1im; o r,
2. Will had to p itch for Johu , beca.use John was sick.

sen Leuces :

11or ol>ject.
The absolute

139

is modified lJy a vc rlml

176; Position of conjunctions . Jn using either - or
care 8l10ulc1 Le taken to conn ect nouns witl1 nouns,
verbs with verbs, etc. Either sho uld be placed
directly befor e the word or phrase which i8 to lJe
co ntras tell wi tLi m1other. The snme principle holds
iu t he case of neitlier.

Insert th e con juncLions either nnd neither conectly .
l. ;Jolin 'ven t, llOr H enry. 2. H e ate fis h, fiesh , nor fow l.
3. I see a tloaLi11 g barre l o r a 111a11 i11 t l1 c waLe r. 4. Il e will
win first 11l ace (ff seco nd. G. J le sees a partriu ge or a, r Pd
squ irre l. u. Ile will go llor se mi. 7. Il e l10pes to wi n or e lse
to fai l J1 011oral>ly.

177. Idiom. In every bngnage t h ere are phrases
peculiar to the language ; these are called idioms.
11acl better is an idiom; so is 11ow do you do .'2 vVhen
grouped in an idiom, words seem to lose something
of their onli1rnry meaning. Thus, Jivw do you do?
1uerms nothing about doing, but asks Lhe conclit io11
of a, person's h ealth. Tl1 e word idiom applies to
1nany expressions which a re in good use even though
t lt ey see m u11gra111111atical.
0 ften the history of an

A FIRS T ~MANUA L OF COilf PO S ITION

140

idiom shows t hat it was once gram.mat ical. Such is
the case with had rather. This had was once hadde,
a "subjunctiv e" form which meant something quite
different. from the imst indicative ha d . And rather
once mean t sooner. 1 I.for 11iy part had rather go tha.11
stay means I would soo ner have the act of going, for my
part, t han the act of staying. A similar construction
is I had as li('f go as stay, which means I should hold
,r;oin:; as dear as sla!Jin,r;. Thus had rather, luid better,
had soo ner, h((,d ris lirj' n.rc all okl and g oud expressiu1rn - ulder tlmn would rather, etc.
178. The idiomatic use of English prepositions
requires a cert[Lin amount of care.
Tl1 e chief prepositions are :
abont, above, after , again st, along, among, around, at, befon•,
behiwl , below, beneath, beside, by, concernin g, durin g, for, fru111,
j 11 , in to, of, off, 0 11 , 0 11 to, through, under, within, without.

179. After.
After nearly always requires an
object ; it is a true preposition. Afterward is tli c

corrcspoi1ding ad verb.
180. Around. Around is always a preposition of
place. It is not good English to s~ty sornewhcrf.
around seven o' clo clc, for somewhere about sevr1t
o'clock.
181. At.
At (leuotes not mer ely a point, lmt a point of resl.
H e is at home is correct. Ile is to lwnie is wrong.
To implies motion.
1

Milton has " the rath e primrose," meaning the early primrose.

COIW EC1'NES8 I N THE SENTENCE

141

People often omit at wrongly. It is Lael English
to say He is home for H e is at home . H e is home is
good English only when you m ea n Ile has yot home .
Insert the proper phrase, home or at home, in the
blanks.
1. I was staying--. 2 . Shall you stay - - t his s1 unmer?
3. Wh y did yo ur brother stay - - th is morning? 4. Sha ll
~o ~ , be - - t hi.s evening? 5. A re yo u going directly - - ?
G. lo stay - - is bes t. 7. Stay - - a nd take care o.f yourself
~o-1~1~ r row. 8. Stay - - and news wi ll fiud yo u. U. Bridget
IS hvrn g - H OW .

182. Beside, besides. .Beside d enotes place; besides
denotes addition, as T wo besides me sat beside the siclc
man. vVhen people use besides, t h ey gen erally use it
correctly. The trouble is that they sometimes use
beside instead of beside s.
Each member of the class should r epeat :
T'v·vo besides me
Two besitles yon
Two besides him

Two besid es hei'
Two l> es ides us
Tw o besides them

183. Between.
Fastidious speak ers n eve r use
between except when speaking of two objects, and
two only. In such a sentence as Divide the apple
~:nong t:ie three they do not admit between for among .
lhere is, however, no serious obj ection to saying
between three, though you could not say between the
crowd.
B etween r equires at least two objects. Say between
mouthfuls, not between every nwittliful.

'

"

:!

I••
,,

,,

:•

I

I

142

A Fil?ST 11f.ANUAL OF COJ1LP0 8 1'.l'IO N

184. But. Biit i::; usunJly a conjunction . \Vhc11
bnt mean::; except, it is a preposition, all(l takes an
object-pronoun, as in All lnit him had fl ed .
E<tch member of the clitss shoulu r epeat :
All lmt me w e re there
A ll Lut him ·were t h er e

A ll but us w ere t here
All but the m w ere t here

A voiu saying I don't doubt !mt what. Bnt wha t
meitnS except what. Say I don't doubt bnt that, ur I
don't d onbt that.
185. From. After differ ent, the proper pr eposition is from . The woru than is not a prepositio n
• tie
·1 expression
•
t 7flan w rt7 on"•. '~vv7 e "" 'l•v
ex cept in
•J bett1•.r
than I; d{flerent from me.
.
lnsert.from where yer it seems neecl ed in a bla11k.
] . This fruit i s larger than that, and different - -. it.
2. Thi s frnit is larger th;111 and differen t - - that. il. Th i!
German is taller t ha u the l tali a11, and very different - - lii11 1.
4. Th e grizzl y fig h ts ]Jetter tha.ll som e l>ears wh en arouse11. 1111 t
none is naturally laz ier than he; he is not different - - t.l1e111
all in th is r esp ect. !5. My brother is v ery differe nt in 111°~1
respects, particularly in his tastes, - - th e rest of t he fa 111ily.

186. Into.

Consider three sentences :

1. Go -in, Fido. [Jn , adve rb .]
2 . Fi1lo jR in th e wn.ter. [Jn, prepositi011.J
3. Go ·into the wa ter, Fido. [Into, preposition.]

In as a prepmiition u oes n ot often imply rn ot.ion
towanl. lt is not very good English to i:my G-o i11
the house.
Insert in or into, according as place where or plare
into which is meant.

CORBECTNF;ss I N

TJIE SEN TE NCE

143

l. Com e - - the garden , l\fau(l. 2. Co rne - - i;he house.
3. J. went - - t he lr on se for a 11101uent. 4. The fi sh swims
- - the water. 5. A boy often fall s - - the wa ter. ·6. Are
you going - - t o wn to-day ? l ' m going i n l'.Y t he express.
7. H a rold goes in for chess; h e ha s gone d eep - - tli e subj ect;
in fact, h e 's rather too deep for most of u s. 8. Th e t eac her
wellt ---:- th e building just now. 9. C nt t he a.pple - - two;
cut it - - two pieces; th er e, now i t's - - l1 al ves. 10. - - a
shut JUOLLth flies cauuot fly.

187. Like . Like is often an a<l.j ective with prepositional foruc, a::; in A man lilce him would tell the
truth.
At other times we may call like a preposition, as in
Act like him. Like him, is an atl verbial phrase.
., Ne l1ave already been a<l vise(.1 not to say D o lilce
he does fo r Do as he does . 1
188. Of. Of with a noun often equals the g enitive noun; of John may mean J ohn's. This fact has
already been discussed.
Qf with a pronoun usually equals an au verb, as in
We spoke of them,, Very rarely it equals a possessive
adj ective. '1 1he fath er of ils equals 01.i1· fat her.
Of sometimes serves to strengt h en an appositive,
as in t he town of Boston. This dog of mine merely
means this dvg, mine.
1

To the teacher. 'l'li c hi story of t his worcl, from .A.R. l ie
(a I.Jody) , with its cognates in Uern1:in l cich ;ind glci ch, is
extremely interesting, a ud expla in s perfectly its present a nomalous
status. But it is impossibl e to make t he case clear to a youn g
stud ent, and our energy may best be expended on such exercises
as 145.

I
I

CORRECTNESS IN TIIE S E N TENCE

189. Off. The preposition of should not lJe used
after the preposition off. There are few commoner
mistakes than off of.
Ea,cl1 member of the class should repeat the follow.
.
mg expressions :

1. I can't go - - I have permission. 2. I will stay, - you think [ am needed at home. 3. I can't go - - permission. 4. 'Ve shall be there, - - so mething arises to prevent.

Off th e ror!f, a.ff the pier, a.ff my book, o.ff the ,r;rowul, a.ff the trer,
a ler1;f o.fT th e tn~ e, a .flower o.ff a bush, a petal off a rose, a pla!Jer

I

o.ff the first base, a piece off a stick.

190. On, upon, up on. The preposition upon means
about the same a,s the preposition on, and implies
either rest or motion. vVhen we wish to give the
two ideas up ~md on, we write the words separately,
as Go itp on the roof.
191. On to, onto. In On to Richniond I on is the
ad verb. Onto is a preposition. Formerly, careful
persons never wrote on and to as one solid wonl,
l>ut onto seems now to have come into good use.
192. Than. '11han is used as a preposition in only
one phrase: than whoni.
Insert an appropriate pronoun in each blank.
1. No ne was more brave than--. 2. None was so brave
as - -. 3. None was as brave as - - . 4. Few are so generons as - - . 5. No man is better qualified for the ·work than
G. Napoleo n, t han --no man of his time was a greater
general, was cr uel.

193. Without. 1-Yitlwut is a preposition, not a
conjunction. It should not be used for unless.
Insert without or unless, according to need :

194. The following sentences contain errors of
idiom. Correct them in any way that you think
best.
1. The necessity to remov e t he horse was urgent.
2. There was a necessity to jump.
3. 'Vhile the excitement was going on, John arrived.
4. It was not lon g until we reached home.
5. The accident was on acco unt of a broken coupling pin.
6. vVe started making a boat.
[Making is not really
wrong, but lo make would be better.]
7. The weather was too bad to fish any.
8. In utensils we had two pans and four cups.
9. To be alone you can get more out of the walk.
10. Mr. J. C. Budd of Bulwer got his horse killed by a train
last week.
11. A. B. Hower has a bright new delivery wagon which he
will use in his laundry.
12. W"e celebrate Thanksgiving by having one of the best
·
clays throughout the year.
13. You should go in the direction that fancy leads you.
14. The second man, you cannot tell if he is old or not.
15. It is much more pleasant walking alone.
16. This man and a boy have had the misfortune of goincr
adrift.
"
17. Once when I was driving with a man we came to a
slight accident.
18. The eyes are deeply set, they being t he most expressive
feature.
19. The troubles were caused by th e fact that Richard was
the heir of a great deal of wealth.
20. The mask of Beethoven is much more different than
that of Lincoln.
L

I

.. 1

145

A FIRST ltIANUAL OF CONPOSITION

144

co zrn h'C1'N E 8S
146

IN TJI E .SENTENCE

14 7

A FIB S T MANUAL OF COMPOS ITIO N

21. Ile gave

11 p t11e hope to go to war, and i11 steacl nurscJ
his sick stepfath er.
.
.
22. The look, while it is one 0£ a perso n that tlnnks h anl,

is un 1ileasant.
.
.
2:1 . The large sh epherd dog to the ri ght of the picture is
'<Yatchin rr over the fl ock.
24:. 'l';'he fin e feeliu g o[ freeclo lll is far more prefer able t h;i,11
a co lllpa,nion on such a tour.
2;:;. One of the masks showed the face of a scholarly ma11,
but. not that of a genius which t he other showeJ .
2G. 'l'h e father a nd so n, who ha ye n.ccicleu tal~y become
adrift, a re far ont on t he ocean.
27. The stopcock .t urn s tl1c waLcr off so as Ll1 e ·w ater cannot
run back into the box .
28. I freed m yself from the 'wreck, arnl ontside of a severe
shaking up I was all right.
.
2!l. No sooner h ad I finished blowing down t he barrel when
there was a r eport.
30. ' Ve went to a nearby house. [ Ch ange to, , .y e went to a
house n ear b y.]

195. Make sentences m
idioms a.re correctly used :
impatient with
abide by
impatient of
agree wit;h
origi nate with
agree to
acco lllp:wietl by origin ate in
accom11aJ1ied ou perish uy
p erish with
cfo;agree with
reckon on
emb ark on
r eck on wit h
ernlmrk in
r esponsibl e to
i nfl 11 ence oY er
responsible for
influ ence ,yit h

which

the ' followii1
.
. t>
f ...

readiness in
readiness fo r
rep1ttation of
r ep1tfaLio11 for
· satisfied of
satisfied with
stand on
stand to
take to
take upon one's
self

(r

tired of
tired with
thed hy
rt t rail;nr to
·touch upon
trust in
tr ust to
vexed wiLh
vexecl at
\·Vltat with

196. Below are fifty preposition al phrases h av ing
the force of adverbs. Use -each idiomatically in a

sentence.

Above aU, all in all , at a loss, at a ll even ts, at an y r ate, at
best, at heart, at £a 11lt;, at harnl, at m ost, at oue, at random, at
that, at the most , at times, U,Y h ear t, by llO n1 ea11s, by th e bye,
for a while, for all that, for instance, for long, for lost, fo r that
matter, for the mos t part, for the prese nt, for the time, frorn
time to tim e, in a word, in brief, in general, iu fact, in full, in
other words, in part, in partic nlar, i n s hort, in t he main, in
vain, in view, more and m ore, · no do11bt, none Lhe less, on the
co ntrary, on the on·e l1 and , on the other hand, on the whole.
ouce for all, over and above, under the circumstances.

197. Ellipsis. A car eless writer ofteu omits wonb
that are u ccessary to the correctness of the sentence .
Sometimes the r es ult is a fault in idiom; sometime:::;
it results in lack of cleiuness.
Supply needed \vorcls at the places indicated by
the caret.
1. The expression of one fac e is b etter than /\ t he other.
2. The eyeurows of t he second are uot so la rge as /\ the
first.
3. Thei r noses differ bot h in size a nd /\ sh ape .
4. It commenced to pou r rain, and /\ lighten and thunder
most severely.
5. After the hou se was built, the girls and /\ m other carn e
to take p ossessio11 .
G. The mask of :Beethoven shows that he had the face of a
person more used to lux ury t han /\ hardship.
7. Ile knew that the lawyer was a worthless man, but/\
could not find courage to say so.
8. The others started for t he nearest lumber camp, which
was about ten miles /\ .
9. After an hour or so of t his, I ~\'ent to b ed, /\ which was
suspended from the rafters by ropes.
10. His eyebrows are not so h eavy as those of St. Francis,
nor a.re his eyes as beautiful /\.

148

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COJllPOSI1'lON

11. This picture, which is /\ of a father and a son adrift,
shows the p eril of b eing shipwrecked.
.
12. B eethove11 has a hi gh fore head, a broa~ fac~, /\ h1 g_h
cheekbou es, and hi s mouth is the !ll ost expressiv e tlung of !us

<l d b
face.
10. They went to a place that had b een 1:ecom111 en .e. Y
fri e nds as a fine place /\ to spe11d a few weeks rn the count1y.
14. An aged man and /\ boy, .who have been wre~lrnd, are ~ n
a raft in the stormy sea, trying to attract the attent10 n of a lhstant shi p .
. . 1 b ti ,
li:i. It is evidently very interesting, because lus 11tt e ro 1er
is looking intentl y at him , a1 1d it is also lm111 orous, /\ by tlt e
laug hing expression on tl1 e face of eve rybody preseut.
lG. The explosion of the cannon ended my career as an
artilleryman and /\ e very other boy on the street.
.
17. ·The parents investi gated th e pond and saw the n ecessity
of forbidding th eir b oys/\ on it.
18. "\Ve went to the bluff, because there \-Vas dry so il /\ t-0
pitch our t e nts.
19. /\ some wa,y the horse becam~ unmanageable: .
20. A sma,ll ship, /\ compared with our ocean lrn ers, came
into vie w as we reachell the wharf.
21. I\ parts of the wh eel were found and some were ~10t.
22. The boile r exploded, and /\ was followed by a fo e.
20. Both John's trousers and /\ boots were mudddy.
.
24. Th e id eal boy, at ]east /\ to me, ·w ould never espa1r.
25. H ere w e find loftiness both of thought and /\ exprcR·
sion.
<l
£
g
2U. H ere we find both loftiness of thought an /\ o ex pre. ·
sio n.
27. The roof was like /\ any frame house .
'I .
28. Athelstane cared more for his food than /\ auyL 1111g
else.
f
ti
20. Bassanio is probably in love with Portia, /\ rom Ill
way h e speaks.
30. Sell me two pies like /\ mother nsed to make.
31. Give me a piece of pie like /\ mother used to make.

CORRECTNESS IN 1'1JE S E N TEN CE

149

32. I want /\ off at Loomis street.
33 . "\Vhen the wagon -.;v as full of oats, I drove t o the elevator, w Iii ch was three rn iles /\ .
34. I found I\ the hotel and the houses which took boarders
were all full.
H5. Th e event was f1muier t o see than /\ be in.
36. There is a vestibule running through the hou se, like /\
on th e limited trains.
37. I am very /\ pl ea,sed to m eet you.
38. This apple is diffe rent /\ and sweeter than the others.
3V. This coffee is as good /\ if not be tter than the other.
40. Look /\ every place.
41. You will find it /\ some place.
4-2. This is a good place to b e /\ .
43.
" She has left this wol"!d of misery and woe
For a place she had always been dying to go /\ ."

198. Insert the wherever it is n eeded in the following sentences. Many do not need it.
1. The secretary and treasurer both resigned. 2. The cashier
and teller both ran away. 3. The owl, ee l, and warming-pan
went to call on the soap-fat man. 4. The ni ght a nd day are
two separate things. 5. The father and brother s hould be
treated alike. 6. The man and bear looked at each other iu
silence. 7. The cow and h or se are two domestic animals.
8. The mountain and squirrel h ad a quarrel. 9. Th e first a ud
last n eed equa lly to b e learned. 10. The first page and last
need equally to b e learned. 11. The secretary and treas urer
was recently installed in office. 12. TJ1 e cashie r a nd teller has a
double office to perform. 13. The fath er a nd brother i11 t his
case is named J"ohn. 14. Mother and babe are asleep. 15. The
• first and last stanzas will be eJJ oug h. 16. That was the first
and last time I ever w ent. 17. The seco nd and third examples
are hard. 18. The North aud South fought as one country
against Spain. 19. The U nited States and Canada, are two
countries. 20. The cup and sa ucer was broken.

150

uo1t 1?_
tv -:s.s
,
• 11
-:•'--'·1.'1"".,.11

A FIRST ·.M ANUAL OF CONPO SJTION

After all, the is n eeded before week, month, spriny,
autnmn, out not before day, night, sitrnrner, winter.
This does not seem a rea~01uil>le distinction, L11t
language is not always re~isonable. 'The simvle fa ct
is that careful speakers do not say all weelc, or all
month, though they J o say all day, all simmier, a11tl
all winter, as well as all the day, etc.
Car eful speaken; ah;o say enter school and e11ter
colle,qe, hut not e11 ter ,171·ammar school, or enter hi,rth
school, or enter u nive rsity . Enter the pram mar school
and enter the hig h school are the preferrecl forms.
199 . \Vhich of the following sentences n eed another a or an ?
]. A soft and pretty ca p it was. 2. A large a nd srn aJI 111 :111
went toget her. a. JJid yo u ever see a sloop and sc hoo ner ;; id1•
by si de ? i!, Tl1 ere \Ye re a Fre11 chrna n aml Gen11 a 11 i n hPrt>
yesterday. 5. A rol1in allCl catlJird are very unlike in di ;;1•0·
sitio11. G. A good spell er and bad speller do not h ave an eq1111l
chance of k eepi11 g pos ition s as stenograph ers. 7. A black a11 1l
tan dog h as a s111 oot h coat. 8. A black a nd ta n clog were c h a~ ·
iug rabbits togethe r. D. A city a nd coun t ry m ouse paid Yi ~its
t o eac h other . 10. H e is both a sch olar a nd gentlema n.

Use the following idiomatic
intelligent sentences:
200.

at best
co me at
com e by
co me short of
come to blows
com e to uothin g
c ut short
cut to the l1 eart

expressio n ~

in

put a good face ( on the businc"!<)
to try a fall (w ith)
in foll feather
in hi gh feat. her
the w h ite feath er
t he field of operations
keep the fi eld
lose the field

carry the d ay
drop out
drop a n ac<piai.n tance
eat 011e's h eart
eat one's ·w ords
h ave an eye to
with au eye to
fly in t l1 e face of
set oue's face against
· go through with
· h old fo r th
·Jio l<l ewe r
h old with
'
iiuike 'away
make over
. rn 1.1ike off with
m a ke h ead agai nst
make one's way
mee t his views
m eet one's eye
mee t expec tatio n
ont an d out
pass mu ste r
play into t h e h a nds of
h ard pressed

, 1,T
·
, TIIE
SENTENCE

take fire
cross fire
Hy at
Jly out
fool 11 a rely
a foolish fig ure
go h a rd
go by t he board
put a haw} to
p ut to r.i ghts
1T111 11pon.
r11n a1r1 11 c k
run counter to
run riot
nm. to seed
set aside
set on foot
se t; a t ease
set in order
take n aback
take a mi ss
take up with
take Hpon one
take h eart
take to h eart

151

DE8 CJUP'/'ION

153

clay t~rnt he had seen a si ng le pa ir of strange birds, which li e
u :s~ 1.· 1 bes as foll~ws : ."They were al,o ut th e size of th e 'cliip-

CHAPTER IV
DESCRIPTION

201. Description is primarily an account of appearances. The moon is a dead planet, a spherical mass
of rock, seamed with gigantic craters and ribbed
with vast mountains. But this same moon appeared
to Dante like a pearl; he describes it as the etemal
pearl. \"le know that the moon is a dead world,

but we do not see that it is.
Description, then, consists in telling how a thing
im presses us. A good describer reports what his
own eyes or ears tell him. Therefore the first need
of the descriuer is to use his senses. Artists and
naturalists say that most persons fail to do this.
'The artist Philip Hamerton said that visitors to
London often go away without being aule to distinguish a picture of Westrniuster Abbey from a
picture of the Houses of Parliament, although these
buihlings are very unlike. Mr. Burroughs, the 11aturalist, declares :
P ersons frequently describe to me some bird they have seen
or heard, and ask m e to name it, but in most cases the l>inl
might be any one of a dozen, or else it is totally unlike an~·
bird fo1111d on this continent. They have eitlier seen falsely or
else vaguely . Not so the farm youth who wrote me one wiuter
152

pie ' the t~ps of thell" heads wern r ed, and th e breast of the
1'.1ale was of the same color, whil e tliat of the female was much
lighter; tl~e ir rnrnps were also faint ly tin ged with red. lf I
have d ~scnb ed the111 so that yon would know t helll , pleafle write
Ill e theu· mi me." There can Le little clo nl it bnt the yo urw obse rve r had seen a pair of reel polls, - a bird tltat is relat:C1 to
th.e gol~lfinch , and t hat occasionally comes do wn to us in the
wrn ter from the far north.

202. 1£ these writers are correct in t heir low estimate of most p ersons' powers of olis ervation, we ma,y
well spend two or three llays, at this point, in oLserving various things aud re1Jortiug wlmt we have
seen. Study the appeanmce of on e of the followincr:
b
. l
a common b ire ; a wikl animal ; a flower or tree ; a
dwelling or church which mm;t of tlte class have seen·
'
some American poet or statesman. Come to class
prepa~·ed to clescribe the person or thing orally.
Describe as carefully as possiule, without o·i vin o· tlie
Tl
.
o
o
name.
ie class will try to tell whom or what you
have <l escriLe<.l.
203. In <.lescriptiou, mneh depends on how far off
the object is. The moon looked like a pearl to
Dante. To the eye at the telescope the moon seems
like a great pearl covered with barnacles. \.Yhen
Dante in liis vision passed to th e moon, it seem ed
to him like a great, shining, firm, d ense cloud .
To the modern imagination, a man placed on the
moon would see a lancl of cmgs and chasms, witli
fierce contrasts of light an<l gloom. But we need

I·

I

'

I
I

155

A FIW3T 111ANUAL OF COMPOSITION

DESCRIPTION

not go so far for a,n illustration. Any object seen
near at hand rev-eals many detrtils which disappear at
a distance. The retrea,ting train dwindles to a blaek
spot on the prn,irie. Tlie sail of the outgoing ship
steadily loses patch and stain, till by a.ml by it ::>eems
like a mere glea,m of sunlight on the horizon.
A description which gives only the general look
of tm oLject is c~illed impressionistic. One which
reveals minute particulars is calle<l detail ed . Place
a photograph of a himlsca,pe at one side of the room.
Take a close look at it - it is a d etuiled pictun•.
Retreat from it slowly and it will become more aml
more impressionistic, till at last you see but a few

Criiise of the Cachalot, would have made an admirable witness, a,s the following shows :

154

lines and masses.
It is good practise to describe pictures, for tli
picture represents a scene from a fixed point. You
are obliged to k eep to the artist's point of view.
Therefore you are not much tempted to describe
things which caunot be seen. Many pictures arc
accordingly given in this chapter, to be describ eLL
204. Before we begin this work, it will be well lo
practise a little the art of keeping a fixed point of
view. From where you sit, describe some picture
or object exactly as it seems to you. Be careful not
to <lraw upon your previous knowledge of the o\Jj eet..
More than once, in a, la,wsuit, a witness bas lie u
discredited because he asserted that h e saw tliingit
which could not possibly have been seen from hi
point of view. Mr. Frank Bullen, a,uthor of 'lhe

Fro~n. my lofty perch, the whole of the ghastly struggle had
been vJS1ble to the least detail. The two men had struck the
water locked in closest embrace, which relaxed 11ot even when
fa1: below tl~e. surface. \Vli en the sea is perfectly smooth,
ob,1ects arc v~s1l:1l~ from rtloft at a depth of several feet, though
ap_rare11tly drnulll shed in size. Tlie last thing I saw was Captau: Slocum's white face, with its starting black eyes lookino·
then· last upon the huge, in<lefini te hull of the ship w hos:
occupants h e had rul ed so lollg aud rigidly.

