AN

IMPROVED GRA:NLMAR
OF TlIE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
'

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ON THE

INDUCTIVE SYSTEM;
WITH

WHICH ELEMENTARY AND PROGRESSIVE LESSONS
IN COMPOSITION ARE COMBINED.
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADE;\IIES,
AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

.,

BY REV. :BRADFORD FRAZEE,
,,,
LATE PRINCIPAL OF ELIZABETH FEMALE

'.

ACADE~IY,

WASHINGTON, (ll!ISS.)

SECOND EDITION.

PHILADELPHTA:

SORIN AND BALL.
SOLD BY TIIE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS IN THE U. STATES.

·:•

AN

IMPROVED GRAMMAR
OF TRE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
ON THE

INDUCTIVE

SYSTEM;

WITD

I;
i !

WHICH ELEMENTARY AND PROGRESSIVE LESSONS
IN COMPOSITION ARE COMBINED.

'I

I'
'I

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES,
AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

.,

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IlY REV. BRADFORD ~11AZEE,
LATE PRINCIPAL o_i.~ ELIZADETH FEMALE ACADE!\lY, WASHINGTON, (1'1Ue'S.)

I

I'

SECOND

EDITION.

:'
PHILADELPIITA:

SORIN AND BALL.
SOLD DY THE PRll'WIPAL BOOKSELLERS IN THE U. STATES.

1845.

,(

RECO MM ENDA TI 0 NS.

From the Hon. President of the Board of Regents of the Uni·
versity of Michigan.

Entered according to Act of Congres•, in the year 1844, by

BRADFORD FRAZEE,
In lhe office of the Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania,

...

STEREOTYrF.D BY
J\fOGRIDOE

& M'CARTY . ...• f'IllLAD' A.

- - -- - -- ---- - - l'RINTED BY
T. K. &

P. O. COLLINS.

I have examined, with some care, a manuscript Grammar of
the English Language, written by the Rev. Mr. Frazee, of which,
as a school book, I have formed a highly favorable opinion.
The simplicity of his general arrangement, the clearness and distinctness of his definitions in the more elementary portions of the
work, the pains taken thoughout to cause the learner lo educe for
himself aud apply the general principles, together with his
copious notes and numerous illustrations, make it, in my opinion,
preferable to any other work of the kind already extant,
Z. PITCHER, M. D.,
Prest. of Board of EducatiOn, Detroit .
Detroit, Angust I, 1843.
I fully concur in the above recommendation.
JOHN S. ABDOTT,
Secretary of Board of Education.
Detroit, Oct. I 0th, 1843
I concur in the above recommendation.
L. SCOTT, A. M.,
Pa8tor of the JI[. E. U. Cliurcli, Pliilad~lph.ia.
Pltiladelphw, Dec. 22d, 1843.
'rhe undersigned, members of the Committee on School Books
of the Doard of Education of the City of Detroit, haYc exa.mined,
with considerable care, the manuscript of a system of English
Grammar, prepared by the Rev. Bradford Frazee, of the State of
Michigan, and which he proposes to publish, and take much
pleasure in furnishing to the author an express ion of their approval of a work upon which he has eviclenlly expend ed much labor
and research. The Grammar in question is, in many respects,
an improvement upon any work of the kind yet publi shed for the
use of schools, aud developes a system of teaching English Gram-

(1)

(ii)

(iii)

mar far preferable to any that has come under our observation.
In the choice of a Grammar for the use of the schools under the
direction of our Board, we shall, "·hcneYcr Mr. Frazee's Grammar is published, give it a preference o,·er any other now in use,
and have no doubt it will be adopted by the Board as the book
aboYe all others, best fitted for the use of our schools.
JOHN S. ABBOTT,
SAMUEL llABSTOW.

ness of the definitions, in its more elementary parts, and the
perspicuity of its whole arrangement, on the true Pest~lozzian
system, render it, in my opinion, the best work extant for rnstruction in this science.
"A. N. FILMORE.
" Buffalo, April 22d, 1844."

{_
I

"Having examined, with some care, a System of English Grammar, prepared by Rev. Bradford Frazee, we are l~d to b~heve
that it is an improvement upon the grammars now m use; 1_n. the
philosophy of the arrangement-the correctness. of the defu11t10ns
-the clearness of the illustrations, by the introduction of appropriate examples and exercises, at every step of the pupil's progress, and in the Inductive Method in which the principles of the
science are taught; giving the reasons of the Rules of Syntax, so
that the pupil is led on in an easy, natural manner, to a thorough
knowledge of the analysis of the language.
"AMBROSE S. TODD,
J. W. ALVORD,
GEO. BROWN,
WM. T. BAKEH.
CHAUNCY AYRES, M. D., NATH'L E. ADAMS,
ALEX. N. HOLLY,
WM. T. MINOR,

From Hon. H. Chipman, late Judge of Criminal Court, Detroit.
I have examined the system of English Grammar, by the Rev.
Bradford Frazee, and am induced to think very favorably of it.
Mr. Frazee appears to have bt>stowed much industry and research
in the composition of his work, and shows a cri~ical k_nowledge
of the first principles of language; at the same tune, !us method
and illustrations are so simple and perspicuous, as to lead the
learner on, step by step, not only to learn the absolute rules, but
almost insensibly to understand the principles upon which the
rules are founded. The plan is synthetical and inductive, so
arranged and explained that youthful capacities can clearly comprehend it, while the maturer mind may find in it much instruction in what may properly be called the philosophy of lang~1age.
I conceive that this work might very advantageously be mtroduced, as an elementary book, into the public schools.
HENRY CHIPMAN.
Detroit, August l, 1843.

"Board of Visitors.
"Stamford, Conn., June 29th, 1844."
"I fully concur in the above opinion of Rev. Mr. Frazee's
Grammar, and would further say, it has been adopted in this
Institution.
«C. MARCELLUS DOW.

In a notice of this Grammar," THE NonTn AMERICAN" says,
"The perusal of a few pages has impressed us very favorably
regarding the plan and execution of it. The definitions are precise and clear, and the explanations level to any capacity."
Philadelphia, January lltlt, 1844.

" Principal of Stamford Institute.
"Stamford, Conn., June 29th, 1844."
"The Yiews expressed in the above recommemlation of Mr.
Frazee's Grammar are substantially my own; a.nd I can cheerfully say that, in my opinion, it contains some valuable improvements found in no other that I have seen.
".TAMES H. COFFIN,
"Principal of Norwalk Acadn;1y.
"Norwulk, .Cann., July 5th, 1844."

"'I'1n: SATunnAY Counn:n," in a notice of this work, remarks

that, "The author appears to be thoroughly conversant with his
subject, and imparts his knowledge wi~h remarkable freedom and
perspicuity. 'rhe matter. is pe~uliarly ~darted_ to the u~practised
mind of the learner, and its lucid, pract1ca plulosopby is evident
at every page."
Plziladelplzia, Jan. 13th, 1844.

"'\Ve have examined Mr. Frazee's Grammar, and fully concur
in the opinion expressed above by the Stamford Board ofVisitors.
"ELBRIDGE PURINGTON, BEN.T. R. DAVIS,
JOHN B. STARR
S. W. CIIAMllERLAIN,

The following from Rev..Mr. Filmore, will receive much credit
"
where he is known.
"Having examined the system of English Grammar by ReY.
Mr. Frazee, I am induced to think of it very highly. The clear•

'
"July 5th, 1841."
t

" Teachers in Norwalk, Conn.

(i ,. )
"After examination 0f G.
Rev..Bradford Frazee •a I am mar of the En rr}ish L
pressmg our approb
"e, th~ undersigned, take l an~u~ge by
pies; and concei . a ion of Ins arrangement a d p easu1e Ill ex.
tum in instruct" v1~1g that he has s upplied an .n general princias members of I~~ m that department of educ z;nportant de8ideraciety, (Bridgeport e CBoard) of Visitors of the :ir~ti ~esdo r~b'olt-e,
on Commom S h' onn., agreeable to the
. .e
chool So.
of th e above s c. ools, to adopt the said Gr£rov1s1~ns of the law
oc1ety.
mmar rn the schools

t.'

"SAML. BEACH
J. H. HUNTER'
J. LEONARD GILDER
"B .
W. H. BUNNEi L
HENHY OLMSTEAD '
rulgeport' Conn., .mly
T
'
'1844."
B oard of Visitors.
'
12th,

"Philadelrp h ia,
· August 14th, 1844

"G

ENT:-1 have c
f II
•
tem of En lish G are u y examined th e Rev M
r. Frazee's Sys.
the opinio~ that :ammar, recently published
been m d
' 111 many respects a d ·d d Y you, and am of
.
a e upon the grammars . '
ec1 e improvement h
the
in its
0
illustratio~ t~~\~~ ge~:ral ~imµlicity, tlfee~~S:~~~ty ~ the definis;rntax, and, most ofs~1/ef~' t~n the copiousness of at,~e ~~~rough
t1~n. The system of el~
e really inductive method of 1.t es of

b

1;~~~a~1~r~nge_m.cnt,

correctn~~st~~j es~ec!ally

philos~~

~~~hptl:~ eier:1a~~ts of the ~~~~~7, ~~Tfi~~i~'oa~~ ~hich is c0 1~~~~~~
sfider the work thes~~~t ~~atph 1sdsfiubject.. Upon t;1~r~~~~~111t upon
1e or use rn our Common ,,Schools
f
'
cono any SJ' t
s em o grammar with which I
·

" MESSRS

•

S ORIN

am acquamted
"Respectfully,
·
"p . . l
"W. W WOOD
rzncipa of
the S'.• W.• Grammar
•
•
& BA1.1.."
.
School.

"We concnr in the above recommend a t"10ns.
"Principal of the .ilfo " W~. HOBERTs, .
.
yamensmg Grammar School."

· of the Caih · "SAMUEL · F • WATSON
. up·
rznc1pal
"Plttladelphia, August 15th, a{~~~ffreet lrfale Grammar Sc/1~0{.

(v)
Additional names, snbscribe<l to the recommendation of .T. O.
Taylor, and others on the coYer.
Wm. Kennedy, Principal of 1 E. H. Jenny, A. M., Principal
17th Ward Gram. School.
of New York Institute.
Abm. K. Van Vlcek, Principal
John M. Reid, late Prin. of
of Pnb. Gram. School, No. 16.
Mechanic's Inst. Gram. School.
Chas. S. Pell, Principal of
S. Durand, Principal of 5th
Ward Gram. School.
Pub. Gram. School, No. 8.
Jno. W. Ketchum, Principal
N. W. Starr, Principal of
Pub. Gram. School, No. 10.
of Pub. Gram. School, No. 7.
John H. Fanning, Principal
M. C. Tracy, Principal of
of Pnb. Gram. School, No. 13.
Mechanic's Inst. Gram. School.
Rich'd S. Jacobson, Principal
M. N. Olmstccl, Principal of
Willet st. Academy.
of Pub. Gram. School, No. 1.
A. Newman, Prin. of ClassiWm. Miller, Principal of a
cal and Conical Inst. Droatlway. Select School, Allen st.
H. D. Styker, Principal of FeB. Fowler, Principal of a Semale Acad., N. Brunswick, N. J. lect School, Bedford st.
Wm. M. Hough, Principal of
C. L. Hungerford, A. M., late
Trenton High School, N. J.
Prin. of Kingston Acacl., N. Y.
P. A. Cregar, Principal of S.
Chas. S. Stone, Principal of
F.. Gram. School, Philad'a.
Carlisle High School, Pa.
ll. E. Chambcrlin,Prin. of ButA. T. W. Wright, J\L D., Prin.
tun wood st. Gram. School, Phila. of Model Gram. Schou!, Phila.
J. M. Bird, Prin. of Lombard
N. H. McGuire, Principal of
st. Gram. School, Philad'a.
Coates st. Gram. School, Phila.
J. Rhoads, M. D., Principal of
Jas. M. Clune, J'rincipal of
Palmer st. Gram School, I'hila. M;i,ster st. Gram. School, I'hila.
W. H. Pile, Principal of N.
J. M. Colemen, Prin of N.
E. Gram. School, Philad'a.
Market st. Gram. School, Philn .
W. M. Rice, Pr in. of ClassiW. W. Vv ood, Principal of S.
cal School, Cherry st., Philad'a. E. Gram. School, Philad'a.
Andrew Crozier, Principal of
D. R. Ashton, Principal of
Reid st. Gram. School, Philad'a. Young Ladies' Institute, Phila.
L. Rhoads and S. Nourse,
D. Kirkwood, Principal of
Teachers in Lancaster Gram. Lancaster High School.
School, Pa.

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INDEX.

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PAGE.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Elements of English language 10
10
Classification of letters
• 13
Analysis of sounds
16
Spelhng · •
•
• 17
Words •
ETYMOLOGY.
Parts of speech •
18
NouNs
18
Kinds
20
Gertder
21
Person
22
Number
23
Case
"25
Foundation of rule 4, in Syntax 26
VERB
• 28
Kinds
29
Foundation of rule 9, in Syntax 29
Voice •
• 31
Modes
33
Tenses
• 36
Auxiliary 39
Conjugation •
•
- 40
Root and principal parts
43
Participles
- 48
Foundation of rule 1, in Syntax 50
Foundation of mle 2, in Syntax 51
J rregular verbs
75
• 80
Defective verbs
PRONOUNS
81
List first
82
85
List second
List third
• 81
Connecting power of who, &c. 88
Interrogative pronouns
90
List fourth . · •
91
List fifth ~
95
List sixth
97
List seventh
97
List eighth •
• 98
List ninth
98
ADJECTIVES •
• 99
Comparison of
100

PAGE.
Numeral
• 102
Participial
103
Definitive
• 103
List first IQ.1
List second
• 104
List third
106
ADVERBS
• 107
Foundation of rule 13, in Syntax 107
PREPOSITIONS
109
Foundation of rule 12, part 2d 110
Co:!'!JUNCTIO:!'!S
112
Tooke's table of derivation of 111
lNTERJECTIO:!'IS •
113
DERIVATION
114
RECAr!TULATION, ETYMO. 116
ORDER OF p ARSING
122
SYNTAX.
A sentence
Analysis of sentences
•
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS
General directions
•
ADJECTIVES
PossES8IVE CASE •
N OM. INDEPENDENT •
•
N OM. APSOLUTE •
APPOSITION
OnJECTIYE CAsE
PREPOSITIONS. •
•
INFINITIVE Mom: •
p ARTICIPLES
•
PRONOUNS
ADVERBS
Co:NJU:!'!CTIONS
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
vV ords containing two cases
See Ind. of Rules in Rccapit'n
PUNCTUATION
Capital Letters

136
145
147
148
149
151
156
157
160
163
164
168
169
171
173
177
179

PROSODY.
Useful Directions
POETRY·
Rules for rending verse

180
181
192

123
124
125
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PREFACE.

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A New Grammar of tlie English language, will, often witl1ou ,.
examination, be pronounced, by the superficial grammarian, a
mere compilation; but those who are acquainted with modern
philology ; and those who understand the discrepancy between
the present state of the science of practical grammar, and the
most approved methods of instruction, are prepared to expect
something more, from an author whom they judge capable of
availing himself of the facilities offered, and of adapting them to
the interests of education.
The work now offered to the public, is claimed as an improvement upon tJ1e grammars in use, in the following features, among
others.
I. The arrangement and distribution of the topics of Etymology and Syntax, render the subject strictly progressive and practical. The noun is first treated, because it is the only kind of
words that make sense by themselves, h~nce, the only kind that
a beginner can understand. The verb is the second part of
, speech treated. With the noun and verb, the pupil C0.11 form a
proposition or sentence : then the pronoun-with the pronoun
and verb, he can form a sentence; then the adjective, wl1ich
adds an idea to the name or subject of the sentence ; then the
adverb, which adds_an idea to the verb or affirmation oftlie sentence: then the preposition, &c. The doctrines of syntax are
arranged ~n a similar plan. This arrangement is founded upon
nature, and therefore philosophical. Every step the pupil takes
in the subject, prepares him to understand the next, and immediately to combine it with what has gone before.

1*

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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

In syntax, only one rule is given on any one general princi·
ple, all the peculiar applications of the doctrine being included
in notes or secondary rules under it. This plan places all the
applications of a syntac~ical doctrine under the same head. The
pupil is required to learn the rules, and practice upon them
thoroughly, omitting the notes till the review. This plan,-and
method of instruction, avoid the confusion consequent upon
teaching the great and leading application of 11 doctrine and its
peculiar ~ppl i cations at the same time, and upon giving them
the same rank und importance in syntax.
Particular pains have been ta.ken to ha.ve every item distinct,
and to avoid confounding or commingling the doctrines of different parts of grammar. ·when a doctrine of etymology is explained, upon which a syntactical doctrine is founded, the induc·
tion is immediately stated, and the doctrine or rule of syntax, ,
educed and specified as such.
2. The science is simplified more than usual, without diluting
it or rendering it puerile.
3. The definitions and rules are much more accurate and precise than in the grammars now in use. It is said by a large and
very competent committee in the city of New York, that "There
is scarcely any part of t1.1e popular grammars so open to criticism
ns the definitions and rules. They are too often loose, crude
and incorrect. They are defective or redundant, inconsistent or
contradictory, ambiguous or false. Definitions, like axioms,
should be faultless, true and intelligible."*
In the composition of this work, the subject has been patiently
investigated, for the purpose of attaining the strictest uccuracy
possible.
·
4. The scope of the syntax is commensurate with the language; I have collected all the correct syntactical doctrine& of
the grammars to which I have had access, and supplied some
deficiencies found in all of them ; and the whole has been

wrought into a thorough digest of Syntax; by which all good
English can be parsed, without torturing it by transpositions or
interpolations, or grouping the words off in " adverbial phrases,''
or in any other wholesale manner.
5. 'I'he subject is more distinctly and thoroughly illt;strated
than usual, by the use of clear ·and appropriate examples and
exercises at every step of the pupil's progress.
6. The most important and clistinguishio.g fcllture of imw ovement, is the method of instruction. The qreat~t. alJP most
emb'1/l"ra¥Mi1i.g ikfeot Of the grwnmo.ra ti
.is Uiefr Tmeroper
Km! antiqua-ted
·
mmar lrns been per- "'
m?ttel
in this respect. Induction-the great element of school instruction at the present
day-may be set down as unknown, or very nearly so, in the
grammar class. The common methocl is to teach the pupil
words, primarily and mainly, instead of ideas; and to teach the
rules in an arbitrary manner, without attempting to give the
reasons of them : thus depending more on the memory than the .
understanding. It is this method of instruction that renders
grammar" such a dry study,'' and procluces so few good grammarians among the thousands engaged in it.
Rules in schmce are the abstractions of cultivated minds,
therefore it is impossible to understancl them well without knowing the course of reasoning or the classification offacts that
ha~roclucecl them.
.
- e ~ 'tff-~~etfon n<loptetl in .this work, i!!, 'first
_the ~Tfilis. th.t.illU$tm1@jt plainly,.a:rtlt then ~r­
de ... thfl!
upon it, d'-~fld's eparatory trainmg,
hiDl to commit the .wo.rds to
~JI This method of
r
teaching saves-tne -pu-p1l more ~tii'an " ha ortne irksome toil of
1
committing fo memory, on the old plan, and he unclerstands
his subject much better. He is taught the rules of syntax by
regular induction, on a plan similar to the approved methocl of
teaching arithmetic. In this way he easily comprehends the
reason and force of the rules, therefore, they are much ~ore

Vl

" See Report on English Grammar, of the Executive Committee of
"The American Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.;'

use

fu

P't

Vlll

!'REFACE.

easily applied by the understanding, and retained m the
memory.
The attention of the pupil is confined to a single point, and he
is exercised upon it exclusively, until he understands it; and
then he is required to combine it with what has gone before,
and practice upon the whole; but not allowed to extend the exercise to U.D,i ~wJ1ich he J1ll..S..uot.-leani.OO,...- - 1.. 11tell.~ Ila!~ ~tllq "°'!i~~j
~ with the elements of
•
know, has, hitTierto, een a desideratum .

ar-:a·

....,.._.,.illlli

and so
.
~
wo branches mutually to promote the acquisition of each
other. These lessons, instead of following the beaten track
of thinking for the pupil, by furnishing him with list.a of words
and broken sentences, teach him how to think for himself and
write his own lists of words and broken sentences. When he
·writes words on this plan, he knows what they are.
Iu preparing this system of grammar, the fo1lowing works on
~.-Wlft!tt1 grammar, hani been consulted. Harriti's Hermes,
~ort"tto;- Oihbett'~ Grams. Lewis' An. Outlines &c. 'l'ooke's
Purley, De Sacy, Encycl. Brit.-Edin. Encyal. (Brewster's)
Crombie's Syntax, 'Vebster's Grams. Latham's Gram. and others.
And on
besides the grammars in common
use, Ben
drew, Buchanan, Lennie, Sutcliffe,
Richard Hiley, and others of Europe : and Alexander, Comley,
Chandler, Cardell, Cooper, Alger, Pon<l, Fowle, Frost, Green,
Hull, Ingersol, Nutting, Parkhurst, Pickett, Brace, Goodenow,
Parker and Fox, Pierce, ·wright, Hazen, Cornell, Pue and others of our own country.
I embrace this opportunity to acknowledge my obligation to
Rev. Preston Cooper, of whom I received some \·aluable ideas
on the induction of grammar.

PHILADELP~Ml•I

AN IMPROVED GRAMMAR.

t.* ENGLISH GRAJllMAR is that science which teaches the
structure of the English Language.

t,

The science consist.a of a System of Principles and Rules:
some of whioh are founded on the natural distinctions and relations of words, and others, on the arbitrary authority of usage.

t. Grammar is divided into four parts; Orthography,
·
.
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.
Orthography teaches the sounds and use of the letters,
and the correct method of spelling words.
Etymology treats of the different classes of words, their
derivation, and their various inflections and changes, to express gender, person, number, case, time and manner.
Syntax is a system of rules for the construction of sentences.
Prosody teaches the pronunciation of words, and the laws
of versification.
• !)7The portions marked thus (t) nre to be omitted till the review.
t !)7Let the beginner commence on the 16th page.
(9)

10

ORTHOGRAPHY.

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ORTHOGRAPHY.

The clements of the English language, spoken, consists
of thirty-six primitive sounds and articulations; an<l these
are. reprcsc1~tcd by the twenty-six letters of the alphabet,
w luch constitute the eleme11ts of the language written.
These clemen~ary sounds arc divided into five vowel
sounds ; eleven d1phthongal sounds, and t1centy articulations.
NoTE 1. An Articulation is a joint; and therefore, an articulate sound is a jointed sound.
NoTE 2. ~poken Language consists of vowel and diphthongal
sounds, vanously connected by articulations or joints.
]_l~Mi\R~( l. The _Power of connecting sounds by articulations
or JO!Ilts, is a peculmr characteristic and privilege of man above
the mere animal creation.
REMARK 2. And hence, he who articulates the best; i. e. the
most DISTINCTLY, rises the highest in this DISTINGUISHING
ADILITY.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LETTERS.

Vowels and Diphthongs.
E,* and w,t are always vowels.
I, 0, and y,t are sometimes vowels, and sometimes diphthongs.
·
A, and u, are always diphthongs.
The rest are consonants or articulations.
* EXCEPTION. E seems lo hnve a diphthogal sound (like the sound
ofy m ye) m_some words; as.in ewer, ewr_y, eulogy, Europe, eucbarist,
truncheon, nghteous, &c.
t !~is usually represented by oo, in illustrating its sound, and therefore It Is properly a vowel, because it has the sound of oo which is 3
yowel sound. " TVie also a \'owe!." \Vebster's Speller,' p. 8. "fV
Is properly a vowel." \Vebster's 4to Die.
t Y seems to be, improperly, called a consonant when it begins a
word or syllable; as in year, beyond.
A consonant.represents an articulation, which is formed by closing the
organs.; but tlus sound of y, is commenced with the organs open, (tho'
close hke. long e) and uttered by opening them wider, with a quick mus.
cular mot10n; as ye: and therefore it is properly a diphthongal sound, and

LETTERS.

11

Tho vowel sounds are produced with the.. organs open,
and without changing their position.
The diphthongal sounds differ from the vowel sounds, in
requiring the position of the organs to be changed, but
without closing them, <luring their utterance; by which
they are known not to be simple, but compound sounds :
some of which are represented by single letters; as, i, in
fine,· u, in tube; and others by two, in one syllable; ns
oi, in toil ,· ou, in count.
A digraph is two vowels in a syllable, when only one
is sounded ; as ea in eagle; oa in boat, &c.
NoTE. The digraphs are so various that no general rules can
be given for their pronunciation.

A triphthong is a union of three vowels in one syllabic;
ns ieu in adieu.
not an articulation; and hence; y, the letter representing it, should ue
called a diphthong.
Y has the same sound in year, yankee, beyond, &c., (where it is called
n consonant) that i has in valiant, alien, union, familiar, junior, &c., and
e has the same sound in Europe, eulogy, eucharist, ewer, ewry, puncheon,
truncheon, right.eon.~, &c., and u, in use, union, &c.
Now if this sound is an artirnlation, then all the letters which represent it; to wit, e, i, u and y, should be called consonants, or articulations,
in. all such situations; but if it is a diphtlwngal so1rnd, then y should not
be called a consonant in any place.
Many writers on Orthography call 11 a consonant, at the beginning of
words and syllables, and then use it in the same situation lo represent
the sound of e, i and n: that is, they use a consonant to represent a vowel
sound, nccording to their own principles. G. Brown's Gram. p. 30.
Also, \Valker's large Die., Principles, &c., p. 16, and the words ewer
ewe, alien, union, companion, dernier, and many others.
'
Mr. \Valker says, (in his direction to foreigners, prefixed to his large
Dictionnry, p. 12,)_lhat "w is no more than the French diphthong on;
thus, TVest 1s ef]mvalent to Onest. and wall to ouall:" and that. "'I is
perfectly ef]uivalent to the French letter of that name. and may be sl.1pplied by i; thus, yol>e, yon, &c., arc expressed by ioke, ion, c<:l-c.," and
then four pages aft"er, he lays it down as an established doctrine, "that
JI and ware consonrmts when they begin a word." Such a contradiction
needs no comment.
Yis a vowel "sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as in beryl,
paroxysm." Cobb's Speller, p. 163.

., I

I
11

,fj

'1

I

12

Utterance.

I

'~

LETTERS.

OitTJlOGRAPIIY.

The sound of a is less artificial, and more easily produced,
than any other sound in the composition of E'peech. ·It consists
of a mere emission of voice throngh the unclosed lip8, with a
slight and very natural clmnge in the position of the organs, to
procluce the vanish. On this account this sound is represented
by the first letter in the alphabet of nearly ev.cry nation that has
un alphabet.
The :"ound of u requires the greatest approximation of the
corners of the mouth, in its utterance; and the sound of i requires
greater horizontaJ dilation of the mouth than any other sound in
the language. These are the extremes of vowel and diphthongal
80llllds, b~twecn which all others range; as illustrated by the
following diagram.

!tl=e

"The consonants are better called articulations."
ster's 4to Die., word conBonant.

13
See vVeb-

Classification.
The consonants or arti'.culrLtions, are of several kinds, and the
following classification will exhibit their real character, instead
of some mere circumstance respecting them.
Tho first class comprises those in which tho voice is
heard ; and therefore they may be called vocal consonants.
The second class includes those in which a hissing sound
is heard ; produced by the mouth, witlwut tlic voice; hence
they may be called the hissing consonants or ·articulations.
The third class of articulations, includes those in which
a breathing is heard, but no sound ; and hence they may
be called breathing articulations.
The fourth class, comprises the articulations which en·
tirely interrupt the passage of the breath, aml consequently
all sound, and hence they may be called mutes.

u .
01

The sounds represented on the left side of the diagram, are
produced by contracting the mouth horizontally from its natural
position, in which the sound of a is uttered, to its greatest contraction, whic.h is required in uttering the sound of u; and those
on the right, by dilating the mouth in a similar manner. The
sound of oi re1p1ires a union of the two ~xtreme position!", in its
utterance.-[See Nordheimer's Heb. Gram.]

Consonants.
Tho consonants . represent joints, or i11ten·uptio11s of
sound ; formed by closing the organs more or less.
NOTE 1. The common definition of consonant is, "a letter
which cannot be fully sounded without the help of a vowel."
This definition is very inaccurate; for all the consonants that
have any sotu1d, can be sounded without a vowel; and secondly,
some of them are mules, that is, they have no sound at all, and
therefore cannot possibly be sounded with any character.
NoTE 2. It will be perceived by the preceding note, that
consonant is a very inappropriate name for this class of letters.

ANALYSIS OF SOUNDS.
The following is an analysis of the elementary sounds and articulations of the English language, together with their principal
representatives.*
NcnE 1. Care should be taken to distinguish between the
name and sound of rt consonrtnt. E, g, be is the name of a
letter. To produce the rnund of b, leave the sound of e out of
the name, and the balance of sound in the name is the sound of
b. A little careful practice in this way will enable the pupil to produce separately all the articulations represented by the consonants.
NOTE 2. Some of the articulations are formed by the throat,
hence c:1Jled gutturals, by some authors, as those represented by
g and k; and others arc formed by the lips, hence called labinls;
as those represented by b and m. These are the extremes between which most articulations are formed. It is a very useful
exercise to produce the articulations, with particular attention
to the organs of speech most employed in their formation.

*

"The material of langnagc, when it is sound, is capable of analysis

into a definite number of simple elements."-[Brandc's Encycl. Art.
Gram,]
2

!

.
14

SPELLING.

ORTHOGP.AT'HY.

Fourth Class.

MONOTHONGS OR VOWEJ,s.

Close e, as in err.
Short e, as in step, bet, end.
Sf1ort i, as in pit, in.
Close o, as in move; w, in water; u, in bush.

Remarks.

DIPTHONGAL SOUNDS.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
II.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Long a, as in sale, late.
Short a, as in mat, can.
Broad a, as in fall, call ; o, in lot, stop.
Italian a, as in father, palm, arm.
Long i, as in pine, define.
Long·o, as in vote, hope.
Long u, as in. tube, cure.
Short u, as in tub, nut.
Oi and oy, as in toil, joy.
Ou and ow, as in count, town.
Y; as in year, yankee; e in ewer, eulogy; and i in union.
ARTICULATIONS.

First Class.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Vocal Articulations.

B, as in balm.
D, as do, aid.
F, and v, as in of, vale.
G, hard, as in go, gave, tug.
G, s, and z, as zh, as in rouge·, vision, azure.
L, as in lawn, lilly.
l\l, as in man, mammon.
N, as in not, national.
N, as ng, as in rank, uncle, sing.
R, as in river, rarity.
Th, vocal, as in those, rather.
.
.
.
z, as in zeal, and c, s, and x, .as m suffice, wise, Xema.

-·

Second Class. Hissing .A1·ticulations.
29. C, soft, and s, as in civil, sun.
.
.
30. C, • t , ch , and sh ' as in ocean, sure, nuptial, machme, ~had.
~,

Tltird Class.

B1·eathing Articulations.

31. F, ph, a.nd gh, as i~ _fife? sphere, laugh.
32. H as in hard, anmlulat10n.
33. Ti1, aspirate, as in thin, path.

llfute Articulations.

34. C and ch, hard, k and q, as in cause, chord, kind, '!ueen.
35. D, as t, as in faced, artl
36. P, as in pipe, poplar.

I. Long e, as in me, edict.
2.
3.
4.
5.

15

The monothongs or vowels will be understood ns falling undn
the usual definition. Some of the diphthongs need illustration.
The diphthongal character of long a may be easily perceived by
protracting its sound in the syllable ra. The tirst part of the sound
of a is the nominal sound of this letter, and the last part, is the
sound of c, heard in me, and there . is the difference of a tone between them, through which the voice rises by a concrete movement.
Tbe first is uttered with fuln ess of voice, hence Dr. Rush calls
it the "radical;" and the last is uttered with feebleness of voice,
diminishing to the close, hence called by the same author the
"vanish." 'I'his sound of a will be still more apparent by uttering the syllable ra with the earnest and protracted interrogation
of great surprise. In this case the interval between the "radical" and "vanish" will be much more than a tone. Again: let
a and e be ·sounded as notes on the scale, with a slig ht pause
betwee[I them, and c one tone above a, until their relation is
perceived, and then sound them in a concrete movement.
In the other sounds of a, as in awe, art, an, the radical of each
is the sound on which the voice opens in the words respectively,
and the vanish of each is the sound of e in err. The vanish in
each of these is very faint, but it can be distinctly perceived by
employing the words severally in earnest interrogation, in which
the sound of a will terminate at a high pitch in a feeble sound
of e iri err.
I in isle has its own peculiar radical, and its vanish is e in
me.
0 in ode, has its own peculiar radical, and its vanish is the
sound of oo in ooze.
u in rule, has its own proper radical, anrl its vanish is the
sound of oo in ooze.
U in tub, has its own peculiar radical, and . its vanish is the
same as in rule.
Y is a monothong when followed by a consonant in the same
syllable, as in system, paroxysm; but at the end of syllabics, it
is a diphthong with its regular vanish, as in <lefy; and when it is
followed by a vowel or a diphthongal sound, it has a diphthongal
sound but no vanish, because the voice passes from it to the

16

ORTHOGRAPil Y.

SPELLING.

radical of the next, and there cannot be two radicals, separated
by a vanish or articulation, in the same syllabic.
The sound of g soft and j is compound, equivalent to dzh.
And both sounds of x are compound, one is that of gz, and the
other, that of ks.-[See Rush on the Human Voice. J

Words in General.

17

vV ords are articulate or jointed sounds, used by corn·
mon consent, as the signs of our ideas.
A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable.
A word of two syllables, a dissylable.
A word of three syllables, a trissylable.
A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable.
Words are divided into two general clar>scs; primitive und
derivative.
Primitive words are those which cairnot be reduced to
any simpler words in the language; as man, good, content.
Derivative words arc those which are formed from some
other words ; as manful, goodness, contentment.

SPELLING.
·Spelling is the art of expressing words by their appropriate Ietlcrs.
NoTE. Jn spelling, words should be divided into syllables,
according to their combinations of sounds; so as to indicate to
the learner, in the clearest possible method, the correct pronunciation.
ExcEPTION. The class of words, in which ti, si, &c., have
the sound of sh, seems to require a different diyision.

Rules for Spelling.
RULE I.
JJfonosyllables, ending with a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, and words of more syllables than one, emliug with an accented consonant, preceded
by a short vowel, double the final consonant in derivatives,
when the additional syllable begins with a vowel, as fit,
fitted, fitting, fitter ; tan, tanned, tanning, tanner ; allot,
allotted, allotting.
RULE 2.
When the final consonants, in the a hove described words, are preceded by long vowels, or are unaccented, they should not be doubled in derivatives; us meet,
meeting ; bemoan, bemoaning, &c.

2*

NOTE I. The above rules are general in their application;
and special reasons may indicate some exceptions to them.
NoTE 2. Other rules for spelling, are reduced by so many exceptions, that they are of little or no use.
REMARK.· The Orthography of the English language is attended \Vith so much uncertainty and perplexity, that it can be
learned well, only by a thorough course in the ~PELLING BooK,
and DICTIONARY: and this elementary and MOST USEFUJ, PART
of the education of youth, should be most strenuously adhered
to, by parents, guardians, and teachers.

I

NAl\IES .

ETYMOLOGY .

:f:. The second part of Grammar is Etymology, w.hich
treats of the different classes, or sorts of words, their deri·
vation ; and their various inflections and cha nges, to express
gender, person, number, case, time and manner.
:f:. There are eight sorta, or classes of words ; com·
monly calle"d Parts of Speech: I. The Noun, or Name;
II. The Verb; III. The .P ronoun, or Substitut~; IV. The
Adjective or Attribute; V. The Adverb or Modifier; VI.
The Preposition ;
'The Conjunction, or Connective ;
VIII. The Interjection, or Exclamation.*

vn.

. 1°'.l~TE. These eight sorts 'of words are ranked in two ge~eral
d1v1s1ons; an account of their relative importance in sentences·
'
viz. Primary and Secondary.
Primary words a1 e those which are essential to the formation
of a sentence : they· are nam~s and verbs: thus, rain falls. It
would destroy this sentence, to take away either of the words,
and. ~ence both words are essential to the existence of the propos1t10n.

First Lesson for

Beginn~rs ..

1. NOUNSt OR NAMES . .
Grammar is the science of language, and language is made
up of words:
Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study words.
Question. What is the first inquiry· we naturally make about
any person or thing 1
·
.
.
'
* For Articles and Participles, see pp. 48, 104.
t The word 1101t11 is the Att. accusative case of the Greek word noos,
tholtf{ht, and is most likely adopted from that language, as n suitable title
for the class of ~orda that represent the mo1t elementary thoughts or
ideas.
(18)

19

Answer. What is the name by which such person or
thing is knmvn.
Hence NAMES are the most important class of words,
and therefore they should be studied first, in etymology.*
NoTE. Most grammarians call names, NOUNS; but noun, is a
technical word, which means name, and therefore we will use
the word namf! more generally than the word noun, especially
in the first part of this work; for every body tinderstands what
the word name means, which is not the case with the word noun.
METHOD oF STUDY. 'fhe learner should not attempt to commit
the definition to memory at first, but read it until he gets the
IDEA, that is, until he understands it, and then practice on the
idea, as directed after the definition, until it is well understood,
and then commit the definition to memory. This is the plan to
be pursued throughout the grammar.
DEFINITION. Nouns or Names arc the words by which
persons 01· things are called ; as, man, tree, Erie, love,
justice •
P'LAN OF ExERCil;IE. Now speak the name of any thing that
you can see, or hear, or taste, or smell, or feel, or think of: take
time to go through the list deliberately, and call as many names
as you can. All names belong to this part of speech.
NoTE. Let the learner ;ow write names on a black board,
slate, or paper, _until the habit of distinguishing them, is acquired; and then take a blank book, and rule the pages in the first
part of it, into three equ:tl parts, perpendicularly ; and then com·
mence at the top of the left hancl space, to write a column of
names, leaving as much room to the left of the names as possible, for other words to be written before them : write a dozen
names in the colurnn ; after this

Model

of

Composition:

man
.

boy

house
book

* "The first ela~s of words corresponds to the faculty called by logicinns, apprehension, or simple apprehension. They nre commonly
named nouns or substantive.~. or nouns substantive; and express either
individualA; as, 'John, Charles;' or classes; nG, 'man, nnimal.' "Drande's Encycl. Art. Gram:

I.
1' t

20

.

ETYMOLOGY.

GENDER.

CLASSIFICATION .

Names are of two kinds; common nnd proper.
A comm.on name is a general name; as man, animal,
tree, knowledge.
.
What kind of a word is man?
Ans. It is a name.
\Vhat kind of a name 1
Ans. A common name.
Why1
Ans. Because it is a general name. It is applicable to
all men.
Parse animal, tree and. knowledge, as I have parsed man.
· Now write six common names in the column of names in your
blank book, as before.
·
A proper name is a particular name, given to an individual person or thing, to distinguish it from all others ; as
Laura, Thomas, Detroit, Erie, New York.
'
What kind of a name is Laura 1 and why 1
Ans. It is a proper name, because it is a particular
name.
Why is it a particular name 1
Ans. Because it distinguishes one particular person from
all others.
Parse all the examples a~ Laura is parsed above.
Write several proper names on a slate or blackboard, and then
write several in your column· of names, as before.
NoTE. Proper names should always begin with a capital letter.
:j: If a proper name has an, a or the before it ; or if it ad·
mits the plural form, it is used as a common name; as he
is the Cicero of his age, he is not a Newton, the twelve
Cresars, the seven Jameses.
·
When a noun or name signifies many individuals, it is
called a collective name, or name of multitude; as people,
army, company, flock, herd.
:j: Names of substances are called substantive nouns,· as
earth, iron, wood, cotton, man, state.

+

,,,

21

:j: Names of immaterial thinO's; such as qualifies and
actions,· are called abstract na~es; as virtue, knowledge,
kindness, truth, love, joy . .
NoTE. An immaterial thing, is a thing which has no bodily
existence; as love, hatred, joy, gladness, &c.
To names belong gender, person, number and case.
GENDER.

Gender is a modification of names to distinguish the
sexes.
.
Names have two gende1·s, the masculine a_nd feminine.
The masculine gender denotes males; as man, boy,
James, George, son, brother.

'

I

.Jltlodel of Parsing.
Man is a name, common, because it is a general name, masculine gender, it denotes i;t male.
Parse all the examples according to the above model, and
write in your list of names three common names, and three proper names in the masculine gender.
The feminine gender denotes females ; as womnn, girl,
daughter, Susan, sister.
Parse and write as before.
N. B. If the student would be faithfitl and trtte to his own
interest, and advance rapidly and thoroughly! lie must parse.eve;y
example given, and be sure to understand it before Tie quits it.
:j: The names ·of some things .without se~, .are, by a figure
of speech, put in the masculine or femmme gender ; as
when we say of the sun, "he is setting ;" of a ship, " she
sails well."
:j: When this figure of speech is .used, the things :which
are strong, controlling,. or pr~ucing, shoul~ be put m the
masculine ; and the thmgs which are beautiful, dependent,
or containing, should. be put in ~he feminine gender. .
REMARK. Nouns that do not distinuuish sex, have no gender,
which it is as useless to men.tion in parsing, as it would be to
say, that they have no mode or tense.
There are three methods of di!'tinguishing the sexes.

----

--

22

NUMBER.

ETYMOLOGY.

Bachelor
Beau
Boy
Brother
Buck
Drake
King
Lad
Lord
.Man

I. By different words; as, .
maid
Earl
countess
belle
Father
mother
girl
Friar
nun
sister
Hart
roe
doe
Husband
wife
duck
Master
mistress
queen
Nephew
niece
lass
Sir
madam
lady
Son
daughter
woman

II. By different terminations; as,
Abbot
Acror
Administrator
Arbiter
Baron
Bridegroom
Caterer
Chanter
Czar

,.

abbess
Host
hostess
J ew
ac t ress
jewess
administratrix Landgrave
landgravine
arbitress
Marquis
marchioness
p atron
baroness
patroness
bride
p eer
peeress
p oet
ca t eress
poetess
p nest
·
chan tress
priestess
czarina
. Prince
princess
p rophet
Deacon
deaconess
Duke
prophetess
duchess
Shepherd
shepherdess
E mperor
Songster
empress
Executor
songstress
executrix
Seamster
seamstress
God
Ti ger
·
' goddess
Heir
tigress
heiress
Tuoor
turoress
Hunter
h un t ress
'\Vidower
widow
Il~dBy preiixing some word to the name; as, a man servant
a ma1 ser~a!1t-a male child; a female child.
'
In exerc1smg on ~hese lists, cover the column of the feminine
gender, and repeat it by looking at the other column.
PERSON.
The person of a name, is its·position in discourse
Names .cannot have more than three positions. in dis·
~ou~se, which are those of the speaker, hearer, and subject' and the~·efore can have only three persons the fi t
second and third.
•
rs ,
nc!he first person is the position of the speaker,' as

I, John

23

The second person is the position of the individual or
thing spoken to; as, _ye Jews, hear 0 heavens, give car 0
earth.
The third person is the position of the name spoken of;
as, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, the earth thirsts, the
sun shines.
MonEL OF P ARSING.-John Doe is a name, proper, because it
is a particular name, masculine gender, it denotes a male, first,
person, it is the name of the speaker.
Parse all the examples after this model ; and write three co~­
moh names, masculine gender, first person; and then as many m
each of the other persons.
N. B. Let reflection be your GREAT WORK-your constant
work. Think closely upon every point as you proceed, an~ ask
explanations until you are sure you understand your subje~t.
Remember, you might as well undertake ro. learn mathematics
without reflection, as grammar.
REMARK.-The plan of writing, which is here introduce~l, w~ll
assist the pupil very much, if it is faithfully followed; for it w:1II
learn him to think, by leading him, in an easy and progressive
method, to reflect.
~The learner should write exercii;ies on every point as he
proceeds.
NUMBER.

' Number denotes the different forms of names to express
one or more; as book, books, man, meu.
NOTE. There are two properties of nouns that vary verbs,
person and number; as, I, John Doe, learn; thou James, learnest;
William learns; boys learn.
NamPs have two numbers, the singular, and the plura.l,
The singular number expresses but one object ; as pen,
ta bh~, chair, house.
The 71lural number expresses more objects than one; as
pens, tables, chairs, houses.
Now parse all the examples under the head of number, in the
large type, after the following
·
.MoDEL.-Book is a name; common, because it is a general
name; third person, spoken of; singular number, it denotes but
one book.

'

24

ETYMOLOGY.

Write three proper names, third person, and singular number;
nnd three common names, masculine gender, third person, and
plural number.
The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular; as house, houses, river, rivers, rock, rocks.
.
:f: ExcEPTION I. Nouns ending with x, s, sh, cli Sf!ft,
and o preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by add·
ing es to the singular ; as box, boxes ; glass, glasses ;
church, churches ; hero, heroes.
NoTE. Nouns ending in eo, io, and the words junto, canto,
tyro, grotto, portico, solo, halo, qulhto, and perhaps a few others,
have regular plurals.
+·EXCEPTION 2. Nouns ending in f or fe, change this
ending into ves in the plural; as loaf, loaves ; knife,
knives. ·
NoTE I. Grief, relief, reproof, and a few others, have regular
plurals.
NoTE 2. Nouns ending with ff have regular plurals, except
staff, staves.

:f: ExcEPTION 3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a ~on­
sonant, change y into ie, and add s in the plural ; as van.
ity, vanities; body, bodies.
NoTE. Nouns ending with y preceded by a vowei, form their
plurals regularly; as boys, keys, delays, valleys, chimneys, moneys, attorneys, &c.

:j: ExcEPTION 4. Some nouns form their plurals by
changing the word ; as man, men ;. woman, women ; child,
children; foot, feet; ox,_ oxen; goose, geese; brother, bro· .
thers or brethren; penny, pennies or pence; die, dies, for
coining; dice, for play; mouse, mice; . cow, cows or kine.

t

ExcEPTION 5. " Words from foreign languages sometimes
retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or
on have a in the plural; but those in is in the singular, change
it into·es in the plural. The following are the most common:"

25

CASE.

Animalculum animalcula
antitheses
Antithesis
apices
Apex
{ appendixes
Appendix
appendices
Arcanum
arcana
Automaton . automata
axes
Axis
~
banditti
Bandit
bandits
Tia.RiR

ha.i;es

Calx
calces
{cherubim
Cherub
cherubs
Crisis
cnses
Criterion
criteria
Datum
data
Desideratum desiderata
effluvia
Effluvium
ellipses
Ellipsis
Emphasis
emphases
{
encomia
Encomium
encomiums
Erratum
errata
foci
Focus

·Genus
genera
Genius (an aerial
} genii
spirit)
hypotheses
Hypothesis
ignes fatui
Ignus fatuus
Index (a pointer) indexes
Index (an algebra) indices
Lamina
laminre
Magus
magi
memoranda
Memorandum
Metamorphosis
metamorphoses
messieurs
Monsieur
phenomena
Phenorpenon
Radius
radii
Stamen
stamina
{seraphs
Seraph
seraphim
Stimulus
stimuli
Stratum
strata
Thesis
theses
Vertex
vertices
Vortex
vortices
Virtuoso
virtuosi
Mr. (master)
Messrs. (messieurs)

:f: Some names are used ~nly in the singular fo~m, as
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, a?d others, only m the
plural form ; as bellows, riches, scissors, lungs, snuffers,
tongs, wages, pains,
.
:f: Some names are the same m both numbers; as deer,
sheep, swine, series, species.
:f: News is always singular ; and means should always
be in, the plural for}n.
CASE.

Case means the position of the name in the sentence,
with respect to other words.
Names have three cases; the Nominative, Possessive and
~~~
.
.
The nominative case is the position of the name when 1.'
3

