A .

GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH . LANGUAGE:
FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

WITH COPIOUS PARSING EXERCISES.

BY

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WM. BINGHAM, A.M .
SUPERINTENDENT OF THE BINGHAM SCHOOL.

PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLIS~ED

BY E. H. BUTLER. & CO.
1868.

PREFACE.
"
preparation of an English Grammar at once practical and philosophical, satisfactory t o the acute scholar and
· yet not above the capacity of the learner, is a task of no
. ordinary magnitude, and in no branch of school literature
· _h .ve so many failures been made. More than five hundred
works o-r! English Grammar have been published in this
·~ country, the great majority of which have never found their
·· "ay beyond the publishers' shelves. "He who makes a new
grammar," says Goold Brown, "does nothing for the ad' van cement of learning, unless his performance excel all
ea, • ~ er ones designed for the same purpose; and nothing for
' hi,. rJWll honor, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste."
But at the very threshold of his undertaking the author
.~ . whose scholarly. pride and self-respect lift him above the
mere compiler, is met by a huge obstacle in the fact that
comparatively little is known of our language in its formative period; and as he advances in its study he finds everywhere evidence of the violent changes which it has undergone. The Latin element pressed back the Celtic; then the
Saxon overwhelmed the Latin, and was in turn submerged
by the Norman-French, itself a strongly L atinized dialect.
Out of all these elements, whose mingling together is veiled
in the obscurity of the Dark Ages, the English language has
THE

Eutered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by

WILLIAM BINGHAM,
in the Clerk's Office of tho District Court of the United States for the Pamlico
District of North Carolina.

STEREOTYPED BY MACKELLAR, B!tIITHB &: JORDAN,
PIIILADELPHIA.

J. D. RODGERS, PRINTER.

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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

grown, strong as the old oaks of the English forests, and no
less rough and gnarled than they,-by far the most difficult
language with which the author of this treatise is acquainted,
and one which has baffled the acumen of some of the profoundest scholars of this country.
Aside, however, from the inherent difficulty of the subject,'
he who writes in the light of modern philology, and in accordance with the established doctrines of comparative grai;~mar,
must unavoidably diverge, in many particulars, from the ,
beaten track, and thus incur the ch~rge of useless innovation; while worthy teachers not a few, missing such old '
landmarks as the "Indefinite Pronoun" and the "Potential
~.Mood," will promptly reject the book, with a disgust akin to
that of a venerable farmer known many years ago to the
author, who indignantly returned an almanac purchased at
a country store, because it did not "speak of rain in croptime ;" verily believing that there would be no showers, and
consequently no corn, unless the usual "Look for rain" appeared in his almanac.
In the preparation of the accompanying work, the author
has not attempted to make an easy boolc, but has endeavored
to simplify, as far as possible, a difficult subject, by referring
the phenomena of the language to a few leading principles,
and in all cases avoiding "a distinction without a difference." In constructing definitions and rules, he has studied
brevity and perspicuity, preferring plain English to words
of foreign origin; and as far as possible the rules and
definitions are identical with those in the Latin' Grammar,
that pupils who pass to the latter may have nothing to
unlearn. In discussing the parts of speech, he has sought to
keep abreast of the progress of philological research, and
to follow the analogy of those languages whose forms are

fulle+ and more easily determined than those of our own
..· tongue; but abstruse discussions have been avoided as far as
practic~ble, as it has not been his aim to produce a learned
book, even if he felt competent to do so. While he has
consulted the works of numerous preceding writers on the
English language, and takes pleasure in acknowledging the
valuable assistance received from the able and scholarly productions of Mulligan, Latham, Richardson, Goold Brown,
and Butler, bis ideas of Etymology and Syntax have been
mainly derived from the German grammars of the Latin
and Greek languages.
With much distrust of his own ability to achieve success
in an undertaking in which so many have failed, the author
sends forth the following pages, in the hope that he has accomplished some good, both for teachers and learners.
BINGHAM SCHOOLI MEDA.NEVILLE,

March 13, 1867.

N.

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CONTENTS.

,I

ETYMOLOGY.

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ORTHOGRAPHY .....................
Vowels, Diphthongs, &c....
Consonants .. ...... .. ...........
. Syllables ........................
Rules of Spelling..... ........
Capitals ..........................
Division of Words ...........
NoUNs .......... ......... ............. .
Gender .................... .. ....
Number .. .......................
Formation of the Plural
Case ........... .. ......... .... .. ..
Person ...........................
Declension .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..
ADJECTIVES........... .. . .. .. .. . .. ...
Comparison of Adj ectives ..
Articles .... ... ...................

PAGJI

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Interrogatives ................. 50
10 VERB ........ ........ .... ..... ......... 52
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Conjugation ...... ...... ... 53, GS
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Moods .................... . ...... 59
Participials .............. .... .. 61
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Infinitive........................ 61
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Participles ...... ......... ...... 63
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Gerund .......................... 64
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Tenses .... ... .... ........ .. ...... 64
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Voices ........ .. ..... ......... ... 67
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Persons and Numbers. ...... 67
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Synopses of Forms of
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Verbs ............... ... .... 71- 73
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Irregular Verbs ...............
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.Defective Verbs ............ ...
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Impersonal V erbs ............
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39 ADVERBS . ............ ................ .
Derivation of........ ..... .....
PRONOUNS . ........................... 40
P ersonal Pronouns ........... 41
Comparison of....... ..... .. ...
R elative Pronouns .. .... ..... 45 PREPOSITIONS ................. ......
CON.JUNCTIONS ........ .... ...........
Compound Relative Pronouns....... ....... .. .. .... ... 47 INTERJECTIONS. .................. .. .

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SYNTAX.
PAOI

P:\OE

VERB.. ............................... 98 PRONOUNS .......................... 104
ADJECTIVE .... ...................... 100 NOMINATIVE ..... ........ .......... 108
APPOSITION .... .... . .... ..... ...... 102 GENITIVE, OR POSSESSIVE .... .. ll0
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CONTENTS.
PAGE

PAOF.

DATIVE, OR I NDIRECT OBJECTIVE ........................ 112

T emporal .. ........ ..... . .. ... 1:16

A CCUSATIVE, OR DIRECT OBJ ECTIVE... .... ....... ..... .... . 113
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L ocal. .. ... ... .. . ...... .....•. .. 127
Causal. .. .... ............•...... 128
Comparative............ .. ... . 129

VOCATIVE ......... .................. 117

Conditional. ...... ... ... . .. ... 130

llS

Concessive . ...... ... ........ ... 132

I NFINITIVE ..... ..... ···· ··········· 119

F inal ...... .... ................. 133

GERUND . ........... ·- ··•·· ···· · ····· 1'21
ADVERBS .. ... ..... .... ... ........... 122

Indirect D eclarative ... ..... 134
Participial ... ... ....... .'...... 136

p ASSIVE CONSTRUCTION···... ...