205. From a.ny point of view the eye catches first
the '>vhole of a scene and then its parts. It is customary in descriptions to give a general impression
before the deta,ils. vV e describe a man's figure before
we describe his head, and usually his expression
Lefo re his features. vVe d escribe the main lines of a,
landscape before the imliviLlual trees or rocks or cottcLges or figures. See if all this is not so in the five
typical passages which follow. The first and second
are hy Hawthorne, the tliin1 by Carlyle, tl~e fourth by
IL H. Dana,, and the fifth Ly .Mr. Frederic Ha,rrison.
1. There is a stable oppos ite the house - an old wooden
construction, low, iu three distinct parts; the center beinff the
sta.bl~ proper, ·where th e horses are kept, a11d with a. cha~iber
over it f~r the hay. On one side is the department for chaises
and carnages; on the otl1 er, the li ttle office wl1ere the books are
kept. [11 the interior region of t.J1e stable every thin a is dim
and nnd efined, -half-traceab le out:.lin eR of stalls, sometimes the
shadowy aspect of a horse. Generally a groo 111 is dressin"'
a
0
horse at the s~ahle door, with a care n,ud accuracy that leave 110
part of the ammal unvisited by th e curr;ycomb and brush; the

156

A

J?JR ST NA NUAL OF C011fPOSJ1'10N

D ESC RIPTION
.
. . . it ' but som e times,
i101· se ineanwltile, ev1de11
t l y e11joy111g
. f l ·wl hen
. 11
' '
'
.
• •
}
lf
p
lay
th e more sen sitive parts are to uched, g1vrng a ia - ' LL i: IC'
with hi s hind legs, aml a little neig h.
.
.tl a
~. Th e artist is milhll c-s ized, thin , a little ~toopmg, ':'.' . - n crvo ns m ov em e11 t . H e has Llack hai r, 11ot t h wl, , .L
1111der his chin , a small head, but well-developed ffor eh eadt,
,.
. dl Y
0
black ey e-brows, ey es k ee n but km
: a1.1cl a da'I·]-'. ,·1Ce ' ]11!is
.
. . bl e 111 its
1lll t agreea
indi ca t in g robns t h ealth,
, expression.
- t from amidst·
Yoice is ge ntl e aud swee t , and such as com es ou

t:

<Jb e11~c1·Jc,l'

re fiu ed fe elin gs.
. t b. !·fast t he n otabl est of
'·3 Not many d ays ago l saw a
rea,"
..
.
Daniel W ebste r. 1J e i s a'
a ll .J .
•
t
11 the ·world "1 lii s IS out
"l'<'C illl e n. Yo11 1111 ght say o a
'
.' ' Y· nl·ee-l and,,
1'11111.:ec J<;nylislwuw. ; s 11 ~h lilllh~ ';~ ..
~'.:e ·,;~ ui<l i1;cli1;l~
j\ s a loo-ic-fe 11 ce r, o r par lrnme 11 ta1y e1cu . , '
11 'l'I !'
· '
"
· t 11 ti· extant wor < •
i;o b ac k him at fi rs t sig h t agams a
. te. r -1-' h ce . t li c d 111II
ta1111 ed complexion; tl 1at ~ 11'. o rph~t~~'. c1 ag-li~-~e cl ~Lll 'ai1 t h racit n
cl . t i e precipice Ot u1ows, '
lJlack eyes un. e1 i I t Le lil own. the mastiff-mouth :wc11inrnaces, n eed111 g 011 y o
'
I f sil ent B erserk •r
rately c lose d ; l have no ~ traced so muc I o

~ronr not;tbiliti~s,

1~1<~gn:hcc11~

'.11:;::

raa:e t h at I rem e111her of, 111 any m an. 1· It
..... ,v t l1 e i·u] . . 1111
~4 Tuesdav N ove111 l>er 9- O,
- a t cl ay i "o- 1 ·' we ,s,. · 11
., I" I
lik
e
a
d
ee
p
>
11e
c
·
.
·"
.
l
.
·
.·
·
0111
Of Tllall l •'ernandez, clirec l;Jy al1 eal' i1 s111g
t
·1
t• Of' ' tl·1e sea 'Ye were t h en pro ba bl
· y n ear·I y .seve. n .Jv . 1111 •'!!
k
ou
· .< •
•
•
tl t [ 1,;luo ·
f.
. t. and so hi o-h a nd so blue chd it appear, ia . Ill .. I I
..tLOiii
b
•
l anc11oo'
]' eel for t he JS. :lllf
f . I ' lo< ud ' restin
o- over th e JS
la nc'
1 01 a c
,
o
t
]er and trrec11rr
under it until it g rad ua ll y turn ec1 o a (1eac . '
,.,
\t
I .
I conld lll ark t he in equal it ies upon its surface. f ,
co 01, a
.
d . l-s · and by the a 1.-rlengt h we co ulcl di sti ng ui sh trees an i oc' '
.
cl.. t I
noon t his hea.ntifol isla ml lay fairly before us, and we u cc <'l

nd

our co urse to t lte o nly l1arbor .
. f lim h·
!5. Cro mw ell had a tal l, powerfol frarn e, stron g o. l · . j
.
, . heav
Ile had a lar ge, sq n:ire l1 e.tL ' a1 1C
well k111t; sotn e\\l1a~ ' yl f·. [ · n r efin ed, his e ne 111icsi;ai1 I
a co u11te11 a nce m ass ive a nl ..tr . 101
.
· l d is rn oro
Ji
.. cl r ed No human countenance 1eco1c e
.1
swo . en a11
..
d
r cl f ce with a thick nnu
fa mil iar to u s than t hat broa 'so 11 d ab.
'Yith its ltistori
. e nt re d n ose,. t lt e heavy
i ow, '
pro mrn
'
' g· nar e

157

wart; eyes firm, penet ratin g, sad; squ a re j a w a nd close-set
mouth; scanty tufts of Jiair o n lip a ucl chin ; lo11 g nose; urowu
locks, flowing down i11 waves 011 t he sh o ulde r.

For the next lesson, study the general look,
and th en the detailed appearance, of oue of the fol lowing : a l1ouse, a tree, a machine, a p erso n. Give
an oral description, trying to make the class see first
the general appearance, then the details. Houses,
for inst:mce, are low or hig h, white or r eel or ye llow
or g reen; they are sli apell like va rious Ll1ing H; and
they :-;how a great vai·iety of detail ill t l1 e numuer
and arran gement of windows, the placing of ornaments, etc.
206.

Som e member of the class who draws well should
go to t he board and chaw t lt e front of :t h ouse, lin e
by line, according to directio11s from th e person
ll escribing.
vVrite a parag raph concerning on e or more
of the following subjec ts : my jack-Jrnife; my
watch ; the appeara nce of on e of my old t extbooks; my clog; my horse ; my lead-pencil; th e
top of my desk. Begin with tbe gen eral form and
color of the oLject arnl proceed to the details. He
exact. Try to show t he points in which t he oLject
llescribecl is different from otli ers of the same
class . Imagine that there is a dispute as to owne rship.
207.

D escribe the wea th er of the last two or three
days and its effec t on you. Give a paragraph to
208.

~I
DESCRIP TIO N

The following paragra.ph from IIaw each day.
thorue m ay prov e suggestive :

Lincoln was six fee t three in ches tall, long-armed, longli mbed , brawny-handed, free from supe rflu ous fl esh, to ughened
by labor in the ope n air, and perfectly healt hy.

J
23rl - Summer has come at last, - the longest
.l
F ru .ay, · une · ·
y ·t ·d
low ed
.
da s, with blazin g sun shin e, a11d fe rvid heat.
es e1_ ay g
molten brass . Last ni ght was th~ most n~1co rnfo~·t_a~!Y an,~~
un sleepab ly sultry th at we have expen e'.1 ced s 111 ce o,u1 i ~s1dr:~1~
. Concord. a nd to-day it scorches agaw. 1 h ave a ~0 1 to c
in
'
·
f
ds11111111 er
.
t i"11 t J·1ese seve11-times-l1 eated furn aces o rn1 .
•
Joym e11
· · ·
.
· ..
\· · t Th e
even th o uo· h they m ake me droop like a tllll sty p ;1,11 .
•
n ·
•
.
f
taste . \Jut I iw1 11 0
sunshine ca11 sca rcely be too lrnrmn g or in y ' . ' .
1l
I r l 'WC the freell0111 t Cl
enemy to s11111111 cr showers. C Oil 1c
o11 ) ''
I . .I
be e~·[ec tly i(Jle now , - no duty to fulfil , 110 in e11 tal or p iys1c:1
"b~r to lJ~rform - I shonld be as liappy as a squash, and i.1111ch
'
•
· · 111 Jv br·t111
·1t
.<•
d . t 11t t he necessity
o [· l rne plllg
· '
'
.•
• to 1ltt•
111 t 1ie sam e 1no e, >
work eats into m y co mfo rt, as the sq11as h-lrn gs do i11 . '
heart of the vin es. ] keep myseH une~sy and produce lilL\, .
and almost nothin g that is worth protlucm g.

In th e second case we d evote one sentence to the
entire man ; in the first we devote several sentences
to him. In some instances a long sentence with
many details is very helpful, beca use it tlash es the
whole picture upon us at once. But we must \Je sure
that the long sentence seems t o be a unit. W e
must watch that treacherous word and. It is very
easy to say and wh en there shoultl be no and. To
say that a man "is thick set and bas a mustache" is
to write in a mi xetl antl scatter-brained fashion.
211. The following are actual sentences, tak en
fr om the papers of stmlents. Unity of thought is
lacking in all of them. l\fake two or three good oral
sentences to take the place of each.

lil!

l

I
I

l
<

I

159

A FIRST ~MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

158

209. Describe an article of food in such a way
that it will seem attractive to a person wh~ has
.1recl i't. A single paragraph. will \Jc
hith erto not ll '"
sufficient.
210. Sentences in description. It is somethi.ng_ of
rnow how much to put into a descnpl1v '
an art to 1
ll
,ue use verv short senten ces, we ca
If
sentence.
"
J
attention to d etail after d etail, as thus:
.
I was six feet three in ches tall. Il e h ad long ar 111 •
I ;Jnco n
.
I · . , . brawny. !I P w 11S
. . l too were loiw. lhs l.1anc s \\ ere
.
II. 1s 11m is,
'
"
l
cl b hbur 10
free from a ll Rnperflu ous fl es h. li e ·was to ug iene
y '
the open air. H e enjoyed perfect health.
. deas in one sentence, if we
vV e may join a 11 tllese 1
choose, thus :

1. IIis eyes were brown , a nd he h ad a Roman nose.
2. H e is very firml y built, allu every little while he is in
troubl e.
3. H e h as a grntesque fi gure and a frank expression.
4. She h ad a ve ry fascinating 11ia11n cr, as well as glossy
hair.
5. Il e also is a good moral chap a nd h as a short but 11 ot
in sig nifi cant body.
G. Il e has a well-shaped nose, a good fo rehead, clear features, and ve ry good l1a.bi ts.
7. Ilis nose is shapely, a11d on t he whol e his figure is gau nt
and dec repit.
8. Ile wore shabby clothes, a nd he u sed to get up early in
the mornin g and walk fiftee n miles to tow11.
9. Th e haggard looking face of St. Francis has an expres-

...

'

I

160

A FIRST 1lIANUAL OF COJl!POSITION
DESCR I PTJON

sion of sorrow or pain , a g raceful nose, partetl lips, a ud a curl y
beartl.
JO. 'Vith a frank mann er goes a vigorous, robust fi g111:e,
lllaking an altoge th er pleas ing person, full of fun a nd 1111s chief.
] 1. The second mask witl1 a lower forehead and a ro u111~ c r
fac e with a snub nose a nd hig h cheek bones a 11d a resolute cl1111 ,
h as~ more inte lVi ge nt look with co mpressed lips.

212. Examin e all the descriptions that you have

written, and correct ally faults in sentence unity that
have not yet been con ec tecl.
213. Words in description . Th e words used i11
description s]iould be reasonably precise, should
appeal to the senses, and should be in good taste.
214. By reaso nably precise we mean first that they
should not call up a wrong picture; and secondly
that they shoulll not be too unusual or teclrnieal.
vV e sliot~ld use won.Is that our audience, the class, can
unders tand. A blue mountain should not be calkd
a purple mountain, for this would call up a wro11i;
picture. A Lluish purple mountain, on t he .otl1 cr
haud, should not Le called persenche, though tlns unus ual name means bluish purple. You will agree at,
once that most of us are in danger of being 1101,
prec ise enough rather than too precise. Yet students
(lo, now and then, get hold of terms which ~ire too
technical. Many girls use the word manve fr eely,
but it is not so good as th e commoner term delfr 11lt
purple, or lilac. And in describing a machin e 1~10st
boys will employ many words that are too tecl1111ea l.

161

T echnical terms should be avoided, or else clearly
explained.
215. The words of description shoultl appeal to
the senses; they should suggest sights, sounds, or
odors. Sometimes these should be vaaue sio+ ts
1
b
b
sounds, or odors, as when the beholder sees
from
a'
di.stance "a green mass," or hears dimly" the note of
. 1"
some lHn, or catches "a stn.rn ge pleasant odor."
In brief, when the irnpress io11 made on th e scrrnes
was vague, general, tlie words of the desc ription
should be vague, general. But oftener the sense impression is definite, and the words should be defi nite.
If the behold er disting uishes a mass of g reen larches,
and kuows th e word lr11·ches, it is well to say "a ma ss
of green larches" instead of "a green mass." 1f h e
hears tlie caw of a crow, lte lrncl oetter say so rather
than speak of "th e note of some bird." If h e smells
mint or balsam, it is not enough to mentiou "a
s~range pleasant odor." Of course th ere are exceptions to any rule, out in general we should make the
words of description too definite rather than too
vague.
Note the italic words in the followino·:
b

.

-~·

l

l1~d

been.to!d in Qnebec that I should 11 ot see a sin g le
wood. 2. Bnt r kn ew J should. 0. At
rnter vals in tlte tn/J I recoqnizerl above me a cel'tai 11 kind that l
tlii11k was one of the crost-;-l1ills . 4. Th e king fi sher was there
ahead of ns_ with .his loutl note. 5. The osprey was there, too,
anrl.·I per?eived ~un abusing, t he balcl eagle, wh o had probably
dep1 wed lurn of h1s prey . 6. The yellow- rumperl >rnrbl er I saw,

~I ntl.lwlogtcal s71ectes ]fl the

111

163

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

DESCRIPTION

and on e of th e ki11 g lets was leading its noisy brood about
through the everyree ns. 7. 111 every ope11i11 g icas the whitethroated spa rrow , /Je,qinnin,q hi s song, at ti111 es so loud a nd su<l<lcn
that one's 1110111en tary im pres:ion was that so me person was approachin g, or icas there behind th e r.fe'bris. 8 . Man y times, am id
t hose primitive solitudes, I was quite startl ed b y th e hu111a1111 1'ss
of this son.IJ. - 9. It is little more than a b eginning; the hinl
never seems t o finish the strain suggested. 10. Th e Canada jay
was th ere al so, very busy abont something.

voint Ly the substitution of words which appeal
more clirectly to the senses.
217. Th e words used in description should be in
'.Sood taste . Good taste is violn,t ed when slang is
mtrocluced into a p iece of se rious work, or when
extravagant expressions are employed, or wh en "figures of speech" are mixed.
It is d escriptive to say tlrnt .a man "runs like an
ice-wag on, " but such an express ion is out of vlace in
rt th e ~11e_.
Such wore.ls as "ruLber-n eck" are highly
c.lesc npt1 ve, Lut t h ey are in Lael taste in a theme.
Inc: eed, a slang phrase like "rubber-nec k " is very
easily ovenvork ecl. Some slang is kimlly, some is
not. "RubLer-neck" is a Lit cruel, and should be
applied only when cruel treatment is d eserved_ if
cruelty is ev~r d ese rvecl. I n eed hardly say tha~
some slang is n ever in good tast e. Much of it is
essentially low-bred, aml emuodies ideas that 110
gentleman ever entertains. A Loy who never used
slang in co11vcrs:1tion would be - well, certainly not
normal. But t here is panlonable slang and unpardonaule slang .

162

Now r ead the followin g passage fr om Mr. J olrn
Bunouglis. Compare the itali c words with those of
the precedin g version, n,nd note that those of i\lr'.
Burroughs are the Letter, Lecause they are the more
de finite.
1. I had been told in Q:J ebec that I w ould not see a bird in
the woods, not a f eather o f any kind. 2. But l kn e w T shrntld.
0. I sam anrl heurd a bird n early every day , on lh e top s of th 1•
trees about, t h at I thi11k -was o ne of tl1 e cross-bills. 4. The
kiu g fi sh e r was there ahearl of us with his loud clickin!/ rerl.
;J. Tl1 e osprey was t here, too, a nd I saw him abusi11g the lial1l
eagle, -w ho l1aJ probalil y just robb ed him of a ;i:~h . G. Th o
ye llow-ru1nped warbler I saw, a 11d o ne of tli e king lets was leadin g its lisping brood about Lhrongh th e spruces. 7. Tn CYery
ope11i11 g t h e w hi te-throated sparrow aboundeJ , striki11,q up hi .
clear w :eel 1cl1istle, at tim es so lo ud aml sudd en t hat on e')!
111 01 11 e11 tary -i 111 prcss io11 wa.s Lhat so111e j (m n boy was apprcmeh i ug,
or ?1111s sec reted there be hind the logs. 8. 1\lany tim es, a111i1l
t hose primi t ive so li t ud es, I was quite sta rtl ed by t he h1uw111 111111•
nnil 11nality o f t hi s whistl e. fl. Tt is li ttle m ore than a begi1111i11 g;
the bird 11eve r seems to fini sh the strain suggested . 10. Tli1•
Canada jay was there also, very busy abo ut some i 11111urtm1t
pri i:ate 111.atter.

216. Exmnine all th e descriptions that yon haY •
written, and see if they can be improved at an y

Extravagance of speech is natural to youth, arnl
often shows a h ealthy enthusias m which the world
can ill afforcl to lose. Th e world n ee<ls people who
can r eally feel that the rnorn ~n g is "glorious," that
dishonesty is "outrage
·
<
ous, " tl 1,t, t ]10nest achievement
of any sort is "splendid. " But there must be moderation even in extra vag~mce. If in the course of

DESCJU PTJON

a sing le day a perso n tells yo u four different jokes,
eac h time assuring you that this is positively t he
funni es t thing h e ever h eard, why , ther e is something
wrmw with the arithmetic. It is common enough
b
for boys to poke fun at their sisters fo r extravagance
of speech, bu t b oys are sometimes t oo foml of say ing

a nd I don 't see 1chere h e can find Li Ille Lo learn so much interesting infor111atio11 about birJs and fiow ers a nd all so rts of things."

superln,tive things.
The young laclie:-> will agree that t l1ey do not
approve of those g irls who, accorLling to a recent
writer,1 taJk like tbis about men and t hings:

II

I
I
I
I

I

I

I

'f
I
I

165

A FIRST jllANU AL OF CO] fPOSITlO N

lG-!

"Yesterd ay was reall y the loveli est day I ever experic11 ce1l,
n eit her too cool Hor too h ot. And vvho do yo u suppose ca111e lo
see m e? \Vli y, t hat perfectly adorahle anc l /ot'ely Mr. Ada111 s I
1 t hiuk h e is p os itively 11iiile t he most ha ndso me m an who ere r
dre w t h e breath of liJe. Audfunn!J ! J n ever la ughed so lianl
s ince I was born. A11d he told me a trne story about Mrs. S111ilh
tlia,t was positively th e most u tterly weird t hin g I eve r heard in
m y bnm d ays. J'd tell it, but I never co11 ld ha(f begin to i:o111mence to !lo it as well a s he did - not in Lh e world. Il e llrnv 11
ove r fro 11 1 l'ui11 t of ·Cedars a nd t ook rn e clri\·ing, a nd it was the
lol'eiiesl a rnl m ost e/f';yonl dr1v e t hat co uld pos.~ibl.lf b e i111 ag i1wtl.
·we took tlmt Fiv e-i\lile Road a nd Lite views a re simpl!J 71f';1:fi'1·tl,11
alijectly snperb ! Th ey a re just love ly ! Never saw such " ·011·
rl~ rfnl sce ne ry in m y whole existence, a nd did you see t he s1111sl'l'!
I'os itive lv the most gorgeously in describ able t hing that yo u cu11l1l
ever i1n agi ne . And i\ lr. Adams k·nows so much ! I conl<l 11c,·1•r
lwf;f begin to co111111 e11ce to learn as much as he knows. II,•
co uld n am e th e wild fl owers :just as easy as I could na111 e tho
co lors in rn y dress. A11d h e tolJ 111e so me of th e 111ost 11/11r111·i ngly astou11<ling t hings abo nt t he m. I \~as simpl y_ pr 1:/Pl'lly
Lluinfournl<'ll t.o hear that go l<lenrod grows lfl eve ry ,w1,r;IP. !'Int
in the w h ole e nt ire Un io11. l\l r. Adams is a lawyer by pro[cs~ i o11,
1

Mr. Chn.rl cs Rattell L oomis, in The Sa turday Evc nin(f

] '11.qt,

218. Trouble in the manageme nt of "figures of
speech " is the lot of all writers. 'vVe can all sympathize with the much-mixed orato r who said:
"Gentle1He11 , ge nt le men! Th e c ry of t he cat, the crow of t he
coc k:, and t he l_ii ss of th e gander a re not a rg 1tllle11 t. True, they
may fo r th e t 1111e ove rwh elm th e feeb le vo ice of 01ie ma n in
t heir roarin g tide; but 11 ot a ll their leag 11ered fo rces, howsoeve r
arrn e<L n.nd a rrayed for co mbat, s h;dl avail fi11 a lly to exti11 g 11i sh
~h at .beaco n to 1:ch Expe rie 11 ce, s t.ill gri [Jped fast and h ekl hi g h
111 111 s u11 falter111 g h anrl ~o g uid e sa[ely through th e ureakers
the straining eyes of Posterity! "

It is necessary to r emember t ha t all fi g ures of
speech must be consistent. Faces shine or beam ·
'
they do not walk. So we cann ot speak of "the fa ce
that has long W<Llked besicl e us." Limbs break, but
they are not fish-nets.
So wc cannot prope rly
l
.,
/
l esc nue a man as "a scheming limb of th e law,
from t he mes hes of whose net few fisli escape ."
Ships sail; t hey a re Hot li g li t-h ouses. So we canHot
urge the ship of st<Lte t o " snil on, remembering t hat
she is fo unded upon t he rock of popular t rust."
Barn d oo rs are openings, but not for fl oods. So we
can hardly say that "reckless legislato rs will at last
discover, after t he mare is stolen, t hat t hey must
elose that barn door throu g h whi ch fo r years t he
fl ood o f expenditure bas po m ed un ch ec kecl."
219. Suggestions as to describing pictures. This
• chapter closes with some t hirty pages of pictures for

166

A FIRST ]1fANUAL OF C01lfPOSITION

Llescription. It is not likely that you will have time
to write concerning all of them; the instructor will
give directions as to how much shonld be atternptc<l.
Most of the pictures are arranged in groups of
two. In these cases there will b e fouml some lik eness and some difference between the members of a
pair. The pictures are to be compared, and U1 e
points of liken ess and difference shown.
220. List of the pictures, with suggestions.
Note 1. " Descriue the situation" means give the ~ur­
rou ndin gs, tel l what is going on, aml tell · how the figures arc
groupell.
Note 2. "l\'Iethod One or Two is p ossible" m eans t hat, I-he
theme can be divid ed into two para.grap hs, either (1) hy 1lescril>ing first one picture and then the othe r, or (2) by desc ribing
first the poillts of likene ss, t;hen tlte points of difference.
Figure 1. A Class in Drawing. One paragraph is ei 10 11 g h.
Describe the situatio n. Describe some of the boys. Descr ibe
the master's attitwle a nd face .
.Figure 2. Reco nn oitering. The sce ne is laid in rariR, at th
time of the Franco-Prussian war, 1.871. One paragraph i
enough. Describe the situation. Describe the expression of
the me n. Descri be tltei r dress.
Figure a. At t.l1 e Gun. One paragraph is enough. Dcscril Ht
the situation. Describe the gun . Describe the dress of th
m en.
Figure 4. Girondists going to Execution. Th e scene is i11
Paris, 179:1:. The Girondists were the rnoderate party in Fra11 r1•,
w ho tried to establi sh law and orde r in t he days of the Heroin ·
tion, Lut were overpo\vered by the law less element. Two
paragrap hs are advisable, one for the men in the cart, and on
for t h e spectators. Note the "sewing-women."
:F ig nre 5. Palissy. Palissy wa.s a French potter, 1GOfl- 1r-18{},
who spent many years in trying to discover the secret of whito

1JE8C1UP1'ION

167

gl~~e. II~ succeeded at last a11d became rich, but not till he had
suffered bitterly from poverty and clisappoi ntmeut. 1\Iore than
0~1ce he b untl; his forniturc to keep hi s forn ace goinrr, Ile was
~1tte rJy a,L,use<l by his wife and neig hLors, who de~lared him
msau e. l wo paragraphs are advisable, one for Palissy, and
one for the spectators.
, Fig ure 6. Napoleon in Egypt, and Napoleon on the way to
St.
Use. Method One or Metl1od 'l' wo. D o no t d escen d
. Helena.
.
t? rni~rnte particulars of dress, etc., but deal with t he ge neral
s1tuat10ns
and the expression
of faces
f r
..
( .. .1·mag.·lll e .fN apo1eon's
ee ~ngs when, a.fter his first great victories, he stan1ls facing t lte
Spl ~1.11x, that gr1111 creat11re wh o a nswe red 11 0 questions .
I• ig ure 7. Tlw Cat hedra l of Co log ne, a nd tl 1e .iWission of
Santa Barbara. Method 011e or Method Tw ·
. ··bl
A
ti · ·d
o is poss1 e.
m lllethod would devote a paragraph to the towers and a
paragraph to windows and doo rs .
Figure 8. Bal,1!10rnl. Castle, Scotland, and Houses in India.
Method One or I wo is possible. A third met.hoc! would give
on~. paragraph to the situations, one to the style and material.
E JO'ure 9 Ca ·l J ' II ·
d ·'
•
o ~, · .
i .v.e s
- ouse an E merson's Ho11se. .Method
One or I wo is possible. A third method would oive one paragra~h to the situations, and one to the style and 1~iaterial. < F1 0-11re 1.0 A I
Cb.
d
.
o
·.
..og a rn a u a 1louse at Newport. .Follow
method of Figure 9.

Fi~·11re _11. Vieun~.

One paragraph is enough.

Give the

gen~1al effect of the Im es, and something about t he builcli11 ,.,

F10-nre i 0
A J
C r£
.
gs.
"'.
-·
va on, a l orma. 0He parrwraph is enough
~e~cnbe first the general conformation of t h: shore, then th~
0\\11 a 11 u .the boats.
Any student who l1 as visited the p lace
should wnte a secor d
· · I
·
.
.
i
pa1ag1ap' concernmg the atmosphere
an~.the wate r, which reveal great beauty of colorin g.
1' 1gure 13. Geneva and a Scene in Eo-ypt. 1\1.etl od 0
.
T
·
·t
""·
·
1
ne 0 1
. wo IS. poss1 )] ~. A third met hod wo nlei devote one paragraph
to the ge neral lurns and composition of the t\"o pi.ct
tl
"
ures, ano ·1er
paragraph to the vegetation, another to the sio·ns of huma rf
Jn an
d
·b .
o
n 1 e.
y case escri . e, ~11 th ~ proper paragraphs, the colorin . of
the two scenes as you 1magme it.
g

lGS

A FIRST 1lI ANUAL OF COMP0 8 I'/'10N

.Figure 14. Ehre nbreit."Le i11 and t he cln11g [ra11. l\f cthod On r.
or Two is possible. A t hird 111et hod would devote a parn gnq.J1
to t he ge neral co mposiLion of t he two sce nes, a nd another tu
the lnunan eleme11 t .
Figure HJ. Two St reams. :M ethod One or Two is possible.
A t liinl m ethod wnuhl give a paragraph to the general co111pusi t ion 0 ( t he two scenes, one to t he contrast betw ee n su1n1n er
aIHl win ter, one to t he lnun a 11 ele1nent .
.Fi<"ure JG. A Rhode fsla nd F ar m, and l\ lil waukee fro1n t h<'
Ri vm~ Method O ne or Two is possible. Again, a parag~·a.ph
co nltl be given to th e ge neral co ntrast beLween fann and n ve r,
a nd one to th e co n trast between houses.
Fi g ure 17. The Arizona Dc!se rt, a11d Lalrn 1\ li chigan. ~ Let h o1l
On e or Two is possible. AgiLin, a para'.jrap h co uld be gi ve n to
t he ge neral co mpo si t ion of t he two sce nes, and a11o~ he r ~o t.l.10
hum au element. Do not neg lec t the colorin g, as yo u nna~· 111e 1.L.
Fi oure 18. Ha meses and Linco ln. 1\lethod One or Two I ~
possil;le. A third method co uld devote
paragr~pl~ to ~.Ii~
s urroundings of t he two figures, one to th eu c? rnpa1 at1ve s1z'. ,
one to th eir feat ures a nd express ion. Tl1 e Lrncoln Statue. HI
]\fr. St. G audens's work, a nd is of so methin g m ore than I 1fc
s ize. \ V hy did t he Egyptians m ake such enon.nous fi g11rcK?
Could such figures be developed to the perfec t10n of Gree k
statttes ?
.
.
FiO'nre ]!). P lato a 11 cl Ajax. Method One or Two is poss1li lr .
Another 111et hod would make three paragraphs, one co rn paringatti tndes, anoth er feat ures, another ha ir (and Leard)·
.
20-30. B efore d escribin g any of t l1 ese po1trrut.,
Firrnres
0
stnd y the meaning of the foll owi ng words, as appliell to l'Xp ress ion and feat ures. ' Vhen yo n write, d o not make an efTo rL
to co nstrnct se n te nces so as to co nt::i.in these vvords, but nse any
o f L h (~ 111 tliat seem to yn u to express yonr t,h011ght.
J•~x press i o n or " lc~ok " : t l1 011 gl1 tfol , g-rnvc, q11id., Rt'rf'IH!,
urea111y, sad, 111elanc hol y, g loo rn y, ste rn , sava:g·1~, fi : rcl', l:r111•l,
snee ring, dnll , h eavy, dead , li[ele::;s, stupi d, stolid , a rrnn a l, 1.11t Pl.1 ectua.l, shrew d, merry, cross, evil, crafty, sweet, s~ ur, b1~t <~r,
charming, attractive, hideo us, best ial, godlike, beautiful, spmL-

ou:

DESCNIP1'10N

1G9

ua l, a ppealin g, fa r-away, ha 11g li Ly, 1110Jest, shy, pro ud , self-co nt rolled, finu , quee nly, kin g ly, nob le, a ri stocratic, oJ a k ing·, oJ a
c~nquero '. " of a vi llain, of a q11ee11, ge ntle, mild, m e rc ifu~ merciless, ab:iect, slavish, con1ma11di11g.
. ~'orehea~: lofty, low, broad, ample, finely lllodeled, maJest1c, gfo n ous, placid, s mooth , lined, deeply lined, wri nkl ed,
sr~uare, narrow, apelike, gou like~ craglike, r ecedin g, perpe udicular.
Eyes : la rge, s mall, na rrow, grave, sad, rn erry, 1a11g hing, k ee n,
s.hrewd, penetrating, twinkliug, deep-se t, protrnding, J eavy1
li d~ed, heavy, dull , sleepy, kiud , s uspicions, fu r tiv e, stead v,
rov ing, snapp ing, flasl1i11g, blne, vio let, g ray, 11 azel, Lrow; ,
1
da rk, black, velve ty, cl1 rL11 gcablc i 11 color .

