I

RHETORICAL PRAXIS.
...

THE PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

3oz

-17s:;,
EXEMPLIFIED A:<D APPLIED IN COPIOUS EXER!llSES FOR
SYSTEMATIC PRACTICE, CHIEFLY IN 1'Hlil

DEVELOPMENT OF THE THOUGHT. .

For Use in Schools and Colleges.

t('

BY HENHY N. DAY,
II
.. UTH OR OF "THF. ART OF n 1sco unsg, 11
TU ENGLI S H LITF.RA'l'URF.,"

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11

THE ART OF CO~POSITION,

11

,,

INTRODU? .. Jl')M

lESTllETICS ," "LOGlCAL PRAXIS," ETO .

RRVIS.l!:D EDITION,
WIT U

A. 00 1TlON OP

CINCINNATI:

WlI..S'rACH, BALDWIN
141

AND

143 RACE
18 7 G.

STREET.

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PREFACE.
I

E~red,

accordin g to Act of Con gress, in tho year 1860, by
HENRY N. D A Y ,

in the Clerk's office of th e Distri ct Cou rt fo r tlie South ern Di st.rict of Ohio.
Entered, according to A ct of Congress, in th e year 1876, b y
l:IENRY N. DAY,

In the office of the Librari a n of Congress, nt W as hington.

STF.R F.OT Y PF.Tl A'f T ITJ1.

l'RA N JO,tN

'1' \'PI·: l~ OlJ NORY,

CI NCI NN ATI , O·

" ALL true power in writing," it has been well observed by Daniel Webster, "is in the idea; not in the
style-an error into which the ars rhetorica, as it is
usually taught, may easily lead stronger heads than
mine." It is not a little remarkable how generally
recent systems of rhetoric, in the English language at
least, have been -0onstructed on this fundamental error.
With hardly an exception, they have made style the
first thing, the second thing, and the last thing in the
study of the art of Discourse. The development of the
thought; the necessity of "having something to say,"
the first of all the requisites, as Sir Walter Scott informs us, for excelling in the art of composition, and
of having an object in saying it; the systematic exposition of the principles which must guide in inventing
and unfolding thought; the application of these principles, one by one, in suitable exercises, giving the
pupil an opportunity to acquire them intelligently and
thoroughly for ready and accurate use as practical
rules ;-all this seems to be ignored or intentionally excluded from view. The attention of the learner has
b3en almost exclusively directed upon the expressionthe verba.1 form of the thought. Hence, exercises m

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PREFACE.

composition in our seminaries of Jca,rning arc, for the
most part, repulsive to teacher a,nd pupil, urnl attcmlC1l,
comparatively, with little profit. Some aptness in th,e
use of words may be acquired; but the great benefit
to be expected from these exercises, if properly conducted, in stimulating and invigorating the pow er of
thought-the thinking faculty itself, has been alm_ost
entirely lost. It is not at all strange that the mmd
of the pupil should revolt from an exercise which is
conducted on the false principle of giving predominance
to .form over substi111ce; or worse, aml more in accordance with fact, of making style everything, and thought
nothing. How utterly blind and unintelligent the procedure is as it is usually conducted, appears at once
'
.
from this, that if the pupil were asked what precisely
the theme is of which he is treating, he would, for the
most part, be troubled to answer, except in the most
vague and general terms; but if questioned as to the
particular object proposed in handling the theme, and
the exact and well settled method by which this object
is to be attained, he would probably reply, of all this
he had never dreamed, as having anything to do with
writing a composition.
The study of style is well; but the study of the
thought in respect to its development in reference to
some definitely proposed cntl or oh.]ect is yet tl1c great
thing in writing. Well has it been said: " A writer,
whose single design appears clearly in all he says, may
violato every other rule, and yet command entire respect."
The preparntion of the following text-book lias been
undertaken with these views of the relati vc importance

PREFACE.

·v

of the two departments in rhetoric, of invention and
style in the study of the art. Numerous text-books of
real merit, designed to form to the art of correct expression, have been recently presented to the public,
which teachers have used with much satisfaction. But
this want, that of a guide to the unfolding of the thought,
has not been met in any of them.
·
·
There are various difficulties in preparing a work of
this kind. The principal difficulty, however, as experienced by the author, lies in introducing the mind of
the pupil into the field of ab~tract thought. Indeed,
some will be apt to think that the effort must be fruitless ; and that the intelligent application of abstract
principles by tender minds must be impracticable. But
yet this difficulty is experienced in all similar arts, and
emphatically so in arithmetic. What more abstract than·
the principles of number ? It is not to be expected
that the principles will be thoroughly comprehended in
their grounds and relations. But while this is conceded,
it must still be maintained that the application of the
principle; begun, perhaps, in comparative blindness, is
the sure and the only way to the thorough comprehension of the principle itself in its true grounds and full
import. The outward form only is grasped at first;
the spirit and life of the principle is attained by the
repeated use of the form. How few pupils, who have
attained even much skill in computation, understand the
first principles of number, . can explain how it can be
that two and three can be united so as to make five.
But even if the principles of rhetoric are too abstract
for comprehension by minds no more mature than those
for -whom this pm.xis is designed, and were no benefit to

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PREFACE,

result from the method of condu cting exercises in com·
position h ere r ccom mcndc<l,-g ivi ng prc<lomina.nt attention to the thought to be co mmuHicatcd,-othcr than
that of worki11g into the mind of the pupil these ideas
as practicaJ, controlling principles that writing is esse ntially the comm unication of thought, not the accumul ation of words-not of pretty wonls and sonorous pcrio Lls
even; that, as a r!1tional procedure, it must have a.n
object and a method; in other word s, that, in all composition, the writer must know tlmt he li as so methin g
to say, and what it is, a11 1l must lrnve an obj ec t in
saying it, and proceed intelligently and Llircctly to the
attainment of this olJjcct, a suffi cient reward woukl be
secured. The minil would be exercised in conformity
with the laws of thought, and conse<J_uently so as to
insure its own invigoration . '.l'h e exercise would appear
to the pupil a rational procc<lure governed by r ul e, aml
would, th erefore, he so far attractive, instead of r ep ul sive. It would also be sure to be more sa,tisfac torily
performed, as when the pupil secs th at his cssa.y expresses an actual thought by a true method for a dcli11itc
end, whatever imp erfections or blem ishes there may be
in it in other r espects, he secs that the true object of
hi s exertion is at taine d, and he must, so far, be sati sfied
with it.
Th e in teres t in style will come nccesrnrily afterward, from the natural desire every one feels that l1i s
own thoughts should he fitly ex pressed. Critici sm will
th en be practicable allll in telligible, as it will all resolve
itself into t hi s : Is th e thought for the proposed object
fitly exp r essed?
"'Whether the present attempt to open out a. n e'~

vi1
method in conducting exercises in the c~mposition of
discourse shall prove successful or not, the author feels
a firm confidence in the substantial correctness of the
views which have prompted the attempt, as established
. not only by mere theory, but proved abundantly in
act~al trial for many years.
As the object of this work is purely practical, only
summary statements of the principles of rhetoric are
given. For more extended views, with fuller expositions of the grounds of these principles, reference is
made to the author's "Elements of the Art of Rhetoric," a work designed for more advanced minds.
Only two departments of Invention are here presented; the other two; Excitation and Persuasion, not being
so important or so useful, so far as the object of the
present work is concerned.
In the use of this work, it is recommended that, in
case the pupil should encounter difficulty in passing
from simple to abstract na~ration, "Simple Description" be taken up immediately after "Simple Narra
tion." The pupil may be kept on sensible themes unti]
sufficiently trained to undertake abstract themes.
Copious lists of themes are furnished. It is recom·
mended that they be regarded rnther as suggestive of
themes than as statements of theme!i.,in the exact shape
in which they are to be handled. A richer variety, and
a better adaptation to the capacity of the pupil, may
thus be secured.
It is also recommended that, in orde~ to accustom the
mind of the pupil to the study of the elements and progress of the thought in discourse, exercises be proposed
from time to time in analyzing well constructed dis-

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PREFACE.
\

course. Narratives, descriptions, arguments, mn,y tlms
be given to the pupil, that ho may dissect them and
trace out the members or elements of the thourrltt
with
b
the order of development. '.l'hcsc a,bs traets may then
be subjected to criticism.
'J'he principles of the art of compos ing di sco urse,
which are here presented in larger type, sliould be first
thoroughly learned by the pupil. Y ct Locke's very
sensible remark should be borne in mind, that "nobody
h as made anythin g by hearing of rules, or hying tl1 cm
up in his memory: practice must settle the habit of doing,_without reflecting on the rule." It is believed that
by judicious selection of themes, a,dapting them to the
degree of maturity in the pupil, he may be conducted
along from the most rudimentary exercises to those of
the most advanced stage that can be reached by any
mind under the tuition and training of anotlrnr.
·with the firmest confidence in the correctness of tho
views by which tl1is ucw method of tea ching the ~ut of
composing discourse has been promptccl, yet, at the
same time, with much diffidence as to his success in
overcoming the intrinsic difficulties with which his un~
dertak!ng has been attencled, and believing that uo
greater desideratum exists in the supply of educational
text-books, than preci sely in this ficl<l of instruction,
the author commends his work to the favorinrrb J'u1] b0-ment
of tho public.
COLLEGE HILL,

Omo, May,

1860.

PREFACE
TO TIIE

REVISED EDITION OF 1876.

..

THE unexpected favor with which tho Rhetorical
Pi·axis has been received, calling for many Auccessive
ed iLion s, has induced tho au t hor to endeavor to make it
mo1'e co mpl ete by uniting with it a prnxis in the choice
of words and the uflc of them in sentence-construction.
'l'hc fundamental principle 011 which the work was
originally co nstr ucted has most satisfactorily approved
itse lf in actual use. 'l'his principle is that the thought
is t he r1iling clement in disco111·se, and that consequently
it should in all rhetorical training be held up before tho
mind of the pupil as ever the prompting and leading
thing in the composition of discourse. The eminent
success with whieh rhetorical training on this principle has been attended in converting a most repulsive
drudgery on the part of the pupil into an attrnctive
rational exercise, and securi ng a steady and sensible
progress in the art of rhetorical compositi on, su_ggestA
and-warrants a cons id e1·atc endeavor to make the Praxis,
if possible, more satisfactory to teacher and pupil.
Since the eadier editions of the Praxis the author
has thoroughly r evised and reconstructed his Art of
RhP-to1·ic, and presented to the public the new work
under th .a title of the Art of Discourse, in whieh the
more exclus ively rhetorical principles in t he cons true·
tion of discourse are presented in a more extended and
' philosophical form. He has also prepared, on the same

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general principle of making the thought tho ruling
element in language as in discourse, an Art of Composition in which the grammat.ical principl es or the
English language al'C unfolded in n R_rstomatic way.
All tho forms of etymology and of syntax al'C hero exhibited as derived from tho modifications of thought.,
so that tho pupil shall undcrstaml in hiH adv:lllcing
study of grammar that the number and kinds of the socalle<l parts of speech, of the forms of inflection, and
the rules of syntactical construction, arc not arbitrary,
but founded in the thought which lnnguagc is to express. Men do not Apeak to uti:,er sounds ot· words or
periods, but to express thought through words nnd
sentences which are to discourse what outline and color
arn to painting. As it would be most irrational to put
a pupil in the art of painting upon drawing lines and
mixing colors just for the salrn of lines and colors that
shall express nothing, so trnining in the forms of grammar, or of rhetorical style, irrespectively of the thought
for the expression of which alone grammar and rhetorical style are of any worth or service, il:l to proceed
most irratio11ally; is to waste time, to perplex and disgust the learller, to lead to vicious expression. But as
the student of painting must learn to draw 0111.line and
blend colo1-, so the student in tliseourso must loam to uso
words and to form sentonoos. 'l'o the noodl'ul oxorei11e
for this purpose, in this edition, aseparnto prnxis both in
the selection of words-a Lexical Praxis-and also in
the construction of sentences-a Grammatical Praxishave been added. 'l'he necessity of this addition appears the greater from the fact t.hat so many in onr
seminaries and coJicges are so poorly grounded in the
elem en ts of gram mar.
'l'he use of the Lexical and tho Grammatical Praxis
will best precode tho use of the Hhctorical Prnxis; bnt
it may accompany it or even follow it as the teacher
may in the circumstances judge expedient.
NEW HAVEN, June, 1876.

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PREFACE.

CONTENI:S.
.1
~2 !-~.

PAOZ.

DEFINITIONS .AND DIVISIONS OF RHETORIC ........ ., ••.• 15

PART !.-INVENTION.
CHAPTER I.-THE THEllIE.

10-11. Selection and Use .................................................. 17
CHAPTER II.-P ARTS OF DISCOURSE.

12.
13.
14.
15-19.
20.
21-22.
23.
24.

The Essential Parts ..................................................
The Propo~ition .....................................................
The Discussion ................... :, ..................................
Forms of Discussion: Explanation, Confirmation, Excitation, an(l PersnaRion ..........................................
Subsidiary Parts of Disoolll'se ............ .......................
Introduction ...... : ...................... ~········ ."...................
Peroi·atimi .................................... · ······ ..................
Processes of Explanation .........••••........•••.•...............

18
18

18
18
19
19
19.
19

CHAPTER III.-N.ARRATION.

25.
26.
27-30.
31.

Definition ....................................... ··••····· ........ ~ •..•.•
Theme ................................................ ········· ·········
Laws .................. ..............., ...................................
IGnds .........•.•.......•...........•. • ···· •····· ·. ·····•·• ·••··· ......

20
20
20
21

CHAPTER IV.-SIMPLE NARRATION.
32. Definition ............................................................. 26
33. Direction~ for Exercises ........•••............••.....•..•.......... 26
34-40. Exercises .................................... ·······•·••········•··•···· 30
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CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIL:-P.A.RTITION.

CHAPTER V.-Al3STRACT N ARltATION.
PAO!

e?. 41. Definition .. .. ...... .. ......... .......... ....... .. ...... ................... 33
42. Directions for Exercises ............................................. 33
43-45. Exercises .................................................. ., ... ......... 3G
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80. Theme ...................................................... ,.........
81- -84. Laws..................................................................
85. ll:xercises ........................ ·................................... ;

46. Definition ... .. ..... ..... ........ : ........ . .. ....... .. ... ....... . .........
4 7. Theme ............................................... ......................
48 -50. Laws ................. .. ........ ...... .....................................
51. Directions for Exe rcises ............ : ................................
62-53. Exercises .................................................................

38
38
38

43
46

86.
87.
88-91.
92.
· 93.

47
47

47
48

CHAPTER VIII.-S!MPLE DESCltll' TlON.
61. Definition ................................................. .. ............. 48
62. Directi ons for Exerci ses ...... ....................................... 48
63-64. Exercises .... ... .. ....... ... ... . . ... . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. ... .... ........ 53
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Definition ............... ...... ...... ... ..... :........................
Theme...... ......... .. ...............................................
Lnws. .. ... ... ...... ......... ... ... ......... .... ....... .... .. ..........
Directions for Exercises.........................................
Exercises .......................~ ... ... . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. .. .•.. ..•

89
90
90
96
98

CHAPTER XIV.-COMPA.RISON .A.ND CONTRA.ST.

CHAPTER VII.-D1i:scmr·noN.
54. Definition ............ ....... .. ............ ...............................
55. Theme ..... .......... ..... ........ ..... ................ ..... ...............
5fl-59. Laws ..................................... ........ ... ................ .. ... .
GO. lCiuds ...... ......... :.. ..... ..... .. .................. ..... ............. ...

81
81
88

CHAPTER XIIL-EXEMPLIFICA.TION.

CllAPTElt VI.-CoMl'U:x NARitATION.

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CHAPTE!t IX.-AnsTRACT DEsCRII'TION.
65. Definition ......... ............... ............................ ............ GO
66. Directions for Exercises ............................................. 60
67. Exercises ......................................... ......................... 65

CHAPTER X.-ANALYSlS.
68. Definition ................................................. . .............. '12
69. Th eme ....................................................... ............. 72
70-72 . Kinds: lJivi ~ ion, Pnrlition ......................... ................. 72

CHAPTER Xl.-DIVISION.
7::1. Theme........... ............................... .. . .. . ...........
73
74-·7 7. J .J:\.\VS ····· ····· ·· ············ · ········ ·· ········· · ··• · ·•••• -••••·•·• ••••··• 72
78. Directions for Exerci ses ... .... ................ ...................... 7E
79. Exercises ....................... .... ... ... ..... ........................... 7~

94-95.
96.
97.
98-101.
102.
. 103.

Definition............................................................
]Cinds .................................................................
Theme ............... ... ...... ........................................
Laws ......... ........... ..............................................
Directions for Exercises ..........................................
Exercises .............................................. .. ............

99
100
101
102
106
108

CHAPTER XV.-CONFIRM.A.TION.
104. Definition ................... .. ................... ....................
105. Theme ....................................... .........................
106-107. Belief.................................................................
108. · Proof ................................................. ,;, ..............
109-110. Complex Propositions: Proof.. ...............................
111. Distribution nnd Kinds of Proof .............................
112. Analytic Proofs ...................................................
113. Synthetic Proofs: Intuitive nnd Empirical. .•.......•....
114. Empiricnl Proofs: Kinds .. .. .. .................................
·115-116. A priori Proofs ......................... ... ........................
117. Signs ..................................................................
118. Testimony .......................................... .................
119. Authority ............... .............................................
120. Concurrence .......................................... ; ..... .........
121. Exnmples ............................................................
122. Induction ............................................................
123. Annlogy ............................. ...................... ...........
124. Real and Invented Examples .................................
125-126. Laws of Examples ... ............ .................................
127-132. A rrnngement of Proofs ..... ....................................
133-135. Presumption ................ ..................... ...................
136. Directions for Exercises in Confirmntion ..................
137. Exercises ............. , ..................................... ..........

109
109
109
109
111
113
114
115
116
116
118
120
121
12'.l
12t.
123
124
124
124
136
139
140
143

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CON'rENTS.

CONTENTS •.

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PATIT IL-STYLI<.;.
CHAPTER I.-GENERAL D1v1s10::.s.
PAOB

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138. Definition .................... ........................................ . 145
139. Clnsses of Properties ............................................. 145
140. Absolute Properties............................................... 145

141.
142.
143.
144 .
145.
146-14 7•

CHAPTER IL-ORAL P ROPERTIES.
D efinition ................ ;·................................ : .......... .
E11ph ony ............................................................ .
llarmony: Divisions................. . ......._. .................. .
Ilarm ony Proper .................. .. ............................. ..
Hhythm ............................................................. .
.J\'l clody ............................................................... .
1'~ aults to be indicated ........................................... .

146
146
146
147
147
148
149

CHAPTER III.-SuoaEsTrvE PROPERTIES.
148. Division .............................................................. 153
149. Imitative I'ropcrties ............................................. 153
150. Symbolical Prop e rtie~ ............................................ 153

CHAPTER IV.-GRAJl!MATIC.AL PROPERTIES.
151. Vnri cties ... .......................................................... 155
Faults to be corrected ............................................ 155

CHAPTER V.--SUBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.
152.
153.
154.
155.

Vnri eti es ............................................................ .
Sig nifi can ce ........................................................ .
Contin11ousness ...................................... .............. .
Naturalness ........................................................ ..

167
167
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169

CHAPTER VI.-OllJECTIVE PROPERTIES.
1!i6. Varieties .. : ................................................... . ..... . 170
167-lGO. Cl ea rn ess ...... .......................... .. ........................ .. 170

]':xcrcises ............................... ............................ ..

1 7~

161. En ergy: Vari eti es ............................................... . 175
16:.!. Proper En ergy .: .... ..................... .. ....................... . 176
E xercises ........................................................... . 17G
163. Figurative Energy ....... ......... ....................... ......... . 178
164 .. '!'ropes ........................ · ...................................... . 179
165. Simple 'fropcs, Metaphors ......................... .......... .. 179

Syncc1oc11e, Metonymy ...,....................... : .. .' ............
Figurntive En ergy ................................................
Vision, Personification, Hyperbole ...........................
Comparison, Contrast, Allegory, Allusion .................
I>rosopoprein, Apostrophe, Irony, Doubt, Interrogation
Inversion, Anacoluthon, Aposiopcsis, Sententiousness
Exercises .............................................................
173. Rules for use of Figures .........................................
Faults to be indicated ............................................
174-176. Elegance .............................................................
Exercises .............................................................
166.
167-168.
169.
170.
171.
172.

179
179
180
180
181
182
182
187
187
189 /
191

APPENDIX !.-PROSODY.
1-2. D efinitions ........................................................... 197
3. Vnricties of Poetic Form ....................................... 197
4. A !literation ........................... ·.............................. 197
6-11. Rhyme ................................................................ 198
12-15. 1\'lcnsures ............. ~ .............................................. 201
15-18. Verse .................................................................. 202
· 19. Parall elism .......................................................... 209
20. Stanza ................................................................ 210
Exercises in V ersificntion ...... ....... ..... .. .. ................. 212

APPENDIX II.-PUNCTU.ATION.
1. Definition ............................................................ 217
2-5. Kinds .................... , ............................................. 217
6. Etymological P oints ............................................. 217
7-8. Rh etorical Points: Kinds ....................................... 219
9. Period................................................................ 220
10. Colon .................................................................. 220
11. Semicolon ......... ·................................................... 223
12, Comma ............................................................... 224
13. Genernl Prin ciples of Punctuntion ........................... 227 ·
14. Rh etori cal P oints: second class ....... : ...................... 230
15. The Exclamntion Point .......................................... 2:{0
16. The Interrog ation Point ..................... ................... 231
17. The D ash ......................................... . .................. 233
18. Quotation 1\'Iarks .................... ., ............................. 233
19. Points for R eference ............................................. 236

APPENDIX III.
CJ.A.PITAL AND IT.ALIC LETTEHS... ............ ... ........... ......... ... ... 237
APPENDIX IV.-THEMES.
ra:EMES UT SIMPLlC NARRATION.
·Rh etori cal Points: second class .................................... 240
Experiences of Others ........ ........ . .................. ............... 240

CONTENTS.

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THEM1r. s I N Sn1rI: £1:

NARRATI ON-con t inued

Expc ri e11 ccs of Commu11ilies .............. . .. .. ......................
Occ11r rc11 ces in N ature ......... ... ....... .. ..... .. ..... .. ..... .........
Imng i11ation ......... ... ... .. . ................. .. ........................
liiiscella neo us .... .. .............................. ...................... -...

242
242
243
243

THEM E S I N A B STR ACT NARRATION.

P erso n al Ex peri ences ...... ... .............. .. ..........................
Expe ri ences of Others ............................................... .. .
S ocial Ex peri ences .......................... . .... .. .......... .. ....... .. .
Miscellaneous ............ .... ..... ... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ....... ... ....

245
246
216
241

THEM .E S I N. C o Ml'LEX N ARR AT !VE ....... ................................

241

'.l'Ult1111'. 5 I N S IMl'LE D ESC !tll'TlON ...... ...... ................... .... ..... 251
'.l' HEMKS I N AnsTRA CT D ir.sc m rTLON .. ............................... ... 253
TH~~~rns IN AN .A.L YS LS JIY D1v1 stoN .................................... 25 7
'.J.'!1JCM ES I N A N ALY S IS JlY l' A ltTlTLON ........ .. .......... ...... ......... 258
'1'11.ln u r,s I N l<:x 1r. Ml'Ll FI CAT! ON .. ...................... . ..................... 25 8
'l' H E M l':S I N CO MP A IHSON AND CO NT RAST .. .... ..... .. ....... .. ........ 2 5 9
TuE~tE S FO H CoNl' l!U t ATI ON ............. ~ ...... .. .... .. .................... 261
Mrnc ELLANEOUS Tu E M E s ....................................... . .......... 276

§ 1. RHETOilIC IS THE ART OF DISCOURSE.
§ 2. DISCOURSE is the expression of thought in Ian·
guage.

APPENDIX V.
SIMPLIFIED E XE llCISES A N D E XPL ANATIO NS ......... • .......... · .. · ..

GENERAL DIVISIONS.

2\J5

§ 3. Discourse includes Oratory, Poetry, Epistolary
Oon~position, and R epresentative Discourse.

LEXICAL PJtAXI S.
CllAPTEH, I.- Dc vu:;roNs ................. .... ......................... .. .. 3 10
JL- DA RHA.lUS:ll S ... .. ...... ......... ............. . ........... 3 11
llI. - hI PRO l' lllETff..S ........ .. ............. .. ........... . ..... !) J [j

1\T.-SYNONY MS ..... ... .. .. .... .......... .. .. .... .. .. . .. .......
V . -PAHONYlll S .. . .... .. ....... .... ............ .. .. ... .........

V l.-

PlWJILISCUOUS L E XICAT, F AULTS ..... .. .............

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324

GRAMMA TICAL P R AXI S.
CHAPTER

T. -

P UNCT 11ATI ON .... ............ .. .... . .... ..... ......... . .. ~ 27

J (.- (; lt A111MA TLCA 1. l'1 t0 l'Jt l Kl'Y .. .. ... .. ........ .. .... · .. • 328
Jll.-P 1H~CJ!3 IO N ................. .. .. .... ............. . .........

§ 4. ORATORY is that fo:t:m of Discourse in which
thought is expressed for .the sake of an immediate effect
/ on another mind.
It is of three kinds : Judicial, D eliberative, and Sacred.

is

§ 5. PoETRY
that form of Discourse in which
thought is expressed for the sake of beautiful expression.
'.J.1he leading kinds of Poetry are the Epic, the Dramatic, the Descriptive, and the Lyric.

I V .-CONCOJtD ... ............ . ..... .. ................. .. .... .. ...

335
33!)

V.-A lUl ANOEMF.NT .......... .. ..... .. . .. .. .. .... . ......... ..

344

. - § 6. EPISTOLARY COMPOSITION is that form of Dis-

348

course _in which thought is communicated to an absent
mind.

V I.-

l'llOJ\llSCUOUS F AULTS IN CONSTllUC'J'ION .. .......

(15) .

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...................~~,•-11.................

GENERAL DIVISIONS.

Hi

§ 7. ltEPRESENTATIVE DISCOURSE is that form in
which thought is expresse<l for its own sake.
It includes 1£istory, Biography, 'Pravels, Essays, anJ.
Scientijie 'Prealises.

PART I.

§ 8. 'l'he two departments of Ithetoric, are INVENTION and STYLE.

INVENTION.

§ 9. INVENTION in lthctoric treats of the supply of
the thought in Discourse.
STYLE in Rhetoric treats of the expression of thought
in language.

CHAPTER I.
THE

THEME.

§ 10. The first thing to be done. in writing, is to
select a theme.

"

§ 11. The following rules are to be observed in the
selection and use of the theme :
1. There must be but one theme in a single discourse
, or composition.
2. The theme must be suited to the kind of discourse,
whether an Oration, an Epic poem, a History, or other
kind of writing.
3. It must be adapted to the occasion on which it is
to be pronounced or r ead.
4. It must be adapted to the mind addressed.
5.. It must be one that · lies within the power of the
writer to handle . properly.
It should be, accordingly, a theme which he understands, or upon which he can obtain information.
It should, also, be specific rather than general. An
2
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PAllTS

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PAltTS OF DISCOUltSE.

DISCOUHSE.

§ 17. CONFIRMATION is that form of discussion in which
the object is to prove a truth, or ,disprove an error.

immature mind will write more en.sily about " an oak.
tree," than ab out "a tree" in th e ge neral.
Abstract themes, moreover, such as "virtue," "mod~sty," "humility," are more <liilicult for the beg inner.
A young writer, still further, shoul<l beware of spe
cious ti tles, an<l hi gh soun<ling mottoes or proverbs, as he
should rem ember that it is the thought, not the lang u:tgo
-the kernel, not th e shell-which is to yiel<l the i<le.Ls
and sentim ents for his composition.
6. · 1-'he them e should be di stinctly sta tecl to tl1e
wr1ter's own mincl, in connection with the obj ect for
which it is to be us ed, before beginning to write upon it.

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§ lG. E XPLANATION is that form of cliscussion in which
the object is to inform or instruct.

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have been named, there are also two subsidiary
parts, viz.: the INTRODUCTION and the PERORATION.

§ 21. The use of the Introduction is to prepare the
mind of the hearer or reader for the discussion.

§ 22. The nature of the Introduction, as a subsidiary
part of discourse, indicates the following as guiding
principles in writing it:
1. It should be written after the discussion has been
thought out.
,
2. It should be brief as compared with the discussion
3. It should be kept strictly subsidiary to the main
object of the discussion.
'
§ 23. The use of the Peroration is to apply the dis. cussion to the more immediate or a more specific design
of the discourse.

§ 12. 'l'he tvrn essent;'11 parts of a Discourse are the
PROPOSITION and the DISCUSSION.
,

Proposition expanded.
§ 15. 1.'he Discussion is of four forms, viz: ExPLANA·
TION, GJNFIRMATION, ExcrrATION, an<l PERSUASION.

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DISCOURSE.

§ 14. The Drscus sroN is the unfolcling of the them e,
and makes up the body of the di scourse. It is the

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§ 20. Besides the two essential parts of Discourse

in connection with the obj ect of the discourse

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§ 19. PERSUASION is that form of discussion in which
the object is to move the will.

§ 13. The PROPOSITION is the statem ent of the theme

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the object is to excite or allay the feelings.

CHAPTER II.
PARTS

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§ 18. ExcITATION is that form of discussi6n in which

§ 24. There are five different processes by which ex·~ - planation is effected, viz.: NARRATION, DESCRIPTION,

·.

ANALYSIS, EXEMPLIFICATION, and CoMPAitISON AND CON·
TRAST.
The general laws which govern in explanation, are
four, viz.: the LAW OF UNITY, the LAW OF SELECTION,
the LA w OF ME'l'Hon, ~nu the LA w oF CoMPLETENEss.

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NARRATION.

NARRATION.

21

time, as of the seasons of life, as childhood, youth, manhood, and old age; or, of time, as years, or decades of years.
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something that becomes, that h appens, that changes,
as an event, a growth, a cause, an effect, or the like.
Themes in narration are, thus, such as the Deluge, the
Advent of Christ, the Crusades, the Discovery of America, the Rise of In.fidelity.

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§ 29. The LAW OF METHOD requires that the theme
be exhibited strictly in the relations of time.

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7.

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stages in the change, of the theme, or those d1 v1s1ons
of the time in which the event transpired, be selected,
which will best exhibit the change itself.

I

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I. THEME.-Robinson Crusoe's Journal for Nov. 4.
1. Walked out with my gun for two or three hours.

there be but one event, or one subject of change, cxl11bited as the th eme.

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Point out the violations of the laws of narration in the
- following plans.

§ 26. The THEME in narration must, accordingly, be

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and COMPLEX.

exhibits its theme under the r elatio ns of time.

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§ 31. Narration is of three kinds : SIMPLE, ABSTRACT,

§ 25. NARRATION is that process of exp1an:ition which

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theme be exhibited in all the changes necessary in order
to give the full information proposed.

NAilR.ATION.

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§ 30. The LA w OF CoMPI.ETENESS requires that the

CHAPTER III.

!

The method may be either that of successive Rtagcs of
change, or that of successive periods of time. Thus the
History of the United States may be divided into the stage
of settlement, of colonial organization, and of independence;
or, into periods of quarter, half, or entire centuries. The
method of a Biography may be founded on t11e lend ing incidents or decisive stages of tlie life, or upon the periods of

After returning, worked till eleven o'clock.
Ate what I had to live on.
W orkeu toward evening.
Slept from twelve till two.
Made a table to-day.
I was but a very sorry workman.

II. 'l'HEME.-Elijah_and tlie Prophets of Baal.
1. Elijah tells Obadiah that he will assuredly go beforo
the king Ahab.
· · ."' · .' 2. He boldly charges Ahab with having troubled Israel
· by his' idolatry, and bids him call together the prophets of
Baal on Mount Carmel for a trial.
3. He meets four hundred and fifty of these prophets -at
he place appointed.
4. The prophets call upon Baal to answer by fire.
5. They are derided by Elijah, as Baal makes no answer.
6. Elijah built an altar, and laid a bullock upon the
wood, and then ]lad four barrels of water poured upon tho
whole.

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7 . He b ad this done three times.
8. He then called upon ,Jehovah, wh o answered by send·
ing down fire that consumed the sacr ifice and the altar.
9. He caused the prophets of Baal to be seized and slew
them all.
10. The people, when they saw the fire come down :uul
consume the sacrifice, declared Jehovah to be the true God.
11. The prophets of Baal prophesied in th eir way, and
cried to Baal fr om midday till the time of the evening sac rifice, but to no purpose.
12. Elijah supplicated J ehovah once at the usual hour of
the evening sacrifice, and rccei vcd an immediate answer 111
the fire that fell and consumed the sacrifice.

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TIIEME.-IHslory of the Creation.

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1. On the first day, light was created.
2. The waters were then divided into those of the earth
and those of the air.
3. The dry land was then made to arise and separate
itself from the seas.
4. Next, grass was produced and the variou5 orders of
plants.
5. The sun, the moon, and the stars, were then made to
shine forth upon earth.
6. The light was i:;eparated from the darkness.
7. Animals were crealed.
8. Fishes and birds came into being .
9. ·whales were now · sportin g in the seas.
10. The earth, the air, and the waters, are all charged with
animal life.
11. Last of all, God created man in his own image, male
nnd female.
12. The first home of man was in Paradi8c.

NARRATION.

23

IV. THEUE.- Tlte Life of Jacob.
1. J ac')b, the son of Isaac and the twin brother of Esau,~
was born 1836 years before Christ.
2. He was called Jacob, the heel-bolder, as if to intimal()
his disposition as crafty and insidious.
3. He took advantage of Esau's necessities, and bought
of him the birthright .
4. He married Leah, and se-ven years afterward Rachel,
. both daughters of his uncle Laban.
5. Esau was turbulent and fierce in his disposition; and .
his anger at being circumvented in regard to the birthright
drove Jacob from home to live with Laban, in Mesopotamia.
6. Esau, with four hundred men, met Jacob as he returned from Mesopotamia, but accepted Jacob's presents and
embraced him with brotherly affection.
7. Jacob served Laban seven years for each of his
daughters.
8. He accumulated a large property in cattle and sheep
by his shrewd management, and left Laban suddenly and
secretly, and returned to his native country with his family
and possessions.
9. After dwelling at Succoth, east of the Jordan, for
some time, and then at Salem, he went to Hebron, fo visit his
father, who lived with his son twenty-two years.
10. Joseph, the oldest of R achel's sons, was sold into
Egypt, through the jealousy of his brothers, for Joseph was
a favorite with bis father, about ten years before Isaac's
death.
11. Rebecca died on the way to Hebron, and was buried
n1;ar Bethlehem.
12. Joseph became a prince in Egypt, and brought his
father's family, in a time of sc.vcre famine, <lown to Egypt,
and gave them the land of Goshen.
13. Joseph thus saw his dream about his brother::: bein!?

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NARRATION.

subject to him, which twenty years before provoked their
jealousy, strangely fulfilled.
,
14. Jacob, for twenty years before he went down to Egypt,
mourned bitterly over the loss of Joseph, supposing him to
have been killed by wild beasts.
15. He lived seventeen years in Egypt, wl1cn he <lied a111l
was buried near Hebron.
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V.

TIIEJ\IE.-.1'he Life of Joseph.

1. He was the son of Jacob, and born in l\Icsopot:imia.
2. His youth was remarkable for the pro:phetic dreams
with which he was favored of God.
3. He was peculiarly beloved by his father.
4. He was the object of the envy, jealousy, and hate of
his elder brothers.
5. He was sold by them into Egypt.
6. He did not revenge this wrong when he had the guilty
ones in his power.
7. He became a slave to Potiphar, and gradually won
the confidence of his master.
8. He was imprisoned on a false accusation, and obtained
release by interpretation of some dreams of his fellow-prisoners.
9. He became, in consequence, the highest officer in the
kingdom, and married into the distinguished family of the
priest of On.
.
10. He savecl Egypt and his father and fannly by his
provident sagacity.
11. Jacob removed with his family into Egypt and settled
in Goshen.
12. Some think Joseph practiced divination, but they resl
their opinion on a wrong interpretation of Scripture.

VI.

26

THEME.-The History of _the lnqttisition.

1. The Inquisition originated under Innocent III, near
the beginning of' the thirteenth century, and was established
for the purpose of extirpating the Albigenses.
2. By the middle of this century, the Inquisition was
· introduced into parts of Italy, France, and Spain, although
firmly opposed in Castile and Leon, and closely watched by
the civil powers elsewhere.
3. Under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1480, a tribunal
under the name of the General Supreme Inquisition was
_established by the Estates of e;:ain, assembled at Toledo,
and the new court opened in Seville in 1481.
4. After much resistance, the tribunal became an insti. tution of the kingdom, and was used to enforce arbitrary
measures of the court.
5. It was estabfo1hed in Portugal in 1557.
6. The original design of the Inquisition was simply to
extirpate heretics; it afterward was extended to Jews and
Infidels, and, in process of time, to political offenders.
7. Nothing could be more abhorrent to justice than
the rule of this tribunal, which forbade the accused from
Beeing or knowing the witnesses against him, who were not
only concealed, but rewarded.
,
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8. The number of victims, in Spain, to this unrighteous
; · institution, is estimated at 340,000.
1
9. It was abolished in Spain by Napoleon, December
•
1808; reestablished in 1814, and again abolished in 1820.

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SIMPLE NAitllATION
SIMPLE NARRATION.

CHAPTER IV.
Sil\IPLE

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DIRECTIONS FOR EXERCISES IN SillIPJ.E NARRATION.

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age of Captain Cook.

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N ARltATION exhibits some out":anl event
as occurring, or some outward change as takmg ~lace,
in successive time; as the story of J3rntus; the lustory
of the Roman Consulship; tho life of Ctesar; the voy-

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NARRATION.

The pupil, after having committed to mem~ry t~e foregoing principles, in proceeding to actual .exercises rn 001~­
position, will first select his theme. It will be best to bcgm
with a simple event which he has witnes~ed, or ~ome. change
which he has experienced himRelf. It rs of little ~mport ­
ance what it is, provided only it be one that he will take
some interest in narrating. It may be an account of a walk
he has taken, in which he will note down just what he
observed in the order of occurrence. It may be a visit he
has made or a journey he has taken. It may be simply the
occurrences of a day, or a wee,k, or other period of time.
In these ca8eR, he will only need to bear in mind _the s?vcral
laws of narration in §§ 27-30. The law of muty will. be
violated, if he speak of anything but what occurred to lm~­
self · that is what he saw or heard or felt, and what will
hel~ to a b~tter understanding of this. It is he himself
that becomes the theme, and tlie changes he experience~
make up the matter of the narrati:e.
.
It should be remembered that m narrafJon , we cav not

represent anything in its actual changing. We can not, by
any words we can use, represent the eye as actually passing
from object to object,-from scene to scene. We can only
say that we saw this, and then we saw that; we visited this
town, and then proceeded, by stage-coach or otherwise, to
that; we can only indicate one change after another in the
theme, and leave it to the imagination of the reader to conceive the actual changing. The skill of the narrator will be
shown in selecting such changes, or, more exactly, in selecting such stages of the changing theme, as will enable the
reader to imagine how the whole change went on. If he
can follow you in his imagination all along your path, as
you set it forth, step by step of your progress, your success
will then, in this particular, be complete. , It will be well to
keep this in mind in writing,- to imagine some one whom
you are addressing, and to whom you are desirous of telling
just what occurred, so that he will fully understand it.
The law of selection will be violated if, of what occurred,
there be taken unimportant particulars, or such as will not
best help the reader of the narrative, to follow the narrator
through all the successive occurrences. There will be more
opportunity for the exercise of skill in the selection of the
particulars than in anything else.
Tlie law of method will be violated, if anything be put
down out of the order of its occurrence.
The law of completeness will be violated, if anything be
omitted that may be necessary to convey the full informatio1:l intended.

Tn the earlier exercises, it will be well to confine the care to
• the matter of the narration, letting go all disturbing thought
about the style. Let simply the different things be noted
down in their order. The style will be a separate study
afterward .
It should be borne in mind, moreover, that in narrating, ii

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SIMPL E NAB.RATION.

is often necessary to desc ribe; that narrati on thus is often
co mbin ed with descriptio n, as, imleecl , with th e other prncesses of explanation ; just as, in the sarn e pro Li em, in computation, the processes of ad1lition and the other µ; ronml -ru lr.9
of a.rithm etic arc together ca ll ed into nr;c , so in (li ~cu 11rs P , all
the processes are necessa ril y emp loyed in ihc sarn c c s~ ay.
Still, one of these processes wi ll always be t.hc gove rning
on e; the others, if employed, will be onl y subsidi ary; and,
as in arithm eti c, i t is exped ient in exercisin g, to c011fi11 c the
at.t.cntion, so fo r as possible, to 011 c inoccss at a t im e.
This general r cm:uk will appl y to all t.h c suLscqu cnt pro
cesses. 'Vh ile the attenti on may be u Rcfoll y directed tu 0111
for th e purpose of exercise, each pro ccRs may properly cnlt
in the aid of any other.
When th e narration is com pleted, it sh ould be criti cised
in reference to the several laws of narration, §§ 27-:JO; as,
Is th ere but one subject or theme? Are t he best parficu:ars selected? I s everything sta led in its orde r of time 'i
Is nothin t:>o· om ilfcll tha t should have bee n said to rn a.kc the
prop osed infurrna( iun co mpl ete?
Lists of t.hc1ucs fo r thi s kind of narra tive will be fou nd in
the foll ow ing sections, and at th e end of th e volum e, fr om
which , or from others like them, exercises sh ou ld be writte n
till the pupi l beco mes co nversant with the prin ciples of thi s
va.rict,y of narrati vc.
Other themes in simple narration, are the experiences of
oth ers; as the Life of Al exander the Great; the E duca tion
and 'frai11ing of I,ouis Philiflpe; the P itcairn I slanders; the
'fravels of Dr. K:111e.
In h a.mllin g such themes, it will be necessary for the most
part, instead of reca llin g what has occurred to one's self, to
obtain info rmation from others, in co nversation or in readh1 g . It sh ou ld he re membered th a t yo n ca.11 cu mmu11i catc
nothiu g to others Lnt wh:Lt yo u have Ji rnt kn own yo urr<c lf'.

SIMPLE NARRATION.

29,

A third class of themes in simple narration, includes such
as the experiences of tribes, communities, or nations. Such
are th~ migrations of the Goths; the Rise and F all of Sparta;

· the Partition of Poland; the History of Rome.
A fourth class em braces facts in N atural History, or in
nature generally, as the Propagation of the '.l'ulip; the Spread
of Ligh t at Dawn; the Formation of Clouds; the Gro~th
of Plants.
A_ fifth class embraces what may be called imaginary
themes: the existence and changes of which are the mere
products of the imagin ation or fancy; as, the History of a
Pin; the Travels of a Humming-Bird; the Biography of a
Rose.
In the selection of themes, which is so often a difficult
task for the young writer, the habit should be formed of
thinking over the different classes or fields of themes, one
by one, in order, so that there may be proper opportunity
given for one to suggest itself; or, more correctly speaking,
so that the inventive power may have time to fasten on
something which it shall be able to handle with interest and
satisfaction to itself. Thus, the mind may go over, successively, ihe field of personal experience, or what has happened
or can be supposed to have happened to itself in any way,
as what it has seen, or heard, or felt, or dreamed ; then
what in like manner may have been experienced by others;
then, what may have occurred to communities; and · what
may have happened ll'ith plants or animals, singly or collectively, or in nature generally. In this way, the inventive
power will h ave opportunity given it for exercising itself;
and a theme thus selected by the pupil himself will be likely
to be handled with more interest and satisfaction than one
furnished by a teacher.
But there is an advantage in class exercises in composition, to secure which, it will be found expedient that the

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SIMPLE NARRATION.

SIMPLE NARRATION.

5. Life of
of
6.
7.
of
8.
of
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10.
of
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teacher give out the exercise with one or more themes to
be written upon by each pupil. The pupil, being relieved
from the selection of a theme, will be put directly upon
seeking the information required to enable 11 i m to handle
the theme, and then npon 1mtt.i11g on paper the i11for111aLio11
thus acquired. 'l'hc exercises, ns differently prepared by
the different members of the class, will give opportunit.y for
a more full and satisfactory explanation of the process; and,
besides, the exercises will criticise each other, the defects in
one being shown in the successes of another.
'.l'he exercises should be repeated on themes taken from
the different classes in order, until a familiarity is acquired
with the use of themes of each kind successively.

81

Cincinnatus;
Xavier;
Robert Druce;
Mary, Quo en of Scots ;
Charles XII of Sweden;
John Howard;
Franklin;

12.
13.

of Lord Byron ;
of Henry Martyn ;

14.

of Louis Philippe.

§ 36.-1. Mark out into periods, the Life of Moses;

§ 34.-Exercises in Simple Na.1'1'ation.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The pupil may state orally or write the particulars in the
several exercises proposed, or on others proposed by the
teacher, without any extended or formal narrative.

1. The employments of yesterday.
2. The leading event on each successive day of the past
week.

8.
9.
10.

3. The studies pursued in order last year.
4. The objects noted in the last walk.
5. The leading occupations in the several months of the
last year.

.~ i: :

pf

Mahomet;
Martin Luther ;
Ignatius Loyola;
Louis Philippe;
La Fayette;
Oliver Cromwell;

of The Earl of Chatham;
of Napoleon Bonaparte ;
of George Washington.

§ 37.-1. Enumerate in order the Voyages of Christophe1
()c,lumbus;

§ 35.-1. Write out, in th,1ir order, the leading incidents in the Life of Joseph,

·J;. [.

of
of
of
of
of

2.
3.

2.

of Daniel ;

4.

3.

of Paul;

4.

of Socrates ;

5.
6.

.,

of
of
of
of
of

Sebastian Cabot;
Sir Walter Raleigh :
Captain Hudson ;
Captain Cook;
Dr. Kane.

.

'

,.
I.

SIMPLE NARRATION.

I

I

"I

...
1·;'
(·
: I

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jl.

"

1:
;

§ 38.-1. State the leading divisions m the History d
the World;
2.
of the Jews;
3.
of Egypt;
4.
of Greece;
6.
of Rome;
6.
of England·
7.
of Russia;
8.
of France;
9.
of the United States of America.

I•

j!1 I

...

!11

1,.
11

I'

d"':

H1:
1·l:11

.,.

w1· 1
d1 ..

§ 39.-1. Enumerate the steps in the p1rnnomena of rain,
from the evaporation of the ocean to the falling shower .
2. The stages in the growth of the plant, from the seed
to the matured fruit product.
3. Progress of insect life, from the egg to the butterfly.

1'. .1·

ic:

'111,

I;j:,1
' I"
1;.;I
1!'1

1i ,.'

§ 40.-1. Write out the successive changes of a grape,
from the seed to the raisin.
2. 'l'he stages of life in the butterfly.
3. T,!Je progress of the rain-drop from the ocean.
4. The steps of its return to the ocean.

llj[;I

.ii

5. 'l'he successive formations of rock in the earth. -

I

'I

I

I':

"I'll

6. The stages of human life.

'I

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111.1
I!

l'i';

I'

l

.I.

;j

1:.

No1'E.-For lhcmes for furlher exercises in Simple Narmlion, see
Appendix.

ABSTRACT NARRATION.

33

CHAPTER Y.
ABSTRACT

NARRATION.

§ 41. ABSTRACT NARRA'fION exhibits some inward or
spiritual event or change as taking place in successive
time; as the Growth of Vice, the Strengthening of Habit,
the Spread of Learning, the Rise of Free Principles in
States, the Progress of Civilization.

§ 42.

DIRECTIONS FOR EXERCISE JN ABSTRACT

N ARRA-

TION.

The themes in this kind of narration being not outward
and sensible, but internal or spiritual-that is, such
pertain to the mind, and are intellectual, moral, or religious in
their nature-require, for the successful treatment of them a
more advanced stage of culture in the pupil; although there
are themes suitable to this process, which are more manageable by a young mind than many in simple narration.
· The different fields in which the search is1to be made for
themes proper for this process, are analogous to those in the
former, viz. :
1. Personal Experience, as the rise or decline of opinion!', •
feelin gs, habits in one's own mind and heart;
2. Observation of similar experiences in other peraons;
3. Internal changes l.n communities or nations, or in the
whole human rac.e, or of literature, science, morality, religion,
principles of government, art, and commerce.

a;

The same suggestioni:i as in simple narration, are applicabll'

34

AB:STilACT NAllRATION.

here in regard to selection of theme, mode of writing, appli·
cation of the Jam; of narration , und criticism.
There will be a special liability here to violate unity, by
introducing ot1rnr p'.trticulars than those whi ch directly pertain to the abstract theme itse lf; as, if in giving a history
of the rise of an opinion I have come to entertain, I should
introduce other facts in my history tlrnt have no reference to
the rise of that particular opinion.
For an illustration of this kind of narration, we will take,
for a th eme, "J'i·I y love of study." 'l'he exercise will be a
narration, in si mple onlcr of tim e, of the growth und progress of this feeling. I first indicate my starting-point, by
stating, that at the begiuuin g I hud great dislike for upplication to any kind of labor. But I was introduced to school,
where study was the business of all my companions: I could
not but feel but that I must study also, whether I liked it
or not. Then I saw that others liked it, and came to feel
that I·m ight, perhaps, like it too. I thought I would, at least,
try. It was very hard at first. But it seemed easier the
more I tried. One day a companion foceived the praise of
our teacher for a well prepared lesson . This kindled my
desires to earn like praise. I found my dilliculties, also, to
disappear. The more I studied, the better progress I made,
and the more I was please d. '.!'hen I bcgn.n to find a great
pleasure in k"!1owleclge. I saw l1ow one truth was rcluted
to another. One day, in Rh1dyi11g History, I learned how
the people of Israel, aft.er they removed from Egypt, drove
out the Cannan it.e s; :rnd how, in consequence, the old inhabitants of Canaan, being thus driven 01it of their own land,
were many of them pressed into Lower IDgypt, where they
possessed themselves of the country, but were afterward
driven out and then passe d over into Greece. Thus I came
to see how the Jewish hislory was connected with the Egyptian; the Egyptian with the Grecian; the Grecian with the

' (.

,,q '

ABSTRACT NARRATION.

35

Italian, and I wr.s curious to trace out all the effects of the
various revolutions in Asia and Egypt on the settlement of .
., Europe. I soon found myself carried away with the love
of History. It became my fondest occupation.
In like manner I might go on to tell how my interest in
other studies was awakened and grew. Incidents showing
how strong the love of study was becoming from time to
time would properly be introduced.
The exercises here, as in simple narration, may advantageously be, at first, a mere statement, in order, of the leading
points or stages of the narrative, as, with the theme just
given for illustration, the exercise would be the preparation
of a statement like this:
Dislike of study_at the beginning;
Entering school, where the business of all was study;
Effect of example;
Growing satisfaction with increased progress;
Relation of one truth to another ;
. Incident in studying History, etc.
For illustration of an exercise on a theme taken from the
class of "Experiences of others," we' will take " The growth
of the poetic spirit in Robert Burns." First, in order of
time, would be noted the circumstances of his birth and infancy, particularly the prostration, by a storm, of his frail
cottage, an incident which he loved, as he grew up, to recall.
Then would be presented, in order, the lessons of his pious
mother, and the influence of the old songs and ballads she
used to sing to him ;
His early imperfect schooling ;
His private study of the French language ;
His reading of old books that fell in his way;

/

36

ABSTHACT NARRATION.

The songs and tales of J enn y Wilso n;
The effect of the dep ressed circumstn nces of his father's
family;
His out-door occupations in tilling the soil ;
The music of his partner in the labors of harvest, in his
fifteenth year;
His troubl es ;
'fhe favorable reception of his published po ems.
In preparing to undertake t he cxercif;c, the necessary information must first be obtained. Sometim es, ho\\'eve r, the
exercise may be but the recollections of a careful perusal of
some narrative or history, assisted, perh aps, by co11rersation
with others. Generally, it will be expedient to read attentively some good acco unt of the selected theme, :i nd then
write out the exercise fro1n recollection. A simpl e abstract
of such a narrative will be of advant::ige in formi ng habits
of attention, of developing thought in order, and of stating
it clearly and accurately.
Care will be necessary that. this imm ediate reso rt to bo oks,
for informatio n on any theme proposed for a composition, do
not grow into a lrnbit of servi le dependence which shall be
fatal to origi n::i lity and mental energy. The inform ation
should be acquired and the boo k then put out of reach, that
the mind may be forced to rely on its own reso urces. '.L'hc
composition shoul d be drawn fr om the mind 's ow n tre:1surcs.
E xe rcises, also, shou ld be undertaken, from time to time, for
which no such recourse to books shall be all owalJle.

:! ,;·

§ 43.-Exe?"Cises in Abstract Narration.

·fl
~

q·
'

I

J:li :;

I

:I

1. Mention the steps of progress in the study of l\.rit.h
metic ;

I

ji '•:

,/,

.,
I.

1,' I

2. In acquiring a knowledge of Geography;
3. In Penma nship :

AilSTRACT NARRATION .

37

4. In the study of the L atin Language;

5. In Drawing ;
6'. In Composition;
7. In forming a habit of tattling;
8. In breaking up careless habits;
9. In forming an attachment to a fri end;
• 10. In acquiring a love of candor;
11. In cultivating a spirit of benevol ence;
12. In becoming interested in Christian missions

§ 44.-1. Enumerate the stages of the growth of the spirit
of ben evolence in John Howard ;
2. Of mission ary zeal in Henry Mar tyn;
3. Of the love of painting in Benj am in W est;
4. Of skill in writing in B enjamin Franklin;
5. Of style in painting in Raphael;
G. Of sc ience in Sir William Hersch el.
\.

§ 45 .-1. Trace the progress of governm ental institutions
smong the Jews;
2. Of the Arts and Philosophy in Greece;

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
J1

P nrliamentary L aw in England;
Geological Science ;
The use of Steam-power;
Architecture;
L andscnpe Gardening;
The di suse of barbarous punishments in civilized states
'l' he Temperan ce R eform ;
Spirit of Chri stian Mi ssions in modern times i
The Freedom of the Press.

38

COMPLEX NARRATION.

COMPLEX NARRATION.

39

· the law of unity, if I brought in the influence of the feudal

CHAPTIDR VI.
COJ\ll'LEX

NAitRATION.

§ 46. ~OMPLRX NA1rn11nnN rxl1ihif'1 fl1 c wnrkincr0
cause in prouucing successive changes.

of

u

§ 47. 'l'he th emes, accordingly, in complex narration
are either'
1. Causes; or,
2. Effects.

§ 48. 'l'he Law of Unity, requiring singleness in the
t~rnme, may be violated in this kind of composition, in
either of the following wa,ys:
1. Dy iutrouucing, as themes, more than one cause or
more than one set of causes, or more than one effect or
than one set of effects · or

'

'

2. l3y nrnking sometimes the cause and sometimes
the effect the r eal theme in different parts of the same
composition or di scourse.
It is obvious th:it a single cause may produce one or many
effects, and. that. an .e~ect may be produced by a single cause,
o~ by ma mfold uru trng causes
Hence, unity will not be
violated by embracing in the theme all the causes conspiri1w
to on~ single or general effect, or all the effects produced
one srngle or complex cause.
If, for illu sLratinn , I take, as rny t,l1cmc, .. 'l'hc crusades as
a cam;c of modern European civilization," I should violate

h;

system, of free cities, of Christianity, except by way of ex, plan.a tion, or in subordination to the main design, which is to
exhibit the working of the crusades. I should equally Yio1:-:te this law if I anywhere in the narrative inverted · tlrn
process and made the effect, viz., " The civi lization of Eu·
rope " the theme.
In like manner, if I made this my theme, .viz.: "the civilization of Ji:urope ns effected by the crus:ides," I f'honld
violate unity, if l brought in other eifocts, as the strength ening of the power of the SulLaus, the subversion of the
Christian empire in Asia, and the like.

§ 49. The Law of Selection in complex narrative requires that such stages only of the operating cause or
of the Affect wrought be taken as will best exhibit the
theme.
This law would be violated, if, in exhibiting "The influence of the crusades on European civilization," I shou ld
bring in, as distinct and prominent points of view, the fluctuations of success between t.l1e great contending parties, as
the capture and recapture of Jerusalem., or the merely ti·ansient in cidents of the crusadin g movement.s, as the conqnest
of Constantinople, however int.cresting in themselves as even~.
Such particulars only should be selected in the g rand moving force put in play by the crusades, as will best show how
it wrought on civi li zation; as the waking up of mind, the
, attention turned upon the arts, the development and expansion of the social principles, the breaking up of defective
political institutions, and the like.

§ 50. 'rhe Law of Method in complex narrative, re·

/ ,

dr

t

!t

1
I

40

CUJ\ll'LEX NAlmATlUN.

COMPLEX NARRATION.

1:·;
I

,.1

1

1. When th e cause is made the theme, ihat, if single,
the one cause itself be exhibited, working its successive
effects; or, if there be several unitin g causes which it is
more convenient to han<lle separately, tlmt each be exhibited, one after the other, as it works its effects successiv ely;
2. When the elfect is made the theme, that, if regarded as single, it be exhibited in co nn ec tion with its
cause stage by stage, as it is produced or appears in the
order of tim e ; or, if r eg n.nlcd as made up of sever al
effects, tha t ca.ch be uufohlc<l by itself, one after anothe~

'l'his law would be violated, thus ; if, in wri tin g on the
crusades as a cause of modern European civilization, I were
to bring in the remo va l to foreign bnds of the un easy, turbulent elements of society, leaving behind the peaceful, industrious, frugal p ortions of the population to prosecute, umli sturbed, the arts of peace, after I had indicated the remoter
influences of the crusades, such ::is the introducti on into Burope of Oriental arts and sciences on the r eturn of the cru saders.
If I were to take the following as the indication s of the
working cause, the method of presentin g them would be
thus:
1. The crus:1<les i; flucn cin g the civilizati on of Europe by
the g reat awakening of mind th ey occasion ed among all the
crusading nations;
2. B y the occasion given to the successful prosecution of
the arts of peace, n,nd particularly of commerce;
3. By the elevation and expansion of the social spirit,
of diverse nations and tribes
throu<rh
the fl owin nrr t,orrcther
e>
o
::ind the in tcrcoursc between them;

41

4. By the weakening of the · power of the nobility, and the
correspoudin"' advancement of citizens;
·5. By th: introduction into Europe of Oriental arts and
sciences;
· 6. By the new inspiration given to literature m the
~·arious forms of oratory, history, and poetry.
Correct the faults in the following plans in Complex
Narration.

I.

THEl\iE.-Deluge in the Valley of the Dranse, in Swif .
zei·land, in 1818.

t

The waters of the river Dranse diminish, and nearly
'disappear.
. .
2. It was ascertained that glaciers had fallen across its
channel, and that the waters were collecting for a fearful
inundation when the barrier should give way.
3 . A t~nnel is attempted to draw off the water, which
is successful.
. 4. But a new danger appears. Th e waters, as they arc
drawn off, gradually wear away the base of the barrier, which
fin ally g ives way ; and the lake is drained in h alf an h qur.
5. The water sweeps down the valley, carrying away
every brido·e-one at lHauvoisin, that is nin ety feet above
the ~·iver, ~nd four hundred cottn gcA, heRides tree~, fe nces,
cattle, and over tl1irt.y of tl1c inh ahit;ints of the vall ey.
G. Great precaution was taken to prevent evi l. Sign :1l
Rtations were erecte d ; se ntin els placed ::i long the height s,
watch fir es prepa red , and c::i n 11011 loaded, to give instant alarm.
7. But the people had become hardened to the danger;
· and thirty-four were caught, by the descending waters.
8. Thirty-four days were consumed in constructing the
tunnel; gangs of fifty miners, working alternately night and

day.

I! ,;,, ·

.,
I 11

I. ' .

~

I'

'

I•·':

:,. r1 ::
I,

42

COMPLEX NARRATION.

COMPLEX NARltA'J'I\J,'i.

9 Wh en at last the rush comm enced , the tunnel wa~
found to be too small to carry 01! the accumulating-water.
10. It soon, h owever, wore a chann el suHi cic11tly large;
nd the water was passing off without danger, till the barier itself gave wny.
11. 'l'hi s was caused by the base of the barrier being worn
way by th e rushing water.
12. In half an hour, 530,000,000 cubic feet of w:itcr
rushed dow n the vnlley.
13. 'l'he velocity of the torrc11t was sixteen mil es an honr.

II.

~rmmE.-Thc

Pall of a Jlfonnta-i:n in Swit:: : crlmid.

