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ENGLISH GRAMMAR;
CONSTRUCTED U PON THE BASIS OF

AND ADA\TE?

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TZ: THE

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U&E OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND .PRIVATE LEAR NERS.

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BY REV . .CHARLES ADAMS, A. M .

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PRIKCIPAL OF l'{EWBURY Sl:Mir.AR'i'.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED

BYD.

S.

No. 32 W ashin gton ,Street ..

"1838.

KING,

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by
D. S. K1No, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of
Massachusetts.

MY reasons for issuing the following little work on
Grammar are main ly t hese :
1. I wished to sec a Grammar which, in a plain, direct and
scientific for m, canvasses the subject on which it treats,
making use of no more words or illustrations than are absolutely necessary, at the same time being sufficiently explicit
to set forth clearly every important principle.
2. I desired a Grammar which not on!y presents the application of every important principl e as soo n as it is introduced , but teaches th e learner precisely how that application
is to be made.
3. There are a few prin ci pies connected with the business
of parsing, which I have ne ver see n embodied in any gram mar heretofore published, and which appear to me of some
consequence to be prescribe d to t he beginner in this study.
4. I have ho;>e d, from considerations hinted at in th<'
foregoing st<itements, to ¥ender- the st ud of .o-ramm!!J__by

5. I wish to compass the above objects, whil e , nt the same
time, I prese nt to the publi c a book , which, by its conciseness,

ma. be apenW gt
D. H. ELA , PRIKTZR,
19 Wa:!hington street.

a

tr;ein e

)

----------PREFACE.

was '!lot unfrequently the case, I endeavored to improve
them. The arrangement of the illustrations, both in Etymology and Syntax, is essentially different, and will, it is hoped,
be considered a manifest improvement. It will be seen,
however, that in a system of grammar so concise as what is
here presented, much is necessarily left to be supplied by the
verbal instructions of the teacher. He should be a living
grammar before his pupils, supplying e very vacancy, remembering that on him, after all, is the student mostly dependent for instruction.
In conclusion, I may remark that the system of grammar
here introduced was desig ned mainly as a text-book to guide
my own classes, in this important branch of study; and if it
should be found to be of any use to others, so much the
greater will be the gratification.
NEWRURY SEMINARY,

Aug. 22, 1838.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

English Grammar is the art of speaking and
writing the English Language correctly.
Its general divisions are four, viz; Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

I. ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography teaches the nature and powers of
letters, and the just method of spelling words.
A letter is the first principle or least part of a
word.
The letters of the English Language are twenty
SIX.

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel is an articulate sound of itself, as a, e,
o, which can be fully sounded without the help of
any other letter.

6

A SYSTEM OF

A consonant cannot be perfectly uttered without
the help of a vowel, as b, d, J, l, which require a
vowel to express them folly.
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w
and y.
Wand y are consonants when they begin a word
or syllable; otherwise they are vowels.
Consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels.
The mutes cannot be sounded at all without
the aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, le, and c
and g hard.
The semi-vowels may be partially sounded without the aid of a vowel. Thev are r, l m n r v
J
J ~ '
' ' ' '
; , z:, x, and c and g soft.
Four of the semi-vowels, l, m, n, r, are also
called liquids, from their readily uniting with other
sounds.
A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, as ou ih
sound.
A triphthong is the union of three vowels pronounced in like manner, as iew in view.
A proper diphthong has both the vowels sounded,
au~i in voice .
, > ,An improper diphthong has but one of the vowel~
1to~d~d, as oa in boat.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

7

SYLLABLES AND WORDS.

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the
voice, and constituting a word or part of a word.
Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into
their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters.
Words are articulate sounds, used by common
consent, as signs of ideas.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable;
a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of
three syllables, a trisyllable; and a word of four or
more syllables, a polysyllable.
All words are either primitive or derivative .
A primitive word cannot be reduced to one
more simple, as man, child.
A derivative word can be reduced to one more .•
simple. As manftd, children.
)

II. ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology explains the classification of word$,
their various modifications and th eir derivation.
Beside proper names, there are computed to be
about forty thousand words in the English language.
These, however, are all included in ten classes,
called parts of speech, namely, the Noun, Article,

8

Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb,
Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.

NOUN.
A noun is a name of any place, person or thing.
There are two classes of nouns, namely, common and proper.
A noun is called common which is the name of
a whole class or species. For example, man is a
common noun, because it is (name common in our
language, to every man in the world.
A proper noun is a name appropriated to individuals, in opposition to being made common to a
whole class.
For example, James is a proper noun, because
thus appropriated.
The properties of nouns are 1. Gender, 2. Person, 3. Number, 4. C ase.

9

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A SYSTEM OF

A name of a female is Feminine, as woman,
girl.
A name common to a male and female both, is
Common gender, as friend, parent, child, bird.
A name of an object which is without sex 1s
Neuter, as book, table, chair.

II. OF

PERSON.

Person is defin ed to be that which distinguishes
a noun that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken

ot

·

There are three persons, called.first, second and
third.
The noun that speaks is the first person ; as, I,
James, was present.
The noun that is spoken to, is the second person; as, James, were you present?
The noun that is spoken of, is the third person ;
as, James was present.

III. OF NmrnER.
I. OF GENDER.
Gender is the distinction of sex.
Of gender there are reckoned four distinctions,
namely, Masculine, Feminine, Common and Neuter.
A name of a male is Masculine, as man, boy,
ox, &c.

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or
more.
There are two numbers, Singular and Plural.
Nouns expressive of but one thing are singular,
as, book,pen.
Nouns expressive of more things than one, are
plural, as, books, p ens.

10

1. The plural number of most nouns is formed
by adding s or es to the singular; as, boy, boys;
girl, g irls.
Such nouns have been called regular.
2. Some nouns form their plmal otherwise, as,

Man, Men.
Woman, Women.
C!1il d, Children.
Mou se, Mice.
Goose, Geese.
F oot, F eet.
T ooth, T eeth.

Louse, Lice.
P enny, P ence.
D ie, Dice .
Ox, Oxen.
Serapli , Seraphim.
Phenomenon, Phenomena.
R adi us, R adii.

T hese and the like have been called L-,.cgnlar.
3. Some nouns have one number only, and are
call ed D efective .
The following nouns, for exampl e, have no
plural.
R ye,
Barley,
H emp,
Flax,
F lour,

Sloth,
Rid e,
Pitch,
Gold,
Silver,

Tin,
Lead,
Health,
Constancy,
Innocency,

H ap pin ess,
H olin ess,
D ecency,
D!ligence,
Goodn ess, &c.

Th e following, on the other hand, have no singular.
Annals,
Ashes,

Lungs,
Riches,

11

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A SYSTEM OF

Tongs, Math ematics,
Tidings, :Metaphysics,

Clothes, Shears,
Breeches, Scissors,

Thanks, Bellows,
Vitals,
Folks, &c.

4. Some nouns are the same in both numbers,
asDeer,
Sheep,

Swine,
Apparatus,

Series,
Species, &c.

5. Some nouns have the singular form, but include several individuals.
These are called Nouns of multitude. Such
words as Army, P eople, Congress, School, Court,
Family , &c. are of this class.

IV. OF

CASE.

Case means condition; and as applied to nouns,
case means the condition or state of nouns with
regard to other words.
There are three cases, namely, the Nominative,
the Possessive, and the Objective.
The Nominative case is. the subject of the verb ;
or it is that concerning which something is asserted,
denied, commanded or inquired; ·as, Charles is
gone ; Charles is not gone ; Go, Charles ; Is
Charles gone ?
The Nominative case usually comes before the
verb.
The Possessive case denotes possession or property, and is easily distinguished from the other

12

13

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

cases by being always marked with an apostrophe,
and followed immediately by another noun, expressed or implied; as, Edward's book; This
book is Edward's.
The Objective case has its name from its being
the object on which the action of a verb or participle terminates ; or the object of a preposition ;
as, John loves study; Be mindful of duty.
The noun or pronoun next following an active
verb, an active participle, or a preposition, is in the
objective case, unless it be possessive; if it be
possessive, then the noun following the possessive
is in the objective.

A becomes an before a vowel, and a silent h.
This is for the ·sake of harmony of sound.

ARTICLE.
An article is a word placed before nouns to limit
their signification ; as, A horse; 1'he men.
There are two articles ; a, or an, and the.
A, or an, is called the indefinite article, because
it does 11ot precisely point out any particular noun.
Tlie is called the definite article, because it precisely points out, or distinguishes the noun.
The indefinite article admits after it nouns of the
singular number only; as, A man.
The definite article admits after it nouns of either
the singular or plural number; as, The man ; The
men.

MODE OF PARSING THE ARTICLE AND NOUN.

A book.
A is an indefinite article, and belongs to book.
(Rule XI.)
Book is a common noun, of the third person,
singular number, and neuter gender.
In like manner let the following examples be
parsed, with the reasons for each fact distinctly
stated.
The boy. The ladies. A bird.
A man.
The~ pen. An ox.
A woman. The parent.
An apple. An orange. The knife. The child.

ADJECTIVE.
An adjective is a word which expresses some
quality of a noun.
The adjective is a necessary word in a language
from the fact that most nouns are susceptible of
different qualities.
A man, for example, may be a good man ; a
bad man ; a poor man ; a rich man ; a wise
man; an ignorant man, &c. ; and a word that
expresses any one of these several qualifications is
called an adjective.

14

A SYSTEM OF
EXAMPLES.

H e is an excellent man.
G ood men are usefnl.
The appearance of those boys is commendable.
The useful man is the happy man.
The learner may very generally distinguish the
adjective from the other parts of speech, by its
admitti ng after it the word thing, or things, and
making sense. As in the above examples, will the
words excellent, good, useful, &c. admit the word
thing to follow th em ? If so, you may conclude
them to be adjecti ves.
English adj ecti ves are varied only to express
degrees of comparison .
There are three degrees of comparison, namely,
the P ositive, the Comparative, and Superlative.
Th e P ositive degree simply expresses th e quality of an obj ect without increase or diminution; as,
A good man.
The Comparative degree increases or lessens
the positive; as, A better man .
The Superlative degree increases or lessens the
positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, The
best man.
Most adjectives of one syllabl e, are compared
by adding to the positive er or r, for th e comparative, and est or st for the superlative; as,
Warm,
Warmer,
Warmest.
Wise,
Wiser,
Wisest.

15

ENGLISH GRAllllllAR.

Most adjectives, of two syllables, and all of
more than two syllables, are compared by prefixing the words more and most, before the positive;
as,
Faithful, · More faithful,
Most faithful.
Moderate, More moderate, Most moderate.
The reason for the use of more and most in such
cases, is, . that the comparison is thus more easily
expressed, and consequently is more agreeable to
the ear.
A few adjectives are compared irregularly ; as,
Much,
Good,
Bad,

More,
B etter,
Worse,

Most.
B est.
Worst, &c.

Many adjectives are not capable of comparison
in any way.
1. Numeral adjectives; as, one, two, three, &c.
2. Adj ectives derived from proper nouns ; as,
American, English, G erman , &c.
3. Adjectives which , in a positive form, possess
a superlative sign ification.
Such are- endless, infinite, unbounded, univerwl, right, fust, perfect, proper, wrong, true, correct, sincere, chief, extreme, omnipotent, eternal,
omniscient, omnipresent; also, round, circular,
square, quadrangular, and a few others.

16

17

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAJllMAR.

KINDS OF ADJECTIVES.

A warm day.
More moderate weather.
The best men .
A better neighbor.
Thirty cows, and ten oxen.
An endless duration.
Unbounded benevolence.
The American eagle.
A faithful Christian.
An industrious student.
The tide is high.
The season is mild.
Adjectives always qualify nouns or pronouns,
but it is not always easy for the beginner to ascertain the precise word in the sentence which a given
adjective qualifies. A single question proposed to
himself will greatly aid him in this particular.
Endeavoring, for instance, in the last two examples, to parse high and mild, let the learner, in
order to know what they qualify, simply ask, Who
or what is high 1 Who or what is mild 1 A child
that understands the sentences, would answer these
questions correctly, and the answers would, of
course, be the very words which the adjectives respectively qualify.
2

Grammarians have recognized several kinds of
adjectives ; as,
I. Proper acy.ectives, or those adjectives derived from proper names; as, American, British,
Spanish.
2. Common adjectives, or such as are generally
derived from common names; as, manly, joyous.
3. Substantive adjectives; when a noun is used
as an adjective; as, The morning cloud; The
evening dew.
4. Participial adjectives; when a participle is
used as an adjective ; as, A pleasing thought ; A
refreshing breeze.
5. Compound adjectives; when two words,
united by a hyphen form the adjective ; as, A
four-footed animal; A swift-winged bird.
6. Numeral adjectives; as, one, two, three, ten,
thirty.
MODE OF PARSING THE ADJECTIVE.

A noble object.
Noble is an adjective of the pos1t1ve degree,
and qualifies object. (Rule XIII.)
Thus let the adjectives in the following examples be parsed, including the comparison of each,
and let the reasons for each fact be distinctly
stated .

18

A

SYSTEM OF

SECOND PERSON.

PRONOUN.
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun,
to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same
word. Thus, instead of saying, Charles• is studious, Charles 1s virtuous, Charles is beloved ; we
say, Charles is studious, ha is virtuous, and he is
beloved.
There are three classes of pronouns ; Personal,
Relative, and Adj ective.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
A P ersonal pronoun is one which always has
the same person. Thus, the pronoun I is always
of the first person; You, is always second person;
H e, is always third person.
There are five personal pronouns, namely, I,
Thou, H e, She, It; with their plurals, We, Y e
or You, and Th ey.
P ersonal pronouns have person, gender, number, and case, and are parsed, in nearly all respects, as nouns.
DECLE NSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

FIRST PERSON.

Singular.
Nam. I.
Poss. l\Iy or Mine.
Obj. Me.

Plural.
Nam. We.
Poss. Our or Ours.
Obj. Us.

19

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Singular.
Plural.
Nam. Thou or You,
Nam . Ye or You.
Poss. Thine or Thy, Yours Poss. Yours or
or Your.
Your.
Obj. T hee or You.
Obj. You.
THIRD PERSON.

Singular Masculine.
Nam. H e.
Poss . His.

Plural.
Nam. They.
Poss . Theirs or

Obj.

Obj.

Him.

Their.
Them .

Singidar Feminine .
Nam. She.
Poss. Hers or Her.

Plural.
Nam. They .
Po ss. Theirs or

Obj.

Obj.

H er.

Singular Neuter.
Nam. It.
Poss . Its.
Obj.

lt.

Their.
Them.

Plural.
Nam . T hey .
Poss . Theirs or
Obj.

Their.
Them.

)'!ODE OF PARSING THE PERSONAL PRONOUN

James is industrious, and he is beloved.

20

A SYSTEM OF

H e, is a personal pronoun ; of the masculine
gender, third person, singular number, nominative
case to the verb is. (Rule I.)
Likewise let the personal pronouns in the following examples be parsed, and the reason for
each fact distinctly stated :

H e is gone home.
H e took his book with him.
I highly respect him and her.
H ast thou seen my cane?
H e told me of his intention to visit you.
She will not come again to us .
W e took our effects along with us.
I left my book and John brought it to me .
They took the letters and left them at the
office.

II.

RELATI VE PRON OUNS .

R elative pronouns have their name from their
1·elating to some word going before, and called
the antecedent; as, The stud ent who is dili rrent
.
b
'
will probably be successful.
The R elative pronouns are Who, W/iich, That,
and sometimes As.
W!to is usually made to relate to persons ; as,
The man who was present.
Which is made to relate to animals and things ;
aa, The dogs which; The books which .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

21

That is used to relate to both persons and
things ; as, The gentleman that I saw ; The books
that I bought.
That, is frequently used in preference to who
or which ; as,
1. When the relative relates to both personi'I
and things, as, The man and the beast that I saw.
2. When children are spoken of, as, The child
that I saw.
3. After the adjective Same ; as, He is the
same man that I saw yesterday.
4. After the superlative degree ; as, H e is the
best man that I have met with.·
5. After the interrogative Who; as, Who that
considers?
A s, also, when a relative, may relate to both
persons and things ; as, Send such men as will be
useful ; Send such books as will be useful.
The learner will carefull y notice that the four
words above laid down as relative pronouns, are
not always such; but only when, as their name
implies, they relate directly to some other word in
the sentence, either expressed or understood. It
shall be seen hereafter to what other uses these
same words are applied, as well as what names
are assigned them in those different circumstances.
MODE OF PARSING THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

The man wlw was there.

22

A SYSTEM OF

. Who is a relative pronoun, relating to man as
1ts. antecedent? (Rule XV.) masculine gender,
third person , smgular number, nominative case to
was. (Rule XVI.)

The lady whom we met.
. Whom, is a relative pronoun , relating to lady a~
its antec~d en t , (Rule X V.) feminin e gender, third
person, smgular number, objective case, and governed ~y the active verb met. (Rule XVII.)
In like manner let the relati ve pronouns in the
following examples be parsed, and the reason for
each fact distinctly stated :
They were the men whom you saw .
I have finished the lesson which was given out .
H e is the same man that you spoke of.
H e is the man whose writings are so celebrated.
Such knowledge as will render him useful.
The very book which I want.

III.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS .

Adjective pronouns are called such from their
the nature of a pronoun and an adjective. They are sometimes call p ronominal and
sp ecifying adjectives.
They are distinguished into three classes, namely, Distributive, D emonstrative, and Indefinite.
1. The Distributive are those which relate to

~assessing

ENGLI S H GRAMMAR.

23

a person or thing taken separately and singly.
They are each, every, either, and sometimes
neither; as, each man, every book, either side,
n either party .
2. T he D emonstrative are those which precisely
point out the things to which they relate. They
are, this, that, these, and those; as, this man, th at
woman, these books, those slates.
3 . T he indefinite are used to express things in
an indefinite or general manner. They are, some,
other, any, one, all, such, none .
MODE OF PARSIN G THE ADJE CTIVE PRONOUN.