. Nose: st1.· ~igh t, aq uili11e (that is, arched or beaklike) ,
sl.'?·htly lll)tll lme, h eavy, thick, flrn•d1y, snub, pro111iuent, insigrnfi cant, shapely, broad at tl1 e base.
Nostrils: la '.·ge, Slllall , (,h i11 , fl esl1 y, delicate, fine, fi 11 eJy shape d.
t lm1, s unken, lean, full, p uffy, wit lt l1igh cheek
bones,. with low cheek bones, finely curved , heavy, broad,
heavy-Jawed.

Cheek~:

1\fouth : !arge, wide, small , firm, strong, rosebud, mastiff,
weak, d~·oopmg, l1~avy, pretty, characterless, good, we ll-sh aped,
ste rn , kmd ly, mobile, expressive, sensitive, lipless.
Lips : t hi11 , Y•ick, shapeless, shape ly, well-curved, deli cately
m odele~ , exrJ111s1te, sharply c11 t, 1011g a 11 Ll t hin , heavy, ha ugiug,
proLrndrn g, compressed .
. Chi11: prominent, h eavy, rn assive, solid, bony, square, apeh.ke, brutal, aggress ive, stro11 g, powerfu l, firm, cleJt, rou nd ,
dimpled, retreating, weak.
Fig ure 20. .Jove, and t he Young Ang nstus. J\fothod O ne or
Two is. possible. Agai11 , a parag rap h cou ld be g iven to tlie
express10 n of feat 11res, another to 11 a ir a.1111 beard.
Fig11rc 21. A C reek Yont li , a11d Fat he r l>a111i e11. 1\let li od
011 e or Tw~ is possible. Agai 11 , a pa ra grap h eould be g ive u to
the express1011, and aHotli er to t lt e foat nres .
Tbe Gree k head is t hat of a 11 a11cie11 t bronze statue, snpposed

to represent the God Mercury.

170

A FIR S1' NANUAL OF coNPOS11'ION

:Fa,t h er Damien wa,s a 13elgian yout h , ·w ho gave hi s life hy
goin g as a. rni ss io na,ry to the lepers in i\lolok::ti, t,he leper co lony
of Haw a ii. Th e cr ayo n sketch was m arle in lSUS, when Falher
l)a111ien was twei1ty-seven years olJ. Ile Jied of leprosy at th e
<tge o[ forty-e ight.
Figure 22. .Juno, a.nd an Indian \Voman. M e thod On e or
Two is pos silile. A good n1 ethocl 1rnuld yie ld three paragra ph~,
one devoLell to t he expression, one to the feat ures, one to t he
h ai r and h e~i<l-(lress .
Figure 2H. ,Joltn St na rt 1\lill, and a Mexican Tndi<in. 1\Iet.hrnl
One or Two is poss il>l c. Anoth e r me th od wo nld d evo te a prlragraph to th e expressi on, one to the features, and one to the
Jre:=;s.
,1ohn Stuart 1\1 ill 1Yas one of t lte greatest of English thin kcrH.
Il e wrote illlpor t:wt work s on logic and 0 11 political economy.
Th e :Mex ican I ncli a n was 1)hotographed by l'rofessor Frederick
Starr in one of tlt e ro rnote monntain villages, a place pract.ically un visited b.v white me n. H e is of th e Tze ndral tribe.
Figure 24. An Indian Brave, and the Duke of W ellington.
1\Iethod One or T wo is possible, or a pa ragraph can b e g iven to
the e xpression, a nothe r to the features, and another to the dres11.
Figure 25. Prince Bis1narck and Dean Stanley. Three
rn eLltods of parngrnplt ing a re p ossib le, as in 24.
Fignre 2G . Robert Louis Stevenson, a11d General Grant.
Paragraph as in 24.
Figttre 27 . Halph ·w aldo Emerson, and Cardinal 1\Iannin~.
Paragra.plt as in 24-.
Fig1tre 28. Hayanl Taylor, and lJ cnry 1\1. Sfaw ley.

1'11rn·

graph as in 2-1.
Figure 29. Qneen :Marie Amelie, of France, and Elizabeth
Fry. Paragraph as in 24.
Quee n 1\lari e Am e li e was th e wife of Loni:=; Phillipe. l\l ~.
Fry was a Quakeress, famous for li er part in the work of r~
forming En gli sh pri so n s.
:Fi g ttre f10. Fred erick Douglass, and Booker T. \Vashiugtou.
Paragraph as in 24.

OHJO UNIV EHSITY

LIBRARY
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OHIO UN IVEHSlT'Y

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OHIO ll NiVLHSlI Y

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FlGURE

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OHIO l.H! JV EHsn \

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F I GU RE 26.

UIJJO UN IV ERSlTY

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FIG U RE 27.

C HAP'1'E ll V
NARRATION

221. D escription makes a pic ture. If it tleals
with moving objects, it arrests t hem; it presen ts
them as a tableau. But nanatiou makes a story .
It <leals with happenin gs, actions. 'l'ltings in action
are not arrested, but kept go iug . Tliere may be
bits of description in a na.rrati ve, but they should be
only bits. The skilful nanator does not stop to tell
all about the appearance of his h crn; he lets you
catch glimpses of the tall fo rm as the man ri ses to
go, or the flash of his blue eye as he turns away, or
the wrinkles on his broad forehead as h e shak es his
head ancl knots his brow. Tli e narrator gives touches
of desc ription, picturing a tl1i11g at tlie point where
it is needed in the story.

FIGURE 30.

OHJO UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

222. Historical narrative attempts to g ive an exact
account of what actually took place . This is no easy
thing to do. The historian King lake tells us that
the most truthful bystanders give ve ry different
reports of incidents in a battle . \Vhen tlie Prince
Imperial of Frnuce was killed in the Zulu war,
several eye-witnesses rememberetl the eve nts differently. One said that the Prince had given the
201

203

A FlRST 11JAN UAL OF COJ1lPOSITION

NARRATION

Orller to mount u efore the Zulus fired ; another, that
he <l'ctve the onler directly after; a thinl tlrnt he
nev:r gave the order at all. The extrncts in section
230 are exa,mples of exact historical narrative, uy

sLunma,ry treatment. In one story a dinner might
deserve half the whole space, in another a couple
oE sentences, and in it thircl rn ere mention. Study
the examples in section 231. Tell how much tim e
each covers. Say whether the authors have devoted
more space to any subject than is interesting to
you personally, or whethe r you find it an good
r eacling.
226. A little narrative that is complete in itself is
called an anecdote. Anecdotes are supposed to Le
historical, though I fear we of ten er ask ourselves if
the story is interesting than if it is true. The anecdote deals with the actions of persons or animals,
often with some striking act or saying of a famous
person. A good anecdote al v.1 ays has a d efinite
"point. " This is revealed at the eml, and when it
is sta.ted tl1e story stops abruptly.
Mm1y storytellers are too slow in leading up to the point. Jt
is wise to give no more of au introduction than is
necessary, though everything must be tolll which is
necessary to understanding the "point." But above
all, be sure that your story has a point. Half the
anecdotes printed in the newspaper are mere rubbish.
l t is not n,n anecdote to say that the famous General
Blank walked clown the street with his two legs,
that he stopped before a house and rang the bell,
tha,t a servant came and let him in, that he sent up
his card by the serva.nt, that the lady came down and
welcomed him, that he stayed to tea, and had two

202

trnined eye-witnesses.
223. N anati ve should be interesting, of course.
H a story is to ue told, it should be one that is
worth the attention of the audience.
You must
have noticed that a good story-teller selects his
stories according to his audience. vVhat will i11terest a g roup of elderly ]Jeople will not usually interest
a group of children. And in any story some ]Ja~·ls
are al ways more interesting than others. The wise
man skips lightly over the dull pu,rts and lingers
over the fascinating.
224. It follows that, next to choosing a good subject and being aule to report actio_ns vividly, the important thing for the story-teller is to secur~ n, g~od
proportion of parts. If he has five ~11inutes 111 whieh
to tell how he killed a bear, he will not take four
minutes to recount the journey to the hunti11gground. l£ he has two hundred v~orcls in whi ch lo
narntte a uall-ga,me, 1le Wl·11 no t g1 Ve a hundred tL>
the first inning.
225. Yet one inning might deserve more space
than another. The sixth, for example, might be
the best part of the game, hotly contested, full of
excitement and hopes and fears.
The art lies iu
perceiving what needs full treatment, and what only

205

NARRATION

20-±

A FIRST l\IA NUA L OF COMPO S ITION

lmnvs of sugar in his tea. To be a genuine anectlnte, a story should be worth remembering.
227. Freshness is lent to an anecdote by the use
of dia1ogue. The auclience seems to hear the original
actors, with a11 th eir peculiarities of speech. But
great ca.re is needed that the speakers shall r eally
talk. .They must say things tktt human beings arc
likely to say. They must not talk like books, uor
utter things so commonplace as to l>e stupid.
228. In writing down the dialogue we usun1ly give
a paragraph to ettch speech, togeth er with the wonls
which show the speaker. But if there are only two
or three r emarks in the course oE the narrative, as in
exa,m ples 1 ~wd 2, section 232, it is unnecessary to
lrnragraph them separately. vVe place quotation
nutrks Le for e and after what is quoted. If a quotell
sentence is interrupte d by a comment, the marks
show th e fact, thus: "H we are all here,'' said the
leacler, ••we will begin." vV hen :t quoted speaker
quotes another, w e use the single quotes•"' within
the do1tble quotes, thus: Admiral Farrag ut s:ii1l,
" :My father saicl, 'No, Ihwicl, no boy with s11rh
principles as yours ever came to tread the quarterdeck. '" Other instances of this nsttge 1rnty be fo11111l
in extracts 5 and G, section 232.
229. Opposec1 to historical narrative is fictition ~
nan:ttive. And th er e are two kinds of fiction, pro1mb1e and improbrtble. In probuble fiction 11othi11 ).{
shoulcl be told but wlrnt might happen under th e l'ir-

cumstances
imag ined. Ever· Jvthing i11t1st be in
. accon 1
•
w1~h. the clu~rncters of the actors and th e laws of
natm e. In unprobable or fantastic fiction no such
checks.. are p l acecl on · t 1rn imag
·
ination. yet ther
must b e p l ausi·b·1·
· some r espects ; somethinrre
i ity in
must seem
reasonable. The chanii
1tz:ice in
· 11rr on-"'
•
<
· of ..c
de rl~nd rs that the impossible seems r easonable.
If
al cluld
. of .LL
11 · were to find herself shrunk t o tlie size
c _o ' lt stands to reason that ordinary olijects would
luok very
large to her. Now both forms of f'lC t 1011
"
. ] .
are wit un the powers of boys and girls
Tl
not be able to ·write stories tJic•t
l
.
c
l
'
·.·t
18.Jfi'uush
1~1ay
'" i,tve i erary
.
b ll t tl iey ~an mvent
imaginary conversations andl
construct imaginary
oft
.
.
. ad ventures ' .,11d
<•
. en surpnse
thernsel ves by then· own cleverness.
230. Narratives by eye-witnesses.
1

1. IN THE BATTLE OF THE WILDER NESS

' T heard -~he hum of bulle.ts as t hey passed over the low trees.
1hen l ~10t1 cecl th at s111all bmLs of trees were fallino· i
f bl
111 advance of
::.
ll a ee
shower
.
·
me. 1t vrns as though an army of sn1 nir-e
1)J'e1s 1were
at
worl-" cnttino· e-coue la<le n bra nches
'
.
.
: .
."" off
. nu t. au d p.m
1 e1 _a1 ato1y to layrng rn their winter's store of food Th
partially
by a cloud of I)Owcler
smol-e
·r saw . a s t rao-en,
Tr . 1· obscured
c
·
•
" ,
g mg . rn
. not stanclrn
. o· as · ~if
cl e OL men clad in blue. Tl1 ey weie
~n ;~1a e, but they were t~tking advantage of the cover afforded
y rees, a ucl they were finng rar)icll.)' " FP' A NI1.." ' l IL!i:ESON .

'v .

2. IN TIIE ORCHARD
I passed
ap1)les
A an orchard
. ' w 1iere t·wo mc11 ·were gathering· the
'
··
. wagon ' with b a11· ·e1s, st·oou. 1 arnong t he trees; the

206

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

me n's coats flun g 011 t he Jenee; t he appl es lay in heaps, and
eac h of the me n was up in a separate tree. Th ey co nverned
togeLhe r in loud voices, wl1i ch tlie air ca nseLl Lo ri11g sLill
loude r, jeering eac h other, boasti11g of tl1 e ir ow 11 feats in shakin g d ow n t he apples. One got iu to the very top of hi s tn•t ',
and gave a long a ud mighty sha ke, and t he Lig apples ca11u?
down thurnp, thump, bush els hi tting 011 t he gro und at once.
"The re! did yo u ever 11 ear a11ything like that, ?" cried li e.
Il AWT H ORKr•; : A mericrm .Note Books.

3. TI-IE DEATH OF A COW \VllALE
C lose n estl ed lo the whal e's sid e was a yo 1111gling of 11 ot
more, certainl y, than 1ive d ays old, whieh sent up its baLyspout every n ow aud the n abo ut two feet in th e air. One 1011g,
>vi11g-lik e fin emb raced its s111a.ll body, h olrlin g it close to Lhe
mass ive breast of the tend er 111 ot her, wh ose onl y care seemed lo
be to protect h e r young, u tte rly rega rdless uf h er ow n paiu aml
da11ger. If se11tillle ut. were ever perniitted to interfere wit Ii
such operations as ou rs, it mi g ht well have done so 11ow; fo r
while the calf co11 t i11ua ll y so 11g hl; to escape fro m t he c nfoldi11 g
fin, m a kin g all sorts of p1111y st ru ggles i11 Ili c atLe111pt., t.l1 n
mother scarce ly 111 oved from her positio n, a lt.h oug h stre: rn1i11~
with blood fro111 a score of wo1u1lls. Once, indeed, as a dPl'jlsearching t hrust entered h er very vitals, she r aised h er ma s" iri~
fluk es hi g h in air wi t h a n appare ntly iuvo lun tary m ove111 e11 t
of agony; but even in t hat dire throe sh e rerne111bere<l tlw
possible danger to he r yo ung one, and laid t h e trememlon H
weapon as softly down upon t he water as if it were a feat her
fan.
So in the m ost perfect qui et, with scarcely a wri tht', sli t'
died, l1 olcli11g t he calf to her side, and left it to a swift <lt'spatd1
wiLh a si11gl e la nce-trnst.. No sla ug hter of a Ja.111\; ever loohd
m ore like murder . No r, when t h e vast bnlk a nd strn ng· I h of
th e a nim a l were conside rell, could a mi gh tier exa mple have hPPll
given of t he forc e a nd quality of m atern al love. F1tANK T .
BULLEN: The Cruise of lite Caclwlot.

NARRATION

4.

207

A PREDATOHY .CHIPMUNK

I Imel paused to Lathe m y h a nds a nd face in a littl e trout
brook, aud h ad set a tin cup, whic h I h ad p <trtly filled with
strawberries as I crossecl the fi eld, on a ston e a t my fe et, when
a.long ca.111e the ch ipm unk a.s confidently as if he kne w precisely
where h e wa.s going, aucl, p erfect ly oblivio us of my prese nce
cock ed himself up on the rim of tlie cnp and proceeded to ea~
my choicest berries. I r emained motionless a nd observed l1im.
He h ad eaten Lut two when the thouo-ht seemed to occur to
him t hat he might b e doing better, a:cl h e Legan to fill hi s
pockets. Tw o, fo ur, six, eig l1t of n1 y berri es cp1i ckly disa ppea red , aJ1d the elwulrn of .t he little vagalio nd swell ed. But all
the time h e k ept eating, that not a. moment m ight be lost.
Tl1en h e hopped off the cup, and went ski ppin g from ston3 to
stone till the brook was passed, when h e di sappeared in t he
woods. In two or three minutes h e was back agaiu, and went
to stnffi11 g himself as before; then h e disappeared a second
tim e, a nd I i mag ined told a frie nd of his, for in a 111ornent or
two alon g came a bobta il ed chiprnn11k , as if in search of sorn etl.ting, and passetl up, a 11<1 d ow n, a11<l aronnd, l1ut did Hot qnite
Int th e spot. S hor tly, t he first ret urn ed a t hird tin ie, a nd li ad
n.o w grown a little fastidio us, fo r li e Legan to sort over m y bern es, a nd to bite into th e m, as if to taste t heir qnality. Ile was
n ot long in loading up, however, a nd in makin g off again. But
r. h ad n~w. g?t ~ired of the joke, and my berri es were apprecia.bly d1n11lllshmg, so I moved away. JouN Bumwuans:
Lowsts and 1'Vild Hon ey.

5. IN A CYCLONE AT SEA

Th~ t errible da.y wore 011 , wil;hout any li ghtening of the tempest, ~i ll Hoon, wh e n th e wind s uddenl y fe ll to a calm. Until
that tune the sea., ~! tho ugh h eavy, was uot vicio us or inegular,
and we h ad not slupped a ny h eavy water at all. But wh en the
force of. the wind was s uddenly withdrawn, such a sea arose as I

208

A FIR S T MANUAL OF COMP OS ITION

have never seen before or sin ce. Inky mountains of 'Nater raise d
t heir savage heads in wi ldest co n.fu sion, srnashi ng one another
in whirlpools of foam . H was like a picture of th e primev al
deep out of whicl1 arose t he new-born world. S ml1l e nl y out of
the w hi rliug black 11ess overhead the moo n appeared, nearly in
t he zeni t h, sendin g dow n t h rongh t l1 e apex of a dome of torn
and madl y gyratin g clo11d a fl oo d of Lrilliant lig h t. Illu111i11 ctl
by that startliu g rad i~t n ce, our stanch a nd seawo r thy s hi~1 \Y as
tossed a nd twirled in t he h ideo us vortex of mad sea u11ld her
m ot iou was di stractin g . It was quite i111possil>le to loose 0 11e ' R
hold a nd at tempt to d o anything witho ut running the in11nin1 ~ n t
risk o f bein g dashed to pieces. Our d ecks were full of w:d cr
now, for it tumblf~d on board at a ll poin ts ; but as yet 11 0 se rious
weig h t of a sea had fa lle n upon ns, nor h ad any da mage l:>cc11
d o1w . S uch a miracle as t hat co nld not be expected to co11 t1n11e
fo r long. S udde nly a wa rning shout rang out from so me\Yh r rl'
- " Ilold on all , for yo ur Ji ves!" Out of th e 11ideous t urn wil
a ro nnd arose, like so me black, fantastic ruin , a n a wfol IH'a p 1>f
water. I li g- her a nd hi g her it towered , un til it was leve l with our
lo\\' er yard s, t hen i t l1roke aml fe ll 11po11 us. All was t>lank.
Beneat h tli at mass evr ry t honght, every feelin g, fl ed but one "I.low long shall I be al> le to hold my breath? ., Af:Ler wh at
see1nerl a n ever cndi ng ti Ill e, 'Ne eme rged fron1 the wave 111 on•
d ead t ha n ali ve, Lut \~ith t he good ship sti ll stanch tutrl ern eath
us, a nd H ope's lamp burnin g brightly. Th e moon ha<l hePn
m omentarily obsc ured, but now shone o ut again, li g li t i11 f.i 11p
brilliantl y om bravely battlin g ship. But, alas for ot hers I m e n, lik e ourse lves, w hose hopes were gone . Quite 11Pa r 11
was t he battered rc rn ai 11 Ller of w hat had been a sple ndid ship.
1ler masts were go ne, not eve n tl1 e stu mps being visibl e, an1l il
see med to our eagP.r eyes as tf s he was settlin g clow n. I t w n.<i
eve n so, for as ·we looked, 11nmi11 df ul of our ow n da.11ger, Hh
qui etly disappeared, - swall owed up wit h her hun ian ~ n·i~ht .i~1
a momen t, like a pebble dropped into a pond. l• JtAl\K 1.
13uLL1rn : The Crnise '!f lh e Cachalot.

NARRATION

209

231. Personal narratives covering various periods of
time.
1. AT CLOSE QUARTERS WlTH A CAC IIALOT

Throu g h a ll th e vicissitudes of t l1is stran<re vovao·e I had
hi tl1 erto felt pretty safe, a nd as the last tl 1ing : m an.. at~ticipates
(if hi s digestio n is all rig h t) is th e poss il>ili ty of comi ng to grief
him self, w hile fully p repared to see ever yuody else go under, so
I h ad go t to think t ha t whoever got killed I was not to be - a
v~ry pleasiu g sentiment, a nd one th at carries a man fa r, enablin g
hun to face dangers ·wi t h a lig ht heart wl1i ch otherwise would
make a nerveless a 11i111a l of him.
Jn .t hi s optimistic mood, th en, I gay ly Jlnng myse lf into my
place lit f;he mate's boat one morning, as we were departing in
chase of a magnificent cac ha lot t l1at had been raised just after
breakfas t. There were no oth er vessels in sig h t, - muc h to our
satisfaction, - t he wind ·w as light, with a clondless sky, and the
whale was dead to leeward of us. ' Ve sped along at a good rate
towards ou r prospect] ve victim, w ho was, in Ii is leisurely enjoym ent of Jife, calmly lollin g on t he s urface, occas ionally liftin g
hi s enormous tail out of wate r and letti11g it fa lJ flat upon the
surface with a boom a udible for miles.
' 'Ve were, as usual, first boat; bnt, m uclt to th e mate's annoyance, wh en >ve were a short half-mil e from t he whal e our mainsh ee t parted. It became immediately necessary to roll tlt e
sail up, les t its fl apping should ala rm t he watchful monster, a nd
this d elayed 11s suffi ciently to a ll ow t he other boats to shoot
al113ad of us. Thus Uie seco nd mate got fast So lli e second s befor e
vv e a rrived on t he scene, seein g w hi ch, we fur led sail , un shipped
the mast, a nd we nt in on him with the oars only. At first the
proceed ings were qitite of the usual character, our chief wieldin g
his lance in most bri lli a nt fas hion, whil e not bein g fast to t he
anima l a llowed us much greater freedom in onr evo lu t ions ; but
that fatal h a bit of the mate's -of a llowin g his boat to take care
of herse lf so long as he was gettin g in some good home-thrusts
- once more asserted itself. Althoug h t he whale was exceedi11 gly
vigorous, churning t he sea into yeasty foam ove r a n enormous
p

210

211

A FIRST NANUAL OF COMPOSITION

NARRATION

area, there ·we wallowed close to him, right in the middle of tho
turmoil, actually courting disaster.
He had just settled clown for a mom ent, when, glancing O\'Or
the gunwale, I gaw his tail, like a vast shadow, sweeping all'ay
from us towards the second mate, who was lying off the other
side of him. Before I had time to think, th e mighty mass of
gristle leapt into the sunshin e, curved back frou1 us like a huge
bow. Then with a r oar it came at, us, released from its te11sion
of H eave n knows how many tons. Full on the broadside it
struck us, sending eve ry soul but me flying out of the wreckage
as if fir ed from catapults. I did not go because my foot was
jammed somehow in tlt c well of tlie Loat, but the wrench near!.\·
pulled my thigh-bon e out of its socket. I had h ardly released
rny foot, wh en, toweri ng abo,·e me, came the colossal head of
the great creature, as he plowed throug·h the bundle of rf/ /1ri"
that had just been a Loat. T!tere was au appalling roar of wall'r
in my ear s, and darkness that might li e Jelt a ll arouud . . Yet, in
the midst of it all, one thought preclorni1iated as clearly as if I
had been turning it over in my mind in the quiet of my l 111nk
aboard - " ·w11at if he should swall ow me? " Nor to tit is day
can I understand l1 ow I escaped the portals of his g nllet, \d1i d 1
of course gaped wide as a churclt door. But the agony of holdiu g lll Ybreath soon overpowered every othe r feeling a nd t ho11gltt .
till jnst as somethin g was goi ug to snap inside 1~1y lieacl I ro~ c
to the surface. I was surrounded by a welter of bloody froth,
which made it impossible for me to see; but oh, the air \\'a 8
sweet!
I strnck ont blindly, instincl;ively, although l could feel f'O
strong au eddy that volnntary progress was ont of t he q nes t inn.
l\iy h a nd touched and clu 11 g to a rope, ·w hich imm ed~atel y tn,\H'll
m e in some direction- I neither knew nor cared ·w hither. tioon
the motion ceased, and, with a seaman's insti11ct, I bega11 to lia11l
my self along by the rope I grasped, although no definite id(•a
was in m y mind as to wlt ere it wa::; attach ed. Prese ntly I ca111n
up against somethin g so lid, the feel o[ which gathered all 111y
scattered wits i11to a compact knnb of dread. It was tl1 e whalP I
"Any port in a storm," I murmured, beginning to haul away

aga in on my friendl y line. By dint of hard work I pulled
myself right up the slopi ng. slippery bank of bl nbber, until I
reach ed th e iron, whicl1, as lu ck would have it, was planted in
that side of the carcass now nppermost. Carcass I said - ·well,
certainly l had no idea of t h ere beiug any life remaining within
the vast mass beneath me ; yet [ lia(l hardly time to take a
coup le of tnrns round my self with tlie rope (or whale-line, as I
had proved it to be), ·when I felt the great animal q uiver all
over, and begin to forge ah ead. I was 11 ow composed enough
to rerne111l1er that help could not lie far away, and that my
resc ue, prnvicl i11 g tl1at I cu 11lcl keep above water, was but a
q1tesLio11 of a few 111i11utes . B11t I wai-; l1ardl y l'reparecl for the
whale's 11 ext move. Bei11g ver.y iwa1· J1i i-; e11d, the lmat, or lioat.s,
had drnwn off: a liit, J supposed, for I co uld see uothing of them.
Then l remembered the Hurry. Almost at the same mom ent it
bega11; aml t he re was I , who with fo arful admiration ltad so
ofteu watc11ed the ti tauic co 11v 1tlsio11s of a dy i11g cacl1al ot,
actually involved in them. The turns ·were off my body, but I
was able to twist a couple of t urn s round rny arms, which, in
case of l1is so nndin g, J co uld readily let go.
Then all was lost iu roar and ru sh, as of the heart of some
mighty cataract., dnri11g which I was sometimes above, sometimes b enea th, the ·wate r, but always clin g in g, with every ounce
of energy still left, to the line. Now, one thought ·was uppermost-" " That if he shonld Lreac h ?" J had seen them do sow hen
in finny, leap ing full twenty feet in the a ir. Then J prayed.
Qui ckl .Y as all the preceding changes had passed came perfect
peace. Tl1ere l lay, still alive, Lut so weak that, although I
could feel the turns slippiug off my arms, and knew that I sho uld
slide off the slope of the whale's side in to the sea if they did, r
could mak e no effort to secure myself. Everything then passed
away from m e, jnst as if 1 had gone to slee p.
I do not at all mtdersta11d liow I kept lllY position, nor how
long, but T awoke to the blessed so u11d of voices, and saw the
s:cond m~te's boat a longs ide. V ery geut;ly and tenderly they
h~tecl me rnto the boat, a lthough I could hardly help screaming
with agony when they touched m e, so bruised and broken up

212

NARRATION

di<l I fee l. l\ly arms must have b een n early torn from their
sockets, for the strands of the whale-line had cut deep into Lheir
flesh with the strain upon it, wl1ile my thigh was swollen enorrnously from the blow I received at the onset. l\fr. Cruce was
the most su rprised man I think I ever saw. For full ten minute8
he stared at me with ·wide-open eyes. ..When at last he spoke, it
·was with difficulty, as if wanting words to express his astoni;;hmeut. At last he blurted out, "'Vhar you bin all de tint£',
ennyhaow? 'Canse ef yon bin hangin' on to dat a r wale ev'
sence you' boat smash, w'y de debbil you hain 't all ter hit.;;,
h ey?" I smiled feebly, lmt >vas too weak to talk, and prese11tl.Y
we11t off aga in into a dead faint.
FRANK T. BULLEN: Th e

Takiug a huge knife from some hidin g-p lace, Irene handed
it to her father, who at once commenced to dig in the ground
by his side, while I looked on wondering and am nsed. l'reseu tly
he fished up a bundle of leaves bound with a vine t endril, which
he laid carefully aside. More digging brought to light a fine
yam about three pounds in weight, which, after carefull y wiping
the knife on some leaves, he proceeded to peel. It was immediately evident that the yam was perfec tly cooked, for it steamed
as he removed the skin, revealing the inside as white as milk.
Some large round leaves were laid in :froHt of me a nd the yam
pl;iced i1poa them. Then rnine ho st tnrn ecl hiH attentio n to the
bundle fin;t un earthed, wh ich concealed a chicken, so perfectly
done that, altho11 gh the bones dn~ w out of the rn cat aH if it lmd
beeu jelly, it was :full of juice and flavor; and exccpL for a slight
foreign twang, due, doubtless, to t he leaves in which it h ad been
enwrapped, l do uot t hink it conld hav e been possible to cook
anything in a better vvay, or one more calculated to r etain all
the natural juices of th e m eat. 'l'he fo ·wl was laid beside the
yam, another nut broached; then, handing me the big knife, my
"fiem" bade me welcome, informing me that I saw my dinner.
As nothing would induce him to join me, t he idea being contrary to his notions of respect due to a guest, I was fain to fall
to, and an excellent meal I made. For dessert, a basketful of
such oranges freshly p lucked as cannot be tasted under any
other conditions, and crimson bananas, which upon being peeled
looked like curved truncheons of golden :jelly, after tasting
which I refused to touch auything else. FuANK T. lluLLEN -:

Cruise of th e Caclwlot.
2. AN UNEVENTFUL WEEK

Then ensued a week or two of unevenUul crnising, brokrn
only by the capture of a couple of cows - oue just after Lhe
fruitless chase mentioned above, and one several days la ter.
These events, though interesting enough to us, were marked l1y
no such deviation from the ordinary course as to make thern
worthy of special attention; nor do I think that the cold-blo0<bl
killing of a cow-whale, who dies patiently endeavoring to protect
her young, is a subject that lends itself to eulogium. .F1tA.:rn
T. lluLLEN: The Cruise of the Cachalut.
3. A DINNER IN THE FRIENDLY ISLANDS

A conch upon a pile of leaves was hastily arranged, upon
which J was bidden to seat myself, while a freshly cut cocoa nu t
of enormous size was handed to me, the soft top sliced off so
that I might drink its deliciously cool contents. These 1111ts
must grow elsewhere, but I have never before or since seen any
so large. 'Vhen green -that is, before the meat has harde 11e1 l
into indigestible matter - they contain from three pints to two
quarts of liquid, at once nourishin g, refreshing, and palatable.
The natives appeared to drink nothing else, and I never sawn
drop of fresh water ashore during our stay.

