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Chapter !.-Education in the Past.

tional men in Europe and this
country: The great writers of the
PREFATORY.
English · language in the seventeenth
century
have anticipated most of the
N this age of revolution and
One will
self-styled reform, we · are objections now urged.
-.;::, called upon to listen 'to pro~ find admirable statements of them in
~ tests against every form of Locke and . Milton, and, what is
~ existing reality. It is well more, he will find them so temperate
that th e rationale of all we as to escape the extremes into which
have and are should pass under the our late1: day protests have develbped.
·. It is' with a view of throwing some
scrutinizing rev iew of the censor:
But it is better to be able to see p osil light off this important question that
tive fe atures than merely to be able I commeiice its study afar off at the
to utter protests . :Meanwhile the beginni"ngs of. our system of school
merely negative is bett~r than the . i.n:stri1ction, and trace its affiHation
death of stagnation.
··
· .}.. ,. with the political histo~-y of modern
·Our systems of education are n'h.· times. ·

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.better than they should be,-'-far frorri
it. But it does not foUow th~t" any
change would be for th'e bett~~;
Only \vhen we can seJ th~ -· fliU
grounds for the reality of system;
can we then set about improvi'n!? it
wisely.
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Text-book education has· been 'the
subject of much abuse for ' th11e·e·!
fourths of a centtiry among ed.uc:l.c·

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HISTORICAL. ·

·'.Four hundred years ·ago this very
year, 'vVrh'! Caxton, the tfrst English
printer, was "engaged on - the ·first of
his ' Wo rk\ ...::.t!1e __histoi)," of R aoul ·1e
Fevre~''Recueil
des . histoz"~es
de
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Troy ~." ' •The· same ·year · 'p rinting
1s i'nti-odb1ce.d into Mi"la 11 ·an ~l' Ven~
iC~1. ' Ine'e;11S ~hilt the · /1/~~nti~~ of
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th.e mt of prin,tii1g d~ tes 1>ack"of this

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*Read at the ]'\ ati nn:t l Teachers ' Assocbtion, held at Cleveland, Aug. i9. 1870.

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some thirty years, and that the firm the wars of Charles the Fifth with
of Johann Faust and Gutenberg Francis the First and Henry the
commenced the business of printing Eighth. At this epoch appeared the
books in the city of Mentz in the REFORMATION, and the new impulse
year 1450. The epoch is a notable toward independence of authority.
Luther, Erasmus and Melancthon
one in history.
Three years after the p artnership appear at the same tim e as Coperniof Faust-Gutenberg, Constantinople cus, with the " true system of the
fell into the han ds nf the Turks, and Universe," and H.oger Ascham, the
the Eastern Empire closed its ca reer. schoolmaster, teaching Greek to
The "Wars of the R oses" depopu- Queen Elizabeth.
With the sp read of the art of
lated England of her nobility to such
an extent that the royal power rose printing came the cheapening of
nearly to absolutism in the dynasty books and the stimulus to popular
of kings that followed, and in the education. According to Diesterweg,
next reaction, the power of th e Com- the eminent German educator, "the
mon3 came uppermost. In Spain, present system of common or public
Ferdinand and Isabella united their sc hools-that is, schools which are
crowns, and drove out the last vestige open to a ll childre11 under certain
of Moorish power from Europe the regul ations-dates from the discovery
same year that "Genoese Columbus of printing, in 1436, when books
launched his adventurous fleet into began to be furnished so cheaply that
the vVestern ocean ." The Medici the poor could buy th em." He refamily were at the height of their marks: "Especially after Martin
power in Florence, and L orenz o the Luther had translated the Bible into
Magnificent ascended the throne the German, and the desire to possess
same year that Caxton completed th e an<l understand that invaluable book
history we have nam ed. Under his became universal, did there also bereign were born the great Mi chael come universa l th e desire to know
Angelo and the grea t R a phael. Mar- how to read . Men sought to learn ,
cilius Ficinus, the revi ve r of the not only for the sake of readi ng the
profound study of Plato and the Pla- Scriptures, but also to - be able to
tonists of Alexandria, was hi s school- re ad and sing the psalms and to learn
the catechism.
For this purpose
master.
vVhat with the revival of lea rning schools for children were established
and the discovery of new wo rlds, the which were essentially readingmastery over the l'.1oslem, th e inven- schools. Reading was the. first and
tion of printing, and the bloom of principal study; next came singing,
romantic art, the "Time River," as and then memorizing texts, songs,
Goethe calls it, was indeed swollen and the catechism. At first the minto overflowing, and in th e age fol- isters taught; but afterwards the duty
lowing there arose in Europe the was turned over to the inferior church
modern States system, and the "Bal- officers, th e choristers and sextons.
ance of Power" developed throl!;h Their duties :cs choristers a nd sextons

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were paramount, and as schoolmasters only secondary. The children
paid a small monthly fee, no more
being thought necessary, since the
schoolmaster derived a salary from
~ '·-::.the church."
~
The mode of instruction at this
~ early period of public school history
"'-:::: is characterized by Diesterweg in the
following words: "Each child read
by himself; the simultaneous method
(that of classes) was not yet known.
One after another stepped up to the
table where the master sat. He
pointed out one letter at a time,
and named it; the child named. it
after him ; he drilled him in recognizing and remembering each. Then
they took letter by letter of the words,
and by getting acquainted with them
in this w ay the child gradually learned to read.
This was a difficult
method for him. Years usually passed
before any facility had been acquired;
many did not learn in four years. It
was imitative and purely mechanical
labor on both sides. To understand.
what was read was seldom thought
of. The syllables were pronounced
with equal force, and reading was a
monotonous affai r.
The children
drawled out texts of scripture, psalms
and the catechism from beginning
to end. As for the actual meaning
of the words they uttered, they knew
·almost nothing of it." This, _with
"stern severity ·and cruel punishments," com~etes his picture of that
stage of the school system.*

