EMBODIID IN

RULES, ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES,
AND A

PROGRESSIVE COURSE OF PROSE COMPOSITION

BY

JOHN F. GENUNG
PROFRSSOR OF RHETORIC IN AMHERST COLLEGE, AUTHOR OF "PRACTICAL
ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC" AND "HANDBOOK OF
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS"

.

.

~

'

., .

.

.

.

'

' "

BOSTON, U.S.A.
' .
"' " : . . : '
GINN & COMPANY, PUBI. ISEERS · ' -. · · ·,. · ' .
. ..
1894
· ~. '
~
)~) r}
I

•

1 •

'"

.,

"I

· '·

'

J

•

--

----~ ~ -

---

=

~

. i

: ! l

:

; (' '

PREFACE.

O translate literally the German word einuben, "practice
in," would not make very idiomatic English, perhaps ;
but the word expresses the idea that has been had in view, as
a main object, in the preparation of the book now presented
. to the public. The aim is, while giving compendiously what
is necessary for rhetorical theory, to accompany this at every
step with written exercises, .both critical and constructive,
designed to cultivate in progressive and systematic order the
student's sense of the leading requisites of composition.
While it may be premised that in plan and details alike the
book is in many ways new, three of its most characteristic
features may here be selected for more extended description.
i. The theoretical part, embodying the principles of rhetoric,
is given, it will be observed, in the form of rules, which are
printed •as side-headings, and numbered consecutively from
beginning to end of the book. Each rule is accompanied by
a brief paragraph of explanation, and by illustrative examples.
In this way the attempt is made to bring the core of the
rhetorical art into small and manageable <;:ompass, the rules
being a body of precept to which constant reference is
made.
Much study has been given to the content and
expression of the rules. Worded with the utmost brevity and
crispness that can be consistent with adequacy, they are yet
not content with being a mere series of barren don'ts, but
aim in each case to embody, however briefly, some positive
expression of a principle, with a glance often at its reason or
justification. Let these rules be thoroughly learned, and the

T

COPYRIGHT, 1893,

Bv JOHN F. GE NUNG.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

l.

.. ·

I•

·.

·.
.

'~

~

.

.

'. '

..
.

.

.

•

lV

v

PREFACE.

PREFACE.

student will have the main procedures of the rhetorical art in
a nutshell. The object of numbering these rules consecutively
is to facilitate reference from part to part of the book, and to
give aid in correcting the student's written work. To this end,
a digest of rules is given as an appe~dix.
2. The exercises, being in many respects a rather bold
departure from what has hitherto been attempted, must of
course await the verdict of actual use. In the first place, it
will be observed that they are founded not on single rules,
but on groups of rules, the groups representing some prevailing procedure, or quality of style, or mental attitude. If
sentences to be corrected are referred to single precepts, then
every sentence advertises its error, and the correction of it
by the student soon becomes mechanical ; he can do it in
his sleep, or, at least, in his laziness. If, however, they are
referred to a group of precepts, the student must, in order to
justify his correction, discriminate among at least three or four
specific principles; he must use his head. More than this, the
sentences requiring correction are so made as to compel constant review of what the student has had before ; it being
taken for granted that what has once been learned has become
a permanent and usable possessio~.
Following the collections of detached sentences are compositions to be rewritten. These, it is believed, are a unique
feature of the present book.
Reconstructed, with proper
observation of tl].e copious notes and references appended,
they become well-written compositions, written as well, that
is, as a beginner could be required to write.
Here the
author is well aware of some temerity in venturing to set
up his own composition as a model for students ; but no other
course seemed on the whole to make his purpose practicable.
For he felt that the compositions should be so constructed as
to impart one procedure, or one class of procedures, at a time ;
and, while the student is concerned with, say, choice of words,

he is to take the sentence structure, the punctuation, and the
general building of the piece for granted, copying them, but
not giving them special study until the time comes for them
in course. This could not be effected so well by making the
student, in his reconstructing, build up a passage from Burke
or Macaulay ; he would be building up, at best, only detached
paragraphs, and would, besides, run the risk of being bewildered by the number and variety of rhetorical procedures
that they, and all great writers, exemplify at once. Then,
further, a student does not think as Burke and Macaulay
do. Their thought-region is too mature for him, too high ;
he cannot interest himself in their lofty principles of political
morality or of literary criticism, and the attempt to make
that thought and its appropriate style their own can only
be a dead grind.
On the whole, then, it seemed necessary
to prepare a series of compositions on themes presumably
interesting to pupils of the grade contemplated, and embodying such thoughts as they may be supposed competent to
think. Thus, it is hoped that they may be interested to
make not only the style but the thought their own, in the
process of bringing the essay out of chaos into system. It
is hoped, further, that these little pieces may do something
toward answering a question very prevalent among students.
"How shall I go to work to write a composition? " they say ;
" I am all at sea ; I don't know how to begin or what to
write." In copying these pieces, they may, perhaps, gain by
the mere imitation some idea how to go to work, what to
put in and what to leave' out: in that formidable thing, a
composition. It is very possible that teachers of English may
have underrated the utility of imitation, as a means of gaining
facility in many details of composition. By it, if the student
is observant and thoughtful, may be gained many touches and
turns of expression, many ways of handling thoughts, many
practical ideas of style, which no rules or precepts alo,ne could

=

vi

PREFACE.

impart. Is the author too presumptuous in hoping that these
school-boy pieces of his may contribute in some small degree
to this happy result ?
To amend incorrect sentences, while of course necessary, is
after all a negative thing, and the mental attitude it requires
is the critical. Composition is positive, requiring the constructive attitude on the part of the writer. It seems a pity to keep
the student working exclusively at crooked English, without
doing something even from the outset to foster that desire to
contrive, to build, to bring to pass, which is so necessary to any
fruitful literary work. For this reason, there are introduced from
the beginning of the book certain problems to solve, the object
being to give the student all along something creative to do.
As the book progresses, the relative proportion of this constructive work is increased, while the merely critical, which was
so predominating at first, becomes more and more subordin ate.
It is not in theology alone that the law of "Thou shalt not "
should be swallowed up in the gospel of "Thou shalt"; in
composition, too, as in many other things, the ideal must be
borne constantly in mind, to be effected as rapidly as the man
can be trusted in obeying the gospel not to discard the law.
3. Attention is finally called to the Appendix part of the
book, which contains, besides the Digest of Rules already
mentioned and one or two other things, a Glossary of Words
and Forms needing study or caution. In this Glossary will be
found, arranged under one alphabet, not only whatever the
student needs in order to work out the exercises, but a large
number of words and phrases in excess of this requirement; the
design being to make it complete enough to be a vade mecum
for any writer in the locutions concerning which there is most
liability of doubt or mistake.
It is hoped that this feature
will give the book a value beyond the schools for whose use
it is primarily intended, and make it a practical aid in private
study or private practice of composition.

CONTENTS.
PAGR

Int1·oduction ......... ... ----------··· ·-····.·······- ·········· --- ---·········································
PART

Chapter I. I.
II.
III.
IV.

·what is
What is
What is
What "is

to
to
to
to

th e Subject .... ..... ..............................................
the Reader .................... .... ............ ................. ...
Standard Usage ....... ........................................
good Taste ........................ ..............................

Chapter IV. -

9
20

30
39

Phraseology.
54

68
79
88
100

107

Special Objects in Style.

Force ............ ................ ..... ...... .......... ..... ........................................
Emphasis .................... .... ................................................................
Rapidity .......... ...... ......... .... .... ............ ... ... .............. .............. ..........
Life .......... ... ................... ..... ..... ... ............................ ................... .....
Smoothness .. .............. .. .. .... ........ .. .... .......... .......... .............. ...... ...
PART

I.
II.
III.
IV.

due
due
due
due

Grammatical Forms needing Caution .. . .. .. .. ..........................
Placin g of Modifiers ........... ....... .. ............. ...... ................. . :...... ....
Concord ... ..... .......... .......................... .... ..... :.......... .,................ ... .....
Words with Antecedents...... .................. ........................ ............
Correlation ... ......... ............ ........................................................... .
Precautions for Clearness .............................. .......... ............... .....

Chapter III. I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

MASTERY OF MATERIALS.

The Choice of Words.

Chapter II. I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

I. -

II.l -

116
127

136
145
r 59

ORGANIZATION OF MATERIALS.

The Sentence.

Unity of the Sentence ............... ..... ..... ......................... ................ 177
Punctuation of th e Sentence ...... ......... ...................................... 186
Organism of the Sentence .......... ....................... .................... ..... 197
Kinds of Sentences ............ ...................... .................................... 209

Vlll

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Chapter.V. -The Paragraph.
I.
II.

The Paragraph in Sum ................................................................ 22 I
The Paragraph in Structure................................................ ....... 228

INTRODUCTION.

Chapter VI. -The Whole Composition.
I.

II.

Requisites of Composition .................................................. 239-2 50
The Plan ............ ........................................................... ........... 239
The Filling-in .......... ................................................................ 246
Processes of Composition .................................................. 250-276
Description . ... . ......................................................................... 2 50
Narration .................................................................................. 257
Exposition ............ ....... ............................................................. 263 ·
Argumentation ............ ................................... ......................... 268
PART

III. -

O write an essay or ai1y formal kind of ~omposition
seems to most people, and doubtless 1s, a much
more difficult thing than to converse. But why should
it be so? At bottom it is virtually the same thing,
except that it is don e with a pen instead of with the
v01ce. The purpos e t oo is th e same, namely, to make
others see a ·suhjcct as the author sees it; and it ought
to be just as natural, just as spontaneous, just as char-l
actcristic of the man, to write his thoug hts as to speak
them. If we could always b ear this obvious truth in
mind, and feel perfectly at ease :with a pen in our hand,
composition would cease to be the bug_bear that it now
too oft en is.
What Composition requires. - Th ere is a go od reason,
however, which we ought not ~o ignore, why composition
must in the nature of the case be more difficult than
conversati on. It is because in composing we have to
b e more ca reful and painstaking. W e cannot, for one
thing, be so off-hand about the words we , us e and the
manner in which vve put them togeth er; we must take
thought for choice and arrangement, b ecause vvhat we
write is irft enc.lcd for a p ermanent expression of our
thought, and we hav e n o opportunity afterward to explain
or correct our blunders. Nor again will it answer to
throw out our ideas at random j11 st as they chance to

T

APPENDICES.

Appendix I. - Digest of Rules ...................................:...................... 279
Appendix II. - Illustrative Extracts .............................................. 288
Appendix III. - Glossary of Words and Forms ...................... 301

.(_

.

=

2

INTRODUCTION.

occur to us; we need to devise some order for them which
will h elp tlv? reader ll) foilo w them readily from point to
point and to recall t)1ern afterward. Further, as our subject may be h ard, or our reader slow to grasp it, we
mu st often study how to expi:ess ourselves with such
emphasis or animation, such copiousness or pointedness,
as most surely to engage hi s att ent ion and give our
thought a lodg ment in hi s mind. Many such n ecessary
things belong to the art of putting our ideas on paper,
and of course make composition a more studied and calculated work, and in this sense more difficult, thoug h in
its real nature it remains the same as speaking.
Rhetoric : its Definition and Aim. - Now when the
words, the sentences, the plan, the various details of composition, are skilfully adapted to produce their proper and
intended effect, we say the work has r!tctor£cal qualities.
Rhetoric, th erefore, is the art of expressing our tho_u g hts
with skill, of giving to our con 11_1os ition the <1u ali t ies that
it oug ht to have in order to accomplish its author's design.
F'or every author, if b e works wisely, works with a
specific desig n in view; a det erminate obj ect which he
is aiming by his writing to eff ect. That obj ect may be
merely to give his read ers pla in information, as in a letter
or a report or a history; it may be to amuse and entertain, as in a sketch or a story; it may be to arouse, animate, convince, as in an oration or an argument. A
variety of such objects, general and particular, mi ght be
mention ed, which h owever n eed not detain us now. For
the present it is sufficient to say, as was said at th e b eginning_, that the writ er's paramount purpose, in whatever
h e writes, is to make oth ers see a subject as h e sees

INTRODUCTION.

~

3

it, -with the same clearness, the same fuln ess, the same
power, the same beauty.
The Art of Rhetoric. - Rightly to do this is an art,
to b e mastered by study and practice. It requires like
all arts trained skill and wise contrivance to adapt means
to ends. Like all arts too it suffers from lack of skill
and from n eglect of care and· practice.
Its working-tools
are words, phrases, sentenc~s, fi gures, which are employed
in ·~ nJl ess ways to produce g reat varieties of effect. Its
sphere is the mind of th e reader, which must as occasion
c81L; h : 11ut only instructed but int eres t ed and otherwise
moved t o feeling . or action. It h as its lower and elem e ntary slages, comprisin g the procedures that lie at the
foundation of all composition, things which it is not so
much an honor to know as a reproach n ot to know; these
are what th e present treatise is mainly concern ed with.
It has also its hig-her and fin er effects of style, or of individual ski ll and peculi::nity; these, however, the author,
if h e starts rig htly, can b est be trusted to find out by
his own invention. A very fascinating art, to one who
has b ecome interest ed in it; very _i~ractical, too, for i_t .i~~
in the large sense the art of m akin~ literature.
Problems of the Art. - Every art h as its peculiar
problems to solve ; th e problems of the art of rhetoric
are of two kinds.
First, and lying at the beg inning, are problems of
?tsage. Many of our rul es for the choice of words and
for th1~ putting of th em together we get from long established custom or from the custom of the b est writers.
This prevailint; us ~fge may in some cases be arbitrary or
irregular; but the fact that it is usage makes it the law
of correctness; to follow it is right, to transgress it is

-

=-

- -

. -

5

JNTRODUCT./ON.

.INTRODUCTION.

wrong. A great part of our apprenticeship to the art
of rhetoric consists in familiarizing ourselves with what
usage dictates.
Secondly, and much more consoi1ant with the idea of
art, there are problems of adaptation and fitness. To
write with rhetorical skill is more than to write correctly :
a sentence may be perfectly correct, perfectly conformable to usage, and yet for this particular place and work
be a very poor sentence. In correcting it we do not
ask what is right and what is wrong; that question was
answered in getting th e sentence grammatical'; we ask
rather what is better ancl what not so good for our purpose. Thctt is the art of it: to finc.1 the best m eans and
employ them, to replace what is feeble or vague or heavy
by what is strong an<l definite and direct.
Of th ese two classes of problems, the second dominates. What is constantly present to the writer's mind
is the guestion uf producing certain effects, and of contriving the best means to that end. Q uestions of usage
come in as a matter of course, as something which must
be obeyed, but the observance of which should be second
nature.
...
Field of the Art. - The six chapters that make up
this book, which also cover ·in a compendious way the
field of the rhetorical art, naturally fall into two groups
of three.
I. The first group, which may be entitled Mast ery of
Materials, deals with the matters that are most constant
and require most drill. In these chapters there is little
question of a constructed and compl et ed whole; the question
is rather of words, idioms, gram matical requirements, and
figures, wherein we must finc.1 and follow prevailing usage,

and whereby we may work certain specific effects in style.
The group comprises: Chapter I. The Choice of Words, with reference . to
saying exactly what we mean to say, in acconlance with
good usage and good taste.
Chapter II. Phraseology: how to put words together,
especially with r eference to grammatical correctness and
clearness.
Chapter III. Special Objects in Style: how to choose
.
.
· words and put them together so as to produce the effects
we seek; of special strength, or vividness, or grace.
2. The second group, which may be entitled Organization of Materials, cl eals with the various processes
involved in composition . In these chapters the question )
is always of construction: how to fit part and part together, how to accumulate and balance details so as to
build up an organic whole. They are: Chapter IV. The Sentence, which is the first organized form that our thoughts assume.
Chapter V. The Paragraph, which contains in miniature the characteristics of the whole discourse.
Chapter VI. The Whole Composition; with the pro. cedures belonging both to discourse as a whole and to
its various forms.

4

.

-- -

~

I.

MASTERY OF MATERIALS.

'f

I

-

- CHAPTER I.
THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

F all the processes of composition, the first, not in
order of time merely, but in the sense of being most
constant and important, is the choice of words. It pervades every stage of the work, from the first suggestion
to the last finishing touch, from plan and title to final
rev1s10n. A most valuable habit-- to cultivate, therefore,
is the habit of observing words, especially a!?. ~-~.e.n._in
the pages of the best writers; of tracing fine shades of
meaning, and noting how suggestive, or felicitous, or
accurately chosen they are. It is by ,k eeping their sense
for words alert and refined that good writers constantly
enlarge and enrich their vocabulary.
The rules for the choice of words may be gathered
under four general heads, corresponding to what may be
regarded as claims or dues to be satisfied. These are:-·
1. What is due to the subject.
2. What is due to the reader.
3. What is due to standard usage.
4. What is due to good taste.
All these are fitly called dues : as writers we owe them a
duty, which it is disastrous to our purpose to neglect or
transgress.

O

..

I.

WHAT IS DUE TO THE SUBJECT.

By the subject is meant the subject-matter, and this of
course includes every part of the composition. To be
.1

-

- ness of conversation do much to destroy the ac.~~_!:acy, as well as the
dignity, of one's vocabulary. Thus, when one says, "The lesson is .,
awful," "the beefsteak is elegant," "the weather is beastly," "the ·
necktie is simply immense," one converts the words into slang, 1 and '.
by g rossly exaggerating them deprives them of all definite meaning.
' 2. Of_too weak expression. It would be so understated as to be
ludicrous to say a man was a good deal put out by the death of his
father; one ought rath er to say cast dBwn, or saddened, or slzock ed.
- To say a man is 7;exed by long continued injustice and almse is
probably saying too little for the gravity of the case ; one ought
rather to say angry or indz:r;nant. - Lord Bacon shows his care to
g~t the degree of meaning just right when he thus defines goodness:
" I take good ness in this sense, the affecting (seeking) of the weal of
men, which is that th e Grecians call 'philanthropia '; and the word
'humanity,' as it is used, is a little too light to express it."

faithful to the subject, that is, to set forth the thought
exactly~ accurately, correctly, is the main thing; then the
question whether the words shall be long or short, easy
or hard, common or unusual, which is a less important
question, may be settled afterwards.
I.

. Rules for fitting Words to Subject Matter. - Let it
be understood at the outset that the rules h ere _given
cannot make a writer choose words well ; that depends on
his··~~~n individual powers and thought ; these n1les can
. only point out some elementary principles without which,
however ingenious his choice, his words fail rightly to

There are certain forms of expression much used for
the purpose of getting the exact degree of meaning by
putting the assertion in strengthened or softened form.
The chief of these are climax, double negative, and
euphemism.

convey his idea.
A word otherwise good may err in
being a little too strong or a little too
weak to fit the idea ; this is perhaps the most frequent
form of inaccuracy. Some of the plainer distinctions in
words are: degrees of intensity, as anger, rage, fury,differences of bulk or size, as knoll, hill, mountain,- and
grades of stateliness or dignity, as !zouse, residence, mansion.I All these degrees of meaning have their fitting use
I. Study exactness

in degree of meaning.

Climax, -from a Greek word meaning a ladder, is an advance of terms from weaker to stronger ; 2 as, " He was,
in truth, a rare phenomenon ; so p erfect, in one point of view, so
shallow, so delusive, so impalpable, such an absolute nonentity, in
every other.'' (Hawthorne.)
.
2. Double negati7Je. - Two negatives, in English, destroy one ·
another; but a double negative, one of its members expressed by a
negative prefix, has the effect of a more exact and guarded affirma;tive; as, "It is not improbable that the revolutionists will be ready
to offer battle by to-morrow," in which assertion the writer's purpose
is evidently not to commit himself to so strong a prediction as that it
is probable.
3. Euplzemism is th e name given to the statemen', of a shocking
or disagreeable fact in g uardedly milder terms ; as in saying, "He
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

)

and place.
ILLUSTRATIONS. - 1. Of too strong expression. To say, "His
advocacy of this measure will ruin his influence '.n the country." is t.o
make a very strong assertion ; perhaps on reflection the word impair
or imperil would be as strong a term as ought to be used. . Of
course, how strong the word should be is a question that the wnt~r
must decide for himself ; but he should have a care how much he 1s
committing himself to. - Exaggerated words used in the thoughtless1

Davidson, "English Words Explained;, (London, Longmans), intro-

11

WHAT .lS DUE TO THE SUBJECT.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

10

1

r

1

For further treatment of slang, see below, Rule 9.

2

r1~

................... : ,.. ..... 1 ........ .. ,.. ..... ..l :_ ..... 1 ..... ____ ..... ..... __ ..... _

c ..... _ _•. t..: ..... t..

___ L_, ____

-y, _ , _ _

~

.

___

,

- - 12

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO THE SUBJECT.

passed away at six o'clock this morning" instead of "he died" _;
"the gentleman is wholly in error in his statement," instead of "lies."
Occasions frequently rise for softening terms in this way; the caution
is not to be too elaborate or prolix in doing so.

(ambi and agere, to drive about) ; and of course the
employment of any such expression subjects the reader to
uncertainty, to say nothing of the carelessness it evinces
on the part of the writer.

A word that is in any way, even in
the least, apart fr<?m the meaning in:
tended, is by so much misleading. Indeed, here is a ·case
where a small error may be worse than a great one, be~~_se
it is less easily detected. So much more care is needed,
therefore, to tolerate no error that can possibly be avoided.

2 . study exactness
in kind of meaning.

1

ILLUSTRATIONS. - In the following sentence, taken from a newspaper, there are three words that are nowadays much misused: " The
hills on either side of the river were literally crowded with people who
could witness from this high point all that was transpiring on the
battlefield and be out of range of the deadly bullets." The word
either means one of two; here the writer evidently means both sides
of the river. To witness is to bear testimony; h ere the writer only
means that the peo12le could see. The word transpire (trans-spiro, to
breathe through) means to escape from secrecy and become publicly
known; here the writer does not mean that, but what was occurring
or taking place. The accurate use of the word transpire is exemplified
in the following sentence from T. B. Aldrich, " What happened never
definitely transpired," that is, never became clearly known. - Another
word used correctly above but often misused, as well as over-used, is
the word literally _; as in the sentence, "The books were literally
shovelled into the schools "; whereas if shovelled at all it was only in
figure.

A great many words in English that are similar but not
identical in meaning- synonyms they are called - make
the careful study of fine shades and distinctions in meaning
indispensable to every writer.
When a word or turn of expression
3. Let your word
is capable of being understood in either
contain but one meaning.
of two senses it is called ambiguous

13

ILLUSTRATIONS. -To say, "She listened with interest to the
conversation going on about h er," might mea n either conversation
around her or conversation C(}ncerning her. - " Independently of his
earnings he has a certain property," may mean either a sure property
or, as was more likely intended, some (indefinite) property. - \Vhen a
man asked, "H ave you seen Brown's last book?" he meant Brown's
latest book; but an enemy of Drown, taking advantage of the
ambiguity, answered, "I hope so."

Words not otherwise ambiguous may be made so by the
careless use of some grammatical combination; especially
by not regarding the distinction between what is called
the subje~tive and the objective genitive. 1
ILLUSTRATIONS. - Thus, th e phrase "the Reformation of Luther"
may mean either th e reformation that Luther instituted or the reformation that Luth er underwent. The same ambig uity is see n in the
expressions " th e vision of Piers Ploughman," " the love of Christ."
This latter expression is regard ed as wisely left ambiguous, being
equally significant in both meanings.
4. study

correct-

ness in grammatical
forms and parts of
speech.

It is a vulgarism, indicating lack of
education, to use words in wrong forms

wrong offices; and while such erro.~·s
may not be actually misleading, they are sins against that
care for accuracy and purity which should characterize
every one's use of language.
The most common vulgarism of this kind, perhaps, is
the use of certain fr equ ently occurring verbs in wron g
1

. or

The genitive case, in Latin and G reek, which corresponds to our possessive, is represented in English by the if-construction.

- -

=

15

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE '.fO THE SUBJECT.

forms of preterite and perfect participle. The verbs lie,
lay, sit, set, and seat are the worst offenders; their parts
should be carefully studied and mastered. Special care is
needed also for the parts of do, go and take, and for such
conversational contractions as don't, doesn't, and aren't.

form from an existing noun or adjective. A number of
such forms, which are trying to creep into the language,
should put the writer on his guard.

14

i.

The intransitive verb is lie, lay, lain (old Biblical
form lien) ; as, "he lay watched by weeping queens"; "the tree has
long lain just as it fell." The transitive verb is lay 1 .Zaid, laidJ· as,
"Lay the coat in the same drawer in which you laid the other things."
So also intransitive, sit, sat, sat_,- transitive, set, set, set_; seat, seated.
The tendency is to confuse the forms of different verbs with each
other.
While the above contractions are admissible in familiar style, it
is to be noted that ain't for aren't and hain't for hasn't are pure
vulgarisms.
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

..,

Another vulgarism, closely connected with the ab0ve
mentioned, is the manufacture of 'an unauthorized verbal

•'

II.

Exercises in :fitting Words to Ideas. -This is what
the foregoing rules in their various ways involve; whatever
'· the source of the error, the real question is a question of
accuracy, of finding the word that is exactly commensurate
with the writer's thought. Let accuracy b~ the serious
anp constant aim, and most errors of vulgarism, ambiguity,
and conversational exaggeration, which really nse from
carelessness, will fall away of themselves.

A writer should be too observant of grammar to mix
· up his p,arts of speech, letting nouns do the work of verbs
and vice versa, or confusing the offices of adjectives and
adverbs. In this matter he should beware of being misled
by the off-hand style of the newspapers, which too often
fall into such _v ulgarisms.
ILLUSTRATIONS. - - I. Verbs and nouns.
"The list of invites (for
invitations) was long." "The orator gestured (for gesticulated)
vigorously." "He was clerking (for acting as clerk, or working) in a
country sto~e at a salary of five dollars a week." "Smith refereed
the game very ably" (for acted as referee).
2. A t{jectives and Adverbs. " You have done your task real good
(for very or really well)." " In the then condition of affairs (for
condition of affairs at that time) no progress toward reconciliation
could be made." - Note that. the form first is the same for both
adjec;tive an<l adverb; we do not say firstly, second{y, but first,
secondly, etc. The numerals after first take the adverbial form.

ILLUSTRATIONS. "Mr. Hopkins has lately donated (for gz:7J.e1f, or
made a donation of) one thousand dollars to this worthy society."
The word donation is in good use, but not the word donate, "Strange that society should 'have resurrected (for revived) that old
custom." Resurrection is good English, but not resurrect. - " The
American pe6ple have never enthused (for, been enthusiastic) over
cricket."

1. Correct
grammar but
both to give a
to the rule or

:l

the following sentences, amending not the
merely the choice of words; and be able
reason for each correction and to ref er each
principle involved. 1

His whole manner denoted extreme annoyance ; he was' apparently much aggravated by the injustice that he fancied was
done him.
1 It fo strongly advisable that the student write out every sentence as
amended, in order to clear away the debris of erroneous words and forms
and to stamp the proper usage more thoroughly on his mind. All the
aid necessary in making the corrections will be found in the Glossary,
Appendix III, page 301.

WHAT .IS DUE TO THE SUBJECT.

THE CHO.ICE OF WORDS.

16
·I

That was ah .awfully'. jolly party that we attended the other
day, and the elegant :weather made it all the more ·splendid._
The . shooting of the colonel was, to say the least of it, unskilful.
· I have had a , bad .cold all this week.
.
He bore his sufferings with extraordinary courage. •·
I was not conscious of any change in Richflrd's appearance, ·
though in his remarks he distinctly '. alluded to :some great
calamity.
...
That was a strange casuality _that happened yesterday.
He has
no idea of being [hiarty~izecl
,f or his opinions.
. ·•
,,
.
Quite sum of money must have accumulated by this time.
He said he appreciated my kindness ;very highly. ·
· 'JllThree ·.a lternatives offered themselves in the case.
Many a fictitious writer has the most contemptible opinion
of modern society.
What can an individual .like 1~~ do when . the greaqbulk Jof
the people are against him ?
· ·
·
'
He gave the man a couple of dollars just for saying he could
not remember the details of what had transpired.
What do. you · propose ~doing to-day?
The 1Veracity 1 of the story _is unquestioned; what we are
most concerned witb is the 'truth "of 'the narrator.
This ·;elegant;t1ady was very proud of her carriage.
.
He has no sympathy with the revolting\Bulgarians.
The punishment of this master was al\vays severe.
Be gave me a recei1)t. for a liniment which he said was excellent V> lotion the swelled ankl~.
You could see any iamount of cabs standing about the railway station. ·
Where shall I be liable• to find a good atlas of the United
States?
He has· been stopping :several weeks at. ?-: hotel in London.
William has been very ill, but he is some :better to-day.
You· will find the fruit ver)". plenty' this season.

He :'stated ;that he was a friend t}> every deserving individual. 1
I neveP•witn.e ssed such a Zscene before.
'
Q.u ite a pel iod· transpired before such a feature ;of the case
came up ag'ain.
The editor said that he did not :w ant Johnson's articles ~ ny
longer. .
Can you ;loan ,me these books a few days?
The thieves who succeeded _in burgling ·that house last night
were c_a ught and made to restitute the stolen goods.
He reports that he cannot find one of them.
I think I have (elin~inated . some truth from this investigation.
You are quite mistaken in this judgment.
Costly devices of every desci-iption ;were to Jae seen in th~ .
booths.
·

. f'-

·iii
iI

'I

"

.'

~

a

1

\

..

I

17

1,1.

l
~I.

!··

"

. "I. expect you had a pl~a.sa1~t time at Newbury last week."
"How did you know I had · ~ent to Newbury? I did not wire )
you where I was going." 11 I was '.conscious ·1 of it through
Tompkins, who brought me a verbal report of your trip."
A {Juantity of books and papers.laid ·,spread out on the table,
and the servant attempted to ·sit ~he tray among tl1em ; the ·
consequence was that before I had fairly set down to"breakfast
, the whole -of the dishes came tumbling to the floor.
It was ' aggravating ~ to encounter his cooYassumption that a '
gentleman demearied~himself by being affable to ,the poor.
.i The man whom I ~t in the park was rather dark com. plected, his hair and beard some grey ; and there wer~ •. certain J
·__tokens ;of suffering in his face.
:.:i ·
If he C_sits ; out to champion this measure lie will surely antagonize all the des.irable element: of his party. He cannot
afford so to discord :with the principles of his best supporters;
and not\\'.ithstanding his . one-ti1i{e services to his constitu·ents
they will ; down, him at the next election.
1

Rewrite the following short composition, correctjng
the words according to the notes and the parenthetical
2.

-- -

=
18

- -

II II I
,

!

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO THE SUBJECT.

/·

I

19

I

references to the rules. Copy and carefully observe the
sentence-structure and punctuation, but do not change
them.
. YEt\-RS ago, in the ' proximity a of _my (househ )there lived a '
_: cu~i.ous ( 2) old p~rty · '( 2) known to 'an'ybody (3) as old Be-ad.
. He lived all alone in a tumble-down unpainted ·,r esidence (1)
which was so small .that it could hardly have contained more
than one ·.apartment ( 2). It was . only one sto!y high ; its two
.. , windows were' filled c·, with old !,garments dJ and · pants ( 2) to 1re7·
place . ( 2) the broke~ glass ; its leaky roof wa:s patched wlth
slabs ; and instead of a chimney a little piece of stove-pipe,
just sticking out at the top, served to carry away the smoke.
" \·..Qne (3) ~ever saw the inside of the house. Old Be-ad's ~vo­
catioi: ( 2) was gathering rags, and it wa~ 9~~imed :( 2) that his
{ place r was filled with them ; which see1ned likely f ( 1 ), from
.
· the appearance of things.
Whenever old Be-ad appeared at any, home (2) in the region )
( 2) the children al], ran . and hid. Any one who mustered up .
. fortitude (2)'to loolk'g from. the hiding-place would see only a
ragged old man, rather sliort and stout, with a red face and a
frowzy black beard . . His voice, which was harsh and cracked,
was a main :factor · (~) of our terror. Many. silly h mother~ i9
the neighborhood used old Be-ad's name as a means of start~
ling\(2) their chilslren; if they threatened to haye old Be.- ad
after them the chifdren hurried ( 2) to behave ·(2 ).
One day when my brother and I were playing together in a
lonely spot by the roadside, we were · surpri~edi at hearing old
Be-ad's harsh voice say, "That's the way ye dew it, hay?" i
and looking up we saw his .dirty red fac~ smiling~ at us and
se~ming like the face of an ogre. ,The po<:>r. old man was trying to make frie11ds with us ; but directly ( 2) we caught ,sight
of him we ran away.
j
Everybody considered; ( 2) old . Be-ad as an eccentric (~ndi­
vidual ( 2), a little crazy perhaps, but harmless. Passing his
I

I,.

place one day, I saw that the hut was torn down. Old Be-ad
had disappeared ; and I. never knew whether he had ; passed
away from earth I /or had ,took(4) his departure to some other
neighborhood.
;

j

j

NOTES . TO THE A BOVE. -Some of the words here used, while not-actually incorrect, should not pass unquestioned. a. What is the best \vord
here, - proximity, vicinity, region, or neighborhood? - b. house, home,
residence, or domicile ? - c. Choose a more particular word, as stuffed, or
crammed, and see how much better it sounds. - d. If you use two words
here, choose a word that is as particular as pants (or its correction).
- e. Place is too general here ; use a more specific word. - f. Try the double
negative h ere. - g. Choose a word that denotes some particular way of
looking. - h. Silly, foolish, unwise, or inconsiderate?- i. Indicate some particular aspect of surprise, - scared, terrified, startled. - j. Keep old Be-ad's
words as they are; they imitate his manner of speaking. - k. Would the
smile of an ogreish man be expressed by so dignified a term? See Rule 1.
; -I. Is the euphemism appropriate here?
I

3. Work out the following

probl~ms.

Write a passage about a man who is earnest but injudicious, ·
and use therein the words zeal, fanaticism, energy and enthusiasm.
To the following passage sup1Jly in proper sense the words
labor, work, toil, task, effort, activity: "It wa~ with. great / /·" .' .
that Edward brought himself to his daily ' -·• · .~. ~~.,.•. a fact that .·
he could not well understand, for he had al.ways enjoyed every
form of
'
But there had come a 'time when its irksom:eness made every day's ____;_.:;_ a~-- -~ ; then what had
.been easy before became hard
; and finally his constant
' · weariness made him regard every day as a day of~·- - Characterize in a word a yoyng man who does his duty to
his parents, but in .such cold way as to deserve no specii:tl
cr~~Ft.
.Write a passage about an invalid and a doc'tor, using in
proper form the past tense or perfect participle of the verbs
lie, lay, sit, set, ;eat.
, .

'

....

I.

~ .._

<

- - -- 20

-

-

THE CHO.ICE OF WORDS.

Intimate ill euphemistic terms that a person is not cleanly.
Make a sentence about visiting a manufactory, using the
words survey, inspect, scrutinize, examine.
1
To the following passage supply in proper sense the words
esteem, respect, regard, deference, veneration, reverence; " Though
' Mr. N's views are in many ways opposed to mine, I cannot
but pay him the
that is due to high character. In
private Ffe I -' _ _..:...him highly; his opinions, too, while they
may not always gain my judgment, command my
, and
~'
is certainly due to his superior experience. We naturally .
moral law when we see it embodied in a great
man; it is a touch of that -- --- . which we accord to the
Author of all truth.

WHAT .IS DUE TO THE READER.

.1.
I

..

f '

I
..

1

Rules in the Interest of the Reader. -

WHAT IS DUE TO THE READER.

Although it is a writer's first duty to be faithful to
his subject, choosing such '" 1·ds as, whether hard or
easy, most precisely c<;mvey b :·; meaning,' it is a duty
scarcely less imperative to choose words that his readers
will be sure to understand. 1 He is working for their ·
The question naturally rises, Why put precision before simplicity. · why leave it thus admissible for th e writer to use any words presumably
too hard for his reader? Because the writer can do much to make it up
in another way. His hard subject may be so timely and important, or
he may present it in such an interesting manner, that even his unlearni::.d

good ratl1er than for his own; and theref~1:e he ought
to have the thought of their capacities and n eeds constantly in n-rind. Nor will it do to regard them as learned
people, but simply as people of ordinary education and
intelligence such as we meet every day; then, if he makes
himself thoroughly understood, the more highly educated
will understand along with the· rest, and, if their culture
is genuine, they will be the last to be offended at the
simplicity which adapts itself to all. It is only halfculture that despises simplicity.
I.

NOTE. - Every student will do well to have at hand a book of
Synonyms for constant use in choosing words. Soule's "Dictionary of
Synonyms" (published by Lippincott, Philadelphia) is perhaps the most
practically . useful; it gives copious lists of words, from which in most
cases the writer can select the exact term he ought to employ. Smith's
"Synonyms Discriminated" (published by Holt, New York), and the old
standard Crabb's Synonyms (published by Harper, New York), explain
at length and illustrate the various shades of meaning. Much help also.
may be obtained from the paragraphs of synonyms ..in Webster's antHhe
Century Dictionary:

II.

21

'

Not only
in the actual endeavor to adapt words to the wants of
common minds, but in the writer's general seH-culture
as well, the following rules will be of s~rvice.
Some subjects, ··being of profound
5. Use the simplest
character or closely reasoned, make it
words that the subject
will bear.
necessary for the writer to employ in
considerable proportion hard and UnUSU;ll wor9._~J_, because ·
it is by such words, mostly, that fine shadings and distinctions of m eaning are obtained. But even in such ,
cases it is best to work for the utmost possible simplicity ;·
\
and to keep the proportion of erudite words small; while
in the case of most subjects the thoughts and illustrations
.may be k ept so close to common life as to require' only
everyday expression. Plain occasions demand only plain I
language.
reader may b e stimulated to study out its clifti.cult terms, and thus the '·
subj ect may make up in vigor what it loses in plainness. Besides, hard·
words may be 'so set off by easier ones as to be largely explained by the
mfi!re association.

22

..
WHAT ZS DUE TO THE READER.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.
'· I

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Thus, it might be advisable, for learned readers or for the sake of precision in terms, t? speak of " the immanence
and the transcendence of God";· but for ordinary people and everyday occasions the phrase, even thoug h understood, has a formal sound
that r emoves it from men's common interests and leaves them indifferent. Consider how much more likely the writer would be to
reach the latter class by describing simply how "God is j_g_all his
works and yet also above them." - Note, too, how much better in
every useful quality is the sentence "Buy _once, buy twice," than, "A
single commission will ensure a repe tition t>f orders," and the sentence, "They made up their minds to settle in a healthier spot," than,
"They concluded to occupy a location more salubrious." 1

Writers are often exhorted to use Saxon words instead
of words derived from Latin or Greek. The ad\,'.ice is on
the whole good, because it is in the Saxon element of the
language, which, being the oldest, comes down from the
most primitive times, that the words expressing simple
relations, words of the home, of the family, of daily pursuits, are mostly found. We use such words, however,
not because they are Saxon, but because they are simple.
NOTE. - In some instances the Latin expression has become the
more familiar. We do not say, for example, "againbite of inwit,"
though the phrase is Saxon ; we. say, more simply, "remorse of conscience." Nor would it be so simple to use the Saxon expression,
"the unthoroughfaresomeness of stuff," as to say "the impenetrab_il~~Y. of matter."
These . examples, however, are rather exceptional,
and applied, it will be noticed, to theological and scientific matter,
which has developed its vocabulary in later times.

As a rule, "Saxon words, cg~11ing as they do. from the
simpler ages of history, express sin:ipler things and are
shorter.
They build up the native framework of the . .
~

1 These latter two examples are taken from Meiklejohn, "The English
Language," p. 215. A question of taste is here involved, which will be

rli""""""rl

l::itf'r' <:f'e he low. Rule IT. naue ;to.

language, too ; the pronouns, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, are of Saxon origin.
Words of cl,assical origin - Latin or Greek- which
were introduced later in order to be the vehicle of men's
deeper and more educated thoughts, are as a class more
precise, more learned, longer, and for these reasons do
not come so closely home to men's "business and
bosoms."

. :•

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Thus, notice how much more distant and
formal it is to speak of "parental rel ations" than to say "a father's
love," "a mother's love." How much better it is to say, "The
dearest spot...on earth is home," than to say, "The most valued l
locality on the superficies of the terrestrial globe is the ancestral I
residence." Yet all these latter words are good in their place ; matter
could be found wherein these words would be more strictly true to the
idea than Saxon.

II

{

l .

I'

i

'

23

.
..

.'

.'

.

The only rule that can be laid down for these classes of
words, as classes, is, use each for what it is worth, and le.t..
. your need of exactness or of simplicity determine, rat.her
than derivation. And do not use a pretentious word for
a common-place thing.1 Woi·k for plain expressions rather,
than for unusual ; use, in fine, the simplest words that the
subject will bear.
By an idiom is meant a word, or
6. Prefer idioms to
bookish terms.
more commonly a turn of express10n,
peculiar
the lang uage.
Idioms cannot be literally ,
translated into another language, and . not infrequently:
they are irregular in grammar, difficult to "parse" clearly.'
But they have the qu~lity of being racy and rugged, and .,·'
they belong to the strong and homely elements of the (
language ; hence ' they are useful in the interests of,·
naturalness and simolicitv.

to

'.
I

_.$

x

.$

24 --

·~

- 7

- _z

;;;;;

..

k

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO THE READER.

The term bookish defines itself. There is a good deal
of tendency among inexperienced writers to smooth off
their sentences by substituting for homely idioms words
that are finer, more regular, more "like a ~ook." But so
to do deprives language of much of its life and vigor.

to the style. But when the use of them is merely careless,
or made to show off one's knowledge of such terms, it is
insince;e and transgresses the purity of the language.

24

\

-

- -

I_LLUS1~RA TIONS." - f:I.ere, placed side by side, ar: some id~oms and
1
their equivalents m more formal language. It will be noticed that
these equivalents are not incorrect or in any way objectionable,
except that they often have a more artificial and pretentious sound,
while their usage is no better established or more reputable than that
of idioms.

''

IDIOMS.

EQUIVALENTS.

Get used.
Get rid of.
A good deal.
Get up.
Get out of the way of.
A friend of mine.
Must needs.
Hard p ut to it.

Become accustomed.
Become emancipated from.
Much.
mse.
Escape, or avoid.
One of my friends.
Must of necessity or necessarily.
In great extremity.

"In these clays," it is said, 1 "criticism is wisely learning to look less
for academic qualities of art and style and more for the original
touch of nature which makes the whole world kin" ; and one result
of this is that people value more than formerly the i(iiomatic ruggedness of common speech.

Observe, the writer is not here bidden
to abstain from such terms altogether. ·
Such a prohibition would be too sweeping ; for occasions rise, which a writer of taste and skill
can be trusted to recognize, when the use of unnaturalized worcls from a foreign language, or of terms peculiar
to some science or art, will add both grace and exactness

'1. Be slow to use
foreign and technical
words.

.....

1

By William Watson, Excursions in Criticism, p. 57.

25

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Cardinal Newman, writing for university students, can say, "A great writer is not one who has a copia verborum,"
.or, "He is master of the two-fold logos, the thought and the word,"
because these terms will be readily understood by his audience, and
really grace and enrich his thought. But to describe a self-confident
man in society thus: "Having acquired the savoir faire, he is never
afraid of making a faux pas, but, no matter what is the subject of
conversation, plunges at once in medias res," is merely to air one's
knowledge of foreign phrases that have been thrown about until they
are almost like slang, while the subject is ~ot beyond the simplest
English to describe.

Observe that· .µnnaturalized foreign words, when they
are employed, ~r~ printed in Italics, and accordingly, as
written, are underlined.
Technical terms will do for those who are qualified to
think trt such language and understand it; but for ordinar,Y' '
readers and occasions they are to be regarded with much
caution. Especially should we be chary of such words as
are creeping every day from the vocabulary of medicine
and science and business into the newspapers and crowding out words already in good use for the same things.
lLLUSTRATIONS.~Inanition for starvation; tumejied for swollen;
the balance of the day, f~~ the remainder (or rest) of the day; as per
my letter, for according to my letter; posted for informed; cardiac :
disease, for disease of the heart.

!

II .

Exercises in adapting Words to Reader. - It is to
be borne
in mind that words are here separated into
..')' "•
classes merely for purposes of study and drill, and that

_____.

.............

...........-..

..

.

·

- .· .

in actual use faults of different nature may be mixed
together, or an error of one kind may involve an error of
another. Many words here treated as too learned for the
common reader may also be too formal and pompous for
the subject, and often in addition to this fault may be
inaccurate as well.
The following exercises not only contain violations of
the rules just given but presuppose also, for correction, a
I

to 4.

Correct the following sentences, referring each
amendment to the rules and giving reasons. In order
' it may sometimes be necessary
to make good English
slightly to modify the construction.
1.

i

·~ .; I ,

That unfortunate book of ;him,, which was to have been his
1
. magnum opus, was so injured \y the fire that it ,was obliged· to
be rewritten ab initio.
_
is impossible to . pt~di~~te how this matter will ~1ltimateiy

'it

., . ~

eventuate. '
At what period do you geperally retire?
He had never known the .felicity of · paternal affection.
Indubitably benignity and commiseration shall pursue me all
the ;diuturnity of !1iY vitality; and I will eternalize my habitance
in the metropolis of Nature.
They are determined . to railroad their scheme through in
spite of the opposition of their quondam associates.
That man must remove himself from the course of the engines.
Bunhill Fields is the' location of John Bunyan's interment:
At the earliest practicable period .I will .transmit the balance ·
of the manuscript.
.
The physician reported symptoms of (incipient rubeoh.
.
Our neighbor Mr. B. has recently erected a very elegant and

-

-

-•

"

4

•

'

-

•

,..

-

•

••

-

.
-

••-

-,

.~,"'

r

'-J'

;"~

...

~~

-

WHAT .!S DUE TO THE READER.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

knowledge of Rules

~

-

-

26

-

j

I

...

~

-. -

• - ,-•"""

-

-

. .

~

--

'

:
·~

-""

~

-....................

..---.. .......

27

I hope you will keep me posted on ,the news while I am away.
I have become so accustomed to the exercise that it does not
fatigue me.
D? you observe that individual yonder? He is a citizen
of our vicinity who is afflicted with temporary . aberration of
intellect.
The '. conspiracy of the labo~ers is a fait accompli, and as a
result of their agitation no less than twenty houses are now in
ashes.
Many a weakness or \evil in the adolescent mind \ is due to
the neglect of parents.
On this question I must differ with my colleague in toto.
He has succeeded in effecting an almost ' reconciliation of
Philip with his .exasperated parent.·
It is difficult to effect a complete emancipation from . habits
that have become inveterate.'
Has the wood remained there a sufficient length of time: to
be seasoned ?'
It is. desirable, at the present time to .·r~nder thanksgiving~ f~r
the continuity of the favors of Deity to us.
/
,, Regarding foe o?serva't1on of holy days in ancient times I
have already ,made some remarks.
, Justification, my friends, is a forensic term, signifying the
( holding or considering of a person as righteous.
I put my hand on his chest, and became at once \ conscious .
of an extraordinary throbbing and commotion which was going
on inside. "Why," I cried, "you have an aortic aneurism ! ''
Having carefully .excogitated his plan of rejoinder( he proceeded with great deliberation to take up his opponent's
. strictures :seriatim, and from the commencement to the conclu- f
sion his speech was a telling rebuke to the man's preposterous
assumptions.
His diutn~l occupations were not calculated, in themselves,
to injure his health; but when to these were supetadded. an

-

-

. 2 ,.

--

-

WHAT IS DUE TO THE READER.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

28

stitution would be sufficiently robust to encounter anq overcome )
such a strain on its vitality.

Rewrite the following composition, preserving the
grammatical structure and punctuation as far as good
English will permit, but substituting simpler or more
accurate words as suggested by the notes and references.
2.

'·, EACH and l every a healthful ( 2) person of the rising generation b , likes activity, and is [willing, glad, desirous, e,ager,
But we do not. love (2)
\ ready? 1 Jc to do cle"'.er"? things.
routine; ' at le<~st we conceive (5) we do not. To be obli- · ·
i: gated ( 2) to perform (5) the same :action , ( 2) .incessaf\tly (6), or
to be ,kept for a protracted period ,(5 e) at any one speei'e's (2)
of ~~~ui::mtion,f however pleasant, it 11,1.a.Y have been at th'e com- ··mencement 1(5 g), seems to us the ' acn1e, (5) of irksome drudgery.
Th:i.t is one re.<}Son, I opine :(5), why we are so fond of the
rec'. rcatory arncecuons (S) that we set ourselves, and have such .
antipathy . (5) to the tasks that our superiors (5 11) impose
upon .i (5) us: in recreation · (5) we can proceed (5) as agrees
with·our preferences\ (5 i).
'
But when we come to think of it, we perceive (5) that even
to Ieffectuate ·.(5) our games well i a sine qua non (7) is the very
routine that we so [hate,1dislike, 1abhor, detest l 1]. At the out'-·
set we are sure to be only Iawkward (bunglers, and to spoil any
sport in which we ·endeavor (5) to participate.\ We must \9£
necessity (6) acquire proficiency ;(5) very slowly. To learn to .
play a good game of ball, or to make good time 1 on the racingtrack, or to do ourselves credit in a jump, takes extended (5)
and [diligent, ;\ssiduol.1s, laborious? 2J practice, work . that
would be e~t'i·emely ( 1) irksome and would prove 1,Jnsuf~erably .·
fat~guing (5) if we were compelled (6) to do it. . The same
(_di~ti~ns / ( 2) must be repeated again and a~ain until tl:ey
become second nature, so as to be performed \5) almost without taking thought.m This is routine; but it does not seem
I

' 29

like routine, . because we are so interested in attai~ing the
result that we do not realize the difficulty and monotony of the
process.n
Now suppose we could possess (5) the same espr~·! .de
corps ,(7, 2) in the occupation (5) that is ,assigned us (5) to do,
.
'I
.acceptmg the hard means for the sake of the good enq. Such
( enthusiasm ( 1) would assist (5) us over many tedious · places
and take away a considerable proportion (5) of the drudgery.
Nor would the task really be so difficult '(5 °). The very routine
makes work easy, because by it we come more and more to do
our work, spontaneously . (5 ). If we do not go through the
necessary drill, or if we go through it slackly, the [ work;1labor,
lt.'.!-sk] is infinitely (1, 6) more arduous (5) whe n the obligation
to do it comes, and it cannot be ::lccomplished P so well. It is
an old saying that "lazy folks q take the most pai1is." They
must; because, not having mastered the beginnings, they are
obliged to do as bunglers what with proper training would be
· ~ executed with facility (5).
~
·' "
Routine looks forbidding only because sher is disguised; if
· we could ,observe 1(5 ) l1er in our necessary, avocations :(2, 5) as
well as in our hours of relaxation (5) we should re~og.nize her
as one of our truest friends.
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. "Each and every" is a much used provincialism (see Rule 9); only one of the words (which?) is necessary here. - b. "The
rising generation" is a stock expression (see Rule 13), of no significance here;
say " .boy or girl."-c. Select the word that expresses the right degree and
kind of meaning. - cl. "Clever" is the word to use here; to be distinguished
from the provincial use. - e. "Long." -f. Would "task" or any shorter
word than occupation be accurate here?- g. An idiom might here be used:
"to begin with."--' h. "Others'.' makes a good antithesis to "ourselves"
in: the early part of the sentence.-i. Choose an idiom: "as we like."j. "Depends more than anything else on."-k. Not easy to get a simpler
word here. -1. '"Make good time" is a manner of expression (technicalism)
peculiar to sporting language, but quite admissible in literature. -m. "Tak,
ing th~ught" is an old-fashioned and good idiom. -n. The latter part of
this sentence contains long words, but not inappropriate. -o. Choose a
word that will make a simple and natural antithesis to "easy" in the next

.....

•

-

t'

·.

-

~

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO STANDARD USAGE.

sentence. - p. Would a simpler word be accurate here?- q. " Folks " is a
provincialism, the proper term being "folk "; the word is not to be changed
here, however, because it is quoted. -r. Routine is here personified; with
what advantage?

This arises from the fact that English is not a dead
language, like Latin or H ebrew, but a living one; and ~t
. evinces its life, just as is true of all living organisms, by
taking in new mat erial and casting off old wastes con•
tinually. New words come into use every year; of these,
some pass at once into reputable and permanent usage,
while others tumble about for a while in conversation and
the newspapers and then vanish. In the same way old
words go out of use, become obsolete, when the occasion
for them has passed. Of course, then, there is a period
in the history of every n ew word when it is too new to
have made its place in the language good; and a word
• may have becoi:ne so old as to sound not earnest and
practical but merely fantastic and odd. To know the
real status of a word is the .claim that usage has upon
us.
Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; and what good usage is, in particular
cases, it is not always easy to ascertain. The sures_t _w_~y
to find it is by becoming familiar with the thought and
expression of the best writers; it is to them that we must
go for authority, rather than to the newspapers, or ~ven
to the latest popular novel. Authors, like words, m~st
be .t ested by time before their expression may become a
law· for others.

30

3. Work out the following

,

pro~ems.

Change the following passage from the formal style in which
it is written into language of your own more ~dapted to common
people: "I write not to please or displease any description of
persons; but I trust that what I ha~e written according to the
dictates ~ my mind will meet the approbation of those whose
good opinion I am most solicitous to obtain. . . . While
others seize every opportunity unblushingly to avow and zealously to propagate opinions destructive of good order, it would
ill become any\ individual.b f contrary sentim~nts · to shrink from
stating his convictions, when called upon as he seems to be by
an occasion like that which has now offered itself.'"
Describe the crisis of a game of foot-ball in language that a
person unacquainted with the game will understand.
Write out in plain language (getting what help you can from
the dictionary) your impression of what is meant by the following: the conservation and correlation of forces; ostracism in
ancient times; the aristocracy of genius; internationq.l copyright.
Find equivalent idioms for the following: rushed toward hini;
he retreated; accord advance to liberty; through the instrumentality o~.: fire and sword; to remain immovable.

/II . . WHAT IS DUE TO ST AND ARD USAGE.

Words may be both accurate and easy to understand, .
and yet not be reputable words; that is, they may be
.' unsuited to the dignity or the permanence of literary
· expression. Before we may admit them into literature
w~_ !Ilust be sure that they are in good standard use.
I

.-.

-

31

I.

Rules definitive of good Usage.-As good usage is
mainly a matter of d etail, we must study the individual
case rather . than depend on gen eral rules ; all that these
rul es can do, therefore, is to indicate the lines along
which inquiry and caution should proceed.

..

-- .·

-

I

,I

32

33

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO STANDARD USAGE.

Not that we are wholly to abstain
from using newly coined words; that
would restrict the writer's liberty too
much; but we should watch them, and .make sure beforehand whether they have attained to good and standard
repute. So long as their usage is doubtful it is safer not
to employ them in writing at all.
Many new words come into fashion through the newspapers, and probably in most cases are employed in the
effort to say things smartly or humorous! y. Others are
coined in the heat of political or social discussion, and for
a time, as they express what everybody is talking about,
serve a useful purpose; but no one can predict whether
they are to become permanent literary; words or not.

corns qf thought. Therefore be so well informed, cultivate fineness and fullness of vocabulary so assiduously,
that when a' slang expression rises to your mind you can
~onquer it by something more meaning.
Do not let slang
master you, but be its master.

s. Be watchful of
words that have newly come into vogue.

NOTE. - To those whose culture extends
no farther
than the news.
.
papers, such words as to suz"cide, to sculp, to burglarize, to wire,
walkist, speculatist, agriculturalist, reportorial, authorial, may seem .
entirely good and reputable; and yet in literature that is designed for
permanence or standard use such words have the unhappy quality of
lowering the tone of any passage where they are admitted.
"' Words that have figured in political and social conflict, like bull, doze, buncombe, gerrymander, boycott, mugwump, have in some
cases become standard, in others have died with their occasion or
survive as words of doubtful repute.

NOTE. -To giv~ examples of current slang is to run the risk of
recording expressions that will soon be out of vogue and forgotten;
but the following examples will at least Ulustrate what is or has lately
been current: " He was badly cut up by the news "; " I was awfully
sat upon "; " Everybody jumped upon him "; " Not by a long
chalk"; " He settles down to make his pile"; " I am two dollars
shy."
Of the same nature as slang, and subject to the same cautions, are,,_:.
'the corruptions and contractions that find their way so easily into
conversation; as, confab, photo, postal, gent, pants, compo, cute,
party for person, tasty for tasteful.

I

Slang is to a people's language what .'
an epidemic disease is to their bodily i
·constitution; just as catchi~g and .. just f
as inevitable in its run. While it is in vogue the streets
and the newspapers are full of it. Like ·a disease, too, it
is severest where the sanitary conditions are most n~.g­
lected; where there ,is least culture and thought to coun~
teract it. In such places slang words crowd out serio_u sly
chosen words, and become only counters rather than

1

' t '.

''

' 9. Be too well informed to use slang
and provincialisms.

.'
. • :e

. ~· ..

A provincialism is a wonl used only in a limited ..part
of the country. Outside of its district it sounds . like
slang: It represents, therefore, not general and literary ·
but limited usage; it needs to be known and recognized
for what it is, but .not obtruded where it does not belong.
In some parts of the country people instead of
saying I think, say I reckon _; in other parts, I allow_; in others, I calculate (probably pronounced calkilate)_; in still others, I guess. - To
say, "He fa.7!ors his parents'' is in some parts the way of saying he
.re.:embles his parents; some people call a person mad whe~ they
~nean he is angry, and ciPver when they mean \1c is amiable or goodnatured. - To use like with a verb (as in "Do like I do") i~ , . ~,
prov.~ncialism; so is right for very (as in " I studied right hard.")
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

Some words and forms, which m
ordinary speech have gone out of use,
have when introduced into wr itten discourse a quaint effect, as if the writer were trying to

IO. Be too earnest to
use antiquated words
and forms.

. \•

34

-

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

WHAT IS DUE TO STANDARD USAGE.

imitate some old model. Herein lies the objection to the
employment of such obsolete words. They do not sound
as. if the user were fully in 'earnest; they draw attention
to the oddity of the form and by so much withdraw it
from the importance of the object that the writer has at
heart.

Correct the following sentences, applying all the
rules hi~herto given .

EXAMPLES. The most common examples of the use of the old
style are found in the pronouns thee, thou, thine, and in the verbal
forms in -eth and -est.
Following is a list of the most frequently used archaisms: -:Perchance, peradventure, anon, erst, hight, cleped, yclept, whilom,
behest, quoth, iwis, erewhile, verily, yea, eke, wist, wot, trow, twain,
wight, irk, list (for will), ye (for the), yt (for that).
. ,. 4.11 these words, or most of them, have their use; but in ordinary
\:' prose, the prose of conversation and familiar discourse, they have an
' estranging effect.

For both old words and new, therefore, the often
quoted rule laid down by Pope is eminently sensible and
safe:"' In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;
Alike fantastic, if too new, or old :
Be not the first by whom the new are tried,
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." ·

II.

Exercises in conforming Words to Usage. - It will
be observed that the employment of an expression not in
good standard usage- a provincialism or an archaismgives a different sound to the passage; lowers its tone, or
makes it' sound fantastic. This will help us understand
what is meant by differences in style; especially when we .
compare · the effect produced by such means with the
effect produced by bookish and pretentious words.

35

1.

Quite unbeknown to his party he had sent in his declinatt . ,
just after the debate had been closured.
. .j
The villains had\vcllt in for ~ a big ::,Leal ; . it was hard linl
;>
,!,. .,
therefore, when their pal gave them away.
It was this man's business ·to (overlook .' the whole estabfo ·' ·
ment.
The criminal is to be electrocuted on Friday, the fourth of
M~
. .
He allowed that I hadn't ought to locate in that ~ection; it
was not a .healthy neighborhood, he said.
The treatment that the doctor had prescribed \ previous'. was
' considered as a sure preventative of this species of diseas~.
The action of this man was quite exceptionable, and so
/ aggravating· that no one .can ; blame the employer for being on
. his ear about it.
'
•
Immediately he saw me he turned · partially, around and
seemed to be looking everywhere for some means of escape.
. i t is a very sightly plac~, and the atmosphere is good, but
the water is not,healthy:
He is nowhere near so sniart as he pretends to be; that you
~an' see with half an eye.
"I ·. become en toiled ' in their labyrinthine circumplications
and multiflexuous anfr~ctuosities .' " 1
His whole report ~as saturated with couleur de rose../ .
David went to town to get his old · watch ,:·fixed, but the
jeweller told him the thing was ·no good.
.
He had travelled quite a piece,l before his comrades ,p ut in an · '
ap~arapce. ·
.· , .
He umpired) the game to the satisfaction of all; and that is
saying a good deal when we reflect how ready everybody is to
(; .. ; jtimp on' the umpire.
1

Imitation of Dr. Johnson, vVatson, "Excursions in Criticism," p.

1 56.

--

•

WHAT JS DUE TO STANDARD USAGE.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

36

Have you heard · how old Mrs. B. is? - Willjam said he
;'~Ckoned,1 froin certain indications, that she. was 1e1\joying right_.'
poor health.
Such a quantity)of sheep as I saw at Hampstead _Heath the
other day ! I could hardly help looking round to find some
shepherd 'swain who perchance ·might be tending them, as(gewhil~ men were wont to do' in the days of poetry and r01~1ance.
_ 1~l1ere was a conrlicti'otJ. between the . reporterial and managerial functions) of the concern.
"'
When young L. made his ' proposition:: to leave and locate in
the West, his employers began to realize that he was not[ V.
f party to be spared; so by increasing his sahry they induced
him ~p remain, and before many years he ~was a) great success .•
in the way he financed the firm's affairs.
·
I should admire to do what you propose; but the fact is I
have so many matters on -th e tapis that I am,:already laboring
under an. eml1ar ras des rzd1esses7
· I sent him a postal. two weeks ago, and he has j~st sent me
\
~
'. .
.
a cablegram \in return.
·
.
.
By this time Bill had grown :rampageous; . in fatt. ihe was
duwnrio-ht mad, at being, as he conceived, so 'awfully s ;:i,t upon.
/::>
\ I
•
'
.
He pleaddor hi~ horn~ and his family; he 1.claimed that it
was destitut~on tlt,at. )e,d,.)1irn to the uiminal , action; he intimated that :1llld!ltz°; ;11ufa11dis, his prosecutors would do · tl1e. same. ~
I tl~ink· -,)rou ·are ~ reaf kind to pj y attention to the behest. of
'·
such an insignificant :wight as I am.
·

.

Rewrite the following composition, aiming to make
the expression simple and natural, but not slangy· or provincial.
2.

·'

Two RIVAL schools, in (sections ' (8) a i not far apart, used
every season to cont~nd (6) b . on the 'diamond) (7 ). At the
f cornm~ncernent' ( 5) of the year the two nines were 1l.aturally ·
. much \ talked up (9) c, and all sorts of [theories, surmises,

37

guesses, conj ectures? 2] were rife as to which would be proveri
CC4) to have the 1nost sand (9))
- One spring the odds d seemed all in favor of the school at
Easton. · · Few of the old boys had left (3) at the last commencement, and tho'se who still stopped ( 2) at the school were
all elegan~ (1, 9) players. Stub Jones was the cracke pitcher
of the country · (1), and he was well ' ba~ked up; (9) by the
catcher, Will White. And surely for years no school had seen
1
such ap Ar 1(9) f first-base man as Lengthy Mills. Jim Daggett, the captain, was a little too 1!1-~1ch of a blow (9)' to be
real (4) pl e~ s a nt, but h e was regarded by all as a very,smart :(9)
leader. 91) the other hand, the \Vest Templeton nine were
. rather do\vu in the mouth (9)· Its captain, Tom Eddes, though
a level-headed chap (9) h ad n ever b een in it rr'iuch (9) captain1
• ing (4), and he ha d no less (2) than five raw players to shov'e
througl1 (9) for the cainpaign. When the seasdn opened he
had trained them for all they were worth (9); but while none
were so ! bad ( ~) as to be a positive disgrace, none could be
said to play ~11y great shakes (9) of a; g ame.
The . I crucial, clecisi ve, critical ? 1 J game of the season was
played on the Easton field. No one of the home nine had any
question but what (4) they would win, e_specially as they had ..
the advantage of their own ground. · On the day of the meeU
Jim Dagge~t was everywhere, .shooting off l~is lij,) \ in great . .
style (9)., To him the game was ·~bout (2, G)h won itilready.
· r As the game progressed, however, some little po in ts ( 1) i
could be, noticed viW1ich were ·calculated ( 2) to help an expert
· size up (9) ·the teams. Lengthy Mills made some phenomenal ( 2) plays at first base, hut he so lost his head . (9 ),\at the
applause that followed that he made some had (1)i ' errors., ·
Stub Jones was pitching a g reat (r)i game ; but the West
Templeton· boys got onto ( 2) him and pounded him all; over
• the field (7, 9); while the , captain had his batters so poorly
grouped that no one could_ be [ countec~,) depended?. 2 Jk. on to
· support the others. In contrast to thi:'s loose playmg,(1t) -was

•

38

I

WHAT IS DUE TO GOOD TASTE.