I

1

213

A FIRST 1lfANUAL OF CONPOSITION

The Cruise uf the Cac!talot.

4.

AN ENTRANCE EXAMINATION

Mr. Booker 'Vashington, principal of the Tuskegee industrial schools for negroes, has written the story of his life. It is
called Up from Slavery. His childh ood was spent in abject
poverty. But he had natural ability, and that instinct for careful work which is at th e basis of all snccess. He determined
to have an education. Ile walked a long distance to Hampton

214

A FIRST ]l{ANUAL OF COMPOSITION

Jnstitnte, and asked for a cl1 ance to sturly a nrl work. lT e loohd
like a tramp, and was n ot very favorably received. Bu t hi'
hung about th e place, a nd one day he was given a chance to
clean a sch oolroom . H e says: "I swept th e recitation room
three times. Then l got a. dustiug-clot h a11d dusted it four
times. All the woodwork around th e walls, eve ry b ench , ta.Lill',
and d esk , T wei1t over fom times with my dusting-cloth. BPsides, every piece of furniture lia<l been moved a nd every clos()t
and co rn er ill th e ruon1 haLl heell thoroughly cleaucd.
" 1 had the fceliu g that; in a la rge m easnrc m y [ut;nre dt•·
p ended upon the impression I made upon th e teac her in t,l1t•
cleaning of that room.
"'Vhen J was through l reported to tl1 e h ead t each er. Sl1c
vvas a Yankee wo111a1J , who knew ju st when~ to look for <li rL
She went into th e room and irn~pectcd th e floor and c l o~Pts:
th en she took h er handk erchief and rnbbed it on the wood m 1rk
about the walls, an1l over the table and bench es . " ' 111•11 sl1t•
was unable to iillll on e bit of dirt on the floor, or a particle uf
dust on any of the furnitnre, she quie tly remarked,' 1 g1w ~;
you will do t o ent.e r this institution.'
.
"1 was one of t he h ap piest so uls on earth! Th e sweP p1 11i:
of that roorn was m y co llege examination, and never <litl any
yonth pass an ex:w1ination for entrance into lla rvanl or Yal
with more genuin e satisfaction."
5. WEBSTER ' S VICTORY OVER TIMIDITY
Jn hi s ripe nrnnhoocl 'Vebster spoke of this exper ience t\.!
follows: " 1 be lieve that l made tolerabl e progress in 11io. t
branches which I attended to while a member of Ex f'l•'t
Academy; but there was one thing I co uld n ot do: l could
not mal;e a d eclamation. I could not speak b efor e LhP school.
Th e kind and excell ent Ilnckminster so11ght espec ially to !•"'f
snad e m e to perform the exercise, but I failed to do it.. ~ln 11y
a piece did I co111mit to memory, and recite and reh earse in Ill)'
own room over and over again; but when the d ay calll<'. nnd
the school collected to hear declamations, when my nam e w

NAIWA'l'JO N

215

cal led a nd I went upon the stage, every eye turned upon me, I
co uld not recollect a word."
Suppose Daniel had stopped h ere, a vanquished student,
what would the result have bee n ? 1t is probable that h e would
h ave completed his studies at Exeter witl1in two or three terms,
and returned to labor on his fathe r's farm. H e certainly ·w ould
n ot h ave bec~me an orator to sway listening senates. But,
thro~ gh th e wise counsels and kind sympathy of Buckminster,
li e did fi11ally overcome his timidity; and li e proved to listeners
t hat_ t lte spirit of trne eloq ue11 ce dwelt within his soul. Jt was
a mighty stru ggle for him to rise above l1imself, a nd conquer a
bashfulness that lay directly b etwee n him and success; but he
foug:ht _tlie battle, a1:d won. But for hi s sagacious a nd syrnpath e~1 : t eac her h e nught not lta ve attained uuto that sublime
decision, I can anrl I will - a decision tl1at is of teu indispensable to save one from inevitable failure.
. 'l:lrnt h ere was tlte tur11i11g-poiu t in Daniel \V eLster's career
is still furLher co nfirm ed by tl1 e fact that in Dartmouth College
he took ra11k at once as the bes t declaimer of his class. H e
entered that c~ll ege at fiftee n, and, throug h his fo ur years there,
was far superior to all others as an orator. At eighteen years
of age, wh en h e was junior, his fame was so great as an orator
that t li e citizens of t he town invited him to rleliver th e Fourtl~
of .Tnly
oration. " ' · M • TuAYI•'·. I'• ·. 1'ui ·nin!]-pomts
·
·
· Success,
in
ful C areas .
6. HOW SANDOW BEGA.ME STRONG
. l ,t. is not n ecessary, as som e _m ay think, to be born strong in

o~dm to b ecome strong. Unlike th e poe t, who, we are told,
h ,i~ to be born a poet, the strong rn a 11 ca n 1nake himself. As a
?lnld, I was. myself exceeding ly d elicate. More than once,
mdeed, my life was despaired of. Ulltil I was in my teuth
year
I scarcely
was
.
. . knew what ·strength
.
' . 'l'lie n 1·t liappe necl
tl~at I saw 1t rn bronze and ston e. .l\[y fat her took me with
him to Italy,_ and in the art galleries of H.ome and Florence I
was struck with admiration for the fin ely developed forms of
the sculptured figures of the athletes of old. I remember ask-

217

A FIRST 2dAN UAL OF CON POSITION

NARRATION

ing my fath er if peopl e were as well developed in th es~ mode rn
times. Ile pointed o ut that t hey were n ot, and :xpla111ed .Lhat
these were the figures of rnen who lived when nng ht wa~ n ~ ht,,
wh en men's own arm s were their weapon s, a nd often t heir hv e8
depended upon their physical strength. Moreover, tl.iey lrn e~1·
nothi 11 g of the modern luxuries of civilizati on, an? , besides t heir
t raiuin g and exer cise, their muscles, in t he ord111~ry course of
dai ly life, were alw ays being brought prnminently rnto play.
Th e memo ry of these mnscular fignres was ever p rese nt,
and when we retnrne<l to rn y h ome in KCinigsberg- I. wanted to
become stron g like them. Thoug h I used to try my st.rc11gt Ii
and attend the gym11asiu111, nothing ca1ne of rn y desire fu r
so1ne years.
U ntil J was eighteen I re111ained delicate. J\t that age 1
began to study anatomy. It ·was thus I ascertained the L er-; t.
means of developin g the body, and invented t he system. of
givinO' each i ndividnal muscle a movement, and of so arr a 11~111 ~
t he f~rm of the exercises that when Sollie muscles are brought
into play others are r elaxed and left without strain.
.
About fifteen minutes eve ry day was t he average tune de·
voted to special exercise at t his period . It may be useful to
remark tlia,t no particular form of diet was adopted. I ate a11tl
drank in the ordinary way. Jt may be said at once t l1at l hare
JIO belief i 11 special diet.
There is no better g uide to gonil
livin g than moderation. Be n1oderate in all th.i11gs, and you
need fear no interrup tion in gaining strength by my syste m of
training. EU GEN SANDOW.

man of watches took out his lead-pencil and marked three
spots, and offered to wager that tli ey were below the radius of
the rest of the ball's surface. Recourse being had to a very
accurate micrometer, it was fo und t hat th e spots indi cated by
th e watch-factory superiu temlent were eac h abo ut 101hrn of an
inch low, showi ng the marvelous sense of to uch and acc uracy
th at he h ad acq uired in dealing with small t hin gs. It is the
developme nt of acc nracy of this so rt t hat has made it possible
to pro<l11cc a watch of hi g h grade tl1at will retail for te 11 dollars, a11d very fair watch es fo r fo ur or fi ve dollars eac.11.
C. II. Coc ut tAN J<: : Th e 1Vonders of 1lfo1lcm ilfer:lwnis111.

216

232. Anecdotes and dialogues.
1. A TRAINED FINGER-TIP

The storv is told of a superintend ent in one of the Jen.ding
watch-making establishments of the cou ntry who, 011 bein g
show n a steel b all designed for nse in a bicycle b earin g. tu11l
req uested to note its accuracy, jocularly remarked," Why ilnu'L
you make them r onnd ?" "I guess it couldn't be mad e mneh
~ounder," said t h e maker of the ball. After some banter, tho

2. CUVIER AND TIJE GHOST

Cuvier was the first naturalist to make a study of th e prehistoric beasts, birds, a nd reptiles w hi.ch once in hauited the globe,
and to attempt restorations of their complete selves from stray
bones a nd fossil footprints.
Most unpleasant and t errific animals many of them turned
out to he; and the idea occ urred to a :jocular stn<lent of the
university that it would be good fun to appear at Cuvier's bedside at midn ight in the character of t he outraged and vengeful
ghost o:f one of th em, displeased at the efforts of a pun y man to
reconstruct its remains.
So said, so done. The clever yo uth arrayed himself in a
fri g·htful costume, with scales and tail s and gla rin g eyes and
horn s and hoofs, and secretly effecting an entrance into the
naturalist's h ouse, stole softly to his chamber. Ile was slee ping
peacefull y. The intruder wakened him by settin g two hideous
fore-hoofs upon the counterpane; then, as lie fit irred, blinked,
and started up, it remarked in hoarse a nd ghostly tones:
"Cuvier! Cuvier! I've co me to eat yo u! "
But not even wh en half asleep could Cnvier be m istaken 111
the distinguishing characteristics oE a carni voro us anim al. He
looked at the monstrous thing agai n.
"Humph I" he muttered, with sleepy con tempt. "Horns hoofs - gramnivorous. Yon can't! "

218

A FJHS1' MANUAL OF CO~MPOSI1'ION
3. lVIORSE'S POVERTY

Jn hi s yo un ge r days t he great in ve ntol' Morse was a portrait painter. Ue ·w as a good painter , but the dem a nd fo r portr:ut s
was sma ll. Ge ueral Strother, of Virgiuia, says of hiin:
"1 le was very poor. I remember tlrnt wh en my seco111\
q ua rter's pay was du e, my remittance from h ome _cli<l not co1_11c
as expected ; and one UftY the professor ca me rn , a ud s:wl,
courteo usly:
"' 'Vel I,· Strother , m y boy, h ow are we off for m oney?'
"' 'Vh y, professo r,' L answe red ,' I a m sorry to say l have bee n
di sappoin ted ; bnt 1 expect a remittance next vveek.'
"'Next week,' he repeated, sadly ; 'I shall be dead by that
tim e.'
"'Dead , sir? '
"'Yes, dead by starvation ! '
"I was di stressed and astonish ed. I said hurriedly: ''V 01il1\
ten dollars be of any se rvice? '
" ' T en dollars would save my life; that is all it woll ltl
do.'

"I paid the m oney, all that I had, and vve dined together. . ll
was a m odest meal, but good, and, after he had finished, he saHl:
'This is my fir st m eal iu t wen ty-fo ur h ours.'"
4.

n ow

FARI\.AGUT llEF O RMI<~ D

"Shonld yon like to know how I was enab led to se rve 111y
co unt ry?" said A dmiral .Farragut to a friend.
"Of course I should," answered t he gentle man.
"Jt was all owing to a reso lution that I fo rmed ·whc11_ I
was te n years old. My fath er was se11t to New Orlea ns with
th e li ttle navy we h aLl, to look after the treason o.f . J~llrr. l
accompanied him as a cabin-boy. I had so me_ fjtt:tl1L 1es 1.l1 11t
I thought made a m an of me. 1 co uld swectr like ~w old ~ alt,
could drink as stiff a glass of grog a.s if I had doubl ed Capt'
Horn , and co uld sm oke like a locomotive. I was g reat at e.anl ~.
and was fond of gambling in every shape. At the close of <l.w11cr

NARRATION

219

one day, my fath er turned eve rybody out of the cabin, locked
the door, and said to me,
"'David, what do yo tL m ean to be ?'
"' l m ean to follow the sea,' I said.
" 'Follow the sea !' exclai1ued father ; 'yes, be a poor, mise rable, drunken sailor before the mast, kicked and cuffed about
the world , an d die in so 111e fever-h ospital in a foreig n clime.'
"'No, father,' I replied; 'I will tread the quarter-deck, and
command, as you do.'
"'No, David; no boy witli such p rin ciples as yours ever came
to tread the quarter-d eck . You will have to chan ge your whole
course of life if you eve r become a rn a 11 .'
" .My fat her left m e and went 0 11 deck. I was stun ned by the
rebuke, and overwhelmed with mortification. 'A poor, miserable, drtrnken sailor before t he mast, kicked and cuffed abo ut
the world, a11d die in so me fever-h ospital!' That's my fate, is
it? I'll ch ange my li fe, and I will c h:tnge it at once . I will
never utter another oath, never rlrink another drop o:E intoxicating liquor, never gambl e; and, as God is my witness, I have
kept th ese three vows to this hour."

233. Th e proportion of parts in the following nar-

rative is bad.
The more interesting events are
neglected, the less interesting given too much attention. Rewrite it in t hree good para.graphs, redu cin g
the two less important paragraphs and developing
the important one.
BILLY'S OUTING

One day last summer our fam il y went fo r an outin g at Clea r
Pond. \Ye got up brig ht and early . The sun was :just risin g
when we sat clown to breakfast. vVe were too busy to get much
break fast, but we had some bread and so me bacon and a few
berries that were left over from supper. vVe packed up a fin e
lunch , h owever. vVe had six roasted sprin g chicken s, one apiece,

220

A FTRST .M ANUAL OF COMPO S ITlON

and eggs and sa ndw icheR, and jell calm, anJ a uice puJding
and a waterlllelon, a nd a box of presen-ell ginger.
'Ve h ad some tronb.le iu gettiug started. Old Dolly h:ul a
sore shonlde r, an<l Fa.titer sent Billy over to Mr. King's to
borrow a horse. But Hilly was barefooted, and when he wa s
comin g h o1ue ·w ith t he horse it stepped on his foot a nd hurt it.
So we liad to ·w ait fo r Billy's foot to be ban<laged up. I was
Rc11t to the store for so me liuiment, and gettiu g t hat took time.
But by and hy vve were off, and a gaye r party yo u never sa w.
Billy got to si ngin g, so t hat he cou ld fo rget 11is foot, he sa itl ,
a nd we g irls joined in a nd helped him sin g. l\'lother s:tid that
people ''"ho sin g in t he morning may cry befo re night. But we
didn 't mind. People ca me out when they heard us si ngin g, an<l
stood and watched u s go by. At one place we had an awful
time waiting. Mr. King's horse cast a shoe, and we had to fin1l
a blacksrn ith and h ave it p nt on. F ather said he would ha rn
let Old Dolly go h ome without a shoe, but he wo uldn't treat n
n eighbor's h orse that way. Mother said that .Father \\-:ts too
fu ssy, and Fathe r saiJ li e gnessed she was right. Hut he hail
the h orse sho<l just th e san1 e. We waited for the blaclrn111iU1,
a nd watched two boys playing with a scptirt g un in the s111it h'~
tub. Th ey wo uld fight fo r t he gun and t hen delnge each other
wi th t he dirty water.
IV ell , we got to the Lake about noon, and built a fire an1l had
dinn er . . His a lovely place. In the aHern oon poo r Billy nea rly
got llrownecl. \V e h ad to work over hirr1 abont half a n hour.
I wish I co uld tell how it h appened, but it is time for Lhe clock
to strike.

234. Sentences in narration. The most irnporta11 t
n eed in the structure of a narrative sentence is th at.
it shonld seem a unit. A g reat many little eve nt s
can Le told in a l ong sentence, providing they followell each other closely in time. But there should
be no crowding of thoughts within the sentence.

NAIWA TION

221

We may say in a breath that ~t ma n was Lorn in such
a y ear and died in such a year, because the dates of
birth and death are the boundaries of a life. But we
can hardly say in one breath, " 1-Je was born in 1800
and after living in N cw York fo r several years and
becorning a wealthy young man he married in 1835
and died in 1867. " The student must learn to use
his judgment as to how much a g iven senten ce sh ould
hold.
235. Narrative sentences may be long or short,
according to n eed. A long sentence full of little
events may be very useful, since it rapidly covers a
good many less important steps in the story. A
short sentence is emphatic. Important things that
happen suddenly sh oultl be stated in a short senten ce.
Every narrnti ve sh ould Le relieved Ly occasional
short sentences.
236. The following n arrative sentences lack unity
of thought. Improve them in any way you think
best. The first can be made a unit by changin g
"Firing" to "After firing." The second should Le
rewritten in two sentences.
1. Firing for a short time, I was promoted to be engin eer.
2. Iler parents were joyful that she had not died, and after
two yea rs she co uld go about withont her cr utches.
3. Spendin g t he r est of the tim e in huntin g and fi shin g, we
return ed home after having a fine ti me.
4. It seemed necessary to send for restoratives, and the
gradual recovery of the fainting people was a joyful thing
to see.

223

A FIRST ~MANUAL OJi' COMPOSITION

NARRA TION

f.i. Th er e was >var l>etween t he Romans a11d t he Sal>i11es.
and wh en Tarpeia reached t he well she saw Tatins dri11kin~ .

H e started to execute th e order, but fou nd the way so obstructed by Confederate fo rces that he co uld uot get through
except by making a vvide detour. There was little ti me for him
to think. The despatch was in hi s hands. H e was respomiible
fo r its sa[c delivery. Failure rnea11t defeat.
In front of him stretc hed t he wall oE the Co nfed erate breastworks. ' 'V ithont a n instant's hesitation he urged his hors e up
the side of the breastworks, and under the fire of t en thousand
muskets u sed the top for a bridle-path for a distance of about
oll e hundred and fifty yards, until he found a p lace where he
co uld continue his journey without clanger of being again halted
or hillCl ered.
2. fn the m ea ntim e, fifty or sixty m en and boys who ran
wiLh the machines, but w ho h ad no i•l ace in their operation,
being t he "B uck et Brigade," had formed a line, and were
throwing la rge pails of water in t he general direction of t.he
so uthernmost warehouse, which it was now i111possible to save,
while t he gentlemen of t he " H ook-and-Ladder Company,"
abamloning Ll1 c.i r wago ns, and arrn c1l with axes, l1 eroically
assaulted the b ig door of . the granary, the second lrnilding,
whence they were driven by the exasperated Chief, who info rmed t hem t hat the only way to save the wheat was to save
the building. Crailey Gray, one of t he ber ated axmen, remain ed by the shattered door after the others had gone, and,
struck by a sudden thought, set his ha nd upon th e kn ob and
opened the door by this simple process. It was not locked.
Crai ley leaned against the casement, a n<l Jangh eLl with l1is
whole soul a nd bo<ly. Do o TI-I 1'AHK1NUTON: The Two Vm1reuels.

222

G. The three fe ll into th e water, bnt as it was not deep U1 t·y
escaped with no thing but a so~ikin g and a wh ipping wh en Lhey
got l1 orn e .
7. Thinking that he had kill e<l him, li e went to A111erica.
w here he even tuall y became a cowboy in Texas, where li e di t,J.
8. \Ve now selected our camping grounds, which were un
the east side of th e lake which 1 have been speakin g of, in a
grove which ran a lo11g b eside t he little stream t hat fi o\\' s i nl o
the lake auove Ea gle.
9. Born i11 Cha n1bersburg, Pa., in 18'11 , after a co1nn1n11schoo l ed ncation h e entered th e shops of the P em1 sy lran ia
R a ilroacl a t Altoo na, and quickly mastered the mec hani cs of
railroading.
10. The u tensils we took with us were requisite for tlw
coo kin g of our vegetables, rwcl we would all gather 1m·1-rily
about th e fire a nd watch the logs as t hey Lurn erl bright.ly.
11 . J\l erril y we start;e<l in the HJOl'lling, awl arriv ed there in
the eve nin g.
12. Blackhawk's t eam ran away start in g from tl 1e railro:1tl
track round tl1e park and t hey were finally ca ug ht in l\lr. \\.l'ir'11
h ack yard, l>reaking t he wagon all to pieces, on Satnrday aflt•r·
ll OOll.

237. E xam ine the length of the sentences in th e
followi11g pieces, and point out the rlifference in effect
uctwceu the long an<l t.he short.
1. Col. 'Villiam F. Cody 1leclar es that one of the bra,·rsl
acts li e has ever seen was at the Battle of New H ope Chm ·h,
At that time J\ lajo r .J ohn ~I.
<;eo rgia, on J\lay 27, l SG--1:.
Farquhar was provost marshal of the third tlivisio11 of t ht•
Fonrth Army Co rps of t he Army of t he Cu1n berlaml. Il e wn!I
cletail ed by Gen. Thomas ,J. 'Vood, com ma ndin g t he t.hirtl
11 iv is ion, to carry a11 order to the colonel of the Thirty-sccoml
[ndiaua Volunteer in fan try.

238. Rewrite the following pa.ssage in a few sentences, but <lo not put together ideas t hat are too
uulike. Get rid of ns many subjects as possible.
Get rid of several verbs by changing them t o participles in ing. Th en compal'e your version with the
printed one aml explain what difference there is in
the e:ffect.

22-±

A FIR.ST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

NARRATION

Tarpeia Callie 1lown the path. It was nrtrrow. H~ r earthen
jar was balanced ou li er head. She came to fetc h sprrng \\'at~r .
1t was for a househol<l sacrifice. H er fath er kept th e castle of
Rome. She was a strai ght, brown girl. Ile r eyes were ~~~e r.
Il er lips were r8d . Iler arms were strong and round. 1 hey
were IJare to the should er.
Often she had seen t he golden bracelets which the enemy
wore on their left wri sts. The enemy were the SalJine 111c11.
The J{oman m en wore no bracelets. The Hornan "·omen had
none to wear. Tarpeia longed for some IJracelets. ~l.1 e ca111c
for holy water. She was safe therefore. She srn~ a Sa rn1 e. 11.ian
drinking from the sprin g. I-~e saw her eye~ starrn g g 1:e~e <lil.~
his bracelet. Ile asked her 1f she should hke to weat it. · Ii
looked back at the castle which her father k ept .. She 1~ o ddP11.
The blood came to her brown face . "If you Sabrnes w1~I gi rn
me what you wear on your left arms," she said,. for she d1<l. no t
know the n ame of gold, " yo n shall have the fo rtress to-111glit,
for I will open th e gate fo r yo n." The Sabine l oo l~ed at her .. 1le
smil ed quickly. H e promised for him self and lns co 111pa111<~11 !I .
That Hig ht there was no moon. T!1ey went u~, ste~ ltl'.1ly.
The gate was open. Tarpeia was standmg there. n1 e S~b111r11
coulJ see her greedy eyes in the starli g ht. The leader chcl 11 1 ~ 1.
take his bracelet from his le f:t arm. H e took fron~ that arm his
shield. He struck her down with it. All th e Sabrne men g:~th­
ered about h er. They threw their shields upon her. She d1etl.

a:

The tenses of verbs used in narrativ e must
be consistent. If we say comes in one sentence, wo
may say has come in the next, but not had come . lf
we begin our story in the past tense, we shoukl' 1,10 t
drop into the present and back into the past.. ~Ii 1
use of the present for the past is not pernuss1blo
except in moments of suspense or excitement. Th
safe rule for the Leginner is never to use the present
for the past.
239.

225

Correct the tenses in th e following by making
them all present or all past:
The sling hun g over th e p ipe. I ran my arms through it,
a nd hung at full length, arms and legs free. "Lower away,"
I say, and my fe et, body, head, entered tl1e pipe, and its blackness closes around me. I hear a deep sigh from the crowd as I
disappeared.
It was tight on all sides. Even th e air I breathe see ms
cramped . Down - down - dovvn I go, and by and Ly I stood
gaspiug but safe on the gangway back 0£ the fire.

240. vVrite twenty-four them es of about three lum-

dred words each, according to the suggestions given
below. Except in the case of dialogue, two or three
paragraphs will be enough for each theme. Give the
most important things the fullest treatment. Observe
what has been said of sentences in narration.
Topics :
1. A 11arrative of the actions of some bird, insec t, 01· ani111al,
from personal observation. A void the word "witn essed " for
"savv."
2. A narrative of the actions of children at play, from
personal observation.
3. A narrative of th e actions of some person or persons at
work, from personal observation.
4. A narrative of the gatheriug and breaking of a storm,
from perso na l observation.
5. A llarrati ve of a game, by an eye-wi tness.
word "witnessed."

A void the

6. · A uarrative of the actions of per sons in a store or on the
street, by an eye-witn ess.
7. A personal narrative of a few exciti ng minutes : for
example, (1) My fall. (2) My runaway. (3) .My narrow
escape.
Q

)

226

A FIRST NANUAL OF C011fPOSITION

8. A 1mrrative of a pra.ctical jok e.
D. Th e clticf i11cicle11ts o[ a <l;:iy or evening narrated.
10. The chie[ i nciJeuts of a week nanated.
11. The chief incidents of a school year narrated.
12. The chief incidents of a vacation. A void the overused
word" tlesti11ation."
13. 1\Iy autobiography.
H. An incide11 t from the experience of some r e1ati ve or
friend. B e very exac t.
lG. An incident from Arnerican or English history.
16. An incident fro1n Greek, Homan, or Hebrew history.
17. An anecdote of an anim al.
18. An amusing anecdote containing dialogue. A void" s::iys"

fo r "said."
19. A sad anecdote.
20. A conversation overheard.
21. A probaLle story, invented.
.
22. An improbable story, invented.
2iL Summary of a good short story from a magazme.
24. Summary of a good novel.