1. The fall . took place, September third, 1806 , at fi ve ·
o'clock in the evening .
2. In less than four minutes, three villages were completely ove rwhelmed, and two others partially.
3 . 'l'h e rush of the earth a~1d stones was more rapid
than thn t of lava .
4. Th e mass spread in every direc tion, and buried a space
of ch arming countr y more than three miles square.
5. The mountain carried away in its descent, trees, r ocks,

43

III. THEME.-The

Activity of the Human ]find at the
B eginning of the Six teenth Century.

1. Heresies haLl been ever springing up, keeping alive
the spirit of inquiry and speculation.
2. The court of Rome was not more tyrannical, nor were
there more or worse abuses in the Church than previously.
3. The human mind had been accumulating n,sults for
.several centuries) which furnished occasions for fresh inquiries.
4. The schools instituted by the Church, had produced
men of thought and intellectual vigor, who began to wish
to think for themselves.
5. Literature and the arts had been revived.
6. The struggl es of the Church with heretics kept alive
examination and mental exertion.
7. Philosophical opinions h ad been put forward and discussed, fostering intellectual activity.

~

and h ouses.
6. A p orti0n fell into the lake of Lowertz, and fill ed oncfifth of its basi n.
7. The mountain is composed of brittle, calc:ucous earth
and pudding-st one. It rested on an inclin ed bed.
8. Th e main roall was co mpletely blo ck ed up.
9. Fifteen hundred penions were buried alive .
10. The quantity of earth was sufficient to form a large
hill in the center of the valley.
11. Two islands in the lake of Lowertz , and the villngc
of L eYen, were suhu erged by the swell of the lake.

§ 51.

DIRECTIONS }'OR EXERCISES IN COMPLEX NARRA-

TION.

!.-Single Causes with Single Effects.
In thi ~ class of com positions, the first thing to be done is
to get a clear and steady notion of th e theme, as a cause
working its single -effec t. ·we will take, as a theme for
illustration, "The D estruction of Porn peii." \Ve first seize
firm hold of the cause-an eruption of Vesuvius, and then
follow its working on the fated town . The introduction will
contain what is necessary for a better understa nding of the
narration, as the situation, size, population of the town; the
character and hi story of the eruptions of Vesuvius; the circumstances attending the commencement uf the particular
fatal eruption which is to be narrated. Then, the proper
body of the composition will consist of a narrative of the

COMPLEX NARRATION.

actual erupLion of' the stones, cinders, and ashes from th<.
volcano; tl1c successive showers, day after day; the burni11g
of roofs; the blocki11g up of doors and passages, and streets;
the destruction of life, of property, of builcli11gs, of wnlhi;
and the tinal burying of all under deep dcposi ts of cinders
nnd a:;hcs. 'l'he outlines woul<.l be arranged thus:

1. Introduction, notices of the town and of Vesuvius.
2. The first eruption of stones, etc.
3. 'l'he successive eruption s, day after day.
4. The burning of roofs, and blocking up of streets.

5. The destruction of life and property.
6. The burying of the ill-fated town.
2. Single Chuses 101'.th 1lfanifold Ejfects.

In this class of themes, the cause is the theme on wl1icl1
the mind is to be kept fixed, a nd which is to be set forl l1 ns
it produces its st!ccesRive effects. If the them~· be the Ernptions of Vesuvius in the year 79, they would be cx l1ibitcd in
their beginnings of smoke and flame; the emission of stoner;,
and cinders, and a s hc~ ; and the final eruption of lava; each
stage of the occurrence being marked with its own peculiarit,ies of effect: on the shape and appearance of th e rnountnin
itself ; on the surrounding land and adjacent sea; in the desolat.ion of cultivated field s, garden~, ham lets, villa ges, town s,
buildin gs ; in convulsions of the sea, and the destruction of
lifo.

3. Single E,(fects from Si'.ngle Causes.
In treating the same theme that has been already used,
"the des truction of Pompeii,'' we h ere grasp firmly the theme
ns effect., in slcad of c;wse as before. We first g ive a brief
descrintion of the town. its site. it.5 population, its condiLon

COMPLEX NARRATION.

45

· :.t the time of the eruption, and parti cularly in iLs relations to

Vesuvius, as its vicin ity and direction, the feelings of the citizens as to their security from its convulsions, and the like, in
order properly to introduce the theme. 'Vhen we have thus
f'ully introduced the' theme to the mind addressed, we then
begin upon the body of the narrative itse lf, detailing the first
~hock to the unsuspecting inhabitants; the following showers
of ashes, of rain, of mud, hot water, and ~inders; the tumbling in of roofp; the choking up of' streets and doorways;
1111d after this general view prese nt successively the distinet
results in the burying of walls, streets, public buildings, shops,
t!wellings, with particulars of individual lives destroyed.

4. Single Effects from Jlfmiifold Causes.

In this case, after the theme is distinctly and firmly grasped
as an effect, the first step "'ill b(' to trace out the several cont:pmng causes. The theme ..vill th en be presented as it flows
from the working of these respective causes in their order.
Care will be requisite that ever t.he theme as the effect be
held up prominent as such, so that, in prese nting the several
1::iuscs, the mind shall not run off into a practical treatment
l f' any one of theni as if it were the principal theme.
(f "The American llevolution" be taken as the theme to
IJe treated as an effect from manifolll causes, after the more
general influ ences leading to this res ult proceeding from the
remoteness of the mot.her land, the free spirit of the colonies,
the civil organization and strength of the colonies, there might
Le presented, in the proper order of time, the working of the
particular acts of provocation on the part of the mother government, as the restrictions 011 colonial commerce; the imposition of direct internal taxes; the Stamp act; the duties on
tc:1, paper, etc.; the Boston Post act; the abrogation of co].
011ial charters; the introduction of military forces, etc.
It will be observed that something of the nature of the

46

COMJ:'T, EX

NAIUtATION.

process of analysis enters into the exp lanation where mor"l
than one cause or more than one effect are repr0se nted. 'J'h[
complex cause, or the complex effect, is resolved into its parts,
whi ch are treated separately.
For this reaso n, and also on account of the. g reater difli culty
nf h andling such themes, it may be wise in some cases to
postpone exercises in complex narration till after the other
processes of explanation have been studied.

§ 52.

EXERCISES IN COMPLEX

NAltltA'l'IVE.

1. '!'race out the ·working of the crwse-the solar heati n producing the 'l'rade Winds; the Monsoons; I,and am]
Sea Breezes.

!")

DESCRIPTION.

47

4. 'l'he growth of a tree ;
5. The corruption of manners under the influence of the
court of Charles I;
6. The skepticism und irreligion of France, as occasioned
by the revolution of the latter part of the eighteenth century
7. The advance of political freedom under free religious
institutions ;
8. The culture of taste from the study of forms of beauty
in nature and art.
9. The growth of uncontrollable passion from indulgence.

2. 'l'he transmission of telegrams;
3. 'l'he propulsion of a boat by steam ;
4. 'l'he influence of a training in the Egyptian court. on
the character of Moses;
5. The Babylonian captivity on the J ew ish people;
6. The ambition of Napoleon on the condition of the
:F rench nation ;
7. The Baconian method on the advancement of scicrw";
8. The power of enthusiasm in securing success;
9. '.);he love of excitement on character,

10. The passion for conquest in Rome.

§ G3. 1. 'l'racc the working out of the effect in the warrn
iug of buildings by air passed over steam-heated surfaces.
2. The deposit of frost;
il 'l'he rise of smoke in chimneys;

CHAPTER VII.
DESCRIPTION. '

§ 54. DESCRIPTION is that process of Explanation
.wpich exhibits its theme under the relations of space.

§ 55. The theme in description must accordingly be
an object or scene that may be thought of, not as becoming or changing, but as simply existing or being;
1vJ a field, ~ star, a tree, an empire, an error.
§ 56. 'l'he Law of Unity in Description requires,
1. That the theme be but one object or scene, however complex;
2. 'l'lrnt the theme be exhibited under the relations
of space as the controlling principles.

§ 57. The Law of Selection requires,
1. That those points of view be taken from which the
theme may be best surveyed;

/

48

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

2. That the boundaries or limiting lines run from
these selected points of view, be such as will best map
out the theme to the eye.

§ 58. The Law of Method requires that the points ~f
view that are selected and the lines of description thai
are run, be presented in the order of rela.tive nearness
or vicinity.
§ 59. The Law of Completeness requires that so many
points of view be taken and the lines of description be
so fully run, that the reader shall be enableJ to fill out
in his own mind a map or picture of the object or th eme,
full and entire.
§ 60. Description is of two kinds,

SIMPLE

and An-

srRACT.

OHAP'rEil VIII.
SIMPLE

DESCRIPTION.

§ 61. SIMPLE D1~SCRIPTION exhibits some sensiblo
object or scene existing, or imagined to exist in actual
space.
§ 62.

DmF.CTIONS FOR

Exmwrs1·;s

IN

Snn'LE DF.scnrr·

~'IO N.

The theme here will be something that is to be repre!mnted as it is at some one moment of time, a::; fixed anrl not
ns in change or motion. It must be a pince, a scene, or :rn
object that can appear to the eye, or 011twaru 8c 11sc .

49

']'he first' thing to be done, then, is to form a, clear thought
of the theme as such place or object.
Moreover, if it have a number of parts, or if it be o~ irregular outlir1e, care should be taken, at the outset, to think
of it as one complex whole, that the law of unity may be
readily observed.
If the theme be n. place, as it is but n. pa.rt of spn.ce, it will
be sufficient, in order to describe it fully, to indicn.te,· first, its
direction and distance in reference to some other point in
space that is known, n.nd then present its ' boundaries. As
there are three dimensions in space,-length, breadtl1, ~nd
hight,-when the point is indicn.ood at which we begin to
describe, and then its relations in those three pn.rticulars are
presented, it is fully described, so far as it is a place simply,
or a pa.rt of space.
If "Malta," thus, be ta.ken as the theme, the description
would represent it, first, in its relations-its hen.rings and
distances-in reference to some place supposed to be kn~wn,
and would then give its boundaries. -We may sn.y, then, that
it is an island in the Medioorrn.nen.n, about forty-four miles
in circumference, in latitude thirty-six degrees north of the
equator, and in longitude fourteen degrees east of the meridian of Greenwich, and lying about one third the way from
Sicily to Africa, being about sixty miles from the former, and
one hundred and eighty from the ln.tter. It rises perpendicularly from the water on the southern shore, but more gradually on the other sides, to a hight of somewhat less than six
hundred feet n.boYe the level of the sen.. The outline of the
island is irregu lar, being broken by deep . inlets or coves,
which form good harbors for ships, pn.rticularly on the
south-eastern coast. If the description were extended into
further details, which should give the n.ctual outline of the
con.st, the hen.dlands, and the indentations, as well as the
particular undulations of the surface, with courses and di!lf'l

,.

I

·l
I •

I

~

50

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

tanccs and bights, it would be complete, so far as a descrip
tion of it as a part of space is concerned.
But such a description would be only a rnappi'.ng of t.h1
theme-a representation of the outlines. A fuller dcscript.inr,
might embrace all that would present itself t.o the eye of nr,
observer, as the char:ictcr of the soil, and of its prodnctR.
the population, the cities, towns, and villages; the fortifica
tions, and all artificial structures. Although this part of
the process will be better understood, when the next process
in explanation-analysis-is studied, it will not, be inexpedient to bring in this part of the foll exp lan ation into thcso
exercises in description.
What is of first importance here, l1owever, is to see that
the habit be formed, of looking at everything in description,
as if it were set out before the eye. The image or picture
of whatever object is to be described, should be distinctly
formed, and kept before the eye of the mind; and then, in
commencing the description, some fixed point should be
taken, and from that, the eye should be passed in imagination over _the bounclaries,-the length, breadth, and hight.,in regular transition, till the place is passed. entirely over.
So much should be said, as will set this image distinctly
before the eye of the reader. One of the leading crit.icisms
on the composition will be: is the description so complete
and accurate, that the reader can readily imagine it to him self without further aid than the description gives him?
After the boundaries lrnve thus been passed over in order,
and fully, and have been set down in the description, then
the eye can be passed over the contents em braced, and such
features can be taken up as the object of the description
shall require, and will be treateJ in the same general manner.
Thus', the h arbors; the hills and valleys; t.he productive and
unproductiYc portions of the islanrl; the terraces, the rno11ndfl,
11ud the l'urtificalions; the cities, lhc towns, and tJw. 11.iJJai;cs;

~

·:-- -

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

/

--.

(

-

-

51

tlie streets in the cities, the buildings, both publio and pri
vate; the inhabitants,-the original Maltese, and the immi·
grants . under the Knights of St. John, and during the
period of the British rule; the animals and plants; th<J
!ang1rnges, tho pursuits, the arts, the general condition, government., laws, and customs of the inhabitants, may be taken
up in a more extended description of Malta, one after
another, just as they would appear to the eye, if looking
down upon the island, and observing one thing after another
in regular transition.
In the description of other objects, similar directions may
be given. The first thing is, to set the object that is to be
rlescribed before the mind's eye in all the outlines and
features which it is the design of the composition to represent. This direction is enforced, on the principle, that we
can not distinctly communicate to others what we do not
clearly understand ourselves. It may require a littl e effort
at first to form this habit of imagining or picturing objects;
but it is of the first importance, in order to good writing i
and no labor can be accounted as ill-spent, which is necess:uy to acquire it. It is ris necessary to good description
in language, as to good painting or drawing. 1Vith the
image or picture of the object thus in the mind, the description should commence at some one point that can most
easily be indicated to the mind of the reader. Suppose that
the theme be "an elm-tree;" and it is proposed to give, not
a scientific or botanical, but only a popular and general
clescript.ion of it as an object in a landscape. The first
thing, then, after obtaining a distinct image of it in the
mind, will be to indicate its position in relation to other
objects in the landscape. It rises, we will say, in front of
a group of smaller forest trees which lend to it stateliness
and majesty. It is a tall, straight trunk, till it reaches a
bight; above the topmost branches of' the gronp behind it,

/

52

Sll\H'LE DESCltll"l'JON.

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

where it sends out long, pendulons boug h s, that form for ii
a head large, gracefully arch ing, and decked with sweep ing
foliage. Passin g from the outer slrnpe, nex t th e form of
its boughs, the shape nnd hue of its leaves, aml Ili c light
and shade of its deep, cavern o11s m asses of foli:i gc rn:iy . be
represented, 011e after ano ther, :1nll in the order of p os it.ion.
Proceed ing forthcr, its mes. rnny lie point ed ont., as ulJject
of study for the culture of t:istc, fo r pl eas in g co ntemplation;
as home for bird s of song and fa scinatin g pluma ge; a:=; shelter, through it s extcndctl slrnrlcs, fr om summ er heat:;; as
symbol and express ion of th e ch:1rn clcr of tho~ e wl10, l1:iYing
planted and uouri shcd it, enjoy it s crn11furt :111d its ]Je:lllfy.
'l'he fir st exer cises may be co nfin ed to the mere delin eation of the them e. 'l'he point from which the desc ription
begin s, and the outlines run from this point alone, may be
indicated, so that an intelligent introduction nwy be secured
to thi& kind of representation. The criticisms will then be
in an swer to such questions as these:
1. I s the th eme di stinctly prese nted as s in gle?
2. Is it preEe ntcd thro11 g hont,, ullllcr lhe relat.ion s of space?
3. I s the best point for beginning selected, and arc the
011tli11es ruu fr om it tl1c most fitting to convey an illea of
t,l1c tlie111 e?
4 . Arc all prcsc nLed in the order ol' nearness or vi cinity?
5. Are the delin eations co mpl ete ?
'Vhcn tlie mind has become familiarized with th e general
n:nure of the process, exercises which e mbrncc, together with
this rn app in g or dcliu catio u of the them e, the fillin g 11p with
deta ils and co nteut.s, may be taken, and similar criti cis ms be
rlpplied to t h em, as to the ge neral outlines.
E xe rcii:;es on local themes, or· in the description of places,
should pr~ cerJ e t hose on objec ts in spnce; as the nature of
the process in delineatin g t hem will be more rendily under·
sto od , alJ(l Lhc proceLlurc is more sirupl e and familiar .

"

§ 63.

58

Correct the faults in the following descriptions.

I. THEME.-My Class-Room.
1. My class-room is nearly square.
2. It is dark and unattractive, having but two small win
dows on the east side.

·

3. It is twenty-four feet long and twenty-two feet wide.
4. It ~s in the south-east corner of the building.
5. It is a low room, being only nine feet from the floor.
6. It has a recess on the west side.
7. The walls are plastered on brick.

II.

THEME.-Boundaries of Ohio.

1. Ohio is one of the south-western States.
2. It is bounded by New York on the east, by Michigan
on the north, by Virginia on the South.
· 3. Virginia once embraced Ohio as a part of the territory
granted to .the ~olony by charter from the crown of England,
but ceded its nght to the soil and jurisdiction to the United
States, in 1784.

4. Indiana lies west of Ohio, and was a part of the t.erri~
tory ceded by Virginia.
.

III.

THEME.-The Aral Sea.

l. The Aral Sea is called the Island Sea, because of the
islands which abound in its shallow waters.
2. It is situated in western Asia.
3. It is, next to the Caspian Sea, the largest internal sea
on the Eastern Continent, being about 270 miles long and
130 miles broad.
'
4. It is of an irregular oval shape, and, with the long and

I<'

54

SIMPLE DJ<JSCll[l'TION.

SfML'LE Dw::;c: 1UP'l 'ION.

narrow lake Laudan at its so uth-western extremity, re:!embles,
in fi gure, a pan with a haHdlc.
5. It is IGO to 200 miles cast of the Caspian Sea, and its
waters arc suppli ed from the rivers Sihon and Oxus.
6. The sea abounds with fish.
7. Its waters are saltish, but, arc drank freely by cattle.
8. It lies in a depression between the plateaus of Khivu
and Kirghis.
9. It may be navigated by small vessels.

IV.

TI-IEl\IE.-Bonn·ivard's Priso·n.

1. The prison in which the faithful Bonnivard was so
long confined, was one of the cells in the Castle of Ohillon.
2. The castle stands on the Lake of Geneva, and is washed
on three sides by the waters of the lake.
3. The cell itself is forty feet long, fifteen or twenty feet
wide, and fifteen feet high.
4. Near the top of the side wall are several narrow slits,
which admit air and light.
5. Rings are fastened to some of the pillars in the cell, to
one of which it is said Bonnivard's chain was attached.
6. The room is traversed by a row of stone pillars, seven
in nurn ber, besides one half sunk in the wall.
7. 'l'he pillar to which Bonnivard's ring is attached 1s
worn smooth.
8. The pavement is worn as if by footsteps.
9. The cell is in the basement of the castle, but not, as
poets picture, below the waters of the lake.
10. Lord Byron has left his name carved on the pillar to
which Bonnivard was fastened.
ll. It is a dismal dungeon, and its horrors have been ter•
ifically depicted by that great poet.

V.

[)[j

'l'HF.ME.-llall of Cedric tlie Saxon.

1. It was of a hight grea tly disproportioned to the vasl
length .and breadth .
2. There wa s a fireplace at either cud.
3. A lon g table stood across the hall at the upper enJ;
from the 111iJJlc of which another, much longer, cx tcn<lcll
Jown the the lower part of' the hall; the whole resembling in
form the lett er T.
4. Th e roof was compose d of beams and raftern. It was
blackened by the smoke that escaped from the ill-constructed
firepl aces anJ chimneys.
5. Th e siJes of the lower pa.rt were bung with implements of wnr and of the ch ase . The walls of the upper part
were covered with hangings or curtains; and a canopy of
cloth was fastened above the upper table .
6. At each corner of the room were doors leading to other
apartments of the extensive building.
7. 'l'he floor was, composed of earth mixed with lime.
8. It was raised for about one-fourth of the length of the
apartment. This l-'art was called the dais.
9. At the c~ntn of the upper table were two massive
chairs, elev~ted above the rest, with ivory footstools, for the
mastP.r and mistress l)f the family.

VI.

THEME.-Pe!Gin.

l. Pekin may be called a double city.
2. There are in fact two continuous cities inclosed by,.
iseparate walls.
3. It is the capital of the Chinese Empire.
4. 'l'he northern part of the double city, called the Tartar
or Imperial cit.y, contains three inclosures, one within an ·
other.

5G

SIMPLE DESC!UPTION.

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

5. The outer inclosure is occupied by Chinese traders.
6. The second is called the August City. Its wall s are
six miles in circumference, and are entered by four large
gates.
7. 'l'hc inner inclosure is called the Forbidden City. It
i.i two miles in circuit, and is appropriated to the Imperial
fomily.
8. The circuit of the entire double city is twenty-tirn
miles.
9. 'l'he population is estimated to be 2,000,000.
10. The Chinese are a literary peop le, am! c; how their es teem for learning in their location of the National Uollegc
of China in the August Uity.
11. Pekin is situated in a sandy plain, between the river
Peiho and its tributary Hoen-ho. The Peiho is navigable
eighty miles from its mouth.
12. It is one hundred miles from the Yellow Sea.

VIII.

THEllIE.- A

JV1·en's Nest.

1. A wren 's nest was hid by a broad leaf of a cli11iliing
pri 111rose.
2. Below it were two or three roses in brightes t bloom.
3. It, was difficult to reach, as the wary bird had built its ·
home on the top of the trunk of an oak that had been lopp ed
high up just above its lowest branches.
4 . The ~est had no apparent opening, as the entra1ice
was concealed behind the leaves.
5. The oak stood in a thicket of trees, now in their greenest foliage.
6. An additi onal protection to the nest.lings wa s the iloft
lining within , ca refully selected an d laid by the pnrent l1ir<l.
7. Its joyous carols over its snug and be:rntifnl home w~,.€
answered in the gcnt,lc murnmrs of a strcarnl ct nc:ir.

Boole.

~ ook lay on the table.
2. It was a large octavo volume.
3. Its edges had been originally of rich g ilt, but had lost
their lu ster from mnc h han<lling.
4. The cove r wns bl ack, an<l heavily embossed.
5. It was a thick volume, and it was apparent some part'l
of it had l.ieen much more used than others.
G. Otl 1er volume::; lay beside it; but its position an<l general ap pearance at once ma<le it pro111i11c11t.
7. 'J'hcre is a good maxim : Beware of the man of one
book. This volume indicated that some one had practically
observed the maxim.
8. The volume was upon the si<le of the table next the
Rettee, placed there as if for convenient use.

1.

IX.

VII.

THElllE.-A

57

•.rnEME.-Bridge over the Tweed.

1. 'l'he brid ge had a double draw; each opening from the
center of the river, and closing upon the opposite banks.
2. On each bank was a strong abutment.
3. Upon a ro ck in the center of the current was built a solid
piece of masonry to the hight of the abutments on the banks.
4. 'l'he bndge Atood at a place where the river was contracted.
5. On the pier in the middle of the river a tower three
stories in'"'hight was constructed.
6. The bridge-keeper lived with his family in the second
and third stories of the tower.
7. As the draws fell from the center pier, he could con·
trol at pleasure the passage of the stream.
8. The lower story of the tower consisted only of an arch.
way or pasRage through the building.

· ~ t·I
h .. ,;..
1

\

'":W
I
l'l : '

l

1, '••i

1• 1 '

l

~ I

1;: ::.:.

58

SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

SIMPLE DESCIUPTION.

9. Over either e11 tra11ee to this arc hway hung the draw
bridge con11eeti11g it with the opposite aLutment
X.

'.l'HEME.-'l'he Jlfongolian Race.

The Mongolian race is characterized by
I. A feminine aspect;
2. A rounded contour of head;
3. A receding fore head;
4. An arched, but not prominent nose ;
5. A brown complexion;
6. '.l'hick lips ;
7. A beardless chin;
8. Straight hair;
9. An oblique eye;
10. L ocality in all climates;
11. Melancholic temperam ent;
12. Practical Intellect;
13. L ack of enterprise and culture.

59

9. The Lake of Geneva;
10. Loch Lomond.

.

11. Give the position, the outlines, the elevation, and the
. character of the surface of Deccan ;
12. The '!'able-land of Thibet;
13. '.l'he Plateau of Iran;
14. The '.l'able-land of Brazil;
15. Mount Etna;
16. Mount Hecla;
17. The Himmalaya mountains;
18. The Plain of Siberia;
19. The Llanos of the Orinoco ;
20. The Desert of Sahara.
21. :Qescribe in its position, outlines, and elevation, the
City of Rome ;
22. The City of Mexico ;
23. Ancient Nineveh.

§ 64.

EX E RCISES IN SIMPLE DESCRIPTION.

I.-1. B ound France;

II.-1. Describe, in respect to its situation, outlines, and
hight, St. Paul's Church in London;

2.

Wales.;

3.

Italy;

3. The Capitol at Washington;

4.

Spain.

4. Some known Oak-tree;

2. St. Peter'fl Church in Rome;

5. Give the outlines of the Mediterranean Sea;

5.

Willow-tree;

6. The Caspian Sea;

6.

Pine-tree;

7. The Gulf of l\Iexico.

7. The house I live in;

8. Fix the position and give the outlines of Lake Tit·
icaca;

8. The house I visited;
9. The nearest cabin or hovel of penury.

/

60

ADS TRACT DESCltIPI'ION.
ADSTitACT DESCltll'TJON.

III.-L Describe in its position, outlines, elevation; it&
divisions of land and water, rnonntain and valley, town and '
3ountry, the Island of Great Britain;

2. '.l'he Spanish Peninsula.;
3. 'l'he Island of Cuba.

4. Describe in its geographical features, its vcgetaLle an<l
animal products, and its population-its artificial structures,
roIDmerce, religion, intellige nce, and government, the kingdom of Fran ce ;

5. The Canton of Geneva;

G. 'l'he Em pi re of Brazil;

7. The Sandwich Islands.

CHAP'.l'ER IX.
ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION.

61

thought or imagined under the relations or anrtlogies of space.
It'will conduce greatly to the effect of description if the writer
actuaUy form a picture to his own mind of his theme, and
then endeavor to tram;fer that pi cture , in suitable modes of
description, to the mind of the render. 'l'his habit of forming
images of the theme as if ex istin g in outwa rd space, although
the theme, in its own nature, as a]Jstract and spiritual, is,
strictly speaking, in capable of such relations, is yet invited
and encoura ged by the very nature of lang urigc, and by our
customary modes of thinking. The mind naturally delights
in putting forth its thought,s into these se nsib le forms, as the
rich pleasures of the imagination attest. The habit of thus
conceiving or thinking abstract th emes in sensible forms, will
not only better insure accurate and intellig ible rep rese ntations,
but also will lead to a free command of symbolica l or picturing lan g u:igc nnd sty le in the expression of thought, in which
the chief power of brilliant and impressive writing consists.
When this imngc or picture is formed, the procedure will be
~entire ly :in:tlngnus to that in simp le description. ·
The process ma.y be illustrated in a descripti on of the moral
disposition of "Fortitude."
'Ve mus t first fix its geographical pos ition, so to speak-

§ 65.

exhibits some inward
or spiritual object conceived of under the r elations of
space.

§ G6.

Ansrn.AcT DESCIUPTION

DrnEC'l 'IONS FOR

Jj~XERCISES

IN AnSTHAC'l' DtiSO RIP-

'l'ION.

Here, as in abstract narration, the states of the mind or
oLjects that do not appear in sensible form, arc represented
through the symbols and images of external and sensible
things.
The theme, then, in the first place, must Lr such as can be

its lati tude and longitude-in order that we may ham some
point fi xed and determined from which we may start with
our process. Fortitude, we say thcu, li es in our moral nature, nmong our moral disposition s. If 'rn now pi cture to
• . our minds t.his, our moral nature, with its dispo sitions as spread
out before our eyes, with its departments arranged with reference to th e objects which the di spositions respect, we shall
have present ed to us at once, the precise position of fort itude.
:Fortitude respec ts-looks out on-evils to be borne. And
we can now run the· boundaries. These evi ls are, on the several sides, Lodily ills and mentnl :rn guish. The se are the land
and watrr houndarim; rc:::rcct.ively. We look for the thirrl

..

62
11

,!

I

:•

I

i~

i ,·i

I,.

ABi:;'rltAC'f DESUitIP'l'ION.

dimension, which is here depth and 11ight, under 'Yhich forn,
strength or intensity of princip le is appropriately rcpresc11ted,
and we find that it rests on conscience and rises with firmness of purpose and intellige nce. If now, afte r thi s mnpp ing
out, of the I.heme, we prncccrl to s11ncy t.h c co nt<rnls of t.he
fi eld thus generally dcliucatc<l, we sec ils uses nml its beauty,
in m an ifold det:-iils of blessings which it. works to the po ssesso r, to oth er individuals, and to com munities, and of specific faaturcs of excell ence nnd love lin ess .
It is rnnnifr. st t.hnt at each step of our procedure, we may
run m ore i11t.o dctails,-we may a.rnp lif'y, at will , as our object or the occnsion may <lemancl. vVe rna.y go more or less
into the imli ca.tiou of the rehtions to other moral states or
exer cises. \Ve may indi cate all the particular ills of body
and troubles of mind, in respect to which fortitude is to be
exercised. vVe may expand the description almost at our
plcnsure, in detailing the utility and loveliness, or th e sublimity of the di sposition; preci sely as in describin g j)falta,
we mi g ht have amplified almost at will in detai lin g the
cur ves on t.h e coas t, the inl ets, the promo11t.ories, the l1ill s,
etc.
All themes in abstract description mn.y be treated in
this way, und er the relations or analogies of spnce. 'fhis
we kn ow, on the general principle that all our thinking is
necessa rily eith er in the forms of time or i11 those of spnce;
and a littl e prnct.icc will s:ttis(y nny one of the hi gh utility,
as well as of th e c11tire prn cticability of tl1is m ode of prepnrin g onr t.houghts to be represented to otherR.
In r cf'c rc11 cc to the appli ca.Li un of the several laws of '
uni ty, selection, method , and comp lete ness to this proeesR
of cx plnnation , it will readily be see n h ow it differs from
simple description or narration. N othin g will h elp more to
t.h e obser v:rn cc of t.hc law of unity than this method of
ima g in g th e th eme as a loca l ohjcct. or ~ce 11e . There is a

ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION.

•
68

far greater liability to a v10lntion of this law in abstract,
than in simple description, or i!l narration. Such violations
may obviously be much more easily guarded against, and
when 'actually occurring, be more easily discovered and corrected with this met.hod of procedure. In picturing before
my mind the dispositi on of " fortitude," thus, as filling a
department of the field of our moral dispositions, I shall
be kept from running off from the proper description of it,
to remarks upon ig noran ce or timidity, upon conscience and
love of right., or other states of mind that may happen to
have some remote relation to fortitude, or into some nnrration of instances of fortitude conducted in such a way as to
'leave it doubtful whether the design is to describe the disposition or to narrate some instances of its exercise.
In like manner, the law of selection will, in this mode of
proceeding, be more likely to be observed. Such views of
the theme will be taken as will best present it clearly to
other minds.
The application of the law of method, which requires that
the analogies of space be observed, that is, that the theme
be pictured to the mind as an object or scene in space, with
.,..boundaries or outlines, and that the parts of the theme
which are prm;e nted , or the views taken, be arranged according to their degrees of nearness, is obvious from the illustration 'that hns been given. It should be carried out into
·all the details of the description. I not only thus picture
to my mind the disposition of fortitude, as occupying a certain field of thought with definite outlines , and as lying in
a certain department of the moral nature, but I take ·care
to run the boundaries entirely a.round it, so as to separate it
from every other disp )sition or state of mind. And then,
passing to the details , I take care not to mix up "bodily
ills" with "mental troubles," speaking 11 ow of the pain of
a broken Jim b, and then of the rnffcrin~ that is caused by

•
Gt

AUST!tA CT JlESC JUPTlON.

ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION.

an arrow of co nt empt; now of th e nn g uish of a burning
fever, and then of the torture of a di seased spirit; now of
the lan g uor and wearin ess ' of nn overwork ed frame; :ind
then of the sad dcpreFsions of exlrnmtcd spirit:". 'l' hc p:irfs
of each ge neral boundary or division f'hould be prc scntcrl
b y tl1cm sclvcs ; :ind, ahw, in the order in wl1i ch th ey are
t.elated to each otl1er. Thu s, tl1 c s111:1rt of a ·l\' 0111Hl is rnorc
nearl y rel a ted to the auguish of a feyer, than to th e s1dforings from hun ge r; the 1rnin of a wounded se nsibility from
11eglec t or contempt, to th e depress in g fears from threatening difficulti es or opposition, !.ban to the trouL!es of a spirit
dissati sfied with itself. In all c:ises thus, of abstnH;t description, there will be perceived, on close and continued
in spection, a difference in the degrees of r e lation ship between the parts ; and the law of method r equires that thi s
co nti g uity of the parts be observed in th e descripti on.
The law of completeness is more liable t o he violat ed
here, than in simple description. Th er e is d:i11gcr that. so rno
of the outlines th at are necessa ry to fill out th e entire fi eld
of th ought occupied by the the;nc nrny be omitted; or that
parts of the de tail s may be pa f'se d by.
Th e qnei;tions in criticisin g the performan ce, will be an
al ogo us to those in simple description.
1. I s the theme one, and is it alway:o YicITc rl ac: orcupyint:
a tielJ, the b ou11darics of \rl1 ich ma y be ruu upu11 the rc r<pective sides, and with their true bearin gs ?
2. Has the true relation of th e theme been given to other
themes of the same class, and the best for indicating it to
other mind s ; :tnd :ire the outlines sclcc tc(l, such aR, from
the point; of' view taken, will best exliiLit. t.hc theme to
others ?
3 . Ar" all the outlines run in their true order of contiguity or nea rn ess '?
4. Have :ill the out.lin cfi anrl t.lt c contents al f: o- t.lie map·

ping out and the fillin g up-been carried to their requisite
degree of com pletenes8?

60

§ 67. Correct the faults in the following plans of description.

I.

THEME.-Grarnmar.

Grammar, as the science of language, is thus bounded or
.imited:

1. It is limited by the science of the feelings. Language
is directly and properly not the expression of feeling. It
expresses feeling only through the thought.
2. It is furth er limited by the science of music; as music
immediately expresses feeling, not thought, except as feeling
necessarily :ippears in thought.
3. It is limited, still further, by the science of hieroglyphics, or the expression of thought by visible signs to the eye.
4. It is limite d, once more, by logic or the science of
thought. L anguage is not thought, but only the expression
of thought.
5. It is limited, lastly, by the science of mind. 'l' he mind,
accordin g to its own laws, furnishes thoughts for speech; but
gramm ar takes the thoughts as they are furnished to it, and
views thorn only as they appc:ir in wor ds.

II.

TIIEl\iE.-Botany.

Botany is a departm e nt of ,Physical Science.

1. It is diviLlc<l from Mineralogy , by the line which separates organic from inorganic ma tter.
2. It is disting uished from Chemistry, as it treats of forms,
while chemistry treats of forces.
3. It is sep arated from Mental Science, by the boundary
line between matter and mind.

6

67

ABSTRACT DESCltIPTION.

ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION.

4. It differs from Physiology, as it, treats of the forms,
and not of th e growth of plants.
5. It. differR from Gram mar and l\'Iat.hematies, as it treate.
1f outward, sensible objects, not of wha.t is absfrac t or purely
.nental.
6. It differs from Physics proper, or Natural PhilosopJ1y1
as the latter treats of causes and the laws of their operation,
while Botany has to do not with causes, but with effects.
7. It differs from Zoology, as plants differ from animals

sentiments on the altar of country. Its god was Sparta; its
morality was Sparta's aggrandizement. To steal was right,
if the theft went to enrich the treasury of Sparta, or even if
the practice of private thieving would better train for pillage
and plunder for Sparta's benefit. 'l'o die for Sparta, right or
wrong, was the highest glory. Lying was praiseworthy, if
Sparta could gain by it. In short, patriotism was at Sparta
the dominant and all-controlling sentiment, subjecting to
itself all personal respect, all social affection, all religious obligation. The man himself had no rights; kindred and neighbors, humanity itself, no claims; the -Deity no prerogatives.

66

III.

'l'HEME.-lmagination.

1. Imagination is a faculty of a ratio nal nature. 'l'he
animal may combine different things which it has seen, but
it never properly imagines.
2. Ima gination depends on memory; but is broadly di st.i ll guished from th at faculty, as it creates, whil e memory
only reprod uces.
3. It differs from Perception, as perception on ly takes
notice of what is presented to it from without, whil e im aginatio n is 11 ot a powet of knowing, but of producing.
4. It is di stin guished fr om Invention, as the lattor 1s a
mere facu lty of cornhination and app li cation.
5. It is properly a fac ulty of forms; which may l1e ma
terial or se nsible, or purely mental.
6. It di ffers from Rea soning, inasmuch as it produces new
forms of truth, wi thout deduction or inference.

IV.

'I'IIEl\IE.-Sp artan Patriotisni.

Spartan patriotism was love of country carried to excess.
It di sregarded the obli gations of the fa mily and kimlred, and
t ram pled un<l er foot all personal rights. It tore the child
from th e em brace of the mother, and sacrificed all religious

V.

THEME.-Sc01·n.

Scorn is a sentiment of assumed superiority over others,
and of disrespect to their rights.
As a sentiment, it lies in our passive or affective nature.
It is neither justly intelligent or rational, on the one hand,
nor necessarily intentional or willful on th'e other.
It overestimates one's own powers and deserts, and underrates those of other persons.
It is a fault in the perso~ and an .evil to society.
It is blind in its judgment and unreasonable in its promptings.
It puffs up with disgusting self-conceit, and wounds the
tenderest and most sacred feelings of others.
, It ever implies a comparison bet.ween one's .self and others.
lt first judges unrighteously, in exalting unduly personal
merits, and then acts injuriously in pressing those assumed merits to the undeserved detriment of others.
It breaks up society first by its repulsive arrogance, and
then by the embittering indignities in which it expresses itself.
NOTl1.-·In correcting this exerci se, let the position of the theme first
be indicated-the department of our no.lure ' in which it lies. The!:!

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68

ABSTRACT DESClUP'l 'ION.
ABSTRACT DESClUPTION.

,,

".

Jet, I.hose bou1.id aries or limi t.ations of it be iu clicn t.ed, first in its
essenti>l-l elernants, th en in its chnrn.c teri st.ics ns it wo11lcl prese nt
itself to 1.he eye, ::incl fi11ally, in its effects. Let the laws of de sc ription be applied: Is th e one t heme ever kept befo re the mind? Is the
right pos ition tnken, nnd the proper outlines presented? Ar e I.hey
presented in th eir proper or<ler? Are nil given th11t are required
for a complete description'/

VI.

THEME.- Contentment.

Contentme nt is a grace of character.
It may respect our original endowments, our attainments,
or our circumstances.
It is rather a habit than an isolated exercise of fe eling, and
implies a continued state of satisfaction with our lot.
There is much more happiness witliin the reach of suffering
men, than they are wont to suppose. Th e difficulty is, that
happiness is sought where it can not be found , while its actual
and abundant sprin gs and sou rces are 11 cg lec ted.
\Ve have great and rich endowme nts, whi ch we ~ honld :it
once recog ni ze as such with g ra titude and satisfaetio11 , if wo
were to regard the multitudes in ereation beneath us iu capac: ities and condition.
Contentment imp}i<;:,i a comparative estimate of our cnpaci .
tics and con dition. It supp oses a higher and bett.er eunditinn
possibl e, than has fallen to our lot to experien ce.
vVc are just.ly discontented i11 a se nse wit.h th e 1nr:isure of
our attainment:,i. '.!.'he best c1u1 easi ly see how much hi g her
and greater e\'en theirs mi ght have been tlinn they are. Hut
there may yet be contentment here as a grace nf characlc r,
so far as it nll ows not previous faults or negligences t.o dishearteu from better endeavors ; as it keeps us fr om fretting,
and murmuring, and idle self-reproaches; as, especially, it
gives joy and encouragement from real advances.
A spirit of contentment is one of the richest trearnreR of

the soul. It moderates an d ex tends our joys ; it lightens
and softens our sorrows.
A con tented spirit meets the good and the ill in life with
composure, for it knows that hum an condition is one of dependence, and that all things are ordered in infinite wisdom
and love.

VII. THEl\IE.-Patriotism in its Nuture, Culture, and Value.
I.-1. Patriotism is a sentiment; not cold conviction, nor
blind instinct, nor fitful willfulness.

2. It is beneficent, as it ever prompts to duty an d service . .
3. It is an original principle of man's nature; a susceptibility that is moved, however, only by truth perceived and
understood.
4. It is wakeful.
5. It is self-de nying.
6. It is forbearing and µatieut.
7. It is actiYc.
8. It is hopefu l.
II.-1. Its growth aud culture consist in study and in
acts of patrio tic service.
2. It imbibes the eo un try's life by the study of its origin
and growth, of its adversities and successes, its outward and
its internal history.
3. It sympathizes with all its experiences.
4. It studi es its c:1pacitics and its defects.
5. It promptly yields itse lf to eve ry call of service.
6. It makes sacrifice of se lfish opinions, and interests, and
feelings , as occasion bids.
III.-1. Its value is beyond estimation.
2. It ennobles its possessor.
3. Tt benefits society.

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70

ABSTRA C'f DESCRIPTIO N.

ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION.

4. It suppresses narrow, selfi sh instin cts .
5. It stimulates others to generous endeavors .
6. It is the sure and necessary bulwa rk a nd support of
civil communities.

71

10 A metaph or and a trope;

11. . Rhythm a nd melody;
12. Genius and taste ;
13. Purpose aml disposition;

EXERCISES JN ABSTitA C'l' DESCitIP'l'ION.

14. Freedom a nd lawlessness;

1. Give the outlines or Loundnries wltieh separate Etymology from other deparlu1 e11lf!- of Urnrnmar;

2. Chemistry from other bran ch es of Natura l ~eie 11 ee;
3. Practical A stronomy from other departments of the
science;

15. 8lrnractcr an d reputation;
lG. A eonf'ederncy and a republic;

17. E 111 otio n nnll r;e nsal.ion;
18. llaLional co11temp latio11 and wild castle-building.

4. A noun from other parts of speech;
5. A wish from other states of miml;

1. Enumerate the di stin ctive qualities of true frienuship;

6. Failh from other moral virtues;

2. A bncbLle desire to excel;
3.

7. A n oath fr om other acklresscs to the Oren tor;

4. 11'Ja ti cry;

8. A family from other furm s of society;
9. The sanction from other eomponcnt pnrl ,; (lf

J~g()fi~m ;

:i

l:nr.

5. J\ rrog;1nce;
6. P e tulance;

1. D isli11 g uish or run the boundary lines between prtt·
dence :rnd wisdom ;
2. A virtue and a grace in ch aracter;

7.

Co.-etous11ess;

8. 'l.'rne m1111liness.

3. L aw a nd ad vie~ ;
4. D esire and choice;
5. Belief and trust;

6. Knowledge and faith;
7. Princi pie a nd profession;

8. A h ope and a wish;
9. A so lec i:; m and a barbansm

1. Describe, first, in its distin ctive nature; Reco ndly, io

its quali ties; and thirdly, in its uses or value, a refin ed ta stc'i
2. A we ll di sciplined mind;
3. H abits of order;
4. A spirit of contentment;

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5. A love of neatness;
6. Fnmili:nity with nature;

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I
DIVISION.

ANALYSIS.
7. Love of the real and the actual;

8. A contemplative spirit;
9. The grace of meekness;

10. Tenderness of sensibility;
11. Sympathy with natural scenes;

78

several races, Caucasian, Mongol, Malay, Ethiopian,
and American.

§ 72 . .PARTITION separates the theme into component
parts. The theme, "Man,'' is sepltrated by partition
jnto the several members,-head, neck, trunk, and
limbs.

12. Decision of character;
13. Habits of observation.

CHAPTER X.

ANALYSIS.

§ 68. ANALYSIS is that process of Explanation in
which the theme is represented by an enumeration of
the pn,rts into which it has been sepn,rated.
'rhe process implies, that the theme has first been
separated in thought, at least, into its parts; the proper exhibition of those parts constitutes the essential
nature of the process.

A little thought will familiarize this important distinction
· between like or similar parts, and component parts; a similar part may be correctly designated by the name of the
whole, as " a Mongol" may properly be termed " a man;"
a component part can not be so designated, as "the head"
is not " the man."
The names of the parts given by Division are such as
kingdoms, classes, orders, genera or kinds, species, families,
varieties.
The names of the parts given by Partition are such as
members, portions, constituents, and the like; any one part
is a complement of the rest.

CHAPTER XL

3 69. '.l'he theme in n,nalysis is ever one which can
DIVISION,

be sepn,rated into pn,rts ; as tree, animal, Europe.
Exmw1sE.-Ment.ion some themes that can be separated
into parts.

§ 70. Analysis is of two kinds : DIVISION and PARTl'l'ION.
§ 71. DIVISION separates the theme into similar
pnrt3. 'l'he theme, ;, Man," thus, is divided into the

§ 73. The theme in Division is ever a class; as man,
•ree, rock.

§ 74. The Law of Unity in Division requires,
First, That the theme be but a single class :
Secondly, That the separation into the parts be mad£t
on a single principle of division.
7

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DIVISION.

DIVISION.

This law would be violated by introdu cing subdivision!
not included in the class which constitutes the theme; as in
the division of the theme, " Man," unity would be violated
by introducing "the Chimpanzee," or "the ?urnng-outan?."
It would, also, be violated by represc ntmg parts wl11 ch
are given by different principles of division. 'J' hus the
theme, " :Man," may be divided into many sets of parts, on
as many different principles of division. Unity would be
violated by confounding or intermingling those sets. 'l'his
would be the case, if the parts given by the principle of
color were enumerated in the same rnnk with those given
by the principle of civilization; as if the parts given, were
"White," "Brown," "Indian," and "Black."

stated to be Monarchy, Oligarchy, Democracy, and Con·
federacy.
The personal vices are, Indolence, Negligence, Intemperance, Egotism 1 and Malice.
8. Triangles are Equilateral, Isosceles, Obtuse, or Rectangular.

ExERCISES.-Correct the errors in the following instances
of division.
l. The solar system comprehends, 1. Tlrn Sun; 2. The
Planets; 3. The Satellites of the Planets; 4. The Stars.
2. Formidable, as useful to the mariner, are those great
movements of the ocean, Tides, ·w aves, Icebergs, and
Oceanic Currents.
3. Of the various orders of the animal kingdom, that of
the Ruminants, or of those which chew the cud, embraces
those that have been made most serviceable to the wants of
men, as an enumeration of its various fam ilies will show.
These are the Camel, the Lia.ma, the Giraffe, the Horse,
the Deer, the Antelope, the Goat, the Hog, the Sheep, and
the Ox.
4. The winds may be divided into Constant, General, VariRhle, and Partial.
5. The inhabitants of the earth ma.y be distributed in
rospect to their religion, into the following ch sses, viz. :
Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, Chinese, and Pagans.
6. 'rhe pure or unmixed forms of government have been

~
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7:

§ 75. ?1he Law of Selection in Division requires that,
of the d1fTerent principles of division applicable to the
theme, that one be taken which will give the sets of
parts best fitted to the object of the composition.
This law would be violated by adopting, in an essay on
the different languages that have been spoken among men,
a principle of division of the human race founded on color
or on country, or on period of existence. For while, for'
some purposes, it might be proper to make the division on
, one or the other of these principles, neither one would give
us all the languages spoken by man in their proper distribution. The Hebrew dialect, thus, is spoken by communities of different complexions, in . different lands, and at
different ages of the world. By neither of these principles
of division, could it be properly placed in relation to other
languages.

§ 76. The Law of Method in Division requires
~
First, That the parts be enumerated in the' order
of the degree of resemblance to each other·
'
Secondly, That, if the division be carried
beyond
the first set of parts, the subordinate parts be 'a rranged
under the lower classes.
If the human family were to be divided in reference to
color, as the principle of division, .the parts would properly

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77

DIVISION.

DIVISION.

be arranged in this order: white, brown, blackish brown,
black. If this same theme were divided on the principle
of race, tlie order would properly be this: Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Ethiopian, American. 'The law would be
violated, by placing " the black " in the first set before «the
brown;" or, in the seco nd , "the Ethiopian" be.fore "the
Mongolian;" or, by interchanging the positions respectively
of the Caucasian and the Malay.
The second requisition of the law would be violated hy
grouping together the Ar:tbi:rn and tl1 c Au stralian , one of
which belongs t.o the white, t.h c other to the hl:i ck division;
or, in the first set of parts, the Cc!Lic and the Chinese iu
the second set.

oyster groups; and, lowest of all, that seem scarcely separated
from t~e vegetable kingdom, the zoophytes or radiates.
8. 'l'he Desires are distributed into those which are
founded in our animal and our mental natures, hopes, and
fears.

76

Correct the errors of method in tlrn following instances
of enumeration,
1. Th e vertebrate animals are included in tlie four classes
of the Mammals, the Fishes, the Reptiles, and the Ilirds.
2. The duties of men respec t themselves, their Maker, and
!.h eir fellows.
3. The mental activities are distributed into those of inlellect, will, and susceptibility.
4. 'l'he desires are classed among those o( happiness, esteem, society, food and subsistence, know ledge, and
power.
5. The senses are five in number, viz. : the sight, the
1.mrnll, the touch, the taste, and the l1earing.
6. The seven primary colors, so called, are indigo , red,
oran ge, yellow, violet, green, and blue.
7. The animal kingdom embraces man, the various orders
Jf the mammals, as the carnivorous, the marsupial , the ru1ninants, and others; the birds of prey and of song; the
fishy tribe, from I.he: great monster of the deep-the whaleto the pin-fish of our smallest brooks ; the lobster and the

9. O~r. duties n:iay be ranged under the classes of personal, rel1g10us, social, and political.
10. Mora~ acts consist of, 1. Virtues; 2. Upright thoughts;
3. Pure desires; 4. Lawful purposes; 5. Vices; 6. Words.
7. Outward actions.
.
'
11. Societies arc: 1. Natural ; 2. Artificial · 3. Civil· 4
. u.
r;
J>•e l'1g10uR;
.
'
' .
D omestic;
6. Voluntary.
12. The Arts are: 1. Useful; 2. A!:sthetic; 3. Architecture; 4. Landscape-Gardening; 5. Eloquence 1· 6. Poetry.
1
7. Music; 8. Painting; 9. Sculpture.

§ 77. The Law of. Completeness in Division requires
that all the parts given by the adopted principle of
Division be represented.
This. law would be violated, if, in the division of governments m reference to the seat of authority in them on!
the monarchical, the aristocratic, the democratic and' thos~
combined of any two of these were enumerated, 'leaving out
such as the Spartan, which was a combination of all the
three simple forms.
Correct the violations of the law of completeness in tho
following examples.

1. The divisions of water are, Oceans, Seas, Bays, Gulfs,
Sounds, and Lakes,
·
2. All material bodies are distributed into the two cl::v33 e3
of Ponderable and Imponderable Bodies, the former of which
embraces solids and fluids.

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DIVISION.

3. The moi sture in the ntmosphere nppears under tho
various forms of Dew, Fog, Hain, and Snow.
4. 'The domestic virtues are, the Conjugn.l, the Parental,
and the Fraternal.
5. The vertebrate animals are, the l\iammals, Birds, and
Fishes.

mny be suhJi,,ided into the Arabian and the Abyssinian;
the former having the hair straight or flowing, the latter
<1risf1ed. 'fhe Arabian family may be still further subdivided
in reference to country, as the Frank or European, and the
Oriehtal, with still further subdivisions.
When the parts are all ascertained and arranged in order,
they may be represented in such a manner by narration, by
description, or otherwise, as may appear best. The first
exercises may profitably be confined to the simple enumeration and arrangement of the parts, without amplifying by
description or otherwise .
It will be advantageous, also, to indicate always the prin.
The distinct pres·
ciple of diviRion adopted in each case.
entation of this to the mind will help invention, prevent
confusion and error, direct the arrangement, and in other
ways, prove a profitable exercise.

DIREC'l'IONS FOR ExEn.cISES IN DIVISION.

The first thing is, to fix in the mind a distinct notion of
the theme, as represe nting a class.
The next step is, to determine the kind of division, or
the principle of division to be applied.
Thus, if the theme be " Man," it is first to be viewed as
denoting a class. It is not consequently to be represe nted
as consisting of body and spirit; of head, trunk, and members; but as comprehending various species or varieties
under it. Then the kind of division is to be determined,
or the principle in reference to which it is to be divided.
This may be complexion, country, sex, age, culture-any
one, or some other like principle, as each of these principles
would give its own set of parts or subdivisions. If divided
in reference to complexion, there would be given such parts
as white, brown, etc.; if divided in reference to country,
such parts as Europeans, Asiatics, etc., would be obtained.
If the division is to be carried further, the parts are each
to be taken separately, and its subdivisions to be ascertained
and enum erated in the same way, care being taken that all
the p:trts that are thus given, be di stinctly enum erated . It
is not necessary, however, to subdivide all of the parts, but
only such as tho object of the composition may require.
It will be obse rved, that there may be one prin ciple of
clivision for the highest series, and another fo r the lower.
As if "l'l'lan" be divided first in reference to complexion,
into white, brown, blackish-brown, and black; the white

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DIVISION.

§ 78.

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§ 79.

DIVIDE THE FOJ,J,OWINO THEMES:

1. 'l'he Kingdoms of Nature.
2. The Animal Kingdom.
3. The Mammals.
4. The Heptiles.
5. The Huminants.
6. Exogenous Plants.
7. The Oak Genus.

8. The Ro se Family.

9. The Cherry.

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10. 'l'he Hawthorn.
11. The Willow.
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PARTITION.

DIVISION.

81

11

37. The Senses.

13. Cereals.

38. The Emotions.

14. Clouds.

39. '.l'hc Vir tues.

15. Winds.

40. The Graces of Character.

16. Governmental Systems.

41. Duties.

17. Forms ·of Monarchy.

42. Rights.

I

II

18. Conditions of Society.
19. Sciences.
20. Arts.

22. Educational Systems.

CHAPTER XII.
.PARTITION,

1

23. Societies 0 rdaine.J of God.
24. Theories of Electricity ;
25.

of the Aurora Borealis;

26.

of Sound;

27.

of the origin of Society ;

28.

of the origin of Language;

29.

of Genius;

30.

of Taste;

31.

of Memory;

32.

of Freedom of the Will;

33.

of Necessity;

34.

of Creation;

35.

of Mind and Matter.

36. Mental Phenomena.

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12. The Strawberry,

21. Forms of Religion.

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§ 80. In Partition, the theme is some composite whole
which can be separated into parts, and which is composed or made up of these parts.
§ 81. The Law of Unity in Partition, requires,
1. That the theme be single or one w1ich can be embraced in a single view of the mind ; and
2. That the separation into parts of the same order
be made from a single point of view.
The law of unity, thus, would be violated if, in an alyzing
the theme "Tree," by partition, that is, in separating it into
it~ component parts-" t~e root," "the trunk," "the branches," and "the fruit "-something should Le included which
was· not with the others a component part of the tree, as "its
shape," "its hardness" or "woody structure," and the like.
These things do not, evidently, go with the, root, etc., to mako
up the tree.
This law would also be violated, ii' with the parts enumer·

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82

PARTITION.

ated, "the root," "the trunk," "th e branches," and "~he
fruit," other parts were give11, whi ch, although cornpo11ent
parts, are not given by that principle of partition or presented
from that point of vi ew, as "the bark," "the woody fiber,"
"the pith," and the like.
Correct violations of the J_,aw of Unity in Partition, in the
following examples.
1. The United St.ates of America embra ce as constituent
parts of the Union: New England, the l\Iiddle States, the
Southern States, the Western States, California., Oregon, the
District of Co lumbia, and the Terri tories.
2. The 'Vest India I slands include Cuba, Hayti, Porto
Rico, the British I slands, the Danish and the French Islands,
and th e Bermudas.
3. The Parliament of Great Britain consists of the King,
the Lords spiritual and temporal, the Knights, Citizens, and
Burgesses, and the representative Peers of Scotland and Ireland.
4. The Legislative Government of the United St.ates of
America, is vested in the President, the Cabinet, the Senate,
and the House of Representatives.
5. The population of Mexico is made up of Creoles, Indians, Negroes, l\Iulattoes, and the mixed races.
6. Th e staple productions of the State, are cattle, wheat,
corn, beef, pork, cows, and sheep.
7. Th e face of the coirntry is diversified by mountains,
hills, valleys) plains, and prairies.

§ 82. 'l'he Law of Selection in Partition, requires that
such sets of parts, or such a principle of partition, be
taken, as will best accomplish the object in writing.
Thi'l law would be vio'ated if, in a political geography,

.

PARTITIO:Y.

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83

those parts were selected which are given by . the physical
lines of the globe, as by the seas, mountains, or rivers.

§ 83. The Law of Method in Partition, requires,
1. ~rhat the parts be enumerated in the order of juxta-position, or that the more adjacent parts be placed
nearest each other ; and,

2. That, if the partition be extended beyond the first
set of parts, those of the second be presented under the
part of the first set to which they respectively belong.
This law would be violated by a representation of tho
theme "Tree," in the order of enumeration, first, of the root;
secondly, the leaves; thirdly, the trunk; and fourthly, the
branches.
It would also be violated, if the method were, 1. The root;
2. The trunk; 3. The branches; 4. The twigs; 5. The leaves.
The law would be violated by the following order of stating the parts of the theme "Contentedness," considered in
reference to the acts in which the practice of this virtue consists: 1. "Our external demeanor;" 2. "Our opinions;" 3.
"Our dispositions of will and affection."
It would be violated, also, if more parts of a lower rank
were added as in the same order, such as, 4. "Submission;"
5. "Confidence."
The method adopted by Dr. Barrow, in discoursing on this
theme, is as follows: "I. Our opinions and judgments of
things ; II. Our dispositions of will and affection; III. Our
external demeanor." Under the first principal part, he presents the subordinate particulars of belief: "1. That our
O')ndition is determined by the will of God; 2. That every
thing which happens, is thoroughly good and fit; 3. That, according to God's purpose, all events c'onduce to our welfare;
4. That our present condition is, all things considered, th11

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PARTITION.
P AR.TITION.

best for us." Under each of the other main heads, particu·
Jars are presented in the same way.

85

ciple of Partition as making up the theme, be enumerated.

Correct errors of method in the following examples.
1. British America is divided into the provinces of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Canada, New Britain, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward's Island.
2. The Barbary States are Algiers, Barca, Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis.
3. A flower consists of calyx, pistils, stamens, and corolla.
I

4. The parts of a plaut are the root, stem, leaves, calyx,
and corolla.

5. The kingdom of Great Britain embraces South Britain.
North Britain, Ireland, and Wales.
6. The column in Architecture, .consists of the base, tho
shaft, the astragal or neck of the capital, the capital, and the
square stone at the top called the abacus.
7. A moral act includes, 1. Free choice; 2. A motive; 3.
A desire; 4. A perception; 5. Deliberation; 6. An object
of choice; 7. Intelligence.
8. Skill in art implies, 1. Intelligence; 2. A plan; 3.
Practice; 4. Power.
9. l\'.[ usic is composed of, 1. Sound; 2. l\1elo<ly; 3. Harmony; 4. Modulation; 5. Sentiment.
10. Literature implies, I. Langu~ge; 2. Cultivated thought;
3. Refined sentiment; 4. Taste; 5. Social freedom; G. Sound
morals.
11. Avarice is made up of, 1. Selfishness; 2. Narrow
views of enjoyment; 3. Disregard of others' rights; 4. A sacrifice of higher interests.

§ 84. The Law of Completeness in Partition, requires
that all the parts, which are given by the adopted prin·

This law would be violated if in the partiticn of the theme
"Tree,". " .t he leaves" should be omitted; or, in that of the
theme "Contentedness," "the dispositions" should be !~ft
out, and only "the opinions" and "the outward demeanor"
be represented.
Correct the violations of the law of completeness in the
.
following examples.
1. The Political Divisions of Europe are, Great Britain,
France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Spain, Portugal, and Italy.
2. The parts of a Flower, are the Corolla, the Stamens,
and the Pistils.
3. The parta of a Thermometer are, the Case, the Scale,
and the Mercury Bulb.
. 4. The constituents of an act of virtue are, knowledge of
duty, and a disposition to do it.
5. Every act of memory implies an object previouslj in
'the mind, and the recognition of it as such.
6. Vision involves an object of sight, and a medium through
which it is seen.
7. In order to Rain there must be Evaporation and Condensation.
DIRECTIONS FOR EXERCISES IN

p ARTITION.

