· L_QUTLINES OF- COMPOSITION
AND RHETORIC/
j

/

BY

JOHN FRANKLIN _£ENUNG; .
AUTHOR OF ''OUTLINES OF RHETORIC," ETC.

•

AND

.

/{(~

CHARLES LANE't·HA'
N SON - .:__ :--··,,.·'!::"· .. _. : ..
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AUTHOR OF et TWO YEARS' COURSE IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION," ETC,

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OHIO UNIVERSITY
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COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY JOH N FRANKLIN GENUNG
AND CHARLES LANE HANSON
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PREFACE

•

ctb• l!ltbonirum ~r .. 11
G INN AND COMPANY• PROPRIETORS • DOSTON •U.S.A.

In the preparation of these outlines of composition . and
rhetoric the authors' motto has been " a minimum of theory
and a maximum of the kind of practice that brings good
results." It is hoped that the pupil will find the statement
of theory helpful, and that the cumulative effect of the practice work will prove beyond question the value of systematic' training.
A glance through the table of contents indicates how
ctosely the plan is adapted to the purpose of the book. The
'review 0£ the essentials of English composition in Part I leads
up to the study of the subject as an art in Parts II and III.
Part I aims to show the pupil how to approach any subject
on which he may have occasion to speak or write, and how
to develop it. Importance is attached to giving frequent short
talks and to writing short themes, many of them single paragraphs, with a view to fixing good habits. The third chapter
- a review of certain matters of grammar which make for
correct sentence structure - should in all cases prove convenient for reference, whether, as in some schools, it be studied
with great care, or, as in others, it be covered more rapidly.
·Part II is designed to stimulate the acquisition of a style
that is ft.ill of vigor, the appreciation of figurative speech, and
the endeavor to become skillful in the construction of sentences and paragraphs.
Part III, beginning with a comprehensive treatment of
friendly, social, and business correspondence, and discussing ·
jn turn narratiqn, description, exposition, and argument, with
iii

IV

PREFACE

consid erabl e emphasis on arg ument, undertakes to show the
pupi l just how th e study of these matters will aid in his
growth as an interestin g and competent human bein g.
Every student, it is believed, will find the Glossary of g reat
ass istance, not only in the preparati on of certa in prescribed
exerci ses, hut on many occas ions when he desires definite
inform;ition about th e usefulness of words, - in formation
which he cannot obtain readily, if at all , from th e dictionari es and oth er works of reference at hi s comm and.
ThroLio-hout
the book care bas been taken to choose models
b
which furni sh th e pupil with approachable idea ls, and to sec
that th e exercises arc comprehensive, worth doin g, and based
not infrequently on the work of men of acknowl edged literary
ability. T he generous number of such tasks offers the teacher
frequ ent opportunity to allow the pupils to choose those whi ch
appeal to their imm ediate interests, while at the same time
he in sists on th e performance of many which seem indispensable to the ir proper equipm ent for the future. It is suggested that such exe rcises as call fo r th e mastery of correct
habits in detail s be interspersed frequently with those which
demand more sustain ed efforts.
Most schools have not yet g iven oral composition the attention it deserves. S hort talk s, particularly on subjects about
which the pupil kn ows a good deal, are always valuable in
themselves and useful as a step in th e preparation of wri tten
compos1t1ons. Some pupils may not find it easy at first to
give th ese talks, but seldom does a pupil fail to recognize
the desirability of such trai nin g. Some of th e energy expended by teachers in correctin g written work mi ght be used
more profitably in a discussion of oral compositions. Although
this book does not undertake to show teachers an easy road

PREFACE

v

to successful achievement, at th e same time it presents a
meth od of procedure which shou ld enabl e the teacher 's work
to t: ll, and which should a ppeal to teacher a nd pupil ali ke ;
fo r it should lead the pupi l to do good work a nd to see that
the teachet: is aidin g him in a most practical way. Perhaps
no suggestions and exercises in this manual will prove more
. h c~1~ ful than those whi ch deal with oral co mpos iti on.
. l he authors a re grateful fo r th e sea rchin g criticisms of th e
s killful teachers who have s hown interest in th e
- t.
f 1·
prepaia 10n
0 t iis book; to Mi ss G race A. Turk ington, of th e editorial
~l epar~m ent of Ginn and Company, for her valuable ass istance
111 1 10 5
.: r _
u: ways; and to Mr.-~Varren vV . R ead , of th e Flushin g
111,.,h School, New York C1ty, and l'rofesso r S. V. Sanford
of th e U niversity of Georg ia, Athens, for the care with whicl~
they have read th e proof.
. It is a pleas ure to acknowledge indebtedness to th e follow111g publ ishers and authors, in addition to those mentioned in
f~otnotes, fo r th e use of copyrig hted material: to th e H oug hton
l\ I iffl11~_Company for selections from Th omas Bailey Aldrich
J ohn hske, the H awthorn es, T homas vV. Higgin son, H olm es:
Lowell, Lew Wallace, Mr. Henry Cabot L odge, Mr. J. T.
1\1 urse, Jr., Professor G. E . \!Voodberry and th e At1 t .
u; ;, ;
'
.1an zc
1. o11t ''J1 ; to th e Century Company for an extract from
Charl es Dudley vVarner; to the Thomas Y . Crowell ComJ~~lll! fo~ a passage from Dr. 0 . S . Marden; to Charl es
Scllbne1 s Sons for selections from Mr. J ohn F ox J d
I\ Ir. l'ri ce Coll ier . to H ·1r1)c1·
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, ' I., an
.
,
'
an
rot iers or extracts from
~1r. 1 homas H ardy and Mr. Booth T a rkin g ton; to Mr. H amIm Garl and , Mr. Frank A . Mun sey, and th e publishers of
tl~c C~n:le, th e ?utlook, the 1'..ciucational R eview, and the
} outIts Compamon.

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B us 1N Ess Frnt MS.

V. T11E~1E Co 1tHECT IN G
VI. l'H OO FREADEllS ' M A l\ K S
VII. G LOsSA!t Y .

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360
366
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JNOEX

397
vii

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OUTLINES OF COl'vIPOSITION
AND RI-IETORIC
PART I. ELEME N T A RY \NORK
CHJ\PT E R I
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSITION

1. Composition and Rhetoric. Co1lljJositi o1l means simply
" puttin g together" ; it is a thing as practical as work in
carpentry. A s in carpentry we mu.t know definite ly what we
are going to make, so in writin g we must from the beginning
have a clear idea of th e fini shed product a nd al so of th e materials and th e method s of puttin g them togeth er. Rh etoric
is concern ed wilh lh e puttin g togelhcr of these materials in
a skil lful and effective mann er.
To write with rhetorical skill , th erefore, is more than to
write correctly. A sentence may be perfectly correct, perfectly conformable to usage, and yet for its parti cular place
and work be a poor sentence. In cr~~in g it we do not
ask what is right and what is wron g; we as k rather what is
better and what not so good fo r our purpose. That is th e
art of rh etori c : to find the best means a nd employ them - to
replace what is feeble or vague or heavy with what is strong
and definite and full of life.

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2

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSITION

composition, 1

Before studying the several kinds of
we shall
consider the management of any and every kind of composition ; we shall deal with processes which should be so familiar
that whenever we write or give a talk they will suggest themselves as matters of course.
2. Studying the Subject. Work in composition differs
from other kinds of school 'work in this respect : that whereas
in other studies we are learning what authors and teachers
have thought out and put in order for us, here we are working at the art of thinking for ourselves. What we have learned
or observed or imagined, we are now trying to give out as a
product of our own thought and expression. The subject is,
for the time being, our property, and so far as possible we
are writing as if we were an original authority on it.
We should choose our subjects for their interest and importance. We may talk or write on something with which
we are familiar and others are not, or we may study up matters of which we wish to know something. Perhaps at times
we shall want to tell effectively what has been misunderstood or poorly treated by others. We should never content
ourselves with trying vaguely to say something "about" a
subject - some indefinite thing just to meet a task or fill
time; our endeavor should be to say something definite and
our own.
3. Fixing a Definite Point of View. The writer needs to
determine just what he proposes to do in a given composition, and before beginning it is well to make, in writing, a
definite statement of his purpose. This will prove a valuable
aid in fixing the point of view and in securing unity of treatment. It will serve as a signpost to show the way.
1

For" Kinds of Composition," see Part III.

PRELIMINARY NOTES

3

~ A staterrient of this kind - a preliminary note, it might
be called - should enable the pupil, with the help of the
teacher, to determine whether 'the proposed undertaking is
a desirable one.
EXERCISES

• . 1. In discussing the following preliminary notes, point out

m what ways they serve their purpose and in what ways they
are not altogether satisfactory.
1. ON THE FLOOR OF THE STOCK EXCHANGE

My purpose is to give a general description of what occurs
on the Exchange floor - not a detailed account of stock transactions. I was employed as a runner in the Chicago Stock
Exchange during the past summer.
2. KEEPING A DIARY

In this composition I shall try to show that a diary may
be not only of interest but of real value to the person who
keeps it. In my diary I keep a record of my school work as
well as of home matters.
3 . JULIUS CJESAR

My purpose is to tell what I think of Julius Cresar the man
as depicted in Shakespeare's play, not as described in history'.
My impressions are based on one reading of the play and a
careful study of the notes.
4. GETTING A CAR READY

My purpose is to tell how an electric car is made ready for
the motorman and the conductor. This account will be based
on my experience, for I have done such · work for two successive summers.

4

GEN ERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSlTlON
5. TRIMMING /\. Hll.T

I wish to show how simple a matter it is to trim a hat suitable fo r everyday wear. I have trimmed my own and my
sister's school hats fo r several yea rs.
6. ](F.F.PJ N(; DEES

My fa th er has kept bees fo 1: six years. Although the limitations of the city do not permit a large apia1y, he has had as
many as fifteen swarms at o ne tim e and has four at present.
I have frequently helped him in the care of them.
7 . AN ENG I NEERIN G SCH OOL

I shall give an accoun t of a visit to the plant ?f the. General
· l·iu.setts ' to mvest1
· JJynn , M assac
Electric Company, 111
. gate
. the
.
o pportuni ty fo r a high-school grad ua te to learn engmeenng m
the school which they conduct.
2 . vVrite preliminary notes on subj ects 5 anc: 6 as if you
were btcr to prepare compositions on t?ese subj ects. .
3. Rewri te any two of the notes given above as if you
were to wri te th e compositions.
.
.
4. \ ,Y ri tc prel imi nary notes on (1) two subjects with '":'hich
you arc familiar; (z) one subj ect which you have a desire to

know bctler. 1
4. The Value of a Plan. T o make a plan you must ai:i~l~ze
the suhj ect so that th e parts and stages of yo~ir composition
may be put down in proper order and relation. Any pr:lirninary statement that you h ave prepared to help y~u m
your writing has merely announced a purpose and perhaps
.
I· · J · n an so n's "Engli sh
Th e pla n o f exchan g in g papers, ex p ,un cc I 11
, .
.
E 1· I
. 1 .. " T o y e·1rs' Course Ill ' ng is i
d
Co mp osit ion" (pp. 23 - 16) an 111 \ IS
w
' ·
Compos iti on" (pp. 26-30) , is h eartily r eco mme nded.
1

MAKING THE PLAN

5

intimated the nature and limits of the proposed work. But
doubtless you are thinking of some thin gs that do not belong
to your subj ect; perhaps som e things that arc reall y esse nti al
to your purpose have not occurred to you, or in your prel imi nary thinkin g you may not have pbcec.1 th em in rig ht relation . Th e best way to find out such rnatlers is to prepare a
plan of what you are goi ng to say; that is, to ex press each
th ough t in simple fo rm as concisely a nd ;1ccLffately as possibl e. O ne of the satisfactions that come from the ab ili ty to
make plans is that they arc so wid ely useful. Th ey arc just
as valuable to the student in preparing for a recitation in
l~ istory, or fo r a three-minute talk in th e English class or in
a debating s~ty, as th ey arc to the writer who is workin g
out a composition. A still g reater satisfaction is that a plan
helps to for m habits of mind that arc ord erly and lc~~i cal.
5. Making the Plan. The analysis of the subj ect, that is,
th e pl an, is naturally more minute as the co mpos ition increases
in range a nd length; but the fo llowin g essenti als govern it,
however large or complex th e treatment.
I. lit t!te de11elopment of tlte pla7t, 110/e carefully wlwt mr
main liues of tltougltt and wltat secondmy. Th e parts of a
plan have different values : some are principal, others subordinate; some indi cate main lin es of di scussion, oth ers se rve
to illustrate or explain. This gives r ise to di visions and subdivisions, which show at a glance th e relations of the thoughts
to one another and their relations to the whole.
The first of the two outlines below mi g ht not result in a
clearly developed composition. The second has been more
carefully thought out.

MAKING TH E PLAN

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COM1'0S l'flON

6

A Bovs'

II.

CLUB

II

l.
I. Name
11. Conslilulion and by-laws IL
J 11. ·Meetings
JV. C;imes
I LI .
V. Athletics
V l. Glee club

Name
Organization
1. Constitution and by-laws
2. Meetings
1\ ctivities
r. Games
2 . Athletics
3. Glee club

Jllir/.·r· rorrrsprmdi11g- di<1/sio11s of t!1c p!trll si111i!11r i1l
tatimt
and st11tcm m t . It is a great help to arrange the
11 0
different sets of topics in di stinct g roups, and especially to
express in a simi lar fo rm the divisions of th e same rank.
In th e fo llowin g plans note that divisions of different ranks
are indi cated by ( 1) different series of num erals and letters
(I 1 a) (?)d ifferent indentation s or margins, and (3) different
fo'n~s 0 'r ~xpression, phrases con:es ponding to phrases, nouns
2

.

to nouns, adj ectives to adjectives, and so on.
I. A

WESTER N T OWN

1. Jn summer
r . Scenery
a. The river
b. 'fhe mountains
c. The woods
2. Activity
a. The trnins
b. The boarders
r. Stores and stands
d. Traveling shows
e. H otel parties

lI. ln winter
1 . Scenery
a. The river
/I. The moun tains
c. Th e woods
2. Entertainment
a. The grocery store
(1) Characters
(2) Yarns
b. Sleigh-rides
c. Skating
d. The fir eside

7

THE. C H ARACTER OF CASSIUS

I. Envious
1 . Of Drutus
2. Of Cresar
1 l. 1Jeceitful
1. ln dealing with Brutus
2 . In dealing with the people

IlI. Crafty
r. J\s a co nspirato r
2. As a general

3. /11 the d ivisions of your pltrn, rnork for uni!J', co!terence,
rrnd c111pl1t1sis. These are the key words to composition . · In

th e first pl ace, the plan should have unity; in other words,
all th e thoughts of wh ich the plan is composed, both main
and secondary, should have a definite bearing on th e main
subject. Second, th e parts, thoug h distinct from one another,
should be co!terent, or, as we say, should hang together, the
first topic lead in g up to th e second, the second to the third,
and so on. T esting constantly the relation of each part or
stage of your thoug ht to th e whole is an aid to coherence.
Third, the plan as a whole should have emp!tas£s. Generally
this will mean that the successive topics should have climax;
that is, th ey should increase in interest and streng th.
Study th e following plan. Note how confusing it is because
of its disregard of unity, coherence, and emph as is. There is
also lack of uniformity in the phrasing of the topics.
OUR F IR E DEPARTMENT

I. When it was organized
II. Need of fire departments
Ill. P lan of organization
IV. Practical working of the
department
v. Area covered

VI. Volu nteer assistance
Methods of economy
VllL Friction with the street
department
I X. New equipment needed

vn.

8

Gl ~ :'-H:1Z 1 \L l\li\NAC~l ·: MENT OF

COi\1.l'O S LTL ON

l n lh e rurm just give n, t his plan IHJUkJ not be a g uide lo
a good co mpos iti o n . Th e first ste p in m a king it usable is to
a pply th e lest of unily, a nd by lhis lest th e second topic,
"Need of fire cl c partrn c nts," s ho uld be c ut o ut. Th e plan
\\'ln ild still be inco he re nt, howeve r. T he nalural ord e r of
lrc: 1liu g lhese lopics is :
I.
JI.
111.
I \T.
\T .
v I.
V IL
V J Ll.

\.\'h en it was org;rni zed
l'lan of o rg:mization
-Practi cal wo rki11 g of th e de partment
i\ff a cove red
Voluntee r ass islance
l\ lci lwds of eco norn y
Friction 11·ith Ili c strL-ct de partm ent
New cquiprn ent needed

Th e pla n s till prese nts two L1ulls : ( 1) a lack of proper
e mpha s is, or cl imax, and (2) a lack of uniformity in phras in g
th e topi cs .

r. It is clear th at som e to pics a re n ot o f so 111uc h i111porta nce as othe rs, yet all have bee n m ad e o f equal val ue in the
oulli nc. To be sure, th e plan is useful as it stand s; it may
se rve as th e basis of a satis rac tory co mpos iti o n . But it wi ll
be mo re he lpful to adopt so me suc h a rra ngem e nt as th e on e
g ive n be low, whic h shows that ce rtain top ics a rc naturally
secondary and tha t whe n placed in a seco ndary p osition th ey
g ive balan ce to th e whol e o utline .
2 . The first topic in th e plan above is a clause ; the oth er
topi cs are noun ph rases . Th e m odel outl ine sh ould show
th e sam e g rammatical co ns tructio n in all headings of the
sam e rank .

Compare th e fol lo win g plan with th e two preceding ones,
to see h ow much more usable it is as a working outline.

MAKlNG TUE l'LAN

9

I. Organizatio n of the department
1. When organized
2. On what plan organized
11. Practical working of the departm ent
1. In the terri to ry covered
2. In the volu ntee r assistance rendered
3. In its methods of eco nomy
llI. Problems of maintenance
1 . Its fri ction with the s treet department
2. l ts need of new equipment
EXERCISES

1. Apply the foregoin g tests to thi s pla n and rewrite it :

JVlv

NAT I VE

Tow N

11. Winter
I. In summer
T . Popula tion
1. Popula tion
a . Farmers
a. Those who li ve in town
b. At the college
b. Boarders
2. Scenery
2. Enj oy ing the scenery
fl . '!'he ocean
a. The ocean
( 1) l'loating ice
b. The fi eld s
( 2) Bl eak shores
(1) Haying
b. Th e field s
(2) Oats
( 1) Snowdrifts
c. In th e forests
( 2) Roads
(1 ) Birds
c. Mountain views
(2) ¥\latching squirrels
d. Sports
d. The mountains
(r) Skating
3 . Sports
( 2) Snows hoeing
fl . Boating
b. Attempts to catch fi sh
(3) Sleig h-riding

2. M a ke a plan of a subject with which th e class as a
whole is fa milia r.

10

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSlTlO N

3. \Vritc a compos ition based on your plan.
4. l're pare to talk one minute on some subject of which
yo u ha,·c made a plan . .If, in th e s hort tim e at yo ur disposal,
yo u cann ot cl o justice to th e wh ole s ubj ect, you ma y confin e
yo urse lf Lo o ne di visi on of it - possibly to a sin g le subdivis ion .
Try to s peak as easi ly and naturally as you woul d in addressin g someo ne in yo ur h ome, re membe rin g that you n eed to
s pea k slow ly in order to be heard distinctly at the farther
e ncl o f th e room .I
6. Developing the Composition. By means of a p lan you
have lea rn ed to Lhink out carefull y what yo u wis h to say, and
now, with the aid of this plan, yo u a rc ready to con side r the
compos iLi on as a whole, study in g in pa rti cul ar introductio n,
tran siLion s, proportion, and conclu s ion . A few suggestions
may be he lpf u I.
7. The Introduction. Ma ke the introducti on as brief a nd
as pointed as th e s ubj ect will bear. ' Say m ere ly what the
read e r n eed s to know in order to work out your problem with
you . SLucl y Lh e in trod uction with th e g ist of the whole subj ect
in mind. l( Lh e s ubj ect is already fa miliar to yo ur readers, a
fo rma l inLrodu cLi on may he di s pensed with. In any case
c mkavo r to mak e it as natura l and informal as possibl e .
J\ s k yo urself what impression the reader a lready has, a nd
from th is assumed point steer his thoug ht by confirmin g,
l \ Ve ~1 1 need e nco uragem en t, but th e st imu lu s th at co m es fro m be ing
told so 111 c o f o ur s h or l.co111 i11 gs is e quall y va luab le . Ma ny tea che rs have
foun d th at e very se nsib le stude nt welcomes b oth k ind s of c riti cism. It wi ll
g ive him pl eas ure to be told that the substa nce o f his ta lk is both clea r a nd
inte res tin g; it s ho uld also g ive him a se nse of sati s facti o n to kn ow that
so me on e o f h is hea rers wil l be sure to spea k of h is wo rs t fa ult, wh eth e r it
be a tend e ncy to say tt -e r," n a nd- e r,"" but-er ,"" whe n- e r"; to say n clror ''
for " draw" a nd H so r" f0 r "saw "; to omit th e .ft in "ing "; or to say
tt w'i s p c r " a nd t' w'i te" for n whis pe r " a nd n wh ite."

THE INTRODU CTION

I I

correct ing, or modify in g , to Lhe main impression that you
wis h to ma ke .
\\'hil e th e in trod uction s hou ld be plain and direct, look out
tha t it is not dry and li feless or a m ere commonpl ace that
wou ld occur to a nybody . Be s ure also that it really introduces; th a t is, th at it does. not conce ntrate atte ntion on its
mrn beauty or elaboraten ess, but g uides a ttention forward to
the s ubj ect unde r discussion. Do not s uggest in the introduction :i nyt hin g tha t is n ot in som e way utili zed afterwards .
In th e introduction th at fo ll ows, th e sLy le is direct a nd full
of life ;rnd aro uses interest in what is Lo com e :
J\

T AS TI;: Or< MA I N t•: B t RC ll

Th e tra ve ler and camper-o ut in Main e, unless he penetrates
its more nort hern portions, has less reason to rem ember it as
a pine-tree State than a birch-tree Slate. The white-pine forests
han : melted away like snow in the sp rin g and go ne down
stream , leaving only patches here a nd th ere in the remote and
inaccessibl e pa rts. The porti on o f th e Slate I saw - the va lley
of the Kennebec and the woods about Mox ie .Lake - had been
shorn of ils pine tim ber more than for ty yea rs before, ;1nd is
11ow cove red with a thick g-rowlh of spruce and cedar and
va rin11 s decid uous trees. Bu t the birch abound s. J ndcccl , when
the pine gnes out the birch co mes in ; the race of men succeeds
the race of giants. - B u 1~ROUG l! S
Th e introclu cLion to Irvin g's "Cliri s tmas
well worth study in g :

111

England " is

No thing in England exercises a more delig hlf ul spell over
my imagination than th e lingeri ngs of th e holid ay customs and
ru ral games of form er lim es. Th ey recall the pictures my
fa ncy used to draw in the M;iy mornin g of life. . . . 1 regret
to say that they are daily grow ing more and more . faint, be ing

iHHJ i.;: · . i .ir:x rr

LlBH ;\ k. Y

12

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSITION
gradually wo rn away by time, but still more obliterated by
modern fashion. . . . Poetry, however, clings with cherishing
fondness abo\Jt the rural game and holiday revel, from which
it has de rived so many of its themes, as the ivy winds its rich
fo liage about the Gothic arch and molde ring tower, gratefully
repaying their support by cl::isping together their tottering
remain s and, as it were, e mbalming them in verdure.

8. Transitions. A s it is often d ifficult to go from one topic
to another without abruptness, we shall next turn our attention to the mea ns of securing proper transitions. A tran sition
is a brid ge from one stage of th ought to the next. In form
it is an intermediate th ought relating both to what precedes
and to what foll ows. Be sure to make th e transition a real
thought, not a mere catchword . Study to make it easy,not labored and lumbering, but crisp and natural.
Irving, in his "Christmas in England," after devoting the
paragraph just cited to a discuss ion of old holidays in general,
makes a brid ge to th e thought of Christmas in particular by the
use of the following sentence: "Of all the old festivals, however, that of Christmas awakens the strongest and most heartfelt associations."
EXERCISES

1. Point out the value of these transitions from Macaulay's
"Oliver Goldsmith" :
1. Flis father, Charles Goldsmith, . . . settled at a place
called Pallas, in the co unty of Longford.
2. At Pallas, O liver Goldsmith was born in November, 112 8.
3 . .ln his seventeenth year Oliver went up to Trinity College,
Dublin , as a sizar.
4. While O liver was leadin g at Dubl in a life divided between
squalid distress and squalid dissipa tion, his father died, leaving
a mere pittance.

PROPORTION

13

5. While the fourth edition of the " T raveler" was on the'
counters of the booksellers, the" Vicar of Wakefi eld " appeared,.
and rapidly obtained a popu larity which has lasted down to our
own time, and which is likely to las t as long as our la nguage.
6. The success which had attended Gold smith as a novelist
emboldened him to try his fortune as a d ramatist.
2. vVrite the introduction and the paragraph transitions
for a theme 1 on " Th e Character of Cassiu s," as outl in ed on
page 7, or on "A W estern T own," as outlin ed on page 6.

9. Proportion. '. Secure emphas is through proportion. One
of th e most important qu estions to ask about any subj ect is,
What makes this subject interesting or valuable? Answer
this question, and then subordinate other parts of your compos ition to the part that treats of this. If you are writing,
for instan ce, on the career of a g reat statesman, it probably
is hi s statesmanship that gives him interest ; do not spend
much time, therefore, on hi s childhood, and none at all unless
it throws li g ht on his statesmanship. If a house that you are
describing is interesting because it is old and qua int, or because it has historical associations, give to th ese characteristics
the main prominence of treatment.
In th e foll owin g paragraph the author is writing of th e in-·
tro<luclion of witch craft into early N ew England. H e is not
I d aside by giving undue space or emphas is to witchcraft in
ot her parts of th e world, or to the way in which it thrived here.
I I is treatment places th e emphasis where th e interest cei;ters.
vVhcn 1\merica was settled, belief in witchcraft was so general in Europe that no ma n dared openly deny it ; witches
I A writte n co mpositio n is som e time s ca ll e d a them e, and both terms wi ll
be used in thi s boo k.

14

GE 1F RAL MANAGEMEN T OF COMlJOS lTIO N
were racked , burned, a nd to rtured by thousands; and the detection o( witchcraft, with its fo llow ing "kill or cure," was a
reg ula r profession. Yet it was denoun ced and o pposed in
New J1:11gland from the beginning. L ike ma ny a nother noxio us ge rm , witchcraft was broug ht over and wid ely planted in
J\ rn cri ca, where the da rk fo rests, the screaming of unk now n
beasts at nig ht, the hideo usly pain ted savages, - everything
ex tern a l favored the increase of the su perst ition. A nd it speaks
vo lu mes fo r the character of ou r fi rst settl ers that this horrible
fun gus, which fl ourished all over civilized E urope, fo un d root
.here i11 only one spot, - a so il made ready by numerous descenda nts of some fee ble-minded immig ran ts, who we re broug ht
here fo r th e pro fi t of the earl y tra nsportation companies . There
it grew weak ly fo r a brief peri od, a nd was then rooted out and
destroyed. H ere, in a nutshell, is the real meaning of the Salem
wi tc hcra ft. - L ONG, " American Literature"
EXERCISES

1. If you we re to talk to your class ma tes fo r three minutes
on "Read in g, vVriting, a nd S peak ing," wh at proporti on of
tim e wo uld yo u g ive to each of th e t hree divisions of your
subj ect, a nd why? A speaker who spe nt two of hi s three
minutes on " R eading" and half a minu te eac h on " vVritin g"
a nd "S peakin g" was as ked by one of th e p upil s to expla in
th at di vis io n o f time. Ca n you justify th e p ropo rti on?
2. Pl a n a two-minute talk on a subj ect with which you ar e
famili a r, in d icatin g th e proportion of tim e yo u wo ul d spend
on each ma in topic. Some of these s ubj ects may prove
suggesLi ve:
J\ Brook near H ome
Willow-ware China
] Iang ing P ictures
Th e Ca re of the F urnace
A Story of Fath er's

Correct P osture
L earni ng to breathe Correctly
The Pullma n Porter
O ne Good Book
Gy mnas ium Work

TH E f.ONC L US lO N

15

10. The Conclusion. I Make th e co nclu sion leave with th e
reade r t.he tota l im press ion of the com position. ln making
th <.: introduction you had t he g ist of t he subj ect in mind , a nd
1101\· in writin g th e conclus io n you have the introc.lucLion a nd
its developme nt be fore yo u. Give clue a tte nli o n, Lh e rcfo rc, to
;il l th at yo u have said before, and a im to e ncl with so methin g
that s ha ll in som e way conce ntrate its effect in on e strong
point. Consider what e ffect you wish to p roduce. H you a re
seek in g to inform your reader, yo ur co nclu sion may s ummarize ; i[ you wish to m a ke him fee l or r ea lize som ethin g, yo u
may conclud e by drawing a stri k ing picture ; if yo ur purpose
is Lo ma ke him do or d ecide some thin g, your conclus ion may
appeal to motive or cha racter.
Ir vin g , in th e last paragraph of "C hristmas in England,"
makes hi s conclusion the id ea that m ost pervad es hi s essay,
- 11;1mcly, the kindl y influ ence of th e clay on him, - but inte nsifi es it by m entionin g that h e is a stra nger and by contrastin g Lhe churlishn ess of those unm oved by s uch cheer:
Stranger and sojourn er as I am in the Janel , - though fo r
me no social hearth may blaze, no hospitable roof th row open
its doors, nor the wa rm grasp of fri e ndship welcome me at th e
th rcshold ,-yet 1 fee l the infl uence of the season beam ing in to
my soul from the happy looks of th ose aro und me. S ure ly happiness is reflective, li ke the lig ht of heave n ; a nd every coun tenance, brig ht with smiles a nd glowing with innocent enj oyment,
is a mirror transmitting to oth ers the rays of a supreme a nd
ever-shining benevolence. H e who can turn churlishly away
from contemplating the fe licity o f hi s fe llow beings, and sit
dow n darklin g and re pining in his lonelin ess when all around is
joyful , may have his moments of strong excitement and selfish
g ratification, bu t he wa nts the genia l a nd social sympathies
which constitute the charm of a merry C hristmas.

-16

EXERCISES

1. M a ke an outline for a th em e on one of the followin g
subj ects. See th at t he p lan has uni ty, cohere nce, a nd emphas is . You may consult magazi nes a nd books for material.
1. J\ Famous Man J should li ke to meet.
2. Well-kn own Men I shou ld like to meet.
3. Christmas in Spain (or any co untry other than the U ni ted
Sta tes or England).

2. vVri te th e th e m e just outlin ed .
3. Make a n outline fo r an essay o n the customs a nd m anne rs of the tim e of " Ivanhoe" or of " Henry Es mond. "
4. Write the opening and closing paragrap hs of a theme
o n a ny s ubj ect which inte rests yo u. If you like, ta ke one of
the fo llowing :
1. A letter to a classmate, recommending a book which yo u
read with pleasure du ring the sum mer vacation.
2. A letter to a classmate, telling of what you did during
the summer that seems to yo u more impor tant than reading.

·i
;

EXERCI SES

GEN ERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOSITION

5. Among the reso lutions on self-government d rawn up
a nd adopted by the senio r class of a city hig h sch ool are the
foll owin g. Be prepared to g ive a three-minute talk on th e
value of the arlopti on of some such rrsolutions by your class .
Voted:
1. Thal every 11upil Lake his seat prom ptly al Jive minu tes
a11ll Lii:tl ti w ii iJ r:11y ; 1!11H > .~ jl !H.: n.: b_. prcsr...:;.·vcJ un~il
f"Pn n1inutcs p1.st n!nc . 'l~hc 't lihr:iry .1.tn1 n.~ ph c r c " nH..:ans J.
. q uie t roon1. \Nith th f' p:ivih=·!:'.·f' n f s u r h rnnvf' r ~:-i tlnn ~<:: is ;1 lluweJ in any weil-u1Je1o::J liu1 a1y. .Any pupil who is careless
1_1[ 111uc,

auo ut his conduct durin; this period shall lie rc1nimicd by one

17

difficult ; to preserve reaso nable order in the home roo ms at
recess, whether the teachers arc present or not ; and to come to
order promptly at twenty-three minutes of one.
6. A pply th e t hree tests of a pl a n to the following outline of Macaulay's " Life of J oh nson." vVhe n you read th e
essay, you m ay find the outlin e an a id in un derstanding
fll acaul ay, and it may he lp yo u if you s hould be called on
lo give the class t he substa nce o f thi s essay or of som e oth er
piece of literature.

·I

~_sA~ I ~J;:!:_] o i~N s~.r::i 1"·

I. H is parents
1 . F ather
2 . Mother
II. His boyhood
r. P hysical ·-··
2. Intellectu al
3. Mo ral
III. H is college career
1. E ffect on him
2. Effect on others
3. Failure to get a degree
I V. His thi rty years' struggle
I. Steps L
uw;irJ winning a fortune
__ Lli!'Iirn1Lic ~ i!I ll1c 11 ~l\
3. I I is iriemJs d u1 ing llt is pe1 iud
4. l: :·rcc~ ci l the s ~ ~-~1 ;·;::;1c 0~1 ! 1~1 hnr.:ein
.:-i· Frf r' ·.- t 1
-, f t hr--- ,
V . 1-f is h .s t t-wc> n 1·v vr:i r s
I.

n :1

n: h rrs

H is oension

...... IIi s i11 fiu cn ·...:c
J - }{is i;11l Ut" i HT

~L.i

a LJ.lLc1

;;<..: ;t

\\'t~lt"!

o f hi::; rou:n rcpn:sl:n!:l!i1..·t:s.

2. T o keep the third-!lnDr cn rrirlnrs cl1 ·;i r >it nnnn , nr ;i t

least to avoid assemuling in g roups so that passage is made

7. T he fulluw illg pLu1 n1~t1· i11lnl·c;l sl1 1 dl· 11 t ,~ wh,, :m: lrvinc:
to decide on :i. vocation . It is pbced here so that a ll 1rho I '. i ~ h

18

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF COMPOS lTION

may b~gin at once some such study as is here outlin ed, and
report pronTcss from time to tim e at the co nvenie nce of t he
teacher. 1
Mv C11osEN VOCAT I ON
I. .111 t rorl11 rt i1m

CHA PT ER II

' 1.'he vocation
" Inclu sive meanin g of th e term
3. The special fi eld that appeals to me
4 . H istory of th e vocation
1•

·r

11. .Hori)'
1. Opportunities in my chosen fi eld
a . J\ t home
b. Away from home
2. R emunera tion
1~ . ln dollars a nd cents
/!. In persona l satisfaction
c. .In service to the wo rld
3. Q ua lifications n ecessary for success
a . Education, training, equipm ent
( i ) Best place fo r obtaining
(2) ,\m oun t n ecessary
(3) Cost
b. H ealth
c. T emperam ent, cha racter
( 1) Personali ty
(2) H abits of mind
(3) T emptations lo be met
111. Co11c/11.rio11
1. Po ints favorable
2 . Poin ts un favorable
3. Ge neral im pression
1 T ake n a lmost ve rb atim from page 20 4 o f "Voca ti on al and Mora l Guidan ce," by J esse Buttrick Davis, A.B ., A. lVI. , Gin n a nd Co mpany, 19 14.

THE ~AGRAPH 1/

C

_.,..--

Th e compos ition deals wit h th e wh ole subj ect, th e paragraph
with a part of th e s ubj ect. Th e essent ials of a good co mpos itio n, however, arc equally im portant in a good paragra ph , and
fo r th e sake of learning how to secure these esse ntials in
sma ller co mpass we shall study th e paragraph as a composition
in itself.
11. Unity. In this m iniature co mposition \Ne must ai m
first of all to secure unit.Ji. \ Vit h this in view let us co nsid er
Lhc va lu e of th e topic, of the top ic sentence, and of th e
paragrap h pla n.
12. The Topic of the P aragraph. \ Nhatevcr the writer's
purpose, he s houl d keep in mind t he topic of t he parag rap h.
In expa nding the plan into a short co m pos ition, each topic
fte n se rves as th e basis o f a parag raph, a nd in that case
' \' rytliin g th at goes into a paragraph s houl d contribu te to
the ckvclop ment of the top ic. In a long composition a paragmph is often based on a subtopic. See, fo r example, I and 2
uml r I in the plan of" A \Nestcrn Town," page 6.
13. The Topic Sentence. So metim es, especially in g ivin g
information or instruction, it is feasible to ex press in one sc nten e the sub tance of what is to go into the paragraph. A
writer on " Baseball ," for instance, may we ll begin hi s work
by fram in g some such sentence as "'T he playin g of baseball
hould be honest. " A writer on " Keep in g Bees" may try
19

OHTn UNI l/Er1::::1ru

.T.TBRA HY

THE lJr\KAGRAPH

20

to show that "keeping bees is an interestin g pastime and a
profitable business." In each case the writer states a fact, a
p~in_cipl e, a truth , or a fancy, a nd as he proceeds he keeps
this in mind as a propos ition to be proved.
Thi s lopi c sentence comes . sometim es at lh e beginnin g of
lh e paragraph, some times near the. midd le, sometimes at th e
e nd . In many cases, h owever (for in sta nce; if th e writer
wishes the reade r to fed or 1~ so methin g - - say the
he~1u ty of a sce ne or the pa~ or fun of an event), th ere
"·ill prolx1bly be no need of tryin g lo state de~nite l y th e
substa nce of what the parag-raph is lo inclu de. Th e main
idea is not so li kely to be expressed at so me point as it is
t~e diffused as an influ ence throug h th e whole.
EXERCISE

\.V hat is the topic sente nce of each of the three foll owing
paragraphs ?
1. DEPENJ)AnJLl'J'Y

To be depe ndable - to be s ing led o ut as one ·who does
thin gs - is a Lrcmcndous asset. 1\ ma n may be fa ithful , or
indu stri ous, or eve n capable, a11cl still not be d ependable. The
fa ilh ful man may be incomp etent; he who is capable may
possess erratic tendencies whi ch rn in imize his effo rts, and the
industrious man may be a blunde rer. Bu t the depe ndable m a n
is he who can at all times be d e pended upon to d o Lhat w hich
is se t for him to do, as it s hould be d one. - Eledrical Review,
A ugust

:?2 , 1 9 1 4.

2.

J\ Succ icss n 1r:

CAREER

Th e real material with wh ich yo u build your career is within

yo~. Your ow n self is yo ur g reatest ca pi tal. T he secret of
your futur e achievement is locked up in yo ur brai n, in your

THE TOPlC SENTENCE

21

ne rves, in yo ur muscles, in your ambition, in yo ur determination, and in yo ur id eal. Every th ing d epends upo n your physical
and m ental condition, fo r that govern s yo ur vitali ty, yo ur vigo r,
an d your abili ty to d o thin gs. The a mo unt of physical a nd
m enta l force yo u are ab le to use i11 yo ur vocation will m eas ure
yo ur ullim alc success, and whatever lessens thi s force, or Lhe
effectiveness of yo ur ach ievem en t capila l, wi ll cut down your
usefuln ess in li fe a nd you r cha nces of s uccess. - OR ISON S.
:rvlARDt<:N, "Training for Emcicncy "

The teachin g of recent h istory brings into cleare r lig h t th e
practical necessity of the most Lhorough trainin g for Lhe work
and duties of the future . lt is said that o n th e day wh en the
news of the battle of M a nil a reached Co ns ta ntinopl e, th e S ultan se nt for the America n mini ste r, Dr. A nge ll , and asked him
if it wo uld be possible fo r Turkey to secure the kind of gu ns
whi ch Co mm odore D ewey had o n his fl eet. Dr. A1'1ge ll replied
tha t he tho ught it wo ul d be quite possible to buy th e g uns;
but, he add ed, " T he re is one thin g w h ich yo ur Majesty cannot
buy; yo u cannot buy the men behind the g un s." That was
the answer of edu cated D e mocracy to uned ucated Abso lutism.
D emoc racy is stro ng on ly as it is intelligen t. ·Wh en that statem e nt is m ade, with a ll its implications, the m os t pressing a rg ument for the largest and most generous endow ment of ed ucation
in this co untry is broug ht home with a ll the force of recen t
illustration. If Amer icans a re to meet s uccessfully the competition of the world in those g reat fie lds whi ch a re now opening
up to commerce and civilization , th ey mu st ca rry into that competition th e hi g hest trainin g, th e largest knowled ge of science,
th e most thorough tech ni cal ski ll. The future belongs to th e
race w hi ch ed ucates itself most adeq uate ly to comprehend its
opportu ni ties a nd use th em for the advancement o f hu man ity.
- Tlte Outlook, A ug ust 5, r899

TllE PARAG.R APH

22

If th e writer or spea ker is urgin g hi s audience to do som ethin g, his co mpos ition m ay be th e developme nt of a topic
se ntence whi ch is a kind of command or exhortation. An
edi torial' in a school paper may be summ ed up in th e se nten ce,
" B e loya l to your school. " It is mainly by th e fac t th at its
ge neral e ff cct is reducible to a n imperati ve th at the oration is
di stin g ui shed from the essay. \Vebster's " l~ eply to H ay n e,"
fo r exa mpl e, embod ies some s uch imperative as this : "Ma intain th e integri ty of th e U nion above th e dictates of individual
states ." Curtis's oration on " Th e Publi c Duty of E ducated
:M e n " centers in th e ex hortation, " Be true to country above
party ."
EXERCISES

1. vVrite a parag ra ph in which you try to make the reade r
fal or rcali.:c (1 ) the beauty of a scen e or (2) Lh e pathos or
fun of a n eve nt.
2. \ ·Vri te fi ve top ic sente nces in th e indicati ve m ood.
Some of th e fo ll ow in g may be helpfully s uggestive ; see also
C hapte r I under Makin g the Pla n .
1. Shylock is a phil2~~£!~r.
2 . X is in clin ed to flatter.
3. Y is kind.
4. 7, is far-sighted.
5 . l cannot help thinking A is conceited.
G.

'J'he vicar is politic.

----,

.

3. D evelop on e of your sente nces mto a paragra ph.

4. \ Vrite t hree topi c sentences in the imperati ve mood.
These suggestions may be h elpful.
Look befo re you leap.
Don't tell everyo ne what you think.
\iVork while yo u wo rk.
Play as earnestly as you work.

THE PLAN O F TH E P AR AG RAPH

23

5. Develop one of your senten ces into a parag raph.
6. l ase an imperative topi c sentence on each of these
groups of hints for a n editori al parag raph in the §_c_h ool paper.
' 1. Come, boys, vacation is over. 'Tennis rackets, canoes,
bathing suits, dusty books. J3rain s, athletics, lessons, a good
start. " ·Business before pleasure."
2. Vacation is over and we are together again. Our school
li fe like a ri ver. Class spirit, glee club, orchestra, school paper,
subscribers, contributors. Our part may be little, but it must
be wo rth y of the - - School.
3. \iVclcome, fri end s, old and new, especially the freshman!
Older pupils. School work not d rudgery. Our life work should
be an honor to the school and a benefit to the world.

7. vVri te an editorial paragraph, usin g as many of the
foregoing hints as you can e ffectively.

14. The Plan of the Paragraph. In order to include in
the paragraph only those deta il s which have a bearin g on
the topic, it m ay be wi se to make a plan. The following is
a plan of Irving' s parag raph on " Rip's aversion to profitable labor " :
1.
2.
3.
4.

He
He
He
He

liked to fi sh.
enj oyed hunting.
was always ready to help his neighbors.
would not attend to hi s ow n business.

The g reat error in Rip 's composition was an insuperable
aversion to all kin ds of pro fi table labor. It could not be from
the want of assidui ty or perseveran ce, fo r he wo uld sit on a
wet rock, with a rod as long and heavy as a T artar's lance, and
fi sh all day without a murmur, even though he should not be
e n co~1raged by a single nibble. H e wo uld carry a fo wling-piece
on his shoulder fo r hours together, trudging th ro ugh woods
and swamps, up hill and clow n dale, to shoot a fe w squirrel s or

_.
I

TI-IE PARAGRAPI-I

24

THE PLAN OF THE PARAGRAPH

wild pigeo ns. I-I.e wo uld never refu se to assist a neig hbor even
in the roug hest Loil, and was a foremost man at a ll country
frolics for hu sking lndian corn or building stone fences ; the
women of th e vill age, too, used to employ him to run the ir
errand s, an d to do such little odd jobs as th eir less oblig ing
hu sbands wou ld not do for them. ln a word, R ip was ready
to attend to an ybody's bu siness but hi s own; but _as to doing
family duty and kee ping his farm in order, he found it impossible. - IRVIN G, "Rip Van 'Winkle"
EXERCISES

1. Many paragraphs are simi lar in co nstruction to th e one
lha t follows. The .cl os in g scnlcncc m;:ikes t he brgest contr ibu tion towa rd a s tatement of lh c topi c, ernphasi/. ing tlic;
"strange ness and novelty " of the house, and the whole
passage shows why every passcr-bv had to take a look at
thi s "impos in g cclificc. " ~h ow h"w rn;rny " f th e ckt:1 ils
have a bcarinc; un llic lopic.
~'[auk~ s T,;1nc, n r Pv1 wh t·rin StnTt. ;1s i! \'.Tre 1H11,1,· 111i irc
dccrn·pus trt c;ii i i r, \'::1s tl 1ro11 gt·d, at i l11_' ;1J 1J1 i11!t ·d !1ot1 1. ;1~~
1

1\l ill1

; 1 nt111111 ·11;1;i()J I

j 1I

!'

1 1

r ''

I. \

h<~ n n·fr~;-d1

1.