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deep as all European civilizatio
and it signified nothing less than ti
complete and full emancipatioµ
each and every individual from ~
species of external authority. A
institutions of society were to be bo1
again, and from their Palini;enes
were to spring the humanitarian ou
growths of the present and the futur.
National literatures arose; three ge1
erations of men contested the ne'
ideas, first with words, then wit
bitter persecutions, and then cam
the Thirty Years' War, with its fin:
treaty, the peace of W estphali:
wherein the States system, whic
began to develop in the time c
Charles Fifth, now got fully recog
nized, and with it free individu<!lit
took a new status.
Out of one solution forth steps
new problem, and that with frightfu
portent. By the light of the ne\
principle of individuality, which tool
the form of the "right of privat.
judgment," the old basis of society i1
Europe looked hideously empty, an<
a sham throughout. To a generatio1
of Newtons, Lockes, and Leibnitz's
succeed a generation of Bolingbrokes
Swifts, Rousseaus, Montesquieus, anc
these again are followed by such a:
Hume, Voltaire, Diderot, Lessing
and Goethe. The French Revolutior
is inevitable, and an immense explosion rends the face of Europeah civ·
ilization, threatening to merge in one
.red ruin all the landmarks built up
for a thousand years. But " History
· But the movement thus begun 'was is only a conflict of ideas, and the
no superficial one; it was wide and victory of the deeper one." , Out of
the obscurity, when the smoke cleared
*This, and the passages from R ousseau, are
.
away, •appeared again the same huquoted from translations given in Barnard's Journal .
manity,.only with a stronger tendency

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-than ever to realize the possibilities wo rn out. Then th e new idea sufof the individual. In place of the fers defeat, and must try new means,
cramping formulism which had first until at last it hits upon th e true
prevailed in the school-room , and armor-the steel of its own forging,
which for two centuries had improved and with this it is invincible-for the
very little, on account of the wars time.
Our late civil war furnishes to.o
which were constantly occu rring, now
a new spirit came in. It was the spi rit pertinent an example to be passed by
·we call ·Pestalo zzian, and traces di- in . silence. There was a 11ew outrectly to Rousseau. The positive idea grow th of the hum an itarian idea,
of.this reform has been stated thus: wh ich h ad found th e instrumental ity
·' -' The child should be educated,-not uf its realization in productive indusfor a trade or profession , but for th e try . Its strength iay in mechanic
common and absolu te state of man! inYention, thorouglily subo rdinated to
Should not, therefore, subject himse lf that system of indu stry. In th e war
to any thraldom of habit, but be in- one party said: '' I wi ll have none of
depen den t of every thi ng about him, it, but I will hold by that stage of
and m as ter of himself."
Human society whose instrument is serfdom ."
nature is distinctly recognized as an The re sult of ·the fir st six months'·
ideal of expanded culture. " Indi- struggle was a self-con tradi ction on
viduality must ·be hel d sacred, and the part of th e South, fo r, in o rder to
carefully studied and encouraged." carry on th e contest equally, it wasAll mechanical methods a re esc hew- obligecl to establish m ec hanic induFed,-the teac her endeavors to excite tries in every vi ll age; without these
the pupil to self-activity, and the reby it could not be independent of for -·
rendC';r him indepe nd ent of all assist- eigners. Thus it was conquered in
. its idea before it yielded to the for ce
ance.
These great id eas ma rk the epoch of arms. Both sides of th e nation
of a clear consciousness of the true were really in the same stage of huprovince of pedagogy. They are manitaTianism , but one had preceded
fundamental, and universally recog- the other in discovering th e true und
nized by the g re at educators ot Eu- proper instrument for its realization ..
Now both see it in the same lie-ht.
rope and America.
But, like all great formative ideas, It is beca use of this inevitaDle misthe first realizations of the same are tak-e of instrumentalities th at we are
prone to be self-contradictory . It is forced in this essay to speak so much
the province of a ll great national of the system of '·' Text-Book Eduideas to find, after manifold experi- cation." It was th e .. most natural
ments, th e fit instruments for their thing imaginable that happened,: fo
realization . When thi s is accom - the case of the n ew an d better ·spirit
plished they become victorio us. At wh ich came to be reco~nized in Pes,
first th ey are li ab le to select the old talozzianism.
ROUSSEAU'S IN F LUENCE.
instrumen taliti es which have been
The two wings of Rouss ~a u's
created by the national id eas already

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school-if I m ay so express. it-are
r epresented in Basedow and P estaloz zi. The forme r is the extreme
d isciple of his master, and tend s
always to th e grossest naturalism,
w hile Pe,stalozzi is moderated · ever
by his deep instincts and religious
culture. But both antagonize themselves against the very appliances
which Reason has elaborated tor her
realization.
The printed book is
thrown aside with contempt, and the
living voice of th e teacher substituted
therefor to an exten t far from justifiable.
It is the tru e rationale of text-book
edu cation to which I would call attenti on here ; and this I would urge
w ith more zeal for the reason th at
the question is, to a great extent,
before the min d of American educators to-day, and is the sou rce of manifold experimen ts, which may prove
expensive in the end .
This topic fo rms a leadi ng one in
a discussion of the distinctive features
of school education in America, as
contrasted with the methods in vogae
in Europ e.
From the elate of th e publication
of."Lienhard and Gertrud," by Pestalo zz i, th e world has borne in mind
th e invec ti ves against I:iooks and the
a rt of printing. All the evils existing in society have been referred to
the deficient sta te of education, and
thi s again to the deficient mod,es of
teach ing which have arisen from the
art of printing. But the root of all
thi s objec ti on to printing lies deeper;
it is, as we h ave intimated, the effect
o f the writings of R o ussea u, who
eleva tes a state of nature av.e r a state
ofculture. In 1749,attheageofthirty-

seven, Rousseau made his first succesE
ful literary adventure, by writing a1
answer. to a prize question propose•
by the Academy of Dijon: "Whethe
the· progress of the Arts and Science
has tended to the purification of man
ners and morals." "At the sui;:-geE
tion of Diderot, who reminded bi n
of the greater notoriety which h
could gain on the wrong side, h
to ok the negative, and found his !in
of argument exactly adapted to hi
modes of thought arid feeling.
H e wrote a violent, brilliant and elc
quent denunciation of civilized life
and ~ t once found himself famous a
a "censor of civilization." If an
one has doubts as to the origin c
most that is called Pestalozzianisrr
let him hear Rousseau talk in h i
"Emile." "The pedagogues," s.ay
he, " teach children words, nothin
but words, and no real knowledge.
" Children should not learn .by rote
not even La Fontaine's Fables."
" Reading is the great misery c
children. Emile must, in hi s twelft
year, scarcely know what a book is.
"Wh at the human mind receivt
is conveyed through the senses; th
senses are the basis of th e intellec
tu al. Our feet, our hands, our eye:
first teach us philosophy."
"No writings are proper for a boy
no eloquence or poetry; he has n
business with feeling or taste."
" Geographical instruction shout
begin with the house and place c
abode. The pupil should draw m ar
of the neighborhood, to learn ho'
they are made, and what they show.
" Robinson Crusoe might cons!
tute for a long time the entire librar
of a child."