After the theme has been selected, it should first be represented carefully and distinctly to the mind as a whole,
to be separated into its component parts. This is of importance every way, but particularly in helping to a ready, correct, and complete partition of the theme. There will be
little difficult.y with outward or sensible themes. The theme
"'l'rce," for inf:tance, we can readily think of, or we can form

I

PARTITION.

an itnage of it as filling a certain space, and as made up of
certain part.'!. 'J'herc will be more <lifliculty in thus forming
an image ,of an nbstract theme, as, for instance, the t.heme
"Fortitude." The difficulty is the same, however, that wo
have before encountered in abstract narrative antl desc ription;
and for reasons alrc:uly intimated, the habit of representing
abstract themes thus to the mind under the relations of
space, is one of vital moment to good writing. A little
labor at fir st will surmount all the difficulty, and will be
abundantly compensated in the effect the habit, when acquired, will have in making the exercise attractive as well
as useful. \Ve can thus think of "Fortitude" as occupyiug
a place in the field of personal virtues, and, so occupying a
place, as admitting of separation into parts, which taken
together, shall make up the whole virtue.
The next step is to determine upon the particular principle of partition to be applied. It is obvious that the
theme " Tree," may be separated into parts, which shall make
up the whole in various ways. In one way, or by one principle of partition, we have given us, at once, as the component parts, "the root," "the trunk," "the branches,"
"the foliage ." In another way, by taking a view across a
section of the trunk, we obtain "the bark," ''the sap-wood,"
"the heart-wood." In still another, regarding it simply as
a shape or form for a sketch or picture, we separate it into
"trunk" and "spray."
So, in the ca se of the abstract theme, "Fortitude," wo
notice on a little inspection, that there are several things
which are united in it and constitute it what it is. 'l'here
arc first, sense of evil; secondly, conviction of duty to en·
counter it; thirdly, steadfastly meeting and enduring it.
Or, we might separate it in reference to the faculties in
exercise, as " the sensibility to suffering," " the moral sense
impelling to a cheerful endurance," and "the resolute will

PARTITION.

87

· to bear it."

Or still again, in reference to merely esthetia
aspects, we might have the parts, "a burdened soul," "a
resolute spirit," :rn<l "a trnn rp1il brow."
There will be occnsion for particular cnrc that parts given
by' different principles of partition be not intermingled in
the enumeration.
In the selection of the principle of pai·tition to be adopted,
reference must be had to the particular object in writing.
A botanist, thus, would prefer the fir,_t principle adopted in
the partition of the theme " Tree," af' stated; a physiologist
would rather take the second, as better showing bow the tree
grows; and a landscape painter, the third.
It will be borne in mind, that a different principle of
partition may he applied to the smaller partitions, from that
which was adopted for the larger, or the f'ame principle may
be continued. Thus, I may continue the same principle in
the partition of the theme "Tree" to tb2.t of the "root,"
and then I obtain such parts as " the sap-root," "the sideroots," " the root-fibrils," and "the spongiole<>." Or, applying a diffei·ent principle, the botanist would obtain by partition, "the covering," "the wood," and "the pith." It
would not necessarily violate any law of disco•use to apply
to any lower part t11e process of division; to Feparate, for
instance, " the root" into "the root-stock," 1• the corm,"
"the tuber," and "the bulb."
In applying the law of method, which is the next thing
to be attended to, care must be taken that· the p~rts be so
stated, that the lower parts are comprehended, ea"h group
by itself, under the higher to which they belong.
When all these steps are thought out, the parts may be
stated in their determined order, and then they should be
reviewed for tlrn purpose of ascertaining whether the partition is complete; or, in other words, that all the parts ~we
been stated.

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EXEMI'LIFICATION.

PAltTITION.

In criticising the exercise, inquiry should always be made
for the particular principle adopted in the partition.

• 89

23. Virtue.
24. Oonscience.
,25. Patriotism.

§ 85. Analyze by partition, the following themes:
1. Central America.
2. 'l'he Chinese Empire.

26. Civilization.
27. Politeness.
28. Artistic Skill.

3. A Flower.
4. An Apple.

5. A

S~ip.

CHAPTER XIII

6. A Watch.

7. 'l'he Eye.

EXE:lll-PLIFIOATION.

8. A Telescope.
9. A Steam-Engine.
10. The Electdc Telegraph.

11. The Planetary System.
12. The Animal Structure.
13. A Logical Proposition.

14. A Discourse.
15. English Grammar.
16. Chemistry.

17. Natural Science.
18. Mental Science.
19. Moral Science.
20. A State.
21. A Legislature.
22. Law.

§ 86.

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is that process of explana·
tion which exhibits the theme through one of its parts.
EXEMPLIFICATION

In this process, thus, we mn.y represent the theme" Giraffe,"
by exhibiting what is characteristic of that species of animals
as found in a single individual, as that in the Garden of
Plants, in Paris. ·we see, from this specimen, that the Giraffe has horns and cloven feet; that it ruminates and grazes
like other animals having horns and cloven feet; that it has
. a beautiful head, with small mouth, and full, brilliant eyes,
and a tongue of extraordinary length, that seems to be analogous to the proboscis of the elephant, being the extension
of the organ of taste, while the trunk is the extension of the
organ of smell ; also a neck of remarkable length, being
longer than its back, which fact, with the great hight of the
withers, gives the animal a peculiarly erect and commanding
appearance; and that it is gentle, docile, playful, and harmless in its disposition.
In the same way, the abstract theme, "Fortitude," might

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EXEMPLIFICATION.

EXEMPLIFICATION.

b e exemplified in some particubr ins tan ces of the virtue, as
in the case of R egulus, wh o, notwi thsta ndin g the di spensation
from his engagement by the Pontife x l\laximus, the protes tations and r emonstrances of the whole R oman people, and the
.amentations of his fri ends, persiste d in his purpose to return
to Carthage, and there subjecting himse lf uufultcringly to the
most cruel torments and indi g nities.

§ 87. The theme in Exemplification must r epresent a
class that can be divided into similar parts.
It is obvious that we may exemplify "a tree" by one of
its varieties, as " an oak." We can not exemplify it by one
of its component parts, as "the trunk," except as we take
those properties or functions of life which are common to the
whole tree as a g rowth.
It will be seen from this how closely related this process
is to analysis by division, as already d escribed.
It will occur at once to every one, moreove r, that this
process is one of the most com mon, and at the same time,
one of the most p leasing processes of cxpbn~tion.

§ 88. 'l 'he Law of Unity, in BxempliiicaLiuu, requires
three things :
1. 'l'lrnt but oue class be taken as the theme to ho
exernpliiied ;
2. That, if more than one example be introduced, they
be not mingled tog ether, but be sep arately presented;
3. 'J1h r1 t onl:; those prnprrtirs of thr cxmnplc he exhibited which are common to the class.
This law would be violated if, in case of the theme "the
Giraffe," I sh ould bring in descriptions of other animals in
the Garden · of Plants, that by their neighborhood, or by

91

11oruething remarkable about them, should attract my mind
to them and lead me thus to forget my proposed theme.
It would be violated, in its second requisition, if I shvuld
introduce notices of the Giraffe in the Royal Menagerie at
'Vindsor, in such a way as that the reader would confound
the two.
It would also be violated in its third particular, if I were
to br-ing in some peculiarities of the example in such tt way
as to leave the reader in doubt whether they belonged to the
species, such as stiffness and awkwardness in movement and
particularly in attempting to crop grass from the earth, which
might have been occasioned by the unnatural treatment it
suffered in being brought up by men, in being confined, and
in being tran sported from place to place, and to uncongenial
climes. 'I'he importance of distinguishing carefully accidental
proi.-erties of the individual from those common to the class,
is well exemplified in the fact that f1~ om the difficulty shown
by a domesticated Giraffe in grazing from the ground, the
conclusion was hastily drawn that in its native state the Giraffe did not crop grass, but lived exclusively on the twigs and
· lcnvcs of trees .
In tlie cnsc of t11c abstract th eme, "Fortitude," the hw
would be violated if I were to introduce i nto my e~say other
virtues, as "patriotism," or "fidelity to engagements," in
such a \\UJ' as that for the tim e it would not distinctly appear
that the theme "l'l'as "li'o rtitudc ;" or if I were to mingle in
confusedly other instances of fortitude; or were to make
prominent other traits of character in Regulus.
Correct the violations of unity in tho following plans.

I.

R epublic exemplified in the Government of
the United States of America.

THEME.-A

1. The Constitution is made the Tiasis of all administration.

92

EXEMPLIFICATION.

2. The sovereignty is vested in three departments: the
Legislative, the J u<licial, and the Executive.
3. It embraces a union of a number of subordinate Sov·
ereignties or States.
4. All office-holders are directly or indirectly responsible
to the people.
5. ·where practicable, the people act in person in local
assemblies; where otherwise, by representatives chosen by
theIDsel ves.
6. In some free governments, as in Great Britain, the
meIDbership of one of the Legislative departments is constituted by the Executive.
7. Offices are limited in tiIDe or during good behavior.

II.

exemplified 1"n Ge01·ge TVashington.

THEJllE.-Trn e Patrioti'.nn

1. He freely sacrificccl personal intercstA, ns of home,
property, private foelings and u1>i11iu11s, at his cou11L1-y's call.
2 . When opposed hy his pcr~onal enemies in nnthority,
lie snppressec1 liis just rcsenlmcuts for the goo1l of liis L1istracted country.
3. He rejected the offers of power and station, when ma<le
to him in circumstances that made them peculiarly tempting
to a generom; iirnhition.
4. He was a man of the most systematic industry, profound srigacity, and unswerving morality .
G. lie prcf'erre1l the pleasure;; of private lif'c to the state
and pride of political rule, and declined honor and emolument
when the welfare of the country made no demands upon his
service.

§ 89. The Law of Selection, in Exemplification, requires that such instances or examples, and such par-

EXEMPLIFICATION.

98

ticular features of the example, be selected as can besi
be made to subserve the object of the essay.
There will often be occasion for careful ,investigation and
study, in order to determine what examples and what features
in the example shall be taken. Sometimes this will be already determined, as the naturalist may have but one specimen within his reach, or generally the writer may be shut
up to particular instances or facts, by his lack of sources of
information. The law would be violated by the selection of
obscure examples of which but little is known, or those which
_but faintly exhibit the characteristics of the class. It would
also be violated by selecting other than th ose properties which
will best represent the cl ass; as if I were to take those characteristics of the Giraffe in the Garden of Plants, which belong to all q uaJru pcJs.

§ 90. The Law of .Methorl, in Exemplification, reqmre1>,
1. 'l'hat if more titan one example 1 be introduced,
the examples be arranged according to the principles
of analysis by division, §§ 73-79; and,
·
2. That the particular foatun1s or properties of the
example taken be presented in the order prescribed by
the process employed in explaining them, whether that
process be narration , description , or fl.nalysis.
It is obvious that after the example is selected, and also
the properties which are to exemplify the theIDe, these properties are to be exhibited as they would be if they constituted the theme. All that is necessary is, that the main
objcet, which here is to exhibit the class through the indi·
vidual, be steadily kept in view.

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EXEMPLIFICA 'l'ION.

§ 91. '.l'he Ln.w of Co111plctc11ess, in Exemplification,
r equires that all the properties of the example be enumerated which are n ecessary fully to r epr esent the
theme.
Correct faults in the following plans in Exemplification.

I.

THEllIE.-Bfrds show the Thievi'.ng Propensities that cha1'acterizc some lfmnan '1.'ri'bcs.

The house-w ren will watch the woodpeck er , till it h as
du o- a hole in the tree s ufficient for he r purpose, and then
will take p ossession of it.
It often driv es away ot.her and eve n large r birds fr om
th eir n es ts, after they ar e built.
It attacks the blue-bird with great vio le nce and persis tence.
Th e martin, it ge nerally su ccee ds in driving off ; but it is
som etimes outman euvrcd.
8omc m artin s, in one ca-se, :w
r elated by l\Ir. Bing ley, watch ed till th e int.rnder had le ft
th e b ox fr om whi eh tl1cy h :1d Leen driv e n, ancl th e n _e nt ered
and barricaded the entrance, a nd went wi t hout food two days
in dcfondi ng it , till the di ~ co lllfite1 l 11· rp11 r:ii ~ ed th r. ~ic ,!.!c.
l_t l1:1S ] JCC!l k1101r11 f ll c:irry off all the lllUl'alJ[e parts Uf"
a s11:ill r)\\-"s ne s t. Li s111 11d y ii.' 01111.
R1r:1 1l o1r ~ , i t. i ~ c; :1 i1l , l1 n1r1 •1·1•r, 1rill rr yr ne!-r. an1· ~11"11 rna 1·n11rlin _Q:R, aR t.lie.v have closed up th e entnuH:e, wlie11 tht_i r
C ll f'lll i f'~ lt:1Ye t:1kr' 11 l'" '~ , · ~ " i"11. \r itlt th e 111u r t:1r ·tl1Py 11 ~c 111
hni ldino- tli eir m·sL'. :llld ''11(11rnhrrl th(' nil1lirr ~ :1li1·r .
'J'hc l1n11 sc-wrr 11, , it has bee n ub~cncd , th11 s clw' ''s 11p the
hol'7 o f the blno-bird , which it h as generally fouud a SU·
pc rio r foe.

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EXEMPLIFICATION.

95

II. THEME.-Priendship exernplified in the devotion of
Da11w n and Pythias to each other.
D amon had been sentenced to death by Dionysius, King
of Syracuse.
His r eq uest to vis it his own country, and ta ke leave of his
family, was gra nted, only on condition that another should
conse nt to take his pl ace in prison; and to die in case of his
failure to r eturn.
Pythia s at once offered to take hi s place.
The day appointed for the execution came on; Pythias
cheerfully obeyed the s ummon s.
He tba11 ks God that his friend had not return ed.
A cry is raised, "Stop the exec u tio n ;" Damon is announce d. Pythias bid s the executio ner haste n his work.
Damon comes up at full s peed, covered with dust, a nd surrenders him self to s uffer the sentence prono unced against him.
Pythia s r eluctantly gives way to his faithful friend.
He lia (l told the do ubting tyrant that he was confident
his fri end 1Y ould r etu rn .
,
He had prayed that the winds might be contrary, and prevent it.

Tni:~1i::.-l'nrtc r 11 n l A.fTc,.tio11 il/11strat1•,7 i11 the co sr; of
A r tu bu .:u11rs u11d ,\."er.res, snns nf Duriu~, !{in:; of l 'crsia.

IIf.

Each h:1il pl:111 sibk cl:1illls to th<, s111 ·c c ~s inn to th e ern1r11 .
Jhrins di r 1l 1rh c11 th r r ld r.r so n, 1\ rtab:1za ncs , "\\·as a li"c nl;
whcre11p1111 Xe rx es :1 ~ !'11111 e il thr ~c r pf e r.
On !lie rntu rn of h is brntltcr, lie threw off tl1e cli:itlrrn,
and \rent. out tu 111cet hi111, Fhowing him all irn !1gi11aLlc r cRpci:t .
T his Jel"c rcnee to sc11iority is an Oriental trait, worthilJ
exemplified in Xerxes.

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9T

EXEMPLIFICATION.

EXEMPLIF !CATION.

The brothers agreed to r efer th e question of succession tv
their un cle , who dec ided in favor of Xerxes.
Artabazanes instantly prostrated himself at the feet of hie
younger brother, a nd acknow ledged him his sovereign.
He continued faithful in his a1fectio11 ate all egiance, and,
at las t., lost his life in the service of his brother, at the
battle of Salamis.
In private life, as duri11 g the period of the di spute about
the succession , t h ey maintained the most cordial intercourse.

" the eglantine," or " sweet-brier." The process may begin
by mention of the soil which it prefers; then may be given
its general character and size, as a shrub, with indi cations
of the stem, the leaves, the flowers, which may be followed
out into the p articulars of number, s hape, hue, and fragr ance; and then the several uses of the plant. In passing
nver these particulars, spe cial care will be requisite not to
represent as the common properties of all roses what may
be peculiar to the eglantine; and, fur t her , to omi t nothing
that may be necessary to g ive a co mpl ete notion of the
theme . It would be wronp;, t.l1m1, to repr ese nt all rosef! :rn
of" the sa.mc Rize, as having the same number, shape, and
1; izc of le:ives, ancl the same color and frngnrnce of flower.
lt. sho nl ll he l1 orne in min cl, moreover, that the exemplification will vary with the more part.i cu lar object in the
essay. A natur nlist would cho ose a different examp le, se lect
differen t properti es or characteristics, arran gi: them differently
fr om a fl orist; :ind he, again, differently from a mere lover

§ 92.

DmECTION S FOR ExErtersEs IN EX EMPLIF I CATION.

In selecting a nd studyi ng the theme, it should be distinctly borne in mind that the th eme in this process must
ever r eprese nt a class, and that this class is to be represented through the example which is taken.
The miud
should grasp the theme acco rding ly, as a class co mpri sin g
more or less varieties or individuals. Only as it is a class
ca n it be exemplifi ed. If the example is not already f! iven,
as it is, for in stance, whe n a natura list fi nds a new :o;pee i111 e1t
of a plant, or min crn.l, the pecnliarit.ieR of whi ch 11 0 wishes
to represent as showing the properties of th e clas8 Lo w 11 ich
it, belongs, the mi1td sho 11ld ca re fully run over tho diffi:rcn t
v:irieties or individ11ai 8 which m ake up t he chss de1totrd hy
t he the me, with a view to determi 1tc whieh will best :i11swer
the purp ose of exhih itin!:!: the theme.
'Vhen th e p:1rtif'11lnr <• xn mpl " is ~ f'lcrtcrl, tl1cn ifs pr0perti es, so far as th ey :ire co mmon to the class, should be carefull y scanned, i n o rd er that the mo st, appropriale a 11<l nll that
n.re necessn.ry p roperly a nd fully to re presen t the theme, may
be selected. Th en the selected prvperties may be se t forth
one by one, in the onl cr prescribed by the parti cular process adopted.
This prncess may Ro me ti mes be narrati on;
sometimes description; so me ti mes analysis.
Suppose the theme be " the R ose ," t o be exemplified 111

{lf nn111n~.

Suppose the theme be abstra ct, n:i "Ju ~tic c ," tn be exrmplified in the e lder Brutus. Nothing would be admissible here
but what would sene to set fort.Ii the exercise of this virtue by him. His personal cha ra cter ot herwisc 1 his rclationR
to otherc;, as particularh· to hi:i sons aml to his countrymen,
as leader and magif'trnfc-thcsc wou ld nll be scanned in the
light of' their simp le rcbtion to the culture and practice of
this virtue by Brutus. Further, the culture and practice of
thi s Yi r tnc hy him would be~ presented on ly RO far, and in
such lig h t as would serve to exeJ?lplify it in its general properties or effects. Thus, in the history of Brutus, we see
tlw t a se ntiment of just.ice is nurture d by suffering, as having
early lost his father and elder bro ther by the cruelty of T arqnin, the rem em brance of the wrong bein g pe1petually kept
- nhve in the feeling of his loss, ever fed the native spark

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99

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

EXEMPLIFICATION.

9. Regularity in Nature.

with appropriate fuel till it broke into a flame that couhl
not be extinguished; t.he felt inabilit.y to rm1ent the wronµ;,
and the forced coucealment of the resentment, only stre11 g t.l1ened the growth of the sentiment through long yea rs of
suffering; the encouragement given by the i Iiterpretat ion of
a prodigy, tended still more to protect :111d sustain tl1e se ntiment; the sight of the wrongs to others, ::is in the c:ise of
Lucretia, also ministered to its growth.
W c see thus exemplified in the history of Brutus, how
the sentiment of justice is nourished by sense of personal
wrong; by the felt necpssity of repressing for a time nil
resentment; by hope of ~I ti mate redress; by sight of wrong
to others. vV e see, also, its exercise exemplified in him in
his open purpose to redress the crnelties of the Tarquin s,
and his execution of his purpose in his overthrow of th eir
dynnsty; in his confisc at ion of th eir property , "hen thry
were detected in a subscr1ucnt co nspirncy; :rn c1 al•on~ :ill, in
the resolute f!acrifice of paren k1l affection nn the altar of
this sentiment, in the trial, comkmn:ttion, :111d <'>:f'r•1 tf io11 of
his own sons, 'Yho were inY ohccl in the conspirney to rcRt(lrc
tho TarrpiinR .

10. True Greatness in Washington.

· 11. Ambition in Napoleon Bonaparte.
12. Patriotism in Hampden.
13. Filial Affection in Ruth.

14. Justice in Aristides.
15. Republican Government in the
America.

United States of

16. Luxury in Rome.

17. Civilizing power of Christianity in the Sandwich
Islands.
18. Religion in France during the Revolution .

CIIAPTK!l XIV.

.

'I

C 0 JI[ I' A ll I S 0 N

§ 03. Exemplify tho following themoR:

,.

1. A V in o in the Ornpo.

A ND

C 0 N 'I' It A S T •

§DJ. CoMP,\msoN AND CONTRAS T is t h at process of
l i.~ 11t

2. I'l:int -T,ifc in tlio O:ik.

i::xpl:rnn tio n 'vhich exhibits tho theme in th e

3. A l\Iarsnpial Animal in tho Kangaroo .

rese rn l 1lan ces or diffo r cnces in r eference t o another obj cct
tli c ::oarnc cla:o:s.

4. Shell-fish in the l\Iuscle.

7. Industry in the Ant.
8. Order in the Bee.

or

§ flG . The process is by Cornpa.rison wh en tho re-

5. Animal Sagacity in lho Do g.
6. lnstinelire On1cr in the

of its

1~c :wo r.

Ro111lrl:1ncos :ire g iven; by Contra st, whou th e differences
a.re pres en Lecl.
Geography is thus compared to Geology in respect to its
subject-matter, which is the same-the earth. It iA contrasted

101

COMPARISON AND CONTltAST.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

with it in respect to the view it takes of the c:1rth; the one
directing its attention to the forms of the surface, the olher
to the interior structure.

Distinguish Direct from Analogical Comparison and Contrast, in the following outlines.

100

§ 96. If the process respect the simple
the things compared, it is called

qualities of

DIRECT. Co111PAltISO~

AND CONTRAST.

If it re spect tho relations of tho obj ects, it is en llefl
ANALOGICAL Co111PARISON AND CoNTilAST, or simply
ANALOGY.

Thus the planet Venus may ];c cornp:ucll witl1 the earth
directly in tl1e particulars that it has gravity, is rouml, has a
rough or rnuuuLaiuuus surface, arlll a lkcp :11111 dc11~c :ilmosphere; that it is J1ot. self-lnminPrn\ but recciH'c> it~ li glit from
the sun; that'it rcyo Jycs on its axis ~n<l lws tlrns the s1w<'essions of day and night, and, revolving arouml tl1c su n '"iLh
its axis inclined but unchanged in direction, has changes of
RC:J.fW!lS.

It may be compared to the eart h an:1]ogicnlly or tliron g· h
its relations in refere nce to its fitness to s1rnta in life , Ycgctablc or animal; its influence on th e movements of' th e Y:irion~
parts of the solar system, and the like. In this case, tlrn s:i.me
properties rnav more or less be taken into view, m;, for instance, atmosphere, chanp;e of seasons, m:ig11itude, di ~t:rncc
from the sun, etc.; hut so far :is Jhcy ar c t1111 s intr0il11C'cd,
they are viewed only in rcfo rc ncc to their Lcari11)! on the
planet's fitn ess to sustain life or to disturb the motions of
other bodies- in other words, only in their r clntion s.
It m ay not he expedient always to distinguish, tlnrn, properties from relations in the enumeration of the points of
resemblance or of difference. Sometimes it will be nceJful to
confine attention to the one or the other-the properties or
the relations-and then the distinction becom es inl}JOrtaut.

L

THEllIE-The

Duckbill.

1. The Duckbill or Ornithorhyncus, was long a wonder
and a puzzle to naturalists.
2. It has a bill like a Duck.
3. It is covered wi th liair and fur, like the Otter.
4. It finds its fuud in the mud, like t he Duck, and feeds
on insectfi, i;imal l shell-fish, and worms, as well as grass.
G. It burrows in the ground like the RabL it.
6. It carries and nourishes its young like the Kangaroo.

II.

THEME.-'Z'he

government of the United ,S'tates 1·esemblcs

that of Great Britain in rnany respects.

1. The Executive administration is intrusted to one person, as its head and source, called in one case the King, in the
other the President.
2. In both the ExecutiYe is responsible to the nalion,
imlircctly throucrh
his
which extends its control to the Ki1w
0
0
l\linistry; to the President directly to hi s O'\l'n person.
3. The Leg islative authority is in both jointly vested in
two bodies, which are indepen dent of each other in respect of
appointment and of :iction .
4. The membership of the Honse of Lords derives its
being from the appointment of the King, and is hereditary;
that of the United States Senate, fro m the several StaJc Leg·
islaturcs, and is only for a term of years.
5. The liouse of Common s and the House of Representatives, are alike elected by the people.

§ 97. The theme in this process must be regarded as

an object belonging to a class, as an oak; an elephant,
r-

'"

102

103

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

for ti tuJe, w Ji ich belong severally to tho classes of trees,
animals, virtu es.

constitute the obj ect with which the comparison would be
made. The law would be violated, however, if the comparison
'!Vere here with one and there with another of these bodies
in such a way that it would be difficult to follow the compa1'ison.

§ 98. 1'he Law of Unity in Comparison and Contrast,
requires,
1. That tho tl1emo bo a single indiviJual, or variety
of the class ; and,
2. That the obj ect, with which the theme is compared
or contrasted, be also single.
This law does not forbid that several individuals be made
to constitute the theme, but only that they should not be represented as individuals confusedly together. It requires that
they be gathered into a single group, and that they be represented as such single group throughout the essay. Thus the
other planets may be compared with the Earth with no violation of unity; or all the superior planets or the inferior
planets, or all the planets besides the asteroids. But whether
more or fewer are taken, they must be carried in th e mind as
one group. The law would be violated if sometimes Jupiter,
sometimes Venus, sometimes some other planet, were presented, leaving it a doubtful matter what might be the particular theme to be represented.
The same remark is applicable to the second part of the
law requiring singleness in the object with which the theme
is compared. 'l'he law does not forbid that this obj ec t be a
group or vari ety. We mi ght thu s ropro~c nt th e theme "the
Earth ," by co mpari so n wi th th e oth er plan ets; a ~ it r c: ~ cn 1lil cs
them in reflectin g light to other worlds; in presentin g plrnscs
like them, pass ing from full to new, as docs the moo n; in
tran sits over the face of the sun; in revol ving around the
snn; in appearing sometimes nearer the sun, sometim es fi.u ther
from it, sometim es to be advancin g, so met.im es to be retrograding. The other bodies of the solar system would toge tMr

§ 99. The Law of Selection requires,
1. That the object with which the theme is compared
belong to the same class as the theme;
2. 'l'ha.t those points in the object, with which the
comparison· or contrast is made, be selected which will
best exhibit the theme.
Although it is strictly true that there are no two things
that can not be em braced in the same class on some supposable principle of classification , as even a mathematical triangle, an orange, and an act of virtue, all belong to the clas!'!
of "obj ects of conception," still, inasmuch as the comparison
or contrast can be but extremely faint and dim between obj ects th at can be embraced in classes of excess ively wide
extent, this law of selection would be violated in taking a
more comprehensive class than is necessary.
Uerrn rally, the small er the class, the more clear and distinct
will be the comparison. Sometimes, however, the wider the
contrast, the more striking will be any points of resemblance.

§ 100. 1'he Law of Method requires, that the points
of resemblance or difference be presented in the order
<Jf their r elationship to each other, or the res emblances
by thems elves and the differences by themselves successively.

104

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

Correct faults in method in the following plan.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

105

of difference be stated, which are necessary fully to ex·
hibit the theme.

'.l.'IIE!\1E.-Demostlienes and Cicero.

1. Both of these celebrated orators gave themselves to the
culture of the art of E loquence, with extraordi nary devotion.
Demosthenes cultivated rather vehemence and energy ; Cicero,
learning and polish.
2. Both were men of the highest repute and influen ce in
their respective cities. Dcm.osthencs was neve r iutrusted
with a ny high office of responsibili ty; Cicero wa s honored
with all the regular offices of trust and hon or in the gil't of
the people.
3. Both were driven from their hom es. Demosthenes was
banished for his own fa ults, in disgrace; Cicero, for his patriotic virtues, in honor and amid the tears of the Senate and
people.
4. Both excelled in the art of Oratory. Demosthenes in
the sty le of his eloquence, was ever grave and serious ; Cicero
often indulged in plensantry to a fault.
5. Both were solicit.eel with bribes. Demosth enes is
charged with corruption; Cicero repelled every solici tat.ion
to wrong.
6. Both were ambitious. Demosthenes never suffered
personal aims or interests to appear; Cicero was egotistical
and ostentatious.
7. Both met with a violent termination of tli cir ca reer.
Demosthenes perished, a bold, determined suicide, from poison, at the foot of a reli gious altar; Cicero, a weak, irrcso luto
fugitive, was mise rably beheaded by the wayside, in the litter
in which he had attempted his escape.

§ 101. Th e Law of Completeness, in Compari s on and
Contrast, requires that all the points of resemblance or

Correct the faults in the following exercises.

I.

THEi\rn.-The Planet Jupiter resembles the Earth in many

particulars.

1. It is flattened at its poles;
2. It has four moons ;
3. It has an atmosphere;
4. It sliiues by reflected light, as is proved by its eclips·
ing its moons, and by its being eclipsed by them, as the earth
eclipses the moon and is eclipsed by it;
5. It has dark bands crossing its disk;
6. It revolves on its axis once in a little less than ten
hours.
It is unlike the earth in diverse respects:
7. Its orbit is three times as eccentric;
8. It is thirteen hundred times as large;
9. The eclipse of one of its moons revealed to astronomers
the velocity of 1ight.

II. 'l'HE!\IE.-Hope and Fear.
Hope and Fear belong to the same class of mental states,
and accordingly present diverse po in ts of agreement and
diversity in their res pective natures and objects. Hope
anticipates good, and desires it; Fear anticipates evil, and
shrinks from it. Hope is j oyous; fear is sad and painful.
Hope is one of the most deeply-seated principles of our
nature. It is the morning's animating brightness to youth;
the steady but intense li ght of a midd ny sun to manh ood;
the calm serenity of sunset to age. Like Fear, Hope h as a.
single eye to the future. It is blind to the past it takes

!

106

COlllP A RISON AND CONTRAST.

no note of the prcse11t. Like fear, it is often headstrong
and mock& at co unsel, and is deaf to th e teachin gs of ex·
peri ence. Like fear, it keeps us active an<l vigilant, and
quickens every activity. It differs from desire in the respect
that it fastens on tl1ose objects only which it dee ms real
and attainable; while desire often attaches itse lf to what is
illusive and beyond our reach.

§ 102.

DmE c TIONs FOR ExERCISF.S rn COMPARISON AND

CONTRAST.

H erc , as the theme ever belongs to a elass, it is necessary
to rrese nt it to the mind in thut lig ht. W e then look over
the class to which it belon gs, and se lect another of the same
class, which by its rcscm blances or differen ces "Will best represent the theme. ·we then study out these rese mblances
and differences carefully, and select such as will best answer
our purpose.
The method of arrangement will be either to state first
the rese mblan ces and then the differences or the reverse; or
to take particular features and exhibi t both tli c rcsc m blances
and the differe nces in that feature together , and t.hen pass to
t he next feature. 'l'hus we mig ht tnke the gravity of the
earth :rnd corn pare it with t hat of V cnu s, s taling firs t the
resemblance in the law of gravity being the same, and then
the diifa rence in the actual weig ht; then the fi gure and
shape as bein g similar, both being nea rly but not exactly
round, and roug h or jnggecl ou the surfo cc, but Venus being
about one-tenth of the earth in size; tli eu the supply of light
and heat, being alik e in receivin g all from th e sun, but unlik e in amount-V cnus receivin g nea rly twice as much as
the earth; and thus procee d with the other features. Or
the particulars of resemblance might all be stated first, and
then those of difference.
'<Ve carry forward our enumeration of the points of re-

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

107

semblance or di/Terence, so far as may be necessary for our
particular purpose in writing.
'<Ve will tn ke for illustration the theme, "the Oak," to be
compared and contrasted with some one of the same class of
objects. 'l'he oak belon gs to the class of for est trees. In
determining which of other fores t trees to select, we should
have regard to the object for which we write, a11J the means
we have of information about it. If we write for the purpose of informing another person about the oak, we take a
tree with which both h e nnd 01uschcs are familiar . Sometim es, how cvl!I", we nrny wii;h si111ply to compare two given
trees . "\Ve will take '•the elm." "\Ve now compare th e two
together in respec t to country, soil, growth , Rize , shape , roots,
trunk, bran ches, foliage, seed; hi story of culti,·ation; uses
for fuel, sl1adc, food, and in th e arts, as for Luilding and
tannin,!:!; . "\Ye take such of these particul:irs or 8uch groups
of them as will suit our purpose, noting the resemblances
and differences in respect to each parti cular selec ted, _and
set.ting th em down in order; or we state all the resemblances
in respect t.o each pnrt.icnlar first, and then the differences.
Or, we mny confin e our statement to the rcsemhlnnces or to
the differences, omitting the contrast in the one case, and
the comparison in the other. We should violate order, were
we to intermin gle parti culars of one group with those of
another, or place those of any one group out of their natural
order.
:;:f we take an abstract them e, as, for ins ta nce, "Glut. wit
"h ano th er vice,
.
"D run k enness, "
tony," an d compare it
the process will be similar. They both belon g to the same
class of vi ces against self-control. "\Ve run over the particulars in respect to which they may be compared, and we see
we may enumerate the source and occasion of the vices
respectively, their growth into confirmed habits, and their
effects. In regard to' each of these several groups, we may

!~

I

108

COMPARISON AND CONTRAS'f.

go farther and specify in comparison or contrast, as tlie caso
may be, in respect to the natural appetites of hunger and
thirst planted for wise ends in human nature, but perverted
in each vice by excessive indulgence in food or drink, on
occasions of convivialit.y, wJ1cn social instincts are likewise
abused through defect of moral control to resist contempt, or
through want of self-control and culpab le abandonment to
bodily propensities; the power of repetition in formi11g habits;
the growing insensibility to conscience, reason, self-respect,
and reputation; the increase of appetite, till it obtains absolute dominion; the effects ou bo<ly an<l min<l, on character, kindred, and society for th is life and the future. 'l'his
last group of particulars, it will be noticed, embraces relations-the relations of the vices as causes to their effects;
and will, therefore, illustrate the process of analogical comparison and contrast.

CONFIItMA TION.

109

12. Paganism and Mohammedanism
13. Grecian and Roman Civilization.

14. Ancient and Modern Art.
15. Pride and Envy.

16. Imagination and Taste.
17. Music and Painting.
18. Morality and Piety.

CHAPTER XV.
CONFIRl\IATION .

§.103. Mention points of resemblance and of difference in
the following themes.

1. The Horse and the Ox.

2. The Apple and the Grape.
3. The Oak and the Pine.

4. The Planet Venus, and the Star Sirius.
5. A Cloud and a Fog.
6. A Coral Heef and the Andes.

7. Vegetable Physiology and Botany.
8. Chemistry and Natural Philosophy.
9. History and Chronology.

10. A State and a Family.
11. A Republic and a Confederacy.

§ 104. CONFIRMATION is that form of Disc.u ssion i:r:
which the object is to prove a truth or disprove an
error.
This object is effected by the EXIIIBITION of PROOF.
§ 105. The Theme in Confirmation is ever a judgment which 'may be expressed in the form of a logical
proposition; as " the soul is immortal;" " Cresar was
not justified in crossing the Rubicon."
§ 106.

~L'he mind addressed may be in any one of

three different states; either without any belief, in
weak faith, or in positive disbelief.

§ 107. Belief admits of degrees; and may vary from
a faint probability to absolute certainty.
~

108. -Proof is either

DIRECT or lNDJREOT.

uo

111

CONFIRMATION.

OONFIRMATION.

It is DmRCT, when n.pplied immediately to the cstab·
lishment of the proposition.
It is INDIRECT, when it is applied to the overthrow
of objections. In this case, it is called REFUTATION.

II. If America is so valuable, it may be · though• that
force may be justifiable in retaining it. But,
I. Force is temporary; war can not be, perpetual;
.2. It is uncertain in its issues;
3. It impairs, by its destructive effects, the value of it.8

Distinguish the Direct from the In<lircct proofo in the
following arguments:

~~;

The Ourang-Outang does not belong to the human species;
for,
1. Its natural posture, as determined by its very form, is
not erect, but stooping.
2. ·w hile it sometimes goes on two feet, this motion is
unnatural and awkward, and it is ever prone to support its
movement by its fore limbs.
3. Its fore limbs are proportionately much longer than
the hum an arm, while the lower or hinder limbs are shorter
than those of man.
4. Its feet are five-toed and long; but they are narrow
and forme<l like the hand; so that while man is bimanous,
it is qnadrimanous.
5. Many of the bo1ies, as those of the nose and the heel,
are unlike tho se of the human skeleton.
6. The teeth are differently arranged from those of man.
7. It is totally wanting in all rational qualities.
Mr. Burke, in urging concessions lo America, pres1::nted
the following arguments:

I. 'J'he condition of America demanded conce!l:nun, as
seen m

1. Its large and increasing population;
2. Its valuable commerce;
3. Its advanced ;:i gri culture;
4. Its extensive fisheries.

4. It is justified by no experience.

'

III. The temper and character of the Americans call for
concessions. Love of free<lom is the predominating featurea spirit,
1. Inherited from their English parentage;
2. Strengthened by their form of government;
3. Fostered by their religion;
4. Promoted by their domestic institutions;
5. Cultivated in their education;
6. Confirmed by their remoteness from the parent country.

§ 109. A complex proposition, embracing several con!tituent propositions, may be proved by the separate and
successive proof of each constituent part.
Thus the proposition, ''Civilization is dependent on Christianity," may be separated into the following constituent propositions, viz.:
Civil Government is dependent on Christianity;
The arts are dependent on Christianity;
Education is dependent on Christianity;
'.['he ~anners and morals of society are dependent on Christianity.
Or, we may divide the proposition into constituent parts
in reference to its predicate, Christianity, as:
Civilization depends on Christianity for its fundamenta 1
principles;

I

i'

ll:'.

CONF!Rl\1.A l'lON.

Civilization depends on Christianity for its spirit and char·
acter;
Civilization depends on Christianity for the animating and
sustaining elements of its adva11cemcnt.

§ 110. In resolving complex propositions into the
simple proposi tions of which they consist, the principles
of analysis, as stated in §§ 68-85, arc to be observed.
The Laws of Unity, Selection, l\1ethod, aud Complete'
ness, will apply in their full force.
Correct the flrnlLs i11 Ll1c fullowiug exercises.

I.

PROPOSITION.-T/ie Government of Great Britain is a

Free Governm.en t.
PROOF 1. The principles of its Constitutional Law are favorable to fr eedom.

2. The actual working of the government is fri en dly to
freedom.
'3. Its institutions are free.
4. Its Judicirrry is n protection to fre edom .
5. Its Executive administration is favorable to human
rights.

II.

PitoPOSJTION.-Christianity is favorable to Poetry.

PROOF 1. It addresses itself to tl1e highest faculties of tho
uoul.
2 . It furnishes the most in spiring themes.

3. Its own spirit is of the most exalted and exalting
character.
4. It gives scope to the most soaring imag ination.
5. It educates society to the highest degref'ls of intelli .

CONFIRMATION.

113

!!;Once and refinement for the due appreciation of the best
forms of poetry.
6. It calls forth the deepest and purest emotions, and
.njniste rs life an<l warmth to the poetic spirit.

III.

PROPOSITION.-The Fine Arts ai·e favorable to a pure

.Morality.
PROOF.-1. 'l 'he study of the Fine Arts is favorable to personal morals.
2. Poetry an<l Eloquence are nee<le<l a<l vocates of morality.
3. The iuiluence of the arts is happy on society.
Lt A pure, nati onal arch i tectme , is ho th refining to taste
and also quickens and enlarges patriotic sentiments.
Resolve ll1e fulluwillg com11lex propo siti ons into their constituent sin g le propusitious.
1. Games uf chan ce are hurtful to morals.
2. The public freedom requires that all offices of high
polit.ical rei<ponsihility-, lie filled Ly <lireet popular election.
3. It is S'.!~c to enco ura ge universal i1muigrntion.
'1. l_ ntirpiity has been 01·e rr ntc<l.
,;
5. Tradition prorns a uniYcr3al rlclu gc.
G. Grecian cu lture wns a dciticntion of man.
7. Soeia 1 justice wrrs the characte ri stic principle of Roman
life.
R. Sir \\'alter S<"ott's 1niti11gs are farnrahlc to i11tell cc fual
a1 1d moral improYemcnt.
9. Persecution is detrimental to what€ver cause employs it..

§ 111. '.l'he first general Llistribution of proofo is into
ANALYTIC

and

SYN'l'HE'l'IC.

ANALYTIC PROOFS

f th e proposition.
1()

are such as are given in the terms

I

'

ll

l

114

CONFIRMATION.

SYN~~IIETICJ Pn,ooFS are such as are to be sought with-

out the proposition.
'The propositi on, "All trees are organic," is one that may
e proved fr om the very terms "trees " anJ "organic." The
proof is founJ in the meanin g of those terms. So the proposition, "Dueling is murd er," we prove by anal yzing the
terms " dueling," and " murder." 'l'he very notions expressed by th ese words furnish th e proof.
\Ve can not so prove, however, th e proposition, "Dueling
is a relic of barbarism." No an alys is of the terms here will
furnish the proof. iV c are com pcllcJ to search for the proof
el sew here than in the preposition . 'l' his proof, tl1 us obtai nod
from some other source than the terms of the prop os ition
itself, is Synthetic.

§ 112. ANALYTIC PrwOFS arc to be found by a careful study of the terms of the proposition.
'l'hus, in findin g pro of's of the proposition, "Labor is a
bl essing to rn an," the subject, " labor," is first analyzed in
referen ce to its bearing on the predicate-" blcss illg to man."
Labor, as used in this proposition, is thus found to be essentially "h abi tual activity in reference to some end ."
'l'he predica te is then analyzed in reference to its relations
to the subj ec t. It is readily perceived that, as man has a rational nature esse ntially active, and is made for happin ess, lrn
must, in order to be happy, be active ; his actiYity, if rational.
must be direc ted to som e end; aml it mu st Le habitual. 'l'h(l
proof is then complete that to such a Leing labor must be a
blessing.
Find analytic proofa in tl10 following propositions.
1. A republic guarantees individual freedom.
2. Crmsci ence is the surest guide to man.

~=~===~---

---- -

CONFIRMATION.

115

3. Wrong-doing blinds the conscience.
4 Imprisonment for debt, without fraud, is unjust.
5. Tyranny justifies resistance.
.
6. Education can not be . effected by mere class-room in
struction or lecturing.
7. Lying is never justifiable.

§ 113. SYNTHETIC PROOFS may be distributed into
Intuitive and Empirical.
INTUITIVE PROOFS are such as are given by the mind
itself;
EMPIRICAL PROOFS are such as are to be sought without the mind.
'l'hus the proof of the proposition, that " The sum of the
three angles of a triangle, is equal to two right angles," lies
in the mind itself. So, too, the proof of the proposition,
"Goodness is lovely," is found in our own minds. We need
not to inquire elsewhere for proofs.
It is otherwise with the proposition that "The orbits of the
planets are ellipses." We need to go to observation, or to
the testimony of others who have observed, for the proof.
Mere thinking will never supply the proof as in the other
case.
Find intuitive proofs of the following propositions.
1. Two strait lines can not inclose a space.
2. A triangle can not have more than one angle as great
as a right angle.
3. In a right-angled triangle, the hypothenuse is the longest side.
4. A. circle that touches the four sides of a square, can
nc.~ :mt any of its angles.
5. On a field, inclined forty-five degrees to the horizon.

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116

117

CONFIRMATION.

CONFIRMATION.

no more blades of grass can grow than on one-half as much
of level ground.
6. If an electro-galvanic circuit were established round
the globe, and the current be assumed to be instantanc::rns
from point to point, then rnesR:iges dispatched cnstwardly and
westwanlly at the same instant., will reach the f'ame point
half round the earth: one, tw elve hours before the time of
starting a8 noted at the place from which it start.ed, aml the
other two! ve hours after that time as marked by the clock
at the place of meeting.
7. If two persu us go <lue east round the earth, starting,
one on the parall el of ten degrees, and the other on the parallel of twenty degrees of north latitude, their paths will cross
each other.
8. ~pn ce is unlimited.
9. lf the Spartan government favored theft, still, every
enlightened Spartan conscience must have condemned it.
10. No virtuous act can fail of its reward if conscience li ve.

perance leads to these results-is a cause of them. The prev
alence of intemperance is an a priori proof of wretchedness
~nd crime.
So we may prove that a certain river must have been_frozen
over, from the fact that the temperature was very low. The
severe cold is an a priori proof of the formation of ice.
In like manner the advocate proves that an accusation is
groundless from the character of the accuser. That he is
unprincipled, false, mali cious, and bitterly hostile to the accused; that he is selfish and expects some return from making the accusation, is an a priori proof that the accusation is
groundless.
Or, the advocate may prove the perpetration of an alleged
crime, from the character of the accused and the occurrence
of a suitable occasion. The vindictiveness of his temper, and
his presence at the time, constitute an a priori proof of his
guilt.
On the other hand, the absence of all inducement and occasion to commit an alleged crime, constitutes an a priori
proof of innocence.

§ 114. EMPIRICAL Pn.ooFs are distributed into three
kinds : ANTECEDENT PIWBABILI'l'Y or A I'RIORI PROOFS,
SIGNS, and EXAMPLES.
Although a. pr£ori proofs have been sometimes reganled as.
including some that are not proper antecedent probabi li ty
proofs, and also as not including others that are, yet gener::illy
the two designations nenrly correspond. And as the term
a pn."or£ is a more common, and also a less cumbrous designation, we prefer to use it.

§ 115. A Pmom PnooFS are founded on the relations
of a cause to its effect, or of a general law to its results.
\Ve i!1fer, thus, that there will be wretchedness and crime
;vhcn we observe intemperance, because we know that intern·

§ 116. The force or validity of any a priori proof will
vary with the degree of certainty between the cause
and the effect, or the law and the result.
\ If the cause be adequate and actually operate, ~he
proof is conclusive.
If it be doubtful, either whether it be adequate or
whether it might not have been hindered from operating, the force of the proof will be so far impaired.
If the thermometer have fall en to zero, and the temperature have continued at that degree for any considerable time.
this will be conclusive proof to us that exposed bodies of
water have been frozen. We need no further proof /

118

But if we are in doubt whether the cold has been inten se
enoug h, our con clusion will be held in suspense. Or, iu
case the body of water be large and <leep, or if' we arc i11
doubt wh e th er a hi gh 1ri11d m:i y not hav e prcvcntcd Ili c
m id from forming ice on the surface, the con clusion rnn.y
irn likewise suspended.
Find a priori proofS of tl1e following propositions.

1. Honesty is the best policy.
2. Falsehood is dn11gcrous.
3. Un.iversal i11telligcnce an<l piety will perpetuate free
in.-; l i l u tio uti.
4. Christiav.ity will eventually prevail throu g hout the
earth.
ci. Free J.1 :; titutio11::; are the ult.imate goal oi' Europea11
prog ress.
6. The ahorigines of America are desti?1ed to annihilation as distind. tribes.
7. The st.ivly of the classics iR necessa ry to the highest
intell ec tual culture .
8. The feudal system was Le nefi cial.
9. Every man is the architect of liis om1 fortune.
10. An i11te rnati0nal copyright is unfavorable to the mterests of learning.
11. The im prison;n•rnt of Napoleon Bonaparte in St.
Helen a was necessary to the pea ce of Europe.
12. Forei g n intcrver1t\ol1 rn the political affairs of lt:ily.
is inexpedient.
rn. Critical reviews are fov1>rabl c to li terature .
14. 'l'he Ottoman empire \?doomed to speedy extincliov.

§ 117.

CONFIRMATION.

CONFIRMATION.

are proofs wbl.ch are foundcLl on the
relations of an effect to its cause_. Pl: to the oec:uiioll of
ts operating.
SIGNS

119

The sign is the dependent event or effect: the mat• ter to be proved, is the cause or the occasion on w!ticl:
it depends.
The geologist di scovers the tracks of birds in ccrtnin rocks
and from this, lie i11fors that snch binls liv ctl t here \\h en
thm:e ror:b \Ycrc yet. in thC'ir f'or111 i1 1,c.; shtc . T hr• cl isrn1·cr<'rl
tracks arc t11 r si,C"n: :111rl th e rx istrn r r of th e l1irrh in tl1nt
condition of the rocks, is the fo ct proved. 'J'h e trn cks arc
the dependent fa cts ; the existence of the birds LlJC necessa ry
condition, without which , th e tr:i ck s coHld not have been.
I~ like rnauu e r, prn ufo 11liid1 arc often c w1Jluyccl in t.lic
convieLio11 of a murderer, lik e tl1e following: the di scovery
of blood on his garments, or of such bloody weapons in his
possession as must have cause d th e death wound; attemp ts
at fli ght or co ncealm ent; ag itation wh en appreh end ed; contradictory statements; and the lik e, ai·e in sta nces of sig ns.
We can not account for th ese fa cts, but on th e supposition
of his guilt. His perpetration of the murder is that on
which they depend for their cause or occasion, without
which they would not have been.
Find signs as proofs of the following propositions.

1.
2.
3.
'!.
5.
6.
7.

George Washington was a true patriot.
Nap oleon Bonaparte was ruled by a selfish ambition.
Cicero was an honest but irresolute lover of his country,
Major Andre was a spy.
The work of creation was progressive.
The Alleghany Mountains were formerly submerged.
North America was inhabited by a race of India.ns of
higher civilization than the existing tribes.
8. Civil government is an ordinance of the God of nature.
9. Man was made a religious being.

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120

CONFIRMATION.

CONFIRMATION.

10. Truth is stronger than error.
11. The human race was one in its origin.

§ 118. Of Signs, there are several varieties.

One

of these is TES'l'I:MONY, which is the statement of others
in regard to matters of fact.
Th e Roman 11 istorin n, Sueto nius, i;;lates that J 11li11 s Cn'sar
made his expedition to Britain chi efly to obta in pc:nls.
Pliny states, that the pearls found there were worthless.
The testimony of Sueto niu s is a proof of t11e nature of a
sign. vVe believe his statement, because we can not account
for his making it unless it were a fact. So P liny 's statement is a sign proving to us that the British pearls were
worthless, inasmuch as unl ess the pea rls were of thi s character, such a man as Pliny co uld not have made th e state ment.
If we can account for the testimony on any other g round
than that of·the existence of the fact testified to, it so far
fails of being a proof. If Sueto nius had liv ed in another
age of the world, or · in another country, and had no means
of information about Crosar's expeditions; if h e was a writer
credul ous, careless, reckless of truth, then we can acco unt
for his statement otherwise than by supposing its truth.
vVhen we use testimony in proof, therefore, we need particularly to inquire whether .the testimony may not be
accounted for without supposing the truth of the stateme nt,
and in adducing it to g uard aga inst any suppos iti on nrising
in the mind of the reader that the stateme nt cou ld h ave
been made, except on con di tio n of the fact h av ing been as
stated:
Find signs in the form of T es timony in proof of the fol·
lowin g propositions.
1. Mahomet was a seWdeludcd fanatic.

121

' 2. Glass was used by the Ancient Romans .
3. Profane history proves the origin of Christianity as
the Evangelists record. /
. 4. 'l'he Ancient Britons migrated from the neighborhood
of the Black Sea.
_
5. The Emperor Charles V died a victim of gluttony.
6. 'l'he rise of free cities is to be attributed to the Cru·
sades.
7. Joan of Arc was a religious enthusiast.
8. Queen Elizabeth's treatment of· Mary, Queen of Scots,
was the fruit of jealousy.
9. The belief in witchcraft, was general throughout Chris·
tendom in the seventeenth century.
10. The Constitution of the United States is a development
of a national life, not a compact of State sovereignties.

§ 119. AUTHORITY is another variety of Signs.
the expressed opinion or judgment of others.

It is

Authority differs from Testimony in this : that testimony
respects a matter of fact; authority, a matter of opinion.
They are alike signs, as they presuppose the fact or opinion
as that without which the testimony or the authority would
not have been presented. The opinion pronounced by a court
of justice, has force or validity in commanding our assent
as authority; because it can not be supposed that it would
be pronounced unless it were correct. If the tribunal from
which it proceeded were impeached of incompetency or corruption, the authority of its decisions would be so far invalidated; for in this case, another ground for the 011inion would
exist besides the truth or justice of the case.
Find signs in the form of authority to support tbe follow·
ing }Hopositions.
1. Piety is favorable to learning.

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CONFIRMATION;

CONFIRMATION.

2. 'l'he _E?gll!:ih language is, of all modern languages, the
best medium of poetical expression.
3_. '.l'ota_l abstinence is the only sure remedy for intern
perance.
4. Morning
hours are most favorable to int.cllectual vi,,.or
b
5. Civilization has bee n progressive from the earliest ages.

2. A universal deluge.
3. The credibility of the Mosaic history. ·
4. '.l'he historic appearance of J es us Christ.
5. The descent of the aborigines of America from Asiatic
ancestors.

§ 120. It is obvious, from the very nature of signs ~s
proofs, that the simple fact of CONCUP.RENCE will give
a<l<litional force to testimony an<l to authority.
This additional validity will <lepen<l upon this: whether
the concurrence can be accounted for in any other way
than on the supposition of the fact or opinion being as
stated.
If several entirely independent witnesses, who have had no
opportunity of co llusion, agree in their statements, the testimony may be conclusive even although each of the witnesses
be utterly untrustworthy in character. ·we can not account
for the concurrence except on the ground that, what they
have independently agreed in stating, is true. The separate
examination of criminals often thus evolves agreement in
certain particular statements, which on the simple ground of
this agreement compels our belief, although the substance of
their statements may be known to be false.
In the saine way, when men, acting on entirely independent grounds, come to harmonious results in opinion, the very
concurrence ~will give weight to their authority, when each
separately could command little or no respect. Th e concur·
ring decisions of judicial tribunals, in different stntes and coun·
tries, become invested with impregnab le authority.

Find proofs from concurrence of the following truths:
1. The existence of God.

-·

§ 121. EXAMPLES are proofs which are found ed on
the resemblance between individuals of the same class.
The naturalist finds a plant to have certain organs; this
', fact is proof to him that any other plant of the same ~ariety
:._,,will have the same organs.
1/ If we have once detected falsehood in a man, the fact will
·~: strengthen other proof going to convict him of the same of;: fense at another time.
' These are both instances of examples as proofs. They both
re~t, "as proofs, on· rcsem blance'.
It will appear on a moment's reflection, that examples have
a close affinity to a priori proofs. B oth direct the mincl to a
cause or law, and both rest their validity as proofs on the
- assumed, uniformity of the operations of nature. Only as we
:believe that the same cause works ever, in th e same circum.stances, the same effect, does either kind of proofs command
.our assent.

§ 122. When the examples adduced conduct us to the
belief that the whole class to which they belong possess
the same properties, the proof is called INDUCTION.

' 'Ve take up a lily, and find its flower has six divisions and
sjx; s!amens. It is proof to us that tho next lily which we
pluck is six-lobed also, and has six stamens. This is an in. stanctl of a si mple example. But we go farther and conclude
that ~11 lilies have like organs. ' 'fhis is Induction.

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124

CONFI!tMAT.ION.

One instance of detected fal sehood proves, ns a simple
example, that another statement may be false. ·when we conclude that the whole character is false, or that fol f<chood
the aro-umcnt
is
characterizes a whole class of statements
.
'
0
that from Induction.

§ 123. When the resemblance, which constitutes the
essential nature of an example as a proof, respects relations, not simple properties, the proof is called an
ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY.

When, thus, from the relations of the earth to its inhabitants we infer th tit the other planets are also i11l1abited, we
have an i1rntance of an argument from analogy.

§ 124. Examples may be
HEAL

REH or INVENTED.
Examples are such as are taken from known

facts .
INVENTED Examples are such as are supposed or imagined for the occasion.

An invented example was used by Socrates to convince the
Athenians of the absurdity of their custom of choosing magistrates by lot. He supposed a company of mariners who
shuul<l select a steersman not from his proved competency
or skill, but merely by the chances of a lot. The same absurdity, so obvious in this supposed case, is proved by the
example as a proof, to attach to their mode of electing magistrates.
'fhe vanity of riches is proved by means of an invented
example, in the familiar tale of Ortogrul of B asra, by Dr.
Johnson.

§ 125. Th e very nature of this kind of proofs requires

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CONFIRMATION.

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12b

, that the example belong to the same class as the object
or _fact to which it is applied as proof.
The special difficulty in applying this rule arises from the
· fact that. as before remarked, § 99, there are so many principles on "hich objects may be classed together, that it is possible to bring into the same class any two objects of thought,
however unlike. Because two objects may be classed together, however, on one principle, it does not follow that
they may be so classed in respect to all particulars. The
plum and the pear are both fruits; but it would not be allowable to conclude from a plum containing a stony seedvessel, that a pear has a like seed-vessel, although both belong to the same class of objects-fruits. '.l'he principle on
which the class is formed must embrace the particular involved in the argument, or the reasoning is fallacious.
The plum and the pear do not belong to the same class
of objects in respect to the seed-vessel. Botanists call the
one a "drupe," the other a "pome." As fruits, however, it
would be safe to reason from one to the other in the way of
example; as, that if the plum contains the seed-vessel of the .
tree, so the pear will be found to contain it; that as the
plum will ripen, so also will the pear ripen in congenial cir- cumstances ; that as the seed of the one will, if properly
placed, germinate and produce a tree after its kind, so also
will the other. No fallacy in reasoning by examples is more
common than this. It is a fallacy that can be detected and
shunned only by applying the principle: Do they belong to
the same class in respect to the particular involved in the
comparison?
Now, we are safe in assuming, from the admitted uniformity of nature, that if but one cause operate, or but a single
law apply, and in precisely the same circumstances, the effect
will be the same. Where, then, we can clearly detect the one

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126

CONFiltMATION.

cause or law, we 0:111 safe ly conclude tl1e effects will be the
same. lf the law were ascertained to be the snrne for the
formation of the seed-vessel of the plnrn n.s of the pear-the
same as it is for the seed-vesseis of all plum s-th en one example of the seed-vessel in a pl11111, would be 81tflicic11t, for
dete rmining that of a pear. So for as both are fruits·, the law
is the same for both. It is often, however, difficult or impossible to ascertain whether there be but one cause or one
law operating in the case. ''' e are, hen ce; obliged to adduce
more examples than one to make out a satisfactory proof.
Oru~ example of a fruit taken from a new tree, will satisfy
th<> botanist as to what will be true of all the other fruit on
the tree in regard to many particulars, as its being a stonefruit, or a proper fleshy-fruit; its predominant color; its
general size, and shape, flavor, and the like. It will not
warrant him in concluding as to the exact size, and color,
and taste, because other subordinate causes, as position on
the tree, exposure to the sun, and the like, may come in to
modify the general operation of the law.
'l'he rule comes practically to be modified into the following twofold form.

§ 126.-1. Either let it appear that a single cause
or law determines both the example and the fact to
be proved, in respect to the particulai· of comparison: or,
2. Multiply examples so far as necessary, to show
that but one law or cause can thus operate.
Remark.-In th e exercises Urnt follow, the fallacy will be exposed
by indi cati ng either, 1. That different causes manifestly opcrn t.e in
the two cases ot' t.11c proof a 1HI t.h e fact to be p1·ov~cl; or, 2. That it
uoes not sufficiently appe11r th11t but one cause opcr11tes .in t.he two
cnses.

127

CONFIRMATION.

Detect the fallacies iu the following arguments:
The great mountain-chains of the globe run north und south
~s iR provNl by the Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleras.
The winds are everywhere variable nnd uncertain, as the
meteoro logical rep:isters of the country show.
. All tre~s drop their leaves in the autumn, as the oak and
the apple.
· All flowers are made ouly for the fruit, into which they
·finally p:rns, as the strawberry and t.he almond.
; · I~ead and iron are metals; but iron is attracted by the
'lodesto ne ; therefore, lead must be so attracted.
·:., The moon ch anged last \Vednesd~y, and storm occurred
·on Thursday. The moon will change to-morrow; a storm
·may, therefore, be expected the next day.
.' Transparent bodies are brittle; for glass is transparent
and is also b1·ittle:
·
· The year .which followed the appearai1ce of the great comet
in 1843, was characterized by an unusual fruit :harvest in
< the United States.
'l'he appearance of _comets may be re~ garded, therefore, as presaging an unusual fruit product in
' that country.
. Sir Walter Raleigh says, that the Arawaks ate the bodies
of their deceased friends, in token of honor and affection.
Cannibalism is to be ascribed, therefore, to the sentiment of
'respect and reverence.
Homer and Milton, the greatest poets that. have lived,
were blind. 'l'herefcire, blindness is. favorable to the <level. opment of the poetic spirit.
.
.
Rome intemperate men have · lived long lives; intemper,
aoce, therefore, is hot detrimental to health and life.
· ·· Cornaro · measured out to himself t!,ie . exact quantity of
' fo.od to be taken every d:iy, and lived to a gr~at' age: Longevity is to be attained, therefore, by taking a uniform allow·
qnce of food, irrespectively of . tbe demands of :ippetitc.