I saw th at man.
T hat is a demonstrative adjective pronoun , of
the singular number, and belongs to man, (Rule

XIV.)
L et the adjective pronouns in the following examples be parsed, and the reason for each fact
distinct! y stated :
E ach voter was present.
E very movement was noticed.
R emove this book, and bring those papers.
S ome people are fond of trifles.
S uch proceedings will not accomplish any thing.
})very man, especially in this age, should aim
to do all possible good.
There appear to be several pronouns which do

24

25

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

not precisely fall under either of the regular
classes just described; as,

Which, is a relative pronoun, relating to that as
its antecedent, (Rule XV.) of the third person,
singular number, nominative case to the verb is.
(Rule XVI.)
Let the compound pronouns, also, in the following examples, be parsed, and the reasons distinctly stated :
He did wliat he COl)ld <lo.
He knows not what he ·wants .
What will be the result is uncertain.

I. ColltrouNn PRoNouNs.
Among these may be reckoned, What, tVhoever, Whosoever, Whomsoever, Whichever, Whichsoever, &c. These last may be generally parsed
as compound adJective pronouns.
The following may be parsed as compound
personal pronouns :
Myself, Thyself, Yourself, Yourselves, Himself,
Themselves, &c.
What, when equivalent to tliat which, is a compound pronoun, and is to be parsed as two words,
instead of one.
For example, to say, This is what I wanted;
is perfectly equivalent to saying, This is that
which I wanted. Thus, the word what, in such
cases, includes the relative and its antecedent.
MODE OF PARSING THE COMPOUND PRONOUN,
WH/JT.

I know what is necessary.
What, is a compound pronoun, including that
whicli.

That is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, used
as a noun, third person, singular number, objective
case, and governed by the active verb know.
(Rule XVIII.)

2.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

Interrogative pronouns are, tV!w, Which, and
tf!hat, when those words are used in asking questions; as, Who was there? Which is the book?
What is the matter ?
Which and tV/iat, when used interrogatively
before a noun, may be parsed as interrogative
adjective pronouns ; as, What man was that ?
Which book is yours ?
MODE OF PARSING THE INTERROGATIVE
PRONOUN.

tVho was there ?
W1to is an interrogative pronoun, of the third
person, singular number, nominative case to was.
(Rule I.)
Interrogative adjective pronouns are parsed m
the same form as other adjective pronouns.

26

A SYSTEM OF

VERB.
A verb is a word which expresses action or
being; as, I govern, I see, I exist.
There are three kinds of verbs, Active, Passive,
and Neuter.
An Active verb expresses action which terminates on some object; as,
Charles strikes J ames .

In this example, strikes is an active verb, and
its action rests or terminates on J ames.
T he Active verb may be known by its making
sense with the word thing after it ; as, I know a
thing . I sec a thing, &c.
A Passive verb also expresses action ; but the
action, instead of passing over to an object, is received by the nominative case ; as,
Charles is struck.

In this example the action expressed by the
word struck, is received by the nominative Charles.
T he Passive verb may be known by the fact
that it always consists of two or more words,
namely, a perfect participle of an active verb,
joined to some infl ection of the verb To B e.
A Neuter verb expresses being, or a state of
being ; or it expresses action which is limited to
the subject, or nominative ; as, I am. You sit.
They walk.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The learner may point out the active, passive,
and neuter verbs in the following examples, and
state the reasons why :
I saw him, and knew that it was he.
H e was caught, and was carried to jail.
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest.
H e lost his books, but found them agai n.
Al exand er conquered D arius.
D arius was conqu ered by Al exander.
H e came and went, and I saw him not.
Multitudes perish whose fate is not known .
In addition to the distinction of Active, Passive,
and Neuter, verbs are divided into what are termed
R egular, Irregular, and D efective .
R egular verbs are such as have their imperfect
tense and perfect participl e end in eel ; as, I command ; I commanded.
Irregular verbs are such as do not have their
imperfect tense and perfect participle encl in ed;
as, I come ; I came .
In the above examples of Active, Passive, and
N euter verbs, the learn er may point out such as
are regular, and such as are irregular, repea ti ng the
reason fo r each.
D efective verbs are those which are used only
in some of their modes and tenses ; as,

~

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

P resent.

Imperfect.

P e1fect Part.

May,
Can,
Will,
Shall,
Must,
Ough t,

Might,
Could,
W ould,
Should,
Must,
Ought,

--- ----

---

P A RTICIPLE.
From the verb is derived the Participle, which
has its name from its participating the properties
both of a verb and an adj ective.
The participles are three, nam ely, the P resent,
P erfect, and Compound P e1fect.
The P resent participle denotes present time, and
always ends in ing; as, walking, knowing, seeing.
T he present participl e of an active verb is active ' and bo-overns, as welJ as its verb; as, H e is
writing a letter.
The P erfect participle denotes action or existence finished, and, when derived fro m regular
verbs, ends in ed.
Th e perfect participle is usually passive.
Both the Present an d P erfect participles are frequently used as adjectives, and are then called
Participial Adjectives; as, A loving companion.
An accomplished student.

29

The Compound P erfect participle implies action
or existence finished previously to something else
mentioned in the sentence . It is formed by placing
having, or having been, before the P erfect parti~i­
ple ; as, H aving finish ed my letter, I sealed 1t .
H aving been i11:J.1lred, he was greatly distressed.
The compound perfect participle, as well as the
present is often active; as, H aving read the book,
he laid it aside .
B oth th e Compound P erfect and Present participles, are parsed as nouns when they take the
place of a noun ; as, Your coming so sudden!_)'
surprised me. His having informed you of this
matter very much displeased me.
Th e use of the participle as a noun does not
deprive it of its power to govern; as, stealing the
property of another, is unlawful.
.
. .
The mode of parsing the participl e 1s very s1m1lar to that of parsing the adj ective ; for example,
H e at last came to his end, having lived to a
very great age .
To ascertain to what word in th e sentence the participle having lived, refers, let the learner inquire,
Who having lived ? Th e answer is, H e; and he
is, therefore, the word to which the participle refers .
MODE OF PARSING THE PARTICIPLE.

John was present, writing a letter.

31

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Writing is a present participle, from the verb to
write, and relates to J ohn. (Rule XXIII.)
John having written his letter, sealed it.
H aving written is a compound perfect participle, and relates to J ohn. (Rule XXIII.)
In like manner let the following examples be
parsed, and the reasons given:
I saw him going home .
H aving finished my business, I retired.
I did not hear of his being in town.
H e appeared very n1uch surprised.
Edward is an aspiring youth.
William returned, mortified at his loss.
Having slept, he received his strength.
A dissipated son grieves his parents.
John beinrr dismissed from collebo-e, retired into
'
b
the country.
:Mary is studying her lesson.

The Indicative mode simply declares a thing, or
asks a question ; as, H e was there ; Wa s he there ?
The Subjunctive mode represents action or being
conditionally ; as, I will attend to the business, if
I can.
The Potential mode implies liberty, power, or
obligation; as, I may go, if I please; You can
perform it; He must study.
The I mperative mode is used for commandinao'
exhorting, entreating; as, Study your book; Cease
to do evil ; Do not leave me.
The Infinitive mode represents action or being
in a general or unlimited manner. It has no nominative case, and consequently, no number and person.
The Infinitive mode has always the sign to either
expressed or understood; as, H e loves to study ;
H e hates to be idle.

We return to the verb.
The properties of verbs, are, 1. P erson; 2.
Number; 3. Mood; 4. T ense .
The number and person of verbs are the same
as those of their nominatives.
Mood, or .Mode, is the manner of representing
what is exprP-ssed by the verb.
Verbs have five modes, namely, Indicative ,
Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative and Infinitiv e.

The Indicative may be known by the sense, or
by its having no sign.
The Subjunctive may be known by the conjunctions, if, though, except, unless, &c.
The Imperative may be known by its generally
agreeing with tliou or ye, understood.
·
The Potential may be known by the auxiliaries,
may, can, must, might, could, would and should.

30

SIGN S OF THE MODES.

33

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRA!\IMAR.

The Infinitive may be known by the sign to.
The learner may now give the modes of the following verbs, with the reasons, &c.
I may go; He went ; You will com e ; Joseph
should have gone ; H e will, if he is able ; Attend
to your business ; L et me alone ; Strive to do well;
You mu st come ; I wish to come ; I will come if
it rain; Charles might ride ; C ould I go ? James
would see ; H e knows better ; Aim to be eminent;
If you are diligent, you will succeed.

The First Future tense expresses what will take
place ; as, I shall know.
The Second Future tense, expresses what will
have taken place, at or before some other future
time specified in the sentence ; as, I shall have
known it before to-morrow rnornin :o·
cr
Only the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have
all the six tenses.
The signs of the tenses 111 th ese modes are as
follows:
Have or has is the sign of the Perfect.
Had is the sign of the Pluperfect.
.
Shall or will is the sign of the First Future.
Shall have or will have is the sign of the Second Future.
A Verb in past time without a sign is Imperfect
tense.
The Present is easily known by the sense.
The Potential mode has no future tenses.
The signs of the tenses in the Potential mode
are as follows :
.

T ENSE .

T ense is the distinction of time.
There are six tenses, namely, P resent, Imp e~­
f ect, P eif ect , Plupeif ect, F irst F iiture , and S econd Future.
The Present tense expresses what is taking
place now ; as, I k now it.
The Imperfect tense expresses what took place
in time past and finished ; as, I knew it, or, I did
know it.
The P erfect tense expresses what took place
in time past, and also conveys an allusion to the
present; as, I have known it.
The Pluperfect tense expresses what had taken
place at or before some other past time specified in
the sentence ; as, I had known him before I knew
you.

May or can is the sign of the Present.
May have or can have, is the sign of the Perfect.
Might, could, would or should, is the sign of
the Im perfect.
Might have, could have , should have or wo,ul!(
liave, th e sign of the Pluperfect.
3

34

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The Infinitive mode has but two tenses, Present
and Pe1fect.
The Imperative mode has one tense only, namely, the Present.
CONJUGATION.

The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers,
persons, modes and tenses.
The Conjugation of an Active verb 1s styled
the A ctive Voice .
The Conjugation of a Passive verb 1s styled
the Passive Voice.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

Plural.

1. I have been.
2. You have been.
3 . He has been.

1. We have been.
2. You have been.
3. They have been .

PLUPERFECT TEN SE .

Singular.

Plural.

1. I had been.
2. You had been.
3. H e had been.

].

We had been.
2. You had been.
3. They had been.

FIRST FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

Conjugation of the verb To BE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

35

Pl urn!.

1. I shall or will be.
2. You shall or will be.
3. He shall or will be.

1. We shall or will be.
2. You shall or will be.
3. They shall or will be.

PRE SENT TEN SE.

Plural.

Singular.

1st P ers. I am.
2d P ers. You are.
3d Pers. He is.

1st P ers. ·we are.
'2d P ers. You are .
3d Pers. They are.

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

Plural.

1. I shall have been.
2. You will have been.
3. H e will have been.

1. W e sb all have been.
2. You will have been.
3. They will have been .

IMPERFECT TE NSE.

Singular.

1. I was.
2. You were.
3. H e was.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Pl ural.

1. We were.
2. You were.
3. They were .

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.

1. I may, can, or must
be.

Plural.

1. We may, can, or
must be.

36

A SYSTEM OF

37

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Plural.

Singular.

2. You may, can, or 2. You may, can, or
must be.
must be.
3. He may, can, or 3. They may, can, or
must be.
must be.
IMPERFECT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

1. I might, could, would,

or should be.

2. You might,
would, or
be.
3. He might,
would, or
be.

could,
should
could,
should

1. We might,
would, or
be.
2. You might,
would, or
be.
3. They might,
would, or
be.

could,
should

could,
should

I. I may, can, or must

have been.
2. You may, can, or
must have been.
3. He may, can, or
must have been.

Plural.

1. I might, could, would,
or should have
been.
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have been.
3. He might, could,
would, or should
have been.

could,
should

can, or
must have been.
2. You may, can, or
must have been.
3. They may, can, or
must have been.

might,
would, or
have been.
2. You might,
would, or
have been.
3. They might,
would, or
have been.

could,
should
could,
should
could,
should

PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

1. If we be.
2. If you be.
3. If they be.

1. If I be.

Plural.

I. We may,

I. We

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .

2. If you be.
3. If he be.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

Plural.

I. If I were.

1. If we were.
2. If you were.
3. If they were.

2. If you were.
3. If he were.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

1. If I have been.

Plural.

1. If we have been.

38

A SYSTEM OF

Singular.

2. If you have been.
3. If he has been.

Plural.

2. If you have been.
3. If they have been.

IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.
PLUPERFECT TENSE .

Singular.

l . If J bad been.

2. If you had been.
;J. If he had been.

Plural.

1. If we had been.
2. If you had been.
3. If they bad been.

FIRST FUTURE TENSE .

Singular.

1. If I shall or will be.

2. If you shall or will
be.
:3. If he shall or will
be.

Singular.

2. If you shall have
been .
3. If he shall have
been.

2. B e you, or do you
be.

2. Be you, or do you
be.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present,
P e1f ect,

To be.
To have been.

Plural.

1. If we shall or will
be.
2. If you shall or will
be.
3. If they shall or will
be.

SECOND FUTUilE TF.N SE .

l. If I shall have been.

39

ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

Plural.

1. If we shall have
been.
2. If you shall have
been.
3. If they shall have
been.

PARTICIPLES.

Being.
Been.
Having been.

Present,
Pe1:fect,
Comp. P e1f

Synopsis of th~ verb To BE.
IND ICATIVE MODE.

Present,
lmpe1fect ,
Perfect,
Plupe1fect,
First Future,
Second Future,

I am.
I
I
I
I
I

was.
have been.
had been.
shall, or will be.
shall have been.

40

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

41

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

.Present,
Imperfect,
Pe1fect,
Plupe1fect,
First Future,
S econd Future,

If I
If I
If I
If I
If I
If I

be.
were.
have been.
had been.
shall, or will be.
shall have been.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present,
Impe1fect,
Pe1fect,
Plupe1fect,

I may, can, or must be.
I might, could, would,
or should be.
I may, can, or must
have been.
I might, could, would ,
or should have been.

Examples of the verb To BE .

The learner may give the mode, tense, number
and person of each example :
I am. You were. He has been. We had
been. You shall be. They will have been. I
may be. You might be. He may have been.
'Ve could have been. You may be. Th ey can
have been. If I be. If he were. If we have
been. If you had been. If they will be. If
you will have been. B e thou. You wish to be.
They ought to have been. B eing at home.
Having been abroad. They must bP.. I should
have been. He may be. We shall be. It may
have been.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present,

Be you, or do you be.

Conjugation of the Acti·ve verb To LovE.
INDICATIVE MODE.

INFINITIVE MODE .

.Present,
.Perfect,

To be .
To have been.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.

PARTICIPLES.

Present,
.Perfect,
Comp . .Perf.

Being.
B een.
H aving been.

I. I love.
2. You love .
3. He loves.

Plural.

I. We love.
2. You love.
3. They love.

42

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAM111AR.

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

IMPERFEC T TENSE.

Singular.

1. I shall have loved.
2. You will have loved.
3 . He will have loved.

I. We loved.
2. You loved.
3. They loved.

I. I ha ve loved.

2. You 11ave loved.
3. H e has loved.

Plural.
Singular.

• 1

Singular.

')

Plural.

1. We had loved.

FIRST FUTURE TENSE .

Singular.

1. I shall or will love.
2. You shall or will
love.
3. H e shall or will love.

Plural.

l. I may, can, or must
love.
2. You may, can, or
must love.
3. He may, can, or
must love.

2. Yon had loved.

3. They had loved.

1. '1Ve may, can, or
must lov e.
2. You may, can, or
must love.
3. They may, can, or
must love.

nfPERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

1. I might, could, would,
or should love.

Plural.

1. We shall or will love.
2. You shall or will
love.
3. They shall or will
love.

MOD~.

PRE SENT T ENSE .

1. We have loved.
2. You have loved.
3. They have loved.

PLUP ERFECT T ENSE.

1. I had loved.
~- You had loved.
u. He had loved.

1. We shall have loved.
2. You will have loved .
3. They will have loved.

POTENTIAL

PEllFECT T ENSE .

Sing ular.

Plural.

Singular.

Plural.

1. I loved.
2. You loved.
3. He loved.

43

2. You might, could,
would, or should
love.
3. H e might, could,
would, or should
love.

Plural.

1. 'Ve might,
would or
love.
2. You might,
would, or
lcive.
3. They might,
would, or
love.

could,
shou1d
could,
should
could,
should

44

PERFECT TENSE .

Singular.

I MPERFE CT T ENSE .

Plural.

1. I may,, can, or must
have loved.
2. You may, can, or
must have loved.
3 . H e may, can, or
must have loved.

1. W e may, can, or
must have loved.
2. You may, can, or
must have loved.
3 . They may, can, or
must have loved.

Plural.

Singular.

1. If we loved.
2. If you loved.
3. If they loved.

1. If I loved.
2. If you loved.
3. If he loved.

PERFECT T ENSE.

Pl ural.

Singular.
PLUPERFECT TENSE .

Singular .

Plural.

I. I might, could, would , 1. We might, could,
or should have
would, or should
loved.
have loved.
2. You might, could, 2. You might, could,
would, or should
would, or should
have loved.
ha ve loved.
3. H e might, could, 3. They mi ght, could,
would, or should
would, or should
have loved.
have loved.

1. If I have loved.
2. If you have loved.
3. If he has loved.

P RESENT TEN SE.

1. If I love.
2. If you love.
3. If he love.

Plural.

I. If we love.
2. If you love.
3 . If they love.

1. If we have loved .
2. If you have loved.
3. If they have loved .

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

l. If I had loved.
2. If you had loved .
3. If he bad loved.

Plural.

1. If we had loved.
2 . If yo u had loved.
3. lf tl1ry had loved.

FIRS T FUTURE T1': !\"SE.

Singular.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Singular.

45

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A SYSTEM OF

Plural.

1. If I shall or will I. If we shall or will
love.
love.
2.
If
you shall or will
2. If you shall or will
love.
love.
3. If be shall or will 3. If they shall or will
love.
love.