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"The boy should do nothing at the
word; nothing is good to him except
what he himself recognizes as good.
By your wisdom you rob him of his
mother wit; he becomes accustomed always to be led, and to be on ly a
machine in the hands of others. To
require obedience of the child means
to reqwire t11at when grown up he
shall be credulous,-shall b e made a
fool of."
" Do the opposite of what is usual,
and you will almost a lways do right."
In the principles embodied in these
quotations, one recogniz es the confusion which reigned in Rousseau's mind
as to the difference between nature in
general, and human nature.
NATURE VS. HUMAN NATURE, OR THE
SPIRITUAL j HOW MAN LIFTS llJMSELF BY AID OF INSTITUTIONS.

Nature, as existing in time and
space, is the polar antithesis to the nature of man as spirit. Nay, man himself finds himself, as merely natural ,
hisworst· foe. By nature he is totally
depraved; that is, he is a mere animal,
and governed by animal impulses a nd
desires, without ever ri sing to the ideas
of reason. The greedy swine fight
over the posses~ion of the acorn that
drops in their midst. It is a sce ne of
pure violence . Everywhere the being
of mere nature is impelled from without and has no freedom. For freedom begins with making one's nature, and not with m ere uncon scio us
habit. Out of the savage state m an
ascends by making l1imself new natures, one above the other; h e realizes hi s ideas in institutions, and finds
in these ideal worlds his real home
and his true nature.
The state of nature i• the savage

state. The state of human nature
only exists as a product of culture.
The world of nature in time and space
exists for man or human nature, on
condition that he have intelligence
and skill to use it. The natural man
who has not ascended above nature
and become its master, is more unfortunate and unhappy than the brute.
To achieve his destiny, to become
aught that is distinctively human, he
must be able to combine with his fellow men and sum up the results of the
race in each individual. First there
is practical combination-civil society
organizing in such a manner that each
man reaps the united effort of the entire community: the laborer who earns
his dollar for the day's work being
able to purchase therewith one dollar' s worth of any or all the productions
th at human labor has wrought out.
This kind of combination, whereby
m an lifts himself above himself as an
individual (and to that extent transcends his mere . finitenes~), permits
you and me to pursue quietly our vocations, and yet enjoy the fruition of
the labor of the world. For each citizen, no matter how humble his birth
or station, is made, by commerce, a
centre from which ray out li nes of
communication and exchange to all
industrial regions in the world. Each
for all, and all fo r ettch ! The coal
miner digging beneath the earth, and
shut out from the light of day, does a
work for all. Every stroke of his
pickaxe affects to a certain extent the
price of coal in all the markets of the
world, and the price of coal affects
the prices of all other commodities.
The relation is reciprocal; and every
vessel that crosses the ocean, every

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laborer on the distant plantation in
the Indies or Brazil, or even by the
far off Nile or Ganges, every m anufacturer in Birmingham or Manchester, affects in tqrn the well-being of the
coal miner in Illinois or Pennsylvania.
He is comforted and cheered by the
tea and coffee, nourishe<l and sustained by the fru its, grains and spices,
the cotton, and silk, and linen that
have traveled to him around the earth.
Nay, the very drugs th nt make life
possible in our malarious climes, nrc
grown from six to twelve thousand
miles hence. Combination secures
not only the participation in all products on the part of each , it secures
that division of labor which results
in the hig hest skill of elaboration.
THE REALM OF MIND, OR HOW MAN
BY COMBIN ATION BECOMES OMNISCIENT.

But practical combination is not
all nor indeed the chief item of importance in th e elevation of man.
There is theoretical combinationthe sch olar by diligent study and much
deep thinking being able to master
for him self, o ne by one, the great
thoughts that have ruled the worlclhistory. The scientific solutions and
generalizations re lating to the great
problem of human life-these are preserved in books, and each man, woman and chi ld may partake, for in
this realm too, all is for each, and
each for al l. The great Sphinx of
nature has sat before man and asked
him questions, looking up at him with
quiet, stony looks, until despair has
forced from him the solution, or else
driven him to death . For every solution in the shape of scientific discovery, or ethical maxim, has been

wrought ou t only through grimmest
toil nnd sweat.
But the participation of each in the
labors of all is far more pertect in the
theoretical sphere than in the material
or practical sphere. For what one
eats up or wears out, perishes in the
usi ng; but thought, ideas, principles,
the products of ·s pirit, INCREASE in
the using. vVhen you have a new
thought, and your neighbor is made
the wiser for your imparting it to
him, the new truth has two sources
of emanation in place of one as before. Instead of b!=!ing the poorer for
having parted with the exclusive possession of your truth, you really are
richer ; for by explaining your doctrine to others you learn to understand it better yourself. This second
mode of combination is therefo re better than the first.
These two forms of combinationthe practical and the theoretical-are
the modes in which man the animal
becomes m an the spirit, and each individu al becomes a conscious participant of the life of the entire race.
EDUCATION-ITS FUNCTIO N .

It is not necessary for each member of th e human fami ly to repeat in
detail the experiments of all his predecessors, fo r their results desce nd to
him by the system of combination in
which he lives, and by education he
acquires them. vVith these he m ay
stand on the top of the ladder of lrnman culture, and build a new round
to it so that his children after him
may climb higher a·nd do th e like.
The mere animal, lacking the power of generalization, cannot amass experience, but strictly confined to the