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128

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129

CONFIRMATION.

Lord Dyron lived an irregular life. 'l'o be poets, then
we must live irregular lives.
J_,ord Byron was a cripple. All cripples will be gc11iuscs.
Pliny lost his life in exploring the ph enomena ~f nature;
therefore the pursuits of science must be <la11gcrous.
'l'he Greek, the Homan, and the Frank are of the Cauca6lan race, an<l are all civilized; therefore Caucasians are all
civilized.
About the middle of the seventeenth century, some Irish
rebels of the same race in Ulster, were <lrivcn into exile;
some east, some west. 'l'he descendants of the eastern exiles
are perfect specimens of human beauty an<l vigor; those of
the western exiles, reduced by hunger and ignorance, have
become low in stature, ill-shaped, coarsc-feature<l, of the
lowest barbarian type. Ignorance an<l want, it is concluded,
will, in the course of two centuries, without the help of other
physical causes, effect the widest differences between descend·
ants of the same race of men.

South America are found on the shores of Scotland and
Norway.
2. llussian Americ~ ]ms a much milder climate than tho
ame latitude on the eastern coast of the American continent.

I.

1"s in place of
a Bo"'e.
PROOF.-1. The bases of th e muscles are fixed in it, as the
muscles of the ox are fixed in its several bones.
2. The lobster and other shell-fish have the bases and
support for their muscles and tendons without, instead of
within, as in the case of proper vertebratcd animals.

III. PnorosrTION.-The Physical forms of the South American Continent determine i"ts Climate and its Fertility.
PROOF.-1. If the Cordilleras chain of mountains were
placed along the eastern, instead of along the western coast,
they would drain of their moisture the trade-winds of the
Atlantic, to the warmth and moisture of which the plains
of the Amazon owe their fertility, at the same time that
· they would lower their temperature.
2. The plains of the Ganges owe their fertility to t11e
winds of the tropics, that gradually lose their warmth and
their moisture as they pass into the interior, while on the
table-lands beyond them is only drouth and desert like the
desert of Atacama.
3. 'l'he eastern slopes of the continent are remarkably
fertile; while the western are dry and barren.

PRoPOSITION.-The shell of the Oy1te1·

[I. PROPOSITION.-North-westcrn Europe owes its mild temperature to the influence of the winds and currents of the
ocean.
PROOF.-1. The seeds and plants of the tropical regiona of

IV. PROPOSITION.-The Buman Species, as it wanders fo.rther away from the place of its origin, falls away in £l~
Physical Form, its on:ginal Mental and Moral Type, till at
last it becomes extinct.
PROOF.-1. 'fhe tribes of man most closely related. to the
Caucasian, are the most elevated.
2. The Mongolian is higher in form and condition than
the Malay; the North African than the South African; the
African than the South American.
3. 'l'he Atwies of South America have recently become
extinct, as have also tribes of the aborigines of Australia.

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CONFIRMATION.

Distinguish the different kinds of examples in the following proofs.

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130
V.

CONFIIlMATION.

CONFIRMATION,

PROPOSITION.-.Nations have thefr p ei·iods of Rise ana
Decciy.

, fl.

PROPOSITION.-Ar.lhere11 ce to Princ1j1le 1'.s the condition
of Success in Life.

PROOF.-1. Arnold and Aaron Burr were honored and
prospered in their earlier life; they fell when they sacrificed
the interests of their cou.ntry to the dictates of jealousy and
ambition.
2. Washington repelled the seductions of power and station, , and secured an immortality in the gratitude and respect
of his countrymen.
Distinguish the different kind8 of proofo in the following
arguments.

I.

Lotteries should be prohibited by the
Civil Authority.

PROPOSl1'ION.-All

PROOF.-1. Because they encourage the vicious tendency in
human nature to rely for success on fortune and accident,
rather than on direct, legitimate endeavor.
2. Because, while they create no new value, they consume
much ti111e, labor, and expense, which, otherwise directed,
would add to the wealth of the community.
3. Because individuals have been led by them to venture
their all to their final ruin on the hazards of fortune: ·
4. Because they create useless anxiety and disappointment.

PROPOSITION.-The

131

Soul is Immortal.

:r PR(ltl.F.-1.

PnooF.-1. 'l'his is the law of all organic life, of vegetables
and animals, both as individuals and species.
2. The great nations of tu1liquity have passed away.
3. Some modern nations seem to have passed the meridian of their prosperity.

VI.

.

,~i

It is spiritual and immaterial.
2. 'Ct has ever-increasing capacities. '
3. {t yearns after iunn,o rtality, and dreads annihilation.
4. The attributes of God are opposed to its annihilation.
5. Conscience demand's it.
6. Philosophers of all ages have recognized this tr~th. · ·':
.
·i :_c:
:0: :j r .' . .)

In his argument in the Girard Will Ca~e,;'· Mr.- Webster
assumes it to be conceded, that the dev;if!e: ~~ .. ·~'?~~;f ~~c~pt
9n the ground of the peculiar privileges; apcor,<;\eJl·1ip.19quih
. . able jurisprudence to charities., He then.,11-1fr,anP;C~.~!i«? ,p9~i,~
~: · ,,tion, that the devise is. n,o~ a. e~rnrity. , .. ' , . • :.it : "),, ,.. r :.··· i
.:. ·.
I. Because it is derogatory, to the Christia?-. reHgio.ni an~
1
:6- ' tends to weaken men·s· reverence for that religion,, a,nd. t~e~r
~ .. · conviction of its authority and importance. ,, .. i . . ,. ·r' '
>r<· , . • His proofs of this p~sition ar~:
. ,..
··<, 1. It attaches reproach and odium to the whole i;lergy of
~lhe country, by rejecting its teachers and the ordinary .agen~ies of instilllng the Christian religion into the minds of
'th.e young. . '
{)~Ii 2. It pro-ceeds upon the presumption 'that the Christian
ieligion is not . the only true foundation, or any necessary
f~undation of morals.
.
'
:,• .3 .. It excludes the Christian Sabbath, as also ev~ry religi6~s observahce;
Jl :; 4. It d~nies the utility of teaching the Christiau''religiou
~ to youth at all.
·' ' · · :
·
~l} If, then, the devise be derogatory to Christianity, it can no~
~ff settled law, be pri~i~eged as a charity . . ,, . , ; .. f •; ; . ·'
.,, ; II.

The devise can. not stand .as a charity,: pe~~us~ it is

~~ against the public policy of the State of Pennsyivania.
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CONFIRMATION.

1. 'l'he charter of the State declares Christianity to be one
of the great and leading ends of government.
2. 'l'he laws of the State against blasphemy, and the vio· Iation of the J_,ord's day, and others proceed on the principle.
3. Our system of oaths is founded on Christia11ity and a
religious belief.
But the courts of Pennsylvania liave decided that a charitable bequest, which counteracts the public policy of the State,
can not be sustained.
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Mr. ·Webster, in the trial of John Francis Knapp, for the
murder of Joseph ·white, of Salem, l\Iassachusetts, while in
bed on the night of the 6th of April, 1830, urges the following proofs, first, of a conspiracy on the part of Knapp to
murder White; and, secondly, of his presence to aid and abet
in the murder.
I. Proofs of a conspiracy.
1. There was concert and cooperation.
a. Somebody within opened the house, and somebody
without entered.
b. The inmates were not alarmed.
c. 'l'he way of entrance was prepared beforehand, as the
house was previously opened; the window unbarred; the fastening unscrewed; the key to Mr. ""White's door taken away
and secreted.
d. There were footsteps out doors tending to the window.
2. If Knapp and his brother were not conspirators with
Crowuinshiel<l, nouc arc known.
3. Knapp's brother had a motive to desire the death of
White.
4. He had expressed his in.tention to destroy White's will
5. The prisoner was in concert with Crowninshield, the
murderer, April 2d, and on business relating to the murder.

CONFIRMATION.

133

6. The actions of the prisoner and his Lrother Joseph
:ihow guilt.
a. Joseph forges letters to divert and distract inquiry
after the murderers.
b. 'l'he brothers together pretend an assault upon them
by ruffians.
.
c. On the 21st of April Joseph receives five hundred
five franc pieces, the result of an adventure at sea. On the
24th the two brothers are at Wenham with Crowninshield.
Immediately after this, Crow!linshield passes a number of
· ~ pieces of tl1is coin.
1 •.
7. Joseph Knapp was in White's house before the murder.
·
8. The prisoner was seen in Brown Street,, in the rear of
White's house, at a late hour on the night of the murder.
II. Proofs of the prisoner's presence to aid and abet the
.murder.
1. He was one of the conspirators to ·the crime.
2. He had gone the day before to Danvers to see Crown' inshield, covering his movements. .
·
3. He knew Capt. White's housekeeper would be absent
from the house on that night, which was a rare circunrntance.
4. He had been much with the other conspirators for
some days Lefore.
.
'' 5. Of the four conspirators, he was the ?ne most hkely to
take the second part.
6. 'l'he other two were absent.
7. His attempted proof of an alibi fails.
8. Brown Street was a probable place for the conspirators
' to meet. It commands a full view of the house. It was
near enough, being within call, to render aid.
.
9. The prisoner was in Brown Street at the hme of the
murder.
a. Two persons, an swering to the persons of the pris-

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CONFIRMATION.

oner and · the murderer Crowninsl1ield, were seen lurking
about Brown Street, exciting susp icio ns by stealthy movements.
b. No other explanation of these perso ns or movements
is known.
c. The club used 111 the perpetration of tho crime was
found near there.
d. The prisoner was iden tified . as being m the street,
by divers witnesses.
l\Ir. Erskine, in his defense of Lord George Gordon, on a
charge of high treason, pursu es the following course of rea1
soning.
I. He first defines the statute-crime of 'treason as applicable to the present case, to be that of "levying war :igain st
the king in his realm, by premeditated '6pe11 acts of violence,
hostility, and force."
ARGU111ENT.-1. All attempts to widen the crime as thus
defined, have been repressed.
2. Th e restrictions have been approved by the most celebrated writers on criminal law.
Lord George Gordon can not be g uilty of treaso n unless
he has thus levied war agai nst the kiiia
a·
He appointed the assembly of people on the second day
of June, 1780. 'l'he question is, whether they were so •·assembled wg4_, a traitorous intent?

185

CONFIRMATION.

2: The evidence for the prisoner .establishes his innocenc<.
of the charge.
- a. He did not originate the assembly.
b. It was the act of the whole association of which he
was chairman.
c. The measure was adopted with open doors.
d. It was not disapproved 6f bj any minister or magistrate.
e. Peace and order were enjoined on the assembly.
f Lord Gordon personally entreated peaceable , and
quiet behavior.
g. After the as8embly were dispersed, no man imagined
treason had been committed.
h. Lord Gordon retired to bed unconscious of personal
, liability.
i. He denounced the authors of the riot, and took active
measures to qu~ll ·it'.
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., ' · j. The .member's of Parliament are chargeable with
misprision of treason, -if the~e were any signs . of treasonable
in_tent.
- ' le. This trial has· p~oceeded ·only from inversion of just~ce, by judging from consequences instead of from causes and
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II. Mt Erskine then proceeds to. app~y the evidence in
·the case to tliis view of the crim.c of treason:,. as trial is' only
"the reference of facts to a certau1. rule of action."
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I. The evidence of the Crown .fails t~ sustain the charge;
not a witness being found to say that Lorcl G ordori:· had directed, countenanced, or approved rebellious force :igairist the
government.

· •Mr. Oanni~g, in hi~ speech on the admission of Roman
Catholics to seats in Parliament, prese~ted the follo~ing arguments ' under the head of the dangers to be apprel1cndcd from
·their admission.
L If, Of!. admission, they should combine to overthrow
the ecclesiastical establishment, they could effect it only, 1st,
by force of reasoning; or 2d, by force of numbers; or 3d, by
force alone.
2. Roman Catholics are already admitted to the electiv<
.franchise, and to all ranks of office in the army and the navy

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CON FIR!l1ATION.

3. It is clauned that if admitted to Parliament, they might
also be admitted as Governors of colonies. 'l'hey are so admitted now.
4. In regard to any :ipprehended interference in ecclesiastical preferments, the bill expressly and anxiously provided
agai11st it.
5. It is objected that Protestants might have conscientious scruples about takiug an oath which recognized Homan
Catholic bishops. But the validity of Roman Catholic Episcopal ordination is recognized now-.

§ 127. The arrangement of proofs m reasoning will
depend on two principles:
1. The state of mind addressed;
2. The relation of the proofs to each other.

§ 128. If there be already, in the mind addressed, a
belief of the proposition to be confirmed or proved, the
weaker arguments should be placed first and the stronger
last.

§ 129. If an existing belief in the mind addressed is
to be overthrown, or a new belief to be produced, the
stronger proofs should be first advanced.
In order to leave a strong impression at the close,
some of the stronger arguments should be left to the
close; or, what is better, the proofs may be recapitulated in the reverse order.

§ 130. Analytic proofs should precede all others,
which should generally follow in the following order:
1st. Intuitive; 2d. A priori; 3d. Examples; 4th. Signs.

§ 131. Proofs closely related to each other should be
presented in connection. Generally the principles of

CONFIRMATION.

137

method applicable to the different kinds of Explanation

-Will apply here also.

§ 132. If in any case the foregoing principles of arrangement conflict, preference should generally be given
first to that founded in the relation of the matter in
the several proofs, § 131 ; and next, to that founded on /
the classification of proofs, § 130 ; that founded in the
state of mind addressed, §§ 128, 129, being subordinated
to the others.
Correct the faults in method in the following arguments.

I.

PROPOSITION.- Excessive

Severity in the penalties of Lawi
deadens their force.

1. In England the concealment of a bankrupt's effects is
seidom prosecuted, because the penalty is so severe.
,;
2. Severe penalties awaken sympathy with the criminal
rather than detestation of t~e crime, in the popular mind.
3. Witnesses hold back their testimony when the penal·
ties are excessive.
·
4. Frequency of severe punishment brutalizes the publio
sentiment.
5. Public prosecutors shrink from their duty when the
law follows conviction with excessive retributions.
6. Penal laws ought to be in unison with the public feeling.
7. Courts and juries are biased to injustice when punish·
ments are severe.
8. Ilelaxation of penalties in England has been attended
with diminution of crime.

II. The following arguments have been urged against the
mode of voting by Ballot.
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CONFIRMATION.

1. It contract.s the el ective f'ran cl1i f:ie by abating !hf
strongest induce ments to its ex ercise, such as th e desire to
~ain the favor of superiors, or leaders; the kindness of folow-citizens; the g ratitude of candidates.
2. The ballot does not produce secrecy. This is ndmitted
by the advocates of the Ballot to be the case in the British
House of Common s.
3. Any advant::i ge from the Ballot being a less offen siv e
mode of voting than the voice, is confined to a few. 'l'he
mass have no secrets.
4. The Ballot would deprive election s of all th eir popular qualities, as excitement, partisan enthusiasm, ]1ostility to
opponents, coura ge, and decision.
5. In the United States of America, the B all ot is not attend ed with secrecy.
G. The Ballot takes away all motives to exercise the ri p;ht
-, of suffrage but the single one of abstract sense of public duty.

III.

PrroPOSITION.-God is Omniscient.

1. H e is Omnipresent.
2. Ile gives all knowledge to his creatures.
3. He could not otherwise be perfectly blessed.
4. The Scriptures declare his Omniscience.
5. His universal providence requires it.
6. The infinity of his nature involves it.
7. His other attributes demand it.
8. Heathen philosophers teach it.

CONFIRMATION.

139

4. Frotrt the life and testimony of the apostles.
-5, l?rom the prophecies.
6. From the need of such a religion to men.
7. From t.he alternative, that if Christi anity Le rejected.
there is no religion for man.
8. From the miraculous circum stances attending the birth
and death of Christ.
9. From the experience and testimony of millions of
men.
10. l?rom its meeting the convictions and the moral cravings of the best and wisest of men.
11. From its triumphant progress.

§ 133. It often happens that\ one si<le of a question
may be taken to be prove<l until it is disproved; as
for example, "a man is held to -be innocent until
proved guilty." It becomes important, therefore, to
determine carefully, in regard to any proposition on
which side this presumption lies, if at all; as then the
burden of proof will be on the other side, and, unless
this proof be conclusive, the opposite must be held to
be established. Unless a man is proved to be guilty,
he is to be esteemed innocent.
In like manner, proofs may often be assumed as true.
In proof of the Divine origin of Christianity, thus, the
authenticity of the Gospels may be presumed, until it
is disproved.

§ 134. There are some general principles which go
IV.

PROPOSI1'ION.-CM-istianity is of Divine Origin.

PrrooF.-1. From the life and character of Christ.
2. J.1'rom the rniraclcs he wrought.
3 . From the efficacy of its teacl1ings on the lives of men,

to determine the question on which side the pre~mmption
lies.

First, He who makes an allegation, is generally to
be held to the proof of it.

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CONFIRMATION.

Secondly, The presumption is m favor of what
exists, and against a change.
Thirdly, The presumption is in favor of what is right;
in other words, the presumption should be charitable.
Fourthly, 'l'he presumption is in favor of whatever
promotes the welfare of men, and agai1rnt whatever is
restrictive or injurious.

§ 135. One presumption may be overthrown by another. 'l'hus, the second principle stated above, that
of existence and continuance, is in favor of l\lolrnmmedanism; but the fourth is against it: it is adverse
to the highest welfaro of men.
§ 136.

DrnECTIONs FOR EXERCISES IN CoNFrn111ATION.

In selecting themes, the pupil should be careful to take
such as lie within his comprehension. If he take a matter
of fact, it should be one about which he possesses or can
obtain information. If it be a truth, it should be one, the
proofa of which he can understand and collect or devise.
At first, abstract propositions sl10uld be avoid etl.
For illustration of the mod e of preparing the exercise, we
will take the question: vV as Nero guilty of the burning of
Rome, in the sixty-fourth year of the Christian era? W £
will undertake to prove the affirmative.
'J'he first thing to be done, is to st.ate the proposition
which we are to prove, in exact terms. It will, at first, be expedient to write it out in form. We state then: ]{ero
was guilty of burning Rome.
The next step is to analyze the terms of the proposition
by careful study. We inquire: Who was N cro? what his
character? what motive to cause the conflagration? what
bearing the conflagration liad on his interests or plearnre (

CONFIRMATION.

141

~e find that Nero was reckless of life and property; tho
presumption in favor of his innocence is thus set aside.
., He was the man to do such a deed. He loved notoriety
apd was ready to sacrifice all for it. He would naturally
desire to be known as the r~storer of the city. We have
· he.re a priori arguments derived from the character of
Nero.
We strengthen these arguments by similar acts of cruelty
on his part.
We meet, however, the fact, that Nero was at the time at
Antium. We dispose of this 'objection by the suggestion,
' that such absence was probably for concealment, and that
he had fit tools in his service for sucl~ a barbarity.
We now come to other proofs. Nero, after his return to
the city indul()'es in inhuman diversions over the destruction
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around him. He gives no sign of regret; makes no serious
effort to stop the flames ; he amuses himself over the spreading Tuin.
Further, there were thoF-e who stopped whoever tried to
extinguish the flames, and even themselves applied torches
:to spread the conflagration, alleging that they did so by
command.
The people suspected Nero. He was forced to expedients
to allay popular indignation, providing largely for the suffering exiles from home, and criminating the Christians.
· Finally, while Tacitus leaves the matter in doubt, Suetonius and Dion positively all ege Nero's guilt.
' After collecting these materials of our argument, we proceed to arrange them. vVe place first the a ·priori proofs;
then the examples which confirm these a priori proofs; then
the signs; and we have this order:
1. Nero's character was such as to make the perpetra1.
tion of such a crime probable.
2. His passion was notoriety. The burning of the old

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city woul(l e11aLl c him to gain the rf'p 11t :ition of hf'i11 g the

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new huildr.r of' H1:ime.
These a vriuri µroofi-i mi g ht Le fortified by proofo fro m
examples of his barbarities in other cases.
\\'e tl1P11 Hdv:uiioe !lie "i.c:11,.,,
1. lli:-; rncrri111cnt Ol'Cr the Lurni11g city .
~- 'l' lic :icts :iml :il le;:,:ili"11s uf tliu;;c \\ lio helped i11 tl 1n
confbgrntion .
3 . The citizens at th e time believed Nero to he the perpetrator.
4. Nero showed guilt in his e lllleavon1 to appease the
pnhlir. feelin g.
5. 'l'hc testimony of' :::luctonius a11J 1Jio11 .
This meth od would be the natural one, if our arg mnent
were addressed to those who ha d no opinion, or h ad beli eved
Ne ro inn ocent. To stre ngthen Lhe impress ion, it might be
we ll to r ecapitulate the proofa in th e reverse order .
But if we were address ing a mind already co nvi nced of
N ero 's g uilt,, our desig n bein g to dee pen tlrnt eo 11victio 11, we
mig ht a<lvantn geo usly begin with the testimony of the historians, and close with a n exposition of the sav:ige nature
of this worst of Roman tyrants.
For fur ther illustratio n , we will take the theme- the pre cariousness of popular frtvor. ·we first st:ite it in the form
of a proposition. P ozmlar f lwor is prcc111'io11s.
An a lyzin g the term s, we find that popular foelin g is superfi cial, founded on :i ppeara nees, impulsive, tra11sient. 'VVo
draw out our arg um ents, thus derived from th e au alysis,
which furnish us a priori proofa of its precariousness.
P opular favor is precarious, then, bccause1. It is foumled on supe rfi cial g r ounds.
2 . It sp rings from hasty jllllg ments.
3. It is impulsive and violent, and consequently transie·rt.

143

On all the ~ (' groun ds of nrilc cc <l e11 t proL:ilJility we should
suppose it would be clw.11gcablc.
\Ve th e n nd d11 ce exa mples wh ich will serve to strcn!!the11
t:he previous a ]'1'-iuri urgumcnls, arnl are also of themselves
indepen1fo 11 t, proofs .
W c finally aJJuce the testilllony of men comµctcut to
~peak, and ur ;_:e the autlturit.\· u!' th eir 11:1mc~ .
When the ext•n:it<e is prP1•:1re•l , (.lie pupil ~hould J,e 11 11e ~­
ti onerl nR to the kinds of proof<; emp loyed , :is well ns the
princip les of arrangement, in order that there may be ae- quired a fom ilinrity with the different kindR of proofa, and
the proper mode of using them.

§ 137.

Adduce arguments to prorn th e following proposi -

tions.

1. Moses was specially trained to be the found er of the
Jewish nation.
2. The J ews were cruell y oppressed in E gypt.
3. 'L'he esc:ipe of the Jews out of Egypt into Ca naan
was miraculous.
4. Id olatry was the cause of the captivity of the .Jews
in Babylon.
5. 'l'he Chinese monarchy is the oldest on the earth.
6. A ·miversal deluge has swept over the world.
7. Alexander of Macedon was an ambitious but sagaci' ous ruler , not a wild fanatic or mere chi ld of fortune.
8. Rome owes her downfall to the evils of conquest.
9. Mahomet was an irnpostor, not a deluded fanatic.
10. 'l'he abdication of Charles V, was dictated by selfish
ness rather than by magnanimity.
11. 'l'he divorce of Josephine by Bonaparte, wa~ politi·
cally unjusHfiable.
12. Charles I was justly executed.
13. Oliver Cromwell was a usurper.

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CONFIRMATION.

14. Free institutions promise to prevail in Europe.
15. The fir st settlers in New England treated lhe Indians
with strict regard to justice.
16. Infidelity is decreasing.
17. Populous cities are unfavorable to morality.
18. It is always safe to act right.
1 9. A man is accountable for his opinions.
20. Science is favorable to Chri stianity.
21. No one is without influence.
22. Games of chance are hurtful t.o character.
23. Employment is true enjoyment.
24. Commerce is favorable to national character.

PART II.
/

STYLE.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL

DIVISIONS.

§ 138. STYLE, in Rhetoric, treats of the expression
of thought in language.

§ 139. The most general division of the properties of

/

" . '. Style is into the three classes of,
1. ABSOLUTE;
2. SUBJECTIVE;

3.
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§ 140. The ABSOLUTE PROPERTIES are those which
are founded in the nature of language.
They include,
1. The ORAL;
2. The SUGGESTIVE;
3. The GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES.
· This analysis of the properties of style, is founded on the
three elements of language, viz.: the material, or body of
language ; the thought, or contents; and the relation of the
material to the thought.

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146

ORAJ, J'JWl'ERTJES.

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P E It 'I' T E S.

~ 141. The 01tAL .Pllul'EftIIES are tl1osc wh ich nrc
found ed in the nature of laJJgua p; c as co nsi stin g of articubte sounds.
They incluLle EuPUONY auJ HAitil! ON Y.
'l'he oral properti es of style ::ue to l1e ncquircd 011ly
through the ear. Hence they :ire to be studi ed,
1. By lis tening to go od speak ers;
2. By reciting or reading aloud from writers who are
eminent in these properties.

Genernlly poets and orators nre to be preferred for this
purpose. Th e writi11 gs of l\lilton, Addi so n, and Irving , may
be read aloud with advantage . U 11t.il the ta ste is form ed, the
recita tion and readin g aloud of production s that are deficient
in these properties should be carefully avoided.

. § 142. EUPH ONY respects sirnp1 y the so unds of "\\ords
as sounds, and requir es th e use of sucl1 as a.re in themselves pleasant to the car aiHl easy to be uttered.
Hence Euph ony requir es,
1. The avoidance of wonls with many unaccented
syllables, as "meteorological," "desultorin ess."
2. The avoi<l:111ce of hn,r sh combinations of letters, as
"schismless," "formd's t."

§ 143. lIARi\IONY respects the sounds of words as ex·
pre ss ions of tl1ougl1t.

ORAL PROPERTIES.

147

I t em 1.J r:i cc.",
1. JL\1 \W_l>I¥ l)H OPEtt;
2 . Jtny-rmr; nnd
3. l\Ir,r,onY.

§ 144. lIA JL\ ! ONY PRO l' Elt rcf'pccts th e (i11aliLy of
so u11ds, a 11d n:11 1iircs ili at Ll 1c s u ccession uf wo n .ls m a
scntc11cc fall s moo Lhly arnl pl ca s:i 11 l ly 011 the car.
Th e fo ll oirin g ex tracts ar c in \r ide co nt r:ist wi th c:ich oth er
in respect of harmo11y; the first, fr om l\Iilton, bein g remarkably smo oth and harmonious; the second , from Barrow,
harsh a nd Jisag recabl e in iL::; eilcd on the ea,r.
'V c ha Ye 110t yet found them all, nor ever shall do, till
her m aster 's second coming. He shall bring together every
joint and member, and shall mold them into an immortal
feature of loveliness and perfection.
When sarcastical twitches are needful to pierce ·the thick
!'lkins of men, to conceal their letha rgic stupidity, to rouso
them out of their drowsy negligence, then may they well be
. ~pplied.

§ 145. RHYTHM is founded on accent, and requires
that the succession of accented and unaccented syllables
be such as to fa.Il pleasantly on the ear.
A g ood rhythm is best acquired by recitations and frequent audible readings from our best poets. The style of
.Milton and that of Addison are highly rhythmical.
The mopt common faults in rhythm are,
1. Excess, or importing blank verse into prose; as "You
know I love a country life , and here we have it in perfection;" and, as we find in :i scientific system of optics,
"When parallel rnys come contrary ways and fall upon oppo.
site sides."

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ORAL PROPERTIES.

2. D f'fcct, or unbroken succession of accented or of unac
cented Ryllables, as "Consider that religion is a g reat nud a
lon g work, and asks so much time that there is no11e left for
the delaying of it."
This fault is most co nsp icuous at tl1 c close of a sc nf cucc,
as in the example g iven. As the rhythm of a se ntence appears most in the cade nce, care sh ould be ta ken to avo id
cadence& with several acce nted or unacce nted sy llaLl cs in sue- .
cession. Seldom should a sente nce be closed with more tha n
:me accented or more than two un accented syll abics.

The following is an instance of an exceedingly loose structure, from Swift. The main thought is closed with the word
"audience," in the first third of the sentence; but clause
·after clause, with either one of which the sentence might be
closed, is added, till the ear tires with the dragging appendages.
And h ere it was often found of absolute necessity to influence or cool the passions of the audience, especially at Rome,
where Tully spoke; and with whose writings young divines,
I mean those among them who read old authors, are more
conversant than with those of Demosthenes; who, by many
degrees, excelled the other, at least as an author.

§ 146. MELODY is fo uncl ecl on pitch, and requires that
the members of a sentence be so proportioned to each
other in len gth, an <l also so arranged in r espect to the
importance and relations of the thoughts, that the pronunciation shall be pleasing to the car.
'
'I'he sty le of Dugald Stewart is a good rn odc l for the sfutly
of this propcrf.y of' sty le. The following pnsrngcs are instances of a melodious constru ction.
'I'hc mos t trifling accident, of sce nery, it is evident, at leas t
the most trifling to an un skilled eye, mny t.hu s possess, in
his estimation, a va lue superior to th at which h e ascribes to
beauties of a far hi gher ord er.- STEWART.
The accusing spi rit, whi ch flew up to Heaven's chan ce ry
with the oath, blushed as he gave it in; and the recording
an gel, as he wrote it down, dropped a hlar upon the wor<l
and blotted it out forevcr.-STERNE.

§ 147. Faults in melody are,

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OilAJ, PROPERTIES.

1. Lo ose sentences, or sentences closing with dependent clau ses;
2. Excessiv ely parenthetical sentences .

EXERCISES ON THE ORAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE.

Point out and name the faults in respect of the oral properties of style, in the following extracts.
It is a mystery, which we firmly believe the truth of, and
humbly adore the depth of.
I have settled the meaning of those pleasures of imagination, which are the subject of my present undertaking, by
way of introduction, in this paper.
Boast not thyself of to-morrow; thou knowest not what
a day may bring forth; and, for the same reason, despair not
of to-morrow, for it may bring forth good as well as evil;
which is a ground for not vexing thyself with imaginary fears;
for the impending black cloud, which is regarded with so
much dread, may pass by harmless: or, though it should
discharge the storm, yet, before it breaks, thou mayest be
lodged in that lowly mansion which no storms ever touch.
The Commons made an angry remonstrance against such
an arbitrary requisition.

I

150

OltAL PROPERTIES.

By adverse gusts of jarring in stincts tost,
I rove to one, now to the other coast.
Thou cl ear 'dst the secret of my hicrh
descent )
b
And told me what those mystic tokens meant.
My mother catchcJ me in her . arm s, and, transported be
yond all patien ce of the si lent grief she was before in, she
almost smothered me in her cm L>raccs.
How easi ly are men checked and dircrtcd fr om a good
cause, by the temptations and advantn gcs of thi s \rorld I
How many arc cold in their zeal for religion, by the favor
and fri endship of the world! And as t heir go od s and estates
have grown greater, their devotion hath grown l~ss.
For tlrn peace and good of the Church is not terminated
in the schismless estate of one or two kingdom s.
Thou form'dst me poor at first and kecp'st me so.
'I'o use the Divine name custolllarily, and without serious
consideration, is highly irreverent.
When a man hath once forfeited the reputation of his mtegrity, nothing will then serve his turn.
Young years are tender, and easi ly wrought upon, apt to
be '.r10l~ed i.nto any fashion; they are lik e moist and soft clay,
which is pliable to any form; but soon grows l1ard , :lllll then
nothing is to be matle of it.
Disappointments will often lrnppen to tl1c bes t and wisest
men, not throug li any imprudence of th eirs, nor cvc11 tl1rounh
the malice or ill des ign of others, but merel y i11 co n:c;c1 ucn:c
1
of some of those cross i11cidc11ts of lif'c \d1ieh con ld not be
foreseen, and sometimes to the wisest and Lest concerted plans.

ORAL PROPERTIES.

151

Tranquillity, regularity, and magnanimity reside with the
religious and resigned man.
They conducted themselves wilily, and insnared us befors
· we had time to escape.
Whereas this account would make it not of so large extent,
as it were very unreasonable any should; for though it may
well be supposeJ extendible to many actions besides those
that are in trinsically evil, or to any that are not spiritually
_good, yet nothing enforces, nor can it be admitted, that it
should actually and always extend so far.
The cretlibility, that the Christian dispensation may have
been, all along, carried on by general laws, no less than the
course of nnture, may require to Le more distinctly made out.
Consid er, then, upon what ground it is we say, that the whole
com rnou course of nature is carried on according to genernl
foreortlained laws.
At St. Bride's Church, in Fleet Street, Mr. Woolston, who
writ against the miracles of our Savior, in the utmost terrors
of conscience, publicly recanted.
And now the bell, the bell she bad so often heard by night
and day, and listened to with solemn pleasure almost as a living voice, rung it;;o remorseless toll for her so young, so benutiful, so good . Decrepit age and vigorous life, and blooming
youth and helpless infan cy poured forth, on crutches, in the
pride of strength and health, in the full blast of pr?misc, in
the mere dawn of life , to gather round her tomb. Old men
were there, whose eyes were dim aml senses failing; grandmothe1\ who miglit have died ten years ago and still been
old; -the deaf, the blind, the lame, the palsied, the living dead,
in many shapes and forms, to see the closing of that early

152

ORAL PROPERTIES.

15b

SUGGESTIVE PROPERTIES.

g~ave. What was the death it would shut in, to that which
lltill could crawl and creep above it.

Hi13 oration at the · commencement of the session made a
favorable impression.
We can not excusably decline the consideration of that du~tion, which maketh pyramids pillars of snow, and all that
is passed a moment.
I could not but admire the greatness of the work, and also
the perfectness of it.
.
It was the immature and immoderate love of them which
stamped first, or rather engraved, the characters in me.

Give it

lo

tlie fairest, was it, which jarred the goddesses.

. And these are, beyond comparison, the two greatest evils
m this world: a diseased body, and a di scontented mind·
and_ in this I am sure I speak to the inward feeli11g and ex~
penence of men; and say nothing but what every vicious
man finds, and hath a more lively sense of, than is to be
expressed in words.

CHAPTElt III.
SUGGESTIVE

§ 148. The
1. The
2. The

PROPERTIES.

SUGGESTIVE PitOPERTIES
IMITATIVE ;

of style include,

and

SYMBOLICAL PROPEilTIES.

§ 149. 'l'he IMITATIVE PROPERTIES are founded on the
resemblance between the thoughts and the sounds of the
words by which the thoughts are expressed ; as "the
cawing crow ;" "the gabbling goose;" "the cooing dove;"
.' 'the whistling wind."
Deep echoing gro~m the thickets brown,
Then rustling, cracking, crashing, thunder down.
Frogs from the pond and Mill-Brook crooked, chubbed,
• and crooked.
Oft on a plat of rising ground,
I hear the far-off curfew sound,
Over some wide watered shore,
Swinging slow with sull en roar.

§ 150. The SYMBOLICAi, PROPERTIES of style are
founded on the resemblance between the thought and
the image represented by the word or words which express the thought.
Holy actions begin with a slow motion, and the building
stays, and the spirit is weary, and the soul is naked to tempt·

/

154

SUGGESTIVE I'llOPEUTIES.

GRAl\IllfATICAL PROPERTIES.

15!1

ation, ancl in tl1 0 cla ys of storm tak es i11 ore rytl1in g that car:
<lo it mi st: hi of'; and it is foi11f. and sic: k, li stl ess a11J tired, and
it stands till its own wei ght ~rcnri cs th e foundation :rnd then
declines to death and sad diso rd er.-JEiumy 'l'AYLOR.

CHAPTER IV.
For the ncquisilion of this property, th e 8h1dy of ll1 c writings of J"c:111 Paul Hi clitcr will Le found of" g reat Lenefit.
No writer hn s more stndi ed th e form s of th oug ht in the world
without, or h:1s more acc urat ely :rnd bc:llltif"i1lly se lec ted nnd ,
appropriatc<l th em in cxprcs;.;io11. 'l'h c following extract is
from his "Flower, l?ruit, and 'l'horn l'i cccs," tran slate<l by
Noel.

Happy F irmi:in, n o~with s t:\ndi 11 g your afllicti o11s ! ·w hen
you now step through tl 1e glass door up on tl1c iron floor, the
sun sets o\·er again, and the 1~ arth closes li er large eye, like
that of a dyin g go dd ess. Then the mo1111tai11 s smok e about
you lik e altars; the choru rns burst. fr o111 th e wood s; shadows,
the vail s of day, flutter nrouud the ki11Jl eJ tran"parent treetops, :lilt! li e upon the vari eg:Jt ed uroot:l1cs of" fl oll"rr"; a nd
th e go lJ -t i11 se l of t.!1 0 ere11i11g-red cns ts a dead go ld en hue
upon th e cast, and foil s with rosy co lors 011 th e flnnli11 g bosom
of the trc1nbli11g lark, th e higl1-l11111 g crc 11i11g- IJe!I of' 11 ntnre.
Firn1i:rn oponctl th o pi:111u -f'u rt e and rcpc:1toJ his
eve11i11 g in tones, th e trcm bl i11g chord s Lecorn ing th e fiery
tongues of hi s oppresse d Loso n1. Th e flu1Yer -as hes of his
youth were blown a1ray, and Lcucath them a few young minutes bloomed again.

* * *

NoT1~ .-'l'hc young student. of s ty le will g n n1·d n~11in ~ t. the Gcrmnni Hm s in this cx t.nict., nppe:iri11 g particu larly in the use of com-

pound

W Ol'U B.

G R Alll 111 A T I C A L

P R 0 P E R T I ES •
/

§ 151. T1rn GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES of style respect
, either,

1. The forms of words;
2. 'l'heir conn ection; or,
3. Their meaning.
The corresponuing classes of faults to be avoided in
· , style, are,
.
,, .
1. BAllDARISMS, or the use of words not sanct10ned
,b y the Etymology of the l anguage ;
2. SOLECISMS, or violations of Syntax or the laws of
I
construction and arrangement;
3. IMPROPRIETIES, or uses of words in wrong meanings. These are offenses against the Lexicography of
• the language.
EXERCISES ON THE GRAJ\IMATICAL PROPERTIES OF

STYLE.

Point out and name the several Barbarisms, Solecisms, and
[mpropri ctics in the following s?ntcnces:
'l'he play at arms eventuated m an angry fight.
His style was cumbrous, repetitious, and wholly unattractive.
d ·
·
-. The best preventative of disease is to be foun m a JU
dicious re"i men of diet, sleep, and exercise.
.
Notwitl~st.anding the urge ncy of his entreaties, they for a
long time reluctated against his policy.

156

GRAMMATICAL PROPEltTIES.

To j eopardize such interests for such trifles is
folly.
The morning rays peeked over tl1 e hills.
At sundown, the clouds tl1 at l1ad oLscurcd the
during tl1 c tby, graduall y sca ttered.
'l'he memoriziug of pnssages of poetry is a usefu l exercise. ·.
Pending the tria l, the litigants renewed the contest.
Hi s name was f'tricken from the roll.
·with his usual self-dcrntion , he pi ed the cnse ngainst his, '
fonnidabl e adversaries with a boldn ess that bordered
dacity.
'l'he facts were proven lwyo nd all q11est.ion.
,.
With all my affection for him, I had rnthcr liave gone any- '
where else than to mr.et him at such an interview.
'
He may have began many studies, but he mastered few.
Firstly, the position is not sustained by the facts in tLe ·
case.
Th en the released sp irit shall be perfectly happified.
This prudent co trn se l w:rn illy follo1YC1.I.
'l'he whole herd presse d down the sitlehill.
The court has not wore off the manners of the republic:
I had no sooner drank but I found a pimple rising in my
forehead.
·which some philosophers have mistook to be different in
their causes.
The hauteur of Florio ~as very disgracious:
The more preferable course would be to decline the propos:il at on ce with out di sc ussion.
]i;ac h of the person s prc ~e nt observed their turn in the performau ce.
'l'he rule reads, "If any one transgresses, let them be firs1.
9-dmoui sh e<l."
I supposed it to Le he.
He dare 11ot procectl.

GRAMMATICAL, PROPERTIES.

157

·The amount of the expenditures and disbursements far
exceea our calculations.
, . James was equally forward and equally responsible as
·Joseph.
.
· Neither envy or despise tho rich.
·Men will not believe but what it was done with criminal
Intentions.
· or 1"~g1"na.l plan be went to London on .
· In pursuance of l 11s
" the followini!: Monday.
The nation is no·w free of tyrants.
· Firstly, the facts were misapprehend~d;
.
.
• , Second, the conclusion was not sustamed by the premises ,
and~

Third, the whole discussion was extravd:gant and excess-

ive.
.
Much does human pride and self-complacency requue cor,. rection.
Good order in our affairs, not mean savings, produce great
profits.
. - h b ·
'Vhether one person or more was concerned m t e us1ness does not yet appear. . ,
.
I shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man m my
station.
The fleet is all safely arrived.
These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind.
You have been ·gone this two hours.
Industry iR the mean of obtaining competency.
.
Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which
they are entitled.
Every man, every woman, every P.hild, were numbered. .
Neither of those men seem to have any idea that their
opinions may be ill-founded. .
These curiosities we l1ave impor t e d from China, and . are
imilar to tJ1osP hrought from Japan.

158 .

GRAMMATICAL PROPEllTIES.

GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES.

Removing tl ~c term from Wes tmins ter, sitti1w
0
ment, was illegal.
·when the nation com plain, tlrn rnlers should liste n
voice.
J'h e co un cil was not t111anin1ous.
From t hese favorable bcginui11gs we may hope for a soon
an<l pros perous issue.

8?

bold a brea ch of or<ler, call ed for litL!e severity in the ,
pu111 s h111 e11f; of the offender.
'I'he : ear of shame an<l desire of approbation, prevent many
bad act1 01i s.
In this busin ess h e was m
· fl ue11ce <l b y a Ju
· s t au<l ge nerous
prin cip le.
\
The a lone principle in the c:1se is in co n f:rovertible.
Ile wa s a very lik ely boy.
l\len arc but pil g ri111 s in tliis wilderness world.
He clill not iujurc him any.
He is con siderab le better.
Such l:1 11 g u:1gc 1rns de rogat ory to his ch aracter.
The doctri ncs were, as to their proper influen ce and effect,
hig hly obnoxious .
I bought the kni ves at Brown 's the cutler's.
The pi cture of the king's does n ot rnu ch rese mble him.
'l'hc observation of this rule will be found to be of great.
advanta ge.
.
The reply threw him off his guard, and he was in a temrer for a long tinie.
The bala nee of the crew effected their escape.
I can ne ver think so mean of him .
Neither death nor torture were suffi cie nt to subdue the
mi11d s of' U:1rg ill a11d hi s i11trcpid folln\\'c rs.
"I'.is o Iisc na 11
; e l I1at every one of the letters bear date afwr
his ban is h111 c11t.
Whether he will or no . I care uot.

'

159

So much of ability and merit are seldom found.
The conditions were as moderate as was consistent with
the instructions.
1 . We need not, nor <lo not, confine the purposes of God.
· The comm ittee were very full at this meeting.
; - He behaved himself conforma ble to that blessed example.
" And never cntcrtai n any suspicio n that the one are nothin" but represe ntatives of the other.
t>N 0 one should incur censu_re for being tender of their rep.
utation.
Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit.
He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault
Thou art a friend that hast often relieved me.
Neither of them are rcmarkal>le for precision.
I am equally an enemy to a female dunce or a female pedant.
I shall premise with two or three general observations.
If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?
Demon stration behooves us io repose at last on propositions.
The legitimate application of this nia~oning is exclusively
competent.
He does not seem almm;t to have conceived the possibility.
He considers that professin g is being.
Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound.
John will earn his wages when his service is completed.
From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared
to have been a man of letters.
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done.
His disease was so severe, that I often feared he would
have died before our arrival.
Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices:
were put to death.
-These feasts were celebrated to the honor of Osiris, whom
the Greeks called Dionysius, and iH the same with Bacchus.

160

GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES •

.Every person, wlrntcver be their station, is bound
duties of morality and religion.
\Ve do those things frequently that we repent of afterward.
Many persons will not believe but what they are free from
prejudices.
·
' ''

. I'

He had better have let it alone, for ho lost his cause by
his jest.
. K.ing_ Charles, and_ more than him, the Duke and the Pop·
rsh factrnn; were at liberty to form new schemes.
Neither of them succeed in practice.
In proportion as either of these two qualities arc wanting
the la11gun gc is imperfect.
'
It has been shook by the iniquity of former administrations.
'.l'he cottage was at a wide .remove from the tree. .
A large part of the mendows and cornfields wn s overflown.
Ile was charged by Asinius Pollio as neither faithful or
exact.
He was persuaded to strenuously prosecute the great enterprises of the company.
These evils are rifo in community.
'.l'he works of Deity are admirable in whatever aspect regard ed.
•
They entertained hig h opinions of themselves.
He has not yet wore off the rough manners which he
broug ht with him .
" You who have forsook your friends arc entitled to no confidence .
He had mistook his true interest.
They have chose the part of honor.
Il e would Jiave went with us, had he been invit~d.
I lrnd srnlhim repcnte dly before.
His vic es have weakc11ed his mind and broke his health.
Ile had wrote many letters.
The cloth was wove without ~earn.

GRAMMATICAL PROPERTIES.

161

We need not, nor do not, confine his operations to narrow
limits.
Do you know who you are speaking. to? '
He is a friend whom I am much obliged to.
They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven fron.
• the house.
I admire to hear that orator.
I admire that he should do it. ·
I expect he was the offender .
He learned me the language.
She finds '"a difficulty of fixing her mind.
There was no water and he died for thirst.
I have no occasion of his services.
It is a principle in unison to .our nature.
He was born in London but raised in Paris.
They calculated to go in the next steamer.
The ships now loy in the port.
The council was setting.
I reckon he was greatly disappointed.
They went into the forest to fall some trees.
It is not conformable with custom.
.
The ho~se is situated to the north-east side of the road.
He was accused with having acted unfairly.
She has an abhorrence to all deception.
Their practice was agreeable with their profession.
Civility makes its way among every kind of persons.
He conducts well this senson.
His decision was predicated on other grounds.
'l'he work progresses rapidly.
Such doctrines revolt us.
The proceedin gs of the cabinet have not transpired.
Property appreciates rapidly in t~rn city.
.
Prolessing regard and to act differently discover a base
mind.

14

Glt AJ\ill[ATICAL PHOPERTIES.

.I
.I·

'·

H e acted .iust. lik e l1i ::; bro lh er did.
Directly th e servant announccd their arrival, .f rose and left
"he fOCllll.
He wa ::i quite sick.
He felt a'3 though th e earth 'IVould open beneath him.
'I'hey are all usually well, I th ank you.
'I'he si sters did er1ually as well.
As old or old er than traditi on.
Till repentance composes his mind, Le will be a stranger
to peace.
Though su ccess be very duulilful, it is necessary that he
end eavors to succeed.
The matter was no sooner proposed, but he privalely withdrew to con sid er it.
He has littl e more of the scl1 olar besid es tl1 e name.
They ha d no soon er risen, but th ey applied them selYes to
th eir stmli es.
Germany ran the same risk :i s Italy liad Jone.
'!'hey "·e re mu ch nverse fr om t11 c prop o~ al.
In cow parison to G reccc, Ho Ill e showed Ii tt.le n rlisti c cu Jt.ure.
In accortlance to hi s purpose, he left the city th e following week.
The capt:iin had se\'Cral men diet! of th e scurvy.
The sac rifi ces of virtu e v.·ill not only be rewartlcd hereafter,
but recompense d eve n in this life.
I eonfidetl on him to di scharge that tru st.
That proccllnre wa s wurtl1y all 1m1ise.
John diffe retl with James in the estim ation of the property.
Very different to thi s, wn s his form er bel1avior.
The firs t project was to -shorten di scourse by cuttirw
puly.
0
syll abl es iuto 0110.
'l'he greates t masters of critical learniug differ among one
anoth er.
.

GRAMMA'.J'ICAJ, PROPERTIES.

163

The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter
be given to him .
B) intercourse with wise and experienced persons who
know the world, we, may improve and rub off the rust of a
private and retired education.
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge.
They celebrate the Church of England as the most perfect
of all others.
I had like to have gotten one or two broken heads.
I do likewise dissent with the examiner.
On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which
. exist among men.
Time and chance happeneth to all meu.
To which, as Bishop Burnet tells us, the Prince of Orange
was willin g to comply.
The discovery he made and communicated with his friends.
She was really in that .sad condition that her friend repre8ented her.
There are principl es in man, which ever have and ever
will incline him to offend.
'fhe wisest prin ces need not think it any diminution to
their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency to rely upon
counsel.
The esteem which Philip had conceived of the embassador.
Dr. John son, with whom I am sorry to differ in opinion,
has treated it as a work of merit.
You stand to him in the relation of a son; of consequence
you should obey him.
It is no more but his due .
'fhe brok en wheel lays by the side of the road.
He will become enamored for virtue and patriotism, and
acquire a detestation of vice, cruelty, and corruption.
Having been for a fort.uight tog.ether, they are then mighty
8;00<l company t.o be sure.
.

/

--

.I
1' '

164

GRAMMATICAL PH.OPERTIES.

GH.AMMATICAL PROPERTIES.

This effect, we may safely say, no one beforehand co uk
have promised upon.
Every Church and sect of p eop le hare a set of opinion~
peculiar to themselves.
'Vhen a strinp; of such sentences SUC'ccc d one an oth er, the
effect is disag rccal.Je.
The book is printed very neat, am! on a fine wore pap er.
lJe rese mJ,J es Ulle o (' tJi u,r ~ulit:1ry ;111i111;1J,.: t!J:lf Ji:1s bccu
forced fr om its forest to g ratify hnninn rurinsity.
There is not, nor ought not to be s nc h a t Iii n!! as cu11 stru cti l'e trc;1suu .

l Lave not, nor shall not co nsent to

a proposal so un-

just.
He de~e n ctl puui shm cllt as rn11c;l1 or J1i11rc th:111 hi 8 <'lilll pauiuu.
He !tas little more of the g reat man bec;i dcs t.he titl e .

lie acted eu 11{\J n11abl e wilh hi~ i11 stn1di1n1 8, a11d

c:111 110t.

be

con::; urcd ju::: ti y .

11 e ad1·d i11dq1c11de11t ul' forei;!;n a~~ista11l'c.
I intend ed to have fini shed the Jetter by the tim e of !lift

..

;. ...-

1 1 1.. ,

nrri 1·11! , l>1il "' '"' l""'I ,_.11l1·d.
Tl!·~ eu J! (;!J ttr.ce ,_,r p<.! up!c
WP. p:1 S~Pd lfirH11 g fi t il(• l11 .

16E

N either nnimate n or inani111atc n:iture hn s nny righ ts, and
can be co 11t ro ll cd by 11 0 et hi cal rul e~.
He is h ere amid the g lory that fill;; illlm cnsity an<l inhabiteth eternity.
'l'hc con::<trai11t of pmc virtu e is utterly Le_yond its power
to app l,y.
It must , perforce, satisfy it ~e lf with the regularity of the
outwa rd lifo.
It is in co mpetent. t.o itself t.o do tl1i s in an y other 1ray.
. nbn l1a s l>rc n rn ade socia l, r:iti onal , and free, :111J thus
necesf:a ry ttJ l>c go 1·crn r d.
It is :t crime to cla nd<,f'tincly c1·adc any state impo st..
Th ere is 110 human tribunal th at can set in judgment
upon it.
'l'h erc thu R C0111 eS lljl the prrpJcxing f(l! CStio ns Of Casuistry.
It is th e d11t y of th e state to ~ tr()n g l y e ncnmagc all 8cicntifib :rnd arti st ic lhi11ki11g.
If it cnn he ('xccui<'d 11'itl1 11 0 intnr,' rcrn·c to tl1c publ ic
choice, tl1n sl:itc has i1 0 l.lllsi11c;.: s tu int crfc' re 1Y ill1 it.
Nn scns ihl c appcar:i11 rc can be sc arce ly el'cr gi1·en to the
rn i11 rl :1' 1 111 1'!'" d r:,· in1 .. jf , 1· (111 i nhir et .
Ouch f't'1 ! li 11 .~K 111<1 .) J,c ~t_;i" iln.: d ."leiiti iu Li1 L, an d v.-l!lch L~lo 11g
to ou r r:ili1111:il !" ·in;.:· 111t!y.
'f li t: : 11 1i11: ;1! l';J ll
;.:i !,; y } t!Y · '-· 1· · :-~ ti r i ri~l1t ~ .
He is l>o1t11d 111 thu s lc:1rn the 11a _y.
vVe now co nt emplale ma n as the ereature of wants, and
thus fimli11 g a n cud in happin ess .
Each man shoulJ deport him self manly in all his interourse with other men.
I mny show other and dilJercnt tok ens of respect to the
morally wise and virtuous, to the respectful :ind courteous:
than to the ba se :rnd the in so lent.
Detraction may effe ct the estimation in which he is he! J
by others.
0

\\ C lC

;, u p e;,i,t

l11aL \i iil1

clillicul iJ

! /' i h:1 .i f.. 1t., \'. !J !It " • ! 1· 0 1 1'•" ' ~ ,, !· rn 1· l'ri"!!'I, it 1'.' <'• 1'.! I lli j'
<luty tu halt rel1c:1eJ l1i1u.
lle is no ll'a_y th_y iu fe rior.
He was se ized wilh wonderment at all he saw.
These eonYiclions can not be reda.rg uetl from any J1ig her
knowledge.
1•

Philosophers h ave sca rcely scrupled t.o appeal to them a~
irrecusaL le truths.
He is bound to :ipprobate an<l reprobate the teR! i111 011y of
our ori::;i11a l b e li e f~.
vVcrc ot.hr:r proof :nr :rnt in g.

1 11i.

.'

!!iii

,,
·11'

166

.)/;

GRAMMATICA]~

PROPJmTrns .

°'Yit11 out tl1is th e 1111nrn11ity h nd bct!cr ncYcr h ;we beer.
rai se d auu\'C the :111i111:il bc i11 g.
Not m ere ly that civil antltority is nsc f'ul is it therefore ven.
era Lie.

Suc h arc titill :1tion, s11 ccz i11 µ:, h o rripil:iti o n, Rh11dd c ring,
the foeling of what is called scUing the tee th 011 cdµe, e tc.
This last will, howeve r , be more nppropriatel y s h ow n rn
our spec ial considcr:1tion of the co nditi ons of the argument
of co mmon se nse, to whi ch we now go on .
It is i11 co111petc11t to LlemanLl the explanation of a datum
of eo nsc io us ncss.
'l'h e se nse of s ig ht is cogn iza nt of co lors :ind outlines, ·
and by aid of tou ch , with s hap es, and by othe r h elps, with
distance, motion , and direction.

SUBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

167

While these facts were being accomplished, there happened
third.
The enemies of the lleformation have imputed it to the
sale
of induJ.rcn
ces havin..,.
.
n
o been intrmited to the Dominicans
and excited the j ealousy
the Augustines.
Bein"'
now
arrived
at
a
p er iod where this task is much
.
b
more diffi cult, I think it necessary to make you aware of the

11

of

danger.
He added, "that the impressions then le t in upon his soul,
would certainly distrac t him, if he were not so at that
present."
The ferryman who rowed me , told me that he would not
for all the world pass a night at the Abbey, though there
was a pow er of money hid there.

Authority g ive n to three of o ur different. neig hb o rs.
The divcr8ity of the cases a re very apparent.
An hi s to ry of the co rrupti onR of Uhristi:111ity.
Neither of them s how a prof'ounLl kn ow ledge of their subj ect.
'rhcre can not be a doubt L11t that, th e public, the country
exercised, at this tim e, more influ ence up on the gorernment,
than at any other time.

"Ve have been so li citous rn obtainin g a complete system.
It throws the bunl c n of res po ns ibility from tlic leg islator
on to the l1ar<l -hcartcJ 11 css of the co 111munit.y.
'l'he disco11rf'c wa s :tlt\>g·c th e r :i11 cx tC'.JllJ H>re e ffort..
The co nJiti ons were a.cecptcu u l' Ly the ki11g .
I eou!J 11ot but s uspect the Yc racily of hi s sto ry.
I expect i t was li e who did it.
The con scie nce of a good dceJ is its best rew:HJ.
'J'l1i s last pi crn of civilit y h:1d like to ha.Y e cos t. 111c rl ear.
'lhc pulit.i c:il sf.:it c of J~ 11 gl:t 11d then, m1s very difforcut
to that, of th e eo ntin c11t.

CHAPTEll V.
SUBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

§ 152. TuE SunJECTIVE PROPERTIES of Style are:
1. SIGNIFICANCE;
2. CONTINUOUSNESS;
3. NATURALNESS.

§ 153. SIGNIFICANCE is opposed, 1. To what is called
"Spurious oratory," in whi ch the speaker does not· aim
or desire to communica,tc any thought, but only to occupy time, for pr0tense, or to amuse; and,
2. 'l'o the non se nsical, which procee ds from want of
·thought.

1G8

SUI!JECTIVE l'IlOPERTrns.

. '.l'his l::i st. fault, wl1ich is often me t wi t h eve n in writers of
hi g h s~a nd111g, is ge nerally occasioned by a d c~ irc to say
so mc t.Jun g , as to supply a n article fo r fhc press, to me et thE
formal• de mand of lrnl11it d11l 'Jv' or of "~ C:-I:! SS CXC r <;JSC
•
W hr. n
there is no definite 0 1i 1·crt 0 .
I
l .
'.
.
. .
.
.
- '. I en c propnsr.r 1n rn m1 111111tc:d ing
~1 es~ablish1n g any particular th oug ht.. Tt is the g rand
fault rn t h.e essays or co mp ositions rcrinired in sc hool exerIt rn t o i.ue avo1·<l e cl only by fo llowing the direction
cise:;.
.
.
.
s trwtly : "Be sm e y·u u l .
'.·
..
.
i.1ve so 1ne t 1irn g 111 yo ur mind to
"11te, • :rnd• nn ub1c·
·t
in
\1·1·
1
·
t·
-,
l
1
·
•
v
.111 g I ~, le "l'e yo n hco-i n. " '.l'lie
fault is frerinently cxe rn1Jlificd in transbli o ns, owh erc Uie
words are fol lo wed in tl wir sepa ra te rn c:111i 11 .c;~. b 111. \1 i1h"11t
a gras p of the t hotwlt
t, wl1ich ' as· co n11 cetccl
LI - l .
<l
a
· · ,
IC}' arc l CS J•• IJ C
~o express; as, " It. is onl y proper for ns to n ~c .<prirl ":111Ll
JCS t as we do sleep :rntl uU1er repo:;c, ojtn· the s11 ti!'11 uf
g. rave and sa irms things )" in ·-«tc·id
!/ _
. ' of " \\·]1cn WC l1ayc satisfrnd th e demand s of gr:1vc and serious Lusiucss."
-

Se JJ tc11Li ou::; 11 c;;s, the oppus ilc cxec ll c ne c~ in ~ty l r, is :i ll (lwnb lc onl y in the rx 111-.. ~~ 1· f1 r1 1· " · · J
· fl 11111 .c; Jit.
~·- · ·
n
111 11 . f'llf'r;.:;1·l1c
8cc 8 J7 l.
The follnw ino;· is ;111 i11c:l:111 cc u/' ;1 f:111ll.r ~Ide in tl1is rPspcct, l::kc n J1u111 tl1c Ftti 11
1· J I ·, 1·
' '
'~ 11 ' 11 111
'\. .\' ' f 'r lllll 11 Ji i' ·} i
r
ll
u 111 :~ 11n•,
JC 11 a u1 e of e upl1L1i s111 l1as been fos lenPrl llj ' "ll thi~
speuc,:; ul' ,c,t_yle .
.

SUBJECTIVE PltOPERTIES •

lfi!l

§-155. NATUitALNESS in style requires that the ex·
pression be not affected and strained after, but easy and
·free, and adapted 'to- tho character of .the speaker, of
' the subject, and the occasion.
EXERCISE S ON THE SUBJECTIVE PROPERTIES OF STYLE.

