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-.J.i. Xerl's First Lesso:s in English Grammar. - 2>esipned
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as an introduction to the Comnzon-Scltool Grammar,

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KERL'S SERIES OF SCIIOOL-IlOOKS.

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or as an accompaniment to l/1-e Composition and
:Rltetoric. :I'he plan, deflnilions, obserpa/ions, and
exercises are in tlte simplest style, and suited to
i _J(t~ c:aP,r;z<;il.J; ~£ ;clt~ldre,n.,
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. Karl's C~mmbn-School Grammar. --A. simple, tltorouglt, and ;n·actical gnzmmar of the .English language. Great care ltas been taken lo make it, if
possible, the best treatise of its kind now before tile
public. :Lite parts relating lo Idioms, .1lnal.J•sis,
and False Syntax, 111ill be found parlicu,larly full
and ya/uallle. · · · · : · · · ' · · · · · .

,,. .

Karl's Composition and Rhetoric.-A simple, concise,

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progressiPe, thorough, and JJractical 111ork on a 1u!1/I
plan. It occupies an intermediate position beb11een
, conimon grammar and kzjlter rltetoric, eJ~1bodying
· from eack 1111tat is p1·actzcally most useful to l/1e
111riter. It aims to make tlie student~ as
111ell as critical, to qualify ·ltim for prompt and
.·proper expression in discltargin11 tile common duties
of Ufe, "to ·guard and refine Ids taste in lite general
pursuit of literature, and lo aid kim in. lu's 0111n
literm;y productions.
The foregOlng book, and the "First Lessons in Grnmmnr .'' when studied to·
gether, wll[ furnish an elnnentnry co1u·se on the English language, or a
course 0 ( Gl'ftnttnnr, OomJJOBitf.uu, and llltetol'ic 1 that Is quite sulllclent
for common schools.
The same book and the" Common-School Grammar," when studlt>d together,
will furnish an a'd11tui.ce1l cou1·s1J on the English language, or n course o(
oi·t1.nunnr, Ootnpositloni and JUietot'ic, that is sufficient for the great
mlijorlty of academlea and co leges.

Karl's Comprehensive Gra.mmar.-An original 11101·k,
tltat is particularly useful to e1-·e1y speaker, writer,
or teac/ier, as a boo/c of reference.
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Entered according to Act of Congress, iii the year 186C), by S _tMON KER!- • '!' the
of the District Court of the Unltt:d Slates for the Southern JJ1stnct of

Clerk's omce
New York.

(!\-lost of the anonymous sketches are protected by copyright.)
ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY RAND, AVERY,
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FHYR.

PREF AOE.

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THE power to wield thought to the best advantage is the greatest power
belonging to man. But It is absurd to suppose that the teaching of a little
syntax can develop sufficient ability in regard to either language or thought .
Yet in most of our schools the direct study of the English "language is confined almost entirely to the study of English grammar; and because this
science fails to make able speakers and writers, it is severely but unjustly
denounced. Analysis is very different from invention; and to know always
promptly what should be said is of much greater importance than to know
how to say it correctly. The steam-engine, when .not hitched to any thing,
is bnt an ingenious and interesting curiosity; but when it is attached to the
multifarious industry of mankind, it moves the whole world. So it is with
langtrnge, in regard to thought. And the great trouble about the study of
language is, that we teach it too much as a thing detached from thought,
life, and the world; while its real prnctic.al value can 1le found only in
connection with these unive1·snl concerns. Books should teach things as
~ they are best learned without books; and knowledge is tnily valuable only .
· when it has been worke<l into the Find so thoroughly as , to become faculty
itself. In most of our education there is too much impression In proportion
to expression, -'-too much cramming, and not enough of digestion and assimilation; or we become critical much sooner than inventive, ?lfa11 ls nothing
in this world except what rigid discipline makes of him; ,and yet .h e loves ease
ind indolence so well .t hat he.' has always found, it conyenient-though
\ever satisfactory - to slide from ·the severe · study of things and thoughts .
1to the mere study of language itself. How irksome artd difficult to most
~ople is the art of speaking and writing sufficiently well; and what a
.iserable want of skill is often displayed '
those who have been educated for many years, or, what is .still worse. have been educating for many
year~! Surely some chan e is re uired in teaching the 'art. of expression
- even rhetoric itself. 'llhe history of a language IS not the si.ill f using
it ; awl-a boy who is wo iM a. 'y ear in obsolescent n~t~ ~f punctuation,
or carried into the upper heav,en of taste, sublimity, beauty, and general
metapliysios, wlthout seeing a. ' moon, or atan, "will probably derive little
plellaure or ben_efil rom bis ,study, except- whnt he may mdlrectly absorb
from choice extracts. A book seems to have bee_ Jong needed · that shall \
teach, in the mi;>st efficient rrianner, Gram1nar, Compoaition, and ,Rhewric,
combined. Such a book I have endeavored to make of this, when taken · in
connection with any small grammar that contains merely . the ·accidents
of the science: to have also inserted them, would have made too great a
·
multiplicity, of elements for one volume.

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To the Teacher.
IC any otl1cr branch of cducntlon were tnnght ns composlt.lon le usually
taught, the result woukl probably not be nny more eatlsfaclol'y . A grammar
lesson once In two w eeks; with no assistance, would not produce nny marvelous
change In the fiber of common brains. The subject of cxpl'csslon Is as lmpor·
tnnt as mere analysis, and should in some way be made a clnily exercise. Such
active or reproductive education may be more difficult at first, but it will prove
the most satisfactory in the end.
In the following pngcs nro wovon together a progressive series of exercises;
<lcslgned to develop sklll In the use of words, skill In the construction of Ren·
tences, and skill In the find Ing of thoughts. The exercises arc constantly vnricd
to prevent weariness; and where difficult yet important subjects have presented
themselves, especially In the latter part of the book, it has been thought better to
unfold them in the flowing and comprehensive style of common reading than to
]>resent a few stripped and Indigestible definitions in the routine style of schools.
Pupils are thus relieved from severe study, and obtain a more comprehensive
view of the subject; but they should be required to read these pages frequently
and earet'ully. I havf;l been severely studious of brevity; yet It may be some·
tlmei! better to go ro•nd a mountain than over it. By presenting "ome of the
subjects In this way, and by admitting a sufficient number of extracts to lliustrate the general meaning, the size of the book has been considerably enlargcd,even beyond the present fashion; but I have thus avoided making it one of
those fleshless abstracts which
rent his
ronounccd the meanest and
most worthlcsR of nil hooks.
W.*.ltrio
:iromowhnt

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CONTENTS.
Lesson
1. Introductory Outllne

PAGE

'1

2.

Prlnclpal Rules for Capital Letters and for Punctuation
3. The Sentence and its Prlnclpal Parts
4. The.Subject of the Sentence
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The Predicate

6. Exercises In 'Vorde and Sentences

7. Exercises In Composition

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" Ralf conocious thing• •tir with a helpless sense of wings;
Lift themselves, and tremble long, with premonitions oweet of song."

4

10
13

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17
2o

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23

8. Oral Exercises

26

9. Fragmcnt.riry Sentences and Extracts, Completed
10. Discrimination In the Choice of "Words

mn enc 1.
Sometimes there mny appear to be a superabundance of exercises; but, If the
teacher will distribute them among the class, letting one pupil take one, and
another another, according to taste and ability, they will seldom prove too
numerous. A class will often listen with greater interest to what the different
pupils say about different thing~. than to what they all say about the same thing.
Besides, the great diversity of mind, In a country so extensive as ours, requires
a corresponding variety of topics; and a teacher wlll frequently find It easier
to select suitable subjects from a full list, than to search for them elsewhere. A
sklllful teacher wiil not only give life to a book, but mnkc excursions from It,
and vary the Instructions, to suit the requirements of the class. Pupils
should also be required to find, In their reading-boob, lllustratlons of what they
study in this book; and care should be taken to Inspire them with a love for
good books, and to place some of the best within their reach, that they may be
induced to seek and explore for themselves the golden land of English literature.
·I have not ~lven every conceivable variety of error ·In sty le, simply because
It docs not seem necessary that a person should pass through every contagious
disease of human nature before he can enjoy good health. There are many
errors presented in books, that well-bred children would probably never think
of, did they hot first see them in their lessons. It seems better to teach style
directly by presenting good models, than Indirectly fiy showing how we must
avoid bad specimens. Of course a good gardener wlll cut away the vicious
shoots of his nursery as fast as they appear. But should more exercises In false
syntax be needed, the teacher can find them in the Comprehensive Grammar.
To excite proper Interest and enthusiasm Is more than half the art of teach·
Ing, especially in composition. W e have all heard about the " fine frenzy" of
the poet; but, as an experienced teacher has well said, " even tlie child's mind ls
a teeming nest," in which-

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li. Sentences formed troni a .Suggestive Elenient ·• ·

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12. Oral and Written Exercises

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31

13. Elements of Description and Narration

34

14. General Exercises in Words ·

38

Participial ·and Infinitive Elements

41 .,

19.

60

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20.

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21. Exercises in the Adjective Modifiers
22. Inventive ·Exercises In the least Elements of
23. The Same, contlnued,-.A.ttrlbutes
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Co~positlon,-Names ' .

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63

24. · The Adverbial Modifiers

6'{

23. Exercises In the :Adverbial Modifiers

• . 69
16

26. The Minor Rul~' for Capital Letters
27. Punctuatlon,-the Principal Pointe,
28. Punctuation, - ·the Secondary Pointe
29. Exercises In Punctuation

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30. Verse changed to Prose ·

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81

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31. Imitation and Repr·o ductlon

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32. Compositrons from Suggestive Facts or Paragraphs
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Lesson

PAG!l:

33. Compositions from Imp erfect Outllnee
34.

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Kinde of Sentences

101

35. Exercises In th e Dlffe ~ent Kinde of Sentences

104

36. Brevity and Clrc~ffilocutlo n ·

100

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37. Exercises Jn Ilre\'lty nml Circ umlocution

109

38. Th e \Vritlng o f Abstracts or Ab ridgments

112

39.

Proper Gradation In the Parts of Sentences

11(}

40. Formation of Simple Sentences from G l\'en Eleme nts

. 119

41. Formation of Compl ex Sentences from Simple Sentences

123

42. Form ~tlon .of Compound Sentences from Slmplo Sentences .
43~

127

Smoothness and Coh er ence of Se nten ces .

129

44 ~

Truthfulness, nnd Preference of Thin gs Known to Things Unknown. 135
45. Home and L ocal Sketch es •
138
46. Sketche s based on Vi sits, Journ eys , and E xcursions
143
47'. D escription of Trees .
148

48. Variety of Expression, by Tran sposition

151

49, v'arlct.y of Expression, by Change of \Vords .

155

o().

159 ,

Variety of Expression, by Change of Syntactic Elem ents

In. --:(11¥1ety of E xpression, by Change in Grammatical Properties
52.

165

Rc1mstlng o f Sentences, and V ariety of Sketches ,

168

53. A Comp.rch.e n.slvc Serles of Criticisms on Sentences and-Style
5~. L et ters .
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Ji'lgu:ree.

229

. Figures of Rhctorle

231

IS7, Extended Flgu.rcs , .and Criti cisms on Figures .
IS!j. Invention, In r cgant t o ~ e ntcn cc s

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rs~.

Jnvel)tlon, In r egard to Paragraphs

60.

A.. C.o mprehcnslve Serl es of E xe rcises

244

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277

01. Invention, In .rcga.rd to Compositions .or Books. - D escription

296

6~.

307

Nllrratlon

63. Exposition

; 313
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331
336
67, On ,Selecting a Subject, a nd a Selection
68, Style

pf Subjects

363

366

6~.

Chief Qualities of Style

370

79,

Yerslll.ca tlon a nQ. Poetry

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COMPOSITION,AND RHETO.RIO.:
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LESSON I.

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t. Composition is the art of · finding'· appropriate
thoughts on. a subject, and expressing .th,em in proper
language and order., · ' · ·, · ;. · 11 : i :i i.: iri: · ·. _, , .. < · · '
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The word composition Is also frequ ently app '. led to what is written or p rin~ed.
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2. Com1msition f.may be divided· into.11 descrip,tion, ·
narration, exposition' · persuasion, and letter~writing. 1 : ; 1 .
3, Description gives a picture of ,, an' .object or... n .·
scene by ·telling what it is: :·
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4• .Narration gives . an account of . something ,.by
telling what lmppened,_or was doue. · - · :=<i . 'l : r.' .-; ': 1•: I
5, Exposition implies more reflection than d~~c~i p~
tion, and presents science or general ,truth. ·
: , · .·
ff.!. . J>ersull.Sion seeks to gam . other 'persons to ou~
own "Views and wishes.
r;, Letter-\Vriting is the exchange . of, ,thought
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tween absent persons.
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These kinds of composition are seldom found purely
distinct. ·Usually one kind predominates in the discourse, and others are blended with it. · ·:h ') : ; ~ ; ; ,I!
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8. Language may be divided into · words and sentences.

Qur.., t-lnns. - Whnt le composition ? · Mention the dltferent kinds. w,h11t Is
drscrlptlon? What ls nnrr:1tlon? Wllnt ls exposition? 'Vhnt Is persuasion?
'Vhnt Is letter· writing? \Vhen we say that a piece of composition Is a narrative,
do we men'.• thnt there cnn be no description In it? ' Into what mny langua.i?e be
divided? 'Vhat is said of words?..,.- of sentences? ! ~~a t d?es ~h,~ "'.~.ic wach?

\V ords consist of letters, and denote ideas.
Sentences consist of words, and denote thoughts.
Description. - "He is a tall and slim man, slightly
freckled, and probably not more than twenty-five years of
age; ~ith light, curly hair, gray .eyes, and red mustaches."
· Narration. - "He stole the horse from the stable about
midnight, crossed the river at the nearest ferry, soltl him
· the next day, and tried to make .his escape, but was captured."
Exposition. - "Man is wonderfully made, and he has
been styled the lord of creation. 'l'hough endowed with
faculties that admit of the highest culture, and enable him
to see the truth in almost ·every thing, he is still as frequently governed by his passions and prejudices as by his
intellect."
, '· Persuasion. - "You are surrounded on .· all sides : you
can not escape secretly. Your own lives, the lives ·of. your
families, and the welfare of your country, hang on the issue
of the hour. Then turn about, and fight with th~ valor of
heroes .resolved to be free."
Letter.Writing. 8pringfiel,d, June 1, ,18?!1·
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(pear Frank, We are to 'have a grand picnic next 'Thursday at .Jvfaple
Grove;· ne;,r Silver Spring. ' ]Yearly all the 'bo~s . and girls qf
our school are going, and we shall feel much disappointed
if ~~ dO .not find you there. You must th~refore cbmJ without fail, and bring your Sister ~ary with yoti.
Your fri en·c!;
. Henry ]VeZson.

9. Rhetoric teaches how to speak or write promptly,
elegantly, and effectively.

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LESSON . II.
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t. The first word of every sentence .should .begill
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with n capital letter.
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2. 'l'he first word of every direct '. quotation '. should

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begin with n capital letter.
a. The first word of every line · of poetry should
begin with a capital letter.
4. The words I and 0 should be capitals.
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Ex. 1. - "Learning mnkes a man a flt companion fo~ himself."
2. He said, "J(nowledge is power." ' She answered, ·" Yes." ' · •
3. "Can storied urn or animated bust ; · · .: : · ; , ,
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath 1 ...
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust;
Or Flattery ~oothe the dull, cold ear of death 1" :. · 1 "
4. "0 my son Absalom; my son, my son Absalom I. ..W:-oµ.,ld God I
. had died for· thee, 0 Absalom, my son, my son!.;' ,; ,;,; .. ·i i ·' . .,.,., ·1·,··•

AI>eI'iod. (.) should be placed ··after ' every sentence
that is not in terrcigative or exclamatory.
Also after a word or phrase com,plete by itself; and after an abbreviation.

An Iutefl'oga.tion-Point (?) should be placed after
every direct question.
For.Illustrations, see the examples above.

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An Exclama~ion-Point (t) ·should · be .: pl~ced; ..after
every sentence or shorter expressio1) that.denot.es,great
surprise or other emotion.
; , , ; : ·i. ; , , · ,. · .:
Heiice it Is generally placed after Interjections ,or unnsually earne~t addressee.

«tuota.tion-i'tlarl\S (" ") a~e us~d · to ' -in close .W~fds
·taken as the exact language of another person. · 1 ·
"Sin_gle quotation-marks inclose 'a quotation within a.quotation.'" .
The cnpltal letter, beginning a quotation, may sometimes sufficiently .dlsUugulsh It without needing quotation-marks; as In the Bible,
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Copy, correct, and punctuate t!te following sentencea: -

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

it is never too late to uo goou
o, iiow i see what you mean
did you go yesterday to see that battle-field
oh what a scene of woe and horror it was
'his motto is, "live, and let live'~ He replied, "never"
what take my money, and my life too
Sweet biru ! thy bower is ever green,
thy sky is ever clear ;
thou hast no sorrow in thy song,
no winter in thy year
8. The servant returned where is Miss Jones asked. Mrs
•Jones, impatiently go, Betty, and knock again Betty
returned, and knocked again : but no one answering, she
opened the door; a.nu, lo there sat Miss Jones, before her
mirror, stone dead.
Q1t1111tl.on.s. - 'With what kind of letter should every 11cntencc begin? every direct quotation?-; every line of poetry? llow should J nnd ~be written?
What point ls generally used to show the end of a sentence? When should the
interrogation· point be used ? When should the exclamation-point be used?· For
· what B:1"~ . the q:ao~t.lon·mork.s use.d ?
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LESSON III.
J •

t. A Subject is a word or expression denoting . that

•

of which . something is predicated. .
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· · · 2, The Predica.te is the word or expression denoting
what is said of the subject.
•
3, A 1•ro1,osltlon is a subject combined with its
'predicate. ' 1 '
Ex.· :.:.:,'~ rtome I ~as an ocean of Bame." Rome is the subject;· was
an ocean of flame is the predicate; and the entire statement is a proposition and sentence.

4-. A Pl1rase is two or more words rightly put' together, Lint Hot making a proposition~
...
5, A Clause is a proposition that makes but a 'part
of a sentence.
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6. A Sentence _is , a thoug~1t expressed by a pr<:>po, sition, or a · ullion of propositions, 'followed' by a'_'full
·'
pause.
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Phrase: "Begins to flatter me.".
Clause: "Whenever any one begins to flatter me."
Sentence : "Whenever nny one begins to flatter me, I I instantly think of the fox I that praised the s\nging Qf t~e crnw I ~Cl\"se she
had something I which he wanted.
All discourse can be resolved in,to s.entC?tc~.
All sentences can be resolve<l into propositions, ·'
All propositions can be resolved into phmses and W.O.'>'(/.$.
All words can be resolved into syllables a~d letters, ·
A syllable is a letter, w "- \l.Dio.n of letters..
· ;1
A w01·d .is a syllable, or a union of syl~ables,
, . ..
A sentence is a proposition, or a union of propositiqus.
A discourse, OJ; composition, is a union of sentences~ ·,
T el.l whether a pJirase, a clause, or a sentence, and why ; make ;, oorrip/f!fe
sentence !fa phra$ie QI' a clause; analyze the sent1mc~ inta clauses, su4Je~,
'and predicates ; ~
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1.
2.
3.
4,
5.
0.
7.
8.
9,

10.

A :river and a mountain are good

nel~hho:rs,

The :flelqs, on the return of spring, • •
Lead is many/tjmes as.heavy as, ,.- ·.: .. , · . · .. · ",
What 'is w'ell .begun, is half done; :,.,. . . p· .· 1[ 1i' :· · .:: ':
The discoverJ of America, by Columbus; : ,· i . '
Uneasy lies the head that wears :a ,crown. ,· 1 1
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The long droughts .which sometimes occul'.in th{). West.
The idol of to-day supplants the hero of yeste~ay. ·
l{aving .heard of your arrival.
·· ·
It is a curious fact, that selfish people~

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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
there
17.
18.

The class to which I belong consists of twelve pupils.
To succeed in our undertakings.
That all men should think alike on all subjects.
Many people are caught while they try to catch others.
When the sun rises.
It burst, it fell; and, lo ! a skeleton, with here and
a pearl.
The river having risen much during the night.
She was no beauty; yet when "made up" ready
For company, 'twas quite another lady.

of the following words into a sentence : 1. Flower, beautiful, rose. Spring, return, swallows.
2. River, deep. Day, clear. Cars, rapidly.
3. Dog, rabbit, caught. Trees, hollow, squirrels.
4. Fields, were covered, ripening grain.
6. The lazy, assistance, unworthy.
6. Street, this morning, people, well dressed, many.
7. Day serene, night, cloudy, thunder, in the distance.
s~ .Snow,. earth, winter, robe, white, beautiful.
9. Youth, away, soon. Hung, clouds, white, over us.
10. Excellence, no, labor, great, without.
11. Never, lesson, knows, too lazy, study.
12. Anger, pride, unwise,
Catches, never, vinegar, flies.
Change each set

Change into comparative sentences:....:..

1. Iron, gold, useful ; gold, iron, precious.
2. Chalk, snow, white. River, no, ocean, deep. / ·
3. Indians, children, frightened, looks savage, n01se
hideous, fainted, almost.
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' ' · · !}ue~tlons. - What Is tho subject of n sentence? What is the prl)dlcnte?
\Vhat ls a propo8ition? Wh.a t Is a phrase? - a clause?- a sentence? Into
what can nll discourse be r esolved?- nil s entences?- nil propositions?- nil
words? Of whnt must n syllable consist? - a word?- n sentence?-: a dis·
course or composition ?

Write four sentences about the Hp.rse; ·
Mon EL. - The horse is a large, noble, .and beautiful nnimnl. Uc is
found in most parts of the world, and is very serviceable to man; be."
ing used for riding, for plowing, and for drawing nil kinds of vehi·
cles. On some of our Wes tern prairies are · found large herds of wild
horses, which can seldom be caught nnd tamed. I do not blame them
for preferring liberty to bondage; because. many horse~, especially in
cities, are starved and workeQ. to death.
•. ' :

vV rite four .sentences
about
.
.

Houses.

vV rite four sentences about a B1·ook.
vV rite four sentences about the Sun.
"Write four sentences .about Sprir,ig.
vVrite four sentences about Winter.
l,•;

LESSON IV.'

·'·'

•, i

1. The Subject of a sentence denotes a person or a
thing.
;·
. , ,;
..' !'
2. The subject answers to the question, ·W/w i or
1
Wltat ?
·1 · '
·' · :1 .. • ;
a. Th e subject may be~ noun or pronoun . .-i' : .': !
4. 'l'he suqject may be au infinitive phrase. ''
5. The subject may be a clause.
6. The subject may consist of · a noun . or pronoun
and adjective modifiers.
!
i'
i;, These 'modifiers -consist or1 words,·: phrases, ' and
clauses ; and 1 they answer to the questions, ,·Wliich?
How many? / Of wltat :kind? , · ;.." ,. 1 .·~ , .
' •
1
8. When the .subject comprises -more .words than
one, the chief word is called the subject-nominative .
9. The subject is compoq.nd ! ·when . it has ' two or
more nominatives to the same verb. · ·· · · · ; · ,1

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1. "John came." (Who came1) "Gold never rusts." (What?)
3. "Jame.~ has written to me. Ile says he is sick."
4. "To think al,ways accuratdy, is a great accomplishment."
5. " That the earth is 1·ound, is now well known ."
6. " The I tall I OAK, I full of acorns, I which sta11ds near the barn, was
· struck by lightning."
9. ."Days, 11w11ths, years, and ages I shall circle away."

Write subjects to the following predicates : -

1. . .. plays. . . . play. . . . rests. . .. rest.
2. . .. is sick. ... are sick. . . . was sick. ... were sick.
3. . . . has been sold. . .. have been sold. . .. may die.
4.... art guilty. . .. might have returned sooner.
5 .... neighs. . .. lows. . .. cackles. . .. soars and sings.
G. • •• is a good scholar. . .. does not soil her book.
7.... is not apt to learn much. . .. took us to the city.
8. . .. is on the left-hand side of the street.
9. . .. are very useful on a farm. . .. cause much trouble.
10. " .. distinguish the city from the country.
11. There is . . . There are . . .
.,, , 12. There w~s . . . There were ; , .
13. There has been . . . There have been ...
14. Did ... call for me ? , b there not , •. at the, door?

7. By what means •.. is now obvious. ··
8. Shall' ... is the question to be decided.
Write a sentence on · each of the following objects, or a sentence
the word is used as the subject or the subject~nominative: -;--

1. Violet.
2. Lily.
3. Moon.

4. Town.
: 7. Bonnet.
5. Stars.
8. Coach.
G. Potatoes. 9. Mouse.

lVrite a subject to each
plete : -:

1. Plow.

of the foll.owing

:in ·which

10. Geese.
11. · Prairie.
12. Toys.'

1

verbs, and make the sentence 'com' : .r

7. Build. : .. ,, 10. ,Run . . .
8. Sell. .
11. W ri.te.
9 .. Buy..
12. Play.

4. Teach.
5. Learn, .
6. Invite~

2, .Plant.
3. Reap.

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Questions. - What does the subject of a sentence denote? To what
question docs It answer? "\Vbat may the subject of a sentence be? Of ·what
does It most frequently consist? Modifiers of nouns and pronouns answer to
what questions? What ' le meant by.s11,bject·nominative 1 W:ben le the subjeci
compound?
,.

'1'1

LESSON V.
' '

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t,· The I>redicate usually affirms

\

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an

act or state'

of

• t.
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t Iie su b~ec
, · · 'I ·
·· ·
·' -i . •• I·
2. The predicate, or its cliief p~rt, a~s.wers , to ,the

Complete the infinitive phrases used as subjects : -

1. To ... is unpleasant work.

;to

2 . .To ... is an exciting amusement.
3. To ... would be folly. ·
i. ~. , .,4., :To .... are the duties of all.

question, Is. what'?. ;IJoes wliat.J or,. l[a8 what done
it? ,
'!
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w~
3. The predicate may be a verb, or.a verb with .· its
auxiliaries. · .
" ·-· , · , ' : 1 :, ;
4. 'l,he predicate may consist of a .verli and adverb~al
modifiers.
_ ' :_1 · •.. · ,
o•. 'l'hese modifiers consi~t . of words, . phrases, . and
clauses; and most of them .answer · to the . question,
W !tat? When? W!tere? How ? or W!ty?
'· ·
I

Complete 'the clauses used as subjects: -

I

1. 'l'hat ... can not be denied.
2. vVhy ... has never been ascertained.
3. vVhen ... is still a mystery.
4.·· Whether ... will depend on yourself.
5. How ... was then explained.

//

G. Who ... is of · no ·concern· to me.1· :

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-

--

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--

- -

-

-

-

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17

6. vVhen the predicate consists of more words than
of a verb, the verb is called the predicate-verb.
';, The predicate is compouuu when it has. two or
more predicate-verbs belonging to the same subject.

rVrite sentences, using one or more of the following verbs in each:-..

1. "The storm roars." "The tree was plnnted, and is green."
3. "The wind blows." "The tree might have bee11 PLANTED."
4~ "He 111•1,ow1m I his field I wcll I lnst fall, I fx:fore c111.11 s11ow fell."
7. 11 Hope I soothes our sorrows, nnd stimulate.~ our cxc_rtions;"

7.

Obey. · · · 10; Fly.
' "
8. Deserve. ·. 11. ·Defend: :
9. Escape. " 12. Recommend,

4. Swim.
5. Walk.
6. Answer.

1. Skate.
2. ltead.
3. Ask.

Qiiestfonif. - Wlmt does the predlonte usually denote? To what questions
docs It unswei' w!th reference to the subject? \Vhat may the predicate be? Of
whnt docs tho prcdlcnto more frequently :con11lst? · 1'o what queetlo1111 do most
of these modifiers unswcr? What ls meant_h)'. pr;e~tcate-:ver~ 1 ~~en ,ls thu
predlca~ compound~

Write predicates to the following subje,cts, or complete the sentences: -

1. The horse . . . The horses . . . The ox . . . The
oxen . . . 'rhe army ...
2. The sheep . . . James . . • Alice and Mary ..•
3. Good boys . . . Mr. Bradley, the teacher of music, ...
4. A revenue of ten thousand dollars .. .
5. Ten thousand dollars of revehue .. .·
6. The melons, sent to town yesterday, ...
7. 'rhe wheat and corn. . . The wheat, but not the
corn, . . . The wheat or the corn ...
8. The wheat and corn along the road which we traveled yesterday ...
9. 'fo clear land in a densely-wooded country, ...
, 10. ·Where the man was born, m1<l. how ho was i·eared, ...
11. It ... that he . . . It . ~ . that honesty ... .·.
12. The man who . . . The goods which . . . . , , . .
13. He and I . . . He, as well as I, . . . Either he or I . .•
14. Neither he nor I . . . He, not I, ... · I, not he, .. .
15. You or he... He or they... Thou... Ye .. .
i6. · Every man and woman ...
17. Every man's life and property ...
Write a series of sentences on each of the following · predicates, changing it
as ma11y ways as possible: -

1. . .. is beautiful. 2. . .. is going home. 3. . .. eats
grass. 4. . ., . is good. 5. . .. captured Quebec. 6. . ~ • is
a useful animal.

LESSON VI.

"'

I.

Contract the follo'wing sentences, in subject or predicate, so that what;is re,~~ntences , w.hen _
contract:
ed:" :
,
,

peated may be used but once ; a,lso analyze the
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1. Rain refreshes the flowers, and dew refreshes the
flowers. (Rain and dew refresh the flowers.)
2. Rain moistens the ground, ·and rain . makes , the vegetation grow. (Rain moistens the ground, and makes the
1
vegetation grow.) · ·· .i ,, 1 •
"' •
,
.,
1.
::
· 3. Alice reads ;· 'AliM writes; , Alice ciphers. ,, 1,, . i 'i
. 4. Tempera~ce , promotes · ~ealth_ ; 'exercise p~om?.tes
health.
':· . .·
v. The little vapey was lonely; - ~h_e . , li~t~~ , va~ey : 'fas
.
..
lovely.
,, " 1 ·
·.
,
,
:
r.
· . 6. William ~as gone into t11:e country; · ~ufus h~s gone
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·/ q
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into the country. , .
· ' · ·
.- · ' · :
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7. Henry has returned from the city; . his father has returned from the. City. " <· .; " " · •"' 'Iii; · · ' · · ·: : ., ._
8. A gentleman can be accommodated ·with ' board;' a
lady can be accommodated with board._. •:ri,.
·: ·'
9. Cotton · grows · in the southern: .part of the· United
States ; rice grows in the southern part of the United.
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18
States ; figs grow in the southem part of the United States;
orai1gcs grow in the south cm imrt of the U nitcJ States.
10: In Cowper's "Task," many passages are delicate,
many passages are sublime,- many passages are beautiful, many passages are tender, many passages are sweet,
and many passages are satirical. (Repeat many.)
11. Moderate and judicious Jnbor promotes health ; moderate and judicious labor develops the body ; moderate and
judicious labor strengthens the mind; moderate and judicious labor supplies us with comforts; moderate and judicious labor supplies us with luxuries.
12. The person who. protected us, .who fed us, and who
guided us, was au old man, and a decrepit man.
· 13. The lands. which my ancestors once owned, and
which they long enjoyed, have all been sold to the neighbors,
or ; rented to the ueighbors.
;
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. · There is a small class of words called pronouns, 'which
can often be elegantly used in stead of repeating . the nouns
already used, or to denote or recall persons or things without
mentioning them by name. These words are, -

I, my; mine, myself, me; we, our; ours, ourselves; us.
You, your, yours, yourself, yourselves. .
·'
·
Thou, thy, thine, thyself, thee, ye. '
:'
He, his, him, himself; she, her, hers, herself; ·it,
its~ itself; they, their, their~, them, them~el ves. · ·. . .. ,
Whp, whoise, .whom; whoever, whosoeyer, whomsoever; which, whichever; whichsoever; ,what, wh~~
ever, :whatsoever; that ; as.
One, one's, ones, ones' ; other, other's, others, others' ; this, these ; .that, those ; some ; none ; and a
few others.

In the following sente11ces, substitute and supply suitable pronouns:~

1. John has learned John's lesson. · . .

·

.;.;

2. Mary has torn Mary's book. .
'·
3. ·The apple lay under the apple's tree.
· ·
4. The apples lay under the apples' tree.
5. Thomas has come home; an<l 'l'homas is well. · ·
6. 'l'he gun was brought; ·but tho gun was not loaded. • ,
7. Laura was disobedient; the~fore Laura's teacher pun..
ished Laura. ·
' ·
· · "
' _; · .
· 8. Julia will buy you · a basket, if Julia can ·buy· the
basket cheap.
· ' · ·: . . .
.. ·9. Samuel and William went to meet Samuel and William's father; but Samuel and William did not meet i Sam:..
uel and William's father, for
Samuel and ·William's
father
·
r
t
came home another.-way. · " .. .·
r. .' ;-~; , ,· · 1 .. • • • •,. ,.,;
10. John and I must start early, or John and I shall ho
too late.
11. You and Mary must study more diligently, if you
and Mary would exceV _'.' '. ·' (' " "~ 1
· ·
12. The boy's friends acted calmly and wisely, and the
boy was successful.
'• ' ~ ·
' ·u • ·" · ·,· ·
: _; I
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13. Mary may ha~~ the doll ; but ... w~~t the sled.
14. I will take this book, and ... maJ/ take th~ .. .
15. Ellen likes : ·.f : 'book, because ... ca~; ~ead in .. .
16. The boy h~d an apple, and ... gave :;; ;) : t~ ~ .. sister.
17.: The· boy had 1an ,apple, • ~ .· ·.•• gave to "' ·· sister;.('
1K Our miseries a're often the result· 6f; ·.·; own follies: i-i
19. We are ofte~ disconte~ted with :,·. ." ~: ·. '. have',· and
seek. ;,.: 1 •• ~can · not 'get. , · ~ ··. ·.
.; ! '• · :.. / / - •.·f, :'~i
. '
20. I will take 1 these tools with .. ·.;.and .- ·; . ·may bring .
the . . .
' · ,~ · : · I I ·
.·., 21. Make yourself a sheep, and the wolves' will eati'/ ..
22. 'l'he boy ... _is studious will be loved by: .. ·teacher..
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23. The grave with ... mol<lerccl. dust, the tears .. have
been shed over ... , and the mourners ... wept ... , have
long ago been forgotten.
24. If we are industrious and virtuous, ... shall receive
••• reward.
25. Our father, . . . came homo yesterday, brought with
... the beautiful coral .. : you see ; and ... said ... found ...
on tho coast of Floricl.a. •
26. rrlie surly old farmer regardecl. the blackbirds as
great thieves. . . , sowed, and . . . reaped. . .. scolded, and
•.. twittered. • .. drove ... away from ... fields ; but ...
soon came back, also eating, however, the worms ... would
have injured ... crop.
Questions. -Mention the series of pronouns that begins with !;-with
thou; -with you;...:.. with he; - with who. Mention some of the remaining

pronoun11.

'

LESSON

Write five sentences about Sunlight.
Moonlight.
Starlight.
Gas-light

'I

VII.

·write six sentences about where and how they live.

vV rite five sentences about their songs or cries. ·
vV rite four sentences about their nests: ··
Write six sentences abbut their eggs. , ·
write eight sentences about their flesh, or any other use
that is made of them. ··
•·· · \ ·
-' ,; ·
'
Can:you write any thing more about them?
Bees. - What kind of ·creatures ·are · they? What can
you say of their varieties? ·How and ·where do they' live?
How do they employ · themselves? How do they defend
themselves? Can you mention any thing else about them
that is remarkable ? How are they regarded :by mankind,
-·-favorably, or unfavorably?
' · . ' .·
· : ~ '·.~ ;;
Ants. -Insects, and why. Many varieties. What
. kinds liave you seen?. So numerous ill southern · climates
as to be a nuisance. : Less numerous in noi·thern climates.
··· :
.Severe winters destructive to all insecits. ;·
On what . do they live.? Remarkable for industry and
good management . . tW hat does Solomon say about them? ·
Great strength. · If a horse were as strong in proportion,
.
could he carry or drag an elephant f ·
· ·
··
BuilJ cities. . Easily enraged whe:µ : disturbed . . . Tpeir
means of, defense. Care for their ~ggs> . ' .. ' ' .
·"
White ant the .most remarkable. · B~longs to .tropical
climates. Builds palaces twenty-five stories high, and cov~
ering a considerable part of an acre. · If w.e should.· build
our chief edifices as large in proportion, how large · would
they probabl/be .?
. · .. ~ ': .. -.i . · " 1. • •.. ·' : ·,· .
}

Candle-light. ; ,
Colors.
. Fire.
Darkness. ·

Now, can you take what you have written, beginning with what'. you
have said about Darkness, and make a smooth, sensible .c omposition of .
the whole, on the subject of Light f .
, .',

Birds. - Write four sentences, telling .what birds are,
and how they differ from other animals: .
Write four sentences about the variety of birds.
Write eight sentences about their plumage or feathers,
and their wings and tail.

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..fl~:

.,

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Devdop the following ~~~jects in like, manner; or writ~ composit1'.o?s on
t!1e followi11g subjects, similar to those which you li<zve written 011 the fo~egping
1
subjects:· .... .
.. .
:
• _., _·.-,
, ; • . " ; : : ' . ' . -· •.

1. vVasps. .

2. Flies. . ' 3 .. Bugs. . . 4. · Spiders~'.'
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The most lnelg-nlflcant creature In the world Is still so formed, and BO pro vided for, by the Creator, that something of Interest can be said about It. For
Instance, what a beautifu l obBer vatlon on the life of Insects has a certain writer
made In the following extract 1-

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" I nsects generally must lead a truly jovial life. Think
. what .it must be to lodge in a lily. Imagine a palace of
ivory and pearl, with pillars of silver and capitals of gold,
an<l exhaling such a perfume as never arose from h uman
,censer. Fancy, again, the fun of tuckiug one's self up for
.the night in the folds of a rose, rocked to sleep by the gen1tle sighs of the summer air; with nothing to <lo when you
wake but to wash yourself in a dew-drop, and fall to eating
your bed-clothes. "
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\Vhales. - ·what are they, as compared with other ani-

mals? vVhere are they found? "What are tho usual sizo
and color? Describe the tail, and any thi~g else that is
peculiar. How do whales support themselves? How are
they captured? Tell where whalebone is fo und. Of what
use is it to t he animal and to us? Mention the kinds of
blubber, and tell where found. Of what use to the animal
and to us?
JVrite a similar composition about -

~.

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--:...
/

1. Seals. 2. Trouts. 3. Minnows. 4. The Perch. 5.
The Cat-fish . 6. The Lobster. 7. The Mackerel.
Dread. -. Name the different kinds. Made of what
kin~s of flour? vVhat other materials are used for bread ? ·
By .what means and in what ways is Lread made light?
vVr1te ~ut the process of bread-making. ·what can you say
of the Importance of bread? vV rite four quotatiom1, each
containing the word bread. \Vhat can you say of breadfruit? I

Clothing. - Kinds of.
For comfort and ornament.
Clothing in colJ climates. In warm climates. Iu early
times and in the savage state. In cities. In the dif-

feren t stages of civilization ftnd among :different nati,ons.
Made of what materials? . Persons . .employed in rnak:iug.
Means ,a nd rn11chin~ry used iii. making.
Dress.
1
Cleanliness and taste. . Bright colors . are m.ouopolized by
ladiel'!; while . ~-~.~b~r· ~~lo1;s . pre~ail., _jn men'.s apparel.
Fashiori. Extra:vagance. . ~n .what kin.d o( .dress 1 ~houl~
• 1 · . ; ' : , ·, • • : .
.yo u . mos~ like, to appear?.; . . ,1
· ~ Clns~ee ehould be ' drlllccl dnlly, nt lenst thlrty,mlnutes, In composition.
For this pu r pose, nt the close of each exercise, t~e subject for the next day shout~
be written on the b lackboard; nnd under It the teacher shou ld write such 1111'\lysls ns he· may deem best. For example: · TREES . ..,-1. Kinds. 2. Local-ities.
3. ]'arts . 4. Uses . 5. Changes_ through the se.a sons of the year. The pupil~
'should then be 'required to think about the subject with reference lo these points,
·until the time for composition. They will thus have time for ~tudy and Inquiry;
and, what ls worth more than all thdr performances, they will gradually acquire
atrong habits of r~ flectlon and observa~lon .
·
·
·
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L ESSON

. V II ~ •

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We have probably aqvanced sufficiently far into t.his book,
.especially when WO consider the last Lesson, to show. the
teacher how barren the minds of most children. naturally
are, and how .little of originality !s in therr1: except original
ignorance . . Young compose_rs frequently 1need the help of
their teacher ; and h~ will generally find familiar conyers~­
tion with them, or instructive object-lesso.ns, one.of the best
. modes of assisti1~g .,them: . . Indeed, the art of compo~~tion,
in schools,. should probably be based on judicious and pithy
object-lessons, giv~n in connection with the _daily spelling
and reading lessons. The first· great . aim. of education
shoulJ be, to ·cultivate the perceptive powe1·s; anJ perhaps
the greatest men in th~ w,o rld owe their pre-eminenc~; in
the first place, to their superior habits of obiervation .. and
reflection.

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When engaged in their plays, with one another, children
are sufficiently glib and acute; but, when they have to face
some grown-up person placed in authority over them, they
are apt 'to be overwhelmed with embarrassment and timidity.
Teachers in primary schools, or in schools where there is a
class of little ones, must first overcome the timidity of ~hil. dren, and make them feel that writing is nothing but talking
on paper. Conversation, not too much conducted in the
fo:tmal way of question and answer, but rather so as to bring
out the thoughts of the little folks by allowing them their
own forms of expression, yet keeping them to tho subject,
may be very useful. Let them name some of the objects
in the school-room, the parlor, the kitchen, or a landscape,
and describe them; such as stove, tongs, book, blackboard,
carpet, tree, river, meadow.
.Children can also be taught orally, when very young, to
avoid all slang and the most common grammatical errors,
if the teacher will devote a short time · each day to such ex. e,rci~es~ A few moments, at the close of an oral or object
lesson, Iriay suffice for this purpose. It is injurious, :how·ever, to print low slang in a school-book, where the cliildren
• '
·are apt to catch it by seeing it too often.
The Gracchi, it is said, were indebted to their mother's
conversation for their correct and elegant speaking. · The
power of conversation remains the same; and it can be
taught by example as thoroughly now as in ancient times. 1
After conversational exercises; give a noun, ot object. word, - as, chair, stove~ 1·oof, star, cloclc, play, water~ fire,
dust, spring, summe1·, umb1·ella, book, city, - and let it go
round the class in a spirited way, each pup~l m·aking a different sentence in which the word is used correctly. ·
· 1. I have a little cLair. 3. Our baby has a high chair.
2. See that chair.
4. vVe have a rocking-chair.

25
The followin,q is an a.dditional list ef topics for conversation; and the
words ca11 also be used for such se11tences as t!te foregoing : -

Money.
Meat.
Clouds.
Spice.
Sun.
Newspapers.
Dollar.
Coal.
·Cent.
Ice.
Watch.
Eggs.
Weather.
Paper.
Glass.
Iron. ·
Houses.
Sugar.
Word.
Flowers .
Coffee.
Salt.
Honey.
Elephant.
Another mode of exercising a class is to write a subject .·
on the blackboard, and let them supply different forms of
· tho same predicate, also a variety of predicates.
The boy walks.
The boy walks.
The boy is walking.
The boy talks.
The boy walked.
The boy reads .
The boy ·w as walking.
·' rhe boy writes .
The boy did walk.
The boy laughs.
The boy may walk.
The boy runs.
The boy could walk.
The boy learns•
Other Verb11. -See, do, stand, fly, flee, sit, set, lie, lay, dance, sing, .
scream, jump, go, drive. (To be embodied in sentences.)
Jrii'" In connection with this exercise, the teacher may 80 present the misused
irregular verbs as to tench the pupils to avoid such errors as, "I seen him."
"He done it."

It may also be well to write a predicate or predicate~verb
on the blackboard, and let the class vary it to suit the different nominative pronouns, I, we, tho_u, you, he, she, they:
as, I see j We see j Thou seest j You see j ~e .sB~ ; · She
sees j They see. .
Another mode of exercising a class is . to gin them a
short sentence, or the germ of a sentence, and let them enlarge it by. the addition of suitable words, phrases, and
clauses.
We walk.
We walk in the garden.
'\Ve walk in the gard!3n to see the flowers.

-.

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'"··,

::-

'~ .

.....
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27

We walk in the garden to see tho flowers, an<l to watch
gr:m<lfather plant cucmnber-see<ls.
We walk in the garden to see the spring flowers and
opening buds; and to watch grandfather while he plants
the little cucumber-seeds, which will soon grow to be large
green vines with yellow blossoms.

••. assembly, without any embarrassment.
"Why, my
Lord Cardinal," . . • . .. preacher, " I knew ... months
ago . . • . .. to have , .. honor; and •.. that time to this
... every morning 'rehearsed . .. sermon before .••
cabbages ... my ... garden; and one great red cabbage,
• • . . .. in the center, I always ... as your Excellency." .

~

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\·

Enl,arge the foll.owing se11tC11ces i11 like manner : -

Rain fell.
They worked.

Soldiers marche<l.

I went.

vVo stu<ly,

The following extracts are more elli:ptfrxd tlia11 th~ preceding 011e ; and the
-blanks may be.filled ortt iii dflferent ways, with careful regard, however, to the
mar~ of p11nctuatio1i: -

1. Robert ... birds, ..• warbled, .•. branch to branch,

LESSON IX.
Supply suitable W<Jrds i11 the foll.owing sentences, so as· to complete t.M
sense: -

1. The flesh of calves is called ... ; of sheep, ... ; and
of hogs, . . . 2.... is brought from China. 3. The .. .
is a beautiful flower, with a bulbous . . . 4. Smiths use .. .
5. Ladies wear. . . 6. Books are made of. . . 7. The
most common flowers are . . . 8. The most cvmmon kinds
of fruit are . . . 9. Rivers generally rise in ... , and flow
into . . . 10. Intemperance . . . 11. I saw the ..• set
yesterday from my ... ; and the scene ... beauty. 12.
In autumn ... leaves ... trees. 13. The savages ... village ... ground; n.nd many a life ... night.
14. 'Vhere breakers ... along the ... , ... cottage
stood;
And far in ... , with sails of ... , a gallant vessel .
15. A preacher. . . . .. country, once preaching ... Cardinal Richelieu, and . . . . . . . . . French nobility, was,
after. ·. . . . . , introduced. . . . .. minister, who told him
. . . . . . . . . . .. pleased . . . . .. discourse; but added,
he .•• surprised • • • • •• country prie:;it • • • • • • • • • • ••

.•• little one ... ground. " Ah ! ... ,". said he, .•. "~eave
.•. neRt ? ... " bird chirped . . .
·
2. A Ii ttlo girl ... , and soon ... grandmother, ... hastily . . . The morning ... , birds were ... ' · an<;!. . . "Child,
why ... ? " " I am .. ~ ".
· ·
Ex. - Little Robert wns watching some birds one day; as · they warbled, and hopped from br~nch to brnnch, when .he saw a little one fall
to the ground. · "Ah I poo·~ little bird," said he, "why did you ieave
the nest 't Now you can 'never get bnck again." · The little bird chirped
' ·
! :1
· · ••
faintly, yet cleatly, - ; .' · · ·.
'

." It Is better to try
· Than never to fly."

, .

And all the way to school the_sweet song rang. in his ears,..:._
I

"It Is better to try
Than never to fly."

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1•

•

•'

The lessons 'vere learned better that day because of tho bird's song;
and now, though little Robert i,~ a great man, and has taken wonderful
flights in literature and art, he remembers well the so~g of the litt~e
robin.
Al@" The teacher may occasionally appoint half the class to make blanks, and
the other half to ftll them out; or he may.Jet some one of the class write a skele·
ton of nn Incident or anecdote on the blackboard; for tho remainder of the class
to fill out. After the exercise, the entire piece should be rend, so as to enable '
the pupils to compare their performances with it, and notice th eir Imperfections.

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LESSON X.

"

Substitutef<.11' tlie words in Italics other words that are shorter, simpler, or
more appropriate : A Ids. -Try, get, better, place, I ~poke , of, I correct, clear, I meaning, plain, I
went, tavern, carriage, I force, use, means, I died, I left, dress, I arc pl eased
with, dear things, from abroad, I fears, I pierced, hearts, I understand, meaning, I

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difference, I quarrel, ended, before I came, I fog, thick, keenest, short dietancc, I
kindness, lived, I believe, requite, I has, life enough, k eep, swee t , I reading,
awakened, train, Rtate, fickleness, wishes, I think, I no ticed, I has, I possesses or
owns, I seized, I censured, I disappeared , I stopped, !doing, Iadvanced, signs, appeared, decided, inspired, accorclingly, show themselves, flying toward, afte r the
manner, sallore, flight, varied, r egion, to which, directed .

1. He was rather precipitate in the a.ffairs which he
t1·ansacted.
Ex. -

He was rather hasty in what he did.

2. I endeav01·ed to obtain a more comfortable situation.
3. He discou1·sed conceming Christ and the church.
4. His language was accumte and perspicuous.
5. The significance of these remarks. was obvious.
6. He proceeded to the hotel in a vehicle.
7. This will necessitate me to apply other measures.
8. He depa1·ted this Z.ife at least two years ago.
9. He departed from, us to complete his toilet for the party.
10. Ladies take pleasure in the expensive commodities imported from distant communities.
11. vVe have no app1·ehensio1ts about his safety.
12. Her complaints would have penetrated the bosoms of
savages.
13. I do not apprehend the import of the passage.
14. There is little disparity between our ages.
15. The altercation had terminated antecedent to niy arrival.
16. The mist was so dense that the most perspicacious
eyes could see but a little way.
17. They have treated us with great benevolence since we
· have 1·esided here.

18. I presume he will recip1·ocate the favor.
19. The poem possesses not sufficient vitality to preserve
it from putrefaction.
·
20. The perusal of this passage excited in me a series of
reflections on the condition of man, and the incessant fluctuation of his desires. ·
Most of the foregoing sentences nre abridged from Dr. Johnson. •

21. I opine that such a law would be unconstitutional.
22. The accident was not taken notice of ,at the time .
23. The advertisement will not be taken notice of in such
a place.
24. She is possessed of an amiable disposition.
25. He is possessed of a large estate.
26. He was taken hold of by a ruffian.
27. vVe were found fault with on account of our economy.
28. One of the ships was soon lost sight of'· · ·
·
29. These things must be put a stop to. ·. · ' ; ·
30. Whatever is worth being done is worth being d~ne well. ·
0

The following is an elegant paragraph; you may, however, change the
words and phrases which are printe,d in Italics: -

" As they proceeded, the indications of approaching land
seemed to be more certain, and excited hope in proportion.
The birds began to appear in flocks, making jor the southwest. Columbus, in imitation of the Portuguese navigators, who had been guided in several of their discoveries by
the 1notion of birds, altered his course t from due west
toward that qua1·ter whither they pointed their flight." n ·
The following paragrap~ is remarkably elegant i11 the choice ef its wards;
therefore change any

ef them, and notice the bad effect : -

"By the prodigious light of the conflagration, the situa-:
tion of the two fleets could be clearly seen. About ·ten
o'clock 'The Orient' blew up, with a shock felt to the -bottom of every vessel. The greater part of the crew had stood
the danger to the last, continuing to fire from the lower

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deck. The tremendous explosion was followed by a silence
not less awful: for the firing ceased on both sides; and the
first sound that broke the silence was the dash of her shattered masts, from the vast hight to which they had been
exploded.· No incident in war, produced by human means,
ever equaled in sublimity this instantaneous pause." SouTHEY's Life of Nelson.

2. The teacher may present words that are not r~lnted, yet require tltem to
be embodied in a continuous narrative; as the followmg:-:-.

1¥Ji'-According to the genernl tenor o( t110 foregoing Leeson, classes should
be drilled on passages In their daily rending-lessons. They wlll thus soon en·
· rich their minds with power, delicacy, and facility of expression.

LESSON XI.
Write a series
clauses:-

of se11tences,

and embody in them the followi11g plirases and

1. In the woods. 2. Along the river. 3. The tops of
high mountains. 4. A field of ripe barley. 5. Remain
green all winter. 6; The roses and honeysuckles. 7. A
loaf of bread. 8. He told us that. 9. ·when this country
was discovered. 10. Around the house in which we live.
11. To husk corn. 12. ·while rambling through the woods.
13. The blossoms of the peach-tree. 14. Washington,
the capital of the United States. 15. The weather being
rainy and dismal. 16. Not money, but virtue and talents.
17. Full of novelty and excitement. 18. When snow begins to fall. 19. After the apples were gathered.
~Let this exercise go round the class in such a way that all the sentences
on the same phrase may be different.
--+-

1. The teacher may present words les.~ complete tlia11 tl1e .r1roups on page
12, yet so rel.ated as to .rn_qgest a tltougltt that can be expressed by tltem in one
sentence; as thefollowi11g: -

Bees, summer, busy, flowers, honey, winter.
The bees are very busy in summer, among the flowers; gathering honey fur their winter store.
COMBINED:

Art, temperate, Indian, star~, laugh, hungry, village'.
CollmINED: One morning in winter, an old Indian came to a villa~c.
A deep snow had fallen; but it was so light that .he had to travel with
his enow-shoes in his hands. These shoes were carefully made, and
quite a work of art. He had travelccl all night,° with no guiclc but t.he
stars. Though olcl and hun,qry, he would not take the liq~1or offered lum
by some idle and wicked men, who wanted to mako him .drunk,. that
they might laugh at him and cheat him. He was temperate, mdustnous,
and intelligent.

Write twel.ve sentences, using in eacli as many of tlie following words cu
you can: -

Art.
Much.
Brisk.
Crush.
Twinkle.
Between.
Motion.
Villag~ . .

'remperate.
Swiftly.
Dash.
Arrow.
Club.
Discharged.
Beheld.
Mourned.

Indian.
Departed.
Overtaken.
Struggle.
Storm.
Sunshine~

After.
Lesson.

"

Learn.
Ilut.
Dreadful.
Often.
House.
Returned.
Stars.

Sky.

I.

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LESSON

XII.

We have already recommended conversations between
teacher and pupils, as one of the best ways ~o assist the latter. These conversations, or object-lessons, should not only
be continued but made progressive in depth and co~pass.
/
Every comp~sition is but a synthesis based on a preceding
analysis. The teacher should there~ore en<lcav~r to analyze
subjects according to the few grand 1<lcas to whwh the. gr~at
mass of thoughts in all literature can be referred, a~~ wh,1ch
will guide the iearner into the mysteries of compos1t10n.

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5. Predicate each of the following verbs, qf a suitahle subject ; and then
add circumstances of TIME, PLACE, MANNER, and DKGREE

1. Conversation about the v ARIETIES and USES : -

=-.

Ears, eyes, feet, stoves, knives, chairs.
2. Co11versation about the VARIETIES and ACTIONS or HABITS: -

People, horses, dogs, squirrels, chickens, insects.
3. Conversatio11 about the PARTS and their USES: -

Man, tree, steamboat, engine, stove, knife.
4. Conversation about the FACTS, CAUSES, and CONSEQUENCES: 5. Conversation about the SIGNS indicating -

vVealth, poverty, anger, drunkenness, love, winter.
6. ,Conversation about the MEANS and PURPOSE : -

Farming, journey, mur<ler, escape, recitation, trial.

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. &""It will be well, nt the close of cnch convcrsntlon, to r equ es t the pupils to
write out, for the next day, what they can remember, or think of, In regard
to tho subject discussed.

The following descriptions may be written out, or given
orally after allowing sufficient time for stu<ly.
1. Describe something made of, or req11 iring in its manufacture, -

Iron.
Gold.
Silver.
· , Copper.

vV ood.
Glass.
Leather.
India-rubber.

Wool.
Cotton.
Silk.
Fur.

Hair.
Paper.
'l'in.
Marble.

2. Describe some object brought from or belonging to a

Farm.
Forest.
Mill.

Store.
Shop.
House.

Garden.
River.
School-house.

Cave.
Mountain.
l3attle-field.

3. Describe some article or object brought from -

England.
France.
·China.

South America. Georgia.
Greenland.
Maine.
Africa.
California.

Lowell.
Manchester.
New Haven.

Attention can thus be drawn to the principal manufacturing places In the
world •
. . 4. Begin as far back as you can, and tdl liow tl1e object lias become ~•hat

at

Ex . -The lnwyer spoke. The lawyer spoke this forenoon. , The lawyer
spoke In the court-house. The lawyer spoke well. · The lawyer spoke so well
that he gained his case.
.
, , ,., :t , ,( .

-+-'-'-

Conflagration, ,extravagance, war, anger, happiness, grief.

fr

Speak, ride, read, dive, eat, sleep.

IS:-

1. A silk dress. 2. A black hat. 3. A cup of coffee.
4. A pudding. 5. A breastpin. G. Your book. 7. Your
overcoat. 8. Your father's house.

To vary tho exercises, the teacher may himself giv,e brief
descriptions, and require the class to name the objects accordingly; or else one pupil may describe something, while
the others listen, and exercise their ingenuity by guessing
the object from the descriptio~. And so from pupil to pupil.
In the schools of Germany, there is a variety of little puzzles nnd
games, which serve to amuse children, fix their attention, and cxer~ise
their inn-enuity in the highest degree. For instance, tho .teacher g1ve!J
such re;;.nrkablo descriptions us these, nn<l requires the class to nnmo
the object : 1. " There is an untiring wanderer, that visits tho · shore of
every country, but explores the interior of none-.- The SEA.". 2. "1:he
world's wash-ha.sin. - Tho SEA." 3. " The pitcher of creation, wl11ch
waters the earth. - The SEA." 1. " A free exhibition, open ·only to
early risers. - SUNRISE.'~ ; 2. " The great eye of the world. Nature's
torch, to illuminate her grand panorama. Hea,·en's painter, ,earth's
reviver and ocean's burnisher. -The SuN.'' "A large silken ba~,
with g~s in one end, and a fool at the oth?~·-- ~ IlALLO.ON." 1. .".:he
fiery pulse of the iron horse. - STEAM.
2. 1 The wmgs of c1v11ization. - STEAM." 3. "The breath of inanimate machines. - STEAM.''
4. " The giant who elfects most when he is most closely confined. STEAM." "A walking newspaper whose leading article is s.candal. A Ilus¥nony." }. "The flower of the plant self-respect, whose fruit
is health. - CLF;ANLH!ESS.'' 2; "The home of ·comfort, and the , comfort of homo. - 'CJ,EANLINEss." " A noted comb-maker. A laborer,
partner, qnd out-door/collector in, an extensive sugar factory. , A stinging reprover of tb9 idle. A self-taught botanist,. whQsO 'jVOr~s co~­
mand a ready sale . .._.}.. BEE." " Why is a boo~ bk~ q green . tfe~ ln
, summer 1 .~llecaµse it is full of leaves.''
·
'
"It b egins every year, and H ends every da11;
It is never !n dcclfae, but alwars iq deca11·- Y.''

Amon•~ the games ls that familiar one called, "What is my Thought
Like 1 " :nd there is also a variety of games relating to rhymes i as, " I
3

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34
.,,....

,. _,

I

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0

~~

(I ...

)

have a word that rhymes with bun. - Is it what many people call great
sport or merriment 1 - No, it is not fun. - Is it something used for
shooting 1 - No, it is not a gun. - Is it a religious woman who lives in
retirement 1 - No, it is not a nun. - Is it the net of moving swiftly on
feet 1 - No, it is not run. - Well, is it that great luminary which
shines by day 1 - Yes, it is the sttn." The one who guessed the question will then say, "I have thought of a word that rhymes with sane.
- Is it a native of Denmark 1-No, it is not a Dane. - Is it that useful article which 0111 gentlemen need, or thli.t famous plant which grows
in southern climates 1 - No, it is not c11nc. - ls it the Christian name
of a girl or woman 1 - No, it is not Jane. - Is it that which sometimes
makes such a pattering on the roof 1 - No, it is not rain. - Is it that object which is placed on the top of spires, and is moved by every wind
that blows 1 - Yes, it is a vane." Tbe game in which u person states
that he is thinking of an interesting ol~ject, nrnl mny then be asked
twenty descriptive questions, if necessary, to compel him to toll what it is,
may also be made entertaining and instructive.

LESSON XIII.

1. Occasionally, the teacher may write a ridiculously awkward ap.d erroneous composition or letter on the blackboard,
and then call in the assistance of his class to correct and
improve it.
He can so adapt these exorcises to the wants of the class, as to. criticise in a pungent yet impersonal way their grossest faults.

2. Sometimes the teacher may write on the blackboard a
subject for a composition; he may then call upon ' the pupils
of the class to help him find suitable thoughts and language
for the composition, and the sentences thus formed should
be first written underneath in detail, and then properly
combined into a composition.
Exercises of this kind will give the teacher an excellent opportunity
to aid his class in taste, lqngu11ge, qnd invention, or to develop their
IJlincls in regarcj. to these particulars.

a.
p~l,

D~scription and narration are not only the two pdncibut the two most interesting, kinqs of composition. It

will therefore be well for the teacher to assist his class, from
time to time, in developing subjects with reference to both
of these kinds of composition.
The foUowing is a specimen : -

Clouds. - Clouds are in the sky, or fl.oat in ' the air, ·
high above our heads. They are carried or driven about
by the wincls. Sometimes they are so numerous and . compact that they shut out the sun completely; anu sometimes
there are so few that they trail their shadows only here _a nd
there, over the green fields and woodlands.
.. .
Clouds are formed of vapor, which rises from the ocean,
and from lakes, rivers, and wet ground. .When the vapor
is near the earth, ancl so clense as to be visible, it is called
fog. On the ocean, fog is sometimes so thick that the
people on deck can not see the surface of the water.
Clouds are generally white, gray, or ?lack. They also
afford most of the rosy and golden colors of sunrise ~nd
sunset. The white clouds contain the least amount of r~m;
and sometimes they rise very high, and look very beautiful,
The clouds which look gray or muddy, generally afford most
rain. and those which look black nre generally attended
with' most wind thunder, ' and lighthing. · . , ·
Clouds often 'pass along unde·r the.blue sky, like £1.oa.~iog
islands· and sometimes they arrange themselves along the
horizon'· in the shape of mountain ridges of wonderful grandeur a~d beauty. . Though often high, they never soar t~ the
summits of the loftiest mountains, but are frequently se.en
· resting, in the for~ of mists, aro~nd thei.r. sides,. Gold~m.1th
has drawn a beautiful expression from this f~ct, Ill describmg
a noble man, who piously brave~ the st~rins of life,-. .
"Like some tall cliff that lifts its awful form, · ·
Swells from the vale, and midway leav~s the storm;
'rhough round its brea~t the rolling "clouds are spread,
Eternal sunshine settles on its head."
·

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Clouds give us rain, hail, nud snow; and thus they moisten the 1and, and keep the springs, brooks, rivers, and Jakes
supplied with water.

Lightning sometimes destroys · trees, persons, and other
creatures. It is not safe, in a thunder-storm, to take shelter
under a tree or other object likely to be struck by lightning.·
When rain is falling only on one side of the heavens,
while the sun is shining on the other, then we see a rainbow one. of the most beautiful objects in nature. It con. 1et,
sists' . of seven bright bands of different colors, - vio
indigo, blue, green, yello\v, orange, and red. The ·Bible
tells us that it was set by God in the sky as a sign to N oa.h
that the world shoul<l never be drowned again.
·
The rainbow genera.Uy indicates the coming of fairer
weather; hence a certain writer has beautifully sa.id, -

Rain makes the plants, grass, grain, flowers, and fruits of

th~ earth grow. Without rain and sun, there could not
exist a bud, leaf, twig, or living creature, on the Janel. Sometimes a rain is general, and lasts several days · but more
frequently it is of but short duration, and then it is called
a shower. In some countries it rains very seldom, and
they generally have what are called deserts.
. Hail is p~oduced when the drops of rain pass through
air .so. cold that they freeze before they reach tlie ground.
Hail is generally injurious. It sometimes knocks off buds
blossoms, or f1~uit, ~estroys grain, and breaks window-pan es'.
. Snow falls m w11.1ter; but in warm or tropical regions, it
~s never seen. It is very light, white, and beautiful; and
it makes a great overcoat, in winter, for the cold regions of
th~ ea.rth. It affords many amusements, among which are
sleighmg and snow-balling.
A little girl who had lived in India, where no snow falls,
when she first saw snow fall in England, ran out, and gath- ·
ered a large' quantity, to put into her trunk, and save it for
her mother to look at, whom she expected to see the next
year.
. A storm is rain, hail, or snow, accompanied with great
wmd, or gusts of wind. People in New England often say
"It st~rms," when they should only say, "It rains." Vio~
~ent rams or storms sometimes cause great damage, by tearmg down trees and houses, beating down the ripening grain,
and producing destructive floods. A thi.mder,sto:rm is sometimes _exceedingly grand and terrific. The entire sky seems
to qmver and crack with lightning, and the whole earth
seems to shake and tremble. Lightning is white briglit
and swift; and long, rumbling thunder usually follows it:

"The brightest rainbows ever play
Above the fountains of our teurs."
This nnturnlly brings tho tonchor to nn lntorosUng nnrrntlvo nbout the Flood.

NARRATION. - I will now tell you something about the
greatest rain and flood that ever were on this earth. Nearly
two thousand years after the worl<l was created, an<l more
than four thousand years ago, the people everywhere became so wicked that Gou resolved to destroy them all with
a great flood. There was, however, one righteous man,
named Noah; and God determined to save him and · his
family. He therefore commanded Noah to build · a hugeship or vessel, called an ark, sufficiently large to contain all
of Noah's family, . and a pair, male and female, of every
kind of the inferior .a nimals. After the ark was completed,
Noah, his family, a~1d the animals went .into it, God 4imself .shutting the door .behind them. , ·, 1 · · , · ,
.,
.• :
. And now it began to rain, and rain, . and rain, for many
days and nights, \vithout ceasing, until the whole earth .be~.
carne a sea of wa.ter. Constantly the water rose, until n9t
only the houses and trees began to disappear beneath its
surface, but until the highest mountains were covered with
water, and every living creature, except 1tbose in the ark,

/.

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39

was drowned. The rain then ceased ; and the water began
to subsi<le as it had risen, until the inhabitants of the ark
could step forth again upon the <lry land. 'I'his great flood
is usually called the Deluge. - Read the first ten chapters
of your Bible.

3. Write a sentence or a paragraph having the letter b
in as many words as possible ; - d j - f j - g j - h j - l j
- m j - n j - p j - q j - 1 · j - . s j - t j - w j - x.

The teacher may, besides, read to liis class, with suitable comments, some appropriate prose description of a storm, Shelley's poem on a cloud, Longfellow's
poem on n summer Rhowcr, nnd ~omc of the bcnuUfnl pocmR on the rnlnbow.
Having thus filled them with tho1tf7hls, la11g1tn.f7e, and method, he may dismiss
them, with the r equest that each pupil urlng, a week h ence. ns good a composition as possible, on c.l ouds, rain, snow, storms, floods, or any thing else connected
with the foregoing subject of investigation.

LESSON

XIV.

1. Write a series of the most expressive words you can
think of, each word beginning with c1• j-with cl j-with
scr j - with bl j - with dr j - with fr j -with st j - with
str j - with fr j - with fl j - with gl j - with gr j with wh j -with tw j - with sw j - with pr j - with spr j
-with pl j-with spl j - with sl j - with sni j -with
sn j -.-with lcn j - with wr j - with th j - with tlir j . with sh j -with shr j-with ch j-with j.
Ex. -Crack, crackle, creak, crlnkle, crook, crn@h, cru~h, crust, crest, crisp,
crave, creep, crnw, crnwl, etc. (The tcnchermny nJso require the pupils to write
sentences, here and there, under the paragraphs of this Leeson, to lllustrate
the proper use of the words .)

2. vVrite a series of the .most expressive words you can
think of, each word ending with lcle j - with gle j - with
tle j-with nr; j-with nlc j - with nip j -with nt / with rt j -with lt j -with rge j - with rl j-with rk j with clc j -with sk j - with st j -with ash j - with 1tsh j
-. - with ll j -with zz j - with rse j - with ze j -with th
or the j - with tch.
Ex.-'.rlnklc, twinkle, sprinkle, sparkle, tickle, chuckle, etc.

Ex. - "Bright bubbling brooks brawled down the bosky bights." "The ex·
ecutioner exhibited his nx with extraordinary coolness."

4. vVhat words c~n you make from t.he letters of the
word strange ? - notice ? - America? -part ? - ·blandis~1,­
rnent ? - circumstances ? - Constantinople? - De~aware ?,
Ex. -STRANGE: Set, rag, range, rant, ran, ten, nest, rest, seat, sang, rang,
nnger, st.nr, great, etc.

Malce ingenious anagrams from the following words : -

Lawyers, auction, democratical, astronomers, soldiers, telegraph, festival, charades, penitentiary, radical reform, Old
England.
Ex . -Lawyers, sly ware; auction, cantion. (An anagram Is n transposition
of tl1e letters of a word, ao as to make a new word or expression.)

5. \Vhat words have nearly the same meaning as think?
- beautiful? - ·useful? -pe1·son ? - little ? - brave? slow ? -· -progress ? - know ? - hold? - hate? - danger?
- leave ? -place ? -finish?
Ex. -THINK; suppose, believe, presume, guess, conjecture, surmise, etc.

6. What is the difference between canal and rive1·? wood and tirnber? - sheaf and bundle ? - /whit and custom ? - niount and mound ? - small and slender? - lazy
and idle ? - large and great ? - delicate and delicious ? famous and notorioits ? -perhaps and probably ?- such
and so ? -fade and wither? - cry and weep ? - lea1·n and
teach ? - hear and listen ? -. expect and hope ? - enlarge
and increase ?-peasant and begga;. ?.-will and shall?
Ex. - A canal is ~ade by man; a river is a natural stream of water. •

7. What is·the difference between vale and vail? - accept and except ? - affect and effect ? - ball(J;d and ballot? ·
- loose and lose ? - council and counsel ? - bust and burst?
-plain and plane?-.- oar and ore? - beer and bier?,-mart·i al and 1narshal ? - write and 1·ite? - pray and prey?

'

')

No

'
/

J N <; I/

,. . •

.

40

41

- bowl and boll? - current and currant? - set and sit? lie and lay ? - fly and flee ? - nietal and niettle ? - rout
and route? -piece and peace ? - drive~ and drover? tail and tale ? - slight and sleight? - stmit and stmight?
--..aitght and ought? -p1·incipal a.nd principle ?-censer
and censor? - capital and capitol? - compliment and complement? - c01n'pact and compact'? - wave and wafoe? creak and c1·eelc ? - desert' and dessert' ? - cord and chord ?
-successful and successive? - pneurnatic and pneumonic?
-physic and physics ?- specie and species?

It was a splendid day. We had a splendid time. She
wore a splendid dress. He delivered a splendid address. ·
vV e hac.l. a splendid c.l.inner. · I have a splendid horse. He
bought a splendid house up town. Oh ! isn't that splendid?

Ex. -A vale Is n valley or glen ; a vail Is a covering for the face.

8. vVhat word is the opposite, in meaning, to good? day? - life? - light? - rnfrth? - fr·iend? -joy? -r.est? - wet? - cold? - cool? - rich ? - r1:ght? - buy?
sink ? - giue? - lend? - f reeze? - laugh? - up ? here? - in ? - yes? - ever? - seldom ?
9. What word is stronger, in meaning, than oppressor?
(Tyrant.) - servant? - ange1·? - pleasUJ·e ? - pain? sadness ?-smile?-bright?-dusky?- rough? -chem·ful? -plea.~ant? - great? - noted? - break? - perforate? - subdue? ·-flow? - push? - glearn? - destroy?
- confuse? - wonder? - breeze ? - shower ?
10. Write ten words of one syllable; - ten of two; ten of three; - ten of four;- ten of five ; - ten of six;
- ten of seven ; - ten of the most common words ; - ten of
the most uncommon ; - ten common words of difficult µiean:ing ;-ten words deeply tinctured with feeling;-ten words
not expressive of feeling; - ten words agreeable in sound ;
- ten wor<ls harsh in sound ; - ten words peculiar to poetry.
11. Substitute a more specific word: A good lecture.
A good place. A good way. A good harvest. A good
trip. A good day for fishing. A good sum of money.
Ex . ....,.." I beard a good lecture." If It was a u.o od lecture, In what respect
was It goPd? Think again. 'Vas it in.~tructive? or entertaining 1 or humor·
ous? or witty? If so, subsmute thl11 worq in place of good, 11s, "I beard 11n
instructive lecture.''

. With some people, every thing Is nice; with others, jlne; and some ftnd all
things the worst or the best they ever saw. There la not a more common or dis· ·
agreeable fault In ~tyle, than the hackneyed or excessive use of particular .words
or expressions. The teacher should occasionally write on the blackboard such a
series of sentences as those given above, both to expose the excessive and rldlc·
ulous u~e of some favorite expression, and also to tench his pupils greater pre·
cislon and variety In their use of words.
·

12. Ascribe the most appropriate or expressive quality or
qualities to the following objects : Children, servant,, wolf,
hog, fox, mule, hare, sun, storm, weather, river, winter.
Ex._ Obedient children; playful children; happy chlidren; innocent cbll·
dren • healthy children; noisy children. - ·
·
. Nouns are often miserably daubed with adjectives. Henry Ward Dcccbe~
says, "The silent sun carries a placid brow t~rougb the unwrinkled heavens.
Now what meaning or force Is there in tmwrinkled, as here used? Is any one
Jikel; to think of the heavens as being wrinkled 1

LESSON

XV.

t. Nouns and verbs are the principal words of language.
2. Subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs are the
''
principal words of sentences.
.
These themselves can make sentences, and to these the other parts attach
themselves.

3, Nouns .take adjectives, and verbs take adverbs. ··
Jiencc adjectives and adverbs ·arc the next most important words; and -

4. rrhe four_~ost important kinds of words arc,
Adjectives, NouNs +VER.BS, A.cl verbs.
0, Nouns are used in several r~lations in sentences.
That Is, as nominative, possessive, objective, appositive, etc.

6. Verbs that have person and number can be
used in one relation only.

I

?c·

-p
,./,I\ ..,,

,,·
-;"""'
.)

(

.

~

...,

42

43

i'. Verbs also can be used in several relations . but
they must .first be deprived of person a11d num b'er or
converte d rnto participles and infinitives.
'

other words and phrases can modify it; but it no longer modifies any
thing but the nominative to which it is tied. To make the verb subordinate, or to Jet it play out into other parts of speech, nn<l assume
other relations, it is necessary to deprive it of person aud number; and
this is done by converting it into a participle or an infinitive; as, "We
like to play." "Roodiug is an art." "I l1m·e an opportunity to
leanJ." "I have recited my 1·eading lesson/' "Having IU!ard of him,
I came to see him." " Ifc sleeps snoring."

t~~ !:n:~~~i::~~s:h:~~!:~~~~a~~~ :~~:~b;er; ca~ry

within them also
of the killing of a man as w~JI as of th .
or instance, I may speak
gu I'
b k"
'
e man; and when I say "Tl e
br;~k1~~ b:~~vl1e:1;~~y11.r; 'i'sTulsedbin tkhefl sense of an adjective c~es~ribin~
'
1e roo • ows gurglin g, " gurg['mg a1so describes the flowiug.

8. A participle or an infinitive is the verb deprived
ofl person and uumber, so that it can partake of
~t ier farts of spe~ch, and be used in other relations
mn t iat of agreerng with a uominative.
9, A predicate-verb agrees with its subiect .
..
son and number.
·
" ' Ill pei.

Every act or state, since It can not exist by Itself must b I
t
son or thing; hence,_
•
c ong o some per-

10, A participle or an infinitive, being a form of
the v~rb, relates to an expressed or indefinite subject .
an? I~ may, besi<les, have the sense of a noun a1:
adjective, an adverb, or a predicate.
' .;

~l~s stat~ment comprises tlrn entire syntax of participles and infinitives
e subject-nominative is the nueleus of ti
.
the ?thcr words cluster in the sense of att1'.~b~1~~:::~\:~o~~d whic~1
~ate ~1s. only the most imp~rtnnt of these, shooting out lnto the ~:e~~~~;~
rng OJ~, and thus becoming also the nucleus for n clump of m d"ti
Log1cally speaking, the s11bj ect-nomin11th·e is the
t . o J ers.
word in ti
l
mos important
.
ie .sentence, iccausc it denotes the object witho t ·I . I
mg else can be . b t
.
u w 11c 1 noth.
. u ' grarumnt1cnlly spcnking, the prcdicnt - ' ·I . I
most important word . for th
I b
.
c vc1 J JS tie

~r 1:::~ho~~n!t~b;~:,:~~~~~v~v~~~d: c::~~rl

tic, it sets 'up that raU:ily
.
a
sentence, of which it is the mistress and in 1 .
suggests the nominative itself. or nliows i"ts awb Heh it not unfrequcntly
Tl I · 1
'
sence.
le 11g icst essence of the verb is person and number
Th
ment the verb is endowed with person and number it . .
e mobccome the basis of 11 proposition, or the chief pn:'t o;1:k:t:t~::~:~

"He
"Ile

TALKS
READS

and SMILES." ·"Ile TALKS rapidly ." "Ile. TALKS smiling."
and WRITES . " "Ile READS for improvement." "Ile READS

to write."

·

Here "talks" and "writes" are co-ordinate, or stand on an equal
footing with reference to the subject. To make one subordinate· to the
other, or to make it modify the other, I must deprive it of person and
number, or convert it into a participle or an infinitive; as, "He TALRS
smiling." "He READS to write." The participles serve for pres~nt ancl
past time; the present infinitive serves for future. Sometimes the
present participle or infinitive merely denotes the act or state, without .
reference to time. ·, The perf~.ct infinitive is used ·so seldom, except as
the complement to a verb, that it is not worth noticing here. ·

·.. --+'. Analyze the following sentences by pointing out the pndicate-verbs a11d
their nominatives ; also pol11t o~t the participles and infinitives, a11d show
whet/1er they are used substantively, adjectively, or adverbialJ..q: ·
0

My history does not•undertake to give a life 'of Columbus. San Salvador was the first land discovered. ·There
are no more continents to discover. The seas to be traversed, the hunger to be endured, and the labors to be performed, appalled even the mariners long accustomed to the
sea. · The student la.boring long to understand a problem, ·
and the soldier puzzled and defeated, both experience the
pains of distraction and conflict. . The next best thing to
laying up knowledge, is to lay it out. The bells ca:me jingling over the snow. Riding on horseback is good exercise.
To escape was almost impossibl e ; and it was .ludicrous to
see him so embarrassed. H ernandez is conjectured to have
been a physician, skilled in physical science, and competent

•

·\

44
ple

Cliange, i11 eaclt
OI" an infinitive.

of tlte following

sentences, one

45
of lite vel"bs into a particiLESSON XVI.

vVhen !1e had sold his house, he invested the money in
merchandise. As we have explained these powers we will
now describe their operation. Columbus was so r~nt with
his clesig~s, that he had in his ears a continual riniing of
great projects. ( ... as to have ... ). They fled because
they had been detected. vV e came that we might see the
procession.
Complete tlte following sentences by supplyln_q parliciple.s and infinitives:.-

•

1. The boys are at home, ... their lessons. . 2. The
st~cam, ... to ... by the rains, spread o\•er the banks ...
~1th wi!lows.. 3. I am glad . . . 4. The night ... dark,
it was impossible . . . 5. I observed him ... clown even
the little wild flowers. 6. ... from home and all its pleasures, ... ancl ... by cruel public opinion, he became a maniac. 7. Jesus caused the deaf ... , the dumb ... , the blind
· · ·,and even the dead ... from the grave. 8. Mohammed
promised ... his followers, by . . them into a voluptuous
paradise. 9. Cresar, ... the Gauls,. attacked the Britons.
10. It is time for you ... some profession for life. 11. · ...
by continual ... , he at last died, ... by all. 12. There are
two points
13. I do not like . . . him
14. Respect is often lost• b"
the
means
1't
1r:
Le.t
J
' • •
• • '
•
every
one resolve ... right now, ... then ... as it can. 16....
soldiers of citizens is not the work of a day. 17.... d anger boldly is better than ... it.
Vo

Malce one list of all the nouns, another of all the verbs (including participles and infinitives), another of all tlte adjectives, and another of all the adverbs, in the following sentence.s: -

Fortune and fashion rule the world.
Iluy luxuries, and you will have to ·sell necessar~es.
It is better to think wisely than.to speak eloquently.
Experience keeps a dear school ; . b~t fools will · le~rn m
no. other.
,
· ·.
· In that delightful season of the year when the ·serenity
~f the sky, .the various fruits which cover the ground, the
discolored foliage of the trees, and all the sweet but fading
graces of aut~m·n open the mincl ·to benevolence, ·~nd ·dispose it for contemplation, I was' wander~ng ii;i a beautiful.
~nd romantic country, till curiosity gave way to weariness;
and I sat down on the fragment of a stone' overgrown with
the leave• s; the dashing of •wamoss,
where the• rustling of
.1·11 .
'
,ters, and the hum of the distant city, soothed my mind mto
:u~.e . m~st pe~fect tranq~illity,, and sleep insens.lbly stol~ upon
. me as I was indulging the agreeable reverie~ which ' the
1
objects arom~d f!le n~turally i~spired.
.
. ' . • ·.-;·.· .. ;
The heart, iike a tendril, accustomed to clmg, · .
;,
1
Let it go' wl~ere it will, . can hot ·flourish alone~ ., ''
!
f
/'
But will
lean to the nearest and loveliest thing
J
It cari twine with itself, and make closely its own:
0

1

I

I

I'

'

·!

-

f

I

•

j

..

•

I

f1• ·

'

•

i

Ald•.-Swcll, overflow, fringe, note, banlRh, lmprlso11, persecute, reward,
receive, exhaust, suffer, lament, consider, leave, do, make, meet.
Questions. - '\Vhlch are the two principal kinds of words In language?In sentences, and why? '\Vhlch nre . the next two most Important kinds of
words, and how arc they used? Which arc t.hc four most Important kinds of
words? How are nouns UBcd In sentences ?-pre<llcntc-vcrbs? \Vhnt ls a participle or nn Infinitive? What Is the syntax of predicate-verbs? What is the
syntax of participles and Infinitives?

'•

Now write five sentences of youl" own, making them from the words you
/1~ve obtained• . '
.'
' . ' r . ••
' .
•
.. ' ~- . . ..... ,
.
I/.
.
• .

" . 1.
1
: ... 2.
3.
4.

·;

vVrit~ a sketch pf what you saw 'yesterday. ·

'

.

;

'; ·
Writ·e _ a~ account of what you heardyesterdfy:
Write an account of what you did .yesterday:
vVrite. an account of what you read yesterday.

,o:u-This latter exercise comprises both description and narration, and
le one of the most useful and practical In the book. It should be repeated from
time to time.

.,,
'
\ \. · ·I ·f'
.

<;...
46

LESSON

47
XVII.

A Sketch is an outline picture of our ·thoughts on a
subject.
There is a close resemblance between drawing or painting and descriptive writing. Each aims to present a picture to the mind. Perhaps, then, one of the simplest and
best modes of teaching the first elements of composition
is, to require d1il<lre11 to translate pictU?·es into wo1·ds 01· sentences. The poet Rogers wrote one of the most beautiful
poems in the English language, on a picture as the subject.
Children should not compose by spasms, and after long
intervals. Such is not the way to develop skill of any kind.
They should rather compose every day, at an appointed
The t~acher
time, and from twenty to forty minutes.
should present a subject1 or subjects, on the blackboard,
with such help or analysis as ho may deem best; and tho
pupils shonl<l be required to exert their utmost skill during
the allotted time, for much of the strength and sharpness
of the faculties depends on ~
.
Two or three dozen of unframed pictures or engravings
would be a trifling expense to a school establishment; and
the teacher might then present, from time to time, a
- properly graded series of these for such daily exercises as
we have recommended. The following are specimens: -

I

1f 'J

·f>.
' ;/

·J·

Papa's Boots. -A Iittlo, curly-hea<led boy, just out of heel, is trying to put on his father's boots, which are unusually large. The little
fellow has one boot by tho straps, and is trying to put it on; ·but it
seems to be too <leep for his entire leg I The scene is a laughable one;
an<l it illustmtcs remarkably well tho strong desire for imitation, which
most children possess.
The Hunter. - This picture presents a dreary winter lanclscapc,
with deep snow, and bare, ice-covered trees. A half-ragged hunter, with
a gun and a dog, is on the edge of a rough, turbulent stream; and he

."

seems to he much perplexctl about finding some way to get over it.
The shrinki11g appearance of tho mun and the dog indicates also in. tensely cold weather. But all han.Iships are endured for the sake of
killing some half-starved and miserable creature. How m~ch trouble
some people give themselves, in order that they may make themselves
roublesome !
The ragged appearance of the lnmter, and the indulging of his ruling pas·
Bion under such unfavorabl.!l...Citc.UJJllltauc_eJ!"AYggest lmport anLrellectlons, also
worthy of being .11tfil.c d , . ndeed, mnny of the best !Dorais, and .many of the
moet lnetructlvo and ref\uln-g scenes of life and nature, are embodied In pictures
and engrav.lngs ; the stncly-ot' which become!! therefore In ¥cry way beneflclal
.A judicious selection, too, from the simplest to the most complicated engravings,
can be easily made, so as to develop every degree of descriptive sklll. Whero
better engravings can not be obtained, perhaps those In the current magazines
. and other periodicals will answer.

Monkey and Cat. - There nre sweet potatoes baking in the em, : ' hers of a fire-place. A roguish monkey is anxious to feast upon them;
but ho does not know how he can get them out, without burning hi~self.
, l'resently, however, an idea strikes him : puss is dozing, as usual, n~~r
•: tho. fire-pince ; and, nil unexpectedly to herself," he seizes her in . such · a
· wny thut she can not help herself. He then takes . h?r i>~w, an~ .\vith :it
c ulls tho potatoes out of tho burning cm hers. · ·
',. · " This pieturc is full of meaning, or contains an .excellent moral.
There nro but too many people in the ·world who make cat's-pnws of
· others, to do tho disagreeable work which they aro mnyiUing or ashamed
1 to do themselves.
. .
.
Country Life. - This picture represents a specimen of country
· . life in autumn . A large, beautiful farm-house, with a portico in ' front,
' , is stumlin" on n high , round knoll, in the midst Of a clnmp of tall
. , trees. A hoy, six or seven years old, is playing with a large ·Newfound- ·
· . land dog, on the grass, in front of the house. Three of tho , older chil' dren , two girls and a boy, aro gathering apples in the .orchard near by.
What beautiful rosy and golden apples! They weigh down the branches . of the trees, and they lie scattered thick on the grass undernenth.
Below the orchard, some ducks are swimming in a pond, under a · large
. willow, whose trailing branches dip into tho water ·; ·and a rooster is
' crowincr
.
0 on the fence that surrounds the barn. · A . carriage, with visitors, has jnst arrived nt' the gate i and tho farmer's wifo is coming out
· from the door to meet them.
~

~

We feel sure, that, in composition, there can be no '·bet,.
ter int:i;oductorr exercises for c.hildren than those we have

48

49

just recommended. A picture presents only the most strik. ng, expressive, and interesting objects, grouped to the best
advantage; and it cultivates directly and most effectively ·
the imagination, - all of which is just the kind of discipline required in learning the art of composition. A goo<l
picture is the matured and condensed result - the charming fruitage - of a complicated mental process; and it
r sually contains more meaning than is seen at the first
glance. The same is true of a good piece of composition,
-which, moreover, naturally spreads itself out, in tho mind,
into the form of a picture.
In a way similar to that oe u . - ictnres, may also be
used to good advantage th maps f the school-atlas;
t us:-·
·
.

.

Map · of Missouri. -Missouri occupies n central position among
e Stutes of our country. It is named from the Missouri River, which
runs through it from north-west to south-east, and divides it into two
parts of nearly equal size. The Mississippi comes down along the eastern part of the State, and the Missouri flows into it a short distance
above St. Louis. In the southern part of the State are the Ozark
Mountains ·; also a river called the Osa~e, which seems to be about 11s
large as the Hudson, and is said to be nearly as beautiful. The land
between these great rivers is probably very productive; for land is generally so when thus situated. There are several railroads running
. through and into the State; but there are no ennuis.

From things p1·esent and seen, the teacher may pass to
things a.bsent and 1·emembered, by requiring his pupils to
write out descriptions of such interesting pictures as they
mn.y have observed. This will give room for more origi- .
nality and variety in the exercises. And, from sketches of
1·emembered pictures, he may pass to landscapes themselves;
for these are but pictures drawn by the han<l of Nature.
.o:M- Addleon nnd Croly wrote some ve ry lntereetlng eketcbes on ancient
meclnls. The teacher may also find medals, coins, and bank-notes good subjects
for brief eketclles.

LESSON

XVIII.

To write out whatever tho~ghts · m~y be suggested
by a proverb, is also a useful exercise, and similar to
, ·
the preceding one of interpreting pictures..
Write out a simple explanation of each of the following proverbs, ar
else write some inference or illustration : · .

• 1. Tall trees give more shadow than fruit .•
Ex. - People in high life consume more of the world than they bestow
upon It.
·
• .· ., h

2. Fire is not quenched with fire. 3. The best wme as
its lees. 4. No flies light on a boiling kettle. 5. The first
bird gets the first grain. 6. Every bird thinks her own
nest beautiful. 7. Every promise is a debt. 8. Money
gets money. 9. Ill got, ill spent. 10... .Give me money,
not advice. 11. Poverty is social slavery. 12. Call no
man master. 13. It ·is easier to stem the brook than the
river. 14. Look before you leap. 15. Necessity is the moth- ·
er of invention. 16: Many cooks spoil ~he broth. 17. Procrastinatioi1 is the thief of time. 18. 'fhe_golden key opens
every door. 19. A small leak may sink a large ship. 20.
Little by little the bird builds its nest. 21. Mouth of
honey, heart of gall. 22. Strike while the iron is ~ot. · 2~.
A rolling stone gathers no moss. 24. Do not slup all m
one vessel. 25. A fine cage will not feed the bird. 26.
A black chick may come out of a white egg. 27. Better
a lean agreement than a fat lawsuit. . 28. The best is the ·
cheapest. 29. Use soft words and hard arguments.· 30.
It is the mind that makes the body rich. 31. He .who
takes the wrong ' road must make his journey again. 32.
Men are · machines, with all their boasted freedom. 33.
Covet all, lose all.' 34. Too much familiarity breeds contempt. 35. Nature is the glass reflecting God. 3.6. Li~e
glides away, Lorenzo, like a brook. 37. How delicate is
the golden thread of life ! 38. l'ridc must have a fall.
4

\ \ · ·f'

, ,I

.

•f ' .
·:--

'Y,

50

51

39. Patience removes mountains. 40. Trust not to appearances. 41. Never trouble trouble till trouble troubles you.
42. Honesty is the best policy.

given by the teacher, or selected by the pupils. Ent all of this the
teacher must regulate according to circumstances.

Ex. - Honesty is certainly the best policy. Thongh there may be
sometimes an a11parcnt mlvantage in seizing un unfair opportunity, we
always find, in the Jong run, that upright dealings are the nearest and
surest way to wealth and happiness.
I\:navcry may serve n. turn;
though it is sure to be detected at some time or other, and detected
knavery is undoubtedly the greatest of all folly. While a man pursues an honoral.\le course, all the world is on his side; but, when he
adopts an insi<lious and dishonest one, the laws nn<l all the feelings
of society are against him. Who can doubt, then, which is the best
line to choose, merely as a matter of prn<lence? Junius, in a private
note to 'Voorlfull, says, "After long experience in the world, I affirm,
before God, I never knew a rogue who was not unhappy."
&- In going through this book th e first time, the pupil may write simply an
explanation of each proverb; but afterwards h e may be r equlrP.d to write nn ex·
tended paraphrase, M In the Inst example. -The teacher hlmAelf should collect
an additional set of proverbs or aphorisms, to be u sed .for such exercises.

Correcting. - One reason why . the :writing. of compositions is so
much neglected is because the teacher finds that he must give too much
of his time to correcting them. Ent pupils should be taught to. mak_e
their own . corrections.
trength is not acquired by the exercise cif
another's muscles. The common mass of gross errors may be corrected
in a wholesale way, or by a general ablution, as we 11ave suggested at
the beginning of Lesson XIII. Afterwards, _the following method may
be adopted, which has been used very snccessfull,(hy many tcachern.
Place before each sentence, containing an error, an intcrrogationt><>int or a cross; and have sentences, thus marked, written on the
blackboard. The writer is first permitt.ed to correct ,the errc;>r; _if he
can not, the class become critics ; and, if they fall, the teacher makes
• the correction. By thus holding all the pupils of the class responsible
' for the errors they fail to correct, RS if they were t lCir own, t ey WI
·~h cultivate habits of close attention and critical examination.'• '
~ll'l' !! ? She looked so b enutifully In h er ne.w silk dress. ''

. -~ "- ·

tl:hl ? If I was you, I would expect to get Into a fracas . .·.

•iJ·
LESSON

;, '

-r

I/

P Oh the dear little ones, mothers treasures and fathers prides. ·'

, . it.' ·

XIX.

Writing. - Rufns Choate wrote so bad a scrawl that tho puzzled
printers called bis penmanship chain-lightning; and Daniel Webster
once jocosely asked him what he meant by those antediluvian birdtracks. Since the natural tendency of children is to carelessness, and
since the haste and bustle of subsequent life are very apt
cause a ·
degeneracy from the mechanical excellence acquired at school, the
teacher should, in the writing of compositions, insist on as much neat- ·•
ness and precision as possible.
The subject of the composition should be written at the top of the , ;
page, in the middle; the place and date at the end, on the left ; and the ~ P1
signature at the ~d, on the right.
· ·,

to

· Tho subject should b egin with n cnpltal letter; and, If It Is a phrase. or ~ r f
sentence, each principal word should b egin with n capital letter . (S ec Keri's .:' .
Coi:nmon•echool Grammar, p. 46.) Compositions should be ne atly fold ed; and · ·
the name of tho writ.er, with th e (]ate, Ahoul<l hn wrlt.tei1 nl so on' tho ou\,slclc, for
tho convenience of tho teacher. It mny be stlll better to write compositions In '
,
a blank copy-book. -See below.

In the schools of New York and New England, compositions vary,
in length, from one page to five pages of foolscap : they are written
daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, or quarterl y ; and the subjects are

MEH,RIMENT. '
:\'•. Listen to those children playing on the green. ? How they laugh;· and how
· •they' chatter. Like two magpi es over a n e wly made nest. I Two, · did I s_ay?
• 1Th11,,nolse of fifty magpi es would hardly be audible In such a din.
? Oh the
d~ little' ones, mothers treasures and fath ers prides.
. ·
, yteary and lon esome would life seem without our dal~ty darlings, to ch_eer
,1~,nllve,n each day's toll and evening's fatigue. ? The old are made young
~n, and the middle aged strengthen ed by the joyful outgushlng11 of childhood.
}W~8TBOROUGH, MASS., May 1, 1869.
ALICE CLIFTON •"
•.

''I . •~

'The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., may also be used in like manner, to· denote
. \.e.pectively errors in spelling, errors in the use of capital letters, ertorsi ~n the choice of words, ' errors in syntax, and errors in punctua·~ero (0) may be used to . denote emptin~ss, repetition, unsuitale~e~s, or want of originality; and a star (*) for what is excellen~.
~~r· kreater definiteness, a perpendicular line' may be ' placed where ' an
ends, and a line 'mav be drawn under the error itself.
' .
.
,; ~eservlng. -Compositions should be prcserYed, like bundles of
ii: Uen • . Ple11sunt mementos they will he of school-days; nnd tho pupil
Can, thus compare his later with his earlier efforts.
·
\
· A lady who has much experience In teaching, finds that It le best for the pn-

it9 .:

nor

< 1 ..to

procure blanK: copy-books, costlng ·from fifteen to twenty cents each; and

. to'trrite their compositions on one nnd th e same side of the leaves continuously,

ng tbe opposite pages remain bl ank for corrections and sugge11tlons.

\_,/~0L - ~ ~ ~/" '- .,_ )

are·

- ·

tce -s d WM' t n

a• t * •ucozrt -

twz

,,

52

53
3. Possessives.

LESSON XX.

An Adjective Hodifier is a word, phrase, or clause,
used with a noun or pronoun, and relati11g to it.
· Subject-nominatives generally have adj ective modifiers.
Other nouns and pronouns also frequently have adj ective modifiers.

There are seven

kind~

of adjective modifiers: -

Ex. - "Joh11's horse is in our pasture."
PnRASE. ---:-" Smith and Brown's store is a large establishment."

4, A11positives, 'VY ords, phrases, ~nd clauses.
· Ex. - "John the saddler is my brother." . -"The po.ct Milt'!n .was
blind." " I myself will go."
.
·
PHRASES. - " Paris, the capital of France, is the· most fashionable /
city in the world." ' "It is easy to spend money." "Ye men ·of Al(
torf."

t, Artlclcs.

•

Cr.A USES. -

•
11

It is true that ! said so."

11

l •

I

'

..

Tho stntomont of Col um·

Ex.-" The wniter brought me a huge npple."

bus, that so large a river must come from a continent_, w~s verified."

2. Adjectives.

Punctuation. - An appositive that is parenthetic or emphatic is set off by the comma. An appositive that closely
depends on a pronoun, or that is short and closely restrictive, is not set off.

Ex. - " Wh ite cnmellins lny on the black coffin."
"A dadc, dense, nnd heavy cloud hung over ns."
PnnASES. - "Feed me with food con ve11ient.for me." "Several days,
dismal from drizzling mill, now intervened." " A grassy knoll, I green,
fresh, and dewy, I rose before us." An adj ective phrase is one, of which
the lending word is an adjective, and which is placed in the sentence as
a participial phrase would be.
CLAUSES. - "There is a man at the tavern who has been in China."
(What "sort" of man 1) " The winds which blow frnm the north are
sometimes very cold." (What winds 1) "A miry creek, which we
couUJ not cross, now delayed us." (What kind of creek 1) "The place
where he was buried could not be found ." (What pince 1) " There is
somo hopo that he will do bdter." (What hope 1) "The ti mo I have
lost I can not recover." ( lVhich is omitted.) The adjectivo clauses are
those joined lo nouns or pronouns by relative pronouns, conjunctive ad-~
verbs, or subordinate conjunctions. The chief of these wor.ds are who,
which, what, that, as, when, where, why, and whether.

Punctuation. -1. Three or more serial terms of any
kind, or two co-ordinate terms without a connective,' are
separated each from the other by a comma.
·
, · .4
2. Restrictive adjective phrase or clause, - no comma j ·
not restrictive, - comma.
.,
For examples, ece nbove.
The teach er should explain "restrictive," and similar words.
Th ese rules of punctuation are but preliminary and atixi liar11 to those given
'· !
·hereafter; for the comma requires an unusual amount of Instruction. ·

I

1
,. .An °apposltlve series or long member is sometimes set off by the Colon, aeml·
colon, or comma and dash. .

'

5, Participles,

'

Aud participial phrases.

Ex. - " The boy, falling, broke the pitcher."
PHRASES. - " The pictures painted in oil-colors are the best." "The
prisoners captured in the first battle have beon released." , " .There :was
&he, splash of fountains spouted up and showering dow~.''. ' ii Saying ' this,
1
· 1he wept."
···
·' 1. ·

.Punctuation, - Restrictive, - no point} . ~ot · rest~ictive,
or '•d istinctly·parenthetic or emphatic, -set off by '. the

. •f"f
ma
..•,,,

i II"
. 1 .• ·• , ,

1 ..1.~

.\ ',

,i

~.

;,.

~~; o.~ ,mfinitives,

·. • . ,-

.

~

;c

, , f.

/', • ~.

•

And infini~ive ·phrases. . '·

.

com.

..

•
,

•

! .

· ,.: ~·.:;;

~ ·Ei.:.-:---" The paper to be sigped was handed to me.",
. .
. ''' PuRASES. - " I hav e no desire to . be considered one of his friends."
Ti~s never to be broken should not be trea~d so iigh.tly." .. · !· · ' ; :
1

I

1

' 1 Punctuation,
.'

... ) . .

-

''

1

•

,''

'

Same as of participles.

;

'

'

· "'·: ··'.

Participles .and infinitives, when used as adjectivo clements, can gen~ · 'l'he corn
growing by the road" = The corn which grows by the road. " A law to re. lioe
tis 'I = A law that may relieve us. The same remark is. frequently
d
&rue. of appositives and prepositional phrases.

erally be regarded as abridged expressions for clauses ; as,

'

.,,..

s"'

,I

I

·.f>

·~:>

,;..

54
"· Prepositional Phrases.

55
Or adjuncts.
bouquet ef fr esh flowers were

Ex. - "A cnp <?{ ala/iasler nnrl n
on
the taulc." "A ueggar, without hat a11d shoes, stood. at .the entrance."

Punctuation. - An adjective adjunct that is parenthetic
or emphatic, or liable to confuse the relation between nominative and verb, is set off by the comma.
. Prepositional phrases are co-extensive with nenrly nil other modifiers.
ADJECTIVE:" A man <!/ability"= An able man. PossESSIVE: "The
house of my neighbor"= My nei!Jhbor's house. APPOSITIVE: "The city
of Lo11do11" = The city Lo11do11. PARTICIPLE : "Aft.er seeing the fair,
I returned"= Having seen the fair, I returned. INFINITIVE: "An opportunity for stud!Jing " = An opportunity to study.
Questlo11s. - 'Vhnt Is an adjective modifier? How many kinds of adj ective modlficrs? Mention them. 'Vlmt phrases are used as adjective modifiers?
'Vhnt clauses are used as adjective modlliers? D escribe more particularly adjective clauses. \Vhnt rule of punctuation is given under adj ectives?- for appositives?- for p a rticiples?- for Infinitives ?- for prepositional phrases?
What concluding remark is given about prepositional phrases?

LESSON XXI.

1. Articles.
A 11al!Jze the following sentences: -

A white and black calf is one calf with two colors.

A

white and a black calf were the only two I saw. The sick
and the wounded were left at the hospital. He married a
sensible aml amiable woman. Fire is a better servant than
master. The cypress is a curious species of tree. · He is
a strange kind of man. I own a house and .lot on the corner. I own a house and a lot not far apart.
l¥ii'" The teacher is supposed to be competent to teach analysis orally; If he
ls not, however, th e child can Imbibe something of the syntax by reading the
cxamples.-For details In Analysis, see Keri's Comprehensive Grammar,

Suppl9 proper articles: -

1. ... lion is ... noble nnimal. 2. . . . cat caught .. .
mouse. 3. . .. crow flew over •.. valley. 4. . .. lambs

' were sold for ... dollar ... head. 5. '... ancients did not
· · know ... use of. . . compass. 6. He is ... honest man.
7. There wns not ... tree in ... yard, nor , .. flower in
' ... ,garden. 8. Purity has its seat in ... heart; but it extend~ its influence over 'so much of ... outward conduct, as
to form ... great and material part. of ... ?haracter.
Place the proper indefinite article before ooch of the jollowing words and
phrases, a11d write a f ew sentences containing such phmses: -

." Arrow, inch, university, hundred, hostler, harpoon, . article, adjective, hero, heathen, hotel, eel, .one, union, eulogy,
unit, island, harmony, historian; humble cottage; heroic
·. ·, action ; historical ballad; holy life ; united :people.

2. Adjectives.
'.~ .Analyze

tlwfollowing sentences: -

· 'Y?ung trees grow rapidly. · A tall young tree stands.·
near the spring. (Of what kind?) · This street was paved
last year. (vVhich ?) That house was occupied by Gen. ·
Washington. The upper field was sold. Five carriages ·
followed the hearse. (How many?) Twenty acres were
sold for thrne hundred and sixty dollars. Little money they
;. had for beginning. (How · much?) She possesses more
wealth than refinement. A bustling mother makes a slothful daughter. A large fire from a small spark.' An appletree, full of blossoms, is a beautiful object. . (Adjective
phrase.) The green meadow; bright and glowing, seemed to
lqok up affectionately at .the shining sky. Calm, attentive,•
a!ld cheerful, he confutes more gracefully than others. compliment. The pure.a , kind, anc~ truthful .heart, intent on .
dµty, and ambitious only of usefulness, bears . in the beaming eye and open b~ow and . gladsom.e voice unfailing evitl~nce of inward peace and joy'.
Clauses. - The man who is content with his lot is ' gen- \
erally cheerful in his manners. This house, wliich is for
. s~le, was built last year. I have heard all that you said.

56

57

You have no right to give what you do not possess. The
la<l. who gained the pre1nium was praised by the teacher.
They are such clouds as indicate rain. It is a poor mouse
that has but one liole. There is no place where a man can
escape f1·om, his own conscience. He who created me, I
whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal.

of the hour when .. , 14. He who ... , naturally suspects
others. 15. Whatever ... , should be maintained. · . .