CHAPTER VI
EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT

241. Exposition is explanation. vVe are all expounders, for every day we try to make something
clear to a person who does not understand. \ ,y e
explain what a word means. \,Ye explain ·why or
how something happens. \,Ye explain wliat kinds of
a given thing th.ere are . Most of a student's work
in a recitation or a test is explanation. In all these
cases we are trying to get at the principles which
underlie the given facts.
242. Exposition makes use of description and narration, but in theory it differs from both. If you
t ell the color, shape, size of a watch, you describe it.
If you tell why the hands go round, you expound
i t - or more properly you expound its principle.
Exposition deals with principles, rules, laws-things
which cannot be seen. Description deals with things
that can be seen, and tries to show how they impress
the senses. Narration tells a story. Exposition shows
why or how the events happened, or tells how such
things usually happen. In 231 \Ye had the narrative
227

l,

>
r

EXPOSITION AN)) ARGUNENT

228

229

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITION
~ut

of a dinner.

lu 258 we shall have an exposition uf
1

how such dinners tire prepared.
243. ln explanation we usually try to answer one
of four questions, namely what? wlrnt kinds? how?
why? In other words, we try to define, or classify,
or explain methods, or explain causes.
244. vVhen we define, we tell what a thing is. l f
we define "cat,~' we tell what the word include:-;,
uamely all quadrupeds which are carnivorous, lmvc
short-whiskered muzzles, have padded feet with ii ve
toes on the fore feet and four on the hind, clislike
water, a,nd surprise rather than pursue their prey.
vVe may go on to tell what the given word J.oes
not include. \Ve Jo this when there is danger that
the ~rndience will mistake somethiru~ like the thing
for the thing itself. For instance, if we are J.efi11ing
patriotism, it is wise to say that patriotism does not
include boasting of our country, or despising other
countries.
Then there is another helpful me~ms of defining.
This is telling what a thing is like. Electricity i~
not easily defined, but we know that it is like a cmrent of wind or a cnrrent of water. Telling what a
thing is like does not adequately define it. In strietness, definition consists in telling what a thing is;
1 To the teacher.
The distinction between description n111\
exposition is of course a rough one. No time should be was1<•1\ In
trying to distinguish between descriptive exposition and expusitury

description.

it is usually wise to add something about wha,t it
ls not, and what it is like.
is explanatio11
by d.iv1.d.mg a
tl ·245. . Cl:issification
.
<
<
ung ~nto kinds. The cat family includes about
f~rty different species. Scientific classification recogmzes larger classes and smaller chisses . In biolo
the usual
beginning with the largest,
f~llows : lungdoms, brnncbes, classes, orders, famiBut there are countless
lies, genera, species.
methods of non-scientific classification. President
Roosevelt, it is said, told his sons that there are only
four classes of boys: tall and short, good and bad.
v:l~at did he I~ean?
Charles Lamb humorously
div1ded all men rnto two classes-those who borrow
a1~d those who lend.
Dr. Holmes speaks of three
kinds o~ intell ect: one-story, two-story, and threestory with a skylight. A young student who was
somewhat
overfed with novels divided all
1\:unencans
.
•
c
mto two classes - those who write novels and those
who do not as yet.
,, e xpouncl a
246. vVhen we explain " how· ," '"e
method. Every cooking recipe is an exposition of
method. \Ve expound a method of building a fire,
or catching a fish, or tying a bow-knot, or flying a
kite.
i' 247. When_ we explain" why," we expound causes.
1 rom one pomt of view there is no difference between the how and the why of ca fnct
<•
, because i'f we
go back far enough in our thinking we can tell

~lasses,

are~;,

230

-l

A FIUST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

neither why nor how things axe as t hey are. Hu t
there is a practical difference between h ow arnl why.
A cook ma.y be able to tell you how to make brcall,
but unless he has studied chemistry or biology he
cannot tell you why bread rises.
248. vVhen we write expositions, we must keep in
mind that we are aiming at principles. If we explain a machine, we must not tell merely how it l oo l~s
and how much it weig hs; we must show how i t
works. If possible, we should state the chief law
which it mak es use of. The "D avy lamp," for
instance, is built on the principle t h at ~L flame enclosed within a wire screen will not ignite t he gas
called fire-damp. Just how the lamp looks is m10tl1l)J'
matter. If we wish to explain a person's character,
we try to set fo rth the principles of his cond u ~t
rather tlmn the color of his skin or t he shape of lus
nose.
249. Read again the extracts given in Chapter I.
Sn,y of each whether it is (chiefly) description, narration, or exposition.
250. R ead section 256.
'N rite four expositions by definition. T ell what
the thing is. If then you think it will help t he explanation, tell what the thing is not, and wha.t it is
like. The following list may suggest four suL] ecls .
1. Homesickness. 2. The bear family. 3. The hon'~·
4. The crow. 5. An ideal class room. Ci. Cowardice. 7. cl:ul I.
8. Scholarship. 9. Snccess. 10. A volcano. 11. A high sc 100 ·

EXPOSITION AND AlWUMENT

12. E x position. 13. A sentence.
me 11 t. 15. A protective tariff.

231

14. An iudepe11den t state-

251. Read section 257.
\>V rite four expositions by elassiHcation.
lowing lis t may suggest fou r subjects.

The fol-

1. Species oE t he oak tree. 2. Varieties of milkweed.
4. hirHls of students.
3. Kinds of 111 oths t hat spiu silk.
5. Kind s of: Loys. G. Kinds of football. 7. Three kinds oE
boa,ts. 8. Ki11<ls of Lass. 9. Useful a nd useless occ upation s.
10. Men as prod ucers a nd consumers.

252. R e<td section 258 . Note how difficult it is to
explain the method of ty ing a bow. \ iV rite four expositions of method . Th e following list may suggest
four subj ects. Choose subjects well within your
powers.
l. How to build a fire. 2. How to cook fish i n t he woods.
3. How to catch trout. 4. How to m ake l> rearl. 5. llow to set
a table. 6. H ow to fnrni sh a "d en." 7. H ow to furnish a
living-room. 8. How to keep well in hot weather. D. H ow to'
exercise i11telligei1tly . 10. How to st ncly. 11. How a plant
grows.

253. Read section 259. vVrite four expositions of
causes. The following list may suggest four subj ects.
Choose subjects well within your powers.
l. l i\Thy the earth quakes. 2. l i\Thy leaves a re g ree n. 3. \ Vhy
a fountain plays. 4. \Vh y the Un ited St;ates fong ht with Spain.
5. " Thy the days grow 1011ger. Ci. Causes of fai lure in sc hool
vvork. 7. CaLU;es of poverty. 8. Causes of war. 9. R easo ns
why high schoo ls have fe wer stnde11ts than g rammar sc hools.
10. Reasons why cities are fou nded by riv ers.

254. R ead section 260. Write four expositions of

232

A FIB ST MANUAL OF CO'AfPO SJ1'ION
EXPOSITION AND ARGU~MENT

sirn ple machines. Use diagrams if they will hcl p,
hnt do 11ot depend on <liagrams. The following li ~t
may suggest fo ur subjects.
l. A rat-trap. 2. A n egg-beater. 3. A·• shoe shiner ." 4. A
h ay knife. 5. A stea111-trnp. U. A steel trap. 7. A pri11Li11gpress. s. A P llllll)· 9. A car1)et-sweeper. 10. A bicycle.

255. R ead section 261. \Vrite fonr expositions of
character. L et two deal with persons whom you
actually know, and two with persons whose lives you
have studi ed.
256. Expositions by definition.

233

women, and child ren are forced to crowd in to dens where decency
is abolished, and the most ordinary co11cli tions of healthful
existence are impossib le of attainment; in which t he pleasures
within reach are reduced to brutality and drunkenness; in
w li ich the pains accum ulate at co rn pou11d interes t in the shape
of starvatio u, diseat;e, stunted develop ment, a nd moral degradation; in whic h the prospect of eve11 steady and h onest industry is a life of unsuccessful battling with h unge r, r o unded by a
pauper 's grave. . . . I take it to be a mere plain truth t hat
throngl1ont industria l Europe th ere is not a single large 1winufact11ri ng city wlticl1 is free fro m a large mass of p eo ple whose
co n1lition is exact;Jy tlmt desc ribed, a11d from a still gr eate r
111as1-: wl1 0, li vi ng jnst on tl1 c edge of the social swa111p, are
li aLle to be p recipitated iu to it. H UXLEY.

1. THE CAT FAMILY DEFINED

The felidre or cat family belong to the order carnivo~a, arn l
are characterized by a short muzzle and t~et h_ ad~pte~'
cu~
tiug fl es h from the bone, rather than mast1catmg it. lhe1_e aie
five toes on the fore fee t and fo ur on the hind feet, th e 1~a1l s of
a ll being s heathed. All cats walk u~~n t he ~r toes'. w ~11c h ar~
tongues are rough. I he felidm vaiy ·rn ·co lo.1,
"
pad cl e d . '!'heir
.
from tawny yellow to black. All have w hi sk~rs, or "vi 0_nss:e,
which aid them in m aking their way at mght. In size Lhe
felidre vary from the lion to the little Indi~n ca~, s 1~rn,ller t h'.1.1'.
the dom estic variety. There are forty species, distributed,~' e1
the entire earth, excepting Australasia and Madaga~c~r. I lll'_v
are fon nd m ostly in the tropics. They universally dislike wat~r.
They hunt alone, and catch t heir prey by surpri se, not pursuit,
as cloes t he wolf. They are entirely carnivorous, and l~S tt ally
when wild refuse to eat what they h ave not themselves killed.

fo1:

2. WHAT POVERTY I S

It is a cond ition in which food, warm t h, and cl otl~i11 g, whi ch
are n ecessary for the m ere maintenance of_ the f~nct101_1s of t he
body in their normal state, cann ot be obtamed; rn wlnch meu,

3. THE DEFINITION OF A I)ATIUOT

A patriot is one wlt o loves his fat herland - his country.
People show patriotis m in vario us ways. In t ime of war, when
the uational safety is menaced by a pulilic en emy, m en are
ready to enter Uie a rmy and to give their lives, if need be, in
defence of their coun t ry. A true patriot, too, is pleased by
eve ry thi11 g whic h reflects credit on hi s 11 om eland. He is a11xious
that its p ublic affairs sh all be stained with no m eann ess or disl10nor. He is anxious that its gove rnm ent shall al ways be ju st
and gener ous in dealing with t he governme uts of other nations.
He does 11 ot wis h an advantag·e secured from a u y other natio
11
"
especially from a weaker one, Ly wanton violence
or by fra ud.'
Ile is delighted with eve ry adva nce of his country in the arts of
civili zation, a nd pain ed at t l1 e triumph of ev il men or of vicious
meas ures. Aud he is always ready to do what he can to make
his coun try better or stronge r or safer.
' Ve have seen sorne of the reaso ns which an American h as
for being proud of hi s co un try. But in ord er to be a patriot it
is not at all necessary to be a boaster. Indeed, a t rne patriot is
so sure of t he so lid merit of his co untry t hat he does 11ot need
to say much abo ut it. 1£ a ma n is iu the h abit of talkin g abo ut

..
23G

A FillS T J1f AN UAL OF COMPO S rL'lON

E X P0 8ITION AND AIWUMEN T

hi s own hun cs t,y, it lea<ls others to suspec t that p erhaps after all
li e is t ry i11 g tn co ver np a streak t) f disho nesty. A t a11 y ra! P,
Jirnggi11g ifi a WPFLk a11d fooli s]1 habi t. J\11d braggin g ol' <llll' °s
1:01111Lry is q11iLe as fouli fi h as it ifi for a lioy Lo hoasL o[ !tis
l'aLlte r's wt•: dLlt or o.f: his siste r's beau t.v.
NP it l1 Pr is it a sig n of p a l.ri ot is 111 to <l espisn oth er co 11nLri <·s.
\\Te 111 a.y loYe o nr own Lit e heRt, \J1tl; 011 e wh o docs n ot k11 ow that
o th er co untries are a lso great and p owerful a nd farn o11 r-:, is
n1 crr ly very ig nora11 t. rE we res pect other n a ti o ns fo r th eir
gootl t[ltalities, we are all th e bet ter fitted t o understand and
ad1nire t he like q uali ties in our ow n.
Sneerin g at. ot her races is Jt O sig n of pat ri otisrn. Boys a11<1
girls so met imes a re ap t to t hink t lt ern se l ves b ette r t h an o ne of
!;heir n1afos wh o was l>orn in a foreig n lan fl, and to show t heir
s11peri o ri Ly by 11si11 g fo r l1im so me sort of foo li sh n icknanw.
Bnt thi s is yery sill y. Js h e a Germ a n ? Th e Gerrn:tns !t a n •
som e of Ll1 e greatest 11a111es a nd have done so me of the g rcat<>sL
clee<l s in all liisto ry. fs h e a n Jta lian? Ita ly is a bea11 Lif11l
lan1l , fam o us fo r so111e of t he fi.11 es t painters a nd musicia ns, a nti
fo r so me of t he \Yisest statesme n a nd bravest so ldie rs of a ny
law\. l s he a .J e w? Th e .Je ws are a wonderful peopl e, a1Hl a
li st o[ th e g rPat rn e11 \\·11 0 ;1, re .Tews w o uld be a very Jo ng 011 P.
l u1l Pell. one nmy we ll uc g lall aJt<l pro utl to Lelo ng to an y of
t li cse races, o r of m a ny othe rs w hich 1llig h t Le 1nent ioncd.
Jl A HRY 1'1t ATT J U D SON: Th e Y oung American.

The li g ht vibration s i n t he eth e r a re like th e so u11d vibrati o 11 s
i n the a ir - t li ey go t hro ug h .i t wit ho ut m ovi ng it, as a. rippl e
passes over th e surface o l: a lake wi t ho ut llifit nrbin g i ts occ t1pa11 Ls. 'J'lt e a.ir is, howeve r, s nuj ect to viole nt 1li st11rli a 11 ces i11
Ll1 c forn1 o [ winds, a11 tl so t lte ctl1 e r is s ubj ect to si111il a r di sturlia11 cPs wltosc 111 a ni festatio 11s we ea l l e lectricity. D o yo u hegi n
to tl1Hlersta11d ? So und is a 'Nave m oLio n passi11 g t h ro ug h Lli c
a ir. Li g h t is a wave m otion passi11 g tlt ro ug l1 t he et lt e r. J Ie:tt
is a m ore p ro nounced m o lec ular dist urb a nce of th e et l1 er. Ll1 at
rn_ay affec t th e e th er witlti n our bodies. Electri ci ty is as tl ie
wmd of ether - a st ill n10re v i0lent dist urba nce of t he rn olecules, capa lilc of exe r ti11 g t re 1nenrlous fo rce, a nfl o[ p assi 11 g
tl1 ro u ~ h so li 1l ~ otlies . Tt is taste less a 11<l odo rless, :w<l i 11 111 a, 11 y
ways rnapprccrnhl e to the fie n:ies, Lut it is n o t a t a ll a myste ry .
S~ 1md trave ls wit ho ut dist urbin g t lt e ai r, a nd J ig h t trave ls
wi t hout d ist nrb in g t lt e ether. On t he co ntrary, wind tr a ve ls
by dist urbin g t he air, aml elcctrici t.y by a dist urlia nce of tli e
et l1 er. B y k eepi11g t his a nal ogy i11 mind, t hat electricity is t he
o.nflow of ~ th e r~ as ~wind is th e onflow of a ir, we gain a conce pt10 n of t lus t hrng th at we cann ot see or app reciate in Lit e way
that we a ppreciate so nnd or li g ht. C. II. C OC HR A NE: Th e
1Vonders of Jl[odern lllecha11ism.

4. ELE CTRI CITY IS LIKe WIN D
Space is fill ed wi t h a medinm , vas tly lighter th a n air, call c1l
t.11e 111n1inifero 11s ether. lt exists not only in space, bnt pPrmea.1,es a l I so lid and liq ni cl bodi es - in fact, eve rythin g. Th is
eth er is s nhj ect to vibr ations of inconceivabl e rapidity. IL i~
thesl~ vilirnli<ms that co11v ey to o nr eyes th e l.i ghl; o[ starR acro<1<1
meas ureless space. A differe nce in t he r apidi ty of t hese li ~ h l
vibrations con veys t o our eyes t he sense of color. At 0 11e r-: pPell
of v ibration we see r eel, at a noth e r yellow, a ud at a thinl Ll11 e,
and so on through th e intermcdinfo combina tions aml shades.

G. DR ARNOLD 'S CONC EPTION OF L IFE
And so, wea ril y and l it tle by litt le, bnt s urely a nd steadil y
o.n t he whole, was bro ug h t h om e to the yo un g boy, for t he firfit
time, t lte meaning of !tis li{e : th at i t was n o fool's or slnggard 's
paradise in to which li e h a d wa ndered by chan ce, but a battl efi eld o rtla inecl fr om of ol<l, wher e tlt er e a re 11 0 spectators, bn t
the yo un ges t mus t t a ke his side, a nd the stakes a re life a nd
death . A nd h e w ho ro used t his consc io usn ess in t he m showed
th e m at t he sa111 e tin1e, by eve ry word ite spoke in the p ulpi t,
and by his whole daily life, h ow th e ba tt le was to be fo ng·ht,
and st ood t here l>e fore th e lll th eir fell ow-sohb er and the captain
of thei r band. The t rne sort of cap tain , too, for a boys' a rmy,
one wh o l1 a cl 11 0 misgivi11 gs a rn.1 gave 110 llll cer tain word ~f
command, a ud, let who w o uld yield or make a truce, would

'·
f'

236

A FIB81' MANUAL OF COMP0 S l1'10N

EXPOSITION AND

fi g h t t he fi g h t ont ( so e very boy fe lt) to t.l1e last gasp anc.l the
hist drop of bl ood. 1I uG 1rns: Tom Bro wn al Ru.gby .

257. Expositions by classification.
1. TWO CLASSES OF ELM

I want yo u to umlersta ncl, in the first place, t h at I have a
m ost iutense, passionate foml11 ess for trees in ge 11 e ral , an<l liarn
h ~ tr l s<~vc ral r o 111 a11tic attacl11 11 cnts to certain trees i 11 partic11lar.
Now, if yon ex pect 111 e tu hold fort h in a" scie11 t ifi c" way :1.l,011 L
rn y t ree-Joyes, - to ta lk, for i11 sta11 ce, of the Ul11u1s J\111 er1t·a11 a,
a i;d desc ribe the cili ate d edges of ils samarn, a 11d al l t hat. - yo 11 are an a11seri11 e i11llivi(l11al , and l mu st refer yo u to a d11ll
frie ntl who will di sco urse tu yo u of snch 111aLtc rs. What sli o11ltl
yo u think of a lov er who sho11ld desc ribe th e idol o_f his hear t
<re of· sc ience thus: Class, l\.larnrnalrn; Order.
· - ti l e ]-.
1 ..
111
.. 11 0·1
"-'o
Prim ates; Genus, Jl olllO; S pecies, Europeus; Variety, Brown;
Individual, Ann Eliza; Dental Formula,
f. \r

<'.:)

i

I

'

'

.

. 2- - - 2 c 1- -- 1 p 2- -- 2 m 3-- -0 , and so o n?
2 -2 1 - 1 2 - 2 3-3

" That makes a fir st-class elm? Why, size, in t he fir st place,
and chiefly. An y thing over twenty feet of clear g irth, fi rn ff·Pt
above the g round, a 11<l with a spread of branch es a hn111ln ·ll
feet across, m ay clai m th at title, according t o my s~ale: J\ II of
t he in, ·w ith the questio nable exception of th e Spn ng helrl treo
aliovc rdcrrctl to, Rto p, 80 far as m y expe ri e nce goes, a.L alio11L
twe nty-two or tw enty-three feet of gi rth aud a lu1ndretl anll
twenty of spr ead.
.
El ms of the seco nd class, generally r a ng111g from fonrt.ec 11 to
eig hteen feet, are co rnparnt iv ely co m1non. Th e ~11ee n ~[ t~H·111
a ll i 8 that glori on8 tree near o ne of the church es rn Sprrngfi• •ltl .
Beantif nl a nd 8t a tc ly sl1 c is beyo nd all praise . Th e "gn·at
tree" 011 B o8Lo n Co lllm on co111 e8 in the secornl ra11k, n,s d<:P
t he on e a t Coh asset, w hich used to h~we, and proba1ll y l1 as st ill.
a h ead as ronnJ as rw appl e tree, and t h a t at. New lnirypor t,
with scores of oth ers which might be rnenLion etl. These la.: t.

ARGU~lIENT

237

two kwe p erhaps b ee n over-celebra ted . Both, however, are
pleasing vege tables. The poor old Pittsfi eld elm lives on its
past r e putation. A wig of false leaves is indi spensab le to
make it p rese ntable. l-IOLM:1;;s: The A uloaal al lli e Breakfast
Table.
2. TWO KINDS OF COURAGE
Th ere are two kinds of co urage, m oral and ph ys ical, and it
is n.bso l ute ly eRsen tiaJ for a boy or 111 a 11 to liave bo t h if he
wishes to k eep his own self-respect a11tl to llese rv e the respect
of others.

On the one hand, he must be able to m aste r him self, to m aster
his ow n passio11 s, a nd overco 111 c hi s ow n w eakr:esses. 'J'lti s iR
what ·we us ually mea n whe11 we speak of 111 ora l conra.ge. It is
th e co urage which is r equired wh en a lllan says" 110 " to assoc iates
who ·w ould lead hin:1 to do sometlti11 g that is wro11 g, and who
are s nrc to jee r at liim wh en he dec lin es Lo Le led. It is the
courage whi ch k eeps a m a n 11 a rd at work amid uncon ge nia l
surrounJi ngs at irkso me labor year in and yea r out until h e
fin a lly wins su ccess, while 11i8 weaker brethren who lack t he
staying powe r, or \\'ho have t hi rsted too much after pleas ure,
fall by the ways ide.
On th e othe r h and, phys ical cou r age is the qua lit.y wl1i ch
enables t h e man not so much to rna8te r himself as to h ohl his
own arno11 g o n ts ide rivals o r enemies . lt is t he qnality whi ch
is indispe nsable if a man is to he a goo<l soldi er, a goo d po li cem a n, a g ood fi rc111a11 , a good sa il o r ; .i.11 8hort, if he is to Rncceerl
i11 a nything requiri11g the qual ities o f bravery a nd hardih ood.
Ph ysical co urage is n ecessary to a ny man wh o would make hi s
fe llows r e8pect him, bnt it is n earl y U8eless i.f nn accompanied
by m ora l co urage. It w ill teach a 111a11 to l1 olcl his own in a
cow ca mp or a mini11 g to wn , btit i t will not save him fro 111
losing body and so ul in the sa loo ns 11nless it is back ed up by its
fin er brot her quality. P1rnsw1rnT H.oOSEVELT, in Th e Youth's
Companion.

238
258.

EXP0 8 ITION A 1VlJ ALW U NENT

A FLUS'l' _M A N UAL OF CU MP OSITl ON
Expositions of methods.
l. H OW TllE INDIANS PRODUCED FIRE

The ln dians prod uced fire in the following m a llu er . They
first took a dry stick abo ut a foot long and an i nc h in di :w t cler.
a nd after fl atte nin g both sides, so t lt at it was abo nt a fou rllt of
an in ch t hi ck, t h ey ca refu ll y made a sm all depression o n 0111• of
t he fl at s ides, a quarter of an inch fro m the ed ge. Oppo8ili·
t lii s lt ole a nick was cut in t he edge, a nd was co111 wcted wit h
th e depression by a small groove . ·w he n t ltese pre par:i.I i u 11 ~
were co111 pleted, th e i:;tick was placed on t he grou nd atl(l fir111ly
held by t h e lrnees. Th en a sle nde r stick of soft wood, ahou t
t he thickness of a pe nc il a nd from t we lve to fo n rtee n i11 che
long, was rapid ly t \r i rl efl liaek and fort h 1Je twee n the open
pal111s i n t he sttt a ll 1le pressio1t . ]n a short, time a fi ne 1l11 st was
for n1 erl at tlt e ju11 cl;ion of t he two st ic ks :ttt Ll, pai:;si11 g thrn11 ~li
t he g roove, fe ll in a liWe h eap within t he nic k 11t e11L io111•1l
above. Soon the 11 eat ca used by t he fri cti on set fire to Liu•
tl 1ts t., wit ich ·w as ca refnll y ye t 1111 ickl y transmi tted to such
itdlat11t11 a hl e s11hsta tt ces :ts mi glt t be 11ea r at h a nd. B y !h is
rn eth od t h ey wer e able to prodnce fire in from one to thr •o
miu11tes. ,J. lJ. FAs s1n 'T: Colonial Life in N ew lfr1.11111shire.
2. COOKER.¥ IN THE F JUJrnDLY ISL ANDS

I wonld like, fo r t h e ben efit of s uch of m y r eader s wh o l1 arn
no!; h eanl ye t of Ka11aka cookery, to say t h at i t is s i111pli1·ity
itself. A hole is scoopml in the earth in vvhich a fin") is lll:1<lu
(of woo1l) , anrl k ept hurnin g until a fai r-size<l heap of gfowi ni;:
cha rcoal re n1 a i11 s. Pebbl es are th e11 Lltrown in 1111Lil Utl' «'lia r·
coal i s cove red. I Vha.Ltw er is to be cooke'l is rntvPlnpPol iu
.leaves, pl aced upo n Lit e pebbl es, a 11,l more leaves h1·:q wcl 11 pon
i t.. Tit o ear t h is t ho11 Lltro w n back i11to Llt e cav il.y, :llld Wt" ll
stamped down.
A loug Lim e is, of co11rse, 1wedp1] f11r tlm
viands to ge t cooked t hro 11glt; but so sub\-.Je ii:; Lit e 11tod1• l hnl
overdoing anythi ng is a.lm ost an impossibil ity . A co11plt• of
days may pass from the time of ''p utting down" tlie joi nt , yl'l-

239

w lte n i t is <lug up it wi ll l>e s111oki11 g h ot, r etaining all its
Juices, t e11der a s jelly, but, wi t lrn l, as full of fla.Yor as it is
~~ssi~le fo r coukecl m eat t o be. No rnatl;e r how lar ge the
·!ornt is, or how toug h t he m eat, thi s ge ntl e s uas ion will rend er
i t s uccul ent a nd tasty; a nd no form of civilized cookery can in
t he least compare ·w ith it. F . T. B u J,LEN: Til e Cruise of the
Cachalot.
3. THE "SIMPLEST" WAY OF TYING A

now

Ther~ are t li.ree or four '.\·ays of tying a uow, but t he foll owing
rn et hod

IS t he s1111plest.
P nt t he tie around yo ur neck wi t h t he
lef~-h and e nd abn nt a co11pl e of incites l>elow t he r.ig h t. Ti e in
a srn g lc kn ot a 1)(l l>rin g Lit e le ft-ltaml e nd , w h ich s lt o uM f:iti ll lJe
t it :\ longer of th e. two, over so th :LI; it CO\'e rs t he r ig li t. Make t h e
l('lt-ltand loop of_ t he bow with tlt e rigl1t-h :md e nd , 1Yltich sh ould
t;Jwn b e at r igh t a ng les t;o t he left. Th en b rin g the left-l ia nd
~rnl 11p so tha t it goes r ig h t arou11'l t he left- lmnd loop. T h en
Jo ld t l1 e left-ha nd e n'l a 111l p ush it t ltro11 g h th e cen tre loop w hi ch
l1 as bee 11 for med. Jf this is do ne properly , t h e left-hand end
makes t lt e ri g h t bow of the tie, aml all t hat rPn-mi11s l.o be don e
is to pull tl1e under par t of the two bow s t.ig lt tly a 11 tl t lt e ti e wi ll
he fi xed . I Vlt e11 you h a ve once t iecl a how p rop e r ly, tl te matter
becorn es easie r and easier at every attempt. 1Jou 't beofo by
tryin g to t ie a dress tie.
b

259.

Expositions of causes.

1. CA USES OJ<' VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS

Tt is i n ter es ti ng to note t lt e ve ry differen t <'xpla11a.tio11s of tlie
co11tnt o11 est feat ures of Ut e eart h's snrface g i\-l' ll l•y Ll i1· old a nd
liy the 11cw t lll'o ri_c;; of geology. I tt e ve ry n1<lllltl.:ti t1 n·gio 11 of
th e globe deep vall eys, narrow ravines, a nd luff.y p rn, ~ipices a re
of co 11u11011 occurre nce, and t hese were , l>y Ute old schoo l, alinosL
always explai ned a s beill g cl 11 e to co n vuhions of na t nre. 1 11
ra.v!nes, we ·were ta ug ht t hat t he rocks hall liec11 "ton1 as under,"
wlnle the mountaius and the precipices were ind ications of

I:

-~ '

240

-

..
241

A FIR S T MA NUA L OF COMPOSITION

EXPOSITION AND A R GUNEN T

"sudden fractures a nd upheavals of the earth's crust." On t he
n ew theory, these phenom ena are found to be a lmost wholly du e
to th e slow action of th e most fam iliar everyd:Ly causes, such <t8
r ain, snow, fro st, and wind, with rivers, streams, and every form
of running water, actin g upon rocks of varying h ard ness, permeability, and solu\Jility. ALFHED RUSSELL w·ALLACE: Tlte
1Vvnde1ful Century.

see produced all those wondrous co mbin ation s oE tiu ts and t h ose
gorgeo t1 s, ever ch a ng ing color s, whi ch a re a co n sta nt so m ce oE
ad miratio n and deli ght to a ll who ha ve th e advantage of an
uninte rrup ted vie w to t h e west. and who are acc nstorn ed to
·w atch fo r these u ot unfreq uent cxhi bi tio ns of nat nre's kalei<loscopic color painti ng. " Tith ever y change in the altitu de of
th e sun the display ch anges its characLer; a nd m ost of al 1 '"hen
it h as sunk below the h orizon, and, owing to t li e m ore favorabl e
a ng les, a lar ger qnantity of t h e colore<l lig ht is refl ected to ward
us. E specia lly when there is a. cert.a in an 1o uu t of clo ud is t his
the case. Th ese, so lo ng as the sun was above the li orizo11 ,
inter cepted much of t he li ght and color; Lut wl1 e n t he g reat
luminar y h as passed away fro m our direc t; Yi sion , 11is li ght
shines more directly Oil t he under sides of a ll the clonds a11cl
air strata of different densities; a ne w and m ore brilliant li g ht
fln sh es th e w es te rn sky, and a display o{ gorgeou s ever clrnn gi11g
tin f;s occnrs whi ch are at once th e Lle lig lt t of th e Le hold er a nd
th e despair of the artist. And a ll t l1 is 1msu rpassahle glory we
owe to-dust! ALFHED H uss 1<; LL "r .\LLA C I~ : Th e l Vvnde1jitl
Century .