Point out and name the faults in respect to the Subjective Properties of Speech, in the following passages :

If the savor of things lies cross to honesty, if the fancy
be florid, and the appetite high toward the subaltern beauties and lower order of worldly Fy mm ctri cs and proportions,
the conduct will i nfallibly turn this latter way.
Ah I Euphues, I love thee well; but thou hatcst thyself, and
seekest to heap more honors on thy head by a li ttl e wit,
tha n thou shal t eve r close off b.y t hy great wisdom . All fire
is not quenched by water ; thou lrnst not l1we in a sting;
affection is n ot thy slave; thou canst not leave when thou
list est.
'l'he cadence comprehends that poetical style which ammatcs evers lin e, fliat proprie ty which gives strength and
expression , 1h:it 1111mcrnsily wl1i rh renders the verne smooth,
flowi ng, a nd h :i rmu 11i"11.~, that s ig nifica ncy which marks the
passions, and in mrllly cases mak es the sound an echo to the
sensc.-G OLDS~! ITII.

111

A burn t child d rc:i tl cth the fire.

,,i/

1

1p

,,,1;·1., .

- I I 1/'

I;.

••~ ' ( ii
IJ)
'I ( !

I

:

Ii:. ''~·
, IJ1!
, ['I."
:i
~I/. ' I
I

'l'·,i -

f"}I !

.. HII"'L. __ _
! '.

JI

e t 11a t st11n1 l>l c l.l1 t.wir·e
:i t one st u11 e i;; \\'(Jl'lliv to hrc·1k ) 11- c• ,. , 1 -111 ~
'l'l
t

.
.
·'
- "
., ·'
,, , __ 1011 .111aycs
happily fors wear th yse lf, b11t th ou sh:ilt ne \·cr delud e me.
I kn ow tl1 ec as rcmlil y by lh y vi sard as l1y ~h y vis:i ge .

As in fruifs a11d ca ttle, the seed not on ly scncs to presenc
tl_,e brccrl as much a;, th e properties of soi l :incl climate
change, by which they are nourished . -K .urns' ELEUENTS,
BY l\Iu, Ls.
'l'he more the brutes rushed upon their own men, the
weater struggl e they made amongst them amongst the ene-

1 !)

170

OBJECTIVE l'ItOPERTIES.

mies, by as much as their consternation was greater than th
power of their riders to govern them.-In.
e
TJrn ~espondcnt, however, is the cause, by not ndmittino
some thrngs, yet ~d~1itting su ch as these, wl1crcfore it is clea~
that w~ must not snmlarly reprehend queries and arguments.-

OWEN S

0RGANON OF ARISTOTLE.

Some indeed solve this sophism in another way; for if tho
respondent grants that he is able to do so, they say it does
not happen, that he who does not play plays, for he docs
not ~r~nt that he does it in whatever way it is possible.
nor IS It ~h~ same thing to say as it i's possible, and in what~
ever way it is possible to do it.- In.

CHAPTER VI.
OBJECTIVE

§ 156. Tim
1.
2.
3.

PltOPER1'IES.

OnJECTIVE PROPERTIES are:

CLEARNESS·
ENERGY'

'

'

ELEG ANCE.

15 7. CLEARNESS requires first that . r
.§
.
'
,
p1 eierence be
given to grammatica1 words.
To Anglo-Saxon words· '
To unequivocal words· '

'

To simple a?d specific words in distinction from such
as more generic.
The following passages from one of Jeremy 'l'aybr's
mon
·
·
•
ser
s, are Ill VIO 1atwn of this principle of cl'3arnesR:

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

171 ·

. '" Whereas our constitution is weak, our souls apt to dimi·
nution and impedite faculties, God hath provided for every
· :·condition rare suppletories of comfort and usefulness.
Who was it that discerned our persons from the lot of
dying chrysoms ?

§ 158. CLEARNESS requires, in the second place, that
the images or pictures by which the thought is pre·
sented, be familiar and intelligible.
_The following sentences are faulty in this respect:
No man goes about to poison a poor m.a n's pitcher, nor
lays plots to forage his little garden, made for the hospital
of two bee-hives, and the feasting of Pythagorean herb-eaters.
The fathers and the children, the benefactors and the
beneficiary, shall knit the wreath, and bind each other in
the eternal inclosures and circlings of immortality.

§ 159. CLEARNESS requires, in the third place, that the
thought be presented completely, and be held up sufficiently long before the mind to be thoroughly understood.
§ 160. CLEARNESS requires, in the fourth place, that,
in the relation of the parts of the sentence, 1. The
relative words be prnperly placerl;
2. That the different members of the sentence be
placed in due order and connection;
3. That parenthetical clauses be introduced ,w ith
care and judgment.
'l'he classes of relative words, in the use of which there
is a special liability to offenses against clearness. are:
1. Prepositions;
2. Adverbs;
3. Pronouns.

172

OBrnCTIVE PROPERTIES.

')EJECTI VE rn.o r mtTIES.

E xam11lrs." TI18 t own
. s of' I-,· 1·oven cc, L :rn g ueLfo c, and
.
,, •
Aque t:u ne, m stead of " The town s of Provc1H'C, of J,::mg ued.oc, nnd ~f Aque tainc," as the to11·11 R of each of' those
provrn ces are rntended.
"'Ye do th ose thin gs frerp1 c111l y, wl1i eh ,rn repe nt of' af'terward ;" in stead oJ; "'Ye fr equcnt.ly d o, e lu. "
. '.'It h as not a word, say s Pope, bu t what the auth or reli g1ously tl1ink s in it;" in stead of, " It Las not a word in it
but wha t, etc."
'
."In 1653, all th ese p nr ties had snecess il'c ly :1ppeared :ind
faded; they appea r at lea st to liu 'Vc tli o11g lit so, and t he publi c
wa s s ~re of it." This se nten ce is susceptible of three diffe rent
rn eanrn gs,. a~c ordin g ~s the a dverbial clau se, " a t leas t," is
taken to lumt the subject, " they," the ve rb " nppear," or "to
have thought."

"'.I'..1 y , b oweve'., w1uc
· ll

WI']I

suffice to let thee disce rn thy own
capaci ty , and wrll be a likely mc:rn s to mak e th ee willin a
.how [oar ~h ou earnit understnncl and t rn cc the wa y, comp!;~
111 g wi th it at Jen.R t ns rcaso 11 aLl c, \rh c n lcatl s to thi s bl cs~ cdn css."
·
E x 1rn.crnEs ON Trrn Prw Pmnv OF C r.1·:A1tN 1<:ss .

I must be fo rg ive n if t hi;; s fr <111 gc: r h as nof. rccc il'c d all ownn ce fr om rn c, place d in thcf'c Lryin g circ11111 st.a11 ec::<, and surrounded by eve ry thin g that can pe rpl ex and dis tra ct..
Sextus the Fomth wa s, if I mistake not, a g reat co ll ector
of books at least.
By d oin g the same thing , it often beco m es l1abi t11 nl.
N or <l ocH thi s fal se moclcsty expose U R onl y t.o s uch act.ions
ns are indiscree t, but ver y often to such as arc hi a hl y crim0
inal.
. And sin ce it is necessary th at there sh ould be a perpetual
rnterco ursc of lmyi11g antl se llin g, aml dealin g up on crcclit,
wh ere fraud is permit te d or co nni ved a t. nr 11 :1th no law to

1

173

punish it, the honest dealer is always undone, and the knave .
gets_the advantage.
The knig ht, seeing his lrnbitation reduced to so small a
.compass, and himself in a mann er shut out of his own house,
upon the death of his moth er, ordered all the apartments to
be flung open and exorcised by his chaplain.
·
They were both more ancient among the Persians than
Zoroaster or Zerdusht.
That temperamental di g notions, and conjecture of prevalent humors may be. coll ected from spots in our nails, we
are not averse to concede.
Of lower con sideration is the common foretelling of strangers from . the fungous parcel about the wicks of candles ;
which only signifieth a moist and pluvious air about thetJl,
hindering the avolation of the light a nd favillous particles. ·
I cross to the north of France, to the free towns of Flanders, to those on th e banks of the Rhine, and belonging to
the Hanseatic L engue.
The descripti o n Ovid g ives of his situation, in that first
period of his existence, seems, some poetical embellishments
excepted, such as, were we to reason a p1·iori, we should conclude he was placed in.
·when a man declnres in autumn, that he is eating them,
or in spring when there are none, that he loves grapes . .
Nor does this fal se morlesty expose us 'o nly to such actions
as are indiscreet, but very often to such as are highly criminal.
If he was not th e greatest king, he was tlie best actor of
majesty at least, that ever filled a throne.
The laws of nature are, truly, what Lord Bacon styles his
nphorisms, laws of laws. Civil laws are always imperfect,
and often fal se deduction s from the m or application s of them;
nay, they stnn<l, in many instances, in direct opposition to
them.

174

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

We nowliere meet ' tl
in nature th·m wl1·1t ~WI I a J~1ore sp lendid or i1lcasing show
t I
..
' '
, uppears 111 th e he· ,
setting of the sun
.
.
·
,n ens a t ie n srng and
ent stains of lio·];t wl;;cl~ isl wholly made up of those differ·1r •
•
• o
' in s iow themselves in clouds of
d111e1ent s1tuat.ion.
a

ru!~~:uon,

the so.n of David, who built the templ e at Je
' was the ucl1est mon ·1rch that e
.
Jewish people.
'
ver reig ned over the
l\I
't' r. Dryden makes a v ery ]rnn dsome observation on
·d'
wn mg a letter from D'<l t JE .
v1 s
'.l'his w k. .
I o o
• nea s in the followirw0 words
•
or m its full extent beinn·
'·
asthma and find'
ti
'
. o now af111cted with an
h l '
rn g ie powers of life grad ually declinin
e Ia~ no longer courage to undertake.
g,
It is folly
to
p
.
t
d
t
re en
o arm ourselves rwain st tl
.
.
·
o
ie acc1dents of life by h
protect us a~ainst ;:rt~~ ;~o~reasm~~· which nothing can
Father. .
'
prov1 ence of our heavenly

o

God 11eapeth favors
l·
He atoned for th on -~s servants. ever liberal and faithful.
.
e mm er of an rnnoccnt son b th
cut10n, perhaps, of a guilty wife.
y e exeHe conjured the Senate that tl
.
not be stained by the bloo'd '
ief pun~y of 11is reign might
The
.
even o a gmlty Senator.
y we1 e . summoned occasional! b ti . k'
comrJelled by ti ·
' · Y Y ieu· rngs, when
ie1r wants and by ti · . i'
to their 'd
ien i oes to have reco urse
aJ •

Th a~, objectively, the excellency of the

. ·'t I
bcrng, and, sulojcctivcl th . . . . .
sp11' u~ . p:nt of
probation is th e hi j ·t
yd, 1 c 11~1 tl1111 css of sp1ntual ap'
g ies goo , t iere is at one
·
.
c g ive n a gro und
for the ultimate rule f J'll
should be h:ld .
~ .1.c, ~1z.: tlint all voluntary action
lll su o1drnat10n to the dignit.y of the rationnl sp irit.
Ota

fo r eac11 must ha.Ye rc forc 1wc to
'
. Thus. the maxim

11· . I
..
IR 1 e at ion s wit 11 all nud
.
, ' '
110 man urny Le nllowe<l to t:1ke f . l.
maxun such as co uld not admit th:::t it mi g ht be univ:1'.sa:.1~

175

{ know that all words which are signs of complex ideas
furnish matter of mistake and cavil.
I have long since learned to like nothing but what you do.
.. The lecture was well attended and generally interesting.
He that makes a jest of the words of Scripture, or of
l:!oly things, plays with thunder, and kisses the mouth of a
cannon just as it belches fire and death ; he stakes heaven at
spurn-point, and trips cross and pile whet.her ever he shall
sec the face of God or no.
He· who means to win souls and prevail to his brother's
institution, must, as St. Paul did, effiginte and conform himself to those circumstances of living and discourse, by which
he may prevail on the persuasions, by complying with the
iffections and usages of men.
But as the term in this signification has been employed
recently, rarely, abusively, and without imposing authority,
I shall discount it.
Ice is only water congealed by the frigidity of the air,
' whereby it acquireth no new form, but rather a consistence
or determination of its diffiuency, and admitteth not its
essence, but condition of its fluidity. Neither doth there
anything properly conglaciate but water, or watery humidity; for the determination of quicksilver is properly fixation,
that of milk coagulation, and that of oil and unctuous bodies
only incrassa.tion.
Circles and right lines limit and close all bodies, and the
mortal right-lined circle must conclude and shut up all.

§ 161.

ENERGY is either PROPER or FIGURATIVE.

PROPEH ENERGY is secured to style in accordance

with tho other properties;
FrnUilATIVE ENERGY,

by

a greater or less dev:ation

from them.

l

170

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

OBJECTIVE PROPEltTIES.

'l'bose two boys appear to be both equal in capacity.
Whenever h e sees me he alw ays inquires concerning n.i~

S 162.

P1t0rmi ENERGY requires,
I. In r espect to the kind of words used that
l.Ang
I oS axon words ho preferred to others
'''
2. W?rds of national and popular use Lo preferred
t) barbansms ,· and '
0 • 1'he m01·e spec1'fi c to the more generic and abstract.
II. In respect to the number of words that no more
words than are consisten t with clearness, be introduced
and tlrn.t un exprossive epithets and all r cdundandos of
expression Le excluded.
III. In respect to the arrangement of the parts of
the sentence, that,
~· Unit! be preserved by the admission of but one
leadmg subject ;
. 2. 'l'h a~ the lea ding words and members Le placed
~n the lea:lml? parts of th e sentence, which is generally
m the begmn mg and the end ;
3. That the r elate d words or members be pl"c d
f
b .
. .
.
.• e ' so
.ar as m.ay e, m prox1m1ty with each other, and in cor1 espondmg parts of the sentence.
EXERCISES ON 'l'HE PROPERTY OF ENERGY.

Point out the several faults ag.·11'11st energy Ill
. the follow.
rng extracts ..
~h ey have forgot th~ a~pre hen s i o n of mortality.
'lhey could, t~m s, enJoyrng the fame of th eir passed flclvcs
make, accurnulat1on
of glory unto tl1e1'1· ]·1st
. t'I O ll S
'
.
• <l llla
·
I
·
·
.
·
I ,t ts six months :wo
1
"' flrnce pate a v1s1t to my relati ons.

'Ihe rea s.on why he acted in the mann er he did, was not
fully exp larne<l.
If I mistake not, I think he is improve<l both Ill know].
edge and behavic:n-.

177

friends.
. . The reason of his sudden departure was on account of the
case not admitting of delay.
That Jiscovery is now univer~a lly acknowled ged by ~ll tlrn
. inquirers into natural philosophy.
How many are there, by whom these tidings of good news
were never h eard.
This measure may afford some profit, and furnish some
amusement.
·whereas, on the other hand, supposing that secrecy had
been enjoined, his conduct was very culpable.
Less capacity is required for this business, but more time
is necessary.
I shall, in the first place, begin with remarking the defects,
and shall then proceed afterward to describe the excellence~
.

of this plan of education.
And Philip the Fourth was obliged, at last, to conclude
a peace, on terms repugnant to his i,nclination, to that
of his , people, and to that of all Europe, in the Pyrenean
treaty.
Every one that puts on the appearance of goodnesst is not
good.
We came to our journey's end at last with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad
weather.
'fhought and language act and react upon each other mutually.
By a multiplicity and variety of words, the thoughts anJ
sentiments are not set off and nccommodated; but like Dav id
dressed out an d equipped in Saul' s armor, they are encu m·
bered and oppr essed.
I went hom e full of a great many se rious impressions.

178

ODJEC'l'lVF,

PROI>ERTIES .

fo lJJi8 Ull easy R(a te both of Jiis pul_;Ji e Dlld private Jifc,
Ci cero was opp ressed by a new am] tlccp aJll idiu n-tlie death
of his beloved daug hter Tullin, whi ch happened soon after
her divorce from Dolabe lla; whose mau1H1rs and humors were
entirely disag reeabl e to her.
\Vith Cicero's writings these persons :ire more co nnrsant
than with th ose of De mos th enes, 11ho, Ly many degrees, excel led the other, at least us an orator.
\Ve shall examine each at forge, in its own order.
Not merely that civil authority is useful , is it, therefore,
vencra ble.
It will not be difficult to multiply many m ost perplexing
cases of casuistry.
The nearer to the excellency of tlie s11irit stands the right
which has been invaded, so is the perso nality the more dishonored, and the vice of grea ter enormity.

In the Attic com monwealth it was the privil ege and birth.
right of every citizen and poet to rail aloud, a nd iu public.
'Vhen black-browed night lier dus ky mantle spread,
And wrapt in solemn g loo m the sable s ky;
vV.fleu soothing sleep her opiate dews had shed,
And sea led in silken slumbers every eye :
l\fy wakeful thoughts adlllit nu b:ilmy rest,
Nor the swee t bliss of soft olili vion share·
But watchful woe distrac ts my aching breast,'
My hea rt the subject of co rro<ling care.
l?rom haunts of men with wnndering steps and slow,
I solitary steal, an<l soothe my pen sive woe .

§ 163.

ENERGY is founded either
1. On the kind and num her of words employed;
2. On th e n~pr csc ntati ve image ry; or,
3. On the s tru cture of th e sclltence.
FrnUitATIVE

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES .

·~-ii~-

ene~·gy

179

§ 1G4. 'l' hose forms of figurntirn
llcpcntling
on the kind of wortls employed, arc dcnomrnatcd TRorE_s.
- · A TROPE may be defined to be a word employed m
· · · a different import from that which properly belongs to
. . it.

§ 165. SIMPLE 'TROPES are founded on dir ect resemblance of properties; as " t h e grave " £or " dea tlL "
METAPHORS are Tropes founded on resemblance of relations ; as "growling winds." There is no r esemblance
betwe en the prop erti es of ""·inds," and those of
"wolves ·" but the noise of the former is, in its relation to ~he mind-in its effect, like the growling of
wolves.

§ 166. Simple 1'ropes are of two kinds:
1. The SYNECDOCHE, wh en the objects compared
... differ in degree, as "Cicero" for " orator."
2. The METONYMY, where - they differ in kind; as
"the father of Jupiter," for " Saturn."

§ 167. Figurative energy as depending on the number of words, consists either,
1. In a repetition of certain words not require~ in .
'the ordinary form of expression, as " ~hey may fa1r!y
• be considered to have made a great discovery; a discovery the more creditable, etc.;" or,
.
2. In an omission of words usually reqmred; as
"Who would be free, themselves must strike the
blow" in which sentence, the antece dent of " wh"
o
and ~ubject of the verb "must strike," is omitted.

§ 168. Figurative energy as dependiug on the rep·
res entative imagery, includes,

180

OBJE CTIVE J>ROPEHTIES.
OBJECTIVE PHOPEH:rrns.

1. 'l'hose fi g u res '",, J11° c]1 con s1s
· t m
· a ch a nge of the
obj ect, or of i ts r elati on s ;

2. Those whi ch con s is t in r esemblan ce or contrast.
3. '.l'hose whi ch consi8t in a ch a nge fr om tho . 1'.•
n a r y 1 <l ' f
. .
OlC 1
. n o e o cxp1 essrn g t he mou tal e o11 tli t io11 of th
sp eak er.
e

!:; I fiD . Tl1e
e J11dcs,

rll'.S t

c l'!'Jl l'('SC!Jt··1t 1'\' (' f'
·
"· •
• 1g 11rc•s m-

Ot
·

l. Y1.c.; 111:-;, in 11lticlt a rr,11 11 it(' o l'.j1 ·rt ic: l'l']1rc.~1·11tcil
\I l'l'I' ('I ii I c·1 · I ('1 1
11
I 1
'.1s. ·r·
I
•
I' lll:1rc IC!
.
1 11111 :1 ril ( ..1· 1T] 1'.1· ·!'it(
.,
_) · II(' ·'..l'I·.'I.. .'S J'J
', ;i(.1c;1.
·
.
2. P 1:m::11'-: 1F1c \T r ,,,. ·
'.
i . ., . ,.. , · · ·· · . IJ.'' lll 11 1llG 1t a u rn a 1111na te oli jcct
s l <pt u:;eultc<l as ~t l1n uir I1 c i11 U'_ . ·is" (Jl l .
·1· "
o
II .
·o
.-, ' • "
l OGc: 111 s m1 cs.
c> ••. . YPEIU:UL I':, in which Lite oJi_jccL is l'< 'J11·1·;:r nted ·1 ~
mri o-rnfic l
· 1· · · ·]
-.
· "'
o
l o1 l rn11 n1o; ice! bcvo nd rc:il itv. n"" I ... 1 .·
J. f
.;
.J ' ' " '
f', \ \\ t ll' 11'
r: 11r ' tall :1.s a rock uf ice. l1is R]_ir ·lr Ilic j ' .. I .
I. l1
j
· ·
'
' '
' '
11 , 11.'-' S 1ll' (
IC l'Villp; lllll i!f l. ..

c.:

·t~)

'J '

L ·;-) . '\· . . lie ii1,c1>11d cl:iss of

.

rc11rc·s<•11t·1t1'1· c

'

.

.·

· · ·
1111:1•q•q
c111g f,:1111dcil Oil l'C SClllbla1 1cu or dilfore11r1• . itll'l111l1<co .,

.C u.\1~·,u;.fovi~ l'iw.Pm~ a nd tlt e ::-i 1 ~1n.r, i11 irlticlt
obj e ct IS . r~preson tcd t hrou g h th e pro p crt-ics or re I a t10ns of s11mlar b · . t
.
·
. o .J CC s, ca11 Cl1 r.ompan.wn J11'0')Jcr,
w Iie n th e r epresent
'
!
b'
t
·
C l O ' J CC
is ]Wese nted ns ] . .1·
a "Tl
. ·
·
· · r .Ht nO" .
.s
- ic v oi ce of ba t tl e was as " ·li e n t l1 e t-li1111d 0r rn l~. l:
i n l cal
t
"
.1
·'
. ' ~ ' e c. ;-- a nu tlt c simile wh en t.!1 0 n ' 1wr.s011h f .
ulJj cc t l S p rcscJt Lcd as lc"tdi11 1r · •rn "'I'l
· J n r,
. .. .
,,
,. ., ' ""'
10 r :11n >rats
l iu1
d' th e t h un der r oll s in })C a ls S I .
1
of b a t tl e ."
. " ,
uc I "a s t ic n oise
L1

t~

4. ~he ALLUSION, whi ch differs from the compari·
son prop er, in its r eferring to some his torical obj ect.

§ 171. The third class of r epre s e nta tive fig ures, in
which tho m e ntal con~iti on of the s peaker is r ep resented
as chnng-0rl , inrln r10s ,

J
C flS .'<

:1" 11 resr·1
t •• ,.) >. " I I ..
r·
I.' 11 1·r ·1 · .~
. . .l

t

181

l.

2. C o NTHAS T, in 1d1i ch Ll1 c 1ir1i n ts of difl'1 ·1c11 co i u .
stead of r esc rnliln.n cP ns i ,
.. .
.
11
'
n COlll J!·ll IS Ull) are JH CSe ll tee! .
3. 'Ih e Ar,r,m;o11Y.·· wl1i ch is' hn t· •nn c'·tr1
1 l . ·1
·'
I< CL Sl! l!l l! .

] . 1'1t0Sul'ul'u;1A, in 1Ylticlt the speaker pcrsutwLe s
another; as 11h c n Uicoro represent:-; hirn ;:; clf :is J\lilo,
nrnl f4:tys, "Attc u il, I pra.y, hearken , 0 eitize11s; I l1:we
kilkil l'ulJl i11s Cl"di 1 1.~, etc."

:2.

Al'uSTIWl'lll~,

in wl1ieh tltc speaker turn s from

his pro]'Cl' henrer nnd arldresscs some oilier person ,
wh ether prese n t in renlity or 0 11 ly in illlagination; as
when C icero t urns from t lt e Sen:itc , wl1iclt lie was ndto C a tiline ;1s if lie were prc.~e n t: "H, now,

rlrC's<> i n~ ,

C: dilill('. l c; ho11ld ordn ,Yon, l'lc .' '
)\. ! Hn 'IY. in wli i1,lt the sp,. :1k<·r expn'"""" m fo r m ,
t/1c \'(~['_)' OjljlO Si lP of ]1is Jl\ l' :Jll i11 ,c_;; :J.~ " Jj 11 f \YC }i;\\('
a ri g ltt

t1i

tax

A m er ica .

() i11c.~li111 :1lil c riglit !

0

won de rfu l, t,rn n sccndent right ! etc .'·
4. DoUJJT, in wh ich t h e speaker r ep r ese n ts in the
forrn of d oub t , his strongest co n vict ion: ns "I know
n o t which way to turn myself. Sha ll I de n y? etc."
5. INTERROGAT IO N, in whic h co n fi<l on t asse r tion is
pre s e nted in th e fo r m of inri11iry or de m arnl; ns, "Have
any alarm s b ee n occasione ll by t h o c rn nn e ip ation of our
Catl10lic ]Jr eth ren? Has t l1e l>igotcd ma li gnity of any
indivitl uals been cr1Jshed ?"

§ l 72. Tho se fo rm s of fig n rntive e n ergy which de·
pc n il

0 11

t h e str uct u re of the se n te n ce, respect either

l. T llf' or de r nrnl connecti fl n of t l1e p ;1r ts; as

182

183

OJJJECTIVE l'llOPEitTIES.

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

. a. INVERSION, in which the regular syntadicnl order
rs changed; as '' FaJlen is the arm of hattlc ;" nnrl
b. ANACOLUTIION, in which the form with wl1i ch the
sentence was begun, is cha11gcd to one which is not by
orinciplcs of syntax, compatible 1tith it; or,
'
2. The completeness and le11gth of tlte sentence, as
a. ArosrorEsrs, in which the spcn kcr suppresses
what he seems :ibout to i1ttcr; as "0 thou-bv "·Jrnt
name can I properly call thee?" and
.,
b. S1rnTENTIOU SNESS , w!ti Glt eo 11 sisl.s in lncal<ing up
the flow of thought iHto short, fr ag rneutary se ntences
through the eruptive violence of the speaker's feelings'.

Dermid and Oscar were one ; they reaped the battle:;
together. Their friendship was strong as their steel; and
death walked between them to the field.
An impious mortal gave the daring wound .
And the merry bells ring round,
And the jocund rebecks sound.
Why peep your coward swords half out. their shells?
Whose hunger has not tasted food the:oe three days.
The jovial wine ·went round.
thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mount·
Youth and beauty shall be laid in the dust.

~XEllCISES ON RI-rnTOllICAL FrnurrEs.

Na.me tho fignrm; in the followin g p:1~"'1gcs.
Sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, shades the sou l of Clessarnmor.
As roll a t.l1011sa11tl waves lo a rock, so Swaran's host
rame on.
Go , bind thou up yon clanrrlinaapricots'· ,
•':>
,.,,
·w hich, like unruly chihlrcn, make th eir sire
St.oop wilh oppression of their prodigal weight:
Give some supportance to the bendi11g twigs.
Go thou, and like an executioner
Cut off the heads of too-fast-grnwing sprays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth;
All must be even in our govornmPnt.
The stormy wind is bid; bnt the billows i:;t.ill treml•lc oc
the deep , and seem to foar the blast.

Or have ye chosen this place
After the toils of battle, to repose
Your wearied virtue.
Cool age advances, venerably wise.
Thy growing virtues justified my cares,
And promised comfo1•t to my Rilvcr hairs.
·write, my Queen,
And with my eyes I '11 drink the words you send.
_
Mrecenas, the great ornament and pillar of my State.
Often met their eyes of love, and happy were their worde

in secret.
The people's prayer, the glad diviner's theme;
The young men's vi~ion, and the old men's dream.
Her voice is but the shadow of a sound.

I h ave seen
'l'I ie

am 1
.-n. t',rnus

ocean swe 11 , and rage, and foam,
To he exa lted witl1 the threate nin g clouds.

Silver and gold have I none.
Among many nations th ere waR no king like Solomon.

I

'

184

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES •

OJJ,JECTIVE PIWPEitTIES.

. :he enemy. said, I will pursue; I will overtake; I will.
dn I~e the spoil; my revenge shall be satiated upon them.
I will draw
shall
. my sword.' my h~nd
"
· d cs troy t] rnm ; t h ou' .
blewest with thy breath; the sea covered them. they sank
as lead in the mighty waters.
'
Streaming grief his faded cheek bcdcwed.
Advance, then, ye future generations. We would
ou
· m
· your long succession to fill th
1
Y . , has you nse
'
e paces
wh tc we now fill
.
• '. 'and t 0 t as te ti·JC bl essrngs
of existence .
where we are. passrng and soon shall have passed our ow~
human durat10n. vVe bid you welcome to this leasant
land of the fathers .
p

In like. manner, liberty herself, the last and best gift of
God to his creatures, must be taken just as she is. You
~ay pare her down into bashful regularity, and shape her
rnto. a perfect model of severe scrupulous law; but she will
be liberty no longer.
~he clouds rejoice in thy presence, 0 morn I they brighten
theu dark-brown sides.
~he oar is sto~ped at once; he panted on the rock and
~xpued.
What is thy grief, 0 Daura ! when round thy feet
is
poured
thy
brother's blood · The boat
· t warn.
·
A
' i's broken rn
. rmar plunges into the sea, to rescue his Daura, or die.
Sudden a blast from the hill came over the waves. He
sunk, and he rose no more.

Gone is mY s t reng th m
· war I fallen my pride among
women I
The so~rces of the noblest rivers, which spread fertility
over cont111culs, aud Lear richly-laden fleets to the sea are
to be sought. in wild and harrc~u muuutniu tradf', incurr~ctly

185

down in maps, and rarely explored by travelers. To
·~ such a tract, the history of our country during the thirteenth
·.. century, may not unapUy be compared.
To be nameless in worthy deeds, exceeds an infamous
.history. 'fhe Canaanitish woman lives more happily with.
' out a name, than Herodias with one. And who would not
: rather have been the good thief, than Pilate?
'

But so have I seen the sun kiss the frozen earth, which
: was bound up with the images of death, and the colder
.- breath of the north : and then the waters break from their
~- \nelosures, and melt with joy, and run in useful channels;
· and the flies do rise again from their little graves in walls,
; - and dance a while in the air, to tell that there is joy withii1,
and that the great mother of creatures will open the stock
of her new refreshment, become useful to mankind, and sing
praises to her Redeemer: so is the heart of a sorrowful
man under the discourses of a wise comforter; he breaks
from the despairs of the grave, and the fetters and chains
of sorrow ; he blesses God, and he blesses thee.
1
The whole SJ!iritual universe is split and shattered by the
hand of Atheism, into countless quicksilver points of individual existences, which twinkle, melt into one another, and
wander about, meet and part, without unity and consistency .
:N' o one is so much alone in the universe as the denier of
God, with an orphaned heart, which has lost the greatest
., of fathers ; he stands mourning by the immeasurable corpse
of nature, no longer moved or sustained by the spirit of the
universe, but growing in its grave; and he mourns, until he
himself crumbles away from the dead body.
)Vhat ·could compensate us for our dreams, which bear us
!\Way fn'm beneath the roar of the waterfall into the mount•

16

I

II

186

OBJECTIVE T'ROP rmTJES .

ain-hights of childho od, wh ere th e stream of lifr, yet eilenl
in its little plain, and a mirror of heaven , fl owe d to ward its
tircci pices.
But let me ask you, in the::;e Inst few dayH, what have you
not attempted? 'Vhat have you left nnYi ul:11cll? Hy " ·h:1t
name shall I 11ow adllress yon? Shall I c:dl you rnl<licrs?
Soldiers! wh o have dared to besiege tl1c so11 of yuu r emperor! Can I c:ill you citizens? Citizens I who have tram pled under foot the authority of the senate.
Discord, di scord is the ruin of this city. What motive,
then, could have such influence in their bosom? Wh at
motive? 'l'hat which nature, the comm on parent, plauts in
the bosom of man.
In runnin g the mind along the numerous list of sincere
and devout Christians, I can not help lnmenting that Newton had not lived to this clay, to have had his shallowness
filled up with this new flood of light.
But if a man were present now at a field of slaughter,
and were to inquire for what they were fi g hting; "Fighting !" would be the an swer, "they are not fi ghtin g; they
are pausin g" vVh y is that man expiring'? Why is that
other writhing with ago ny? 'Vha.t mean s this implacable·
fury?" The an swer mu st be: "Yon arc quite wrong, sir;
you deceive yo urse lf; they are not lighting; do uot di sturb
them; they are merely pausing I"
I can tell hi1i1, sir, that Ma ssachusetts and her people of
all classes, hold him, and his love, and his veneration, and
Lis speeches and his principles, and his standard of truth in
utter-what shall I say ?-anything but respect.
King .Jrim es is evidently worthy of being enrolled in that

187

OBJECTIVE PROP ERTIES.

little cor.stcllation of remote, but ne ve r-failin g luminarieE
who shine in the highest fir mament of literature, and who,
like the morning stars, sring together at the dawn ing of
. British poetry.
An ambition to have a place in th e registers of fame, is the
Eurystheus which imposes heroic labors on the human mind.
Short-lived, indeed , was Irish independence.
cradle; I followed her hearse.

I sat by her

§ 173. In using rhetorical figures, the following rules
are to be observed:
1. They should be introduced only when the feelings
prompt.
2. They should not be too frequently repeated.
3. When used, they should be in conformity with
their own laws.
4. They should always be congruous and consistent
with themselves.
5. They should be suitable to the thought which
they represent.
EXERCISES IN THE USE OF RHETORICAL FIGURES.

Point out the faults in the following figures:
He can not buckle his distempered cause
Within the belt of rule.
We '11 make foul weather with despised ·tears:
Our sighs, and they, shall lodge the summer-com,
And make a dearth in this revolting land.
There is a time when factions, by the vehemence of theh
own fermentation, stun and disable one another.

•
188

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

Meantime his father, now no father, stood
And dried his wounds by Tiber's yellow flood.

But so it happen~ in the mud and slime of the river Ilorbor!ls, when the eye of the sun hath long dwelt on it, and
produces frogs and mice, which begin to move a little under
n thin cover of its own parental matter, and if they can get
·loose, to live half a life, that is all ; but the hin\].er parts,
which are not formc<l before the setting of the sun, stick
fast in the beds of mud, and the little moiety of a creaturo
dies before it could be well said to live : HO it is with those
Christians, who will do all that they think lawful, and will
do no more thnn what they suppose necessary; they <lo but
peep into the light of the Sun of righteousness; they have
the beginnings of life; but their hinder parts, their passions
and affections, and the desires of the lower man are still unformed; and he that dwells in this state, is just so much of
a Christian ns a sponge i,; of a phnt, and a mushroom of a
shrub; they may be as sensible as an oyster, and discourse at
the rate of a child, but arc greatly short of the righteousness
evangelical.

l\fy bleeding bosom sickens at the sound.

.i
·-:1
·I

I
,I

While his keen falchion drin kR the wnrrior's Jives ,
A various sweetness swells the ge ntle race.
A sober calm fleeces unbounded et.her .

. I

,/

189

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

The humid sweat from every pore descends.
As when the piercing blasts of Borca:-; blow.
There is not a single view of human nature "·hich 1s not
sufficient, to extinguish the seeds of pride.
Hope, 1he halm of life, darts a ray of light tl1rough the
thickest gloom.
Since the time that reason began to bud, and put forth
her shoots, thought, during our 11aking h our8, l1as Leen actiYe
Ill every Lrenst, without. a moment's s11Ppcn"i~l! 1 nr p:rnse.
The current of idens has been nhrnys rnoyi11g . The wheels
of the Rpiri tunl engine have excrt~d thcm ~f' h-es with perpetual motion.
For, as the sun makes violent and direct cmiRsions of his
rays from himself, but reflects them no tint.her than to the
bottom of a cloud , or the lowest imn ginnry cirulc of the
middle region, and, therefore, receives not a <luplic.:ate of his
own heat, so is the soul of man ; it reflects on its ow 11 inferior actions of particular sense or general und ersta ndin g;
but because it knows little of its own nature, above half its
pleasures are abated, and its own worth less understood,
My tears arc the soouer dried up when they run on my
friend's checks in the furrows of compassion.

Only a sweet and virtuous soul,
Like sensoncd tim bc r never gi\·cs;
But, though the whole world turn to coal,
Then chiefly lives.
He laid down his arms, a11J with three touches, flew boldly
over the uppermost octave of the stairs down to the countcrbase touch, or step.

§ 174.

ELEGANCE

in style embraces three elements:

1.

PROPRIETY;

2.
3.

EXPRESSION OF RIGHT SENTIMENT;
GRACE.

'![

I!!

lI i'
'

190

§ 175.

OBJECTIVE PllOl)ERTIES.
RIIETORICAL PROPIUETY

requires,

1. A just expression of the properties of style al·
ready enumerated;
2. A symmetry and congruity in the parts of the
discourse;

3. An adaptation of the verbal expression to the
character of the theme ·
'
4. The observance of a general decorum in reference to the character of the writer, arn:l the object and
occasion of writing.

§ 176. '.1'1rn EXPRESSION OF HIGHT SENTIJl[ENT mvol ves the use of such representative imagery in the
exhibition of thought, as is founded on 11igh and pure
<issociations.
§ 177. GRACE is that quality of style which exhibits
ease and freedom of execution, both in the development
of the thought and in the expression in language.
§ 178. Elegance is to be acquired,
1. By general mental culture;
2. By study of principles and models in art and lit-

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

191

Energy respects more directly the feelings, seeking
. a "..v ivid and strong impression on the mind, and should
appear as the result of earnestness and passion in the
speaker;
Elegance respects the imagination and the taste,
. seeking to awaken and gratify the sensibility to the
beautiful, and should be the result of general culture
and refinement.
EXERCISES ON THE PROPERTY OF ELEGANCE.

Point out the faults against elegance in the following passages.
Now for the first time, became formed those gre:it com' by means of alliance, which, at a later period, gave
binations
rise to the system of the balance of power.
Scarcely have fe~dalism, municipal communities, and the
clergy, each taken their distinct place and form, when we
have seen them to approximate, unite, and form themselves
into a general social system.

erature ;
3. By exercise with judicious criticisms.

He bas the right to command what choices we may have,
and not merely what and how we may execute them.

§ 179. Elegance is a property of style not to be dis'Linctly aimed at in writing. It should rather appear as
a result of training and general culture.

Religion is never to be viewed as if it had its end in makinO' men virtuous, nor obedient to human law, and thus that
G~d's government was only a means for making human society more moral and more free; but qnite the other side fore·
most.

§ 180. Of the three objective properties of style,
clearness respects directly the intellect, seeking simply
to secure a correct and ready apprehension of th€
thought, and may be listinctly sought and aimed at in
writing;
1

Such constraint from complete loyalty is alone piety. Not
as a hireling or a slave, but solely with a loyal, trusting, lov·
ing heart, does any obedience satisfy the Divine law.

'

1.

I;
[:

.r
f

11
t

I

.I
\

_,

-·-

"~--

...

192

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

Therefore, something not punishment, but wlii eh, othm
than it, is yet to take the place of it-some substitute for
it is yet to be provided.

' Mr. Liepold appears, at this anniversary dinner, in a new
coat, which for many years past he had been in the habit of
first wearing upon this auspicious day.

H aving been so frequently ovenvl1elmed with her tenrs before I knew th e cause of my aflliction, or could draw defen ses
from my own judgment, I imbibed commiseration, remorse,
and an unmanly gentleness of mind, which has since insnared
me into ten thousand calamities.

I think nothing so terrible as objects of misery, except one
had the godlike attribute of being capable to redress them.

I don't wonder to find more remains here of an age
tant, than is to be found in any other country; t.he
not taking that pains to introduce their own manners,
been generally practiced by other nations that imagine
selves more polite.

Everybody is bound to do diligently all the good they
can.

so dis'J'mks
ns haB
them-

I was at the same age, very near, as wise as you, and yet
I never discovered this, with full evidence and conviction I
mean, till it was too late.
The Ode, though in some respects inferior to what are
called the l1igher species of poetry, yields to none in force,
ardor, and sometimes even in dignity and harmony.
·w hat is it but a kind of rack that forces men to say what
they have no mind to?
I am wonderfully pleased when I meet with any passage
an old Greek or Latin author, that is not blown upon, and
which I have never met with in a quotatio n.

Ill

As the strength of our cause does not depend upon, so
neither is it to be decided by, any critical points of history,
chronology, or language.
Socrates was invited to and Euripides entertained at his
court. ·

'j

I

The parade of it can only serve to draw on her the envy,
and consequently the most inveterate hatred of all he and she
fools, which will certainly be at least three parts in four of
her acquaintance.
'

It was a great mortification to me when my father turned
off my master, having made a considerable progress for the
short term I learned.
Everybody can offer up their prayers for those who need
them.
Nothing is so improving to the temper as the study of the
beauties either of poetry, eloquence, music, or painting.
I do not make the least doubt but you will become a perfect good scholar.
You much overrate the obligation which youth has to those
who have trod the paths of the world before them, for their
friendly advice how to seize, cultivate, and carry forward t-0ward perfection those advantages, graces, virtues, and felicit.ies, which they may have totally missed, or stopped short
in the generous pursuit.

17

::.....

108

The Eas,tern manners give a great light into many Scripture
passages.

-

~

194

195

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

OBJECTIVE PROPERTIES.

He that should steadily and resolutely assig1 to any science.
or language those interstitial vacancies which intervene in the
most crowded variety of diversion or employment., would find
every day new irradiations of knowledge.

I take. This is all the praise or assent that be is capable
of1 yet there are more hours when I would rather bo in his
company than that of the brightest man I know.

Pimps of hideous aspect, whose prurient glance could penetrate through the key-hole of rooms where the rat shared
with the bug the solitude of the deserted place.
The want of order was severely felt and cried out for with
" zeal that would not be said nay.
Christ left his grave-clothes, that we might, when grief
Draws tears or blood, not want a handkerchief.

I am tormented with an everlasting itch for things remote.

A speechlessly quick chaotic bundling of a man into eternity.
In landlessness alone resides the highest truth, indefinite
as the Almighty.
Like a man cut away from the stake, when the fire has overrunningly wasted all the Jim bs, without consuming them or ta~­
ing away one particle from their compacted aged robustness.
Ile does not seem almost to have conceived the possibility,
etc.
He considers that the former afford us a knowledge of
what the corresponding qualities are in themselves.
The poorness of our conceptions is such that it can not forbear setting bounds to everything it contemplates.
I have, indeed, one who smokes with me often; but his
parts are so low that all the incense he does me is to fill
his pipe with me, and to be ont at just as many whiffs as

A severe reprehender of another's vice comes dressed like
. Jacob, when he went to cozen his brother of the blessing;
his outside is "rough and hairy," but "the voice is Jacob's
voice:" rough hands and a healthful language get the blessing, even against the will of him that shall feel it.
The members of a popular government should be continu
ally availed of the situation and condition of every part.
Most of the respectable inhabitants hold commissions rn
the army or government offices, the balance of . the people
kept little shops, cultivated the ground, etc.
These men demand either to be left owners of the soil or
paid for their betterments.
Lord Palmerston was boosted into power by the agricultural interest of England.

It is a common story, and I will tell you all of it I can
think on. But some things perhaps I may disremember.
Although such reverses would seem to fall with crushing
weight upon some of our most substantial citizens, a strong
determination to face the music is everywhere manifested.

In our opinion, America is a dashing, go-ahead, and highly
progressive country, giving by her institutions and enormous
growth the solution of the greatest politi0al problem in the
world.
One may guess by Plato's writings, that his meaning as tc
the inferior deities was, that they who would have them might.

1!16

OBJECTIVE

PROl'Jm: rrn~.

and they who would i1ot might. let th em alone; but that him
self had a right opinion concerning the true God.
The one circumflows and inl1envcns us. The infinite Father
bears us in his bosom, shepherd and flock.

APPENDIX I.

I could discourse lengthily on the names of J ugurtha, Juba,
Syphax, etc.
She untied her hair, then began to twirl tlie ringlets round
her fingers arnl play with them in a coquettish manner, which
she seemed to think mighty killing, for she smiled in evident
self-conceit.
l\lr. Speaker, when I arose on yesterday, it was my intention merely to explain my position.
He, to work him the more mischief, sent over his brother
Edward, with a power of Scots and Redshanks, iuto Ireland,
where they got footing.
To tlie faculty of law was joined a pretty considerable proportion of the faculty of medicine.
A cry was raised for the establishment of a preventative
armed police.
Such are the inconsistencies of a flatterer, progressing from
his butterfly state into the vermicular slime of a libeler.
Spain has obtained a breathing spell of some duration from
the internal convulsions which have through so many years
marred her prosperity.

i

PROSODY.

§ 1. PROSODY treats of the form of Poetry.
§ 2. The regular recurrence of some element consti·
tutes the essence of poetical form.
§ 3.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

This recm'rence may be of several kinds; as of,
Letters, as in ALLITERATION;
Syllables, as in RIIYME;
Measures, as in BLANK Verse;
Sentences, as in HEBREW Poetry;
Stanzas.
·

§ 4. ALLITERATION consists in the recurrence of the
same letter at the beginning of prominent syllables; as,
The abundant Latin then old Latium lastly left.
Alliteration was a leading characteristic of Anglo-Saxon
as of Gothic poetry.
The law of recurrence in Anglo-Saxon was, that the letter
should be at the beginning of two conspicuous syllables in
one line, and of one such syllable in the next. The following exemplification is from "The vision and creed of Piers
Plowman," about the earliest poetical composition . in our
language:
Who is trewe of his tonge,
And telleth noon oother,
And dooth the werkes therwith,
(197)

I

\

198

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

And willneth no man ille,
Ile is a God by the gospel,
A-ground a11d o-loft,
And a-lik to our J,ord,
By Scint Luke's wordcs.
'.l'he Clcrkcs that knmrcn this
Sho!Jc knowcu it aLowte
For cristen and un-cristen
Clcymcth it each one.

§ 5. Runrn is the recurrence of the same sound in
the accented syllables of words at the end of a verse.
Friend of distress I the mourner feels thy aid;
She can not pay thee, but thou wilt be paiJ.

If the recurrence is confined to two verses, they compose
a distich or couplet.
If the recurrence is extended to three verses, they compose a triplet.

But true expression, like the unch:111gi11g sun,
Clears and improYcs wli:ite'cr it ~l1i11cs upon;
It gilJs all oLjccts, but it alters none.

§ 6. A rhyme is perfect when the following elements
concur, viz.:
1. Similarity m the vowel sounds in accl'nlcd sylbl1lcs;

2. Similarity in the consonant soun1b that follow the
vowel, if :my;
3. Diversity m the consonnnt somHtH that precede
the vowel.
Such was the mu se >rl10sc rules aml practice foll
"Nature's chief mnstcr-piccc is writing well ."

199

§ 7. A rhyme is imperfect when any one of the
'tbo~e

enumerated elements is wanting; or when either,
1. 'l'he vowel sounds are dissimilar ; or,
2. The like vowel sounds are either of them not on
any acccntcJ syllable ; or,
3. The vowel sounds arc followed by unlike consonant sounds; or,
4. The vowel sounds are preceded by like consonant sounds.
The following is an instance of the first kind of imperfect
rhymes:
In grave Quintilian's copious work we find
Th~ justest rules and clearest method joined .
'l'his belonas
to what are called allowable rhymes.
0
Of the second kind, the following is an instance :
Horace still charms with graceful neglige nce,
Aud, >vithout method, ta lks us into sense.

Of the third kind, is the following:
Wherefore he bids the squire ride further
To obserYe their numliers and their order.
Of the fourth kind, is the following:
Is plnin enough to him that knows
How ::miuls lca<l Lrothers Ly the nos<.
'l'his to prevent , and other harms
'Vhich always wait on feats of arms .
NoTF..- The h i8 not. reg1nded n& a letter in estimating rhymes.

200

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

§ 8. Rhymes are single when the recurrence of tht
similar sounds is confined to single syllables; as
A void extremes, and shun tlie fault of such
·who still are pleased too little or too mu ch .

§ 9. Rhymes are double when the recurrenc€. of
0imilar sounds is extended to an unaccented, besides the
a.ccented syllable; as
The beaten soldier proves most manful,
That, like his sword, endures the anvil,
And justly 's held more formidable
The more his valor's malleable:
But he that fears a bastinado
'Vill run away from his own shadow.

§ 10. Rhymes are triple when the recurrence is extended to three syllables; as
0 ye immortal gods I what is theogony?
0 thou, too, immortal man I what is philanthropy?
0 world tlrnt was and is! what is cosmogony?
Some people have· accused me of misanthropy,
And yet I know no more than the mahogany
That forms this desk of what they mean : lycanthropy
I comprehend; for without transformation
l\len become wolves on any slight occasion .

§ 11. Rhymes are successive when the recurrence is
m two succeeding verses ; as
But gold defiles with frequent touch,
There's nothing fouls the hands so much .
Rhymes are alternate, when the recurrence is on nltcrnate
syllables; as

201

The heavens invite mine eye,
The stars salute me ro1~nd;
Father, I blush, I mourn to lie
Thus groveling on the ground.
Rhymes are interrupted when separated by more than
one verse ; as
Only the laurel got by peace
No thunder e'er can blast:
The artillery of the skies
Shoots to the earth and dies:
And ever green and flourishing 'twill last,
Nor di pt in blood, nor widows' tears, nor orphan's cries.

§ 12 . .A MEASURE ( = foot) consists of an accented
syllable, with one or more unaccented syllables pronounced with it.
§ 13. The measures or feet chiefly used in English
verse, are either,
1. DISSYLLABIC ; or
2. TRISYLLABIC.

§ 14: Dissyllabic measures are of two kinds: .
1. The IAMBUS, consisting of one· unaccented, and
one accented syllable; as subdue, domain.
2. The TROCHEE, consisting of one accented, and
orie unaccented syllable; as battle.
Trisyllabic measures are of three kinds:
1. The DACTYLE, consisting of one accented, followed by two unaccented syllables; as merrily;
2. The AMPIIIBRACII, consisting of one accented
syllable, preceded and followed by an unaccented syl·
lable; a9 amusing;

fI

202

203

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

3. '.l'he ANAPEST, consisting of two unaccented syl·
lables, followe<l by an accented syllable; as, intervene.

A verse may Le composed also of different kiJH1,,; of
measure, as of anapests au<l ia mbus in the even verses
of the following :

Other measure& occur, but unfrequeutly.
The Freon, consisting of four syllabics, is sometimes used
with a rich expression, as in the following verses, which are
catalectic. It here occurs in the third form, consisting of
an accented syllable, followed by one, and preceded by two
unaccented syllables.
Once to every I man and natiou I comes the moment j to
decide,
In the strife of I truth with false hood, I for the good or I
evil side.
The Rising Ionic measure, also, consisting of two unaccented, followed by two accented syllables, is found in the
following catalectic verse :
There's a good time

I coming,

boys I

Let Erin remember her days of old,
Ere her faithless sons betrayed her,
When l\Ialachi wore the collar of gold,
Which he won from the proud invader.
The early English verse contained two accented syllables,
but. required no rcg~tlar recurrence of similar measures or feet,
nA appears in the extract already given from Piers Plowman,
§ 4.
•

§ 16. A verse is called CATALECTIC when one or more
syllables of the regular law of the verse are omitted at
the end; as,
Pa'le agai'n as de'ath did pro've;
A'nd he chee'red her so'ul with lo've.
Here the last syllable of the final trochee is omitted.

§ 15. A VERSE consists of one or more measures or
feet.
A verse of one measure is called a .M anometer ·
of two measures,
a Dimeter; '
of three,
a 'l'rimeter ;
of four,
a 'l'etrameter ·
of five,
n. Pentameter·'
of six,
an Hexameter.'
There may be, accordingly, Iambic Manometers
Iambic Dimcters, ancl so on ; as also Trochaic, Dactylic, Anapestic, and Amphibrach Monometers, Dimeters,
etc.

§ 17. A verse is called Hyper-catalectic when a syl·
lable is added beyond the law of the verse; as,
Prove and explain n. thing till all men doubt it;
And write about it, Goddess, and about it.
Here the syllable it is added to the regular verse.

§ 18. One measure may be substituted for another
when a like effect on the ear may be produced by the
accentuation.
The iambus and ,the anapest may thus be inter:
change~; or, the trochee and the dactyle.

ii
11

204

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

Dimelers (}atalectic
EXAMPLES OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF VERSE.

IAMBICS.

All, all was luxury I
All must be luxury, where Lyreus smiles.
His locks divine,
\Vere crowned
With a bright meteor braid.
The first of these ven;es is an Iambic Tri meter; the second)
an Iambic Pentameter; the third, an Iambic Dimeter; the
fourth, an lam bic Monometcr; and the last, an Iambic Tetrameter.
I could have wished your souls redoubled in my breast,
To give my verse applause to time's eternal rest.
These two verses are Iambic Hexameters, or Alexandrines.
The Iambic Pentameter is also called llerofr verse. Iambic
~erses of seven and eight feet also occur, but rarely.

TROCHAICS.

Tumult cease
Sink to peace.
Trimeters, Catalectic and Full, Alternating.

Sages can, they say,
Seize the lightning's pinion,
And bring down its ray
From the starred dominion.
Tetrameters, Catalectic and Full.

Vital spark of heavenly flame I
Quit, O quit this mortal frame!
Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying;
O the pain, the bliss of dying.
Pentameters, Full and Catalectic.

Narrowing in to where they sat assembled,
Low voluptuous music winding trembled,
W o~'n in circles; they that heard it sighed,
Panted hand in hand, with faces pale,
Swung the~selves, and in low tones replied.

Monomete1·s.

Turning,
Burning,
Changing,
Hanging
Full of grief ~rnl full of love.
Dimeicrs.

Hope is banished,
,Joys are vanished.

Hexameters.
On a mountain stretched beneath a hoary willow,
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow.
Hcpfametcrs.

Then her cheek was pale and thinner than should be for one
so young,
And her eyes on all my motions with a mute observance
hung.

206

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

Octamcters.
Here's to thee, my Scottish lassie I here's a hearty healtl
to thee,
For thine eye so bright, thy form so light, and thy step sc
firm and free.

Tetrameters, Cata1ectic.
W_arriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword
Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord,
Heed not the corpse, though a king 's in your path,
Bury your steel in the bosoms of Gath.

207

H exameters, Catalectic.
DACTYLICS.

Mono meters.

Fearfully,
Tearfully,
She hastened on our way.
Dimeters, Full and Catalectic.
Fast they come, fast they come,
See how they gather I
Wide waves the eag le pluwc,
Blended with leather.

Cast your blades, draw your blades,
Forward each man set I
Pibroch of Donuil Dhu,
Knell for the onset.
Launch thy bark, mariner I
Christian, God speed thee.
Let loose the rudder-bands;
Good angels leave thee.
T1·imeters, Catalectic.

Peace to thee, isle of the ocean,
Peace to thy breezes and billows.

Loosing bis arms from her waist, he flew upward, awaiting
the sea-beast.
Onward it came from the southward, as bulky and black as
a galley,
Lazily coasting along as the fish fled leaping before it.

AMPHIBRAUR8.

Manometers.
Hearts beating
At meeting;
Tears starting
At parting.
Dimctcrs, Catalectic.

Beside her are laid
Her mattock and spade;
Alone she is there,
Her shoulders are bare.
Di·meters, Full.

But vainly thou warrest;
For this is alone in
Thy power to declare,
'l'hat in the dim forest,
Thou heard'st a low moaning"

1l:

,.

:j' !'

208

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

Trimeters.
A conquest how hard and how glorious·
Though fate had fast bound her
'
'
·w ith Styx nine times around her
Yet music ancl love were victorious. '
'l'hc second and third verses in this selection are amphi
brach dimeters.

20fl

And the wild mountain thyme
All the moorlands perfuming.
Tp,trameters.

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
I
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold;
And the sheen of the spears was like stars on the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.

Tetrameters.

0

young J_,ochinvar is come out of the west.:
Through all the wide border his steeds are the best;
And save his good broadsword, he weapons had none,
He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone.

§ 19. A recurrence of sentences is a peculiarity of
Hebrew poetry, in which couplets of thoughts are ar·
ranged together. It is called P ARALLELISl\L
In the original the parallelism is marked by accents.
Hebrew parallelism is,

ANAPESTIOS.

.iJfonometers.

In a sweet
Resonance,
All their feet
In the dance,
All the night
Twinkled light.

Dimete1·s, Cata lectic.
He is gone on the mountain,
He is lost to the forest,
Like a summer-dried fountain
'
'Vhen our need was the sorest.
Dimeiers, Full and Catalectic.
Now the summer's in prime
With the flowers richly blooming,

1. Synonymous, when the thought is repeated in nearly
the same form; as,
For affliction comes not forth from the dust;
And trouble comes not forth from the ground.

' 2. Antithetic, when an opposition or contrast is express·
ed; as,

A wise son makes a glad father;
But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother.

3. Synthetic, when the thought is expanded or modified.
One thing have I desired of the Lord,
Th at will I seek after :
That I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days of
my life,
To behold the beauty of the Lord,
And to inquire in his temple.

18

210

PROSODY.

PlWSOlJY.

§ 20. 'l'he

STANZA

consists of several verses.

As verses are combined in almost innum erable ways, there
s no definite system of versification by sta nza s.
Certain combinations of verses, however, have gained favor
and received peculiar design atio11s. Such are,
The Spenserian Stanza, which consists of eight heroi cs or
iambic pentameters, and one Alexandrine or iambi c hexameter. The first and third verses rhy1nc; the second, fourth,
fifth, and seventh; and the sixth, eighth, and ninth.
Existence nrny be borne, and the deep root
Of life and sufferance make its firm abode
In bare and desolated bosoms. l\lute
The camel labors with the heaviest load,
And the wolf dies in silence. Not bestowed
In vain should such example be; if they,
Things of ignoble or of savage mood,
Endure and shrink not, we of nobler clay
May temper it to bear; it is but for a day.

'Twas when the sens were roaring
With hollow blasts of wind,
A damsel lay deploring,
All on a rock reclined.
heroic~

Rhymes Royal are stanzas composed of seven heroics; the
first and third, the second, fourth, and fifth, and the two
fast rhyming together.
That thee is sent, receive in luxomness;
The wrestling of this world asketh a fall;
Here is no home, here is but wilderness;
Forth, pilgrim, forth, 0 beast out of thy ~tall;
Look up on high and thank thy God of all;
Waiveth thy lust, and let thy ghost thee lead,
And truth thee shall deliver, 'tis no drede.
Ottava Rima is a stanza of eight he~oic verses, with alternate rhymes, except the last two verses, which are _!luccessive
rhymes.

Gay's Stanza is composed of four verses of inrnbic trimeters, the rhymes being alternate and the odd verses being in
double rhymes.

Elegiac Slanzas consist, of four verses of
pentameters.

211

or iambic

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ;
'The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea;
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world t.o darkness and to me.

Because his love of justice unto all
Is such, he wills his judgment should devour
All who have sin, however great or small,
But good he well remembers to restore.
Nor without justice holy could we call
Him whom I now require you to adore.
All men must make his will their wishes sway,
And quickly and spontaneously obey.

'

The Ballad Stanza consists of four iambic verses in alternate rhymes, the odd verses being tetrameters; the even
verses, trimeters.
Turn, gentle hermit of the dale,
And guide my lonely way
To where yon taper cheers the vale
With hospitable ray.
This is the common meter of sacred lyrics.
The Long ~llfcter Lyric is composed of stanzas of four iambic tetrameters, with either succeasive or alternate rhymes;

'

212

PltOSODY.

PROSODY.

the short meter of four iambic verses, the firnt, seco nd, unc,
fourth trimeters, the third a tetrameter; the I-Iallelu iah meter, of eight iambic verses, the first four of whi ch are t.rimeters, in altern ate rhymes, and the last fonr arc <limctern, lhe
first and fourth vcrRcs being rhyn1 cs, :uul t.lic second :ind tliir<l.
The Sonnet consists of fourteen heroics with interrupted
rhymes.
What varying sounds from yon g ray pinnacles
Sweep o'er the ear and claim the heart's reply I
Now the blithe peal of hom e festivity,
Natal or nuptial , in full co ncer t. ~we lls;
Now the brisk chim e, or voice of altered bells,
Speaks the due hour of social worship nigh;
Ami now the last stage of mortality,
'fhe deep, dull toll with lingerin g warning tells,
How much of hum an life those sounds cornpriseBirth, wedded love, God's service, and the tomb t
Heard not in vain, if th ence kind fee lin gs rise,
Such as befit our being, free from gloom
Mon astic, prayer that communes with the skies,
And musin g!' mindful of t11e final doom.
l\JANT.