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dreamy life of th e se nses, and neve r
ri sing to the reg ion of abstract ideas,
each individu al animal matures and
d1es. O nly the species lives on ; th ere
is no immorta lity fo r th e individ ual
anim al. I t requires a being who can
combine in h imself the product of hi s
entire sp ecies by his indi vidu al activity- just as man can- to ful fi ll the
conditions of immortality .
E DUC ATI O:sc, as embracing this for m
of ac tive co mbination w ith the race,
characterizes h uman nature and disting ui shes it from an ima l nature. By
it man is a progressive being, and
his prog ress co nsists in subo rdin atin g
the materi al world to his use, and
freeing h imself from th e hard li mits
th at hem in all na tural beings.
T he nations and p eoples of th e
w orld ra nk hig h or low in th e scale
accordi ng to th e degree in w hi ch they
have reali zed thi s ideal of humani ty.
T he rude tribes of ce ntra l A fri ca and
the Poly nesian I sb nds sta nd at th e
fo ot of the ladder. The Ori ental peop les have achi eved a hi g her degree,
though still very defecti,·e. Wh ere the
indiYidu a l is un safe from th e fr ea ks
and capr ices of the ru ler or su pe ri or
in rank , nothing ca n co mpensa te for
the un ce rtainty of h is life a nd possession s. A rbitrariness in th e gove rning
p rin cip le is a n esse ntia l ingredi ent
thereof, a nd is only co mp ati ble with
slavery in th e peop le below it.
Thu s it happens th at ind ividu al
good behav ior on the p art of the
ruler is m ade so important a matte r in
Oriental books. R ead Saadi, or F irdusi, Confu cius, or M enciu s, the code
of Manu, or the Hitopadcssa, and
you find eve rywhere the be ha,·ior toward oth ers, the co ndu ct of life, as

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indi vidual members of society, the
th eme. T he most ex cellent maxi ms,
li ke the golden rule of Confuc ius, are
the staple of O riental books, a nd
w hy? Because the behavior of the
individual is the essenti al thing . Humanity had no t yet bu ilt up a wall
around the individual such as to p rotect him from his own caprice and arbitrarin ess. vVith th e ancie nt G reeks
and R omans g reat p rogress was
mad e over th e h ig hest Asiatic p eople.
But it is in modern times that w e have
achi eved the miracle in this respect.
F or w hat do our mod ern Christian
States signify , excep t th e realization
of co nstituted fo rms under w hich each
shall reap only the p ositive results of
all , and that each one who does evil
(is w icked a nd arbitrary ) shall not
injure the re~ t , but shall himself suffer
for his own sins. I t is the g reat heritage
of the man born now tha t he can
be p rotected by the forms of society
and state in the enjoyment of his own
labo r. If he do good, p ositive deeds
in the co m mu nity, he shall get back
the sa me from the rest ; bu t if he
' rn rk s against the good of th e co mmuni ty, he fi nds h imself at once cu t
off fro m receiving good from it.
R OUSSE AU , A G AI N .

Th ese aspects of th e S tate and of
institu ti ons ge nerally, w ere not seen
by R ousseau, nor by the ch ief thinkers of his time.
Wh en R oussea u sent a copy of h is
essay on " The Orig in of Ineq uality
am ong Men ," to Vol taire, the latter
e:i:posed its fa llacy in the fo llowi ng
sarcastic sty le : " I have rece ived
1
your new book against the humrn n
race, and th ank yo u for it. N o one
could p aint in stronger colors the

horrors of hum an society from wh ich
our ig norance a nd weakness promise
the~ sel ves so m any del ights. Never
ha s any one employed so much
genius to make us into beasts; when
one reads your book, he is seized at
once with a desire to g o down on all
fours."
P ES T A LOZ Z !.

But V oltaire h imself w as too exclusive ly ab sorbed in pulling down
institutions, to exercise any restraining infl uence. The reactionary current against formulism had set in
deep a nd strong . These ideas became the accep ted doctrine: in that
age of unbelief and intellectual Clearing up. In 1798, Pestalozzi unfolded
Rou sseau's doctrine in ·his book entitled, " Researches into the Course
of N a tu re in the Development of the
Huma n Race." The first" state of
childhood being (according to him)
the state of innocence and perfection,
he rep resents th e social state as the
product of artificial conventionality.
For ex ternal, interested motives m en
u nite to form a state, etc. " They
agree to give a p art of their unrestricted freedom fo r the sake of securing certa in benefits otherwise not attainable."
Y et w e he ar it fr equ ently sa id th at
P estalozz i labors to prod uce on th e
part of the child " spontaneous ' activity." But the freedom to .do wh at
my arbitrary w ill dic.tates,. is not
freed om , for caprice destroys .. •t he
work of one mo ment by that of the
next. It is only self-consistent . acother
t ivlty that can be free .
is a p erpetual self contradiction and
perpetually bu ilds up barriers to its
own prog re ss.
But this self-con-

An

sistent activity is not possible fo r the
infant nor the savage. It has taken
ages to achieve its forms. They are
the Laws of the State, the Maxims
of Morality, the Conventionalities of
life, its habits and usages. Nay,
more, they are the state-form itself, the Relig ion, th e entire complex
of civilization. In these forms alone
m an can live so as to reap the fruition
of h is own deed. In any other fo rm
he will sow, and some one else will
reap. What is done through caprice
will be controlled by accident.
The forms of combination by which
each individual man is .enabled to
reap the result of the united effort of
the entire community are the outgrowth of man's rational will as developed not in any p articular man
but in society as a w hole, the product
9.f centuries of experience. The
downfa ll of States, the most terrible
ages, full of suffering a nd horror, these
are all ' ~ l aid up layer above layer in
the strata of huma n civilization," as
well as the ages of peace and prosp.e rity which m ank: nd have enjoyed.
This great complex of arts and
usag es, ·of ideas a nd institutions, of
p rescriptions and privileges, w hich
we call civilization, i.s the great Revelation of Human N ature: its own
nature ·w roug ht out of tl1e raw material---,not 'in peaceful quiet or passive
contemplation, . but with iigony and
sweat of blo ud... ·
. The idle dream ot Roµs seau and
Pestalozzi, of Base!low and Chateaubriand-be.fore this great social reality ·which .surrounds us-fades into
thin air. . Its boasted ideal of human
nature shrinks into a tomic insignificance before the actual fact itself!