As the little coral-workers, by their slow but constant motion,
Have built those pretty islands in the distant, dark-blue ocean;
So the noblest undertakings that man's wisdom hath conceived,
Have, by oft-repeated efforts, been triumphantly achieved.
Change some

· Compare, qf the.following adJe,ctives, such as can be compared; and 7;0rite
Iii sentences, using in each as many of the adjectives as yo11 can:__. ·: \

1 Cle~r dark, fair, nice, fierce, blue, thin, glad, dry, gentle, he~;y, good, severe, . much, little, many, fundamental,
~r~d-haired.

i

·
•

'

.. .

•

·. .

..

•

•

'.

Supply sttitable adJectives to complete the following sentences: -

1. I bought a knife, which . . . 2. My brother went to .
the doctor, who . . . 3. Do not meddle with what . . . 4.
The eye, that ... , sees not itself. 5. The large book, l
which ... , has not yet been read. 6. Such as ... , seldom
do well for others. 7. Every good man.must love the coun- '
try in which . . . 8. vVe hauled our apples to the city, · .
where . . . 9. Our life is a flower which . . . 10. The ·
goo<l.s which ... , and which ... , are somewhat damaged."
11. There is no condition of life, that . . . 12. There is no
man whose experience . . • 13. The Turk was dreaming •

.·

•.

J

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, mounta:ins, melon, potato, day, woman, boys, thou~hts, fo~li~gs,
·conduct.

Write six sente11ces similar to any ef tlieforegoi119, u11der Adjectives.

Comp'lete the relative or adJe,ctive clauses: -

·I

Join suitable adjectives to each ef the followin,q nouns; an.d then write six
:· ·, sentences ill which are embodied some ef these phrases : -

~·

ef tl1eforegoing claiises to phrases.

1. Yesterday was a ... day. 2. . .. flowers fringed the
... stream. 3. There are ... pear-trees in the . . . row.
4 .... people are never satisfied in ... situation. 5. The ,
• • . peaks are covered. with ... snow. 6.... breezes blow
... and. . . 7. The ... , ... , ... grass came up to our
saddle-girths. 8. He was a man ... in decision, and ...
in action. 9. A day so ... , ... , and ... is seldom seen.
10. There beamed a smile, so ... , so ... , on . . . . .. face, :
that Death gazed, and left it there.

I

~ ,' 'Ex. -Moon; the full moon. The full moon Is rising over the city. Moon;
'1llvery moon . The silvery moon is shining on the water, which trembles and
glimmers under its luster. ,

:t;<li • I '

•

·

.·.:'.La.
Possessives• .
l
.
n~ t •:Analyze

i'

the following sentences : -

. ·.~''!Hmtry's brother has brought my horse. Our sweetest
"'~ngs are those which tell of saddest thought. · The sun's
lie'a t 'and' light are a mystery. Milton's poetry ranks · next
· to 'Shakspeare's. fVhose is it? Have 'you seen ·Latliarn's
,_'large Dictionary? Mr. Smith has boys' and 1nen's boots
l~r sale: I will meet you at Smith's, the bookseller. ·. ·Bond
_··an</, · Allen's store is ·one store belonging ·to both men.
'/Jond1s and Allen's store are two stores, one · belonging to
·each:man. ·' , · ·
.. ,
~

PH

Supply possessives : -

.

· , , ·m1.· In autumn, farmers gather ... corn. · 2 .... store is
"•on ; the n~xt corner. 3. . . . mother is sick. 4. Having
'-lost\ :·: knife, I am obfored to borrow. ·:. · 5. No boy
or
.
~.;·~girJ•rmay leave . : . or ... seat: ; 6. There is the man ..•
•brother •died. · 7. . ~ . factory is a large establishment.· .8,
1
..
.The ' charge was made by ... cavalry. · 9, They left •.•
t~

·~

~

~

)/

58

'/~. '

59

:-;;/'!

'~ .<7'.

e/ '·.
:-.

'

'..

~.·

\I

homes, ... friends, and ... native land. _ 10. We are studying ... Geography, ... Arithmetic, ... Grammar, and ...
Rea<lers.
Express each <!f the fallowing words and phrases in the possessfoe case,
and then write sentences inco171orat1119 the possessive word or phrase : -

Man, children, war, boys, night, moon, stars, Durns;
Queen Elizabeth; Senator Pomeroy; Gen. Grant; William
Henry Harrison ; Duke of vV ellington ; brother - in -law;
John and Mary.

Washington, ... , is situated on the Potomac. 7. Isabella,
, • , . , assiste<l Columbus. 8. Columbus, ..• , was impris1' . oned by his enemies.
9. Mr. Striker .•. keeps his shop
1
10. Those boys and girls, the , .. and
' ·µnder the ol<l elm.
,·., , of my youth, are now scattered in the world, 11. It is
1
' · impossible to . . .
1?· It is easy to . . . 13. It is evident
that.
.
.
14.
It
is
doubtful
whether. ; •
.,
.
~

-~ 1:lJ ' 6, Participles.
Ana(yze the following sentences: :

4. AJ•positivcs.
Analyze the folwwing sentences : -

vVe boys must not neglect our lessons. Johnson the "
lawyer is a cousin to Johnson the doctor. You yourself
must attend to the business. Broadway, the principal
street of the city, runs through it like the backbone.
poet Rogers, I a banke1· of London, wrote Ginevra, an ex- ·
quisite poem. Company, villainous company, is the ruin
of many young men. King Henry VIIL, of England, was .
a notorious tyrant. There are two modes of acquiring
knowledge, - analysis and synthesis. The wood, a dense
green mass before, now became purple and yellow.
It was too late _to retreat j ·but it was policy to unite their . ,
forces. It is generally best to be hurnble and patient. It
_is said that Dr. Johnson has not quoted a single infidel au- ,.
thor in his voluminous Dictionary. It is now evident why '
no one is at home. It is not known who invented the a~
phabet.
Write.five sentences t;imilar to any ef thefaregoing.
Complete the following sentences by supplyin,g appositives I

h

\'

.~ .:'rhose rnolested have a right to complain. Th~ man
dressed in black is the preacher. Every visitor not h_a ving
'': . a, pass will Le shut out. Plants reared in cellars are seldom
- "strong. · Scorning to take advantage of his enemies, - he
~ P,h~¥~!1ged t~em to open combat: Th~ little. ones, u7!but',. ~, ·I glowing hot, I and playing 1,m th boi$t~r~us , vlee,
··: -,rei:~. on the sha,dy lawn.
·
· ~ !r~. '1 r · . · Blast and surge, conflict-ing hoarse;
.J:-_.t .; · · Swept us on with headlong force.·
. ,.

Complef.e the following :>en_tences by supplying participial expression:> : ...,..

; _-~ 1: '. A

road, ... , is the boupdary. :2. Children, ... ,
~ne.rally become a nuisance to society. 3. Th~ sold~ers,
. • •-.•· / plm1dered our garden. 4. The tr.ees, , . , , are um~su­
~ Jarg~. _5. ,• .• , I trusted, him, 6. _Th~t la~ge farm,
· ~ -~ and .' .. , was sold for half its va_l~e. 7.. The pridges,
•, •, ~ ·au,rjng the war, give an air of de.solatio:U' ·tc» the coun- _
Fi ·along · the road. 8. The letter, ... and . ·. . , was · sent
~~ Qie post-office. · 9. , The lives • . , the misery , .. ·; the
'101.\ey•.. ,i,, and the works ... ·,will long remind 'u13 of the

f!l.r

'

~

-

1, Yoq .•. must help us. 2. The prophet , .. was swallowed by 11 whale, 3. Our teachers, ... , helU a meeting, .
4. Mr, Henderson , .. has returned with n. largo stock of
goods. 5. Ou:r President,.~ . , ;resides ~t Washington, · 6.-

""

I ,. ;

.

'

~

..

~ct. •.., Run,

I

I

'

'

I

:

eduoato, encamp, grow, believe, own, desolate, destroy.

41{'.mJparticiples ji'om the following verbs, and then write sentences, intirig the participle/! th1.t{J formed: ·1
t

(w,1clive, pierce, purl, Joom, array, read, produce.
.

'

· c • x:mncx· n w

a ?

01t • t1

• •'fit

htitt

<·

61

60

6. Infinitives.

Ccnnplete the prepositional phrases in the following sentences : -;-

2. Boys ... habits
will be successful. 3. The path ... duty is the path ...
safety. 4. The old elm ... the house is troubled by caterpillars. 5. The day ... Christmas was beautiful. 6. The
; ·man ... whiskers is a Frenchman. 7, The house ... hill
· .. is a place ... resort ... summer ; and the little garden ~ .•
the
road is full of flowers.
·. · .
r
,

. 1. TlJOe house ... corner is a store.

Analyze the fallowing sentences: -

The party to be sent should be well equipped. The corn
to be g?'Ottnd this week must be sent to the mill to-morrow. ,
The right to govern anothe?· is based on the presumption that
he can not govern himself. Words aT\.d s.miles to cheer and
bless were there. The lesson and example how to die were
never given in a more consolatory manner than by Thomas
Hood. Herc was no opportunity to spend the day in idle- •,
ness, I to contrive rnischief against cornrades, or to neglect
the lessons assigned.
Write.five sentences similar to any of the foregoing .

• · Make an adjunct with each of thefoUowin,q prepositions, and tlien : make
a 1ente11ce containing this adjunct used as an adjective element: -

Around, beside, beyond, by, of, from, over, througl1, in,
into, with, without, under.
-· Ex . -.A.round; around the house. The trees arowid the house are large and
beautiful.

Supply infinitive exp1·essions in the following sentences: -

1. The problems ... should be written down.
streets ... will give employment to many persons.
desire ... is rooted deep in every heart. 4. The temptation ... and ... is not easily restrained. 5. He has the
heart ... and hand . . . 6. If you have any friends . : . or'
means ... , now is the time you need them.

LESSON XXII.

"

•.~ Accustom yourself to observe very thing closely ;
~: arid· learn to name every .
and its parts, also the
·· actions and qualities. ·
~,, li. 11 If we examine the literature of any country, we shall find that a

Aids. - Solve, live, possess, rule, assist, support.

Form infinitives .from the following verbs, and then make sentences, incoi;
pora.ting the infinitives thus fonned: -

Conceal, break, illuminate, carry, wash, ascertain, gain . .i

,

r,' large part of its elements is derived directly from such analysis and ob• 1oryation. , .:
i

'1 •. Prepositional Phra.ses.
A11al,yze the following sentences: -

1.1, What different names are applied to flowing water? ·

":' ' Ex.-,. To flowing water we apply the word.a .strea.m, Btreamlet, river, rimt·
rill, brook, runnel, creek, branch, tributary, spring, fountain, current,
rapj_ds, torrent, waterfall, cascade, cataract, whfrlpool• .

· ~,

The pleasures of youth are remembered with regret ,
The road frorn Baltimore to . Cincinnati passes through
ro~antic section of country. The hills beyond the river.'
are blue and beautiful. The path through the woods is
cool and sha<ly. The trees along the 1-iver are majestic,
Bliss without alloy is nowhere found. A republic in Spain,
would be the pure declaration of man's sovereignty I ove1'
1
hirnself.

,a·

;2. yw·hat different :q~mes are applied to·_'s tanding. water?
!
'
'
.
,
1
3. What . form~ does water take in regard to temperature?
;~~4 What different ;i~mes are' giv,e n to the .i_n equa.litie,s of
l~!?<\? .
.
.
·b·~'s
Subdivide
a
State
into
all
its
smaller
parts.
.... . ..
. ?" 6. Subdivide a city into all it13 parts.
'1'

..

5:.

~ ·t.l-tl ~ ~

.·•i I _.,,.,--·-

63

62
7. Name the different habitations of men.
8. Name the different habitations of inferior a!l.imals.
9. Name the principal colors.
10. Name the principal sounds or noises.
11. Name the various divisions of time.
12. What names are applied to space and place ?
13. Name the various measures of quantity ; - of
weight ; - of length.
14. vVhat various names are applied to human beings
in regarJ. to family n.n<l social relations?
15. In regard to state affairs ? - commercial affairs ? military affairs ?
16. What are the principal occupations of people? amusements ? - virtues ? - vices '? - feelings? - diseases?
17. vVhat names of honor are applied to people? - of
dishonor?
18. What flowers can you mention ? - vegetables? shrubs ? - fruit-trees? - forest-trees ? - · kinds of oak ? evergreens?- domestic animals? -wild animals?- birds?
- fishes ? - reptiles ? - insects ? - gems ? - arts ? - sciences? - instruments? - vehicles? - kinds of printed
matter?
19. What various things are found in a school-room ?-.:
in a dwelling-house ? - in a kitchen? - in a garden? -. in
the sky ? - in the sea ? - in a river ? - in a landscape ?
in a city ? -in your father's yard? - in a forest? - in a
church?- in a blacksmith's shop?- in a tailor's shop ? in a bakery ? - in a dry-goods store ? - in ai grocery.store ?
- in a drug-store ? - in a mill? - on a farm ?
·
20. Name the parts of a house ; - of a person;- of a person's head ; - of a pe.rsori's hand ;- of a horse;...,..,... of a hog;
- of a knife ; - of a spoop. ; - of a fork ; -. of a chair;
of a bridge; - of a table"; -of a .door; - of a window;

· • - of a wagon ; - of a ship ; - of a boat ; - . of a plow ;
of a bird ; - · of an egg ; - of a feather ; - of a book ; - . of
a bed ; - of a stove ; - of a clock ; - of a tree ; - of an
·ax;-of a flower;-of a leaf;-of an apple;-of a
peach; - of an umbrella;- of a coat; - of a dress;-. of
l ' ·a bonnet; of a hat ; - of a shirt.
_'. 121. -What things are made of wood? - iron ?-.lead?
-:-:- glass? - feathers ? - cotton ? - wool? - silk? - flax?
- corn? - meal ? - milk ? - fruit? - vegetables ? - pa- .
per? - leather? - snow ?
.22. Mention the different kinds of soil; - meat; , glass; - sugar ; - food ; - drink ; - clothes ; - paper;
- stone ; - lumber ; - manufactures; - cutlery.
i1{

1

·lJit,

.

LESSON
J'

~-

l

XXIII.

,1 -

1-

1. What things are green ?-white? -black?- olue.?

•yellow?- red ? -brown?.- gray? - speckled? - long? .
1hort,? ·- swift? ~ slow? - straight? - crooked? .- .
: curved ? - high ? - low ? - deep ? - difficult? - useful ? .
' mjurious? - hot? - cold? - beautiful~ - ugly? :- ..
. good?- baJ.? - sharp ? - round? - gentle? - sweet?
bitter? - sour? - golden ? - splendid? - . grand ? ." ·.' , ·
'l

·

H,

·

· ~ Ex. - .First Pupil. " Grass is green." Second Pupil. "The meadow is,
~n:'! . And ~o on through the class, or until the question is exhausted. '

, ..:_. 2• .'What hisses? - roars? - rushes? - pou~s?­
- q~acks ? - purrs ? - purls ? - skips ? - climbs ? - gal~
t
fops? ·- heaves? - boils? - rots? - twitters? - laughs?
_:_: ·g runts? - creeps? - sprawls? - glides? - revolves?
1
!:!.!.. sp~eads ? - rattles ? - spins ? - ~ticks ? -· rolls ? . rises?
. · fre.~~~s? - melts ? - glows ? - grows ? - shines?; ~.e}gbs? .- buzzes ? - cackles ? - burrows? - - dives ? ,- .
aucks ? - stings ?

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65

3. Mention every verb that denotes sound.

Ji 10: How <l.oes a cat defend herself, and what does she
uso ? - n. horse ? - an ox? - n. hog ? - n. rooster? - a
bee ? - n. snake ? - a dog ? - a goose ? - a man ?

First J>ttpil. " To thunder." Seconcl Pupil, "To bellow." .And so on.

4. Mention every verb that denotes motion.
o. Mention every verb that denotes light or color.
6. What things are carried ? - hammered ? - pierced ?
- cut? - ground? - salted? - plucked? - eaten? drunk? -published? - burned ?-washed ? - adorned?
- killed? - planted? - gathered? - praised? - de-.
nounced?
·
7. vVhat is <lone to corn?- wood'?- iron? - soil? meat ? - l'oads ? - houses ? - horses ? - children ?

• ~ J"'.Eic. -1. u ' A cat scratches with her claws." 2.
• .~th."
.

Ex. -1. "A person thinks." 2. "A person laughs.'' And so on, (Let the·
exercise go round the class in a spirited manner.)

9. What does a blacksmith do, and what does be use?a far~er ? - a pupil? - a carpenter? - a stone-mason? a cook? - a washer-woman? - a clerk?- a bunter?merchant? - a butcher ? - a shepherd ? - a fisherman? a soldier? - a clerk? - a gentleman? - a fop ? - a fine
lady? - n. gambler'?- u politicin.u ? - It printer?

a

Ex. - "A blacksmith heats iron red-hot by means of a bellows.'' Or: "A
blacksmith hammers, welds, makes nails," etc, "He uses fire, hammers, an
anvil, plnchers,'' etc~

A eat bites with her
.
.

: 11.·· Describe a sheep; - a ·mule ; - lead; - a bee ; gold; - milk; - an orange; - glass ; - snow; -water;
....- a storm ; - a star; - the sun ; - wood ; - dust; mud; - ice ; - heat; - the pine.
Ex. -1. "A sheep Is timid." 2. "A sheep ls innocent." 3. "A sheep la
fteecy." 4. "A sheep Is playful."

"':'~·12.

Ex. -1. "Corn is planted." 2. "Corn is cultivated." 3. "Corn is gath·
ered.'' 4. "Corn Is ground.'' And so on.

8. vVhat does a person do?- a mother? - a servant?
- a horse?- a cow?- al1og?- a goose?- a lamb?a bird ? - a fish ? - a sailor ? - an ant ? - a bee ? - a
driver? - a judge? - a sheriff? - a proud man? - an
angry man ? - a compassionate man ? - a poor man ? - a
rich man? - a thief? - a cheat? - a squirrel ? - a deer?
- a rooster? - a caterpillar? - a skiff?-;--- a <luck? - a
frog ? - a grasshopper? ~ a worm ? - an insect ? - a
snake? - a snail?- a bud ?-rain?- the sun? -frost? ·
- snow? - sugar? - salt? - fire ? - love ? - hate? ambition? - a river? - the wind? - steam?

11

What may a house be ? - a room ? - a way ? - a
l co~t? - a hat? meat? - wine ? - butter? -potatoes?
'apple? - the weather? - a sick person ?

.:"'::..f an

I t,.,.

1

•

Ex. ·- 1. "A house may be large.''
houae may be old.'' And so on.

' ~~;'. 13, " What
i-14. ' What
\~15.' "What
1
fo. What

!.

'

'

"

2. "A house may be small.
; :

3. "A

must a thing be, to affect the taste?
must a thing be, to affect the hearing?
qualit~es of things most affect the sight?
qualities of things most affect th~ touch?

t I Ex. ·- 1. "It must be sweet." 2. "It must be bitter." And so on. ·
1

1

·_· 17. What may eyes be, and what do we do with them?
...:.... hands? the mouth ? - a knife? - a pen?-.a horse?
', Ex. -1. "Eyes may be blue. - We see with the eyes." 2. "Eyes may be
black. - We wink with our eyes.''
I•

,

... ~ 18. 'What is a fox ? - a perch ? - a spoon ? - a camel?
_.::-a goose? - a dollar? - spring ?-May? - Sunday?
:.... Boston? - California ? - beer? -·- fever? - snow? arl" ash ? - ashes ·? - 11 well? - n. gem?- 11 lock? - a cat?
-; the clove? - thunder? - sight? - the ear? - the heel? ·
.. . d?.
\
-win
·
1
: ""

Ex. -1. " A fox is a cunning animal.'' 2. " A fox is a great thief."
6

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67

19. "'What do we wear? made of what? by whom? and
by means of what? - eat? - drink?
Ex . -1. "We w ear coats. They nrc made of wool, cotton, or linen. They
nre made by tallors, or hy our mot.here and sisters,'' etc. 2. "\Ve wear shoes
nnd boots. Tl1ey arc made of leather. They nre made by shoe-makers."

20. In what are we conveyed by land? - by water?
21. vVhat coverings have animals?- seeds? On what
do animals live?- plants ?
22. Mention all the varieties of head· - bottom· - side ·
' - brilliance;
'
-back;- top; - foot; -point; - bunch;
- '
length; - hight; - depth;
color ; - size ;
form;
- cost; - beauty; - fragrance; - windows; - door; manner; - whiteness; - blueness; - redness; - blackness; - ambition; - strength; -swiftness; - juice; sweetness; - bitterness; -heart; - eye; - face; - tooth ·
.
'
- tongue ; - trunk.
Ex. -1. "The head of a person." 2. "The head of a river." 8. "The
head of a barrel." 4. "The head of a pin." · 5. "The head of n nail." 6. "The
head of a cane." 7. "The head of a bed." 8. "The head of a grave." 9_
"The head of the table." 10. "A cabbage head!' 11. "The head of the class.''
12. "The head of the army." 13. "The head of the church." 14. "A hundred
head of cattle."
1. " The mannl'r of writing." 2. "The manner of walking." 8. "Tho
manner of reading,'' etc.

Mention ' the objects pertaining to, then the qualities,
then the actions : 1. Mountain. 2. River. 3. City. 4. "'\¥eather. 5.
Fire. G. War. 7. \Vork. 8. Ocean. 9. Sky. 10.
Words . . 11. Education. 12. Disease. 13. Ambition. 14.
Veg\'ltab,les. . 15. Seasons. 16. Religion. 17. Life. 18.
Death. 19. Battle. 20. Earthquake.
MOUNTAIN. -Foot, summit, sides, rocks, trees, precipices, glaciers, ascent,
descent, peaks, gorges, cliffs, cascades, flowers, evergreens, clouds, mist, snow;
lofty, steep, rugged, green, white, blue, barren, icy, snowy, romantic, grnud;
rises, extends, gleams, faces, winds, girdles, rnachcs, walls In, looms up.

LESSON

xxrv.

An Adverbial ltlodifier is a word, phrase, or clause,
used with a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and . relating to it.
Predicate~verbs generally have adverbial modifiers.
Participles, Infinitives, adjectives, and adverbs, also frequently have ndv<'rblal
modifiers. (We have extended the application of adverbial, to suit .Analysis.)

There are seven kinds of adverbial modifiers. ·
1. Objectives. Words, phrases, and clau~~s: '

l

Ex. - ""Ve planted corn." ('What 1) "I saw him." · "She likes
"I believe him to be honest." "I know tliat he is honest." "It
hurts n man's pride to sny, '[ do no( know.' " "By flattering her, he
means to make ltff bel.ieve I that she is indeed almost an angel.." ·

to sing."

I Punctuation. N 0 point ; except when the objective is
a quoted clause, or a clause far removed from · the verb, and
th~h a comma is generally placed before the clause.

.·, 2. Pre~icate Adjectives.
Ex. - "The milk turned sour."

"John is idle.''

When the predicate-verb Is purely a copula, it Is generally better to analyze
the predicate by saying that the predicate-verb Is combined with the predicate
adj<;ctlve or substantive as an attribute of the subject, or a term explanatory of
the subject.

3, Predicate Substantive.

Words, phras~s, and

clauses.
Ex. - "He hcenme a farmer." "He was a soldier." "To be good
"My wish is, tliat you remain with us.'' "The best ·
way to govern a person is, ,to make liim govern_ himself/' . " To become a
sc~ofur requires exertion.'' .
'
' . ·. ' ' ' · · · · •: '
is to be happy.''

·A predicate substantive~~ nearly always a predicat~-nominative.

Punotuation. -N:" o point; except when a quoted clause,
or an infinitive phrase or a .clause, is to' be emphatically dis'
tinguished, and then usually the comma.

GS

69

4, Atlvel'bs. \Vords, phrases, and clauses.

"· Pre1msitional Phrases. Or adjuncts ..

Ex. - "The horse ran fast." "I will go by a11d by." "Now, perhaps, you can sm:cccd."
Advc1•blal Clauses. -A subordinate clause, that is not used in
the sense of an adjective or a noun, must be nn adverbial ckmse. Such
clauses begin with conjunctive mlverbs or subor<linntc conjunctionR;
that is, most of them begin with the words when, 1.Jefore, aft.er, till, since,
where, as, than, because, if, lest, that. Hence the great majority of adverbial clauses express, I. Time. - " lVhen the sun rises, the birds sing."
2. Place. - " ·willows grow best where the land is wet."
3. Manner. - "His words revived us as the dew refreshes flowers."
4. Degree. - "She has more trouble than she ca11 bear."
. 5. Cause. - " The river flows smoothly because it is deep."
6. Purpose. - " Study, that you may learn."
7. Condition. - "The house will be sold if he can not pa,11for it."
s. Concession. - " Though it cost him !tis life, he will ventu~e."

Punctuation. -An adverbial clause that is placed before
its principal clause, or considerably removed from the word
on which it depends, is generally set off by the comma.
Ai1 adverb or adverbial expression that is unusually parenthetic or emphatic, or that abruptly breaks the connection
between other words, is generally set off by the comma.

Ex.-"' The ri\·cr rises iii the mountains." "Tho river is clear in
the mountains." "1Vext da.'f, I abrmt noon, we again sent word to the gene:rc;I, I in regard to the movements of the enemy."

Punctuation. - A prepositional phras~ that is unusually
parenthetic or emphatic, interruptive or remote, is generally set off by the comma.
-+-

In glancing through the two great classes of modifiers, we find · that
most of the grammar elements can belong to either clas~. 1 Pure adjectives become predicate adjectives; appositives become predicate substan,tives.; some of the atlverbial .clauses cah be used as adjective clauses;
.a~d pa~ti.ciples, infinitives? a~d prepositional phrases ca~ be used either
_adjectively or adverbially.
·
· · ·
· ·
f

•'

;

•

Punctuation, - A participial expression that is used m
the sense of a clause, rather than of a simple adjective or
adverb, is generally set off by the comma.

6, Infinitives. And infinitive phrases.
Ex. - "I went to remain." "He fell to rise no more."
correctly, all tho circumstances must Le considered."

"To judge

Punctuation. -An infinitive expression, not closely connected with the word on which it depends, or placed before
the subject of the sentence, is generally set off by the comma.

'

LESSON

5, Partici1lles. And participial phrases.
Ex . .;_" He walks limping." "Now the bright morning-star, day's
harbinger, comes dancing from the east." " He departed, greatly vexed
at his di'.sappaintment."

\

l

.

+

'

• QtteJJtionR. - What ls an adverbial modifier? How mn~y klnds of adverblai modifiers? Mention them. What phrases are used as adverbial modifiers?
t What clauses are used as adverbial modifiers? Describe, more particularly, ad.verblal clauses. \Vhnt rule of punctuation Is given for objectives ?-for prcdl- ·
cnte substantives? - for adverbs?- for participles?- for Infinitives?- for ad· juncts, or prepositional phrases? \Vhat concluding remark is given about both
l l?ds o( modifiers ?
0

XXV.

1. Objectives.

, ).'i

·~:;Analyze tlie following sentences : -

· ·· · '·

.:1.~ "; Th~ farmer plows I his fields. ' (Does what?) Bees gath.er. honey. The soil produces co1·n, wheat, ·and gras.~. · Sp.ch
:... a. horse I I would no~ buy. · Few berries .and. many thorns I
,'we .found in the brier .thicket . . A man mni¥ lend rnoney
,'rwho. can not borrow genius.
We . met them. Whom, did
.
. ·you see ? He buy~ I whateve1· pleases him. Rain and sun
make I the grass ,' grow. I expect I him; to go with us.
I think he is at home. I now see who is right and who
is w1·ong.
Write five sentences similar to any of the foregoing. (The same should be
done In regard to each of the remalnlng elements. )

..

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70

,· and the crops are.. . 3. The river was ... where · we
crossed it. 4. The night. was ... ; and the storm, . . . 5.
His hair turned ... in one year. 6. Envy is . . . 7. To
. die for one's country is . . . 8. , It might have been . . . 9.
The road was . . . 10. Sh e is ... to teach. 11. The house
, stands . . . 12. Pure air is ... to health. 13. Her cheeks
looked ... and . . . 1,4. True religion is .. • , ... , and
15. To be ... is to •be ; . . 16. Becoming .. ·.,·he
snatched a pistol from a soldier.
_

~ J,ord Macaulay Rays of analysis, "The mnn who is best nble t.o take
a m achine to pieces, and who most clearly compreh ends the manner in which
all its wheels nnd ~prings conr\uce to its ge neral effect, will b e th e man most
compete nt to form an other machin e o f elmll:1r p ower." - Should the teaclwr
find that the It.aliclzcd wo rcls make the exerc;ses too easy, he may tench the
subject ornlly by r eading the sent ences to lils class, and requiring th em to
·answer . It Is occas!onnlly a good way to sharpen r eflection, by not t eaching
every thing through th e eye.

S1,1pply objectives, or complete the sentences: -

1. The book pleases . . . 2. The sun melts .
3. You
have not done ... 4. CbilJren should obey ... 5. The wind
shook . • • G. Ho i:'"I unahlo to r cRist. • . 7. A river sometimes overflows its ... , and washes away the . . . 8.
Birds gather ... for their young, and teach ... how to fly.
9. Farmers sell ... , and buy . . . 10. In building •.. ,
the workmen use . . . 11. I saw ... , I heard ..• , and I
read . . . 12. I like to . . . 13. He forgot .•. his fat.her
said. 14.... we undertak e, we should thoroughly finish.
15. Indians kill . . . 16. I bought ... with my money.
17. Milk affords us . . . 18. 'rhey laid ... in the grave,
shed ... over it, and planted ..• around it. · 19. I remember that . . . 20. I see why . . . 21. I can not tell when
22. He replied, ..•

As.,umr., and t!tcn predicate, tlte .following adjectives

Cloudy, strong, lovely, boisterous, · insignificant, mean,
'green, bitter, rough, delicate, tender, melodious. '
'' • ' Ex. - A cloudy day; The day was cloudy.

·· · 3. '1•1·edicate Substantives.
' : Analyze tlie fullowi11y sentences: -

'

2. Predica.te Adjectives.
Analyze tliefolwwin,q sentences : -

Time is prec·ious. (Is what?) Life is short. The
weather turned cold. The wine was pronounced good.
Farmers are gen erally industrious and econoniir:al. The
climate is considc~·ed I beneficial to invalids. The fields
look I fresh and green. Cruel and imnatural, long, bloody,
and destructive, I was the war tl1rough which we have
passed. How pure and balmy I is the air this morning !
His eye than the eagle's was k eene·r and b1·1'. ght&r. It is
easy to become 1n:ischievous by b eing idle.
Supply predicate adjectives,

01·

complete the .~entences: -

1. The ground was ... with snow.

2. The soil ts . . . ,

of suitable object.a : -

.

t"

.' · Time is 1noney. (Is what?) The lily is I a beautiful
flower. Such a man would be I a simpleton . . Such a gift
' is I' too small a compensation for so great a sacrifice. ·Man
is I a bundle of habits and relations. He was I treasurer
arid · principal dfrector of the institution~ Hope is I the
1
blossom of happiness. He was called I a ditnce at school.
William was created I Duke of Normandy. The <lark path
of sorrow becomes I a way of light to lrnaven. Night has
. been styled I the astronomer's day. It must have been lie,
.for he is I the leader of the band. · Medals are given · I as
·rewards at school. Conscience wakes the bitter inemory of
what. ·he is, and what must
be. Seeing is believing." To
.
.
·love is to obey. .The· best way to preserve health is, I to be
careful about diet and exercise. vV e believed him to be I a
spy. . My order is, that you stay at home. The ambiguous
·sentence is, "Lovest thou nie nwre tlian these."
' ·. Supply predicate-substantives, or complete the sentences: -

· 1. The violet is a fragrant . . . 2. The ant 1s . . . 3.
, The .eagle is . . . 4. The diamond is . . . 5. Clover is con-

73

72
sidered excellent ... for hogs. 6. Time is the ... of all
things. 7. The Hudson is . . . 8. Being .. , , she was
chosen . . . 9. Mr. Brown was elected ... of the town.
10. The prosperity of a few is often ... of the many. 11.
He is a thoughtful ... , a daring . .. , and a skillful ...
12. To sell some of your property would be the best way to
13. Our request is, that . . . 14. The question is,
whether. . . 15. My fear is, that ...

4. Adverbs.
Analgze the following sentences: -

I will return soon. I nevm· called there l afterwards.
Do sometimes come to see me. fVh erefore did you not write
to me? Edward had often seen this lake before. Yonder
comes your father. I found no amusement anywhe1·e. The
water splashed sullenly against the sides of the vessel.
The procession moved slowly, solernnly, and silently I on.ward. J-Ie1·e and there, a flower looked oitt I timidly from
the crevices of the mountain. A true friend unbosoms
freely, advises justly, assists 1·eadily, ventures boldly, takes
all patiently, defends cou1·ageously, and continues a friend
unchangeably.
Clauses. - Wait till I 1·etU?·n. Let us not be too prodigal when we a?·e young, nor too parsimonious when we a?·e
old. After the business was settled, we dined together.
Whei·ever there is honey, bees will soon assemble. You
shall reap as you sow. vV e are convinced that yott a?·e
right. I will go if you will. I bought it because it pleased
me. Venture not too far, lest yoit fall.
Supply adcerbs, or compl,ete tlie sentences: -

1. It grew... 2. ·w alk... 3. We
... overtook the enemy.· 4. I wi1l assist you ... , if you
will h elp me . . . 5. Sh e talks .. . , sings ... , dances . .. ,
and plays ... on the piano. 6. She died . . . 7. Large .

~

bodies .. ·. move ... · 8. He who tries ... , ... succeeds.
9.' ·He who does bis work ... , must ... ::do it .. . · 10.
rrl10 ·letter was not ... ·... written. 11. '. .. did you see
l him ? 12. . . , were you . . . ? . ·. .
13. Time ' . . . past,
1
• • :; returns.
14. The ... worthless things are . ·. . .i ..
" esteemed. · 15. You are ... young . · .. to learn the French
· language . ·. . . .. · 16. The· hall was • .. illuminated, and
... crowded with hearers.' 17. ~ have been: . ; idle ... ;
but ... I will study . . . . . . 18. . .. you have . : . noticed
• , . all the adverbs in the sentence which I have . '. . read.
1. While ... , there is hope. 2. Make hay . ,'. . the sun
·.. shines. 3. Do as . . . 4 .... the tree falls, ... ·it lies. 5.
· 'It is bad ... the mind survives the body, and ... worse
:: ': . } '. the body survives the mind. · 6. I will : speak to him
· '" {vhen . . . 7. You may use my h?rse . . . and .. . you
·.,! plea~e. 8. I walked ... ·. ; .- anq " ." .· , ·untii' ' he ·... : -;-:· 9.
·•' If :·... . were ... , he would ... go w~th. us. " 10. ~he corn ·
.1' ~ will grow, because . ; . 11. Though ... , he did not speak ,
. ~d•'to '' me. 12. The weather is :colder ' than .·: . · ' 13. '·_The :
I
•
,
' '· deeper ... , the cooler . . .
· ·.
_._. ·.
l i r••t ·i 1Change each '?f the following words and phrases 'int; .its. corresponding
f

I

'

,

•

,

adverb and then write a sentence that shall contain the adverb :·_:_' · ' "', '
I

..

)

.

J

•

,

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'

·, ·

··· Clear, safe, gentlest, plain, critic, music, grammar; alge. •\'\' bra '; with vigor; in a careless mariner; at ~he present pi.m e;
1
· " i~· atl ·places; from i~stinct; day by day; . to such a degree; ·
•: .. from what cau'se; in what · pl~ce; in whatever place; in that .
).·.\place; it may be that; at any time.
· '' "
;H

\1'

•

'

'

I

~

· · · 5, Partici1Jles. . , ·
Analyze the following sentences:....:.

•'

~ ;i t • . •a.;'..
.. -~ ...... ;, · •:··~ 1 •• ' / ,.,
"'

'

•' '

.. : ·

(:

.

\

t

..

''rhe burning' m~st fell hissin'g ' into : ~he' water: · ~.e '
touched his harp, anq nations he~~·4 ent?'.f-'l'nced. The scythe
glitte1·ing in the dewy grass. Dinnm· being read'!!., she1
rang the bell.
Peace of mind being . secured, we .lll:ay f.
smile at misfortune. ' The lake lay before us, I gleaming i1i

lies

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I

~·

.

I I

74
the sunshine. Here comes his body, I mourned by Ma1·lc
Antony. The fisherman went I sailing away to the east.
Our house having been sold, we were obliged to remove.
Supply participial expressions, or complete tlie senten<X'.s: -

1. The bee flies ... among the clover-blossoms. 2. The
cars came . . . 3. He went home . . . 4. The ship immediately ... , all on board perished. 5. The ball went ...
past us. 6. The horse ran ... and ... over the meadow.
7. The sun ... , all nature was silent. 8. The weather
••• unpleasant, we remained at home.

6. Infinitives.
Analyze tlte following sentences : -

· cane-brake I into the river. The boat went down the river, I
from Memphis I to New Orleans. After a painful struggle,
I yielded to 1ny fate. He was wise · in the cabinet, and
brave in the field. .I sold hini a piece of land· one hund1·ed
feet long, and twenty feet wide. None knew thee but to
love thee. The punishment must be determined by how
fa1· the man is guilty.
. , . Supply prrpositions, and complete the sentences: -

1. He goes ... church . . . Sunday. . 2. ·The corn was
sold ... fifty dollars. 3. A canoe carried us ... the river.
4. There are many islands ... this lake. , 5. There is a
line of boats running ... New York.... Boston. . 6. The
water issues ... a cave, and spreads ... a liquid plain. 7.
There is a tide ... the affairs of men, which, taken ... the
.. flood, leads on ... fortune. 8. The steed •.• fury bears his
rider headlong . , . the foe. 9. . ... summer it is pleasant
1 to.' recl,i ne •. , some shady tree,· •. ~ clear and cool waters.
The ivy, creeping ... the old castle, folded its green
· mantle ..• the shattered walls, and held its broken frag' men ts together ..• one long, last embrace.

·~

Some books are to be 1·e~d, ai1d others to be studied. I
came to bu1·y Cwsa1·, not to praise kini. He is supposed to
huve said so. I am g I a<l to see yon. vV e on g ht to study
earnestly. vVe intended to (JO yestC?·day. I 11ave been requestecl .to call in, au<l see yon. The Look is beautiful to
look at. ·A child learns to modulate his voice even while
. is ye.t unable to m·ticulate.
'
he
Supply infinitives, or complct.e tlte sentences: -

1.

She seei;ns . . . attentive to her lessons. 2. She appea~s . . . 3. The children went 11ome . . . 4. . . . my
busmess, I want a good manager. 5. I was compelled ... . ·
that you were not sincere. 6. Is she accustomed ... ? 7.
They are too poor to ... , yet too proud to . . . 8. vVe are
prepared to ...

'1. Pre1}ositional Pbrases.
Analyze the following se11te11ces: -

75

.

I remained at home. 'rhe apple hangs yet on the tree.
She died of grief. Joyous Day stands tiptoe I on the
misty mo.u ntain-tops. We seek in vain I for pC?'fect happiness. The wind sweeps tliroitgk the rustling poplars. .
Th~ bear w~s attacked by our dogs, and chased tlu·ougk the .

+o.

Form an adjunct with roch of the following prepositions, and then make
~n adverbial e/,ement: -

' a sentence in which the adJunct is incorpo1:ate.d as

". · ·" ·By, in, to, through, beyond, from, against, with, Pnder,
-+"
· between.
,\

Write six or more sentences on, -

· · 1. The love of being.
2. The love of having.
3. The love of doing.
4. The love c;>f knowing.

5.
6.
7.
8.

The love of ·talking.
The love of ruling.
The 'lo~e of dressing.
The love o~ eating.

Ex. - It is r~markable how tenaciously most creatures cling 'to. life.
The lower nnimnls re~ort to every means of escape nnd defense, to pre1
. serve it. It is cruel to kill them unnecessarily, for they hnvo ns go~d a
, right to live as we have. It is allowable to kill them, only in ~elf,de·;
fense, or when we need them for food. Among ourselves, we regapl
1
• .. murder as the greatest crime.
(Add other sentences about fortune, happiness, hope, misery,' sickness, death, suicide, heaven.) .

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76
\

·-

LESSON

77
XXVI.

1. A word .or phrase, used for a sentence should
'
begin with a capital letter.
. 2: A word denoting the Deity should begin with a
capital letter.
3. A proper noun, or each chief word of a proper
noun, should begin with a capital letter.
4. A word derived from a proper noun should begin
with a capital letter.
6. A title or heading, or each chief word of such au
expression, should begin with a capital letter.
6. A noun denoting an object fully personified should
begin with a capital lettei;-.
. . A very i1~porta~t wor<l, especially ~vhen it denotes the
subject of discourse, may also begin with a capital letter.

.,

Ex.-1. "For sale." "Balance, $2.2!i." 2. "The . Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghost;" "the Saviour;" "the Most High . "
" ~reat p arent o f good;" "to Thee." 3 . John, Henry, William,
'
Al.ice, Emma, Monday, Sunday, May, New York, Hudson, Mississippi
Illinois, Cuba; " Rocky Mountains ; " " the Cape of Good Hope . ,;
"Lk
. ""G eorge ,V. Nobody; " "the Fourth of Jul '."
a e S upenor;
4. American, Cuban, Jesuit, Christian, Israelite. 5. " The respect/or
Mr. and Mrs . Jones to Joseph A. Simmons, Esq . ;" "John Bull and
Brother Jonathan;" "Alexander the Great." "The Captain was
here this morning." "Sir Walter Raleigh undoubtedly wrote •The
Soul's Errand.' " 6. "0 Happiness! our being's end and aim.''
Though the distinction is not well authorized, yet It would be desirable to
use 0 only_b efore terms of address, and on light, joyous occasions . and oh in
other cases, especially for the deeper, h eavier, and stronger feelings.'

Corre,ct each o/ the following terms, and then write a · sentence containing
the corre,cted expression : -

. Our .?reator; st. louis, aug. 1st, 1861 ; Harper's ferry;
~o henr~ 1. clark; mount lookout; Hudson's bay; Rhode
island; m kentucky an<l tennessee; the mountains of the
moon ; a book called - the t emple of truth ; the catholics
and the protestants; the secretary of state; the united states.
gray-haired winter; an african.
·
'

Write sentences in which are mentioned some of the
days of the week; - some of the months and holidays;some of the cities and rivers in your State
some of the
religious denominations · in your village; - some of , .the
United-States officers; - some of your neighbors.
.

i-

Questions. - Give tho rule for beginning an independent word or phrase;
- appellations of the D eity; - proper nouns; - derivatives from proper nouns;
-titles and headings; - names of poreonified objects. What le 11aid of unusually important or emphatic words?
1,
I
• I''

LESSON XXVII.

Punctuation is a supplemental art, ~sed, to show the
constrnction and meaning of sentences more distinctly
to the eye by means of certain points or. stops;
.. · ·
.'. In general, punctuation serves to di~tinguish words in a phrase,
phrases in a clause, clauses in a sentence, sentences in a paragraph, and
pa~agraphs in a discourse.
·
'
The period being too diminutive for obvious distinctio.n, capit~l letters are also used to assist in distinguishing the sentences of a paragraph ; and breaks or blank spaces, to assist in distin~~uishing the
, .
· .. ·... ,: ,. " .,, ' 1
. paragraphs of a discourse.
; , , The great principle on w.hich the rules of punctu.ati?n are bwe~, is,
that parts closely connected in sense do not require separation ; ' but
that any interruption of the sense, or modification of it by qualifying
··!
statements, must be indicated by appropriate points.

' . There, are eight principal point~ used . ii~ ·, pun~tua'.'
~ion, which may be ,giv~ded into t~o eqµ~1l . ~la~~~s· ,~..
I. Four points that indicate

The
The
The
The

2. Four points that, besides, char':"!t,eriz~

thou.ght or indicatefeeling.

purely syntax.

I

Perlocl (•), ·
Colon (:), ; ·
Semicolon (;),
Comma (,) . .

The Interrogatlon-polnt (f),
The Exclamatlon-polnt (!),
The Dash(-),
The. Curves (( )).

. The uses of the period, the interrogation-point, and the exclamation- ·
point, have already been stated. - Bee p. 9. ·
' '

78
·The Colon is used, 1. As a point intermediate between semicolon and
period.
2. Before a sentence added as a supplement to
another sentence.
3. Before a promised explanation, appositively
added.
4. After a respectful address, before a grave or
·weighty discourse.

7U
third." "The Minstrel; or, The Progress of Genius." 3. "Touch
not; taste not; hantlle not." " Steamship Atlanta, _Liverpool; Lady
. Franklin, Savannah; Seaman's Bride, Galveston." · .

The Semicolon is used, 1. As a point intermediate between comma and
colon.

.' rrhe Comma is used' I
1. To separate the terms of a closely related series,
or two such terms when the connective is omitted. ·
To separat~ terms that are contrasted or"otherw~se distinguished, terms of which one rehit<::;s_ also to
u'n other part, and terms of which a part in one wight
be referred improperly to the other.
· ~· To set off any modifier that produces q. distinct
and separate impression on the mind, that is forcibly
interruptive or parenthetic, or that is rather far removed from the word ou which it depends.
. 4. To set off words or phrases .used independently.
or absolutely, and not sufficiently emotknal for the
exclamatioll-point. ·
' · ""-·
· ·
5. To separate the predicate f1:01~~ its subject when
the suLject consists of punctuated parts or has a long
clause, or when it is a long and emphatic clause or in-.
fin.itive phrase; also, to set off the predicate-verb from
an emphatio predicate-clause or infinitive-phrase.

In this sense lt Is frequ ently placed before and, but, for, though, yet, nor,
nay, hence, therefore, that is, or a similar connective, when this unites two

'\Vhen and, or, or nor Is usctl before the Inst nominative of a se,ries, the
comma is generally not ne eded befor e the predicate.
·

Ex. - 1. "I have not room to illustrate these rules fully: let them
be remembered; and they will exemplify themselves, with experience
and practice." 2. "Do not expect perfect happiness in this life: there is
?o such thing on earth." The colon, in this sense, is frequently used
m st~ad o~ a s~mi~olon and conjunction ; as, " Do not expect perfect
happmess m this life; for there is no such thing on earth." 3. " The
Bible gives us a beautiful description of the Deity in these words •
'God is love I'" "TEJufB: Three Dollars 11 Yea1-' 'invariably in Ad:
,, 4. "Mr. Evarts then rose, and delivered
. '
vance.
the following
address:. ' 'Ladies and Gen tic men : 'It is now just ten years since,' "etc., etc.

clauses that are rather long.

2. To separate parts that already have the comma,
or require it.
3. To sep~rate. the parts of a loose series, especially
when stre~s is laid upon the particulars.
Ex. - I. "Keep thine heart with all diligence; for out of it are
the issues of life." "He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely; but
he that perverteth his ways, shall be known." 2. "Yes yes• it is 80
't .
"
"1'h ere are three persons; the first, the second,
'
' and the,
1 ts so.

2:

6, To separate clauses that are neither very closely

nor very loosely connected.
Short simple s entences or clauses seldom require a point within them; and
phrases or clauses that stand In close connection with that on wblc\l they depend, seldom r equire a point before them.

Ex. - l. "Hedges, groves, orchards, and gardens were in bloom."
"It was a dark, desolate region." " ·we told him who we \Yerf!, whence
we had come, and ~hither we intended to go." 2. ''He is poor, but
honest." " Now a peal of gunpowder was heard, and another, and
. another." " The prairies of Iowa are covered with a rich coat of grass,
and not unfrequcntly spotted with hazel thickets." The latter phrase,

80
having itself the force of a separate statement, is sufficiently distinguished from what goes before it not to be made a part of it, or to
stand as a separate phrase. "The water was as bright nnd pure, nncl
seemed as precious, as liquid diamonds." Here the last phrase relates
to both the phrases before it, and therefore a comma must precede it.
"The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians." " The troops
landed and killed a lrnndred Indians," has n very different menning.
3. "You will then, however, be in no better condition." "Moral culture, especially in .11outh, is' of the greatest importance." "They set out
early, and, before the dawn of day, reached the pince." " Colnmlms,
who was a Genoese, discovered America." "The greatest Romnn orntor, Cicero, wns clistingnishetl for his pntl'iotism." "Such w11s Tecumseh, tlie celebrated l11dia11 warrior." "ln n central region, I midway on
the continent, I at an elevation of nearly eight tlwusand feet, I lies the v~lley
of Mexico, encircled b.1J a colossal rampart of the hardest rocks, I and forming a circuniference <!f about sixty-seven leagues, I with a sky of the deepest
blue, and a magnificent landscape." 4. "This book, JJ/ary, is yours."
"O, yes, sir, I do know." "Shame being lost, nil virtue is lost." ' This

example can also be referred to the preceding rnlo. 5. "Neither time nor
" The books
distance, neither weal nor woe, can separate us."
which contained pictures, maps, and autographs, brought a high price."
"That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is true." "The
unanimous decision of this little party now was, that a desperate effort
should be made to reach the ship again before night." 6. "There
mountains rise, and ci~ling oceans flow." "The country is romantic,
but the soil is poor." 1' If Homer was the greater genius, Virgil was
the better artist." ' 1 "vV ~ ne:x,~ ·wen~ to Loqdon, which is the largest
city in the world."
Other Uses. -Tho commn Is generally plnce<l between n word nnd Its
repetition; ns, "Sweet, sweet home I" It ls placed nfler a surname when this
Is put b efore tlrn given name; !IS," 'fyler, George ·w.>• It Is used to separate
numbers Into p eriods; as," Population of the United States, 31,443,790.'' It Is
used before explanatory or; ns, "The skull, 01· cranium ." The comma, paradoxical as it may seem, Is frequently used, not only to sepm·nte parts, but also
at the same time to connect oth er pnrtR, by lift.In g out, as It were, what breaks
the connection; as in the sentence ·which I l1nvo just written. And It Is sometimes used to supply the pince of nn omitted verb or conjunction; as," Indolence
produces poverty; and poverty , misery.''

General Rule. - Throu,ghout a sentence of close syntax,
the comma is used to distinguish serial sense, completed sense,
broken sense, or remote sense, and to clear up ambiguous sense.
This comprehensive and condensed H.ule comprises the entire punctuation
of the comma.

81

•

'I

LESSON · XXVIII.

The Dash· is used, t. To show omission caused by interruption.
2. To show emphasis or snppres~ed foeling., or an
unexpected turn in thought or style.
3, 'l'o set off u. · parenthesis, especially when emphatic, or when there are other points .within it'. .
· 4:, Before echoes, or where that is or narnely is un'\,
derstood.
Ex. -1. " •I have' - 'Nothing in the , world,' • id. the,, ~ther."
" •Well, my friend, tho counselor,'- .' Sny, "learned friend, if ~ou
2 "Arm t arm! it is -it is,;_ the cannon's operung
• r' "
pl ease, S 1 .
·
l
roar I" "Pop ! There - the cork's drawn. · Gurgle - gurgle - gurg e,
_good_ good - good - No! it is in vain; there is no type - ther~ are
no printed sounds (allow me the concetto) - to describe the melody, the
cadence, of the out-pouring bottle." " This world, 'tis true, wa~ .made
for Cresar - but for Titus too." 3. "Tom Moore wrote politics. at
times - pointed, bitter, rankling politics; but he was really no pohtician nt heart." "And then - my heart with · it- I gave him a bo~­
quet." " He was dressed - and, indeed, so were they nearly all - t~
coarse homespun.'' 4. "All the rest was mere flourish- mere pala.v?r.
"Mozart's life was nn anthem on his own favorite organ, - lugh·
toned solemn and ma1estic.'' " The brook had nothing to do beyond
'
what 'I have said,
-to~ flow, to look limpid, and to murmur ami'd f ra·
grant flowers."

Other Uses. -The d~sb is general.ly used after side-heads, and also before
authorities when in the same line with the end of the paragraph. It is ·some. Um es added to the common ioints to lengthen the pause or supply the want of
nn intermediate point, to show emphasis, or to mark transition. In ~iaiogue that
Is not paragraphed, It Is now commonly used when the speakers names are
omitted. It is generally used In composite h eadings, ns In newspapers. It ls
often used where n line ls broken off, and the subject is r esumed in the !/'ext
line. It is sometimes us~d to show omission of letters or figures. And it le
often used at the left of newspaper extracts, to show that they are such, or as a
· more mod est request to no~lce than the ll@'" • (The teacher should explain what
is meant. -See Keri's Comprehensive Grammar.)
6

82
The Curves are used, To incloso · soma incidental remark or explanation, related so little to the other words that it can be
omitted.
Ex. - "I gave (and who would not have given 1) my last dollar to
the miserable beggar."
I

"But she (wise little bee!) thinks work better than play."
"Know then this truth (enough for man to know):
Virtue alone is happiness below."

Ob!I. 1. - The Brackets ( [ ] ) are used to inclose what one person
puts into the writings of another; as, "Yours (the British] is a nation
of great resources." Explanation. "Do you know if (whether] ho is
a~ bome1" Correction. "Abbotsford, May 12, [1820)." Omission.
Obs: 2. -The Hyphen (-) is used at the close of a syllabic that
ends a hnc, when the remaining syllabic or syllables of the word must
be carried to the next line. It is also used to join the parts of most
compound words.
' Obs. 3. - The Caret (i\) is placed under the space in a written
line where words, interlined above, should be placed; as, "Rhetoric
but good thoughts

is nothing A well dressed."

Obs. A. - ~he Underscore is a line drawn under words in writing,
that are to be prmted in Italics or capitals.
One line is drawn under a written word, to denote slanting or Italic
letters; two lines are drawn under, to denote SMALL CAPITALS; and
three lines, to denote CAPITALS.
Words are Italicized for emphasis or distinction. '\Vords spoken of
merely as words, foreign words, and the names of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazines, are usually distinguished by being Italicized.
Obs. 5. - A question that is merely mentioned and not asked is
11 d . d'
•
,
,
ca e m irect, and docs not admit the interrogation-point after it· as
"He asked me, ' Why do you weep 1' " Direct. " He asked me' wh;
I wept." Indirect.
Questions. - What le punctuation? Can you mention something more
. about lt? How many principal points? How classified? Name those of each
class. What Is said of th e colon?- the semicolon? - the comma?- the dash ?
- the curves ? - the brackets ?- the hyphen ?- the caret ?- tho underscore ?

83
LESSON
'

Insert

XXIX.

periods and capital letters: -

The Rice-plant is a species of grass growing very much
like .our oats when ripe, each grain is enclosed in a yellow
husk, and hung in fine clusters on very thin stalks it grows
best in very moist soil; and low lands .which are ffooded at
particuln.r seasons are on that account )referred for its cultivation before it is use<l for food, th e husk is removed by
rubbing the grain between flat stones, and blowing , the
broken husks away machines are also used }or the same
purpose rice is grown in great abundance in india, china,
and japan, where it is a principal article of food in our
own country it serves us chiefly for puddings f.l.lJ.d for thickening soup it is both cheap arid wholesome, ·· · ' :
The pupil should apply the rules as be makes the correctjon~~

·

' '· · ·'

colons:, ' 1. The virtuous man does not content himself with ;the
hope of repairing a wrong at some future day for I1e does
.not commit it; and thus, though he may often b~ ~o~e µp.fortunate, he is always more tranquil.
· : 2. Good t emper is like a sunny day it sheds a brightness over every thing.
•
1
·;'
3. Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners;
the voluptuous have companions, and t.he ~ickeq P,ave a~. complices none but the virtuous can have. friends.
· 4. All our condu.c t toward others should be influenced
by this important precept "Do unto others as ye would
that they should do ~mto you."
' · 5. There are t~o questions 'which grow out of this ' sub,ject first, How far is ·any sort of classical education useful?
second, How far is that particular classical educa:tip:p. a<lopk
~q. in this country µseful ~
.
·· \
'' 6! ;M:r. Wirt then rose, and began thuE!
,Alumni of the University, ladies and gentlemen
Insert

.->'

84
Insert

85

semicolons : -

1. He was respectful, not servile, to superiors affable, not
improperly familiar, to equals and condescending, not su- ·
percilious,. to those beneath him.
2. A salad should be, as to its contents, multifarious as
to its proportions, an artistic harmony as to its flavor, of
a certain pungent taste.
3. Every thing that happens is both a cause and an
effect being the effect of what goes before, and tho caus·e of
what follows.
4. If you want a thing done, go if not, send.
5. Rio coffee, 9 cents Maracaibo, 12 cents Java, 15 cents.
6. Lightning takes the readiest and best conductor so '·
does the electrical fluid: lightning burns so does electricity:
lightning sometimes destroys life animals have also been
killed by electricity.

.

Bo punctuated by Franklin, the great printer; though periods could be used.

7. The Indians are taken by surprise : some are shot
down in their cabins others rush to the riv.er, and are
drowned others push from the shore in their birchen canoes,
and are hurried down the cataract.
8. Go, go, my good fellows and do not let the poor m3.n
d:rown.
9. ·Examinations are formidable even to the wisest for
the greatest fool may ask questions that no one can answer.
l-0, Religion should be the spirit of every hour but it
can not be the meditation of every hour.
·
11. He must advance or recede and it was impossible to
advance without peril, or recede without humiliation.
12. If disastrous war should sweep our · commerce from
the ocean, another generation may renew it if it exhaust
our treasury, future industry may replenish it if it lay
waste our fields, still, under a new cultivation, they will
grow green again, and ripen to future harvests: but who
shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished government ?

f

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I

87

86
can not be denied. 'l'o maintain a steady course amid all
the adversities of life marks a great mind. Divide and
conquer is an excellent rule in study as well as in warfare.
14. Ilut the question is Are the examples correct in syntax? All that a man gets by lying is that lie is not believed even when he tells the truth. Our intention is to
start early in the morning.
15. Again we conceive that natural religion though not
a demonstrative is yet a progressive science. The English
<love or cushat is noted for its cooi11g or murmuring.
16. He seemed extremely well pleased with his lodgings
which in reality exceeded his expectations; and the cheerful
landlord not to weary his guest bad~ him good-night and
shut the door.
17. vVell to be sure how much I have fagged through!
Nocturnal silence reigning a nightingaJe bega11.
18. A great general who <lied oa tho field of victory
said before his death "I hope my country will be satisfied."
19. vVhen snow accumulates on the ground in winter it
is useful in keeping the earth at a rnoclerate degree of cold ;
for where the snow lies the temperature of the ground beneath seldom descends below the freezing-point.
20. vVhat you leave at your death let it be without controversy or else the lawyers will be your heirs.
21~ The ship Ann Alexander a stanch vessel Captain
S. De blow sailed from New Bedford the 1st of June 1850
for a. cruise in the South Pacific in search of whales.
22. Then tho fathers are to go to the principal caciques
and to tell them that their highnesses the carclinal aml the
embassador have heard of the oppressions and injuries
which they aucl their people have sufferecl in times past;
and as their highnesses wish so to reme<ly these evils that iu
future the caciques and their people may be well treated
since they are Christians free and capable of governing

themselves their highnesses have sent the said fathers the
priests to search out the ,truth to chastise the past wrong- ·
' <loing and to provide security for the future.
Insert inte'l'l'O(Jatio i-points and exclamation-points:
1. Pray, Father A >raham, what think you of the times
vVill not these heavy. taxes quite ruin_the country and how
shall we ever pay them
. i' 2. Who is so base that he would be a slave What a
piece of work is man O blessed Health thou art ab~ve all
gold anu jewels Strike - till the last armed foe ~x~ires
3. What was the cause of our wasting forty nulhons of
money, and sixty thousand lives The American war For
what ar~ we about to incur an additional debt of twelve or
fourteen millions This cruel, diabolical American war
4. Gentlemen what does this mean-" Chops and tomato-sauce your;, Pickwick" · Chops Gracious heaven.s
And tomato-sauce Gentlemen, is the happiness of a sensitive and confiding female to be trifled away by such shallow
artifices as these
Insert dashes, curves, and quotation-1na1·ks : 1. She was A great fool, said he, interrupting me.
2. These are ah ! no these were the gazetteers.
3. Is it possible that my friend but I ':ill not suspect
him of the deed.
·
4. Johnson grown old Johnson in the fullnes~ of his
fame and in the enjoyment·of a competent fortune is better
known than any other man in history. , . .
5. rrhey are governeJ. by the worst passions envy and
I

;

revenge.
·
.
6. 'fho clock went tick tick tick tick ; and I went md-nod
nodcling niuding; till suddenly the door-bell rang, and s~ar­
tled me from my drowsiness.
· 7. GLADlA'fOR Lat. gladius, a sword means a prizefighter.

89

88

Then we kissed the little maiden,
And we spoke in better cheer;And we anchored safe in harbor,
When the morn was shining clear. -

8. Oh, sir ! said the good woman, he was such a comely
and sweet-tempered lad.
9. Thou idol of thy parents Hang the boy l
There goes my ink.

LESSON

., I
i. I

.

[

XXX.

To change verse into prose is a suitable and profitable exercise for beginners in composition.
Destroy the rhymes and measure Ly change of words and
syntax.

1

·

THE TEMPEST.

We were crowded in the cabin ;
Not a soul 'voul<l. dare to sleep :
It was midnight on the waters,
And a storm was on the deep.
'Tis a fearful thing in winter
To be shattered by the blast,
And to hear the rattling trumpet
Thunder, "Cut away the mast!"
So we shuddered there in silence ·
For the stoutest hel<l ]1is breath'
While the hungry sea was roaring,'
And the breakers talked with Death.
And as thus we sat in darkness,
Each one busy in his prayers,
"vVe are lost!" the captain shouted,
As he staggered down the stairs.
But his little <laughter whispered,
As she took his icy hand
'
'
"Isn't God / pon the ocean,
Just the same as on the land ? "

FIELD.

The foregoing poem has been successfully used by a class of girls.
following is one of their sketches : -

The

"·we were crowded together in the cabin of the vessel, and every
tongue was hushed. All knew the peril we were in, this stormy night,
so far out on the dark, deep sea. It was winter; an.d the icy waves
dnshctl over the deck, carrying off any thing that they 'chanced to meet
in their wild piny. But the roar of the ravenous breakers, out at sea,
was so terrible that they seemed to be talking with Death, and conspiring with him to destroy us.
"Above the din and roar, we could hear distinctly, in our nest, the
voice of the captain, trumpeting forth his order to the sailors, 'Cut
.away the mast I' The heavy strokes of their axes immediately followed ; and soon, a dull, icy crash was heard, wh\ch told us that· the
order had been obeyed.
.
"As we sat there in the darkness, with many busy at their prayers,
. the captain, very much agitated and alarmed, came staggering.down the
stairs, with the fearful words upon his lips, 'We are lost ! ' But his
little daughter caught his cold hand, nQd said, ' Is not God upon the
ocean the same as on the land 1' Then we kissed the little maiden who
·, spoke such cheering words to our fainting hearts; and we all soon anchored safe in the harbor, when the morning shone , bright and beautiM~

.

,

.

Change the f ol1owing to prose: DESCRIPTION OF A FARM-HOl"SE.
- Firmly builded with rafters of oak, the house of the farmer
Stood on the side of a hill commanding the sea; and a shady
'. Sycamore grew by the door, with a woodbine around it.
lludcly carved was the porch; with scats b eneath; and a foot-path
Led through an orchard wide, and disappeared In the meadow.
Under the sycamore-tree were hives overhung by a penthouse.
Farther down, on the slope of the hill, was the well with its moss·growu
Bucket fastened with iron, and near It n trough for the horses. '
Shielding the house from storms, on the north, were the barns and the farm.yard,
There stood the broad-wheeled wains, and the antique plows, and the harrows;
There were the Rhecp In their folds; and there was the garrulous poultry.
Bursting with hay were the barns, themselves a village. In each one,
1 '

- - -- ---~-·· ~

91

90
Far o'er the gable projected a roof of thatch; and a staircase,
Under the sheltering caves, led up to the odorous corn-loft.
There, too, the dove-cote stood, with its meek nnd lnnoccnt Inmates
Murmuring ever of love; while nbove, In the vnrlnnt breezes,
Numberless noisy weather-cocks rattled and sang of mutation.

2. ReaJ a piece of verse, and let it be reproduced in
prose.
IJiij- The teacher should collect and preserve, for rcpro<l uctlon, a set of the
bo.st ske tches he can find. \Vhen a piece Is to be used, he should rend it carefully on ce or twice to his class, and then require them to reproduce it from
memory and imagination.

AUTUMN Ev"ENING.
Filled was the r..ir with a dreamy magical light; nnd the landscape
Lay as if new-created in all the freshne ss of childhood.
Peace seemed to reign upon earth, and the restless heart of the ocean
'Vas for a moment consoled. All sounds were in harmony blended:
Voices of children nt play, the crowing of cocks In Urn farm-yards,
'Vhlr of wings In tho drowsy air, and tho cooing of pigeons, All were suliducd, aml low ns the murmur of love; and tho great sun
Looked with the eye of love through the golden vapors around him;
\Vhllc, arrayed in its robes of ru sset nnd scarlet and yellow,
Ilrlght wllh the sheen of dew glistened each tree of the forest.
Now recommenced the reign of rest and affection and stillness;
Day witl1 Its burden and h eat had departed, twll!gl1t descending
Brought back the evening star to the sky, and the herds to the homestead.
LONGFELLOW'S

Qreat historical events and interesting pieces of description or narration, especially when they readily produce
mental pictures, are the best topics for reproduction. In
.exercises of this kind the teacher shoul<l. also try to improve
' the taste of his pupils, particularly in the .selection of his
pieces. The child that learns to seo beauty and truth has .
' "the blessed key to God's great temple, and can find every• where an entrance to ~he shrine."

Evangeline.

Additional Subjects.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

The Village Blacksmith, by Longfellow.
The Thunder-Storm, by Mrs. Hemans.
Casabianca, by Mrs .. Hemans.
A Hebrew Talc, by Mrs. Sigourney.
A Parable, by Lowell.
Parts of Chevy Chase.
Parts of Hiawatha.
Parts of Cowper's Task.
Parts of Thomson's Seasons.
Pieces from the reading-books.
LESSON

THE DEAD

i.

MOTHER.

Touch not thy mother, boy; .thou canst not wake
Why, father? She still wakens at this hour.
F. :• Your mother's dead I my child.
,· O. And what is dead?
If she be dead, why, then, 'tis only sleeping;
For I am sure she sleeps. - Come, mother, rise.·Her hand is very cold !
Her heart is cold. .'
.. Her limbs are bloodless,
would that mine were so !
,
I
(J, i; If she would ~·aken, she would soon be warm.
· Why is she wrapt in this thin sheet? If I,
This wintry morning, were not covered better,
I should be cold like her.
No, not like her :

c.(.

XXXI.

lll

composition.

· • , Lei the followin_q poem be cl1anged into th1·ee different prose narratives;
one in which the child is the principal figurP., one in whi<;h the , mot.her is the
· • principal figure, and one in which the father is the principal fi.gure : -

,

Read a sketch of pro}, and let it be reproduced m

·.

I

.,.

93

92
The :fire might warm you, or thick clothes; but herN othing can warm again !

If I could wake her,
She would smile on me, as she always does,
And kiss me. - Mother! you have slept too long. -. Her face is pale, and it would frighten me,
Ilut that I know she loves me.

C.

F.

Come, my child.

C.

Once, when I sat upon her lap, I felt
A beating at her side ; and then she said
It was her heart that beat, and bade me feel
For my own heart, and they b oth bca.t alike,
Only mine was the quickest : and I feel
My own heart yet; but hers - I can not feel.

F.

Child ! child! you <lrive me mad; come hence, I say.

C.

Nay, father, be not angry! let me stay
Here till my mother wakens.
I

F.

I have tolJ. you,
Your mother can not wake ; not in this world :
But in another, she will waken for us.
When we have slept like her, then we shall see her.

C.

Would it were night, then !

F.

No, unhappy child !
F~ll many a night shall pass, ere thou canst sleep
That last, long sleep. 'Phy father soon shall sleep it.
Then wilt thou be deser ~d upon earth ;
None will regard thee ; ,thou wilt soon forget
That thou hadst natural ties,- an orphan lone,
Aban<loned to the wiles of wicked men.
Father ! father !
vVhy do you look so terribly upon me ?
You will not hurt me ?
.

Hurt thee, darling? no!
Has sorrow's violence so much of anger,
That it should fright my boy ? Come, dearest, come;

C.

You are not angry, then ?

F.

Too well I love you.

C.

All you hav~ said 1 can not now remember,
Nor what is 11ieant; you terrified. me so.
But th: I know you told me, - I must sleep
Before my mother wakens ; so, to-morrow !
Oh, father ! that to-morrow were but come !

A;J the extracts we have given are designed to be also ' good Illustrations of
the rules for punctuation aud capital letters ; but the foregoing poem we rec·
- _ ommend particularly; Let the rnlee of punctuation be applied to It.

Should tlwforegoing dialogue be too difficult, change and amplify the following poem into a prose composition : LINES ON LIBERATING A CHAMOIS.
I.

Free-born and beautiful ! the mountain has naught like thee;
Fleet as the rush of Alpine fountain, tearless and free!
Thy dazzli11g eye outshines in brightness tho beams of hope;
Thine airy bound outstrips the lightness of antelope.
.., u On cliffs where scarce the eagle's pinion can find repose,
1
_ ... ~,, Thou keep'st thy desolate dominion of trackless snows I ·
1
.'., .,., Thy pride to roam where man's ambition could never climb,
• :'.,. !i And make thy world a dazzling vision of Alps sublim; I ,
~ • .•

1 i~1J··

II.

,.,

fi

How glorious are the dawns that wake thee to thy repast I
And where their fading lights forsake thee they shine the last.
Thy clime is pure - thy heaven is clearer- brighter than ours;
To thee the desert 13nows are dearer than summer flowers.
Nor love, nor fear, nor art can tame thee, thou mountain-born!
... J · Then go where thy fl~et comrades claim thee, and meet the morn I
There all thy kindre~ rights inherit, and ne'~r again ,
May hunter's guileI on thy free spirit impose a chain .
,

.

C.

F.

~

The foregoing le an excellent piece, laid In the midst of grand scenery, and
having the exhilarating spirit of liberty Infused Into it. Let similar compoel·
tlone in prose be written on liberating,~
•,

" 1.•'A song-bird. . 2. An eagle.
~.

3. A squirrel. · 4. A fawn.

1

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94
Additional
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
G.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
. 13.
14.
15.

Sul~jccts.

Little Nell, by Dickens.
Ginevra, by Rogers. - Sec Parker's Aids to Composition.
Flowers, by Horace Smith and by L eigh Hunt.
Cowper's Y ardlcy Oak ; an excellent poem.
John Gilpin and Alexander Selkirk, by Cowper.
The vV reek of the Hesperus, by Longfellow.
The Wreck of the Arctic, by H. vV. Beethcr.
Prisoner of Cl~illon, by Lord Byron.
Death of Marmion, by Scott.
Vision of Belshazzar, by Croly.
Destruction of Sennacherib, by Lord Byron.
The Murdered Traveler, by Bryant. .
The Angels of Buena Vista, by \Vhittier.
Portions of the Pilgrim's Progress.
Portions of Macaulay's Poems.

Drynnt'e poetry rnnkcs better prose . t111m most of tho other poctr"., - a
proof uf its stamina. Try Thanatopsis, A Conqueror's Grave, etc:
. .

It is weJI known that Dr. Franklin acquiretl his style chiefly by 1m1tating the best pieces in Addison'P , Spectator, an~ the.n co mpa~ing his
performances with the original. · foxt to translating from foreign languaO'es there is no better excrci e than this . Even our most famous
wri:rs' have but too often wri.ten in imitation of their predecessors . .
Longfellow's Psalm of Life, for instance, seems to be but a reverse
echo of Campbell's Dream. The teacher should ~ua~d his pupils,
however, against mannerism or servile imitation, and ms1st on as much
originality as possible.

LESSON

XXXII.

t. When the pupil already knows something of an
torical event or scene, it may be sufficient merely to · mention it, and let him write out an imaginary sketch.
MARIE ANTOINETTE IN PRISON.

"In a prison, with thick stone walls, damp and dark, are two wo- .....
men. One is very richly dressed, while the other appears to bo a. ser- ;!~.
vant. A coarse mattress is their betl; and a pitcher of water, with a ~'1: ,

, ... crust of bread, seems to be their only nourishment. T ,he lady is a
· princess; and . she has been imprisoned for her loyalty. Only one
foithful servant has been permitted to keep her company in imprisonment. This servant is now looking anxiously through the iron-barred
window, as if for help against imminent' danger. Bright and beautiful
• is the sunlight around the prison ; an<l presently a great dust arises
· ; Rlong the road, as if horses were coming. Iloth women strive to get a
-, better view; but the princess is held back by a heavy chain, being fast·
ened with it to a huge iron ring in the stone floor. It is the day of
her execution ; and she is anxiously hoping for a par<lon. The servant
\ watches tho dust; and soon horsemen appear. In about twenty minutes they reach the prison-gate; they open it; and in comes an cxccu' tioner, with a priest! The scene which followed between the servant
and her mistress, is too distressing for description. Suffice it to say,
that, after the ceremonies performed ·by the priest, the lady was led forth
from this human slaughter-pen to the guillotine; and in an hour she
was no more! "
·
MARY •

Additional Subjects.

'

.

1. vVashington crossing the Delaware.
2. Robespierre, at the guillotine.
3. Bonaparte on St. Helena or Elba.
4. The surrender of Cornwallis.
5. The capture of Andre.
6. The morning of the battle at New Odeans.
.. 7. First view of America, by Columbus and his crew.
8. The landing of the Pilgrims, at Plymouth Rock.
/ 2. Every day in the year is the anniversary of some im,portant event or occurrence. By requiring pupils to nar~ rate, at the close of each week, .such anniversary events of
. ,. tpe .week as they may have selected, their minds will soon
~ become enriched b091 ~ith history and with facility of ex.:" P!~.ssion.
·
·
· ·
1

•I

.

Ex. - "On tho 12th of October, 14!)2, Columbus discovered America. The land he saw was San Salvador, one of the West Indie~."
,
Let the pupil tell as good a story as h e can about the life, character, and
., · adventures of Columbus. - Every school should Jiave suitable books of refer-

1

96

97

3 Sometimes the teacher may give a pithy paragraph,
as sufficient to suggest the elements of a composition on
some familiar subject.

4. No more, sweet Teviot, blaze the glaring bale-fires on
thy silver tide; and no longer do steel-clad warriors ride
along thy wild and willowy shore.

\

'
1

MONEY.

NARCISSUS.

"A vain man's motto is, 'W"in gold and wear it ; ' a gen-

..
composit~on

A

on th e

a:'JJIr,ere11 t

ways

of

gaming and spen. ding

FASHIONABLE BONNET.

"Two scraps of foundation, some fragments of lace,
A shower of French rosebuds to droop o'er the face ; Fine ribbons and feathers, with crape and 'illusion,'
Then mix and de-range them in grawful confusion ;
Inveigle some fairy, out roaming for pleasure,
And be(J' the slight favor of taking lier measure, The Ien~th and the breadth of her dear little pate, Ancl hasten a miniature frame to create ;
Then pour, a~ above, the bright mixture upon it,
And, lo I you possess ' such a love of a bonnet.' "

.

Write a composition on tlte different modes of adorning the hood; begin- ~.
ning with the Indians, and passing lo warriors, fops, and ladies.
,' J'

4. Occasionally, it may be well to let pupils try their '
skill in changing prose to verse.
Change the following sentences into verse: -

1. The hungry judges soon sign the sentence,
wretches hang that jurymen may dine. (Two lines.)
2. Honor and shame rise from 110 condition: act
.part well ; all the honor lies there.
.
3. A lion, worn with cares, tired of state affairs,
quite sick of pomp, resolved to pass his latter life m
remote from strife and noise. (A stanza.)

•

"Narcissus is said to have been extremely beautiful and
cQtnely, but intolerably proud and disdainful; so that,
pleased with himself, and scorning the world, he led a solitary life in the woods; hunting only with a few followers,
who were his professed admirers, amongst whom the uymph
Echo was his constant attendant. In this method of life it
was once his fate to approach a clear fountain, where he laid
himself down to rest, in the noonday heat; when, beholding his image in the water, he fell into such rapture and
admiration of 11imself, that he could by no means be got
away, but remained continually fixed and gazing, till at
length he was turned into a flower, of his own name, which
appears early in the spring, and is consecrated to the infernal deities, - Pluto, Proserpine, and the Furies." - LORD
B.A.coN.

~rous man's, 'Win gol<l. and share it;' a miser's, 'vVi~ gold
a.n d spare it·' a profiigate's, 'Win gold and spend it;' a
broker's 'Win gold and lend it;' a gambler's or a fool's,
'Win ~old and lose it ; ' but a wise man's, ' Win gold and
· use it.' "
Write a
mone9.

'I

I

i

This srorg, or fable, uxts turned into the following verse, b9 one of the girl,s
111e11ti~11ed: -

of the class we liave

"How true it is, that every day
Some vain Narcissus comes our way,
\Vhose self-love better feelings smothers;
\Vl10, caring little for all others,
Ilut only longing for their praise,
Is happy thus to spend his days.
There's naught can make his heart rejoice
Except the echo of his vo.ice ;
Listening pleased, while some repeat
\Vords and thoughts ho thinks so S\Veet
Just because in praise of him.
Watching self, his eyes grow dim, Dull to all the beauty spread
On this earth aricJ overhea!l.
7

'I

'i

He, like his namesake, longing looks
At himself in mirroring brooks;
Till at last, like flowers of spring,
Youth and beauty take their wiri,g.
Naught is left to tell his worth;
Nothing marks his life on earth;
Save some plant that quickly shoots
From the earth, bi1t bears no fruits.
Buds it has of promise fair,
Making hope for beauties rare.
Ilut, nlnR I too soon they grow,
And but blastc<l blossoms show;
Satisfied with ;vhat they arc,
Growing ne'er more dear or rare.
Sacred to the infernal powers,
Naught it bears but blasted flowers."
WESTBOROUGH,

1869.

· ward he was summoned by sound of trumpet to join his
corps, who were commanded to advance rapidly, and charge
the enemy. In the heat of the action, the horse-shoe fell
off; his horse became lame, stumbled, and threw his rider
. to the ground, who was immediately slain by the enemy.
·

The teacher may extend these exercises by writing other fables on the
blackboard, and requiring the class to write out the application.

Complete the.fallowing fables, and then annex to eaclt the. moral in one
· ,1entence: -

" 1. 'l1ortoise, begge<l, eagle, teach, fly.

Eagle said, contrary, your nature. Never mind, Tortoise said me up let
'
'
me try. Eagle, up, high, into air, let fall, dashed to piece~.
2. Bee, river, fell. Pigeon, see, pick leaf, throw. Bee,
swim, escape. Another time, pigeon quiet, on tree. Hunter see, take aim. Bee see, sting hunter, bullet miss, pigeon
~y away, save life. Kindness repaid.
Two goats, narrow path, each side abyss. " G<? back;''
) 'room one." "Not yield." Quarrel, fight, horns locked,
'.lose balance, down abyss, both killed.

.

ALICE.

It Is evident that the for!'golng poem Is neither elegant nor correct; but wo
prefer to give it as it is, simply to show what can be done by school-girls.

LESSON

...

99

98

XXXIII.

Write out what you think is tlie meaning of the following fable, when it is
applied to persons: -

1. A peacock .a nd a crane met by chance in the same
place. The peacock, erecting his tail, displayed his gaudy
plumes, anJ lookeJ with great contempt upon the crane, as
some mean anJ onlinary person. The crane, resolving to
rtiortify his insolence, took occasion to say, that peacocks
would be very fine birds indeed, if fine feathers could make '
them so; but that he thought it a much nobler thing to be
able to rise above the clouds, than to strut about upon the
ground to be gazed at by children.
Also write out the moral of the following fable: -

2. As a trooper was dressing his l1otse; he noticed that
one of the shoe-nails had dropped out, yet he postponed for
the present the driving-in of another nail. Soon after-

. ?·

' •· ~', Tho teacher may extend these exercises by writlng additional specimens on
the blackboard.
~

(

I

,

· ,~' Amplify the following statements so as to make interesting fables
.
r. . add' to each a sentence comprising. the moral: -

of them,

;; 1. A frog wished to be as large as an ox. He blew him-

self up till he burst.'

"·;·~2.

Two frogs, in a dry time, came to a well. They hesi~~ed about jumping i~, because they might not be able to
g~t out again.
:~1 3. A crow stood on the limb of a tree, with a piece of
~-c~eese in her bill. A fox wanted the cheese; and therefore
l)o, flattered the crow, so that she attempted to sing, when
.~~~ dropped the cheese, and he devoured it.
Q- The teacher may furnish additional examples. - Ile should also gather

IOme of the best fables in .verse, and require his class to turn them Into prose,

and then add a full application.

·

101

100

•

rr

the pupil ha.~ be.en tauqht to appl.11 prope:rly t!te rules of punctuation to
thc.forc,r1oi11y extrncts, and afw lo /tis e.re1·ci.W'S, he i.~ prepared lo t11mdrtrllC the
.followt'.ng sentences, wliic!t will s!tow him more forcibly the i11111orta11cc of Punctuation: -

LESSON XXXIV.

1. Sentences are divided into three classes; simple,
complex, aud ·compound.

1. "I said he is dishonest it is true and I am sorry for it "

.. 2. A SilllJ)le Sentence comprises but one proposition.
3. A Complex Sentence consists of an independent
cluuse or proposition, and one or more dependent
clauses.
4. A ComJJomul Sentence contains two or more mdepe11dent clauses.

2. " For the sum of one thousand pounds he agreed to
furnish the public buildings with two lamps each having
two wicks each composed of ten cotton threads "
3. "Oh shame where is thy blush"
4. "Known as a scoundrel he never will be any thing else"
5. " ·what do you think
I'll shave you for nothing and give you a drink"
6. "Every lady in this land
Has twenty nails on each hand
:Five and tw enty on hands and feet
And this is true without deceit"
or

B

Simple: "Birds begin to sing."
Complex: "Birds begin to sing when the sun rises."
CompOUIJ(l: "Ilirds begin to sing when the sun rises; ancl industrious people rise from sleep, to resume their daily occupation."
" Cnts nnd dogs cntch nnd cnt rnts nnd mice," Is a simple sentence, though
lta elements nre compound. "Go where I go,'' Is a complex sentence, though It
hns but four words. "He reads nnd he writes," Is a compound sentence; but,
"Ile reads and writes," Is a simple sentence with a compound predicate,

The following extract can be read two ways, making either a very bad man
very good one, necor<llng to the manner In which It IA punctuated: -

7. "He is an old and experienced man in vice and wickedness he is never found opposing the works of iniquity he
takes delight in the downfall of neighbors he never rejoices " ~
in the prosperity of any of his fellow-creatures h e is always
ready to assist in destroying the peace of society he takes
no pleasure in serviHg the Lord he is uncommonly diligent
in sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances be
takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of Christianity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigmatize all pnblic t eachers he makes no exertions to subdue liis
evil passions he strives hard to build up Satan's kingdo~1 .
he lends no aid to the support of the gospel among the
heathen he contributes largely to the Hil adversary he
pay.s no attention t-0 gf)("Jd wfrice he gi>es great heed to the
Dern he will never go to hea¥en he must go where he will
receirn his just reward :'
JFrite a composition

011

the importance

ef studying Language.

: . Any purt ol' a simple sentence may be compound; but _no part can

ho a clause. Words and phrases make simple sentences ; · and simple
•~

· i~ntc11ces make complex or compound. The compound sentence at•
•
~h111 the largest size, and is frequently composed of complex sentences.

1 •

'«.o. 'A

sentence may, besides, have an independent
word or phrase, - such as a term of address or an in·terjectiou.
·•I
•
.i.;·,.o. Complex sentences and compound
are · distinguished from each other by the relation between the
cla'uses ; that is, by the connective or tho · cou11ecti11g
,
1'sense.
Jt1,7,
The joint, .in ·the complex sentence, is subordi,
ti.ate; in the compm.md, co-ordinate.
8, A Dc1,emlcnt Clause is a clause used as, "1$•'t"I

'

•

~~l

•

I

;J•

I·

t.

,

A Noun: " l know where he lives." Know whnt 1
2. A. n Alljectlve: "The place where he lives." Whnt place 1
3. An Adverb : "I will live where he lives." Live where 1

103

102
A nonn-clnuAc 1 used ns n subject-nomlnntlvc, Is subordlnnte or dependent
bccRuse It mak es but n 11art of the principal nnd entire propos ition; na,
"W/letlwr I shall go, Is doubtful."

9. The connectives which attach dependent clauses,
and make complex sentences, are, 1. Relative Pronouns: JV/10,

which, what, nntl their compound s; also that and as.
2. Conjunctive Adverbs: Where, when, while, why, liow, as,
before, a..fler, till, until, since.
3. Subordinate Conjunctions: That, tha11, as, if, though,
for, because, excP.pt, lest, whethe1·.
The connective Is sometimes omitted; ns, '"Tis Uic best [lhnt] I hnve."

10. An Imle1•emlcnt Clause is a clause that does not
depend on another, in the sense of a part of speech.
11. The connectives which unite independent
clauses, and make compound sentences, are, t. Copulative Conjunctions: And, also, as well as, bP.sidt s,
both - and.

2. Disjunctive Conjunctions:

Or, nor, eithPr, 11eithe1-, else,

eithtr - or, neither'-- 11or.

3. Adversative Conjunctions:
4:. lllative

But, yet, still, though, altl1011!Jh , hou:eiJer, notwithstanding, neverth eless.
·
Conjunctions: Thei-ejore, consequently, so, then,
hence.
·

The connective Is frequer1tly omitted; for the simple succession of parts,
without n connective, also implies connection.

Anal,1Jze t/1efollowing fable by distinguishing the different kinds
tences, and mentioning the componmt parts generally: -

of sen.

NATURE AND EDUCATION.

Nature and Education were one day walking together.
through a nursery of trees. " See," said Nature, " how
straight and fine those firs grow! That is my doing. But
these oaks are all crooked and stunted; and that, my' good
sister, is your fault, for you have planted them too close and
not pruned them properly." "Nay, sister,'' said E<luca- c :
tion, " I am sure I have taken all possible pains about
them; but you gave me bad acorns, so how should they
ever make fine trees ? "

The dispute grew warm ; and, at length, in stead of blaming each other for negligence, they began each to boast of
her own powers, and to challenge the other to a contest
for superiority. It was agreed that . each should adopt · a
favorite, and rear it up in spite of the ill offices of her
opponent.
Nature selected a vigorous pine, the parent of which had
grown to be the mainmast of a man-of-war. "Do what .
you will to this plant," said she to her sister, "I am resolved to push it up as straight as an arrow." Education
took under her care a crab-tree. " This," said she, "I will
reat to be. at least as valuable as your pine."
Both went to work. vVhile Na tu re was feeding her pine
with plenty of wholesome juices, Education p'assecl a .strong
rope round its top, and, pulling it downwards with a~l her
might, fastened it to the trunk of a neighboring oak. 'fhe
pine labored to ascend; but, not being al)le to surmount the
• obstacle, it pushed out to one side, and presently became
bent like a bow. Still, such was its vigor, that its top, after
descevding as low as its branches, made a new shoot up\Varcl; but its beauty and usefulness were quite destroyed.
.. The crab-tree cost Education a world of pains. She
' pruned and pruned, and endeavored to bring it into shape,
but in vain. Nature thrust out a bow this way, and a knot
that way, and would not push a single leading shoot upward. The trunk was, indeed, kept tolerably straight
by•constant efforts; but the head grew awry and ill-fash, ;· i~ned, and made a scrubby figure. At length, Education,
despairing to make a sightly plant of it, ingrafted the
s'tock with an apple, and brought it to bear tolerable fruit.
: ·At the end of the experiment, the sisters met to compare
their respective success. " Ah, sister!" said Education! "~t
is a hard matter to contend against you ; however, somet~ing may be .done by taking pains." -AIKIN.

10-!
'1JY" Teachers themselves may gather both wisdom and comfort from the
foregoing npologne. - Pupils Rho111cl 1tl so be required to resolve the piece Into as
many propo~itlons ns posslulc. Th ey shoul<\ in like manner nnaly7.e, from Urne
to time, sultaulc paragraphs In th eir reading-books. :For specimcus sec pp.

116-135.

.

'

After studying tlze foregoing fablr., write a compositio11

011

Education, add-

ing what yuu ca11 abuut the kinds and liencjit.9 ef ed11mtio11 .
Questions. - How many kinds of sentences are there, and what arc they?
Describe a simple sentence; - a complex; - a compound. ' Vhnt else may a
sentence have? Ilow can you di stinguish complex Acnte11ccs from compound?
Describe a dependent clau se. 'Vhat conn'c ctlves make complex sente nces?
Describe an ln<lcpcndent cla11Ac. ' Vhnt connectives mako compound sentences?
- What la .u sketch? How J~ verse chung1'd Into t>roso?

LESSON XXXV.

Complex Sentences.
Complete tlwfollowiny 1·0111.Jlle:r: sentences by supplying 1101111-clartses: -

1~ I saw . . .

2. Can you tell me ... ? 3. It is not to Le
expected . . . 4. The judge deciJed . . . 5. . .. has always been a mystery to me. 6. Their complaint was, ...
7. The question is, ... ? 8 . . .. , s a1'd Iie, • . • 9 • L e t us
consider . . . 10.... is now obvious. 11. No one knew
12.... , it is believed, . . . 13. I forgot to mention
to, you ... ; but I hope ...
Ex. - I saw !tow a 11in is made. - Sec Lessons XX nnd XXIV.

Complete tlie followi11g complex sentences by supplying adjr.ctive clauses: -

1. The water has washed away the bri<lge . . . 2. '£his
is the house. . . 3. The little brook ... , has been dried
up by the sun. 4. We should be careful not to undertake
tasks . . . 5. '£he country ... will soon have a <lesolate appearance. 6. You may trust the man . . . 7. ". .. deserves
encouragement. . (Whatever . .. ) 8 .... is not a friend to
man. 9. He has given away only. . . 10. He a1lopted
such measures . . . 11. The reason ... , h as never Leen
ascertaine<l. 12. The means ... , give us some hope .. .
Ex. -The water has wushcd away the bridge which was built last y ear.

Complete tlie following .complex sentences by supplying adverbial
clauses: -

1. A detachment was sent out . . . 2. The pursuit did
not cease . . . 3. I was unwilling to go to school . . . 4.
.•. , in autumn there will be no fruit. 5. The snow and ice
soon melt . . . G. I opened tho window . . . 7. His health
was so injured . . . 8. The weather is . so hot . . . 9. . .. ,
the foster you will learn. 10. We do not think of sickness
11. There is more truth in the Bible . . . 12. The
signal was given ... , . . . 13.... , he is not dishonest.
14.... , much will be required. 15. The fox doubles and
winds iu a most ingenious manner ... , . . . 16. The covering of animals is as much to be admired ... , whether . ..
or ...
Ex . - A <letnchmcnt wnR sent out as soon all the enemy landecl.
Allls.-T1~u:: when, while, ns, till, after, before. PLACE: where, ns fur
ns. MANNER: ns. DEGREE: tlum, ns, the-the. CAUS~ I beoal!SC, for, since.
l'URPOSE: thnt, in order that. CONDITION: if, w4ct4e~-. CONC:t;SSlO.l!I: t4oµg4.
- Sec p. 68.
·

Compound Sentences.
Complete the

following compound

8tmtences

by supplying sultab(e

olausesi -

1. A plant first puts out its leaves, and . . . 2. The ant
is a very sniall insect, but . . . 3. I hastily put my knap·
sack on my back, and we . • . 4. Either the army must re~
treat, . . . 5. Tho shadow of the earth on the moon's <liso
is always round; therefore . . . 6. The river overflowed its
banks, and . . . 7. 'f.he ground was covered with a thick,
luxuriant coat of grass; hence ... ~ ·s. A jest is not an argument; nor . . . 9. The prospeot is not good; however
10. Corn is very cheap; so . . . 11. Do not insult l\o
poor man: his misery . . . 12. vVi th the nerves . in our
mouth we taste ; ~ : . . nose . , . ; .. , eyes ... ; •.. ears ... ;
... that cover our bocly ...
lVrite a simple sentence, a cample.r, and a ca111pau11d,
lowing subjlcts ,• .....,,

011

eaclz

ef tlze fol•

1. The horse. Cow. Dog. Cat. Sheep. Lion. Hog.

--

-~--"'

.--::..::..

- ---- -- ·~-

106
Elephant. \Vhale. Herring. Buffalo. Lark. Turkey.
Robin. Mocking-bird. Swallow. Bee. Grasshopper.
Wheat.
Melon. \Vool.
Silk.
2. Corn. Cotton.
Linen.
Iron. Coal. San<l. Paper. Gas. Cabbage.
Oak. Cedar. Mahogany. Hops. Grapes. 'l'ea. Sugar. Coffee. Mille
3. Sun. Moon. Cloucls. vVin<l. Rain. Snow. Spring.
Summer. Autumn. vVinter. Sunday. Mountain. River. Lake. Forest. Island. City. Village.
Palace.
Cottage. Garden. Field.
4. Plow. Steam-engine ~ Telescope. Telegraph. Barometer. Clock. Saw. Plane. Scythe. Pen. Sword.
N eedle. Newspaper. Rifle. Furnace. Mine. Prairie.
li'armer. Baker. Soldier. Printer. Merchant. Beggar.
Porter.
5. Sleep. Exercise. vVork. Play. Peace. Diligence.
Truthfulness. Fal sehood. vVealth. Poverty. Contentment. Honor. Hope. li'ear. Kindness. Envy.
6. Washington. Columbus. Bonaparte. Grant. Captain Cook. Luther. Lincoln. Mrs. Partington. Abraham.
Jacob.
Joseph.
David.
Solomon.
Newton.
Shakespeare. Alexander the Great. Daniel vVebster.
Julius Cresar.
~The teacher can modify ancl cllstrlbute the foregoing exercises In any
way be may think best.

107

4. Compound Sentences. Two or more propositions
can be combined into one sentence, by unitiug them as
iudepcndcn t clauses.
Ex. - Life is work.
fare.

A proposition is made subordinate, by being changed Into a noun·clause, an
acljcctlvc clause, or an uclverblal clause. -See below, and p. 101.

o.

Ex. -The tree is dead at the top. The tree was struek by lightning. The tree which is dead at the top was struck by lightning. The
tree dead at the top was struck by lightning.

2. Apposltll'C Phrase. A proposition can be incorporated
into another, as an appositive phrase.
Ex. -The keeper was a man of great strength. He kille<l the lion.
'!'he keeper, who was a man of great strength, killed the lion. . T.he
keeper, a man of gre.at strength, killed the lion.

3. Participial Phrase. A proposition can be incorporated into another, as a participial phrase.
Ex. - I. Trees are growing along the river. They are very large.
'l'he trees which are growing along the river are very large. The
t~ees growing along the river are very large. · 2. The horse walks. He
limps. The horse limps when he walks. The horse walks limping.

~

,»·.

A full nnd extended cxplnnntlon of a statement or paragraph Is called a

Sometimes a claus e, as In the last example, becomes a mere word.

4. Iofioltlve Phrase. . A proposition ~a~ be incorporated
into another, as an infinitive phrase.

t. Sometimes we may use few words, or many, one

paraphrase.

Simple Sentences.

1. !djecth'e Phrase. A proposition can be incorporated
into another, as an adjective phrase.

XXXVI.

· seutence, or several, to express the same general
thought.
2. Brevity is co11cisc11css of expression.
3. Circumlocution is an extended or rouudabout
mode of expression.

Life is work, an<l life is war-

5. Complex Sentences. Two or more propositions
can be combined into one sentence, by making one a
principal clause and the rest subordinate.

··

LESSON

Life is warfare.

L Ex. - I. A dinner was prepared. It suited the occasion. A din. · her was prepared that might suit the occasion. A dinner to suit the
occasion was prepared. 2. I have come. I shall assist you. ; .I have
come thut I muy assist you. I have come to assist you.
~

'' 5. Preposlllooal I1 hrase. A proposition can be incor:. · porn.ted into another, as a prepositional phrase.
··

Ex. -

I. There is a path through the woods.

It is shady and cool.

108
The pnth which lea<ls through the woods is shady an<l cool. The path
tltrouglt tlte woods is shn<ly nn<l cool. 2. vVe plnntc<l corn. 'l'his planting was in the new field. We planted corn in the 11cw .field. 3. Yun
stu<ly <liligcntly. You will improl'c. If you stmly <liligcntly, you will
improve. B.11 studying diligently, you will improve.

A proposition or phrase · that has any
part like another, may be incorporate<l with it, Ly
using the common part but once, and compoundiug
the parts that arc <liffercnt.
';. Elli}lSis.

Ex. - Wheat growR W(~ ll 011 thoRo hillR. Ilnrloy jlrOWR well on these hiJIR.
'W heat a11<l Larley grow well on these hills.
The hurricane tore down trees, and the hurricane overturned houses.
The hurricane tore down trees, and ovcrturne<l houses.
He is a wise man; lie is a good man ; and he is a patriotic man.
He is a wise, good, anti patriotic man.
In pence mid in wnr = In peace nn<l wnr.
To the house a11tl from the house= To aml from the house.
To speak prudently and to act prudently= To spcnk and net prml cntly.
Tho foregoing kind of cllipsi~, In whkh words nrc understood, but need not
be su1Jplicd In pursing, may he call ed lv!J'ical ellipsis; nutl th e followi11g kl11d
of ellipsis, in which words nre und erstood that must be su pplied In parsl11g,
may be culled grammatical ellipsis.

Sentences can frequently be shortened by omittiug the
little, unimportant, or implied wor<ls of syntax, - sut:h as
pror10uns, the verb be in all its forms, articles, prepositions,
and conj unctions.
Sometimes other words, and even phrnsce or proposlllons, mny be omitted.

"Be [thou ] sincere." "'Tis the land [w!tich] I Jove."
"Sweet [is] the pleasure, rich [is] the treasure."
"Let me [.:c] ,;lone." "Myself [being] n refugee."
[To be]" Everybody's frieu<l, [is to be] everybo<ly's fool."
ARTICLE: "A man and [a ] woman were drowned."
PREPOSITION: "I gave [to] him the book.''
CoNJUNCTION : "I believe [tliat] he is cold, proud, [and] inflexible.''
PHRASE: "Few are more resolute thfln he" [is resolute].
PROPOSITION: "He returned: 1 know not w.h y" [he returned].
PRONOUN:
VERU;

I·

Qrtes tions. - ID!nt IB said of using few or mnny words? What Is brevity?
Whnt Is ci rcuml ocution? What ls a paraphrase? }low nre two or rnore sell,
tences ehnnged Into n compou11d se11tcnce ?-Into n complex sentence? Into
whnt different phrases. may <l cp cndent clnuses be changed? What ls said of
ellipsls? 'Vhat kin<ls of words nrc n snally omitted?

109
LESSON XXXVII.
Abridge the following sentences, or expres.~ the meaning in a briefer and
better manner: -

1. The animal was hungry, and seemed anxious to know
whether there was any thing in the knapsack that would
suit his any thing but fastidious taste.
·
2. The hunter leveled and discharged his piece, and sent
a ball whizzing into the brazen countenance of Bruin, which
gavo him a kinJ of headaeho not often loug supportable;
and as a .necessary consequence, Bruin keeled over, thus
yielding the fi eld to his victor.
3. The hunter rejoiced that h e had thus been permitted
to spoil Bruin's fun, as well as sud<lenly rob him of his
appetite ; for lie consi<lerecl that all that was in his knapsack might be of service to himself hereafter, if not at
present.

..

The following is a circuit
can be made : -

of the most common kinds of abridg111e11t

Clauses, or Full Forms.

that

Abridged.

The taxes \1hich arc not. yet paid.
The unpaid taxes.
They who nuvocutc this principle.
The advocates of this principle.
The lines which were written by lloo<l. The lines written by Hood .
The trees without fruit.
.
Tho trees which ha,·c no fruit.
'Vashington, who wus tho command- '\Vashington, the communder-iner-in-chief.
cbief.
Since the winter has .passed away.
The winter having passed away.
At sunset.
'Vhen the sun sets.
Defore the sun rises.
Before sunrise.
When I was young, I thought so.
'When young, I thought so.
While I was coming home, I saw · While coming home, I saw this
this horse, an<l bought him.
horse, and bought him.
When every one sai<l so.
Every one saying so.
This remaining.
While this remains. '
I know pot where to put it_. .
'1 know tiot where I can put it.
I know not how to do it.
J know pot l!ow it .shQul<l be clone.
.f\prld~e,

In llll:e ffi41l1Wf 1

~tmtences

in your reading-books.

111

110
As we approached the town, we heard On approaching the town, we
heard the din of bnttle.
the din of lmttlc.
If you arc in<lustrions, y_ou will pros- lly being industrious, you will
prosper.
By industry, you
per.
will prosper.
We requested him that he should go We requested him to go himself.
himself.
I wish you to write to me.
I wish that you would write to me.
I can not go.
It is impossible for me to go.
You had better stay.
It woulU be better for you to stay.
(Colloquial, but well nuthorlzcd.)

r

I

His chief ambition was, that he might His chief ambition was, to be
sent to Congress.
be sent to Congress.
That he was sick was the cause of His being sick was the cause of
his absence.
his absence. His sickness was
the cause of his absence.
I have not heard of his being
I have not heard that he is sick.
sick.
If so, let me know it.
If it is so, let me know it.
Though he is rich, he is modest.
Though rich, he is modest.
When people act imprudently, it Impmdence generally arises from
excessive feeling.
arises most frequently from excess
of feeling.
A constellation.
A cluster of stars.
The great belt of stars running over The galaxy.
the heavens.
The great luminary of the night.
The moon.
The coldest season of the year.
Winter.
To produce something that did not Invent.
exist before.
Having the power of living in the Amphibious.
air OJ' in water.
Ripe before the natural time.
Premature.
A vain show of learning, as displayed Pedantry'.
in stiff and pompous phraseology.
A man who is fond of fine dress, and A fop.
extravagantly nice about his personal appearnnee.
lVl"ite out, in not more than ten words, a telegram to a friend in Cliicago, requesting him to send you on the following day, l1y railroad, fifty barrels
of superfine flour.

!

.I

a-The teacher should require his class to write all kinds of telegrams.

Express by circumlocution : -

1. Farmer. Wife. Husband. Son. Washington. Columbus. Christ. God. Milton. House. Autumn. Day.
Christian. Sailor. Arithmetic. Geography. Grammar.
Shine. Faithful. Man. Scornful. Temperance. Retirement. Luxury. Useless. Recess.
Ex. -

FARMER:

The cultivator of the soil; one who tills the earth.

2. He is indolent. She works. We suffered. Webster ·
is dea<l. I came, I saw, I conquered. Fast bind, fast find.
Out of debt, out of danger. Nothing venture, nothing
have. No pains, no gains. No one lives for himself alone.
Life is short, and art is long. Penny-wise and pound-fool- ·
ish. Passing away. The grass is green . . Try again. . 'l'lie
moon shines. Man proposes, and God disposes.
'

Ex. - "He Is Indolent"= He dislikes work, and neglects his business. ·

Expand the fullowing notes into a sketch : -

"Off early; rain .came on; drenched a little. Reach
cottage; four Swiss peasant girls; sing ; two of the voices
beautiful- tune also; wild, original, and sweet. Luncheon ; returned by ·Lake Geneva ; extensive plain, with a
girdle of mountains ; high rocks, wood to the top; beautiful and grand." - BYRON.
Byron frequently took such notes, from which he afterwards wrote some
()(his best poems.

Expand the following verse into full prose: -

1. To be weak is miserable, doing or suffering.
2. Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
Strong without fage; without o'erflowing, foll.
3. Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell,
·
Aspiring to be angels, men rebel.
I. There will be an auction at yom·father's lwuse,for the purpose ef selling all the superfluous stock on !tis farm. Write out a full notice, stating
the items, the time, and the terms.
,.
' 2. Your neighbor died: write out an obituary notice.
3. You have lost a fu.vorite dog: write out a descriptive advertisement.

112
LESSON

XXXVIII.

]'ol' beginners in composition, one of the best exercises
is that of writing out an abstract or epitome of well-selected
pieces in their reading-books. We verily believe that pupils can be profitably employed in this way during an entire school-session. Children lack words, syntax, thoughts,
and method. In this case they have them all before th em ;
.and yet they are required to produce something new. The
exercise also has a tendency to teach them how to express
their thoughts in as few words as possible; and brevity is a
precious accomplishment in this verbose age.
Tliefollowi11g is a specimen

of such abridgment: -

TEXAS CAMP-MEETING.

I

~

.
:I

.

!
I

In September, 1836, the following notice could be seen
upon the door of every public house and every grocery, attached to the largest trees nearthe cross-roads and principal
trails, and even in the remote dells, of a. large part of 'f exas,
mile::1 away from the smoke of a human habitation: BARBECUE CAMP-MEETING .

There will be u camp-meeting, to commence the last Mon<lay of
this month, at the Double-Spring Grove near Peter Ilinton's, in Shelby
County. The exercises will begin with a splcmlid barbecue. Preparations will be made to suit nil tastes : there will bel n good barbecue, better
liquor, and the best of gospel.
(Signed)
PAUL DENTON, },fissionar!J, },{. E. C.