2. THE CAUSE OF COLORS IN THE SKY
lf we look at the sky on a perfectly fin e swnmer 's day, we
shall find that the blu e color is the most pure and inten se over
h ead, to on e looki ng hi g h up in a direction opposite t o the sun.
Near th e h orizon it is a lways less bri g ht, while in the r eg ion
imm ediate ly ro und th e sun it is more or less yellow. The
reaso n of this i s t h at 11 ear the horizon we look throug h a very
great thickness of t he lower atmosphere, which is foll of the
larger dust p articles r e fl ectin g white lig ht, and th is dilutes t lie
pure blue of t h e hi g her atlllosphere seen b eyond. And in
the vici nity of the sun a good deal of the blue li g ht is r eflected
back iuto sp ace b y the finer du st, thus giving a yello-wish t i11 gc
to that which r eac hes u s, refl ected chiefly from t he coarse dust of
th e lower atmosphere. At snn set and sunrise, however, thiR
last effect is greatly intensified, owing to the great thickn ess of
the strata of air t hroug h which the light reach es us. Th e e normous amount of this dllsl; is \Vell shown by the fact that t hen,
on ly, we can look full at the sun, even wh en the whole sky i8
free from clo uds and th ere is no apparent mist. But the sn n 's
rav s t hen r each u s aft.er h avin g passed, first, throug h an e no rrnot1 ~
th.ickness of the higher strata of the air, t he minnte <l1tst (If
which reflects most of the blue rays away from u s, leaving the
complem e ntary yellow li g ht to pass on. Then , the som ewhat
coarser dust reflects the green r ays, leaving a more orange
color ed lig ht to pass on ; and finall y some of the yellow is
r efl ect ed, leaving a lmost pure r eel. But owi ng to the COll st.ant
presence of air currents, arrangin g both t he dust and vapor in
strata of varying extent a nd de nsity, and of high or low c l o wl ~,
which both absorb and reflec t the light in vary ing degrees, we

1

260. Expositions of mechanical principles.
1. PIETWE'S DARTING GUN

Theoretically, it was an ideal tool for such work, its chi ef
drawback being its cnmbrousuess. It was kn own as" Pier ce's
darting g nn," Lei11g a co mbination of b ornh-g 1u1 a nd harpoon,
capab le of bei11g darted .at t he wh a le like a plain h arpooll. l ts
construction was simple; irnleed , the patte rn was a ve ry old one.
A tube of brass, t hicke ni ng toward th e bntt, at which was a
square cli a1nber firmly welded to a socket for r eceiv ill g the pole,
formed the gu n i tself. \ ,Yithin the chamber afor esaid a nippl e
protruded fro m the b ase of t he t nbe, anrl in lin e with it. Th e
t ri gger was simply a fl :it bit of stee l, like a piece of clock-sprill g-,
which wa.s held down by t he h ook e<l encl of a st.ee l rorl long
enough to stick o ut beyond the muzz le of th e gun th ree or fou r
inches, a nd held in positio n by tw o flanges at the butt a nd
R

243

A FIHST MANUAL OF COMPOSITIO N

EXPOSITION AN lJ A UGUJlfENT

of the lmrrel. On L11e opposite sid e of th e tube were L\\"<>
rnore flan ges, close toge th e r, i11Lo th e holes of which was i_nserl t'.d
th ee n<l of a spec ia lly nrnd e h arpoo11, h avi ng au eye _tw1stet.l,1n
its shank through which the whale-liu e was spliced. .I he
w hole machine was fitted Lo a neat pole, a1t1l stro ng ly sec11n·1 l
to it by m eans o f a" g11n \Yarp," or short piece of t h_i11 line, ],_,which it coulll be hau led back into the boat after berng <larlt•d
at a whal e. To pre pare this weapon for u se, the harrel \Ya s
loaded with a ch a rge of powde r and a bolllh similn.r to 1.h(lsl'
u setl in the sh ould e r-g uu s, th e point of whi ch :just proLrndi•d
fr o 111 t he muzzl e . An ordi na ry p2rc uss ion cap \Vas pl aced 11po11
th e nipple, a nd th e tri gger cocked by placin g the trigger-r()(l in
pos ition . The harpoo n, with t he line atlac lied, was firmly set
in Lo th e socketed fl a nges l're pared for it, :tllll the whol e a rrangem e nt was th e n reatly to be darted at th e wl1al c in th e 11 s11 a l way.
Supposing t,he ai 111 to be good and Lite force s uffi cie nt, l l1 P
harpoo n would pe netrate th e blnbber until th e e ml of tl1 e
trig-ger-rod was clriven l.>ackwanl hy striking th e hlttl>lH·r,
re l.easing the t ri gger and firing the gun. Tims tl_1 e \\ hal<>
would l>e h a rpoo ned a nd ho111u-la11 cetl at the sa111 e _t1111 e, and.
s upposi ng everythin g to work satisfacLo ril y, ve ry li ttle 111orc
wonlLl be needed to fini sh him. But Lhe weapon was so c11111be rso 111c a nd awkward, aml th e h arpooner s stooLl in s uch a"·" of
it., that in t he m a jor ity of cases th e \\·hal e was either 111i ~~ 1 : t1
alt.ogether or th e harpoon got s uch sli ght hol<l lhrit t he g11n did
not go off, th e r esnlt being ge nerally disastrous. FHA1'1\ .J.
BuL;,EN: Th e Crnise of the Cachalot.

spring has bee n fon 11cl the mos t co11 ve 11 i<~ 11 t form of 111 0Lo r, and
it is give n pow e r by the flaily act of winclin g it up. ln o rd er
to rnak e this unwinding of th e spr in g take up as long a period
of tim e as possible, what is kn own as the "Lrai11 of wl1 eels " is
use<l. Tl1is is showu in Fig. ;)l, the wheels being arrnuged in

2-1:2
11111 zzlc

2. Tlrn l'JUNCII'LE OF Tlrn WATCII
Eve ry o ne who aspires to know so11 1e Lhi11g o[ m ?c ha1~ism
sho uld acqnire a knowl ed ge of th e prin cipl ei-; 0 11 win ch t.1111 0pioces operate, aml to this e nd a brief <l e sc ript.i o n is gi '·'. !11 h'. 'l'l'Th e firs t thing to be born e in rnin (l is Lhn,I; what 1S _rcqn1rPd 111 1~
watc h is siinpl y so111e ni ech an iRm thn.t, will kee p go_111 g, and turn
pninLe rs around on :t dial at a n eve n speed. Tl1e s1111plest. 1111•1·h·
anis111 that will do this is t he best- Some fo rm of po\\' er 11111 st
be u sed, for no machine will do work without pow er. A spiral

\

'fllEORETICAL WATCH-TRAIN .

a lin e, for the sak e of c learness, instea<l of c rowd ed togethe r, as
in a wa tc h, to save space. I 11 tl 1c C<"ntrc of \,J1c large w l1 ee l
(Fig. :n) we see a littl e square po><t wl1i ch th e watch-k ey g rasps
'iVh e 11 we wind it. Turning t hi s .J.'OSt or aruor tends to wrap
t he sp ring aro11 11J it ; a nd wh en t he spring is wo und, it is lt elcl
in its case - or barrel , as it is ca ll ed - by the pawl whi ch we
see sto pping one ol' t he sha rp ratc het-Lee th i11 i ts periph e ry . In
its e11Jeavo r to unwind, th e sprin g exe rts a pressm e of seve ral
ounces against this pawl, and as th e pa\\·l is fast to the body of
th e wh eel, th e tellll e ncy is to 111ake Lite \\·hee l turn arouml,
whi ch i s what it d oes . Th e wh eel would turn around and
allow the spring to unwind even 111 ore rapidly than it was
wo1111cl 1111 if it we re not ch ecked by cl e l:tying n1 ec lta11is111 , wl1i ch
w e s h:ill d esc ribe fart her 011. J\ t pre><cnt we n111 st \,race t.lt e
motion through this train of wl1 eels. AL t lt e ce ntre of the
second, o r next to l<trgest wh ee l (Fig. 31) we see a circul ar s pot
that represe nts the e11d of th e pinion. This pinion is a liLLl e
t ooth ed axle fas t to the large i,ooth cd wl1 ee l, of whi ch it forrns
th e ce ntre . The tee th of bi g wh ee l No. l eng age th e Le et.Ii of
th e pinion of w heel No . 2, and thu s rlri ve No. 2 as man y tim es
faster than No. 1 as tl1 e big wh ee l is ti111 es larger t h an t he
pinion. lf there are seventy-eight teeth 011 the big wh eel, and

244

A FIRST .MANUAL OF COMPOSITIO N

te n teet h on t11 e piuio n, t he second wheel will have .a bont 0111•.
e ig h t h tJ1 e s p ee1l of the first. In like 111 a nn e r t h e seco ml wh N·I
acts 0 11 the t.hird , and t h e t hird on the fourtl1, so t hat tlin third
wheel revolves 8ix ty ti m es as fast as t h e first, a rnl so 011. 11 :u-i ng
ll ow red 11 ce cl the sp ce1l of the wh ee ls s ufficie n t ly, we mu st ll l'Xt
use a reg1tla t i11 g 111 ec h a 11i s 1n to clH~c k the 111 otin 11 of the '"l1 ole
tra in, '"hi c h 1\' 0 11l<l fit.i ll lie c 11t i1e ly too fast for o m 11se j( le ft. to
nm, c h ec k P11 only by t h e friction o ( i ts liearings. The rn ec ku1 i s1 11 we rnake use of is th e eseape n1 ent, which is partly s ho wn
in Fig. 80 , as <l ri rnn by the fo urth wheel.
C. IL Coc 11ttA NB : Th e IVun<lers of Nudern Jliechrmism.

261. Expositions of character.
1. STEVENSON'S C LIARM

H e was the o nl y rn a n l lmve ever known wl10 p osscssell clmnn
in a l1.i g l1 d eg ree, wl1o se ch a racte r did n ot suffer fr o nt t h e l'O~­
sess io n. Th e g ift co m es 11 at urall y to w om e n, and thPy are at
th e ir liest i11 i ts exe reise. But a m a n r e<1ttires to ue of a Ye r y
so 1111cl fib e r b efo re h e can b e en tire ly 11iJ11 self and k eep hi s h ca 1:t
sing le . i f li e ca rri es a h ont '"itlt him a fo.li sm a n to o li tain fr olll
all m e n a11cl all " ·o rne n tl1 c ohject of hi s l1 cart's desire. JJoth
g ift;;; ·" tew n C'n n p o;;sL'S."t•d. 11 0 (· 0111.1· th e lll;i g ic liu t also t h e
s tTe 11 gth o f c hara cte r t o " l1i ch it 1rns sa fe ly intrnste d.
Bu t "·11 0 s hall bring l.1ac k that. charm '? ·\rli o !' h a ll 1111 fo ld it s
sec ret'? H e \Ya S all that J h aYe said; lie 1rns in cxhau stilil <', li e
1qs lnilli a nt, h e \\';-t S r o 111 a11tic, li e \\'CIS fi e ry, h r~ wa s te 11rlr· r, i11~
11as Ul':lY C, J1 e \\·as kinrl . " "jtJi aJl this th e re "\Ye 11t fiO lll etJii11 g
11HJre. Il e ahY ays lik w l tl1c p eopl e li e '"r:s " ·it h. and fo 1111rl tlw
l 11~ st and bright es t. t h at. mis i11 th e m ; h e e n terecl into all t he
t l1 o ng hts and rn oorl s of hi s co mp:rni ons, anrl krl th em along]' IP.asa n t '"a.n', nr rai ser] t l1 P111 t o a co nragc an(l a g ;iyety like l1is
r11n1.
If c riti cislll o r r e 111i11i sce nce !ms y ie ld ed a ny for t li e r c l11c irlati o n of J1i s s pc l l, I d o 11 nt know; it d efies 111 y analysi s, 11ur
h ave I ern r h earcl it e xplain ed.
GRAHAM 13ALroun: L(fe of Rubert Louis St eve nson.

E.XPOSI1'10N .AND .ARGUMENT

2.f G

2. ULYSSES S. GRANT

It was one of the 111 ost p icturesq u e mom ents in t he his tory of
Horn e wh e n afte r th e battle 0£ Can11 ::e was l ost and th e R o 111an
a rn1y a lm ost auniliilated - while llan11iua l, t h e Carth agini a n
ge 11 eral, w as m eas uring by Lus hels Lite go ld ring s of t he slai n
Jto1nan k11i g ltts - th e wliolo l'eople of t h e ci ty 1re11t o ut; lo g reet
wiLlt honor t h e.ir defeated ge 11 ern l T cr enLi tt s Varro , a rnl to Lear
him a vote o f Lhank s from the sena te for" not having d espaire<l
o f the r e pHbli c."
The vast obsc<1ui es celehrnLed all over t he land to-day a r e 11o t
ill l1 0 11 or o( a d deatcd g e nera l, lm t; oE a v ic torious o n e ; yet t.he
g r o u11d of gratitud e is the sa111 e as in t hat H o man 1mgean t .
011r civil war, like t hat l>e tw ee 11 B u rn e a ll <l Cart l1 age, b ega n in
d efeat a nd was trnu sfo nned into victory, beca use h e wlwm we
ce le brate lli<l n ot d espair of t l1 c re pnhlic. Front t h e t ime when
l1 is s uccef:lses :tt Fort DoHelsoH an<l Yickslrnrg fi rst turned the
tide of adv<~ rs i ty, until tlie day wh e n li e received L ee's surre nd e r , it was Lo hi111 'Ne look ed . Nor was t his all. There was in
a ll this so rn ethi11g lll or e t han m er e ge n erai sliip. Generalship
i s imdo ub ted ly a sp ec ia l g if t, a l111ost amounting (,o ge 1Lius - a
man is b on1 to it, as h e i s for p oet ry. or ch ess-playing. or co 111m e rce; and as i11 tl wse ot h e r Yocat io ns, fiO in t l1is. his f'UCcess i11
o n e directio n d oes n ot prom him eq ua ll y s1ro 11 g i11 a ll. TltE'rt'
are 111 a ny \rays i11 " ·l1i ch G e uc ral Cr:wt dot's 111Jt rank 11ith t h e
g rea test of so n s of rn e n. H e 11·as 1rnnting in 111 a 11 y of th e g ifts
arnl eYc n tastes "·l1i cl1 rai.~e 11 ia11 to l1i:o: l1i g l1 e st; h e did not
g" l'l~ atl y ca re for i ioetry, pliil os()1il1 y. 111u s ic, p a int i11 g , sc 1ilp t ure,
uatural fic ie llce. Tl ie on e a r t for 1rl1i e li li e l1 arl a gc 11i11s is o n e
t lia t mu st b e fl ee tin g a nd p eris li a bl e. com pared to tl1 ese; fo r t h e
human race 111us t in its i• rogrr~ss o u tgrow 11·a r. B11t a re ma rk·
abl e p er so11al riuality n en' r ca n h e ig 11 o re il: i f n ot slio11·11 i11 011e
\Ya y it will lie s l1 0\\·n i n a1JfJtl1 c r: a11rl t.l1i s p e rsu n a l qua li ty
Grant h a cl. L et it s a 11alyze su m e o f it s aspect~ .
Jl e was grf'at, i11 L l1 <~ first; placP, Ll1ro11 g l1 Ll1 n 111Prr~ f:lcalc of l1i s
\York. Hi s 1utniber of trnops . tl1 e vast area of l1i s ope ra t io 11 s,
\\' li en lie t ook
s11rp;isf>< 1l wh at Lite world li:11l h efm e suuu.
Hi,OOU prisoners at Fort D o n e lso n, t li e cap ture was three ti111 es
0

246

241

A 1<ZR8'P NANlTAL UF C0jJff>OSI1'10N

EXPOSI'.l'JON AN j) A1WU.MEN'l'

as large as " ·hen Durgoy11 e s nrrenJcr eJ, in t he only A1ncri can
batt.le thought irnportaut e110u gh to be mentioned by Sir E(lwanl
Creasy in lii s "Fifteen Decisive Batt les of the \Vorld." \\' ltP11,
u11 .In ly 1, 1oG:1, he took Vicksburg, he receiveJ what was t l1 1 ~ 11
clai111 e1l Lo 111~ th e greatest; capt ure of rn eu aml ar111arn e11t si11l·1·
the i11ventiu11 of gn11 powder , and perhaps since the beginnin g of
reconle1l hi story. Ifo captnred 15 gc1 1cral8, 31,GOO soldi ers, and
172 ca1111on. For victories less than this ~Juliu s Cmsar was
made dictator for ten yea.rs, aml hi s statue \Yas carried in processions with those of the i11rn1ortal gods. C:oesar at l'lmrsali:t
took but 21,000 prison ers; N:tpoleoll at Ul m, 23,000; ll a 1111ibal
at Canmc, b ut 20,000. Y et tl1ese in Grant's case were but
specia l Yictorics. How great, then, lii s power when at the head
of the anuies of the U11itcJ States ! N either o[ these three
great co m nrnnders ever direc ted the mov ements of a mil lion
men. The m ere coarse estimate of numuers, therefore, is the
first measure of Grant's fam e .
.Bnt mere JJttmliers are a subordinate ma.tter. Ile s1u·passc1l
liis predecessors also in the digllity of t he object for wliich he
fo11ght. T l1 e three great gr,nerals of t he worl1l are 11 s11 a lly
e 11n111 crated-followi11g 1\lac:t11lay - as being Crcsar, Cru 11mell,
a11d Napoleon. Two of these fought in wars of mere cu11<pwst,
and the co11 test.s of th e th ird were marred by a g loo my fa11aLicism, uy cn 1clty, a11<l by selfislrn ess. Ge11 eral GraHt fought to
restore a i1ation, that natio11 beillg tl:e hope of the world. A1Hl
he resto red it. II is work was as complete as it was importa.11t..
Crcsa r llied h y violen ce ; Napoleon died defeated; Crurnwell 's
work crn rnl.il cd to pieces wl1 e11 his hand was cold. Gra11t's
career triumphed iu its endi ng; it is at its heigl1t to-day. It
was finely said by a .M assachusetts states111an that we did 11nt
fight to bring onr opponents to our feet, but only to ou r sid e.
Gra11t to-day brings ltis 011po nents literally to his side, when
they act n s p:d !-hearers aro nml his coffin.
The n ext t hin g re markab le about him wa.s the spirit in whi ch
he fought. H e belonged in his whole temperament tu the
Anglo-Saxon or Germanic type of generals, and not to the
French or Latin type.

\Vii en we cnme to th e mere exec utiv e qualities involved i 11
fighti11g, we fin<l that, Grant habitually co ml>ined in actio11 two
thi11gs rare ly brought togethe r, - q u.ick 11 ess aml perse verance.
That co 11l1l be saicl of him which 1\lalcol111 1\fcLeotl saitl of
Cl1:tr l1•s Ed\r:trcl, t.110 J'rcLemkr, "lfe is the hrar es t rna.11, not
to lie rn.sl1, and th e 111 ost ca11tio11s ma.11, 11 ot to he cowanl , that [
ever saw." Ile did not l1av e t he visib le and co 11 spicuous dash
of Slwrnrn11 or Sheridan; li e was rather the kind o{ rnau ,rJ10111
tl1cy needed to 11ave behiu<l them. llnt i11 quick11 ess of npprehensio n a11<l .actio11 , where this quality was needed, he was not
th eir ill(erior, if th ey were eve n l1 is eq11 als. Ile owe(l to it liis
first consp icuo us victo ry at Fort Don elson. Looking at th e
k11apsacks o[ the slain c 11 c111 y, he di sco verc1l tl1at tl1 ey huld three
days' raLio11s, an<l knew, therefore, t hat they were trying to get
away. UnJer this stimulus he renewed the attack, and the day
was won.
1\loreover, it is to be lloticed that he was, in a ll his action as
a co1111n amler, esse nt ially original - a rnau of initiati\'e, not of
routine. H e was si11gularly free fro111 tl1e habit of d epending
on oLhers.
A1Hl to crow n all tl1esc qualities was adtled one more, that
of personal modesty. \\' hell , at llarnl111rg, Genna uy, he "·as
toasted as "the man who had saved t he 11ation," he replied,
" Wh at saved the Union was the co lllin g forward of the yo nng
men of the country." Ile put down tl1e pride of th e German
officers, th e rnost self-sufficient military a ri stocracy of the " ·orld,
by qnietly Jisclaiming the assumption of uei11g a sol<lier at all.
H e said to Bismarck: "I am more a farmer th an a soldier. I
take littl e or no interest in military affai rs, an cl, though I
entered the army thirty-five years ago a 11(l have bee 11 in two
wars - th e Mexican as a young lieutena11t- and later [m ark th e
exquisite moderation of that "and la ter"] I never went into
the army without r egret, and neve r retired without pleas ure."
Such a remark from the greatest captain of the age disarmed
even German criticism.
He told Hisirntrck, as we have seen, t hat he never entered on
a war without regret or retired from it without pleasure. But

1

2-±S

A F IR S T J1fANUAL OF COMP08ITION

lie wa.s d esLin ed to e n ter on ju st o ne more c::unpaign-aga i11 ~t.
pain allll disease co111 biued with smlden p overty. lt was a formid a lile coalil.ion. Jt is so111etimes said that it is easie r to di e
well t h a n to liYe ·well ; but it is h a rder t h a n ei t her to grow old.
lrn ow i11 g- t h at o ne's g reat pe riod of actio 11 is p ast, a nd we ig lu •d
down with th e llonble weight of hopeless financi:ll fai lur< ~ and
irre n1ediaLle Lodily pain. Eith er bank rup tcy or physical Lurt11re h as Ly itself c rn s hed 111a11 y a n1an morall y a nd 111e nlall y;
lmt C:ra11t.'s greatest ean1l'aign was wheu h e res.i stcd t h em hut.Ii.
Upo n s uclt a ca1npa ig 11 :ls t hi s lt e 111i g h t we ll , as h e said, shrink
front e11te ri11 g; lrnt ltav i11g IJee ll olJliged to e nte r upon it, he \\'n S
sti ll Gran t . Thousand s of An1eric~t11 s h ave felt a, sense of 11 Pa rn ess to hi111 a 11d a se 11. ·e of pride in hi111 dming t h e last fe w
lllo11ths such as t hey n ever fe lt IJe fore. )J c was a lready a he ro
in w a r to ns. The last few 111 ont h s h ave made him a h ero of
p eace, 111ilPs pac!ficus.
Jt h as IJee n a lrea(ly said tlt at t h e s11pre rn e geu eral s o f t.l1e
world we re C:-csar, Cro mw ell , and Napoleon. Gran t w as bel1ind
a ll t hree of t hese iu variety of c111 Li,·at,io n a nd in 111 a ny of t.l1P
'l ual i ties t h at nrnkes a 111a 11 's biog ra ph y piet11 resq ne a 11d fasei11 ati11 g. li e may Le said to l1 ave see nie d a li tt le prosaic, co111pared ·with a11y on e of these. But ill m oral q ua lit ies he was n,l>o rn
t lt em a ll ; n1 ore t rn t hf ul , more 1111 selfish, 111 ore simple, lllnre
hHnHtll e. Ir e fe ll s hor t of \Vas lti11gto11 in t his, t h at he was not
e<1ually great in war and states 111 a 11s hi p; bHt his q 11a li ties wen•
wit lti11 reac h o[ a ll; his ve ry d efects were w.i t hin reac h of all;
a nd li e will Jo11 g be wiL!t 'Va::d1i11 gL0 11 a1111 Lin coln t he Lyl'il'al
A1t1 e ri. ca11 ill Lit e publi c eyes . It is this typica l <pm li ty afLcr all
that is 111 0s(; Yal11 al> le . Jli s fa1 11 e rest.s upo n t he broadPst and
s urest of a ll ped esLal s, as broa11 as co111111 on l11u11 a 11it.y. li1 !
sce 111s greatest l1ec:wse he was 11 0 d etac hed or id eal hl'ro, l111 L
si 111pl y t h e r e presc11Lative of us all .
'1'110MAS W"1rnT wo1n11 lI1cc 1NsoN .

262. Argument. Tn exposi tion we explain pn11c1ples which are already estaulished. For exn,111pl c,

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT

249

steam engines exist, anu their existence is due to an
established principle: namely , that steam expamls.
In argument, on the other hand, we have to estaulish the principle. Here we use explanation in order
to prove the principle. A rg ument c011sists in attemptin g to prove. It is aduresseu to an audience that is
not satisfied of the truth of a given statement.
The process of argument is t herefore that of giving
reasons for the arguer's belief. He wishes to make
his audience believe as h e does. If you see a little
chilli playing with matches, yo u go to him and try to
give him r easons for letting matches alone. You
show him that a match can easily be ig ni ted. Then
you hold the ] ig hteu match near enough to his finger
to make him uu comfo rtaule. You then assure him
that the match is "bacl," anu may "burn baby .,,
And possibly you will bring him to believe this for a short time.
263. Now, it is clear that yo u cannot convince a
r easonable person unless you can present good
reasons. Therefo re the first step in Leco mi11 g a
master of argument is to get good reas011s for your
assertions. If you cannot con vince yourself that a
g iven proposition is true, it is unwise to try to
convince any one else. You mu st learn to reason
well. You must learn to draw sound conclusions.
In other words, you must become a logical t hinker
aoout th e matter in hand; a log ical thinker is one
who draws sound conclusions.

250

A FIRST MANUAL OF CQ j\fPOS I'./'lON

264. Four rules for sound reasoning. There arc
four rules which will h elp nny person to beco111c
a log ical thinker. They are: 1. Observe ns m~wy
exnrnples as possiLle before drawin g a concl usion.
2. Do n ot mlst~Llrn what happens to follow for wlmt
results. 3. Do n ot mistake an ins ignificant r ese mbbnce for a significant one. 4. Be sure yo u know
the exact meaning of a word before yon employ it in
reasomng .
vVe must now examin e the meaning of these rules.
265. Rule 1. Observe as many examples as possible
before drawing a conclusion.

If, on seeing a cr ow for the first time, one shoultl
exclaim, " Ah ! so crows are black ! " he would be
reasonin o- from a particular truth about on e crow
b
..
to a ae uernl conclusion about all crow s. But it Ii'!
b
1 .
f
1
harLlly
a, safe thin g to draw a cone u s10n rom ~n .Y
one varticular. There are occasionally such thrngs
as white crows, and, happening on su ch tt one, our
philosopher might be unlucky enough to say, "Ah !
so crows are white ! "
A car eful thinker tries to avoid hasty co nclm;iou s.
B efore Da,rwin would express any opinion as to
whether earthworms show an instinct in their wn y
of h andling leaves he exn,mined two humlrc<l a1ul
twe 11t.y-scvcn lcav eR drawn out; of the h11n·(~\YH of
'l'l1 e 1·e ·•1·e
fe w t11inas
about wlu ch we
worm s.
'" very
·
b
can be positive. The sun has risen for a grea~ 111a'.1y
mornings, and it is highly probaLle that it will n sc

EXPOS I TION AND ARGUMENT

251

to-morrow; but we cannot be positive; it might
not. It is a g reat lesson that a lad learns when h e
learns to say "probably" or "possiLly . " Think of
the number of things that h ave not h appe ned in
sp ite of t he fact that we were sure they would
h appen!
In any class there are several kinds of students. There is the quick stud ent who is us ually
wrong. There is the slow student who is generally rigl1t.
There is tl1e slow st udent who is
generally wrong. But mind yo u - there are ve ry
few quick students w ho are ge nerally rig ht. Quick
students are often ri g ht when it is merely a question
of memory . But when the teachers ask TY!ty, it is
the slow, thoughtful fellow who finds tlte correct
answer. A gootl teacher n ever wishes too prompt
an answer to the q u estion 1Vlty.
The difference bet ween t lie hasty mind and the
careful is well illustrated by the following anecdote :
At an evenin g party one of the gen t lemen said, "I
don't believe we appreciate what a steady ohl slowcoach the human brain is. If, for instance, I ask a
quest ion whi ch is entirely n ew to yo u, Lut which
yo ur brain mistakes fo r a query quite similar in constrnctio11, it will go a head and telegraph the wrong
reply ."
"That sounds interesting ," said one of the g uests,
"but show us an example."

.i

I

I

252

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT

A FIRST MAN UA L OF COMPOSITlON

253

I
I

I " ·in,·· said th e first speak er. "on t h e conditi on
that you an s,Ter it promptly.' · H e smiled, an(l tlt e11,
withou t an:· liast e. r1uiet l_,- as ked, " \\'"ho saHd the
' 1

life of P oca hnn tas '? ··
".John Smith'. ·· roared hHnt,,- Toic es.
"1 ou see,,. sa id th e questioner.
Examine the followin g sulJjects and say wlietltcr
you lmve persmmlly ohserYell enough facts in reganl
to any of them to entitle yo u to an opinion on it:
(1) n o a11i111als r cnso11? (:.?) Do a11ts \H1rk for ~e ,·e ral Ii.ours
" ·it·. Jw 11 t. re,-t? Cl) lloes tle\\· fall'? ( -l) .\re. pll'kled lrn1 cs
lik ed bY manY ~· iris '! ('i) I s it he11efi.c inl to most people to
take n. co ld b~tl; dnil,Y? (ti) Ought departrne11t stores to he
prohibited? (I) l>o fo: h l1 enr noises? ( S) Do \roodp_eckers
drink sap? (0) Ought a boy of folll'lee n to choose nil Ins own
subjects of study?
0

266. Rule 2.

Do

not

mistake what

happens

to

follow for what results.