213

whatsoe' er the leaves of the broad sycamore made sounds at
noon like lullin~ rain-drops, or the olive boughs cros&ed the
sultry blue of Syria's heaven with their cool dimness, she
. paused that he might res t; yet chased the sleep that weighed
· ·down their 1l:irk fri11ge f'roni her own meek eyeli.ds to sit nnd
watch the crimson deepening, as at a red flower's 11eart, o'er
his cheek 's repose.
Arrange in Balled Stanza the followin g:
Rest thee now, fair spi rit, calm on the bosom of thy God!
His seal was on thy brow e'en while thy footsteps trod with
us. Dust to its narrow house beneath I soul to its place on
high I They may no more fear to die that have seen thy
look in death.
The following may be put into Iambic Tetrameters with
alternate rhymes:
0 thou, my darling child, dear daughter, prop of my mortal
pilgrimage, who hast beguiled care and pain, and wreathed
my wintry age with spring I A scco11d prospect of life opes
through thee, when but to liY e is glee; and jocund joys and
you~hful hopes come thrdngh th ee t_l1r o11 gi ug ~· O my heart.
Construct the following into a sonnet :

EXERCISES IN

V ERSLl<'ICATION.

Compose in hero ics th e following:
The rose on Sharon's plain was rich in bloom when a
young mother went up thence to Zion with her first-born, for
the boy was vowed unto the temple service. She led him by
thE' hand, :rnd her silent soul the while rej oiced, oft as the
dewy laughter of his eye met her Rwcet serious g lan ce, to
think that aught so pure, so beautiful, was hers to bring before her God . So they p:issed on o'er .Judah 's hills; and .

The hope of truth day by day, grows stronger. I bear
the soul of man waking around me, like a great sea breaking its frozen fetters and flin g ing its sunlit spray up to
' heaven, tossing in scornful play huge continents and crushing them with din of grinding thunder that makes old
emptin ess stare in wonder. The memory of a glory passed
away lingers in every heart, as the bygone freedom of the
sea ripples in the shell; and new signs of promise every
our tell that the great. soul shall once again be freEl; fo1

'

I

214

215

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

the murmurs of inward strife for truth and liberty swell high
and yet more high.

Warrior, tlrnt now breathest at set of sun from won battle·
.
'
weeping o'er t]ie lowly slnin on 11is burial-plain; ye
that triumph, ye that Righ, kindred by one holy tie, ye sec
alike heaven's first. star; lift the heart and bend the knee.

NoTE.-'l'he first, fourth, fif1h, nnd eighth; the sccon<l nnd third;
•Joe sixth nnd seventh; t.hc ninth , cl ere nth, nncl tloirtrcnl11 ; nnd t.he
lent.h, the twelfth, nnd the Inst Ycrscs, respectively, nrc in rhyme, in

\:.his sonnet..

Construct the following into Trochaic stanzas of four tetrameter verses, the even verses catalectic, and the rhymes
alternate:
The story of the llonccvallcs' fight is rnd and fearful; many
a gallant knight perished on those fat.al plains of glory .
There fell Durandarte; never verse named a nobler chieftain ; before his lips closed in silence forever, he thus exdaimed:
"O Montesinos, my cousin, now by that firm and dear
friendship which has lived between us from youth, hear my
last petition!
"'Vhen my soul, forsaking t11ese limbs, cager seeks a purer
air, taking the cold heart from my breast, giYe it to llelcrrna's
care.
"Say, I named her possessor of my lands with my dying
breath; say, I oped my lips to bless her ere they closed in
death for aye ."
Montesinos' l1eart was sad; he felt distress rend his bosom.
"0 Durandartc, my cousin, woe is me to view thy end !"
Construct the following into Trochaie catalcetie tetrameters
with successive rhymes:
Tell me on what holy ground domestic peace mny be
found. Halcyon daughter of the skies, she flies ori fenrful
wing far from the pomp of sceptered state, from the rebel's
noisy hate; she dwells in a cottaged vale, listening to thr
Sabbath bells.

wo1~an,

Construct the following into dactylic stnnzas of six verses,
the first and second, and the fourth and fifth, being dimetcrs
rn successive rhymes, and the third and sixth verses tetrameters catalectic, in rhyme:
Blithesome nnd .eumberless bird of the wilderness, sweet
be thy matin o'er moorland and lea I Emblem of happiness, thy dwelling-place is bl est; 0 to a bide with thee in the
desert.
'l'hy lay is wild and loud, far in the downy cloud; love
gives it energy, love gave it birth. Where, where art thou
journeying on thy dewy wing? 'l'hy lay is in heaven, thy
love is on earth.
Musical cherub, soar away, singing, o'er fell and fountain
i;heen, o'er moor and green mountain, o 'er the red streamer
that heralds the day, over the dim cloudlet, over the rainbow's rim.
Then, when the gloaming comes, thy welcome and bed of
love, low in the heather blooms, will be sweet! Emblem
of happiness, thy dwelling-place is blest. 0 to abide with
thee in the desert.

.;

Construct the following into anapestic stanzas of four
verses, the odd verses being hypercatalectic tetrameters in
rhyme, and the even verses being full tetrameters, also m
rhyme:

If the stock of our
· fund, ill-secured, oft
. issues bills which are
firm of wife, children,

bliss is vested in stranger hands, the
ends in bankruptcy; but the heart
neYer protested, when drawn On the
and friends.

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PROSODY.

PUNCTUATION.

'J,'hc soldicn1, wl1ose deeds live innn ort:tl m story, wl1cn
duty sends to far distant latitudes, would with transport barter old.ages of glory for one happy day with wife, children,
and friends.
The day-spring of yon th still uncloudcll by sorrow, depends on itself alone for enjoyment; but the twilight of age
is drear, if it borrow no wanuth from the sm ile of wife,
children, and friends.
Let the brca.t.h of renown ever freshen and nourif'h the
laurel which bend s o'er the Llcad favorite; o'er me w:wc the
willow, and lon g may it Jlomi sh, bedcwed with the tenrf" of
wife, children, and friends.
Construct the following into anapestic stanzas of four
verses, the odd verses being tetrameters without rhyme, and
the even verses trimeters in rhyme .
NoTE.-The inmbus is admissible in place of the annpest, particularly in the first mensure of the verses.

The young man cried, "Father William, you arc old and
life must be haste nin g away; you arc chcerf'ul and love to
converse upon death; now, I pray, tell me the reason."
l1'ather "W illiam replied, "Young man, I am chcerfol; let
the cause engage thy attention: I rem embered my God in
the days of my youth, and be hath not forgotten my age."

217

APPENDIX II.
PUNOTUATION.

§ 1. PUNCTUATION is the art of indicating to the
reader of discourse, by the use of certain characters
' called points, something in regard to the nature or relations of the parts of a word or sentence.
§ 2. Punctuation is ETYMOLOGICAL, RHETORICAL, or FOR
REFERENCE.
§ 3. In ETYMOLOGICAL PUNCTUATION, points are used
to indicate something in regard to the formation use
. . o f words or parts of words.
'
'
or om1ss1on

§ 4. ln RHETORICAL PUNCTUATION, points are used to
indicate something in regard to the nature or relations
of the thought.
§ 5. In PUNCTUATION FOR REFERENCE, points are ~sed
to refer the reader to some note, explanation, or other
matter in the margin or bottom of a page or at the close
of a chapter or book.
§ 6. Etymological points are used to indicate
I. The omission of a letter or letters, for which the
Apostrophe (') is used, as, 'Tis; J olin's; How o' th'
ground?
Or in manuscript the correction of an error of omisthe
sion by the use of the Caret (/\), as "Sweet is"breath
of morn.~'

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218

PUNCTUATION.

IL The separation of contiguous vowels by the Di·
reresis ( ·· ), as cooperate.

III. 'l'he Quantity of a syllable, or the long or short
sound of a vowel, as over.

IV. The Accent, whether the Grave (' ), the Acute
('), or the Circumflex ("), as in stringed, {tspect, war.

V. The union of simpl e wor<ls in a compound, by
the Hyphen (-), as in sea-water, to-rlay, gooJ-will, co·
ordinate.
NoTE.-The l1yphen is to be used,
1. 'When there might be some doulit whether the word is_
to be regarded as a compound; as "glass-house" as a compound denotes a house where glass is made or kept, while "a
glass house " denotes a house made of glass.
2. When the compound is not fully recog nized in the language as a single word; as" fortune-telling gypsies."
3. When one simple ends with the letter with which the
next begins; as pre-engaged, eel-lik e, high-handed, co-operate.
4. In case of ambiguity, to show that the connected wordF
are to be talzen togeth er; as, "eating-car;" "still-hour'!'
mate;" "gray-girdl ed eve;" "stone-rocked wagon;'' "The
New-York Directory;" which, but for the hyphen, might be
confounded with "The new 'York Directory;'" "stone
wagon," etc.
5. Generally, di.rcct 1p1alitics are exprcssccl wit11011t the
liyphen; while in exprc~s iug more remote and in cidental re·
lations, the hyph en is required; as, "si .~k -li cd ," "linen·
draper," "fat-dealer," "wood-house."

VI. The divi sion of syllables, by the Hyphen, as
cn ·e-fit.

PUNCTUATION.

219

VII. The abbreviation of words, by the Period (.);
as long., N. Y., Mo., abbreviated for longitude New
York, Missouri.

'

§ 7. In Rhetorical Punctuation, points are used to in·
dicate either,
1. Separation in the relations of the thought· or
2. Some peculiarity in the character of the ~xpr~s­
s1on.
NoTE.-It has been questioned whether the desio-n of
rhetorical points is simply to indicate to a silent read:r the
relations or character of the thought, or to indicate the use
of the voice by pauses or intonations to an audible readerto indicate the meaning simply or the elocution . It seems to
be conclusive of this question that a good reader or speaker
would be entirely misled if he were to govern himself immediately by the punctuation. A good delivery, for a sinrrle
illustration, is compatible with a pause of indefinite len;th
between the subject and the verb, where a correct punctuat.ion
would seldom place even a comma.

§ 8. Of the first class of Rhetorical Points are
The Period (.);
The Colon (:);
The Semi-colon(;), and,
The Comma (, ).

'

'

'1'1.1ese po11its
.
arc c~mmonly knowu ati the Pauses. They
~re. rn1propcrly so Jes1µ:11ated, as it is not their proper use to
111<l1~:i.te to an au<lible rea<ler the suspension of his voice j 1,
rcadmg, but only to ruark the relations of the thouoht that
tl ie 111eanrng
. may be correctly :1nd readil y npprehcnrJ..<l
b
.'

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PUNCTUATION.

220

221

PUNCTUATION.

§ 9. The PERIOD, as a Rhetoricn1 P oint, indi cates a
completed expression of the thought., and acconlin gly
'Lrr' entire scy,;iration betw een the p ;utic ul ar t ho11ghts .
EXAlllPLF..-There is no su ch prevalent work111 :111 as scduli ty and dili ge nce . A m an woukl 'v oml er at th e 111ig ht.y
things which h ave been done by degrees a nd ge ntl e aug mentations. Dili gence and moderation arc th e Les t steps wh ereby
to climb to any excellence. Nay , it is ra re if th ere be any
oth er way.

RuLE.-Th e Period should be placed a.t the close of
every sentence expressin g a compl eted thought, unl ess
the exclamation or interrogation point is used.

§ 10. 'l'he CoLON indicates an incomplete expression
of the thought, but the widest separation of the par ts.
E XAllIPL F..-ln F ra nce, a book is read to b e 1< pok cn of,· an d
must, therefore, catch the spirit of socict.y: in Uc rniauy , it is
read by soli tary students, wh o seek in s truction or e111 oli o11;
a nd , "in the s il ence of retire ment, nothin g see ms more melancholy th an the sp irit of the world."

R uLE 1.-rrhe colon should be w~c d to separate co-ordinate parts of an extended an tith etic sentence when no
conjunction is use<l.
ExA~ll' J. f:S . - T h e I<rcncli , t. hc most c11 lt.inlc '.cl of' L:i t.i11
nations, in clines to a classical p oe try: th e l ~ n ~ l i:- 1 1 , the 11111 ~ \
illustri ous of Ge rma ni c ones , deli ghts in a p oe try ino rc ro mantic and chi valro us.
Th e olli ccs bc:;hml' d on him were not mallers of g race ;
every prefe rm ent was a h o ma ~e to hi :; virtue .

R.uLE 2.- -The colon should be used to separate the
-leadm g members of the sentence when those members
or either of them, require their parts, respectively, t~
be separated by the semicolon.
. EXAMPLES.--:-'. enus and ~fars inspire love or valor; they
give a noble ong m and a dig nified character to these sentiments: but the sentiments themselves act according to the
laws of our
; a nd their celestial source has no te n _
. nature
.
dency to impair .their power over human natu~·e.
The personifi cations here are frequent, yet not confused;
bol d, yet n ot improbable : a free, elevated, and truly Divine
spirit pervades the whole.

RULE 3.~The colon is required before quotations;
addresses; m case of changes of persons represented·
and befor e specifications and enumerations unless short'
.
d· uced . by adv erbials, as, namely, ' to wit, etc.,'
or .mtro
or m grammatlcl\l dep endence on what precedes. ·
1. Quotations.-Her affec tin g exclamation is well known

on seeing her father's portrait for the first time more tha~
thirty yea rs after hi s death : " 0 my fath er, my d~ar fa ther I"
And again: "If my faith be a nythin g, I protest, if I had
one as near me as she is t o y ou, I had rather match h er
with him, than with men of far g reater t itles. "
• H is co 11 J1.'.ct c;ec 111 s t o have been prompted by those fe ell~gs and motives which .M r . Co leridge has so h app ily desc ribed:
"Storm y pity, and the ch erish ed lure
Of pomp, a11d proud proeipita nee of so ul."
One who kn ew him well , and may with g ood cause love

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223

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION

him, has said: "But for Irving, I had never known what the
communion of man with man mean s."

§ 11. 'I'he SEMICOLON indicates a less degree of sep·
ai·ation than the colon.

2. Addresscs.-Be our plain answer this: The throne we
honor is the people's choice .

ExAUPLE.-Its triumphs added nothin~ to his fame; ite
1ncrease added nothing to his means of overawing his enemies; its great leader mis not his friend.

His last words, they say, were: " In life and in death I
am the Lord's."

3. Changes of p ersons rezn·csr,nted.-He may, then, be. supposed to have revealed the incidents of his immortal existence to the associates of his mortal bci11g, in so me such terms
as the following:
One universal bewilderment of thought, one passing agony,
and all was still. I had emerged from the confines of life,
and yet I lived.
His reasoning runs thus: The more wealth a state has
the better; for the more wealth a state has, the more wealth
it will have.

4. Sp ecifi cations and Enuinerntfons.-But how small will
that distress appear, when we think over the hi story of the
last forty years: a war, compared with which, all other wars
sink into insignificance; taxation, such as the most heavily
taxed people of former times co uld not have conce ived ; a
debt larger than all the public debts that ever existed in
the world added together; the food of the people studiously
rendered dear; the currency imponderably debased and imprudently destroyed.

RULE 1.-'I'he semicolon should be used to separate
coordinate members of n, sentence, whete there is no
antithesis, or 'wheh not connected by a conjunction.

lie was naturally a mau of great sensibility; he had been
ill-educated; hi s feelings had bee n early exposed to sharp
trials; he had bee n crossed in his boyish love; he had been
mortified by the failure of his first literary efforts; he was
straitened in pecuniary circumstances; he was unfortunate
in his domestic relations; the public treated him with cruel
injustice ; his hea lth and sp irits suffered from his dissipated
habits of lifo; he was, on the whole, au unhappy man.

2.-'I'he semicolon should be used to separate
members of a sentence, when those members require
the comnrn, in the separation of their respective parts.
RULE

They bow the knee, and spit upon her; they cry Hail!
and smite her on the cheek; they put a scepter into her
hand, but it is a fragile reed; they crown her, but it is with
thorns.
·

The work is divided into four parts: r)n Germany and
German manners; on Literature and the Arts; on Philosophy and l\Iorals; on Religion and E 11thusia sm.

A people, he tells us, may be too rich; a governmeut can
n.:it; for a government can employ its riches in making the
people richer.

Every man fancies he can <lo three things : form a small
roperty
drive a nai<r
and write an art.icle for a review.
P
'
b >

RnLE 3.-Beforc specifications or enumerations introduced hy :tLlverbin.ls,. such as namely, for instance, tc

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224

225

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION.

wit, and the like, and also in catJes of a loos e gram
matical dependence, the semicolon should be used in·
stead of the colon.

fields of creation which sweep immeasurably along and carry
cyerywhere the impress of the Almighty's hand.

I~amb

also compiled these very popular books f'or cliil<lren ; namely, "l\lrs. Leicester's 8chool ;" " Tales from
3hakspeare ;" and the "Adventures of Ulysses."

§ 12. 'l'he COMMA is used to indicate separation in
the relations of the thought in the lowest 1l0grcc imlicated by points.
The geueral rule for the use of th e comma, accon1ingly, is:
Distinct. portio11s of a sentence shouhl be separated
by commas from portions that precede or follow them.
If, howev er, the sentence be short, a11d the separation betwee u the portions be not too remote, the comma
may be omitted.
The following specific rules, being applications of tho
general rule stated, are those which most require attention.

Rur,E 1.-Long sentences require commas between
their several parts, however nearly related.
The one has suggested to me that beyond and above all
that is visible to man, there may li e field s of creation whi ch
sweep immeasurably along, an<l carry the impress of the
Almighty's hand to the remotest scenes of the universe.
If this sentence were shorter, with th e same relation or
otherwise between the parts, the comma might Le <lispeu sed
with; as
The one has suggested to me that beyond these may lie

EYamplcs distributed um1cr classes.

1. 1Vurds ur l'hruses in Apposition.-That wise and :ivil
Roman, Julius Agricola, who governed once here for Cresar
J
preferred the natural wits of Ilritain, before the labored wit.s
of the French .
I

2. 11Iod•fying or E<plicatm:IJ Fhrascs.-My friend Sir Hoger,
being a good churchman, has beautified the inside of his
church with several texts of his own choosing.
I

3. Vocatives.-Besides, sir, there is no election.

: II
I

"Come, girl," said he, "hold up your head,
He '11 be as good as we."

'I

I,

4. Parenthetical Clauses.-lf these fears exist, which I do
not believe, they exist only in the mind of the Chancellor
of the Exchequer.

,i

The "Rambler" is, however, notwithstandinrr
b these defects ,
a work that, in vigor of execution and comprehensiveness of
utility, will not easily be paralleled.
5 . Separation of dependent 1Vords.-A mere shred, which,
though scattered into nothing, would leave the universe of
God one entire scene of greatness and majesty.

6. After connectives, when without a connective a semicolon
would be required.-But it seems this is an age of reaso n,
and the time and the person are at last. arrived that arc tc
dissipate the errors which have overspread the past genera
tions of ignorance.

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227

l'UNCfUATION.

PUNCTUATION.

Awake, awake, break through yo ur vails of lawn.
Verily, verily, I say unto you.

Also, when modifying words are limited to only one of
conn_ec ted clauses; as, The guests on their arrival were enthusiastically greeted, and assigned to their places of entertainment.

226

7. R f'pe t11ivn.

8. In a sc1"'ir:s.-Ifo was so Lorn and RO 11;iflc<l that poetry,
forensic skill, elegant litcrn ture, and all the attainments of
human genius, were within his reach.
But, above all, where th ou find cst ignoran ce, stupidity,
brute-minded ness, attack it, I say; smite wi sely, unweariedly,
and rest not while thou livest and it lives.
RuLE 2.-Comrnas are often required in elliptical
sentences, when they might be Jispense<l with if th e sentence was fully presented.
The power of delicacy is chiefly see n in disce rning the true
merit of a work; th e power of correctness, in rej ec ting false
pretensions to merit.
Among t.li c an cient critics, L onginus possessed most delicacy; Ari stotle, most correctness.
RULE 3.-Commas are required often when the expression would be ambiguous but for thP. comma.
In this case, the comma is in se rted only when the more
widely separated of the two douL tfu l thoughts is intended.
Thus denominative cl ::mscs do not require the comma
which is required in exp lanatory clauses, where the connection is more remote.
GiYe preference always te flowers that are fragrant as wel
as beautiful.
Behold the emblem of thy State rn flowers, th at LloolI'
or die .

RULE 4.-Commas are Qften required in case of inversions of the usual order of the sentence.
For the production of such a character, no discipline can
be so unfit as that. of the habitual love of amusement.
That such a warm and ebullient spirit should have given
way before the tide of its affections, we wonder not.

§ 13. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RHETORICAL PUNCTUATION.
1. The Rhetorical Points are guides to the thought
or sense; not to the pronunciation or delivery.
2. Those which denote separation are purely relative.
Hence a short sentence may require no point; if
. slightly lengthened may require a comma; if more extended, a semicolon, a colon, or even a period.

~

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E:x:AllIPLEs.-The advances we make in knowledge aro perceivable only by the distance.
The advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of
minute steps, are perceivable only by the distance.
As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial,
' but did not see it moving; so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are perceivable
only by the distance.
As we pcrcciv'e the shadow to lrnvc moved alo ng the dial,
but did not see it moving; and it appears that the grass has
grown, though nob ody ever saw it grow: so the advances we
j:

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228

PUNCTUATION.

make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, arc
perceivable only by the distance.
·we perceive the shadow to lrnve moveu n.long the dial, but
did not see it moving; a11d it appears, moreo ver, that the
grnss has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow. Thus is it
with the advances we make in knowled ge : they consist of such
minute steps that they are perceivable only by the distance.
Hence, also, if a conjunctive which tcn<ls to unite
the parts of the thought, ho introlluccd, a point of lower
d1::gree will be substituted.
The structure of Tasso's poem was that of the Grecian epic:
his heroes were Christian knights.
The structure of Tasso's poem was that of the Grecian epic;
but his heroes were Christian knights.
'While the structure of Tasso's poems was that of the Grecian epic, his heroes were Christ.ian knights.
Hence, moreover, if connectives, or modifying words,
or phrases, respect single words or short phrases, points
may be omitte<l altogether; when if they respect the
whole sentence or considerable members of it, points
will be required.
Germany had, therefore, no exclusive possession: for poetry
and eloquence may, and in so111e measure, must be national;
but knowledge is the common patrimony of civilized men,
and can thcrefure be appropriated by no people.
EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION.

Punctuate the following extracts.
I envy no quality of the mind or i11tellcct in others but if
I could choose what would be most delightful allll I believe

PUNCTUATION.

229

most useful to me I should prefer ·a firm religious belief to
every other blessing for it makes life a discipline of goodness creates new hopes when all earthly hopes vanish and
throws over the decay the destruction of existence the most
gorgeous of .all lights awakens life even in death and from
corruption and decay calls up beauty ~nd divinity makes an
instrument of torture and of shame the ladder of ascent to
paradise and far above all combination:,; of earthly hopes calls
up the most delightful visions of palms and amaranths the
gardens of the blest the security of everlasting joys where
the sensualist and the skeptic views only gloom decay annihilation and despair.
The first cause I shall mention as contributing to this general effect was the Reformation which ha<l just then taken
place this event gave a mighty impulse and increa~ed activity
to thought and inquiry and agitated the inert mass of accumulated prejudices throughout J£nrope the effect of the concussion wa s ge nerar but the shock was greatest in this country
it toppled down the full-grown intolerable a buses of centuries
at a blow heaved the ground from under the feet of bigoted
faith and slavish obedience and the roar and dashing of opin, ions loose ned from their accustomed hold might be heard like
the voice of an angry sea and has never yet subsided GerJD(lny first broke the spell of misbegotten fear and gave the
watchword but England joined the shout. and echoed it back
with her island voice from her thousand cliffs and craggy
sl10res in a longer and a louder strain witl1 that cry the
genius of Great Britain rose and threw down the gamitlct lo
the nations there was a mighty feru1eulati o11 the waters ·were
out public opinion was in a slate of projectio n liberty was
held out lo all to think and speak the truth men's braine
were busy their l:lpirits stirring their hearts full and their
brains not idle their e,Yes were opene<l to expect the greatest

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231

PUNCTUATION.

PUN CTU AT ION.

tl1ings and their ears lmrn cd with curiosity an<l zeal to know
the truth that the truth might make them free.

, " Alas I" thought she, " Pandora's box was nothing to
this I"
J_,o, heaven's bright bow is g lad I
Lo, trees and flowers, all clad
In glory's bloom !

230

One light still shone on him alas through a medium more
and more turbid the li ght from heave n his Bible wns t here
wherein m ust lie l1calin g for all sorrows to the Bible he more
and more exclusive ly addressed him self if it is the written
word of God shall it not be the ac ted word too is it mere
sound then black printer's ink on white rag-paper :i half
man could have passe d on without answering a whole man
must answer.
In the su mm er of 1824 there set in a great, fl oo d upon
the town of Sidmouth the tide rose to an in cred ibl e hi ght
th e waves rushed in upon the houses and everything was
threatened with destruction in the midst of this sublime
storm Dame Partington who liv ed upon the beach was see n
at the door of her h ouse with mop and pattens trundling
her mop and sq ueezing out the sea water and vigorously
pushin g away the Atlantic Ocean th e Atlantic was r oused
Mrs. Parti11gto11's spirit was up Lut I need not, tell you that
the contest was unequal the Atlantic ocean beat l\Irs. Partington she wa s excellent at a slop or a puddle but she should
not have med dled with a tempest.

How beautiful is genius when combined with holiness I
Woe 's n;i,e ! thou liest a thing of clay I

- 2. The Exclamation Point is also used after persons
or things addressed, when feeling is expressed or ~ long
pause is required.
And now, Philanthropy I thy rays divine
Dart round the globe.
Poor foolish child I how' pleased was I
When news of Nelson's victory. came I
H ail, holy light I

3. The Exclamation Point is used still further, after
imperatives in elevated discourse.
Up, and to work I Eternity
Must reap the harvest time hath sown.

§ 14. Rhetorical Points, of the second cln.ss, or those
which are used to indi cate some peculiarity in the char·
acter of the expr ession, are
The Exc LAMATION, (!);
'l'he lNTEJUt0<1ATION, (?);
'l'he DASH, ( - ) ; and,
QuoTATION MARKS, (" ") and (' ').

§ 15. 'l'he E XCLAMATION POINT is used to indicate
emotion or passion in the expression.

0 say not so I a bright old age is thine,
Calm as the gentle light of summer eves,
Ere twilight dim her dusky mantle weaves.
But they cried, saying, Crucify him I crucify him I

§ 16. The Interrogation Point is used to indicate a
question . .

232

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION.

,But to whnt, and to wh om, und er }Jrovid ence, do we owe
the improve ment? T o nny radical ch ange in the mo ral af
fections of mankind in general? ·wh at were the terms of
the capitulation ?
lluJ,E.-'l'his point should be placed af'lcr every qu estion
th at is expressed in th e proper inter rogatirn form, wh ether
admittin g a directly affirmative or negativ e an swer or not.
\Vh ere, how ever, the ques ti on is simply spoken of as one
that had bee n or might be asked, th e interrogation point is
not requi red.
Can there be no sympathy without the gabbl e of words?
To wh at do we owe the improve ment?
D os t th ou love silence deep as " that befo re the winds were
made?"
Life went a-Mn yin g
Wi th Nature, H ope, and P oesy,
'When I was youn g.
lVhen I was young ? Ah woeful when !
On som e occnsion, Mr. Grenville exclaim ed, ''"Where is
our money ? wh ere arc our means? I sny aga in , wh ere are
our means '? wh ere is our mon ey?" Il e then sat down , and
I,ord Chatham pri ced slowl y ont of th e h ouse, humming the
line, "G entle sheph erd, tell me wh ere."
On so me occasion, l\Ir. Grenvill e l1ad reiterated the demand, wh ere was th e money ;-where "·ere th e mea ns. Lord
Chath am rose and paced slowly out of th e h ouse, humming
the lin e, "Gentle sheph erd , tell me wh ere." Th e effect was
irresistibl e and set.ti ed fore ver on l\lr. GrenviHo the appellation of "Gentle Shepherd .'

§ 17. The Dash is used,
1. To . indicate a suspension or abrupt or emphatic
turn in the thought ;
2. Before words or phrases which express the same
thought or object in other forms or its composing elements or parts ; and,
3. To mark a suppression of words or parts of words.
1. But I, whe.n I come home-0 God,
Wilt thou the thought forgive?
Methinks it is good to be here;
If thou wilt, let us build-but for whom?
2. They are the first attempts in a new science-the philosophy of history.
The German writers have, in a higher degree, the first
requisite for writing-the power of feeling with vivacity and
force. Besides these, there are two qualities essential to splendid
success,-a pliable temperament, and that compound quality
or result of several qualities, called tact, in the' management
of a cause.
3. She replied that Mrs. Dimity, my Lady - - ' s gentlewoman, told her all the maids at - - had tea, and saw company of an afternoon.
This certain prince, whom they are all so cautious of nami11"'
b'
I take to be - - . .

§ 18. Quotation Marks are used to indicate that a
word, a phrase, or longer portion of the discourse is borrow ed.

20

PUNCTUATION.

234

'rho <louble points (" ") arc usc<l in primary or lcacl·
ing quotations ;
'rhe single points (' ') in secondary or included quoations.
"'fhc wor<ls 'goo<lncss' and 'beauty,'" says lie, almost in
the very words of Hobbes, "express those qualities of thin gs
by which they contribute to our pleasure."
REMAF re-·w hen a word or phrase is, for any reaso n, expressed in italic letters, the use of the quotation points may
be di spensed with.
Did the Almighty approve those frantic wars which arro·
gated to themselves the name of holy?
He rigidly adhered to the great principle, that virtue con·
sists in pure intentions and dispositions of mind.
Punctuate the following passages.
·what a glorious spectacle is that of the lab or of man upon
the earth it includes everything in it that is glorious look
round my frien<ls and tell me what you see that is worth
seeiug that is not the work of your hands an<l of the hands
of your fellows the multitude of all ages what is it that felled
the ancient forests and cleared vast morasses of other ages
I wonder you can get any servants to live with you thought
the guest but I dare say you do not get any one to stay long
you do not however eat as you liked it 0 yes indeed I de
very much lie the seco nd she replied but you forgot I have
already eaten a good dinner lie the third alas what had benevolence so called to answer for on this occasion
How grand must have been liis fiery fceli11gs iu the high
hope of enterprise bounding over the ocean aud with new

PUNCTUATION.
world~ opening before him well might Spensel' call him the
shepherd of the ocean he was not a poet of the order of Spen'ser and Shakspeare but in what other gift and acquirement
was Raleigh not first

Was it to be rich that you grew pale over the midnight
lamp and distilled the sweetness from the Greek and Roman
spring you have then mistaken your path and ill employed
your industry what reward have I then for all my labors what
reward a large comprehensive soul well purged from vulgar
fears and perturbations and prejudices able tc comprehend
and interpret the works of man of God

If we value then as who does not value our renown among
mankind ,f we exult as who can help exulting in the privileges which the providence of God has conferred on the British nation if we ~re thankful and God forbid we should be
otherwise for the means of usefulness in our power and if
we love as who does not love our native land its greatness
and prosperity let us see that we each of us in his station
are promoting to the best of our power by example by exertion by liberality by the practice of Christian justice and
every virtue the extension of God's truth among men and the
honor of that holy name whereby we are called
He desired says Mr. Lockhart to be wheeled through his
rooms and we moved him leisurely for an hour or more up
and down the hall and the great library I have Eeen much he
kept saying but nothing like my own house give me one turn
more he was ge ntle as an infant and allowed himself to be
put to bed again the moment we told him he had enough for
one day he expressed a wish that I should read to him and
when I asked from what book he said need you ask there is
but one I chose the fourteenth chapter of St.. John 's Gospel

PUNCTUATION.

236

119.

237

Points for Reference are,

'Che AsuRISK (*);
The OBELISK or DAGGER ( t);
The DounLE OrmusK or DAGGER (t);
PARALLELS (II);
The SECTION ( § ), and,
The p ARAGRAPH ( ~ ).
When necessary, these points are doubled, as**·
Letters 1tnd figures are also used for the same pur·
po1>0o

CAPITAL AND IT.ALIC LETTERS.

'
APPENDIX III.
OAPITAL AND ITALIC LETTERS.

FoR the purpose of displaying, or distinguishing more ef. fectually the parts of discourse, when written or printed,
diverse expedients- are adopted by changes in the forms or
places of the letters.
Of these expedients the following may be specified.

1. Change in the general shape or form of the letter; as,
"There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired
freedom produces, and that cure is Creedom ?"
REMARK.-This method of distinction is effected in printing by
changing the "font," as it is technically called.

2. Introducing spaces between the letters; as, "I see no
other way for the preservation of a decent attention to public interest in the representatives, but the i tl t er p 0 s i ti 0 n
of the body of the people itself."
REMARK.-This expedient is much and happily employed in German books. The form of the Roman letter does not favor its use as
does the German; and it is confined to printed discourse. The technical term by which H is denoted is "spacing."

3. The use of Capital, Small Capital, and Italic Letters;
as, " He is judged as a founder of nations; great in action,
little in idea, NOTHING in VIRTUE. SUCH IS MAN I
REMARK.:-ln mnnuscript, Capital Letters, except at the beginning of
words, are mnrked hy three horizontal lines drawn under the letters
Small Capital Letters, by two snob lines; and Italic Letters, by one.

238

CAPITAL AND ITALIC LETTERS.

4. The use of Ca11ital J,e ttcrs at the bcg i1111 in g of words.

23!l

CAPITAL AND ITALIC LETTERS.

5. Capital letters should be used at the beginnings of words
o~ the followin g classes, viz. :

Principles regulati11g the 11se of these methods of distin ction

1. They should be used with much cauti on, an d only wher:
necessary, as it is a mark of weak ness or of bad taste to mul";iply them excess ively.

1st. vV ords beginning a new sentence;
2d. Words beginning verses of poetry;
3d. 'Vords beginning formal quotations; as, It is well
said, "Truth ,is great and will prevail."

2. Italic l et te ~'.'3 are often and properly used to mark quota·
tions and especially words fr om foreign langua ges, as in thf
f'ollowin g extracts.

4th. 'Vords beginning the several parts of an enumerated
series; as, The Parts of Grammar, 1. Orthography; 2. Etymology; 3. Syntax; 4. Prosody.

So me members of the Democrati c part.y ce nsured the Secretary for dedicating '1.'hc Prince to a patron who bore thfJ
unpopular nam e of Medici.

5th. Names of individuals, ~s of the Deity, pen~ons, places,
and personified obj ects, and derivatives from them when retaining the individualizing force of the primitive;
\

"\Ve do not mean to say _that '1.'he Feast of Belshazzar has
not been admirably painted by others.
He was promising Mr. 'l'horolcl that he should obtain a
salary of £200 per annum.
He wrote down several things, as m emora nda, to do for
him.
With all his talent and all his pride, it a!1pea rs that Swift
exhibited, during this period of favor, much of the ridiculous
airs of a pm·ven u.
3. Italic letters are usecl to indica te prornin cnL words or
phrases, or emphatic thoughts and express ions .

'!. Italic letters are used in versions of th e Seri ptures to
indicate words that ha ve no co rrespondi11 g ex press ion in tlH:
ori•rinal · and small capital letters to i11 dicate that the won]
" is ' the translation of the nam e in the original, which ii:
L ord
held iu so much reve rence by the Jews, and is often rend ered
in the ]~u gl is h version by the word, J ehovah.

6th. Titles of Dig nity;
7th. Words of leading importance, particularly m titlee
of books, or statements of themes;

8th. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0.

THEMES.

24U

APPENDIX IV.
TIIEllIES.
TIIElllES IN SJU PLE NARRATION .

241

THEMES.

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

The Heroine of Siberia;
.
The lmpriso~ments of Sylvio Pellic~;
Grace Darling;
Baron Trenck;
The Treachery of Arnold ; .
Montezuma and the Spani~rds;
John Ledyard;
John Law;
Lady Jane Grey.

I. Personal E:q:iericnccs.
, ·

1. Incidents of my last vacation.
2. Story of a day ; of a week; of a year:.
3 . My visit to Mount Vernon.
4 . Wh at I saw in .Washington.
.5. My journey to Boston.
6 . My ?assage uf the Lakes.
7. What I dreamed.
8. Th e studies I have pursue~.
9 . Narrative of my sickness.
10. A morning's walk.
11. Excursion amo ng the l1ills.
12. Railw ay experiences.
13. A fi shin g expedition.
14. R~:mmin gs on a leisure day.
15. 'N anderin gs in the forest.

n.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20 .
21.

Experiences of Others.

Joseph in E gypt;
David and Saul;
Daniel in Babylon;
J u<lith and Holofcrnes;
"\Villiam 'l'ell and Gesslm·;
Th e Burning of Huss;

!

:

Biographies of, 31. Sapph._; 32: Confucius; 33. Socrates;
34. Plato; 35. Zenobia; ~6. Cic.e~o ;, .37. S1meca; 3$. Pli~y
the Elder; 39. Polycarp ; 40. Chrysostom; 41. Hypatia; ~2.
Augustin ; 43. Leo the Great; 44. Boethius; 45. Alfred the
Great; 46. Abel ard; 47. Marco P~io; 4S. Petrarch; 49 .
Wickliffe; 50 . Chaucer; 51. John Huss; 52. Columbus;
53. Raphael; 54. Cardinal Wolsey; 55. Machiavel; 56. Sir
Thomas More; 57. Copernicus; 58. Martin Luther; 59.
John Calvin; 60. Michael Angelo; . 61. John Knox; 62. Sir
Philip Sidney ; 63. Queen Elizabeth; 64. Lord Bacon; 65.
Sully; 66. Galileo; G7. Richelieu; 68. John Milton; S9.
Sir Matthew Hale ; 70. Robert Boyle; 71. John Locke;
72. Sir Isaac Newton ; 73. Isaa~ W attS ; 7 4. Lord Boli~g­
broke; 75. John Whitfield; 76. Oliver Goldsmith; 77. Samuel Johnson ; 78. John Wesley ; 79. Sir Joshua R.e ynolds;
80. Robert Burns; 81. Edmund Burke; 82. Willlain Co~­
per; 83. William Pitt; 84. Richard Brinsley She~idan ; 85.
Madame de Stael; 86. Herschel; 87. Bishop Heber; 88.
Alexander Hamilton; 89. Thomas. Jefferson; 90. Si~ Itu~­
phrey Davy; 91. Robert Hall; 92. Cu~ier; 93. Sir W~l~
Scott; 94. William Wilberforc~; 95. Hannah More; 96.
Goethe; 97. Schiller.; 98. Herder; 99. Richter; 100. Coleridge; 101. Mrs. Hemans; 102. Ba~~~ Hu~boldt; 103.
Nathan M. Rothschild; 104. Aaron Burr; 105. William

21

THEMES.
THEMES.

242

107. Charlott& .Bronte
Wordsworth. 106. Charles Lam b ;
108. Noah Webster; 109. Washington Allston.

III. Experiences of Communities.
110. The Athenian Republic.
111. Rhodes.
112. The Knights of St. John.
113. The Moslems.
114. The Waldenses.
115. The siege of Malta.
.
.
The
Independence
of
Belgmm.
116
117. The Mutineers of the Bounty.
118. The Swiss Confederacy.
119. The Hanseatic League.
IV. Occurrences in Nature.
120.
121.
12 2.
123.
12-!.
12 5,
126.

The eruptions of Vesuvius:.
The destruction of Pompen.
The formation of Icebergs.
The advance of Spring.
The progress of vegetation.
The rise of a storm-cloud.
The building of a bird's nest. .
127. The transformations of insect-life.
128. The circuit of the winds.
129. The Monsoons.
130. The Trade-winds.
131. The formation of Rain.
.
132. The progressive formation of the Contments.
133. 'fhe rise of Coral Islands.
134. The earthquake at Lisbon in 1755.

V.

Imagination.

135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.

148.
149.
150.
151.

The voyage of a summer-cloud.
The history of a dew-drop.
The diary of a penny.
The adventures of fl .mming-bird.
The. roamings of r .itterfly.
The ·labors of a .mcil.
The journal <' "' composition-book
The biograr· J of a pin.
Memories of a moss-rose.
Relations of a looking-glass.
Sufferings of a slipper.
The vicissitudes of a hat.
The story of a bank note. ·
The confessions of a hand.
The complaints of my Geometry.
The scenes of my class-room.
The dream of a Genius.

VI.

Miscellaneous Themes in Simple.Narration.

144.
145.
146.

147.

152. The migrations of the human races.
153. The Argonauts.
' 1
154. The rise and spread of Buddhism.
155. The persecutions of the Christiana.
156. The history of the Saxons.
157. The Gothic irruptions.
158. The rise of monastic orders.
159. The Feudal system.
,...
160. The Crusades.
161. The Sicilian Vespers.
162. Spanish conquests in America.
163. The Jesuits.
164. The history of the Steam Engine.

248

THEMES.
'

THEMES.

1G5. Shays' Insurrection.
166. The adoption of the Federal Constitution.
167. 'fhe Huguenots.
168. The Russian Campaign of Napoleon.
1G9. Polar Explorations.
170. Recent Explorations in Africa.
171. The Hanseatic Cities.
172. The Republic of San Marino.
173. The discovery of America.
17 4. The rise of the Turks.
175. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain.
176, The exodus of the Israelites from Egypt.
177. The Persian invasions of Greece.
178. The British conquests in India.
179. The South American Republics.
180. The Quadruple Alliance of 1814.
181. The Swiss Confederacy.
182. The destiny of the North American Indians.
183. The history of the Calendar.
184. The administration of Warren Hastings in India.
185. The wars of the Roses.
186. The Fronde.
187. The Revolution in England in 1688.
188. The Revolution in France in 1789.
189. The destruction of Carthage.
190. The Bank of England.
191. The siege of Sebastopol.
192. 'l'hc Battle of Waterloo.
193. The dismemberment of Poland.
194-. The expulsion of kings from llome.
195. The Persian invasions of Greece.
196. 'fhe origin aud spread of Brit.ish conquests in India,
197. The American Revolution
198. The Peloponnesian war.

.~

245
...

.

':

199. The subjecr 1 of Greece by the Romans.
200. The hist<- of Jerusalem.
2'01. The Ft .ch Revolution in 1830.
202. The fL .;t Triumvirate in Rome.
203. The Battle of Lexington.
204. The rise of the Turks.
205. The Introduction of Cbris~ianity into England.
206. The Danish Invasions of England. ·.
. · ! .:
207. The Lutheran Reformation.
208. The Spanish Inquisition. ·
209. The Imprisonment and Execution of Mary Stuart.
210. The Settlement of New England . . • .
. ' . .. I
211. The English Commonwealtn. ·
212. The rise of Mohammedanism.
213. The Independence or'l\Iodern Greece.
214. The Battle of the Nile. ' ' ·
215. The Reformation in England.
216. The Thugs.
·
217. Mozart's Requiem.
218. Magna Oharta.
219. The Thirty Years' War.

THEMES IN ABSTRACT NARRATION,
'

.

; ·1 .. ' ' \ ·.: ··

I. Personal Exper1'.ences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

History of a wish.
Narrative of a day-dream.
How I came to be a musici>tn.
The working of pride.
The suppression of an evil hahit
Disappointed wishes.
The indulgence of vain curiositv
The yielding to passion. ·
· -

,,
'.

:!

I

i:

I

I

I

I;
:;
'I

, I

:I

/

Ill II II
'246
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

The growth of ambition.
The culture of philanthropy.
Th e development of genius
The cultivation of memory.
Th~ progress of vice.
The formation of habit.
The improvement of the memory.
The culture of the taste.
Thu acquisition of knowledge.
The power of' virtue over vice.
The ascendency of a resolute spirit over blind im-

ru.lses.
20. The efficiency of a pure love of truth over moral habits,
21. The workings of selfishness on our habitual feelings
toward others.
22. The deadening force of vicious indulgence on virtuous
sensibility.

III. Social Experiences.
23. The rise of feudalism.
24. The growth of Grecian art.
25. The history of Latin civilization.
26. The E<pread cf corruption in Rome.
27. The decline of piety in the middle ages.
28. The rise and fall of polytheism.
29. 'l'he rise of the mechanical arts in modern times.
30. 'l'he revival of learning in the fifteenth century.
31. The fine arts in Italy.
32. The Luth eran Reformation.
3:1. Th e progress of free principles in the world.
34. The development of the sentiment of political justice
in Rome.

10;::ial.

'

35.
36.
37.
38.
39.

J

i'

._.
-

· ·.

·---

- -- - - -

THEMES.

THEMES.

II. Expe1·iences of Others.

- -I

-

247

The rise of the worship of physical forces in the East.
English colonization.
Downfall of Mohammedanism.
The growth of language.
The geographical march of civilization.

VI. llfisccllaneous Themes i'n Abstract Narration.
40 ..urn ut"-'"'.Y v1 oue principle of loyalty in recent times.
41. The history of commerce in connection with political
freedom.
·
42. The spread of popular delusions.
43. 'l'he rise of the papal power.
44. Migration along lines of latitude.
45. The spread of the Lutheran Reformation.
46 . The gradual unfolding of the idea of a Spiritual
Messiah in the Old Testament Scriptures.
47. The development of social principles in the su~cessivo
civilizations of the Old World.
48. The formation of the English language.
49. The progress of modern literature.
50. The degradation of the human race in its removal
from its primitive cradle in Asia.
51. The progress of Physical Geography.

.I

. II
I

THEMES IN COMPLEX NARRATIVE.
'

1. The influence of climate on the forms and character
of vegetable and animal life.
2. The influence of the structure of the American Continent, in respect to its mountain chain on the west and its
plains on the east,· on the climate and vegetation.
3. The causes of the deterioration of the human race ae
it has removed from Central Asia.

ij,
fj
':i
I,

I!
i

I

I
I

!

I

I· .

i~

r
-

248

~

' "

•

~

j(

<~
•

Lf

~
-

,

THEMES.

THEMES.

4. The influence of climate on national character.
5.
of an insular life on English character
of peace on the arts.
6.
7.
of struggles with adversity on vigor of
character.
8. The effects of superstition on individual character.
9.
of a belief in destiny.
10. The power of a resolute spirit.
11. The influence of public games on Greece.
12. The causes of the 11igh artistic culture of the Greeks .
13. The influence of the conquests of Alexander on the
Greek civilization .
14. The indebtedness of Rome to Greece for philosophy
and learning.
· 15. The influence of the Arabs on European science.
16.
of the Feudal System;
17.
of the Crusades;
18.
of Chivalry;
of the rise of the Free Cities ;
19:
20.
of Commerce.
21. 'I'he effects of emigration in respect to intelligence
and morality . .
22. The causes of the peculiarities of Arneri~an society.
23 . The effects of an excessive multiplication of high literary institutions.
24. The influence of promiscuous reading.
25. The importance of method and system in mental cul•ure.
26. The influence of territorial enlargement on the spirit
of a nation.
27. The power of commerce in preserving peace between
nations.
.
28. 'l'he influence of an expansive currency on commercial

29. The effect of discrimination in duties for the pur·
pose of protection on manufacturing enterprise.
· 30. The .influence of national monuments.
31. The effects of inequality in rank and condition in a
republic.
32. Tf. · "influence of free institutions on social habits.
33
~ti influence of literature on the stability of a gov·
err
..it.
,.

prosperity.

~

\ - -..c~

;
-:-__r:::

249

34. The evils of sudden revolutions in governmental
· ·policy.
35. 'l'he influence of great national wealth on morals.
36. The power of opinion in a free. government.
37. The influence of the press.
38.
'l'he necessity of parties in free governments.
1
39. 'l'he evils of a dependent judiciary. ·
·.
40. The necessity of checks on legislative action.
41. The influence of constitutional temperament on liter.
ary pursuits.
42. The influence of literature on national refinement.
43. The influence of associates on character~
44. The influence of great emergencies on the formation
.of character
·
· ··
·
45. The influence of promiscuous reading.
46. The power of great names.
47. The influence of models in artistic training.
48. The influence of periodical literature.
49. The influence of authors.
50. J.,iterary old age.
51. The power of virtue to win esteem.
52. The importance of a firm self-reliance to success.
53. 'l'he power of ridicule.
·
'
54. The power of local associatious.
55. The power ·of great objects and scenes to elevate the
character.
.

I

·I

!.

'I

250

THEMES.

56. The influence of works of fancy and fiction on a mind
not familiarized with the real.
57. The sludy of History as a means of intellectual
growth.
58. 'l'he effect of repetition.
59. The importance of frequent and thorough reviews in
study.
60. The power of public education to form habits of
punctuality and order.
61. The control of a resolute will on health and disease.
62. Th e pernicious effects of games of chance.
G3. The necess ity of recre ation.
64. The uses of public libraries.
65. The influence of Lyceums.
66. The influence of secret societies.
67. The influence of mathematical studies in mental culture.
68. The power of early impressions.
6!J. The effects of a superficial attention to a great variety
of pursuits.
70. '.l'he influence of circumstances on character.
71. The power of custom.
72. Singleness of purpose.
73. Subordination of aims and pursuits in life.
7 4. The evil effects of a censorious spirit.
75. The study of nature in forming habits of order.
76. Concentration of mind.
77. Early culture of the affections.
78. Free intercourse with society.
79. Habitual exaggeration.
80. N ationa I mon umcn ts.
81. Love of fame.
82. The desire of excellence.
83. A sensitive conscience.

THEMES.

261

THEllfES IN 811\IPLE DESCRIPTION.

The Geographical Features of,

l. South America;
2. Australia;
3
,ylon;
.. St. Helena;
,. 5. The Antilles;
/ ' 6. Hindoostan;
7. The plateau of Iran;
8. 'l'he plains of Siberia;
9. The desert of Atacama;
10 . The Himalaya Mountains;
11. Mount Vesuvius;
12. Mount Hecla;
13. The Amazon;
14. The Hoangho;
15. The Caspian Sea ;
16. J_,ake Superior;
17. The vale of Temp&;
18. The vale of Chamouni,
19. The Falls of Niagara;
20. The Gulf-stream ;
21. Ancient Athens;
22. Ancient Rome;
23. The city of Canton;
24. Ancient Mexico;
25. Moscow;
26. Paris;
27. London;
28. Venice;
29. Amsterdam;
30. Washington,

'I '

I}

252

THEMES,

31. Describe the Pantheon;
32. The Coliseum ;
33. The Madeleine of Paris;
34. '.l'hc Colossus of Rhodes;
35. The Sphynx;
36. The Needle of Cleopatra;
37. Trajan's Pillar ;
38. W cstminster Abbey i
39. The great wall of China;
40. The fortifications of Paris;
4 1. The Cemetery of Pere la Chaise;
42. The Cedar of Lebanon ;
43. The Baobab ;
44. The Palm-tree;
45. The Cactus ;
46. The K angaroo;
47. The Chimpanzee;
48. 'l'hc Crocodile;
49. The Gazelle;
50 . The Llama;
51. The Armadillo;
52. The Iguana ;
53. The Anaconda;
54. The Sea-Lion;
55. The Bird of Paradise;
56. The Humming-bird i
57, The Aurora Borealis;
58. Twilight;
59. The Solar System;
60., The Milky Way;
.
61. The Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Wmter.
62. The Zodiac;
63. '.l'he Telescope.

•'

THEMES.

263

XHEMES IN ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION,

1. Republic.
2. LP"islature.
3. ' ..umon Law.
.t>olitical Legitimacy.
6. Civil Liberty.
_., 6. Constitution.
7. History.
8. Classical Literatura.
9. Political Geography.
10. Grecian Civilization.
11. Mohammedanism.
12. Architecture.
13. Destiny.
14. Bigotry.
15. Faction.
16. Etiquette.
17. Egotism.
18. Detraction.
19. Aecom p lishments.
20. Forgiveness.
21. Atheism.
22. Candor.
23. Ennui.
24. Custom.
25. Vanity.
26. Sycophant.
27. Coquette.
28. Slander.
29. Goodness.
30. Instinct.
31. Fortitude.
32. Detraction.

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THEMES.

33. Art
34:. Ceremony.
35. Fashion.
36. Cheerfulness.
37. Superstition.
38. Coxcomb.
39. Sincerity.
40. Satire.
41. Constancy.
42. Charity.
43. Genius.
44. Inconstancy.
45. Melancholy.
46. Novelty.
47. Patriotism.
48. Sensibility.
49. Gratitude.
50. Imagination.
51. l\lirth.
52. Obstinacy.
53. Selfishness.
54. Irresolution.
55. Philanthropy.
56. Refinement.
57. Sarcasm.
58. 'l'he German Confederation.
59. 'l'he English Constitution.
60. 'l'he Hanseatic League.
61. The Swiss Confederacy.
62. 'fhe British Parliament.
63. Grecian Civilization.
64. 'l'he character of Solon ;
of Draco;
65.
of Lycurgus ;
66.

THEMES. /

67. The character of Socrates ;
68.
of Plato;
69.
of Alexander ;
70.
of Cicero;
of Brutus;
71.
77
of Pompey;
of Julius Cresar;
Jo
of Machiavelli ;
/ ~4.
of Galileo;
".
75.
of Roger Bacon ;
76.
. . of Sir Walter Raleigh ;
77.
of Lord Bacon ;
78.
79.
of George Herbert;
" of Palissy the Potter ;
80.
81.
of Lord Brougham ;
of Hugh Miller;
82.
of Fenelon ;
83.
of Richelieu;
8-l.
of Lady Jane Grey ;
85.
of Charles Lamb;
86.
of Alexander Hamilton;
87.
of
George Washington;
88.
of Thomas Jefferson ;
89.
of Benjamin J!'ranklin;
90.
of John Jay; ·
91.
of Christopher Col um bug;
92.
of Isabella of Spain;
93.
. 94.
of ·Fernando Cortez;
of Madam Guion;
95.
of Jean Paul Richter ;
96.
of Goethe;
97.
of Petrarch ;
,
98.
of Michael Angelo ;
99.
of Sir Joshua Reynolds;
100.

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266

26U

'I1lEMES.
THEMES.

101. The character of John Milton;
102.
of Sir Matthew Hale;
103.
of Lady Monb1gue;
104.
of Oliver Goldsmith;
105.
of Samuel Johnson ;
106.
of William Cowper;
107.
of l\Iungo Park;
108.
of Jane Taylor;
109.
of Hannah :More;
110.
of Lord Byron;
111.
of Sir Wal ter Scott;
112.
of Samuel 'l'aylor Coleridge;
113.
of Mrs. Hemans ;
114.
of Thomas Arnold;
115.
of Sydney Smith ;
116.
of William Wordsworth;
117.
of Joanna Baillie;
118.
of Thomas De Quincey;
119.
of l\Iozart;
120.
of Warren I-lastings;
121.
of Madame de Stael;
122.
of Baron Humboldt;
123.
of Pascal;
124.
of the Hebrew;
125.
of the Ancient Greek;
126.
of the Ancient Roman;
127.
of the Spartan;
128.
of the Chinese;
129.
of the American Indian;
130.
of the Anglo-Saxon ;
131.
of the Frenchman ;
132.
of the Italian.
133. 'l'he man of impulse.
134. The man of principle.

/

135. The true Statesman.
136. The philosophical Historian
137. 'l'he ·waverley Novels.
138. "'1.e J... ake Poets.
139 .accian Art.
.1
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Al. The style of Addison.
142. The poetry of Isaiah.
143. The lyrics of David.
144. The philosophy of Plato.
145. Neo-i'latonism.
146. The Aristotelian Logic.
147. Habit.
148. Taste.
149. True refinement.
150. Sanguine temperament.
151. The mental culture required in this country.
152. Decision of _character.
153. Fanaticism.
154. Empiricism.
155. Superstition.
156. Pantheism.
157. Radicalism.
158. Moral sublimity.
159. The heroic character.
160. ·Hero-worship.
TIIEJIIES IN ANALYSIS BY DIVISION,

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Science.
Art.
History.
Memoirs.
Poetry.
22
.

257

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6. Dram atic Lit,erature.
7. Fiction.
8. The Fine Arts.
9. The orders of Architecture.
10. Languages.
11. Temperament.
12. Motives.
13. Natural beauty.
THEMES IN ANALYSIS BY PARTITIOK

1. Rhetoric.
2. Invention.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Poetry.
The mineral kingdom.
The vegetable kingdom.
The animal kingdom.
7. A free government.
8. Statesmanship.
9. A Corinthian column.
10. Liberal education.
11. The duties of an American citizen.
- 12. Wit.
13. Resentment.
14. True greatness.
15. Moral heroism.
16. Virtue.
17. Civilization.
18. Decision of character.
THEMES IN EXEMPLIFICATION,

1. The prodigality of nature.
2. The calculations of instinct.
3. The contagiousness of vice.

~

THEMES.

THEME8.

258

-

4.
5.
6.
7.
d.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.

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The triumphs of perseverance.
The timidity of guilt.
The self-devotion of parental love.
The consequences of slight deviations from integrity.
The dangers of procrastination.
National prosperity as depending on morality.·
The power of law in Free States.
The influence of Christianity on art.
Persecution favorable to free thought.
Nothing beneath the care of Providence.
The ingratitude of Republics.
The order of nature.
Magnanimity.
Female heroism.
Prodigality.
Treachery.
Generosity.
Gratitude.
Intemperance.
Power of Conscience.
Early training.
Ambition.
Parental affection.
Christian martyrdom.
Power of example.
Caprices of fashion.
Mutability of popular favor.
Decline of nations.

'l'HE111ES IN COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

1. North America and South America.
2. Europe and Africa.
3. Vegetable life and animal life.

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260

THEMES.

1. Electricity and magnetism.
5. 1\Ionarchy and aristocracy.
6. The British Parliament and the Congress of the
lJnited States.
7. The Hebrew patriarch and the Scottish chieftain .
8. The Arab and the American Indian.
9. The University and the College.
10. The ancient Roman and the modern American Home,
11. Swiss and Italian scenery.
12. Cicero and Demosthenes.
13. Cresar and Alexander.
14. Numa and Lycurgus.
15. Washington and Napoleon.
16. Homer and Virgil.
17. Spenser and Da.nte.
18. Johnson and Addison.
19. Scott and Cooper.
20. Thucydides and Herodotus.
21. Livy and Tacitus.
22. Goethe and Schiller.
23. Ancient and modern art.
24. Hume and Macaulay.
25. Irving and Prescott.
26. Young and Cowper.
27. French and English Drama.
28. The Augustan age and that of Queen Anne.
29. The age of Lorenzo de l\Icdicis and of Louis XIV.
30. German and Italian Music.
31. History and Biography.
32. Poetry and Painting.
33. Science and Art.
34. 'fhe dramatic and the epic.
35. Ancient and modern training in eloquence.
36. The fanatic and the enthusiast..

THEMES.

37.
38.
39.
40.

..

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43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

261

The philosopher and the poet.
The good and the right.
The true and the beautiful.
Morality and beauty.
Realism and conceptualism.
Will and desire .
Recollection and imagination.
Mechanical and artistic invention.
Piety and superstition.
Virtues and graces of character.
Space and time.
Reason and understanding.
Knowledge and belief.
Credulity and skepticism.
Mohammedan fatalism and Christian faith.
Stoic insensibility and Christian resignation.
Policy and principle.
Wisdom and prudence.
Talent and genius.
Instinct and reason.

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1. Was the assassination of Cresar justifiable?
2. Was the feudal system favorable to civilization?
3. Was the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, justifluole?
4. Arc the moderns inferior to the ancients in eloquence?
5. W:is the confinement of Napoleon Bonaparte in St
Ilelena justifiable?
6. Was the execution of Lady Jane Grey justifiable?
7. Were the Crusades beneficial to society ?
8. \Vas Na po Jeon Bonaparte greater in the field or in
.the cabinet?
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9. Was there any supernatural agency m the anc1en t
oracle.s?

10. Is there evidence of a universal deluge out of the
Bible?

11. Is there more happiness in the savage than in the
civilized state?
12. Was the execution of Charles I. justifiable?
13. Is the profession of the Ilar beneficial to society?
14. Is there satisfactory evidence that a more civilized
race occupied the American continent before the existing
Indian tribes?
15. Was the treatment of the Indians by the settlers of
New England justifiable?
16. Is the civilization of ancient Greece and Home generally overraterl ?
17. Was the treatment of Roger Williams justifiable?
18. Has l\Iuham medanism been beneficial to the world ?
19. Were t.l1e Grecian games beneikial?
20. "Was the execut.ion,_of l\Jnjor Andre justifiable?
21. Is there ground for believing that th e Tiriti::ih Empire will be permanent?
22. \Vas the career of Napoleon Ronaparte favorable to
civifo;atinn?
23. ·would the acquisition of Cuba be of advantage to Lhe
United States?
24. Is the principle of Patent Rights founded on wise
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25. Is a paper currency preferaLle to a currcney cxelusively metallic?
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26. Ought military schools to be encouraged?
"
27. Should anonyrnouR 111il1licatious be suppressed by law i
28. Should stockholders be held in<li vi<lually liable for
t.h(' r!Pht~ of illSOlVf'rtt. COrporat,in11:;?
2!1 . Ts a natio11:il 11:1\' y 11Pccs;o: :iry for the lf11itrtl States?