SYNTA."\': OF PRoPo~ITIONS .. ... 123 Co-ORDINATION . ..... ..... ........ . 138
Relative .. .... .......... .... .... 123 SUCCESSION OF TENSES .... ... .. 139
Interrogative. ... ... .... ... ... 125

APPENDIX I.-PUNCTUATION ...... .. .. ...... .. ..... ···· ··· ..... . ....... . 140
APPENDIX IL-PROSODY . .... ... . . ... ... ...... ........ ..... ..... ... ... .... . 145
PARSING EXERCISES ...... . ........... .... ....... ... .. .. .. ... ..... .... .... 155
Notes ............... ................................................. .. . ...... ... 195

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

§ 1. 1. Grammar is the science of language.
2. Science is knowledge reduced to a system.
3. Spoken language consists of words combined by

certain laws to express our ideas.
4. Written language consists of certain signs which
represent spoken words.
5. A spoke~ word is a sound or a combination of
sounds used as a sign of some idea.
6. A 'vritten word is a letter or a combination of
letters used as a sign of the spoken word.
7. A letter is a mark used to represent a sound of the
human voice.
8. English Grammar is the science of the English
language, or the language spoken by the people of England
and t he nations derived from them. It treats of the
words of the language, and the laws by which th ey are
combined into sentences. It is divided into Etymology
and Syntax : the former treating of the words of the language; t he latter, of the laws by which they are combined
into sentences.
9. Prosody is the science of versification, and belongs
rather to poetry than to grammar.
NoTE. -Grammar is usually divid ed into fou r parts; but as Orthography is a part of E tymology, and Prosody does not p roperly belong
to grammar, we make but two d ivisions,-Etymology an d Syntax.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ETYMOLOGY.

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[§§ 2-4

§ 2. 1. Etymology treats-first, of the letters which
make up words, and their pronunciation; secondly, of th e
changes which words- undergo; and thirdly, of their
derivation.
2. That part of Etymology which treats of letters
and the proper way of spelling words, is usually called
Ol"thog1·aphy.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
§ 3. 1. A letter is a mark used to represent a sound of
the human voice.
2. The term letter is often applied to the sound itself, as
well as to the mark which represents it.
3. The letters of a language, taken as a whole, are called
its alphabet; from the first two letters of the Greek
alphabet, alpha, beta.
4. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet.
5. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.

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§ 4.

VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, ETC.

1. A vowel represents a sound which is made without
the aid of any other sound.
2. The vowels a, I, and 0 are also words.
3. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, w when equivalent to u
(as in now, view), and y when it has the sound of i (as in
try, lazy) .
4. A diphthong is the union of two vowel sounds in
immediate succession in one syllable: as, oii in house ; ow
in now; oy in boy ; oi in boil.
5. A digra1>b is the union of two vowels in one sylb.ble, one sound absorbing the other: as, ea in beat, oa in
boat.

§ 5]

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ORTHOGRAPHY.

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6. A digraph is often formed by annexing silent e to the
end of a word: as in hate, mete.
7. A trigra1>h is the union of three vo>vels in immediate succession in the same syllable, one or more of the
sounds being absorbed: as, eau in beauty (here the sound
of a disappears) ; iew in view.

§ 5.

CONSONANTS.

1. A consonant represents a sound which never stands
alone, but is always made in conjunction with another
sound.
2. A consonant may be sounded in conjunction with a
vowel, as b and t in bat; or with another consonant, as
d in end, t in past.
3. The consonants are b, c, d, j, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q,
r, s, t, v, x, z, w and y when immediately followed by a
vowel sound in the same syllable, as in woe, young.
4. His merely a breathing.
5. The consonants are divided into mutes (which have
no sound by themselves) and semivowels (which have
an imperfect sound).
R emark 1.-In the utteran ce of the mutes, th e breath is entirely arr ested by the tongue or lips, and th e sound expl oded upon th e openin g
of the organs; while in the utterance of the semivowels, th e breath is
permitted to escape, either through the mouth (as in l, s, /, &c.) or
through the nose (as in m and n).

6. The mutes are b, p, d, t, le, q, c hard, and g hard.
R emark 2.-C hard has th e sound of k, as in coat; g is hard in gate.
C soft has the sound of s, as in city, centre ; g soft has the sou nd of j, as
in George, large.

7. The semivowels aref, h,j, l, m, n, 1·, s, v, z, c soft, and

g soft.

8. Xis a double consonant, equal to r~.q or '!.:.~.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

§ 6.

f

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§ 7J

[ §§ 6, 7

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RULES OF SPELLING.

"'

§ 7. RULE r.-Monosyllables end ing inf, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double t he final consonant : as,
puff, pull, puss.

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cause it has a diphthong before it. In pre-fer', pre-fer'-ment, r is not
.doubled, because it does not have a vowel after it; ment begins with a

S YLLAB L ES.

1. Words are divided into syllables.
2. A syllable is a lettet , or a combination of letters,
uttered by a single impulse of the voice.
3. A word of one syllable is called a lllOllOSyllable;
a word of two syllables is called a tlissyllable; a word
of more than two, a polysyllable.
4. The last syllable of a word is call ed the ult.imate;
the next to the last is called the pen ult; and the third
from the last, t he antepcnult.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

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consonant.
R emark 1.-The final consonant is doubled in such cases to preserve
the short sound of the vowel : thus, blot-ing would be pronounced bloating; shut-ing would be pronounced shoot-i ng.
Reinark 2.-If the derivative removes the accent to another syllable,
the final consonant will not be doubled : as, reference, from refer .
R emark 3.-The final consonant is usually doubled in derivatives of
the words bia,1, worskip, kidncip, travel, &c. : as, biassing, worshipper, kidnapper, traveller.
RULE rv.-Final e is omitted before endings beginning
with a vowel: as, love, loving, lovable; scwe, saving; fo1'ce,
f orcible .

EXCEPTIONS.-Oj, if, as,. is, has, u:as, ye:i, !tis, this, thus, gas, us, pus.

ExcEPTIONs.-Final e is retained before able in words ending in ce
and ge, to preserve the soft sound of c and g: as, change, changeable;
it is also retained in verbs in ee and oe: as, in seeing, hoeing ; and in
singeing, the participle of singe, to distinguish it from singing; also in
dyeing, to distinguish it from dying.

RULE rr.-Monosyllables ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter.

RULE v . -Final e is retained before endings beginning
with a consonant : as, love, lovely; hate, hateful.