•

"

'

I

itr ~"t

·, ,

'I

26

ETYMOJ,OGY.

/,

RuLE IV. The relation of property require~ the name or
pronoun of the owner to be in the possessive. case ; as
Ma,.y's hat. Henrys bo?k. The man's cane. -Men's
clothes. His books. Their pens.

Let the pupil parse the name in each example after the following

.~'

Parse the first name in ea~h example after the following
MoDEL FOR PARSING A Nurn.-John's is a nar~1e; proper,
because it is a particular name; mas~uline gender? it .denotes a
male; third person, it is spoken .of; smg~lar number, it denotes
but one; and it is in the po!5ses8I ve ca!!e, it denotel3 t~c owner of
hat, and is governed by it according to rule 4th (~vh1~h r~peat.)
Let the pupil write the following na1!1es both 1~ tne smgular
anrl plural numbers, and in the posse~s1ve case, viz., man, boy,
girl, book, animal, horse, peace, conscience; the last two, only
in the singular.
N. B. Be careful to place your apostrophes in the right pl8:Ces;
and the teacher should inspect the black board, slate or book.

MODEL OF PARSING A NAME.-Tlwmas is u name, proper,
because it is a particular name; masculine gender, it denotes a
male; third person, it is spoken of; singular number, it denotes
but one; and in the nominative case, it is the agent or actor.

:f: The nominative case i's the NAMING CASE ; and therefore when a name is expressed in its simple form, without
being the object of some action or relation, it is always in
the nominative case.
NOTE I. The nom'inat·ive case is that which is cliiefly spoken
of; as, the pupil learns his lesson. Here pupi.l is the principal
word in the sentence, and it is the nominative.

The Objective case denotes the object of ~n a~tion or of
a relation ; as, James struck Cliarles, they live m Boston,
Perry conquered the Britons on E1'ie.

NOTE 2. To find the nominative, the beginner should be taught
to ask tlie question; who or wl1at performs the act asserted 1
thus: who learns 1 and the answer must alwavs be the nominative case ; thus, the pupil.
•

NoTE. The nominative and objective cases havo. the same
form, and are known only by th~ dif!'er.ent ?ffices t': :y perform
in the sentence; which are easily d1stmgmshed by a l.1ttle reflection. The possessive may always be known by the apostrophe.
. .
A general Ru~e to distinguisl: the cases. The no~mat1ve
r.ase does somethmg-the.possess1ve ~ase owns somethmg-the
objective case has somethmg done to 1t.
·

The Possessive case denotes ownersl1ip; as John's hat,
Eliza's book, the bog's stick, Henry's horse, William's
farm.
Purse the first name in each example, as before directed.

:f: The possessive case .is generally formed by adding an
npostrophe to the word, and the letter s all:er it ; thus, Peter's cane; but when the name ends in s or ce, the apos- .
trophic s is not added ; as, eagles' wings, Achilles' shield,
peace' sake, conscience' sake, except the name witness; as
witness's deposition.
Foundation of.Rule IV.

27

CASE,

is the subject of the proposition ; as Tltomas writes, girls
reads, birds fly, dog runs.

in

Declension. ·
The declensi~n of names is their variations by numbers
and cases, in the following ·manner :
SINGULAR.

Syntax.

PLURAL,

SINIJULAR.

PLURAJ,,

Son
Sons
Norn.
Man
Men
Poss.
Son's
Sons'
Po.~s.
Man's
Men's
Ofti·
Sou
Sons
Obj.
Man
l\Ien
In declining names, the pupil should be careful to d~scribe
the possessive case thus: in th: singular, p~ss. ~on's wit~ an
anostrophe and the letter s after 1t; plural sons , with an apo,.trophe a ft er tlie s.
·
Nom.

Mark the following plain principle. The relation of. the hat
to John, makes it the duty of John to show his title' to the hat;
therefore the 1·elation of property requires the name of the owner
to be in the possessive case to show that relation; hence, in
Syntax, we have

/

\.

''

Ii·

•I'

1!;

28

ETYMOLOGY.
CASE.

write on the black board, t11e possessive case of four proper
names, singular, and of four common names, singular and plural.
Tum to your list of names to find them, if you choose.

Jam~s

29

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

k' d

struck Charles. William tore Henry's book. The
servant whips John's horse. The boy broke the lady's
knife. A lady made the boys' caps. The horses draw the
plow. Richard drives the oxen.

.

mple after the followmg
.
b becaw<e it asserts acParse the verb m eac exa
1\'.IoDEL OF p ARSING.-:-Strikes i~:~e;~~1 'the obj;ct, James.
I t or hlack board, and
tion ; transitive, ~he act1011 term
Write several transiti_ve verbs on a s a e,
.in your book, as above d1rec~e~.
ou have written in your
Now select all the transitwe vie rbs y tl1at will make senae
·
eac l one,
.
Ina~rige htafter
book,
and
as you can ' after the followmg
with it,
as write
far toatie

Parse the names as directed in the models under the nominative and possessive cases. Those in the objective case are parsed
according to those models, but put in the objective case because
they are the objects of the action.

II. VERBS.
Having given a general description of names, which are the
most important class of words, we will now proceed to consider
words that assert action; which are next to names in importance.
Here we are introduced to a large class of words called verbs.

h

.Mo de ·l oj

Co mp o s i ti o n.

I

letters
write
play
wagon
draw
do~s
bark
"' .
.
sitions or sentences. The first
This model contams ~om pro~·ect write is the verb, and lethas three par~ - me,n is th\ s~c~s have three parts, and others
ters is the object. ~ome sen e
e in the model, and all ~he
only two. you
Analy_ze
eal\ave
sent~no~ed
you under the foregomg
'aentflnces
write, as
s
models.
men
boys
horses

A verb is a word that asserts action, or being, or a state
as I write, he reads, John sits, she sleeps, fire
burns, the horse eats, dogs run, children play, it is.

of being;

Parse all the verbs in the examples after the following
MoDEL OF PARSING.- lVrite is a verb, because it asserts action.·
Write verbs on a black board or slate, and repeat verbs without writing them, until you can distinguish them readily; then
take your writing book, and turn to the first name you have
written, and write a verb opposite to it, in the middle of the
isecon<lmg
space, which will make sense with the name, after the
follow

I

F o u n d a t i o n of t ii1 e First Part of
i
Ru le IX. in Syn t ax.
.
Th d bit the boy." The actwn
Consider this.sentence. h'~ ho e_~fe boy was the object of the
of the dog termmated on t t /Rule 9th in Syntax.
action. Hence, the first par o
m ;he objective case ; as
RuLE IX.-Transitive verbs gove~formed his task. 'Villirun
Charles loves his lesson. J ohntl p. l
ns They sunJ? the
h
P upi]~" learn
esso
. Thomas hoough'
book.
obeys
er. a letter.
She reieir
ad the
Hemot
wrote
tune. his

I

LM o de l of Co mp o s i ti o n .
men
write
[
boys
play
horses
draw
/
dogs
bark
Continue this exercise until you write fifteen or twenty examples,
be sure to know why the word you write, is a verb,
in
every and
instance.

a hat.
. . words m
. th e examples under transitive
Parse all the obJec~1ve
"*
verbs after the followmg

)

:~
·i,

transitive and intmnsitive.

Verbs are of two m s,
t'
vhich does or can, ter.
A transitive ver~ asserts J~~~o~r~kes James. The clog
minate on some object: <la~, th horse The horse draws
.
bit the boy. The man rives e
th e pow.
I
The pupil learns the lesson.
.

Promiscuous Exercises.

lff

i>

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30
.

31

ETYMOLOGY.

CASE.

Atlodelfor Parsing •

the two forms of transitive verbs, called the active nnd passive
voice.
NOTE. 2. ·"This classification of the verb has been adopted in
the best grammars of the Greek and Latin L~nguag~s? a,nd in
some respectable Englis_h gr'.lmrr;iars lat~ly published; 1t 1s advocated b~ Mr. Webster, m hIB dissertations on the En~h~h language ;-i~ adopted in. his .~nglish Grammar an~ p1ctionary;
and from its greater inmphc1ty, accuracy, and ut1hty, appears
likely to prevail."-[Bullions' Eng. Gram. p. 202.]

. Boy is a n~me ; common, because it is a general nnme; mascu-

line gend_er, 1t denotes a male; th~rd person! sp?ken of; singular
~u;iiber, 1t _denotes but o~e; and m the objective case, because
1t 1s the object of the action bit, and governed by bit accordinu
"'
to Rule IX. (which repeat.)
'
An intran~itive ver~ asserts being, or a state of being ;
as to be, to sit ; or action which cannot terminate on an
object; as, The ship sails.' The birds .fly, The sun rises.
Boys skate.
-Parse all_ the verbs in the preceding examples.
. l\fon~~ OF .PARSING.-To be is verb, beCJl.USe it asserts being j
mtrans1tive, 1t cannot take an object after it.
ANOTHER-Sails is a verb, because it asserts nction · intransitive, the action cannot terminate on an object. We c~nnot say
the ship sails any thing.
'Vrite six intransitive verbs, as before.
NoTE i. · In the classification of verbs, I have followed Webster, Bullions and others. This division avoids several serious
• objections, which lie against the classifications of Murray
Kirlqmm, Smith, and others.
'
I. It avoids the absurdity of making two kinds of verbs out of
one verb-the active and passive being nothing more than two
forms of the same verb.
2. It a\:oids t~e impropriety ?f confining the word transitive
to tl~e acti:ve vo1~e i t_he verb b~mg n..s perfectly transitive in the
passive voice as 1t is m the active.
3. It a voids the use of the evasive tenn neuter, in designating
the character of verbs; and
4. The distinction between active intransitive and neuter
v:rbs, which is utterlY: useles~, for they are equally without regimen, and construed 111 precisely the same way in Syntax.
. 5. It_ ~voids uniting_ in one class, in Etymology, transitive and
mtral_l~itive verbs, wluch 1~ust be ~isting:uished in Syntax, the
tran~itive ~e.rb always havmg a regunen m the active voice, but
the mtrans1t1ve, never.
Thi.s classification of verbs is founded on their use in the construction of sentences, and has the following advantages:1. It is clear, characteristic, and easily understood.
2. It employs the terms active and passive, only to distinguish

a

VOICE.

Voice, in grammar, means a particular modificati~n o_f
transitive verbs by which they show whether the actton ts
performed by the nominative, or by some other agent, upon
the nominative.
.
Transitive verbs have two forms, called the Active and
p~~~~

.

.

In the active voice, a transitive verb asserts action performed by the subject or nominative, upon some object; as,
John makes shoes.
Here John.is the subject o.nd agent, or actor, makes is the
verb, and shoes, the object or effect produced.

In the passive voice, a trans~tive verb a~se1:ts, action re·
ceived or suffered by the subject or nommative, as shoes
are made by John.
In this form shoes is the subject, are made is the verb, and
John is the object preceded by a preposition. In this form the
agent and object have changed places.
.
NoTE. The action passes over from the agent a_nd termmates
upon the object in eac~. voice: hence, 0e propr~ety of appropriating the term transitive to the verb m both v01ces.
Intransitive verbs have · no distinction of voice, being always in the active ; as I sit, I run ; except in a few in·
stances; as "He is come." "They are gone," for " He
has come." "They have gone." .
These two forms should be pars~d in the same way.
· Transitive verbs in the active voice, and intransitive
verbs, have the same form, and can be distinguished only

,,,
I

•

•

\•I

lf~

32

ETYMOLOGY.

MODES.

hy their meaning and const~uction. They can be distin·
guished with ease and certamty, by the following characteristics :

Promiscuous Exercises.
The boy studies. Judgment was rendered. The child
sleeps. The girls learn. The day came. The coat hangs.
The sun thines. The child is taught. The boys rest. The
stars twinkle. The hat is made. The lamb lies. The
man is cured. The crop was sold. Mountains stand. Sheep
feed. The horse draws. Birds fly. The nightingale sings.
The pupil learns. The book is sold. The lesson was recited.
Parse the verb in each example, and
Change each transitive verb from the voice in which you find
it, to the other.

. ls~. In the use of transitive verbs, tliree things are always
1mp1Ie~ ;-the '!gent or actor, the act, and an object on which
th~ action t~rrm.nates. In th.e use of intransitive verbs, only two
thmgs. are implied-the sub;ect, or thing chiefly spoken of. and
the being, state or action asserted of it.
'
2d. A tr!lnsitive verb can be changed from the active voice
to the p~Ive; as, Peter cau~ht the hird. . The bird ~11.S caught
by Peter. and from the passive to the active. But mtransitive
verbs i:annot be so changed ; thus I live cannot be changed into
I am lived.
.

Exercises.
James writes. Wil~iam reads. Hem:y sings. The song
was sung.. The fish is taken. The bird is snared. He
caught a Jay. John is struck by Charles. Pompey was
conquered by Cresar• . Miriam is loved by me. I am loved.
He learns the lesson.
Parse the verb in each -example thus :Writes is a verb because it asserts action; transitive, the action
can pass over to an object; active voice, the action is performed
by the subject or nominative.
. Change each transitive verb from the voice in which you find
it, to the other; and
.
. Write several verbs of each kind in your book, as before
directed.
REll~ARK I. ri:1ie learner will perceive, by reflecting on the
fo~egm?g exe~c1s~s, f.!iat when a transitive verb is in the active
vmce, Its nommative 1s active, that is, it is the actor · and when
!he. verb i~ in the passive voice, its nominative is p~ssive, that
Is, It receives or suffers the action, which is performed by some
other agent.
·
REMARK 2. The principal ~ses of the passive voice, are, 1st.
~o conceal the. °;g'ent; 2d. to give !he sutferer·the principal place
m the proposition ; and, 3d. to give beauty and variety to language.

'-

33

•.

'.:r

1i7:
\·I','

11,.1t1
:,

\.

U:
11!1'

Verbs are varied by modes, tenses, persons and numbers.

•I

MODES.
lJfode is the modification of the verb, by which its assertion is varied.

I"

Nol'E. Observe, it is not the action which is varied by the
modes, but the assertion. An act may be asserted in a general
toay, which differs but little from naming it, as in the infinitive
mode; or it may be simply ASSERTED, as in the indicative; or it
may be asserted as possible or necessary, as in the potential; or
it may be asserted as contingent or liypothetical, as in the subjunctive; or it may be asserted as allowed or enjoined, as in
the imperative.
Verbs have five modes; the Infinitive, the Indicative,
the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative.
The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb in which
its assertion is not limited by person or number ; as to act,
to learn, to sit, to love, to run, to stick, to live.
Parse. all the above examples, thus:
To act is a verb, because it asserts action ; transitive, the
action can pass over and terminate on an object; in the active
voice, the action is performed by the subject; and in the infinitive mode, it is unlimited by person or number.
Write, in your list of verbs, six verbs in the infinitive mode,
but place them where there are no names at the left, because
they must not be limited by nominatives.

I

J'
I

\

'~

i'
i
I.

II

i
I?

34

35

TENSES.

ETYMOLOGY.

. N?~E 1. The particl_e t? is generally prefixed to the verb in the
rnfimt1ve .~ode ; and it is a part ~f the verb, as clearly as any
other aux1hary. Verbs are sometimes used without it as I saw
him do it.
'
To is derived from a word which means acted; hence, when
prefixed to names or adjective~, it changes them to verbs, as love,
to love; cool, to cool, by showma that they are used to asse1·t
and not to name, in the latter fo~.
'
. NoTE 2. A verb in the infinitive mode asserts action or being
rn a general manner, and therefore it has no nominative and
hence it is not limited by person or number.
'
The Indicative Mode is the form of the verb in which it
simply asserts action and being, or asks questions· as

1

William walks, the boy reads, Henry rides, who rides
what is it 1
Parse, as before, remembering to give the mode correctly and
the reason of it.
'
Write six verbs in the indicative mode, such as will make
sense with some of the names, you have written, as before
directed.
The Potentiul llfode is the form of the verb in which it
asser~sd acti·on and being as possible or necessary; as, I
can ri e. 1t may rain. He must walk. She would talk.
They should learn; and in the same manner, it asks questions ; as, can I ride 1 must he go 1 could she walk 1
Parse the verb in each example, and
Write six verbs in the potential mode, as before.

The SubJunctive Mode is the form of the verb in which
it asserts action and being as contingent or hypothetical;
as if he desires it, unless it ripens, .although they are poor,
Suppose Henry goes, lest ye die, were it otherwise, if he
had been there.
Parse the verb in each example; giving the mode correctly
and the reason, and
Write six verbs, in this mode, in your list, after writing some
on the black board.
·
NoTE I. The verb, in the Subjunctive Mode, is generally preceded by 1mme word, expressing doubt or uncertainty. The

word prefixed is sometimes a conjunction ; as,' lest; and sometimes a verb; as, if, although, suppose, except; sometimes, however, the hypothesis is expressed by a certain form of the
verb, without any word prefixed ; as, had I been there-i. e. if
I had been there.
NoTE 2. The Subjunctive Mode is used when
wish to
subjoin an assertive sentence, to a conditional or hypothetfoal
sentence-hence the term subjunctive.
The ·Imperative Mode is the form of the verb used for
commanding, entreating, exhorting, and permitting; as,
depart thou, mind ye, let us stay, go in peace, come to
me, learn your lesson.
Parse the verb in each example as before, and
Write six verbs in the imperative mode.
N. B. You must wr1te this mode, where you have not written
any names, and put the nominative thou, ye, or you, after the
verb in the third space.

we

', .
~.;

Signs of tlie Modes.
The Infinitive Mode usually has the sign to prefixed ; as,
to sing, to live, to run.
The Indicative Mode has no sign, but asserts action and
being in the simplest manner ; and asks questions in the
same manner ; as, he loves, does he love 1 It sometimes
has the auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did in the
past ; as, he does love, did he Jove 1
The Potential Mode has the signs, may, can, must, might,
could, would, should; as, I may go, he might come.
The Subjunctive Mode usually has some word prefixed
?xpressing doubt or condition ; as if he goes, or the verb
itself expresses hypothesis ; as, were I there, it would re·
ceive attention.
The Imperative Mode is known by its expressing command, &c., as, go ye, depart thou.

!

Promiscuous Exercises.
They might learn. He wrote. If John learns. Learn thou.
To learn. The boys play. The girls must study. To run.
If James studies. Come thou. Love ye.
Parse the verb in each exercise, us directed under the modes.

~

36

ETYMOLOGY.

TENSES.

TENSES.

Tense is the modification of the verb which denotes the
time of the action or being. Verbs have six tenses.
NOTE I. The general divisions of time are three-the present,
pa.st, and future. To each of these divisions, the English verb
gives two distinctions, whi~h arranges the six tenses in three
'
couples, thus:
Present;
Past ;
Future ;

Prior-present, or perfect.
Prior-past, or pluperfect.
Prior-future.

This arrangement and these designations of the tenses, show
that the same relation subsists between the members of each
· couple, and exhibit the beautiful, symmetry of our system of
tenses.
NoTE 2. Prior-present, prior-past and prior-future, are adopted from other grammars, because they show the relations of
these tenses to the others, hence they are much more appropriate,
than the names, perfect, &c.-[See Webster's and Pierce' Grams.]
The Present Tense is the form of th~ verb that· denotes
present time; as, I write, he rides, they may go, if you
come, John must learn.
Parse the verb in each example, thus:
flTrite is a verb, because it asserts action; transitive, the action can pass over to an object; in the active voice, the action is
performed by the subject or nom. indicative mode, it simply
asserts action; present tense, it denotes present time.
.
\Vrite 1>ix verbs in the Pre;ient Tense-two in the Indicative,
two in the Potential, and two in the Subjunctive.

:j: The Present Tense is often
Past, Present and Future . Time;
east and sets in the west. Trees
He makes a trip every year. The
week.

indefinite, applicable to
as the sun rises in the
put forth every spring.
paper is issued once a

NOTE I. The Present Tense is often used to express future
nets; the mind being carried forward, by the expression, t~ll,
.. when, or as soon as; to the time of the event, so as to conceive
it ail preseu..t; as, w,e cannot decide till the mail arrives, '
'

.

• ..... ~ '

. I

\

...

I

•

~

~

.•

37

"As soon as it is light, we shall depart."
.
N
2 The sayings and doctrines of emment personages,
01;E· .d ad are ele antly expressed. in the present tense;
longlslmcbc
. e l i' en.d, y,et gspeaketh · " " Seneca reasons and mo·
as
" · e cmg
ra.lises well."
. .
Q
It uives great life and effect to descnpt10n, to repre·
N0
sent :~~...,~r future events as present i. to introduce the~ to th~
view pof the reader or hearer, as havmg a present existence.
hence the frequent use of the present tense mstead of the past
.
aml future, by the historiRn, the poet, and the. orator.
NoTE 4. There are other idiomatic expressions of future time,
in the present tense ; as,
. ,,
. h
I "I am going to write." "I am about to wri~e: ~hie
so~e call the inceptive future, because they note an mtention to
commence an action without delay.
.
2. "I have to pay a .sum of money to-morrow;" that is, I am
under a present necessity to do a future act.
.
3. "John is to command a ~egiment." "Eneas went m search
of the seat of an empire, which was, one day, to command the
world." The last sentei:ice is pa~tfi., asd to the narrator, butfutitre,
as to the event, at the time speci e ·
The Prior-Present or Perfect Tense is the fo~m of the
verb that denotes past time, and conveys an allusion to the
present; as, he has come; they have gone; it has grown;
I have sinned; they have prospered.
Parse the verb in each example, as above; giving the tense
correctly and the reason ; and
'
write as before directed, on the black board, and in your
book.
The Past Tense is the form of the verb which. denotes
pa.st time ; as, Henry rode ; William loved ; the girl learn·
ed ; "Jesus wept."
Parse as last directed, and
Write six verbs in your book, in different modes.
NoTE I. ·when the time of a past act is specified as pas~, the
past tense should b~ used i. as.John wrote yester? ay. "Philoso·
phers made' great discoveries m the last century. 1
NOTE 2. The prior-present tense is commonly used as follows:
4

38

ETYMOLOGY.

TENSES.

I. It is often used when the time of a past act is not specified·
as, "I have read Virgil several times." He has often visited me:
2. It is used when the time of a past act is specified as including ~he present time; as, "Philosophers have made great discoveries the present century." He has been much afflicted this
year.
.
. 3. It is ~sed when the time of~ past act is past, bnt the act
itself contmued to the present time; as, "I have lived in this
house two yoars." I have been engaged in this work six
months.

Have and has are signs of the prior-present tense ; as,
we have loved, they have written, he has gone.
The indication of past time without any auxiliary verb,
is the sign of the past tense; as, he l~ved, she wr~te, t~ey
walked, except the occasional use of did; as, we did wrrte,
they did learn.
Had and hadst are the signs of the prior-past tense i
as, Paul had talked, they had heard, we had eaten.
Sliall and will are the signs uf the future tense ; as, I
shall go, he will come, they will agree.
Shall ha1'e and will" have are the signs of the prior-future tense; as, I shall have gone, he will have come, they
will have agreed.
The Infinitive Mode has two tenses-the Indicative, sixthe Potential, two-the Subjunctive, six, and the Imperative, one.

The Prior-Past Tense is the form of the verb that denotes past time, but as prior to some other past act specified; as, he had heard the news when I arrived, she had
written before the message came, they had spoken, John
, had read, the girls had recited.
Parse, as above directed, and
Write six verbs in this tense, in different modes.
The Future Tense is the form of the verb which denotes
future time; as, John will come, you shall go, they will
learn, the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week.
Parse the verb in each example; giving the tense correctly.
and the reason ; and write, as before.

'•'

AUXILIARY VERBS.

There are a few moo"osvllabic verbs, chiefly used to form
the modes aod tenses of "other verbs, which are, therefore,
called auxiliaries, or helping verbs.
NoTE. Some of these are always auxiliaries, to. wit, may,
can and shall with their variations, and must, which ha~ no
variation ; and others are sometimes auxiliaries, and someb~es
principal verbs, to wit, will, ha~e, do ~nd be. These are principal verbs when they are not 1mmed1ately followed . b~ other
verbs; as, he willed it to her; I have the pen; he did 1t; they
are here.

The Prior-Future, is the form of the verb that denotes
future time, but as prior to some other future act specified; as, he will har>e written when the mail arrives, the
two houses of Congress will have finished their business,
when the day of adjournment comes. They will have come,
we shall have gone.
Parse the verb in each example, as before ; and
Write several verbs in this tense in your book; and write often on the black board.
_
·

Remarks on the .11.uxdiaries.

Signs of the Tenses.
The most simple form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, live, walk, run, "sing; except the occasional
use of do,. as, I do learn, we do study, she d0€s sing.

39

.

.'

'.

l'tfay asserts liberty, permission or possibility to act or exist,
as, he may go ; she may have written.
Can implies power to act; as, he can write much better than
he could last year.
Must asserts necessity; as, we must speak the truth.
Shall, in the first person, simply foretells, but in the sec?nd
and third persons, it expresses promise, command or determma-

•

40

ETYMOLOGY.

tion in the speaker; as, I shall remain, but yon shall depart,
and he shall accompany you, and foretells with emphasis.
l-Vill, in the first person, asserts a determination or promise,
but in the secon<l an<l third persons, it only foretells; as, I will
maintain my rights, which you will acknowledge to be proper,
and they will accede to the terms.
Do, is used as an auxiliary, to give emphasis to assertion; as,
he does know it; at least he did know it, for he relate<l it.
NoTE. This verb is sometimes usell to supply the place of a
principal verb; as, "It was hardly possible that he should not
distinguish you as he has done."-Cowper. Here tlone f'tands
in the place of di.stinguished you: supplying the place of both
the t•erb and its ohjcct.
"He loves not plays
As thou dost, Anthony."
Here dost is u. substitute for love.~l pl<~ys.
Do, is almost universally used in interrogative and negative
sentences.
Have, is much used as an auxiliary; as, he ha., ff One; they
l~a<l come.
Be, is in Yery common and extensive use, both as u principal
verb and an auxiliary.

CONJUGATION.
The Conjugation of a verb is a regular combination and
arrangement of its several modes, tenses, persons, and
numbers.
NoTE. A small italic n is inserted with the verb, through
tlie following conjugations, in the place where not should stand
in negative sentences, after the plan of Mr. "\Vebster's Grammars. The word never, generally occupies the same place, but
not in every case. This plan is adopted with the belief, that it
will be very useful in acquiring the idiom of the English language, especially to foreigners.
Learners should conjugate the verb, both with and with.
out the negation.

41

CONJUGATION.
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES.

.JI;[ a

y.

Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

PLURA.L.

I may n
'Ve may n
5Thou mayestn*
~Ye may n*
2d. Person, ( You may n*
(Youmayn
mas. He may n
They may n
3<l. Person, fem. She may n
They may n
It may n
They may n
Past Tense.
1st. Person,

~

~

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I might n
5'l'hou mightest n
l You might n
He might n

\Ve might n
5 Ye might n
l You might n
They might n

Can.
Present

'l'en.~A.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I can n
5Thou canst n
(You can n
He can n

We can n

5Y c ca.n n
I You can n
They ca.n n

Past Tense.
SINGULAR-

PLURAL.

! could, n
5Thou couldst n
l You could n
He could n

We could n
5Ye could n
l You could n
They could n

Shall.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I shall n
5 Thou shalt n
l You shall n
He shall n

We shall n
5Ye shall n
l You shall n
They shall n

• The pronouns tliou and ye nre used in sacred style, and som~times
in other grave discourses. In other cases you should be used m the
second person sing1tlar, as well a~ plural.

4*

42

ETYMOLOGY.

Past Tense.

ROOT OF '.fllE VERB.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I should n
5Thou shouldst n
l You should n
He should n

\Ve should n
5Ye should n
~ You should n
They should n

Will."'
Present Te1ue.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I will n
5 Thou wilt n
~You will n
He will n

We will n
5Ye will n
~You will n
They will n

Past Ten1e.

The Root of a verb is that form which 1s found
present tense of the Infinitive.

I would n

\Ve would n

5 Ye would n

l You would n

~You

would n
He would n

They would n

Must.

CONJUGATION,

Of the auxiliary and principal Verb

To Have.
RooT. To Have.
Present, Have.
Past, Had.

Present Tense.
To have.
·prior-Present, or Perfect Tense.
To have had.
INDICATIVE MODE.

.

Present Tense.

Do.

t

SINGULAR.

I did n
5 Thou didst n
tYoudidn
He did n

PLURAL.

We don
5Ye don
1 You don
They don

t Doth is used in sacred, or lofty style, and

I haven
'Ve haven
5'T'hou hast n
5Ye haven
~You haven
~You haven
He has or hath n*
They haven
Prior-Present, or Perfect Tense.
SINGULAR,

~Youdidn

They did n

doe• in common language.

PLURAL.

I haven hacl
5 Thou hast n had
~You haven had
He has, or hath n had

PLURAL,

We did n
5Ye did n

"' Will is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb, as, present,

I will, past, I willed, &e.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

Perf. Part, Hacl.

INFINITIVE MODE.

JJfust has no change of termination, and is used in present,

I don
5Thou dost n
You don
He does n, or doth nt
Past Tense.

the

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERB.

PLURAL.

5 Thou wouldst n

111

The principal parts of the verb are three-the forms
which are found in the first person singular, of the present
and past tcn!'ies of the indicative, and the perfect participle:

PRIN. PARTS.

SINGULAR.

past and future time.

43

CONJUGATION.

We haven hacl

5Ye haven hacl

t You have

n had
They haven Imel

Past Tense.
SINGULAR,

I had n
5Thou hadst n
t You had n
He had n

PLURAL.

We had n
jYehadn
t You had n
They had n

"' "Hath is used in solemn style; has, in familiar."

44

Prior-Pres e 11 t, or Perfect

NoTEd. The forms ~f. this verb, in the present and past tenses
are use , both as auxiliary, and principal verb.
, '

P r i o r-P a s t ' o r I' l up e r f e c t Te n s e .
SINGULAR.

PI, URAL.

I had n had
5 Thou hadst n had
(You had n had
He had n had

We had n had
5 Ye had n had
(You had n had
They had n had
Future Tense.

SINGULAR.

I shall or will n have
have
(You shall or will n have
He shall or will n have

5 Thou sh<tlt or wilt n

PLURAL.

We shall or will n have

5 Ye shall or will n have

~ You shall or will n have

They shall or will n have
Prior-Future Tense.

SINGULAR.

45

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

PLURAL

I shall n have h~d
We shall n have ·had
5 Thou shalt or '.Vilt n have had 5 Ye shall or will n have had
i You shall or ':"Ill n have had ( You shall or will n have had
He shall or wrll n have had
They shall or will n h<tve had
NoTE. Co_i'!p°.und Tenses are those in which the verb h
as one
or more auxihanes.
roTENTIAL lllODE.

Tense.

SINGULAR.

I may, can, must, might, could, would, or should n have had
( Thou mayest, canst, must, mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst
·'
n have had
You may, can, must, might, could, would, or should n have had
He 1m1y, can, must, might, could, wouhl, or should n have hud

l

PLURAJ,,

\Ve may, can, must, might, could, would, or should n have had

5 Ye may, can, must, might, could, would, or shoulrl n have had

t You may, can, must, might, could, would, or slinnlcl n lrnve had

They may, can, must, might, could, would, or slHmkl n ha\'e had

NoTJ,. The arrangement of the verb in the potential mode,
seems to lrnve been very generally overlooked or neglected by
grammarians. That the common paracligm of this mode is very
defective, I think must be evident to every one who has carefully reflected on the subject.
No·n; 2. A synopsis of the oltl paradigm of the Potential, is
here given, that te:tchers may be prepared to follow it, if they
so elect:
Pres. J may, can, or must have.
Pert: I mrry, can, or must have harl.
Past. I might, could, would, or should have.
Prior-Past. I might, could, would, or should have had.

Indefinite Tense.
SINGUJ,AR.*

~may, can, must, might, could, would or should n have

S hounn1iv~st, canst, must, mightest, couldst, wouldst or shouldst
/You may, can, must, n:iight, could, would or should n have
He may, can, must, might, could, would or should n have
PLURAL.

can, must, ~ight, could, would, or should n have
~ ye mRy, can, must, m11?ht, could, would, or should n have
Tfu may, can, must, might, could, would, or should n have
iey may, can, mu.st, might, could, would, or should n ha;e

5 iVe may,

"' 11Iay and can arc applicable to fut11re time, aa well aR present: as,

You may go to-morrow. He can go after he gets his lesson. I must be
at home to-morrow. The present of the Subjunctive in Latin is
translated by "can," "may," "should," and "would," when indicatively used; and it, generally refers to future time. "I may go,"
and "I might go," are radically future. "I should go," and" I shall
go," are equally future. [See Edin. Encycl. Art. Grammar.]
l\Iust, might, could, wozthl and slwnld, in connection with a principal
verb, are applicable to the present and future, as well as the past; as" I
would not change, if I could, our subjection to physical laws, our exposure to hunger and cold, and the necessity of constant conflicts with the
material world. I would not, if I could, so temper the elements, that
they should infuse into us only grateful sensations, that they should
make vegetation so exuberant as to anticipate every want, and the
minerals so ductile as to offer no resistance to our strength and skill.
·
[Channing's Works, voL-v. p. 151.]

,.
46

,-

ETYJIW.LOGY.

The Subjunctive Mode is usually the same as the Indicative and Potential, with some preceding word expressing
condition, supposition, or contingency.
These words are if, tliough or although, unless, tvhether, lest, admit, gi·ant, allow, suppose, except, most of
which are verbs; and perhaps some others.*
The learner should conjugate the verb in the subjunctive,
by prefixing some word expressing doubt, thrnughout the
indicative and potential modes; thus

Future Tense.

t

Present Tense.
Ifl haven
Ifwe haven
5If Thou hast n
5If Ye haven
l If You haven
t If You haven
If He has or hath n
If They have n, &c

j

J

1

.If""'·

To have. Have, had had; I had. They had. We had.
Thou hadst hrid. She has had. We had.· You have had.
It has had. They have. I have. Susan has.
We will have. Thou shalt have. I shall have. They
shall have. It will have. Thou wilt have had. 'Ve shall

l

• " ((Ir<." 1•111·1;1\pli111111f'µ(f,}I"' i111p1•rn1iv~ nf>r!tirn, tho S11xo11 orthogrnphy O!
nu>11µl1, !htl Snxon fh1'11!t, Slf!'llllms permit, nllow. Altlt011gl1 1s n compound ol all nnd though, give or nllow nil. The old

Having
Had
Having Had

Exercises on the Verb llave.