1

• I]

!ii

r '• )

I l

~

ull
' \ •

;~>;~~ :: i:it ·

l ] -'

ih

iL..;

i ;I t

\ "1 ,\\1

! j )( '

:u
1I 11 i

t

hi.ii \

1 I ) ·•

~ i I 1'

lJ .
1

( ·1

1

._ \ J ~ . 0 .~
11I \ I

•( '

\ \

25

story, proj ecting far over th e base, and itself re tiring beneath
th e third, threw a shadowy and th oug htfu l g loom into th e lower
rooms. Carved g lobes of wood we re nffixed un de r th e jutting
stori C's. Little s piral rods of iron bc 111tified each of t.h c seven
peak s. On the triang ular portion of the gable t.k1 t rront('c\
next th e street was a di a l, put up th at ve ry morning, and on
which the sun was still mn rking the pa ssage o f th c first brig ht
hour in a history tha t was nnt clcslinecl to lie ;d i so brig ht. /\II
:iro und we re scattered shav ings, ch ips, shi ngles, and b ro k e n
halves of bricks ; th ese, togcthn with th e lately L11r11 c:d l':t rl Ii,
P11 whi ch th e g rass had nut IJcg t111 lo g r·nw , c"11tr il1t1l('rl t11 tl1 c·
i111pressiu11 of strangcncss a11d nun:lt v prnpn ln a li11trsL· Lhat
had yet its place lo 111akc: ;1mu11~ 1m·11 's 1L1il \· 111 tn('sls. -- I I 111·Tll ORN J<, ,. Th e I lo 11 sc· <•f llw :-;<'\·r· n ( ::1lik· s "
2. \Vritc a par;1gr;1pli s u,c:;g·l'sl r·d 1>1' tli c fr<llr>111111..'. 1•L 11 1,
mak in g as lll a 11y additio11s "r ck111 .gr·s ;ic; 101 1 c l1<« N· ·
( h ;

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1; inrl . I i1<·n· 11 n'""· ;1 Ii; 1It- '·' 11 l1<l1 ;i 11·11 111 •111 till' 1111<· 11 1' t lw
sl n·c· t. hllt in prirlr. n nt mo rksl·\'. J 1·s \\'h nle visi ble cx lerin r w~s
"rn;1nwnl1'rl \Villi qll;iint figurC's . c-rinn'iv<'rl in Lile ~'.rnlc s r1uc­
rws<.: nf ;i C othie Lllwy. ;ind dra11·11 or sl:t11ql\'d in llw ~'.· Iii lnin g plaslrr. c-om poscd nf li mC'. prhhks. ;rnrl hils nf g la ss . with
which th e woodwork of lhe wa ll s was overspread. Un everv
side th e seve n gables pointed sharpl y Lo wards lhc sky. a ncl
presented the as pect of a whole sisterhood of edifi ces , hrc<1t hing through th e spiracles of one grcal chimney . The mJ11y
lattices, with th eir small , di amond-shaped Jlilll es, adm it.Led th e
sunlight in to hall a nd chamber, wh ile, 11 cvnlhclcss, the sccuml

\ \ 11 i i•

3. ~ l : 1kc :t pi:t1 1 Jilt a \1:11;1!_'.r:q >ii <•11 ;111r 1tl111· .•,1tli1 c·c t.
.J. . 1; 1: Jl lL'JXt rl d Lu tell Llw < l:1s s . i11 ll>1l 111·11·" 1lr1 11 sr\
~1·11lt'l1<'l'S , \\JI\ Sll l lH ' :11(11 (1· h I.I' < [11J.
5, \VriLL' 11hal y1i u h;.11 c· j1 1st s:rirl '" th1 · r l:1•;.; _
G. J11 a rn1·1 1L iss u1 · "r ;i 111 J .c;;_]_i.;JJH.:- j\J,,tJwsk:1 1l1 ·s1T ilws
her Ji 1st 111 L:cl111g 111!h J,1.11 _1..:k ll1•1\. \111 •> <:11111· ' ' '<:ill d11 1i11!..'.
hcr initial e 11 g<1g ·~111c1 1 L i11 ]; <du11. 'I lw [,,JJ"11 i11 1: r'\lr:t rl 11:1s
printl'd i11 :t daily [J; l[JCT :rs ;1 .si11.c:k 1•:11:1g1·;1p l1. ~l:tkl' :1 J>L 11 1
uf tli c sc lccl i"11 aml \Jc prcp;m:d [() 1;rit1c i;, r· tlir· p.1r:1.~T:1Jil1
~1 1111I 11 1 r·.

.,. ,

" J\lLhoug h 1 was forewa rned of his visit," she says, " I was
quite ove rcome with emotion when his ca rd was brought to m y
room. One loo k of his kind , dee p-set eyes, and a warm han ds hak e, soon res tored my mental equipoise and put me at my
case . The presence of Lhis tru e, grea t poet, thi s man end owed
with 1h e fin est qu ::i lities a ma n c::i. n possess, was a s piritual
feas t fo r me. ] le spok e to me of ]fos to n and its celebrities,
and <1cqu a intcd Ille . with th e nam es of Oli ver \.Y end ell J lolmes,
Thomas I :a ilcy ;\Id ri ch, James T. l.'i e!ds, Cel ia Thaxter , and
nllie rs ; chaffed me abo ut going up l\ unke r l !ill M o num e nt;
amt asked me how I compared the California weath e r with the
beautiful climate o r M a ssachu setts. H e we nt o n s pea king in
1he 1w 11111 er o r a perfect man of th e wor ld a nd simpl y cha rm ed
me. Then my so n came in an d we we re bot h invited to
!u ncl1 eo n at th e poet's home in Cambridge. L ong fell ow's g reat
charlll \\·as just that p erfect s implicity, so ra re in celebrat ed
me n. Th e r~ 1\as no t a sh<1 clc o f th e patron izing air so freq uent!y ass um ed by people o [ s uperior standin g, no t a pa rticl e
of th e pomposity I had m ore th a n o nce observed amon g much
less known wri te rs. A ce leb ri ty witho ut conce it is a rare thing
to he hnld; he did not seem to ca re mu ch fo r complim ents.
\Vhrn I att e mp ted to speak a bout his poem s, he interrupted
me, and. poin ting to a hand so me a rm chair s tanding in hi s
stud y, drew my attention to it by remarkin g jok ing ly th a t the
childre n lik ed his verses , bcc;i 11 s<> lw had received that present
fro m a school on the - he re he pau sed a nd added with a
laug h, ' centennial anniversary of my litera ry acti vity.' Then,
as if rec~rcl ting th at he had s poke n lig htly o f th e g ift, he g rew
suddv 11 ;y su i <~us , :rnd s troking L11·~ L•:wk .,r !l;e ch a ir with his

7.

nr i i-ir :-

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27

COHERENCE

TUE PARAG.R APH

26

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15. Coherence.

In an ideal compos ition eac h parag raph

lc:lds up naturall y to the n ex t, li ke a link in a c h a in.

So, too,

the se n te n ces in a w e ll-mad e p a ragraph form a cha in. The
c urrent of th o u g h t s hould be absolu te ly continuous from beg innin g to e nd - one unbroken progress . In oth er words,
tile pa r:lg rap li s h o uld h ave co!tcrn1 cc.
Th e closes t and s impl est co nn ectio n, s t ran ge ;i s it may
see m, is wh e re nu connec t ives ;ire n ccck:d. The fo ll ow ing
pa rag rap h, fo r e xamp le, is a s impl e series o f se 11 tc l1ces
illus tratin g o r r epeatin g th e top ic:
1t is a twice-to ld ta lc tha t the world is pass ing ;l\\'ay from us.
God has written it upon eve ry page or his crea tio n that th e re
is nolhin g here whi ch lasts. Ou r affec ti o ns chan ge. The friendships o[ the m a n arc no t th e fri e nd shi ps of the boy . Th e fa ce
of th e vis ible world is a lte rin g around us; we have th e g ray,
mo lcle ri11 g ruins to te ll of w ha t once was. Our laborers st rike
th e ir plows hares ag ain s t th e foundations of bui ldin gs whic h
o nce echoed to human mirth, ske letons of men lo wh0111 life
was o nce clear, urn s ancl co ins that re111ind the a111iquarian 0 [
a mag nifi ce nt e mpire. Thi .s is th e histPr \' or the \\·oriel ;111d all
Lhat is in it. It passes w hil e \I C lo<J k al
\\'e arc such stuff
as dreams are made of. - F. \\'. 1Zon 1.: RTSON

it.

Th e re are t1rn g e n e ra l r equire m e nts fo r s e c urin g colHTence

in the parag raph :
'
I. G r o11jJ the details, or arrm~1;r t/1r t/;rmr;·/1/s i 11 ,,

''<'l!r-

td!. l r-\ ' / r· rt f f.'t'f!~' 't'.

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28

THE PARAGRAPII

lt is muc h more natural to keep th e pla n o f Irvin g 's parag ra ph on " R ip's avers ion to profitable labo r," as g ive n on
page 2 3, than to cha nge it to read th us :
1.
2.
3.
4.

He
He
lle
He

CONNECT ING LINKS
I.

J\ s lchabod jogged slow ly on his way, his eye, ever open to
every symptom of cul inary abundance, ranged with delight
over the treasures of jolly autu mn . On all sides he beheld
vast s tores of apples,- some hanging in oppressive opulence
on the trees, some gathered into baskets and barrels for the
mark et, others heaped up in rich piles for the cider press.
F ar ther on he beheld great fi elds of Indian corn, with its
golden cars peeping from their leafy coverts and holding out
the promise of cakes and hasty pudding ; and the yellow
pumpkin s lying benea th them, turning up their fair round
bellies to the sun and giving ample prospects of th e most
luxurious of pies; and anon he passed the fragra nt bu ckwheat
fi eld s, breathi ng the odor of the beehi ve, and as he beheld
them, so ft anticipations stole over his mind of dainty slapjacks, well buttered, and garnished with honey or treacle, by
the delicate li ttle dimpled hand of Katrina Van Tasse l.

16. Connecting Links. W h en the relation of th e thoug hts
to e:ich othe r n eeds to be p ointed out, th ere is chan ce for
con s iderable s kill in the use of con necting li nks .

Words or ph.@§.e s like th e followi ng frequent ly make

the co nn ection :
yet
but
still
nor
too
also

liked to fi sh.
was always ready to he!µ his neighbors.
enj oyed hunting .
wo uld not attend to hi s own business.

In th e fo ll owin g paragraph from " The L egend of S leepy
I foll ow," note h ow naturall y Ichabod 's eye turns from th e
apples, which mig ht well a ttract his attention first, to the corn
and then to th e buck wh eat.

29

first
then
again
while
hence
fin ally

in fact
in that
ind l'ed
besid es
furth er
however

secomlly
therefo re
moreover
according ly
on the co nt ra ry
on the other hand

. ~ u ch conn ectives a re often introdu ced m ore g racefu lly
111s1de th e sentence than at the beginnin g. Th e inside connectives, moreover, h elp m ake the style compact. Compare,
fo r instance:
l lowever, it is better to take this course.
.It is better, however, to take this course.
b. J ncleed, their tempers were lik e their fa ces, fros ty and bitter.
Th ir tempers, indeed, were like their faces, frosty and bitter.
c. Therefore, it seemed to him be. t Lo go at once.
l t seemed to him , therefore, best to go at once.

rt.

2. Sometim es the co nn ection is bes t s h own by ma kin g
th e first part of the senten ce r elate to what preced es . This
m;iy be done by in vertin g th e n orm al o rd e r, by re peating a
word, or by makin g a summa ry.

.ht7Jersion. Before this disappoi ntm ent Sir Roger was what
you call a fine gentleman. - A no 1soN
.hzversion. For this reason - because, more than health
wealth, and beauty, li terary style may be ca lled th e man ~
good judges have found i11 it th e fina l test of culture, a nd have
said that he, and he alone, is a wcll-eclu catecl person who uses
his lang uage with power and beauty. - G. H. PALMER

30

THE l'J\RAGRAP I-I
R cfcl1tio1l . The ho no rable m em ber complained that 1 had
not s le pt o n hi s speech. .I must have sit}! 0 11 it or n ot slep t
at al l. - \\'1-:1 1 ~ TER
,)'11 m111111)'. I ha vc said th at at sea all is vacan cy ; [ s hou ld
correct the o prcssion. - IR VI N l;
,<\11111111'71)'. I
have o bse rve d that he was a simpl e, gooclnat urecl man: he was, moreover, a k incl neigh bor and an obedi e nt, henpecked husband. - lRVJNC

EXERCISES

l. In makin g a plan of th e fo ll owi n g paragraph use the topics in t·he last se nte nce but o ne . J\lso 1iame th e co nn ecting
link s and show why no con nective is n eeded in some in stances.
Within the ca r there was the us ua l inte ri o r life of the railroad, offering little to the o bse r va tion o f othe r passenge rs, but
full <Jf no vc lly for this pair o f s tra ngely e nfr.-inchised prison e rs.
I t 1y;1s no velty e nough, inde ed. !hat th ere we re (i fty hum .-i n bein g s in close re la tion with them, und e r on e lo ng and na rro w
run( , a nd d r;i1y n onwa rd by th e $ame mig hty influe nce th a t had
taken their two selves into its g rasp. l t seem ed ma rvelo us how
a ll th ese people cou ld remain so q ui e tly in th eir scats wh ile so
mu ch noisy strength was at 1York in th e ir be half. So me, with
I ickcls in their hats (lo ng tra ve le rs these. before whom lay a
hundred miles of railroad). had plunged into th e E ng lish sce ne ry and adven tures of pamphl e t novels, and were kee ping co mpany with dukes an d earl s. Othe rs, whose brie fe r span forb ade
th e ir d e1«Jting th e mselves to studie s so abstru se, beguil ed th e
little ted ium or th e way with pe nn y papers. / \ party of g irls
ancl OJO C yo un g man . on opposite sid es of th e car, found hu ge
am usement in a ga m e of ba ll. Th ey tossed it to and fro, with
peals o f la ug h ter tha t might be m eas ured by mil e-length s; for,
fa s te r than th e nimb le ball co uld fl y, th e me rry playe rs fl ed
un con scious ly alo ng, leavin g th e trail of their mirth afar behind

CON N ECTL N G LLNKS

31

a 1HI e nding th e ir ga m e und e r a not he r s ky than had wil·nesscd
it s c-0111111 c ncc mc nt. Boys, with appl es, cakes, cand y, a nd rolls
of various ly tin c tured lozenges - merchandi se th a t re mind ed
J l .- pzi bah o f he r deserted s hop - appeared at eac h mo mentary s top ping place , d oing up their business in a hurrv, or
breaking it s hort olT, les t the mark e t s ho uld rav ish th e m ;11·ay
mlh i t. New people co11tin ual ly ~ ntcrcd. Old acqu a inta nces
- fo r s uch they soo n g rew lo be, in this rapid current of
aff:1irs - co ntinu a lly d epa rted. I !e re and th e re , a mid the rum ble and th e tumu lt, sa t one a s lee p. Sleep; s port ; bu siness;
gra1·c r u r ligh ter study ; a nd th e com m on an d inev ita ble mo vemt· nt o n wa rd! lt was life itself ! - H1\WTJIOR~E, "The H ouse
of th e Seven Gabl es "

2. \\!r ite a para g raph s uggested by somethin g in th e forego111g d esc ripti o n. First m a ke a plan.

3. i\?akc a li s t of th e con n ectives in the follow in g passage
fro m h ank lin 's "AL@l?i..9graphy" :
Abo ut this tim e l m et with a n odd vo lume o f th e S/lf'r/alor.
It \V<IS th e th ird. l had neve r l)c fo rc see n <111\' nr th e m . I
boug h t it, read it over and over, and was mu ch delig hted with
ii. .l tho ug ht th e wriling exce lle nt, and 1Yi shecl , if poss ible, to
imi t.-ilc it. With this v iew 1 took so m e of th e pa pe rs ;incl,
ma king sho rt hi nts of t he sentim e n t in each se nte nce. la id th em
by a f ew days, and th en, withou t look in g a t Lhe book tried 10
co1nplctc the pape rs :iga in, by cx pressingccac h hinted s~nlim cnl
at' length , a nd as full_y as it kid been expressed before, in anv
s uil:ililc words tha t s hou ld co me to ha nd . The n .l co mpa re~!
my Sf'crlalor w ith th e orig ina l, di scovered so me o f my faults,
and co rrected th e m. llul l fou nd l wa n ted a s loc k of wo rd s
or a rc:id iness in reco llecting and us ing th e m , w hi ch l though;
l sho uld have a cquired before that tim e if J had gone on making verse s, s ince th e cont inua l occasio n for wo rd ~ of th e sa m e
impo rt bu t of diffe rent lengt h, to s ui t th e meas ure , or of different sound , for the rhy me, wo uld ha ve laid m e und er co nsta nt

-~

-

~!2'" ....::- ~..... - .....

32

TH E PARAGR APH
necessity of searchi ng for va riety, and also have tended to fix
that variety in my mind and make me master of it. Therefore
I took some of the tales and turned th em into ve rse, and
a ft er a tim e, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, turn ed
them back again. l also some times jumbled my collections of
hints in to confu sion, and after so me wC:eks endeavored to reduce them into the best order, before I began to form the full
sentences and complete the paper. This was to teach me
method in the a rrangement of thoughts. By compa ring my
work afterwards with the original, I d iscovered ma ny fau lts
and amended them ; but I sometim es had the pl easu re of
fan cying that in certain particulars of small import I had been
lucky enough to improve the method or th e lang uage, and this
encou raged me to think I mig ht possibly in lim e come to be a
tole rable English writer, of which I was extremely ambitious.

4. \Vhil e the teache r o r o n e of the class is read ing the
se nte n ces of a cohe ren t paragraph in a ch anged orcler, 1 jot
clown s uch hin ts as you can conveniently, a nd th e n arrange
th e th oug hts in the best order and write t he paragraph in
full. Compare carefull y with the orig inal.
This exerc ise may show that several a rra n gements are good
- that a paragraph is much more fl exibl e tha n a sentence.
5. Make a connected paragraph out of each of the following groups of sentences :
1.

THE C HELSEA FIRE

But within ten minutes a second alarm rang out.
On that pleasant Palm Sund ay, 1908, as I was pre paring
for Sunday school , I heard the fire bell s ring twenty-eig ht.
l fe ll in with two of my schoolfel lows, and together we
hurried along.
1 No ti ce Fra nkl in 's se ntence beginnin g" I also sometimes jumbled my
co ll ect ions of h ints in to confu sion."

COHERENCE

33

!

At once jur~ped into my clothes, a nd a t top speed started
off 111 the d1rect1on of th e black smoke, which was rising above
the buildings.
J\ t the time I paid no attention to the alarm, as this box
was not near t he place where 1 lived.
2. FROM

Dov

TO MAN

I am s till a boy when I obey my first thoug ht; the man

tal~~s tha t thoug ht and views it from many sides before action.
l he duratio n of the period depends upon circumstances
and not upon any defin ed tim e.
111 impulse I am boy like, but in refl ection a man ; and then
condemn the boylike action a nd make a new resolve
T here is a period which marks th e transition fro 1~ boy to
man , when the boy d iscards his errors and his a wkwardness
'
a11d 1puts o n _the man's ma sk a nd adopts hi s ways.
\!\1th me it lasted some months, a nd thou g h I feel in ideas
more manly than when I left the States, I a m often reminded
that I a m still a boy in ma ny things.
. l-~ow many of th~s: resolutions will be required before they
a1 e capable of restrarm ng not only the impulse but the desire_
when every action will be the outcome of delibera tion?
I have not come to that yet, but after many a struggle
l hope to succeed.
"JJays should speak, and a multitude of yea rs should teach
wisdom."

~· .\V hat conn ecti v~s should be inse rted to bring out the
mcanmg of th e followmg parag raph? (See page 2 .)
9
Practically all district maps of thi s date [the sixteenth cehturyJ mark the courses of rivers but not of roads. * few
record s, _probably, could be found , o [ ;my tour worth calling a
tour'. which was not pa rtly conducted by river. O ne advantage
of n ver travel was that_ the way was more regularly practicable than the roads, which bad weat her soon rendered barely

I'

I

EMPHAS I S

THE PARAGRAPH

34

passable. ,; , it was the pleasantest n~ od ~ of journey ing, es p~­
cially if the boat was towed, for traveling m a .s1xteenth-centmy
wago n produced something like seasickness 111 those un ac~us­
.
l to it . :r. , to get the be nefit of the cheapness
tomec
. of .n ver
Lraveling, as compared with ridin g, one had to. wait, at tun es,
fo r fellow travelers to fill the boat; ·:!>, the ch01ce of the route
was of course more limited, and on the swifter .rivers it was
not usual or wor th while to attempt an u pstream iourney .
7. \ N rite a paragraph on some topi c suggested by t he follow in g sentences. Give attenti on to uni ty and coherence.
1. N ear my home is a ledge whic11 is being blasted away ..

2. From time to time 1 have noticed in tcrestmg chsplays

111

a barber-shop window near my office.
.
3 . J\ structure which can be seen from nearl y every .pornt
in vVas hington, and 0 11 a clear clay fr om · a g reat distance, 1s the
'vVashi ngton l\'lonurn ent.
4. A cap is one of the articles that a schoolboy often misplaces at home.
.
.
5. l t was just balfpas t nine when the e ng mes came clang mg
do wn the street.
8. \Vri te a short compos1t1 on, consistin g of not more th an
three paragraphs, giving attention to unity and .coherence.
Some of th ese openin g sentences may be suggestive:
1. Th rown up

0 11

the barren rocks of a Maine island is the

.
wreck of a small fi shing schooner.
,1.ly loaded with lumber, was passmg along
2. J\ \\'agon, 11ea. \
the street.
.
. .1 m1·d st o f OL1e of th e most beautiful
3. \\'e arc n ow m t1e
seasons of the year.
.
4 . Th e ste:i m engin e is one of the best and cheapest machines fo r furni shing motor power, the cl11ef item of expense
bein g fu el.

35

17. Emphasis. A paragraph may have unity and coherence
and still Jack emp!tasis. Th at is to say, it may leave the
reader in doubt as to what the writer consid ered the most
important thoug ht in th e paragraph. Emphasis is a matter
of pos ition and proportion.
18. Emphasis by Position. A fter making a plan th at will
enable you to secure un ity and coherence, it may be n ecessary
to revise it in order to lay stress on the matters t hat are of
the most importance. In oth er worcl s, you should consid er
well th e beginnin g and th e endin g of th e pa ragra ph. O ne
way of doin g this is to write out the ope ni ng and closin g
se ntences ; thus,
Th e prospectu s of th e dictionary he [Johnson] addresscd to
the Earl of C hesterfi eld .
Cheste rfi eld described.
His public career.
His reception of Johnson's homage.
During so me time Johnson continued to call on his patron, but
after being repeatedly told by the porter that hi s lordship was not
at home, took the hin t and ceased to presen t himself at the inhospitabl e door.
EXERCISES

1. If you were to develop the foll owi ng plan, yo u would call
special attention to Antoni o's p r~es. Instead, rearrange it
in order to emphasize one of the fine st traits mention ed.

Antonio is one of the most attractive of Shakes peare 's
cha racters.
Kind friend .
Generous benefactor.
C cntlc spirit.
l.ntoleran t ene my.
Antonio is as much to be pitied for his prejudices as th e Jew
is fo r his.

<tr
-:.r

EMJ' ll AS l S

Tl IE PARAGRAPH

2. Make a pla n of t he foll owing paragraph, copying the
first and last se ntences :
CAT C I !I NG A

y111 111 g ·

i'

GRASS l·lO J' PER

rc !luw clin1l1ing 11p a sLt--:i.-:p Je sLent.

lt1

!_·.·et a ;_~uud

looko ut and sec w here yo u arc. You tak e good a im and gra h
al hin l. 'J'h c stc n1 \ .'() tJ c:-itch. l iut h l: h:1 s ju1 11pcd :1 s;1fc J"(Jd .
Vnn dcr is anothn. nc<'pill!o'. ;1111llJJ _l( SllJJl<' 1kii1 :ii<' krns . \Yi1l1
br<Jad palm you ciutch him and all the 11ci{.',h li"ri11;.; lwrli:i ~'.<'
ton. Stc:iltliih- opening· y11ur little- irn c: n . 1" ' 11 C'lT his I<'''.: tll<'
nex t l111gcr revc:il s llH>rc ul hilll: a11d . "pe1 111 1g ll1c 11 cxt. vuu
"". _j11 sl L1c·c:i1111i11c:: l11 t:tl: c him "lit 11iili lli 1· .,1hcr k1 111l. 11 li1·1i
(JlJ\

h1.__· b(Jll l l<i~

~uils

1 ' l\v1cl'

;111d li_' ;J\ ·1.· :-1 \'(q i !1 1 !\'l l •. \', " \"!1\ l r( ' Jl!<ll)H 1]1) .'._',j1 ;1 \ l!l ll

\ ' llll '...;11;lll·lt

l1 :111dit1i :->

1J! !..._'.r:h:<

;uir.!

l ·;u1l i1i 1

< 1

i; '.1p.d.mg an insect, let him hun t for a g rass hopper on a hot
< ,t)' .tmo ng ta ll g rass ; a nd when at length he sec ures one

lhe afTix 1ng him upn n the hoo k will be clo ne witho11t 'l s· I '
sc r I
· 1 · ]' ·
' · ing e
. up ,e, w1t 1 _Jue ic1a l sole mnity, and as a me re m a tte r o f pe;1al
JUSt1cc. - I It.. N RY W111w Hvvc
' "Stai.
"
· · t·ft'· J,,
· , l.' apcrs

. 3. \Vrite.~ paragr;1ph s uggested by som e t hin rr in th e fo rccl fl c;",Jenin o- a nd
t ns1ng se n te n cc.
b
a

glo111g clescr1pt10 11. Firs t make a plan with

~- J\la.ke pbn s o f t\YO p;1r;ig1;ipl 1s . Iii eac h c~1 sc writ e o ut
th e open 111 g a nd th e closrng se nte nce. .S ome or
may be o f servi ,e t 0
.
. tli e fo ll ow in g
·

1 . i\s llw

I..; ;-11HI 1r;-u·i11~~ eve rv li.~t!I\_'

o f parabol:i or cliipsc i11 th e ;1ir, ;t11d ) l' I JH>l ()ill d11 y11 11 gl'l.

yo u as open mg senten ces :

s1111

~l£'(""'f1i!V .

=

n•mccc 11u:p i11" <11-.·r i! , I ·11 - 1· l .
- :--., . -- .. le ii,:-.. I .!~ it1n.~· trp
s lu11 h fru111 l11s h111il· -·ind ·1. I ·I
I.
~It ' ( H'S

\ '

n11r

I

l llrl St ' j

~. Helnre the
sl'!l i11.c:· 11/T :1 lil:isl

:-:p{' nri n1 11

frF

~ 11 · 1111.

·l

S11111l'

11·- . 11··'

I"
, .:......(), \\

.

l

.

lt 'll .J ll .'-' t <)

111\· cl11111 1 :111d I 11:11 I :1 rli ' 1 i!".'' " 11
I " · t :i k "'I :i I'" rl
;) , '/ '! ]{'
! Ill' ,!._'.r<q111d

I !i<t

Si I ') I

f11

J\'(Ti\T

I ;1

1:1 \

;I

i.

-"

.ll ~!

I .

I 'li111 !J LU
·'

d( ' --;( '. - I

. ' ·' I w

i

1i<

.

Li p

.

<•\ \ [

•11 ,:_:/i

lJ l : i 11 1' i 11 ~ ,

!i

J

(' Jl i r lV ;11 1

I" ,. I·· '1 1 . . . .· .. ·11
· " · 'r . 111 , ( 11 r 1 l

i (I ) li ' )

t"I \ '

I\

Il ic· ( (IJl ( ' J('lc

i\n <ii h1 T\\' 1· <>I llw l1i rd,, r.;
<., i111 1111

11
!
<'!11

:i .

1>. I "11ii1 .:~ t 1It. I;\ \ :1111111 I 11·1·111
I\ 11 <' r SI 1i1ii1111. l1I 111 _.~-. ( ·( 11 1q 1;111\ · .

~' 11' 111 l i 'r
nil vo 111· ~ ho e~ . 11 1· lurnin ~~- ~ 11n 1111cr ....;(

c

c:i rn) . 1 . ·I·
.
I' . t "'} L lllllJs

jl' 11

\'llJJr i"ilrn l<1 f111d 1li:1I 1·"11 li :11c o!lh :.: 1:1ccc; . It i·; (111i 11· 11· \:11 i"l i'.
'!'lien· arc 1lm1 1c;aml.' ,,J 1lic·m lien· :11HI liw1 «. cli111lii11.1'. :111<1
\\T1gc:!111 .c: on tli:1t hl: 1r!«. k:111i1 1c'. 1ilt' lr"m 111:11·;1:iJk.111 ic; 1111.c:: :111 rl
kick i1 ig 011 lh:tt nTtic:il sp1cicr's \l'l'i>. ju111pi11g· :111d L1<>111Ki11:.;

37

:\ nd th ere is s uch a heart iness and merrim e nt in th eir sallies!
hey arc pert a nd gay, a nd do not t;ikc you r int ru sio n in the
e,is_t . dudgeo n. lf any le nder- hea rted pe rson eve r wo nd e red
.ho11 , ,1
. hu ma ne
. ma n could brin<r
,., him ·self lo s.ue·Il a crue 1ty as

To catch a grassho pper is no s lig ht feat. At the firs t step
yo u take, at least forty bolt o ut a nd tumb le headlong inLo Lhe
g rass; some cl ing to the stem s, so me are cree ping un der Lhe
leaves, and not o ne seems to be with in reach. You s tep again;
another fli g ht tak es place, and yo u eye th e m with fie rce penetra ti on, as if thereby yo u co uld catl·h so me on e of th e m with
yo ur eye. V o u ca nn ot, thoug h. \' ou bru sh th e g rass wit Ii yo ur
fool again . J\ not her hunclrecl s nap out ;incl lu mbk a bout in
eve ry direct.io n. Th e re :ire large o nes and small o nes nnd
mi ddlin g-sized ones ; th ere arc g ray a nd hard o ld fe llows,
ye llow a nd red ones, g ree n an d s trip ed (HJ es. At lengt h it is
wo nde rfu l lo sec how populous th e g rass is. lf you d id not
want th e m, th ey wo ul d jump into your ve ry hand. llut th ey
kno w by yo ur loo ks that you are o ul a-fish ing. You sec a very
ni (·c

_.,_,.,.a -- , .

1()

I

I l( '

ri f J( 's ,
l

(itil d

ii I. i·; I<> 111 <'jl< t r"

\\ ' 1 1 l-:s

( >/ tlit· I· ( ,1 ('

:JII l :lt 'lc'd I'I ' ;11 1_1· lilllJ.>;11:il

1I11, i ii

. I 1iq·r"d
.
-·
.1111
111111 ··hf'
. _·
,
I
()I i1 ·1111i _:._ _ ': .
l'l11 1 :___:1r 1 ,: ~ (1, 1l1 c lll"-i r J ~· i1 ( 1!1 i tr r· 1

;111r

I

('f )tJ!f

I

•'

THE J'ARAGRAPH

EMPH AS I S

39

9. O ne midw inter 1 cleared away th e snow unde r a n a pple
tree n ear Lile ho use a nd sca tte red som e corn the re .
10. " J ,ook inte n tly enough at <:r nyl hin g," sa id a poe t lo m e
o n t: da y, " and you will sec so m e thin g that wo ul d othe rwise

3. Th e botto m o f a lobs te r pot is composed of wooden
s lats, fo ur fee t lo ng, held togel hc r by three cros~; pi cccs , eac h
t wo fee t lo ng .

esc;tpc yuu.
11. W e thi nk we ha ve loo ked a t a thi ng sha rpl y until we
a rc asked ro r it s s p ecifi c fea tures . . . th e rorm o f th e lea r of
th e tulip tree . . . a waler-s nakt: sw imming w ilh some t hi ng in

fr o 111 011 t:.

its lll Ollth.
12 . .l was mu ch amused o ne s umm e r d ay l;y seein g a blu ebird fee din g he r young o ne i11 t he shad ed stree t o f a la rge to wn .

19. Emphasis by J?;:oportion .. It almost goes witho ut say ing
th at in th e pa rag raph, as in th e whole com pos ition, on e way
of e mphas izin g ;:i n importa nt to pi c is to g ive it a l;:i rge p roportion of th e space. In the para g raph from Franklin 's
" Autobiograph y " (p. 31 ), n ote how little space h e gives to
assurin g us th at he was deli g hted with th e Spectator, a nd
h ow much space he g ives to tellin g us just how h e t ried to
improve his ·writing .
EXERCISES

1. In " Rip's aversion to profitable labor " (p . 2 3) what
docs th e proportion of space g ive n the different top ics indi cate
as to the e m phas is Irvin g wis hed to p lace o n them ?
2. In " The Future " (p. 2 1) is the a necdote wo rth the
space it occupi es ?
3. Make two plans, similar to those call ed fo r in th e fo regoin g set of exercises, on subj ects of yo ur ow n choosin g . The
follo win g openin g sente nces may p rove helpful:
1. The d eco ratio n on a soda foun ta in is n ot a lways ha nd-

carvcd wood .
2 . Th e half hour I spe nt in th e public l.ibrary wa s most
profitable.

4 . l ha ve L;1k cn nume rou s w; ilking trips , ran g in g in leng th

d ay tu lwo wed ;s.

5. Th e firs l s le p in s to ne-cru s hi ng is Lo ge t tl1 e sto11 e fro m

th e qu a rry to tl w cru s he r.
6 . .In t he U 11it e d States Treas ury 11·c \\'C rc al lowed to wa lk
a bo ut a t w ill , bu t we co uld no t sec :111y 1rn rk d o nt: in fini s hin g
th e m o ney.
.
7 . No t unlil ve ry rece ntly have th e peo pl e beg un to r ealize th e g rea t impo rta nce of co ld s lo rage to th e m ode rn storek ee per.

8. On Saturday the fi rst thi ng I do 1s to he lp a bo ut the
ho use.
9 . f< rid ay eve nin g a club of g irls m et to m a ke arra ngem t: n ls for th e Sa tu r day o u lin g .
10. l h ad neve r bee n to a surp ri se 1x 1rt.y .

4. Make three s imilar plans, us in g, if you like, some of
th e fo ll ow ing as con cludin g sen tences :
1. [ n eve r saw him again.
2 . Wh e neve r yo u have lea rn ed to di scrim i11at e th e IJird s or
th e plants o r th e geo logical fe:ll urcs o f a co1 111 try, it is ;is if
new a n d kee ne r eyes we re ad ded .

3 . lle clas hed headlo ng across the yard a11cl 1·anis hed
th ro ug h th e gate .
4. Som eo ne was co ming strai g ht tO\Y a rd m e .
S . On a little for m like ours o ne ca nn ot affo rd to Jc t a nythin g slip.

6. " M y d au g hte rs w ill n ever fo rge t I.h e ir du ty."
7. A s freque ntly happen s, t he ma n did a ll th e 11·o rk an d
th e wo m an all th e co mplim entin g.
8 . nut th e trou t was sa ved, th o ug h my fri e nd 's bulluns
and s us penders s uffe red.

THE PARAGRAPH

5. \ Vrite pa rngr;:iph s based on two o[ th e foregoin g plan s.
K eep in mind wh3t yo u have learned a bout emphasis by
pro portion.
6. ·write th e substan ce of Chapte r I in a single para g raph .
7. The foll owin g su ggestions for improvin g a school paper,
call ed the / l rtis1m , we re ha nded to the ed itor. Takin g advan t3ge of the m, write a letter to th e editor of your school
publica tion, suggesting im proveme nts th at may well be made
in it. If you have no school paper, wri te a lette r to your
Engli sh teacher, describin g the kind of publi cation that in
your opinion might be of va lue in the school. Begin by
ma kin g a plan.
Enlist th e help of the E nglish teachers. Ask them to ha1·e
a day each month, on which every pu pil mu st brin g something
for lhe pape r; to g rade Lhi s as regular work , and to hand to
the editor all contributions tha t a re good. J mprovc the present
de partmen ts. Establis h new departm en ts. Make the ath letic
dcpa rlm cnt comprehensive, up-to-ela te, and notable fo r its pictures of players and plays. Improve the size and appeara nce
o f the paper. Name th e issues F reshm a n N umber, C hri stmas
N umber, e tc. R aise th e price and increase the number of
pages to twenty-four. H ave an a rt department. Illustrate the
sto ri es. .I l ave a differen t cover every month. Print cartoons
o f doings in the school. H ave some ed ito rials wri tte n by pupils
not 011 th e staff. 11 ave more than on e page of class notes.
Q uote some of the best things from cxclianges and avo id conve 11tio11 ;1! criticisms. Streng then the alumni column. I-I ave a
serial run four or fi ve months. l'rint several short sto 1·ics and
descriptions and brief incide nts. D evote on e page to current
events.

C HAPT E R III
THE CORRECT SENTENCE

J ust as the pa rag ra ph is a group of sentences which mak e
up one part of th e whole co mposition, so th e sente nce is a
W:~up of words whi ch con stitute one division of the paragraph.
Ltk·c· th e 1~a ragraph , th e sentence is in a sense a wh ole co mp.>s1t1on, sm cc the lhou ~ l:t e1.11bocli cd in it is grammatically
. om ~l cte. As a co111 pos1t1on 111 itself th e se ntence is treated
in this chapter; th e purpose of whi ch is to show th e stud ent
bow to .p ut words toi!:e
" th er so that tl1ey w1·11 say a thing in a
Y whi ch cannot be mi sunderstood.

----··

I. A S TO c; RJ\i\ l i\'li\ .R

20.. Guides
. . to Co~rec t

s tructure.

At this point, therefore,
cv1ew a fe w rules· tint
nrle f m- co11. -cctn
. ess a nd
<
,,,
• ca rncss, and th a t will prnve use fu l in securin g e ffccti1·cncss
in i:c nt e r~ ce str~1 ct~1 re . ln oth e r wo rd s, we s ha ll study some
, ",1I Vcl, I uc to 11 s
' mma t1 ca i pnn c1plcs whi ch will be of s pcc1
. tude nts of rh etori c.

•<c
cl shall

t

21. ~ook carefully to Foreign and Irregular Plurals.
111c.rc is a tend ency amon g those who have not studi ed
_re1g-n b 1:guages to regard all 11·ord s that do not e nd in -s
-rs as s mg ul a r. T o write " Th e ~ 1 u/o ra borcrrii s is ii ie ry
ng-c phenom ena " is to use i nco 1Tcctly th e G reek form of
the plural for the sin g ular, plzc'!_q}_l}PWn.
41

----

-

,

-

...,

'

-

--

-

THE EFFECTIV E SEN TENCE
5. Thinking - Doing.
6 . Being Idle - R esting.
7. Half a Loaf - Contentment.
8. Work- P lay.

CHAPTER VII

8 . vVrite a short theme on one of the following subjects: .
1. The Fairies in our Forests.
2. Conversa tion between a Swallow and a Snail.
3. A Message from the Moon.
4 . Castles in Spain.
5. Conversation with a Mummy.
6. Around the South Pole.
7. The King of the Pond.
8. The Robin 's Journey South.

THE S_'f.RUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

81. The Topic. ln an earli er chapler \VC cons id ered Lile
paragraph as a miniature co mpos ition, with its inlr ocluct ion,
body, an d conclusion . vV e noted first of all the importance of
the writer 's keeping in mind a defi nite topic and in sisting thal
whatever goes in to the paragniph sha ll make some contribu. tion to this topic. l t is not necessary for the detai ls \rhicl 1
9. Write a letter, giving advice to a boy who is trying to -;.;form such a group to be closely connected with on e another:
find work, or a letter of remonstrance to a freshman who_.~
they may merely touch each other as th ey are put side hy side.
does not take enough exercise.
This is frequently the case in narration and description . A ll
10. vVrite a short theme on " Ideals that a
we can demand in such in stances is that they shall deal '' ilh
our School should have."
___
-,
one
topic . They may comprise one of the three following
11 . Write a theme on " The Three Most Desirable Quali~
groups : (I) the facts that belon g to some one place or scene;
ties in a Work of Fiction ."
(2) the facts that belong to some definite time; (3) the facts
12. Write a theme on what you
that have a common bearin g or object.
healthful forms of exercise.
The fo llowing paragraph is one in which no topic is stated,
but which , by its consistent groupin g of facts that belong to
some one p lace, g ives us a definite idea of "the manse and
·~~~ §~!"""~ its surroundings."

i

i ~

c-

· \Vhen Margaret entered the manse un Gavin's arm, it was
a white-washed house of five rooms, with a garret in which the
minister could sleep if he had .guests, as during the Fast \Yeck.
It stood with its ga rden within high w;ill s, and the roof fac inp;
southward was carpeted with moss that shone in the sun in
a dozen shades of g reen an d yellow. Three firs guarded the
1 93

J

194

THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

house from west winds, but blasts from the north often tore
down the . steep fields and skirled through the manse, banging
all its doors at once. A beech, growing on the east side, leant
over the roof as if to gossip with the well in the courtyard.
The garden was to the south, and was overfull of gooseberry
and currant bushes. It contained a summer seat, where queer
things were soon to happen. ·-J. M. BARRIE
In this description of Thackeray's the events of a given

time constitute a brief description of Waterloo.
All our friends took their share and fought like men in the •
.great field. All day long, whilst the women were praying ten
miles away, the lines of the dauntless English infantry were
receiving and repelling 'the furious charges of the French horsemen. Guns which were heard at Brussels were plowing up
their ra~ks, and comrades falling, and the resolute survivors
closing in. Toward evening the attack of the French, re- ·
peated and resisted so bravely, slackened in its fury. They had
other foes besides the British to engage, or were preparing for
a final onset. It came at last; the columns of the Imperial
Guard marched up the hill of Saint Jean, at length and at once
to sweep the English from the height which they had maintained all day, and in spite of all ; unscared by the thunder of
the artillery, which hurled death from the English line - the
dark, rolling column pressed on and up the hill. It seemed
almost to crest the eminence, when it began to wave and falter. Then it stopped, still facing the sho~ . Then at last the
English troops rushed from the post from which no enemy
had been able to dislo~ge them, and the guard turned and fled.
In the following paragraph an enthusiastic walker outlines
a proposed trip with a definite object in view :
We plan, Mr. Denison and I, to leave the Wilmington Narrow
Gauge at Reedsboro, Vermont, on or about August 6th at
11 A.M. To do this, we leave Springfield at 7. 15 A.M. Thence

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

195

we follow the Green Mountains straight to Canada. Let me
spell the magic names ! Somerset and Somerset Mountain,
Stratton, Peru (under the shadow of Killington), Plymouth,
Pittsfield, Granville, Starksboro, Mt. Mansfield, Avery's Gore,
Memphremagog. The pace will be moderate (twenty to twentyfive miles a day, never more and sometimes less), the people
hospitality itself, and the expense infinitesimal. There will be
no stupendous hotels with doubtful welcome, but quiet evening talks, in the golden sunset, uf gruwing crops and teething
infants, of the coming harvest and herb remedies, - sounds of
rural felicity and bucolic joy. We shall pass through scenes
historic in their significance, - the rude ramparts of our forefathers that withstood the inroads of the painted savage. In
the heat of the day there will be spacious maples in whose
shade we shall recline, and in the cool of evening a gurgling
brook to sing us to the village.
82. The Topic Sentence. It has already been pointed out
that the definite idea upon which the paragraph is built is
often neatly expressed in one sentence, frequently called the
topic se11te11ce. vVe have seen, too, that this se ntence sometimes comes first in the paragraph, sometimes last, and sometimes elsewhere. But when the writer's chief purpose is to
awaken and hold the interest, as in narration, a topic sentence would form a hindrance. The desired effect in a paragraph must be of the first importance : hard-and-fast plans
of structure must give way when the aim in writing is to
interest and not merely to instruct or inform.
In general, however, until we attain more skill in writing
than we now have, we shall do well to keep before us, as we
write, a topic sentence for each paragraph. For the writing of
a composition that is to consist of a series of paragraphs we
shall of course have an outline, which may properly consist

196

THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

of a series of topic sentences ; and in our practice work, that
is, in the first draft of a composition, we shall do well to
begin each paragraph with a topic sentence. In the work of
revision we can deal with this sentence as seems best, perhaps cutting it out altogether, or tra nsferring it to the end,
or cleverly submerging it in the body of the paragraph. The
test of success in ma naging the topic sentence will be the
answer which any careful reader would make to the question ,
What is the subject of this paragraph? Ask yourself this
question as you revise your themes.
83. Phrasing the Topic Sentence. Not a little of the charm
of good writing is due to the form of expression given to the
topic sentence. How much more effective Dickens's opening
sentence in the following paragraph is than " The room
contained very little that was interesting to look at " would
have been.
There was not much to look at. A rickety table, with spare
bundles of papers, yellow and ragged from long carriage in
the pocket, ostentatiously displayed upon the top; a co uple uf
stools set face to face on opposite sides of this crazy piece of
furniture; a treacherous old ch;i ir by the firepbce; ... t11·0 ur
three buuks of cummon practice; a jar of in k, a pouncel box,
a stinted hearth broom, ... these, with the yellow wainscot of
the walls, the smoke-discolored ceiling, the du st and cobwebs,
were among the most prominent decorations of the office of
Mr. Sampson Brass. - DICKENS, "Old Curiosity Shop"
Observe how much more quickly the interest is aroused by
. Lowell's question topic sentence than it would be by the mere
statement, " I was once alone with the sun."
Were you ever alone with the sun? You think it a very simple question; but I never was, in the full sense of the word,

.PHRASING THE TOPIC

197

till I was held up to him one clou.clless day on the broad buckler of the ocean. I suppose one might have the same feeling
in the desert. I remember getting something like it years ago
when I climbed alone to the top of a inountain and lay face
up on the hot gray moss, striving to get a notion of how an
Arab might feel. - LOWELL, "At Sea"
Notice how far from commonplace the following topic
sentences are :
One is sorry for Cromwell in his old clays. - CARLYLE
What was I to do to pass the long-lived clay? - IRVI NG
What picturesqueness! - Scorr
I love Quaker ways and Quaker worship. - LA~IH
\!Vhat is man bu t a microcoat, or, rather, a complete suit of
clothes with all its trimmings? - Swwr
The professor has been lo see me. - HOLMES
The island is where? - ·LowF.T.T.
We charge him with havi ng- broken hi s coronation oath; and
we are told that he kept his marri:1ge \'O\\· . - !\L\c ..\t: r.AY
What is guilt? J\ stain up 0n th e soul. - llA\l'TllOl{N°L
Huw strange, indeed. - ] l.AWTJJ<>In-n:
It \\·a s the firing that did it. - J(11•J.11\G

Often the tone of a whole paragraph is determined by the
topic se ntence. ln an exact, litera l sense not all uf these
sentences arc topic senten ces, but they a re in effect, :md g i1·e
color to the paragraphs which they introduce. The topic sentence is often forcible because of what it suggests rather than
because of 11·hat it actually stales.
EXERCISES

1. \\!rite a paragraph uf at least one hundred and fifty
words, usin g one of the topic sentences g iven above.
2;· Do the two following paragraphs contain the statement
of a definite topic or a topic sentence ? R ev ise one uf them

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

DEVELOPING THE PARAGRAl' H

in such a way as to include the topic sentence which · you
think the author had in mind.

84. Developing the Paragraph. Unti l we become more
skilled in the art of composition, we need to make use of all
the aids possible. We shall find it a h elp in our practice in
paragraph-writing to follow out consistently some plan of
development. l3y "developing th e paragraph " we m ean
a mplifying or elaborating the topic or topic sentence. ·There
are no hard-and-fast methods of paragraph developm ent,
and we shou ld rid ourselves of a ny feeling we may have that
paragraphs may be compounded from cut-and-dried recipes.
There are various means, however, which we may e mploy in
our writing, and a brief study of them will be helpful.
If we examine good modern literature, we ·shall find that
the means employed, wholly or in part, in the writing of
most paragraphs outside of narration are ( r) illustration,
(2) details and particulars, (3) comparison and contrast,
(4) cause and effect, (5) definition and explanation, (6) repetition, (7) proof. The following are examples of paragraphs
developed in these different ways :

1. You have put a railroad bridge over the fall of Schaffhausen. You have tunneled the cliffs of Lucerne by T ell's
chapel ; you have destroyed the Clarens shore of the Lake of
Geneva; there is not a quiet valley in England that you have not
filled with bellowing fire ; there is no particle left of English
land which you have not trampled coal ashes into, nor any foreign city in which the spread of your presence is not marked
among its fair old streets and happy gardens by a consuming
white leprosy of new hotels and perfumers' shops. - RUSKIN,
" Sesame .and Lilies "
2. It was a cloudy day and nearing dusk. Arno ran dark and
shivering, the hills were mournful, and Florence, with its girdling
stone towers, had that silent, tomblike look which unbroken
shadow gives to a city seen from above. Santa Cruse, where her
father lay, was dark amid that darkness, and slowly vanishing up
the narrow street was thewhite load, like a cruel, deliberate Fate
carrying away her father's lifelong hor,e to bury it in an unmarked grave. Romola felt less that she was seeing this herself
than that her father was conscious of it as he lay helpless under
the imprisoning stones, where her hand could not reach his to
tell him that he was not alone. - GEORGE ELIOT, "Romola"

3. Make an outline, consisting entirely of topic sentences,
for a theme of about twelve hundred words. The following
titles may prove suggestive.
The Worst Storm I ever Knew.
The Old Homestead.
A Description of the House that I should like to live in.
How I saved my First - - Dollars.
4. Bring to class a good example of one of the three kinds
of paragraphs described in section 8 1 . • If you cannot find
such a paragraph in your reading, write it yourself.