:.:l63

30. Would it be expedient to admit free blacks to the
right _of suffrage in the United States?
3· Is a system of pensions beneficial ?
,!
• Are monopolies expedient?
J. Is the principle of protection by bounties, or discrim
in .ng duties, politically sound?
34. Are convict colonies expedient?
35. Should suffrage be made universal?
36. Is imprisonment for debt justifiable?
37. Is the Roman Catholic religion compatible with free
institutions? '
38. Is a large standing army expedient in the United
States?
39. Ought the press to be le~ally free?
40. ·was the war between the United States and l\Icxieo
justifiable?
41. \Yould th e construction of a TI:tilroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific States by government meanR he experlient?
42. Ought the pecuniary support of religious institutions
to be enforced by law?
43. Ought the power of pardon to be intrusted to the
Executive?
4-1. Ought infidel publications to be suppresse<l by law?
45. Are public executions salutary to morality?
46 . Ts rotation in office expedient?
47. Ought the previous character of a criminal to be reganfo1l in hi~ trial?
48. Ought an infidel to be admitted to testify in a court
of justice?
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49. '\Youl<l the abolishment of priv~teering Le advantageous to the United States?
50. Ought private property on the high seas to be inviolable in war?
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264

THEMES.

51. Ought the Judiciary to be entirely independent of
the Executive department?
52. Is intervention in the domestic concerns of another
nation, unless expressly solicited, justifiable?
53. Is the doctrine of human perfectibility a sound one?
54. Is infidelity on the increase?
55. Are men of thought of greater service to the world
than men of action ?
56. Are popular lectures beneficial ?
57. IR coal of greater value to the world than gold?
58. Is agriculture more favorable to mental culture than
the mechanic arts?
59. Does the English language promise to be universal?
60. Is it probable that free institutions will ultimately
triumph in Burope?
61. Has Spain been benefited by lier colonies?
62. Has the British rule in India been beneficial to that
country?
63. ·was the war between Great Brit.ain and China in
1860 justifiable?
64. Were real miracles wrought by Egyptian magicians?
65. Can the prevalence of despotism in Asia be traced
to physical causes?
66. Is there danger of an aristocracy in the United States?
67. Are internal improvements allowed by the American Constitution?
68. Would the annexation of the Cana<las be advantageous to the United States?
6!). Would the termination of British sway in India be
favorable to India?
70. Is colonization expedient for France?
71. Ought the representative to be bound by the will of
his constituents?

THEMES.

72. l.Jught private mails to be prohibited?
73. Are Bankrupt laws expedient?
Ought polygamy to exclude Utah from the Union?
6. Should wages of labor be regulated by law?
16. Are usury laws expedient?
1 . /
77. Should Sunday mails be allowed?
· / 78. Ought a national paper currency to be authorized?
79. Is it the duty of the United States Congress to establish a uniform currency?
80 . Is silver a better standard of value than gold?
81. Has a State the right to secede from the Union?
82. Is self-expatriation justifiable?
83. Is commerce more beneficial to a nation than agriculture?
84. Is a paper currency sufficiently safe to warrant its
continuance?
85. Ought immigration to be encouraged?
86. Would a further extension of territory be advantageous to the Uni tc<l States?
87. Are monarchies more favorable to literature and tho
arts than republics?
88. Is capital punishment justifiable?
89. Should all corporal punishment be abolisbed from
the criminal code of a State?
90. Is there sufficient ground to warrant the belief that
the Union of the American States will be perpetuated?
91. Ought the J~xecutive to be allowed the exercise of
the veto power?
92. Is the exercise of the veto power, as at present in
t~o United States, desirable?
93. Ought unanimity to be required of juries?
94. Are grades in society necessary?
moral principles ex95. Are associations for promotinO'
0
pedient?

23
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96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.

TllEMES.

Is republi cani sm fa.vorable to literature?
Is there dan ger from an cxccssi\'c population?
Would an international copy-ri g ht law be exped ient?
Would a universal congress of 11ations be expedient?
Ought privateering to be aboli shed?
Have savage 11ations a foll right to the so il?
Is a universal language desirable?
Are populous cities favorable to the best interests of

society?
104. Is party spirit beneficial?
105. ·would the universal preval ence of republicanism be
desirable?
106. Have physical causes inf:lue nce d nati onal character
more than moral cau>WR?
107. Are republi cs peculiarly cliargeable with in grat.it.ude?
108. Ought the colonization of the free blacks of the Uuited
States in Africa with their consent to be cncounigcd?
109. Ought government to pro vid e for the support of the
poor?

110. ·would it be safe and wi ::-e to lease pr ov ision for the
poor to priv ate charity?
111. Shou ld Peace Societies be encouraged?
112. Is the influence of the United States favorable to
morality?
113. Are the principles ofSocinJi sm worthy of prn:iaga.tion?
114. Have savages a right to the soi l to the exclusion of
ci,-ilized men?
115. Has cl im ate more influence on national ehar1cter than
moral causes?
11G. Ou g ht the sale of anlcnt 5pirits, except fo1 use in thJ'
9.rts, to be prohibited by law?
117. 'Vould an exclusively vegetable diet, in t-;rnperate
lntitudes, be favorab le to l1 ca llh ?
118. lfl t.ra11 ~ p11rf.:tf. i1m :1s a p1111i sl1111 e11(. 1~x pcilie1•t. ?

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119. Oup:ht Secret Societies to be encouraged.
120. Is city life more fayorable to social morality than
eountry life?
121. Is the general use of tobacco sanctioned by a Chris..
tian morality?
122. Ought street-mendicancy to be tolerated?
12:3. Are early marriages ad visablc?
12-i. Does proselytism favor the cause of truth?
125. Are offensive wars ever justifiable?
12G. 1J; man a free agent?
127. Is obligation commensurate with ability?
128. Can guilt properly be charged to other than the transgressor himself?
129. Is right founded in utility?
mo. Is lying ever justifiable?
131. Is persecution ever wise?
1:32. Is a man accountable for acts done in a state of intoxication?
13:~. Are games of chance morally right?
13-L Is the maxim, "·whatever is, is right," true?
135. Is a violation of an oath ever compatible -with morality?
13G. Are the writings of Lord Byron favorable to morality?
137. Is the duelist a murderer?
138. Is national prosperity favorable to morals?
139. Is labor a blessing?
HO. Is a m:m accountable for his opinions?
141. Is the maxim, "Our country, right or wrong," ethically sound?
142. Is the degree of respect now generally entertained
for precedents undue?
143. Is pub lic opinion a safe standard of right?
144. Does temptation palliate crim e ?

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THEMES.

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268

m arria ge b etween a Cl1ri stian and :rn Jnfi llcl ri ght?
the p ledge of tota l abs tin ence m ora ll y ri g ht. ?
th e taking of lif'c in sclf-cl cfo nsc j11s Lifi :1hl c '?
a hi g h state of civili zaLion co rnp atiLl c with a low

:nor:tlity?
1'1,!). Ha s an inn ocent convict a ri gl1 t to csc:1pc fr om pun·
iE'hm cnt ?
lGO. Arc l oLt cri cs co mpatibl e with rnor:ili t.y?
lGl. I s p o ~· c rty more f:irnr:ih lc to d1:1r:i ctc r th:1n ri ch es?
1G2. Is Lhc assassiu :ttion o f t.yrn nts crc r j11 f; fifi :d1~?
1G3. D o r eal ev il s cause more s ufrc l'ing Lhan s uch as aro
i11w g i11:1ry?
154. l s t h e progress of scic11 cc unfo vo raLlc to

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prcciaLion of the fine arts?
15 5 . D ocs the progl'css of civili zation tend to r epress military ambitio n ?
1 56 . I s the progress of lc:irnin g fa vo raLl c to cloqncnce?
157. I s JUi l t.on a g rea ter poet than H omcr?
1G8. I s asce ti cis m favorable to r elig ious clwractcr?
IG D. I s th e Lcin g or Go1l cv in ccll in nature?
IGO. Oa n th e i111111 ortalit.y of th e su 11l he pror c1l fr om tho
li g ht of n:tturc?
lGl. Is the nrnlt.ir li cit.y of r eli gious sects favorable to
Chri stianity ?
162. I s .a mttional Church csta.Llish111c11t ret.:vut.:ila1lc with
the sp irit of primiLivc Cluis t.i a nit.y?
1Gi3. Are suLjccts of political morality proper i11 cmcs for
the pnl pit ?
1G4. I s th e suppress ion of imp orta nt t ruth ever ad va ntageous in tl1 c propa g ation of Chri sli ;1 11it.y?
1 65. Ou g ht th e principle of c:1stc to be sa nctioned by
Chr i:;lian 111issio11arics ?
1G6. Ou µ;l1 t civilizati on to 1 c cstccmeLl as a 11 cccssary prep
aration for C hri stiani ty?

269

167. I s any particular system of Church pol~ty of Scriptural obl igation?
1G8. Is a national religion poss ible without a national
Church?
16!). Are judicial oaths consistent with Christian morality?
170. I s forg iv eness compatible with pure morality in a perfe ct gove rnm e nt?
171. Is relig ious obed ience entitled to r eward?
172. Oug ht the readin g o f the Sacred Scriptures to be
required Ly authority in public scho ols?
'
173. Ou g ht the State to enforce the education of all dhildrcn within its jurisdiction?
174 . I s a national syste m of education practicable?
175. Would the establishment of a National University be
expedient?
176. Is the prescription of a uniform course of study for
all members of a Literary Institution expedient?
177. Is it expedient to unite a compulsory manual labor
system with a course of m ental training?
·
178. Arc college commons beneficial?
17!). Ou ght Norm al Schools to be established by the State?
180. Is the local.ion of a Literary Institution in the country prcfcrnhlc to one in th e rity?
18 1. Is it wise to send children to foreign lands for education?
182. Should parochial schools be encouraged?
183 . Is the introduction of the principle of erµul ation in
achoo ls expedient?
184. I s the monitorial system of education generally practicaL!c?
185. Ought school libraries to be furni shed hy State nuthori ty ?
'
186. Is mnemotechny serviceable to mental improvement?
187. Arc the planets inhaLited?

270

THEMES.

188 Can tl1e period of human life be materially prolonged
by a genera l observance of the la ws of l1 ca lth?
189. Has monasticism been a<lvanta geo us to science?
190. Is the multiplication of books favorab le to sc ience?
191. Can the diversity of origin of the hum an race be
proved?
lfl2. Is the discovery of tl1e electric telcgrnph of mcro
value than that of the magnetic nee<lle?
193. Is there valid foundation for a belief m ghosts or
spec ters at the present <lay?
19±. Have the Arctic explorations remunerated in their
contributions to sc ience and commerce for the expen<lit.ure
of money a11<l lifo they liarc iuvolved?
195. Is language of human origin?
196. Ought intention to be taken as the measure of crime?
197. Is extensive reading favorable to the <levelopment of
the poetic sp irit?
198. Are critical reviews beneficial to literature?
199. Is the pulpit more favorable to eloquence than tho
bar?
200. Are the fine arts :favoraLlc to rnornlit.y?
201. Docs eloquence depend more on nature than on art?
' 202. Is ancient poetry more sub li111 c than mo<leru?
203. Is Chri stianity favorable to poetry?
204. Are fictitiou s compositions useful?
205. Is there a universal st.an<l ard of taste?
206. Are popular superstitions favorable to poetry?
207. Is Thu cy<li<lcs a greater hi storian thnn Ta cit.us ?
208 Ilas the form of government any natural influence on
literature?
20D. The more noble, the more humble.
310. There is a lion in the path.
21 l. The irritability of genius.
212. Men of genius deficient in conversation.

THEMES.

213.
214.
215.
216.
217.

271

The dependence of civilization on Ohristrnnity.
The progress of right opinions slow.
No man without influence.
The precariousness of popular favor.
The original unity of the human race.
218. Original diversity of talents in man.
· 219. Original equality in the mental endowments of the
sexes.
220. Genius has its weaknesses.
221. The certainty of the final triumph of truth.
222. True enjoymen t is of a retired nature.
22:3. L ev i t.y of manners is hostile to virtue.
224. Diligence secures success.
225. To be re::;pccted by others, we must respect ourselves.
226. Great diversity of pursuits fatal to success.
227. Self-reliance the condition of true freedom.
228. No one lives for himself alone.
229. Relaxation necessary.
230. ]~xarnple better than precept.
231. l\Ictho<l facilitates execution.
•.)•). Blessings brighten as they take their flight.
2 U-"•
233. The Christinn Sabbath the condition of a sound piety.
234. The expediency ofa National University in the United
States.
235. The study of the ancient classics essential to a liberal
education.
236. The tine arts favorable to piety.
237. The permanence of modern free institutions.
238. The durabilit.y of the union of the American States.
239. Plurality of worlds.
240. M o<le ls are necessary to culture.
241. \Vi>'dom, not time, gives age.
242. Good intentions can never justify evil actions.
213. OlcanlineRs promotes delicacy of mind.

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THEMES.

THEMES.

273
If

244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
2 !9.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
27 4.
275.
276.
277.
1

Employment is true enjoyment.
Vice brings its own punishment.
A good cause makes a stout l1eart.
Little neglect breeds great mischief.
Knowledge is power.
A guilty conscience needs no nccuser.
An unlawful oath is better broken than kept.
Constant occupation prevents temptation.
Doing nothing is doing ill.
God helps them who help themselves.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
No rose without a thorn.
Prevention is better than cur.I(:
The path of virtue is the path of peace.
]~very flow has its ebb.
Fancy flees before the wind.
He that 's ill to himself is good to nobody.
He that. seeks motes gets motes.
The wise man makes a virtue of necessity.
He who would please all, will please none.
To ape a singularity is proof of great vulgarity
Saying and doing are two things.
Example works more than rule.
Self-praise is no commendation.
He who knows himself best, esteems himself least.
He gives double, who gives quick.
Ill got, ill spent.
Opportunity makes the thief.
In union is strength.
'l'o receive favors is to sell freedom.
The wish is father to the thought.
Self do, self ha\·e.
Forgiveness is the noblest rcvcngo.
Good wine needs 110 buHh.

278. lJrosperity is a better test of virtue than adversity.
279. Bnvy is rottenness to the bones.
280. A fault confessed is half redressed.
281. A fault denied is twice committed.
282. Too too will in two.
283. Much ever wunts rnore.
284. '.l'o him who wills, ways arc seldom wanting.
285. He who resolves has God on his side.
286. A little leak will sink a great ship.
287. Who runs fast can not run long.
288. There is a mean in all things.
289. There is a right way for every right deed.
290. 1'J uch praise, little love.
291. Jhd manners are bad morals.
292. As the sowing, so the reaping.
293. One man's fault is another man's lesson.
294. Hastily and well never meet.
295. Fast enough if well enough.
296. Familiarity breeds contempt.
297. Dissimulation is short wisdom.
298. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
299. Labor is the salt of life.
300. That whicl1 we earn is doubly sweet.
301. '.1 0 seek honors is to lose liberty.
302. Politeness is the true ornament of virtuo.
303. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
304. God shapes the back to the burden.
305. ·what can't be cured must be endured.
306. Home is home, be it never so homely.
307. A friend is known in adversity.
308. Sweet wine makes sharp vinegar.
309. Necessity knows no law.
310. Prospcrit.y gains friends.
311. 'l'he death of the wolf is the life of the lamb,
1

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274

'l'JLE~rns.

312. Murder will out.
3 13. Fo rlu11 e favors Lit e brave.
3 14-. A r ollin g c;to 11 e gath ers 11 0 rn oss.
3lfl. Happiness li es more in acLion than in possession.
31G. Th e ideal g ives m ore pleasure than the r eal.
317. The fruits of lab or arc swee ter than the gifts of for.
tune.
318. 'I' ) be good is to be happy.
3 1!) . Guilt hathb o h oli1lay.
320. Once bit, Lwicc sl1y .
32 1. Know one false Rlcp is 11 e'c r retrieve d.
322. Violets pluckccl will never grow again.
323. Co nscience 111ak es cowar d ~ of' us all
324 . A g ood co nsc ien ce is bcUcr than a th ousand shield s.
32G . A co ntented mind is a cont inual feast .
32G . Take ca re of th e pe nce, :rnd th e pounds will take
care of th c1u sclves.
327. Tak e good h eed will snrcly speed .
328. Th e more haste the worse speed.
329. Even the su n is not without spots.
33 0. El'ery li t?:h t must hnYe Ro me shaJow .
3:31. J•: vc ry birLl thinks its own nest best.
3:·\2. l\lnn never is, but. always t o be Ll cH t.
3 ~l3. 'l'li cre is a c roo k in eve ry Jut.
33-! . A s litch in ti111e saves 1Ji11 c.
335. Abi lit y a nd necess ity dwell in th e same cabin.
33 G. l'ol' c rl.y is the rnull1 c r of the arl.s.
337. ll ab i t is seco!lll nature .
338 . A man is known Ly hi s compani ons .
339. Virtue is its own reward .
3-!0. A good action is nev-er lost.
3-!l. Virtue alo ne is h :q 1pi11 ess Lelow.
342. Do in g nothing is dui11g ill.
343. 'Voll begun is h alf do11 c.

TllEMES.

344.
345.
346.
347.
348.
349.
3rl0.

351.
352.
353.
354.
355.
356.

357.
358.
359.
360.

3Gl.
3G2.
363.
3G4.
3 65.

3G6.
3G7.

3G8.
3G9.
370.
371.
372.
373.

276

The first stroke is half the battle.
l\Ia ny a smi ling face conceals a broken heart.
Seed sown out of season never thriYes.
Trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle.
Honesty is the best policy ..
Ill-go tten goods seldom prosper.
Straws sho w th e current.
Order is needful for improvement.
Order is H eaven's first law.
He that is down can fall no lower.
The cloud which wrnps the present hour,
Serves but to brighten all our future days.
All evils natural are moral goods.
All lay the load on the willing horse.
Forewarned is forearmed.
A miss is as good as a mile.
An oak is not fell ed with one blow.
A wager is a fool 's argument.
By others' faults wise men correct their own.
Charity begins at h ome but does not end there.
Deserve success and you shall co mm and·it.
Do what you ough t and come what can.
Every one puts his own fault on the times.
He lose th nothing that keeps God for his friend.
He that a lways complains is never pitied.
If you would enjoy the fruit pluck not the flower.
Losers are always in the wrong.
Man proposes, God disposes.
Much is expected where mu ch is g iven.
Nothing impossible to a willing mind.
Rome was not built in a day.

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276

THEM ES .

.t

THEMES.

277

:33. Last days of Charles V.
J\IIS CF. LLANEO US TIIF.i\IES.

1.

·:;'

l\Io<ler~ co mm c rce .

2. l\lob:un mc<la.n ism.
3. The Lutheran lteformat.ion .
4. The ·war oft.he Roses in England.
u. The Rpa 11i sh Trn[11i sitio11.
6. Th e J!Jnglish Com mou wealth.
7. Chivalry.
8. The Feudal Syste m.
!'!. The progress of civilization in the world.
10. 'J'hc ch:iract.cri stics of modern Europea n civilization ,
11. The Papacy.
12. The final triumph of Christianity.
13. The transition from sup erstition to skepticism.
14. The spirit of the age.
15. The Press.
16. The melan choly of genius.
17. Asceticism.
1 8. 'The spirit of cen soriousness.
19. Imitation and servi li ty.
20. Uenuin e politene:;;s.
21. I11d cpen<len ce of cli:irnctcr.
22. Th e ent.husi:i sm of genius.
23. Se lf-prnise.
24. Litera ry fri end ships.
25. 'l'hc man of letters.
26. Se ntim e11tal biogrnphy.
27 . Th e man of one Look.
28. Jlarodi es .
29. Pla g iari sm.
30. Reli g ious novels.
3 1. Photography.
32. In stinct.

34. Appearances not to be trusted.
35. The value of character.
36. 'Locomotion without friction.

37 . Locomotiou wiLhont grnvity.
38. The nature of method.
3!J.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45 .
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.

61'

The importance of order.
Idl eness.
Genius without industry.
The indestructibleness of hope in man.
The danger of despising an enemy.
The i<lcal of a perfect woman.
The adva,ntages to the world from the invention of
printing;
from the mariner's compass;
from the telescope;
from the steam -engine;
from the electric tel egraph.
The danger of despising little faults in character.
Female influence.
Quarrels between friends.
The value of a gift lies in the disposition of the giver
Riches good only as means.
Equanimity.
Excessive care.
The foibles of great characters,
Living for self.
'fh e attractions of modesty.
The necessity of recreation.
What is true recreation?
Resist the beginnings of evil.
Popular applause.
The harmonies of nature.
No one without influence.

THEMES.

278

GG. 'J'hc meanest member of society r mipou sible for his
influ ence.
G7. Christianity the true philosophy.
GS. Political cqualit.y.
Ga. Hi;; ht of pmpPrt.y in man.
70. Th e tlr c~s 11 ot t.h e man.
71. l'ri11 cipl es, 11 ut lllCll.
72. Th e press the palladium of liLerty.
73. Hope of' rcwanl as a m oti ve .
74. Th e wise di stribution of tirnc.
75. l <' ili al (1uty.
7G . l\lalcrnal co nstancy.
77. Early risin g.
78. Misery anJ gu ilt.
79. All things ri!.!;ht in politics.
80. Th e d cfo~1 se ; f crime by an upri ght lawyer.
· 81. The study of hi story.
82. ] <~ m ul ation .
83. Th e nrnltiplication of books.
c11 ess of aim.
84. Si1wl
b
Subord
inati on of pursuits in lifo.
85.
8G. I11fluc11 ec of cr iti cal r ev iews.
87. l\la nncrs in an cient ltomc aml in Loudon.
88. Th e cu lti vatio n of lette rs without any active profe3.
Bl On .

89. Literature as a profession.
90. Association of ideas.
91. Th e hcau tif'ul.
92. Th e determination of the ri ght fr om the expedient.
!J3. Th e co rn parativc value of governmental and popuhr
patro na ge to :rnthors.
94. :Public am.use rnents.
!JG. l <'aslii o11 aL lc watcring-pl:iccs.
9G. Th e 8ourccs of the ] <~nglish la11 gungc.

THEMES.

279

97. 'l'he sta nd ard of criticism.
!JS. li'acts and principles.
99. History and the philosophy of history.
100. The support of religion by la w.
101. The r elation of the Church to the State.
102. Didactic and ethical poet.ry.
103 . .l\fo<lels in Engl i .~h I it.era Lure.
104. The inH uence of criti cism on originality.
105. The balance of power in Europe.
106. The influence of Roman gladiatorial exhibitions;
107.
of Spanish bull-fig hts ;
108.
of the Olympic games;
109.
of modern theatrical exhibitions;
110.
of public examinations in female semi·
nanes ;
111.
of College commencements;
112.
of national fairs;
113.
of national holidays.
114. The destiny of the English lang uage .
115. 'l'he causes of deterioration in the human form.
116. The effect of state currencies in deranging commerce
117. 'l'h e progress of English literature.
118. Popularizin g scie nce.
119. Ill-hea lth in professional and literary men.
HO. The poetry of a youthful and of a mature nation.
121. The g rounds of political security.
122. National interventio n.
123. The narrow-mi11dedness of skepticism.
124. The mental energy of faith.
125. Universal suffrage.
126. 'fhe cultivation of a proper American literature
127. Rotation in office.
128. The existrncc of an open polar ·sea.
129. The support of th e poor by law.

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280

TH E!IIES.

281

THEMES.

i:

130. 'rh c m oral tend e ncy of th e ph_ysica l sc iences.

ml.

Th e pro of of t he irnmortalit.y of tlic soul without

rc\·cla ti on.
132. Th e confusion of tong ues, its occasion :rn<l effects.
133. Th e statistics of crime.
134. Th e g ro wth of an cien t R.omc.
1:15 Th e use of ball a<l s in rntl c :i gcs.
136. Sp okeu an<l written lan g ua ~c.
137. The comparative ad\'antn gcs of free-labor and slave\ahor.
The depend ence of th e rniml on the b ody.
Pro vidence in human hi story .
The power of the imli vidual on motlcrn society .
Th e s tudy of political eco nomy.
The <l epend ence of litera t ure a n<l art on patronage.
l ao-e
T- he bo·eo \oo-ica
a
o of th e world.
144. Th e co nflict of laws.
145 . 'l'b e conflict of du ties.
146 . 'l'he study of the rrwth ematics ;
of lh e ancient class ics ;
147.
of
natural sc ie nce.
148.
The
inil
ucncc
of Chri sti a ni ty on domes tic life;
14!).
on
th
e
elevati
on a nd cul t ure of wowan;
150.
on th e culture of th e a rts ;
lGl.
on law and politi cal fr eedom.
152.
153. Consc ience as co ntroll ed by custom.
15,L Distin cti ons in society.
155. Self- cduca t.ion.
15G. Anonym ous publications.
157. N ation al rn ouum ents.
158. The infirmities of genius .
159. Lyceum s.
] GO. The power of the will over pliysical di sease.
1G1 . Th e in graliturlc of republic!'.

138.
13!).
140.
141.
142.
143.

162. The influence oft.he universal diffusion of knowledge
lG3. The rel ation s of im agination and sensibility to age.
164. A rt and m orality.
1G5. Public opinion as a criterion of right.
A belief in immortality as affecting literature and art.
]foforrn nnd r eformers.
The cullivation of the senses.
A hnppy old age.
Th e influence of miracles on the character of the Jews.
The progress of learning in periods of political agitation.
172. Ancient and m odern oratory.
173. The pulpit orato ry of France and England.
174. Co mmerce and art.
175. The dege neracy of the nge.
176. Every ideal a possible reality.
177. Seeking popularity.
178. 'The love of truth.
179. lH utability of taste.
180. E arly prejudices.
181. M oral sublimity.
182. The duties of American citize ns .
183. The power of irnagi1~ ation on happiness.
184. The rewards of literary labor .
185. 'l'he professio n of the teach er; its rank, importance,
alfd reward s.
18G. The relig ious Iu stilutions of E gypt., Greece, nnd Rome.
187. Th e eomparnt.ive infln enee of the study of the ancient
classics of math ematics and mental science on intell ectual
cultu re.'
188: The influe nce on the mind of the seasons, respectively
s11rin g, s umm er , au tumn , and winter.
189. 'l'he poli Li ca l prospec ts of Europe.
190. The eccentricities of genius.
2-!

1 G6.
1G7.
1G8.
16!).
170.
171.

..

THEMES.

284

285

THEMES .

252.
253.
254.
255.
256.

Accomplishments.
Memorials of great actions.
Influence of a spirit of distrust.
Generosity of sentiment.
Ambition as a motive to literary exertioi ..

257. Ma gic.
258. The Koran.
259. The Mohammedan Religion.

260. Eden.
261. Japan.
262. Palestine.
263. J·crusalcm .
264. The Roman Empire.
265. Oriental customs.
266. l\li rrorf'.
267. I\ niYeS and forks.
268. Newspapers.
269. Public libraries.
270 . 'rhe ludicrous.
271. 'J'he Bastile.
272. The tree of a thousand uses.
273 . Alchemy.
274. Excelsior.
275. The poetesses of ancient Greece.
276. Earth's battle-fields.
277. The love of fame.
278. 'rhe standard of tasle.
27!). The scholar' s aim.
280. 1Dxcessivc confidence.
281. ]i;xtrwagant expectations.
282. The early neglect of mental culture.
283. Fashion.
284. The Aurora Borealis.
28f>. focl1c r [J:~-

286.
287.
288.
289.
290.
2!) l.
292.
293.
294.
295.
2!)6.

E arly impressions.
Genius.
Power of Conscience.
Formality.
Proselytism .
.I nq uisi tiveness.
Perseverance.
Early piety.
The emptiness of human greatness.
·
Duties to inferiors.
Methodical reading.
2!)7. Hasty judgments.
298. The difficulty of eradicating bad habits.
299. Experience, the school of wisdom.
300. The study of discourse as a means of culture.
301. 'l'he limits to true freedom in man.
302. No one lives for himself alone.
303. The power of association.
304. The face an index of the mind.
305. Science, the handmaid of religion.
306. Study to mind your own business.
307. The abuses of power in republics.
308. Spirit of late European revolutions.
309. Study of the human heart.
310. Supe1:ficial reading.
311. Encouragement to philanthropic effort from the pres
ent state of the world.
312. Desire of change.
313. Culture of eloquence in the United States.
314. The trials of genius.
315. Influence of moral feeling on a refined taste.
316. The moral influence of the Christian Sabbath.
317. 'rhe relative value of the sciences of mechanics, chem·
istry, :rn<l astronomy.

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286

THEM ES .

318. Ima 0(Tinati on in the l1i storia11.
.
3 19. The co mparati ve va lue of the rn ctalfl, go lu, silver, and
lrOll.

32 0. 'fh c comparative value to man of the h orse, the cow,
and the sheep.
321. Th e co rnparat.i ve value in cultivating U1c taste of
poetry, painti ng, anJ music.
322 . Th e co 111parati ve value of th e Church, the press, anJ
the sch ool ·l1 ousc, as clc111 c11ts of civi li zation.
:12:L Th e r:111 k or co ior, :;; li :1pc, and 111 0 1 iu11 , :1s fort11S or
beaut.y .
32-1. Arc p opular supc rs tit.ion s or cn li gli tcncJ opi nions
m ost favo ra ble to poetry?
325 . I s tl1 e literature of Ame rica Llcstincu to rece ive more
ben efit or dolriu1 c11t fr om the rni x t.urc of races 011 it s so il?
326. H as th e Fp irit of loy:ilty dcg;cncratcu or on ly changed
.
its fo rm of ex press ion in motlcrn ti111 cs?
32 7. Arc t he Ji vcrsitics of indi vidual character more attn ·
bu t:tLle to physica l or to rn oral causcc:?
328. I s the increase of wc:d th favorable to rcfin cJ morality?
32!J. Can more tha.n two par ties in a free co untry be long
sustai11cll?
330. l s the minute di stribution of lab or fa vorabl e to social
prog ress?
.
3;n. I s th e popularit y of a literary work a tru stworthy test
of its rn crits?
3:32. I s ll1 c world atlv:111ci11s in 111oralit.y?
333. JR mora l or phy8ic:il v i o l c n cc-l1oldi11 ~ up lo con·
t c 111 pt. or Li11di11 g to th e ~ l : 1k c, 111ore i111d1ri stia11?
:-tH. I s the loss of sight or of' hearin g the grc:ttcr calam·
ity?
3::5. I s lu x ury morn formi<laLle to a Hcpublic th :rn to a
Monarchy?

THEMES.

287

336. Which of the learned professions gives largest promise of success ?
337. I s there more virtue in the educated than in the
illiterate classes?

3~8". Whi ch of . the art.s, architecture, painting, poetry, or
mu sic 1s most serviceable to relio·ion?
.
"'
..,93 !) ·. ' Vhtch
of the four
,
, Ita ly,
. countries , Britain , France
d
G
an
1eece, has mo st of rnteres t for the American traveler?
340 .. Which is the hig hest of the arts: painting, poetry
or music ?
'
. 341. .rs the hi sto ry. of civilizati on bes t studied in the prog·
1ess of ideas and sentiments or of socia l events?
342. I s the dict ate of the individual co nscience of higher
auth ority than legislative prece pt?
343. Does civilization owe mo re to science or to art?
. 344. Is contemporaneous or posthumous fame more desu·ablc ?

3,15. Docs nature or man present the highest subjects for
poetry or art?
346. Is anarchy or despotism preferable?
347. I s lig ht mate rial?

348. What is the true interpretation of the " six days" of
creati on in the l\Iosaic reco rd?
34!J . Has Greece or Rome co ntributed most to the advancement of civili za tion?
9
II ·
0 ;; 0
• 0
·
a; e the physical or the metaphysical sciences con
tnL11ted m os t. to human p rogress ?
3G. l · ,,f:;li. ould e cl uca t"1011 aim
·
to develop Rymmetric:illy all
the .fa cu lties, or only such as nre prom inent in th e iu<liviuual
pupt!?
0 !;~
v"': Is .ti·icre any g roun d to supp ose that the term of hu.
man life Will be materia lly proloiJCred?
353. l s monarchy or repubJica1~ism more favorable to na•
tion al stre ngth?
9

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THEMES.

288

289

'l'IIE1\1ES.

354. I s the orator more indebted to n ~1ture or to ar:?
Not a sin gle path
355.
Of thought I trcaJ, but th at it lcaJs to Go J.
Desire
not to li ve long:, but to live well;
356.
l
ow
lonrr
we liv e not vcnrn, bnt nctions tell.
I
~
'
.J
\Yorks
a1Jju11r11cJ
11 avc 111 a11 y stays ;
357.
L ong Llcrn urs breed new dcla.ys.
and tim e is fl ee ting.
358. Art is lonrr
0
359. Tim e flows from in stants ; and of th ese, each ouo
ShoulJ be estee med as if it were alone.
360. The dignity of' tru th is lost
·with rnu ch protestin g.
361. Tru th needs no fl owers uf speech.
362. Brror is frui tful, truth is only one.
363. Tru th crushed to ear th sh all rise again. ·
364. 'l' o do is to succeed.
365 . Virtue may be assa iled b ut never hurt.
3GG. Virtue in itself co mmand s its happiness.
367.
All I.rue glory rests,
All praise, all safety, and all happiness
Upon the rnoral law.
368. Th e mind has a lang ua ge.
36D. A ll hum an wisdom to divine is folly.
370. \Vh en sorrows co me, they come not single files,
Bnt in balLaliun s.
37 1. Th e untau ght harm ony of sprin g .
:n2. Y c stars that nrc the poe try of heaven .
:J7:J . ''l' is not in morta ls to comm :rnd success ;
Hn t we 'JI du more, Se mproniu s : "·e 'll deserve it.
~n4 . S ncc c~s mak es f'uo ls ad lllired , mak es villains houc~t.
375 . Bewa re of' dc::pcratc steps. Th e darkest day,
J,ivc till to-n1 01Tu w, will lia.vc pa ssed away.
;~7tj. 'Tis Cliri sLia.11 ~l: i c n cc mak es uur day.

R77. The greatest evil man can know
Bears no proportion to the sad suspense.

378. Better confide and be deceived a thousand times by

379.
380.
381.

382.

383.
384.
385.
386.
387.
388.
389.
390.
391.
392.

393 .
394.
395.
396.
397.
398.
399.

treacherous foes,
Than once accuse the innocent, or let suspicion mar
repose.
\Ve pine for kindred natures to mingle with our own.
Talkers are no good doers.
Hide not thy tears; weep boldly and be proud
To give the flowing virtue manly way.
'Tis to thy rules, 0 Temperance, that we owe
All pleasures, which from health and strength can
flow.
'l'o me the meanest flower that blows can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.
When ignorance is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise.
The sweetest freedom is an honest heart.
If little labor, little are our gains.
A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
How blessed the farmer's simple life.
The proper study of mankind is man.
The mind does shape itself to its own wants
And can bear all things.
He that may hinder mischief,
And yet permits it, is an accessory.
H e jests at scars that never felt a wound.
Merit was ever modest known. ·
In contemplation of created things
By steps we may ascend to God.
Passion when deep, is still.
There's no such word as fail.
Praise is but virtue's shadow.
The rainbow dies in heaven and not on earth.
F aults are easier looked in than redressed.

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290

THEMES.

0 reputation! dearer for than life.
All things decay with time.
Slander meets no regard from noble minds.
Solitude is sometimes best societ.y.
I; or tune's an u11dcr 110wcr, that is herself
Comman<lc<l by desert.
405. Goodness is beauty in its best estate.
'l'be soul
406.
Is strong t11at trusts in goodness, and shows clearly
It may be trusted.
407. Man should dare all t11ings tliat lie knows are right
408. He that hath nature in l1im, must be grateful.
409. Half of the ills we hoard within our hearts,
Are ills because we hoard them.
410.
God hath yoked to guilt
Her pale tormentor-misery.
411.
He that acts unjustly,
Is the worst rebel to himself.
412. All the good we haYe rests in the mind.
413. Joy flies monopolists; it calls for two.
4:14. True h::ippiness, if understood,
Consists alone in doing good.
415. An honest man's the noblest work of God.
416.
When th e lieart is light
With l1ope, all pleases: nothing comes amiss.
417. Humility is eldest-born of Yirtue.
418. Enjoyment stops where indolencfl begins.
419. Death is tlic crown of iife.
420. 0 what a t.:w gled web we weave,
When first we practice to deceive.
421. Good is best when soonest wrought.
422. Tide and wind stay no man's plca::oure.
423. Procrastination is tl1 e thief of time.
421. True dignity is never gained by plar.e.

400.
401.
402.
403.
401.

THEMES.

291

·425. Who never doubted, never half believed.
426. We dream what is about to happen.
427. What is bey?nd the mean is ever ill.
428. None but cowards lie.
429. A life of honor and of worth
Has no eternity on earth.
430. The child is father of the man.
431. Trust reposed in noble natures
Obliges them the more.
432.
Minds
By nature great, are conscious of their crreatness
~n.d hol_d it mean to borrow aught fro: flatter/
433. T is easier for the generous to forgive,
Than for offense to ask it.
434. They who forgive most shall be most forgiven.
435. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful.
436. The good are better made by ill,
As odors crushed are sweeter still.
437. Who soars too near the sun, with golden winl?S,
l\Ielts them.
~
438. Virtue alone is true nobility.
439. Times of joy and times of woe,
Each an angel-presence know.
440. Appearances deceive.
44J. l\Ien are not what they seem.
442. Truth dwells not in the cloud:;.
443. For obstinacy's ne'er so stiff,
As when 'tis in a wrong belief.
444. Brevity is the soul of wit.
445. Calamity is man's true touchstone.
446 . Cheerful looks make every dish a feasl
447. Slow pass our days in childhood.
448. 'l'o cl10ose is to create.
449 Nothing is constant but a virtuous mind.

THEMES. ·

292

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293

THEMES .

450. Contentment gives a crown,
Where fortun e hath tl e11i e<l it.
451. 'rho intent aml not I.h e J ce<l
I s in our power ; :111<1, thc rcf'n rc, who dares greatly,
D ocs g reatl y.
452 . Tru e wit is nature to acha11t age dressed.
453. Wi sdom is rare; wit abonn<ls.
454.
A woman 's will
1s no t so stro ng in ange r as h er skill.
455 . In this grnnd \1·hcc l, tl1 c \l"orhl , "·c 're spokes made all .
456. I ne'er respec t the reatly l.011 g uc
That augurs sorrow to th e young.
Zeal and du ty :n e not slow,
457.
But on occasion's fore loc k watchful wait.
458. ·what most we wish , with ease we fan cy near.
459. Oft fr om apparent ill our bl es:-in gs rise.
460. At e very trifle sco rn to take offense.
461. Never too old to learn .
462. "r is prov idence alone sec ures,
In ev ery change, bolh min e and yours.
463. 0 wad so me po"·cr th e gi lli e gie us
T o see oursels as others see us.
464. Hi gh worth is eleva ted pl ace .
465. 1\I eans h ave no merit., if one end amiss.
466. H earts are propr ietors of all applause.
467 . Ri gl1t end s and meanR mak e wisd om.
468. Bach man 1..iuilds hilll self.
460. A ll men arc abou t to li ve .
470. All prornise is poor dil ato r y man.
471. Our hearts ne'er bow but to superior \\"Orth.
472. A ll men think all men rn01:tal but th emselves.
473. Th ere is no vice so silllplc, lrnt. a!'s11m cs
Some mark of virtue 011 its outward parts.
474. l\lorning~ arc mysteries.

475.
476.
477.
478.
47!J.
480.
• 481.
482.
483.
484.

Sweet are the uses of adversity.
Wisdom and goodness to the vile, seem vile.
Virtue is beauty.
'fhere 's no blemish but the mind.
Fie upon but y et.
Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works.
What st.ranger breastplate than a heart untainted?
Our content is our best having.
Things out of hope are compassed oft with venturing.
How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds
l\lakes ill deeds done.
485. The hand of little employment hath the daintier sense.
486. For 'tis the mind that makes the body rich.
487. I hav~ immortal longings in me.
488. Silence is the perfectest herald of joy.
489. Surfeit is the father of much fast.
490. Men's evil manners live in brass; their virtues we
write in water.
491. l\Ien, at some times, are masters of their fates.
492. Our thoughts are ours, their ends none of our own.
4!J3. Angels are bright still, though the brightest fell.
494. Grief softens the mind.
495. Care is no cure, but rather corrosive,
For things that are uot to be remedied.
496. What's gone, and what's past help,
Should be past grief.
Guiltiness will speak,
497.
Though tongues were out of use.
4!J8. What win the guilty, winning what they seek?
499. A light heart lives long.
500. The forgeries of jealousy.
501. l\luch vii·tue in if.
502. Ingratitude is monstrous.
503. Unstained thoughts do seldom dream of evil.

THEMES.

504.
505.
506.
507.
508.
509.
510.
511.
512.
513.
514.
515.
516.
517.
518.
519.
520.
521.
522.
523.
524.

That we would do
We should do when we would.
The web of our life is of a mingled yarn.
This world's not for aye.
It is a great sin, to swear unto a sin,
But greater sin to keep a sinful oath.
Words are no deeds.
Suspicion always haunts tl1e gui lty mind.
Companionship in woe, doth woe assuage.
Virtue is bold , and goorlne!'s never foarful.
\Ve are born to do benefits.
Ill blows the wind that profits nohorly.
By nature's law, what may be, nrny be now.
How many things by season Hrasoned are
'l'o their right praise and true affection.
Life's cares are comforts.
Time destroyed is suicide.
'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours .
Vain is the world, but only to the vain.
Nature is Christian.
lleason pursued is faith.
Fondness for fame is avarice of air.
All should be prophets to themselves.
A blaze betokens brevity of life.

SIM1·...,.fl!'IED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

295

.APPENDIX V.
811\IPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPI,ANATIONS.

FoR the purpose of introducing less developed minde
more easily into tlie art of composing discourse, the following more simple exercises, in the form of faulty plans to be
corrected, with models of corrections, arc arldcd here. These
exercises may be greatly varied and ex tend ed, as well as more
perfoctly adapted to the men tal condition of the pupil, either
by the teacher or by the pupil. The teacher may prescribe
. themes or exercises, or the pupil may be left freely to select
for himself.
There are added some models of exercises designed to
show in what different ways the same theme will be developed under the application of the different processes. It
is proper ,..to say that the models given were originally presented in class.exercises on those themes, and, of course,
without reference to the use now made of them.

i

!I

SrnPLE NARRATION.

Faulty Plans to be Corrected.

I. THEI\IE.-Second Stage of Christiana's Pilgrimage.
1. Christiana and her companions came to the house of
the Interpreter.
2. On their way, the boys are tempted to pluck some
fruit.
3. The fruit belonged to the enemy, which if they had
11.nown the fact, would have greatly alarmed them.

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297

SIMPLIFIED EXEIWISES AND EXPJ,ANATJONS.

biMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

4. But they passed on undisturbed.
5. The Interpreter takes them to the Significant Rooms:
where they learn many good lcssous.
6. They were assailed on tlicir way by two 111-favorcd
persons.
7. Believer comes to tlieir rescue.
8. 'fhey learn from this to seek a protection on their
journey.
9. After supper and profitable conversation with the Interpreter, they retire for sleep.
10. Christian had been entertained at the same house in
his pilgrimage.

3. Hcriucsted his mother nearly a year before this,' to
:tsk I• is father's permission to go abroad.
4. His mother passionately refused.
5. Having been brought up to no trade, his head wae
fiiled with rambling thoughts.
6. Ile wns well educated by his father.
7. His father earnestly warned him of the dangers of a
roaming life.
8. Their counsels made a strong impression at the time,
but soon were forgotten.
9. When at Hull, he was tempted by a comrade to ship
for London, hnving been promised that he should be carried
free of charge.
10. He went off without taking leave of his parents.

J

:i

In correcting this plan, it will appear that the last of
these items, No. 10, introduces another subject. It must
be left out, or brought in only incidentally. Then, the items
2, 3, and 4 belong together, and should appear under one
head. The fourth is not wisely selected as a leading point
in the narrative. For the same reason, Nos. G and 7, and. 8,
should appear as one. Still further, the onlcr of time 1s
not observed. The plan corrected would appear tlrns:
MODEL OF CORRECTION.

1. Christiana's boys pluck fruit belonging to an enemy,
putting them in peril, which, however, they escape.
2. The pilgrims are assailed, Lut delivered by a Reliever,
which admonishes them to procure a guide aud. protectcr.
3. They reach the In terpretcr's house, where they visit,
before sleep, the Significant Rooms.

II. 'l'HEllIE.-Robinson (),.usoe's Early Life.
1. Born in York, in 1632.
2. Went to Hull and took ship for London, September
lst, 1651.

'.'

•

III. THEJIIE.-Grace Darling.
1. Born at Bamborough, Nov. 24, 1815.
2. She wns the daughter of a light-house keeper.
3. Many shipwrecks have occurred off this coast.
4. In 1782, a large brig was dashed to pieces.
5. In 1823, four vessels were wrecked in a single gale.
6. ·when Grace was twenty-two years old, the steam~r
Forfarshire was driven upon the breakers, and broken in two.
7. Nine of the passeng'iJrS and crew clung to a part of
the wreck that was held upon the breakers.
8. They were descried by Grace and her parents at day•
break.
9. They three were the only persons in the light-house.
10. They undertook, notwithstanding the terrific surging
of the sea, to rescue the sufferers.
11. Grace had never before aided in propelling the boat.
l 2. Her father was unwilling to make the perilous attempt
13. Grace prevailed over his fears.
14. All the nine wern saved.

298

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

IV. TIIEME.-King

Phili'p'.~ War,

1. In this war, which was carried on with the most
savage atrocity on the part of the Indians, more than six
hun<lred houses were burned, and as many colonists perished
in the field.
2. 'fhe Indians lost a thousand men at one time, in
Rho<le Island, in 1675, and two or three times Lhat number
in 1676.
3. Philip was the son of Massasoit, nnd became chief of
his tribe, on the death of his father, in 1GG2.
4. He was with reluctance drnw11 into the contest with
the colonists, Ly the anlor of young rnen in hi s tribe .
5. He influenced the Indian tribes generally to unite
with him in the war.
6. He was nt Inst killed by a faithless Indian.
7. Philip's death brought the war to an end.
8. The occasion of the war was the trial and execution
by the whites, of three Indian s, for 111urdcri11g- a rni~sionnry.
9. In this war, Deerfield wns lrnrncd; Brookfield set on
fire; a company of young men were massacred at Bloody
Brook; and the whole country kept in alarm and anxiety.

AnsTRACT NARRATION.

I. TnEME.-Cruelt.y of Josrph's Brethren.
1. Joseph was the son of Hachel.
2. The sous of Jacob, who hated Joseph, were the half.
brothers of Joseph.
3. Joseph dreamed that his older brothers would in
future lif'e be suLjcct to him.
4 . His father loved J oscph, because ho was born in his
'.)}d age.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

299

5. The other brothers hated Joseph on this account.
6. When the opportunity offered, they determined tc
kill him.
7. Joseph had a second dream, which imported that not
only his brothers but his father should do him reverence.
8. This enraged his brothers the more.
. 9 .. They did not finally kill him; but sold him into
Egypt.
10. Jacob was greatly afflicted when his envious and deceitful sons told him ,Joseph was killed

II. THEME.-Pascal's .Mathematical Studies.
1. He showed a desire to study geometry at the a"'e of
twelve years, which his father prohibited .
e
2. His father told him what the science of geometry was.
3. With this informat!on, he made his own figures with
his room, and made his own names, calling a
charcoal,
circle "a round," and a line "a bar."
4. He studied out and proved over thirty of the propositions of Euclid, without aid of book or teacher, when he was
discovered by his father.
5. He always was curious about the veasons of things, .
and was never satisfied till he understood them clearly.
6. Before he took up geometry, observing a sound made
at table by striking a plate with a knife, he experimented on
sounds, and at the age of twelv·e wrote a treatise on sounds.
7. After his father discovered his studies in geometry,
he gave him a Euclid to read, but only in recreation hours
which he improved so successfully that ho became a leadin~
member of a society of savans.
8. At tho ago of nineteen, ho constructed, while suffering
. ucute pain, a calculating machine.
··
9. Before this, he had written, at the ago of 11ixteen, a

in

.300

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS •

treati se on conic sectio ns, prououn cCLl to be supe ri or to any
previous work on the science that had appeared since the
time of Archimedes.

III. 'fIIEllIE.-Story of Colbert as a Financier.
1. J ean Baptiste Colbert was apprenticed to a woolendraper.
2. At the age of fifteen, his master found him intently
reading history.
3. Ile wa s at, that age profi cient in arithmetic, of which
he wa s very fond.
4. His master se nd s him with specimens of cloth to a
banker, with the prices fixed. The hanker takes a piece of
the highest price, hut by mistake r etains a piece of an inferior quality.
,
.
.
5. Baptiste curries h ome the money for the cqstl1cr piece;
discovers on the return of the porter the mistake, and, notwithstanding the opposition of his master, who wished to take
advantage o.f the mistake of the banker, returns the excess
of money, and then pays over to his master the just cost of
the goods.
G. Hi s master, in a passion, drives him from his business.
7. The banker, hearin g of the matte r :i•:<l having been
struck with the artlessho11cst.y of the hr;, and with hi s gcnerou:; rese ntment at the offer lo him of a reward for his honesty, visits his father and proposes to take Baptiste into his
bankin g -house.
8. When but an apprentice to the woolen-draper, he was
ridiculed by his master for say ing, one day , that if he were
a prime minister, he woulJ not be so liarsh and arbitrary.
Thi;; remark evinced hi R aRpiring thoughts when hat a boy.
9. Hi s diligence, fid clit.y, and skill, reco rnmcmlcJ him tc
Ca,rdinal :Mazarin, who made him privy counselor.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS. .

301

10. From this station he rose, under Louis XIV, to be
comptroller-general of finance.
11. When in the banking-house, he diligently studied into
all the details of the business, and made himself a thorougQ
financier.
12. Ile traveled at this period over France, as agent for
the firm. He in these travels made commerce his study.
13. He acquired in these ways that reputation for hon.esty, that skill in his great pursuit, that intelligence, and
those habits of application, through which he became the
great benefactor of France, developing its resources, e('ltabli shi ng its credit, introducing the industri~l arts and foster.
ing education, literature, and the fine arts.
·
IV. THEl\IE.-Rcpentance.

1. A friend talked earnestly wiih me.
2. I was very sorry.
3 . I determined to reform.
4. The difficulties in the way of repentance are very great.
5. I was convinced I had done wrong.
6. I went resolutely and confessed my fault.
7. Some of my companions told me it was foolish to be
so sad, or to trouble myself about such a thing.
8. I withstood all their bad influence, and rejoice I was
wise enough to begin amendment.
9. The first opportunity that presented, I carried out my
purpose.
Sll\IPLE DESCRIPTION.

I. THEl\IE.-llfy Study Table.
1. It stands in the farther corner of the room.
2. It has a curious history, as appears from the cuts on
lbe edges and the markis on the surface.

302

S!MPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

3. It is of a dull and somber color.
4. It was once an oblong, but its corners are beveled by
long toil of whittlers.
5. It is just lnrge enough to hold a lamp and such books
and papers as I need to use at the time.
6. It is two and a third feet high to the leaf, and the
drawer is high enough to admit my feet being extended ns
convenience may require, underneath.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

III. TnEME.-A Brook.
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

7.
l\foDEL OF CORRECTION.

1. Position.
2. Size and hight.
3. Shape.
4. Color and marks.
5. History.

II . THEME.-May Morni119 at Ravenna.
l. Sun rising.
2. A stir in the streets.
3. Air clea r and bright.
4. It is the last morning in spring.
5. 'l'herc are bubbling springs to be heard in the grass.
6. \Vann and gentle rnins the previous night.
7. The tow ers ~f the city and the bay beyond.
8. Birds are singing.
9 . Ships iu the distance with sails of white.
10. Happy faces in the leafy roads.
11. 'The earth fresh and green.
12. Distant hills discerned in sharp outline.

303

8.
9.
10.
11.

12.

Small and rapid.
Through meadows ;Jf uneven surface.
Lined with bushes.
·waters clear as crystal.
Abounds with minnows.
I ts course is zigzag.
It has many deep pools.
The larger fish f\·equcnt' more retired streams.
Tame ducks love to sport in the larger pools.
It witnesses merry times at sheep-washing.
It emerges from thick woods as it enters the meadowt1.
No springs are high up the mountain.

IV. Tn.E11iE.-The Rainbow.

1. The sun was just setting in the ·west.
2. Opposite, a full

half-circle, the bow arched the

sky.
3. It was an emblem of peace between ht>aven and
earth.
4. It rested on a black cloud, that betokened previous
storm and strife.
5. The inner hue was a deep blue; the outer wae a bright
orange merging into red .
6. The imaginative Greeks deified the rainbow, and made
Iris the messenger of Heaven to men.
7. Exterior to the bow was another, fainter, and w;th its
hues reversed; its inner colors being orange red, its outer
violet.
8. Sometimes a rainbow is seen at night. But the h1n11r
bow is faint nnd cold.

B04

SIMPLIFrnD EXERCISES AND EXPJ,ANATIONS.

ABSTltACT DESClllPTION.

I. TnEr.rn.-Ef.IJinolngy.
1. Etymology trcat.s of letters and sy ll abics.
2 . It shows h ow words are formeJ.
2 . It enumerates the letters of the alph abet, and de·
9cribes their forms and their sounds.
4. It does not treat of the union of words iu a sentence ;
m this it differs from syntax.
5. It is a part of Grammar, and is usually the first presented of the various parts.
6. The other parts are Syntax, Prosody, and Lexieography.
7. It enumerates the pai:ts of speech, and gives the inflections of such as are inflected.
8. It shows how words are derived.
l\'IonEL oF CoRrtECTION.

1. Etymology is a part of Grammar.
2. It treats words in res pec t to- a, th eir clements; b,
their forms; c, their changes; and d, thei r derivations.
In developing the first head, Etymology may be distii1guishcd-a, from Syntax, whi ch treats of the connection of
words to express thought; b, from l'ru ~o dy, whi ch treats of
the combination of words in verse; and, c, from Lexicog·
raphy, which treats of the meaning of words.

II. TnEME.-Biography.
1. A biography relates :i lif'c.
2. Histories nurrnte the life of nations.
3. An autobiography is written by the subject himself.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

305

4. All biographies are narrations.
5. 'l'n les are narrations of particular events or scenes in a
person's life.
6. A biography relates the life of an individual, not of ·
societies or communities.

III. THEME.-Multiplication.
1. l\I ultiplication is a part of arithmetic.
2. Addition is the increase of a number by some other
number.
3. Multiplication is the increase of a number by itself a
greater or less num her of times.
,
4. It is one of the ground rules or general processes of
arithmetic.
5. It is a summary mode of addition.
6. Division shows how many times one number is contained in another.
7. l\Iultiplication shows how large a number will become
if repeated a given number of times.
8. 'l'he result of the multiplication is called the prod~ct;
the result of division is called the quotient.

IV.

THEl\IE.-A

State.

1. A State differs from a family in this: that the members of a State live in the same territory; the members of a
family ·participate in the same blood.
2. Bvery State must have a head, which represents the
body of the mem hers.
3. A State is one form of society.
4. Membership of the State is constituted by vicinity of
abode; membership of the family, by sameness of lineage.
5. A State is founded on 'the civil interests of its mem·
l111rs: a Church. on thf'..ir spiritual interests.

I

306

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

6. A State is a permanent society.
7. It cann ot live but with a government.
Plans of E 'Xercises on the same '1.'heme, developed under diff erent procr~.~ cs .

THEl\IE.-'l'he Right Hand.

I. BY SIMPLE NARRATION.
1. The first stage presents it a mere thing of power,
capable of moving.
2. At the second stage, it en counters, in moving, resistance, and brings back to the mind the knowledge of s0mething without itself.
3. At a thinl st:ige, is noted an increase of power and
of flexibility.
4. It soon predominates over the left hand; robs it of
its fair opportunities; usurps preeminence.
5. It fin ally becomes predominant in all handiwork.

III. BY

307

DIVISION.

Sim11le, 1. Bone; ·2. Nerve; 3 . .Muscle.
Abstract, as symbol of executive power of efficiency.
Basis in principle.
Sensibility to occasion; including nice sense of condition and circumstances.
3. Activity in respect of-1. Suppleness; 2. Strength.
a.
b.
1.
2.

IV.

BY PARTITION.

a. Simple, 1. Body of Hand ; 2. Fingers.
b. Abstract.
1. Broad and firm ground or center of particular activities.
2. Special activities, as being 1. Manifold; 2. Symmetrically disposed; 3. Diverse in funetion; 4. Flexible; 5.
Energetic.

THEUE.-Self-Knowledge.

II.

BY AnsTRACT DESCRIPTION.

Here the theme is necessarily viewed as outward symoo.
symbol, we will suppose, of dexterity. As snch, it is prop
erly and fully described as to its elements, in the indica
tion of
1. Sensibility;
2. Readiness of motion;
3. Power of retention ;
And in respect to its sphere in the specification of
1. Mechanical pursuits.
2. Intelligence.
3. Art.
4. Social lif'e generally.
5. Piety.

·- ·

I.

BY NARRATION.

1. In childhood, weak and limited, the reflective faculty
not being awakened.
2. Advancing life brings occasions for self-observation 1
in failures and in successes.
3. More outward characteristics first recognized; then
more internal.
4. They are first noticed singly ; then in relations, ns
weakness in knowledge, in relation to weakness in conscience, or purpose, or aetion, etc. ; and also in respect of
rnlnti ve prcdomina.nee.
5. Finally, these single views are eombined into one and
we obtain a general know ledge of ourselves.
'.

308

tUMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

SIMPLIFIED EXERCISES AND EXPLANATIONS.

Ro far sclf-knowlcLlge i1:1 regarded as 11111ely intellectual.
It afterward becomes
1. Practical, as applied to particular reg ulation of con·
l:ict, to development of faculties, to correction of faults
..nd to cultivation of excellences.
2. Habitual.

II.

III.

•

1. Constituents.-1. Knowledge of physical frame, of rational spirit, and relations between them ; 2. Beings, objects,
and influences about us; 3. Destiny and end.

2. Uses.

BY DES CRIPTION.

1. Nr1i11re-Knowledge of one's self as diHtinct from oth.
ers in peculiarities: 1. Outward; 2. Inward, of mind, l1eart,
taste, and will; with snbonlinatc views of (lcfi(:ic11cics and
extravagances, distortions and beauties, propensities and repugnances, liabilities and privileges; and, also, as intellectual
and prnctical.
2. Acquisition-Hare, difficult, slow at first but accelerated
with progress; by study of general principles and facts of
nature, observation, scrutiny of one's own experience.
3. Utility-1. Indispensable to all genuine culture, as men
are rational, not mere spontaneous natures; 2 . Protective
against evils to fortune and character; 3. Promotive of solid
satisfaction in notice even of faults or weaknesses as capable
of remedy, view of actual improvement, study of divine works
and training.
Or, the plan, embracing the whole view, would be as
.marked in the successive stages:
1. After chil<llike want, of reflection, comes, first., obHervation of single traits, first the more outward, then the Ji10re
internal, on occasion of failures or successes.
2. Then follow comparisons, measuring relations of correspondence, aid, or hinderance.
3. This intellectual comprehension of ourselves passes into
the practical; and, finally, as a fixe<l habit, becomes a necossury condit10n and efficient auxiliary of moral aJHl intellectual
cult.ure.

BY ANALYSIS.

309

,.

...

LEXICAL BAUBARISl\IS.

311

3. vV rong selection among paronymous words, or
among words from the same stem.
§ 4. Lexical Praxis will accordingly be distributed
into the four departments of-

LEXICAL PHAXIS.

C II A P 'l' l~ H. I.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Lexical Barbarisms ;
Radical Improprieties;
Synonyms;
Paronyms.

DIVISIONS.