5Had yen

Had you n
Had they n
NoTE. These forms have but one meaning; and are placed in
the present tense, because they are used with a prcseut signification ; and grammarians so explain them.
EXAMPLE. " But had we feelings and principles worthy of
men and Christians, should we wait for the evil to stand at our
door, before walking up to the use and means for averting it 1"
(Channing on War. J
Had hen

PLURAL.

Have yen, or have you n
Don you have

PARTICIPLES.

Had wen

n

HJPERATJVE MODE.
SINGULAR.

Present,
Perfect,
Compound Perfect,

P r e s e n t T e n s e.
Hypothetical Forms.
Ifl had n
Ifwe had n
5If Thou hadst n
5If Ye had n
l If You had n
l If You had n
If He had n
If They had n
·Had In

Elliptica~ Form.
Iflhaven
. IfWehaven
5If Thou haven
5If Ye haven
l If You haven
t If You have n
If He haven
If They haven
NoTE. This is the elliptical future: and it is genemlly' described by grammarians, as having a futme signification, yet
most of them place it in tho present. Dr. \Vehster puts it in the
.future. See his Phil. Gram., Conjugation of Love. See also
his Imp. Gram. Remarks, page 137.

Haven, or have thou n
Have you n, or don you have

:f: Subjunctive Forms.

S Hadst thou
l Had you n

47

CONJUGATION,

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

\~
l

1

.~

l

word tho.f, still used in some parts of England, is the imperative of the
Saxon tho.flan, to allow. Unless is the imperative of the Saxononlesan,
to loose, or dissolve. Except is the irnpP-rative of that verb. Lest is
from lesan, to loose or dissolve."-[Webster's Imp. Gram.]
"It has been, and is still, customary for authors to omit the personal
terminations of the second and tlmd persons of the Terb in the present
tense, to form the subjunctive mode ; if thou go, if he write."
"The correct c'onstruction of the subjunctive mode is precisely the
f'OTile ns thnt of tho indicative; as it is llSCd in popular practice, whid1
lms prest:'rved the true idiom of the lnnirunge; if thou hadst, if he has or
J1all1; to denote present 1tncertainty. But a.future contin{!ency mav he
expressed by the omission of the personal terminations; if he go, that is,
if h~ shall go."-:- [lbm.]

CONJUGATION.

48

ETYlllOLOG\',

49

"The participle m:i.y be said to h?ld the sam.c in~e.rmediate
place between a verb and an adjective, as the mfimt1ve holds
between a verb and a substantive."-[Brande's Encycl. Art.
Grammar.)
The Present Participle denotes continued action, and
may be known by its ending in ing; as turn, turning.
:j:. The time of the Present Participle is i11d~finite, Iike
that of the present tense qf the indicative, ofien being past,
1iresenf. andfuture, in meaning.
NoTE. The present participle i,; formed by 1Jropping e f~·om
verbs ending with that letter, and adding ing; as pla~c,.pla~ing_.
"Bute is retained in dyeing, from dye, to color, to d1s~mgmf1h it
from dying, the participle to die; in which word'!! is us~d to
prevent the duplication of i. In singeing from singe, e rn. retained to soften g, and to distinguish the word from si11g111g.
So also is twingeing."
:j:. ·when this participle is used to describe n~ui:is, in suc!1
a way as to deprive it ?f its verbal cl_ia~·n:ter, 1t. 1s ~n attn·
Lute or a<ljective, and is callee! a participui_l <l(ljec!ive; ~s,
a lovin(]' friend l<Lsf.inu
friendship. In tlus use, it admits
0
l
'll
'
. •
0
of comparison;
as more lasting, most promising, ess wi •
ing, least willing.
NoTE. This participle becomes an adver~ by taking t~e ter·
ruination ly; as lovingly, laughingly, winch als? admits the
d~recs of comparison.; as more lovingly, most lov1.11gly.

haYe had. They will have had. \Ve must have. They
may have had. Thou wilt have; They wili have had . We
shall have.
'Ve have. Thou hast. He has. To have had. I can
have. Thou mayest have. Thou canst have had. Have
ye. Do thou have. She may have. He must have. \Ve
might have. He could have. \Ve may have had. Thou
mayrst. have had. They may have had.
Thou wouldst have. You could have. He may have.
Thou hadst. We had had. I have had. They might
have had. You should have had. \Ve would have.
If I have. If thou hadst. If they had. If we have had.
If thou have. If he have. If she shall have. If they will
have had. lf I may have. If thou canst have had . If
he shonld have had. If they could ha1•e had.
Parse the verb in each example as before directed.

Participles.*
Participl es are cert::iin forms of the verb, used to describe
nouns. There arc three, the Present, the Perfect, and the
Compound Perfect.
N~:>T~ 1. Participles resemble adjectives in their office of
qualify mg. nouns; and verbs, by expressing action and time;
hence their name.
NoTB 2. The principal diJference bet1veen participles and
other forms of the verb, is, that it asserts action in the other
forms, which is its essence there; but, in the participles it
merely specifics action, as descriptive ofnouns.t
'
NoTE 3. The minor points of difference between the participl~s and other forms of the verb, are in the participles' being
without modes, persons and numbers.

:j:. This part~cipa_I is a_lso us<"\_lo name actions, in s:1ch a
way as to depnve 1t of its verba,character, and admit the
<lefinitive the before it, and, in some cases, the plural num·
ber; as,·" The burning of London in 1666." "The over·
flowinus of the Nile." "He seeth all his goings." "Stars
of the0 dawning!" Dana. ln such positions it is called a
participial noun.
NoTE I. In a few instances this participle becomes a name
by taking the termiPation ncss; as willingness from willing.
NoTE 2. De \Var observes, "the participle in ing is also passive in many instances; as, "the house is building,''. "I !~ear:!
of a plan forming for his rescue." "The money is owmg,
5

* Somfl grammarians give participles the rnnk of a eepernte part of
si:icech ; ~ut th~y pla?e them in the conjugation of verbs, ns a part of the
d11Tcrc1;t 1nfle~t1011s ol th!'. verbs; and the perfect participle is placed, by
them,, m the list .of.the pr!ncipal parts of irreg:ulnr verbs; thus they make
part1c1ples two d1stmct tlnngs at the same time.
t See the able nrticle of Dr. Cleig on Genernl Grammar.
[Encycl. Brit.]

l

·.

50

"The money was owing."

. .
vcrns the verb which
·
,
J h
RUI E I · The non11nativc case go
,· · .
·
·
. · ancl number; ns, o 11
"Sserts its action or bcmg, Ill person , .
·l b" ·d sina
'"
boys run thou run nest, we run, girls stm y' 11 s
'="
runs,
'
tl
· foils
the wind blows, the waters roar, ie ra1 11 , .

"The money will be owing."(Sce Edin. Encycl.]

The Perfect Participle denotes finished action ; us loved,
written; and may be known by its making sense afler

Parse the name in each example under Ru!~ 1; tlrns, .
b
use it is a particular name' masJohn is a nm~e; proper, eca.1 . thi;d person spoken of; sinculinc gendcr,_1t/en~te~ ~t~1~e~' am1 in the n~minative case, it
gular num_ber, it eno es ft l , ' ·b runs and governs it accordis the 8llOJCCt nnd agent o t ic \ e1
'
incr to Ru.le 1. (Repeat the Rule.)

hat'ing.
I found the letter sealed. In this sentence the word sealed
does not assert the action of any agent, but it specifies a finished
act., as descriptive of letter, and therefore it is a perfect participle.

.

:j:. This participle is oflen used to qualify nouns, in such
a way as to deprive it of its rnrbal character; as "a concealed plot;" a "painted house." In this use of it, it may
be called a participial adjective, and admits of comparison ;
as," a more admired artist," "a most respected magistrate."
The Compound Perfect Participle is formed by prefixing
the participle luiving to the perfect participle ; as, having
looed, having written, and it expresses an action finished
before some other action specified ; as, having written his
letter, he sealed it.

Foundation of Ritle 1. in Syntax.
Now, if you have learned the preceding conjugation well, you
are prepared to understand the first and second Rules of Syntax,
which pertain to names and verbs.
NOTE. The words I, thou, &c. which we place before the verb,
in the conjugat.inn, nrP. r.allml Pronouns, or Substitutes, because
they are used instead of names, and have numbers and persons,
like names, as we shall hereafter explain.
Consider the following sentence,-John runs. The action,
runs, depends on the agent, John; for it could not exist without
him; and it is plain that John governs his own action; been.use
he can nm fast, or slow, or he can cease to run, as he pleases.
Now notice the following sentences. John runs,--boys
run--thou runnest. You perceive the different endings of
the verb, in these sentences. The agents differ in person crnd
number, and therefore the verb must have diflerent inflections to
express their actions appropriately ; hence,

As the Agent governs his own action, so the N:UIE of
the agent, or nominative, governs the i•erb asserting it1
action. Hence, in Syntux,

51

CONJUGATION·

ETYMOLOGY.

.i
~

..

"' Foundation of Rule II. in Syntax . .

!

·1

\

been shown that the nominati\'e case neccssartl·yb
It 1rns
.
·
t' n . therefore the vc1
governs the verb which asserts it~ ac. 10 ' • (
• arrent.
is bound to submit to, or agree with, its nomma ivc 01 , o
'
and l!cncc, in Syntax,
.
.
. .
agree with its subJect_-nommative,
RULE II • The verb must
•
I write thou wntest, Henry
in person and .number' as,
'
the iris recite, the
writes, boys wnte, we learn, you study, . g · the billows
b .II·d S SI"nat" the swallow chatters,
.
"}the sea ioa1s,.
roll, the snow drifls, the ships sa1 .

t

Parse the verb in each example after the follo':mg .
t
. .
b b
use it asserts act10n; its roo ' o
:MonEr.. lVnte IS aver ' ecta r~1.te. p.ast wrote; perfect part.
.
. . a.1 parts.
' ' ' action per fiorme d bY
write;
prm~lP:
'
· presen
.
· ' wit a~serts
written; it is m th_e a~t1v: yo1~e, inrlir.ative mode, it simply asthc subject or nomi11<Llive • 11.1 tie
. '' .
t time · and in the
.
t ten~e it tlenote" pl cscn
'
.
serts act10n; pres?n
" ' b to agree with its subjcct-nom1first person, and smgular mun er, h" l
t )
d"
t Rule II (w 1c 1 repea ·
.R 1 2 and parse all the names
native, I, accor mg . o
Review _the exerc~sesfiul~de~fte~ t~e foregoing models: then
and verbs m the_m, care u ~ a lar of the verb have, throughout
Write the tlurd person sm,,u . t' . and then the second
.
t'
with ~ome nomma ive,
'
.l
the conJuga 10n,
"i
tT•ott and then the same, wit l
·
l
.
with
tie
pronoun
•
'
k
person, smgu al,
d
.t
"ti tit 1ookinl1' on the boo , an d
' Oll • an Wrl e WI 10
'tt
t l1e pronoun Y '
see whether you have wr1 en
afterwards compare them, to
correctly.
0

52

Prior-Pa st , or Pluperfect Tense.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

I had n been
5Thou hadst n been
~You had n been
He had n been

To Be.
NoTE. "f!e is a verb ~enoting existence, and therefore called
the substa~tive verb. ~tis very irregular, being derived from dif..
ferent radicals, and havmg undergone many dialectical changes."
[Webster's Imp. Grammar.)
RooT. To be. ·
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present, Am,

Past, Was,

53

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

Perf. Part. Been.

\Ve had n been
been
You had n been
They had n been

5Ye had n
~

Future Tense.

j

l ..

We shall or will n be

I shall or will n be

5Ye shall or will n be

S Thou shalt or wilt n be
t Yuu i!!hall or will n be

~

He shall or will n be

You shall or will n be
They shall or will ii bo

INFINITIVE lllODE.

Prior-Future Tense.

Present Tense.

I shall n have been
We shall n have been
5'rhou shalt or wilt n have been 5Ye shall or will n have been
( You shall or will n have been t You shall or will n have been
He shall or will n have been They shall or will n have been

To be.

Pr io·r-p1·e sent, or Perfect Tense.
To have been.
INDICATIVE lllODE.

Present Tense.
I am n
We are n
5 Thou art n
5 Ye are n
l You are n
l You are n
He isn
They are n
P r i o r - p r e s e n t, o r Perfect Tense.
I haven been
We have n been
5 Thou hast n been
5 Ye haven been
l You haven been
i You have n been
He has or hath n been
They haven been
Past Tense.
I was n
We were n
5Thou wast n
5Ye were n
( You was or were n*
(You were n
He was n
They were n
" '.'As you. was origit:ially in the plural number, grammarians insist
ttnt it ?!lust sllll .be.restncted to that number. But national usage rejects
t «'. arb1~rary _prmc1ple. The true frinciple, on which all languaae is
bmlt, !eJects it. 'W hat fund_am~mta rule have we to dispose of \.:'ords
but thIS, that when a word s1gmfies one or unity, it belongs to the sin·
gular . number 1 . If n.~o~d 1 one~ e~clusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the s1g? ~f md1V1du'.1l11y, II ~ust take its place in the singular
nni:nber. That _tins 1s :!: fact wit~ you, 1s proved by national usage. To
assign the subsutut~ to Its ".erb_. is t!l invert the order of things. '!'lie
verb ,:nust follow 1!:9 . nomma11ve-1f that denotes unity, st• does the
verb. -See Authonlies on next page.

AUTHORITIES.

'When you was at Athens, you attended the schools of the philosophers.'-C1cero. 'fuse. Quest. Trans.. b. 2.
'On that happy day when you was given to the world.'-Dodd's Mnssillon, Serm. 1.
'Unless you was ill.'-Boswell's Life of J. lE., 68.
'You was on the spot where your enemy was found killed.'-Guthrie's
Quinctilian, b. 2.
' Yoit was in hopes to have succeeded to the inhcritnnce.'-lbm. b. 5.
'When you was here comforting me.'-Pope's Let.
'I nm as well as when you was here.'-Guy's Let. to Swift.
'Why was you glad 1' ......Iloswoll's Life of Johnson.
These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb after you
-they wrote the language an established by national usage-the foundation of all language. So is the practice in the United States-not
mjlrely popular usage, though this, when general, is respectable autho·
rity; but the practice of men of letters.
' Where was you' standing during the t~ansaction 1'
'How far was you from the defendant 1'
'How far was you from the parties 7'-Judge Parker. Trial of Self.
ridge, p. 58.
'Was yoti tl.cquainted with the defendant at Collegef-Mr. Dexter
Ihm. p. 60.
' Hi~a.s you there when the pistol wns fired 1'-Mr. Gore. Ihm. p. 60.
' lVas YO'U in the office 1'-A tt. Gen. Ihm. 68.
This use of was is from the Gothic dialect ; but it is primitive and
correct."-Webster's Imp. Grammar, p. 25.

5*

54

ETYMOLOGY.

~I
t

POTENTIAL MODE.*

Indefinite 'l'ense.

PLURAL.

\.Ve may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.

5 Ye may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.
l You may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.
They may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.

Prior-present, or Perfect Tense.
SINGULAR.

~

PLURAL.

We may, can, must, might, could would or should n have been.
5 Ye may, can, must, might, could, would or should n have been.
l You may, can, must. might, could, would or ehould n have been.
They may, can, must, might, could, would or should nhave been.
NoTE. lVere is sometimes used in the third person singular,
in the Potential mode, for wo1tld be; as "That were low indeed."
:Milt. "It were easy." Miller's Letters, p. 281, for, it would be
easy. "For that were to imagine people to be reasonable."would be. Bacon on Kingdoms.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Conjugate this verb in the common form of_ the subjunctive as directed on page 46; thus.
Ifl am n
lf\Ve are n
5If Thou art n
5If Ye are n
?If You are n
l If You are n
If He is n
If They are n &c.
• Synopsis of the old paradigm of this mode. Prest. I may, can or
must be. Prior-present. I may, cari or must have been. Past. I might,
could, would or should be. Prior-past. I might, could, would or
ehould have been.

Subjunctive Forms.

Hypothetical Forms.
If We were n
Ifl were n
5If Ye were n
5 If Thou wert n
(If You were n
1 If You was or were n
If They were n
If He were n
Were \Ven
Were In
5Were Yen
5\Vert Thou n
l Were Youn
t 'Vere Youn
\Vere They n
\Vere Hen

I may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.
Thou mayest, canst, must, mightest, couldst, wouldst or shouldst
n be.
You may, can, must, might, could, would or should n be.
Be may, can, must, might, could would or should n be.

I may, can, must, might, could, would or should n have been.
Thou mayest, canst, must, mightest, couldst, wouldst or
shouldst ii have been.
You .may, can, must, might, could, would or should nhave been.

55

Present Tense.

SINGULAR.

~

CONJUGATION.

'•

NoTE I. These forms have one meaning, and are J?llt i_n the
present tense because they denote present time ; which JS the
only proper rule by which to determine the tense of a verb; and,
moreover, most grammarians define this form o~ t?e verb as
having a present signification, though many put 1t m the past
tense, which shows that they are gov.erned more by the form
of the verb, than by the time of the act10n.
NoTE 2. If I were, implies, I am not; If I were not, impliel',
I am. "No fault is more common," Eays \Vebster, "than the
.
.
misapplication of this tense."
"The following is the true sense of were m the smgu~ar num~
her-' Were it necessary for you to take your ~ooks with )'.OU,
-Judge Parker,_ Selfridge's 'f'rial, p. 15~. 'If it w_er~ possible,
they would deceive the elect. -Mat. xx1v, 24. This is the only
legitimate use of this tense."
" lVere it not lamentable."-Latrobe's Rambler,-for, if it
were not lamentable.

Past Tense.
Hypothetical Forms.
If I had n been
If We had n bec"n
5If Thou hadst n been
5If Ye had n been
t If You had n been
~If You had n been
If He had n been
If they had n been
Had we n been
Had In been
5Had yen been
5Hadst thou n been
l Had you n been
t Had you n been
Had they n been
Had hen been

56

ETYMOLOGY.

NoTE. Had I been, implies that· I had not been· and had I
not been, implies that I had been: as,
'
"Had the colonists and the Indians been men without interests
passions, and vices, occasions of collision and bloodshed on both
sides might have been avoi<le<l."-Everett's ,\<l<lress, September
30, 1835.
"!lad these uuly been re1tli~c<l, the expemlitureR nf the year
";mid have been also proport10nalJy reduced. "-J. Q. Adams'
:Th, essage, Dec. 2, 1828.
" Had he been more a man of facts, one less under the influ~nce of hi_s own imagination ; had it been his good fortune to
~Ive eve_n. 111 contact with those he now so devoutly worshipped,
111 a political sense at least, their influence over a mind as just
and clear-sighted as his own, would soon have ceased."Cooper's Two Admirals, Vol. 2, p. 45.

Future Tense.
Elliptical Form.
Ifl be n
ll"We be n
5If Thou be n
5If Ye be n
~If You be n
~If You be n
If He be n
If They be n
NoTE. '.fhis form is often us?d in the present, but impropei·ly.
Grammanans gen~r~lly define It as having a future signification,
though many put It Ill the present tense; which has greatly promoted the improper use of this form·of the verb in the present.
The verb is without the sign of the future-if he be, for if he
shall be.
DIPEIMTIVE MODE.*
Ben, be thou n, don thou be, Ile n, be ye 11, don yon be, do
or do n be
you n be, or <lo n be.
PARTICIPLES.
Present,
Being
Perfect,
Been
Compound Perfect, Having been

* The verb in the imperatirn mode, is es8entially future, for a command cannot be obeyed during its utterance, and consequently must be
future; as, " Go, sell what thou hast, and give to the poor, and come
and follow me." Here are five verbs in the imperative, all which were
of necessity to be ohcyed aftp,r they were uttered.
This doctrine of the imperative is sustained in the able article of De
\\'nr. See Edin. Encycl. (Brewster,) Art. Gram.

57

CONJUGATION.

Exercises On The Verb Be.
To be. Am, was, been. It is. ·Thou art. Thou wast. I
was. \Ve are. They were. Thou hast been. He has been.
We have been. Thou hadst not been. He had been. You
have not been. She has been. We were not. They had been.
vV e are not. I am not.
I shall be. Thou shalt be. \Ve shall be. Thou wilt be.
They ~lrnll not be. It will be. Thou wilt have been. \Ve have
been. They will have been. \Ve shall have beel!. I am. It
is not.
I can be. Thou mayest be. Thou canst not be. She may be.
You may be. He must be. They should be. Thou mightest be.
He would be. It could not be. Thou wouldst be. You could
not be. He may have been. Thou wast. He had been. They
were.
We may have been. Thou mayest have been. They may
have been. I might hav·e been. You should have been. Thou
wouldst have been. You was.
If thou art. If we are. If he is. If they are. If thou wert.
If we were. If I am. If you arc. If I haYc been. If thou
hadst been. If she shall be. If he be. If we be. If they be.
If he could be. If I should be. If they must be.
Be thou. Ile ye. Do ye be. Be. Being. Been. To have
been. Having been. If I be.
Parse the verb in each example thus: Is, is a verb, because
it asserts being-root, to be-principal parts; present, am ; past,
was; perf. part. been-it is intransitive, it cannot take an object
after it; indicative mode, it simply nsserts being; present tense,
it denotes present time; and in the third person, singular number, to agree with its nom. it, according to Rule II., (which
re~~)
.
.
.
Write on the black board or slate, the tlnrd person smgnlar,
throughout the conjugation, and then the second person singular,
then the participles-then the root and principle parts.
INTERROGATIYE CONJUNCTION OF

Be.
INDICATIVE J\IODE.
Present Tense.
Are
Am I n1
5 Are
5Art thou n 1
l Are
l Are you n1
Are
Is hen l

wen 1
ye n1
you n 1
they n1

58

ETYJ\lOLOG Y.

Prior-Present, or P e rf e c t Te n s e .
Have In been 1
Have we n been 1
5Hast thou n been 1
5Have ye n becn 1
l Have you n been 1
{ Have you n becn 1
Has or hath he n been 1
Have they n been 1
Past Tense.
'Vas I n 1
·were we n 1
5 'Vast thou n 1
5vVere yen?
l 'Vas, or "·ere you n 1
l 'Vere you n 1
'Vas hen 1
·were they n 1
Prior-Past, or Pluperfect Tense.
Had I n been 1
Had we n been 1
5 Hadst thou n been 1
5Had ye n been 1
2 Had you n been 1
( Had you n been ?
Had he n been 1
. Hau they n been 1
Future Tense.
Shall I n be 1
Shall we n be 1
5 Shalt thou n be 1
5 Shall ye n be 1
2 Shall you n be 1
l Shall you n be 1
Shall he n be 1
Shall they n be l
Prior-Future 'Tense.
Shall I n haYe been 1
Shall we n have been 1
5 Shalt thou n have been 1
5 Shall ye n have been 1
l Shall you n have been 1
l Shall you n have been 1
Shall he n have been 1
Shall they n have been I
The auxiliaries are the same as in the affirmative, but I have
left some of them out in the future tenses of the interrogative
conjugation, for the sake of brevity.

CONJUGATION.

Exercises.
Can I be 1 Mayest thou be 1 1\f ust he be 1 l\Iight we be 1
Could ye be 1 Should you be 1 'Vould they be 1
Am I 1 Is he 1 Art thou 1 Arc they 1 'Vas you 1 'Vere
we 1 Wast thou 1 Have I been 1 Has he been ·! Hast thou
not been 1 Have they been 1 Have you not been 1 Had he
been 1 Had you not been 1 Hadst thou been 1 Had I IH~cn 1
Have they not been 1 Have we been 1 Shall you be 1 Wilt
thou have been 1
Shall he be1 Shalt thou be 1 ·w ill they have been 1 Shall
we have been 1 Shall it be 1 \Viii they be 1 Shall we have
been 1

l

I'j
i

May I have been 1 May he have been 1 Canst thou have
been 1 Could we have been 1 Might ye lmve been 1 Should
they have been 1 Would we have been 1 l\fightest thou have
been?
Parse the verb in each of these exercises, as in the precedi11g.
vVrite examples of interrogative sentences on the black board,
nnd in your book.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERES.

A verb is called Regular, when it forms its past tense
and perfect participle by adding d or cd to the present; as,
pres. love; past, loved ; perf. part. loved.
All other verbs are called In·egular.
TIIE CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE VERD,

POTENTIAL lllODE.

To Love.

Indefinite Tense.

IN THE . ACTIVE VOICE,

May In he1
5 Mayest thou n be 1
l l\fay you n be 1
l\fay he n be 1

i\Iay wen be1
5 May ye n be 1
{ 1\Iay you n be 1
1\Iay they n be 1

Prior-Present, or Perfect Tense.
J\fay I n have been 1
l\fay we n have heen 1
5 Mayest thou n have been 1
~ May ye n have been 1
l May you n have been 1
(May you n have been 1
l\fay they n have been 1
l\fay he :n have been 1
Conjugate, with the other auxiliaries, in the 1::ame wny.

59

RooT.
PRINCIPAL PARTS,

To Love.
Love, 101·ei.l, love1l.

INFINITIVE ~!ODE.

Present Tense.
To love.

Pr i o r-P r e s e n t Te n s e .
To have loved.

60

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

Prior-future Tense.
· I shall n have loved.
\Ve shall n have loved
Thou shalt or wilt n have { Ye shall or will n have
loved
loved
You shall or will n have
{ You shall or will n have
loved
loved
He shall or will n have
They shall or will n have
loved
loved

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Tense.
I love n
·we love n
5 Thou lovest n
5Ye love n
(You love n
(You love n
He loves or loveth n
They love n
With the auxiliary do.

POTENTIAL l\IODE.

I don love
\Ve don love
5Thou dost n love
5Ye do n love
(You don love
(You don love
He does or doth n love They do n love

Prior-Present Tense.
I have n loved
We haven l~ved
5Thou hast n loved
5Ye haven loved
( you have n loved.
( you have n loved
He has or hath n loved They haven loved
Past Tense.
I loved n

5Thou lovedst
(You loved n
He loved n

\Ve loved n

5~e loved n

(You loved n
They loved n

With the auxiliary did.
\Ve did n love
I did n love
5 Ye did n love
5Thou didst n love
(You did n love
(You did n love
They did n love
He did n love

Prior Past.
\Ve had n loved.
I hacl. n loved
5Thou hadst n loved 5 Y_e Imel n loved
( You had n lo~·ed
( Yon Imel. n loved
They had n loved
He had n loved
Future Tense.
\Ve shall or will n love
I shall or will n love
5Ye shall or will n love
5Thou shalt or wilt n love 7
you shall or will n love
( you shall or will n love
They shall or will n love
He shall or will n love

61

I

l

Indefinite Tense.
I may n love
We may n love
5Thou mayest n love
5 Ye may n love
(You may n love
i You may n love
He may n love
They may n love
Prior-present Tense.
I may n have loved
We may n have loved
5 Thou mayest n have loved 5 Ye may n have loved
(You may n have loved
(You may n have loved
He may n have loved
They may n have loved
In the same way, with the auxiliaries, can, must, might, could,
would and should; throughout this mode.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Conjugate love, in the common form of the subjunctive as directed on page 46: thus

Present
Ifl love n
5If thou lo vest n
( If you love n
Ifhe loves or loveth n

Tense.
If we love n
5Ifyeloven
( If you love n
If they love n &c.
The learner should prefix the sign of condition in the same
way throughout, the indica_tive and potential mode, to form the
subjunctive.

:j: Subjunctive Forms.
"Some authors omit the personal terminations in the
second and third persons present, if thou love, if he love -which
I deem contrary to the principles of our htnguage." Webster.
6
~
NOTE.

62

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

Besides the common form of the subjunctive, there are
hypothetical forms of the present and past, and an elliptical
form or the future.

'

Present Tense.
Hypothetical Forms.
If I loved n'
If we loved n
5If thou lovedst n
5If ye loved n
( If you loved n
( If you loYed n
If he loved n
If they loved n
Did wen love
Did In love
5Didst thou n love
5Did ye n love
f Did you n love
? Did you n love
Did they n l61•e
Did hen love

N. Il. There is an idiomatic peculiarity in the subjunctive
forms. 'Vhen I say, "if it rains;" it is understood that I am not
certain, whether it rains or not: but when I say," if it rained, we
shoul<l be obliged to seek shelter;" it is umlerstoo<l that I am certain it does not rain. If I say, "if it did not rain, I would take
a walk;" I convey the i<lea that it does rain, at the time of
speaking, If it rained, or did it rain, in the present time,
implies, it does not rain; if it did not rain, or did it not rain, in
present time, implies that it does rain; thus in this peculiarity,
an , affirmative sentence always implies a negation, and a
negative sentence, an affirmation.
Past Tense.
I.I y p o t h e t i c a 1 Forms.
If we had n loved
If I had n loved
5If ye had n loved
5If thou hadst n loved
f If you had n loved
( If you had n loved
If they ha<l n loved
If he ha<l 11 loved
Had In loved
n loved
( Had you n loved
Had he n loved

5 Hadst thou

Had we n loved

5Had ye n loved
f Had you

n loved
Had they n loved

In these forms also, an affirmative sentence implies a negation,
and a negative sentence, an affirmation: tlm", had he loved
implies he had not loved, &c. "Had ye endured like those great
sufferers." Hillhouse' Scene from Hadad-for if ye had
endured.

63

Future Tense.
Elliptical Form.
If we love n
lfI love n
) If ye love n
5If thou love n
{ If you love n
?If you love n
If they love n
Ifhe love n
NoTE. if I love, &c., for if I shall or will love, &c. "In the
future tense the auxiliary may be, and often is, suppressed."
"It is further to be remarked, that should is very often used to
form the conditional future-if I should, thou shouldst, &c.
This tense is inflected like the past tense, but is probably more
used for the conditional future than shall and will." "The
other auxiliaries also (might, could and would) in the past time
are used in this conditional mode in a very indefinite sense."
l \Vebster's Improved Grammar, p. 68.
ll\IPERATIVE l\IODE.
Loven
Loven
Don love
Don love
Do ye or you n love
Do thou n love
Do you n love
PARTICIPLES.
Present,
Loving
Loved
Perfect,
Having loved
Comp. Perf.

Exe1·cises on the Verb Love.
He loves. We love. Thou lovest. She loveth. You love.
They loved. Thou lovedst. We loved. He loved. You have
loved. We have loved. He hath loved. Thou hast loved.
We had loved. She had loved. Thou hadst loved. They
had l.Jved. You shall love. He will love. They shall love.
To love. Thou shalt have loved. He will have loved. To
have loved. It may love. I-le might love. Thou shouldst love.
We can have loved. They might have loved. You should
have loved. Love. Love thou. If he loves. Though they
love. Admit he loved. If they loved. If you have loved. lf
we had loved. If thou hadst loved. If we shall love. If you
will have loved. It' they shall have loved. If they can love.
If thou canst love.
If we might love. If you could love. If they may ha rn loved.

64

CONJUGATION.

If thou couldst have loved. If you should have loved. Loving
Loved. Love ye. Do ye love.
Parse the verb in each exercise after the following ·

Model.
Loves is a verb, because it asserts action; root, to love; principal
parts--pres. love-past, loved-perf. part, loved; regular, it
forms its past tense, and perf. part, by adding d to the present;
tram;itive, the action can paii over to an ohjr.ct; active voice,
the action is performed by the subject or nominative ; indicative
mode, the action is simply asserted ; present tense it denotes
present time; and in the third person, singular number, to agree
with its nominative he, according to rule II. (which repeat)
Parse the names and verbs in the following

Exercises.
The boy writes. The boat ~ails. The sun rises. The stars
twinkle. The horse runs. The boys play. Grass grows.
Men labor. Children play. Is it James 1 'Vill Thomas come 1
Shall the messenger depart 1 The lady can sing. The musician can play. Go thou. Depart in peace.
·
INTERROGATIVE CONJ'UNCTION OF

Love.
Th'DICATIVE MODE.

Present Tense.
Love I n 1
Love we n 1
5 Lovest thou n 1
5 Love ye n 1·
l Love you n 1
l Love you n 1
Love they n 1
Loves or loveth he n 1
The foregoing form is but little used. The following is the
usual form of asking questions.
··
Do I'n -love 1
Do we n love 1
5 Dost thou n love 1
5Do ye n lo•·e 1
l Do you n love 1
l Do you n love 1
Do they n love 1
Does or doth he n love 1

Prior-Present Tense.
Have In loved 1

5 Hast thou n loved 1
~

Have you n loved 1
Has or hath he n loved 1

Have we n loved 1

5Have yen loved 1

t lfave you n loved 1

Have they n loved 1

CONJUGATION.

Past Tense.
Did I n love t
Did we n love 1
5Didst thou n. love 1
5 D~d ye n Jove 1
l D~d you n love 1
( Did you n love 1
Did they n love 1
Did he n love 1
The other form of this tense-loved he J-is seldom used.

'
Prior-Past
Tense.
Had I n loved 1
Had we n loved 1
5Hadst thou n loved 1
5Had ye n loved 1
l Had you n loved 1
l Had you n loved 1
Had they n loved '!
Had he n loved 1
Future Tense.
Shall J n love 1
Shall we n love 1
5Shalt or wilt thou n love 1 5Shall or w~ll ye n love 1
~ Shall or will you n love 1 ~ Shall or will you n love 1
Shall or will they n love 1
Shall or will he n love 1
Prior-Future Tense.
Shall I n have loved 1
Shall we n have loved 1
Shalt or wilt thou n have
Shall or will ye n have
loved 1
loved 1
{ Shall or will you n have { Shall or will you n have
loved!
loved 1
Shall or will he n have
Shall or will they n have
Joyed 1
lovecl 1
l'OTEN'l'IAL MODE.

Indefinite Tense.
May I n love'1
May we n love 1
5 Mayest thou n love 1
5l\Iay yen love1
l May you n love 1
( May you n love 1
May they n love 1
May he n love 1
In the same way with the other auxiliaries of this tense.
Prior-Present Tense .
May I n have loved 1
.May we n have loved 1
5Mayest thou n have loved 1 5May ye n have loved 1
~May you n have loved 1
l May you n have loved 1
.May hen have loved 1
May they n have loved 1
In the same way with the other auxiliaries of this tense.
6*

65

•

66

f'

ETYMOLOGY.

CONJUGATION.

,.

Exercises.
Does he love 1 Do we love 1 Dost thou love 1 Does she love 1
Did it love 1 Did I love 1 Did you love 1 Have they loved 1
Hast thou loved 1 Had we loved 1 Had you loved 1
Shall we love 1 Will they love 1 Shalt thou have loved 1
Shall thev have loved 1 Canst thou love 1 May it love 1 Could
_ they love 1 \Vouldst thou love 1 Can he have loved 1 Could
you have loved 1 Would they have loved?
Parse the verb in each of these examples according to the
model given.
D

CONJUGATION OF LOVE, WITH THE AUXILIARY,

Be."'
RooT.

Was loving,

To be loving.
To have been loving.
INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Tense.

He is n loving

We haven been loving

5 Ye have n been loving

t You haven been loving

They have n been loving

Past Tense.
I was n loving
We were n loving
5Thou wast n loving
5Ye were n loving
You was or were n loving
You were n loving
He was n loving
They were n loving

t

t

Prior-Past Tense.
I had n been loving
\Ve had n been loving

5Ye had n been loving
t You had

n be~n loving
They had n been loving

Been loving,

Prior-p,·esent Tense.

t You are n loving

t

He had n been lovmg

Pre s-e nt Tense.

I am n loving

Prior-present Tense.
I haven been loving
5Thou hast n been loving
You haven been loving
He has or hath n been loving

t You had n been lo!ing

INFINITIVE MODE.

5 'rhou art n loving

I

5 Thou hadst n been loving

To be loving.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Am loving,

1

67

We are n loving

5Ye are n loving

t You are n loving
They are n loving

* This form conAtitutes what some grammarians call the definite tenseR;
but if it is any more definite tha~ ~he othe.r for!Il! it mu~t be only conveiitionally so· for the present parllc1ple lovmg, 1s mdefimte, as well as th11
present ten'se lo1ies, am, &c., and it is impossible for two indefinite words,
of themselves, to constitute one definite one. Is writing, is, conventionally, more definite than writes: but it will be difficult, on careful reflection, to perceive that was _writi~, or shall be writi1!1{, is. an_y more
definite than wrote or shall write. To say that the paruc1ple m mg renders the tenses definite, is to make that participle, the definite present,
the definite J!'1Bt, and the definite future : which is to say that it possesses definuely, all the qualities that constitute a tense indefinite.

Future Tense.
I shall or will n be loving

\Ve shall or will n be loving

5 Thou shalt or wilt n be loving 5Ye shall or will n be loving

t You shall or will n be loving t You shall or will n be loving
He shall or will n be loving .

·They shall or will n be loving

Prior-Future 'l'ense.
I shall n have been loving
We shall n have been loving
Thou shalt or wilt n have been {Ye i-ha.ll or will n l1ave been
loving
loving
{ You shall or will n have been You shall or will n have been
loving
loving
He shall or will n have been They shall or will n have been
. loving
loving
POTENTIAL JllODE.

Indefinite Tense.
I may n be loving
5Thou mayest n be loving
~You may n be loving
He may n be loving

VVe may n be loving

5Ye may n be loving

t You may n be loving

They may n be loving

In the same way with all the auxiliaries of this tense.

I

·'·-

' •

68

~

ETYMOLOGY,

Prior-present Tense.
I may n have been loving
We may n have been loving
Thou mayest n have been ~Ye may n have been loving
loving
You may n have been lovYou may n have been loving
ing
He may n have been loving
They may n have been loving
In the same way with the other auxiliaries of this tense.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Conju<7ate this verb through the common form of the subjunctive as directed on page 46.
·
IMPERATIVE MODE.

.This form is seldom used in the imperative.

Exercises.
He is loving. Thou art loving. I am loving. You .are
loving. We were loving. You was loving. They were lovmg.
Thou hadst been loving. She had been loving. We had been
loving.
It will be loving. They shall be loving.
You will have been loving, They shall have been loving.
Thou wilt have been loving.
.
We may be loving. Th?u shouldst be lovmg. I woul~ be
loving. He could be lovmg. They can have been lov~ng. ·
We might have been loving. You ~ould have been l?vmg.
Parse the verb in each of the forcgomg examples, as m the
model previously given.
.
NoTE. It will be perceived that this form of the verb is
parsed in the same way in which the other form.is parsed. The
present participle in this form, ~as no ~~tter ~laim to be parsed,
as a participle, separate from its .auxiliary is, than th_e perfect
participle has, in the passive voice; and therefore it should
always be parsed as a verb.
:j: INTERROGATIVE FORM WITH THE AUXILIARY

Be.
INDICATIVE MODE.

,

,

'
I,
I

Present Tense.
Am I n loving 1
Are we n lo".ing 1
5Art thou n loving 1
5Are ye n lo\'i~g_1
l Are you n loving 1
( Are you n lov1~g \
Are they n lovmg .
Is he n loving 1

CON JU GA TION.

69

Prior-Present Tense.
Have I n been loving 1
Have we n been loving 1
5Hast thou n been loving 1 5Have ye n been loving 1
l Have you n been loving 1
l Have you n been loving 1
Has or hath he n been loving 1 Have they n been loving 1
Past Tense.
Was In loving1
Were wen loving1
5Wast thou n loving 1
5 Were ye n loving 1
( .Was or were you n loving 1 l Were you n loving !
Was he n loving !
Were they n loving 1 •
Prior-past Tense.
Had I n been loving'!
Had we n been loving 1
5Hadst thou n been loving 1 5Had ye n heen loving!
( Had you n been loving 1
( Had you n been loving 1
Had he n been loving 1
Had they n loving 1
Future Tense.
Shall I _n be loving 1
Shall we n be loving 1
5Shalt or wilt thou n be loving1 5Shall or will ye n be lovin.,. 1
(Shall or will you n be loving1 (Shall or will you n be loving 1
Shall or will he n be loving 1 Shall or will they n be loving '!
PRIOR FUTURE. This form of the verb is little med in this
tense.
Will, is not elegant, in the first person, in this t:i1se.
POTENTIAL MODE.

Indefinite Tense.
May Jn be loving!
May wen he lovincr1
5Mayest thou n be loving1 5 May yen be loving1
( May you n be loving 1
l May you n be lovincr 1
May they n be lovi~g'!
May hen be loving1
In the same way with the auxiliaries can, must, might, could,
would and should. This form is little used in this tense.
REMARK 1. The same sentence cannot be a question and
command at the same time, hence there is no interrogative form •
in the imperative mode.
REMARK 2. The · learner should observe that in interrogative
sentences, the nominative follows the verb, when alone; and
the first auxiliary, when one or more are used; and the sign of
negation, not, (and generaIJy never,) comes immediately after
the nominative.

I' I
!,

I;

,.,. ·.•
·~

I

r.

ll

,C
f; ~
;t

~t

~J

ri··
't

I '

l

70

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Exercises.

Present Tense.
I am n loved
We are n loved
5Thou art n loved
5Ye are n loved
~ You are n loved
~ You are n loved
He is n loved
'l'hey are n loved
Prior-Present Tense.
I haven been loved
We haven been loved
5Thou hast n been loved
5Ye have n been loved
~You haven been loved
You haven been loved
He has or hath n been loved
They have n been loved

Art thou loving1 Are they loving1 Am I loving1 Was he
loving 1 Were they loving 1 ·were you loving 1 Have they
been loving 1 Has he been loving 1 Has it been loving 1
Canst thou be loving 1 May we be loving 1 Could they be
.
.
loving 1 Should he be loving 1
Parse the verb in each example, and wnte several questions.
REMARK.
The learner will perceive that in all the preceding
forms of the verb love, it asserts the action of the subject or nominat4(e; hence it is active and belongs to the active voice.