The day came; and, a.s the missionary had anticipated,
the meat and drink brought a crowd, - a motley crowd of
hunters and herdsmen, of gamblers, refugees, forgers, thieves,
robbers, and murderers; the very ears he wished to reach.
Indeed, they were a social pandemonium, - unprincipled,
without courts or prisons, or churches, or school-houses, or
even the shadow of civil authority or subordination. Hence
all prudent evangelists had learned to shun the left bank
of the Sabine, a::; if it were 11ll infested Ly a col10rt of de· ·
mons. Soon the tumult became deafening, - a tornado of

113
babbling tongues; talking, shouting, quarreling, betting, and
cursing for amusement, when suddenly a cry arose, "Col.
·watt Foemau ! Hurrah for Col. vVatt Foeman ! " and the
crowd parted right and left, to let the lyncher pass. He
advanced with a satanic countenance, ferocious and mur·
derous. He was a tall, athletic, powerful man. His train
(a dozen armed desperadoes) followed him. He ordered the
dinner to be serve<l; and it was in haste placed before him .
But when he stepped forth to commence the repast, a. voice
pealed from the pulpit, loud as the blast of .a trumpet in
. battle, "Stay, gentlemen and ladies, till the giver of the
barbecue asks God's blessing! " Every ear started, every
eye was directed. to the speaker, and a whisperless silence
ensue<l, for all alike were struck by his remarkable appearance. He was almost a giant in stature, though scarcely
hventy yea.rs of age. His hair, dark as the raven's wing,
flowed down his huge shoulders in masses of natural ringlets, more beautiful than any ever wreathed around the
jeweled brow of a queen by the labored achievements of
.human art; his eyes, black as midnight, beamed like stars
over a face as pale as Parian marble, calm, passionless, spiritual. The heterogeneous crowd gazed in mute astonishment. The missionary prayed ; .but it sounded like no other
prayer ever addressed to the throne of the Almighty. It
contained no encomiums on the splendor of the divine attributes ; no petitions in the tone of command ; no orisons
for distant places, times, or objects. It related exclusively
to.the present people and the present hour; it was the cry
of a naked soul, and that soul was a beggar for the bread
and water of heavenly life. "Now, my friends," he said,
"·partake of God's gifts at tho table, nnd then come and sit
down n.nd listen to his gospel." One heart (however humbled
the, rest) was maddened by the preacher's wonderful powers.
Col. vVatt Foeman exclaimed in a sneering voice, "Mr.
8

j.
i

11

:I

I

I

114

115

Paul Denton, your Hevcrence has lied. You promised us
not only a good lmruecue, Lut better liquor. ·w here is your
liquor?" "There ! " answered the preacher in tones of
thunder, pointing his finger to a spring that gushed up from
the bosom of the earth, in two strong columns, with a sound
like a shout of joy. " There ! " he repeated with a look
terrible as lightning, while his enemy actually trembled
Lefore him; "there is the liquor which God, the Eternal,
brews for all his children. Not in the simmering still, over
smoky fires, choked with poisonous gases, surrounded with
the stench of sickening odors and corruptions, doth your
Father in heaven prepare the precious essence of life-pure,
cold water; but in the green glade and grassy dell, where the
red-deer wanders, and the child loves to play, there God
brews it; and down, low down, in the deepest valleys,
where the fountain murmurs and the rills sing; and high
upon the mountain-tops, where the naked granite glitters
like gold in the sun, where the storm-cloud broods and the
thunder-storms crash; and far out on the wide, wild sea,
where the hurricane howls music, and the big ·wave rolls in
chorus, sounding the march of God, - the1'e he brews it, ,
that beverage of life - health-giving water.
"And everywhere it is a thing of life and beauty, - gleaming in the dew-drop ; singing in the summer rain ; shining
in the ice-gem, till the trees all seem turned into living jew- .
els; spreading a golden veil over the sett.ing sun, or a white
gauze around the midnight moon; sporting in the glacier; ·
folding its bright snow-curtain softly about the wintry ·
world; and weaving the many-colored bow, that seraph's
zone of the siren, whose warp is the rain-drops of earth,
whose woof is the sunbeam of heaven, all checkered ovor
with celestial flowers, by the mystic l1 and of refraction.
"Still always it is beautiful - that blessed life-water.
No poisonous buubles are on its brink; its foam brings not .
madness and murder; no blood stains its liquid glass ; pale

widows and starving orphans weep not burning tears in its
depths; no drunkard's shrinking ghost, from the · grave,
curses it in the worlds of eternal despair ! Speak out, my.
frien<ls ! would you exchange i~ for the demon's drink, ·alcohol ? " A shout, like the roar of the tempest, answered,
"No!"
ABRIDGED.

In September, 1836, a notice cou ld be seen in all the public places
and the by-ways of t:ihclby County, Texns, announcing that a "llnruccue Cnmp-mceting-" would commence the Inst Momlny of the month,
lit the l>ouule-Spriug Grove, where all tnstcs would bo suited with · thu
beMt of food uud liquor lllH.l the uest of gospel. - Signed," PAUL DENI TON, 1l1issiv11m:1J, ill. E.
C." This notice Lrought together a motley
crowd of hunters, herdsmen, thieves, gamblers, and other characters,
who had no regard for civil authority, and were almost destitute of social or religious principle, - just the cars to be reached. The tumult
of babbling tongues soon began, and became deafening, when suddenly
a cry arose - " Col. vV att :Foe man 1" and a tall athletic man, with
satanic countenance, advanced through the parting crowd, followed by ·
a dozen armed desperadoes. He ordered the dinner to be set out; but
when prepared to commence the feast, a voice, loud and clear, pealed
• from the pulpit," \Vait, till I ask God's hlessing ! " Silent attention
followed, the crowd gazing in mute astonishment at the speaker. He
wns Lut twenty years of age, though almost a giant in stntu_re. His
hair - black as j et - waved in natural ringlets round his huge shoul- ders; and his eyes, though black as midnight, were bright with inner
light, while his calm face was white as marble. The prayer that followed contained no encomiums on God or commands from him, but it
was the cry of a soul begging spiritual food for the people presen~
Col. Watt .Forman alone was maddened, and demanded the fulfillment
of-the barbecue notice - "a. good barbecue and better liquor." Then
tho preacher pointed to a gushing spring; and, with a look that made
his enemy tremble, said, " There is the liquor which God brews for all;
not in the simmering still ,1with poisonous gases, surrounded by corruption; but in tho green·glade and grassy dell, where the fountains mur·mur an,d the rills sing; and upon mountain-tops where the i;tonu-cloud
' br'oods; or out on the wide sea where the hurricane howl s, and the hig
waves roll in chorus. There he brews the beverage of life. In the dewdrop, In tho rainbow, in tho summer shower, in the roarin' and flashing cascade, in the ice-gem, in the snow-curtain, in the shining glm·ier
- everywhere and always - is wnter a thing of lifo and beauty.. ~o
poisonous bubbles, no blood-staius, no m111lncss or murder, are m its
limpid depths. Will you, then , exchnn:.!e this for the demon drink alcohol 1" A universal shout answered, "No I"

116
LESSON

XXXIX.

1. In constructing sentences, the greatest care should
be taken to g.r:a<le, distribute, antl connect all the
parts properly.
That is, first determine carefully what parts should be subject-nominatives and predicate-verbs; and then properly subonlinate, dlstrihute,
and attach the remaining parts as adjective or adverbial modifiers.

1. In the sterile parts of Chili grows the white strawberry. It yields fruit as large as a walnut.
In combining these statements into one sentence, it will hardly do to
make y ields a predicate-verb; for this won Id bring out the idea too
prominently, and therefore it should rather be a participle.

In the sterile parts of Chili grows the white strawberry,
yielding fruit as large as a walnut.
If, however, I wished to make the last part of the sentence as prominent as possible, I would change the construction thus: -

In the sterile parts of Chili the white strawberry grows
so luxuriantly that it yields fruit as largo as a walnut.
2. The house occupied five years in building. It cost
the proprietor a hundred thousand dollars.

---- -

117
the inventor, in 1789; and, being sent out to a stranded
vessel, completely succeedeJ. in bringing the crew safe to
shore.
4. rrhe Indians are exceedingly skillful in shooting buffaloes. They c::m send an arrow quite through the hody of a
full-grown buffalo. He must be in a favorable position, and
sufficiently near.
In comuining these statements into one sentence, it will hardly do
to make uny of them participles; as, "The Indians are exceedingly
skilifnl in shootino- bnffalocs; sendinq an nrrow quite throngh the body
bt:ffalo ' he bcinn
in a .favornble J)Osition, and sufficiently
of a fnll-•rro1v11
b
J
near." EaC'h statement is worthy of being made sufficiently prominent
to have the predicate-verb preserved.

The Indians are exceedingly skillful in shooting buffaloes;
and they ca.n send an arrow quite through the body of a
full-grown buffalo, if he is in a favorable position, and sufficiently near.
5. Zenobia assumed the government after the murder of
her husband. She avenged his death. She soon made
herself formidable to all the nations within her reach.
. She was the queen of Palmyra. She was one of the most
remarkable women Asia ever produced.

Here it will not do to make cost a participle, for the cost of the house
is something remarkable, an<l would be slurred over too lightly by a
participle. Cost should therefore remain a predicate-verb.

· ' Herc the first three clauses can hardly be made participial, but
, '·should rather be made a compound predicate, depending directly on

The house occupied five years in building, and cost the
proprietor a hundre<l. thousand dollars.
3. The first life-boat was built by Mr. H enry Greathead.
He was the inventor. He built it in 1789. It was sent
out to a stranded vessel. It completely succeeded in bringing the crew safe to land.

Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, and one of the most
remarkable women Asia ever produced, assumed the govern.'merit after the murder of her husband, avengecl his death,
~ and soon made herself .formidable to all the nations within
·;. her. teach.
i
. . 6. The far-famed Chinese vVall was built by an emperor
'•
:~ mmn1e<l Chiuchu Voang. It was built about two thousand
')ears ago. It was built to prevent the Tartars from mak- ,
d ng incursions on the north. These greatly harassed the
',, unoffending inhabitants of China.

The hont, how it came into existence, and thnt it wns n success, aro ..
the chief ideas; and these should accordingly be expressed hy a snbjectnominative and two predicate-verbs.

The first life-boat was built by Mr. Henry Greathead,

..

•Zenobia.
•111,•

I

1-

.
118

119

The building of the wall is the great idea. The annoyance caused
hy the Turtars is the next most prominent fact, and is also worthy of
being expressed by a clause.

4, Next to correctness, clearness, and conciseness,

tho great excellence of construction is smoothness in
the flow of words, and exact coincidence of syntax
with emphasis.

The far-famed Chinese Wall was built about two thousand years ago, by an emperor named Chinchu Voang, to
prevent the Tartars from making incursions on the north,
who greatly harassed the unoffending inhabitants of China.

Ex. - I. "We shnll conduct you to a hill-side, laborious inclced, at
the first ascent; but else, so smooth, so green, so full of goodly pros. pects and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was
not more charming." - l\'11LTON, on Education • .
, . 2. "In every school the Mantuan bard still sings.''

The following statements should be expressed in a similar sentence: -

Ovando left the port of San Lucar. This was on the
13th of February, 1002. It was to take possession of his
new government. He had under him a gallant company
of two thousand five hundred persons. A large part of
them were Hidalgoes.
On the 13th of February, 1502, Ovando left the port of
San Lucar, to take possession of his government ; having
under him a gallant c0mpany of two thousand five hundred
persons, many of whom were Hidalgocs.
"Many of whom being Hidalgoes," would make too much of a participial drng.

2. Sometimes different modes of construction can

be adopted with equal propriety.
Ex. - l. Xerxes resolved to invade Greece; and he raised nn army
consisting of two millionH of men, the grc:ttcst force ever brought
into the field. 2. Xerxes, having resolved to invade Greece, raised an
army of two millions of men, which was the greatest force ever brought
into the field.

..

Observe that there ls a slight shade of clilfcrcnce in the meaning of the two
,
sentences.

3, Sometimes even a subordinate element can be so
placed, especially at the beginning or the end of· the ,'
sentence, as to make its idea prornineut.
·
Ex. - The roof of this cave is hung with beautiful icicles. They
aro transparent, ns glass. They nrc ~olid ns marble. " The roof of this
cnve is hung with beautiful icicles, transparent as glass bnt solid as
marble."

Sings, by occupying nn emphatic pince, suggests thnt he docs not speak,
preach, or pray; the nrrnngcment of the words Is therefore bad, and should
rllther be,-

" The Mantuan bard still sings in every school."
· Or: ~·In every school still sings the Mantuan bard."
Thus emphasis and syntax coincide; and so in the following sentence:-

3. "In the most energetic and high-wrought things Webster ever
u_ttered, there was a ciuiet tone of moderation."
1.

Questions. - 'Vhat Is said of grading nnd arranging the parts of a sen.tencc? . "What is said of adopting different modes of construction? 'Vhere must
1uborclinate parts generally be placed to give them prominence? 'Vhat is said
of smooth nnd forcible construction?

LESSON

XL. ·

Sim1Jle Sentences.
·.J ; C!tcrnge ihr.followin,q into simple sente11ces: -

• 1. She is young; she is beautiful; and she is intelligent.
· (She is young, beautiful, and intelligent.)
·
2. Humbolclt found the potato in its wild state. It was
; growing near Mount Orizaba, in Mexico. It had large Llue
flowers. It had tubers about the size of a hazel-nut. . (Near
'. J4out1t Orizaba, ,in Mexico, Humboldt founcl the potato
» g~owing in its wild state, with large blue flowers, and
tu?ers about the size of a hazel-nut.)
3. The man was sick. The man was poor. The man
. ns miserable.
;: . 4. Let us strive to please our conscience first; and let
e strive to please the world next.

120
5. Mountains present themselves on every side. Trees
present themselves on ernry side. Shrubs present themselves on every side. Flowers present themselves on every
side. Innumerable other things present themselves on
every side. (Make a compound subject.)
6. God created the heaven. God created the earth:
God created the animals. God created the trees. God
created every other living thing.
7. Let us study the power of God. Let us study the
wis<lom of Goel. Let us stu<ly the gooclness of God.
8. The robber went through the house, and from the
house he went into the ganlcn.
9. The supply of water in a ln.rge city, and the distribution of water in· a large city, are well worth observing.
They are intimately connected with the comfort and health
of the citizens.
10. Tho larch grows in almost every soil. The lard1
grows in almost every situation.
11. The next morni11g tho battle began in terrible earnest. The next morning was the 24th of June. The battle
began at break of day. (At break of day, next morning,'
the 24tl~ of June, the battle began in terrible earnest.)
12. A young stranger made his appearance at Niagara.
'rhis was about fifteen years ago. It was in the glow of
early summer. The stranger was of pleasing countenance
and person.
.
13. l!""ingal's Cave has always been an object of attraction to travelers. It is situated in the Isle of Staffa.
This isle is one of the Hebrides. These islands are on the
western shore of ScotlanJ.
14. Eleph:iuts occa~ionally invade tho cuHivate<l lands.
They consume vast quantit.ies of green sugar-cane, rice,
and bananas. They trample down or destroy the rema.inder with their feat. (Participles.)

121
15. Staffa is a Norwegian word. It signifies staff, p1·op,
or column. It is very properly applieJ to these. ,, remarlrnble
.
rocks.
16.' Calvin was educated for the church. Calvin 'was
born at N oyon. N oyon is in Picardy. Calvin was born
in 1509. Calvin was the son of a cooper.
· 17. We diverged toward the prairie. We left the line
of march. vVe traversed a small 'valley. vVe ascended a
gentle swell of land. (Having left ... and, after tr3'.versing ... )
18. Before the Council, Fawkes displayed the same
intrepid firmness. This firmness was mixed even with
scorn and disdain. Fawkes refused to disc~ver his accomplices. Fawkes showed no concern but for the failure ' of
the enterprise.
· ., 19. There lay floating in the ocean an immense irregular mass. This mass was several ·miles off. Its ' top and
points were covered with snow~ · Its center was of a deep
'
.
. .
.
'
.
· indigo color.
·
.....J' 20. Peter III. reigned but a few months. · He was t1epo.sed by a conspiracy of Russian noble~. This conspiracy
was headed by his own wife, Catherine. She was ' a German by birth. · She was a woman of bold arid u·n scrupulous
<~haraCter.
·
·
'
1
' :t=· 21. 'The light str~ggles dimly through windows.
These
windows are darkened by dust. ·
·
~ ·
; P 22. A stone was placed at 'the head of the grave. This
. ~h
.
'
.
· · 1·sto'ne had a simple in~cription on it. · · This inscription was
,' , ~~itten by an intimate" friend. , (.' ~ .' with •.• written '.''..)
.... ·1 23. Heaven's ebon vault seems like
canopy. .T his
~
'
'
canopy IS spreaJ by love, to curtain her sleepiug world.
The 'vault is studded with sta.r s tinutterably bright. ( .. . '.
studded . ·. . spread . . .)
24. Now and then a flutter betrays some wandering
\

a

.

;

123

122

I'
I

11
I

wing. This flutter is overhead in the thick green foliage.
The wing comes and goes, yet is concealed from sight.
(Now and then ... overhead ... coming ... )
25. Wirt took up his permanent residence in Baltimore.
He did this on his retirement from office, in 1829. He had
been Attorney-General of the Unite<l States twelve years.
(After having been ... on ... )
26. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493. He had spent
some months in exploring delightful regions. These regions
haJ long Leen dreamt of Ly many. These regions were
now first thrown open to European eyes. Columbus had
been absent exactly seven months and eleven days. (Having spent ..• dreamt ... but . . . thrown ... )
27. There is found in the bark of certain trees a peculiar yellow substance. This substance is called tannin.
Tannin is very light. It is of a bright, shining appearance. It has this appearance in ~onsequence of being composed of small yellow crystals.
28. She is like some tender tree. This tree is the pride
and beauty of the grove. It is graceful in its fonn. It is
bright in its foliage. But the "\Vonn is preying at its heart.
29. Prometheus lay there. He was chained to the cold
rocks of Mount Caucasus. The vulture was at his vitals1:
The links of the lame Lemnian were festering iu his flesh '. . ''.
30. The mountains draw around themselves a drapery··
of awful grandeur. They rise like vast supernatural intelligences. They have a forehead of power and majesty.
There is the likeness of a kingly crown upon it.
1
31. The mountain battlements are bathed in the tender-; 1
est Eurple of distance. They are tinted an<l shadowed · by
pencils of air. They hang over green slopes an<l forests,
They loom up sublimely in the limitless ether. Th ey seem'
to be seats of the go<ls. (... bathed .. , tinted .a nd shad~ '
owed ... and hanging ... loom ... seem ... )

32. The Rev. Mr. Marlow was waited upon a few days
ago by a deputation from his late flock. He is about to
leave his present congregation. He will accept a call from
the citizens of Louisville. The deputation presented 11im
a purse. This purse contained a handsome sum. It was
accompanied by a suitable address. The Rev. Mr. Marlow
feelingly replied to the address.
·; '
Also change the foregoing groups of elements successively into different
complex sentences . - Most of these exercises la sentences may be compared to
problems In nrlthmctlc; nnd they wlll 11omctlmc11 strain the Ingenuity of tho
pupil quite as much.
1 •

Change to a stanza and simple sentence : -

33. The light wave sparkles in · the beam and trembles
..on the river. A moment it shows its quivering gleam. .Jt
then disappears for ever.

·

LESSON

·
XLI.

i

.

"

Com1llex Sentences.
., 't1l. Cliauge
tliefollowing into complex sentences:. ~ 1. There is ·a large nerve. It runs from the skull
. . ·.through the backbone. It is called the ' spinal marrow.
, From every part of it nerves branch off in every direction
''.again and again. They cover the body like fine net-work.
.•. (There is a large nerve, running from the skull through the
backbone, and called the spinal marrow, from every part of
· ·which nerves branch off in every direction again and again
. , !IJ?.til they cover the body like fine net-work.)
· ' ·
•
, J • 2. The frog was put on the grass.
This was · near ·the
~"' pond. ·· It made one great leap: It was in the pond ·in a
moment. (vVhen ... )
1~.1 ·3. There is a curious bird in Australia. It lias a note
} ike the tinkling of a bell. ( . .. which ...)
; .} 14 ... A tourist in Wales speaks with much admiration of \
' the light, airy, pendent birch. It occupies the . highest

124
parts of the hills. It shelters the cottages. These cottages dimly appear through its foliage. (B,elative clauses.)
5. ·The peculiar color and odor of Russia leather arc due
to a kind of oil. This oil is extracted from the birch. It
is .called birch-oil. Russia leather is much esteemed by
book-binders. It is said never to be attacked by insects.
6. The great Southern Ocean is crowded with coral
islands. It is crO"w<led with submarine rocks of the same
nature. These rodrn are rapidly growing up to the surface.
rl'here they will at length ovcrtop the ocean, and form new
habitations for man. ( ... that ... where ... )
7. Sir John Moore had advanced from Portugal into .
Spain. He was pushing on in the direction of the Spanish
capital. He had effected a junction with the forces of Sir
David Baird, in the province of Leon. He had an army ·
of 20,000 men.
'
8. The arctic strawberry is a very diminutive plant. A
six-ounce vial will hold the whole, - branches, leaves, and
fruit. (... so ... that ... )
9. Flies are very prolific. A single one is calculated to
produce, in children, grandchildren, etc., more than a hundred thousand in one season.
10. A man w:mders from his home. A bird wanders
from her nest. The man is lik"" the b1'r·u1 • ( ..• '"I10 •••
that ... )
I
11. The man is in the habit of rising late.
thus become poor. He should know this.
12. There is a serene majesty in woodland scenery.
This majesty dilates the soul. It fills it with noble inclinations.
13. I have seen many books on the subject.
yet seen one that pleases me. (Though ... )
14. The French first explored the beautiful shores of the '
Mississippi and its tributary streams. They believed th~y
had found a terrestrial paradise. (When ...)

125
15. We looked at Olivet for the last time from our terrace. vVe wore awaiting . the arrival of certain horses.
'fhese horses were to carry us to Joppa. (vVhile ... awaiting ... )
I
16. Lewis and Clarke say that they saw a herd of buffaloes. It was crossing a river. It was af least a mile long.
It must have consisted .of more than twenty thousand head.
17. Many massive mountains are but great charnelhouses. In these are piled the petrified remains of extinct
racos of animn.ls an<l plants. Thcso remains are as monuments of the operations of life and death, during almost
immeasurable periods of time.
,.; ' 18. Light is the most beautiful and delightful of all the
objects of our contemplation. · The eye is the most beautiful an<l wonderful of all our organs. By me.a ns of the eye
we contemplate light. (As ... which ... so ...)
19. I had often received an invitation from my friend
Sir
Roger de Coverley, to pass away a month with him in
1
the country. I last week accompanied him thither. I a~
settled with him for some time at his country-house. I - in.tend to form there several of my ensuing speculations.
·. (Participial phrase, compound predicate, and use where.)
../ , 20. Our aunt was made acquainted with this design.
She immc<liatcly starche<l up her behavior with a double
portion of politeness. She began to make wise observa1
_1,tipns. ; (vVhen ... )
" 21. Plato was told that some enemies had spoken ill of
'. }iim. He said, " It matters not. I will endeayor to live so
. ·~!pat no one shall bell.eve them." (... for ... ) _
'- 22. .This plant is commonly met with in Ceylon. It is
,commonly met with in other islands of the East . . It is
€,_k nown there by the appropriate . name of. pitcher-plant.
'!1, This is on account of its $ingular flagon-shaped appendage.
1
'..This appendage holds water. ( .. .. which ... which •.. ) ·.
•

127

126
23. There is a banyan-tree m the N erbud<lah River.
This river is in Hindostan. The tree has 3,000 trunks.
It covers five acres of ground. It is supposed by some to
be the one described by N earchus. He sheltered his army
under it. He then commanded the fleet of Alexander the
Great. Alexander was then invadi11g the East.
24. The mischievous little boy sat upon my kn ees. It
was on Christmas morning. He was l1olding fast his little
stockings. They were stuffed as full as full can be. He
was listening attentiv ely to me. His face was demure and
mil<l. I then told him something. It was that old Santa
Claus does not love naughty chil<lren. Santa Claus fills
stockings with Christmas presents.
(Begin with "On
Christmas morning," use three participial phrases, au<l the
words when and wlw.)
25. At length th e mystery of the ocean was revealed.
The theory of the great navigator was triumphantly esta~­
lished. 'rhe theory had been th e scoff of sages. It secured
to himself glory that must be durable. The world itself is
clurable.. (When ... which ... securing ... if ... )
26. A great stir was ma<le at the door. Messengers
This was that tho
came hurrying to r eport something.
Normans had lancle<l in Englan<l. The messengers wero
covered with mire, from ri<ling far and fast through tha
broken ground. · King Harold was sitting at York at a :
feast. The king was in the mi<lst of all his compftny/
(While King Harold ... by messengers, covered ... who
... that ... )
·If ::~ .
Change t!te following into a stanza, and complex sentence: -

27. Sleep may well present us fictions. Our
moments themselves teem with fanciful convictions.
make life itself a dream.
28. All there were so bright. But one was the brightest:
Her heart was the lightest. All hearts there were light, :r"

LESSON XLII.

3. Compound Sentences.
Change the following into compound sentences : ~

·1. · Black petrels are very numerous in and about Van
Diemen's Land. More than a hundred thousand have been
seen flying and hovering in the air. · Black swans, in groups
of three hundred or more, have been seen along the coast.
(Black petrels are so numerous in and about Van Diemen's
Land, that more than. a hundre<l thousand have been seen
flying and hovering in the air; and black swans, in groups
of three hundred or more, have been seen along the coast.)
' 2. Most of our spices come from the isiands in the East.
Allspice, or pimento, is the fruit of a tall, handsome, and
fragrant species of m yrtle. It grows wild
the West Indies.
, ..
.. · , ...

in

.~ ~.;.3. The banana-tree has tufts of splendid blossoms. · The

, fruit resembles a cucumber in shape. · It has • a sweet,
mealy taste. It serves the inhabitants for food ..
.
4. I w:.ts now too far from home to think of returning.
I ,resol vecl to go forward.
. ,
· ·· ·
·
,~ ,.,(), . I once or twice attempted to play for people of fashion.
..~ +'hey always thought my performance odious. They never
· rewarded me even with a trifle.
' · ~ 6. He must give an account of his concluct. I shall be
opliged to have it investigated . .. ( ... or .. ·.)
·'f ·1. The pear and the quince grow wild in the southern
:1parts of Europe. The latter fruit seldom ripens in the
northern counties. of .England. It blossoms freely.
.
.-. e,8'1- Colors were used in the East in stead of words. · From
a.bin this kind Of rhetoric passed into Spain. Black
.• expressed death. Blue expressed jealousy. Purple exGreen expresse<l hope. Yellow . ex. pr~~s~d . constancy.
, rcs~ed doubt. White expressed content. Red expressed
~'

7

s w amcvet-

-- . - - ----·

129

128
the greatest possible satisfaction. (Make two compound
sentences.)
9. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero. Tragedy presents a disastrous event. Comedy ridicules the vices
and follies of mankind. Pastoral poetry describes rural
life. Elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. (;)
10. The largest flower in the world was discovered about
twenty yen.rs ago. It was iu the Island of Sumatra. It
has wi_th justice been styled the magnificent Titan of the
vegetable kingdom. Tl10 full-blown flower is aliont ono
yard in diameter, or more than nine feet in circumference.
Its petals are as large as cows' ho~ns. It holds not less
than one quart of nectar. Its whole weight is more than
twelve pounds. (Two compound sentences.)
11. The , lad · was not unacquainted· with the use of
money. The lad had often been sent to the n ext village
to purchase bread and other necessaries. He was totally
unacquainted with the use of shoes and stockings. He had
never worn these in his life. He had never felt the want
of them.
12. Our good and evil proceed mainly from ourselves.
Death appeared t errible to Cicero. Death appeared ind~f:.
ferent to Socrates. Death appeared desirable to Cato.
(Colon, and two clauses.)
13. God in his goodness has covered the earth with
herbs and trees. vVe inhabit the earth. Th e he~bs and
trees furnish us with food, clothing, and other articles ..
These articles contribute to our comfort and luxury.
14. The sun then broke out. 1'he sun dispersed the
vapor and the cold with his welcome beams. The traveler
felt the genial warmth. The sun shone brighter and
brighter. , The traveler sat down. The traveler was overpowered with heat. The traveler cast his cloak on the
ground . .

-

-

• ·-,;.·- --

15. The island at first seemed uninhabited. The natives gradually assembled in groups on _the shore. The
.natives overcame their natural shyness. They ~e~eive.d us
_very hospitably. They brought down for our use the
~arious products of the island.
' 16. But in the month of July. the sea was tranquil.
The skies were clear. No storms were gathering. · The air
was agitated by non~ but the gentlest breezes. The Eng_lish commanders were in raptures with the beauty of the
oconn. It was soon. in tho magnificence of repose. It wo.s
gemmed with islands. It expanded in the clearest .transparency from cape to cape.
17. They lowered the body into the earth. Then · the
creaking of the cords seemed to agonize her. But there
1was a jostling of the coffin. The clods fell upon it: 'rhis
was caus_ed by some accidental obstruction. All the . ten1
,d erness of the mother burst forth.
Change into verse, and compound sentences:.:.._

'.. ' 18. The woods arc hushed.

The waters rest. The lake
·is dark and still. It reflects on its shadowy breast each
' ·form ·of rock and hill.
19. Timotheus was placed on high. ·He was placed amid
. • ". the tuneful choir. He touched the lyre with flying fingers.
~ ;rhe trembling notes ascend the sky. They inspire heavenly
·joys. ·
··
·'
LESSON ; XLIII. .. • · ·
•,(.,.

J,

I

I

.
•

, 1. Good composition requires an harmonious mixof. short ·and long sentences.
·
,
·
) : 1 2. Good composition requires a judicious inter-mixture of simple seilteuces, complex, and compound:
.a. Good composition requires that the transit~on
from one sentence to another, and from one part of

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131

the discourse to another, shall be as smooth aud natural as possible.
4-. Good composition is so paragraphed as to giYe
the rest occasio11ally needed, and to mark greater
transition iu thought than is usually found between
consecutive sentences.

2. In summer the reindeer feed · on various kinds of
plants. They seek the highest hills to avo_id the gadfly.
The gadfly at that period deposits its eggs · in their skin.
Many die from this cause. · In winter their food consists
of the lichen.. They dig the lichen from beneath the snow,
with their antlers and feet. The snow is often too deep for
them to obtain this plant. They then · resort to another
species of it.' This species hangs 011 pine-trees. In severe
seasons the boors often cut down thousands of these trees
to furnish subsistence for their herds.

Combine the ful'luwing elements in such a way as to make a smoother and
mare co11ttnuous narratii:e: -

' 1. '1Viuter has passed away.

Spring has come again.
Certain signs tell us so. 'J._'he graceful flight of the swallow
is one of these signs. The swallow appears regularly. No
tr~veler from a distant country ever performed his journey
with such punctuality. That little bird and its companions
have come to us from Central America or the '1V est Indies.
They have crossed the sea and the land. They have held
on their course to tlie same countries. They have ·held on
their course to the same houses. These countries and
houses gave them shelter in a fon~er year. They .have
done this without map or compass. They have done this
with speed and regularity. Their speed and regularity
. surpass all that our boasted human inventions could attempt. "The swallow observes the time of her coming." ·
The sacred writer says this. '1V e may well say it along
with him,
• .MODEL. -The g.raceful flight of the swallow is one of the signs
which tell us that wmter hns pnsscd awny, nnd that sprinrr
has com'e
0
again. The swallow 11ppc11rs so rcgulnrly that no traveler from a dis·
tant country ever performed his journey with such punctuality.
.That little bird and its compnnions have come to us from Ccntrnl
America or the \Vest Indies. They have crossed the sea nnd the land
and held on their course, not only to the same countries but to th~
same houses.which gave them shelter in a former year. A~d this they
have done without map or compass, yet with such speed and regularity
11s to surpass all th.at our boasted human inventions could attempt.
'\Veil may we sa.v with the sarred writer, "The s.wallow oLscrvcs tho
time of her coming." - Cunnu;;,

Also divide these sketches properly Into paragraphs, where necessary.

· 3. '£he feathers of bir<ls would be apt to be r~ffie<l and
put out of order by rain. There is a curio.us contrivance to
prevent this. Most birds hav~ a gland or. bag of oil placed
under a tuft; of feathf;)rs near the tail. , The bird presses
this bag with its beak. .The bird extracts the oil f~om it.
;with this oil the bird trims and dresses its feathers. . This
keeps them .al ways·. in good order. . This epn.bles them t~
throw off any wetness. You often see birds working with
their beaks among their feathers. They a,re plumi~g and
dressing themselves with the oil at th es~ ti mes. Nature
has provided this oil for that purpose. Hens have little or
no.~e of this oil. They may be caught in a shO\Ver. ' They
have then a very drenched and moping appearance.
-!'- A. A dog crossed a rivulet. He had a pie~e of flesh · in
~is mouth. He saw his own shadow , r.e presentetl in the
,clear mirror of the stream . . He ,believed it to be another
, _dog. This dog was ·a lso · carrying a piece of flesh. The
;, 'i~al dog could. not forbear catching at this supposed piece
' ~~(·m~at. '' He was f~r from getting any thing by his greedy
1d~sign. " He dropped ,the p~ece of , meat he had in . his
piouth. It sank to the bottom. ,; It was,.,irreco~erably lost.
l:lillilll!Al.:..- 1We daily see n1en venture their property in wild and .shad:_. ~owy speculatio1111. \Ve then see the mural of . t,his fable
exemplified. "Covet all, lose all."
\

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133

5. An eagle from a high mountain made a swoop at a
lamb. She pounced upon it. She bore it away to her
young. A crow observed what passed. This crow had
built her nest in a cedar near the foot of a rock. She was
ambitious of performing the same exploit as the eagle.
She therefore darted from her nest, aull fixed her talons
in a large wether. She was not able to move her prey.
She was · not able to disentangle her feet. She was taken
by the shepherd. She was carried away for his children
to play with. Th ey eagerly i11q11irecl what Linl it was.
"An hour ago," the shepherd said, "she fancie<l herself an
eagle. I suppose she is by this time convinced that she is
but a crow." (Add the moral.)
6. A boy was smitten with the colors of a butterfly. He
pursued it from flower to flower. · He first aimed to surprise it among the leaves of a rose. He then tried to
cover it with his hat as it fed on a daisy. Next he hoped
to secure it as it rested on a sprig of myrtle. .He was sure
of his prize when he saw it loiter on a bed of violets. The
fickle fly continually changed one blossom for another, and
eluded his attempt. At length he observed it half buried
in the cup of a tulip. He then rushed forward, snatched
it with violence, and crushed it. The dying insect saw the
boy somewhat chagrined. It addressed him. "Sec the end
of thy unprofitable solicitude, and learn that all pleasure is
but a painteu butterfly."
:, f
· Let the followi11g letter, which we have adapted from Parker and Bonndl,
be improved in its sentences, and properly divided into paragraphs: -

address, the body of the letter, and the subscription. I
have already passed the first two. I .am now writing the
body of this letter. The place and date, as you see above,
shoultl be written on the first page. They should be written on the rigf1t-lrnnd side, near the top. They may occupy
one line or two, according to the number of words needed
to show where and when the letter is ·written. · If the letter
is sent by mnil, t.he name of .the nearest post-office should
accompany · the date. .This should especially be the .case
when tho person nd<lrcsscd is expected .to answer the letter.
He ·will then know how to direct his letter. 'rhe style of
address will depend on the relation between the correspondents. ' To a near relation or , a very .intimate friend, it is
allowable to use such a familiar aduress as I have used in
this letter; or such a term ~s Dear Cousin, Dear Alice, or
Friend B1·own. ' The address to others should consist of
two parts: first, the full name and title of the person; and
' second, on the next line, the complimentary address,--.- such
... as Sir or Madani. · To an utter ·stranger we should write
Si~ or Madani j to one with whom we have had some previous acquaintance, Dea1· Madam, Dear Sir, or ·My dear Sir
is ·allowable. · If the · letter is addressed to a firm, or any
,colle~tion of· persons, the . title ·before ·the na~e should be
' ~IJ-Iessrs., Mmes.,. or J.lfisses; and the complimentary address
·" sho~ld be Sirs, Gentle?nen, or Ladies. ·: Some persons ·pre". fer to write the name 'and . title of .the party addresse\l, at
,\ii~''. foot ' of the letter, on . the . left-hand s'ide' of the"' pdge.
This is a matter 1of taste. ; . It is i10t proper to insert , the
' naµie and title both at· the beginning and at the end of the
letter, nor to' place , a name between two titles. After
.the : name and ' title, a -period is placed; after the introrluctorY, address, a comma in the familiar style, and a ~olon
} p the grave style. The dash may be added to shcrw 'that
...
.
·'·
.the .l etter is continued in the next lower line. In writu)g
~~ ~J

B.t:LI..EVIEW ACADEMY, UTICA,

MY DEAR MARY,-

N.Y!J

.June 12, 1869. ~ '·~·

I mean to give you, in this form, sQ:rqe plain directions.
They are about writing a · letter~ l ~hall illustrate my
directions by ' the very letter which I write.
four principal parts. These are the place anq date,

••

' . .•

'

,,..

_· s

~~

1

r n-rnlf'Zil!ft-U t

o ·

at

'

1rl'i'+ e,

*

t- r

c

'

¥t5SY7 '

"

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134

135

the body of your letter, be careful to learn n uniform margin of at least half an inch on the left-hand side. Do not
write too closely to the right-hand edge. · Commence a new
paragraph at least an inch from the left-hand edge of the
sheet. The style of subscription should correspond with
the relation between the parties. Yours 1'espictfully, Jiost
respectfully, or Respectfully, is genera11y sufficient. To a
relative, it is proper to subscribe one's self, Your affectionate
daugliter, son, brotlier, sister, cousin, nepliew, niece, &c., as
the case may be. To a dear friend one may write, Your
sincere friend, Yours truly, rours ([,) Pl'l'l', &c. To a person whose age or social stan ding- dem ands a more elaborate
expressiou, some such form ns th e foll owing may be in good
taste: I /la1;8 tl1e lwnor to be
Your obliged and obedient servant.
JJ[oRt respectfull!J and t1·111y
Yours.
Witli the best wishes for your welfare,
I am, truly yours.
. With sentiments of the ldgliest esteem,
I remain your obliged friend, &c.
Hoping that you will find these directions useful, I beg
to be remembered as
Your affectionate teacher,
LAURA SPEEDWELL.

P. S. - Fold your letter neatly, put it into an envelope,
and address it to me as I have ad<lresse<l mine to you.
(The foregoing letter had the following address, the first line of which wart
not written higher than about the middle of the envelope:]
1
1

Miss

11fa1·y

I

Slimpley,
11fount Pleasant,
Penn.

AIQ)>' The teacher should require every pupil of the clnss to produce from the
foregoing ns neut a letter us possibl e, un<l ready tu be sent to the post office. He
will thus have a good opportunity of giving them a lesson about the form, fold·
Ing, and address of letters.

LESSON

XLIV.

Writers are generally most successful ~n delineating
what lies within the limits of their own business and
observation.
Shakespeare was a Atockholder In a theater. He. could notice every night
what produced a good effect on bis audience and spectators, and what did not
He had also a good opportunity of studying human nature,' ln the dltrerent per
sons who frequented his theater. Probably many a "gentle belle," and" nob!
lord,'' nnd "artless yeoman," while looking on, unconsciously sat for pictures
which hi" Aymp:ithctlc • oul w aA In tl1<' "'""" tln 1" Aketdilng from their l n morlt
beings. In atltlltion to all this, that his own worldly pro , pcri ty and that of hi •
fr iends depended on t he success of his Tl'ritings, "'rn doub tl c;;s a stimulus to the
h ighest <' :tc rtions. Ile was therefore t h e plump seed that fe ll i nto tlie Jeep loam.
Every thing conduced to make him the g renteRt of dramatists.

'Vh en a p erson wri tes a sketch or a Look about somethin g which he has actually seun and exa.miue<l, a.ml which
he takes deli ght in <lescriLing, there is goneraliy so much
of freshness, truthfulness, and individuality 'in the composition, as to make it interesting to everybody. In a word,
a person is .naturally most successful in ·describing or narrating what he understands better than anybody else .
Even illiterate sailors have told stories about countries and
things which they actually saw that were long read with
delight; while first-class writers have told some very absurd
things about what they never saw. Shakespe~re represents
Bohemia as bordering on the sea; and he makes a nun
sing at her window long before Christianity existed. Longfellow represents Evangeline as rowing . among the waterlilies on the Atchafal~ya; but no ~ater-lilies ever .grew
there, unless they cou~d grow forty or fifty feet below the
surface of the water. : An English poet represents "the
nightingales" as singing on the Ohio River, where no native
nightingales were ever seen or heard. So often are -b-;ok; 1/
untruthful, that a certain warrior pointed scornfully to·· a {
library, and said· that the whole thing was only a perhaps. 1{

1

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i.

I

Hence the importance of speaking or writii1g only about
what you thoroughly understand; and of always studying
your subject, before you speak or write, until you know
all about it. 'l'he greatest speakers and writers have been
obliged to study their subjects beforehand. It is well
known that Daniel Webster did so; and Macaulay, if report is true, sometimes became so abstracted in his thoughts
that he walked unconsciously against the lamp-posts along
the pavement.
To dovolop the fovcntivo powers of cl1iltlrcn, tho tcnclior
should use various methods and means; but judiciously,
stopping wherever bad consequences are likely to follow.
If a child is always allowed to select his own subject, he
will probably soon learn to borrow from the originality of
somebody else, - to copy something that he finds. 'l'his
will be prevented by giving a subject, and rcqYiring him to
write on it as soon as it is given. But this method dcies not
always afford sufficient time for study and investigation;
and it does not so well develop individuality as to let him
make his own selection, take time for thinking, and adopt
some plan of his own. Again, if a pupil is confined entirely
to his own stock of ideas and words, both his thoughts and
language are apt to remain so common-place and trivial,
that he will himself soon get tired of his superficial and
trashy productions. It is better to let him sometimes try
his skill at reproduction, - to plant his mere germ of a
mind into the higher nature of some great author. He
will thus lift himself into higher strata of thought than his
own, and soon stand on a higher pedestal. All artisans and
artists learn the rudiments of their art by copying and
imitating approved models. But, then, there is danger of
servile imitation. However, the genius will rise above
this ; and there is little to be spoiled on a blockhead. As
we have said above, the teapl1er should try all arts, and use

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them judiciously. There. is probably .no other branch of
education in which so much depends on the tact and good
sense of the teacher; To make study and exercises agreeable and produce a keen mental ·appetite, is indeed more
than half the art of teaching.
A certain elementary. book on Composition requests the
pupil to write a parallel between Socrates and · Seneca. . To
do this would probably be quite a task for .the teacher himelf · and we doubt whether even the author of the book
' write n. respoctablo · parallel on thoso •worthies of nnoultl
iquity. vVhen children are not to try their skill at reproduction, it is much better to let them write about something
of which they know something. Every child lives within
a certain horizon of experience and observation. Let most
of the original compositiobs be drawn from materials within
this limit. · The pupils whom it is most difficult to get
started can generally.be induced to make their first efforts
on something which they know, - something which they
· have seen or visited during a vacation or holiday; and these
pupils often make the best writers in the end, · for their finer
feelings produced the unusual timidity in . ~he first instance.
' All commendable efforts should be duly praised by the
teacher; and the beauties and imperfections of composition
should be constantly brought out by him in the most 'interesting manner. A little flattery, and frequent help and
encouragement, may be highly beneficial. . He should particularly beware of~too, severely or personally.
Children easily despair where they already lack self-confidence; and a very slight touch may break off 1 a tender bud. ·
There is much good sense in the couplet, "Don't view me with n critic'~ eye;
But pass my imperfections by." · •

;

In accordance with the general tenor of the foregoing
remarks, we shall now give some exercises.
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138

1. Boundaries, extent, and population,

ocality and boundary.
Extent and population.
3. Appearance ·awl surroundings.
4. Public buildings and noted places.
5. Employment and habits of the people.
Ex. - " My native village is situated in the south-west corner of
New-York State. It is not more than a mile srprnrc, nnd h~8 about six
hundred inhabitants. A pleasant brook runs through it; nnd from the
bridge I ha,·e many times watched the fishes. Sometimes my brother
nnd I sail little bo:its and planks on the water. East of us there is a
hill that is very nice to slide down on in winter; and on the 'Vest-road
there is a large piece of pine woods, full of winter-greens and groundeverybody has some land fur a garden or a field; thouo-h
nuts. Almost
I
o
there arc two merchants, two doctors, a postmaster, a blacksmith, a
shoemaker, and a tailor. The only public buildings are two churches
and the white school-house.
"There is a high hill near the village called Lightning Hill, because
the trees, there are so often struck by lightning; and on one side of this
hill Is a blue-clay bank, where we make nice marbles and other playthings. Down in the gully we find big blackberries; and on the flats
we slide in winter. Bnt in summer there is a big tent and show there,
with ponies, and all kinds of animals, and snakes in a little tent on one
side. All the people of the village go every year to see the show and
snakes."
'
FANNIE.

When and where were you born? What can you say
of your parents and ancestors? vVhere have you lived?
How have you spent y9ur life? What remarkable things
have happened to you ? What should you like to

iii&• ?

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Surface, waters, and caves.
Nature of soil and climate.
Productions, and the state of culture.
Cities or large towns, and other noted places.
Inhabitants, government, religion, science, art, and education.
7. Miscellaneous facts, or any thing else that is remarkable.
There must be in these exercises Lord ,Bacon's three
points of every effort; first, the preparation; second, the
presentation or discussion; and third, the embellishing or
·
'
perfecting.
-

I. Describe your county.
. 2. Describe your State.
3. DesCl'ibe the U11ited States.

4. Describe any other county, State,

o'r ,~untry,
,,

.

inl l'which
you
.

h~ve ever.~
•

J

compos1 ion work; and,
principal points ·are
an outline, the exercises will add to the pupil's
knowledge of geography.
Two or more different outlines may he given, corresponding to the grades of .classes.
or primary classes, simple
journeys from liome to scliool, to ~ erent portions of the
town, to neighboring towns, or to relatives~ For class~s
that have commenced geography, a little more difficult outline may be adopted ; ·and for the advanced classes, one· that
. will bring out all the important facts about .a country or
place.
, :
n
•

I

1. Starting-point and time of departure.
2.
3.
4.
5.

J\fo<le of travel ;Ion foot or horseback, by carriage or en.rs.
Appearance of 'country; level,. hilly, mountainous, rocky. .
What kinds of trees, flowePS, and .houses did you see? \
Tell something about the place visited.
..,

===="',;!!!!!-=~__$_f:@! _~.M

_

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a , t' ·.-r t¥VM·

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140

141

Ex. - "My brother Johnny 11nd I go to school. Johnny is four
years old, and I um six; so I call him my little brother. ~ e start from
home every morning nt half past eight, and go over the nver. Mother
always comes to the door, and kisses us good-bye ; and tells me to .be
very careful of little brother, for we walk to school. 'Ye take our dmncr in a lit.tie speckled basket. There is a hill jnst when we get O\'Cr
the river, that is really hnrd to climb; but there is a hig mnplc by the
side of the road, where we often sit down a little while in the shade, and
rest. Johnny picks dandelions and buttercups. There are horse-chestnuts by the school-house. The school-house is made of brick, and is
two stories high."
E~rnA.

places to live in. 'Ye saw pastures where quiet-looking cattle were
feeding, and we crossed a stream that seemed to wind several times
back and forth across the roacl. At last, Boston came in sight, with
ever so many houses and church-steeples ; and we were soon at the
dCp0t. Here we found many people; and some rough-looking teamsters, bchincl some iron railing, made a great noise in asking us whether
we wante<l a carriage. Ilut our friends were also here, waiting for us;
and they soon took us to their house. The next morning, on looking
from the window, we wer~ pleased to find that it fronted the · Common,
which looked very inviting."
W1LJ,IAM.

1'11e followin!J iB anollier example, wrillen /Jy a foy sc11en year8 o : "The omnibus comes about eight o'clock, to take the girls to the
Academy. It is a pleasant little route, to go over there. I went with
the girls one Monday morning. There are pine-trees and shrubs nlong
the road. There is a beau t.iful Jake, and a large ice-h!>use. Then we
go up a hill to the school. '\Ve pass by a church and grave-~·nnl, and
two white houses with green shntters."
HENRY.
--~ .

d the de~tination.
Mode of travel.
Appearance of the country.
Kinds of animals.
Kinds of plants; trees, shrubs, flowers, vegetables, grain.
Important places on the route, and why important.
Inhabitants, an<l their appearance an<l occupation.

1. Time of departure, the sta1tmg porn ,

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

T/1e fi wing was 'ten 6y a boy ten years old: . ·~One pl~asnnt morning Inst spring we took tho cars at Albany, and
were soon hurrying away towards Iloston.
,,,
" liVe crossed the Hudson; and, looking out from the car-windows,
we could see the river far down, which looked very beautiful in the sunlight. Away in the distance the mountains were wrapped in blue mist.
liVe passed through some rough places, yet between the rocky ledges
there were pretty wild-flowers, and the high hills were covered with low
trees and evergreens.
"We crossed the Connecticut ltiver, passed through Springfield and
Worcester, and noticed many pretty villages that might be pleasant

tr,J-It I• pcrhnp• ncc<llcAK to n<ld, that tho word "lookcrl "18 118r.d too often.
Arter re11l journeys, lmaglnnry ones mny be Introduced, e8peclally for Advanced Classes.

A

JOURNEY IN LAPLAND.

"Having been traveling some little time in the southern parts of
Sweden and Norway, I determined to advance farther north, in orde~
to visit Lapland, u country of which I had heard much, but knew little.
I journeyed a great part of the way on . foot, and reached there in the
early summer. I found that, at this season, Nature in Lapland wears
her loveliest aspect. The country appeared very beautiful; covered
with verdure, and flowers of every hue. The long summer days are of
course Ycry favorable to the growth of vegetation ; and I was not sur. •
prised when the people told me in how short a time they pass from a
dark and dreary winter to a warm and beautiful summer. I found
strawberries very abundant j so much so, that frequently the hoofs of
.the reindeer were crimsoned with the delicious fruit. Very often I met
·wandering shepherds d.riving their flocks here and there, i~ search of
pasture.
" The Laplanders have great love for their reindeer; and when we
consider how useful these animals are, it is not surprising. The milk
. and flesh are used for food ; the skin furnishes clothing; the sinews,
' cord; and the hoofs, glue. In the long winter, these animals draw the
'inhabitants from place to place, over the frozen snow . . There is another
"amusement of which these ·people are very fond ; and that is, to as·.cend a high hill, and then slide down the icy slope as fast as possible.
"The Laplanders are regarded with some disdain · by the more cul: tivatcd and refined people of the southern part of the peninsula. · It is
true that they are rude, ,and but little learned; yet they are exceedingly
hospitable. In appearance they ai;e a little below . the medium heigh·~,
1
· with dark hair and eyes; chins, sharp and pointed; and complexion,
often very light. While . I ~as there, they were nearly all living in

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t.ents; but I was informer! that in winter they live in small huts, so low
that it is almoi;t impossible for a person t<J i;tan<l erect in them. Jn
character, they are quiet, greatly opposed to war; an<l in no case did
I hear of one willing to be a soldier.
Formerly they belieHd in
many pagan superstitions; but now most of them haYe embraced
Christianity."
TI.uFt.:S.

A good mode of exercising a class in composition, and
at the same time reviewing them in geography, is to mention some point of destination, and let each pupil tranl to
it from a different place and in a different way. For instance, let tho sulJject Le-" A Journey to the City . of
Mexico," in treating of which every pupil shall tell what he
or she knows of l\Iexico and the Uexicans. Let one pupil
start from New York, another from Boston, another from
Chicago, another from San Francisco, etc.; and let some go
by land, some by water, and some by both.
1. Describe an ornrland journey from Boston to California; giving the principal cities on the route, the mode of
• trarnl, the appearance of the country and its inhabitants,
the kinds of weather, etc. 2. From New York to California, by way of the Isthmus of Darien; giving the points of
land passed, the cities on the coast, the modes of travel, the
changes of climate. 3. From Charleston, S.C., to Califor::.
nia, by way of Cape Horn; naming the waters through
which you pass, the peculiarities of temperature, etc.
Describe a journey from Chicago to London ; - London to
Quito; -Albany to Rio Janeiro; - New Orleans to Rome;
-Washington to St. Petersburg; - Portland, Me., to St.
Louis, by land and by water; - Philadelphia to Paris; Boston to Omaha, by land and by water ; - a voyage up
the l\Iississippi; -up the Amazon; -up the St. Lawrence,
and through the Lakes; - up the Nile; - up the Ill1ine; up the Danube; - up the Hoang Ho;~ across the Pacific
Ocean; - the Indian Ocean; - the Atlantic Ocean; - to
the North Pole ;-a journey round the world.

143
LESSON

XLVI.

Next to mere journeys may be introduced visits to man-u- f:'....ac- t-ories and noted places. ' In describing a visit, first
give the locality, and what is manufactured there, or for
what the place is noted; secondly, describe the general appearance and surroundings ; and, lastly, detail the process
of manufacturing, or give a minute detail of what is most
remarkable.
VISIT TO A SHELirFACTORY.

"Delightful weather, lovely sleighing, merry company, and a willing steed, all in conjunction, brought me in a cheerful mood to the door
of the Shell-Factory, in Northboro', Mass., one February afternoon, in
the year 1869. For a long time had this visit been the object of my
desire and curiosity; for I had often seen beautiful specimens· of the
work here executed. I looked for a stately edifice, beautifully adorned,
to match the style and finish of the workmanship within ; but we
halted suddenly before a very unpretending building, rather ancient and
almost dilapidated. We had not many minutes, howeYer, to consider
externals; for we were met at the door by the proprietor, Mr. Hild~eth,
who cordially greeted us, and immeJiat ~ly conducted us to the neat and ·
tidy apartments within, where nil impressions of outside appearances
soon vanished.
"In a trice, many scores of ornaments, both for male and for female
attire, were spread out before us, for our most free and familiar inspection. There were shell chains of various patterns, some plainly versicolored as the shell is, and others with inlayings and mountings; bracelets in every variety of modern style ; brooches, ear-rings, finger-rings,
sleeve-buttons, and charms, in innumerable patterns, aud frequently inlaid with gold in every variety of form; paper-folders, and com_lis of
every kind ; all composed of the rich and rare material furnished by
. the Tortoise, and finished in the highest style of art.
"The shell was shown to us in its original state; and we recognized
the family resemblance to our sea-turtle. It has three lines of scales
down its back; the middle line upon the top of the back counting five
scales, and those on either side four each. These grouped lines nre
bordered round the outer edge with 11 close setting of small scales; the
apex of the scale outward making the ontlino of the shell evenly seal-

I

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145

144
loped, much as we would finish up the edges of cone-work by ranging
the divisions of the cone side by side.
"A view of this shell held up before a strong light is very interesting. Some portions are quite transparent, presenting a beautiful amber
shade of colors; and there arc delicate lines in the enamel of the shell,
as if traced by a skillful artist- as doubtless they were - describing
circles, octagons, and irregular figures, which reveal themselves in endless rnricty.
"The tortoise-shell is imported from the East Indies; and it is held
at a value equivnlent to sih·cr- pound for pound. A barrel of this
shell, in its unwrought state, just as it arri,·es from its sea rnyage, we
were informed, is valued at a thousand dollars.
" Having seen what was most interesting, we thanked the courteous
proprietor, and remounted our slcicih· On our rctu-rn, I thought deeply
on what I had seen; and I fell into a sort of reverie on the bcni1tics of
ALICE.
nature and of art." .
Ho"·

n·....,.
)'..,..

~,f··

~~ ·~

SrEEL-PE~s ARE MADE.

"'It is but a few minutes' walk to Gillott's Pen l\Ianufactory,' said
our teacher; 'and perhaps we can not spend the allernoon more pleasantly than by visiting this mammoth curiosity of art.' As we all use
steel-pens every day, we felt great curio5ity to know how thi!! nice little
I
instrument is made; so we readily accepted the proposition of our
teacher, and in half an hour li-e were within the beautifully green and
shaded grounds of the establishment. A substantial and handsome
building stood before us, in which the business is carried on, and which
we presently entered.
"We are given at once in charge of an intelligent guide, who, having pointed out the manner in which the metal - a fine steel - is
rolled to the required thinness in a rolling-mill, conducts us up stairs,
where we are ushered into a Jong gallery, clean, lofty, and airy, furnished with long rows of presses, each one in charge of young persons,
as pleasant-looking, healthy, and happy as we could wish them to be.
They are all making pens, and we must see what they are about.
"The first to whom we are introduced has a long ribbon of the
rolled metal in her left hand, from which she is cutting' blanks' - each
of which is to become a pen - at the rate of twenty to thirty thousand
a day. The ribbon of metal is something less than three inches in
width. Ha,·ing cut as many pens from one side of it as the whole
length-about six feet-will furnish, she turns it over, and cuts -her
way back ngain ; so managing It that the points of the pens cut in going

down the second side shall fall into the interstices between the points · ·
cut in traversing the first side. By this means nearly ·the whole of the
metal is cut into pens, and but a very ~nsignificant remnant is left. The
next operator receives these fiat blanks, and, subjecting each one ,separately to a similar press, armed with a different 'cutting-implement,
pierces the central hole, and cuts the two side slits. •
" The pens are as yet but fiat pieces of metal, of very hard and unmanageable temper. They have to be bent into cylinders and semicylindcrs; nnd, to induce them to submit to this process, they are now .
heated and considerably softened in an oven. On emerging from the ·
oven they arc stamped with the maker's name on the back; and this is
accomplished very rapidly by means of a die, which the operator works
with his foot. Now comes the most important transformation the pens
undergo: another girl pops them consecutively into another of the
omni-performing presses, from which they come forth as semi-cylin- ·
dcrs; or, if they arc to be ilfag1wm Bo1111111s, or of a kind perfectly cylindrical, an additional pressure in another press finishes the barrel.
" 'Ve have now to follow the pens down stairs to the mouth of a
small furnace, or oven, where a man is piling them together in small .
iron boxes with loose covers, and arranging · them ·in the fire, where
they are heated to a white heat, and then suddenly withdrawn, and ,
plunged into a pan of oil. This ordeal renders them so extremely brittle that they may be crumbled between the fingers. They are ' now
placed in cylinclcrs, not unlike coffee-roasters made to revolve over ·a
fire, by which they are in a great measure freed from the oil. After
this they are consigned to the care of men whose business it is to tern~
per them by a process of gradual beating over a coke-fire until the.
·
metal is thoroughly elastic.
' "The n_e xt process is one conducted on a larger scale. The object
of it is to n1li down the roughness re.suiting from the various treatment which the pens have undergoue, and to impart a perfect smoothness to every part of their surface. For this purpose they are packed
in large quantities in tin cans, together with a considerable amount of
sawuust; and these cans are made to revolve horizontally at a great
rate, by means of steam. 1 The pens trit_urate one another, owing to
the rapid motion; and th~· sawdust takes up the impurities which they ·
disengage. They come forth from those cans thoroughly 8coured, or
1
semi-polished, and are now taken to the grinding-room. , This .is a I
large apartment, where a number of grinding-wheels, or ·' bobs,' · ar~ r
. whizzing round under the impetus of steam; each one of them: is
1
· in charge of a young man or woman, and they emit a stream "o(
10

I

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I

j

·.

146

.•.

147

sparkling fire as the pens are momentarily applied to their surfaces.
This grinding is a most important process, inasmuch as the pliability
of the pen depends on its proper performance; the object being to increase the flexibility of the metal of the pen at n point just above tho
central slit, by reducing the substance. The operator seizes the pen
with a pair of nippers not unlike a small pair of curling-irons in sJ1a1w,
applies the back of the pen to the wheel for one moment, and the affair
is over. Before being ground, however, most of the pens manufactured in this establishment arc slightly coated with varnish diluted with
a volatile spirit. It is this which gives them the rich brown hue that
eo much improves their appearance, and at the same time preserves
them from rust.
"After the grinding, the pens are subjected for the last time to the
operation of a press, at which a young girl completes the manufacture
of the pen by giving it the central slit, without which it wouh.l never be
in a condition to rival the goose-quill. The operation of slitting, precise and delicate as it is, is so simplified by the ingenious contrivance
with which the press is armed, that it is performed with a rapidity almost rivaling the simplest operation - a single hand slitting ncai"ly a
hundred gross a <lay. Nothing further now remains to be <lone, save a
trifling cleansing process, which frees the pens from the stain of the
hand, after which they are packed in boxes, for sale.
"It is impossible to walk through this establishment without receiving most agreeable impressions. The work-rooms, spacious, lofty, anti
airy, clean as a private parlor, and bathed in a flood of light, offer a
remarkable contrast to the foul and unwholesome dens into which it is
the custom of too many employers to cram their dependents. The
main element regarded in the construction of the building has evidcntiy
been the health and comfort of the operatives. Neither have moral
considerations. been disregarded: the females arc, for the most par ~,
secluded from the males; and where this can not be entirely effected, a
constant supervision insures decorum. The result of these excellent
arrangements is apparent in the healthy, cheerful aspect and unexceptionable demeanor of the operatives of each sex; and there is no doubt
that it is equally apparent in the balance-sheet of the i;pirited proprie- ·.
tor, who is nware that humanity is a cheap article, on the whole, and
one thut is pretty sure to pay in the long run.
"Of the amount of business <lone on these premises, we can not give
the reader a better idea than by stating the fact, that above one hnntlred
millions of pens are here produced annually, which gives an average of
between thirty and forty thousand for every working-day."
OLIVIA.

_
a cotton-factory, of any kind; to a woolen-factory; - to a grist-mill; - to a saw-mill·_
t o a tannery; - to a brewery ; - to a chair-factory
•
; - to' a
boot and shoe factory;-.- to a cheese-factory; - to a tobac- .
co-factory ; - to a hat and bonnet factory ; - to an ironfoun.dery ; - to a machine-shop ; - to a capitol; - to a penitentiary; - to a printing-office; - to an almshouse; - to a
navy-yard; - to an arsenal; - to a barrel-factory; - to a
match-factory;- to a soap-factory; - to a· ·s hot-tower;-- to
a theater; - to a museum; - to a park; - to a cemetery;
- to a former home.
a;
; alls;' - Mammoth
C~ve ·
'
.'. '
'
-. - ount ' as ungto ;"!!...!!!!...~lf011inU\>!.ernon · - the . Natural
Bridge, Virginia ;-Gettysburg;.· Bunke~ Hill;_ Sarat?ga; - the. ocean!- the ·Rocky Moimtains; - any great
city; - to iron mmes; - copper , mines;- lead mines· , gold .mines .; - sii~~r ~ine~ ..._ . to' :R~i'.u/­
coal mines;1
1
the Pyram~ds; -Mount V,es~~ius ;--· th~, ~i,n s ~f·~~l~;,;~ ;: '
- the vVlute Sea; - the Dead Sea; - ;I" erusalem. . ...
crihe a picnic;- a hunt;. - a fishi~g ex~ursi~n; .
,:Me over a farm ;-a drive into the
~?,untry; - a sleigh-ride ; - a Christmas, a:s ' you l1?-ve s~~n
it; - a Fourth of July; - an election · -. - a ·harvest · -· - a
.nut-gathering;- a remarkably beautiful' day;·- a reO:~~k- .
ably stormy day ; .- a' show ; ·_ a :· conflagration ; - · the
amusements of ch~ldren; - the 1 pleasures of home :; -·- the
..__~pleas~res , of vacatio~ ; our nearest river, creek, lake, or
harbor;- a
e, ~log ; -,a ·favorite horse; - a favorite
pet of any kind; - a favorite tree; - a favorite garden; a hop-yard; - a vineyard; - the wild:-flowers of your county; - the garden-flowers; - the forest-trees; - the fruit- ·
~i:ees ; - the berri.es ; - the singing-birds ; - . the wild animals ; - . the domestic animals ; - any of your studi~s; ·-:'_ ~,
wagon;-a plow.;-a ship;-a
; - a .ca-'

149

148
noe ; - the horse-cars;- a locomotive; -

a remarkable pic-

ture; - a remarkable statue or statuette; - a ten-<lullar
bank-note;- the last year; - the process of raising corn;
- cotton; - sugar; - tobacco; - potatoes; - m elons; wheat; - the process of grafting trees; - of prcscrYing
fruits and vegetables ; - the process of making coffee ; tea; - butter; - poun<l~cake; - cider;~ soap; - the process of building a log-house; - a frnme-h onsc; - a brickhouse; - an ice-house; - the modes of building bridges ; of making roads, streets, an<l si<lc-walks.
J¥ii'" From all the foregoing topics th e teacher must. mn1~o such selection nnd
distribution as he may think best. Though all the topics nrc\cnlcnlnte<l to stimulate and sharpen the observing facuUles of the pupil, yet perhaps only n }JOrtion can be used.

LESSON

XL VII.

I. The merit of a composition generally depends on
the writer's amount of knowledge and zeal.
2. The acquisition of knowledge is chiefly a coHtiHual perception of difference.
· 3. Subjects are inrnstigated by a proper . study of
their parts and relations.
4. Most subjects can be described with reference to
a few great poiuts or characteri1;tics.
Trees, for instance, may be distinguished by their Bark,
Fruit,
Roots,
Leaves,
Sap,
Color,
Blossoms,
·

Odor,
Angle of branches,
Grain of the wood.
.
.

Wn"te de&criptions of different kinds of trees; givi11g as . many disti11ctinn1, with reference to tlWJe points, as you can.
MAPLE.

There are several species of maple; the principal of which are the
red or swamp, the white, the sugar, the striped, and the mountain.
'l'he red or swamp maple grows to its greatest perfection in swamps

or wet lands. The bark is rather light and smooth, but becomes uarkgrny nnd broken in old ngc., The leaves are irregularly notched, the
middle lobe being the longest; and in autumn they are flushed with the
tints of sunset. In early spring this maple puts forth its bright scarlet
flowers, whic.h, as they ripen, have wide-spread Jobes or wings, to bear
the seed far and wide. The curled maple is a variety of this species,
and is tnuch prized for cabinet work. '
The white . maple resembles the red ; but its leaves are larger, and
the winged seeds arc larger, and very downy when young. The blossoms nre of a yellowish-green color, and the sap is slightly sweet. The
wood is white nnd soft, nnd not much esteemed. .
Of what we call sugar-maples, there arc two varieties, - the blnck
and the rock, the former being darker in its foliage. The bark of both
is light-gray, rough, and scaly. The lea\·es are coarsely notched, and
so luxuriant that the tree is much used for sh<~de. The flowers arc
yellowish; the wings of the fi-uit arc about an inch long, and of a pale
yellow. From the sap of an ordinary tree ·can be made in one season
from five to ten pounds of sugar. The wood is very compact and
strong, making good fuel and handsome ·furniture; especially one species, which is called bird's-eye· maple. :
..: 1 • ,
The striped maple, a short. tree or shrub, has several names, striped dogwood, moose-wood, .and whistle-~vo~d . .. Ti1e bark is of a
light-green color, striped with. dark lines'; .a nd · t11e ' leaves arc handsomely notched. The blossoms are of a ' light yellowish-green · color,
and ore succeeded by long clusters of fruit, with pale-green wings.
The smaller branches are straight and smooth, a·nd easily separated, in
spring, from the bark. 'rhey are therefore much prized .by boys, who
manufacture from them a kind of wind instrument, - hence the name
whistle-wood.

·

,The mountain-maple is a small shrub, having . a 1igl1t-gray. bark,
leaves coarsely toothed, and a little downy on · the under side. '' The
flowers are numerous and minute; while the iobes or w.ings of the seed
·
·
are sm.all and w'.idely divergept. f
. ! '

'

1I

~

Many subjects can be delineated both in prose and in
poetry; and the mo~t interesting topics in the world have
been treated thus by different writers. ·:: vVe shall therefore

a<l<l some verses

011 -

·

·

'

1

• ,

•

. MAPLE-SEEDS.

Curious things, with odd-shaped wings,
The sweet May-time ,to the maple brings;

''

151

150
Over our heads,
On slender threads,
Idly flapping their crimson wings.
Each tiny pair suspended there,
Swaying about in the soft spriug air,
Seems to the eye
Longing to try
Its wings abroad in the azure 11ky.
And aR I lie, with half-shut eye,
'\Vatching their feeble cffortii to fly,
Ot.hcr fair things,
Soon to have wings,
Rise unbidden before mine eye.
From this life's things, its storms and stings,
Longing to haste with heavenward wings,
"\Vaiting to die,
1Vaiting to fly,
Only waiting to use their wings.
Come twilight gray, that clears away
The misty dreams which o'er me stray;
Naught now I see
Save the maple-tree,
'Vith its winged seeds for ever at play.
The foregoing poem has b een converted into a beautiful imaginary story;
and the teacher may also require his pupils to use it in a similar way.

-+-

Write according to the same marks
·
following trees and shrubs : -

Elm.
Willow.
Oak.
Birch.
Cedar.
Linden.

Pine.
Poplar.
Cypress.
· vValnut.
Hemlock.
Hickory.

of distinction
Beech.
Ash.
Sycamore.
Chestnut.
Papaw.
Brier.

given above, about the

Apple-tree.
Pear-tree.
Peach-tree.
Cherry-tree.
Grape-vines.
Honeysuckles.

Of the mo>t common trees, there is generally a great variety; and
most descriptions are based on the varieties.

Ehn. - Slippery or Red, White, Winged, English.
Oak. - White, Black, Red, Live, Water, Pin, Burr, Chincapin, Black Jack.
Willo"''• - 'Vecping, Yellow,Black, Wl1!te, Silky-headed, Narrow-leaved.
Dlrch.- 'Vhite, Red, Yellow, Black, Canoe, Dwarf, Cut-leaved.
Poplar. -Cotton-wood, Aspen, Lombardy, Silver-leaf, Balm of Gilead.
Plue. - Pitch, Yellow, White, Austrian, Norway, Scotch: ·
Ot.he1· Evcrgree11.9, -Cedar, Spruce, Cypress, .Hemlock, Holly, Mag·
nolln, Yew, Ivy, llox, C11llforn!11 lted·wood.
·

Describe in a similar manner any particular tree that you have ever seen
or that you can find.
J¥jj'" \Ve would urge teachers to use these exercises until the pupils are
so familiar with the trees In our forests and orchards that they can describe
th em ren111ly. For l1c>gln11erR, Jrnrhnpa only ono or two of tho points of dlstlnc·
tlon can be used nt flr8t. So far na prnclicnble, It will be \VCll for the teacher to
havo ~pee l mens o f thr. wood, and also- according to the season of tbe yearblossoms, leaves, fruits, for the class to examine.

qur.tion•. - What writers are generally most successful? What ls said
of the importance of studying a subject before speaking or writing on it? Give
nn outline of points for describing a country. Give . an outline pf points for
describi ng a journey. On what does th e merit of a composition usually de·
pend? How nrc •nbjccta Investigated? How can most subjects be described?
Give an outline of points for describing trees.

LESSON

XLVIII.' '

l, Variety of Expression relates to words, phrases,
clauses, sentences, and entire sketches.
2. Sentences can be varied · by transposing their
parts.
!'
, Ex. - "John and Mary are here"= Mary and :~ohn ~re here . .'~ He
studies and writes" =He writes and studies .. "He studies In the morning" = In the morning he studies. · "Thy rest shall ' be' '. calm' · and
sweet '' = Calm and sweet. '· thy rest shall be. "To secure to us the
blessings of liberty, our fathers endured a Jong and , bloody war"=
Our fathers, to secure to us the blessings. of liberty, endured a long and
bloody war. Our fathers endured a long and bloody war, to secure to
us the blessings of liberty. A · long and bJOody '. war our fathers en·
durcd, to secure to us the blessings of liberty.

3, The parts of sente11ces are words, phrases, and

clauses.

152

153

Vary/ tlie following sentences, by transposing tlie parts: -

1. Iron is the most useful of all the metals.

2. I like
what you dislike. 3. Where much is given, much will be
required. 4. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, 0 Death !
5. The wind came roaring down the mountain gorge. 6.
To this audience, gathered on that day from every part of
the land, 'Everett spoke. 7. The rocks crumble; the trees
fall; the leaves fade; and the grass withers. 8. The first
and great object of education is mental discipline. 9. The
calm shade shall bring a kindred calm, and the soft brcezo
shall waft balm, to thy sick heart. 10. The murmurs of
the people were loud, as their sufferings increased. 11. If
beasts could talk, they might often tell us a cruel story. 1~.
For many n. l'Cturning autumn, a lone Indian was seen
standing at the consecrated spot we have mentioned; but
just thirty years after the death of Soonseetah he was noticed for the last time. 13. The plowman homeward plods
his weary way. (The words of this sentence can be arranged
in sixteen different ways.)
14. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade,
Where heaves the turf in many a moldering heap,
Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
· The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.
This stanza can be varied many times.

4. The beginning and the end are generally the

most important positions in a sentence.
Ex. - "Lmg was the way, and dreary." By placing one adjective
at the beginning, and the other at the end, the writer has made the
most of the Meas which they express.

r

5, In arranging the parts of a sentence, the natural
order of things should be observed.

'

E.x.-"Tbey foaght, bled, and died for liberty."
1"8D.,"'t?ment of the Terbs would be absurd.

I

A contrary

ill'-

6, A sentence so constructed that the meaning is
suspended till the close, is call~d a period.
Ex._:." \Vhen, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary
for one people to dissolve· the political bands wl1ich have connected them
with another, . ' ; · . · a decent respect · for the opinion of mankind
requires, that they should declare the causes which imp_el them to separation."
' ' .
'
JEFFERSON.

Change the following sentences into periods:,..:_ '

1. Our minds are enlarged by co~te~plating the wide
diversities of laws, manners, and morals.
2. There is a mixture of good and evil m eve~y human
. character and transaction ..
3. Competition has produced · activity where :monopoly
would have produced ~luggislmess.
.,
. . ,
4. A history that does not serye. this purpose would be
})erfectly u~eless, though it IJ).ay ,be ,filled 'Yith battles and
commotions.
'
u. 1'he mind is crippled and contract~d by perpetual attention to the same ideas; just as any action or post~re,
long continued, will disfigure the limb~. (As .. ! so ..•
likewise . . .)
.
.

';, The .arrangement of words can often be· varied,
and. made more impressive, by commencing 'the statement with it or there.
1r
Ex. - "To have.friends everywhere .is good"= It is g 00 d to have
friends everywhere. "A poor exile came to the beach of Erin "=
1
There came to the bea~h a poor exile of Eri~:. . i ' ·
·· · '
I

Vary tlie following sentences by beJinning e.ach with

IT

or

THERE : -

t: To dispute about trifles is not honorable. ·
1

2: '. Music
1s in ·her speech. 3. That we never ' hear from ·him is
strange. 4. A 'time never was when labor was more in demand or better rewarded.

8. Verse is changed into prose chiefly by transposition.

155

154
Change into proi:e ; and also make such alteratio11s as will mal.:e tl1e
pro.<;e wi.tural, smooth, and colterenl: -

1. For contemplation he, an<l valor, forme<l;
For softness she, and sweet attractive grace.
Ex. - Ile was form ed for contcmpl:ition and valor; and she was formed for
11oftness and sweet attr:ictivo grace.

2. His step than the red-deer's was freer and lighter·
. eye than the eagle's was keener and brighter. '
His
3. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth
A youth to fortune an<l to fame unknown.
4. 'With <leep affection an<l sacl recollection
I often think of those Brooklyn bens;
·whose chimes so wild would, in the days of chil<lhoo<l,
Throw around my cradle their magic spells.
5. 'Vho noble iueans by noble euds obtains,
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains,
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed.
6. Forth goes the woodman, leaving unconcerned
The cheerful haunts of men, to wield the ax
And drive the we<lge in yon<ler forest drear
.
'
From morn to eve his solitary task.
Shaggy and lean and shrewd, with pointed ears,
And tail cropped short, half lurcher and half cur,
His dog attends him. Close behind his l1ecl
Now creeps he slow, and now with many a frisk
\Vide-scampering snatches up the drifted snow
1Vith ivory teeth, or plows it with his snout;
Then shakes his powdered coat and barks for joy.
Heedless of all his pranks, the sturdy churl
Moves right toward his work; nor stops for aught,
But now and then with pressure of his thumb,
To adjust the fragrant charge of a short tube
That fumes beneath his nose : the trailing cloud
Streams far behind him, scenting all the air.

9. Sometimes the sentences or parts of a sk:~tch can
be cliffcrently arranged without impropriety-.
PoTATO~s.

1. Why usually called Irish? 2. vVhere do they grow?
3. How are they cultivated? 4. Describe the plant in its
various stages of growth. 5. When and bow are potatoes
dug, and jltored away? 6. For what are they used? 7.
How are they prepared for food? 8. Where were they
found at first?
D. vVho brought them to Europe?
(Francis Drake.) (8, 9, 2, 1, 4, 3, 5, 6, 7. Now write, in
answer to the questions, another sketch, and arrange the
matter acc;orcling to the foregoing order of the figures.)
THE CHU,RCH BELL.

1. "\Vhere is it? 2. Its uses? 3, Differ~1rne in size and
tones? 4. Its effept oP. our feelings and memories? 5.
Of what js it made, and how? (4, 5, 3, 2, l..) .
LESSON XLIX.

Sentcm.ces are v::i,ried by altering the phraseology,
Sentences can frequently be vaded by chari.ging the
predicate.
·
Substitute for the verb a simpler verb and q, prepositiq11;..,,,,..
1. "\Ve ascended the hill. · (vVe U)f)rtt up t4~ hill.) 2. We
descendeg the hill. 3. Let ~ pursue this path. . ( ... go
along ... ) 4. Our friends apcompani<;ld µs. 5. Captain
Cook circumnavigated the earth, 6~ He always . supervises
our accounts. 7 . . The offl_cer t).'anscended his authority. 8.
I.addressed him. ' 9, You request too. much. 10. Kings
still govern many ~ations.
Suf?lititute,fqr the verb, the verb

1. Thl}.t suffices for me.

BE

and an adjective : -

(That is sufficient for me.) · 2.
3. You have succeeded

' )fy impression differs from yours.

157

1;)6
in your attempt. 4. These bir<ls migrate. 5. Exercise
conduces to health. 6. He atten<ls to my instructions. 7.
1'hese things can not be a1lowe<l. 8. J3ilious diseases prevail in the hot season. 9. This statement applies only to
certain districts.
Change al.so the p1·eposition : -

1. It agrees with my wishes.

2. I confide in his honesty.
•
3. This act derogates from his character.
Change into the verb nE and an attributive

1101.111

or adjective : -

1. He deceives. (He is a deceiver. Ile is deceitful.)
2. He creates. 3. He invents. 4. He is patriotic. 5.
He · is fanatical. . 6. She only assisted. 7. The sons all
drink. 8. He \vrites and . lectures. 9. If lrn said so, he
lies. 10. He was friendly to us. 11. She manages well.
12. He does ~ot own, but rent.
.

Substitute the i·erb

BE, a11

adjectfre, and a preposition: -

1. This book interests me. (This book is interesting' to
me.) 2. Your words indicate doubt. 3. Tho romark signifies much. 4. Do I trouble you ? 5. Pupils should obey
their teachers. 6. This last fact decides the question. 7.
Such measures subvert the very foundations of liberty.
8. Caterpillars injure trees. 9. His lectures instructed
everybody. 10. This law protects all interests. 11. Such
weather benefits the crops. 12. Suspicion destroys love
and friendship. 13. Bankn1ptcy suggests many suspicions.
14. He neglects his business. 15. Your argument evades
·the true question. 16. Your remarks contradict what he
said. 17. Our interference did not produce much good.
18. His argument concludes noth~g. ·
Sometima the cliief word in the predirote can be chan!Jed into a noun, and
mack the mhject. of an e,quivaknl ltatement : -

1. They differ but little.

(There is but little difference
between them.) 2. They do not agree. 3. They are similar. 4. You were searched for. (Search was made ... )

5. T110 house is noisy. 6. This was not needed. · 7. They
<lo not sympathize with each other. 8. It is generally
Lclicvc<l t11at he was kille<l. 0. The people were mucli~
distrcsse<l.
Substitute IIA YE a11d a11 obJect,fol' tl1e pl'edicate-verb : -

1. I <lo not sympathize with them.

(I have no sympathy for them.) 2. I <lo not need it. 3. I do not recollect
,what you sai<l. 4. Tho chap docs not respect his father. 5.
She does not love him. 6. He does not see into the matter. (.•. insight ... ) 7. He knows nothing of .grammar.
8. He does not fear punishment. 9. You are not merciful.
10. B.e is not discreet. 11. He is not polite. 12. He is
not skillful. 13. I can not adequately exp1;ess my astonishment
Seuteuces can be varied by .cl~anging the vo~ce .·_of
transitive verbs.
l
Change tlw active voice to tlte passive, and the passive to the .active:- ·

, 1. The soldiers burned the town. 2. Columbus ' uiscov-·
ered America. 3. Our dogs cau'ght the deer. 4. The dust
was swept off by a servant. 5. Mary broke · t~e · pitcher.
6. The children gathered the apples. 7. we were amused
by his remarks. 8. Persia was conquered by Alexa~der.
9. · The ministers speak 'of peace. · 10. All 'the · teachers
recommended the book. 11. ' We were deceived 1by "what
·he said. 12. The northern part of· tl?-e · State ; is ·covered
with dense forests; and th~ people are occupied "with •' the
lumber trade. 13.· The m'an ·who injures another is his
own foe. (... by whom another is injured' ...) ·· 14: They ·
.Whom luxury has debased . can not enjoy the: simple' pleas·urcs of nature. 15. Thd things which · I brought home, I
gave to my brother. 16: "What the man earned during the
·day, was squandered in the evening. · 11. Whatever we
undertake, we should accomplish. 18. Whoever acts wisely,
I

\

158

159

deserves praise. 19. Never delay till to-morrow what
ought to be done to-day.
Change the chief part of the predicate lo a passive adjective: -

1. Any other situation is to be preferred. (... is preferable.) 2. The goods can not be sold. 3. The statement
can be relied on. 4. The obstacles can not be surmounted. 5. Her disease can not be cured. 6. The fruit is not
fit to be eaten. 7. He deserves contempt. He is " 'orthy
of contempt. 8. These rightR can not he alienated. H.
'.l'he story is worthy of being laughed at. 10. His arguments could not be resisted. 11. The issue is to be deplored.
12. The neglect can not be excused. 13. Such intrusions
can not be tolerated. 14. The result could not be avoided.
15. At this point the mountain can be seen. (... visible.)
16. His speech could not be heard. (... not audible.)
17. He never becomes fatigued. (... indefatigable.) 18.
These things can not agree. (... incompatible.)

l
j

I

Change in a similar way: -

1 1

I:
l

1. The universe has no limits. 2. His entreaties availed
nothing. 3. These people are fond of society. 4. At this
time of the year the weather is liable to change frequently.
5. This is not in fashion.

In stead of making a direct statemeilt, we can sometimes elegantly deny the opposit~.
Ex. - "I remember your promise"== l have riot fbrgotten your
promise. "He is wise ; " " He is not ignorant;" "He is no fool."
"I think I shall not go; " " I do not think I shall go.''
Change the fallowing sentences inio equival~nt negq,tives: -

1. She is handsome. 2. It is probable. 3. It may be
proper. 4. I am mindful of you. l>. Ile was active. 6.
She is a friend of yours. 7. Youl;' argument was logical,
bµt tt is out of place. 8. The mystery was soon solveq.
(· . . rem.~.ined not long unsolved,)

•

LESSON

L.

1. Sentences can be varied by changing words to
phrases, and phrases to clauses ; or by changing
clauses to phrases, and phrases to words ; especially
when the expression is a subordinate element.
Subordinate clauses, whether used in the sense of adjectives, ad·
verbs, or nouns, can . frequently be contracted into participles or parti-.
cipial pl~rases, infinitives or infinitive phrases, adjectives or adjective
phmses, appositive phrases, or prepositional phrnscs; nnd tho reverse.
Again, prepositional phrases can frequently be changed to adjecti\•cs,
adverbs, or possessives; and the reverse. - See pp. 54 and 107-110.

2. The adjective modifiers are more or less interchangeable ; and an adverbial modifier or predicate
expression can frequeutly be changed into another.
Ex. - " ·wealthy men are proud." Men of wealth have pride.
The men who · possess wealth arc generally haughty. · Men possessing
wealth are often scorners of the poor. Rich people look scornfully on
those below them. "Hugo's house stood near the sea.'.' The house in
which Hugo lived was near the sea. The house occupied by Hugo
commanded nn extensive view of the sea. "Robert Fulton, who invented steamboats, died prematurely from toil and poverty." Robert Fulton,
the inventor of steamboats, did not reach an old age, because he was
·
poor and overworked himself.
. In stead of a dependent clause or phrase, we may sometimes' use
simply the most important word in it; as, "The horse which limps"· =
The limping horse. " William who conquered the Britons " = William, .
the Conqueror. "From the waving ~yrtles whi~h grew around t/1e111,"; =
From the waving myrtles round. · · ·
..
' '· :
'

.

'

•

l

'

\

3. A clause usually brings out a subordinate ,idea
with greater prominence than a phrase, and a phrase
;than a word, or a longer expression than a shorter.
Ex. - " In words that breathe and thoughts that burn.''
In breathing words and burning thoughts.
" An hour passed on - the Turk awoke.''
In about an hour the Turk awoke.
Observe how much more forcible each of the foregoing quoted lines
is tlfan that which follows it.

•

161

160
"The Scots yielded with very great reluctance to the union with
England." Here the phrase "with very great reluctance," by being
mad~ as long as possible, thus very elegantly emphasizes the idea, by
makmg the most of it; and it is more forcible than "very reluctantly "
would have been.

4. Since nouns, adjectives, verbs, nnd adverbs are
the principal words of language, it follows that variety
of expression must be sought chiefly in regard to them,
or in regard to the ideas denoted by them.
...
.G:i* The principles contained In the statements of this Lesson arc of great
value; 1111d th ey show, of themselves, the Importance of being perfectly famlllar
with all the elements of sentences, as given on pp. 52-77.

C/1ange the fallowing phrases or clauses to words, or abridge tlie Italicized
expressions : -

In tkis place will I remain. I am at tlie present tinie
writing a letter. God is in all places and at all times
present with us. At wliat time will you start? To wliat
place are you going? For wliat reason did you not write
to me? I was at tliat time much younger, and of necessity
much more inexperienced. As oGcasions present tliemselves
I will write to you. So far as we can judge by appearances:
she must be wealthy. (She is apparently ...) He wrote
before lie did any tliing else.
It was not long before they crossed the forest. (They
soon . . .) In accordance witli tliis determination they set
out at an early lioztr one morning, very much excited with
their intended exploit. It rained with such violence that
it was impossible to advance. It is evident that he wrote
the letter ~n a very .liasty mhnner. Their names were
called out in alp/iabetical ortfer. I have many times noticed it mysel£ The people had .for a lon.fJ time been clamoring for war, anrl in a s!tort time I after this hostilities
were with solemnity <lcclarecl. He is elected e11ery year.
Th~ blue waves roll by ni!Jli.t on deep Galilee. They recciYe
the1r pay once a week. "\Ve waited witli great anxiety for

the dawn; and .at daylight all the crew were ~aved, by tlie
care of Providence, from a watery grave. He · has refused
obedience until tlie present time. Till that time, who bad
heard of him? The army was .for the most part cornpo~ed
of
recruits. In the last place lie drew our attention to
the ·poverty and misery which prevail in. all parts throughout our country. He had by this time reached the battlefield, and found his army beaten in a deplorable manner.
I went o.f niy own accord. ( ... voluntarily.) . · By attacking the <livisions of this army one by one, they cah Lo
defeated witli mucli less difficulty. It was at. tlie end determined that we should make an attack without the. delay of
an instant. 1Ve then sailed a very great distance I toward
the east. Several merchants had been seized witlwut auth01·ity and justice, and treated · in a most , cruel manner.
(... unjustly ...) He said it_was as much , as lie wanted.
(... enough.) I have as muck as I want to do, to take
care of myself. He is, to . be sure, a very insignificant fellow. I was at no time before in so much distress. (Never
•. : so distressed.) The face of the wounded soldier was disfigured in a shocking marmer. Have you at any time seen the
parties quarrel? 1Vill you go to tliat place I without delay?
In ~onsequence of this the house was obliged to stop payment. He is a man of wisdom. (... a wise man.) It is a
law of nature. He is without money and without friends.
He is a man of wealtli and independence. . The .report_ is
nr,t to . be denied. The decision is of importance. ,All your
work is of no utility. / His avarice was without. bounds.
Hi~ avarice coul,d not be satisfied. (... insatiable.) The
tr;i.nsaction was declared to . be aC<?ording to law. T11e
transaction was contrary to law. , The defendant was
pronounced free from gu~lt. It is a step o.f the very great- ·
est irnp~1'tance. "\Ve returned home wet to tlie skin with
ram. , (... drnnched.) He was a citizen worthy of esteem.

raw

11

162

163

'l'he general found the peas an try not disposed to f avo1· his
cause. (... averse ... ) They recommended him as a
workman of skill. The fact is not to be disputed. The
mystery can not be comprehended. The argument can not
be answered. They have no power. Henry did not exercise much discretion. It is not a position to be desfred.
She did not mind the danger. He was a man of good
breeding. (. : . well-bred man.) This was a trail that vm·y
much perplexed the scouts. (... perplexing trail ... ) The
Lornls can nut be 1·cdccmcd. '1'110 propcl'ly is sudi (ts easily
perishes. The bonds can be conve1·ted I at any tinie into
cash. The river can not be forded I at this place. The
river was of wonderftil depth and cleantess. He is full of
politeness and ceremony. (... very polite ... ) She possessed much sense and amiability. They attacked the fort
with a force that could not .be resisted. (... irresistible
force.) A person who tells lies is seldom believed. (A liar
...) The mummies which aJ·e found in Egypt are even to
the present time well preserved. (Egyptian mummies ·...
even yet ... ) Victoria, who is now queen of England, is
an excellent woman. (... tlie present queen of ... ) A
man who is well formed and who enjoys good health can
work. All the . members wlto have come from the West
wish·.the law to be changed. Tho coffee which is p1·oduced
in Java is the best. The light which comes from the sun
is the most pleasant. The temple of Solomon was built of
cedar. (Solomon's ...) The troops whicli served tlie king
were viotorious.

Fruit-tree. Canary-bird. Bee-hive. Buttermilk. Horselaugh. Love-letter. Chairman. Otherwise. A high-born
lady. A pale-faced boy. A tree-and-cloud-shaded mEladow.

Expand the following compound words : -

. Daylight. (The light of day.) An eye-sore. (Something that makes the eyes sore.) Moonlight. Eye~ball.
Gas-light. Ear-rings. Land-tax. Birthday. Chimneyswecper. Fortune-teller. Bookseller. 13ell-wethcr. Hairbrush. Hour-hand. Hour-glass. Fish-hook. Fish-pond.

Change clauses to phrases or words, or abridge the 'It.alicized expre;swns: -

He assumed a gravity that was ridiculous~ C. .. ridiculous gravity.) He advanced with a rapidity · that was inc1·edible. Count Bismarck soon displayed talents for government tliat were very extra01·d£na1·y. We cut our way
through this icy region with toil aucl suffering tluit can not
be conceived. Then followed such a scene a8 can not be dtr
sc1·ibed. ·winter is the season of the year which is most
desolate. All beverages wkich intoxicate should be avoided.
They who dispense justice should themselves; be upright.
(The ~ispensers ... ) They wlio inherit wealth often spend
it foolishly. 'They who conqiter and enslav~. nations generally die a miserable death. · The· books which were not yet
bound were destroyed by fire. (The unbound :'. .) The
trees wf1,ich were not p1·otected were killed by the winter.
'fhe corn which is not yet planted will not become ripe.
The trees which grow along the banks of the river are truly
majestic. The money which has been foolishly spent is
generally much needed afterwards. ·When Iliad eaten my
dinner, I returned to the store. (Having . ·, .) · Since Iliad
nothing else to do, I went. · When I was young, I thought
otherwise. (When young ... 01·, In · my youth~ · •. ) . If-it
is convenient, go with us. Because he had once deceived
me, I would not trust him again. The wicked flee when no
man,pu1·sues them . . (... when unpursued.) After we obtained our passport, we departed immediately. When we
had rngained the main road, we thought ourselves out of
danger. Since the night was dark, we did not start. (The
night being ... ) Inas11iuch as the day was rainy, we
staid at the hotel. ' When Peter knocked at . the · gate, ~

164

. 165

damsel came to hearken. (Peter knocking ... ) As soon
as the moon rose, we left our camp. As we have already
explained tlte principles, we will now give some illustrations.
i will send this to your friend, who is an excellent judge of
such 1natters. (... friend, an excellent judge . . . ) · He
was · appointed cashier, which was a very 1·esponsible positiOn. It is expedient that some one should write to him.
(To infinitive.) It is impossible that I should accompany
you. It grieves one dog when he sees another go into the
kitchen. I 'Lelicve that he is honest. I am willing that he
slwuld accept the offm·. It is expected that you will preach
for us next Sunday. (You are expected to ... ) The queen
came that 'she might behold the glory of Solomon with her
own eyes. It would be some satisfaction to us if we knew
your reasons. · I supposed that he was my friend. That I
may convince yrni, I will relate all the circumstances. . If
you would fully · appredate my feelings, imagine yourself
in my po~ition. Reflection represents the mind as if it were
bendfog back to look upon its thoughts. (... as bending
•••)
1 He has so managed the matter that he has gained
the confidence of the entire community. ( ... as to ... )
I am so fortified in conscious integrity that I defy all your
threats. vVe did not know what we should do. (... what
'to do.) I can not see where I ought to put it. Can you
tell me what niethod I should adopt? Can you show me
·how I should tie up this bundle? How shall I know when
1 ought to step forward?

f~iling, he was obliged to give up his occupation. A subterranean passage, damp and gloomy, led us to the cave.
(... which ... ) The nearest way round is the best and
shortest way over. From stars above to flowers below, the
world is bright and beautiful. ( ... that sl?-ine ... that
bloom ...) I know him to be an honest lad. His being a
rich man did not make him . a happy ip.an. People . are
polite to him on account of' his riches. (... because ... )
Life, like a river, glides away never to return. (.. ,. is .. .
for ... )

Change the following simple sentences into complex: -

To be weak is miserable, doing or ·suffering. (To be
weak is miserable, whether we are doing or suffering.) I
fear the Greeks, even when bearing presents. On approaching the house, we saw the enemy ·retreating. (As
... that ... ) He was requested to stay. · (It ... that
•.. ) They knew him to be a liar and cheat. His health

Change the following complex sente11ces into compound: -

:Many who can conquer their anger; can not conquer
their pride. .(Many can conquer. their anger, but they can
not conquer their pride.) · Though books may .teach y~u
many things, they can · not teach ; you every dthing. ; The,.
small stock of provisions which we · took : ~i.th .us was soon
exhausted. I gave the book to John, who lost .i t.. (... · an~.
he ... ) vVe caught but one fish, which we. have brought
home. · (... and this. • .) Many poets. who ~re , worth~ . of
remembrance are forgotten, . merely because . t~1ere · is :;not.
room in our memories for all. ' (; .. and therefore • • .) :H :
you· would not cut yourself off from the kind offices , of :
others, you mus~ yourself show kindness. , .( .... O! • • •) ·i H :
you own a farm, and want it ruine~, rent it out. > (Do yo~ ,
.· .. tlien ; . : Make the condition an interrogative or)m-~
pei·ative clause.) ' If 'you are in . trouble, this will comfort.
you. If you go there, you will qe astonis~1e<l. , (Go tl;tere,:
and ,...) If you learn; i;() govern yourself, you w~ be ~able
to govern others.
·1 :
,,
• l. ~
i .....

I·

1. Sentences are varied to express the ·different i.
grammatical properties; that is, ·gender, person, number; case, voice, mood, tense, and comparison.'
1

1

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166

167

These variations nlso change the sense; nnd on the correctness with
which they arc made depends chiefly the grammatical correctness of com·
position .

ommend, be discharged, shall have been, will pardon, may
have been rejoicing, was elected, should have been elected,
can not describe.

. Change to t!te opposite gender: -

Change tlie following sentences in case, as many way.• as you can:--.

1. Gender. - He was a hero. (She was a heroine.) She
is but a girl. He is a Jew. He is her father. He is
neither administrator nor executor. She is now queen.
He is an actor. A shepherd is the heir to this large estate.
l\Iy uncle came in his carriage. She has <leceiYed him . .
The <lukc an<l the marquis are lJoth widowers. The czar
met the sultan. The emperor sent for the princess.
Change to the other pe1·so11s: -

· 2. Person.-! am. (We are.) They were. Thou hast
wronged me. I was there. Had you written to him, he
would have met me. If I were in your place, I would
write to him. \.Vilt thou go? Yours are better than ours.
It is your duty, not theirs nor his.
Change to tl1e other number : -

3. Number. - I was alone. (vVe were alone.) He is a
pupil of mine. Tarry thou till I come. The boy has
broken his slate. The girl has recited her lesson to our
aunt. He ma<le an entry into this valley. My son-in-law
is at his brother-in-law's house. It is this that grieves me.
That is mine. The guests foun<l no knives or forks on the
table. Tell me the grief and sorrow of his life. I was
reading a very funny story about a monkey. The trellis
had the form of an ellipsis. 'i\That is the difference between
genius and genus? He that parleys with his conscience is
in danger. Blessed are they whose transgressions are forgiven.
Predicate each
then of THEY : -

of the fallowing vm11s correctly of

TllOU,

then of HE, and

Am, was, have been, had been, would lrnve been, are
deceived, did maintain, gave, see, touched, cast, amass, rec-

4. Cnsc. - I m et him. (He met me.) Yon ~aw Jrnr.
Who struck him? 'Vliom ditl you ass ist? Thou Jiast forsaken her. \Vho came with her? vVe can not help thee.
Know ye the man who buried him? Your friend's brother
sent Jam es to me.
Cliange to the other voice, without changing the subject: -

·

5. Voice. -They released us. I checked him. She
came to see. I rise to hear. The dog shunned me. You
will leave us. vVe disarmed them. y OU love her. vVe
attacked the enemy. Register. He saw and conquered.
He was expected to strike. He knows how to govern:
.

I

E xpress t!te following predicates. in th e otl;er moods : _:_

6. Mood. -You study. I regret it. Could he go? If
he come. Be honest. Canst thou blame me ?
7. Tense. - Express, so far as you can, the foregoing
predicates in the other tenses, then in the. other styles or
forms, and lastly in the other persons arid numbers.
Express in all the other degrees of coinparison : 8. Comparison. - This apple is good. That boy is bad.
Lead is one of the heaviest metals. The sunset was magnificent. He is as polite as he is intelligent.
~Grammar lies eesentlally In the forms of words and sentences; · and
when teachers fully comprehend this fact, they will soon find a simple and
durable basis for the eclence.

2. Propositions or sentences may be Declarative. - "Mary shuts the door."
Interrogative. - " .Does Mary shut the door 1"
a. Imperative. - "Mnry, shut the door I "
4. Exclamatory. - " How Mary shuts the door I "
1.

2.

3. Each of these may be I. Affirmative. - "Mary shuts the door."
2.

Negative. - "Mary does not shut the door."

-

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168

169

Vary the folwwing sentences according to any or all
ideas : -

of the j ol'egoing

Sol<lier, rest. It is so. Let thy heart ache no. more.
Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue ocean, roll. Docs not
Beason elevate our thoughts as high as the stars ?

LESSON

Lil.

1. Most sentences can be recast so as to express the

meaning in a very diITereut way ; or almost every
thought can be expressed in many different ways.
Ex. - " She died; " " God released her from her pain." " My
opponent does perhaps not see that he has contradicted himself;"
" The honorable Senator does nolt seem to know that he is caught tight
and fast in the fixed fact of a killing contradiction." "His team was
rather remarkable, being composed of a nmle and a horse ; " " His
comical-looking team consisted of a ·horse named Pound-cake ; and a
mule that wagged hls long ears to the call of 'John.' "

vVhen a sentence or a paragraph is decidedly troublesome or unsatisfactory, it is generally better to discard it
altogether, and adopt a. different mode of expression.
Exp1'ess each of the following thoughts in several different ways : -

1. Delays arc dangerous. 2. Time is money. 3. vVe
soon reached the shore. 4. Music is extensively cultivateJ.
in this country. 5. The paths of glory lead but to the
grave. 6. Up rose the sun, and off we went. 7. You lie;
8. Having saved some money, he retired to the country.
9. Hope soothes our sorrows, and stimulates our exertions.
10. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Homan
state evidently declined.

2. Discourse is either direct or indirect.
3. Direct discom·sc iutrouuces the speakers themselves.
4. Indirect discoru·se merely tells what they said
and did.

··· 5. Direct discotui:;e has the advantage, in vividness,
scope, and versatility.
, ·
. . · '1
, 6 . .Iudir1ect di~cqnrs~ has. tl,ie a?vantage in. ~ni~Y·, '
7. Direct discourse is ''lnadQ · iii.d jrect chiefly·, by
changing the first and second persons to the ' thir~;
and the present. tense to the past ..· --,

\·

l

,

,

.

..

I

Direct: "Paint me ~~ I am~" said. Cro~well, " with all my scarB,
wrinkles,
nnd. warts,• or I will
not pay you
a shilling.''
. ..
.
I
.
.,
.·
.
,
1
Imllrcct: Cromwell said that the · painter should paint him as he
wtis,· with all bis scars, warts, and wrinkles,' or he would nor pay him
even a shilling for his· picture,
, , ·'
' , · , , i , , , I ·1 '
The teacher should explain more fully this entire subje<;t. We may
add, however, that direct disco.urse,tei;ids t.o p~r~ ,f,ia~og~e; indire~t, ~
pure narration. The drama is the highest type of direct discourse ;
and the epic, of indirect. . The"io~~~ . d~ss~s'• bf' s'ocl~iy" i~stin~tfv~ly
•
•
•
~ •·• •
, ••
.;·
. 1-· ~ ..... t \' 1 ·~
·r r r ...
appreciate tl~e superior. vivid1kss
.•of' direct
. discourse';
f<fr their
stories,
.
.
. .,
f
. •
"
•
especially when under excitement, abouncl. witl1 '"'says he/'. "says she,"
"saiu I," etc . . In .W~rds;vortl~'s ':" 'Y.~. :ar~ -~~!;~~~'.' .~~4· i~. S~IJ1p~ll's
"Lord Ullin's Dau.ghter," the direct style is very happily introduced.:
· and the charming biographies of Marion,' Washington, Penn;l etc., by
Mr. Weems, owe the greater part of their. fascination to the skillful
management of the direct style. How often does Dickens relieve the
tedious~ess of narration, by introdu cing a fe~ sentence~ · of dialog ue!
And he is careful to use direct discourse just 'where it will best ·.show
the peculiar lineaments of his characters:· Most writers neither fully
) understand nor fully appreciate the relations between these two kinds
#

~

: o.f. style.
• . . .. i· ' . . .
.
.• ·. ' .. ·: . ,
Change dir~ct. to ,indirect, and indire~t .to dir:ect: -,.· ·. .

, . 11 j,.

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·~

''.! .··.'. '.:·~~.\•."'·-··

, .'

,

.. :'.·1,1. '~ Hemain with me," .safo. vVallace J o,, the priests .of

. Hexham, .'.' for I can not protect, you from my sol<liers when
:y~m are out of my .presence.'.' ... I . . . ;.: 1 .. .. · • ., . . ". J i
.; 2. vV allace replied that it was trµe '. he'. had killed very
~any Englishmeµ, ,bu~ it. was. bec~µse tl~ey, .had co~e· to
svbilue .an<l oppress )1is native.,country . of- Sc.otlan<l; . an<l,
far from repenting of what he had done, he declared!1.he
'
\
was only sorry he had not put to death many more of them.
1
11
'
3. (,Didn't I tell.ycm, William," 's~id Mrs_, P~m;;. ~,when;
I

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..l
,..~,··· • ~j

..:~

t€Rt:

·e:WC)WW

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170

171

we love people much we are so happy to do every thing for
them? Thon, my son, how readily you will <lo every thing
to please God, if you <lo but love him."
4. " Dost thou see that beautiful tree?" said he ; " and
dost thou look upon it with pleasure?" "Y cs," replied the
officer, "l look with pleasure upon that beautiful tree." "I
have no longer any pleasure in looking upon it," said the
Indian hastily.
5. Lord Chatham said that if he were an American, as
he was an Englishman, whilo a foreign troop was landed in
his country he would n ever lay down his arms - never,
never, never !
6. "Brothers and sisters, little maid,
How many may you be ? "
"How many ? Seven in all,'' she said,
' · And wondering looked at me.