ExcEPTIONs.- Add, odd, ebb, inn, ei~·, purr, butt, buzz, egg.

rrr.-Monosyllables, and words accented on the
sy liable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a
srn~l e . vowe~ , double t~iat consonant when an ending
begmmng with a vowel is added: as, blot,. blOtt-ing; shut,
shiitt-ing, shutt-er ; confer, confen ·-ing; allot, allott-ing.
RuLE

l~st

~ Ob~ er ve

that the final consonant is not doubled unless these four
conditions are fulfilled:(1.) It must be a single consonant.
(2.) It mu st end an accented syllable.
(3. ) It mnst have a single vowel before it.
(4.) It must have a vowel after it.
Thus, in re-lax', re-lax'-ing, x is not doubled, because it is a double
consonant, though the three other conditions are fulfi lled. In oj'-fer
of' -fering, r is not doubled, though it is a single consonant with a sing!~
vowel before it an d a vowel after it, because it does not end an accented
syllable. In boil, boil'-ing, re-coil', re-coil'-ing, l is not doubled, be-

ExcEPTIONs.-Final e is dropped in duly, truly, awful, wholly, judgment,
Argument is the stem of the Latin argumentmn transferred
to English.

abridgment.

RuLE VI.- vVords ending in y preceded by a consonant
change y into i when an endi ng is added: as, happy,
happier, happiest; but gay, gayer, gayest.

E xcEPTIONS.-Y is retained before ing, to prevent the doubling of i,
and ie is chwged into y before ing,· for the same r eason: as, fly, flying ;
die, dying.
RuLE vrr.- 1;Vords ending in ll drop one l when less or
ly is added: as, chill, chilly; full, fully .
RULE vrrr. -W ords ending in ll, if they are not verbs
or nouns, drop one l in composition: as, all, always; till,
until; fiill, hopeful ; but recall, sandhill, wate1jall, &c.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

[ §§ 8, 9

EXERCISE.

§ 8. Correct errors in the following, and give rules:Thiss miller iss att hiss mil al day. Geese his. Cann
you ad andd subtract? ·what iss the rule for subtracttion?
Cann you boill thiss eg? Doess Tomm spel wel? You have
droped your p_enn on my paper and bloted it. ' The begar is
dieing. What is the differrence between boilling and broilling? Beginer. Proceedding. Defendding. Presentted" A
forceible expression. The changeing seasons. A changable
person is called fickle. John is singing his hairr in the
candle. A convinceing arguement. Loveing whatt is lovly
iss certainnly nott blameable. The merryest of the merry,
and the gaiest of the gay. My mother has been dying for
tenn years, and is in perfect health. A usefull person is
allways wellcome. A waterfal is somtimes caled a cataract.
The merryest are not allways the happyest. He makes
ceasless efforts for his own advancment. I sincerly hope
thatt you wil be successful!.
CAPITALS.

§ 9. The following words should begin with capitals:-

---- -.

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- - ~-------~--------

NOUNS.

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7. The first word of every direct quotation: as, The
Scriptiire saith, "All flesh is grass." .
, 8. The principal words in the titles of all books: as,
Arnold's Introduction to Latin Prose Composition.
9. The pronoun I, and the interj ection 0.
DIVISION OF WORDS.

§ 10. 1. Words are divided according to their formation into(a.) Primitive; i.e. not derived from other words: as,
ma')f, king.
(b.) Derivative; i .e. derived from other words: as,
manly, J,ingcloin.
(c.) Simple; i.e. not made up of other words: as, man,
king.
·
(d.) Compoun(l; i.e. made up of other words: as, mankind, kingcraft.
2. ·words are divided according to their meaning into
eight classes, called parts of speech,- viz .: the NouN, the
ADJECTIVE, the PRONOUN, the VERB, the ADVERB, the
PREPOSITLON, the CONJUNCTION, and the INTERJECTION.

1. The first word of a distinct sentence.
2. Proper names, and common nouns personified: as,
Julius Ccesar; George Washington; Nature and Nature's
God. 0 Liberty! what crimes have been perpetrated in
thy name!
3. Titles of honor and of office, and names of religious
or political bodies, parties, &c.: as, General Washington;
the Baptist Church; the Chicago Convention; the Democratic Party; the Republicans.
4. National names: as, English, Russian.
5. The names and appellations of the Deity: as, the
]£ost Fiigh, the Supreme B eing.
6. The first word of every line of poetry.

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NOUNS.
§ 11. 1. A noun is the name of a thing: as, man, city.
2. A thing is whatever one can think of.
3. A comn1on noun is the name of any one of a class
of things: as, man, city.
4. A pro1)er noun is the name of an individiial thing:
as, Napoleon, Paris.
5. Proper names become common when they are applied
to several indi vid uals of a class : as, the twelve Ccesars;
or when they are applied to persons possessing the qualities o.f an individual: thus, we call a patriot a Washington;
a traitor, a Judas .

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

[§ 11

6. A collective noun· is one which m the singular
denotes more than one: as, multitude, army.
7. An abstract noun is the name of a quality, an
action, a being, or a mo<le of action or being: as, goodness,
running, wear·iness.
Remark 1.- Abstract nouns are so called, because the quality is considered by the 1;nind apart from the thing in which it exists.
R emark 2.-Abstract nouns have no plural, but they may be ,used as
common nouns, and th en may have a plural: thu ~, we say, " Industry
and temperance are virtues ; idleness and drunkenness are "Lices."

8. A material noun is the name of a substance or
material: as, iron, wheat, snow, fir e.
9. The names of grains, metals, &c. are material nouns.
R emark 3.-Material nouns have no plural unless used as comm on
n ouns : thus, in the expression, " 'Ne have h ad five snows this winter,"
we mean five f alls of snow.- " H e was put in irons," i.e. in iron fetters.

EXERCISE.

Name the nouns in the foll owing sentences, state to
what class they belong, and why:Washington is the capital of the Unit ;d States. America
was discovered by Columbus, but took its name from Am erigo Vespucci. W e call a patriot a \V ashington, because
George \Vashington was the greatest of patriots. W e call a
traitor a Jud as, because Judas betray ed his Master. Treachery and treason are odious things. Co1rnrd s fear and hate
brave men. All men despise cowardi ce. Falsehood is a
degrading vice: therefore never tell a lie. The first class
" ·ill occupy the front seat. The ladies' se1ying-society meets
this evening. Hon esty is th e best policy. \\Theat, oats, rye,
and barley are all valuable grains. Guano is a po1rerful
manure. Iron is more valuable to mankind than gold. A
box of tobacco weighs about a hundred pounrls. A bale of
cotton will make many yards of cali co. There is an old
proverb that there will be as many snows in winter as there
are fogs in August. '\Yar is a very costly and very foolish

§§ 12, 13]

NOUNS.

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amusement for nations. The boy that reads nothing but
novels will never be a learned man.

§ 12. To nouns belong gender, number, case, and pe1·son.
GENDER.