I•

I
1

t

PASSIVE VOICE.

The Passive Voice is formed by adding the perfect participle of a transitive verb in the active voice to the verb be
in all its inflections.
N oTE 1. In this combination the perfect participle is passive ;
but otherwise it is active.
NoTE 2. Action, which cannot pass over to an object, cannot
be received or suffered; hence intransitive verbs cannot have
a passive voice.

Active Voice.
I love
Thou lovest
He loves
vVe love
You love
They love

Passive Voice.
I nm loved
Thou art loved
He is loved
We are loved
You are loved
They are loved

f

Love.
IN THE PASSIVE VOICE.

To be loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

•

Am loved,

vVas loved,

Loved, or been -loved.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Tense.
To be loved.
Prior-present Tense.
To have been loved.

t

t

THE CON.JUGATION OF THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE VERB,

RooT.

Past Tense.
I was n loved
\Ve were n loved
S Thou wast n loved
5 Ye were n loved
( You was or were n loved
~ You were n loved
He was n loved
They were n loved
Prior-Past Tense.
I had n been loved
\Ve had n been loved
5Thou hadst n been loved
5 Ye had n been loved
You had n been loved
You had n been loved
He had n been loved
They had n been loved
Future Tense.
I shall or will n be loved
We shall or will n be loved
5Thou shalt or wilt n be loved 5Ye shall or will n be loved
~ You shall or will n be loved
You shall or will n be loved
He shall or will n be loved
They slmll or will n be loved
Prior-Future Tense.
I shall n have been loved
'Ve shall n have been loved
Thoushaltorwiltnhavebeen{Ye shall or will n have been
loved
loved
You shall or will n have been You shall or will n have been
loved
loved
He shall or' will n have been They shall or will n have been
loved
loved
POTENTIAL lllODE.
Indefinite Tense.
I may h, be loved
We may n be loved
5 Ye may n be loved
5 Thou mayest n be loved
t You may n be loved
You may n be loved
They may n be loved
He may n be loved

t

Display oft he .flctive and Passive Voices.
Intr. Verb BE.
I am
Thmi. art
He is
We are
You are
They are

71

'

•

l

t

•

72

ETYMOLOGY.

73

CONJUGATIOH.

Prior-Present Tense.
.. I may n have been loved
We may n have been loved
5 Thou mayest n have been loved 5Ye may n have been loved
l You may n have been loved
~ Youmaynhavebeenloved
He may n .have been loved
They may n have been loved
In the same way with the auxiliaries can, must, might, could,
would and should.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Besides the common forms of this mode, there are the following

:j: Subjunctive Forms.
Present Tense. •
Hypothetical Forms.
Jfl were n loved
If we were n loved
5If thou wert n loved
5If ye were n loved
l If you was or were n loved l lf you were n loved
. If he were n loved
If they were n loved
\Vere I n loved
'\-Vere we n loved
5Wert thou n loved
5 \Vere ye n loved
l Were you n loved
~ Were you n loved
Were he n loved
Were they n loved
NoTE. ·If I were loved, and, were I loved, imply, I am not
loved; if l were not loved, and, were I not loved, imply, I am
loved, A negative sentence implies an affirmation; and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive.

•
•

Past Tense .
Hypothetical Forms.
If I had n been loved
If we had n been loved
5If thou hadst n been loyed SIf ye had n been loved
l If you bad n been loved
l ff you had n been)oved
If he had n been loved
ff they had n been loved
Had I n been loved
Had we 11 been loved
5 Hadst"thou n ·been loved
5Had ye n been loved
~ Had you n been loved
~ Had you n been loved
Had he n been loved
Had they n been loved
In this form, also, an affirmative sentence implies a negation,
and a negative sentence implies an affirmation.

E 11 i p t i c a l F u t u r e.
Jf I be n loved
If we be n foved
5If thou he n loved
5If ye be n loved
l If you be n loved
l If you be n loved
Ifhe be n loved
If they be n loved
This form is often used in the present tense, hut it is, properly, the elliptical future. If I be loved, &c., for, if I shall or will
be loved, &c. ; and grammarians usually explain it as having a
future signification.
IMPERATIVE JllODE,

Be n loved
5Be thou n loved
l Be you n loved ·
Do you n be loved*

Ile n loved

5Ile ye n loved
l Re you

n loved
Do you n be loved

TillRD PERSON.*

Be it n loved
Loved be he

Be they n loved or
Loved be they.
PARTICIPLES.

Present, Being loved
Perfect, Loved, or been loved
Compound Perfect, Having been loved.

Exercises.
Thou art. loved. '\-Ve are loved. To be loved. You was
loved. He was loved. To have been loved. They were loved.
We have been loved. Thou hast been loved. It had been loved.
You have been loved. They h~d been loved. We shall be
loved. You will be loved. They will have been loved. He
will have heen loved.
·
You may be loved. She can be loved. He might be loved.
We could be loved. They should be loved. 'Ve could have
been loved. They would have been loved. Being loved. Been
loved.
Ile loved. Ile ye loved. Do you be loved. If I am loved.
If he is loved. If we were loved. I was loved. If I liad been.
loved•

t. If thou wert loved. !fl were loved. Had he been loved.
Were we loved. Wert thou loved. Had I been loved. Harlst
thou been loved. \Vere I loved. If I be loved. If thou be
loved. ·If he be loved. If we be loved. If you be loved.
• The negative not is often placed after do, and contracted into don't.

.

7

•

74

Parse ·t~e verb ~ each ex~mple after the model already given,
remembermg to give the voice correctly, and the reason of it;
then
Change the exercises from the passive, to the active voice.

t INTERROGATIVE

IRREGULAR VERBS.

All verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are not
formed by adding d or ed to the verb in the present, are
called irregular.
In the following list of irregular verbs, the obsolete and obsolescent forms of the past tense and perfect participle, are dis-

PASSIVE.

T~e learner should ?onjuga!e the passive verb int~rrogatively;
and, if any further assistance is needed, turn to the mterrogative
conjugation of be, and add the perfect participle loved; thus, am
I loved 1 &c.

NoTE 1. Usage authorizes the employment of a few intran~
sitive verbs in the passive form; as, " \Ve are arrived.·~ Blackstone. " When the "'.~ole ev!dence has been gone through."
Story. "The army, mdeed, is come to fine pass." Junius.
"I am come." Barber. "When Saul was come to Jerusalem."
Acts ix. 26. This mode of expression is, by no means, the most
elegant.
Parse these, and all such expressions, with intransitive verbs,
without distinction of voice, as if written, "\Ve have arrived."
NoTE 2. There is a kind of passive use of verbs, often
employed at the present day, which seems to be faulty; as,
"The house is being built." This expression is egregiously
tautological; for it has two forms of the verb to be, in immediate
succession, of nearly the same import; moreover, is built and
being built, are both passive forms of the verb ; hence 1s BEING
BUILT is a double.passive.

I

l~ I
' .,II

i
l

j

•

· AGAIN. The passive voice is formed by adding the perfect
partiCiple of the active voice to the verb to be, but this expression is formed by adding the present participle passive, to the
verb to be, and therefore it cannot be a proper passive verb.
This awkward sentence does not properly express the idea
intended by it; for being is equivalent to existing; hence the
howie i.~ be.ing bnilt, is equivalent. to, the howie ii; e.xfating built.
Furthermore, built, being a perfect participle, cannot be applied
jo unfinished action.
ONCE MoRE. Conjugate the verb in this form, thus :-In£
present, to be being built-past, to have been being built. Ind.
The house is being built-the house has been being built-the
house was being built-the house had been being built-the
house shall be being built-the house shall have been being built,
&c. This sets this expression in its true light.
The cotTect expression is, the house is building.

75

CONJUGATION. ·

ETYMOLOGY.

tinguished in sepa,rate columns.

List of Principal Parts.
...

Present
Abide
Am*
Arise
Awake
Hear
Beat
Become
Begin
Bend
Bereave
Beseech
Bid
Bind
Bite
Bleed
Blow
Break
Breed
Bring
Build
Durst

Past

abode
was
arose
awoke, Rt
bore
beat
became
began, begun
bent, R
bereft, R
besought
bade, bid
bound
bit
bled
blew
broke
bred
brought
built R
burst
bought
Buy
cast
Cast
Catch
cau]ht R
chi
Chide
chose
Choose
Cleave, to adhere R
Cleave, to split cleft
clung
Cling
R
Clothe
came, come
Come
cost
Cost

Perf. Part.

Past Tense
Obsolete

Perf. Part.
Obsolete.

abode
been
arisen
R

borne
beat, beaten
become
begun
bent, R
bereft, R
besought
bidden, bid
bound
bit, bitten
bled
blown
broke, broken
bred
.brought
built
burst
bought
cast
caujht, R
chi
chose, chosen
cleft, clove, cloven
clung
clad R
co mo
cost

bare

bounden

brake

chidden

clavB

•

* To be is the root of am; to form the r?ots of all other verbs in the
.
list, the learner has only to prefix the particle to to the present.
t R indicates that the verbs thus marked have also regular forms m
those plnces.

•

76
Present

:1

•

CONJUGATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

Past Tense Perf. Part.

CrowR
Creep
crept
Cut
cut
Dare, venture, duret,R
Dare, to challenge R
Deal
dealt
Dig
d':f
R
Do
di
Draw
drew
Drive
drove
Drink
drank
Dwell
dwelt R
Eat
ate
En{frave
R
Fn
fell
Feed
fed
Feel
felt
Fight
fought
Find
found
Flee
fled
Fly
flew
Flmg
flung
Forget
forgot
Forsake
for11ook
Freeze
froze
Get
got
Gild
gilt R
Gird
girt R
Give
gave
Go
went
Grave
R
Grind
ground
Grow
grew
Have
had
Hang
hungR
Hear
heard
Hew
R
Hide
hid
Hit
hit
Hold
held
Hurt
hurt
Keep
kept
:&nit
knit
Know
knew

crept
cut
R

Past Tense · Perf; 'Part.
Obsolete
Obsolete.
crew

dealt
dug R
done
drawn
driven, drove
drizve
drank
drunken, drunk
dwelt R
eat, eaten
en~raven R
fal en
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flown
flung
forgot, forgotten forgat
forsaken
frozen, froze
got,-/t.otten
gat
gilt
g!rt R
·
given
gone
graven R
ground
~rown

ad
hung R*
heard
hewn R
hid, hidden
hit
held
hurt
kept
kmt
known

holde11

In the above examples,

hang is trans!tive; it is often, however, used intransitively; as, the hat

hangs '· n a pm.

Past

Perf.· Part.

Lado
Lay
Lead
Leave
Lend
Let
Lie (down)
Load
Lose
Make
Mean
Meet
Mow
Pay
Put
Quit
Read
Rend
Rid
Ride
Ring
Rise
Rive
Run
Saw
Say
See
Seek
Sell
Send
Set
Shake
Shape
Shave
Shear
Shed
Shine
Shew
Show
Shoe
Shoot
Shrink
Shred
Shut

R
laid
led
left
lent
let
lay
R
lost
made
meant
met
R
paid
put
quit R
read
rent
rid
rode
rung, rang
rose
R
run, ran
R
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
shook
R
R
R
shed
shone R
shewn
R
shod
shot
shrunk
shred
shut

laden
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain
laden R
lost
made
meant
met
mownR
paid
put
quit R
read
rent
rid
rid
rung
risen
riven R
run
sawn R
said
seen
eo'!fht
sol

Sin~

• ''.Hang, to take away life, is regular; as, the robber wns lumged but

the gown was· hung up."-Bullions' Gram.

•

Present

Sin
Sit
Slay
Sleep
Slide

sun~

sun
eat
slew
sleJt
sli

Past Tense
Obsolete

77
Pcrf. Part.
Obsolete

ridden

~ent

set
shaken, shook
shorn R
shed
shone R
shewn (Pron. show, &c.)
shown R
shod
shot
shrunk
shred
shut
sang
sun[
sank
sun
eat
slain
slej1
ell

7•

ahapen
shaven

Bitten
slidden

1
fii

~·

~!

,1,~I

78
Present
Slin~

~
r;i

'h'

~~

~

l

.

Slin ·
Slit
Smite
Sow
Speak
Speed
Spend
Spµl
Spm
Spit
Split
Spread
Spring
Stand
Steal

Stin~

Stin
Stick
Stride
Strike
String
.Strive
Strow
Strew
Swear
Sweat
Swell
Swim
Swing
Take
Teach
Tear
Tell
Think
Thrive
Throw
Thrust
Tread
WaxR
Wear
'Veave
Weep
Win
Wet
Wind
Work
Wring
Write

li:TYMOLOGY.

Past
slun~

slun
slit R
smote
R
spoke
sped
spent
epilt R .
spun
spit
split
spread
sprung
stood
stole
stun~

Perf. Part.
slun~

slun
slit R
smitten, smit
sown R
spoke, spoken
sped
spent '
spiltR
spun
spit
split
spread
sprung
stood
stole, stolen

CONJUGATION.

Past Tense
Obsolete

Perf. Part.
Obsolete.

spake

spat

spitten

sprang

stun~

stun
stuck
strode, strid
struck
strung
strove
R
R
swore
sweat
R
swum, swam
swung
took
taught
tore
told
thought
throve R
threw
thrust
trod

stun
stuck
Strid
struck
strung
striven
- strown R

wore
wove
wept
won
wetR
wound
wrought R
wrung R
wrote

sworn
sweat

stank
stridden.
stricken

sware

swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought

swollen

thrown
thrust
trod, trodden

th riven

worn
woven, wove
wept
won
wetR
wound
wrought R
wr!1ng R
wntten

waxen

R

79

NoTE 1. The irregular verbs in . our language number about
one hundred and seventy-seven. They are of th:ree classes.
I. Those whose past tense and perfect participle are the same
as the present; as, beat, burst, cast. '
II. Those whose past. tense ancl perfect participle. are alike,
but different from the present; as, meet, met; sell, sold.
III. Those in which the present, past tense and perfect participle all differ; as, know, knew, known.
NoTE 2. Some regular verbs suffer a contraction of ed into t,
a.s, snatcht for snatched; checkt for checked; snapt for snapped;
mixt for mixed; dwelt for dwelled; pMt for passed. Somr. have
a digraph shortened; as, dream, dreamt; sleep, slept; read, read;
deal, dealt.
NoTE 3. Gat, sang, spake, &c., are obsolete forms of the past
tense ; but their place is well supplied with the modern forms
got, sung, spoke, &c., for the sound of a in all such cases, was,
originally, the broad a or aw, corresponding, in the Gothic,
Sa.xon, and modern Scotch, nearly with o in spoke. Therefore,
spoke is nearer the original than spake, as we now pronounce it.
Wrought is obsolescent.
NoTE 4.-The participials, fraught, drunken, molten, shorn,
bounden and cloven, having lost their verbal character, are used
only as attributes.
NoTE 5.-Authority is every thing, in language, and it consists in reputable, national, present usage.
t In the Compound Tenses, the verb is always formed by
adding the perfect participle to the auxiliary.
It is a very common error, in the use of some of the irregular
verbs, to form the compound tenses with the past tense, instead
of the perfect participle. Let the learner carefully correct the
following examples of incorrect construction upon this point, and
give the reason, in each instance.

In c or re c t Co n s t r u c t i o n.
TO BE CORRECTED BY THE LEARNER.

The sun had arose. He shall have rose. It has arose. She
has awoke. The tree has bore much fruit. He has began.
She had bade it depart. The wind had blew very hard. It had
came before. I done it myself. He done the work. He had
drunk too much. She has ate her dinner. He eat an hour ago.
it has fell. The bird had flew. She has forsook him.
He
has gave a present. They have went home. The child had
grew rapidly. The robber was hung.

:

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.

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,,

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80

ETYMOLOGY.

The hat was hanged on a pin. I have never knew one.
She has. rode to-day. They rid yes~erday. Ile has ran away.
· I seen 1t last week. Has he saw 1t yet 1 Samson had slew
many men, he had smote them with a jaw-bone. He has strode.
They had strove together. He will have swore to the truth
~e had took his book. The coat was tore. He has throve, It
is wore out. T~e letter is wrote. He writ yesterday.
Correct, thus :-Had rose-had risen, because risen is the
perfect participle, and rose the past tense ; the compound tenses
mu:-;t be formed by the participle and not the past tense.
t The following examples are incorrect, because the forms
are obsolete. It bare fruit last year. They are bounden. The
s~orm brake the tree yesterday. He was chidden. It clave to
him. The cock crew. He drave them out. He has drunk.
They have drunken. She forgat her friend. He gat a book.
!~er are holden. The horse was ridden. We are shapen in
1mqmty.. He was shaven. _The company sang. 'l'he ax sank.
She has s1tten for h~r portrait: It has slidden. He spake. He
spat. They had spitten on him. It sprang. They have stridden. It was stricken from the list. He sware to it. The part
was swollen. They had thriven. They have waxen strong.
Le~ the learner correct, and give the reason in every case. If
any difficulty occurs, refer to the list of irregular verbs.
t DEFECTIVE VERTIS.
r Defective verbs are those which are used in only part of
the conjugation.
The following list contains the principal ones:
Present Tense
Past Tense
Perf. Part.
l\fay
might
Can
could
l\fust
must
Will
would
Shall
should
Ought
ought
quoth
l\fethinks
methoug-ht
And if, though and although, which are imperatives; to wit
an infinitive, and during a present participle. The verbs~~
which these are derived, are obsolete, except in these forms;
Q!toth. is entirelr obsolet«;i, except in poetry and. burlesque,
and Is chiefly used m the third person, with the nommative following it; as, quoth he.
Methinks is in use, but it is not elegant.

PRONOUNS •

81

III. PRONOUNS, OR SUBSTITUTES.
If I say James has been going to school, James has learned
fast, and james excels; you perceive that I use the word James
so often that it sounds badly.
The word James occurs three times in the sentence. Now I
will repeat the sentence, and use the word James once, and then,
use another word instead of James, in the other two places.
James has been going to school, he has. lea:ned _fai;;t, and he
excels. Observe, the word he is used twice, m this sentence,
instead of the word James; and therefore the word he stands
for the word Jamcs,-it is a substitute for the name, .Tames.
The word Pronoun means, for a noun. The word he stands
for the noun, James ; and therefore the word he is a pronoun.
Hence,

•

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the
too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, " The man is
happy, he is benevolent, he is useful."
t Some Pronouns or Substitutes often stand for cla1:1ses or
sentences; as, The messenger has not returned:. that 1s very
strange.. Here the word that s~ands ror the p~ecedmg sel?-tence ;
which will appear by answermg this question, What 1_s very
strange 1 The messenger has not returned. All that is very
strange.
NoTE I. Pronoun is an appropriate name for this class of
words when they stand for names, ~ut not when ~hey stand for
clauses or sentences. :Substitute is an appropriate name for
them in all cases ; for they are substitutes for names, clauses,
&c. as the case may be.
NoTE 2. The principal distinction bP.tween nouns and pronouns or substitutes, consists in this ; the meaning of a noun
isfixed and permanent, but the meaning of a substitute is temporary; e. g. the ·word book is applied to a ce~tain class of
things and to no others ; the word it may be apphed to a book,
a tabl~, a child, a bird, an insect, a garden, a field, the world,
&c. Some words, commonly called nou?s, have much the ~ame
character that substitutes have; as witness, opponent, client,
visitor.
Hence substitutes may be called a· species of nouns.-See
Edin. Encycl. Art. Gram.
When Substitutes are used to represent clauses or sentences,
their meaping is the complex sentiment of the whole clause
which they represent.

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82

ETYMOLOGY.

83

PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

· Exercises.

The pronouns or substitutes are learned by lists.
L1sT 1.-1, thou or !/Orf:., he, she, it, with their plurals
we, ye or Y_Ou, they. These are called personal ronouus'
because their forms show what person they are in: .
,

Declens;on
•
of p ersonal Pronouns.

iNom.
1st Person. Poss.
Obj.
2d Person.

5Nom.
Po..c;s.
Obj.

l

3d Person, iNom.
Masculine. Poss.
Obj.

Feminine.

~Norn.
Poss.

3d Person.

~ ~~~."

3d Person,

Obj.

Singular
I
l\fy*

Met

Plural
We
Our
Us

Thou or you
Thy or your
Thee or you
He
His
Him

They
Their
Them

She
Her
Her

They
Their
'l'hcm

1

r!_""'

Ye or you
Your
You

It
Them
spe~t:rpr;hn~tlilo1fofththe firstdperson stands for the name of the
f h
'
e secon person for the
son addressed, and those of the third person ~a~h o t e .Perthe person or thing spoken of. ·
' or e name of
it. G';f~er fiis applied only to the third person singular. he she
sex is s~pp:;da: b:et~~~J.ersons being always pres~nt,'thei;
Obj.

i

'l'her
Their

; F.~r an explanation of mine, thine, &c. see list 2•
11:i.e and Not-me are nouns in a certam· use, In· 1he philosophical
.
guage of continental Europe '
Ian.
. "The me, and the not-me 'are phra
dt
.
!Is oflposite, the soul nnd that which tes
~sth o ejpress personality and
M?,th . 9nart. 1:leview, 184 2 , p. 1iO. 8 no e sou • or rather nature."Is It not this force which we call 1
. d' .
.
sonality-that personaiiry of which we' me, oud mb IVIdu~lity, our per.
confound with any other t"
never ou t, which we never
"The me, then, is revealed to us in the character of cause or fore "r..,ouam
. ' a El ements of Psycho!.
e.

t

'

He respects me as his friend, and I regard him as my friend.
· "Thou art also of them." Yoitr interest controls you. They
respect her wishes, because she has shown them great kindness.
Thy friend salutes thee. The la.d loves his parents, and they
are delighted with him.
Parse the pronouns in the preceding exercises, after the following.
MoDEL.
Ile is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun; personal, its form shows its person; masculine gender, third person,
singular number, to agree with the noun for which it stands;
and in the nom. case to respects, because it is the subject and
agent of tl1e verb, a.no governs it, acconliug to Rule 1. (which
repeat.) Decline he.
NOTE.
The distinction of gender is to be applied, in parsing,
only to he and she. The pronouns should be disposed of as the
nouns, for which they stand, would be.
Now write a 11entence with a name, and then another on· the
same subject, with a pronoun, after this
~ 11[ 0

John
he
girls

they

d cl

0

j

C0 m p O Si t i
writes
reu.us
love
learn

0 II.

letters
his book8
books
their lessons

'Vrite several exercises of this kind, and continue them
through the pronouns, writing on each list,as you proceed.

Foundation of Rule XII. in Syntax.
As an agent or representative is bound to exercise the leading
traits of his principal or constituents, when he acts for them; so
a pronoun (which may be called the agent, or representative of
a noun) must have the leading traits of the noun for which it
stands. Hence in Syntax.
RuLE XII. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which
they stand, in person end number; as, John is studious, he will
excel. Susan is industrious, she will prosper. If they are
children, they are heirs.
Now parse all the names, verbs, and pronouns, under Rule 12.

84

ETYMOLOGY

PRONOUNS.

Remarks.
In the Anglo-Saxon, nouns, pronouns and adjectives, have

!hree genders -and four cases.
illustrated by the following

Some of our pronouns may be

Saxon Declension of He.
M.

,,
1

F.

N

Plural, all
•
Genders.
he
heo
hit
hi
Norn.
Gen. .
his
hire
his
liira
Dat.
him
hire
liim
him
Acc.
hin
hi
hit
hi
All these are inflicted fonns of he in the Saxon The parts
in italics are not in the present E~glish. Instead of heo we
hav~ she, from the Saxon definitive, se-the or that, which see
declme~ at p. 108. It has l~st the 11, (hi-t-the t being anded
as the sign of the neuter) which has much disguised its character.. Instead of the plural, we have they, &c. from the Saxon
lhtege. .
'
See Bosworth's Saxon Gram.
~ It wi~l be observed, that th~ most of what follows on the
substitutes, is marked for the review. The pupil should not
under~ake to le~rn more than the lists, and models of parsing the
followmg subs~1tutes, before the review ; but these should he
learned at an early stage of his progress.

t

IT.

The_ rain descends upon the earth, and it refreshes the plants.
Here it stands for rain, to prevent the repetition of the word

rain.

The bird was singing most sweetly, but it has flown. In this
example it stands for bird.
It, though neuter, is often used in the beginning of sentences
_for tlie names of persons, when the name for which it stands
follows the verb, thus, It was James that informed me. It was
Henry who possessed such fine rhetorical powers.
,
. It, also ~tands for the names of persons, as well as things, in
mterrogative sentences; as, Who is it 'J What is it 'J
It, has· in many instances, a kind of impersonal use· as, It
rains. It will snow. It freezes. It has become very dry.
REMARK.
For farther illustration of it, see under the substi·
tute that, and under rule 12, in Syntax.
.

85

L1sT 2.-11fine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.
These substitutes are constantly used in the nornina.
tive case to verbs, and in the objecli ve case afler verbs' and
prepositions, and therefere they cannot be in tho possossi ve
case.*

t

NoTE I. Mine and thine are sometimes used in the poss.
case, in sacred or lofty style, but not in common language.
NoTE 2. When mine, thine and his, are ad<lcd to nouns, they
are in the possessive case, but otherwise they are in the nom. or
obj. case; as, "Unto thee lift I up mine eyes, 0 thou that
dwellest in the heavens." Ps. 123. 1.

E x· a 1n p l e s .
"The silver is mine and the gold is mine." Hag. 2. 8. That
book is thine. This map is his. This pencil is hers. These
quills are ours. Those plants are yours. He letl his books and
brought theirs. "My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure
yours." "Hi~ deeds deserve rewar<l; yours merit ili~grace."
"Henry's labors are past; thine are to come." "\Ve leave
your forests of bea~t, for ours of men." My sword and yours
are kin."
.,.
" Think not, a husband gained, that all is done ;
The prize of happiness must still be won ;
And, oft, the careless find out to their cost,
The lover in the husband may be lost;
The graces might alone his heart allureThey and the virtues, meeting, must secure."
Lord J,ittleton.
Parse all the substitutes of list 2d, found in the preceding
examples j thus:
ll:fine is a substitute, because it stands for my silver; personal,
its form- shows its person; first person, singular, to agree with
the leading word for which it stands; and it is in the nom. case
after is, because it includes the meaning of silver, which is the
subject or nominative, according to Rule 8, (which repeat.)
Write exercises as before directed.

* "To ~ay that ours, yours, theirs and mine, form a possessive case,
is to make the possessive perform the office of a ~~minative ca~e to
verbs, and an objective case after verbs and preposillons-a mamfest
solecism." Webster's Imp. Gram. p. 27.
8

I
•

I

.' '

L, ..

86

87

ETYMOLOGY,

t COMPOUND

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding
the intensive word self,-in the plural selvea,-to the pronouns, to give them emphasis; as, myself, themselves.
Declension.
Person
First

Second

Third

Case.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.

Singulnr.
.M:yself

------

Plural.
ourselves

myself

[self ourselves
thyself or your- yourselves
thyself
himself

yourselves
themselves

himself
herself

themselves
themselves

herself
''itself

themselves

itself

themselves

themselves

NoTE. It will be observed that self is added to the pronouns,
ouly in part of their forms.

Exercises.
"He himself wrote a letter to the minister." "He wrote a
Jetter himself." I went myself. Know thyself. We saw it
ourselves. You yourselves know the way. She flatters herself. " They injure themselves." "This is the book itself."
Parse the compound pronouns in the preceding examples, after
the following
MooEL. Himself is a pronoun, because it stnnds for n name;
personal, its form shows its person; compound, it is formed ' of
kim and self; masculine gender, thipl person, singular, to agree
with the noun for which it stands according to Rule xii. and in
the nom. cas.e, put by opposition with he, because it means the
same person, according to Rule vii. (which repeat.)

Exc 'r C'ises .
I will assist him. Thou shalt see them. You may have it.
He teaches her. She visited
They call eel you. 'Ve left
our boo.ks, and he brought them. He brought her book, and she
took it out of his hand. They injure themselves. He did it
himself. She herself wrote the letter.
Parse the pronouns in the foregoing exercises; according to
the preceding models: then
Review these exercises, and parse all the names, Yerbs, and
pronouns in them.

us.

t OWN.
Own is sometimes used as n substitute; as, "Ile came unto
his own, and his own received him not." John I, 11. "The
world will love its own." "This is an invention of his own."
"That they may dwell in a place of their own." 2 Sam. 7.
Parse own in each exercise.
Write exercises on n slate or black board, and then in your
book-employ all the compound pronouns, and own.
LI«T 3.-W!to, whfoh, th.at an<l wliat.*

t Who is applied to persons, bnt never to brutes nnr things;
as The man who informed me. The wornnn who performed so
w~ll. "The master who taught us." "The boy who reads."
The men who came. The girls who sung. The boy whom I
taught.
lV!w is the same in both numbers, and is thus declined;
Norn. who; Poss. whose; Obj. whom.
t Which is applicable to animals and things; as, The bird
which sung. The trees which I pruned. The books which I left.
The horse which I rode. The ox which lie sold. The house
which I bought. The pew which I use.
. Which is the same in both numbers, and is thus declined:
Norn. which; Poss. whose; Obj. which.
·
NOTE. Whose is equally applicable to persons and things,
being the possessive of both wlto and which. 'I'lie mo.n whose
duty it is. The woman whose performance was so much admired. The pu1iil whose task was performed. " The question
• "TV7w is called a relative, because it relates to nn antecedent. Tiut
this is also true of lie she, they, and most of the suh8titutes. They nil
relate to the words which they represent," W cbster's Imp. Urnm. p. 2li.

88

89

ETYMOLOGY.

PRONOUNS.

whose solution I require." "The tree whose mortal ·taste." "Is
there any other doctrine whose followers are punished 1"
t That is often used instead of who and which ; as,· The man
that labors. The boy that plays. The girls that study. The
birds that sing. The tree that blooms. The winds that blow.
The doctrines that he taught.
That is applicable to persons and things, it is of both numbers, and indeclinable.
Parse the substitutes under consideration, in all the foregoing
examples, after the following

NoTE. These substitutes seem to be used, principally, to
express in the form of affirm:ition, circumstances, which qualil)r
the words or phrases for which they stand: thus: Man, who IS
mortal, should not boast. Man should not boast, because he is
mortal. Mortal man should not boast. In these forms the
adjective mortal, in the last, supplies the place of a distinct
affirmation, in the former two.

.Model.
Take who in the first example.
"Who is a substitute, because it stands for man; third person,
singular, to agree with man, for which it stands, according to
Rule xii. (which repeat) and in the nom. case to informed,, because it is the subject and agent of the verb, according to Rule
I. (which repeat.) Decline who.
·
Writ~ six exercises on each of these pronouns, who, which,
and that; on the slate or black board, and in your book.

f

Connecting Power of Wno, Wn1cH & THAT.
lV ho, which and that, have a connecting power, and each
is equivalent to a conjunction, and another substitute; and in
this character they often involve one member of a sentence
within another; as, "He that handleth a matter wisely, shall
find good." Prov. 16. 20. In this sentence, that handleth a
matter wisely, constitutes a distinct affirmation, and it is between
the nominative and verb of the other affirmation.
This character of these words, is illustrated by Mr. Harris in
bis Hermes, by the following examples, which are copied by the
Ency. Brit. "Light is a body which moves with great celerity."
"Now instead of which, substitute the words and it, and in
their united powers you see the force and character of the pronoun here treated." "Light is a body, and it moves with great
celerity."
Man, who is mortal, should not boast. Man should not boast,
because he is mortal. The learner will perceive that, because he,
in the last form, are precisely equivalent to. who in the first.
Thus it is clear that who, is equivalent to a conjunction and
another pronoun. And which and that have the same character.

t WHICH.
lVhich has other uses besides those already illustrated. It
often stands for sentences, or parts of sentences; as, " We are
bound to obey all the divine commands, wlticli we cannot do
without divine aid." Here which represents the words, obey all
the divine commands, and .is in the obj. case, governed by do,
according to Rule ix. (which repeat.)
He behaved well, which he was bound to do.
M'liich, sometimes stands for attributes or adjectives; as, You
represented it to be good, which it is not. Here which stands
for the adjective good.
Which, is sometimes equivalent to that whic!i, and, like what,
has two cases; as, choose ivhich you please ; (that is choose
that which you please to choose.) Here ~he pa.rentheti~al clause,
shows the construction, but the other IS the authonzed form.
Which is the object of the verb choose, and also of the verb to
choose understood after please; and hence· it contains two
objective cases.
Continue the exercises in writing, on slates, or black board, or
both, and in your book as above directed, on each list of pronouns
or substitutes.
t WHAT.
This word has several uses.
1. It is equivalent to that which, or the thing which; as, "This
is what I wanted." "Say what you will." "I have heard what
has been alledged."
RESOLUTION.-" This is that which I wanted." " This is the
thing which I wanted." In this use ofwliat, it contains two cases.

.Model for Parsing vVHAT.
li'liat is a substitute, because it stands for the thin(I which;
third person, singular, to agree with thing, for which it stands,
according to Rule XII. (which repeat,) and in the nominative

•

8*

90

ETYMOLOGY.

~ase after. is, .according to Rule VIII. (which repeat,) and also ·
m the objective case, governed by the transitive verb wanted

according to Rule IX. (which repeat.)
'
2. What is often ui:ed to represent any indefinite idea ; as,
they care not what they do. John cares not what he says. "'Ve
shall the better know what to undertake."-Locke. "To see
what are the causes of wrong judgment."-lbm. ·
In the firs~ example, what is in the objective case, governed
by do accordmg to Rule IX. In thethird, it hl!.S two objective
cases, one governed by know, and the other by the verb to undertake, according to Rule IX.
3. . W~at is so~etimes used elliptically, for, what is this .1 or,
how is this .1 as, " 'Vhat ! could ye not watch with me one hour 1"
. In this ~se of what, it is exclamatory; and is in the nominative case, independent, according to Remark under Rule V. in
Syntax.

4. There is another elliptical use of what, in which it is
equivalent to what will follow; as, what, if I undertake this
business 1
In this use of what it is disposed of as in the preceding..
Write exercises on what, until you can distinguish its different
uses.

PRONOUNS.

91

• show what to be derived from who, by the addition of t, (hwa-t)
as the sign of the neuter; and that whose is properly ~he P?sessive of what, as well as who. They show also that h is wntt~n
before w; as it is pronounced in our language. [See Bosworth s
Saxon Gram.

Compound Forms.
Who which and what are often compounded with ever and
'
. improve.
.
" Wh'IC hever runs
soever ·' as " whoever
attends will
fastest: wih win the prize. He usually accomplishes whatever
he undertakes.
In these forms, the substitutes often contain two cases at the
same time. See words of two cases. p. 174.
Write examples containing the compound pronouns, until
you understand them well.
L1sT 4.-This, that, these, tliose.

Interrogative Pronouns.

These words are in very common use as Pronouns or Sub-'
stitutes:
t This and these usually denote ~he last rr_ientione~ or near
objects· that and those, the first mentioned or distant objects; as,
"this ~true charity, that is only its image:" ".Both w_calt.h and
poverty are te~p~ti?ns ;_ tha_t tends t? excite prnle, this discontent." But this d1stmchon is not umformly observed.

'Ht"'"ho, which and wha_t, are m~ch used in asking questions,
whe.re th~y arc called mterrogat1ve pronouns; as, Who is it 1
Which smts you best 1 \Vhat did he say 1 Who came with
you Which is the book~ Wnat :::hall I Jo 1
Parse thus:
lV'!o. is an interrogative pronoun, and it stands for the word
contammg the answer, &c.
Write six questions with each of these pronouns, as before.
NoTE. The relation of who and what will be seen by the
following
Saxon declension of Wno.
IvI. & 1''.
Neut.
N. Hwa,
who
Hwmt.
what ·
G. Hwms,
whose
Hwms,
whose
D. Hwam,
to wltom,
Hwam, to what
A. H wmne, whom
H wmt, what
These are inflected forms of the Saxon, Hwa, who, and they

t TIITS.
This is used as a substitute for both names and clauses; as,
"Certainly this was a righteous man." Here this stands for
this man.
" This is the time, no more delay
This is the acceptable day."
In the ·first of these lines, this stands for this time; and in the
second it stands for this day. In these examples, this stands for
names.
"This is a faithful saving, and worthy of all acceptation, that
Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners." 1 Tim. i. 15.
Here this Rlancls for the sentence in italics, which will l1P. p1a.in
by answering the following question: What is a faithful saying !
" This know also, that in the last days perilous times shall
come." Know what 1 Ans. "ln the last days perilous times shall
co~e." Hence this represents all that part of the sentence in
italics.
'

1

92

ETYlllOLOGY.

PRONOUNS.

" Let no prince measure the danger of discontents by this,
whether they be just or unjust; for that were to imagine people
to be reasonable, who do often spurn at their own good; nor yet
by this; whether tlte griefs whereupon they rise, be, 1'.n fact,
great or small." Bacon on Kingdoms.
Here tliis is a substitute for the clause succeeding it in italics
in each instance.
Parse the substitutes in the examples under this, observilig to
give the word or phrase for which they stand, in every il!stance.
Write three examples with this as a substitute for a name, and
three with the same word as a substitute for clauses.
t THAT.
That is a substitute for both persons and things, nnd also for
phrases and sentences, more frequently than any other word in
the language.

.r
t!.

'

NoTE 1. That is peculiar in respect to number, for when. it
is a definitive adjective, it is always singular; but when it is a
substitute, it is either singular or plural.
lLLUSTRATIONs.-The .~tudent that came Tl1e birds that sing.
The plant that grows. The man that lectured, and the doctrines
that he taught. In these examples that stands for names.
The true use of that as a substitute for a clause, may he understood by the following examples and remarks.
"He recited his former calamities; to which was now to be
added that he was the destroyer of the man who had expiated
him." Beloes' Heroditus, Clio 45.
That, in this sentence, would be pronounced, by most grammarians, a conjunction; if so, the preceding was has no nominative word. Wh:it was to be added 1 Ans. All that follows the
word that was to be added-for all which, that stands.
"He whom thou now hast is not thy husband; in that saidst
t.hou truly." John iv. 18. Here that stands for the woman's
declaration, "I have no husband;" and is in the objective case,
governed by in, according to Rule IX.
"I have sinned in that I have betrafed the innocent blood."
J\fatt. xxvii. 4. Here that stands for al that follows it, and is in
the objective case, governed by in.
Horne Tooke does not allow the word that to be a conjunction
in any case, as the following illustrations will show. "Thieves
rise by night, that they may cut men's throats."

•

93

Mr. Tooke resolves this sentence th.us: "T~iev~s may cut
,,
men's throats, (for) that (purpose) they rise b! mght.
"I wish you to believe that I would not wilfully hur~ a fly.
Resolved thus: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly, I wish you to
believe that (assertion.)"
"You say tliat the same arm .which, whe~ contracted, can
lift- · when extended to its utmost reach, will not . be. abl~ to
raise_: you mean that we should never forget our 151tua~10!1•
and thdt we should be prudently contented to do good ''hth~d
our own sphere, where it can have an effect; and that w_e s C!u.
not be misled even by a virtuous benevolence and public spm1
to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power o
influence."
Mr. Tooke resolves this long sentence thus.
"The same arm which, when contracted, can Ii~-; when
extended to its utm~st reach, will not be a~le ~ raise-: you
say that. We should never forget our s1tuat10!1•-:-You mean
that ·-and we should be contented to do good w1thm ourdown
"".e
8 he~e where it can have an effect ;-you mean that; an
shon!d'not be misled, even by a virtuous benevolence and pubhc
spirit, to waste ourselves in fruitless efforts beyond our power
of influence ;-you rt1ean that." See Tooke's Purley.
- - " If that the king
Have any way your good . des~rts forgot,
He bids you name your griefs. -Shakspeare.

To understand the resolution of this sente~ce, i~ is necessa~~
to understand the word if. -lf is a verb, meamng give or grant,
then it Is resolved thus:
.
"The king may have forgotten your good deserts,;--~ve that
or grant that in any way,-he bids you name your griefs. -Ihm.
• ff is in reality a verb. It is a contractio1~ of Gif, the impenj'ive !Jf
the Gothic and Anglo.Saxon verb Gifan, to give. ft was former Y wnt·
ten gif thus:
'
- - " My largesse
,
.
Hath lotted her to be your bro_ther s m.1Stress-;
Gif she can be reclaimed,-Gif not, hlB prey.
Sad Shepherd. See T'ooke's Purley, vol. 1, ch. 7.
" Gif he passeth with honor,
.
Oure is die dishonor." Kyng Ahsaunder.
"If though, unless, notwithBta.n ding, are ~ailed conjunctio~s, which
is a m~st palpable mistake."-Webst~r's Phil. ~ram. Adve~llse.ment.
" If, v. t., contracted from Saxo~ gif,-;-from gifan -Goth~c giban, to
git;e, It is used as the sign of cond1t1on. '-Webster 1 s 4to Die .

94

ETYMOLOGY.
PRON"OUNS.