Read aloud the following passa.ge:
Kenelm Di gby 's treatment of wounds was to apply ~n ?intrnent not1 lo tl 1e wound itself, but; to t he sword that had rn f1 1de1l
it, to,clresR t hi s carefull y at reg ular jnt€rvalf;, .and in the 111cru1ti me, h:wing Lon nd up the wound, to leave 1t alo ne for seve.n
<lays. lt was observed that many cures follow ed upon tills
trea,trnent.

Diel the cures follow because of the treatment?
Black cats are often seen (iu neighborhoods where
there ~tre a good many), and sometimes people wl10
see black cats are fortunate on the same clay. Have

'iYe a rig ht to infer that th e good fortune foll o'iYS
beca us e of the blac k cat? ~l e r c hants som etim es
place a l1orses hoe o,·er tli e doo r. ancl aft er that
th ey make moner. A re 11·e 'irn rrant ecl in thin king
that th e money-making r ps ults from the horsesh oe?
Blacksmitl1s make horseshoes, and afterward some
lose their money. Do they lose their money because
making horseshoes earned it?
R ead the instan ces g iven below, and exvress
yonr op1111on as to t.he real causes of tho facts
mentioned.

I

l
I

1. It is not snfe to eat baked app les afte r a hear ty sqpper;
for a rnnn who \Yas in the habit of tloin g so always s ufferell
from indiges tion .
2. Bernardin de Saint-P.ierre said : ""rherever fl eas are th ey
jnmp on white colors. This instin ct has bee n girnn them,
because it is necessary for us to catch th e m."
3. At a certain seacoast town it was noted that at th e arrival
of ships nearly everybody caught cold, a nd it was general ly
believed that the arrival of ships prodlll:cJ Lite Jisease . A
certain physician declared that the colds were due, not to the
mere arrival of s hips, but to some c01 1tagio 11 from the man y
foreigners. H was also noticed af; a lat.er daL1~ Lli:i.L sl1ips eo11ld
not arrive ~tt this pOTt except when the wind was from the
northeast.

267.

Rule 3.

I

I

Do not mistake an insignificant resem-

If several things are
alike, an important g en eral truth may underlie the
resemblance. \iVe O\Ve lightning rods and lJl'Obahly
electric lights to the fact that Benjamin Franklin
could see resembla1i.ces. Rea<l the following memo-

blance for a

I~

significant one.

'""
"

''
'
''
'

.....
..
"
'"
"" ''

ti::
'.

;:;

ii

:a
..=
:· ~
" '!'!'

254

255

A FIRST NA NUAL OF COMPO S ITION

EXPOSITION AND A RGUllfENT

ranua from Franklin's jounrn.l. Supply at the end a
reasonable conclusion to the chain 0£ resembl::mce~.

vVltat significant liken ess betwee n an apple and
the moon was p erceived Ly Newton?
Study the following and say whether you think the
conclusion warranted or unwarranted. Give reasons
for your opinion.

Electrical A1Lid agrees with l ig htni ng in the followiug particulars: l, giYing li g ht ; 2, color of th e light ; i3, crookell direction; 4, swift motio11; !), being conducted by metals ; G, crack
or noise in exp lodi11g; 7, subsisting in water or ice ; 8, rending
bodies it passes through; 9, de stroying ani1 11 als; 10, meltin g
metals; 11, fi rin g infla111mable su hstances; 12, sulphurous smell.
The electrical fluid is attracted by points. Therefore, probably, . . .

Of course there is al ways danger of mistaking an
insi gnificant resemblance for one that is really significant. The baby notes that the sunlight is pretty
and the candle-Hame is pretty, and concludes tlmt
because he may reach out his hands safely to one li e
may to the other. lie has not wit enough to bring
his finger slowly toward the flame, observing by e:cp erinient whether the heat increases. Every guess at
truth is valuable, because it may be right; but it is
valuable chiefly as a basis of experiment. Where we
cannot experiment we must be extremely cautious
about asserting.
Point out r esemblances and say whether th ey :u;e
significant or insignificant, bet1veen: (1) oil and
water; (2) a cat and a tiger; (3) a tlog ~rnd a wolf;
(4) a bear aml a rnccoon; (5) the English word cold
and t h e Italim1 word caldo, meaning warm; (G) a
leaf aml a petal.
Point out rm insignificant resemblance between
the moon and an apple.

' Ve may observe a very great similitude between this ea rth
which we inhabit a nd t he other plan ets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
Ve11us, aud Merc ury. Th ey all revolve round t li e sun, as t he
earth does, although at different distances and in different
periods. They borrow all thei r li ght from th e sun, as the earth
does. Several of them are known to revolve round i;heir axis
like th e earth , and by t hat means have like succession of day
aml ni ght. Some of them hav e m oon s, that serv e to give them
light in the abse nce of the snn , as our m oon does to u s. They are
all, in their m otions, subject to the sa me lavv of gravitation as
the earth is. From all similitude it is not unreasonabl e to think
that these planets may, like our earth, be th e habitation of various orders of living creatm·es. HEID, quoted by Minto: Logic.

vVhat has been said about the importance of seeing
resemblances is hardly less true in the case of differences.
State any differences you h<we ever noted between :
(1) edible and poisonous mushrooms; (2) true and
counterfeit notes; (3) true and counterfeit coins;
(4) doughnuts and crullers; ( 5) a student working
after a heavy lunch, and a student working after a
light lunch; (6) a boy who blacks the heels of his
shoes, and one who does not.
268. Rule
of a

4.

Be sure you know the exact meaning

word before you employ it in reasoning.

Say

256

A FIR BT ~MANUAL OF C0.11fP08I1'10N

exactly what each of these words means- i( you
can: fair, C hristian, democratic, liberty, free-will.
..Many words, as you see, are capable of several interpretations; they are ambiguous, or posscssc<l of
more than one meaning. It is likely that our ehain
of reasoning will lead to a wrong conclusion u11lcs13
we give the reader to umlersLaucl what each 11nporta,nt word 've use means to us.
Discuss the meaniug of the italic words in the
following r esol utions: (1) Hesolved that department
stores ought to ue abolished; (2) Resolved thaL
swearing is a worse habit than lying . (3) Resolvctl
that insurance is gambling.
269. Exa,mine the following pieces of reasoning-.
Point out in each case whether the conclusion drawn
is impossible, improbable, possible, probable, or highly
probable. If it is impossible or improbable, try to
show wherein the reasoning is bad.
1. Man is a biped without feathers. A plnckecl goose is a
biped without feathers . Therefore man is a pluck ed goose.
2. Napoleon's handwriting and spelling were bad. 1\ly
handwriting and spelling are bad. Therefore I shall beco rne a
great general.
3. London is not in the mountains. Paris is n ot in ilro
mount.ains. New York is not in the mountains. Chicago i8
not in the mountains. Tl1erefore we may conclude that largo
cities are never in the mou11t.ai11s.
4. Grant and Lincoln never went to college . T herefore I
do not need to go to college.
5. 1\lany men have become rich withont a college r<lucntion. Therefore I do not need a college eel ucatio11 in order t-0
become rich.

EXPOSITION AND AlW UM ENT

257

6. Athletes so metimes die of ove rstraiuecl hearts. Therefore it is not wise to have gym nasiums in schools.
7. 'This child has a rapid pulse. Therefore it has a fever .
8. A boy received an average of 9G pel' cent in t he gra n1rnar school. Tlterefore he will receive a11 average of !)!j per
cent in tl1 e high sc hool.
n. A chicken can run alon e O il the day wh e n it is born. A
mau is a wiser anirnal thau a chicke n. Therefore much more
can a n1 an run alone on the day when h e is born.
10. This boy is careless in his English work. Ile is careless
in his shop work. Therefore he is probably careless in his
matlr ematics.
11. This boy likes English. li e likes shopwork also. Therefore lr e probably likes mathematics.
12. Charles the First was a kind father. Tl1erefore he must
have been a good king.
13. This man .is a kind father; I cannot believe he is dishonest in business.
H . You say you are not fond of politics. Therefore you are
inconsistm1t in huntin g· out the political news in the paper.
15. Al exander was a short man. Napoleon vvas a short man.
Grant was a short man. Sheridan was a short mau. Great
generals are usually short men .
16. Black is white; for rain is black, snow is white, and
snow is frozen rain .
17. Correction in itself is not crnel. Children, being not
reasonable, can be governed only by fear. Dn. JOHNSON.
18. The best of us being nnfit to die, what an inexpressible
absurdity to put the worst to death! IIA WT HORNE.
l!J. Ile is free who lives as he wishes to live. No bad man
lives as he wishes. Therefore no bad man is free. EPICTETUS.
20. Lavater, the student of fac es, saitl, "The man who co nstantly interrnpts is in constant a nd insincere." Therefore
interrupters should never be trusted.
21. The elephant says to himself, All boys are bun-giving
aniuials; that animal is a boy; t1hereforc I liad better vut oat
my trunk to him.
s

258

EXPO S ITION ANlJ

A FIRST N A NUAL OF COllfPOSITION

22. Tiu:~ prin cipa l fr a l,11rn in the pl::p 1 of my at te mpt to
pc1ietraLe i11Lo Lite NorLh l'olar reg ion, or i[ possib le to c ross it,
is, in brie f, to t ry to 11mke use of the c urre nts of th e sea, instea1 l
o[ fi g hti11 g against tlt e m. My opinion is, as I hav e a lready
e xp I ained 011 several occa sions, that ther e must so 111 e w he n~ r1111
c urrents into the Polar region, which carry the Hoe-i ce acro ss
th e P olar Sea , first n orthward toward t he Pole, a nd Lhc n so nLhwarcl again into the Atlantic Ocean . That t hese curre nt s r ea lly
e xi s t all A retie expeditions prnve, as n1 os t of them h ave had to
fi ght again 8t the currents a ud again st Lhe ice driftin g southw ard, becau se they hav e tried to get north ward from th e wrong
sitle. I think a very simpl e conclusion mu st be drawn fro m the
fact t11at cnrrents and drifting ice are consta ntly corning frolll
th e unknown 11orth, viz. : currents and perhaps a lso ice m11 st
pass into this same region , as tl1 e wat er runnin g ont must be
replaced by wate r running i11. This conclusion is based upon
th e simpl es t of a ll natural Jaws; but the re seem to b e people
·w ho will n ot a<lrnit the 11ecessity of this.
Dn. F . NAN SEN, quoted in llibben's Inductive Logic.
23. I find from experiments that humble-bees are almost indispensable t o th e fertili zatio n of th e heart's-ease, for other bees
do not visit thi s flow er. . . . Humble-bees alone visit red clov er,
as otl-\er Lees cannot r each th e uectar. . . . Hence we may infer
as highly probable that, if th e wh ole genus of humble-Lees
became extinct or very rare in England, the heart's-ease and
r ed clover would becom e very rare, or wholly disappear. Tl1c
number of hnlllble-Lees in any rlistrict depends in a g reat
m easnre upon the number of field-mice, which destroy th eir
combs and n ests; th e number of mice is largely dependent, as
every one knows, on th e irn111Ler of cats. DARWIN.
24. In th e fir st pl ace, 227 with ered leaves of vario us kinds,
111 os tl y of En g li sh plants, wer e pulled out of worm-burrows in several pl aces. Of these, 181 had been drawn into th e burrows hy
or near the ir tips, so that th e footstalk projected n early upright
Jrorn the month of the bnrrow; 20 had bee n dravvn in by th eir
bases, and in this case the tips projected from the burrows;

.AlW U~MEN T

259

ancl 2U had bee n se ized near th e lllid,ll e, so that th ese h arl bee n
draw11 i11 trnu sve rse ly and we re 1111tc l1 crnrnpled. Tli er efore 80
p e r ce n t (ahrnys u sing the n ea res t ·w h ole number) liad bee11
dra wn in Ly the tip,!) per cent by t he base or fo o ts talk, a11d l 1
p er ceut tran s versely or hy the middle . This al on e is alm ost
suffi cient Lo sho w t.ha t cl1ance does 11 01; de termine th e rna.nner
in which leaves are dragged into th e lmrrows .
DARWI N : V egetaule 1lfuul<
l a ncl E arth worms.
25. Tl1e first cl ear s ta te me nt of th e eviden ce for rt form er ice
age was gi ve n, in 1822, b y a Sw iss e ngin eer n am ed Yenctz. Ile
pointed out that, wher e th e existin g glaciers h a ve r etreated , the
rocks which th ey had co ver ed are often ronmled , sm oo thed, and
polished, or g rnoved a11d striated in L11 e llir< ~c Lio n of th e g lacier's
m otion; a 11a that, far a way from an y exi stin g glaciers, th ere
·w ere to be see n rock s si111ilarly r onnded, poli shed, and striated;
whi le th ere al so existed old rn orai1 1e heaps exactly similar to
those fo rlll e<l a t prese nt; aml tl1 at t hese pli eu o 11 1e11a exte ndeJ
as far as til e .T11ra ran ge , on tlt e flank s o [ which th ere were
unmLe rs of huge l>lock s of s tone, of a kind not fonml in those
mountains but exactly similar t o th e a ncie nt rock s of th e main
Al pin e chain. 1Ie11 ce, h e concluded tha t g laciers form erly ex t end ed down the llh one valley as fa r as t he .Tum, a nd t here
deposited th ose erratic blocks, the prese nce of which had puzzled
all form e r observe rs .
Ar, FRED H us SELL vVALLA CE: The JVonclei ful Century.

270. Briefs. A brief is the outli11c of au a,rgumen t.
It presents that side of tb e ques tion which the ll ebater
maintains. It consists of comp lete statenients. ~Nhen
a brief is well prepared, tlie complete argument can
easily be written out. It is alw;iys well to spend a,
great deal of time on the brief. The writer sl1ould
be sure tha,t it states his bon es t convi ction s, ca,refully
consi<lered and tested. A simple form of hrief would
run

<LS

follows:

I

·1

,I

2()0

A FTH S T J1JA NrTAL OF COMPO SITION

(l U E S TIO N : R esoli:ed, Tlrnt it would be b etter for us to s tudy
all lessolls at school.

HlU.EF FOR TIIE AFFIRMATIVE

I. \Ve flh oul<l stndy more effec tiv ely . F or: (a) w ·e fll1 011ld
Jmv e fixed h ours and lie fr ee fro111 interruptions. (b) "·c
should s tndy durin g th e clay, wl1ile our rnin<l s are freshes t.
(c) 'Ve sh ollld study more earnestly wh e n ev erybody is
study ing. (1l) W e sho11lcl receive all proper 11elp fro111
refe ren ce books. ( e) Th e teacher would show us how to
study.
II. Our h ealth would be better. For: (11) vVe should not
ov erwork by tryin g to i'l pend more ti111 e 0 11 lessons than
we could afford. (Ii) We should ha ve onr evenings for
recrea ti on a nd sleep. (c) 'Ve should lie free from worry.

vV rite a brief after the model given aLov c.
If y ou can honestly take th e other side of the qu estion there stated, write a brief for the negative. Jf
y ou cannot, ch oose an other subject. One connected
with school is ad visaLle. P erhaps y ou can hon estly
take the allirmative or the negative of one of tlic
following:
271.

l. Th ere sh ould Le no final examin ation in this class. 2. St.udc n ts in thi s class should b e a ll owetl to assis t eac h other in prepa ring tl1 e lesson. 3. Th e sc hool-day in this scho ol is t oo Ion~.
4. " 'nshoul<l l1 ave ch apel exercises less ofte n. 5. Tl1is school
l'l1onltl have a l1111 ch room. G. Th e lun ches at this school sl1oultl
cofl t less. 7. Coffee should Le se rved in our lun ch r oo m. 8. Each
st ncl Pnt in thi s sc hool should lie req11ired to t ak e instrn c Lio11 in
j>l1y i:; ical c11H.nre. !). This class sho11ltl have fow er pupils in it.
10. Whi l'pe ring- in Lhis clasfl is n ec t~si:; ary. 11. Ev ery st1Ldt>11t in
:i ltigl1 sc hoo l shonld be given ins t rnc tiou in public speak in~.
12. Tliis city sl1 ould provide free textA.>ook s for high scltoul
s tude uts.

E X PO :::il'TION A N D AHU U jl[liJN 1'

261

!

i

272. Having prepared the brief very carefull y, c1e-

1/

velop it into a written arg um ent. L et the paragntphs
tepresent the main di visions of y our rtrg um ent.
273. The student should write as many briefs and
arg uments as tim e allows. .But h e sh ouk1 choose his
subJ·ects with gre<Lt care considerin o· whetl1 er li e can
'
·'='
master it in the time at his command. If he cannot
come to an hon est conclusion, th e best he can <l o is to
write what may Le called an "Expot; ition pro aml
con." By this I mean a statem ent of argu 1neu ts on
Loth sicles, without a final expression of opinion.
274. \V rite arg uments or else "Expositions pro
and con" on the following topics :

"'i

l. l s it wrong to bet? 2. Slr ould a 11ut11 e ver sh oot a burglar?
3. Is it wise t o give money on th e street? '1. Should a city distribute free bread to all who a sk it? 5. J s it ri g ht to discard
old friends? · 0. D oes paying a fare entitle one t o a sea t ? 7. l s
it ever ri ght to dece ive ? 8. Are there a ny custo ma ry lies whi ch _
ar e ri ght? 9. Is foo tLall as rough as pug ili s111 ? JO. Sli o11ld
eve ry b oy try to go to college ? 11. I s it rig ht to play car<l s?
12. ls it right for any one t o s moke?

In an oral d ebate, both sides
of a question are r epresented. Th ere are usu ally
three speakers for the affirmative an<l three fur the
negativ e. These agree as to the wor<ling of th e question. The first speaker on a sic1e is called th e leader
of that side.
Three judges are usually chosen, ·wb o shall d et ermine which side presents the better ~ir g um e nt. The
six debaters agree as who these judges shall Le.
275. Oral debates.

I

I

I

.1

263

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMP OS ITIO N

EXPOSITION AN D A lWUNENT

Sometimes the jmlging is left to the entire audie11ce,
the pres idin g officer asking the audience to vote as
to the r elative merits of the arguments presented.
The six delmters agree as to the amount of tirnc
allowed ea.ch speaker.
Th e usual onler of procedure is for the leader of
the affirnrnti ve to open the deha,te. He is followed
by the leader of th e negative, who ·replies to the arg uments of the affirmative leader, ttml advances negative
rtrgum euts of his own. Affirmative and negative
alternate in like nrnnner till all have spoken. Finally
the l eader of the affirmative is usually allowed a short
speech in which to close the debate.
The speakers of each side meet before the deuat c
and decide upon ~t certain distribution of forces.
Each agrees to ernplrnsize one part of the argument.
This avoiLls wasteful r epetition.
'
Oral Lleuate gives it chan ce to put into practise all
that the debater knows about sound and unsournl
reasonin g . Half hi s task is to reply to t11 e speak ers
who precede him. He must refute all arguments
which are unsourn.l. He points out that his opponents
have generalized too hastily, or have mistaken what
merely follows for wlrnt res ults, or have mistaken an
unimportant rese muhtn ce for an important one, or
ha,ve used words in a wrong sense. But h e shoul1l
never attempt to refute a statement which in his
heart he believes to be sound. H e must frankly grant
the other side every point that it proves.

It is very common for students to speak for a g iven
side of a question when they clo not really believe in
that side . This should n ever be clone unless the
audience clearly understands that the Lleuate is merely
"expository," and t hat neither side has made up its
mind. But this is not true debate. A debate ought
to represent the speak er's hone8 t 'convictions. And
it is well for young debaters t o take SU ujects 011 which
they h ave a ri g ht to an opuuon . Those topics are
therefore the best which deal with the daily life of
the speakers.

262

EXERCISES IN SPELLING

EXERCISES IN SPELLING
Note. All illustrative sentences are to be studi ed , a nd afterwards writt;en from di ct·,ation. \Vhen sentences are not prov id1~ d.
tl1e student should in vent oral sentences to illustrate t he proper
use of eac h word.

276. The Indians 1rought their teats, their poni es,
their sf1uaws, and their children too. They came there
in June. Th ey pitched their t ents there, and th ere
they stayed in peace.
277. '11lwn they burned the prairie. They bum ed
it farther than ever Lefore. It was a great fire. Tl1e
burned portion extemled two miles to the east, to the
river, am 1 forty miles to the west.
278. Fonr t imes eleven areforty-f01ir. That makes
a good many chapters for one book. Pl ease let us
hear one chapter of it, or at all events a piece of on e.
J\ 11tl promise to let u s hear some more to-night, too.
279. The vowels arc a, e, i, o, 'tc.
Tl1 e consonants il,J' C b, c, d, f , g, h, J, le, l, m, n, JI• 'b
r, s, t, v, w, ;i-:, y, z .
A wonl of one syllal>le is a monosyllable, as hvp e
or hop.
A word of more tlrnn one syllable is a polysyllal>l c.
A Lliphthoug is two vowels pronounced like one, as
ea in hear, or ie in thief.
264

265

A prefix is a syllable put bef(n·e the main boJy of
a word, as in re-enter.
A surtix is a syllable put after the main bocly,
as in looking .
280. Rule 1. J\Ionosy llal>les ending wit h a sin g le
consonant, precede<l by a i:;ingle vowel, double th e
final consonant befo re a suffix beginning with a
vowel.
F or exampl e, when ver1s of on e syllable show a, e, i,
o, or 'U befor e a final b, d, g, m, n, p, 1·, s, or t, we itLld :
bing, bed
ding, ded
ging, ged

ming, m eJ
niug, n ecl
prng, peel

rin g, r eel
sing, sed
ting, tecl

Thus we get :
h op
shop
rid
slrnm
wag
plan
pm

hopping
shoppiug
ritlding
shamming
wagg m g
planning
prnmng

hopped
shoppeJ
[ ri<l]
shammed
wao'O'ed
bb
planned
pinned.

281. l am very fonJ of my terrier.

\Vli enever I
go driving or riding he al ways com es hopping around,
hoping to be taken up. Lately h e ]1as been ridding
the barn of rats.
One day I h eard him barking
piteously. I went to the barn anJ found him caught
beneath the nnderyinning. H e seemed pinned down
fast, but I got him out finally. He still h eld fast to

,I

2G6

A

Fl H81' MAN U AJ, OP CUMl'081J'!ON

a l 1ig rat, on w liich he luul iua,c;ed, aml was still w1t,1fi1u;, war. The rat now shammed Lleatli, L11t l1 is
sli:amming ,;as of nu avail. The teni er finish ed the
rat, and hopp ed up into my lap for approval, wagging
his tail joy fully .
282. moG
moLhing
mobLed
roLl>ing
robbed
rob
rlllJlJing
rn li bed
rul>
bicltling
bid
[l>id]
ploclded
plod cling
plod
prockled
prodding
prod
so cl cl eel
soclcliug
sod
Lagged
Lagg ing
l>ag
ff;\,O'O'l]l o·
g<tggetl
gag
b
<:>b
,...,
hO'
lagged.
lagging
'-o
nagged
283. 11ag
nn.gg11Lg
saggetl
sag
saggrng
ta.gged
tagging
tag
1Jeggetl
begg ing
beg
peO'o·ecl
pcggmg
p eg
bb
logged
logging
log
lnggecl
l11g
l ugging
tuo·o·ed
t110-gincr
tug
b
b
bb
L<t1111 e cl
banning
ba1L
fanned.
fanniug
frttl
manned
manmng
284. m:tn
panned
pan
pannrng
tanned
tanning
tan
penned
pennmg
pen

EXERCISES I N 8PJi;LLING

sin

spm
· tin
Wlll

dun
gun
285 . pun
run
sun
flap
map
nap
rap
sup
tap
wrap

Sllll1lng
spmmng
tinning
wrnnmg
dunning
gunmng
punning
runmng
sunmng
flapping
nrnpprng
nappmg
rappmg
supprng
tapping
wrnpprng

267

sinned
[spun J
tinned
[ won]
dunned
gunned.
punned

[ran]
sunned
flapped
mapped
napped
rnpped
supped
tapped
wrap peel.

286 . Jn like mann e r 11rnke two worcls from eac h of
the following: clip, flip, grip, rip, nip, sip, tip, jam,
slam, bal', mar, tar, W<Ll', Lat, fat, nmt, pat, pit.
287. Rule 2 . Polysyllables accented on the last
syllaLle, e mling in <t single co1rno1rnnt preced ed Lyn,
single vowel, clouble the final COlLSOllttllt uefore a
suffix beginning with a vowel.
For example, to verlis acccntecl on the last syllable,
showino·
a single
vowel Lefore Z, n, r, or t, we add :
b
'
ling, ning, ring, ting ; led, n ecl, red, tecl.
begin'
equip'

begin ' ui ng
equip' ping

[began ] [begin' ner]
equip' peel

2G8

EXERCISES IN S P ELLING

A FIIU::i'l' NANUAL OF CON1'0Sl1'10N

occur' rinob
prefer' ring
omit' ting
co1npel'ling
control' l ing

oc:cur'
prefer'
0111it'
compel'
control'

occur' reel
prefer' reel
omit'ted
cornpel'lecl
control'led

288. If tlie verL is not accented on the last syllaole,

only 'i ng or ed is ath1ed.
e ' qnal

e'qualing

e 1qualed

suf'fer
of' fer
ben' e fit

snf 1fering
of'Jeri11g
Len 1efiting

suf'fered
of'ferec1
Len'efited

kid' 11i1.p

kid'naping

kid'naped

but equalling :1.11cl
eq 11alletl are pc r{ mi ttecl.

j but kid nappi 11 g) a1Hl kidH:i.ppccl

planin..g mill IJurned down. vV e formed a chain of
m en <:t11d lrnm1ed buckets of water from the creek ,
Lut half of each pailful slopped out in the process.
291. The yo ung officer was pining for war, and
l10viug to receive onlers to the front. He saw a
m essenge r coming on horseback, riding like the wiml.
It was as h e hoped. He wa.s ordered to active service
in the war which his countrymen were waging \vith
the enemy. The time lrn<l come for which he had
pined so long. He need no lollger lie inactive,
shaming the uniform he wore.
292.

\are permitted .

Fiun,l 8ilent e is usually droppet1
before a suHix IJeginning with a vowel.
289.

Rule 3.

hope
slope
ride
plane
wage
shame
pme
come

hoping
sloping
riding
phtning
wagrng
slrnmiug
puung
conung

ho peel
sloped
[rode]
planed
waged
shamed
pined
[ came]

290. \Ve planned tu have our lwarcls planed at t.1 1c

plani11,q mill. You rememLer the mill situated on
tlmt sloping hillsitle, just where it sloped down to tlie
creek. But our planning came to nothing, for tlic

2G9

lose
loose
choose
pursue
write
<line
owe
rely
blame

losing
loosing
choosing
pursmng
writinO'
:::>
dining
owrng
reliaole
LlamaLle

[lost]
loosed
[chose J
)Jlll'SUed
written
dined
owed

One of the pa.rty, choosing to lose his supper
rather than nm the risk of losing tile game h e was
pursuing, still pursued the partridges through the
pines. Owing to the lateness of the hour, we made
for camp. Tl1e hunter returned la.te, and came into
the dining-room. H e loosed the bu ckle of his game
Lag, arnl set his gun, Old R eliable, in th~ corner.
He ha<l no birds.
293.

270

A

FJN8'1' MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

294. Jf!i·iting the first draft is cornparntively quick
work, lmt wheu your paper is all written it has to Le
1·evised.
Revising is slow work.
But we ca1J1wt
choose.
\V e must revise our themes or lose our
1w rd- eitrn eel cre<1its.
295. Exceptions to Rule 3. vVords ending in ie
drnp e and cha11ge i into y: die, dying; lie, lying ;
tie, tying. vVonls emling in ,ge or ce keep e before
able, ably, and ous : cha11ge, changeable; notice,
noticeable ; peace, peaceable ; outrage, outrageous;
courage, courageous.
296. Rule 4. Final silent e is usually kept before a
suilix l>eginning with a co nson ant.

entirely = entire + ly
extremely = extreme+ ly
likely= like + ly
lon ely = lone+ ly
lonesome = lone + Rome
lovely = love + ly
merely= mere+ ly
safely = s<tfe + l y
sincerely= sincere + ly
acknowledgment, argument,
awful, judgment, truly, wholly.
297. Rule 5. Final y preceded by a vowel is k ept
Lefore any suffix; Lut if preceded by a consonant,
y rn changed to i.
CHIEF EXCEPTION::;:

journeys, monkeys, chimneys, alleys, valleys
busy, business

EXER CISES IN SPELLING

271

easy, easily
friendly, frientlliness
read. y, readiness
babies, ladies, buggies, cries, studies, enemies
huny, hurri ed., hurriedly
EXCEPTION

I

I'

1. Final y is kept before i : study,

studying.