" I now thought again of my dinner, and ran home, because I knew
it must be rather late.
I did not cat much dinner; fo1· I wns
thinking nil the time about the little <lca<l chil<l., nnd I felt very snd. I
thought about her frequently last evening, an<l. especially last night,
when every thing was dark. It then seemed so hard to be shut up in a
coffin, an<l. carried away from home, and put into the deep, dark grave I"
Robert.' "Three nights. ago, died the youngest daughter of our ~eigh­
bor, Mr. Brown. She was nearly five years old, and a very beautiful
an<l. good child.
·
· · ., ,· '
;i
"The disease of which she died is said to have been inflammation of
the lungs. Several months ngo she ha<l. the measles; an<l., by some
accident, she took cold before she was well, an<l. she has been' sick
ever since.
' ·
"Yesterday was the burial, and we all went over. to 'see little Effie
for the last time. The coffin was open, and in the middle of the room.
A bouquet of .fl6wcrs was on her breast; and ,she looked. very . pale.
Mrs. Ilrown wept very much, and our mother wept ,tQo, ,and father tried
to comfort them both. . Nearly all of ~he n.ejghbors. were there, . and
• 11
11
r·· i t I -~ ,. .. , > -·
'1• d · ·· ·
· '
everybody seemed to be tn111.: h affected. · ··
' ,· · . · · . , . · ·
" We accom1)anied the coffin to the church-yard. , .The coffin wa.~
lowered into the grave"; ·the' grave was filled .with . earth~ and ~ a mound
was heaped over it .. ·The tears and cries of the mother broke: out afresh
as the earth was throw~ do~n upon the coffin.'~ ·"~: '!' 1 ,I ,t '. ' i
i

•

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8. ·The same subject may be presented in different
ways, ac?ording to the writer,and the object in view.
A
I

CntLD IN A CoFFlN.

Henry. "Yesterday at noon, as I was going home from school, to
get my dinner, I saw a hearse and several carriages standing before the
door of a house which is not more than a hun<l.rcd yar<l.s from my
home. , ·As many persons were going into the house, I thought I might
go in too, and see what was the matter. When I entered t.he room, I
found many persons in it; most of them dresse<l. in black.
"In the middle of the room, on a low table, was ·a coffin with the
corpse of a little girl in it. The child and the coffin were neatly
adorned with : emblems of death ; and many things in the room were
decked with crape and flowers. The mother sat beside the coffin, weeping; ,and the father tried to console her. The little brothers an<l. a sister stood round, and looked very sad.
"In short time the preacher cnmc; anrl, after prnycr, he gave out
this text: ' Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbi<l. them not:
for of such is the kingdom of God.' He preached a short bnt very
good sermon ; and then the people sang a hymn. After that they
closed the coffin, and carried it out, and put it into the hearse. The
hearse then started, and several coaches followed it.

a

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.Alice. "Poor dear Efne' 'is de~d and g~ne.!

,

1l

' )

•

t

,

Sh~ ·w·as buried · ye,sterday; n.nd it seems to me that I can hardly believe she is no more. ;.;
•1 "On Sunday night, about eieven o'clock, some' one knocke<l. at our
door. It was Mr. Ilrown. Futhe1· opene<l. the door; and a.~ soon ·as
Mr. Ilrown came in, he said, 'Effie is <l.ead ! ' She died an hour ago.'
This frightened us chil<l.ren, an~ we' all wanted to get "out of bed~ and
go over to Mr. Ilrown's; but" mother tbld us · to , wait' till :next ' day.
The next morning mother .thought it would .!:ie 1best for us ·not to go
,then; but to ~aiqill the. n~xt day, 'a nd ' then .go t? ' ih·~ funer.1Jo~· .So we
staid at home till yesterday, and then went to the fu'neral. ·
· ·' .
"When we came to l\fo Brown'~ ye~terda.f: eyi;:ry hi.n g l,09k~.d · so
black and gloomy I Many people were there ; and our preacher was
there too. Mrs. Ilrow~ 'wns sitting. ncnr' the coffin, ' vhich ' wus' in tho
··
·
_. ..,. · ' ~ \
middle of the room.
"We all went up to take a last look at Effie. She was very pale, \
with a slight tinge ' of •blue. 'Her ' beautiful gol<len::curls'. came' down
along her cheeks, and lay under her chin. indeed, lier h~ad fooked as
1

"

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172

173
Thomson.
"But yonder comes the powerful king of day,
Rejoicing in the east. T~1e lessening cloud,
The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow,
T,i pt with ethereal gold, his ' near approach
llctoken glad.''
·'
Butler.
' ·'
" llut. now the Sun had in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap ;
Anrl, like a lobster boiled, the morn
From black to red began to turn.•"

if it lay in a nest of cuds. Her eyes were shut, and her lips looked
bluish. There was a very beautiful silk rosette upon her breast, with a
garland of white camellias. In several places I saw tear-drops, looking
like drops of dew, which had fallen from the eyes of the mother as she
hung weeping over her child."
IJ(jj'-The skillful painter can almost as easily present In lines and colors n
sketch of nn object as look upon It; and the skillful writer should be able to
present just as readily a sketch in words.

How variously have the poets described sunrise ! -

liomer.

"'Ilic

ro~y-tingcrc<l

Morn."

'.j .
'I

I ·

4. "Lo I in the orient when the gracious Light
Lifts up his burning head, each under eye
Doth homage to his new-appearing sight."

•

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r;

.,

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;, t

-,

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,.
LE~SON

Sentences Cl'iticisetl.

LIII.

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:

' "~

. .: .
I· ;;

,~,\~,'

Perhaps the .ability to make promptly correct and .. e)egant sent~nces is more than half tJrn .a:i;t .of the good speaker or writer. . Not even the · greatest a'uthori ha;e ' r,ea~hed
perfection . in ·s~nta~; ~n,d
fin~..t~e". ~aking ' of ~ent~p.ces
more or less of · an irksome impediment. · vVe have therefore
said much .about sentences; and we shali now add series
of criticisms onI such of their faults and ~~rit~
as are most
, ,
intimately connected with style.

Milton.
''Sweet is the breath or' Morn, her rising sweet
With charm of earliest bird."
",' 2. :." Now Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime
,' : ·' Adva~cing, sowed the earth with orient pe.a1:l."
Lee• ., .• ·
f. , "Behold the Morn in amber clouds arise;
See, with her rosy hands she paints the skies.''

;.... i:

• 1)

Byron.
" The Morn is up again, the dewy Morn,
·
With breath all incense, and with cl1eck all bloom,
Laughing the clouds away with playful scorn."

. ,.

,.

· .-·

Hence Tennyson's "eyelids of th.e morn ; " an expression which Ruskin
ha11 praised so much, but apparently without knowing that the real author was
Shakespeare.

•:

•,t)

·,

~·

.,

5. "The eye of day hath opened its lid."

• •

.,; .

q,.esllonii • .:_What le said of variety of expr~sslon? What Is one of
tlie simplest mod es of varying a sentence? . What. are the. part~ of sentences?
'\\'hat ls n period ? \Vhnt I~ said of i t ond there 1 What ls said of changing the
order of the sentences? Mention some of the inodes of changing the · phrase·
ology of n sentence. ' What is said of sentences ;with reference to their grammntlcnl properties?. \Vhnt may I\ proposition be? Wliat Is said of recasting.sen·
tenccs? ".'hat ls said of direct discourse ?-ot indirect? What . ls said of
l
.
. ' .J.J
variety of sketches .?

3. 1 " But, look, the Morn in russet mantle clad,
Walks o'er .the dew of yon high eastern hill."

l:

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pl

•

"There are fairy tulips in the east,
The garden of the sun ; · . .
The very streams reflect the huesl .1
Aml blossom as, they run.''

2. " Se~ how the Morning opes her golden gates,
· · And takes her farewell of the glorious Sun I
· · : How well resembles it the prime of youth I "

'

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llootl.

Shakespeare.
1. "Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops."

,.

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711

a

:1

1. "But I began and .read i~ all over again, and this time remembered it was only a letter; and when I had done, I.'felt very
happy, and thought what blessed things letters were, and'I deter-'

! •''

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174

175

mined to write to you every week, and I hope you will do the
same." Belter thus: But I began to read it all over again, and
this time I remembered that it was only a letter. ·when I had
finished reading it, I felt very happy, and thought what blessed
things letters are. So I determined to write to you every week,
and I hope you will do the same in regard to me.

We soon grow tired of always seeing the same person in the same dress,
though it be holiday attire. A.kindred feeling exists · in regard to thought,
for language is but the dress of thought. , .

\

One of the worst and most common fn.ults of beginners is the excessive
use of and, but, very, nnd other insignificant or extravngnnt words. Even
experienced speakers, when they become stranded in sense or syntax, but
too often encamp on some desolate and or but, till they feel able to venture
again into water that seems too deep for them.

. I

:1

2. " He l1ad few accomplishments; but it could not be denied
but he had a good voice." He had few accomplishments; but it
could not be denied that he had a good voice. "He jumped to his
feet; but nothing could be seen but the rippling water; but presently , ho ' saw :1 canoe." - Bonn En \VAUFAHF.. Ile jumped to
his feet; but nothing couhl be seen except the rippling water.
Presently, hou:ever, he saw a canoe.
· 3. "Mind and matter comprise the entire universe, as ascertairiable by us." - DAIN. Mind and matter comprise all that
we know of the universe. "In the case of brutes, they are often
so expressive as to lea Ye no doubt as to the predominant emotion."
- Q. Substitute that they for the first a.~ to, or in regard to for
the second. " The fact is, the rules of emphasis come in, in interruption of your supposed general law." - DEAN ALFORD.
"Jn, in in" produces a sort of stuttering effect; rather say, "come
in to interrupt," etc.
· 4. " When V cstilia had finished the song, she commenced' to
select another, when Oleander entered ; but when she saw him she
put up her lute or guitar, and acted as though she di<l not intend
to sing any more at that time." - A NOVEL. When Vestilia ha<l
finished the song, she began to select another. But just then Oleander entered; antl as soon as she saw him, she put up her guitar
as if she did _not intend to sing any more at that time. 1
The repetition of i11slg11ific1rnt con8truction8 cnn not be too carefully
avoided. It is sometimes still worse when more $ignificrrnt words or expressions are repented; for the former fault may indicate mere carelessness,
while the latter is apt to suggest poverty of expression, or a very unmusical

ear. ·'

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5. " The Colonel ordered the subordinate officers to. order their
troops to come to 01·der.'' Ther Colonel , ordered the subordinate
officers to form their troops into rank.
' ·:· 1 • .,
The. elegant Addison begins a Number f!f th!_) Spectator thus::-:-'..

.,

6. "I have lately been very much . teased .w ith.,the thought of
Miss Ann Page, and the memory o1 thos~ many cruelties which I
su.ffered from that obdurate fair one. · .Miss Ann was in a particular manner very fond of china-~vare, against wltich · I !tad unfortunately declared my aversion. I do not know but this was the first .
occasion of her col<lness toward me, whicli makes me sick ·at the
sight of a cltina-dish ever sine~. This is the best introduction I can
make for my present discourse, which may serve to fill up a ' gap, ''
till I am more at leisure to resume the thread of my speculations."

Such a succession ~f ~laU:ses, each beg in~i~g with which; be~om'es ,"disagreeable.
·
·
'"' .. • - · · · '-.· .i ·:~- ,·;
It is still wor$e when the repeated words ·differ in meaning, or when. the
1 1 ;· ·,
same. word is used in different senses in the 'same sentence. :
1

7. ' " A man of' his sense should · have a higher sense of honor."
A man of his intelligence should have 'a higher sense of honor.
"After all his pains ' he was .un<ler ·the painful necessity' of' yielding." After all his labor he was under the painful necessity of
yielding. ' " He turned to the le.fl of the House, and then · le.fl · abruptly." He turned to the le.fl of the , House, and then· departed ·
abruptly. "His feeble limbs began to gather strength day by.day, ·
by exercising them." · Substitute in for ' the · last by; or else begin
the sentence with "By exercising them/'. ·so .that ''." by ""· and !" by ,'~ , ..
may not stand so near 'each· other. •" " He · pulled out · his purse , to t,
reimburse the unfortunate man."·· , Unpleasant 's imilarity of:so.u nd; :
say, "to repay the ~nfortunate man." ' "I came ' near forgetting \.to.;:
get dinner." ., Say/." neglecting to get dinner.'! "I confess,, withq
deep humility, th~' sterility of my fancy and the· debility of, my ;
judgment." I confess, with deep ltumility, the poverty;of my fancy
and the weakness of my judgment. Improve the following: ,\'' After describin.IJ so interesting a meeting con~erning the rival ' p~i'~ies
now contending for supremacy," etc.
)'
. '' ·
· 'I

I nt

17G

177

In the following sentence, synonymous words are elegunt.ly used to
a void tedious monotony of expression: -

The style of Macaulay abounds in repetition and antithesis, for t11e sa.k e
of rhetorical effect. The following is a good specim.e1~: - 1
, , •. • :

8. " W c staid one day in Albany, .~lopped half a day at Rochester, tai·ried a week at Niagara, and spent lite remainder of the summer in Cleveland."-TnE NORTH . .

13. "The mother of Byron passed from paroxysms of .rage to
paroxysms of fondness. At one time she stifled, him with her c~ress7
es, at another time she insulted his deformity. -· He · came· ~n~o ~hf?
world, and the world treated him as his mother treated him sometimes with kindness, sometimes with severity, never: wilh
justice. It ' indulged him with~ut discrimination, and punished
him without discrimination. He was truly a 11poiled chHd; not
tnerely the ~poiled ·child of his parents, but the spoiled child o~
nature, the spoiled chHd of fortune, the spoiled child of fame,
the spoiled child of society."
" • ··
·' '

It is an elegance of style whon the synonymous terms, usod for the suke .
of variety of expression, cnn Lie so distrilrntetl in the sentence thut each is
peculiarly appropriate in connection with the words associated with it.

9. " He investigated the abstruseness of every science, explored
untrodden realms of. thought, and soared into the highest heaven
of poesy and eloquence." - EnrnnunGn REvrnw.
Disagreeable repetition can sometimes be avoided by ellipsis, as. well o.s
by the substitution of a. different expression.
10. ' ci The . birds were clad in their brightest plumage, and the

trees 'were clml in their brightest verdure." · The birds were clad in
their brightest plumage, and the trees in their brightest verdure.
Hence the mind sometimes acquires an excessive tendency to ellipsis,
and words are improperly omitted.

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11. "Next to doing work adequately is doing it with least expenditure of means or labor." - ilAIN. Next to doing work ~de­
quately is lite doing of it with least expenditure of means or labor.
"By these are meant the movements of the body or its members:"
- Q. By these are meant the movements of the body or of its
members.
., Repetition of wor<ls, however, is allowable, for the sake of
emphasis, clearness, or unity.

12. ·"Among the many trifles of the trifling world, these trifles
were agreeable enough." - DICKENS. · " Scrooge was lzis sole executor, his sole administrator, liis sole assign, his sole residuary
legatee, his sole friend, his sole mourner." - Io. " So guests were
bidden, and musicians were engaged, and tables were spread, and
floors were prepared for active feet, anti bountiful provisions were
made of eYery hospitable kind." - Io. (Same construction repeated; also and.)
" What? I love I I sue I I seek a wife I " - SnAK.
"By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed;
· By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed ;
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned;
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." - Po PE.

14. "The vividness of the picture presented,

0 the reade~ is

not necessarily proportione,d ~ the , vi v~dmi~.~ of ,the proto~ype ·
which exists in t~ie. u~iqd : of the ,wri~r. ;'. 1 :;:-:-~t},9A~liA':'i ~; ; . ~ .. 1,
were used in stead of the second 11 :vividn.ess," the mind .w:quld be
obliged to go back, pass over the noun" picture,", anq fi\1d the, n;ie~ning. ,in
the first " vividness." So, in the sentence, -" The faults of Herodotus a~e. the
1
faulls of a simple and im~ginati ve style,". if those were used, the Jilin~ would
.have to go buck, and find .out what it stands for. Macaulay frequently, by
such repetition, relieves the mind from the labor of finding antecedents :of
all kinds, antl thus lightens his style. '· The r repeated wortl also answ,ers, by
a sort of echo, to .it.~ antece<le11t, and thus· binds the parts of the sent~nce
·more closely together. The following is a good specimen: ' '
', ; If; that

·, · 15. "He' wrote 1for _a nation susceptible, curio~s, lively; insatia,bly uesirous of novelty and excitement; for a nation I in . whic~. the
fine .arts had attained. their hi<Thest
excellence,
bu_
t iti wliic~.' 11phi'='
. .• . '
. ; .
•

.losophy was still i~ its .infancy!' - _In. ·-

1, : ,

~·'

,_ : • :

, .•• ·::, ·:

~.~,

•;_ · Observe also that and is omitted before ~'insatiably," .becnusejt was
~ecessary to nse it very shortly aflerwar<ls between: ~'. no~elt~·" and _"e~c,ite;
ment.'' "Nation" ...l "nation," and 11 in which "-- 0 in which,:' evi<l,e ntly
have n sort of correlative connecting force, like the correlatives the .~~ t~~·
m-as, or as-,so. i
In ·the following sentence the
clenr: '

repetiti~n

is needed . to
.

~ake th~ s~!1so
·· '··

·

·

16. " The lord can not refits~ to admit the. heir o( his 1tenant
upon the tenant's death ; nor can he remove his present_le?l~llt so
. , : ,;. ·
long as the tenant lives." - BLACKSTONE.
12

178

179

Repetition naturally leads to climax, antithesis, and balanced structure; or it is intimately connected with them.

tences have each a pronoun of the same class, the connection seems to ho
closer, and the transition from sentence to sentence. mqre,. natural. In fa<lt,
any similarity of .construction aids the memory, !ind . seems to make a
smoother and closer connection betwce1i the parts. It is only from monotony,
that such construction becomes disng~ceable.
! · •

17. "There is no doubt that this great empire, powerful and
prosperous as it appears on a superficial view, was yet, even in its
best days, far worse governed than the wo1·st governed parts of
Europe now are. The administration was tainted with all the
vices of Oriental despotism, and with all the vices inseparable from
the domination of race over race." - MACA ULA y.

So, "the Lord of lords," "the King of kings," 11' the mnn of men," "the
bra.vest of the brave," "arms on armor clashiilg," "and in the lowest deep
a lower deep."
·
Observe that " worst governed" is much mo.re expressive than any
would have been; and "all the vices," repeated, is much better than those
would have been.

1

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21. ."If the Puritans were unacquainted with the works 'Of phi-

losophers and poets, they were deeply read in the·oracles of God.
If llteir steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials,
legions of m:inistering angels hail charge of them. · Their pa~aces
were houses not made with hands ; tlteir diadems crow?s of glory
which should not fade a'way." - MACAULAY.
.. d
22. "This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign in.sti-.

tutions, the dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enJOY~
ours to preserve, ·ours to transmit." - °'\\rEDSTER. ·
·

' 18. " A Scotch mist becomes a shower; and a shower, a flood;
and a flood, a storm; and a storm, a tempest; and a tempest,
thunder and lightning; and thunder and lightning, heaven-quake
and earthquake." - 'WILSON.

, The following sentence . is beautiful from i~ sefial. ~on~~1;1cti?n; , an,~ ~~
nlso rises into a sort of climax: ·.
·, 23. "Birds sang sweet!);, flo~ers r~ised :·th~ir · d~ooping' heads,
fresh s~ents rose from the invigorated ground; 'the' blue ' expanse

Milton was, like Dante, a statesman and a lover ; and,
like · Dante, he had been unfortunate in ambition and love." MACAULAY.
' .;
'. Th~ parts of the balanced sentence are symmetrical; nnd thev answer or

p.b~v~ extended and diffu·s~d itself; already t~~ s1;1n's slantin~ .ra!s
pie.reed mortally the sullen bank; of clou!ls that lingered,1 m its
fli(}'ht ·1 and a rainbow, spirit of all the colors that . adorned , the
ea~th and sky,' spanned the
whole arch with its triumpha.n~ glory:'.:
I
,
,
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-DICKENS.
.
.
,.
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, Observe that if a~ ha·d been used b~fore ." fres.h sce!lts," it wo~ld hav~

19.

'u

echo to one another. llalnnccd structure occurs frequently in Johnson,
Gii>bon, Junius, Macaulay, Pop~, Colton, and some other writers.
· 20. " He remits his splendor, but retains his magnitude ; and

pleases more, though he dazzles less." - JOHNSON. "In peace,
children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children."
- HALL. " Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are
rebels from principle." - DURKE. " He that buys what he does
not want, will ·soon want what he can not buy." - FnANKLINr
-"There is a great gulf between the men of principle whom offices
want, and the men of no principle who want offices." - COLTON.
This style may be sometimes allowed to run through an entire ' piece, as
in parallels. It ls a spirited mode of writing; but there is danger of using
lt t.o excess; A critic Rays, . "For over.81ncc Popo Rpollcd tho Nirs of the town,
· With hie cuckoo-song verses, hnlf up and half down," etc.
It is remarkable that pronouns, from their steady reference to some antecedent, give a certain unity t.o style; so that when several consecutive sen-

1

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J

•

fo •. '') ·

i~timated that the sentence was about to close; and bY' continuing the sen._
tcnce afterwards there would have been· ·produced an unpleasant intcrruJ>'"
tion in · the
of thought. · There is also a. little, harshness in. the: close
proximity of '' 3ky" and "spanned." • . , - :: ; : . , . "· •·" · " ' , '.-- :
· There is one 'kind of repetition, howey~r, which. easily, runs to excess,
and then becomes very odious. It is literally cailed egotism, and con.sists of
the frequent U8e ~f [. or' in the ~se of other words thnf make the apeaker
.
'principal figure of' · h,1I s narrative.
.
• · .: Both mo
. ' des
' t .iy .;,.un d ' poricy suggest
that
tbe
. .
this kind of style, of ' which the following 'extract 'is ' a ' good specimen,· caµ
not be t.oo carefully' avoided:- ' · '.. · . .''• :.
; '' · •'' '· : :··'

tlO\v'

Whe~ I w~nt tO schooi,· I was the smartest boy there. : il
~nB always at the"l 1en.d of my class, nnd J- 1never·was beaten .. I

;' . . 24.' ,"

1

'

"still think I am smn.rtcr and bctter 'than nny b o<l Y cl se'' ![ d o. " ,
I

,

·The greate~t , fault of most '~rite~s ~s bad . phraseoJogy ·;
. ~nd the two great sources of this fault are ignorance . ~~.~
affectation.
:

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181

25. " How I hate writing letters I " Beller: Ilow I hate to
write letters I " This was a merited reward for his gross stupidness" [ stu pi<lity ]. " If you had not been so deficient in your sentient faculties [sense], you would have discovered the deception."
"\Vhen he had strolled some way.~ [distance J into the sable
[gloomyJ forest." " The estate was left tu him and 11 is progcn y "
[des';!emlants]. Progeny is an inelegant word: it is morn frequently applied to the offspring of cats and <logs. "They were
thought small affairs at the time they were being transacted." HELPS. Omit being. " Use him well, an<l you will fare better in
the sequel" [end].
AffoctaLiu11. "When tl10 dining c<111ip:ige
had been storm! away, Vestilia took a scat by tho t:tble, with her
guitar in her hand." -A NOVEL. "When dinner was over,
Vestilia," etc. Equipage is more generally applied to harness
and dress than to furniture an<l victuals. "I have been hurrying
to get my work acco!'Jlplished, so that I am afraid that she will say
.t hat,I slighted a portion of it." Too many thats, - omit the last
two,; and" accomplished" is too starched a word in this place;
say ·" <lone.'' " In cone! usion, my dear l1earers, I hope you will
rei:iiain pur:e and unsophisticated, and not become tainted or vitiated. by acts , ~f immorality.'' - N. Y. PREACHER. Unsophisticated
smacks too much of theater and burlesque for a sermon ; and the
last part of the sentence is mere tautology. Say, "remain guileless and pure in thought and action." "The morn was cloudy and
darksome, but the eve was serenely beautiful.'' Say, "The morning
was cloudy and dark', but the evenin.<J was serene and beautiful."
Rhymes, poetical words, and poetic structure E::l10uld be avoided in
prose. " I know not why you came, without it w~ to learn how
we all were, as a sociable neighbor ought to." I know not why
·you came ; unless yon ca.me to learn, as a sociable neighbor ought,
how we all are. ·~I dm1pise tho very name of coward; much .more
the person who is so silly as to become ·its victim." Say, " the
victim . of cowardice;,, for how can he become .the victim of a
name 1 "A fire-side without love, would be like the lute without
a string, playing upon it pro<luces more discords than music.'~.,.._
ON MATRIMONY. A fire-side without love is like an ill-strung
lute that produces more discord than music. (Ilow c:in he play
upon a lute that. has no string? Notice also the bad punctuation.)

" The naked bodies and barbarous weapons of the natives were
no match for tlie weapons· of the Spaniards~" - HELPS. Say,
"barbaric wca.pons of the nati vcs,'' and, "anns of the Spaniards.''
. It is remarkable that so polished a writer as ·Arthur Helps i;hould
mistake barbarou.~ for barbaric . . "'Arriving at the River Neybcr, he
found an immense army drawn up there to oi>pose his progress.''
- ID. Better: 'Vhcn he arrived, etc: _ "' They were ·such words
as Columbus himself would have ' made '' use of."-~.' ID. ·:'" Say"
"used," "uttered," or " spoken." ·It is ·n~t, ho,vevcr, improper to
let a sentence sometimes end with a preposition or other insig1iifica11t word; as, "Ile could cut oranges i11to such devices
none
o_f us had any idea of." - DICKENS: ' "These ·d ays' have loi1g
gone
.,
.
by.'' - MACAULAY. "And leave the world for me to bustle in."
· ·:
I. ·'. '
r··'•1
- SnAKESPEARJ.~.
.
· · :·
' " · .
. . ,·. ..
. · 1. · •
[ r·I'
26. " The quiet surface that usually per_vades the sea of love was
misplaced for the overwhelming billows of ilifficulty; '~hilst'its'. chl.sh•
'
.
' .
·
I . · 1· r ·:.
i
mg spray served as a center of attraction, to allure
the gaze
"of.the
I
\
Jr.
silly, the imprudent, and · the indolent." :--A NovEL. , What a
jumble of words I Say, " When the usually quiet surface
love
was agitated by a ' storm, it drew the gaze ' bf. the 'idle; the sill)J,"and
the impertinent.'' . "All appellations ~t" . th~ ···Deity 'shoiild · begin
.
"
I
.
.
'
...
'vith a capital.''-: G. · The first part of this se~tenc~ b~in g plm:al,_
1
and the latter part singular, the two terms are ' not commensurate.
Say," Every appl'ilation of the ~eity should 'b~gin wit~.·a cavit~l
letter.'' "The articles never represent a noun "t.inderst0b<l.'' ' .:...:..~ Ji>.
An"article never rct)resents a. noun.' ''" The ' pro~d ·})ile ' i~ 1o('gteat'
magnitude, and soars grandly up with it~ ' nu.m cro~s tow'ers"a~d
splendid terraces."-· TR.A. VELS , IN '' Eunbi>E: 11 .'Soars 'is applied
"
,
.
•
, '
.
.
I
only to what leaves its support""and therefore it c'ari not' be applied
, t.o 'an ~difi.ce; .say; " rises.'' : If our l~~gtiage ' had"n·o w~M ' nearer
1
· to • the meaning than 1 soai·s, 'then soa'rs' ,fould 1oe proph. " "The
gcivel-nor 'had some· fast ' friends ~ in ·the1;· Territory:".:_BuRNET.
Fast is ambigubus; say, "firm.'' "L~t 'us have ·a garden';·so' 1 that'
we can· see ·the ·r ose 'bud and · blossom." -TJiE·' SEASONs.' "Roso ·
bud"•is too mucli like rose-burl; : say," the 'roses bud n.nd bloss01'n."
•.·!t 27.i "Parents often attribute· more natural abilities ·or othe~ desiraLle ·qualities to their offspring than is really the case.'•,_i.J ·En. UCA'l'OR. Say, "to their children than these reall)' possess." -.;,. '-• I

ns

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183

do not wish to inculcate the doctrine that the teachings of experience are totally useless, no such thing ; I simply mean, that owing
to the checkered scenes that lifo presents, it is impossible for one
man's experience to correspond with that of another; therefore I
claim that experience was created more for our own welfare than
for others."-'-- Io. I do not wish to produce the impression that
the .· teachings of experience are totally useless: I simply mean
that life .being exceedingly various, experience must be as various,
so that one man's experience may not always be useful to another.

speeches." - ID. " We regret that these songs have b~en allowed
to fall into desuetude." - ROUND · TABLE. ·Say, :"have fallen:
into neglect." " Even if this aleatory proceeding were a proper ·
device · in the umpirage of private claims," .etc. '- C. SUMNER.
Say," Even if ·this mode of proceeding were a proper way to se~
tie private claims; " or, " Even if this kind of negotiation were a
proper mode of settling private claims," etc. ·~ Surely Mr. Sumner
has forgotten Crockett's compliment to Webster, which : the latter
prized so highly: "Mr. Webster, I have reaq your speech, and J.
understood it all without looking into a dictionary." "I bore t.he
diminution of my riches. without any outrages of sorrow or pusil- .
lanimity of dejection." - Du. JOHNSON. I bore my losses without
extravagant sorrow or dejection .

· ·Before this " Educator" "crentes experience," or auy " improved method of education," it seems to us that it were well for him to find out thnt
ancient machinery which has never been excelled, and which is usually
called coinmon sense.

. 28. " He has been cutting a ridiculous figure for quite a spell."
He has been acting foolishly for a long time.
. The foregoing quoted sentence is 11. low expression, or a good specimen
of slang, n kin<l of hrngunge that is too common in conversation and newspapers. S_lrmg is low language, or the peculiar" diction " .of the low ~lasses of
society; and cant is n sort of dialect made of the peculmr expressions of a
sect or pnrty. ·The opposite of shing is a kind of prim, stilted, schoolmnster
English, nearly as disagreeable as slang or cant, for it suggests the idea that
the writer is ill at eiise, ever afraid of making a blunder, and therefore as
mindful of his grammar as of his subject; thus robbing his style of its ease
and idiomiitic pith. The following is a short but good specimen: -

29. " Gre~t writers may make or may mar a language." - W.
MooN. Great writers may either make or mar a language.
..That egotistic pedant, Goold llrown, in trying to improve a line of Gray's
El!Jgy 1 has taken all the poetry out of it: ':

·' .
..

. " Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife,
Their sober wishes never learned to stray." - GuA Y.
"Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife
: They sober lived, nor ever wished to stray."-.BnowN. ,: •

.. · That is, they staid at home, and never got drunk, - a practical and
highly commendable view of things .
., The .follo,ving .s entences are good specimens of pedantic affectation:-:-- .

SO. "The eye, exposed for a long time to one color, desiderates
some other color." - llAIN. Say, " desires." "He put aside the
omens on account of their incertitude" [uncertainty]. - Hr;:Lrs.
"I will not ho answeralJlo for the exactitude [exactness] of these

"Doctor, if you should write a fable about minnows," said Gold~mith to ,:
Johnson," you would make the little fishes talk like whales.'" Dr. Johnson
affected grandeur and dignity. Other writers, 11.cc~rding to the lending .bias .
of their mind, have other kinds of affectation. ·. The natty Willis snxs, " .A .
shower had just parenthesized the road before us; " and again, " Suspende.rs ··
were abandoned with the first intimation · of the ·summer solstice.": H.··W. !
neecher, in. striving after something uncommon, succeeds in"telling , ~s . that' 1
"flowers are the sweetest things God ever made, and forgot to put a soul into.''·"
The superfine Tennyson represents his dying •swan -as . "fluting her last
song;" and an angry father, after tearing a letter, as "srwwin.g down , the .
fragments." · But perhaps the most extravagant or sensational langu11ge is,
found in ~1ewspapers. And a writer in one of these journals frankly admits, '
that" the days of quill and steel have passed away, and the em
gold .
pens is.upon us."
.
.
" . .
. . .. . ..
' ·. ' . r" .

of

<

People now-a-days· do ·not live in houses, · but · they" reside 'in ·
residences;" houses are not burned, but "edifices are.con!lumed·b/:
the raging element;" fires are not put' out;·but "conflagrations
arc extinguished ; " people do not come .to 'see, but' " assemblies
congregate to witness; / rowdies do not carty 'deadly'weapons, but .
"mortal implements;'"' the ' law does not ' hang irogues; but it '
".launches into eternity the victims of unbridled passions;" events
do not happen, but " transactions transpire or eventrlate; " guests '
nre not entertained, but they "participate in 'the hospitalities ;of ·
their host;" nor do ·they receive .an<l partake, but they are "the ;
recipients of an<l participants in;" people do not go to churc~, :
but they "attend divine service; " they <lo not have· privilege8,·)
but they "enjoy immunities;" they <lo not , send for the "' doe:. 1

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18-!

185

tor, but they "call into requisition the services of the family physician;" nor <lo they uie, but they "decease;" or" the spirit wings
its flight into eternity, or to realms unknown." Schools have become "colleges," "universities," or at least "institutions; " jugglers are "prof~ssors; " dram-shops, " saloons;" inns or tavern!>, ·
"hotels;" grave-yards, " cemeteries ; " an<l churches, " sanctuaries."· 1 Schools are not founded and taught, but " institutions are
inaugurated un<let the auspices of some benevolent in<li vi<lual,
and conducted by a Professor or Doctor ; " wagons or coaches <lo
not run against each other, but "vehicles colli1le," and sometimes
"precipitate thch· contents," or "the in<livkluals who are being
conveyed ; " commerce an<l manufactures are carried on " Ly the
propulsion of steam," and "the immunities against accidents, in
the transportation of commo<lities or conveyance of passengers,
a.re being daily promoted." Few things are pretty or beautiful,
but ·.. splendid " or " mag11ilice11t;" and a truly refine<l lady docs
not say she can't come to see you, but she "regrets that the multiplicity of her engagements prevents her from accepting your polite invitation."
' Style is character; and its influence or impressions may he as
diversified as our general conduct. The effect is always bad when
we <lh•ert or waste the mental energy of the l1earcr or reader, by
the use of extravagant or unbecoming language. Coleridge, to
give his notion of a perfect style, once said, that he had !~tcly .
read, of Southey's Life of Nelson, 1;everal pages so well wntt.en
that nothing in them presented itself to his mind except the author's meaning, - that no word, no mode of expression, and 110
jar in the train of thought, diverted or drew his attention. A
perfect style, then, is so transparent a medium· for the thought as .
to become itself invisible, - a train of words presenting the meaning so well and impressively as to pass itself by unobserved.
'
Few people appreciate how much the writings of Bunyan,
Shakespeare, Defoe, and · Spurgeon, owe to the unusual simplicity
and clearness of the langnage. A111l few appreciate how very CX·
pressive sometimes a single wor!l or phrase may be. When Milton tells us that Satan "co11.sterl the walls" of his dungeon for an
out.let, that single word suggests th:tt the fiery abyss was vast and
billowy as an ocean ; aml when he speaks of our thoughts ae

"wandering into eternity," the expression · is worth more than
some entire poems. Coleridge speaks of the , "' myriad-minded
Shakespeare." Carlyle, · in describing a country, speaks of · its
"multiplex industry, · besung by ,r ushing · torrents.'" Macaulay, in
praising· a portrait,' sai<l that. the expression gave . '~ a perspective. of ,
the man's whole life." 1 Tennyson speaks of a tree as having .'~ a
voluminous crown of leaves," and of ''a rosy blonde," and of."' damsels gathering round with gems and gem-like 'eyes, with gold .and
golden heads.'; The poet Campbell makes a lady call her lover's
abse~ce "the pang, without the peace, of death." Mr. Helps
sums ~p his account .of the Spanish conquests in Americ~ with
this excellent observation: " The discoveries of Spain in. the
New 'Worl<l have proved to her but a golden weakness." A certain man described the poor and ever-borrowing yet pretentious
and never-paying family of his neighbor as having more of "easy
impudence" than he had ever seen in ' anybody else._' ' Words may
acquire additional force by their correlative ·grouping. Leggett,
hi criticising a new ·book~ said," What is new, is not true, and what
is true is not new." "A juggler is a wit in things, and ·a :wit ·is a
juggler in words.'' -'--Eo; HEVIEW. ' "Every man has a ·right ' to
do 'what ' he : pleasc.s, ·provided he · pleases to , do what is right."
" ·The poet is <lowered with the love of love, the hate of hate, the
SCOrll Of SCOril." ; ' '
' I : ' ;.i
I 'I
I '
·( Milton speaks of one of his own sonnets as being "woven close:
, in tlio~glit and style.'~ Those sentences are generally most effective, .
an<l most enh:ince· the value of an author's style, which express, '
withb ut obscurity, a great amount of valuable ' meaning in a few ~
words: The following .are specimens:- i .\
' . · . . , i.'.: ,,- ·.
:: " " Offensive pride ' produces defensive pride." - HARRlS. ' ~'A :
' proverb" is •the wit ·o(one and the wisdom , of many."-Lonn '
B.ussEL. " The battle of Ravenna was' one of those tremendous
days in't~ which human folly and wickedness compress the whole
devastation of a famine or a plague." - MACAULAY. . · "The best
early cduc·a tion for 1children is to give them good soeiety.''·-K;
O ver the entrance to Westminster · Abbey, in which are · bur~ed
most · of the illustrious men who have ma<fo the glory of : Gr~at
Ddtain '.. is eno-raved
this · remarkable inscri1ition: "Here sleep
0
.

.r., -:

.f

'·"

't-\ :_,

~

--

__:____ =-

~

-~-- - - · - -_

. . .,_ _ ........._ __ _ _ _. . . __

_

187

186
those who · kept the world awake."
Victor Hugo as one, -

A modern poet speaks of

"To whom the high go<ls gnvo of right
Their thunders nnd their laurels an<l their light."

One of the most common faults in style is tautology, or
the repetition of the same ideas or thoughts in different
l anguage.
31. "It is with the most unfeigned and heartfelt gratitude that
I appear before this enliglitene<l and intelligent audience to-night,
to thank them, as I <lo, for the kind and generous sympathy they
have manifoste<l in favor of the cause of my struggling country."
-AUSTIN.

If his gratitude was "most unfeigned," it must have been "henrtfelt";
" as I do" is superfluous, and so is "the cause of" and " to-night"; the
distinction between" enlightened ,, ·nnd "intelligent," or between "kind"
and "g~neroi1s," is too nice, and one word of each pair would be better
tlmn the two. The sentence may be improved thus:1.

,

' It is with the deepest gratitude . that I appear before this enlightened audience, to thank them for the generous sympathy
which they have manifoste<l in behalf of my struggling country.
1
"

l .

32. The taste of the flesh of those species of animals, which
constitute to man the staple, as it were, of animal food, is aecepta- ·
ble to most palates, and is neither so rich as soon to cloy the appetite on one hand, or invite it to luxurious indulgence on the other i nor so devoid of flavor, as to deter us from taking a proper
quantity." .:-- DUNCAN. The flesh of those animals which constitute our staple food, is acceptable to most palates; and it
is neither so rich as to cloy our appetite soon or invite it
to luxurious indulgence, nor so devoid of flavor as to deter us
from taking a 1mfficicnt · quantity. "The proportion of waste
ground in France is smaller than in England ; but the art of cultivation is less understood : its processes are less enlighte~ed, and
les~ ''of principle presides over its practice." - ID. The propor- ·
tion of \vaste ground in France iR Rmaller than in England ; but
the art of cultivating the soil is not so well understood. " Of the
vegetable productions of foreign countries, there is none of greater
value, or held in greater estimation, than tlmt of sugar." - ln.
Of vegetable productions there is none of greater value than

sugar. , Or: No vegetable production is more highly valued than
I
sugar.
,/
The first of tho foregoing quoted sentences moYes like nn old-fashioned
wagon, nlong n muddy road. It is needlessly heavy nnd encumbered in its
syntax. Aud what. follows the colon, in the s?cm1d quoted ~entence , is so
nearly tautological with what precedes it, that it is better to omit the latter
part of this sentence altogether. '
'·
i.; · • :•
•' '" ' 1 •·:'

All superfluous and clumsy language clogs the sense ;·· ·and in'
proportion to the mental energy thus wasted, it prevents the
thought from making its due impression. The wider and more
forcible the distinction is between enumerated parts, the better the
eflcct; and the worse when otherwise. Hence the good effect of
judicious antithesis, and the bad effoct of over-nice distinctions;
which are too apt to be regarded as sheer tautology. ·' When a
writ.er tells us that" most marriages are caused by Cupiclor cupidity," we feel that the expression is strik~ng ;.;when ;a: ·f'.reµch _1pan ··
exdaims in England, "Behold a land .of sixty religions, .and , bu( .
one sauce!" we appreciate
his
feelings.; when Dryden tells.us th!lt
•
'
.J
the demagogue would "rule or rui1~ the state,"' we never forget tl1e ,
1
expression; when Ri~har<l III. exclaims, in: regard · to his act10ns,' .
- "1, th at have neither pity, love, nor fear," we feel that .there is
',
,
'.
" I
, .
.
.
force in the distinction, particularly in the defiance suggested ' by
the last word; 'and . Byton's line, t of a illore t~nder i cast, "Kiss
rhynies with bliss, in frict as' well as 'verse," is equally impressive:
'But when a man tells tis that he is "vexed and annoyed by the
deceit and duplicity of his friends and associates," we feel that he
is slightly affected with lexico-mania, or has not ·yet got fairly out
of his dictionary.
,
'
· ·' '
·
· .,
-..•1

,

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.
.
.
' '
· ·· Sometimes, in nice investigations, or when the speaker's feelings make it .
, natural thttt Im should dwpll on his subject, rep~titjon o~, minute distinc~ion~
ma,r, add elegant vividness o,r emphttsis •.: The following are specimens: ~

' {

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l

I ' I

,

J

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,\ '

• I ' ' •

1• (

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•

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.33. "The sun f hope Dora.

The birds sang Dora. The flqw-,
ers ., ~~iled . Dora. . I could .see , and hear nothing ,but . D~ra ,; · ~nd ,
soon I found . Dora · herself, singing, and. playing on that gl9rifi,eq,
guitar."-:-- DICKENS.
, •
: ,...
"i
, ·. ~'I am ast.onished, I am ·shocked, to hear, such principles . cqn-,
fessed; to hear .them avowed in . this house , an~ in .this i;ountry.'~/
-

CHA THAM.

"

.:

"

:~.~
---~-=·--

·--·--- -..

-------,,.---.------~----~-~------=

189

188
Tautology occurs perhaps more frequently in verse than in prose.

84. " My love was fickle once an<l changing,

Nor e'er would settle in my heart;
From beauty still to beauty ranging,
In every face I found a <lart." -ADDISON.
"Fickle" implies "clmnging," nnd the first line implies tho second, or
the second is but an echo of the first; and the next two lines are but a more
specific' echo of the first two. Occasional tautology is the great fault of
Addison's style.
It is genernlly much easier to find out other ways of telling the same
thing, or to analyze what h11s been ~aid, than to mid more new thoughts;
hence barren writers naturnlly fall into the fuult just noticed, and into the
one described in the next paragraph.

Akin to tautology is the very common fault of using too
many adjectives or other epithets.
,· .T here is a kind of puffy style, which consists in pudding with attributive words ns many of the chief ptirts of sentences ns possible; just ns if
the writer meant i;;, give an anatomy of his lm1guage, us well us a description of his subject. The following is an exuberant i:pecimen : -

85. " E.istwanl in E<len, round a crystal flood,
· A garden rich with fragrant blossoms ulowed ;
A garden fair, delightful to behold,
Clothed with fair groves, arrayed with flowers of gold, A blissful parterre, clothed with shining glades
Of blooming parterres an<l of fragrant shades.
In this rich garden the clear stream <livi<les, ·
And in four parts pours out its crystal tides."
Such style almost stifles the reader with sweets, finery, and repetition.

Next to bad choice of words and. phrases, probably the
greatest fault of writers is bad arrangement of parts, inelegant coherence, and the overloading of sentences with particulars~ ,
. ·· These improprieties can hnrdly be avoided, unless tlie pupil is thoroughly'
~cqu;iinted with the elements of sentences, ns given on pp. 86-129. ·

86. " The beaux of that. day used the abominable art of paint-

ing their faces, as well as the women.""-- D'lsRAELI. The beaux
of that <lay, as well as the women, used the abominable art of
painting their faces. " There will stil~ remain much of his poetry

that can only perish with the English language!' - MACA.ULA Y.
Say, "that can perish only with the English language." "I only
bring forward some . things, plenty more might be sai<l." I bring
forward some things only, :much r~ore might be sai<l. "I shall be
happy always to see my friends." I shall always be happy to sec
my friends. " The . earth looks as though it was round .on ·the
map." On the map, the earth looks as if it were round. ,. "\'Ve
went to see grandmother, and had such a fltnny time, 'last week,
scampering in an<l out." Last week we went to see irandmother;
and we ha<l such a fonny .time, scampering in and out: "This
.beaver .was supplied with a8 much water as he rcqu,ire<l in a bowl."
- CmLo's MAGAZINE. This beaver was supplied, in . a bowl,
. with as much water as he required. "The kangaroo is the largest
quadruped yet <liscovere<l in AustraHa, measuring, when full grown,
about five feet from the tip of the nose to. the · tail, the tail · being
1
about three feet, an<l weighing· about · ·o.ne hundred · and fitly
pounds." - Imo. · The kangaroo is the' largest qua.d ruped "yet
discovered in Australia:. :1W hen full grown; it µieasures about .five
feet from the tip •of the nose to .the .tail, which is . about· three •feet
.Jong ; and it weighs about one hundred and . fitly pounds. ,; The
Committee would furthe:r: suggest some change in the internal arrangement of the building, as a large number of seats have long
been occupied . by the . scholars that have no backs." The Committee would· suggest, furthocmore, some change in the intemal
arrangement
of the building, as a larrre
number of scholars have
.
0
long been occupying, seats ~vithout . backs. ,~ "~. ouly .. k~1ow that I
pcliE\lYC :t-0 this hour. that he was in th~ Marines .once upon a time,
·"'.ithout. knowing why." - DICKENS. I 01ily know, though I can
·not tell why, that once upon a time he was )n the Marines. " "ln
-it 1'*ord, we departed 'to t.h~ 'regret and. a<lmii:ation''of 1 all'c~hc~rne<l
, .' :.a'.tld ' leh a great inanyi};eople ve~y so~ry 'bel1ind , us." - Io.' . Say:
' t:i·
" ll'.
. ncl ·1eft b. eh'm <l u~, " . etc. A misplaced phrase ,·or clause is , gen1
~~r.ally a forgotten · el~ment, and is ' therefor~ · usu11-lly·found at' the
encl of the sentence/ '" " Mr. BlenkinRop, of Leeds, has lately ap.lplied steam to' ri10ve' coal-w:a<Tons on railway 'instead of drawin<T
~
0
;,..them with the power" of horses, with great success."-! Hisi oR\.
i ?F,18TEAM. · .Say, "h~s lately applied steam with great success, to
:ithe .drawing of coal-wagons," etc.' "He is always the severest cen1

t:)

a

'

190

191
of labor, by those who ·work according to a definite enlightened
system, than by men of equal energy, who, with an end alone in
view, without J"egarcl to a choice of means, go blindly to · their
task, directed by no higher principle than chance ; ' so, it is claimed,
an equal advantage is gained by those 'students of composition
who pursue a well-digested plan, matured by experience, and elaborat.ed by careful thought." - Q.
' ·; .. i· ·; '· 1 :
-·

sor on the merits of another, who has the least worth of his own."
Ile who possesses least worth of l1is own, is always the severest
censor of another's merit. " The brave sufferer refused to purchase liberty, though liberty would to him have been life, by recognizing the authority which had confined him."-1\IACAULAY,
llampden. The brM·c sufferer refused to purchase liberty by recognizing the authority which had confined him, though liberty
woul1l to him havo beon lifo.
'37. "CaiL1 talked graciously with his brother in the field, while
meditating his destruction.
Saul pretended to honor J);ivid,
while ho was plotting his ruin." - ScnwrunF. ST<rnrns. Cain,
while meditating the destruction of his brother, talked graciously
to him; . and Saul, while plotting the ruin of David, pretended · to
honor liim. ' "The grand question is, in motive and action, are
we right befoi·e God?" - IDID. In motive and a9tion, tho grand
question is, Are we right before God? Or else tltus: The grand
question is, Are we right, in motive and action, before God?
"All who are hypocrites are not artful ones: there are a great
many hypocrites, and the far greater part of them, who arc mere
bunglers at it; they are hypocrites without any skill or artifice;
and so they take up a pretense which anybody, with half an eye,
may penetrate and see through." - Imo. Not all who are hypo.crites are sufficient.ly artful; for, though numerous, most of them
are such bunglers that anybody, with half an eye, can see through
their pretenses.
' The proper mmingement of modifiers is one of the nicest nccomplishmerits in style. Since most modifiers can be used eith er ns adjective or
a.~ ndverbinl elements, nnd cnn frequently be used with diversified reference
in the sentence, care should be taken not to place them where t.hey will
fall within a sphere of attraction to which they do not belong. A modifier
naturally attaches itself to the nearest term which it can modify. lt should
therefore be placed ns near as possible to the part to which it relates, ~r
where it can not relate to ~omethinu else. It should also be placed where
it can do full duty, and where it witt be 11,s little in. the way of other parts
as possible. The modifier~ which arc most frcqnentlr nnd ridiculoufl.ly miBplaced nro prepositional phrases, participial phrnseR, relative clnuscs, nnd
certain advei·bs.
•,
. ·:

38. "As, in t.hc various departments of imln!'lt.ry, much more
can be accomplished, in a limited time and with a give'n amount

"The varlous departments of Industry," It sec'rn~ 'to us, lnclude students
and authors; and when people "go blindly to their · task," and 11 without
regard to n choice of mean~," it really doeR seem thnt they must be" governed by no higher principle than chance." Then, "by tlwae" requires · by
those in correspondence, nnd not 11 by men; " and the ·last part of the 1 sentence lacks so much of clearness that it seems to be tautological. In fact,
the entire sentence, like many others in the same book, is a muddle of
thought. · And \vhy load nn already overlonded ·sentence with the nee<llcss
circumstance, "in n limited time and with a given amount of lnbor" ·1 In
general, debiils should be distinct, strong, om.I few;' and lnnguage shoul<l be
wielded with os much precision and directness ns possible. · Ti;uly,.a mult\· ,
, •:, ·
tude of words may "darken counsel."
The sentence quoted above may be improved ~ foB~ws: .
0

As much more can be accomplished, even in the lowest departments of industry, by those who work with an end in view and
according to a definite enlightened system ; so, it -is 'claimed, a·
similar advantage is gained by those students of composition who
pursue a well-digested plan, matured for them . by' experience, and
·elaborated by car~ful thought.
It is frequently better to omit insignificant particulars than to overload
the sentence; and when particulars can not be omitted, it may be better to
i , ·. _' >. , ,
· ··
make two or.more sentences.
· . -:

· • '• 39. "Decatur was a restless spirit who. loved .danger and bloodshed, and fell in a duel, frpm a pinnacle of distinction, ·w hen striving tO repair the deficienCies he regretted of early education." l

INGERSOLL.

- ':'· This is a' bad

I (

sente'n ~e, from the jumble of thought and ~yntax.

...

,

deficiencies of his ca~ly.education, nnd
l strove to repair them ..· He was a restless spirit, who loved danger
' and bloodshed, and fell in a duel from hls high pinnacle ' of 'dis- \
tinction.
··
"' ·
•

1

D~eatur r~gretted tl~e

' ' It is very important ~ ascertain what items are most congruous, and

+----

. ·c-- -

+ea= ·

~-- ~

192

193

then to group the various elements accordingly; so that the whole muy be
eu.sily seen, and the transition may be nowhere abrupt or unnaturnl.
40. " The various combinations of grouping, cl situation with
rco-ard to each other, placing them in a permanent relation of
fl"i~ndship . or .hostility, of sympathy or of antipathy, of pea.cc or
of war, of interchange of religions, of manners, of civilization,
complete the work, and give that impu~se, ~hat pro.gressive movcmimt, which i.s the trait whereby the historical natwns are recognized." - GuYoT's Earth and Man..
This sentence1 like· many others in tho en.me book, seems to us a muddle
of .thought. Pro f. Guyot hu..~ written an lntei:esting t~~atise; bu~ his s!utnx
seems to be u.s yet in one of tho~e semi-chaotic trans1t10n states m which ho
represents his earth to have once been. Perhaps the Professor, in the above
senteuce, meant to convey the following meaning: The different situations of nations, and their diversified relations to one another, arising from sympathy or antipathy, pe~ce
or 1var, arts, manners, aml religion, produce that ~ovcmcnt wluch
is called the progress of society, and which has ever been the
great characteristic of the historical nations.
The student may now try to improve tho following sentences from tho
same m1thor: -:-.
. / . 41. " Each has it:i religion, its social principles, its , civilization

45. " She <lroppe<l h er face on my old nurse's breast, and,
ceasing this supplication, which in its agony and grief was half a
woman's, half a child's, as all her manner was (being, in that,
more natural, and better ·suited to her beauty, as I thought, than
any other manner could have been), wept silently, while my old
nurse hushed her like an infant." - DICKENS.
This heavy parenthesis so breaks and clogs tho grammatical sense, thnt
the structure of the sentence is disngreoable. It is s:ii<l that Macaulay
·
never admitted a parenthesis into his sentences.
She clroppe<l her face on my ol<l nurse's breast ; and, ceasing
from this supplication, which, in its agony anJ grief, was half a
woman's an<l half a child's, yet most beautifully becoming to her,
she wept silently, while the nurse hushed her like an infant.
46. "Arrive<l at his house in '\.Yin<lsor Terrace (which I noticed was shabby, like himself, but also, like himself, ma<le all tho
show it could), he present.cu me to Mrs. Micawber, a thin an<l
faded lady, not at all young, who was sitting in the parlor (the
first floor was altogether unfurnished, and the blinds were kept
down to <lelu<le the neighbors), with a baby at her breast." -

severally."· '
42: "Even by ' virtue of an inward nature, of a moral nature
rcflectinrr the divine imarre of his Maker, he can not grow up to
complet; <levelopmcnt, t~ ~is perfect stature, e.x~ep~, by fulfilling
the will of Him who calls lum to such lofty destimes.
43. " She throws herself alone, and on her own account, re·
leased from guardianship, with demeanor more open, more .fra\1k,
more rapid into the ca~eer of civilization."
.
44. "U~doubtedly, in · this uniformity of structure, in this ab'sence of obstacles to a free circulation from enJ to end of this
world, we are to look for one of the pi:incipal causes of that common character, of that American physiognomy, which strik.e,s us
in all the organized beings of this continent, aml which we fiml
arrain in man himself, in the Indian, all the tribes of whom, fr~m
"' banks of thc, M :1ck:cnzie River to Patagonia, have the . same
the
coppery tint, an<l a family likeness in the features, imposs~bl~ to
mistake."

DICKENS.

Tito first parenthesis does very well, except that thern can be some doubt
.whether it refers to "house" or to "Terrace;;, but the second parenthesis
makes too much of this kind of thing for one sentence. If this first floor
must be described, it woult! be better to do it in a separate sentence. Say,
" sitting in the parlor, with a baby nt her breast. :rhis parlor was on the
first floor .(?), which w::i.s altogether unfurnished, nnd the blinds were kept
down to delude the neighbors."
47. Trrn DEPAln'URE. - "Among the great bear,n.s, bulks,
an<l ringbolts of the ship, and the emigrant-berths, and chests,
arid bundles, ati.<l barrels, an<l heaps of miscellaneous. baggage - •
lighted up here and there by dangling lanterns, and elsewhere
by the yellow <lay-light, strayi~g down a wind-sail or I\ hatchway
-Wf!re crowded groups of people, making new friendships, taking
l~ave of one a~~thcr, talking, ia.u;;hing, crying, eating, an<l drinking; some. already settled down into the possession of t11cir few ·
feet of space, with their little households arranged, an<l tiny
children established on stools, or in <l warf elbow-chairs; others, despairing of a r~sting-place, an<l wandering disconsolately" [disconsolate].~ D1 c 1rnNS.
13

194

195

This is an admirable sentence. Though very long, and loaded with minute but vivid detail, it is nevertheless perfectly clear nnd easily grnsped.
How natural, too, that a person who has gone to see friends start on a long
voyage, should notice so minutely every thing on the dep:trting vessel! This
single sentence is a complete picture of nil that was most worthy of notice;
nnd it was quite a point of interest to note t.he effects of breaking the smooth
surface of social life by the rupture which a voyage naturally causes.
The mind can easily take up circumstances, and carry them along with
it to the principal proposition; and when it has left the principal proposition, it can as readily refer circumstances back to it. Therefore it is often
best, in constructing long sentences, to place modifiers at the beginning and
the end, nnd the pri11cipnl proposition in the middle. Troublcsmne nclj1111cts,
particularly, nre often best placed 11t the bcgi1111iug of the sentence or cl:.mse.
The sentence nbove, and the following, are good specimens.
48. " In a central region, midway on tlie continent, though
somewhat nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic Ocean, at an elevation of nearly 7,500 feet, lies the remarkable Valley of llfe_cico,
encircled by a colossal rampart of the hardest rocks, and forming
a circumference of ahout sixty-seven leagues, with a sky of the
deepest blue, a serene atmosphere, and a magnificent landscape."

We cnn not give a special rule for every form of sentence. In general,
the grenter the variety of form the better, provided the sense is kept clear,
and easy to comprehend.

50. " Sad and weary was the march to Valley Forge. Hungry
and cold were the poor fellows who had so long been keeping the
fiel<l." - In VING. " Loud and louder the deep thunder rolled, as
throngh the myriad halls of some vast temple in the sky; fiercer
and brighter became the lightning, more and more heavily the
rain poured down." - DICKENS. "Never did she cast a kind
look upon me." - In. " On they moved indissolubly firm." MILTON.

· Just as an emphatic word is sometimes brought out with good effect at
the beginning or the end of a sentence, so it may be at the beginning or the
end of a clause or phrase.
-

-PRESCOTT.

51. "A question so abrupt, upon a subject r so mo-mentous, requires consideration." - DICKENS.

What an admirnble sentence! It describes mountain-scenery; and see
how we accordingly climb up with the sentence, then we naturally look
around, take in the whole horizon, and close our view with the la.ndscupe.
The introductory phrases lead us up like a succession of stair-ways; and
the sentence itself is like tt daguerreotype struck from the scenery itself.
The word" remm·kable," however, should rather have been omitted; for the
deRcription itself implieg Umt the valley must be remarknhle. Jt. i-~ a very
common fault of writers, yet indicating immaturity, to give a description,
and then plaster the subject .besides with tautological adjectives. - Seep.

52. "Dut they were both as grave and steady as the sea itself,
then lying beneath a dark sky, -waveless; yet with a heavy roll
upon it, as if breathing in its rest; and touched; on the horizon,
with a strip of silvery light from the unseen sun." -DICKENS.
The foregoing sentence is the perfection of style. ·· The word waveless
seems to be placed on the summit of the sentence, as if to crown it; .being
emblematic of the general meaning, or calmness, which the entire sentence
is designed to express.

188.

•

vVlrnt is to be emphasized, is generally best placed at
the beginning or the end; but any other position, that will
make it prominent, may serve as welL

Frequently, the s~bjcct-nominntive is placed at the beginning of the

sentence, the predicate-verb at the end, and the circumstances are filled in
between; for in the interval between subject and predicate, the mind is put
into an excellent state of suspense for receiving modifiers.
. 49. " The fdrest of Compiegne, about sixty miles north-east of
Paris, a hunting-park before the <lays of William the Conqueror,
fitted up with a summer residence by Louis IX., and a costly
palace by Louis :XIV., the favorite resting-place of the war-worn
Napoleon, and of Napoleon III., contains over thirty-six thousand
acres; its roads measure more tha.n six hnnrlred miles; and it is
truly a forest, rather than a park." - SAMSON.

53. " Howbeit, the door I opened, or so I dreamed,
Which slo,yly, slowly gaped." - Hoon's Haunted House.
Here the word swwly, repeated, very ingeniously intimates the , fear and
hesitation of the opener, who expected to see .a ghost7
54. " Such as it [Milton's temper J .was, when, on the eve of 1
great events, he returned from his travels, in the prime of health
and manly beauty, loaded with literary distinctions, a·nd glowing
with patriotic hopes, such it continued to be, when, after having
experienced every calamity which is incident to our nature, .old,
poor, sightless, and disgraced, he retired to his hovel to die I " MACAULAY.

196

197

This sentence comprises mn.ny particuln.rs, yet it is correct, clear, and
P.piritc<l. Observe u.lso how much tho compactmJss of sense iH prnmotc1l hy
i;imilarity of structure, and especially by the use of the second "8Ul'lt," responsive to the first; the two seem to nail together, tight nnd fast, the strnggling elements.
As a sentence should not consist of too great a variety of particulars;
so, when an element is compound, the series should not be too long. Macaulay seldom lets a serial element, unless emphatic, extend beyond fonr
terms; nnd he, ns well ns other great writers, have con~tructod most of
theit· compound element.s of lmt tmo or fhl'ce terms. The following are specimens: -

rny formidable aunt." - DICKENS. Say, "to introduce myself to
· f'11·s t. 1111press10n
'
•
my formH· 1a bl c aunt, am 1 ma Irn my
on l wr. " " I
followed the young woman, and we soon came to a very neat little
cottage, with a cheerfol bow-window : in front of it, a small square
gravelled court · or garden full of flowers, carefolly tended, and
smelling deliciously." - Iv. A beautifol sentence in conception,
but deficient in smoothness of connection. Say, "; in front of
which was a small, ~quare, gravelled court, or garden," etc.
"About one hundred and forty miles back, or some halt~way to
Fort K1~arney." - BOWLES, Here it would have been better to
continue the same construction than to change it. Say, "About
one hundred and forty miles back, or about half-way to' Fort
Kearney." "The more that I am in his company, I .like him
the better." '111e more I am in his company, the better I like
him. " In all waters there are some fish that love to swim against
the stream ; and in every community persons are to be' found who
delight in being opposed to everybody else." - N. Y. HERALD.
Similarity of thought requires similarity of structure. Say,
" There arc some fish, in all waters, that love to swim against the
stream; and there are some people, in every' community, who delight in opposing everybody else." "Private industry, directed to
the culture of a valuable staple, was more productive than the
patronage of England; and tobacco enriched Virginia." -BANCROFT. This tobacco clause is hitched on very abruptly and awkwardly. Say, "Private industry, directed to the culture of a
valuable staple, was more productive than the patronage of England. The Virginians turned their attention to ~obacco; and to..
·
bacco enriched them." '

55. "After opprcsAing, threatening, all!! hl11steri11g, lie ltesitated and failed." -1\L\CAULA Y. "His mind was so great, so
healthful, and so well proportioned; so contented in rcpo~c ; so
powerful in action." - To. "In history, this hero ancl politidan
dwindles into :t vain and focble tyrant, the slave of priests and
women; little in war, little in govcrnnwnt, little in every thing
but the art of simulating greatness." - lo.

'

"Must I then leave you? Must I nce1Js for<>go
So good, so noble, an<l so true a master?
The king shall have my service; but my prayers
For.ever and for ever shall be yours." - S11A1<:.

'

Sentences that have many chasms of syntax, or unusually wide ones, become generally rugged and disagreeable
in the same degree.
Dickens has well ridiculed this style in the long, <liajointed parliamentary
periods which he puts into the month of :Micnwber; as, -

56. "Circumstances beyond my individual control have, for a
considerable length of time, cffccte1l, as they ever must, a severance of that intimacy, which, in the limited opportunities con-~eded to me, of contemplating, in the midst of my profc8sional
duties, the scenes and events of the past, tinged by the prisrnatic
.
.
\ hues of memory,'' etc., etc.
Hero p11rtj! 11Rnr1lly i:on1111ctcrl nro Repnmterl hy Intervening mntter; nncl
the 8cn8e is left standin!J open in Ro mnny ph1ce~ tlmt the mln<l uocomoa cottfuse<l.

57. "In this plight, and with a strong consciousness of it, I
waited to iniroduce myself tO, and make my first impression on,

1'here is sometimes not only a want of coherence and
smoothness between the parts of a sentence, but between
consecutive sent~nces. The transition is not so natural and
easy as it should be, or improper digressi.o ns are allowed to
COllHJ

iu.

I

.58. " Spring is the first ancl most pleasant season of the . year. ,
There are four seasons of the year, - spring, summer, autumn,
and winter. In winter it is very cold ; and we ride over the snow,

..----- -·-----=..,..,,

198

199

in sleighs. In spring the birds sing, and the lambs play on the
green meadows. When lambs are a year old, we shear them, and
make clothing of the wool. In spring the farmer plows his land,
and tries to raise a good crop. Last year the wheat crop was
rather poor; but wheat brought a high price," etc.

increases ; the mast breaks, and falls overboard.. But the tide is
favorable, and we are saved.
61. "The territory conferred on the patentees in absolute property, with unlimited juriscliction, the sole powers of legislation,
the appointment of all officers and forms of government, extended
in breadth from the fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north
latitude, and in length from the Atlantic. to the Pacific; that is to
say, nearly all the inhabited British possessions to the north of
the United States, all New Englancl, New York, half of New JerEcy, very nearly all Pennsylvania, and the whole of the country
· tu lhe west of these States, comprising, o.ml at tJw same time believed to comprise, much more than a million of square miles, and
capable of sustaining far more than two hundred millions of in~
habitants, were by a single signature of King James, given to a
corporation within them, composed of about forty individuals." BANCROFT.

The foregoing lines are taken from a boy's composition; nnd they well
show the natural tendency to improper digressions. One thing suggests
another in such a way that he is repeatedly Jed away from his subject, which
is Sp1'ing. Even celebrated writers go sometimes nstray in like manner.
Mr. Bancroft's style, for instance, is often harsh and heavy because it lucks
whnt Do Q11i11coy cnll~ t.l1n 11 e:r.11s of Rt.ylo.

59. "llunning watcl's, inviting to the bath, tempting the angler,
alluring wild-fowl, were necessary to their paradise. Their language, like that of the Iroquob, abounds in vowels, and is destitute of labials. Its organization has a common character, but
etymology has not yet been able to discover conclusive analogies
between the roots of [the] words. The beloved people of the
Cherokees were a nation by themselves." - BANCIWFT.
This digression, about the language of the Ch erokees, is very a\Jrnptly
introduced into a descriptio11 of their country. It is not only des irn\Jle to
have something of importance to say, but to say it at the proper time and
place. The commencement of Gib\Jon's Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire presents one of the best specimens of charming sequence.

;l

Sentences may be divided into short and long. Short
sentences are more easily understood than long ones, and
better suitccl to tho colloquial style. Long sentences, being
more capacious, admit of more cadence aucl other rhetorical
ornament, and are better suited to dignifiecl discourse.
Every speaker or writer, however, should beware of excess
in regard to either kind.
60. " After some hours' sailing, a storm of snow and hail begins. The sea swells: The ruclder breaks. · Night is at hand.
The storm increases. The mast breaks. It falls overboard. But
the tide is favorable. °"re arc saved."
So many short sentences produce a disagreeable, jerking effect.

After some hours' sailing, a storm of snow ancl hail begins.
The sea swells ; the rudder breaks ; night is at hand ; the storm

This clumsy, unwieldy sentence is like some huge fossil megatherium;
and when the reader has reached its end, he has probably forgotten how it
began. Besides, it seems to us that " more than two hundred millions" is
so large a number that it needs no straining; and we can not see why one
signature should not answer as well a dozen. Better thus: - ·

The territory conferred on the patentees in absolute .property,
with unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appointment of all officers and forms of governm.ent, extended in
breadth from the fortieth to the 'forty-eighth degree of north latitude, and in length from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. · It
· cmuraccu nearly all the iulmuitcd British possessions to the north
of the United States, all New Englancl and New York; half 'o f
New Jersey, very nearly all Pennsylvania, and the whole· of' the
country to the west of these States; compr_ising, and then ' believed to comprise, much more than a million·of square miles, and
capable of sustaining more than two hundred millions of inhabitants. · · All this ."v ast region was, by a signature of King James,
given to a corporation within it, composed of about .forty individuals. ·
·
Macaulay has probably surpassed nil our other prose writers in the proper length and mixture of sentences. He lms also been careful not to let his
s~yl~ run either too deep or too s.h allow in thought, fo~ interest and llistruction.
·

-

- - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - --

200
- Formerly, long sentences were much more common than at present.
When a long sentence consists of a great diversity of items, it is consitl"emlile
labor for the mind to take it in, and hold it long enough in memory to see
its meaning. Therefore the mind soon becomes wearied when there nre
very many long sentences. If, however, only one element of a sentence is
extended into o. series, or if the parts nre well knit together by con-elnt.ive
words or constructions, the memory may be so much assisted by the uniformity that the sentence is still easy to gmsp. Hence, most of the Jong
sentences in modern writers and in the best old writers nre of this kind.
There is one great merit In these Jong sentences, which, I believe, has
never been noticed before. When we wish to rnise up the mind to some intcnae feeling, it is best done by se11tenccs of this kinrl. Short ~c ntcn ccs Jct
the miml down too oflen by their firm( pau se~ ; nm! long sc11te11ce~, with
great diversity of element$, tnke up all its attention merely to gm' p the
sense. Ilut sentences mnde lo11g by simply extending the path etic elem ent,
and not distracting attention by too m:m.v other items, produce the de,ired
effect. In other words, to produce the liighest effect, othe1· elements must be
discarded, in proportion as tlie emphatic orpatlietic ele111 e11t is exte1uled. On the
same princ iple, that the mind in high excitement cnn nttend to little ebe
than its feeling, the highest emotion is sustained by Yery short sentences. See Dickens's Little Nell.

62. "If ever you have looked on bet ter days,
If ever been where bells have knolled to church,
If ever sat at any good man's feast,
If ever from your eyeli<ls wiped a tear,
And know what 'tis to pity and be pitied,
Let gentleness my strong enforcement be." - SHAK.
63. " The laugh of mirth which vibrates through tlie heart;
the tears which freshen the dry wastes within; the music which
. brings childhood back; the prnycr which calls th e future near;
the doubt which makes us mcclit.:ite; the denth which startles us
with mystery; the hardships which force us to struf!g-le ; the :mxiety which ends in trust, - these are the true nourishment of our
being.'' -MARTINEAU.
There still remain two kinds of sentences to be noticed, - the empty and
the unintelligible. The former makes that sill,1 or t.rashy style ot\en found in
novels and periodicals ; the latter, that incomprehensible Rty le sometimes
found in pedantic systems of sc ience. The one is Jiko a nut without it kernel, or with a worthless k ern el; 1tnd the other, like a nut with so hard a
shell that we never reach the kern el.

64. " 'It is rather bad weather,' said Mrs. J ones, sighing at

201
- the win<low, while I took my seat near the chimney, where a servant had just made a fire. I took up the morning paper, which
was lying on the table, an<l began to read in it."-MAIUIYAT.
Cart-loa<ls of such . books are written, that make the world
neither wism~ nor better. They merely keep the min<l familiar with
. syutax; or, rather, they indulge it in a sort of syntactical dissipa. tion.
65. "The thinkable, even when compelled by analysis to make '
the nearest approach that is possible to a negation of intelligibility, thus implies phenomena objectified by thought, and conceive<.! to exist in space a11<l time." -TEMPI,E OJ<' T11uT11. (" Jf
thou hast any tidings,'' says .Falstaff to Pistol, "prithee, deliver
·them like a man of this world.")
The following · extract, taken from a popular Hand-book on
. .llledicine, describes at once in a silly and pedantic way that mys. tcrious process called eating : " Prehension, or the taking of food
into .the mouth, is performed mainly by the hand, assisted by the
lips and cheeks, as well as the anterior teeth and the tongue.
The contact of the solid food with the interior of the mouth, excites the act of mastication, performed by alternating contractions
· of the muscles which pull the lower jaw upward, downward, backwar<l, forward, and laterally, by acting on the bone in which they
. are implanted."
The mind dislikes to be pestered with frivolous distinctions; and it dis. likes still more to quaff from n stream of thought inferior to the natural
· current of its own fancieR. ·
In conclusion, we \vould give the pupil this rule, never to be forgotten:

First, always be sm·e that you, have sometliing to sayj
secondly, ascertain p1·ecisely wliat it is j and, lastly, be
careful to say it in the best way and at the proper time.
The sf11de11t may now improve the .folzowin,q sentences:66. "Man has five organs of sense, smell and taste; touch, to
. ~hich some add the muscular sense; and hearing and sight." SAM SON.

67. "We read again that man was placed in Eden, where every
.' tree was already pleasant to the eye, -, to dress· and· to keep it.' ''
68. " Titles of honor, officp, res11ect, and distinction usually begh1. with a capital." - GREENE.

202
69. "As Marius overthrew Ms swarthy foes in Numi<lia in frequent battles, and with prodigious disparity of internecion, Jackson exterminated the Creeks, capturing their chief, as Jugurtha
was at last made prisoner." - lNGERsou,.
The foregoing sentence mny nl~o ~nggcs t t.lrnt Jugnrt.lin wns nn Ind Inn chief!

70. "'Vith .Mr. \Vebster came l\Ir. Jeremiah l\lason, a senator
from New Hampshire, still living, an eminent lawyer at Boston."
71. "The next <lay the Indians assaulted the incoming stage,
which ha<l some six or eight passengers, men, women, and children,
circling around and around the vehicle on well-mounted 11ori;eR,
and shooting their arrows fast and ~harp - 011ly one had a musket, and another a pistol - at horses and passengers." - Dow I.ES.
72. "The Island of Mackinaw is a rock of limestone, covered
with a rough and hard but fertile soil, and, originally with a heavy
growth of timber, such -as sugar-maple, beech, birch, ha!'s-wood,
poplar, hemlock, cctlar, and spruce - elev:itc1l consi<lcrnbly 11 hove
the mainland in its vicinity, which is low, flat, and swampy: it is
from an Indian word which means turlle, because it looks like one
on the water from a <listance."·-T1rn LAKES.
.o:;rThough the foregoing Lesson nppenrs very long, yet, for wnnt of room,
we hnve not been nble to give even n third of the Instructive remarks wl1lch the
eenterices afford . .The teache r should supply as much ns he can. \Ve would
also advise the teacher to rend now end then to his class, with suitable comments, some of the best specimens of style,- such as Macaulay's "Milton,''
"Milton and Cowley," and "Dryden."
On pp. 34 and 51, we have suggested several ways of correcting compositions.
For more advanced clusRcR nn mrncllcnt mode Is usc<l In Rome of our Normal
8chool11. 'l'hc tcnch1•r Rlrnply untlcrscoreA, with n JH!llCll·mntk, thn faulty cx·
. presslon, or encloses It with curves; nnd then he Interlines nbove It Sub., for
"Substitute a better f'xpresslon," or he writes Rec. on the margin, for "Recast the sentence or paragraph."
f)ttf'ittfom•. - " Thnt Is snld nhont the f'XC<'ssh-e use of lnslgnlfl<'nnt or 1•x·
trnvagnnt " 'ords? (Page 174.) What ls said of monotony In language? (175.)
Of using the same word In different sc11ses, In the same sentence? llfention
some of the ways of avoiding monotony of expression. (li6.) When Is repetition of words allowable? 'Vhnt Is said of Macaulay's style? (177.) To whnt
does r1·petltlon naturally lend? (178 .) D1·scribr balanced structure; nnd mention some of the writers tlrnt have much of It.. \Vhnt more IA snl<l of balnncerl
·structure? Whnt ls said of the connectinl? power of pronouns? "\Vhnt
ls snld of slmllnrlty of construction? (179 .) \Vhat nre the two grcnt sonrceA of
bad phraseology? Give some lll11straU011A. What Is enhl of slnng nnd cnnt, nnd
of schoolmaster English? (182.) 'Vhat ls •aid of newApaper styl e ? (183.)
'Vhnt Is salrl of stvlc, In genf'rnl? (184 .) What. sentences nrc genernlly most
effective? (185 .) Whnt Is sal<l of t.nutology? (18!l .) Of clumsiness of ex pre~­
slon? (187.) Of using too mnny nrl.lectlves? (188.) (The teacher should nsk
similar questions, on the remaining pages.)

203

LESSON

LIV.

A Letter is a communication, usually m writing,
ndJ.rcsscd from one person to another.
vVe shall consider letters in regard to kinds, parts, style,
and speciniens.
l{imls. - A letter can be written on almost any subject.
Hence there is a great variety of letters ; and such is the
popular classification of them, that it is impossible to make
from it a perfectly scientific class~fication.
The most common kinds of letters are business letters
and letter·s of friendship or relationship. Business letters
include commercial or mercantile lettm·s and official letter;s.
l\forcantile letters include letters of cr·edii.
· ,.
Under letters of friendship we shall also include letters
of introduction, letters of recommendation, letters of · congratulation, lettm·s of condolence, and love-letters. · ' Of
course, letters are sometimes written that are just the opposite of letters of friendship.
There are, besides, literary letters, scientific letters, and
letters of travel; Sometimes these kinds partake of the
nature of business letters ; and sometimes; of ' letters of
friendship.
''~
Also telegrams, dispatches, cards of invitation, and regrets belong to the general family of letters. ··
Letters on religious subjects, and letters written in verse,
especially when of a didactic character, are usually 'Called
epistles j as the eP,istles in · the New Testament and the
epistles of Pope.
.
·
It is becoming rather customary for persons who wish to
make public their views on a subject, to send them, in the
form of a letter, to the editor or readers of a newspaper or
other periodical. The leading journals also generally sta-

204

205

tion persons at the most influential stand-points of the
worJtl, to seJHl them tho most i11tereRting JWWR. All literature of this kind is called ncwspapc1· cor1·cs1wndcn1:c j aml
the purveyors or sentinels thus sent out me called reporters
or correspondents.
Letters, of which the contents are to be kept private or
secret, are called p 1·iuate or confidential letters j and letters
that may be published, or that are for general inspection,
are called public letters or docmnents.
Short letters arc 1.:all cd notes, billets, or cards.

The address written on the envelope sbouhl comprise the
nnme and title of the person to whom the letter is sent,
and such a designation of the place \vherc. he lives that tlw
letter can not fail to reach him.
1-Ve shall say more about all the foregoing parts, especially under the head of style.
T/1 e.following superscriptions and subscriptions of letters are designed to
show what is now considered the most approved arrangement arid ~tyle ef these
parts:-

Charles Pierce, Esq.
:Dear Sir, -

The teacher should lllustr:i.te, and explain II\Ore fully, what we have said.

Parts. -All the parts of

~

letter niay be comprised under four heads, - th() superscriptian, th~ body, the subscrip. tion, and the add1·ess.
The superscription consists of the place, the date, and
the introdqctory or con~plirnentary address. There is great
variety in the modes of writing these; but the specimens, on
the following pages, show tho rn.ost approved present sty le.
The body of the letter shoulil, comprise all that the writer
hnis to say to the person to whom he writes. 'Vhen something is forgotten, it may be added as a postscript. Description, narration, wisdom, wit, humor, and p~thos seem to be
the principal materials of which the great mass of interesting letters in the world arc composed. Sarcasm, persuasion,
and remo11strance are the next most common elements.
The subsc1·iption consists of some closing expressio:q of
regard, followed by the signature. Formerly, a,lso the name
of the person to whom the letter was sent, was placed ~t
the left; but now this name is usually placed n,t the beginning of the letter. Sometimes when the name, residenc~,
and complimentary ivl<lross would rnn.ke a very long term,
the complimentary address alone is put at the beginning,
and the rest is put at tho end. l\{ost Qusi1wss men, however, prefer to see all these parts at the, corqrne11Qe:rnen,t .Qf
the letter.

:Doper, .iY.H., Oct. SO, 186.2.

Yours truly,
·uorace .1Jfa1111.
In nearly nil the books of published letters, we find n period, and not I\
comma, semicolon, or colon, uftcr a name used like "CHARLES PIERCE, Esq."
Such n 11111110, therefore, can not bo regard ed ns adclresslng the person, but 'Pu
ls probably und erstood before It, juR(ns before the nnmc on \he outside; or we
may r cgnrcl the name ns simply transferred from Urn bottom of the letter to tho
b egin ning. This view of the matter will also accord better with the entire ex·
. prcssi~n whe~ the re~idence . is add~d to th~ name:
·
.
·
·

Jf'asldngton, Sept . .21, /860.

·:Rep. S. J. J1fay.
.J(y dear Sir, - ·

·,

.•

Yours, as eper,
Horace. Mann.
Jf'asltington, :IJ. C., .J1..ug. /5, /884.
, 6eorge Combe, EJ·q.
My dear. Mr. Combe,_,,.

fiper affectionately youn,
. Horace Mann.
~

In writing to Mr. M~y, "Washington" wns sufficient; hut in writing: •n
,?ifr. Combe, who lived In Scotland, It ,vas better to acid" D.

c,n

I

I i

t.
206

I
I

:Boston, Jiely 2, 1'837.

!

II

Paris, 29 :2lue !JUchelieu,
Februa1y J'3th, '26.

.JJfy dear Friend, .JJfy dear IJ·ying : -

I

I
.,

207

Yours faitlt/ieUy,
.Horace JJfann.
Ilere, greater intimacy and greater familiarity seemed to make It unnecessary, on the part of the writer, to inse rt the name of the person addressed.

Hon. Horace JJfann. ·
My dear Sir, -

:Boele.port, July J'3th, 1'864.

:Beliepe me sincerely yours,
:.r. Starr Xing.
As there arc many Rock p orts In th e United States, we can not tell where this
letter was written .

.Lebanon, Penn., .JJfay 61/t, '09.
Joltn Smith, Esq.,
,
4.21' :Oroad11'ay, JY. r.
:.Dear Sir, :Respect/i.eUy,
7homas J. :1Jro1Pn.
The exactness of the for egoing form is probably the best for business transactions. Though there are 11t lc11st 11 hundred John Smiths In N ew York City,
yet a letter so dlrect~d would be very apt to find. the right Smith; and though
there are several L ebanons In the United States, an answer directed from Mr.
Smith to "Lebanon, P enn.," would be very apt to find the genuine Brown. In
traveling, It m ay be also w ell to add the name of the State or country. In fact,
w'e should generally b e careful to Insert., In the superscription, whatever our correspondent needs in directing his or her answer.

.246 .Euclid .11.v., Cleveland, O.,
June 24th, 1'863.

.JJfrs. Henry :Baxter.
:.Dear JJfarlaln, -

..

Hastily but lteartiij yours,
OJ4..melia Wentwortk.

Your sincere and grateful friend,
John Howard Payne.
[Author of " Sweet Home.")

:.Dresden, .JJfay 4, 1'8.23.
JJ(y dear JJfrs. Foster:-

God bless you and youn.
Washington Irn'ng.
ro tlte President o/ tlte Senate and lite Speaker
of lite IIouse of :Representatives.
Gentlemen : ~ry

respectfully,
Horace ,;1f'ann,
Secretary of tke :Board of .Education.
The colon was formerly used .more frequently after the complimentary address. It Is now seldom used except In addressing a number of persons, or
some one superior In rank to the writer.
A s yet, It ls seldom necessary to address a firm or corporation of ladles; but
when a plural female address is needed, Mmes. takes the place of Messrs., and
Ladies, of Gentlemen.