NoTE.-That should never be used after if when it would
stand for a !1oun or pronoun; it may be used in such condition
only when 1t would stand for a sentence ; nnd even this use of
it is g~nerally omitted ?Y modern authors; making the sentence,
the object of the verb if; as, "If John shall arrive,'' instead 0£
"If that John shall arrive."
'
t IT AND THAT.
It is strange that the messenger does not return.
Here that stands for all that follows it; and it stands for the
same, as will be seen by the following resolutiOn. The messenger does not return; that is strange ;-or, it is strange-or, this
1s strange.
"I kne\v a man that had it for a by-word, when he saw men
hasten to a conclusion, 'Stay a little tliat we may make an end
the sooner."-Bacon on Despatch.
·
. In this sentence, it stands for the last part or by-word, and the
last that for all that follows it.

" It came to pass in those days that there went out a decree
from Cresar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed."Luke ii. I. Here it stands for all that follows the word days;
the first that stands for all that follows it, and is in the nominative case after came, according to Rule VIII. and the second
that is a substitute for all that follows it, and is in the nominative case after went, according to the same Rule.
"I think it' evident, that government can do nothing to facilitate
exchanges by means of discriminating duties."-Wayland's
Political Econ., p. 186.
Here that s~!1ds f~r al~ that fol~ows it, and is in the objective
case, by apposition with it; and it stands for the same, and is ;
governed by the transitive verb think, according to Rule IX.
. "It. has been ~aid, by a noble lord on my left hand, that I
likewise am runmng the race of popularity."-Lord Mansfield's
Speech.
Herc that represents all that follows it: and is nominative after
has been said, according to Rule VUI. and it represents the
same.
·
.
NOTE 1.-" This inceptive use of it forms a remarkable idiom
of our lang~age, and deserves particular illustration. It stands
as the substitute for a subsequent member or clause of a sen;ence, .~nd .is a sort of pioneer to smooth the way for the verb."
Thus, It 1s remarkable, that the philosopher Seneca makt's use

(

'

95

of the same argument. "-Porteus' Lee. 6. In this sentence, that
stands for all that follows it, and it stands for the same.
NOTE 2.-Dr. w ebster explains these substitutes ~nth~ above
mode. He does not admit that to b~ a co!ijunctJon m any
instance. See the advertisement to lus Pini. ~rammar, and
also his Imp. Grammar. This is also the ~octrme of .Horne
Tooke, Dr. Gleig De Sacy, and other able writers on umversal
Grammar.*
·
That is often used to introduce a sentence, thus: " Th';/'t every
day has its P":ins and sorr?ws, is universall~ experienced."
That is a substitute for the simple senten?e w~ich foll?ws, and
nominative to the verb is experienced, wh1_ch w1_ll be plam by the
followin.,. transposition. "Every day has 1ts pams and sorrows,
0
•
d"
tlwt is universally
experience
.
"That we may proceed." Here that stands for what follows it.
Parse that according to the model under List 3d, and the
explanations given in illustrating it.
\V rite examples of the use of that.

t.

THESE AND THOSE.

Th~se and those are

rarely, if ever, used to ~epresent sentences; but they are very frequently used as substitutes for names;
as, These are my books, and thos~ are yours._ George brought
thesH books with him, but he obtamed those smce he came.
Parse the substitutes in the above examples according to the
model under list 3d.
·
Write several examples of the use of each pronoun.

LrsT 5.-As, bot!t, same, Buch.
t AS •
As is sometimes a substitute or pronoun; as, "Appoint to
office such men as deserve public confidence." Here as stands
• That has a connecting power, and for th!s reason !s cal!ed a conjunc·
tion by some gra1_m!larians; b~t who and wh~ch have hkew1se a connecting power, yet tlus 1s not cons1~ered '.!.sufficient re.ason to call them conjunctions. T/iis, also, has as extens1_ve '.1 connecting ,Power as th.at, ai:id
may often be used interchangeably wJth tt. Thu.a: fhe truth 1s this,
he was present and witnessed .the who!~ trans'.1ct10n .. Her.e that may b.e
substituted for this with propnety, and 1f that ts a cnn)unctton, then tlas
should be also, for they fill precisely t!ie same office m the sen_tence.
Horne Tooke shows most conclusively that. the word tl~t 1s never_ a
conjunction. See his Purley. Alf"o Art. Gram.ma lnte Edit. Enc. Ent.

,,

96

PRONOU~S.

ETYMOLOGY.

for men, and is nom. to deserve. " Such schemea as I have
seen." Webster. "Send him such books as will please him."
"Jubal was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ."
Gen. 4. 21.
As, sometimes represents a clause or sentence; as, On his
receiving this information, as I learned by good authority, he
embarked immediately for Europe. In this sentence as represents all of it, except the clause in which it stands ; and its
.
place may be supplied by which.
Parse, as in each example, after the model under list 3d.
Write seve~al examples of the use of as.
tBOTH.

Both is often used as a substitute for names, adjectives or
clauses; as, He saw John and Charles; both were at home.
"Lepidus flatters both, Of both is flattered." Shakspeare.
Some are young_and others are beautiful; but she is both.
Here both stands for two adjectives,-young and beautiful.
" He will not bear the loss of his rank, because he can bear
the loss of his estate; but he will bear botli, because he is prepared for both." Bolingbroke on Exile.
In this sentence, both stands for the two clauses in italics.
"I would to God that all that hear me this day, were both
almost, and altogether such as I am, except these bonds." PauL
Here both stands for two adverbs.
Parse as b'efore directed, and
'Vrite two examples of each kind.
t SAME.
Same is often used as a substitute for names, adjectives, or
clauses; as, "The same came to Jesus by night." John 3. 2.
"The ethereal vigor is all the 53.me." Dryden.
John is very industrious, and Charles is the same.
"For brave and generous ever are the same." Lusiad I.
"The same was in the beginning with God." John 1. 2.
John told me he had learned his lesson welJ; and his teacher
told me the same.
Here same stands for what was told me.
Parse and write, as before directed.

'

97

t SUCH.
Such often stands for names, adjectives, or clnuses: as, "Jubal
was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ." Gen.
4. 21.
"Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest."
"The true worshippers shall worship the Father in spirit and
in .truth, for the Father seeketh such to worship him." John 4.
23.
Parse and write, as before.

LxsT 6.-Many,few, all, any, several.

t. These words are often used as substitutes for names; as,
"For many shall come in my name, saying I am Christ; and
shall deceive many." Mat. 24. 5. "For many are called but
few are chosen." Mat. 20. 4. "All that ever came before me
are thieves and robbers." John 10. 8. "Are there few that be
saved 1" Luke 13. 23. "Have ,any of the rulers, or of the Pharisees believed on Him 1" John 7. 48. "If a · soul sin against
any of the commandments." Lev. 4. 2. Several of them made
fine fortunes. "Several of my unknown correspondents."
Spectator.
Parse the substitutes in the foregoing examples, according to
the explanation and models already given, of substitutes.
Write several examples of the use of each substitute in list 6.
LrsT 7.-First, last, former, latte1·, less, least, m01·e,
most.

t. These words are often used as substitutes; as, "The last
shall be.first, and the.first, last. Mat. 20. 19.
" The victor's laurel, as the martyr's crown,
The first I hope, nor less the last I prize."
Hoole's Tasso, 6, 8.
" Sublimity and vehemence are often confounded, the latter
being considered as a species of the former." Campbell's
Rhet. 1. 1.
" It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the
command with Minucius : the former's phlegm was a check
upon the latter's vivacity."
" A bad author deserves better usage thnn a bad critic ; a man
mu.y be the former, merely through the mi@fortune of wnnt of
~)

98

99

ETYMOLOGY.

ADJECTIVES.

judgment; but he cannot be the latter without both that and an
lll temper." Pope.
" The children of Israel did so, and gathered, some more, and
some less." Ex. 16. 17. "I am the least of the apostles." 1
Cor. 15. 9.
"Then began he to upbraid the critics wherein most of his
mighty works were don~." Mat. 11. 20. "I cannot go beyond
the word of the Lord, my God, to do less or more." Num. 22.
18.
"The less is blessed by the better." Heb. 7.
Parse and write, as before.

Every is used now as a substitute, only in technical law style;
as, "All and every of them." " Every of the clauses and conditions." "I have not seen either of them." Or thus: I have
seen neither of them.
Usitge authorizes the appropriation of either and neither, to
any number ; as, "Here are ten oranges, take either of them."
" He neither loves
Shakespeare.
Nor either cares for him."
"Resolve whether you will go or not." That is, "you will
go," or" you will not go:" resolve whetlier-which. Whether
is not now used as a substitute for names.
Parse and write, as before.
NoTE 1. In the use of the substitutes, the words or clauses
for which they stand must be obvious, so that the mind may
readily supply them; otherwise .the use of them is a fault.
NoTE .2. Many of the substitutes are also psed as definitive
adjectives, under which head the learner will find them arranged
and explained.
Parse all the names, verbs, and substitutes, in the following

LIST

8.-Some, one," other, miothe1·, none.

f.

These words are frequently used as substitutP.s.
One and other are used in both numbers, and are regularly
declinable ; and another is declinable in the singular.

E xa mp le s.
" Some talk of subjects they do not understand ; others praise
virtue who do not practice it." Johnson.
"Some to the shores do fly, some, to the woOds." Daniel.
" Your edicts some reclaim from sins,
But most your life and blest example wins."
Dryden.
"They came with · their little ones." " Love one another."
"Some fell among thorns ;-but other fell into ?,ood ground."
Mat. 13. "And leave their wealth to others.' Psalm 49.
"What do ye more than others." "Bear one another's burdens." (One bear another's burdens.) "There is none that doeth
good, no not one." Ps. 14. 3. "None of their productions are
extant." Blair.
•
NoTE. None has a plural signification, as well as singular.
. Parse and write, as before.
LIST

t·

9.-Each., e'Oery, either, neitlier, u:hetlier.

These words are often used ~s substitutes.

Examples.
-.. Each of his brotl1ers is in a favorable situation." "It is our
dut1 to assist each other." That is, it is the duty of each to
asslSt the other. "Let each esteem other better than himself."

Exercises.
James loves his book. The pupil learned his lesson. He left
your books, but he brought mine. I wear a hat, but you seem
to prefer a cap. Some of her quills are better than others. A
few of the class recited well, but most of them, were poorly prepared. Their children love one another. Philadelphia is a
beautiful city, its streets cross each other at right angles. None
arc so blind as those who will not see.

IV. ADJECTIVES OR ATTRIBUTES.
When I say good boy, I use the word good to express a quality
of the boy. What kind ofa boy is he 1 He is a good boy. You
perceive, I add the word good to the word boy, to express a
quality of the boy ; and therefore good is called an adjective or
added word. Hence
Adjectives are words added to names, and some other
words to qualify or define their meaning; as good boy,
modest girl, lionest man, splendid house, fine horse, wise
ruler, green leaves, ripe fruit, dark clouds.
Tell which word is the adjective, in each example, and why.

•

\,

ADJECTIVES.

100

ETYMOLOGY.

Foundation of Rule III.
C?nsider this exercise. " Good boy." To whom does the
quality of goodness belong~ Ans. It belongs to the boy, and it cannot be separ!'-ted from hun. Then as the quality belonas t1r·
the pers?n or thmg named; so the o,djective, or word expre~sing
~El quality, belongs to the name of the person or thing. Hence
m Syntax,
RuLE IIT.
Adjectives belong to the nouns whose meaning they describe; as, a wise son, a glad father, a high
tree, an old tune, the best way.
·
Parse t~e adjective in each of the foregoing examples, after
the followmg

M o del.
Good is an adjective, because it is added to the name boy to
express the quality of the boy ; and it belongs to boy accordina
to Rule 3, (which repeat).
'
Now turn to your exercises in writing, and add an adjective
to each name that you can, which will make sense with it: thus:
0

llfodel of Composition.
young man
writes
fine letters
spris:htly boy
plays
beautiful horse
draws
new carriage
lies
red book
good girls
love
instructive books
'l'hen use both adjectives and pronouns, thus :
study
their long lessons
good boys
they
learn
them
N. B. Continue this exercise throughout the adjectives, and
us.e the adjectives of' each list wherever you can make sense
with them, and use the pronouns also ·as much as you can.
These words are also called attributes, because they express
the qualities or attributes of persons or things.
Now parse an the words in the model of composition.

I

I

I

I

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Now compare two boys; thus: Jamee is a tall boy, but John
is a taller boy than James. Then compare several boys; thus:
James is a tall boy; John is a taller boy than Jrunes, but Thomas is the talle.~t boy in the company.
_·

•

101

There are different degrees of qualities in different indivi?uals,
that is, some possess more, and some less of the same quahty,
Adjectives are varied to express the different degrees of quality.
. Most adjectives admit three. degrees of comp~r.ison-a
few admit four dearees: the imperfect, the positive, the
comparatfoe, and the superlative degrees:
The imperfect degree expresses a slight degree of the
quality ; as, saltish, blackish, brownish. .
. .
The positive degree expresses the quality as distinct and
po,,itive ,. as, wise, good, honest.
.
The coniparative degree expresses a g1·~atc1· or less degree of the quality than the positive ; as, wiser, better, less
honest.
The superlative degree expresses the highest or lowest
degree of the quality; as wisest, best, least honest.

Adjectives Compared.
Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.
Imperfect.
white
whiter
whitest
whitish
sweet
sweeter
sweetest
sweetish
-wise
wiser
wisest
mindful
more mindful
most mindful
cheerful
less cheerful
least cheerful
Let the learner now compare all the ·adjectives in the list,
lookincr only at the column of the Pos. degree. Repeat thus:
Pos. \-rise; Comp. wiser; Sup. wisest. Imp. saltish; Pos. salt;
Comp. salter, or more salt; Sup. saltest, or more salt.
In like manner, compare tall, low, lofty, humble, proud, teachable, stubborn, industrious, frugal, high,. :vide, ~e_ep, prudent,
attentive, common, fine, bold, modest, retmng, w11lmg, and .
Tell how the other degrees are formed from the positive.
Adjecti~es of one syllable are generally. compared as wise,
and those of more syllables than one, as ~mdful i except such
as may be easily pronounced; as, lofty, loftier, loftiest.
To express a decrease of quality, less and least must be used
in comparing most adjectives.
The above method of expressing th.e different . deg-rees of
quality, is called the regular comparison of adJeCt~v.es, on
account of its uniformity. The degrees of some qualities, are

9•

0

102

ETYllfOLOGY.

ADJECTIVES.

expressed by different words: this is called irregular comparison.

t
Positive.
good
bad or evil
fore
little
much or many
near
old
late

Irregular Comparison.
Comparative.
better
worse
former
less or lesser*
more
nearer
older
later

Superlative.
best
worst
first
least
most
nearest or next
oldest or eldest
latest or last

Compo.re these adjectives, looking only at the Pos
Different degrees of quality are expressed by the use of
many oth~r words: thus the ~ntensive word very is usetl to express a high degree of quality, but not the highest. John is
much older than James. Here "!uch increases the comparative
degree. Fa~, extremely, exceedingly, and many other similar
words, are m common use for the purpose of incre11.Sing the
comparative and superlative degrees.

Exercises.
Good boy. Modest girl. Fine house. \Vise man. Better way.
Poor soil. Honest officer. Wiser man. Tallest woman.
Whitest cloud. Coldest day. \Varmer weather. Oldest book.
Least person. Little pen.· Higher tower. Larger tree.
Parse _the adjectiv'; in each ~xercise.
.
.
Ow.n is an mtens1~e adject1v~ added, mostly, to pronouns-so~etimes f:<> nouns-m the passive case, for emphasis; as, He
will have his own way. The world will love its own people.

t NUMERAL ADJECTIVES• .
Numeral adjectives are words which simply express number
They are of two kinds :
'
First. Cardinal; as, one, two, three, four, &c.
Second. Ordinal; as, first, second, third, fourth, 4r,c.
" Lesser is a corruption, but too well established to be discarded. Au~hors always write" les~er Asia." "By the same reason may a man
!~ a state of nature, pu~ISh the lesser breaches of the law." Locke.
God made the lesser hght to rule the night." Gen. 1.

•

103

Exercises.
Two men. Four books. One quill. Three trees. Fourth
page. Third line. Second head.
NoTE. The cardinal numerals include all below them in the
series, and the ordinal, exclude all below them.
REMARK. Page four-chapter seven-and all such expressions, are improper; for the plain reason, that one page can
never be four.
Parse the adjective in each exercise under numerals, thus:
Two is a numeral adjective, because it simply expresses number; of the cardinal kind, and it belongs to men, according to
Rule III., (which repeat.)

t

PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.

When participles are used to qun.Iify nouns, in such a way as
to deprive them of their verbal character, they are called participial adjectives.

Exe 1· c is es.
James was an educated man. That company was made up of
well drilled soldiers. William saw five singing women. The
pupil described a moving body. We are pleased with a growing season. Julia is a beloved friend. A humane general pities
o. conquered enemy. A punctual debtor will use unremitting
efforts to pay a renewed note.
Parse the participial adjectives in those exercises, then;
Review the exercises, and parse all the names, verbs, substitutes, and adjectives in them : and
Write several exercises on participial adjectives.
DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES.

In the phrase th·is book; the word this, is added to book, not
to express any quality of the book, as good or ~ad; but because
it has been shown, in some way, which book 1s meant. So in
the phrase a book or one book, a or one, simply defines, or specifies the application of the word book. Such words are called
definitive adjectives, or definitives: hence,

Definitive adjectives are words added to nouns, to define
their application ; as, a man, the woman, this book, that
pen, some trees, any way, those toys, every word .

0

104

ETYMOLOGY.

Pa~se the definitive in each exercise, thus
A Is a definitive adjective bee
't · d
to define its application and heiuse I t Is a ded to th~ noun,
Rule III.
'
ongs 0 man, ·accordmg to
The definitives nre known by lists.
L1sT 1.-Each, every, either and neither.*

ADJECTIVES.

NoTE 1. These definitives do not "point out what things are
meant," but they are added to nouns whose meaning has been
otherwise pointed out or made specific.
NoTE 2. The relation of the and that may be illustrated by
tJi:e following
Saxon Declension of SE.

Exercises.
"Each man took his sword " " He
portion." " Every man should j
gave to each soldier a
either orange of the ten." N ~~~e sJomhne eJmployment." "Take
there.
ei er 0 • ames nor Peter was

Par~e the ad~ective in eacl1 exercise, as above.
Write exercises on the list.
L1sT 2.-The,t thi th t h
yon.
s, a ' t ese, those, former, la.tter,
*Usage authorizes the appro · ·
f
individuals; as, "Neither ofthpnattlon o tlh1ese words to any number of
t Th
d
e en was t ere "
e an. an or a are ranked under th h <l°
. .
to the class1fication of Mr Webst , Ge ea of adJect1ves, according
these wo!·ds he observes'; " Th:r !r ramm:i~'s and J?ktionaries. Of
grammaucally considered the l"k Y e defi"!itwe attrihutes, and havt>
" The words called Articl I e use ~s this, that, some, one, any.
'
W:~bster's .Phi!. Gram. Adverti~~ma:~i. m all languages, Adjectives."
In a scientific arrangement of
.
Io!lg to that class of adjectives den~rm.nma~ca) pri!l?iples, a and the beK1rkh~m ·~Gram. p. 65.
mmate definitives or restrictives."
..
Article is an improper term to ex
words. See \Vebster's 4to D1'c A ~re,ss the true character of these
D e S acv o bserves that an and· a arernc e.
.
son_; and he ranks the with this that &,egar~ed as nrllcles without rea.
E~!nb. Encycl. Art. Gram.
'
' c.
ee also Encyci. Brit. and
. Th.e Article may properly be . d d.
regar e as an adjecti·ve word;." Bui.
hons' <;:ram. p. 192.
The is one of the three ki d f d
.
Mr. Latham. See his Gra~. s Loned~~~s~~~flve pronouns laid down by
.
Several French grammarians M d M
and. ot~ers, ~ronounce the words c~llud A~SArs i M, L'AnnEFRoMANT,
A41ectwe.•, smce they modify their eb ~rti~les in that language, to be
The. definitives "mt and
. Fsu s anuves.
.
and a. a·!}ect1ve.,
· of number" une,
m t"rench
·
Cobb
F ' are i nde termmate
pronouna
Th~ definitives called ~rticles ar: •
rench Gra:m. p. 205.
than m our language, and in that ~h much more .importance in Greek
• ey are considered as improperly

f

105

N.
G.
D.

A.

Masc.
Se
Th res
Tham
Thone

Fem.
Seo
th re re
threre
tha

Neut.
thret, the, that
thres, of the, that
tham, to the, that
thret, the, that

Plural, all genders.
tha, the, those,
th!I!ra, of the, those
tham, to the, those
tha., the, those

This declension shows the and that to be different forms of the
same word, hence it demonstrates tlie propriety of ranking them
i~ the same part of speech. See Bosworth's Saxon Gram.
NoTE 3. The definitive the has lost much of its original
character, and came to' be used more nearly without meaning
than any other word in the language: often serving no other
purpose than affording a sound to fill a hiatus, or smooth the
path of another word. " The least definite of all the defining
adjectives is the_word the." Cardell's Gram. p. 63.
Exercises.
The heighth of this wall is six feet. That book is mine. These
apples are sour. Those trees were planted by James. The
former expression may be as correct as the latt~r one. Sec yon
high mountain.
Parse the adjectives as before, and
Write exercises on the list.
erected into a distinct part of speech. " The article (in Greek) was
properly and originally a demonstrative pronoun." Kiihner's Greek
Gram. p. 313.
" The article (in Greek) had originally the sense of both a demonstrative, and relative pronoun." lbm. p. 326.
"The article (in Greek) is an adjective word of three genders." Bullions Greek Gram. p. 42.
" The artii:le (in Greek) was originally a demonstrative pronounthis, that,-it sometimes losses-a portion of its strict demonstrative
signification, and passes over into the meaning of the pronoun of the third
person-he, she, it." Anthon's Greek Gram.
!}'.:rTeachers who prefer to call the the definite article, and an and a
the indefinite article, will find them sufficiently explained in this work .

•

106
LrsT. 3,-An or
several, what.

•

ETYMOLOGY

a, any, some, other, another, all, such,
.

.

·

Exercises.
. A gardener sold some fruit. . A careless ~tudent injured all
his books. Seyeral men went m the pursmt. Some children
love such fruit. He obtained another book. She went the
other way.· What colors are here 1 If any person comes.
What difficulty did Henry encounter the ot11er ·day ! Some
person has made several attempts to get another agent appointed.
Parse the definitive in each exercise.
Write exercises on the list: then
Review the exercises, and parse all the names, verbs, substitutes, and adjectives in them.
NoTE I. An is merely the· adjective one. It drops the n
before a consonant sound, u long and eu ; as, a man, a universal
deluge, ~ European.. An is perfectly definite in number, and
ofte~ so m spec1ficat1on_; as,_" ~?lomon built a temple." "London 1s a great commercial city.
Perry won a splendid victory
on Lake Erie.
An has two general uses. It denptes a class or sort· as an
ox is a useful animal: or it denotes an individual; as, John sold
an ox.
NOTE 2. A has several idiorria,tic uses, which are remarkable; as, "A few days." "A great many persons." "~dozen."
"A lmndred." "A hundred years."
"Full many a gem of purest ray serene." Gray.
"Full many a rose-bud rears its blushing head." Beattie.
These expressions are in violation of analogy, but they are
well authorized by usage, and therefore, correct.
NoTE 3. Several, in old authors, is applied to singular names·
as, "In every several city." 2 Chron. 11. 12.
'
"E:ich might his sev~ral province well command." Pope.
This use of several is now obsolete, except in technical law
style; as, "A joint and several estate." "A joint and several
note or bond." "A several fishery."
NoTE 4. The possessive case of names and substitutes, constitutes a class of definitives. In many of these, there is no ownership intended; as, "\Vashington's monume.nt." "~fen's
clothes." "Boys' hats."

•

ADVERBS.

107

This use has, probably, arise~ fr_om. th_e fact, th8:t the real use
of the possessive, where o:vnersl~1p rs mtende~, rs to ~efine or
specify. Names and substitutes m the possess~ve, retam, however, enough_ of their pri1!1ary character to entitle them to the
position they now occupy m grammar.
REMARK. The usual classification of definitives, is troublesome to lea.rners, and useless in grammar; and as Dr. Webster
observes, "by no means correct."
,_
1

V. ADVERBS, OR MODIFIERS.
In the expression; the boy behaves well; the word well does
not describe the boy, but his action. How does the boy behave 1
Ans. He beha-ves well. The word well is added to the ver~ ~o
modify or describe the meaning of the verb ; and hence rt 1s
called an adverb; that is a word added to a verb. Hence

Adverbs nre words joined to verbs, adjectives, and ?ther.
adverbs, to modify their meaning; a~, .the boy runs swiftly,
a well trained horse, a truly noble spmt.
Tell which word is the adverb in each of the above examples,
and why it is so.

Foundation of Rule XIII. in Syntax.
Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly.
Swiftly ~xpresses the m~nner of the action runs ; .and it is
. plain that the mani~er is_ entrreJy dependent on the action; and
that it could not exist without rt.
As the manner belongs to the action; so the word expressing
\he manner, belongs to the word which asserts the action.
Hence in Syntax,
RuLE XIII. Adverbs belong to verbs, adjectives and other
adverbs; as, He lives well. She came early. The plant grows
rapidly. I have never seen it.
Parse the adverb in each of the above exercises, after the following
MoDEL. Swiftly is an adverb, because it express~s the manner of the action, runs; and belongs to runs, accordmg to Rule
XIII., (which repeat.)
In like mannar parse the adverbs in the following

I .

108

ET\.MOI.OGY.

Exercises.
It is nqt there. He stays nowhere. William acted nobly
Henr:r studie~ ind~1striously. Susan behaved modestly. W~
may hve happily. fhey should talk peaceably. · He never does
wrong. She always does l'ight. She acts prudently. He ·
soon departed. They will return abruptly.
Write several exercises on adverbs.
Turn to yol!r exercises in your book, and add adverbs to the
verbs you have· written, after the following

Jl.fodel of Composition.
The young man now writes
fine letters:
he
reads carefully,
his books.
All good boys diligently study .
their long lessons.
they
learn well.

I
I

~: B. The attentive pupil begins to see, in these models for
writmg, much of the frame-work of the language.
Now parse all the words in the model.

:f: Ma~y Adverbs admit the degrees of comparison to express different degrees of modification ; as, soon, sooner,
soonest. Pos. often ; Com. oftener ; Sup. oftenest-wisely
more wisely, most wisely.
'
NoTE 1. ';1'~1ere is '.I- class of adverbs or modifiers, usually
c~lled prepositions, which are used with verbs to vary their sigmficabon ; as, to fall. on, to bear with, to cast up, to think of;
or they are prefixed and become a part of the word ; as, overcome, underlay.
NoTE 2. The chiuf use of Adverbs is to shorten discourse·
as, there, for in that place ; now, for at the p1·esent time · nobly'
for in a noble manner, &c.
'
'
. "Abbreviations are the wheels of language· the wings of
Mercury," says Ben Jonson, the author of ad early English
Grammar.
NoTE 3. · The principal adverbs come under the following
heads:1. Adverbs of time; as, now, already, ago, often, never, &c.
2. Place; as, where, yonder, hence, nowhere, whence, secondly, &c.
3. Manner; as, well, bravely, tamely, &c.

PREPOSITIONS.

109

4. Direction; as, upward, homeward, heavenward, &c.
5. Quantity; as much, too, barely, only, enough, &c.
6. Interrogation; as, how 1 why 1 wherefore 1 whence 1 &c.
7. Affirmation; as, yes, certainly, truly, doubtless, &c.
8. Negation; as, no, nay, not, nowise, &c.
9. Uncertainty; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c.
10. Comparison ; as, more, most, well, better, so, thus,
rather, &c.
This list is given merely as a general guide to the pupil, for
he should learn to distinguish adverbs by their office, and not
depend on lists.

:f: The learner should now resolve as many of the foregoing adverbs as he can, by giving their equivalents; thus :
now is equivalent to, at this time,· already - by this time;
ago - before this time, &c. Thus it appears that,
Every adverb is equivalent to a preposition and its subsequent term. On the other hand,
A preposition and its subsequent term may, in most instances, be changed into an adverb: thus, instead of saying,
he lives in tranquility - he writes with rapidity- he is rich
to excess :-we may say ; he lives tranquilly- he writes
rapidly - he is excessively rich.
The learner should often practice as above.
Write exercises on each kind of adverbs.
For Conjunctive Adverbs, see Conjunctions.

VI. PREPOSITIONS.
Apples grow - trees. These words make no sense, in this
way. Now insert the little word on. Apples grow on trees.
On connects the word grow with the word trees, and shows the
relation between them ; and thus makes the sense complete.
Such words are called Prepositions, because they are placed
before the subsequent term of the relation. Hence,

P1·epositions arc words used to connect words, and to
show the relation between them; as, John went from the
house. Julia came to town. A man of benevolence. He
came from school. She rode in a carriage. I write with a
pen. You mark on paper. John labors with his hands.
He goes into the house.

10

110

111

ETYMOLOGY.

CONJUNCTIONS.

Parse the Preposition in each example after the followinrr
MoDEL. From is a preposition, because it connects the ;ords
!Vent and house, and shows the relation between them. lVent
is th~ antecedent term, and house, the subsequent term, of the
relation.

According is the present participll'!' of the verb to accord; notwithstanding is the present participle of the verb withstand,
with the prefix not ; and so of the rest.
NoTE 3.-There are several particles, or prefixes, which
serve to modify words by being placed before them in composition, called inseparable 'prepositions, because they are never
used, except as parts of words. These are, a, be, con, mis, pre,
re, sub,-in abide, become, confirm, misrule, prefix, re-unite,
submerge, &c.
VII. CONJUNCTIONS.

F o u n d a t i o n of R u le IX. P a r t 8 e c o n d.
Consider this example. John went from the house. Fram
means leaving. .1'hen, leaving what 1 .Ans. Leaving house.
Therefore, house is the subsequent term, or object, of the relation
expressed by from: hence, in Syntax, the 2d part of •

Conjunctions are words used to connect words or sentences ; as, John and James arc beloved, because they are
good. Two and two make four. Thomas went to town
to-duy; and he will return to-morrow. James will go to the
city to-morrow, or he will send.

RuLE IX. Prepositions govern the objective case; as
Susan went to school. She rides in a carriage. William
stands on the floor. Henry stepped over the stream. A·
man of benevolence.

Parse the conjunction in each example, after the following

Parse the preposition in each example:
Two words may have several different relations to each other:
thus, between the expressions he is, and house, there may be a
number of relations; as, he is in the house; he is on the house·
he is under the house; he is before the house; he is behind th~
house; he is by the house; he is over the house · he is at the
house ; he is from the house, &c.
'
Write, in your exercises, prepositions and names, in the right
hand space, atl:er some of the intrinsitive verbs, so that the
wh?l~ will make sense: lou;e as much room between the preposition and name as you can ; thus :

JJf ode ls.

And is a conjunction, because it connects the words John and
James.
·
Because is a conjunction, because it connects ·the following
sentence with the preceding one.
In like manner, parse the conjunction in each of the following
EXAMPLES. "Wheat grows in a field, and men reap it."
"The Georgians cultivate cotton and rice." "The sun and the
planets constitute the Solar System." "They came with her,
but they went away without her."
Write exercises in your book, connecting sentences with conjunctions, thus:
JJfo d e l of Co mp o s i t i o n.
lately wrote
some beautiful letters,
The young man
a.nd
he
mailed
them to his friends.
The industrious girl
learns well
her long lesson,
for
she diligently studies through the day.
Now parse all the words in this model.
NoTE 1.-A distinguishing use of conjunctions, is to shorten
discourse, by preventing the repetition of words; e. g., James,
William and Henry reside in Boston. This is equivalent to
three simple sentences: James resides in Boston; 'Villiam

JJfodel of Composition.
The red book
lies there on the centre table,
it
appears well to
little Virginia.
The cheerful boys earnestly play
with
that bail,
· they
have long been
at
the game.
Parse all the words in this model.
NOTE I. ':f~e f?llowing are the most common prepositions:
to,for, by, of, in, into, on, upon, among, between, betwixt, up,
over, under, beneath, against, from, with, through, at, towards
~ '
before, behind, after, without, across, &c.
NoTE 2. According, concerning, except, exceptin(J', not\vithstand~lil" respecting, touching, and some others, are often called
prepos1t10ns, but they are verbs nnd participles in all .cases.

I
I

•.

112

ETYMOLOGY.

resides ~n Bo~ton, and Henry resides in Boston. By the use of
the conJunct1on, these three sentences are combined into one
by . connecting the nominative words and making them th~
subJect of one verb.
But it is not correct to isay that conjunctions connect sentences
when they appear to connect only words: e. g. "John and Jan~
are a. handsome couple." This sentence does not mean that
John is a hand.~ome couple; and that Jane is a handsome couple.
The principal conjunctions are, and, or, nor, but, than,
beca.use,for, as, a.lso, therefore, &c.
NoTE 3.-Several of the words commonly called conjunctions
by some aut~ors on grammar, belong properly to other parts of
speech, as will be seen by the following derivation of them:
Horne Took e's Table of Derivation.
If
(Gif
1 Gifan, To give.
An
An
Ano.n, To grant.
Unless
,,, Onles
.aC1):
Onlesan, To dismiss.
Eke
- ~ Eac
> Eacan, To add.
Yet
..... Get
C1l
Getan, To get.
Still
~ Stell
·d Stellan, To put.
.§ Ales
. ~ Alesan, To dismiss.
Else
Though
- Thafig
~ Thafigan ~
or
1l
or
....
or
To allow.
Tho'
..., Thaf
'" Thafian
But
~ Bot
~ Botan, 'fo boot, superadd.
But
Be-utan
'o Beon-utan, To be-out
'Vithout
Wyrth-utan
Wyrthan-utan, To be out
And
An-Ad
Anan-Ad, Give a collect'n.
Lest is the past participle Lesed, of Lesan, To dismiss.
.
S mce

{

~~t~!han
Seand-es
s'.~~the

lJ

.
IS the participle of Seon, To see

Sm-es
That is the article or pronoun that. Tooke's Purley.
A:s is es, a German a~ticle,, meaning it, that or which. And
So 1s sa or so, a Gothic article, of the same import with As. ,
The above table shows that several of the words commonly
called conjunctions, possess more of the nature of ~erbs, than
they do of that part of speech. Encycl. Brit.

INTERJECTIO.:-IS.

113

NoTE 3.-A~d implies addition: as, three and two make five.
· Or implies an alternative, and nor denies it.
Bitt has three meanings :-I. ~ore, noting addition; as," Now
abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these
is charity." I Cor. xiii. _Here but means the sa~e that and
would. 2. But means besides or exce'Rt ; as, " there Is none good
but o'ne." In this sense but is a participle, nor has it the least
affinity to a conjunction. 3. But means only; as "Our light
affliction, which is but for a moment." 2 Cor. iv. _Jn this sense
but is likewise a participle.-See Webster's 4to Die.
NoTE 4. The old distinction of conjunctions into copulat·ive
and disjunctive, was founded in error, and is, happily, going into
disuse, in our grammars.. See Smith's Grnm., Nutting's New
Gram., and Webster's Phil. and Imp. Grammars.
The idea of a word's ha vinP" the power of joining and di~join­
ing at the same time, is absu~d : and still more so, to join in a
d·i sjoining manner.
Conjunctive Adverbs.
Some adverbs have the power of conjunctions in connecting
sentences, and are, therefore, called Conjunctive Adverbs; as,
We will depart when the boat arrives. . He _lives where John
did. They affirmed the fact, hence, I believe 1t.

VIII. INTERJECTIONS.
Inte1jections are words used to express the emotions of
the speaker; as, "Ah me! for I am undone." "But alas!
it was too late." "Pshaw! you awkward thing."
·Parse the interjections, and write exercises on them.
l\loDEL.-Ah is an interjection, because it is used to express
an emotion of the speaker.
Interjections are s~metimes thr?wn between the parts of a
sentence : at other tJmes, used with a word or phrase i am!
often by themselves.
'Ve expre8s surprise or grief hy the w?rds Oh, 0, Ah,_ Alas,
&c., uttered with an unusual tone of voice, and express10n of
countenance. Pish, Pshaw, express contempt. Really, strange,
&c. wonder.
Some names, verbs, and adjectives, am used in a detached
manner, as interjections; as, Hail ! Welcome ! Bless me ! &c.

10•

,

- --

( •

~

-

- - _- ,

)

\ /.

p"'

-

- '

114

DERIVATION.

ETYMOLOGY.

DERIVATION.
How~v~r. numerous the mass of words ma be in a
the primitive or radical words are few y .M
lanriage,
formed by adding certain words
.
any "\~oras are
wh1cl1 were
originally distinct words but have loo~thsy~labhles,
11 "
as
· l
·
'
c1.r c aracter as Guch ·
•er, ~n over, is a contraction of wer-a s
d
. •
man-m the Latin vir.
axon wor meamng
The t.ennin~tion ly is a contraction of like or l" h "' . fi
the Latmfacio, to make; &c.
ic e-.Jy is ro~

E .. g. from Sign, we have various families of derivatives.

th us.

.

'

S~gn-sig.ni~ig-signed-signer.

S~gnet-s~gil-seal-sealer-sealing-sigillative

S1:gn-al-:-ize-ly-ity-ised-ising, &c.
·
S~gn-o/ton-:-acle-atory-ature, &c.
S ~gn-ify-:-ificant-ijicant l!j-i.ficance.
~~h-~ying-fi ed-er--;-eation-cative-catory-ly
1
t e pre xes, as--con-de-re--en--pre . · h
fi.s-si~n-ment-ation--er-ee-ed-ing-abl=t we
ative-iJ!catory-ificable, &c.
a ory- y' Con-~ign-ment, &c.. ; six at least in family.
De-s~gn-er, &c.; nme compounds.
Re-si{In-ed, &c. ; six compounds.
En-sign-s-ia.
Pre-sign-ify, &c.
ln-sigr:-:-ificant-ijicance-ificantly.
& In add1t10n to these, we. J1ave signless, sif!nboard signpost
c.
See. Lewis' Analytical Outlmes, &c'. p. 121. '
come under the fi 11 .
Most of the derivatives in En(J'lish
0
heads.
o owmg

ale-

I. Names are derived by adding,
I. R, ~r or or to names and verbs; as, lover assignor from

love, assign.
'
'
2: Ment and age ; to names and verbs ; as, commandment

ptumshment, parentage, stowage, from command, punish parent'
sow.
'
'
. 3h. Dom and ric to names; as, kingdom, bishopric from king
b1s op.
.
.
'
'

115

4. Hof!d and ship to na,mes; as, manhood, lordship, from man,
lord.
5. Ess to names; as heiress, from heir.
6. Ate, ite and ret; to names; as carbonate, sulphite, sulphuret, from carbon, sulphur.
7. Cy to names and attributes; as, captaincy, currency, from
captain, current.
8. Ian to names; as, physician, from physic.
9. Y and ery to names; as, grocery, tbolery, from grocer,
fool.
10. Kin and ling to names; as, lambkin, duckling, from
lamb, duck.
·
11. [st to names and attributes; as, psalmist, royalist, from
psalm, royal.
12. Ee to verbs ; as assignee, from assign.
13. Ness, ity, &c. to attributes; as, goodness, reality, &c.

II. Verbs are derived from names and attributes.
1. By prefixing the particle to, as to love, to cool, from love,
cool.
2. By adding ize ; as, systemize, moralize, from system,
moral.
3. By adding n or en; as strengthen, deepen, from strength,
deep.
4. By adding fy; as, stratify, beautify, from stratum, beauty.
5. Many verbs are derived from other verbs by taking prefixes ; as, mistake, overtake, undertake; from take.

III. .Adjectives or Attributes are derived from names by
adding;
1.
2.
3.
from
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Y and ly ; as, healthy, stately, from health, state.
Ful ; as, hopeful, from hope.
Able or ible ; as, creditable, from credit : in the same way
verbs; as, compressible, from compress.
Ish ; as, waggish, childish, from wag, child
Less; as, fatherless, penny less, from father, penny.
Ous; as, famous, glorious, from fame, glory.
Some ; as, burdensome, from burden.
Al; as, national, conventional, from nation, convention.
le ; as, balsamic, poetic, from balsam, poet.
Ed; as, bigoted, talented, from bigot, talent.
N and en; as, silvan, Bilken, from silve, silk.

116

· ETYMOLOGY.

ADJECTIVES.

12. From ~·erbs by adding ive and tori .
tory, from elect, defame.
Y ' as, elective, defamn-

117

PEnsoN. The person of a name, is its· position in discourse.
Names. have three persons, or positions in discourse; the first,
second and third.
The first person is the position of'the speaker-the second is
spoken to-the third person, is spoken of.
NuMBER. Number is the different forms of names to express
one or more. Names have two numbers, the singular and
plural.
The singular number denotes but one-the plural, more than
one.