2. The plural of family and personal
merely adds s, as : the llenrys, the Macys.
Observe tlmt the same form is sometimes a
noun and sometimes a singular verb.
each of the following both as verb and as
cries, lies, spies, ties, supplies, allies, JOUr-

EXCEPTION

names
298.
plural
Use
noun:
neys.
299. Rule 6. Nouns entling 111 o preceded by a
consonant adcl es to form the plural. Other nouns
ending in o add s.
mosquito, mosquitoes
negro, negroes
potato, potatoes

tomato, tomatoes
veto, vetoes
cameo, cameos

pianos.
Note that the commonest plurals under this rule
end in oes.
300. Rule 7. E comes after c wlien the sound of
the diphthong is e. I follows all letters lmt c when
the sound of the cliphthong is e.
EXCEPTION :

receive, deceive, perceive, conceive.
believe, relieve, grieve, thief, niece, fierce.

: ·!1
I

L

J
11

I
I
I

1

- --·· ..-... . --....-.u,. ..

272

A FIRST NANUAL OF COJlIPOSITION

The words rice nrnl slice will fix the rule in mind.
EXCEl'TlONS : weird and seize.
301. Al and fnl.
al ways = :Ll + ways
although= al + though
alrea<ly =al+ ready= by this time
All ready is not a compound, lmt two words.
All right is not a compound, but two words.
useful= use + ful
skillful= skill+ fol [skilful is also correct J
fulfil = ful + fil
They say the Loat is all ready for use. Everything seems to Le all right. Jmlee d, the workmen
lrnve already gone. They seemed to be skillful follows, and have been able to fulfil their promises to
the very clay .
303. ness =quality of.
302.

likeness= like + ness =quality of being like
meauness = m ean + n ess = quality of Leing
mean
lemmess = lean + ness = quality of being lean
keenness = keeu + ness = q nality of being keen
evenness= oven+ ness =quality of Lei11g evc11
righteousness = righteous + ness = quality of
Leing ri g hteous
drunk enness= drunken+ ness = qua1ity of Leing drunken

EXERCISES I N SPELLING

273

stubbornness = stubLorn + iiess = qua,lity of Leing stubborn
openness= open+ ness =quality of being open
thinness = tbin + ness = quality of being thin
304. ly = like, or in a manner like.

manly= man+ ly =like a man
lovely = love + ly = like_love = deserving love
cruelly = cruel + ly = in a, cruel manner
hurriedly= hurried+ ly = in a, hurried manner
gratefully= grateful+ ly= in a grateful manner
equally= equal+ ly =in an equal manner
formerly= former+ ly =in a form er time
skillfully= skillful + ly = in a skillful manner
[skilfully is also correct J
especially=especial+ly=in an especial manner
simila,rly = similar+ ly =in a similar manner
305. a,cciclentn,lly = accidental + ly = in an acci-

dental manner
origirmlly = origina,l + ly =in an origina,l mann er
exceptionally= exceptional+ ly =in an exceptional m:mner
occasionally= occasional + ly = in an occasional
m n,nner
incidentally= incidental+ ly = in an incidental
manner
finally = final + 1y = in a final manner
generally= general+ ly =in a general manner
T

.....
"
.. ·- ·-

274

EXJCJU,'J S E S I N SPELLING

A F_JW::>T _MANUAL OF CONPOSITJON

physically = physical + ly = in a physical
manner
naturnlly = natural + ly = in a natural manner
really = real + ly = in a real manner
306. Ante = before.

Anti= opposed to.

autecetlent = ante + cedent = going before, or
what went Lefore
antiseptic= anti+ septic= not poisoned; - opposed to septic
antislavery= iLHLi +sh very= oppuscu to slavery
1. An antislave1·y man never inq uireu into
tli e antecedents of a runaway uegru. 2. Doctors immelliately give antiseptir: treatment to a wouud whose
antecedent condition is found to have Leen septic.
308. Bene= well or kindly.
Male= ill or unkindly.
307.

benediction = bene + diction = speaking well or
kindly= n, blessin g
malediction= male + diction = speaking ill or
unkindly= iL curse
malefactor= male+ factor= ill-doer
benefaction= Lene+ faction= a thing well or
kimlly done
ben e fi t= bene +fit= a thing well or kindly
done
beneficial= bene + ficial = lloing well to
309.

For the benefit of those who wish to be re-

.......
.. .. .

t,

275

li evecl of toothache, it may be said tliat maledictions
on the tooth do n ot h elp you much. Going to a
d entist is more beneficial. You may at first regard
him as a malefactor, but the r elief he affords yo u will
come lik e a, ben ediction .
310. Co, col, com, con, cor =together.
co-operate= co + operate = operate together
collect = col + lect = choose and bring together
commit= com+ mit =:-;end together
co1t1wct =cull+ 11 eet = join together
correct= cor + rect =rule together= make right
correlate = co r + rela,te = r elate [things J to
each otlter
Oollect and correlate your. thoughts. Commit
them to paper. Connect your sentences smoothly.
Correct the whole theme.
312. De= concern ing or down. Dis =not.
311.

describe = cle +scribe, to write con cerning
descent= de+ scent= goiug down
destroy = de + stroy = pull down
dissent= dis+ sent, not to agree
disappear= dis+ app ear, not to appear
disease = dis + ease = not ease = p<Linful condition= u11somlll condition
dissn,tisfy = dis + satisfy = not to satisfy
disappoint= dis + ap + point= not+ to + th e
point= to fail to come to the g iven pnint

...

21G

A FWST MAN UAL OF

CO~MPOSITJON

EXERCISES IN S I'ELLING

313. Please ·w rite to John and describe your de-

scent of the mountain, for he dissents frorn my view
of it. I certainly saw you disappear as if you had
dropped d ead from h ear t disease.
He seems
dissati.~fied with my story.
Please clo not disDo not destroy my reputation for
appoint me.
trn thfnlness.
314. Fore= Lefore. For= not, against, completely.
forefather = fore + father= a father before =
ancestor
foremost= fore + most = most before = farthest al1ead
foregoing= fore +going= going Lefore
forefinger = fore + finger = finger before =
first fino·er
b
forehead= for e + bead = front part of herul
foresee = for e + see = see before
forl>id = for + bid= l>id against = command
against
forgive = for + give = give completely =
pardon
forlorn = for+ lorn = completely lost= very
lonely
315. In, im, ir \vhen prefixed to adjectives= not.

innoce nt= in+ nocent =not harmful
inunediately = im + mediately =not mediately = directly

277

immense= im + meuse = not measured= very
large
irregular= ir + reg ular= not regular
irresistible= ir + resistil>le =not resistible
'vV e now reachecl the cliff and irmnediately
Lehekl au imniense expanse of sunlit water, stretching
away from tlie irregular sliure line. It was so hot
tlrnt we felt <Lil almost irresistible desire to plunge
into the water. But we kuew that the innocent
looking white shore was a mass of perilous quicksand..
317. Inter= between, among. Intro= withiu.
316.

interline = inter + line = to write Letween
lines
introduce = intro+ duce= to lead within
interrupt= inter + rupt = to break between
interrogation = inter + rogation = asking
among = asking of
318. 1. vVhen we interlfrie, we introduce words

between two lines. 2. \Ve may interrupt a sentence
with the interrogation mark, thus : " Shall we do
nothing? plan nothing? attempt nothing?"
319. Mis= wrong.
misunderstand= umlerstaml wrong
mistake = mis + take = take wrong
misspell= mis +spell = spell wrong
misstate= mis+ state= state wrong

278

A FIRST MANUAL OF COftfPOSITION

320. I will speak distinctly, so tlrnt you shall not
misnnderstand me, or mistalce the sound of th e word.
Be CfLreful to misspell nothing, and to misstate nothing in your definition.
321. Ob, oc, op = against.
obstacle= 011 + stacle = thing standing against
occasion= oc + casion = thing falling against=
chance
occur= oc +cur= tn nm again::::t =to happen
op1w~ite = l1p + iw~ite =placed tiY e r again~t
322. EH·r.'- 1)1'"'1s/1i i/ ~ lwuld be a help rather tha11
an ohstade. Tl1ing::-: ofte11 xcur ffhich seem lik e!.'- t c•
pro,-e hindran ces but \Yhich prm·e the Yer,,- opposite.
323. Per= through.
Pre= before.
Pro, pur =
fon,·anl.
1

persistent= per+ sistent =standing through
perspiration = per + spiration = breathing
through= tnveating
precede = pre + cecle = to go through
procee d = pro + c:eed = to go forward
pursue = pur + sue= to follow forward
324. Though we were streaming with perspiration, our persistent gui<1e insisted that vve should
proceed, for he said the heat was due to one of those
sultry pauses which precede storms. So we pursued
our way.
325. Peri= around. Para= beside or against.

EXERCISES IN S PELLING

279

perimeter= peri +meter= a measure around
parallel = para + llel = beside one another
periphrastic = peri + phrastic = saying in round
about manner
paragraph =para+ graph = a writing beside.

1. The sides of a square are parallel to each other.
2. The perim eter of a :figure one in ch square is fom
inches. 3. His style is not direct but periphrastic.
-±. _.\ JVinrpnrplt first men11t the mark ~ placed at
the IJeginning of a sect io n. and then tJie sectiPJl
itself.

326. Se= apart.

Pre= before.

separate= ;;:e + parnte =mad e read.r apart
prepare =pre + pa rt' = make r eady beforehand
preparation= pre + pa.ration= a making r eady
beforelrnud.
327. l. Them is a rat iu the worll se1Jarate.
2. Let us finish our preparatfons for tlt e cl<Ly's ::;vort.
vVill, please separate those tangled fislt-hooks. Johu,
prepare a separate place fur the powLlcr.
328. Re= again or lmck.
recommend = re + commend = to commend
agam
recollect = re + collect = tu c:ollec:t [forgotten
things J again
re-collect= re+ collect= to collect [anything]
again
re-enter= re+ enter= to enter a<Yain
b

l

·f
280

A FIRST 1lIAN UAL OF COMPO S ITION

re-elect= r e + elect= to elect a<Yain
b
recreation = re + creation = creation again= a
refreslti n g
329. Do not recommend those woOlls too hi<Yltlv
b
·' '
Tom. Don' t you 1·ecollect the time we went th ere
for a little recreation.'!! Do you recollect the bear that
surprised us, and how we dropped our berry -pails
and lmstened to r e-enter the woods? and how we
stole back later to re-collect the berries from the
ground?
330. Sc.
science= knowledge
conscien ce = con + science = knowled(J'e
with
b
one's self
conscientiously
descend = de + scend
frtscinating
331. The science of entomology is a fascinating
study to one who works at it conscient£ously. Do not
say that it hurts your conscience to kill butterflies.
They <lie painlessly if the proper means are employed.
332. Sur= over.

Sub, sue, sub,

sng= unLler.

surmount = sur+ mount= to mount over
surpass= sur + pass= to pass over
sti.rrender = stu + render = render one's self
over

EXERCISES IN SPELLING

281

surround = sur +round 1
succeed = sue + ceed= go under= undergo=
win through
sufficient = suf + ficient = making under =
making enough support under = being
adequate
support= sup +port= carrying under
333. A brave man will never siirrender. He will
surnwiint obstacles, surpass himself, and succeed rn
spite of all hindrances that may surround him.
334.

335.

-ance

-ence

perseverance
appearan ce
abundance
predominance

obedience
interference
independence
intelligence

-ant

-ent

descendant
defendant
dominant
predominant
repentant
pleasant
infant

dependent
independence
eminent
pre-eminent
intelligent
obedient
correspondent

336. Review. Write the present and past participles of the following verbs:
1 This word once meant to overwhelm, from the Latin super ancl
unda, to pour waves over. But the super or sur has now lost the,
sense of over.

282

A FIR ST ]fANC AL OF COMPOSITION

283

EXERCISES IN SP ELLING
,

benefit
co-operate
co mmit
correlate
descril>e
disappoint
fo resee
forb id
forgive
fo r bCYet
exp1re
perspire

interline
introduce
mistake
misstate
occur
precede
proceed
separate
prepare
fascinate
provide
succeed

receive
believe
d eceive
perceive
conceive
r elieve
gneve
seize
repneve
h eave
retrieve
leave

lose
loose
lie
cr y
tie
wri te
owe
bite
requite
pursue
connect
proviue

337. Miscellaneous words:
miniature
Parliament
condemn
column
system
enemy
imag in ation
character
pleasant

pleasurable
athletics
academy
r eligious
sacrileg ious
d eclaration
ex plan a ti on
vegetable
r epetition

dilapidate = di + lapi + date = throw stones down
advise (verb) advice (noun)
practise= noun or verb (Standard)
practise = verb } C entur r )
practice = noun (
)
practice = noun or verb (vV ebster)

338. I should be g lad to accept your kind invitation for Monday, except that I shall be out of town
before then.
339. The medicine did not seem t o affect him. It
had no effect at all.
340. 1. The salt water aggravates the pain, but it
cleanses the wound. 2. Nagging is very irritating.
341. vVhen the workmen altered the church they
were not allowed to chan ge the position of the altar.
342. A beech tree g rew near the beach of the sea.
343. A shortcake is Lest when buried in berries.
344. The sailor secured a berth in a ship on his
birthday.
345. There is trouble when the air-bralce on a
train brealcs.
346. The calendar for the n ew year is ou t.
347. Cereals are gntia s, named from Ceres, the
goddess of grain.
348. If your character is sound, yo ur reputation
will probably be good.
349. Shalcspere called the trees "b are ruined choirs,
where late the sweet birds sang. " A quire is twentyfour sh eets of paper.
350. A course of study is a path of lear:q.in g .
Course comes from the Latin word curro, to run.
351. · A continual dropping will wear a stone. A
continuous dropping would be a stream.
352. ~rhe king's council consisted of fifteen men.
The prisoner's counsel gave him sorile good coiinsel •.· .

284

bare . stake.
for supper • .
359. Quite and 'q uit are related to
,
sense. Each has the idea of completeness. · A ·_person' .
who is quite well is entirely well. In America quite ·
sometimes means "rather," but this is not .·t he hellt:
usage. Quite a distance is not so good as som:~ dil
tance. Quite a way is not so good,as ·some dis~nc
Quite a few is poor English for a number, ?r · ·se~e?tal•
The following bulletin by King Edward's.~:ph~~
cians shows the correct use of quite .'·
London, June 28. -The king passed ·a very', co .
fortable day, and his progress continues ' to ··be·qui
sa tiSfactory.
360. ·In the ·following words · two nouns unite •
one compound · noun·, the first being ·u sed. as
. an a ·
•

'

285

· EXERCISES IN SP ELLING

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION:

•

,,t

'~

l

jective. Note that these words are written ·" solid,"
that is, without a hyphen. 1 Write them from dicta- °'
ti on.
Bandbox, baseball, bathroom, bathtub, bedclothes,
bedroom, beefsteak, beehive; birthday, bookcase,
broomstick, bulldog, buttonhole, churchyard, · daylight, daytime, earthquake, eyebrow, eyelid, eyesight,
farmhouse, farmyard, fireplace, football, foothold,
footprint, framework, graveyard, handkerchief, handwriting, headache, headlight, horseradish, landlady,
landlord, landscape; moonrise, necktie, newsboy, oatmeal, pancake, pasteboard, pigskin, pincushion, pineapple, pocketbook, postmaster, railroad, rail way,
roadside, schoolboy, schoolfellow, schoolgirl, schoolhouse, schoolmaster, . schoolroom, seashore, seasick,
snowball, staircase, sunbeam, sunbonnet, sunlight,
sunrise, sunset, sunshine, sunstroke, teacup, toothache, waterfall, workshop.

.

. ..

'

Note that rule and principle, which mean about the s~m~-~
both end in le. I am indebted to ·Mi~ Daly's Advanced Ba.UO
\
.
•
. ' •
.
•
. 'i«t ..
SpeZler ·for this helpful•observation._
· : ~ : . ; ' u;.~· ~1..:. !
1

~

·'

'

' .

'f.'
1.

-··-·

IND .EX
The numbers refer to sections

as, influence of, on punctuation, 63.
at; 181. .
a, 199.
Abridgments, 20, 23; exercises, 23. Audienc0) the, 214; see also under
Effectiveness.
Absolute construction, 175.
awful, awfully, 161.
accept, except, 338.

A.

Adjectives, reference of, 172; with
link-verbs, 152-161; extravagai;i.t,
217.
Adverbs, with link-verbs, 153-161;
beginning independent statements, 44.'
a.ff'ect, 13.0'ect, 339.
after, 178.
Afterthoughts,· punctuation of, 57,
59.
aggravate, 340.
Agreement, 125-135.
ain't, correct equivalents for, 89,
90.

all day, all the morning, etc., 198.
Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, :JO.
and, punctuation before, 48, 50, 61,
62.
Anecdotes, 19, 226, 232.
Apostrophe, the, 91, 148-H>l.
Argument, 262-275; how related to
exposition, 262; need of sound
reasoning in, 263; four rules for
sound reasoning, 264-268; briefs,
270; expositions pro and con,
273; oral debates, 275; exercises,
265, 267, 268, 269, 271, 272, 274.
Aristotle, 68.
around, 180.
Arrangement of 'fOrds in the sentence, 162-168, 176; of parts in
the theme, 220, 270.
Article, ellipsis of, 193, 199.

B.
bad, badly, 159.
Balfour, Graham, 261.
Barnum, Phineas T., 68.
Beard, Daniel C., 12.
becanse, 55.
beside, besides, 182.
between, 183.
Bible; 62, 63, 68.
Blackie, John Stuart, 68.
Blaisdell, Albert F., 23.
Brackets, 75.
Bryant, William Cullen, 28.
Bullen, Frank T., 204, 230, 231, 258,
260.

Burroughs, John, 67, 201, 215, 230.
but, preposition, 184; conjunction,
48, 4!1, 61, ()2.

c.

can, 123.
Care, 14, 15.
Carlyle, Thomas, 205.
Character, expositions of, 254, 261;
in school work, 18.
Child's fault in punctuation, 3842, 60.
Choice of words, 214-217.
Clauses, dependent, 54-59; re la ti ye,
58; punctuation of relative, 65.
Clearness, 4, 6, 7, 8, 15; as affected
by punctuation, 60-67; injured

287

I

288

INDEX

INDEX

[The numbers refer to sections]

[The numbe1·s refer to sections]

by ellipsis, 197; as affected by arrangementof words, 162--168, 176;
furthered by specific words, 215;
furthered by sound thinking,
263, and definition of words, 268.
Clews, Henry, 23.
Cochrane , C. H., 232, 256, 260.
Coherence, see Order of Words,
and Reasoning, sound.
Collective nouns, 128, 133.
Colon, 73, 78.
Color, in desc.r;iption, 201, 220.
Comma, not to be used for period,
38-42, 60; general uses of, 60;
general rule for, 67; with dependent clauses, 57, 63; with and
or but, 50, 61, 62; in series, 64;
with vocatives and . parentheses,
65; exercises, 68-72.
Composition, English, defined, 1-3,.

Dependent, statements, 51--59;
punctuation of, statements, 57,
63; conjunctions, 51-53.
Description, 201-220; deals with
sense impressions, 201; requires
close observing, 201, 202; detailed
and · impressionistic> 203 ; the
point of view in, 203, 204; order
in, 205-207; sentences in, 210212; words in, 213-218; .exercises, 202, 206, 207, 208, 220·. ·
,. Diagram s, in exposit<;n:y .descrip· tion, 254, 260.
' Dialogue, 227.
: Digests, see Summary.
'

First person in narration, see Narration, personal.
for, 55; influence o.f, on punctuation, 63.
Forms of discourse, see Description,
Narration, · Exposition, Argument, Letter-writing, Abridgment, Summary.
Franklin, Benjamin, 267.
from, after different, 185.
funny, 353.
Future, the, 111-122; pure, 112115 ; compliant, 116-118; determined, 119; in questions, 121.

E.

Garrison, Wendell Phillips, 19.
Gender and the genitive, 150.
General vs. specific words, 213-217.
Generalizatiqn, hasty, 2fi5.
Genitive, 149-151.
Grammar, review of, 84-200. ·
Grant, Ulysses S., 19.

Ease, see under Order of Words,
and Variety in Sentences.
'
10.
e.tfect, a.Oect, 339.
Compound, sentences, 50, 61, 62; Effectiveness, 10-12.
words, 360.
Ellipsis, 197.
Conciseness, see Abridgment and Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 64, 68.
Summary; in the sentence, 20, Epictetus, 269.
21 ; in telegrams, 31.
Equivalents, correct, of ain't, 89,
Co11clensed statements and com90.
mands, 62.
except, accept, 338.
Conjunctions, independent, 46, 61, Exclamation point, 79.
62; dependent, 51-53, 63; . posi- Exposition, 241-261; the same as
tion of, 176.
explanation, 241; how rlifferent
Contractions, legitimate, of verbs,
from description and narration,
89-100.
.
243, 248; by definition, 244, 200,
Contrast, in descrir>tions, 220.
256; · by division, 245, 251, 257;
Conversation, see Dialogue.
of methods, 24fi, 252, · 258; of
Correctness in the sentence, 84-200. '
causes, . 247, . 253, 259; of maCrawford, Francis Mai:ion, 23.
chines, 254, 260; of character,
255, 2()1; exercises in, 250-255. ·
Extravagance of speech, 217. · · '
D.
Daly, Ida M., 357.
F.
Dana, Richard Henry, 205.
Darwin, Charles, 269.
Farragut, David, 23'>..
Dash, 78.
Fassett, J. H., 258.
Debates, 275.
feel, with adjective or adverb; 154;
Definition, exposition by, 244, 250, Fictitious narrative, 229. ;
': 256.
· Figures of speech, 218.

,·

G.

289

foderition, 17.
Indepei1dent statements, punctuation of, 38-50, 60, 61.
Infinitive, split, 164; participle distinguished from, 17 4.
Interrogation mark, 80.
Italics, 148.

J.
Johnson, Samuel, 65, 68, 269.
udson, Harry Pratt, 256.
IC

Kingsley, Charles, 68.
L.

Landscapes, 220.
Larcom, Lucy, 19.
lay, 106.
Leaders, 76.
Letters, writing of, 24-32; business,
26; formal invitations, acceptances, and regrets, 27; notes to
H.
stranger, 28; notes to acquainHamerton, Philip Gilbert, 201.
tances, 29; intimate notes and
Handwriting, 15.
letters, 30; telegrams, 31; the
Harrison, Frederic, 205.
envelope, 32; exercises, :n.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 205, 230, lie, 105.
269.
like, 187.
Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, 68.
Lincoln, Abraham, 29 [Gettysburg
Hewett, William T., 68.
address, page 23].
Hibben, J. H., 266.
Link-verbs, pronouns after, 135.
Higginson, Thomas "Wentworth, Logical reasoning, 263-268.
261.
Longfellow, H enry Wadsworth, 64.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 30, 257 . . Loomis, Charles Battell, 217.
Honesty in school work, 18.
Hubert, Philip G.; Jr., 23.
M.
Hughes, Thomas, 256.
Huxley, Thomas Henry, 256.
Macaulay, Thomas . Babington, 68.
Hyphen, 360 .
Manuscript, preparation of, 15, 16. •
mauve, 214.
I.
may, 123.
me, it's, 135.
Idiom, 177-200.
Mixed constrnctiorts, 81.
Implied reference, 172.
Modifiers, reference of adverbial,
in, into, 186, · ·

290

INDEX

INDEX

[The numbers refer to sections]

[The numbers refer to sections]

162-168; adverbial with infini- Perry, Oliver Hazard, 68.
tive, 164:.
Persons, in description, 205, 220.
Moore, Thomas, 68.
persenche, 214.
Phrases, distinguished from statements, 34-37.
N.
Pictures, in description, 203, 220.
Nansen, Fridtjof, 269.
Plural, of nouns, 147; of letters and
Narration, 221-240; how different
figures, 148.
from description, 221; historical, Point, of view, 203, 204; of a story,
222, 230; need of interest in, 223;
226; a t issue, 268.
proportion of parts in, 224, 225, Position, of adverbial modifiers,
231, 233; anecdotes, 226, 232 ; the
162-Hi8; of only, 166 ; of not, 167;
"point" in, 226; dialogue in,
of conjunctions, 176.
227; fictitious, 229; personal, 230, Possessive forms of nouns, 149-151.
231; sentences in, 234-238; tenses Precision, 214.
in, 239; exercises in, 240.
"Predicate nominative," 135.
Naturalness, 5, 9.
Prepositions, correct use of varinecessaries, 355.
ous, 178-186.
nice, nicely, 158.
Present, historical, 239.
no, punctuation of, 65.
pretty, prettily, 160.
"Nominative" absolute, 175.
Proportion of parts in theme, 224,
not, position of, 167.
225, 231, 233.
Noun, absolute, 175; collective, Pronouns, personal beginning in128; forms of, 147-151.
dependent statements, 41, 42;
agreement of verb with, 127, 129,
o.
130, 133, 134 ; after is, 135; after
prepositions, 136-145 ; " reflexof, possessive, 149-151 ; uses
ive," or self-, 146; reference of,
summed up, 188; not to be
169-172.
added to off, 189.
Punctuation, 33-80; of phrases,
off, 189.
34-37; child's fault in, 38-4~, 60;
Omission, faults of, 197.
rules for. period and comma, 61~
on, 190.
67; colon, 73 ;-curves, 74; brackonly, position of, 166.
ets, 15; stars and leaders, 76;
onto, 191.
semicolon, 77; dash, 78; exclamaor, does not begin sentences, 56.
tion, 79; question mark, 80; ~ex­
Oral composition, 19, 202, 204, 206.
ercises,
68, '72. ·
Order of words, 162-168, 176.

P.
Paragraphs, 17, 220, 271.
Parenthesis, how , punctuated, 65;
marks of, 74.
Participles, distinguished from infinitives, 174; reference of, 173.
Period, 60; 61; see Independent
statements.

Q.
Question mark, 80.
quite, 369.
·Quotation marks, in dialogue, 278.

R.
Reasoning, souJ)d, 263-268. ·
Reference, of pronouns, ~69-~ 7~;

of adjectives, 172; of participles,
173, implied, 172.
Relative clauses, punctuated, 65.
Reid, Thomas, 267.
Repetition, see ·w ordiness.
Reproduction, 13; exercises, 19.
Revision, 15, 19, footnote.
Rhetoric, 10.
Roosevelt, Theodore, 257.
Ruskin, John, 68.

s.
Sandow, Eugen, 231.
say, 110.
Semicolon, 77.
_Sentence, defined, 33-59; correctness in, 84-200; unity of form in,
81; unity of thought in, 210, 211,
234, 236, 238; long vs. short, 235,
237, 238.
Series, commas in, 64:.
Shah, misunderstood message of, 15.
Shakspere, William, 64:, 68.
set, 108, 109.
shall and will, 111-122.
should, 122.
since, influence of on punctuation,
63.
sit, 107.
Slang, 88, 217.
so, punctuation before, 47.
sounds, with adjective or· adverb,
155.
Specific vs. general words, 213-217.
Spelling, assistance in studying,
18; exercises, 276-360.
Stanley, Henry M., 23.
Stars, 7().
Statements, independent, 38-50;
dependent, 51-59.
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 30.
Subjunctive, 124.
·
Summary, 20; exercises, 23.
Subj ect of sentence, not to be
ended by comma, 67 .
Synonyms, for and and but, 62.

291
T.

Tautology, 20, 21.
Technical terms, 214.
Telegrams, 31.
Tennyson, Alfred, 68.
than , 142, footnote; 192.
the, 198.
Thayer, William M., 231.
Themes, daily, 50, 59, 83; see "exercises" under Reproductiou,
Abridgment, Summary, Letterwriting, Description, Narration,
Exposition, Argument.
the1·e are , 126.
Thoreau, Henry D., 66.

u.
Underscoring, 148.
Unity, in form of sentence, 81; in
thought of senteuce, in paragraph, 220.
upon, 190.
Usage, good, 12, 13, 24; grammatical, 84-200 ; vulgar, 86; literary,
87; conversational, 88.

v.
Variety in sentences, 235, 237,
238.
Verbals, distinguished, 174; position of adverb with, 164:.
Verbosity, 20, 21.
Verbs, forms of, 89-124; contractions of, 89-100; contractions of
future, 111-122; principal parts
of forty, 101, 102; agreement of
with subject, 125-135.
Vocatives, how punctuated, 65.

w.
Wallace, Alfred Russell, 259, 269.
want, prepositions after, 193.
Warner, Charles Dudley, 19.
Well, punctuation after, 65.

·1

I

Ii't'tM#ttdt'Wtftt:ttN••••w•u •'""'' a1 111na;i- ¥r ;· C'

292

INDEX
[The numbers refer tO sections]

were, subjunctive, 124.
•.·

W est , Benj amin, 23.
Whittier, J ohn Greenleaf, 64.
why, punctuation after, 65.
Wilkeson , Fra nk, 230.
will a nd shall, 111-122.
with , not a conjunction, 132.
W ords, too many , 20, 21; precision
in choice of, 214 ; sensuous, 215 ;

general and specific, 215; good
taste in choice of, 217.
W ordsworth, Willia m, 68.
wou ld , 122.

Y.
Yes, punctuation after, 65.
Young, Edwa rd , 68.
Youth'.~ Companion, The, 19.

.·. '

2

1
'

"' 'VPf'P?f?RltNt'!te-.,

·~-, >~···· ,,~

f l!