45

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SECOND FUTURE TE NSE.

Synopsis of the A ctive V erb To LoVE.

Singular.

Plural.

1. If I shall have loved.

1. If

we shall have
loved.
Q. If you shall have 2. If you shall have
loved.
loved.
3. If he shall have loved. 3. If th ey shall have
loved.

47

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present,
Imp eifect,
Perfect,
Plupeifect,
First Future,
S econd Futitre,

I
I
I
I
I
I

love.
loved.
have loved.
had loved.
shall, or will love.
shall have loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.
IMPERATl VE MODE.

Present,
Imperf ect,

I may or can love.
I might , could, would, or
should love.
I may or can have loved .
I might, could , would, or
should have loved.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.

Q. L ove you,

Plural.

or do you

love.

2. Love you, or cio you
love.

INFINITIVE MODE.

P resent, To love.

P eifect, T o have loved.

PARTIC!PLES.

Present,
P erfect,
Comp. P erf

Loving.
L oved.
I-: aving loved .

P erf ect,
P l11pe1fect,

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present,
lmpeifect,
Ptifect,
P hipeif ect,
First Future,
Second Future ,

If I
If I
lf I
If I
If I
If I

love,
loved.
have loved.
had loved.
shall or will love.
shall have loved .

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present,

Love you .

48

A SYSTEJ\I OF

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present,
Perfect,

To love.
To have loved.
PARTICIPLES .

49

ENGLI SH GRAMMAR.

Conjugation of the Passive verb, To

BE LOVED .

The Passive verb is conjugated, by adding to
the verb, to be, through all its inflections, the perfect participle of the active verb.

Present,
Loving.
Perfect,
Loved.
Compound Pe1fect, Having loved.

INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

E xamples of the Active verb.
Let th e learner give the mode, tense, number,
and person, of each example:
I love. You had. H e bas known. We bad
beheld. You will perceive. Th ey will have
read. They might have asked. You may have
expected. vVe might surrender. He can make.
You may have suspected . I can find. If be
write. If you speak. If I admired. If they
have sh unn ed. If you had felt. If we shall do.
Perform. It is time to plant. You ought to have
sown. He is studying bis lesson. Having committed his piece. He might have questioned.
You will divide . I have finished. We must fol low. They can hear. He bas tasted. D id you
~ee ? What say you?

Plural.

Singuhtr.

1. 1 am loved.

1. We are loved.

2. You are loved.

2. You are loved.
3. They are loved.

:3, He is loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE .

Plural.

Singular .

1. I was loved.
2. You were loved .
3. H e was loved.

l. We were loved.
2. You were loved.
3 . Th ey were loved.

PERFECT TENSE .

Singular.

Plural.

1. I have been loved .
2. You have been loved.

1. We have been loved .
2. You have been loved.

3. H e has been loved.

3. They

4

have
loved.

been

i}O

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

POTENTIAL

PLUPERFECT TEN SE.

Singular.

Plural.

I. I had been loved.
2. You had been loved.
3. H e had been loved.
FIRST

FU TURE TEN SE.

Singular.

l. I

1. We had been loved.
2. You had been loved .
3. They had been loved .

shall 0 1' will be
loved.
2. You shall or will be
loved.
;3. H e shall or will be
loved.

1. I

MOD~.

PRESENT TEN SE.

Plural.

Singular.

1. I

may or can be
loved.
2. You may or can be
loved .
3, He may or can be
loved.

1. We may or can be
loved .
2. You may or can be
loved.
3. They may or can be
loved.

Plural.

I. W e shall or will be
loved .
2. You shall or will be
loved .
3. They shall or will be
loved.

SECOND FUTUllE TEN SE.

Singular.

51

P lural.

shall have been 1. We shall have been
loved.
loved.
2. You will have been 2. You will have been
loved.
loved.
3. He will have been 3. They will have been
loved.
loved.

I MPERFECT TEN SE .

P lural.

Singular.

I

might,
would, or
be loved.
2. You might,
would, ;;·
be loved.
3. He might,
would, or
be loved.
1.

could,
should
could,
should
could,
should

1. We might,
would, or
be loved.
2. You might,
would, or
be loved.
3. They might,
would , or
be loved.

could,
should
could ,
should
could ,
should

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

1. I may, can, or must

have been loved,

Plural.

1. We may, can, 01•
must hav{l been

loved,

52

A SYSTEM OF

Singular.

53

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Plural.

2. You may, can, or
must have been
loved.
:3. He may, can, or
must have been
loved.

2. You may, can, or
must have been
loved.
3. They may, can, or
must have been
loved.

I MPERFECT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

1. If I were loved.
2. If you were loved.
3. If he were loved.

1. If we were loved.
2. If you were loved.
3. If they were loved.

PERFECT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.
PLUPERFECT TENSE .

Sin g ular.

Plural.

I. I might, could, would,

or should 1:we
been lo~re d.
2. LOU might, cou ld,
would, or should
have been loved.
3. H e might, could ,
would, or should
have been loved.
~T

1. We might, could,
'.vould, or should
r.>ave been loved .
2. You might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.
3. They might, could,
would, or should
have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

1. If we have been
L. If
loved.
loved.
2. If you have been 2. If you have been
loved.
loved .
3. If he has been lov- 3. If they have been
loved.
ed.

I

have

been

PLUPERFECT TEN SE .

Plnral.

Singular.

1. If I had been loved.
2. If you had been
loved.
3. If he had been loved.

I. If

we had been
loved.
2. If you had been
loved.
3. If they had been
loved.

PRESENT TEN SE .

· Singular.

l. If I be loved.

2. If you be loved.
3. If he be lovetl.

Plural.

1. If we be loved.
2. If you be loved.
3. If they be lovf>rl

FIRST FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

I . If I shall or will
be loved.

Plural.

1. If we shall or will
be loved.

54

55

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A SYSTEM OF

Singular.

Plural.

2. If you shall or will
be loved.
3. If he. shall or will
be loved.

2. If you shall or will
be loved.
3. If they shall or will
be loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Being loved.
Present,
Loved.
Perfect,
Comp. Pe1f Having been loved.

SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

Plural.

I. If I shall have been
loved.
2. If you shall have
been loved.
3. If he shall have been
loved.

Synopsis of the Passive Verb, To

BE LOVED.

I. If

we shall have
been loved.
2. If you shall have
been loved .
3. If they shall have
been loved.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present,
Imperfect,
Perfect,
Pluperfect,
First Future,
.Second Futiire,

I
I
I
I
I
I

am loved.
was loved.
have been loved.
had been loved.
shall, or will be loved .
shall have been loved .

IMPERATIVE MODE.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.

Preseni,

I may, can, or must be

Impe1fect,

I might, could, would,
or should be loved.
I may, can, or must

Plural.

2. Be you loved, or do
you be loved.

2. Be you loved, or do
you be loved.

loved.

Perfect,

have been loved.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Pluperfect,
Present,
Perfect,

To be loved.
To have been loved.

I might, could, would,
or should have been
loved.

56

A SYSTEl\I OF

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present,
Impe1fect,
Pe1fect,
}'lupc1fcct,
First Future,

If I be loved.
If I were loved.
If I have been loved.
If I had been loved.
If I shall , or will be

S econd Fnture,

loved.
If I shall have been
loved .

57

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

We' are loved. H e was confounded. You have
been surprised . I had been intrusted. They will
be pleased. You will have been disappointed.
H e may be injured. l might be disposed. They
might have been respected. W e may have been
received. Jf I be commanded. If you have
been led. If we shall be spared. He labors to
be honored. You ought to have been received.
H aving been decided.
IRREGULAR VERBS.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present,

Be you loved, or do yoti
be loved.
INFINITIVE MODE .

P resent,
P e1fect,

To be loved.
To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.

Present,
P e1f ect,
Comp. P erf

B eing loved.
Loved.
Having been loved.

E xamples of the Passive Verb.
The learner will give the mood, tense, number,
and person, of each example :

Irrerrular
verbs are those which do not form
0
their imperfec t tense, and perfect participle, by the
addition of <1 or ed to the verb ; as,

Present.

l mpc1fect.

\-Vrite,
Go,

\-Vrote,
w ·ent,

P e1fcct Part.
Written.
Gone.

The followin g are the principal Irregular verbs.
Those marked with an r, admit also a regular
form.
Present.

hnpcrf cct.

Abode ,
Abide,
Was,
Am ,
Arose,
Arise,
Awoke,
Awake,
Hear, to bring forth, Bare,
Bore,
Bear, to carry,
Beat,
Beat,
Began,
Begin,

P e1f ecl Part ..
Abode.
Been.
Arisen .
A waked.
Born.
Born e.
Beaten,
Begun .

58
P resent .
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind ,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,

Build,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catch,
Chide,
Choose,
Cleave, to split,
Cling,
Clothe,
Come,
Cost,
Crow,

Creep,
Cut,
Dare, to venture,
Deal,
Dig,
Do,
Draw,
Drive,
Drink,
Dwell,
Eat,

A SYSTEM OF

Imperfect.
Bent,
Bereft,
Besought,
Bid, Bade,
Bound,
Bit,
Bled,
Blew,
Broke,
Bred,
Brought,
Built,
Burst,
Bought,
Cast,
Caught,
Chid,
Chose,
Cl ove, or Cleft,
Clung,

Clothed,
Came,
Cost,
Crew,
Crept,
Cut,
Durst,
Dealt,
Dug,
Did,
Drew,
Drove,
D rank,
Dwelt,
Eat, o,. Ate,

ENGL ISH GRAMMAR.

Perfect Pm·t.

Present.

lrnperfect.

Bent, r.
Bereft,'"
Besought.
Bidden, Bid.
Bound.
.Bitten, Bit.
Bled,
Blown,
Broken.
Bred.
Brought.
Built.
Burst.
Bought.
Cast.

Fall,
Feed,
F eel,
Fight,
Find,
Flee ,
Fling,
Fly,
Forget,
Forsake,

Fell,
Fed,
Felt,
Fought,
Found,
Fled,
Flung ,
Fiew,
Forgot,
Forsook,
Froze,
G ot,
Gilt,
Girt,
Gave,
Went,
Graved,
Ground,
Grew,
Had,
Hung ,
H eard,
H ewed,
Hid,
Hit,
Held ,
Hurt,
K ept,
Knit,
Knew,
Laded,
Laid,
L ed ,
L eft ,
L ent,

Caught, r.

Chidden, Chid.
Chosen.
Cleft, or Cloven, r.
Clung.
Clad, r.
Come .
Cost.
Crowed , r.
Crept.
Cut.
D ared .
Dealt, r .
Dug,r.
Done.
Drawn.
Driven.

Drunk.
Dwelt, r .
Eaten.

I

Freeze,

Get,
Gild,
Gird,
Give,
Go,
Grave ,
Grind,
Grow,
Have,
Hang,
H ear,
Hew,
Hide,
Hit ,
H old,
Hurt,
Keep,
Knit,
Know,
Lade,
Lay,
L ead,
Leave,
Lend,

P erfect Part.
Fallen .
Fed.
Felt.
Fought.
Found.
Fled.
F lung.
Flown.
Forgotten.
Forsaken .
Frozen.
Gotten.
Gilt,r.
Girt, r.
Given.
Gone.
Grave n.
Ground.
Grown.
Had.
Hung.
H eard .
H ewn, r .
Hidden, Hid .
Hit.
Held.
Hurt.
K ept.
Knit ,r.
Known .
L ade n.
Laid.
Led.
Left.
L ent.

59

60
Present.
Let,
Lie, to lie down,
L oad,
Lose,
Mak e,
Meet,
Mow,
Pay,
Pu t,
Read,
Rend,
Rid ,
Ride,
Ring,
Rise,
Rive,
Run,
Saw,
Say ,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
· Send,
Set,
Slrnke,
Shape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shed,
Shine,
S how,
Shoe,
Sh oo t,
Shrink,
Shred ,

A SYSTEM

Imperfect.
L et,
L ay,
L oaded,
L ost,
Made ,
Met,
Mowed,
Paid,
Put,
R ead,
R ent,
Rid ,
Rode,
R ung, Rang,
R ose,
Ri ved,
Ran,
Sawed,
Said ,
Saw,
Sought,
Sold,
Sen t,
Set,
Shook,
Shaped,
Shaved,
Sheared,
Shed,
.Shone,
Showed,
Shod,
Shot,
Shrank, Shrunk ,
Shred,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

OF
P erfect Part.
Let.
Lain.
Laden,r.
L ost.
Made.
Met.
Mown.
Paid.
P ut.
Read.
R ent.
Rid .
Rode, Ridden.
Rung.
Risen.
Riven.
Run.
Sawn,r.
Said.
Seen.
Sought.
Sold.
Sent.
Set.
Shake n .
Shape d, Shapen, r .
Shaven, 1·.
Shorn.
Shed.
Shone, r.
Sh own .
Shod.
Shot.
Shrunk.
Shred.

Present.
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,

Slin.•,
Slit,
Smite,
Sow,
Speak,
Speed,
Spend,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Stink,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
Stri ve ,
Strow or Strew,
Swear,
Sweat,
Swell,
Swim,

hnperject .

61

Perfect Part.

Shut.
Shut,
Sung.
Sun g, Sang,
Sunk.
Sunk, Sank,
Sat.
Sat,
Slain.
Sle w,
Slept.
Slept,
Slidden.
Slid,
Slung.
Slun g,
3lunk.
Slunk ,
Slit, r.
Slit,
Smitten .
Smote,
Sown , r .
Sowed,
Gp:iken.
Spoke,
sped.
Sped,
Spent.
Spent,
Spilt, r.
Spilt,
Spun .
Spun,
·3pit, Spitten.
Spit, Spat,
3plil.
Split,
Spread.
Spread,
Sprung.
Sprung , Sprang,
Stood.
Stood,
Stolen .
Stole ,
Stuck.
Stuck,
Stunk.
Stu'n k,
Stridden .
Strode, nr Strid,
Struck, or Stricken.
Struck,
Strung .
Strung,
Striven.
Strove,
Strowed,or Strewed,Strown , Strawed,
Strewed, r .
Sworn.
Swore
Sweat, Sweated.
Sweat,
Swollen, r.
Swelled ,
Swum.
Swam, Swum,

62
Present .
Swing,
T ake ,
Ten,ch,
Tear ,
T ell,
Think,
Th rive ,
Thro w,
Thru st,
Tread,
·wax,
' Vear,
'Vea1·e,
\Veep,
Win,

w ·ind,
vVork,
\i\Tring,

W:·ite ,

A SYSTEM OF

b npeifcct.
Swung,
Took,
Ta ught,
T ore,
Tol d,
Thou g ht,
T hrove ,
T hre w,
Thrust,
Tro<l,
Waxed.
vV orc,
Wo ve ,
W ept,
Won ,
\Vou nd ,
W roug ht,
or ·worked,
VY rung,
Wrote ,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

P erfect Pari .
Swung.
Taken.
T aught.
Torn.
Told.
Th ou ght.
Thrive n.
Thrown.
Thru st.
Trodden .
vVaxen, r.
vV orn .
Woven.
Wept.
Won.
Wound .
Wroug ht,
or Worked, r .
' iV ru ng , r .
Written.

ADVERB.
Th e Adverb is a word used to qualify verbs,
participles, adjectives, adverbs, and sometimes
nouns, pronouns and prepositions.
Grammarians are accustomed to classify adverbs
in some such manner as the following :
1. Adverbs of Place ; as, here, there, where,
anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, elsewhere,
nowhere, further, thither, whither, whithe1·s.oever~

63

wherever, upward, downward, backward, forward ,
whence, thence, hence, yonder, &c.
2. Of Number; as, once, twice, thrice, &c.
3. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, lastl y, fi nall y, &c.
4. Of Time.
(1.) Of Time Past; as, already, yes terday,
before, lately, hitherto, heretofore, long ago, long
since, &c.
(2.) Of Time Present; as, now, to-day, &c.
(3.) Of Time to Come; as, to-morrow, not
yet, hereafter, henceforth, hencefor ward, by-andby, presently, instantly, straightway, immed iately,
&c.
( 4.) Of time Indefinite ; as, oft, oftimes, oftentimes, often, sometimes, seldom, soon, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, th en, never, ever, again, &c.
5. Of Quantity; as, much, sufficiently, little,
how much, how great, enough, &c.
6. Of Manner, or Quality; as, wisely, fooli shly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c .
Adverbs of manner or quality mostly end in ly.
7. Of Doubt; as, perl)aps, peradventure, possibly, perchance, &c.
8. Of Affirmation; as, yes, verily, truly, doubtless, undoubtedly, certainly, yea 1 surely, indeed,
really .

64

A SYSTEM

m'

9. Of Negation; as, no, not, nay, &c.
10. Of Interrogation; as, how, why, wherefore, whether, &c.
11 . Of Comparison; as, more, most, better,
best, worse, worst, less , least, very, almost, &c.
Adverbial phrases are frequent; as, in short, in
fin e, in general, in particular, in vain, at 5rst, at
last, at once, by and by, on a ;, :clden, &c,
Som e adverbs are susceptible of conrnanson :
as, wisely, more wisely, mos~ wisely.

ENGLISH

'·'

PREPOSITIONS.
A preposition is a word use.d to show the relation between other wm'cls.
A preposition may show the relation between

65

two nouns ; as, A man of business. Such prepositions have been called possessive .
A preposition may show the relation between
a noun and a verb, or between a noun and an
adjective; as, H e conversed with me, John is diligent in study. These have been called relative.
In general, a preposition shows relation between
the objective case following it, and the word which ,
in the simplest form of the sentence, comes nex t
before it. For example: Jn his ideas, he was
greatly mistaken; that is, mistaken in ideas.

MODE OF PARSING THE ADVERB.

He studies diligently.
D iligently is an adverh. and qualifies studies.
(Rule XXV.)
Parse likewise the following examples of adverbs .
H e is a very good man.
H e behaves himself wisely.
James was doing very well.
He acted nobly in that matter.

GRAMMAR.

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.