§ 13. 1. The word gender means kind, or class: as
used by grammarians, it means the kind or class of nouns
with r eference to the sex of the thing which the noun
denotes. ·
2. Thus, with r eference to the sex of things, their names
are divided into four genders or classes,-viz. : masculine, Cenlinine, neuter, and comu1on.
3. Names of male beings are of the masculine gender.
4. Nam es of female beings are of the f eminine gender.
5. Names of things that are neither male nor female
are of the neuter gend er.
6. Neuter means neither. N euter nouns are neither
masculine nor feminin e.
·7. Names that may be applied to either males or females
are said to be of the common gender ; i.e. the name is con;i1non to both classes of things.
ll@= Observe that l·iving beings have .•ex; their names are divided into
two genders or classes, the masculine and the feminine; wh~l e n~mes
·of things that have no sex fo rm a third class; and names applied either
to ma les or females form a fourth class.
R emark 1.- When the sex of a living thing is unimportant and cannot be di stinguished, it is often disr egarded, and the neuter pronoun IT
is used in referring to it: as, "The bird has lost its mate."-" The child
has hurt its foot." - " The colt broke its neck."
R emark 2.-0n the other hand, sex is often attributed to things
without life, and they are then said t p be personified, or treated as
persons : as, "The S'lm is rising in his strength."-" The moon is shedding
her silvery light."
R emark 3.-When so used, those inanimate things whi ch are di stinguished for masculine qualities, such as strength, energy, boldness, &c.,
are generally regarded as males, and their names are said to be masculine; while those distinguished for female qualities, such as grace,
B
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ENGLISH

GRAM~L\R.

[ § 13

beauty, gentleness, &c., are regarded as fe mal es, and their n ames are
said to be fe minine.
R emark 4.-Collective nouns, when used as such, ar e neuter: as," The
atiny destroyed every thing in its course."
R emai·k 5.-,Vhen th e individuals that make up the collection are
r eferred to, the collective takes its gender according to the sex of those
individuals: as," The rabble clapped their chapped hands." (Here theiiis masculine, because the rabble consisted of men.)

8. Some living beings have names applicable either to
the male or the female, and, in addition to these, separate
names for the individual of each sex: thus, a child may be
either male or female; a male child is a boy or son, and a
female child is a girl or daughter : such are the following: Common Gender.
Monarch,
P erson,
Child,
Parent,
Deer (of different kinds),

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li[asculine.
king,
man,
{ son,
boy,
father,

Feminine.
queen.
woman.
{daughter,
girl.
mother.

{buck,

{doe.
hind.
roe.
ewe.
sow.
spawner.
h en.

stag,

hart,
Sheep,
H og,
Fish,
Bird or fowl,

ram,

boar,
milter,
cock,

9. Other living beings have names of the common
gender only, while th e male and the female are designated ·
by compound words : thus, a sparrow may be either male
or female ; a male sparrow is called a cock-sparrow,· a
female sparrow, a hen-8parrow.
Common Gender.
R elative,
Servant,
Sparrow,
Goat,
Turkey,

lifasc1d·ine.
male r elative,
man-servant,
cock-sparrow,
h e-goat,
turkey-cock,

Feminine.
fema le relative.
maid -servant.
h en-sparrow.
sh e-goat.
turkey-hen.

10. Other living beings have no names of the common

§ 13 J

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NOUNS.

gender, but only the masculine and feminine terms. ·when
the whole class is to be designated,(a.) We may use one term (the masculine or the feminine)
to include both sexes: as, "Horses are useful animals."
-" Diicks are domestic fowls."
(b.) Or we may use both terms: as, "riusbands and wives
should never quarrel."
(c.) Or we may use neither, but employ a circumlocution:
as, "Marri~d p eople should never quarrel."
Such areilfcwculine.
Bachelor,
Beau,
Bridegroom,
Brother,
Bull,
Bullock,
Drake,
Friar (or monk),
Gander,

Feminine.
maid.
bell e.
bride.
sister.
cow.
heifer.
du ck.
nun.
goose.

lifasculine.
H orse,
Husband,
Lael,
Lord,
Nephew,
Sir,
Son,
Uncle,
\ Vizard,

Feminine.
mare.
wife.
la;;•.
lady.
ni ece.
madam .
daughter.
aunt.
wi tch.

11. To this class belong the following, in whi ch the
feminine is formed by adding an ending to the masculine.
The ending ess is English; the rest belong to foreign
languages.
llfaseul·ine.
Abbott,
Actor,
Ad ulterer,
Arbiter,
Baron,
Benefactor,
Caterer,
Chanter,
Conductor,
Count,
Dauphin,
Deacon,
Duke,
Elector,

Fmninine.
abbess.
actress.
adulteress.
arbitress.
baroness.
benefactress.
cater eF-s.

ch an tress.
conductress.
countess.
dauphiness.
deaconess.
du chess.
electress.

lifascuz.ine.
Embassador,
Ambassador,
E nchanter,
Giant,
God,
Gove111or,
H eir,
H ost,
Hunter,
Instructor,
J ew,
Lion,
:Marqu is,
Master,

E'eminine.
em bassadress. }
ambassadress.
enchantress.
giantess.
goddess.
governess.
heiress.
ho ·tess.
huntress.
instructress.
J ewess.
lion ess.
marchioness.
mistress.

[ § 13

ESGLISH GRAMMAR.

20
Jl[asculine.

Fe11iinine.

~fayor,

n1ayoress.

P dron,
P eer,
P oet,
Priest,
l'rince,
P ri or,
l 'rophet,
l' rotector,
s:1ephcrd,

patroness.
peeress.
poetess.
priestess.
princess.
prioress.
prop hetess.
protcctress.
shepherdess.
so ngst ress.
sorceress.
tigress.
traitor ess.

Songster,
So1·cercr,
T i~ c r,

T rai tor,

Czar,
Don,
Infant,

Feminine.
tutoress or tutress.
viscountess.
sul taness or
sultana.
czarina.
donna.
infa nt a.

Signor,

sig nora.

Jllasetiline.
Tutor,
Viscount,
Sultan,

Adm inistrator, a<lrn ini;;tratrix.
executrix.
Executor,
testatrix.
T estator,
h eroin e.
H ero,
l anJgravin c.
Land grave,
n1argravinc.
11'1argra ve,

EXERCISE .

Nam e the nouns in the following sentences, tell their
class and gender, and why : J ohn Morton drives a pair of goats to a li ttle wagon. A
t estator is a man wh o makes a will. The sovereign of Turkey
is call ed th e Sultan, and the Emperor of Russia is called the
Czar. I have caught a sparrow on my window: what do you
say, boys? Shall I let him go, or not? The cock-sparro w is
larger than the hen. The Greeks and R omans worshipped
more than five thousand gods and goddesses. Beauty is said
t o be only skin-d eep; but it has great power. Lazin ess never
matl e any man rieh or wise. Mind your o'rn busin ess : k eep
your shop, and your shop will keep you. B enjamin Franklin
says that a fat kitchen makes a lean will. E ven a fool, when
h e holcleth his peace, is accounted wise. The sluggard will
not plou gh by reason of the cold. The maids of merry
E ug lancl,-how beautiful are they 1 The sun gives his light
and warmth to all sorts of men alike. Death is stronger
than the stron gest of men: he cuts down the beggar and the
kin g, the idiot and the sage.
Give the feminine of the following:Bachelor, he-goat, king, lad, uncle, brother, fri ar, h ero, man-servant,
duke, abbot, executor.