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1. ILLUSTRATION

a. When a person is suddenly thrust into any strange, new

position of trial, he finds the place fits him as if he had been
measured for it. He has committed a g reat crime, for in stance,
and is sent to the State Prison. The traditions, prescriptions,
limitations, privileges, all the sharp conditions of his new life,
stamp themselves upon his consciousness as the signet on soft
wax ; - a single pressure is enough. Let me streng then the
image a little. Did you ever happen to see that most softspoken and velvet-handed steam engine at the Mint? The
smooth piston slides backward and forward as a lady might
slip her delicate finger in and out of a ring. The engine lays
one of its fingers calmly, but firmly, upon a bit of metal; it is
a coin now, and will remember that touch, and tell a new race

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

about it, when the date upon it is crusted over with twenty
centuries. So it is that a great, silent-moving misery puts a new
stamp on us in an hour or a moment, - as sharp an impression as if it had taken half a lifetime to engrave it. - Hourns,
" The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table "
b. Sovereigns die and sovereignties: how all dies, and is fo r
a time only ; is a "Time-phantasm, yet reckons itself real. "
The Merovingian kings, slowly wending on their bullock carts
through the streets of Paris, with their long hair flo wi ng, have
all wended slowly on, - into eternity. Charlemagne sleeps at
Salzburg, with truncheon grounded; only Fable expecting that
he will awaken. Charles the Hammer, P epin Bow-legged,
where is no w their eye of menace, their voice of command ?
R ollo and his shaggy Northmen cover not the Seine with ships;
but have sailed off on a longer voyage. The hair of the Towhead
(Tete d'etoupes) now needs no combing; Iron-cutter (Taillefer)
cannot cut a cobweb; shrill Fredegonda, shrill Brunhilda have
had out their hot liie-scold, and lie silent, their hot life-frenzy
cooled. Neither from that black T ower de Nesle descends now
darkling the doomed gallant in his sack to -the Seine waters ;
plunging into N ight: for Dame de Nesle now cares not for
this world's gallantry, heeds not this wo rld's scandal; D <1me
de Nesle is herself gone into Night. They are all gone; sunk,
- down, down , with the tumult they made ; and the rolling
and trampling of ever new generations passes over them ; and
they hear it not any more forever. - CARLYLE, " The French
Revolution "
2. PARTICULARS
The very sound of a lady's library gave me a great curiosity to see it; and as it was some time before the lady came to
me, I had an opportunity of turning over a great many of her
books, which were ranged together in a very beautiful order.
At the end of the folios (which were finely bound a nd gilt)
were great jars of china placed one above another in a very
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DEVELOPING THE PARAGRAPH

201

the octavos by a pile of smaller vessels, which rose in a de lig htfu l pyramid. The octavos were bounded by tea dishes of all
shapes, colors, a nd sizes, which were so d isposed on a wooden
frame tha t they looked like one co ntinued pillar indented with
the finest strokes of sculpture. . . . In the midst o[ the room
was a small Japan table with a qu ire of gi lt pape r upon it, and
on the paper a sil ver snuffbox made in the shape of a li ttle
book. . . . I was wonde rfully pleased with such a mixed kind
of furniture, as seemed very suitable both to the lady and to
the scholar, and did not know at first whether I should fancy
myself in a grotto or in a library. - The Spectator
3. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
The Seine is a river of light; the Thames is a river of twilight. The Seine is gay; the Thames is somber. When dusk
falls in Paris, the Seine is just a river in the evening; when
dusk falls in London, the Thames becomes a wonderfu l mystery, an enchanted stream in a land of old romance. The
Thames is, I think, vastly more beautiful ; bu t, on the other
ha nd, the Thames has no merry passenger steamers and no
storied quays. The Seine has all the advantage when we come
to the consideration of what can be done with a river's bank s
in a great city . For the Seine has a mile of old book and curiosity stalls, w here~s the Thames has nothing . - E. V. L ucAs,
"A .Wanderer in Paris " 1
4. CAUSE AND EFFECT
Sometimes the courts feel bound to declare some statute or
executive act done in pursuance of usage, contrary to the Constitution. What ha ppens? In theory the judicial determination
is conclusive and ought to check any further progress in the
path which has been pronounced unconstitutional. But whether
this result fo llows will in practice depend on the circumstances
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THE STRUCTURE OF TH E PARAGRAPH

of the moment. lf the case be not urgent, - if there is no
strong popular impulse behind Cong ress or the President, no
paramount need for the usage which had sprung up and is now
disapproved, - the decision of the courts will be acquiesced in ;
and whatever tendency toward change exists will seek some
other channel where no Constitution obstacle bars its course.
But if the needs of the time be pressing, courts a nd Constitution may have to give way. Salus rei publicae lex su.prema. BRYCE, "The American Commonwealth" 1
5. D E l'I N ITt uN AND Exr1.ANATJON

Perennials are plants which live o n year after year. Shrubs
and trees are of course perennial. So are many herbs, but in
these only a portion generally survives. Most of our perennial
herbs die down to the ground before winter; in many species
all but certain separate portions underground die at the close
of the year, but some parts of the stem containing buds are
always kept alive to renew the growth for the next season. And
a stock of nourishment to begin the new growth with is also provided. Sometimes this stock is laid up in the roots, as, for instance, in the peony, the dahlia, and the sweet potato. Here
some thick roots, filled with food made by last year's vegetation,
nourish in spring the buds on the base of the stern, enabling
them to send up stout, leafy sterns and send down new roots,
in some of which a new stock of food is laid up during summer
for the next spring, while the exha usted old ones die off; and
2
so on, from year to year.-AsA GRAY," How P lants Grow"
6. REPETITION

I have not allowed myself, sir, to look beyond the Union to
see wha t might be hidden in the d ark recess behind. I have
not coolly weighed the chances of preserving liberty when the
bonds that unite us together shall be broken asunder. I have
1
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Used by permission of The Macmillan Company.
Used by permission of the American Book Company.

DEVELOPlNG THE PARAGRAPH

203

not accustomed myself to hang over th e precipice of disu nion,
to see whether, with my short sig ht, l can fat hom the depth of
the abyss below; nor cou ld I regard him as a sa fe counselor
in the affairs of this government, whose thoughts should be
mainly bent on considering, nut how the Union may be best
prese rved, but how tolerable might be the Cl>nd ition of th· people when it should be brok en up and destroyed . - \ V1-:BsT1·:R,
" Reply to Hayn e"
7. lJ R<>Ul'

Still , we do not think that the blame of llurns's failure lies
chiefly with the world. The world, it seems to us, treated him
with more rather than with less kindness than it usu;tlly s ho11 s
to such men. Tt has ever, we fea r, shown but sma ll favor t o
its T eachers: hunge r a nd nakedness. perils and rev ilings, the
prison, the cross. the poison-chalice have, in most tim es a nd
countries, been the market price it has offered for Wisdom tht:
welcome wi th which it has greeted those who have com~ Lo
enlighten and purify it. Homer a nd Socrates, and the Christian Apostles, belong to old days; but the world 's M artyrology
was not completed with these. R oger Bacon and Galileo languish in priestly dungeons ; T asso pines in the cell of a madhouse; Camoens dies begging on the streets of Lisbon. So
neglected, so " persecuted they the Prophets," not in Judca
only, but in all places where men have been. 'vVe reckon that
every poet of Burns's order is, or should be, a prophet and
teacher to his age; that he has no right to expect great kindness from it, but rather is bound to do it great kindness · that
Burns, in particular, experienced fully the usual proporti~n of
the world's goodness ; and that the blame of his failure, as we
have said, lies not chiefly with the world. - CARLYLE, "Essay
on Bums"
The means to be employed in the d evelopment of our
pa rag raphs will vary with the subj ect, our r eade rs, and even
our moods . Take, for e xample, th e sentence, " It is better to

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be sure than sorry." With this as a topic sentence one might
develop the thought by definition and explanation, by repetition, by illustration, or by comparison and contrast, and his
choice would largely depend upon chance. W e cannot determine by rules which methods to use, but we gain facility in
writing by repeated use of the different methods described
above. Let us, then, give our best effort to the continued
practice of developing topic sentences by these various means.
EXERCISES

1. From one of these topic sentences develop paragraphs
by two different methods, and be prepared to state which
method is the more effective in this particular case.
1. Sa ve the pennies and the dollars will take care of themselves.
2. When I looked from my window early this morning, it
was dark and misty.
3. Some teamsters do not seem to realize that horses are
1
ever tired.
4. We have had three kinds of drawing this year : instrumental, free-hand, and pattern.
5. If a girl can make her own clothes, she can always appear
well dressed.
6. Last summer I went to the seashore as mother's helper
to three children.
7. Dear Mother: I want to tell you about a new acquaintance that I have just made.
8. Every precaution should be taken to keep flies out of the
house.

2 . D evelop by means of cause and effect one of the
following:
1. The wind always blows from the direction opposite to
that in which a storm is moving.

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205

2. He has neglected his opportunity to work his way through
the academy.
3. The new clerk at Wyman's has not been late in opening
the store a single morning since he came.
4. The air in the lecture hall was close and stifling.
3. Write a paragraph on one of these subj ects, using proof
as your means of amplification :
1. His word cannot be depended upon.
2. Martha Eva ns's fa ilure in her last te rm 's studies was due
to no fau lt of hers.
3. Miss - - is the best dressmaker in town .
4. Fresh air is the best tonic for ill health.

4. Use comparison and contrast in developing one of these
topics; make your paragraph about one hundred and fifty
words in length.
1. Business offers more opportun ities for mak ing money
than the professions.
2. The country boy who goes to the city is more likely to
become rich than the city boy.
3. " Success" and " failure" are relative terms.

5. Choose one of these topics and write two paragraphs,
developing the fi rst by means of definition and explanation,
and the olhcr by particulars.
1. Napoleon was the g reatest military ge nius of modern times.
2. A merica was not discovered by Columbus.
3. Vocational g uidance is a new department of the commonschool work.
4. The private school is a minor factor in the educational
regime of the Uni ted States jor of our st;1teJ.

6. Find in your class read in g a paragraph that is developed by illustration . l<.ewri te lhe passage, retainin g th e sa me
topic sentence but using a different illustr;1ti on.

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CONNECTIVES

85. Combining Methods. We should not fail to note that
a single paragraph often combines several of the foregoing
methods, - for example, definition, explanation, and illustration. In fact, illustration may always be employed to light
up the dark places of a paragraph. The author of the following paragraph has made use of contrast, illustration, explanation, and cause and effect :
The English people, too, are not a chattering race. He who
has lived in Spain, in Italy, in France, realizes that one of
the chief differences between those countries and the northern
nations is that the people in the former live in the streets, the
people of the latter Hve in their houses. Every barber's shop,
caf¢; and street comer in Madrid or in Florence, and even to
some extent in Paris, is a loafing place, a debating club, and a
political and social meeting place. Men do not think ; they talk !
London may be gloomy, New York and Chicago deserted after
sunset, but Madrid, Rome, and Paris are alive with swarming, gesticulating, chattering thousands. The climate may have
much to do with this, but for the moment I have nothing to
say to that ; the fact remains. The doers and the, governors of
the world to-day are not spending their leisure chattering in
the streets. One may laugh at their. moroseness, their dullness,
their heaviness ; ... we have taken a grim grip upon much the
most and the best of the world, and the sinewy Saxon hand
shows only slight signs of relaxing. - PRICE COLLIER, "England and the English "

work. Whatever is explanatory or illustrative naturally makes
a stage by itself, and both of these ways of amplification are
usually early stages. So also whatever proves a nd whatever
consists of conseque nce or application form stages of their
own, and ordinarily the late stages of the paragraph.
86. The Importance of Connectives. Not only the parts of
a paragraph, but the different paragraphs of a composition, are
linked together in one sequence. Hence the fi rst thought in
constructing any paragraph after the opening one is to make
a link of connection with what goes before . This connecting
link comes at the very beginnin g, as an introduction to the
topic sentence (where there is one), and takes the form of a
summary or, more frequently, of a connecting word or phrase.
These beginnings of four paragraphs from Macaulay show
how they grow out of what has preceded.
Though 'Bacon did not arm his philosophy with the weapons
of logic, he adorned her profusely with all the richest decorations of rhetoric. (Amplified by particulars.)
These, however, were freaks in which his ingenuity now and
then wantoned, with scarcely any other object than to astonish
and amuse. But it occasionally happened that, when he was
engaged in grave and profound investigations, his wit obtained
the mastery over all his other faculties, and led him into absurdities into which no dull man could possibly have fallen.
(Amplified by instances.)
The truth is that his mind was wonderfully quick in perceiving analogies of all sorts. But, like several eminent men whom
we could name, both living and dead, he sometimes appeared
strangely deficient in the power of distinguishing rational from
fanciful analogies. (Amplified by showing the consequences of
such lack of discrimination.)
Yet we cannot wish that Bacon's wit had been less luxuriant.
(Amplified by showing the usefulness of Bacon's wit.)

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In undertaking to employ several different methods of amplification in the same paragraph, we must exercise great care
in the arrangement of our material ; otherwise we shall always
be in danger of violating the rules of coherence.
Be careful not to confuse definition and proof, illustration
and conseque nce, but judge what each thing you say is doing
for your topic, and group together the parts that do similar

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THE STRUCTURE OF TH E PARAGRAPH

Just as connecting links between paragraphs are a necessity in any composition, similar links between the sentences
in a paragraph are, as we have already learned, often n ecessary to perfect coherence. This does not mean, however,
that we are to strew our paragraphs with "but's," "and's,"
and "however's." Turn to the paragraph fro m Barrie, on
the Manse and its surroundings (p. 193), and observe how
closely connected the sentences of that paragraph are ; and
yet the writer has not used a single conjunction or conjunctive adverb. In the following there is no lack of coherence,
but the conjunctives are missing :
His [Carlyle's] g uiding genius is his moral sense, his perception of the sole importance of truth and justice. . . . It is not
so much that Carlyle cares for this or that dogma as that he
likes genuineness (the source of all strength) in his companions.
... Combined wi th this warfare on respectability, and indeed
pointing all his satire, is the severity of his moral sentiment. . ..
In proportion to the peals of laughter amid which he strips the
plumes of a pretender and shows the lean hypocrisy to every
advantage of ridicule, does he worship whatever enthusiasm,
fortitude, love, or other sign of a good nature is in a man. EMERSON

We have in literature few specimens of magnificence. Plato
is the purple ancient, and Bacon and Milton the moderns of
the richest strain . Burke sometimes reaches to that exuberant
fullness, though deficient in depth. - EMERSON

On a wise choice of connectives both within and at the
beginning of a paragraph will depend much of the ease and
naturalness of the whole composition, - what is sometimes
referred to as a smooth, flowing style. L et one of the final
tests which you apply to each paragraph of your written work
be the effectiveness of your connecting links.

EXERCISES

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EXERCISES
1. Bring to class several paragraphs from " Silas :tvfarncr, "
"The Oregon Trail," or " The H ouse of the Seven Gables"
in which the author's connecting links are particularly good .
2. Name the connecting words or phrases in the follow ing:

1. None the less it turned out Lhat this contemptible gove rnor did Franklin a good turn in sending him to London, though
the benefit came in a fas hion not anticipated by either. For
Franklin, not yet much wiser than the generality of mankind ,
had to go through his period of youthful fo lly, and it was good
for tune for him that the worst portion of this period fell within
the eighteen months which he passed in England . Had this
part of his career been run in Philadelphia, its unsavory aroma
might have kept him long in ill odor among his fe llow townsmen, then little tolerant of profligacy. Hut the "erra ta" of a
journeyman printer in London were qui te beyond the ken of
provincial gossips. H e easily gained employment in his trade,
at wages which left him a little surplus beyond his maintenance. This surplus, during most of the time, he and his comrades squandered in t he pleasures of the town. Yet in one
matter his good sense showed itself, for he kept clear of
drink; indeed, his real nature asse rted itself even at this time,
to such a degree that we find him waging a te mperance crusade in his printing house, and actually weaning some of his
fe llow compositors from their clearly · loved "beer. " One of
these, David Hall, afterward became his abk partner in the
printing business in P hiladelphia. - } OHN T. MORSE , J R.,
"Benjamin Franklin "
2. And now, the infant settlement having advanced in age
and stature, it was thought high time it shou ld receive an
honest Christian name, and it was accordingly called 1Vew
Amsterdam. It is true, there were some advocates for the
original Indian name, and many of the best writers of the

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE PARAGRAPH

EXERClSES

province did long continue to call it by the title of " Manhattoes," but this was discountenanced by the authorities, as
being heathenish and savage. Besides, it was considered an
excellent and praiseworthy measure to name it after a great
city .of the world. - IRVING, "A History of New York"

the creation and distribution of wealth, and of th e stable equilibrium of the forces of society, it is precisely this nation. And
yet this is what these wonderful people tell their sons : " At
the cost of from one to two thousand pounds of our hard-earned
money, we devote twelve of the most precious years of your
lives to school. There you shall toil, or be supposed to toil ;
but there you shall not learn one single thing of all those you
will most want to know, directly you leave school and enter
upon the practical business of life. You will in all probability
go into business, but you shall not know where, or how, any
article of commerce is produced, or the difference between an
export or an import, or the meaning of the word 'capital.'
You will very likely settle in a colony, but you shall not know
whether Tasmania is part of New South Wales, or vice versa."
- HuxLEY, "A Liberal Education"

87. Balance in the Paragraph. Just as in sentence structure, phrases and clauses that are paired together in thought
should be balanced, so, on a broader scale, balance should
obtain in the pa ragraph. Do not change the subject of remark ~eedlessly from sentence to sentence. Do not change
needlessly from active to passive voice. Make the type of
structure alike in groups of sentences that form a series of
parallel thoughts. For the most part, make matters of equal
importance nearly alike in form, so that the reader will associate them together.
The following paragraph is worthy of study as an illustration
of the effectiveness of balance :

·.
Now let us pause to consider this wonderful state of affairs;
for the time will come when Englishmen will quote it as the
stock example of the stolid stupidity of their ancestors in the
nineteenth century. The most thoroughly commercial people,
the greatest voluntary wanderers and colonists the world has
ever seen, are precisely the middle classes of this country. If
there be a people which has been busy making history on the
great scale for the last three hundred years, and the most
profoundly interesting history, history which, if it happened
to be that of Greece or Rome, we should study with avidity,
- it is the English. If there be a people which, "during the
same period, has developed a remarkable literature, it is our
own. If there be a nation whose prosperity depends absolutely
and wholly upon their mastery over the forces of Nature, upon
their intelligent apprehension of, and obedience to, the laws of

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88. Testing the Paragraph for Unity, Coherence, and
Emphasis. From our earlier study of the requis ites of a
paragraph we have learned that we shall fall short in our
writing if any of our paragraphs fail .to conform to the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis. In our zeal to
develop our paragrap hs interestingly according to the different methods, we must not neglect the fundamentals. Before
we lay aside any of our written work as satisfactory, we should
apply these tests to each paragraph :
r. Has the paragraph a single main thought that can be
expressed in one sentence ?
2. a. Does each sentence contribute a part to the main
thought (often as expressed in a topic sentence)?
b. Does each sentence lead up naturally to the next?
3. a .. Where is the emphasis placed?.
b. Is this where it should be?

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EXERCISES

1. Write a paragraph on one of the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Look before you leap.
Make hay while the sun shines.
Better late than never.
When the horse has been stolen, the fool shuts the stable.
A bad weed grows fast.
Variety is the spice of life.

2. Write a short theme suggested by one of these topics:
1. When I am Fifty Years Old.
2. The Boyhood of my Grandfather.
3. The Grasshopper.
3. vVrite a theme on one of the following subjects:
1. The Violin (or some other musical instrument).
a. Its origin.
b. Its history.
c. Its cultural value.
2. The Oral Reading of Prose.
Get all the suggestions you can from books and persons, and
. cite passages which demand variety of expression, turning it
may be from calm to storm, from a sigh to a shout, from laughter to tears, from scorn to pathetic appeal.
3. A Famous Victory.
Answer the question raised in Southey's satirical " Battle
of Blenheim."
4. A Good Book.

PART III.

KINDS OF COMPOSITION
CHAPTER VIII
LETTER WRITING

89. Importance of Letter Writing. Even the humblest persons have some occasion to write letters, and everyone who
leads a useful, active life will find letter writing an almost
daily occurrence. There are many reasons .why great care
should be taken with the form and wording of every Jetter,
however unimportant it may seem. Some of these reasons
are the following :
r. A slip in speech or a breach in manners may be quickly
corrected when we are face to face with a person. But wh en
we meet a person on paper and make a grammatical blunder,
or err against convention, the error must stand ; it may be
apologized for, but it cannot be blotted out.
Perhaps the only acquaintance that we have with a prominent business man is a slight one on paper. If the one letter
or the two letters we have written him contain fau lts, he may
always associate carelessness or ignorance with our name.
And if we should have occasion later to seek a favor from
him, he might be influenced by the remembrance of the
faulty correspondence.
2 . Each letter costs us from two to five cents, and while
this is a small item of expense, it may amount to several
dollars in a year's time. vVe should not put even a little
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LETTER WRITING

IMPORTANCE

money into anything slipshod or inadequate. W e cannot
afford a two-cent postage stamp to send a message which
may be misunderstood and cost us many postage stamps
and possibly dollars to correct later.
3. Waste of time is one of the evils of modern life . vVe
squander our own time and that of others. W e may consider
it our own affair if we throw away several hours of every day,
but we have no ri ght to waste even a moment of another 's
day. If, for a sufficient reason, we must claim the attention
of a busy person by a letter requesting information or a favor
of any kind, we should do so in the way that will cost him
the least bother and time. '
For example 1 if you wish to get from some person the
address of a house which publishes good sheet music for the
violin, remember that there are hundreds of publish ers of
music, but that not every publisher deals in violin music. It
is therefore necessary to specify in your letter what kind of
music you want, and unless you are writing to a person on
whom you have a legitimate claim, your request should take
the form requiring the least troublesome answer. Compare
the following, taking into consideration definiteness, courtesy,
and regard for the person addressed.
a. Will you be kind enough to let me know the name and
address of a good music publisher?
b. Can you tell me the best publisher of sheet violin music
suitable for a pupil who is a beginner?
c. I wish to learn the name and address of a good publisher
of sheet violin music suitable fo r a beginner. Do you happen
to have this information at hand ? Please do not spend any
time looking up the matter, but if you do not know of such a
publisher, perhaps you can suggest some person who will be
able to give me the information.

Both a and b mig ht considerably inconvenience the person
addressed, for both requests seem to im ply that the recipicnl
is supposed to look up the matte r if he does not already know
about it. While c is the longest, it in volves the least expend iture of time by th e recipient. Such a letter, if a stamped,
addressed reply envelope is incl osed, would be in correct taste
to send even to a comparative stranger.
In writing to strangers we should always assume that th ei r
time is valuable, and word our comm un ications with that in
mind. The following letter of Benjamin Franklin, Minister
to France at the time of the A merican Revolution, to a hig h
official of Great Britain, is a model of composition and tact.
It is the letter of one busy man to another man of many
and important affairs.

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To SIR GREY COOPER, BARONET, SECRETARY TO THE
TREASURY OF GREAT BRITA I N

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Passy, [France], November 7, 1780.
Sir:
I understand that Mr. Laurens, an American gentleman, for
whom I have a great esteem, is a prisoner in the Tower, an<l
that his health suffers by the closeness and rigor of his con finement. As I do not think that your affairs receive any advantage from the harshness of this proceeding, I take the freedom
of req uesting your kind interposition, to obtain for him such a
degree of air and liberty on his parole or othenvise, as may be
necessary for his health and comfort. The fortune of war,
which is daily changing, may possibly put it in my power lo do
the like good office for some friend of yours, which I shall
perform with much pleasure, not only for the sake of human ity,
but in respect to the ashes of our former friendship.
With great regard, I have the honor to be, etc.
B. Franklin.
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LETTER WRITING

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

90. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. Even the familiar
letter containing bits of personal gossip should be composed
with reference to the three cardinal principles of all good
writing. It is especially important to secure coherence and
proper emphasis. Business letters are not so likely to show
a lack of emphasis as the familiar letter. We ramble about
in a familiar letter, touching upon many points, but if one
point is of more importance than another, we must not leave
it to the reader to guess what this is. And even in correspondence with our intimate frie nds it is well not to speak in one
letter of too great a variety of things, but to write interestingly

The letter (somewhat abbreviated) which follows is full of
personal matter, but the whole has coherence and emphasis,
and each paragraph is unified and coherent.

216

and clearly of a few.
In the following letter of Lord Chesterfield to his young
son, who was away at school, observe how carefully he keeps
from wandering. The letter is a coherent unit.
Saturday, [ 17 41(?)].
Dear Boy:
It is good breeding alone that can prepossess people in your
favor at first sight ; more time being necessary to discover
greater talents. This good breeding, you know, does not consist in low bows and formal ceremony; but in an easy, civil,
and respectful behavior. You will therefore take care to answer
with complaisance, and not with a grave, sour look, as if you
did it all unwillingly. I do not mean a silly, insipid smile, that
fools have when they would be civil; but an air of sensible
good humor. I hardly know anything so difficult to attain, or
so necessary to possess, as perfect good breeding, which is
equally inconsistent with a stiff formality, an impertinent forwardness, and an awkward bashfulness. A little ceremony is
often necessary ; a certain degree of firmness is absolutely so;
and an outward modesty is extremely becoming: · the knowledge
of the world, and your own observations, must, and alone can,
tell you the proper quantities of each. Adieu.

217

FROM " TOM BROWN AT OXFORD "

Saint Ambrose, Oxford,
February, 184-.
My dear Georgie:
According to promise, I write to tell you how I get on up
here, and what sort of a place Oxford is. Of course, I don't
know much about it yet, having only been up some two weeks;
but you shall have my first impressions.
Well, first and foremost, it 's an awfully idle place; at any
rate for us freshmen. Fancy now. I am in twelve lectures a
week of an hour each - Greek Testam ent, first book of Herodotus, second JEneid, and first book of Euclid! There's a treat!
Two hours a day ; all over by twelve, or one at latest ; and no
extra work at all, in the shape of copies of verses, themes, or
other exercises .. . .
We keep very gentlemanly hours. Chapel every morning at
eight, and evening at seven. You must attend once a day, and
twice on Sundays - at least, that's the mle of our college and be in gates by twelve o'clock at night. Besides which, if
you 're a decently steady fellow, you ought to dine in hall
perhaps four days a week. Hall is at five o'clock. And now
you have the sum total. All the rest of your time you may
just do what you like with ....
. . . My rooms are pleasant enough, at the top of the
kitchen staircase, and separated from all mankind by a great
iron-clamped, outer door, my oak, which I sport when I go out
or want to be quiet; sittil1g-room eighteen by twelve, bedroom
twelve by eight, and a little cupboard for the scout.
Ah, Georgie, the scout is an institution ! Fancy me waited
upon and valeted by a stout party in black , of quiet, gentlemanly manners, like the benevolent father in a comedy. He

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takes the deepest interest in all my possessions and proceed.
ings, and is evidently used to good society, to judge by the
amou nt of crockery and glass, wines, liquors, and g rocery,
which he thinks indispensable for my due establishment. He
has also been good enough to recommend me to many tradesmen who are ready to supply these articles in any quantities;
each of whom has been here already a dozen times, cap in
hand, and vowing that it is quite immaterial when I pay which is very kind of them ; but, with the highest respect for
my friend Perkins (my scout) and his obliging friends, I shall
make some inquiries before "letting in" with any of them.
He waits on me in hall, where we go in full fig of cap and
gown at five, and get very good dinners, and cheap enough.
It is rather a fine old room with a good , arched, black-oak
ceiling and high paneling, hung round with pictures of old
swells, bishops and lords chiefly, who have endowed the college
in some way . ...
I spent a day or two in the first week, before I got shaken
down into my place here, in going round and seeing the other
<:olleges and finding out what great men had been at each
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(one got a taste for that sort of work from th~ Doctor, and I
nothing else to do). Well, I never was more mterested; fa_ncy
ferreting out Wycliffe, the Black Prince, Sir Walter Raleigh,
Pym, Hampden, Laud, Ireton, Butler, and Addison in one
afternoon. I walked about two inches taller in my trencher
cap after it. Perhaps I may be going to make dear friends
with some fe llow who will change the history of England.
Why shouldn't I? There must have been fres_h men one: who
were chums of Wycliffe of Queen's, or Raleigh of One!. I
mooned up and down the High-street, staring at all the young
faces in caps, and wondering which of them would turn out
great generals, or statesmen, or poets ....
Ever yo urs affectionately,
T . B.

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91. The Element of Interest in Friendly Letters. Al l the
ski ll in the use of words and sentences of wh ic h we are
capable should g o into the letters to our fr ie nd s . 'vVe should
attempt to s how as much of our "good s id e " o n paper as we
do when face to face with our fri ends. O ur human in tL"rest
should be r efl ected in every frie ndly letter th at comes from
our pen. In earlier chapters we ha ve learned how to make
our language forceful, picturesque, suggestive, as the occasion
de ma nds . A ll of this art is n eeded in letter writing. \Ne a re
not worthy of our friends if we do less tha n our best for th em.
'vVh en a friend opens the letter we have written him, he should
feel that he is to get a g limpse into our real li fe . The art of
writing good, h omely letters is m ore d iffic ult than that of
composing form al essays, but it is a more useful human art
which we should all strive to master.

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The following extract from a letter of Mrs. Hawthorne is
full of real life. She wrote about what interested her most at
that time. If we never wander away from th e things in which
we are sincerely interested, we need n ever be flat or dull.

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M RS. HAWTHORNE TO HER MOTHER

December 2 7, 1843.
•. .. We had a most enchanting time during Mary the cook's
holiday sojourn in Boston. We remai ned in our bo\ver undisturbed by mortal creature. Mr. H awthorne took the new
phasis of housekeeper, and, with that marvelous power of
adaptation to circum stances that he possesses, made everything
go easily and well. He rose betimes in the mornings, and kindled fires in the kitchen and breakfast room , and by the time
I came down, the teakettle boiled, and potatoes were baked
and rice cooked, and my lord sat with a book, superint ending.

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LETTER v\IRITING

Just imagine that superb head peeping at the rice or examining the potatoes with the air and port of a monarch I And that
angelico riso on his face, lifting him clean out of culinary scenes
into the arc of the gods. It was a magnificent comedy to
watch him, so ready and willing to do these things to save
me an effort, and at the same time so superior to it all, and
heroical in aspect, - so unconsonant to what was about him.
I have a new sense of his unive rsal power from this novel
phasis of his life. It seems as if there were no side of action
to which he is not equal - at home among the stars, and, for
my sake, patient and effective over a cooking-stove . . .. JuLIAN HAWTHORNE, "Nathaniel Hawthorne and his Wife"

92. Using an Outline. There are times when the whole
future of a business firm or an individual depends upon one
letter. A letter must be written in such a way as to conciliate
or to please ; it must be politic, tactful, businesslike. The
writer must not say too much, and yet certain things must be
stated. What to emphasize, what to pass over lightly, and
what to omit altogether are questions that demand not only
a clear, keen brain but a mastery of the art of letter writing.
Perhaps a firm is facing almost certain failure, when an insistent letter is received from its largest creditor demanding
an immediate settlement of an account long overdue. The
answer to this letter will probably determine whethei; the
firm will be forced into bankruptcy or be given another opportunity to get to its feet. Every sentence in such a letter
must be painstakingly planned, and only by means of an
outline, .either carried in the mind or written on paper, can
the most effective letter be composed.
Perhaps in no kind of composition is a plan or outline more
essential than in business correspondence. Therefore every
young person who has his face set toward a business career

FORM OF THE LETTER

221

should give much practice to the composing of letters based
on carefully prepared outlines.
93. Form of the Letter. As we already know, letters differ
from the other forms of composition in certain details of form.
We soon get to insert the heading, the salutation, and the ending of a letter without much thought. Custom has decreed,
however, that these details should conform to certain rules,
and no careful person will disregard them . Although th e
pupil is already familiar with these, they are summarized
below for convenience.

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These points should be remembered with respect to the
beginning and the ending of the formal business letter :
I. The writer's address and the elate (the heading) should
be placed near the upper right corner of the paper.
2. The writer's address may be written in one line if it is
sufficiently brief to look well on the page ; but this is usually
not possible, for the street and number must always be included if the writer lives in a city.
The elate should be written on a separate line. It is usually begun a little farther to the right than the first word of
the line above it.
3. The recipient's address is placed at the left, just above
the salutation, and occupies two or three lines, as may be
necessary.
4. In the address of the writer or the recipient these abbreviations may be used: "St.," "Ave.,"" Mr.,"" Messrs.,"
"Esq.," "Co.," and the names of states and months.
5. For the punctuation of the heading, see the footnote
on page 224.

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FRIENDLY CORRESPONDENCE

6. The wording of the salutation depends upon the person
or persons addressed.
a . A man is generally addressed as" Dear Sir," a simpler
and more satisfactory form than " My dear Sir," which,
however, is in good use. In certain formal letters "Sir"
is correct.
b. A company, a committee, or a firm is addressed as
"Gentlemen," "Sirs, " or "Dear S irs." All forms are
equally good .
c. A woman , whether married or single, is addressed either
as " Madam " or " Dear Madam," the latter being slightly less
formal. For a company, a committee, or a firm of women the
approved salutations are "Mesdam_e s," "Dear Mesdames,"
"Madams," "Dear Madams."

b. The clauses "'vVe beg to remain," "'vVe remain, " etc.
are of little value and had better be omitted. Such expressions were in good use in the time of our grandfathers (sec
Franklin's letter on page 2 I 5).
c. The concluding phrase should begin on a separate lin e.
The first word is capitalized and as a rule begins a little
more than half way across the paper. The phrase is followed by a comma.
d . The signature should be placed a littl e to th e ri ght of
th e first word of the concluding phrase. It should be written
so plainly that no one could misread it.
e. If a person other than the sender of the letter signs it, his
initials should be placed under th e name of the sender.
f. Most business houses require that the letter show who
dictated it and who wrote it. The initials of these two persons
are often placed in the lower or the upper left corner. For
example, "C. A. D. / W . H. P. means that C. A. Dexter
dictated the letter to W . H. Parle
g . When th e letter contains an inclosure of any kind ,
" r incl." etc. often is inserted in the lower left corner.

222

NOT E. "Madam " is the English form of the French Madame, and
" Mesdames" is the French plural of Madame . Business companies and
corporations of women are of comparatively recent origin, and usage has
not yet determined the most acceptable forms. The use of " Ladies "
does not appear to have the sanction of careful writers.

d. The salutation "My dear Miss Brown," " My dear Mr.
Smith," etc. is sometimes used in strictly business correspondence. In general, however, it is reserved for addressing a
formal communication to a person whom the writer knows personally, or by reputation, or through business dealings. ·
7. The usual punctuation mark of the business salutation
is the colon.
8. The closing of the business letter should always be terse
and pertinent.
a . The most acceptable forms for a purely business letter
are "Yours tnily," "Very truly yours," "Yours very truly,"
"Respectfully yours. "

223

FRI END LY LETTERS

In friendly and informal correspondence these points
about the beginning and the ending of th e letter should be
remembered.
1. The address of the writer should usually appear in th e
letter. Even in short notes to one's intimate fri end s it is
customary to give at least th e street and number.
. 2. Sometimes the address of the writer and the date appear
at the beginning of the letter just as in business corresponde nce. This style is always correct and in good taste. Wh en

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LETTER WRITlNG

these insertions come at the end of the friendly letter, the
correct position is at the left.
3. In friendly and social letters persons of good taste use
fewer abbreviations than in business letters. The words
" Street " and " A venue " are usually written out in full, as
well as the name of the month.
4. The salutation varies in form with the degree of intimacy
between the writer and the recipient. These are in good use :
"Dear Mary," "Dear Mother," "Dear Miss Wilkinson··
or " My dear Miss Jones" (the latter being somewhat more
formal), "Dear Uncle John" (not "Dear Uncle").
5. The punctuation mark of the friendly salutation may be
either the colon or the comma ; the latter is most used.
6. The ending is even more varied than the salutation.
Such forms as the following are common and correct : " Sincerely yours," "Yours sincerely," "Affectionately yours,"
"Most cordially you rs, "" With much love." When in doubt
as to the most appropriate expression, one may safely use
either of the first two forms.
7. Only the first word of the complimentary close begins
with a capital.
94. Specimens of Correct Forms. The following letters
show forms that are in good use. 1
l In the punctuation of letter forms the authors h ave been somewhat
conservative for two reasons: first, the complete punctµation which they
employ is the most comm on a nd is in good use; second, there is still cons iderable diversity of op ini on as to wh e re to omit marks of punctuation at
the end of lines. At the same time there is a growing tendency to feel, as
th e printer does, that s uch marks are unnecessary, and teachers who prefer
may use the following model :

10

May Street
Cincinnati, Ohio
April 4, 1915

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BUSINESS LETTERS

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23 Mason St.,

Boston, Mass.,
February 4, 1914.
Mr. E. A . Coolidge,
20 State St.,
Boston, Mass.
Dear Sir:
I have your letter inclosing contracts for wmng No. 23
Summer St., No. 34 Ellery St., and the Otis Block as stated.
These papers I have signed and return herewith with my
check No. 457, dated Feb. 4, 1914.
I trust that you will have a successful season and that the
interests of all concerned will be well looked after.
Yours very truly,
H.P. Evans.
II

Talbot High School,
Cleveland, Ohio,
Sept. 5, 1914.
Manager of the Basket-ball Team,
High School,
Zanesville, Ohio.
Dear Sir:
We should like very much to play your basket-ball team.
I inclose herewith a list of the engagements of our team
for the season of 1914-1915. You will notice that there are
two open dates- January 23 and F ebruary 20 . Do yo u care
to consider meeting us on either of these dates - the game to
be played in our gymnasium ?
Very truly yours,
Harold S. Smith,
Manager of Basket-ball Team.

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LETTER WRITING

BUSINESS LETTERS

III

NAVY LEAGUE OF THE UNITED STATES
SOUTHERN BUILDING

WASHINGTON, D .C.

J anuary l 1, 1913.
John]. Farnsworth, Esq.,
Stockbridge, Mass.
My dear Sir :
·
I invite 'your a ttention to the inclosed petition which will be
. presented in the United States Senate and House of Representatives and which asks for legislation of the utmost importance regarding the personnel of the navy, and for a
Council of National Defense to decid.e on a continuing and
consistent program of naval construction.
This petition will be signed by a number of representative
men from various parts of the country, as well as by the
Navy L eague directors, and if yo u are willing to acid your
name to the list already secured, it will be highly appreciated.
V ery respectfully,
Robert M. Thompson,
Chairman Executive Committee.

227

as you may wish. We should prefer that the debate be held
some afternoon between three and five, a nd tha t no one be
adm itted, generally speaking, except members of the two
schools concerned .
Very truly yours,
\Villiam J. Robinson.
Mr. Charles W. Long,
Fine Arts H igh School,
Worcester, Mass.
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Bethel, Vermont,
May 16, 1914.
The National Tuberculosis Association,
Chicago, Illinois.
Ge ntlemen:
I understand that you have prepared for free distribution
a mong school children a pamphlet on the evils of spitting. lf
yo u have any such literature, will yo u kindly send me specimen
copies?
I inclose four cents for postage.
Very truly yours,
Elmer F . Spe ncer.

VI

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Worthington St.,
Boston, Mass.,
Feb. 21, 19 14.

My dear Mr. Long:
As the senior boys of our school are much interested in debating, they want me to ask you whether there is a chance of
having a debate with the boys of yo ur school. We should like
to have you send a team of three boys to us as soon as possible to arrange the details. If your boys prefer to choose the
question, we shall be pleased to choose the side, o·r vice versa,

16 Essex St.,
Dover, N. H .,
Dec. 23, 1913.

Messrs. Glenn, Smith, and Co. ,
29 Fall St., Lowell, Mass.
D ear Sirs:
Early next year we plan to put hardwood floors in six room s
of our dwelling house as follows : parlor r 5 x 2 o, living room
1$ x 16}, dining room 12 X 14, two halls and stairway about
306 sq uare feet, and bathroom 6 X 12. We are asking several
companies fo r their estimate of the cost of lumber fo r these

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LETTER WRITING

FRIENDLY LETTERS

floors, and hope that yo u also will quote prices. For the bathroom, halls, and stairways, we might consider a cheaper grade
of wood, but for the other floors we wish the best grade of oak.
We shall employ a local carpenter who is an expert workman.
We shall hope to hear from you before the first of January.
Very truly yours,
Ray 0. Webster.

VII

R.H. ESTES

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CHICAGO

Sept. 10, 1914.
Mrs. M. A. Clinton,
Centerville, Ill.
Dear Madam:
We acknowledge with thanks the receipt of your remittance
of $2.40, which we have credited to your account. In your
mail order you asked us to forward 12 yards of ribbon, but as
there are only 10 yards in a piece, we have sent you one whole
piece and 2 yards from another. The total charge for ribbon
sent is f,2.90, for which we have received your check of $2.40,
leaving a balance of 50/ .
We trust that this explanation will be satisfactory.
Yours truly,
Incl.
R. H. Estes & Company.
CHA/LST

VIII
Hopkinton, Mass.,
June 15, 1914.
The Rev. S. E. Adams,
Webster, Mass.
My dear Mr. Adams:
Until two years ago I lived in Webster and was an attendant of the church of which you are now pastor. I am about
to look for a position in the office of one of the woolen mills

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231

us. I can be positive in my statement that we shall enjoy them,
as I have remembrance of another supply given us two years
ago, which proved a perfect "treasure hou se."
ls n't it too bad that you are all so confined? We shall be
as glad as you when the quarantine is over.
All good wishes to you for a speedy recovery from whooping
cough, and much love a nd gratitude for your thoughtfulness.
Affectionately,
Caroline.

XIII
Dear Mrs. Adams,
To-day I beard for the first tim e of the great loss in your
family. l believe that no one can lessen such grief for those
who must bear it ; but I know that with words of sympathy
from friends the grief can be better borne. Please let me say
how deeply sorry l am for you all.
·
Very sincerely,
3 Riverside Drive,
Emma Dyer.
Chicago, March third.
EXERCISES

1. Write a letter, asking one of the following favors:
1. An introduction to Mr. - -, with whom you wish to
secure employment.
2. The names of the best books on garden farm ing .
3. Advice as to which occupation would be better to take
up after graduation - bookkeeping or salesmansh ip.
4. The n ame of a good summer camp where swimming and
horseback riding a re taught.

2. Write the kind of answer to Franklin's Jetter (p. 21 5)
which Franklin's position and polite request demand.
3. A woolen manufacturer once advertised for a young
man to begin as office assistant and learn the business. In
the advertisement the manufacturer asked each applicant, in

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EXERCISES

addition to stating his qualifications, to write five hundred words
on "The Value of Good Manners in Business." Apply for
the position and write the five hundred words requested.
4. State briefly in one paragraph what were probably the
reasons for the unusual reque·st of the woolen manufacturer.
5. One of your classmates was absent from th e last recitation in history (or physics, or Latin). Write to this classmate,
g iving an outline of the points covered in the recitation, with
a brief statement of the work assigned for the next recitation.
6. The following letter was written by a mimeographing
bureau to a prospective patron. Point out its faults.

are this chairman and have been asked to answer Mr. Long's
Jetter. In your letter state that Mr. H. obinson has asked you
to write for him.
11. Write the kind of letter a lady shou ld send in answer
to the business communication of Messrs. R. H. Estes &
Company (see letter VII).
12. As a secretary of your Engli sh teacher write the following letters for him to sign :

September 5, 19 r 3.
Mr. 0. S. Emerson,
16 Hawley St.,
New York City.
Dear Sir:
Your favor of the 11th inst. at hand. Inclosed please find
our price list which covers ordinary work, but which does not
cover special work, which we quote specially upon.
Trusting that this will answer your inquiries, but should
you desire any other information regarding work, we would
be pleased to have our representative call upon you.
Respectfully,
Diet. GLSE
The Misses Elkins and Forbes.
I Incl.
7. Expl~in the slight difference in effect given by the
opening and the closing of letters I and III.
8. Answer letter II.
9. Answer letter III.
10. Mr. Robinson (see letter IV) presents the matter of a
debate to the senior class, which chooses a team of three.
This team of three chooses a chairman . Assume that you

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1. In an article by Miss Mary R. Boswell of Lhe Maxfield,
Mississippi, High School, in the E11glislt T eachers' Magazine
for January, 1914, appeared this sentence : " There are Lwo
or three books of letters selected from different authors and
periods which show what valuable documents in history and
personality letters may be." Ask Miss Boswell for the names
of the books and the publishers.
2. Send to Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, the director of the
Russell Sage Foundation, 130 East Twenty-second Street,
New York City, for a catalogue of the publications of the
Department of Education.
3. Write to the Department of Agriculture at Washington
and ask for pamphlets and information about corn clubs for
boys and tomato clubs for girls.
4. Your school wishes to purchase for its library " The
Autobiography of Sir Henry M. Stanley," which is ed ited by
Dorothy Stanley and published by the Houghton Mifflin Company. Write to the publishers for information as to price, style
of binding, etc.

13. Prepare an outline of an important letter which your
father is to write to the Board of Health of your town, stating the need of regulations about the collection and disposal
of garbage.
14. You and your mother wish to engage board at the
Spring Villa House, Sunapee, New Hampshire. Write to

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LETTER WRITING

EXERCI SES

the proprietor of the hotel, asking for rates. Be sure to be
.d efi nite as to what you require.
15. \ Vrite a reply to this letter :

18. What part of Tom Brown's lette r do you consider th e
m ost important; that is, what has h e e mphasized?
19. Write a letter to a boy or a g irl in Engla nd, g iving a n
account of you r school life in th e same chatty style that
Tom Brown used.
20. vVrite a letter to a fri end whom you wou ld like to
induce (a) to join a club which you enj oy or (b) to be present at an occasion to which you are looking forward \Yith
pleasure.
21. T he following paragraphs fo rm the body of a letlcr
writte n by Bened ict Arnold to General \ Vas hin gton. Arnold
had just betrayed his country a nd escaped to th e Britis h .
vVrite a possible reply to this letter, based upon your kn ow ledge of W ashington's character. Look closely to the opening
and closing of your letter.