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

,' worth while ( 1) to look at Tom Eddes's men. [Each, every? 2J
one did jl\st:as the captain ordered; a word or a look, and the
man was/ in iti every time (9). Tom had his batters so elegantly (2, 9) arranged, too, that an uncertain batter would do
the least harm by (.in error (7) 1 and the most good by a hit.
By the middle of the game it was apparent (1) to all that West
Templeton was. steadily beating ( 1) m the Easton boys ; at which
the latter bec<tiie so ;rattled (9) that they.went all to pieces (9).
And when the game ended seven to two in West Templeton's ·
favor, the home team and their friends were a glum lot (9),
you may be sure.
. .
.
It is the team-work that does the business (9); playing for
a brilliant record cannot be depei1ded on to be a success 1(2).
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - It will be noted that the slang expressions,
wherever they occur, have the fault of not saying enough; they are only a
conventional sygibol of. the thought, but do not express it finely and delicately. This is the great fault of slang, a fault for which its acknowledged .
'
raciness does not make up.
a. "In sections" may be omitted without impairing the thought. - b. Use
the idiom "try conclusions."-c. This provincialism should be replaced by
a more definite word. -cl. "Odds" is a good idiom ; .do not change it.
Note the difference in tone between such an idiom and slang. - e, " Crack"
has been a slang term, perhaps, .but for the free and natural style of this
paper it is admissible usage.-f. In clearing away the slang .expression, is
any adjective really needed in its place? -g. This verb has passed into
usage as a noun, and hence Rule 4 need not be applied.-h. Try the idiom
"as good as." - i. " Po in ts " is not incorrect, but it is not definite enough ;
·try, e.g. "differences,"- j. The same remark applies.. to both these; they
should say more, be more specific.-lc The two words equally good perhaps ; it depends on what you want to say, - whether regarding them
beforehand or at the time of play. -1. " Error" is perhaps unnecessarily
technical; for the general reader try "misplay."-m. Not finely enough
discriminated in meaning; try "outplaying."

3. Work out the following problems.
Write about some old-fashioned person whom you have met,
imitate his or her nrovincial wavs of soeakin!!.

:mrl

.
.

39

Describe a boys' or girls' club, and try to discriminate their
ways of speaking.
Find the meaning of the following provincialisms : I will
take it kind of you ; that is a nasty piece of music to play;
I disremember to have seen it ; shall I assist you to ~ome
bread ; he took him to do .
IV.

WHAT IS DUE

to

GOOD TASTE.

A composition may be composed of words quite unobjectionable on the score of accuracy or plainness or current usage, and yet be lacking in good taste : it may
b~ crude where it ought to be graceful and smooth, or
affected where it ought to be· natural, or tawdry and preteptious where it ought to be plain. He who would write
well, therefore, needs to educate his taste.
Good taste in writing comes in great degree from inborn aptitude, but not wholly, nor will ·aptitude without :
training suffice to . confer it. To give his na_tui;:al. taste
firmness and fin eness a writ er needs to read the best lite~a~ure, not m~rely so as to know it, but so as to f eel the
beauty, the fitn ess, the charm, the strength, of ~· wellchosen . word. So words may come to affect him 'much
as music does; for langtiage has its l1ar111onies and discords, as well as its qu estions of correctness or error, to
those whose ears are trained to hear them.

I.

Rules promotive of Taste. -The secret of good taste ,
lies preeminently in adaptation. We need to know just .
what treatment a subject requires, whether high or low,
whether simple or elaborate, and to give each idea its
fitting dress.

40

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

I

''

The most frequent sin against good
taste in writing is trying to dress up a
. unusua1 an d
common subject or .idea m
high-sounding words. Different names are given to this
fault: in slang it is called "highfaluten "; printers call it
"flub." It is the kind of dialect which ca1:mot bear so
homely a word as spade, but is more likely to say "agricultural utensil frequently employed for purposes of excava.t ion "; which instead of saying "a great fire" says "a·
disastrous conflagration "; and rather than say plainly
"a man fell " tries to make the assertion less common by
saying, "an individual was precipitated." . In this manner
of writing all the common things of life take on artificial
fortnt

' ·l

II. Beware of the
false garnish of "fine
writing."

)

. ILLUSTRATIONS. - The following, from W. W 1 Story, 1 shows the
difference between common speech and " fine writing": "Mr. Jones boldly says to Smith at supper, 'If you say that again,
I'll knock you down.' But the newspapers report that 'he intimated
an intention to prostrate his opponent.' Jones also adds that Smith
is a blackg uard and a rascal. Smith's friends say that 'Jones
alluded to him as not being honorable in his conduct.' "
"Fine writing" often ·crosses with using less simple words than
the subject will bear ; see Rule 5. It is to be distinguished from
euphemism (Rule I ; page I I above), which latter, rightly used, has
a justification in accuracy.
- For an excellent discussion of this vice of "fine writing," with
many examples, see Lowell's Biglow Papers, Introduction to Second
Series.
~

....

Such use of terms beyond the call of the o~casi~·n i.~ ,
peculiarly the .fault of those who, with little experience
in writing, think that the distinction of a subject lies in
words about it rather than in its own inherent character.

•

j

' ·

WHAT JS DUE TO GOOD TASTE. •

'

By "prosaic work" is not meant here
merely work in prose, for prose may
sometimes be applied to subjects not prosaic. The meaning rather is, prose expressing common homely ideas, and
in the spirit of ordinary life.

12. For prosaic work
discard poetic forms.

EXAMPLES. There is no occasion, for instance, to put the common connectives and adverbs in shortened form in prose, nor to use
any of those condensed words which poetry employs mainly for
rhythm. The following are examples : -

Oft, for often.
Morn, for morning.
Mar;;e, for margin.
L£st, for listen.
'Neath, for beneath.
E'er, fo~ ever.

'

...

"Conversations in a Studio," vol. ii. p. 386.

O'er, for over.
N e' er, for never.
'Mid, for amid, or among.
E'en, for even.
'Gan, for began.
'Twixt, for betwixt.

Such words also as dole, for sorrow, tore, for learning, bale, for grief,
dire, for dreadful, gory, for bloody, natheless, for nevertheless, are
sure to sound affected in ordinary prose, both because they are from
the poetic vocabulary and because they are antiquated. Compare
Rule 10.

It is natural for poetry to seek condensed expression;
natural also for it to employ unusual words, more striking ·
and picturesque, or more quaint and archaic, or more
sonorous and euphonious, than the words of ordinary
prose. 1 As prose becomes more like poetry, in subject
or in spirit, it shows a similar tendency to employ the
les~ usual words and forms; as in wrought for worked,
hoary for ancient, yeomanry for farmers. These are not
unfitting to higher forms of prose; but to use such forms
gracefully one's taste must be educated up to it.
1

1

41

For Poetic Diction, see Genung's Practical Elements of Rhetoric, pages

...

--.·-·

42

THE CHO.ICE OF WONDS.

Many expressions have been in use
so long and have been so much bandied
about. .that
and
. it requires less thouP-ht
·~
effort to employ them than to leave them alone_; they have
become a kind of literary slang, witty or felicitous once,
but now simply worn out. Other words not lacking in
dignity or propriety, need to be watched and restricted in
use just because they are becoming pct words, and are in
danger of being so overworked as to become mannerisms.
Words begin to lose their power as soon as they become
stock expressions.
The caution is not against using these words at all, but
; against using them unthinkingly. Be independent enough
i to think out your own expression, wheth er it )s as good
, or not; then it will represent real thought as far as it
goes.
13. Be too independent to use hackneyed
and stock expressions.

Of outworn and hackneyed expressions. Such ex;pressions as wqaker sex for women; lords of creation for men; rising
generation for young people; the l~ymcneal altar for marriage; tripping on tlte light fantastic toe for dancing; a counterfeit presentment
for portrait; the cup tliat clteers but not inebriates for tea; the bourne
from wltence no traveller returns, for the grave.1
Of pet words: trend (as in, the trend of modern thought); to be
t'n touclt~· to v oice_; the average man, or the average anything; all
assertions seem to go by average nowadays. To this head also may
be referred the use of some foreign idioms; as, " That goes without
. " ; "a pronounce d success"; "he has the courage of his consaymg
victions."
EXAMPLES. -

l

This is generally misquoted, the real expression being" That undiscovered country, from whose bourne
No trav.eller returns."

43

WHAT JS DUE TO GOOD TASTE.

1

II.

Exercises in making

Expre~sion

tasteful. -

Note
how different is the effect produced by these expressions
from the effect produced either by bookish and learned
t erms or by slang and provincialisms; we h ere feel that
the writer is trying to impart an unreal distinction to
commonplace ideas or else that he is intentionally making
elaborate fun, and in either case that the word does not
adapt itself to the thought.
Correct the following sentences, applying where
necessary all the rules hitherto given.
1.

A new millinery shop has recently been inaugurated m our
•
street.
How sweet it is to repose 'neath the umbrageous foliage,
with nought save the murmur of a tiny. brook to break the stillness of the summer night.
_ An immense /concourse . of spectators assembled to ,witness ')
the burning of the Home Rule Bill in Belfast. .
·
_ His, nether extremities were encased m a species .of Scotch
tweed.
- I am quite well to-day, though that severe contusion.of the
integument of ,the knee has left me far from sound.
.
The. appointment's·- of the apartment were very . luxuriarit; ' .~ · ' '
and ·.:without " I am greatly mistaken they must have cost a
.
(_pile.
I shall be very pleased to render you any practical service. ·
At this point the , elderly individual refreshed ,.his . olfactory
.- ~rgan \with' a. pinch of snuff.
The ' unprecedented . inclemency of the weather necessitated <~~
postponement of the meeting.
"The cre~k of the screw-nails presently announced . that the
I

\,

44

THE CHO.ICE OF WORDS.

'

WHAT IS DUE TO GOOD TASTE.
/

Ii
11
'

~

'I
,I
I I

q
1

j

,I
1t
i

I )

lid of the last mansion of mortality \ was in the act of being
secured above its tenant." 1
He partook of ample refreshment, consisting of a generous
· portion of juicy beef, acco1ripanied by jthe staple edibles of the
season.
When I saw him he was in<lulging in numerous minatory
express.ions, ·\ vhich seemed to be aimed at the n~ajority of\ the
,· residents of the focality ..
"An ~s,olated st.e llulated!light illumined the snow." 2
The , post-prandial deliverances · of Mr. Depew are justly
celebrated
the world over.
f '.
The'l'i1~enc,l ut modern pulpit1anguage is strange to the average
.observer; he cares little for it because it does not seem to him
tb ·be thoroughly in . touch with the everyday needs of mankind.
Perchance some day he may e'en be willing to give o'er his
querulous complaints against the world? and ; precipitat~ himself
'heartily into som.e unselfish and righteous cause.
Four windows gave ont~ the grounds of the .edifice, affording
a beautiful view. '
"The celebration is a breakfast, because a clirt.ner on the
. desired. scale of .·,_.sumpti.wsity
canl').ot be achieved within less
.
I·
limits than those 'of the :i1o n-existent palatial residence of which
so many people ar,e madly envious." a ·
., .
The votaries of the piscatorial
art, having enjoyed a day of
I •
:
excellent sport, first discussed · their evening repast , at an inn,
where they did ample justice to the. ~i'ands) there pro,v ided, and
then, proceeding to their respective' residences, , retired to their
downy couches, and were soon in the em brace . of Morpheus. \
i r The ultimate effect of the Nicotian weed upon(certain groups
of ' ganglionic nerve-cells deep in his cerebrum )was to \r~duce
him to a state. of jfomnolency,:
.
.·, . · . ~
Th~ devourmg element destroyed the edifice m its entirety.
I

~

·

',,

In rewriting the following composition, you will
notice that, as it is conceived in a somewhat humorous
spirit, there is a natural ·tendency in ,.:>ome places to
enhance the humor by an approach to "fine writing."
To some extent this is quite admissible, being virtually
descriptive (see below, Rule 61 ).
The . real question,
however, ·is one of fitness . Ask yourself in .each case
whe~her th~ fine or pretentiou~ expr~ss.ion is justified b~, .
the idea or is too elaborate for it: this is the real test by ·
which to detect "fine writing." \tVhat is common in idea
•
does not need any adornment of language.
,,
2.

11

•,.

~

Quoted from Sit Walter Scott, by A. S. Hill, "Out English," p. 131.
Quoted from a modern novel, by A. S. Hill, "Our English,'' p. 130.
a Quoted from Dickens, by A. S. Hill, "Our English," p. 132.
1

2

45

.Ii ,_

It was a difficult climb; but 0;1cc he had arrived at the apex
) he magq_ificent view. over th~ spacious cot~ntry, 'mid the trees
1
'neath whose sha<'.l~ q L:intities · ~A sh eep were' pasturing,, more
than repaid him for his severe exertion.
'

'

~

'

"

IT is dolorous (12)a to conte1hplate how a .swell (9) young
gent (9) whom I once knew was imposed upori by certain
[friends., ·companions, associates, comrades? 2 J of his. b
Fred Spinner, who had a considerably greater fund of '·
, ducats (II) c than of cerebral endowments '(II), c and who J
possessed d, withal a . comely physiognomy (II) and a graceful
~gure, was one of the jezmesse doree (7) e of the rural locality ( 11 ) \
of Wilton. Our youthful scion's ( 11) predominating ( 11) weak- 1
ness was a propensity (II) for gorgeous habiliments ( 1 r ). l He
always attired his shapely form (r 1) in the tip-top (9) of the
fashion, ~nd was among the first to sport f the new styles. One
,year, at the' annual reappearance of that v~rnal season)When
. a y~ung man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love, or ·
. clothe~ (II, !3),g it became known to his friends through his
'{professor of · the _~art.9rial art ( 11) that he was secretly fabri- :';',
. (• .. eating (2, s) a_'co_stume.7that was destined Cs) to dumfo~md~; c )
9
: the natives (13). It was to be finished by Saturday evening,
so that if the weather smiled propitiously upon him (13) Fred ·

-

51

46

- -

,.,

WHA 1' J'S' D UE TO GOOD TASTE.

THE CHO.ICE OF WORDS.

friends inquired eagerly into his design, clown to the last details,
but did not let Freel know that they had stolen his secret.
Another (youthful specimen of the genus homo (7, 11, 13), of
about Fred's age . and size, named Sim Lewis, was a kind of
village pet. Through some mishap of ,sickness or accident in
his childhood he had been left rather in.completely furnished in
/1. ~..
the upper story) (11), and now followed the honest but (not
.' strictly illustriou~ ( 11) i occupation of polisher of pedal integuments (1 r) and general serv~nt. This Sim Lewis was chosen
by the . reprehensible inqividuais in question ( 11, 13) to be the
innocent instrument i of wl~~t is vulgarly denominated k a put-up
job\(11) 'o n Fred, a scheme which the: sartorial artist :(11), as it
was' decidedly to his own advantage, ~as not slow to abet.
- ../_ . The eventful Sunday "'.as as pleasant as could be wished,
and all was reported ready. The. conspirators, who were not
to be seen, w.ere keenly awaiting( developments :(8, 13). 1 About
ten o'clock ' o.~r ·hero (13) appeared at the top ~f Main Street,
, his, whole locomotion and deportment (5) betraying m that, as
the vulgar hath '( 1o) 11 it,J .he thought no . small ~eer of himself ( 11 ). .,.As he neared 't he Baptist Church, however, lJe. w,a.?.
[surpriseq, startled, horrified, dismayed? 1, 2 J to see the ~vielder
of the boot-brus.h ' (II) 0 coming to meet him, arrayed ' ( 12) P
also in thet acme .(5, 8) of the fashion; A.~ . seconcl glance
revealed that Sin:i.'s suit was an exact repeat. (4) of his own;
the same v.ocife~ou~ (11) i)laid in the pa1i.ts .(9), the same
resplendency q .of waistcoat,r the same patent leather boots, the
same style of hat - a grey beaver wi.th broad black band. It
was a cruel blow to Freel to witiiess '(2, II) his faultle.s s styles
,[adorning, bedecking, decorating,1 dressing up, lbedizening? 2]
, an idiotic individual (r r).5 His~ jaw dropped, his stride wilted
to a spiritless shuffle, t and turning hasti.ly up a back street, he
speeclilnbecaii1e i1~visible 'to the naked eye .(13).
Sim coi1tinued to wear his clothes u11til . they were · in rags,
but no money could have hir_cd Fred to indue (5) himself again
il~ith thP · ;lt_'<:f''lrrPrl hcih1 1 1mP~lt<: • (T Tl u

fl

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. The equivalent most fitting to this place,
perhaps, is "painful." To c.a ll the occurrence painful when it is rather
amusing is what is called irony, and is admissible in humor. - b. An idiom;
see Rule 6. -c. Put each of these into a single word, the simplest you can
find.-d. Possessed is not too pretentious a word here.-e. To translate
this French phrase literally, "gilded youth," would still be undesirable, as
it is a stock expression. "One of the village exquisites" would be fitting
here. -f. The word sport admissible here. - g. Is the long hackneyed
quotation needed here a t all? Do we need to set off the spring? Say merely
"One spring."-h. "In all his glory," though a stock expression, will have
to be used here.-i . No description of the occupation is needed. - j.
"Innocent instrument," though somewhat learned sounding, is exact. - k.
One characteristic of "fine writing" is to shun slang and vulgarity, and
when using it to advertise it as here. Choose an equivalent th:;tt will clear
the whole affectation away. -I. "Awaiting developments " is a hackneyed
newspaper expression . -m. "Betraying" is the exact term.-n. Another
mark of "fine writing" is the occasional use of an antiquated form . - o .. Is
anything gained by this fine expression? Why not simply Sim Lewis ?-p.
"Airayecl" is more natural to a higher style of prose, or poetry. -q.
"Resplendency," though an elaborate word, is in place here. - r. A tradeworcl for waistcoat is "vest"; but waistcoat is better. -s. The plainest
word is here the most effective, "a fool.'; - t. This clause is dE;!scriptive, but
not "fine writi.ng." - u. Is there any call for refining on the expression here?

3. Work out the following problems.
Write ·a short account of a street catastrophe - a collision, a
runaway, a man injured, a crowd gathered; and be careful in
writing not to use s,tock expressions.
Describe the approach of a summer twilight- the stillness,
the weather, the appearance of the landscape ; using fitting
language; but shunning poetic words and forms.
Put into a sentence of three words all that is o'f practical
importance in the following : "One of those omnipresent characters who, as if in pursuance of some previous arrangement,
are certain to be encountered in the vicinity when an accident
occurs, ventured the suggestion."

PHRASEOLOGY.

CHAPTER II.
PHRASEOLOGY.

'

AFTER the question how to choose words so as to
satisfy the demands of precision, plainness, good
usage, and good taste, rises immediately the question
how to put words together so as to make correct and
clear sense.
Scope of Phraseology. -With the putting of words
together the science of Grammar has to do· and indeed
'
'
so far as these elementary qualities, correctness and clearness, 1 are concerned, grammatical usages must enter into
Rhetoric. It is the business of the present chapter to
gather together such of these as require special attention;
hence, for our present purpose, we may defin e Phn.1.seology as the grammar ,part of composition.
In the ' present chapter, then, we are not thinking of
the completed sentence, as such. That, with its complexities of structure, is reserved for a future · chapter ·
being the first finished result of the organization of mate~
rials. We are thinking rather of the elements, whether
words, phrases, or clauses, that go to make up the sentence, and of the various problems of relation, agreement,
and arrangement that have oftenest to be solved in the
work of composition.
Some Definitions. - In order to discuss more intelligently the office of these elements, a few definitions are
here necessary.
1

Other qualities involved in composition a re reserved for the next

49

A SENTENCE is a combination of words expressing a
complete thought-:
In order to express any complete thought, whether /
in sentence form or in th ~ larger forms of the paragraph
and the whole composition, two things are necessary: first, we must have something to talk about;
secondly, we must say something about . it. These · tw:)
necessary elements in the simple sentence are called th e
SunJECT and the PREDICATE. Reduced to the nucleus
form where each of these is represented by a single word,
a simple sentence consists of a substantive (noun or pronoun) and a verb{ as in the shortest verse of the Bible
'
" Jes us wept."
. Bu t the subject is often more than a single word, being_
1
made up of the substantive word and any accompaniments that go to modify or extend its meaning. The
predicate verb, likewise, seldom stands alone; · it may
have an object, or (if it is any form of the verb to be) a
noun or adjective in predicat e, or modifiers. And any of
these accompaniments, as also the principal elements,
may be words or phrases or clauses.

I ;

.

ILLUSTRATIONS. r. The following examples will show some of
the forms in which subject and predicate may exist.
Subject noun: Alexander sig hed for more worlds to conquer.
Subject pronoun: H e was covetous of universal dominion
'
which was the supreme ideal in ancient times.
Predicate verb with object: He lzad many able generals.
Predicate verb with adjective: He was abler than any of them.
Predicate verb with noun: He was the greatest conqueror of the
ancient world.
T~e abov.e examples have confined themselves to cases where subject
and predicate are represented, in th eir nucleus, by single words.
u'l'lf-..,

~ .. ,h~o.nf. ~..,

... ,, ... ..,1, .......... 1.........

c,,.... ....,. ... ........... ....... h- ..... ro...-. ,....._ .... ...... 1 ...... ,,..,.,.

""~- .... -1!~-..L-

50

PHRASEOLOGY.

I

also may he complicated by phrases and clauses 111 various ways;
which, however, need not be brought up here.
2. To show the various forms that modifiers may assume, let us
take the nucleus-sentence given above and add modifiers to the
subject and the predicate.

Subj ect.
Jesus

•

parts may be indicated by a conjunction or by a relative ; '1 -or the connection may be left unmarked.
Clauses are either SUBORDINATE in sense to something
else, - giving, that is, some condition, some restriction,
some accompaniment of time, place, or manner ; or COORDINATE with something else, - that is, giving a fact
or _-assertion of the same rank and importance. This
is"•rhetorically the most important thing to learn about
clauses·; for a great deal of the management of sen- ·1.1
tences depends on knowing what is subordinate and what ;».
cobrdinate, and on being able to ma,ke any element one
or the other at will .

Predicate.
wept.

The kind and friendly Jesus

silently wept with sympathy, ~s
he stood by the grave of his
dear friend Lazarus.

Of word-modifiers we notice here the adjectives-" kind,"" friendly,"
"dear"; the adverb "silently"; the possessive "his"; and a noun
in apposition, "friend."

ILLUSTRATIONS. - The sentence above given contains only one
kind of clause, a subordinate clause with conjunction : "as he stood
by tl'e grave of his dear friend Lazarus."
The following will exemplify various kinds of clauses : -

A PHRASE is a group of words making up one grammatical construction, but not containing a finite verb, and
not of itself making independent sense.
Though not admitting a finite verb, a phrase may
·'' contain a verb . jn the infinitive or a participle ; so the
three classes . of phrases are Prepositional, Infinitive, and
Participial.
EXAMPLES._:___

-Conjunctional Clauses.
Subordinate.

get out by the hack door as
quickly as you can, and make
off."

Only phrases of the first class are exemplified in the

Relative Clauses.
Subordinate (Restrictive).

grammatical sentence in itself, that is, containing a subject and a predicate ; but at the same time it is only a
mem her of a larger sentence. Its conne~tion with other
For a justification of this form in -ing as an infinitive, see Earle,

le Philology of the English Tongue," pp. 536-544.

Coordinate.

"The peace
that was now made,
which is known as the peace of
Westphalia,
made some important changes in Europe."

I

A CLAUSE is a group of words filaking a complete

1

Coordinate.

"If you want to get home m
a whole skin,

sentence above.
1. Prepo.sitional phrases : "with sympathy" ; "by the grave" ;
" of his dear friend Lazarus."
2. Infinitive phrases : " to estimate fairly "; " in recounting." 1
3. Participial phrase : "being an enthusiast in science."

11,

51

PHRASEOLOGY.

1-

whom we saw, and
of wfto11i I was speaking the
day,

"The man
is of great influence in the Comoth~r
pany's counsels,
wltere genius is sure to be appreciated."

_,_____

-

_,.

- - -

\

. I

Grammatical Forms needing Caution.
2. Placing of Modifiers.
3. Concord.
4. Words with Antecedents.
5. Correlation.
6. Precautions for. Clearness.
The..se rules comprehend, if not the most interesting,
certainly some of the most important processes in composition.
1.

I.

55

GRAMMA TJCAL FORMS.

l'HRASEOLOG Y.

54

GRAMMATICAL FORMS NEEDING CAUTION.

Some of the forms of noun and verb, of participles
and auxiliaries, of adjectives, adverbs, and possessives, are
; so frequently disregarded or used wrongly that, although
fully treated in any grammar, they need to be recapitulated here.
}'
I.

Grammatical Rules especially important ..:r:J It is the
object here not to give a multitude of rules but as few
as possible, and only such as contain important principles;
It is a frequent tendency of those
14. Be heedful of ·
1
foreign and irregular
who have not studied foreign anguages
plurals.
to regard all words that do not end m
-s or -es as singular ; which tendency leads sometimes to
ludicrous errors.
In a similar way some people are inclined to regard all
words ending in -~ or -es (the letters or the sound) as
. plurals, and to use the verb accordingly or make singulars
to correspond.
ILLUSTRATIONS. - 1. Of foreign plurals treated as. singular.
When Addison writes, "The zeal of the seraphim as the character

which is given us of ltim," he is unmindful of the fact that ·the word
seraphim is the plural of the word seraph.
Some show their
ignorance of this Hebrew plural in -im by putting an English plural
after it, , as cherubims. - So also to write, "The Aurora J?orealis is
a very strange phenomena," "our data for determining · character
here i's very meagre," is to show ignorance of the Greek form of the
plural.
2. Of singulars treated as plural.
"In Fayal the ,f\.zore"
assumes that "Azores" is plural, \vhich it is not.-" The" huge
.Cyclop," - as if Cyclops were more than one. - "His pulse were
about ninety a minute" assumes the existence of some unknown
singular for the word. - The word news is best treated as a singular ;
the tendency also by the best writers seems to be to treat most words
ending in -z'cs (mathematics, politics, tactics), except perhaps atltletz'cs,
as singular. 1

The plural sign of a compound word should be affixed
to the main or fundamental part of the compound ; except
in some wo:i;ds of measure where the sense of main and
subordinate parts is not regarded.
ILLUSTRATIONS. - "Mothers-in-law" is correct because mothers is
the main word. "l\1aid-servants," "man-clerks," "\voman-clcrks,"
are cor,rec t for a similar reason. "!\fen-servants ," "\\'Omen-servants,"
., Biblical forms, are an exception . - "Spoonfuls," "cupfuls," " shovel, fuls " are correct forms, because the endings arc not thought of as a
1 ubordinate part of the won.l.

'

In ord inary prose the accepted usage
of th e l{!i>S·sessive form is limited, for
to persons.
the most part, (1) to persons, as, "my
father's house," · "Thack eray's cynical moments"; (2) to
time expr~ssions, as, "after an hour's delay"; and (3)
some idi9ms, as, ''for brevity's sake," {~ _a clay's march.~··{ '
Eeyqnd this w~age the possessive form is to be employed
with great parsimony and caution.
15. Confine the possessive form mostly

1

Hill, Foundations of Rhetoric, pp. 45, 46.

\

57

PHRASEOLOGY.

GRAllfil!/A T.!CAL FORMS.

TENDENCY TO EXTEND USAGE. - In newspaper and advertising
English there is a growing tendency to employ the possessive form
with an impersonal word ; as, " England's glorious history "; "A
train's narrow escape "; " America's best five-cent cig ar." This is
one of the things to be watch ed and avoided ; at present it sounds
like a cheap attempt at fine writing ..
A similar tendency may be noted of the r elative wlzose, which
ought to be used only sparingly to refer to other than a personal
object or an impersonal object personified ; o.f whiclz should be used
for inanimate objects unless the use of it makes the style too
lumbering.

as to whether whoever should be used, as subject of "shows," or
wlwmever, as object of " to." It is not "whoever" alone, however,
but "whoever shows the most skill and endurance," that is the real
object of "to "; hence it is better to keep "whoever" in the
nominative, a.s that is its real office within its clause.
Titan whom, 'as in. the sentence, "Wilfred, than whom no truer
friend_to me exists, counsels this course," is an anomalo':ls expression
(than being treated as if it were a preposition with an object, whereas
it is a conjunction) which it is better. to avoid. The higlt example of
Milton has given currency to the phrase.

56

Poetry is much freer than prose to use the possessive
• with impersonal words. ; thus, "my heart and my heart's
joy," which sounds affected in ordinary prose, is quite
natural as an impassioned expression such as we associate
with poetry.
It is the presence of the emotion that
justifies the difference in style.
It is only the pronot~ns that have dis16. Be watchful to
tinctive endings for nominative and
adapt pronoun caseforms to the actual
objective case ; and whenever we introcase.
duce a pronoun we need immediately
to think what is or is to be its government, and make the
· case-ending correspond. It is in the ability it gives to do
"..' this instantly and accurately that the great advantage of
'· being proficient in parsing lies.
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

In the following sentences 1 . which represent

~ery common errors, it requires only a quick sense of grammatical

government to adjust the pronoun to its case. "This is an importan.t
question for you and I to decide" (where I should be changed to me
because the pronoun is the object of .for) ; " It makes we Americans
think we are being systematically despoiled" (we should be changed
to us); " Wlzo do you take me for?" (whom, object of.for).
Such a sentence as, " I will give this to whoever shows the most
skill and endurance" raises a question, on which not all are agreed,

When an object has 1nore of some
quality, it is more than some other object has ..i or if more than all other
objects, the all other are put together
and make, for comparison, a single object. When an object has the m.ost of some quality, it is regarded as one 1\/,
of a whole class; and a pair is not large enough to make
up a class.
17. With two objects use comparative
degree ; with more,
superlative.

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Do not say, "He is the _eldest of the two
brothers," but "the elder." _Say "eldest of the three" (or more); or
you can say " eldest of the family." In the latter example the superlative is used with a collective noun implying more than two.
Quite like a comparative in principle are the words either, neither,
the form er, the latter, which should not be used to refer to more
than two objects. When more than two are spoken ·of, use any,
none, the first, the last. " He was stronger than e~·ther of the three
competitors" (say rather, than any). "Three men were implicated
in the crime, Eobitt, Ranger, and Williams ; of these the latter (say
rather the last named) received the severest sentence."

Some qualities of objects are mcapable of comparison because they are
already expressed so absolutely that we cannot think of
them as greater or less. The use of endings or adverbs
of comparison with such qualities involves, therefore, an.
18. Do not compare
what has no deg-ree.

-I

58

'i

PHRASEOLOGY.

absurdity; this we realize by reflecting on the nature of
the quality.

--?'

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Such words as unique, perfect, extreme, unanimous, square, round, cannot be thought of as having more or less of
the quality; what is unique cannot be more unique ; what is perfect
can not be less perfect, though an object can be less,than perfec t.
Such expressions as "more preferable,'' "more superior," "most
•
straitest" are wrong, not because the qualities do not admit of
degree, but because the expressions involve a double comparison.

Form the habit of thinking imm edi,
ately, whenever you use a participle, of
ticiple.
the word to which it b elong s, so as to~--give that word a place in the construction ; othe~wise the
word is very liable to slip away from you, and something
else to take its grammatical place. This is called the
etror of the "misrelated participle."
19. Express clearly
the subject of a par-

ILLUSTRATIONS. -Thus, "Speaking with a poor woman about
the daughter of her neighbor, she said" - is wrong , because the real
subject of the participle is crowded out by another word. Say rather,
"Speaking . . . I heard her say," which supplies the subject "I,"
or (better still, perhaps, in this case) change from the phrasal to the
clausal construction. "As I was speaking with . . . she said."
The error of the misrelated participle is frequently incurred by
, - ·,--·· changing unadvisedly to the passive construction ; thus, " Having
just now spoken rather of the disciples than of the Master, this opportunity may b e taken to say that," etc. Say rather, "I may take
this opportunity."
NOTE. - The subject of a ·participle ought to be either in the
nominative or in the objec tive case, not in the possessive. Thus,
" Not ltaving seen tl!em for some years, her arrival occasioned much
excitement," does not g ive prominence enough to the subject of the ·
participle (the possessive being virtually only an adjective) and supplies another word (arrival) to which th e participle mig ht be g ramm '1 tir,.. llv n~lati>d . If it be obiect~d that this sentence is not mislead-

GRAMMA TJCAL F ORMS.

59

ing, as no one would naturally refer arrival as subject to lzavin,g
seen.; the a nswer may be made, and laid down as a general rule of
speech, Do NOT SAY GRAMMATI CA LLY WHAT YOU DO NOT MEAN I
ACTUALLY; there is always liability of ambig uity if you do.

The indicative mood, as its nam e implies, is used to indicate what really is
or what we regard as a fact. We may
doubtful.
use it after a conditional conjunction
like if or tlwuglt, but when we do we regard the c.ondition
as actual. Using the subjunctive mood, we regard th e
condition as m erely supposed, and imply that it is
not actual. The distinction b etween the two moods,
which is real and important, is too little observed now-adays.

20 • use indicative
mood when the condition is certain; subjunctive when it is

ILLUSTRATIONS. - In the expression, "If Mr. B. is present will
he please come forward," his presence is looked upon as a fact, and
the mood of the verb is indicative. In th e expression, "If he were
here, we could get much information on this subject," his presence
is only su\;lposed, the implication b eing that he is not actually here;
and the mood of the verb is subjunctive.
In the scripture verse, "Though he were a Son, yet learned he
obedience," the two clauses are inconsistent with each other, because
the first, given as supposition ("were" subj.), implies that he was not
a Son, while the second asserts a fact b ased on his being actually a
Son; accordingly the Revised Version has changed the expression to
"Though he was a Son, yet learned obedience."
NOTE. - The subjunctive mood is generally used after such words \
as if, though, unless., except, lest, 1.vhether, that. Sometimes, however:·; ,
the expression is condensed, the particle being implied; as, "Were I
perfect, yet would he prove me perverse."

The question whether, in any case, subjunctive or
indicative mood should be employed is often a question
wh Pth Pr dn11ht nr Lirt nrPdnmin::itPs in th P rnnditinn

',

60

PHNASEOLOGY.

The primary implication of the word
the speaker assumes
slzall (Anglo-Saxon sceal, ought) is
control of the future;
.
will when he asserts
obligation; of the word will (Anglopurpose of it.
Saxon willan, to will) purpose, intention.
These meanings are traceable, with greater or less
distinctness, in every use of the words; but the effect
differs according to the person to whom the assertion
applies.
Thus, by saying shall (obligation, destiny) the speaker
assumes control of the subject of the verb. The effect
of this, when he imposes such obligation on himself (that
is, when the verb is in the first person) is simply to
predict; hence shall with the first person is the auxiliary
of the future. The effect when he assumes control of
others (verb in second or third person) is to command or
to assert absolute destiny.
.21. Use shall when

GNAMMA TICAL FONMS.

61

The following diagram will illustrate these uses and
effects :

,,

by speaker

Obligation imposed

SHALL
WI LL
Purpose asserted
by speaker

y

-z

0.
-1.

:r:
rn

• :>J

!:;
0

-t

:r

f7)

::0

"'

Keep in mind the primary meaning.
I shall be late = I am destined to be late.
} Simple
I. We shall be satisfied= We are destined to be satisfie~.
future.
2 . Ye shall know the. truth= are d~stine~ to know.} Future controlled by
3. He shall restore four-fold = 1s obligated to
restore.
speaker.

EXAMPLES. I.

By saying will the speaker asserts purpose or intent.
The effect of this, when he speaks of himself (verb in
first person) is just what is said, simple purpose and no
more. When he asserts others' purpose (second and
third person) the effect, by na.tural courtesy, is to imply
that what is purposed will come to pass; hence will with
the second and third persons is the auxiliary of the future.
EXAMPLES. -

I will ride = it is my intention.
You will lose your appointment.} "
.
Simple future.
.
3. I t w111 ram to-morrow.
1.

2.

r. The auxiliaries shall and will undergo some changes '/of use when a question is asked. vVill is seldom used with the first
person in asking a question (as, " Will I go?"); perhaps because of
the inherent absurdity of a person's asking what his own intention is.
In the second person shall or will is used according as shall or will )-(
is expected in the answer; as, "Shall you stay?" "I shall"(= simple
future). " Will you stay?" "I will" (=it is my purpose). fo the
third person slzall and will have the same implication in questions as
in assertions; as, "Shall he be made to suffer for this offense?"
NOTES. -

63

PHRASEOLOGY.

GRAMMATICAL FORMS.

(implying, is there obligation); " Will he be likely to come to-morrow?"
(simple future).
2. In depen.dent clauses beginning with when, if, though, the word
shall is used for all three persons; as, "When he shall appear, we
shall be like him; " " Nor do I judge if it shall win or fail." The
use of will in a condition emphasizes the intent; as, "If he 'will
(wills to) go, it will make our project easier."
3. Would and should follow the same laws as shall and will.
Thus, "I should go if I were you;" "He knew he should(= there
was obligation on him to) comply;" "We would see Jesus;" "You
would find such a course dangerous if you should (see note 2) venture
on it."

rather exerts, as the question does not depend on time, being a
general consideration.

62

By principal tense is meant the tense
of the principal verb or verbs of the I
sentence, the tense that dominates the 'J- ·
time of the action. There is sometimes much perplexity,
or much looseness, about the tense of the principal action,
though there need not be, if the writer will make sure
what is the real act or state involved.

22. Determine prin cipal tenses by the exact time of the action.

ILLUSTRATIONS. -This uncertainty of tense is perhaps oftenest
seen in replies to letters of invitation ; as, "Mr. Grayson will be
liappy to accept Mrs. Lincoln's kind invitation to dinner on Tuesday"
(say rather is happy, because the accepting, which is the real att
involved, is done now). "Mr. Jones regrets that a previous engagement will prevent," etc. (say rather prevents, because the accepting
that is prevented is a present fact).
Sometimes we see the same uncertainty of tense in such an expression as, "The firm will be twenty thousand dollars in arrears by this
time" (say rather is twenty thousand dollars, etc., because the time
contemplated is the present).

Things that are always true, universal truths, are
expressed only in the present tense, though facts with
which they are associated may be in some other.
EXAMPLE. - "It has always been a . question with me .whether
fiction exerted so great an influence over mankind as poetry." Say

This applies to infinitive phrases,
and to clauses introduced by a subor- ~.
dinating conjunction.
Not that the
subordinate tenses are necessarily to be the same as
the principal ; but the two are made up with reference to
each other, belong to the same scheme of tense.

23. Reckon subordinate tenses from
principal.

ILLUSTRATIONS. - r. "He saw that some one had preceded
him" (here the scheme is past and pluperfect). " Here is the person
whom he has so long been looking for." (Scheme, present and
perfect.)
2. Note how the tense of the dependent clause varies in each of
the following cases : I slzall be at home if you call.
I should be at home if you called.
I should have been at home if you had called.
3. So also in infinitive phrases. The sentence." I intended to
have gone " is wrong because it makes the going precede the inten-'/...._.
tion. " I was glad to have read the book" means glad to get it
fini~hed ; " I was glad to read the book" means glad of the
opportunity.

II.

Exercises in amending grammatical Forms. - Many
of the following exercises contain grammatical errors
such as the student's good sense should guard him
against ; but the correc.t ion of them involves important
principles which should be observed not from accident but
from definite knowledge.
r. Correct the following sentences, and refer each correction to the rule involved:
'h!!.""'•f... f •
Mr. Brown's election was !rather') less uirnni1hous than Mr.
,.
, ,\
Gray's.
\

64

GRAMMA T.!CAL FORMS.

PHRASEOLOGY.

After long doµbt Geoffrey came. sorrow£ufly to the conclusion _that there {Ja's) no God.
Dr. W. ordered that the medicine be given in doses of two
spoon$ful · ev~ry hour.
'
, .
If thds.t are yqt~r news from Washington, 1 must say that
~merica's politics ~re, in dubious conc;litioi1.
~
; - I [shall oriwill ~J return in half an hour, and if Mr. Barclay '
\,is ,not in I [will or shall?] confer with who!never is 'occupying .·
his place.
,
.. .
.
1

. Robert was the ;mos't ~uperior I scholar of the · whole class ;
his examination paper was much enore} preferable(than either ,· ), .
of the other five.
,
This individual, who~ we found ,was the doorkeeper, showed
us every part of the building.
,
I (e xpe~t the thermometer will b~ . about 96° in the shade
':1-!.
yesterday.
We ~ay you [shall or will?] not acknowledge our birth; yo~.
[shall 'o r will ?] acknowledge our worth.
_ ..1:1ving been :~~e11:1~ , from the country only three months,
1
' his return Fas)no occas10n for any great ceremony of congratulation.
·
A
·
That position is to be given to whbever the master
chooses.
He is~he most j ncomparable i;nan J ever saw 1for a practical
joke.
.
[Shall . or · will?] you undertake to do this service for me ?
Yes ; I [sl{all or,1 will ?]
.:,
.
My absence from the city will prevent:rn.y acceptance of your
kind invitation.
·
t
Here at last la:re , the goods that I look~d for so long.
I should never 1have done it if I was him. ·
The apparatus'e s ' devised by these men of science to test
the electric power ~iave · been I in the highest degree ingenious.
J
1

65

( kind .of\ goods whose importance to commerce is yearly m·creasmg.: .
I should. like .' to :have gone. on Tuesday if I were well.
If he tbe accessible, I wish to speak with him.
Frank and Edward were twins ; ·much alike, but Frank was
a little the 'tallest.'
pf the two parks is the one called Lincoln
·. ' The
. \'~quarest
"··
.
Green.
This seems to be a specie; of reptile.
/"
~ ·Passing a long a dimly lighted corridor, a pointed Gothjc
window opens on the dining hall.
Was I an absolute prince I would appoint able judges.
I [shall )or will?] shut myself in my room, and nobody [shall
or• will?] see me until this task is finished.
"
Th~re is very 'little room here for men like you and I.
N
In the · severe trial that has overtaken him '~e recog nize r
fate
;
.ambition"s
. ,./
.
· I 'would be very much obliged to you for your autograph.
I fully expected to ha~e executed your commissioo, but time
forbade.
·
He was ,conscious that New York's good name 'was deeply
concerned
in this ·contest.
I
.
•
1 would not at all wonder if (it will storm this afternoon.
1
'
I think you will like this p.lace ; · I do not see how you can .
' ( fail to~ do otherwise.
· .
.
The branches let no sunlight through, thus \ leaving a cool
· and shady Tetreat on a hot day.
.
·
'·
. We cannotlbut\help being deeply impressed.
A lot of dry legal documents arranged about the room fills
you with nq interest.
. On(~itl~er ' side'pf the .~nain building a:re the east and west
'Yin gs:~
,.
I could not help /from ~ admiring the beauty of the scene.

..

1

A few sentences are introduced here not reducible to the rul es ; to be

.'

."
66

PHRASEOLOGY.

Rewrite the following piece, correcting according to
· the notes and references:
2.

THE old swimming-hole - I [shall J o~wi.11? 2 1J not soon
forget it ;, so cool, so secluded, so quiet, and more extremely
( 18) grateful ( 2) after the long dusty walk one must take to
( arrive at (5) a it.
·.. About a mile south ?f the vil,lfage b the road, which thus far
. lead~· ( 23) straight down the (declivit)'i (5), bends sharply to the
left and crosses · the .'small (5) c river by an old wooden bridge.
A short distai{ce c above the bridge is a dam, over which the
water :·precipitates itse19 (5) in a broad ~hin sheet, and by the
side of this is orte of those rustic ~ stablishments (S) d which
serve the various purposes of gristmill, sawmill, and lathe.
Turning off M (9) e the main road after we cross the bridge; ~~
··side road~ followed)(r9) up the river a little ways (9)}j;asf1th'e
dam, and then just beyond a stately . old gambrel-roofed
i. residence ~.(s) we leave this road in turn and cross£. a stile an<d
'>,
skirt the river by a footpath through
the field. We are now in
f "\,
a pasture,'whese (15) cows are grazing peacefully or laying {4)
' down under the large old trees that are scattered hither and·- ·
yon)(13). Quite (4) "~- ways (9) g from .the stile we come to a
glade whose (15) trees,::blending~ (2, 6) round us, enclose (6) the
view ; and there at our left, down a little ' hill,h is the river,
. looking deep and still, and with a splendid (1, 9) grassy bank.
The opposite bank is [lined, bordered ? 2J with brush (9) i and
low trees, and not a !thing ( r) j is in sight, though the mill and
several houses are not far away. What an elegant (9) k place
for a refreshing plunge( d~.;ring\( 2) the early morning, or at the
end of a sultry July day !
· ·
The considerati.o n (sfof' the old swimming-hole ·brings up
~ . lovely ' ( 2) l . [remembrances:)m_emories, '(recollections?, 2 J .?f tlie .
[jollity, sport, \ii~ersion, pastime, entertainment~ 2J. 1us ',(16) ..
boys (_were accuifomed 6) to have there : of the spnng-board
and our feats of diving from it, of the swimming contests up
~

•

'. .
~

'

r

'

I

f

~L

•
GRAMMA TlCAL FORMS.

67

and down the stream, of the good ( r) m times. wef have\ had (23) n
splashing water, of the keen races up the grassy slope to the
imminent peril of our bare feet. N otl~ing that I en joyed ( 22) 11
since c~n quite take the tun's_ place (15tthat we had there.
. . . As I return (S) to the locality (5) the -environment's-(13) (15)
quiet beauty is the sdrn'.e, but the spring-board 1wa~ (~ 2) gone,
and the swlmming-hole seemed. ( 2 2) "to have fallen into
It must . be still in use,
innocuous desuetuµe" (1 r, 13) .'~
t. "
however, for here I.a pproaches {6) a party of juvei1iles :(4, 11),P
and they too seem to be enjoying the pleasures of existence (S)
in their way as well as we ever did. All [imagination, fancy? 2],
to· think they are. experiencing (4) q so much fun; for nothing
· can be quite so unexampled ,(r8) as the world was when I was
a boy!
1.t •

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - There is no call in the above simple sketch
for any but the simplest language. a. Say simply "reach." - b. The
manner of writing this word represents a very common mistake. Correct it.
- c. Think of the simplest and most idiomatic way of expressing these;
anything more sounds like a touch of affectation. - d. The word "establishments" is not only somewhat pretentious but too general ; use a word
expressing a specific kind of establishment. - e. " Off of" is a vulgarism .
- f. Instead of the principal verb "cross," use th~ present participle, and
see hoo.v much better it sounds. - g. This is a very common vulga~ism. h. Is there not a word a little more specific than "hill " that were better
used here? - i. "Brush" is a provincialism for shrubbery, or bushes. j. Too absolute an assertion ; there a re many things in sight, though not
buildings. -k. Is the adjective needed at all?-!. The word "lovely," just
the word many would naturally use, says virtually nothing at all that is
definite. -m. Specify some particular aspect of good; the word here is too
general. - n. Think of the difference between preterite and perfect tense,
and consider in each of these cases which is correct.- o. Many think that
such a well-worr\ phrase improves !he style ; does it sound congruous
here? - p: Say "youngsters." - q. The word '"experience," as verb, is
much misused.

•.

..•

•
PLACING OF MODIFIERS.

PHRASEOLOGY.

68
II.

For definitions of these terms, see above, p. 50.
As to office, then, the article the, an, a, and the adjective pronoun this,
that, these, those, the former, the lattei', are to be reckoned as adjectives.
a Virtually nothing. The pronouns h ave case-forms, and nouns have a
·· possessive ; but these do not h elp much in ordering a sentence.
1
2

I.

PLACING OF MODIFIERS.

In studying what to do with any sentence-element, we
· are to think not so much of its form as of its office. In
form it may be a word, a phrase, or a clause; 1 whatever
it is, so far as government and arrangement are ' concerned, it moves all together as one element of structure.
As to office, three functions are open ,to it, as we have
seen ; it may be a principal element, or a modifier, or a
connective.
The greatest difficulties in making any sentence clear
arise in the arrangement of its modifying elements.
A modifier is either an adjective or an adverb. It is
an adjective when, joined with a noun or pronoun, it
, expresses such modification as we associate with persons
I or things, - such as quality, quantity, number ; or it may
be a mere pointing out. 2 it is an adverb when, joined
with a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, it expresses
such modification as we associate with acts or states, such as manner, degree, tim e, or place.
The fact that the Englfah ·is an uninflected language,
that. is, has practically no endings for case, gender, and
the like, makes right arrangement especially imperative.
For as there is nothing 3 in the form of 1 word to show
what is its office, whether nominative or objective, correspondingly more dependence must be placed on the
! order of words, so that they may infallibly be reckoned
with the elements to which they belong.

69

Rules for clear Arrangement of Modifiers. - The
rules for arrangement may best be summed up in the
advice to "look before and after," making sure in each
case, before you leave it, that there is no ambiguity.
Many cases cannot be point.~d out by general rules ;
only good sense and the habit of watchfulness will keep
the writer from falling into error.
If a phrase or clause, coming between
24. Between a word
a noun and its adjective, contains a
and its modifier do not
put anything that can
noun, this noun may steal the adjec~
steal the modification.
tive. If a phrase or clause, coming
between a verb and its adverb, contains a verb in any
form, this verb may steal the adverb. Such cases as
these are the chief cause of error in arrangement. The
addition may indeed be another modifier of the same
word, so that the question is _as to the order of two
modifiers ; but, in such case, be careful not to put them
so that the one may modify the other.
EXAMPLES. - The .following sentences will illustrate various
forms that an intercalated modifier may assume to steal another
modification. The corrected order is placed beside the erroneous
one.
I.

MODIFIERS OF NOUNS.

A noun coming between.
Locke was an unquestioned
man of genius.
The annual parents' meeting
was held last night.

Locke was a man of unquestioned genius.
The annual meeting of parents
was held last night.I

1 It will be noted that the right orqer requires sometimes a recast in kind
of expression as well as in arrange1n ent.

;..

PHNASEOLOG Y.

70

PLACING OF Jl!IOD/FIERS.

A prepositional phrase coming between.
Please receive a ticket from the
attendant torn from the book.
Ari exhibition , of~ drawings by
lady amateurs well · worthy of
inspection.

Please receive from the attendant a ticket torn from the book.
An exhibition, well worthy of
inspec tion,. of drawings bi'. lady
amateurs.

A clause coming between.
It is not easy to find any sysIt is not easy to find any system of instruction/,., except that · tem of instruction that 1 at present
followed by architectural students may be relied upon, except that
of the best class!~~i11cl1 at present followed by architectural students
of the best class.
may be relied upon.

z;· MODIFIERS

OF VERBS.

The adverb joined with the wrong one of two verbs.'
Do you take the medicine I
send you regularly ?
I scarcely" ever remerriber to
have had a rou~her walk.
His last journeyv/as to Cannes,
whence he was never destined .to
return.

Do you take regularly · the
medicine I send you?
I scarcely ~emember ever to
have had a rougher walk.
His last journey was to Cannes,
whence he was destined never to
·return.

An adverbial phrase coming between.
t

This necessi\ated his being
parted fhom the books which he
I
•
love9or a tune.

This necessitated his being
parted for a time from the books
[that 2] he loved.

A clause coming between.
He bought (the house which he
inhabite~ for l~is own residence.
The major believed that Stanley was dead owing to the
·absence of news.

He bought for his own residence the house . [that 2 ] he
inhabited.
Owing to the absence of news, ·
the major believed that Stanley
was dead.

In all the above examples 1 1 it will be seen that the mistaken
arrangements are owing not to the form of what comes between a
word and its modifier, but to the fact that a rioun or a verb is inadvertently slipped in and becomes capable of stealing the modification.
A variety of forms beyond what are indicated above may occur; but
m~st of them a!e reducible to the aboye principle.

This word· is singled out for special
mention beca\1Se there is perhaps no
other word in the language so frequently misplaced. Capable of being either an adjective
or an adverb, it ·can modify almost any part of speech ;
so if not placed immediately before the word (or phrase)
to which it belongs its force is. liable to be stolen by what
comes between.
25. Place only immediately before its
principal.

EXAMPLES. - ]'he amendments to the following sentences show
that the position of only is corre<;ted by putting it rigorously next
before its principal.

.

He sub-let it to the agency in
question, by which it was ( only"
used for(<}ne week.
·
The principle of the bill was
(~nl~ confirmed by a majority of
,/ one.
·
These practices are only , disco~tin ued through the neglect ·
and degeneracy of later times.

C::PP

lw lAw . R 11 IP"

7

c.

c~-

He sub-let it to the agency in
question, by which it was used
for only one week.
The principle of the bill was
confirmed by a majority of only
one.
These practices are discontinued only throug h the neglect
and degeneracy of later times.

The following additional notes about only may be of
service in solving problems ?f arrangement.
1. With nouns or pronouns alone _
is often preferable to
only.
1

2

71

The examples here cited are taken, sometimes m slightly modified

'
. ·--

.; ...

PLACI NG OF 1v/OD./F.f.ER S.

PHRASEOLOGY.

72

The first two named(of the
p~rt;-oaly-ascended i to th e summit.

Of the party the first two
named alone ascended to the
summit.

Only may stand at the end of a sentence or clause
to limit the whole assertion ; but be careful )\ow you tack
on anything after it.
2.

"Brown studied books; Smith wrote them only." - The peril of
putting anything after only, when th e latter modifies something ~re­
ceding, is seen in the sentence cited just before, where the meaning
of only, which ought to be thrown back, may be counted with what
comes after.

3~ At the b eginning of a clause only (succeeded generally by a comma) may be an adversative conjunction
nearly like but.
"Come when you please; only, let me know when I may expect
you." 1

26. Do not place an
adverb bet-w-een the
sign of the infinitive
and its verb.

There is. an increasing tendency
among wi;iters to put an adverb between the preposition to and the infinitive verb ; but do not be misled by the

prevalence of the usage. At best it is not yet estab- ·
lished · it must be regarded as a vulgarism. Seek some
place for the adverb either before or after the infinitive
construction ; which place it shall occupy has to be
determined by considerations .of emphasis and. smoothness.2
1 The examples under only, also under Rule 26, are taken from
Longman's School C omposition, PP· I 58, 149,
.
.
2 Th e present section gives only such rules for placmg modifiers as are
concerned with correctness and clearness ; placing for the sake of other
.. _ - - ~ - 1

f"'\1-!--'- ~

!-

(..•1- •• l -

'·~- ..,___~~

73

ILLUSTRATION S. - "It is not nec essary to accurately define the
meaning of everything that is said." H ere accurately, being some. what emphatic, may well go after de.fine,___:." to define accurately." "To really know the man we must go to his books." Here really,
not being a very important word, may be put first-" Really to know
the man," etc.:- It is not always so easy to change the position of
the adverb so as to make the sentence smooth ; but the writer should
at all events shun the position between the sign of the infinitive and
the verb.

Certain phrases, like at -least, at all
events, at any rate, used to restrict or
soften the meaning of an assertion, are
peculiarly liable to J:4e put between two
sentence elements in such a way as to be understood in
either direction. Whenever used, such phrases need to
be tested for that kind of ambiguity.

27. Place restrictive
phrases -w-here they
can -w-ork in only one
direction.

EXAMPLES. The following s entence, " The Britons at least
fought as bravely as the Romans" may imply (if we count ,at least
with what goes before) that they foug ht as bravely as the Romans
though some other nations did not, or (if we count it with what comes
after) that they fought as bravely, though they may not have endured
so bravely, as the Romans.
"The traveller saw that these foreigners at all events were,. as
intelligent as their own countrymen." Does this mean foreigners at
all events, or were as intelligent at all events?

The same principle applies to any phrase or clause put
between two elements that it is equally capable of modi. fying ; it is, in fact, only a particular case under Rule
24, selected for particular mention because modifiers of
phrases and clauses are peculiarly liable to misplacement.
The same care is needed in the case of such phrases as
indeed (which is really a phrase condensed into a word),
t'n truth, to be sure, though these are perhaps not quite so

.

;

74

PLACING OF MODIFIERS.

A clause, as we have seen,1 may
either be coi::irdinated with another
together.
clause, that is, have the same grammatical importance as the other, or it may be dependent
on some other clause. 2 Coordinate clauses are introduced
by such words as and, l£kew£se, but, therefore, accordz'ngly,
also by the relative who or whiclz. Dependent clauses
are introduced by such words as if, when, wh£le, where,
whereas, that; also they may be condensed to a participial phrase, or begin with the restrictive relative that.
The test of a coordinate clause is that it makes a complete
idea by itself ; of a dependent clause, that_ it looks for
support and completion to something else.
The difficulty in balancing clauses of like rank together
arises from the fact that the influence of a connective
like if or that extends beyond its clause to the next one,
unless arrested; and thus the next clause , may inadvertently be made subordinate when the prindpal rank is
intended.

amend, without changing order, would be to arrest the influence. of
the if-connectiv~ by a connective in the next clause : " The expectations of the parents are disappointed if the children do not work
hard, and more t4an tlzis, money is wasted. - This manner of
balancing is employed ("and tlzus ") to arrest the -influence .of unless,
in. the last sentence of the text above.
The semicolon also .aids
.
materially in the balance.
" He · replied that he wished to help them and [that he, or, indeed
he] intended to mak~ preparations accordingly." Note the different
balancing, according to the the particle used.

28. Balance clauses
of the same rank

.

... .

~·· .

ILLUSTRATIONS. "The expectations of the parents are disappointed
the children do not work hard a·nd money is wasted."
Iiere the ambiguity is with the last clause; it may be coordinate '
either with the if-clause before, or with the first assertion. Put the
if-clause first-" If the children do not work hard, the expectations of
the parents are disappointed and money is wasted" - and you
, balance the two principal assertions together ; put the if-clause and
the succeeding first-" If the children do not work hard and money
is wasted, the expectations of the parents are disappointed" - and
you balance the two dependent clauses together. Another way to

if

'(

75

PHRASEOLOGY.

See above, p. 51.
,
1
The last example on p. 51 shows that a clause may be at the same
time dependent and coordinate, that is, be one of a series of coordinated
dependent clauses, but let the student once. get the ability to distinguish
infallibly the two kinds, and such cases will present no difficulty.
1

2

II.

Exercises in placing various Elements. - It is. neither
possible nor desirable to illustrate all the ways in which
ambiguity of arrangement may be incurred in a complicated sentence s~ructure. What is of much more
importance is, that from such comparatively simple
exercises as these the writer's attention be roused to that
.habit of watchfulness which goes far to make rules. super- .·
fluous, and with~ut which rules are of little value.
r. Correct the folla,wing sentences, referring the corrections to any rules of phraseology hitherto given:
tr'
They were at a wretched . French cabaret, smelling vilely;
·where we still remain and the people are very kind.
The captain and the crew had only. ~een there about an
hour when three canoes made their appearance.
A few hours later one Nichols assaulted the unfortunate man
.
1'. as well as an accomplice namecl"!!ll~F
'· · Louise is a better pianist than eith~fr pf the three sisters.
They gained the reputation of .doing whatever they professed
· . to do 'honestly and effectively.
I would not like to do this, and I shall not do it.

76

PHRASEOLOGY.

PLACING OF MODIFIERS.

77
\

I was invited to tea at : Mr. Dearsley's hoil,sy, who keeps a
Rapid Hose Company will go to C. to-morrow and take part
species of museum for his own amuserµent.
in the county's firem~ni¢ p arade.
He is as proud at least as my cousin.
.
It is not for me to .give reasons for what men do to gentlemen
Although a Jew 'from the desire of gain· he pursued a qtlling
of your leari:ing.
which was peculiarly odious in the eyes of J ews.
I have only received. this morning the first installment of the
proofs.
·
"The Spirit of Laws'' was (onl~ completed .when the author
was sixty years of age.
'
Immediately after his resolutiort was communicated to
. This ball seems to be rounder than the other.
Mr. Brown .. without the sanction or knowledge of the board.
he closed the school.
I shall be , ~isappointed ~f he does_not fulfil his appointment
with me :and will endeavor to make other arrangements.
It is important for me to first of all tell you how I came to
I · ani quite prepared to . tell him what I think of him
be so early.
publicly. .
There ,..were two father~in-laws in the case, who1;n they said,
2. Rewrite the following, correcting according to the
have been old. schoolfellows when they were young.
: notes and references, 'and pointing out ambiguities:
I
There are as good opportunities for study in this university
IT is a [general, · common, customary, prevalent, 2 J notion
at all events as in the University of the West.
t~a~
a man's character mainly ,(24).a is d etermined by his
· The death occurred on Wednesday at a very advanced age
env1romnent (13).
I\fake his en vironment (13) goocl, they
-.of the Rev. Dr. Milner.
f claim (2 ) , ancl the man will be good; h e is all right L within if
They attacked :·Northumb erl.a nd's house, whom th ey put to
l,you
will make what is without right (:q). It \\' Oulcl be nearer ( 4)
death.
[correct, truthful,i true, exact, 2] to directly (26) turn this ·cla im
A wealthy philanthropist has just died, bequeathing to each (2)
around. l\Take h im ri g l1t int criurly (s) and you need have
officer on his death-bed th e sum of fifty d oll ars.
no [solicitude, fear, care, co nce rn ; zl for the exte ri or (z).c lt
He strongly mainfained that · th e measure was unjust and
is a ma n 's att itude and directi o n to\\';Hci his environment, hi s
/ was opposed to the organization of labor.
• · haLitu
a l thuuglit·s (15) l;ias and tendency, th ,1 t [settl es, makes,
·· The poor are the first to feel th e evils which r esult from
1
determin es, decides, 2 J hi s ch.11.1clcr.
such as tate of thiin gs ac utely.
From hi s attitude towa rd the wurlcl abo ut him o( in fluen ces (2 4 )
.
Los~~: a valuable silk umbr.ella !_b elonging to\ a ge ntleman with
·-.you
qtti tell (z) d his life 's (15) direction. Standing on the
a curi ously carved h ead .
•
·
I am often ready to vow I shall never undertake such a . , /~~sh~rc (19) two vessels are witn essed (2) mo ving in opposite .
· _ direc t1on s,c yet Jdrin~11, g uided, impelled, urged forwar d, 2] by
task again, though I daresay I 1wi1Lsometime.
the same \vi ne!.
The surroundin gs' arc identical , work ed
. The traveller saw that these forei gners at all eventJ were as upon (19) by the same po wer; but the two vessels have the ii·
intelligent as his own countrymen.
~
~;...sails
~t (4) at d ifferent ang-Jcs, and so, ei ther (z) is helped in its
They affect an interest in s·o me particular class of art which
.[appointed, destined, prescribed, allotted, 2 Jc~urse onward ,( 2 4),
they are : neither ;J?repared _to justify nor to transfer in any 0th.e r ··
I

t.. - - -

•.

1

,

'

•

..

'

78

PHRASEOLOGY.

CONCORD.