NOUNS.

§§ 14, 15]

21

NUMBER.

§ 14. 1. Numbe1· is that variation of form which sho\rs
whether one thing is meant, or more than one.
2. There are two numbers,-the singular and the plural.
3. The singular is that fo rm which denotes one thing:

as, star, horse.
4. The plural is that form which denotes more th an
one: as, stars, horses.
§ 15. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
I.-Th e plural is formed in En glish by adding
s to the sing ular: as, boy, boys ; slate, slates.
RuLE rr.-But if the singular ends in a sound which
cannot unite with s, es is addeJ: as, church, churches ;
wish, wishes ; box, boxes ; hiss, hisses.
R ULE rn.-N ouns ending in o preceded by a consonant
RULE

add es : as, n egro, negroes.
ExcEPTIONS.-Two h as twos, o h aving the sound oo ; also th e foll owing for eign words add s :-canto, duodec·imo, g<'otto, junta, memento, octaro,

portico, q1mrto, solo.
Remark 1.- Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel add s : as, f olio,
folios.
RuLE rv.-Nounsending in y preceded by a consonant
change y into i, and add es : as, lady, ladies. These or iginally ended in ie or ye,-ladie, or ladye.
R ULE v.-Nouns endin g in y preceded by a vowel, and
proper names in y, do not change y: as, the 1-Ienrys, valleys,

days.
RULE vr.-Nouns ending inf or j e change f or f e into
ve, and add s : as, calf, calves ; knife, knives.

ExcEPTIONS.-Nouns endin g in ,IJ, with gulf, 1·oof , nvischief, hoof, grief,
dwmf, tui f , proof, brief, strife, chief, fife, and sa:.fe., adrl s. Stqff makes
staves; but the corn pounds are r egular: as, flag staff, jlagstajls.
RuLE

vrr.-A few nouns form the plural by adding

~'·

22

EXGLISH GRAMUAR.

[ § 15

en . They are ox, oxen ; brother, b1·ethren (for brother en) ;
child, children (for chiLderen ); cow, ldne (for cowen); sow,
swine (for sowen) .
Remark 2. -Child forms its plural by adding en to the old form
childer.
RULE VIIL- The plural of mere characters is form ed
by adding an apostrophe and ans : as, "Dot you r i's ancl
cross your t's."-" Five S's, three 6's."
RULE rx.-Some nouns fo rm the plural by changi1;g a
vowel. This is called the strong plural, because it requi res
no additional letter or syllable in its formation .• Such are
man, men ; woman, women; die, dice ; f oot, f eet; g oose,
geese ; louse, lice ; moiise, mice; p enny, p ence; tooth, teeth .
R e_m ark 3.-Some nouns are alik e in both numbers : as, deer, sheep,
1:er11un .

R emarlc 4.-IIorse and f oot are plural wh en th ey denote bodies of
men; sail is plural wh en it means a collecti on of ships; yoke is plural
wh en it mean s a pafr ; shot, shell, grape, canister, are plural wh en th ey
denote a qu antity of these mi8siles. As, "Five hun dred horse and a
thou sand foot."-" The fl eet consists of a h undred sail." -" Five hundred
yoke of oxen." - " The enemy threw shot and shell into ou r work s." - " A
storm of grape and canister ."
R emarlc 5.- Some nouns have dilferent plurals according to the different meanings of the singular: as, brother, brothers (of the sam e
family), brethren (of the same church or society ) ; die, dies (fo r coining ), dice (for gaming) ; penny, p cnm:es (of th e number of coins), p ence
(of th e valu e) ; genius, geniuses (men of geniu s), genii (spirits) ; index,
i ndexes (tables of contents), indice.~ (signs in mathem ati cs) .
R emark 6.-Compounds, for the most part, form th eir plural r egularl y : as, handfu l, handfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls ; ontp our-ing, outpouring,s ;
schoolboy, schoolboys. But sometimes th e noun of th e compound is plurali zed, even wh en it stands at th e beginning of th e word: as, courtmartial, coiirts-m.artial; knight-errant, knights-ermnt; comm ander-in-ch i~f,
coimnanders-in-ch:iej. H ere th e leading element is pluralized. 1lfan-sc1·vcint
and woman-servant pluralize both elements : as, men-servants, womcnservants.
R emark 7.-The titles Mi-. (abbreviated from mister, originall y maista) and llfiss (abbreviated fr om mistress, originally mas tere.~s or mciisteress) are used either as aclj ecti ves or nouns.

23

NOUNS.

§ 16]

Remark 8.-When used as nouns, t he titles Mr. and .M iss are pluralized :
as "Messrs. Jones & Thompson," i.e. the llfasters Jones and Thompson.
_'_cc Jlfessrs. John and 'W illiam Jones."-" The M isses Brown,'' i .e. the
Brown young ladies, or gfrls.- " The two .llfisses Brown." (In these examples B r own is an adj ective.) ·when they are used as adjectives, the
name is pluralized; as, "The JI.fr. Thompsons; the two Mr. B rowns ;
the Mi.ss Scotts ; the five .llfi.ss llfortons.''
R emark 9.- llfessrs . is an abbreviation for the French Jlfessieurs. The
title mistress is never plurali zed.
R emark 10,-Abstract and substantio,J nouns, from the nature of th eir
meaning, are never plural; but they may be used as common nouns,
and then have a plural : as, "Industry and temperance are vir tues ;
laziness and drunkenn ess are vices."- " The gra sses ;" i.e. the various
kinds of grass.-" He was put in irons;" i .e. in f etters of iron.
R emark 11.-Some nouns have no singular: as, annals, anf·ipodes,
archives, bitters, dregs , goods, r iches, wages, tidings, thanks, literati, mimif·i.le,
vertebrata, &c. ; and the names of thin go consisting of two parts : as,
tongs, bellows, sci.ssoi·s, pincers, shears, snuflers, breeches, &c.
R emark J,-g_-Some words, th ough pl ural in fo rm, are singular in
meaning : as, news, nwla.sses, measles, &c. ; and names of science~,--11tatlie­
matics, metaphysics, ethics, &c. These latter were ori ginall y p lura l ; to
avoid harshness of sound, it is better to put the science of before th em:
as, the science of mathematics.

§ 16. Many words introduced from foreign languages
retain the foreign plural.
1. The following have the foreign plural only:Singular.
Alumnus,
Am anuensis,
Anal ysis,
Antithesis,
Apparatus,
Arcanum,
Axis,
Basis,
Beau,
Chrysalis,
Cicerone,
Crisis,
Datum,
Desideratum,
Direresis,

P lural.
alumni.
amanuenses.
analyses.
antitheses.
apparatus.
arcana.
axes.
bases.
beaux.
ehrysalides.
ciceroni.
crises.
data.
desiderata.
direreses.