234

68 Otis St. , Rome, Ga.,

March 5, 19-.
Mesdames Wheeler and Brown,
The Globe Building,
R ome, Ga.
Dear Mesdames :
In the last lot of postal cards which you addressed for us,
your clerks were very careless. We sent the cards out in
batches every few days, and out of each batch a number of
·cards have been returned to us by the post office either only
partially directed or left entirely blank.
We have destroyed these returned cards until to-day, when
we have received the inclosed forty-six back in one lot. We
have thought that your clerks should be informed of their
carelessness, and as these cards have cost us money you may
send us stamps for these fo rty-six at two cents each. We
estimate that this is about one-fifth of the loss that we have
incurred through the carelessness of your office.
We shall have to send our wo'rk elsewhere if we cannot get
better service than this.
Very truly yo urs,
J. H. Brown & Sons.
16. Write an acknowledgment of Lord Chesterfield 's letter (p. 2 16), explaining some of the difficulties that you have
h ad in livin g up to this standard.
17. In Tom Brown's letter (p. 2 I 7) you will find a number
of expressions which are not in common use to-day. Make a
list of them , an d look up the meaning of each in the best
·dictionary available.

23 5

The heart which is conscious of its own rectitude ca nnot
attempt to palliate a step which the world may censure as
wrong; I have ever acted from a principle of love to my
coun try, since the commencement of the present unhappy
contest between Great Britain and the colon ies; the same
principle of love to my country actuates my present conduct,
however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who seldom
judge right of any man's actions.
I ask no favo r for myself. I have too often ex perienced the
ingratitude of my country. to attempt it; but, from the known
humanity of your Excellency, I am induced to ask your protection for Mrs. Arnold from every insult and injury that a
mistaken vengeance of my coun try may expose her to. l t
ought to fall only on me ; she is as good and as innocent as
an angel, and is incapable of doi ng wrong. I beg she may be
permitted to return to her friends in P hiladelphia, or to come
to me as she may choose; from you r Excellency I have no
fears on her account, but she may suffer from the mistaken
fury of the country." - I RV IN G, "Life of Washington"

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EXERCISES

22. Write an imaginary letter from General Washington
to Mrs. Arnold, using th e suggestions in the following quotation from Irving's "Life of Washington."

26. Your brother, who is a recent] y graduated civil engineer, has just been sent up into British Columbia. vVrite
him the kind of letter that will give him a glimpse of the
home doings, and will show your interest in his new work.
27. Write to a friend about an imaginary or a real call
upon some person of interest to you. Study the following
account by Hawthorne, and make yours as vivid :
Y..'e went last evening, at eight o'clock, to see the Brownings;
and after some search and inquiry, we found the Casa Guidi,
which is a palace in a street not very far from our own . . .
He came into the anteroom to greet us, as did his little boy
Robert, whom they call Pennini for fondness. The latter cognomen is a diminutive of Apennino, which was bestowed upon
him at his first advent into the world because he was so very
small, there being a statue in Florence of colossal size called
Apennino. I never saw such a boy as this before ; so slender,
fragile, and spiritlike,-not as if he were actually in ill health,
but as if he had little or nothing to do with human flesh and
blood. . . . Mrs. Browning met us at the door of the drawingroom, and greeted us most kindly, - a pale, small person,
scarcely embodied at all; at any rate only substantial enough
to put forth her slender fingers to be grasped, and to speak
with a shrill, yet sweet tenuity of voice .... It is wonderful to
see how small she is, how pale her cheek, how bright and dark
her eyes. There is not such another figure in the world; and
her black ringlets cluster clown in to her neck, and mak e her
face look the whiter by their sable confusion. I could not
form any judgment about her age; it may range anywhere
within the limits of human life or elfin life.

In the meantime, Mrs. Arnold remained in her room in a
state bordering on frenzy. Arnold might well confide in the
humanity and delicacy of Washington in respect to her. He
regarded her with the sincerest commiseration, acquitting her
of all previous knowledge of her husband 's guilt. On remitting
to her, by one of his aids-de-camp, the letter of her husband,
written from on board of the Vulture, he informed her that he
had done all that depended upon himself to have him arrested,
but not having succeeded, he experienced a pleasure in assuring
her of his safety.
.
During the brief time she remained at the Robinson House,
she was treated with the utmost deference and delicacy, but
soon set off, under a passport of Washington, for her father's
house in Philadelphia.

23. a. You have planned an informal surprise party for
your father and mother on the anniversary evening of their
wedding. Write a note of invitation for this evening to
Mrs. H. A. Evans.
b. vVrite an answer of acceptance for Mrs. Evans.
c. Write an answer of regret for Mrs. Evans.
24. a. Your cousin has recently moved into your town to
live. You are giving an informal dinner for him (or her) at
your home on the evening of September 14. \i\lrite to your
classmate, John Simpson, asking him to be one of the party.
b. Write a cordial note of acceptance.
c. \i\1 rite a note of regret, expressing your interest in the newcomer and a wish to m eet him at the earliest convenient time.
25. One of your classmates or acquaintances has been ill
for some time . Write a bright, chatty letter to him (or her)
which will both cheer and entertain.

237

28. a. Study the following letter to discover its faults and
its good points. Be prepared to discuss these in class.
b. Profiting by your study of this letter, write to a friend,
describing some phase of your present life which is likely to
be of interest.

LETTER WRITING
l\Iilitary Academy, West Point, N. Y.,
September 22, 1839.
Dear Coz:
l was just thinking that you would be right glad to hear
from one of your relations who is so far away as I am. So I
have put away my algebra and French, and am going to tell
you a long story about this prettiest of places, West Point. So
fa r as it regards natural attractions it is decidedly the most
beautiful place that I have ever seen. H ere are hills and dales,
rocks and river; all pleasant to look upon. From the window
near I can see the Hudson, - that far-famed, that beautiful
river, with its bosom studded with hundreds of snowy sails.
Again, 1 look another way, I can see Fort Putt, now frowning far above, a stern monument of a sterner age, which seems
placed the re on purpose to tell us of the glorious deeds of our
fathers, and to bid us to remember their sufferings - to follow
their example.
In short, this is the best of places, - the place of all places
for an institution like this. I have not told you half its attractions. H ere is the house Washington used to live in - there
Kosciusko used to walk and think of !tis country and of
ours. Over the river we are shown the dwelling house of
Arnold . . .. You might search the wide world over and then
not find a better. Now all this sounds nice, very nice; what
a ha ppy fellow you are, but I am not one to show false colors,
or the brightest side of the picture, so I will tell yo u about
some of the drawbacks. First, I slept for two months upon
one single pair of blankets. Now this sounds romantic, and
yo u may think it very easy; but I tell you what, Coz, it is
treme ndous hard ... _
Our pay is nominally about twenty-eight dollars a month,
but we never see one cent of it. If we wish anything, from a
shoe string to a coat, we must go to the commandant of the
post and get an order for it, or we cannot have it. We have
tremendous long and hard lessons to get, in bcith French and

EXERCISES

239

algebra. I study hard and hope to get along so as to pass the
examination in Jan uary. This examin ation is a hard one, they
say; but I am not frightened yet. . . . On the whole I like the
place very much - so much that I wou ld not go away on any
account. The fact is, if a man graduates here, he is safe for
life, let him go where he will. There is mu ch to dislike, but
more to like. I mean to study hard and stay if it be possible;
if I cannot, very well , the world is wide. I have now been here
about four month!', and have not seen a single familiar face or
spoken .to a single lady. . . . If I were to come hume now with
my uniform on, the way yo u would laugh at my ap pearance
would be curious. My pants set as tight to my skin as the bark
to tree, and if I do not walk military, - that is, if I bend over
quickly or run, - they are apt to crack with a report as loud
as a pistol. My coat must always be buttoned up tight to the
chin. It is made of sheep's gray cloth, all covered with big
round buttons. It makes one look very singular. 1f you were
to see me at a distance, the first question you would ask would
be, "Is that a fish or an animal?" You must give my very
best love and respects to all my fri ends, particula rly your
brothers, uncles Ross a nd Samuel Simpson. You must also
write me a long letter in reply to this, and tell me about everything and everybody, including yourself. If you ha ppen to sec
any of my folk s, just tell them that I am happy, ali ve and well.
I am truly your cousin and obedien t servant,
U . H. 1 Grant.
29. Write to a friend, urging him to take up some sport
or exercise that you enj oy, - tennis, swimming, horseback
riding, etc.
30. Write to your cousin an interesting description of a
new family that has recently moved into your street or into
your neighborhood.
1 G rant's name was originally Ulysses Hiram, and was changed to
U lysses Simpson.

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THE .ENV E LOl' .E

1

31. vVrite to yo ur fat he r, exp laining why yo u wis h him to
approve yo ur plan to ta ke up some kind of s ummer work .
32 . /\ss um e t hat yo u li ve in th e coun try a nd ha ve received
; 1 le tte r from a city fri e nd, sympathizing with yo u in yo ur isoJ;1tecl li fe. ln reply ing to this le tter describe some of t he
advant;1ges of country life as yo u h ave ex pe ri e n ced t he m
dur in g the last 1vcck o r m o nth.

95. Formal Notes. l''n rmal notes a re a lways writte n in

5. Mr. William H. Brown acce pts with pleasure the kind in vitat ion o f th e C lass of N inl'( Cl' ll I I 11 nclrccl ;incl l'ourtecn, vValtcr
D avis H ig h Schoo l, to atte nd I he Comm e ncement Exe rcises,
Sa turday, Jun e the twe11tie 1h, ;1( lwn n'clc"' k, in 1he Schnn l l-l;ill.

Th e o ne t hin g whi c h mu st a lways he re membered in
send in g o ut or re plying to form:i l notes is th e sL1tcmc nt of
time a nd place . Many e mba rrass in g; s ituatio ns can be avoid ed
i i ;1 str irt attention tn these clet:1 il s 1s ;tl \\':11·s c; i1Tn .

t he th ird pe rso n, :rnd present few var iat io ns . Th e following
tnrrn s :irC' cnrren ·
1. l\t r. and l\ l rs. William W;ilkc r requ est th e pleasu re of
"\l r. I !c 11ry ( :rcTll':~ curnp.111y al. d i11 11cr on T!i u1·sd,1y t:1.c11i11!_;,
i\by th e third , at seven o "clock.
rnr7 :\ 1·n11 Strcc·t.

April twe nty-seve nth.
2. Mr. G ree n accepts with pleasure M r. a nd M rs. Willia m
W a lker' s k ind in viLatio n to dinne r on Thursday evenin g, 1vJay
th e third , at seve n o'clock .

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EXlmClSF:S

1. Comrose a formal in vitatio n to th e g; ra cl uatin g exercises

,,r

y11t1r ~ r ·hnr11,

2. Answer this in vitation in th e form o( (11) a n acceptance
a 11 d \Ii) a rcgrcl.
3. Yo ur m other is to g ive a forma l dinne r in honor of a

dis ti ng uis h ed auth or. vVri te th e in vit a ti o n.
4. Vvrite an :iccepta nce a nd a rlcclinati(\n r_1f this im·itati'lll.
5. vVrite a fo rmal n ote of invitatio n to a birthday party .

5 Willia ms Stree t,
/\ pri l tw en ty-e ig hth.
:~ .

JVlr. Cr<'<' ll reg r cts th;it h c

r~ nnnl· ;icccpl· Mr

W il!i:1111 \V:ilk r r's Lind in \' i!:1fi rm to dinner on

Ivlav til e third.
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;rnrl

l\lfr~.

Thursday evening-,

\ Villi ams Street.,
/\ pri l I wf'nty-c ig hth .
T he C lass of N in teen Hundred a nd Fourteen
Wa lte r Davis Bris tol Hig h School
requests the hono r of yo11r prese nce a l th e
Com mencemen t Exe rcises
Saturday, J un c th e twe ntieth
at two o'clock
in th e School Hall

96. The Envelope. Pain s s hould he t; tl,e n w ith t he direct io n a nd :sta m p in g o l a lette r, Jlc iL lll <.Tc iv licL·;iu se Ll1 c re i s a
<1i,l 111 \'l pl1·cisun · 111 l111·:1ki11;; liw _c.;1 ·: 1J 1,I .1 J,·\in 1:111·l1illy :1<l dressed bu t because it is sn m c t l11 11c; w1..· " 11·1· tn t h e pn st- nlii n~
department. The fo ll m\" i11;; nuy se n c a:; mudcls for rnusL
occ:1sinns :
Ivlr. Ulery J l. l(obbins
i

o Perry S treet

T okc10
U hio
Miss Ma ry E. Hclts
302 0 Concord l'bcc
W ashin gto n , D. C.

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LETTER \VRLTl NG
Th e Rev. J ohn Samu el Green
l•ar111i11g ton
Main e
Ca re of M r. 1-L. P. v\'illis

CI-IAJ>T E R l X
l\fonage r of th e llotel P lacid
Hos ton, Mass.
M ess rs. Grah am , ll row ne, a nd Co.
5 12 l1n11d St.
J: roo klyn, N . Y.
l\ I r. Em e rso n

l'vl iss G race E. 1\ll in sen
:\ ncl rews
C he rokee Co unty
North Caroli na
Secreta ry
Th e Na ti onal (; cog ra phi c Magazine
\ \" as hing ton , D. C.

F1111 n I' . Tib bot l. l•:sq .
11 otl'I Sea side
St. 1\ 11g usti11 e
l' lo rid :t

J\ lr. \ \ ":lit e r :\. l hl\' is
l'rin cipal of th e Central Hig h School
Paw tucket
Rhod e Jsland

NARRATION

97. What is Narration? Narration is the tellin g of a
story. Thi s is not in all respects the simpl e thing that we
may imag ine . If we will g ive careful atte ntion fo r a week to
all the stori es that we hea r, we s hall reali ze h ow few persons
u ncl erstand th e art of story-tellin g . One who is a good sto rytell e r is in ev itably much sought after, a nd at eve ry social
fun cti on he is th e center of a group of in te rested li stene rs.
Narra ti on, or story-tellin g, h owever, is not an art for th e
few speciall y train ed ; it is on e of the homeli est, most usefu l
accompli s hments. It is a pa rt of our eve ryday living . lf you
fee l that thi s state me nt is not strictly true, according to your
ex pe ri ence, recall last ni g ht's supper ta ble . F irst, perha ps,
yo ur moth e r a ppeared at th e tabl e with he r wrist bandaged,
and in reply to sympathetic qu estions ex plain ed that th e
co\·e r of the coffee pot had bee n kn ocked off and the steam
had hurn ccl he r . l l oweve r simple he r accoun t may have bee n,
it was essentially a story. Y our Lithe r rclalcd in hi s m atte rof-fact w;iy so methi ng \1· hi c h ha ppc11ccl in th e course or hi s
clay's work, a nd you eagerly told of a new g irl who has just
1110\·ccl in to town a nd e ntered your class . E \·c n th e fi ve-yearold member of th e fam ily had hi s story to te ll. The real
purpose of eac h of t he sup pe r-tabl e stor ies was to interest
th e other me mbe rs o f th e fam il y. Your s uccess in arou sin g
and holdin g t he interest of th e othe rs cle pencled on your
ability as a story-tell e r.

N 1\ RRJ\TLON

TllE l NC IJJE N T

/l. s a mere rn alte r of cvc ryclay interest, then, we n eed to
lil'comc as good sto ry- tellers as possibl e. l n ge neral, the
rul es for tellin g a story a nd for wri tin g on e arc Lh c s;im c,
and only OIH~ scl of s uggestio ns is therefore g iven for both.
111 our experim e nts we s hould tak e p;1ins not Lo co11fin c ourselves to written work, a lth oug h our natura l modesty may
ma ke it easi e r for us to wri te th;in to talk.
98 . The Simplest Form of Narration. Th e s upper-table
fo rm of narration to which we have referred above is what
we ca ll the in cid ent, or e pisode. Th e simpl est kind of narrative, it usually consists of a sin g le thread lead in g easily and
naturally to Lhe cl imax . Hut for th e detai l includ ed, it wou ld
be a plain statement of fa ct. Th e amou nt of d etail which we
should g ive to an in cid ent will de pe nd upon two thin gs :
( 1) the facts thc mscl ves, and (2) our skill as narrators .
F or example, if we say, " Mr. Simpson's new horse ran
away this morning , overturnin g th e g ig a nd in juring Mr.
Simpson's twcl vc-ycar-o ld daughter. Marie. " we give a mere
statement of fact, which is bare of details. O ut of thi s we
may make a simpl e incide nt or a more elaborate one. P e rhaps
all we know is that

startled the h orse, how the g irl tried to qui et t he fri g htened
animal, just wh en a nd how th e upset occurred, a nd what
happened w he n th e fathe r w;i s informed of t he acciden t.
Thu s the tel ling of Lhi s in c id ent is limi lcd to the facts
known. Hut eve n if we h;:id been wilncsscs of the whole
acc ident, and were fami lia r with a ll th e details, we might not
be skillful e nough to work th em a ll into our narrative, and we
s hould n aturally om it whate ve r did not add trJ the dramati c
interest of the occurren ce. If we knew and mad e use of all
the facts and detail s in volved, an in c id ent wou ld d eve lop into
a larger narrative.
The fo ll ow in g arc illustrat ion s of tlil" im:id ent in ils sim ples t form:

245

1. H e was w hi s tli ng " (";ihin J oe," w ith no w aml then an
a ttempt at th e" G ood Old Slcamh o:1 t I >ays." Th e reins hun g
loose ly in hi s hand s, a nd I.h e loa d ul· s c,·"11d-haml furnitur e
bal anced on a wago n lab e led C it y !·::-; press rock ed on it s
way d ow n th e a pproa ch lu ilw "Id lull lnidge yesterday IHl<J11.
The cu lured dri ver ev idently kLd r() rg() tll 11 ;ill ;Ll>()lit tlic old

.fa s hi oned walnut liookc:1 sl· wli i, ·h s l""'I 1q1rig lit "'' his 1Thi,· I,·
Th e nag ju s t entering th l' co ve red rn:td11·a y c r:m cd slccp ih·
afte r a wi s p o f hay caught o n the li mlicrs . Th e m e lod y of th e
dri ve r s truck in to the last s tirrin g ver,;l' <>f " ::il e ;1m l}();1t I l;iys ,"
but th e Ix tllacl \Yas n eve r fini s llC'r l. Th e tllp of th e h"okc:1 s< ·
coll ided 1Yith th e tc>p of th1· Inidc;c·. T l1 cTl' 11 L' t lw s»111H l <>I

1. Th e fri g ht e ned ho rse dart ed into th e pos t-office squa re
a t four o 'c lock, dra gg in g the up set g ig, ;rnd was cau g ht by a
c le rk in th e drug s tore.
2. l\'la.ric ::iimpso n wa s fo und lying b y th e road s id e on C ree n
Street w ith o ne arm broken and 011 e s id e o f h e r face harllv
sc rat c h ed.
~- Sh(' w a s c;irried in to I Jr. I<clmund 's o lli ce a nd h e r I :1thc r
wa s nutili e d ol th e a ccid e nt.

sp linl crinc-: \Hmd :111cl iin'a km1'. '.; 1:1'-''' :1 •: i1 l"!' Pi<'<i in l'' tli l' ro;1d
A kind -hea rted Iri s hman am,,nc; tlic l11·sl;11"lcr.s lwl1" ·d .c;allH ·r
up Ll1 c pieces. T hell Li ll' ciL1· 1·-;1>1 <· ss 111>11Td » 11 it s j"11rn r·1·.
~- I•,1·LT1· ;1ltcrnor.11i. ;i r,,1111itl\
ii lii»'l' ,, ·, !. wl.: . :1 lil il<' sti1
am o n g th e c kr ks :rn11"t1 11cu l liri1 ·11'.· 1lu1 1111 · Ji; 11 1L l'..ls cl".s<·d
for th e d:iv. J\lr. l'ri n'.;I<'. th e IT<T i1·i111 -: !<' lie r . 11·li" s" 11i11d" \\
was th e lirsl in line from t lw drn •r. ill 1 ;1ri:1I11\· 1~ :11T t lw .,.;ig11 1I
''\\.h:itl thrL·e 0 ·, 1,"·I: :1lr1·.1 •l1 , . l wt. L11 1k lw v.hi stl:· d :1 ·; 11

Nalural ly our narrali o n will not Ix; so full a nd dctailcd
when based 111 crcl1• upon 1. 2 . and . ~ as ii 1-.·e knew \\hat

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N :\ R RA'l'lON
d is mayed ; a ne1r a lertn ess a woke in his a lready bu sy m a nn er.
Mr. I'ring lc kc pl up a co nst·a nt ra ce aga in st tim e, - a ra ce in
which he S(;emed a lways to be d istanced. L eanin g fo r;vard to
co un t Lh e cus tome rs in line, he snatched at th e pass boo ks;
;111cl a rLc r t h;.i t·, bank notes, drafts, checks, a nd de p()Sit slips
fk w around in hi s cage li ke dried leaves behind a park rai ling
.
whe n the wind blows .
3. Whe n Sir _l cilrn T c nni c l, th e ramo us ca rto011is t, re l ired rrolll
th e staff of /'1111rl1, his assoc ia tes ,e;a\'e him a di nn e r. S ir J oh n's
a bili Ly to m ak e g ra cdu l a ft e r-dinn er s peec hes, irnprolllptu tu ;di
;1ppea ra ncc. m;:id e hi s fr ie nds ex pec t a most inte rcsling res po nse
from him o n thi s occasion, 11·hcn the toast of th e even ing was
proposed by Jvrr. ;\ rt hur lbl four.
So g rea t was S ir John 's cmo lion that he was ull cr ly o ve rwhelm ed, and kt1·i11 g ri se n to acknow ledge the toa st, 11·hi ch
had bee n wo nderfully ;1cclairn ccl . he co ul d on ly u t.t e r th e w•>rds,
" M y lo rd s a nd gc 11tlc1n en." The n, utt e rly o ve rco me, wn rd s
f;1i lecl him , a nd he had to res um e his scat, s peechless. The effect
was marvelo us. The e loquence o f sile nce was, after a half pa use,
clcclrical, and the s peec hl ess s peake r was acclaimed e ve n m ore
heartily than he had bee n wh en he fi rs t s tood up to spea k.
4 . It was nea rly midnig ht whe n J ose reached the ca mp
w he re Sandy lay. 1\ s he came up he no ti ced that th e f-irc sent
011l o nly a dull g lo w. H e hastened o n, ca lling, but the re was
no a nswe r. . \ s he we nt into th e shack he threw a few s tick s
on 1he sm olde ring e mb ers, a nd by the ir lig ht he saw Sanely
st retc hed out on th e blank et. As th e fire blazed hig h er, J ose's
1r:1i11ed eyes read wha t had happened . Th e rumpl ed bla nkets
Loki how the ma n had wri thed in his pain until th e th ong had
loose ned an d th e blood had beg un to flo w again. J\ t fi rs t it had
bee n unnoli ced , but a bloody stick s ti ll held in th e ma n's cold
ha nd to ld how he had tried to ti g hte n th e tho ng. H e had bee n
ove rcome in the ve ry ac t a nd had s unk back on the bla nk ets
to di e , while his blood had oozed out into a li ttle red puddle
and had now fro ze n.

247
T he first three arc newspaper in c ide nts compl ete in the mselves; the fourt h is one incide nt in a longer story. An
in cident is almost always a pa rt of a poss ible longer narrative. lt is a story within a story, lh e la rge r story bein g left
to lh c imag in ation of th e hearer o r lh c reade r.
] t is largely beca use of thi s broade r interest tha t even lh e
s imp lest in cide nts a ppc;d Lo 11 s. \ Ve irn:1g in c 111;1ny thin gs
that. arc not told; we huil cl up a n claboralc structure o n th e
s li g ht foundatio n whi ch the in cide nt b ys . Th e s kill ful rcporlc r o n the clai ly paper knows fu ll we ll th e suggestive
power of th e in cide nt, a nd g ives long days of app re nticeship
lo t.h c writ in g of Lh csc short, lcllin g "stories," as th ey arc
called in news pape r la ng uage. l\Lt 11 y of o ur popular mode rn
wo rk s of fi ctio n a rc the outco me of so me bri ef paragra ph
h idd e n in the voluminous co ntc 11ts of th e dai ly paper. For
insta nce, the imag in :1 ti vc pe rso n who reads t hat there has
j ust di ed in a smal l New 11 amps hi rc Lown an old ma n who
fo r forty years never fa iled to ca ll da ily at the post o fli ce to
as k in vain fo r a lette r fro m th e so n wh o ra n away from
home <is a boy, at once bui lds up in hi s bu sy brain a complete na rrat ive o f th is man 's Ii k . Th e n ove li st, always on
th e lookout fo r g ri st for hi s li lc rary mil l, fa ll s c;_i gc rl y upon
t he cha nce pa ragra ph wh ich \\·e have pe rhaps overl ooked
a ltogether o r ha ve read a nd passed over with barely a sig h
o r a smile .
The writing of incidents, th e n, 1\· hilc th e sim plest fo rm of
n arrati ve com pos ition, is a n arl in itse lf, and is perhaps fo r
ma ny of us th e most des irable fo rm to m aster. In much of
our fam il iar corres ponde nce, an d in a large pa rt of our conve rsation , the in cide nt is indi spe nsable. L et us therefore
cul tivate it as one of th e necess iti es of our eve ryday living.

I'

N1\RRATlON
EXERCISES

1. R ead o ne of th e fo llowing sho rt stori es a nd wri te in
conde nsed but vivid form the incide nt on whic h it wa s based.
l. K ipli ng"s " Wee \Villie Winkie."
2. J ,ong fellow's " l ~va n gcl in e. "
3. T ennyso n·s "C harge of th e Lig ht llrigade."
4. Sarah O rne Jewett's "J\ Whi te H ero n. "
5. l'aul ] ,eicester Ford's " \Vanted : A Ma tch-Maker ..,
6. Ed wa rd Everelt llale's " The M an without a Coun try ."
7. One of Ernest Th ompson Seto n's stories.
8. J\ c h ~1 p le r in one of Mark T wa in 's books.

2. Write a o ne- pa ragra ph inc ide nt s uggested by o n e of
th e fo ll owing parog r;-iphs :
1. When Charles and JVlarj orie we re half way across the pond ,

th eir canoe upset. Marj orie is a good sw imm er, but her skirts
impeded he r so lhat C ha rles was obliged lo come lo her rescue.
\Vhen they reached shore they we re wel comed by d istracted
fri e nds who had seen the accident bu t had had no means of
coming to their assista nce.
2. Mi ss Sylvia l'a nkhurst had repea tedly refused nourishment, and the prison nurse a nd the prison doctor agreed that
she was in a precarious condi tion.
3. While we were speedin g up the three-mile hill toward the
vill age, one of the front tires of our a uto mob ile bu rst.
4. The class was convulsed wi th laug hter over the misunderstanding between Professor Emery and Miss Edmunds in the
geometry class yesterday.
5 . Boston Frog Pond was once the scene of an inleresting
historical incident.
3. T e ll t h e class an inc ide nt th a t occurre d m on e of th e
famou s battl es of the A m e rican Re volution.

EXER CI SE S

249

4. \iVrite an incide nt from the ex pe ri en ce o f your fath e r
or m o the r or som e o th e r rebti vc.
5. R e la te o ra lly a n incicle nl tha t yo u have found in c iLhe r
the autobi ograph y or a bi ograph y oJ a g reat m a n. Choose o ne
that wi ll interest yo ur class mates, ;iml sec that it loses n ulhin g in th e te llin g .
6. \iVrite a n inc ide nt f ro m yo ur own ex p eri e nce . C hoose
a s ubj ect tha t has no con necli o n w it h sc hoo l.
7. \ V rite a n incid e nt fro m scl10ol li fe whi ch seems wo rlh
tel lin g at h o m e .
8. \ V ri tc an imag ina ry inc id e nt.
9 . The follo win g inc ide nts arc parts of lo nge r na rra t ives .
Jn t he case of o n e of Lh c m, m a ke a Lopi cal ou t lin e of a
p oss ible c hapte r of whi c h iL is a part.
1. l'rcse ntl y the clra fl sman of the school set a c 1ricature
in circula tion, labeled, lo preve nt mistake, wit h llie schoolmas ter's na me. J\ n im mensc bcll-erow 11ed hat a nd a long,
pointed, swa llow-ta iled coa t shmvecl that the :irtist liacl in his
mind the conventio nal d:rnd y as s how n in prints of thirty or
fo rty year s ago, ra the r than any art11 al ln11 n: m aspect of the
tim e. But it was passed round amrn1g th e boys and made its
la11 gh, helping o f course lo undermin e the rn;1stl'.r's a uthority, as
1'1111ch or the C!tariz•ari take the dig ni ty oul of o ur obnox ious
mi nister. One mornin g, on go ing i11ln th e schoo lroo m, Mas ter
Langdo n found a n enl a rged co py of this ske tch, with it.s label,
pin ned on the doo r. H e look il clO\rn , sm iled a liltlc, pu t it
into his pocket, a nd entered Lhe schoo lroom. J\n insidious
silence preva il ed, which looked as if som e plo t were bre" ·ing.
'fh e boys we re ripe for m ischief, but afraid . They had rea lly
no fau lt to find with the maste r, except tha t he was dressed
li ke a gentleman, which a certa in class of fellows always conside r a persona l insul t to themselves. Bu t the olde r ones were
ev idently plotting, and mo re th :rn once the wa rning " a'h' m J"
was heard , a nd a dirty liltle scrap of paper roll ed inlo a wad

2 50

N AlZRATl ON
sho t fro m one seal to an o lii c r. O ne o [ th ese happ C' ncd to
s trik e t lie s lo \'e-funn e l, a nd lodged in th e mas te r 's desk. H e
was coo l c no 11g·h not lo seem to noti ce it. H e secured it, howC\·c- r, ;incl roun d a n o ppo rtunity to loo k at it without be ing
ohsc rvcd liy the boys. lt required n o i1117llediate no tice. 11 <1 1. ~ 1 F.'-', " Els ie V c nn cr "
2. v\las hin gto n a waited reports from S t. C la ir w ith k een
;rn xicly , hut. in th is ca se the ill tidi ngs did no t a tta in th eir prove rbia l s peed. The battle was fo ug ht o n Novembe r 4, a nd it
was no t until th e close o f a D ecember cl ay th a t th e o ffi cer ca rry ing di s patches fro m th e fronti er reac hed Philad elphi a. H e
rod e al o nce Lo Lh c l'rcsicl cn t's ho use, a nd v\lashing ton w as
called o ut from dinn er, whe re he ha d compa ny . H e rem a ined
away som e tim e, and re turn ing to the tabl e sa id nothin g as to
wha t li e had hea rd , ta lked with ever yone a t M.rs. ·w a shin g ton 's
rece pti o n a f te rwards, a nd gave no s ign. Th ro ug h a ll th e weary
e ve ning he was a s calm and courteous as eve r. \Nhen the las t
g uest had go ne, he wa lk ed up and clow n th e room fo r a few minut <'s a nd th en sudd enly broke out: " It 's all over -SL C la ir 's
d efea ted - rou ted ; th e o ffi cer s nearl y a ll kil lccl , th e m en by
wholesa le; th e rout co m ple te - too s hock ing to thin k of and a s urprise into the barg ain! " H e pau sed a nd s trod e up a nd
d ow n th e roo 111 ; sto pped ag ain a nd bu rs t fo rth in a to rre nt of
in di g nant w ra th : " H e re o n this ve ry s pot I took lea ve o f him ;
I wished him s uccess a nd ho nor ; 'You have yo ur in structio ns,'
l said, ' from th e Secretary o f Wa r ; 1 had a stri ct eye Lo th e m,
and will a dd bu t o ne \Vorel - Bc,Ya re o f a surpri se ! I re peat it
- lk \\·;1re o f a s urpri se ! You know h ow the Indi a ns ligh t us.'
I le we nt o ff with that a s my las t sole mn wa rnin g thro wn in to
his ca r;.;. 1\ nd yet to s uffer that army to he cut to pieces,
hav kcd , bu tche red , tom aha wked , b y a s urpr ise, th e ve ry thin g
I g u;m kcl him ;i i:-;ain st: 0 G oel , () G oel , he 's worse th a n a
m un Iner. . . " }Jis sec rela ry \\-;1s a p pal led and sil en t, whi le
\V as hi11 g tn11 ;1g ain s trod e fi e rcely up and clow n th e roo m . The n
he sa t. ckl\n1 , coll ected him self, and s aid , " Thi s mu st no t g o

beyond this room. " The n a lo ng s ile nce . Thl' n, " ( ;e nc ra l
St. C lair s ha ll have ju sti ce. . . . I will hea r him without prejud ice; he shall ha ve full jus ti ce." - LOI H :1·:, " Li Fe o f V\la shing to n ' '
3. On reachin g th e place [t he H ermitage o ur part y separa ted , a nd P oe and myse lf s troll ed slow ly abo ut th e gro und s.
l o bser ved tha t he was unu s ua lly s ile n t a nd preocc u pied , and ,
a ttributing it to Lhe influ e nce of me mo ri es associa ted with th e
place, fo rbore to inte rrup t him . H e passed s low ly by Lhe m ossy
bench called th e " lovers' sea t," be neath two aged trees, a nd
re ma rk ed , as we turn ed to wa rd th e g ard e n, " Th ere used to be
white vio le ts he re." Searc hin g a mid th e tang led wild ern ess o f
shrubs , we found a few la te bl osso ms, some of ffhi ch he placC'cl
carefu lly be twee n the lea ves o f a noteboo k. Ente rin g th e d ese rted house, he passed fr om roo m Lo roo m with a g ra ve, abs tracted look, a nd re moved his ha t as if invo lu nla ri ly, on e nte ri ng
Lhe saloo n, wh e re in o ld tim es many a bri llia n t co mpa ny had
asse mbl ed. Seated in on e of th e d ee p windows. ove r whi ch
n ow g rew m asses of ivy, his m em o ry mus t ha ve bo rn e him bac k
to form e r sce nes, fo r he repealed Lhc fami lia r lines o f M oore,

J

"I feel li ke one
v\lh o treads alone
Some banquet hall deserted,' '
and pa used, with th e firs t ex pression of real sadn ess th a t [
had e ve r seen o n his face . The lig ht o f th e se ttin g sun shone
throug h th e d roo ping ivy bo ug hs int o the g host ly roo m, <mcl th e
ta tte red and milde wed pape r hang ings, with their fad ed tracery
o f rose g arlands , waved fitfull y in the a utumn breeze. An in expressibly eerie fee ling ca me ove r m e, wh ich 1 can eve n now
reca ll , and a s I stood there m y o ld childish id ea of th e poe t as
a s pirit o f min g led lig ht a nd d a rkn ess recurred s trong ly to my
imagina ti o n. - W oonnE:RRY, " Edga r Allan l'oe"

10. B e pre pa re d to r e tel l o n e in c id e n t in a lo n g sto ry th;i t
you ha ve r ead r ece n t ly. .Sec th a t your in trodu c ti o n , h o we ve r
bri e f, furni s h e s wh a te ve r in fo rmati o n your h eare rs wi ll n eed.

Ii
\,

NJ\lUZATlO N
11. He pre pared to g ive the substa nce o f a short story
you think your teacher would reco mm e nd. T ell the story
in such a way that your classmates will wish to read it.

each deta il. Th e e ncl :rncl th e pur pose o r th e slnry sh"11l <l 1)1i1
be confu sed. Th e 0 1tl is th e dcli11it c gu:tl low:tnl whi ch tlw
n;-i rrati ve mu st :i.l ways be mm·in g ; it is 11 su:tlly th e cli rn:t •: .
Th e jmrposc o f :.t narrative , :1 s we k1 ve a lready s how n, is th e
re;1so11 f(lr its ex isll'm:c. ]; t>l ii th L: en d a1 1d Li ll' pmp"s1: 111 11s l
lx · al 1\:1ys prese nt i11 lli c 11.1it t· r's 11 1i 11 d c\c 11 ir 1111L 1·1 i<k1 1I t"
th e read e r. ' I he c 11rl ur .c::11: d l<;11 :1 1t l 11 l11 <" ii tl w sl1111 111
"T\f aclic th " s lc:1cl 1l v ll Hl\l'S i.-; tli" lqlll" 11111<Ii tit" 1tks tlw
Lite nf th e rl v11;1sly of .~t·t>i L t11 d; t lw 1i111j1<<s1 · <> I tlw sl <> 11 is
to s how th at c.\\·cssivc ;11 nlii1i"11 111; 1_1 l1·; 1d ' '' l"s.s " ' s< ·ll
co 11lrol :rnd cvc 11t11;1lh· to ;1 St'l'il' s 11! t 1i1 111·s . Tlw p111·1'" ·"" "I
K ipl in g's " C:1pt:1ins ( 'our:1gc:ous .. jc; Ill s l11iw h"w till' ri .:..:ht
di scipline may l;ri11 g out Llw pllss il iilili1·s lh :1l a y1i111 1g 111;11 1
ha s in him. Th e c ml l1111·;ml \\·lii t· l1 it 11 11> \L'S i.s lti s resl1 >1 :1 t iu n lo l1i s li urn e a11tl l-;1111i lv .
Jt is with a story somC\\· hal as 11· ith ;1 sr- 11 tc n<'C ,-- if we tum
hie into and tlm>u g li a IP11>1' ;i11 tH111I p1 ,.; i ;is ii l1: 1111w11.s. l\ t' ;111·
li ::i bl e to ,e;e t it c rnwcl c< I an d c<>1 1!11 s1·tl. I 11 1i;1 n ;il \Ill\ r :.it 11 tit l;i il
has lo be es timated by Lile end so ug ht; jJ il due:.; llul ill su1nc
way promote th e e nd , it has no bu s in ess in th e n:irration ,
however interesting it rn ;1y he .
102. The Point of Vi ew . I 11 tt-lli11 ;..-; a stmy <>Ile 111:11
(t) ass um e the pa rt of th L'. he ro ur hc rnine ;1ml use the first
perso n ; or (z) take th e pa1t of a mi1 llJr cku:1t:lc r a nd :t! sl) us1:
th e first pe rso n; or ()\ 11ri tc (1"1 11 ;1 tl is in ltT1·.skd <>ll ls itL·
point o [ view. tli:tL is. in t lw t h irt! pns11 11, It is s11 11wti 111""
easier for ;i n in e\ pcrie nr crl write r to 11 se t'llC' first- 1wrsnn. fo r
in tl1ink111 g o [ a ll th e cl 1·L1 il "; <>i' ti ll' slrn1· ;1s ;1ill·t 1in:..: li im I'"'
so nall y, he may he ;ihl c to g i\'l' m"l 'l' life ;mcl ch:1r;1ci<'r tn tlw
slorv than h e oth e rwi se Clllll cl. l~ u t in ~~t ·11 cr: 1l tlw tl 1i rcl lll' lson point of view is t he on e intJst ctccc pt<1bl e lo tltc rv: uJcr .

99. The Longer Narrative. vVhen we have acquired som e
fac ili ty in the tellin g and \H ilin g o f incide nts, we slnll need
no urg in g to t:1k e ilw step whi c h will bring 11 s tn th e co11
sLru cliu n ~o f l it e k in gc r n;1rr;1ti\T". lt is n cct · ss~try lo proceed
at th e oulscl a Jillie 111"rc· can·f11lly t.h an hcrctoforc . ~n tl t·n
cons ide r each of th ese point s before beginn ing to write :
The purpose ur the narrative.
Tl 1c c m\ vl Llic Il a ! Jcllivc.

The poi11L uf vie w .
The obstacle or obstacles to be encountered.
100. The Purpose of the Narrative . Hy s:1yi11 g Ll1al eve ry
n;irrati ve mu st have a pu rpose a nd that we must co nsid e r
what tit is is before we to uch pe n Lo paper, we a re nol uc::1Lin g clilli culti es for ourselves . J\ narrati ve 11ccd 110L 11,t\·c a
se rious purpose ; th e aim o f some stories is merely to e ntert;1in or ;imuse; some a re written for the sa ke of furni shing
the informati on \Yh ich th e writer knows most read e rs clo nol
pnssf'ss hut will glad ly receive; and oth ers a rc writte n wit.h
th e irnm edi;ite purpose of helpin g some reform or movement .
lf we set out merely to a muse and e ntertain our readers,
\l'e mu sl res ist an v temptation to ta ke a bypath and morali ze .
< k c;1sionall v a writer of real ge nius can p<
iint word pictures
whic h arc i-n the hi g hest degree a musin g, and whi ch at the
s;i rn c t im e teac h a lesson. But this skill is beyo nd rnusl u[ us.
101. The End of the Narrative. Th e e ncl of th e narrati ve
should be dete rmin ed before we begin to wr ite, so that we
111 :1v have some standard by wh ich to estim;ite the va lue of

r

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255

N :\ RRJ\TION

M.EKl'l NG OB STACLES

Nol o nl y must yo u dete rmin e in advance the point of view,
lrnl yo u mu st ta ke an ea rl y opportunity of letting yo ur reader
k now what Lh is is. Notice how, in th ese o pening sentences,
Lhc read e r is g iven to understand what th e a uthor's point of

s houl d be to make thi s srtti11g ad equ:1tc, - lo sec that it provides a good bac kgro und . Note t hi s exa mple:

254

V ie w

JS :

1. Ln th ..: l\'l ichaclm as te rm nfte r leaving school, Tom Brown
rcc..: ived a summons from th e a uthorities, and went up to m atri c ulate at St. Ambrose's College, O xford . He prese nted hims elf at th e college o ne afternoo n and was examin ed by one of
the Lutors, who carried him, a nd seve ra l othe r yo uths in lik e
pred icame nt, up to the Se nate H ouse the next morning . . . .
- 11 uc: 111,s . " T o m Brown at Oxford "
2. Lt was a s ultry A ug ust morning, th e liflh d ay o f a " hot
spe ll. " M oll y had bee n s ick in th e ni g ht, a nd both Helty and
he r mot he r had been up wit h her; at break fast the c hild re n
we re a ll cross and fre tfu l, wo rn out by the hea t.
3. I had just waved a last good-by to father and mot he r,
a nd wns furti ve ly wiping away the tc~1rs Lhat wo uld com e in
s pilc o f m yse lf. when a timid voice asked me, " l s this scat

c ng:1gcd ?"
4 . Joh n \1·as th e pluckiest boy that l ha ve eve r had a nythin g
to d<> with. ,\II winter he was u p at th ree in th e mo rnin g so
Lha l he could have th e chores do ne in tim e to Lie o n his snowshoes and tramp the seven miles ove r the drift-piled hills a nd

1·allcys lo th e village hig h school.

1n 1 and '.2 th e point of Yi cw is t hat o f th e di s inte rested
thi rd perso n . .In 3 it is t hat of th e pr in cipal c haracter in the
narr;1t ivc . a nd in 4 that o[ an inte rested third perso n .
103. The Setting. Ca refull y chose n in forma tion abo ut the
time an cl fla t"!' of the sto ry acids dec idedly to its natural ncss
o r \· ivicln css . In all our story-telling we instinctively tel l the
read e r or h earer so meth ing about these matters; our concern

Lt was one nig ht shortly afte r Lhc firs t ballle of Bu ll Run.
T he Army o f th e Po tomac, s hatte red, stunn ed , ;111d fo rl o rn ,
was back in iLs o ld qua rte rs be hind th e ea rlhwo rks; . . th e
g loo m in ou r hea rts was li ke th t.: fog Ihat: sl rdchcd a long Lh c
bosom o f I.h t.: l'o to rn ac and i11fo ldcd Lite valley of th e S hc11:u1 d oa h. A dri zz li ng rain h;i cl set in at twilig ht ;1ncl . grow ing
bold e r with th e d:1rkness, was IJ L·atin g a di sma l talloo on Lit ..:
ten t, - the len t of ]Vfcss G, Compan y J\ , - I h l\ q <im e nt N. Y .
Volunleers . - T. IJ. 1\1 . 1>1, 1c 11 , "t2uitc So"

104. The Obs tacle or Obstacles to be In troduced. Every
real story p rese nts some obstacle or d illi culty to be e ncountered by t he chi ef cha racter. P e rh a ps a boy wis hes to ente r
\V est P oin t, but hi s natu ral indole nce is so g reat th at he only
half t ri es, unti l he sudde nly rea li zes that if he is eve r to succeed at anythin g, he must overco me thi s IJcsdt in g s in. Th e
real story lies in his. attempt to co nqu e r hi mse lf. Per haps
a n Eastern g irl who is making a visit 0 11 a \V cs le rn ra nch is
sent on a ha rd fifty-mile rid e lo su mm o n a doclo r for her
broth er, who has bee n tak en sudde nly ill. S he is not mu ch
used to horseback ri ding, a nd has to overcome her ner vousn ess in ridin g a stra nge horse. T hi s is th e ge ne ral obstacle,
but after she has sta rted on her Lrip, s he meets with a n accide nt which resul ts in a sp ra in ed a nkle. S he succeeds, howeve r,
in stickin g to the sadd le a nd reaches th e docto r. S he overco mes both th e general a nd the particular obstacle.
From the beginnin g we may not fo resee all the obstacles
whi ch our characte rs mu st encou n ter, but we mu st ha ve th e
ge neral or most importa nt one in view a t th e outset, and pla n
with reference to it.

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257

NARRATION

1JE TALL AND SUS PE NS I".

105. The Plot. 'fh e c ha in of incide nts w hi c h make up th e
a c tion of a s lo ry is call e d its plot. In a so m ew ha t inexact way
we may s p eak of lh e plot of a story as its outlin e , or pl a n. A

s lowly . The obj ect is to keep th e r ead e r 's mind upo n th e m
sign ifi cance as ari s in g o ut of w hat preced es o r as pre parin g for

study of a brge numbe r of s tori es will s how that th e r e a r e

w hat fo llows . In the s tory of Rip Va n \;\Tinkle the cu lminat-

compar;1li ve ly fe w diffe re nt pl ots used.

in g- moment when Rip fa lls asl eep is lhus fully <lelineale <l:

Upo n ide nticall y the

lo n g e nough to e n a ble him lo reali ze lhe ir importa n ce or th e ir

same plan diffe re nt write rs build up a s to ry a nd m ake it
indi vidua l, or or ig in a l, o nl y in th e ir trea tm e nt.

By d egrees Rip's awe and apprehe nsion su bs id ed. H e eve n
ve ntured, when no eye was fi xed upon him , lo las tc tli c beve rage, whi ch he fo und had mu ch of th e fl avor <>f excelle nt I lo llands. 1 Le was nalurnlly a thirsly so ul , and \Yas soon le rnpt cd
to re peat Lhe drafl. One l;:isle pro voked an ot her, a nd he
re ite rated his vis its lo the fl ago n so o fl e11 that at lenglh hi s
se nses we re o verpowe red , hi s eyes swa m in hi s head , hi s head
g radually dec lined , and he fe ll inlo a dee p s leep.

Complicate d

sto ri es o r n ovels a re ofte n made up of a co mbination of
plots.

Th e s imples t form of the story -

th e in c ide nt -

h as

n o real plot. As we h ave al read y po inted o u t., th e incide nt is
ofte n one lin k in l h e several links of a longe r n a rrati ve .
EXERCISES

1. Be prepared to g ive orally or to write out m class the
end and th e purpose of o ne of these narratives :

St eve nso n's " Treas ure I sland "
Fox's " Trai l o f the L oneso me Pine"
\\'allc r's " \Vnod C;1rve r of ' L ympu s"
Churchill's ·· The Cris is"
C corge l •: li o l' ~ " Mill cm lh c Flnss"
Brown ing's " P ippa l'as;;e;; "
Scott's " Lay o f th e Las t 1\finstrel"
])ickens 's " T ale of '1\\·o C ities"
K ipling-'s " Capta in s Courageous"

ge ncr;il

Nolt' l1<11\·

mu c h o( a hi story 1s h e re Loki, am l i11 l11 11v ln1 a!ld ra pid \\old s :

106. Detail in the Story. The parts o f th e story that arc
with more cop io us d et;:i il. -

Ill

a nd co mprehensi ve tou c h es, willi a view lo li g ht and q11i c k
m ove ment. Thus, th e ge n e ral Ji islo ry o[ m u nlhs o r yc;_irs m ;1y
be di s palcl1 ed in a [ <;IV sc nl l· 1wcs . 11 hik in "tlH ·r l);1rts .,f Llw
s to ry cle by is m a d e ovcT th e d ct:1 il s o l 111rn11c nt s.