, After you have written your letter, .fold it neatly, an~
put it into an envelope. In folding your letter, if it is note'paper, turn up the lower third of the sheet, and then tur~
down the upper third. If it is letter-paper, turn up the
lower half of the sheet, so as to make it even with the
upper edge ; next turn in the right-hand third, and then
the left-hand third. ·When the shape of the envelope
requires a different folding, then fold to suit the envelope. '
· In directing your letter, begin the address on the left. of
the envelope, about half-way down; so as to leave the upper
space for the postage-stamp and the postmark. Place before the name the title Mr., Mrs., or Miss, or else put Esq.

~~~·--~~

---·

\1

i
1

'

-

after the name in stead of JJfr. before it. Next below the
name of .the person, and a little farther to the right, put
the name of the post-office ; anJ next below, you may put·
the name of the State. If the post-office is an obscure
station, it will be better to insert also the name of the
county just before that of the State. In sending a letter
to a large city, it may be necessary to insert also the station, or the number of the street; antl it may not be always
necessary to mention the State. vVrite the entire adllress.
ia a pbi11, bol<l hand; for letters frccpw11tly have to be aHsorted very hastily, and then an obscure and minced scrawl
is likely to be sent on the wrong route.
If the letter is not to be put into the post-office, but to
be carried by some private person, it may be sufficient simply to write At 1-fome, or Present, below the name on the
envelope; anJ on the lower left-hand corner, it is then cus..:
tomary to write Politeness of -· ·- , or Courtesy of - - ,
with the name of the bearer. A letter of intrn<luction or ·
recommendation should be handed open to the bearer, as he
should know what is in it; and Infroducing - - , with the
name of the person introduced, may likewise be written on
the lower or the upper left-hand corner.

fiio. <29. ~nwon, ~f(,

a'ie !PL/d1Jf.
. ~o& <liounl/{

elto.

Q/{;;J Q/tazy "f.ftdon{

oft ~me(

The following are specimens qf address: -

~n. c#itfuydz ~o~x{

7~otfw2j'ton 0t~<

e,Jl;ilwdr~ct:i7;? qffajtt. .PZfzo/e:

t§2f. ~.

Style. - By far the largest part of all that most people write,
or have occasion:to write, consists of letters. · Skill in writing them
14

210

j

is therefore of the greatest importance. Too often is business ncfl'Jected, and friendship allowed to grow coltl, simply because it
seems difficult or irksome to write a letter. And yet it should
seem as easy to write to a person as to talk to him. ~A- letter,~'
says the puet €owper, "may he vritten upon any hing or nothing, just as any thing or nothing happens to occur. A man that
has a journey before him twenty miles in length, which he is to
perform on foot, will not hesitate and doubt whether he shall set
,out or not because he does not readily perceive how he shall reach
the end of it, for he knows that by the simple operation of moviiw
forward one foot first, and tlwn the other, Im will be sure to ac~
complish it. So a letter is written as a journey is performed, or
as a conversation is maintained, not by a new contrivance never
heard of before, but merely by maintaining a progress, and resolving, as a postilion docs, having once set out, never to stop till
we reach the appointed end.''
The style of letters should b
· ational, vigorous, and
clear. ' Cowper said he Iovetl " alking letters early," and so does
everybody. A modern writer snys that " usiness letters should
be cmnmonplace, antl Je.tters of friendship should be gracefully ~
fresh." Locke observes, "The writing of letters enters so much
into all the concerns of hfe, that no gentleman can avoid showing
himself in compositions of this kintl, ~lay open his breeding,
his sense, his abilities, and his disposition to a severer examination than any oral discourse."
etters may show character an(l
qualifications even more minutely tl1an conduct shows them ; -an -;d--.::._,~,
certainly a person is often judged by his letters in the most important concerns of life. A letter may make or mar his fortune,
- make him either happy or miserabh~, for life. If he possesses
good education, good-breeding, and good common sense, he should
l!tr iO' write a good letter ; but if any of these qualifications
are wanting, lie will probably sometimes fail on very important
occaSions.
It has been said that no rules can be given for writing letters. (
)
Undoubtedly, good letter-writing, like goocl-hrec1ling, must be ·n
the person, and can not well be put on like varnish. Perhaps one
)
of the oes ru cs is, to imagine yoursdf talking to your correspon1leut, and limited to the time that will be occupied in reading

.

211

212

213

your own correspondence so far as you can. In business letters,
-brevity and clearness arc p:trticularly comrn crHlablc.
Of brief letters, there are some remarkable specimens. ltothschild wrote a letter to his agent on the continent, consisting merely of "'I", and meaning, " \Vhat has been done to-day? " to which
the agent respomle<l, "0 ; " that is, "Nothing." Talleyran1l wrote
a letter of condolence to a will.ow, which consisteJ of two words,
" Oh, Madam I " and after she was married again, he wrote, " Ah,
Madam ! " A young madcap wrote to Chesterfield, " The happiest
dog alive. - Yours, JACK;" to which Chesterfield replied," Evc1·y
dog has his 1l:ty. - Yours, C1rnSTE1tFJEL1>." Pri1le naturally
'prompts us to match our correspondents; and politeness re11uires
that we should try to write letters not inferior to those we recci ve.
Some people write very awkward letters in regard to the superscription, the subscription, and the a1hlrcss. Do not cram in the
superscription along the upper edge of the paper·; nor, on the
other hand, Legin your leUer half-way down the 1iage. It is generally best to write the place and date in the miJdle of the blank
space at the top of the first page, aml the name of the person on
the first ruled line; though it is just as proper to begin on this
line, and perhaps most people <lo so. Learn to wl'ite straight
lines; but if you can not write sucl1, then begin on the first ruled
line. In business letters, the signature, date, aml place arc very
important, especially when the letters are liable to be brought into
court as evidence.
Much nice judgment can Romctimes he displayed in regard tQ
the complimentary a<l<lress, and the closing expression of re:;:ml ;
and most of your correspondents will be apt to scrutinize these
items -carefully, in judging of your regard for them. The introductory address and the closing compliment should correspond to
·each other, without being either tautological or inconsistent ; and
the introductory address should not be inconsistent with the
address on the envelope. Fol' instance, if I should write ll(IJ
dear Friend, 'T would rather close with Yours truly than with
Your friend, or Yours respecUitlly. Iletwixt relatives; the names
denoting the relation ship are generally preferred for the complimentary address and the complimentary close, though some persons fre1p1ently use other familiar expressions. In writing to per-

sons · with whom you are not well acquainted, say, Sir, llfadam,
lllrs. A. JJ., .Mis.~ C. })., rather than Dear Sir, Dear J.lladam,
etc. Dear implies that the '· parties arc at least acquainted ;
though an overflowing philanthropy or admiration sometimes
justifies the use of it in other cases. ll1y, when prefixed to any
complimentary address, adds a delicate shade of meanin;; to · it,
and -suggests greater intimacy or affection. Between equals of
the different sexes a little more reserve seems to be proper than
between cqtials of 'the same sex. · Such forms as Sir, Dear Sir,
J.1.ly dear Sir, 1lfada111, Dem· 1lladam, Dear llliss, Gentlemen, Ladies, My dear Fallie1·, 1lly dear Jllot!ter, illy dear Brother, 1lly dear
Sister, Dear H en ry; Dem· J.lfary, 1lfy dear Jl[ary, Dearest Kate,
Friend Jon e.~, D ear Jones, ll1y dear Aunt, 111y dear Cousin, M.71
dear Ilusband, lily dear J.Vife, D ear J.l frs. Jones, lily deal" 111rs.
Jones, Dea,. 1lliss Jones, JJ.fy dear and honored Fathel", 1lfy dearly
beloved 1llother, nre the most common. Sometimes such forms as
Respected Sii-, Reverend Sir, and lfonored Sir, are also proper.
Washington Irving, a kinJ-hearteu and ·polished · writer, usually
began his letters with lily i.lear Friend, ·111y" dear, Sisle!, JJ.fy dear
Brother, My dear Sir, Jl fy dear Leslie; and closed with Ever most
affectionately yours. · Ei•er yours, Very t1·uly yours,· Your .friend,
.Your affectionate bro!her, Yuur affectionate friend, Yours faitltfully,
Your ajfeclionate uncle. · Sydney Smith, a m :m of genial heart
and excellent sense, usually began his letters with Dear. Sir, J.lfy
dear Sir, D ear J effrey, 11Iy dear Jeffrey, Dearest Kn.tc, Dear
Lady Urey; antl · closetl with ·Your sincere friend, ·Your sincere
and affectionate, Yours, Ever your.~, Yours truly, A1lieu ! Yours
a.lfeclionalclz;, Yo ttr c1;f/'tctiunate futher, etc.
' · Sir, ~lthout· Dear, 'may·show.more poi'itene8!i and. self-respect in nddressln,g
a superior or stranger; cin' 'vh~se frlend shlp you have no 'right to presume .... And
Sir, With due regard, Sin~ere~y, Yours truly, · Yours, are the best polite form s
to express resentme~t'.
..
,

· Generally speaking, it is best to learn the exact and full
force of language, in all its varieties, and then adopt wl1atever is pl'ompte<l by· our feelings.
Mr., ·11£rs:, · and llfiss are always respectable titlc8, . and they
should always he used, except when a higher title is preforable.
:Esq. is generally preferred to Mr. in addressing lawyers, artists,

214

215

and other men of gentlemanly a<:quirements or position. In fact,
titles to men Reem to riRc in the Ol'<ler ol' llfr., Esrh :tll<l Ilon.
Ministers ut' the guspd have the title llev.
'Vhen a pcrrmu has
a prufosHio11al title, as Dr., Pres., Capt., or Col., it Hl10ul<l n.lw:iys
be used at least with the name on the envelope. Jmlges, mayon~,
senatol's, representatives, the heads of government clc pa!'tmcnts,
ancl othel's of similar rank, or below the governor of a State
ancl the Presid e nt of the United States, have, and generally retain, the title Hon. The President o.f the United States, the governor of a State, or an ambassador of the U nitcd States, is
addresse<l JIU; Excellency. Foreign ambassadors arc addressed by
their foreign titles.
It is improper to use two titles with the same name when one
title implies the other, - to place ilfr., for instance, before a
name, an<l Esq. after it. Dut a nanm can have two or more titles
when one does not necessarily imply the other ; as, "The Rev.

change, for I knew thrtt yon would never have sent me from home but
for my own g-ood. I hope l nm not so selfish nllll 1111grnteful as to
prefer present ple11s11rc tu my future wellilro; uml I 11111 sure l du not
mean to he so foolish as to he my own enemy.
I find school much less dis11gree1tl1le than I expected. There is, of
course, more work than play here; and there is a great variety of g-irls,
1111 of whom were stn111g-ers to me. llut I am alremJy acquainted with
many of them; 1111tl these ure all kind and sociaule, and try to make it
pleasant to me. Mrs. - - is kindness itself, and sets to all of us an
exam pie of g-00tl will.
tiomo of my studies I like quite well, and I am making rapid progress in them, if l m r1y compare myself with my classmates. Other
studies I du not like so well; and in them I am rather in the background, especially in my French. Our musie-tencher is a lively, hightcmpered man, who gets quickly angr,v, especially when we play out of
tune, - a bluncler into which I unfortunately fall rather often. But he
takes g-reat pains; anti I think you will have less cause to complain of .
my playin .~ when I return
Huw l long to kiss nnd rmurnce you again! God bless you, dear
Mumma, and believe me
Yolll' ever-affectionate
JULIA LESLIE.

Dr. Lothrop."
'Vhen the lines are not written evenly along down the page,
and when the lines of the i:;upcrscription and the address are not
written straight acrosR the paper, the rc:uler receives an unpleasant impression of awkwanlncss; and perhaps no other trifle more
decidedly shows an illitera tc pHrson than doc1:1 an ncl<lrcss that is
written awkwardly along the upper margin of an envelope.

SJlCCimcns.
1. Fmrn a little Girl, wanting lo go Home.
READING, PENN.,

Oct. 20th, 1865.

DEAR MAllIMA, -

Oh! I 11m so tired of this place! I cnn not lcurn so
many things at once; and I can not bear going to bed without. kissing
you. You know, Mumma, I have never been away from you before, n~d
I feel as if I shall die of grief if you do not let me come home again.
Do Mamma, do let me come; and I will love you forev er.
Your miserable child,
'
·
LAURA WESTON,

2. From an older Girl at School, to her llfotlter.
OSWEGO,

My

N .Y., Sept. 25th, 1863.

DEAREST MOTIIER, -

Although I was almost hen rt-broken at parting
from you for the first time in my lifo, yet I rcconeikd myself to the

3. Prom a Girl at Home, to It.er absent Father.
.l\fr

CHICAGO, ILL., Mny 25, 1869.
DEAR FATHER, -

"Vo were 1111 made very happy by your entertninletter from New York. We thought you would write from .Allm11y; uut, as you took the nig-ht hunt, that Wl\S impossible. I should
auy more about your letter, were it not for a great famil.v misfortune,
which occurred yesterday, trnd which has made us all so miserable that
I can not write about any thing else.
It falls to my lot to tell you of this. sad event; so, without further
r1reface, I will tell you at once whut the terri~le stroke is . 011r helov.ed
Neptune has been taken away from us! He 1s gone, never to play with
us more; nnd when you come home, that good, dear dog will not be
here to welcome you I Yet he is not dear! ; he still live~ to amuse others. He has ueen turn from us hy the hand of man Captain Law~on
has given up being a farmer; he is going on the Lakes again; anc) he
Bl'nt a man here for Neptun e, who said that the Captain gnve him to
you on condition that he should have him again whenever he wanted
him. It was n hard condition, I think; and we wish now that he had
never given us Neptune at all. To have such a dear dog with us long
enough for us all to become so fond of him, and then to lose him! It is
too hnd; don't yon t.hink so, father? William thinks that tho Cnptnin hud
n right to take tho dog; hut thnt it wns unkind of him to do it. .Mary
says we ought to feel more for Cnptnin Lawson, and judge of his feelings for the do~ by our own. What do you think about 1 it,' J>apa ~
.Y ?'1 will foci for .u s children, I am sure; and as you often say the hapiu~

~ ;·.

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~ The forPgolng lette rR nre Ind ented on the left ns they Ahoulcl be In writing; the remaining letters are presented as they are usually printed In books.

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'217

piness of mnny ougl1t to be considered preferable to the happiness of
one, ,vou will <leci<le ngai11 st the Captain, uml in favor of your liereavc<l
chiluren.
As this one sad event has taken up all my thoug hts and feelings, you
will not expect me to write of any thing else; so, with love from all the
mourners,
I remain your affectionate daughter,

is now moistened, while I say, "Thank ye all, gude folki1." I must not
forget to men ti on the apples - the six apples, one from each - llml
the loaf of cake. The upples I have smelled of; and the cake I have
just nibbled at a little, and pronounced it to be in the finest taste.
Now, a word about your letters. I can not say much; for I have
read mother's only three times, and Mary's twice. I nm g!ad. the spec·
taclcs fitted mother's eyes so well. You wonder how I hit 1t. Why,
have I not been told from bubyho?d th~t I h1tve my mother'~ eyes 1
Now, if l have mother's eyes, what IS plainer than that I can pick .out .
g lasses that will suit them 1 I am glad, too, that the new book 1s . a
. favorite. George's knifo shall be forthcoming I and the orders of William and Henry shall be honored.
I suppose the pond is all frozen over, and the skating is good. I
know it is fooliHh; but if mother and Mary had sktltcd as many
"moony" nights as I have, they would sigh, not !lt the thought, but at
the fact, that my skating days are over.
· ·
,
I am warm, well, and comfortable. We all study ; and dull fe!lows,
like me, have to confess that they study hard. 'W_e Ii.ave no gemus to
help us. My chum is a good follow. He now sits m yonder corner,
his foet poised upon the stove in . such a way that ~he dullness see,~s to
have all run out of his heels into his head, for he 1s fast asleep.
I have got it framed, and the.re it hangs - the pi~tur~ of my ~ath~r I
I never look up without seeing It, and I never see 1t without thmkrng
that my mother is a widow, .and that I am her elde~t s~m. .Wh.at more
I think I will not be foolish enough to say; you will 1magme 1t better
than I can say it.
·
·
, ''. ·
.
,
Your gentle hint, denr mother, about lcavmg ~y B1~le at home, ~as
kind· but it will relieve you to know that I left 1t desig nedly, havmg
take~, in its place, my de:i-r father's from. the upper shelf in ou.r little .
library room; and, what 1s more, I read It every day.
.
.
. I need not sn.y, Write, write! for I know that. some of you .will do
·
,so. Love to you nil, and much too.
Your affectionate son,
.
.HERllERT . G~. LATH~OP.

ANNA llRlG G S .

4. From a Son at College, to liis Jlfo!ha.
YALE COLLEGE, NEW IlA VEN, C ONN.,

l\fy nRAn MoTmrn, -

Saturday E vening, Nov. 20th, 1857.

Thou gh I nm now sit ting with my back townrcl you, yet I love
you none the less ; am! what is quite n8 strange, I can see you ju st as
plainly us if I s tood peeping in upon you. I cun see you all JUSt as
you sit around the tulile.
.
. .
. .
There is mother, on the right of the table, with her kmttmg, nnd a
book open before her; Hild anon ·she glances her eye from the work on
paper to the work on . needles ; now conn ts the stitches,, ~nd tl_icn puts
her eye on the book, and ~ ta rts otf for another round. l here 1s ~ittry,
lookino- wise, and sewing with all her might; now am! then s topping to
f;'ive S~rah and Loui se a lift in their lessons - try in~ to initiate them
rnto the mysteries of Eng li sh Urumrnar. She is on the left side of the
table. There, in the backg round, is silent Jos1: ph, with his slate, now
making a mark, and .then biting his lip ~r s cra~ehit!g his head to sec if
the a)<rebrnic cxpress1011 rnnv not have l11dden 111 either of these places.
Georg~ is in the kitchen, tilikcring hi.s s kates, or contriving a trnl? for
that old offend er, the rat, whose cu1111111g has so long brought mort1fi cation upon nil his boastin i;s. I can .now .hear hi s. ha1.111tt?r and his whistle - that peculi ar suckm ,,. so rt of whistle winch 111d1catcs a puzzl ~ d
state of the hrain. Little ~Villi a m and Henry are snug in bed; nnd; 1f
you will just open their bed-room door, yo';! will bnrcly hcnr th.cm
brea the. · And now mother hns stopped , and 1s uhsent nllfl .thoughtful;
und mv heart tells me site is thin kin!!' of her only absent cl11h.l.
Yoi.1 ha ve been even kind er than I expec ted or you promi sed. I ?id
not expect to hear from yon befo re next week; but as I was walkmg
m·cr the Common to-cl:w on e of m v classmn tcs cri ed out, "There is a
bundl e for yon nt the B~prcss Ollicc ! " Away I went in a twinkle
toward the Expre,:s Office, wi th all the speed m y dignity won lei allow;
and in a very short time I was in my room, with the bundle. Out
cam e m_v knife; and, forgcttin:; nil your go<~d advice nhout "strings nn?
fra"mcnts " I soon made the bundle open its very heart to me; und 1t
"'
'
proved
a wnrm
hen rt too, for there were the socks ( t Iicy arc on my f'ect
11ow - that iH, on e pair), nml thorn were the f1:111n cls, 11111! the bosoms,
and the g-lovcs, lllHI the pi11 c11 sltio11 from Loui se, and the needl e-work
from Sa rah , and the paper from l\fa ry , nnd the letters and Jo,:c from all
of yon. I !<prc1ul open my trcasnrcs, nlHl ho th my henrt 1111rl . feet. dnnced
for jo_v, while my Jrnntl ~ net.nally mhhcll c:w.h other ont of sy.mpathy.
Thanks to you all for bundle, letters, aml love. One corner of my eye

The foregoing letter we have taken, with ' Improved altei'atlone, from an 'old
work on lette r· writing. It is au excellimt .letter, from a good and bright son .
It is natural , clear, lively, full, and picturesque, with cousiderabio of both humor and pathos.

5. From a .Sister at Home, to her Brother at School.
. YONKERS, N.Y., Thllrsday, May 6, 1869.

DEAR BROTHER WILLIAM,-

.

.

.

Yester<la~ afternoon, about live o'clock, came to our ~ouse i~ their

carringe, our uncle imd aunt from New York, with our co~ s ms, the1~ two
oldest children. '!'hey brought ever so many present~ with them lor us
children· and amon" them is a bcantiful flute for you. Uncle knows
that you ' arc very fo~d of music ; and he thinks you h~ve a geni~s for
it. He therefore wishes you to Ien?n how to play on 1t; but, h.e says,
not to neglect more important duties. Uncle expects to. remam here
with his family till next Monday; and as they would all like to see you,

219

218
before they return, father has kindly e?nsente,d for you to cor_ne hmne
to-morrow und stay till Monday 1110r11111g. l lcaso to show tl11s to Mr.
Allston, your teacher; an<l, ~sk l_iim to le~ you come d?wn home. ~y
the noon train to-morrow. lell hun yo11 will return ugam by the l11~t
train Monday morning.
Your affectionate sister,
HENRIETTA COLOATI>:.

To 1\1.A.srER

W111. COLGATE.

6. From an Apprentice to a former School-mate.
PnlLADELPRL\., Feb. 1, 1869.

Mr DEAR HENRY, -

Bein" now far removed from yon, and deprived of those pfa_vful
interviews ;'hich used to make bot.h of us so happy, the best way that
I can think of for keeping alive onr intimacy ar~d promoting our happiness is to maintain n regnlar correspondence wrth each other,_~y communicatino- in a free and friendly manner what.e,'er occurs to erther _of
us that appears worthy of bei~g writt.e_n. . I mn sur~ we s_hall d~n_ve
much benefit from such a practice; for rt will tend to 1ml-?rorn ~:mr st~ le
of writing. ripen our yonthfnl inti~nacy into firm and l~ung fncmls_hrp,
occupy pleasantly some of our leisure hot!rs! 11!1d prev_eut our mtmls
fro:u deireneratin" from the excellent dr;;crplme which we had at
school. '"if you approve of this proposal, I hope you will speedily comply with it by sending me an immediate answer.
.
I hope' you are well, and getting along- w~ll; and _I ha_ve no do~1bt
you will be glad to learn that I a.m well, aml lrke my s1tuat1on. Plula- ·
delphia is a large and pleasant city. But I confess to you that whenever I think of mv old home, of my school-days now forever gone, and
of the IJeautiful, beautiful country around GettyslJurg, where I havo
alwnys lived, I get so homesick that my henr:t swells, m~d the tears gush
into my eyes. However, I suf press my f~ehngs; .yet tf I ever sn~ceed
in gaining ari honest fortune , am determ.rned ~ ltve out the rema111dcr
of my worldl.v lifo in sight of the mountarns whrch I love so clearly.
Give my kindest regards to all my school-mates, and 1Jel1evc me to bo
Your sincere friend,
RICHARD NORRIS.

7. From Lord Collingwood to his Daughters.
VILLE DE PARIS, :MINORCA,

April 17, 1807. 1

Mr DEAREST SARAII AND MARY, -

I received both your kincl letters, and am mnr.h obliged for
your eorwratulations on my IJein~ appointed M:~jor General of Marines. The Kinrr is ever good and gracious to me; and I dare say you
both feel that gr~titude to bis M11:jesty which is due from us all for the
many instances of his favor, which he haq bestowed on me, and, through
me on you. Enrle1wor, my belove<l girls, to make yourselves worthy 1
of ~hem, by cultivating your minds with care. Seek knowledge with ·

diligence; and regard the instructions of Mrs. Moss, when she explains
to you whnt those qualities arc which constitute an 'amiublc an~ honorulJlc woman.
.
·
God has implanted in every heart a certain knowledge of right and
wrong, which we cull conscience. No person ever did a kind, a hu•
mane, or a charitable action, without foeling a consciouHness that it wus
good. Such 1111 act crcutcs u pleusnrc in the mind that nothirrg else cun ·
produce; and this pleasure. is the greater when the act that causes it
is veiled from the world. On the .other hand, no person ever did or
said an ill-natured, unkind, or mischievous thing, who did not in the
Yery instant foci that he had done wrong. This kind of feeling is a
11a1Urnl monitor, und never will deceive if due regard be paid to it; and
one good rule, which you should ever bear in mind, and act up to as
much as po11sihle, is, never to say any thing which you may afterwards
wish unsaid, or do what you may afterwards wish undone.
The edueutiou of a lady, aml indeed of a gentleman too, may be
divided into three parts; all of great importance to their happiness,
but in different degrees. T~e first part is the cultivation of the mind,
that they may acquire the Pfnver of distinguishing true from false, right
from wrong; and also acquire the habit of doing acts of wisdom, virtue,
and honor. By rending history, you will perceive the high estimation ·
in which the memories of good and virtuous people are held; and the
contempt and disgust which are affixed to the base, whatever may have
been their rank in life.
•
The second part of education is, to acquire a competent knowledge
how to manage your affairs, whatever they' may happen to be; to know
how to direct the economy of your house; and to keep exact accounts
of every thing which concerns you. ' Whoever can not .do this, must be
dependent on somebody else; and those who are dependent on another,
can not be perfectly at their ease. ·
·
· " ' •
· ·
The third part is perhaps not less in value than the others. · It is to
practice those manners and huve that address ~·hich will recommend
·yon to the respect of strangers. Boldness and forwardness arc exceedmgly disgusting, and people of this character are generally more and
more disliked the more they ore known ; but, at the same time, shyness
and bashfitlness, and the shrinking from conversation with ' those with
whom you ought to associate, are repulsive and unbecoming.
There are many hours in every j)erson's life which are not spent in
any thing important; but it is necessary that they should not be passed
idly. · Music, drawing, reading, · and conversation shoulcl · fill up the
hours of leisnre. Nothing wenries me more than to see a young lady;
at home, sitting· with her arms across, or twirling her thumbs, for want
of something to do. • Poor thing 1 I , always pitv her; for I am · sure
that her head is empty, and that she has not the· sense.. even to devise .
the means of pleasing herself.
· ·• It gives me grent pleasure to learn that you are both well, frnd, I
hope, mnking good (rsc of your time. It is nt . this period of life that
you must lay the foundation of all knowledge, and of those manners,
~nd modes of thinking, which <listinguish gentlewomen from Miss' Noth·
m~s. ·· A good woman has great and important: duties to perform· in
tins world ; and she will always be in danger of doing them ill, if she
has .not acquired knowledge. I have only to recommend to you not to

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220

221

pass too much of your time in trifling pursuits, or in reading books of
rnero amusement, which uffortl yon nothing uµon which you can reflect
uftcrwartls, anti foci tl1at you have acq uircd w !mt you ti id not know before.
Never <lo any thing that indicates an angry mind; for althoug·h
everybody is born with a certain degree of passion, and, from un townnl
circums~ances, will sometimes feel its operation, or be what is cnlletl
"out of humor,'' yet n sensible person will never allow his temper to
be discovered. Check and restrain it; never make any dctcrminntion
until you find your anger has entirely subsided; and always avoid saying any thing which you may afterwards wish un said .
lly a strict regard to Mrs. Moss's instructions, you will be pcrfectCll
in nil I recommend to you, and then how dearly I shall love you 1 May
Uutl hlesM you both, my denrcRt chilllrcn.
Wlum 1 co mo homo, wo will never part again while we live; and
till then, and ever, I am, my dcnr good g-irls,
Your most atfoetionnte father,
C. COLLINGWOOD.

I ma)'. nppear to other people, nor how much my face may belie my
heart, but I know that I never was nor ever can be guiltv of dissimulation or inconstancy. You will think this vain, but it is ail that i pique
myself upon. Tell me you believe me and repent of your harsh censure. Tell it me in pity to my um;iasiness, for you are one 1of those
few people nbont whose good opinion I am in pain. I have always
taken so little care to please the world, that I am never mortified or delighted hy its reports, which is a piece of stoicism born with m~ ;, but I
can not be one minute easy while yQu think, ill of . , . , . . . , .. ; · . ,
Your faithful
•"" · · , .
·' ' MARY ' PIERREPONT.

If all parents would write such letters to the~ children, or co-operate in such
a way wiLh tea chers, the hhor of educating would be very much lightened, and
Uie ,rcsults would be much more satisfactory.

8. From a young unmarried Lady to lier Friend.
;

August 21, 1709.

I nm very much obliged to you, my dear Miss Wortley, for the wit,
beauty, and other fine qualities, you so gene rously bestow upon 1ne.
Next to receiving them from Heaven, you are the person from whom I
would choose to receive gifts and graces; I am very well satisfied to
owe them to your own delicacy of imaginntion, which represents to you
the idea of n fine lady, aud you have good nature enough to faucy I am
she. · All this is mighty well, but you do not stop there; ima•rination
is boundless. After giving me imaginary wit and heauty, you give me
imaginary passions, arul you tell me I'm in love. If I um, 'tis n pcrfoct
sin of ignornnce, for 1 don't rm much ns know tho 1111m's 11111110: 1 huvo
been studying these three hour~, and can not guess whom you mean. I
passctl several days at Nottingham without seeing or even wishing to
see one of the sex. Now, if I am in love, I am willing to be w in order and rule. I have been turning over I know not how many books,
to look for precedents. Recommend nu example to me; and, abo\·e all,
let me know whether 'tis most proper for me to walk in the woods, increasing the winds with my sighs, or to sit by a purli11g stream, swelling the rivulet with my tears; may he, both will do well in 1heir turns:
but to be n minute serious, what clo you mean by reproaching me with
inconstnncy 1 I confoss you give me several good qualities I have not,
and I nm ready to thank you for them, bnt then you must not take away
those few I. have. No, I will never exchange them ; take back the
beauty and wit you bestow upon me, leave me my own mediocrity of
agreeableness aml genius, hnt leave me also my sincerity, my constancy,
and my plain-dealing: 'tis all I have to recommend me to the esteem
either of others or of myself. How should I despise myself if I conld
think I were cnpable of either incon8tancy or deceit I I knQW not how

[Afterwards, Lady Wortley :Montague.) .
' ~

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9. From Dr. Franklin to his ·Sister.
. NEW YORK,

DEAR SISTER, -

'

' j,

I ti

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• "' ,-,
April 19~· n'st.
1

•

I . wrote ~ few lines to you yesterday, but omitted to answer yours
relating to sister. Dowse. ..:\.s having their own way is one of the greatest comforts of life to old people, I think their friends should endeavor
to accommodate them in that, as well as in any thiner else. When 'they
have long· lived in a house, it becomes natural to the~: they are almost
as closely connected with it ns the tortoise with his shell : the~· die if
r.?u tear them out of it .. Old folks ahu oltl trees, if you reri10ve them,
_tis ten to one that you kill th em ; so let your good old sister be no more
importuned on that head. vVe are growing old .fast ourselves, and shall
e;cpect the ~amc kin~ !ndulgences: if we give them ,' we shall have a
right to receive them m our turn. · And as to her' few thin<rs I think
sl~e is right not t? sell. them; and for. the ~eason ' she gives,~ that they
will fetch but little. ' When that little IS spent, they would be of no
further use to her; but perhaps the expectation of possessing them'' at
her death, may make that·person who is with her 'tender and careful of
her, and helpful to her, to the amount of ten ' times their value.'· ' lf' so1
t)~ey are put to the best USC they possibly CRn be. ' . ''
· I ., .;,,, :·'"
I hope y~n visit sister llS often ns yonr affairs
permit, and 'afford
her 'Ylrnt a:~~1stance l\IHI comfort you cnn in her present situation!" · Old
age, i11fir1111t1es, und poverf.IJ, joined, are afflictions · enough. The' nJqlect
1
~nd sli,q~t of friends and near relatio!ls should never be added':' peoplo
m her circumstances are apt to suspect this sometimes without · cause'.
,Appearances should therefore be attended to iri our conduct 'towards
.. them. I write by this post to ~ousin 'W illiam ' ta continue· his · care
, 1w.hich I doubt not h~ will. '
' ·
·'· " '
11: . • ~Y Joye to a!l; from, dear Sister,
·' ,:.- ·
· '· 'i, .. ·., ,.
Your affectionate brother,
· ' ··"

will

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J,
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_:·

,./

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' ' BENJ..UUN FRANKLIN.
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1O•. A Descripti1'.e Letter.

RICHMOND, VA.,

Oct. 151 1840.

6 o'clock, A.~. \

., <"MY DEAR FRIEND, -

":. ·Whether it be a fa,·or or nn annoyance you owe this letter to my
. habit of early rising. From the hour marked at the top of the page,

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223

you will ~atur111ly conclude that my compani?ns are not now engaging
my attention as we have not calculated on being early travelers to-day.
'l'his cit/lrns a" pleas:rnt Hite." It is high : t..hc .Tl.Imes Hivcr runs
Lelow it; and when I went out 1u1 hour ago, notl11ng wus hcu!'d lrnt tl~e
roar of the falls. 'l'he air is tru111111il, und its tcrnpcrnture rmld. It 1s
morning and a. mornirw sweet, and refreshing, und delightful.
Everybody knows the morning in its metaphorical sense, applied to
so many difforent objects. The health, strength, and beauty of early
years lead us to call that period the "morning of life." Of a lovely
woman we say " ~he is bright as the morning;" and no one
Youn.,.
"
,
. f h
. ,,
doubts why Lucifer Is .en lied "son o t ? mor?mg.
..
But the morning itself, few people, mhabttants ?f c1t1cs, know any
thing about. Among all our go~~ people, not on~ 111 n thousand ~ees
tho 1mn rise once in n year.
J hey know nothing of the mornmg.
Their i<le1\ of it h1, that it is thnt ptn·t of the day which ~om~s ulong uftcr
n cup of coffee or a piece of toast. With them, mornmg 1s n?t a new
issuing of light, a new bursting-forth of the sun, a new w11k111g:11p of
all that has life from a sort of temporary death, to behold agam the
works of God, tiie heavens, arnl the earth. It is only a part of the domestic day, belonging- to rcadin"' ~h~ ncwspap~rs, i_tnswcrir!~ no~cs,
scndincr the children to school, anJ grvmg ortlcrs for dmner. I he .hrst
streak ~f light, the earliest purplin~ of the ea~t, w.hich the lark sprmgs
up to greet, and the deeper antl deeper colormg into orange a!1d red,
till at length the glorious sun is seen, " regent of tiny" - tlus they
never enjoy, for they never sec it.
Ileautiful dc;~criptions of morning ahonnd in nil languages, hut they
aro stron~cst perhaps in. the l~ast; where .the sun i;q frcri~1;,ntly th.e object
of worship. King David speaks of takrng to himsclt the. wmgs of
the mornin.,.," This is hi"hly poeticnl nnd bea utiful. The wmgs of the
morn in" ai~ t.lrn beam~ ot' tho rising sun. It is thus said that the " Sun
of Uighteousn ess shall rise with healing in his wings"-:- n mornir!g
that sh,tll scatter lifo, and health, and joy, throughout the umversc. Milton has fine descriptions of the morning, hut riot so many as Shakespeare, from whose writings might be filled pages of imagery, all
founded on the glory of the morning.
I never thought that Adam hnd rnnch the mlvantnge of us for having seen the world when it was new. The manife?tations of the power
of God, like his mercies, nre " new every mornmg, and fresh every
moment." vVe see as fine risin"'s of the sun as Adam ever saw; und
its risincrs arc ns much a mirn~le now as they were in his day, and I
think a great deal more so. because it is now part of the miracle that
for thousands and thousai~ds of years he has come to his appointed
time without the variation of the millionth part of a second. Adam
could not tell how this might be.
I know the morning: I am acquainted with it; and I love it. I
love it, fresh anrl !l\\·ect as it is - a <laity nnw creation breaking forth,
and calling nil that hnve lifo, nnd l11·c1tth, nnd heing, to new udorntion,
new enjoyments, nud new grutititde.
As ever, your fri end,

11. A Letter of Narration and Condolence,,

n

DANIEL WEBSTER.

The foregoing letter is beautiful In ihought and expression. A strain of
cbccrfulnt>ss nnd pi ety runs through It nil . The style Is easy, graceful, simple,
and natural; nnd the wor<ls are mostly Saxon.
'

Mns. J. M.

RICHMOND, VA. 1 April 26 1 1866,
LANDOR,

1317 llroadway, ~· Y. City.
MY DEAR MADAlll, -

.. ' ' ' ·1 nm. very sorry to announce to you the ~ainful
tidings that your son Henry died yesterday afternoon about .1 o cloc~.
He was unconscious from Friday afternoon; although occn?1onally m
his delirium he would call for his mother. · He wns very kmdly cared
for to tho last by the good people of the - - Church. A Mrs. - was particularly attentive.
At:cording to the telegram received yesterday morni~g, arrangements
hnvc been made for his Imrial from the chnl'ch. llo will be placed for
n few days in the receiving vault, anti he will then be interred in the
church lot.
·
I lrnve supposed that yon did not feel so situated, from what you
wrote me, that you could come to be prcs~nt at. the funer.al ; hence I
have not made that effort to notify you 1mmcdrntely, which I would
otherwise have made. Tho funernl services will take place day after
to-morrow, at 11 o'clock, A.M.
lri this addition to your already heavy sorrows, I can not but sympathize most deeply. Your son often spoke of you as the best of
mothers · an1l on one occasion he told me that he prayed for .yoq and
Iris hrotl;cr nm! sisters every night nnd .morning . .•May it b~ your hope
that while he is no longer present with us, he 1s · now ~t rest where
there is no more sickness or pain, ·parting or sorrow. It is most truly
a consolation to the Christian heart to feel, however dark the scenes of
earth may be, that onr heavenly Fathi;r ordereth all thi_n,gs for the best.
Praying that this and nil your tnnls may be sanctified to .you, and
he the means of preparing you the better to follow your son m to· rest,
I remain ·
Very faithfully yours; ·
·,

w.

GEORGE

FISHER,

.Minister o/ St. Paul'B Church.

12. A Letler of Introduc,twn.

& Co.,
744 Broadway, N.Y.

MACDONALD, PALMER,

GENTLEMEN, -

: !

!

NEWDURGH 1 N.Y. 1 March 'let, 1869.
.

.

'

. "

·

1,

The bearer, Mr. A. B., is a ·young ma~ who has
hccn brotJO"ht up in our city anti is well known to me. He 1s of .very
rc.~pcctahl~ parentage,. n .g;udunte of our High Sc!1ool, ~nd . of good.
8 tnnding both as a Clmstmn and as a scholar; :He ts seekt~g a ~ettcr.
fi eld for his future life, and desires to engage m the mercantile busmess.
He will make known to you his wishes; and any favor you may show
· him will oblige
Your friend,

C. D.

22-1

225

Sinre Jrenr.... from the Pn>o~!i _1r~. me:uu r.mn~, an in troodactory add.reu, with both t h~ tit le-- . bec-:lm ~ rather tautological ; 60 that .-hen
Gentlemen, o r Genl'n, h tlY.'d, Jfe46T 6 . Ebo uld rath er be omitted.

13. Recommendalwns.
The bearer, Mr. Thomas Jones, is well known to me. He is a
voung man of industrious hsbit.s, ~oum.I judgment, and good mora.I
character; and I cheerfully recommend him to any one desiring to employ a clerk or confidential business agent.
THOlU.S C. BRow:s-,
Poughkeepsie, N.1.
!fin Mary L. Pitman ha11 been a papiJ of mine for frmr year!. She
ha!J tter Loon diligent in her stadic."3, and anexceptiona':tle in her d~
portment. To those who desire a teacher I cordially recommend her as
a young lady of intelligence, refinement, and energy.
L.\C"R...\ SPEEDWELL,

Principal of Xormal Sdiool, St. Lo11is, -1£0.

14. ApplicaJions.
CW:CAGO, ILL., Jnne 1, lS-..

Da. C. G--.

Being a candidate for the situation of scboolrnb-tre.,-s in
the - - School, I l"eoture to solicit the farnr of a testimonial from
you, ·as to my conduct and alJilit_v while in your School Uistrict.
ShoaJd yon deem me a worthy candidate, I would also entreat you, a3
a great favor to me, to exert your influence in m.v behalf.
Sincerely thanking yon for pa.st acts of kindness, I ham the honor
to subscribe myself
Yours gratefully,
LETITIA-.

To

THE Bo.tRD oF EDUCATION,
CHICAGO,

Corr.AGE

Gaon:, June ith,

15. Cards are an element of the fashionable world, and therefore
they are constantly rnrying in style. 1fie present style is in good
taste; being simple, and containing almost nothing-that is superIJuous. The introductory phrase, "send their compliments," is
now genernIJy omitted, for the sending of the card is itself meant
for a compliment; hut in writing a "regret," it may be proper to

insert

th~

phrase.

The mo3t common kinds of cards are tJisiting-cards, reception
cams, rr:cddi11g-carrls, and b1~iness cards. The name, the time, the
place, and the entertainment or business are the principal items
mentioned on canls. Yisiting-canls usually contain the name
only; sometimes the place or the official title is added. ·w hen
time and place are gh·en on a card, they are _placed at the bottom
rather than at the top.
.A married lady is designated rather by the Christian name of
her husband than by her own; as, ~llr. and Jfn. Tlumuu Barton.
The only or eldest unmarried da~hter of a family is designated
in a note or card as .illi.ss--; and younger daughters are dist~n­
guishcd by their Christian names; as, .Miss . Barton, .Min Julia
Barton, and J.Iiss ./Jlary Barton.
The party sending out a note or card, except in cases of extraordinary familiarity, should speak of himself or herself in the third
person, not in the first. When many cards are needed, they
are usually printed.

IS-.

ILI..

Tiit fvlAAt:ing an miniature

GR-"\-YLEMES, -

or

It ~ common to close applicatioil!J Uke the foregoing with such expreMions
l our humble and obt. ttrrl., lour mo~t dutiful and obed;ent •ert1anl. Bu'
Jt l!eem.s to a .s that these phrases are not in the eplrit of oar political ln.stltutJom,
and sarnr of fiunkyism.
a.11

furinz been informed that a raca ncr for the ~ma­

of

tlie most

COJIUllOA

iiMb

of

.Rl:CEPTIO:'.'f CARDS.

t.ion
Principal hM ocx:urTa.I in P ublie School - - . I bey to otfer mrse.lf m a candidate. and tu send rou the eoclo5'ed t~timon i:ils from the

clergyman and other D irectors

~cimem

cards:-

of d1i;; D i.s triet.

While I feel that thae

caa ~ better for me th.an I can for mvM=I(, I T"enture to a~;l ore vou

thst should you honor me with your app0introen t, I shall stril"e to
ch.arge my duties wlh..'itlly, and sh.ill erer rems.in

dli-

tour obliged
LtrrJTU - - .

ll!rJ. lbulu .i. JJ~,
AT HOME,
Thundq, Dec.

~ from

45 llADLS-O:S

1 till S o'dock..

SQt:~

.nJu.

Juug €.

~t~ltt.ang,

AT HO.ll.E,
Friolay ~ 1-olT s, 19,
~.eorr

.. n-

\

Iii • .• - .

•~o....

I

/

227

226
r:.nTATIO:; CARDS.

MISS MERTON

Misses Templeton

ltequeat1 lhe pleature or your oornpa.111 at a L1u1uu

Request the pleasure of your company
on Friday evening, Dec. 27, 1867, at
8 o'clock.

.&ND HU1nc.u,. .ENTl&T.AISMl~T, on

1'hurada7

euning, Feb. !!7, 18G8, at 8 o'clock.

64 \VF.ST 35Tll 8.TREET.

ELM RIDGE.

Srn, Will yon do me the favor to dine with mo to-morrow, at thre~ o'clock,
in company with Col . .M--, and a few friends? ·
.
Yours, very truly,
A. B."
112 South M Street.
"MY

DEAR

"MY

DEAR

Sin, It will give me great .pleasure to dine with Y:ou to-morrow, at .~~ree

o'clock, as you kindly propose.

·

WEDDING-CARDS.
WEDDING UILLET.

ltr. anh

llrs. Jromub

~orbcn,

Ali' eiJQJMleb,
Wednesday .evening, Nov. 4, nt 8 o'clock.
.ltJLI.&.- A . BORDZft'.•

llir. 2' mrs. ~. iarlanb
Request the pleaeurc of your
company at the J\larrlngc
Ceremony of their daughter,
MARY A. HARLAND,

SILVER

WEDDING.

1843.
I

1868.

Q;\lA.'~ JlA;\, ~~t ~J.mtJ\l
AT HOME,

t

I

JOHN E. CAMPBELL,

TUESDAY EVENING, MAY

at SL John'• Church, Boone-

5, 8 O'CLOCK.

No Donations.

Tlie following additional notes explain tliemselves : -

Mrs. Jones request~ the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Smith's company, on
Thursday evening, 17th inst., at seven o'clock.
42 Walnut Street, Dec. 5."
"Mr. nnd Mrs. Smith accept, wit.11 pleasure, Mrs. Jones's kind invitation for Thursday evening, 17th inst.
10 .Myrtle A venue, Dec. 5."
"l\fr. nnd Mrs. Smith regret thnt it will not be in their power to accept
Mrs. Jones's kind invitation for Thursday evening, 17th inst.
lO _Myrtle Av., Dec. 6."
11

"The librarian of the Mercantile Library will please to send Mr. S. Logan, by the bearer, Macaulay's History of England.
15 Waverly Place, .July 2ith, 1809.
S. LooAN."
A note is frequently much better than a verbal message.
Mi~s Smith is ven• mnrh oblige<l to ~Ir. Thom~on for his mn!!'Tlificent
Christm11s present. Miss Smith sllonld hn.ve thanked Mr. Thomso~ sooner,
but she has been absent from home."
11

Ii

1,
!
j

,.

9~

D."

"Mr. Rector regrets thn.t he wn.s absent when Mr. Sanborn called, and
hopes that Mr. Sanborn will mention some time when it will be convenient .
. for him to meet Mr. Rector.
·
Selona, June 6th."
DISMAL SWAMP,

N .0. 1

Sept. 20, 1868.
HARPER BROTHERS,

Pearl Street, N. Y.

·'

GENTLEMEN, -

Eniilosed I send you seventy-five cents, for which. you
will please to send me, by mail, Dr. Kitchiner's " ·Directions for prolonging
Life."
Yours respectfully, : ,,, .. 1 · ·
. JAMES . BILIOUS.

ville, Mo., on Tue•day, Nov.
10, at 8 o'clock, P.H.

Yours faithfully,

" Andrew Millar sends his compliments to Mr. Samuel Johnson, with
the money for the last sheet of his Dictionary, and thanks God he has done
with him."
· 11 Samuel Johnson returns his compliments to Mr. Andrew Millar, and is
glad to find he has the grace to thank God for .any. t!:ting."
· ,. . .

JI@"" A note, receipt, draft, mortgage, or account, is as much a particular
kind and form of composition as a poem or an oration, and therefore properly
belongs to Composition; but as there is usually given as much of .thes,e things
in arithmetics as we could give, we shall omit such business forms.

1-. Wr&u "tO

iJ

7iiJlier. ·

--·

I. Inform him of your safe arrival at
achool;
detail what occurred on your journey; 3. the state of the
• · may
·weather; 4. the appearance of the country;• 5. what a 1terat10ns
have taken place in the school or play-ground, or in the adjoining premises, during vacation; 6. mention in what studies you are engaged, an<l
your desire to 9xccl; 7. express your gratitude to him for ,liis' past
care; 8. your determination to bo industrious; 9. conclude your letter
b,y your dutiful affoctio to him.
'
·
·
Q. Jfi·ite to your (Jrothers or siste1·s. l. Express your p}el!-sure in
writing-to them, an!l your liope tliat they are well ; 2. mention some

229

228
request you have to make of them; 3. ask them questions for news, and
about matters of interest to yo n; 4. state some anecdote that has particularly struck your attention in some of your lessons; 5. mention
any thing that may have occurred to yourself or your school-fellows;
6. express your love for your studies, and speak of the advantages of
education; 7. state what progress yon have made in your studies, null
what you hope to achieve by the close of the session.
l

a person ha" somet 11 - ·
say, he generally knows what it is about. In letters, particularl
we think the pupil shoultl be required to find imbjects anti matt
in his own little world of thought. If he can not show some orig
nality here, then there is very lit.tie prospect o · it..else~vhe-Fe. Th
following suggestions, however, may be useful: -You~u prol>abl
n materials for a letter, a any time, by turning your f 10ug 1
to your liabitation, stud~es, doings, health, companions, or circun
stances; the peculiar appearance and the remarkable occurrence
of the neighbor4oad i anr ren1arkable state of the weather, ~s
storm or a drought; your trouble& with yourself, your teachers, o
your companions; your plays, alllusements, and excursions; holidays, birtqdays, times for particular. kinds of labor~ as plowing
or harvQ!lttqg, and the various changes of the seaso11s ; the news
of tbe P.::i.y; and any serious loss or fortunate acquisition, especially
remarkable accidents. Observations Oil animals, plants, the sky,
the earth, ·the seasqns, the 1a 1~at~ons aQil achievcmen ts of pco.plc, their. Q!:!cupat~oqs anti conduct, aims and disappointments, dlspositiqlls alld artifices, the wisdom and the folly, the right and the
wrong, h1 actions and conduct, and the good aqd tpo bad fn thjng~,
will furnish inexhaustible .supplies of thought.
G'" TJie foregoing statements comprise the general list pf 11ou1'cea from
which moat of ihe letters now published have been pr.awn.
f}ueBtlons. - 'Vhat fa a Jetter? Under what four heads 11ro letters presented, In this book ? '\Vbat can you say about the Jtlnds of letters? 'Vhat can
you llnY about the parts of a letter? 'Vhat, about the style? 'Vhat can you
eny about cards? (The teacher should nsk questions mol'e minutely on the
several pnges, while -the pupils are passing over them.)

LESSON

LV.

A Figure· is a deviation from the ordinary _form,
construction, or application of words, for th~ sake of
brevity, force, or beauty.
'
. ·
Figures may be divided into three classes; figures
of ort.hograpliy, figures of syntax, and figures . of. rheiorw.
Figures of Orthography arc deviations · from the ordinary spelling or pronunciation of words:
·
Tho following are tho principal figures of this class : -

·

I. Aphwr'esis takes away a letter or syllable from the
beginning of a word.
.An apostrophe (') ls used to show the omission.

·

' ·' • ...

J·-

2. Syn'cope takes a letter or syllable from the middle.
3. Apoc'ope takes a lett~r or syllable from the end..:
4. Pros thesis prefixes a syllable.
·. · ? ..
5. Parago'ge annexes a syllable.
:·· ·
6. Tme'sis inserts a word between the parts. of a .. compound word.
. {_ . t !,
Ex. - 1, 'Gainst for against, 'tis for it is, I'm for I am.
· A ebort.encd word IA sometimes mnde n pnrt of an ncljolnlngword ;' and even

thle combination bas lJ!Jllll culled n tlgure, Symer 1 esi,s, tho.ugh _the,;~o~~ is. •_n ore
properly opplled ~poetry, when there Is no elision.
. ·
,
,

2. O'er for over, ne'er fq~ n,ever, red'ning for reddening. ·· '. ;
3. ltforn for morning, eve' for evening, Ben for Benjamin. · '.'

4. Adow11 for down, befopl.ed for Jooled, begilded (or gilded. '

~i Johnny ~or John, birdie for bird, withouten for withou,~. r ' \ •
6. " On wllidi side s'oever" fqr " on whichs~ver side; "tho live day
long" for " the livelong day.I'' I
1

' ·'

•

FJgures of Sypta~ ~re q~vi~ticms from the ordinary
...
· ·1 "
syntax or construction of words.
• The following

!lrC

the principlll figures ·of this class: -

. I. Ellip'sis is the omission of some of the wor<ls. ·
Ellipfsl11, .omlsslon of words; ellsiou, omission of letters.

230

231

2. Aposiope'sis is the leaving of s"omething unsaid.
3. Zeug'ma is a strained contraction of syntax.
4. Ple'onasm is emphatic superabundance of words.
5. Enal'lage is the use of one wor<l or form for another.
5. Hyper'baton is violent inversion.

•

Ex. -1. "The sky was clear, and the air [was] balmy." See p.
~08. 2. " tVlwm I - but first 'tis Lest the billows to restrain ." 3.
One or more 8cape-goats." "All of them knowing, and known by
our coachman." 4. "I saw it with my own eyes." "It sunk dow~
to. the very bottom." "Ile studied and studied allll studied but
failed at Inst." "Ono of the few, the immortal nnmes that' wcro
not born. to die." 5. "Methinks." "Thinks I to myse,lf." "Tho
swall~w smgs sweet from her nest in the wall." "And the idols are
br~ke Ill the temple of Baal." The teacher should explain all the foregoing examples fully, and also furnish additional illustrations.

Gra!~a~e;~~ 29~~on-School

Grammar, pp. 318-25' and Comprehensive

; 1. An Ar'chaism is an antiquated expression.
2. Mim'icry is the imitation of another person's improper use of language.
3. Alliteration is a pleasant combination of words that
begin with the same letter or letters.
Ex. -

1. " Thilk wight that has y-gazing been

Kens the forthcoming rod, I ween."

' i

I

2. Mns. GILPIN. "So you must ride on horseback after we." 3. "Round rugged rocks rude rugged rascals ran."
"Fieldsforeverji·esh, and groves forever green."
"Like a glow-worm golden in a dell of dew."
"Alike for feast and.f(qht prepared,
Battle and banquet both they shared."

C.

th Ou~ earliest poetry was RO constructed as to give pleasure from allite~ation
rn e r t ian from 1·hyme. Alliteration even now Is no contemptible eler~ient ·of
beauty in style, when It Is so natural that it seems to have fallen in the wr!Ler's
way • ..

Mimicry includes imitations of brogues and dialects. Archaism mimicry, antl alliteration are partly figures of orthography, partly of s~nta.x.

; 11
I

I

I

Questions. - "\Vhnt ts n figure? Into whnt classes are figures divided?
'Vhnt arc
figures of orthogrnphy? Des crluc ai>hmrcsls ,
· - syncope.
ti I
·
,-npocope;
- pros ies s ; - pnragoge ; - tmesls. \Vhnt are llgu res of syntair ? What 18
ellipsis ? - aposlopesls ? - zeugma? - pleonasm ? - enallage? _ hyperbaton ?
What ls an archaism? What Is mimicry? What Is said of alliteration?

LESSON

LVI.

Figures* . of Rhetoric are deviations from literal,
plain, or common language, for that which is more
pictorial or impressive.
The following are the principal figures o~ this class : -

l. A Sim'ile is an express comparison.
2. A .lflet'apbo1· is an implied comparison.
3. An Al'legory is continued metaphor, or a fictitious
stqry designed to teach moral or practical wisdom. ·
Allegories include also fables and parables.
4. A .Heton'ymy is a ,word used . for another, : from
some other relation than resemblance between the"''ubjects.
Tho most common instances of this figure are those in which tho
cause is put for the effect, the effect for the· cause, tho container for tho
thing contained; or the sign for the thing 'significd. ·
Tho transfer of an attribute to a related object may also be called
metonymy; as, "my adventurous song;" "his weary way;" ·~jovial.
wine;" "giddy hights;" '.'a criminal court.;" "an insane hospital."

· 5, A Synec'docbe is the name of a part applie~ to the
whole, or that of the whole applied to a part.
Syn.ecdoche Is simply the application of a word to more or less, of the same
thing, than the word strictly denotes.
-

6. Personijication endows objects with life or personal qu~lit~es.
., t
'

I

I

:

f'

.'

*

'

a .FORM of language, an emblem; SIMILE, likeness; METAPHOR,
transfer; ALLEGORY, speaking another tlting; METONYMY, change of names;
· BYNECDOCHE, , understanding one fliing witli another; ANTI"l"HESIB, setting ·
against; IRONY, dissembling; PARALII'SIS, passing by or over; ~YPERBOLE,
throwing beyond, overshooting; EUl'IIEMCSM, speaking well ;'" APOSTROPHE,
turning away; ONOMATOl'<EIA, making or coining words; ELLil'SIB ,' a leaving·
out; PLEONASM, more than enough; HYPERBATON, stepping over.
FIGURE,

232

233

Wl1en the grammatical properties of a word are changed by personification
or metonymy, tho figure is sometimes called SyllepBis; as, "Tho shi;1, with her
Bnowy sails." "Philip went uown to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ

The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof
were like the goodly cedars.'' -DIBLE. - See nls_o p. 102. The teacher
should select some good allegories, to be read and studied by the . pu~ils.
LwE. - " Life Is n. sea, - as fathomless,
,1
As wide, 11s terrible, and yet sometimes
, l . 11
As calm 11nd beautiful. The light of heaven
,.. : :
Smiles on it, and 'tis decked with every hue
Of glory and of joy; . Anon, dark .clouds :
Arise, contending winds of fate go.forth,
And Hope sits weeping o'er a general wreck."

unto them."

;

'

Ex. - 1. " The Assyrinn came down like the . wolf 011 the fold."
"My bosom, as the grave, holds all quenched passions." "'Mids~ denthshots falling thick and fast, as ligl1tni11gs from the mou11taz'11-cloud."· "My
woumf is not so wide as a church-door, nor so deep as a wel.l; but it will
do." "Too much government may be a greater evil than no government. The sheep are happier a111011y themselves than unde1· the care of the
wolves." "Christianity is to the soul what l1!1ht is to natw·e." ;, Not
e!Jer.I/ blr>.•som 71rod11ces ji·uit; nut every hope is realized." " Ile was
swifter than the .wind." "Life may be compared to a river." "Avarice
and the grave are never satisfied ." Most similes are expressed hy like
or as; but they may also be expressed in a variety of other ways, as the
foregoing examples show.
2. "In peace he was the gale of spring; in war, the mow1tain-slorm.''
"Her disdain stw1!1 him to the heart." "Tho statement is clear, and
the distinction is ta11.qible." "Life and death, my bane and antidote, are
lioth before me." "Death touched her veins with ice, and the ro.wi
faded." "Some mute, inglorious Jlfilto11 here may rest;" i.e., some
great poet like Milton. "'Tis the srmsr.t of life gives me mystical
lore." So, " the mornin!J of life,'' " the storms of life," " 0 world,
thy slippery turns!" "deep thought,"-" stony hearts,'' "heavy hearts,"
"overflowing hearts,'' "rosy checks,'' "the star-powdered ·galaxy,"
"night's clustering gems" [stars], " a my of hope," ".ftiglits of fancy," ." ebullitions of anger,'' "frowning precipices,'' "a ragged forest,''
"a s!tade of douLt,'' "emerald fields," "golden liarvcsts,'' "srmny smiles,"
"mountains fledg ed with pines," "to put one's nose into another's
Sometimes
affairs,'' arc all of them metaphorical expressions.
a metaphor runs through two or more words, or through the greater pnrt of n sentence; as, "Sin is a bitter sweet, and t!te fine colors
<!f lite serpent by 1w means make amends for t!te poison ef his sting." "Vhcn
metaphor extends beyond one sentence, it becomes allegory. Simile,
metaphor, and allegory are all founded on re.~Pmfilance, and therefore
they are closely allied. " He is like a wolf" - simile; " He is n wolf"
-metaphor. Rescmblnnce mny he in nppearnnce; nR, 11 ro.~.'/ d1,pths"
for sunset s!.·y: or it rnny be in rclntions; as, 11 the ke.IJ to nn arithmetic.''
3. " Thou hast brought a vine [the Jewish nation] out of Egypt:
thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou prcpnredst room
before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land.

4. "They have 1lfoses and the prop!tets;" i.e., their writings. 11 They
were put to the sword;" i.e., to death. " Gray !tairs should be respect·
ed;" i.e., old age. "He was the sigh of her secret soul;" i.e., the
youth for whom she sigl1cd in secret. "She writes a fair !tand." "There
is death in the pot;" i.e., something to cause death. ""\.Yc drunk but
one bottle;" i.e., the contents of but one bottle. "My son, give me thy
heart;" i.e., thy affections. "All Switzerland is· in the field;" ·i.e., all
lier fighting population. "Ile adclrcsscd the Chair;" i .e., . the ·president. "The kettle boils;" i.e., what is in it. " .The passive .voice reir.
resents the subject as acting;" i.e., what the subject denotes. , . ~·He
aimed nt the scepter;" i.e., the sovereignty. "That is Webster" (point7
ing to a portrait); i.e., a likeness of W cbstcr. "Do you belong to the
red rose, or to the white?" " The farmer left his plow, the blacksmith '
his anvil, the merchant his counter, and shouldered their muskets to . defend their liberty." 1
. •:
5. "Ile is gone ;to tea;" i.e., to supper. "Give us this .day ou~
daily bread;" i.e., our food. "This roef protects us;" i.e., this house.
"A life on · tl1e ocean wave, n. home on the rolling deep.'' "ll
hundred head of sheep.'' "A quick '. hand ·at work.'' ' "They
paid my price in paltry .gold;" i.e., , in money.
"True as their
steel; ." i.e., their swords. " Here was buried .: lVilliam : Jones; ~· i.e.,
the body of. " Tho Assyrian came clown like the wolf on tho fold.''.
One put for all. " ,So thought the countries of Demosthenes and the
Spartan; yet Leonidas is trampled by the timid slam." " Youth and
'beauty shall be laid in dust; " that is, the you113 and beautiful. The
. character or qualities of a person are of course a part of him.1 ."Tell
your mistress Ilc'r ,Jlfajcsty is here." "What will your lordslii'p have 1.".
" Ten tlwusand fleets sweep over thee ·in vain ; " i.e., a very large ~um;: •
her. " He remained silent, and thus wisely kept the foul within\"
,
• 1 6. "And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell." "The mountains
· saw thee, 0 Lord, an<l trcmLlcd.'' "The mountains looked on ~ Mam~

:mxrrc

235

' 234
thon, and Marathon looked on the sea." "There Honor comes a Jil·
. it breathes." " The' son
I I
the n1r
· g rim gray. " " 1~Wery fl· ower enJoys
.secured. in her cxistc11cc, s111ilcs nt the drawn dagger and defies it~
mint"
"G rcccc cnes
. to us f rom the convulsed, poisoned
'
·
lips of her
Demosthenes;
anti. Rome pleads with us in the mute persuasion of her
'
mangled Tully." "How docs God reveal himself in Nature 1 Sho
answers thco with loud voiCcs, and with a thousand tongues: God is
love ·" " Tl1e an!lry ocean ; " " t J1c tmrsty
1 •
ground ; " " the sullen sk · "
· morn ; " " e11vw1.
· 1s tune.
· " Personification is frequently
Y'
" the sn1 1·zmq
based on metaphor; and sometimes on metonymy or synccdochc.

· . Chan,qe tlie ~gurat1'.ve sentcncrs to plain, and the plain sentences to fig 11 mtwe i also mentwn the kind of fi!J11re, and w!ty; and complete t/1e u11.fi1~ished
sentences:- ·
·

1. Death lo~es a shining mark. (It frequently happens
~!mt the be~t and most gifted people die prematurely.) 2.
The good die first; and they whose Iiearts are dry as summer dust, btli'n to the socket. 3. She was the little Iamb
of the teacher's flock. 4. The Lord is my rock and my
fortress. 5. vVhy is <lust an<l ashes proud ? G. "\Vant of
intellect makes a village an Eden, and a college a sty. 7.
T~rn .wonderful eloquence of the orator so excited the patnotism of the people, that they rose from discontent into
rebellion. (The wonderful eloquence of the orator so enkindled the patriotism of the people, that the spark of discontent bu1·st into jiarnes of rebellion.) 8. A fire is kindled in these colonies which one breath of their king may
blow into such fury that the blood of all England can not
extinguish it.. 9. The beautiful vessel, with her sails spread,
passed us rap1.<lly, and 'vas soon out of sight. . . : wings
· · · f~de ... view . . . 10. The sun is beginning to adorn
tl~e distant mountains. . .. gild . . . 11. Our body is so
mcely formed that it is easily put out of order.
machine
.
12. Roses without thorns are the growth of paradise
alone'. ' 13. The pulse of freedom throbs through every vein
of our country. 14. They offered peace. . .. held out the
olive-branch . . . 15. Justly fearing the anger of his fel- ·
1 •••

low-citizens, he took every means to pacify their indign~-.
tion. . .. divert the storm. 16. Life is but trouble and
vexation, from the cradle to the grave: · 17. He is now enjoying the results of his devotion· to the cause. . .. reap-.
ing the fruits . . . 18. Green-backs will not pass away in
our day. She gave her heart, as well as her hand. . 19. He.
went to America, where a new opportunity was offered to
him for his enterprise. . .. field . . . 20. He is a disciple
of Bacchus. The fumes which arise from a he~rt boiling
over with vi~lent passions, never fail to darken . the understanding. 21. The career of many a conqueror has been
marked by cruelty. . .. path ..• stained .. ". blood. 22.
The moon unveiled her peerless light, and o'er . the . dark
her silv.e r mantle threw. 23. Religion alleviates the misfortunes of life, and imparts cheerfulness to old: age. ·• ...
disperses . . . clouds . . . sunshine .. ., , evening .. • ·· 24.
Anger is like . . . 25. Th~ tongue .is like . . . . 26 . . Blue
were her eyes as ... flax. · 27; Ye :;i.re the salt of the earth.
28. The atinosphere rises above us, with its cathedral dome.
29. The righteous shall flourish as . . . Youth is like ...
30. God said unto Abraham, Thy descendants shall be exceedingly numerous. . .. seed ... stars. 31. ·An ungrate"."
fol man is like . . . 32. Hope is like . . . . 33. Oh, :wilt
thou come at evening's hour to shed the tears of memory
o'er my narrow bed? · 34. He drank the .fatal cup. ' 35.
The hedges are white with May. ; 36.•. .. pure as th~ naked
heavens. 37. . . . as deep as . . • .. 38. . . . swift as ... •
39. . ... hard /as . . . 40. . .. .Jiirn coral. 41. ... like silver. ..42. . .. ' like . the leaves. . 43. Clouds black as ....
44. _This is the silent city. of the dead, covered with marble
~owers. 45. Men are April when they woo, December
when they are wed; and maids . are May when they are
maids, but the _sky changes when they are wives,. 46. I
· heard the roar of the waters, as they fell from rock to rock.
J

I

,

•

237

236
•.. voice ... danced . . . 47. Men of genius constantly
need the cherishing sunshine of public favor to make them
flower 'into full glory. 48. That gallant division swept
across the plain with the utmost vehemence, to meet the
foe. 49. The panic-stricken enemy dispersed, and fled like
50. They sank at once to the bottom of the mighty
waters. 51. Unsteady people are not apt to prosper. 52.
My sun has set. He is a rising sun. His sun is obscured
only by t.Qe clouds of em·y. 53. The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground. 54. TI1e splendor of l1is genius ilJuminates e.ery object it shines upon.
55. l\Inch rain has foUen to-day. . .. clouds ... garnered
fullness . . . 56. The offended Law draws the sword from
its scabbard, in l·engt>:u1ce against the n111rde1·er. 51. l\Iammon wins his way where seraphs must de~pair. 58. Crorrs
are ne>er the whiter for washing themselves. 59. There is
a devil in every berry of the grape. - Turlcis!i ProvedJ.
60. Ornament is but the gilded shore to a most dangerous
sea.
There's a dance of lca,·cs in that aspeJJ bower,
There's a titter of winds in that hecchen tree,
There's a smile on the frnit and a smile on the flower,
AnJ n laugh from the hruok that runs to the sea.
' Write or sdect sentences in eac11

ef u·T1icli sl1all be found

one or more

ef

the following words usedfig11ra.tfrely: -

Light, life, electric, gas, iron, liquid, thorn, rose, ruby,
]1eart, head, mother, launch, dig, butterfly, sinew, bud, fruit,
leaf, blmisom, root, star, gold, adamant, crystal, shark, vein,
viper, sun, darkness, forge, tinsel, pulse, pierce, carve, eat,
drink, angel, devil, heann, l1el1, bait, snare, sh'iile, frow1!,
relent, sweet, ordeal, ocean, thunder, 1ighti1ing, swamp,
snag, sail, sea, wreck, cmhroidcrcd, cnarnclcd, li9~1, tiger,
fox, sow, reap; liarvest, ant, breath, acrid, harsh, angry,
sharp, clear, heavy, tail, stream, deep, voluminous, extirpate,
implant, 'overflow, undermine, rise, fresh, scatter, droop.

Ex. - He was the life and light of the party • . "Dear to me as life and
light was niy sweet Highland Mary ."-BunNs.
_.

llfalce or find sentences in wliic!t the following subjects are personified: -

Liberty, lily, nature, earth, star, spring, winter, war,
daisy, cloud, virtue, v~ce, oak, bird, superstition, wind, river,
morning, night, health, pers~ cution, fanaticism.
Ex. - Liberty has established lier empire In the New World.

~The

foregoing ;hetorical figures nre chiefly pictorial or emblematic;
while most of the following are rather syntactical.
'
"

'i. Antitll'esis is the contrasting of different objects,
actious, qualities, or circumstances.
Par'adox is antithesis thnt amounts to an apparent contradiction.
A l'ar'nllcl is an nntithcticnl mode of presenting t11e points of ~if­
ferencc nml resemblance between two kindred subjects.

S. I'rony is the sneeriug . use of words ,with a contrary meaning.
9. ParaliJJ'sis is the pretended omission or conccalme11 t of what is thus really suggested and enforced . . ·
10, IIyper'IJole is exaggeration.
It usually represents thi11gs as greater or less, better or worse, than
they really are.
.
11. Climax means ladder. It is a gradual climbing,
or rise of thought, from things inferior to greater 01;
better. When reversed, it is called antf-climax. ; , : Enumeration is nkin to climax.

, 12, Allusion is th~ use of an expression that recalls ·
incidentally so.m e interesting fact, cu,s tom, writin~, ..o!'.
'
I
,
saying.
·
· , · ·• '· ·
Par'ody is a c~ntinu~d allusion or resemblance in style..
,,
I

"

A Pun is a play on ,. the sound or meanings of a word. '
' Ex. - 1. "Sin le or swim, ' live or die, I give my hand nnd hear~ to,
this vote."
vanished."

;, At his touch crowns crumbled, beggnrs reigned, systems
'
'
.
,,
" Ho hath cooled my friends, and heated mme enemies.

.

240

241

bine<l with i~o~y ~r hyhe.rhole. .Sm·casm, in verse, is called sat.ire; but
the worcl_ so~trt1:u.l 1s applied to enhcr verse or prose, and sometimes the
word. sat1~e is also 11pphcd to a moderately sarcastic prose sketch or to
a series ot sarcasms. The following is one of the keenest sar<'l!sms we
lu~vc ever set;n: "We Jive in an !1ge in which patriots withhol1l Rily
!l1111g h~1t their ton!Jues, ~eep any th mg except their word, and lose nothing patiently except then· character."

qncstions which, for the snke of greater effect, are used iu stead of direct statements. Interrogation fixes the attention more strongly on
some important point than a simple declaration woultl ; and sometimes
it. implies a defiance to the adversary or hearer, to deny if he can.
3. "Dr. Caius. What business could the honest man have in my
room! " i.e., " The honest man could have no business in my room."
"Oh I that I could return once more to peace and innocence I : that I
hung an infant on the breast I that I were born a beggar- a peasant
of the field ! I would toil till the sweat of blood dropped frc:im my brow,
to purchase the luxury Of one sound sleep, the rapture ' of a · single
tear I " · There is a peculiar elegance in the use of this figure, when the
speaker means to show that the object produces at least some interest
or excitement in his own feelings, and should be moro highly. appreciate1l hy other people than it is. In the following couplet the author slyly
intimates that there are persons who underrate thii excellence of water,
as a beverngc ; "How sweet from the green, mossy brim to receive it,
As poised on the curb it inclined _to my lips! "

· 14:. Intel'l'Ogation is a mode of strengthening a statement, by an dppeal in the form of question.
15. Exclamntion is usually an abrupt or broken mode
of i;peceh, designed to express more strongly the emotions of the speaker.
16, ;\J)OS't.ro1,he is a sudden turning-away, in the
fullness of emotion, to address some absent person or
inanimate object.
·
17. Vision 1·epresents something that is past, future,
absent, or simply imagined, as if it were really pres.en t.
18. Onomatopre'ia is such an imitation in the sound
of the words as may correspond with the sense or suggest it. Pope says, "The sound should seem ·an echo
to the sense."
Ex. - I. "He does not always keep T'ery exact accounts;" i.e., he
cheats when he can. ... He appropriated the money to his own use; "
i.e., he stole or embezzled it. "He is not very prompt in meeting J1is
pecuniary engagements;" "He never pays his debts." "Yon Jahor
under a mistake;" "You lie." "She cert.'linly displays ns little ,·ni1ity
in regard to her personal appearance l\S nny young Indy I e\•er snw;"
"She is an intolerable slattern." In the Southern States, slaves were
usually called servants, in polite conversation. Cushi did not say to
David, "Absalom is kiUed;" but he avoided wounding the feelings of
the father as much as possible, by saying, "Ma9 all the enemies of the
'fdng be as tltat youn7 man is."
2. "Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction?" i.e.,
"We can not gather strength by irresolution and inaction." "Is life
;o dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased nt the price of chains and
;Javery 1" Not every question belongs to this figure; but only those

4. "Den th is swallowed up in victory. 0 Death I where is thg sti~g f
0 Grave l where i11 th.If viclor9 f" "But-ah I-him I the first great martyr in this great cause I him I the premature victim of his own selfdcvoting heart! .
him I cut off by Providence, in the hour of
overwhelming anxiety and thick gloom, falling ere he saw the star of
his country rise! how shall I stru_ggk with the emotions that stifle the utter- .
ance of thy name! - Our work may perish ; but thitie shall endure.! this
monument may molder away, but thy memor9 shall not fail!"
5. "Frederick immediately sent relief; and, .in an instant, all
Saxnny ilf overflowed with armed men." "Soldiers f from yonder pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you ! " "Advance, then, ye future
· generations! We would hail you as yon rise in your long succession !
. . . We bid you welcome in this pleasant land of the Fnthers."
6. "Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, wild
horse, wild huntsman, with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo,
that made the forests ring I "
11
On a sudden open fly,
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound,
Th13 jnfernnl doors, and on their hinges grate
Harsh thunder." - MILTON.
·
"Heaven opened wide
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound
On golden hinges turning." - Mn.TON.
16

......- -............._...,,,_._ _ __ _ __.,._ _ _ _"'""!l

·---~-~~-~-

238

239

" Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; tl10n, ster11, obdnrnte, flinty,
rough, remorseless." "As when a hnshand or n lapdog dies." "Tho
child is father of the man." (Paradox.) "The legendary age is a past
that was never present." "The favorite has no friend." " Every man
would live long; but no man would be old." "Verbosity is cured by
n witlc vocabnlary." " The notions of Dryden were formccl by com·
prehensive speculation; those of l~ope, by minute observation. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment; Pope, with perpetual delight."
( Parnllel.)
" T11e desolntor desolate,
The victor overthrown;
Tho nrhitnr of othor~' fnto
A suppliant for his own." - llvno~, Ode on Napoleon.

I defy the government! I defy their whole phalanx I" "When virtuous notions nrc prncticed, they become easy ; and ·when they become
easy, they afford pleasure; nnd when they afford pleasure, they are <lone
frequently; and when they are done frequently, they are confirmed by
habit· nnd confirmed habit is a kind of second nature." - Seep. 178. ·
A~-ri-C1.1MAX: "Great men - rmch as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Aaron Durr, Arnold, and the friend of my. worthy opponent."
. .·
·
Hood cnlls a giraffe an anti-climax.
6. "Give them Saratoga in New York, and we will give them Yorktown in Virginia." " When you go into the museum, be Argus, but
not lJriare11s." " The excesses of our youth are drafts upon our old
ngc, pn.ynhlo about thirty yenrs l\ftcr <lnto." 11 It teaches them to imitate those saints on .tl1e Pension List, that are like the lilies of the
field : they toil not, neither do they spin, and yet are arrayed like Solo·
mon in his glory." '

2. To call a fool n Solomon, or to praise what we mean to disparage,
is irony. " Cry aloud, for he is a god." "And they are all honorable
men." "He saved others; himself he can not save." "Have not the
Indians been ·kindly nm! jnstly treated 1 Have not the temporal
things, the vain baubles and filthy lucre of this world, which were
too apt to engage their worldly nnd selfish thoughts, been benevolently
tnkcn from them ; and have they not in stead thereof been tanght to
set their nffcctions on things above?" Irony is the language of scorn,
and becomes most sarcastic when the speaker seems to adopt the real
thoughts or feelings of the person nttacketl.
3. "I will not call him villain, because it would he unparliamentary ;
I will not call him.fool, because he happens to be Chancellor of the l~x­
chcquer." "Your idleness, not to mention your impertinence and dishonesty, disqualifies you for . bu~iness." "Let me not think - Frailty,
thy name is woman."
4. " Brougham is a thrmderbolt." " He was the owner of n piece of
land not larger than a Lacedremonian letter." "That follow is so tall he
doesn't know when his feet are cold." "Some Curran, who, when
thrones were crumbled, anti dynasties forgotten, might stand the landmark of his country's genius, rearing himself amid regal ruins and national dissolution, a mental pyramid in the solitude of time, beneath
whose shade things might molder, and around whose summit ete~nity
must play."
"Here Orpheus sings; trees, moving to t.110 sound,
Start from their roots, nn<l form a shade around."

. 5. "The stream of literature has swollen into n torrent - augmented into a river- expnndcd into a sea." "Herc I stand for impeachment or trial I I dare accusation I I defy the honorable gentleman I

PARODY.

"When In 1lcnth I shRll calm recline, "When In jail I shall calm recline, ·
o bear rny h<·nrt to my mlstreJa
0 bear my coat to some pawp·b!okcr
denr;

near;

Tell her It lived upon smiles and wine Show him how styUsh the gilt button• shine,
Of the brightest hue, white It llnAncl ask him a price that's not too
·
dear."
gered here. '. '
l\[oORE.
REVIEW.

PuN. - "The sutlers," says a newspaper, "are about to be · organized into a military ~o,mpany . We rejoice to h·ear it; fo~ we think · if
they were thoroughly organized in one body, no _enemy could withstand
their cfw.1·_qes I" "A certain lieutenant," says Hood;" was so fond ,of
port that he made a JlOrt-holc of his mouth, and sometimes took in more
I
port than was 710rtable. " . ,
.
., '.• · • •
.
• •
1
"Aueieut m:iiden lady anxiou!.'ly remarks,
That there must be peril 'mong so ~any 8)1arks; ,
. 1 . •• , 1
. Roguish-looking fellow, .turning to the stranger, · . ,, . , " '
Says it's his opinion she is out of danger." - Sax.e. .
Sometimes : both ' meanings. ~f the ;ord are In f~r~~ ~t . on~e; as; " Cold
• ·' ·
· ·
11prinkling hardens both men and cabbnge." - RICHTER.

Allusion, hyperbole, and irony are freq_ue.n ily based on metaphor. ...
\

•

/

'i

'

'

''

1 I

~

\

, I

•

"

1

~

13. Eu'1•llemism is a softened ~o.de of speech. · for

what would be disagreeable or offensive if told in ,the
plainest lang~age.
\ ··
Sarcasm, on the contrnry, is a ccnsorio~1R rnocl~ of sp~cch, designed
to insult or mortify, if not degrade, the subject of it. It is often com-

242

243

"When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw,
The line too labors, and the words move slow." - PorE.

can ~10ld fire in his hand by thinking of ice, and no one
feels his hunger appeased by thinking of a feast.

To this figure may also be referred such new-coined expressions as
bamboozle, skedaddle, scalawag. "Now she gallivants it with another."
"He offered me the whole c11poodle for three hundred dollars." " I
menu that curve, llnsh, fl ourish, - circu111be11dib11s - if you plcnso -

•1

I

which he always sticks to his name."
Euphemism is most frequently based on circumlocution; sometimes
on synecdoc,he, metonymy, metaphor, or allusion . Interrogation and
exclamation are kindred figures, and sometimes they arc associated
together. Apostrophe 11s1111lly implies vision; anti both these figures
are so closely nllied to pcrso nilicntion as to be frequently blended with
it. Interrogation, exclamation, vision, and apostrophe have all a ten·
dency to hyperbole.
Change the following sentences by substituting euphemisms : -

He was drunk. She is a dirty housekeeper. Jack is a
coward anc.1 glnttou. I hate to cat such slop for soup. He
was kicked out of his nest. H e looks rather red about the
gills; I guess he is a good <lcal of a fish. He li es, ch eats,
and steals. That is a horse of another color. Money
makes the mare go. This room . . . I won't be seen trotting round with such a rascal. "That Educational .llfonthly," said he, " is one of the meanest, dirtiest, most shallow
and pretentious of periodicals."
A woul<l-ue satiriHt, a hired hulfoo11,
A monthly scribbler of some low lampoon,
Comlcmned to drudge the meanest of the mean,
And furbish falsehoods for a magazine,
Devotes to scandal his congenial mind ;
Himself a Ii ving libel on mankind.
Clfange the foregoing lines Into milder prose.

Change tltefollowi11.? sentences into lite illterro_r1 ativefonn: -

'.

I

:.

If God be for us, no one can be against us. There was
not a single reason advanced then, which does not h old good
now. No one would believe such a staterrtent. This is all
you have, and even this you offet to a stran ger. No one

The hawthorn bush gives a sweeter shade
To shepherds looking on their silly sheep,
Than doth a rich embroidered .canopy
To kings that fear their subjects' treachery.
Change the following sentences into the exclamatory form : -

Night is beautiful. The moonlight sleeps sweetly on yonder bank. 'rhe scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart.
Davi<l. Barton was a powerful man. O, then, it is joy to
walk at will upon the golden harvest hill. 1'he taste of
young potatoes was delicious when we got them; and
th ere was a jubilee when we were permitted to pull the
young corn for roasting-ears. Well, to be sure, I have
fagged through much; the only wonder is, that one head
can contain it all. Thou canst not command the Lightnings, that th ey may go, and say unto thee, " Here we
are."
Make or find sentences in each of which one
apostrophized: -

ef

the following subjects is

Sun, victory, home, eternity, death, sleep, night, moon,
morning, stars, memory, mirth, happiriess, hope, melancholy; bright <lay; towering pines.
Ex. - 0 sun I tell me whence comes thine endless stream of light, which
envelops the earth with an ocean of glory?
"0 sun, how I hate thy b.cams I"- MILTO!f.

Questions. -'Vbat are figures of rhetoric? What 18 s aid of simile?metaphor ?-allegory ?-metonymy? - synecdoche ?-personification? How
are the foregoing figures distinguished from those which follow?
"'What Is said of antithesis ?-paradox ?-parallel ?-Irony ?-parallpsls?
- hyperbole? - climax? - anti-climax? - enumeration? - allusion?-:-- parody?- pun? ..
·
What Is said of euphemism ?-lnterr9gatlon? -exclamation ?-apostrophe ?-vision ? - onomatoproia?
~Tho teach er himself can ask questions more minutely, whllo the pupils
are passing over the pages; and we deem It unnecessary to give any more questions, for surely bot.h teach e r and pupils should now be able to dispense with further assistance of this kind.

245 •

244
LESSON

·,1

LVII.

Some of the figures seldom run beyond a word or sen·
tence. Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, simile, and euphemism are of this character. Others may extend through
a paragraph, a sketch, an entire discourse, or an entire book.
The allegory seems to have the greatest capacity of this
kind, for we find entire books of it; as, Bunyan's Pilgrim's
Progress. Vision, apostrophe, exclamation, interrogation,
hyperbole, and the higher kinds of personification, imply a
state of feeling so elevated that it can not be sustained
long; and hence they seldom extend far. A lower kind of
personification is generally blended with allegories. Climax,
antithesis, and irony are found most frequently in paragraphs, though they sometimes run through entire sketches.
The following are specimens of extended figures : -

Simile.
1;

'Ji

Ii

l

·1,
..

J.

I

.I

I
'I

i

"Law is like a contra-dance; people arc led up and down in it
till they are tired. Law is lilce a book of surgery: there are a great
many desperate cases in it. Law is like physic: they that take the least
of it are best off. Law is like a new fashion: people arc bewitched to
get into it. Law is also like bad weather: most people are glad when
they get out of it. Law is law; and as in such and so forth, hereby
and whereby, and aforesaid, provillcd always, nevertheless, notwithstanding, wherefore, whichsocver, and whereas." - STEVENS.
"As many arrows seek n common mark,
As m1i11y ways .meet in n sing-le town,
As many fresh streams melt in one salt sen
As many lines close in the dial's center; '
So many a thonsand actions, once afoot,
End in one purpose." - SHAKESPEARE.

Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.
1. "Why, whnt i" mnn 1 n. !]nickcnr<l lnmp of cnrth,
A feaRt for wonns, n b11hblc full of hrcnth,
A looking--g-lnss for grief, a flnsh, a minntc,
A painted tomh with putrefaction in it." - QUARLES.
2. A SUNSET. - "The clonds were standing round the setting sun
Like gaping cnves, fnnt.n st.ic pinnacles,
Citadels throbbing in their own fierce light,

Tall spires that came and went like spjres of flame,
· Cliffs quivering with fire-snow, and penks
Of piled-up 11orgco11sncss, nnd rocks of tiro
A-tilt and poised, bnre benches, crimson sens:
All these were huddled in thnt dreadful [glowing] west,
All shook an<I trembled in unstea<lfast light,
And from [through] the center blazed the angry (glorious] sun."
A. SMITH.

Allegory.

I. "From the side of a mountain there flowed forth a little Rivulet.
Its voice was scarcely heard amid the rustling of the leaves nnd grass
nround; nnd its shallow and narrow stream might be overlooked hy
tlic traveler. This brook, although so small, wns inspired with a proud
spirit, and murmured ngainst the decree of Providence, which had cast
its lot so lowly.
" 'I wish I were a cloud, to sail nil day through the heavens, painted so beautifully us those lovely shapes m·e colored, am! never descending again in showers ; or, at least, I wish I were a river, performing
some useful duty in the worltl. Shame on my weak waves and unregar<lcd bubbling I I might as well have never been, as to be puny,
· insignificant, and useless.' 'Vhcn the brook had thus complained, a
tall hcnutiful flower, that bent over its bosom, replied, " ' Thon art in error, brook. Puny and insignificant thou mayst
be; bnt useless thou art not, for I owe half of my beauty, perhaps my
life, to thy refreshing waters. The plants adjacent to thee are greener
and richer than the others. The Creator has gi,·en thee a duty, which,
thongh humble, thou must not neglect. Besides, who knows what may
be thy future destiny ? Flow on ! I beseech thee.'
"The brook heard the rebuke, and danced along its way more cheerfully. On and on it went, growing broader and broader. By and by
other rivulets poured their crystal waters into it, and swelled its deepening bosom, in which already began to appear the fairy creatures of.
the wave, darting about joyfully, and glistening in the sun. ·As its channel grew wider and wider, and yet other branches came gliding into it,
the stream began to assume the importance of a river, and boats were
launched on it, and it rolled on in a meandering course through a teeming country, freshening whatever it touched, and giving the whole scene
n new charnctcr.nnd bcnnty. Ilut us it moved on now in n111jcsty and
pride, the sounds of its gently heaving billows formed thcmscivcs into
the following words : " 'At the outset of life, however lmmble we may seem, there may
be in store for us grent and unexpected opportunities of doing good
and· of being great. In the hope of these we should ever pass on

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without despair or doubt, trusting that persevernnce will bring its
own reward. How little I dream ed, when I first stnrted on my course,
what purposes I was destined to fnlfill I ·what hnppy beings were to
owe their bliss to me! 'Vhat lofty trees, what velvet meadows, what
golden harvests, were to hail my career I Let not the meek and lowly
despair - Heaven will supply them with noble inducements to virtue.'"
2. On a warm summer morning, a gay little Fly
Was dancing and buzzing about in the sky.
"See, see!" said this little Fly, "what I can do:
While I dance on my wings, I can sing with them too ! "
J,ust then from a cloud, that was passing on hig-h,
.I< ell a lnrge crystal raindrop, nnd swnllowelf the Fly.
"Oh, oh l" sni<l the little Fly, "whnt shnll I tlo 1
'Tis the strangest cold shocking thing ever I knew!"
Bnt the drop with the Fly fell and lodired on a flower
vVhile the thunder-cloud burst, and cn~1e down in I\ ;!tower.
"Oh, oh!" snid the Fly, "this colt! drop clings like g-l11e •
I would rather have 110 wings than struggle with two.'' '
The flower wns a rose he ndin~ over a br~ok ,
Into which with a rose-lenf the drop the wind shook.
Now ngnin said the lit.tie :F ly, "What ~hall I rlo 1
My wings 1111<! my body urc wet through Ullll through.''
Awny rau the little brook faster than ever,
And carried the leaf, drop, and Fly to the river.
"Oh , oh!" said the little Fly, "what shall I do'?
'Vhere am I? where going 1 I wi sh that I knew.''
But the river rolled on with a mii.rhty commotion
And hurried the leaf, drop, and Fly to the ocean.'
"Oh, oh ! " said the Iitt.le Fly, "what shall I do'?
All the world's turned to water - there's naught else in view."
Then there came n grent fish, with a fierce-looking eye,
And he snapped at the drop for the sake of the ]<~Jy.
"Oh, oh!" said the little Flv, "what shall we do'?
If the fish swallows you, h·e will swallow me too.''
But n Sunhcnm, who saw what the mntter was there,
Drank the drop ! and the Fly was as free as the air.
"Now, now!" said the little Fly, "see what I'll do!"
So he shook his light wings, and away then he flew.
ADAPTED.

To console the mourners In n eaRc of severe bereavement by d eath, Spur·
gcon Introduced the following ndmlrnblo parable Into the fmwrul sermon: -

3. "A certain nobleman had a ~pacious garden which lrn Jell; to the
of a faithful servant, whose delight it was to trnil the creepers along
the trellis, to water the seecls in the time of drought, to support the
stalks of the tender plants, and to do every work which could render
l'llre

..

the garden a Paradise of flowers. One morning the servant rose with joy,
expecting to tend his beloved flowers, and hoping to find his favorites
increased in beauty. To his surprise, he found one of his choicest beauties rent from its stem. Full of grief and anger, he hurried to his felJow-ser~ants and demanded who had thus robbed him of his treasure.
They had n~t done it, and he did not chnrge them with it; hut he found
no s~lnce for his grief, till one of them remarked, ' My lorcl was walk·
ing in the garden this morning, and I saw him pluck the flower, an.d
cnrry it away.' Then, truly, the gardener found he had no cause for his
trouble. He felt that it was well his master had been pleased to take his
own; nnd he went away smiling at his loss, because his lord h11d taken
delight in the flower.
.
" So," said the preacher, turning to the mourners," you have lost one
whom you regard ed with much tender affection. The bonds of endearment have not avniled for her retention upon earth. I know your
wounde1l feelings, when, in stead of the lovely form which was the embodiment of all that is excellent and amiable, you behold nothing but
ashes nm! corruption. But remember, my beloved, the Lord hath done
it. He hath removed the affectionate daughter, the inestimable friend.
I say a~ain, remember your own Lord . hnth done it: therefore do not
murmur, or yield yourself to an excess of grief."
Figures like the foregoing have the furce ef argument. When a speaker
can find such excellent figures, he can hard1y choose any other mode of expression tlmt is equally powerful.

-write an allegory on human life, presenting it as a river,
the journey of a day, , a year, or a tree. So, describe a
ruined mind as a haunted house ; - a city as a bee-hive;the North and the South as two neighboring farmers; John Bull and Brother Jonathan as father and son.
·what can you say about the Hill of Science ? - the Paradise of Fashion ? -· the Paradise of Fools ? - the ,Empire
of Poetry?
Write an allegory about Truth and Falsehood; -Death
and Life;- Industry and Indolence; - Prid~, Poverty, and
li'ashion, as trying to keep house together.
.(l(il'"' Wo have preferred to give occaslonnlly subjects on which great authors
have nlready written. 'fhc teacher can refer to such compositions In assisting
his pupils, and he should reaJ them to the cluse after they have tried their skill.
It ls highly beneficlnl to all learners to see in whnt they fall, and how any one
bas done the work better.

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Personlflcatlon.
I. T1rn CLouo.
"I b~ing fresh showers for the thirsting flowers,
1< rom the sea 1111d the streams ;
I bear light shade for the leaves when laid
In their noondny dreams.
From my ·wings are shaken the dews that waken
The sweet birds every one,
When rocked to rest on their mother's breast
As she dances about the sun.
'
I wield the flnil of tl1c lashing hail
Anti whiten the g-rccn plni11 s m11icr;
And then aguin 1 disso lve it in min
And laugh ns I pnss in thunder.'"- SnELr,ET.
Tho teacher should read the entire poem to his class, and similar ones from
the same author.

'.rho following Is n pithy ~pcclmcn of tho lower klrul of pcrRonlflcnUon :2. "On the limb of nn onk sat n jolly old crow,
And chatted a way with gle,e - with gle,e,
As he saw the old farmer go out to sow;
And he cried, 'It is all for me -for me I
'Look, look, how he scn.ttcrs his seed around
He is wo111.lerful kiud to the poor-the poo~ I
1f he'd empty ~t down in n pile ,on the ground,
I could find it much better, Im su1·e - I'm sum I
'I've lenrncd nil tho tricks of this wonclerfnl mnn
\Vho has such n regnrd for the crow - the crow'!
That he lays out his g-round in u rc"ular plan
And covcr::1 his corn in a row -a"row I
'
'He mns.t have n very great fancy for me;
He tncs to en tmp me enou!fh - enou.1lt;
Ilut I measure the di stnnce ns well ns he,
And when he comes near, I'm off - I'm off I' "

"Write a similar sketch, in prose, about a flock of blacka fox.
-irils; - an opossum;
Represent a worn-out clock as giving a history of itself,
and of the family to which it belonged; -write a similar
sketch about a shoe, adding a moral; - a Bible; - a caged

•

bird, detailing its hardships; - a wild-goose, with reference
to her migrations; - a horse, showing ' man's cruelty; a set of new brass buttons, one giving an account of themselves; - a similar history of a book;- a dollar, with lmmorous descriptions of persons ; - so, a looking-glass ; - a
cannon, brought back from the war; - one of the giant
trees of California, describing the · historical ages through
which it has lived.
'¥hat can you say about a discontented pendulum? a voice from tho tea-kettle? - the worm of the still? •
the tow1"-pump, or a spring of pure, fresh water?
Antlthcsls, parallel.
I. "Talent is somctl1ing ; but tnct is every thing.

Talent is power,
tact is skill; talent is weight, tact is momentum; talent knows what to
do, tact knows how to · do it; tnlcnt makes a man respectl\ble, tact
makes him respected; talent is wealth, tact is ready money. :for all
prncticnl purposes, tnct carries it ngainst talent ten to one. It is not ·
the sixth sense, but the life of all tho five." ·
The following speech, which Is rather In the style of parallel, wns ad·
dressed by a Seminole chief to Gen. Jack.:son :2. "You have arms, and so have we; yon have powder and lend, and
so have we; yo1i hnvc 1T)en, qncl so hnve we; your men w~ll fight, and
so will ours till the Inst drop of the Semino.le's blood has moistenecl .the
dust of his hunting-grounq I"
The following Is an extr11ct from one of the best parallels \n our langqng~: 3. " The style of Dryden is capricious and varied; ihqt qf fope is
cautioµs and uniform. Dryden oheys the motions of hjs pwq rrilnd;
fope constrains hi~ mind to his· rules of composition. Dryden ls some·
times vehement uml rapid j Pope is always smooth, uniform , and gen·
tie. Dryden's page is a naturnl field, rising into inequalities, npd
diversified by .t he varied exuberan·ce of abnnclant vegetation; Pope's is
1
a velvet lawn I shaven
by the scythe, and leveled by the rollcr. ' t'
I
Jlallcck's Dozznrls ts constructed throughout on n skeleton of nntltheela: 4. "At midniirht, in hi~ irnarded tent, ·
The Turk was drenrning of the hour
When Greece. hl'r knee in suppliunce bent,
Should tremble at his power :

251
In dreams, through camp and court, he bore
The trophies of a conqueror;
In dreams his song of triumph heard;
Then wore his monarch's signet-ring;
Then pressed that 111011nrch's throne - a king;
As wild his thoughts, and gay of wing,
As Eden's garden bird.

..

"At midnight, in the forest shades,
Ilozzaris ranged his Suliotc band,
True as the steel of their tried blades,
Heroes in heart and hand.
·
There had the Persian's thousands stood,
There had the glad earth drunk their bloo<l
011 0111 l'l11t.ic11's d1ty;
And now there brcat.hcd that haunted nir
The sons of sires who conquered there,
With arm to strike, and soul to dare,
As quick, as for as they," etc., etc.

•

llf per bole.
I . " To see Niagara, you buy eleven silk dresses for. your wife, and
six shirts for yourself. You then get all the ready money you have,
borrow all your friends have, and make arrangements for unlimited
credit at two or three good solvent banks. · You then take six trunks,
some more money, a nurse, n colored servant, some more money, and
then, after getting some more money, and extending ·your credit at
one or two strong b:inks besides, you set ·o ut. It is better, if possible,
just before you start, to mortgage your homestead, and get some more
money!"

2. "Grent western waste of hottom land,
Flat a~ a puncukc, rich ns grease, .
Where big as toads the s~all gnats stand,
Aud ' skeetcrs ' are as big as geese.

0 lonesome, windy, grassy plain,
Where buffaloes and snakes prevail;
The first with drendful-looking face,
The last with dreadful-sounding tail.

Study carefnlly the entire poem, nnd point out tbe figures In It.

•,'

1

Contrast the mouse with the elephant; - the hummingbird with the eagle ; - the peafowl witl1 the mocking-bird;
- the oak with the pine ; - the rose with the lily; - the
hog with the sheep; - oxen with horses; - books with
paintings; - summer with winter; - spring and autumn;
- heat and cold; - health with sickness; - talents with
money; - land with water; - heaven and earth; - masters and servants ; - wealth with poverty; - peace with
war; - temperance with intemperance; - country and
city; - memory and hope ; - life and death ; -youth with
age ; - the 'Career of the industrious boy with that of the
indolent boy; - man with the inferior animals.
Ex. -The mouse ls the smallest quadruped; tlie elephant Is tlie largest. The
mouse Is found In almost every part of the world; the elephant is found only In
tropical regions. The mouse Is quick and nimble In Its movements; the elephant le comparatively slow nnd heavy. Tho mouse Is useless; the elephant is
useful.

vVrite a parallel between any two boys or girls in your
cla.ss ; - between vVashington and Bonaparte; - between
New York and Pennsylvania; -between any other two
States, or between any two cities or villages ; - between
the torrid zone and the temperate zones; - between music
and painting.

I'd rather live on Campbell's Rump,
And he a Ynnkee-Doodle beggar,
Than where they never see a stump, ·
And shake to death with constant 'agur.' "
~

Study Pbilllps's panegyric on Bonaparte.

vV rite one or more sentences of hyperbole, about the
weather ; - a procession ; - a storm ; - darkness; - . morning · - perseverance · - a beautiful lady; - an eloquent
'
'
orator; - a proud man; - a banquet; - a neglected kitchen; - a thirsty person; -the fruit on a tree; - a conflagration.
Climax.

.

" Poets and philosophers have delighted to compare the course of
human life ,to a riv.er; perhaps a still apter simile _might be found in t!1e
history of a glacier. Heaven-descended in its origin, it yet takes its
mold and conformation from the hidden womb of the mountains that
brought it forth. At first soft and ductile, the mass acquires n character and firmness of its own, as an inevitable destiny urges it onward
in its career. Jostled and constrained by the crosses and ineqnnlities
of its prescribed path, hedged in by impassable barriers which fix limits
to its movements, it yields groaninl! to its fate, and still travels forward
seamed with the scars of many a conflict with opposing obstacles. All

252
this while, though wasting, it is renewed by an unseen power; it evaporates, but is not consumed. On its surface it bears the spoils which, d11r. ing the progress of its existence, it has mnde its own, - often weighty
burdens devoid of beanty or value, hnt sometimes precious masses
sparkling with gems or with ore. Having at length nttained its greatest width and extension, aild commanding admiration by its beauty and
power, the vital springs begin to fail; waste predominates over supply :
it stoops into decrepitude, drops one by one the burdens which it had
borne so proudly nloft, nnd approaches dissolution. Bnt in being
resolved into its elements, it takes all at once a new, disern hnrrnssed, and
livelier form : from its wreck arises 'another, yet the same,' - a nohle,
full-botlied, arruwy stream, which lenps rejoicing over the ohstncles t.hat
had once hemmed it in, and hastens through fertile volleys to a free existence, and a final union in the ocean with the boundless nm! infinite."
FounEs.

Enumeration.
"The horrid crags by toppling convents crowned,
The cork-trees hoar that clothe the shaggy steep,
The mountain-rnoss by scorching skies hnbrowned,
The sunken glen whose sunless shruhs must weep,
The tender 11zurc of the unrnfficd deep,
The orange tints that gild the greenest hough,
The torrents that from cliffs to valley leap,
The Yine on high, the willow hranch helow,
Mixeu in one mighty scene, with vnried beauty glow."
Q- In arranging the parts of a sentence or sketch, It Is generally best, so
far as the order of time and place will allow it, to place what Is more Important
or Interesting after what Is less so; and most writers eutlenvor to nrrnnge ·the
parts of their compositions so that the best things may come In townr<l the close.

Arrange the parts in t!te form

of climax : -

1. vVe have prostrated ourselves at the foot of the
throne - we lrnve nmwnstrated ~we h:we petitioned !
2. The most lasting families have but tl1eir summer glare
and their spring sunshine, their death and dec1i11e : thry
shine and flourish pe:rbaps for ages; but at 1ast their light
grows pale, they sicken, and the wl10le tribe disappears in
some crisis, when the oIJ stock is blasted, and the branches
are withered.

3. To a('<}uire that patience which no a.fHiotion can o>erwhelm, and that integrity which no temptation can sha}rn;

253
to purify the motives of our conduct; to subdue every rebellious passion; and to acquire a thorough lmowlc<lge of
our own hearts and concluct, - this is the task which is as-'.
signed to us, and which can not be performed without diligence and care.
4. Othello's occupation's gone I Farewell I
And, 0 ye mortal engines whose rude throats
The immortal Jove's dread clamors counterfeit.
Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump,
The car-piercing fife, the spirit-stirring drum,
The royal banner, aml all quality,
Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war I
Describe, in the form of climax, the progress of a storm;
a rise in a ri rer ; - the life 9f a Christian ; - the life
of a wickecl man ; - the career of a diligent student; the growth of an oak ; - - sunrise; - the progress , of our
country.

-

Allusion.
I. "Here lies, in horizontal position, the outside case of GEORGE

RouTLEIGII, fVatchmaker, whose abilities in that line were an honor to
his profession. Integrity was the main-spring, and prudence the regulutor, of his life. Humune, generous, and liberal, his hanu never stoppetl
· till he relieved distress. So nicely regulated were all his movements,
that he never went wrong, except when ' set a going' by people who
dill not know his key; and even then he was easily set right again.
Ho had tho art .of l\isposing of his ti mo so well that his hours gliuerl
away in a continual rounu of' pleasure, till an unlucky moment put a
period to his existence. He departed this life November 14, 1802, aged
fj7; wound up by his Maker, and in hope of being thoroug·hly cleaned,
repaired, ancl set a going in the world to come." ;
·write a similar sketch on a blacksmith; - .. a printer;
=a teacher.
· ·
2. Printers' Toast' to Franl:li11, - "The * of his profession, the type
of honesty, the ! of all;, and though the ~ of death has put a • to
Jiis existence, every § of his life is without a I ."
W- An allusion is frequently more expres5i¥e than the original. The
fsnt:istic !'entenl.'e, "rn put a girdle round this e!lrth in forty minutes, ..
which Shakespeare put into the mouth of Puck, becam~ remarkably e~·
pressirn when it was applied to the Telegraph.
·

254

255
,

Paro(ly.
"'Tis the last golden dollar, left shining alone ·
All its brilliant companions ore sriuan<lercd u~d gone.
No coin of its mintage reflects back its hue,
'~'hey went in mint-j1ilcps, 11n<l this will µ;o too!
I II not keep thee, thou lone one, too long in suspense;
Thy brothers were melted, nnd melt thou, to cents I
I'll 1bk for no qnnrter, I'll s/1c11d nml not ~pnre
Till my old tat.terc<l pocket 111ngs centless and 'bare."

'Vrite a parody on 'Volfe's Burial of Sir John Moore
'
taking for your subject a Bankrupt or "Bogus" Bank.
Apostrophe, vision.
I. "Bini of the wilrforncRR,

lllithcsomc nrul cumlierlcss,
Light be thy rnntin o'er moorlnnd and lea·
Eniblem of happiness,
'
Blcst is thy dwelling-place;
0, to abide in the desert with th ee !"
¥?See Hogg's address to a sky-lark, al so Shelley's , and Burne's Lin es to
Mary In H ea>en . In lofty st.ylc, apo strophe is sometirnt>s USt'c l to bring out more
efft•ctually the lll l' rits of nn ab~trnc t subj ec t, whi ch Is tll'$t. pPrsouitkd, aml then
addressed. The following is an admirabl e specimen: -

2. LIBERTY'. - "In our time, then, a111l peculinrly in our country,
the predominant idea which invigoratc8 every hrcast, i11 the sentiment
of freedom. It is the empire of the many which rules over us; all
things bend to the equalization of the advantages of social union; the
mass is heaving with the fermentation of unceasing change; and society exhibits that gigantic energy, that terrible activity of the democratic
principle, which, according as it shall be well or ill direct.cd, will exalt
our race to such a glorious elevation as it has never yet attained, or
shake the quh·ering earth to its foundations.
"0 Libert.v, dear Liberty! who that looks on the proudest pages
the l\Iuse of histor.v ever penned, will gain$a_,. thy power? 'Vlw that
follows the long train of $plcndor which tracks th_r career through the
st.nrrcd ITgions of genius and of art, will not admire thy majesty and
thy glory?

"Descended from the Most High, the doer of his invincible will in
the cultirntion of the earth and the civilization of its inhabitants, thou
didst make thy dwelling-place amid the wild hills and the isle-spangled
seas of Greece. Verdure sprang in thy path. Earth gladdened in the
light of thy smiles. All Nature became instinct with life and with Jove.
.Man threw off the slough of barbarism, and started up ctberealized
under thy spirit-stirring touch. It was no fabled Pallas that bestowed
the olive on Attica, no trident of Neptune that evoked the war-horse

from the stnick sod, no dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus that gave to
him the builders of Thehe:;. Thou, Liberty! thou didst breathe into
the Greeks the inspiration of eloquence and song; thou didst kin<lle in
their hearts the burning love of the beautiful artd the sublime; thou
didst make of them the heroes and statesmen whose names yet ring
through the world like a clarion calling to victory. In the omnipotence
of thy cause did the Athenians conquer at Marathon; it nerved the
arms of the Spartans who fell not in vain by the pass of Thermopyhe;
it scattered the navies of the Persian in the Straits of Salamis; it annihilated his invading hosts at Platre:t and Mycale. Thronged cities,
temples, monuments of art, admimblc even to this day in their scitttercd
fragments, rose at thy bidding. Thy very foot-prints have hnllowe<l to
the end of time the land of memory and of taste, thine own ever-glorious, unforgotten Hcllas.
"'Vin~ing thy flight to other lands, Rome bore testimony to thy
presence, in that fiery impulse of her consuls and her solllicr.v, which,
carrying her victorious eagles out of Italy, compelled the uni\rerse to
bow down before the potential symbols of her triumph and terror, the
renowned S. P. Q. R., and established the empire of the Roman people
wherever of nations and of lands men could be found to subdue.
"Nor less, in modem times, did the earth witness the luster of thy
, name, in the spirit which awakened commerce, science, and the arts in
the cities of modern Italy, won the victories of Sempach and Mornt,
gathered the merchandise of the world to the· shores of Holland and
Britain, unfurled the tricolor of the French Republic on half the cathedrals of Europe, and echoed the war-cry of independence from the
bights of Bunker Hill to the Sierras of the Southern Andes.
"Thy chosen minister, - the right hand of thy power, - the angel
of thy counsels and thy purposes, - the organ through which thou didst
wield mankind, combining their movable masses for the execution of
thy will, - is Eloq11ei1ce." - RuFus CHOATE.
0

Onomatoprola.
"Hear the sledges with the bells Silver bells !
·what a world of merriment their melody foretells l
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
In the icy air of night I
While the stars that oversprinkle
All the heavens seem to twinkle
With a crystalline delight;
Keeping time, time, time,
In a sort of ~unic rhyme,

-

~

.pg;;!j1

-

!¥19:•

'

..

--· -~ --

256 ·.

257

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the hells, bcl Is, bells, bells,

to rivet his cbains." - HISTORY OF TEXAS. Where did tbe author get the er chains"? "No human happiness is so serene as
not to contain some alloy." " Alloy" and " serene " do not harmonize. " These are the first fruits of my unfledged eloquence, of
which thou hast often complained that it was buried in the shade."
Incongruous. " Since the time that reason began to bud, aJHl put
forth her shoots, thought <luring our waking hours bas been active
in every breast. The current of ideas has been always moving.
The wheels of the spiritual ocean have been exerting themselves
with perpetual motion." Buds, currents, and wheels are all jumbled together; and the "wheels of an ocean" are something
decidedly new. What a jumbling of figures have we in the following extract 1- wide-spread fruit, with root below - of course,
for where else should the root be? then branches are smitten by
baring accursed fibers down deep in the ground, that pollute the
juices of the soil into poison,. which circulates through those smitten branches, so as to make their very shadow commit murder : " Drunkenness is the most wide-spread, the most conspicuous, the
most debasing fi·uit of the national upas in this part
Ireland;
but the root lies below, hidden deep beneath ·the surface; and he
who would permanently smite the branches, must dig into it~ <lark
abode, bare the accursed fibers, and with a strong arm rend them
from their lurking-place, no more to pollute the soil that they
usurp, transforming its healthful juices into poison, and circulating them through the boughs whose goodly shadow murders where
it falls." - Mus. HALL. 'Ve frequently find such specimens of
abortive imagination, - figures that strike us favorably at first,
but that will not bear study, being full of inconsistency or absurdity. · "Let's grasp the forelock. of this apt occasion, and greet
the victor in his ~ow of glory." - BRITISH DRAMA. What <lid
the writer mean?' His sentence could certainly not be expressed
by a congruous picture; and to conceive all the imagery as grouped
into one visible picture, is often the best way to judge of its accuracy, propriety, or beauty. "Half round the globe the tears
pumpe1l up by .death ~re spent in watering vanities of lifet Tho
foregoing sentence is apt to strike us favorably at first i but as
soon as we rellect upon it, we find that the figure is both false and
absunl, or at least far-fetched and forced. Thero are many strik-

Bells, bells, bells, From the jingling anu the tinkling of the bells." - Pm:.
~Tho tenchcr •houl<l find t,hiR entire piece, study it catefully, nnd t,hen
rencl nml explain It to Jal• clas R. Jiu Hho11i<l nlKu require hla pupils to find epecl·
mens of ull tho figures; for such nn exercise will make them think un<l <llecrlml·
nate.

Abuse of Flgul'es. -The ability to use figurative language
with elegance and effect is so closely dependent upon taste and
genius, or the general culture, wealth, and delicacy of the mind,
that but little assistanec ean be given by means of rules. Tho
most common errors arise in regard to metaphor, simile, and bypcrbole. Allegory ant! personification arc iess frequently abused.
There is sometimes also an excess in regard to antithesis, exclamation, or interrogation. ·when we see a page full of exclamation or interrogation points, we are sometimes reminded of a line
in Dryden," He whistled, ns he went, for want of thought."

Style that has too fow figures is apt to be eeusurc1l as being too
dry; and style that has too many figures, or exaggerated ones, is
apt to be censured as being bombastic. Style in which the figures
are incongruous or unbecoming is simply incorrect, and specimens
of this kind can be seen almost every day. 'Ve shall first present
a general circuit of the common errors pertaining to figurative
language, and then close our remarks by drawing from these examples a few rules to he remembered by the pupil.
"The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to British connection." -JEFFERSON. " Christ is the anchor of our hope, whicb
reaches beyond the veil of death." - HARTLEY. The foregoing
are specimens of incongruous or mixed metaphor: ripeness suggests fruit, and fruit does not bid adieu ; nor arc anchors usually
placed or lodged hchind veils. " There is not a view of human
nature that is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride." ADDISON. II ow can a view extinguish? - and worse, extinguish
seeds I " I bridle in my struggling muse in vain, that longs to
launch into a bolder strain." - Ju. That is, his muse is a monster, partly horse and partly ship; and yet she sings strains.
" "\-Vhen the mustang is caught ill a l~sso, all his struggles serve only

of

17

258
ing yet ill-foun<le<l figures in Bailey's Festus. Figures should bear
study. The following is a r emarkable attempt of an author to
work up himself; aml elevate his cold style, by forced, unnatural
figures:- ·
11

.·~

'

,: I'
I

I

.I
'I

II
I

"

",

;

I

I I

There with n. forest of their darts he strove,
Aud stood like Capaneus defying Jove;
With his broad sword the boldest hen.ting down,
Till Fnte grew pale, lest he should win the town,
And turned the iron leaves of its dnrk book
To make new dooms, or mend what it mistook."- DRYDEN.

Figures should be natural, becoming, and of advantage to the
style. That famous criti(! a1ul rhetorician, Aristotle, in 1lescrilJing governments, says: "Every form of government, by being relaxed or strained too much,· destroys itself. Thus a democracy,