S ingular.
Eftluvium,
Ellipsis,
Emphasis;
Ephemeris,
Erratum,
F ocus,
Genus,
Hiatus,
H ypothesis,
Ignis-fatuus,
Lamina,
Larva,
1VIagus,
Metamorphosis,
Miasma,

Plural.
eftlu via.
ellipses.
emphases.
ephemerides.
errata.
foci.
genern.
hi atu s.
hypotheses.
ignes-fatui.
laminre.
la.rvrc.
1nagi.

metamorphoses.
miasma ta.

24

[ § 16

ENGLISH GRA111"1AR.

Singular.
Monsieur,
K ebula,
Oasis,
Parenthesis,
Phenomenon,
H.adius,
Scoria,
Series,

Phiral.
messieurs.
nebulre.
oases.
parentheses.
phenomena.
radii.
scorire.
series.

Singulai·.
Speculum,
Stimulus,
Stratum,
Thesis,
V ertex,
Virtuoso,
Vortex,

Plw·al.
Apecu la.
stimuli:
strata.
th ese .
vertices.
virtnosi.
vortices.

2. The following have both the English and the foreign
plural:S ingular.
Apex,
Appendix,
Automaton,
Bandit,
Calx,
Cherub,
Criterion,
Dogn1a,

Encomium,
Formula,
Fungus,
Gymnasium,
Medium,
Memorandum,
Momentum,
Scholium,
Seraph,
Stamen,

English plural.
apexes,
appendix@s,
automatons,
bandits,
calxes,
cherubs,
cri terions,
dogm as,
encomiums,
formulas,
funguses,
gymnasiums,
mediums,
memorandums,
momentums,
scholiums,
seraphs,
stamens,

Fo reign plural.
apices.
appendices.
automata.
banditti.
ca lees.
cherubim.
criteria.
dogma ta.
encomia.
formul re.
fungi.
gymnasia.
media.
memoranda.
momenta.
scholia.
seraphim.
stamina.

EXERCISE.

In what number is each of the nouns in the following?If two shoes make a pair, how many shoes are there in ten
pairs? The hounds have caught the fox; but the race has worried the whole pack very mu ch. A bandit is a robber: there
are many companies of banditti in Spain and Italy, who live
by plunder. Seraphim and cherubim are angels. Scott and
Byron were men of genius. ·w e read of genii in the Arabian
Nights. Oases are fertile spots in the desert. A vortex is a
whirlpool; and what is a whirlpool? My cup has dregs in

§ 17]

NOUNS.

25

it. Mr. Moore keeps a large stock of goods. The Browns
and Scotts are nearly related. If a man has five p ennies, he
has five pence; but if he has five pence, does he always have
five pennies? If a _man has five yoke of oxen, how many
yokes ought he to have? John took two shot; J am es took
two shots: did each take the same thing? ·what is the difference between five hundred horse and fi ve hundred horses?
Form the plural of the following noun s, and give the
rule:Dcau, medium, church, box, baby, vall ey, play, wolf, turf, thi ef,
chief, wife, fife, H enry, lady, potato, tomato, crisis, stamen, child, ox,
die, penny.

CASE.

§ 17. 1. Case is the variation of form which shows the
relation of the noun to other words.
NOTE.-The word case (Latin casus) means a falling, and was used
by the old -grammarians with th e idea th at the other cases f all off from
the nomin ative (whence they were called oblique cases), whil e the nominative was in correctly styled th e casus rectus, or upright case. In this
view -of th e subject, the naming of the various cases was called declension. The above definiti on of case strictly app lies at present only to
the pronouns, as the ancient endings of the l anguage have, for th e most
part, di sappear ed, and the relations of the noun to other words are
mostly expressed by prepositi ons.

2. English noun s have five cases, viz.:(1.) The noJninative, which answers the que13tion
Who ? or ·what? and gi\res the simple name of the thing
spoken of: as, "John runs." (TVho runs ? J ohn.)
(2.) The genitive, or possessive, which expresses possess-ion, origin , or design: as, "John's hat."-"The swi's
rays" (that is, rays proceeding jl'Oin the sun).-"Ladies'
slippers" (that is, slippers designed for ladies).
(3.) The indirect objective, or dative, which expresses that to or for which, or with ref erence to which,
any thing is, or is done: as, "He gave me a book" (that i;;,
he gave a book to me).- " He bought me a horse" (that is,
he bought a horse for me).
3

26

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

[ § 17

(4.) The accusative, or direct objective, which is
the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition : as," John
struck James."-" Peter went to Rale,igh."
(5.) The vocative, which is used when a person is
addressed : as, "Come here, Thomas."
3. The nominative is usually the subject of the proposition, and may be known by putting the question vVho '!
or lVhat ? with the predicate: as, "Snow melts>' (What
melts? Snow.)- "John runs." (Who runs? John.)
4. But it may also limit or explain the subject, denoting
th e same person or thing, and is then i::aid to be 1·n apposi'
tion with it: as, "I, Darius, make a decree'' (here Dariu::
is in apposition with I); or it may form part of the predicate, denoting the same person or thing as th e su~ject,
and is then called predicate nominative : as, "Messiah 1s
J(ing" (here l.:ing is predicate nominative).
5. The genitive, or possesgfoe, is formed(a.) In the singular, by adding an apostrophe and ans ('s)
to the nominative : as, "John's hat."-" A boy's shoes."" Collin s' s Odes."
(b.) In the plural, by adding the apostrophe (') only if
the plural ends in s, and the apostrophe and the s ('s) if the
plural docs not end in s: as, "Boys' shoes," "girls' dresses,"
"men's boots," "ch,ildren's clothes."
6. Some nouns end in a sound which does not unite
with s, and the apostrophe alone is added in the genitive
singular: as, "Goodness' sake," "conscience' sake," &c.;
but wherever the s is sounded it shou ld be written: as,
"The witness's oath."
7. Most abstract and material nouns are not used in the
genitive, but of with the accusative is used instead. Thus,
we say," The value of wheat," not wheat's valtie; "the inconvenience of lameness," not lameness's inconvenience.
8. In componncl words or expressions, the genitive-encl-

§ 18]

NOUNS.

27

ing is added to the last word:~ as, "My father-in-law's
horse."-" John the Bapt,ist's head."-" President Jac/;,son' s Cabinet."
9. The indirect objective, or dative, forms the indirect
object of a verb, and may be known by its making sense
with the preposition to or ]01·; and any noun or pronoun
with which to or for may be supplied is in the dative: as,
"Ile gave me a book;" i.e. he gave a book to me. -" He
bought me a horse;" i.a. he l>ought a horse for me.
10. The accusative, or direct objective, usually forms the
direct object of a transitive verb or a preposition, and may
be known by putting the question Whom ? or vVhat ? with
the verb: as, "John caught a hare." (What <lid he catch?
A hare.)-" James struck William." ( Whoin did he strike?
William.)
11. The vocative is not strictly a case, as it has no
grammatical connection whatever with the rest of the sentence, but only serves to point out the person to whom the
discourse is directed.
PERSON.
§ 18. 1. Person means the character which a noun or
a pronoun has, according as it represents the speaker, the
person spoken to, or the thing spoken of.
2. A noun or a pronoun representing the speaker is of the
first person: as, "I, Dai·ius, make a decree." Here I and
Dai·ius are of the first person.
3. A noun or a pronoun representing the person spoken
to is of the second person: as, "Do you hear me, Robert.'!!"
Here you and Robert are of the second person.
4. A noun or a pronoun representing the thing spolcen of
is of the third person: as, "John i·uns."-" Watei· freezes."
Here John and water are of the third person.