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The state of nature and the state
of culture are antitheses, a nd a ll true
systems of ed uca tion must medi ate
between. The problem is always:
how to take the individual as mere
anim a l a nd elevate him to fr ee ma nhood. When one starts out-as those
theorists did-with the idea th at man
as individual is the ultimate no rm
and standard of all rig ht and truth,
he re ads the page of civili za tion bottom side up and must needs howl the
dism al chant of revolution in the
ears of his fellow-men, or else retire
within himself to live in his dream1
an idyllic life like th at painted by
Chateaubriand in his Atala.

all individuals-then he not only accep ts his lot cheerfu lly, but rejoicing ly, and sees himself, not as a slave
in the mill of industry, but as a lordproprietor for whom all ma nkind are
fashioning the wo rld into shapeii of
use and beauty. It is the vision of
the whole that emancipates the individual. Goethe has expressed this
exactly:
" To the narrow mind,
whatever he attempts is still a trade,
Twhether it be shoemaking or preaching the gospel, school teaching or
poetizing]; for the higher, an art;
and the hig hest, in doing one thing
does all; or, to speak with less paradox, in the one thing which he does
rigb.tly,
he sees the likeness of all
Not the individual as such , with
his finitudes an d frailties, with his that is done rightly."
The individual must lose himself in
selfishness and exclusiveness, his aniorder
that he may find himself. He
mal instincts and desires-not the
mere animal, is the end and a im of must purify himself in the baptism of
human existence, but rather the in- institutions and wash off all traces
<lividnal who sacrifices himself as of selfish egotism. And the result
animal in order to re ali ze in himself of such mediation all comes back to
the life of spint. In order to be an the individual and finds him no longer
end tc himself, the individual must a mere animal, but a transfigured
subordinate himself as a p articular 6pirit; not an egotist, but one whose
person, and make himself a servant personality is friendly to, and particiof universal ideas such as he finds pant in, the labors of all mankind.
alrea dy formulated in society and the
state, in Art, Religion, and Science.
Chap. II.-The Present and FuNot to he
ture of Education.
"Like dumb driven cattle,"

h e must be raised to the status of a
r ea sonable being, who looks before
and after, and subordinates all nature
to the service of spirit.
Education must elaborate its appliances so as to take firm hold of the
pupil. Object lessons to strengthen
the attenti on of the new beginner,
conversations and stories, pictures and
games-all these have their place in
any complete system of pedagogy.
The mistake lies in· their too great
expansion, a da nger very imminent
in our own rapid intellectual growth.
The nervous American child commences this k ind of education so early
that he is beyond the period of the
-exclusive appliances of such things
~before his sixth year, and when he
-~nters the school room, is ready for
the serious labor of mastering a text
book. The records of our schools
show that the m ajority of chili;lren
brought up in families where rea\iing
is much carried on, can scarcely wait
for the school age, but take the matter into their own hands, and learn to
r ead by themselves and what assistance they extort from the elder members of the family.
Milk for babes is a useful and ne-cessary article of diet, but when the
:teeth grow, solid food is essential for
healthy development.

an unconscious laborer in the world,
but to be a self conscious, intelligent
actor, is man's birthright and destiny.
And when the individual, however
humble his calling, has arrived at a
comprehension of the necessity that
binds the organic system of civilization, and sees that it is only the action
of a giant will-power enlightened
hy the accumulated intelligence of

·ORAL VS. TEXT BOOK INSTRUCTION.

The plausibility of all abstract systems, like those we have _been discussing, lies in the fact, that education
must start with the natural, the ignorant, the raw material. But its buiiiness is to elevate the individual out of
this state of nature as quickly and
effectually as possible. From animal instincts and sensibilities, enthralled by his physical necessities,

A system of education that professes
:to begin with oral instruction, and to
·continue it as the best system, ignores
:this vital point.
It is a mistake to say that the pres•ent great educational systefus of Europe follow this plan. Its defects are
nowhere so clearly seen as by educators in Prussia, where 1mch men as

Diesterweg and Karl Von Rau 1
have placed all its phases in the cl<
est light.
In no country in the world is
printed book more highly valued t
in Piussia. Germany originated
art of printing, and it is she that ma
the greatest books in science and
;ind condenses all _the erudition of
world upon any single point. Er
tion cannot be gained by or:ll inst
tion, All the information that cc
be given orally by the best of te:
ers, in a ~ourse of ten years, we
not suffice to exhaust a single to
and it would be a very poor substi
for the power a pupil would obtai1
mastering one single text book
himself.
:\Jut it will be readily granted
text book education begins ea
and forms a more important fea
in this country than elsewhere.
The justification for ·this, I fin
the development of our national i
It is founded on no new princ
but fundameQtally it is the sam
that agreed upon all the world '
Education should excite in the
ready way the powers of the pur
self . activity. Not what the te ~
does for him, but what he is ma.
do for himself, is of value. Alththis lies at the bottom of othei
tional ideas, it is not so explicit]
cognized as in our own. It is i
embryonic state in those ; in ours :
unfolded and realized itself so th:
are everywhere and always imp
by it to throw responsibility on ti
dividual. Hence, our theory is
sooner we can m ake the youth
to .p ursue his course of cultu1
himself, the sooner may we gra

~ I

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him from the school. To give him
the tools of thought is our p rovin ce.
When we have initiated him into the
technique of learning, he may be
trusted to pursue his course for himself.
Herein is the cause why un iversity
education is not so prominent here as
in Europe. It is a frequent remark,
that we are behind Europe in this respect. It is not denied that we have
scholars who deserve respect, but we
are told that they do not resort to univen;ities. Nor should they. It is not
what we attempt to do here. We do
not isolate our cultured class from the
rest. It is our idea to have culture
open to every one in all occup ations
of life. Elihu Burritt m ay learn
fifty languages at the anvil. Benjamin Franklin m ay study L ocke, make
experiments in electricity, master the
art of diplomacy. These are selftaught men, and the self-taught man
is our type ;-not the man who wastes
his life experimenting to learn what
is already known and published, but
the man who r eads a nd informs himself on all themes, and d ibests his
knowledge .into practice as he goes
along. A culture for its own sake is
a noble aspiration, and it · is well to
have it advocated at a ll times. But
a culture belonging to a class that
rests.. like an upper layer upon the
m ass below, who in turn h ave to dig
and spin for them, is not the American ideal-Not at all, even if we do
not produce m en who devote their
whole lives to the dative case, or to
the Greek .p articles. And yet it is
the faith of Americans th at th ey will
be able · to accomplish all that any
other civilization can do, besides add-