IV. Adverbs or Modifiers.
Many adVf~rbs are derived fr
t 'b
adding ly; as finely, lovingly, f~~~ ~~:: ~~i~;.nd participles by
A great many words, in the f(
•
. formed by prefixing certain s llabl:~omg parts of spee~h, are
super, &c., and many by they .
f as, re, pre, con, mis, sub,
life-guard.
'
umon o two words; as, pen-knife,
The words m the other parts of speech
tivcs.
are mostly primi-

CASE. Case means the position of the name in a i;:entence,
with respect to other words. Names have three cases-the
nominative, possessive and objective.
The nominative, is the position of the name when it is the
subject of a proposition.
The possessive case denotes ownership.
'l'he objective case denotes the object of an action, or of a relation.

II. VERB.
A verb is a word that asserts action, or being, or a state of
being.
Verbs are of two kinds-transitive and intransitive.
A transitive verb asserts action, which does, or can, terminate
on an object.
An intransitive verb asserts being, or a state of being, or action, which cannot terminate on an object.
VornE. . Voice means a particular modification of transitive
verbs, by which they show whether the action is performed by
the nominative, or by some other agent upon the nominative.
!ransitive verbs have two forms,called the active and passive
v01ces.
In the active voice, a tra,nsitive verb asserts action performed
by the subject or nominative.
In the passive voice, a transitive verb asserts action received
or sidfered by the subject or nominative.
Intransive verbs have no distinction of voice.
MonEs. Mode is the modification of the verb by which its
assertion is varied. Verbs have five modes-the infinite, imlicative, potential, subjunctive and imperative.
The infinitive mode is that form of the verb, in which its assertion is not limited by person or number.

RECAPITULATION OF ETYMOLOGY.
. The second part of Grammar is Et
I
.
different classes or sorts of words. ymo ogy, winch treats of the
;here are eight sorts, or classes of words--or parts of s
h.
· The Noun or name 2 Th V
peec ·
~rb. 3. The Pronoun or
Substitute. 4. The Adje~tiv~ or
~odifier. 6. The Preposition 7 Tr10ute.. 5. ~he Adverb or
t1ve. 8. The'InterJ'ection or E.x 1. ht~ ConJunct10n or Connecc ama 10n.

Xu

I. NOUNS OR NAMES.
Nouns or Names are th
d b
.
are called.
e wor s Y which persons or things
Names are of two kinds--common and
A common r,iam~ is a general name. proper.
A proper name Is a particular name.
GENDER. Gender is
d'fi ·
sexes.
a mo I cation of names to distinguish the

~h::e:vu;wo g~nders,-the masculine and feminine
u

e gen er denotes males-the feminine, fe~a.i-

l

i18

ETYMOLOGY.

'l'he indicative, is the form of the verb in which it simply
asserts action ancl being, or asks questions.
Tr.e potential mode is the form of the verb in which it asserts
action a.ncl being as possible or necessary.
The subjunctive mode is the form of the verb in which it
asserts action and being as contingent or hypothetical.
The imperative mocle is the form of the verb usecl for commanding, entreating and permitting.
TENSE. Tense is the modification of the verb, which denotes
the time of the action or being. Verbs have six tenliles-the
present, prior-present, past, prior-past, future and prior-future.
The present tense is the form of the verb that denotes present
time.
Tlie prior-present tense is the fonn of the verb that denotes
past time, and conveys an allusion to the present.
The past tense is the form of the verb which denotes' past
time.
The prior-past tense is the form of the verb. that denotes past
time, but as prior to some other past act specified.
The foture tense is the form of the v~rb which denotes future
time.
The prior -future tense is the form of the verb that denotes
future time, but as prior to some other future act specified.
AuxILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary verbs, are chiefly used to fonn
the modes and tenses of other verbs.

CoNJUG.~TION. The conjugation of a verb is a regular combination and arrangement of its several modes, tenses, persons
and numbers.
RooT. The root of a verb, is the present, of the infinitive.
PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. past and perf. part.
Participles are certain forms of verbs used to describe nouns.
There are three-the present, perfect and compound perfect.
The present participle denotes continued action.
·
The perfect participle denotes finished action.
The compound perfect participle is formed by prefixing the
participle having, to perfect participle.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. Regular verbs form the past tense
and perfect part. by adding d or ed to the present--all othen1
are irregular.
P A.SSIVE VornE. The passive voice is formed by adding the
perf. part. of a transitive verb in the active voice, to the verb be
in nil its inflections. .

RECAPITULATION•

119

verbs are those which are used
D EFECTIVE VER ns
=· Defective
.
in only part of the conjugation.
.

III. PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. .
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to av01d a too
frequent repetition of the same word.
LISTS OF THE SUBSTITUTES.
::--< ~ 1. I thou or you, he, she, it-we, ye or ro~, they.

c:

'.
h'
his hers ours, yours, them"
2. Mme, t idne,
' If. thyself. himself, ourselves, &c.
Compoun -myse '
'
h
p., The above are personal, because their forms show w at person they are in.
:3. Who, which, that, what.
4. This, that, these, those.
5. As, both, same, such.
6 Many few, all, any, several.
First,'last, .former, latter, less, least.
8. Some, one, other, anot~er, none.
9. Each, every, either, neither, whether.
belong to substiThe distinctions of person, number and case
tutes, as to names.

~

G)

1:

IV. ADJECTIVES OR ATTRIBUTES.
..
express
the
qualities
Adjectives are words a<lded to names, to
of the. tlri~1gs named. . cl t express the different degrees of
Acl.1 e~t 1 ves are. v~ne., o •
rt . the varmt1on IS called,
.
. . s have three deO'rees of comparison
qua I y , . CoMPARISON. I A~.1ect1~e t positive comp~rative an<l superla-some, four-tie 1mper1ec ,
•

r ht degree of the quality
tive.
The imperfect degree, d~notes tt s ·~ positive ancl distinct-the positive, expresses t e qua I Yt'. e i·n meanin"'-and the
·
· eases
·
the comparative
mer
· · . the pos1 1v , t derrree of"'the quality.
.
·es the highest or 1owes
""
l
super at1ve express
f two kinds-cardinal
NuMERAL ADJECTIVES. These are o
ancl ordinal.
d dded to names
As . These are
a
•
DEFINITIVE .n.uJ~CTI.VE
k wor
·n bs lists.
to define their application : they are now
y
1 tt
I Each every, either, neither.
. .
'
h
ti e former a er, yon.
2. The, this, that, t ese, I ios ' th ~11 such several, what.
3. An or a, any, some, ot ier, ano er, '
'

120

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISES.

121

V. ADVERBS OR MODIPIERS.
Adverbs are words added to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, to modify their meaning.
VI. PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions are words used to connect words and show tl1e
relation between them.

THE CHILD AND DOVE.
'

1

SUGGESTED DY CHANTREY S STATUE OF LADY LOUISA RUSSELL.

VII. CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES.
Conjunctions are words used to connect words or sentences.
VIII. INTERJECTIONS OR EXCLAJ\JATIONS.
Interjections are words used to express the emotions of the
speaker.

\

Tnou art a thing on our dreams to rise,
'1\Jidst the echoes of long-lost melodies,
bright dew from the morning back,
And to flinu
0
Fair form ! on each image of childhood's track.
Thou art a thing to recall the hours
When the love of our souls was on leaves and flowers;
When a world was our own in some dim sweet grove,
And treasure untold in one captive dove.

Promiscuous Exercises.
A DIRGE.

CALM on the bosom of thy God,
Young spirit! rest thee now !
Even while with us thy footstep trod,
His seal was on thy brow.
Dust, to its narrow house beneath !
Soul, to its place on high !They that have seen thy look in death,
No more may fear to die.
Lone are the paths, and sad the bowers,
Whence thy meek smile is gone;
But oh !-a brighter home than ours,
In heaven, is now thine own.
Mrs. Hemans.

Are iliey gone 1 can we think it, while thou art there,
Thou joyous child with the clustering hair 1
Is it not spring that indeed breathes free
And fresh o'er each thought, while we gaze on thee 1
No! never more may we smile as thou
Sheddest round smiles from thy sunny brow;
Yet something it is, in our hearts to shrine
A memory of beauty undimm'd as thine:
To have met the joy of thy speaking face,
To have felt the spell of thy breezy grace,
To have linger'd before thee, and turn'd, and borne
One vision away of the cloudless morn.
Mrs. Hemans.

11

ORDER OF PARSING.
In parsing, the learner should give the reason of every tliing,
as he proceeds, until he is thoroughly familiar with all the definitions and reasons. \Vhenever a rule is applied, let it be
repeated.
JI. VERBS.
I. NAMES.
A Name or Noun
A Verb
Root,-Corn. or Prop. .
( - - Gender*)
Prin. parts - - - Person
Reg. Irreg. or De£
--Number
Trans. or Intrans.
--Case
(Voice,f)
Government
--Mode
Rule
--Tense
--Person
--Number
Ill. SUBSTITUTES.
Agreement ·
A Pronoun or Substitnte
Rule
Stands for - ( - - Gender*)
IV. ADJECTIVES.
- - Person and
An Adjective
- - Number, to agree
(Numeral or Definitive Adj.)
Rule---Degree .
--Case
Belongs to - Government
Rule
Rule

V.
An Adverb
Belongs to
Rule
VIL

ADVERBS.

VI. PREPOSITIONS.
A Preposition
Connecting - The antecedent term, with-The sub'q't term of the relation.

CONJUNCTIONS.

A Conjunction
Connecting - -

VIII. INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection.

* The distinction of gender is not to be mentioned in parsing nouns
not masculine or feminine, nor in parsing any substitutes except lie nud
she.
t The distinction of voice is not to be named in parsing intransitive
verbs.
(122)

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX is a system of Rules for the construction of sentences.
In other words : ·
Syntax is sentence making.
NoTE. The Rules of Syntax are comprised under four general divisions - Government - Concord or Agreement- General Construction and Punctuation.
A Sentence is an assemblage of words forming a complete proposition.
A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together.
" Sentences are either simple or compound.
1
A simple sentence contains one subject, or nom. and one
personal verb, that is, a subject and a verb, and without these,
no proposition can be formed ; as, Man lives.
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple
sentences connected together ; as, God is good, and man is
dependent.
Each division of a compound sentence, is a cla.use, or
member of the sentence.
Government is the influence that one word has, in directing the person, number or. case of another.
Concord is the agreement of one word with another in a
sentence.
General Construction is the position of the different parts
and phrases of a sentence, with reference to each other.
An adjunct is a phrase added to a word or sentence to
illustrate or amplify the import of other words, or of the
whole sentence,
(123)

124

NOMINATIVE CASE

SYNTAX.
GENERAL ANALYSIS 01'' SENTENCES.

Some sentences consist of two parts, the subject or nom.
case, and verb; and others, consist of three parts, the subject,
the verb 01· copula /If< and a predicate or an of:dect; and
many have adjuncts in connection with these parts.

Examples.
1
•

God is omnipotent." "The sun shines," The sun in
his strength, rules the day. The sun rules the day, by divine
appomtment.
Analyze these sentences, after the following •

l'tfodels of Analyzing Sentences.
, God is the subject; is, is the verb or copula, and omnipotent
is the predicate.
.
Second sentence tlius.
verh.t

S!ln is the subject, and shines, is the

Third sentence thus. Sun is the subject, rules is the verb,
and day is the object, and, in his strength, is an adjunct of Sun. ·
Fourth Sl!.11tenee 1 in thv .iame wn.y-frv divine appointment, is
an adjunct of the whole sentence.
NoTE. The third member of a sentence should be called the
object, when it is the object of a transitive verb; but in other
circumstances, it should be called the predicate, being a noun or
an adjective.
The phrases connected with sentences, are adjuncts.
()::'.J" The learner should be well drilled in the general analysis

of sentences. He should resolve compound sentences into their
several simple ones, and then analyze each.
The particular analysis of sentences, is the parsing of all
the words in them,
"' The copula is the verb, or affirming word, which connects the subject
with the predicate or object.
t In this kind of sentences the copula and predicate, are both comprised in the verb.

125

GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.
RULE I.

Tlie nominative case gove1·ns the verb, which asserts its
action or being, in person and number; as, he learns;
the boys learn ; thou learnest.
Question.

What is the foundation and reason of this rule 1
Seep. 50.

Exercises.
The pupil writes. Thon wri_test.. Yon write. The boys
play. The girls read. The bird sings. The lambs skip.
Parse the nominative word in each exercise, according to
former models. .
REMARK. Every nominative case, except the ~om. _independent, and absolute, must have a verb expressed or 1mphed.

Ge n e r al Dire c t ions.
():J These directions should be strictly followed by the learne~.
I. Go through the rules carefully, omitting the notes, until

the review, 1rnd thon tD.b hnt.h rules and notes, thoroughly. .
2. Give the general analysis of each sentence, Li:!fure p11romg
·the words prescribed.
.
3. Parse only the words that come under the rule or note with
which you are engaged, omitting all other parts of the sentence,
for the time being.
.
4. Parse those words in the examples, ancl then correct the
incorrect sentences, and parse in the same way:
.
5. Go throuah all the examples and exercises, and rev1~w
until you are thoroughly familiar with the rule or note, and its

us~. Never quit a rule or note, ~ntil you understand well, the
reason of its use.
'
.
.
7. After sufficient exercise on ~he rule or note with which you
are engaged; review the exercises, and parse all wor?s that
come under the rules; or rules and no~es thr?ugh which you
have passed; omitting all others f~r t~e tune bemg. .
.
8. After going throug:h, and revieynng as above, revww agarn,
and parse all t11e words m the exercises.
11w

126

. VERBS.

SYNTAX.

Co mp o s i ti o n.
Select three subjects, and wri~ in your book, three simple
sentences on each, after the followmg
.

JIJ ode l.
Man is mortal.
Man is liable to many accidents.
Man is subject to death.
·

Foundation of Note.
. It is sometime~ necessary to. ~ake an assertion respecting an
mdependent acti?n or proposition; as, " To see is pleasant."
James departed, IS a short sentence. Hence the following,
NOTE.
A verb in the infinitive mode; a sentence, or a clause
may be the subject of a verb; as, " To die is the inevitabl;
lot of man."
Why is this note necessary 1 See above.

\

Exercises.
. "To be blind is cala~itous." T_o live in peace should be the
aim o_f every one. "'Io attack vices in the abstract, without
touchmg persons, may be safe fighting indeed, but it is fighting
with shadows." Pope.
" To throw the fire-brand of war among the nations at this
period, would be treason." Channing, on War.
1
·.
His being at enmity with Cresar was the cause of perpetual
discord.
·
"I deny that men's coming to the use of reason, is the time
of their discovery." Locke, 1, 2.
" To show how the understanding proceeds herein, is the
·design of the following discourse." Locke, 1, 4.
"To fear no eye and to suspect no tongue, is the grell,t prerogative of innocence." Rambler.
•
Tell what is the subject of the verb in each of the foregoing
examples and exercises, and then
Review, and parse, all the words that come under any of the
rules, and this note.
Compose five sentences, with ~ verb in the infinitiv~ for
.
.
'
the subject, and then several with a clause or sentence as
the subjed.
' ·

·tt·

127

RULE II.
A 1'erb must agree witli its subject-nominative in pe~son
' and number,· as, thou art; the man labors; Jane studies;
they study; thou studiest.
Why must a verb agree with its nominative 1 See p. 51.
NoTE. To find the nom. to any verb, ask a question with the
verb, by prefixing who or what; as, John reads. Who reads 1
and the answer will always be the nominative.
Correct the following exercises, and parse the words that
come under Rule II.

lnco rr ec t Construct ion.
"A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye."
"A part only of the individuals are meant." Smith'i; Gram.
"Good order, and not mean savings, produce honest profiL"
What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live according to them.
"In the deportmeat of Philip, a degree of awkwardness and
dignity were blende<f''
.
"He need not proceed in such haste."
"In him were happily blended true dignity, with softness of
manners."
No longer fame the drooping hearts inspire.
"The side A, with the side B nncl C, compose the triangle."
So much both of ability and merit are seldom found.
A judicious arrangement of studies facilitat~ improvemenL
To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules
and maxims.
There remains two points to be considered.
Review these exercises, and parse the words that come under
the first and second rules. Then
'\Vrite se~eral exercises, as under Rule I. and
\Vrite exercises under all the rules and notes, as you proceed.
REMARK. Every verb, limited by person and number, must·
have a nominative case, expressed or understood; except those
specified in the following ninth note.

128

SYNTAX.

129

ADJECTIVES.

Foundation of the Notes under Rule II.

On what principle is this note founded!

See Found. p. 128.

(Except the 6th, 9th and 10th.)

Incorrect Construction.

When the word or words, which are in the nominative case
to any verb, convey unity of idea, the verb must be in the singular ; but if they convey plurality of idea, the verb must be in
the plural form. Hence the following seven notes.

To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the ?Pinion of. the
world, and to be wise in the sight_ of .our Creator, is three thmgs
so widely different as rarely to comc1de.
.
· "To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise ?enevolence
towards others, to cultivate piety to~ ards God, is the sure
1
.
. .
means of becoming peaceful and happy.
"It is an important truth, that religion, vital rel.1~10!1, the
. :
aux1haries of
re1ig1on
of the. heart, are
. the most
. powerful
,,
reason, in wagmg war with the passions.
To fear God, and to keep his commandments, bespeaks a
great and noble mind_.
.
.
f
To minutely perceive the ideas, and enter mto the feeling o
the author, is essential to a cozi:iplete reader.
To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy, f.!-nd _comfort. the
afflicted, constitutes an important part of the duties of the pious.
The thoughtless and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure,. ~he
criminal abuse of it, and the forgetfulness of our ac.countabil~ty,
obliterates every serious thought of the proper busmess of life,
and effaces the sense of religion and of God.

NOTE I.
'Vhen n verb is governed by the infinitive mode, or a
clause, it must be in the third person singular ; as, " to ride
is more pleasant than to waik." "To learn is desirable."
" To read with propriety is a pleasing and important attainment."
,
Question.
above.

On what principle is this note founded.

See

Incorrect Construction.
To Jive soberly, righteously, and godly, are required of all
men.

"'I'o. do unto others as we would that they; in similar circumst:aJtces, should do unto us, constitute the great principle of
virtue."
~ogive rules for the management ?fthe voice in reading, by
which the necessary pauses, emphasis, and tones may be dis·
covered and put in practice, are not possible.
To maintain a steady and unbroken mind amidst all the shocks
of the world, mark a great and noble spirit.
():::J=- Parse, as before directed, then review the exercises and
parse all the words that come under all the rules, and the foregoing notes, and write exercises under this note, and Continue this practice thorougltly throughout Syntax.
NOTE II.

•

Two or more infinitives, or clauses, connected by and,
being the subject of a verb, require the verb to be in the
plural; as, to eat and to play constitute the chief employment of some. "To be prosperous, and to be happy, require
attention to our affairs."

NOTE IIL
Two or more nonns, or nouns and pronouns in the singular
number, connected by and, must have verbs, nouns and pro·
nouns agreeing with them in the plural ; :is, Peter and
Thomas arc e:ood.boys, they have learned their lessons well.
What is tl~ principle on which this note is founded 1 See
page 128.

· Incorrect Construction.
Warren' and Putnam was brave men.
John and Thomas has returned.
"Both life and health is uncertain."
Why is redness and heat in fire 1.
.
Sincerity and truth forms the basis of every virtue.
And 60 was also William and John, the son of Henry, who
was partners with Anthony.
.
"Five and eight makes thirteen." "Five from eight leave
fth · I d 111
three."
.
.
"·what is the latitude and longitude o at is an ·

.
i

130

S\'NTAX.

VERBS.

NOTE IV.

Incorrect Construction.

If the singular nouns, connected by and, arc limited liy

eac~, every~ either or neither, the verb and pronoun mu~t

be m the smgulnr; as, "Every leaf, and every twill', and
every drop of water, teems with life." Each day and each
hour brings its portion of duty.
"\Vhat is the foundation of this note 1
page 128.

See Foundation,

In c o r re c t Co n s t r u c t i o n.
Each beast, and each insect, are happy in their own proper
sphere.
"Every house, and even every cottage were plundered."
"Every man, woman, and child were numbered."
"Each one of his brothers are in a favorable situation."
Neither James nor John have permission tog~.
.
Eve~y ~hought, every word, and every action are to be remembered m judgment, whether they be good or evil.
"Let each esteem other better than themselves."
" The language should be both perspicuous and correct· in
proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the ianguage is imperfect." "Every one of the letters bear regular
dates and contain proofs of attachment."
"Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which
they are entitled."
.
"Neither of those men seem to have any idea that their opinions may be ill founded."
"Neither of thein (Tillotson and Temple) are remarkable for
precision."-Blair.
.
NOTE V.
Two or more nouns, o~ nouns and pronouns singular,
connected by the alternative, or or nor, must have verbs,
~ouns, and prono?ns to agree with them in the singular; as,
ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake. " Fear 01·
jealousy affects him."
'Vhat is the foufidation of this note?
128.

See Foundation, page

131

Vt/ illiam or Henry are in fault. .
.
.
Neither honor nor profit arc sufficient to satisfy the nnmortal

.

m~

"Man's happiness or misery are in a great measure put mto
his own hands."
.
"Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which
move merely as \hey are moved."
..
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of
life, for they are liable to be thy own lot.
.
Speaking , impatiently to s~rvants, .or. any th mg that betrays
inattention, or ill humor, are 1m-propriet~es.
.
.
There are many letters used m spellmg, which neither analogy or pronunciation justify.
.
\Vhen sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, they
.
test the sincerity of friendship. ,
"A tart reply, a proneness to reb~ke, _or a capti~us ~n~, contmdictious spirit, are capable of emb1ttermg domestic hfe.

Foundation of Note VI.
In discourse, the second person is more imJ>?rtant than the
third ; and the first person, than the second or third. Hence,

NOTE VI.
When nouns and pronouns of different persons a~·e connected in the nominative case, the verb must agree, m person, with the one next to it, nnd the pronoun must be put in
the first person rather than the second, and in the second
rather than the third; as, "I or thou art to blame." "I,
thou, or he is the author of it." "George or I nm the
person."
Better thus : I am to blame or thou art, &c.
What is the fou~1dation of this note 1 See above.

In c.o r r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o n:
Either"G~orge or you deserves pu~ishment..
Ifhe or I falls. Neither he nor I 1s responsible.
,,
"James and thou and I arc attached to their country.
Thou and the gardner, and the huntsman is to share the blame
of this business amongst themselves.
.

!:
• ";.'.

~.

•

I

t

132

SYNTAX.

My sister and I, as well as my brother, is daily employed in
their respective occupations.
While you are playing, my .brother and I am attentive to their
studies.
You and I devotes your leisure hours to study.
Both you and James will be disappointed of their object.
" Thou or he art the person." .
NOTE VII.
"\Vhen a verb comes between two nominativ£'s of different
numbers; either of which may be the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either, according to the sense; as,
"the wages of sin is death." "His meat was locusts and
wild honey."
On what principle is this note founded 1 See Foundation,
page 128.
REMARK. The verb is generally made to agree with the first
nominative, which is preferable. .

Incorrect Const ru c tio·n.
The crown of virtue are peace and honor.
His chief occupation and enjoyment was controversy.
"So great an affliction to him was his wicked i::ons."
"A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable."
" The reproofs of instruction is the way oflife."
"The corporation of York consist of a mayor, alderman, and
a common council."
·
"The British parliament are Composed of king, lords, and
commons."
A grea~ cause of the low state of industry were. the restraints
put upon it.
NOTE VIII.
A collective noun conveying unity of idea, must have a
verb in the singular; but if it conveys plurality of idea, the
verb must be in the plural; as, "The meeting was large."
"Congress has adjourned." "The council were divided in
their sentiments."
What is the principle on which this note is founded 1 See
page 128.
-

VERBS.

133

Incorrect Construction.
" The court of Rome is not without solicitude."
"The house of commons were of small weight."
"Stephen's party were entirely broken up."
"An army of twenty-four thousand were assembled."
·• What reason have the Church of Rome for proceeding in
this manner1"
"The fleet were seen sailing up the channel." t
" The regiment consist of a thousand men."
The people sometimes spurns its own good.
" The committee were very full when this point was decide,1,
and their judgment has not been called in question."
•
The multitude was divided.
·
"Never were any people so much infatuated as the Jewish
nation."
\Vhat reason has the people for its course.
The committee was divided in its sentiments.
The substitutes it and they are both used to represent collective nouns, clearly limited to unity of idea ; as, Congress hns
fixed the day of its (or their) adjournment; but it (or they) will,
most probably, re-consider the resolution.

Foundation of Note IX. .
It is allowable, in some cases, lo assert imperative action
without referring it to any specific agent. Hence,

NOTE IX.

In some cases the imperative verb is used without a defi ·
nite nominative; as, "And God said let there be light."
Gen. i. 13. "Israel burned none, save Huzor only." Josh.
xi. 13. "I would that all -were such as I a~, except
these bonds." Acts xxvi. 29.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.
REMARK 1. Note 9 is extracted from Webster's Improved
Grammar. In the above examples, the verbs let, save and except,
assert actions which do not require to be appropriated to any
specific agent. The verb let occurs thirteen times in the first
chapter of Genesis, where it cannot be referred to any agent
whatever.
REMARK 2. This idiom is of frequent use, and great convenience, but it has not been properly explained in any grammar

12

.. I

I'
I

134

(

I

135

SYNTA.X.

VERBS .

with which I am acquainted, except Dr. \Vebster's. Except is
used, as a verb, in the different modes, wherever the English
language is used, and it can be conjugated as easily as love or
write. What then is the apology for calling it a preposition in
thes~ circumstances 1 In this use of the verb it may be applied
to either person.

arrangement in the present tense of the subjunc_tive mode, is 0_11e
of the most palpable mistakes that the compilers of English
grammars have committed.
.
RimARIC 2. In the early history of our language, ~t was very
common for authors to omit the auxiliary shall, &c. m the subjunctive future. The translators of the Bible'. generally neglecting all distinction between present w:c~rta1:nty and futnre
contingency, blended t1vo tenses of the or1gmal mto one of E:ig·
lish which grammarians have placed m the pr~sent.. K~ng
Ja~es' translators merely revised former tran~lat10ns, makmg
a few verbal alterations; and hence ou~ vers10n of the Holy
Scriptures is in the style of the age of Elizabeth.

: Ex ample s and Exe r c is e s.
" If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone 1" " Though
he slay me, yet will I trust in him." If and though have no
connecting power whatever in these examplei;i. They are defective verbs, disposed of according to Note 9. See them in
'Vebster's large Die. "Suppose I were to say light is body."
Hume. "Except ye repent." "Ye cannot bear fruit except ye
abide in me." "He that is washed, needeth not, save to wash
his feet." "Add to this their custom of plantation ofcolonies."
Bacon. " Could two bodies be in the same place at the same
time, then these two parcels of matter must be one and the
same, take them great or little." Lock~. "Let brighter thoughts
be with the virtuous dead." l\frs. Hemans.
"Where none kneel save when to Heaven they pray,
Nor even then unless in their own way."-Halleck's Conn.
NOTE X.

Jn asserting a present uncertainty, the verb in the subjunctive, should have the indicative form; as, "If principles
are innate." "If I am rightly informed."
On what is this note founded 1 Ans. Usage and the instruction of most grammars.
REMARK I.
The pedantic forms-if he write-'i,f thou come,
&c. were laid aside by the classical authors of the eighteenth
century, who wrote the verb in the present of the subjunctive, ns
people spoke it, and still speak it, unless misled by grammars.
See the works of Locke, Johnson, Pope, Hume, Porteus, Coxe,
Junius, Prideaux, Blackstone, and many others.

Grammarians usually explain the subjunctive form which they
put in the present tense, as having a future signification; and
the people have erred in doing as the grammarians do, not as
they•say; for if the people would do as the grammarians say,
they would use this fol'.Jll only with a future signification.
Of this form of the verb, Dr. Webster remarks, that its

In c o r r e c t Co n s t r it c t i o n.
If he loves his school, he will improve. If she write ollen, it
is a mark of industrv. If he think closely. If thou be a son.
Unless I be mistakeii. 'fhough he know the way. If he be
rightly informed. If the soldier have quit his rank. If . thou
have been feared. If it have returned If the letter be written.
Ifhe be dwelling with delight.
Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs.

"Be it enacted." Here the verb is in the imper.1.fo·e mode,
and it is the nominative, and stands for the whole sec~ion or act.
spoken of, and that, which usually fo.1Io1ys the asse:·t1'.n, st<J.nds
for the same. "Ile it remembered," is disposed of sun:larly.
"Fond mourner be that solace thine." J. Q. Adams.
"Blessed be he that blesseth thee, and cursed be he that
curseth thee."
"Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more." Thompson.
"O be it never heard again." Bryant.
"Green be the turf above thee." Halleck.
"And never be the secret said
Until the deep give up his dead." Everett.
" For he meseems most fit the fair to serve
That can her best defend from villanie." Spenser.
Ile is the subject of seems, and me is obj. governed by to .understand. Methinks and methought, have the smne constmct1on,
for the verb think in these expressions, is from the saxon
thencan, to seem-not to t/ii.nk-a different root from that of
think, in I think.

.,
I

!

ADJECTIVES.

136

ADJECTIVES.
. RULE III.

Adjectfoes belong to the names of tlie things which they
describe; as, A wise son. A glad father. A high tree.

An old tune.

The best way.

What is the foundation of this Rule 1 See page 100.
REMARK. Adjectives should, usuaJJy, be placed next to the
nouns to which they belong-always, when there are two nouns,
near each other; as, a tract of good land; not ·a good tract of
land ; a pair of new shoes ; not a new pair of shoes.

Incorrect Construction.
He made a good pair of shoes. She knit a fine pair of socks.
I gave a cold cup of water. James wears a new pair of shoes.
He built a high string of fence. Susan bought a splendid pair
of gloves. They bought a good load of hay. He drove a fat
lot of hogs. They drive a fine span of horses. They have a
most elegant supply of furniture. He wears a very fine suit of
clothes.
·

.

137

SYNTAX.

Foundation of Note 1.

Pronouns or substitutes fill the office of nouns, and therefore
adjectives may belong to them ·for the same reason for which
they. belong to nouns. Hence,
NOTE 1.
Adjectives sometimes belong to pronouns or substitutes;
as, I nm miserable. He is happy. They arejoeful.
W1111t is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

Examples.
Some are young and others are beautiful. "For many, I say
unto you, will seek to enter in, and shall not he able." Luke xiii.
24. "'Tis fearful." Dana. "He, feverish, blinded, lives, and,
feverish, sated dies." Ihm. Daybreak. "Jubal was the father of
all such as handle the harp and organ." Gen.iv. 21. "The boy
wounded the old bird and stole the young ones.': "They came .·
with their little ones." Happy is he whose heart does not .
reproach him. They are benevolent. Some one went.

F o u n d at ion of No t e, II.
Qualities may be predicated of actions. Hence,
NOTE II.
Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs ; as, "To sec 1s
pleasant." "Magnesia feels smoolh."
Explain the reason of this note. See above.

Exercises.
"To ride is more pleasant t h an t o wa11c. " To study is useful.
d .
To labor is right. To retur1.1 '"".as necessary. To comman is
pleasant to some. To obey is righteous. .
She reads loud. She talks fast. Julia speaks low. The choir
sung very bad. The object appears double.
.
"
"Calcareous earths feel dry." "High gleammg from afar.
"From out the trees the Sabbath bell
.
Rings ,cheerful, far and wide." Dana's Buccamer.
"His ax glanced quick in air." lbm.
"Dutton was a little embarrassed." Cooper.
" - o f thereby better obtaining the object." ~ord Ashburton.·
"--how swift their poniards flew." Sn W. Jones.
"The silver lamp burns dead and dim." Coleridge.
"And fiashinCJ" armor frequent broke." Scott's Lay, &c .
"'
"And high curvetting,
slow advance. " lbm.
Guthrie. Quinct. 2, 375.
" Le t US Wrl"t e Sl 0 w and exact"
•
"The bells sounded sweetly soft and pensive. Chandler.
"L'th~marga feels very greasy or at least smooth; yet some
feel d~y and dusty." Kirwan. vol. I, 12, 1~9.
"Drink deep or taste not the Pierian sprmg." P(lpe.
.
"It makes the plow go deep or shallow." Enc. art. Agn.
Mr Webster call this, " one of the most co1~mon, as \~ell as
XVIII
most · beautI"fiu1 1'd"wms 0 f our language ' wluch Rhas1 luthcrto
.
escaped due observation." See ~i~ Imp. ~ram., u e
Syntax, and the numerous authonties, he gives.

F o 11, n d a t i o n of No t e III.
The ualit ' which is predicated of the .sen~iment of a. clause
or- sent~ce, fi'elongs to it, therefore, the adJect1ve exprcssmg the
quality, must belong to the clause. Hence

12*

'

138

ADJECTIVES.

SYNTAX.

NO'I'E III.

Adjectives sometimes belong to clauses or sentences ; as,
"To be ~!ind is u11fortunate." "To be a coward is disgraceful." "Agreeable to this, we read ?f names being
blotted out of God's book."-Burder's Oriental Customs,
375. See Webster's Imp. Grammar, Rule 17, Syn.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

Exercises.
" Contrary to his directions, they had spared the Canaanites."
" Contrary to custom, the conquerers adopted the manners of
the conquered." "Agreeable to this, we find some of the AngloSaxon ladies were admitted into their most august assemblies."
Henry Hist. .Brit. b. 2, ch. 7.
In these examples the adjectives qualify all the clauses in
italics, respectively.
Nobody can doubt that these ideas of mixed modes are made
by a voluntary collection of ideas put together in the mind, independent of any original patterns in nature.
"As all language is composed of significant words, variously
,combined, a knowledge of them is necessary, previous to our
acquiring an adequate idea of language." Encycl.
"No such original convention of the people was ever actually
held antecedent to the existence of civil government in that
country." Paley's Phil. v. 6, ch. 3.
" Suitable to this, we find that, men, speaking of mixed modes,
seldom imagine," &c. Locke, 3, 5, 11.
REMARK 1. It is supposed by many, that in these, and similar sentences, the attribute belongs to the verb, denoting the
manner of the action ; but a little attention to the construction
and sense of the exercise, will detect the mistake. E. g. He
departed contrary to his orders. Here it cannot be said that
the manner of his departure, was contrary to his orders,. but the
fact-the whole proposition-he departed-was contrary, &c.
REMARK 2. "In consequence of not attending to this construction, our hypercritics, \Vho are very apt to distrust popular
practice, and substitute their own rules for customary idioms,
founded on common sense, have condemned this use of the attribute, and authors, suffering themselves to be led astray by these
rules, often use an adverb in the place of an adjective." 'Veb.:
ster's Imp. Gram.

139

Incorrect Construction.
came agreeably to his promise. It should be, he came
agre~able; when corrected, for the f<~ct, and not the manner
was the subject of his promise.
.
Their vehemence of gesture wns conformably to their vehe·
mcnce of th oug ht· ·H e arrived priorly to my departure.
They departed anteriorly to that date.
Hesiod lived posteriorly to Homer.
"Priorly to his arrival in England."
.
The house was situated contiguously to the h~e.
" To do who.t we will, consistently wit~ the mterests of the
community, is civil liberty." Paley's P~ul.. 6• 5 ·
'fhese sentences are not English ; for it is not ~he man~ifr '(
doin!!, but the thing done, which must be consistent wit 1 t e
,,
pubhc interest; and so of the others.
"To learn is governed by begins, agreeabJy to Rule XII.
Smith's Gram. p. 84. (A very common error m S.)
.
" A misapprehension of the true iIJ?por~ and construction ox
such passages, has done immense mischief to the language.
.
. .
Webster's Imp. Gram. P· 109.
He departed contrarily to orders. They fimshed the JOb mdependently of other help.
N B When an author intends to qualify the idea o~fthhe p~o­
. ·. .
h
d. f e should be used ; but I e mpos1t10n, or ph.rase,lt e a JeC ivof the action then the adverbial
tends to describe tie manner .
'
form should be employed.
connected to the sen·
R EMAR K 3 . Some adj. ectives are often
. .
thus.
tences to which they belong, by prepos.ttion~: ~
.
He labors in vain. Shall they seek m va!Il .
Here vain is an adjective, connected to t~e sentetlncef; resp~ctg­
. 1y, by i·,,., and belongs to them accordmg to ie oregom
IVe
H

note.
d" . .
e ted to
TI
• lame
In this sentence the a JectJve is conn c l
He is
. . .
l
" b ·s . and in the above examp es,
the word to which it be ong?, Y. i fllled by in though without
a similar office of connecting is
'
H. ecord is
assertion.
.
.
This whole expense has been incurred m van~.
is r .
1
on high. Here the adjectives vain a!ld high quahfyt res~i~~~~~
the whole sentiment of the. ~oreg?mg sentences, o "
are connected ~v the prepos1t1ons m and on.

140

SYNTAX.
ADJECTIVES.

. REA~ARK I. The common mocle of d.isposing of such express10ns, is, as Horne Tooke expresses the idea, to throw them into
the. common sink. of a_d.verbs, by call.ing them ad".erbial phrases.
'.I'lus wholesnlo disposition of words 1s allowable m log-ical parsmg, but should never be a~mit~ecl into ~ynt~cticnl parsmg, where
each word ought to receive its classificat10n, separate nud distinct from all others.
REMARK ~· Whei:i the grammari.an fin?s 11imsclf lacking
rules, by which to dispose of words m their common use and
relation he should employ his talents rather in educing rules to
meet the case, than in distorting authorized forms of speech, to
meet.- an~ deficiency in grammar; for the paramount law of
parsing 1s,
p ARSE ALL WORDS AS GOOD AUTHORS COMMONLY USE THEl\I.

Foundation of Note IV.
Sometimes the qualities of things depend chiefly on the action
which produces them : h.ence,
NOTE IV.
Adjectives sometimes qualify the meaning of nouns, only
as the effects of the ve1·bs that agree with them ; as, " Open
thy mouth wide." Ps. 81. 10.
What is the foundation of this Note 1 See above.
In this passage, the adjective wide depends, chiefly, upon the
verb open ; for it is not open thy wide mouth, but the attribute
is the direct effect of the act of opening. Nor can the aclverb
wldely be substituted for the adjective, for it is not the manner
of the act, but the effect produced.
REMARK. In the doctrine of this note, our lan!!"llage is perfectly analogous to the Latin, Greek, and French. "'

.IJ.uthorities and Exercises.
" The apples boil soft or hard."
"How dark and stern upon thy waves looks down,
Yonder tall cliff-he with iron crown."
Dana's Ocean.
- - "It must grow dim." Ihm.
"Canst thou grow sad, thou sayest, as earth grows bright 1"·
Dana's Daybr~ak.

141

~ '

II

":Men grow pale and pray." Bryant. The Winds.
- - " Who, an humbler flower could make
Immortal as his song." Halleck's Burns.
"Yes, the year is growing old." Longfellow.
- - "And every point made fast." Falconer.
" For I must tread on shadowy ground, must sink
Deep--." ·
Wordsworth's Recluse.
"My long frozen heart grows warm." Ihm.
"Her countenance grows sad and soft."
Coleridge's. Christabel.
"Weak and weaker grew our hands
Strong and stronger still our hearts."
James Montgomory's Wanderer.
REMARK. The adjectives in the foregoing examples, cannot
be ·chan2"ed into adverbs without impairing the beauty, weakening the force or destroying the meaning of the P'.1ss~es. Try
some of them. Apples boil softly or hardly. It ts evident that
the sense is destroyed, in this passage, and, furthermore, every
cultivated ear would reject the change.

Foundation of Note V.
One quality may be predicate~ of another, in which case it
properly belongs to the other quality; hence
NOTE V.
Adjectives sometimes belong to other adjectives; as, "red
hot iron." Pale red lining. Deep blue cloth. A very
pressing call.
Question. What is the foundation and reason of this note 1
See above.
REMARK. This note is equivalent to Webster's 19th rule of
Syntax.

Authorities and Exercises.
0

"Mean time fttll anxious was the dame." Scott's Lay, &c.
Can. 5, 15.
"And freed full sixty knights. Scott's Marmion, Int. to Can. I.
"So wondrous wild the whole might seem
The scenery of a fairy dream." Lady of Lake, Canto I, 12.

I

,.

\

I

;•
.
;.

\

ADJECTIVES.

142

143

SYNTAX.

NOTE VI.
Adjectives sometimes belong to adverbs; as, "a city was
ve1·y bravely defended." "The soldiers were most amply
rewarded." "A donation more beneficially bestowed."

"\Vithout coming any nearer."
:: Full many a ge~n of purest ray serene." Grny.
"~ome ~e~med hun wondrous wise." Beattie's Minstrel.
" a~t mg. t was fearful dark." Dana's Bu~canier.
A httle mland was a village." Two Adm . v0.1.p
I 5.
1 . ..
Th ree hundred thousand men.
"And it grew wondrous cold." Coleridge's An. Mariner.
" Ful.l many shapes that shows were,
In crimson colours came." Ihm.

N. B. This note is equivalent to Webster's 20th rule of
Syntax.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.
REMAim. The ad verb expresses the manner of the act, and
the adjective attends the adverb to qualify that manner.