'

§ 1. LEXICAL PHAXIS respects the selection of words
to be used in disco urse. It is reg ulated by the principles of the lex icogra phy of the language, requiring
first, lexical purity; secon<ll y, lexical z1ropriely.
§ 2. LEXICAL PURITY re(ptires that only such words
be selected as are sanction ed by good use .
It forbi<l s particularly the employm ent of words
that are obsolete, for eign, provincial, technical, or low;
and also those that are unsuited lO lhe lcind of dis' as ' of poetical words in prose.
course,
Fau Its in lexical purity constitute one class of rhetorical Barbarisms.
§ 3. LEXICAL PnoPIUETY rc1p1ire;:; that such words
b e selected as will express the i11tend ed rnPaning.
Faults in lexical propriety are called Improprieties.
They are of three classes:1. -,N ron g selection among gP11Prie ·r oot-words;
2. \V rong selection among sy nonymous wonls; or
among words of like meaning but of different stems;
(310)

CHAPTER II.
-L E X I C A L

B A R B A. R I S JI[ S .

§ 4. A LEXICAL BAnBARISllI is the selection of a
word not properly belonging to the vocabulary of the
general literature of the language.
§ 5. It may be of either of the following classes:1. Archaisms, consisting in _the selection of obsolete
words;
2. Alienisms, consisting in the selection of forei_gn
words not domesticated in general literary use;
3. Provincialisms, consisting in the selection of words
used only
. in a limited district·
4: :l'echnicalities, consisting in the selection of words
us ed only by a sect, a profession, a trade, or other par"'
ticular class of persons;
5. Slang-words;
6. Poetic words.
)

•I

.:1

312

'!

313

LEXICAL BARilAillSMS.

LEXICAL BARBARISMS.

§ G. ExmtcISES :-Point out the bnrbarisms rn the following scotcuces anu substitute the proper words.

With the greatest snug-froid he proceeded to detail the
particulars of the transaction.

1. A rcliaisms.
Tiut these arc come to fray them, to cast out the horus
of the Gentiles.
Howl ye, woe worth the day.
All that could skill of instruments of music.
Scud me now therefore a mnn cunning to work in gol<l,
and that can skill to grave with the cunning men that arc
with me in J udrdi.
'V ot ye not that such a man as I can div inc?
The king will set them to car the ground.
And he ground it to powder and strewed it upon the
water.
The angel satisficth the misll ee rning thoughts of Joseph.
He poseth the Phari sees about the l\l ess ias.
J cricho was straitly shut 11p.
And a certain woman cast a piece of a mill-stone upon
Abimclech's head and all-to brake his head.
2. Alienisms.
During the stny of the Indians, the animals were all collected and corraled, as their peu chaut for horse-flesh might
lead some of the young men to appropriate a horse or a
mule.
Public opinion would not be recouciled to overslaughing
'l'aylor.
'l'he walls of the canyon are vertical and about fifty feet
high.
The gardens were void of simplicit.y nnd elegance, and
exhibited much that was glary and bizarre.

3. Provincialisms.

" comes down
1\f nrgaret

and milks the cow and does some
of my other little chores.
The watchman nrreRtcd Mr. ·w imple for disturbing the
peace and toted him off to the calaboose.
I reckon you hardly ever was at a shooting match,
stranger, from the cut of your coat.

4. Technicalities.
When a boy, the writer became acquainted with an old
bookworm-of-a-man who was in possession of a manuscript
written in 1714-1716, by two ambitious typos.
There has been so much backing and filling, not only .
upon the Cuba question, but upon every other, that no con. fidence ca.n be placed in the declaration.

5. Slang-words.
I'd have no objection to go in cahoot with a decent fellow for a character.
The sole labor of the attendants was to keep the plates
chuckfull of something.
I listen to a preacher and try to be better for his argufying.

6. Poetic words.
Woods into whose inmost recesses we should have quaked
alone to penetrate, in his company were glad as gardens,
dHough their most awful umbrnge; and there was beauty
in the shadows of the old oaks.
They waited a long time ere the expected intelligence
reached them.

·!

I

'i

314

LEXICAL HAHHAUISMS.
RADICAL IMPROPRIETIES.

l'ro1n£sc11ous L exical Barbar-isms.
'l'he white men who penetrated to the semi.wi ld s were
always ready to dicker and to swap.
_
.
·with mind and body so nearly at rest that naught lllterruptcd my inmost repose save cloudy rcmiui sc? 11.c es of
a morning fizzle and an afternoon flunk, my tranquillity was
sufficiently enviable.
I rode an all-fired smart chunk of a pony, real creole,
cane-raised, walk six miles an hour, and run like a scared
deer in a prairie a-fire.
.
1'V£tncss :-He said that the Atlas was coming out, to
give Mayor Vfood and myself fits. l lfogistratc:-_-Was he
to give any thiug else? lVitness:-Ycs, he said he was
going to give us jess ie.
- I had li efer read it now than before the beautiful
sun rise.
· a mai..;111'fiICCn t sc l 1c111c of 111.pc-layinb(J' and logThere is
rolling going 011 'in P e nnsylvania.
I think the post-oJlicc commit.tee will do n. power of
good, if they can stir up the oltl co ntracts and cx~ras .
I resurrect tlrn whole! put that in scene ngam on the
living stage!
.
.
He manifested a decided penchant for ficld- chvcrs1ons:
The entire village was kept on the quivivc of expcctat10 n
till morning.
.
He seems most to have indulged himself only m an elegant badinage.
The denouement was as ludi crous a.fl unexpected.
It is a vast placer full of nuggets for the philologist and
lover of poetry.
.
.
It would do you good to sec our boyfl and girls dancrng .
None of your stradd ling, mincing, rrndying; but a regular
sifter cut-the-buckle, chi c kcn-flntfor set-to.

'

315

'l'i mes are mopish and knurly.
Cataracts, in whose lon esome thunder, as it pealed into
t.hose pitchy pools, we durst not by ourselves have faced
the spray, in his presence, dinned with a merry music ·in
the desert, and cheerful was the thin mist they cast spark1in g up into the air.
What is the subject now OIJ the tapis?
l\Ia<lame de Stael nee Necker was a French authoress of
great merit.

A puzzling notice of this whereabouts.
He had not the elan which induced others to compose
patriotic songs.
'J'hese several escapades have made him the most unpopular man in the party.
Well, as you are a greenhorn, I will enlighten you. A
foo foo, or an outsider, is a chap that can't come the big
figure.
I went down to Macon to the examination where I got
a hcnp of new kinks.
All th e tag-mg and bobtail, the veriest riff-raff of the
town, were enlisted on the same side.

CHAPTER III.
RADIOAL Il\IPROPRIETIES.

§ 7. A RADICAL IMPROPRIETY is the selection of a
wrong generic root-word.
Olfcnscs against R.l1etorical Propriety may be either
proper rhetorical, as in the wrong select.ion of rhetorical

316

RA DICAL IMP ROPRIETI ES.

form s, ns of inrn gery and th e lik e; or g ramrn ati cnl, tlrnt is:
in the wrong sel ec tion of grnnnuati cal form s, as in th e use
of the wron g case, or te nse, or fo rm -word ; or, fin ally,
I exical , as in th e wrong selec tion of word s for th e i u tend ed
meanin g .
A lex ical impro priety, fur tl1 cr , differs from a lrn rbnr ism in this : · tha t whil e a barbarism is the sc lcc ti ou of a
word not belongin g . to th e vocabulnry of th e lan g ua ge, an
impropri ety is the sel ec ti on of a word belong in g to the
lan g uage but h avin g a different meanin g from that iutcndcd.
Oue sp eci es is th e radi cal impropri ot.y as above dclin ctl.
A leadin g vnricty of this spec ies is th e se lec ti on of a word
for a mea nin g whi ch th e word on ce hnd but. l1 as los t. : ns.
honest in th e se nse of honorable; as " Prov id e t hin gs h ones t
in the sight of all men." But the se lection of w o rd ~ of
equ ivocal meaning in th e par ticul a r se nte nce al so belongs
to thi s cla ss of lex ical fau lt s ; also of wo rd s u:<cd in a
meanin g peculiar to a provin ce or trad e and in mi xe d
ima gery.

§ 8. E X ER CI SE S :-Point out th e lex ical impropri eties in
the followin g se nt ences and substitute the proper word s.
1. TVoi·ds fo obso lete use..
But wh o had not rath er to be buried dead than quick.
Ch nri ty vauntcth not itse lf.
Min e eyes preve nt the ni gl1t watch es.
H avin g your co nv ersation hones t am ong the Gentil es .
Ev ery house is builded by som e nrnn.
For thou mayes t be no longer s tew ard.
Be not thou Jetted from co min g .
1Vhi ch is your reaso nabl e se rvi ce.
If thy ri ght eye offend th ee pluck it out.

RADICAL IMPROPRIETIES.

317

2. Of equivoc_al m eaning.
Ile was a man of a very nervous constitution.
I am not bound to receive any messeriger whom you may
send.
·
A large number of guests were invited, but a hundred ·
were present.
This translation was overlooked by careful scholars.

3. Of provincial meaning.
Directly the queen came in the performances commenced.
I was invited to dine out in Boston; but I cannot mind
the gentleman's name.
"Help yourse lf, stran ger, " added the landlord, "while I
tote this plund er into the other room ."
Spain has ob tain ed a breathing-spell of some duration.
The lady of the cabin seemed kind and allowed we had
better stop where we were.
He calculates to visit the West Indi es in the fall.
A maid hooked one of her mistress's dresses the other
day; but the affair was passed over.

4.

Iii

m ixed image1·y.

Hope, the balm of life, dar ts a ray of light throu"'h
the
0
thickest g loom.
I bridle in my struggling muse with pain,
That longs to launch into a bolder strain.
Promiscuous rndical improprieties.

As for such animals as are mortal or noxious we have a
. I1t to destroy th em.
'
rig
You must recollect, my friend, that he is our mutual
benefactor.

,,
I

===~="··~·-=-===---=----·---·----

318

319

RADICAL IMPROPRIETIES.

SYNONYMS.

I expect that it was he himself who actually i::tole the
money.
'l'Le price of sto_cks will not be at all e!Iectccl Ly the
failure.
Hi s owner lcarnecl the clog n p;rea t many tricks.
I have eujoyed very poor l1calth ever since the 11ight of
the fire.
'rhe country is very incident to fevers, being greatly obnoxious to fo gs .
The doctor's was a mighty fin e 11ousc, fro11Ling the sea.
Nothing was more different than J\Iichael A11gc lo's po ems
and her own.
I shall greatly admire to atteml the exhil.iition.
They say he never gets drunk ; but he often has a misery in his head.
The army was decimated, not over a thircl could be collected again.
N 0 event of so great significance has transpireJ since the
settlement of the country.
To the faculty of law was j oined a pretty consiLlerable
proportion of the faculty of moll ici11e.
It is only a little ways down to the village.
'l'he nobl es persuaJeJ him to take up hi s permanent
abode with them. He declined.
'l'he sheriffs are the easiest men for you to get the hang
of, among all the publi c officers.
I doubt they let pcrso ual quarrels mingle too much with
th eir proceedings.
I hear they sell mightily.
I think the post-office commitlcos will do a power of

wipe with it on the side of my face, that knocked me over
anJ hurt me properly.
We shall dil:lcover how greatly the ruins of Christendom
have beeu dilapi<lated by Plymouthism.
The faces arc aging. 'l'hat is nothing; for with udvancing years all things must age.
It was a mighty small transaction altogether.
He told a very musical story which put us all into a
merry mooJ .

gooJ.
\Ve have shoals of sl1all, whole raf'ts of cauvas-back
du cks, and no end of terr:ipins .
Father jest up with the flat of his hand, and gave me 11

•
CHAPTER IV.
SYNONYlllS.

§ 0. SYNONYMS are words of like signification; as
daily and diurnal; a:.ffection and love; loathe an<l
abhor.
The Bnglish language abounds in synonyms.
Like
languages generally it is ever changing the meaning of
word s to meet the changes in the progress of thought, and
in order to greater accuracy of expression setting apart
different words to denote different shades of thought.
More especially, the English language receives with peculiar freedom words from other dialects, und of words
originally having the same meaning sets apart one from
from one source to one shade of meaning, and another from
another source to another shade of meaning. . Thus daily,
dinrnal, journal, and ephemeral, in the original use had the
same 111cauing; but they have beeu separated to very different uses. So also ox from the Anglo-Saxon and beef from
the French had in the primitive dialects the same meaning;

320

321

SYNONYMS.

SYNONYMS.

as likewise sheep and mutton; lcingly, regal, and royal, and
many others.
A synonym may be used improperly, either because it is
not the oue to express the shaue of' meauing i11te11<l cll, or
because it is not appropriate to the style of the disco urse,
as high or low, technical or national, literary or colloquial.

tlrn ox, the symbol of Luke; and the lion, the type of
Judah.

§ 10. ExERCISF.S :-Substitute a proper 8yuouym where
necessary iu the following sentences.
1. Synonyms with r espect to shade of meaning.
Whitney discovered- the cotton-gin; Franklin invented
the sameness of the electricity in the lightning and iu the
rubbing of glass and silk.
We accepted the invitation in good tim e; but we dec ided
at once not to go.
No tenant could be found, and the house r emaine d em pty
for several years.
The gov ernor was re<1uestcd to forgive the prisoner; but
he was irreversible.
The youth was subjected to severe allurements, but he
was insensible to all the temptations.
'l'he apartment was hung with magnificent vesture.
The audience were most agreeably entertained through
the entire evening by the panoramic exhibitions.
'fhe orbit of his duties was very restricted.
The cost of provisions was very highly appreciated, in
consequence of the drought.
'l'he reports were settled, the tre:ities confirmed, aud all
affairs were ratified.
A man of the best part3 and highest culture need not be
ashamed to own that he is silly in some departm ents of
lcu rn i 11g.
The brazen serpent was an emblem of the crucifixiun;

2. S!Jnonyms inappropriate to style of discourse.
The distinguished arbiters met, and after a long chat
agreed upon the award.
By mo::;t extraordinary turns of luck he rose from the
low eorHlition of a groom to the highest post of honor in
the gift of the cro wn.
Ile came nigh lacerating himself with laughter.
The sou was melted by his father's kinrlness, and solicited
his forgivenes&1 for the past and his paternal aid and direction for the time to come.
The maid carried in her arms an infant who wept violently the whole time, driving away all sleep.

Promiscuous faults in use of Synonyms.
Ile forgave the punishment, but would not wholly remit
the offense.
.Marcus gave his nephews some healthy advice.
I have let lodgings of Mr. S., who has hired them to me
at a moderate rent.
Franklin discovered a stove in which the flame was to
descend instead of ascending.
Ile was as pliable in intellect as ductile in limb.
The caucus chose the candidates for the voters to select.
The general won an enviable notoriety by his prowess.
He was driving along the public thorou~hfare a flock of
hogs, a herd of Hheep, aud a troop of cattle.
She was beautiful in figure, graceful in feature, elegant
in complexion, splendid in voice, and lovely in her dress .
Ile was convicted of the sin of forgery, to which he was
tempted in his criminal fondness for gaming.

322

.,

'·

I

PARONYMS.

SYNONYl\18.

Th ey were earn estly adverti sed of the d:rngern of tlieir
course.
I uever que stion ed the veracity of the s ta tement.
Th e rou g h din g les whi ch you co me 11po11 in the Alps,
the lovely little valleys whi ch sparkle 11pou you in Lombardy, aud the narrow er vales ul' 'l'u scauy, p rese nt a c harmiug success ion of mo st vari ed lanu sca pes .
It r equires a very di stin ct h eau to co lllpreh ellll th e wh ole
m eaning.
Th e ea rth is clear dissolveu.
Th e wa go us of Pharaoh we re urow11 eu in the sea.
Th e h ead of Aaron was smeared with prec ious ointmeut.
I am s tarving with t he seve re co ld now iii October.
'l'he wr:1 ck was no longer u ~c <l :1 s :i. pu11i ~ hni e nt..
As t he wr ec k wa s dri vi ng hel'orc the willd oLsc urin g t.110
sky, th e cattle we re hastc 1J ed li ome.
Hu stic elega nce is t h e prid e and pl eas ure of ] 1~ 11 g lantl,
wh ence rural gro8S ll ess and rou g h sce nery arc F<O 11 c:irly
cx pelle tl.
The kin g appea red i11 th e s tate li es t cloth es, while his
captive wa s brou gl1t befor e him iu the vilest rai1u c11 t.
Ilis warn1th of pa ss io n anti h eat of affection rnad c him
bitter en em ies and devo ted fri e nd ~.
Chris topher Smart was a wit and a scholar; but he h ad
a custom of prnyin g everyw here and on all occ:1sio11s, so
that hi s acquaintance !ind a co mmi ss ion of madn ess tnkcn
out again s t him. For thi s unf'or Lunatc fr enzy li e was shut
up ~n the mad-house, where he carneJ nJOuey by teaching
Latm.

323

CHAPTER V.
PARONYMS.

§ 11. PARONYMS are words derived from the same
word-stem; as binding, bond, bondage.
'l'here are three leading classes of faults in respect to
selection of p aronyms :-1. Faulty formation, as Jeopardize
instead of Jeopard; 2. Faulty affix, whether suffix, as "I
have a contemptible opinion of you," for contemptuous; or
prefix, as expect for suspect; 3. Hybrid, or uni on of stem
from on e language with affix from another, as unfrequently
for infrequently.
There are many cases of words derived from the same
stem whi ch in some connections may be used interchangeably, having the same import, but which are nevertheless
set apart to certain very distinct u ses. Thus production,
product, and produce, a.II may mean that which is produced,
yet they have certain uses which are entirely di stinct. We
may say indifferently the productions of the soil, the products
of the soil, the produce of the soil; yet we cannot say "the
J roduce of genius," nor would we say '.'the farmer brings
productions to market."

§ 12.

:-Correct faults in the selection of
paronyms in the following sentences.
EXERCISES

H e was not an original investigator, but h e won a high
and dcserveJ celebrity as a systcrnizer of the theories prevalent at the time.
Medicine is either curative or preventative.

324

325

PUOUISCUOUS LEXICAL FAULTS.

PROMISCUOUS LEXICAL FAULTS.

I must most resp ectively decline the cornplimentnry ap•
pointment you have tendered to rnc.
The right observation of fasts and fostivalt~, and other
ritualistic appointments is but the needful expression of a
devout spirit which cannot develop itsolf aud grow but in
outward and formal nets.
They had a proscriptive rigl1t to the use of the land.
It was a joyous autipast of a purer and nobler communion in a better world.
The movement was in that condition of the army very
unt1ptly undertaken.
He lef't his native land rcputeless ns moneyless.
The negligeuec of timely precaution was the cause of
this great loss.
The paschal lamb is the t.ype of whi ch Chri st· is the
ante type.
Prescriptive laws were promulgated prohibiting the importation of products of every kind from the offending
country.

A candid man avows his mistake, and is forgiven ; a
patriot acknowledges his opposition to a bad minister, and
is npplauded.
'Ve ha~e enlarged our family and expenses; and increased our garden and fruit orchard.
Ilis donation was the more acceptable, that it was given
without solicitation.
All the sophism which has been employed cannot ob;:;cure so plain a truth.
Philip found an obstacle to the managing of the Athenians, from the nature of their dispositions; but the
eloquence of Demosthenes was the greatest difficulty in his
designs.
A hermit is rigorous in his life; a judge, austere in his
seutences.
A cry was raised for the establishment of a preventative
armed police.
'
ThiA is a sockdolager; there is not even temporary relief
to be obtained.
The observance of the changes which are perpetually
going on in the world around us will bring many useful
suggestions both in warning and rebuking, and also _ in
encouraging and guiding.
The nearer I look on things the worse I like them.
I admired at your impudence and was in mighty haste
to run nnd let you know what lying rogues you were.
Which when a serious reader shall perpend, he will
lrnrdly find any thing that mny convince his judgment.
Yet are such as these clapt in by very good authors.
John now came in spurring his steed to his highest
speed, but seemed much chopfallen when he found his
haste .was all in vain.
lly proper reflection, we may be taught to mend what is
erroneous and defective.

· CHAPTER YI.
P R 0 111 IS C U 0 U S L E X I C A L

F A U L TS.

Trrn enemy attacked us late in the nf'ternoon ns we were
crossing the river; but he was easily beaten back. Some
of our cavalry, how.ever, in tho pursuit stra~gle<l off, nud a
dozen or more of their horses were drowndcd in a tl ccp place
in the river.
I called to sec my quondam neighbor li'ord and he
engaged me to dine with him.

326

I'ROllIISCUOUS

LEXICAL

FAULTS.

I disrcmcmb cr whether it was iu the first or second year
of the war.
Its occupants received some very onunous premo nitions of a downfall, and forthwith vamoscd with their
baggage.

GRAMMATICAL PRAXIS.

CHAPTER I.
PUNCTUATION.

§ 1. .THE chief office of PuNC'fUATION is to show
the relations in the thought to be expressed.

§ 2. Four points are used for this purpose ;- the
Comma, the Semi-colon, the Colon, and the Period.
§ 3. T1rn CollIUA shows the least separation in the
parts of the thoughts.
THE SEMI-COLON marks a wider separation.
THE COLON marks a wider separation than the
semi-colon.
THE PERIOD marks the completion or end of the
sentence.

§ 4. ExEilCISES :-Punctuate the extracts on pages 228230. Write and 1mnctuate from the dictation of the teacher
or one of the class.
REMARK . - I t is of great importance that the habit of accurately
punctuating be formed at the outset in learning the art of composition. At first attention need be given only to the Rhetorical
Points of the first class; and these should be used exclusively.
Proper care nt th e start will save both pupil and teacher much
trouble afterwards.

(327)

328

lrnAM.illATICAL PHOI'UIETY.
GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY.

The Art of Pun ctuation is presented in a fuller form in Appendix
II, pagcE 217- 237. This may be studied at a sub8equent stage of
practice, or UHcd for reference.

CHAPTER II.
G R A 111 l\I A T I C A L

P It 0 P R I ll: T Y .

§ 5. GRAMMATICAL Co.NSTHUCTION respects the supply a11d use of the materials of Discourse. It is
regulated by the vrinciples of the gramrnar of the
language. It comprises four departments :-Prnpriety, Preeision, C01word, and An·a11gemenf.

t i

.ii
'

'
"'

§ 6. GRAMMATICAL PROPHIETY requires that each
element be used in its own proper use. It requires,
First, that the proper element be used;
Secondly, that the proper inflectional form be used;
and
Thirdly, that the same element be used only rn a
single way and relation in the same sentence.
§ 7. EXERCISES:-Corrcct the faults in the USC of the
wrong element in t.hc following sentences.
The fault here rn:iy be in the use of the wrong part of
speech, as of au adjective in slca<l of an adverb, or of the
wrong word to express the grammatical relation, as of to
for at in the seutcncc: "He arrived to his journey's end."
1. Kind of Element.
Cowards die many times; valiant never tnRtc of death but
once.

329

An accidental missing the right path brought him into
in extricable labyrinths of forest.
I propose to speak firstly of the nature ?f this ~irt~e;
second, of the way to acquire it; and third, of its impurtance.
His <lays were now near spent.
The month was the coldest of any one in the year.
Nothing else except his friend's firmness and composure
saved him from destruction .
'fhere was no more available relief to be expected besi<lcs some water-cusk possibly floatiug near from the
wreck.
'l'he performance will not take place without the weather
is favorable.
I fou11d difficulty of meeting his objections.
His enemies accused him with ha.viug betrayed the army
into the hands of the enemy.
He had been to Naples and was on his way to .M:cssina.
It was very kind of him to overlook our fault.
Ile struck his opponent by his cane .
The result does not agree to th eir calculations.
The gilded vase, she had valued so much, had been
broken in pieces.
Ile had no occasion of any medicine.
You must ask nothing at me.
Y 011 must nsk it at himself.
When we look on ~uch objects, we are pleased to think
we are in no da.nger of th em.
Such were the difficulti es with which the q11cstion was
iuvolvcd.
How different to this is the life of Fulvia.
Ile is independent on his father.
I have very great doubts if he has told me the truth.

330

GRAMMATICAL PHOPilIETY.

GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY.

The general wns seldom or ever found sober enough to
lead his commaml.
All the argume.n ts to the co11trary were nothing elso but
fallacies.
Nobody cau doubt but that the country waf! greatly injured.
Only such communications will be published that are
really of importance to our readers.
The road was equally rough as ste ep.
There is no temptation so great but it can be resisted or
shunned.
He wtts not treated courteously or justly.
No condition among men is so perfect as admits of no
improvement.
In the same yearns he was elected, he accepted the first
of the many houors he was destined to receive.
Let the offense be of never so l1igh a nature.
Ile is that cmbarras~ctl he cn11not recover himself.
Previous to their arrival the rooms were put iu rcadrness.
'l'he accounts they gave of the favorable reception of
their writings with the public.
A different kind of knowledge therefore than that.
No sooo?r docs the morning dawn but this Etrnuge enchantment vanishes.
He is such a great man there is no ~peaking to l1im.
The country looks finely this morning after th e rain.
For this reason such linm; almost never oc cur together,
but are used in finishing the couplet.
In a word, his speech was all excellent good in itself.
Here are fif't.y pens; you will find that either of' them
will do.
He was neither au object of derision to his enemies or
of melancholy to his friends.

The messengers arrived one by one in considerable interva ls .
He wished differently to what he did.
The Greeks felt differently to the Italians.

331

2. Inflection . .
He was accompanied by his two brother-in-laws and five
cousin-germans.
'fhe l\lr. Smiths and the Misses Jones were present also.
The stratas were all horizontal.
The monies of the country were in confusion.
The discharged cargos cumbered all the wharfs.
Ile governed by your conscience and never ask any
bodies' leave to be honest.
King James' translators revised the previous versions of
the Hori ptures in to English.
Every man should look to hisself.
For his own goodness's sake, and his own mercie's sake.
'l'here were two General Shermans in the army.
'l'here were many sad mementoes of the war.
Yet far more briglit be those bright cherubims.
Be heros in the strife.
He had already awoke and arose from his bed.
The river had overflown its banks.
His father and mother's names were on the blank leaf.
Then dashest him to earth ; there let him lay.
The legislature sets to-day.
Neither the man nor the woman's danger drew the attention of the guard.
l\Iy paper is the Ulysses his bow, in which every man of
wit and learning mny try his strength.
If I draw a cord to a great length between my fingers., I
will make it smaller than it was before.

GRAl\UfATICAL PUOPHIE'l'Y.

GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY.

In the Latin l::111guagc there arc no hrn wonls we woul<l
more rea<lily take to be sy11011yn10us than these.
I cannot tell who to colllparc them to.
'l'hcu shall thou prosper, if thou takcst heed to fulfill
the statutes.
'l'hey have done no more than it was their Juty to have
doue.
·whose number was now amounted to three hundred.
'There is no data by which it can be estimated.
The waters were more sooner and harder frozen, than
more further upward within the islands.
Dare he ass ume the name of a popular rnngistratc '?
Herschel i::; the farthest from the suu of nuy of the plaucts.

their pursuits is on the. right path to prosperity and true
national glory.
A state of affairs of all others the most calamitous.
The town was one of the most populous that was built
by the colouists.
He was a vixen rn cunning and his wife a very ogre in
her temper.
Earthly pleasures, that are short and uncertain, cannot
be the highest for man.
Of all the passengers he was the last who perished.
He feared he would lose his place.
I would be greatly displeased if you would fail of arriving in time.
0 help me l I will drown, nobody shall help me.
Each succe13sive effect thus adding to the cause out of
which it sprung.
Winter and summer, spring-time and harvest, regularly
succeed one another.
Horner had the greatest invention of any writer whntever.
This man was taken of the Jews and should have been
killed of them.
The house of Ilaal was full from one end to another.
If any member absents himself, he shall forfeit a penny
for the use of the club.
I have not that command of these convulsions as is
necessary.
Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance
as to assert, etc.
I have only retained such which appear most agreeable
ti) the measures of 4nrrlogy.
Neither couhl read nJ>r write.
'fhey had better have been omitted.
'l'he disguise can almost never be so perfect, but it is
discovered .

3. Single 11se of Elem ent.
These rnca~urm; we have considered carcf'ully, and are
now presented for your review and approval.
That which men most earnestly pursue and excites their
highest hopes often most baJllcs their cmleavor aud embitters their lives.
Do::;t thou open thine eyes upon such a one an<l briugcs t
me into jud g ment with thee?
Mod ern life has many comforts that it could hardly give
up but were unknown to the }Jrcccdiug generation.
All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon
themselves by negligence and folly, and might have been
avoided by proper care, arc iustauces of this.

4. 1lfiscellan co us faults in propriel!J.
A nation which is respectful of the rights of other
nations while it courteously but finnly mai11tai11s its owu
that protects the liberties of its citizens and fostcni tl1ei1
true interests while interfering as little as possible with

,. .

•

333

334

GRAMMATICAL PROPRIETY.

PRECISION.

It had never been his intention to have convoked the
grnud coun c il.
Coarser stone wa s treated <liffcrently to finer.
This letter belongs t.o on e of tlH~ most shameless productions whi ch has ev er come Lefore me.
The wises t prin ces need 11 ot think it any diminution to
their greatn ess, or derogati on to their suffi ciency, to rely
upon counsel.
Two o th er s with him , on either side one.
And Na<lab and Abihu took either of th e m hi s censer.
Saxony wa s left defensel ess, and if it was couquered,
mi g ht be plund ered .
Let ueithcr partiality or prejudice appear, but let truth
ev e rywh ere be sa cred.
And th e multitude re buk ed th em because they should
hold tlwir pe:w e .
Ilad the E g yptian or Ethiopi:rn for ces bee n come up,
so me prai se of the Rlau g hter liad p erhaps cleav e<l to their
fin g ers .
\Vh en th e motiv es when ce men act are kn own.
In what emergency never so <liflicult have s uch resources
failed .
·w h en we have said so much we have sai<l all which this
case ref[ u i rcR.
All nation s differ f'rom each oth er in th eir laws and custom s as well as in th e ir dialec ts.
S o h e took the opportuuity of' Ll cclarin g ce rtain truths
whi ch sh e mi g ht pond er in h er h eart till s he was able to
co111prcli e 11d th em more folly.
Two young me n liave ma<lc a discove ry that there was a

Gou .

335

Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss in
understanding several passages in the classics.
If th ey will abide by this decision, and if in the conflict
between opposed principles patriotism or 1:1elfish interest will
carry the dny, remuins to be seen.
Even a rugged rock or barl'en heath, though in them selves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of
the whole.
But in the mind of man, whil~ in the savage state,
there seems to be hardly any ideas but what enters by the
senses.
Those classics contain little else but histories of murders .
'\Ve ~nd no more in its composition but the particulars
now mentioned.
The five examples last mentioned are corrected on the
same principle that the preceding examples are corrected.

CHAPTER III.
PRECISION.

§ 8. GRAMMATICAL PRECISION requires that so
many and only so many of the materials of expression
be employed as the expression of the thought may
demand.
It acr-ordingly forbids both pleonasm, or the use
of too many words, and also ellip.<tts, or the use of
too few words for ·the proper expression of the
thoughts.

•

In jud g in g only from th e nature of thin gs, and without
the s urer aid of r evelation , o ne s hould be apt to embrace
th e opinion of Diodorm1 Si culus .

•

336

§ !J.

PRECISION.

PRECISION.

:-Correct the faults
the following sentences.
EXERCISES

111

Precision

11:;

1. Pleonasms.
'l'he two govcrumcnts were both equally <li sposc<l to
peace.
Those great virtues were united togct11cr m hi s character.
Ile never <l onbts but that he kn ows th eir iutc11ti o11.
An ol<l widower gentleman at that time occupic<l the
premis es.
· At the latter end of this year the tide of his affairs turu cd
to great prosperity.
Wh enever the eas t wind blows, mosquitoes alway s appear
in great numbers.
You will now be taken back to the place from whence
y ou came.
And then th ey bot.Ii of them fl ew away.
There was a slave of the soldi ers that did cas t a marvelous burning flame out of his hand.
All three each took separate roa ds home.
Who had not rather to be buri ed dead than quick.

2. Ellipsis.
Alike were our a11xict.ics diss ipated and .expectations
realize<l by his saf'c arrival.
Jlavi11g ended the <li spute, mutual co11fideuce an<l goodwill soo u revived .
Two umpires were appointed, an Englishman and American.
The rain descends upon the just a11d unjust.
'l'he two changes rnu Rt go together; the recog nition that
nature is more and fe eling tlrnt lllan is lei;::;.

337 .

He had tlnee llOns all died in the war.
It was wonderful the way he finished up his business.
It is a treasure most men seek, few find.
A foot corn~ists eitl;er of two or three syllables.
l\lost worthy your notice are the epithets that figure in
his style.
Far more commendable for purity of intent than wisdom
in performance.
Nor was there any occasion for inquiring what advantage
it woul<l be to the party.
I nernr have nor will I now consent to entertain such a.
project.
Ile was banished the country.
Th ey refraiued talking the rest of the evening.
The affairs of the government were in the bad condition
he represe nted.
L et us suppose some one be told of t.he plot who betrays
us, 11.ud thus we fall into the power of our enemies.

3. Prom.iscuous fa.ult.~ in Grammatical Precision.
The eas t and the west line was scarcely traceable.
The object of his mission has or shortly will be accomplish ed.
The Latin is formed on the same model, but more imperfect.
The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is the separation.
Their death-sleep was a deeply affecting spectacle to
behold.
Learn to e1:1teem life as it ought.
In th e posture he lay no stray ball could strike him.
'l'he lea rned and ignorant, the prince and peasant, fare
alike here.
He presented a more elaborate and stronger argument.

338

PRECISION .

Participl es arc wonl s derived from ve rb~, and convey an
id ea of th e acli11 g of a n agent, or th e suffering of au obj ec t.,
with th e time it happe ns.
Chau cer fo l lowc1l nature cvcryw h er e, but was ncY<'r so
bold lo go befor e her.
It is to the fir s t of th ese remarkable c1·c 11t;; lo wliieh J
now direct yo ur atte nti on.
That h e might be both lord of th e deaJ and liviu g.
But and if s he depart.
He that hath to him shall be ).!;ive11.
vVhom y e delivered up and dc ui c1l him . .
'l'h e riv e r of Kishan swept th e m away.
There is a God wh o made a nd govern s t he world.
I do as ~c rt that th e uatioualily ca11n ot ri g htfully, aud
that, with out fo ul wrong to t he na t io n, it neve r h aR bee n
ali enated fr om its ori g iu al purpo;;cs.
In this respect T asso yi elds lo n o p oet excep t t o Hom er.
I h:ivc par tiall y li stened t o yo ur re(1u cs t and will eo nsid cr
of it at my leisure.
A feeble se nate aml e nervated peopl e.
This is an iLliom to which our langua ge 1s strongly 111clin cd, and was fo rm erl y very prevale nt.
The property was so ld at mu c h ab ove its real value.
Comp are th eir pov erty with what they mi g ht and ought
to possess.
He wa s more bel ove d but not so much admired as
Ciuthi o.
Its influ ence is lik ely to be considerable both on the
morals aud taste of a uatio n.

339

CONCORD.

CllAP'l'ER IV.
CONCORD.

§ 10.

r equires that the
respective materials employed in the co nstru ction of
the se ntence Le used in such form as to show the
relation between them;
GRAMMATICAL

CONCORD

rrhe rule has its chief application to the following
C! ISCS :-

1. rro proper subj ect-words in the sc ~tence whether u sed
\rith fiuite verbs, the iufiuitivc, the gerund, ~r oth er attribute worLl;
2 . T o predicate-words, whether combined with the copula in the verb or separate;
3. 'l'o pronominal words ;
4. 'l'o compellativcs and appositives;
5 . 'l'o object-words;
6. To words expressing relations of time·
7. rro clauses.
'

§ 11. EXERCISES :-Correct the errors
Concord in the following sentences.

111

Grammatical

1. SubJect- words.
Ile whom th ey lrn<l imagin ed would 1 e their staunchest
supporter dese rted them at -the start.
rrh e news here reach ed LI S of the emperor being ID command

$

340

CONCOIW.

In sist on Berkeley rcs l:lt.in g it,.
'rhcrc were earuest rcmon stra11 ccs :1 gain st the se nate expending it s t.imc in such 1li:wn sRions.
I cannot h op e that your trainiug will 111:1 kc llJ C s uch a
performer as him.
2. Predicale-tcords.

Neither of which arc very allliab lc motives for re li g ious
gratitude.
:Every oue of these word s . were stccpcll in tears .
I was utit. aware nf itR l11 \i11g he.
Ile ve ry we ll 11 ml crstood it to be th ey .
S h e imagines s he eau do as sh e pl ease.
·W illiam or I is to Le present.
'l'he assemb ly were divid ed in op ini on.
I should have ac cepted. the offer if 1 l1:1 Ll Lccu him.
Either September or Oc tober arc to Le tak cu for the
excurs ion .
Such a clatter of sou11Ll s in dicate r:l i;C a1Hl fcrocit.y.
:For the g reater part of their c:1ptivcs was a11eie11lly Racrifi ced .
·with respect to the forme r there arc indeed plenty of
m enu s.
S ickn ess and un timely death is t.hc conseque nce of' in tern perance.
Common sense as well as pi ety te ll us these are proper.
Prud e uce and not pump arc the ba Ris of his f'aJ11 c.
While this, with cu phony, cous titut.c, fi ua 11 y, the whole .

3. Pronominal tvo rds.
Let each keep to their own sphe res and <lo their work
th erein.
'l'h c jury were divided in its opinion .

CONCORD.

341

The community is responsible for wh at takes place among
themselves.
If' a ny one has been offended let them speak.
Th ey all have a great rcsemLlaucc to each other.
.Jamc8 or J ·ohn will take their turn.
'l'h c man who is sober, honest, and courteous, genera lly
succe eds.
l\Iau, t h at is of few days and full of trouble, should be
humble and patient.

4. Compellatives and Appositives.
Ho\v <lo I loathe aud defy thee ; 0 thee perjurer, thee
v ill ain.
'l'hc work was John's-him whom he had already cast
off
'!'h eirs was all the blame-they who had devised and
prompted the deed.

5. Object-words.
'They asked John and I to go with them.
Did he know who he was speaking to?
Who do they propose to appoint on this commission?

6. Expressions of time.
It would have been natural for me to have pointed
out.
Their intention was to have pursued their journey to
Naples the following month.
'l'he task was not so difficult as they expected it to have
b ee n.
'l'hcy would j oin his party, if they can be convinced of
his competency as a leade r.

I

t 1,i

!\ :

342

7. Clauses.
Ile s toutly promi se d t hat h e will be faithful.
Were he pcuite nt, he will be pardoned.
Ile is to return to hi s native l::tu<l next y ear if hi s bu sin ess prosp ers.
'Vas I to be ever so eloqucut, I coul<l uot couviucc him.

Promiscuous f aulls

iii

grammatical concord.

'l'he mechanism of clocks ancl watches were totally unknown.
N either of these templ es, either then or n ow, derive th eir
san ctity from the buildiD gs.
The richn ess of their arms an<l apparel were co uspi cuous
in th e for emos t rank s.
It is at once th e sweetest, loftiest, most sp iri tual utlcran ces that h as eve r been framed in Englis h wor<ls.
'l'o live in s in and ye t lo beli eve in th e forgivene ss of
siu arc utterly i1nposR iblc.
' E co nomi cs were amon g th e prescribed stu<lics .
Erroneou s <lata wns nssurn c<l.
The number of inhabitants were not more than four
million s.
Enough of its form and force arc reta in ed to r end er them
un ensy.
There is sometimes rnure th:rn one :iuxili:ny to tl1 e verb.
'V e see pl ainly that it is n either Os myn uor ,Jane Sh ore
that speak.
A g rea t cause of the low sLa.t.c of iu<lu s try were the
res traints put up on it.
A multiftllle of their words :ipproa ch cs to the T cnlonic
form au<l the refo re affor<l cx ccl lcn t :u::s ista nee.
Each of which have s tarnpctl their owu impre ss on the
character of the people.

343

CONCORD.

CONCOJlD.

N eith er you nor he seem to have entertained the idea.
Iu th e brea s t-plate was placed the mysterious Urim and
Thuuunim.
I cauuot so warmly admire the Ode to Sleep which
lloutcrw ek as well as Sedono extol.
Tlicrc runs through hi :; whole manner. a stiffness and
affectation which renders him very unfit to be considered a
general model.
But their religion, as well as their customs and manners,
were stran ge ly mi sreprese nted .
'J'lic :ngumeut was one of the ablest that was presented
in th e di sc ussion.
Sully bou ght of l\Ions. Guyon one of the finest Spanish
horses that ever was seen.
lt co uld not be him.
H ence naturally arise indifference or aversion betwee n
the parties.
'l'o r evc:tl secrets or to betray one's friends are contern pti blc perfidy.
Eith er a pes tilence or a famine, a victory or a defeat, an
oracle of the gocls or the eloquence of a daring leader, were
rmfli cicnt to impel the Gothic arms.
He offered a great reco mpense to whomsoever would help
him.
Il e taught the goods at Smith's the grocer's.
A brother and a si ster's love and care he had never
slrnrcd.
'L'h ese poems are Tennyson, th~ poet laureate's.
The bless ings which political and intellectual freedom
hav e brought in their train.
"
Ea ch nation cherished their separate pieces as an ideal
of art.
An officer ou Buropean and on Indian service are in very
differe nt situations.

.,

344

345

ARRANGEMEJ\1'.

ARRANGEMENT.

He saw his own child dragged to the door by eight, or
ten cats whom he had difficulty in driving awny.
If an Aristotle, or a Pyt_hagoras, or a Gali leo, suffer for
their opi 11 ions they arc martyrs.
How happy it is that neither of us were ill rn the
Hebrides.
'l'hese kind of sports are beneficial to health.

The secret which the king hath demanded cannot the
wise men show unto the king.

II. 1. Adjectives.
It is not probable that such another poet will soon

,I

appear.
'l'he three last stanzas of the hymn were in perfect taste.
A youug, playful, little kitten was frisking on the carpet.
For a great door and effectual is opened to me.
All these youug promising lads are now more than lost
to their friends.
2. Adverbials.

CHAP'l'Elt V.
AitRANGEJ\JENT.

§ 12. GRAMMATICAL ARRANGEMEN'l' reguires thnt
the materials of the sentence be prescnteJ in such
order as to tdiow the relation between them.
The ru les appli es,
I. To the pr in cipal clemcntfi of the sc ntcm:c in their relation to one nnother-thc subject, the co1rnla, and the
predicate;
II. To the subordinate elcrnents,-a<ljcctives-hoth definitives and epithets,-advcrbials, modals, object-words,
and pronominal words; and
III. To parts of complex sentences.

§ 13. EXERCISES :-Correct the fau 1ts m G rarnmatical
Arrangement in the following sentences.

Thought and expression act upon each other mutual!~.
'fhc first pestilence could be only imputed to the Just
indignation of the gods.
From what I have said you will perceive readily the
subject I am to proceed upon.
Precision is to be studied above all things m laying
down a method.
li'or the wisest purposes Providence has designed our
state to be chequered with pleasure and pain.
J\Ien of the best sense, have been touched, more or less,
with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity,
upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature. ,

3. 111odals.
The sentence can be possibly understood.
Micaiah said, if thou certainly return in peace, then
hath not the Lord spoken by me.

4. Object-words.
1. Principal Elements.

He tha t l1 :ith pity upon the poor, lcn(lcth unto th e Lord
and that which he hath given will He pay him again.

j

This matter I had a great mind to reply to.
'fo have no one whom we heartily wish well to, and
whom we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state.

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ARUANGE:MEN'J',

ARRANGE:llIENT.

Th ey were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven
fr om th e h ouse.
5. Pro11omi'.nctl icvrds.

One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed
to be baked.
It disposes, in the most artificial manner, of the light
and shade, for viewing every thing to the best advantage.
Together with the national debt, the greatest nat.ional
ad van tagcs are transmitted to succeeding generations.
What man is there of you whom if his son ask bread
will he give him a stone? or if he ask a fo;h will he give
him a serpent?
Ily greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single
object, but the largeness of a whole view.
Doing easy things is gen erally dull work,
There is a remarkable union in his sty le of harmony and
ease.
He left the room very slowly repeating his determination
not to obey.
Ilcauties, however, there are, in the concluding books,
of the tragic kind.
Ii'or none work for ever so little a pittance that some cannot be found .to work for less.
Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature,
but for his moral wisdom.
The five last days of the month were rainy.
.
If he does but speak to display his abilities, he is un
worlhy of attention .
It is a good which neither depends on the will of others,
nor on the affiuence of external fortune.
Hence he considered marriage with a modern political
economist as very dangerous.
.
It happened, once on a time, as men went to and fro in
the world, who were interested in the arts, that they discovered, at different periods, and hidden away in many
countries, portions, it seemed, of exquisite statues-a foot.,
an arm, a torso, a broken hand.

And others very mu ch Lliffered from tl1e wriler' s words
to whom th ey were ascribed.
He is lik ewise required tu make exampl es him se lf'.
He labored to involve his mini ster in ruin , who had bee n
th e author of it.
It has not a word, says Pope, but what the author r eligiously thinks iu it.

III. Complex senicnces.
Enter, snys lie, boldly, for h er e t oo-th ere arc go ds.
The reader's kn owledge m:iy prev en t, as Dr. Campbell
observes, hi s mistakin g it.
Mother, co me , he faintly said, near me .
vVe can, however, not avoid noticing th e honorable testim ony.
Very few men live nt prese nt., properly s peaki11 µ;; most
are preparing to liv e anoth er tim e.
Promiscuous fau.lts in grammatical arrangement.

In ord er to ri ghtly understand whnt. we read.
Th e empire of Bl ef'u sc u is au island sit uat ed to the nort.heast of Lilliput, from when ce it is parted only by a channel
of eig ht hundred yards wid e .
They do not evidently co nsid er whnt they mean by lnw.
Let us endeavor to establish to ourselves an int erest in
Him who hold s the rein s of the whole creation in His
hands.
Adversity both taught l1i111 cauti on and enduran ce .
·w h ereas the more mild and p:e ntl c they arc treated, the
grea ter is there a chance of their reco ycry .
It gives a meanin g to wor<l s which they would not have.

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PlWJ\llSCUOUS FA UJJI'S IN CONSTJ::.U C'I'IO N .

So _much depends on the proper co ns truction of sentences,
th at, m every so rt of composition, we cannot be too strict
in our attention to it.
He aL~vaucccl against the fi e rce ancient, imitatin g hi s addresH, his pace aucl ca reer, ns well as the vigor of hi s h orse
and his own ll kill woulcl allow.

ClIAP'L'Elt VI.
PltOllfIS CU OUS

FAULTS IN CONST RUCTION.

l\IEN who but write to show their abilities are unworthy of rega rd.
Neither of th ese touch the great questions h ow far destiny ove rrul es the human will, :rnd h ow far it is separate
from , or eve n sup erio r to th e Divine will.
'Ti s lik e, he danced alone.
;1: h c r ~ wer~ seve ral advanbgcs attended this co urtesy.
1h c followrn g sc nlc11 cc ca nn ot but Le poss ibly ullll crstoo <l.
All the virtues of mankind arc to be counted upon a few
fin gers, but his follies arc innu111crablc.
Both mini ster and ma g istra te are cornpell ccl to choose
Le tw cc n hi s duty and hi s reputation .
It was a h ovel rather worse as Letter thau that in which
we had din ed.
In some cases we der iv e as much or more pleasure from
th at source than from th e t hin g itself.
But wh en I f'ound that he haLl committcLl. nothin g worthy
of death, allll _that, h e him self hath app ealed to Augustus,
I have Llct.crrn111cJ to sellll him.
Th e more par t adviscJ to depart th ence also.

PROllIISCUOUS FAULTS IN CONSTRUCTION.

349

Neither did h e ack nowl edge his brethren nor know his
own children.
Th e policy can and ought to be adoptecl and enforced by
the governmen t.
If the weath er il'I unfavorable the excursion will be postpon ed.
The nearer it npproached me, the greater horror did it
strike into me; yet did it not s trike me back, uor turned
me away, but h clcl me in suspe nse.
H e cannot spea k three se ntences together without beco ming too much c mbara ssc d to pro ceed.
lie seldom or ever acknowledges a mista ke.
It cannot be impertin ent or ridiculous th erefore in such
a co untry, whatever it mi ght be i~ the abbot of St. llea l's,
whieh was Savoy I think, ol' in Peru under the Incas,
where Garcilasso de la Vega says it was lawl'ul for non e but.
the nobility to study, for men of all d egrec::i to instruct
thcm ;;el ves in tho se affairs wh ere in they may be actors ot
judµ; cs of those th at act as controllers of those that
jud ge.
Each House shall keep a j ourn al of its own pro cP-e din gs ,
and publish th e same, except such part s as in th eir judgment, req uire secresy.
H e unites in him self the human and the Divine nature.
N eitl1 cr below nor aloft is there one single timber nor
spr~r nor one rope which is superfluous.
'l'he largest of any assembly ever held .
Il e was a b etter poet th a n a philosoph er.
:Mau kind never resemble ·each other so closely as at tlfe
·
b eginnin gs of society.
Of all hi s other em in ent virtu'es his unselfishness was
most noticeabl e.
'l'h c prin ci pl es of the refo rmation were cleeper in the
prin ce 's mind than to be ·easily eradicated.

350

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PROl\II8CUO US l"A ULTS lN CONSTH UCTlON.

Those obj ec ts are most .always exhibited very couspicu·

The wh ole memb ers of' the as:;e rnbly rose tof)"ctl1cr
lli
0
joy/'ul acc lamation .
'l'h e f1u est io n is not wh eth er a goo d Indi an or bad
En g lis h1uau be i11 o<; t l1a11py, but whi c h state is mos t
des irabl e.
N or arc they less ali en t o ima g inati ons that h ave bee n
fed 0 11 t he great poe ti c c rea tio ns.
Th e 11ushlllau will plund er a Hotte nto t with aR much
r ec kl ess ness or eve n more th :tn he woul<l th e hated Caffrc.
Th e co untry appears more beautif'ully than eve r.
Th ese ki11 Ll bring t.h c larges t pri ce.
Th e ir .111 odcs of life \\'Cre - th e mus t s imple of auy g reat
COllllllU111ly that have e ver ex is ted.
But sh e fe ll a lnug hing lik e one out of th eir ri g ht
mind.
S uch as oug ht to subsist betwee n a priucipal :ind accesso ry .
\Vh o were utterly uuablc to pronoun ce so me le tters, and
oth e rs very indi s tinctly.
Gray mi g l1 t have bee n ab le to have re ndered him more
temp erate in hi s p oliti cal vi ews.
111 this 1<talc ol' thin gs we cannot afford to ncrr0 lcc t whatever a id that cu lture or any ot her p owe r offers.
'1' rut I t .is t oo vast anu. 1 too compre he ns ive f'or o uc mind to
be npprc hc nd cd and set forth in all its fulln ess .
A n En g li sh lady was rccc utl y forced to pay twe nt y doll::irs :is <lmn agcs for h av in g g iven a goo d "character" to a
servaut wh om sh e ku cw did uot dese rve i t.
Hi s ser va nts ye are to who m ·ye obey.
The presc ri bed do se 'vas three sp oo us/'ul of the mixture.
Th e boldn ess , fr ee dom, and vnri c ty of our bln11k verso is
iufi11itcly more prcfcraLl e than rhyme for all kind s ol' s uLlirn c poetry.
ll c neve r ha H nor <Jver will ge l. the :1dvauf.agc of' me.

351

ously.
'l'o adjust them so as slrnll con s iflt equally with the perspicuity and the g race of the period.
. .
The prin cipal a11d distinguishing excclleuce of Virgil,
nod which in my opini on h e possesses b eyond all poets ,
is tenderness.
It is satisfactory to be ::i bl e to con template in the Crystal Pal ace at Sydenh:un at least on e great building carried
out wholly on the prin ciples of Gothic or of any true style
of art.
Perso nificati o n is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or
actio11 s to animate beiugs or abstract qualities.
· If th e same labor whi ch is now ex pended in the decoratin g and furn ishin g a Bclg ravian palace was laid out upon
the co ttnges .
.
B oth are irrecon cilabl e wi th one another.
Swift but a few months before was willing to have hazarded all the horrors of a civil w::ir.
Its divine perso nages were less easily distin guish ed ,
either from each other or from the great and only first
. I

cause.
It is remarkable to obi=;erve with how little uneasin ess
the fact is r egarded.
. .
.
It is unfortunate that this number of the Spectator did
not encl, as it mi ght very well have done, with the former
beautiful period.
.
The voice I hear in my heart and to which I willed to
give obedience, and whose reality I believed at first, I know
now was His will.
I shall make it once for all and hope it will be remembered.
We resolve to Lelieve that thi s impul se to mural action

352

P R OMJSCUOW3 FAULTS I N COXSTHUC'l'ION .

is ah solul.cly a real i111rrnl sc, all'!, to
ol·1cy 1·1·• as ti1c t rue
•
callill g of' onr lir e.

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111 this style 'I.'ac itu s exce ls all authors, ancie nt and
modern.
All t.hat is favorcJ by good use ifl not, prop er to be
relain cd.
It, is not him you h :inn in your calumny.
A slave would not have been ad 111ittcd into that socie ty
had he neve r such opportuni ties .
Bnt by learnin g, th e ap ostle docs not rn ca n empt y :rnd
l1:i rrc n f< jlCc 11l :1l.i o11 ; nut 111 c rcly lo re 11<l cr uf< bcffpr ,_,. Ji.nlnr~ ,
lm L better n1 cn ; 11 ot only to sa t i ~ l y us in use less curiosity,
but to co nfi rm us iJJ tl1 c belief of Ol1ri fit iat1 il y.
I have h ardl y see n a. lin e fr om an y of th ese gc nt.Icmcn,
but. iipo ke th em, as absc ut from what th ey were dni11µ; , as
th e! profess th ey arc, wh c 11 they co 111 c in to co mpan y .
11orccd to an s wer yes or no as to wl1 cth cr t.h e carnage
oug l1 t to ha ve Lee n permitt ed to go on fur a lo11 gc r period,
a11tl 11 0 111an would hcs itat.c to f<:1y no.
Jl c l1 ad no intimal.ion but. wh :1f. the 111 cn \l"C'l"C hones t.
Ev ery law Rupp oscs t he tra nsg rcs::;o r to be wi <' kcd; whi ch
i11J cc d li e is ii' t he law is ju;it.
E sau thus care less ly threw awny Loth hi s civil and relig ious in hcri tan cc.
Av oid l1 augh ti ucss of' Lel1 avio r :111d a ffectati on of manuers; it impli es a want of so licl merit.
I li ste ucd to a. co uvornation Letwccu a lea rn ed :till! ig norau t man.
H avi ng remov ed tl1i s great obstac le to his progress, the
path W:J f! now- u11 obstructcd.
\Vh ct hcr ou r co 11duct Le in spected , and we nrc u11d er a
ri g hteous go vern111 e11t, or 1111u cr no go vcrn111 c11 t at :ill.
A 111bi tiu11 is u11 c ul' those p :1s:;iu 11 ~ t hat is 11 <:vc r t.o LE
satisfi ed.

PROllIISCUOUS FAULTS IN CONSTRUCTION.

353

It hn s been remarked by some nioo :obscrve:r:s and critics,
that there is nothiu g discovers the truo temper of a person
so much as hi s letters.
rr · ·
Ile proceeded to explain the. reasoa · of the governor
abse ntin g him self so lon g.
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News waA brou ght that Darius was .b ut twenty miles
from th e place they then were. ' · ·· ·· · ·"
. ·· . . ''
The great constitutional feature · of this i~stit~bion berng
that directly the acrimony of the last election is over, .the
acrimony oft.he next beg ins.
· · " · ·
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Jlad ho exhibited such sente.nces as contarned ideas
innpplica.Ll e to young minds, or which .w ere of a trivial · o,r
injurious nature.
'1 : · • •
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Tools and utens il s are said to· be right, '.w hen they s~rve
for the uses th ey were made .
At th e end of the campaign wJrnn h alf the men are 'deserted or killed.
" i
'fh o Strasbourg .Univer sity h as not made as satisfactory
progress numerically as was expected. · A curious request
has bce u made apropos of Strasbourg by the French Governm ent.
'fhe mechanism of clocks and. watches, were totally .unkn own.
' ··
As one would think there was more sophists than one
h ad a fing er in this volume of letters.- ·
"\Vhen you are become conversant with the rules of
grammar, you will then be qualified to · commence the study
of sty le.
'· i ·
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··
N 0 race and no party support one another so steadily. •.
Such r edundancy of epithets, .instead of pleasing, produce
satict.y and di sgust.
.
Ancient philosophers h ave taught many things ·in favor
of morality, so far at least ns. respeet justice and good'ness
.· J1; •11 .. • , ·' •
towards our fellow-creatures.
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PHOMISCUOUS FAULTS IN CONSTlWCTION.

On some points, the expression of' so ng and F.pcech is
identi cal.
That our Savior wa s divinely insp ired and endued with
sup ernatural powers, arc positions that. arc here ta ken for
granted.
There is Ruch a tl1i11g as a prnd c11t and imprndent in stitution of life with regard to our h ealth and affairs.
Neither their solicitude nor their foresi ght extend
so far.
I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me.
'l'he court of chancery frequcutly miti gates and bre:i,ks
the teeth of the common law.
How they port.ioncd out the country, wh at revo lutions
th ey experienced, or what wars they maintained, are utterly
unknown.
'l'his may be true, and yet will not justify the prn cticc.
Doubting things go ill, often hurts more than to be sure
th ey do.
He wa s accused of himse lf being idle.
It not bein g percr.ivcJ directly no more than the air.
No one can thoroughly undcrstanJ the scriptures of the
New 'festarncnt, unless he be well acquaint.cu with those
of the Old. No oue can entirely co mprehend the more
perfect system of Christ, unless he sees it pr efigured in the
more imperfect system of l\ioscs.
The origin of the Grecian and Homan republics, though
equally involved in the obscurities and un ce rtainti es
of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction.
The ninth book of' J,ivy affords one of the most beautiful
exemplifications of historical painting that is anywhere to
be met with.
But his jealous feeling, as well as the fatal antipal.hy of
Fonseca, were conspicuous.

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355

The whole must center in the query, whether tragedy or
comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations.
In the treasury belonging to the cathedral in this city,
is preserved with the greatest veneration, for upwards
of six hundred years, a dish which they pretend to be
mndo of emerald.
He who sighs for pleasure, the voice of wisdom can never
reach, nor the power of virtue touch.
It is by these sort of ways that fools get preferment.
Every man of taste and possessing an elevated mind,
ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the
power he possesses.
The fourth book has been always most justly admired,
and abounds with beauties of . the highest kind.
This is another use, that, in my opinion, contributes.
rather to make a man learned than wise; and is neither
capable of pleasing the understanding or imagination.
Buildings, landscapes, etc., were exhibited in proportions
so vast as the bodily eye is not fitted to receive.
'l'here seems to be in the physical organization a disgust
of sameness.
What right has the- physical philosopher to suppose that
nature is rather constant to herself than the moralist to sup.
pose that the human mind is constant to itself?
These we shall find to contain all our whole stock of ideas;
and that we have nothing in our minds which did not come
in one of these two ways.
The more they are important, the more it is to be desired that they should be strictly noted.
Among his tales several of the unfortunate travelers who
fell among thieves incurred that calamity.
Nobody who agreed in caucus to vote for Mr. H. bolted
or broke their agreement.

356

PROMISCUOUS FAULTS IN CONSTRUCTION.

But I have the luck to be accused by this aulhor m
very good company.
Ile set his face against, anJ sternly dcnounccJ amu sements of every kind .
I would rather have my neck broke a hundred times.
To wisely plan and to prompt.ly execute is to generally
succeed.
I mention it that Stella may consider it for her poor own
little head.
All men have this belief; all men cannot avoid having
it.
'Ve should st.ill be no forwarder.
This construction sounds rather harshly.
The music was scarce audible.
The bus iness was transacted throughout conformable to
the instrnetion~ he had received.
Removing the term from 'Vestmiuster, sitting the Parliament was i llcgal.
Cato approached the company with s uch an air that
showed he contemned the honor whi ch he laiJ claim to.
He is not the man as was expected.
·we have to-day the same weather whi ch we had yesterday.
No sooner does the morning dawn, but this strange enchantment vanishes.
'l'he officers were sent for from their places of resort in
the country.
Very different to all this was the representation he had
previously mad e to his friends.
Once we have realized the thought of the Divine will at
the center of the universe, we can no longer abide in the
realm of un connected facts.
The highest and best part of his nature was not cultivated, but a neglected and barren waste .

PROMISCUOUS FAULTS IN CONSTRUCTION.

357

Messrs. H. and T. made good sound speeches very different in their views.
Nor the smell of fire had pasP.cd upon them.
N othin!T is frequently more hurtful to the grace or vivacity of: period, than superfluous dragging words at the
conclusion.
'The reason of the failure of the expedition was because
the reinforcement that had been ordered was unable . to ·
come up in time.
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