ing thereto a culture in free individuality to an extent hitherto unattained.
A civilization wherein all can partake
in the subjugation of the elements,
and possess a competence at such easy
terms as to leave the greater part of
life for higher culture, is the goal
to which every American confidently
looks.
The comm on m an shall be rich in
conquests over the material world of
Time and Space, and not only this
but over the world of mind, the heritage of culture, the realized intelligence of a ll mankind.
·
In modern times the controlling
spirit is one of independence of all
authority. So it happens in our sys·
terns of Public Education that the
personality of the teacher is not
brought so much in contact with the
pupil as formerly . When the patriarchal system prevailed in education, the ipse dixit of the pedagogue
was all-sufficing.
The pupil, in
fact, depended almost solely upon the
oral instruction of the teacher. Now
the tendency is to make the individual
independent of the personal teacher
and of the universi ty, by means of
the printed page and its diffusion in
the shape of books and periodicals.
Once it was necessary to resort to the
university to hear the master speak
on his theme, for his knowledge
could not be found in books. Indeed,
books were not printed, but written
by scribes, and for this reason were
so costly that the individual could
not afford to own them. The university is a place where all collect for
one purpose-it has been, in its
earlier days, a kind of grand market
fair for the traffic in letters. The

manuscripts, scarct: and valu able,
could be collected at a seat of learning and all who wished to consult
th em had to take up thei r residence
there. But when the ages of printing came, the n books bega n to multiply so rapidly that private individual s of .m oderate means, could possess th e most valuable treasu res of
erudition and scie nce. What the
h and -press of Faust-Gutenberg was
to the toiling scribe, the modern
power-press is to the former. The
cheapening of books goes on; the
day is coming-nay it is here already,
when whatever information one
wishes to circulate, is committed/at
once to paper.
Oral instruction, as an exclusive
system, loses ground from day to day.
The shadow of it is still preserved in
Europe, and th e ·imported shado w
of it has been se t up in this country. But the spirit of the time is
too p owerfu l for it; it immediately
draws everything into its own form.
The Pestalozzian system is now promulgated chiefly through books written in the sty le of the oral instructi on. In these books their authors
attempt to preserve their best (most
brillia nt) moments and free th e system from the defects that accompany
all systems which are merely extemporaneous. The individ ual, in order to
m ake a powe rfu l effo rt, must rein·
force the moment by the hours-he
must, by previous and severe preparation, assure himself of a strong a nd
steady flow during the period in
which he st ~tnd s before his school as
teacher. Tims it was th at even Pestalozz i was co mp elled to reduce his
system to a book con taining tabu lated

forms and long lists of mere namesthe dryest and most so ull ess specie E
of book ever written. I say SPECIE S
of book because th at individual book
has been imitated, and now we have
many s uch in this country-book;
which, by their minute t:xhaustivenesE
in details, cramp the teacher and drive
out every trace of spo nta neity from
him. And yet this prescription of
de tai ls-it is fo und ad nauseam in
the su perintendents' school-reports
from Maine to California-this prescription of details is found absolutely necessary in order to correct
th e defects of oral instruction, for
arb itrariness and caprice pour in like
a deluge and wash away all landmarks. "Unequal is man , unequal
are his hours." T o-day th e teac her
had ample tim e for preparation, and
is feeling well physically; he comes
before his class and electrifies every
one of them ; to-morrow the opposite
occurs: his inspiration all gone ,
some untoward acciden t deprived
him of the necessary preparation ,
an<l the exercise benumbs eve ry pupi l in his class. Since the pupil is to
depend upon th e teache r fo r eve rythin g-his thirst for knowledge having to be aro used a nd then sated too
by him-it fo llpws th a t the teacher
is placed in the position of the
most ancient of patriarchal rulers.
Everthing rests on his shoulders.
When he fl ags, a ll goes down.
The man who can make th e best
book is usually not the. best person to
teach it. The ·subject stands in his
mind in too synthetic a form. It is the
anaryst who makes th e best teacher.
Oral inst1 uction is therefore con·
stan tly li able to destroy th e self ac-

tivity of the pupil-that is to say, the
very merit claimed for it is the one
it least accomplishes. The pupil
listens to the teacher's living voice.
The first impressions are all he gets,
even if he takes notes: it requires
time to reflect. Our first impressions
of thin gs are never the most va luable; for all subsequent observation
and reflection carry us deeper, and
hence nearer to the truth. The pupil
is dragged from one point to anoth er
without fully digesting either. But
with a text book it is far otherwise.
The book in his hand is "all patience." It waits for him to consider
and reconsider a difficult passage
until he is ready to go on. The
statement in the book is a studied ,
carefully prepared one. The author
has spent hours in revi sing and correcting the defects of the one-sided
statement of the minute . He was
bound to see all properly related and
subordinated-all exhaustive and lucid.
The deference of the pupil
leads him frequently to take the
mere assertion of his teacher without question
or demonstration,
and thus allows him to be warped
into his teacher's whims and idiosyncrasies; it is not so with the
text book.
The te xt book has
been carefully pruned before printing. It frequently happens that a
man would blush to say before the
world on a printed page· what he unblushingly p1eaches before his pupils.
But the heat of personality departs
from the printed page; and the scientific interest increases in proportion.
Prejudice gives place to calm circumspection. The page of the book
is cool and dispassionate, and if not

conclusive and thorough-going, the
student has his remedy in another
book. Multiplicity of text books
has changed ou r mode of instruction
so that every year th ere is more consultation of reference books and comparison of different vi ews; and hence
still another step is gained by the pupil
toward independence of mere external
authority. He shall read and compare
for himself and form his own opinions,
"thus doing his own thinking."
SPIRIT OF THE AGE .

Not only is this the land of individuality, but we are living in an age
of individuality. That period in
which everything intended for the
people was digested by the ruling
class and handed down to them from
above, has well nigh vanished here.
It is disappearing fast , even in Europe. The age of the newspaper and
the te legraph is not the age of prescription, is not th e age of external
authority. According to the spirit
of the last century, the ruling authority measured out to the people
and ordained just how much of
this and how much of that should
be taught, always, of course, with
a view to preserve the existing order
of things. A monarchy, aristocracy,
or theocracy, found it very necessary
to introduce the scheme of external
authority early. We who have discovered the constitution under which
rational order may best prevail by
and through the enlightenment and
freedom of the individual, we desire
in our systems of education to make
th e citizens as independent as possible from mere external prescription.
We wish him to be spontaneousself-active-self-governing. The gov-