"Affording scarce such breadth of brim
As served the wild duck's brood to swim."
Lady of Lake, Canto I 13
"Full
many
minstrels
sing
and
say."
Scott's Lay,&
Cn
' .3·,4.
"Tl
.. d
c.a
1u
t • 11.
·· IO •
" R 1ey
. . rejoice with exceeding ,,,crreat J·oy." n.La
eJoice and be exceeding glad." Mat. v. I 2
" Passing strange."
'
"And. frame love ditties passing rare,
And smg them to a lady fu.ir." Scott's Mai. Canto 9 I7
" The ~isease in king Asa's feet was exceeding gre:t " . 2
•
Ch ~.~L~
"A man .he w.as, to all the country.dear,
And passmg rich, with forty pounds a year."
"I
. fiant, ma'rble cold." Mrs. Sigourney.
"Msa;n
~n ~n
u e silence, wood-nymph shy." Grainger.
'tNIot ~.nfr.equently two attributes are used to modify a third
one·~ as ' "Th e manner m
· w 1uch
• external force•
or ie prmc1pal
act
h
ble~, ~i.n1~/ body is very little subject to the will." Ram-

Mbr

sty~eE~fRrK.
grammarians '~ould violate the language and
under thi:p~~ ~ aufithllors,. by e1the~ changing the adjectives
~ e o owmg note mto adverbs, or inventinO'
.
soi;ne circumlc;>cut10n, or throwing them into adverbial brase~
~~~~egr ~! twhluch
can find any justification by any auth~rity perem.
.

VL

Foundation of Note
Qz:ality may be predicated of manner in which case the
quahty belong.~ to the manner: hence
'

A u t h o r i t i e s a n d E x e r c i s e s.
"These fellows know f,,;,ll well whom they should fear." Dana.
" Full oft his wisdom strove." Falconer's Shipwreck, Can. I.
" Full twice twelve summers were yon towers assail'd
Till barbarous Ottoman at last prevail'd."* Ihm.
" The famed and great, decreed to equal pain,
Full oft in splendid wretchedness complain.' Ihm.
" Where fair Penelope, her. absent lord,
Full twice ten years with faithfol love deplor'd."
.
Falconer's Shipwreck, Canto 3.

" I know right well, that, in their lay,
Full many minstrels sing and say."
Scott's Lay, &c. Canto 4, 34.
" Full Jong she toil'd ; for she did rue
Mishap to friends so stout and true." Ihm. Canto 3, 23.
" Full oft the rescued boy she kissed." Ihm. Canto 5, 25.
"Full well we know the throphies won."
· Scott's Marmion, Canto I, I2.
"Full actively their host supplied." Ihm. Canto 3, 3.
" The harp full deftly can he strike." Ihm. Canto 3, 8.
"Full often learn the act to know." Ihm. I8.

·1,;'
.'

'~
l •~

I ·"

Foundation of Notes VIF and VIII.
When two or more words are united, or depend upon one
another, the singular cannot agree with the plural, nor the pluraJ with the singular ; hence the following two notes.

j·

''
ji

''
I 'j

I

i

*The siege of Candia, which was taken from the Venetians by the
Turks in 1669, being then considereJ the most formidable fortress in the
world.

I

l~

1'

~

/

!t'
;
~

rl

l

144

•

145

SYNTAX.

ADJECTIVES.

NOTE VII.

Philadelphia, Pa. Nov. 4th. 1844·
Mr. James Thorn,
.
du!
Dear Sir,
yours of the 2d. ult. came
Y
h d a d I improve the earliest moment to reply &c.
Yours with gre"at respect.
to an ' n
John Thomas.

Definitive adjectives and numerals must agree with the
nouns to which they belong, in number; as, this man, these
men, every book, all books, three feet, four miles.
On what principle is this note founded ! See above.
Incorrect Construction.
These sort of books. These kind of vegetables. Six mile.
"Things of these · sort are .very easily understood." "Who
broke that tongs." This scissors. That oats. That embers.
Those kind of injuries. Those g~llows. This two hours.
NOTE VIII.
Nouns must agree, in number, with their definitive adjectives and numerals; as, this pen, these pens, every pen,
several books, five miles, tenth page.
Many a friend. Many a gem, &c. Twenty
head of cattle. Five sail of the line.
What is the foundation of thi& note! See before n'ote 7.
ExcEPTIONS:

In c or r e c t C o n s t r u c t i o.n.
Ten mile an hour. "Tis for a thousand pound." "Six
fathom." "The lot is twenty-five foot wide." "I have boug11t
eight load of wood." The boat carries twenty ton. The chasm
was thirty foot broad, and a hundred fathom deep.
REMARK I. The superlative degree is often used in a comparison between two individuals, and the comparative is often
used in a comparison among many.
REMARK 2.
Adjectives do not admit comparison, when the
qualities they express are incapable of increase or diminution:
such as numerals-the qualities of mathematical figures, &c.
If a thing is first or square, it cannot be more or less so.

Pro nii s cu o us Exercises.
Gen. William Henry Harrison was elected President of the
United States in 1840. "Alexander the Great." Charles V." .
1840 is an adjective, of the cardinal kind used, idiomatically,
for the ordinal, and ,belongs to year understood. Great belongs to Alexander, and V. to Charles, both idiomatically placed after
the names to which they belong.

r
:: \

\·- I

;··.J

n·~nction, connecting C. with. the
.
.
.
In ~Ins exercise,~ isd aCcoi; the initial of cetera,~ substitute
foregomg sentencef, han l tt r The signature is ob} governed
for the balance o t e e e ·
by by understood.
'th h' n
11
" Whosoever shall Compel th ee to go a mile, go w1

twain."
. .
d
ubstitute for two miles; and
Twain is an adjective, use as _as
d according to Note 4
in the obj. case with~:mt. a ihvernmg ;~rof the saxon twa two ;

~~gei: ~~~e 1y ~::tiv~ in
the saxon inflection.

!;

~u~c~~;~age, which

has preserved

POSSESSIVE CASE.
RULE IV.

o{

1'he relation ef prope1·ty require~ the name orr~o~o~n
the owner to be in the possessive case; as, o n s oo .
His pen. Eliza's work.
..
the
relation
is
shown
by
the
preposition
When
E XCEPTION.
•
b· •
of, the name of the owner ism the o ~ect1ve case.
126
'on what principle is this rule founded 1 See page
.
Incorrect Const ni c ti on.
'
1 ft " Tl1e girls slates' were taken.
d The teachers eye
" The boys books were e. ·
Miss Moores ·work's· were lughly estede!°e . e lost The pupils
I·
The merchants goo s wer
·
was upon um. .
nderstanclings' were enlesson was deficwnt. The peop1~s u 't fc ten sake" "A
lightened. "I will not destroy ie c1 y or
·ns·,, "A
mothers tenderness and a fathers car? are nat~;res g1 .
.
mans manners frequently influence his fortune.
1
es are used as expletive of a
REMARK.
'Vhen severa nam
·
f the possessive
single individual, as the possessor, the s11n .oas 'V ashington,
case sho~ld be addhed lt~ _tthed ISa~t t::.~eclcf;e~'. But when there
a
the President of t e •Ill e
]~

.•
'

146

SYNTAX.

NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.

are several possessors, the sign of the possessive should be
added to each; as, "It was the men's, women's and children's
lot to suffer great calamities." "Our Lord's a~d the Apcistle's
·
words. "-Coleridge's Confessions of Jn. Spirit, p. 49.
:: Lady's and Gentleman's Magazine."-'rit~e of a periodical.
. The vehemency of a mother's and a patriot's love "-Coleridge.
· .
"He has · t~e surgeon's and the physician's advice."

Composition.

147

Write a description of the country in which you live-its
climate, surface, soil, productions, and state of cultivation.
Also of the animals, improvements, advantages, &c. Remember to write exercises under all the rul'es and notes.

NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT.·
Foundation of Rule V.

REMARK. Actions are sometimes represented as belonging to
the actor and th~n the obligation is the same as in any other
case of ownership.

In addressing a person, the name is called, to arrest attention,
and therefore without forming a proposition. . Hence,

Examples.

RULE V.

"Upon his a~miring the singularity of her choice." · Hume.
"On my say1~g we c?uld n_ot do too much." Dr. Young.
"In case of his catl~oh~ i:naJesty's ~ying without issue."
Averse to the nations mvolvmg 1tselfin another war."Hume.
Incorrect Constr11ction.

The time of \Villian:i making the experiment has arrived.
·
The effect of youth ass~1~tmg ~1th v1c1ous companions.
Favorable for the coml!ust1on bemg communicated.
The H?llanders throwmg off tl1e monarchy of Spain.
There Is no reason for hydrogen being an exception.
\Vhat is the reason of the committee having delaved this
.J
matter.
What was th~ cause of the young woman fainting.

!fe ought to be sensible ~f t~1e m~lody_ s~tfering~

Promiscuous Exercises.
DEATH OF A BEAUTIFUL BOY.

I SAW thee at th! mother's side, when she was marble cold,
And thou wert hke some cherub form, ca.st in ethereal mould;
But when, the sudden pang of grief oppressed . thine infant
thought,
And 'mid thy clear and radiant eye a liquid crystal wrought,
I thoug~t how strong that faith must be that breaks a mother's
tie,
And bids her leave her darling's tears for other hands to dry.

1

When an address is made, the name of tlie p~rson or thing
addressed is in the nominative case independent; as,
"Almighty Father! these are but the varied God."
'l'HollISON. "Thou fool, this night thy soul shall be required of thee." "0 solitude! romantic maid." "Sisters!
sisters! who sent you here 1" CoLERIDGE's WAR Ee·
LOGUE.

What is the foundation of this rule 1 See above.

Ex er cis es:
John go to school. Julius, study your lesson. My friend, do
not be ~larmed. General, who won the victory 1
Mr. Chairman, please to hear me patiently.
King Agrippa, believest thon the prophets 1
" O weary hearts ! 0 slumbe~ll:1g eyes !
O drooping souls, whose destm1es
Are fra.uaht with fear and pain
Ye sl.m.11°be loved again." Longfellow's Endymion.
REMA.KK.
The nominative case is the na~ing_ c~se! and
therefore when a name is used without connectmn, 1t 1s 111 the
nominative case independent; as the titles of books, the captiims of parts, exclamation of names, &c.

Examples.
"I want a hero--an uncommon want." Byron.
" A friendless warfare! lingering long,
Through weary day and weary year." Bryant's Battlefield.

APPOSITION.

·148

149

SYNTAX.

APPOSITION .

NO MINA TIYE CASE ABSOLUTE.
. . . Foundation of Rule VI.
·
Part1c1p1al action or being is
t d .
noun, to describe it but it
conntec e ~1th a noun or proHence.
'
oes no constitute an assertion.

d

RULE VII.

RULE VI.

'

A noun
• •
·
,F Ii or pronoun
-· ·
' pla ced wi·1''' a participle
independent
0 tie 1'est ef t~e sentence, is in the n'omindtive case ab
solute,- as, "His reason being such." ·.. I being a h'ld ,;
'On wh t . . 1 .
c I •
a prmc1p e is this rule founded 1 See above.

Exercises.
The day being ended Sch 1 h .
1
returned. "During life.·" . ol'f1 r1~g cosed. .Jo~n having
Webster's 4to Diet
' dide. .1 e _uring, o! conti71:uing. See
"This once done." . ci:per':T~· *Ad" J?urlmgv plh1lip's war." .
o
m1ra s, o II paO'~ 47
" Du . 'th l
"D r~ng e ate great conflicts of Europe." Ihm. V~l I
14 '
urmg o?r earthly pilgrimage." "None of u~
. -.0 p. .
every one 'put them off for washiE;t,,
w1 mg. . "Notwithstanding l]is poverty, he is ~ontent.';
0

~l~~s, ~ll~mg;,that

~~hr

wi~.s~~d,~~:;~~~d=t~~sn::_ways a participle from

the verb

Promiscuous Exercises.
THE BROTHERS.

Never did ":orthier lads break English bread.
Th.every _brightest Sunday Autumn saw
,
With all its mealy clusters of ripe nuts Could never keep those boys away from' church
Or tempt them to aiI hour of Sabbath breach '
Leonard and Jam es! I warrant, every corn~r
Among these rocks, and every hollow place
.That venturous foot could reach, to one or both
":'"as known as well as to the flo~ers that grow there.
Like roe-bucks they went boundmO' o'er the hill .
They played like two young raven~ on the crag:.'
Then they coul~ write, ay and speak too, as well'
As many of their betters·
W ordswor tl 1.

* During is the present · · I f
lete except this participle b~tll~!p 0 • th~ verb dure, ~h!ch is now obso" Y ct hath he not root in' himseir, b~~v;:i';P~;, f~~~r~hile:n ciI~t~~ITi.u~~:

d

'\Vhen a name is used with another name, meaning the same
thing, and it does not ~elong to the construction of t~e ~entence,
it properly belongs with the other, and therefore 1t 1s placed
with it in the same case. Hence,

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns signifying the
same thing, without an intervening verb, are put by apposition in the same case,. as, John the Baptist. Paul
the Apostle. David the king. "Edward the Black
Prince." Esaias the prophet.
\Vhat is the foundation of this rule 1 See above.

Exercises.
"The advancing season warns him to the main,
A captive fettered to the oar of gain."
Falconer's Shipwreck.
" - w e look
Into our minds-into the mind of man,
My haunt, and the main region of my song."-\Vordsworth.
"A mother is a mother still,
The holiest thing alive."-Coleridge. The Three Graves.
" But lovelier wreaths entwine his neckHis children and his spouse."-Jus. Montgomery.

s

In c o r r e c t Co n t r u c t i o n.
"I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here
last week." It is from Richard, he that keeps the book-store.
I saw my friends, they whom we met at the ferry. It is Catharine, her that we saw at work. It was Dennis, him whom we
met in the garden.
RE111ARK·l. Names are in the first person, when they are in
apposition with pronouns of the first person ; otherwise the
doctrine of Rule 12th, which is taught by grammars generally,
cannot be true.
REMARK 2. Names are sometimes put in apposition with sentences; as, " Whereby, if a man had a positive idea of infinite,
either duration or space, he could add two infinites together;

13 ..

lin

nt '
j

ii

11

l../ 'I

150

SYNTAX.

nay, make one infinite infinitely bigger than another; absurdi"
ties too gross to be confuted." Locke.
~~re absurdities is in apposition to the whole preceding propos1t10ns.
.
"The Dutch were formerly in possession of the coasting trade
- and freight of almost all other trading nations; they were also
the bankers of all Europe; advantages by which they have
gained immense sums." Zimmerman's Survey.
Here advantages is in apposition to the first two members of
the sentence.
'

"He bought, improved, projected, plann'd,
And reigned a prince at Greyling-hall." Crabbe.
"May it prove a monument." \Vordsworth.
"And many, who, by the popularity of their times, have been
held up 'as spotless patriots, have, nevertheless, appeared upon
the historian's page-the assassins ofliberty." Lord Mansfield.
"The common law of England, as far as it was applicable to
their situation, was made the basis of their jurisprudence."
Story,
"Your proud eye was upon the object of your daring adventure, and you stood impatient to leap on board, and once more
tread her deck, her lord." Morris Grreme.

Fou.ndation of Rule VIII.
\Vhen two names are used meaning the same thing, they
necessarily agree in case ; and when a verb comes between
them, it necessarily has the same case after it as before it.
lience,

OBJECTIVE CASE.
RULE IX.
Transitive verbs govern the objective case.
Prepositions govern tlte objecti-ce case,. as, John learned

RULE VIII.

Intransitive verbs, rind some transitive verbs in the passive voice, have tlte same case after tliem as before them,
when both words signify the sttme thing,· as, thou art the

his lesson.

Susan wrote a letter.

On what principle is this rule founded 1 See above.

Exercises.

Incorrect Construction.
/

Authorities and Examples.
"Our admirals are our heroes." Cooper.
"The vast world seems the tomb of all the dead." Dana.
"The harvest field becomes a river's bed." Bryant.
"---He-Then pressed that monarch's throne-a king." Halleck.
"He came, the victim ofunhappy love." Falconer.

He went from home.

_ REMARK.
Participles being parts of the verb, have the same
government that other parts have.
On what principle is this rule founded 1 See p. 29, and 110.

ma~. He lived a prince. Harrison was· elected president,

"We did not know that it was him." "We thought it. wRs
thee." " I would act the same part if I were him." " It could
not have been her." It is not me. "They believed it to be I."
"It was thought to be him." If it had been her. "We know it
to be they." '"Vhom do you think it is 1" "Whom do they
suppose it to be 1" He did not know whom they were. Can it
be me! Was it him 1 Who did they represent him to be 1
"\Vhom do men say that I am 1"

151

OBJECTIVE CASE.

/

"In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth."
"If ye love me, keep my commandments." "The world hath
not known thee." "The spirit of truth whom the world cannot
receive." "\Vhoin ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto
you."
In c o r re c t Con s t r u c t i o n.
"\Vho did they entertain so freely 1" He, who is idle, reprove sharply. Ye, who were dea<l, hath he quickened. Who
has he reason to love so much as the friend of his youth 1
" They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature." "'fhe
man .who he raised from obscurity, is dead." "He and they we
know, but who art thou 1"
·who do you see! "Who should I see the other day but my
old friend 1" " Suspecting not only ye but they :i-lso, I . was
studious to avoid all intercourse." "I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me and thou as a sus-

.

SYNTAX.

P!cious friend." "From having exposed himself too freely in
different climates, he ·entirely lost his health." Who art thou
displeased with 1 Does that boy know who he speaks to 1 Who
did you receive it on

Foundation of .Note I.
The act~on of sorrie verbs necessarily affects two objects; as,
I tea~h ~Im grammar. I could not teach grammar without
ti:achmg It ~o some one, nor ~ould I teach him, without teaching
lum som~tlu~1g ; and tj1e ac~1on of some verbs affects objects that
necessarily imply othe~ objects, in relation to which they are
affected; as, I gave hnn a book. I could not give a present,
without giving it to some one. Hence,
.

NOTE I.
Verbs of giving, asking, teaching, and some others, govern
two objectives; as, he gave me an apple. Tell me the news.
I taught him grammar.*
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.
REMARK. In the doctr1ne of this note, our language is analogous to the Latin and Greek. Some of theiie verbs are of the
class that govern two accusatives, in Latin, and others of the
class that govern an accusative and a dative: the obj. case in
Eng. covers all the ground of both the acc. and dat. in Latin,
Saxon, &c. therefore the verbs of both clases are included in one
~ote. Indeed, him and whom are Saxon datives; not accusatives.

;N. B. In parsi.ng ~he objective _words, in the examples, under
tins note, t~at which is the most directly the object of the action
should be disposed of by rul~ 9, and the other by this note; as,
he gave me a book. In this example, me is in the objective
case, g-o~erned by _gav_e, according to note I, under rule 9, and
book is m the objective case, governed by gave, ·according to
rule 9..
"'This note is equivalent to Smith's 20th rule Nutting's rule 9
rer:n'.1rk I, and Webster's 1st note under rule 26. "Ask him hi~
op1mon." " You h'.1v~ asked me the news." " \\'ill it be said that
th~se phrases _are elhpucal, for ' ask of him his opinion 1' I apprehend
tins'?. be a m1sta.ke, according to .the true idea of the government of a
trans111ve verb, him must be the object of the phrase under consideration
as 1!1~cl~ as i_n this. 'A_sk him for a guinea;' .or in this, 'ask him to go)
This 1d1om is ~ery ancient." Webster's Imp. Grammar.

OBJECTIVE CASE.

153

Exercises.
· "She gave him her table-book." Hume, "God and yosterit~:
she trusted, would show her favor." Ihm. " She sent hun word.
My mother wrote me a letter. James taught me grammar. John
asked him tlie news. "My instructor gave me a valuable book."
"They allowed him his seat in Congress." "John gave me a
detailed account of the whole transacti?n." "Roger Askam
having paid her a visit." "Beside~ sen?mg !?er a copy of tJ1e
Scriptures in that ton"ue." "Havmg given him, from the wmdow, some token of h~r remembrance." "A ring cost the purchaser an eagle."

Co mp o s i t i o n.
Write a description of a garden. The fenc~, size, shape, plan,
cultivation, fruits, vegetables, flowers, aromatics, &c.

Foundation of Note II.
Verbs which have two objects in th~ active voice, retain ~ne
of them in the passive voice, for the action has the same relation
in each voice. Hence,

NOTE II.
V~rbs in the passive voice of giving, asking, teaching,
and some others, govern the objective case ; as, a book was
given me. '.'A reprieve of three d $ was granted hcr."Hume.*
What is the foundation _of this note 1 See above.

Exercises.
"Theresa was forbid the presence of the emperor." Murphy's
Tacitus.
·
.
"I was this day shown a new po4i.toe." Darwin ..
"Music was taught me by John." "A question was asked
me." " I was taught grammar," or " Grammar was taught me."
. "The bishops and 'abbots were allowed their seats in the
house of Lords." Blacks. Com. b. I, ch. 2.
"This note is equivalent to Smith's 21st rule, and 'Vebe.te~'s_3~th,
and Bullions' Observation, p. 91. Webster pronounces tlus 1dwm
" anomalous; but perhaps incorrigible."

154

155

SYNTAX.

OBJECTIVE CASE.

NOTE III.

" Four hours the sun his high meridian throne
Falconer's Shipwreck, Canto 2.
Had left."
" The hooded clouds, like friars,
Tell their beads in drops of rain." Longfellow.
"He is like his brother.'' "He is unlike any other mortal."
"The house stands near a river."
"I will go while you stay." While !s a name, used. in a primitive manner in the objective case, without a governmg word,
like other names of duration.

The pronoun of the first person singular is put in the
objective case after interjections; as, Ah me! Oh me!
"Ah me! what new prospects, new honors arise 1" Jas.
Montgomery.
What is the foundation of this note 1 Ans. Usage.
NOTE IV.
Names signifying duration, extension, quantity, quality,
and valuation, are in the objective case without a governing
word; as, He was absent a month. John travelled five miles.
"Susan rides every day."*
\Vhat is the foundation of this note 1 Ans. Usage.

Exercises.
" This rule is a foot long." "Jacob said, I will serve thee
seven years for RacheV' "And dust shalt thou eat all the days
of thy .life." "You have asked me news a hundred times."
Pope. The horse run a mile. She rides ·every day. The hat
is worth five dollars. A wall seven feet high and three feet
thick'.. "A carpet six yards wide." "A line sixty fathom!!
long." "A kingdm:µ five hundred miles square." "Water ten
feet deep."
"The island lies nine leagues away." Dana.
"The astonished realms shall rest a space." Everett's Dirge
of Alaric.
* This note comprises the substance of Kirkham's 3d note under rule
32d; N atting's 6th remark under rule 9; part of the ground of Smith's
22d rule and note 18; Webster's 22d and 28th rules, and Bullions' special rule, under rule 3.
"Effects occurring every moment to ourselves."
'' You have asked me news a hundred times." Pope.
Some grammarians " alledge some prepositions to be understood before these expressions of time. But this is a palpable error, arising from
preconceived notions of the necessity of such words. The fuct is otherwise. All these peculiar phrases arc idiomatic; and the remains ofihc
early state of our language."
" The same idiom is found in the Greek and Latin languages. which
were built on a Teutonic foundation-it is found in the Saxon from
which it ia derived to modern English; and is therefore to be considered
wi original, or coeval with the language."
Webster's Imp. Grammar.

NOTE V.
Home, way, north, east, and some other names ~f s~m~lar
meaning, are put in the objective case afl:er verbs s1gmfymg
motion to, without a governing word ; as, He came home.
She went this way. The birds flew north. They went
that course.
What is the foundation of this note 1 Ans. Usage.

A u t h o r i t i e s an d Ex e r c is e s.
"Let them go their way." He went home. "We turn our
eyes this way or that way." He pointed north. Ascend the
stairs. Descend the ladder. Ascend the mountain. "\Vhen
matters have been brought this length." They go west. Let
us go home.
C o m p o s i t i o n.

Write a description of some person-noticing the following
particulars :-Tall or short-fleshy or thin-manner-strong or
feeble-graceful or awkward-active and energetic, or otherwise.

F o u n d a ti on of No t e YI. .
Action is often asserted, as affecting the whole idea of a proposition. Hence,
NOTE VI.
Transitive verbs, in the active voice, ofl:en take clauses
or sentences afl:er them ; as, He said, stop that ball. He
came supposing he would accomplish his purpose.
\Vhat is the foundation of this note!

See above.

156

SYNTAX.

Au t Ii or it i es and Exe 1· c is es.
"If he escapes being banished by others, I fear he will banish
himself." Pope. Here being banished by others is the object
of escapes ; and all that follows fear, is its object.
"Jesus stood and cried, saying, if any man thirst, let him
come unto me and drink." John vii. 37.
'Vhen ye pray, say, Our Father, &c. Here the whole of our
Lord's prayer is the object of the verb say.
Ye canuot bear fruit except ye abide in me. John 15.
If I but remember only,
'
Such as these have lived and died.
Longfellow's Footsteps, &c.
. ."~ow much lon~er this short-sighted policy and grievous
1IlJUSt1ce are to contmue, no man can say.
Two Admirals, vol. I, page 15.
The eye discovers, he is not the true one. Byron:

C o mp o s i t i o n.
Description of a person continued.
Gait-air-behaviour--!.character, good, bad or indifferentamiable or ·irritable-habits, temperate or dissipated, industrious
or idle-principles, good or bad, fixed or unsteady.
PREPOSITIONS.

Fou11 dation of Note VII.
The subsequent term," of a relation expressed by a preposition,
is often the whole idea of a proposition ; hence,
NOTE VII.

.i

Prepositions often lake clauses or sentences after them;
as, " Besides sending her a copy of the scriptures in that
tongue." " Without seeking any more justifiable reasons
for hostility." Hume.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

!

.fl. u

t h o r i t i e s a 11 d E x e r c i s e s.

"Besides making an expedition into Kent." Hume.
"On seeing her husband's dead body." Ihm.
"On my saying we could not do too much." Dr. Young.
"At my coming in." Ihm. " Against I see you."

JNFINITIVE MODE.

157

" It is made \~ith a well founded hope of thereby better obtaining the object we have in view." Lord Ashburton's letter to
Mr. Webster, Aug. 6, 1842.
" Without coming any nearer." ·
REMAKK I.
Prepositions sometimes take adjectives after
them; as, "Going through the slow, and for from easy duty."
Cooper. "They are far from powerless." Channing. "At first."
"At last." "In vain." "In sectet." "On high." These adjectives qualify the meanings of the verbs or clauses with which
they are connected by the prepositions.
REMARK 2.
Prepositions often take adverbs after them; as,
" Since then." Coleridge, Smith on Ed. and others. " From
afar." Falconer and others. "To where." W. Irving, Lord
Ashburton and others. "By far." Lord Brougham. Authorities for such expressions might he multiplied to any length.

Composition.
Description of a person continued.
Professibn or occupation-station in society-property-age
-education and use of it-associates.
INFINITIVE :MODE.
Unlimited action usually has some dependence on some
ngent or circumstance; hence,
RULE X.

A verb .i n the infinitive mode may be gove1'11;ed by any
word on which it depends.
What is the foundation of this rule 1 See above.
1st. By names. We had permission to go. " The .next
thin()' nn.hmd for the mind to do." Locke. "He has a desire to
impi='ove." He asked liberty to go.
2dly. By verbs, as, Cease to _do ~vi!. Learn to do well:. ~Ve
were rejoiced to see you. She is w1lhng to learn. By desmng
to know .
3dly. Dy pronouns. They desired him to _depar~. I wish you
to study. Allow it to be reckoned. Let lum do 1t. They require him to be present.
4thly. By adjectives; as, He is eager to learn. They are
anxious to go. "A question difficult to be solved." "It is de-

14

158

INFlNlTlVE MODE.

SYNTAX.

Comp o s i t i o n.

lig:htful to contemplate the. g~odness o~ Providence." History
pa~nters would have found 1t difficult to mvent such a species of
bemgs.
5thly. Ily adverbs; as, She is old enough to go to school
"A structure soon to fall." Cowper. It would be well to under:
stand the matter. " The alienation and violent disunion that
were so soon to follow."
·
6thl:y:. Ily prepositions; as, "\-Vhat went ye out for to see."
Matt. 11. "I was about to write." Rev. x. 4. "As they went
about to kill him." Acts xx. 31. "The events we are about to
relate."

Description of a person continued.
Intellect-talents-memory-discriminatio!l- judgment-habit of observation-language-expressions.
NOTE II.
The infinitive is used without the sign to, after the verbs
bid, dare, hear, feel, see, let, make, &c.; as, "Who bade
you do it 1" · You saw him fall. I heard him say.'X'
What is the foundation of this note 1 Ans. Usage.

. ~EMARK. "For to see." This is the true original idiom; but
1t 1s usual now to omitfor.
7thly. Ily conjunctions. "He knows better than to trust
you. "An object so high as to be invisible." "A question so
obscu~e as to perplex t1.1e understanding." "It is better to live
on a httle, than to outlive a great deal." Nothing makes a man
suspect much, more than to know little." Bacon. "Be so good
•
as to read this letter."
Sthly. By interjections; as " Oh, to forget her!" Young.

Exercises.
He bids them come. "But my Lord you dare not do either."
Junius. Who heard him say it 1 I saw him <lo it. "We felt
the earth tremble." "Which they let pass." Help me catch
the bird.
'
REMARK. The infinitive has the usual sign after dare, to
challenge.; and also after the past and future tenses of dare, to
venture ; as, " You have dared to throw mor~ than. a suspicion
upon mine." Junius, Letter 20. "He will not dare to attack his
adversary."

F o It n d at ion of Note L

Fou.ndation of Note III.

Unlimited action sometimes depends on the collective idea of
a proposition ; hence,
.

Unlimited action is sometimes expressed without dependence
011 any other word.
Hence,

NOTE I.

NOTE III.
The infinitive is sometimes independent; as, He has accomplished his task well, to say nothing of the difficulties
he encountered.

A verb in the infinitive mode, may be governed by a
clause or sentence; as, " The delay of our hopes teaches us
to mortify our desires." Smallridire, "Till it's pain to
think." Dana. "That is to say." ci
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

Ant lt or it i es and Examples.
And lift the heavy spear, 'with threat'nin"' hand
To pierce the victim should he strive to ~ise. Bryant.
The sailors now, to give the ship relie£
Reduce the topsails by a single ree£ Falconer.
Affording scarce such breadth of brim
As served the wild duck's brood to s~im. Scott.
"Who can say that it would have required much solicitation
to have made her the partner of his fortunes."
·

159

\-Vhat is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

'

,1

I

Examples.
There are two, to wit, James and Julius. (To wit is obsolescent.) "To will is present with me, but to perform that which
is good, I find not." To maintain a steady and firm mind amidst
misfortunes, bespeaks a noble spirit. The act was ungentlemanly, not to say unchristian.

* The infinitive, of all verbs, was originally used without the sign to;
hence these expressions are not elliptical.

'·,1- l

."

PARTICIPLES.

160

161

SYNTAX.

Foundation of Note, I.
The prior-present tense of the infinitive should not
be placed after another verb in past time.
REMARK.

Participal action may depend upon the collective idea of a
proposition. Hence,

Incorrect Construction.

NOTE I.

"It would have bee!l no difficult matter to have compiled a
vo_lume of su~h amusmg precedents." Cowper. "He is remmded that his son stood alone against three, and asked what
he would have him to have done." Blair.

PARTICIPLES.

Participles often refer to clauses or sentences ; as, " And
th.e people did acc01·d·ing to this promise." Neb. v. 13.
" Concerning relation in general, these things may be considered." Locke. Concerning relates to the last clause of
the sentence.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

F, o u n d a ti o n of R u l e XI.

A u t h or i ties a n d Ex e r c is e s.

Action always implies an agent by whom it is performed.
Hence,

This criterion will be different, according to the nature of the
object which the mind contemplates." Enfield Hist.
I have accepted thee concerning this thing. Gen. 19.
I speak concerning Christ and the church. Eph. v. 32.
Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites touching their charge.
Num. viii. 26.
·
According to Hercules, Ammonius was induced to execute the
plan of a distinct eclectic school. Enfield's Hist. p. 63.

RULE XI.

Participles refer to nouns and pronous ; as, I heard the
dog bar~ing.

"I saw the boy abused."

What is the foundation of this rule!

See above.

Exercises.

Foundation of Note II.

"The vessel anchored in the bay, lost her mast." "Having
thus cal.med ~is .sol!~itude, he renewe~ his pace." "He was
nea~ los~ng lus hf~. ,,'' Such a .Plan is not capable of being
ca!n~d mto e~;-cut1on.
"They could not avoid submitting to
"Its excesses may be restrained without detlus mfluence.
s1lroying its existence."
REMARK.
Participles of the present tense, often perform, at
once, the office. of ~ ver~ and a. noun ; as, " The taking from ·
another what is !us, without Ins knowledge or allowance is
called stealing." Locke.
'
"He was displeased with the king's having disposed of the
office, or ~vith h_is having bestowed it upon a worthless man."
Henry, Hist. Ilnt. b. 3.
"He will feel, I trust, that there is a truer glory in saving a
country from war, than in winning a hundred battles."
Channing.
" One of my motives for taking part in this 'course of lectures
is my respect for this venerated man." (N. Wooster.) Ihm. '

Participial action is sometimes expressed without being referred
to any particular agent. Hence,
NOTE II.

l
·'

Participles often stand without a name or clause, being
referable to either of the persons indefinitely ; as, " It is not
possible to act otherwise, considering the weakness of our
nature." Spectator.
On what principle is this note founded 1 See above.

A u t h o r i t i e s a n d E x a mp l e s.
The articles of this charge, considering by whom it was
brought, were not of so high a nature as might have been expected. Henry, Brit. b. 4. ch. I.
Here considering is referable to either agent. You consi·
dering-1 considering or we considering.

14*

r

! ~

162

PRO:-iOUNS.

SYNTAX.

Lie .not one to another s .
I
man with his deeds. Col. 'iii~~.ng t iat ye ha\'C put olT the old

PRONOUNS.

None of us put off our cloth
.
off for washing. Neh. iv. 28. es, saving that every one put them

B.ULE XU.

"But taking white men ns th
lookmg on the one hand not f1 eyfl nrii and savages as they are
~r ~~licy on ~he part of govern~~-en~uo: ~sd. p~rfec tion of councii
or e occasional operation f h
m iv1 ua s, but allowing
expecting of the Indians " & o uman weaknesses in both, and

1

" Considering their m:ans ~ 1
•
laws and their man
' ey iave effected much." "The.
rude."
ners, genera.Uy speaking, were extreme!;
~EMARK. A before the pr
t .· ·
. .
entitled to no influence wit :sen pa1 bc1ple, ~s ~imply a particle
"A
ti d
a ever on the part1c1ple.
'
.
pre xe to many words . t1i
c1ent numerical adjective on ' isd e representative of the anappears from the following ~ a~t no~ of at." This "dearly
or a."
;vn en md1fferently with an, o11

Alive. "The Earl of Salisbury
tak
Aside. "For l1ope oflifl
was . en on lyve." Fabian.
Aboard. "On board" eSwas set on side." Hall. Hen. vi.
·
o used now
· Hollingshead.
Aslee
"D . ~· "\V"th
l
that he fell on slepe."
·' avid fell on slee.,"
Acts
...
36
r·
xm. .
T~us shall ye ryde,
n hawking by the river's syde " W
"And ride an hawking b th .
.
arton, p. II.
"A kn' h h
.
y e r1vere." Chaucer
.
ig t t at had been on hawkin " p .
" And going an huntirur " Sto ' Sg.
rmce Arthur.
·-o •
w s ummary
10
" F.
.
' p. .
I\ir. earn observes of th
the like," there is none mo:e :~ress10nd"bl,am a coming," and
gar or e ased." See Tooke's
P urley.

0 "

P 1·omiscuous E xercises
·
"For thou art a girl as m h b . h

.

As she was a poet subl" uc h rig ter than her,
imer t an we."
" Wh
d .
o art thou speak th t
While others sl~ep, th~1s r~ngo~ thes1gns unknown,
.
e camp alone 1"
" Just f th
o y word, m every tho o-ht .
ho
knew
no
wish
but
.
h
.
thu!'>.
smce~e.. .
W
w at e world might hear."

163

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for u~hich they stand,
in person, and number; as, The boy learned his lesson.
Julia injured her book. The king and queen put on their
robes.
On wh~t principle is this rule founded 1 See p. 83.
REMARK. He, she and it, must agree, in gender also.
In c o r r e c t Co n s t r u c t i o n.
"Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob."
"The whale killed another man, which is the sixth which have
lost their lives by this means." "The crown had it in their
po\ver to give such rewards as they thought proper." "The
fruit beareth fruit after his kind." The mind of man cannot
continue long without some food to nourish the activity of his
thoughts. " I do not think any one should incur censure for
being tender of their reputation."
·
"Every one must judge of their own feelings." Byron.
"He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them."
"Let each esteem others better than themselves."
"A person may make the,!Jlselves happy without riches."
"My counsel to each of you is that you should make it your
endeavor to come to friendly agreeme1't."
REMARK I. When the gender is undetermined, the masculine is to take the preference; as, Answer not n fool according
to his folly ;-not her folly.
REMARK 2. A name and-its substitute cannot be the nominative to the same verb.
REMARJC 3. It is often used to represent an officer or an official body in the· execution of duty; as, The chair will perform
its duty by deciding the question. . "The government of the
United States has frequently made known its opinion, which it
now repeats." Webster's Let. to Everett, March 28, 1843.
"The Government of the United States fully admits that its
flag can give no immunity to pirates," &c. Imb.
REMARK 4. It, though without gender, is used to represent
an infant or a child, at which period of life the distinction of
sex is disregarded ; The child, it cries.

I

164

SYNTAX.

165

ADVERBS.

It is also the ~ubstitute for insects; as, The worm it crawls.
5. The substitute one has no alliance with ·the
numeral one ; for it is derived from the French on-a kind of
general suhstitute, meaning one, they, we, people ; and in its
older forms, was om, omme, homme, and origmated in the Latin
homo, a man. The Germans still say 111.an sagt, man says, in. stead of one says. This word retains its inflections in our language, while in the French, contrary to custom, it has lost them.
See Latham's Gram.
O:'.'.r For further exercises on substitutes, see Etymology.

.
uch used to commence sentences; as,
3. Th~~e IThls inceptive use of there is idiomatic.
,._ ll . · " name is nom. to the verb, and
" There was a man.
ln such sentences, the. io owm~
the adverb belongs to it.

REMA.RK

REMARK

Foundation of Note 1.
The denial of a negation constitutes an affirmation.

NOTE I.
.
. h
e simple sentence, destroy each
Two necratives
m t e sam
ffi
· .
"Nor was
0
•
•
l t to an a rmat1on , as,
.
other, and aie ..eq~iva en. h h' ·d ign " "I cannot drmk
the king unacquamted wit
is es
.
no more."
·
On what principle is this note ,._ioun ded 1. See above.

ADVERBS.
RULE XIII.

Adverhs belong to verbs, adjectives, and other a.dverbs,.
as, He writes well. John won by running swiftly.
is extremely studious. She performs very readily.

He

In c o r r e c t C o n s t r

What is the foundation of this rule 1 See p. 107.
REMARK I.
Adverbs are generally placed before adjectives,
after verbs, and often between the auxiliary and verb.

.../ncorrect Construction.
"He \Vas pleasing not often, because he was vain."
"William nobly acted, though he was unsuccessful."
"We may happily live, though our possessions are small."
Whence we may date. likewise the period of this event.
" It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate."
He offered nn apology, which being not admitted, he submitted, discontented. "Never sovereign was so much beloved by
the people." "He was determined to invite back the king, and
to call together his friends."
"So well educated a boy, gives great hopes to his friends."
"He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard attentively by the whole assembly."
"In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires
to be consulted, as well as the sense."
REMARK 2.
The adverbs hither, thither, and whith.er are
obsolescent; here, there, and where, being used in their stead ;
as, "He came here;" "we rode there," &c.

Hence,

tt

c t i o ~·

"I cannot do nothing."
"He will never be no taller."
. " Covet neither riches nor honors, nor no such perishing
th' gs"
"
m ·
h lf. or let no one disturb me.
"Do not interrupt me t yse ' n
f d'
· "
"
honest nor ta.ke no shape nor semblance o . isguise.
1 not confine his operat10ns to narrow
\Ve need not, nor co
" Be

I

·I

limits."
with the ·proposal, neither at
"I am resolved not to .comp,1Y
take no proper meapresent, nor at any other time. .
" 'rhese people do not judge wisely, nor
h ·
pose"
sures to effect t e~r pur
. . bl that we cannot by no means
" The measure is so except1ona. e
permit it."
Foundation of Note II.
:Manner or clegree may be predicated of relation.
NOTE II.

Hence,
.

Adverbs sometimes belong to prepositions; as, He is Jar

from home.
What is the foundation of this note 1 See above.

166

SYNTAX • . ,

ADVERBS.

.
rc1unent rolls, w1· t11~u t 1vncn.tion,
Chained to ht~ pa f races or persuaSion .
Know any thmg o g
.

.11.uthorit.ies and Examples.
" Far from easy duty." " Far from true." " Do\rn tn the
day." Cooper. " Fast by the throne." Pope. " Fast by Arcadia."
Falconer. "Far above the sacred lighL" Ibm. "Far a bcn·e
dull brutei::." Sir W. Jones. "Far from having." "Far from
being." "Far above." " Far below."
In these and similar examplei::, the degree clearly belongs to
the relation, and the adverbs should be ro parsed.

FAUST·

.
.
comes not by toil or art:
Pereun.s1on, fnend, . de a matter clearer,
Hard study neve~ n~a
eaker's heart
'Tis the live fountam m ~1~h: melt the ravished hearer.
Sends forth the strel~fim. heap book on book, .
e•
Then wor k a way
. for d tprecept
on example ··
Line upon lme, an
a e and look,
.
The stupid mult1tud~ mayu~
of wisdom ample'
. And fools ~ay thm~J~ to toueh the heartBut all remam unmov : s a different art.
·
n feel reqmre
1
n
To mnke me
' the only secret mow ,
n,
For touching ~e~~s this :-to have one of your ow .
My worthy frten 1

"Fast by the.throne obsequious fame resides." Pope.
"Fast by Arcadia stretch these desert plains." Falconer.
This does not mean that the plains stretch fast, but the relation by is fast.

:tock

"'Vhenfar above the sacred light he eyes." Ibm.
-"Men, high-minded men,
With powers as far above dull brutes endued."
Sir W. Jones.
"So far from having it in my power to punish his 111111'derer,-"
" So far from being in a condition to defend my kingdom.91

WAGNER.

.
er's every thing in preaching:
But still the mann ., . . that particular.
I know it, though 1 iar1 m
FAUST.

Exe re ise.
A LESSON ON PULPIT ELOQUENCE.
From" Scenes in Goethe'a Farut."
\VAoNER* (enters)
Forgive me; sir! I heard your declamation, And thought you must be reading some Greek play.
I Jon~ have wished to mead my recitation:
'Tis necessary at the present day.
A cler.g-yman, indeed, 'tis often said,
Should-to an actor go to learn his trade.
FAUST.

Ay !-if he mean himself to be a player!
And that is not unfrequently the case.
WAGNER.

Ilut how should one, who hardly feels the air,
Or sees the light, except on holidays,
• 'Yagner is a student in Theology.

167

atter worth the teaching,
anncr ! find out some mfi
a barren stickler.
fi
rds and orms
.
Nor be or wo
tter for the letter.
The spirit's all ;-no tlra
ood enough for men.
Goqd sense ~nd tru ~re Sut with it then!
Hast any tlung to say . st le, the better. . .
A d the more natural the y hrascs nicely JOtned,
n
words-your p
your pompous
d fas is an n.clder ;
. d.
'Vill find the pcoplf ea that rustle in the wm '
. They're but dry eav~~ ens in a bladder.
No comfort for the soul , p l t d by A H. EverettTrans a c
.
11
&c
Boston Misce any,
.

·u

.iu

•

t
- ~

Promiscuous E "~er c is
. es.
of
my offendmg
I
"
" The very head and front
.
·tent-no more.
l
Hath t us ex
. for thee away,
"Then hasten thy return; ·oy the day."
Nor lustre has the sun, noh.J h from the ruined roof
tc
"vVert tlJou som e star w schance
didst "1e11 •"
Of Rhak'd Olympus, ) mt

b: .·

..
169
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

168

SYNTAX.

CONJUNCTIONS·.

Foundation of R u l e XIV.
. When two or mor 'd
•
tH1on, they are unders~~t: ~re connected in the same affirma
ence, ·
ave the same po6ition or ~

RULE XIV

Words connected b a c .
. .
they usually hav/ the ~;:unction m?Ul be gimilar • and
.
me construction '· as • H'
fiprudently ' and a cqmres
pro t
e •=--uves
avor us with their com an per y. James and John -.rill
Wh t ·
p Y• He and she are agreed.
a is the foundation of this rule t· S ee aboYe.

..

"To d 'd Incorrect C o n s t r u ct i o n. . •
·
en e the miserie f h
.
wantmg compassion towar s o t ~ unhappy is inhnman.
compassion &c
ds them is unchristian." And ' and
"T
' · .·
to want
he Parliament
add ressed the king, and.has'--the same
day."
" H'
.
...:t:'D prol'O!!Ued
is wealth and him bid .
"
"He entreated us m
adieu to ea.ch other."
" My sister and h~r ;ecroemradgoode
and I, to live 1 - - : - - " "'
"V'
ft
on
te
"
........ ~.,..
·• e o en overlook the
.
nns.
'JI
s10n, and arc searchin aft blessmgs which are in 0our
bbroth" and Jm ,:.;
are
of ,,,:::;::,
the o
m?derate in our views
gramm8;l'l3.Ils."
"pBursmt, is the best way to '
proceedmg temperately .
etween him and I th
e_nsure succ:ess."
m
no~eRbetwecn him and she.'~re is some du;parity of years· but
ank may c f1 · fl
•
·
virtue.,,
on er m uence, but will not necessan·1Y produce
" SI

;!'1~~hl-hieh ~t

: ¥' ~

R

ie

an~

~as

proud but now humble."
1. Than and

~~~p;;~~~~n~h~ta~t?.efhconj:~c~~: ~~~e~ero~':~men~ in
o~e·" ' Cooper.
e moments were precious ontmg
nouns
more
ac- .
EMARK

counts than

He hath suffered and d.ie d. to redeem such a rebel as me.
'Vesley.