79

say enough, _and has a somewhat provincial sense. - e. You have used the
wind (24),f but through the bias or slant of its sails. So in
word "direction" in the previous sentence, and it does not sound well to
the m oral world; the influence llp~i;i ~ pers on of th~ truth ..(24) .
use it again so soon; vary this expression some way. -f. The insertion of
depends not (1) g ,u pon the power of _i.ts appeal or the diredion
t~e phrase "of the wind" here not only transgresses Rule 24, but disturbs
of its pressure, b~t ~ upon the angle that he- pre§;filtS toward it,
the balance of the '4,wo phrases that it separates. - g. Is not this stated too
tl1at is, upon l1is soul's h attitude.
~
strongly and absolutely? Does the influence d epend not at all on these first
two, or not so much as upon the third?- h . The word "soul" is so nearly
From the direction in which his thoughts are habitually
r
.
a
personal word (Rule I 5) that the possessive is q qite admissible. -i.
turned you can [tell,' estimate, ' deduce, 2] the tendency of ·-the
Here the pqssessive of the person is pref~ rabl e, because it breaks up a
character 6£ a man ( 1 5),i whether [it is,: it be, 2 o] i upward to
lumbering row of of-phrases. - j. Dete rmine which mood you would use if
·greater [worth~ excellence, eminence, nobility, 2 J or downward
any, but query - is a verb needed h ere at all?-k. Ko real ambiguity,_.
toward [shame, disgraceJ degradation, '. d~:;honor, 2]. Look at
.here, but is the of-phrase rightly placed? - I. The word "head" as verb is
well enqugh established in th e lang uage not to transgress l\.ule 4. ~
a canal-bo~t passing through a lock. You know what will be
·
m.
Putting the word "levels" last makes this and th e preceding sentence
the level, •whether higher or lower, of its future course (24) k
end alike. Sometimes pairs of adjectives are better pl aced after their
1
by the dires tion in which · it is headed. The boat rises~_if the
noun; would it not be better h ere? - 1L S uppose you turn the sentence so
upper gate is opened ) and floats off on higher waters (28); it
as to put the if-clause first, then change it to an i1npera tive as in next
sinks (3) . if the lowe; 'a re"- opened (28) and passes · a~ay (3) on
·sentence. - o. vVoulcl it not be better to make the subject of this clause
and of the next the same?
a lower level Character, too, has such gates, leading to1more
exalte\! or more degraded 'level~:.~~ou are opening the higher
gates ' if you direct yourself tow_ard principles of truth, right,
III. CONCORD.
un,.sclfishncss, and you arc ~1pliftecl~ exalted to a higher plane
One of the most imperative requirements of grammar is
of livif).g (28).n Turn your !1ature on the other hand toward
0
c9)1c()rd, that is, the req nirern cnt that a ve rb shall agree
selfishness, greed, dishonesty, and the lower gates ar0-0penin~ ; , 1
with
its subject in person and number. The same law
you are dragging yourself do~:vn, ; demeaning (2) yourself.
·- · · .....
ho.leis good 'w hether the subject is definitely expressed or
1'he same series of locks that conducts from the lowest to
the highest levels conducts just as truly from highest to ,lowest. ""'-"'~"-'--._ .. represented by a pronoun ; hence th e principle of concord
The same surroundings are there, for every man to [use,
is also involved · when we say ct pronoun must agree Ill
employ, utilize, 2].
It is the man's thought that makes or
person ancl nurnhcr with its antecedent.
mars his character, - its attitude and direction ( 2 4). Thoughts
Jhc requirement of concord is g-cnerally easy enough to
are more potent than deecls,.fo'}Joth (26) work goo d and c\·il.
0

1

i··

~

i

It is not alway~ lhat a misplacetl modifier
causes positive ambiguity; yet the question is always open, what is the best place for it? Does mainly belong with "is determined" or "by his
, environment?" - b. "All right" is a simple idiom; does not sound formal,
and perhaps is all the better for that, if it expresses your idea closely
enough. - c. "Exterior," besides being a somewhat pretentious word here,
1s inexact; th e exterior of a man is not the same as what is without or
NOTES TO THE AllOVE.-a.

;1i~ 0Userve ; but some special cases need here to be pointed
· t

OU.

I.

Rules of ·Concord wherein Rhetoric is especially
involv~d. - Dircctioi1s for minaging concord may be
_- summed

UD

'
in the !!encral
iniunction to watch vour

80

CONCORD.

PHRASEOL OG Y.

subject ; do not allow your attentiQ!!_.J:q leLgo __ ().L it until
ilie~erb, wher~ve-r-1c0cc-urs:-1;-~<ljust~d to it.
- - - --- - It is this violation of concord, per29. Do not let interhaps, to which the writer is most liable.
vening words disturb
agreement of verb and · Some word of different number, or
subject.
perhaps a row of details, will get in
between the subject and the verb, and the number of the
verb is carelessly conformed to what is nearest.
EXAMPLES. - " The dropping of cumbrous words are a real gain."
The verb ought to be is, to agree with dropping, the real subject,
instead of with words, which comes 1 between to obscure the view
of it.
" The notion that a crisis in the Roman question had arrived, and
that the French garrison .w ould be promptly withdrawn from the
Roman capital of Italy, t?-p__ere ) the foolish dreaml of an impulsive
people." This ought to read either "notions . . . were,'' or better,
"was . . . dream." .The details after the subject caused the writer
to lose sight of its number.

It is a poverty of the English language
that it has no singular pronoun of
common gender to _represent different
genders in the antecedent, oi: to stand for such words· as
. ;· anybody, any one, everybody, every one, each, either. The
. - word they, being plural, is not in concord with them.
_ 1 ' Where the words do not . suggest different sexes, the
pronoun h~ may represent thetn ; and in many cases it is
better to make the antecedent plural and represent it by'
they, their or tliem .
30. Make pronoun
and antecedent agree
in number and kind.

EXAMPLES. - "Every one was busy getting the camp ready for
removal, or disposing of the num ero us things they had accumulated .
during their stay." Here if we say "all were busy," the pronouns
1

For the number of this verb "comes," see remark under Rule 3r.

81

they and their will be in concord. - "They were all willing to· defend
the plan 'which each had adopted for themselves." Here lzimseif is
quite admissible, as standing for an antecedent which does not
·suggest differences • in gender. To say "for himself or herself"
would be clumsy ; it is not often that clearness or definiteness calls
for such particularity of gender.

The indefinite pronoun one will not bear to be repre- \
sented in succeeding clauses by he, ltis, or hini ; it has to
be repeated. Similarly, a relative pronoun should be
represented by' a relative ; and the relative whicli (whose,
wh01n) should not be changed to that, or vice versa.
EXAMPLES.-"' One instinctively tries to get rid of one's (not his)
thought in conversation or print so soon as it is matured." This use
· of one is rather un-English at the best, and to be avoided where
· possible ; the above sentence, for instance, was originally written, "A
. man instinctively tries to get rid of his thought,'' etc. Every one,
" any one, can however be represented by lze, his or him ; see previous
, "examples. - "Those recruits were best whose clothes were neatest
, ,-,. .and whose (not thez'r) faces were most intelligent." - "The high office : which you fill and the eminent distinction which (not that) you bear
are obj~cts of respect." Or else use that in both cases; which use
: , would in this sentence be more correct; see below, Rule 35. 1

Grammatically a collective noun, like, .
nation, people, audience, class, is singu:: by grammar.
lar ; but it may be so associated with
---: . ·other ·words as to convey the idea of plurality, and to }··
-. , re~uire accordingly a plural verb. Whether the verb
· .~.ith a collective should be singular or plural must be
; dete~·mirted by the sense the writer wishes to give.
31. Treat collectives
· by s~nse rather than

ILLUSTRATIONS. - "A large class of observers regard this phenomenon as explicable on strictly scientific principles." Here the
1 For remarks a nd examples of pronoun concord, see Hill, Foundations
of Rhetoric, pp. 72-76.

82

.

"--

-

·•

l

verb is rightly plural, because we think of this class as different
. individuals i indeed, it is virtually distributed into individuals by the
phrase "of observers." - "A braver people than .the Albigenses
never -was found on the face of the earth." Here the word people is
. evide11tly understood as a single object, to be judged all together ;
hence the singular verb.

Similar to collectives .m principle are the names of
weights, ineasures, and values ; which require singuJar or
plural verbs accorping as they are taken as wholes or as
units.

....
I

ILLUSTRATION. -Thus, "There is ten shillings in my purse," and
. "There are ten shillings in my purse," are equally correct; the f}rst
being concerned with the amount of money, the second with the kind
and number of coins.I

The title of a book, whatever its number, takes a
singular verb; so also does any term, though plural, used
merely as a ,word.
·
.j .

EXAMPLES. - "'Gulliver's Travels' is a satire on the England of
£ts author's time." - " ' The Two Gentlemen of Veron~' was written
by Shakespeare." - "Phenomena is a Greek plural." See also footnote to first example under Rule 29.
'

Two or more singular subjects connected by and natm~lly make ~p
together 'a plural subject ; as, "Honor
and fame from no condition rise." Singular s.~~jects
connected by or or nor, being dis joined by the conjunction,
as naturally take a singular verb. " So far all is simple.
But whei1 two subjects, a singular and a plural, are connected by or, as, "Fame or the emoluments of valor
were (or was?) never to be his," -what shall the verb
be?

32. Be watchful of
subjects with con. junctions.

83

CONCORD.

PHRASEOLOGY.

· When a clash of concord like this latter case arises,...,.__
either choose two subjects that have the same number, or
choose a verb that has the same form for both numbel\s. I'

.

ILLUSTRATIONS. -Thus, t11e above example might be amended:
. "Fame, or the emoluments of valor, could,never be his," where could
be is the same in form whethe.r tlie subject is singular or plural.
Verbs with .auxiliaries are often helpful in this way.___:_" Neither the
halter · nor bayonets are (or is) sufficient to prevent us from
. obtain in()' our rights,'' might be amended, "Neither the halter nor
b
'
the bayonet is sufficient," etc. Here the subjects are both made
singular.
'

.

When a clash of .concord between different persons
occur:;, the verb has generally to be repeated.

y_

EXAMPLES. - The erroneous and the amended sentence side by
side:"Either he is in the wrong or
" Either he or I is in the
I
am."
wrong.''
"Nothing that he has said nor
" Nothing that he or you have
that you have said bears on the
said bears on the question."
question."
This repetition of the verb, however, is so apt to make the sentence
.~ lumbering that it is better to avoid the clash of persons where
·: . possil;>le.

Two or more subjects, though connected by and, may
· be evidently synonyms for the same thing, or may make
up together a single idea, and require therefore a singular
verb.

j-

· EXAMPLES.__:_ 1. "The glory, the fame, [ and] the renown of this ../ ,
world has no charm for him." In cases like this it is often better to I\
. indicate that the subj ects are synonymous by omitting the and.
z. ''The correlation and conservation of forces has come m our
time to be one of the most important doctrines of physics." Here
• . tl1<> hun <:11hlPl't<: 1n::i'kP 11n ::i ~inD'IP

ir1Pa.

84 '

PHRASEOLOGY.

.

Do not mistake a subject with a prepositional or parti·~/ cipial phrase for subjects with a conjunction; the phra!";e
.: has no effect on the concord. See Rule 29.
EXAMPLE. "The general, with several of his staff officers, z's (not
are)·coming to the city to-day." - "This large homestead, including a
large barn and beautiful garden, z's (not are) to be sold next month."

II.

Exercises applying Principles of Concord. -The following exercises will furnish.- practice in the broader ele:i;nents of concord; exceptional cases and minutia'! are best
left to be discovered, or investigated, when due watchfulness, engendered by the commoner problems, can be
counted on.
I. Correct the following sentences, referring each
amendment to the. phraseological rule involved.

This is the man {who/ headed the expedition so bravely and
'. that was wounded in ·the first engagement. _
He might be seized;' by any one that met him as a robber.
Any one may have ltheir)choice of these articles for twenty·
five cents.
Africa as well as Gaul ~ere ,gradually fashioned by imitation
of the capital.
" A laggard in love and a dastard in war
Were;. to ,wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar."
They built the church ~ith ~wo towers, of which the north
one was «;:onsiderably the l~igh~t:o...-v
There,. ~re !; fifteen pounds- of sil~er in this box.
The Romans understood libertyT at leas( as well as we.
'The Three Musketeers,' by ·D umas, presenti a striking
picture of the dash and recklessness of -military France in the
time of the great Cardinal.

CONCORD.

85

The purse with its contents .were, found on the person of the
chief.
.
· Neither peace nor war, nor summer nor winter, ·~ere . a sea. son of repose.
Man after man came down the steamer's plank bearing~!h~ir;'
-heavy load~ of luggage.
Any one who is looking for brilliant descriptions and mcisive _phrases can find in Kinglake's 'Eothen' wha~ ( they )
wan tJ ,
-1 • : , ••
•
The Megarean sect, which .were '.f ounded by Euclid, was the
happy inve1)!0~ ; of logical syllogism, o~ t~e art of q~~bbling.
. I hope neither my feUows nor Tam ·tlueves.
- The Church •havE{ no power t9 inflict corporal punishment.
He deniecl that gold :was ;the most precious metal.
'The adventures of Han:y Richmond' .a:re a very interesting
book.
-Fourteen bushels of barley ,w ere ,all that the land was e<1pable
of yielding/ an acre.1
He saic;l he .only li_ved, for his_children's sakes.
What * re1the formulat for wo~king out these problems?
He always treated me as if I 'was his brother.
are far more able to give your son help than either
,..,These
':
I

'

'

(

you 1or I a1'~~ •· _
.,
·
.
.
A block and tackle were made use of to raise the matenal.
His attempt .to ' practically .apply this principle resulted in
failure.
One must not expect too much gratitude fc11'.'his ·disinterested
, efforts to help ; ' I~e- may easily incur the repr~ach of officious'ness.
I am very careful wh~") trust_with my private affairs.
·. · A detachment of two hundred men ~vere 1 immediately sent to
the scene of the strike.
' If you ~lease to employ your thoughts . ,on that subject"
you would conceive the miserable conditiofil many of us~

"""""'-"'- .in":/

" ,I t

'An author\1uust not produce books too rapidly; he or, she I
must be careful tc> maintain the high standard of 1his or her \

I ;, . work.
In dress arn;l speech he ·was a genuine aborigine.
t.
.
Wherein do sit the dread and fear of kings.
.
A heavy ,sloud /ontinually hangs .o ver the city ;of soft coal
smoke.
..
-

Rewrite the following, and .correct or modify according to the notes and references.
2.

pictures, as on.ea looks at them, turns (29) his~ (30)
thoughts at once to the artist; he (30) thinks of his or her ) .
(30) b name and reputation, he': admires _their (30) skill in
( drawing or painting1(2).c Others there are that m y.ke you (?b-/.
livious) (5) who painted them or how he cl executed . (5) the pro- '
duction) (5) ; while you trace the story that they e i tell ~~th ·
absorbing interest j(24). A striking example of this (last (17)
-[kind,':{:lass, species,s ategory, 2J is a painting entitled Adagio
Consobnte by a Munich artist; (24).f
It repres~nts a scene in one of the high vaulted cells of an
old monastery. In the centre of the picture .sits an aged monk
playing on the violin · by the side of a large double windo~g
,\The side of his face is 'only (25) toward us as he looks out at
the open casement; but his long white hair and fl.owing beard
betokens (3 2) a man of experience and ripe wisdom. Against
the ~all in front of him stands his reading-desk, the antique ' '
· tomes (;2) lying open upon( it p.nd beside it ' that h~ has been
\conni~g' ( l 2) ( 2 4). A b asket contains his frugal repast (II) of
·fruits and bread by his side on the floor (24).h Floor and
. walls, and even his window-seat is (32) of stone. ; the room
·· ( barely .(3) furnished, and unadorned savei by the c;.~u cifix on .
the wall and some potted plants in the window. ;/ Howeveyf
all these surroundings_ are forgotten,_ as the old man k .draws
SOME

'1

•

1

1

-87

C'ONCOND.

PHRASEOLOGY.
I

86

' --- - - - - - --

.L

. -

- -

_,

'

-

'

.J .:...

~-

holy light suffuses (5) his .countenance (5) (28) . . ~t is a source
of rest a?d peace to him, !this quiet season of music and meditation. !
'
Nor is the [advantage, bo-on, blessing, utility, service, ~] of
it. his alone ; '·'he is doing a gentle office. of which he is [ unconscious~ -· unaware, 2J of good (24). In the open door behind
'him stands a tall lady in deep n!-ourning. . The distant cypress
trees, revealed behind her through the door,! suggests' (29) that
she has just come from the g rave of some de ar one, a husband,
perhaps, or a son. . The meaning is [apparent, umnis takabl~;)
man~fest, evident, l Jof her presence here1 ( 24) ; she has' brought .
for consolation (to the spiritual father- her burdened heart (24).m ·
_And it is [enougl1.i_,sufficient, 5] for her t~~come 11 as far as the
door. The peaceful look that steals into h er face, the clasped
..
'
I
hands, and her restful attitude ,leaning ( 19) 0 against the doorpost, tell$ (32) us that she ha$ ~ )n the music her consolation
(24), which ,J1as imparte ~ (22) a comfort beyond the power of
words.
NOTES TO TH E AB O VE. -a. To repeat one, as yoµ would have to do,
three times, is very .a wkward; would it not be better to choose here the
pronoun of the second pers011 ?- b. Is the gender plainly enough suggested in "artist" to m ake such particularity of pronoun reference
necessary?- c. "Painting" is not a particular enough word; choose
something more sp ecifically distinct from drawing. - d. "He" can stand
here properly as representa tive of the interrogative pronoun who. e. Would it not be better to make your subject sing ular, - "the picture"?
-f. Putting the phrases in this order makes "by a Munich artist" seem
· . to depend ·on "entitled." To turn the order around does not entirely remove
the ambiguity, but relieves it; and the word " entitled" is chosen here
rather than the simpler "called,'' in order to relieve the ambiguity more. g. 1~here is no ambiguity in the order of this sentence, but it is poorly
arranged. Put the place-phrases togeth er, and consider what is an important
element to put at the encl. - h. Better to put the more general place. phrase before the more particular.~ i. " Save" is a somewhat poetical word
· (Rule 12) but not out of place here.-j. The word howevei-, unless
especially emphatic, which it is not h ere, ought to be put after the first
_convenient pa use.-k. If you balance clauses according to reference (28)

I

"'l
11

,,!)
ii!1
l":

1.

i

PHRASEOf,OG V.

WORDS WITH ANTECEDENTS.

clause. -!. Are these two place-phrases in the best order?-m. The
present order is not absolutely incorrect, but wooden; amend it. -n. Is
"to come" in the mos t accurate tense here ?-o. The participle "leaning"
is ambiguous in reference ; you will have to change this participial phrase to
a clause.-p. Try tl{e progressive form of the present,-"is having."

I.

88

IV.

WORDS WITH ANTECEDENTS.

ILL UST RATIONS. - By way of learning what words of reference
do, point out the antecedents in the above paragraph of text. In
line 1 antecedents of "these," "that," and "that." In line 2,
'
antecedents
of "it," and "that something preceding." In line 6,
antecedents of "these" and "their." In line 7, antecedent of
"them." In line 8, antecedent of "which." In line 9, antecedent '·
. of "their." Name which are relatives, which demonstratives, which
-personal pronouns. What is there peculiar about "that something
preceding"? See Rule 34.

Pronouns refer to persons and things ; but besides
these there may be adverbs of reference, which represent
some place mentioned before, as here, hence, .hither, there,
thence, thither, where, whence, whither; or some time ....
mentioned before, as now, then, when, wlzile. These of >,
course have no person and number, but only
place, to agree with.
•

Ii)

Ii'

Rules for Words of Reference and Antecedents. -In ·

m~gi~g r<:!.~E~_n_::~,

there are in the main two foes to '/ ,
fight : vag~!SE-~_ss, arising when the antecedent is too f
obscurely placed_or too dimluointed out ; and an;,,bi[uity,'A
ansmg when
the referring word
does
not make it clear
...
-·--.....,........--.., ....
.
.. .. _....,,.._
which of two or n}Q_r_~- possible antecedents is meant.
ihetoUowin:g--·i~·~-i~s cover the most frequent cases of
· difficulty .
There are t~y.ay.s__J.u.-. "':'~i,s:h __ ;;tn '
33. Make the anante.c.::~ei:t may be made _prominent: \ },
tecedent
prominent
enough to be readily
by ·-~~. .~jtion, and by its._J~:i:~.'..12.!~!~tical
identified.
relation.
As to positioi.1 put the antecedent . a_s near as practicable
to ...!_he prono~n, andi{...y~·~·~:~a!._~_n;'t.__12~1t_ i_t nea,r, make ~p
for its remoteness by giving it an emphatic position in its
clause.
. - --~- ·

By these are meant words :hat refer.to som~thing that
/ 'goes before and depend on it for then- meanmg. That
something preceding, called the antecedent, may be
• in a word or a phrase or even a whole sentence.
expressed
~The chief v~ords of refer~nce are the pronoui1s, persona:,
demonstrative, and relative ; these must represent their
k:ntecedents clearly by agreeing with them in person and
number. So also must words in apposition, which are
}..__virtually words of reference, their appositive being the
antecedent.

j

ii

89

_

-

., ~

-- ~-

_

j

-t

ILLUSTRATIONS. - In the sentence, "Two languid campm;E;"1lS
followed in the course of the next two years, during which neither
army did anything remarkable," a word ("years") has slipped in
between antecedent and pronoun and made the sentence ambiguous.
If instead of this we say, "In the course of the next two years two
languid campaigns followed, during whiclt," etc., we put the
antecedent and the pronoun so much nearer together that the sentence
is sufficiently clear; and if we say, "In the course of the next two
years followed two languid campa igns, during which," etc., we also _
give the antecedent a more emphatic position at the end of its clause.

.t\~/~-£IB:Pl~~~~!_E.~~~!Jon, an .....~1.t~_ceclent_j~_,...not
prominent
enough
J:?y-~~·'"'''
beii.?g,jn~-the possessive case; 1 it
~-·. . µ .................
?ught to be either nominative or objective. As a
1

The same principle applies to the participial construction; see Rule 19,

I'

!

90

PHRASEOLOGY.

£tinci£al ~e~~-~t - ~f -~~e sentence (subject or o~j.ect) ~t ~s
"f- more prominent than as the object of a prepos1t10n; it is
more proi11ine~t-' also in a principal or coordinate cla.u se
l than in a subordinate cl ause.
EXAMPLES.-.,..- I. Of antecedent in tlze possessive. "This way will
take you to a gentleman's house that hath skill to take off these
burden~." Say r ather, "to the house of a gentlemen th a t hath ;" etc.,..
- "Nor b etter was their lot who fled ." Say rather, "Nor better
was the lot of them that (or ~hose who) fled." Poetry• is freer to· use
the possessive as antecedent than prose.
2. Prominent as principal element. "I gave him a piece,of bread,
which he ate." The noun. (bread) between piece and whiclz, being _.
in an of-phrase, does not seriously distm:b the more- prominent
antecedent. - "At this mom en t the colonel came up and took the .
place -of th e ' wounded general. He gave orders to halt." , Here
colonel, being the subject of the sentence, is the ifiore prominent
word.
3. Prolninent as coordinate. Compare these t,wo forms: "In this war both Marius and
"In this war both Marius
Sulla served; Sulla increased his and Sulla s erved. While' Sulla
·
reputation, Marius tarnish ed bis. increased his reputation, Marius /. ·
Some plead for /zim (Marius, the tarnished hi s. Some plead for ·
last named) age and illness."
him age and _illness.
The word him in the last sentence identifies its antecedent rather
imperfectly so long as the two pronouns ("his") are in coordinate
clauses; but put one his in a while-clause (subordinate) and the
reference is decidedly easier.

A .s imple pronoun, he, she, z't, who, or
wlizdz, is often inadequate, standing
alone, to point out which of two or
more possible antecedents is meant.
The maill devices for reenforcing th e referen.c.e__ __flr_e :
demonstratives, repetition of antecedent, and direct
discourse.

34. Make the reference definite enough
to single out the exact
idea intended.

WORDS W/TH ANTECEDENTS.

91

The demonstratives, this and that, t!use and those, the
former and the latter, are useful for pointing out the
nearer or the more distant of two antecedents... The
ca~tion in the use of them is, not to trust them too much,
especially in spoken discourse.
EXAMPLES. - "I will not barter English commerce for Irish
slave1'y; that i_s not the price I Would pay, nor is this th e ·thing I
· would purchase."
"For beast and bird,
They to their grassy couci1, these to their nests,
1
Were sh111k, all but the wakeful nightingale:
She all night long h er amorous descant sung."

NOTES.~ I.. ~t is .n ot suffici ently defi nite to use the one and the ~­
other to d1scnm111ate two antecedents; as in, "I do not favor the
· Premier's policy at all points, nor a m I wholly confident of the success
of Home Ru!~; but I commit myself, \vith reservations, to th e one,
while, in the failure of previous exped ients, I accept the otlzer as an
experiment." Grammarians are divided in opinion, as to whether in
such cases the one should refer to the last nam ed antecedent and the
other to th e first named, or the reverse ; th e opinion, however, is best
supported that the 'reference should be in th e same order as the
' antecedents. But it is better not to adopt so vague a reference, when-..41...:.
such words as the former, the latter, are at hand. ·
.r
2. It is a cruden~ss of exp ress ion, not sanctioned by the best
writers, to use the _one, wh en he or she, him or her will answer; as,
','He is the one who caused all this trouble,"-better, "It is he who
caused all this trouble." Do not use the ones at all, to stand for an
. antecedent; the term is proper only in some idiomatic expressions like
"the dear ones," the '! Shining Ones."

When necessary for clearness, repeat the antecedent.
Th~re q.re two ways of repeating : either by iterating the "
exact terrn, or by using some equivalent expression. The
1~!~-~r expedient, skilfully employed, may serve both to . 1
id_~~1tify the antec~lent and to enrich it by some descriptiv·e
·
or defining term.

-

- . .... --

- ' .

--

.

-

--~-~--:
-

WORDS WITH ANTECEDENTS!

PHNASEOLOGY.

In the following sentence, note how essential to
clearness it is to repeat the antecedent: "And, I repeat, you have
already set money in the niche 'of faith; it only remains for you to
throw the latter out of doors." It is uncertain here whether "the
, / ~ latter." means "faith" or ".niche of faith;," say rather, " It only
/ remams for you to throw f aztlz out of doors.
·
2. In correcting the following, note the part that the repetition of
EXAMPLES. -

1.

the antecedent plays: "On his way, he visited a
son of an old friend, who had
asked him to call upon him on
his _journey northward. I-le was
overjoyed to see him, and lie sent
for one of his most intelligent
workmen and told him to consider
lzimself at !tis service, as he
lzimself could not take him as he
wished about the city." 1

" On his way, he visited an old
friend's son who had asked him
to call, on his journey north.w ard.
The Jzost was overjoyed to see
him, and sending for one of his .
most intelligent workmen told
the ~nan to consider himself at
the stranger's service, as he
himself could not take his guest
as he could have wished about
the city."
Only the repetition of antecedent is italicized in the amended
sentence above; point out what other means are used to make
reference clear.

I.I} the repoi·t of conversation, wl~ in designating the ·
speakers the clash of pronouns - lze, site, !tis, fter, lzini - ·
~ peculiarly liable to occur, am~jguity maY: of!err. .~~
obv:i?,t~d 2 by using direct discourse, that is, by ~iving
·each speaker's words in his proper person.
In the following sentence as given in the third
person, the reference of the pronouns is wholly uncertain ; but change
to direct discourse, and all is clear enough.
·
"He told his friend that if
"He said to his friend, 'If I
he did not feel better in half an (or you) do not feel better in half
hour he thought he had bette• an hour, I th.i nk I (or you) had . '
better return'."
return."
EXAMPLE. -

1

Example taken from Abbott's "Ho:v to W~ite. Cle".'rl('

- ------- ~~

93

To trivial con versa Hon, however, it gives too prnch importance to /
report it in this way, unless clearness demands.

The relative wfto or wfticft ·may, and
theoretically does,1 introduce a new
fact about its antecedent ; its office is,
therefore, to head a coordinate clause, 2 as may be shown ··
by using its equivalent and k e, and it, and tftey. The
relative tf:!at is used only to introduce subordinate clauses
· necessary to define or restrict or complete our thought of
the antecedent ; clauses which may often be condensed
· into a participial phrase. It is important to have clearly
in mind .what you_r relative introduces, whether a clause of
like order or subordinate.
35. Be mindful Of
the office of your
relative.

EXAMPLES.'-- I. Coo'rdinate.
In the following sentence the relative who in each case adds a new fact about the antecedent, the latter
being already complete in sense : "Murray's enemies in. Scotland,
who(= and they) were both numerous and powerful, comprised two
parties : the friends · of the old Church, who (=and th ey) were
. anxious for the restoration of Mary ; and the House of Hamilton,
.who(= and they) were jealous of Murray's great power."
2. Restrictive.
In the following sentences the relative clause is
necessary to our understanding of the antec edent, the latter being
incomplete in sense till th e relative clause completes it ; " Cats that
· wear gloves(= wearing, or when they wear) catch no mice." - "Side
by side with the spirits tltat fought (=fighting) were the spirits tltat
". brooded" (=brooding} - In the imperfect attempt here made to
resolve the that-clause into an equivalent, it will be noticed that any
equivalent clause must be subordinate, as indicated by when or if. .

There are many cases where, for the
sake. of euphony or clearness, w!w or
wliiclz has to be· used though the
.meaning is restrictive. Such cases ought to be ·s tudied ;
36. Be wise in using ·
coordinate form . for
restrictive office.

1

But in usage there are many exceptions, see n ext Rule.

)!

'I

!

i!
l!
'I
I

:!

..'

1

'"i

l

'I!<

I
j'i
,,
I'

WORDS W.fTH ANTECEDENTS.

PHRASEOLOGY.

94

!'!

and wherever t/~at will go smoothly, use it.
"t

careless in this respect as some wn ers are.
.
T he following are the principal cases of this kind.
• When t/zat as . _conjunction or pronominal adjective

Such sentences as, "This is something I have
no use for," "there is no objection to this that I am aware of;''
'./ ;
"-yonder is a man· I wish to speak to, " are natural in conversation
h
d
c ange around they are stiff and unidiomatic. It is too puristic to
· say without qualitication , as some do, that no sentence should encl

pl,

'!t

'f!i
j!\l
I\·
11[

~=ii=~-~N~~th a preposition.

occurs near, it is better to use w!to or wltick

That odious measure that has been so opposed is~
coming up for action to-day." It is better here to say" which has
been," etc., - though the office is restrictive. Or, you could say
odious · measure that," etc., - getting rid thus of the prononun .
adjective. - " Tltat the man tkat (better wlzom) our opponents, ar
supporting is an able and worthy candidate, we are not disposed t
EXAMPLES._"

"!)z

deny."

\'

95

" Tlza,( is not a good word to paus~__up.<?n ; ;when there
fore it comes just at a pause who or wiziclt will
sound better.
~ia!I

ofr

There are many persons tltat (better who), though .
unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and tliat (better wlto), if
not strongly incited by self-interest, .a re ready for the most part to . c
EXAMPLE. -

ill
,;,

·:i

After pronominal adjectives used for personal pronouns
~odern' English pref ~rs w!to or ~ILom, 'a s indicating better
the person 0£ the a ntcccdcn t .

'!!

_-

.I"
·~r
1.:

:j:l
l
:'il

l.: jt.

~.:;;;;,,.;~~.,,;l;:XAMPLES. -

"There are many, others, several, some, tho se, who
etter than tlwt) can testify to th is from personal knowledge."
===.,°",.;" '"hen, however, the pronominal adjective does not mean- a person,
-·s better to use that; as," Scott continued to practice at the liar. linally at least- for fourteen years ; but the most w!ticlt (better
~~~ f) he seems ever to h a ve made m any one year was short of two
e~=un
~odred-and .t[1irty pounds."

i'~I

H~

:~!!
:,r

I
I

~]~·
.\

'1

"'
·r:
,,

. ,,l

]t'.1

. lu

!

preposition to the erid of the clause ; and some pre ·
sitions, especially the longer ones, will no~bcar to b _'
treated.
"Such were the errors and prejndices that
su triumphantly above,'' - better, "above wlzich hf so triumpha~ .
rose."_" This is just the clas.s of men tlzat we have been talkm ~
about" - better "about wltom (of whom) we have been talking.'·'
EXAMPLES. -

·a

st~uction between conversational and written discourse.
/

.

decided difference in the ease of this , co~
In th
former the construction with wlzom or which may sound stiff
formal ; a,ccordingly the shorter prepositions of, in, for, to, by, ~
r
~1.- ~nrl
thP;r rhll~P. when thev ' do not thus ,dep ~
NOTE. -

Ther~ is

'

1

-

----L

L -

Af

fl

\h

' R1
ij

,J
/1i;

II.

1}ta,t, used as object of a preposition, sends

'

r · ~:i

' i~

think of the interest of their neighbors."

,

'~

'

-::I n all the above cases. the office of th e relative, notwithform is changed only
reason .l

in Words of Reference. -

· ~ ('

. ·~

';q

In the following

will be observed that tl1e question is not
;;:;;=:==w,,,a. ys of correct and incorrect usage ; it is sometimes a
.....--··-u~estion of the effect you wish to produce and of the word
· es_t adaptec+Jto produce such effect. Much depends,
erefore, on searchir>g out the principle underlying every
~~ample .

\

>e

;l'l
'~

}~~
;';;;J
iQ~

·;.;·i~
ti!l :j~

ff;~~

•j

·J•'
f!
~I ~
'r!
''~'3
ifl~

1

u

:111~

Correct the following sentences, ref erring
endment to the rule or remark involved.
"; "' - 1 _:for

each

equivalents for the relative and their occasion, see below. Rule c8.

!l1 1i

(~ 11

,.J;i f'l

·i·: ·lt

i'.1 H

96

WORDS WITH ANTECEDENTS.

PHRASEOLOGY.

· They were summoned occasionally by their kings when
co~bY. their 1wants and by their fears to have recourse

to(fhei.J:;t\tp)~~-;)

r

•

•

This me ~~~ilJ(~nly) be endured by the U1110111st party
~fong as it is ped_e_ctly har_mless and useless: .
· .
IKann-ot bi~me th~(\trfJ)am myself attacked w~tl]. weariness.
His conduct surprised his English friends (~hffi had not
known him long.
I} h"e.....,.../
This is the~~.E!:n~ whefyou saw intftb.e rnark..f.tJ?-day.
He leads her to his father's palace audl~e ~cf" Begone";
~/,I~ ;J
Of'J1...V
she takes him tor ner rnllle1 N cottage~
e greets them
..
'\
I
calmly, as lofty ~s1ants. .
The times t.Wfi'l~'\followed this event were very troublo~s.
\.:
I hear that
theJ man ~ 1'h~
iatj r stole these jewels has been
apprehended.
Tl1ink c?rtlY~.~"':.~'f\.as its remembrance gives you
pleasure.
.. - · ·~·The position we are taking.f 'flt any r~ meets the approval
of our own consciencel( -- .--·
. .
-h Men lpf~ ,';~t!~ . ap ~1L.,e7.<;.)~on the ~od that is m others.; .
and think~1at ) their reputation (al:Jssni;e~~ and that their
comme~ble ~alities do stand in the~ht; and ~herc:~pnh
{!hey do what they can to cast a cloud over them) ( that the
bright shining of theU.Jitues may not obscure them.r ; ~ ··r) .
There are many \tha~~1J>ugh naturally g~nerous, a~t as .if
they were selfish, and (!hat; while they are liberal of aid, will
not suffer the smallest infringement <;>f their comfort.. , """t~
Hope is the <;haracteristic trait of our youtht.1l,penocll ~uchJ
, is of great service in giving us courage to attack and overcome
the hardships of life.
A veteran Highlander was reminded on his dfath-bed tJ1at
-'"! ~ ' ... .:. '
!J''l';{
it was the time to forgive all his enemies, even'~e whC.V 1ad
most injured him.
.
It is (oitl)\.his business to de,,a.l with the purely legal aspect of
the case.
-- ~

97

l~<VL '1''
The next winter ~iich you will)spend in town will give you
opportunities of making a more ,prudent choice.
· Solomon, the son of ~vi e~:) who had been a man of war,
was chose.nt iJlstead of~~lfather\to-bujld the t emple.
~( '..(
L'
)-f/L....,,<._
'
These "-boo Ks ~ t e ones Wfrien you are to take to the
library this afternoon. . . f,
·
I met the watchman(t~~t)told me that there had been a fire.
She told her daughter that if sh e really h ad a preference
. for that particular kind , ~£ goods f l)e....wo~~d.-~all at the store
. and get her a ~~E' from it , before ~h~y i~re"'fone.
_1~he man, ~Ii({; just went ~v~//.f is a representative of the
Villiers Endowment Company ~iat}Ys reputed very wealthy.
. This is(.fKe'j proposal by which I shall stand ; yours is an
expedient with which I have no pat]tnce.
At school I studied geometry, €J;~t\( found useful afterwards.
They!£,:_tT~'.g .!? ~~el\that,~~is essentially impossible
{possible, ) and t~I that ~1af) is essentially intolerable
~lerabler--·
, ,1,1i,.,,
The younger members, C:~a9are naturally ( 1) impatient with
our slow processes, are all anxious to see this bill disposed
of.
,./lo
There ~re several h ere ~h a9will sub~cribe heartily to that
noble chanty.
N"ti r,.t.,.._~ti-(>t; .
Willi~1;.i was ~ndustrious bu.t slow ; ~enry bri~~/~P,;c~~~ck ;
so theL(?~ways had fnencls, wl11le tl}e "l<:>tl{et) ~vas unappreciated.
,.."'- Sir Henry Hay~)ock m ~11 his dutie1 manifested a truly
· . .Christian spirit '
1ich ~ we re thus done as a part . of his
. .
,
1
re ig10n.
'r r"'~.ef
I
..ti;,. ..
I shall not say any01ing (t~d11..!y erolong a debate t hich J
is now, I believe, near its conclusio~. 7
Cresar crossed the Rubicon (fi1~~~as in effect a declaration
of war.
. Th~ abs(.il?f:f.f large public buildings in this city is one of
the tlungs(ZVfil.cfliseemJ so strange to me.

f

-1

I

Ii
'·

•

98

j

99

WORDS WITH ANTECEDENTS.

I'HRASEOLOGY.

Rewrite the following, correc_ting or studying alternative expressions as directed by the- notes and references.
2.

THEY a h~ve ·a n ew Union School building ·(33) b in the town
; that I spent my early student days nn '(36),c which d is' a inodel
\. edifice, large and .stately, and fitted up with all of e , the modern
conveniences.
It _ (34) was . (22) ·long needed.
The old
Academy' [that, .which, 3S] . used to accommodate the
higher classes, looks very insignificantll?y the side __of_it.f ) When
I saw, it (34) last, l could but g wonder if it was (20) not
slu~nk ( 4) to smalle: [size, bulk dimensions, volume 2J ; it hid
away so [modestly,) unass_umingly, unobtrusively, 2] h in its
corner of the park, as if it was (20) tryin,g to [repudiate, reject,
disown, deny, 1 J the part it had took (4-) in the town's i affairs.
But it (34)i has no [reason, occasion, cause, 2] to be ashamed
of its past. . To many ?.-. one who \are; (30) ~... now in active life
it is [really,( actually, positively, veritably, 1, 2 J a historic spot.
We can think of [illustrious, celebrated,·:·eminent,(prominent, 2J 1
men who were once schoolboys :in it (34), and of others, just as
good . men perhaps, that' (30) are known to friendship [if,
tJiough]_ m not to the worJd. Many years mu~~ pass be~ore d}e
-"'f'o'r~1·e~: (JL!-): c:;i.11 gather"''ti1 ose n associations :t1~'1t'(36) 11 cldster
~bout ..fr (34) ; years enough for tl:ie present generation of
· [children, youth, tboys and girl~, 2J to . reach ( 23) 0 i1rnturity ~S) ·
and do (~3) suc~essful work a~1d [win, get, gain, achie".';, 2} :
I
( 23) distinction. 'By that time the new. shall, (2 ! in its tur"i{
old, and perhaps,be despised as i~1signifiea.,nt. . . ·
·'
-"
Let me try and I ( 2) p qescribe. ; it : (34) .. to you, though it~
interest, I am afqid, q only ( 2 5) Jies .to a small degree in its
ar_c hitecture. . ,
C rhe old A~adem~ r }·is ~ plai~ old fashioned brick builqi~-~' _ .
two stories m height,, . its side to the street, and ._whose J
(30, 15) end gables run up as by steps to the great chimnies
(14) at the 'top. The fron~ win~ows [that,) which, 3~] .are
high, are perhaps the most unposmg feature of the buildmg.

!

,i;e

C:

A door opens ~~nt?.. a large vestibule 4) (33) s at eithen( 2) end
of the front ( the left h~ncl one lead mg to the large room on
the firs.t floor [that;! which, 3 5] ·we called the girls' room, the
"other 'to the some;,hat larger room up stairs called the
principal's. i.-oom. An addition, or ell,~ 1 extends directly back of
this -' last (q) (34), tl~ree stories in height, its rooms being
so much lower that the three together are only as high as the
two stories of the main part'. The· first floor of it (34) was a
·:-· ~pecies: ( 2) of flu laboratory and apparatus room, a mysterious
' phwe to we '(16) pupils.- The floor15 above were class-rooms ..
. · A belfry C-l3) surmol.inteci''the main part of the edifice_) [which,
that, 35] to my boyish imagination was a lnodel of graceful
design, but [which, that; 35] as I [rem ember, recollect,;recall, 2 J
it, must have bee~ j~st about as plain as the rest.
Here I have given you a meagre sketch, outside and in) of the
building (2 4) ; but I cannot impart to you the_sentiment [which;
that, 35] mak'es it a sacred spot to me. For that I (onlY)(25)
can:-refer yot~ to the places you yourselves frequent, which to
you ' also will some time be full of sweet memories.
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - It · will be noted that in many cases where
relatives might h ave been used in th e above, participial phrases or wonls
in apposition are used . instead. Nothing is said of this here, howe.v er, as
it is taken up late r, under the hea J of Rapidity. (See Rule 58.)
. a. "They," an indefinite pronoun, but quite suitable to th e pi·esent
_ simple style. - b. The word "building,'' in the present arrangement of the
. sentence, is remote from its relative "which." How can you change order
so as to get antecedent and relative together? - c. The preposition "in"
by this construction is too far from its object to sound well; try the
equivalent "where."-cl. If you change order according to note b, is this
relative necessary at all?- e. The word "of" is superfluous. Note the
construction, for it is too much used. - f. By putting "it" at th e encl
~f' the sentence you put a misleading word between the antecedent
·. "Academy" and its pronoun "it" in the n ex t sentence. vVhere can this
phrase be better placed?- g. Th ere is a difference between "could but"
and "could not but"; which is proper h e re?-h~ Th ere is not much
difference in the appropriateness of' these words ; choose th e one that
sounds b est and is nearest your idea. -i. The possessive is admissible here,
..,,,... \... ,.. 1,._!_.. ..... +.\... .... ,..,,..-L,.. ..... ,...,...,

+.,....

,...,..,..1 .... !i.1,,. U ... .cf,..: ... ,...'' {,...,... ........

,.....,....,,..a

P11la Q:,.,\

-

;

"Tt"

100

is not ambiguous here, but it.is better, ordinarily, at the beginning of a new
paragraph to be ~ore particular in re2eating your antecedent. - k. After
deciding the concord here, ask yourself if the relative construction is
needed at all. -1. If no men of very great fame have gone out from . the
school, which word will you choose ? - m. What difference of implication _
between " though " and "if" ? - n. The new building cannot gather the
same associations, but only the same kind; how would you express this?o. Is this the bes t _tense of the infinitive for a time relatively past ?-p. ·
"Try and" is a vulgarism to be guarded against ; say '-'try to." -q. "Am
afraid" is an expression much used, and perhaps not incorrect ; better,
however, would be "I fear." - r. If you r epeat your WC)rd in the prev ious
sentence, . "it" is sufficient here. - s. "Vestibule" is the antecedent to
"the left hand one;" change order so that antecedent and pronoun shall
be n ear toge ther. - t. It is the
th at is three stories in h eight ; change .
order so as to make this clear. You need to do this when the relative is
omitted just as when it is expressed. -u. The "a" is superfluous1 note
the c01i~truction, which is very prevalent.

ell

V.

CORRELATION.

Many words or forms of 9xpr.~~-~~~~~r in pairs, the
one m ember of the pair suggesting and requiring the. :
other. Thi~ rnuttial refe1~ence is called correlation.
I. .

Rules for Words that have mutual Reference. -

·j

CORRELATION.

PHRASEOLOGY.

101

'

y

. ({_after the . first clause, do -not mislead the reader by
' ' . ·leaving it unforeseen, but • prepare, him for it at the ·
outset.
•·
The commonest connectives used to introduce alternatives are : as . . . so; either . . . or,· neitlzer . . . nor;
indeed (in trut!t, to be sure, etc.) . . . but; so . . . tha_t.
As . . . so com~e c t the verbs of thei r clauses;
as, "As the hart panteth after th e water-brooks, so panteth my soul
after thee." If the clauses were reversed the word so would not be
used, and the sentence would be uncorrelated.
2. Note how necessary the word either is at th~ beg inning of the
following sentence to prepare for a n alternative otherwise unforeseen:
" [Eith er] you must take this ex tremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, or else the liberty of your
country is endangered."
3. Such words as indeed, in fact, to be sure, are often used · as a
kind ~f concession, to .~vhich we naturally expect the answering partide but.}. as, " To be sure, h e is not clever, and he is perfectly aware
of the fact; but a more honest and ·steady man I never knew." "Matthew Arnold was indeed an exquisite poetic artist; but this was
by no mean s his hig hes t distinction." - Sometimes the sense of the
· first member .is sufficient to make us expec t the but without the con\
.
cessive particle to h erald_it.
ILLU STRATIONS. - ! .

.'l,

In colloquial and newspaper style_
Rules for correlation go far to make themselv~s as soon'
'
38. Study correct
V usage iiiCliOOSID]'p!lf- there is a good deal of looseness . in
as ;;b~~r in mind what correlation' is for: hame_ly, to ..
· ....._,
- ~ ticles of correlation.
the choice of particles that are set over
h~lp the reader balance on_e thought · o,r expression over
.·. against each other. The proper usage should be learned
against another. Both in _ th~ th()_ughts thus balanced
and heeded.
and in the means taken to pair th em, the' writer should ·
~ork for the greatest clearness attainable.
EXAMPLES. The following are some of the most commonly misThat is, do not _11.eglect to correlate
used particles, with their corrections. Sor;1e · expressioq 11ot ~trictly
37. Prepare for an
clauses when the reader may in any c=!=E:== t _ correlative are included.
important alternative
or inference by correway be helped by ·it, . If 't here is an
lating connectives.
r equally important · assertion coming.
\
'
.
~~~

103

CORRELA T.!ON.
PHRASEOLOGY.

102

Not different t o.
" different than.
tlzan.
" hardly .
than.
" scarcely

Write different from,

hardly ,
when,
when,
scarcely
.
"
seldom
or
never,
"
" seldom or ever.
" seldom if ever,
. as,
" such .. which.
" such
neither
nor,
" neith er , . or.
"
the
same
that
(objective),
" the same as.
"
" I do not know as.
" I do not know that,
NOTE. - While different than is incorrect, it is proper to say othe1
than_; other being t~eated ~s a comparative.

"

Y,.

II.

!l:

f

Exercises in managing Correlation. - From the following exercises it will be seen that faulty or neglected
correlation involves not so much positive ambiguity as
slovenliness ; atte nding carefully to correlation you show
i:esp~ct to your reader by k eep in g your expression clear
and clean-cut.
Correct the following sentences accordin g to the
rules heretofore given, or as your good sense dictates.
I.

You are not obliged to take lany \money which is .not goldor
silver; not only the halfpence or farthings of England but of
39. Follow not
but, not only ••• but
any other country.
[also], by the same
pronouns, verbs, adve rbs, auject ive s, ~~, . I shall l_l ave a comedy fo r yuu, 111 a st:ason or l\Yo at farthest,
part of speech.
as well as by prepositions with thei1
·
' that I believe will Le worth your acceptance.
-L_phrases and connectives with tl:eir cla~ses. vVhat yart
.
With this s'uclclen promise of ·wealth and soci;1l pos1t1on, as
) of speech is to follow them IS nnmatenal j but let lt b e
offset to his long period of struggle, he is the mos t fortunate
· the same after both.
man in the world, or else the muse s;Hlly dttped.
This is the sa me drama /{ncl th e same curnp,uiy \as J saw a
ExAMPLF. - He gave me not on~v the grammar but also lent me
few months :ig() in NL:\\' Ymk.
a dictionary" is wrong; say r a ther, "He not only gave .. . but also
lent," etc., and you have both particles followed by verbs. - " For
] Ic had received a special re port that l"alrnouth \\as dying,
God sent not his son into the world to condemn the world, but that
just as he \vas on the point of mountin~ liis horse.
the world throug h him migh t be saved; " better, "For God sent his
The Drayton building is the bes t in the town, ,and ,of which
son into the world not to condemn th e world, but that," etc. H erc
the citizens arc justly proud.
the correlates are followed by equivalent constructions, an infinitive
Y.ou can neither count for success m this cours c'~n in the
and a that-clause.
other; what will yuu du ?
It is generally better to observe this same rule with
[Ihe going is very rough, owing lo the digging clown and , i._,_
either . . . or, neit!ter . . . nor.
wearing away. by rains of the road ..
By greatness I do not only mean , the bulk of any' single
EXAMPLE.-(From Ruskin). "You may either paint a picture
that represents a scene, or your street door to keep it from rotting." ~l~r·. object, but the largeness of a whole view ~onsidered as one
Better,. " y O!l m c.y pai_n t e£ther a picture . . . or your street door," ~
entire piece.
etC. ~ ; Qr .YP~ coµJJ ~.y, ·.._¥OU may either paint a picture . . . or you ...,...._~~ Northumberland was the most extensive ·.of any"·,Anglu-Saxon
........
,·
m~y paint you~ street door." This latter if you wish by iteration to
state$
These words may b e · followed by a
variety of parts of speech - nouns,

\

emp·Hasfir. .~li e irlea .ot painting.
· ·.. : .•' .. ·. . . . .. . ' «

·. '•

Compare below, Rule 55·

y-··-

PHRASEOLOGY.

104

.

'
.;

Julian takes his experience in life in a different manner than
myself.
Afflicted by famine, and crushed by a relentless despotism,
they had' neither phy~ica~~r moral ability to resist the advance
of disease.
·
It is not only har.d .to distinguish between too little and too
much reform, but .between the good and ev.il intentions of
different reformers.
Hardly had our great national political conventions given
to the conference their unqualified endorsement . than· · a ·
symposium in the "North American Review" showed that
American~ were not agreed among themselves.
Sud1 goods are made for export, and are seldom or ever
used in this country ; b eing ,f ar too common.
Brodie acknowledges t11at)e .is at the end of his expedients
and all is lost, or· else h e is on the e~e of such a triumph as he
has never had b efore.
Psychical states which often recur in a given order ~10t only:,
become increasingly coherent but the transitions from each to
the next becorh~ i trior.e rapid.
.
;t
(..~
With all his, faults about him, he was still perhaps the ·
g~eatest of ' 1{is contemporaries.
If any OIJ,e .o r any considerable proportion of the people
withdraw\ tl1~,m~e1ves } and refuse
l to have anything to. do with
.
public affairs, the system fails utterly.
_We prefer him, however, as he is interpreted by the engraver,
. than as he appears in the chromo-lith?graph.
~

.

I

;

·. ( It (34) does not seem so strange when we put it

other
words; itiis'.l the common plea:. merely1(27) for general culture
and for special training. They (34) b have their [supporters,
advocates, 2], as / they\ (34) h ave theirr/fldvantages.
The
[novelty,; note~,qrthy,(pe~uliar, remarkable:; thing, 2J here is !'i:he
fac~ that they (3.4) are united, being ~q1-1ally neces~saryc to
a sound education. And we t will) ( 2 I) ~e if we shall ( 2 I)
.consider carefully .(28) that the\r (34)<l advantag~s 'are ( only- 1
(25) [ obtained, .secured, 2J and the\r(3 4) disadvantages avoided
,by providing foi· each (34). .
I
'•
. , , '
I Let us examine ' them ;' (34), and see how they supplement
each other.

SoME one, I d9 not know . whom'. (16), has [made, . pro: ·
pounded, proposed, giver~, offered, 2Jthis hplendid f r) definition·...
of a [sound, thorough,\ good, 2J education : to know something
about everything, and ·everything about something.

111

I.

.
Th e good . we ca.n easily see of knowing somcthii:g about
'"' Jverythit).g (24). It, is j\.1st e to be well-informed, to hav(,'.l f ;i ,
r· ; '.
,
.
.
.
)'
. · /)
oroad . store :ready for u::;e of facts and truths (24 In
possessiori;g ·. This h i~ · t:;sp~ci~liy valued in these days of
popula,ri,ze·d knowledge; the magazines and newspapers are
making ·' i~ r~~re accessible every d a_y. Men investigate many
things, 'and their inquiries are m.a de i)l1blic, (so )(3 7) i that one
must be well inform,~c~ if(!~~, .(30) (~houlcl1 ( 2 1) move intelligently
through .t~1e world. ·' ( Hs)'C.34) k wealth of information is increasing as fast as its wealth of money and luxuries; and to. know
something .of everything, (at leas0 ( 27), is to know where it .(34)
i~ banke(1: and how to give it circulation. .
~· ,.
.
, .. · ) t (34) ,tLlso helps us to estimate rightly the things known.I
m We see ' how things are related to each 'other, what is (30)
"
'
. great and what is /30) small, what important and 11 unim- ·
portant. It is'1, like/ orl'e visits 0 a great exhibition
such as the
,
World's Fair. · You enter one of the [huge,'.yast, massive, 2J
buildings . and commence . ( 2) to examine eve'i ything [exactly,
precisely) critically, (minutely, 2J ; and you are tired out and
bewildered !before you h ave gone far .(28) while you have
0

Rewrite the following, correcting according to the
notes and references.
2,

105

CORNELA T.!ON.

.

. ~

106

PHRASEOLOGY.

missed a . large. number of (6) things that you desired to - ·
( particularly (24,_ .26) see. Si.ipp<5se:-Eowever; ··~u · first go
through . it (34) .~ ~C:l? idly, or · overlook its contents from some
high place. ' One . ·sees (30) where the various exhibits P are,
how much space they occupy, what are fine, wl1at are common,
etc.; q and guided by th'i~ . (34.)' he c.3~) easily find/ things that
are of most interest. · So in the world of knowledge : if we
have a general conception of the whole field we ' can .steer our
way more effectively through the great exhibition it displ,a ys
around us.
(Continued in next Exercise).
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - It will be observed that there a re many
references in the above to Rule 34 ; vvh erever they occur the question
should be asked what is the best and clearest \Vay to represent the antecedent, whether by repetition, or otherwise. - a. The d efinition is not really
a plea, but it may embody a ~lea . . Choose the word acco rdingly. - b. Say
"both of these;" and repeat "both'.' in the nex.t ciause. - c. To say th ey
are" equally necessary" h ere is ~o imply th~t you adopt the definititln with~ut
question ; it is enough here to say "being regarded as. necessary." Where
do you put "equally" in tha t case?-d. You are thinking here not of
both but of each in turn ; what wo uld you say, therefore, instead of
"their " ? - e. This is so condensed that "just" is ambi~uous ; better to
say "just the good of being," etc. -f. If the previous note is adopted; how
would this be expressed?~ g. Study where . is th e best place for thi~
phrase. - h. Something more than "this" is needed to m ak e reference
clear ; think ,vhat it is. - i. "It" is a good way from its antecedent ; begin
the clause with it. - j. Put the word " so " earlier; where does it belong?
-k. "Its" is vague; you can use "the world's" (possessive) here, as it.
is thought of almost as a person (compare Rule 15).- 1. "The things
known " is a rather crude expression ; better, "what there is to know." m. Is this beginning .defihite enough, or would you say " By knowing," .
etc. - n. "The word "and " makes the same thing seem both important and
unimportant. What word is best to separate the two? Compare below
Rule 43. - o. To use like with a finite verb is a provincialism. -p.
"Exhibits" (compare Rule 4) is admissible here; though a verb used as a
noun ; usage has given it currency. - ·q. In an essay like the present
abbreviations are inelegant. Query : is anything corresponding to this
needed here ?

PRE CA UTJONS FOR .CLEARNESS. ··
VI.

107

PRECAUTIONS FO R CLEARNESS.

Many of th.c proce.d ures hitherto mentioned have had
clearness in view as well as correctness ; h ere, however,
we need to consider in addition some ways in which, even
in the effort to obtain some other desirable quality, clearness may be imperilled.
I.

Rules to avoid Loss of Clearness. -These rules cover
especially the . observance of those minor elements which
are .too often undervalued ; noting what words we should
ret a in whe1i. we condense a construction, and what we
s~d repeat wit~ new consti-uctions.
.
.
The application of this rule is needed. :
,
40. Do not leave out
any form.that is not . most frequently in the case of auxiliaries, \{
accur~tely implied.
and forms of the verb. They are often
left out because supposably supplied in another part of the
sentence, whereas if expressed they would ,be quite
. different from the one already there.
EXAMPLES. - Of verb-forms. "Jack i's an industrious boy, and
his sisters .(do not omit are) amiable g irls."
Of auxz'lz'ary. "This neither has (do not omit been) nor can be
obviated." - "Just as a man}tas (do not omit l h;ed) so he wz'll lz've.
·, It i~elegan t also to end a sentence with the prepos ition to (sign
of the infinitive) without supplying th e verb with it; as, "I saw that
'. _ he could be a brilliant conversationalist when he wished to" (do not
"omit be). More license is allowed in this usage to conversation than
to literary English.

·~

A su borclinate clause may often, and (l
with adv_~;1tage, be cut down to a\'\..
participial phrase ; but when this is
done, some conjunction, as because,
\
though, when, may need to be expressed with. it in order

41. In condensing a
· clause, be wise to
retain particles of
relation.

>

PHRASEOLOGY.

108

that the exact relation may be preserved. Not always,
indeed, is this necessary ; but be wise to note when it is.

I

EXAMPLES. - In the sentence, "Walking on a slippery place
, the other day, I lost my footing," the conjunction to be supplied
- .~vi th "walking " is wh£le ; but in this case it is not so ·necessary to
supply it because it is pretty clearly implied. - "Walking ori
slippery place the other day, I managed, with these patent heel-corks,
. to -escape without a mishap; " here the conjunction, t~ , is .more _.
necessary to clearness.

a

·'A word that is essential to the con·
..
·· ·
struction of different members of the ·
sentence should be repeated with each :
member whenever its omission _would cause ambiguitf
. or :obscurity. The following are the principal cases of
this kind.
. The common subject . of several yer]?s should be
'._ ~epeated when any word comes between that is capable of
being a subject.
42. Repeat whatever
is necessary to grammar.

EXAMPLE. - "He professes to be helping the nation, which . 'in
.
"'
reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit
anyone else to give it advice." Here the which-clause makes 4he ·
subject of the verb "will not permit" uncertain. The subject that is
to be taken should therefore be repeated with the new verb. ·
I

.

Repeat a ·p reposition after an intervening clause thay.
has a word in the objective case.
·
·
·

-

_EXAMPLE. - "He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that
~ helped all his companions, and (to) his uncle in particular." The
intervention of the verb "helped" and its object "companions"
supplies an element capable of governing the words "his uncle;" so
the preposition needs to be repeated.
NOTE. - Even where the question of clearness is not involved the
preposition is omitted too often; there are certain adverbial phrases
.

PRE CA UTZONS FOR CLEARNESS.

•

. . . . --.....__- ....----~-- ·-

.- ~-

109

in which the habitual omission of the · preposition is a common
vulgarism. Tl1e following_ are s~me of th~ most usual :
Write" he was at home,"
not "he was home."
"
"nothing prevented him
" "nothing prevented him gofrom going,"
ing."
"
this
happened
in
some
" " this h appened some other •
"
other place,"
place."
"
"it is of no use,''
" "it is no use."
"
" this side of the room,"
" " this side th e room."
"
H the saving of my life,"
" " the saving my life;"
and in general treat a verbal noun as a noun by supplying the preJF
. : , · ositions of government, not as <l verb with · an 'object. -~ Note tl~-at it [
is pr6per to omit the preposition ill the phrase "I <~n goin~--~-?.1ne."

j

1

'

" . ·,

. _:- i ·_ R epeat a conjunct ion with several dependent verbs, /
'/ ·" ·
.
~

.

. · ·especially when they are some distance apart. This is /
.necessary to k eep up the sense of the dependent relation[
of the clauses.
EXAMPLE. - "We might say th at th e C<esars did not persecute
the Christians; (that) they ~nly punished men who were charged,
rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest
·abominations in secret assemblies; and (that) the refusal to throw
frankincef!.Se on the altar of Jupiter was not the cri me but only
evidence of the crime."
R~peat

verbs ot prepositions with tlzan or as.

EXAMPLES. - '.'I think he likes me better than [he likes, or do] . ,\
you." - Pleasure and excitement h ad more attractions for him than /\
[for; or !tad] his friend ." 1

· One article or possessive standing ;
· and possessives for
before severai rrnuns or adjectives serves f
each new idea.
to bind them into one group; while a11 ;
arti~le . qi: ·p ossessive for each serves to distribut~th~11
and give them separate emphasis.
-43. Repeat articles

I

1 The specifications under Rule
_Clearly."

42

are from Abbott's "How tu Write.

I'
d

li

li

110

PHRASEOLOGY.

'

:ti
PRE CA UT.ION S F OR CLEARNESS.

•

111

the student not to an exhaustive list of usages, but rath~r
to specimens of certain classes of faults which can be
obviated only by general -.watchfulness over the fine
relations and implications of ideas.

"Wanted, a nurse and housemaid," means that the
same person is to be both. "His greatest and most artistic poem"
refers to one poem which is both greatest and most artistic.
Note the difference when we say,
" The lunatic, the lover, and the poet,
Are of imagination all compact;"
where three different persons are spo~en of, and distributed by the
article. S,o 'a lso " The Old and the New Testament," meaning two.
EXAMPLES. -

I. Correct the following sentences by reference to the
rule or principle involved :

Sometimes, for emphasis, the different terms marked
'/.by the article or the possess.ive may be separate predicates
or qualities of the same subJect.

He has tried the· old and new method of cure.
/
Attempting, as his · brother had, to · swinl. across the river, he
was nearly drowned.

"James was declared a mortal and bloody enemy, a
tyrant, a murderer, and a usurper."
"Of these- pamphlets, tlze
longest, tlze bitterest, and . tlze. ablest was commonly ascribed to
Ferguson." One pamphlet is meant, as in the preceding example one
person; but there is no ambiguity, because the article in each case
throws the emphasis on the predicate.

He must be set clown for character-blind, like some men are
·color-blind.

EXAMPLES. -

When I see all the improvements that the past fifty years
have brought forth, and, I note how little the character of men
h.a~ . acl~anced, I can:~but doubt of the boasted progress of
c1vd1zation.

When a subject consists of several\ .
11 h
successive members or details, a
ave
marizing word.
to be carried in mind till they are fitted . .
with the same verb; to choose therefore for the last
detail some word that shall summarize all the rest is a ·
great help to clearness.
44. Repeat a complexsubJectbyasum.-

I

"Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports
and populous cities, - tlzese are not the elements that constitute a
great nation." Here the word "these" virtually repeats the subjects
in one term, preparatory to the verb.
EXAMPLE. -

L

. · , The regiment has formerly been famo.us for its discipline,
:b~t this year it ~vas iguilty of irregularities . .
The Spaniards, however; preferred to take their chance on
~the raging element, rather··· than remain in a scene of such
. brutal aboJUinations.

A series of conditional clauses may in the same way be
1l summarized by having the most comprehensive one
\\ the last.

r

...

II.

Exercises in preserving grammatical Clearness. -

The man is good - by which I mean affable, obliging, good. natured, - therefore :he is) good for nothing.
His truest and earliest friends were both of the party.·
: ·. ' Her hand was so seve~ely injured that unJess she ha$"_the
· .forefinger amputated she will entirely lose the use of it.
·
You will fincJ !11any Eng~ish customs very 'different to, ours.
do not think the legitimate drama \Yo~ld ;ever reach its old
vogue, u9accompanied by accessories o{ scer1ery, spectacle, and
costume.