not only when relaxed, but even when overstrained, grows weaker,
and so will at last be changed into an oligarchy. Just as hookedness or flatness of the nose not only approaches the mean in proportion as it relaxes from the excess, but also, when it becomes
excessively booked or flat, disposes the nostrils in such a way as
no longer to resemble the nasal organ." This figure is not very
clear, and it is altogether unworthy of the subject, or beneath its
dignity. " The commercial liberties of rising states were shackled
by paper chains." - B~NCROFT. Paper chains suggest noth~
ing formi<lable. " That won<lcrful ohl furnace [a volcano] where
the han<l of God works the bellows." - CHEEVER. A figure that
represents God as a bellows-blower is unclignified and unbecoming.
Degrading figures should be used only when we mean to degrade
our subject.
Goold Brown thus illustrates grammatical quantity: ""When
mighty winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the
Ocean is raised, he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones
of a long quantity. . . . But sec him again in gentler mood; stand
upon the beach, and listen to t.he rippling of his more frequent
waves: he will teach you short quantity, as well as long." This
shows us what the line of Horace means, "Beauties they arc, but
beauties out of place." Vain people, when they have something
pretty to say, are apt to <lrag it in wherever they can, without consi(lering whether it is suitable or not. "Ve can not see how the
illustration can give any child a clear notion of the subject.

259
'Writers should be particularly careful to avoid unintelligible
fi a tires. Macaulay speaks of " fountains more wonderful than
tl~e golden waters of Parizade, conveya,nces more rapid than the
hippogriff of Ruggiero, arms more formidable than the lance of
Astol pho, reme<lics more efficacious than the balsam of Fierabrns." lle also says, "A history which does not serve this purpose, though it may be filled with battles, treaties, and commotions, is as useless as the series of turnpike-tickets collected by
Sir Matthew Mite." Such comparisons hardly serve to enl~~~~!l
the re:ider; and he will take no pleasure in what he does not;iiurl
<ler~t:uul. Allusions to arts, sciences, or books, wliich are familiar only to the writer, should be avoided.
" Ile is bold as a lion." " Her eyes are brighter than stars."
" She drooped like a flower." " Cold as ice ; " " sharp as a needle;"' "white as snow," etc. Such comparisons, though beau- ·
tif'ul anu forcible when first use<l, have been . heard too often, and
are too common, to be interesting now. They should therefore be
avoided, as being too trite. " They fought like brave men - long
a1Hl well." - HALLECK. " lloli var was the Washington of South
America." - NILES. "Mirabeau was Wilkes-Chatham." -MACAU LAY. Probably all the books on rhetoric teach that an obje~t
should never be compa,red to another of the same kind, but to
something different. The rule is generally a good one. But we
have seen many forcible exceptions, - such as the foregoing, which
are too good to be condemned.
Figurative language should not be improperly mingled with
plain language. To say, " Her cheeks bloomed with roses and
health," would be improper. "He is like a wolf that murders
and devours its victims." A wolf can not properly be said to
rnurder its victims ; say, " that mangles, kills, and devours its victims." J>enclope, in speaking of her son, says, "Now from my fond embrace, by tempests torn,
Our other column of the state is borne;
Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." - PoPE.

After rcpre,senting her son as a column, she could uot properly
speak of him as taking adieu or seeking consent.
"Dear, fatal name I rest ever unre\'ealed,
Hide it, my heart, •..

=-====-------- -- ---

260
Oh! write it not, my hand !-the name appears
Already written: - wash it out, my tears." - POPE.
Here the obj ects addressed are unworthy of personification.
Figures shoul<l not be extended too far. Dr. Young, in speaking of old age, says, "It should walk thoughtful on the silent shore
Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon,
And put good works on board, and wait the wind
.~
Th~t shortly blows us Into worlds unknown."
first two lines are beautiful, an<l sufficient; and tlie last
two li11es t1ho11lcl rntlw1· have been u111ittcd. That elegant writer,
Arthur Helps, thus describes, by a simile carried too far, the city
of Mexico, as it was when Cortez first behelJ it : "Like some
rare woman of choicest parentage, the descendant of two royal
houses far apart, who joins the soft, subtle, graceful beauty of the
South to the fair, blnc-cyc<l, blushing beauty of the North, and
sits enthroned in the heart of all Lchol<lcrs, so sat Mexico upon
the waters, with a <lia<lem of gleaming towers, a fairy expanse of
flowery meadows on her breast, a circle of mountains as her zone,
and, not unwmnanlike, rejoicing in the reflection of h er beautifol
s~lf from the innumerable mirrors which were frame<l by her
streets, her courts, her palaces, and her temples." But the most
common extravagance in regard to figures is found among hyperboles. Tom Moore has written a song in which a lady is requested to step forward, and shame the stars with her eyes. It was a
pity that this s011g was not written early enough for Shcnstono
to get the benefit of it; for this writer says, in regarJ to his Phyllis: "I could lay down my life for the swain
That will sing but a song in her praise."
Blacklock gives us some terrible dog-barking; and we doubt
whether even Cerberus could match it: "Up to the stars the sprawling mastiffs fly,
And add new horrors to the frighted sky."
Style should not be overloaded with figures, especially if they
do not form an allegorical picture throughout. Young, imaginative speakers anil writers are sometimes ridiculously extravagant in the use of figurative language, and thus acquire a sort of rant-

tlllJlle

261
ing or spread-eagle style, that long clings to them like an evil
habit. The following is a specimen : " The marble-hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority, and hurl into
thralldom the votaries of rational liberty. Crash after crash would
Le heard in quick succcs~ion, as the strong pillars of the republic
give way, and Despotism would shout in hellish triumph among
the crumbling ruins. Anarchy would wave her bloody scepter
over the devoted land, and the blood-hounds of civil war would lap
the gore of our most worthy citizens. The shrieks of women and
the screams of children would he drowned amid the clash of
swords and the cannon's peal; and Liberty, mantling her faco
from the horrid scene, would spread her golden-tinted pinions, and
wing her flight to some far-distant land, never again to revisit our
peaceful shores!" - From a Fourth-of-July Oration. ·
Most books on rhetoric teach that comp'.lrisons should never
be made under high excitement; but this precept will do only as
a general rule, for tlwre are unquestionable exceptions. Strong
stronrr
fiee.linrr
b requires
.
b lanauacre
e b ·, and whatever is natural, is generally proper. Othello, in his deepest agony of remorse, declares
he would not ha vc t:>rri ven
his wife for " such another world, of one
•
entire and perfect chrysolite ! "
·
When a figure, especially a metaphor, is not well founded, or
is rather forced, yet allowable, it is usually termed catacliresis; as
when we speak of "a beautiful sound" or "a sweet face." Custom
has great influence over figures, as well as over every thing else in
language. We may speak, for instance, of" a vein.of .~a tire," ~~t
it would be ridiculous to speak of " an artery of satire.
..
"\<Ve shall now subjoin the few rules which. we promised: I. Figures should not be used when plain language is more
suitable; and when they are used, they should aid the understan\1incr or the feelings.
b 2
Firrures
should be neither feeble nor extravagant, neither too
.
0
;
few -n or too numerous, neither too common nor too uncommon.
3. Figures ·'s hould be well-founded and becoming, congruous
with one another, and not improperly mixed with plain language.
AJGr In some cases of unn~unlly Intense expression, p erhnps even mix ed
_metnphors mny be allowed, for the sake of greater effrct; just ns we allow,
1n art, winged Hons, as more expressive emblems or symbols.

263

262

LESSON L

Invention is the ingenio ts

S11pply whatever ma.'/ be needed to make a complete sentence, ef which the
subject has a modifier that shows which o~e, how 111a11y, or q/ what !.:ind: -

I-I-I.-

combinat~f parts or

· elements.
----Se11 tenccs, paragraphs, compos1t10ns, and books are
but combinations of parts or elements.
..
The great variety of these combinations can usually be
representeJ by an outline of general iJeas, that may serve
to lead us to the materials themselves.
The following is the skeleton of iJcas that represents tho
great majority of sentences: Which one 1
}
•
{
Predicate.
How many 1
SU~)ect.
Is what 1
Of what kind 1 Who 1 What 1 Docs what 1
Suffers what 1

·when 1 vVherc 1
How1 Why1
{ As to what 1
In what degree 1

Thnt la, the subject, In Its greatest simplicity, answers to the question, Who 1
or What1 o.nd when words arc aclclcd to the nominative, they generally serve to
ehow, in regard to the objects, Wh ich 1 I/ow 111any 1 or, Of what kin<l1
'l'hc predicate - in Its verb, and the words most Intimately combined with
It-answers to tho questions, ls what 1 Does whnt 1 Suffers whnt 1 And the
looser appendages of the predicate answer to the questions, When 1 Where 1
How 1 J·JThy 1 etc. - See pp. 13, 16.

There is no sentence that does not have some parts of
the foregoing outline; and all the sentences that can be
written will very selJom exceed these parts.
All the elements represented in the outline may be either
siniple or compound; and nearly all of them may be expressed by either words, phrases, or clauses.
Supply subject-nominative and predicate-verb, and whatever else is needed
to make a complete sentence : -

1. With kindness. 2. Distracted by doubts. 3. Who
had nothing olso to do. 4. During tho snmmor months.
In spots. 6. To obtain a better view of the scenery.

o.

First Pupil. " We were treated with kindness!' Second Pupil. "He
spoke with kindness." Let each pupil, so far ae it may be convenient, make a
eentence with the phrase.

1. Fish was caught in the sea. 2. Sensation was produced in our village last night, by the arrival of an elephant. 3. Art. 4. There are also monkeys in the show.
5. Passions antl principles caused his ruin. G. vVho <lined
with us yesterday. 7. Man was imprisoned. 8. Persons
are successful in business.
Ex. - First Pupil. "This large fish was caught In the ecn." Second Ptt·
pil: " A fish, weighing n thousnnd pounds, was caught In the ecn.'' And so on
through the class, or until the proposition is exhausted. (The teacher will better see tho drift of these exercises, by referring to Keri's Common-School Grammar, pp. 28-33.)
TillIE.

IV/ten?

How long?

How often?

1. Tell when it rained. 2. When you go and return
from school. 3. How long you remained in the city. · 4.
How long a person has been sick. 5. When corn is planted. 6. How often the cars run to a certain place. 7. When
· peaches are ripe. 8. When, how long, and how often, in
regard to a trespassing horse.
Ex. -1. "It rnlnecl yesterday." 2. "It rnlned yesterday, In the afternoon."
3. "It rained last night, while we were nil asleep." 4. "It rained every day, for
two weeks." L et the element be supplied In the form of word, ·phrase, and
clause; also as simple and compound.
PLACE.

Where?

JVhe11ce 'I · Whither 'I

How far 'I

1. Tell where it rained. · 2. How far you have walked,
and where you have been. 3. From what places coffee is
brought. 4. To what places wheat is sent. 5. Where a
person said something. 6. "Where a ho~se or a city is situated. 7. From, by, through, and into what places a brook
or river flows. , 8. Whence, where, and whither, m regard
to a person ; - . a rat.
I

Supply subject, time, and place: 1

1. Shines. 2'. Slept. · 3. Lost.
6.. Will play.

"1

4. f?tood.

5. Worked.

.
.
Ex . -1. "The sun shines every morning on the roses by my window." 2.
"The stats shone brilliantly all night In the blue depths of the sky."

--

..........--."""'....-:~......,-------··----.-----..

2G4
How 1 lvfanner.

26.5

ltfeans.

1. Tell how it rained. 2. How a house has been built.
3. How lambs play. 4. l3y whatmeans a fox was caught.
5. How hay is made. 6. How corn is planted. 7. How
teas and silks are brought to us. 8. How a lawyer spoke.
. 9. 'l'ell how a galloping 11orse glides over a bridge. (Comparison.) 10. How
vessel glides over the water. 11.
How the firing of cannons sounded. 12. How the moon
shines on water.

a

2. "It rnln ed In torrents." 3.
4. 11 It rained violently
on one side of the 8ky, with a rainbow lik e a fillet on the brow of the storm,
while the sun was shining on the other side."
Hx. -1. "It rnlnc<l gently but stendlly ."

"It rained as If the world was to be drowned again."

Suppl!J sulject, manner, time, and place:-

1. Sang. 2. Ran. 3. Swept. 4. Will sleep. 5. Spoke.
'. 6. Skipped.
Ex._

11

\,Yny 1

The birds sang sweetly this morning, in the grove near our house."

Cause.

Purpose.

Conditio11.

Concession.

Effect.

Conse-

quence.

1. Tell why it rained.

2. \iVhy a person is sick. 3.
For what purpose do we live? 4. vVhy should we be mdustrious? 5. ·w hy do we eat, drink, and sleep? 6. \iVhy
was a person frightened? 7. \Vly has a man been unfortunate? 8. vVhy should a house be bought? 9. vVhy
was a horse sold? 10. vVhy should a house be built in a
certain place ? 11. vVhy is a child sent to school? 12.
\.Vhat may be the consequence of playing with a loaded
gun? 13. The effect of eating unripe fruit'! 14. Of being with bad companions? 15. vVhy are birds numerous
in autumn? 16. \Vhy do some birds emigrate in autumn?
17. \Vhy did a family become poor? 18. vVhy was Henry
punished? 19. vVhy should Henry be l:unisl1 ed? 20.
Why did a person die ? 21. To become rich. (Complete
the sense.) 22. To live in peace and comfort. 23. They
sat down at the table. (11'or what purpqse ?) 24. The

bells tolled. 25. The world is various. 26. Life is short.
(vVhat follows.) 27. Knowledge is power. 28. Concede a
person's bad qllalities, yet say that he .lrns greater good qualities. 29. Concede a person's good qualities, yet say that he
has greater bad qualities. 30. Concede something, yet
make an offset. 31. Declare something, with a condition
preceding it. 32. Ask a question,. with such a condition.
Ex. -The foregoing paragraph affords a great number and variety of sen·
tcnccs, of which the following are a few specimens: 11 It rained on account of
tho ~mlclcn change In temperature." "It will rnln, bl'cnuso hcnvy clouds nro
coml11g together from several different directions." "\Ve live that we may do
good." "We live for Improvement.'' 11 We live to Improve ourselves, and
to benefit Others." "If you piny with a loaded gun, you may klll yourself
or somebody else." 11 Sad accidents are sometimes caused by playing with loaded arms.'' "Though he is industrious, yet he is so extravagant that he must•
always remain poor." "If in spring there are no blossoms, in autumn there
wlll be no fruit." "Life is short; therefore it ls folly to waste It In trifles." A
cause Implies something antecedent; and a purpose, something subsequent,
"I wrote to him, because I heard from him." "I wrote to him, that I might
hear from him." A condition Is gen erally an undetermined or supposed cauee;
and a concession is frequently an Insufficient cause. "If there i& any thing ill
him, time will show It." " If you find things before they are lost, you may have
to die before you are sick." " Though the skiff is small, It can carry six pas·
scngers." That is, the smallness of the skiff is insufficient to prevent it from,
carrying six passengers.

SttpJ1l!J manner, place, and cause or purpose: -

1. He went. 2. Our men withdrew. 3. A skiff glided.
5. The regiment .returned. . 6. The
4. The ship sank.
steam, ... shattered tho boat .,• .• , and threw the . fragments .. .
As to what'!

1. vV e are anx10us. 2. You ought to be ashamed. 3.
vVe feel convinced. 4. He is resolute and ' faithful. 5. I
wonder. · 6. I am glad.
' ·DEGREE.

To what extent'!

How m~ch 'f ' How little?

1. Tell how cold it is. 2. How warm it is. . 3. Describe
motion with ~eference to degrees, and also by comparisons.
4. What can you say of roads ? 5. Of countries? \ 6. Of.
waters or streams ?
Ex. -1. "It Is too cold for me to go out without an overcoat." 2. "It ie
colder to-day than It was yesterday.'' 3. "It was so cold during the night that
the trees cracked when the sun shone on them in the morning."

......-,,.._------~

----------·----====
=
=·=
--=~
~=
- =
-~
-~-~
~
-~~

'·

.
~
11
- \(_9)
~

~~ ~~
LESSON

LIX.

Just as the various parts of sentences can b e reforreJ. to
a few principal ideas, so can the various parts of literary
compositions be referred to a comparatively small number
of gen eral ideas, or topics.
The followin g seem to be the chief thin gs or principal
iJ.eas which nn<lerlie th e gen eral literature of th e world: -

Facts; ea11scs 01· r eason s ; effects or co11 scque11ecs;
conclusions; obj ects, ki11Js, parts, actions, qualities,
and circumstances, frequ ently, enumerations of,-.·hence, division, classification, and partition; signs;
characteristics; relations; existence; suffering; time1
with something remarkable attached ; r elations to the
past ; r elations to the future ; place, with something
remarkable attach ed; sound; stillness; color; taste;
feeling; absence of what is usually present or expected; peculiarities ; utility; <le tail ; summary; illustrn·
tions; resemblance or analogy; difference or contrast; provid ence of Gou; origi11; orga11izatio11 or
structure; form antl size; manner; means; ha\.Jits; customs; mode of living; care for young; occupation;
style; qualifications; amusements; growth or progress; education; food; drink; apparel ; history;
prospects; definition ; explanation ; proofs ; e.x~cri­
euce; treatment; duty; ambition and dom1111011;
weakness and dependence; changes; benefits and innnd disadvantages; truth n11d
J'nrics ,. ' advru1tn1rcs
b
falsehood ; reality; fleLion, a11d thi11gs purely i<leal;
right rmcl wron g ; virtue and vice; principles; adversity and prospe rity; happiness and misery; honor and
(1 isho11or; Lcaut.y aud deformity; prover us, sayiugs,
41

'

267
untl quotations; design or tendency; wisdom; wit;
humor; scorn and sarcasm; ritlicule; appeal; memory; hope; love; hate; admiration; veneration ; avarice ; patience ; valor ; religion ; patriotism ; treachery ;
civilizat.iou; geui us; things· supernatural. Nearly all
the matter that may be suggested by studying a sub- ·
ject nccording to the foregoing ideas, can be referred
to the more general heads of description, narration,
exposition, aud persuasion.
We have not given the foregoing list as a perfectly logical classlficntlon, but
rath er ns something th at may give the speaker or writer more assistance than is
given by the categories of Aristotle or by any similar classlficatlon. .
·
i

I

By studying Jiis subjec~ according to the for,e going ,1is.t
of i<leas or topics, a speaker or writer may always find something proper to say. A full illustration of the list would
itself fill a book; and we can therefore exemplify only n.
fow of the items.

Facts.
"The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of
repeated injuries nnd usurpations, all having for their direct ohj ect the
establishment of an ahsolute tyranny over these States. To prove this,
·
let facts be submitted to a candid world.
"He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good . . . . He' has obstructed the administration of
justice, by refusing to assent to laws for establishi11g judiciary powers.
He has made judge.s dependent on his will for the teryure of their offices,
and the amount a.rid payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new officE1s, am! sent hither swarms of offi cers to harass our
people, and cat out their suhstanco. · Ho has kept among· us, in times
· of peace, standing armies,· without the consent of our legislatures. He
has affected to render t.he military independent of and superior to the
civil power," etc. - JEFF1rnsoN, Dcclaratio11 <?( l11depe11de11ce.

Dr. \Vlrntely says, whenever a subject is presented to 1us, the
first thing to be don e is to inquire what are all the facts in the
case ; then search for the causes, consequences, and circumstance!',
aml we shall probably not fincl it necessary to look far for matter

268

269

elsewhere. This is probably the best thing he has said in his
book. The greater part of the Declarntion of lndepcndcnce consists .merely of an orderly statement of well-selected facts; and we
have ever noticed that the most effective speeches <leli vered in
Congress have always been those in which the speaker graspeu
most thoroughly all the facts in the case.

"There was the honest cock-robin, the favorite game of stripling
sportsmen, with its loud, querulous note; and the twittering blackbirds,
flying in sable clou<ls; and the golden-winged woodpecker, with its
splendid plumage; and the cedar-bird, with its red-tipped wings and
yellow-tipped tnil, and its little montero cap of feathers; and the blue
jny, that noisy coxcomb, in his gay, light-blue coat nncl white underclothes, screaming nn<l chattering, uod<ling and bobbing and bowing,
and pretending to be on good terms with every.songster of the grove."

Causes or reasons.
"The firm wns in n flourishing condition. [Why?] The experi- •
enco which the partners h:ul gainccl in the c1trlicr period of their career
l11ul 11111clo them moro c1t11tio11~, 111111 they nvoiclccl nil clcnli11~~ with thoso
whose cre<lit wns not known to be firmly cstaulishe<l. Their honesty,
courtesy, liuerality, nnd promptness had made friends of all those with
whom they had dealings. And their increased wealth hacl cnnblecl them
to extend their business so widely thnt there was scarcely n place of
importance in the world with which they had not commercial transactions."
"Because I eat and drink without luxury, bani shing nil foreign superfluity; because I dress myself in a wny at once comfortahle, and
pleasing to the eye; because I rein state the mnnly beard in its lost honor; bccnusc I withstand privileges and prejudices, an<l would pass for
no more than I am worth; because l will not establish my chnrncter by
a duel, or bear ahout the insignia of real or fcig-ned services; because I
forswear deceit, and assert the truth without fear, - am I therefore to
be treated, in the nineteenth century, as a fool 1"
Causes and reasons may be stated in a great ''aricty of ways'.
They arc much use1l in argumentative dif'course, an<l then they aro
generally put forth as facts. Frequently, a multitude of causes
produce but one result; and one result may lead to a multitude of
consequences. Jl.Iany causes may produce a civil war, from which
many consequences may follow. Causes, reasons, and consequences
comprise a very large part of all that we say or write ; and our
actions and welfare uepend mainly on how correctly and thor- ·
oughly we comprehend them.

Objects, actions, 11.nd lfnalltlcs.
"The morning was pure 11.nd sunny, the fields were whito with daisies, tho hnwthorn wns covered with its frngr:rnt hlo~ 8o ms, the bee
hummed about on cver.v hank, and the swallow played high in 11.ir about
the village steeple." - Inv1No.

-IRVING.

" The loveliest, most variegated flower-garden lay around her; ·tulips, roses, and lilios wore glit.toring in tho fairest colors; bluo nnll
goltl-rccl bnttcrllies wcro wnvering in tho blossoms; cnges of shin·
ing wire hung on the espaliers, with many-colored birds in ,them,
singing beautiful songs; and ehi!drcn in short white frocks, with
flowing yellow hair nncl brilliant eyes, were frolicking about; some
]>laying with lnmbkins, some fecdin~ the bir<ls
or gathering flowers. and
,
I
giving them to one another; some, again, were eating cherries, grapes,
nnd ruddy apricots. No hut was to be seen; but ·in stead of it 11. large
fair house, with a brazen door and lofty statues, stoc:i<l glancing ' i~· the
'
·'
'
: · ·· 1
middle of the space." - CARLYLE. '
. '
It is evident that each of the foregoing extracts is but an cnu·
meration of the most striking and interesting objects in the scene,
with the actions and qualities that made ' them appear so. Sometimes the enumeration takes the form of.
~

.

I

Detail, explanation, or proof.
"It was ri. lovely night. · [Now comes the detnil.J Tho sky was unclouded. Tho Lrillinnt moo~1, riding a\of~ in ,,tho heavens, cast ,her sil·
Yery light over hill and valley, meadow and Juke. Scarcely a breeze
rufHe<l .the surface of the water, and not a sound,was he'lrd snYe the distant plash of the boatman's oar, or the occ;asional rustling of the leaves
in a neighboring grove. A balmy zephyr wafted exquisite fragrance
through the atmosphere, and nil Nature seemed to he conspiring to fiH
the soul with delight." - l;JLACKWOOD's MAGAZINE. .
·
"Poverty has, in large cities, very different appearances. It is often
f
· concealed in splendor, and often in extravagance. It is the cnre of a
very grcut part of mnnkind to conccul their indigence from '. tho rest.
They support themselves by temporary expedients, and every 1day is
"
lost in contriving for to-morrow." - Dn. JonNBON.
·, ", An author frequently first makes 11. general statement, and then proceeds to particulars. Irving says, " The sorrow for the dead is the only
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sorrow from which we refu se to be divorced. [General proposition.]
Where is the 1110/her who would willingly forget the infant that perished
like a flower from her arms, thongh every recollection is n pang 1
Where is the child that would willin~ly forget the most tender of parents, though to remember be but to lament 1 Who, even in the hour
of agony, would forget the .friend o\·cr whom he mourns 1 \Vho, even
when the tomb is closing upon lier he most loved, - when he feels his
henrt ernshcd, as it were, in the closing of its portals, - would accept of
consolation that must be bonght hy forgetfulness 1 "
Pnrticulars,
which also rcs<'mble proof. Mirabeau begins one of the finest of culogiums thus: "Franklin is dead.
[Gcncrnl statcmcnt.l H.estored to
the bosom of the Divinity is that gcni11s who gave freedom to America,
nnd rnyed forth torrents of light upon Europe," etc. More specific
statements.

sun's first smile. It is she who inspires the poet, and makes eloquent
the guitar, the violin, and the fiut.e; who instructs the dexterous artisan, and teaches him to hew ~tone, to carve marble, to fashion gol!l and
silver, copper and iron. It is . she who supplies oil for the lamp, who
reaps the harvest-fields, kneads breatl for us, weaves our garments, feeds
and maintains the world. And it is she who nurses us in infancy, succors us in sorrow and sickne~s, · and attends us 'to the .silent sleeping~
place of death."

Actions.
Of objects described purely by their actions, we have many
specimens in literature. Durke has given an admirable sk etch
of Howard, con sisting almost entirely of what ·this great philanthropist did. When Lord Jeffrey wished to describe steam to
the best ad vanatgc, he lm<l merely to tell us what it dues : -

' .l'.

"It can engrave n seal, and crush mrisscs of obd11ratc metal before
it; draw out, without hreuking, a thrcml as fine as gossamer, and lift a
ship of war like a bauble in the air. It can embroider muslin, and
forge anchors; cut steel into ribbons, and impel loaded vessels against
the fury of the wind and the waves."
To describe love in itsclf may be villicult ancl uninteresting;
but the following is a pleasing sketch of its doings : ·

,,
[

' ~

"In pence, Love tunes the shepherd 's reed;
In war, he mounts the warrior's steed;
In halls, in gay attire is seen;
1n ham lets, dances on t.he green.
Love rnlcs the camp, the court, the grove,
And men below, and saints ahove ·
]for love is heaven, nnd heaven is iove." -

SCOTT.

Perhaps no other sketch of poverty could be gi vcn so interest-.
ing as the following sketch of her doings : "The gootl goddess Poverty does nil the g-reatest and most beautiful things that are tlonc in the worl1l. It is she who cultivates tho
fields, and. prunes the trees; who drives the herds to pasture, singing
all the wlule sweet songs; who sees the day break, and catches the

Uclatlons.
"This frame of mine is mine through eating, and drinking, and
breathing. This body of mine is out of wheat-fields, gardens, nnd forests. lt has come to me out of . the ground, through tho roots of herbs,
and .trees, and in wholesome air from the Rocky Mountains, and the
woody middle of South America. There is in my 'vcins what has been
in a rainbow, perhaps, and very certainly what is from the rice-fields
of the East Indies, and from the cane-brakes of the West Indies, and
from out of the sea. 'W onderful is the way our souls take flesh, and
have their earthly being." - MouNTFORD .
·' ...

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~.

The following stanza, on an orange, is a. delicate web, of relations:-:-

"This gol<len rin(l was 01H'O n flower,
These juicy founts were tropic dews; '
Perchance beneath this orange bower
Some Spanish maiden sat to muse;
Ami, humming, watched the evening star,
With hand upon her light guitar."

Effects.
"Drunkenness impairs health, undermines the constitution, de:-.
strays reputation, implants habits of idleness, surrounds its victim
with bad companions, fosters the worst passions, lead~ to crime and
poverty,. and makes a man of the brightest parts a laughing-stock ·for
boys, anti a common jest of the meanest clown."
"Such was the plague in London, that fol'. a time all commerce was
in coffins and shrohds; but even that ended . . ,Shrift there was none;
churches and chapels were open, but neither priest nor penitent entered; all went to the charnel-honse ! The sexton and the physician
. were cast into the same deep and wide grave; · the testator, ·and his
heirs and executors, werchnrlccl from the same cart into 'the same hole
together .... , The rooks built in the churches; the dogs.banded t.hemselvcs together, having lost thei1· masters, and nm howling · over all .t he
land ; horses perished of famine in their stalls ; old friends b~t looked
at one another when they met, keepi~g th~msclve~ far aloof,; credito~s

272

273

cl~imed no debts,. and courtiers performed their promi~es; little childi en wc~t wandcrmg ttp and down, and numbers were seen dead in all
corners. - RoTUELAN.

especially of the sciences, relates to kinds or classification, and ·ro
descriptions of the individuals or parts.

Signs.

;1'h.e rerna.rkable <lcscriptions of the plague in Lon<lon, most <lcscnpt10n~ of battles, and many other descriptions, consist chiefly
of ~ det~1l. of the noteworthy effects. What can not be well descr~bed 111 itself, can often be best describe<l by its effects. ·when
J ulms Cresar was assassinate<l, the citizens of Rome were excited
to the. highest degree of vengeance. A common writer woul<l
have given us several pages of bombastic description, to show their
wr~th ; b~t ShakcRpea.rc, hy turning to the cffoct, has told it all in
a smgle lme : ·

"Last night the sun went pale to bed,
The moon in halos hid her head; ·
The walls aro dump, the ditches smell,
Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel ;
The laborer in his work is slack;
OJd, Betty's joints are on the mck;
:,
. Loud quack the ducks, the peefowls cry;
The distant hills are looking nigh ;
The smoke from chimneys slow ascends,
Then, spreatling, hack to earth it bends;
How restless are the lazy swine! ·
The busy fli es disturb the kine;
The clouds look blnck, the glass is low,
The hollow winrls begin to blow:
'Twill surely rain." - DARWIN, abridged.

"Brutus and Cassius [have rode] like madmen through the gates of Rome I"

Existence.
.
' "0 nee upon a time
t here was a beautiful fairy that lived in a castlo
by the sea," etc., etc.

Parts.
"~ow if! building of chaises, I tell you what,
'I here 1s ~1lways sorr~ewhcre a weakest spot; .• ,

In hub, tire, felloe, m spring or thill

In panel, or cross-bar, or ftoor, or sili,
In screw, holt, thorong-h-hrace, ...
Step and prop-iron, holt and screw
Spring, tire, axle, and linchpin too'
Top, boot, dasher," etc. - HOLME~.
To describe this "wonderful one-horse shay," Holmes must
have been perfectly familiar with all the parts of vehicles. 'Vhen
Shakespeare describc<l so well a beautiful horse, he must have had
be:ore. his mind's eye all the parts of a horse, with such store of
a<lJect1ves as enabled him to select the most appropriate : _
•'I•

"Round-hoofed, short-jointed, fetlocks shag and Jong,
Broad breast, full eye, small liead and nostril wide
H.1gh .crest, short. ears, straight legs,' and passing strong,
'
Tinn mane, tl11ck tail, broad buttock, tender hide:
Look, what a horse should have he did not lack
Save a proud rider on so proud a back."
'

Kinds and parts.
It is not necessary to give specimens involving kinds. Suffice
it to s~y that a very large part of all books on natural history, and

• •· 1

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· I.

',.

During the troubles about the United-States Bank, in the.: days
of .hckson, Benton made a speech against Biddle, who .was .then
at the head of the Bank, and wa~ generally believed to be very
corrupt. Benton <lid not 'charge Biddle directly with having embezzled the funds, but he spoke of ·" 'one Bid<lle" who owned a
prineely villa in Pennsylvania; and he gave such a <letail ' of the
si,rpis of cnormomi private wealth and reckless extravagance, th~t
Biddle and the Bank were politically demolished I · '
:

Comparison and illustration.
"London, so far as wo hnvo yet scon it, surpasses most of the large
cities of .the world, in the agreeable air of neatness and comfort which
pervades it. The streets are incomparably superior to the majority
of streets in Paris ; being broad, dry; clean, and extremely wen · paved.
The houses are built with more uniformity, and the private dwellings
are handsomer; though the public buildings are said to be inferior to
those of the French capital." -TRAVELS . IN EUROPE;
A description is frequently basec!'on a · comparison ·of the sub1
.
•
'
ject with something else ; and a principle or general statement ~s
frequently t~adc plain and interes~in.g by ill~strations. , . ~.
1
"Patriotism, or love of country, is so general, that.even ,a desert is
remembered with pleasure, provided it is our own. · The Ethiopians
, imagine that ·God h~mself made their sands and deserts, while angels
·, only were employed in forming the rest of .the globe. . ·. The, Arabs
,

18

274

275

believe that the sun, moon, nnd stnrs rise only for them. The Maltese,
insulated on u rock, 11isting11ish their islnnd hy tho nppcllation of 'Tho
:F lower of the Worl<l.' Anti the Caribuees estcemcil their country
a Paradise, and themselves alone entitled to the character of men."

changes have all taken place in the short period of twenty years,-;I pause, wonder, and, although I know all to bo true, can. scarc.cly
, ,,
believe its reality.'' -AuvunoN.

Speakers or writers frequently find analogies, anecdote~, or
fables, excellent means for gaining some desired end; but the
analogous case, whe ther real or fictitious, must be a truly good
one - strictly and fully applicable; for those who arc unwilling to
·be convinced will scrutinize it closely, an<l resent all imposition.

"The annual folingc on these mountains hacl been already changed
by the frost. The <larkncss of the evergreens, forming the groundwork of tho picture, was finely illuminated by the brilliant yellow o,f
the birch, the beech, and the cherry, and .the more brilliant orange .an,d
crimson of the maple. The effect of this universal diffusion of gay and_
splendid. light was, to render the preponderating deep green more solemn. The mint!, encircled by this scenery, irresistibly rcmcmb~rc<l that
the light was the light of decay. The <lark was tho gloom of evening,
approximating to night. Over the ' whole the azure of the sky cast a
<leep, misty blue; blending, toward the summit, every other hue, and
predominating ov.er all.'' - DWIGHT • . ·

There is a well-known anecdote of antiquity, in which it is stated
that a certain community, enraged ngninst its rulers, became pacified by
the fable of the belly and the mem hers; and Dymond begins his essay
on duelling with the following excellent introduction : " If two boys, who disagreed about a gnme of marbles or a penny
. tart, sh~uld therefore walk out by the river-side, quietly take off their
·clothes, and, when they have got into the water, each should try to
keep the other's head down until one of them is drowned , we would
doubtless think that these two boys nrc mnd. If; \vhcn the survivor
returns to his school-follows, they should pat him on tho shoulder, tell
him that he is a spirited follow, and that if he had nut tried the font in
the water, they would never have played at marbles or any other gume
with him again, we should doubtless think that these two boys are infected with a most revoltii1g and disgusting depravity and ferociousness."

Time.
" 'W hen, in the course of human events," etc. - See Declamtion of
Indep endence.
"When I call back to my mind the grandeur and beauty of those
almost uninhabited shores; when I picture to myself the dense and
lofty summits of the forests that everywhere spread along the hills, and
ovcrl_m.ng the margins of the streams ; when I see that no longer any
abongmcs are to be found there, ancl that the vast hc,r<ls of cleer, elks,
and buffaloes, which once pastured on these hills and in these valleys,
have ceased to exist; when I reflect that this grand portion of onr
Union is now more or less covered with villa~cs, farms, allll towns, wh~i·o
the din of hammers and machinery is constantly heard - that the
woods arc fast disappearing under the ax by dav and the fire bv ni<>'ht
· that hundreds of steamboats arc plying to and
over tho who!~ len.,"'tl:
of our mnjcstic rivers; when I remember that those cxtruor<lin~ry

fro

Color.

The f9regoing extract is taken from an . aut~mn scene described
by Timothy Dwight, which turns almost wholly upon colors. ·with
a much more delicate fancy has W _illis pictureu forth a si.m ilar
scene: "\Ve found a natural seat in a rib of the mountain, overhung with
an impervious green thatch of pine tassels. , . Below us, here lJ.nll there,
stood that far-seen aristocrat of the wilderness, the blood-red sugarmaple, with a leaf brighter and more delicious than a Circassian lip i
and there was the tall poplar, with its minaret of silver leaves; uni.I the
gaudy tulip-tree, the Sybarite of vegetation, stripped of its golden cups,
still drank the intoxicating Jig-ht of noonday." - \VILLIS 1 ahridged.

,:

Sound.

I

'

"But who the melodies of morn can tell 1 i
The wild brook, babbling down the mountain-&i<le;
The lowing herd; the sheepfold's . ~imple bell i, .
The pipe of early shepherd, .dim descried .
Jn the lone valley ; echoing far and wide, ,
The clamorous horn along the cliff~ above ; The hollow murm'urs of the pceun' tide ; . .
The hum of bees; tho linnet's Jay ·of lovo;
And the full choir that wuk"es the universal grove."
.

.

"

BEATtIE.

This entire stanza is made up simply of the different soun.ds
·bear<l in the morning. A thousanJ other descriptions of the

276
morning are similar to this; for the stillness of the night naturally
turns the mind, by contrast, to sounds. And so, by analogy, the
vanishing sounds of the evening h a ve been noticed. We all remember Gray's " curfow that lolls the knell of parting <lay," " the
lowing herd," and "the drowsy tinklings that lull the distant
folds." A description of a modern battle would hardly be complete without its clash of swords a nd thunder of artillery. A large
part of literature is but a · detail of agreeable or disagreeable
. sounds; and our language is remarkably rich in words denoting
sound.

Stlllncss.
Description sometimes turns upon stilln ess or solitude ; and
such description may occasionally rise to sublimity.
" The place wns so lonely that not even God seemed to be there."
"Deep in the shndy sndness of a vale
.F ar sunken from t.he henlthy breath of morn,
Far from the fiery noon, and eve's lone star,
Sat gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone." - KEATS.
How beautiful, how sublime, as depicted in the following lines,
is the stillness of the Resurrection morning, when all the creation is supposed to be listening to hear its final doom l "That morning, thou, that slumbered not before,
Nor slept, great Ocean ! laid thy waves to rest,
And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath
Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar;
Like beauty newly dear!, so calm, so still,
So lovely, thou, beneath the light that foll
· From angel chariots sentinelled on high,
Reposed and listened, and saw thy living changed,
Thy dead arise. Charybdis listened, and Scylla;
And savage Euxine on the Thracian beach
Lay motionless; anti e\·ery b11ttle-ship
,,.
Stood still; and every ship of merchandise,
And all that sailed, of every name, stood still." - POLLOK.
Absence, or negative description.
"Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, .
As hi!! corse to the rnmpnrtR we hnrric<l;
Not a soldier 1lisclrnrged his farewell shot
O'er the gmvc where our hero was buried." - W'oLFE.
A considerable part of this poem is but a detail of those things
as absent which usually accompany a hero's funeral. Arnl tlult

277
remarkable poem, Byron's Dream on Darkness, also consists of
much ne(J'ative description ; as when he speaks of the planets
wande rin: "ray less and pathless," anu of the earth as being "a
void lum;, seasonlcss, hcrbless, treeless, manless, lifeless." Most.
descriptions of ancient cities consist of allusions to what :.t hey
once were; expresseu in assertions of wha;t they are not now.

Utlllty.
"The cow gives us milk, which is a wholesome and nouri~h'.ng
drink and from which butter and cheese are ,made. The flesh, 'Yh1ch
is cnlicu be~{, is one of the most palntnblc and nutritious kinds o~ meat.
:From the hide, leather is made; and from tho horns arc ma~ufacture1l
knife-handles nnd many other things," etc. · · ·
·'
A large part of literature is but a detail of the utility of things ;
for most thinrrs in the world are useful to man, and therefore much
that is said ~bout them is but an account ·of the ways in which
they are nsed. Dr. Buckland has written an excellent arti~le on
coal, which consists almost entirely of a ' striking •enmneratlou of
the benefits derived from it and from steam •.
~!t

Proverbs, sayings, and aphorisms. , · .

•'

•

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•

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..

A lar(J'e portion of the works of Montaigne consists of pithy
and app~opriate quotations; a nd · many other· writers have ' introduced into their writings, with good effect, proverbs, anecdotes,
authorities, and snatches. of dialogue.
·,
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LESSON

LX.

Exercises.
1. The museuJ:?. contains many curiosities.
Explain this

or continue. a sketch fro.m it. .
Some of them are: living creatures; but mos~ of th~m nre the ~.emain~ o,~ , 11;nim ~ ls that died long
ngo. 011e of tho first nnd J'nost striking objects we snw, wns tho skeleton
of a huge mastodon, a creature thut. ls now extinct. I suppo~ e animals ~f
this kind flourished before the flood. How much I should like to stand m
.. · " I n R
some Recure spot and see one marching close by over a l nrge pr~me
'
corner, near the skeleton
of the masto~on, was a bla.c~ .mu~my tiro~ Egy? t, "
etc. (Extend the sketch.)
·
··
!!~atefl).eqt,

Ex. - "The museum contains many curiosities.

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278

279

2. He was a very amusing companion.

20. Some kinds of labor are in,ore pleasant than others.

Mention some of his traits or peculiarities.

Contrast agreeable kinds

3. Affected people arc always disagreeable.

21. Listen not to :flattery.

Describe some lady that is affected.

4. Spring is the most delightful season of the year.
Mention some of the particulars that make it so.

5. Avarice is one of the meanest vices.
Give an illustration, by describing some miser.

6. A new study presents many difficulties.
Show why, nml give i11~ lanccs.

7. 'l'he amiabl e gain many fri ends.
Show, by contrast, the effects of not being mniable.

wi~h

disugreeable.

Enforce this advice by cause and fable.
Ex. - " Listen not to flattery. There is nothing more pernicious to a
person than to be influenced by it. Flattery increases our vanity, gives us
false ideas of ourselves, and becomes an insurmountable obstacle to improvement. A person that feeds on flattery is very apt to become in a short
time too conceited to exert himself in acquiring knowledge or virtue; and
he is sure to fall, nt length, n. victim to some one thn.t will profit by his folly.
Ilad not the crow lont 11 willing enr to the nrtfnl insinuations of the fox, she
would 11ot have had to mourn, when too late, the co11seque11ces of her silly
vanity . A lady once said, of a very polite man, 'He is too sweet to be
wholesome.' "

8. Knowl edge is wealth and power.

22. '!'here is strength in unity.

Show, by contrast, the slavery an<l misery of the ignorant man.

Enforce this statement by a fable.

9. Pennsylvania is a wealthy State.

23. Perseverance wins in the end.

Show, by some detail, why it is so.

10. Music is one of the most delightful arts.
Support this statement by explanations.

11. Paper is applied to many uses.
Support this statement by an explanation.

12. There was a fire in this city.
Give an account of it, by mentiw1ing cause~, facts, and consequences.

13. It is pleasant to live in Florida during the winter.
Prove this, by describing tho climate and the productions.

14. Farmers are essential to society.
Show how all other classes of society are dependent on the farmer.

15.

w· ar

is a great evil.

l\Iention injuries done in war, and contrast it with pence.

16. Judges ought not to be elected by the people.
Give reasons.

17. The employment molds the cl1aracter.
Show humorously how people reveal their employments by their habits • .

· 18. Some kinds of labor arc injurious to health.
111ustrate by examples.

19. Some kin<ls of labor are better rewarded than others.
Illustrate by contrasted examples.

Enforce. this statement by a fable.

(The bundle of sticks.)
(Tho tortoise.)

24. 'l'o gain fame, ·hard labor is necessary.
l\Iention examples of laborious men, and quote from Milton.

25. Born a wolf, always a wolf.
Change into a fable, _and make an application of it.

26. It has not rained for two months.
Show the effects.

27. It rained last night.
Show the effects.

28. Describe an old man or woman.
Describe the appearance and habits.

29. Describe a child.
Describe the appearance and playfulness.

30. Describe a gentleman; -

a lady; -

a good scholar.

Ex. - " What i~ it to be a gentleman? It is to be honest, to be gentle,
to be generous, to be brave, to be wise, and, possessing all these quulities, to
exercise them in the most graceful outward manner. .A gentleman ought
to be a loyal son~ a true husban<l, a kind father, and a patriotic citizen. His
life should bo decent, his bills should be paid, his tastes should be high and
elegant, his aims in life should be lofty and noble."

. 31. No one can tell how soon he must die.
Draw conclusions:

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280

dence for the wisest purposes, has created an infinite variety in external
uatur~; nnd it is undoubtedly intended that a similar variety should exist in
hum au life."
MT_rit_e similar ske_tcb s on
llowing propositions: -

32. No one knows his ucstiny.
Drnw co11clusio11s.

33. Knowledge is better than riches.
l\fah1tniu this proposition by arguments.

34. Many advantages are derived from machinery.
Illustrate this proposition by examples.

35. We £houl<l make the best use of our time.
Euforce this statement by interrogations. (Figure.)

36. Mau is wonderfully made.
Enforco this statement by exclnnmtious. (Figura.)

37. Appearances are deceiving.

<

I
I

Support this statement by exposition and proverbs or quotntions.
Ex. - "Appenrnnces are deceiving. lltost people hnve n strong tendency
to judge of things ns they nppenr. Thero is little tloubt thnt the first impression, whot.hor favornule or ot.hcrwi~c, mnilo uy nn ouject, is likely to be
cleop nm! lnsting. This impression sometimes nffocts us to the Inst, or even
nfter we nre better ucquaintetl with the object; nnd hence some people rely
ulmost superstitiously on their first judgment. Ilut, though we mny defer
considornbly to om firRt i111press io11, yet if we nro nlwnyl! governed by it,
we shall often have cause to feel the force of the proverb, 'Not nil thnt glitters is gold.' "
Write similar sketches 'on the following propositions: -

38. vV e should attend to but one thing at a time.
(Too many irons in the fire.)

39. Reputation is more precious than wealth.
Quote from Shakespeare.

40. Beware of the first steps to vice.
41. Perfect equality is impossible.

"!i

(Pope.)

Bring history, experience, and analogy to the support of this last proposition.
Ex.-'-" Perfect equality is impossible. There never has existed a nation
without gradation in society; and it is evident that without grades the business of life could not be carried on. There could be neither leader nor follower, commander nor soldier, master nor serv1111t. We all know that a
school soon becmnes tli ~ordcrly where nny of the pupils cease to have n.
proper regard for the teitcher, or where pupils are not properly classified;
and so it would be in every other department of industry. The opinion
thnt there should be no difference of rank in society, is about ns absurd as to
expect that all hills or nil mountains should be of the same hight. Provi·

•

42. Indolence corrodes the mind. ·
43. A 'precocious genius is seldom lasti.zig.
44. There is some good in every thing.
45. Early impressions are the most lasting.
46. Describe winter by what it has not.
47. Describe an uncomfortable room by what it has not.
48. Describe the care which . any animal takes of its
young.
49. Show what protection is provided for different ammals.
50. vVlrnt signs indicate the. approach of winter?
Gl. vVrite a sketch of the du.ties of parents.
52. vV rite a sketch of the duties of children.
[)3. ·w rite a sketch of what people do on Sun<l.ay.
54. Contrast a wigwam with a palace.
·
55. Compare this year or month with the la.st.
56. How do poor people live ? - rich people? - the
Irish? - the Germans? - the A~ericans?
Ex._" Poor people generally have to live in huts or in ren~ed hou.ses.
They.are nearly always compelled to live in the most unproduct_1~e sect101~s
of the country 1 or in the worst and most unhealthy parts of large c1t1es. Their
food is freque ntly coarse and unwholesome; and the_y nre ob.liged to bny
their necessaries in small quantities, thus paying the lughest prices for them.
They are obliged to labor almost constnntly, in order to make a l_iving; .and
even then they must sometimes suffer from want of food or clot_hrng. ~hey
can not afford to ride in fine carriages, like the. rich; 1md they sometimes
feel themselves ·unpleasantly dependent on their employers. NeYertheless,
they have some advantages over the rich. In destitute circumstances, the
poor are better able to take care of themselves; the comforts which ,they
have, they generally et\joy with a keener relish; and they are also geuerally .
hcnlt.hier und more robust."
, ·· ·~

57. '\Vrite a sketch of the natural consequences · of idle~ :
ness; - drunkenness;- fro~t; -·exti;:~vagance ; - ta~Wng; .
-gluttony.

282

•

58. Write a sketch of the causes of death· - sickness .
- cheerfulness; - melancholy.
'
'
~x. - "It is melan choly to retlect that nil Jivi 11 g things have a time to
l"k
flourish, aml then they must die, anti pass away forever. Some th"
the J
mgs, 1 e
caves, come ant1 go periodically; in regard to others 1 Death has •all
seasons for his ow11.' Though the full span of our years is so short that it
seems but a dream_ to those who have reached its end, yet the great majority
of people do not live out even half its length. .Many are killed by accidents; many die from bad treatment; many work themselves to death· aud
many contract some vice, or harbor unconsciously some destructive ele~1011 t
t~iat uncle~wines and destroys the constitution prematurely. Onr bodies ar~
like 11mcl1111es: tho worBo wo uso them, tho sooner they wear out."

fi9. Write a sketch of the effects of win<l; - steam . _
light; - exercise;- lying.
'
60. Compare a teacher to a gar<lener.
61. ·write a sketch of tlie uses of clay;- marble._
wood ; - iron ; - sheep ; - horses ; - potatoes.
'
•

Ex. - "Clny is a kind of soil which is found in the greatest abundance
lt generally 1.Jri11gs superior crops; though it
is ofte11, from its stwky 11ature, <litHcult nut! Ull!>leasm 1t to work. It has n
stro11g ~ende11cy to produce wood; heuce clay soil, unless otherwise cultivated, 1~ generally overrun with woods or forests. This makes fuel haudy
for liurn111g t~e _clay into brick or pottery. And this is probably the reason
why the maJo.nty of houses in the world nre built of brick; and why so
much pottery is used, especially by the poorer classes. It is also remarkable that clay was one of the first substances adopted by mankind to supply
themselves with utensils; for we read of enrt.henware in the Bi Lile.1 aud in
the oldest In<li1tn muu11dg, or tumuli, llnJ found romrli:1s of vessels mude of
clay."
~n many parts. of t~1e world.

..

62 .. Descri1e two or three kinds of horses ; - cattle ; _
sheep; - sugar ; - berries; - hats; - knives.
63. vVhat a<lvantages should we find in Texas ?-in
California ? - in Massachusetts? - in a level country?_
in a hilly country?

.'I,

; I
I

Ex.:---" If we should emigrate to Texas, we should find there an abundm~co of chcnp nnd cxccllc11t land. A moderate sum of mouey would procu10 a pleasant home. We should seldom see a11y snow, for there is scarce-·
ly any cold weather there; and it would 11ot be necessary to provide much
food for cattle in winter. Spri11g liegi11s in February; and it is cnsy to raise
every year an 1tbundunce of corn, cotto11, sugar, figs, nnd peaches."
'

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283

64. Describe a tobacco-plant from the seed, until it ends
in smoke.
65. Describe, with reference to its size, sources, banks~
and termination, the St. Lawrence River; -the Mississippi ; - the Hu<lson.
G6. Make partitions of, and briefly describe the parts:
Tree, flower, horse, eagle, stove, North America.
Ex. - "The principal parts of a tree are the roots, the stem, the branches, the leaves, und the fruit. The roots hold the tree to the ground, and keep
it 111iwi; though they do not furnish nil its nourishment. They grow in a
1.Ju11ch, which, however irregular it may be, usunlly conforms to the general
outline of the branches. Many trees have a long root in the mitldle, which
goes straight down into the ground, and is called the tap-root. The stem of
the tree is the most useful part, or that which is su wed into lumber for
building houses and ships, or maki11g fences and furniture. It is surrounded
by n covering called the bark, which is analogous to the skin of animals . .
A tree has sap, as nn animal has blood; and when a wound is made through
either bark or skin, so as to let out much of the sap or blood, death mny
follow. The branches of the tree rnpport the leaves, blossoms, and fruit;
allll they frequently grow out in such .elegant symmetry as to give the tree
a very beautiful appearance. There is great variety in the branches of
trees, us we can easily see by comparing the top of n. weeping-willow with
that of an oak. When trees are cut down, the branches are generally used
for fire-wood." (Continue the sketch, by describing the leaves and fruit. The teacher can readily see, that sketches like the foregoing can be very
much amplified, and made very interesting and instructive to children.)

67. Make classifications of, and give brief descriptions :
'rrces, roses, animals, bir<ls, books, eyes, houses.
68. Describe flowers with reference to size, shape, and
habits.
(See Hooker's "Child's Dook of Nature.")

69. Write a sketch of the advantages and disadvantages
of traveling ; - ·newspapers; - fashion ; - wealth.
Ex._;" Undoubtedly the best way to learn geogrnphy is to travel, and
see the world \Vith our own eyes, provided we can afford to do so. In no
othor wny can we obtain so nccurato n11d extensive a knowledge of countries, people,' and their institutions. In England, a nobleman's education is
not regarded as complete, without !l certain amount of traveling." There i~
also considerable pleasure in traveling. Every day !lnd every hour presents
· something new, so that the spirits of the traveler arc kept iu a pleasant state

284

285

of excitement by novelty, or by the . constant change of scenery. Perlrnps
from this cause, aR well as from the change of diet., traveling is one of the
best modes of rcstori11g the hcalt.h of invalids; n11d hence RO many people
nre everywhere fon11d that arc 'trnvcliug for their hen Ith! But, on the other
han<l, there nre nlso many disadvnntnges in traYcling. In the first place, it
is very expensive. Birds of passage nre everywhere beset by birds of prey.
Tmvelers nre genernlly charged enormous prices for nil accommodations.
Sometimes their money is stolen from them; and sometimes they are even
murdered for their money. They are also liable to get killed by accidents
in conveyance, as by explosions or by storms. Some people acquire a restless, rumbling disposition by traveling; but most people soon get tired of
being nway from home or without n home. :Excessive traveling is a sort. of
worryi11g of the body; while wnnt of rest and frequent chnnge of diet are
always unpleasant, and sometimes cause sickness. Travelers are also lial.Jle
to catch nny peculiar or contagious disease tlmt may exist in the countries
through which they pass."

spotless snow ; - the death of the flowers ; .:_ falling leaves ;
- a Jrcnching rain;- an old horse, with reference to a politician.

70. Write a sketch of the advantages of language;printing; - order; - history; - mathematics; - gas-light.
71. Write a sketch of the benefits and injuries produced
by fire ;-water ;-winter; - summer.
72. Contrast country life with city life.
73. Study a hive of bees, and describe them ; - a nest
of ants, and describe them; - a be<l of violets or tulips,
and describe them ; - a school, and describe it.
74. Represent a butterfly as giving a history of herself.
Ex. - "I first snw the world from the under side of a large cabbage-leaf.
There were many of us, some scarcely able to crawl; and I remember very
well that the lenf then seemed to me as large and beautiful as a meadow
does now. We feasted on the leaf day and night, and grew very rapidly.
But one day there came a savage-looking creature near us, nnd made a sort
of 'cliurking ' noise in its throat. It seemed to us lnrger than nny of the
terrible giants described in books. Presently it stopped; und, seeing us on
the leaf, it began immediately to eat us nil up. It opened its mouth like a
crocodile, n.nd devoured two or three of us at cYery bite. : One time, as it
made a fierce peck at the leaf, I dropped off; and, falling into n smnll bunch
of curly grass, I was fortunately overlooked. Yesterday, as I was flying
toward 11 bed of beautiful flower~, I ~nw ngain three or four of those monsters which de\·oured my brothers and sisters. I immediately clmnged
my course; and just then some one called out., 'The turkeys are· in the gttrden ! '" etc. (Let the piece be completed.)

75. Draw a moral from hunting;- an opening roso ; -

Ex. -To A SPORTSMAN.
"'Tis pleasant o'er the fields to roamBelle1· to hunt your foes nt home:
Look at your heart, and there descry
The foxes that in ambush lie,
Ready to seize, and bear away,
Each rising virtue as theirprey;

And on with many a crafty wile
The youthful spirit they beguile.
Here level all your choicest skill,
And range no more the lawn or hill;
Subdue the rebels in your breast,
And let the woodland people rest."

76. Novelty is the chief pleasure in traveling.
Support this stntement by giving instances.

77. Be not daunted by difficulties.
Support this statement by referring to . history and experience, and by
appealing to manhood.
' :
·I .

78. A marshy country produces fever. 1 · ,
79. Ignorance 'and crime go hand in hand.
80. vVealth has great influence." , '
1

• .. 1.

"

, ..· · ·' ;

Confirm these Rtatomonts by referring to hi.story, by appealing to experience, and by reasoning. ;"
• ' .'
i · ,.
:1 .•

81. Describe rhistorically, or by ·its relations to the past:
London, Rome, Paris, Constantinople, Venice, St. Angus-:
tine in Florida, Richmond in Virgin~a, New York, ~hila­
delphia.
Ex. - "Not many centuries ago, London oiecupied only about 600 acres;
but now it comprises, with its suburb~, ne~rly 9,000 acres. It is said to be the
Jnro-est cit~; in the world; and it has certainly had a long time to grow in.
It ~ns a city when Julius Cresar invaded Britain; and this occurred before
the birth of Christ. London is therefore at least 2,000 years old. It has never
been sold like Ne'" York City, for tw~nty-four d?llnrs; nor has the st~ck . of
its primi;ive inhabitants · ever been entirel_~f rooted _out. Orig~nally it"\vns
a filthy place, with very narrow streets;' 'and herice fires and diseases often
affiicted it." 'A t last, a great plague and a great fire so depopulated and destroyed it, thaMhere wns not only an opportunity to rebuild'·it on a better
pltt11; but, as necessity is tho mother of invention; the people ao.tmll~y d~­
vised n much ' better plan, and rebuilt it in the general form wh10h it still
has. Like other large and old cities, Lon<lon has been the ·scene ·of great
commotions and great pageantry;" but in this respect it ha.s never eq.ualed
l' tLris. It has also been the workshop of some of the greatest men 111 the

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286 .
;orl<l.

287'

~t wns here thnt Shakespeare wrote hiii i11imit.nble plays, an<l here

a~?n lai<l the fou1~cl:ltion of I.he mo<lcrn tern pie of arts n nd sciences.

.. London c?nta111s a remarkable church, cnllc<l St. l'nnl's Church; a rem .u knlJI~ bm.. ial p~ace, calle<l Westmi11ster Abbey; a rernarlrnble IJrid ,0
cal.le<I Victona Bndgc; an<l a rcmarknblc Tower, in which many <listf ~
gmshed persoug have been impriso11ccl, that were nfterwanls either assnssiimtedb or'Id'
IJchc:ulc<I. . In 18ul, the' World's Eichi1Jitio1
Tl
.
. 1' \Vil"., liel<l ·11 I L OIJf IOil.
1
ui tug occup1e~ for this purpose was built entirely of iron nml glass;
n11< it wa~ about a tlun.1 of a mile long, anti as wi<le as one of the common
squares 111 our cities."

11

7.

. 82. Describe the following cities wi£l1 reference to sitnat1011, for111, size, pceuliarities, auJ j>roi:;11ecf,s · N c\v "' ·]
J.->l •1 <l
.
)
.
.
J . 01 ('
11 a elpllla, Boston, Clncago, St. Louis, San Francisco
'
Galveston, Omaha.
83. Describe ·with reference to tl1e pas t : D ress, cooking,
farming, architecture, navigation.
Ex
'. · - "Tl ie. Irbl
. 1 c tell~ nii that tho flrst gnrmcnt worn hy 011r ancestors
wns s11nply _a fig-lenf, to lrnle their nake<lncss. The nw 8 t sa\·nge nations in
the world st.111 wear some equivalent nrticle; nn<l th ey have very little else,
cx~ept whet e. col<l weather compels them to protect. themselves !Jetter. Snffe1rmg nn<l prnle soon incluced intelligent tribes to supply themselves with
w llltever a!forde<l comfort, or n1.1
· de a s I1ow. A sluverino· ·
·
huuter would
~a~urally try to wear the skin of the benr he had killed; nn:I he would nlso
~e proud to show as a trophy the result of his skill nnd vulor " etc . . (Co _
tmue the sketch. )
'
n

84. Give a sketch of rain, from its beginning to its effects.
85. The man is evidently drunk.
Prove by the signs; and conclu<le either that he ·
drunkard.
is, or that he is not, a

86. Prove, from the evil effects, why mankind naturally
cond.emn cowardice; - pride; - falsehood; _ anger . _
'
avarice ·' - r evenge; - 1"ell eness; - uncleanliness.

'·

'.
.. 'i

ii

Ex. - "Every age and every nation has fixed its stigma on cowardice
Surely, t~en, th~re must be, in the very nature of things, a substantial rea~
son fo.r this sentiment. llfonkind naturally npprove what is to their inter t
nnd disapprove what injures them. The coward is his own enemy and ~: '
~1.1emrof nil who d~pend on him. The surestway to lure on a foe,'and gi~:
11m tie a<lvantnge 111 attack, is to shun him. There is a common 5,1 ·
'Run from a dog and h
·n b'tI e you. , lly abandoning his post, the·' ymg,
'
e w1
cow-

---~

nrd frequently surrenders his friends and relatives to the brutality of a common enemy; an<l by abandoning his post in war, or refusing to take part, he
exposes the property, life, and honor of the whole community, in which
every one has un interest, to the rapacity and insolence of the foe. Cowurdice iilso implies excessive selfishness, and a want of spirit. Inasmuch as
valor i~ ncedctl most among savage nations, cow11nlice is regarded umong
them as a still greater infamy than among civilize<l nations." ·

87. Prove, from the good effects/ why mankind naturally
admire valor;- fidelity; - liberality ;-purity.
88. Show, by referring to the past, the aJvantages of
the nrnrincr's compass; - of tho printing-press; - of tho
spinning-jenny; - of the sewing-machine; - of the cottongin; - of steamboats ; - of railroads; - of telegraphs.
Ex. - ... At first, men doubtless conveye<l themselves from one side of
n stream to the other, by swimming, or by means of rafts and canoes. Rut
1
cimoc~ could IJe used 011ly on rivers an<l small Jukes. Soon larger vessels
were constructed; yet these were oblige<l to keep along the shores of !urge
bo<lies of wnter," etc. (Continue the sketch.)

89. Tell how made or obtained, and mention the 'qualities
an<l uses : Dutter, cheese, ice-cream, honey, salt, sugar, g1ue,
leather, gloves.
Ex. - "Ilntter is generally made from the milk of the cow. When milk
has been allowed to remain several hours nndisturbed, a thick, rich substance, called cream, rises to the surface. This is tnken off by means of a
spoon, or with a tin lndle, full of little holes; through which the milk runs
bnck, !Jut which will not let the cream pass through. The crenm thus taken
off is ~enernlly put into onrthon jnrR, nml kept a· dny or two, until thore is a
sufficieut quantity to begin churning. The jnrs · 'are then emptied into ' n
vessel called a churn, the whole is raised to the proper tempernture, an<l the
churning is commenced. In a short time the butter shows itself in speck~,
which, combining with one another, become larger an<l larger, and soon the
surface is a thick coat of butter. This is then tnken out; an<l what remains
is calle<l butter-milk, which· is a favorite drink among farmers. The bntter
is next washe<l in clear, fresh water, and worke<l up thoroughly, to .cleanse
it from the rr'iilk which may remain." (Complete the sketch;) ., ··

90. Tell where and how obtained; and mention appearance, qualities, and uses: . Gold, silver, lead, iron, cpal, marble, granite, tapioca.
Ex.-" Gold is found in California, Australia, Mexico, South America,
and many other parts of the worl<l. .Much of it is washed from san<l, where

.
'288

289

It genernlly occurs in grains; but sometimes nuggets are found that weigh
several pounds. Perhaps still more gold is crushed out from what is called
auriferous quartz.
"Gold is soft, yellow, nnd heavy; and it becomes very bright when sufficiently polished. It will not rust, nor does it easily become tarnished; nnd
therefore it is well adnpted for ornnment. It is both mnlleable nnd ductile;
nnd when thrown into fire, it can be melt.eel only by menns of very great
heat. Gold is used chiefly as money; but much of it is used for jewelry,
nnd for ornamental purposes in general. As it can be wrought into very
thin leaves, and will then rendily adhere to any solid snrface, a large amount
of it is m:rnufacturcd into gol<l-lenf, which is then used for gilding."

tages, disadvantages, and some example or instance: Friend'ship, hate, love, envy, ambition, anger, sleep.

91. Describe with reference to appearance, qualities, and
uses: Sugar, bread, milk, fur, glass, sponge, lea<l, sunshine,
water.
92. Describe with reference to parts, appearance, qualities, and uses: Pin, book, pen, egg, clock, knife, table,
school-house, orange, apple, honey-comb, cabbage, steamengine.
93. A good temper is the principal source of happiness.
Show that there are many things, in our daily life, to annoy us, if we
are disposed to be fretful.

94. Describe with reference to head, feet, feathers, and
tail: Owl, goose, wren, snow-bird, humming-bird, jay, oriole,
turkey, peacock.
Ex. - "The owl has a large head, with lnrge eyes. On the upper part
of the head are frequently two tufts of feathers, resembling ears. The head
looks so much like that of the cat, that a person would naturally take the
owl to be a mouse-catching bird. The beak is sharp and curved, like that
of the hawk. The feet have long, sharp claws, and are also adapted,
like the beak, for catching and killing animals. The feathers of the owl
are of a brown-speckled color, and somewhat lighter on the under side of
the bird than on the upper. They form a remarkably soft and loose covering, so that the owl can pounce upon its prey the more succesEfully, because
in flying it makes scarcely any noise whatever. The tail has nothing remarkable about it."

95. Describe the same birds by their mode of living,
manner of flying, an<l kin<l of song or noise.
9G. ·write a sketch ~olllprisiug definition, signs, advan-

Ex. - "Friendship is a permanent feeling of mutual kindness that binds
together two persons of nearly the same age, the same situation in life, and
the same sentiments. It is a strong and habitual inclination in two persons
to promote the good and happiness of each other.
"A friend may be known by the affectionate expression in his countenance, the mild luster of his eye, his winning smile, and the mellow sweetne$S of his voice. Friends are also fond of being in each other's company;
and therefore when we see two or more persons frequently together, without lrnsineRs relations between them, it is one of the best signs that they are
friends. But the most relhble test of friendship is in adversity. 'A friend
in need is a friend indeed,' is a common saying. A friend will assist and
comfort his frieml in distress; and when denth has prod need a separation,
he will decorate his grave and his memory with the symbols of affection.
" Friendship has many advantages, and some disadvantages. It is very
seldom that a person without friends can reach a high position in society.
Friends support and mngnify fortune and fame. They also afford us much
of our private and social happiness. But, on the other hand, friends waste
much of our time, and sometimes of our property; and occasionally they
cause us much trouble by their imprudence or infirmities.
"Historv furnishes some remarkable instances of friendship, one of
which is th~t of Damon and Pythias. Damon, having been condemned to
death by Dion,vsius, obtained permission to take leave of hi.~ famil.v, Pythias
pledging his lifo for the return of his friend on the day of execution. He
faithfully returned; and Dionysius was so pleased with their mutual attachment, that he not only pardoned them, but took them both into favor.",

97. · 'iVrite a sketch comprising introduction, reasons,
similes, illustrations from history, proverbs ox quotations,
conclusion:1. Pride is the bane of happines~.
2. Wisdom is better than moll.ey,
3. None are completely happ.y..

Ex. -

PRIDE

rs

THE BANE OF HAPP.INESS.

Introduction. - "An overweening conceit of our own merits and
superiority, nccompanic<l by n m.cnn opinion of every other person, will
be a source of such ~~1\stant annoyance to us as to imbittcr lifo and
I
make us very unhappy.
Itonsons. - "A proud mnn esteems himself too highly, and is not
satisfied unless other people treat him with a reverence equal to his own
19

........

~

-,.._~ ,~-"""T-

~___,._,_-o;;.o;;,;,...,

_____ .._._ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

2UO
conceit; but ns none will do this, except from intercstccl motives, he
must feel annoyed by every one with whom he comes in contact. He
thinks too meanly of every person except himself, and is not willin~ tu
pay others the respect which they deserve; in consc1p1cncc uf which they
soon commence retaliation. They will endeavor to withhold frum him
even the respect, favors, nml honors, which nre dnc to him; nn1l u.; he
is nt>t to be unusually sensitive, he must feel unusnally mortified when
they expose his foibles, and try to mnko the most of them. 1le will
not only suffer from real insults, but often from Imaginary slights; and,
as the wants and hopes of pride nre almost boundless, his heart will be
harassed by an excessive multitndo of disappointments. His pride is I\
barrier to improvement. ; 111111 ho soon loses the sympathy of everybody,
while his enemies arc constantly increasing.
Similes. - " When the peacock spreads his gorgeous tnil in the
swelling of his pride, the other bin.ls instantly cry out against his ugly
legs nrul YOice. The humble rill is sweet nnd clear, but the prond torrent is muddy and t11rh11lcnt. The mo1lest violet is sweet-scented and
long-lived; !mt the proud tulip blooms for a few days only, and is without perfume.. And the proud oak is riven by the thunder-bolt, while
the humLle bush lives unharmed through the storm.
Ilistorical Illustrations. - "The prille of Alexander the Great
made him · Lclicve himself a go1l; and this fUJl_v lc1l him into every
kind of extravagance, - even tu dri11k more wino than nny other
mun, to prove his superior nature. llnt this ahsurd pride threw him
into a fever, of which he died in the prime of life.
"Haman, though plnced in the conrt of Ahasnerus above all the
princes of the realm, w11s wretched, hecnnso .Mor1lcc11i, a poor Jew,
wo11ld not bow down to him. This overweening pride Ice! llaman i11to
a murderous plot against the whole race of Israel; which Leing found
ont, Haman was hanged on a gallows he had caused to Le erected for
l\fordecui.
Quotations. - "Solomon says, 'A man's pride shnll bring him
low.' An,l again, 'Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit
before a fall.' :Franklin says, 'Pride dines on vanity, nnd sups with
contempt.' And Loni Bacon says, 'A proud man, while he despises
others, neglects himself.'
' to hi ind
'Of all the cnnses which conspire
l\'[ an's errin g jnllgment, and misguide the mind,
"Vhat the wenk head with strongesi bias rules,
Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools.' - PorE.
I

. 't

............

..,.~~---------""------"'"""

'-=--~-------------

291
Conclusion. - "Since, then, pride is so injmious to prosperity
nnd happi11ess, let us wntch our couduct carefully, and divest our~clves
of all excess of pride. Let us be modest, yet without sacrificing courngc nnd self-respect.''

!:>8. vVrite a sketch comprising definition, cause, antiquity, universality, classification, advantage, disadvantage, and
conclusion : Government, education, society.
GOVERNMENT.

Definition. - " Government is tho restraint nnd direction cxcrdscd ovc1· tho nctions of men in communities, societies, or states. l)ublic
nffairs, nnd the general conduct of the people, are thus in most cases
controlled according to an established constitution, and a code of written laws enacted in conformity with it. Government is the soul of society, establishing that order among rational creatures which produces
most of the benefits they enjoy. A nation may be regarded as a large
family; and the supreme power, wherever it is lodged, is the common
parent of every individual.
·
Cause. - "The necessity of government lies in the nature of
mnn. If the individuals of a community were not restrained by salutary laws, each would be controlled by his own interest and selfishness,
with very litt•e regard for the . rights of others. It becomes therefore
11cccssary to huvo that established power which is called go1•ern111e11t,
and which will compel every person to do what is right, and deter him
from doing what is wrong. An eminent historian has said, that though
men may exist twenty-four hours without · food, they can not exist for
the same length of time without government. 'l'hut portion of his
natural rights which every one must give up to secure n government,
is but a concession made for the protection of his own life and property,
for without government neither would be safe.
Antiquity.-" We find, accordingly, that in every age of the
world some kind of government has existed among the tribes and
nations of the earth ; and so prominent has been this fact that almost the
whole of ancient history is but a record relating to kings or chieftains.
Universality. - "We find also at the present day, in every
part of the world, some kind of government wherever people nrc found.
Even the rudest among the sayage nations have their kings and chiefs,
whose word is law, and whose power is seldom disputed.' Ilut ~ovcrn­
mcnt, in its least exceptionable form, is generally found among the most
civilized or enlightened people.

202
Classification. - "All the governments in the worl<l cnn be
rctl need to three ki ndR, -11w11ard1.'f, ari.~llJcrm:,'/, n111J de11wcrac.'I· 111 a
111011archy, the sovereign power is lodged in a singlo itulivi1lual; i11 1111
11ristoerncy, it is wicltlctl by n special elass, usually enllctl the 11ul1ility;
111111 in n democracy it is lodged in the people at large, aml generally
wielded hy their elected rcprcscntath·cs. Monarchy prevails 11111011;,;savage tribes and unenlightened nations; Venice was once governed
hy a famous aristocracy; and most of the governments on the American continent are specim ens of democracy. All these different forms
of government have general and peculiar advantages a11d disadvantages.
Advantage. - "The great advantage of government is, that
it establishes order and security; and when these are established, industry, arts, sciences, comforts, and luxuries soon follow. The virtuous
are protected, and the bad are punished. Right prevails over might.
And in the eye of the Law, the strongest are not stronger than the weakest, and the weakest arc as strong as the strongest.
Disadvantage. - "Every form of government is liable to abuse.
They who are in power are engaged in a constant struggle to maintain
that power, while the ambitious and aspirin"' arc ca•yerly watchin(J'
I:>
"
"
every opportunity to supplant them. This gives rise to parties and
cabals, to plots and intrig ues, to treachery, treason, and rebellion, to
civil wars and family feuds, in which frequently the innocent must
.share the punishment prepared for the guilty. But these evils are
light in comparison with those which spring from anarchy, or waut
of government.
Conclusion. - "It is therefore the duty of every one to support,
with lifo and treasure, the government under which it has plensc1l Providence to place him, until that government shows by its actions that the
good of the people for whom it was instituted is not its aim, and thereby
renders rebellion an unavoidable evil, if not n commcn<lahle virtue."
The last two models we have adapted from 'Valker's Rhetorical Grammar.

99. Write a sketch from the following heads: I. We begin life in darkness, and leave it with remorse.
2. The fault is chiefly our own.
. 8. Light and huppines11 must be sought in the soul, rather than
out of it•.
Ex. - "'Ve pass the first years of this life in the shades of ignorance, the succeeding ones in pain and lnbor, the latter part in grief and
remorse, and the whole in error : we scarcely suffer ourselves to pos-

293
sess one bright day without a cloud. Let us examine this matter with
sincerity, nrrd we shall agree that our di stresses arise chiefly from onrsel\'es. 1t is Virtue alone that can render us superior to .F ortutlll; we
quit her standard, lllt<I the comlmt is no longer .equal. l•'ortune mocks
us; site turns us on her wheel; she raises and abases us at pleasure;
but her power is founded on our weakness.· This is an old-rooted evil,
but it is not ineurnblc: there is nothing a firm and elevated mind can
not accomplish or endure. The discourse of the wise, and the study of •
good books, are the best remedies; but to these we must join the consent of the soul, a sµirit of contentment, without which the best 11dvice
will be useless. Ignorance, irresolution, and irreligion arc the greatest
poverty and fully."

In like manner write a sketch from the following heads : NovELS. - 1. Most novels are either the flimsy productions
of those who write for bread, or the offspring of vanity in the idle
and illiterate, or poor imitations of some few novels .which are
really good.
· ·
· ·
. ·' '
2. Novels give us false views of life; they palliate t.he ' vices
and follies of mankind, and un<lerrate the sober virtues.
3. No.vels vitiate the taste, just as strong and adulterated liquors vitiate the stomach, an<l hurt the constitution.

100. Amplify the story of Damon and Pythias.
Ex. - ( Se.e pu,ge 289.) " Damon and Pythias were in ti mate friends~
Damon, being condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius, demanded
liberty to go home for the purpose of setting his affairs in order; .and
his friend offered himself to be his surety, nnd to · submit to death if
Damon should not return. Every one thought he knew what the end
of the affair would be, and began to condemn Pythias for so rash an
act; but he, confident of the integrity of his friend, waited the appointed time with cheerfulness. Damon, strict to his engagement, returned at the appointed time. But Dionysius so much admired their
mutual fidelity, that he pardoned Damon, and asked to be admitted into
the friendship of two such worthy men.".
.
'
Ampli(y this story again and again.
~Amplifying nnd abridging (sec p. 112) nre two of the best exercises.
The tcnclwr should select n few brief n1Hl striking nnccdotes, for nmpl!Ocntlon .
'l'o amplify n subject, the pupil should carefully study the circumstances, and
glYc ns much vivid detail as possible . . I-le may Introduce dialogue, similes,
compnrlsons, qu otations, antith eses, and historica l allusions. But amplfficatlon
should consist rather In tlie addition of more matter than In the expansion of
the language.

295

294

101.

l'rfake a set of stanzas with the following rhymes: ••• dawn ... fair ... ray
.•. fields ... shades ... flocks
.•. plains •.. mine •.. heat ... bowers ..• darts ... renew
••• lawn ... hair ... play
· ... yiehls •.. maids •.. rocks
•.. swains ... divine ... sweet ... flowers ... hearts ..• mlieu
This exercise of completing stanzas from r11ymes given by one person to
puzzle another, wiis a favorite cliverBiou among the great wits of the reign of
• Queen Ellznbcth. It was also revived in that brilliant circle of friendship which
comprised Itogou, Dyron, Uoore, Shelley, Oumpboll, and Loigh Hunt. Tho
above exercise is taken from them.

102.

Apply to the following subjects the topical i<leas on

page 2G6, an<l write such sketches as you can: Sea, earth, mountains, rivers, islands, sun, moon, sky,
vegetables, trees, flowers, quadrupeds, leaves, bir<ls, fishes,
insects, fruits, grain, the seasons.

103. Reproduce, abri<lge, or amplify an interesting narrative; change a poem into prose, or write a free paraphrase
or critique on some favorite poem; translate into your own
language an excellent and co11genial skctd1 written

Ill

some

foreign language that you understand.
In schools .where different languages nre tnught, there can be no better exercise than the la8t; nnd we venture to say, thntfrw great nuthors will be produced
;when foreign or cbssic languages cease to be taught or studied.

104.

Study regularly the various parts of a superior news-

paper, and learn to reproduce them, or to write similar
sketches. -Keep a diary for a year.
For instance, Jcarn to write notices, advertisement~, obituaries, editorinls,
sketches of home or foreign news, narratives, descriptions, biographies, critiques, etc. Our largc•t nnd best newspapers furnish, In the course of n yen~,
.almost every kind of literature, nml great variety of these kinds; from all of
which can be easily learned, by careful observation, a highly useful and practical art of composition.
.

105.

Read a play of Shakespeare or some other drama-

tist, select one of the best characters,

and reproduce it m

prose.
For instance, let a class read and study The llfe1·clrnnf of Venice; and
then let each student select such a character of the phy as he o.r she may
prefer to write nbout, with the determination of producing as good a prose
sketch as possible.

It is also well to give all the higher classes of one school, village, or city,
or under one superintendency, some great subject to be stuclieu and investigated during an entire session, or a whole school-year, at the end of which,.
time every student is to read, or send in, as thorough and original a composition ns possible, anu to receive according to its merit a percentage of credit
nnd honor. Let such subjects be 'Vashington, Bonaparte, Pericles, the
United States, l\Iexico, Great Britain, Christmas, the Fourth of July, the
Pacific Railroad, etc. Children will thus acquire habits of deep thought
and thorough investigation, as well as learn to concentrate their thoughts.
But great care shoulu be taken in selecting the subjects; for these are likely
to mohl the character of the child, or leave a lasting influence.
·
~ In the great variety of exercises comprised in the two foregoing Lessons, we have endeavored to show both how inventive skill is nat\lrally developed, and in what various directions the mind can turn to
supply herself with thought on any suujcct. These exercises are a sort
of trial sketches, more difficult than the writing of mere sentences, and
yet not so difficult as the writing of exhaustive and symmetrical compos1t10ns. Perhaps we shoulU say that these trial · or parngraph exercises
arc analogous to what artists call "studies." ··· Ruskin tells us that Tur·
ner not only produced some of the greatest works of genius, but that he
left behind him nearly 70,0UO unfinished or trial sketches I And . a carpenter, fur instance, does not learn his art by undertaking a palace at
the outset of his apprenticeship; but he is rather required to make at
first a mere box, then something more difficult, and so on until he can
build a house. The greater the command is which we have ~ver any
thing, the more likely ·are we to be successful in our combinations.
The inventor who can constantly keep before his mind's eye the greatest array of the mechanical items and their simple combinations, is likely to invent the best machine; and the writer who has the greatest com.
mund of all the elements of thought and language, is likely to produce
the best composition. · Dryden well understoo.d .this, when he said .that
"Shaketipc1u-c, of all the moderns, had the most comprehensive soul .
All the images of nat.ure were still [constantly] present to him; and he
drew them, not laboriously, hut luckily'." Daniel Webster, 11fter he
had made his great speech in reply to Hayne, said to a friend, " All I
ever knew I saw." ' And it is indeed only those few imperial minds that
have not only vast acquirements, !mt such p'owers of memory and imagitrntiun that tlw,v <lo nct.nally .w?P. every thing they ever know, or ovory
thing that is, whose productions astonish the world.
·

296
LESSON LXI.

Description.
At the first glance, description seems to be the easiest
kind of composition; Lut reflection anti experience soon
convince us that it is probably the most difficult. Description is akin to drawing, painting, and sculpture. Very
little skill is required to produce a caricature outline of an
object or a scene, in any of these arts; but the highest
genius can lrnnlly reach perfection.
Every composition must be an extended thing in the
order of time; therefore narrative naturally falls in with the
order of composition. But description often compels us to
present a wide and instantaneous view ; and then it is that
we are apt to lose something from the necessity of mentioning one thing after another, or of delivering in a narrow
length of bits a great circumference of picture. There is
also apt to be more novelty in events than in objects. If a
man mentions to me the head of a horse, I may grow tired
of hearing him give a detail of the remaining parts; for I
knew beforehand that all these parts usually accompany tho
head; but if he tells me that he shot a deer, I could not
infer from this fact that the next thing done was his capture by some Indians. Hence there is a spirit of curiosity
that can be kept alive in a story, which it may be impossible
to infuse into a description. It is well known how fond of
stories many people are, and how keen they are to trace a
story to it.s end. Again, when a landscape has been
described, it does not vanish immediately afterwards; but
it remains, and may be visited by other persons, who will
be apt to compare with it the description, and condemn the
latter if it is not truthful and artistic ; but no one can go
back and so easily scrutinize by-gone actions, to ascertain
whether any important thing has been omitted or misrepre-

297
sented. Actions c2~n generally be seen but once, and the
past ·soon grows dim. In Lockhart's I.rife of Scott there is
a passage that ha; been frequently quoted:- ·
"On his visiting Rokcby, he saicl to me,' You have often given me
rnnterinls for n 1·omnnco; now I wnnt n good robber's cnvc, nnd an oltl
church of the right sort.' . We rode out, nnd he found whnt he wanted
in the oh.I slate quarries of Brignal, nnd the ruiue.d Abbey of Egi.:lestonc. I observed him noting down even the peculiar little wild-flowers
and herbs that accidentally grew ~round, and on the side of a bold crag,
mar his intended cave of Guy Dcnzil ; nnd conltl not help snying, that
ns ho wns not to bo upon onth in his work, daisies, violets, un<l primroses would be as poetical as any of the humbler plants he was cxamin~
i11g. I laughed, in short, at his scrupulousness; but I understood him
wl~en he replied, 'that in nature herself no two scenes ~re ex.a ctly aHke;
nud that whoever copies truly what is before his eyes, will possess the
samu variety in his descriptions, and exhibit apparently an imagination
ns boundless as the range of nature in the scene he records; whereas,
whoever trusts to imagination will soon find his own mind circmnscribcd and contracted to a fow favorite imi1gcs, and the repetition of
these will, sooner or later, produce that very monotony and barrenness
which have always haunteil descriptive poetry in the hands of any but
patient worshipers of truth.' . . . Wheri I was forced sometimes
to confess, with the knife-grinder, 'Story I God bless you I I have
none to tell, sir,' - he would laugh, and say, 'Then let us make one:
~othing so easy as to make a tradition.' "

Sir "\Valter very wen · understood this matter. . Though
greater exactness is required not merely for the sake of
variety, but also for making a more truthful and effective
selection of elements. To give a minute and vivid detail is
generally the best way to make the description interesting
and effective; but the art of describing lies rather in the
' selection of those few bold and characteristic items which
imply the. rest. The following lines are a brief illustration:
"Lo~k I in this place ran Cassius' dagger through I
See what a rent the envious Casca made!
.
Through this - the well-beloved Brutus stabbed; 1
And, as he plucked his cursed steel away,
·
Mark how the blood of Cresur followed it!" - SnAK.

298
In the first place, you should be careful to select a subject
that is worthy of d~scription. Then vie\y an<l stu<ly it from
. the most favorable stand-point. An artist is careful to place
his subject in that position which will give the best picture.
Audubon, in his great work on ornithology, always took his
~ubjects for description in their most interesting sit~ation
and demeanor; and this was probably one of the chief
causes why his work rose into immediate popularity. Next
form a simple plan, which will be the better the more original it is; an<l show this plan to your reader if it will assist
or interest him. "The battle of \Vaterloo," says Victor
Hugo, "was fought on a piece of ground resembling a capital A. Tho English were at the apex, the French at tho
feet, and the battle was decided about the center." Such
an outline of plan the reader can easily remember, and it
will assist him throughout the description.
Study your subject with reference to its parts, their position and relations, the most interesting and striking qualities
and actions, the relations to other objects, especially to persons; and let your fancy and feelings play fully upon it, if
· it is a subject that admits of either ornament or pathos.
Conceive clearly, distinctly, vividly, and fully whatever is to
. be described: clearly, so as not to present any part errone• ously; distinctly, so as to distinguish the object from
: others; vividly, so as to make the most effectual impressio11;
. and fully, so as to give a complete picture or description.
: y ciu can not make another see an<l feel what you <lo not see
and feel yourself; and one of the chief merits of great
· writers is 'the correctness, clearness, and vividness of their
· conceptions. Make a selection of those things only which
are most. striking and interesting; and be ·careful not to
overload your description, nor to make any erroneous statements. In<leed, you can not be too careful about truth
vividn-0ss, and beauty; and you will generally find ever;

Ji

299
thing that is remarkably beautiful, picturesqtie, sublime,
terrible, or novel, a suital>le item for your description.
You should always regard, too, the intelligence and feelings
of your readers; and bear in mind that what is abstract,
internal, or remote, is generally best described by _its signs
or effects.
" '"
. · •'' . 1. '·.. . :,
1 ,. ·'
It is sometimes better not t~ describe a scene' just when
we view it, or when our feelings are at their highest. 'l'he
poet Campbell preferred to write shortly afterwards, or when
the insignificant detail had faded from his mind, and the
great outlines stood forth in accordance ·with his ' own
beautiful couplet: -

.

"'Tis distance lcn<ls enchantment to the view,
An<l robes the mountains .in their azure hue."

Speclmcns. ·

'

:

.

Jn the following description, the
ble point of vi~w : - ·

wril~r

.•

"l

•

'

has1 carif?flly selected the mos~ favora·

EorNnuaou. - "If I were to choose a spot from which the rising
or setting sun could be seen to the greatest possibie advantage, it would
. be that wild path winding round the foot of' the · high belt of semicircular rocks called Salisbu1·.11 Cm!JS, and marking . the verge of tho 11teep
descent which slopes down into the glen on · the south-eastern side of'
. the city of' Edinburgh. The prospect, in its general outline, commands
a close-built, high-piled city, stretching itself out beneath in a form
. which, to a romantic imagination, may be supposed to represent a dragon; -now a noble .arm of the · sea, with its rocks, isles, distant shores,
boundary of mountains; and now a fair and fertile champaign country,
. varied wilh hill, dale, and rock, nnd skirted by the picturesque ridge of
the Pentland Mountains. But as the path gently circles round the base
. of the cliffa 1 the prospect, composed as it is of these ·enchanting and
I
•
.
sulilime ohjccts; changes at every step, nnd presents them blended with,
or divided from, one another, in every possible variety .\vhich can gratify
the eye nnd , tho imagination. When a piece of seoncry so beautiful,
.yet so varic1l,-so exciting .by its intricacy, and yet so suhlime,-is
lighted np by the tints of morning or of evening, anrl displays aH that
·,variety of shadowy depth exchanged with partial brilliancy, which gives
ch ~mwtor even to the tah1cst oflnndscnpes, the effect approaches nciir to
enchantrnent.'' - Sin WALTER SCOTT,

301

300
Tlte following is an exquisite specimen
baclcground ef sorrow : -

ef reviving description, based on a

Sw1TZEHLAND. - "I came into the valley ns the cvcnincr snn wns
shi11i11g on the remote hights of snow, that closed it in like eternal
douds of silver. The bases of the mountains, the gorge in which the
village lay, were richly green; and high above this gentler vegetation
grew forests of dark fir, cleaving the wintry snow-drifts, wedge-like, nnd
stemming the avalanche. Above these were rnnge upon range of craggy
steeps, gray rock, bright ice, and smooth verdure-specks of pasture, all
gradually blending with the crowning snow. Dotted here nnd there on
the 11101111tni11's siilc, <~nch tiny <lot a home, wcro lo11ely wootlcu cottages,
so dwnrfod by the towering hights that they seemed too small for toys.
So did even the clustered village in the valley, with its wooden bridge
across the stream, where the strenm tum ble1l over broken rocks, nnd
roared away among the trees. In the quiet nir, there wns n sonml of
distant singing,
- shepherd voices; but, ns one briuht
evening cloud
•
b
floated m11.lwny along tho mountain's side, I could nlmost hnvc Lclicvcd
the sound came from there,' and was not earthly music. All at once,
in this serenity, great Nature spoke to me; and soothed me to lay
down my wcury head upon the grass, nml weep as I had not wept yet,
since Dora died ! " - D1c1rnNs.
The following sketch is drawn on a basis

ef humorous feeling: -

THE VILLAGE INN. - "At such a time, one little road-side inn,
snugly sheltered behind a great elm-tree, with a rare sent, for idlers,
encircling its capacious trunk, addressed a cheerful front toward the
tra\'e)cr, as n house of entertninment ought, nnd tempted him with
many mute assurances of n cornfortal>lo welcome. The ruddy signboard, perched up in the tree, with its golden letters winking in the sun,
ogled the passer-by from among the green leaves, like a jolly face, nnd
promised good cheer. Tl1e horse-trough, full of clear, fresh water, and
the ground belo'Y ih spri11~let.l \Yith drqppings of frngrnnt hay, made
every horse that passed pl'lc~ up, his ears. The crimson curtains in the
lower rooms, an!\ the pure whi'te hangings in the little bed-chambers
nbove, beckoned, Come iii! with every hre~~h pf air. Upon the bright
green shutters there were golden legends nbon~ peer and ale, and nent
wines, and good beds; and l\Tt affcetin~ picture of n hrown jug frothing
O\'er at the top. Upon the window-sills were flowering plants in bright
red pots, which made a lively show ngainst the white front of the house;
und in the darkness of the door-way there were streaks of light which
glanced off from the surfaces of bottles and tankards.

"On t.he <lbor-step appeared the proper figure of a landlord, too; :or
thouµ-h he wns n short mun, he wns round and broad; and stood with
his hands in his pockets nm! his legs just wide enough apart to express
,
1 . ,,
a mind at test upon the subject of the general resources of t 1e mn.
. DICKENS.
The followi11g is on a satirical basis : - ·
.
"It was Miss Murdstone who had arrived, and a gloomy-looking
Indy she was; dark, like her brother, whom she greatly resembled. in
face and voire; and with very heavy eyehrows, very nearly meetmg
orcr her lnrge nose, as if, hcin~ disnhled hy the wrongs of her sex from
wcn rincr whiskers, she hacl carried them to thut account. She hro11µ-l1t .
with h~r two uncompromising hard black boxes, with her initials on the
lids in hard brass nnils. When she paicl the coachman, she took her
mo:iey out of a hard steel purse, and she kept the purne in a very j.ail
of a bug, which hung upon her arm hy a heavy chain, and shut up like
n bite. I hnd never, at that time, seen 'such a metallic lady altogether
as Miss Murdstone was." - DICKENS.
The f0Uowi11g 1~s 011 a poetic basis : -;S1rnN ANDO All VALLEY. - "Beyond are mount.nins piled on mountains, like an uptossed sea of ridges, until they melt away in ~he distance, and imnginution fancies others .still_ further on. ,lli~h m. bli'.o
ether float clouds of snowy whiteness; and far above them, m m11Jest1c
flight, sails t.h e bird of the ·mountain, with an air as wild, us free, as
tho spirit of liberty. How every thing is rejoicing nround ! . lmrnmernble songsters are warbling sweetest · music; wild-flowers, with the
morning-dew scarcely off their lips, arc laying their bri~h~ ~hc?ks to
the sun; and even the tiny insects, that flit throug-h the air, JOlll m the
universal hallelujah."
[11 the following description is a fine plug of fancy: ~ .

YARDLEY OAK.
" Th~u was~ a bauble once - a cup and bnll,
Which babes might play with ; and the thievish jay,
Seeking her food, 'with ease might have purloined
The auburn nut that held thee, swallowing down
!Thy yet close-folded lntitude of boughs ·
And all thine embryo vastness at a gulp.
But fate thy growth decreed; autumnal rains .\
Beneath thy parent tree mellowed the soil
Designed thy cradle; and a skipping deer.

..
302

303

With pointed hoof dibbling the glehc, prepared
The soft reccptnclc, in which, secure,
Thy rudiments should sleep the winter through."
COWPER.
The.followi11.'I descn:µtions are cast deep in the ideal: AUTUJllN. - "The monntuins that enfold
In their wide sweep the colored lundscnpc round,
Seem gronps of giant kings, in purpled gold,
That guard the enchanted ground."
OuR HEROES WHO FELL IN MEx1co.
"On Fmtie's eternal camping-ground
Their silent tents nre spread;
Where Memory guards, with solemn round,
The bivouacs of the dead." - PRENTICE.
LOVE. - "It is ns if high winds in heaven
Had shaken the celestial trees,
And to this earth below had given
Some feathered seeds from one of these.

"0 perfect love that dnrcth long!
Dear growth, that, shaded by the palms,
And breathed on by the angels' song,
Blooms on ill heave11's eternal calms." - lNOELOW.
" She nC\·cr told her love,
But let concealment, like a worm in the bud
Feed on her damask check: she pined in th~ught;
And, ·with a green and yellow melancholy,
She sat, like Patience on a monument 1
Smiling at grief." - SnAKES~EARE.
In the Ideal, when rightly m:rnagcd, probably the highest effects are reached.
Hence Hom er, Dante, Goethe , Shakespeare, and Milton selected also subjects
that gave this boundless sky to the wings of their genius.
.

The followi11g speci111e11s are remarkable for strengtit
co11ceptio11 : '

and vividness of

"I sec before me tho glndintor lie:
Ile leans upon his hand; his manly brow
Consents to death, but conquers agony,
And his drooped head sinks gracfoally low ; ·
'Vhile through his side the last drops, ebbing 11low

From the red gash, foll heavy, one by one,
Like the first of a thunder-shower; and now
The arena swims nround him : he is gone,
Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won."
BYRON.
Such writing Is not only picturesque, but atatuesque.

"And as imagination bodies forth
The forms of things unknown; the poet's pen
Turns them to shape, and gives to airy nothing
A local habitation and a name." - SnAK.
Tlw.following sketches m·c re111arkablefo1: the selectio11 of those things only
which are most strilci11g : .

" How often have I paused on every charm, The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm,
The never-failing brook, the busy mill, ' .
The decent church that topped the neighboring hill, .
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, · 1
For talking ago and whispering lovers mado." - GOLDBMITII.
"Ho was a tall, lmndsomo fellow, whose chief ?Ccupation seemed to
be that of standing about in picturesque attitudes, and watching otb~r
pooplo work.'' - Mns. AGASSIZ.
This Is but too often the characteristic of handsome people.

"There was now only ono man left; a short-legged, long-bodied,
plethoric fellow, with a very large sandy head. He sat by himself with
a glass of port-wine negus, and a spoon ; sipping nnd stirring, and
meditating and sipping, until nothing was left but the spoon. ·He
gradually fell asleep, bolt upright in his chair, with the empty glass before him ; and the candle seemed to fall asleep too, for the wick grew
long nnd black, and cabbaged at the end, and dimmed the little .light
that was in the chamber." - IRVING.
, .
"Re sat by himself" - an admirable touch, to show' his selfishness. · ; '

/TIMOTHY. L-" lle was a tall, thin, wind-dried man, with extremely
sharp, angular fy~turcs, and a complexion deeply bronzed by the exposure to which l~e had been suhjcctcd for so '. many years. His scanty
head of hair was of a sunburnt color; his beard of ~ month\ growth
at least; and his eye, of sprigl)tly blue, never rested for a 'moment in
;.ts socket. It glanced from side to side, and up and do\vn, and .here
and there, with .indescribable rapidity, as if in search of some object o~ .

305

304
interest, or apprehensive of sudden danger.
nlarum." -11 AULl>ING.

It was a perpetual silent

This Is nn ndmirnblc <lcscription of n backwoods hunter. Every thing
thnt Is peculiar and striking is brought out; but particularly the eye, on which
the hunter had long depended for his liYelihood nnd safety, and which had undergone very thorough and peculiar training, Is set forth with unusual prominence.

All imitative sketches, of which there are so many excellent specimens in English literature, belong to description. (See Onomatopooia,
p. 240.) The following sketch is imitative of the richness, luxuriance,
and abundance of the tropics : Acnosf! THE faT 11 M Uf!. - " The ride wns a rare rc,·elntion. All
was substnntially new and strange to our Northern eyes; nml we stared,
and wondered, and absorbed, through nil this tropical passage. The
sun wus not fierce; a person will suffer more from heat in a ride
from Springfield to New York, on a dry nnrl dusty Augu~t day:
but the warmth was deep and high; it lay in thick, heavy, sensuous
folds in the air; it did not fret, hut it permeated, and subdued, and enriched. With Nature, it was a season of rest; colors were dulled from
the spring and early summer hues; but what quantity of every thing!
what ripeness and fullness! what luxuriant, wanton rioting I There
was no limit to variety or ahuntlancc of tree, and shrub, and weed, aml
vegetable, and herb, and flower, and grass. Waste and robbery there
could not be in such abundance; the vacancy of to-day's ax or fire is
filled to-morrow; only daily use of hatchet or scythe keeps open path.
Palms everywhere, singly and in groves, with great rough fruit, rich
in oil; ferns as trees, and in forests; clusters of bananas as big as 11n
honest two-bushel chan:oal-haskct, yet hidden hy the generous leaves
of their tree; bread-fruit nm! co<"oa-nnts ripening and rotting out of
reach of man or beast; tall oaks 11nd short oaks; little trees and big
trees o[ every family, interlaced so closely that you could not tell where
one began 11nd the other left off; vines, tender and strong, marrying
every thing to everybody, running up, and running down, and running
around, dropping dow!J lines straight and stiff like ropes, then rising
ngain, all through the woods, making swings everywhere, bnt permitting
no place for their play; huge, coarse, flaming flowers, and delicate, tender microscopic blossoms, holding up their cups by road-side, between
rnils, on every h1111d; und occasionnlly, nmong the thick foliage, tho
bright plumage
a l!ay bird flitting across the vision, but instantly
hid behind lcaveR so wide and long that we knew why Adnm and Eve
needed no tailor or mantua-makcr, for one woultl suffice for nil ordinarv
length of nakedness. Such, and more like it, and continuously sul'h;
was our ride across the Isthmus." - BOWLES, varied.

of

The foregoing is essentially a quiet scene; but the following sketch is imi.ta·
tive ef 111otio11 and activity: T1rn FEzz1w10s' BALL.-" In cameo. fiddler with a music-book,
and went up to the lofty desk, and made an orchestra of it. In came
Mrs. Fezziwig, one vast substantial smile. In came the three Miss
:Fczziwigs, beaming and lovable. In came the six young fellows whose
hearts they broke. In came nil the young men and women employed
in the business. In came the house-maid; with her cousin, the baker.
Jn came the cook, with her brother's particular friend,. the milkman.
In they all c11mc, one after another; some shyly, some boldly, some
gracefully, some awkwardly, some pushing, some pulling; in they all
.
came, any how and every how.
"Away they ull went, twenty couples at once, hands lmlf round
and back again the other way : down the middle and up again ; round
and round in various stages of affectionate grouping; old top couple
always turning up in the wrong place; young top couple starting off
again ns soon as they got there; all top couples at last, and not a bottom one to help them." - DICKENS. ·
How well has Dickens here described the assembling and first .movements
of a Christmas dance In "merry old England" I The expression, " one vast
substantial smile,'' applied to the jolly fat lo.ndlo.<ly, le Inimitable.
]11 the following sketches lite authors have bee11 carq(ul to present the
subject just at the time when it is in the condition to make the most striking

impression : "From parted clouds the moon her radiance throws
On the wild waves, and all their danger shows;
But shows them beaming in her shining vest,Tcrrific splendor! gloom in glory dressed I
This for a moment, and then clouds again
Hide every beam, and .fear and darkness reign!" -

CRADDE.

The ocean Is here represented as It appears In a stonn at night, to perEons
that expect every moment to be shipwrecked. The following sk~tch well shows
how much can be said about so common an object as a tea-kettle, viewed at the
time when It is most Interesting: - · · '
'
·

"Now it was, that the kettle, growing mellow and musical, began to
have irrepressible gurglings in its throat, and to indulge in short vocal
snorts, which it checked immediately, as if -it hadn't quite made up its
mind yet to bo good company. Now it wns; thnt, after two or threo
such vuin attempts to.stifle its convivial sentiments, it threw off nil moroseness, all reserve, and burst into a stream of song so cozy and hi111rious as never maudlin nightingale yet formed the least idea of."-.
D1c1rn?"s.
20

30(i

307

Description depends very much on the mmt
· l o f th e writer·
·
ience no tw~ persons will give precisely the same description of
die san.1e tlung. The two following sketches of bees arc an excellent illustration : -

but the points In Shakespeare's sketch are too bold, beautiful, and striking, to
let the picture ever vanish from the reader's mind. An eminent critic once said,
"Take any subject, and I can show that Shakespeare has t.rcatcd It better than
anybody else ." The foregoing comparison not only confirms the assertion; but
it may give the learner a valuable hint about varieties and degrees of excellence.

l

" So work the honey-bees,
Crcntures that by a rule in nature teach
The act of order to a peopled kiugdom.
They have a king and officers of sorts :
Where some, like magistrates, correct at home.
Others, like merchants, venture trnde abroad· '
Others, like soldiers, armed in their stin.gs, '
Mnl~c lio~t. upon the summer's velvet buds,
"~Iuch p1llugc they with merry march bring home
1 o the tent-royal of their emperor;
':ho,. bu~icd in his majesty, surveys
'I.he s'.n¥rn'.=l'_111nsons building roots of gold,
'l'he civil c1t1zcns kneading up the honey,
'I he poor rncchunic porters crowdin<~ in
Their hcary hurdens at his narrow ~ate
The sad-eyed justice, with his surly Jmi~
Dclircring o'er to executors pale
'
The lazy yawning <lronc." - SHAKESPEARE.
"The bee with juices from the dell
Assiduous stores her waxen cell. '
Soon as the vernal zephyr blows,
Soon as the blush of morning glows,
To banks of thyme she hastes away,
And ere. the fragrnnt blooms decay,
Unweaned loads her little thi«hs
Her work with busy murmur 7)1i:s;
Nor, fluttering vain on idle winir
In pastime wastes the breathing ~pring
Till all the dewy blossoms fade,
'
And winter desolate the mead.
So, warned by wisdom's prudent Jore, ·
Man should improve the present hour·
Allll'. like t~1e bee, should spurn dcluy,'
For tuno will swiftly fly away." - It1c11AnnsoN.
0

Row much d eeper, richer, and more striking IH the sketch by Shakes
;
Richardson's sketch and Itichardson blinsc lf wo.nld soon f· d f
th
pcnre
a e rom e memory;

. LESSON

LXII.

Description presents a picture of a combination of parts
or objects, without reference to time; but narration present::i
a series of events in the ortler of time, or with special reference to time. A person, a city, a river, or a landscape is a
proper subject for description; a journey, a shipwreck, a
festival, a robbery, or a mur<ler is a proper subject for narration. The great mass of literature consists of narration;
or tlescription is generally :but a sort of garniture that ac;ompauics or incarnates a skeleton of narration. In other
worJs, the most entertaining compositions in the world cons'st of a combination of narratio~ . and description; the
narration forming the groundwork, or the great outline of
Campbell's Hohenlinden is an excellent brief specif nien.
The works of Homer, Virgil,, Dante, Milton, and
Shiikespeare furnish other specimens . . The Iliad is but a
icturesque story; so is Paradise Lost; and it is evident that
every drama must be constructed on a narrative skeleton,
which is usually called the plot. Works that are purely
descriptive are generally less entertaining for . want · of a
·Ian. Thomson's Seasons and Campbell's Pleasures of Hope
consist each of a patchwork of pictures; in which the tran~ition from one part to another is frequently too abrupt to
be agreeable ; that is, they lack a good story within. Only
their Lrevi.ty and richness prevent them from becoming
tiresome. Spenser's "Faery Queene" is long, and very deficient .in plan; and hence very few people have ever read

308
it through. On the contrary, Evangeline, by Longfellow, is
an excellent story, but deficient in both <lescription and
versification. The iuerit of this poem lies almost entirely
in the stirring interest of the story.
For every narrative, as for every description, only the
most suitable elements should be selected; and these should
consist of a series of interesting and congruous events, lrnving as close and natural a connection as possible. "Causes,
effects, and consequences" is the order very frequently
udoptctl fot· l:lliort Hketclics. l~vc11 i11 l'arndil:lo J_;m;t wo havo
this general plan. The continuity of a Jay, a night,
or a general transaction, is also frequently adopted. Bnt
many long pieces have recourse to the continuity of a
journey or a voyage, or to that of a common course of life.
Homer, Virgil, Dante, Byron, Gol<lsmith, Bunyan, and De
Foe a<lopted the travel method; Milton, to some extent;
al::io Fenelon, as in his Telemaclms. Dickens, in his David
Copperfield, and Beattie, in his Minstrel, adopte<l the life
or biographical method. Goldsmith's Deserted Village is
written essentially on the biographical plan; but the very
title of his Traveler shows that this poem is written on the
other plan. In dramas we also have chiefly the life system;
but several different threads of narrative must often be
woven into one coherent an<l consistent piece, so that the
whole may co11stitute an intricate plot. The same is true
of novels. In handling scientific subjects, there is usua11y
a classification made at the outset, and the order of prooedure is simply the successive description or exposition