28

ENGLISH

GRAMi\IAR.

[ §§ 19, 20

§ 20 ]

DECLENSION.

§ 19. D8cleus ion is the reg ular arrangement of a noun
according to its numbers and cases.
S ingular.

Pli1ral.

Sing;dar.

Plural.

Norn.
Gen. or poss.
Dat. or ind. obj.
Acc. or dir. obj.
Voe.

Boy,
boy's,
boy,
boy,
boy;

boys,
boys',
boys,
boys,
boys.

man,
man,
man;

men,
men's,
men,
men,
men.

Nom.
Gen. or poss.
D at. or ind. obj .
Acc. or dir. obj.
Voe.

Lady,
lady's,
lady,
lady,
lady ;

ladies,
hdies',
ladies,
ladies,
ladies.

\Voman,
woman's,
woman,
woman,
woman;

wom en,
women's,
women,
wom en,
"·omen.

Man,
n1an's,

EXERCISE.

§ 20. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. V ERBS,-TRANSITIVE
AND I NTRANSITIVE.
1. A 1>roposition is a thought expressed in words: as,
"Snow melts."
2. Every proposition consists of(a.) A predicate; i.e. that which is declared.
(b.) A subject; i.e. that of which the declaration is
made, or that which answers the question Who? or lVhatf
with the predicate. In the proposition "snow melts," the
predicate is "melts," because melts is what is declared or
asserted about snow; the subject is "snow," because it is
the thing about which the assertion is mad e. (What meltsf
Snow.)
3. The predicate consists of a verb alone (as "melts," in
the above exampl e), or of the verb to be, with a noun, an
adjective, or a participle : as, "Snow is cold." (What is
asserted about snow? It is cold.)

NOUNS.

29

4. The subject consists of a noun, or of some word or
phrase used as a noun, a nd may be known by asking the
·.question Who f or What f with the predicate : al:l, "John
runs." (Who runs? John.)- " To play is pleclSant." (What
i.s pleasantf To play).
5. The subj ect and the predicate may stand alone, or each
may have other words limiting its meaning : as, "Boys nm"
(here the subject and the predicate stand alone).- "Some
boys run fast" (here the subj ect is limited by some, and
the predicate by fast).
6. A vel'b is a word that declares or affirms something.
7. A transitive verb
one that requires an object to
complete the sense : as, "The poet praises the queen."
8. An intransitive verb is one whi eh does not require
an obj ect to complete the sense : as, "The eagle flies."
9. Rule of Syntax. -The subject of a fini te verb is in
the nominative: as, "John runs." (Here J olvn is nominative.)
10. Rule of Syntm:.- A noun in the genitive (or possessive) limits the meani1w
' of another noun denotincr
a
0
b
different thing: as, "A dove's feather."

!s

R emar k 1.-The word feather, alone, may be applied to any feather
of any sort; but when the genitive dove's is added, the appli cation of
the word feath er is liin·ited or co,,fined to one particular so rt,-a do·ve's
feather, and no other sor t. Observe, also, that the "dove" and the
"feather" are differ ent things : a clove is not a feather, and a feather is
not a clove.

11. Rule of Syntax. - The direct object of a transitive
verb is in the accusative: as, "John obeys hi s mother becanse he loves her ." (Here mother and her are accusatives.)
12. The direct object is the thing upon which th e action
of the verb is directly exerte<l; th e indirect object is the
th ing to which the action of the verb is directed without
necessa rily reaching itJ or the thing upon which the action
of the verb is indirectly exerted: as, "John sent me a
3·:•

30

[ § 20

Jet l"r. " H erc th e ~ e ndin g is directly exerted upo n th e letter
( \\' liat did .Jolin f:'c m l'.' A lef ter ), a nd i11cli1 'Cctly exerted
11p u 11 '111c, li cca u:;c .i ol1n ~e u t th e letter to me, thoug h I may
1w'.·u · h:1\'c rceeinxl it .
J:3. T o m1a f.1J·' e a prop o ~i t i o n is to sep:iratc it into its
p:tr h and !-ihow their rl'lation to one an oth er.
J L T o 1//1cdyzc ot· p cll'!-;c a 1rnnl is to te ll its properties
a :i d its rclalion to otl1 cr 11·o rd s.
.\ lo nEL.-".J o lin too k \\'il lia ni 's li :1t."
T li c "'l 1j cc 1 nf' tli i' J>rn po.- ition i., J ohn, hccaw=e it is th e thin g a bout
\r h i<· l1 tlt e t11!-i11g i., dcc l:ircd . Tlte predi cate i,; tool.-, IJL' t: :ll.lH.: it. is the
t !1in0; (kclarcd :t lJou t J u.'01.
T he '> thjc·<·i '" " 11 0 \\' Ord li 1n itin g i t.- Jlll·a 11ing; th e prc1li cate is li mited
hy lir 1t tli e d ire<.: t ol1jcc t.
.} 1>/uz i:; :l pro pe r nonn, m a ;~e 1.1 l in c , tliird pcr;;.: on. Do m . .Jolin ; C cn.
J ,,/111'., (apo, t rnph o a nd s ) ; llat. .Jolm; ,\ cc. J ,,/111 ; \' or- . .John; f'ou nd
i n th e Jl () Jll i ll:lti \'C :-: i n g 1ila r , ~ldij C'('t of took . R 11 lc, "'l' liC' ;-;1:\J,j cc t or a
finit e vt~ rh i.. .; in the nnm i11 :1t i n :-." l t i~ a noun , LtT;1use it i:-: tli c nam e
of' ;i thi ng ; p ;·npcr, iJC' l ':ll !S t' it i : tJ1e ll :l lll C of' :111 in.tl i \·id1 1aJ tl1i n .~; ; ?JIClSr 11 !/ nr•, 11<'c:t1 1;-;c i t i:-; tl ic ll:nn c of :i. lll:lic bcin ,!:!:; t/11·,·d JW l'.{:,On, 1J cc; 111.:::e it
rc·pn ·..:c: nt.;; tl ic thi ng s poken of; .':. i11y11hu·, liL·c;11 1:--:e it tk11 n !e;:) ont· thing.
( I; 1·;:i J lie f; ;11 11< l lic·.- t. to o:ll ;i tl ,i< c· x1.Ja1~at i o 11 "·' ~ 00 11 a;; tl1c p it]'il
c:n1 11p n · I H 'l Hl ;-; it t ii o ro11 .~ li l y . ·:)
l l'illirun'-1 i>< a pro per 11 o n11 , ma ,r n li 11c, t!tircl 1w rrn11 (dcr li tt C' it); f"' tnd