•

Th e followin g exercises, as also the above rules, introduce ·

'

•

,.

.

--1

·. I{ shalt pardon him if h e apologizes, and "will make reparation
for the damage he has done.
·
·
To write history respectably- that is, to abbreviate dispatches
and make extracts from spee_c hes, to intersperse in due propor-

'If

Ji

!1
'1!!

·I

p

11

r

112

- --

PNE CA U7'J<JNS FOR CLEARNESS.

Pl-JNASEOLOG Y:

tion epithets of praise and abhorrence, to draw up antithetical
characters of great men, setting forth how many contradictory
virtues and vices they united, and abounding in withs and
'
withouts - .. is very easy.
I was naturally grateful to the man \who •had once befriended ·
me, and 'was well-disposed to the whole party.,
He will not be able in future to act as he has in the past.
Be rt;ady to succor such persons who need your help. .·
·
It i'Zo use trying to make him see what he owes to Robert
and th~ · friends who. preserved hi~ ii:i- peril.
I do not know as I ever saw a man either so angry ~or so
self-controlled as he was at thiS'_rnoment.
Both in the country and the city, at his home and business,
you will find him the same genuine friend.
N ovel.ty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable
emotion.
'. 'Preparing for his examinations, ' I had sometimes to rise
from ,m y· own bed to urge him to retire to his.
· . ·........_! ( should) be obliged to .him if he will gratify me in that
particular.
I will work for the success of this measure rather tMm the
other.
The pains he has taken, the expense he has incurred, the
trouble he has undergone, th~ .delay that has come to the
prosecution of his own affairs;- ·rnake a large demand on our
indulgence and gratitude.
· Clifton was well trained , not only _in all. the ·social arts that .
do so much to make a 'man agr'eeable, but he was also
naturally adapted to lead anQ. inflµence men.
.
I had scarcely spoken to him :than; he knew me.
Tired with his long journey, he had to .sit up un~il a lat,e .
hour listening to the uninteresting conversation about (3) .

He stood one s'ide .· the river while his comrade in full sight
was drowning the other.
Their intentions might and probably were good.

The rewriting of the following essay is made the
occasion of studying clearness not only in the matter of
grammatical construction but in a broader sense. Young
writers are liable to. give their idea only in outline; it lies
clear in their own mind, but they do not make ~t clear
enoug h in expression to be definite to their readers. It
needs to be held up in more than one light, to be defined,
simplified, filled out, in various ways ; which may be m
part illustrated in the present exercise.
2.

(Continu ed from . Page 106.)

On the other hand, · if we kno\~ a littl e of ever.ything,a the
disadvantages are as great as tl~c advantages . . It b;(34) is
b~··a ~ .snuttercr; while to know a good deal of every~hing, ~ike ·
. (2) s'c;me ~ people have (40), ise to be a book-worm.£ Neither~
can be called well educated .

I

..

'

him.
-~ •--. 1'
Honesty of purpose is the only power that ever has or ever ·..
will sustain a man in such a situation.

113

to .

'.
·· . · :

IL

One h ought therefore to know everything about ·Something;
'i.e.i he (30) ought to choose some field of information 1i in which
his (30) knqwl ~ d~c _is tho~ough and minute, <SO· (37) that he
may'"be • an autij~~~t/k in -it (34). 'Small or large, there ought
· to be something( thatihe is complete master (ff' (36).1
.
It may be objected that such study is narrowing to the mind. '
~·1· Look 'at m . those artisans, or business men, or professional m;n,
, / (who .k now' their own pursuit· in life :;and ·they·(30) know nothing
··· else. 11 The objection would hold . if we were . only(25)advo· ·· ·cating '. thi~ (34)· · But we a~e . speaking of those that (36) are 0 1"
· : seeking. tgeneral educ~tion .{ tl~e advantage of knowing everything about something is P to him whose mind already. roams _
freely over the broad tracts of knowledge.

lf ·t

·•

·III!
•I

FORCE.

·'

,J

1.,
! I

117

as to rouse and hold peopl_e 's attention, stimulate t them to think and realize"
- ~ha,t:... is said;. it must al~~be
.
..--...
adapted to .slow and. heavy m_inds . as well as to minds
bright and attentive. This fact makes it generally
necessary to im12art to our writing more distinction than {..
its merely intelligible expression would demand. ·
Force, ~n it.s ·large sense, is such a comprehensive
ql:1_.?:llty that for convenience of ~reatment and . practice. it
is distributed in . this ·chapter under the three heads of
·f9rce, emphasis, and life. In the pr:esent section we use ,
force in the narrower sense, to indicate the vigor imparted_·
'to style by the choice of forceful \yorcls and by th~ cutting
out of words that are insig nificant, or that merely ~erve
to fill up. With its problems, therefore, both choice of
words and phraseology are concerned.
~en

·~

CHAPTER III.
SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

T
j~

HE two foregoing chapters have discussed such

choice and combination of words as would prornote
especially the qualities ?f cor:~_:tne~s, ~on~ist~i:icy, and
clearness. But both by cho.ice and combmatlon of words
ot:i~·~r qualities may be imparted, qualities just as necessary
f:-to good style, though higher. To discuss the most
important of these ~s the task of the present chapter.
Important as these higher qualities are, yet we cannot
J say, as of the foregoing, that they must enter invariably
i;{t 0 all writing. · They are sough~ rather ~or p~rticul~r
and occasional ends; hence our title, special obJects m
, style. .The rules that embody the chief .and most practi_cal
of these ma~ be gathered together under the followmg

·

. ~~- -

I

,

· five heads: I. Force.
2. Emphasis.
3 . . Rapidity.
-4· Life.
5. Smoothness.
,
In the effort to obtain these qualities are
many of the most fascinating problems in composition.
I.

FORCE.

It is not always enough that a thought be expressed ·
early and c?rre~tly. For even then it may be dull and
edious, lackmg m vigor and interest. It must be so '

i

Ii

I.
"

.
(..·

Rules for securing Force.·. What has already , been
.

.... · said of choice of words 1 may here be repeated of force:
:\/ it is not in the power of these rules, nor of any rules, to
. /\ make one a forceful writer·, . Back of ·any real power in .
"'.~~ting must lie, after all, st:i;ength of thought and
~ C011:}'.~Ction.
AU that can be attempted here is to indicate
·,. some of t~e . way_~ ir!__ ~hich, through . the manner of
expression, inci:ea~c::d 1striki.ngness or di.s tinction may ~-~ ·
imparte~· to ideas.
·
Words that ' ar~ ...!.h e n:wst easily )..
45. For vigor of vocabulary, use plain
understood make the strongest impres. ·words.
sion; hence, in ·general, th e writer's
' vocabulary is made more strong by the use of common "' \"·W<?rds, words of the home and of ev@ryday life, words

i

1

See above, page

10.

1!

1;

''

'i

FORCE.
118

ILLUSTRATIONS. -

expressing simple relations. The Saxon eleme~t of
language, both in its words and in its racy idioms, has
1
th~ advantage . of vjgor as well as of int.elligibility, . and
) for the same reason, because it is the original, plamer,
commoner element.
. . .
ILLUSTRATIONS. - Thus, comparing words of the
words of the refined or le<1:rned class: -

To say
get drunk
steal

; .

ll'J

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

·

1

crazy
.
rascal
be off
to have it put mto
your head

To say

l

is stronger than

embezzle or
insane.
malefactor.
withdraw your presence. ~·
to obtain the subjective.
impression.

Many writers use large words with the idea that they are makit!J
\ their expression stronger; while they may thereby be making it only
. more pretentious and formal.
46; To give force to
single words, make
them specific.

We think in · particulars.
. .
·a class name is given to us we make 1 ·
definite to our mind by thinking of som ~

specimen or indi~idual of that class. It is a gr ·
adva11tage, therefore, and makes a. stronger impressi.on, _ro
give the particular specific name at the outset.
' ·· ILLUSTRATION . - Thus, to say, "He fought like an atz.iwal"
weak; to say, "He fought like a wild beast" is stronger beca
more· specific.; and stronger still as still more specific it is, to say;
"He fought like a tiger."· Force of conception increases accor4iog-·

to the more specific nat~re of the word.

. Verbs as well as nouns may be sp~cifi~ __or general iJt
various degrees, and the choice of the more · sp~cific has
j the same kind of effect. So. also ~as the choic.e of a
A.definite numeral instead of an mdefimte.
1

See above, Rules 5 and 6.

I.

Consider how much stronger are the specific

-acts here mentioned: "And Abimelech fought against the city all

that day; and he took the city, and slew the people that was therein,
. ~d beat down the city, and sowed it witlt salt," - than if the
writer had said, " destroyed the city and took measures to make
Jhe land unfruitful and desolate."
2. ·When Goldsmith says, "We kissed our little darlinas
a t/101tsand I
0
· much more forcibly than if he had said "a v/ .
~lu
. ~tts " 11e ex?resses it
· peat many tunes."

Almost any modification of a word
li11).!ts_ it; and while perhaps it applies
..
the word more'accurately, it makes the ·,.
·word exert less than its whole force. In the same way
·with _a whole sentence: it may be so cumbered with
·c~ptions and saving clauses as to have no vigor left.
t · g~ves weight to an assertion to choose a word that
d0e~ n~t have to be limited.
· li.LUSTRATIONS . ....:_I.

To say, "He was a hero" is ·more forcible

than ~o say, "He was a brave, single-minded, self-forgetful hero," .,. ·
~_se the word hero already contains all that needs lo IJe said, and /·
iliC rest only limits and weakens.
·i., _Con~ider

.

how mu~'h s.tronger it i.s ~o say, "This measure is \ /
th.an to say, It. is my conv1ct10n that under the present {\
!)' cn_tical circumstance tlus measure may not unfitly be characterized
clauses
infamous, or at least as very deplorable." The savina
0
e to diminish the effect.I
o~~·

It may sometimes be the obj~ct to
strengthen the expression not so ·m uch
of the ideas as of the relation between
·; and when such rehtion is dearly implied, a strong
ptness is given to the expression by leaving out the
.e ctive.
IQ( ~o urse, if accuracy or euphemism is required, rather than force, such
~clauses are quite in place; see under R.ule r, above.

,Al'IONS. _To say, "You say this; 1 deny it" is stronger
I LL USTI'
d
. " 'l'l .
eny it.
t 11an t o say, "b•'t
•• I deny it"
, or" I ' owtlze otlzer ltand,
. .
.i1s
last is lengthy and clum.sy. In general, strength 1s ~ncrea~ed b~ usmg
short connectives in preference to long, and by d1spensmg with the
·
connective
where c1earness w1·11 bear
' it · t."Let him have never .so
righteous a cause,·/\ it is but the turn of a hand fo.r Goel to prove hnn
perverse." The word and where the caret mark 1s would weaken the
expression.

a

.

.

In similar way strength may be promoted by cuttmg
away the articles from a series of details.
Closely connected · with force of ex49· For condensed
pression, ·and generally a promoter of it,
force, cut down
l
phrases and clauses to
is brevity. A strong impression neec s
equivalent words.
· 1<. 1· m press1·011 .
in most . cases to b e a qmc
But, in order to be strong, the quick impression must be
·(as suggestive as the longer one ; and this •suggestiveness
can often be retained· by cutting down phrases or clauses
··to single wo~ds_, or, what is the same, using single .words
that have the force of phrases.
·
the areater force of the condensed express·i ons
o.
E XAMPLE S. - Note
in the following : -

Full Form." These impressions can never

be forgotten."
"The book is so written as to
give the reader a sense of tedious- ·
ness."
"The extent and fertility of
the Russian territory are suclt as
to furnish facilities of increase
and elements of stre!1gth wlziclt
no [other] nation in tlte world
. ,,
...
'
enjoys.
" The preparation is of an olea.
ginous na t ure. ,,

121

FORCE.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

120

Condensed.
"These impressions are indelible."
"The book is dull."

"The extent and fertility of
the Russian territory . . . furnish
unpp/kf§d facilities for the
increase of its population ~d
power."
"The prepaiati.QU..is_ailv."
...!../
"'<.!

Such expressions as of sudt a nature, suclt as to, and the lik e, C~.Jl....
often be left out . with advantage ' to the force of the 'style. Young ~··
writers, in particular, are apt to use too many such fillings-in oi ex- ' '
pression, giving the effect of using too many unimportant words~
while in fact they use too few that are really important to the 1 ·
~~

.

.

·•

'

{

'

NOTE. - For force of impression the term that is equivalent to a
phrase should also be specific and particular ; see Rule 46, above.
When 1~ere rapidity without force is desired, see below, Rules 56-59 . .

II.

Exercises in forceful Expression. - It will be noted
that the following exercises often recall the rules already
given for the choice of words ; especially those rules which
discriminate between plain .and pretentious language. In
bringing up the matter again, however, we have in mind
a new inquiry : how does the use of such language affect
the quality of, force? Many of the following' sentences
are not incorrect at all ; but they can iill be improved in
accordance with the data above given.
Make the following sententes stronger, referring
each amendment to the rule involved. Do not be afraid
to. make radical changes. in the construction, provided the ·
)<lea is 'pi-eserved and force increased.
2.

. I rec.o gnized him, but nevertheless I did not speak to. him.
, . I left the aged person ~ at the street corner ·promulga,ting the
' : - most demeU:ted remarks . imaginabl~.
This is one of the principles of the system ion which much ·
·depends.)
.
r- • .
· · There are some li1en who may be called the gmdmg and restrainin~\con:cience of their community.
·
Hom1c1de is sure to be eventually detected'. .

II

i
I

122

I never have and J never will tolerate such
f~ingement of 1n.y personal liberty.
This is indeed a beautiful view. . ,
, .· · ' ~.~~. .
The old man said he •was destitute of the means 0f subs~ t' epce ;anµ had ~o money wherewith ~o purchase any. ·
· Many pleasant memories call to me from this period ; of m
,.
•
'
"
life. .1 . • : .
. ~· His ;calligraphy (2) is of such a nature 1th<ft it <;:annot .be 'r ea
·: ;~~~ ,,. ~crnpulous to ) ~~!<.e ,:· ~.are of . the (srl1.ailh '"sums) and. th
(greater amounts ,will affordj you no trouble. '.
· ·
' . . _ After a long si~ge, during which the supplies. ~ere 1v!.1olly·c
off, the city w<1.s (at last compelled by famine to caprf.ula~ .
" .
. '
,
,4c1 _J~ jl2im who listens aright' a .lar~e ·number qf 'v oices" com
;,:'.",. ,
.,..;,:;,•
. ••
• .
from every part of nature.
1
It . is not too much to say .that educatio'Q;ois
.'th~
..
niost
impo~'
.J r( ·.t
...
••
ant duty, oj) one of the most/(!.hat.1 me'n or,,states' ~ to ·'·per·
form.
1]. ,, ; ....
•
•
·
1
' Soroe
people\s,r-ambition
.is so restricted·"'; "''that
they are conten
t.·
'\ '1.t l> _.~·,, .••· ~
".....
.

.~

' . , ,•

'

'

\

, ;

'

•

•

(' •

01 "

I.,"

\"

·

.

•

\

•

'

'

~

,I \

0

~/'

\

A

~·

~ ~...,_

t

tr

'

•

.._.,

. : ~ith(suffi.cie1~t ,~. ~~~pensat~on) to k~e~ ~Mr~ ~upplie~ ~~~~t?~ac
" ~p,d~4,rnrsh them)the r.lamest prov1s10ns; and ;_E.!3e most stuJ?efi
ing(~er"..~f~ge. ) · .
'-·
J• .' , . , )! ·
·
. I (~ritimated f o him that his conduct was ~of the
hensible descrip~ion 1
.
..
.)
,
~ . Him there they found recumbent lik~ ,. a Jep tih:!~ : , .·
He must not only reform at once, Jd~t''fils weifare ~pen
.
. on .it.
.
,
. .. . ·~ .

"

r

123

FORCE.

SPECIAL OBJECT'S IN STYLE.

.

.

' ... :.

-~

:, , ,. \~ o~ Aesir.e to sell me S?.~e . ma!~!fe,s . ? I cl~ riot wish' t<{p

.

f ~~;;ee:.·· The sooner you ,wJ.thdraw/~~ur obnoxio.~~. pr~~~c~ .
Tt¥s. great and noble man was ~ ~_e1~eficent and ~uch ~ · .
powe~ 111 the state~ . .. r
.
.
'
..t"'.'
Diel you('obtain' the . impression) that Jack was becoming in::
creasingli)confirmed in habits of ·d issipation?
. . .. : .
But Newton cannot use them ; ~ecaus~ he. never '. could,
knoj . Did '.you know it? . (~ . didn't · know whether · you did

· .. .l,lbt, bu ~ I thought you did; \bu~) maybe you didn' t ; but he
·
~n't,{you kn ow; of course. 1 .
·, ~ 'A new V1ous eholcl)m~lement de~.? efi1,;~~nt serv1c~. t .
.
· · May I _ventL:re, ta _ 111timate 1 thflt'. ~;-. :11_1,~ . ~11! pa~~s~s .1t w1U .br~11 g~
commercial
rum,. ; ...
~t least even.tually, .p.nd: i~ the p1 esent sl,tle of
.
.
"trade_continues;,
a multitude of struggling and needy firms.
,;. H;e said his \~pp6i;ent~haclt.:!eacherously and unscrupulously \
).>etrayed their ~trust.
·
·. You favor what promises well for your monopoly ; but not.· r.:.
. 'th~tancling this I oppose· yo ~Ir:s.c!1ep1e at every point.·
. . c,b~~~niplate' the ) flbwers .. of '.the· plait1 \ : ~he:~ \ ~~erfo,rn1_ ; n~ "'r. .::·
·::ma1J,ner'
of work
ancl yet ~ the greatest and wisest moparcb at
·
\J: ' ,,- • .
' ·' 1'
. ·his ~~li~s{'e.state of prosr>erit)\ could not boast such beauty of
'.;.,
·'
·
·
.
· ;.' apparel' as they. . ,
.. "" This university offers facilities . such as can be enjoy~d no~ ., ... • ,1
/ ,ij
· where else for1·gai.n ing a knowledge of the languages of anc,ien't
~; Greece and Rome, and of · the various .s tudies ·connected with
' •
•
.
· -number and quantity.
/
The \ tattered . i~diviqLia-1 was so enra,ged that he ;vociferate::d
e ~h ~inf~~iated animal. .
· ·
Th~ old garclene~ w,a~ pusy ;vith his. i1~pl~1ne1~t 'in the ear,l~­
. orning, while the feathered songsters were fillmg the . atmos"
plu1!'~.'.~ iti1. melody. ··... · · ·: · ·. ·. ,
. ,.. . . • ·. •·
.. , , . < ;·. :
. The '~oiripound is of very .penetrating ,n,.a.ture; it _affects the
'uco~s membra:he of . the n~se in su~B."."manrie/as-to' give 'pain.
~ Niagara is a tst upenclous and ~nrivalle.<;1.,;woncler of nature; it
kes a hushed and breathlessj awe .tC! t_h~ .hear~
every( one ·
tho is .truly . and genuinely susceptible(~o· 'influence's of the
. l
. blim~ 'i
~· •

"-

I

'

.

~

.

•

to

1

'

. . . ll

'

·

,1

!'{)~

·

.

"" - .

f I ~ . .~ • ! /

.-

.

/

.

_ot
'

,..

the following will give occasion to
words, and to note
accuracy or plainness may involve also
1

Quoted verbatim from a High-School pupil's ess~y.

..

I

t

d

I I

F'ORCE.

SPECIAL OBJ ECTS I N STYLE.

124

,.

questions of force . An exact word is stronger than a
vague one; a plain word than an elaborate one; · so
generally when you are saying accurately what you m ean
to say you are t aking the b est way to express yourself -

t •

..

w ALTER :

You haverperus~d so many tr~atises (45) a about Lon~on
that you already are acquainted 'Y~t!j (45) the appellations ( 45)
1
of its princ_iple (2) localities (46) b very well. I , am S}.l~e .,you
would admire ! (9) to contemplate (45) the 1ocalities (45)
themsctves, - . . . (46) c they are as '11interesting
in reality
f!-S _
'-f If'
.
. ' 1 cl
they are in books. How I wish you / was l(20) here this P .M • . •
,.., to. tak_r a walk wW-~, ,1'?e, or perhaps a ride on .;'t_h ~ to~ ,.,o.f, ,r.""'
, vehici e (46); c fo r rthat • (34) is one of the most desirable (45)- .
ways of seeing ,the great _irietro'f:lolis (46),f while you arc at the
same time out df -the jostling{'struggling ' (47) crowd.
. I ~iever(f~ro w we_ary;: bec~rne fatigue~)' tire, 45] of [ s~udying,
lookmg at, ob servmgJ gapng at, 2] the , great rushmg ~nd
swelling K47) ~id: of "life \q11\\ 2/ the stree.ts; and when I [con~
sider! refl ect, (!hmk, 45J fhow~ JUSt such , 1-!'~stless,)eager (47)
thro~gs h ave :' p ass:ed. 1 \(46) i [to and
back and forth, 45] :.
every d ay for l a · grea:t' ·~umber·. ( 46) i of years, I have almost a , ·
feelin<Y
of (wo1i
dering and • contemplative
.,(47) a\~e . ' . .t , 1 .?. ,' .. ... .
b
•
• . .
" .
..
, ,;But if you walk you( will be obliged to Le very c;~utious and
w.~tcliful (45, 6),k ~nd} (48) , especially whe~1 you cross; ~or any
.. driver ofl(~)(48)l ~ab ~~ ·of ,...an (48) }om111bus never tlunks of
going any more slowly\wheri a pe~estrian ~-s crossing -jn front of .. ·:
_him/ (49).m It is a wonder t_h~t more ~unfortunaterl 47) ~eople ~·
. are not~everely \(47) [?,t~rt,)IBJ.U.red, disabl ed, 45]; and m_deed . .
11
\_serious)( 47) acciden~s- ~;·e common .
A great convemen~e
· is provided in the \ qua1:tity/of (:) httle shelters, or platform~
1
.
l, which are! (49) erected m ;he mu!dle of the street at all the
0
:-..
parts(~vhere the greatest crowds are_ liable to be found ' (49)
1
· -.:\ __and )which(49)
afford, 2] a place
1 '·

fro}

1

C: ).

.

[make~). furnish.(give-,

for ~'"·..,
~

..

\,

I

:.

ii1divid.ual . (2) (wh~

1s ion foot. (49) where he may(49)P stand
and , ~~ ~49) out of the way of the (48) passing (47) vehicles. ,_
A :vanety of thi11gsi. ._isJ (3r) always transpiring , (2, 6) in the
• streets~
.m ~re than I could [tell, mention, f ddscribe, 2J in
numerous (46) letters. Among the most [disgustirig, unpleasant '
. _ab~minab~; disagreeable, 2J are the eternal q street-pianos'.
wh~ch appear at ,all tin1!~.of day, and until late at night, and
· .. ( which (49'.)r pl~y-the same melodies, which are invar~ably the
p.opular_ melodies of the d ay, (49), 5 .until you h ~te (2) the ( 48) .
si~ht \ot. the\ ( 48) sound of them. Then there are the _people
with articles to sell) ( 46), t and 1with their cries that no one can
•.· understa ~d (49). 'There are the poor folk,u the blind .a ~d c43 )
/•' \ la1~e, trymg desperately to obtain mon ey (46),v selling si~rnII '
- ~rticl~s (46),w singing songs (46) x or playing frantically on
little mstruments of music (46),Y- . ·. . (4 4); z it is melancholy
"to b ehold (12) them. A step above th ~ m (3 4) aa are the
German bands; also the "nigger" bb . minstrels -who are' oddly
dress~d ,(4~) , a~d '.".'ho have (49) their .(47) faces preternaturally
black ,: and .t:1eir (47) hands as white' as i ours •( 4 6)'. cc From it
{ all you obtam (45) the impression that the London people are
f very anxious ( 46) dd for money. And yet they are merry too.
_.,. Whene_ver any music (46) ee begins to play (46),ff yo.u will see
· th_e cl11ldre~1 dancin~; and it is astonishing how quickly the
, s1i:ialle s ~ thmg (that is not in the us ~al wayj ( 49 ) will draw a
conc~urs e (1 l) who stare and are cunous •(49).
_ . It is not so pleasant t o note the ·s iuantities ( 2) of i saloons fg ·
.an;I how [thronged, crowded, occupied, l Jthey are at all times
· · .~ot the) (48) day or /of the.\48) night. Men and women alike
_• -.(go into, visit, pat~onize, freqt~ent, 2, 46] then} freely, and alas,
' · ~en and women ahke proceed (46) hh in an intoxicated state 'c49 )
home from them. If you was ( 2 o) here, L ondon streets -Would teach you a lesson in tempera1;ce .of such a nature as you wo uld
not soon forget ( 49 ).ii
· '-1
Your friend,
HARRY.

>

I ,,
'' I
I
' '
'

! .1

1

forcibly.
DEAR

I

125

I

\

I

j

i

!

I

\

I:

I I;
~

i

I

q'
\

I
. ,1
j'

'

·.'·

!
I

~

,(

/

126

EMPHASIS.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.
.(;'\- ~

A letter calls for simple a nd natural lang uage,
yet the language will n o t"bear t o be more incorrect, or to be chosen and put
toge ther with less care tha n in other forms of composition. - a. "Perused
treatises " iS too stiff for a letter; say "read so much." - b. Mention
specific things, e.g. "streets a nd buildings." - c. Put in a particul arizing
phrase: " C heapside and I-lqlborn and F leet Street a nd the S trand, Saint
Paul's and vVestminster Abbey and t.h e Tower,"-and see how much
more force th ere will be in the account. - cl. Do not use abbreviations;
write ou t in full. - e. Mention ki?td of vehicle: "bus." -f. "London" is
more natural; and no epithet is needed here. - g. " How" s uggests manner;
you need merely .th e word "that;, here. - h. Your adjectives are beco ming
too numerous. -i. . Mention a particular way of passing: " s urged." - .
j. "Many hundreds." - k. "Must keep your eyes open." - L Articles
before " cab" and " omnibus " are unnecessary. It would be stronger
also to say, "No driver of. cab .. . ever thinks."-m. Cla use needlessly
long; try, "slackening his pace for a peclestrian."-n. Use double
negative. - o. Replace th e clause beginning with "where " by an adj ecti ve
in the superla tive before "parts." - p. Put in infinitive ph rase, and omit
"and be." - q. The word "eternal" is a little exaggerated , but descriptive ;
let it stand. - r. - C ha nge to participial phrase. - s. Put the which-clause
into an adjective modifyi11g "melodies." - t. For "people with articles to ·
sell" use the single word "hucksters." - u. The word "folk" is correct;
do not say" folks." -v. "To pick up here and there a penpy." - w. Specify
1 the small articles: "matches or shoe-laces." - x. Describe the song~:
"mast . unmusical songs."~y. Specify "tin whistles."-z. Put . in a
summarizing phrase: "anything to attract attention and pence." - aa. What
is the demonstrative den o ting th e nearer antecedent?-bb. The E nglish
use the word "nigger" instead of "negro" for such as these. - cc. Make
the expression more specific: " as yours . or mine. " - de\. "Mad." ee. Specify the music: "a band .or street-piano." - ff. " S trikes up." - ·
gg. The English word' is not "saloon" but "public house." - hh. Give a
particular way of proceeding: "stagger." -ii. Put the clause beginning
with " of' ~ into one adjective modifying" lesson."
NOTES T O TH E ABOVE. -

3. Work out the following problems:
Find simpler and stronger equivalents for the following ·
words: prevaricate; agitate; interpretation; cogitation ; vocation;
-~
-- ·fi
·instructor; progenitor; delectable; inquisition ; rotundity; ignore ··
the existence of.
Find · shorter equivalents for the followin g connectives:

-.

127

-

(indubitably j i 1'lotwithsta11cling ;1 as a co11scquence; on the other
hand; unquestionably; these things being granted; pr9-vided
that; at all events.
Reduce the f9llowing clauses to· single words: that cannot
be translated ; that does not bend; that has no limit; that
possesses all power; the man who rides the bicycl e; a proficient
in pl aying a musical instrument; that has no equal; that cannot
be heard; that is capable of giving enjoyment.
II.

EMPHASIS.

The t erm Emp h a~ i s is h ere employed t o denote th e
kind of force that is obtained byputting an element in
.
one or another position in its sentence.
/ .. . , Every word or other elem ent has a natural positio_n,
wh.5!IC, though ,as a leading elem ent it may be strong, it
attracts no special attention. To draw special a_tt ention
to it we have in some way to put it out of its natural orcler.'Y-'

I.
Rules for increasing Emphasis.- The emphatic places '-(
~ · ·· of_ a sentence or clause .are the beginning. and t~e encl; /
, : the problem, then, how t o give speci,a l distinction t o any
,.,,'} element ge n er~lly . reso lves it))elf into the problem how to
. _: .."get it into one of th ese places. The following rules are
·; ". · for the most part merely particular applications of this
problem.
By principal element is here mea1l!,_
so. To add emphasis
of ~oltrse, subject , or predicate. The
to a principal element,
·invert its sentence orsubj~ct, standing naturally first, gains
!ler.
emphas is by being moved from the
begiJi.ning, though not necessarily to the end. The I"
predicate, standing naturally · in the latter part of its
sent ence or clause, gains emphas is by being placed first.

....._

),·

-.. . . . . . . . . ).·1
·1

1:

·;,,

.128

plete until the end, There are various ways of effect ing
.. ....
this. The following are the main ones.
By placing ~i1ditioi1ai ""c1~;~~~~(1f-clau ses, w~~clauses, , [
and the like) first.

E11iplzasis of subject. If, instead of saying,
"John gave me this book," we say, "IJ_was J~who gave me this
book," we have already, by moving the subject only slightly from its .
natural place, thrown the chief emphasis upon it. - "To effect this
purpose stands now the Epilogue." Here the subject, crowded to
the last, takes the emphasis.
2. Empltasis of predi"cate.
" Flashed all their sabres bare."
Here the verb gains emphasis by being placed first. Such direct-.L
inversion, however, is n~!_~;!_l__ tQ._ R2,~~r~.-tl~n- .t9, ,p1:.ose. - " Do
we look for honor among hypocrites? There is uot, and there never
can be honor in hypocrisy." Here the inversion is effected by the
word there standing provisionally in the place of the subject.
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

1.

•

I

I

.....__ .,__

..... _

.....

· -

·~

----

~p

.... - - - - .

EXAMPLES. - "Witli a great sum obtained I this (reedom." From
morning till nigltt,from week's end to week's e?td, his tireless urain
w~s never inac tive."

I,

This js.J.h~J>rinciple of suspense, or,
.... _ .__.
~ --·-· - ·--·· ---·---·,
in sentences, of periodic structure . .
It consists in fostering the reader's
expec~~-tion by making the sens~ ~!:1Som-

-

By placing adverbial modifiers, phrases or cla~ses, be-y._
fore the verb. This has also th e effect of emphasizing
the modifier as well.

ILLUSTRATION S.-.. 1.

52. To push expectation toward the
end, put preliminaries
first.
.

-· - ~--

EXAMPLES. Note how th e if-clause at the beginning makes us
expect something to come :
" Ghost. If thou didst ever thy clear father love Hamlet. 0, God !
Ghost. Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder."
Put the if-clause after th e other, and note how flat the effec t is.
"When he had seen carefully to the comfort of his patient, the
· doctor deemed that he had earned a much-needed rest."

"
A
m~_sl
ifyjE_~rd
_i~~tlf.rally.. pr~_:~
des
51. To add emphasis
to a modifier, place it
its principal; hence if we wish to throw
after its principal.
the emphasis on the modification inst ead
of on .the principal idea, w~ place the modifier - adj~_ctive
or adverb - after its principal.
The placing of the simple adjective after its
noun is unusual, but often is graceful and pleasing; as·, "For th qugh
there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth (as there
be gods many and lords many), yet to us there is but one God, the
Father." - WJle;l, however, th~i:. ·_s.._a ,g roup of adj_ect_L::e.~ the
adt~.s~.~~J.!?)!~JLmQd.~ti~sf_)Jy adv.erbs, it is very co{1~mon, almost the
rule, to place the modifier after the noun; as, "There was a little
glen, green and secluded and charming." " The man, exhausted by.
hunger and exposure, was scarcely able to speak."
2. Note how the emphasis goes to an adverb when the latter is
'/- placed after its verb: "He writes passionately, because he feels
keenly.; fo rcibly, because he feels vividly.; he sees too clearly to be
vague; he is too serious to be otiose," etc.

129

EMPHAS/S.

SPEC/AL OBJECTS /N STYLE .

By placing participial or adjective phrases at the begmnmg.
"Deserted by his friends, he was forced to have re' · course to those who had hith erto been his enemi es."- Utterly unable
" to contain his joy, and yet unwillz"ng to exhibit it before the eyes of
a gallant rival, [Tom] turns away towards the shore, and begins
telegraphing to H~rdy."
EXAMPLES. -

.
By placing the predicate, or more broadly the predica.~ ~ tive and descriptive i'natter of a sentence, before the subject.
·'.
~

~

'

"The most versatile and myriad-minded man of his
age, and one of the greatest geniuses of all time, was William
Shakespeare."

·· · · EXAMPLE. -

Vi

1:
!l
i:
l

/:1

if:;'
~·

-J..._.

130

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

According to the foregoin g principle
of suspense a conditional clause, beginplace it last.
ning with such words as if, p1'.'ovided,·
as also a wizen- or while-clause,
when it '
:f thoug-h, unle-ss,
•
•
.
sta1.1cls. ,at ~he begi~1ning, only directs attention and ex( pectat10n to vvhat IS to come after. If then the clause.
itseif is to have the emphasis, place it~ last.
53. To add emphasis
toacondltionalclause,

55. For balance and

EXAMPLES. - Thus, in, "This is a greater triumph of wisdom and
faith' and courage than even the English constitution or tke English
liturgy," th ere is no occasion of clearness, nothing except the greater
emphasis that lies in balance and distinction, to call for th e repetition ;
. but that occasion is sufficient: - "There is so much in such a hope
that by it we are saved ; I do not mean from suffering and punishment, but saved from baseness, saved from the dominion of sense and
sin, saved from worl~lin ess , from selfishness, from ungodliness."

ExAJViPLES. ____:__" I still doubt your conclusion, t!zough granting your
premises." - "Your message will not be heeded, if it is not understood." - "This measure will command universal approval, when it Is
· once fully explained."

This ~§...Shc;,. 1K~fil.~pl~<?.t clii:t,;_azc, which
demands that the sentence, both in the
'i.:_ weaker to stronger. intensity of the words chosen (see under
Rule } ) and in the length of words and phrases, should
. have an upward progress, growing in interest and vigor.
·· The sLtme principle extends through all the parts and
stages of a composition.
54. Make successive
terms advance from

4

EXAMPLE. - Note how greater meaning and intensity are imparted
to the successive stag~s of the following : "This decency, this grace,
this propriety of manners to character, is so essential to princes in
particular, that, whenever it is . neglected, · their virtues lose a great
degree of lustre, and their defects acquire much aggravation. Nay,
more; by neg~ecting this decency and this gr~ce, and for want of a·
sufficient regard. to appearances; even their virtues may betray therri
into failings, their failings into vices, and their vices into habits un· worthy of princes, and unworthy of men."

T.)ie peculiarly flat e~ect . called bathos . i~ prod~~ c~~~
· when the weaker term IS put after the stronger, so that
th~ ..i1;t~rest descends instead of rising~
.
·.

· .:_f·
~

EXAMPLE. - "For forty centuries the thunders of Sinai have echoed .
thr.ough the world 'Thou shalt not steal.' This is also a principle of
the common law and a rule of equity." 1
l Examples of climax and bathos _
t aken from Longman's .School Compo-.
sition.

131 .

EMPHASIS

II.

('"/

.··

·,··

.-

'

·Exercises in placing Words for Emphasis.-The ·following exercises are not incorrect as they stand; the ob·, ; ject in changing them as directed IS to work .certain de· · terminate effects in emphasis.

~

~

I

.

Change the following ·sentences as directed, apply- .
ing the rules above given.
I.

1

·, ,· /\ The responsibility of command proved too . gteat for him,
, : accustomed to obey from his youth) (Suspend.)
-. The Jewish natioi;__ i.~ a_i:U>bject of study; than which there 1s
· ··110 more interesting in the annals of history.
(Emphasize. sub.. ject.)
'
.
He i.s a ;,strange and variable ma.n,,,.:a..full ~~-11 1\of whims and
· fancies. (Emphasize adjectives.) .
.
·
.: (A~ soo.n as I have used iti'. ~ -will send you the bool~ . (E~:J phas1ze tune-clause.)
·
·
'

·1

For the contrast to this, variety in repetition, see below, Rule 70.

"' .."
,,

'

I

I

.I

132

. SPECIAL OBJE CTS .IN STYLE.

I am endeavoring firmly ,to grasp1 the principles of this scienc_e. (Emphas,ize adverb.)
Your supreme duty is to b e true· to your deepest convictions
A',
'
I
to yourself, your community, your kind. (Emphas ize by itera-.
tion.)
· :~•, • ). ,;,,
.
, I pay tribute to a \~orthy.man .; ~ertor~t)b~f1'.iende~ him when
all the world was aga111st 111111. (Ep1phasize name.)
( Love .of n eighbot) is {what the vvorld .need ~·; and the lack of ·
which is at the bottom of all ' its social troubles. (Emphasize
subject.)
J
•
j _ ' Numerous voices (from ,all the past bid us take heed to our
· steps.) _(Emphasize time-phrase ~hd strengthen .)
He h as but to speak; ah<l as a conseq uence 'we will defend
his cause. (Cut out superflu~ty.)
TI;«) Roman procurator led t~7 august prisoner forth , and
1
! observed, ) " Behold the innocent, just, a\id righteous man ! "
.
\Strengthen.) .
.
.
r'·"" · iA certain Mr. Hailes made . a manly, sensible speech,') in
:'hich ~ the projects of }he· government ( were commended ' by
1
hiin. / (Emphasize name ; also "projects of the government.")
.
.
.
I will tru's t Him though He slay me. · (Suspend .)
The crowd arou~1d a couple of dogs fighting is" a masculine
crowd rmainly,· . . . an annulat"compact, and<'t m~bile crowd.
(Emphasize adjectives.)
.
:.. /The mystery of spac.e an4 _time is_~t·. (Emphasize predi.-.
cate adj,ective.)
( He was hard at work, without a day of recreation, from the
end of winter until tate the next 1 autumn. (Sµsp end. )
, ~hat will you do ? TJ~e~.~ is no refuge in your own strength,
· no~ .in . your associates, ii.ot;_·in the general standard of living
about you; .. only ii:i-the grace ·and power of Heaven. (Emphasize by iteration.) ·
.; \ The man who deserves to be punished escapest if you do not
tell the trut~ and so~e on~ else suffers. (Rule 2S.) .

f .' '

a.

'\ Calamity came

\

133

.EJl!fP .l.lA S I S .

1

up~n _them :swift as tl:e, lightnin~~ (Empha-

II,

•
•;
size adve rbial phrase.) 1
- We must not forget . the temper of the German reform.er. or of
the age in which he livec\_ 'in estimating his character.1 (Sus-

pend.)
_The. i)lans of this mighty ruler .w ere vast.

I

':
·,I

j:

·

(Emphasi~e predi-

Ii

I

cate adj ective.)
He was a man · wl~o, if you judge fr~m the applause tl~at
always greeted his remarks,' would pass for a wit. · (Emphasize
if-ch use.)
, A single d ay h~s· not passed in all this time when it would
' have b een safe for this agitator to show his face ' in the
streets of his native .city~ · (Emphasize ".single day;" and time- ··
. ph~ase .) ,
.
I .
Yes ; I . avow. th~ charge ; I proclaim it, I confess it, I ac~nowledge it. (An '3:nge for climax.) · .
1
Prepare to shed tears no~v if ryou have them. (Suspend.)
I think when ' once yotrhave conquered his shyness_i yOu will
like Mr. K err very well,,1and find him a remarkably intelligent
1
'companion. 1 (Emphasiz~ when-clause.)
_ ·
t.
(9n looking for some explanation of this pheno~eno~ ~,tl~e
refraction of the rays of light' is what we must refer it to.) (E1~- .
phasize "refraction of," e ~c.)
.
.·
f·
It will not do to make light of tl11s duty of moral courage, .!f
there is ~ny virt~e in strength of character, or if the world
· .offers any of us ~hose supreme occasions which call for an unyielding no. (~i.1spend.) ·
,
,,
·P rovided you will admit his definition of justice,~ he was a
Cmost just man to all his i;mployees. (Emphasize conditional
"·clause, and adjective.)
Poor Mary is see:n in the cornfield p efore the bright sun rises
, ·o ~~r the hill. \ (Suspend.)
.
• : Cowardic~ is the only fittin g n a\ne we can give to such con1duct as this. ( Emphasize the s\lbject.)

I

I·

I

,,,
J

l

1

,I
:I
j,

ll
'I

•''I
!1'·
I•I

·I
I
I

,,
'i

"ii
11

1!I·

lj

:l

ir
!

·1

I

'i
I
I

I
II

134

Rewrite the following, ·. amending
according to the refer ences and notes.
2.

the

emphasis

one has some friend of whom it is usual to re1nark,
, He is such a manly fellow (sz),a . t_l~ol1:gh he is not particularly
EVERY

#

I .

handsome nm.v(?.s ), cl~ver. ~We ~~~ot?,~i~~lie highest . of our
esteem and trust to a fnend like this (so, szJ .b ' What is there
. tha,t , so attracts .us (So) c in the character of such a one ?) To
,_ I/
b e m anly is what? (so)
~
The word manly is merely a contracted form of (S S) manlike;
,l ~J ~?.t to have the qualities of a man, ~the n (S S), of ih\teiman, ..._hoocl)
'to b e manlike .(so) .<l · This means a large amo unt ((j);
. so much: indeed, thaf\ t include~. every desirable virtue. ·:tlf
would serve no useful purpose f to · attempt a complete list of .
' + \,... ~
,
'·.~
manly qualities \ (so);e \ tet us ~'heref ) (Sr) name the three that .:- ~
'_1n()st tead il y (s·J). comt; ~o ipind. , .
,
//~ J\ strong will (S~) i:p:;~!he trait that we put first, naturally ;. "
. Csr).g "The glory of a youn g m:;in, " says an ancient Book,h
".is his strength." The saying direct~ our attention '(4S) i firsqy,
~
( 4) i -t;o strength of b ody, sound h ealth, perfect anim al powers; . 'and yet as soon as we see that (~ack,. of it '(sr)kthere.is .. ~?;. ·,.
brain or judg menJ
or. , character ·.. CS3) \We
cease to adnure rr.1:,1~- ·
;.,· ·.
~. I
"'-. . .
\.~· ' Our ideal requires strength of will, after all . (So): m the roy~l.) ·_. .·
power to pronounce for the right and do it, (SS) n to say no.: ..._'
to what is wrong'. 'Self-respect·-.Ys \ the source of such power 1..; -~
Cs o); 0 . the m an thinks C3 7) much of good n ame and int egri~y, .
.4,' so C3 7) V he ' is no ti at the mercy of evil solicitations tuor does
.,h e ct) give up to c{ance (Sr) r the direction of his character. .
1
He is firm b ecause a sound will governs .his. con9uct.
· - •' ·
1
But a man may be 'bbstfoate in hi~ _fin~n~ss (s~)f; s and .we
withdraw our resp ect ,.when he is Cs 2):! . This strength of \~ill.
is t empered by a second trait if he 1s tr uly manly'. Csz): h~
is gentle. '· That t!t.e; ]1ighest type of nobility is expressed in
the name ge1tflmw~( is to the honor of our English race and
tongu~ (so). \'T o be ' a m~nly man is\ to be a :: strong ,(S ~ )_.~))_~':}~·.
j

I

'

"}

•

<

I

\

.,1

:;s

,,.,,~ ,-- ···~

I '

-

>·.

1

1

0

t

'

.i

I

135

EMPHA.SJS.

SPECIAL'
OBJECTS IN STYLE.
.

.

·-

t .>

yet not loud or blustering or brutal; outspoken, yet not vulgar
or pretentio.u~; , 1<.i~1d : ~n<;l comJeous aEke to s~1p.erior ~ 1 / 1quals
and inferiors (SO ).t · · Calm and eq uable (S 1) u is t,true strength
of character-; it need not [sh ow;, ass·e rt, proclaini, 1 J itself; fur-..
(48) it is there (S 1 ), its own evidence. It can well bear to
. .
be g)ptle _if it is real (s2).
1
. ·"A
' ·'third, the trait of unselfishness, v ' lies . under th{;"se two
traits~. Cs 2), wh~n- theyi both exist in a man (S 2} ( Fhis . gives)
( beau ty and 'tulb.ess'. to the other two. {T~e man ·~fiight become
stubborn and self-assertive, if h e· were' concerned wholly in
nursing his strength of will Cs2). He mig ht become so easy
and weakly yielding as ,to have, , no self \!_efLJworth respecting,
he were concerned " whol~y ·in being gentle '\ Cs2 )., .B~t to
. have a richly endowed 1 self/ f- strong and true Cs r) ·. w1llj and
· ·~ r · /
A
·
~J
then to exert i~.fOr· the good and welfare of others,~ot for
its own recognition and pleasure' (S4); w this is the crown and
. completion of manliness, the inner character,d1at we most lea n
upon and trust in a true friend.
I

"'

(it

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. -The above essay will give occasion to o bserve
how much differe nce it makes in the distinction of any element to put it
. in one place rather than in another.
a. Make the sentence end with" such a manly fellow," a nd punctuate with.
an exclamation. The idea of manliness, which is th e chief s ubj ect of the
essay, ought to ha ve th e most emphatic p osition, the end. The scheme
of the sentence will be thus," He is not . . . nor ... but," etc. - b. Make
"to a friend like this" emphatic by placing it first, and emphasize it still
more by it-" It is to . . . tha t." - c. "That so attracts us" should have
the emph atic place. - cl. "To be manlike" merely repeats the idea of the
las t sentence, and sh o uld not be so emphatic; put it first, according to its
". natural order as subject. - e. P ut the infinitive clause, which is the sub. ject, firs t, thus reserving the emphatic place for "purpose." - f. "Here"
and "most readily" ought to be som ewhat emphatic. - g. "Naturally"
does not need the emphasis h ere given. - h. The Bible is meant; this name
is given it h ere for freshness ; note that the word Book begins with a
capital. - i. "Makes us think ... of." - j. "To begin with." - k. " Back
· of it" o ught to have an emphatic place. -1. "It" does not say enough;
._say rather, "what is merely of the body." - m. Invert by use of it: "It

SI'EC.lAL OBJECTS .lN STYLE.

136

RAPIDITY.

is strength of will, after all, that," etc. - n. In repeating "power" use
another adjective, e.g. "resolute."- o. "Self-resped" needs the emphatic
place; and "such power" should stand near the preceding sentence as
connecting with it. - p. "Too much of . . . to be at the mercy. - q. "Or
give." - r. Emphasize "to chance." - s. Emphasize the idea of obstinate:
"firm to the point of obstinacy." - t. The long predicate should be emphasized by being placed first; then end with, "this it is to be," etc., and set it
off by a comma and a dash. -u. No need of giving these adjectives such
emphasis here. - v. Invert so as to make the sentence end with "unselfishness." - w. To put the negative phrases after the .positive is to go from
stronger to weaker. Try the reverse order.

3. Point out, in the following passage, the words_ and
other elements that are emphasized by being placed out
of their natural order, and other illustrations of rules ·

137

m Rule 49, when the condensed thought is in itself
weighty. But it may also make the style more rapid, f..
that is, help the reader to· pass over the idea lightly,

:~ei~Wrs~mb: ;:~~r~;i~~~;~:~ ~~~~=~i~~?,

object being to subordinate and weaken the effect of
expression.
Some of the .aspects of this quality, and ways to effect
it, are here exhibited.

I

I.

Rules for making Expression Rapid. -The parts of
a sentence. that are naturally unimportant, andneedthere"An autZmaton he [the dog] certainly is; a machme workfore to be kept unobtrusive, are the modifying elements, .
ing independently of his control, the heart like the mill-wheel,
_su<JL<l:?_pre.positi_o_nal an'd participial phrases, and especially '·
keepf.;;_fl all in motion, and the c,~nf ciousness, like a person
clauses that occur within such phrases, or within other
shut in the mill garret, enjoying the view out of the _window
. · clauses. These generally need -to be made as rapid as '/
and shaken by the thunder of the stones; an autbm'aj:?P in
',, ~ possible. -As for the words that need to be made more
one corner of which a living spirit is confined: an auti1UJaton
""·•·". rapid, as for instance- connectives cut down to. shorter
like man. I~nct~'liiain he ce1tY1inly po~sses. Inherited
r
-.
.. ", ones-;and the like, the writer · must learn to determine
aptitudes are certainly his, inhef{tgd frailties. Some things he
· for himself where such change will improve the expression.
at once views and understands, as though he were' a1wakened
· A _comprehensive term is just th_~.
--'-·
from a sleep, as though he came 'trailing clouds of glory'.'
_. 56. To touch an idea
-- -- .
lightly, express it in
oprosite of a particular or specific term;
But with him, as with man, _the field of instinct is limited; )
comprehensive
terms.
which
latter, as shown in Rule ·46, it ls .
its utterances are obscure and occasional; and about the far ·;; :
larger part of life both the ·dog and his master ni.ust conduct ;
/ 3 often desirable to use for force. But at other times it
their steps by deduction and observation.''
.~: -~.may be desirable to express the whole idea _in a lump, 't,_
~-"w;ithout compelling attention to particulars; this may
_:be clone by choosing a class-term or comprehensive
III. RAPIDITY.
·,· word.
Brevity in style may have two effects, according to
j .. ILLUS~RATIONS. - Note the greater lightness and rapidity secured
{ the matter condensed. It may promote force, as
iic'r by the more condensed and general term~
50-55 : -

v

r1

138

RAPIDITY.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

Particularized.

139

Much use of the relative is liable to
be cumbrous and heavy; the writer
needs therefore to familiarize .~h.T;;~-~elf .J
with the equivalents--ror the relative, "'~;~-i~-to-m'ake ti\.
. . . . . . _..,._,.. .._
his clauses lighter. Of course·- many·recasts of expression are open to hiQ.1; the following are the most
important.
The res®ive rela!!_ve, that (see Rule 3 5) is generally !
more rapid_!!i,~~--.!.~-~£.9I.9irn~Je.: relat~ve w!zo oc.w!tidt
hence cutting down a clause from coordinate to restrictive
often helps in lightne~s of touch. :-··--·~- · · ~- ' · .,, -

Comprehensive.

58. Study how to
pass lightly over relative clauses.

" He devours literature, no
" Novels or sermons, poems or
histories, no matter what, he matter of what kind."
devours them all."
" Through .the whole course of
" From the primary school
through the grammar school, then his schooling he was a diligent
in high-school, later in his college and painstaking student."
course, he was always a diligent
and painstaking student."
It is a good thing to g~J!~::l.C:~~.!...J:> ut 01~}y ~l~~~!l:i~Y .!~~
giving. Otherwise the. reader is impatient at being delayed by them.

------ ,...,~

~·1_

,.y,

6

An a~~--S_1!alifying th~a~~
5'(. To make a clause
a person or _!_hi_n g may i~ or take .
or phrase rapid, give
. its snbstan~e in imfor
granted a :vhole as~~rtion_@o11t th~
plication or by epithet.
object; so too ~l~P.i~J:i<::!t.. in the place
of a name may embody an important fact about that
name. When well chosen these devices serve to presentin light and unobtrusive manner a great proportion ·of th.e
thought, as well as greatly to enrich the expression;

---""

\

ILLUSTRATION.'- Compare, for rapidity, the following: " This curious design I bought
.o f a nun in France, who spent
years of toil upon the conceit,
· .wh~di is of more valu'e than the
material."

. A participial phrase may often take to advantage the
, · • 1 place of a relative clause.

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Compare the following sentences with their
more condensed statement : -

Full form.
'' The nature of youth is
thoughtless and sang uine; and
_therefore the danger of the voyage was depreciated and th e
beauty of the island exaggerated
by our travellers."
" It was in vain that he offered
the Swiss terms; they were mountaineers and hardy, and therefore
they deliberately preferred war."
" Camilla flies over the corn so
swiftly that it has not time as she
passes to bend beneath her."

~XAMPLES. -

Implied.
" The danger of the voyage
was depreciated and the beauty· , .
of the island exaggerated by the
tltoughtless nature of youtlz."
--~

"It was in vain that he offered _·,~ :.'
the Swiss terms; the hardy moun- ,.. ·:'·
taineers deliberately preferred
war."
/

ing corn."

I

,!l

~

;

Compare the following sentences : -

"In the solar system an assem.
" In the solar system is pre·,. ·. blage of bodies, each of wh£ch sented to us 1 an assemblage of
\!~ ', has its simple and regular motions . bodies, each having its simple
\', . -~ tliat sev~rally alternate between and regular motions that severally
, ~ ~ · two extremes, and the whole of
alternate between two extremes,
·· .·. which has its involved perturba- and the whole having Its involved
, · . tions that now increase and now perturbations that now increase
decrease, is presented to us."
and now decrease."

. , A relative joined with a preposition to make up an
_: -.:adverbial phrase may often be represented by a relative-r(
/
:adyerb, such as' where, when, wherein, whereby, etc.
1

I~

,:I

"This curious design I bought
of a nun in France, who spent
years of toil upon a conceit that
is of more value than the material.

Note the improved order, and compare Rule 50.

140

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

EXAMPLES. - " The place where (=in wlzich) the impeachment of
Warren Hastings was conducted was worthy of such a trial." - " I
have given thee a faithful history of my travels, wherein (=in which)
I have not been so studious of ornament as of truth." - "We see the
ground whereon(= on which) these woes do lie."

II.

Exercises in making Sentences rapid. - What pro-

_ ) A word in apposition, when it can be used unambiguously,
"} may often stand for an independent proposition beginning
with a pronoun either personal or relative.
EXAMPLE. - " We called at the house of a person to whom we
had letters of introduction, a music£an (=he was a musician) and,
what is more, a good friend(= he was a good friend) to all young
students of music."

.../:._, Finally, the .E~!3.:~-~~ . . n2~Y-2!_~.~~~~....91:1JJJted, and needs ,
f to be especially when the relative clause comes within a
prepositional phrase.
·:/· '

EXAMPLES. - " We know the instructors were mas~ers . of the art /\
they taught." - "Beau sent him another snuff-box with some of the
,, ·
snuff/\ he used to love."
59. To make a subordinate clause unobtrusive, bury it within the sentence.

Somewhere bet~_1Lt!1. ~-~ubject a~d

i: __

141

RAPIDITY.

·- - ....----::----.

the !?E,.~gkate
or~~11.~1i!J the ~ce .
least_ _notice;;tble for a sul:>or.din,?.te . ... .
..
clause ; and being thus placed betwee~ . '
important elements, it is easily and rapidly passed over. ·'
Contrast Rule 53.
EXAMPLES. - Compare the following : :
"Even so faith is dead, being
"Even so faith, if it have npt,' :'
alone, if it have not work~."
works, is dead, being alone."
"He may count on rapid pro"He may, if [he i's] industri· • , ·
motion, if he is industrious."
ous,
count on rapid promotion." · . . ~
.
~

Besides being placed in unobtrusive position .the clause may often, ... '
as in the second example, be condensed.
.,

motes rapidity is as likely to increase force as to lessen
it; there is no need, therefore, of drawing a sharp contrast
b etween the two qualities. The important thing is, to
feel at once when a sentence is too lumbering and slow,
and to study ways of lightening or strengthening its
expression.
Make the following sentences more rapid, and refer
each a~endnieH..t to the rule involved.
1.

f'\.lfi, .

ft(,(1 . --~ ~

~

i.

TheN oung rogues,\ ?ecause they were hot-headed, would not {"
listen to any proposals for~iliatioJb....~,(!1-:i:e~~~-=:
An inordinate ambition ;s very liable to lead to d1s'a.s'te~\iJ it '}'"
J
is not checked) (Lighterf"the subordinate clause.)
She first went up the street, looking for the child in fo.JI the
doorways and passages; then into the by-streets _a~d djgy_5
courts; then into the square near by, searcl~ eWrye,,, nf;J6P.~
....,_~1-=at she could think of, probable or improbable, but with no
success.* ~~ ut down particulars.)
~t,1/ frl~nd~d a great conceit of knowing everything, and
-•. accor~inglyjl~ took occ~on t2 s;t every one right. (Epithet.)
'.' '). }tj,t~~ a.~nt to sit by a;::a•pJti_· firefuJr~l~l?J~~~~u~ and talk
. w1flt~iierlds(~.hom you know well,) abou(th~ scenes ~ich you
hayL_':isited~ith
then~ (Relatives.) .f1! !-.
.
1
1h'wJ;iiJ!i~(f~~nwhen, he ~wa~~ aQValley Forge we
disce·f1t
·
he was victor
.over Cornwallis a ~)Yorktown. " A~Pi,tl15t.)
·
',
Ten o'clock had scarcelJ( Jrh.M:ied' "striking) from the P~rlia. ment tower on Saturday nignt before a stream of guests~ho
, werej attired in festal array began to pour into the entrance of
_ the Fore~gn Office t;hich i9 in Downing street. (Time-clause
and relatives.) ·

·-J

-

1

th~@Je r~ngth~)wa~'1?i_i;igton ~en

1

142

RAPIDITY.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

. Like childr~n (wh~ are) led by a father, ou~ confidence is ~ot
m the resolut10n~h1ch)we have taken but m the hand t_~1ch)
we hold. (Relatives.)
The wonderful display of fsteam-engines and dynamos, o~
f
,.:
'
. .~Alathes and saws, of clocks and watches,.,)-and) of ingeniou
. __.,
·~ devices for facilitating every kind of work, is a significant indi-1\ "'..·
., . tf.a~i-~~erica.n _inventive genius .. (Cut _dow~ particulars.)

~~~-~-~!es.~:~~v~1g?~~ f:~.?ti~m7~t11~"?e_.~.~\~11~~ou~~;t,;,w~1

.f
,J
(hi;
?(?
)l'ected with the ..,..a sJ,;hirn1strat10n of--affairs at 1hdme, and ..,.a t the
·n:fi~l\i\i~e· niaking \h~ ·g o~ernment respect~d in its relations
connected with the administration of affairs abroad. t--4
.
"
1
. ~ This is fa man who is ) the,__ 1p.ost. f1.dventu.ro k1P Qf. af(~.h~ ·have
..
( ~ttempted'1o explore the r\t'[(d.e,.[~[i;{ps~·itr1~~cklis~ fornsts, · , ' ':"
_ the barren plains, the 101~fY passes and defilej of fi~~d""'-' -;.
~hich has been hitherto unknown.\
I will not me1tli~~h~~,dif~ultie~~1ich )attendedythe presentation of the work ;(and they were difficulties whid{ were of no
common kind, and which made the preparations slow} suffice .
it to say, they were overcome, and we have reached success ':

~~i~l--~~n~~ ?~. ,s:~tiif*1~g,. thX-~~n~!~2L.~w~t1~(f ·'{~~~ .

~hid:

may be

regar~-t~·uly :n;r1-~~ul..,.

a

.

.

.

t.1)-~T is(i_io waJJsuggeste~y means of 7111c~we can secure

~~~lief ~ich we:: need}

·

·'

lft.,i. <;..1...,t(Aindictivenes1
~ which is a fault, and) which may be defined.

is· aused ~ot by sin nor by crime bu'i)by per:;;,i,
sonal injury, oug 1t to be ca~~ul.4'~· qisti&guished frorl resent- .
.
. . -a ~ virtue,::'~
.
~ f.. ~ '·{~1'£1..f..,_q .{1,,,, l ~ ,..vi 1 .
ment! · wh1d.i.;:.1s
uq1\M,.-.l\,a.1 5 er , 111
natura l
and rigl~ (4) cause . ~ •'. an ac \~hich i un ·us
ecause it is ,
unjust)
ecau1e it is mconve 1ent) 52). 1
\
.
.

· O as

anger ~hich

Paul a cl Silas ~ \s~~ ~;~- ~ (._yon/ heir impLisonment,tan~
the jailer besough~h~1~ to.~. 'bi.ft th: apostles \:"ere\indig · ant ,
~refused to depart until the magistrates themse1ves camt!. .
and brought them out.
I

Quoted from Abbott's "How to Write Clearly."

143

Good fielding was the prominent feature of the gamE{:hich \
we'_. playep. last Saturday.

' .·

...:s-1
2. In rewriting the following, note carefully what sentences are weighted with too lengthy forms of expression,
and study how to cut down principal constructions to subordinate, relative clauses to phrases and single words, and
in general how to make the expression more clean and
·cnsp.

(THE~E is) an incidentt\vhich occurred' in the life_ of Beethoven, wl11ch is veryr.~~~~estlve of .tl(~ J~,a~-~~;U s?~Y~g~~~~~- ~. clloly, sorrow, 2 J wh~dt (35, 58)_ io/~ften)to be fo~n~ a:sociated J _
withf (49) c great genms.
~!) ·€/\-- ;µ{· ~~ ~;( j~,,~
(\ He undertook ( 2 2) d to cond}~S.~1--?~~9Lhi7'~¥mpho~ies (5 2)
~en it.wa.~~ewly finishe~) cs 7) e laJ;:::~~.~~~~ (59),
..m-ptn:se-1~0';{J_:i: g his latter ( 2) ~areer} ~ ( 1} after he had
become tota!!Ld~(~i\ His grei tness was universally r'.'cog(
nized ~tha.t time (5 2), h and a large and expectant audience $..o,J
assembled ( 2 2), [anxious~rious,(eae:er, interested, 2J both to
·. · hear the ne:" work and~ee (42) 'ti~{~"',~rB~~(wl~-.1".JlS so\
~mous ·cs 7){ Beetho~~pi'tood, ?_f ~o~~q ~1th hir1act! turned
'
· fneorcl~ stra~nd 1@1 his ~~~-~ ~~-audience J
'l.~M«:~naucting ~ ) the symphony ys2).k {ft Wa_s,. aj wonderfut'
work):5 7), I e~cl' the successive movement0 'ere ~Vt;,l! 'f!'m'la
·\ the hearers became more and more enthusiastic,ta'ri'a ~~/ the
~{. . t.----~
lfl!\-f.~fli:·t-8(..1,
grand finale came1 they hardly knew h~w to g1ve ell4'ress10n to
1
:. their appla§·r ~~,_if]~ ~1}~\u).~> 1:_Lade~~to) the /neri~ of the
;. work (5 7). 'Beetlioven (5 7) ~1 alone was una f ~r f.a~ th1sy5 2); 0
~ until a mem er of the orchestra aros~ '1~~ ·.
is arm Cv-idJ
turned him round so that he could sgE! \ih e7.pe6pfe, fo i:.,_they were

1

madly appla_u.ding\{5 7). (_1~he~~ -~~~~<!JC?~"~~".".~ UP,_? n 11,i~Qor
the first -~ iv:;;) (5"' that his work had§.:;.~ heard ~nd hked,
_· thatQlift .WI-lichj 58)q h.ad neve: met h,Wi,~a~.{ff~11s ear~;aJ~
". · deadenec9 (57)-had given dehght to(!)~Umber) (46).'\. !t

144

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.
. -·~------~ ..- - .
~

145

LIFE.