Of,
To,
For,
By,
With,
In,
Into,
Within,
Without,
Over,
Under,
Through,
Above,
Below,
Between,

B eneath,
From,
B eyond.
At,
Near,
Up,
D ow n,
B efore,
Behind,
Off,
On or upon,
Among,
Underneath,
After,
About ,
5

Against,
Unto,
Across,
Around,
Amidst,
Throughout,
Betwixt,
Aside,
Athwart,
Towards,
Notwithstanding,
Instead of,
Over against,
According to.

66

67

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The mode of parsing the preposition is simply
to name it and the words which it shows the relation between.

bably be eminent; because diligence and virtue are
the usual forerunners of true greatness.
Disjunctive signifies disjoining; and a disjunctive conjunction, while it connects and continues a
sentence, introduces an interruption, or opposition
of meaning. As,
You came yesterday, but you did not come
to-day.

In this manner let the prepositions in the following examples be parsed.
He went into the house.
He came to me and inquired for James.
I saw him in the street.
In China are many ingenious artists.
He sprang over the wall into the street.
Attend very diligently to your business.
In your whole behaviour, be humble and obliging.

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, as, since,
for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided.
Disjunctive. But, or, nor, than, though, lest,
unless , neither, either, yet, notwith standing, nevertheless, except, whether.

CONJUNCTION.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, so as out of two to make one; it often connects words only.
There are two classes, namely, Copulative and
Disjunctive.
The Copulative Conjunction continues a sentence by connecting an addition, a supposition, a
cause. As,

If they are diligent and virtuous, they

will pro-

INTERJECTION.
An Interjection is a word thrown m between
the parts of a sentence to express passion or emotion; as, What, alas, will become of us?
The principal interjections are, 0, Ob, Alas,
Hush, What! Pish, Tush, Pob, Hem, Ho, Hallo,

&c.
In parsing the Conjunction and lnte1jection, it

68

A

SYSTEM

OF

is sufficient simply to name the part of speech!
together with the reason.
The following list of words used as different
parts of speech, is taken principally from Smith's
Grammar.
THAT is a relative, when who or which may be
substituted for it and make sense ; as, The man
that (who) arri ved yesterday .
TH~T. is a demonstrative adjective pronoun,
wh en 1t 1s placed before a noun to point it out;
as, That man is intelligent.
T HAT is a conjunction, when it is neither a demonstrati ve nor a relative; as, H e studies that he
may learn .
B uT is a preposition, when it has th e sense of
except ; as, All but (except) John came.
B u·~ is. an adverb, when it has th e sense of only;
as, T his 1s but (only) doing our duty.
B U'.r is a con::junction, wh en not an adverb or a
preposition; as, H e call ed, but I refused to cro.
As is a 1:elative, when it may be substitu ~d by
who or wliich; as, L et such as (who) hear, take
heed.
As is an adverb, when it is used in th e sense of
so ; as, H e does as well as he can .
As is a conjunction, when not an adverb, or a relative; as, As it was warm, I retired into the shade.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

69

EITHER is a conjunction when it corresponds to
or; as, Either the one, or the other.
EITHER is a distributive adjective pronoun,
when it means one of two; as, You can take
either road.
BoTH is a conjunction, when followed by and;
as, Both the one and the other.
BoTH is an acy'cctive pronoun when it means
the two; as, Both the men were guilty.
Y ET is a conjunction, when it follows though ;
as, Though he reproves, yet I esteem him. In
other cases yet is an adverb.
F oR is a conjunction, when it has the sense of
because ; as, H e trusted him for (because) he
knew that he wo uld not deceive him.
F oR is a preposition when not a conjunction.
"\-V HAT is a compound pronoun, when it stands
for that which ; as, I will take what (that which)
you send me.
WHAT is an interrogative pronoun, when used
in asking questions ; as, What do you want?
WHAT is an adj ective pronoun, when joinr.d
with a noun; as, What strange things he said!
WHAT is an interjection, when used to express
wonder ; as, What! take my money ?
THEN is a conjunction, when it has th e sense of
therefore ; as, If he has commanded, then I must
obey .

70

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A SYSTEM OF

A simple sentence has but one nominative and

THEN is an adverb, when it relates to time· as,
Did you hear it thunder then ?
'
MucH is a noun, when it stands for a noun·
as, Where much is given, much will be required. '
M ucH is an adjective, when it is joined to
nouns; as, Much labor fatigues me.
MucH is an adverb, when it qualifies the parts
of speech which the adverb does ; as, Thou art
much mightier than I.
l\foRE is a noun, when used in the place of a
noun; as, The more we have, th e more we want.
~ORE and 1\fosT are adjectives, when they
qualify nouns ; as, The more joy-the most joy.
MoRE and MosT are adverbs, when used in
comparison; as, This boy is more studious- that
boy most studious.

one verb agreeing with . it; as, Idleness produces
poverty.
A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences; as, Idleness produces poverty, but
dilirrence leads on to wealth.
Agreement is the relation which one word bears
to another; when it is of the same person, number, gender and case.
Government is the power which one part of
speech has over another, in directing its mood,
tense, case, number or person.
R ULE S OF

•
III. SYNTAX.
Syntax is the putting together, or "cons truction of words into sentences and phrases."
A sentence is an assemblarre
of words fo rmin 0rr a
0
complete sense.

71

S YNTAX.

Let the following rules of syntax be very carefully studied, and the examples for illustration be
faithfully compared with those rules .
RULE I.

The nominative case governs the verb m number and person.
RULE II.

A phrase is an assemblage of words not of

The verb must agree with the word that is nominative to it in number and person.'"'

themselves forming a complete sense .
Of sentences there are two kinds, viz. simple
and compound.

* It will be perceived that Rules I. and II. are very much
the same. Rule I. being usually applied in parsing the
iiomiirn.tive, and llu le IL in parsing the verb .

72

A SYSTEM OF

CORRECT EXAMPLE S.

The man is happy. The men are happy.
I sing. Tliou sing est. H e sings.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

73

nouns which refer to the same thin g or person, it
must agree with that noun which is most naturally
the subject of it.
CORRECT E XAMPLES.

IN CORRE CT EXAMPL ES .

Disappointments sinks the heart of man, but the
renewal of hope give consol ation.
Great pains has been taken to reconcile the
parties.
The sm iles th at encourage severity of judgment,
hides malice and insincerity.
So mu ch, both of ability and merit are seldom
found.
A vari ety of pleasing objects charm the eye.
The sincere is always esteemed.
H e dare not act contrary to his instructions.
H e need not proceed in such haste.
Th ere is many things to be done.
What avails the best sentiments if people do not
li~·e suitably to them?
Th e variety of the productions like that of th e
operations of nature, are without limit.
In pi ety and virtue consist the happiness of
man.
Oh thou , my voice in spire,
Who touched Isaiah 's hallowed lips with fire.
NOTE

I.-When a verb comes between two

The wa()"es of sin is death.
His pav~ion were dark waters and thick clouds.
His meat was locusts and wild honey.
I NCO RRE CT EXAMPLES .

The crown of virtue is peace and honor.
His chi ef occupation and delight are controversy.
What was his difficulties ?
NOTE IL-Every nominative case must have a
verb, except the case absolute and the c:tse ind ependent.
I NCORRECT EXAMPLE S.

T wo substantives, when they come together and
do not signify th e same thin g, the former must be
.
in the genitive case.
Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince woold have wanted a great d~al of that
incense which hath been offered up to lmu.
NOTE IIl.-On the other hand every verb must
have a nominative case , excep t verbs in the infin·
itive mood.

74

A SYSTEM

m'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

These curiosities we have imported from China,
and are similar to those which were some time ago
brou ght from Africa.
Will martial flam es forever fill thy mind ,
And never, never be to heaven resigned ?
RULE III .

A nou n or pronoun pl aced before a participle,
and ind ependent of the rest of the sentence, is said
to be nominativ e case absolute.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Shamli being lost, all virtue is lost.
Th eir work being accomplished, th ey returned
home.

75

EXAMPLES.

Plato, thou reasonest well.
Attend to your studies, James .
RULE V.

Two or more nouns coming together, and referring to the same person or thing, agree in case .
CORRECT EXAll!PLES.

Paul, the Apostle, was distinguished for his
zeal.
·
Julius C resar, a Roman general, conquered the
Gauls.
They slew Varus, him that was men tione<l
before.
INCOR R EC T EXAMPLES.

I NCO RRECT EXAMPLES.

Him having anived, th e services commenced.
Whose gray top shall tremble him descending.
Th ey were all present, him only excepted.
RULE IV.

Wh en an address is made to a person or thing,
the noun or pronoun addressed is nominative case
independ ent.

I saw Jane and her sister, they that were present yesterday.
It was John, him who preac:1ed repentance.
Caroline, her that attends school, studies astronomy.
..
I propose to visit my relations, they that v1s1ted
me a year ago .
RULE VI.

Two or more nouns or pronouns connected to-

76

A

SYSTEM OF

gether by a_nd, rr_iust have verbs, nouns and pronouns agreemg with them in the plural number.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.
Anger and revenge make men insane.
Their love, their hatred, and their envy arc
perished.
INCORRE CT EXAMPLES.
Idleness and ignorance
i' s th e parent of many
~
vices.
Wi sdom, virtue and happin ess dwells with the
gold en mediocrity.
In u~ity consists the welfare and security of every society.
Time and tide waits for no man .
P atience and diligence, like faith, removes
mountains.
P~·icle a1'.d vanity always renders its possessor
despicabl e m the eyes of th e ju dicious.
R eligion and virtue, our best support and high~s t honor, confers on the mind principles of noble
mdepend ence.
NOTE I.- lf, however, the nouns connected by
~nd a'.·e preceded by each or every, the verb agree mg with them must be singular.
CORRECT EXAJIIPLES.
Every man woman and child was numbered.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

77

Each day, each month, and each year presents
new scenes to us.
INCORRECT EXAllIPLES.
Every twig, every leaf, every drop of water
teem with life.
Each thought, word and deed are known to
God.
NoTE Il.-If a singular noun has another connected with it otherwise than by the conjunction
and, the verb must be singular.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.
Prosperity with humility renders its possessor
truly amiable.
John, in company with James, has gone abroad.
The ship with all its furniture was destroyed.
INCORRECT EXAllIPLES.
The king, with the lords and commons, form an
excellent fram e of government.
Virtue, joined to knowledge and wealth, confer
great influence and respectability.
Good order in our affairs, not mean savings, produce great profits.
One added to nineteen, make twenty.
The religion of these people, as well as their

78

A SYSTEM OF

customs and manners, were strangely misrepresented.
NoTE III.-If any of the singular nouns connected by and are of the first person, the verb is
of the first person, or if there be no first person,
but a second person, the verb is of the second
person.
CORRECT EXAMPLES .

Charles and I have finished our task.
Thou and he shared it between you.
I NCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Thou and I art engaged in the study of grammar.
My brother, my sister, and I are daily employed
in their respective pursuits.
Thou and I must be diligent in thy business.
RULE VII.

When two or more singul ar nouns or pronouns
are connected together by a disjunctive conjunction, th ey must have verbs agreeing with them m
the singular number.
CORRECT EXAMPLES .

Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

79

John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany us.
In many minds there is neither knowledge nor
understanding.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Man's happiness or misery are in a great measure put into our hands.
N either of them are remarkable for precision.
Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch,
which move merely as they are moved.
When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune
affect us, the sincerity of friendship is proved.
. D espise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any
condition of life, for they are perhaps to be your
own lot.
NoTE I.-When singular pronouns, or a noun
and pronoun are disjunctively connected, the verb
must agree in person with that which is placed
nearest to it.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Thou or I am in fault.
I or thou art to blame.
I, thou, or he is the author of it.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Either thou or I art greatly mistaken.

J '

80

A SYSTEM OF

I or thou am the person who must finish the
business.
NoTE IL-When a disjunctive occurs between
a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the
verb must agree in number with the plural noun
and pronoun. But in this case, the plural noun
or pronoun should, if possible, be placed next to
the verb .
CORRECT EXAMPLES .

· Neith er poverty nor riches were II1JUnous to
him.
I or they were offended by it.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

81

The council was composed wholly of farmers.
The party was entirely broken up.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

The Court of Rome were not without solicitude.
The flock, and not the fl eece are, or ought to
be the objects of the shepherd's care.
The nation were once powerful, but now they
are feeble.
The Church have no power to inflict corporal
punishment.
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel.

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Both of the scholars, or one of th em at least,
was present at the transaction.
Neith er the sailors nor the captain was saved.
Either one or both is to be present on that occasion.

RULE IX.

Those nouns of multitude that convey plurality
of idea, must have verbs and pronouns agreeing
with them in the plural.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

RULE VIII.

Those nouns of multitude which convey unity
of idea mu st generally have verbs and pronouns
agreeing witl1 them in the singular.
CORRECT EXAMPLES .

The meeting was large .

The council were divided in their sentiments.
The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as thei:(
chief good.
INCORRECT EXAMPLE S.

The people rejoices. in that whioh shciuld givQ it
sorrow.

82

A SYSTEM OF

The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety.
The committee was divided in its sentiments,
and it has referred the business to a general meetmg.
The enemy was driven from its works.
The fair sex has a solemn responsibility de vol ving upon itself.
RULE X.

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is
governed by the noun it possesses.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

A wise man's anger is of short continuance.
James was commended for liis diligence.
INCORRECT EXA:IIPLES.

My ancestors virtue is not mine.
Her brothers offence will not condemn him.
A mans manners frequently influence his fortune.
Nevertheless I see his heart was perfect with
the Lord.

NoTE 1.-When the possessive is a phrase, in
which the words are so connected together as to
admit of no pause before the end, the possessive
sign should usually be applied to the last term
only.

ENGLISll GRAMMAR.

83

CORRECT EXAMPLES.

The King of Great Britain's prerogative.
The Bishop of Landaff's excellent book.
INCQRRECT EXAMPLES.

The Lord Mayor's of London authority.
That is the Dukejs of Bridgewater canal.
The Captain's of the guard house.
Neither of the above modes of expression is the
best. The possessive preposition of should be
made use of in such cases; as, The prerogative of
the king of Great Britain, instead of, The king of
Great Britain's prerogative, &c.
NoTE IL-Nouns in opposition, and following each other in quick succession, have the geni.tive sign upon the last; but when a pause is proper,
and the governing noun is not expressed, the genitive sign is applied to the first and understood to
the last.
CORRECT

EXA~IPLES,

For David my servant's sake.
John the Baptist's head.
I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and
benefactor.
These psalms are David's, the king and prophet
of the Jewish people.

84

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

We staid at Lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of
his country.

Such will ever be the effect of youth associating
with vicious companions.
What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a business?

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

This is Paul's the Apostle's advice.

I will not for David's thy father's sake.
I bought the knives at Johnson's, the cutler's.

NoTE IV.-Two words connected by and as
one term, have the sign of the possessive upon the
last.

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's.
Whose works are these ? They are Ciceros,
the most eloquent of men's.

CORRECT EXAMPLES.

John and Elvira's books.
This was my father and uncle's advice.

NoTE UL-Participles not unfrequently govern
nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, though
in such instances the participle is considered a substantive.

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

It was the men's, women's and children's lot to
suffer.
Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation was
that of fishermen.
John's and James' lesson was difficult.

CORRECT EXAMl'LES.

What is the reason of this person's dismissing
his servant so hastily ?
I remember its being reckoned a great exploit.
Much will depend on the pupil's composing,
but more on his reading frequently.
INCORRECT EX.A.MPLES.

Much depends on this rule being observed.
The time of William making the experiment
arrived.

85

11

I

NoTE V.-Little explanatory circumstances
between the possessive case and the following
noun are to be avoided, as in the following examples:
They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as
he was called, senseless and extravagant conduct.
They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they
called him, imperious mandates.

86

87

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

NoTE Vl.-ln many cases the possessive preposition of should be used in preference to the possessive noun, as in the following examples:
The world's government is not left to chance.
She married my son's wife's brother.
It was necessary to have both the physician's
and the surgeon's advice.
Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's
condition.

He is a much better writer than a reader.
The king has conferred on him the title of a
duke.
The virtues like his are not easily acquired.
Such qualities honor the nature of a man.
He has been much censured for conducting himself with a little attention to his business.
So bold a breach of order called for little severity
in punishing the offender.
There were so many circumstances in his favor
that he found few friends who were disposed to
interest themselves in his behalf.

RULE XL

The indefinite article a or an agrees with nouns
in the singular number only.

RULE XIII.
RULE XII.

Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns.

The definite article the agrees with nouns of the
singular or plural number.
The following examples may assist to point out
the inquiry arising from a wrong use of the articles as well as from its omission where it ouvht to
be inserted.
The fire, tlte air, the earth, and the water, are
four elements of the philosophers.
. R eason was given to a man to control his pas~
s1ons.
A man is the noblest work of creation.
Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors~
0

NOTE !.-Adjectives are sometimes improperly
used as adverbs, as in the following examples :
She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes accurate.
They lived conformable to the rules of prudence.
He reasons clear, and exceeding strong.
He was exceeding careful not to give offence .
He says express that he saw the transaction.
Such an amiable disposition will secure universfiJ
regard,
·

98

A

SYSTEM

OF

NOTE II.-On the contrary, adverbs are sometimes improperly used as adjectives, as in the following examples :
The teacher reproved him in terms suitably to
his offence.
He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates
of reason and religion.
NoTE IIl.-Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; as,
He has a more serene temper than she.
The pleasures of the understanding are more
preferable than those of the imagination or sense.
The nightingale's is the most sweetest voice in
the grove.
The Supreme Being is the most wisest, the
most powerfulest, and the most best of beings.
NoTE IV.-So also those adjectives that have
in themselves a superlative signification do not
properly admit the comparative or superlative
form; as,
Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man.
He claims admission to the chiefest offices.
His assertion was more true than that of his
opponent.
NoTE V.-Adjectives are sometimes improperly separated from their substantives ; as,
A large enough number.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

89

He is a good enough judge of my character.
RULE XIV.