§ 21 ]

31
E rnmplc8 Joi· A nolysi.s.

Thoma,s lost J ohn \; ball. Jam e,; 's h orse stumbles. \\'a te r
runs. Animals Jrink 11·a tcr. Gr:t c',;gro11·s. J ohn T ho1np..- on
burns wood. Jam es Th on!pso n burns coal. .l\frn ad1ni rn
beauty . .l\l i:;ers 101·e money . H orses eat g rai n. Il orc'e:; c:1t
gra-;s. P eter mca"urcs \\' illiam's corn . B oys lu1·e :!p or t.
"\m cri cans Joye li berty . Frost i11j 11 rc.3 pbn ts. Ira ter f rcc·zc' .
Drunk enn ess destroys heal t h. Bi rds rn:tk c nc:!b. D ot ~·m 1r
i':; a11c1 cross yo ur t's. Ch ilcl rcn lo1·c cand y. Labor streng thens body and mi11c1 . Pcr~eY c rnn cc O\' Crcomcs cliffi cultie;:.
Rober t founJ a turkey-he n's ncot. F iohcs s11·1m. D:ni11..made a decree. Lazin c~s pro du ces p o\' crty; pu\' crty begets
filth; filth crea tes pestilen ce.

1

i: 1 1!1c ,'.. :· e11 i ti\'e ~ i n ,u: nl:n, l irni1i 11g //(/ /.

l/ ulr, " .. \ 1101111 i11 t he µ:<·11itive

(,, ,. 110 ,,,,,,,, i1·e) litni is th e mcan i:1,o: o f' an otl1 cT nou n dc11 01i11.Q: a cl ifl crent
t! 1i11 '.;." (St:itc \I' ll\· a nonn, wh,· prnpc r. "·Ji_,. m:1 , euli11c, c'l:c. )
)[,, / j,, a comm on 11 01111 , nc·ti ter, tlt i rd J'i' !'.«>1 1 1d z·cl inc· it ); fo 11 nrl in the
:ir·.,.: :1-..;it i\· c ,. .; i n .~ul: n , dire<' I
1r ; 1n ~ i!i\·c

\Yf1y

\· erJ,

11t· 1;1 e r

<1h_j cd

n f !1JO I,·.

i .~ in t li C' :IC'l'\ 1s;u i Yc."

~C' n dcr, wli y

I.) ulr'. '·Tli L' dirvct ohj L~ ct ofa

\ ~ l ;t t l'

\d ty a n o 1111, "·li y co mmon,

T l tt' ;> 11 1h nr ;I i\'l '."i !h i~ lllnfl f' l

nr an:ll ,r:.:. i-;

h rc:i\ 1.:-i ! ' j f

b

th e·

(1 J) f '

11w11< \\· 11 i1·J1. f1• r .. ind \;1r. r •·a .. on:-: . nt :t } !' n i t t ii «ir f;1.-:- t1' l 11 •t! f' r t h;:n ! h i s 0 111'.

l 1t·<'( 1n1 ..: :- ri m~ ,,· J 1 ;it f' X pr·rt in pa r ,.in:.!: .

l.

w 1f!·111· 111' 1

Til t• a111h or

"'!1•·11" J.ny 11a i1

it i.. 11nn 0c1' ."'·":1 l',\' fo r llim tc1 cn n.0:11 m r t ir 111• i n l t•ll ing

w l 1y :1 w nrd i ~ a n(l 11n . wh y n1a:o cnl i ni'. &c .; th on g li it i s Ycr y i m por ta nt at li r:i t to rnako
l 1i :1! 11 n1 L· r ... t: tl 1d tli \ ·.~l' tlii u;;.'i i huruu,;lil y.

1. Comm it Lo mem ory tlic fo ll m ring prep os ition s : nftc;" by, d1w:n, Ji, ,-, / ro,,,, in, of , a.ti; on, m·r,., Hince, 1/,ro 11gh ,
tilt, lo, 11nrler, 11p, with.
C'O.'.'I P1)L'X P. - A bou}'( /, aDoitf, <1bon·, Of' i '(IS:,, , ayai11 ., f, (l!nng, ru11id ( tr
FlD[PL E.- .-1 1,

muiilsl ,

u.11iuny

or

u1 //0il.rp .; t , <l i'U li il( / 1

fl ll11(:tft" I, luf )i't.': /J(/1i11d, ln'lu /I' , h1·111 'U th,

bcsdc o r be.<idt-<, b<.'lwccn nr bl'fl'·i.d, bcy01HI, i11to, t/i ,-01, gho ut, lotrnni or
tol':ards, undcm cath, until, u11 to, ·upon, 1cithin, 1cilhou t.

2. A prepos iti on \\·i th its o~j cct fo r ms an acUwi ct, \rhich
limi ts a noun, a n :ulj ecti\·c, or a Ycrb.
3. Rule of ,S:~nl.la.r .-Th c obj ec t of a p rep ositi on is m

wl 1ir l1 l w l 1:1s U!'t·d

01li<' r tP:1 d w r.s \\'il l. of t"111 r .. ('. 11..:f' nn y d ifk r<' rtl ar r ; 111 ~c -

1! 1i 11 I: .., 1\ii .. .: •ll 1f' 11r1 ·frra ld< ·. l wt·:111 -; 1• it lt •:t \'l' S notl1 i 11 µ; to l 1v

§ 21. Pnn'OS ITIO::\s.

the acc n ~at i \'e : as, "At home."
'l. R ule of 8ynta.v .--~\n :uljunct limits a nouu, an aclject.i ve, or a ver b.

th ird pcr ..:011, &c.)

\'i'it l' :11Ltl\· ; i,.- o r tli c YcriJ i' u:n i ttcd Jew th e prc.-r nt. )

i n · It ·· "•·lf ,,, iJ . rni irn f,, r l' •·:ir ... .

EXEI: CISE.

E.van1p /tg f or .11.11uf.1p is.
l\[oDEL.-"C C'ncrnl \\":1 .- !ti1Jgln ll 1il'cd in \"i rg ini ;1 ."

Virginicc i ' a proper ;; 011tl 1 ll C'llt er, tli ird pc r.- ,1 11 , S c.; fo nn<l in th e nccu s:i tivc ea ~c , nh,it>cr of th(' prC'p<):o: i.i ir1n i 11. } ,)11!1•1 · ·T l1 C' 11h.i('c t pf a preposition is in lh e accusati \ ' L' .. , T l1e i\·c: nls '· i 11 1·i,. '.1 /:ii ·l .. [, q ·:u ; 111 ;1 dj 1u 1L' I.