-

~

}

was&ln almost f}~-erpowering (5 1 )-~~~elation tu..1:Mm (5 2 ),~oth
for ~s joy and t42) sadness')
Some of the greatest names ( 2) s of history have been tried
by the deepest affliction. Homer and Milton, who were (58)
two supreme poets who could see in nature and int life things
which were (58) invisible (5 1) to others, we1'e blind; Beethoven's u joy laid ( 2) in the world of sound, and he was deaf.
Dante had av love for Florence, which was his native place (57),
a love which was consuming (5 7), and he ·was an exile ; Michael
Angelo was a man w whose genius was colossal (S 7) and shaped
joy for multitudes, and he was a man who was (58) infinitely
sad and lonely. Perhaps it was necessary that these great
ones should have such stern trial (5 7) x to bring out that which
was within them which was deepest (58) ; Y perhaps we have
these very afflictions to thank; in great degree, for the vitality
which (58) makes their work an undying one.z

-t-'

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. This beginning illustrates a very frequent
way of using superfluous words, namely, putting in a predica te and a relative
clause what can go equally well in a single assertion. Instead of saying,
"There is an incident . . . which is," etc., say, "An incident . . . is," etc.
- b. "Which occurred" is superfluous. - c. Find a single equivalent word
for the clause from ... is" to "with." - d. Make the time of the incident
begin at Beethoven's actual conducting, and make up the preceding tenses
with reference to that. -e. Find equivalent adjective for when-clause. f. Put this phrase immediately after its verb. -g. Begin the sentence with
this phrase. For "long" use "some years." - h. "Recognized" ought to
ha~e the emphatic place. - i. Condense clause to single word. - j. What
single verb equivalent to "with . . . toward?" - k. "Symphony" does
not need emphasis. -1. Give substance of this clause in an of-phrase. m. Try putting this clause first with "as" instead of "and." The sent~nce ..
as it stands illus.trates a frequent habit with young writers of making up
their sentences out of a number of and-clauses. - n. Instead of repeating
the name, give descriptive epithet: "the creator of the work." - o. Put
"unaware" in emphatic position. - p. Make lighter by a participle. q. What single word is equivalent to "that which?" - r. Put "revelation"
in emphatic place. - s. A common error. It is not the names but the men
who have been tried. - t. Preposition may here be omitted for the sake of
rapidity. - u. Instead of possessive use relative clause, and omit "and." -

v. Put this in relative clause : "who had a," etc. - w. No need of saying
he was a man· that is evident enough. -x. "Such stern trial was necessary." - y. "~hat was deepest within them." - z .. D~ not end with such
an insignificant word; give the emphasis to the adjective.

3. Work out the following problems : -

te~lnf.

·

e~.,>~r"f° f9~iJ~

nr

Find comprehensive
_as
_
grou~ ~f ~y:is : u,rde!:_Qrid11.r;i. .... a,.n~~~r?':~~' ·.
Austra i
'~U-:.h?es, irt th~ snadq.w ·of African mimosas, and beneath
Canadian pines. (N oti.ce that the c~un_tries whos~ tre:;_~~e . ,...,
.men!_io~~d ,..ap~~!.l .co~m~s of Great ~;1f~V~),:..)......,7he(~lean g or-'
roorn; the pol1skii11f'of t~1e'1160r, me decoratmg of !he walls,
r
the laying of the crash, ,the ~l~~~n,~ ~.f ~}1e 1fu~~i~;(J. ~~t~re }~~t<>\,.,..P
. gr~d ba)L-His lands, ' his mills, his'fbarns,J11~~--°r~lJ1,9E3es,· h1s
~Js1fil1~residence). a pro~erty of great value; J?r sale. ~-..-",,,.....,vV
Find single woras l eqmvalen~
folfowmg :(Jo eat ,up
p ,.._forI f .the
I
rapidly and completely) to~o6 . !~~~;ed eyes; to car~y wit~
diffi~cty and , lpJ~o-t; to ~tarftfack m amazement or disgust,)
Nree 'liGr£~~-1l and self-righteousness )' a hotel where there
~
#'-/, 4~
l-- i'/y,AA
are
udes o guest~/of every class-)
.

£.We

ultl

IV.

LIFE.

Of the large quality of force in style one of the most
i~p~ts.,.i.5 what we · here ven~ure to nam·~ -~:.::~ \
By li~is m.eant_ t?~Lvigor: of SQJ.lC~.P..~~~1.1- ~~~~x; re~JQJ;l_ '/..
whlcl1
indicates the writei:~.dgee.P
inter~§..t..iu.~.bi~._.§.u.P.j:~"" L
---~......,.~--. . . . .~.,..~,,,,_.
.
"'"°'" ..... ~*""
--: a~rmination_J_Q_Jl)ake..his ~~2:~E. ~~~i.!. M- Pl~lnly . ·

..

1 This plain term life seems to come nearer to what we mean than any
of its synonyms. The quality is not the same as liveliness o.r vivacity;_ f~r
a quiet and restrained style, well managed, may be. full. of hfe. Nor is it
just identical with vividness; for this refers to the picturmg p~w:r ~f words,
a quality that satisfies part of our idea but not all. Nor agam is. it exa~tly
synonymous with vitality, which is a deeper and more orgamc quality,
· · taking hold not only of style but of thought and character.

146

-

SPECIAL OBJECTS I N STYLE.

as he does. It is too vital a quality, therefore, to be imparted by rules ; but there are some forms of expression
which such vigorous earnestness naturally takes to itself,
and whose effect can be studied and practised.
' / Most of the procedures here mentioned are ordinarily ·
treated as figures of speech ; and th ~~:--~ff~~-. d~::: _
p~ in various ways Ql~-. ~!2.~_J..s__ called connotation.
That is.i. ~ith the idea -~X.1?E~~s-~d there i.s~at-fhe'"sanTu~ time
con~ed - implied or__ br_o_lJ_g,l~t____ ~o mind with it - some
other idea, or some association, or~-so.me-etnutto n, which
~- -------.
.
operates to enrich the idea· and give it more suggestive- ·
n ess. It is in this way, largely, that the writer inter.Y~ weaves with his work the vigor of his feelings, the breadth
l \ of his thought, the wealth of his personality. 1

It is not best, h owever, t o· use direct discours e to anyJ
g reat length except as there is point and int erest enough ]'
in the conversation to warrant it. Prosy commonplace or t

t~.Q~_:i~~Scill~~.11~.~--~Y"..b_<;:}.D:g . rtw<n:t~~L~:.,;~i.~~<:;J;_ ~

discourse
...._....,,,_ ..... .
There are many words in the language whose sound corresponds in very
suggestive degr ee with the sens e conveyed; combinations of words, also, harsh or fl owing, may
be used in the same way. Such words and combinations
are sure to be a: great help to the life of the passage,
vividly connoting as they do the very sound or sight under
consideration.

61. For descriptive
effect, use imitative
words.

Rules definitive of Life in Style. -The following rules
•

'f-.

EXAMPLE. - Th e following, from Bunyan, shows how
and pleasantly he runs into th e direct style of discourse.
For an excellent discussion of connotation in its various
see Wendell, "English Composition," passim.
I

147

" When the morning was up, th ey had him to the top of the house,
and bid him look south. So he did ; and behold, at a great distance
he saw a most pleasant mountainous country, b eautified with woods,
vineyards, fruits of all sorts, flow ers also, with springs and fountains,
very delec table to behold. Th en he asked the name of th e country.
They said it was Imma nuel's Land; ' a nd it is as common,' said th ey, ·
' as this hill is, to and for all th e pilg rims. And wh en thou comest
th ere, from th ence,' said th ey, 'thou mayest see to th e gate of the
Celestial City, as the shepherds th at live there will make app ear.' "

I.
,' comprise by no m eans all the ways in which connotation '"- ·:,.
'x._ ~ay be effected, but only a few of the more common and '
important.
- .
The advantage of direct discourse :··:· ·
60. To give life to
discourse, make it diover indirect as a frequent
rect.
giving cle'arness to pronoun reference. "'
has been pointed out in Rul e 34. Here it is to be noted : .in addition that gi~;K. ~..9.JJ.Q'~).nJ:h~-~~~!1Jicaj_}y,g_rds of .'
~ the speaker~. has the effect of e11livening the style, conno- :·
ting '~oes the speaker's actual presence and charac< ·
t eristics.

LIFE.

l.

r

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Than 111 the general term noise, consider how
much more life there is in th e following specific (compare Rule 46)
-..;, and imitative words: the crash of falling timb er; the whistling of the
winds; th e boom of cannon; th e shriek of the blast; the roar of a
tempest, or of a great city; the httm of machinery; the wail of a
child.
Note how much life th ere is in th e italicized words of the following:
'"The starting-ropes drop from the coxswain's hands, th e oars flash
into th e water, and gleam on th e feather, the spray flies from them,
and the boats leap forward."
~

.' ' Under this h ead comes also ~-~~~~' not m entioned under I
..., "' Rul e 5, of classically derived words. Being ordinarily Y
..:-~'!_.;

... ~-...,.-J'S"'

- - - - ......

~."

148

LIFE.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

"Hardy, to whom this was addressed, seized the boat-hook, and,
standing with one foot in the water, pressed the end of the boathook against the gunwale, at the full stretch of his arm, and so, by
main force, kept the stern out. There was just room for stroke oars
to dip, and that was all. The starting-rope was as taut as a harpstring ; will Miller's left hand hold out?
"It is an awful moment. But the coxswain, though almost dragged
backwards off his seat, is equal to the occasion. He holds his watch
in his right hand with the tiller rope."
From this point the narrative of tbe boat race is carried on in the
present until the different crews are well at work ; then a long paragraph in the past details Tom's sensations as he is rowing ; then the
account is finished in the present. But there is no unadvised mixing
of present and past.

longer and more sonorous than words of Saxon ongm,
they ~~£~;-;,ci1-;:-ci~~t~~C 'to-- inake~voli1me '-6f sound
• •&\; .
correspond
..
!.9......Y.9.b!W-e~ . PJ_ ?ense, and thus to have a- de-- (;
.........................
.....,....
.
..4·
scriptive effect. .
·
~-

> ~ - .... - -... .. ·· -·· -~ -- ....... -

-~

.....,,,.,....__._. .... ~.... .. ~ ~ ..... ...._._

:-~ ,._.----

EXAMPLES. "The multitudinous seas" is more effective than
the broad or vast seas; "he has a prodigious appetite for gossip,"
than "a great appetite." "The whole book, and every component
part of it, is on a gigantic (more descriptive than large) scale." "The
stupendous (more effective than huge) mass of paper which lies before us."

r

Closely akin to such descriptive words, and having
~ nearly the same effect, are names that have come through
history or literature to have some well-known association
'. with definite traits of character.
·

,j\

EXAMPLES. - "He is a very Judas of treachery." - "Some mute,
inglorious Milton." - "Thieves welcome him to the polls, and offer ·
him a choice, which he has done nothing to preven t, between Jeremy
Diddler and Dick Turpin." - "One is haunted by a discomforting " '
suspicion that the names so painfully deciphered in hieroglyphics or ·
arrow-head inscriptions are only so many Smiths and Browns mask·
ing it in unknown tongues."

The historic present, so-called, is the
present tense used in narrating some- ' {
thing that is past. It is a useful device
1
to know and to have at hand when there
is a particular demand for vividness and life, but young
;vriters are liable to impair its effect by using it too much
or on too common-place occasions. When used it should
.y be used consistently, and not mixed with the past except
I .for some clear reason.
62. For narrative
1 intensity, know the
use of the historic
present.

I

I!

ILLUSTR.<\.TION. Notice where, and for what reason,
of the following runs into .the historic present : -

149

~rop_~.§-~E.~LW~,!JI?.h£J.§...&:£.~.J:..h.~~-s.~m~
in J?.~i;icigle, a tr,£P.!.-~l!!.g_.~~!,y_ a
metapj1Qx.,,,.~~p ressed in a single word.
A metaphor, as indi~ted by the ·~l~;i~~ti~n...of'th~-- ~or4
(µ,ETa, cp€pw, bear over, transfer) is a transfer of meanings, ""
one..lhing or act being named or implied wh~Jl.. ~1}9.t4e.r..
is ..-meant.
It is the commonest
.. ...
..... and most serviceable
... ....
figure in language.
63. For condensed
vividness, use trope
or metaphor.

~-

~ -~

~

--..,..,..~~~ ~

EXAMPLES. - "I have told you, I think, that Lady Hester could
,.: ·deal fiercely with those she hated. One man above all others (he
, is now up-rooted from society, and cast away forever) she blasted
with her wrath. You would have thought that in the scornfulness
of her nature, she must have sprung upon lier foe with more of
fierceness than of skill, but this was not so," etc.
Here a man is spoken of as if he were a tree ; then later she is
said to have sprung upon a fo e, as if she were a wild beast and
in action, whereas she did so only in words .

The caution in the use of this figure is to avoid mixing '/.
one metaphor with another. When a figurative word is
.c hosen, keep its meaning well m .mind till it is worked

2. Of synecdoclie.
"A hundred hands were busy then." The
word hands is used for the whole person, because this was the part
of the person with which the activity was associated; the hands were
the effective part.
I'

out, and do not through thoughtlessness add an incongruous unage.
EXAMPLE. - Consider how many discordant things the writer
thinks of successively in the following : . " Peace has poured oil on th e troubled waters, and they blossom
like the rose. She has come down among us in her floating robes,
bearing 'he olive branch in h er beak. In one hanq sh e holds the
scales of justice, and with th e other folds h er wings. The American
eagle broods . over his nest in the rocky fastnesses, and his young
sh all lie down with the lamb. We have gone t~rough the floods,
and have turned th eir hot ploughshares into pruning-hooks. May
we be -as lucky in the future, preserving forever our Goddess of
Liberty one and insepai"able."
·It will be noted that most of th ese mixed and incongruous figures
rise from the thoug htless use of stock expressions .and co1~1mon quotations. This is perhaps the chief source of 1-i:iixed metaphor; see,

.

J

value, use simile.

.

\

• '<,:

EXAMPLE. - "I was walking on the barren., clif;fs of si.r:i and soqow ,,'..<• .
.~metaf hor) near: W el~l~pool '.' (literal).
·
.
•. · · .,. ',.'; ( · _.

These two figures of ~peech are es64 To utilize the
· 11
· pnncip
· · 1e. Tl1ey
._ serviceablepartofthe
sentia
y t h e same 111
~. idea,'Usemetonymyor
consist . in taking just the part (sysynecdoche.
.
(
·
.
necdoche) or the accompanunent me1
,
'.
#
..
.
tonymy) of the idea that best serves the present purpose,
, ! and naming the idea by that, letting the rest go. . The
~dvantage of these figures is in securing a concreter and
so more specific term; see Rule 46.
.
·
EXAl\'lPLES. - 1. Of metonymy. "The · bright death quivered at
the victim's throat." Here the word death is used to na".le the ~ ·
instrument that deals the death, - the knife. - " The fortress : was. · ·
weakness itself." H ere the quality with which we are most concerned ·
stands for the thing that has the quality.
·
··:

I~

I

/ •

'

"·1
I

.

'

;·+.

A mixture of metaphor and literal produces an effect
similar to the mixing of metaphors.

·/

.

EXAMPLE. - "We may · liken the precipitation of the northern
barbarians upon the. expiring Roman E mpire to the heaping of fresh
fuel upon a dying fire; for a time it burns lower, and seems almost
extinguish ed, but soon it bursts through the added fu el, and flames
up with redoubled energy and ardor."

It !!1-·ves much stre~1gth to ·a.n asser- /
.-A
~~
"f-...._
tion, when its truth is perfectly certain, /
gation.
t? _p~1!__~~ - ~n__ tI2e__ !_~~l2_~ .-of. _a__q~.~§ti9!1; it ~
is ~~-i~.ltl.<E.l:ead~were chall~n.e;~sL ~2._gaiI~say it. Inter. ~ · rogation, _as a figure of speech, asks a question not 1in .
,order to get an answer, but as ~iwyjyjgg,~~:fJL.t~
opposite
_...... of what is asked.
·

.

, ~·

mustra~i~e

It is of great aid to the clear coricep- \
tion of any object or idea to say it is
like something else, something better k11own or more ·
viv.i dly. realized in mind. This is tlie simplest and most
direct way of connoting an .i,dea with something else.
65. For

Rule 13.
·1

151

LIFE.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

150

66. For trenchant
assertion, useinterro.

EXAMPLES. - " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?"
(ln.;plication, too strong to put in simple assertion- He shall.)" Your fathers, '\.vhere are th ey? (implication - no traceable where)
and the prophets, do they live for ever?" (implication -no.) Note
that any answer th a t can be supplied seems weak, th e implication
havfng so much more life.

It -S9.E~~-~§.-~S:!Lve~'l_!1d ..Yivid_ feeFng
if, instead of saying tam ely "It IS a
fine morning," we hold it up to contemplate, as it were, and say, "What a morning ! " ·or if
· instead of saymg, "This IS indeed a beautiful view," we

6'1. For lively realc:- lzation, use exclama.... : .tfon.

'

. 152

........,..~

'

~:.. ~ ... ~.,.. ........ ~ .. ~ .. ·~~ 't' ....... _~-- .. ~~ .... ., . .

·,.

-

,..,,
NOTE. - For this reason it is in hazardous taste to begin a piece,
· ,•~· as some do, with exclamation; the reader is not worked up to the
emotion yet, and the effect on him is liable to be either of bombast or
of sentimentalism. To be
exclamation
must seem to come
.... .,...natural,
.
..
.
unsought.

~When the .contrast consists in giving very briefly th& , J
oppos~te~f -"wh~t th·~ , reader would expect, it 'is called ~

Epigram. ·

.

H yp~ybole cop sis ts in overs~ating ·
some
qualitf ' dr - ~haracteristic · of an
l .
"obj ect, the reader understanding that .
it is the lively vigor of r ealization that gives rise to the
.
~
.
e~~~!.2.n.
The fi g,ure is much used in description of
thi1)gs or acts, and · ·not infrequently has a humorous
effect.
'