ernment of t 11e United States becomes better in the ratio that the
citizen becomes self-directive. vVith
a race of slaves -- a race of men
where th ere is not "one reasoning
brain to every pair of hands,'' but
only one brain to a whole "gang" of
hands - our form of government
would prove a mistake. The modern state, as realized here, is a gigantic system of machinery for the prevention of tyranny.
Think of the
formalities and routines of the legal
process in order that the individual
officer shall not display his personality in the functions of his office !
How carefully our race has learned,
through centuries of experience, to
separate the total function of the
government into three processes, and
then to take care that different individuals shall perform these proce~sses.
The judge must not be the accuser,
nor may the accuser be the judge.
The judge may no t·be the Jaw-maker.
The law-maker shall make his laws
in accordance with general principles, and not with the particular instance staring him in the face. B!!sides this, the law-executing power
shall be entirely separate from tl;e
law-making and
law-distributing
powers. The man who fulfills either
of these functions cannot incur the
personal spite and hatred of the
criminal, or of the friends of the
criminal. The great sieve of government has sifted out personalities and
left the purely rational element. In
like manner, civil society, with its
laws and usages, has sifted ont the
selfishness from the individual before
his results reach the community.
The wrath of man is turned into

praise; the selfishness, the greedy
avarice, the ambition of the individual, fo~ces him to labor and toil heroically for the community in order
to gain those selfish ends. The individual is therefore obliged to renounce his selfishness in the very
act of gratifying it. The Christian
principle of Renunciation:
"He
who loses his life fo r my sake
shall find it,'' is here grown into the
vital organism of society ; and it is
well to note that the modern state is
only the outgrowth, the realization of
the Christian idea. So too is the
general system of inter-communication established in our civilization.
The newspaper and the telegraph
weave the net-work through which
the idiosyncrasies of selfish bigotry,
opinions, conceits and prejudices, are
sifted out. Sectionalism and sectarianism vanish before these instrumentalities, and with them disappear
the mists of ignorance. The distant
is brought near; a kind of omnipresence is attained. The mechanic
or common laborer goes to his daily
task after reading his morning newspaper, with a consciousness of being
a citizen of the world at large; he
revolves in his brain the rebellion
in China, the earthquake in Chili,
the movements of French and Prussian armies, the Council of the Pope,
and the last sermon of Brigham
Young. Narrowness and m11annes&
are thus eliminated from him, and he
becomes a cosmopolitan, a Christian
in the · most catholic sense of that
term.
In our time each family collects its.
library, counting,· it may be, few
books, yet these are not insignificant.

( 16 )

·\
I

I

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A few volumes of Humboldt, or
Agassiz, or even of Hugh Mill er,
open the world of natural hi sto ry .
Shahpeare, Goethe or Hom er-a
single volume of the works of th ese
world poets is enough to lead the
reader into the realm of Phantasy .
Grote, Gibbon, or Hume--whoeve r
reads them thoroughly, need not blush
for ignorance of History. Then every
family owns a Bible, and it is remarkable that the colloquial English--the
vocabulary of our language used in
common conversation-is to a large
extent the same as that u sed by the
tran slators of th e Bible. Thi s fact
shows how constantly the people h ave
read that book.
What is the k ey to the library ?
What preparation is in<lispensa ble
for the individual, in order that he
may enter into this communion with
hum anity, and participate with the
wisest and best of hi s race, though
sundered far in time or space? T.1t e
printed page is the medium, and the
capacity to read and understand it
is the initiation requ ired to enter
. into this realm of" spz"i-it. Not the
m ere abi lity to read the words of a
page, but rather the ab ility to study
it, and extort from it its full sign ificance by the crucibles of attention
and reflection.
This is th e mea ning of our syste m
of "text book " ed ucat ion, and it is
adapted to the life which the ind ividual. must lead in our century. We
give the pupil the conventionalities of
a perpetual self-education. \Vi th the
tools to work with-- and these are the
art of reading and th e knowl e<lge of
the technical terms ernployed- -he
can unfold indefinitely his laten t

powers. Of what use would it be
to fill or cram him with knowledge
of special departments of science
while in our schools? How much
better this power of getting information when and where he needs
it! The attempt to pour into him
an immen se mass of information, by
lectures and object lesso ns, is ill adapted to make th e practical man , after
all. Mere oral instruction is at best
. like the fitting out of an emigrant train
with an immense supply of sawn
lumber, and a store of grain or flour
to last for years. Text-book educati on, on the contrary, is like loading
the train with saw-mill• and gristmills, steam engines and seed-planters
and reapers, with a view to make
lumber from the forests in the distant
home as it shall be needed, and to
gather harvests there by the aid of
the tools transporte<l thither.
The LIBRARY of modern times is,
as we said before, .what the University was of old. In the library, and
by it, are made the learned men of
the present. The pride of Ame~·ica
is her self-educated men. All our
ed~1cated men are in one sense SELFed ucated; for we adopt here that system of ed uca tion which does not so
much pour in preconceived theories,
an d fill up the mind of the pupil with
ready-made doctrines , as it trains him
in the method of mastering · the
printed b ook. With the acquirement
of thi.s-and sometimes an earnest
mind gets this in a few months at
school-the pupil goes forth and carries on his culture independently.
Who are our learned men, and how
much do they owe of their learning
to universities ? Even in England,

( 17 j
who was it that wrute the g1'eatest
History of Greece the world has pro:duced as yet? Grote was 'a business
m a n , and had :1 slight school education to start with ; but. his volumes
have served to in struct the professors
of universities concerning the very
detail s of their owp special theme! ·
But the method of teaching? The
how to study? We are continually
told of the mere memorizing of the
words of a book, and of its evil effect.
There are, it mu st be confessed, large
numbers of te achers whose teaching
is little better than the lifeless revolution of a treadmill. Their inffuence
in keeping the professio n of teaching
at a low grade of estimation i~. the
community, cannot be counteraCted.
Whatever they d o is in the. &tyle
a
hal(Ie;uned trade.
Tbey ·"keep
school,' ' or the ' · school keeps· them,"
and know nothing outside of th e
book-110, not eve n that·-they do no.t
know what is in th e book unless it i~
open before them. Such tef!ch ers
are, h oweve r, em inent in one 't1'1ing,
to-wit: dogrn atisn<. Th ey crusli out
every spa rk of originality in · th eir
pupils to the extent of th eir ability.
Since they do not readi :y comm.a nd
the respect of their pupils, they endeavor to excite their fear. They
are apt to become cowardly am!' cruel,
oppressing the weak, but obseq~ioJs
toward the powerful. These 1~en
bring odium on the very name of
pedagogue.
They are instanced·
by the enemies of our system. as the
necessary results of text-book i~ sfri'i ~­
tion. It is supposed by many th ~t
these are the proper ~epresentati ve~
of what we consider the true sta.n dard of p edagogy. It is suppos~d that