Numerical adjectives and adjective pronour•.
must agree in number with their substantives.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.
I have not travelled these twenty years.
That set of books was a valuable present.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.
These kind of indulgences soften and injure the
mind.
You have been playing this two hours.
Those sort of favors do no real injury.
He saw one or more persons enter the garden.
The chasm was twenty foot broad.
NOTE I.-The word means is both singular and
plural, and consequently to this word we apply the
singular or plural pronoun, according as reference
is had to the singular or plural number.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.
Frugality is one means of acquiring a competency.
He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health.

90

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The scholars were attentive, industrious and
obedient to their tutors, and by these means acquired knowledge.

RULE XV.

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Charles was extravagant, and by this mean
became poor.
This person was full of vanity, and by these
means rendered himself ridiculous.
Joseph was industrious, frugal and discreet, and
by this means became rich.
Study is a mean of acquiring knowledge.

91

Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which
they stand in gender, number and person.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

A man will be rewarded according to his
works.
Can any .one, on his entrance into the world, be
fully secure that he shall not be deceived ?
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

NOTE IL-The adjective pronouns, each, every,
either, agree with nouns, pronouns and verbs in
the singular number only.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Let each esteem others better than himself.
Every tree is known by its fruit.
·
If either of these two qualities is wanting, the
language is imperfect.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled.
Every person, whatever be their station, are
bound by the duties of morality and religion.
Either of them are necessary appendages.

One should not think too favorably of ourselves.
They that seek wisdom will certainly find her.
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them
upou Jacob.
Thou who has been a witness of the fact, can
state it.
The mind of man cannot be long without food
to nourish the activity of his thoughts.
NoTE !.-Personal pronouns are sometimes unnecessarily and improperly employed, as in the
following examples.
The king, he is just.
The cares of this 'world, they often choke the
growth of virtue.

92

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, they often improve us.

CORRECT EXAMPLES.

NoTE 11.-The relative who being applied to
persons, a term which only implies the idea of
persons will hardly authorize the use of it. This
will appear from the following
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

He instructed the crowds who surrounded him.
The faction who most powerfully opposed his
pretensions.
The court who gives currency to manners.
NoTE III.-So also is the relative who considered as improperly applied to little children; as,
The child whom we have just seen.
NoTE IV.-Who also should not be applied
when the name of a person is used merely as a
name, and does not refer to the person; as,
Having once disgusted him, he could never
regain th e favor of Nero, wlio was indeed another
name for cruelty.
The above examples under Notes 2, 3 and 4,
would more properly receive the relative which.
RULE XVI.

The relative is nominative case to the verb
when no nominative comes between it and the verb.

93

The master who taught us was eminent.
The trees which are planted appear very flourishing.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

This is the man whom, he informed me,, was my
benefactor.
There are three-or four-here whom, you would
say, are very cheerful.
If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall
be sent to admonish him.
RULE XVII.

When a nominative comes between the relative
and verb, the relative is, in general, in the objective case, and governed by the verb, or by a preposition in the same sentence.
CORRECT EXAMPLES,

He whom I serve is eternal.
They to whom much is given, will have much
to answer for.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

That is a friend who I sincerely esteem.

94

95

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

From the character of those who you associate
with, your own will be estimated.
Our benefactors and teachers are persons who
we ought to be grateful to.
Who did you see?
Who did you walk with?
Who did you mention the subject to?
The persons who conscience and virtue support,
may smile at the caprices of fortune.

We should fear the Author of our being-even
He who has power to reward.or punish us forever.
They who he had most injured he had the
greatest reason to love.
RULE XIX.

Verbs of asking and teaching, and some others,
govern two objective cases, one of a person, the
other of things ; as,
He taught me grammar.
James asked him some questions.

RULE XVIII.

Active verbs govern the objective case.

.1

RULE XX .
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Truth ennobles her.
They whom opulence has made proud, and
whom luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the sim·
pie pleasures of nature.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

Who did they entertain so freely?
The man who he raised from obscurity is dead.
He and they we know, but who are you?
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove
sharply.
He invited my brother and I to see his library.

Neuter verbs have the same case after them as
before them.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

I am he.
I believe it to have been him.
I would do so, if I were he.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

It is him indeed.
It is me-you have no cause for fear.
I know not whether it were them who conducted
the business.

96

A SYSTEl\l OF

I took it to be he.
It could not have been her, for she always behaves discreetly.
Who do you think him to be ?
If it was not him who was it?
Whom do the people say that we are?
RULE XXL

Passive verbs have the same case after as before
them when both words refer to the same person or
thing.
EXAMPLES,

He was called John.
The general was saluted emperor,
NoTE.-Passive verbs are sometimes made to
govern an obj ective case, but not in strict propriety; as,
I was taught grammar,
I was offered a dollar.
It is better to say, Grammar was taught to me,

&o.
RULE XXII.

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed
by verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, participles,
and sometimes by conjunctions and adverbs.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

97

EXA.l\IPLES.

Cease to do evil~learn to do well,
There is a great work to be accomplished.
He ordered me to start,
He is e:;\ger to learn,
He is preparing to depart.
He desired no more than to know his duty,
He is wise enough to study.
NoTE !.-The sign to of the infinitive is omi.tted
in verbs which follow bid, dare, need, make, see,
hear, feel and let; as,
I bade him do it.
I saw him do it, &c.
NoTE II.-The infinitive mood, or part ofa sentence, has often the nature of a substantive, and is
parsed like a substantive, havina a verb, adlective
!::>
"1
'
or participle agreeing with it.
EXAMPLES.

To see the sun is pleasant.
To be ridiculed is unpleasant.
To do good to OU!,' enemies is not naturat.
NoTE 111.-A. verb in the infinitive mood 1s
sometimes independent ; as, To confess the truth,.
I was in fault. .
7

98

A

SYSTEM

OF

RULE XXIII.

Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns and pronouns.
EXAMPLES.

He was seen writing.
I saw the boy abused.
RULE XXIV.

Participles have the same government as verbs
have from which they are derived; as,
I saw the boys studying their books.
He is fond of instructing his pupils.
NoTE. !.-Participles preceded by the article
are followed by of, and are parsed like nouns, and
are sometimes called participial nouns.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAll.

We eannot be wise without the taking pains
for it.
NoTE IL-Participles are sometimes improperly used for verbs, and verbs as improperly used for
participles.
EXAllIPLES.
He done me no harm.
He begun his lesson before me.
1 have wrote a letter.
The sun had arose before I started.
He would have went, if an opportunity bad
offered.
They have chose the part of honor and virtue.
NoTE UL-Neuter and passive participles, like
their verbs, have the same case after as before
them, when both words refer to the same person
or thing.

He prepared the way by the preaching of repentance.
By the observance of which you may avoid
mistakes.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.
By observing of tiuth you will command esteem.

99

EXAMPLES .

He, being an aged man, w~s cautious.
.
He, having been left an heir, became prodigal.
ExcEPTION. Participles have sometimes a possessive case before them, .and a nominative after
them; as, There is no doubt of his being the man.
Participles are sometimes used as prepositions.

As,

100

101

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

They were all in fault excepting him.
I know nothing concerning him.
I am unable to answer respecting that matter.

the sentence ; viz. for the most part before adjectives, after verbs active and neuter, and frequently
between the auxiliary and the verb.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

RULE XXV.

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives
and other adverbs.
M:y pen writes well.
By exercising temperately, you will preserve
your health.
H e is a very good man.
He studies very diligently.
NoTE I. Adverbs sometimes qualify nouns
and pronouns. As,
The art of teaching, particularly, has been
most minutely investigated.
Charles was present, and he only.
Adverbs occasionally qualify prepositions also.
As,
He was injuredjust above the elbow.
He went far beyond his strength.
NoTE II.-iVIuch depends on giving adverbs the
proper situation in a sentence, and it is often a matter of no small difficulty to the student in composition. They require an appropriate situation in

H e made a very sensible discourse.
H e spoke unaffectedly and forcibly.
H e was attentively heard by the whole assembly.
IN CORRECT EXAMPLES.

,1

i

!

.I

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain.
We may happily live, though our possessions
are small.
It canri.ot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore ,
to remonstrate.
These things should be never repeated.
Not only he found her employed, but pleased
and tranquil.
It is impossible continually to be at work.
The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually.
My opinion was given on rather a cursory perusal of the book.
NoTE III._;The adverb where is sometimes improperly used instead of the preposition and relative. As,
He .drew up a petition where he too fully represented his own merits.

102

A SYSTEM OF

His follies had reduced him to a situation

where he had much to fear.
The phrase, in which, should be substituted for
where in the above examples.
NoTE IV.-The adverbs, hence, thence and
whence, implying a preposition, should not have
a preposition joined with them ; the following are
therefore redundant.
An ancient author prophecies from hence.
This is the leviathan from whence the wits of
our age borrow their weapons.
RULE XXVI.

Two negatives in the English language destroy
one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

103

Neither precept nor discipline is not so forcible
as example.
RULE XXVII .

Prepositions govern the objective case.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

He is a friend to whom I am highly indebted.
He came from lier to me.
INCORRE CT EXAMPLES.

We are all accountable, each for hisself.
I hope it is not I who he is displeased with .
To poor we there is not much hope remaining.
Who does he offer such language to ?
It was not he that they were so angry with.
Who did he receive that intelligence from?

CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Nor did they not perceive him; that is, They
did perceive him.
Such things are not uncommon ; that is, They
are common .
INCORRE CT EXAMPLE S.

l do not know nothing about what you say.
Nothing never affects her.
There cannot be nothing more insignificant than
vanity.•
We cannot, by no means 2 permit i.t.

NoTE I.-In examples like the last, it is better
to connect the preposition with the pronoun ; as,
from whom, &c.
The following examples also of separation of a
preposition from the word which it governs, is improper in common writings.
They were refused entrance into, and forcibly
driven from, the house.

104

105

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

He was sentenced to) and confined in, the state
prison.

This is a principle in unison to our nature.
I have no prejudice to him.
H e is resolved of doing his duty.
It is conformable with custom.
We often think on him.
His present was accepted of by his fri ends.
H e was accused with having acted unjustly.
Their house is situated to the northeast side of
the road.
I found my book to home.
We went leisurely above stairs and came hastily
below.
W e shall write up stairs this forenoon and down
stairs this afternoon.
H e had a taste of such studies.
" The preposition to is made use of before nouns
of place, when they follow verbs or participles of
motion ; as, I went to Boston ; I am going to town.
But the preposition at is generally used after the
neuter verb to be. As, I have been at Boston; I
shall be at New York. We likew ise say, He
touched, arrived at any place. The preposition in
is set before countries, cities and large towns; as,
H e lives in France ; he resides in B oston. But
before villages, single ho1ises, and cities which are
in distant countries, at is used; as, H e lives at Haverhill ; he resides at Paris."

NoTE IL-Nouns signifying which way, how
Jar, how long, and time when, are in the objective
case, and governed by a preposition understood.
As,
He proceeded the other way.
H e rode ten miles.
He resided five years in Boston.
H e returned from Europe last August.
Some nouns, again, appear to be in the objective case without any governing word, such, for example as signify duration, quantity, extension,
valuation , &c. ; as
H e was seventy years of age .
The load weighs two tons.
The river is two miles in width.
This book is worth seventy-five cents.
NoTE IIl.-The followin g examples present
instances where one preposition is incorrectly used
for another.
She finds a difficulty of fix ing her mind.
Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding.
H e died for thirst.
We can confide on none but the truly good.
I have no occasion of his services.

106

A SYSTEM OF

RULE

xxvm.

Conjunctions usually conn.ect verbs of the same
· mood and tense, and nouns and pronouns of the
same case.
CORREC T EXAMPLES.

To deride the maxims of the unhappy is inhuman, and to want compassion towards them is unchristian.
The court met and adjoiirned the same day.
H e and site are on good terms.
I NCORREC T EXAMPL ES.

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to
forgive him?
My brother and him are tolerable grammarians.
To be moderate in our views, and proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to
ensure success.
B etween him and I there is some disparity of
years.
NoTE.-When different modes and tenses are
conn ected, th e nominative should, in general be
repeated before the latter. As,
H e may return, but he will not continue.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

107

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

We have met with many disappointments, and
shall probably meet with many more.
Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue.
Learning strengthens the mind, and will improve
our morals too.
·
RULE XXIX.

The subjunctive mood follows those conjunctions that are expressive of doubt or contingency,
but conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature require the indicative after them.
CORRECT E XAMPLES.

If he be diligent he will be successful.
·As he is diligent, he is therefore successful.
IN CORREC T EXAJ\1PLES.

If he acquires riches they will corrupt his mind.
I shall finish my work to-day unless it rains.
She disapproved the measure because it were
very improper.
Though he were her friend, he did not attempt
to justify her conduct.

108

A SYSTEM OF

Despise not any condition lest it happens to be
your own.
Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar.
Though virtue appear severe she is truly amiable.
Though he be high, he hath respect unto the
lowly.
NoTE.-Some conjunctions and adverbs naturally go together, or correspond to each other; as,
Though-yet; whether-or; either-or : neither
-nor; as-as; as-so; so-as; so-that, &c.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

109

The following conjunctions are also used improperly:
The matter was no sooner proposed, but he
finally withdrew to consider it.
They had no sooner risen but they applied
themselves to their studies.
He has little more of the scholar besides the
name.
His conduct, as far as it respects others, appears
to be unexceptionable.

CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.
Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.
I will either send, or come myself.
Neith er himself, nor his wife was present.
She is as amiable as her sister.
She is not so amiable as her brother.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

I saw neither one or the other.
H e is not as diligent as his brother.
I must be so candid to own I was mistaken.
I gained a son,
And such a son as all men hailed me happy.
As far as I am able to judge, the book is well
written.

RULE XXX.

When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed
by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the
verb, or is governed by the verb or preposition,
expressed or understood.
CORRECT EXAMPLES.

Thou art wiser than I ; that is, than I am.
They loved him more than me ; that is, than
they loved me.
INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

She suffers more than me.
He is as good as her.

llO

A SYSTEM OF

It was executed better by his brother than he.
They are much greater gainers than me by this
event.
They accomplished more than us.
A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a
fool's wrath is heavier than them both.

RULE XXXL

Inte1jections 0, Oh, and Ah, require pronouns of
the first person after them to be in the objective
case; as,
Oh me! Ah me!
RULE XXXII.

The interjections 0, Oh, and Ah, require pronouns of the second person after them to be in the
nominative case; as,
Oh thou who hearest prayer.
Oh thou that hast murdered my friend.

RULE XXXIII .

All parts of a sentence should correspond to
each other, and a regular and dependent construe•
tion throughout should be carefully preserved.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Ill

INCORRECT EXAMPLES.

This dedication may serve for almost any book
that has, is, or shall be published.
He was guided by interests always different,
sometimes contrary to those of community.
He is as old, and even older than I am.
Several alterations and additions have been made
to the work.
Neither has he nor any other persons visited
him. ,
The first project was by cutting polysyllables
into one.
The greatest men differ among one another.
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable,
than knowledge.
The deaf man whose ears were opened, and his
tongue loosened, dou~tless glorified the great Physician.
The reward has already or will hereafter be
given him.
, Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed
and heard in the clearest light.
H e was more beloved but not so much admired
as his brother.

11~

.A SYSTEM OF

. [The following examples of False Syntax, pro.
m1scuously arranged, are copied from Kirkham's
Grammar.]
FALSE SYNTAX, PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.

We adore the Divine Being-He who is from
eternity to eternity.
On these causes depend all the happiness or
misery which exist among men.
The enemies who we have most to fear are
those of our own hearts.
Is it me or him who you requested to go?'
Though great has been his disobedience and
folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven.
There were in the metropolis much to amuse
them.
By exercising of our memories, they are improved.
The property of my friend, I mean his books
and furniture, were wholly consumed.
Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of
the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise
and good.
The cares of this world, they often choke the
growth qf virtue.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR •

113

They that honor me, I will honor ; and them
that despise me shall be lightly esteemed.
I intended to have called last week, but could
not.
The fields look freshly and gaily since the rain.
The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove
paper.
I have recently been in Washington, where I
have seen Martin Van Buren, he who is now
president.
Take the two first, and, if you please, the three
last.
The Chinese wall is thirty foot high.
It is a union supported by an hypothesis merely.
I have saw him who you wrote to, and he
would have came back with me if he could.
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves
which
Deists, understand the nature of the relio-ion
0
they reject.
If thou studiest diligently, thou will become
learned.
Education is not '.l.ttended to properly in Spain.
He know'd it was his duty, and he ouo-ht
0
'
therefore, to do it.
H e has little more of the scholar besides the
title.
Richard acted very independent on the occasion.

8

114

A SYSTEM OF

We have done no more than it was our duty to
have done.
The time of my friend entering on business,
soon arrived.
His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever
saw.
Calumny and detraction are sparks which if you
do not blow, will go out of themselves.
Those two authors have each of them their
merit.
Reason's whole pleasure~ all the joys of sense,
Lies in three words, health, peace and competence.
A great mass of rocks thrown together by the
hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike
the mind with more grandeur, than if they were
adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry.
A lampoon, or a satire, do not carry in them
robbery and murder.
The side A, with the sides B and C, compose
the triangle.
If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve.
It is reported the governor will come here tomorrow.
Beauty and innocence should be never separated.
Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

115

situation where you will have much to fear and
little to hope.
Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures.
Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of
friendship. When these are wanting, disgust or
hatred often follow little differences.
An army present a painful sight to a feeling
mind.
To do good to them that hate us, and on no
occasion to seek revenge, is the duty of a Chris
tian.
The libertine is miserable amid all his pleasures.
The rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than
him.
There are principles in man which ever have,
and ever will, incline him to offend.
Every church and sect have opinions peculiar
to themselves.
Pericles gained such an ascendant over the
minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to
attain a monarchical power in Athens.
Thou, Lord, who hath permitted afflictions to
come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time ..
In his conduct was treachery, and in his words,
faithless professions.
4.fter I visited Europe, I returned to America.