2. Gi ve th e p lo t· of on e of vour f:wnritf' stori es .
3. Name sC \T ral storif's tk1t Wf'rc Fv ir-1Pntl1• wri1·1·pn for tlw
j)liJ"jlOS <' nf ;1itlin <>: so m e rdorm or o f inf111 c· n c in c>: p11hlic n1)i ninn.
4 . J f yo u \\TlT lu \\'rite ; t 1011 ;,; 11:llTal in.:, \lkll pivl s l10u ld
you take? l li111k u1c r a 11 d 111ilL' <_nit suc h :1 pl o !.

s pec ia ll v i1nnori ;rnt ;irf' natura lly d we lt upo n m o re , -

On the other hand , unin1portan t parls arc g ive n

g ive n

so th at th e s to n· m oves m o re

D ea lh is alread y scckin;~ fo 1· lti111 :ti ;1 t:11·crn i11 I h[>lf"1d,
and Lh e las t scc 11 e i11 a ,,·il d, i>rid Iii" sl: tr h U[l lwl<>1i: us. ,\
m ise rable alehouse . drunk e n m>rds, tlh· fl as h ol a k11ilc. and ;1
m a n of g·c nius has rl'cC i\'('( I his dc:tt hhlnw. \\.lt;1t: an <'p i1 :1pli
for Lhc _grC':1test mi g ht-h:l \T- il<'cn i11 1-:ll'.,l islt lil C' r:1lurC' · " t 'ltrisloplicr iVL1rlowc. sl:ii11 h1· ;1 '"·n111.g 11i;t11 i1 1 :1 •l1t11 1k•·11 i>r: m l.
;<~':'"I L1n·11t v-1 1i 11c- 1 ·

lO'i . Ho w to treat Ex pccl alio11.

made up 11, iLh r ckrcnu: l"

:1

c lr!ll :1:-; ,

\s :1 sl
11t

1

•1\

is 11:1( 111: il l1

pu li:qh Lu ;1

~c

nc:; ' ,[

c l1m:1\l'S. tile 11:1natr'r .g-c·11n:tll1 11i1·s t•i lu1 1· llw n :1< ii-1· "11 .
to 111:1k e him look t o r Sl >11 wt lii11.c: lll ,·.,11w . I" 1·.,s lt_T
l i<rn

i11

Jlr<lj JO rt irn1 lo 1ill' i1 1q1orL1111T .,[

11

li :1l

1.s c

<'\j11·d : 1-

«111111 .::.

Cl-IARACTERS A ND CONVERSATION

N1\RR ,\TI ON
Th e \Yays to thi s, whi ch are m a n y and varwus. mu st b e
left to th e i11 ,£!;e11uity of th e write r. So m e of th e ways mos t
o ft e n used arc ( 1) lo draw, in th e perso ns conce rn ed , s uc h
tr;1its of ch;1r;1ct:cr that the eve n t s hall be a natural o utcom e

of th e m: (2) Lo make scen es and surroundings so h a r moni ze
\\' ilh th e cn~ 11t as in a d egree to fo recast it; (3) to m ;1k e th e
com ·n s;1t io n of the ch;1ractLTS suggest so m e thin g impo rtant
lo come. Fvc ry cletail of characte r, scc 11 e. ;111 c1 ctnive rsat ion
oug ht thu s to li<1 ,.e in fl ue 11 ce o n th e reade r 's ex pecla li o n ,
a nd n othin g s h o u ld be left \\' ith o 11 t sig nifi can ce .
J\ fte r an eve nt h as bee n pre p;1recl for , t h e n some ca re
is n eed e d in relatin g it. Jf it is just what t h e r eader ex pects,
it is liabl e to be flat and disappoin t ing ; h e nce so m e k in d of
smp rise or n ove lty is natura ll y d evised to a nswer t h e reader 's
ex p ectation by som e thing m o re than is prom ised.
J\ s an a id to thi s, na rrators m ake muc h use o f th e princ iple o f co ntras t, - a c haracter of who m yo u would expect one
thin g d o ing some thin g quite different, a storm y sce n e s ucceed ed by a qui et o ne, an un expected turn g ive n Lo co 11 v c rs:1tion . and th e like. A large part of th e s kill of :1 sto ry
o fte n con s is ts in m a kin g th e read e r expect som ething , a nd
th e n surpris ing him by something equall y n atural but very
different. So m e thin gs, afte r ha vin g b een prep a red for, a r e
be tte r lclt lo s uggestion tha n fully told, s uch as d e ta il s that
exc ite h orror or di sgust, or a p;:i rt icula rl v oh,,i ous f'Vf'nL
108. The Ch aracters. Tn most of th e shn rt c:t·nri f's Wf'
write ii is n ul llt'LTSsa1)' tu g ti i11 l<J ch li(lr;1ll' tl c·sc1 ip l;"11s "f
the cha1;1clns wh u have a part in Lh c 111; 11 e 11eeJ du liltl e
more than let th e characters act a nd talk . Sometimes, howeve r, an a ccount of a c ha racter m ay h e lp show that th e s tory
is true to n ature .

259

In these v pe nin g sentences n ote h ow mu c h lh e fe w deta il s
te ll of th e c haracte rs and of th e settin g.

You w ill f111cl it

\\·o rt h wh il e to read th e comple te sto ri es in o rd e r to sec h ow
the autho r acids othe r information a bo ut the c ha racte rs.
l\l a ny yea rs ago l contracted ;in intimacy with a Mr. vVi lli am
Legra nd. He was nf a n an cient H11g uc not fami ly ;ind had
once bee n wealthy, hut a series of misfo rlun es had redu ced
him to wa nt. To avo id th e mortifi Gtt. ion co nsequ ent upon hi s
dis:1ste rs, l1 L· ldt New Urkan s , th e cit y nl' hi s forefathe rs, :rnd
took up his residence a l Su lli va n's lsbncl , nea r Cha rl cst<Jn ,
South Caro lina. - Fn<:AR J\1. 1. AN l 'rn·:, " Th e Cold-Hug"
l:artra m t.he li me burn er, a rough, heavy-loo kin g man bcg ri1n crl with chan"1: il, sa l 11·;llc hi11 .~ hi .s kil11 at ni g htfall. while
his Jillie so11 played ;1t. buildi11g h<J uscs wit h the sc;1ttncd k1 ,t.;me11ts of rn a rhle, when 0 11 tlw hill sid e IJl' lnw them they hc;1rd
a roa r of laughter, not mirtl1 ful , bu t slo11· and even solcrnn,
like a wi nd shaking th e boughs of th e fore st.
" Fat her, wh:1t is that I " askl'd tlw Ii i lie lin y, k:i1·ing his
play and press in g betw ixt his fath e r's kn ees . - NA TII AN JFJ.
I L \ll'T ll ll " ;\ I•: , .. Lih:111 1:1;11111 ..

109. Conversation in the Story . Tn g11 L' 1i vid11l'ss ;u1d
reali ty to a story, conve rsation is fr e qucnlh intrntlun:cl. Tlt e
judi c ious mi xture of conversat io n 11·it. h t h e narraL i\·e as g i1e n
by the third p e rso n n a rrator h e lps to m a k e a sln ry Sl'Crn tru e.
Not ice t h e way in w hi c h Dic ken s uses conve rsation :
\\'hen the\· had sa t in siicill'c f11r .so111 L· tin1c. lhc t11·0 cild
11·111rn·n rose from the IJl'cl :rncl. tT11tlC'lii11g 111tT 11 1" liw. lwl rl
011l li1c11 11·ithL'ITd kinds I<> l'dlt·l1 1lw l1 L·;il. T ill' il:1111r· till\'\\ :1
;..:·k1stly li .~ hl 011 th eir shril'c lc·cl L1L'l''· :1rnl 111:1<lr· il1l'11· 11;..:l11 H·ss
appear pcrfcu h· terrible :ts 11 1 this pos itiu11 liiL·.1· IH·g :1 11 l11 r "nv t-· r se

111 :1

ltit HI

\ ' Oil ·t·.

"l lid s he s:1y any more , :\nn y dl'a r, ll' liilc l 11·:.1s grim · I "
inquired the messenger.

260

JJESCRIP'l'L ON AN D

NA RRAT ION

·· Nol a 11·ord. " replied lhe olhc r. "S he p lucked a nd tore at
her a r111 s f11r :i littl e tim e; but l held her ha nds, a nd she soon
clro ppccl off. She has n 't much streng th in her , so l easil y kept
he r quie t. l a in 't so much fo r an o ld wo man, a llho ugh l am
a pari sh :"ill" w:111 cc ; no , 11 0 ! "
" JJicl she drink th e hot wine th e doe lor said she was lo
ha ve ? ., dc111:rncl ecl lhe first.
" l tri ed lo ge t it dow n," re join ed th e olhe r. " llul her tce lh
we re lig ht set, a nd she clenched lhc mu g so ha rd tha l it was as
much as J co ul d do lo ge t it back again . So I d rank it, and
it did m e good ! "
Loo kin g ca utio usly ro und , tu asce rta in lhat Lhey were not
ove rhea rd , th e two hags cowe red nearer to th e fi re and
chuckl ed hea rtily.
All that Di c ke n s h ere g ives as conve rsa ti on could be easily
and bri e fl y to ld in hi s own wo rds, but th e sce n e wo uld lose
mu ch by thi s treatm e nt.

110. D escription and Exposition in N a rration.

In th e

in c id e nt a nd in s h o rt sto ri es the wri ter m ay confin e hi mself
to pure n a rra ti o n, but in th e lo nge r s tor ies h e ofte n fi nds it
n ecessa ry a nd d es ira bl e to m a ke use o f d esc ri ption a n d expositi o n . i\ s a m al tcr o f fa ct, the re a rc n o t m a ny pu re n a rra ti ves,
o r p ure d esc rip tio ns , or pure exposition s, o r pu re a rg u m e nts;
a lm o st eve ry p iece of wri tin g is a combinat io n o f t wo or m o re
o f th ese form s . E s pecia lly is thi s tru e o f na rrat io n.
Notice h ow e ffecti vely, in the fo llow in g ex t rac l fro m " The
L ast o f th e M o hi ca ns," Coo pe r mak es use o f ex positio n in a
n a rr:i l ive lo a1l'a kc n a nd inte n s ify th e in te rest o f th e r ead e r.
Th e Indi a n s arc abo u t to brin g to tri a l th e ir w hite cap tives,
a nd t h e reade r wo uld be im pat ie n t of th e us ua l m atte r-of-fact
d esc riptio n of a sole mn conclav e. No on e, h owever, can fa il
to r ea d eve ry wo rd o f th is expos itio n w it h grow ing in te rest.

EX P O~ lTI O N

2G 1

Coop e r unde rstoocl th e a rt of story- te l Ii n g, a1 1cl especia ll y how
to m a k e d escriptio n a nd ex p os iti o n pl ay a pa rt.
It mig ht have bcc l\ hair an lwur befo re each indi vidual, i11 cluding even lh c 1vrim cn and children, 11·as in his pl:t cc . Th e
de lay had been crcalccl hy Lh c g ravl' prcpa rali " ns lh:1L were
deemed nccess; 1ry l" so so l<'m 11 :111CI 11 111 1su: tl a "" 11krc11cc. 1:111
whe n th e sun was seen c limhin .~ :1hovc ll w tr) p o r 1h:1I" 11 11l1111tai n aga inst whose 1Joso11 1 th e Ucla11·a 1-cs hacl cu nslrn ctcd their
encam pment, most were sea ted ; a11 cl ;1s hi s brig ht r:1ys dart ed
frn 111 behi nd lh e oull ine o r lrecs thal rrin gccl lhe em ine nce, th ey
fell upon as grave, as allentive, ;ind :1s dee ply in te reslcrl a multitud e as was probably ever before lig hted by his morning
beams. lls numbe r some what exceeded a tho usa nd so uls.
In a col lection o r so sni <HI S s; 1 v:1.~" C S I hen· i.'-' nl· v1·r (" lw
fo und :111 y impa tie nt as pirant :1rtcr premature di stin ct inn, st:1nding ready to move his :1uclito rs to some h:1sly a nd pcrh ;1ps
injudicious di scussion, in ord er lh;1t hi s ow n reputation may be
th e g ain er. 1\n act o f so mu ch p1Tci 11il:rn cy and pri's11 mp ti on
wo uld seal th e downfall of prccnc iou s int ellect forever. J t
rested solely with lhe oldes t a nd the most ex pe rienced of the
m en to lay th e Sub ject n r lhe CO il fc rcnCC befo re the peo ple.
Unt il s uch a one chose lo mal;c so111 1· llH>1T1nc 11 l, no deed in
a rm s, n o na tu ra l g ir ts, nor ;my re now n as an o ra tor wou ld
have justifi ed Lhe slig htest inlc rru pl i"n. ( Jn lhe present occtsion the aged wa rri or 1vhosc pri vil ege it was to s pc;tk was
silen t, seemi ng ly impressed with the m:1gn itude o f hi s subject.
The delay 11acl already co ntinu ed l< 111g beyond th e usual deliberat ive pause th a t always prcccclcs ;1 con fe rence, but no sign
of impatience or surprise esc;1pcd eve n !he yo un ges t boy. <kcasion ally a n eye was ra ised fro m the earlh, where the looks
o f most we re riveted, a nd str;1yccl lmva rd a pa rti cul ar J od .~c,
that was, howeve r, in no manne r disti ng uished from th 0se
aro und it exce pt in th e pec uliar ca re th at h:1 d been take n
to pro tect it against the assaults of lhc weal her.

,

262

..

N.'\RRATlON
EXERCISES

1. T ell ;-i slory yo u have heard yo ur fath er or some olhcr
relali ve Lell.
2. l\cwrite th e extract from Di cken s 's ' ' Olive r Twist," on
p;1ge 2 59, ill such a way as to exc lud e any con versat ion. Mak e
yo ur t;il e :is vivid as poss ibl e, and be pre pared lo ex plain ho11·
J )i ck<'11 s's account is supe rior to yo urs.
3. \\'rile o r tel l to lh e class a hundred-wo rd in cide nt wh ich
is c ill1 e r hum orous or sad.
4. T e ll a story to lh e class so as to produ ce a definite im press ion , or e ffect, such as gloom, ho rro r, sad ness, di s:ippointme nt, laug hte r, joy, calm ness, ex pecta ti on.
5. B e able to lell in class in yo ur ow n words a story suggested by th e fo ll owin g li st:
1. The Ug ly J Ju cklin g (llan s J\.nd erse 11) .
2 . Sinclhad the Sailo r (Arabia n N ig hts) .
~ - The 'M:icl T e:i- Party ("A lice in W o nd e rland ").
4. C hristmas J linn c r with ;i Squirre l.
.5. A Trip Und e rg round w ith a J\I o le.
G. J\ Night 11· ith an O wl.
7. J\ Summe r JJ:iy w ith a Trout.

6. Tell the class brieAy one of th e best short stori es you
have e ith e r heard or read; or te ll a story from th e Old Tesla mc nt : or tell a good story from history .
7. Brin g to class a copy of an incid e nt in whi ch lhe moveme nt is rap id .
B. G ive :iccounts of a n incident from three poinls of view.
F o r example. an electri c car collid es with a wagon. The
story may be told by the motorman , th e dri ver of th e wagon,
a stree t-ca r passe nger, or a policeman .
9. ·w rile out the plot of George E liot's " S ilas Mam er,"
or of some other novel well known to your classmates.

E X t•: t<.C .I SES

263

10 . Make a li st of three suhj el'ts o n any one of which yo u
cou ld vvrite a story o f at least o ne lhous;111d words.
11. Brin g to class th e plot of a slory based 011 o ne o f th e
foregoin g subj ects. Sec t hat th e first s tep in th e na rrative
lead s to t he second, the seco nd to th e third, :incl so o n till th e
climax is reached.
12. \Vri te a short story in whi ch yo u g ive specia l attention
lo foste rin g a nd answerin g cx pc:ctali on (sec page 257) .
13. 'Write out t he pl ol o f a play lhat yo u have read o r see n
rf'Ce ntly .
14. Re produ ce in wri ting, as cl early as you can. a conversation whi ch you think wi ll be of in te rest to th e cla ss.
15. \Vrite out a co nversati on, real or imagin a ry, whi ch
shows the cha racte r of the speakers.
16. He prepared to tell bri e fl y th e story of a novel whi ch
yo u have read recentl y. Try to tell it i1: s uch a way t!1 at so me
of yo ur classmates wi ll wi sh to read 1t. J t yo u t hmk best,
yoL; may stop s hort of lhc climax as one means of e xc iting
th eir curiosity.
17. Jnvcnt a story suggested by o ne of th e fol low in g situati ons or characters . Co nsid er what accesso ries of sce ne and
acco mpa nying cha racte rs 111:1y help; al so how conve rsati on
may be e mployee\ e ithe r to illu stralc o r to develop events .
1. An awkward ye t shrewd fellow th row n among peo ple

of fashi on.
2. A fie ry te mp e r, which 01il y a g reat crisis a nd disa s ter ca n
s ucceed in subdu ing.
3. An injury a nd a rCJXll'ation.
4. A di s position he re tofore indolent and selfish rou sed by
a n e me rge ncy to a d eed of self-sacrifi ce.
5. i\ week's o utin g a nd its res ul ts.
6. One who is th e butt o f his co mpa nions com ing out in
some way s upe rior to th e m.

SPECIMEN DESC RLPTIO N

CHAPTER X
DESCRIPTION

111. Description Defined. D esc ribin g is picturin g wiLh
mJrcls, and Lhc first step toward it is fo r the speak e r or writer
to rc:i.li ze Lh e pi cLurc viv idly in his imag ina tio n. J'e rsons with
th e stro ng est im ag inations can make the most te llin g descript ions , \Jul eve n wiLh limited imag inaLion o ne can obser ve
or ca ll Lo mind t he facts, a ncl this is the beginning of eve ry
cl esc ri pli o n .
Th e a im o f cJ csc ripLi on is to m ak e the re; Ld er sec or feel
what th e w rite r secs or fee ls. To do thi s th e wri ter may
e ith e r g.ive points of information about the object (an a im
\Yhi ch ca ll s for a matter-of- fac t account) or make a str ik in g,
movin g impress io n on the reader 's mind (a n e nd eavor wh ich
ca ll s out the picturin g quality of words a nd fi g ures).
Of t he fo llowing paragraphs the first is a n example of the
m<1lle r-of-fact description which is characteri sti c of al most a ll
tex tboo ks, th e ch id purpose of such a descripti on be ing merely
lo eo nvl'y an accurate impress ion. Tl1e purpose of th e second
paragra ph is to g ive th e r eader a vivid impressio n.
J:Cfnn· I set up my tent, I drew a half circle before the
hollo w place. which took in about te n ya rd s in its scmidiameter
from the nick, and twenty yards in its diam ete r, from its beg inning a nd ending . In this half circl e I pitched two rows of
strong sta kes, dr iving them into the gro und till they s tood ve ry
firm li ke piles, the biggest end being out of th e ground about
fiyc foot and a half, and sharpened on the top ; the two rows
26.;

1

f

did not stand above six inches from one another. Then l took
the pieces of cable wh ich l h;1d cut in the sh ip, and I laid them
in rows one upon a noth er, with in the circle, between these two
rows of stakes, up to th e top, placing other stakes in th e in side, leaning against them, about two foot and a half hig h,
like a spur to a post, and this fe nce was su stro ng that neither
man nor beast could ge t into it or over it. This cost me a g reaL
de;i.l of tim e and labor, especi;i.ll y to c11t the piles in the woods,
b ring them to the place, and dri ve them into the earth.-DEFOE,
" Adventures of R obin son C rusoe"
I had dined a lone, because [ a rri ved late; but at supper I
found two other g uests. On e was a co untry pari sh priest, who
had walk ed over that morning from the scat of his cure near
Mende to enjoy four days o f soli tude and pra ye r. H e was a
g renadier in person, with the ha le color and circular wrinkles
of a peasant; and as he complained much of how he had been
impeded by his skirts upon the march , l had a vivid fan cy portrait of him, striding along, uprig ht, big-boned, with kilted cassock, through the bleak hill s of Ge va ucbn. The other was a
short, grizzling, thickset man , from forty-five to fifty, dressed
in tweed with a knitted spc ncer, and the red ribbon of a decoration in his buttonhole. This last was a hard person to classify.
H e was an old soldier, who had seen service and risen to the
rank of a comma ndant; and he rct;1im·cl some of the brisk, decisive mann ers of the camp. On the ot her hand , as soon as
his resignation was accepted, he had co me to our Lady of the
Snows as a board er, and after a brid ex perience of its ways,
had decided to remain as a novice. J\ Iready the new lif c was
beg inning to modify his appearance; already he had acquired
somewhat of the qui et and smiling air of the brethren....
And certainly here was a man in a n interestin g nick of life.
Out of the noise of cannon and trumpets, he was in th e act of
passing into this still cou ntry bo rdering on the g rave, where
men sleep nightly in their g rave clothes, and, like phantoms,
communicate by signs. - STEVENSON , " Travels with a Don key"

1.

DESCRIPTION

112. Limiting the Subject. When the description we are
go in g to write is o ne of our own choosing, we should t:Jkc
pa ins to limit our s ubject in such a w:Jy that we may easily
secure unity. Even when it would be possible to describe
eac h feature of a person, landscape, or gene ral object, it is
seldom wo rth while, and th erefore the first thing to consider
is how mu ch our s ubj ect really includes. Thus, "Mt. Monadnod. at Su nsd" is a more definite a nd limiled sulijecL Lhan
"Mt. Monacln oc k ." ln our title we cannot, perhaps, express
all t he lirnit::itions of our subj ect, but we s hould have them
clearly in mind . For instance, " Mt. Monaclnock at Sunset"
does n ot te ll whether we are to describe the mountain in
w inte r, in sprin g, in summer, or in autumn, nor whether we
arc to describe it from a point on the mountain or from the
valley. It would not be wise to make our tille cumbersome
bv ex plainin g these points, hut the subj ect as it ex ists in our
minds mu st be carefully limited. Note how ski llfully the
au tho r o f th e fo llowin g d escription has ad hered to a limited
s ubj ect :
M()osilauke is a noble mountain , even if it is absurdly easy
of ascent. lts blue bulk "·:ills in the southern end of the .Ham
J: r;111ch intcrv::ilc with an almost grandi loquent self-sufficiency.
It ncccl s 110 spurs nor ranges to complete the job. Yet without
l rouble it lits in to a barn-door vista, a topal'. in a setting of
golden hay. Wh en you walk up from the wide meadows, the
shaggy slopes of Ca nnon and Kin sman bearing clown upon
you, the scnsalion of space and height on all your senses, and
look ;1L l\ foosilauk e through the barn , it is as if yo ur spacious
l::ind sca pc 1Ye re viewed through lhe wro ng end of a spyglass.
The mounlain has become a miniature. But it is a miniature
clear in 011ll in c, perfect in detail, bursting in through the
du sty gloom.

EXERCISES

1. \Vritc a matler-of-facl clcscripliun of u11c uf tile fullowi11g ·
1. i\n Evenin g

Dres~ .

Our New B::ithroom.
3. The Deli ve ry Room of our Public Library.
4 . Th e J' ireplace in our J,iving J\rnJm.
5. J\ Small l'lower C:i rd cn .
2.

2. Rewrite th e description call ed for in Exercise 1 , makin g
it slr il: ing and vivid in stead or strictly rnattcr-of-f;1ct.
3. Prepare a li st of four ca rdull y limiled s ubjecls on whid1
you could write desniplivc paragraphs.
4. \Vrite a description of some building, --- ;1 churc h, ;1
libra ry, a schoolhouse, or olhcr building wilh which you an·
familiar, - combining a stTikin g description of Lhc whole
building with a matter-of-fact description uf some particular
k;1lurc o f it.

113. The Point of View. J\ lt cr choosing and limitin g th e
subject, the next step is to dec id e upon th e point of view.
Think how far yo u arc from tlw object lo be clcscriiJcd, and
what position yo u occupy wilh rd crencc to it. T hi s determines
lhe treatment of d ct::ii ls . f f :1 l:md scapc that yo u :ire dt·scril1 in g is distant, you will n:.1tur:ill y speak u[ its large [c;1lun'. s,
- its mountains, strea ms, masses uf foliage, gen e ral effects
of color; from a nearer point you will speak more naturally
of the kinds and shapes ol the trcl'S, tile character ur the ruck
formations, the width a nd de pth of the streams, and th e like .
If you see a buildin g at a di sta nce , yo u are impressed by its
shape as a \vhole an d its relati()n to its surroundings; ii you
see it near by, yo u think m ore or its material, ur its rnnstr'uction, or its present co nd ili un.

268

JJESCRll'TJON

J l avin g o n ce fixed th e point of view, do not cha nge it
wilhout g iving t he reade r notice. lf you m ove forward or
backward , to th e ri g ht or to t he left, inform th e read er. Afte r
d escribin g the view from the eas t window, you must not call
atte nti on to so methi ng on th e west side of the h ouse without
s ho win g how you a rc e nabled to command a v iew in that
direction. Sim il a rl y, you s hould n otify th e r ead e r o f a chan ge
of lim e. If you begin by describin g th e m ornin g sky, you
must not refer to th e h eat of noon with out the prope r transitio n.
Jn t he fo ll ow ing description, observe h ow d c fi n ite a po int
of view the write r h as kept in mind. Nothing in th e a ppeara nce of t he stran ge r is m en t io ne d which the g irl, from h er
half-hidde n p os ili o n, could not sec; a nd on ly tl1osc d etai ls
a rc brought in lo th t.: descripti on wh ich a yo ung , k een-eyed
g irl mig ht be ex pected to notice .
A hum an fi gure had fi lled the leafy mouth that swallowed
up the trail , and it was coming toward her. With a thumping
heart she pushed slowly forward through the b rush until her
face, fox lik c with cunning and screened by a blueberry bush,
hu ng just ove r the edge of the cliff, and there she lay, like a
cro uched panther cub, looking clown. F or a momen t all that
was human seemed gone from her eyes, but as she watched,
a ll that \\·as lost came back to them, and somethi ng more.
~ li e had S C(' ll th at it was a man, but she kid dropped so
qu ick ly that she did not sec the big black horse that, unlccl ,
\\·;1s foll m\· ing him. Now both man a nd horse had stopped.
Th e strangT r had taken off his g ray slouched hal, and he was
1\· ipi1 1g hi s LKe with something whi te. Something blue was
I icd loosl'ly abllut his throat. She had never see n a man like
that before. lli s fa ce was smoot h and loo ked d ifferent, as did
hi s throat :rnd his hand s. llis breeches were light and on his
fret were str:111ge hoots that. we re the color of hi s sadd le, which
\\·as deep in se:1t. high both in front and behind , and had strange

l ' OlNT OF VIEW
long-hooded stirrups. Starting to mount, the man stopped with
one foot in the stirrup and raised his eyes toward her so
suddenly th at she shrank back again with a quicker throb bing
at her heart and pressed closer to the earth . Still , seen or not
seen, flig ht was easy for her, so she could not forbear to look
again . Apparently he had seen noth ing, - only th at the nex t
turn of the trail was loo steep to ride, - and so he started walking again , and his walk, as he strode along the path , was new to
her, as was the erect way with whi ch he held his head and hi s
shoulders. - JOHN Fox, Jr.," The Trail of the Lonesome P in c"
Note i.he clear state ment of th e point of view in this begin nin g of a desc ri ption of th e d eepest mine in the wo rld , t he
Calume t and H ecla :
If the knife of a Cyclops could cut the honeycomb in two,
longitudinally, as Sir John Lubbock used to cut an ant's nest
fo r the purpose of observing what was going on inside, there
would be revealed a wealth and a breadth o f indu stry not
eclipsed by those of many surface comm uni ties. Dozens of
elevator shafts, so me perpendi cular, others on an incline,
would be found piercing the comb from top to bottom. In
them would be seen cars car rying men and metal up and
down with the speed of ex press trai ns.

In our writin g of description s we ofte n n eed to keep in
mind n ot o n ly t he mecha n ica l point of v iew, but also th e personal on e . Are we looking at a sce ne fo r th e first tim e, or is.
it a fam ilia r scene, e ve ry d eta il of \\-hich we kn ow by heart?
In our d escription of a p erson, d o we wr ite as the di s in teres ted " reporter" or as a sy m pathe ti c frie n d ? In describing a
scene, a p erson, or an object whic h we are seein g for th e firs t
tim e we shall of necessity g ive a Jess compkLc accou nt than
we sh ould g ive afte r a lo nger acquaintance .

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J >ESC Rll'TlO N

Tlinmas \ Vc nlworth 1-I igginso n, in th is description of
1\'largaret Fuller, has s killfully wove n together the points of
,·ie w or sen :ra l different per.s ons:
1\ I a rgarc l Fu li e r's pe rso na l appearance at Lhis early pe riod
has bee n dl'sc ribcd by several of her biographe rs, but o ne
hears very diffe re nt acco unts o f it from d iffe re nt qu a rte rs, the
leasl fl a llc ri ng being Lhosc g iven by her ow n sex . The inexorabl e mc nwry o f ;1 ce rtain ve ne rab le Camb rid ge lady recall s
he r g ra phi cally as s he appea red at th e ba ll g ive n by he r fa the r
to Presid en t /\dams; a yo ung g irl of sixteen with a vl' ry pla in
fa ce, half-shu t eyes, a nd ha ir curled all over he r head ; s he was
laced so tig htl y, my in fo rm a nt decla res, by reaso n of sto utn ess,
that s he had to ho ld he r a rms back as if th ey we re pin io ned;
s he w as d ressed in a badly cu t low-necked pink s il k, with
white mu slin ove r it ; a nd she dan ced qu adri ll es ve ry a wkwa rd ly, being witha l so nea rsig hted th a t s he co uld ha rdly sec
he r pa rtn e r. On Lhe oth er hand, it is mainta in ed that s he had
in childhood so me thi ng of he r moth e r's pec ulia r beauty of complex io n, thi s being, however, s poiled at twelve yea rs old by a
tend e ncy o f blood lo th e head , wh ich the tig ht lacing mus t ha ve
;1ssis tcd. . . . S he had what he r schoolm a te. Dr. 0. W. H olmes,
dcsn ibcs as ''a long a nd fl exi le neck, a rchi ng a nd undu lat ing
in sl ra nge, sinu ous movemen ts, whic h o ne who loved he r wo uld
colllpare to ;1 swan , and o ne who loved her no t to those of th e
ophidia n who I.e mpted ou r commo n mothe r. " H er ha nds were
s moot h a nd while, and she made such p rominent use of them
th at s he \\·as charged by her critics- as was also cha rged upon
1\ 1adam e de Stad in res pect to her a rm s - with making the
most of he r o nly poin t of beauty. - H1 GG INSON, "Ma rga re t
hi ll e r O ssoli "

114. Outlining the Whole Object. The reade r needs first
a lx1e kg round fo r lh e picture t hat h e is to conte mpl ate, or,
rath e r, so me outl in e lhat will enabl e him to t hink of it as a

OU TLIN l NG TH E SU DJ ECT

2JI

whole, so that he may me ntally refer to this fra mework the
various parts as t hey are success ively me ntioned . For in stance,
if you are describin g the interior of a church, it is a g reat aid
to clearness of. conception to kn ow wh et he r it is recta ngular
or c ru ciform or amphith eatrical in plan. If you a re delineatin g a country, it is a help to know wh ether its general fo rm
is elliptical or tri a ng ula r, a nd in wh at directions of th e co mpass its natu ral features li e.
E X E RCISE S

1. \!Vrite a desc ripti on of the g irl of th e m ountains (sec
p . 268 ) as you imagine s he would loo k if met face to face .
2 . D escribe your street as it looks in mid win ter; as it
loo ks in m idsumme r.
3. D escribe a city street as it a ppears from th e sid ewalk;
as it looks from th e top of a hi g h huilclin g .
4. Give one-se nte nce outli ne description s of fou r of the
following objects a nd persons :
1. A dese rted fa rmh ou!3e.
2. A school ya rd at recess tim e.
3. A wh ite-pa inted church a t a dis tan ce.
4. Mary L yo n.
5 . J ohn H a ncock.
6. Napoleo n.
7. An imag ina ry pe rso n.

115. Choosing the Details. Becau se it is easy to make a
description tedi ous by num erous dclails, iL is ,_,[ g rc;tl irn1Hlrta nce to choose carefully lh osc 11\iich arc to be in clud ed. IL
is a safe rule to h ave as few d c l ~til s ~ts can be re li ed upon l<>
effect your pu rpose, :md to m :1k C' ;il l o f th e m s ig 11ifi c:111 t. In
th e fo ll ow in g exlracts note th ~1t i11 pa ragr:tphs 1 :i nd '.? the

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' --..........,...--..........,..................................~Q§•
.......:.....,
~~

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272

J> ESCRll'TlON

de ta il s are few and sig nifi cant, while 111 paragraph 3 the
variety of de ta il is somewhat confus ing :
1. The niom in whi ch I fou nd m yself was very large a nd
lofty. The wi nd ows we re long, na rro w, a nd pointed, and at
~<> vast a dis tance from th e black oaken fl oo r as Lo be alto·
g cthc r in accessi ble fr om within. Feeble g leams of cncrimso ncd lig ht made their way throug h th e trellised pa nes, a nd
served to rend er s uffi cie ntly dis tin ct the more promine nt o bjects around ; the eye, however, stru ggled in vain to reach th e
remote r :inglcs o f the chambe r, or the recesses of th e vau lted
and fretted ceiling-. l >a rk d raper ies hun g upo n the wa lls.
The ge neral furniture was profuse, .comfo rll css, a ntique, a nd
tatte red. M.any book s and mu s ical in strum e nts lay scattered
a bout, but failed to g ive any vitality to the scene . [ felt th at
I breathed an · atmosp he re of sorrow. A n a ir of s te rn, dee p,
a ncl irredee mable g loom hung over and pe rvaded all. - POE,
" The Fa ll of th e H ouse of Us her "
2 . V e ry fe w trave lers are fortunate enough to get th eir first
view of the T aj as it is best seen . It sho ul d be visited in the
darkn ess befo re the rise of the full m oo n . .Its revc l ati~n s hou ld
he aw;1itcd o n the hi g h marble dais in th e gardens, a mid th e
cy presses and the stretches o f faintly g leam ing water. S it in
silence a nd gaze upo n th e ghostly o utlin e of a while terrace,
a nd beyond , Lowering heavenward, the great pearl-gray bu ild- ing, mis ty a nd dim and w<1 n. See th e pea rl g ray slowly transform ed in to o pal. Wait till the moon climbs hig h, till you feel
th a t th e whole wor ld must surely e ncl <1t th e edge o f the da rk
lawn, that the cloucllike pile beyo nd , with its fai ry turrets and
its lily walls, is not of this ea rth . The memory of that g lorious
vision o f lu minous, dom e-crowned marb le, with its setting of
silent trees a nd lan~be nt pools, will haunt you to your dying
clay . Jt is a n imperi shable recollection, wo rth crossing the
world to ga rn er, worth the sacrifi ce of th e savings of half
a life time.

CHOOSING TH E DETAILS

273

3. The garde n was a lmost en tirely devotee! lo th e cul ti val ion
of fruits a nd flo wers. ll unclrcd s of slaves, Loili11,1~ there cons ta ntly und e r tasteful s upe rvis ion, 111;1de and ke pt it bc:111tif1 il
past descript io n. Ri vulets or JJLllC wate r, s p:11l1l cd by bridges
a nd borde red with flowers, ran th roug h C\'c 1·v p;11l over beds
of sand yellow as g old. Th e pat hs frequ e ntl y led l< J a rti li ci:il
lagoo ns, delig ht fu l for the coo lness tha t lingered a bout th em ,
whe n. the s un looked with h is burnin g eye d01rn upon the
valley; fo r th ey were frin ged wit h will ow and sycamore trees ,
a ll clad with vines as with garm e nt s, a nd so111 e were further
ga rni shed with l i~L l e islamls plL1mcd \1· ith p ; il111~ and mad e
att ract ive by k iosks. No r we re these al l. Fou ntains and cascades fill ed the a ir with sleepy songs; orange g ro ves rose up ,
tes tifying to th e clime th ey ado rn ed ; and in eve ry path small
te ules, on pedes tals of s ton e, so rnin glcd relig ion with th e luvelin css, th at the re co uld be 110 ad mira tion wilh vul worsh ip. vVALLAC E, " The Fair C od "

In c hoosing deta il s a good cl ca l dcpc11cls 0 11 lhc manner of
g rouping. O n e rather loose way consists in reco un tin g t hem
in the o rder in which th l'y occu r, na min g n ext to each other
those you wou ld most natura ll y think of togeth er.
Another way is to group together such detai ls as illu strate some parti cular qua!ity or characteri stic, a nd to let th e
rest go . This method g ives more s ig nifi cance to s in g le detai ls
a nd more life to the descripti on. Th e fo ll o\\i11 g pa rag raph s
illustrate these two kinds of groupings :
1. They fo und th emselves in a low, imme nse room, running
a t rig ht a ngles to the passage th ey had just quitted . The long,
diamond-pa ned window, fi lli ng almost half of the opposite wa ll ,
faced the door by which th ey had come in ; th e heavy, carved
m a ntelpiece was Lo th eir right; a n open doorw ay on their left,
closed a t present by tapestry hang ings, seemed LO lead into ye t
o th er rooms.

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274

l>ESC RlPTION

2 . In side, the hovel was miserable indeed. It belonged lo
th at old and ev il type which the efforts o f the las t twenty years
have clone so much all over E ng land to sweep away: four mud
wa lls, inclosing an oblong space about eight ya rd: Jong, divided
into two un equal portions by a lath-and-plaster par tition, with
no up per sto ry, a thatched roof (now entirely out o f repair a nd
letting in th e rain in several places), and a paved fl oor li ttle
better than th e earth itself, so large a nd cavernous were the
gaps between the stones.

116. Reproduction of Sensations. In descriptive writin g
our purpose is not always me rely to g ive an accurate catalogue
of the sig nifi cant details of an object or scene; we ofte n wi sh
to do more than this, - to make a nother person feel as we
have felt; that is, we wi sh to reproduce in our readers the
sam e sensation s of pity, terror, mirth , that we have had. Perhaps in a wa lk we met a tramp wh ose whole aspect was so forbiddin g that we were g reatly fri ghte ned . Or pe rhaps we have
vis ited a deserted homestead whi ch impressed 11s powerfully
wilh its lonelin ess and forlornness. Naturally, in describing
lh e lramp to our friends we shall again ex perien ce some thing
of t he same te rror that we had before, and shall try to produ ce th e sa me se nsation in our heare rs. So also in th e case of
th e deserted homestead, we shall emphasize on ly the features which contribute to the effect of forlornn ess, wishing
to mak e our fri e nd s feel the desolation of th e sce ne. lf. howeve r, we are desc ribing th e tramp merely to identify him, or
the homestead lo di stin guish it from some oth er deserted farm
in t he sam e neighborhood, we s hall g ive a more matter-offacl description, with more attention to details.

REL'RUl)LJCL N(; S ENSX l'lONS

275

EXERCISES

1. Make a list of the stri ki ng features of some familiar
scene, -plac ing th em in the orde r of im portance . lnclucle
all esse nti a l detail s a nd elimi nale all in sign ifi ca nt ones. The n
write the descripti on, using thi s list as an outlin e .
2. Study the fo ll owin g para graphs and write in a similar
vein a desc ription of some pct a nimal.
Sam is compara ti vely a yo un g clog, only eig hteen months
old, with the wo rld before him. LL is not his fault that he has
no t a romantic name; he did not choose it, nor did I. He
came to o ur house simply as Sam. 1\ ILhough a puppy in
mor.ths, he displayed an ind ependence of characte r that accounted for the fact that he was not called Sammy.
Stick lers about breeds declare that he is a pure mongrel.
H e has the head of a hound, with a large brain . a handsome
fa ce, a nd fin e eyes, commonly sad in ex press ion but capable
o f sparkling with joy o r beaming 11·ith affectio n, and o f fl ashing
with rage and excitement when li e cncoun te rs a n enemy or
cannot have his ow n way . Jn color he is a g lossy black-and-tan,
with a ro un d, sin ewy body, but with legs, alas! too s hort lo
ca rry out the idea of his fa ce Lhat he is a hound; bu t he is so
imm ensely vigo rous that he can go along a lm ost as fast as a
sparrow. The tail is no t bu shy, but if it h:-id a knot of ribbon
on the e nd, it wou ld resemble a Chinaman's queue or the sing le
hraid of a schoolg irl. J\fan y people say that he is not handsome, considered as a dog; and he is not, if a dachshund is
a beauty, or if a pug is considered presentable, - a kind of
dog cut off square at both ends, as if one of many s:-iwed off
from :-i sca ntling o f dog wood !11 be sold by the dozen. Whateve r is the m e~min g of the biblical d ictum that " l lc taketh
not pleasure in the legs of a ma n, " those who kn ow Sam best
cease to criticize hi m in thi s res pect. - CH/\RLICS DUDLEY
\N ARNER, in the Ce11!1trJ'

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276

DESCRll'TlON BY SUGGESTl ON

DESCRll'TlON

277

the effect iveness of a m e re word. A nd h er e in our d esc rip-

3. 1n a d escripti on of some we ll-known person, make j udic io us use of the opinio n or d escri ptio n of oth e rs, togeth e r wit h
wh a t in for m a tion yo u have from pe rson a l know le d ge or
observat io n .

T o say t h a t a scen e was " ch aos," t hat JV! rs. F czz iwig was
"u n e vas t s ubstantia l sm ile," that" fir trees, Ii kc g rim se n t in e ls ,

4. E x plain upon wh a t se n sations th e fo llowin g ext racts
arc based :

satis fy t h e min d pe rh a ps more Lhan lo n ge r a nd m o re exact

1. A lthoug h it was pitch da rk , th e g uid e readily assu red
th em that he was certain it was a fou r-horse stage ratt li ng
down th e hi ll.
2. i\.s he gradua lly awoke he became aware that something
important was happening in the next room just beyond the
thin partition. Evidently a yo ung lad was p leading tearfully
with a yo un g wom an and a n old man.
3 . Althoug h his eyes were carefully bandaged, he decided
that he was being condu cted through a damp und erground
passage. For a time th ey descended deeper and deeper into
th e ea rth, and then ascended aga in for an eq ua l space. Suddenly a heavy door was sw un g open a nd Bertra m j11clged that
he was stand ing on a stone pla_tfonn directly a bove the open
ocean and at a considerable d istan ce from it.
4 . N ight's ca ndles are burnt out, and jocund clay

Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops.
5 . ll e seemed in runnin g to devour th e grou nd.
Ii. J\ sing le crow 0 11 Ll1e hill top bleak

F ro m hi s shi ning feathers shed off the cold sun.

117. Description by Suggestion. n cc1llsL'

(Ir

tive writin g we can make good use of any abil ity thu s acquired.

g uarded Lhe ap p roac h lo th e lake,'' is lo suggest qu ;ililics whi ch
d escripti o n s wou ld. S h a kes peare does not g ive us a descr iption of J'ort ia from w hi c h an arti st could prodUL·c a lik eness;
but h e d oes, t h rough t h e fort un ate suito r, Bassan io, s ugges t
most e ffective ly h e r great bea u ty :
BASSAN IO.

v\l hat find I here

?

l Opmi11g tile !ca rim

ilw ;i1n l 11css

of our ima;..;-Jn;1ti\T faculti es a descriptio n, to be yj,-jd tn l lS,

docs not ncnl lo lie p;1in slak in g ly e:\act or full. Cl fic 11

mskctJ

Fair Portia's co unterfeit ! W hat dem i-god
Hath come so nea r creation? ·l\Tove these eyes?
Or whe th er, ridin g- on th e balls o f min e,
Seem th ey in motion ? 1 lere a rc sevcr 'cl lips,
Parted with s uga r Lireal.11 : so s11.n: I ;1 lu1
S hould s und er such swcc·I fri('11cl s. 11 nc i11 her h:1irs
Th e painter plays th i: spidn :111d kith 11<11·c11
A golden mesh lo cnlr; qJ tlic hcMl.s of 111 e11
Faster than g na ts in cobwebs: l111 t he r eyes,~
H ow co uld he see to do th em ? ha ving made 0 11 e,
Methinks it should hav e power to sli::il h ot. Ii hi s
And leave itself unfurni sh'd . \'l'i look . hn w far
The substance of my pr:1i q · rl"i h 11-r< •11,.; this ski< lrn1·
In 1111Lk rpri7.in :c: ii. so f:11· ilii" :drnl<1\1
I )nth limp behind th e· suhs l:nw1·.
S11.\~1- , 1 · 1-:

11,1- , ·· ·11w \l,T, li;1111

,,r \ , 111, ,.

"ill'

worcl or s h ort p lirase \vi ll suggcsl !he whole cffccl that \1·nu lcl

n atura ll y be ctlt1inccl by a much l o n ~er trP:itmcnt. Tn nur
s tudy of words in Chapters fl T ;inrl TV \\'C h;i\-e a lrc:irly learned

I t w ill lw wo r th \\'hilc l() slut!\' the· suggest in · l<1 l<l' ()I ilw
di:s cripli vc words in the lollmYi11c: <j11<1t;lli "1 1. I ,ii; (' 1!i ,· :1utli11r
of t h ese lin es . we shall nllcn lie •·011lrn11L('d 11·itli t lH· i w<·<·'' ·' ilv

! '

I l l<:SCJZ Ll"l'lON
o f tellin g mu c h in a few words.

l NC lU EN TAL

lt is then that we must m ake

our d esc ription s uggestive rather than complete.

J J l ~ SCR lPTlO N

279

of a m e re tou c h; a nd so m et im es o n e p a rti c ular f eature of
this outline is single d out for g reate r d e tail.

;\nd th e n wait yet for one hour, w hil e th e eas t again becomes purple, and the heaving mounta ins, rolling against it
in d a rkn ess like wa ves of a wild sea, a re drowned o ne by one
in the g lory of its burning; watch the w hi te glacie rs blaze in
th e ir winding paths about the mountain s, li ke mig hty se rpents
with scales of fire; watch th e column ar pea ks of so lita ry s now,
kindlin g d ownwa rd , cha sm by chasm , each in it·self a new
morn ing; their long a va lanches cast dow n in keen streams
brig hter than th e light nin g, sendin g each her tribute of
dri ve n snow, like altar-smoke up to the heaven s. - RusK IN,
" Mode rn l 'ainters"
EXERCISES

1. Il e pre pare d to g ive an or;il descripti o n o f th e ge neral
scene that is s ugges ted by one of th e following quota tions :
1. The low moa n of leaden-colored seas.
2. The clock throbb ed thund e r through the palace halls.

::\. The singing 111;1sons building ruols ul. go ld.
4 . . . . the mo rn , in ru sset mantle clad,
W a lk s o'e r th e clew of yon hig h easte rn hill.