68. For vigor of con- ·
ception, know the
value of hyperbole~

EXAMPLES. - "He was the uglz"est of the sons of me n."~" The
c,oat was a'.!,!.:!!!,. too large for hirh." - "His portly form displays a(i
, acre of glassy shirt front, with a di amond as large as a goose egg." Nobo_dy is misle~ by such · exaggerations as these; and, ta~efully_
~~~ th e~iJi..!.~-<!~~i;;_rjptive effec;!_.as hardly anything else could.

When one idea is contrasted to
another both are brought out into
· greater prominence; they enliven each
·x other. A~~-s, or contrast, lik! c)i~ ~~ (compare Rule
,; \ 54), is .?1:.~!_!_h_~__great _C2Qn~tructive princip~es of F_~erature; ·
it is produced not _only in the structure of phrases and
sentences but also in larger ways, - in contrasted moods,
~ characters, and scenes.
.
Tomakeoneidea
s~t .off another, use
. antithesis.
69.

x

EXAMPLES. - " I thought this man had been a lord among wits,
- but I find he is only a wit among lords.'' - " Better to reign in hell ·
(says Satan in Paradise Lost) than serve in heaven."

.

.

(

EXAMPLES. - '~ erb.osity is cured by a wide vocabulary" (not by
.a small one, as you would. naturall y think)~-'- To s~y, "You are not
' ·.vicious, you are virtuous;" is antithesis ; .to say, ''You are not vici?~s,
··.·:." /. '·. you are vice" is epig\am.. The un expected turn gives its character.
'

~

·

153

LIFE.

SPECIAL 9BJECTS . IN :STYLE ..

say, "Beautiful ! " It _i ~ . t_l1eJeeli9_g, therefore, that p{o·duces the e:Xcl_?-mation, not the exclamation that produc~s
the feeling; h~nce ii),_: using_thi.s_figq:r.§ ~}e~yy_ri.t~-1l.e..e~s to __
be :rnre ther.:.ls emot10n enough to 1ust1fy and impel it.

.

.

'

... ~"'

II. .

I

·.

Exercises in givmg Life to_ Style.. _Life in· style is
. -· so eminently a quali.t y or' the i;erson that no one can say
another mitst write in figures, or use any particular device
to enliven what h e writes. All thal'· can be at~empted
here is to show by means of exercises how a figurative
manner of expression may improve one's style.
1.

Amend the fol~owing sentences as directed:-.
.- , . - c ,

There has been a slow '.~ain , all day, and the streets are full ': 0£ tl;in"'~i~e.: (More descriptive effect.) ·
.
As feudal lord he could muster fifteen hundred@ien armed
witli spears. (U~ilize serviceable part of the term.)
"( Truly, it, is grea9 folly to trust such extravagant professions ..
(More lively realization.)
·
A young chaplain had · preached ~ sermon of great length.
Lord .M ulgra ve, bo]'.ing to ·him, said>tl}~.re were so1;ie thing~ in
~ the sermon that/ lie had. never heard ' before.
The flattered
chaplain remark~ that it was a common text and that he could.
not hope to have said anything new on the subject. At which
Lord Mulgrave said, ·t~at· he ·J1eard the clock .s trike twice. (Give
more life to the discourse.) · .
. . With eyes anci . faculti~s f,0r working in) the light, he chooses
:rather to ,.i~dulge in evii . •~ (Make one m~mber set off the other.)
1

1

\.:...

.

.'

154

155

LIFE.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

'

~{ow

~i:J1.fi' ~~t.

·t.,t#'o .,,•.~/
· .
. 1 (E .
Church they
(Give more life to the disA ~armshpf morality m~kes lus act10n~4pa~ata~ ; · " ~amme ~
.
course.)
the figure. ) tt·-? ()+..,, ~v~t. 1.C.. \ '\·\-~.<")-·~(-<~-$ ')'¥~'.. ~, f--trt,..-1 ( ,(],# ~lfitlv/ii ·
Channing's mind was planted as thick with thoughts as a backThe noises of the .city voices_.z,J~.~!!§,. . and marching feet, fall
wood of his own magnificept Ian?. (!).ow complete the idea?)
together in my ears like ~;·;.(eb"luplefe'1n~e~~
I come for shelter (ii1to) your lfou~e~J (Use serviceable part
This is an event o£.(gitf03;tp;;rtance to all the country.
·: '
( More descriptive effe{\t.l
/ f.. 1ipH
of Iid~a.) f
. l b. f l.
f.1_'~ ' .. {, .. ,', ~
(-if,.~
~
You are a veritable ~ for ferreting out the secret happent i: a avonte 1a it o 11s to go \ ~nve:ti 5,'.MW,,..&"),~g?,ut .all the
undesuable marshes and ponds of the reg10n[lo6kingf6 r msects
ings of the neighborhood. (S~pply---~le~criptive n,:;vr~U
and s~n~ll '1r,e,P,t~l~~~ / l ~~~re descriptive effect.)
.
The whole poorly con . ru te ~- ul d~ng. came(!~fimJ~own,
Ram·possesses ui hqmd form the power of producmg)forests,
and several persons were epnve o lif~m the rums. (More
wheatfields, flowers. (Condense for vividness and iterate for
descriptive effect.)
_
· dist}_f!~ion. -. Rule 55.)
As he reached the deserted house he saw unmistakable signs
ou -W.g~I-y--n~t}]fuse to support a measure so reasonable
that some one had just p"receded him. H~re at last is the
'lt.-0.
.
{\ ·'-•./V1'al. 1
.
1
and beneficent as this. '1 (Make assertion more trenchant.)
person he{.had Jso long been trackmg. He (peepe :;cautious y .
.
.
r,,.,-... " " '('
An immense man with a backetwo feet ' and- three inches)
through the uncurtained window. There sits the man now,
broad. (Livelier ~~ijzation,) /
·
before a dim~ sr~oking fire, panting, and clr:nched. with rain.
He was the ~~rlr~tlnJr'",prophet)of the new dispensation.
His c.lothes {Were)torn- ~nd muddy, and he hu~self is a melan~
(Use
descriptive name.I \
.o / d-.
choly object as he sat)there so lonely. (Examme tenses.)
·
I thought a~iit~d~ ~f swords must have~~~tri'w1 from
His v~, ,naturally good, had contracted itself into a plain. their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with
.
. . tive ~~l t~Ynd into1~ation.) (More descrip~ive effect.)
"
., insult. (More descriptive effect and force.)
/t:.,••·1ifl•W«(Pj)e moonlight sleep(!_ndeed sweetl~ upon this bank. (More
A fleet of eighteen saillng.(Vessel~ has just come to anchor
..
livlly }~alization.).9 ~
in the harbor. (Use se.~iceab.le part of term.)
.
(Certdi~v~ neverfwronged yo~(ifr have I ever grudged
~
.
In
a
m.om~nt
the
~riird'~fi5~'11)
was
upon
them
deluging
the
you y~~J_ig!;Jful ~ue. (Make assert10n more trenchant.)
. " ..
,,,. _ <:;ountry with mvaders. · (Examme figure.)
( It .fs . maee_d ) difficult fo~{!.,..£11-!1 to. be true, when ~11 Ins .
. ' . If you desire the true profit of intercourse, speak to a man who
associat~ons hav~ b:en w1th ~~~ompan10.ns ~o are w1cked.1 "
4
· ", .possesses character, not to the man who possesses wealth, or
" ~ 1 (More~
alizat10~,
nO' off"'
me!PhersM
·,..,
,
~.ive 'Jv re.
fl' ff
v.
..nd· better~ett
~ >
. 1\..,of
~1-:.wr:-'w
,
•
TWol.;~T-hl;
i ~ fe110W h
. arge amount 0 airt On his lian S 1, .
v" costly ~loth~s, or a.handsome, empty; fa~ ~.,.Clf se servi~~~?Ie part.)
·' '!
_.
' ' He imagmes himself to be ~i1c&ss6r ohl'ie'7iiost eminent
and face. (More vigor of conception.)
··man who ever lived/ for wisdom. (Descriptive name.)
t )
'f:.. A gentleman said to his butler i tl1fl,t heJ expectfl~ six c~..1 ,.
C\. t{Q.._
7--1:-6 rJ~'- 1 1
l
...,..
'
. : •. In the repair o{ the sewers the city emplo,;:~d thirty e._~r ~
~n to dine · with .a:wi on (sue 1 a dayJ
The butler .
· ·
-.
· continually. (Use servi<:;eable part.) 11 . "" {. \
/ •
~li~~r they ~\e High Chu;'ch or i:.o~ Church .. ~he as~q~~ . ,
.~ ·,He {Was calling out in a great voic~~iid a"~tught.tone)hat
ished ~aster asked I wh~t on e~rth. ¢l~at~ ~.?~l.~ J\s1~mfy to t[~.. _,
,-;.he wobld never submit to be imposed upon. (More descriptive
butler{ The butler replied t!:a1Y\-mgm~ec1 everythmg, because:.'
; <'~ff ect.)
if they ~igh Church they '~}'\irink, and if they'(~
~ fl

lY

1

.,j

J,

. ·

\ !

.#. ,./

if

.. ' ..;. ' ~,-

. ..

156

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN

. LI.FE.

STY~E.

~z.

The rewriting of the following, which is an extract
from an oration, will give occasion to note not only how
in various ways the expression may be enlivened, but also
what means may be taken to enlarge and enrich the
thought, ~11ake one part prepare for another, and the like ..

. 4~ pe1:so~1s who. are ~:C1dying (49) }1~e be~t literature,, y;o~ are
conung mto relat10nsh1p ; (45, 63) with kmgs a of the earth.
You know whom I meap 1 by kings. lhey are the men who
,. ~rite 'the great poems; (55); histories (55), works of fiction (55), ·
· ~>essays · (54); h; men who'explore the s~~rets ·(69) c of thought
\.. '-or : rise (6J) to heights e of im.a gination; men who " find:i(G ~) f .
in life and chfiracter
and
nature those ~truths v~hich · are
,
.
'
f best (46, 61):g for mankind.It Your education brings you into .
· tl;e companyi _of · thes~·-. _They talki with you; they give(t j k
you. of the very bes.t wh1c11 (58) th~y have; they never chide I
.you for being ignorant, but en,courage you continually to make
them your friends. 1.it Th.us they make themselves · kings of
1
·
'• "
your mind. 11 Thi.S1s ' (66) what iftruly is to be ~king . . ~Nol " .
),.u 0th.er ~nd off monarch could (66) rule so kind!Jr and , r~yally, :' ~­
·-sg \powerfully · a1J~ ( intimate ly (69). 0 The only ~·eal, kin'g }f.,.0 e ;''f
king of the heart; and '1one \(66) can ~nd a place"J.J so weleome q ~ ·
as ,those whose won)§ inspir"e you.t , ·. ·
·
· '
A§..~isciples s of these you are their subjects. · But (69) t ,: .. '....7, ··.
) he glory 11 of their sovereignty is that ,they make their subjects . · ·
·' free (69).v You are glad to folldw t~1em; . tgeir service is: yo.u r
higly:!st,, choice. In re~P.onding to . their"Y words, in accepting
thefr ~ 'l<l~3:1~, . ,You, ar( em~.1;~ipat~d ' (45) from many a petty
prejudice (55\_n arrow view (55), vulga\usage; you are tliinkink1-6.inew thoughts/ living in a n ew world,' in which' (58) life is '(69) x , . ·... ·
. · / nobility.. For you follow the .king (69) ~ as n~embei:s
.of tlie- .~ ._. .
.
. ·''1·
royalJL~sehold, where you can hear his words.z Whatever is .'·in hist ~nind aa you are privileged to receive into yours; nay,hb ·,
you are heirs of his royalty, just as far as your life. lrns capacity ·
for kingliness.
... ... !...

a

~·

...

f

~f...

I

;

t

157

This is typified, in some sense,cc in the name which (58) we
give to any educ.ation which (35, 58) passes the limits of the
com;non school. We call it a liberal education; and that word
liberal, you know, is derived (45) dd from the Latin fiber, free.
I suppose it used to be the education of a freeman (50 ),ee as
distinguished fro.m the education ff of the toiling and servant
class.gg But in these days when education is diffused ( 49, 5 7),
while no one is exempt · from the law of work, no one is under
the necessity of being (49) a slave. The great books of the
ages are (49) hh accessibJe everywhere and to everyone, and (49)
have power to set the ii mind ii free; they make a liberal
· education kk available to all. Surely then you will not (66) be
confined (63) 11 to little reports (46) mm when yo u can read the
works of (63) Homer and Isaiah and Milton. You will not (66)
feed (63) 1111 your mind on newspapers (46) 00 when you can study
the books of (63) PP Shakespeare and Bacon, Wordsworth and
Tennyson. These are your true kings, qq the directors of your
liberal education,qq whose companionship at once enriches the
world in which you are moving and creates a deeper world within.
NOTES TO TH E AnovE. It will be noted that the >vhole piece is conceived as a metaphor ; it is in a figure that we are regarded as following
kings or as being subjects. One great part of the life or the style is to
keep our idea constant and consistent in this figurative way of looking at
the subject.
· a. If only the word "kings " is used there may be danger of misleading
th e ·reader as if you meant a literal king ; you will better it th erefo re by
adding an unfigurative phrase, "and great ones." - b. Put the longer term
last, and note th e effect of climax. - c. Choose a figurative word, e. g.
. "depths," to make antithesis with the word" heights" succeeding. -d. Use
·a more striking word for rising to h eights of imagination, e. g. "soar." e. Sharpen the antithesis by an epithet which may be read at once as literal
· ai1d fi gurative, e. g. "lofty." - f. Put exacter and more sonorous word,
e.g. "discern," - g. Use more specific word, e.g. "salutary." - h. Intro. duce words that indicate !tow salutary for mankind, e. g. "for th e guidance
and elevation of mankind." ------: i. Introduce an epithet that shall r emind the
·; reader you are talking of kings, e. g. ''.august." - j. The verbs of this
· sentence are suitable to the idea of our being in their company. - k. Omit

.)}

158

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

"to" for rapidity, - 1. Enlarge the thought by adding another word, "or
reproach." - m. Kings who are friends are also guides; indicate this by
adding "and counsellors," - u. The mind indicates on! y a part of the man;
add "and heart."-:- o. Group the four adverbs so as to make two an tithe·
tic pairs, e.g." kindly yet p owerfully, royally yet,'' etc. - p. Indicate where:
"in your h eart," and you thus use th e thought of the previous clause. q. How would it sound to put another word indica ting your affec tion, e. g.
"warm and welcome?" - r. This is not full enough ; add, "whose rich
experiences are at your service to guide you." - s. You are more than disciples, you a re also followers ; indicate it. - t. Make an antithesis to what
is coming : "But you are not their slaves. The,'' etc. - u. Add epithet,
indicating highest glory, e. g. "crowning. " - v. Put in antithesis to bring
out "free" : e. g. "not bound but." - w. Put in epithets to give effect tQ
words and ideals, e.g. "glowing words," "lofty ideals." - x. Use antithesis
to set off "nobility,'' e. g. "not abasement but." - y. Prepare for this also
by an~ithetic tho ught, e. g. "not afar, as if you were dwellers in some remote province, but." - z. The thought is not full and suggestive enough ;
add "and share in his thoughts." - aa. Adel epithet · suggesting how far •
his mind is above yours, e. g. "great." - bb. The word "nay" strengthens
the clause it introduces. _- cc. "In some sense" is necessary, because it is
not the prima;y suggestion of the word liberal to typify that. - cld. Best to
use short and simple word h ere, "comes." - ee. Put it so that" freeman" will
stand as near to "free," in previous sentence, as good English will allow. ff. Think a moment, and you will realize that the servant class had no
education in the times here contemplated; add, "or rather no-education," gg. vV e might have said " of a slave" here, as antithetic to "freeman," but ·
this longer term is used so as to reserve the word slave for the end of the
n ext sentence, where it will be mo re effective. - hh. Subordinate so as to
give emphasis to "h ave power." - ii. Omit "the." - jj. They set free
m ore than mind; add "and imagination." - kk. Not what we call a liberal
education; you n eed therefore to add "in reality if not in name." - ll. Put
the most suggestive and strong word possible here, e. g. "cramped."mm. "the gossip of th e day." - nn. Another trope will greatly enrich the
suggestiveness; say "starve." - oo. Make explicit by selecting the unedifying parts of newspapers ; e. g. "markets and sports and crimes." pp. Recur to the idea of companionship: "talk with." - qq. Notice that
"kings" and "liberal education" virtually sum up what h as been said by
directing our thought to the leading ideas of preceding paragraphs. This
is useful by way of conclusion. 1
1 The author is aware that the above directions virtually recommend his
own individual style ; but no other way to his purpose seemed open.

----SMOOTHNESS.

3. Work out the following problems.

159

·;:- - I . ....._

F~)njt.~ tive words for the following,(!~

~frk ilrtri1at1ghty manner I to speak m the feeble voice of the

aged; to utter loud and boisterous sounds; a confused crowd
and rush; to fasten eyes on an object; a struggling combat or ·
contention; the barking of hounds.
Find metaphors or tropes to express the following: a successiul record; the results of long activity; a word that has been
used by everybody; to take a text away from its context; the
ridge of a line of hills.
Point out the metaphors of the following, and tell how each
conceives its obj ect: "But all Burns's qualities are on the
great scale. Look at his humor. This laughter is no crackling
of thorns under a pot, but a sheer blazing and roaring of piledup faggots of fun. It is the very riot and revelry of mirth;
there is something deinoniacal about this hilarity. Even the
coarseness that goes with it hardly offends us, it is so manifestly and naturally of a piece with , the utter license and
abandonment which this lord of literary misrule has for the
nonce decreed."

V.

SMOOTHNESS.

~~tli!_JDQSL impoFta_p.t

_qua1Jty of style, and therefoJ,"e
~o be sought at the sacrifice oi_~.Q1.!1ething bet ~J, b~
still a very important quafity-:ts smoothness. It is in
'-..
...__......
general the quality the n eed of which becomes ap~
w~~~~a_Q~ __his .~'.'9.1Jf-~£1lOJJd; and, indeed,
scarcely any advice can be of more constant importance
than the advice to r~ad · your ,~y21.:._~_.al9.Rc1- _'!.~ yQu _go~alo_ng, ·
listening to it carefully,'""ancl . thus submitting it at every
step to the test of the ear.

----

--

160

SMOOTHNESS.

I.

hear of it will, I am sure, deeply lament tlze occurrence," would have
made the repetition too obvious and too barren.

Rules promotive of Smoothness. -The main things
on which attention must be concentrated are, repe~~~_ions
of siJ.?ll~s~unds; comb~E-atiQ.11~ -. h.~--~~.....12.~~~~2.!!lJ.Ce; and
the w!l ac~en~ed . q~ unaccented sypa~~~~" ~.u<;,~~ed each
other.
· '·
Many of the ideas in every comp.osition have to be repeated; in the very
act of presenting their various parts
and aspects the words that designate them have to recur ·
again and again. To repeat the identical word over and
over produces a very crude and awkward effect.

'lo. Have choice of
synonymous words
ifor repeated ideas.

ILLUSTRATION ..- To say, "This is a very painful circumstance;
a circumstance that I much regret ; and all who hear of it will, I am
sure, regret that such a circumstance should have occurred," - makes
the reader think at once that the writer was either very poor in words .
or very indifferent to ·grace of expression. Doubtless synonyms near
enough to serve his purpose are at hand ; he might say, for instance,
"This is a very painful circumstance ; one that I much regret ; and
all who hear of it will, I am sure, be sorty that such a tlzing should
have occurred."

A caution, however, is necessary here. "Th~~_ep~.t.i!i£.n
of the 9~me_E}.~~.[...~P .~~,!~tl.Y. djf(~~~nt .word~ is.,a:..worse.
fa{i'itthan the repetition of the same word." 1 Such
repetition - marking time without advancing, as it were
- is called Tautology.
NOTE.- Thus, to have made the above sentence read, "This is a
very painful event.; a circumstance that I muclz regret_,· and all who
Abbott, How to Write Clearly, p. 40. The above example is taken .
from Abbott, but slightly varied to suit the present purpose better. The
correction is made merely for the fault in question, not to get an elegant
sentence.
1

161

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

l

Words. employed for repetition ought to have enough 'f.
difference in meaning to give a new turn to the idea An
idea expressed by a particular term, for instance, may be 'f...
. rep~ated by one more general; or in the repet1t10n we'/.....
may put not the term itself but the definition or some
characterization of it.
EXAMPLES. - I. Repetition of particular term by general. " As v'
·he rounded the rock, to his great surprise he saw a bear only a few /'yards away. The beast discovered him at once."
2. Repetition of terms by definition.
"One ought to have a
conscience in literature as in morals ; it is of great importance that
the reading-matter of the people should be regulated by a serious
. regard for what is true and reasonable and pure." In this sentence
we not only repeat without seeming to do so, but we reveal ,i n
the repetition what we mean by the terms "literature " and "con~
. science."

Y..,

Repeated words, as spoken of in the
preceding rule, involve, of course, repe- t
··tition of the same sound; and this is one reason why,
unless the repetition is desirable on other grounds (see ·
Rule 5 5), they shot1ld be avoided. Even more prevalent, }
and to be detected only by reading aloud, is the inad·' vertent repetition of the same sound, like a rhyme.
'lI. Be careful of

I

repeated sounds.

EXAMPLE. - "As I gazed upon the mighty work, I said to myself,
Now Athens is indeed secure.; come Greek or come Persian, nothing
will subdue her.' "

1

Not always can such repetition
it cannot, the writer can at least
repeated sound into a place where
the other, or have the same stress

.J

be avoided ; but when
endeavor to drive the \'-it will not balance with
of voice.

162

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

EXAMPLES. -

Compare the following sentences :
"To have your name fill a
" To have a whole realm of
thought, · or activity, or. wise whole realm of thought, or accounsel, ringing with y~:mr name, tivity, or wise counsel, this is the
- this is the real at1d worthy real and worthy glory that you · . '.t:
glory that you may crown with may .crown with the title fame." ··
the title fame."
Note how unobtrusive the repeated sound has become.

I

A frequent and natural inadvertence in repeated sounds -~ , .·
is the "thoughtless use of two adverbs or other words -.
ending in -ly, one after the other.
. j}
EXAMPLES. - "He has had such long-continued disease of the eyes _.
that he is now nearly ent£rely blind. - Mr. T has an extremely lovely . ,
residence in Hampshire County.

Single words that are harsh in sound .
cannot, of course, be avoided, · when ..
they convey the exact sense. But when·.
they must occur, immediate attention should be directed • : ·'
to make the harshness stop with them, and not be per~ c: ·
petuated in a combination of harsh sounds. Most of such
combinations occur inadvertently ; it is important, therefore, as important as in music, to keep the ear alert and .:.. ·
well trained.
'12. Test your work
by ear for harsh combinations.

EXAMPLES. - "The closing notes of the anthem died away among "''
the vaultings of the high-arched church." Such a word as "edifice" ·:
or "structure" would obviate this difficult sound.
NOTE. - Of course a harsh sound or combination may be desirable .. ,
.
'. ·~
to express a harsh idea ; see Rule 61, above.

It will be perceived by the
that when a succession of unaccented
the accents.
syllables come together the effect is a, ·<
peculiar huddling of sounds; a number of accented sy~laF·
';3. To make expression flowing, test

SMOOTHNESS.

163

bles together, on the other hand, compel a slow, dragging
utterance. Either of these effects may be desirable for a
purpose ; but they do ndt make the sty.le flowing ; an
alternation of accented and unaccented sounds is needed
for that.
EXAMPLES OF EFFECT. - 1 . Unaccented syllables. If we had
such a combination.as " arbitrarily interrelated," the ·seven unaccented
syllables tcicrether would make a mere half intelligible huddle.
2. Acce1~ed syllables.
Pope's' line, "Up the high hill he heaves a
huge round ston~,'' mov es slowly because most of the words are
emphatic and so require accent ; the repetition of the h-sound serves
to strengthen the accent.

II.

Exercises for acquiring Smoothness. - Smoothness is
acquired by learning to think at every step how your . ·
sentences sound; until that habit is acquired, no one can r)
be unerring in his combinations of letters ~nd syllab:es.
This gives importance and value to the practice of readmg
·aloud, a practice too much neglec!ed.
1.

cRead aloud and revise the· following sentences.

The poorest in the land have medicine and nursing freely
at their command.
The young fellow is to his relatiye.s a veritable thorn in the
flesh; no wonder t_h en that the young fellow's ,r~laVves·p ccasion­
ally groan :-tt l}aving such a thorn c_q1~.tinually,troubling)them. ·
. . The stra11.d~ ~ere ~tretche~(hrough an alley seventy-five feet .
. lh length.
:.; :
There is no one here who is competent to attend • him; and
if a serious emergency should arise, which in the present state.of
.things would be no. ~ urpri~e.. wno ~~uld there _9e to defen~ him? '
'Twas thou that soothed:st 'the rough l_:ugg'd1bed of pa~n.

.
164

SiV!OO THNESS. .

SPECIAL OBJJ.:;CTS IN STYLE.

No one can be truly <holy, or mai1ifest a 'thoroughly lowly ,;
character in this corrupted life.
·The merry little stream seemed\to like. to ooze through every
l barrier ! which the utmost effort · of the carrier could build
against it.
The lady was distinguished, by a (sostly and )showy brooch,
with which she pinned h er costly lace scarf. The brooch was
remarked upon by many, who wondered th<l;t a per~on in ~1er
1 .
station should be distinguished by such ·a. showy brooch. \
Are these the thanks that thou hast thought to) rewar d thy
benefactors ~ith-h'
The meeting was closed . fully · as peremptorily as it wa~
called.
Edward Everett, in a celebrated~ oration, named Washington
the beacon-light of the American nation; and the oration
describes ~hat a ' beacon-light , his upright character and his.'
sound judgment were to the
.., nation in the niost critical period
of its history.
.
'
I'h~ river has (a nam~t~~ sanie G'ls the) name that ~he Indians _
gave it.
Three days passed and ·he received no answer to his petition
·for relief; another day . ~assed' and 'he s~i,U received no answer;
a · fifth and . a sixth day ·, passed, · and Still . no ;answer 1to his
petition for relief was received. His case was getting desperate.
How ·· e~1ine~tly ' trustworthily he has PFformed his task;
better service tl~an his i1o employers could ·ask.
The orders ·of ~he department arc (ordinarily· posted 01~ _,t!}e
bulletin board, . ·in orden that mistakes may be (detecte~i and
'

'

corrected.

'

'.\-·

th~-- follo~ing

Rewrite
little narrative, amending
according to the notes and references. 1
2.

1 This narrative is put in here· partly, as the previous compositions have
been, to furnish opportunities for revision of the style, and partly to
illustrate what ~ay be made a valuable r_b.etorical exerCise, namely, th~ re·

165

,•
I/ '

'

I

11

.

The king ( stopped a l his horse an.cl laid a · his hand on Sir
Lancelot'·s arm, and
asked ;what noise thaLwas ·(6o) . . ·. t ~: ,
c'l: \
-~ ..\ ,Sir Lancelot (7ci) fsaid \(7o) (that h~ heardlno~hing, except the
'" r · •
.
.•
..
'
:~ sound (61) b of the wind, and ~e asked \6o)j whaf~here was(54) c
to hear in such a desolate place as tha~.1 ·· ' . · . . ·
King Arthur ''asked this question as he c1 land Sir Lancelot
were riding together under a precipice of rock which overhung
the path (57).e The path led through (49) a lonely ravine far
from any human abode, and it was raining and windy, and the
ride was very uncomfortable (49):f King Arthur's (70) question
was the first word that was (23) g spoken for some time.
·
" There," said ( 7 o) h the king; " do you not hear it again ? -"It
sounds strangely like the wail of a child; but where can it be ? "
As he spoke a blast of wind bore down to their ears from
some place which was (58) seemingly high up i in the i air, a
faint wail (70 ).k They strained 1 their eyes in the di;ection of
the wail (70) k and could just make out, but dimly because the
air was full_ eyf mist and rain (5 7) m the stump of an old oak,
which projected out from the cliff (58), and way (2) out toward
the end a mass which was like a tuft (58) and looked 11 like a
large (46) 0 nest.
t

~

.v

•

•

•

.

producing of a poetical passage in the spirit and style of prose. It is a
prose version of the following lines from Tennyson's Last Tournament
(lines 10-22): ( "For Arthur and Sir Lancelot riding once
Far down beneath a winding wall of rock
Heard a child wail. A stump of oak half-dead, ·
From roots like some black coil of carven snakes,
Clutch'd at the crag; and started thro' mid air
Bearing an eagle's nest: and thro' the tree
Rushed ever a rainy_ wind, and thro' the wind
Pierced ever a child's cry: and crag and tree
Scaling, Sir Lancelot from the perilous nest,
This ruby necklace thrice around her neck,
And all unscarr'd from beak or talon, brought
A maiden babe; whicq Arthur pitying took,
Then gave it tb his Queen to rear."

166

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

"That is surely a human cry,'' said- Sir Lancelot, as he
gave his spear to the king and began to unfasten his heavy
armor. "Some hapless child has been carried away by some
(7 o) eagle; and we must try and ( 2) rescue it, though· it seems
wholly out of reach; and probably I shall find it all torn and
mangled if I get at the n est (66)." P
Having unfastened his heavy armor (7 o), which with his
horse were (29, 32) taken in charge by the king, Sir Lancelot
(70) q addressed himself to the ascent. It was an extremely
difficult and perilous one.r The rock was nearly perpendicular
(S 7), and on its face could be found only here and there a
foothold which was precarious (58), made by some twisted
roots or by a ledge which slightly projected (58); and often
the king trembled for Sir Lancelot's (70) safety as some frail
sprout would give way or the treacherous stones would come
(61) s away (7 1). At last, however, Sir Lancelott reached the
nest, and after stopping a moment to rest (7 1) and to shout
a cheery assurance back to the king, cautiously returned,u
bearing a beautiful babe on his arm,v a little girl, which (58)
had taken no harm w by so much as a scratch, and which was
(58) richly dressed and wore a ruby necklace round her neck
(52).x
" The sweet babe," said the king, touched by the perfect
trust with which the babe (7 o) nestled up to him ; "she shall
be cared for by the queen herself."
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. Note that the main thing in this first sentence is the asking of the question ; the other acts should be subordinated
to that by being put in participial phrases. If rule 60 is observed regarding ,
the question, the latter will naturally come first and then the participles. b. Use a more descriptive word, e.g. "shriek." - c. If rule 60 is observed
here, the sentence will naturally begin, "I hear nothing, my liege," etc.,
"and indeed what is there," etc. The word indeed strengthens the latter
clause. - d. The words "asked . . . as he " are quite unnecessary.-,. e.
Find a single epithet for the clause, e.g. "beetling." - f. This whole sen-'. .
tence from "the path " to "uncomfortable " could better be put in phrases
of the previous sentence ; e.g.. " in a lonely ravine, far from, etc. and in
the grim discomfort of a windy rain." - g. Use a tense that puts the action

SMOOTHNESS.

167

farther back than the action , of this sentence, else the sentence is ambiguous. - h. Use a particular kind of "said" here; the most accurate word
is "resumed." - i. "Up" is superfluous. - j. "The" is superfluous. -k.
You have used "wail" ; for these places use words more general, the most
general last. - 1. Subordinate this action to the next. - m. "Through the
misty and dripping air." - 1i. If the previous clause is shortened to an
epithet, this word becomes superfluous. - o. Name a particular aspect of
large, e.g. "huge.' - p . An interrogation will give much more life, e.g.
"who knows what torn and mangled thing I shall find," etc. - q. "The
knight.'' - r. "One" is superfluous, as also "an" in the earlier part of the
sentence. - s. Put in a descriptive word. - t. The name may be retained
here if changed previously. - u. "Made his way back" is more idiomatic ;
but if this is used look out for "back" previously, and for "bearing." See
how you can change it with this idiom used. - v. Put this phrase earlier,
so as to give "babe" emphatic place. -w. If you condensed to a word
you virtually do away with the rhyme to "arm," especially by putting
"arm " earlier as directed. - x. Give "ruby necklace" the emphatic place.

CHAPTER IV.
THE SENTENCE.

I.

T

HE sentence has already been defined, in the chapter
on Phraseology, 1 as a combination of words expressing a single, complete thought.
Hitherto we have thought of words, phrases, figures,
and the like, as having some quality in themselves or as
producing some effect by their arrangement ; but we have
not thought of a completed structure. In the sentence,
however, we have the first result of organizing materials
into a whole. This result is marked by the fact that the
grammatical relations are rounded and complete ; the
sentence, though often containing words that connect its
thought with what goes before or comes after, finishes the
thought it was constructed to express, and has a grammatical beginning and end.

The Sentence a Composition in Small. -

.

~--t-.

As the ·
thought embodied in the sentence is grammatically com-'-/ .
plete, we can treat it as in a true sense a whole composi- /
tion. It contains, in fact, as has already been pointed
out, the same elements that we shall have occ'.lsion to
. , trace in the larger forms. There is the subject· what
the sentence is about ; and there is the predicate - what
is said about the subject. Each of these has its nucleus
· 1 Page 49 above.
Phrases and clauses, also defined there, need to be
kept in mind in studying this chapter on the Sentence.

in a single word ; the subject in a noun or pronoun, the
predicate in a verb. But in order to get our subject com- .
plete we may have to modify its nucleus word or add to it
in various ways ; or our thought may be concerned with.
two or more subjects joined together. · So also with the '
predicate ; its nucleus word, which asserts some act or
state, may be variously modified; or the predicate .may
assert several acts or states, each equally open to modifi,
cation, but all making in some way for the expression of
one thought.
Besides this, also, the single thought of which the
whole sentence is composed may consist of several
thoughts, all having complete grammatical expression, but
so dependent on each other as to make up a larger unity
and have a right together as m embers of one sentence.
What relations of thought are thus permissible between
:::nembers of a sentence is a question that must in its
place be carefully investigated.

II.

Mechanical Marks of Completeness in Sentence
. Structure. -There are two marks or indications of completed structure : the ~p,it~L~.n<J.J.l:~~Pe!iod.
The office of the capital, as indicated by the derivation
{ {of the word (caput, h ead, - head-letter), is t o stan~ at the
~ginning of the sentence, as the first letter of its first
word. ·
·
The capital has also other uses besides beginning a
sentence. The chief are :
To mark the pronoun I and the interjection 0.
To begin names and titl.es of the Deity ; also (thou~h here usages .
differ) the pronouns He, Him, Thou, and Thee, referrmg to God or
NOT E . -

r

I

THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

172

173

to Christ. To go so far as to begin Who, Whose, Whom, with capitals, as some do, savors of religio us affectation.
K To begin proper names and adjectives derived from proper names. J
. ,t.._ To begin every line of poetry.
f:.. To b egin a direct quotation, or important statement, or direct
question, whether these are at th.e head of the sentence or not.
To begin the important words (that is, all except articles, preposi- 'f-tions, and conjunctions) in written or quoted titles.

l

~---

T e _..12 erjod~ as the derivat ion of the word implies
('7f€p{, ooo~, circuit), indicating that the circuit of the thought
is complete, st,en.ds at the end of the sentence. The \
word period used to, and-;;;y.- stT1Cde s.i gn.ite.. the. sentence ·
itself ; but it has come to be used more commonly f~
th ~ sig,g_ (.) with whic~ -~~- ~nd <?f the sentence is
punctuated.
~
·.
The period has other uses, namely : To mark an abbreviation or initial ; as, "Hon. (for Honorable)
J. A. (for James Abram) Garfield. "
To mark a Roman numeral; as, "Charles II. was called the,.J
merry monarch." There is a growing tendency, however, to discard ( ' this ma nner of marking Roman numerals, especially when many of
them occur toge ther ; and when they are used for page numbers (see
'
. Preface to this book) they are never punctuated.
_NOTE. -

·Two; other marks, also, are used on occasion to punctu- ~
ate the end of the sentence : rh.~:::laE1_~~i~,, and the n:3rk _of .i_n t t:~rogation . .
Th~._!12~!.. 9L~x~!?-:ation i~_dicates an emotional out-: ~ rather than a calm and organized thought ; this is
seen in the fact that the grammatical expression is generally dliptical or otherwise irregular.
EXAMPLES. - "How art thou fallen from heaven, 0 Lucifer, son
of the morning!" - "Well- if I bide, lo! this wild flower for
me ! " - The ordinary style of writing is less exclamatory than it
used to be.

.

THE SENTENCE.

174

,/ . Th~ mark --~~_!errogation _indicates ~~at:_ _a question . is
}asked ; the thought, ther efore, is so far incomplete that ·
an outside answer is needed to complete it.
·

.

"What ne ed I be so forward with him that calls not
Well, 'tis no matter; honor pricks me on."

EXAMPLE. -

on me?

Bot t.h.~ ~~~arks _are ordiqa_rily . follo~ved by a
capit_a_l beginning a ne~-~entcnce ;· not infrequ~n tiJ';-Kow.=­
ever, the connection of -their clause with the succeeding
is so close that they are buried in the middle of the
sentence and tak ~ no capital.
r. Exclamation.

"How much
greater is our nation in poetry than prose ! how much better, in
general, do the productions of i!s spirit show in the qualities of genius
than in the qualities of intelligence ! One may constantly remark this
in the work of individuals."
,.
2. Interrogation.
"It still remains to be asked : ''vVhat sort of a
great literature? a literature great in the special qualities of genius,
or g reat in the ~pecial qualities of intelligence? ' If in the former, it
is by no means sure that either our literature, or the general intellectual
life of our nation, has got already, without academies, all that acapemies can give_." ,
EXAMPLES

OF

THE

THE SENTENCE.

175

'

'

LATTE R . -

Sometimes a question may have in it so much of the
. exclamatory element as to take an exclamation mark in
· preference to its own; in"which case the interrogation is
) taken for granted and the mark most needed is given.
EXAMPLE. - "Alas ! what a re we doing all throug h life, both as a
necessity and as a duty, but unlearning the world's poetry, and
attaining to its prose ! "

III.

Exercises in Capitals and End-Punctuation. -The
punctuation marks already given in the following passages ..
belong to the interior of the sentence, and need no correc-

tion ; supply the marks that belong to the ends of sent ei1ces, and capitals as n eeded.

" .~Don't touch him J said~~lix,

let him go here, bringS pratt,

and follow me
/.,/. lie was making for a point where the street branched off on
one side towards a speedy opening between hec)._gerows on the
other towards the shabby wideness of pollarci's ~~ndf~t this
forking o~ the street , there was a large space, in the centre of
,which there was a small stone · platfor_m', 1g,ounting by three
steps, with an old green finger post upon it,ieli~ went straight
to this platform and stepped upon it, cry!ng,ijalt:iri a loud voice ·
to , th ~ men behind and before him, and calling to those who
held sinatt to bring _h im there, .~n came to a sta~d with faces
towards the finger-post, . and perhaps for the first time the
e~tremities of the crowd got a definite idea that a man with a
sab\] in f1is hand was taki ng the command
·
(now '. said -~·elix, when c~pratt had been brought on to the
stone pfatform,' faint and trembling, 'has anybody got cord!a"Z:..
not handkerchiefs knotted fast ; .give them to me '
·
fi:e drew out his own handkerchief, and two or three others
were mustered and ·h anded to him, tie ordered them to be
knotted together, 'Y,hile curious ey~s wete fixed upon him.~s
he. going to have ~-p,ratt hanged~· feHx kept fast hold of his.
weapon, and ordered others to act ~
'now, put it round his waist, wind his arms in, draw ther~ a
li_ttle backward1, -.- so1 ang, tie it fast on the other side of the P?St'
' when that was done, 'relix said, imperatively : .,
leave him there, -- we shall come back to him· let us make ,
h~ste; march along~ds up P?-rk .street and down' fit>bbJ .fane'
· it was 'the .best chance he could think of for saving -~pratt's
!. . · ._life and he succeeded."
'
1
. ..
'];. the court,a all is mystery, not without whisrJrings of
· terror ; though ye dream of lelnonade and epaulettes, eye IOolish

1

176

• 177

UNITY OF THE SENTENCE.

THE . SENTENCE.

'.

'~?men . his rn~)esty, kept, in happy ign~rance, perhaps dreams
of doubl.~ barrels and the ~oods b of meudon ,~iate at night, the
.-duke of~iancourt, having official right of ~ntrance, gains access
· to the royal a apartments ; a unfolds, with .e arnest clearne~~· in
his constitutional way, the job's-news :'mais,' said poor louis,
' c'est 1me re7Jolte,} '~why, that is a revolt,;_ ',sir~,' answeredJliancourt, 'it is not a revolt, - it is a revolut.ion ' "

IV.

Ordering of the present Chapter. -The definition at
the- head of this chapter suggests the following four elements of importance in studying the sentence.
1. The fact that a sentence is a single thought gives
importance to some truths concerning its UNITY.
2. The indications of its inte1nal structure and relations have also to be made by marks of PUNCTUATION.
3. The fact that a sentence is a complete thought
makes important some details concerning its ORGANISM.
4. Finally, there need to be pointed out some uses of
the differ.e nt KINDS of sentences.

.

'

"~ay~ side by side in 'easte and west,e

jn wild or heathen lands,
\ one prayer upon our hearts and lips,
: 'one l!iible f in our hands ,
/

\

:,

~- Ont:! in our earliest home on earth,

,pne in our heavenly home,
. we'll fight the battles of our king, It
· until his h kingdom come4
J

t.

,,. I
I.

<

~~,a/ i as the wild t lotaire groaned out, when life was
departing, ,~ ~hat great godi is this that pulls down the strength
of the strongest kings' "k

" ;·W;a,

UNITY OF THE SENTENCE.

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. a. Carlyle, from whom this paragraph is taken,
used capitals more freely than do most writers; the words pointed out by
this lett~r a are begun with capitals. - b. The word "woods" is really part
of a proper name. - c. This sentence, ·the translation of the French preceding, is begun as a new sentence. - d. The writer conceives this word
emotionally, as result of previous stanzas not here given. Query, how
punctuated? - e. These words are treated as if they were proper names ;
and this is usual with the points of compass. - f. The word bible is written
with or 'vithout a capital, ·according as it is the proper name of the wellknown volume or the word for one of a number of bibles. - g. This is a
title. - h. What is to be done with this pronoun?__:_ i. The writer of this
begins both the first word and its repetition with a capital. - j. The word
god, when it means our Deity, is written with a capital ; when it means a
false deity of the he.a then, or the title of any one not a deity, it is written
without. - k. There is both an exclamatory and an interrogatory force in, :
this sentence ; how indicate the fact ?

A sentence . should be so constructed as to make a -. ,_ stggle impression on the reader's mind. If Jt_.cJoe2 not,
if it contains more than one distinct subj ect of~. thought,
it is called heterogeneous.

____ _

How Sentence Unity may be made up. -There may
be three ways of making .up one mam impression in the
structure of a sentence.
1. By having one subject and one predicate, both of
course open to modifications and ·additions adjective or
adverbi; l. A sentence with this plain fram ework is called
si'm.plex. 1
·
2 .. By weaving in subo)dinate thoughts, conditional or
accornpanying, · with the main one ; as, " Hadst thou
:· . , " stayed, I must have fl ed. " Such dependent thoughts

Y.

1

This is the term adopted by Earle, ".English Prose,"

p. 76.

'I- ·

178'

THE SENTENCE.

are marked by subordinating conjunctions ; 1 and the
~
type of sentence . they give rise to is called com.plex.
'f- . 3: By adding two or more tho:ights togethe~, pro.
ducmg thereby a total effect to which each contributes;
as, "John went and Willi~m remc;i,ined,." Here the impression of the sentence is, what John and William did.
This composite impression, which is marked by various
coordinating words, may give rise to a plain compound
sentence, like the above example, or to an assertion with. / · ·
i~s consequence, or repetition, or contrast, or explana-~ ·
t10n.

Here several_ entirely distinct things are spoken of: (1) The march
of the Greeks, (2) the hard fare of the inhabitants, (3) the quality of
their sheep, (4) the reason why the' mutton was unsavory. Not at all
consistent with making a single impression.
"Archbishop Tillotson died in this year. He was e'.'ceedingly be- '
,
i. '"' ~ .
.
•
I '
loved both by King vVilliam and Queen Mai·y; (_ who l nommatcd
Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Here the last
clause is not related to the preceding ; it introduces an entirely dis ti net idea.

f--

I.

Rules for judging Sentence Unity. - The · rules for ·. ·.
securing _sentence unity are reducible. to t~1e_ one EHr~Pt
- } t~-~!IJ~ly the ~elation of ~dcas to each·qther in m~ki~
{ the~nce, get a feelmg for that, and the bmldmg of
the sentence so as to make unity of impression is easy.
'A s,enten~e may be long, and may
'1_ · 74. Make your sen .r tence embody one be .made up of a variety of clauses and
. , · · main idea.
phrases contailling several subjects and
ver~s ;" we ' cannot, prohib~t 'th~t and -l~ave any freedom at '
all, . But when th~ sentence, _wheth~r simple or compli~ated, 'is finished, it,_shoilld_ as a whole prod~~~-..!~• .'.,
f'o£ having_sl??.~en ot"one .thing; its total impression should ·,. 'be' single.
' ..

J.

.·

-

.EXAMPLES
OF
. .
.

F~ULTY'
SENTENCES.' - "Their march was throu(Th
.
b

an uncultivated ~ountry, whose .savage ·inhabitants fared hardly, having,no· other riches than a breed of lean sheep,, whose flesh was rank
and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish."

Various means· of coordiriating and snbo~clinating clauses in a sentence
are exemplifi ed on page 51 abpve.
.
1

'179

UNITY OF TNE SENTENCE.

·' '

Though . the thought of a sentence
should be single in its total impression,
. ·it may be coniposite, that is, made up
of ~ors,tlian . one ·. clause, sometim.es . indeed of several',
which are ordinarily set off by semicolons; see Rule 78,
below. · N o-~---~!L~!~~1s~s . wil~ bear thus to be joined with
th~ n~ain assertion of a sentence ; it is only clauses of
certain-· rather close relations that have a right · in the
same composite idea. The followi.ng are the relations
tbat are most frequently to be conformed to in admitting
a supplementary clal.1se. A composite thought may consist of: ·'k_ An assertion and its repetition~
75. Test a composite
thought by the relation of its clauses. ·

'1_,
j

- ------·-- -·-

"His gentleness is made beautiful by a · granit~ will
behind ; 'out of the stro11g comes forth swe~tness '." Here the sec~
ond clause repeats in new form the thought of the first.; and as )Joth
clauses say virtually the same thing, they really compose one idea
and have a right together.
EXAMPLE. -

An assertion and its e,x planation or .illustration. .
'

;

.

.

· ·~

.

EXAMPLE. - "I ought, for instance, to have . felt as_ strongly- in
Juda:;a as in Galilee, but it was not sci in fact; the religious sentiment
(born in solitude) whith had heated my brain in the san,cfo~ry of
Nazareth was rudely chilled at the foot of Zion by disenchanting
scenes." Here the clause· after the semicolon explains and particll;.larizes the assertion.

180

THE SENTENCE.
UNITY OF THE SENTENCE.

'1--An assertion and its consequence.
"Genius is mainly an affair of energy, and poetry is
mainly an affair of genius ; therefore a nation whose spirit is characterized by energy may be eminent in poetry; - and we have
Shakespeare."
EXAMPLE. -

An------··--··
assertion and
its contrast.
· ·--··--------~- EXAMPLES. - "But it was not so in fact," second example above,
is a clause of contrast, though not set off by a semicolon.
"York, in its present day, erects a commodious railway station and
a sumptuous hotel, and spans its ample river with two splendid
bridges ; but its modern architecture is puerile beside that of its
ancient minster." Here the clauses express the contrasted idi::.1.s of
different kinds of architecture, the showy being set over against the
dignified and stately.
·
.
.

In many cases where there is a numt hong ht by time,
ber of small details it does not answer
scene, or common
to put each fact in a sentence by itself,
bearing.
and yet if put together by semicolons
they do not show the close relations mentioned above.
They make a gr.oup-thoyght _instead of composite ; and
thus their unity has to be looser and more elastic. Such
cases occur of ten when one is describing things or narrating events, and where all one can do is to choose some
manageable number of details occurring at the same time
or belonging to the same place, or scene. There may_
'/.... als~ ~e details of thought having a common bearing as
bmldmg up together a cumulative thought. How many
such details the sentences will bear and yet remain
essentially one thought is a matter to be settled · by good
judgment.
'16. Test a gronp-

EXAMPLES. r. A narrative sentence. "And now up runs
Baptiste, covered with slime, and prepares to cast his projectiles.

181

The first one fell wide of the mark; the schooner swung round ·into
a long reach of water, where the breeze was in her favor ; another
shout of laughter drowned the maledictions of the muddy man ; the
sails filled ; Colossus of Rhodes, smiling and bowing as hero ?f the
moment, ducked as the main boom swept round, and the schooner,
leaning slightly to the pleasant influence, rustled a moment over the
bulrushes, and then sped far away down the rippling bayou." All
these details make up the occurrences of one brief time.
2. Clauses with common bearinlr
"His mind is made up ; 11is
thoughts have an accustomed curreut ; his ways are steadfast ; it is
not this or that new sight which will at once unbalance him." Here
the details are so much alike in character that their relation is seen
as components of one thought.

c

Sometimes for enhanced distinction these supplementary -fclauses may take a sentence by themselves and be set off by a period
instead of a semicolon.
Sometimes also the punctuation may be reduced to a comma,
especially when this relation occurs in a part of the sentence already
subordinate to something else. This is for rapidity.
NOTE . -

II.

Exercise in Study of Sentence Unity. -The study
of sentence unity is ~iinply the investigation, in various
applications, of the question what ideas belong together
and what should be separated. This question cannot be
answered merely by rules ; the writer has to acquire by
repeated practice a sense of the relations of ideas to each
other, so as to give them place according to their affinities
in the same or in separate sentences.
Divide the following heterogeneous sentences into
sentences more consistent with unity of idea. In doing
so be free to use other connectives where necessary, or to
change participles into principal verbs.
1.

182

UNJTY OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.
,• ~ i

~J,hi~~estimable man has recently died,_ leaving three ~ons,_of , .

(Fi?ofnJthe eldest, wl_;p_)s. a writer of considerable note,a mhents
the old homestead, ~ is situated in a charming region j well b
adapted alike for grazing and grain.
Thomps~~ ca11):e ov~r from P.aris a~ that ti'.ne to consult with
the authonties, tlG:Ptook ;-Y,P:-l!1s r:sid:nce m tl:e . most o.vergrown hotel in London I ~t his fnends, havmg orgarnzed
an expedition for his relief, wandered up and down the endless
stairs looking for him,. till, had they not wanted to make themselves a name, they would have beaten a retreat .f/t{e also wandered about looking for them, , cmcl at last, when they met, the
leader of the party, restraining his emotion, lifted his hat, and
said, "Mr. Thompson, I presume?" c This is how I found
Thompson.
4VfVi.lje went into the church and saw the singers in their accustomed place in the gallery (and] he thought of his recent
affliction in which he had ~rely lost his voice, and the
thougl,lt 'came over him wiit overwhelming force, ~-1/i.dJ lie.
rush~ut of the church and i~o his house, whic~ was not far
away,~ he threw himself on the sofa utterly miserable and
discouraged. d
Ii'-- I e was readin~
· to Mrs. Cole, and, since she went away, I
was reading it to other; for it is such a pleasure to her -(,tf::Z
letter fr~m Jane
that she ca~ never he~r i~ often e~1ough ; so
here it is, only JUSt under
I knew it could not be far off
my huswife,
anc smce yo~ are so kind as to wish to hear
I
.
.
.
what she sa~s) f but first. ~f all, I really must, 111 JUStice to
Jane, apologi& for her w~1hng so short a letter, only two pages
you see, hardly two,g(i'il~ in general she fills the whole paper
and crosses half.
.
h
// f,v..
Mozart, when a boy, was ~ precocious, 11 ~ seemed to
master all the principles of music without effort ; i~ once,
when he was in Rome, he wrote out from memory the score of
a mass that he heard sung in the Sistine Chapel.

183

The Spanish fleet continued its retreat, ~dn its passage
around Scotland a~d Ireland, a terrible storm aros$;~and the
vess~i'red agamst the rock-bound coasts, ~ Jfot more
than tftty reached Spain, and the greater part of these 'were
worthless.i
After a ncr nd toilsome ascent he reached the summit of
the hill, vJ i ·e 1e ·~tained a magnificent view of a fertile
smiling valley, dbtted here and there with white farm-hou~e~
aru:.Pfust below w~e,he stood ran a swift stream on which
stofci a large mil4':,ffiliYed1~n "old-fashioned water-wheel, one
of the kind that c?11. afford to utilize only a small proportion of
the water-power because there is such abundance of power
already running to waste.k
·
He was am~ of prodigious learning, 1 a1M1#1en only twentyfive years of a ~had ~readY,_ written q,. treatise on the Greek
-)'.'l e. r .; .r v 3' !" t-.t IF. e.
cl
particles, thro~ wh ch . 11i became R.nown to the learne
world, m ~~ Afow to~'ecognize merit 111 any man who has
not reached a ripe age.
Elias understood that he was very naughty, ~Me ran away
ii1to the woods and flung himself1911 the ground and cried,
though he did not like crying{but -~~illetim~j he could 'fl~ help
it ; ~e lost himself in the wood, followmg after a bird of
strange plumage which he ha~ never seen b~fore, t~'A\e
. .~Jmew all the birds th~t ever existecl,(1fe was qmte sure he kne:v
at least thirty-seven kmds, for h ~ f<].~, counted them up on his
fingers~ ~was acquainted·rr 1th a1!J number. of plants
and flo;_e;J, a~g funny wild things, ~~t ti~ed lus head to
rememoenhe names. 0
f\

"--....

U,ll

NoTES ON THE ABOVE. - All th e sentences here given are to be
corrected by Rule 74. Divide and rearrange in such a way that each
sentence, whatever subordinate ideas it may contain, shall embody one
main idea.
a. If the sentence is divided according to the subjects of remark here
. proposed there is room in one of them for the fact that h~ is a writ~: ~f
note, but this fact is now too remote from the first assertion ~ b. l his
second fact about the region is too incongruous with the first to; occupy
\

184

UN.lTY OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

'W1J

the same sentence with it, unless very briefly stated. - c. In the original
from which this sentence is taken the writer puts this matter in five
sentences. - d. If some of the assertions of this sentence were subordinated
to others all this matter might be put into a single sentence. Say, e.g.
"As he went into the church,'' etc. - "and rushing out,'' etc. and see how ·
much more easily the sentence goes. - e. This sentence can be rewritten
without changing any of th e words; put it in four sentences. -f. Here is
an abrupt transition; how would you express the fact in punctuation? See
below, Rule 80. - g. vVould it be advisable to put the general fact in the
same sentence with the more particular? - h. If you say "so precocious
that" (compare Rule 37) you can easily weave the first two assertions
together. - i. The whole sentence consists of two parts, a general and a
particular. Would not this fact be a good suggestion for the division into
sentences?- j. Ask how many distinct facts are given here, and divide
accordingly. - k. Divide according to the more general and the more
particular facts. -1. See no te g. - m. This fact about the learned world
may be connected with the preceding if you make it emphatic th,at his
treatise was so good as to compel recognition; otherwise if is too remote to
occupy the same sentence. - n. In th e original of this, which is rather
abruptly written, the matter is contained in seven sentences.

Combine the following isolated assertions into
sentences, supplying proper connectives, or cutting down
clauses as needed, and g iving a reason, founded on Rules
74 to 76, for each combination.
2.

Balthazar Gerard was the murderer of Prince William of
Orange.( William was) surnamed William the Silent. . _9erard
had dropped his pistols. (He dropped the1~on the spot. ( fhe
spot w~where he had committed the crime. Upon his person
were found two bladders( .J~es~ b_1;,~ers w~ij provided w~th
1
a piece of pipe~h ~e1e....b~ddefsjhe had mtended to assist
himself across the moat,.. Beyond this moat a horse was waiting
for him.
Of two old men, the one who is not your father speaks to
you with the more sensible authority,• For in the paternal
relation the oldest have lively inte.rests and remain still~roun~
II 1 1 "~ ·'-"
?.>ll\·'f,1°; N.
Thus I have known two young men,great friencl,sl_ ·~ac :rw~

.

185

by the other's father) The father of each swore by the other
lad. And yet each pair of parent and child were perpetually
by the ears. This is typical. It reads like the germ of some
kindly comedy.
In the whole world there can be no more dreary view than
that from the northern slope of the Sierra Blanco. As far as
" the eye can reach stretches the great flat plain land. It is all
dusted over with patches of alkali. It is intersected by clumps
of the dwarfish chapparal bushes. On the extreme verge of
the horizon lie a long chain of -mountain peaks. ' Their rugged
summits are flecked with snow. In this great stretch of
country there is no sign of life. There is no sign of anything
appertaining to life. There is no bird in the steel-blue heaven.
There is no movement upon the dull grey earth. Above all,
there is absglute silence. Listen as one may, there is no
shadow of a sound in all that mighty wilderness. There is
nothing but silence. It is complete and heart-subduing silence.
It has been said there is nothing appertaining to life upon
the broad plain. That is hardly true. Looking down from the
Sierra Blanco, one sees a pathway. It is traced out across the
desert. It winds away and is lost in the extreme distance. It
is rutted with wheels. It is trodden down by the feet of ~any
adventurers. Here and there are scattered white objects.
These glisten in the sun. They stand out against the dull
deposit of alkali. Approach, and examine them! They are
bones. Some are large and coarse. Others are smaller and
more delicate. The former have belonged to oxen. The latter
have belonged to men. For fifteen hundred miles one may
trace this ghastly caravan route. He may_trace them by these
scattered remains. They are the remains of those who have
fallen by the wayside.
But now look. There is a slight move forward of the
School-house wings. There is a shout of "Are you ready? "
There is a loud affirmative reply. Old Brooke takes half-adozen quick steps. Away goes the ball. It goes spinning

187

THE SENTENCE

PUNCTUATION OF THE SENTENCE.

toward the School goal. It goes ?eventy yards before it
touches ground. At no point is it above twelve or fifteen feet
high. It is a model kick off. The School-house cheer and
rush on. The ball is returned. They meet it and drive it back
amongst the masses of the School. These are already in
motion. Then the two sides close. You can see nothing for
minutes but a swaying crowd of boys. At one point they are
violently agitated. That is where the ball is. There are the
keen players to be met. There are the glory and the hard
knocks to be got. You hear the dull thud thud of the ball.
You hear the shouts of "Off your side," "Down with him,"
"Put him over," "Bravo." This is what we call a scrummage,
gentlemen. The first scrummage in a School-house match was
no joke in the consulship of Plancus.

for. It is the object here to reduce each of them to a
single broad office, to which its various minutia:! of usage
may be referred.

186

..

II.

PUNCTUATION OF THE SENTENCE.

Punctuation is by no means, as many . think, an affair
of arbitrary printer's marks, or something put in from the
outside as a kind of afterthought; it belongs just as truly
to the structure and the meaning of sentences as does the
choice of words or phraseology. That is why the matter
is put here as an important element in the treatment of
the sentence. Every mark of punctuation, if rightly used,
has its definite office to fulfil, and depends on some determinate principle of connection and relation.
The marks of end-punctuation,-the period, the exclamation-point, and the interrogation-point, - which have
already been mentioned and illustrated, 1 need give no
trouble to anyone who stops to think. Nor indeed is
there any great difficulty in the other marks, if we grasp ,
in each case their fundamental princ.iple, what they stand
1

At the beginning of the chapter, p.

172.

I. '/--·
Rules enunciating the essential Principles of Punctuation. -The marks of punctuation reserved for discussion
here are those which do their work inside the sentence;
namely, the colon, the sem!colon, the comma, and the
dash.
The fundamental office of the colon,
'1'1. Designate expectation by the colon.
as now used, is to introduce something
that the previous sentence or clause has definitely p,repared for and led up to, so that it is expected. Thus,
the colon may introduce:A specification, following out more particularly what
has been proposed or suggested before.
EXAMPLES. - "The capital leading questions on which you must
this day decide are these two : First, whether you ought to concede;
and secondly, what your concession ought to be."-" And thus we
bring the matter at once to the test : How has his school training \
fitted him to spend his vacant time?"
NOTE. - In both the above examples the specification is begun
with a capital ; but usage in this matter is not uniform.

A formal quotation, especially when this is prepared
for by some introducing word.
EXAMPLES. - "In a letter to a friend, Sydney Howard Gay, the
editor of the paper, he says : ' I was not only willing but desirous
that my name should appear,' " etc. - " Socrates recommended to one
of his disciples this prayer: '0 Jupiter, give us those things,'" etc.
NOTES. - 1. Observe that a quoted passage is enclosed within
marks of quotation ; that two inverted commas are placed above the
line (") at the beginning, and two direct commas above the line (") at

188

THE SENTENCE.

the end. A quotation witliin a quotation, as in th e foregoing examples,
takes single quotation m arks (' '); a quotation within sing le quotation marks takes double marks again.
2 . When short a nd included in the same grammatical construction
as the preceding, a quoted p assage takes before it only the pause or
no-pause that would naturally introduce it ; for example, "Besides,
'Greek,' says Professor J ebb, 'is apt to exercise its charm very soon' ;
th e Professor's testimony, though h e 'sees rocks a h ead,' a nd notes
the danger of encouraging anti-Grecians, is e ntirely on th e side of
making a late beg inning ."

An afterthought that is evidently a mere completion
of what goes before. This is often a kind of specification.
EXAMPLE. In th e first of the following sentences the colon marks
a specifica tion, in th e s eco nd an afterthought or completion.
"So then, we have th e three ranks : the man who p erceives rightly,
b ecause he does not feel, a nd to whom the primrose is very accurately
th e primrose, because h e does not love it. Then, secondly, the man
who perceives wrong ly, because he feels, and to whom the primrose
is anything else than a primrose : a star, or a sun, or a fairy's shield,
or a forsaken maiden."
NOTE. - Sometim es when th ere is a series of cl a uses of different
rank the colon is used as th e pause next larger th an th e semicolon
for dividing semicoloned g roups from each oth er ; for example :
"Coleridge was not without what talkers call wit, and there were
touch es of prickly sarcasm in him, contemptuous enough of the ·
world and its idols and popular dig nitari es ; he had traits even of ..
poetic humor : but in general he seemed deficient in laughter ; or
indeed in sympathy for concrete human things either on the sunny
or on the stormy side."

Composite thoughts and groupthoughts have been defined and illus- .
trated in Rules 7 5 and 76. We have •
seen that their mem b-ers have to each
other a certain determinate relation, of repetition, expla-

78. Set off members
of a composite or
group-thought by the
semicolon.

PUNC TUA TION OF THE SENTENCE.

189

nation, consequence, contrast, or, as in the g roup-thoughts,
of common bearing. The mark of such relations is the
semicolon; keep the relation well in mind as you write,
and the mark of it comes naturally.
E XAMPLES. 1. Composite thoug hts.
" I had some right to surmise that my illness may have b een merely the effect of the hot
wind·; (consequence) and thi s notion was encouraged by th e elas ticity
of my spirits, and by a strong forefeeling that much of my des tined
life in this world was yet to come, and yet to be fulfill ed. That was
my instin ctive belief; (contrast) but when I carefully weig hed th e
probabilities on the one side, and on th e other, I could not help
seeing th a t th e strength of argument was all against me." - "He
brings into the talk other thoug hts than those which h e expresses ;
(repetition) you are conscious th a t h e k eeps an eye on something else, .
that he does not shake off th e world, nor quite forget himself."
2. Group-tlwught.
" As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilig ht b ecame more perceptible; th e intense blue of the sky began to
soften; the smaller stars, like little children, went first to rest; the
sister beams of the .Pleiades soon melted to bo-e ther·, b ut the bri bo-ht
constellations of the west and north remained unchanged."

Ordinarily the member set off by a semicolon is a
clause, sometimes subordinat e, sometimes coordinate ; but
sometimes the succeeding member may be merely phrasal
in form.
EXAMPLE. - "When I kn ew him he was all fallen away and fallen
in ; crooked and shrunken ; buckled into a stiff waistcoat for support ; troubled by ailments, which kept him hobbling in and out of
th e room; one foot gouty; a wig for decency, not for deception, on
his h ead ; close shaved, except under his chin - and for that he
never failed to apolog ize, for it went sore against the traditions of his
life.,,

The comma marks the places where
th e voice would naturally pause in read-...)
sense by the comma.
ing aloud ; accordingly, careful reading
aloud is on e of the best guides to the use of th e comma.

79. Mark the natural pa u s e s in the

1'-

THE SENTENCE.

190

f

""""~ ·

~

~

1.

'f-

When the conjunction and is omitted from a series, the
ellipsis is supplied by the comma. If and occurs with
... I the last member of the senes, the comma should precede
r-· it just the same. 2
Thrones, dominations, princedoms, virtues, powers."
- " The old man is kind, good, faithful, and honest ; to wound his
feelings would be cruel."
EXAMPLES.-"

Constructions loosely connected with the rest of the
sentence, as direct address, apposition, absolute phrases,
restrictive phrases 3 and words, are set off by the comma.

'

r

I

f

-f.
"f-

'"f-

'

Direct address. "John, come here."
2. Apposition.
"Alcyone, the brightest star of the Pleiades, is
the centre of gravity of our vast solar system."
3. Absolute phrase. "The appointed day having come, the Declaration was taken up and debated article by article."
EXAMPLES. -

Restrictive phrases and words. " There was, as usual, a crowd
of folk about the door, but none that Rip recollected." - "He came,
,,
however, in time to catch the train."

NOTE. - Do not overpunctuate ; it is much easier than to uuderpunctuate. The general tendency nowadays is to make punctuation
less copious than formerly.

'"t... ,~ · -

A series. " Scrooge was his sole executor, his
sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole
friend, and sole survivor."
2. Pairs.
" Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give
my hand and my heart to this vote."
3. Contrasts. "We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not
breaths ; in feelings, not in figures on a dial." 1

I.

19l

'f-4..

·The places that it marks are the lesser joints in the sentence, just as the places marked by the semicolon are the
greater. Of such places, which are numerous, only the
most important can be specified here.
~?r.d.s oL_.Eh£~~~ ~!!1_.,_~ --~er_ies_ of _li~~-£91!.st r.,-q,£,t:_!o ns, or
paired
together,
or contrasted,
take the comma .
.......... - -,.,.. ... •
......... =.. ..... ---.... ........ ,..
EXAMPLES. -

II.

PUNCTUA T.ION OF THE SENTENCE.

1.

1 Examples quoted from "Studies in English Composition," by Harriet .~
L. Keeler and Emma C. Davis.
2 But here usage is not uniform.
s For which see above, Rule 27.

..f.._

The dash may be called the mark of
abruptness. The matter set off by it
the dash.
is generally,An all(El.ifl_s:~t.i9JJ._QC,f!4-£0Ea~}2P.J. _p_ut in by the way,
and not waiting for the completion of the grammatical
structure.
80. Mark an abrupt
or addition by

( ~change

EXAMPLE. - " In such a life as that there is no sign,ificance Christian significance, I mean ; - nor has it any mission of good in
the world."

+

A parenthesis, in which case dashes are used both at
beginning and end of the break. The dash is largely
superseding the old-fashioned marks of parenthesis; and,
indeed, parenthetical matter is shunned unless it is neat
in construction and connection to its accompanying mat-'
ter.

EXAMPLES. - "Ribbons, buckles, buttons, pieces of gold-lace_
any trifles he had worn - were stored as priceless treasures." " There are men - I know it - who go mad from loneliness ; and
medallists ere now have crept home to die."

f ~- -·Any sen.tence .or other construction that is broken off
r1thout bemg fimshed.
EXAMPLE. " I will now go on to - but first, let me explain a
little more fully what I mean by unconscious cerebration."

NOTE. - Punctuation is sometimes exaggerated,1 a larger pause
being used than is necessary, in order to compel more attention to
1

Compare Note, p.

181.

PUNCTUA TJON OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

192

193

\.

the punctuated matter and so emphasize it more. Thus, in th e following sentence commas are put where, for ordinary unemphatic
expression no pauses would be needed : "'Beef,' said the sage magistrate, 'is the king of meat ; beef comprehends in it the quintessence
of partridge, and quail, and venison, and pheasant, and plum-pudding,
and custard.' " - In the following sentence commas are exaggerated
to semicolons: "They have found their punishment in their success.
Laws overturned; tribunals subverted; industry without vigor; commerce expiring ; the reve nue unpaid, yet the people impoverished ;
a church pillaged, and a state not reli eved ; civil and military anar,chy
made the constitution of the kingdom," etc.

II.

Exercises in determining Punctuation. -To punctuate properly is merely to apply, in somewhat minuter
details, the principles that underlie sentence unity; it is
to desig nate by appropriate signs various kinds of relation
between ideas.
Supply the punctuation to the following sentences,
and give a reason for each mark supplied.
1.

There be four things which are little upon the earth but they
are exceeding w_ise the ants are a people not strong yet they
prepare their meat in the summer 'the conies are but a feeble
.I
t
folk yet make they their houses in the rocks;the locusts ~ave no
king yet go they forth all of them by bands; the spider taketh
hold with her hands and is in kings' palaces.b
To make this clear we must distinguish three classes who
each stand in a certain relation to education in modern England~ first the schoolmasters who nominally manage the schools;
secondly ~he mass of the public who send their sons to the
schools• thirdly the educational theorists who write books.
Witi/ all these limitations ~hich look rather serious )wherein
lies Milton's easy supremacy1)he answer is as obvious as it is

a;

1

indisputable,~ he excels all other English poets in his familiarity
with the secrets of that eternally fascinating mysteryWhe
Mystery of Style.
Originality of observation seems to cost nothing to our
author's liberal genius: he lavishes images of exquisite accuracy,
and elaborate splendor as a common writer throws about metaI
l
.
.
p h oncal
trmsms
g and exhaustec tropes.
Captain Skinn'r was celebrated for his convivial talents;he
did the honors of the place ii~. a hospitable stylep daily asked
us to dine with him and seemed as inexhaustible in his wit as
in his hospitality. '
Study is the bane of boyhood the aliment of youth/ the
/
indulgence of manhood and the restorative of age.
1
He will have to take existence a little more seriously) to
~
weave broadcloth instead of lace.
It is the honor of Dr. Arnold to have conceived and carried
out the idea of inspiring Christianity with a direct practical
power on the daily life of boys i and if it sometimes seems that
in his religious teaching he thought more of the school as a
whole or in otlier words k of the state than of the individual
perhaps 1 because he had drunk so deeply at the fountain of
Greek and Roman antiquity and was more anxious to purify the
society which he governed than to save individual souls nobody
who has learned the one great spiritual les~on of school life
which he left to be discovered or called into prominence by his
successorsm will let it obscure the memory of the many spiritual
lessons which he first taught and none has taught so well as he.
Cultured America we believe 11 has not yet fully made up her
mind as to who is her best poet but we imagine she could have
little hesitation in pointing to Mr. Lowell as her most brilliant
'all-round' literary representative Emerson's mission on his
visits to these shores was philosophical rather than literary
Hawthorne's was mainly a mission of silence and Dr. Holmes's
from all we could ever hear a mission of dining it is preeminently Mr. Lowell who comes to us as his Excellency the

194

THE SENTENCE.

PUNC TUA TJON OF THE SENTENCE.

Ambassador of American literature to the Court of Shake·
speare. 0
When we frame our conception of heaven or moral perfection
we find certain things and when we look into the nature and
operation of music we find the same things namely obedience
sympathy emotion adoration.
No~ if this is the prevailing view and we believe it is there is
this much to be said in its support.
The scene is before us around us we cannot mistake its
localities P or blind ourselves to its colors.
To the last moment however he manifested a punctilious
regard to the duties of his charge he accompanied us in our
boat q on a dark and gusty night to the packet r which lay a
little out at sea he saw us on boards and then standing up for
one moment he said t "is all right on deck" "all right sir"
sang out the ship's steward "have you Lord Westport got your
boat cloak with you" "yes sir" "then pull away boatmen" we
listened for a time to the measured beat of his retreating oars
marvelling more and more at the atrocious nature of our
crime u which could thus avail to intercept even his last
adieus.v
To teach 'is to learn w according to an old experience it is
the very best mode of learning x the surest and the shortest.
Vanity in wom~n is not invariably though it is too often the
sign of a cold and selfish heart in men it always is Y therefore
we ridicule it in society and in private hate it.
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. What follows is a specification of the four
things : how indicate the fact?-· b. The mention of the four things may
be treated as a group-thought ; how, then, punctuate? What punctuation
would you adopt inside each member of the group? - c. The writer of
this puts a dash here; how else might it be punctuated? - d. Divide at
this p"oint into two sentences. - e. The author has made us expect an
answer ; how punctuate ?-L This last phrase is added somewhat abruptly ;
how punctuate ? - g. The writer wishes here to give added emphasis to
these two things mentioned ; how represent this in punctuation? -h. This
clause beginning with "daily" is intended as a repetition of the preceding

}

195

rather than as one of a series ; how indicate this fact? - i. A somewhat
abrupt ending, requiring not so h eavy a pause as a semicolon. - j. A general statement and consequence ; how punctuate? - k. What kind of
phrase would you call "in other words," and how punctuate? -1. How
would you designate the clause from "perhaps" to "antiquity,'' and how
punctuate?- m. When there is a clause between subject and verb, it needs
to be set off by a comma. -n. See note k. - o. Put this passage in three
sentences. - p. Some emphasis to be given to each member of this last
assertion. - q. The writer wishes to give some emphasis to the timephrase. - r. This is a coordinate, not a restrictive relative (Rule 35) ; how
indicate the fact here ?-s. Treat' the members of this sentence as a
group-thought, not as a series of details. - t. What he said is too short to
require a colon. - u. A restrictive relative; compare note r. - v. Put the
passage in eight sentences. - w. A specification. - x. An afterthought.y. A larger pause needed here than after heart ; see Rule 77 note.

Copy the following, supplying not only interior
punctuation but end-punctuation, capitals (see pp. 172174), and quotation marks. Observe that the passage
is written in rather brief and simple style, and does not
require very long sentences.
2.

i dont a know mr randal observed mr cheeseman the corndealer b during one of these social evenings that i should care
myself to go into battle shouldnt like the feel of cold steel in
my inside and when my time comes i should like it all done
proper on my bed doctors and nurses and clergymen and a
respectable funeral at the end i cant abide being hurried never
could somehow it dont seem decent to go out of the world in
such a deuce of a hurry our family always died respectable in
their beds and left everything regular down to the last farthing and the hatbands b now i dare say you went into alma as
bold as a lion and took no more notice of cannon-balls b flying
about than if theyd been snowflakes b i should a c turned as
white as the stem of this pipe.
i dont know what color i 1:urned mr cheeseman replied philip
but i do know that i felt awfully queer that day when we

196

ORGAN.!SM OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

crossed the alma i had never been under fire before and it is a •
precious queer feeling i can tell you when the enemy opened
fire from the heights we began to advance my knees shook and
there was a sound like the sea in my ears i seemed to see them
all at home and know what they were doing at the mo~~nt. ·._
and i remembered everything i had ever done we marched into
a confusion of roaring cannon rattling musketry galloping a/des ~
clouds of smoke and dust with flashes of fir e and gleam~ ~~£
steel between we e had a general sense of moving masses like
the waving of the sea while we were advancing i was all right
quite happy then we halted and i felt queer and shivery ~aln
there we stood for a good hour and the battle came surging
. gradually upon us like a great sea-wave a laughing irishman neit
me was twitting me with being afraid when he fell f shot ._deadJ
at my feet the smile still on his face and the blood spla~hing
over me soon the fire was so hot that we shifted out of range
just then our colonel rode down the ranksg pale and with ~$
bridle-hand quivering brave man as he was and proved himself .
there he bid us stand firm a little longer while _he was speaking
a shot rolled him and· his charger together in the dust he was ..
soon on his feet and finish ed his speech only the horse w~ ·
killed then at last we advanced under fire of a battery holding our own fire the movement was like a drink of wine to uS ]t, ..:
gave us new life by this time i knew all the different sounds
the different kinds of shot and shell and started at nothing ;a
last the order to fire came and we went ri1ad i suppose for i
remember nothing after the first splendid excitement but-a
hurly-burly of smoke and shot and the gleam of bayoneti
sabres and mens eyes then gradually through the thunder.
of
.
.
..
guns and quick crack of muskets pierced bugle calls words 9f
command shrieks of horses groans of men unheard befo .
then english cheers and french shouts became more frequenti'
battery after battery was silenced and before evening we wetO"'i!.'
firing at the russians backs and s~umbling over the arms ~hey' ~
threw away as they ran

of

.

~.

197

and so the battle of alma was won after four hours fighting
, added mr meade twas a september 26 1854 a fine sunny
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. -a. When there is an ellipsis of a letter, its
. place is supplied by an apostrophe (') ; supply such apostrophes where
'· - needed. - b. Notice the different ways of writing a compound word ; some.. times with their members separated by a hyphen, at other times all as one
~
word. The latter way is used when th e compound h as become familiar ;
· but regarding the commonness of particular words usage is not uniform.
",The writer's manner of using or omitting hyphens is followed here. - c.
"A" here is a colloquial abbrevia tion for have. This abbreviation is
usually written "'a," but the writer has left it unmarked by any sign. - cl .
. See remark p. 25, under Rule 7. - e. This clause is intended as a summary
of the prec~ciing details; how then would you punctuate? - f. Punctuate
this as an afterthought. - g. Set off this word so as ·to make it somewhat

III.

.

ORGANISM OF THE SENTENCE.

~

The great variety of structure of which sentences are
". capable forbids our laying down any particular type to be
, . regarded as ideal ; nor would this. on any ground . be
.,, ~desirable, since it ~ variety oj~~1:.S...~!ltr11~t11xe, n~
!>·' µnif~, that is .!1~.!:_ded.
We can only give some
,_ general principles that should enter into the structure of
. ,,all types, and leave the application of them to the writer's
}µdgment.
i•
W e have seen in Rules 24 to 28 what cautions on the \./
... ~c.o;e of clearness are necessary in the placing of "
:.modifiers; and in Rules 50 to 53 what effect this placing -,J.
~ ' Qf various elements has on emphasis. These rules should f "be brought freshly to mind here, as they play a constant
· ' part in the organism of sentences. We need to remember,
.. < :;Iso, that this sentence organism is not a matter of mere~
' • · manipulation, as if an insignificant idea could be made

198

ORGAN/SM OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

important by position. Rather, any idea but shows the
more ludicrously out of place, in any position however
laboriously chosen, unless its intrinsic worth puts it there.
What we are seeking, then, is the most natural position of
words, the position that all circumstances of distinction
and relation make natural, the position in which every
~ord has its own proper emphasis, whether strong or
light. When such position is found we feel its fitness ;
until then we are vaguely aware, whether we can localize
it or not, that something is wrong.

I

199

circumstances make it advisable to think of first. This
may be:1. The subject of the sentence.
It is often advisable
to put this first in the opening sentence of a paragraph,
or to begin any passage not closely connected with the ,
preceding.
EXAMPLE. - "Mementos of Wordsworth are frequently encountered
by the traveller among these lakes and fells." This sentence opens a
paragraph not closely connected with t?e preceding ; and the word
"mementos" governs the whole paragraph.

Some element of time, place, or condition, which
will give more distinction to the main assertion.
2.

I.

Rules bearing on Sentence Organism. - These rules
may be summed up in the general precept, first, to take
{ .care of the places of distinction in the sentence, namely, ,
the beginning and the end, and in less degree the pausing
k
points; and secondly, to make the relation of each element
-- to its context unmistakable. 1
The beginning of a sentence, having
81. Begin with what
importance second only to that of the
it is most advisable to
think of first.
end, should of course take a weighty
element; but not always can it take the weightiest.
r The principle of suspense (see Rule 52) leads us often to
, delay the most important idea of the sentence till the end.
But this very delay may occur because it is advisable to
J._think of something else. first, s~mething that shall prep~re
I the reader better to realize the importance of the assertiol)
when it does come. On the whole, indeed, we may say,
j-put first what most naturally comes to mind, what all the
1 In writing this section much help has been derived from Professor
Wendell's admirable chapter on The Sentence in his "English Composition."

't

EXAMPLES. 1. A tz'm'e-element.
"When I entered the church
I found a babel of worshippers."
2. A place-element.
" In a corner of the kitchen stands a fine
carved oak cupboard, dark with age, inscribed with the date of the
Merry Monarch, I 660."
. 3. A condz'tz'onz'ng element. " If wild beasts cease to harm each
other, and unite to face a common clanger, how much more binding
is the tie of endurance and peril when shared by human beings ! "
In all these cases we can see the advisability of making a kind of
setting, so to say, of time or place or condition, in which to give our
assertion the distinction it merits.

3. The element, whether principal or subordinate, that
will best connect the sentence with what goe.s before, '/. taking up the idea where the preceding sentence or
paragraph laid it down. This is a very important requisite .,'t:.
to continuity in style.
EXAMPLES. - The first example under the foregoing head begins
the paragraph with a time-element ("When I entered the church")
because the previous paragraph had described what the traveller had
seen just before, when he was outside. The sense of succession in
events draws the time-element to the beginning.

I
I:

200

THE SENTENCE.
ORGAN.ISM OF THE SENTENCE.

S ee also how th e next sentenc e begins : "When I entered the
church I found a babel of worshipp ers.
Greek, Roman, and
Armenian priests were performing their different rites in various
nooks and corners, and crowds of disciples were rushing about in all
directions," etc. This second sentence begins with a specification of
what the first has left most prominently in mind.
·
So in the sentence that follow~ th e example under num:ber-I above.
· "M ementos of Wordsworth are frequently encountered by the traveller among these lakes and f ells. One of these, situated at the foot ~f .
Place Fell, is a rustic cottage that th e poet once selected for lus
residence, and partly purchased." H ere, as th e prev ious sentence
has left us thinking of "mementos of Wordsworth," this second ·
sentence takes up th e idea, individualizes it to one example, and gives
its place, before going on to name its own subject "a rustic cottage";
.and thus gives the special distinction of delay to the example - see
next rule.

As it is natural for the mind to dwel~l
·
·d
h
'/
upon the last thing that IS sa1 , t
1
tion.
end of a sentence or clause is its most . emphatic point ; and the____P.rohl_~.m_!~ J.Q... g!ve . ;g_1 _i.~
sp_~i~Ldi§!.i!~£0E_ g~~1erally resolves itself into the problem
how to crowd i_t to the end. Almost any element of the sentence may take this place of honor; a tim e-, place-, or
condition!ng element, as well as a principal assertion; see ·_~""
_Rules 52, 53.
_,
·
But the words put thus at the end must dese'Y'"ue ·
· 'J(d_istinction. If the ·end i~ taken by. something manifestly ,
unworthy of the emphasis, there is produced an effect
of flatness and anti-climax, and the sentence sounds loose
and rambling.

as this latter word deserves the distinction. If we should say, "how ·
kind to inferiors he £nvarz"ably is, " the ad verb creates a distinction
for the verb and makes it worthy of the emphatic place. - "Obstinate and unprin_c ipled though he was, ye~ he could not face an
'a ngered fath er, G
,n·-spite of his effrontery)" This last phrase should
go before "he could not face," etc., both according to th e third specificati on under Rule 8 1, and because th e distinction really belongs to
" could not face," etc.

It _is especially hazardous <~o end a sentence with a
phras·~~~-clau;e~beghining . ~ith· -·;z~t or whi'ch,~ or with a
restrictive element beginning with at least, at all events,
and the like. The added element is almost sure to weaken
the end of the sentence ; liable also to i_mpair jts unity.

I

EXAMPLES OF FAULTY ARRANGEMENT. - "The evidence proves
how kind rtb'in'f~riors\J.1e is.'} Better, "how .kind he is to inferiors,"

I'

l The w~rding of this rule is Professor Wendell's; see "English Com·
position," p. 103.

\l

EXAMPLES. 1. Ending with negative.
"This reform has already been hig hly beneficial to all clas~~~ 9f 9ur_ countrymen, and ·
will, I am p ersuaded, encourage among ti~ J ndustry, self-dependence,
and frugality, ru~d{?~ot, - as some say, wastefulness)'
.
2. Ending with w hz"clt-cla use.
"After a long' and tedious journey,
the last p art of which was a little .Qang\!rous
owing to the state of the
.
roads·, we arrived safely at York, whz"ch' is a fine old town." 1 This
ending really belongs to another sentence.
3. Ending witlt restrz"ctz"on. "Financial matters will no~be stable
and confident again until the present silver law has been repealed; .
at least in my opinz"on.r--~--- .
/
.

82. End with words
that deserve distinc-

' (

201

.

·

What matters are closer in thought
and what more · remote is a ,q~~!J.0!1
that has fo-·be "answered . in . each case
'
by t e~~ .·and revision, and no list of
degrees of relation can b(~ i:1ade out. By way of example,
however, we may say:-·
Be cautious about separating a relative clause from its ~
antecedent.
. '· ·
·
· ·
83. Join matters
hat belong to the
II.me thought; separate what is distinct.

1

Examples taken from Abbott's "How to Write Clearly.

202

ORGAN.ISM OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

ILLUSTRATION.- Notice how the following emendation connects
related thoughts better: " It was clear, however, that
the strife could never end until
some defining line between the
powers of the King and the
powers of the Parliament should
be drawn, over which neither
party might step."

J

" It was clear, however, that
the strife could never end until ,
there should be drawn some defining line between the powers of
the King and the powers of the
Parliament, over which neither
party might step."

Be cautious about separating a verb from its
predicate noun.

j

obje~t

or

EXAMPLES. - Compare each of the following sentences with the
improved arrangement in the second column : " The old man had struck, in
sudden and uncontrollable anger,
his nephew."
"These specimens are, to my
way of thinking, both in form and
in marking, the best examples of
this class that I have seen."

"The old man, in sudden and
uncontrollable anger, had struck
his nephew."
"To my way of thinking, these
specimens, both in form and in
marking, are the best examples
of this class that I have seen."

Study is needed to determine, between prepositional
phrases modifying the same word, which expresses the
closest relation an_d should accordingly be placed next
, its principal. Generally an of-phrase ought to take the
~ precedence, though the rule is not invariable
.

I

ILLUSTRATIONS. - In the above example it is hard to say which
is better, "the best examples I have seen of this class," where relative clause and antecedent are kept close together, or, "the best
examples of this class that I have seen," where the of-phrase stands
next its no~n. Probably both are equally correct.
"The death by consumption is announced of Mr. William Bailey, .
aged 45 years." This is an awkward arrangement, which, however,- it
is not easy to amend. Perhaps the best order would be " Announce-

203

ment is made of the death of Mr. William Bailey, by consumption.
He was 45 years of age." In any case the of-phrase should take the "/.._
precedence of the by-phrase.
----~

- - - ----- ..-------····

This important requisite applies especially to the voice of the v_erb, andJ
significance.
to ~<2.~s, phr~~~' or cla~~... p~~,?
tog~r or ~t ~r_}~·K?-}n~_t ee1:ch other.
Be cautious about changing the voice of the verb, from _j
active to passive or vice versa, in the course of the sen- rtence. The kinds of action and kinds of agency ought to
be kept uniform, except for special reason.
84. Give like form
to matters like in

f

ILLUSTRATION. - "Seeing the venomous reptile so near her, she
started back, shuddered, and a low tremulous cry was heard." Better,
"and uttered a low tremulous cry." To say, "and her companions
heard a low tremulous cry " keeps the active voice, but changes subject needlessly.

So, too, be careful to give like construction to elements
that are paired together ; that is, give them the same
parts of speech, and the same manner of connection,
so that they may be recognized as conformed to each
other.
ILLUSTRATIONS. - (From Abbott.) Thus, write "virtuous and
accomplished" or "of many virtues and accomplishments," not, "of
many virtues and accomplished "; "riding or walking" or "on foot
or horseback," not "on foot or riding." . . . Avoid such sentences
as the following : "He had good reason to believe that the delay was not an acddent
(accidental) but premeditated, and for supposing (to suppose, or else,
for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both by art and
naturally (nature) would be forced by the treachery of the governor
and the indo~ent (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a
week."

1'.

)

I_

·•
ORGANISM OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE . .

204

Conforming different sentence-members to each other in structure ·
.is called balance, and gives rise to a type t>f sentence ; see below,
Rule 90.

i

-85 Secure exact

.

A

Y:~!,Y_ _!111 po_rt~t___Jh~~1 ~

shades of relation by~con~_!E~t. ion
connectives.
/ subordinate

~-in~__?-!~.~-c~

is to det:_.r.~J. ~.=" -~~-t-~!_?_
to other things and what
' . t6 make a prindpal a;;;~rt· i~~- It is by ~~n~e~tives, principally, that the kind and clearness of relation is expressed;
and careful 's tudy of the degree and power of connectives
is a great aid to delicacy of style.
ILLUSTRATION. -The following sentence illustrates a very prevalent tendency among young writers to make every assertion of equal
importance:"The alarm was clear and close at hand, and he was startled ; he
arose hastily ; he made as little noise as possible ; he roused his men
. quietly, and soon he had everything in readiness for a vigorous
defense."
All this we may put in a narrative sentence (see Rule 76), but not
all the facts are of equal importance. What do we most need to
say? Evidently (1) that he rose at the alarm, and (2) that he got his
men in readiness for defense. The rest we can subordinate. Thus : "Startled by the alarm,-so clear and close at hand, he rose hastily,
making as little noise as possible, and quietly rousing his men he
soon had everything in readiness for a vigorous defense."

I .

II.

f'

Exercises in Sentence-Organism. -

Tw?~lhi~~J~;:;t.9~

b~Jl'!~,J.n:mincl. in ar~ci,ggi~g ~ sentence: first, it§..inter nal

structure,
the reiatiqn
.of_ part to part, which gives import..
, , ,,
ance
to endings, placing
of connected
elem~nts, and like...-.----._ -·
....-- -...-.
ness of paired constructions; secondly, its structure as
related to other sentences, whi~h --gives importance to
beginnings and connectives.
'

~.... .

--·~ ~-· ·

-

205

1. Rewrite the following sentences, amending according to the foregoing rules for sentence organis~. 1

He studied the subje.c t so, diligently tl~at by Christ1nas a ..,.. . .
book was written a and ready for the publisher, setting forth · ~i .. •
various claims and rights of the working clas_ses, among which r·
the claim of arbitration was ·a very important one.b f.
:
/
· He determined on sellipg all his estates, .and as soon as
this was done, to . quit · the . country, believing c that his honor
d~manded this sacrifice and ' in ; the hope 'o f satisfYing ) his
·creditors.cl .
.
·
.
·
. 1:_ The young man was thrown upon the untried responsibilities
of the -vyorld at a peculiarly critical time,e compelled to break '
off his studies in tl}.e_. middle of his course/ and with· the ·-loss
of h{s. father's (33) ~guidance/ who had died suddenly at the
age of fifty-eight, just as he had succeeded in establishing his
affairs .9n a prosperous basis.
f
( I )''?.~' compelled to gr~n}or more accura9~pf investigation,
anc.Ho illustrate more phases ·;of the subject;·! a large amount of ·. ;· ; ·
1
costl?!( apparatus.,.,.
,...
\ 1'
1'
·
t ' ' . t . ;/ ( / ,
' )~· t , I
.. ·_ . .' '.
i_ To be suddenly brought intoJcontact (49) with a system which
fo,rces one to subn;..it1 to wholesale imposture, and to (being) barbarously ill-treat~;g naturally repels one.h _ ·
'- '

--

I

It '}V.fl? his , c1u,,s toni to do mos~-;,:°f ~--~\5- ~v9r~ in the morning .,
and beginning ;the) afternoon, a1'Id Jhe latter part of the day
(was .devoted) to re~ding, and recr~~tion. ThU's ,.rhis _' b~-~n ~!J:S
kep~; clear fc;:ir hard study, and ~ spent his nights , In so~nd
/
and refreshing sleep, that in troubled dreams;"
\
·

<.

T~1e ge~e,ral was quite co~sci9~1s (2)(h~-v~l t~·ea~h~rous e~re ;
the. . mtent10ns of i.those who w·e re entertammg hnn } (49), and .
;.
•,. .·
of the dangers frbm which he had"escaped lately.i
;,,<., .
'fhe friends of sound government were naturally,. and '.._pot /~
'.'. '·~<:w,ithout justification,~encouraged at every step gained in ~du. 1

For several of these exercises acknowledgment is due to Abbott's
"How to Write Clearly."

'.

206

THE SENTENCE.

ORGANISM OF THE SENTENCE .

... ,eating public qpinion to appreciate a reformed Civil Servicei'
·.which was {)n6C:h ·desired.
•. ;, He was kno~ii to his country' neighbors{ during more than
forty years: as a gentleman of. cultivated mind, ·whose principles
· ,;wen\ 11i~h,' with polished address,k happy in his family, and
actively clischarg ln.g 1 local duties; and ~mong'j political men, .
as an honest, industrious, and sens~b l e member of Parliament,
with,out eagerness .to ) display his talents, who .was '; staun~h to
his party, 11 and attentive to the interests oflthose whose repre. ·
J .
. ·
, - ·.t .-) . """' '..
. sentative he was· (57).
We cannot proceed regularly in this matter until some plan' ·'
, of organiz_atio~} ( is agr~ed uporl by the e~ecutive com~it~ee on
the o.n e hand 'a nd by the chief ~fficers -on the other, by wliich'o
questions / that may be submitted · to the conventio1J., (._of jurisdiction,J shall be decided.
The . opening, fby the Queen, on May ro, at noon, in Kensingto1~l ( in: the presence of great crowds of distinguished
. visitors, \.of the Imperial Institute;\ was, to all who were priv·. ileged t,o see it~,:~ v:ry impressive 'ceremony,@nd)full of significance for the mother-land and her colonies;(a.t least to every
r1'·
loyal Englishman:y
.
·
~~~h the i~terition of fulfilling. I~is promise, andantending)
aliw; to clear,dmnself from the susp1c10n that attached to him,
· he dete~i:nined to ::15r -: rtain h cJ}V far this testirnony.y.ras corrob- .
orated; a11d . tne motives of the persecutor,· wf1o"had,,!beg~;;'(the
suiDlast Christmas.q
. · ·
' '
_'
·
~o contend against such thoroughly organized combinations
whe?ein . .~very attemptl"i-;-gi:iarde<ragilnst\on the part of oppos~
ing intere ~,ts to promote the succes.s by association of their
') principles(i's useless)
.
.

"Barbarous ill-treatment." - h. Make stronger ending, by puttiiig this
first. " One is repelled by,'' etc. - i. Is this the proper place for " lately?"
-j. How make this lik e in construction to previous adverb ?-'-k. Make the
details about mind, principles, and .address like in construction ..- I. "Active
in the discharge of." -m. With what ought this to be made parallel?- n.
Omit relative, and make "staunch" etc. like in construction to previous
phrase. - o. Observe how far the relative is from its antecedent ; how
remedy this? - p. Study out the best arrangement for · these details. - q.
Test the unity of this sentence. - r. This ending is weak; where will you
put "is useless " ?

'

I

'

/-,

(

,.._

~jnge

NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. Do not
to passive voice. - b. The
end of the sentence is weak; recast so as to end with "importance."-c.
Rearrange so as to put cause before effect. - d. Study where the sentence
requires similar constructions. - e. Compare note c. -f. Is it consistent
with sentence:unity to keep _this in the same sentence with the preceding?
If you put it into a new sentence, begin, "The father had died," etc. - g.

-

,•

I

207

.

Combine the follow.ing data into sentences, studying
especially: (1) how much to include in each sentence; (2)
what to put principal, what subordinate ; (3) with what
element to begin each sentence ; (4) what connectives to
use.. Leave the paragraphs as they are.
,
. 2.

~as

wa;;~~

1.,_ It
\ iiiore than a hundred years . ago.a ·rt
the
m~rket-place ::~t lJttgxeter. It was a~ rainy day.a The simple ,,,
1
folk/ ;, were . quite ~t a los;~ They did, not l~now c what to make
of the strange conduct of a . man. the' man' had just come
amo1,1g them.r · He was 'a large· marl. {I{is" ~ppearance ~ · ·
-~·rather imposing.;·, His countenance,was·(rugged, ?.li~ very intel. ligent. l-tie haJ.f,ente1:e'd the market-place.cl . He h ~d1 m~de his _
,.. .
,
I . .
. ' ("
way witl1 carefu search to one particular , spa~.< He had not
exchanged.nvords .with any one.cl He had uncovered Q:i-ist h ead~ .
and...stoocl.J ·His face was lighted by a solemn and re~er91t,.
expression.f He was regarded at first with silent curiosity.'"''~He
continued to stand . . . He was .exposed to the wind and th; wet.
' s .o me began to jeer. - Others(were\more civiI.e The.y. proff~ted
him the shelter of ti1eir stalls. , I-Te made no reply; ~t.He; 'sto~'d /.i:
a~_out an hour. -· He put on his hat and walked away.
./'~
(_ It was . ~·ome days after.:..~ A clergyman of ~ichfield passtdr(.:.,
thio_ugh fhe market~place. / He '! overhec:rd the people talking · '
about the ,incident; J. ·' It .had· not. ceased to be a wonder to them.
He remarked:'£ thatj perl~aps they\ would like to know who the
stranger was . .· · ·. '
·

11

•

,..

I

.

..

.

-.,

~ ..

208

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

THE SENTENCE. ,

~ - ..;

They assured hirµ they would.g
He asked them,i( they-had ever heard of Doctor J~1nson.
(The~·e' wa1 a pause. An old ~q.n .answered. y . :{ol-e l}ad never
heard of any doctor of thaj; n;umC · He used to know an oldMichael Johnson. Mi~tl~M Johnson kept a book-stall ,\n that
ver1-~~rket. ~i:is sta.~.l stood ·on that.i;er~ ~pot.: T!1.e,old man
knew because his father's stood next to it{. .' It 'was many years
1;,
\. . ti' '
.....
_ago. "
: _
.
The clergyman 'replied.' This Doctor J ohrison i('a:s 'the man . '
they; saw the other day. . He was the son of that old Michael
Johnson ., He was now. a great man,.. --~He was"an author~. He
1
.fte.Q. told some friends of his, when he reached home, why he
came so strangely. His fath.e r had asked him to attend him
in the market.-· -~fr·was fifty years ago that ve~.y ,'.day.i He was
then a boy~· -~-The- boy- had a foolish pride. ( He 1refused. The
remembrance of that disobedience, had remained
with him all
'
these years. It ;was painful to him. Hevvas ·on a visit to this
neighborhood ~--· He came here. , He stood a full hour. -(It was_)
in the rain. ( He did it in order to atone for that unfilial act. .
.· : .. \ The general comment was that he must be a good man.
~,:.·{: :J;~~ine looked rather shame-faced)
e. ...--

\

.

I

· NOTES ON THE ABOVE. -The wording of the above data need not be
changed much, except where some words have to be cut out in changing
from clausal to phrasal form. A few notes are given, principally to aid the
student in .getting started.
a. Put time-elem ents together ; and perhaps the best place for them is a t
the beginning ; thus : "One rainy day, more than a hundred years ago, the
simple folk," etc. - b. Would n ot the place be made prominent enough if
after "folk" you put "in the market-place at Uttoxeter? "-c. "Did not
know" so nearly r epeats "were a t loss ·" that it is superfluous; - d. Do
.you need to m ake these facts so prominent as to give them a principal
verb.?- e. The being civil is not the important fact, but the proffering.
Say, "Others, more civil, proffered,'' etc. - f . . Put the conversation
between the clergym an and the people in direct discourse, -see Rule -60.
:.._ g. This sentence need not be put in direct discourse.
The above notes will indicate &ome of the questions that you ought to
ask yourselves throughout. '

.

·~

IV.

I'

j

209

,,.

·· ~ .

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

The question how to handle the various kinds of sen- \
tences is not a question of right or wrong, but of taste
and judgment. The writer must decide for himself what
he wants to do and what means he will take to do it. All
that ~an be done here is to point out the special uses ·of
each kind, its disadvantages when employed in excess, \
and the effect that the predominance of any one type. of
sentence has on the style of the passage wherein · it
occurs .

I.

Rules denoting the General Uses of the various
Kinds of Sentences. -The kinds of sentences here to
be discussed are : short, long, periodic, loose, and balanced. In naming what prevailing effect each kind is
·good for, we by no means imply that it is good for nothing
else, nor that it is the only thing adapted to produce such
effect. We are merely determining its most general and
obvious use. And along with its use we rtame its equally
general and obvious disadvantage when ·employed to
excess.
The short sentence, containing ordi- I
86. For vigor and
emphasis, use short
narily one concisely worded assertion, )
.sentences. ·
is good to give point and crispness to a \
thought ; the r eader.:_gets the idea at once in its condensed
strength, without having to allow for modifications anci
saving clauses. Such manner of expression· is naturally
good for important definitions, enunciations of weighty
truth, and emphatic assertions.
ILLUSTRATION. _:_ Note what weighty a nd emphatic effect is prOduced by the brief enunciations in the following sentences : "The

211

THE SENTENCE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

same party spirit naturally denies the patriotism of its opponents.
Identifying itself with the country, it regards all others as public
enemies. This is substantially revolutionary politics. It is the condition of France, where, in its own words, the revolution is permanent. Instead of regarding the other party as legitimate opponentsin the English phrase, His Majesty's Opposition-lawfully seeking a
different policy under the government, it decries that party as a conspiracy plotting the overthrow of the government itself."
This last sentence, just by being longer, produces a distinctly
different effect, which will be specified presently.

ILLUSTRATION. - Note how the following long sentence gives
occasion to expand the ideas " hearth," "sh acle," "light"; note also
the exquisite rhythm and flow of the whole: "But so far as it is a sacred place, a vestal temple, a temple of the
hearth watched over by Household Gods, before whose faces none
may come but those whom they can receive with love, - so far as it
is this, and roof and fire are types only of a nobler shade and light,
- shade as of the rock in a weary land, and light as of the Pharos in
the stormy sea ; - so far it vindicates the name, and fulfils the praise,
of Home."
·

210

When the sentences are not individually important, a
\ series of short assertions produces a disagreeable scrappy
\ effect, and the reader is made impatient by the feeling
that he is not getting enough at a time to pay for giving
his attention.
EXAMPLE. - The following passage from Victor Hugo goes at
least to the very verge of this fault : "They lay down side by side on the sea-weed bed. The mendicant fell asleep immediately. The marquis, although very tired,
remained thinking deeply for a few minutes. He gazed fixedly at the
beggar in the shadow. Then he lay back. To lie on that bed was
to lie on the ground. He put his ear to the earth. He listened. He
could hear a strange buzzing under ground. We know that sound
stretches clown into the depths. He could hear the noise of hells.
The tocsin was still sounding. The marquis fell asleep." 1

The advantage of the long sentence
lies in the fact that it has room enough
to give an idea with all its n ecessary
tences.
modifications. One can also get by it better effects of
sound and rhythm, as it has a capability of flow that the
short sentence lacks.

8'{. For detail and
rhythm, use long sen-

J ----· -

1 Quoted from Carpenter's "Exercises in Rhetoric and Composition," in · ·
which is an excellent treatment of kinds of sentences.

l

As an offsetting disadvantage, the long sentence is
less impressive than the short one, harder to understand
and harder, in composing, to keep clear. As a rule, the
young writer will do better to work in moderately short{
sentences, keeping the construction clear and pointed.
It is a hel2 in- ......___....._.
understanding
long
sentences
to sug-:.i
_ #,.,, _ __
...... _,.. ..
. .... . . . ..... - ......_
,.~--

.--~ -;--·-. -..............

~

~t, in l'h.?!~~~~-P!.<::s..~c!.i!2g, t~,e . .~1.:.?Y&"~iI.0!!J.li

long sentence is to carr~t:._jn detail. · ·This promotes
also variety of style.

ILLUSTRATION. - In the following, note how the first sentence
prepares th e reader to understand and appreciate the succeeding : "During his official residence in England, Lowell seemed to have
the fitting word for every occasion, and to speak it with memorable
distinction. If a memorial of Dean Stanley were erected in his
Chapter House, or of Fielding at Taunton, or of Coleridge at Westminster Abbey, or of Gray at Cambridge, the desire of literary England turned instinctively to Lowell as the orator whose voice would
give the best expression, and whose character and renown the greatest
dignity, to the hour.
NOTE. - Sometimes the short effect may be given by sentence
clauses with common bearing, which are virtually several sentences
in one ; see Rule 76. This was a favorite type of sentence organism
with Cardinal Newman. In this case the writer's sense of emphasis
will determine whether the point between clauses is to be a semi-

I

213

THE SENTENCE.

K.lNDS OF SENTENCES.

colon or a period. Macaulay, for instance, trying to make everything emphatic, punctuated with periods many assertions that others
would have set off with semicolons ; and it is to this fact that much
of his short sentence effect is due. See Note at the end of Rule 80.

hence, it is especially good for everyday and conversational matters, such as letter-writing and narrative.

212

The principle of the periodic sent ence, namely the principle of sus· h t h e means t h ereto, h as
pense, wit
been set forth in Rule 52. The periodic sentence keeps
the sense incomplet e until the end is reached. The good
effect of this is that · the sentence, being made up with
one idea kept in mind, produces unity of impression, and
all its parts are closely related together.

88. To maintain attention and interest,
use periodic sentences.

ILLUSTRATION. - "In all my life, from the time when I first
began going to a dame-school until I received my doctor's diploma
from the University, I never saw eith er SQ queer a teacher or so
strange a subject of instruction." Here by means of the adverbial
phrases and clauses, then by the words ez"tlter and or, th e main assertion is kept unfinished to the end.

The periodic sentence sounds somewhat formal, an
effect that is increased when many sentences of this
type occur together. Besides, when the period is long,
it is hard to carry so many details in mind waiting for
( their solution.
A loos e sentence is the opposite of
89. For informal
ease and naturalness,
the periodic ; that is, there is no atuse loose sentences.
t empt to delay its parts by suspense,
but subject predicate and modifiers come in where they
naturally suggest themselves. The loos e sentence may
generally be stopped somewhere before the end, and yet
make complete grammatical sense ; this is one test of it.
The advantage of the loose sentence is that it1 is easy
and unforced, expressing thoughts just as they occur;

J

EXAMPLES OF LOOSE SENTENCES. - The places where these sentences might be stopped are indicated by bars: " Deceased was a 'translator' of boots. Witness went out and
bought old boots; \ deceased and his son made them into good ones,
I and th en witness sold them for what she could get a t the shops, I
which was very little indeed. Deceased and his / son used to work
night and day j to try and 1 get a little bread and tea, \ and pay for
the room ·\ (zs. a week), \ so as to keep the home together."

The tenden.cy of th~§J:,~s..e..i1tence....itL•.th.e..hands-0La...
c~-~~!~r-i.s,_tQJ?~<:;.9!11.~vtcg}~g!i~'• "a mere series of
clauses and phrases tacked together without order or art
by and' s, relative pronouns, and adverbs." 2
EXAMPLE - "There were but four in our party ; the others I will
call Miss Smith, Miss J ones, and Mr. Brown, and after an hour's row
we reached the light, where th e first difficulty presented itself; we
had forgotten about the chair in which to h aul the party up one by
one, and our dory was rath er small to move about in." This sentence
is not only loose but heterogeneous; see Rule 74 with examples.
NOTE. - As th e periodic sentence crowds th e emphasis to the end,
while the loose sentence may have its chief stress at the beginning, it
often happens that sentences of the two types may just answer to
each other, the one taking up the idea where the other laid it down ;
compare Rule 81, 3.

We have seen in Rule 84 that like- )
antithesis, use balness of form should be given to what is
anced sentences.
like in significance. This leads to the
pairing or balancing of elements over against each other;
and when this balancing und erlies the whole sentence
structure the result is called a balanced sentence.
90. For point and

1
2

See what is said about this expression in Appendix III.
Quotation and example from Carpenter, "Exercises," p. 70.

214-

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

THE SENTENCE.

rhythm, not that of music, but of a higher and more fantastic
melodiousness, submitting to no rule, incapable of being
taught : the substance and the form alike disclosing a happy
union of the soul of the author to the subject of his thought,
having, therefore, individuality without pers.o nal predominance :
and withal, there must be a sense of felicity about it, declaring
it to be the product of a happy moment, so that you feel that it
will not happen again to that man who 'writes the sentence, or
to any other of the sons of men, to say the like thing so
choicely, tersely, mellifluously;· and completely. 1
Conversation b which, among men whom intimacy and friendship have relieved from restraint and reserve, is liable when
left to itself to so many inequalities, and which, as it becomes
rapid, so often diverges ·into separate and collateral br<;i.nches in
which it is dissipated and lost, being kept within its channel by
a simple limitation of this kind which practice renders easy and
familiar, flows along in one full stream and becomes smoother
and clearer and deeper as it flows. 2
It c was upon the third of September when the king having
been upon his horse most part of the night and having taken a
full view of the enemy and everybody being upon the post they
were appointed and the enemy making such a stand that it was
concluded he meant to make no attempt then, and if he should
he might be repelled with ease; his Majesty a little before
noon retired to his . lodging to eat, and refresh himself, where
he had not' been near an hour, when the alarm came 'that both
armies were engaged'; and though his Majesty's own horse was
ready at the door and he presently mounted, before or as soon
as he came out of the city he met the whole body of his horse
running in so great disorder that he could not stop them, though
he used all the means he could, and called to many officers by

The advantage of balance is that by making one part of
J the thought aid the other it makes the expression pointed
l'and rememberable. Balance is often aided by antithesis;
see Rule 69.
EXAMPLES. " The Romans consider religion a part of virtue ;
the Jews virtue a part of religion." - " He defended him when living,
amidst the clamors of his enemies ; and praised him when dead,
amidst the silence of his friends."

The balanced sentence is a structure too artificial to
be used often; it should be reserved for an occasional
summing-up that needs to be made very pointed. Generally all the balance needed can. be obtained by following
the suggestions of Rul~ 84.
~ ....,,.-

1'...

~

II.
Exercises illustrative of Kinds of Sentences. - In
changing the following sentences as directed note the
differences iri effect produced, and the fitness of the
change to give better expression to the subject-matter.
Break up the following long sentences into shorter,
supplying new subjects and verbal constructions where
needed, and looking out for proper connectives.
I.

(A weighty sentence defined.) rta should be powerful in its
substantives, choic_e and discreet in its adjectives, nicely correct in its verbs : not a word that could be added, nor one
which the most fastidious would venture to suppress : in order
lucid, in sequence logical, in method perspicuous ; and yet
with a pleasant and inviting intricacy which disappears as you
advance in the sentence : the language, throughout, not quaint,
not obsolete, not common, and not new; its several clauses
justly . proportioned and carefully balanced, so that it moves
like a well-disciplined army organized for conquest : the

215

1

1 From Sir Arthur Helps. Quoted from Hodgson," Errors in the Use
of English," p. 20 5.
.
2 Quoted from M'Cormick, "Questions and Exercises on English Composition," p. 83.