116

A SYSTEM OF

I hav~ not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal
so unjust.
The college consists of one great and several
smaller edifices.
He would not believe that honesty was the best
policy.
·
Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all
the days of my life.
He might have completed his task sooner, but
he could not do it better.
. The .fol.lowing are some of the more frequent
1mpropnet1es committed in conversation :

To admire, in the sense of to be pleased ; as,
I should admire to be there.
I admire him as an orator.
An't, Can't, Shan't, Don't, Won't, &c. instead of, Is not, Cannot, Shall not, Do not, Will
not, &c.
Ary one for either, and nary one for neither.
Awful for disagreeable ; as, An awful face.
Awfully for badly ; as, The child behaved awfully.
Calculate for intend; as, I calculate to go.
Clever for honest; as, He is very clever, though
not very intelligent.
Cleverly for good health ; as, How do you do?
Cleverly .
.t<;'·,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

117

Expect for believe, think; as, I expect he has
gone.
Guardeen for guardian.
Guess for suppose, think ; as, I guess it
rams.
Heft for weight ; as, What is the heft?
H eft for lift ; as, H eft this book.
Ha?Je got, to express necessity; as, I have got
to go ; instead of, I must go.
Had rather for would rather ; as, I had rather
do it.
J ag for load ; as, We got in a heavy jag.
Jest for just ; as, This is jest what I wanted.
Het for heated; as, His blood was het.
Housen for houses ;. as, Pass two housen, and
take the left.
Risen for his ; as, This book is hisen.
Yourn for yours ; and Thairn for theirs.
Sithe for sigh ; as, Did you hear him sithe?
Sat for set; as, He sat out on his journey.
Sot for sat ; as, He sot down.
·
Lay for lie; as, I will lay down.
Mighty for very ; as, It is mighty warm.
Gineral for general.
Frinds for friends.
Furder for further.

118

A SYSTEM OF

Nicely for in good health ; as, How are the
folks? Nicely.
No for not; as, Whether he likes it or no.
Yea or nay, for or not; as, Whether he likes it,
yea or nay.
Had ouglit, hadn't ouglit, don't ought: for
ought, and ought not.
·
Poorly for unwell ; as, I feel poorly.
See and seed for saw; as, I see him do it; I
seed him do it.
Sich for such ; as, I hate sich things.
Foot for feet; Pound for pounds; as, It was
four foot long, and weighed fifty pound.
That are for that; This ere for this ; and Them
for those ; as, That are slate is mine ; This ere
knife is yours; and Them quills are his.
Mad for angry~ Mad means deranged.
Ugly for ill-tempered. A woman may be very
ugly and very amiable at the same time.
Rugged for strong ; as, He is a rugged boy.
Sight for quantity ; as, What a sight of money?
Afeard for afraid; as, I am afeard.
Taint for it is not.
Hum for home.
Arter for after.
Gal for girl.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

119

· Gwine for going.
Hithe for height.
Critter for creature.

PROSODY.
Prosody consists of two parts; the former teaches
the true Pronunciation of words, comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone; the
latter, the laws of Versification.
OF PRONUNClA'l'ION.
OF ACCENT.

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the
voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that
it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the
stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and
second syllable sume, which takes the accent.
OF Q.UANTIT,Y.

The quantity of a syllable is that time which is
occupied in pronouncing it, It is considered long
or short.

120

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A vowel or syllable is long, when tJrn accent is

~~ the_ vowel, which occasions it to be slowly
JOmed m pronunciation with the followincr letter·
0
'
as, foll, tale, mood, liouse, f eature.
A syllable is short, when the accent is on the
?~nsonant, which occasions the vowel to be quickly
JOmed to the succeeding letter; as, ant, bonnet,

hunger.

A long syllable generally requires double the
time of a short one in pronouncing it; thus mate
and note should be pronounced as slowly again as
mat and not.
OF EMPHASIS.

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller tone
of voice, by which we distinguish some word or
words on which we design to lay a particular
stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the
sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must
be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as
well as by a greater stress.

OJ• PAUSES .

Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a
total .cessation of the voice, du1ing a perceptible,
and, in many cases, a measurable space of time.

OF TONES.

Tones are different both from emphasis and
pauses, consisting in the modulation of the. voice,
the notes, or variations which we employ m the
expression of our sentiments.

OF VERSIFICATION.

Versification is the arrangement of a certain
number and variety of syllables, according to certain laws.
Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound
of one verse to the last sound of another.
OF POETICAL FEET.

A certain number of syllables connected form a
foot. They are called f eet, becau se it is by their
aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through
the verse in a measured pace.
All feet used in poetry consist either of two
or of three syllables, and are reducible to eight
kinds-four of two syllables, and four of threeas follows:

122

A SYSTEM OF

DI;;SYLLADLE.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as,
Numerable, conquerable.

TRISSYLLADLE.

A Trochee,_'-"'
An Iambus, '-"' _
A Spondee, _ _
A Pyrrhic, '-"' '-"'

A Dactyl, - .._, '-"'
An Amphibrach, '-"' _..,
An Anapcest, '-"' ~ _
A Tribrach, '-"' .._, .._,

Some of these may be denominated principal
feet, as pieces of poetry may be wholly or chiefly
formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus,
Trochee, Dactyl and Anapcest. The others may
be termed secondary feet, because their chief use
is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the

A Trochee has the first syllable ~~~.~
t he last unaccented ; as
Hateful, pettish.
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented,
an d t1rn latter accented . as

'

A

verse.

'

Betray, consist.
Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as,
The pale moon.
A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables
cented; as,
unac
On the tall tree.
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented and th
two latter unaccented · as
'
e
A

'

'

. . Laborer, possible.
n Amph1brach has the first and last syllables
unaccented, and the middle one accented. as
Delightfi:il, domestic.
'
'
An Anapcest has the two first syllables
unaccented, and the last accented . as

'

'

Contravene, acquiesce.

123

PUNCTUATION.

. I

I

Punctuation is the art· of dividing a written
composition into sentences, by points or stops, for
the purpose of marking the different pauses which
the sense and an accurate pronunciation require.
The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the
Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the

Colon double that of the semicolon; and the Period double that of the colon.
OF THE COMl\fA.

The Comma usually separates those parts of a
sentence which, though very closely connected in
sense and construction, require a pause between
them.

124

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

125

A SYSTEM OF

RuLE 1.-With respect to a simple sentence
the several ':ords of which it is composed have s~
near
. genera I, no
. a relat10n. .to each other' that , m
po1~ts are reqms1te, except a full stop at tl
d
of It; as,
ie en

But when the interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted ; as,
Flattery is certainly pernicious.
There is surely a pleasure in beneficence.
RuLE III.-When two or more nouns occur in
the same construction, they are parted by a com-

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
Every part of nature swarms with living creatures.

ma; as,
The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex-

A simple sentence, however, when it is a Ion
?ne, and the ~ominative case is accompanied wit~
mseparable
adjuncts ' may ad mi.t of a pause 1mme.
.
d iatel y before the verb. as
' present
'
1 Th e good taste of tlie
age, has not al-

JJr

owed us to neglect the cultivation of the E
h
language.
no JS
To be totally indifferent to pra·1se or. censure JS
.
a rea1 defect in character.
'
RuLE 11.-:-When the connection of the different
~arts of a simple sentence, is interrupted b an
imperfect phrase ' a comma JS
. usually mtroduced
.
Y
before the beginning and at the end of the ph

~

.

~.

I remember, with gratitude h.
d
me.
' IS goo ness to

His. work JS,
· zn
· many• respects, very imperfect
It IS, therefore ' not mucl1 approve d.
.

tremely.
They took away their furniture, clothes, and
stock in trade.
From this rule there is mostly an exception,
with regard to two nouns closely connected by a
conjunction ; as,
Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each
other.
Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition.
If the parts connected are not short, a comma
may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed; as,
Romances may be said to be miserable rhapso·
dies, or dangerous incentives to evil.
RuLE IV.-Two or more adjectives, belonging
to the same substantive, are likewise separated by
commas; as,
Plain, honest truth wants no artificial covering.
David was a brave, wise, and pious man:

126

A SYSTEM OF

But two adjectives immediately connected by a
conjunction, are not separated by a comma; as,
Truth is fair and artless.
We must be wise or foolish : there is no medium.
RuLE V.-Two or more verbs, having the.
same nominative case, and immediately following
one another, are also separated by commas ; as,
Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity.
In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss.
Two VP.rbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the rule; as,
The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind.
Two or more participles are subject to a similar
rule and exception.
RuLE Vl.-Two or more adverbs immediately
succeeding each other, must be separated by commas; as,
We are fearful! y, wonderful! y framed.
We must act prudently, steadily,and vigorously.
When two adverbs are joined by a conjunction,
they are not parted by a comma ; as,
Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously.
RuLE VIL-When participles are followed by
something that depends upon them, they are gen-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

121

erally separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas; as,
The king, approving the plan, put it in execution.
.
His talents, forme.d for great enterprises, could
not fail of rendering him conspicuous.
RuLE VIII._:_When a conjunction is parted by
a phrase or sentence from the verb to which it
belongs, such intervening phrase has usual~y a
comma at each extremity ; as,
They set out early, and, before the dawn of
day, arrived at the destined place..
.
RuLE IX.-Expressions in a direct address are
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as,
My son, give me thy heart.
I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many
favors.
RuLE X.-The case absolute; and the infinitive
mood absolute, are separated by commas from the
body of the sentence; as,
His father dying, he succeeded to the estate.
At length, their ministry performed, and race
well run, they left the world in peace:
To confess the truth, I was much m fault.
RuLE XL-Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns
added to other nouns in the sa~e case, by way of

128

A SYSTEM OF
ENGLISH G:RAMMAR.

ex~lication or illustration, when accompanied with
adjuncts, are set off by commas ; as,
Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles was eminent
for his zeal and knowledge.
'
The butterfly, child of the summer fl tt
.
the sun.
' u ers m

. But if such nouns are single, or only form a
p1oper name, they are not divided. as
' '
P au] the apostle.
The Emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent
book.
R uLE XII.-Simple members of sentences
connected
r
. .
. by com para t"ives, are ior
the most part'
d1stmgmshed by a comma ; as,
As the hart panteth after the water-brooks so
doth my soul pant after thee.
'
Better is a dinner of herbs with love , th an a
sta 11 e d ox and hatred with it.
If the members in comparative sentences are
short, th e comma is, in general, better omitted.
as,
'
How much better is it to get wisdom than gold.
. .RULE XIIL-When words are placed in oppoSIIJOn to ~ach other, or with some marked variety
they reqmre to be distinguished by a comma .
'
Though deep, yet clear; though gentle' as,
not dull;
' yet
Strong, without rarre
o ,· ,.v1"tllout o ' er fl owing, full.

Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are
often found not only in union with, but in opposi~
tion to, the views and conduct of one another.
Sometimes, when the word with which the last
preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the
comma before it ; as,
Many states were in alliance with, and underthe protection of Rome.
The same rule and restriction must be applied
when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition; as,
He was composed both under the threatening,
and at the approach, of a cr1i1el and lingering
death.
RuLE XIV.-A remarkable expression, or a
short observation, somewhat in the manner of a
quotation, may be properly marked with a comma ~
as,
It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know,
Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.
RuLE XV.-Relative pronouns are connective·
words, and generally admit a comma before them;
as,

He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober,. right~

eous, and pious life.
But when two members ef phrases axe closelyconnected by a relative, restraining the general no9

...
---130

A SYSTEM OF

tion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the :
comma should be omitted; as,
Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must
make.
!he fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in
which the relative is not expressed, but understood; as,
It was from piety, warm and unaffected, that his
morals derived strength.

R~LE XVJ.-A simple member of a sentence,
contamed within another, or following another,
must be distinguished by a comma ; as,
To improve time whilst we are blessed with
health, will smooth the bed of sickness.
~ ery often, while we are complaining of the
varnty and the evils of human life, we make that
vanity, and we increase those evils.
If, however, the members succeeding each other
are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary ; as,
Revelation tells us how we may attain happmess.
When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its
governing verb, with several words between them
those words should generally have a comma a:
the end of them; as,
It iii becomes good and wise men, to oppose
and degrade one another.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

131

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a
common dependence, and succeeding one another,
are also divided by commas ; as,
To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted,
to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving,
are humane and noble employments.
RuLE XVJI.-When the verb to be is follow ed
by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by tran.sposition, might be made the nominative case to 1t,
the former is generally separated from the latter
verb by a comma ; as,
The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from
all associations with bad men.
The first and most obvious remedy against the
infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with
bad men.
RuLE XVIII.- VVhen adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and often when the natural
order of them is inverted, they may be 'set off by
commas; as,
Virtue must be forme<l and supported, not by
unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated ex•
ertions.
Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life,
grow great and monstrous·.
RuLE XIX.-Where the verb is understood, a
comma may often be properly introduced. This
is a general rule, which, besides comprising sume

132

A SYSTE!\I OF

of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases
not determined by any of them ; as,
From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge.
RuLE XX.-The words nay, so, hence, again,
fi rst, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more,
above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in
short, and all other words and phrases of the same
kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma.
OF THE SE!\IICOLON.

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound
sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other as
those which are distinguished by a colon.
The semicolon is sometim es used when the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself
give a complete sense, but depends on the following clause ; and sometimes when the sense of that
member would be complete without the concluding one ; as in the following instance :
As the desire of approbation, when it works
according to reason, improves the amiable part of
our species in every thing that is laudable ; so
nothing is more destructive to them when it is
governed by vanity and folly.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

133

OF THE COLON•

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two
or more parts, less connected than thos.e which are
separated by a semicolon ; but not so mdependent
as separate distinct sentences.
The col~n may be properly applied in the three
following cases :1. When a member of a sentence is complete
in itself, but followed by some supp~emental remark or further illustration of the subject; as,
N:ture felt her inability to extricate herself from
the consequences of guilt: the g?spel reveals the
plan of divine interposition and aid.
2. When several semicolons have preceded,
and a still greater pause is necessary, i~ order to
mark the connecting or concluding sentiment ; as,
A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from he~­
ven. an almighty Governor, stretching forth his
arm 'to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righ~eous, and of
indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these
are the considerations which overawe the world,
which support integrity and check guilt.
3. The colon .is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech i~ introduced ; as,
The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity' in these words: "God is love."

- - -·134

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

135

EXCLAMATION.
OF THE PERIOD.

When a sentence is complete and independent,
and not connected in construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a Period.
The period should be used after every abbreviated word; as, l\'I. S., P. S., N. B., A. D.,
· 0. S., N. S., &c.
THE DASH.

The Da~h, though often used improperly by
hasty and mcoherent writers, may be introduced
with propriety where the sentence breaks off abrubtly; where a significant pause is required; or
where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment; as,
If thou art he, so much respected once-but,
oh ! how fallen ! how derrraded
I•
0
INTERROGATION.

A Note of Interrogation is use<l at the end of an
interrogative sentence; that is, when a question is
asked; as,
Who will accompany me?
Shall we always be friends?

The Note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief,
&c., and also to invocations or addresses ; as,
My friend! this conduct amazes me!
Bless the Lord, 0 my soul! and forget not all
his benefits !
The interrogation and exclamation points are
indeterminate as to their quantity or time, and may
be equivalent, in that respect, to a semicolon, a
colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They
mark an elevation of the voice.
PARENTHESIS.

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information, or useful remark, introduced
into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which
may be omitted without injuring the grammatical
construction ; as,
Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to
know,)
Virtue, alone, is happiness below.
The parenthesis marks a moderate depression
of the voice, and may be accompanied with every
point which the sense would require if the parenthetical characters were omitted.

136

A SYSTEM

m·

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

137

Other characters are firequent 1"n compos1tion,
··
and which are important therefore to be made
familiar.

els coming together, showing that they are not a
diphthong ; as, Creator.

CARET.

Q.UOTATION.

A Caret, marked thus, " is placed where some
~vord or letter is omitted in writing, and which is
mserted over the line; as,

Quotation marks, " " in composition, enclose
the words of some other author, which have been
transcribed in his own language ; as,
"To err is human; to forgive, divine."

IS

Life short.

"
HYPHEN.

A Hyphen, marked thus, - is used to connect
compound words; as,
Lap-dog ; Mother-in-law.
The hyphen is also used when a word is di vided at th'.'3 end of a lin e, and th e latter part of the
word written at the beginning of the next line.
The hyphen should never divide the letters of a
single syllable.
When the same character - is placed over a
letter, it indicates the long sound of that letter .
as, Note; whereas the curved line v placed ove;
a letter indicates the short sound ; as, N ot.

INDEX OR HAND.

An Index or Hand OJ points out something
requiring particular attention.
BRACE.

A Brace } in poetry, is placed at the end of
three lines that have the same rhyme.
It is used also tci connect a number of words
with one common term ; as,

A.
B.~ Justices of the P eace.
C. D.
E. F.
ASTERISK.

DilERE SI S.

A Direresis · · is· P1ace d over one of two vow-

The Asterisk * directs the reader to a note at the
bottom of the page. Several together * * * * *
denote the omission of some letters, or words.

138

A SYSTEM OF

ELLIPSIS.

The Ellipsis are omitted.

is also used where some letters

OBELISK AND PARALLEL.

The Obelisk t and Parallels, II &c., refer to the
margin, or the bottom of the page.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

139

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of
places; as,
I .
&
.
Roman Enrrlish French, ta1ian, TC.
G rec1an,
'
b
'
•
d
6. The fir~t word of a quotation, mtroduce
after a colon, or when it is in a direct .form; as,
· anc1en
· t maxi m .· "Know
Always remember this
thyself."
The first word of an example may also very
properly begin with a capital. . .
.
7. Every substantive and prmc1pal word m the

DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.

It is proper to begin with a capital,
I. The first word of every book, chapter, letter,
note, or any other piece of writing.
2. The first word after a period, and, if the two
sentences are totally independent, after a note of
interrogation or exclamation.
3. The appellations of the Deity ; as,
God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme
Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the
Holy Spirit.
4. Proper names of persons, places, streets,
mountains, rivers, ships; as,
George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the
Thames, the Seahorse.

title of books ; as,
Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language;
Thomson's Seasons.
8. The first word of every line in. po:try.
9. The pronoun I and the interjection 0 are
written in capitals.
.
Other words, besides the preceding, may b~gm
with capitals, when they are remarl~a~ly emphat1cal
or the principal subject of compos1t1on.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

THE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS ARE SUBJOINED
AS EXERCISES IN PARSING.