In the followin g paragrap h s not ice how eas il y and effective ly th e incid e nta l bits of d esc ription are in trod u ced :
1. Mrs. L ouden brightened in expressibl y wheneve r Eugene
s poke of himself, a nd co nsequ e ntly s he g lowed mos t of th e
time. H e r hus band - a heavy, melan choly, sik11l man with a
g rizzled bea rd a nd no mu stac he - lmvc rcd at Joe throu g hout
the meal, but appea red lo L;1ke a strange cu111 fnrt in his stepso n's elega nce an d polish. Euge ne \Y o re nc11· eve nin g cloth es
and was lust rou s to eye an d ea r. - JJ()oT11 T ARK JNC:ToN, " The
Conqu est of Canaan"
2. The wind \\';1 s pleasa nt ; I.he evenin g fine; the sky , th e
ea rth, and th e w; 1le r beau tiful lo loo k upon . .l;ul Mr. Cowley
and l he ld o ur peace, ;1ml s;1id nothin g o l t i ll' g:1y sig hts around
us, lest we s hou ld loo feeli ng ly n-mind !\Ir. 1\I il t"n nf hi s c:t\;1111 ity; whereof, however, he needed 11<1 m o nit or, l<1r sou 11 he s:1id
sadly : "1\ h. !\fr. ( 'mv\C'v , vou ;11 v ;1 \1 ;1p1)v 111 :1 11. \\ "\i;1t 11·()\ i\d I
now g ive hut fnr n11c m on · look ;11 th e s 1111. :1ml tlic walLTS.
;1ml the s:trdc'llS or this 1:111 l ilv I ..

Note h ow, in pa ra grap h 2 , Lhe s ingle s e nte n ce of outline
d esc ription is n ot in trodu ced fo r ils own sakt..: a lone, bu l as

ii
~·;

2. Brin g to class a list of at least fi ve ex pressio n s, taken
from good I iterature, which d escribe by s uggesti o n. Give

an a id to the rest of th e di sco urse .
119. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis.

c r ed it for each expression.
3. I ksnibc ti 1c pl 1ys ical characte rist ics of one of th ese men
so th a t th e class wi ll r ecogni ze the person: \V;:is hington,
Fr;mklin I ,illl'"ln. Grant, ]t>fferson. You wi ll proh:ihlv find
'
.
- portr:iits o f a ll t h ese men in your hi story t·f'xthn0k.

ti o n, whel11er it cu n sisls of 0 11 c p;11;1gr;ipli ur ()f se\Tral, tli l·

W1..

tests of unity, co lwre11C'c, :1 11<1 1·11111l1;1sis sl 1uu ld iiL· ;1ppliL·1l.

!.'.!I.

l• j !

Jn eve ry cc1 111pos i-

1:

~
' ~

I'

'f

l'crh ;1 ps in none of the dirln1·11t kill(];; of co1nposili"11 is :1
s tri ct adherence to these principl1 ·s mo re irnpn rt:mt th:111 in
ck sc ri ptivc w ritin g. / \ rn11drlkd d csi-r ip t iu11 1·:1 ils ul k 1Iv of ils

118. The Incidental Description.

vVheu a description

JS

purpnsc . Jt is he lter 1-n lc;l\'c ;111 ol1int or scclll· 1111clcsnilw<I

introdu ced inc ide nta ll y, as pa rt of a la rge r compos iliun , il

(fn r th e rea d er 's im a~ i11 :1l i " n ll'il l a l\\:11,·s suppl _1· s<1111dl1i11.".1

generall y co n s is ts of a. m e r e ouLI i ne, not infrel] ue n Lly, imlccJ,

lh a n lo asse mbl e d ela ii s in a 1,1c;1k :111d i11cllctli1,c 11 1;111111·1.

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28 1

DES CRIPTIO N

lJESCRlPTl ON I N NA RRATIVE

T o secure uni ty, re mind yourself constantly of (1) your
purpose in wri tin g (is it to ente rta in , to instruct, to g ive info rmatio n, or to g ive a certain specific effect, as of forlornn ess,
povcrly, a nd the like?) ; (2) your point of view (do not fo rget
wh ere and who yo u are wi th refere nce to your d escription ).
To secure coherence in your d escription: (r) do not includ e too m a ny deta ils; (2) eli minate the ins ig niflcant deta ils;
(3) do not shift your point of vie w without clearly s howi ng
that yo u have do ne so.
To secure e m p has is in your desc rip tion : ( 1) pass li g htly
over the less im porta nt d etails; (2) g ive spec ial atten tion to
the cho ice of words in the m ore importa nt parts of the
d escr iption .

120. Description as related to Narration and Exposition.
In our readin g we have found that descriptio n oftenest appears as a part of a na rrative or a n ex positio n and not as
a di stin ct for m of com position. On lhc other hand, many
descriptions includ e a littl e narration or a bit of expos ition,
but if t heir main object clearly is to make th e r eade r see
so me dc flnite object or. to ex peri e nce a certa in se nsation,
they a rc essentia ll y d esc ript ions a nd shou ld be treated as
s uch in our pract ice wo rk. Thi s quotalion from S Levcnson
has been written in a pleas in g narrative sty le, but is none the
less a d escripti on o f th e se nsa tions which th e bell s produced
upon the author.

280

EXERCISES

1. Write a letter to a fri e nd and make good use of th e
in cide n tal description. Do not, however, introduce d escripti ve phrases except where they add to the understand in g or
effect of th e whol e.
2. He prepared to criticize orall y th e unity, coherence, and
e mph as is of the lette r wri tten as Exercise r .
3. Write a short incident (see C hap . J X , pp. 244- 247) in
whi ch you m ake good use of description . L et it be eith er
i nc icle nt:a l or a marked feature, whic hever will add m ore to
th e e ffective ness of the narrative. Do not delay th e climax
o( the in cident in a ny way.
4. /\ fri end of yo urs is goin g to C hi cago to ta.kc a new
pos it io n . vVri te to an imagina ry acq uainta nce li ving in that
c ity, askin g him or her to meet thi s fri end at th e station .
Re m e mbe r t hat th e description by whi ch a person ca n recognize a s tr:m ge r must be ski llfully drawn .
5. C hoose for a d escription a subj ect s uggested by on e of
th e paragraphs quoted on page 279.

On the other side of the valley a g roup of red roo fs and a
belfry showed among th e fo liage. Thence some inspi red bell
ringer made the afte rnoon musical on a chime o f bells. There
was something very sweet and taking in the air he pbyed, and
we thought we had never heard bell s speak so in tellig ibly or
sing so melodiously as these. Jt mu st have been Lo some such
measure that the spinn ers and the yo 1111g maid s sang, " Come
away, Death," in the Shak espearean 1ll_v ri a. There is so often
a threatening note, something b l at~11 1 t a11d metallic, in Lhe voice
of bel ls, that I believe we have full y more pain Lhan pleasure from hearin g th em ; but th ese, ;1s they sounded abroad,
now high, now low, now \vith a plai11 Live ca dence that caught
the car li ke th e burden of a popu lar so ng, were always moderate :ind tun abl e, and see med to fal l in with the s pirit of st ill ,
ru stic places, li ke the noise of a w;1Le rfall or the bab ble of a
rooke ry in spring. I co uld have as ked the bell ringer fnr hi s
blessing, good, sedate old man, who sw ung the rope so gently
to th e time of hi s med itations . T cnulcl have blessed th e priest
or the heritors, or whoever m;iy he cn nccrnecl wit h such ;1ffairs
in France, who hacl left these SIVl'Cl old hell s to glarl<kn the
a fternoon , and not held meetings, and made co ll cctiuns, and

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282

had th e ir nalll cs repea tedly prin ted in the loca l pa per, lo rig up
a peal of lm 111d -11 e1v, brazen, Jlirming halll -hca rted s ubs titu tes,
wl1n shou ld bombard th eir sides to th e provocatio n o f a brandl ll'IV h l· ll rin ~n, a nd fill th e ec hoes o f th e va ll ey with tc rrur
;ind riol. - ST1·:n :NSUN, "J\n Jnl an d Voyage"
Jn t li e d esc ripti o n of o ne of th e h a rd es t winters ever
c hro nicled, we ha ve a p assage w hi c h mi g h t be conside red
;m cx p os 1t10 11.

EXERCI S l ~ S

J)ESCRll'Tl ON

Hut the s ubj ect has bee n carefully limite d,

producin g o n lhe read e r the effect of a m ost unus ua l ph enom e n o n , a nd a ll t h e d e ta il s a r e d esc rip tive of wc h a n eve nt.

of

It is rat h e r a viv id d esc ripti o n
i nte n se cold Lha n a m e re
ex pos it io n o f th e fa c ts atte ndin g it.
That g rea t s now neve r ceased a m oment fo r three clays
and night s . . . . \\'e we re obliged to coo k by candle lig ht; we
were forced to read by candle light; as fo r baking, we could
not do it, because th e ove n 11·as too chill ; a nd a load of fagots
o nl y broug ht a little wet clo wn the s ides of it. ...
'J'h ;1t ni g ht such a fro st ens ued as we had 1wv0 r dreamed of,
neith e r read in a ncie nt boo ks o r his to ri es of Frobisher. Tbe
ket tle by the fire froze, and th e crock u po n th e hearth cheeks;
rna ny 111 c11 we re killed, an d catt le rigid in the ir headropes.
'l'h l' n J hc;1rd th at fearfu l so und whi ch never I had hea rd
hd nn:, ne ith e r sin ce have hea rd , except durin g that sam e
\1·int e r, - th e sha rp yet solemn so und of trees burst open by
till' frn s t-hl o\\'. Om g rea t w;i l11 1_1t 11)<;[ th ree b ranchcs ::n1d has
liccn dy i11g C'\'l'r s ince, tho ug h grow ing mean w hile, as the so ul
r_I, ,,_.,_ . \ 11..! l iiL· ;111 cic11 l o;ik al the cruss 11·as rc 11 l, ;md rn a ny
score of ;ish lrccs . Dut \rhy sho uld 1 te ll all this? The people
w hn h:11-c not. seen it (as I hctve) will onl y make fa ces a nd cli slie lie vc . till such ;m other frost co mes, whi ch pe rhaps may never
be. - .i: L. 1\ C K~10 1 1 1-:, " L o rn a U oo ne"

EXERCISES

1. Describe orally a woma n e ngaged m s hoppin g w ho
s udd e n ly notices tha t it is tim e for her lo t;t kc a lr<1 in .
2 . vVrite a three-hundre d-word d escripti o n of any l wo of
t he fo llow ing cl1arac le r s of fi c li o n . /\ vo id us in g lh c bn g uagc
of the a u th o r.
Mrs. Micawber
The Artfu l D oelger
Ma rgare t Ogil vie
Dr. Lavencl a r
Rachel
Silas M a rn e r
Effie D eans
Paul Dombey
Good y Blake
Mrs. Gummiclge

Jl vpalia
S hylock
Th e L.1dy of S halutl
Th e Lad y of th e Lak e
Robin H ood
J\li Baba
Tom Rro wn
S ir Roge r de Cnvcrl cy
Els ie V c nn er
l'i·iday

3. At a party g ive n by a fri e nd yo u lost som e a rticle, s uc h
as a fan, an e mbroide re d h a ndk erc hi e f, or a c uff link. Wr ile
a lelle r to yo ur h ost o r h ost css, rl csn ihi n g t li e l1>sl ;1 rl ic k 111 inu tely. Take pains to ass ure yo ur fr ie nd Lk1t t h e loss w;1s
du e to your ow n n eglige nce , ;1!1ll phrase th e \\'hole lcllcr in
s uc h a way as n ot to hurt feel ings.
4. R o me was sac ke d by th e Ca uls 111 390 l \.l. \ Vri tc ;1
one- paragraph c.l csc rip tio n ()r t li e c ity afln th e s;tl L. T he
fo ll ow in g- p:ira ,c;rap h m:w hC' sw•: .~~ec;tiv(' :
The fa ce o f L o nd on was 11 "11·, i11dccd , s tr;mgcly ;1 li<'rctl :
mea n th e whol e 111:iss o f IH1i lt! 111 ;~·" · ,i1 \·, lili nl it'"· s1iln 11I" .
'v\icst min sk r, Soul hw;1rk , :111CI :ill11g1·tlicr t"r ;is 111 II\(' 1•:11
ticul ar pa rl call ed th e C it y, or withi11 the wall s, th:it was n<>I Y"I
m uch infected. Hut in th e 11·hok . th e fa ce of things. I .c:1y. \1:1 c
muc h alte red. Sorrow ;11 HI s; l(li 1l'ss sat 11po11 e ve ry f;we . :1 11CI
th oug h some part were not )Tl <> l 'l'l'I\ helmed . ye t ;ill l1111kcd

- -- ---. . -- -. . -. . - -... -. .-- -. .--lliliiir---. .-,-:- ---- - - -~oiir""1a·~~~~...ft-

-

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JJESC RLPTLO N
deeply concern ed ; and as we saw it apparently coming on, so
every one looked on him se lf a nd his fam ily as in the utm ost
cb ngc r_ . . . London might well be said to be a ll in tears .
Th e mourn ers did not go about the streets, indeed ; fo r nobody
pl1t on black, or made a fo rm al dress of mournin g for their
nearest fri ends ; but the voice of mournin g was tru ly heard in
the streets. Th e shrieks of women and child ren at the windows
a nd doors of their houses, whe re their nearest relations were
perh a ps dying, or just dead , were so frequ ent to be heard as
we passed the streets, tha t it was enough to pierce the stou tes t
hear t in th e wo rld to hear them . T ears and lamentations were
seen almost in every house, especially in the first pa rt of the
visitation ; for towa rd the latte r e ncl men's hearts were ha rde ned, and dea th was so always befo re their eyes that they did
not so mu ch concern themselves for the loss of their fri ends,
ex pecting th at themselves should be summon ed the next hour.
DEFOE , " History of the P lague in L ondon "

5. Assume that you are apply ing fo r a position in a distant
city and that you li ave been req uested to forwarcl a description
of yo urself and your abiliti es. W ri te t he lette r.
· 6. Write a descri ption based on a subj ect suggested by th e
ex lr;1ct fro m "An Inland Voyage" on pages 2 8 1 - 282 .
7. \\I rite a paragra ph, descri bin g inte nse h eat.
8. l ; ivc orally the substance of C hapter I X .

CH A PTER X I
EXPOSITION

121. Exposition Defined. O f Ll1 c differe nt forms of composition, ex positio n is the most fam ili;ir to Lh c hi g h-sc hoo l
pupil and also Lo Lh e a verage pcrsu n. E xpos ili on is cx pl;1na tion. Every textbook is a n ex posilio n, each chapter in th e
textboo k is a shorter exposition, ancl ma ny of th e sections of
th e chapte rs arc s till shorter ex pos itions. l\'Tost of our correspondence is exposition. Vic write Lo on e fri c11d, tel lin g why
we cannot acce pt hi s in vitati on; to an other, te lli ng why a
holiday was pleasant ; a nd so 011. \Ve arc continu all y pointin g
out th e use of so me a rticle and ex plainin g some act o r moti ve.
122. Exposition and Description. T o 11-r ilc a desc rip t ion
of a perso n docs not require a kmmlccl gc o f hum a n nature
o r eve n an acquainta nce 11·ith Lh c 11lTso1 1. fo r in descript io n
o ne writes chi e fl y of what one Sl'CS. Th e d escrip t ion is a
photog raph which a stra nger could make, but an ex pos it ion
o[ a pe rson mu st deal with traits of characte r an d can be
writte n only by o ne who kn ows somclhin g of Lh c hab its ;iml
life of that person. Dcscripti un photog raph s ; cx pus iti u11
explains the photograp>. To cl cscr ihc a sce ne requ ires on ly
a ca meralike accuracy, 1d1:le an ex pos it io n o f the scene sets
fort h t he secre t of its cha rm. ;\11 y hi g h-school pu pi l shou ld
be able to wri te a desc ripti on of a thuncl e rs to rm , but how
many have the kn owledge ncccss;i ry lo c_1j>lai11 Lh c pec uli ar
action of th e clouds, th e wind s, Ll1 c thunder, and tli c flas hes
of lig ht that make up the sto rn1 ?
~ss

,Iii:•

1·:x1·us L'1·1u i'\

28G

Th e fol lo1V in g parag raphs illustrate th e differe nce between
desc riptio n a nd e:-.: positio n:
DESC RTPTION

The c ha nn els . . . se rve th e Ven etians instead o f s treets to
pass wit h far mo re exped itio n o n the s:im e than t hey do o n
t he ir la nd streets, a nd th at by certain little boats whi ch th ey
call ;;011do/11s, Lh e fa irest t hat eve r T saw in any place. F o r
n on e o f the m a rc open a bove, but fairl y cove red, first w ith
so m e fifteen o r s i:-.: tcc n little ro und p ieces o f Limbe r th at reach
from o ne e ncl to th e other, and ma ke a pretty kind of a rch , o r
vault, in th e go nd o la ; Lh i.;11 ll' ilh fair b lack c lo lh w hi ch is
lurncd 11p at: bolh e nd s o f Lh e boat, to th e end that if t he
p asse nge r m e;rnc th to he pri vate he may draw dow n th e
sa m e , a nd after ro w so secrc t l_1· that no man can sec him . Jn
th e in sid e th e be nches a rc fin e ly cove red w ith black lea the r,
a nd t he bollom s
m a ny o f th e m toget her w ilh the s ides
unde r th e be nches a rc very neatly ga rni s hed w ith fi ne line n
cloth, th e ed ge whe reo f is laced w ith bo ne lace. Th e e nd s are
bea utif11l w ilh lwo pre tty and in ge ni u 11 s d ev ices. - T1 -1 0~ 1 A s
LlW v A TI·: ( 15 77 - 1Gr 7 ), " Obser vatio ns o f Ve n ice"

or

Ex l'OSIT l uN
Th l' k1rb0 r o f Co nsta nt inop le, ,,· hi ch m :-iy be co ns ide red
;1n ;mn n f the Bosporu s, obtain ed in a ve ry re m ote p e ri od
the d eno minati o n o f th e " ( ;o lde n H o rn ." Th e curve w hi ch
it d esc rib es mig h t be co mpared to th e ho rn o[ a stag, o r, a s it
s hou ld see m w ith m ore propric ly, to that of a n ox . The epith e t nf " go lde n " 1vas ex pressive o f th e ri ches whi ch eve ry w in d
wa ft ed from t he m ost di slan t co u ntri es in to th e secure a nd
ca pacio us port o f Co nsta ntin o ple . Th e ri ve r L yc us, fo rm ed by
th e co nrlu x of lwo li ttle s trea m s , pours into th e harbor a p e rp etua l s upply o f fres h wate r, whi ch ser ves to clea nse th e botto m
an d lo inv ite th e peri od ical s hoa ls of fis h to see k the ir ret reat

VALUE O F EXPO SHlO N

287

· in th at co n ve n ient recess. 1\ s th e vicissitu des of tides a rc
scarce ly fe lt in those seas, Ll1 c co nstant depth o f t he harbor
a ll ows good s to be land ed o n t he q uays without th e ass is la m:c
o f boats, a nd it has been obse rved Lhat in rnany pl:-ices th e
la rges t vesse ls m ay rest the ir pruws aga in st t h<.: houses whil e
th e ir stern s arc fl oatin g in th<.: 11·:-ite r. l'ro m th e mo n th of t he
Lycus to t hat of the ha rbo r thi s ;mn of th e llos porus is more
than seve n mil es in lengt h. - G 1n1 :0N, " The .1Jccli11e ;md Jiall
of th e Rom a n Empire"
EXERC ISES

1. vVrite a pz1r;igra ph of ;1ho ut o n e h unclrcd an d fifty \Yorcl s,
o; pb inin g th e differen ce !Jctwec1i e:-.: pos it ion a nd <ksnipti o n .
J kvelo p th e parag raph by m ea ns of exa mp les .
2. vVr ite a s hort desc ripli o n of Jknj;1 mi11 Fr;1nklin.
3. vVrite a s hort e xpos ili on of Fra n k lin , u s in g :ts much of
th e description just wri tte n as m ay be n ecessary or desir;dJlc.
4 . .Som e of t he ex press ions usecl by Th om;1s lorya tc (p. 2S(1)
are qua int a nd o ld-fashio ned. Co ns ult an un a bri dged diction ary and be pre pa re d to g ive c·qui v; tl c nt m ode rn cx press i<Jn s.

123. Practical Value of Exposition . In sp ite ol. Lhe strc;\111
of fi clion whic h is con sta ntl y p()uring from th e press. the
largest part of o ur printed matle r, whe th e r i 11 per iod ic:tl nr
book fo rm, cons is ts of e:-.:pos ili on. Th e wor ld is lwn g ry for
information abo ut other countri es, a bou t m e n ;i ml 1yom cn who
have con s picuo us ly s ucceeded o r s ign:1 lly fa il e d . ;t buul rece nt
in ve n tio ns, n ew for m s o( pl eas ure, 11cw voc;1tio ns, ;rncl a hou t
Lhe m ore serious but less ta ng ible probl e m s o f li fe. I\ ltJst
lette r writin g is of an cx posilo ry nature, cs pec i;tll y bu sin ess
corresponde n ce. 'vVhethe r we eve nlually beco me sc hoolteachers, s te nograph e rs . sales m e n , or lawye rs , we sh;1 ll con sta ntl y find it n ecessa ry lo m ake use of u r:tl o r mi tte n

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EX l'OSlTlON

cx pos1t1on. Note the teac her's work in th e classroom, a nd
co mpare Lhc s killful ex pl anation of th e expert sales ma n with
th e in cffcclivc pe rfo rma nce of th e med iocre cl erk . You will
rcaclily sec that much of our bread-and -butter success depe nds
upon our sk ill in e ith e r oral o r writte n ex pos ition.
124. Approaching Ex position throu gh Description . Th e
natural way to ap proach th e writin g of ex position is th roug h
clcscri plio n. \Vatch yo ur s peech and co n versa ti on fo r a cl ay,
to sec i ( yo u do not usually first descr ibe a n obj ect, pe rhaps
very briefly. and Lhcn c;-;plai n it . In most cases yo u feel Lhat
th e m ere descri pti on is not adequ ate to ma ke t he des ired impress ion on yo ur h eare r. But by leadin g yo ur descripti on into
expos iLi on yo u ma ke it poss ibl e to g ive yo ur hearer or reader
a n ex plana ti on whi ch is limiLed only by your know ledge of
th e subj ect.
In t he fo ll owing parag rap h s Lhe autho r's pur pose has been
to ex pbin the lirnck il ns, a nd the pure desc rip tion is a n ecessa ry part of thi s ex planatio n.
J L [t he lim ekiln ] was a rud e, ro un d, towerlik e stru ctu re
abo ut twenty feet high, heavily built of rou g h stones, and with
a hillock of earth hea ped abo u t the b rge r pa rt of its circumfe re nce, so Lhal th e blocks a nd fragme nts o f marble mig h t be
draw n by carll oads a nd throw n in a t the to p. T he re was a n
o pe nin g at the bottom o f the tower lik e a n oven-m o uth, but
large e nough to admit a m an in a stooping posture, a nd provided with a mass ive iro n doo r. vViLh th e smoke a nd jets o f
fl a me issuing fro m the chinks a nd crev ices o f thi s doo r, whi ch
seem ed to g ive ad mitta nce in to the hillside, it rese mbled n othing
so mu ch as the pri vate e ntr ance to th e infern al regio ns, w hi ch
th e she phe rds of th e Delectable :Mounta ins we re · accus to med
to s how to pilg rim s.

EXPOS ITION TH ROUG H DESCRIP'l'lON

289

The re a re ma ny s uch li mekilns in th at tract of co untry, fo r
th e purpose of burni ng the while m a rbl e whi ch composes a
la rge pa rt of the s ubsta nce of Lh e hill s. So me of th em, bui lt
years ago an d lo ng d csc1tcd, with weeds grow ing in th e vacant
ro und of th e int e rior, which is ope n Lo the s ky, a nd grass a nd
wild fl owers rooting th e mselves inlo the chin ks of th e stones,
look a lread y li ke relics of ant iq uity, and may ye t IJe oversp read
with liche ns of cen turies to com e. Others, whe re the lime
burn er s till reed s hi s da il y a nd ni r~ ht- l o n g fire, affo rd po ints or
in te rest to Lhe wande re r am o ng th e hills, who scats him sel f o n
a log of wood or a fragm e nt or marble Lo hold a cha t with th e
soli ta ry ma n. lt is a lo nesome a nd , whe n th e cha racte r is inclined to tho ug h t, may be an in te nsely tho ug htful occupat io n,
as it proved in th e case .of Etha n Jlra nd , who had mused to
s uch s tra nge purpose. in days go 11c by, while th e fir e in this
ve ry kiln was burning. - I LAWT ll O R NE, "Eth a n Dra ne! "
E XERCISES

1. D escribe th e first hi g h mountain yo u ever saw or Lh e

fi rst sig ht of the ocean yo u ever had, a nd explain the effect
it had on you.
2. Assume th at you have in yo ur attic a n old-fa shioned
mahogany bureau, a nd th at you know a coll ector of a ntiques
who might wish to buy it. Wr ilc a lcltcr to this imagina ry
person, describi ng the bureau minu tely, tellin g of its age, its
source, and th e like . G ive such complete in fo rmation that
the coll ector will need to as k no q uestions .
3. In writing a n expos ition of one of the fo ll ow ing subjects,
begin with a brie f description :
A
A
A
A

Ho rserake
L aw n M ower
V acuum C lean" r
Chum

A
A
A
A

Mow ing Machin e
C ul tivato r
S treet R olle r
F ireless Cooker

EXPO::ifflON

125. Arrangement of Material. To secure a satisfactory
ar ran gement of our material we ca n well afford to take the
time and pain s necessary to mak e a defi ni te plan.
Sometim es the subj ect determines the ord er of t he main
d ivisio ns of an ou llin e. One step leads inevitab ly to Lh e next;
we arc not free, as in narrative and d escripti on, Lu gai n emphasis through position. 'Ne may, however, give most space
Lo matters whi ch need most ex planation, and in this way
secure emphasis throu gh proportion. When we a.re free to
choose th e ord er, it is wise not to g ive th e most diffi cult part
of th e explanati on at once. It is better to begin with somet hin g whi ch is comparatively simpl e.
If we can be clear a nd at th e same time secu re climax, we
s hou ld by a ll mea ns do so: but we mu st rem ember that, no
matter how interest in g we mak e our explanat ion, it is a fa ilure
if it is not clea r at al l poin ts . \Nhen we have reached th e end
of our expos iti on, we ha ve not altogether succeeded in our
attempt if our reader or hearer has questions to ask.
126. Methods of Exposition. In an earli er chapter we have
fou nd that the comm on method s of developin g th e paragraph
arc by detail s, or particu lars; by g ivin g exampl es or illustrations; by repetiti on, or restate ment of the thoug ht; by compari son and co ntrast ; and by cause and effect. In exposition
a ll arc used to some extent, but two are parti cularly helpful :
ampl ifi cati on by exampl es or illu stration s, an d amplifi cation by
compa rison and contrast. Sometimes a sin g le th eme will includ e all these methods of development, a nd not infrequently
a sin g le para g raph will show more than one .
Ofle n Lhe first step in an expositi on mu st be a carefull y
thought-out drfi11itio1t. Thu s, if we are writing on " R ecent
Literature, " we must define th e significan ce of " li terature,"

:tllETHOJ) S (H' J<:X l'O S 1Tl ON

sin ce this term has many s hades of meaning. Not on ly is
definition a method used in develop in g expos iti on, but it is
in itself a form o( ex position and will be so co nsidered in a
later sectio n.
Th e fo ll owing paragraphs illustrate the use of th e differ
ent methods :
COMl'i\R IS(l N /IND CONTRA ST, AN JI l LLUSTR AT ION

A Co1llel 's Tail. Compared with a comet's Lail, th e filmi est
fa bri cs is coarsely d ense. A locomolive das hin g Lhroug h ;1
fog may be li ke ned to o ur earlh plung ing throug h the tail of
1 lall ey's come t. Tli e fog, however, is a thi ck bl;:inket compared with Llic wonderfu l di ap ha nous texture of Lhat tail. Indeed, the air we breath e, o r eve n th e bes t vacuu m Lhat we
ca n produce, is far d enser. H e nce it is that stars ca n be seen
through the ta il of a comet without a ppreciable diminution in
brig htness. a nd he nce it is that, alth o ugh its length may exceed
a hundred millio n miles. th e ma lte r co ntained in a tail can all
be packed in an ord in ary room. A co me t may occupy a volume
a thousand tim es in excess of th e s un's and yet swee p through
th e sola r system without de ran g ing a sing le pl a ne t. J\ plum!"
o f s uch fa iry lig htness ca n hard ly be s upposed Lo remai n permanent, a nd so it is not as tonishin g to find that during its
swif t journey around the s un a co met's outlin es are constantl y
chang ing . A sing le hou r may work 1Yonde rs in that g hostly shea f
of Jig-ht wh ich we call a come t's tail. - vV ALDEMAR KAEMPFFERT, "The Stranger in th e Winte r Sk ies." in the Circle.

or

DETAILS , CAUS I·: AN11 EFFECT , AN !• C(l,!! ' 1\RI SON AN D CONTRAST

The g reat charm of S teele's writin g is hi s n;ituraln ess. I-l e
wrote so qu ickl y and careless ly tlrnl he was forced to make th e
read e r his confidant, a nd had not the time to deceive him. He
h:i d a s mall share of book lemning. but a vast acq uaintance wilh
th e wo rld . 11 e h;1d kn own me n a nd ta ve rns. Tle had li ved with

EXPOSlTION
g uns men, with troopers, with ge ntle men u she rs of the Co urt,
with me n a nd wo men of fashion, with authors and wits, with
the inmates o f th e sponging houses, a nd with the frequente rs
of all the clubs and coffeehouses in th e town. He was liked
in all company because he liked it ; and yo u li ked to see his
e nj oyme nt as yo u li ked to sec the glee of a boxful of children
at th e panto mime. He was not of those lonely ones of the
ea rth whose g reatness obliged them to be soli tary; on the
co ntrary, he ad mired , I thin k, more than a ny oth e r man who
ever wrote, and, full of h earty applause a nd sympathy, he
wins u pon yo u by calli ng yo u to sha re his delig ht a nd good
humor. H is la ugh rings through the whole house. He mus t
have been in va lu able a t a tragedy, and have cri ed as mu ch
as the m ost tend er yo un g lady in the boxes. - THACKERAY,
" English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century"
COJ\!PARI SON AND CONTRAST , A ND REPETIT ION

C redit is a co nseq uence, not a cause; the effect of a s ubstance,
not a substance; 't: is th e s unshine, not the s un ; the qui ckenin g
some thin g , ca ll it what yo u will, that g ives life to trad e, g ives
being to the bra nches, and moisture to th e root; 'tis the oil of
the wheel, th e ma rrow in th e bon es, the blood in the veins, of all the trade, cash, a nd comme rce in th e world ... .
'Tis appa rent, eve n by its nature, 'tis no way dependent
iqxm pe rso ns, parlia ments, or a ny particular men or set of men ,
as such , in th e wo rld , but upo n their condu ct a nd just behavior.
Cred it was neve r chained to me n's na mes, but to their actions ;
not to fa milies, clans, or collections of men; n o, not to nations;
'tis th e ho no r, lhe ju stice, the fa ir d ealing, a nd the equ al conduct of me n, bodi es of me n, natio ns, and people, tha t raise the
thing called credit among them. - DEFOE, "An Essay upon
Public C red it "

METHODS OF E X POSlTlONS
DETAILS AND PARTl CULARS

I had yeste rd ay, abo ut fi ve in lhe a fternoon , a n opportunity
of trying Mr. Franklin 's experim e nt of extra cting th e e lectrical
fire from the clouds ; and s ucceeded by mea ns of a tin tube
be tween three and fo ur feet in length, fi xed to the top of a
g lass one of abou t eightee n inches. To the upper e nd of a
tin tube, which was not so hig h as a stack of chimneys on th e
sam e ho use, I faste ned three need les with some wire; and to
the lower encl was soldered a tin cover to kee p the rain from
th e glass tube, whi ch was set uprig ht in a block of wood. I
attended this apparatus as soon afle r the thu nd e r beg-an as
possible, but d id not find it in the least electrifi ed till be tween
th e th ird and th e fo urth clap; and, ap proac hing it a second time,
I received the s park at a di sta nce of about half an inch, and saw
it d istinctly. This I rep eated fou r o r fi ve times in the space of
a minute, but th e spark s g rew weake r and weake r, a nd in less
than two minutes the tin tube did not appear to be e lectrifi ed
at all. T he ra in continu ed dur·ing· t. lic thu nd e r, bu t was consid e rab ly abated a t the tim e of ma kin g the expe rim e nt. - Letter
of Mr. W. WATSON, F. IZ.S ., lo th e Roya l Socie ty, in J<ranklin 's
" Philosophical Pape rs "
EXERCISES

1. \!Vrite an explanation of some apparatus with wh ich you
a rc fami liar (such as a n add ing mach in e, an incubator, a spray
pump, an electric clock, a visible typew ri ter) and develop lw
particulars and examples. Ma ke use of outlin e drawings if
th ey will help to make your ex pos iti on clear.
2. Brin g to class specim ens of expos ition wh ich are developed by means of detai ls or parti cul ars, by examples
or illustrations, by repetition, by comparison an d contrast,
and by cause and e ffect. F ind these spec im ens outside of
this book.

I
1:

I

I

I

294

J<:XPO S lTJ ON

3. Compare a nd contrast in a s in gle paragraph on e of th e
following : dtaradcr and rcp 7ttation; talent a nd grmius;
tart a nd !11/n1t; t/1c oo-mt i11 a storm and a forest ill a temfrs t; io· lwc/.:q a nd fie ld lwcl.:c_11; a penon wlw is seiftnri11ed and 011r wlto is rollexr-trai11rd.
4. Find some troubl esome prob1e m in algebra. Solve thi s
proble m as yo u would for the regular algebra recitation. Th en
wrilc a n ex planati on of your soluti on such as a teach er wou ld
ma ke to a pupil who did not uncl crstancl th e process .

127. Special Forms of Exposition. Among th e many form s
of exposition the followin g a rc of special interest: (r) definiti o ns; (2) notes; (3) book rev iews; (4) editorial parag raph s;
(5) c haracte r sketc hes ; (6) letters .
128. Definitions. \Ve ca nnot al ways use words that arc
fa mili ar to our readers. Often , in order to be understood, we
n eed to fa ll back o n de finiti on.
On occas io n a term may be sufli cie ntly defin ed by exp lain in g its de rivation. F or in stance, "ex pos iti on" may be descr ibed as a " setting forth ," sin ce it comes from th e Latin
ex+ po110, " to set forth." Hut often we ca nn ot satisfactoril y
defin e a te rm either by mea ns of a sy nonym o r by giv in g its
de ri vati o n, :rncl in such cases we should not hesita te to elaborate our definiti on as much as we think necessary to make
the m atte r clear to our ·readers.
Compare lh esc two definitions of literatu re - the one from
a dictionary, th e other from a hig h-school textbook .
Th e class or th e total of writings, as of a g iven co untry or
p e riod , w hi ch is nota bl e for literary fo rm o r ex pression. as clist:ingui s hecl. on th e one hand, from works m erely techni cal o r
e rudit e, ancl. on the ot h er, from jo urn a listic or othe r e phem era l
lite rary writ ing. - VV1rnsTEI(, New f nternat ion a l Dictionary

D E FlNl.TlO NS

295

Literature is th e ex pressio n o f life m wo rd s nf truth and
beauty; it is th e wrilt.e n reco rd "r man's sp irit, o f his thought s,
e motion s, aspirations; it is t he hi s to ry, and th e only histo ry, o f
th e huma n so ul. It is cha ra cte ri zed hy its artis ti c, its sugges ti ve,
its perm a ne nt qualiti es. 1ts t wo tests arc its uni ve rsal interes t
and its pe rso nal style. Its o bj ect, as id e from th e d eli g ht it
g ives us, is to know m an, that is, the so ul of m a n rath e r th an
hi s actions; a nd sin ce it pre se r ves lo the race th e ideals upon
which a ll our civili zation is fo und ed, it. is o ne "[ t he most impo rtant a nd de li g ht ful s ubj ects th a t can occ upy the hum a n
mind. - WtLL IM ! ]. L ONG, "·E ng lish Li te rature"

Th e average person will be betler pleased wilh a definition
lik e the seco nd, because of th e form in which it is elabora ted.
It is in t his form lhat much of our definin g s hould I.Jc given.
EXERCISES

1. E xplain in not more Lli a n Ii fty 11·onls lhc de ri vation of
"define." If poss iiJlc, ge t your f,1cls from either the Century
Di ctionary or \Ve bste r" s New I nlc rn ati ona l J Ji cti o nary.
2. B e pre pared to g ive ;111 oral cxposiLi rrn of one o ( Lile foJ ..
lowin g e xpress io ns . !'reface yo ur c:·q >l:mal io n wilh acleflniLiou .
l ~ pi c ure

M icrobe
P essimi st

Athl eti cs

(_' ncducation
l' n >crast in :1Lion
I )01 11 cs ti c Scie nce
lnduslria l Edu ca tion

3. E xpbin th e mea nin g o[ Sect ion 4 ()f /\rlicl c l V uf
the Constitutio n of th e Un ilcd S t;tlcs. l\ l;1kc s uitable U SL'
of definiti on.
The Un ited S tates shall g uar;111 t.cc lo every stale in Lliis
U ni on a rep ubli ca n form o f gn1-c rnrn L· nL :111d s li;ill prot ect cacli
of th em :1 g;1in s t~ in v;1s i<J11; ;i 1HI n11 ;qi 1ilic:1ti11n "f the lcg isLit1m·,
or of the exec u tive (1d1en till' k g isLtt m c r·: tnnn t lie rnnvc necli.
again st d om estic violence.
I
!

't

l ·~XY OS ITl ON

2<J7

4. O n e \\·ay o f in creasing your vocab ula ry is to s tudy wo rds
a nd th eir m eanin gs . Find as man y syno nym s a nd synonym ous ex press ions for these wo rds as possibl e:

region
urgent
think
ale rt
house

meadow
senseless
odd
hasten
nonsense

middle
execute
amuse
encl
conceal

129. Notes. A lmost everyo ne, eith e r in th e prepa ratio n of
his sch ool wo rk or for hi s own conve nie n ce, find s it n ecessary
to m a k e n otes of wha t he has seen o r h eard . M uch of th e
cl assroom p roced ure in college consi sts of lec tures by th e
professors a nd note-ta kin g by th e s tude nts . F o r th e s tude nt
to do hi s part we ll requires th e closest a pp licatio n an d n o
. littl e s kill. H e must t rain himself to catc h th e key se n te nces,
in sertin g un der th e m as subheadin gs t he catchwords suggested by the s peake r 's re marks.
The foll o win g n otes o n "The Pa te nt-M edi cin e E vil " we re
take n o n a n address g ive n by a pro min ent phys icia n. No ti ce
h ow s uggesti ve of th e whole address th ey a rc .
The American people spend more for patent medicines tha n
an y other co un try.
Ad ve rtisements of these medicines a rc everyw here - newspape rs, mag::izines, street cars.
New cures, soaps, tooth-washes every day. These are adve rtised so all uringly as to make a stro ng ::ippeal to the ordi nary
pc rsu 11 .

J'cnplc continue lo be deceived in spite of th e repeat ed exposures of the" Great Am e rica n F raud ." H eada che powders
arc s till p(lpular for overwo rk and overeating.
An Irish maid in New York C ity was fo und in fi rst stages
of co nsum pti on. She was urged to return to Ireland, but

boug ht a bott le of cure for lwo dollars, stayed i11 Ne11· Yo rk,
and died.
.Pate nt prepa rations fo r cata rrh do not cure. a nd frequ entl y
·
unde rmine the health un til consump tio n res ul ts.
City _work ers find many cases of babi es killed from mo rphin e
poison 111 soothing sirups.
P a tent-med icin e ev il can be cured only by const;1nt c~posmc.
Overex posure is in effective. .l ' rnpcr legislati<>n needed. J\cquircmcnts of t.h c pure-fo nd b w ;1 s to labels CJ ll drugs. 'l'(' l'h 111cal terms on labels not unclersloocl by most perso ns.
Newspa per publi city for patenl -111cclici11c fr:llld s is dcs ira bk.
Adeq uate legislation has not yet been secured.
F ig hting pa tent medi ci nes is a civ ic duty .
S imil a r to th e ta kin g of n otes in c lass. but a littl e less
cli fJic ult, is t he m ak in g of n otes fo r repmts . l'cr ha ps yo ur
teach er or your e m p loyer as ks yo u to cn nsu lt t he Lttcs t ;1g ri cul t ura l bull etin s to !incl o ut whi c h fe rti lize rs arc t he best to
use fo r a garde n so il to be p la n tecl lo potatoes . Vo u 11 ill fi nd
a varie ty of s uggestio n s, and in ord e r to m;1k e vour re po rt
va luabl e yo u mu sL g ive t h e g ist (Jf 11 kit scT111 to 1<>LI the Jwsl
o~ ini o ns . You cann ot ta ke lhe l im e to rnpy a~ len gt h th e
diffe re nt recomm e n dations, but yo u s hou ld g in:- hr ic ll y t he in fo rmation o n whi c h a perso n cou ld ;1ct. Th e ,grc;1t cst ;wcu r;1c- 1·
is required fo r wo rk of th is kind . T he auth o riti es , 1v il li
c hapte r a nd p age rcfe re nres fo r th e cl iflcrcnl sugges ti o n s,
s hou ld a lways I.Jc 1nc luded in th e abstract. Tlll'sc scr;1pp 1
n o tes mus t be c 1rcfull y wo rked ove r hcfo 1·c I hn· ('; 111 s(T IT "~"
a report or an a bslract. Spcc i;1I c;1w slinu lcl he L1k,·1 1 l<> 11l;1k , ·
a re port based o n s uc h notes uniri l'cl a nd co hcrc lll . liu t ii
sh ou ld usua lly be m ade ~1 s brief ;is p()ss ihk .

130. Book Reviews. \ Ve arc ;lC'rn s tom ccl lo assoc iate tl w
t e rm " boo k review" o nl y with th e ll ews pap c r a nd 111;i g; izin c

EXPOSlTLON

ex positions of th e new books. With this kind of writing th e
pupil may never have experience, but he wi ll frequently have
occasion t.o pre pare a brief writte n account of a book. A part
of the regu lar Engli sh work of th e high sc hool, a nd especially
of co ll ege, is t.h c reading of certain books. T o read effecti vely
the student mu st ma ke notes as he reads, a nd when h e has
Ii 11 is hecl, out of th ese notes he mu st ma ke an abstract or
rev iew that wi ll serve to fi x in his mincl th e main facts. It
requires much patient practice to seize on the essential points
a nd lo put th ese logclh er in such a way t hat a reading of the
abstract wi ll recall th e whole book .
Sludy the foll owing accounts of books, and determine what
t h e write r's purpose was in each case.
SEWALL'S Dl ARY

This budget of old Colo nial news begins in 167 3, while a
yo ung ins truclor in Harvard is " reading Hec rboord's 'Physick' to th e senio r so phisters," a nd e nds in i 7 29, while the same
man, old ;111d honored , is "making a very good match " for his
g rancld aug hlcr. Uctwccn these two entries are thousands of
o lhcrs, whi ch wo uld seem dreary and commonplace did we not
remember that they ma rk , li ke monoto nou s clock ticks, th e
slow m;irch of a human li fe across the field of lig ht and into
the s hadows . . ..
The three bu lk y vo lum es of this old "D iary" are not books
whi ch we wou ld recomm end to the ge neral reader. They have
a hsolulcly no lite rary cha rm ; they arc mostly dull records of
com rn o11placc eve nts, made gloomy by ma ny funerals but never
011cc bri.~htl"llcd by th e play of imag ina tion o r humor. Yet, somehow we have grow n deeply interested in them , fol low ing th eir
endless windings ;i.s one follows a trout stream, with continua l
cxpcctatio11 o r catchin g so mething in the nex t pool. Nor arc
we disa ppoin ted. H ere and there, amids t dreary detail s, arc

BOOK REV lEWS
fl eetin g g limpses of the little colll cdics of long ago, when fa shions were diffe re nt but human nature quite th e sa me as in our own
day. vVhe the r the record g ives pleas ure o r weariness to othe rs
d epends, like fi shin g, e ntirely upon the taste of the indi vidual.
Aside from the qu es tion of inte res t, "Sewall 's Dia ry" has ;1
twofo ld value : it g ives reali s ti c pictures of hab its, belie rs, political a nd social cus tollls in one co rn e r of Am erica at a n ea rly
period of our hi story; and it is one of th e 111ost i11 tirnatc ;1ml
d etailed reco rd s of a huma n life that we possess. Jl s hows the
a utho r, not as the world kn ew him , liut as he knew him se lf.
Whoever has the patience to read this old record will meet a
man who reveals him sel f without vanity o r co11cc il111 cnt , who
fo llows the call of duty as lie hea rs it, and who makes no
attempt to win eve n o ur good opinion. And he says (May 9,
1690) : "Now the good Cod , of I Lis infinit e g ra ce, help me to
perform my vows, g ive me a fili a l fea r o f H im sclf and save me
from the fear of man. " - Lo N<;, " American Lilc ra turc .,
L1 FE

IN

Tl 11•:

RA \V

" L ost Face," by J ack London. Jack London , ! li e noveli.st,
the writer of s ho rt stories, me rits res pect, for he is a powerful
artist in th e field where he found fam e. li e is bes t known by
his stori es of life in the fru zc n and sav;1gc No rth . l li s inte rpretations are charac lcrizcd by brut a l \·igor. They arc rich in
th e element of ma n a nd nature.
The best of his latest coll ecti on of short stori es, whi ch takes
title from "Lost Face," is " T o Build a F ire." It is th e talc "f
a m a n a nd a dog, and of the man's dea th by freezing in the
mids t of Alaskan win ter. The re is lea n s tre ngt h in narrati ve
tracing the man 's insolent co nfid ence; his mishap in stepping
in to a concealed air hole in a creek ; hi s fruilless effo rt tu
kindl e a saving fire, and the ;;w ifl. ad va nce of fata l nullllmess.
Th.is is th e end :
" Th e m a n d rowsed off into \1·hat seemed to hi111 l he most
comfortable a nd satisfying slee p he had ever known. The clog

30 0

EXP OSlTIO N
sat facing him and waiting. The brief day drew to a close in
a long , slow twilight. There were no sig ns of a fire to be made,
and, besides, never in the d og's experi ence had he known a
man to sil lik e that in the snow and make no fire. As the twilight drew on, its eager yea rning mastered it, a nd with a g reat
li fting and shifting of forefeet, it whined softl y, then flattened
its cars in anticipation of being chidd en. But the man rema ined
silent. Later, the dog ho wled loudly. And still later it crept
close to th e man and caught the scent of death. This m ade
the anim al bri stle and back away. A little longe r it delayed,
how ling under th e sta rs Lhat lc;i ped and danced a nd shone
brig htl y in th e cold sky. Then it turned a nd tro tted up the
trail in Lhe direction of the camp it kn ew. There were other
food -providers and fire-providers."
EXERCISES

1. Prepare notes based on the next class lecture that you
attend, or the next book that you read, a nd bring them to
class, arranged in good form.
2. R ead an a rticl e on some current topi c in a good magazin e (fo r exampl e, F!mpcr's or Scrib11cr's) and write a review
o f it as you would of a book.
3. V cry littl e is known certainly about the life of vVilliam
S hakes pea re. Consult the books available and make notes of
th e inforrnation that you find ; then cond ense all the known
fa cts into th e briefest exposition consistent with effective
\\Ti ting.
4. E xplain in not more than seventy-fi ve word s what
"Scwal\" s Diary " is (see p. 298).
5. Th e following report was written by a hi gh-school boy:

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I have just fini shed re;iding " Mon sieur Bcaucaire," by Booth
T ;1rking tt;11 , and I wish to recommend it to you as one of the
best short stories I have ever read. The scene of the story is

BOOK REVIEWS

301

laid at Bath, E ngland, during th e reig n of Louis XVI of France.
The hero is a French prince who tries to atta in social position
in the g uise of a barber. Thi s yo un g prin ce has many exciting adventures and trying ex peri ences befo re his identity is
finally revealed. The way in which the story is told , the character of the hero, and his earn estness in a ttemp ting to secure
recog nition, a ll combine to make th e book on e of unu sual
interest.