217

THE SENTENCE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

their names and hardly preserved himself by letting them pass
by from being overthrown and overrun by them. I
Afterd this review of Shakespeare's life, it becomes our duty
to take a summary survey of his works, of his intellectual
powers, and of his station in literature, a station which is now
irrevocably settled, not so much (which happens in other cases)
by a vast overbalance of favorable suffrages as by acclamation;
not so much by the voices of those who admire him up to the
verge of idolatry, as by the acts of those who everywhere seek
for his works among the primal necessities of life, demand
them, and era ve them as they do their daily bread ; not so
much by eulogy openly proclaiming itself, as by the silent
homage recorded in the endless multiplication of what he ha_s
bequeathed us ; not so much by his own compatriots, who, with
regard to almost every other author, compose the total amount
of his effective audience, as by the unanimous 'all hail ! ' of intellectual Christendom ; finally, not by the hasty partisanship
of his own generation, nor by the biassed judgment of an age
trained in the same modes of feeling and of thinking with himself, -but by the solemn award of generation succeeding to
generation, of one age correcting the obliquities or peculiarities
of another ; by the verdict of two hundred and thirty years,
which hav~ now elapsed since the very latest of his creations,
or of two hundred and forty-seven years if we date from the
earliest· a verdict . which has been continually revived and
'
.
re-opened, probed, searched, vexed by criticism in every spirit,
from the most genial and intelligent, down to the most malignant and scurrilously hostile which feeble heads and great
ignorance could suggest when cooperating with impure hearts
and narrow sensibilities ; a verdict, in short, sustained and
countersigned by a longer series of writers, many of them
eminent for wit or learning, than were ever before congregated

upon any inquest relating to any author, be he who he might,
ancient or modern, Pagan or Christian. I

216

From Clarendon.
P· 242.
I

Quoted from Longman's School Composition,

a. This sentence is well-constructed and
clear for such a long sentence. The colons are good places to
divide. - b. This sentence, in addition to being long, is too wordy;
the whicli-clauses, especially, should be condensed. But even with
such condensation it would be hard to express the matter clearly in
one sentence. Instead of making the whole sentence on the idea
"Conversation flows along," etc., take four thoughts, and connect
them properly from cause to result. - c. Study carefully how many
distinct thoughts the sentence contains, and what is their relative
importance; and divide accordingly. - d. This sentence has three
main stages : 1. Our present duty. 2. His station, how settled. 3.
The verdict of approval and its universality. But even three sentences
would be too long for easy reading; they ought still to be subdivided.
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. -

Change the following sentences and groups of
sentences as directed.
2.

Spenser's poem strikes the note of the coming Puritanism
both in its conception and in the way in which its conception
is realized in the portion of the work that he completed.
(Direct more attention and emphasis to "the coming Puritanism.")
There was nothing paternal in the heart of the soldier. It
was that of a hardened bachelor. In former days he had been
in the streets of Algiers. The little begging Arabs pursued
him with their importunate prayers. The Captain had often
chased them away with blows from his whip. On some rare
occasions he had penetrated the nomadic household of some
comrade. The comrade was married and the father of a family.
He had gone away cursing the crying babies and awkward
children. These had touched with their greasy hands the
gilding on his uniform. (Change the part of the above that
1 From DeQuincey's Essay on Shakespeare, Works, Vol. vi., p. 72;
Riverside edition. The sentence contains 330 words.

THE SENTENCE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

gives illustrative detail by Rule 87; putting subordinate facts
in when-clauses, and adj ective modifications in relative clauses.)
Equally, in fact, as regarded my physics and my metaphysics;
in short, upon all lines of advance that interested my ambition,
I was going rapidly ahead. (Give the sentence more ease and
naturalness.)
In accordance with his dying father's request, Walter was
duly apprenticed to a shoemaker. He regarded as a disgrace
this honest occupation. The accustomed cheerfulness of his
conduct forsook him, the welcome that he used to give to his
mother was no more forthcoming, discouragement and shame
were written in his face. (Change so as to adjust the beginnings of second and third sentences to their foregoers; see
Rule 81, 3.)
I shall . give my reader a copy of my friend the butler's
letter, without any alteration or diminution, as he mentions, in
the simplicity of his heart, several circumstances that the
others have passed over in silence. (Change so as to direct
attention to "without any alteration or diminution.")
Of the mind that can trade in corruption, and can deliberately pollute itself with ideal wickedness for the sake of
spreading the contagion in society, I wish not to conceal or
excuse the depravity. (Change to less formal order.)
Already the aspect of his room was changed. The furniture
was dusted and arranged. The fireplace was cleaned. . The
floor was polished. Spiders no longer spun their webs over
the deaths of Poniatowski in the corner. When the -Captain
came home · the inviting odor of cabbage-soup saluted him on
the staircase. He saw the smoking plates on the coarse but
white table-cloth. He saw a bunch of flowers. He saw polished table-ware. The sight was quite enough to give him a
good appetite. (After the topic is given, change the details
according to Rule 8 7, making two groups of details.)
The mind is crippled and contracted by perpetual attention
to the same idea; just as any act or posture, long continued,

will disfigure the limbs. (Change so as to direct interest to the
result on the mind.)
The early age of New England was a time of hardship.
From the coming of the Pilgrims till the French and Indian
wars this severe period ex!ended.
Uncomfortable shelter
through the long winters, continued danger from savages, and
hard toil on an unfriendly soil (7 1) were its characteristics.
(Adjust the beginnings better; Rule 81, 3.)
After a few weeks' sickness, at his house in the country, he
departed this life. (Give a less stiff and formal order.)

218

219

THE PARAGRAPH IN SUM.

221

f

CHAPTER V.
THE PARAGRAPH.

N composing sentenc:s~ that is, in combining principal
elements and modifiers, words, phrases, clauses, to
make up completed thoughts, we have by no means
reached a stopping-place. Out of these single thoughts
and assertions must be shaped larger, more comprehensive
topics ; and to this .end our sense of order must devise
ways of grouping sentences so that the result shall be a
united, connected organism. Hence arises the construction of the paragraph.
A paragraph, then, is a connected series of sentences
constituting the development of a single topic. ·
A new paragraph is indicated, both in writing and in
print, by beginning a new line, whether the previous paragrap h has finished its last line or not ; and by indenting,
that is, by beginning a little way inward from the
margin.

I

1'--,
\/

1

NOTE. The paragraph form is also given to what each speaker
says, whether one word, one sentence, or more, in writing dialogue or
conversation. Though this looks like a paragraph, it may or may
not have a regular paragraph structure.

~
I

The two divisions into which the present chapter naturally falls are suggested by the definition of the paragraph
given above. Because the paragraph is the development
of a single topic, we need to inquire how that topic
appears as a whole, a unity. Because the paragraph is
made up of a connected series of sentences, we need to

inquire what is necessary to make this scncs into an
organism. The two divisions therefore are : I. The Paragraph in Sum.
2. The Paragraph in Structure.
The principles that we have here to trace are but the
repetition, in broa~er relations and applications, of the \..)
same principles that we have already discussed; being
indeed the principles that underlie all composition.
I.

THE PARAGRAPH IN SUM.

T~_pa~~aph i ~_I_i_!~ ually_ <1;g_~xpanc!~cl --~ent.e_n5;~j~ that '-.i

is, it contains a subject, here called a topic, - it i_s .~U l
, aboz,£~-~9!!1.~-2.~, Jhi :qg ; and it contains what corresponds
to a predicate, or as we may say predicative matter, - a
term here adopted to denote in. general what is said about "I
the topic. As anything that has been expanded may be
condensed again, WC! may_s~y ~ _we~l--~~~J2.,3!,..ct,,~aJ2..h, . !
w~th__the 1!.2l!X. it .. £~~L!l.~--- h_a y~~~1~ ~ -~~""~-~l_I1_!11J~!"~cL.~JA~~~~­
single sentence; il1 ,.~hi~lJ ..th~J_g_pi<;;_<:il.m~.J! ~t .£.9Lre.?R.~!1.~s I
b,r:9.§t_?l. to_th~_s.µ,gj~-c:l.o.f. the_s~_l].!.~.I!~~' . and the predicative
m~ or treatment of the topic, to_the ~~~e .
This is indeed such a useful test that perhaps the most
practical way to set out in th e composition of a paragraph ·
is to state its substance first in a sentence.

I.

Rules relating to the Paragraph Topic. -To this \
sum or total effect of the paragraph the topic is so
closely related that the two cannot well be separated in
treatment. In many paragraphs the one suggests the
other.

r

222
91. Make the nu-

. .J

THE PARAGRAPH IN SUM.

THE PARAGRAPH.

cleus of the para]':graph a single topic.

The paragraph, as the writer thinks
of it bef"~·~-;-;~king, arid as -the-re-ader ·

92. Test a composite

recalls it a!!_~~ reading, represents one
singl ~ . 1:_?~ic or stage in the composition.
It ~....h,~:;J
s~ as one sente.nc>.: :or-if may range over a considerable
part of the theme; but h~-·~PY case it has a unity and
offic~. of its own, being a determinate step in the progress
of the discourse.
N,ot _;1l_'Y_~ys, howe".er,
is this topic definitely .stated
..
.... ___ __ in
some part of the paragraph. It may be so stated, or it ,
m~y be- diffused through the whole ; whether the one or
the other depends largely on th e kind of subject matter
"with which the paragraph deals. But ~hr::!.h~r -~J~t~d ~ o L _
not,
a definite
must exist
in the
mind; he
._... .
- topic
.. ·-.
...
. writer's
·... -··- - --._ must work to it carefully, in order to make it the general
effect of the paragraph.
-.~·

~

Y

~

\

ILLUSTRATION. - The general topic of the following paragraph,
from Ruskin, may be called "What it is to educate" : "Educate, or govern, they are -~~;-·;~·~r the same word. Education
does not mean teaching people to know what they do not know. It
means teaching them to behave as they do not behave. And the
true 'compulsory education' which the people now ask of you is not
catechism, but drill. It is not teaching the youth of England the
shapes of letters and th e tricks of numbers; and then leaving them
to turn their arithmetic to roguery, and their literature to lust,. It is,
on the contrary, training them into th e perfect exercise and kingly
continence of their bodies and souls. It is a painful, continual, and
difficult work; to be done by kindness, by watching, by warning, by
precept, and by praise, - but above all - by example."
The sum of this paragraph may be thus formulated : TRlf.E

~~E CA]:'ION IS

AN AFFAIR NOT OF
OF CONDUCT.

·--.--

KNO~ LEDGE

....

The various repetitions and contrasts of the paragraph are so
means of working to this one underlying idea.

topicbytherelationof
its constituent ideas.

223

Just as a sentence, as shown in
1
Rule 7 5, may be made up of severa
clauses closely related in thought, so

J
~

a paragraph, instead of r eiterating one idea, may be made
up of several related ideas .; and ·in ~eneral the . relations
between these are the sam.e..1ha~~J?J;t ..•f;.t t~arts
of a-Sentence, only the application is broader. Let us see
how these r elations look in the more spacious realm of the
paragraph. To have a right · together in the sum, then, 'f-.the ideas that make up a paragraph may consist: 1. Of a statement.i.J!filL.t.b,e_particulars .. that.go_t.o.. J~pta.._b.:___ _
lish it, ~ the reasons f~r holding_ it, or some analogie/s or \ /
incidents that serve to illustrate 1t. In general we may ~
say such ideas, which combine to make perhaps the simplest type of paragraph, belong together because in some
sense they are lz"ke each other.
EXAMPLES. - From Macaulay, whose paragcaph structure is generally very clear. "The abilities of Charles were not formidable."
[Particulars, followed by an illustrative incident, that show how elegant yet how unsubstantial th ey were.] 1
"Mr. Hallam: decidedly condemns the execution of Charles; and
in all that h e says on that subject we heartily agree." [Reasons for
holding that the execution of Charles should be condemned.] 2
"Ariosto tells a pretty story of a fairy, who, etc . . . . Such a spirit
is Liberty." [The whole paragraph is a working out of this simile.] 8

Of two statements of truths set over against each
other ; wherein the id eas form constituent parts of the
same topic because they are in contrast.
2.

ExAM.PLES. - From Macaulay. "Thus· the Puritan was made up
of two different men, the one all self-abasement, penitence, gratitude,
1 For the full text of this paragraph, see Appendix ii. P· 288.
2 Appendix ii. p. 289.
8 Appendix ii. p. 290. .

224

THE PARAGRAPH.

passion, the other proud, calm, inflexible, sagacious. He prostrated
himself in the dust before his Maker; but he set his foot on the neck
of his king." [The rest of the paragraph works out this contrast in
detail.] 1
From Burke. "It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw
the Queen of France, then the Dauphiness, at Versailles ; and surely
never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a ·more
delightful vision. [Several sentences illustrative of her splendor and
the respect in which she moved. J But the age of chivalry is gone."
[The rest of the paragraph defines the contrast that has come over
the age.] 2

3. Of ';..!~!..~ :n.~.1!L~!1d so~~ consequence flowing from

~ ~t, in the w~y of result or appT1c.ai:lon-·; tl1e-co11;trfoerir~
i \ 1deas..bclo..ug~ame topic because one is the cause
of

th~fher.

-·-·-···----

···--·"

EXAMPLE. From Macaulay. "The Puritans were men whose
minds had derived a peculiar character from the daily contemplation
oi superior beings and eternal interests. [Several sentences of amplification.] Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions."
[The rest of the paragraph describes this contempt in detail.] s

These relations may of course be combined in various
ways in making up the sum of a paragraph; the order,
too, may be varied, illustration sometimes preceding, sometimes following its principal, cause sometimes before
effect, sometimes after. Such relations must, however,
exist; else the paragraph fails in unity of impression.
NOTE. - If this natural relation is not traceable between the constituent ideas of a paragraph, or if it is too remote to be readily felt,
the matter thus left loose is called a digression. There may sometimes be sufficient reasons for deliberately planning a digression ;
but ordinarily one should hold strictly to the natural connection and
relation.
1

Appendix ii. p. 290.
2 Appendix ii. p. 292.
8 Appendix ii. p. 293.

THE PARAGRAPH IN SUM.

I

225

We have seen in Rule 76 that some
sentences have to deal with a somewhat
loose series of details called groupthoughts. The paragraph, also, has
sometimes to handle what may be called a group-topic,
wherein the constituent ideas have no relation of likeness
or contrast or cause and effect to bind them together ; L
the ideas are merely contiguous, touch each other (con, I
tango), as they are put sid'e by side. All that we can .?
demand of such group-topics is that they shall compriseThe facts that belong to some place or scene ; or
K
The facts that belong to some determinate time ; or 'I..
The facts that make up a common bearing or object. /(
In making 'up the sum of such a paragraph we have to use
judgment in choosing and grouping details that one naturally thinks of together.
The topic of such a paragraph is not ordinarily stated'~;~
it has to be gathered from the sum of the whole.
93. Test a group
topic by contiguity
in time, place, .or
thought.

EXAMPLES.-'- From J. M. Barrie.
"When Margaret entered th~
manse on Gavin's arm, it was a white-washed house of five rooms,
with a garret in which the minister could sleep if he had guests, as
during the Fast week. It stood with its garden within high walls,
and the roof facing southward was carpeted with moss that shone in
the sun in a dozen shades of green and yellow. Three firs guarded the
·h ouse from west winds, but blasts from the north often tore down the
steep fields and skirled through the manse, banging all its doors at
once. A beech, growing on the east side, leant over the roof as if ·to
gossip with the well in the court-yard. The garden was to the south,
and was overfull of gooseberry and currant bushes. It contained a
summer seat, where queer things were soon to happen."
The topic that w;: gather from this is, The manse and its surroundings.
From Thackeray. "All our friends took their share and fought
like men in the great fi eld. All clay long, whilst the women were

226

THE PARAGRAPH IN SUM.

THE PARAGRAPH.

praying ten miles away, the lines of the dauntless English infantry
were receiving and repelling the furious charges of the French
horsemen.
Guns which were heard at Brussels were ploughing
up their ranks, and comrades falling, and the resolute survivors
closing in. Towards evening, the attack of the French, repeated
and resisted so bravely, slackened in its fury. They had other
foes besides the British to engage, or were preparing for a final
onset. It came at last: the columns of the Imperial Guard marched
up the hill of Saint Jean, at length and at once to sweep the English
from the height which they had maintaine_d all day, and spite of all:
unscared by the thunder of the artillery, which hurled death from
the English line - the dark rolling column pressed on and up the
It seemed almost to crest the eminence, when it began to
hill.
wave and falter. Then it stopped, still facing the shot. Then
at l.ast the English troops rushed from the post from which no
enemy had been able to dislodge them, and the Guard turned. and
fled."
From this paragraph we gather the topi~, 9_utli~e descr!ftion of
Waterloo.
p,,.....~<)=-,.._ ... /

/J

b

{ - - - II.

Exercises in determining the Sum of Paragraphs. In the following exercises you will need,. much beyond
what has heretofore · been required, to invent.
Draw '
freely on observation, memory, imagination, reasoning;
and try thus to work out each topic by such details as
belong most fittingly to it.
Work out the following topics as directed, and be ready
to give in each case the reason for your procedure.
At first sight the house, with its surroundings, presents little
that is of interest. [Amplify.] But as you look more closely
you see evidences of industry and thrift without. [Particulars.]
And of neatness within. [Particulars.] From which you find
yourself making a conjectured history of its inmates. [Amplify.]

227

[Use judgment regarding the amount of materia~ you will
include in each topic.]
What happens daily : to office by electric cars - telephone
messages from various · parts of the city- telegrams, some
from points in this country, some from across the ocean electric signals for various things - electric lights in the evening.
[Amplify these things, and deduce a topic that shall
give them significance.]
Some books, as Lord Bacon says, are to be chewed and
digested.
[Write a paragraph explaining and applying this
figure.]
You have always shunned monotony, and waited till you
"felt like it" before you would work ; therefore do not hope
for success in any strenuous undertaking. [Expand into a
paragraph according to Rule 92.J
Hank Sawyer was what the Scotch call a "ne'er do weel."
[His small farm - all run down - never systematically worked
-how his neighbors despised his shiftlessness.] One of the
most popular men in the neighborhood. [Witty-cheerfulkind-hearted, a capital story teller.] [Give unity to this topic,
according to Rule 92, and work it out in detail.]
The game was now at its most critical point. [Give particulars.]
Some people's characters are like a combination lock; you
must know the combination before you can unlock them.
[Write a paragraph interpreting this simile.]
The last hundred yards of the mile run.
[Work out a
paragraph, according to Rule 93.J
The old mill, with its antiquated machinery, is no longer
· used except for grinding feed. But it is still an object of
interest. Its surroundings, its seclusion, its solidity, its quaint
old wheel. [Work out, using judgment regarding the number
and inclusion of topics.]
How my friend and I made up after our misunderstanding.
[Invent> particulars.]

228

THE PARAGRAPH.
II.

THE PARAGRAPH IN STRUCTURE.

(after the opening paragraph) is to make a link of con- ,
nection with what goes before.
This connecting link comes at the very beginning as a. n L_,
introduction to the topic sentence ; and t~~ s the for~
of ~..!Ymmary, or m9_:e freq~er:!ll. of a . E2~.I~~
or phrase.

THE PARAGRAPH IN STRUCTURE.

If on th e one hand the paragraph is virtually an
· - expanded sentence, it is on the other hand, and more
p~lp.ably tha~ .the sentence, a complete composition i_n
mmiature ; It IS constructed on the principles governing
a larger composition in this respect, that it has a theme
an~and an articulation of parts. The~e traits of
structure may be r~as- showing the transition
between the sentence and the discourse; subject and
predicate are herein broadened out into topical matter
and predicative matter, but not yet developed into complete and balanced divisions as in an essay.

l

X

-

j'it~~- HUJ.§..to~h,~\01~ so t~c:tm:.e:QL.th.e..-Par<!graph '
co.u,s:~n.nc;:;E~~L~,e!i9.11 . oLL~~p.a.r.t~.... to each other,
a relation that involves what has been called "the secret
of dove-tailing style." lt.§ ideal is to haye the cun;:eqt
of ~g..h.t...a.Q§._oh.!!~4' continUQlJ S aruljnterrelat~ from
beginning to end, one unbroken progress.
"'
·

I.

Rules essential to Paragraph Structure. - By the
word essentiGJ ,it is not me.ant thf!.t_every ~agraRh 1nust
oQ.IT alL th.ese r.u.]e,s ; this cannot be said unqualifiedly,
for example, of Rules 95 and 96. R ft_!h_er, here is..,..Eointed
o ~.e t,.;:p.e, the1 normal par.§lgmplL~U.11£.tiJ.re, which, once
thoroughly in mi nd, will be the best guide and regulator
not only to general procedure but to exceptions.
Not only the parts of a paragraph
94 . Make proper
connection with what
but the paragraphs of a composition
precedes.
are linked together in one sequence;
hence the fi~~!. ,thought -~ -~·~-onstruf].wg-a,~.,_p-~~ · •·
0

The following beginnings of four paragraphs from
Macaulay show how they are connected together, each starting from
the main thought of the preceding. ··
"Though J?acon did not arm his philosophy with the weapons of
logic, he adorned h er profusely with all the richest decorations of
rhetoric. [Amplified by particulars : eloquence and wit.]
" These, however, were freaks in w lziclt his ingenuity 1lOW and
then wantoned, w ith scarcely ~my other object than to astonish and
amuse. But it occasionally happened that, when he was engaged in
grave and profound investigations, his wit obtained the ~astery over
all his other faculties, and led him into absurdities into which no dull
man could possibly have fallen. [Amplified by instances : similitudes
used as arguments.]
" Thtf truth is, that his mind was wonderfully quick in perceiving
analogies of all sorts. But, like several eminent men whom we could
name, both living and dead, he sometimes appeared strangely deficient '
in the power of distinguishing rational from fanciful analogies. [Consequences oi such lack of discrimination, in Bacon and others.]
" Y et, we cannot wish that Bacon's wit had been less luxuriant."
[Amplified by showing the usefulness of it.]
EXAMPLES. -

"1' .~ th e_.§..1;1!3,!....QL!.b!_..Earag~.I>.h concerns ~ of

l

229

•

'

95. Devote the first

part to topical matter.
• '

T 1le b ~inp.ing, after connection with
what precedes is adjusted, i~enatur~
ansL!1§,1:1~.tPl~<;:~r_t.h~...lli!I_ggI:a 111J.~c.

In the topical matter is included not _~mJy the tQP.ic...s..ent-ence itself, when expressed, but wliatever_js_
accounted
.......necessa,::r__to_grt._i.Lfolly--before ._th_e-I.e.ade~~~bj_ec~ of
consideration. This may include, The topic and its definition,
---··~-~- -

.

~

- ~ -~

230

The topic and its explanation,
The topic and any form of repetition, figure, paraphrase,
or contrast, desig ned to g ive it greater force and fulness .
E~AMP~Es. -The examples already given will illustrate th e placing
and mclus10n of the paragraph topic. Thus, in the p aragraph from
Macaulay beginning, "Thus th e Puritan was made up of t wo different
men " (see Appendix ii. p. 290), th e topical matter is comprised .in
two sentences, of which the second is an explanation of the first.
In . the second and third of the four paragra,phs whose beginnings
are cited on page 229 abov e, th e topical matter is sta ted by a contrast
or obverse, the first member introductory to the ~ e cond, and at the
same time preserving connection with the preceding .
NOTES. I. Sometimes th e order of topical matter and predicative
matter is reversed, after the analog y of a periodic sentence ; but
!b.i.!.~ perio.~is....:'~:_nces ai·e very common, periodic p aragraphs are
quite exceptional. TE ~~il.ii"' .!:ff~.Lw.b e n fo~eason
th e)Y..!itt:J;..).Y.~-k~~ep... b<!cJ~, an~_µ11p;i.!3t.?.:!?Je..QL.P.UhaP~-.Il&,rticularly
me_~~~...!2_I?.! c, unti!_Q~ ~re~s ons for it are all in.
2. Sometimes the topical ~m a tter- of . a paragra12h may b e so imp~.thaLfue_wJ1o~u~arag~,apl!. ~~ay ~-e_!~~e-~ up_~i0_it. In such
a case the topic may be either a proposition to be a1;;plified in succeeding p aragraphs (as seen in the short paragraph on p age 3 of this
book), or a summary of the preceding (as in the second paragraph
at the beginning of the present chapter).
.

J

96. Put predicative
matter after the
topical.

This of course follows naturally from
the foregoing rule, but n eeds to be said
here in order that predicative matter

may be denned:

~ ~ - icg! iv~. m.at.ter~- ·

-~~g~.§ . ~P~D_!_~i..~I!!Qlifies, the_topic. __. It may
be~'.:.!..~~~<;~~r
e,/ · The proof of the topic,
/ The ill ustratio!\ of the topic,
J The applicatio~4(of the topic,
The conseq ueri.c e of the topic,

-'

THE PARA GRA PH IN STRUCTURE.

THE PARA GRAPH.

231

The enforcement of the topic ; in general, if we conceive the sum of the paragraph as
reduced to a sent ence, the part that would correspond to
the p~ e dicate of the sentence.
E XAM P L E S. These are sufficiently illustrated in the paragraphs
already cited. Study the full texts of them in Appendix ii.
NOTE . Just as a parag raph wholly topical may be constructed,
so also a p arag raph consisting entirely of predicative matter, or .even \
more th an one, in succe;;sion, may: be cons tructed ; the topic al matter
b eing laid down, or clearly intimated, in the preceding. This fact
will perhaps explain the rationale of the group-topic, employed in the
narrative and descriptive p aragraph, as mentioned in Rule 93.