CHAPTER I.

In your whole behavior, be humble and obliging.
Virtue is the universal charm.
True politeness has its seat in the heart.
We should endeavor to please, rather than to
shine and dazzle.
Opport~nities occur daily for strengthening m
ourselves the habits of virtue.
Compassion prompts us to relieve the wants of
others.
A good mind is unwilling to give pain to either
man or beast.
Peevishness and passion often produce, from
trifles, the most serious mischiefs.
Discontent often nourishes passions, equally malignant in the cottage and in the palace.

-142

143

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A great proportion of human evils is created by
ourselves.

it is the fruit of long cultivation, and the acquisition

A passion for revenge, has always been considered
as the mark of a little and mean mind.
If greatness flatters our vanity, it multiplies our
dange rs.
To our own failings we are commonly blind.
The friendships of young persons are often founded on capricious likings.
In your youthful amusements let no unfairness be
found.
Engrave on your minds this sacr ed rule :
"Do unto others, as you wi sh th ey should do
unto you."
Truth and candor possess a powerful charm;
they bespeak uni ve rsal favor.
A~er the first departure from sincerity, it is seldo m in our power to stop : one artifice generally
leads on to another.
Temper the vivacity of youth with a proper mixture of serious thought. .
The spirit of true r eligion is social, . kind and
cheerful.
Let no compliance with the intempe rate mirth of
others, ever betray you into profane sallies.
In preparing for another world, we must not ne(]'0
lect the duti es of this life.
The mann er in which we employ our present
time, may decide our future happiness or misery.
Happin ess does not grow up of its own accord:

of labor and care.
A plain understanding is often joined with great
worth.
The brightest parts are sometimes found without
virtue or honor.
How feeble are the attractions of the fairest form,
when nothing within corresponds to them .
Piety and virtue are particularly graceful and
becoming in youth.
Can we, untquclted by gratitude, view that profusion of good, which the Divin e Hand pours around
us?
There is nothing in human life more amiable and
respectable, than the character of a truly humble
and benevolent man.
What feelings are more un easy and painful, than
.
?
the workings of sour and angry pa ~s 1ons .
No man can be active in disquieting others, who
does not, a~ the same time, disquiet himself.
A life of pleasure and dissipation is an enemy to
health fortune and character.
To ~orrect the spirit of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve) and how much we enjoy.
As far as happiness is to be found on earth, we
mu st look for it, not in the world, or the things of
the world; but within ourselves, in our temper, and
i)1 our heart.
.
. .
Though bad men attempt to turn virtue mto nd1cule, they honor it at the bottom of their hearts.

144

.A SYSTE!ll OF

Of what small moment to our real happiness, are
many of those injuries which draw forth our resentment!

In the moments of eager contention, every thing
is magnified and distorte d in its appearance.
Multitudes in the most obscure stations, are not
less eager in their petty broils, nor less tormented
by their passions, than if princely honors were the
prize for which they contended.
The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, the
mild zephyr, are the proper emblems of a gentle
temper, and a peaceful life. Among the sons of
strife all is loud and tempestuous.

CHAPTER II.
SCHEMES OF LIFE OFTEN ILLUSORY.

Omar, the son of Hassan, had passed seventy-five
years in honor and prosperity. The favor of three
successive caliphs had filled his house with gold and
silver; and whenever he appeared, the benedictions
of the people proclaimed his passage.
Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance.
The brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel; the
fragrant flower is passing away in its own odors.
The vigor of Omar began to fail; the curls' of,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR •

145

beauty fell from his head; strength departed from
his hand s, and agility from his feet. He gave back
to the caliph· the keys of trust, and the seal s of seoesy ; and sought no- othe_r pl easure for the remains of life, than the .converse of the wi~e, and
th e gratitude of the good.
The powers of his mind were yet . unimpaired.
His chamber was filled by visitants, eage r to
catch the dictates of experienc<), and offi ciou s to
.pay the tribute of admiration. Caled, the son of'
the viceroy of Egypt, entered every day early, and
r etired late. · H e was beautiful and eloquent: Omar
admired his wit, and loved his docility.
"Tell me," said Caled, " thou to whose voice
nations have listened, and whose wisdom is knoH"il
to the extremities of A.sia, tell me how I may resembl e Omar the prudent. The arts by which th ou
h as t gained power and preserved it, are to thee no
lon ge r necessary or useful; impart to me the secret
of thy conduct, and teach me th e plan upon which
thy wisdom has built th y fortune."
" Young rnan," said Omar, " it is of little use to
form plans of li fe. When I took my first survey of
the world in my twentieth yea r, having considered
t he various co11ditions of mankind , in an hour of
solitude, I said thus to myself, lea nin g against a
cedar, which spread its branches over my hend:
' Seventy years are allowed to man: I have yet fift y
remarnrng. T en years I will allot to the attainment
<0f knowledge, and ten I will pass in foreign coun•

10

146

A SYSTEM OF

tries; I shall be learned, and there fore shall be honored ; every c ity will shout at my arriv al, and every
stud ent solicit my fri endship. Twenty years thus
passed , will store my mind with im ages, which I
shall be bu sy , through th e rest of my life , in combining an rl comp aring. I shall r evel in in exhaustible
acc umul ation s o f intellectual ri ches ; I shall find
new pleas ures for every moment ; and sh all never
more be we ary of myself. I will not, however, deviate too fa r from the beaten tr ac k of life, but will
try wh at can be found in fe male delic acy. I will
marry a wife be autiful as th e H ouries: and wise as
Z obe ide; with her I will live twenty yea rs within
th e su burbs of Bag dat, in ev ery pl eas ure th at we alth
can purch ase, and fan cy can inv ent. I will then
reti re to a ru ral dwellin g ; p ass my d ays in obscurity
and contem pl ati on ; and lie silentl y do wn on . the
be<l of death. Thro ugh my li fe it shall be my settl ed resolution, that I will never depend upon the
smi le of prin ces ; th at I will neve r stand exposed
to th e artifices of c ourts; I will never pant for publi c honors, nor disturb my qui et with th e affairs of
state.' S uch was th e scheme of li fe, which I impressed indelibly upon my memory.
"The first part of my ensui ng ti me was to be
spe nt in search of knowl edge , and I kn ow not how
I was diverted from my design. I h ad no visibl e
impediments without, nor any un gov ern able p assions
within. I r egarded knowled ge as th e highest honor
and th e most engaging ple as ure ; ye t da y stole upon

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

d ay, and month gli'd ed after month, till I found
th at seve n yea rs of th e fir st ten had vanished, and
·left nothing behind th em. I now postponed my
purpose of tr avelling ; for why should I go abroad
when so much r em ained to be learn ed at home? I
immured myself for four yea rs, and studied the laws
of the empire. Th e fam e of my skill re ached th e
jud ges; I was found abl e to speak upon doubtfu l
qu estions ; and was c,omm anded to stand at the
footstool of th e caliph. I was heard with attention ;
I was consulted with confidence ; and the love of
praise fas tened on my heart.
"'I ·s till wished to see dist ant countries ; list ened
with r aptur e to the r elati ons of tr avellers; and resolved some ti me to ask my dismission, that I mi ght
feas t my soul with novelty: b ut my prese nce was
always n ecessary ; and th e stream of bu siness hur-.
ri ed me along. S ome times I was afr aid lest I sho uld
be charged with ingratirnd e ; but I still proposed to
travel, and th erefo re would n ot con fi ne myse lf by
marria ge.
"In my fifti eth yea r , I began to suspect th at th e
tim e of tr avelling was p ast ; and th ought it best to
Jay hold on th e fe li c ity ye t in my power, and in dulge
myself in domestic pl easures. But at fifty no man
easily finds a wom an beautiful as the Houries, and
wise as Zobeide. I inquired and rejected , con sulted
and deliber ated, till th e sixty-second year made me
as hamed of wi shing to marry . I h ad no w n othing
left but retir e m e~t ; and for retirem ent I never found
l

149

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

a time, till disease forced me from public employment.
"Su.ch was my scheme, and such h ELs been its
consequence. With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, I trifled away the years of improvement; with
a restless desire of seeing different countries, I have
always resided in the same city; with the highest
expectation of connubial felicity, I have lived unmarried; and with unalterable resolutions of contemplative retirement, I am going to die within th e
walls of Bagdat."-Dr. Johnson.

tion, when hands, wheels, weights, with one voice,
protested their innocence.
But now a faint tick was heard below from the
pendulum, who thus spoke:
I
"I confess myself to be the sole cause of the
present stoppage; and I am willing, for the general
sat isfaction, to assign my reasons. The truth is,
that I am tired of ticking."
Upon he arin g this, the old clock became so enraged, that it was on tlte very point of striking.
" Lazy wire!" exclaimed the dial-plate, holding

148

CHAPTER III.
THE DISCONTENTED

PENDULUM.

An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a
farmer 's kitchen, without giving its owner any cause
of complaint, early one summer's morning, before
the family was stirring, suddenly stopped. Upon
this, the dial-plate, (if we may credit the fable,)
changed countenance with alarm ; the hands made
a vain effort to continue their co urse; the wheels
remained motionless with surprise: the weights
hung speechl ess: each member felt disposed to lay
the blame on the others. At length the dial instituted a formal inquiry as to the cause of the stagna•

up its h ands.
"Very good! " replied the pendulum, " it is
vastly easy for you, Mistress Dial, who have always,
as every body knows, set yourself up above me,-it
is vastly e asy for you, I say, to accuse other people
of laziness! You, who have had nothing to do all
the days of your life, but to stare people in the face,
and to amuse yourself ·with watching all that goes
on in th e kitchen! Think, I beseech you, how you
would like to be shut up for life in this dark closet,
and to wag backwards and forwards year after year,
as I do. "
"As to that,'' said th e dial, " is th ere not a window in yo ur house, on purpose for you to look
throu gh?"
"For all that," resumed the pendulum, " it is
very dark here; and, although th ere is a window,
I dare not stop, even for an instant, to look out at
it. Besides, I am really tired of my way of life ;

150

A SYSTEM OF

and if you wish, I 'II tell you how I took this disgust
at my empl.oyment. I happened, this morning, to
be calculatmg how many times I should have to
tick in the course of only the next twenty-four
hours; perhaps some of you, above there, can give
me the exact sum."
T.he minute hand being quick at figures, presently
replied, "Eighty six thousand four hundred times:"
"Exactly so," replied the pendulum; "well, I
appeal to you all, if the very thought of this was
not enough to fatigue one; and when I began to
multiply the strokes of one day by those of months
and years, really it is no wonder if I felt discouraged at the prospect; so, after a great deal of reasoning an.d hesitation, thinks I to myself, I 'Jl stop."
The dial could scarcely keep its countenance
during t.his harangue; but resuming its gravity,
thus replied" Dear Mr. Pendulum, I am really astonished
that such a useful, industrious person as yourself,
should have been overcome by this sudden action.
It is true, you have done a great deal of work in
your time; so have we all, and are likely to do;
which, although it may fatigue ,us to think of, the
question is, whether it will fatigue us to do. Would
you now, do me the favor to give about half a -Oozen
strokes to illustrate my argument? "
The pendulum complied, and ticked six times in
its usu al pace.
"Now," resumed the dial, "may I be allowed to

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

151

inquire, if that exertion was at all fatiguing or disagreeable to you?"
"Not in the least," replied the pendulum; "it
is not of six strokes that I complain, nor of sixty,
but of millions."
" Very good," replied the dial ; "but recollect,
that though you may think of a million strokes in
an instant, you are required to execute but one ; and
that, however often you may hereafter have to swing,
a moment will always be given you to swing in."
" That consideration staggtrs me, I confess," said
the pendulum.
" Then I hope," resumed the dial . plate, "we
shall all immediately return to our duty; for the
maids will lie in bed if we stand idling thus."
Upon this, the weights, who had never been ac~ cused of Ngltt conduct, used all their influence in
urging him to proceed; when, as with one consent,
the wheels began to turn, the hands began to move,
the pendulum began to swing, and, to its credit,
ticked as loud as ever; while a red beam of the
rising sun that streamed through a hole in the
kitchen, shining full upon the dial plate, it brightened up, as if nothing had been the matter.
When the farmer came down to breakfast that
morning, upon looking at the clock, he declared
that his watch had gained half an hour in the night.
MORAL;

A celebrated modern writer says, " Take care
of the minutes, and the ltoui-s will take care of them-

152

A SYSTEM OF

selves. " This is an admirable remark, and might
be very se_aso nably recollected wh e n we begin to be
" weary in well doing," from the thought of having
much to do. The prese nt moment is all we have to
do with , in any sense; the past is irrecoverable;
the future is uncertain; nor is it fair to burden one
mom ent with the weight of the next. Sufficient
unto the moment is the trouble th e reof If we had
to walk a hundred miles, we should still have to
set but one step at a time, and this process continu ed, woulcl infallibly bring us to our journey's
end. F ati g ue gene rally begins, and is always increased, by calculating in a minute th e exertion of
hours.
Thus, in looking forw ard to future life, let us recollect th at we have not to sustain all its toil~ to
endu re all its sufferings, or encounter all its crosses,
at once. One moment com es l aden with its own
little burdens, then flies, and is s ucceeded by another no heav ier than the last :-if one couid be
borne, so can another and another.
Even looking forward to a single day, the spi rit
may so met im es faint from an anticipation of th e
duti es, th e labo rs, the trials to temp er and patience,
that may be ex pected. Now this is unjustly lay ing
the burd e n of many thousand moments upon one.
Let any one resolve always to do ri g ht now, leaving
then to <lo as it can; and if he were to live to the
age of Methuselah , he wou ld never do wrong. But
the common error is to resolve to act ricrht
after
0

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

153

breakfast, or after dinner, or to-morrow morning,
or next time ; but now, just now, this once, we must
go on th e same as ever..
. ·
It is easy, for instance, for the most ill-tempered
person to res9lve that the next time he is provoked,
he will not let his tempe r ove rcome him; but the
victory would be to subdue t emp er on the present
provocation. If, without taking up the burden of
the future, we would al ways make the s·i ngle effort
at th e present mom e nt; whil e th e re would, at any
one time, be very littl e to do, yet, by this simple
process continued, every thing would at last !::e
done.
It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day,
merely because we forg et that when to-mon ow
com es, then will be now. Thus life passes with
m any, in resolutions for the futur e, which the present never fulfils.
It is not thus with those, who, " by patient continuanc e in well-doing, seek for glory, honor and
immortality." Day by day, minute by minute, th ey
execute the appointed task, to which the r equisite
measure of• time and strength is proportioned; and
thus havi ng worked while it was called day, th ey at
leng th rest from their labors, and their works " follow them."
L et us then, "whatever our hands find to do, do
it with all our might, recollecting that now is the
proper and accepted time."

154

A SYSTEM OF

CHAPTER IV.
CHARA CTE R OF MR. BROUGHAM.

Brougham is a thund erb olt. He may cofue in
the dark, he may come at r andom , his path may
be in th e viewless and graspl ess air ; but still, g ive
him so mething solid , let him come in contact with
the ea rth, and, be it beautiful or barren, it feels the
power of his terrible visitation. You see not, or
rather you heed not, the agent which works : !;mt,
just as when the arch-giant of physical destroyers
rends his way, yo u see the kingdoms of nature yielding at his approach, an<l the mightiest of their productions brushed aside as thou g h they were dust,
or torn as thou gh they were gossamer.
W hil e he raises his vo ice in the house-while h~
buil ds firmly and bro adly th e bases of his own propositions, and snatches from every science a beam
to enlarge and strengthen his work ; and while he
indignantly beats do wn and trampl es upon all that
has been reared by his an tagonist, you fee l as if the
wind of annihilation were in his hand, and the power o'f destru ction in hi s possession .
Th ere can not be a g rea ter treat than to hear
Brough am upon one of t hose questions which g ive
scope fo r the mighty swell of his mind, and which
permit him to launch the bolts of that tremendous
sarcasm, fo r which he has not now, and perhaps

EN.GLISH GRAMMAH.

155

· t h e 110use. When his disnever had, an equal m
pl ay is a reply, you see his long and la~hy. fi~ur e
d rawn as1'd e from others ' and coiled up w1th1111tself
like a snake, and his eyes glancing from under the
slou ched hat, as fiery and as fatal as tho~e of th e
basilisk ; you mark the twin demons of ll'Ony and
contempt, playing about the tense and comp ressed
line of hi s mouth.
.
Up rises the orator, slowly a~d ~lumsily . His
body' swung into an attitude wh ic h is n.one of the
most graceful. His long and sallow v1~age see n~s
lengthened and deepe ned in its hu e. His eyes , his
nose and mouth seem huddled together' as If, while
he p~esses every illustration into h~s speech '. he we re
at the same time condensing all his senses mto o~ e.
There is a lowerin g sublimity in his brows, wluch
one seldo m sees equalled; and the obliquity of the
ligh t shows the organi zation of the upper and lateral parts of his for ehead, proud am! palp.able as the
hill s of his native north . Hi s left hand is extended
with the p alm, prepared as an anvil, upon wl11ch he
is ever an d anon to hammer' with the fo refinge r . of
his right, as the preparation to th at full .sw mg wluch
is to give,life to every muscle, and mot10n to every
limb. H e speaks! In the most powerful and sus. d , an d ,at the same tim e ' the most · close, clear
tame
and lorrical manner ' does he demolish the castl e
0
which his opponent had built fo r himself. You
have the sounds, you see th e flash, you look for the
· ·is not. Stone after ston e, turret after
castle, and 1t

.,'

156

A SYSTEM OF

turret, battlement after battlement, and wing after
wing, are melted away, and no thing lef't, save the
sure foundation, upon which th e orator himself may
build. There are no pol itic al bowels in him. He
g ives no quarter, and n o sooner has he razed the
fort, th an he turns him to tortur e th e ga rrison. It
is now that his mock solemnity is so mething more
terrible th an the satire of Can nin g, th e g low of
Burdett, or th e glo ry of Mack intosh. His fea tures,
( which are always grave,) assume the very depth of
solem nity; and his voice (which is alw ays solemn)
fa ll s in to th at und er soprano, (that visionary tone
between speech an d whisper) which men employ
wh en th ey speak of th eir own g raves, and coffins.
You would im a~ in e it n ot aud ibl e, and ye t its lowest syll able runs through th e house lik e wild-fire.
You would think it meant onl y for the ear of him
who is th e subject of it, yet it comes imm ed iately,
and powe rfull y, and without th e possibility of being
forgott en, to every one within th e walls. You
woul d think it th e fond admo nition of a sainted
father to the errors of a beloved so n ; and yet, it
h as in reality more of th at feelin g which the D evil
is sa id to exerc ise, when he acts as th e 11ccuser of
th e brethren .-Y ou may push as ide the bright thing
whi ch raises a laugh ; you may find a cover from
th e wit which ambles to you on antit hesis or quot at ion ; but, again st th e hom e rep ro of of Brougham
· there is n o defence; its course is so firm that you
cannot dash it aside.