\!Vri te a full er report in a simil ar vein about so me boo k
whi ch is interesting a nd worth while. Use the foll ow in g plan:
I. Setting.
P lace.
'J'im e.
II. Story.
1. Plot in part (enoug h to arou se inte rest with out satisfying the listener).
z. Incidents (one or two).
III. Characters (on e or two of special interest lo yo u).
1.

2.

NOTE . It is s uggested that th e forego in g outlin e he mad e the h;1sis
o f oral re ports o n novels (say one !.;il k at. a rec itati on till each stud en t
has had his turn ), it be ing clea rl y und nstood by all that th e s peaket.. s
pu rpose is to s how hi s class mates why, in hi s judgme n t, it would or
would not be wo rth whil e for the.m to read th e boo k und er di scuss ion.

131. Editorial Paragraphs. A study of ;:my newspaper will
show that it consists of adverti sin g matte r, news items, and
editorial comments. These co mm ents deal with th e news,
but are not in themselves " newsy ." Th e a im of their writers
is to influence th e opinions of oth ers . Many fa ll into argument in such writing, but th e ordinary editorial paragraph
is an exposition. W e may not becom e editori al writers. but
if we express our opinions of me n and events, we shall ofte n
adopt this dig nifi ed form of di scourse . It is therefore \1c1l

1

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KXl:'OSlTHJN

fo r us to practi ce t his fo rm of writing. T he affairs of town,
state, or nation arc always demandin g th e <ittcntion of the
wide-awa ke young person, and he often wishes to g ive hi s
i nter prctati on of th ese affairs.
EXERCISES

1. \Nri t.c an ed itori al paragrap h on some tim ely topic,
the same ge neral style as that used in th e follow in g :
'1'111-: CANA i. TO Im

'I·

:

E Dl'l'ORl ALS

111

F O RTIFIE D

The decision o f the H ouse, in which the Senate is sure lo
concur, that the P anama Canal shall be fo rtified , may be put
down amo ng the successes nf the '!'aft ad ministration. The
President is a ma n of peace, a firm believer in a rbi tra tion,
who is constantly wo rking to extend its application. Neve rtl ll'kss, he rea lizes that it takes two to go ll> The Hague, a nd
that nations in wa r always seek lo reach the key-point of th eit'
opp(>n ent's defenses . In a broad ,,·ay the Canal is such a
key- point in our line of protection. The freedom of the Un ited
Slates rapid ly tn move its Oeet from one ocean to th e other is
an ad vantage which we should forfe it un der a ny scheme of
neutra li za tion tha t is conceiva ble. vVe could not neutralize the
(:anal with out l;1king upon ourselves the ob liga tion im posed on
ol he rs . It is out o f th e question that th e other g reat: natio ns
of th e wo rld wo uld conse nt to tie their own hands and leave
011r'' free . 1\ s a part of ou r defenses the l'anama Canal must
take th e chances of wa r, ;rnc\ the refore there is no course open
to us bu t so to fo rtify it as to render it impregnable. In the
earlie r stages of acq uisition and construction the Canal may
have been conside red mainly with reference to its commercial
value, but to-clay its strategic aspect has a prominence that is
not clue to recent di scussion. As a g reat America n public wo rk
the wate n v;1y will afford faci lities for quick tran sit to the commerce of the entire wo rld , but it may be doubted - it is at

least debated- w heth er its business will attain tlie volume
once con fidently ex pected. Jlu t whe ther it p;1 ys expenses or
not as a commercial short cut, it wi ll mo re than pay for itsel f
to the U nited States as a strong hold eq ually ava ilable for t he
defense of the A tlantic and J'ac ifi c coasts and their ;ipproachcs.

2. Mak e a list of the subj ects d iscussed in the editorial
column s of one issue of (1) a loca l wee kly newspaper or
(z) a prom ine nt daily paper.
3. Choose from your list th e subj ect in \1·hi ch you ;ire
most in terested or about wh ich you miulcl lik e espec ia ll y
to kn ow. lf possible, find in the pape r the news item whi ch
is based on t he facts th at called fo rth th e cclitori;il , a nd prepare an editorial paragraph on th e same subj ect.
4. Make a li st of th e subjects di scussed hy reporters in a
sin g le num ber of a prominent news paper, underscorin g th ose
whi ch in you r judg ment arc wo rth a place in th e paper.
Show h ow editorials might be b~isccl on some of them.
5. Act as reporter yourself. 'vV ri tc ~1brn1 l any matter that
comes to your attention which shou ld be of in te rest to your
schoolmates or to a reasonahie number of rwrson:' in th e
community. l3e alert to sec and hea r accurately whatever is
goin g on about you, and g ive a fa it·hful account of whatever
im pressions or info rmation you un ckrt ;1kc to rcp roduce . l
6 . Base an editorial on some o[ th.c work call ed fo r in
Exercise 5.2

132 . Character Sketches. In ge neral , we may thin k of a
character sketch as a combi nation of cl csc ripti on and ex positi on, the purpose of whi ch is to make one thoroughly acquainted with a character. Excell ent work of this type is
1 'I 'hi s exercise is worth repeating o ft en, w h eth e r it re~u lls in narration,
d esc rip tion , ex position, or a co mbin atio n of two or more o f th em .
2 Thi s exe rcise is wo rth repeat ing.

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CHJ\RJ\C Tl ~ J Z

EX.l 'OS J'l'L ON

SK. l•:TCHES

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based firs t of al l o n th e ab ility to und e rs tand oth er persons -

EXERCISES

ab ility on wh ic h o n e's s uccess in bus iness often depends.
Th e study of hum a n nature is th e m ost inte resting study
in the wor ld.

\ Ve e nj oy it i.n lite rature at eve ry t urn.

The

o ld e r one grows, the less h e is apt to ca re fo r t h e m e re
plo t of a s to ry; w hat h o ld s hi s interest is th e unfoldin g of
c haracte r. l low dry we sh o uld find his to ry if it were n o thing
I I

but a c h ron ic le o( eve n ts, and we re n ot b ri g hte n ed by c ha racter s k elc h cs o f Lhe great m e n of the past !
-

B iograp hy ,

w h e n we ll writte n , a lways attractive to o ld a nd you ng, -

a lth o ug h it mak es fr eq ue nt u se of narration and descr ipt ion,
is, after a ll , a prnlonged c h aracter s k etc h .
Observe Ll1 e skillfu l c haracte r portrayal in th e following
p a ragra ph :
A nclrea was here, th en, in the loneliness that he loved, - a
fanta stic yo uth, who li ved but for his a rt ; to whom th e world
was li ke the Coburg Theater, and he in a magnificent costu me
acting a princ ipal p:1rt. l 1is art and his bea rd a nd whis kers
were the darli n!.':S of his heart. His I on~, p:tlc hair fell over a
high, polished brow, whi ch looked wonderfully tho ughtfu l ; and
yet no man was m ore gu il tless of thinki ng. H e was always
putti ng him self into atti tudes; he never spo ke th e truth; and
was so entirely affected a nd absurd as to be quite honest at
last; ror it is my belief that the man did not know truth from
fa lsehood anv longe r, and was, w hen a lo ne, when in company,
nay, when unco nscious and sound as leep snoring in bed , one
co m plete lump o f affectation . . . . To do hi m justice, he hated
" Don J11 an," and a wo man was in his eyes an ange l ; a
!tangel, alas ! he wo uld call her, for nature a nd t he ci rcums tan ces of hi s famil y had taken sad Cockney ad va ntages ove r
J\nclrca's pronunciation. - THACKERAY, "A Shabby Genteel
Story"

1. \,\Trite a n ex p os it io n of a bo ut three hunclrecl wo rd s o n
a n y s ubj ect suggested by Lh e fo ll ow in g passage. J\dopt the
ed ito ri a l for m of expos iti o n.
... l' ul l or c roo ked li ttl e stree ts; h ut r te ll yo u I:oston h ~IS
a nd kept o pe n, m"rc turnpi kes ti nt lead t<> rrcc thought
a nd free s peec h a nd free deeds tku 1 ;111y ot her ci ty or li ve me n
or dead me11, - T don"t c; 1re li cJ\\· hroad the ir st ree ts a rc, 11" r
how hig h their s teeples. - 1 L o 1 .~1 1 ·: s, " The l'rofcssor al the
Breakfas t-Table "
op e n~xl ,

2. iVl<ike a li st o f fi ve s ubj ects on whic h you cou ld \ITi lc
e dito ri a ls.
3. Write a par;1grap h o n one of th ese fi ve sub jects .
4. Deve lop a n~1e-parag r;1p h c haradc r skl"Lc l1 of P o rtia,
wife of Hru l u s . Compare a11d co11Lrast h ci- 11 it. h Juli et.
5. \,Vrite a compar iso n nf S k1 kcspcarc"s i\ lac l;clh a 11rl
Lady Macbet h . (J\bout fi ve hu nd red mircls.) Use an oull in c.
6. Brin g- to c l:1ss a clct·ail cd 011tli1ll' · of the life nf one of
Lliese persolls :
D a ni el Boone
Alexa nd e r 11 ami ltnn
H en ry D . Tho rea u
Loui sa M. J\lcolt

Thomas Jcff e rson
\Ju ce 11 I •: li ~abet h
\\" :liter R;il e ig h
J o hn /\d ams

133. L e tters . In Ch;iptcr V l 1I \\·e kn L' already learned
h ow to w r ite lcLtc rs 1Yhic h arc crnTl'Ct in form :rnd clear and
forcib le in co nle nt. In our s tudy of e:\ p os it io n , tlwreforc, 11c
n eed to co n s id e r m erely the letter w hi c h is w rilte n for th e
purpose of explaining somc llii11 g ckarly ;mcl co 11 1 i!ll· i11 .~ l y.
S ince no letter s h o uld be written which doL·s not h ave a

·1 •, I

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,.

11 ••

11,•

"

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EXP OS fflO N

LETTl ~ R S

d e fini te purpose. lh erc is no excuse fo r o n e Ll1;1t is rambling
a nd unintc rcslin g .

EXERCISES

S tudy th e foll ow in g letter, a nswerin g th ese q ucs li ons :
t . Ts it clea r a nd to th e po in t ?
2 . T o \l:h;1t ex te nt is it s imple a nd natura l ?
3 . vVhat Lh o ug ht docs th e closin g pa ragra ph e m phasize?

I

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P a ri s, J an uary 7, 1893.
l )ea r Friend:
M ay tile new year prove pros perous to you a nd lo tile noble
ca mpa ig n whi ch yo u a re ca rrying on wit h so mu ch power
again st hum an ig norance and feroc ity.
1 shou ld li ke to di spose of a part of my fortun e by fo unding
a prize lo be g ra nted every fi ve yea rs-say six Lim es, fo r if in
thirty years th ey have not succeeded in rdo rrning the present
system, they will in fa ll ibly rcb pse into ba rbari sm.
The p rize \\'O t ilcl be awa rded lo him or he r who had caused
h1ro pe to make the longest strides toward ideas of ge nera l
pac ification.
l am not spea king to you of di sarm ament, which ca n be
achieved only very slowl y; J am not eve n speaking lo yo u of
(lbliga tory arbi tra tion between nations. JJu t this result oug ht
lo be reached soon - and it can be attain ed - tu wit, that
all states shall with solida rity ag ree to turn again st the tirst
:1gg resso r. Then wa rs will become impossible. ./\n d the result would be lo fo rce even th e mos t qua rrelsome stale to
have recourse to a tribunal or else rema in tranquil. If the
Triple J\ Ilia nee, in stead of comprising only three states, should
e nlis t all stales, the peace of the ce nturies would be assured.
\Vith kindest rega rds, ever yours,
J\. Nobel.

1. Be pre pa red to g ive a n ora l ex pos itinn o f two or t he
fo ll owin g s u bjecls. Preced e eac h wili1 a cu nq1;1rativc ly liri d
d esni pt io n.
1 . T ennis.
2. <;o Jf.
3. Hread-ma k in g .
4. K illin g th e Ne rve of a T oo th.
5. T ouch 'I'ypewri ting.

6. H arrow ing .
7. l\'lakin g an 1\rtcsia n Well.
2. Profi tin g by wh a tever c ri tic is ms m ay have bee n m a de
o n yo ur o ral compos iti o n , write in vivid a ncl co nc ise En g li s h
th e s ubstan ce of o n e of the ta lk s .
3. \Vrite a on e- parag ra ph cl cscripli o n of plan e g eo m e try
a nd foll ow it with a brie f expos iti o n of plan e geom clry as a
valua bl e study.
4. B e pre pared to g ive o rall y o r to wrile o ut in c la ss
d irecti o ns for m a kin g o ne o [ t he fnllo\\·in g (yo u ~ir e lo \\'rit e
only a bout s o m ethin g whi ch yo u have mad e yo urself): graha m bread , c ream -of-ta rtar bi scui t, plain cak e, c ream toas t.
a tool box, a two-co mpa rt m e n t wood bo x, a ha rd -coal fi re, a
fire place fire wit h logs, a vc nt ibtn r fo r a li vin g- roo m window .
5. D evelop th e fo ll ow in g top ic s e nte nce in to a pa ra g ra ph
o f o ne hundre d and fif ty wo rds by m eans o f deta il s a nd
illu s trati on :

i:

Among the g reat men of hi story. fe\\' ha ve in spired such
devoted obedience, or have impressed others with such absolute confide nce in their loyalty to their ideal, as General
R obert E. L ee .
6. ln a bout a th ousand wo rds ex pl a in h ow and why o ne
o f th ese m e n a tta ine d hi s g reat s uccess . F'irs t read carefu ll y

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308

EXPOSITION

the book or articles necessary, making notes (see p. 296).
Arrange these notes in the form of an outline and bring this
to class with your composition.
;

'

Alexander Hamilton
Stephen Girard
John Wanamaker

Charles Dickens
Thomas Edison
Horace Greeley

7. In not more than a hundred words explain the meaning
of "punctuality."
8. \Nrite a brief exposition of thrift or industry, making
some use of this quotation from Franklin's "Autobiography":

I began now gradually to pay off the debt I was under for
the printing house. In order to secure my credit and character
as a tradesman, I took care not only to be in reality industrious
and frugal, but to avoid the appear;i,nce to the contrary. l
dressed plain and was seen at no places of idle diversion. I
never went out a-fishing or shooting; a book indeed sometimes
debauched me from my work, but that was seldom, was private,
and gave no scandal ; and to show that I was not above my
business, I sometimes brought home the paper [ purchased at
the stores through the streets on a wheelbarrow. Thus being
esteemed an industrious, thriving young man and paying duly
for what I bought, the merchants who imported stationery
solicited my custom, others proposed supplying me with books,
and I went on prosperously.
9. vVrite a letter to your English teacher, explaining what
you expect: to do after graduation from the high school. This
account must include not only a statement of your intention
an cl an explanation of it, but a discussion of your qualifications
for the undertaking. If you have not yet decidecl what you
are to do, explain the reason for this uncertainty.
10. Study these words of Emerson and expand them into
a paragraph of your own :

EXERCISES
The most interesting writing is that which does not satisfy
the reader. Try and leave a little thinking for him ; that will
be better for you both. The trouble with most writers is they
spread too thin. The reader is as quick as they; has got there
before them, and is ready and waiting. A little guessing does
him no harm, so I would assist him with no connection. If
)'Oii can see how the harness fits, he can. But make sure
that )'1111 see it.
11. Write a letter to Brutus, telling him what kincl of man
you know Cassius to be.
12. Give orally the main points to be remembered (I) m
Chapter X ; (2) in Chapter XI.

KINDS OF ARGUMEN T

CHAPTER XII
ARGUMENT

134. The Meaning of Argument. Ex pos it ion naturally
paves the way fur a rg ument. 'vV c a re not satis fi ed with te ll ing how things arc made a nd why, h ow they a re clone and
why. W e frequently wish to convince ourselves a nd othe rs
Lh a t o ne way of doin g a thing is better tha n a noth er. A
chauffeur who is thoroug hly famili ar with an a utomobil e may
g ive a n excell e nt explanation of its con struction ; but in ord er
to s how you th at hi s is the best machin e on th e market, he
m ust know a good deal about the construction of olher au tomobiles . In the first insta nce he s hould be abl e to set fo rth
th e :facts ; th e re should be no room for discussion or doubt.
In the second case he will necessarily deal wilh o pinions as
wel l as wit h fac ts . That is to say, exposition furnishes info rm ~1t i o n ; a rg um ent, in add iti on to furnishin g info rmati on,
unckrtakes to convin ce persons tha t o ne thin g is better tha n
;1110Lh er ; th at a course of action is ri g ht or wron g ; that a
sta te ment is fal se or true .
·135. The Value of Argument. Argum ent almost n ecessa ril y includes oth er fo rm s of di scourse. In orde r to show
Lh ;tt o ne a rticle is more sati sfactory in a g iven case than
an oth er, th ere rn ig ht be need of d escripti on and explanation
as we ll. T o con vince the world th at Stanley was the g reatest
ex pl o rer of hi s tim e, there would be n eed of na rra tio n and expos iti o n. Similarl y, other fo rm s of d iscourse may incJude
3 10

3 11

arg ume nt. It na tu rally finds its way into narrative, a nd in
exposition a spea ker or writer almost always needs to insert
so methin g of a n arg umentati ve nature.
A rg um e nt is valuable, h owever, not so much because it
calIs fo r practice in al I th e other fo rms of cl iscourse or because it may be in cl uded in some of them , but because it
ma kes a cons iderable dema nd on one's judg me nt, - o n one's
ab ili ty to cl ccicl c betwee n ri g ht a nd wrong, the good a nd the
beLtcr, a nd the ability lo show others Lhat one's decis ions a re
ri ght or wrong.
136. Kinds of Argument. Th e process of establi shing
p roo f m ay in volve both si mpl e and difficult processes of
reasoning, but its most useful a nd practi cal procedu res are
a mo ng the sim plest activities of the mind. L et us consider
two kinds of a rg ument, - inductio n and deduction.
137. Induction. W e know so many boys who pl ay baseball that we feel safe in concludin g t hat most boys like
to play baseball. \Ne have seen so ma ny g irls play with dolls
tha t we natura lly conclude th a t most g irls like to play wi th
doll s. ] n a s imilar way we draw inferences about th e fo ndness of boys fo r c herries, ap pl es, and candy, sw imming,
boatin g, etc. Some of us have fo un d so man y proble ms in
geometry d iffic ul t that we conclu de t hat geometry mu st be a
diffi cul t subj ect. In th e same way we reason about all kind s
of work or play with whi ch we have had consid erable experi e nce . T hi s p rocess of bas in g conclusions on a relative ly la rge
num ber of in sta nces with whi ch we a rc fam ili ar is call ed
i 11d11ction . In this way a collection of fac ts establi s hes (I ) a
uew fact or (2) a tlzco1J1 that will accoun t for all the facts.
I. An mgm nc1tt offirct usua lly un dertakes to prove that
an event d id or did n ot ha ppen. In some instances Lh e facts

ARG UMEN T

312

know n offer conclusive proof; in oth er cases the proof is
reasonably conclusive. F or exampl e, the qu estion is whether
th e K enni stons robbed Goodridge :

',I

a . There is the hig hest im probability that th e Kennistons
had ever heard of Goodridge before the robbery.
/J. Their conduct on the evening of the robbery a nd the next
clay was marked by no circum stances of suspicion.
c. From the time of the robbery until the a rrest nothing
appeared again st them.
d . They neither passed money nor we re fo und to have had
money.
e. T he manner of the search of their house, and the circum stances a ttending it, excite stro ng suspicions of unfair
a ncl fraudu Jent practices.
f In the hour of the ir utmost peril no pro mises of safety
could draw from the defendants any confess ion affecting
themselves oi· others.
The refore the facts seem to show that the K enniston
bro thers did not rob Goodrid ge. 1

An argument of tl1eo1J1 und ertakes to prove or disprove
a th eory that will account for a considerabl e number of establi shed facts~ For example:
2.

That glaciers move slowly clow n their valleys was long
kn ow n to J\ I pine hunters. Rude ex pe riments of the first
scienti fic ex plorers confirmed thi s popular notion. Hugi, in
182 7, built a hu t upon the Aar g lacier. Thi s hu t was visited
from year to year by scientific ex plorers, and its change of
position measured. In 18 4 1 Agassiz found th at it had moved
r 428 meters in fourteen years, or about I oo meters (3 3 0 feet)
per a nnum. Th e ruin s of Agassiz's hut (H t>tel Nc uchatelois),
buil t in 1840, were found in 1884. Th ey had moved in fortyfo ur yea rs I<) OO feet. N umerous other observations from year
I

Base d on \ Vebste r's "Defe nse of th e Ke nn istons."

JU MP I NG T O A CONC L USION
to year by Agassiz a nd others, on th e position of conspicuous
bowlders lying on the surface of g laciers, confirmed th ese results and placed the fac t of glacier motion beyo nd doubt. But
the most impor tant obser vations determining both the rate a nd
the laws of glacier motion we re made in 1842 by Professor
Agassiz on the A.ar glacier and Professor F orbes on the
Mer de Glace.- L E C oNTE, " Elements of Geology " 1
EXERCISE

Give the reasons for believing one of the followin g statements:
1. American secondary schools fo r boys and girl s a re an
excellent preparation fo r bu siness life.
2. Labor-saving mac hinery leads to the employment of
more laborers.
3. Automobiles help the fa rmer.
4. \Var hurts the victors as well as th e vanquished.
5. The planets were on ce hot bodies like the sun a nd stars.

138. Jumping to a Conclusion. Y ou should be particularly
careful, in making inducti ons, not to jump to a conclusion and
not to draw too large a conclus ion from too few indi cati ons.
You should wei gh all indi cations with g reat care. You should
not attach too much importance to an y one point, nor let any
specially brilliant idea turn you from the main considerati on.
Find as many and as we ig hty reasons as possible, and do
r~ ot overlook or und erestimate anythin g that makes again st
the conclusion . For example :
I must have offended Smith , fo r he passed m e with out noticing me at all. (I mu st co nsider th a t Smith may not have
seen me. E ve n if he looked straig ht at me, he may have been
absent-minded or he may be nea rsig hted .)
1
Co py ri g ht, 1877, 1882, 189 1, 1896, 1903, by D . A ppl eto n a nd Company,
a nd use d by permi ss ion .

iI :

ARGUIVlENT
EXERCISE

B e read y lo tell the class just why you are, or a re not, prepared to a ccept th e following statements as necessarily true:

1I

11

1. 1t will be a fine day to-morrow, because th ere was a very
red sun set this evening.
2. L kn ow John cheated in the history examination, for I
saw him looking across the aisle a t Brown's paper.
3. We are going to have an early spring, because the robins
are here earlier than usual.
4. Al l boys should go to co llege.
5. L cannot comm it this poem to memory, for I have
already studied it two hours.
6. Smoking does not hurt a boy; Harold E mery gets
along a ll ri g ht in school and he s mokes.
7. Mi ss - - is very stupid , for she worked a whole period
on that easy algebra problem without solving it.
8. Girl s do not need a college training.
9 . J\ college presid ent is an educated person.
10. J\ policem an is judged more severely than any other
pe rson holding a public position.
11. The new prepayment cars are much better than th e
"Id-style cars.
12 . .IL may be worth while to spend fift een minutes on the
11 e1Ys p;1pcr, but assured ly it is not reading for all da y.
1~~. 1\ letter awarded to a track a thlete is the hardest-earned
lett er give n in colleges or preparatory schools.
14. l\'1 otor boats afford more pleasure than sailboats.
15. J\ I y brothers all went to college; therefore my father
wi ll semi me.
16. J\l y fath er had a college education, and therefore has
succeeded in business.
17. Waller is late for breakfast; he must have worked too
hard yesterday.

DEU UCTION

18. [ can't find my block of p;1pcr; someone mu st ha w
taken it.
19. I have seen crows all my life. Every crow lha t l ever
saw was black; th erefore a ll crows mu st be black.
20. Motor cyclists mak e so much noise that they evident ly
enjoy noise.

139. Deduction. vVe have noticed that roses fade and lh ;i t
a ll the flowers with which we me familiar focle. Consequ ently, as soon as we see th e Li111111,-,, /Jorr11/is (the twin flow e r) , we fe el confide nt that it too wi ll fade. That is to say,
our knowle dge of the world and of life is not wholly dependent on the discovery of individual facts and lh e in fe rences drawn by induction from them. There are certain
truths which, origi1.1ally discovered by induction , arc practi cally self-evident. For example :
All flowers fade.
A ll fish swim .
A ll vices a re reprehensible.

Laws that cannot be enforced arc bad.
Whenever from one of these ge neral truths we draw a conclusion with regard to a parti cular case, we em pl oy d('{flrt'lion.
To say that a given argume nt from d cductio11 is sound or
un sou nd is often very diffi cult. One m eans o l lcsling the
soundn ess of an argument clevelope cl by deductio n is to dra w
out what is call e d the syllogis111, wh ic h may be illustrated by
the following :
A ll fl owtrs fade.
The 1.i11111rc11 /Jo rmlis is a flow er.
Therefore the l.i1111aca /!orcrrlis will fade .

MAJ OR PREll llSE.

MI NOR PRE MI S E.
CONCLUSION.

The major pre mise states a gen e ral truth ; the minor
premise names some particular perso n , thin g, or fact, trJ

ARGUMENT

wh om or to which the general truth wi ll apply; and the conclus ion uni tes the two .
Ju s t as a chain is no stronger than its weak est link, so a
d e ductive argument is no stron ger than its weakest premise.
/\. premi se is not always expressed; in fact, the pre mise that
is oft e nest: i nco nclusive is th e one that is assumed as tru e and
left unexpressed. H e nce it is important to m a ke sure of a ll
your pre mises, whethe r you state everything for your reader
or not.
EXERCISE

\!Vhat is t h e full syll ogism o n which the following editoria l
is based ?
REFORM IS NEEDED

What is the ordinary citize n to believe of the efficiency of the
sta le banking department, when its chief asse rts without rese rve
that it was " blameless" in the matter of the Kensing ton de falration, and that Treasurer Bell esca ped because he was cleverer
than all the ex aminers put together?
ls not the publi c that supports the department and its officials justified in the earnest hope that somehow the bankcx;nnining powe r of Ma ssachusett:s may emerge from what its
hc;1d call s its " tr<1nsition period" and find itself able to cope
,ri t h r;1scals on even terms? l s it not willing to furnish more
money for th e purpose, if mo re is needed?
It is one of the most sacred duties of thi s com mon wealth to
g uard the in teg rity of the savings of its people. lf its instrument for so doin g is faulty, by all mean s let it be corrected
" ·itlmut delay.

140. Testing the Premises. There are two faults (in logic
call e d fidlacfrs) to whi ch the gene ral , or major, pre mise is
liable : it may be untrue, or it may prove too much.

TESTING THE PREMISES

317

A premise not universally true. If we say that a man 1s m
poor health and must take a g loomy view of li fe, we assume as
the maj or premise that all men in poor health take a gloomy
view of life. There are, however, so ma ny exceptions to this
statement that the argument is inconclusive.
Proving too muc/1. If we say that the study of mathematics
is an excellent disciplin e for the mind beca use mathematics is
so difficult, we assume that whateve r is diffi cult is for that
reason an excellent discipline. The assertion, if it proves anything, proves too much.
NOTE . It wi ll be observed that the premises are establi shed in the
first place by induction. It is from a large number of facts that we
draw such a conclusion as that a man in poor health must take a
gloomy view of life; and if any exceptions occur, our conclusion is
by so much weakened. Induction and ded ucti on work constantlv into
each other, and the same spirit of caution is necessary in using either.

EXERCISES

1. Write the major premi se on whi ch each o f the following
conclusions is based, and sta te wh e the r you cons ider th e m
universally true :
1. This Dutchman is thrifty.
2. My cousin has spent four years in German schools and
therefore has had an excellent training in thoroug hness.
3. Since our cook has just come from P a ris, she must know
how to prepare many delicacies.
4. My neig hbor has made his money so quickly that he is
sure to spend it freely.
5. It is useless to look for a this year's bird in a las t year's
nest.

2. State th e conclusions that are suggested by the pre mises
on the following page, and show in each case whether you
have prove d too much :

ARC UM EN T

I'
I'
I

1. ,\ man may 11-rilc al any Lime if he will set him self
cloggccl lr to it. I am a man, Lh creforc ...
2. 1\ll ri ve rs run d ow nhill. i\lthuu g h thi s ri ver see ms Lo
flow uphill . .
3 . 1\ lll a n nug ht to read just as inclinal ion prompls him ,
fn r \\· haL he reads as a task will do h im no good. l o ug ht
th erefore ...
4. LL matters not how a m a n di es, but h ow he Jives. I o ug ht
therefo re .. .
5 . No man bu t a blnck hcacl eve r wrnlc exce pt for m o ney .
nurn s ass ured ly was n ot a block head ; Lh c rdo rc he . .
G. Flllp\nylll c n l and ha rd ship preve nt m e la ncholy. Co1J scqu c11Lly everyone
7. 1\ l,. rcm·hlll a n mus t \Jc a h1·ays talkin g, \\·hct hc r he kn ows
any thin g n r th <.: ma ttn o r nut. 1\{y fri e nd Regin a th e refore . . .
8. \·\ ' hocve r wishes to attain an En g lish sty le, fami liar but
not coa rse . and elega n t \Jut n nl oste ntatious, must g ive his clays
and nig h ts Lo the vo lum es of o ne of th e bes t write rs. Addiso n
1\' as on e o[ th e best wri ters; th erefore . . .
n. I l e is no wise m an th at will qui t a ce rtainly for an un cerL 1inL1·. J kn ee J sha ll ll(l ld m y present positio n until ...
10. ·i ·hc re is a pe rp e tual noble ness in wo rk. Sweeping a
HI ( im is 11·ork ; th erefore ...
11. . 1\ litt le lea rning is a dan gero us thing . The refo re ...
1 2. '\'he 11·;:iy o f transgresso rs is ha rd. Therefo re . .
13. \\' hen in Rom e o ne should d o a s th e R om a ns do. Thcre-

f(1re, s in ce I

3. Sum up each of th e L\\'O followin g a rgum ents in a
s in g le sc11tc ncc, a nd test both premises and conclusions .

•"

1. " '\'lie .!look of Sir Ma ren l'olo cnnccrni ng th e King dom s
and l\ I ;1r l'<.: ls (>f tlw F:ast " is on e o f th e m ost famous and impurt;:i n t h ociks n r th e Middl e 1\ ges . It co n tributed m o re new
fa cts to wa rd :i. knnwlcclgc o f th e ea rth 's surfa ce th a n any book
th at h;id c1'C r bee n \\Titten before. lts a utho r w as "the firs t

EXERC I SES
traveler to trace a route across th e whole long itucll' of .i\si<1 " :
the fir s t to d esc ribe C hin a in it s v; Jst ncss, 11· ith its imm e nse
cities, its ma nufactures a nd wea \Lh, and to lc ll. 11 hc lhc r from
pe rsonal ex pe ri e nce o r direc t hca rsav, of Tibet a nd J: urm;:i .
of Siam and Coc hin C hina, of th e J nd ia n a rc hipe lago. 11·ith its
isla nd s o f spice, o f J ava an d S um alr;:i , a nd of th e s;Jv;1t!/'S of
Andaman. I le k new o f J apa n an d Lile 1H1c lu l defeat of the
:Mongols th e re, w he n th ey tri ed to iJJ 1«1( ic the is l;rnd kin g cl"m
il'l i 28 r. .I le gave a desc ripli o n of 11 i11cl11 s ta11 f;1r more r •1111 plclc ;rnd (' har; 1c te ri stie th ;m had cvC' r IJdorc lll'L'J l puhlisll\'d.
From J\ rn b sail ors, acc usto med lo Lh c 1ncli a n ( )cc: lll. he learn ed
so met hing about !.anzibar a nd M ;Hlagasc;1 r and the scm i-l .hristian k ing d om of i \ byss inia. '\'o th e north ware\ frnlll I'c rs ia he
d esc ri bed th e co untry of th e G olden I lorcle, 11 hose kh;JJl.s we re
th en ho ldin g Ru ssia in subj ec ti o n ; a nd h e had ga the red so m e
accurate informatio n con ce rning S ibe ria ;:is fa r ;1s the co unt ry
of the Sarn oyecl s, w ith th e ir cl og slcclgcs a nd p o lar bears . F JSKE , "The Discovery of .'\ mcr ica"
2. U ntil a f ew yea rs ago th e work (lf c1·nycL1y life ;:it hnm c
made s pecial mu sc ul a r train ing unm· ccssa n" 1ndu st r v was
cente red in th e home, w here o ur pare nt s u~cd lo g rcJ 1;. th eir
own food , spin a nd wc;:i ve their nll'n clot h, 111 ;Jke th ei r so; 1p.
clip ca nd les. E ig ht y per ce nt o f t hL· P"l'11\at io11 1\·;Js <Jg ri l'll il ur;JI.
T he fat he r, if h e ha ppe ned lo he a c:JI Jinc l rn akc 1· or hla cbrn ii h,
s haped his wood ;:ind fo rged hi s ni ct al nc;:i r his ho me. 11· i1hi 11
the sight of hi s chil dre n. l ~ac h chil d ,,.;Js called upo n whil e st il l
young to s ha re th e parents' ;:ictivity. L-1 e no t o nl y ga ined an
ins ig ht into th e indu s tri a l processes. bu l acq uired ha bi ls o f \\·ork ,
keen di scipline, m oral trainin g fu r his fu ture ocrnpa li n11 .
B ut n ow we arc becom e a n e11· so rt of C:l\'C cl11Tllcr. F 1e n
in o ur s uburban hom es \\'C ha1·c ;Jn :e p tccl th e anlomati c 11·: J\'S
of apartment-h ouse life; lu xury, indul ge nce, c;1sc ;Jrc so flcni1.1 g
o ur fib e r ; and indu s try h;Js passed for eve r frnm the h"J ill' to
the factory . Thi s has throw n new duti es u pon th e sc!Jnol.
Fifty years ago the ;:icaclem y b oy \\·as a n e ffi cie n t an d i1J tc llige 11 l

320

CAUSE J\N D EFFECT

J\IZGUMENT

pa rt o f that mid-century civilization. T he entire indu strial
process was kn ow n lo him . T o-clay, thro ug h the enormo us
complex ity o f li fe and its minute specialization in work, this
has so far been lost that the city hig h-school boy has not even
the clements of knowl edge sufficient to build up imaginati vely
the vital facts of dail y life a nd labor. I le has studied books
a nd heard thin gs talk ed about, but even of bis fath er's productive wo rk he has had little or no sha re. C halk and blackboard
a nd books, even when supplemented by our new manual training, arc no longe r enoug h. Our new civilization has its own
vital need s. The know ledge necessa ry for use in the produ ctive
industrial processes has increased enorm ously. Sciences like
phys ics an d chemistry and electricity have become essential
facto rs in the da ily wo rk of the wo rld . The tempe rin g of steel
form erly meant no more than the heating of the metal to cherry
reel ; it is now an intricate p rocess requiring a difficul t study o f
tempera tures a nd alloys. A nd to-day skill and accurate 'kn owledge in the use of the ha nds are needed as never before.
C learly we must immediately have a new sort of school, for
children now need the training of their muscles as well as of
their minds. And th ey need the training of their minds through
their muscles. - E . A. R u~ IELY , "O ur Public Schools as P reparation for P ractical L ife"

141. Argument from Cause to Effect.
th ere is a stron g probability that a thing
happened, as a result of certain causes .
a rg ue from cause to effect. F or example

We often say that
will happen, or has
In other words, we
:

If the boys play ball near the house, they will probably
break some glass.
We had so li ttle rain this spring that the hay crop is likely
to be s mall.
Young children will not dread a thunderstorm if their ciders
betray no fear on such occasions.

32 1

I n testing this kind of argument we should ask two questions : (I) A re th e causes adequate to produce the given
effect ? (2) Are there not other causes sufficient to prevent
the causes in question from producin g th e effect?
vVith reference to the foregoing examples it may be said :
The blinds are closed on the windows that face the ball fi eld .
The J un c rains should go far towa rd mak ing up for the
early drou g ht.
C hildren learn q uite as readily from other ch ildren as from
lheir elders.

142. Argument from Effect to Cause. O ne may do excell ent reasoning from effect to cause, but it is not always
easy to sin gle ou t th e poss ible causes. \!Ve should th erefore
make constan t use of these tests: ( r) Could no other causes
have produced the effect? (2) Did the assum ed cause ex ist?
(3) Was the assumed cause sufficie nt to produce th e effect?
For example, in the case of the broken g lass just referred
to it mig ht be safe to say :
The windows we re probably b roken by boys who played
ball near by.

But other causes may have produced th e effect.
There is in the neighborhood a small boy who is fond of
th rowing stones.
The little g irl next door is learnin g to throw a ball.

A nd as a matter of fact th e alleged ca use did not exist.
The window was broken befo re the boys played ball.

I

I

I

'·

322

ARGUMENT
EXERCISE

A re the fo llowin g conclus ion s based on sound reaso ning?

··'

1. These peas arc fresh because they came from the Ideal
JVlark et.
2. 'T is money makes the man.
3. There were so many noises in t he street last nig ht that
l did nol sleep we ll.
4 . 'J'h c bes t advertisement of a boarding house is a wellsatisfi ccl boarder.
5. The im provement in th e roads of this tow n is due
la rgely to the use of a utomobiles.
6. The expen sive mode rn methods of putting up and deli vering goods arc parlly responsible for the hig h cost of li ving.
7 . Tomatoes will ripen early if they arc prun ed.
8. Stark 's im provement in hi s st udies is du e largely to his
taking part in athletic contests so regularl y.
9. Shakespeare must have been an ignorant man, for he
sometimes uses a singu lar predicate with a plural subject.
10. 'vVi lliam Day's exce ptiona l ab il ity as a runne r is due to
the fact that his fat her was a fast runne r.
11. The proprietor of the boarding house has been successful because he has always set a good table.
12. If Saturday is hot, our nine will win , for our pitcher is
at hi s best on a hot clay.
13. i\I y low record in algeb ra is clue to the teacher's dislike of me.
1 4. 'l'hc reason why l can do no better in history is because
l ha ve so much work to do o ut side of school.
1 5. l have not written my theme because I d id not know
what to write about.
1 6. School child ren waste a good deal of paper because they
ca n readi ly obtain all they need.
17. l f we gave more atte ntion to music in ou r school , the
pupils wo uld be more eager to hear good music outside of school.

ARGUMENT ! ' ROM EXAMJ'LE

143. Argument from Example. Perhaps Llie m ost intc resling method of arguin g, and th e eas iest to unc.lcrstancl, is by
m eans of exam p le. It is espec ia lly we ll acbptec.l to publi c
spea k in g a nd to answe rin g questio n s of procedure, duly,
a nd poli cy. W e may use example in esU1bli s hin g a ge ne ra l
law. Th e most con clus ive form of argument from example
is that in which co nditions a re intentionally c h ose n that arc
less favorable than the conditions in the present case. This
argument in its proper place is very effective. Note th e
fo llow in g insta nce.
Alexa nd er was puffed up by hi s ma rvelou s conqu ests ; he
became vain and self-indu lge nt :i ncl lu :-.:urious; for the sake of'
victories abroad he neglcc:tcd affa irs at hom e : so thal al. hi s
dea th the vast empi re that. he had m~1clc fe ll in pieces like a
wpe of sa nd. It wi ll not cl o L<1 rcla:-.: vig il:111 cc and strenuou s
effort, or to lose self-control ; di sastci- li es th at \Yay.
The tests (or a rgu me 11l from e:-.:a mplc a re th ese: ( 1) J\ re
the cases c ited li ke t he case und e r cli srnss ion in :1 11 esse 11 ti:i ls?
(z) Are t h e cases cited lo establi s h a ge nera l law s urri cicn tl y
nume rous? (3) vVoulcl it not Ix: poss ibl e to m e ntion othe r
examples that te nd to di s prove t l1 c propos iti o n?
This is a fallacious exa mpk :
A g reat thinker and 1lla11 nf science: lllust also be a man or
religious fa ith; th is we sec c:-.:c111 plili ccl in s uch 111c11 as J ,ockl',
Newlon, and K epler.
This a rg um ent is inconclu sive, bl'cau sc man y examp les on
the other s ide mig ht be g iven . "In fact , re lig ion and sc ie nce
clo not require cond iti on s nearly e nou g h parall e l to warrant
s imilar conclusions of the t\rn .

324

EXERCISES

ARGUMENT
EXERCISES

1. Apply the foregoing tests to the following argument :

Domesticated animals, like cultivated plants, may run wild
and become so abundant as to be ex tremely injurious. vVild
horses are said to have become so numerous in some parts of
Australia that they consume the feed needed for sheep and
other animals, and hunters a rc employed to shoot them. In
some of the vVestern states they have also become a nuisance,
a nd in Nevada a law was passed in 1847 permitting wild
horses to be shot. R ecent reports from Washington indicate
that cayuses are considered of so li ttle value that they are
killed and used for bait in poisoning wolves and coyotes. United States Government Report, Department of Agriculture, 1898
2 . G ive oral argume nts on e ithe r side of the following
propositio ns :
1. The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong.

2. History is little else than the picture of human crimes
and misfortun es.
3. It is only the first step which costs.
4. T oo many luxuries are provided for yo un g people.
5 . ] f a boy has o ne good everyday suit and one for special
occasions, he has all the clothes that he needs.
6. No thing is of advan tage to yo u that makes yo u break
your word or lose yo ur self-respect.
7 . .1\ I ways tak e the short cut.
8. Nothin g happens to anybody which he is not fitted by
nature to bear.
9 . \<\1ha t is not good for the swa rm is not good for the bee.
10. Very little is needed to make a hap py life.
11. Inh eri ted wealth is a doubtful blessing.
12 . Free speech is the safety valve of agitation.

325

13. forgiven ess is better tha n revenge.
14 . .Practice is everything.
1 5. Those who want fewest things a rc nearest to the gods

( that is, a re happiest).
3. Be pre pared to di scuss th e foll ow in g passage . With
how many of the points m ade in it d o yo u ;1g rce ? \ Vith
wha t d o yo u disag ree ? How much of it is m e re asse rti o n ?
How much of it is proof? R ecall any exper iences and c ite
any examples that may h e lp a n unbiased judge to determine
the truth.

I maintain , then, that the school as an in st itution oug ht to
step in to the breach a rmed with its old wC'a pun, Lh c birch rod,
and win Lhc g lory which it used to k1 vc. I I ow crn it he cl one,
since parents make the school? ln the first pl ace, man y citiC's
a llow the pupil to be whipped, wiLl1 th e c<>nsrnl. "f the parents.
The pri vil ege oug ht to be used to a g rea ter L':\lcnl. Secondly,
as the worst children often come fn11 11 the hom es where the
idea of whipping is so repug nant tk1t th e pa rents' co11 sent
cannot be gain ed, the school should fi g ht for ils old-time rig ht
to punish regardless of the home. Th ere a rc man y men who
secretly wou ld like to see this power give n back to the schoo l,
a nd ma ny more who cou ld be easi ly c"n vinccd by a few racts.
Of course, no one wo uld desire th e ancicnl /i11J' of punishm ent ,
but by some system, th e deta il s of wh ich any wise body can
devise, something of the olcl-1 im c te rror of puni shment ought
to be reestablished, so thal the small childre n may be led to
believe it dan ge rous to commit various petty mi sde111 e;111ors.
Then th ey will come into the high school tra ined, as they arc
not now, to res pect law and o rd er, to assume responsibility, to
be real gentlemen and gcn li ewomc11. If thi s comes to pass, the
next generation, fath ered a nd m"thc red by these disciplin ed
boys and g irls, will rise up and call their pa rents blessed, instead of what they too often n ow call them. - E . D u 1iL1·:1'
PAR SONS, in Educatio11al Review, :May, 1 9 1o

I!°•

~-~ .. . ~

ARGUl\lEN T

144. Argum ent from Analogy.

Analogy tak e s \\·hat oc-

c urs in o ne s phere of life or actio n a nd rea sons from it to
w hat will occur in anoth er. lts conclu s ive ness d epends upon
th e re lati o ns o r conditions tha t exist in th e sph eres; th ese
mu st be alik e, as well as the occurre nces th e m selves, el se the
analogy fail s a s argument. ln ord er to make it conclusive,
we mu st trace lik e causes as well a s like e ffects ; and thi s we
can so seld om d o that our a nalogy is not ofte n a r eal argum e nt. J\ s illu st ratio n, however (that is, as a m eans <J( expos iti o n ), a nal ogy is full of inte rest a nd o fte n of beauty .
Fo r exampl e :
Sec the brilliant tints of the sk y as the sun is sinking below
the hori;-.011 and throwing back his mellow g lo ry over the world
he is lea ving; do cs not this spectacle remind yo u of th e end
of life , ;rnd shall we not look for such a g lory lo lig ht our declining days as the sun of our life enters the unseen realm
beyond ?
Thi s is a suggestive illustration, but we a rc not warrante d m
say in g t ha t th e e nd of life is g lorious because the e nd of clay
is; th e two d e pend on conditions too diffe rent to s upport
s uc h a conclusion.
EXERCISE

Point out the value of the followin g arg uments from
analogy . /\re th e cases c ite d r eall y parall e l ?
1. \!Vhcn the marin er has been tossed for many days in
thick \\·cathcr and on an unkn own sea , he naturall y ava il s
him self of the first p;rnsc in the storm , the earliest g lance of
th e sun, to tak e his latitude and ascertain how far the elements
have dri ven him from his course. L et us imitate this prudence,
and. before we fl oat further on the waves of thi s debate, refer
to the point from which we departed , that we may at least be

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DEV E LO PLNG Tf-H: i\ RG Lfl\lEN T

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327

ab le to conj ecture where we now arc . I ask fo r th e rcadin rr of
the resolution before the seuate. - \N 1rnsTER , " l.Zeply Lo Hay~c"
2. Sir: he who sees these states now revolving in harm ony
a round a common cente r, and cx pcc ls Lo see th em quit the ir
places and fl y off without conv ulsion, may look the next hour
lo s.c e the heavenly bodies ru sh from th eir sphe res, and jostle
against each oth er in Lhe realm s of spa ce, with out causing the
crush n[ the umvc rse. There can be nu such thin g a s a pcacca\Jl c secession. - WEBSTER , " R eply to H ay ne"

145 . Developing the Argument.