'!'hat she (Engla.nd) can spare from her service such men as
him. Lord Brougham's Speeches, Dedication.
Except the idiomatic use of who1Jt, instead of who, after than ;
as, "'fhan whom none higher sat."
REMA.RK 2. But is not a negation, and therefore the negation
should be used with it. He can bttt accept it ; should be, Tie
cannot but accept it. " The truth, which was burning as a fire
within him, he could not but give forth.'' ChanI}ing on War,
1838.
REMARK 3.
Conjunctions sometimes connect verbs of different modes or tenses without repeating the nomirnitive ; as, " He
lives temperately and has long lived temperately." "He is imlolent and therefore will be poor."
·
Not that he is or ever was, obliged by these sta.tntes to call a
new parliament every year. Blackstone's Com. b. 1, 2.
For when a man says gold is malleable, he means and would
insinuate something more· than this. Locke.
That they have
· contributed, and probably yet contribute.
Miller.

"]Jut whatever they were or are." "The whole has been
done under the auspices, and is confirmed by the sanction of
religion and piety." "It has opened, and will more and more
open their eyes.'' Burke. "If I have been born, or dwell, or
have served an apprenticeship in one town.'' Paley.
"He neither receives nor can give delight.'' Johnson.
These sentences are imrfectly good English. The repetition
of the nominative would mar some of them.

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.
Fou.n<lation of ]litle XV.
It is both agreeable and convenient for the speaker to allow
the hearer to supply some thoughts in the discourse, without
their being expressed.

Hence,
RULE XV.

Ellipses should often be admitted, but not <tllowcd to obscure the sense, nor wea.ken the force of the sentence;
as, He came and returned the same day. "I love and
fear him."
What is the foundation of this rule 1 See above.

15

.,

171
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

170

"In every composition, what interests the imagination, and
touches the heart, pleases all ages and all nations." lbm. Lee. 2.
"Authority or prejudice may, in one age or country, give a
temporary reputation to a.n indil.Terent poet or bu.cl artist." Ibm.
"I had long been convinced that public lectures, which had
been used in most ages and countries, to teach the elements of
almost every i1art of learning, were the most convenient mode
in which theseMackintosh
elements could
be Law
taught."
on the
of Nature and Nations.

SYNTAX.

In 'c o r re c t C
"I glad! h
on st ruction.
y sis mmed
· " And this
it m who gl adi Y fl ed from me "
tl
perly termed equity~!• mean by distributive j~stice
" That s
·
• an is pt<r
"Th
pecrns of commerce will r d
soil " e people of this country po! o nee great gain or loss."
,; A littl
~sess a healthy climate and

"
_e man and woman "
.
' A delightful garden and' -land a little woman
'A magnificent h
ore 1ard."
·
"0 piet · 1 v· ouse and gardens."
charms."
" H · :y • irtue ! how insensible have I been to your
is not only sensibl
. " Bye presumption
and : .and !earned, but is reli .
'
mcur contempt "
y vamty, we provoke
also.
" T'I'
•
ernmty and
r is conduct is
be
said of it."
not scandalous, and that ·.is th e bert. ca we

"I um of opinion that the volume, (the Bible) independent of
its divine origin, contains more sublimity, purer morality, more
important history, and finer strains of eloquence, than can be
selected from all other books, in whatever age or language they
may have been written." Sir 'N. Jones.

gio~s

WORDS coNT.'\.ININO TWO CASES.

Sentences are common, in our best authors, in which one word
contains two cases. 'fhis is allowable, says Dr. Gleig, when
the contiguity of the wonls prevents obscurity. See Encycl.

REMARK I.
'Vhen th
.. .
.•
n
pared, the latter senten e 9ualft1t1es of different thinm::
Is better than ours. . ce is o en very elli tical :-0- are CCE>REMARK 2 y Int ' I. e. _than your book ;} .
' as, My book
ofte n very elliptical.
·
errogat1vc
·
· their a
as " hexpress1ons·and
• •· ' w om did you see,,,
. . Ans.nswers,
"John..,
hat is, I saw Jol·1·'
are
T

Foundation of R l

tiimg~

When different th.
ti e
had to thb order of
are connected, due
placed last. Hence ' ne ' and. the most

Brit. Art. Gram.

A u t h o r i t i e s.

Upon the soil they fought to save. Bryant's Battle-field.
1Iere soil is the object of the preposition 11pon aml of the transitive verb save. The common resolution of such sentences is thus.
"Upon the soil which they fought to save." But here are two
words, in immediate connection, which mean the same thingsoil and which-and hence the expression is tautological. The
sense is as fully expressed without which, as with it.
Hence such sentences have to be elliptical in construction, or
tautological in meaning. Usage sanctions both forms.
" Who steals my purse steals trash."
" Who fed thee last, will feed thee still." Hymn.
" l\-no kindly lengthens out our days,
Demamis our choicest songs." Hymn.
"'Tis Heaven has brought me to the state youBeggar's
see." Pet.

XVI. .

importa~idea should
should he
be

RULE XVI
When extent and du.ration .
.
ple sentence the e t me connected in the same .
du1· t•
'
x ent should b
la
nm. .a ion,· as, " The . shriek h' h e p ced before the
regions and arres has be ' w IC comes to us from
Channing's 'Vorks vol
le2x2torted by human cruelty&!!
What is the foundation
' of• rule
' 16 t·· S ee above.
•

~5n

"The uneasiness we feel-is that we call desire." Locke.
"Though in her eye and fadeu cheek,
Is read the grief she will not speak." Halleck's Ilozzaris.
"The events we are about to relate, occur.red near the midule
of the last century." Two Admirals, vol. 1. p. 13.

" Hom
. lmprope r C o n s t r u c t i o n
been greatly
er ISadmired
a poet, fcwh o, ir_i
. ~11 ages, and by· all cn't1·cs. h•a
Better-b II .. or subhm1ty." Bl . ' Lee. 4.
' .....
y a cnt1cs of all ages.
arr s

:.

,I,

172

·1

SYNTAX.

" It is made with a well-founded hope of thereby better obtaining the object we have in view." Lord Ashburton's Letter to
Mr. Webster, Aug. 6, 1842.
" lV!io would a handsome figure see,
Should look upon Sir Eustace Gray." Crabbe.
"Spirits hear what spirits tell." Coleridge's \Var Eclogue.
What often contains two cases. Upon this point, all are agreed.
What good reason can be given for allowing what to contain
two cases, and denying that power to other words in similar positions !
"For I have business would employ an age." Jane Shore.
"I had several men died, in my ship, of calentures." Swift. ·
"They who affect to guess at the object they cannot see."
Bolingbroke.
"Whatever powers they ass}lmed weri:i deemed legitimate.."
Story on Con.
"Some talk of subjects they do not understand." Johnson. " On every syllable we utter, we give more or less of each
oue of these four elements of expression." ~ber's Elocution.

P r o m i s c u o u s E ;r e r c i 1 e 1. .
" During the last two or tJ1ree years, a number of t.racts hal"e
appeared upon this much agitated question. One a.scribes dae
letters ,to Glover, the author of 'Leonidas;' anotJJer. to e:me
obscure person, whose name we have forgotten. By far dae
most ridiculous, however, is a series of letters, to show that
Junius was none otJier than the late Duke of Portland."
·
Lord Brougham's Miscel. vol 2, p. 235.
"On the present occasion, the monarch was attended by all
his own family, and most of the distinguished nobles of the
land; and was accompanied by the French barons, then remaining ns hostages in England, for whose comfort and amosement, under the tedium of their honorable captivity, no endea- . .
vors, that kindness or good feeling could sugge...;. W"ere left_
unemployed." James' Life of Edward, &c. YOL 2, p. 237.
" - As the introduction of new characters and . new themes
have rendered necessary." l\Iorris Grame.
"The process of the mind in rendering her conceptions particular, is indeed exactly the reverse of that by which i::he generalizes them/' Encycl. Brit.

RECA.PITULA.TION OF RU~ES.

RULE I.
.
.
.h
b which asserts ils action
.
governs t e ver
The nominative case
b
125.
or being, in perso~ anhd ~u;ni~~~e ~ode; a sentence or a clause
NoTE. A v~rb mt em
. 126.
may be the subject ~fa verb. p
RULE U.

.
· · personand
'th its subject-nominative in
A verb must agree wi
..
b .• governed by the infimtlv~;ode,
number. P· 127..
No'l'E 1. When ha v_erth: third person singular. P·
-·db
Y
or a cl ause, it must e m . finitives, or c1auses, connectc
b . the
NoTE 2. Twob<;>r ~o;eth1~ verb, require the verb to e m
and, being the su Jee o
.
lural. P· 128.
nouns ancl pronouns m the
3 Two or more nouns, ord
st have verbs, nouns,
p N
oTE ·
. nected by an ' mu
129.
eingular number, c?n Nith them in the plural. P·
r "ted
and pronouns agreemg v
nnected by and, are im1
rb or pronoun must be
, 4 If the singular ~ouns coh
N O'lE .
"thcr or neither, t eve
by each, every, ei
.
in the singular. P· 130.
nouns and pronouns smg~:
{) Two or more nou!"'s, or
nor must have ver l',
NoTE . ted by the alternative, or! or . th' e singular. P· 130.
1 r connec
"th t 1e1n m
:o~ns, and pronouns to agree w; ronouns of different perso~s
N
6 When nouns a~ p
the verb must agree, ~n
are ~~~ne~ted in the nom;n:;t~;ea~ds~he pronoun must be put 111
person, with the one nex
(173)

15•

,_

i i~

~ '

l

i

'¥

1'75
RECAPITULATION•

174

SYNTAX.

the first person, rather than the second, and in the second rather
than the third. p. 131.
NoTE 7. - When a verb comes between two nominatives of
different numbers, either of which may be the subject of the
affirmation, it may agree with either, according to the sense.
p. 132.
Non: 8. A collective noun conveying unity of idea. must
have a verb in the singular; but if it conveys plurality of idea.
the verb muet be in the plural. p. 132.
NoTE 9. In some cases the imperative verb is used without
a definite nominative. p. 132.
NoTE 10. In asserting a present uncertainty, the verb in the
subjunctive, should hav:e the indicative form. p. 133;

RULE III.

Adjectives belong to the names of the things which they tlucribe. p. 136.
NoTE 1. Adjectives sometimes belong to pronouns or snbslitutes. p. 136.
·
.
·
NoTE 2. Adjectivss sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mode. p 137.
NoTE 3. Adjectives sometimes belong to clauses or l:lelltences. p. 137.
NoTE 4. Adjectives sometimes qualify the meaningofnoam,
only as the effects of the verbs that agree with them. p. 140..
. NoTE 5. Adjectives si>metimes belong to other adjectires.
p. 141.
NoTE 6. Adje.ctives sometimes belong to adverbs. p. 143.
NoTE 7. Definitive adjectives and numerals must agree with .
the nouns to which they belong, -in number. p. 144.
NOTE 8. Nouns must agree, in number; with their definitives
nnd numerals. p. 144.

RULE IV.
The relation of property requires the name or prontiun of
the owner to be in the possessive case. p. 14-5.
RULE _V.
·when
address is made, the name of the person or thing
addressed, is ·i n the ;wminative case independent. p. 147.

an

RULE VI.

. .

inde endent of

pla~e~,~i:tea !::;;i~:J:!:~. cas~

A notm or pronoun
.I' the sentence, is
the rest OJ
p 148.
.

abs_olute.
·'

•• :111

E VII
RUL
.

uns signifying. ~he
or nouns an1l proiw
ul by opposition
Two or more noun.~, . tervening verb, are p .
ithout an m
same thing, w
149.
. tT•e same case. P·
in -•
E VIII
RUL
·. . verbs in
. the passiveh
't've verbs, a-nd some thrans~~viefore them, when bot
Intransi t
e casll after t em
,
'Voice, have ~he sam e thing. P· 150.
- .
words signifY the sam
IX
the objective
RULE
·
.
'ce govern
. the active voi '
151.
Transitive ~~rbs, gi:vern the objective ca_se. P·d some others
Prepositions
. .
k' g teacbmg, an
case.
bs of givmg, as m ,
. .
a"king,teach·
NoTE 1. Ver ob'ectives. P· 152.
often govern two ~ h assivc voice, of givmg, ~ 153.
2 Verbs m t e P
b' ctive case. P·
·
NoTE .
thers govern the o Je
singular, is put m
ing, and some o
,
f the first person,
3 The pronoun o . .
p 154.
.
No~E :
se after an interJection'. .
tension, quantity,
the objective ca
. ifying du.ratio~, ef
bjective ca.se,
N oTE 4. Name~ si~~e often used m t ie o
1"4
f
.
d valuation,
quality an
. g word. P· v .
ther words o
without a govHernm way north, east, an;. s~fv~ ~ase, without a
No-rE 5. . ome, ft~n put in the o Jec
nin<l' are o
k
. .
similar mea
155.
.
. e often ta e
governing wor . P· . .
bs in the active vo1c ,
Trans1twe ver ,
155
N oTE 6 ·
s after them. P·
·
sentences after
ften take clauses or
clauses or sentence . .
•
Prepos1t1ons
o
NoTE 7 ·
them. P· 156 ·
RULE X.
d
.
,
d ay be governed by any wor
. t11e infinitive mo e m A ver b tn - d
157
ed by
h'ch it depen s. P·
· ..
d mn.y be govern
on w t
• the infm1tive UlO e
NoTE 1. A verb m 158.
n. cle.use or sentence. P·

.

.

d'

,1

,l
•I

~

I'

i
i

176

SYNTAX.

~·-

NoTE 2. The infinitive is used without the sign to afler the
verbs bid, dare, J1ear, feel, see, let, make, &c. p.. 159.
NoTE 3. The infinitive is sometimes independent. p. 159.
RULE XI.
Participles refer to nouns and pr01wuns. p. 160.
NoTE 1. Participles often refer to clauses o~ sentences. p.
161.
NOTE 2. Participles often stand without a name or clau..~
p. 161.
RULE XII.
Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they 1tand,
in person and number. p. 163.

PUNCTUATION·

"
by points
.
. . . of written composition,
is the dividmg
t~ as the sense and gramt s, into such sente~ces, or par "'
~a~i~i1 con~truction rleri:~ntence, constituting a yerfe~thprof~
A period is a comp e e
d in construct1on, wit w 1a
sition, and is generally u~co~fo~~t~f'a period, is distinguished by
follows. The pause, .at t e king is distinguished by a cadence,
the same name, and m spea
.
or fall of the voice.
. d or clauses and phrases. which cond
The members <?f. a per10 'ore or less connected m sense an
stitute the proposition, ad!ef m11uished accordingly by a comma, a
construction, and are lS m.,,
semicolon, or a colon.
COMMA.
. ften used to indicate
. . How
.
the
shortest
pause, IS o
The comma, bemg
l'ttle interruption of voice is a
the construction, where very i much depends upon the meanable. In the use of the comma,
ing of the authqr.
h Id be no pause between the
RuLE 1. - In general there s o~ .s ver long : then it s~oul_d
arts of a simple sentence, unless it i a . ar. ~· No state of life is
be separated into part~, by}~~econ:d taste of the prese.nt age:
exempt from trouble.
1 t th! cultivation of the English Ian
has not allowed us to neg ec
guage."
I-'
't exercises on each rule, as he proThe learner shou u wn e
eeeds.
.
d the place should be
RuLE 2.
When a word Ul understooba d wife and children,
'
marked by a comma; as, " The hus n '
suffered extremely."
(177)
PuNOTUA.TION

RULE XIII.
Adverbs belong to verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. p. 164..
NoTE 1. Two negatives in the same simple sentence.,.;destroy each other, and are equivalent to an affirmatfre. p. 165.
NoTE 2. Adverbs sometimes belong to prepositions. p. 165.
RULE XIV.

'vords connected by a conjunction, must be sunilar, and they

usually have the same construction. p. 168.

RULE XV.
Ellipses should often be admitted, but not allowed to ohclr.re
the sense, nor weaken the force. p. 169.
~
RULE XVI.
lVlien extent and duration are connected, in the same 1impk
sentence, the extent should be placed before the duration. p. 170.

181

PROSODY.

11'

of a sentence, if he is careful to bring it down to the proper
pitch before closin~ it; for on whatever pitch he closes one sentence he-must begm the next.
POETRY.
A piece of p6etry, is a composition, divided into equal portions,
called measures, by a regular recfurence of the accented syllables;
and formed into harmonious lines, by a regular arrangement of

PROSODY.

theInmeasures.
this sentence, the accented syllables are the 2d, 4th, 9th,
1 lth, 14th, 18th, 20th, 22d, 23d, 27th, 31st, 35th, &c. Between
two .accented syllables, there are sometimes . four, srimetimes
three, sometimes one, and sometimes no accented syllable;

treats of Orth~
Or0oepy or Pronunciati!J•i:n~ the laws of versification
propriety. It is regulated chiefl be art of uttering words
Accent is an increased stress ~ y .acc~nt and quantity.
Jetter or syllable of a word
~ _vo1c~ in_ uttering a particulv
the syllable bur in bunlen. to d1stmgmsh it from the others; as
PROSODY

~ith

Non:. only
A correct
ace~~ t uaf ton ts
· very. imparta.nt, and can be
acquired.
by atte
' speakers, and frequent~ •:;ns~lf the pronunciation of correct
mg a good pronouncing Diet1onary.
. The
. the tune
.
c1~
it· Quantity of a sy11abl e IS
reqw·rec1 mpronoun·
. he pronunciation of
time of tha~ o[ an unacc::t:':1~ syllable requires double the
Emphas1s IB an increased str
of .
of sound, placed on certain w~~ .;01ce, or other distinctions
portance.
s
mark their superior im-

The reader or speaker sh
.
many words emphatic. .
ould carefully"avoid ma'1Ung

NoTE.

too

Useful Directions for Reading
l S
.
am ;peaking
•
e voice be pitcbea on th
~one.. ~ eCorrect
pitch of . .
e na~ural or contJenat" rial ·
mg, as it in singing. · voice IS as essential in reading

I L t th

i~

or~-

23: ABeVOl
~distinct
in articulation
al1'. t ,.
·
w ec a ion---act out•. nature
·
ose
your
pe
·00
·
4
Cl
them. This last isn son the pitch with which ou co
speaker way raise
the vclc:nc;.
(180)
g as · e pleases m the middle

hi~~~~:a~ehthfor ~ontrollin/

hence the sentence is prose.
Then fare thee well, mine own dear love,
The world hath now for us
No greater grief, no pain above
The pain of parting thus.

Moore.

In this sentence, the accented syllables are the 2d, 4th, 8tl1,
10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, &c. Hence, between two accented syllables, there is one unaccented syllable, throughout the stanza;
i. e. the accent occurs on every other syllable.

At the close of the day, when the hamlet is still,
And the mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove,
And when n6ught but the t6rrent is heard on the hill,
And there's n6ught but the nightingale's song in the Beattie.
grove.
In this sentence, the accented syllables are the 3d, 6th, 9th,
12th, 15th, 17th, 21st, 24th, &c. Hence, between each two
accented syllables there are two unaccented: in other words the
accent occurs on every third syllable.
'fhe above examples and remarks exhibit the fundamental
distinction between prose and poetry.
MEASURE. Ench accented syllable with its accompanying
unaccented syllable or syllables, constitutes a measure.
Measure is of two kinds, dissyllabic, and trissyllabic. Dissyllabic measure .consists of two syllables ; as the above quota-

from Moore.
'
tionDissyllabic
measure consists'. of three
syllables ; as the above
quotation from Beattie.

1()

"

.Ip

183
PROSODY·

182

PROSODY.

The measures placed in one line constitute a verse. Two
rhyming lines constitute a couplet, three lines, a triplet; and
four or more lines in one division of a piece of poetry, make a
stanza.
RHYME. Rhyme is not essential to poetry, but it is the greatest
ornament of English verse. In rhyming syllables three things
are necessary.
1. The vowel sounds must be the aame.
2. The sounds following the vowel sounds must be the 11ame.
3. The sounds preceding the vowel sounds must be different.
Thus:
They talk of principles, but notions pr-i-ze.
And all to one loved folly sacrif-i-ce.
If the sounds come under the above regulation, any variation
in the letters, is unimportant.
Rhyming words are regulated by the same law. Thus:
Success in a higher be-at-i-twleA philosopher takes it with gr-at-i-tude.
Rhyming syllables must always be accented; and rhyming
words must always contain an accented syllable.
When the accented syllable, in rhyming words, is followed by
one unaccented syllable, it is a double rhyme; and when it is
followed by two unaccented syllables, it is a treble rhyme.
Blank 'Verse is poetry without rhyme.
MEASURES AND VERSES. English Poetry is based upon the
two kinds of measure, above described, and there are five varieties of it.
For the sake of convenience, we will represent an accented,
or long syllable, by the letter a, and an unaccented, or short
one, by the letter x : thus :
The way was long, the wind was cold. ScoU.
xa
xo.xa
xa
The length of this line may be estimated in two ways. We
may say it consists of four accents or measures, taking the accented syllable with its corresponding unaccented one; or we
may say it consists of eight syllables.
The Varieties of ll'Ieasure11.
a x-tyrant, silly
~ D'
II b.
2
x a-presume, deter 5 issy 8 ic.
3 a x x-merrily, fortify
~
4 x a x-Di~able, pre!erring Trissyllabic.
:i x x a-refug-ec, cavalier
1

d

ll ble may come ·m an y prtrt
'.

t~~Je~~e tfi~c~fi;~g:~/~he plaJi~ ~a;/~~i~~cZr {1i~~

This shows.
of a meai;ure . I
fi r instance, prouuces
d. llab1c measure, o
d
ISSY
• and so of the other,
·1 throughout a verse; un
measure ,
variety usually .Preva1 s
co~~co~f;t~rougho~t a pie~~~%~~;;;;ets in varying a measure,
Tl1ere are some liberties
. d'f.
: lly from these laws.
.
line is a matter of m I occas10na 'h f the last measure, m a
'
The lengt o
ference.
.
.
tl sacred hair dissever,
The meetmg pom~ fo~e ever and for ever. P~pc.
From her fair ha_n
.
till all men doubt it,
Prove and explam a th~~~ss and abou! it. Pope. .
And write about it, Go
'
. · al measure is x a,
ongm
is x a, and a sy11able
.
above couplets "irom Pope ' thehich
In the
line to the last measur.e, v:'
tha.t the measure x a
t~r~:fh ~~first view, this nught i~d~~~t~his is not the ca.se. It

cha·n~eda i~~;e~~~::::~;esy~l:bf whic~l ~~~ ~;1fa'.~~=d i~n~u:l~
+
fi al

rs
e'.
is mere Y
.
and we will represen
the end of a 1me,

ca~~~rt;~~:~t r:~ts~~~~ur: ~:~~~t1=~~~b~e~:2;~~:dtl~~J n~;

Hable is unaccenteu, U
Such may be represen
.1
t
the measure.
sy
that would ues roy
·
f multithe sign minus, -. .
.
will use the s1g.n °
In the following 1llustrat10n~~~vzr measures in a line.
plication, to represent the num
l

Examp es.
1. Variety.

2
a x X

Rich the tre~ure
Sweet the pleasure.

D d
ry en.

a x X 2 -Tumult cease
Sink to peace
..
Seize the lightning's y~mon­
8. xx 3
Friim the starred dom1mon.
X 3 -Sacres can, they ~ay-:a x
A;d bring down its ray.
t ly form tl1e folof lines, rhymmg a1terna e '
The two varieties
lowing stanza. S cs can they say,
s~fze the iightni1_1g's pm1on,
And bring down its ra_Y,_
From the starred domm10n. Moore.

184
a x X 4

So she strove ng-.!inst her weakncssShape<l her heart with woman's meeknessa x X 4 -Though at times her spirits siinkTo all <luties 6f her r£mk.
These two couplets combine<l alternately form the following
stanza.
So she strove against her weakness,
Though at times her spirits !'ilnk;
Shape<l her heart with woman's meekness,
To all <luties of her rank.
Tennyson.
a x X 5 and a x X 5 - combined.
Then methought I heard a hollow sound,
Gath'ring up from all the lower ground.
Narrowing in to where they ratasscmble<l,
Low voluptuous music winding trembled. Tennyson.

n x X 6, or n x X 6 -.
On a rn6untain, stretched beneath a hoary willow,
Lliy a shepherd swafn, and viewed the rolling billow,
a x X 7, or a x X 7 - .
W ii have had en6ngh of iiction {md of motion; weLet .us swef1r an of1th, and keep it, with an equal mind-

a x X 8, or a x X 8 - .
Herc about the beach I wandered, nourishing a youth sublime
\Vi th the fairy tales of science, and the long results of Time;
\Vlien the centuric~ behind me like a fruitful land reposed;
\Vhcn I clung to all the Present for the prorni>'>c that it closed;
\Vhen I <lipped into the Fut11re, far ns human eye couhl ~ce,
Saw the vision of the world, and all the wonder that. would beJn the Spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's brenst.;
In the Spri11g the wanton lapwing gets himself nnot.hcr nest;
In the Spring a lfrcli'!r iris changes on the burnished do,·c;
In the Spri11g a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of
lo\'e.
Then her cheek was pale aud thinner than should be for one so
young,
Arnl her eyes on all my motions with a mute ob>ervance hung.
And I said, "l\Iy cousin Amy, speak, and speak the truth to me;
Trust me, cousin, all the current of my being sets to thee."
Tennyson.

185

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

.
. such line as the last,
are some.timesrci:1!~e:~h lines of other length.
W hole poems
.
e sometimes
.
and these lines ar
Variety. Thou B~mg
2.
All-seemg
0 hear my fervent prayer.
Generally written B ing all-seemg,
Thou e y' fervent prayer ;
0 hear m
d make her
Sti\l tnke her, an I' r care. Burns.
Thy most pecu in
Unheard, unknown
He makes us moan-

x a X 2

U n a. mountai~
x a x 2 x nfsides a fountam.

.
With hallow blasU? of wmdx a. X 3
All on a. rock reclmed.
.
.
the seas were roarmg3
'Twas when
.
x a X
A damsel lay deplormg.
lets mixed alternately' th.us:
The last two coup
he seas were. roarmg
'Twrt;'~~Uo~v bias~ ~r wmd,
A damsel lay deplorto'd
Gray.
All on a rock rec me .

+

x a X 4.
.
d h's air imprest
His aspect an 1 on my breust,
A troubled memory startled ear
And Jong upon my
' hoofs of fear.
Byron.
Rung h .is dark courser s
x a X 5.
f
th is all thy store
Hall.
Fona fool ! six feet o ea[ shall have no more.
And he that seeks for al
.
x a X 5
.
th sacred hair dissever,
11ope.
·
pomts
The meetm~
d for ee\•er and '"ior eve r ·
.
From her fair hea
ge Heroics
E I' h lan<Tua ·
d d metre in the ng
"ne of tl1e oldest
This is the stan ar in this measure.. t IS o
are generally wntten

+.

.

II .

186

187

PROSODY,
PROSODY.

forms of verse. It was employed by Chaucer in the fourteenth
century. Its chief cultivators have been Chauser, Dryden, Pope,
Cowper, and Byron, in rhyme; and Milton and the dramatists
in blank verse.
See Lat.ham's Gram.
3. Variety. ax x X 2, or'x x X 2 -.
accented syllables are wanting.

4. Vuriety.

Beside her are laid ,
Her mattock and spadeAlone she is there,
Her shoulders are bareEver alone
She maketh her moan.

Sometimes both un-

\Vhen we two pfrrted
In silence and tefrrs,
Half broken hearted
To sever for years ;
Pale grew thy cheek and cold,
Colder thy kiss.
Truly that hour foretold
Sorrow to this.

But vainly thou \~arrest;
For this is alone m
Thy power to .dechre,
That, in the dim forest, .
Thou heard'st a low moanmg.

Byron.

a x x X 4, or a x x X 4 -

I.
\Viirriors or chiefS, should the shaft or tlie sword
Pierce me in leading the host of the I.Ord,
Heed not the corpse, though a king in your path,
Uury your steel in the bosom of God.
II.
Thou, who art bearing my buckler and bow,
Should the soldiers of Saul look away from the fire,
Lay me that moment in blood at thy feet,
Mine be the doom that tliey dare not to meet.

Byron.

Tonnyson.

Coleridge.

Byron.

x a x x 3, and x a x X 3 -.
I've foimd out a gift for my fair.;
,d .
I've found where the wood-pigeons bree .
But Jet me tha.t plunder forbear\ d
Shenstone.
She. 'II say 'twas a barbarous lee .

x a x x 4 aml x a x X 4 -.
0 hilsh thee, my bfrbie'. thy sire w:\ ~;~~~i~ht,
Thy mother a lady b~~h Juve{~:; to~:i.s \~hich we see,
'fhe woods and the g ens am b b' to th"e
Scott.
They are all belonging, dear a ie,
, .
I l not the pleasures that riches supply., b .
as'
·
t ti 1e weaker must uy ·
'th her lonrr flowing hair,
My sabre ~tlst wm ~1~"l 'd
(lt}shall wm the fair fl e WI I
I n'"tear
.
And many u maid from her mot ier s ia
. f:
f ti maid in her youth,
\e ne her m~aic shall soothe.
I love the fair a~e
(Her) caresses s a 1u1 1 ber the many-toned lyre,
(Let] her bring to my c11am f: 11 fher sire.
Byron.
1 a o
And sing me a song on tie
.
·
out of the west.:
~~; ~;~ 11ti ~h~h\~~~r ~~r~~~n~is steeds are the beEt;

if

III.

Farewell to others, but never we part,
Heir to my royalty, son of my heart;
Bright be the diadem, boundless the sway,
Or kingly the death that awaits us to-day,

The black bands came over
The Alps and their snow ;
\Vith Bourbon, the rover,
They passed the broad Po.

Byron.

axx X 3,oraxx X 3 Peiice t.o thee, isle of the ocean,
Peace to thy breezes and billows!

x ax X 2 and X ax 2 -.

0

1

188

PROSODY.

189

PROSODY.

And,rode
saveallhis
He
u g ood broadsword, he wea
So faithful in nlarmed, and he rode all alpoons had none,
D" d]
ove, and so II
.
ne.
ga ant ~n war,
[ I ye e'er hear of bride groom
like young Lo ch'mvar!
rThanks ] m L d
Scott.
Ne'er ra~ [ · or ' for your ven'son. 1i
The flesh
forest nor smoked
nor fatter
The fat was so
to studye p atter:
[Though] my .stomach was ~~=:n was so ruddy.
p, I could scarce h 1
T
. grettmg
o spoil such a d r
.
e p ree icate picture by ea t'mg
Goldsmith.
V
,
·
5· ariety. xx a As ye sweep
Through th d
Campbell.
e eep.
Usually written

~:as~ t~e
o~ ~nerl
/~ft~u~~Jo%iipainters

As ye sweep, through th e d.eep.
xxaX2.
~~my r~ge shall be seen
e revenge of a queen.

Addison.

See the snakes th
How they hiss in ~~::iI!rear,

x xa

x

3

.
.
And the sparkles that flii• .
Lmes of these two fo
1
:h from their eyes.
rmu as are mtermixed .

~~~t~~e~1t~~s !o;~ th~y reii;, as,

. eyes!
And the sparkles that fla:hafrbm th e1r
Dryden.

x ax a X 4.

1. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in pfople am1 gold:
And the sheen of the spears was like stitrs on the sea,
When the blfrc wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.
2. Like tl1e leaves of the forest when Summer is green,
That host with their banners at sunset were seen:
Like the leaves of the forest wh<in Antnmn is blown,
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown.
3. For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
Am1 breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd;
Aud the eyes of the sleepers wax'd deadly and chill,
And their hearts but once hca vcd, aml for ever grew still.
4. And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide;
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride:
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf,
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf.
5. And there lay the rider distortet1 and pale,
"\Vith the dew on his brow, and rust on his rn:::il;
And the tents were all silent, the banners alone,
The lances unlifted, the trumpet unblown. ·
6. And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail,
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal,
And the milJht of the Gentile unsmote by the sword
Hatl1 melted like snow in the glance of the Lord. Byron.
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Gray.
OTTAVA RIMA.
Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears,
Which suddenly along the forest spreacl ;
Whereat from out his quiver he prepares
An arrow for his lmw, and lifts his hc<td;

PROSODY·

190

191

PROSODY.

And,
' a mon: t rous h ~rd of swine appenrs.
Andlo~nward
And to the fount~r!:.~s bw.1t~ tem~estuous tread,
So tho.t the giant 's joi~~~ bpref11stehly bpours,
M
·
Ya
e oars
organte l\foggiore (L<l. Byron's Trans.)
·

TERZA RIMA
T\~~pirit of the fervent days of old .
en words were thin s th t
'
Flashed o'er the future, b~dd" a came to pass, and Thought
Their children's ch"ld , mg men behold
Forth from the abyss ~f
s dooh~ al~eady brought
The Chaos of even
ime ~v ich is to be,
Shapes that must dts where he .half-wrought
\Vhat the
un ergo mortality:
That S . "t great seers oflsrael wore within
And rr1 was on them and is on me;
'
Of
tr' Cassandra-like, amidst the din
co~ ic~s, none will hear, or hearin 1
Tlus voice from out the \V"ld
g iced
1
.
erness,
Be theirs, and my O\"n
• fiee 1mrrs
Le
my the dsin
"' known.
mee .
Th e only g·uerdon I Iiave ever

q;i:i

MUSICAL PAUSES.
The J'tlusical Pauses arc two-the cesural pause, which
divide the line into two parts; and the final pause, which
closes the verse. The sole end of these pauses is melody of
verse.
The sentential pauses are the same in verse as in prose, and
marked by the same characters.
The cesural pause may be placed in any pnrt of the verse or
line, but it has the finest effect upon the melody, when placed
after the second or third measure or in the middle of the third.
After the second measure" In what retreat, inglorious or unknown,
Did genius sleep, when dullness sei1.ed the throne."
After the third measure-

" 0 sny whnt stranger cause, yet unexplored,
Could make a gentle belle reject a lord 1"

In the middle of the third measure" Great arc his perils in this stormy time,
Who rashly ventures on a. sea of rhyme."

In these exampl~s there is great melody, but not the same
degree in each. The third example is the most melodious, in
which the pause is in the middle of the third measure o.nd consequently in the middle of the verse or line.

The measures
x x a andf x 8: x tre often intermixed in this
formula,
for the omission
from the x x a to x a x. o a smg e syllable will change a line
. I have not given all the vari .
.
~ties of Imes
that occur under the
different varieties of me
exercises of the pupil. asure, ut enough has been given for the
If the pupil has an diffi I .
.
determine whether th~ me~: ty ~n s_cannm~ a line, he should
the neighborhood of it, and ~;:t 1:it11ssyllab1c ?r trissyllabic in
.a guide, as the same
measure generally prevails through thbe
e piece.
See Latham's Gram.

EXPRESSION.
Expression consists in such a choice and distribution of poetic
measures as are best adapted to the subject, and best calculated
to impress sentiments upon the mind. Those poetic measures
which end in an o.cr.ented syllable, nre the most forcible. Hence
the measure xa is best adapted to solemn and sublime subjects.
This is the measure of the Epic, of poems on gra\•e and moral
subjects, of Elgiers, &c.
Poets sometimes to.ke the liberty of placing two accentecl Ryllables together, in this measure, which adds much to the solemnity of the movement.
"While the clear sun, rejoicing still to rise,
In pomp rolls round immeasurable skies." Dwight.
The two accented syllables, rolls rotlnd, expresses, beautifully, the majesty of the sun in his course.

192

PROSODY.

RULES FOR READING VERSE.
"1. Words should be pronounced as in prose and in conversa·
tion; for reading is but rehearsing another's conversation.
"2. The emphasis should be observecl as in prose. The voice
i;hould bound from accent to accent, and no stress should be laid
on little unimportant words, nor on weak syllables.
"3, The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose;
th ese are not affected by the kind of writing, being regulated
entirely by the sense. But as the cesural and final pauses are
designed to increase the melody of verse, the strictest attention
must be paid to them in reading. They mark a suspension of
voice without rising or falling.
"To read prose well, it is necessary to understand what is
read ; and poetry well, it is further necessary to understand the
structure of verse." \Vebster's Imp. Grammar.

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THE END.