ENGLISH GRAblllfAR·

157

CHAPTER V.
ELOQUENCE OF WHITEFIELD .

f Whitefield was indeed very
The eloquence o
1 . d H e was utterly ded f th e truest un .
f a- t t' on H e seemed to
gr eat, an o
d
. d f 1l ppearance o auec a I .
vo1 o a a
.
f th e talents he possesse .
be quite unconsc1ous _o b' t and th e r ecrard due
.
of his su Jee ,
"'
The im portance
.
H e spoke
d all his concern.
to his hearers engrosse 1 h . applause but was
t see c t eir '
d' d
'
like one who I ~o
. t ests. and who, from
d ~ r their best m er
'
d
concern e o
.
d
earnestly endeavore
1
. . l of unfe1crne
ove,
.
0
.
And the effect, m
a prmc1p e .
to lead them m the nghtawaa\ the design. They
0
.
correspon e
some measure,
' th commend in er l1is d1se th emse 1ves w1
°
did not amus
.
d
d persuaded by what
b t bemg move an
d
co urses; u
. .
felt his passions, an
'd
t ed into l11s views,
t to comply with all
be sa1 , en er
.
·1r
for a time at 1eas '
h'
how ever was nothing
were w1 mg
.
ts The c arm,
'
.
his reques .
f his irresistible eloquence; m
else but the power. o
t say wheth er he was
. h
t it 1s not easy o
w hie respec ' .
.
. t or modern times.
eve r excelled either 111 anc1e~ 1 voice and a won.' .
H had a strong and mus1ca
e
d f 't His pronunc1at10n was not
derful comman o J •
d
ceful Nor was he
but manly an gra
·
only prop~r' ~ the most natural and strong exever at a oss or
. h·m were but lower
pressions. Yet, these 111 I
'lualities.
ex
•
The gr an d sources of his eloquence were an

158

A SYSTEM OF

ce.edingly lively imagination, which made people
thmk they saw what he described; an action still
mor~ li v~ly, if possible, by which, while every accent
of his voice spoke to the ear, every feature of his
face, every motion of his hands, and every gesture
spok e to the eye.
An intimate friend of the infidel Hume, asked him
what he .thought of Mr. Whitefield's preaching; for
he had listened to the latter part of one of his sermons at Edinburgh. "He is, sir," said Mr. Hume,
" th e most ingenious preacher I eve r heard. It is
worth wh ile to go twenty miles to hear him." H e
then repeated the following passage wh ich he heard,
to\vards the close of that discourse : "After a solemn pause, Mr. Whitefield thus· addresse.d his n.umerous audience ;- ' The attendant angel is just abo ut
to leave the threshold, and ascend to heaven. And
shall he ascend and not bear with him the news of
one sinner, among all this multitude, reclai med
from the error of his ways 7" To give the greater
effect to this exclamation, he stamped with his foot,
lifted up his hands and eyes to heaven, and with
gushing tears, c ried aloud, ' Stop , Gabriel !-Stop,
Gabriel !-Stop, ere you enter the sacred portals,
and yet carry with you the news of one sinner convert-ed to God.' He then, in the most simple, but
e nergeti~ langu age, described a Saviour's dying
love to smful man ; so that almos t th e whole assemb~y m e~ ted into tears. This address was accompamed with such animated, yet natur al action, th at it

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

159

surpassed any thing I ever saw or heard in any other
preacher."
H appy had it been for poor Hume, had he r eceived what he then heard, "as the word of God ,
and not as the word of man! "
Dr . Franklin, in his memoirs, bears witness to
the extraordinary effect which was produced by Mr.
Whitefield's preaching in America; and relates an
anecdote equall y characteristic of the preacher and
of himself. "I happened," says the doctor, " to
attend one of his sermons, in the course of which I
perceived he intended to finish with a collection,
and I silently resolved he should get nothing from
me. I had in my pocket a handful of copper mon ey,
three or fo ur silver dollars, and fi ve pistoles in
gold. As he proceeded, I began to soften, and concl uded to give the coppe1·. Another stroke of his
oratory made me ashamed of that, and determined
me to give the silver; and he finished so admirably,
that I emptied my pocket wholly into the collector's
dish, gold and all. At th is sermon there was also
one of ou r club; who, bein g of my sentiments respecting the building in Georgia, and suspecting a
collection might be intended, had by precaution
emptied his pockets before he came from home;
towards the conclusion of the discourse, however,
he felt a strong inclination to give, and applied to a
neighbor who stood near him to lend him some
money for the purpose. The request was fortun ately made to perh aps the only man in the company

160

161

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

who had the firmness not to be affected by the
preacher . His answer was, "At any otltci· time,
fri end Hodgkinson, I would lend to thee freely; but
not now, for thee seems to be out of thy right
senses." -Gillies.

been laid on the cold ground, where they are left to
languish and to die. There no eye piti es them.
No sister is there to weep over them. There no
gentle hand is present to ease the dying posture, or
bind up the wounds, which in the maddening fury
of the combat, have been given and received by the
children of one common father.
There death
spreads its pale ensigns over every counten.ance, and
when night comes on, and darkness around them ,
how many a despairing wretch must take up with th e
bloody field as the untended bed of his last sufferings, without one friend to bear the message of tenderness to his distant home, without one companion
to close his eyes.
I avow it . . On every side of me I see causes at
work which go to spread a most delusive coloring
over war, and to remove its shocking barbarities to
the back ground of our contemplations altogether.
I see it in the history which tells me of the superb
appearance of the troops, and the brilliancy of their
successive charges. I see it in the poetry , which
lends the magic of its .numbers to the narrative of
blood, and ttansports its many admirers; as by its
images, and its figures; and its nodding plumes of
chivalry, it throws its treacherous embellishments
over a scene of legalized slaughter. I see it in the
music, which represents the progress of the battl e ,
and where, after being inspired by lhe trumpet
notes of preparation, the whole beauty and tenderness of a drawing-room are seen to bend over the

CHAPTER VI.
UNIVERSAL PEAC E.

The first great obstacl e to the extinction of war,
is the way in which the heart of man is carried off
from its barbarities and its horrors, by the splendor
of its deceitful accompaniments. There is a feeling of the sublime in contemplating th e shock of
armies, just as there is in contemplating the devouring energy of a tempest ; and this so elevates and engrosses the whole man ,. that his eye is blind to the
tears of bereaved parents, and his ear is deaf to the
piteou s moan of the d,ying, and the shriek of their
desolated families. There is a gracefuln ess in the
picture of a youthful warrior, burning for distinction on the fie ld , and lured by this ge nerou s aspiration to the deepest of the animated throng, where,
in the fell work of death, the opposing sons of valor
struggle for a remembrance and a name; , and this
side of the picture is so much the exclusive object
of our regard, as to disguise from our view the mangled carcases of the fallen , and the writhing agonies
of the hundreds and the hundreds more, who have

11

162

A SYSTEM Of'

sentimental entertainment; nor do I hear the utter•
ance of a single sigh to interrupt the death-tones of
the thickening contest, and the moans of the wound·
ed men, as they fade away upon the ear, and sink
into lifeless silence. All, all goes to prove what
strange and half-sighted creatures we are. Were
it not so, war could never have been seen in any
other aspect than that of unmingled hatefulness ;
and I can look to nothing but to the progress of
Christian sentiment upon earth, to arrest the strong
current of its popular and prevailing partiality for
war. Then only will an imperious sense of duty
lay the ·Check of severe principle on all the subordinate tastes and faculties of our nature. Then will
glory be reduced to its right estimate, and the wakeful benevolence of the gospel, chasing away every
spell, will be turned by the treachery of no delusion
whatever, from .its sublime enterprises for the good
of the species. Th en the reign of truth and quiet•
ness will be ushered into the world, and war, cruelJ
atrocious, unrelenting war, will be stript of its many
and its bewildering fascinations.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

163

CHAPTER VIL
THE SHEPHERD AND THE PHILOSOPHER.

Remote from cities liv'd a swain,
U nvex' d with all the cares of gain ;
His head was silver'd o'er with age,
And long experience made him sage ;
In summer's heat, and winter's cold,
He fed his flock, and penn'd the fold;
His hours in cheerful labor flew,
Nor envy nor ambition knew;
His wisdom and his honest fame
Through all the country rais'd his name.
A deep philosopher (whose rules
Of moral life were drawn from schools)
The shepherd's homely cottage sought,
And thus explor'd his reach of thought.
" Whence is thy learning? Hath thy toil
O' er books consumed the midnight oil?
Hast thou old Greece and Rome survey 'd,
And the vast sense of Plato weigh'd?
Hath Socrates thy soul refin'd?
And hast thou fathom'd Tully's mind?
Or, like the wise Ulysses, thrown
By various fates on realms unknown,
Hast thou through many cities stray'd,
Their customs, laws, and manners weigh'd?"
The shepherd modestly replied,
''I ne'er the paths of learning tried;

164

A SYSTEM OF

Nor have I roam'd in foreign parts,
To read mankind, their laws and arts ·
For man is practis'd in disguise;
'
He cheats the most discerning eyes.
·who by that search shall wiser grow ?
By that ourselves we never know.
The little knowledge I have gain'd,
Was all from simple nature drain'd;
Hence my life's maxims took their rise
Hence grew my settled hate to vice . ,
The daily labors of the bee
Awake my soul to industry.
Who can observe the careful ant
And not provide for future want?
My dog (the trustiest of his kind)
With gratitude inflames my mind :
I mark his true, his faithful way,
And in my service copy Tray.
In constancy and nuptial love,
I learn my duty from the dove.
The hen, that from the chilly air,
With pious wing- protects her care,
And ev'ry fowl that flies at large,
Instruct me in a parent's charge.
"From nature too I take my rule,
To shun contempt and ridicule
I never, with important air,
In conversation overbear.
Can grave and formal pass for wise,
When men the solemn owl despise 1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

165

My tongue within my lips I rein;
For who talks much must talk in vain.
We from the wordy torrent fly:
Who listens to the chatt'ring pie 1
Nor would I, with felonious flight,
By stealth invade my neighbor's right :
Rapacious animals we hate ;
Kites, hawks, and wolves deserve their fate.
Do not we just abhorrence find
Against the toad .and serpent kind?
But envy, calumny and spite,
Bear stronger venom in their bite.
Thus ev'ry -0bject of creation
Can furnish hints to contemplation;
And, from the most minute and mean,
A virtuous mind can morals glean."
"Thy fame is just," the sage replies;
''Thy virtue proves thee truly wise."
Pride often guides the author's pen;
Books as affected are as men :
But he who studies nature's laws,
From certain truth his maxims draws;
And those without our schools, suffice
To make men moral, good,. and wise.-Gay
11*

166

A SYSTEM OF

CHAPTER VIII.
PROVIDENTIAL DISTIN CTIONS.

One man there was,-and many such you might
Have met-who never had a dozen thou ghts
In all his life, and never changed their course;
But told them o'er, each in its 'customed place,
From morn till night, from youth till hoary age.
Littl e a·bove the ox which grazed :he field
His reason rose: so weak his memory,
The name his mother called him by, he scarce
R emembered ; and his judgment so untaught,
That what at evening played along the swamp,
Fantastic, clad in robe of fiery hue,
He thought the devil in disguise, and fled
With quivering heart, and winged footsteps home.
The word philosophy he never heard,
Or science; never heard of liberty,
Necessity; or laws of gravitation:
And never had an unbelieving doubt.
Beyond his native vale he never look ed;
But thought the visual line, that girt him round,
The world's extreme: and thought the sill'er nioon,
That nightly o'er him led her virg in host,
No broad er th an his fath er's shield . H e livedLived where his father lived-died where he died ;
Lived happy, and died happy, and was saved .
Be not surprised. He loved , and served his God.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

There was another, large of understanding,
Of memory infinite; of judgment deep:
Who knew all learning, and all science knew;
And all phenomena in heaven and earth
Traced to their causes; trac P.d the labyrinth s
Of thought, association, passion, will;
And all the subtile, nice affinities
Of matter traced ; its virtues, motions, laws;
And most familiarly and deeply talked
Of mental, moral , natural, divine.
Leaving the earth at will, he soared to heaven,
And re ad the glorious visions of the skies;
And to the music of the rolling spheres
Intelli gently listened; and gazed far back,
Into the awful depths of Deity.
Did all , that mind assisted most, could do;
An d yet in misery lived , in misery died,
Because he wanted holin ess of heart.
A deeper lesson this to mortals taug ht,
And nearer c ut the branches of their pride:
That not in mental, but in moral worth,
God excellence placed; and only to the good,
To virtue, granted happiness alone.-Pollok.

167

168

A SYSTEM OF

CHAPTER IX.
SELFISHNESS REPROVED.

Has God, thou fool! work'd solely for thy goodThy joy, thy pastime, thy att ire, thy food?
Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn
Fo~ him as kindly spreads the flow ' ry la1\'.n.
Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings?
Joy. tunes his voice ' J·oy elevates his1win
crs
J
0 •
Is 1t for thee the linnet pours his ihroat?
Loves of his own, and raptures swell the note.
The bounding steed you pompously bestride,
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride.
Is thine alone the seed that strews the plain '?
The birds of heav'n shall vindicate their grain.
Thine the full harvest of the golden year?
Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer.
The hog, that ploughs not, nor obeys thy call,
Lives on the labors of this lord of all.
Know, nature's children all divide her care·
Th e fur th at warms a monarch, warm 'd a bea:..
While man exclaims, "See all things for my use! "
"See man for mine!" replies a pamper'd goose.
And just as short of reason he must fa ll
·who thinks all made for one, not one f~r al l.
Grant that the powerful still the weak control·
Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole;
'
Natu re that tyrant checks: he only kno.ws,
And helps another creature's wants and woes.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1'69

'Say, will the falcon, stooping from above,
Smit with her varying plumage, spare the dove?
Admires the jay the insect's gilded wings?
Or hears the hawk when Philomela sings?
Man cares for all : to birds he gives his woods,
To beasts his pastures, and to fish his floods.
For some his interest prompts him to provide,
For more his pleasure, yet for more his pride.
All feed on one vain patron, and enjoy
Th' exiensive blessing of his luxury.
That very life his learned hunger craves,
He saves from famine, from the savage saves;
Nay, feasts the animal he dooms his feast ;
And, till he ends the being, makes it blest;
Which sees no more the stroke, nor feels the pain,
Than favor 'd man by touch ethereal slain.
The creature had his feast of life before ;
Thou too must perish when thy feas t is o'er!

Pope.

CHAPTER X.
DEITY.

0 Thou Eternal One, whose presence bright,
All space doth occupy, all motion guide,
Unchanged through time's all devastating flight,
Thou only God! There is no God beside.

170

A SYSTEM OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

171

f·;

Being above all beings! Mighty One !
Whom none can comprehend, and none explore,
Who fill' st existence with thyself alone;
Embracing all-supporting-ruling o'erBeing whom we call God; and know no more!

Nought ?-But I live, and on hope's pinions fly,
Eager towards thy presence; for in thee
I live, and breathe, and dwell; aspiring high,
Even to the throne of thy Divinity.
I am, 0 God; and surely thou must be!

A million torches iighted by thy hand,
'Vander unwearied through the blue abyss ;
They own thy power, accomplish thy command,
All gay with life, all eloquent with bliss:
What shall we call them? riles of crystal light?
A glorious company of golden streams :
Lamps of celestial ether, burning bright?
Suns lighting systems with their joyous beams?
But thou to these art as the noon to night.

Thou art! directing, guiding all. Thou art!
Direct my understanding then to thee ; .
Control my spirit, guide my wandering heart ;
Though but an atom 'midst immensity,
Still I am something fashioned by thy hand!
I hold a middle rank, 'twixt heaven and earth,
On the last verge of being stand,
Close to the realm where angels have their birth
Just on the boundary of the spirit land!

Yes! as a drop of water in the sea,
All this magnificence is lost in Thee:"\<Vh at are ten thousand worlds compared to Thee?
And what am I, then? Heaven's unnumbered host,
Though multiplied by myriads, and arrayed
In all the glory of sublimest ·thoug ht,
I s but an atom in the balance weighed
Against thy greatness-is a cipher brought
Against infinity! what am I then? Nought!
Nought?-But the effluence of thy light divine,
Pervading worlds, hath reached my bosom too ;
Yes, in my spirit doth thy spirit shine,
As shines the sun heam in a drop of dew.

CHAPTER XI.
THE DYING CHRISTIAN.

Vital spark of heav'nly flame !
Quit, 0 quit this mortal frame:
Trembling, hoping, Iing'ring, flying,
0 the pain, the bliss of dying!
Cease, fond nature, cease thy strife 1
And let me languish into life.
Hark! they whisper; angels say,
" Sister spirit, come away ; "

•.
172

A SYSTEJll OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

'

What is t~is absorbs me quite?
Eiteals my senses, shuts my sight,
Drowns my spirit, draws my breath?
Tell me, my soul, can this be death?
'.f he world recedes, it disappears !
Heav'n opens on my eyes-my enrs
With sound seraphic ring!
Lend, lend your wings, I mount! I fly !
0 grave, where is thy victory?
0 death, where is thy sting ?-Pope.

THE END .