of

the American ideal of teaching is
found in the teacl~e r who sits behind
the desk and asks . printed questions
of the pupils, one .after another, and
requires the literal answer a~ it is
printed in the book, no variation being allowed; that no explanation is
made by the teacher, and no pains
taken to ascertain whether the pupils
understa.nd.what they repeat verbatim.
- With such a view of our system it. is
not .surprising that Europeans ha~e
hitherto cared btit little to look into
it for a deeper an.:! truer idea . They
have supposed that all the evils would
_v anish at once if our -teachers only
adopted a different system-the oral
metlfod.
'
A moment's reflection will con vince
one that. the treadmill teacher who
.'.'reads ~o more than ~hat he teache s,''
~vould bevastly more ..injurious to th e
pupil ~ere he not tethered to a textbook. To what extremities his ignor:;ince and dogmatism would lead can
not be readily conceived by those who
are not old enough to rememb er the
oldest fashioned school of this coun~
try. Those who do rememb er that
school have a vivid recoll ection of
what dogmatism was in the days before text-books had come into fr eq uent
use.
, Th7 evils of the text-book system,
great as they are, are not to be. com_parep with th ose of the oral method.
Even by th e memor i"zing plan the
p'~1pil is obliged. to concentrate hi&
attentipn and arouse himself tiJ hard,
work, whi.le · by the 'o ral method he
do,e s. not acqui1:e the habit of r egular
sy~·temaf/c .study, even though he may
foster brilliant, flashy habits of mindThe true mode of teaching does not

( 18 )
rely upon th e memory nearly so much
as the object lesson system. The
recitation is consumed in analyz ing
and proving the lesso n so as to draw
out all its relati ons a nd implicati ons. The child shall see w hat it is
while reading a book to have every
faculty awake, and to notice all that
is contained directly and indirectly in
it. After the first lesso n the pupil
does not skim over the mere surface
so confidently . H e knows that the
teacher will ask more of him. He
learns grad ually to dive fo r the hidden
essences, and reproduce from the text
the whole idea whi ch lived in the
author's mind. The p arrot repetition
is checked-the good te acher, will
have none of it ; the nooks and corners must be all investigated-every
p ossible vi ew implied in the lesson
dragged out and di scussed before the
class-and thus the pupil is transformed into a student wh o possesses the
.alchemy to convert dead parch ment
into sibylline leaves; a nd, by the spell
-0f mental discipline , to cause the old
enchanter who w rought the characters
tha t conceal his th oug hts in the mysterious vesture of winged w ord s, ag ain
to stand before him a nd reveal his
secret.
Self-determination - the direction
.o f one's o w n practical endeavo r-this
l kn ow to be the object aimed at in
our schools, not only in the theoretical spheres, but in the sphere of
the Will. He is not co unted a good
teacher who flogs his pupils into good
behavior; for all know th at such
good behavior upon constra i"nt is not
permanent. The "form of Eternity"
is a self-related one. The teacher
who elevates his pupils to a feeling

of their own responsibility, is the one
that all value. Under him pupils
feel that it is a disgrace to allow any
one to govern them except themselves, and accordingly they take the
matter into their own hands, and become free by acting li ke freemen.
This feeling of responsibility is so remarkably developed in our popu latior,
that it attracts the first attention of
foreigners who visit our shores. It is .
observable that children, even in
earliest infancy, do not rest in that
perfect feeling of security which
comes from implicit trust in outside
protection. The necessity for self.help makes its way into the consciousness of the child before it can fairly
walk alone.
The immense weight of responsibility which oppresses the individual
causes this influence to descend hereditarily to the children. Indeed, an
edict haf gone forth to the :N"ew
W oriel i1 our Declaration of Independence : "Woe unto that head
which cannot govern its pair of
hands." Unto th e lower races who
fail in this, it reads the seAtence : "If
you cannot direct your own hands by
your own intelligence you only encumber the ground here, and can remain by sufferance in this place orily
so long as land is cheap. ·You must
move back into the wilderne~s, like
the Indian, or else absorb our culture
and become intellectually productive,
or else-die out. This is the judgment pronounced by the Anglo Saxon
upon the lower races. It seems cruel
-nay, the cruelest edict ever proclaimed by a civilized race. It is not
the way of the Spaniard : the
Frenchman can get a long with infe-

( 19 )
rior races; the Spania~d can actually
mingle with lower races and lose his
identity. But the rule with the Anglo Saxon is otherwise. He does
not esteem mere life-animal life as
such- worth· preserving. It is only
intelligent-rational-life that is sacred. But with this cruel alternative
he offers to the lower race the highest
boon as reward for his eflo.rts in selfculture-he offers him free participation in the freest and higheit civil
communtity.
Thus it is that the period of school
education is so much more important
in America than elsewhere. As a
simple creature of habit-with such
education as one derives from the
family nurture a lone-a man stands
a poor chance of being highly valued
here. Only in proportion to his dir.ective power, is he likely to obtain
~·ecognition. We can make a machi"ne
that will perform mere mechanical lalabor-one steam engine can do the
work of a thousand men. The activity
. of our citizens is perforce turned into
higher channels. The workman in his
shop is known .to be an American by
his quick comprehension of the machinery over which h" is placed. He

.. not only studies to improve the prodJct, but to improve the ma~hine that
makes the product. It is the age of
co~prehension.
The back-woodsman can read Plato and Aristotleit has been done by him. The mechanic can master La Place and
Newton. It has been done. Even
.an American lady, resident in Lowbll, Massachusetts, threaded all the
intricate mazes of La Place's 111echanlque Celeste. What lofty goals
beckon on the American youth !
What teachers we need for the work
of their instruction! Not the cramping, formalistic pedants who stifle all
enthusiasm in the souls of. their pupils, but true living teachers are
needed.
The 'model teacher is a student
· himself, and because he is growing
himself, he kindles in his pupih the
spirit of growth-tree from narrow
prejudices, his very a~moiphere disenthralls the youth entrusted to his
charge. Animated by a lofty faith,
all his pupils reflect his steadfastness
and earnestness, and lea rn the great
lesson of industry and self i·eli ancethus prep~ring themselves for the life
of free men in a free state.

'\

I
WE PROPOSE TO PUBLISH A

Series of Educational Documents rn this Form,
For the use of Teachers and School Otficers.
. PRIC E $3.oo per hundred; or 5
stamps to pay postage. Address,

cent~ ~acli·jor a less

number.
'

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