according to this classification. vVe often hear people condemn a story as having "neither head nor tail." Such a
composition is defective in plan, or wants a proper narrative
skeleton. An interesting story enchains the reader; and a
simple, bol<l, and well-connected narrative of pln.n enables
l1irn to remember the whole with much greater ease. Few

309
people distinctly remember the full plan of any drama they
have read, for the plan is necess'arily complicated; and such
poems as Pope's Essay on Man are remembered rather by
the general effect and particular lines than by a superior
skeleton of plan, for this is wanting. A simple and wellconnected story, with as much novelty and variety in the
incidents as the subject will bear, is generally the most entertaining. The story of America, as far as the first return
of Columbus to Spain, is known to almost everybody; bu~
after a multituJo of adventurers tako part, tho whole scone
becomes confused; and but the few long or remarkable
series of events relating to Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, John
Smith, an<l vVashington, are relished and remembered.
It is generally best to make an entire story center in one
principal actor or event. It is also better to present the
same subject in a variety of aspects, or through a series of
changes, than to introduce a multitude ·of actors with a
monotony of incidents. The story of Robinson Crusoe,
which represents one individual in a variety of striking
scenes and conditions, is far more interesting than any compendium of the world's history, which presents a multitude
of actors with a monotony of events. · ·
It is generally best to relate events precisely as they occurred in the order of time. Campbell's Hohenlinden is
almost perfect in this respect; but Wolfe's Burial of Sir
John Moore is faulty, for the first ' stanza closes the scene,
which must be re-opened by the next line. vVhen there is
but one · actor,' or when one steps out as another steps in, it
is easy to follow the order of time. When there are simultaneous trains of action, or when there is a multitude of
related . trains, great tact is sometimes required. It is a
mark of the highest genius to form an excellent plot for a
work. Such a plot should generally have a principal event,
and such subordinate ones as are naturally connected with

311

310
it as causes, consequences, or circumstances. A short digression, like the plucking of a way-side flower, is sometimes
a relief and charm; but young writers arc very apt to err in
making improper digressions. The most careful attention
should be paid to the arrangement an<l the relative prominence of the parts, so as not to mix the facts or smother
the main story.
·
'l'he actors, the acts themselves, times, places, means,
results, and circumstances, arc all of them proper suhjects
for the accompanying description. Also moral reflections,
and snatches of dialogue, can sometimes be introduced with
great advantage. But it requires great skill to manage all
these things well. The scene should not be changed too
often, a1id sometimes not at all. The same is true of the
actors. And yet sometimes it is much better to do so. In
the little poem, Bingen on the Rhine, moral reflections are
introduced. with fine effect; au<l. tho actors and. tho sceno
are changed to good ad.vantage. In Campbell's Hohenlinden the scene is not changed.; and there is just enough
of the finest <lcscri ption imaginable.
In relating actual occurrences, the great object should be
trut!i j and in relating a fictitious story, probability. In
proportion as a story approaches pure narration, the language should be less ornamented than in description; yet
it should still be as clear, earnest, and significant as possible. 'l'he structure of the sentences should always be compact and perspicuous; an<l the sequence should be easy,
natural, and well-connected. Care should be taken to give
not only an attractive commencement to a story, but to
bring it to a neat and suitable conclusion. Some people
never know how to come to a11 erHl, in co11He<1uc11cc of which
they are often obliged to leave off at last in a very shabby
manner. Cowper has well said., -

" A tale should be judicious, clear, succinct;
The lnnguagc plain, and incidents well-linked;
Tell not as new what everybody knows,
Ami, new or old, still hasten to a close.
There centering in a focus, round and neat,
Let all your mys of information meet.
'Vlrn.t yields us neither profit nor delight,"
[Soon cloys our taste, and should be kept from sight.] .

Specimens.
In tlie .following story, which is based on reality, the order of time is
strictly obsened: "The ocean wns very smooth, and the heat .very great, which made
us so languid thnt almost 1i general wish prevailed to bathe in the waters
of the Congo. However, Johnson and I were deterred from it by an
apprehension of sharks; many of which, and those very large, we had
ohscrvcd in the progress of' our voyage. Campbell alone, who had been
drinking too freely, was obstinately bent on going. overboard; and
although we used every means in our power to persuade him to the
contrary, he dashed into the water,.and had _, swum a considerable distance from the vessel, when we on bonrd discovered nn ulligntor making
towards him behind a rock that stood a short distance from the shore.
Campbell's escape seemed impossible; yet, willing to do nll in my
power, I ordered the boat to be hoisted, and we fired two shots at the
approaching alligator, but without effect, for the bulls glided over his
scaly covering like hailstones on a tiled pent-house, and the progress
of the creature was by no means impeded.
" The report of the piece, and the noise of the blacks from the sloop,
soon made Campbell acquainted with his danger. He saw the creature
making towards him ; and, with all the strength and skill of which he
was master, he made for the shore. But. now the moment arrived in
which a scene was exhibited beyond the power of my humble pen
adequately to describe. On 'approaching within ·a very ' short · distance
' of some canes and shrubs that covered the bank, while closely pursued
by the alligator, a ferocious tiger sprang towards him, at the instant the
jaws of his first enemy were extended to devour him. At this awful
moment, Cnmpbcll was preserved. The enger tiger, hy ovorlcaping,
fell into the gripe of the nlligittor. A horrible conflict ensued. Tho
water was colored with the blood of the tiger, whose efforts to 'tear the
scaly covering of' the alligator were unavailing, while the lattl)r hail
nlso the advantage of keeping his adversary under the water, by which

-----313

312
the victory was presently obtained ; for the tiger's death was now
effected. They both sank to the bottom, and we saw no more of the
alligator.
"Campbell was recovered, and instantly conveyed on board; he rlid
.not speak while in the bont, though his danger hml completely sobered
him. Ilnt the moment he lcnpctl on deck, he fell on his knees, 111Hl
returned thanks to that l'rovitlcncc which l11ul so signally protected him ;
and, what is most singular, from that moment to the time I am now
writing, he Jrns never been seen the least intoxicated, nor has he been
heard to utter a single oath." - REMAHKADLE VoY AGES .
Few persons could bc~ln such n story without r oarllng It through.

The fallowing is a jir:lil/011.q slo1y; and it comprises muclt description,
some dialo,que, and moral reflections : -

A silly young Cricket, accustomed to sing
Through the warm, sunny months of gny summer and spring,
Ilcgan to complain, when he foull(I thnt at home
His cupboard was empty, and winter had come.
Not a crumb to be found
On the snow-covered ground;
Not a flower could he sec;
Not a leaf on the tree.
"Oh! what will become," says the Cricket, "of me 1 "
At last, by despair and by famine made bold,
All dripping with wet, and all trembling with cold,
Away he set off to a miserly Ant,
To sec if to keep him alive he would grant
Hirn shelter from rain,
Or a mouthful of grain :
He wished only to borrow,
He'd repay it to-morrow;
If not, he must die of starvation and sorrow!
Says the Ant to the Cricket, "I'm your servant and friend,
But we Ants never borrow, we Ants never lend.
Yet tell me, clear sir, did you lay nothing by
\Vhen the weather was warm 1 " - Said the Cricket, "Not I!
My heart was so light,
That I sang day and nig ht,
For all nature looked gay""Yon slmg, sir, you say 1
Go then," says the Ant, "and dance winter away.''

Thus ending, he hastily lifted the wicket,
And out of the door turned. the poor little Cricket.
Though this is a fable, the moral is good :
If you live without work, you must go without food .
'
'
.
ScnAP·BooK.

LESSON LXIII.

Exposition.
11'or <lescription, we use chiefly the ideas furnished by the
fl ve senses; for exposition, we use rather the reasoning
faculty. Description is therefore chiefly external; while
exposition is rather internal: the one is seen by the outer
eye, the other is seen by the ·inner; the oiie is based on per- ·
ceptions, and the other on reflections. Exposition shows ·
the mind and heart of things; and h ence it deduces princi.Ples for action and conduct. · To comprehend fully the
knowledge on which exposition is based, is to comprehend
fully the idea of Deity, in all its ramifications throughout
the universe! This knowledge may be compared to one of
those fairy palaces, the dazzling internal glory of which
mo~·tal eyes have never yet fully beheld; but which grows. ·
brighter and lovelier the deeper 'we penetrate to its innermost sanctum, where Truth herself sits like the queen of the
universe, and arrayed in all the beauty and loveliness of
heaven. Every generation t ears i down old principles and
systems, and every generation builds up new systems and
tries to establish new principles; all of which is proof that
man is as yet but tossed about on a sea of men tar darkness. Notions and opinions belong mostly to exposition ;
and those wluch people carry in their hca<ls usually mako .
them what they are. ExPQfil_tjo
elates to the being,
origin~ de.s ign,
nd :wor-ldngs 0£ hings. · The outside of
things may oe viewed from every .dfrection; yet' the view

...... ..,., "'fiT o • tfi? se-' t ,.,.

cm a

-

"' -- b ..._,.. ··-·

zt -

m

--·

trt "' P

314

315

can be at best but a superficial one. A thing is truly and
fully seen only when vicwe<l from within outward through
all its ramifications and relations.
Hence outside views
. may vary, but insi<le views are :tpt to he one an<l the same.
· Exposition comprises science, principles, aucl <luties; or,
rather, it may be cliviuecl into two kinus, - scientific an<l
·moral. Scientific exposition simply cxpom1ds truth, without reference to right and wrong. l\foral exposition relates
to human actions, and endeavors to show us our chities. i
·The chief requisites in exposition are good classifications,
good definitions, good illustrations and examples, and sound
i1~fe1·ences or deductions. Classifications may differ, according to the encl in view. Of the human race can be made
and have been macle at least a hundred different classifications. If we classify people accorcJing to color and physical
structure, we shall have · the European race, the Mongolian,
the African, etc. If we classify them according to occupa- .
tions, we shall have carpenters, blacksmiths, farmers, lawyers, sailors, merchants, etc. If we classify them according
to age, we : shall have infants, . youths, adults, etc. L:uly
Montague said, she had found but two kinds of people in the
world, - men ancJ. women; and a humorist also saicJ. he
found but two kinds, - debtors and creditors. · Similar to
classification is the separation of a suLject into parts. In
regarcJ. to both kinds and parts the classification shoulu be
made as simple, clear, ancJ. natural as possiLle; for it not
only determines the plan of the work, but much of its
interest ancJ. value.
A definition is such a description of a thing or class, by
telling what it is, as will distinguish it from enry thing
(:lsc. A Htl-ict 1fofi11ition cornpri::;es two things, - somdhi11g
that is more general than the olljcct defined, and supposed
to be better known; ancJ. besides this Rn ch a specific clcscrip·
tion as will clistinguish the obj ect from every otl1er of the

same general class. Logicians usually call the first element
the genus, and the second the dijfm·ence. If I say, " A
church is a house for public worship," house is the general
or class word, the genus term; and used for public w01·ship
is the difference, for it is used to distin"'uish the church
from every other kind of house. Authors sometimes omit
the r;enus, and simply describe the subject in such a way as
to give the reader a general idea of it, or by something that
will enable him to distinguish it from other things with
which he is liable to confound it. Sometimes the exposition
or cJ.escription may be negative; as when we prove that a
theorem can not be untrue, or when we say an opaque body
is one that is not transparent. Sometimes there may be an
extended unfolding or description, presenting the subject in
a variety of .views, or by a sort of reiterated explanation.
This is the natural manner in which a. person would study
a su~ject to find out for himself what it is, through as comprehensive a view as possible. The beginning of this
article is a specimen of this kind ·of exposition. ·'Perhaps
this mode is the best for popular reading, or when we wish
to avoid the brevity and severity of strictly scientific definitions. It allows much scope ·for illustrations allusions
'
'
plot interest, poetic coloring, and refreshing excursions;
therefore it is most ' generally adopted in modern essays,
critiques, etc. Such a mode of writing is like offering fruit
by presenting it with the bough on which it ·grew. · The
following com.m encement of a critical Essay from Carlyle,
illustrates our meaning: ·
t)

.

"Dr. Johnson, It Is said; when. he' first heard of Boswell's lnt;ntlon to write
n life of him, announced, with decision enough; that, If he thought Boswell
really meant to write hi,, life, ho woulcl prevent it by taking /Joswe.ll's ! Thnt
grl"nt nuthors shoulu actually employ this preventive ngnlnst bad blogrnphers Is
n thing we by ·no means recommend; but the truth is, that, rich as 'we are In
biogr:iphy, a well-written life ls almost as rare as a well-spent one; nntl there
arc certainly mnny more men whose history deserves to be recorded than persons willing nml able to furnish tho rccoru. But great men, like the old

316
Egyptian kings, mu st nll be tri ed nfter denth, before th ey enn be embnlmed;
nnd what, in truth, are these 'Sketches, ' 'AnnR ,'' Convcrsntion s ,' 'Voices,' nnd
the like , but the votes and pleadings of th e Ill-inform ed advo cates, nnd jurors,
nnd judges, from whose conflict, howeve r, we shall in th e encl hnvc n trn e n·rcli ct? The worst of it ls at the first; for weak eyes arc precisely the fondest of
glittering objects. And, accordingly, no sooner docs a great man d epart, and
leave his character ns public prope rty, than n crowd of little m en ru Rh towards
It. There they arc gathered togeth er, blinking up to It with such vi•ion na they
have, scanning it from afar, hovering round it this wny anti that, each c unningly
endeavoring, by all arts, to catch some reflex of It. In the littl e mirror of hlmMclf;
though, many tlmee, thle mirror le eo twlgte<l with convexities and concaviti es,
and, indeed, so extremely small In size , that to exp ec t any tru e Image , or any
image whatever from It, ls out of the question."

Perhaps tho best part of exposition - certainly the most
interesting - consists of the illustra.tions and examples.
To show a person the essence of roses in an apoth ecary's
bottle will not make such an impression on him as to show
him the roses themselves, as they grow on the bush. How
dry is pure mathematics, but how interesting are many of
its applications ! Principles can be easily learned, provided
we show a proper selection of tlie most striking facts from
which they are drawn ; and unless we do so, most people
will neither understand nor appreciate us fully, being generally too indolent or stupid to think up the facts from which
the principles are derived.
Exposition is a kind of essence, generally extracted from
experience, and from all the other kinds of litera.ture. It
is therefore abst1'act, and hence liable to be erroneous or
obscure. If I observe that this pink is fragrant, and that
pink is fragrant, and some other pink is fragrant, I may
conclude that all piuks are fragrant; and such a conclusion
would be called an induction. As I have not smelled all
pinks, my induction may be erroneous; and to a person who
has never smelled a flower, it would be obscure. I may
also draw some higher inference from the fragrance of tho
}Jink, namely, that God designed all things for our happin ess. But if I should conclude from the general statement,
"All agreeable things are designed for our happiness," that

317
the pink is designed for our happiness, this '_"ould be a de:..
duction - or a pass in 0a from general to particular.
. l e,
N ext' to presenting an exposition that is truthf~11, s1mp
and scientific a writer should study how to make it as clear
'
l.
and interesting as possible. The · importance of t us '_"as
felt most keenly in the early ages of ~he world; ·and gem~1s,
to excite human interest, soon began · to fill . the .world with
fabl es, allegories, parables, personificationsi anecdotes, fairy
tales, Platonic and Socratic dialogues, poems, · .and many
other devices, as the garniture or vehicles for dry an<l. uninteresting abstract truths.
· ' ·
These remarks have brought us to a vein of golden trutl1,
so ri ch, so beautiful, that we must tarry a few minutes longer to lay it bare to the learner. · ' The simplest, st~ongest,
and most interesting ties that bind: all people ' to tlus world
are through the five senses. Therefore all slrntches that
are based upon knowledge relating to the senses, . mak~ a.
much mbre vivid impression· than those statements wl11ch
consist of purely abstract ide~s, or of knowle.dge .that l'.es
farther back in the. reasoning mind. Hence, 1f we can JUdiciously transfer expression from abstractions to conc_rete
particulars, ·it becomes much ' more effective. '.In the B1bl~,
we find many ingenious · and ·beautiful . specimens ·of tlus
mode of writing. To say, '' The providence of God ex~e~1ds
to every thing," is by no means so agreeable and stnkmg
an expression as to say, "Consider the lilies o.f .. t~e ·:field,
how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spm: •and
yet I say unto you, that even Solomon ·in all his glory was
not arrayed like one of these." So, "Not a sparrow f~lleth
to the ground without His care;" and, "The very hairs of
your heaJ. are all numbered." Such expressions the .m ind
receives ~ud carries cheerfully, as emblems or symbols for
th e valuable morals or abstract truths which they represent.
And we may here add, that we believe all symbolic language

318
is poetry, whatever its form may be; or, to state the matter
more comprehensively, the sy1nboli~ and pictorial part of
literature is its poetry, and almost nothing else is. Both
exposition and persuasion frequently relate to abstract
truths; and to prevent the dryness and tediousness of sermonizing details, we often have in place of them real or
· fictitious examples. Real examples not being sufficiently
numerous, nor always suitable, many fictitious examples
have Leen manufactured, such as fables, parables, etc. Even
the plots of many novels and dramiu~, and the machinery
or mythology of great poems, serve but for the incarnation
and adornment of truth. The world lives and grows by
truth; and the man who can present wholesome principles
in the best form, is not only a benefactor to his race, but is
sure to be rewarded in the end. · Such a work is the "Pilgrim's Progress." The sentence, "vV e should discharge our
duties patiently," expresses a common, uninteresting, yet
valuable sentiment; but what does this become when expressed in the form of the "Discontented Pendulum," by
· Jane Taylor? Even one such composition is sufficient to
immortalize the author.
So, Richter's "New-Year's
Dream," to show the importance of spending time well, especially in youth. Sunlight is very common, and old as
the world, but it becomes ptecious when it radiates from a.
diamond.

Specimens.
The following is a brief specimen

.

of pure exposition: -

"All men do all things either of themsekes or not of themselves.
The things which they do not of themselves, they do either bv chance
or from necessity; and tho things done from necessity, they do either
by compulsion or by nature. So that all things whatsoever which men
do not of themselves, they do either by chance, compul~ion, or 1lature.
Again, the thing-s which they do of themselves, nnd of whh-h they nre
themselves the cnnses, some they <lo throng-h custom, n111l others throiwh
natural desire; nnd this partly through desire iullnenced hy reason, a~d

319
partly through it devoid of reason. Now the act of wishing is desire
accompanied by reason, fixing on some good as its object; because 110
one wishes for any thing other than what he conceives to he good. Th\}
desires devoid of reason ure anger and nppctite. So that all things
whatsoever which men do, they necessarily 'do from seven causes; by
chance, compulsion, nature, custom, will, anger, or appetite." -Anis~
TOT LE.

Exposition with illustration and example: PRIDE AND PnE.JUDIOE. - " The prepossession of pride. and prejudice is a kind of drunkenness and madness in some people. They
think there is nobody worthy of them, or with whom they would vouchsafo n familiarity. A young woman, educated in this notion, thinks
there is not a man . upon earth wise enough, 'rich enough, handsome
enough, and of sufficient quality, to aspire to the honor of her alliance.
The best offers cnn not flatter her ambition: she expects .a man should
drop from heaven, m:ide on purpose . . .In the . mean time, .th<il years
multiply, and merit diminishes, and she is forced at last to make great
.
·
"
. ·
· · · · . !~ ' · 't : · .; '
abatements.

"Florentia was courted, in her sparkling yo~th, by a poor man of
genius; but because he had· neither wealth · nor position, she treated
him with scorn. Then came a man of vast possessions; hut because he
was not nobly born, she would not give. him a .he,aring._ A per~o1~ of
quality came next; but his e~tate was no~ ~ufficient, and h<,i had. the
same fate ns his rivals. Flor~ntia was young, beautiful, and rich, and
every day made new conquests; hut the prepossession of her own ·merit
would not suffer her to determine in any one's favor, nor to fix her
resolution. She still found in her lovers ·some defect which · rendered
them unworthy of her. During this time .her years are inc~eascd, , and
her crowd of lovers is lessened ; and she at last bestows herself np~n a
man whom she would not have admit~ed , formerly even as. hcir footman I"
S- The foregoing extract we have adapted from a little old English book,
of the Elizabethan age, and of rare merit, but published anonymously. 'Ve
suspect that Bunyan caught froril It the 'idea o{ the Pll~rlm's Progress, which
consists merely 6t a series of such fictltiolls examples, without the moralizing.
Dr. Watts also very successfully adopted the style of that little work, In his
treatlsc on the mind; and lately :Mrs. Tytkr has written nn interesting.book In a .
similar style, ,entitled" Papers for Thoughtful Girls.''

,Exposition in,qeniously based on a most appropriate fictitious story or
dialo;1ue, and aimin{l at persuasion : Pow1m OF HABIT. - I remember once riding from Buffalo to
Niagara :Falls. I said to a gentleman, "~hat river is that, sir 1"

320
" That," said he, "is Niagara River.·"
"Well, it is a beautiful stream," said I; "bright, and fuir, and
glassy. How far olf are the rapids 1"
"Only a mile or two," was the reply.
" Is it possible that .only a mile from us we shall find the water in
the turbulence which it must show near the Falls 1 "
''You will find it so, sir." And so I found it, and the first sight
of Niagara I shall never forget.
Now, launch your hark on that Niagara River; it is bright, smooth,
beautiful, and glassy. There is a ripple at the bow; the silver wake
that you leave behind a<llls to your enjoyment. Down the stream you
glide; oars, sails, uml helm in proper trim; nn<l you set out on your
pleasure excursion.
Suddenly some one cries out from the bank,
"Young men, ahoy I "
" What is it?"
" The rapids are below you ! "
"Ha I ha! we have heard of the rapids; but we arc not such fools
as to go there. If we go too fast, then we shall up with t.hc helm, and
steer for the shore; we will set the mast in the socket, hoist the sail, and
speed to the land. Then on, boys; don't be alarmed, there is no danger."
" Young men, ahoy there ! "
"\Vhat is it 1"
" The rapids arc below you ! "
"Ha! ha! we will laugh and quaff; all things delight us. What
care we for the future! No man ever saw it. Suffieient for the day is
the evil thereof. \Ve will enjoy life while we mny, nml catch pleasure
as it flies. This is enjoyment; time enough; time enough to steer out
of danger when we arc sailing swiftly with the current."
" Young men, ahoy ! "
"\Vhat is it 1"
" Beware ! beware ! the rnpids urc hclow you I"
"Now you sec the water foaming nil around. Sec how fast you
pnss that point! Up with the hclrn ! Now turn ! Pull hard ! Quick I
quick! quick! pull for your lives ! pull till the blood starts from your
nostrils, and the veins stand like whip·cords upon your brow ! Set the
mast in the socket! Hoist the sail! Oh! oh! it is too late ! "
Shrieking, howling, blaspheming; over they go I
Thousands go over the rupius of intemperance every year, through
the power of hnhit, crying all the while, " 'When I find out that it is
injuring me, I will give it up." - JOHN n. GOUGH.
~rom the foregoing. sk etch, which IA a fair sample of his best style, ft Is ensy
to see why Mr. Gough 1s a popular lecturer. Any old truth or duty thus dressed
up would be acceptable.

321

LESSON LXIV.

Persuasion.
I

II'

Persuasion, taken in its wi<lest rhetorical sense, may be
defoie<l briefly as the art of influencing . or controlling the
will of others.
·
.
We shall present this subject un.d er three heo.ds.;·_the
speaker, the person or audience to be ~ddressed, and ~he subject to ~e, p1·esented.
·
.
In the first place, much will depend on the position, au. thority, an<l personal appearance of the spealcer, in regard
to securing the attention and · defer.ence .o f the audience.
His voice, elocution, gestures, general demeanor, and relations to those whom he ad<lresse~ ' will 1also have great influence in <letermining the effect of what he says. . But all
these things are secondary. to th.e matter itself; a:nd to
make this as effective as possible, he should .t horoughly
understand human nature, thoroughly _ under~tari~ hi~ audience, thoroughly un<lerstand his subject, and trust the re~t
to his general ability, his self-possession, and the stimulus
of the occasion. .Of the various ' qualities of oratory, we
would especially recommend clearness and earnestness ;
also courtesy,' and the appearance of being governed. Ly
proper motives.
As to the person or persons to be addressed, their position,
anteceJents, intelligence, feelings, desires, and prospects are
to be carefully studied and regarded. '·· It is said that every
man ha~ "several . strings ' by 'vhi~l~ : he. may
pulle.d ."
Perhaps most failures of speakers. a~d suitors ari~e from
not understanding human nature sufficiently, or from being
imperfectly acquainted with the persons addresseq . . Young
people do not understand old people, ·old people do not understand young people, men do not · understand wo.men, women do not understand men, statesmen do not understand

?e

21

.

322

323

the masses, and writers do not understand the people or
nation for whom they. write. There arc some general principles, however, which arc supposed to rule mankind everywhere. In urging the adoption of a measure, for instance,
we may maintain, 1. That it is right.
2. That it is honorable.
3. That it is advantageous.
4. That it is necessary.
u. 'l'ha.t the end is both desirable and attainable.
In dissuading, the arguments must of course be turned
in the opposite direction. A speaker should generally aim
at three things : 1. To impart information.
2. To produce conviction.
3. To excite emotion.
To gain people to our side, it is often necessary to overcome their selfishness or their prejudices; and to <lo this, it
is very important that we should know thefr ties, their principles, and their motives. Preachers and statesmen must
sometimes exhaust all their resources of argument and exhortation before they can induce their hearers to give up
present enjoyment or endure present inconvenience, for a
greater but distant good. People are moved through ties
of love, ties of friendship, ties of party, ties of brotherhood, ties of interest, and the higher ties of duty, as involving right and wrong. · Hence it is very important to
identify ourselves with those we address, so as to get into
their sympathies. vVhen we have ascertai~ed the strongest
principle or feeling that controls a person's actions, it may
Le most cxpo<lient to move liim through t11at. Thus, we
may show an ambitious politician that a certain act will
contribute to his own popularity; we may warn a sensualist
tlHit excessive present gratification will prevent futmo en-

joyment ; and we may deter a vain belle by assuring her
that the artificial means ·used to highten her native charms
will soon destroy them or produce death. Many people live
feuced in by certain apprehensions, through which they are
also easily moved. It may be easy to persuade a man mi1ch
involved in debt, to sell his property at a sacrifice; and it
may be easy to dissuade a miser from investing his money,
by suggesting the danger of losing it. Most people' are
easily satisfied or persuaded by arguments from analogy: tho
change of a grub into a ·butterflj' has often been effectively
used to prove that after death the righteous 'vill be changed
into angels. People are much governed by testimony. The
agent to introduce a book will show that it is used in ~any
other places, with approbation. ·In' such cases, much · will
depend on the persoris from whom th.e recommendation or
testimony comes: the higher · the authority, the better.
People are readily influenced by ·pithy ah<l appropriate anecdotes, fables, and proverbs. , In Franklin's Poor Richind's
Almanac we have a remarkable tissue ' of persuasives to indust:rv und economy, consisting chiefly of proverbs from the
mouth of Poor Richard. People are easily moved through
their experience. It is eQisy to persuade a man to i!lvest
ugnin in soine speculation in which he has been successful,
antl it is easy to dissuade hi01 from what he has found a
failure and loss. People are easily swayed through examples. Man is as imitative as a monkey. . If A,'B, and C
make each a fortune in selling oysters,' it will be easy to
persuade the rest of the"alphabet to go into the same business. A young man who is · ambitious, yet tired of study,
will feel soothed and encouragod 'when he is informed what
toil Demosthenes, Milton, Bmke, and others endured.· A
young writer feels encouraged to try again, when' ho is tolu
that Irving wrote his pathetic sketch, "The Grave," nineteen ti111es hi;lfore he sent it to pr1,;Jss, and that Gniy fab.ornd

324
seven years on his Elegy. In general, young man are
, easily moved through hope; ol<l men, through memory.
· Young men are therefore more daring, progressive, a!l(l
revolutionary; olJ men are more conservative, timid, an(l
· selfish. Young men have not yet tried the worl<l; but old
men have, and they have often been disappointed, or seen
others disappointed.
lTinally, people are swayed through certain forms of language. Every soul is roote'1 in language; and hence ho
who is a perfect master of this medium, has control of almost every thing in it. When we reach the lanO'uaO'e
in
0
0
which people think and feel, or when we give the best expression to their thoughts aud feelings, we pluck them up,
as it were, by the very roots. But only a few rare spirits,
' of richest heart, who are therefore perfectly sympathetic,
can ever ·reach the general mastery of this art. Halleck
has beautifully said of Burns, " His was th~t language of the heart,
To which the answering heart would speak."
The greatest orators have swayed mankind chiefly by a
few remarkable sentences ' and extraordinary efforts, that
exprei;;sed the whole of the public sentiment.
Patrick
Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death!" and Chatham's "No taxation without representation," instantly became the echo of every American heart. And so it has
been with certain songs. The comparative effect of Lincoln's few words at Gettysburg is also well known.
As to the subJect itself, it is of the greatest importance
. that the speaker sl10uld know all about it, that he should
have the better siclc, and that the whole affair should bo
worthy of all the consideration that is asked for it. A discussion is apt to bring out a great variety of mincls ; and if
the speaker· has not studied his subject to the bottom in all
its bearings and relations, he may sml<lenly find his encamp1

ment attacked from some unexpected quarter, where . he is
wholly unable to set up instantly a sufficient defense.
As to the best mode of handling a subject, rhetoricians
have ' given a great variety of directions. · Most of them,
however, agree that a regular oration or discourse should consist of six parts; the introduction or exordium, the statement, the narration, the argument, the appeal, . and the
peroration or conclusion. Some make but four parts; the
exordium, the narration, the discussion, and the peroration.
I>crhaps we may as well say, there are but three parts ; the
introduction, the body of the discourse, and the conclusion.
In commencing the body of the · discourse, the subject, or
the point to be proved, should be . clearly stated; and it is
sometimes well to show the hearers in ,what order we expect
to unfold or discuss it. ,Description, :narration, and .·exposition may all be used as subordinate elements of· persuasion,
or to prepare the mi~ds of the hearers for the final proposition or exhortation. "When persuasive touches can be ad<led
to them, they have generally a very good effect, the more
so as ~hey are indirect. Arguments ,shoul<l be presented in
the form of climax ; and they should rather be strong than
numerous. A weak or doubtful argument even weakens
the stron(Ter
ones that accompany it. Illustrations
should
0
.
be so intermingled ·as to relieve ·and please th~. mind, but
never so as to draw the attention .too much from the principal chain of argument. : Objections ·should rather be answered at the' beginning; and the stronge~t. 'p,ersuasives
should come in near the end, along w:ith the appeal to the
passions, if there is. any . . The c~nc1usion should be as pithy
and graceful as possible. 1 · Sometimes it. may be a summary
of the argu'm ents; sometimes it may be a brimming sentiment or a~ electrifying appeal. Burke said, of ~ certain
orator
. .
' that his enthusiasm kindled . as he advanced, and
when he arrived at the peroration it was in full blaze.

327

326
Specimens.
The following is one of the best specimens
seen: -

of eloquence

we have ever

APPEAL IN BEHALF OF IRELAND.

"Fellow-citizens: It is no ordinary cnuse that hns brought together
this vast assemblage, on the present occasion. 'iVe have met, not to
prepare ourselves fur political contests. "\Ve have met, not to celclirnto
the achievements of those gallant men who have plnnted our victorion~
stnndards in the hen rt of an enemy'~ country. [The l\lexican \Y ar wa~
thou g-oing 011.] 'Ve h11vo n~Hemlile1l, not to re~pond lo ~l1011tA of triumph from the \Vest, uut to answer the cry of wnnt nml suffering
which comes from the East. The Old \Vorld stretches out her nrms to
the New. The starving parent supplicates the young am! vigorous
chilu for breml.
"Thero lies upon the other side of the wit.le Atlantic n beautiful
island, famous in story nnu in song. Its area is not so great as that of
the State of Louisiana, while its population is almost half that of tho
Union. It has given to the world more than its slu:rc of genius and
of greatness. It has been prolific in stntcsmcn, wnrriors, and poets.
Its brave and generous sons have fought succcssfnlly all battles but
their own. In wit and humor it has no equal; while its_ harp, like its
history, moves to tears by its sweet but melancholy pathos.
" Into this fair region, God has seen fit to send the most terrible
of all those fearful ministers that fullill his inscrutable decrees. Tho
Earth has failed to give her increase. The common mother hus forgotten her offopri11g, nnd she no longer nffonl~ them their uccustomcd
nourishment. F11111ino, g1t1111t n111l ghastly F1t111i11e, hits seized a nntion
with its stranglin~ grasp. Unhappy lrelnnd, in the sad woes of the
present, forgets, for a moment, the gloomy history of the past.
"Oh ! it is terrible, that, in this beautiful world, which the good God
has given us, and in which there is plenty for us all, men should die of
starvation! "\Vhen a man dies of disease, he alone endures the pain.
Around his pillow are gathered sympathizing friends, who, if they 'can
not keep Lack the deadly messenger, cover Ids foco, and conceal tho
horrors of his visage, as he delivers his stern mn11dnte. ' In battle, in
tlrn fullness of his pride and strength, little reeks the soldier whether the
hissin:;; bullet sings his sudden requiem, or tho cords of life are severed
by the sharp steel.
"llut he who dies of hunger, wrestles alone, <lay after <lay, with
his grim and unrelenting enemy. He has no friends to cheer him in

the terrible conflict; for, if he had friends, how conl<l he die of hunger~ He has not the hot blood of the soluicr to maintain him ; for his
foe, vampire-like, has exhausted his veins. Famine comes not up, like
a brave enemy, storming, by a sudden onset, the fortress that resists.
:Famine besieges. Ile draws his lines round the doomed garrison. llo
cuts off all supplies. He never summons to surrender; for he gives no
quarter.
"Alas! for poor human nature, how can it sustain this fearful warfare ~ Day by day, the blood recedes; the flesh desert~; · the muscle~
relax, and the sinews grow powerless. ·At last the mind, which at first
)1111! hrnvcly nerved itself 11g11i11st tho conto~t, gives wny, under tho 111,1"~­
teriuus influences which govern its union with tho uouy. 'l'hen tho
victim Legins to uoubt the existence of an overruling Providence. Ho
hates his fellow-men, and glares upon them with the longing of a cannibal; and, it may be, dies blaspheming.
"This is one of those cases in which we may, without impiety, nssnme, as it were, the function of Providence. 'iVho knows but that ono
of the very oLjccts of this calamity is to test the benevolence and worthiness of us, upon whom unlimited abundance is showercu1 In tho
name then of common humanitv I invoke your nid in behalf of starving 1:.c1and'. He who is able, an·tl will not · aid such a cause, is not a
1mm, and has no right to wear the form. He should be sent baek to
Nature's mint, and re-issued as a counterfeit on humanity, of Nature's
baser metal." - S. S. PRENTISS.
·
·
The foregoing speech, or appeal, was made before the citizens of New Orleans, at a meeting called for the purpose of obtaining subscriptions to relieve
tho peoplo of Ireland In n fnmlno. As an artistic ploco of eloquence, wo think
It IK mutchod only by tho fumous oration dollvcrc<l by .Anthony over Crosar'a
body.
;
.... ,
The speaker begins naturally by stating the cause of asaem~llng; but he
docs this In such a way as to clear the minds of his audience from all thoughts
·except those which he wishes them to entertain, and then he Instantly awakens
a general sympathizing attention by suggesting the relation of mother and child.
Having thus prepared the minds of his hearers for his discourse, he points
toward the east n11 he begins the next sentence, and excites their Interest, love,
and pity for ,Ireland, by a description that seems to us absolutely perfect.
.
He next shows what terrible monster has- taken possession of this Interesting and beloved Island. He portrays In the most vivid colors the sufferings and
death caused by famine; and he Intimates indirectly, by a very artful exclamation, that his hearers have plenty of provisions to relieve these famishing people from their miseries. To awaken sympathy and pity In the ,highest cl••grce,
death by famine Is contraste<l with other kinds of death familiar to th.c nucllcncc;
and when e ver there Is nn opportunity, the pitying statements arc mn<lt' not of
tile lri~h alone, but of all human nature, thereby including his hearers, anel t11us

329

328 .
working more effectually upon their sympathies. Ohserve that description,
11arratlon, 1111d exposltlo11 1 nil enter l11to the body of the discourse.
At the c11<l, the au11le11ce 11rc exhorted to give, but this le nrtfully done as
coming from the command or sa11ctlon of God himself; and, nt l;1•t, by a very
pithy figure, the inhuman wretch that will not give le branded ns being unworthy
of his race.
Perhaps we should add, 111 conclusion, the highest praise that can be given
to this little speech; nam ely, that it was pre-eminently successful, even beyond
the most sanguine expectations.

1. In examining a great variety of persuasive compositions, we
find that the chief bunlen of most of them consists in showing
advantages or Jisadvrmlages.
of 1lfa.'lazi11e Literature: " It invites every variety of talent; it docs not chain its contributors
long courses of labor; it binds no one to do more than he pleases;
it shrouds each contributor in anonymous mystery; it particularly exalts each into an invisible chair of public censorship, thnt pleases hi.i
self-importance or his love of safety by showing him unseen the effect
of his periodical lightning."
AovANTAGBS

to

'l'hese arc some of the nrgmncnts set forth by a certain journal that solicited
contributors.
DISADVANTAGES

or Evils of Intemperance:-

" l. It causes disease.

2. It causes poverty.
3. It causes crime.

4. It causes general immorality and degradation."
~This

points of

11

mode of paragraphing Is 11 forcible way of setting forth tho strong
case, .aml It Is becoming very common.

2. Persuasion may be greatly assisted by facts auJ examples: "Great llritain, nt the expense of three millions of pounds, hns killed
11 hundred anti fifty Yankees this campaign, which is twenty thousand
pounds a head; and at Bunker Hill she gained 11 mile of ground, half
of which she lost ugain by our taking post on Plowed Hill. During
the same time sixty thousand children have been born in America.
From these data may easily be calculated the time and expense necesi;ury tu kill us all, and conquer the whole territory." - FnANKLIN.
The row foregoing ll11cs had n wonderful effect on the people of this country,
in a time of despondency.

"True contentment depends not on what we have: a tub was large
cn011;;·h for Diogenes, but a whole world was too small for Alexander."
From a ecnnon agaiust Avarice.

3. There arc two si<les to every question; and it will always be
well to consider both before defon<ling either, in order to elicit
truth aml anticipate objections.
Affirmative.-" You may pass well through any of the paths of
life. In puL!ic assemblies 11.re honors, 11.nd transactions of wisdom ; in
domestic privacy are stillness and quiet; in the country arc the beauties
of nature ; on the sea is the hope of gain ; in a foreign. land, he that is
rich is honored, and he that is poor may k~ep his poverty secret. A re
you married? you have a cheerful home. Are you single! you are
unencumbered. Children are objects of affection; to be without children is to Le without care. The time of youth is the time of vigor;
gray hairs arc made venerable by piety. It will therefore ne\•cr be the
part of a wise man to scorn life, but to make the best of it."
Negative.-"Through which of the paths of life is it eligible to
pass! In public assemblies are debates and troublesome affairs ; domestic
privacies are haunted with anxieties. In the country is labor; on the
sea is danger; in a foreign land, he that has money must live in fear,
and he that wants it must pine in distress. Are you married ! yuu
have many cures and responsibilities . . .Are you single 1 you languish
in sulituilc. Chilurcn occasion toil; nn<l a childless life is a · lifo or
destitution. The time of youth is a time of folly; nnil gray hairs nrc
loaded with infirmity. This choice only, therefore, cau be mulle, either
never to receive being, or immediately to lose it."
·4. Probably the best way to teach the art of persuasion · is to
follow some great speaker through a closely-contested yet victori-

ous campaign, anJ stu<ly the points of .his superiority.
'Vhen Curran had just reached the maturity of bis powers, there occurred in
Ireland a series of state trials against political offenders. Curran's sympathies
were 1111 in favor of his countrymen; and, having generously undertaken their
defense, he poured forth on that judicial tour such 11 stream of eloquence as generally saved the lives of the culprits, astonished the literary world, and at once
placed his name in the front rank of his profession. No bloody assizes of 11
Jeffries were possible wh ere Eloquence thus became, as Choate has we ll said,
the minister of Liberty. The most striking characteristics of Curran's speeches
were figures, pathos, and vehement earnestness. We can give only 11 few brief
extracts.
·
·
I

.

7'o awaken, pity for the man arrested and imp1·isoneil 1 -

" Alas ! nor wife nor children more shall he behold, nor friends, nor
sacred home I No seraph Mercy unbars his dungeon, and .leads him
forth to light an<l life; but the minister of death hurries him fortli to
the scene of suffering and uf shame."

330

331

To make a charge of libel appear frfrolous and contemptible: -

"If you think it a crim e in this writer that his language has not
been braided nncl festoon ed as elega ntly as it might be; that he has not
pinched the miserable plaits of his phraseology, nor placed his patches
and feathers with that correctness of millinery which became him,...;_ then
find a civil and obliging verdict against the printer!"
To make the jury hold to all the liberty
,!

give1~

fa the B ·r itish Constitu-

tio11:-

" Such were the bulwarks which our ancestors threw around the
sacred temple of liberty, - such the rampart by which they sought to
bar out the ever-toi ling ocean of arbitrary power; and thought (generous credulity I) that they had hmTed it out from their postcri t.y forever,
and made the Constitution a polar star to the wisdom of the legislator
and the integrity of the judge. But little did they foresee the race of
vermin that would work their way through those mounds, and let back
the inundation."
G1'cnt spen.kcrs nnd writers, on nn interesting subject, not unfrequently
reproduce themselves in a mneh improved form. Shakespenre, in contemplating death, once wrote, "Ay, but to die, nm! go we know not where,"
etc.; but some years after, when the same subj ect had matured more thoroughly in his mind, he wrote that remarka!Jle soliloquy, beginning-" To
Le - 01· not to be," etc. So Curran, in one of the first trials, tonched the important ide:i. of liberty very imperfectly, as shown above; but in a later trial,
he touched it again, a nd produced one of the finest passages in literature: "I speak in the spirit of the British law, which makes liberty commrnsurntc with, and inseparable from, British soil; which proclaims .
even to the stranger ancl sojourner, the moment he sets his foot upon
Ilritish earth, that the ground on which he treads is holy, and consecrated by the genius <?f universal emancipation. No matter in what
language his doom may lmvc been pronounced; no matter what complexion, incompatible with freedom, an Indian or an African sun may
have burned upon him ; no matter in what disastrous battle his liberty
may have been cloven down; no matter with what solemnity he may
have been devoted upon the altar of slavery, - the moment he touches
the sacred soil of Ilritain, the altar and the god sink together in the
dust; his soul walks abroad in her own majesty ; his body swells beyond the measure of his chains, that l:urst from around him ; and he
stands redeemed, regenerated, and disiuthralled by the irresistible
genius of universal emancipation."
Of course such a parngraph was well calculated to awaken the national
pride of judge and jury, Incline them to the side of liberty, and thus in favor of
the prisoner. -Curran probably hnd in his mind Cowper's flue episode ou liberty,
"Slaves can not breathe in England," etc.

To break dow n the testimony of a witne.~ .~ , or of the toretch who had turned
state's evitJ.encc, and informer against liis comrades 1 -

" And shall such a pitiful miscreant, after he has been worked upon
by the fear of death and the hope of compensation, be brought out to
give evidence against his fellows 1 1 Shall the mild ond wholesome councils of this government be held over cntncombs of. living death; whcro
the wretch that is buried a man lies till his heart has time to fester and
dissolve, ancl is then dug up a witness 1 Is this fancy 1 or is it fact 1
Have you not seen him , after his resurrection from that tomh, after
having been dug out of the region of death and corruption, mako his
appcnrance here to testify, - the living image of life and death, nntl
the supreme arbiter of both 1 Ilnve yon not marked, - when he entered, how the stormy wave of the multitude retired at his approach 1
Have you not marked how the human heart bowed to the supremacy
of his power, in the undissembled homage of deferential /w,.,.or 'I How
his g lance, like the lightning of heaven, seemed to rive the body of the
accused, and mark it for tho grave, while his voice wnrned tho de\'Otcd
wretch to woe nnd .death, - a death which no innocence can escape, no
art elude, no force resist, no antidote prevent 1 There was once an antidote - a juror's oath; but even that ndamantinc chain, which bound
the integrity of man to . the throne ·of eternal Justice, is solved and
melted in the breath that issues fro;n the informer's rilo~th: conscience
swings from her moorings, and the frightened and appalled juror consults his own safety in the surrender of his victim I"
This powerful burst of eloquence, designed to destroy the cvidc-nce of the
etrongest witness, was perfectly successful with the jury, and the" Fenian" was
acquitted. Observe how the figure Interrogation adds to the vigor of what id
enld, and how the whole moves up to n climax In the grand figures of the closing
ecntence. The orator does not charge Uw jury directly with cowardice and cur·
ruptlon too, for that would have offended them, and turned them against him;
but he very artfully utters a general lament, which Is admirably calculated to
rouAe all their self-respect, manhood, and virtue, in behalf of the prisoner by
acquitting him.
'

,.
,·

LESSON

LXV.

'l'here are three great sources from which authors have
drawn their subjects an<l thoughts, - man, nature, hnd
1·evelation. · Perhaps a simple an<l scientific classification
of all h·u man knowledge cou ld be made according to these]

-

-

- ---------

t.J"J

.....

""11. · .. -· ...- · ........

~--

332

333

but the present popular classification and nomenclature,
though chaotie as el1aucc, 8cern to Lo too well e:;taLli8hctl to
Le ever superse<lc<l.
The wor<l discou1'se is used as a general term for consccuti ve thoughts expresse<l in language. The wor<l literatll1'c,
in its wi<lest sense, comprises science, history, literatw·c
prope1', an<l langua,ges j or whatever is expressed an<l preserved by means of lctte1·s. Taken in a more limited sense,
lite1·atu1'e excl u<les science; an<l in its most restricted sense,
it exclutles also history antl languages, or it is applie<l
chiefly to the prose and the verse creations of the min<l.
SCIENCE may be divided into four kinds; mental, 11io1·al,
pol-itical, and natural or physical. When science is largely
speculative, or consists rather of reasoning than of facts
and experiments, it is usually called philosophy j hence we
have 1nental philosophy, 11wral philosophy, and natural
philosophy. A science is properly a motl10Jical exposition
of the laws in which a thing has been created or in ~vhich
it exists. The more a system treats of immutable laws
an<l general principles, the more it is a science; and in
proportion as it is concerned with a description of objects,
it becomes something else. vVe always speak of mathe.:
rnatics as a science ; we also venture to speak of botany as
a science; but when we speak of zoology, we quite as often
call it simply a treatise or discourse on animals ; while we
do not hesitate to call the more abstract study, physiology,
a science. vVhen scientific principles are combined as the
guide in some occupation, or kind of business, we usually
call this an art j as the art of navigation, which is based
chiefly on mathematical principles, and the art of photography, which is LmicJ. 011 chemical pri11ciplm1.
·
HISTORY may be <livi<le<l into human and natural. lfu1nan history is usually called simply history j and it includes
also biography and memous. I£isto1'y is a record of the

lives of nations; biography is a record of the lives of individuals; memoirs arc loose biographical sketches, not very .
closely confined to the persons; annals arc loose historical
sketches, written expressly in the order of years ; and reminiscences are records of personal recollections deemed worthy of preservation. An autobiography is an account of
a person's life, written by himself. An anecdote is a short
and interesting account of some remarkable incident,
usually given to show character or illustrate a principle.
Jiistory is generally divided into ancient and
11wde1'n. Natuml history is usually a general description
of animals, plants, minerals, etc., based on a scientific ·
classification.
Closely allied to science, history, and art, there i.s another
comprehensive classification of human knowledge, which determines the ·occupations of a large portion • of mankind.
According to this classification WO h:l.vo law, medicine,
tlu~ology, paideutics, poiitics, ·and the .niilita1·y science. .
Of LITERATURE PIWPER, there is great diversity in form
and name. A t1'eatise is. a rather exhaustive inquiry into
the nature of a subject, and it usually takes up an entire
pamphlet or book; as a treatise on the yellow fe\'er. . An
essay is a sketch that investigates a subject, but does not
pretend to exhaust it. Sometimes the word is used as a
modest term for :i very profound discourse. A t'ract is · a
brief religious essay. · A dissertation is a comprehensive .
investigation . of some difficult : and disputed ·subject ; as a
dissertation on the Gospels. A disquisition is a close and
· profound iriquiry into the nature of' a thing; as a disquisition on government. A lecture is an · instructive discourse .
tlesignccl ·for 1 studonts or 0: popular n.udioncc. An oration,
is a formal and elevated discourse, generally designed for
an audience on some great occasion. A speech is a more
easy or less stately and elaborate address of any kind. A

••

zarb "

u·-

_._.--

3~4

335

eulogy is an oration of praise. A debate is a discussion by
two or more speakers. A se1·nion is a religious discourse,
usually designe<l for a Sun<lay congregation. Letters we
have already defined. Travels an<l voyages are records of
such things as the person traveling considers worth communicating.
A large portion of literature consists of FICTION. Fictitious literatw·e comprises 11ovels, romances, talcs, ~egends,
myths, fables, and the majority of dialogues. A novel is a
Jicti t.ious uanati vo lmscJ on 1i fo or Ji i8tory, autl gcucrally
designed to give an interesting view of human nature. A
· rmnance is some extravagant novel, or tale of love, chivalry,
or adventure. A tale is distinguished from a novel in having a simple thread of story rather than a plot of plan: it
is generally short, and designed to instruct or please ; as
fairy talcs, the Arabian Nights. Legends are wild, impossible, or improbable stories that have an air of great antiquity and truthfulness, with a very attractive thread of
story. JJivths are instructive descriptions and stories about
the fabulous beings in obsolete systems of polytheism. Fables are generally short instructive stories or dialogues on
so fictitious a basis as to make the moral the more striking.
Dialogue is discourse in the form of conversation.
But the literature that is mostly read in this age, is the
PERIODICAL. Periodical literature comprises chiefly newspapers and magazines, both of which treat of daily affairs,
passing events, or things of present interest. Any composition in a periodical is usually called an article. An
editorial is a comment on subjects of present interest, set
forth as embodying the views and authority of the editor
in whose periodical it appears. A 1·eview is a critical examination of a work, in connection with the subject of which
it treats. A critique is more closely confined to the merits
of a literary or other artistic performance, and aims to show
faults and excellences.

Literature may be divided, according to its form, into
prose and poetry. Poetry is constructed in some kind of
meter, but prose is not. The kinds of literature which we
have already considered, occur most generally in ~he form of
prose.
POETRY may be divided into epic, draniatic, descriptive,
didactic, and lyric. Epic poetry is history in verse. The
ballad is a light sketch of this kind, written in song meter.
Dnunatic 1joetry has the form of dialogue; and it is of two
k i n118, - tragndy and comedy. To tho drama belong nlso
prologues, epi'.logues, operas, fa1·ces, bitrlettas, melod1·ar.nas,
choruses, and a variety of songs. In descriptive poetry,
description predominates; as in Thomson's Sea.sons i and
when it relates to shepherds, or to light and happy rural
employments, it is called pastoral poetry. To this also belong eclogues, 'bucolics, idvls, and madrigals. U ndcr the
two heads of descriptive. arid didactic may be placed satfres,
which are either serious or hwnorous. A lampoort is a bitter personal satire ·that is particularly designed to distress
the person attacked. An epigram is a short witty poem,
that is also frequently satirical.
An epitaph is a short
poem for a tomb-stone, and it is likewise most frequently
of a descriptive or didactic character.
Lyric poetry'· is
a~aptcd to music, · or designed for it; and it comprises
chiefiy odes, songs, and son'nets. The · ode is an elevated
song, sometimes rather irregular·. ' Akin to the ode is the
eleg!J, which is a mournful song; and the dirge, which is a
funer1.l song. In general, songs may be ' divided into sacred
and secular. . Sacre<l songs are often called hymns or
psabns. Of .s ecular songs, there is a great variety; as,
heroic, comic, sentimental, patriotic, etc. Among the minor
songd we may distinguish glees, catclu7,s, duets, triqs, ~tc.
'rhe sonnet is a passing thought or sentiment, 'expre·sse<l
m a group of fourteen iambic pentameters. ' On the most

==~=~~----- ·-------

---

336

337

popular poems of the var10us kinds we have mentioned,
we also frequently find written a species of humorous
poetry, called parody, travesty, or bu1·les7ue.
As to LANGUA<rns, we neod only say, - that the study
of them, iii early life, is of the greatest value to him who
wishes to become an eminent speaker or writer.

LESSON

LXVI.

After having developed the art of composition by a se~
ries of progressive exercises based on the principles which
writers have actually followed, whether conscio:isly or unconsciously, it seems best that we should take a. general
survey of the works of standard authors ; then classify
the great multitude of subjects, and show under each class
how the authors in that departincnt have handled their own
subjects. For when an author has once learned his art, he
is then usually governed in each composition by a few
chief points only, which determine his plan or mcthou.
Let us therefore inquire, not how a composition may be
written, on birds, for instance, but what methods Audubon,
\Vilson, Bon..'tpartc, Cuvier, Buffon, Montague, vVoou, and
others have actually adopted; anu then draw a general
abstract of plan from them all. In this way, and in this
way only, can proper skeletons of plan be obtained, that are
:fit to be presented as models.

---

To understand fully the first part of this paragraph, see pp. 2ii-336.

All the various subjects about wl1ich authors have written
may Le divided into the following general classes: -

1. 'l,'he great objects, agents, and remarkable appear-

. ances of nature.

2. Places and countries.
3, Times, days, and seasons.
4. Persons, and things relating to persons.
5. Quadrupeds.
6. Birds.
7. Fishes, reptiles, mollusks, ·and similar creatures.
8. Insects.
9. Plants.
10. Metals, minerals, and fossils. ,
•

General Outline. - Definition ; appearance; varieties of
form ; relations to the past; uses, or relations to man; rela.
tions to other things j feelings and. refl'e?tions.
Not every subject bf this class can be presented according to all theBe points;
but every subject can be treated according to some of them, and has been treated
110 by eminent writers.~" Feelings and reflections :i may be interwoven through·
out the composition.

1. THE SEA..

"It is R common thing, in speaking of the sea, to eall it 'a waste of
waters.' But this is a mistake. In stead of being .an encumbrance or
a superfluity, the sea is as nceclful to the life of the worlcl as .the blood
is to the life of the human bocly. In stead of being a' waste .and desert,
it keeps the earth itself from becoming a waste and desert. It is the
world's fountain of life and health and beauty; and if it were taken
away, the grass would perish · from the mountains, the forests would
crumble on the hills, the harvests would becon.ie powder on the plains,
the continent would be one vast SahRra of frosts and fires, and the solid
globe itself, scarred and blasted on every side, would swing in the heavens, silent and dead as on t.he first morning of creation.
"Water is as indispensable to all life~ vegetable or animal. as the air
itself. From the cedar on the mountain, to the lichen that clings to tho
wall; from the elephant that pastures on the forests, to the animalcules
that float in the sunbeam; from the leviathan that heaves the sea into
billows, to the microscopic creatures that swa!'.ip., a·: miltion in a single
22

338

339

foam-drop, - all alike depend for their existence on this single element,
and must perish if it he withclrawn.
" This element of water is supplied entirely by the sea. Tho sea is
tho great inexhaustible fountain which is continually pouring np into
the sky precisely as many streams, anti as lnri.;c, as all the rivers of tho
world are pouring into it. It is the real birthplace of the clouds and
rivers, and out of it come nil the rains and dews of heaven. Out of
its mighty breast come the resources that feccl and support the population of tho world: it is the mother and nurse of all the living.
"1Ne are surrounded, every moment, by the presence and bonnty
of the sea. It looks ont upon us from every violet in our garden-bed;
from every spire M grass that drops upon our passing feet the beaded
dew of the morning; from the bending grain that fills the arm of the
reaper; from bursting presses, and from hams fill ed 'vi th plenty ;
from the broad foreh earls of our cattle and the rosy faces of our
children; from the cool, shining spring at our tloor; from the brook
that murmurs from its sitlc; aml from the elms or spreading nmplcs,
that weave their protecting brnnches beneath the sun, and swing their
breezy shat.lows over our habitation.
" It is the sea that feeds ns. It is the sea that clothes us. It cools
us with the summer cloml, and warms us with the blazing fires of winter. "Vc make wealth for ourselves and for our chiltlrcn out of it~
rolling waters, though we mny live a thousand lengues away from its
shore, and never have looketl on its crested hcanty, or listened to its eternal anthem. Thus the sea, though it bears no harvest on its bosom,
sustains all the harvests of the world. Though a desert itself, it makes
all the other wildernesses of the earth bud and blossom as the rose.
Though its own waters arc as salt and wormwoocl, it mnkcs the clouds
of heaven drop with sweetness, opens springs in the valleys, and rivers
nmong the hills, and fonntuins in nil dry places, and gives drink to all
the inhabitants of the earth.
"The sea is a perpetual sonrce of health to the worltl. "'Without it
there could be no drainage for the lands. It is the scavenger for the
world. Its agency is omnipresent. Its vigilance is omniscient. 'Vhere
no sanitary committee could C¥er come, where no police could ever penetrate, its myriad eyes are searching, end its million hands are busy exploring all the lnrking . placcs of dcc11.y, hearing swiftly off tho dangerous sediments of life, nnd laying them a thousand miles away in the
slimy bottom of the deep.
"The sea is also set to purity the atmosphere. The winds, whose
wings are heavy and \vhose breath is sick with the malaria of the lands

over which they have blown, are sent out to range over these mighty
pastures of the deep, to plunge and play with its rolling billows, and
dip their pinions over and over into its healing waters . . There they
rest when they are weary, cradled into sleep on thnt vast ' swinging
conch of the ocean.
There they rouse themselves when they are
refreshed; and, lifting its waves · upon their shoulders, they dash it
into spray, and hurl it backwards and · forwards through n thousand leagues of the · sky. Thus their whole substance is drenched,
and bathed, and washed, and winnowed, and sifted through and
through, by this ' glorious baptism. Thns they fill their mighty lungs
once more with the sweet breath of ocean; and, striking their wings
for tho shore, they go breathing health and vigor along · all the fainting hosts that wait for them in mountain and forest and valley and
plain, till the whole drooping continent lifts up its rejoicing face,
and mingles its laughter with that of the sea, which has waked it from
its fevered sleep, and poured its tides of returning life through all its
shrivelled al"teries.
"The ocean is not the idle creature that it seems, with' its vast and
lazy length stretched between the continents, with its huge bulk sleeping
along the shore, or tu111bling in aimless fury fro.m pole to pole. . It is a
mighty giant, who, leaving his oozy bet!, comes iupon the 'land to spend
his strength in the service of man. He there allows his captors to chain
him in prisons of stone and iron, to bind bis shoulders to the wheel, and
set him to grind the food of the nation~, and weave the garments of the
world. The mighty shaft, which that wheel turns; runs out into all the
lands; nnd, geared and belted to ·that center of power, ten thousand
· times ten thousand clanking engines roll their cylinders, and ply their
hammers, nnd clrlvo their million shuttles."
L. SWAIN.
It Is evident that the foregoing sketch consists almost entirely of the relations which the sea bears to man and to other objects.-Sce also Effects, etc.,
pp. 271-2; and compare Byron's apostrophe to the ocean with Crabbe's de·
scrlptlon of the ocean. Greenwood; too, has written an excellent description
of the sea; and Dickens's David Copperfield contains the grandest description
of n storm that ever ~as
. written; see Chap. LV. ·

.

Subjects under this general head are frequently apostrophized.
2. THE Scrn.

" Glorious orb I t11e idol
Of early nature, and the vigorous race
Of undiseased mankind; most glorious orb,
And fount of light, that wert a worship ere

341

340
The mystery of thy making was revealed I
'l'hou earliest minister of the Almighty,
Which glmldened, on their mountnin-tops, the hearts
Of the Chaldean shepherds, till they poured
Themselves in orisons I Thou material God I
And representative of the Unknown,
'Vho chose thee for his shadow I Thon chief star I
Center of many stars! which mak'st our earth
Endurable, and tcmperest the hue11
And hearts of all who walk within thy rays I
Sire of the seasons I Monarch of the climes,
And those who dwell in them I for near or fur,
Our inborn spirits have a tint of thee,
Even as our outward aspects. Thou dost
Rise, and shine, and set, in glory. Fare thee well I "

Addltlonal Subjects.

4. Rivers.
5. Earthquakes and Volcano_es.
6. Sunset.

lf some of these subjects have already been givon, let H be remembered
that they are lie re to be. treated more fully, or as fully as possible.

.

.

.

2. Places and Countries.
BYRON.

See also Thomson's" Bummer," and Percival's" Apostrophe to the Bun."

3.

7. Air.
8. Light.
9. Electricity.
10. Heat.
11. Water.
12. A Storm.

1. The Earth.
2. The Sky.
3. Mountains.

SUNRISE AT SEA.

" I have anticipated the <lawn, to behold at leisure the rising .sun on
the bosom of the ocean. The sky is clear, and the air is calm. A few
stars which still glitter in the firmament, are about to disappear. Alrcad; a few rays of the coming day penetrate across the bluish vapor.of
the horizon. Night, retiring towards the west, collects her fleeting
shades. On the cast, the sky is gradually tinged with red. Streams of
light, pouring through the atmosphere, streak the azure vault with purple. Each succeeding moment varies the scene. Objects arc more
strongly illuminated. The colors beC"ome more lively. But what wonders now pour upon my sight! A million of golden rays, all streaming
from a common center, shoot through the air, which seems all on fire.
The sun is rising. I sec hi s radiant disk just above the horizon. He
seems to rise from the bosom of the sea. :F or a moment he reclines on
its liquid surface as on a throne. What copious floods of flamin g light
he pours all around! The eye is dazzled with the blaze. With what
majesty he elevates himself above the waters, while his radiant orb is
everywhere reflected from their surface I Behold the s~lcndid light
whose radiance fills the world I IIis presence revives all living beings,
and swells the heart of man with joy. Hail I thou fairest, brightest
star in the creation. Glory to the di vine hand which has traced thy
course in the heavens!" - Lono JE.1nmEY.

General Outline. -Situation; place and time of observa•
tion; general appearance; extent; peculiar features and
striking characteristics ; environs or surroundings; climate
or weather; soil and productions; population a:µd their civilization ; works of art; historical . associations, or relations
to the past ; relations to other countries and objects; prospects ; feelings and reflections.
1.

JERUSALEM,

"After descending a second mountain, higher and more naked than
the first, the horizon expanded all at once, and gave a view of the whole
space which stretches between the last peaks of Judea, on which we
stood, and the high mountain-chain of Arabia. Beyond the smaller
hills beneath our feet, broken and split into gray and crumbling
rocks, the eye distinguished nothing but a dazzling expanse, so similar to a vast sea, that the illusion was · complete. But on the _edge
of this imaginary ocean, about a league from us, the sun glittered on a
square tower, a lofty minaret, and the broad yellow walls 'Of some
buildings which crowned the surrimit'of a low hill. It was Jerusalem I
"It stood out somberly and heavily from the blue depths of heaven,
and the black side of the Mount of Olives. · Beyond those lofty ·walls
and domes a high and broad hill arose, upon a second -outline, darker
thnn thut which bore the city, and bounding the horizon.
' · ··
"Nearer to tis, and immediately beneath our eye, was nothing but a
stony wilderness, which serves as an approach to •the city of stones.'
Those immonso embedded stones, of a uniform rocky gray, extended
from the spot where we stood to the gates.

·--------------- _ __
.

_,_,_

_...._..........._.,__,

_____

342 .
" The last steps that are made before opening on Jerusalem, are
through a hollowed, dismal and irremovable avenue of those rocks;
which rise ten foct 11liovc the hc:ul of the trnvcfor, and permit only a
sight of the sky i111111cdintcly nbovc. We were in this Inst and mournful
avenue, and hud murchcc.l in it for a quarter of an hour, when the rocks,
retiring on a sutltlcn to the right und left, brought us face to face with
the walls of Jerusalem.
"A space of only a hundred puces was now between us and the
Gate of llcthlchem. This interval, barren and UJH.lulating, like • the
banks which surround fortified places in Europe, extended to the right
in u nnnow vale, siuking in n gentle slope. To the left were five olll
olive trunks, bent beneath the weight of uge, which might be called
petrified, like the soil from which they sprang. The Gate, commuudcd
by two towers with Gothic battl ements, deserted and silent as the entrance of a ruined castle, lay open before us.
"We remained a fow minutes in motionless contemplation. We
burned with desire to pass the entrance, but the plague was now in its
most intense state in the city, and we did not enter; but, turning to the
left, we slowly descended, skirting the high walls built behind a deep .
ravine, in which we perceived, from time to time, the sto11e foundutions
of Herod's ancient inclosurc. At every step we met Turkish hurialplaces, with tomb-stones surmounted by a turban. Those cemeteries,
which the plague was nightly peopling, were filled with groups of Turkish and Arab women, weeping for their hushunds or fathers.
· ' "Those groups, seated there the whole day to weep, were the only
signs of human occupancy that nppeared in our circuit round Jerusalem.
No noise, no smoke, arose; and some pigeons, flying from the fig-trees
of the battlements, or from the battlements to the edges of the sacred
pools, gave the only movement in this mournful scene." - LAMARTINE.
The foregoing sketch comprises chiefly the environs and the wrlt.er's feelings; but it gives the reader a new and clear view of that remarkable part of
the world.
2.

JAMAICA.

"Jamaica, in its general appearance, differs very much from our
country', and from most parts of Europe; yet the north nn<l south sides ·
of the island, which are separated by a vast chain of mountains, extending from east to west, differ nt tho same time widely from cnch other.
When Columbus first discovered Jumnicn, he uppronchcd it on the
northern side; and, beholding that part of the country which now con·
stitutes the parish of St. Anne, he was filled with delight u11d ndmirution at the novelty, variety, and beauty of the prospect. 'fhe whole of

343
the scenery is indeed superlatively fine, nor can words alone convey a
just idea of it. A few leading particulars may perhaps be pointed out;
but their combinations arc infinitely varied, and must ho seen in order
to be understood.
"The country at a small distance from the shore rises into hills,
which arc more remarkable for beauty than for boldness; being all of
gentle acclivity, and commonly separated from each other hy spacious
vales and romantic inequalities; but they are seldom craggy, nor is tho
transition from the hills to the valleys oftentimes abrupt. In general,
the hand of nature hM rounded every hill towards the top, with singu-·
Jar felicity. The most striking circumstances, attending these henutiful
swells, nrc the hnppy disposition of the groves of pimento, with which
most of them are spontaneously clothed; and the consummate verdure
of the turf underneath, which is discoverable in •a thousand openings,'
and presents a charming contrast to the deeper tints of the pimento. As.
this tree, which is no less remark11ble for fragrance than for beauty,
suffers no rival plant to flourish within its shade, these groves are not'.
only clear of underwood, but even the grass beneath is seldom luxuriant.
"The soil in general is a chalky marl, which produces a 'close and
clean turf, as smooth and even as the finest lawn of our country, and
in color inlinitcly brighter. Over this beautiful surface, the pimento
spreads itself in v:arious. forms. In one place, we behold extensive·
groves; in another, a number of beautiful groups, some of which crown·
the hills, while others arc scattered down the declivities. To enliven ·
the scene, and add perfection to beauty, the bounty of nature has copiously .watered the whole district. No other part of the West Indies,
that I have seen, abounds with so many delicious streams. Every valley has its rivulet, and every hill its cascade. In one point of view, ·
where the rocks overhang the ocean, no fewer than eight transparent
waterfalls are beheld the same moment. Those only who have been
long at sea, can judge of the emotion which is felt hy the thirsty voy- '
ager at so enchanting a prospect.
"Such is the foreground of the picture. As tho land rises towards
the center of the island, the eye, in passing over the beauties that I have
recounted, i~ attracted by a boundless amphitheater of wood, - ,
. .,·
'
Insuperable hight of loftiest shade,
· . .,
Cedar, and branching palm; ,
nn immensity 'of forest, the outline of which melts into the distant blue
hills, and these again are lost in the clouds.'"
· ·\ ·
The foregoing h an Pl r.gnnt. ~kP.tr.h or the natural scenery of the island; and
the author wisely selected this for his sketch, because it affords the most
interesting view that can be taken of the Island.

--

-

--

345

344 .
3. HOME.

" 'Home, sweet home I' How familiar it all seems I As we near
the old farm-house, the thought comes to mind, that but little is known
here of the constant changes which are going on in the busy world.
Here nt the gnte s~nnds the old maplo yet, also tho moro majestic
elm.. lly. the fence 1s tho usual row of tall sunflowers; the potatoes
are m their old place; and on the right flourish onions, beans, beets,
artd asparagus. Along the walk the pinks, marigolds, touch-me-nots
buc.helor-butto?s, hollyhocks, china·nsters, and Johnny-jump-ups, with
their great va1:iet~ of blossoms, bless our eyes, and mn.ke us forget that
'.',long year, with its hupos nllll fours, joys nllll sorrow~, hn~ Jmssetl nwny.
I ho old house mny ha\'e a deeper tinge, and the bucket at the well may
have gathered more moss, but we look out upon the same beautiful
landscape. Lake George, with its green isles, gleams in the distance
surr~unded by high mountains that seem to say, • "Ve will protect and
nounsh ~hce; and from our ne:cr-failing springs shall thy pure water
~e supph~d. Here, on the hight, is sunshine; just over that green
isle there is n shower; and a rainbow, sinking deep its golden trcasuregirdle into the banks, spans the Lake.
. "Soon we, have eagerly rambled over' every loved spot which our
mfancy knew. 1'Ve have wandered by the brook-side· we have climbed
the neighboring mountain; and now, as the sun bids ~s farewell for the
day in bright-tinted clouds and a varying landscape, we rest beneath a
grand old elm, while a feeling of sweet melancholy steals into our hearts, .
as. we reflect on the shortness of human life, and the mutability of all
tlungs on earth. Did we say there is no change 1 There is a constant
varying of nature's beauties. Ilut a moment ngo a little cloud encomJ>assed yon mountain-top, <lark and gloomy in uppenrance; but a flush
of sunlight fell upon the uncouth form, and, lo! it was chan,,.cd to a
glorious vision of purple and gold. May not this be a type or"'the time
when the Sun of Rig hteousness shall kindly look down upon the dark
degenerate children of earth, changing this gloomy life into a brigh~
and beautiful one in the ' Land of the Hereafter,' and making death
nppear to us, "Like the s?ft fleecy cloud at the close of the day,
That afar 111 the west, while the sun's latest ray
In the edge of the night on its bosom rests bright,
s,teals with balm to our hearts as we gn.ze with do light:
1 hero's no glare, thorn's no gloom, while enrn.pt.uroJ wo view
Its soft changing tints, and its deep golden hue."

Compositions nrc elt11er sttbjective or objective. A compoRltlon Is snbjective
In proportion as it Is tinctured with the soul or individuality of the writer; nnd
o/J)ecti1!e, in proportion ns it is not. The foregoing sketch is deeply subjective,
ns it ought to be.-See Wordsworth's" Intimations of Immortality."
·

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Addltlonal Subjects.
6. Washington City.
New England.
7. New Orleans.
Texas.
8.
Richmond. '
America.
9. New York.
United States.
10.
Your Home, City, or State. .
vV est Indies.

3. Times. Days, and .Seasons.
General Outline. - Origin; appearances of nature; weather; the doings of people ; comparison to other times; feelings and reflections.
I.

SUNDAY.

I

"I nm al":ays very well pleased with a country Sunday; aml think,
if keeping holy the seventh day were only a human institution, it
would be .the best method that coul<l ho thought of for polishing and
ciyilizing mankind. It is certain the country people woul<l soon degenerate into a kind of savages an<l .barbarians, were there not such
frequent returns of a stated time, in which the whole village .meet together with their best faces, and in their cleanliest habits, to converse
with one another upon different subjects, hear their duties explained to
them, and join together in adoration of the Supreme Being. Sunday
clcnrs away tho rust of the whole week, not, only. tis it refreshes in ,their
minds tho notions of, i:eligion, but. as i.~ puts ,both ~ho sexes upon appearing in their most agreeable ~forms, , ai:id ~xerting ,all such qunlitie~ as
are npt to gh·e them a figure in the eye of, the village. ·A country fellow distingubhes himself as much in . the , church~yard as a citizen. does.
upon the Exchange, the whole parish politics being generally discussed
in that place either after the sermon or before the bell rings . .
" But there is nothing else so delightful to my imagination as a bright,
. calm Sunday in the latter part of spring .or the early part of autumn ;
gilding with its temperate splen<lor the fields and holy spires, and carrying on its balmy and silent air the soothing sounds that . foll and expire in that mild p:rnse of labor. The tolling of the church-bells, tho
tinkling 111ul hlcnting flocks, the cooing doves or twittering swallo,vs,
tho sleepy murmuring of bees round the heavy-headed fl~wers, the tidy

-""~--·- · ----

347

34G
groups going to and from church, the milky temperature
er, and the heavenly listening calm in the air, all have
freshing, nnd divine influence on my soul. Many nre
descriptions which poets have given of the Sabbath, but
seen any other equal to the following: 'It is a port protected
From storms which round us rise;
A garden intersected
lly streams of Paradise;
A cool, refreshing fonnt:tin
In life's dry desert sand;
A Piogah's holy mountain,
To view the promised land.' "

of the weatha healing, rethe beautiful
I have never

2. Su1uum.

" Sunday and summer arc probably both derived from sun. Snnday
was the day dedicated to the sun, nnd summer is so culled because it is
the season in which the sun seems to rule the world.
"In many southern countries the heat is so great in summer ns to
make this season rather disagreeable; but in many northern eountrie~
it is the most delightful part of the year.
" Summer is the lrnppy season in which the Creator pours out tho
treasures of his blessings in the greatest almndance on all lil'ing creatures. Spring, with her dainty buds and blos~oms, soon passes away;
. but summer tarries longer, and produces an innumerable quantity of
·fruits, in fields and gardens, - fruits that please the eye, and may be
gathered for present or future enjoyment; as the fragrant strawllerry,
. the velvety cherry, the bursting plum, the downy peach, thejuiey grape,
the luscious melon, and hundreds of others.
" In summer, too, flowers show themselves in their richest dress and
greatest variety. \Ve also then find the greatest beauty and variety in
other plants, from the humble moss to the stately oak. Let us climb
the highest mountain, seek the cool shade of the woods, or descend into
the valley, and we shall everywhere find new beauties. If we lift up
our eyes, they are delighted with the blue sky; if we cast them on the
ground, they are refreshed hy beautiful verdure and innumerable flowers. Our ears are charmed by the cheerful notes of the winged songsters;
and both car nnrl eye arc dclig-htcrl l1y the 111urmuri11g- and purling of
the brook, or the silver current of the strung river. How c~ol, beautifql, and refreshing are t~e limpid wntcrs !
"'l'horo Is a drowsy buz11 nrnong the clover-blossoms; a swee t smmt
comes from the new-made buy ; and the cultivated landscape waves

with golden grain. Numerous flocks 'feed on the profusion of bountiful Nature, that yield us wholesome milk .and nourishing meats.
Tufted trees and groves ulford us nnd them delightful shade. Our
barns and cellars begin to be lilleu with , the new productions of fiel<ls
and gardens. All that we see, hcnr, taste,. or smell, contributes io our
. happiness; but the mind finds a still higher enjoyment in contemplating, through the beauty, harmony, and comfort of all things, ihe wisdom, power, and goodness of the Creator." ._ ,

!ddltlonal Subjects.

1. Christmas.
2. "Winter.

5. 1776.
6. 1870.

3. Time.

7. A Stormy Night.
8. Any remarkable Day or Time.

4. Childhood.

U-- .Many subjects of the three classes already given arc superior to man,
and overwhelm him by being more durable. or powcrfui. He fe!ll.s this, and
th!lrcforc often apostrophizes them.
"· · '
'
·

4. Persons, and Things relating to Persons.
I ;

; ·

• •

I ~

\

f .

1 ·• ;

1

•

i

Persons.
1. Appe::i,rance; character; position and possessions;
qualifications; ties; prospects.
2. Present position ; antecedents ; character ; ability;
prospects.
3. Birth and parentage; youth and education; occupation selected for life; habits; attainments; chief events in
life; relations to other. people; prosperity or adversity; exertions; achievements j' character and principles. Feelings
and reflections.
.
Points ~ore, Specific: Features ·;.· complexion.; · ag~; dress; religion; politics; principles; disposition ; motives; deeds ; private character; family; kindred; ancestry; time of rising, work, and rest; business engaged in ; mode of doing business; rem.ar~able occurrences it~
the life-time of; love for amusement; wit or humor;' anecdotes anct
eccentricities / reputation among friends and foes !"' '
The foregoing outlines show the general method, or diversity of points, l\Q•
cording to which Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Scripture wrl~1
ers, Dryden, Addison, Swift, Pop e, Arbuthnot, ·Young, Johnson, 09l(lsmltl1,
Burke, Cowper, Chatham, Scott, Jeffrey, Macaulay, Uarlyle, Wllspu, ..A,li&v11 1

349

348
Dickens, Thackeray, Bulwer, J errold, Irving, Prescott, Bancroft, Bryant, Hal·
leek, Holmes, Voltai re, Boileau, Victor Hu go , Lamartine, Cerv•rntes, lloccaccio,
Dante, Plutarch, Tacitus, Livy, Virgil, Cice ro, Xenophon, Demost.hent>s, Thu cy dides, Homer, Goethe, Schiller, L essing, Schlosse r, nnd ma ny other a uthors have
described persons. No. 2 Is the common m ethod ad opted by newspapers . - Uy
etudylng any person according to the general outlino WC have given, a writer
can always find something proper to say.

I. LILY O'BRIEN.

"She was probably about fifteen years of age, of slender figure, and
lithe as a willow twig. The deep black of her frock finely contrasted
with a skin transparently white. Her hair fell in thick curls over her
neck and shouklcrs, and in the sunbeams looked like burnished gold, or
rather, like 11 pule, shining auburn. 'Vlicn she looked townrd us, 1rntl
shook back the curls from her face, I thought I had never seen so sweet
n countenance. Iler forchend was high, and finely formed; but her soft
blue eyes seemed better acquainted with tears than with smiles. · Thero
was something even more than polite in her mldrcss, - it possessed
much of rustic dignity; and the tones of her voice were as sweet and
musical as those of a mellow-toned flute." - Mas . HALL.
The forei:olng sketch turns chiefly upon appearance; but the following
turns rather upon character nnd disposition:-

2. Miss WtLRON•

" She is not a showy or remarkable girl, either in person or character. She has good sense, good manners, good temper, and good hands;
but, above ·all, I am perfectly sure that she has u good hcnrt, and that it
is mine without reluctance or <livision."-LoRn JEFFREY.
Ile paid her a still hlgher oompUment afterwards, by marrying b er .

3. ROSALINDA.

"The languid larly next appears in state,
Who was not born to carry her own weight;
She lolls, rcelsi &tllggcrs~ till some foreign aid
To her own stature lif~t'l H10 fepblo maid.
'l.'hon, if or<lainc1l hy so severe a doom,
Sho by just stages journeys round th e roo m;
But, knowing her own wca~ness, sl10 d()spairs
To scale the Alps, - that is, ascend ~jio stq.irs.
'.~:fy fan!' let others say, who laugh at toil;
' Fan I hood! ,qlove ! scar(! ' is her laconic style;
And that Rhe spcnks with such ii. dyin:(fnll
'
Tlmt I.tet.ty rut.her Sl\OS th1p1 hc11r11 tho mill !
'l'he motion of lier lips qnd menning cy~
Piece out the idea her. f11int words deny.
Oh, listr. n with nt.t.ent.ion most profoun q l
Her voice is but the shq.dqw of a sounq.

•

· Ancl help, oh, help! her spirits are so dead,
One hand scarce lifts the other to her head.
If there a stubborn pin it triumphs o'er,
She pants she sinks awuy, and is no more I
Let the r~bust and the gigantic cnrve;
Life is not worth so much, - she'd rather starve;
But chew she must herself; ah I .cruel fate I
That H.osalinda can't by proxy eat." - YouNo.
. 4. MAJOR 'ANDRE.

"There was something. singularly interesting in the character and
fortunes of Andre. To an excellent understanding, well improved by
education and travel, he united a peculiar elegance of mind and manners, and the advantage of a pleasing person. 'Tis said ho possessed
an excellent taste for the fine arts, and had himself attained some proficiency in poetry, music, and painting. His knowledge appeared with·
out ostentation,· and embellished hy a diffidence that rarely uC'compnnics
so many talents and accomplishments; which left you to suppose more
than appeared. His sentiments were elevated, and inspired esteem:
they had a softness that conciliated affection. ' Bis elocution was elegant; his address easy, polite, and insinuating ..' By his merit he had
acquired the confidence of his general,' and was making rnpid progress
in military rank and reputation." -ALEXAN.DER HA.MILTON.
5.

DISSECTION OF A . BEAU'S

HEAD. "

"I was invited,' methought, to tho dissection of a beau's head, aml
n coquette's heart, which were both laid on the table before us. · 'An imaginary operator opened the first with a great deal of nicety, which,
upon a cursory nm! superficial view, ap.peared ' like the 'head of other
men; but, upon appl ying our glasses to it, we made a very odd discovery, namely, that what we looked upon as brains, were not such in reality, but a heap of strange materials wound up in that shape and texture,
and packed together with wonderful art in the several crevices of the
skull The pineal gland, which many of our modern philosophers suppose to be the scat of the soul, smelt very strong of essence and orangeflower water, a9d was encompassed · with' a .kind of horny substance,
cut into a thousand
little faces or mirrors, which were imperceptible to
1
the naked eye, insomuch that the soul, .if there had been any here, must
have always been taken up in contomplnting hcr~vn beauties.
"We oh~crvcd a largo nntrum, or cavity. in"':ihc sinciput, thnt was
till ed with ribbons, lace, embroidery, wrought together in a most curious piece of net-work, the parts of which were likewise · impcrceptihle
to the naked eye. Another of these antrums, or cavities, was stuffed

.

.c--------~-----~------~---~-----·-------or

350

351

with invisible billet-doux, billiards, fitshionahle dances, and other trumpery of the same nature. In another we found a kind of powder which
set the whole company a sneezing, and hy its scent discovered itself to
be the right Spanish. The several other cells were stored with commodities of the same kind, of which it would be tedious to give the
reader an exact inventory.
"There wa~ a large cavity on each side of the head, which I must
not omit. That on the right side wus filled with fictions, flatteries, ancl
falsehoods, vows, promises, ancl declarations; that on the left, with oaths
and protestations. There Issued out a duct from each of these cells,
which ran into the root of the tongue where both joined together, and
passed forward in one common duct to the tip of it. vVe discovered
several little roads or canals running from the car into the brain, and
took particular care to trace them out through their several passages.
One of them extended itself to a bundle of sonnets, novels, and little
musical ·instruments. Others ended in several bladders, which were
filled either with wind or with froth. But the large canal entered into a
great cavity of the skull, from which there went another canal into the
tongue. 'l'his great cavity was filled with a kincl of spongy substance,
which the French anatomists call galiinatias, and the English, nonsense.
"The skin of 'the forchcml was extremely tough, thick, and, what
very much surprised us, h;1d 11ot in it any single blood-vessel that we
were able to discover, either with or without our glasses; from which
we coneludc1l that the party, when alive, must have been entirely devoid
of the faculty of blushing." -ADDISON.
See Addison's Spectator, Nos. 276 and 281. Also compare the foregoing
description of a fop with Hotspur's, In Shakespeare.

G.

HUMAN

LIFE.

" All the world's a sta~e,
And all the men and women merely players :
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays manv parts,
His acts being seven a,qes. At first the i1ifa11t,
Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms;·
And then the whining school.-boy, with his satchel
And shining morning face, creeping like snaH
Unwillingl_y to school; and then the lover,
Sighing like furnnce, with a woful hallnd
Mndc to l'ih 111istrcRs' c,rchrows: tht'n n soldier,
1<'1111 of' strange oaths, nnd be11nlc1l like the pnrd,
.Jealous in honor. sudden and quick in quarrel,
Seeking the bubble reputation,
Even at the cannon's mouth; and then

The justice, in fair round belly~ ~ith good capon lined,
With eyes severe, and beard of. torrnnl cut,
·
Full of wise saws and modern 1!1stances i .
And so he plays his part : the sixth age shifts
Into the lean and slippered pantaloon, .
With spectacles on nose and pouch on side,.
I-Ii!i youthful hose well saved, .a ~orld too w1~e
:For his shrunk shank; at~d .Ins big man.ly voice,
Turnirw a•rain toward childish treble, pipes
And whistles in its sound; last sce11e of all,
That ends this strange, eventful his~o~y, ·
Is second childishness and mere obhv1on,
. ,,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans tast~, sans every tl11ng.
SHAK.
lGi'" See remark, p. 306. - It would be easy to select, from English literature,
at least a thousand different descriptions of persons.
·

1. Describe any queer or interesting person you know. ·
2. vV rite a sketch about any remarkable person in history.
3. vVrite a sketch about any remarkable person now living.

· Things relating to Persons.

··
·
· ''
, :.
:
As to things relating to persons, if the subject is :a build-.
ing, show where it is, when it was built, how i~ \~as b~ilt! o.f
what it consists, and any thing peculiar or str1kmg; if it is
an instrument, a 'machine, or a manufactured product,
show of what and how it is made, for what and how
it is used, and the advantage of having it; if it is a
state of society, show its good o.r evil relations t~ pe?- ·
pie, its extent, how it was produced, a~d to what it will
lead· if it is a mental or nwral quality, show its uses
and 'effects, mention the signs that ·indicate it, illu~trate,
it by examples, or relate . some anecdotes; if it is a. duty,
speak of its necessity and good , ~ffe~ts, of ~he p~ace of
conscience which attends it, .and : of the varwus ill consequences when it is not regarded; if it is an a:t or s~ience, .
trace it from its origin, describe it, show the 'difficulties of
~ttaining it/ mention somo persons who havo exccllc~ .in it,
describe some. of the masterpieces, speak of tl~e ;utility or
happiness derived from it; if it is a tr:ade or occupation,
speak of its origin, progress, and general benefits, of the

352
usual moJe of learning it, of the benefits or injuries to the
persons engaged in it, of the materials, Luildings, and machinery required to carry it on, anJ of the amount, i~arket,
and profits of the products; if it is a line of business, as
commerce, for instance, speak of its origin and progress,
show how it is conJucte<l, give a sketch of remarkable persons that promoted it, an<l. show its advantages and disadvantages to society; if it is some great movement or battle,
show what le<l to it, describe the parties concerned with it,
a11<l their e11uipme11tR, show what they <li<l an<l how they
<li<l it, an<l. condu<le with the results or consequences.
It frequ e ntly happens that great questions spring up in society,
because an important subject has both advantages and disadvantages, and doubts may arise which class pre<lo111i11ates. Nearly all
the measures proposed in pu!Jlie bodies arc of this character; and
hence tho discussions or 1lcbatcs which usually follow when a Lill
is offered or a motion is made. Such topics may be considered
duuble subjects, because they present a field fo1· an affirmative and
a negative train of arguments.

Ex. - SnouLD FoHEIGN lllunoRATION BE ENCOURAGED?
Affirmative. - Needer! to increa~e our population. To occupy waste
Jund. To add to the power of the nrmy. To our manufacturing establishments. To increase our institutions of learning. To promote and improve
the literature of the country. The exile the strongest supporter of liberty.
Only the young, energetic, nnd ~pirited emigrate.
Neg1Ltlve. - Paupers. Criminals. llotnny llay. Laud monopoly.
Armies a curse. Tools of tyrants. Engraft the vices of Europe. Corrupt
uallot-boxes. We should respect ourselves nnd our own country. Only the
best races and tho best institutions should be implanted in this country.
1. Iloou::s.
"It is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior
minds, nnd these invaluable means of communication are within the
reach Of nil. In the best books, great men talk to us, give us their
most precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours. God be thanked
for books. They arc the voices of the distant and the dead, and make
us heirs of the ~piritunl lite of past ages. llooks nre the true levelers.
They give to n.11, who will faithfully use them, the spiritual presence of
the I.lest and greatest of our rnce. No matter how poor I am; no mat·

353
ter though the prosperous of my own time will not enter my obscure
dwelling; if the Sacred Writers will enter, and tnke up their abode
.u nder my roof; if Milton will cross my threshold, to sing to me of
}Jaradise; and Shakespeare to open to me the worlds of imagination,
and the workings of the human heart; and Franklin to enrich me with
_ his practical wisdom, - I shall not pine for want of intellectual companionship; and I mny become n cultivated mnn, though excluded from whnt
is called the best society of the place where I am. · Whn.t consolations,
too, in books, to a troubled or sorrowing heart! Montesquieu suid, he
had never known any cares that were not lightened by nn hour's rending; and this is the experience of nil who have a tnste for good books.
"Ilesides, the best books have most beauty; and the greatest truths
are wronged if not linked with beauty. It is when they are arrayed in
this their natural nnd fit nttire that they win their way most surely
and deeply into the soul. No man receives the true culture of n mnn,
in whom the sensibility to tho l)('.nutiful is not cherished ; nnd I know
of no condition in life from which it should be excluded. llut of all
luxuries, books nre the cheapest and most convenient; aud it seem!! to
me they are most important to conditions where coarse labor tends to
give n. coarseness to the mind" [powerful argument for popular education] . - CHANNING, abridgtd.
STUDIES. - " Studies serve for delight, for · ornament, and for
ability. Their chief use for delight is in privntcness; for _ornament, in
discourse; aml for ability, in the judgment nnd disposition of business;
for expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars one hy
one, but the general counsels and the plots and mnrshnling of uffuirs
come best from those thn.t nre Jcnrncd. Studies perfect nature, nnd nro
perfected by experience; for natural abilities are like plunts,-:- they re-.
quire pruning by study; and studies themselves_do give forth directions
too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty
men contemn .studies, simple men admire them, nnd wise men use 't hem;
for they teach not their own use ; but thnt is a wisdom without them
· and above them won by observation. · Rend, not to <·ontrndict nnd confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse,
Lut to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be
8wnllowed, and some few to bo chewed and digested ; that is, some
books are to be ren.d only in pnrts; others to be rend, but not curiously;.
nnd some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and 1attention.
Rending maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; and writing, an
exnct man." -BACON, abridged.
23

354
2.

355

GLASS.

"Glass is a transparent, impermeabl e, and brittle substance. Its
essential ing 1'edients nre silica and potash, to which various other subs tan ces are occasionally added ; one of the most co mmon and important of which is oxide of lead , hy which the fusibility ond density of
the glas8 is increased, so that it is more easily worked and more brilliant, cspcci nlly when ornamented hy cutting. There arc sevcrnl kinds
of glass, differing in their composi1.iun, und employed for difforent
purposes. F'lint-,qlass is used for decanters, drinking-glasses, chandeliers, and other ornamented furniture: it is composed of the three suhstnnces alread y named. Crown-_qlass, which is used for windows, is compound ed of silica and sod11, with a portion of lime. Green bottle-glass i~
m ade of a mixture of sand with impure wood-as hes, kelp, and a portion
or brick clay. These kinds or gfoss arc 111n1111factured hy fu si ng their
clements in a furnace, nml the n snhjccting them to the operntion of
blowin,q. Plate-glass, the fin es t of all kinds, and the most difficult to
make, is used in certnin philosophical instruments, and also for mirrors
and windows. It is composed of fine sand, soda, lime, hlack oxide
of manganese, cobalt blue, and fragm ents of good glnss.
Thcso
materials, when in a state of pcrfoct fu sion, arc poured out on a hot
copper plate; nntl the muss is then rolled out, annealed, and polished by
grilllli11g.
·
"Glass is supposed to have been invent ed among the Phamirians.
The <l bcovery of pieces of glass in the ruins of Thebes, shows that it
was known to. the Egypti:ms. . I.t seems to have been applied by them
almost exclus ively to nrt1clcs of orn ament and luxury. But now it
l1as beco me an article of general utility, one.I its manufacture is one of
the highes t in tercst. If we consic.ler the worthlessness of the ori.,inal
materials from which it is made, the ingenuity exhibited in the pr~cess
of making- it, th.e beauty of the forms into which it is ultimately molded, anti. the va n cty of most useful and necessary purposes which it
serves, It is not too much to say that the manQfacture is one of tho
most important in the history of inventions. Not two centuries have
el.apscd since glass superseded the 11ondescript and un satisfactory prov1s1ons formerly used for windows; but so evident hns been its utility,
thnt the mca11 est cottage is now supplied with it in various forms.
The houses of the rich an<l the poor alike nre now constructed with
greater 1~ttc ntion to lig ht, cheerfulness, and beauty, from the supply of
glass be111g so nbundant and cheap. And there cnn be no ques tion
that the tastes u11d habits of both classes alike hove been improvt·d by
the liberal use of this admirable product of industrial skill." - CHAM·
BERS.

'

Observe that the first paragraph le

d~scriptive;

and th e second, narrative.

3 . . CONTENTMENT.

"Contentment produces, in some measure, nil those cff'ccts which
the alchemist usually ascribes to what he calls th e philosopher's stone•
and if it does not bring riches, it docs the snme thing, by bani shi11g th~
desire of them. 1f it can not remove the disqui ctn<lc nrisi11g from a
man's mind, body, or fortune, it makes him easy under thcni. Ile is

blessed indeed whose circumstances suit his temper; but surely he is
more blessed who can suit his temper to any circumstances. Our na~u- ·
rul wants arc few, anc.l by means of industry may always be supplied;
while the splemlid supertluities \vhich surround the rich ond great are,
often attcndctl with more ca re and trouble than pleasure. A mun .
can not quench his thirst better out of a river than out of a full um; :
• uur is the drink better from a fountnin when pnved with marlil ~ thun
when it wells over tho ·green turf. V cry fow worldly things appcnr
great to a truly great mind; and such a mind soon learns to find its
huppiness in intellectual possessions beyond the reach of fortune. For
all thintrs
from without are but borrowed; and whatever .Fortune can
0
give us, she cau also take away." - llmTISH EssAYISTs, abridged.
.4. THE SENSE OF HONOR.

"To be insensible to public opinion, or to the estimation in which
we are held by others, indicates any thing but a good and generous
spirit. It is indeed the mark of a low and worthless character, devoid
of principle and of shame. A young man is not far from ruin when
he can snv, 'l don't ca1·e what others think ef 111e.'
"llut" to have a proper regard to public opinion is one thing; to
muko thut opinio11 our rule of action is quite another. The young
man whose grcut uim is to please, who makes the opinion and favor of
others his rule and motive of action, stands ready to adopt any sentiments, or pursue any course of conduct, however false and criminal, if
it be but popular or expedient. Duty, or the eternal laws of rectitude,
arc nut thought of: 8uch a man can never be trusted; for he has no
integrity, and no independence of mind, to obey the dictates of rectitude . .
H e is at the mercy of every cas ual impulse, and change of popul ar
opinion; and yo u can no more tell whether he will be rig ht or wrong
tu-morrow, than you cnn predict the course of the wind, or what shape
the clouds will then assume.
"And what is the usual consequence of this weak and foolish regard
to the opinions of men; or of acting in opposition to one's own convictions of duty 1 . , It is to lose the esteem and respect of .the v~ry people
whom yon thus attempt to please. Your <lefoct or principle and your
hollow-heartedness arc easily perceived; and though the persons to
whom you thus sacrifice your conscience, may affoct to recommend your .
complaisance, you may be assured that inwardly they despise you for
it. Young persons can hardly comn~it a greater mistake than to think
of gaining the esteem of others by yielding to their wishes, contrary
to their own sense of duty, ma nliness, and honor. Such conduct is
always morally wrong; and it rarely f'ail s to depri ve one both of sclfrespect and of the respect of others." - fu WES, abridged.
5.

BATTLE OF BoRODINO.

" The night passed slowly over the wakeful heads of the impatic11t
comhatants. The morning of the 7th of September at length broke,
and thou~rmds beheld the dawn for the last time.
·
"8u1l1le11ly the dre1L<lful di schar~c of two thousand cannons broko
the silence of expectation. and aroused all couccrucd to the fury and

.........,, -·

356
horrors of the conflict. Genernl as the attack seemed, the corps of
Prince Begrntion had to sustain the accumulated weight of nearly half
the .French urmy; and the determination shown by the French cavulry
was i;o desperate that they charged up to the mouths of tho Hussinn guns.
Whole regime11ts of them, lmth horses und men, were swept down by
tho cmmon-shot; and ull along the front of Begration's line arose n
breastwork of dend and dying. Napoleon ordered up fifty additionnl
pieces of artillery, and a fresh division of infurnry, with several regiments of dragoons. This new force rushed on, over the bodies of
their fallen cuu11trymen, and did not allow themselves to be chcrked
before they reached the parapets of the Hussinn works. Their vigorous
onset overturned with fierce slaughter every thing thnt opposed them,
and obli14cd llcgration to fall buck nearer to the second line of the
army. The rngc of battle nt this l'risis is not to be described. The .
thunder of a 1ho11sund µicccs of nrtillcry was answered by the discharge
of an equal number on the 1mrt of the Hns:-:inns. A veil of smoke
shut out the co111bnt11nts from the sun, and left them 110 other light to
pursue the work of <lcuth than the flushes of musketry, which blnzcd
m every <lircction.
.
" The sabers of forty thousand drngoons met cnch other, and clashed
in the horrid gloo111; uml the bristling points of' countless bnyouct~,
bursting through the rolling vapor, strewed the earth with bcups of
slain.
.
"Such was the scene for un extent of many worsts, and t.he dreadful contest co11tinued without cessation until the dnrkness of the night.
This closed that memornule dny; and with it terminuted the lives of
eighty thousand human beings!" -Uuss1AN ll1sTu1t Y.

6. A DuNcn

OF

FonoET-ME-NoTs.

"Give thy thoughts no tongue,
Nor any unproportioncd thought its net.
Be thou familiar, but by no mcnns vulgar.
'l'he friends thou hnst, and their mloption tried,
Grupµlc them to thy soul with hoops of Steel;
But <lo not dull thy palm with cntert!linmcnt
Of ench new-hatched, unfledged comrade. Beware
Of entrance to a quarrel : but, being in,
Ilc11r it thnt the 011poscd mny hcwnrc of thee.
Give every m1111 t 1111e car, but few thy vui!'c;
'l'nke each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment.
Costly thy habit as thy purse cnn buy,
But not exprcssetl in fancy; rich, not gaudy:
}'or the apparel oft proclaims the man.
Neither a borrower nor a lender he;
A loan oft loses both itself and frientl,
Ami borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry.
This above nil: to thine own self be true;
And it must follow, as the night the day,
'l'hou canst not then ue false to uny man." - SHAKESPEARE.

--

357
Additional Subjects.
1. The Pyramids. -Locality; d escription: toll of building; design; hnpresslons procluced by their vast size and venerable antiquity.
2. Health. -Principal conditlons,-as food, nir, exercise, recreations,
cleanllncss; temptations to neglect them ·; self-denial sometimes required; advantages of good health; evils of bad health; lougc_vlty.
. .
. 3. ~[oney. -Kinds; antiquity; benefits_; injuries; virtues and vices co~nccted with.
.
4. Sleep. - What kl~d of state; varieties; causes; benefits; bow best enjoyed; · cl reams; resemblance to death; reflections.
'
' '
Ii. Chrls tlanUy. - When lntrocluccd, and by whom; how the world was
before; effects; present state; reflections on the r eligious principle in man.
6. ~l1u1ners. - Vnrlcty; true poli teness; advantngcs of agreeable manners.
7. Human Countenance. - Varieties; beauty nnd deformity; expressive·
ucss; most remarkable features; what kind of face you think most bandRome.
s. Newspal'ers. - Varieties; describe hum orously the various contents;
by whom read, ond how much; benefits ond Injuries.
·

6. · Quadrupeds.
Under this class may also be included the general family of monkeys.

General oafmne. -:-Origin ; kinds , and parts, ' with descriptions; locality ; means of subsiste~ce; . how reared;
habits; length of life; advantages or disadvantages ·to
man ; anecdotes.
Tim Doo.
" Whence, how, and when the dog first came upon the stage or action, we have no means of knowing. He is found among the mum·
mies of Egypt, and his name is given to one of the first-mentioned stars
in the heavens. He is also frequently mentioned in the · Bible; and
Homer bas some beautiful lines about the faithful dog of Ul~· sses.
Some naturalists contend that dogs sprung from wolves '. and · foxes;
while others believe that they are from .a species of wild-dogs, thong-h
nil attempts to domesticate tho wild-dog of Australia have been unsuc·
I
cessful.
"The dog has ever been man's assistant in the · conquest . and peaceable possession of the earth; hunting such other animals as were suitable for foot.I, and aiding in the ,destructi9n ,of ,those which were enemies
or nuisances to the hum1m race. Ile has been man's most foithful com1
panion uml friend; his'. courage and constancy prompting him to risk
every danger to his own life to defend the person and property of the
individual to whom he is attached. These characteristics have given
rise tO a great variety of beautiful ballads and other poems.

.358
"Butron names thirty kinds of dogs, anti admits that there are many
more. Some of the varieties are considered peculiar to certain dimutcs
or countries, as the lecland Dog.and the Irish Greyhound. The lnq;est
dug is said to be the Irish Greyhound. Pliny mentions it us the Irish
vVulf~dug, and says it was much larger than the Mastiff. So greut, i111leed,
wus the hight of these Irish dugs, that it is nffirrncd the largest could
rest the heat! 11pun their master's shoulder when he wns seated nt
table. Goldsmith says that one was shown tu him as a curiosity, which
was 'four feet high, or as tall as a calf a year old.'
"The Newfoundland Dug is a native of the country from which he
takes his nnmc; though the fine animal known tu us hy this name is inforior in size to the dog in his native state. All dugs have eluws thnt cnn
not be sheathed, or drawn in; but the Newfoundland Dog has semiwebbed feet, so that he can swim very expertly. These dogs are noted
for their sagacity, courage, and affection.
"The intelligence and fidelity of dogs have furnished many pleasing
anecdotes. Sir Walter Scott has told a number of ancnlotcs about a
dog called Dandie, that knew on most occasions what was said in his
presence. His master retuming home rather late one "l1ight, found the
family already in bed ; and not finding the boot-jack in its usual place,
he said to the dog, 'Dandic, I can not find my bout-jack: search for it.'
The dog left the room, and proceeded to a dist:m t part of the house;
but soon returned, carrying the boot-jack, which had been left that
morning under the sofa.
"A humorous anecdote is told of a dog that was owned by a bootblack of I~aris, who kept a shop near one of the most magnificent
bridges, that was much frequented by fashionable people. This dog
had been taught to wnllow in tho clnst; and then rub himself, as if
aceidcntnlly, ugninst the finely-polished boots of any gentleman who
came near his '!laster's shop, so as to bring him customers.
"Many instances are recor.ded in which, through the evidence of a
faithful dog, wrong-doers have been brought to justice. Indeed, a volume could be filled with the curious facts and anecdotes illustrating the
wonderful sagacity and unflinching fidelity of dogs."
For more scientific sketches, see some work on zoology.

Additional Subject.s.
1. The Horse.
4. The Hog.
2. The Cow.