U11ity.

f\ va lua bl e a id

in cs t~bli s hin g our conclus io n is to stale o ur purpose with
prec is ion. Strict atte ntion to suc h a sta tem e nt throug hout
th e arg urn~n_t will kee p us from proving some! hin g con If, fo r
111 s ta ncc, we try to s how that h;1skct lxtll is a be lier :•a rn e for
boys t ha n t e nnis, we mus t not limit lh e cli scussio1;~ to boys

~1derably dtftere nt from what we set o ut to pro1·e .

who a rc exception a ll y v ig orou s; 11·c mus l conside r wilh ca re
th e needs of m ost boys .

Co!trro1ce. To reach a n at ur~1 l c"nc lu s ion 11-c 1m1s t prese nt
our m ater ia l in a log ical 1 order, so t\1 ;1!. the prnu [ o r th e first
po i 1~t will prepare th e reader or heare r for th e second po i11t, cl c.

l :111pluws. Whil e in s ist in g 0 11 a logica l o rd e r, 11c s hould
try to n~ake our ope nin g ;:1Ltracti vc ;rnd forcible, ;111 d to gain
emp has is throu g h proportion and by g iv in g o ur 11c ig liti cs l
a rg um e nt at the e nd.
/I p!a11 . A plan, or outlin e, li e lp l"ul in a ll fo rm s o f compos it ion . is indis pe n sabl e in stee r in g s t raight for th e g rx il in
;1 rg um c nt. It m ay not he c;1rdully worke d out in dl'la il 1 but
it m11 st contain th e essenti a ls , o r 11·hat a t the time we co ns iclc r t he essentia ls . As a resul t n f furth e r thou g ht a nd s tudy
1

Log ic is th e sc ience of ex:1ct re aso nin g .

ARGUMENT

we may rev ise and rewrite it, substituting strong arguments
for th ose that we have found to be weak, and making such
changes as seem best in the order of presentation .
P crs11rrsioll. Yet all this may not be sufficien t. Th e argument may be convincing and yet lack th e spur that will incite
our readers or hearers to action. Our success in winning our
way in the world, in enlisting th e cooperation of others, in
making our little world somewhat better than we found it,
wi ll depend largely on our skill in persuasion. Th is means
that we mu st study the man or men we undertake to convince. If we know their ways of lookin g at life, their habit
and tastes, we shall know how to appeal to them. Further·
more, we s hould bring to bear all the leverage that comes
from th e use of senten ces which are carefu lly phrased and
words which do their work effectively. In brief, in order to
arg ue fo rcibly we need much knowl edge of men and things,
and g reat skill in rhetoric.
S uch term s as " proposition, " " issues," " evidence," "as·
sertion," " proof,"" refutation," which co ncern both oral and
written argument, and which might properly be considered
here, will fo r the sake of convenience be discussed un der
debates (sec p. 33 r).
f

I

EXERCISES

1. Keepi ng in mind th e substance of what you have
learn ed about argument, write a letter on one of the follow in g subj ects. First make a simple plan. As you re\·isc,
test in eve ry way you can the exactness of
and your r hetoric.
1. Request yo ur English teacher, in revising the list of b ook ~
for ne" t year's read ing, to substitute for a book that you
di s lik e one that yo u have g reatly enj oyed.

EXERC I SES
2. Urge your father to buy something that you wo uld like to
own, or something that wou ld be of great assistance to yo ur
mother.
3. Remind someone who ~~orks too stead ily that play is
quite as necessary as work. (Cause a nd effect ; examples.)
4. Urge your cousin to s pend a month wit h you next summ er.
5. Explain to your uncle why yo u wo uld ra ther begin at the
bottom and learn his mill business than take a position in his
bookkeeping department. (Cause and effect; examples.)
2. ·w ri te a theme on one of the fo ll ow in g subj ects or on
one sugges ted by them . If the subj ect is of a personal
nat ure, address yourself to th e E ng li sh teacher; otherwise,
to the class. Make a plan . In revising your work, see that
the premises are true, that every supposed cause is a cause,
and that every source quoted is reliable.
1. Have I not been living in a dream?
2. 'fhe rail roads should abolish grade crossings in thi s state.
3. The parcel post has been a decided benefit to o ur com·
munity.
4. Free-hand drawing should be taught in every hig h school.
5 . Men usually grow base by degrees.
6. There is no g reater despot than one boy over his less
energetic compan ions.

3. Write an argum ent on any subject that your teacher
approves. The following may be suggest ive. Try to appeal
to a classmate whom you consid er hard to persuade.
1. 1t is good policy for my fath er to lend me money with
whi ch to raise chickens (or to do some kind of farming) .
2. Why I urge my friend s to join the Roy Scouts.
3. Everyone should kn ow abo ut birds (or flowers or trees).
4. Every high-school student should have a library of his own .
5. Can an yone know the value of money unless he has had
to work for it?

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330

ARGUMENT

6. J t is easier to earn money than it is to spend it wisely.
7. J\ 11 automobiles should be equipped with an oil tail lamp .
8. Eve ry hig h school, no matter what its special aim may be,
shou ld offer in stru ction in gymnastics.
9. Street cars should not continue to take on passengers
after they have a certain number.

146. Debates. The form of argumentation which is of
most practical value to young persons is debating. As an
exercise in self-control it is as good as football. The necessity of getting our opponent's point of view is the best
possible preparation for dealing with men and women, and
if this last advantage were the only one to gain from debatin g, it alone would be worth all the cost. The acquiring
of this ability is itself an education.
147. The Finding of Material. Aside from th e aid you
may be fortunate enough to get from friends, you will need
practice in ha ndlin g library catalogues and tables of contents.
You should know where to find, and how to use, records of
public debates. You should have access to the Congressional
Rcrord, standard his tories, periodicals, and some of the best
dai ly papers. Poole's " Index to P eriod ical Literature" 1 is
an invaluable aid in consulting magazin es and will be found
in rn ost librari es. If you are to have wei ght as speakers, you
mu st not only quote recognized authorities but be careful to
take ref crenccs and quotations at first hand, if possible, and
to quote t hem accurately. Your audience has a ri ght to expect you to tell definitely the sou rce of your citation. It is
not enough, for exampl e, to attribute something to vVebster;
you s hould add the name of the speech. In general, you are
1 Thi s is now publi s hed under th e title "Reader's Guide to Periodical
Literature."

TERMS USED IN DEBATE

331

to g ive information enoug h to enable a nyone to verify your
quotations with ease. If, as you take notes, you jot clown the
references to your sources, yo u wi ll not be embarrassed afterward by wondering who your authority was .
148. Terms used in Debate. Certain terms used in connection with formal debating may need brief explanation.
Some of these terms we shall consider more carefully later.
1. The proposition is the statement of the subj ect of the
debate.
2. The a/firmative side is the one wh ich attempts to prove
that the proposition is true.
3. The negative side a ttempts to show that the proposition
is not true.
4 . Colleagues are debaters on the same side.
5. Opponents are debaters on opposite sides.
6. The Z:rsues are the points which must be proved in order
to establi sh the proposition.
7. Evidence is the mate rial used in the proof.
8. B11rden ef pro1if is the t11sk ef provi11g, which rests on
the affirmative throughout, althou g h the term is applied in
a slightly modified sense to the obligation of either side.
9. Ref?ttation is the arg ument which aims directly to disprove the opponent's statements.
10. R ebuttal has practically the same meaning as ref?tlation,
but is often applied to the final s ummary of each side.
11. Afizllaq is a misleading or illusory ai-gument.
12. Bq;ging tlte q1testio11 is assum ing as true something that
needs to be proved.

149. The Proposition. T here arc four things to keep in
mind about a proposition:
r . It should state what is to be proved ; it should not be
in th e form of a mere topic. Th ese are suitable subjects for

i

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ARGUMENT

THE PROPOS ITION

discussion but not for argument; that is, they are not
propositions :
l believe in woman suffrage.
German as a stud y.

training school," "industrial school," "trade school." If any
one of these appears in a proposition, it will be well to
accompany it with a definition. Examine the following :

332

The following are su itable subjects for argument:
Should the suffrage be granted to women?
Should German be required for entrance to college?
The declarative form -

the best for debating purposes -

would be:
The suffrage should be granted to women.
German shou ld be required for entrance to college.
2. The proposition should be carefully limited.
a. 'vVe must not undertake to prove too much.

Study

these statements :
Everyone shou ld learn to swim.
Every boy and girl should learn to swim.
Every hea lthy boy and girl shou ld learn to swim.
The first proposition, a commonly expressed opinion, is
not a su itable one for argument; neither is th e second ; the
third, the most limited, is decidedly the best.
b. \,Ye must not undertake to prove more than one thing
at one time. It wou ld be unwise to debate on these statements in thi s form :
Fvcry healthy child should learn to swim and to skate.
]k1ys and girls do not give sufficient attention to food, sleep,
and e:-;crcise.
3 . If the proposition cannot be freed from ambiguity, it
shou lcl he foll owed by the necessa ry explanation. Often this
is merely a defin ition of terms . Th e same term may convey
different m ea nings to different persons. Compare "ma nual

333

P ublic schools are better than private schools. (Better for
what?)
Only good men should be chosen to office. (What do you
mean by good ?)
4. The proposition, in order to be debatabl e, shou ld have
two sides. 'vVe should avoid a statement that is one-s ided, so clearly true that it does not lend itself to argument.
For example:
A pupil who cheats deserves to be puni shed.
A student's proper advancement req uires that he should
spend as much time in study as in athletic exercise.
Reading good books is very beneficial.
Associating with one's fellow men is of imm ense value.
There is room for argument, however, in such statements as
these :
In the high-school graduation exercises some of the speaking
should be done by the pupils.
All men should be equal before the law.
EXERCISES

1. Write five propositions on which you could build arguments, using any of these suggestions in a ny way that you
pl ease. Apply to each statement the four tests considered
above.
1. T he cause of fires.
6. Geometry.
2. Reading the newspapers.
7 . Studying at home.
3. Gymnasium work.
8. Automobiles.
4. T ennis.
9. Scott's novels.
5. Basket ball.
10. Oral reading.

ARGUMENT

REFU'fA'rION

2. Improve th e statement of these propositions in any way
you can . A pply each of the four preceding tests.

unreaso nable. A case is always weak ened and sometimes lost
by th e ex posure of any one of th ese faults.
152. Refutation. As already stated, refutati on is the argum e nt which aims directly to disprove th e opponent's stateme nts . To weaken an opponent's position by s how ing that
so me of hi s evidence is unrel iabl e or that some of hi s reasonin g is clc;irly un sound is j ust as important as to establi sh our
own pos iti on. vVhc n to bring in th e re futati on depe nds upon
the question. O n one occasion it will seem best Lo make it
ve ry conspicuous, - pe rh aps to put it fi rst, so as to re move
opposition or prejudice. O n another occasion it may be introdu ced incide ntall y as a matter of li ttle conseque nce. A nother
tim e we may n ot da re menti on it till we have advanced most
of our argume nts ; the n we shall endeavor with on e strong
sweep to remove all obstacl es.
153. The Brief. In prepa ring an a rgu ment you need
something more tha n a plan, or topical outl in c ; you n eed
complete statements of all the thoughts that are essential to
th e a rg ument. These stateme nts compose the brief. The
brief has three importa nt parts: (1) th e introd uction, (2) the
brief proper, and (3) the concl usion.
In th e in troduction state clearly

334

1. Everybody should learn to cook.
2. Football is the best of all sports.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Literature is a more valuable study than geometry.
J\11 pupils should study at home.
Eve ryo ne shou ld have a high-school e( lu cation.
Eve ry tow n should have a publi c library.
Every publ ic library should be open every day in the week.

150. The Issues. Ce rtain fundamental points must be
p roved to establish the proposition. These points are call ed
the is mes. In determining them we must ig nore (1) whatever has no bearin g on th e question, and (2) all matters on
which both s id es agree or which the other s ide adm its . Th en
we sh ould state bri c Ay the main points on whi ch both s id es
d isagree, arra ng in g th em und er a few heads.
151. Evidence. Assertion is an expression of opin ion;
proof must he supported by facts. The material used in
furni shin g the proof is called th e evid ence. Assertions
a mount to nothing; every bit of evid ence, however, is a
round in th e ladd er th at leads to the conclusi on .
Ev id ence is derived either from observation or from readin g . If from observation, its value depend s upon such cons id era tions as ability to see accurately, capacity for straight
thinkin g . prec ise expression, and h onesty. If from read ing,
we s hould quote on ly ex perts of recog ni zed authority, remembering, too, that the substantial agreeme nt of several
expe rts is n aLurall y consid ered to be more va luable than th e
opinion o f any one of th em.
A careless observer or an inaccurate reporte r is apt to
presen t contradictory evidence; one who exaggerates may be

335

How the qu estion arose.
What facts both sides admit.
What is the exact point at issue.
In the b1'ie.f proper show th e growth of th e argum ent:
Separate the main argum ents from the subordinate.
Arrange th e main arguments in logical order.
Group under them the subordin ate arg uments and see that
each subdivision is a reason for th e truth of the division under
which it comes.

ARGUMENT

In th e co11cl1fsio1t sum up th e argument concise ly.
N ot on ly do we need a brief for each sid e of the debate,
but we shoul d be as fami liar with th e opponent's ground as
we a re with our ow n territory; fo r we are to g ive and take, to
be a nswered a nd to answer, and after th e con test begins we
have no tim e for hunting up information.
Th e fo llowing brief for the affirmative shows the proper
a rran gement of material :
BRJEF

Q uestion : R esolved, Tha t our school day should be leng the ned.
Ji1trod11dion

l. F or several years the school has opened at nine o'clock
in the morning and closed at quarter past two in the
aftern oon.
II. I t has recentl y been proposed by some members of the
school committee that the hour for closing be made
twen ty minutes of four. The recess always has taken
a nd will continue to take thirty minutes. The change
suggested will therefore leave a working day of six
hours.
Ill. l\fany paren ts and a la rge number of the pupils oppose
the change.
IV . Bolh sides admit that
A. The ave rage hig h-school g raduate is not efficient.
H The necessity for im provement is urgent.
V. Th e question, then, is whether the improve ment can be
made by leng th ening th e school clay. T here are three
issues.
A . ls the plan wise in th eo ry?
Jl. I Jocs it wo rk ?
C. ls there no better plan?

THE BRJEF

337

Brief Pmpcr
I. T he long school day is wise in theory.
A . It would g ive the extra time that the ave rage pupil
needs.
r. There wo uld be more study periods.
2. There mig ht be more recitation periods.
3. There wou ld be more lim e for laborato ry wo rk.
B. It wo uld result in more th orough work .
I. The pupi l wo uld wo rk more care full y . .
2 . The subj ects could be taug ht more thoro ughly.
IL The objection that the pu pils should not be ex pected to
stand the s train of a six-hour session is not convincing.
A. Six hours is not too long a time for healthy pupils
of hig h-school age to study.
B. Th e work of the school day is in terrupted
1. By recess .
2. By filin g from roo m to roo m.
3. By exercises in the hall.
4. By wo rk in laboratories, drawing rooms, and shops.
C. In general the schoolroom is a better place for study
than the home.
r. It is easier to keep regular hours.
2 . The pupil docs not have to look fo r a place
where he can wo rk without interruption .
D. There is suffi cient time for outdoor recrea tion.
r. Members of the footba ll a nd baseball teams ag ree
to this statement.
E . There is time for a reasonable amount of outside
wo rk .
1. Boys and g irls who a rc determin ed to help pay
their way throug h school will find the tim e.
F. Compara ti vely little studying need be clone a t home.
G. The day for boys and g irls who arc working for
a living is much longer.

ARGUMENT

I£. High-school boys and girls should get used to long
working clays as a preparation for life.
III. The long school clay works in practice.
A, lt is success ful in England.1
B . lt wo rks well in F ra nce.1
C. lt is well established in Germany. 1
D. It has been tried for several years in this school in
the case of certain classes wh ich desired extra
laboratory wo rk or which needed special teaching.

Refutation
I. The asse rtion that Ame rican boys and girls sli oulcf not
be expected to keep the hours that are kept by
European students is not conclusive. For
A. The experiment has not been sufficientl y tried in
this country.
B. These things are largely matters of custom and
habit.
II. The objection that the average student, unlike the poor
student, does not need more of the teacher's time, is
inconclusive.
A. Extra time spent in the classroom should result in
more of the effi cient teaching which the schools
a re expected to give.
B . Additional study hours spent under the supervision
of the teacher should enable the student to increase his efficiency as a wo rker.
III . No better way of solving the problem has been suggested.
A . The double session is out of the question.
1. The pupils live too far away from the school.
B. To lengthen the school year would be un wise.
1. The parents are s trongly opposed to t he plan.
2. Many of the pupils need the Jong summer vacation for earning money.
1

Evidence should be cited.

THE BRIEF

339

Conclusion
Since the long school clay is wise in theory, since it wo rks in
practice, a nd since no better plan has been advanced fo r
securing a more e fficient high-school g raduate, this school
shouicl leng then its school day.
·
EXERCISES

1. Write a brief on the oth er side of the foregoing
question.
2. Make a brief of the following arg um ent :
THE W AY TO

l

EACE ·

John hires Hans as a gardener. Hans is dissatisfi ed with his
room, his hours, or his wage, and gives notice that he will quit
if his demand for improvement is not complied with. For a
week J ohn and Hans discuss term s ; they can come to no
agreement, and Hans quits and seeks a not he r job. John 's
right to decide whether he wi ll comply with Han s's demands,
Hans's right to quit if the demands arc not complied with, no
one questions. The matter concerns only John and H ans. The
public are not inte rested. Han s may be without a job for
month s; on ly Hans and his fami ly arc affected. John m ay be
without a gardener for months; onl y John a nd his family are
affected. This is the famous " right of private contract" of
which we hear so often.
But when the employer is a g reat corporation, and the employee is a thousand wo rkingmen uni ted in a labor union, and
the job which they jointly carry on is not the culti vation of a
priv~te garden but the condu ct of a g reat highway o n which
the well-being of the entire co mmunity depends, this method of
leaving the question between the two to be adjusted by" private
contract" is absurdly inadeq uate. Whi le the corporation and
the labor union haggle about the term s of a new contract, the

340

ARGUMENT

whole community wa tches with eager interes t for the outcome.
Wh e n they fail to agree, and the employees, exercising "the
right of private contract, " quit, the transportat ion of a g reat
city, pe rhaps o f a g reat s ta te o r conge ri es of s ta tes, is throw n
into co nfu sion. The public hig hways of the city in the territory
affected cease to be available to the public. If John has no
g ard ene r, and co nseque ntly no strawbe rri es from his ow n
gro und s in Jun e, no one suffers but him self a nd his famil y.
lf th e city railway corporatio n has no moto rm en, thousands of
men and childre n have to walk from the ir homes to their
offices and th e ir schools.
Th e N ew Y ork Tri/Jn11e estim ated that the threatened Weste rn railway strike would have put out of commission 1 50,000
miles of railway and out o f employment 125,000 e mployees,
besides th ose who were to participate in th e strike, and wo uld
have affected di sas trou sly the entire co untry wes t of a line
draw n fro m C hicago to New O rl eans. How ma ny millions of
m en , wom en, a nd children would have been invo lved in g reat
inconve ni e nce, som e of them in tragic sufferin g, the re are no
statistics to show. Bradstreet's estimated the loss to the public
in the Pullman strike of 1894 a t eighty million do llars. In th e
coal s trike of 1902 th e railways a lone lost about forty-seven
million dollars in freight rates. T o apply to s uch a condition
o f a ffa irs th e principle of private co ntract is as absurd as to
attempt to drive an old-fashioned coach a nd four along a railway tra ck and across its culv erts a nd its tres tles.
The railway co rporation has been created by the public to
serve th e public inte rests; a nd th e public have so me rights
whi ch the co rporation and its e mployees are bound to respect.
H ow sha ll they be protected?
The re a re three rights which are imperiled by la bor wars,
and whi ch the law should safeguard:
Th e rig ht of the public to unimpeded transportation .
Th e rig ht o f th e corporation to carry on tha t transportation
for the public.

THE BRIEF

341

And the right of the employees to fa ir treatme nt from their
corporate employer.
Protect the last, a nd the res t will be easily protected . At
present the co mmunity docs absolutely nothin g to protect the
employees' rig ht to fair treatme nt. 'v\/e leave the te n thousand
e mpl oyees of a railway to protect them selves by leaving their
e mpl oym ent if they have a g ri eva nce, as we leave H ans to protect him self by leaving his job if he ha s a g ri eva nce. 'fhey have
n o o th e r rem edy ; wo nde r not if th ey use the one we g ive them.
The law s ho uld a llo w the empl oyees of any public-service
corpo ration to prese nt their g rieva nce to a public-service commission or its eq uiva le nt ; s ho uld direct the co mmi ssion to g ive
a n immediate a nd public hearing; should req uire th e railway
to accept and act o n the findin g o f the co mmission ; a nd, on its
refusal or failure so lo d o, should put: the railway in to the hands
of a receiver, as it d oes in case of a failure to pay interest on
its bonds. This wo uld provide th e em ployees with a rem edy
for real or fanci ed w i·ongs.
It s hould th en mak e it a penal offense fo r the em ployees of
a ny public-se rvice corpora ti on to co mbin e in any attem pt to
interfere with th e regular wo rk of the public-se rvice co rporation, whether by leaving in a body o r by a ny othe r m et hod ;
and it s hould m a ke it a misdemeano r for any indi vid ua l to leave
th e ser vice withou t adequate prev io us notice, say fou r weeks,
th e misd em ea nor being p uni shable by fin e or impri so nment or
both. This wou ld p rn lect th e right of the public-se rvi ce co rpora tion to render, unhamp e red by s trik es, th e se rvice to th e
p ublic which it was created by lhC' publi c to re nde r.
These two ri g hts protected. th e ri g h t of th e public to the
public serv ice wo uld be suffi cie ntly sa feg ua rd ed.
Docs this m ake of the employees sla ves ? Not at a ll. No
mo re than th e soldie rs in the arm y o r the sailors in the navy
are slaves. No m ore than H a ns is a s la ve; for H a ns, if hired
by th e mon th, ca nn ot law fully quit his employer's service witho ut g iving a month 's notice. I t sim ply ta kes th e club ou t o f

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342

ARGUMENT

the hands of the interested employees and puts it into the
hand of a disin Le rested tribun al.
Does it depri ve the corporation of efficiency in dealing with
its corporate probl ems? Not at all. If the directors prove
th emselves incapable of so ma naging the co rporation that they
can pay inte rest on the bonds, the law now takes it out of their
co ntrol and puts it into other hand s. If they prove incapable
of so managing the corporation that they ca n satisfy the just
demands of their employees - demands decla red to be just by
an impartial tribunal after public investigation - it is not unjust
to tak e the management out of their con trol and put it into
other hands. The rights of employees ought to be as well
safeg uarded by the law as the rights of bondholders.
Certainly the system which leaves the citizens of P hil adelphia
for weeks, and threatened to leave the citize ns of all the states
west of Chicago for weeks, without necessary transportation
cannot be defe nded on the ground that it is efficient. If any
reader has a better plan than we here propose, we shall be
glad to hear from him. - I'l1e Outlook, March 26, 1910
3. \ ,\Trite a suitab le introduction to a brief on eith er th e
n egative or th e a ffirmati ve side of one of th e fo llowin g
propositions.
1. The execution of Ivlajo r Andre was justifiable.
2. Strik es help the cause of labo r.
3 . ( )ur athl etic association shou ld be managed by a teacher.
4 . E ve ry high school should have a double session.
5. The coast defenses of the U nited States should be
strengthened.
4. \ Vritc your introduction in paragraph fo rm.
5. vVritc the rest of the argum e nt.

154 . The Speaking.

After securing an orderly arran gem ent of his materi al, th e d ebater should tal k over th e whole
subject by him self or with a friend so many times that there

THE SPEAKING

343

shall be n o h esitation for words when h e appea rs in publi c.
H e is n ot to commit a speech to m em ory, but rath e r to d eliver
so many speech es b efore the debate th at h e can speak readi ly
on any phase of the question. As soon as hi s turn com es h e
wi ll be eager to ma ke t h e m ost of th e tim e a ll owed him , as his
object is to speak so earnestly, a nd in s uch a stra ig htforward
manner, that h e s h all at once win the atte n tion of his h earers
and h old it till h e h as compelled the m to ag ree with him .
If we would carry our point, it m ay be a good plan to
appear not to arg ue . As lon g as th e li s ten er takes our conve rsat ion to be m e re ly expla nation, h e will foll ow. If we can
make th e h earer think h e is drawing hi s own concl usi ons,
we a re mu ch m ore li ke ly to con vince him th a n we should be
by g ivin g him the impression that we arc doin g all his
thin k ing fo r him .
ln closing his" Defense of th e K cnni sto ns" 'Webster rloes
not tell th e jury what they oug ht to do, wh;it he ex pects the m
to do, or what all ri g ht-thinking m e n wo uld cl o; h e a ppea ls
to th em as m en who are to d ecid e for th e mselves.
If the jury are satisfied that th ere is the highest improba bil ity
that these persons cou ld have had any prev ious know ledge of
(;oodridgc, or been concerned in any prev ious con cert to rob
him ; if th eir co nduct that evenin g and th e next day w<is mark ed
by no circumstan ces of suspicion ; if from th<it moment until
th eir arres t nothing appc:i rcd ;igainst them ; if they neither
passed money nor are fou nd to have h:1cl money; if the m:i nner of the search of their house, an d th e ci rcum stances attending it, excite strong suspicions of unrair and rraud ul cnt practices :
if, in the hour of their utmost peril, no promi ses of sa rety could
draw from the defendants any con fcssion affecting themselves
or others, it will be for the jury to say whether they can pronounce them guilty.

344

ARGUMENT

155. Subjects for Debates. The following subjects may
suggest others that will prove more satisfactory.
1. A four years' high-school course is better than a three
years' course.
2. Canada should be annexed to the United States.
3 . The - - is a better bicycle than the - - .
4. Interscholastic football proinotes the best interests of
schools.
5. The United States should . build a larger navy.
6. The standing army of the United States should be
increased,
7. Private citizens should feed tramps.
8. Asphalt is the best kind of paving for - - Street.
9. A trust is necessarily a benefit.
10. The treatment of Shylock was unjust.
11. High-school pupils should read the newspapers.
12. The - - is a better automobile than the - - .
13. Pupils of high-school age should receive training m
debating.
14. The public library should be open on Sunday.
15. Manual training should be taught in all high schools.
16. Freshmen should be excluded from all high-school teams.
17. Every high school should give instruction in music.
18. Monday is a more suitable clay than Saturday for the
weekly school holiday.
19. Napoleon was a greater military genius than Wellington.
20. Longfellow's poetry is more musical than Whittier's
(Poe's, Burns 's).
21. ll awthorne is superior to Poe in descriptive powers.
22 . .President - - is worthy of reelection as chief executive
of the U niled States.
23. United States senators should be elected by popular vote.
24. A high tariff increases wages.
25 . Labor-saving machines injure the laboring classes.

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES

345

26. The truth should always be spoken.
27. Sometimes pupils should report wrongdoings of other
pupils to the teacher.
28. Military drill should be compulsory in public high schools.
29. A knowledge of French and German is more valuable
than a knowledge of Greek and Latin.
30. Interclass athletics are of more benefit to a school than
interscholastic athletics.
31. Gymnasium work should be compulsory for boys and
girls in the high school.
32. All boys should learn to use ordinary carpenter tools.
33. All girls should learn to cook.
34. " - - " is a more interesting book than " - - " for a
high-school pupil to read.
35. There is more school spirit in private than in public
schools.
36. Algebra is a more valuable high-school study than history.
37. It is easier to study in school than at home.
EXERCISES

1. In Macaulay's refutation of the first sentence of the
following paragraph, does he use assertion, proof, or analogy ?

Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it
down as a self.evident proposition that no people ought to be
free till they are fit to use their freedom . The maxim is worthy
of the old fool in the story, who resolved not to go into the
water until he had learned to swim. If men are to wait for
liberty until they become wise and good in slavery, they may
indeed wait forever.
2. Show whether the following consist of proof or assertion:
1. This is the cake [of soap] that users and dealers recognize
as the standard of acco mplishment in the housel1old. It cleans
where others fail; it does the most work for the least money.

ARGUMENT
2. This is the best tool known, for there is no tool like the
_ _ for doing the one hundred and one odd things about the
shop.

.
3. That air is thus necessary to the propagat10n of sound
was proved by a celebrated experiment .. . by a.pl'.ilosopher
named lfauksbee, in 1705. He so fixed a bell w1thm the receiver of an air pump that he could ring the bell when the
receiver was exhausted. Before the air was withdrawn, the
sound of the bell was heard within the receiver; after the air
was withdrawn, the sound became so faint as to be hardly perceptible. - TYNDALL, "On the Transm ission of Sound by the
Atmosphere"

3. On one of the following propos1t10ns write two independent paragraphs, one of which is developed by cause and
effect, the other by example.
1. Much novel-reading is injurious.

2. Free trade would benefit the United States.
3. The Monroe Doctrine is in the interest of universal peace.
4. The - - typewriter is superior to the - - .
5. The - - fountain pen is the best.

4. Say something for or against each of the following
statements or arguments. Whenever you can, substitute a
.statement which seems more reasonable.
1. J<:very girl should learn to cook.

2. Since many great writers were not distinguished at colJcrre
collc<TC studies are of no value in learnin g to write.
0
3: No ~nmigrant should be admitted to the United States
unless he has at least twenty-five dollars with him.
4. Since my uncle, who is wealthy and successful, never
!'Ludicd F rench and German, I will not study French and
German.
5. l ca nnot see why Drown fai led in algebra when he got
90 in history and So in English.

EXERCISES

347

G. That boy has called out, " Fire ! fire!" several tim es this
week just to deceive us. There is no fire, although he is callmg now.
7. Every third man has been struck out by tbe pitcher. As
Smith is our third man up, he wi ll be struck out.

'I

5. Make a list of the arguments in favor of e ither the
affirmative or the negative of one of the following propositi ons:
1. Everybody ought to do what he G m do best.
2. The secret of success is persistence.
3. The price of necessities should be regulated by the
government.

6. Do the following extracts contain any mere assertions?
any selfceviclent truths that the reader at once admits?
1. If a thing worth doing is worth doing well , the bill for a
safe and sane Fourth, favorably reported to the state senate,
should reach enactment without am endment or substitution.
The sensible people of the state do not wish " something just
as good." They want a law govern ing the use of explosives
for Independence D ay celebration which wil l provid e the mn ximum of protection to their children. Harring the Loy pis tol is
hardly more necessary than forbidding absolutely the use of
the blank cartridge. As for the giant cracker, there is no room
for difference of opinion , with th e consideration of life and lim b
involved. Pandering to the very few 11·ho are financially concerned would be a direct sacrifi ce of the rights of the many.
That is neither justice nor wisdom. Let the bill be enacted
without being made farcica l. J\ sensible reform well begun
should overcome any selfi sh opposition.
2. It is a good deal of a problem whether the present type
of Sunday newspaper will last. I am inclined to the opinion
that it will not, and I base this conclusion on the fact that the
Sunday newspaper is an illogical produ ct. It is no more a
newspaper than it is a magazine, or weekly paper, or comic
I

!~

ARGUlVIEN T
paper. If we wa nt a newspape r and nothing else , why should
we be compelled to buy half a dozen other publica tions with it?
l say half a dozen publications, because th e Sunday newspaper is made up of half a dozen diffe rent publications, and
the purchaser is compelled to buy all or none. lf we want a
1i1 agazin e, why be compelled to buy a comic weekly? If we
wa n t a comic weekly, why be compelled to buy a story paper ?
If we want a story paper, why be compell ed to buy the cut-out
scheme for children ? If we want the cut-out scheme, why be
compelled to buy a magazin e? Why shouldn't we be able
to buy just what we want, a nd not be compelled to take
anything else ?
J t is this idea of dra g net journalism that to my mind is not
sound and not satisfactory. J t means waste and A WAKENS
A SENSE OF Rl~SEN TME N T on the part of a purchaser
who wants merely a newspaper bu t, in order to get it, is compelled to purchase all these other periodicals. WE WANT
WHAT \VE vVANT WH EN WE WANT IT. . . . - By
FRA NK A. MUNSEY, in the BostonJ01tr11al, April 22, 191 0
7. R efute the following in writing:

But the gy mnasium is the normal type of all mu scular exercise, - the on ly fo rm of it which is impartial and comprehensive,
11·hi ch has somethin g for every body, which is availabl e at all
seasons, through all wea tl1 ers, in all latitudes. A ll other provisions are limited (yo u cannot row in wi nter nor skate in
summ er, spite o f parlor skates and ice boats ; ball-playing- requi res com rades; riding takes money; everythin g needs daylig ht:), but the gymn as ium is always <iccessible. Then it is the
onl y thing which train s the whole body. Military drill makes
on e prompt. erect, accur<ite, still , stro ng. Rowing t<ik es one
set o f mu scles and stretches them through and throu g h un til
you feel yo urself tu rni11 g in to one long spiral spring from fin ger
tips to toes . In cri cket or bascb<i ll a plctye r run s, strikes, watches,
ca tches, th rows, must learn quickness of lrn ncl a nd eye, mu st

EXERCISES

349

learn endurance also. Yet, no matte r which of these may be
your special hobby, yo u mu st, if yo u wish to use a ll the clays
and all the muscles, seek the gymnasium at las t.

8. Write a brief on one of the subj ects on page 344 or on
any other subject which seems a good one for debate.
9. Without writin g your argument, be prepared to give
the substance of it from your brief.
10. State each of the following so that it may serve as the
proposition for a debate. Avoid all ambiguity of exp ression.
1. The power of the federal gove rnment over the state
governments.
2. ls R owena or Rebecca the real heroin e of" [ van hoe"?
3. H ow much pocket money should a hig h-schoo l student
have each week?
4. T he works of Hawthorne and Scott com pctred for descriptions of real life.
5. The character of Judge Pyncheon in "The Ho use of the
Seven Gabl es " as a description of a possible person.

11. Write an argument on "Shall I take up - - after
leaving school? "
12. Discuss orally th e value of your chosen vocation to the
community. If, for instance, it is dom es tic science, you may
explain the meanin g of the term, show the importance of the
subj ect, and argue that, as it often is not tau ght in th e hom e
(for mothers are busy or thoughtless or ignorant, or th e family
boards, or the moth ers work out), it should be taught in the
schools.
156. The Management of a Debate. 1 In unclert<iking a
debate the members of the class should understand that one
I Sec also" H. ul cs of Proc ee din g and De bate in D e lib e rative Assemb lie s,''
by Luthe r S. C ushing . New e di tion . Philad e lp hia, Porte r & Coates.

ARGUMENT

MANAGEM ENT OF A DEBAT E

of th e first obj ects is to encourage a large number of speakers
to say so methin g to the point. T here is always danger that
three or four of the best speakers will get the lion's share of
th e ad va ntag~s . T o prevent this, every encouragement should
be g ive n to the beginner who finds it almost impossible to say
anything . I t must always be borne in mind that one good
arg um ent, th e resul t of an honest piece of thinkin g, is worth
doze ns of other people's thoughts.
An exercise of thi s sort should be democrati c. If the makin g of arran gements is left to a committee of three, appoin ted
by th e teacher or chosen by th e class, all should recognize th e
importan ce of doin g cheerfully whatever thi s committee recommends. Eve n if one has to take the sicl c he di slikes, he
mu st clo hi s best with it in orcl cr to support lh e co mmittee in
ils alte mpt to have the machin ery of lh e debate run smoothly.
'fh c subj ect should be one of general in te rest. lt is wise
at first to avoid questions that are too intricate for most of
our statesmen, and, if practi cable, to choose one that gives
the pu pil a chance to supplement his read in g by drawing
from hi s own ex perience.
l'n/>11mtir111. A mple tim e must be g iven fo r preparation.
Th ere s h0lild be at least two weeks' noti ce, and during th e
fo rtni ght eve ryone should spend as much as poss ible of his
spare tim e in thinking and readin g about th e subj ect. If one
is to argue on th e ad visability of feedin g tramps, in addi tion
to th e incl cfini te am ount of reading he will find availabl e he
may be able to give point and interest to his speaking by
tellin g of what he has seen in hi s fath er's dooryard. H e
wh o wo uld bring others to his way of thinking must show
th e m th at he has been workin g out the subj ect fo r himself
a nd kn ows wh at he is talking about.

Principal speakers and substitutes. The committee on
arrangements will probably find that as a rul e it is a good
pl an to appoint two or three principal speakers on each sid e
of the question, and one substitute on each side. If th e substitutes are not called upon, th eir careful preparation will qualify
them to strengthen the debate from the f-l oor. Th e principal
speakers must not be given too much tim e, nor are th ey to be
allowed any ex tension of the time allotted . As soon as they
have prepared the way for a ge neral discussion, the chairman
should th row th e debate open to all. Th e n the fri ends of th e
principal speakers may fill in th e outlines presented by their
leaders.
Di1;ision ef work among- speak ers. If, as is frequently th e
case, th ere arc four leaders, the work may be di vided in this
way:
I. The first speaker on tb e a ffi rmative gives th e outlin e of
the entire affirmative case, shows wh at he and his associates
are to prove, and presents hi s own arg um ents. Incid entally
he may do something to destroy th e fo rce of arg uments which
may be brou ght forward by the other side.
z . The first speaker on th e n egative comes next. H e
shows what he and hi s coll eague are to prove, and presents
his part of the proof. H e has th e advantage of knowin g wh at
has been said by the opening speaker, and does what he can
to weaken those a rguments. H e may, if h e sees fit, anti cipate some of th e points likely to be made by the second
speaker on th e affirm ative.
3. Th e second affi rmative speaker does the work outlined by
his coll eague and answers th e first negati ve spea ker. H e th en
attacks argu ments that may be made by the second speaker
on the negative and sums up th e case for the affirm ative .

350

351

,)

I I

352

ARGU.MENT

MANAGEMENT OF A DEBATE

4. Th e second negative spe;ikcr fi nishes the defens ive
wo rk bl'gun by hi s coll eague and docs his best to re[utc the
a rg um ents of th e affirmati ve. ll c then su ms up the case for
th e negative.
Th en comes the debating from the floor. In ord er to give
eve ryo ne an oppo rtunity to say so mething, these speeches
mu st be very bri ef. If the volunteers do not use all the
ti me set apart fo r them, the leaders may be allowed to
speak again .
Th e speakers on both sides shou ld make ski ll [u l use of
repetiti o n in prese ntin g the main points. J\(ter the closin g
of the general debate, one representative from each side is
e nti tled to make a fin al rebuttal speech. In th ese rebuttal
speeches no new argume nts or evidence can be introduced except for the purpose of answering an opponent or of making
clea rer or more emphatic some arg ument already advanced by
the speaker's side. The representative of the affirmative comes
b st. As the burden of proof rests upon hi s sid e, he should
have th e last word. Th e closi11 g speakers need to be especially clever in singlin g out the main points that have been
proved, and in sendin g them home to the aud ience in a
cl ea r, concise, emphatic summary.

f7r.dg·cs . Three judges may be appo inted to determine
whi ch side has been th e more success rul in conv in cin g im partial li steners. A teacher or some other co mpetent person
whose suggestions will be carefu lly followed should serve as
criti c of the substance and the style of presentation , includin g,
of course, matters of grammar and pronunciation.

353

Perhaps in no single exercise does the pupil who has acquired ski ll in composition and rhetoric, - in plann in g a ta lk
or theme, in fillin g in the outli ne, in giv in g talks, in L•.sin g
effective words and pbrases, - reali ze the value of his attainments more fully than in debating . But the pupil who turns
from the platform to th e clay's work will find abundant opportunity to make use of these same attainments, no matter
how modest and unassuming his career.

' 1

:,1

N OTlc. l n many debating clubs the camp sys tem works well. The
members elect by ballot from their number a pres ide nt and two leaders.
These leaders go ahead just as persons do who arc selected to choose
sides for a spell ing match . Havin g draw n lots fo r the firs t choice, th ey
pi ck out the debaters altern ately ti ll every member is in one camp or the
other. Then each leader does all he can to enable hi s camp to win. H e
secs that th e work is carefully planned, and freque ntly makes the openin g or the closing speech . One way of bri nging good debaters into a
club is to all ow eac h leader to place in his camp any new member he
ca n sec ure.

I

I

'

APPENDIX

APPENDIX II
SUBJECTS FOR COM POSITIO NS
Acting Charades
/\ fter the Ga me
After the Storm
Age of Niagara Falls, The
Arms of a Modern Soldier, The
Artist's Struggles to Succeed, An
Attar of Roses
Automobile Accident, An
Dad H abit of using Slang, The
Battle of the \Vilclerness, The
Bee Hunt, A
Best Way to make Coffee, The
Breaking a Horse of Balking at a Hill
Burglar Hunt, A
Choosing a Vocation
Coffee Roaster, T he
Co ming of th e T ree Toads, The
Compariso n of the Generalship of Lee and Grant, A
Conversati on betwee n a Discharged Motorman and his Wife, A
Conversation between a Railroad Conductor and a T en-Year-Old Boy
traveling Alone, A
Cooper's Best Story
Correct P osition at a Desk, The
Cure for ]{oun d Shoulders, A
Curi ous Customs of Congress
Cutting Big Timber
Dammin g a Brook
Day at Old Point Co mfort, A
Decorating the Dining Room for a Simple Dinner Party
360

Deserted Farmhouse, A
D estruction of Carthage, The
Difference between Irony and Sarcasm, The
Digging Clams
Distinguished President, A
Does Slavery exist in Mexico?
Dull Day, A
Dustless Dusters
Early Home Life of George Eliot, The
Earning Money with a Camera
Earning Pocket Money
Easy Method of Purifying vVater, An
Economical but Appetizing Breakfast, An
Electric Fan, The
E lectric F urnace and Some of its Uses, The
Eliminating the House Fly
Embarrassing Situation, An
Essentials of a Log Hut, The
Far-Reaching Results of a Slight Mistake in a Drafting Room , The
Fish Hatchery, A
Fishing Trip to the Grand Banks, A
Flower Farm in California, A
Franklin the Inventor
Frank lin the Statesman
Full Moon in the Mountains
Funniest Story I ever H eard, The
Gainsborough Painting, A
Germany's Mos t Famo us General
Glim pse into the House of the Seven Gables, A
Glimpse at Post-Office Work, A
Gray Day by the Sea, A
Great Biography, A
Great Cathedral, A
Great E nglish Queen, A
Great French King, A

A l 'l' L '\ IJI X
< ~1,.:it < ~r,., : k
( 1/11 vt l\1

VirJqr y, /\

rif :; t, 1 1 i1 ·:~,

·1 !11 :

I lard Wo1k k:id s 1<>

S 1wu : ~;s

I ln111<· 111 ad c Mouse Trap, A
J lomemade l'olpourri
J lo ur by a Log F ire, An
Housekee ping in Three Rooms
H ow A laska is Govern ed
ll ow 1 was Cured of P lay ing Practical Jokes
H ow long wi ll our Coal S upply Las t?
H ow to make a Pair of Skis
H ow the Pan ama Canal is Fortified
H ow to raise Winter House P lants
I I ow lo send a T eleg ram
I-I um orous Ball ad : J ohn Gilpin, The
I ce Age (The): Will it Come Again?
Tmagin ary Conversation with Sil as Marn er about Eppie, An
Impromptu P icnic, An
Influence of a Newspaper Editor, The
] nfl uence of th e President on B usiness, The
I nslance of th e I ntelli gence of Horses, An
I nleres ting Family, An
J ane Carlyle's Fi rst Bread-M aking Experience
J apanese Wind B ells
J irn' s Adventure wi th I srael H ands(" Treasure I sland")
K ites used by the ·w eather Bureau, The
Largest Darn in the vV orld, T he
Li g htho use Kee per 's T ale, The
LiLtlc Boy th at ran away to join the Circus, The
Lost on a Country Road
Lost in a Fog
Luxuries of an Ocea n Liner

APPENDIX
Magazi nes I enj oy 1\fost, The
Mak in g a Ca nvas Canoe
Man from !J ome, The
Meaning of Lh e Tille "Vanily Fair,'' Th e
Meelin g of Lee am! G rant at Lee's Su rrender, Th e
Midnig ht F ire, A
Most l nterestin g Picture in my Home, The
l'vlost No uri shing Kind of Bread, The
Mother of Q ueen E lizabeth , Th e
Mother's Vacation
Motor Ice-boat, A
Movin g Pictures as a Means of Good, The
Movi ng P ictures as a Source of H arm, T he
Mu les in a Coal Mine, T he
My F irst Experience in vVaiting o n T able
My Fi rst S ig ht of the Ocean
My Grandm other's Best Sil k Dress
My Most Treasured Possessions
My Opinion of Our Daily Paper
My Paper Route
Navies of Great Britain and the United States Compared, The
N oises Heard in a Study Room
Noted German Pain ter, A
Old-Fashioned Bureau, An
Old Man and a Little Girl, An
Old Oaken B ucket, The
O ne Day's Ex peri ence of a R ural F ree D elivery P ostman
One 'vVay of earning Money
Our Jury System
O ur Sunday Dinner
P aper made from vVood
Patching an Auto Tire
P atri ck H enry, th e A rdent Patriot
P ersonal Appearance of N a poleo n, The
Picking Cranberries for Market

----APPENDIX

APPENDIX

Planning a Cruise
Principle of the Common Pump, The
Procedure of a Bill in Congress
Profit in Hens
Proper Way to Stand, The
Protection for Workers in Cotton Mills
Purpose of Reading, The

Theater, The Modern
Theater of Shakespeare's Day, The
Tide Mill, A
Trapping Lobsters ·
Typhoid Fever a Preventable Disease

Qualifications Necessary for Success in Business
Qualities that I most Admire in a Man, The

Ventilation for the Home
Vesuvius in Eruption

Rainy Day spent in the Attic, A
Recent Invention, A
Right Way to Dust, The
Rosa Bonheur's " Horse Fair"

Waiting for a Baseball Game to Begin
Waiting for the Mail in a Village Post Office
Washing a Kitten
Washington as a Farmer
Wedgwood Tea-set, A
Western Hemlock
What I admire in Washington
What is required in a National Hymn
What to make out of Fresh Raspberries
Where Rubies come from
Why a Boy Should not Smoke before he is Twenty-one
Why Aeroplanes can Fly
Why I am going to learn a Trade
Why I am going to College
Why I shall not go to College
Why Some Stars Twinkle
Wooded, Rockbound Coast of Maine, The
Working One's Way through College

Scene in the Waiting Room of a Modern Department Store, A
Scenes in a Hayfield
Scott as a Host at Abbotsford
Self-Lighting Gas Burner, A
Selling Lemonade
Setting an Attractive Dinner Table
Setting up Type for a Modern Newspaper
Shakespeare as an Actor and Theater Manager
Should the Playgrounds be Open on Sunday?
Side Stroke in Swimming, The
Silk Weaving
Skating Accident, A
Snow-bound in a Railroad Station
Spring Overflow of our Little Stream, The
Statesmanship of Lincoln, The
Suffragist Movement, The
Sunset at the Seashore
Tail of a Comef, The
Taking Moving Pictures
Tea Party, A
Thackeray's Family

Unloading a Schooner

;