5. The Buffalo.
3. The Sheep.
.6. The Squirrel.
Let these composiL!ons be as exhaustive as possible.

359

6. Birds.
General Outline. - Origin ; kinds and parts, with descriptions; locality; habits, especially migration; nests, eggs,
and mode of rearing the young; food; length of life; song
or noise; manner of flying ; relations to man. '
RonJN.
"I have been watching the robins from my veranda, and they have
been watching me. \Vhat opinion they ha,·e formed of me, I can not
tell. But I regard them with admirntion increasing every year. Sweet
as is tho note of hill cousin, the wornl-thrnsh, I must prnnonncc the
common robin not only his superior, but, on the whole, the finest of
Northern songsters. I can not imagine how such praises, out of proportion and extravagant, ha\•e been heaped on the common woodthrush. The quality of its note is tine; but it lacks vigor, continuity,
and variety. It is refine<l, sad, and even sorrowful. I should say that
the wood-rooin had met a great sorrow in early life, and had never got
over it. But the common robin is the very emblem of joyous and robust bird manhood. It seeks no seclusio.!J.. It sings out of iio leafy
cell. At morning and at night, frqm . some open ·tree, it pours out a
continuous song, full of tenderness, yet sprightly, ringing, and jubilant.
The range of notes is very considerable. It is not a soft, oreathing
. song, like the sparrow's. The robin gushes. lie never tires. · He
sings by the half hour, and fills alt the region around with melody;
and when two or three in emulous strife . are _singing near together, the
whole air seems full ~nd overflowing. He shall have strawberdes and
cherries. The cedar-bird is 11 thief, in spite of his fine npparcl nnd tho
jaunty tuft on his head. He eats none· of my insects, sings .me no
song, pays me ,no visit, until pens and stra,".berries come; but then,
ah! how familiar! He silently hovers in my pea-bnsh, slits open the
tender pods, and swallows the contents. A\~ay . the painted glutton
goes to my cherry-trees, and gorges the sweetest and ripest of the fruit.
. Then to my strawberry bed goes he; aild, like a very · prodigal, he
- wastes more than he eats, returns no thanks, flies away, and no more is
heard of him till next year. Not so, that g~ntleman, the robin. He
· comes curly, builds close l;y you, sings you "inorning and night his best
chorals, digs grubs in your garden, clears worms from your trees, 1111<1
only asks a mouthful of that fruit in return which he has helped to ·preserve for you. Let any cat make his will before· he concludes to touch
my robins." - H. W. BEECHER.
1.

THE

· For more scientific sketches, see some work on ornithology.

360

361

2. TnE S1u-LAmc
"Ethereal minstrel! pilgrim of the sky l
Dost thou despise the earth where cnrcs abound 1
Or, while thy. wings aspire, arc henrt nm! eye
Iloth with thy nest upon the dewy groun<l 1
Thy nest, which thou canst drop into at will, .
Those quivering wings composed, that music still.
To the last point of vision, and beyond,
Mount, daring warbler! thnt love-prompted strain
('Twixt thee and thine a never-failing bond)
Thrills not the less the bosom of the plain l
Y ct might' st thou seem, proud privilege, to sing
All independent of the leafy spring.
Leave to the Nightingale the shndy wood A privacy of glorious light is thine,
Whence thou dost pour upon the world n flood
Of harmony, with rnptnre more divine:
Type of the wise, who soar, but never roam, True to the kindred points of heaven and home."

'Y ORDSWORTIJ.
The foregoing seems to

one of the most nrilstlc, most exquisite composi·
tlon~ ever written. It embraces almost every kind of thought thnt cnn enter
into the description; ancl yet the whole Is so brief, so condensed, and contains so
many appropriate and pithy expressions; while all the parts move to a climax
and moral, and there ts every now and then some allusion to things human, so
as to highten the interest. Addison once said that the highest art in writing con·
slats in making fine allusions.

8. Inseots.
General Outline. - Kinds and parts, with descriptions;
locality; time of appearing; habits and food; changes;
length of life; numbers.
Subjects. - Butterflies, Bumble-Bee, Musquito, Flies.
Ex. - "To-day we arc to write about Butterflies; and at noon George brought
In a beautiful one that he had just caught. The teacher gave it some chlorot'orm,
and thnt put It to sloop; so that wo could oxamlno it carefully. When it had
fluttered on the paper, there was ever so much dust; and our teacher put some
of It on a little glass, anti then und er the microscope, that we might sec how
p er fect even th e dust of th e wing ls made. The shape was pretty, and bad nil
the colors of rainbows nnd flowers. One girl said, that the .butterfly was' live
sunshine and flowers, and that it was once an ugly worm I' Dut I do not think
any thing is ugly that God has made.
"In the old road to our village Is a little puddle, in a very sunny spot; and
in summer there ls often such an army of y ellow butterflies th ere, th at they
nlmost cover the mud, and make a slight noise wi.th the quick flutter of their
wings, as they lly up and around," etc., etc. (Continue the sketch. -Sec a book
called "The Butterfly Hunters.") ·

UR

A'l<lltlonal Subjects.
1. The Partridge.
4. The Goose.
2. The Common Hen.
IJ. The Eagle.
3. The Turkey.
6. The Ostrich.

7. Fishes, Reptiles, Mollusks, etc.
General Outline.~ Kinds and parts, with descriptions;
locality; habits; means and manner of moving; how
caught or obtained; food; size and weight; relations to
tnan an<l other objects; anecdotes.
Subjects. - Cat-fish, 'rurtles, Corals, Boa Constrictor, Alligator, Rattle-snakes.
We have not room to lllustrote every subject, and enough has already been
given elsewhere.

9. Plants.
General Outurrn. -Origin; kinds and parts, with descriptions; changes from seed to death; appearance; locality;
season ; culture ; uses, an<l general relations to man in all
ages.
Pr,ANTS comprise trees , slwul1s, vines, herbs, vegetables, weeds,jlowers, and
mosses. - Sec p. 1.48, in regard to Trees.

FLOWERS.

"Earth clothes herself in a robe of green, and adorns it with flowers. There arc few studies in whicli the mind can engage that nre
purer, or afford more innocent and happy thought, than that of flowers; 'bright, gentle, holy thoughts breathe from out their odorous
beauty.' Each year brings with it its round of bloom. Ere t.he last
snow-drift melts, the tender buds of the arbutus unfold; the first faint
violets 11ppcnr on sunny hill-sides; then appenr, sncccssivdy, gentle
an emones, pink-nml-w hito blossom sl1owcrn from cherry, nppl c, peach,
aml pear, the lily's pearly cup, roses glowing with sunshine's kiss, graceful wnodhinn~, nrnl j cssamincs t.hat lill the nir with fragnrncc. Soon
the golden-rod, and blnc-eycd asters, look out from amid the glow of
uutumn ; and, through every sca::;un L11t winter, the daisy, 'with silver
lG

362

363

crest and golden eye,' makes glad the earth. Elossoms are in the
sunless paths of the forest, where children trend; with bloom we
consecrate anew our sorrow for the dead; with flowers the conqueror's
path is strown; and to the captive's cell, flowers bring remembrance of
youth's sunny hours, and start the penitential tear.
"Flowers give a happier smile to beauty's lip, aml a peaceful joy to
the weary and sick. They deck the brow of the bride, and the bier
of the early dead. The air of the rich man's palace is heavy with t.heir
fragrance; and they are given as a blessing even to the poorest 'ittle
one that wanders beneath the vault of heaven. In all ages, history and
fable havo attacheu to flowers vnrticular nssocintions, giving them a
symbolic language of heart anu intellect; its rosemary for reme111bn111ce,
daisy for i1111ocence, heart's-ease for lovn's pain., and the almond's early
blossom as an emblem for hope. The lily, in heathen mythology, was
consecrated to Juno, and sig-nified mr\jesty. It was nl so a great favorite among the ,Jews; and the Saviour describes it as 11wrn g lorious thnn
Solomon in his royal apparel. Il.oscs were consecrated hy the Greeks
to Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, and a fable of theirs attributes the color of the red rose to a drop of blood from the 'goddess'
thorn-pierced. foot.' Carey, a modern poet, traces it to a kiss of Eve,
'when it drew
From beauty's lip the vermeil hue.'
"Of all flowers, the rose is considered the qneen; reigning at bridal
and burial, at banquet antl altar, in war and in peace. lint to us, nil
flowers seem beautiful; and wherever these <lclicatc creations arc seen,
whether in lordly hall or lowly cot, we may look for ma11ifostatio11s of
tho simpler and purer emotions. The bright flowcrs- livi11g, fading,
<lying- are closely akin to human life; nml bcnutif11lly has the poet
represented the reaper Death as desiring the fragrant blossoms as well
as the sheaves of ripened grain. Hundreds of pages have been written
on flowers, and daily may we learn lessons of life from flowers; for
they are indeed Hc.ivcn's 'floral apostles,' and 'numerous emblems of
instructive duty.'." .

Subjects, -Diamond, Coal, Sand, Marble, Quartz.
Concluding Remark, - Sttpply yottrself wit!t a stock of words,

Addltlonal Sub.lects. -Cotton, Cane, vVhca.t, Corn.

10. Metals, Minerals, and Fossils.
General Outline. - vVhere found ; how obtained and
adapted; appearance ; varieties ; remarkable specimens ;
value ; how used.

a
·stoclc ef s_i;ntax, and a slack of thottghts, for general ttse. Stud.I/ yottr subj ect in 1·e!1ard to ever.I/ thing to which it is related, and then make a judiciou.~
selection of thoughts with reference to the end in view. At the ottlsct, or after
si!Oicicnt study, form, according to the general outlines we have given, a
s11ecial plan far the particular subject you have selected; and then be cai"efully
governed by the order of lime, place, a11d action.

LESSON LXVII.
Lists of subjects are seldom of much use; for he that has something to say, generally knows what it is about. The selection of
his subject must in most cases be left to the writer's genius; anu
perhaps nothing calls more directly upon it, or better displays it.
The great requisite in a s~bject is, that it shall be interesting, or
furnish a sufficient amount of interesting and instructive or valuable thoughts. Hence common-place or hackneyed subjects should
rather be avoided, unless they can be presented in a n ew and striking manner. In this respect, all depends on the writer. Dean
a very interesting sk ~tch about a_bro_0mstick;

1. Whip-poor-will.
2. Tulips.
3. E \·ergre ens.
4. Frogs.

5, Swallows.

6. Garde ns.

7. FieldR.
8. Forests.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
lG .
17.
18.

Deserts.

l'ralrlcs.
Consclcnec.
Holidays.

Jewe lry.
Piano.
Leath er.
Cali co.
Ambition.
Cheerfulness.

19.

Amusements.

20. Ancestry.
21. Beauty.
22. Music.

23.
24.
25 .
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.

Colors.

Cleanliness.
Company.
Ghosts.
Steam.
Ilonstlng.

Humbugs.
Guns.

Sugar.
Salt.

Oranges.

Gunpowder.
Matches
Railroads.

37. Ships.
38. Steamboats.
39. T«lcgrnph.

40. 'J'pleRcope.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
413.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
5:3.
54.

Mi croscope.
Barometer.
Compass.

S late.
Kni\•es.
Paper. ·
lfo ses.
Lilies.
Nails.
Pins.
Night.

Dreams.

Di scipline.
lleirs.

365

364
55.
66.
57.
08.
59.
OIJ.
61.
W.
6:3.
64.

Shopping.
v1~i1ing.

F ruits.
He rrings.
Locusts.
Iron.
Mt,tals.
Beer.
'Vine.
Crockery.

G5. 'fi1n c .

66 . ltevc ngc .
67. C ru elty.
68· ltashn c•s.
69. Sickness.
70. Our LakeR.
71 · Onr M.011nl11h1R.
72. Our ltl vcrn .
'1 3. T o-mo rrow.
74. Snow and Ice.
75 . Any Month.
TO. Any Season.
77. A ny City.
78 . Any Village.
79. Any Farm.
80. P erseve rance .
81. A Journ ey .
82. A Voyage.
83. Dirds1 N ests.
84. lT ar<lRhips.
85. Jtcvcrc11cc.
811. l'cts.
87. Skatin g.
88. The Lady.
89. Th e Gentl eman.
90. Penmanship.
91. Orchards.
92. vVishes.
93. Promises.
94. T ea .
95. Coffee.
96. Mining.
97. :Mrs. Th ey-S ay .
98. My O randfath l' r.
99. My G randmoth e r .
100. My Home.
101. Photography.
102. Au ction s.
103. Me r chants .
104. Conversation.
105. P each es.
lf•6. Grapes.
107. M elo ns .
108. Palms.
109. Races of Man.
llO. Playthings.
111. Punctnality.
112. Fin~cr-ltlngs.
11 3. GlovcH.
lH. Carp ets.
J 15.

l HI .
117.
118.
119.

120. Street ],.[uslc.
121. Th e Nl'glected Chil e\.
122. The Ca~kct and its
Jewel.
l 23. Fashiutiable Follles.
1:l4. l'art.y-Spit·lt.
125. Mrs. 1'11rtlngt o n's
Dinn er.
126. Th eMec hnni cal Powers.
127. Life in the P olar ltegions.
128. Life In t he Trop ics.
129. LI fe o n the O cean.
130. Life of a Farm e r.
1!31. Life of a So ldi e r .
13:l. Llfo of n l'ollt.ii'.11111.
133. l'eace 111111 \\'nr.
134. Reflections o fa Bl' li e.
13!i. Migrati o n of lllnlR.
136. lto se, Thi Rtle , a nd
Sl rnmruck.
137. Th e Planetary System.
138 . Perfection of the
Universe .
139. Dials, Clocks, and
'Vat.cites.
140. A Year on a Farm.
i 4l. A Yenr In a City.
142. A Year In a l•nct.o ry.
] 4:3. A \' ca r at Schoo l.
144. Di scove ry of America.

145. America before Discover ed .
146. Th e vVorld b efore
th e Flood.
147. Covering o f Animals.
148. V a ri ety of Seeds .
149. Lawy ers and Doctors .
150 . No and Yes.
151. Haste rhymes with
·waste.
152. Death o f Gen . vVolfc.
153. Death of Ge n . Lyon.
154. Th e Human Htfad.
155. A Military Funeral.
156 . lt c 11 e c t Ions on a
Birthday.
157. Only a Dim e.
158. F all of th e Leaf.
159. Thinga
tha t cost
Nothing.
mo. Young America.
lfll. A Ldtcr from Cu ba.
](}2. A l ,f!tter from t he
llocky Monnt:iln s.
lli3. Artificial Flow ers.
Hi-I. The l<~ ln e A rt.R.
SpnnnA .
Hi 5. Th e LoRt, A rt.A.
Th <' C ri ck Pt.
HiG. A Letter from Pekin .
Gath<' rlng Appl es.
Su p t' retitio us Signs. JU7 . A Ldter fro m ltn mc .
168. A L etter from Paris .
Quacks.

169. A Letter from nny
Interestin g !'lace.
170 . Life In s uran ce.
171. S n11 shi11 c and Shadow R.

172.
17:.t.
17-l.
li 5.

'Vlt:i t the Blr11H s ing.
l'ec nliar l't·opl c .
Aft1·r the Battle .
Fancies nnd 1tealllk s.

Ji6 . ' Vas ted Live~.
177 . Light, more Light.
178. The
Star-spangled
BalllH'l'.
li9. ' ·Vhu Is Brave ?
180. C n"toms.
181. lfonrH.
18:.! . TltlcA.
18:3. Advers ity.
l 8·l. Onions.
185. S pi Cl'R.
18G. St rawbe rries.
187. Twili ght.
188. Clim att• .
]8!). l)i A<' ll "CB.
l!JO. llnppin css.
l\Jl. G rasA hoppers.
]1)2. C hildh ood .
l!J3. Self-Culture.
194 . Sclf-lte lia11ce.
1!15. Sl' If-H.c Apect.
J!l(). Tlw Cn nu•l.
l !J7. Bankruptcy.
l!l8. Patriotism.
199. Cook ing.
200. Fortu11c-tclllng.
201. The ltai nbow.
202. Fu rni t ure.
20:3. Egot.ism .
20~. lf n~ployment.

20;,.
206 .
207 .
208.
2U9.
210.
211 .
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217 .
218.
219 .
220 .
221.
222 .
2:n.
22.1,.
2·}·i.
2:l!i.
2:l7 .
228 .
2:.!9.

l!. pt ta ph s.
Th e Jews.
Truth.
Lying.
A R l!trospcct.
Arc hi tecture.
T averns.
S nails .
Oysters.
Afrlcn.
The Mail!
Fire-,Vorks.
Oil.
Brhlges.
L uxury.
Futurity.
Fame.
Vlatt1•1·y.
Co11fi1lantA.
'J'h c Indians.
J\ g1• nts.
Llf.,.
llilJA.

So lltml e .
Canary-B irds.

230. Li g ht11in g-Ro<ls.
2G7 . Indian L ife.
2:31. Ind ian Sum me r.
.268. The Dance of Death. "
2 l2. Beggars .
2!39. llattle of New Or2;n. Th e Mise r.
lea ns.
2:3+. Th e Busybody.
270. Battle of Gettysburg.
2:v,. The Dw1tist.
271. Enrly lti si ng .
23(). The BlackHmith.
272. Be nc fltq 1\erlved from
2:37. The Orph an .
th o Earth.
2:18. Inve ntors .
273. B e nefits de rived from
2:J!J. l\fakln g a Fortune.
Animals.
2JO. Anelcnt Citi es.
274. Bcnclits derived from
241. Comets and Eclipses.
Plants.
2 1:.!. Fi•·•t o f April.
275. A 'Vorld without
2-1-3. Valentin e's Day.
vVnte r.
2H . ]\[usical ln strnmc nts. 276. F a re well to Winter.
277. Good-Nature.
215. New Year's Day.
2-111. The VIilage He lls.
278. Good-Breeding.
2-17 . Th o Vlllagu Be llo.
270. Aclv1111t11gcs of Onlcr.
2-1-8. Hi story of Moses.
28U. Morning and Even2-l\J . llistoryof Abraham.
In g .
250. lli story of Paul.
281. Noon nnd Summer.
282. Peace a nd \>Var .
2:,i. Hi story o f ,Josep h.
2:,2. Hi story of' Chri st.
283. A !\[other's Influence.
2;J3. God'a 'Vistlom and 23-l. Earth and Man.
Goodn cs•.
2~5 . Old Bachelors.
254. Itetlcctlons ln a Grave- 236. Oltl Mattis.
yard .
287. Modest Assurance.
255. A Sunset or Sunrise. 288. Toleration.
25G. Littl e Things.
239. Specu latio n .
2~7 . Do Thi s.
290. Disa ppointments of
2.-,s. Vari e ty of TrecA.
Life.
2:VI, A Bo ttl e of vVhlsky. 201. Nothing to 'Vcnr.
21\IJ. 'l'h e Ohl Elm.
~rn. M11hugany.
21H. lu stl nets of Animals. 293. Look Ah ead.
21i2. Urn<lle and G rave.
294. Common Sense.
2;;:3, Plow and N eed le _
2%. l3ackwoods P eople.
21H. Pen and Sword.
29G. Tri cks of a Monkey.
2G5. Trip to the Moun- 2!J7. Gold and Gilding.
tain s.
298. The Cou rse of Time.
2136. Trip to the Sea-shore. 299. The Value of Time.

300. Adventures of a Dia·
mond .
301. Llfo is a School.
302. vVhat the Seasons
say.
303. Th e Necessity of
lteet.
304. Pleasures of Mem·
ory and Hope.
305. What eve rls, IA ltlght.
306. Know Thyself.
307. Influen ce of AmericaonEurope.
308. No On e lives for
Himself nlone.
809. Misery le wedded to
Guilt.
310. Tho 'l'cmlcnclee of
this Agc.
311. Thoughts nt my
Mother's Grave .
312. P assage of th e Red
Sea by the Israelites.
313. Power of the Press.
314. Na tion al Prcjucllces.
315. Nut ashamed of hl11
Occupation.
316. A School-Examinati on .
317. Th ere ls n Tim e for
Every Thing.
318 . l'rnRellt l'opul11rlty.
3 l!J . lll ~to ry of n l'cn.
320. Songs l remember.
321. Number One.
322. Th e Dress is not the
Man.
323. Th e P owe r o f Hahlt.
324. Our Duty to Inferiors.

For Dlecussion.
325.
32G.
327.
3'.!8.
329.
330.
331.
332.
333.
83 l.
3!35.
3:1fi.
337.
338.

Is phrenology a true science ?
Is private ed ucation bette r than public?
Should every p erson that Is of age be allowed to vote?
Should a person ob ey a law that he tlllnks Is wrong?
I s the existence of political parties favorable to a state?
Do savage nations possess a right to the soil?
Should any man be President of the United States longer than one term?
Should judges be elected by the p eople?
Arc th e planets probably Inhabited?
Ought cnplta\ punishme nt to be nbollshed?
I s It good p oli cy to e nlarge our co untry by annexation?
"\Viii o nr government endnre forever?
Should not woman receive th e same wages as man?
Is private life prefera ble to public life?

367

366

LESSON LXVIII.

Style
Style
manner
Style

is manner of expression.
is usually understood as being the peculiar
in which a person expresses his thoughts.
depends on character.

"The stvlc is the man."

-BuFFON.

Style depends on intellect and taste.
Intellect (kpcmls on the various meutal faculties
and their acquisitions.
The acquisitions of the mind are usually tcrmcJ. knowledge.
KNOWLEDGE is of two kinds, -general and special.
The general k11010l('d11e to which we refer is what people commonly
call ed11cation; nrul to this may be ascribed most of the defects, faults,
und perhaps cularnitics, of' anthors. Education is best when the person
curly forms definite, correct, und comprehensive views of all the knowledge he shall ever need; and then seeks it with a strong, enthusiastic,
never-failing impulse from within. l)erhaps no education wholly passive,
that is, implanted wholly from without, or by the authority nnd compulsion of others, has ever made any person great. There is no genuine mental growth where there is no mental hunger; and u mind is
lifeless that has no enthusiasm. Education should be profound nn<l
comprehensive. If possible, the author should curry in his head tho
whole world, thoroughly and nccurntcly analyzed, and ull the parts as
well arranged as the goods in a tidy store, or so us to be completely at
command. Another vital requisite is, to give the ideas prominence
according to their true relative importance, and be governed by them
accordingly. Some things, in the world of human knowledge and
interest, make a much greater figure than others; und a Shakespeare or
u Bacon wonltl be apt to attach that importance to each which the collected vote of all the people in the worl<l, could it he taken, would most
likely give it. This gradation is indeed one of the most important
things that every perso n should reganl in his education, nnd in his
habits of thinking. Perhaps ninety min<ls out of every hnndrcd are
~varpe d by preju<lices, or by undue preponderance given to certain

favorite idcns; so that all their sayings, writings, and doings are correspondingly warped or one-sided, and it is proper to turn away from
them as from u distorting mirror. On the .association of ideas in the
mind depend direc tly the command over knowle<lge, the facility of invention, and the peculiarities of style.
,Special knowledge is that which relates directly to the subject under
consideration; and hence the attention is to be turned to it after the subj ect has been selected. The seeking of it is implied when we study the
subject on which we are to speak or write. This knowledge, since it
is immediately ncedod, authors generally seek with all the zeal and indu stry that could be desired. Indeed, any negligence here rnust"provo
fatal; for, ncx t to the gc11crnl assistance afforded by ctlucation, tho peculiar cxccllcnce and efficiency of every discourse depcn<ls mainly on this
knowledge.

Taste is of two kinds, - artistic and moml.
ARTISTIC TASTE depends on nice judgment and refined sensibility in art. It is the subject of resthetics.
Mo1u.L TASTE refers to manners, morals, and reli 0o-ion.
\Vhcn we say a thing Is "in bad taste,'' we mean either that it shows a want
of ski ll, or that it is impolite or immoral. Artistic taste is the same in all nges;
for it depends on the absolute truth and beauty in nature. But moral taste is
variable; and it sometimes obstructs or vitiates artistic taste.

St-yle may be divided into plain, ornamental or elegant, and grand.

PLAIN STYLE has

110

ornament, or hut little.

See the extract from Aristotle, p. 318; also the narrative on p. 311,

OnNAl\IENTAL or ELEGANT STYLE is adorned with
figures, or glows with a tincture of beauty.
See pp . 114, 300-302.

·w hen style is but moderately figurative, or is particularly neat and
judicio us in regard to figures and every thing else, it should rather be
culled elegant than ornamental.

GnAND STYLE is an unusually lofty and dignified
moue of expression.
Sec Phillips's oration on llonaparte; also Ossian, and parts of Paradise Lost.
This style easily degenerates into bombast. - See Dickens's Micawber.

369

368
The foregoing is a simple an<l practical classification of style.
But since there is great diversity in human nature, a corrcspon<li11g div1·rsiLy of cpiLl1ctR liaR liec11 :1pplie1l Lu style, aeeurdirw to
its ehicl' <111aliti\::; or cle1tw11ts. The principal kinds of s;,yle,
mentioned iu Looks an<l conversation, arc the followin(J':
b
:Dry style ; which is destitute of figures, wit, nm! humor.
Plain st rlc; which has little to amuse, but is gcnernlly clear and
simple.
Neat style; which has some ornament, and considerable polish.
Elegant style; which comprises, in a high degree, all the commendable qualities of style.
Figurati"e style; which nbonnus in figures.
Flowery style; which nbounus in the pictorial figures, but lucks substance.
·
Florid 's ty!e; which is excessively figurative, or bloorns like a pninte<l
face.
Turgid or bombastic style; which is excessively pompous nn<l prctentiou3.
Declamatory style; which is slightly bombastic, or has more strength
of lang uage than strength or thought.
Affected style; which indicates u. eouceitcd auu ridiculous aping .of
supposed exeellences.
Cm·t. style; which consists chiefly of sliort sentences.
Conc,ise style; which is remarkable for brevity.
Diffuse style ; which is verbose, prolix, arnl generally tedious.
Feeble style; which lacks mental vigor.
Nervous strlc; which possesses liveliness, earnestness, and vigor.
Vehement style; which is intensely curncst and passionate.
Sententious st yle; which abounds in short, pithy sentences.
Lacc;n1ic style; which is concise or sententious, dry and sarcastic.
Logical style; which is distinguished for solidity of thought and
for sound reasoning.
Loose style; which consists of loose sentences, or of loose and confused thoughts often but partially true.
Compact style; which is remarkable for strength, brevity, and close
connection.
Abru11t style; which is ruimcd, nml lacks coherence.
Flowing style; which is remarkalilc for the smooth and easy flow of
the ~l' n tcnces.
I->e1·iodic style; which abounds in periods. - Sec p. 153.

Colloquial style; which is conversational, or resembles conversatio1
(~rave or solemn style; which is destitute of wit and humor, and
Rnitc1l to tlignifietl or religious subjects.
'Viti)'' or humorous style; which abounds in wit or humor.
Sarcastic or satirical style; which has a tone of bitterness an
censure.
Sini11le style; which consists of obvious thoughts, expressed in simp'
and natnrnl language.
Labored style; which lacks ease and simplicity, nnd is apt to wem
from excess of formality nnd nicety. The reader sympatheticaU
catches from it the pain and weariness of the writer.
J_,carned or classic style; which is not colloquial, but rather sch1
lasti.~, Latin, and Greek in its words and syntax.
Idiomatic style; which has not the fla\'Or of schools, but abounds i
nati ve idioms, colloquialisms or proverbs, anti is generally simp:
and forcible.
·
Saxon 'style; which abounds in words of Saxon origin.
Pedantic style; which is excessively formal, learned, linguistic, an
pompous.
Antiquated style; which is now out of use, ns the Ilible style.
q,uaint style; which has 1111 agreeable ol<l.-fo.~hioneu or whimsical air
.!Uodern style; which is now in use.

National style is that which is pecnliar to a nation.
Eral style is that which is peculiar to nn era.
Individual style is that which is peculiar to an individual.
Compare Goctl!c witll Sllakcspcare; the Dible sty lo with modem etyl1
Swift with Milton,

The last three kinds of style comprise of themsel\"es a. comprehe1
sivc classification of style. Every nation has a peculiar civilization, c
mo1le of lif'c, and hence also a peculiar mode of speaking nnd writinii
the different ages or eras of a nation, as it advances through the stag1
of civilization, differ from one another in the modes of life, and co1
scquently in the modes of expression; and different individuals, exce1
in cases of imitation, differ as much from one another in style as th€
1lilfor in their faces or mirnls. Style is simply the expression of cha
acter, nut! tlilfors accon.lingly.
16*

•
370
LESSON LXIX.

Style has eight qualities of merit; correctness, elegance, unity, clearness, strength, harmony, originality,
and sympathy or humanity.
There is very little style that possesses all these qualities in a
high degree; but there is no kiml of style in standard literature
that is not sustained by some of them. Every writer should aim
at all these qualities, as far as possible ; and if he can not excel in
some of them, it is very probable that his performance will fall
Lclow praise or acceptance.

t. Correctness.
Correctness is the first great requisite in style; though
there are fow compositions that possess it in a very high
degree. To speak and write correctly, is not considered an
attainment of great merit; and yet to speak and write incorrectly, is consi<lcred a disgrace. He who can not speak
and write even correctly, will soon find that people are not
disposed to consider him worthy of their attention, whatever his thoughts may be.
General correctness may be
analyzed into the following particulars : -

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Correct in spelling.
Correct in capital letters.
Correct in the choice of words.
Correct in syntax.
Correct in versification.
Correct in punctuation.
Correct in figures.
Correct in method.
Correct in tltonght, or true.

'fhe eighth item is in reality in cluded in the ninth; and the fifth nnd sixth are
included in the fourth, bPcat1 se ver~ification is bnt metrical 11yntax, and pun ctua·
tion is merely the fi11i•h to syntax: but we have given the detail rather in
accordance with IJOpular views, mul the usual headings of grammars.

U71
Almost a worlcl of liberty is allowecl to writers in the choice of
words, especially in figurative language; but there is a horizon
lwyo11d 'diich all is cnor, obscurity, aml darkness. Most people
use worJs without al ways attaching clear and distinct ideas to
1.hem, and they flatter themselves that they are doing very well
when they hit neur the murk; but it is much better to hit the
mark exactly. Few writers are sufficiently exact in their use of
words. Two of the best are Whately and Coleridge; and we
recommeml that these two especially be slowly read and carefully
stuJie<l with reference to their application of words alone. In
regard to syntax, mere grammatical accuracy is far less useful
than a general knowleuge of the multitudinous combinations of
worus in the forms of sentences. As we have recommended
"'\Vlmtcly and Colericlge for words, so ~ve would recommend
Shakespeare, Milton, Cowper, Dickens, and Macaulay, for sentences, a1Hl for the remaining requisites of style. Of course we
recommeml the Dible too, for its great excellence of thought and
general excellence of style. Dut the five authors we have mentioned seem to us to have reached the entire capacity of English
syntax, or there is probably not a type of sentence of which they
<lo not furnish a specimen or a number of the best specimens. Let
a pcrsofl aequire a rich vocabulary of words, with skill in their
precise applications; and let him acquire a general l~nowledge of
the entire vast circuit of types according to which words have
been arrangcll in English sentences, with proper taste as to the
types most appropriate for our different thoughts arid feelings, and he possesses the two grand requisites for making an able
writer or speaker. Skill in method is one of the lnost difficult
things to acquire. Repetition, omission, an<l a want of naturalness, are the most common faults. As t.o truthfulness, writers are
most apt to fail whenever they handle matter that comes under
the genera,! head of E.xpo~ition.
For Punctuation, Versification, Capital Letters, and False Syntax, see Keri's
<1 rnmmarn, .('s pec ially the Comprehensive: see also, for general criticisms, pages
173-202 aud 25o-2Gl, of this book.

Naturalness is a very important quality of style, and may be referred sometirnes to correctness and sometimes to humanity. It is often
violated. In Addison's Cato, the lover of Lucia is represented- as saying to her, " Fixed in astonishment I gnze upon thee
Like one just blasted by a stroke from l1eaven ! "

This may have hcen true, but it was altogeth er unnatural that a person In
great di strusR should speak In such a comparing wny of his feelings. Dr. John-

873
~on pnl.a su ch 11edan ~i c. gossip into the mo~1th of some larli c~ . that Uacanlay
humoro us ly declares 1t 1s caey "to spy a J1uge beard under the 1nufller."

Correct tlwfallow ing sentences, iii wliicli improper words are used: -

1. The mea<lows are re<lolcnt with morning light. 2. To
treat me so meanly is ri<li culous. 3. The father an<l his
son resemble one anoth er. 4. vV e were much effectc<l by
her tea.rs. 5. 'l'lto ship lays in Lho haroor. G. Uc is too
sick to set up. 7. I love ice-water better than coffee. 8. I
expect you had a pleasant time of it. 9. I believe I will
be elected. 10. You will see to-morrow what shall surprise
you. 11. vVould WO RCO n11y tJ1ing worf;h Rec in g, if WO
woul<l go to tho muse um ? 12. I was aii:ai<l I woulc.l lose
all the capital I had invested. 13. The snow shall soon
pass away, and then we will have pleasant weather again.
14. I have never seen M:1jor Cartwright, much less enjoy
the honor of his acquaintance. 15. A difficulty of an
amatorial character, or relating to :t hymenial devotee, was
up for our diversion.
Correct tlie f ollowing se11te11ces, which are faulty in syntax: -

•

1. I have done learn ed my lesson. 2. I seen him when
he done it. 3. I do not think such persons as him competent to judge. 4. He promised to employ whomsoever
should be sent. 5. Ile is older titan me. G. She that is
idle and. mischievouR, reprove sharply. 7. vVho were you
talking with? 8. Th ere is no doubt of its Leing him.
9. "Was it me, Ol' him, that you called? 10. Do like I did.
11. vV e have simply to go to wol'k, each in our places, and
do the work. 12. ·what avails all our toil and en.re in
amassing what we can not enjoy? 13. I shall be happy
always to sco my frien<ls. 14. 1Vl1om shall I say called?
15. Four und two is six, and one is seven. 1G. You dill
the work as good as I could expect. 17. The offer was no
sooner made but ho ricceptetl it. 18. vVho ever achieved
any· thing wl10 was 11 0 {; an1biti o11 s? 1D. JTo l1 as R<'Oll a:-i
much, p erh aps more, of tho work1, than I have. .20. vV e

cliJ.n't fiml nouoJ..r at h ome. 21. 'l'his is a different dinner
to what we haJ yesterday. 22. Mr. Crowdin will speak toHigl1t on the Paris Exhibition in the Cooper Institute. N. Y. Hm~ALD. 23. The edition of this work is very scarce
on large paper. - Imn. 24. He should not marry a woman
in hi gl1 life, who has 11 0 money. -EDGEWOTITH. 2G.
8hall tl1e Irnlian still a<ld to the horrors of the passage, as
he has and J oes? - DowLES.
2;;. Very bnrl grnmmnr; and "pnsimgo" i• an ambiguous word. Say," Shall
111c l11tlia11 sti ll nth! t-0 th e horro rs of the j o urn ey, as he has done, nn1l co ntinues
to do r"

.Are thefullowi11g seuleucts sound uml lru e '/

if 1101,

111al.:e them so: -

1. Every person who is healthy ancl strong is fond of
work. 2. The invention of powder was rather an injury,
for many persons have been killed by it. 3. Youth is the
time for play. 4. As soon as spring comes, there 1s no
more snow. G. ·wild animals can be tamed. G. Land
that is well cultivated brings large crops.
If llte following sentences are faulty in figures or thoughts, correct them,
or show in w hat respPcl th ey a re jiwlf.IJ : -

1. I smell a rat: I see it brewing in the distance; and I
slrnll nip it in the bud. 2. La.st Satur<lay, some thieves
Lroke into an crnpty house, and stripped it of all its furniture.
3. The soul, aspiring, pants its source to mount,
As streams meander level with their fount.
4. One great Enchanter helmed the harmonious whole.
G. Trrn is called the Definite Article, because it definitely
points out the object which it defines or restricts. - HARVEY'S GRAMMAR.
Th e foregoing Is one of Tlnrvey's few original definitions, nm! n precious one
It Is. Other grnmrnarlans make the 'hrticle limit the noun, not the object. ''r"o
suppose that bridl es can h enceforth b e di spen sed with, nnd ferul es, and laws,
nm! many other troubl eso m e thin gs ; for the horses, the b oys, and the ro gnea are
th emAeln•B n •A trlctP<l l.Jy t.he "Definite Article" f Still, wh1•n mere seloli Als nnd
hnitators write Looks, It nrny 1.Je well to re111cmbcr, "'Vhut Is new Is not trne,
1ll1d what ls true Is not ne w."

[Whore didst thou div~, Friend Iforvoy, for thy poarla 7
Thy books seem best where most they look like Ker l's,]

374
2. Elegance.
Elegance implies something more than correctness. It
supposes a high J egrce of culture autl taste in the writer;
anJ auy degree of polish in the composition, from the lowest to the highest. An expression may be correct, and yet
not be elegant, or not be the best that can be useJ. Elegance requires what are usually calle<l purity, propriety, anJ
precision, in the use of wonls; anJ it also requires simplicity,
fluency, smootlmoss, Jirootncss, o.nJ freedom from ambiguity
or obscurity, in the construction of sentm1ccs. Rising still
l1ighcr, it supposes not only a proper amount of appropriate
figures, but a general prominence of beauty, grace, and
clelicacy. It is, in a worcl, chiefly the result of excellence
in the other gooJ qualities of style.

1•11rlty.
1. Avoi1l foreign wot'll~ a111l i1lioms.
2. AvoiJ illegitimate derivatives and constructions.

rroprlcty.
1. AvoiJ vulgarisms and provincial expressions.
2. A voiJ obsolete or new-fangled terms anJ expressions.
3. Avoid technical and pedantic words.
4. AvoiJ harsh words and rugged syntax.
1•rcclslon.
1. Reject all superfluous words.
2. AvoiJ ambiguous words and constructions.
3. U so the most a.ppropriate wmJs an<l syntax.
There nrc some exceptions to nil the foregoing directions but tho
Inst one. No matter what an expression may be, it is certainly allowable when it is the best that can he used~ But the directions will have a
tendency to keep out a large number of very common faults, - such as
the following: "The child died from the sequelce of the scnrlct
fever" - lIERUERT SP1rnc1m; ra ther say, "from the effects of the
scarlet fever." "It repents me; " better, "I repent." "He got his
damlrnff up;" say, "He became irritated." " Society in represc n-

375
.
iHc coast is somewhat difficult of cltaract~1-izatat.11·c towns on the Pile
. "
'I'
f the most common faults
.
. .
" lo descnbe.
wo 0
tio11 " Bow LE~: say, . ,
. ·ion "Discretion puts a man m posscsin style arc rcpct1L1011 and conft~s
.
f l ·s words !\nd actions, the
.
.
.
l
. kc' hun master o 11
f his face. so that nothing escapes !um
sion of 111m.,cll, a~11 m.1 .~
casts of his eye and motwns ~
h '
any he keeps " - HAillTS
r offensive to t c comp
.
rc1111nrnnt to l l ccornm, o
.
.
t
nan in possession of l11m0
" D1scret10n pu s a 1
OF Gooo SocrnTY ; say,
.
l nd act"1ons so that nothing es. mas t er o f his wons
a
'
. .· '"
self, or makes lum
·1s
indecorous
or
olfcns1
vc.
.
tl1at
c·1pes I um •
1 ·
• Change the following antiqunted English lnlt~ the bl:ee~::l ~: ·:mpanic of
.
l .
"ll ven turc um se ,.
"If a yongc JCnt cman w1
I . 1· "011~ mm1crs thoughts,
·
.
.
•
. t 1e1r nc1 A ·,
. m·1ns it is over great II JCOpnll· l"ie ' Jest
111 i. . '
.
.
.
be over like." scnA111.
t:111lkc, an<l tlcdcs will vc1y sonc
1· t 1 ll"1scrctely and devoutly:
.
to Go<l on ma e y,
'
" Men shnlllc p1 nycn
. .
be subirettc to the will of God." mill always n man shnl put l11s will to
b
Cu A uc 1rn.

.O:V- \Ve w ould especially recommcn

d ccnslonnl exercises of this kind .
o

ncauty.

. ·1 tron
. rrer 111
. b orn love of the beautiful
Some r1co plc have a muc. i .~
o f·
t i"11£'ancy become plcnte'I'I
tl , ·r mmus even rou
th :tn other s.
i~s ~e1
f b ' t which are afterwards transously furni sl~cd with uuages o cau y,
.
1th
forrecl to thell' style.
wea
, Jewe
·
ls
,,' with
C whose
Y
E X. - "Tlic flowers are Natures
ROL •
She decks her summer beau ty . "A thousand milk-white steeds, of1trytk~ok.f~u."-ld.
In gold and gems stood harnesse or
t>

Grace.
.
d 't
nt"x
.
't lf. _in 1ts wor s, 1 s sy " '
1
There is beauty LI~ ~n;ng~n,gc u. !~e; a writer has attained that
an1l its wonderful tlex1b1hty ·' an
those adroit turns of thought,
folieitous fluency of expres;10n,/~ we say that his style is graceful.
which resemble the grace o mo 10 '

d 1

The following Is o. brief specimen: -

"Lay her in the earth,
And from her pure and unpolluted flesh
May violets spring." - SHAKESPEARE.
8 C
bell'R "O'Conner's Child." Also much o f Tom Moore's poetry is
eek
,:'\lcmpor
rcmar · nu ft It• grnceful smoothness; ns,0

"Farewell! farewell to thee, Araby's <la~ghter.1
(Thus warbled a Peri beneath the dark tea,)
I ever lav under Oman's green wa er, "
NoMore
penr pure m
. ' 1't·~~ sl1ell tlrnn thy spirit in thee.

.1

31G
377

Delicacy.
~ome wri~ers are endowed with exriui,itel . fin
.
ceptwn and feclinry-; a nd acx:ordi11gly lh ey-, ee1;1 to ~li~~,;~r~e~ft pernow and th,c n tlie 11~n erm o!"t ll owerings of th e Jiea r t an<l tell c~t~s
Sh:lley s.1ys th at t11ne hnt " .<rain> th~ marl;fe radiance of ctcrnit1·.,.

j,;

Jane 'I~.vlo~ cal ls a p~t c h of wifd.fhmcr;: a "~cl'f11d e1l hamlet. or Yilia~e
the pea~n nt5 of Flom" d0111 ·1i11 ·" ·rn l <:::J 1 1k .
· '
..
•
·
•
• '
'- ' t' , J' l':u-e dost'S one of J1i;1
sugared sonnets" wirh th i;: couplet: " 0 .1,
' Iearn to rear! iY!1:i t Eil<' nt ](1q• lrn!b writ:
To hear with e.•c <: l> l'!0•1; ;: tn J,1n:" " fi n<' wi r."
1lii" •Tenny~on, Bry3 nt.

:Uhl

Polish.

Ir>i ll!:-

,.""l'I h

t>c ..·l!'. t•
r ro"
. . . ::':' .1 t t ,

•

:ui

J J f' Ii C'!l c- r.

·

·'tlf'tyl e_i? perfec t on]_,. when it io 511c h rh:it no chanr>e c:in be m o1Je
11 1 10ut m1un·
•
·
'
·•
"I
d . f . . . . .Inn1111 H 'r" I •.c
arll l .- u 111ttlll1
l' s ,·xquisiteh· tiue arc tl
• la es o expression; and perfect >'r.d e h:i.; _
·
tc

" •.\ th n u • ~n d gr:lCC'S w hic h

IJ (l

mlC';: c:in te :ich,

An cl whi c h a m:1::ter- h:1 nd :1J,,n e l'!'ll
•

n:':ldt .• ,

·
..
.
t mw• J'l"{>1!nC'e. J n Camphl' ll'• l i• Jf' "An I J; ~
t' T.~n .a i' JP glt "_<'rt! will •(lm!'if ti'!' «h:ln!?l' .. •hri«k !'<l .. to ,: •qu,;:l.ked ;,
,'?11?, i r w kt•,l -:- "' ~n i'«in>k(lf\'11.''
.....-Jl(lle h<'<'<>m !';: >h t'<'r bnrl (•> qn!':
·
'
" · J irit c>f tlJ e Im!' J~ !!'-'JH', o r th e
d
·
•.\t tht> c l o~ <· o f o ur c h ·il w a r • om e 1 rj ' :i r,eace C<'le bra ti'Jll and ~ppli:, . , · -, ~
a
ie
,
ma · e a mngm fi cen t 8ilk bann e r fo r
1
a '-'"roup (J f <r r:. nt h·m'"·r r
· l I
1 ." :P.e mr: t ; anrl. :ift<:r m :m y dif!<: r•:nt ; 11 ,, 0 ,, ,.. ,;,; • , . •' 1 •o.r a _F.u 1ta ' . e mo tto.

,

It i:"= T'f'n1:u·k :i l'!t""' w·h :i t :i.n P frt•<'t thf' c h :itic.,.f' ""{

th"e;l

•

•

•

1

. _,

JI l\ '1~ rlr:r·1<l«•I th:it
l~ :1 t l1a11d ." Uut th e f!'nt im «r~ w·a• n u t · ' .!
i'~ ~ " H rnwn, :111d th e dnJli~ht
~e<·m<'d too fo rm a l and i• ot hrmrf ~~o C'o llpr" J?<{ J c:::opres•('d. l!rts 1rifhrl rn1n1
,, The night i8 gon~ , and 'the daylight iB ci1'A~1~ng ·,, ~Boutt1 e,.•whole was ch:rngc·d to
a 11d t< o r
·
t ·
•
·
·
., qo11e w aF. too co lloq ui-ti
, •
J 1a r IJJ paF. time.
Here F.Ollle one off<·rcd "Th
· It · I
·
a11d th e daylight i8 approac hin gn But i s r!Pj){/rfi11~1 a,.;<l i• ae ~:~,:cJ,},~ ep:i rt111 g ,
too 8tarclwd . Agnin th e m ott o wn• cha nired .. Ti' , ' . 1 · . Pl
.
g •c«ml«l
tllf M

•: :rpn·~ F. <:•I ,,, ~ pr<JJH·r tlJ <Jll" li t. " Th r- l i• ;·1t l . rt '. rir;"·
1

1~·1/:~~h!,.!~ ~~~~i~10~~;1ti~·
~i{!~·~s:;':". t7~';;'!~·
h("':~m. dt'~t11::~t'~~~fc.
~~·;~~ ~;;j~fj(;':~~
... .. d . .
" o r e rs 11as
eubot itu ted Now orrn

ge1 ti

i~

wa ~

·r:i• oreme apoet
n "l!ggr:• tl· tlrnt mnrning wo u ld be n bt' tt er wo rd tf~a n dmtliglit. for it
ic, m o re comprc h <: n".il·e, and Ruuge"- tR more g lor.
At. ·' .

:hc rcfo rc adop l!·d; a11d th e motto •tood " Th e night is P'•"l Y;nd srnrn,q ~ aA
s co mi11g!' But mon1inq and comiu''l gn1·c too ~ I • .f ' :
ic m o rmn g
gentleman euggeE l!'d co m et fl Exc«llent itle'a J r0 ti uc 1 lo 111.'l; and anoth e r
th e wl I
·
·
·
• · • r ie wore g m·e mo r e dignity to
·
10 c ex prC's•wn.
So th e m o tt o stood "The ni 1d 1t ;8 p •t
d ti
·
J;~111 ~:t/~·" ~.'.'~ now_ds? n1w genius nrosr to gi r e th l' fini s hin g t~;, ~l~.n ";7,:;;~;~~1i1j
• . ·- a " " ' " 0 1 • moyc th nt li elw ld I.Jr • nl.Js titnt !'d fo r it" The s
'
·
~·1; ~·:~ }~,/;~1;-, at1 01,i~el1l '.w1l·1h1
\'f hn1HI ~;
m~tto wns ';Efi~Lt~Jt~

11 · .

.

.

1 ,a,r::

•

J<'tlO t 1•

ct 11appingand
m o rn1nq c·om efh "
1t 1

the

Jkii'" The poems o f ltogers , Moore, and Ca mpb~ll, excel in polish.

8. Uuity.
Unity is a term used rather Yaguely in rh etorical works,
and stud_ents seldom g et a clear idea of its meaning. In
~eneral, _it means some antidote to confusion or disproporb~n, or it denotes cl earness allll symmetry; awl it is appheJ. to sentences, paragraphs, or entire compositions.

•

Unity impli es, in the first place, that the order of time
a nJ. lJlace s lr all l>e carefully oLserved. It implies, in the
n ext i1bcc, that there sl1all be symmetry and connection.
There must generally be something principal, and some1lt i ng i'1lk)nli11 :1tt'.
The Sll0t)rtlin:1tt' r:1ds shot:hl be closely
dcpcutlcut ou t he principal, grow ou t of them naturally, arnl
make th eir nppear::mce in the right place. Things that
.h:1 n' iw conuectio1i, or insufficient connection, should not be
j um oleJ. together in the same sentence, the same composition, or the same book. Every thing shoulJ. also be in its
prope r pbce; ant.I lw.rn just that importance attached to it;
in the mot.le of expression, which it J ese1Tes. Therefore
aroitl long or improper tligressions; a nd tlo not break tho
conm'd ion l>chYCt'll related parts by matter that is not sufficiently relate(! to either. Unity is greatly promoted by
simplicity. \Then we try to get too many clements into
on e tlii11;;, th ere is very apt to be confusion. Dut wlrnther
much or little is cons idered, and whether tho expression is a.
sentence, a composition, or a book, unity always seems to
place the mint.I of t!1e reaclcr on such an eminence as enables him to see the whole, and to see also that there is a.
proper symmetry and connection among the parts.
In th e following sentence, unity is grossly Yiolate<l : "This railroad line was ~ e l ec ted hy the late Mr. T. D. Judah, who has left a very
cndahle reputa tion in California both for personal integrity and professional ability as an eng ineer, after a thoroug h examination of other
lines, and passes over the monntains." -BOWLES. Say, "Mr. T. D.
Jn11ah, who has left a very enviable reputation in California both for
personal integrity an<l for profess ional ability as an eng ineer, selected,
after a thorough examination of other lin es, this railroad line which
passes over the mountains." Or, "This railroad line, which passes over
the mountains, was sclccte<l, after n thorough cxaminntion of other lines,
Lv Mr. T. D. Judah" etc. Or else make two sentences. See pp. 191
n;1d 197. " '\Ve ea~ic to our j o urney's end at Inst, with no small diffi.
culty, after rnuchfatig ue, through deep roads, antl ba<l weather." Tho
foregoing sentence truly "<lrngs its slow length along." Say, "At last,

c- I

0 ....

~ ,\\

I
I

·~,

I

~ ff I

379
with no smnll difficulty and after much fatio-ue we came throu h d
romls and Lat.I weather, to our journey 's cnt" .:._Sec pp.' 193 at{& l 9~~p

"I met n. little cottnge girl;
She was eight years old, she snid;
Her hair wns thick with mnny n curl
That clustered round her head." - WORDSWORTH.

4:. Clearness.
Clearness'. or perspicuity, depends chiefly on the qualities
of style wluch we have alrea<ly considered,_ correctness
elegance, and unity. It is a quality of the first importance~
No one can long endure an obscure style, which requires
const~u.t stu<ly, and often proves 11 mockery at last. Clearness IS mdecd one of the greatest charms in composition.
"Ile that runs. ~ay rea<l," is a very significant expression.
How pleasant It IS to gaze upon a brook so limpid that we
can see every p~bble at the bottom; and how disagreeable is
a mu~dy, s~ugg1sh stream ! Great liberty is justly allowc<l
t~ wnters, m regard to clearness ; for they have an absolute
right t? make themselves understood. Style may therefore
Le van.ed. to any extent necessary to adapt it to those for
whom I~ Is meant; and sometimes there may Le diffuseness
amountmg almost to repetition or tautology.
It ls probably best to condense our practical remarks Into a few directions:-

1. Think clearly, and avoI·d a bs t ruse an d unmteresting
·
subjects.
2. Select the most simple, common, and appropriate
words; ai:d the ~nost simple, appropriate, a'nd direct syntax.
~· _Avoid eqmvoc~l wor<ls, improper ellipses, ambiguous
or rnvoh'e~ constructions, and excessive brevity.
.
4. A vo1<l useless words an<l over-nice distinctions
5. Avoid• abstract language, technical lancruacre
~nd any
Lb
b'"'
]
I
ot ier t iat is remote from common thought.
A skillful teacher can easily illustrate the foregoing directions.

Slrn1,llclty,
Simp!i:ity .tends to clearness, and is one of the most cornmcndaLle qualities 111 style; but care should be taken not to let it
degenerate into silliness.

t· \

Th e forrgolng stnnza is not too simple In thought nnd expression; but sometimes Mr. \Vordsworth went too far, and was severely ridiculed:-

" They got into n hackney conch,
A 11d trotted down the street.
I saw them go; one horse wns blind,
The tails of both hung down behind,
Their shoes were on their feet." -REJECTED

ADD.RESSES.

Figures.
Figure~

often serve to illustrate. When Agassiz tells us that
a certa-in island at the mouth of the Amazon is about half as large
as Jrel:uul, we instantly form a satisfactory idea of its size. vVhen
Cuvier tdls us that the tiger, in its predatory habits, is like the
cat., we at once learn what the nature of the tiger is, though we
can not sec the animal. And when a critie says that the. poet
changes the white light of truth into iris-hued poetry, the comparison both pleases and instructs the reader. It is a maxim
of eel ucation that we should proceed from things known to things
unknown. Figures bring in the known to illustrate the unknown.
"\Vithout figurative assistance, language would be a very imperfect
instrument. A person who has never seen a rose, nor any thing
like it, could not form a correct knowledge of it from a description.
The g1·eat art of the writer consists in availing himself, to the greatest
advantage, of that knowledge which the reader possesses in common
with him.~elf.

Exception.
The direct object of langunge is to show our thoughts; but
diplomatists tell us that it is also the object of language to conceal
There is .b urlesque literature, especially grotesque
t!tougltls.
poetry, that aims to amu se the reader by being rlesigne1lly nonsensical.
Sometimes a witticism or a, pleasantry turns directly upon
an ambiguity; as when the poet Campbell jocosely declared that
a certain one of his poems "will live in the English language till
it is forgotten." Sometimes persons, especially in public life, nro
obliged to make known their thoughts before they are ready or
willing to show their intentions ; and to gain time, in such. cases,
they frequently resort to evasion, ambiguity, or vagueness. Many

\.. 0

·'-~:-

r~"

,, o I

'J (
((

I /1

•

it "

880

381

persons, for instance, could not tell whether Mr. Lincoln's first
proclamation meant war or peace.

5. Streng·tll.
Strength is one of the great qualities of style. If correctness can make style passable, strength makes it effective. To a great extent, strength Jepends on the other
qualities of style; but it depends still more directly on the
character of the writer.
A spiritless and feeble-minded
person can have neither vigorous thonghts nor vigorous expl'Cssions. AJHJ. strength shows itself either in thought or
in expression.
In Thought.
"The valley of the Amazon is nqnntic rnther than terrestrial. Its
watery labyrinth is rather a fresh-water ocenn, cut up nrnl divided by
land, than a net-work of rivers. It is true thnt in this oceanic rivcrsystem the tidal action has an annual in stead of a daily ebb and flow;
that its rise and fall obey a larger orb, - that it is governed by the snn,
and not by the moon; but it is nevertheless subject to all the conditions
of a submergeil district." - AGASSIZ.
A powerful conce11tion I There arc also many such in Victor Hugo. And
n single line in Keats, "The first in beauty is the first in might," contains the
general history of society; for it mcan8 that the better a11<l more beautiful syste m, r eligion, Institution, machine, or o.ny thing else, always supersedes that
which ls inferior.

In Ex1ll'cssion.
" Y 011 have the I'yrrh ic <lance ns yet,
·where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone 1
Of two such lessons why forget
The nobler and the manlier one 1 " -

BYRON.

"John the Baptist was the precurso r of Christ," is a plain statement; but
what ilocs it become as cxprcssccl by Pope I -

" Hark! a ~lad voice the lonely desert cheers, Prepare the way; a Got.I., n Got.I. appears ! "

Strength of thought ancl strength of expression arc often
blcn<lc<l, especially where the writer is governed by intense feeling: "Take ngnin n New-York voter of rr certain class. To say thnt ho
is illiterate, is inatlcquately to express the tlcusity of his ignorance; to

" \

say that he is unscrupulous, is to do injustice to his audacity; to say
that he is for sale at every returning election, is to state a fact as notorious as sunrise; to say that he is ready to do any crime thnt mny be
pknsing to his leader, is simply to acknowledge his bad loyalty; to
s:n· that he Is tlirtv nnd brutal, drunken nntl degraded, a bully, a .slugg:;rtl, nnt! a sneak: is merely to record his natural history I"
'VOMAN's VANITY.-Adam reproaching Eve/or being tempted.
"Out of my sight, thou serpent! . . . for thy pride
And wandering vanity, when least was safe,
H.1;jcctc1l my forcwnrning, nnd disdnincd
Not to lie trnBte<l ; longing to be seen
Though by the Devil himself!" - Mu,TON.
••Thou serpent I " ls peculiarly forcible, for Eve hacl bccri tempted by the
~rrpr'tlt..

Sec also Ilolmes's "Old Ironslilcs" ancl "My Aunt."

The following are the chief elements of strength : -

Brevity.
Every essence hr.comes stronger by concentration; and when
rays of light are concentrated, they produce kindling fire I Many
proverbs, an<l some of the figures, illustrate the force of brevity.
Ex. - ""\Vastc not, want not." "Gray hairs nre death's blossoms." "Love
ls egotism for two." " Ice ls water asleep." " An nnimnl is something that has
n stomach." EPITAI'II ON A PHYSICIAN: "Ile pourcil drugs, of which he knew
little, into n bo<ly of which he kn ew less."- VOLTAIRE. POVERTY: ''.Bitter ls
the brca<l of <lepcndcncc." - DANTE. .ll..LPINE SCENERY: " Beauty In the lap
of 1Torror."-Fo11nr:s. "Goel sai<l, Let there be light: o.nd there wns llght." Dmu:. (There Is, In rcnllt.y, aflgure of address, just ns much nsn llgurc of In·
tcrrogation or exclamation; for we often use the Imperative form, simply o.s a
more forcible exp rcss ion.)

Accumulation.
"\Vhnt a picture of a <lying sinner is the following I -

"The infinite importance of what he has to do; the goading conviction that it must be done; the utter inability of doing it; the dreadful combination, in his mind, of both the necessity nm! the incapacity;
the despair of crowding the concerns of an age into n moment; the im·
possibility of beginning a repentance wl1ich shonlu have been completed,
of setting- nhout a peace which sho11l1] have been concludetl, of suing for
a pn.rtlon which shonlil l1nve hce11 ohtai11erl, - nil these complicated concerns- without strength, without. time, without hope - with n clouded
m emory, a t.lbjointetl reaso n, a wounded spirit, umlefinetl terrors, re-

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382
membered sins, nntiripatC'd pnni;:hm cnt, nn nngry Goel, nn accusing
conscience, - all together int olerabl.• au)!m ent the sufferings of a bod.v
which s tnnds in little need of the i11 ;: up po rtnhle bnrrlen of a <fr;tracted
mind to aggra,·ate its terrors."-C1uu1 1: ns. See Climax an<J Enumeration .
8nrh :lC'C'nmnl:itio n is b r~ t n-hC'n thr p:irtil'nbrs !ltC' m5r h·rs in ,Jiratc brcnty
or condensation. - Sec llall eck's Co 1rn ec fic11t.

Ellipsis.
Reject all superfluous words. Ellipsis is but one of the modes
of securing brevity. - The teacher should furni sh examples.

Ucpctltlon or IJlconasm.
"Strike - till the ln~t nrmetl foe expires;
Strike - for your nltnrs nrnl your firl's;
8trikc - for the green gnwcs of your sire~;
Got!, allll your nnth·c laud!" - IL\LLECJL
The teacher should furnish other exampl es. - Sometimes ellipsis nnd repetl·
tiou nre combined; ns, "A horse I a h orse I my kingdom for a horse I" - SHAK.

Arrangement.
Arrangement, in rcgnrd to strength, rclntcs to thoughts, parngrnp11s,
sentences, and parts of sentences. Innumerable are the varieties of
arrangement which afford strength; hut the great mnjorit.y are nC'cord·
ing to climax, antithesis, and the general plan of putting what is most
important in the most important pince. (See pp. 118 and 119; also
I i3-202,) The conclusion of W cbster's speech, in the trial of Knapp, is
remarkable for its forcible arrangement. The following arc the last few
sentences: "[The guilty secret] has become his master. It betrays his
discretion, it breaks down his courage, it conquers his prudence. W"hen
suspicions from without begin to cmlmrrnss him, and the net of circumstances to entangle him, the fatal secret struggles, with still greater violence, to burst forth. It must be confessed; it will he confessed; there
is no refuge from confession but suicide - and suicide is confcstiion ! "

Wisdom.
All great and valuable truths make a strong impression, especial!y
when they are new; and great authors have generally originated, hero
nntl there, sentences an(I pnrngrn.phH tllllt posHcHH t.hu Hln.minn of proverbs. Macaulay says, there never yet was a cidl war "in which ench
party did nut lose more in the end thnn wns asked by the other at the
beginning." A Lynn shoe-maker said, that" power and wealth have a
constant tendency to pass into the haml.s of a fow; and all riots and

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rernlutions are but the efforts of the masses to get back an equal distribution of the common blessings of life." Shakespeare abound s in
prornruial philosophy, but it is not necessary for us to quote specimens.
Trash. - Silly, empty, or trashy expressions sh~ultl be carefully
arnit!cd. Nothing else sooner destroys a man's influence.

Depth.
Sometimes an expression is remarkable, not so much for its wisdom
or grnsp, as for its depth and delicacy.
The following is a specimen: "This truth c:une borne wit.h bier nnd pnll,I felt it when I sorrowed most ·
'Tis better to have loved 11.11cl lost, ·
Thn.n never to have loved 11.t nJI." -TENNYSON.

Sublimity.
Grnttan sn.ys of Chathn.m, "He struck a hlow in the world that resounded
through the universe." A recent author represents heaven as an immense
face, gazing down at nigh t, with its thousand eyes, lovingly upon the Oce::m.
LAST DAY. - "The skies are shrivelled like a burning scroll,
And one vast common tomb ensepulchers the world! "
Qf this lofty species Of strength, tho teacher Bhoufu furnish nuultfonal ex·

nmples.

Yhlclness.
Vividness depends chiefly on brilliance of mind or sharpness of
thought. It prefers concretes to abstracts, specific statemepts to
general statements, and short 01· simple expressions to those which
are cumbrous.
Vivacity implies rather a sparkling fluency of
style.
To say, "The age of Pericles, Plato, Phidias, Apelles, Demosthenes,
nnd Sophocles, will never return again,'' is trite and uninteresting; but
t.o say, as Macaul ay has said, "The age will never again return when a
Pericles, after walking with Plato in a portico built by Phidias, and
painted by Apelles, might repair to h!)ar a pleading of Demosthenes, or
a tragedy of Sophocles," is spirited a~d striking. "In proportion as the
manners, customs, and mnnscmcnts of n nation nrc crncl nml hnrhnrons,
tho regulations of their penal code will be severe," is not so vivid n sentence as "In proportion ns men <lclight in ba ttl es, hull-fights, and com·
bats of gladiators, will th ey punish hy hanging , burnin g, and the ra<"k;"
because the terms in the former sentence arc more general and nhstnwt.
"Did I say p enetrate their hearts~ " said Robert Hall ; " then strike

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out penel.rate, nnd sny, 'pierce their hearts.'" ObserYc how verbose,
feeble, nnd inRipirl the following- statcme11t i~ : -

0, it would he prefcrnhle that her worn-out nn1l tlilnpirlate<l form
shoul<l <lescen<l hcncnth the surf:tce of the waters, aml <lisnppcnr ! ll cr
various guns were often disc har11cd in such a way ns to make the water.
nround her tremble, anrl it, th erefore seems best that she should be lmri ctl
in the ocean . You may fa sten her consccrntcd banner to the mast,
s tretch out the old sails, a nd then libera te her, to drift a bout on the sea,
till strong winds and roug h storm s make her sink.
Now s trip it of nil usclc-ss words, ~ ub s titnt c si mpl e nncl Yidd express ions,
arrange the whole in th e b es t order, and sec what it becomes: -

" O, li etter thnt her Rlmttcrcd hulk Phoulrl Rink hent)ilth the wave!
Iler thunders" shook the mighty deep, and there shoulcl be her gm Ye !
Nail to the mast her holy fla g, set eYery threadbare sa il,
And give her to the god of storms, - the lightning nnd the gale ! "
Hourns
Viddness is nl so obtained by th e use of that fi gnrath·e ln11:;11agc
which discn rds all encumbmn cc of ex press ion, nnt! selects onl,r what is
sullicient, m os t obYious, or most striking-; ns synerLl ochcs a11d mctonymies. The followin g description of a liberated plow-horse is remarkaLly vivid, chiefly from the use of these fig ures: "Now the stout plow-horse, of encumbrance stripped ,
Shakes his enormous limbs with blunderin g speed,
Eager to grati(1· his fami <;Jicrl lip
With taste of hcrlrngc anJ the mcarlow brook." - JI u1m1 s.

Earnestness.
"\Ve can not do justice to thi s very irnpnrt:mt clement of Rtyl<!, without inserting a long ex trar:t for ill11 stn1tio11 ; nml for Hnch 11 quotation
we have not room. Sullice it to say, that man y compositio ns mul many
persons owe their pers uasive power almost entirely to an all-conqttering
tone of earnestness.

Figures.
Figures aid the intellect or the fe elings. ·w c h ave already
spoken of their ad vantage in illi1stra,tions. They also enable a
writer to !lepa rt from the common lang uage, and t.hus they afford
him a fi eld for ori;;in ality. I3ut the ir chie f u se is to m a k e langua;;c forcible, or they arc the principal means of sec uring that
element of style which is ca.llc1l strengt..11.
Every ><pcakc r or
writer wishes to m ak e an imprcs ~. i o n , or to exc ite some kirnl of
emotion ; and for this pmposc the fi ;;; nres often dforJ the r eadiest

assistance. "\.Voncler, delight, horror, scorn, hatred, pity; and ind eed every otl1er fe eling, can be awakene r! by t.hcir aicl.
Dryden instantly exalts our idea of a battle which he is describing,
when he tells us that even "the angels drew the curtains_of the sky" to
g-nzc upon th e terrific conflict. Dyron calls Patrick Henry " the forestborn Demosthenes, whose thunder shook the Philip of the seas;" and
he says that a certai n lady's eye wns so bright and spiritual that "it
seemed itself a soul." l\Irs. Sigourney awakens some of the agrceahle
emotions with which she would ha1·e us read her p:igcs, when she says;
"The child reclined on its mother's bosom, as some infant blossom on
its pnrent stern.'' . Ossiun touches the rncl11ncholy sweetness of hy-gono
day.•, when he says, "The music of Ca~yl was like"the memory of joys
that are pas t, plensant and mournful to the soul." Shakespeare instantly awakens our pity and sympathy for a worried hare, when he
tell s ns that "poor 'Vat" listened to the renewed and approaching yelp
of the hounds, "!~kc one sore sick that henrs a funeral bell.'' Swift
raises our contempt for poli ticians, when he compares them to ropedaneers, or when he says that climbing and creeping arc performed in
the same posture. To express intense feeling, people nearly always resort to figures, - especially hyperboles ; as, "'Twould scald my tongue
to spit out your hated name!" -Bo1rnR. (A Queen ·against her
1-i\-al.) "There goes a man that would crawl in hell, might he but
strut on earth.''- Io. ( Haughtiness resented.)
Mr. Sumner, in his very able snecch on the Alabama Claims, has tho
following paragraph: "The naval base of the Rebellion was not in America, hut in England. The blockade-runners and pirate-ships ~ere all
:Eng-li~h. Englnnd was the fruitful parent, and these were tho 'hcllhonnrls pictured by Milton in his descriptions of Sin,' which, .when they.
listed, would creep into her womb, and kennel there.'" This allusion
and comparison was the most powerful expression in the speech ; and it
wns suited to produce precisely the feeling which the spcakcr'.wishcd to
produce, - namely, a loathing indignation for inflicted wrong. , England's wickedness is well suggested by comparing her to Sin itself;
nnd in every way the comparisons will bear study. Lord Chatham onco
turne<l the tide, in n close contest, by a single argumentative figure; and
such results, by similar means, bnve been produced by other orators.
Addison, it is said, gaine,d a high offico by that figure in \~hieh ho
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r epresented Marlborough, In battle, as ari angel that "rides in' the whirl\vind and directs the storm.''
When Hayne ·had ex tolled South Carolina to the skies, there was but
one way in which "Webster could go beyond hitn;nnd that h e adopted;
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which was, to declare that his own Stnte needed no eulogy.
'not a finer specimen of pnmli ps.is in the Englbh lungun;;e.

387
There is

"Driven from their homcR Into the gloomy nncl nlmoet impenetrable ewnmps,
even there the spirit of liberty Run·tve<I; a111l South Cnrolhm, sustained by the
example of h er Sumpters and her Marlons, proved, !Jy her condnct, that, though
her soil might be overrun, the spirit of her people was Invincible." - IIAYNF..
"The euloglum pronounced on the character or the State of Sonlh Caro lina,
by the honorable gentleman, for her ltevolntlonary and other merits, meets my
hearty concurrence . • . . I shall enter on no encomium upon Uassachnsetts; 11110 needs none. There she Is, - beho ld her, and judge for yourselves. There
le her history, -the world knows It by heart. The p ast; at least, Is secure.
There ls Concord, and Lexington, aud llunker llill, - an<l there they will remain
forever." - 'VEDSTER.

q;:g- Halleck, Webster, Dryden nnd Ilyron excel in strength; and Pope excels In condensation of thought. -For general criticisms and exercises, sec pp.
173-202, 231-261.

6. Jlarmony.
Harmony relates to sound and sense; and it therefore
comprises -

Euphony, or agreeableness of souncl in separate words.
Melody, or agreeableness of sound in words combined.
Onomatopmla, or adaptation of sound to sense.
Continuity, or close, smooth, and naturn} coherence in sense.
Symmetry, or a proper proportion among the parts.
Variety, or absence of monotony and mannerism.
Euphony. -Avoid words that are unpleasant in sound or difficult to
prono'uncc; as, chroniclers, salily, shamejiiced11ess, cursorily. Avoicl words
that are very uncommon or very long ; as, consecution, ratiocination, consequentiality, unintelligibility, valetudinarian.
.Melody. - Avoid too much sameness of sound, espcdally in close
succession; as, "Tediousness is the most fatal of all faults." - JonNSON. Here we have too much of sand al. Avoid using the same word
too frequently. (See pp. 173-176.) Avoid excess of vowels and excess of consonants, but let there be a variety of each and a proper mix- .
turc of both. Pope says, " Ilnt oft the !'al' the open vowels tire." Tho
fifth stanza of Gray's Elegy co11tai11R a pleasing- vnriety of vowels. Let
there be a pleasant variety in the length and accent of words. "Lazy
people selclom gather riches," is too monotonous; rather say, " Indolent people seldom acquire wealth."

Onomatopooia. -Let tho soun<l, nnd tho style of expression, accord
· with tho sense 01· sentiment. Perlrnps tho figure onomntopooi11 shoul~l
be cxtencled far beyond tho usual definition; and tho anglicized word
01101111ito11y shou ld be applied to this general adaptation of expression to
thought, while the worcl onomatop1Eia is confined · ~imply . to imitative
so111Hls. Every gencrnl thought or sentiment has a language· that is
most appropriate to it. Of course there will be variations .according to
the persons and the circumstances ; ·but what we mean is, that there
must be an absolute naturalness of expression . . And it seems to us that
Shakespeare alone, of English authors, has. reached in the highest degree this perfect art of expression. Coleridge declared ; that Shakespeare is the most musical of all writers, - that we never grow tirccl of
reading him, as we grow tired of other authors. Indeed, we never feel
mannerism in his style; and it is simply because the style is almost
everywhere adapted to the thoughts. The· philosophy .which Scott applied to natural scenery (seep. 297), Shakespeare seems to have applied
to the u:lwle world ef tlwu,qlit, feeling, and nature. · Ilut the endless .variety
in Shakespeare's manner, and the delicate adaptation to the sentiment,
can be felt rather than described; and we sh1\ll therefore present a few
diverse specimens, with the hope tliat tile reader will .thus ge~ . n. better
·
glimpse of our general meaning.
Take the defiance of lofacdujf: -

"I have no words, my voice is in my sword;
Thou bloodier villain than terms can give thee out I"
Now hear Falstaff praise sack : -

"It ascends me into the brain ; dries me there all the foolish, dull,
and crudy vapors which environ it; makes it apprehensive, quick, and
forgetive, - full of nimble, fiery, and delectable shapes."
·
Now hear Petruchio, describing millinery: -

" Whnt's this 1 a sleeve 1 'tis like a demi-cannon:
'Vlrnt, up and down, carved like nn apple-tart1
Here's snip and nip ancl cut and slish and slash."
Now hear Jaques moralizing: -

"Ami so from hour to hour we ripe and ripe,
And then from hour to hour we rot and rot,
And thereby hangs a talc."
Compnro with thle sweet nnd soothing melancholy tho roollnga of
.storm:-

Lco.r in"

" You snlphu~ous and thought-executing fires,
Vaunt-couriers to onk-clcaving thnmlcr-hol ts,
Singe my white hcnd ! Ami thou all-shaking Thunder
Strike flat tho thick rotundity of the world!"

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A mind In a storm naturally loves a tempest without; nnd the choleric old
man wished to wield, like a god, the elements themselves, to gratify his wrath.
'rake, again, the silent agony of Othello, when he makes the desperate resolve to
kill bis wife: -

7. Originality.
Originality may be in matter, conception, or expression.
In matter.

"Arise, black Vengeance, from thy hollow cell;
Yield up, 0 Love, thy crown aml hearted throne."
How expressive Is the word hcartcrl ! llis very heartache compelled him to
make some allusion to the heart.
One who had seen the horrid murder of two young princes, as they lay sleeping in each other's arms, is represented as saying, -

"The tyrannous and bloody act is done I

Their lips were four red rosr.s on a stnlk,
Which in their summer hcuut.y kissed eneh other."
Was ever language so well adapted to awaken pity and tenderness for mur·
dered youth and boauty? Dut almost ewrywhcrc Shakespeare displays such
wonclerful adaptation of language to thought; and he Is constantly using figures
to give him ail the power he needs. Ills style Is, however, still Shakespearian;
for we can taste everywhere the peculiar flavor of his Individuality.

We may here remark, that to this irni'i•er.ml style unusnal liberties
must be allowed, even to tho extent of sometimes violating the niceties
of grammar and rhetoric.
Continuity.~ Natural, smooth, and easy transition from one paragraph or sentence to another, is one of the greatest refinements in style.
It depends directly on the association of ideas, and on general culture
and practice.
Symmetry. - Too often are compositions and books out of proportion; and no writer can be too careful in forming a compact and
symmetrical plan.
Variety. - If all the preceding qualities under this general head
have been secured, variety will be the natural consequence. Some 1n1thors acquire a peculiar and fixed manner, which may suit very well fur
certain subjects, but appear ridiculous when applied to other sulucct~.
This fault is called mannerism. Sir 'Valtcr Scott could not describe the
battle of vVaterloo in any other way than in a style similar to that of
his Marmion. Of course he failed, for the poem seemed rnthcr like a
burlesque. A writer should be able to adapt himself to every varying
scene or sentiment. We get tired of him when he tells every thing in
the same way, no matter how excellent his Rt.ylc may he. Variety is one
Of the greatest charms in composition. It is better to be sometimes a
little out of taste than to be always the same. We grow tired even of
the constant brilliance of Macaulay; and Moore's Lalla llookh almost
stifles us with sweets.

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" Ily valleys .remote where the oribi plays,
'Vhcrc the gnu, the g1tzclle, and the hart-heest graze,
vVherc th~ elephant browses nt peace in his wood,
And the n1'er-horse gambols unscured in the flood." -PRINGLE.
Pringle's African poems arc unusually interesting, chiefly because he describes scenes that were never before described, or at least not In verse. Col.
Montague, of England, wrote a work on ornithology which became l~mcd!ate!y
pop11li1r, Rim ply hocn11so ho tol1l mnch that had novcr boon told boforri, nnd bo•
cause the book showed everywhcni tho life and freshness of an original mind.

In conception.
"A Gourd wound itself round a lofty Palm, and in a few days
climbed to its very top. 'How old mayst thou be 1' asked the newcomer. · 'About a hundred years.' - 'About a hundred years, and no
taller I Only sec, I have grown as tall as you in. fewer days ,thari yon
count years.' - 'I know that very well,' replied the Palm; 'every summer ,of my life a gourd has climbed up around me, as proud as thou art,
and as short, lived as thou wilt be! ' " - SELECT FABLES.
The fundamental ldeaA comprised In the foregoing fable are not new; but
the mode of pre8ent!ng them Is new, striking, and beautiful, -especially when
w~ consider that the vain Gourd had after all, like many men In this world,
chm bed so hl!l'h on someh 'idy c!Ae. Sometimes great honor Is awarded to nn
a11thor for pre~cntlng nn uld and hackneyed subject In a new way; for to do this
may require the highest order of genius.

In expression.
"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and wearv
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore, - - ,·'
While I nodded, nearly napping, sud~lenly there came a tapping,
As of some one gently rappmg, rappmg at my clmmber-door.
''Tis some visitor!' I muttered, 'tnpping- at my chamber-9.oor Only this, and nothing more.'" -PoE. :
.. :
This verslflcation was original, and it made the poem Immediately popular.
The general burden of thought had already been expressed by Shakespeare, In
Macbeth's lament, "Ah I canst tl1ou pluck a rooted sorrow from the heart," etc.,
nnd Ilamlct's soliloquy," To be - or not to be," etc. "No excellence without
great labor," said '\Vlrt; and roe's Raven la a remarlrnble exemplification.
\Vhen roe was In his prime, he went tci Richmond, Va., and there edited for a
while the Southcn1 Literary 1licssc11gcr. During this time a distinguished
young Indy died near Richmond; nnd It occurred to him that her death was a
good subject for a poem. Accordingly there soon appeared In his journal a
poem on" The Lost Lenore," which ran thus: "Her friends arc gazing on her,
And on her gaudy bier,
And weep - oh I to dishonor
Her beauty with a tear I "

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391

390
Ily and by appeared another poem on th e lost Lenore, whlcb ran thus: "Ah 1 brokc11 is th e golden uowl, the spiri t flown forev er;
L et the ueli toll 1 a s aintl y soul lloat-s 011 th e Stygian river;
Ah 1 Guy de V ere, hast thou 110 tear?- weep now or never more;
Sec on yon drear and rigid bier, low lies thy love Lenore 1"
In the course of time both these po ems were withdrawn, as crude efforts;
and in their place appeared - The Raven, whi ch wns more d eeply cast in gene rality and mystery, nnd was 111 every way supcriur, thouirh It ls &till her e and
there somewhat harslt In lt11 syntax.

Wit.
Sometimes wit lies ra ther in thought; sometimes in words or
expression ; an<l frequently it is a little, curly, comical outgrnwth
of the human mintl, that defies description. Wit is one of the
most charming elements in literature j aml its chief quality is perhaps its 01·iginality. "\Vit usually consists in the sudden discovery
of some new and fanciful relation ; but it is generally restricted
to those relations of this kind which are of an amusing character.
Specimens. -A certain nobleman, having several distinguished
guests nt dinner, and among them .Foote, the comedian, produced a
bottle of Yery old wine, which he sent rouml in very small glasses.
After the host had praised his wine rather much, and es pecially for its
age, Foote politely conceded its rare excellence, but rcm:ukctl that he
had never known any thing "so small of its age." Douglas Jerrold.
says, "The law would be a bird of paradise, were it not for its dreadful
bill." Hood calls a pen of beeves "a nes t of lwmillwlo!l.I/·" And some
one says, rnsla11ra11t is derived from 1·es taunts, "bully things."

Figures.
Figures are among the principal original items daily added to
literature. A writer's figures show the creative power of his
mind; and one of the be.st tests ofju<lging whether a young writer
will become eminent, is to judge him by the amount and excel-.
lence of his original figures.
_ Ex. - "T~ c pigeon-pie wns not had , hut it WM a dch1Rlvcrle: the crnst h elng
liken dlsnppo111ti11g herul, phrenologically Hpoaklng,-full o lumps and bumps,
with nothing particular u11clcrncath."-D1cKENs.
..

8. Humanity,
· This is a quality that has never before been noticed ·by writers
on style; and yet we foci that there is so mneh ground for introducing it h ere, that we shall draw attention to it eYen at the risk
of being thought eccehtric in our notions. Dy humanity, in style,

we mean, in general, human interest. We· use the word in a wider
sense than that of compassion; but still in a sense warranted by.
the various meanings of the word humanity, and only a little more
comprehensive than that of the word .~ympatlty. Some men are
e<lncated, arc talented, a.ml write in a style that is almost perfect,
and yet they produce no effect. It is simply because their style
lacks humanity, or human interest, or sympathy, or individuality.
Milton's style, though of strong individuality, is still · deficient in
human interest; . and, with all his merits, how few peoplo read
11im I Shakel'rieare, Defoe, Goldsmith, Irving, Longfellow, Burns,
Dickens, Homer, Virgil, Horace, Dante, and many German
writers, excel in this quality of style. Some people haYe no
hearts; and their style, if they have any 1 has no blood in it. They
are as destitute of feelings as idiots are of intellect; and God probably never designed them for any .thing else than butchers,
surgeons, or undertakers. Others arc full of human sympathies,
and their style is tinctured accordingly. To acquire humanity, a
writer should thoroughly understand human nature, thoroughly
sympathize with human nature, and thoroughly work his own indivi<luality into his style. For this purpose, superior endowment
of sensibility is the first requisite ; for there is an intuitive intellect
of the h eart that is far more subtle, active, and ubiquitous than the
ponderous intellect of the hca<l ; and where this fine intellect of
heart leads a powerful intellect of reason, - perhaps into all the
knowledge of the world, - we may expect such a style as Beecher's.
F aults it may have ; but, whatever they are, it will be sure to
touch everybocly, and the masses will like it. At the dedication
of the Gettysburg National Cemetery, E chvard Everett deli vcred
grand oration j " but i_t fell perfectly <lead," said a great general,
"while the few words of. Mr. Lincoln_ brought tears into every
eye." Writers whose style possesses humanity in a high degree,
become instantly popular. Goethe excels in this grand quality of
style; and his works were immediately pronounced · masterpieces,
for truly they mastered everybody, and showed everybody that the
author, like a dreadful confidant, knew all about each, yet sympapathized with each. Humanity also implies that the author has
the power of properly infusing general human nature into all the
outer creation ; an<l of thus establishing, by personifications an<l

a

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.... .....,,,.........---.miiiiiii•·ili1_____ ill......

-- ----- =~"Si:'7~==~~

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392
other means, many little chords of sympathy.
tion, the following examples : Youtl1.

393
Take, for illustra-

" Pretty brooklet, gnyly glnncing
In the morn in~ s1111,

Why so joyous in thy dancing 1
Whither dost thou run 1
What is't lures thee to the vale 1
Tell me, if thou hast 11 tale."
"Youth ! I ;was a brooklet lately,
Wandermg nt my will;
Then I might have moved sedately;
Now, to yonder mill,
Must I hurry, swift and strong
Therefore do I race along." - GOETHE.
To ZEPHYR, IN lYL\.ncn.
" Thou hast fanned the sleepin~ Earth till her dreams are all of flowers
~nd t!1e Waters look Jn mi~th for their ovn!1n11gi11g bowers;
'
I he Ji orest seems to hsten for the ru~tle of its leaves
And tho very Skies to glisten in the hope of summer' eves."
Brook.

Here It Is easy to see that greater vividness , st.rength, or lutercst Is obtained
by the personification; or, rath er, by the sympathetic nature of the writer.

"Look, love; what envious streaks
Do Ince the severing clouds in yonder cast 1 " - SnAJL
How expressive is the word envious! It suggests at once that nil nature le In
sympathy wlth the lovers, and envies them their happiness ; or that they are so
bewitched as to think so. - See also Burns's H ighland 11Iary.

In a view more in accordance with daily practical life, humanity
may be considered as comprising appeal to individual bias, appeal
to party-spirit, appeal to nationality, appeal to the present spirit
?f the age, and appeal to the great principles that have always
mfiuenced and moved mankind. It is well known that every int.lividual requires a peculiar manner of approach, as the most successful; it is well known that many procluctions arc sustained
simply by their party-spirit ; and it is evident that all time-serving
speakers and writers depend for success on a kiml of cheap and
ephemeral humanity in their style.
Rising higher, we may also refer to humanity those effective
elements .of style called patlivs, humor, sarcasm, ridicule, burlesque,
etc.; for all these are peculiarly human, or exist in human nature
itself. The teacher can easily find illustrations; we have room here
only for an excellent morsel of macaronic burlesque <loggcrel : -

.~

"Fuit Mexicrmb~ homo,
This bellicosus son of thunder,Snnta Anna, was his name, 0 !
Viuinti thousand cannibul brutes
Mi lites fero~cs multi, .
Half-starveJ, not clothed, et sine b~ts;
Dark-eompl ex io11ed, whiskernndi, Frune, 11ofR'"'fnmn, driven on,
Whole-hog l\'lcxienw} were under
Mis~e~us sot to look upon.''
There appears also in the style of some writers a very attractive element which is usually called naturalness. Sometimes it
means simply truthfulness, and it can then be referred to correctness; but frequently it implies something more, - some rare and
interesting view of human nature, that could have been recorded
only by a delicate and sympathetic observer. Who would not read
with interest the following lines ? "No littl e plnythin~s to put up to keep;
Nu little hluc eyes to sing to sleep;
~o little trundle-bed, brimful of rollic,
Calling for mammu to settle the frolic." - Mns. GAGE .
"Oh I Alng ngaln thnt good old Aong, that old familiar strain;
It wakens ton es remembered long, I ne'e r shall hear again.
Oh I sing it , sing it \Jut once mo re; each note to me is dear: .
It takes me b ack to days of yore as if those days were here." · ·

Individuality is also a charm in writing, for it has a pleasant
flavor of originality; an<l it may be referred to humanity; since it
is but some peculiar clement of human nature. ' Rome people
have much more human nature in them than others; they are
therefore more interesting, and have generally more character.
Dut how much do people diller from one another; and Low interesting almost any p~r.son may become if we only study d~n".n
into his peculiar nature I. Genuine individuality, not habit, is one
of the best remedies against mannerism. Acquire ,skill by studying good models; but aUer all, scorn to be ari imitat.or. ' First. be
careful to build up in yourself a truly noble character; then ,work
your own incli vicluality thoroughly into your style, and yo~ will
thus make your style most interesting and effective. 'Vhen the
fair shepherd and lyrist of Judea went forth to meet the Philistine,
he preferred his accustomed sling and pebbles even to the armor of
a king. But remember, he went forth in the name of the Lord.

\: ·

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;y

For n good specimen of style tinctured with humnnlt.y; sec p. 31\9. We hnvc
not room h ~· r e for Lincoln's Gctt.ysburg Address; but the tcncher cnn easily
find It for h1R class; and he should c~pccially show th em that Its superior effect
dt•pc11ds on itM uaturalnc ss and delicate personification.

~ Gray's Elegy is a good illustratio,n of all tl~e various qualities
of style which we have noticed. It is deficient chiefly in unity.
~

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LESSON LXX.

Versification is the ai·t of making verse.
Since very few persons can et'cr write poetry that Is worth T<'n<lln~. nrnl
since the~e few arc guided rntlwr by in burn melody t.han by rule" of art, fl tlocs
.not seem to us expedient to present a very extensive exposition of this subject.

Verse is the musical arrangement of words, according to some regular a.ccen t.
Also pauses and rhymes nrc gcncrnlly used ns clements of verse.

Verse is to prose as <lancing is to walking; antl the accent in
verse correspontls to the beat in music.
The word r erse is sometimes applied to a Ringle line of poetry, sometimes to
a stanza, and sometimes to lines ol poetry collectively considt!red.
VERSE is but 111et1·iral -'!Jll.la:r.
The nccent which runs through verse,
affords pleasure to the mind by the rcgulnr pulsations; this plensnrc is
increased by final and cmsnrnl pauses, which divide the verse into lines
and shorter divisions by agreeable suspensions; these parts or lines nre
·f requently made further agrccnble by terminations similar in Ro1111d,
which are called rhymes; and the pleasure of rhyming lines is enhnncctl
by combining them into harmonious groups called stanzas. The language itself is colored, vivid, and striking, by heing the language of passion or imagination as well us of good common sense. Such is, in a
·nut-shell, the verse-making art.

· To. show the various elements of beauty to the best advantage, verse
'is usually arranged in lines, us in the following specimen: ·. "Know ye the land I where the cypress und myrtle I
Are emblems of dCeds I that ure done in their elf me; II
vVhere the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle,
Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime 1
Know JC the land of the cedar and vine,
vVhere the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine 1 "-BYRON.

Versification is comprised under the following heads: 1.
2.
3.
4.

Poetic Accent and Feet.
Poetic Pauses anJ. Lines.
Rhymes anJ. Stanzas.
P@-etic Licenses.

395

I. Poetio Accent and Feet.
I•oetic Accent is the accent which divides lines of
poetry into small parts, called poetic feet.
Poetic accent passes through lines in four different ways, or
rests on syllables as shown by the following numbers : Iambic.
Trochaic.
Ana1lestic.
Dactylic.
Iambic:
Trochaic:
Anapestic:
Dactylic:

2
4
6
8
10 .
12
l
3
5
.7
9
11
3
6
9
12
15
IS
l
4
7
10
13
16
" The curfew t6lls the knell of parting day."
" Round us roars the tempest louder."
"At the close of the day, when the hamlet is stfll."
"Bachelor's hall, -what a queer-looking place it is I"

A I1 oetic Foot is a part of a line that consists generally of two or three syllables, one of which is accented.
There are four principal feet: 1. 'rhe Iambus; a foot of two syllables, accented on ·
the secon<l ; as, enroll.
·
·
2. The Trochee; a foot of two syllables, accented on
the first ; as, golden.
3. The Ana1>est; a foot of three syllables, accented
on the last ; as, entertain.
4. The ·Dactyl; a foot of three syllables, accented
.on the first ; as, durable.
There are three secondary feet : 1. The S1>0ndee, a foot of two long or accented
syllables.
2. The Pyrrhic, . a foot of two short or unaccented
syllaLlcs.
3. The Ciesu'ra, a long or accented syllable used . as
oue foot.

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397

396

·w e cnn not rca<l, "As a friend tha"nk him, and withjoy sec hfm."
But we may rend, "Sec him with joy, and thUnk him 1is 11 friend."

Ex. - " Near the lake where <lroope<l the willow
Long time ago."

Spomlcc.

"Oftl1i'f I low stl11sctcloud~, ifod !hi! I bl1tf' s!.·y." Pyrrhic nnd Spornkc.
Sometimes the nccPn t, In lnmhl c ver~c, to nvol1l res ting on 11 •hort Pyllnlile ,
passes to th e first sy llnbl c (if long) of the nex t foot, mnk~11g this f(>Ot a spondt;c,
and the preceding o ne n pyrrhic. Spondccs nrnl pyrrh1 cs are not always p10duced In this way; but they are generally best wht-n made on the compens ation
principle.

"Thou wast tha t all to me, love,
(Cresura.)
For which my soul <li<l pine." - PoE.
" Gold! gold! gold! gold!
.
4 ~eet } time equal.
Heavy to get an<l light tO hOld." - Ilooo. 4 feet

The secon<lary feet are sometimes allowc<l to break
the re<rular
.measure, in order to u voiu u tedious
sameo
.
ness in the rhythm, or to secure onomatopreia.
The iambus and the · anapest are kindred feet; arnl
hence they are sometimes used promiscuously.

A wor<l of two or more syllables can be admitted
into the verse only when the poetic accent takes the
place of the primary or secondary accent of · the wor<l.
~Our system of feet differs from that usually given; but the common
system will not scan all English verse, and o urs will.

2. Poetic Lines and Pauses.
Stri ct n<lh crcncc to trut.h probably requlres thnt we should consider tho
poetic pauses - the fi11 a l and th e coos ural- as procluclngpoetlc lin es and ciesn ral
divl sio11s; but, to m ake the s u bject eas ie r tu th e lea rn er, we shall treat of lines
Jirsl., and then regard them simply us lmvlng these pauses.

li'eet are formed into . lines of Yarious le1igth; an<l
the lines are then called. iambic, trochaic, anapestic,
or dactylic, according to the kind of foot that prevails
in them.
'

Ex. - "I come I I come! ye have ci1lccl me long;

J,incs nrc also named according to tho number of feet composing

I come o'er the mountains wi th Hg;ht lind song."
A plcMnnt rhythm Is sometimes pro<lucc<l by throwing nn a1111pcst, or even
two, Into each lnmblc line.

The trochee and the dactyl are kindred feet, and
hence they are sometimes used promiscuously.
Ex. - "Boun<llng away over hill un<l valley."

Any word or sylluble cqn be brought under the
poetic accent, when there is no prevention from
quantity or word-accent.
Quantity. - The quantity of n syllnble Is Its relati ve qnnntity of
sound, or it is the rclat.ivc time occupied In uttering the syllabic. In
regard to quantity, some syllalJles are long, some arc short, and some arc
variable. Ancient verse was made chicfty nccorcting to quantity; but
moJem verse is made chiefly acconling to accent.

It is sometimes inelegant or impPoper to make tho
poetic acccn t rest on a short sy llal.ilc, especially when
this syllable stands next to a long or accented one.
And It Is also In elegant to make the poetic accent conflict with th e emphasis
of ordinary di sco urse.

them.

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1Uonom1 eter, a line of one foot.
Dim'eter, n lin e of two feet.
Trim'eter, a line of three feet.
Tetram'eter, a line of four feet.

· '

Pentatn'eter, a line of five feet.
Hexam'eter, n line of six feet.
lleptam'eter, a line of seven feet.
Octom'eter, a line ?f eight feet.

Iambic Lines.
I, Iambus; t, trochee; a, anapest; d , dactyl; c, coosura;

+, syUable over.

Ii.

Refrain.
2i. The pibroch rang.
3i. llcyond the ocean blue.
41:. Tho freighted clouds nt anchor Jfc.
5i. The cu rfew t61ls the knell of parting day.
6i. 1'Vhen thou art nfgh, it seems a new creation round.
7i. The melanch61y days are come, the saddest of the yenr.
An lnmblc lin e o f seven feet Is sometimes broken, at the end of the fourth
foot, Into two llnu~.
.' .

Sometimes a line has a regular m~mber of .feet, and
a part of another foot at the end. Such lines are
oalle<l liyper'meters,

·-»t$ <

Ii+.

398

399

Iambic Hypermeters.

Dactylic Lines.

The losses.
2i+. To Mils of splendor.
ai+. From Greenland's icy mountains.
4i+. Her he1irt is like a fildcd !lOwer.
5i+. The deer, half seen, nrc to the CO\'Crt WCtlllii1,q.
6i+. I think I wfll not go with you to hCar the toasts and speeches.

Trochaic Lines.
It.

2t.
8t.

4t.
5t.

6t.
7t.
Bt.

u+.
2t+.

at+.
4t+.
5t+.

6t+.

Turning.
Darkly waving.
J~nrly lifnlti nro singing.
Never wedding, ever wooing.
See the distant fOrcst dark aml waving.
Up the dewy mountain, H ealth is botinding lfghtly.
Then in thee Jct those rejoice who seek thee self-denying.
Beams of noon, like burning lances, thr0tigh the tree-tops flash
and glisten.
Trochaic II ypermetcrs
over woOds.
Days of sorrow came.
Restless mortals toil for naught.
Then, methought, I heard a hollow sound.
Fat.ins and dryads nightly w:.itch the starry sky.
SOftly blow the evening breezes, softly Hill the dews of ntglit.

The long or accented syllable which sometimes ends a trochaic
or · dactylic line is so nearly equivalent to a foot, that it should
rather be considered a cresura than a mere hypermeter syllable. ·

Anapestic Lines.
la.
2a.

3a.

4a.

Ia+.
2a+.

aa+ . .
4a+.

Far aw11y.
Far away in the South.
I am m6narch of all I survey.
Far away in the South is a beautiful isle.
Anapestic Ilypermetcrs.
Strains cntrancin3.
He is gone on the motintain.
On the knolls the red clover is growin_q.
Through the courts at deep midnight the t6rches are gleaming. .

2d.

Land of the POgrim's pride.
Come to the mountain of Zfon.
Shotillrlcss and tomblcss they stink to thcirrcst.
rmisc not to dream of the future hcforo us.
Nimrod the hunter was mfghty in hunting, and famed as the niler
of cf tics of yore.
Composite Verse. - Sometimes different kinds of feet, or different
kinds of lines, are combined in the same poem. Such verse is called
composite; and it is most frequently found in odes and songs.
2dt.
3dc.
3dt.
7dc.

Sec Kcrl'H Comprchcuslvc Orrunrnur 1 l'l'· 320 1 330 1 331.

Poetic Pauses.

To improve the rhythm or verse, there are two ·
pauses, the final and the ca:su'ral.
The Final J•~mse is a slight pause made at the end
of each line, even when the grammatical sense does
not require it.
Ex. - "Ye who have anxiously and fondly watched

I

Beside a fading friend, unconscious that II
The check's bright crimson, lovely .to the view,
Like nightshade, with unwholesome beauty bloomed."

The Cresural :Pause is a slight pause made within
the line, most frequently about the middle of it; and
it belongs chiefly to long lines.
Sometimes a line has two or more cresural pauses, one of which
is commonly greater th~n the rest. The secondary pause may be
called a demi-cresttral pause.
·

Ex. - "Warms I in the sun,
Glows

I in

the stars,

I I refreshes I in the breeze, ·
I I and blossoms l in the trees."

"No sooner had the Almighty ceased, I than all
The multitude of angels, I with a shout
Loud I as from numbers without number, I sweet
As from blest voices I uttering joy," etc. - MILTON.

POPE.

·

This verslflcntlon Is ndmlrnble. The cresurnl pause nftcr lowl, nnd that be·
fore .~wr~ct, nnd the final pause after sweet, make u A halt In readh1g, to .enjoy
th e exquisite luxury of the sen•c. Long lines can sometimes be divided at the
coosurnl pause Into two lines each.
.
.
.
'
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400

401

3. Rhymes and Stanzas.

A Stanza is a combination of three or more poetic
lines that usually make a distinct chime of rhymes,
au<l a regular <li vision of the poem . . .

Rhyme' is a similarity of sound between the endings of poetic lines.
Also verse that consists of rhyming lines is frequently called rhyme.

Sometimes the· first half of a line rhymes to the second, and
sometimes r1;1ymes oc.c ur in immediate succession.

Rhymes must begin with different letters, and end
with the same souud, or with nearly the same sound.
Rhymes that are not exact, yet authorized, are called allowable
1·/iymes.

Rhymes may run back into lines one, two, or three
syllables; and henee they are classified into single
rhymes, double rhymes, and triple rhymes.
The rhyming part of each line must always be accentea, or begin with an
accented syllable.

Blank Verse is verse without rhyme.
Ex. - " How soft the music of those village bells,
Falling at intervals upon the ear
In cadence sweet; now dying all away',
Now pealing loud again , aml louder still,
Clear and sonorous as the gale comes on I
With easy force it opens all the cells
Where memory slept. 'Wherever l have heard
A kindred melody, the scene recurs;
And, with it, all its pleas ures and its pains." - Cowr1rn.
Most of our blank verse consists of iambic pentameters.

Heroic · Verse is verse that ·consists of iambic pentameters.
This ' 'erRe is called so because it Is chiefly u sed in epic poetry, or In poetry
that relates th e exploits of heroes. It allows greater license of versification than
any other kind of verse, In the way of 11dmittlng other kinds of feet, as well as
hypermeters. - Sec Milton and Shakespeare.

An iambic hexameter is usually called an Alexandrine.

A Cou11let consists of two poetic lines that usually
rhyme together. A triplet, of three.

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A stanza generally consists of four, six, eight, or nine lines.
The most common stanzas are the common-meter, the long-meter, the
short-meter, the elegiac, and the Spenserian.
·
4i.
3i.
4i.
3i.

Common•ltleter Stanza.
When all thy mercies, 6 my God,
My rising soul surveys,
Transported with the view, I'm lost
In wonder, love, and pnLise.

3i.

Short-1Ueter Stanza.
The day is past and gone;
The evening shades appear;
0 may we all remember well
The night of death draws near.

4i.
4i.
4i.
4i.

Long-llleter Stanzas.
So blue yon winding rfver flows,
It seems an outlet from the sky,
Where, waiting tfll the west-wind blows,
Tho freighted clot.ids at anchor lie.

5i.
5i.
5i.
5i.

Elegiac Stanza.
Here rests his head, upon the liip of Earth,
A youth to :F ortune and to Fame unknown;
Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth,
And Melancholy marked him for her own.

5i.
5i.
5i.
5f.
5i.
5i.
5i.
5i.
6i.

Spenserian Stanza.
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There is a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society, where none intrudes,
Ily the deep sea, and music in its roar;
I love .not Man the less, but Nature more,
From these our interviews, in which l steal
From all I may be, or have been before,
To mingle with the universe, and feel
What I cai1 ne'er express, yet can not all conceal.

3i.
3i.
4i.

26

# 8 I

I

403

402

•·I

1. In Spelling. Poets frequently shorten words by the elision of

A Sonnet.
"Mysterious Night I when our first parent knew
Thee from report <liviuc, and heard thy name,
Did he not tremble for this lovely frameThis glorious canopy of light and blue 1
Yet 'neath a curtain of translucent dew,
Bathed in the rays of the great setting flame,
Hesperus with the host of heaven came,
And, lo! creation widened in man's view.
Who could have thought such darkness lay concealed
·w ithin thy beams, 0 Sun I or who t·.ould fiuu,
'Vhilst fly, and leaf, an<l lnscct stood revealed,
That to such cou 11 tlcss orbs thou mnd 'st us blind I
Why <lo we then shun death with anxious strife 1
If light can thus deceive, wherefore not life 1 "-J. B. Wm TE.

some letter or syllaLlc. -

Sec p. 229.

2. In Pronunciation. Poets sometimes change the accent of a
word; nnd sometimes they a<lopt some old pronunciation, in order to
make a .rhyme. Ilut such rhymes as "fig" und "melody," are now
inelegant.
3. In the Choice of lVords. Poets have gradually gathered nnd
mnnuf'acturcd for themselves a little extra vocabulary of wor<ls. These
consist of antiqnatc<l words, foreign wor<ls, and common wordg shorteneJ or lengthene<l. Tho following nro specimens : J{c11, we11d, ween,
l lmv, rife, yvrc, lone, guerdon, wel/.;in, whilom, albeit, ey11e, brand (sword),
sylvan , steed, swain, morn, eve,fo1111t, plaint, ope, meed,fane, yo11, darksome,
stilly, 1:a~l!J, evanis!t, bedimmed, bewept.

4. In the Meaning of 'Vords. Poets sometimes vary the meanings of words, or employ n less appropriate word.
·

Ex. - " Chill l'en ury repressed their noble mge." -

GRAY.

(For zeal.)

Scanning is the dividi11g of verse into its feet.
Each line is usually scanne<l l1y itself; but it seems best to scan <'ontinuously from one line into another when we can thus avoid irregularities.
Ex. - 'Tis the last rose of summer,
Left blooming alone ;
4 feet.
All her lovely eomptinions
Arc ftidc<l an<l gunc.
4 feet.
Sometimes more than one mode of scanning can be applied to the
same poem ; but that moJc should always be preferred which is most
simple aml musical.

"

For the various specimens of stanzas, and the modes of scnnning them, see
Keri's ComJ>rchcusivc Grammar.

4. Poetic Licenses.
A J>oetic License is an allowed deviation from the
correctness of ordinary prose, or from the regular laws
of versification, in order that the poet may be enabled
to reach the requirements of verse.
Poetic licenses arc allowed, -

A license in r egard to the m eaning or pronunciation of a word is always a
blcmi~h, rather than a beauty.
.~

5. In Idioms. l'octs sometimes use uncommon native iclioms, aud
frequently borrow idioms from foreign languages.

\

~ J' '(t,

'«'·llif-:

Ex. - " Wlio would not sing for Lycidas 1 he k11ew
Himself to si11g, and build the lofty rhyme.

,,

6. In Syntax. - Violent inversion. Violent ellipsis. Violations
of the minor rules or principles of grammar. In general, any inversion
or ellipsis is ullowabl.c that will preserve the sense.
Omission of Article. " The why is plain as " way to /\parish church."
Omission of Pronoun. "It was a tall young oystcrman " lived by the
rivcr-si<le." - HOLMES.
(Omission of It . ) "Sutlicc "' to-night, these orders do obey."
Omission of Verb. "Sweet /\ the pleasure, rich A the treasure." (is)
Omission of Principal Verl>. "Angels could " no more." (do)
Object before its Verb. "Him well I k11ew."
.
Subject nftcr the Verb. "Echo the mounta£ns round."
Auxiliary after Principal Verb. · "Nestled nt its roots is beauty."
Adjective after its Noun. " Violets blue and daisies white."
Predicate Adjective before its Verb. "Purple grows the primrose pale."
Pronoun before Antecedent. "Back to its mansion call the fleeting

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Relative Clnnsc severed from Antcccilcnt. "From thin!Js too low that
lie." ( lnclcgan t.)
Adverb between to und the rest of the lnfinitivc. " 1'o slowly trace tho
forest's shady scenes."
Preposition after its Object. "llirds sang the leafy def.ls withi11."
Adjuncts, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective phrases,
are frequently transposed.
Self added to a Noun. "llewept till Pity's self be dead."
Pleonastic Pronoun added to its Antecedent. " My banks they arc furnished with hees."
Simple Pronoun for Compound. "I laid me [111.~self] down on a green
bank."
Adjective used for Adverb.. "So sweet she sung." (sweetly.)
Adjective for Noun. "O'er the vast abrupt."
Intransitive Verb made Transitive. "To meditate the blue preforrnd."
Past Tense for Perfoct l'nrticiple. " The idols arc broke." - llYitON.
:First or Third Person Imperative in stead of L et. " Turn we to survey," etc.
Or-or, nor-nor, for either- or, neither - nor. "Nor in sheet nor in
shrouu we wound him."

Ex. - "B11rRts tM I wild cry I of terror and dismay." -CAMPBELL.
"L£lii!ral, not lilvish, is kind Niitnre's lutnd."-IlEATTrn.
" Weep, u:eep, and rend your hair'for thoso who never shlill return."

7. In Figures. Poetic style abounds in figures, and is frequently set
all aglow by the creative power of the imagination; as, "The native
hue of resolution is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought." - SuAK.
8. In Versification. Variations in position of the poetic accent,
or in the number of unaccented syllables, are allowable where the chief
poetic pauses occur, - the final and the cresural.
"Ye've trailed me thro(tgh the forest;
And struggling through the everglade

I yc've trailed me o'er the stream ;
I your bristling bayuni!ts gleam."

Observe that forest makes h ere a syllable in excess; but the Irregularity, occurring at the crosural pause, Is little noticed. It Is just so In music: variations
or extra flourishes can frequently be made where pauses occur. A distinguished
poet, in speaking of licenses In verslficnllon, says: "To prevent metrical bar·
mony from d"gencratlng Into monotony, occ11s10nal roughness must be Interposed. 1'/te 1·ivulet is 1/l(ttle 111usicttl by obstructions in its cltan11el."

Iambic or anapestic lines sometimes end with one or two extra unucccutcd syllabics. - Sec Ginevra, by Huu1ms.
Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee, a dactyl, or a
spondeo; or admit a trochee, a spondee, or an annpest within, especially
where the cresurnl pauses occur.

" Of guotllre.Yt trr.tf.Y I loadc11 with fairest fruit.'' - MILTON.
"And miiny a youth and miiny a maid." - Id.
.
"With Hcav1!11's ari£l j leryfraught, come rattling 6n.'' -Id.
It ls gencrnlly better to contrnct an excess of short Ryllables by synrorcsls, or
by hasty prouunclation, ti.um to rej ect any of them by elision.

Anapestic lines may occasionnlly begin with an iambus or a spondee;
or admit a spondce or an iambus within, especially where the cresural
pause occurs.
Ex. - " Tlie poplars are felled, I farewell to the shade,
And the whispering sounds of the cool colonnade."
COWPER . .
'

Remarks. - 1. Poetry, in its highest perfection, is thought,
feeling, imagery, and music, expressed in the most. appropriate lan·
guage. lt is the greatest of the Fine Arts, and it is closely allied
to the rest. lts prominent elements are love, beauty, and religion, in the widest sense of these terms. In some poetry, thought
predominates, as in Pope's Essay on Man ; in some, feeling, as in
'Volfe's Burial of Sir John Moore; in some, imagery, as in
Moore's Lalla Rookh; in some, music, as in songs, which often
have but lit.tie to recommend them, except that they are good
vehicles for pretty tunes or airs. ln some poetry are happily combined all these elements; but when a deficiency is allowed in any,
it must generally be compensated by greater excellence in the rest.
"\Vhen a poet, for. instance. drops rhyme, his diction must rise in
other res!icets; else his poem may appear no bctter' thar;i shabby
prose. Most of our " sapphics," "hexameters," and ·other fantastic imitations of what is found in ancient or in foreign languages,
are hardly poetry, according to the genius of our literature.
2. Poetry should be composed, not only in a lofty or intense
glow of spirit, but in accordance with the principles of correctness,
o.ncl the traits of ext.:ellcnce, required in good prose ; tha.t is, it
must possess fundamentally all the good qualities of goo1l prose,
and all deviations must be such as make it poetry, and elevate it

406
above prose. In general, the bnguagc must be more picture~que,
pieturial, or symbolic, - more rieh and glowing.- See P· 318.
3. Poetry, in its feet, c~sural pauses, rl1ymes, words, modes of
expression, arrangement of worcls, and license.s, shoultl be in ~c­
cord:mce with the usage of the best poets, or rn acconlance with
the principles in whieh the art itself is founded.
4. Such a mode of versification should always be chosen as
will best correspond with the sentiments of the intemled poem ;
and when a certain stanza, or a certain mode of versification, has
been adopted, there shouM not be, throughout the same poem, any
deviation from it, either in the kind of feet, in the number of feet
to the respecth·e lines, or in the mode of arranging the lines that
rhyme. Regularity is one of the ehief beauties of poetry.

5. Rhymes should exactly correspond, or at least be allowable;
that is, correspoml sufficiently to be . authorized by the usage of
standard poets. Rhyming lines should not be allowed to come
occasionally into blank verse, nor should lines of blank verse be
occasionally interspersed among rhyming lines. (Shakespeare's
dramas seem to be an exception; but they are a wild mixture of
plain dialogue, prose-poetry, arnl verse-poetry, according to the
characters and the underlying thoughts and feelings.)
6. Songs are not always so regular as other poems. To write a
good song requires great art; and the best songs. are. written by
learning the air, tune, or music first, and then settmg it to words.
In the composition of odes, the poet may, in general, pursue whatever variety of versification he pleases, to express a varying train
of feelings; but it is cxpectecl that he will thus .produce a richer
and better harmony than unvaried regularity could afford. It
seems to be a prevailing opinion among the people of tV cstcrn and
of Southern Asia, that poems - especially long ones - should be
rnried in versification, in order to produce the highest degree of
pleasure. Scott, Byron, and Moore have written many of their
cantos thus, and successfully. But t.his liecnsc schlom succcc<ls
well in sho1t poems, unless they are lyrics of the highest order.
7. Poets being very much restrained in their art, by the requirements of meter and rhyme, have allowed them, as a compenRa-

407
tion, some unusual liberties in the use of language, which are called
· poetic licenses. (Sec pp. 402-,1 05.) But the more natural a poem
is, or the less it has of poetic licenses, the better it will generally
. appear.
Poetry may be faulty in the measure, in the rhyme, in the
imagerr, in the modes of expression, and in the quality of the
thoughts. But the worst and most common fault is, that of making
it out of gaudy language merely, or out of remembered poetic
scraps and phrases. In such lifeless counterfeit poetry, we can
see larks, violets, roses, juicy peaches, gol(lcn apples, an<l twinkling .stars, all flourishing promiscuously together; but a true poem
is rather a daguerreotype from nature, as conceived with a warm
heart, a sprightly intellect, and a glowing imagination.
8. " The poet is born, not made," " The poet alone sees nature," "Neither gods nor men can endure inferior poets," were
favorite sayings among the ancients. From his very infancy the
· beauties and melodies of earth impress themselves divinely on the
soul of the true poet. . To him, the heavens and the earth seem
full of spirituality and beauty ·; and, as he gazes upon them, his
mind runs into delicious reveries, or revels in heavenly musings,
perhaps long ere he lays his hand upon the enehnnting lyre. His
daily thoughts " run to melody" and dreams, and all his knowle<lge
is laid up poetically; so .that, when a proper subject is afterwards
grasped by his mind, his thoughts come forth with the genuine
poetic aroma, or crystallize around his theme in imperishable luster.
It is the proper vocatiOn of poetry to present higher, more divine
and spiritual ideals of life; · but it is very seldom that a poem
comes forth with so much of divinity, that mankind are unwillin
[Note. -It Is proper that I should thank the many teachers who have
offered me suggestions, and enco1iragcci me in my undertaking. I am under
special obligations, however, to Miss E~nL.Y A. RICE, of 'Vestborough, Mass.,
who offered me elementary notes and exercises that she liad long been using sue·
cessfully; some of which I adopted In preference to my own, simply bccnuso
they h11d been nlre11dy tested In the school-room. She also subjected, to repeated
trial In her school, the advanced sheets of those parts of the book nhont which I
, felt most doubt; and thus she enabled me to give the whole work a higher degree
of practical adaptation.]

...~~~~~----------------........... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .llllii..........iiiiiiiil.---~--.liii~~

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A GENERAL L!ST OF AUTllOUS.
British.
Born. Died.

Chanr.cr, 1328-1400, A.D.
Jtalolgh, 166:.!-1618.
Spenser, J 553--l 5V8.
Lord llacon, 1561-1626.
Shakt,spcarc, 1564--1616.
Ben Jonson, }{;74-1637.
llolJIJce, H188-1677.
lllllton, 1608-1674.
8. Uutlcr, 1612-1680.
'l'aylor, 1613--1667.
Cowley, 1618-1667.
llunyan, 1628-1688.
J>ryden, 1631-1700.
Locke, 16;.JZ-17114.
Ncwto11, 1114:.!-1727.
]Jcfoc, 1003-1731.
8wlft, lOIH-174.5.
Steele, 16il-1729.
Addison, 1672-li19.
·watts, 1674-1748.
Young, 1684-1765,
Pope, 1688-1744. .
L. Moutagu, 1690-1762.
Thomson, 1700-1748.
Johnson, 1709-1784.
Hume, 1711-1776.
Sterne, 1713--1768.
Bhenstone, 1714-1763.
(;l ray, 1716-1771.
H . lllair, 1718-1800.
(Jollins, 1720-1756.
8mollett., 1721-1771.
Uoldsmlt.h, 1728-1774.
Burke, 1730-1797.
Cowper, 1731-1800.
Beattie, 1735--1803.
GilJIJon, 1737-1794.
Jones, 1746-1794.
Aikin, 1747-1822.
Curran, 1750-1817.
(JrnlJIJe, 1754-1832.
.Alison, li57-1839.
Burns, 17511-li116.
ltogers, 1762-1865.
Jt. Hall, 1764-1831.
Mackintosh, 1766-1832.
l>i8raell, 1766-1848 .
8 . Smith, 1i69-l845.
'Vordsworth, 1770-1850.
\V. Scott, 1771-1832.
Coh!rldgc, 1772-1834.
Jclt'rey, 177:1-1850.
Southey, 177 4-1843.
Lamb, 1775--1834.
'l'. CampbPll, 1777-1844.
Brougham, 17i8cl868.
'l'. Moore, 17711-18&2.
Leigh Hunt, 1784-1859.
J . Wilson, 178[>-18&4.
])e 4,ulncey, liSf>-1859.
'Vhately, 1787-1863.
Byron, 1788-1824.
Shelley, 1792-1822.
408

Ilemnns, 1795-1835.
Carlyle, 17%-. . ••
J{eals, J 796-1820.
Jlood, 17!!8-1845.
l'ollok, 17\J!J-1827.
l\lacaulay, 1800-18&9.
llulwer, 1804-....
E. Brownlnl{, 180!1-1861.
Tenny•<)!>, 180\J-..•.
l>lcken s , 1812-....
Thackeray, 1815-1863.

Persian.
Zoroaster, 18th cen., n.c.
llaliz, 14th cen ., n.c.
Greek.
Homer, 8th century, n.c.
..tl_~sop,

Uth

H

"

8opho clcs, 4%-406[
"
ll e l'o<lotu•, 4H4-4:1
l<:ul'lpltlcA, 481-408,
"
'l'hucyd ides, 4il-401, "
Xenopho
n
,
450-357,
"
Ainerlcan.
Pinto, 42V-347,
"
Franklin, 1706-1790.
Demosthenes, 385-322, "
Ari s totle, 384-32:.!,
"
Adams, 1i31i-1826.
Plutarch, 60-120
A.D.
J cffcrson, 1743-1826.
111 n<ll•o11, l7f>l- IR:ll\,
J,n,t.ln.
'Vcu111H, ••. .-18:.l!i.
Cicero, 106-43, n .c .
Dwight, 1752-1817.
Cresar, 100-44, "
Hamilton, 1757-1804.
Virgil, 70-19,
"
Adams, 1769-1848.
Horace, 69-ll,
"
W'irt, 1772-1835.
Livy, 59-17,
"
Paulding, 1779-JSGO.
Ovid, 43, B.C.-18, A.D.
Channing, 1780-1842.
Juvenal,
42-122
Audulion, 1780-1851.
Tacitus, 54-100 + . "
Calh oun, 1782-1850.
]). W ebster, 1782-18&2.
Arabian.
Irving, 1783-185\J.
Mohammed, 570-632, A.D.
Cooper, 1789-1851.
Sigourn e y, 1791-1865.
Hallan.
S . G. Goodrich, 171J3-18GO. Dante, 1265-1321, A .D.
E. Everett, 1i\J4-1865.
l'ctrarch, 1304-1:)74.
Sparks, 17\14-1866.
·
Boccaccio, 1:.113-1375.
Bryant, 171J4-....
Machiavelli, 1469-1527.
Percival, 1795-1856.
Ariosto, 1474-1533.
Ilall e ck, 17!J5-18G7.
Tasso, 1544-1595.
Prescott, 1796-1859.
Emcr8on, 1797-...•
Spanish.
Choate, 1799-1859.
Cervantes, 1547-1616.
G. Bancroft, 1800- ...•
French.
Hawthorne, 1807-1864.
Willis, 1807-1867 .
Froissart, 1337-1401.
Longfellow, 1807-. • . •
Mont.aigne, 1533-1592.
S. 8. l'rcntlss, 1808-1850. ()ornelllc, 1606-1684 •
Whittler, 1808-...•
Voltaire, 1694-1778.
Holmes, 1809-.•• ,
ltousseau, 1712-1778.
Poe, 1811-18~\J.
De BtaCI, 1766-1817.
H. W. llcecher, 1813-. • ,. Lamartine, 1790-.• ••
Motley, 1814-..••
'fhiers. 1797-...•
8axe, 1816-... ,
Victor Hugo, 1802- ••••
Lowell, 1819-.•••
s,vcdt..h.
Head, 1822-...•
Bok.,r, 1824-...•
Swedenborg, 1688-1772.
B. Taylor, 1825--.•• ,
Ger1nan.
Luther, 1483-1546.
Heb1·e,v.
Kant, 1724-1804.
l\foses, 1571-1451, B.c.
LeHsing, 1729-1781.
David, 1085--1015, "
\Vlelnnd,
17:33--1813.
8o lomon, 103:3-\!76, n.c.
Herder, 1744-1803.
Isaiah, 8th century, n.c.
Goethe, 1749-18:32.
81.. l'aul, 2, n .c.-68, A.D.
Sehllkr, 1759-1805.
Josephus, 37-\15 1 A.n.
Wchte r, 1763-182&.
Humboldt, 1769-1859.
Chlne<1e.
Nleliuhr, 1776-1831.
ConfucluM, 6th cen ., n.c.
Schlosser, 1776-1861,

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+,

+ "

I I

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