·v

The internal structure of a sentence is indicated largely
by punctuation. This help fails us in the paragraph, its
sentences showing only end-punctuation - periods, exclamation-points, and interrogation-points.
~~~..Ye
therefore te_~~~ d correspondingly more _Q.ll~.:5-..~ \
expression,
suc!1~-""
as Pl~c
YJ,g, connecting-links, and parallel ,
~~
-.!l~"'
"41'
~

1

...,.__,,....... .

cons~~ons, to .. make .Jl1e~ .~e~~~ .a~~L!!le~l2.g,""..C?.L '-f . .
thoughts clear.
.., P t. Iik
d
That is, do not mix up definition and
'(

9,. n
e mo es
(/' of . amplification to1- gether.

---- ~-----

pro~J!L11stratioE_._~~<!_ con~~-q~.~~s:_~,--J:?.ut

. d
.
. d omg"-1
.
JU
ge w h at eac h t l1mg
you say is
for your topic, and ..P~.J.h~-~~~&::_~_9(_ajp~lar,. 'Y()Ek _ea~ch by ]'themselves. Wl~~!_~~~PJ9--1l~!Qry 9,rjllg.s tr.~t ty~~A~!\lr::
ally m9-k~~ ~-ur .. ~ _st~ge py:jts_elf ; wl}.atever sentences ..er.~
iterative belon to,g~th e r; and both of these ways of
amplifi'Z~tion, a~ indic; ted in Rule 95, are ordinarily early
stages. So also whatever proves, and whatever draws consequence
or ~.P-R!"*is._ation, form stages
of their own, and
... -.....,....... ....
..... ' •.
ordinarily (compare Rule 96) the later stages of the
paragraph.
·- ····-~--.. ~·

1-

....

~

, ... lo1i' ....... ~

~---

232

i

I.

f

I

l
I
t

I

!

I
II
I

~

THE PARAGRAPH . .IN STRUCTURE.

EXAMPLE. In the following paragraph, from Cardinal Newman,
we can readily trace the stages of treatment. The analysis is given
in the margin.

sometimes also by their form. Three principal ways of
connecting sentences may be mentioned.
1. The closest and simplest connection, str~~-s_ jL
may seem, is wher~.._ E.:Q . ~~-~ITY.i.§,. ,~!.~ . "geeded. The
thoughts, all having a common bearing and moving m
the same direction, do not need to have their relation to
each other pointed out; it is obvious enough without it.
This simple connection is best seen where a series of
sentences contribute to prove or particularize a topic.

" I say then, if we would improve the intellect, first of all, we must ascend ; we cannot
gain real knowledge on a level; we must generalize, we must reduce to method, we mtist
have a grasp of principles, and group and
shape our acquisitions by means of them. It
matters not whether our field of operation be
wide or limited ; in every case, to command
it, is to mount above it. Who has not felt
the irritation of mind and impatience created
by a deep, rich country, visited for the first
time, with winding lanes, and high hedges,
and green steeps, and . tangled woods, and
everything smiling indeed, but in a maze?
The same feeling comes upon us in a strange
city, when we have no map of its streets.
Hence you~ear of practised travellers, when
·they first come into a place, mounting some
high hill or church tower, by way of reconnoitring its neighborhood. In like manner,
you must be above your knowledge, not under
it, or it wiil oppress you ; and the more you
have of it, the greater will be the load. The
learning of a Salmasius or a Burman, unless
you are its master, will be your tyrant. _ ' Imperat aut servit' ; if you can wield it with a
strong arm, it is a great weapon ; otherwise
you will be overwhelmed, like Tarpeia, by the
heavy wealth which you have exacted from
tributary generations."

I

I ·

i ·'

'
·.'''

233

THE PARAGRAPH.

98. See that con•\ nection Md sequence
'1"' are unmistakable.

Transition and topic.
1st stage:
repetition by contrast, and then by
varied and particularized statement.

2d stage:
illustration by analogy;

by another analogy.

3d stage:
consequence_; amplified in turn by repetition,
in varied statement.

EXAMPLE. The following paragraph, from F. W. Robertson, is
a simple series of sentences illustrating or iterating the topic.

" It is a twice-told tale that the world is
passing away from us. God has written it
upon every page of his creation that there
is nothing here which lasts. Our affections
change. The friendships of th e man are not
the fri endships of . the boy. The face of the
visible world is altering around us : we have
the grey mouldering ruins to tell of what once
was. Our laborers strike th eir plough shares
against the foundations of buildings which
once echoed to human mirth - skeletons of
men to whom life was once dear - urns and
coins that remind the antiquarian of a magnificent emp,ire. This is the history of the
world, and all that is in it. It passes while
we look at it. Like as when you watch the
melting tints of the evening sky - purplecrirnson ! gorgeous brrold, a few pulsations of
quivering light, and it is all gone. We are
such stuff as dreams are made of."

Topic.
1. Repeated.
2. Particularized.

3. Summarized.
4. Figure and quo·
ta ti on.

I

When
the. thought has to be turned
in a new
clir~c---...._........:....:..,............ __ .__ .,.-,-, .•. ._ .....
.u-.-· ..;•• .._ ' '
,.,...., .......
•
· tion, o~...n.a.rro.w.ed__to ....a particular applic~tlo_i;!. or suppl~~
. mented by an inference or a consequence, the fact is
2.

·~•..,·--•- • •

~·•

THE PARAGRAPH IN STRUCTURE.

THE PARAGRAPH.

234

J

2. Repetit£o1i.
(From Carlyle.) "For example, if he
secret his eye on liilich and Berg, could anything be fitter
ascertain what the French will think of such an .e nterprise?
tlze Frenclz _; and next to them what the English - th at is
Hanoverians, who meddle much in the affairs
the Reich."

indicated by ·the employment of co~nectiv~ _!Y.2!,9§....-9r
{'phrases.
·,
EXAMPLES OF CONNECTIVES. - Such words as but, yet, still, 01l
't/ie otlzer !tand, and the like, turn the thought around to a contrast.
The paragraphs from Macaulay on page 229 have illustrations
of this. Such words ~s for example, for instance, are used for
1
formal particularization, though ih_ many ·cases this is not needed.
Such wo~ds as accordingly, as a consequence, 11ence, tlzerefore, draw
a conclusion or inference. Connectives of this kind are so niunerous
. that abundant examples will occur to every one.'
NOTES. - I . . Often when the relation: between two contrasted
rthougl)t~ . is . very obvious, it is ~tro11ger as well as more graceful
to leave. out · the natural connective ; see R ul e 48.
It is more graceful, and really closer, whe~1 we can introduce
such c01'm ectives inside the sentence,· instead of having them stand
at the beginning. Thus, to say, " It is better, 11owever, to take this
course,'' instead of saying "But it is better;" - to say," Pitt was in
the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer, accordi?tgly, insists,'' etc., instead of saying, "Accordingly, his biographer
. insists," - is much closer style. 1

X'

Just as in sentence structure phrases
and clauses that are paired together in
thought (see Rule 84) should be balanced, so, on a broader scale, balance should obta~n in
the paragraph.
Do 1:!ot c~_g.~ .. !h~_ . subj.e.~.L of re.~~:k
needles~ro!!t..sentence t9 sentence.
Do not change
needlessly from active to passive voice. Make the type
of structure alike in groups of sentences iterative of the
same general thought. In general, make matters of like
importance nearly enough alike in form so tbat readers
will associate them together.

99. Give like prominence to matters like
in importance.

3. When a sentence is to be linked to its preceding,
J i,ts ~tructure may be inverted or otherwise acc.ommodated
}\see Rule 81, 3), or some word of the precep1i1g may be
'. repeated, or, a sununary may. be made. Ii1• maki1l,g O!:_~
sentence thus grow out of the oile before·; do notJ9rge_!.
. their common relation to the main topic ; else you may
easi1y stray too far.

)
.
1

y_
~­

}.-

EXAMPLES. - .The paragraph from Macaulay, cited in .full in
. Appendix ii (page 293 ), makes the subject of remark, the Puritans,
or its representatives tlzey an.cl tl1em the dominating word in nearly
There are also groups of sentences constructed
every sentence.
on the same type ; for example, three sentences beginning with if- ·
clauses, two sentences beginning with " For his sake "; two sentences beginning with "He had been" (wrested . . . ransomed).
Study th:iparagraph for its illustrations of balanced structure.
•

~

1

'

"•

~

,

I '. ·, ·,

I; ; ;

,1 ~

II.

,.:
.

f f //
,,..
'/

Exercises in Paragraph Construction. -The follow-

EXAMPLES. - I. Inversion. (From DeQuincey.) "It was not
that I feared for ourselves.
Us, our bulk and impetus charmed
against peril in any collision." "All is finite in the present; and
even that finite · is infinite in its velocity of flight towards death.
But in God there is nothing finite ; but £n· God there is nothing
tr.a nsitory; but in God there call' be nothing that tends to death."

ing exercises will furnish occasion for the study of both
sentences and paragraphs, sometimes also of the grouping ·
of paragraphs.
Work out the following materials into paragraphs,
as directed.
1.

See Vvenclcll, English Composition, P: IIo.

,

had in
t_h an to
· W!tat
to say, .

oJ

2:

1

235

.

.': .•.
~

236

THE PARAGRAPH.

That happy union of frankness and reserve which is to be
desired. . . . The stone in which nothing is seen, and the
polished metal which reflects all things, are both alike hard
and insensible. [Make first sentence into a topic sentence repeat in more defining terms-draw consequences in character - draw contrast, and apply to character - end with
above figure by way of illustration.]
I struck the man in self-defence. I explained this to the
magistrate. He would not believe me. Wftnesses were called
to support my statements. He committed me to prison. He
had the right to do this. It is a right that is rarely exercised
in such circumstances. I remonstrated. [Supply proper connectives.]
It has been said that you can judge a man's character by
noting what amuses him.
Remark illustrated by the oldfashioned country "horning." That was held in lieu of the
modern reception.
When the young couple returned from
their honeymoon. The bride's house surrounded by neighbors.
Guns, horns, and all sorts of uncouth racket till a
late hour. Invited in later to a repa;:;t. This is what amused
our forefathers.
Sometimes bride and groom would try to
keep their home-coming secret.
Once bride's father and
groom's father lived not very far apart. Bride's · scapegrace
. brother directed the horning-party wrong. They serenaded
an empty house. Bride and groom escaped. [Work out into
two paragraphs. J
Humor and pathos, it is said, are twins and inseparable.
[Explain topical matter by showing what humor and pathos
respectively deal with.
Then prove predicative matter by
pointing out how and why they are so closely connected.]
At length Bunyan began to write; [ . . . J it was some
time before he discovered where his strength lay, his writings ··
were not unsuccessful.
They were coarse, [ . . . J they
showed a keen mother-wit, a great command of the homely
mother tongue, an intimate knowledge of the English Bible,

THE PARAGRAPH .IN STRUCTURE.

237

and a vast and dearly bought spii-itual experience. They
[ ... J the corrector of the press had improved the syntax
and the spelling, were well received by the humbler class
of Dissenters. [Supply connectives where the blanks are
indicated.]
Let your speech be alway with grace, seasoned with salt.
[Expand the two parts of predicative matter -grace, salt by defining what is meant, and giving illustrations of what
speech would be without the o~e or the other.]
The sonnet, since its introduction into English . literature
in the time of Queen Elizabeth, has been a favorite form
of verse for the utterance of brief thoughts and sentiments,
and for the enshrining of delicate moods of reflection. [Expand topical part by describing the sonnet.]
2.

Treat the following subjects :

A day's excursion -bicycling, boating, fishing, or picnic-·dividing the account into stages suitable for paragraphs,
and noting the topic of each.
Early recollections; giving a paragraph each to your early
home, playmates, striking incidents, and first school.
Three paragraphs on a boy's (or girl's) use of tools: the
interest, the usefulness, the result .
A visit to some noted place, or building, or machinery,
or factory that has interested you. Think out the stages
of your visit, and give the reason for each paragraph.

REQU.IS./TES OF COMPOS.IT.ION.

239

phraseology, sent ence structure, and the ·cest. What is
first to be learned is most constantly to be applied.
CHAPTER VI.

' I.

Rules for determining Whole and Parts. -The.!.?,!!.£w- ·
in~he..~JltJ,lJy_uhsJll:~eclai5. ..~.!1Eerl)jp_g in
some form the composition of any and every kind of discourse. How they are to be modified in the individual
case is a problem that no one but the writer himself can
solve.
As the sentence builds l!P...J he •. ex100. Make your
. ··,- - - - : - - - - -·J composition centre in press10n of <l!!C:. _id ea-!. and as the p~tone theme.
g~constitutes the <!,<;~oiz~,;,

f

one,,,J.sm.is, so t~e.._."~.~oJE,!.. -~-ODJpJ;l§.i!,!9J),, however long or J
complicated, is c~?-~.I!t~..c!.-"Y.~~JLa..- single t~me. The wo~d {
theme is the Greek word fJEµ,a, sometlimg placed, or laid
down, and may be defined as t~,_;y.9.i:ki-Bg~~~~~t;, discourse.
This theme is laid clown first of all for the writer him: ,
self to.... wofk-ro; ·;~d ~l;~tl;~;-~xp~:~~~-~h;-~;~ted

___

-

l

J-

going t o write .. Put it ir~-- - ~~~~~r..E°.~:1: ' . express i1,1g. ea.ch • i
thought as concisely and accurately as you can, dctermm- 1'
in g the divisions and subdivisions by different styles of
numbering . It is very hard t o make a coherent and ·self--J..
consist ent line of thoug ht without planning it in this way./
Even if a writer gets by experience the ability to make
and follow a plan mentally, he must ordinarily have acquired
that ability by planning much on paper.

-

BEYOND the gro uping of sentences together to form
parag raphs th ere is the larg er g roupin g of paragraphs
to build up th e whole composition. This is governed by
exactly the same principles of unity and organism that we
have already traced ; only th e broadening of th eir application, and the r equirements of different kinds of subjectmatter make it necessary to pass them in review again.
We will suppose, then, that we have in hand a line of
thought or a series of facts that we wish to convey. As
...._} first presented to our mind it will be vague; our chief
business therefore is to clear it up by thinking what it
means as a whole, and what are the parts that contribute
to the whole; that is, we must make our plan. But inhering with the qu estion of plan is the question of effect and
of subject-matter: what kind of plan and organism we can
make in order best to set forth the material we have to
work with; this makes important the different processes
of composition. The following, then, are the two mam ,
divisions into which the present chapter falls: 1. Requisites of Composition.
2. Processes of Composition.
In this final chapter we have reached the point where
every detail of composition has to be kept constantly
ready for use. Plan, theme, and process, as we shall see,
underlie and determine the whole; but woven throughout
the whole, inseparable from any part, are choice of words,

REQUISITES OF COMPOS ITION.

It is strongly advisable, perhaps we may better say
necessary, to draw up a careful plan of what you are

~

I:
,'

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

_

f'

I.

240

. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

work or not i~ . nec.C:.~f?~ry to steady the writer's thought
and keep out what is irrelevant. In the finished pr9~~ct
/
it may either be expressed, as in an essay or argunient, or
'
diffused, as in a desc'r.iption or narrative; but in any case
when we coine to recall- the whole its effect should be
reducible to a single idea or purpose governing the composition of every parL
·
It is in the choosing of and working to a theme, therefore, that we secu,re that main determining quality of all
•.
good composition, unity,
As the theme n~_ay take diffei;ent forms, so it 2.~ay have
differen.~ ...?bi.Gs;ts; indeed the object has much to do in
determining the form.
I. It may be a theme toj~/ZO'?.V qr .remember, as when
·.· the writer is seeking to impart a fact or principle or truth;
this kind of theme i_§_gS!J1erally best expressed Jn the form
:· of•.,:it..a Jl!:QJ.?.Qsition to be proved.
I

'

I

ILLUSTRATIONS. - H, for instance, you are tl1i.nkir:ig.Q(;:tny suQ.i.~ct,
. your first step will be ··;;··put in a sentence··~vhat you belie·~~ ti~f
"'--··•·¥·•1• .... "'
••
• Z.~ A·•·~·- -. .... ·
: ·sub
"ect ; this is determin!i:ig
the theme. Let the subject be Honesty;
,.pt. ·.
. '• - -·then your theme may be some such assertion as, "Honesty is the
best policy,'; or, " Honesry is the basis of all business dealings," for one subject may suggest many themes. Let it be Daniel Webster;
then you will think out some truth about him, as for instance, "Daniel
Webster was the champion of the Constitution,'' and all your work
will be directed to showing how this is true.
",I,.

It may
be a theme to feel or realize, as. when
the
.
•......... _
,,..w
writer is seeking to impress the beauty of · a sc~:g.e,, or 'to
make his reader enter into the grandeur or pathos or
"-'( (un of ftn, event. This kind of theme is more naturally
··.~ tbo~g~t. of -~~. .~ ,.t }tle o~ heatjing, and instead of being ·
·texpry~$GtC-;omewhere
in the composition is generally
\
' ,.
.
,
_.. ····-·--···.
diffused ~.s . an influence thr~ugh_ the whole.
2..

241

REQUISITES OF CO!lfPOSITION.

ILLUSTRATIONS.-'- Take any short story, for instance, and after
reading it ask yourself what effec t, what main impression, it has
produced on you ; this impression, which will be so definite as to
give that· story a character of its own, is virtually its theme. The
theme of "Rab and his Friends," for example, might be called,
"·A Faithful Companion of a Humble Couple"; of "Rip Van
Winkle,'' "Legend of a Twenty Years' Sleep."

3. It may be a theme to act

uf!.on ...!:l..r....i!£~- . .as

when an

orat~~~Q .S'.2.!lYJ n~e p:opl~,_of the. i~npo.rt~n(::_Q( _
some prescnbed dqty or conduct. In this case it is a
kind of command or imperative, in which the power of
the whole discourse is concentrated.
ILLUSTRATiONS. - It is mainly in the fact that its general effect
is r~ducible to an imperative that the oration is distinguished from
the essay. Webster's Reply to Hayne, for example, embodies some .
such imperative as this: "Maintain the Integrity of the Union abov~
the Dictates of individual States." Curtis's oration on "The Public
Duty of Educated Men" 1 centres in the imperative, "De true to
Country above Party."
101.

In the divisions

The ideal of a course of thcrngh~) s_ .
that it-;hc;~id.~b-;·lik~~ ~- k:i';d--of sto.~y, .I .,

~!r Y~~~in~it:;ss~~~~ ad~;~cing co1;tin~:o1~;;Ttfi0tit-'giving 'f'quence, climax.

th'e reader ·a1{y' ;;~~~·· of break or dis-

location from beginning to end. In order rightly to
accomplish this, F~•.SJ.he n~B~~h.i.~hJ:l!e pla~1 is composed .
should be 1_zjti?~ct_, ~?E.~.3..1.l<?!.h.er, not mixed together_/
and confused ; that is, the plan must have a skeleton, 7'.
indicating where are the thoughts that belong together
and where are the thoughts that are separate.
Secondly, the writer should work for sequence, that is, .
studv to make every new thought grow naturally out , of,
:::;..:.:.L_---··~------- ...

-- -·- ----·------

--~- · ~· '· ~·---- ..-.........-.-..-·~

.

·.

'

1

Printed in' Genung's Handbook of Rhetorical Analysis, p.

27 5·

.

242

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

the preceding, or be naturally suggested from it. Thus
alone does the plan move continuously to its end .
Thirdly, the writer should work for clinzax, that is,
~ • ~tudy to make the successive thoughts increase in interest
~nd strength as he goes along.
Rule 54 gives the principle of climax for the clause or sentence ; here it is to
be noted that the same principle applies equally to all the
steps of the plan.
ILLUSTRATION. - Washington Irving's little essay on Christmas;
which will be found, with its plan, in Appendix ii. page 294, will here
be used to exemplify this and succeeding rules of planning.
The essay reads continuously from b eginning to end. Yet it will
be noticed that the several thoughts are distinct, for the writer first
speaks in several paragraphs of Christmas in general, then of the
English Christmas, and finally of its influence on his imagination
'· and sympathies. They have also a natural sequence, for the writer
begins with the more general considerations and advances to the
more particular; in the subdivisions, too, he begins with the religious
observance, signifying love to God, and comes to the family observance, signifying love to each other; then from the influence of the
season without he advances to the cheer of the hearth and hospitality
within ; thus a naturally suggested continuity can be traced throughout. Finally, the thoughts rise in interest, that is, have cli11zax _; for
the particular observances are more vivid than general considerations, the cheer within more comfortable than the keen weather
without, yet the cold without is more potent in moral influence than
the gay and dissipating summer that it succeeds.

h.:._,.!,!ll;_.,plan.n,'Qg,, of any composition ther..~.. ai:~.,..J2ret,!_1-§..\lJ:~. to be bg,tb_
main
- ·····divisions
... ·--.. . and subdivisions
_.,..,... of the
thought ; the main divisions planned with reference to
the whole theme, the subdivisions taking up in turn and
particularizing the main divisions. In compositions of
any considerable length division is frequently carried tp

102. Make corresponding divisions
similar in statement.

243

REQUJSJTES OF COMPOSITION.

_

a minuter degree than this. It is a great help to the.}
writer to adopt different styles of expressing main divi-~
sions and subdivisions, - giving one kind, for instance,
i1) titl~._or questions, another in pro~ipns; and especially to express iE_ similar way the divisions that are to be
coordinated together.
-

-

-

d'""\

'

. . . ...

-

ILLUSTRATION. -Notice Jn ili_e_pJf!..il_.9JJQ~...~S.~9.-Y o.n .. Clp.~i?.tma?.1.l
mentioned above, that the main ~l.ivisions are expressed in brief
t~~.l~s; that all J.1 ~~ _s_ubdivisions of the first main division begin with
" I ts," ·etc. It will be observed how different kinds of numerals, /
Roman, Arabic, and letters, are employed in divisions of different
ranks.
This is a great help in planning, and when retained in the
completed work a help to the reader. The uniform yet simple plan
of dividing this text-book is adopted in order to help the student find
and keep his way continuously through the realm of Rhetoric.
In the completed form of any ordinary work it is not often nece5(/
sary to indicate by numerals anything more than main divisions/'
The numbering is mostly used for the writer himself.

.J

To make a summary of what has
been said on one stage of the subject~
before advancing to the next serves to ·
keep the thoughts of a plan distinct and to keep each
division well rounded. Sumn~a!~~s__:.-i;:_e..._~:_:~allz u~ull__
bl. the more formal kinds of discourse, such as ari~.ume~ts
an~J>-~blic.~c:._s_:;s.
.
A transition is a bridge from one stage of the thought 'J.to the next. In form •. it is an intermediate thought par- ~
taking of the nature both of what precedes and what .
follows. Be sure to make the transition a real thought, ')not a mere catch-word.
Transitions anq summaries do for the whole composi- 1 ..
tion what connectives do for the sentence and the paragraph.
103. Provide wisely
for summaries and
transitions.

r ·

244

245

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

REQUISITE S OF COMPOS./T.ION.

ILLUSTRATION. - In the above-mentioned essay on Christmas the
first sentence of the second parag raph is a transition ; it makes a
bridge from the thought of old holidays in general to the thought of ·
Christmas in particular, and the new thought it adds is th at Christmas is, of all holidays, the most potent to awaken pleasant associations.
There are no summaries, in the larger sense, in this essay; its
thought is not formal enough to need them.

Introduction: W e dislike routine because it is an obligation.
I. Our games require routine.
1. At first we are bunglers.
2. We become proficient only by long practice.
I I. Suppose the interest of our games were taken in our tasks.
I. The interest would help the task.
2. The task itself would require less labor.
Conclusion : Routine a friend in disguise.]

II.

Exercises in various Processes of Planning. -

In
reducing a subject to a theme, and working this out in
turn into a 'plan, tl~!...o.JJl.x.,...of y,9.qr ._subjs;ct b,!;!l oL
yo ~g_qer ; '¥.hat h ~--~v,il~_ )?~- nrnst j nterest~_d to ~.129_w,
o!: . ~nost needs to know, about your subject.
Arpwge ~
say~,_. and let the rest go.
It is essentially the
same process, whether you are getting out the theme or
headings of the plan. In tli~,~P..t.Y~?u. a~~12king out
J.- de~~- tl:l~lJL.t.hing...that.,.»:jll. )!!:,~l_u,d,e,...J..i;t.~ral
· asse,rtj.Q,Q ;il~ .,,th~!.J;'.2-l:.-9 e si~-~ to ~.ay. .. Havin~d
this, ,Y.£,\l,.,Jl?-.e.n,,.tll i11K:... PL~th ~.,...t'!Y..Q...9.f. -thr~.~ . main assertions
into which this divides itself, and you have the chief
divisions of your plan. Then taking these chief divisions
1 in turn, you think of the , particular facts that prove or
/ )'-- illustrate them, and these become your subdivisions. It
requires considerable practice to become an adept in
planning ; but there is no more valuable aid to thought
than the choosing, weighing, comparing, and rejecting
\ that are involved in the making of a plan.

l

---£__:_

I.

Draw out the headings of the following essays

[As example of what is required take the little essay on page 28,
the plan of which may be thus given:-

The essay, page 77. How theme is indicated- first mam
division, what-~ how amplified- second main division whathow amplifi ed - conclusion. 1
The continued essay, pages 104 and 113.
The essay, page 134·
The description, page 86.

Study the followin g subj ects, and from each deduce
first the sentence or title that expresses your theme, and
then make a plan.
2.

Themes of information or knowledge : T~JE-.F~sterri,
Wilds ; The Planet Mars ; Ql~ .,,.li._~~~12~L?-~I?-s1 ; An ingenious
Boy's Outfit ; Life in New Amsterdam.
-\.Themes of sentiment or feeling : School . Friendshjps ; A
Place for Revery ; The Mountain Tops ; Looking Forward.
Themes to act upon or do : Saying No ; Citizenship for the
Young ; Selfishness and Self-Respect ; My Brother's Keeper;
N C!1>1~.§§e .9-l?Ege.
NOTE. - As illustration of what may be clone, take for instance the
• subject Fading Memory. Think out some proposition concerning it, e. g.
The fact that our memory of things fades is a good as well as an evil.
I. vVe look upon it naturally as an evil, and it is so much so that we
ought to cultivate our m emory to do the most possible. IL It is a good
too, for we can work better. 1. If we had vividly in mind some better
days, we should be di~couragecl. 2. If a worse life, we should have a sense
1 It is taken for granted that th e student has rewritten and amended the
essays heretofore given, and now has them in corrected form.

246

of ever-present shame. III. The memory fades, but its good influences
become incorporated in character.

3. Rewrite and amend the following h eadings for plans,
cutting out what is irrelevant, and r earranging.
THE COLLEGE BURNING.

( 1) The smothered spreading of the fire. ( 2) The kindling
of the fire. (3) Progress from part to part of the building.
(4) The bursting out of the flames. (5) Importance of Education. (6) The ruins. (7) The sin of carelessness. · (8) The
dying out of the fire. (9) Classical study. (10) The utility
of fire departments. ( 11) Relative destructiveness of fire and
water. ( 1 2) Cause of the fire. 1
THE DUTY OF BEING HEALTHY.

A h ealthy body. -We think of health as something that we
cannot control. - Hence ill-health is not regarded as blameworthy, nor good h ealth as a duty. -A healthy mind. -This
may be · cherished in a feeble body. - Hence imposes a higher
duty. -What is included in a healthy body. - Work, recreation, good diet, sleep, good habits. -What is included in a
h ealthy mind. - Cheerfulness, hopefulness, kindness, common
sense, lack of prejudice. - All play. -Frivolousness. - Marks
of an unhealthy mind. [Having arranged these, see if they are
brought sufficiently to bear on your exact theme- duty- and
add more headings if necessary. J

~~ .... , -y i-19 '-L--

Making_a P12I.91l:.Ch....J.Q_.th ~-~ eJE_e ...i,§
s~pply_ mji_~l.ng_~!!-tLQ..c!.lJG~ion_. The
definition is here put for the word in
order to show that the introduction to
a work is not the mysterious and formidable affair that
many deem it, but ~~\:J2!11111Q.1};:S e_~~f!.nd I~?.:_tur~ .. p~o: ·,.
c@l!re. Q~. ~i_11.1.J?lJ..~Y.i ng wh~t- _ !~ neces~_ary..t_o_121ake )
yo!:1r reac!_~!:,...~~-~r~. j~!S( how you ai:e going to trea~ your
subfect.
Circumstances may make the reader all ready to take J_
up your line of thought with you ; the subject may be ·. \ · .
"in the air," for instance, everybody talkin g about itA · :·
In such case no formal introduction is n eeded.
In any case th e most nat~ii)~-t;-~~k.. what impres- {
sion the subject probably makes at first mention on the
reader's mind, then from this point to §,~~~.r...hi.§....!.b...fillght,
by confirm!ng, con.:_e:!!_ng, or Il!~ing, to ~I_?ain
imP.ression that you wish to make.
_ .
But w~2:_l:.:__?f ~~e- in.tr?_dl1_ction sh9uld be p~ain,"1
and direct, look out that it is not dry and lifeless ; for '{>.
~ 1-~
~
you have to w~-~I.~ !..Q.~, i:eader's int erest from the very
outset. Be sure also that the introduction really int!9.;
duces, that is, that it do es nol . cpncentrate_.attentLQ.J:l _9p.__
..,........
- - -··--·····.
its own beauty or elaborateness, but m erely_ gu_iges. att~p~
tion___fo:;;;~r~.- tc>" th~ theme . Do not put into the introduction a nything that is not in some way utilized afterwards.

104. In making approach to the theme,
work for brevity and
plain directness.

t

I
'i

-

.....,.._ .,._.._.....__.

_

--.·

... "'

• • . .•

...... ._

~

~

-

"'"""""-

'·

nings and endings and one consideration to guide in
managing the body of the composition need be given
here.
1

Quoted from Welsh's Complete Rhetoric, p. 173.

·"

....

- · .. .....

_ _ _ _ ,...___........ ...

_~_

... · -

• •'l!f"'

- ~.-·•

In the above cited essay of Irving's, 1 from the
general subject Christmas, he takes it upon hims elf in th e first paragraph to g uide us to his th eme, which evidently is, " Influence of
English Christmas observances on my heart and im agination." He
introduces this by speaking of old holiday customs, of which as a
ILLUSTRATION. -

Rules for Filling-in the Plan. - Only rules for b egin-

247

REQU.lS.lTES OF COMPOS.lT.lON.

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

1

Appendix ii. p. 294.

249

THE WHOLE COl11POSIT.ION.

REQUISITES OF COMPOSITION.

boy he had re ad, and by noting how, though the details of them
faded, th e poetry of them continued. This contains a suggestion of
all the elements of the theme.

~g_m~}~-~~j~c;_t.-2.E ..!Ll:!..th, your_ c;.~1:1~1_!.!§_io_n 111ay ~!mtviar.:~·ze

248

o ~-~ttb_~_.w,.o.st important

questions

to ask about any subject is, Wh~1:.,makest
this subj_e c~ irite~estlng? Ai:s~ this
.
qu.:~_n, and then SUQ.2.,rdJ!1a..te o~r
parts of your · work to the part that treats of this. If
yo~-- writing, for instance, of the career of a great

105. Give most
prominence to what
m o s t characterizes
your subject.

I

....

\. / statesman, it ~ro ~!J.-12!.:> ~t'.3:~~~-!ll~~~!iiL!~~!_g~ves
.,.._ him interest ; do not waste much time, therefore, on his
childhc)°o.cf.- If a house that you are describing is lD.t~t:
..... ) ing fQEJ2,tlllK.2~-:-® ajp~, ~r for having histo.ric.al asso7' ciations, let these charactenstlcs absorb the mam mterest
in the treatment.
ILLU STRATION. Of Christmas, Irving says only a very small
part of what he might have said ; he takes merely what in his situation - as a stranger among new scenes - and for his readers, to
whom such things will be a novelty, is most interesting and charac- .
teristic of Christmas, namely the survival of old Christmas observances in England.

A , S!:_I!..tence, as we have seen (see
Rule 82), should ~ ~!d.-W.ith-~ords that
deserve distinc tion ; so on a larger
scale should. the whole composition. In pla!!.D-ing~hat
to_E~.Y-1~st, ha~e-Y?_ur_ n;ind ._o!l....al~ - that you ha~e ___~d
before, and aim to end with ~2.!ll~hmg .that .shalL..in...some
'
...... ,_~
....---·--w~y_.SQ!!.£~nt_!:§!-1.eJti.~ff~e-c.t in one strong poi1:1t.
Bear in mind also, however, what 3ff~_cJ _ y~..§.h-19_
),prod~;;£;;~;~t--~1C~·~-~~positi~ have the same kind of
106. End with matter that concentrates
the effect of the whole.

-

aim. I

If

¥.52.Y·· are_§_~_g_g__.!£__~ke __Y.Ol![_!~<!-E_~--~E:~-~~.
1 See above, page

240, under Rule 1qo,

or ref;.Ef!i...fijlate ; if to ma~.~ 11.i9-~},ee~ 9_r ~eal~ze . som~thing,
it may draw a striking picture,· if to ma~e him ..1, ~~-~or
decide something, it _may appeal to,...m.Qti.Y~_£1.:.., .£h~r.<!:£kr.
·Aim to leave the effect most consonant with your subject.
Of Christmas, Irving draws for conclusion the
idea that most pervades his treatment, nam ely, the idea of its sweet
influence upon him ; but intensifies it by mentioning his own distance
from hom e, and by contrasting the churlishness of him who would
not be moved by such innocent cheer.
ILLUSTRATION. -

IV.

-:)

Exercises in Developing the Parts of a Plan. - It
is.2JTiisJak~~to~__?_?..uction or_~onc_l~~sio~i:~.
you have somethi~K..!£.~~E.?9~.C~--~r __csmc}ude ; hence, in

working out the following exercises, tl1~ .fjr.st . -f'l~R~9
determine
x:our. theme
9-nd"'"· your
_o f........
thought.
....,,,_,,.,,,,
. . ..
.. __line
....
·.. .,,........... _

-

.

~~ ....

~.

•.•·

·--~

Of the following subjects think what natm:aJ si-ttit!Jd_e
of the reader's you must meet, and write a
or impression
-·--·- ·- -·----- -·--' --- ........ . - - . .... ····· -. -. . -paragraph of INTRODUCTION.
I.

,.

"

I

.f4"-v-

(

The Preservation ~;;; Fo;e,13~: ~~
1-W'' r.:'_ ~·: i'/u. -~
2. American Roads. • ~- ~ t ~t,l Ei"'"e k.t.-e..-...,,..
3. The Education that we receive from our Anlestors.
4. A Day of Mishaps.
[For this exercise you can use also any of the themes
deduced in the previous exercises.]
I.

Of the subjects that you have just introduced, write
to the first and second a CO NCLUSION that shall be an
appeal ; to the third a conclusion of illustration or figure;
to the fourth a summary.
2.

250

TH E

WHOL E

COMFOS .!T/ON.

PR OCESSES OF C0 1l1POS.!T.!ON.

· 3. · Of th€- followir~_g_ s~~_J_:_~~~~;:~nsicle_r ~~ whCJ.l_part _Qf
the treatm ent you would g ive most space ~111d detail, and
d ecl"~e-- ~:;1E-ME-;~~l··;~~N
co rrespond.

des cribed, a nd what position you occupy with r efer ence
to it. This determines the treatm evt of details, the kind
of objects that assume ·importanc'e in-th e fi eld· of view.
An essential matter this ; for nothing is surer to confuse .
.
---""'~
. ~ d~~}1 than t o mix
up qualities that you
would see
at a distan ce with qualities that y ou would see n ear by,
or details th at impress you from one direction with details
that come into view only from ai10ther.

to

Stonewall Jackso11. - ·1 . ·
Three Phases of School Life.
A Village Eccentric . . _· Experiences of a C irc u~ a ting Library Book.
The Good a nd the Evil ofbeing Commonplace.

. I

~......-~~.-

•

-~ ·

...

Desc~iption~

- D escription is

po~:_:...<

trayal of obj ec9s in l'a n~iage . ._ Its aim is t o make t_h e . ,
reader r ealice the obj ect'.a s the writ er does ~ T o do this, :. ~
the writer m ay try eitl1ef> t o g ive ; points of _ i~?-fQr.:~1~~~:!Lon . · _.· ..
·---· · -- · ·-.
about the obj ect, which aim - call s for a matter-of-fact
account ; or to m a~<:e :a st1~ikin g, movin g impression ! of
the object on the reader's h1ind, which endeavor' 'cail sout
th e picturing quality of words and fi g ures.
· The fir st thing in plannin g a descrip107. Determine the
scale of description by · ti o n 1s to thmk a nd make your r eader
the point of view.
think how far you are from the object
. .

f. .

•

-

..... <

-

This is· a requisite that can seldom if

•; f
·

---

.l
'(··- -

tot

/

I.

Rules governing

ILLUSTRATIONS. If, for instance, a landscape that you are\
describing is distant, you speak naturally of its large features lts mountains, streams, masses of foliage, ge neral effec ts of color;
coming nearer, you speak more naturally of the kinds and sh apes .1
of the trees, th e ch arac ter of th e rock-formations, th e width and }"depth of th e streams, and th e like. - If you see a b::_ii~~!i t}g__gJ,._;i,, .fl.is.~
lan ce, y.Q.g_~!!.<-i.1J1pre_s ~~d by its sliape as a whole and its relati on
i~Q..unQ.jpgs ; i £..t~_. §t;.e. i~.. 1!ear by, yqu _thi ~1k .mor~ oUt~ IJ] ate_rj ~l,
or its construction, or its present condition.
• · .· . If you are looking into a room, describe it all from one point; so \ • ·~ ' th,at windows,· fireplac e, .furniture, and <;tll, may preserve one position
with relation to each <Jth er.
·

Different kinds of subj ect-matte r, -presenting each its·
p eculia r probl ems of construction, call for different kin ds
of treatment. Th e . s am e requisites of th em e a nd plan
rema in as working-principles in all, but m odifi ed by what
the writer has to work in, and by the e ffect h e desires_to
produce.
.i
Four processes come into view here, to each of which
a section of rules a nd exercises will be devot ed : descrif>- : .,
tion, narration, expo s it~on, a nd arg um entation. ;
'-

'

1

}

II. PR OC E SSES OF COM POS ITI O N.

Y

251

-108. For the first
stage of description,
outline the whole
: ·· object. -

<;:_~er . qe ~;;{~ly nsgle~d. T~~~r
11~~~ first ~1£,grQµIld-fm:...th..~ P.kt~_i:.e
that h e is to contemplate, ~ rather,

· •. · 1SQill$••••5E·~~-1.:.,:__!=!2~~~il!_ _~n~~J ~-J~.i ~-

. .!.?~. t.!il!?:.k.-.9.t.)L.~~--- ~.

· \ w~, so that he may -m entally refer to this framework
the various parts as they are successively m entioned.
I LL USTRA

TIONS.

-

!L...Y~~~12i1J.Uh..ti1::1~ti.9X...9..L.!!:.SlrnU:Ji..1.•

for instance, it is a ,g!._~~!2-.C::.!~arne_~!i-OC c<:m_<;.!!p_ti.QJ.J. to know J
'Yhether it is rectang ular or cruciform or amphitheatrical in plan.'t-I.LY~0.11~_?-~~tu1g__<!.....CQ)l n try it _i~- fillp...to~ know....w.heth.e :its-,
1
ge.~!:<:l J onn is elliptical or. triang ul ar, and in y.rhat direc tions of the
.compass its natural features lie. If~~J.1lg _:~J!!:~_:i_on's .
.....
·-. . ......

fl

252

THE WHOLE COMPOSJTJON.

character, s_µ m...it.up.....iu.its .mos_t_§j_9tl_Qg.Y.ishi.ng •.ttei!~ - strength combined with suavity, rough and irascible yet honest, and the like.

of

:'~~:r d~~~~l~:\~~01~~ lfg?~~~:~~~~~;~~l;;~;:l~a~~

J

t~e- .?-~gpe, n 2.!,_,j.ntj~1lelltlY indeed <2}3._m_ere touch of
· description ; and sop?e rLr.!}!:~. o~~~.P~l.~1.~1?.X~~tvx.~QL t,bi~
) o~!.!i!l~ is singled out for greater detail.
/

..

'

ILLUSTRATION. - Note how the single sentence of outline description with which the following p aragraph opens is not introduced for
its own sake alone but as aid to the rest of the discourse : - .
"The wind was pleasant; the evening fine; the sky, the earth, and
th e water beautiful to look upon. But Mr. Cowley and I held our
peace, and said nothing of the gay sights around us, lest we should .
too feelingly remind Mr. Milton of his calamity ; whereof, however,
he needed no monitor : for soon he said sadly, 'Ah, Mr. Cowley,
you are a happy man. What would I now give but for one
more look at the sun, and the waters, and the gardens of this fair ,
city ! , ,,

A ~l1.is--. p.J~s;1tl\9JJY,,JJ~l~to ' , _;.,,
bec~.m~~i2}!.,.?.=~ecau~~-..~h.e.. poi~! j~ $.Q. ..
e~ ily ~c h ~d wh~s begi!J t_~ w~__a_l!.s!.. ~_cm­
\ fuse rather than vivify the portrayal. lt_js a sai.~ ule.!..
I theref9re, t,2..wor!si£r...&!?....lelY_Q..et_a~~L~~.. C~.12~.Eied_J!,]2,Qll .
to e.Ji~s,Lyour purpose.
.
h:_~~it;_&__~~-~-12~!P:Y _ of...c;l~!~ls, a &~oLJeal deg.en~'·
on the manner of group_~ng.
1. One way, which may be called cirS1::.1:2E..~~1£tion, consists in recounting,,details in the natural order in
which thef'occu~: ·i~' th·~ · object~ naming i~~~t~to. e;~h,.~th.;r · ·i> '·;:
what you would most naturally think of together. This,
though necessary, is a rather loose way of arranging
details, because we have only their nearness to each ,
other (their contiguity, see Rule 93) to group them by.

--\ 109. Economize in
the number of details.

-j

·

~......_ . l"f~l'" "°l~ · -:~...-·, . . ,~O' ··~·

_. ..,,.•."'r..;o ~•,.

.

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

253

ILLUSTRATION. -Note how the following d escription of a room
proceeds regularly from point to point : "They found themselves in a low, immense room, running at
right angles to the passage they had just quitted. The long
diamond-paned window, filling almost half of the opposite wall,
faced the door by which they had come in ; the heavy, carved
-mantel-piece was to their right; an open doorway on their left,
closed at present by tapestry hangings, seemed to lead into yet other
rooms."
This paragraph is succeeded " by one in which the details of
the room are mentioned more particularly : th e book-lined walls,
a fine old portrait, the view from the wi.ndow, and casts from
the antique here and there. A kind of catalogue, yet skilfully
managed.

Another way, which may be S.<:!Lled description by
impress!?.~' is to group tQ.g:~!h.er ...§.l!S.L~ill1§:}nii:~Tyi["·
wj_!l i.[1!.~!~. .~S'lTI~-~·parJi.c:.ular ..qlJaUty . or c_hi;tr_~c:~er!stic,
and to let the rest go. Thj~y~~,--1!!.2I~~filg.JJ.i6.:.
cance .t9....l?i!lg,~q~ t51:!l~ ~and IT\P~l{~_ ...,~,2,..!,b:~ ..9..~.§,~.~i.ption,
though it may not be so definite in outline.
2.

ILLUSTRATIONS. - Thus, if in describing a landscape, you men~
tion and group merely the details that illustrate its peacefulness and
quiet, you are describing by impression ; the interest centres more
in these qualities than in the shape and relative situation of its
parts.
In the following description, notice how each feature is chosen
as illustrating in some way the general character of squalor : "Inside, the hovel was miserable indeed. It belonged to that old
and evil type which the efforts of the last twenty years have done so
much all over England to sweep away: four mud walls, enclosing an
oblong space about eight yards long, divided into two unequal portions by a lath and plaster partition, with no upper story, a thatched
roof, now entirely out of repair, and letting in the rain in several
places, and a paved floor little better than the earth itself, so large
and cavernous were the gaps between th e stones."

254

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

I11~-~!1-~<;~-2-~fil!Lgj,~ to a detiveness in the power
scription ~lli.Qk - eJft.:&.t_ of fl<!,k
of details.
~~ ; this because the reader is naturally looking for something new, either in subject or
details or grace of portrayal. !iot only, then, n~ ~
d!1~!2_ be_f.ew, but ~~ch must be as telling .!1.11<1..sb~er­
istic a~_ po~~i,ble ; a1;d ··-1ri -61:de·~- to~--~ak.e them so the
writer needs to study the power and vividness of words.
r-.J . A ~ell-chosen epithet will often suggest a whole picture
/ma smgle word. See Rules 49, 57.
·· \ J A skilfully selected trope will often suggest the most
1-.._:vital character of a scene or action. See Rule 63.
Specific words, and words wherein the sound answers .
to the sense, are very serviceable in spirited description.
See Rules 46, 61·.
It is often of great service, also, to associate action in
some way with the thing described, as when verbs of
motion are used to describe things at rest, or when with ·
the observation of the object is connected a narrative.

II.

no. Study effec-

f.-

/!

Note how much life is imparted to the following
descriptions, by the epithets chosen and by imitative words: "And as they came up, sure enough, away went two boys along
the foot-path, keeping up with the horses ; the first a light cleanmade fellow going on springs, the other stout and round-shouldered,
laboring in his pace, but going as dogged as a bull-terrier."
"At last one day the whole little tribe waddled off down to the
bank of the river. It was a beautiful day, and the river was dancing
'and dimpling and winking as the little breezes shook the trees that
hung over it."
"For what would you think, if you were walking along a road with
a fat old gentleman, who went chuckling to himself, and slapping his
knees, and poking himself, till he was purple in the face, when he
would burst out in a great windy roar of laughter every other
minute?"
ILLUSTRATIONS. -

1

255

Exercises in Describing. - D escribing, it will be remembered, is picturing with w.ords ; and the first . step
toward it is to re,~)!~e . the pi£_ure..l{ty\dl~e . im..aciP.ation. Persons with the strongest imaginations · can make
the most moving descriptions; but even with very limited
imagination a person can observe or think out the facts
of an object, and this is the beginning of every description.

J

r-

Work out the following exercises on the point of
view and outline.
I.

The city of Exeter is so situated that when the traveller first
catches sight of it, about a mile away, it is nearly all spread
out before him. Several tall spires', and some square towers
of churches. Dominating all, the two massive towers of the
cathedral. City embowered in trees, whose sturdy trunks and
gnarled branches proclaim their venerable age. ( The cathedral
front filled with carving and statuary, blackened and worn by
time. Towers apparently the oldest part, and flanking the
building at the middle, formin g transepts.) Surrounding the
city are well-kept English meadows, in which the large trees
and the absence of fences give a park-like effect. Not many
factory chimneys, nor much roar of machinery ; but the principal streets, especially 'High Street, are well thronged with
traffickers and strollers. General impression of the town staid,
~ established, dignified, as befits a typical cathedral town.a
Make a list of the details you would mention in describing :
- a cliff seen from below; b a distant mountain range; c a
river twenty rods away; a river two miles away; a crowd of'
people seen from a tower.a
Make a sentence or two desmibing each of the foregoing
.,. objects in qutline. Describe also in a sentence : - the town

256

THE

WHOLE COMP OSITION.

PNOCESSES OF COMPOS.IT/ON.

where you live; e a stretch of sea-coast; the oddest person you
know.f

Work out the followin g exercises
handling and economizing details.
2.

111

manner of

T ake the followin g descriptions, which give only impression
details, and construct from them a circumstantial account.
" A land of hops and poppy-ming led corn,
Little about it stirring save a. brook!
A sleepy land, wher e under the same wheel
Th e same old rut would d eepen year by year." g
"How often have I pat\sed . on every ch a rm,
Th e sheltered co t, the c ultivated farm,
The never-failing brook, th e busy mill,
The decent church th at topt the neighboring hill,
The hawthorn bus h, with s eats beneath th e shade,
For talking age and whisp ering lovers made. " h

Describe the following objects by the impression they make
upo n you: A sharp winter day; i an old house with prevailing impression of gloom- of hospitality- of thrift and neatness; i a
person who impresses you as slow and heavy but trustworthy
and of sound judgment; k a person who impresses you as very
strong-willed.

3. Study what words, figures, effects on spectators, or
other devices, to use in describing the following.

..

A tussle of street urchins; 1 the appearance of a man disgusted at some failure; m the breaking away of a dam 'or dyke;
an oncoming storm; n the thick of a battle. 0

;

NOTES TO THE AllOVE. - a. Your point of view, as indicated at the
beginning, is a mile away. Study what details are consistent with that
distance and what are no t. Would it not be advisable to mp.ke two groups

257

of details from different points of view? - b. Yo u are near, and you are
looking up ; what things would most impress you? - c. De tails must be
very general - masses a nd colors. - cl. What can you see of individuals,
and what is the effect of their actions and words ? - e. Think of th e two or
three most characteristic features. - f. Think of his face, his gestures, his
mann er of speaking - whatever makes him odd. - g. Yo u have here, to
insert into a landscape : a hop-field, a wheat (corn) field, a brook, a road
rough and worn in ruts, a cart, a suggestion of quiet summer or autumn
weather. T ell where and how these are situated with relation to each
other. - h. Mak e a list of details as in precedin g, and map th em out. - i.
Think wh a t impression such a day will make on you, e.g. the details tha t
illustrate its brightness, th e details that illustrate the crisp fros tin ess of th e
weather. -j. Think what different fea tures yo u wo uld look for and mention for each of these impressions. - k. How will face, figure, expression,
gestures, etc., indicate this character ?- 1. Such a scene calls for very
spirited but unco uth acts, and language o ught to catch the life of it. - m.
Think of effects in his acts and m an ner. - n. This could be indicated by
its effects on p ersons and animals. - o. Intense excitement and confusion.

III.

Rules to be observed in Narration. -

tel~_?f ..~ ~-~~y ;

and

Narration is the

thi~p9J in~U.L~Q~~t~ ~}!;-:~~;ple \

t1!!l1g J.t@_t _~~-n.1ay c_i mag in e .

T o get all the parts where \
they will have effect and help along the account requires
a good deal of skill.
General cautions 111 narrating
therefore, are: to ay_?_i~! putting details where they will 'f
do no good, and not to e-mphasize u~important things .. ~
-------· __. ... .
- . .
'f,
if they were essential.
·

a.s

. III. To relate a
story effectively,
1keep the end in view
from the beginning.

I U~. .w.iQL~_ . lt<?I.Y.~~o.mewhat ~s with
~ - ~. ~!1 t e nce ;

if you tumble into and
through a loose account just as it happens, you are liable to get it crowded
and confused.
In n arrative, each detail has to be estim ~~ d by the _end_sou ght, not for its own sake; i( it doe ~
not-~-~3E-1~~.C!,Y---l?l2_.Tl2.Q_t~.-tb e__~nsl,. th ~. sig,nificant part,
of th e story, it -~~-~-·-1lQ__£1!.,~l!:!es~~jn.._, th~__ng.rx~~e, how~ Jt"-~?1';~~

-

.

-

..,~_,

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

ever interesting.
Therefore, choose the end first, in
order to have some standard by which to estimate the
value of each detail.

On the other hand, u!!l!!!,~~LJlll.t§.,,.i;l.Le.~,P.ass~c;L_c!Y..~X~.
lightly, sketched in rapid style, given in general and comp;cliensive touches, with a view to light and quick movement. Tb~ th~@~~L.bisJPX~ --Qi..,.J11JHt,th~ .01: ~e~~~ mJ!y
be--9_,~_:;~J..S:ll~.djn. ,a fe\\'. sentences, WQi}r~' in v9-th.~~ p~rt?.., o,f
the story de}.~Xj~.}~1ade upo1l th~ qet_ails o_f moments.

258

ILLUSTRATION. - In the story of Rip Van Winkle, for instance,
all the early details prepare for and lead up to his falling asleep ; his
character, his leaving home, his domestic troubles, his disposition to
attend to everybody's business, his overweening thirst, all are elements
in some way working to this end ; and after his waking from his
twenty years' sleep all that follows is consequence.
From this it will be seen that ~~§,.,JWJ~~
m~t,.~w.e,ti~P.; rather itJs t11s;,4ulr!J.!.9.~t,!.on, the chief reason
why the story).~ told.
~=An apparent though not real exception to this rule is seen
in episodes, which serve the purpose of relieving the attention for a
little, much as music bet\veen the acts does in the drama, and with
the result of bringing the mind back with renewed zest.
These
objects, however, are nowadays generally secured otherwise.
112. Regulate the

amount of detail by
the importance of the
matter.

The pa,r~f.-~!!.£..§!s2cy_.!h~L..~~
pecial!Y __~]J?Q.f.1<;111.~ are naturally d)Y,.dt .
u£.£ri_}l!QI.~, gi~en with more copious
detail, so that the story moves more

slowly. T~~~~,J9~ keep the E~}~:_d7~'..~=!:Qi~~E2EJ.!:_
long _er:9ugh .to realize its importance or 1ts _.s1g_n_i,~c:Gl.nce
as rising out of what precedes or as preparing for what
follows.
ILLUSTRATION. - In the story of Rip Van Winkle, the culminating
moment when Rip falls asleep is thus fully delineated : - "By degrees,
Rip's awe and apprehension subsided. He even ventured, when no
eye was fixed upon him, to taste the beverage, which he found .had
much of the flavor of excellent Hollands. He was naturally a tlnrsty
soul, and was soon tempted to repeat the draught. One taste provoked another; and he reiterated his visits to the flagon so often, .
that at length his senses were overpowered, his eyes swam in his
head, his head gradually declined, and he fell into a deep sleep."

2.59

ILLUSTRATION. - Note how much of a history is here told, and in
how few and rapid words : .
"Death is already seeking for him at a tavern in Deptford, and the
last scene in a wild, brief life starts . up before us. A miserable alehouse, drunken words, the flash of a knife, and a man of genius has
received his death-blow. What an epitaph for the greatest mighthave-been in English literature: 'Christopher Marlowe, slain by a
serving-man in a drunken brawl, aged twenty-nine ! '"
NOTE. - A story that is largely or mainly descriptive, as for
instance the account of a race or a game, may accumulate many
details and yet express them in the most vivid and rapid language.
In such case the interest centres fully as much in the details as in
the culmination of the plot.

~,t,m,y_i§._p.,a.tur.~11.Y,..,~l.~E~~,ll.P~~':~t!.~

1n. study how best
to foster expectation.

r<;;:f~~-,~nc"'~~. t<?. . . a... -~~}!-~~!.R~!i9.n, or perhaps

to a series of culminations, the narrator naturally tries to
lu.r..~.....t.!is . .:i;..~.ad.~J;..Q!l, make him look for something to come,
f Q.~~..R~.S!~!~t'ltL!E,J?.!.,,.()J22{t!!?D:. ~2 !!.!.~. ~,r.np<:Jr.~an. c~ oi what. ...
.
.
is commg.
The
wa~ to thi~, which are many and various, must be
....---..
.... . . .. .....
left to the ingenuity of the writer. Qqe is, to draw such
traits of character in the personages concerned tQ.o.t .,t,b.e..
event shall be a natural outcome of them. Another is,
to . make scenes and surroundings so harmonize with the
event as in a degree to forecast it. Another is, to make
the conversation of the characters suggest something
important to come. Every detail of character, scene,
~"'JI-,_.

.... ~

l ,•~'IOlil'"'~: -..,_-1~'

,

~

I

~~

f,,

'~~~~·-~......_.~

~-~--··

"'-"' - ~~· .. i.;.;~.,..~..:-;-~'ll!l'f!-,re!.,., .."":'t";· ::~·,··

•

f''°'IHI--

~'

-·~

~~

THE WHOLE COMPOSJTJON.

PROCESSES OF COMPOSJT.ION.

and conversation ought thus to have influence on the
reader's expectation ; and nothing should be left without
significance.

tion, and minor incident as will serve to give 1t reality
a nd interest.

260

It is of course a lack of skill to work up the reader's
expectation and th en not fulfil it; it is like telling a Aat and pointless
anecdote after having bragged how capital a story it is going to be.
NOTE. -

After an event has been prepared
for, then some care is needed in relating it. If it is just what the reader
expects, it is liable to be flat and disappointing ; h ence,
so~kind ~~K..!.1!?1.rise or n~v~ltJ._ .is J1aturally devised to
.
answer- the reader's expectation by something more than
s promised.
·
As an aid to this, narrators make much use of the
·
principle of contrast: a character of whom you would
expect one thing doing something quite different, a
stormy scene succeeded by a quiet one, an unexpected
turn given to conversation, and the like. A large part of
the skill of a story often consists in making the reader
expect something, and then surprising him by something
equally natural but very different.
Some things, after having been prepared for, are better
•- left to suggestion than fully told : such as details that
excite horror or disgust, or a particularly obvious event.
114. Study how best
to answer expectation.

i-

IV.

Exercises in Narrating. - The narratives given on
pages 16 5 and 207 of this book illustrate, when rewritten,
something of what may be done in relating stories. In
each case the attempt is made to surround a simple controlling incident by such accessories of scene, conversa-

261

I. To the material supplied in the following, add the
details necessary to make a full narrative.

Lorenzo a [de' Medici], too, believes b in him, [Savonarola],
though b he hates him. The following year, 1492, Lorenzo is
taken with his final illness, and as he approaches death c he
wants a confessor. "For who fn shall we send? " ask his
a ttendants. "Send for the prior of San Marco ; he is an
honest man," said the dying reprobate. "No other ever dared
to say No ! to me. " And the friar did not say Nod to this
request. Before he will absolve him, c however, he demands
three things.I "First, it is necessary that you should have a
full and lively faith in the mercy of God." "That I have
most fully." "Second, you must restore that which you have
unjustly taken, or enjoin your sons to restore it for you."
The g tyrant hesitates, but finally assents. "Third, you must
restore liberty to the people of Florence." At this Lorenzo
turns his face to the wall and is silent.h But the monk knows
how to say No, and leaves the sick man to die unshriven.
Time : 1547. Place : Dining-saloon in the castle of Rudolstadt in Thuringia. Persons : Duke of Alva i with his officers
breakfasting ; Countess Katharina of Schwarzburg,i hostess.'
Circumstances : She has received his written promise k that
in his march through her country his soldiers shall not molest
her subjects ; and now she has just heard 1 that his soldiers
are driving off their oxen. Her words : m "My poor subjects
must have their own again, or as God lives, prince's blood for
oxen's blood ! " 11
How the regicide Goffe, who was in hiding in Hadley, suddenly appeared when the Indians attacked the little town, placed
himself at the head of the settlers and drove off the savages,
then as suddenly vanished. He was thereafter believed to be
an angel. 0

262

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

NOTES TO THE AllOVE. - a. A short story like this should be told all
in one scene; and the general facts, lik e the details given here at the outset, should be worked in incidentally, by conversation or otherwise. b. The facts that Lorenzo believes in Savonarola, as well as that he hates
him, should come out in th e interview. - c. The sending for a confessor
and the words of Lorenzo and his attendants b elong to another scene from
the interview; how shall they be worked in? - cl. Th e story na turally
begins as the friar arrives at th e palace ; think now what preliminaries are
to be related of him and the attendants before he is ushered into the dying
man's chamber. He has b een strangely sent for; he needs to kn ow why
his enemy should have sent for him. How can.you supply such descriptive details of surroundings as shall illustrate Lorenzo's luxury, his refinement, his tyranny? - e. Can you so d epict the friar and the prince as to
illustrate their contrasted characters and appearance? - f. The friar's
demands are introduced abruptly here ; how lead up to them, and how acid
to them in conversation such as befits both friar and prince ?-g. Use
judgment in supplying direct discourse (Rule 60) . - h. In g iving the important parts be careful what you give in full detail, and do not des troy the
effect of anything by overloading it. - i. Think of the Duke's character, cold, haughty, breakfasting as a victorious general at the table of one of
the conquered nobility. - j. The Co untess, brave, polite, dignified, calm in
strength of character. - k. This of course has been received before; consider how to work it into this incident. -1. This takes place while the
Duke and his officers are at breakfast, the Countess being called out of the
room to receive the n ews. What would naturally be her first act?,m. Two things to be thought of in connection with these words. (r) They
would have no significance unless the Countess were able to carry out
her threa t ; what preparations therefore has she probably been m aking?
(2) They are too abrupt without some prefacing conversation with the
Duke ; think therefore how he would mee t the charge, and what would be
at first his demeanor before a presumably defenseless woman. - n. Consider how such a person as the Duke would take the defeat. - o. Invent
such scenes and surroundings of a newly settled colonial town as will give
reality. The attack is said to have been made while th e inhabitants were
at church.

A fiery temper, whjch only a great crisis and disaster can
succeed in subduing.
An in jury and a repara tion.
A disposition heretofore indolent and selfish roused by an
emergency to a deed of self-sacrifice.
A week's outing and its results.
One who is the butt of his companions commg out rn some
way superior to them.

Invent stories to illustrate the following situations
or characters.
2.

An awkward yet shrewd fellow thrown among people of
fashion.

263

N O TE. - In all these situations consider what accessories of scene and
accompanying characters may help; also how conversation may be employed eith er to illustrate character or d evelop events.

V.

Rules embodying some Procedures of Exposition. ExE_?._~ it~~ n (e:r:-pono, to set forth) m~r._~0.Q..tlgbJ.y _9efi~ed
as g iving th e meaning or explanation of things. It contains ~1ani i).ro.c edures - too abstri1se ..for a text-book like
the present ; but some,..9.f.. it~__ si_~ple~t ..<:.~.:T.:.~l!!S .are so
important, and writers miss so much by not observing
them, that they need to be given and illustrated here.
The [!,aso n w~1y ex122.~~ is di~.2fil.JE.. be ~~~ .!l1.e
'

1

~sub~~er -~~1:~~9frl:i. ~t d.e~ls~.is gen~Ji!Lin§t~~.9 ~.Qf. t
pa.r!.if_Ular ; that is, i~.~~.ecid of using__~ye.~_. G!-n..<;L_~~-El.lliL
memory to describe O"r recount what he h_a s observed, the
writer is giving th e idea he has formed of a whole class
of objects. To define what an animal is, or what freedom
is, or what a steam-engine is, is really setting forth a
notion or concept of his mind; and it is hard, though correspondingly valuable, to acquire the power of forming
accurate and clear concepts.
us. Makesureyour
One who knows Latin will perceive
ideaisclearlydefined.
that to define an idea is literally to give
its fines, its ends, boundaries, limits. The strictest way

PROCESSES OF COMPOS.IT/ON.

THE W HOLE COMPOS.IT/ON.

264

3. Ag~~~1_y9_~- E~~X by. _the u_se.fl!_~ figu~e of - ~i_mile (see .J
Rule 6 5) co~!P~r.e-1:ne...i.d~<l:Y~'.~!1:1. ..§.9..!E.~!.E_ii;g ..Q.lQ.£~- ~m_!ljar; -~
as
zebra is much
and on that
.......,_when you say .a,_. , ..........
u. like a horse,
'f'·''
concept as a basis proceed to give points of difference.
II6. Reduce ideas to
A, fruitfuLp, OrnQ-t~L_Qf life in exQresthe concrete by e:x:sip~., !~.. t_9••§P~£1,k.as"'much __ ~~-pq;;rbl;:in.,..,
ample.
th!;.,. COJ?-Crete; that is, to talk when yo.u
can about particular objects. that embody the characteristics you wish to bring to light, instead of setting forth
some abstract idea of the characteristics themselves. The
relation of this to force of style has been mentioned in
Rule 46.
This use of th~ _c?i;icrete case i.§_ in reality taking an
example to illust;ate a'·cla~_<mcl the more the writer can ]
reduce his general ideas to examples the more simple and · \interesting, as well as more accurate, his exposition is
likely to be.

to do this is to name the class to wh.ic:;hJ_he__!dea belongs,
a~·-whe1~~-~ e say a'S'tean~~~~;ghi.~·:i_~~;J?~~cftj?~e,_ tl~-;-p~tting
--- ..
it in the-general class of machin es; and t~ to na~~
ch~~isfk..~!~.~ ,~~kes ..it. _q iff$r~ntJr_orn . __ e-Jl_,J?11l.~L . !?P.
jects of the class, as when we say a steam-engine is a
machine w !terein t/ze motive-power is tlte expansive fo rce
of steam., thus mentioning the peculiarity that gives this
machin e its character and name. Such a mode of defining is called definition by genus and dijfcrentia.
T~:_:__~~-~)l~!P.~. J>Y._)y!!~EL~!~-~..~L9ces~ ?f defining i~!E,.~~Q.~~-~l11Rle r and more mterestmg.
Perhaps tQ.!;. readi~!_~n~j!rec~.!_9...f_~e ~ study
of the term in which the id ea is expressed, recalling its
deriVa"tfo;'~ r ascertaining its usage ; ~ ~ dof! e Jn th.e
definition of extositio1t _ f}l}~ .1!fi...JJ:.UJEJJ.~. . on th e foregoing
p~Tt--;IiI;~;dify-be seen how much a knowledge of
derivation helps in clearness of conception.
...

;i;lo.~¥!"--~

..

····-

...

~--·-·-- ·•#""

v··-· -··~ •ti .. t•

- r.

'

sim£Le...,~~,.,..C:.n.~~.?19 ?~ . f_~!11.iEar te~rms ; as when, instead of
giving such a formal definition of a steam-engine as the
above, you describe it as a pmnp, wherein the piston does
not lift but is lifted. This manner of simplifying, sometimes called logical description, is one of the greatest aids
in composition.

..i.~~.,.~1

.,.,.

..... _.

-Thus, suppose you are expected to explain
a~!5.ce; tu.e best w<!J is t£_studl.~~~~~y~~·a,x: ;vhom you k~ow,
separating what traits belong to this quality from others that are not
connected with it. Much of th e masterly portrayal of character in
fiction rises from the study of a type or abstraction of character,
which type is then concreted in some individual whose history and
words can be recounted.

is not always that th e mere derivation g ives a correct
/ clue to the idea; it may have to b e modified to accord with present
Thus, the word prevent (pre-venio) used to mean " come
usage.
before," "anticipate," as in I Th essalonians, iv. 15, "We which are
alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord shall not prevent them
which are asleep"; th e word villain used to mean "villager," etc.
But even when the usage has changed it is helpful to trace the road
of derivation and history to its present application.

T~ ~o..12.1~~y, so to say, reg~c;:.._.al}...id~

">1•'9

ILLUSTRATIONS.

NOT E. - It

2.

265

B..x this is n~t so much ~t ci2..np1>ints of distinction
trast between i~~<;~!~ctly .C:.Q.1!!~~£
by contrast.
ec:i-.sh-9..ther, as p~e an.LhmEJU.! y, joy
and sorrow ; here · the contrast is too obvious to be fruitful. Rather is meant findin g ~~o!11e .Point. Qf. ~.Q_nti:astJ!l,
i~ee:._~ for the most part ~
There is no more effectual
means of setting forth what is really vital and essential
in ideas than by finding such shades of contrast.
II'(. Secure vital

.

(

t

266

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

ILLUSTRATIONS. Thus, instead of opposing pride to humility, ./
compare it with vanity _; and you find that while pride is indifferent
to the opinion of others, vanity is over-observant of the opinion of
others, and herein is their real nature. Oppose joy not to sorrow but
to happiness_; and, as Dr. Bushnell shows, while happiness comes
from without (from root hap, to happen) joy springs up from within
(from a root meaning to leap). This distinction is very vital to both.

Modes of repetition have been mentioned under RuleJ,Zo, where it is seen
that changing a term from general to
particular, or from literal to figurative statement, or from
the name to the definition, is virtually a repetition of it.
A~s h ~t.9~1?~~ ..,}}J?!,..£,!!!Y_,,~Jgin~d but enforced;
they have, according to their importance, to be kept
before the reader long enough for him to get their various
aspects and. applications. This use of repetition. applies
especially to propositions, rather than to single terms.

II8. Repeat enough
to give all the ideas
f'·yon wish to enforce.

'1

._.

I

- - - -·

-~... .,._.

-

EXAMPLE. Pascal somewhere says, "Respect is, incommode
yourself." This is too condensed to be clear, and too short to make
an impression on the reader's mind. Suppose, however, we repeat
by putting into simpler terms, or paraphrasing, thus: "You show
your respect for a man when you put yourself out for him, do something that causes you effort or inconvenience ; until you do so much
you exhibit merely tolerance, not respect."
Of course, in paraphrasing like this, guard against weakening or
dulling the idea ; that is liable to be the bane of paraphrase.

VI.
Exercises in Exposition. - It is not often that a single
means of expounding an important idea will sufilce ; it
has to be presented in various lights and aspects. At
the same time, it is well to bear in mind what needs explanation and what does not, and if given how much

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

267

explanation will answer ; for it is platitude to go on explaining and expanding what is already obvious.
Give accounts of the following things, choosing the
means of exposition that seem most needed. ·
1.

A ballad ; a a man of letters ; b :;..,.tr~g~~. ~S!ti.~-£.M ; c a
ferret ; what a chameleon is like ; the passion flower ; a century plant in bloom ; a drama compared with a novel,,; d
a touch-down ; e jealousy ; f der.ivation and meanings of !he
·. . /Vord 'nice'; 1 of the word 'churl'; of the word 'pagan'; g the
f ' \artist and the artisan; h artistic and artificial; faith and credulity; eloquence and declamation; what it is to meditate.
Explain and illustrate the following passages, paraphrasing where needed, and seeking withal to make your
presentation interesting.
2.

The calf to which the Israelites bowed down, was it not
. made of the trinkets of the common people ? i
The noblest works, like the temple of Solomon, are brought
to perfection in silence.i
Rightly to be great
Is not to stir without great argument,
But greatly to find quarrel in a straw
When honor's at the stake.k
Fine manners need the support of fine manners in others.
One thorn of experience is worth a whole wilderness of
warn mg.
Pick out of mirth, like stones out of thy ground,
Profaneness, filthiness, abusiveness.
These are the scum, with which coarse wits abound:
The fine may spare these well, yet not go less.
All things are big with jest; nothing that's plain
But may be witty, if thou hast the vein.I
1

Den·vations and usages may be looked up in any Dictionary; Skeat's
"Etymological Dictionary" is especially good for the former.

268

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

NOTE::> TO THE ABOVE. - a. Look up the derivation; give a history of
the use of the term; and name examples. - b. This definition may be
brought out by comparing a man of letters with a poet; also by examples,·
as Dr. Johnson and Burns. - c. You remember how Dr. Holmes has
dubbed this "the broomstick train"; perhaps this may be suggestive in
your description.'-d. Get what help you can from derivation; then state
the characterizing feature of each and give examples. - e. Describe for the
benefit of the uninitiated. - f. Best brought out, perhaps, by comparing
with love, and by d escribing a jealous person. -g. Trench, in his book "On
th(l Study of Words," has some interesting remarks on this word. -h. All
the succeeding terms call for exposition by contrast; but they ought also
to be reduced to the concrete by example. - i. This is a kind of figure or
· analogy; think what truth it illustrates. The calf represents idolatry; the
trinkets are every-day things; the common people would naturally not have
costly articles. Study it out. -j. It will be profitable here to think of one
good example. - k. Two old-fashioned words, "argument" and "quarrel,"
need to be well understood, whether you explain them or not. The most
obvious suggestion here is contrast, which may be brought out by paraphrase. -1. There is material for an essay in this stanza; think out
its suggestions, arrange them in order {Rule IOI), and expand each
thought.

VII.

Rules defining some Principles of Argumentation. . Ar~mentation comp!ise~" in broad terms, th$,....v:-ariol!S ·
; processes of settjng forth the truth of t~}~~-~ng
· the.~.~~u~s.~..r..~~<?£..§:~:e.i:i.nciples, .a,nr.d.)ndjca.ti9P..~ on which
our view of them depends. It is a subject large and
intricate; all that can be attempted here is to give some
of its leading principles, the principles that in some application must enter every sound debate.
In cqw~~form...QL~rgm!~~!}t two.Jl.~ti°.1;s
naturally arise: What is this form good for? and, Wherein
may there be danger of trusting it too far? With each
rule of procedure, therefore, is naturally conjoined a rule
of caution.

269

PROCESSES OF C01J.fPOSIT.ION.

This kind of argumentation is called
Induction. It makes a truth grow step
by step by building together the particulars that furnish indications of it; and draws the
conclusion only when the reasons are all in. Ii;~t:!.!!.£!.ion
concentrates the interest not in the particulars, which in
fact are ocly- -ineans·-"to an"' ~nd, b~t in - t~e . coI1cl.u_~~9_1!,­
which takes the form . ·of-·---·--some ..
new
fact to be......est~blished,
,_,, . ,. - __ ..... -·· .
... .
.
or some theory that will account for all the particular
facts that are k;-~-;;;~. --...
.
.
119 . To establish
fact, begin with your
reasons.

- - - - ---·-

.

EXAMPLE OF INDU CTION. - Professor Minto, in his "Characteristics of English Poets," speaking of a commendatory sonnet entitled
"Phaeton to his Friend Florio," prefixed to a volume published by
John Florio in I 591, raises the question, Is this an unrecognized
sonnet by Shakespeare ?
To answer this question he gathers the "marks of Shakespearean
parentage" that appear in the sonnet; noting: I. Its superiority to
the commonplace of that day; 2. The earnestness of the descriptions
of spring and morning, winter and night, coinciding with Shakespeare's work elsewhere, and differing from such authors as Spenser
. and Drayton; 3. Coincidence with Shakespeare in the use of certain
favorite words; 4. I ts peculiar circle of ideas and diction, common
to ·Shakespeare and this sonnet, and not characteri.s tic of others ;
5. The manner of playing upon names more like Shakespeare's
usage than like others; 6. The fact that it keeps the same general
intellectual strain as Shakespeare's sonnets. From all which indications he makes out a strong probability that the sonnet is Shakespeare's.

This, called jumping at a conclusion,
is tl;e · tencle~~y-t~ ·-b~; -g~1-;~-<l~.~C;gain.st
~·0 1~~t~lf!.!Y. _i1: . ~aki~g· ind t{~tio~·~:·- ·--~~
cations have very ·different weights.
"'--..............
~~.::- -·S.,9~~.~!...e so ijgb._t as to be worth not~ing with~~!~~ther
indications to s~pg,r_t them; others are significant enough
......_ .....
.... .....
120. Be cautious of
drawing too large a
conclusion from too
few indications.

~ ----·-..--~ :-

-

270

THE WHOLE COMPOS.IT.ION.

to be regarded as a real cause, whether sufficient or not,
of the thing indicated; or an effect of it. Whatever the
( indications are, weigh them carefully. Do not attach too
-much importance to any o_n e indication, nor let any especially brilliant idea turn your head. S~~.'!-.~S
weig~l_.E~a~q1~~- <:l~--Possible; and do not overlook or underestimate ·anything that makes against the conclusion.
ILLUSTRATION OF SUCH CAUTION. -

Of the above cited argument,

Professor Minto makes this estimate :
"Such an identification, of course, does not admit of demonstrative
proof : all that we can possibly provide in the absence of authentic
contemporary testimony that Shakespeare and Phaeton were the
same, is a concurrence of presumptions, separately feeble, severally
open to banter, but together affording as firm a ground for belief as
can be had in such matters."

~
121 • To ground or

apply-a known truth,
refer it to general
principle.

This kind of atgumentation is called
Deduct1'011 (deuuco,
J
- t-o d raw d own) .
- ---When we t ake some evident truth and

tra'Z~~th~~-~~~.?~~. ;;~ . it isj· o~ t~~re is

in~q

and as~~ed_ som~gen~_ral .R~~i:.c!Pl~ or universal
truth, on . which all our reasoning depends. This basal·
truth may or may not be stated; in fact it is generally
obvious enough to be taken for granted, the interest
·being centered not in that but in the reaSOI}S, the applications, of it.

y.,

Suppose we say of a man, "~e
cannot but take gloomy views of life, because his health is so poor."
Here is involved an argument based on the general assumption that
any one whose health is poor must take gloomy views of life. "This invention will not come into extensive use ; it is cumbrous,
hard to operate, and liable to get out of order." Here the reasons
given all go to ground the assertion, being based on the general truth
th at any machine that is cumbrous, hard to operate, and liable to get
out of order is impaired for extensive use.
EXAMPLES OF D EDUCTION. -

PROCESSES OF COMPOS.IT.ION.

271

A __deductive argument .i~.....r.e.du.cihl.e.-..t~ fwn:mla of
reasoning cal,kd the SY.,il.Q.,g!.§111; which is made up of two
assertions,_called the Major premise and the Min.or premise, and a Conclusion drawn from them . . The major
premise states a general fact or truth; the minor premise
names . some particular person, thing, or fact to whom or _
which the general truth will apply, and the conclusion
unites the two.
EXAMPLES. Thus, drawing out in full the arguments suggested
above, we have the following syllogisms : -

Major Premise.

Minor Premise.

Conclusion.

A man whose health
is poor must take
gloomy views of life.
A machine that is
cumbrous, hard to operate, and liable to ge t
out of order, cannot
come into extensive
use.

This man's health
is poor.

T h e re for e, th is
man must take
gloomy views of life.
Therefore, this
machine cannot come
into extensive use.

This machine is
cumbrous, hard to
operate, and liable to
ge t out of order.

It is often remarked that just @:L.C\._
c.Q.aLg_i~ no stron,g_~r._than_i..t.s...W~Ii,~~t
ll!l.k, §.2 a .JJ~1cth_:~~--p.rg-um~n.t_j§. __l}Q
stronger than its weakest premise. And the premise that
is -oitenesf"incohdusive is the pre mise that is assumed as
true and left unexpressed; h ence it is very important that
you at least draw out your full syllogism and make sure
of your premises, whether you state it all for your reader
or not.
122, Be cautions of
leaving any premise
untested.

T~~~.!~~J.~_(in logic caj~d i_a!J.qf_z'e!_,) to_..w~~<:h
th~ general .or_ n.?ajor: prem_ise is,Jia.b Je; it may be untrue,
or it may prove too much.

1

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

272

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

EXAMPLES. - I. A premise not universally true. In the sylabove given, it is not a universal fact that a man in poor
health must take gloomy views of life. There are so many exceptions
that the argument is inconclusive.
2. Proving too much.
IJ.}.Y.~-~~Q.\lhl._~~-~~~!i!~~X. of m,:!!!<;.1!.1.~tics
is an excellent disc_ip,lin~ .of..t).1e-m\r14. because mathematics is so difficult;""'we..·~~·~~-;~ tl1~t whatever is difficult is fo;t h.at reason an excellent discipline ; but if that is so, th en Chinese and Choctaw are an
excellent discipline. The assertion, if it proves anything, proves too
much.

vast empire that he had made fell in pieces like a rope of sand. It "I
will not do to relax vigilance and strenuous effort, or to lose self- {'control; disaster lies that way."

'-1-- logism

NOTE. --'- It will be observed that the premises are established in
the first place by induction. It is from a large number of facts or
instances that we draw such a conclusion as that a man in poor health
must take gloomy views of life ; and if any exceptions occur our conclusion is by so much invalidated. Thus induction and deduction
work constantly into each other, and the same spirit of caution is
necessary for both.
123. For principles
' ' of action, make wise
~use of example.

/

~_en_t_fr.orn_ ~K_<l:_!!!P-1~ in~s

fro~~-_t_ill_ll_ place, elsewhere

. h
I
d
. .
or m t e past, t 1at un __<::!.~~up.1 1.::r:.. conditions the sa112.~JJJ.ing .~itlv take place again. It is a form
of induction,-·i rguing as it does from certain indications to
a conclusion as yet only conjectured.
"Example is the school of mankind," says Edmund
Burke, "and they will learn at no other." This indicates
what kin~c.!_._qJ,.. _q~H~.~ti9~s
• ·- example
' • - ..,. . . - ·is- ··•peculiarly
··· •· • • --n-• • - fitted
•••,,, ·'..to'
....
answer
:
questions
of
proce_qJJX~, of duty, of policy, ques..
··-----·
.. ..
___,,....
............
tions .. ,....whereon men
venture
action
and
trust
the
future.
. ... .. .. ·· .. ···- ·.
. -··- .._.
__.,
.··--· ......
Example is·--perhaps the most interesting kind of argu, ~ ment, and the easiest to understand. It is especially well
adapted to public speaking.
J

~....,,......\~

- -·~·

-- -~---··-

f

,

· ~ .. .........

·· ~

~.

'

273

l

Thj~ ___i~_Jh~... ~hief . danger to which
arguments from. ex~mple · are·--· li~bl ~ :
th e conditions of the present case may
'-··· .....
. .
no~ be th e same, or may not be ·· so
favorable, as the case adduced for example ; and so the
argument fails in conclusiveiiess. J\:tJ~~~-~-' - ~~.~ mple is to
be regarded as suggestive and stimulating; a ~-~luabi ;·.. ~"'
meariSOr-rmparting useful lessons, but not
to be leaned
...........,..._..,___,,., ..._.,.. .........
upon as establishing absolute fact.

124. Be cautious of
the con d i ti o n s to
which your example
is to be applied.

"

_

~··· ·.r -'

ILLUSTRATION OF FALLACIOUS EXAMPLE. - "A great thinker
and man of science must also be a man of religious faith ; this we
see exemplified in such men as Locke, Newton, a nd Kepler." This
argument is inconclusive, because many examples might be adduced
on th e other side ; in fact, relig ion and science do not require conditions nearly enough parallel to warrant similar conclusions of
the two.

Th ~_l2}_~s ~ ~-~£1.usive forrn of the _a_rgl),ment from exan!P.~Js what is called the argument a .fortiori,· all__~.r.iu­
m~~!.. _i.!1.. which of purpose conditions are chosen that are
le~s favorable than. the conditions of the present case:
if that case was true, th en, much more will t"his be true.
This argument, for its proper subj ect, is very striking and
conclusive.
·

.- ~

EXAMPLE. - "Alexander was puffed-up by his marvellous conquests ; became vain and self-indulgent and luxurious ; for the sake
of victories abroad neglected affairs at home ; so at his death tlie

EXAMPLE. - " Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field
which to-day is and to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall He no;
much rather clothe y0u, 0 ye of little faith?" H ere the condition
of the grass, which is so transitory and insignificant, is much less
favorable to inferring God's care, yet He clothes it; how much more
then shall He clothe man, who is worth so · much more and lasts so
much longer than grass.

J

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

·274

125. Use analogy for
llustration, not for
conclusiveness.

PROCESSES OF COMPOSITION.

A~~!.2Kl.. !~~.~~-~!:~~~ !2,<:;.s urs .• in_.,gn!,_,

'i

sp~ere of _lif~. ~ -- ac!ion_, ._<!-_~_cL•.r~~?~~
from it to what will occur in anothe-r.
I ts__concl u~iven_~. §.~--'9~pe_n.c!.s UP9J:1 =!he . r. ~lati~~-;---~~2}:!:_,
ditions that__ .~~_is.Ljn__ th_e_ two spheres ; these must be
·- ---·--·-. '·
alike, as well as the occurrences · themselves, else the
analogy fails as argument. In order to make it conclusive, we must trace like causes as well as like effects; and
this we can so seldom do that our analogy can seldom be
a real argument. As illustration, however, that is, as a
means of exposition, analogy is full of interest and often
"
of beauff-

- --

EXAMPLES. - " See the brilliant tints of the sky as the sun is sinking below the horizon and throwing back his mellowed glory over the
world he is leaving; does not this spectacle remind you of the end of
life, and shall not we look for such a glory to light our declining days
as the sun of our life enters the unseen realm beyond? " This is a
beautiful and suggestive illustration ; but we are not warranted in
saying that the encl of life is glorious because the end of a clay is, the two depend on conditions too different to support such a conclusion.

VIII.~

Exercises in Argumentation. -Argumentation.
_ rµay
. ....... . -- ....
~

inyolve complex. and difficult processes of reasoning; but
its most useful and practical procedures are among the
simplest activities of the mind. I~means_rg~<:Dy_J~)ling
'/... w~e.l:_£ertJ.in thin ~--~e tn~e, .a)2g~!_iy they are true.
Or if your investigation proves them false, it is by the
same procedures, in principle, that you ascertain the fact.
For the following questions or propositions work
out arguments as directed.
1.

275

Arguments inductive, giving facts and indications to
prove:Whether electricity is destined to supplant steam as a motor
""1"""" .
--.er-~'--~- ~ -..'-""'f>~~~""
power.a
Whether Americans are becoming aristocratic in spirit.h
Whetl~~¥-~ prob~bl_y inhabited like om:__earth.
Whether oratory exerts ;o-;ide-sp~ead..~i~.ftu~;:;-..;s journalism. c
........,.,.••• ""-· - .................. _..._,_.;,........ -

Arguments deductive, g1vmg premises and principles
to prove:That government should not discriminate between industries. d
That peace has ~ vict5~~ ' greater._~OJ;e .J~;::!~~ch~ng
than those of war.
Th.a t ~12.9!:.~i:lcU.~U.::i,.L~!~. 11.otfo~s .!:>.ut__ frjer~d~ ~!},q all.ies.
That the present great diffusion of literature is unfavorable
to depth of thought.e

Arguments from example, to show:T~at

the best way to prove men trustworthy is to trust

them.f
That i1~itec!__w_(_'.~l_tl~--~s a doubtful _b..!~ssing.
That free speech is the safety-valve g of agitation.
That silence is golden.
2. Examine the following arguments, and tell how and
why they are fallacious.

The man will be indifferent to the interests of his employer,
because he is a member of a labor organization.h
Lincoln rose from the depths of poverty and hardship.
f:ranklin was a printer's boy. Garfield worked on a canal.
Yet all became honored and successful men. Whoever would

276

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION.

gain the successes of life must have passed through its hardships and severities.i
I regard running as a very Yaluable exercise because it so
severely tests one's breath and endurance.
Any man who is a great thinker, great in science or philosophy, can be a great poet; you can walk just as far in one
direction as you can in another.i
I know this occupation is harmful to the community and to
mankind; but it brings a good living, and the world owes
every man a living.k
NOTES TO THE ABOVE. - a. The fact that electricity is doing much that
steam used to do is a plausible arg ument; but you need to go deeper and
seek things that are real causes, as for instance expense, and th e percentage of energy utilized. Tr)'. to get reasons that have the most conclusiveness attainable. - b. In this question you will need to define what it is to
be aristocratic (see Rule 11 5), and exemplify from some existing instances
of aristocracy (Rule 116). This before you begin to argue.-c. Do not .
take the narrow view, as some do, of oratory; it includes oratory of the
pulpit as well as of legisla tive, legal, and popular assemblies. -d. The
question of monopolies comes in here. Try to find a general principle of
government that discredits such discrimination. - e. This, as you see, is .a ·
comparison between breadth and depth. Get your major premise from
this comparison. -f. Think of some instance that you have seen in your
reading or observed in your experience. - g. Of course this figurative way
of speaking is not misleading in such an argument as this; what analogy
does it involve? Is the analogy conclusive as regards the truth of this
proposition?- h. Draw out in full the syllogism here involved; then tell
which premise is fall acious, and why. -i. How would you refute an argument from example like this?- j. This is an analogy; tes t it, and see
if you can suggest one that is more truly illustrative. - k. Care is needed
in drawing out the syllogism herein involved.

...

III.

APPENDICES.

/

·.

APPENDIX I.
DIGEST OF RULES.

I.

The first of these Appendices, presenting in one view all the foregoing rules, is intended to facilitate the correction of the student's
written work. By simply writing the number of the rule in the margin of the student's paper, the teacher can call his attention to the
error involved.
Appendix I I. explains itself.
In Appendix III. is brought together under one alphabet whatever
material the student needs to use in working out or correcting the
exercises in Part I. of the book. Beyond this, too, the Appendix
contains a large number of words and phrases such as every one in '
writing needs to know, or to shun, or to be cautious of ; and thus it is hoped that many will find it, so far as it goes, a valuable little vade
mecum for the writer.

/

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

I. What is due to
the Subject.

r. Stt~dy exactness in degree of meaning.
2. Study exactness in kind of meaning.
3· Let your w?rd contain but one
meaning.
4· Study correctness in grammatical
forms and parts of speech.
II. What is due to
5· Use the simplest words that the
the Reader.
subject will bear.
6. Prefer idioms to bookish terms.
7· Be slow to use foreign and technical
words.
III. What is due
8. Be watchful of words that · have
to standard
newly come into vogue.
Usage.
9· Be too well informed to use slang
and provincialisms.
·
1 o. Be too earnest to use antiquated
words and forms.
What is due 1 1. Beware of the false garnish of "fine
to good Taste.
writing."
I 2. For prosaic work, discard poetic
forms.
13. Be too independent to use hackneyed and stock expressions.

280

APPENDIX I.
II.

I. Grammatical
Forms needing
Caution.

II. Placing of Modifiers.

PHRASEOLOGY.

4. Be heedful of foreign and irregular
plurals.
15. Confine the possessive form mostly
to persons.
16. Be watchful to adapt pronoun caseforms to the actual case.
17. With two objects use comparative
degree ; with more, superlative.
18. Do not compare what has no degree.
19· Express clearly the subject of a
participle.
20. Use indicative mood when the condition is certain ; subjunctive
when it is doubtful.
21. Use shall when the speaker assumes
control of the foture; will when
he asserts purpose of it.
22. Determine principal tenses by the
exact time of the action.
23. Reckon subordiirnte tenses from . .
principal.
24. Between a word and its modifier do
not put anything that cap steal
the modification.
25. Place only immediately before its
principal.
26. Do not place an adverb between
the sign of the infinitive and its -~- "
verb.
2 7. · Place restrictive phrases where they . , · ·
can work in only one direction.
28. Balance clauses of the same rank
together.

DIGEST OF RULES.

- III. Concord.

281

2

9· Do not let intervening words disturb
agreement of verb and subject.
3°· M~ke pronoun and antecedent agree
m number and kind.
31. Treat collectives by sense rather
than by grammar. _
32. Be watchful of s~bjects with con"f.
junctions.

1

Words with
Antecedents.

33· Make tl1e antecedent prominent
enough to be readily identified. ..,......
34· Make the -,reference definite enough
to single out the exact idea intended.

35· Be mindful of the office of yo~ir relative.
36. Be wise in using coordinate form
di
for restrictive office.
37· Prepa~e for an important aJ.ternative '
1tJi
or mference by correlating connectives.
i ii
38. Stu~y correct usage in choosing par-;- rn
tides of correlation.
j~
39· Follow not ... but, not only ... but
mi
~ [also] by the same part of speech.
. )·:!
D
1
... I.
40.
o not eave out any form that is
. t: ·

H

Precautions
. for Clearness.·

c .•
• not accurately,implied . . "
· ·
.-· ,::.,"".;_:;.::
41. In condensing · a ~!~ti's ~, be ~is { ·t;,,:,
, .
_{'1 / , ,.,-~.1 I retain particles of relation. ·.
.
· iIi}
.. . R
l .
,:~
1. 42.
epeat w 1ate_v er . is necessary to
.. ,:;,
· 11 1
grammar. .
· .··. · . _.. . \. ·
.
'•~ , , ·:~
•· ' . ' . . f . __, ' I ' ,· . <. . . .• · · - ':. ! liil
43· Repeat articles and .pos~essives for.
· !,l!
, each new idea.
·
.... ' . ill'
44.. Repeat a complex subj.ect by a sum·W
marizing w~rd.
. rn
( :

·.·.i·.:,l_.:!:.:
_:

1

'" l

1

; r::{i

'

~,;

' ;J~ t
'. I:~ f

282

APPENDIX I.

III.

SPECIAL OBJECTS IN STYLE.

45. For vigor of vocabulary, use

I. F orce.

46.
47.
48.

49.

(

II. Emphasis.

,. !

50.
5 I.
52 .

....-

_53.
54·
55·
I II. Rapidity.

56.
'

.

57·

1~

'

.

58.

,'

59·

words.
To give force to single w0rds, make
·them specific.
For weighty force, cut a:way modifiers.
For abrupt force, cut away co nnec~
tives.
For condensed force, cut down phrases and clauses to equivalent .
words.
To add emphasis to a principal element, invert its sentence order.
To add emphasis to ·a ~difier, _ '
place it after its principal. ··.
To push expectation toward the
end, put preliminaries first.
To add emphasis to a conditional
clause, place it last.
Make successive terms
from weaker to stronger.
For balance and distinction, repeat
important words.
To touch an idea lightly, express it
in comprehensive terms.
To make a clause or phrase rapid,
give its substance in implication
or by epithet.
Study how to pass lightly over rela- '
tive clauses .
To make a subordinate clause un,-.
obtrusive, bury it within the sen- .
tence.

.DIGEST OF RULES.

283

60. To give life to discourse, mike it
direct.
61. For descrip tive effect, use imitative
words.
62. For narrative intensity, know the
use of the historic present.
63 . For condensed vividness, use trope
or metaphor. ,
,·.' 1.-- ;
·•
t.
64. To u.tiliz.e the serviceable part of
the idea, use metonymy ~r synecdoche.
,1 ~65. For illustrative value, use simile.
1
( ' .. - 66. For trenchant assertion, use interrogation.
67 . For lively realization, use exclamation. -'
_68. For vigor of conception, know the
value of hyperbole.
69. To make one idea set off another,
use antithesis.
Smoothness. -' · 70. Have choice of synonymous words
for repeated ideas.
7 1. Be careful of repeated sounds.
72.,. Test your work by ear for harsh
COIJlbinations.
73. To make expression flowing, test
the accents.
- ~

I

I

'

I ' •.

I

APPENDIX I.

284

IV.

I. Unity of the
Sentence.

i
.~

I
...

.; I I. Pun ct u a t i o n -of the
tence.

Sen-

.·

\

•.

III. Organism of
the Sentence.

IV. K inds of Sentences.

DIGEST OF RULES.

THE SENTENCE.

7 4. Make your sentence embody one
main idea.
75. Test a composite thought by the ·
relation of its clauses.
76. Test a group-thought by time, scene,
or common bearing.
77.Designate expectation by the colon.·
"'78 . Set off members of a composite or
group-thought .by the semicolon . ..
79 . Mark the natural pauses in the . _
sense by the comma.
80. Mark an abrupt change or additi~n
~
by the dash.
,
'81. Begin with what it is most advisable to think of first.
82 . End with words that deserve d.istinction.
83. J oin matters that belc;ing to the same~
thought; separate what is distinct. .·:
84. Give like form to matter~ like in .
significance.
85. Secure exact shades of
connectives.
86. For vigor and emphasis use
· sentences.
87. For deta,il and rhytlim, use
sentences.
88. T o maintain attention and interest,.
use periodic sentences.
89. For informal ease and ·n·a turalness,
use loose sentences.
90. For point and antithesi's, use
anced sentences.

V.

I. The Paragraph
in Sum.
. ;

l

l.

'

II. The Paragraph
,

in Struct u re.

;I
!;I~

285

THE PARAGRAPH.

!1

l·

:fl

91. Make the nucleus of the paragraph
!/
1
a single topic.
1!1
92. Test a composite topic by the rela!.
tion of its constituent ideas.
!1
;:'·
93· Test a group-topic by contiguity
; ";
!'
in time, place, or thought.
.,. .., -.:-! .i . 1·
94· Make proper connection with what .
: :.f
!i;
I."' · • id
P recedes.
.
!·ti
95 · Devote thf first part to topical ;. . '.:," .
1.1
matter.
'~ l
1.::
96. Put predicative matter after the ·
·;;!
:/!:
topical.
J .•:
;
~ !!
97· Put like modes . of amplification
·d·
; '~!
together.
. "
98. See that connection and sequence
:!./!
'i:l
are unmistakable.
~ii,
1;::
99· Give like prominence to matters
i:i
like in i1nportance.
~!l

n

-~
I'

\

VI.

/

Composition . .
a. The P lan.

100,

IOI.

102.

1 03.

b. The ;Filling-I n .

- ' i\;j

el .. ;

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION

I. Requisites of

I

it
!I

Make your composition centre m
one theme.

/

:;11

Ii~

!:ii
.q~

I ' 'i•:i
.... -..... ·r
··II
• t
I ' I I
1 .. i :!
In the diyisions of your plan, work
for distinctness, sequence, clih
max.
Make corresponding divisions similar in statement.
Provide wisely for summaries ,and
• •
trans1t1ons.
In making approach to the theme,
work for brevity and plain directness .

l!tJ'.

Jii

'i:I
!i J
:,. 1
11·;
11.i
;'·

"

286

APPENDIX I.
I

105. Give ·most prominence to what
~o.st characterizes your subject.
-Cont.
106. End ·with matter that coricentrates
the effect of the whole.
~·~~ .... ~ II. Processes of
107. Determine the scale of description
by the point of view.
-· ·- ··
\ •!~
...,. · .
.Composition.
.
108. For the first stage of desc~iption,
·,, ·
a. :Oescription. ·
outline the whole object.
Economize in the number of de- <
/
tails.
\' .
110. ·Study effectiveness m the power
of details.
111.
To
relate a story effectively, keep
b. Narration.
the end in view from the beginning.
l 12. Regulate the amou~t of detail' by ·
. the importance of tl~e matter. ·:-,'
113. Study how best to foster expectation.
114. Study how best to answ,er expectation.
n5. Make sure your idea is clearly de- ;
.:. ·Exposition.
fined.
I I 6. Reduce ideas to the · concrete by
example.
·Secure
vital points of distinction ·
I I 7.
by contrast.
118. Repeat enough to give all' the ideas
you 'wish to enforce.
..
d. Argumentation. I 19· To establish fact, begin with your
reasons.
.1
120. Be cautious of drawing too large a
co'nclusion from too few 'indications.
.' ·.,;. )'

.b. The Filling-In.

\ ..

287

DIGEST OF RULES.

·d. Argumentation .

-Cont. ·

To ground or apply a known truth,
refer it to a general principle.
122. Be cautious of leaving any premise
untested.
123. For principles of action, make wise ,
use of example.
124. Be cautious of the conditions to
which your example is to be
applied.
12 5. Use · analogy fo r illustration, not
for conclusiveness.
l 2 l. ·

•

289

ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

II.
Paragraph from the same, referred to on page
APPENDIX II.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

HE following are the passages referred to and
analyzed in the chapters on The Paragraph and
The Whole Composition.

T

•

I.

Paragraph from Macaulay's Essay on Hallam's Constitutional History, referred to on page 223.
The abilities of Charles were not formidable. His taste in
the fine arts was indeed exquisite ; and few modern sovereigns
have written or spoken better. But he was not fit for active
life. In negotiation he was always trying to dupe others, and
duping only himself. As a soldier, he was feeble, dilatory,
and miseralJly wanting, not in personal courage, but in the
presence of mind which his station required. His delay at
. Gloucester saved the parliamentary party from destruction.
At N aseby, in the very crisis of his fortune, his want of selfpossession spread a fatal panic through his army. The story
which Clarendon tells of that affair reminds us of the excuses
by which Bessus and Bobadil explain their cudgellings. A
Scotch nobleman, it seems, begged the king not to run
upon his death, took hold of his bridle, and turned his
· horse round. No man who had much value for his life would
have tried to perform the same friendly office on that day
for Oliver Cromwell. - Essays, Riverside Edition, Vol. I,
p. 499·

223.

Mr. Hallam decidedly condemns the execution of Charles ;
and in all that he says on that subject we heartily agree. We
fully concur with him in thinking that a great social schism,
such as the civil war, is not to be confounded with an ordinary
treason, and that the vanquisht;d ought to be treated according
to the rules, not of municipal, but of international law. In
this case the distinction is of the less importance, because
both international and municipal law were in favor of Charles.
He was a prisoner of war by the former, a king by the latter.
By neither was he a traitor.
If he had been successful,
and had put his leading opponents to death, he would have
deserved severe censure; and this without reference to the
justice or injustice of his cause. Yet the opponents of
Charles, it must be admitted, were technically guilty of treason.
He might have sent them to the scaffold without
violating any established principle of jurisprudence. He
would not have been compelled to overturn the whole constitution in order to reach them. Here his own case differed
widely from theirs. Not only was his condemnation in itself
a measure which only the strongest necessity could vindicate ;
but it could not be procured without taking several previous
. steps, every one of which would have required the strongest
necessity to vindicate it. It could not be procured without
dissolving the government by military force, without establishing
precedents of the most dangerous description, without creating
difficulties which the next ten years were spent in removing,
without pulling down institutions which it soon became necessary to reconstruct, and setting up others which almost every
man was soon impatient to destroy. It was necessary to strike
the House of Lords_ out of the constitution, to exclude members
of the House of Commons by force, to make a new crime, a
new tribunal, a new mode of procedure. The whole legislative

290

ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

APPEND,/X II.

and judicial systems were trampled down for the purpose. of ._
taking a single head. Not only those parts of the const1tu·
tion which the republicans were desirous to destroy, but those
which they wished to retain and exalt, were deeply injured
by these transactions. High Courts of Justice began to usurp
the functions of juries. The remaining delegates of the people
were soon driven from their seats by the same military violence
which had enabled them to exclude their colleagues. -Essays, .

..

\

291

proud, calm, inflexible, sagacious. He prostrated himself in
··, the dust before his Maker : but he set his foot on the neck of
his king. In his devotional retirement, he prayed with convulsions, and groans, and tears. He was half-maddened by
glorious or terrible illusions. He heard the lyres of angels
or the tempting whispers of fiends. He caught a gleam of the
Beatific Vision, or woke screaming from dreams of everlasting
fire. Like Vane, he thought himself intrusted with the sceptre
of the millennial year. Like Fleetwood, he cried in the bitterRiverside Edition, Vol. I, p. 497 ·
ness of his soul that God had hid his face from him. But
when he took his seat in the council, or girt on his sword for
III.
war, these tempestuous workings of the soul had left no perParagraph from Macaulay's Essay on Milton,
ceptible trace behind them. People who saw nothing of the
to on page 223.
godly but their uncouth visages, and heard nothing from them
Ariosto tells a pr~tty story of a fairy, who, by some myste:i· .
but their groans and their whining hymns, might laugh at
ous law of her nature, was condemned to appear at certa1~
them. But those had little reason to laugh who encountered
seasons in the form of a foul and poisonous snake. Those .·
them in the hall of debate or on the field of battle. These
who injured her during the period of her di~guise "'.ere for
fanatics brought to civil and military affairs a coolness of
eve.r excluded from participation in the blessmgs which she •
judgment and an immutability of purpose which some writers
bestowed. But to those who, in spite of her loathsome aspect, ,
have thought inconsistent with their religious zeal, but which
pitied and protected her, she afterwards revealed herself in the •t
were in fact the necessary effects of it. The intensity of their
beautiful and celestial form which was natural to her, accom- .
feelings on one subject made them tranquil on every other.
panied their steps, granted all their wishes, fil.led ~heir .houses
One overpowering sentiment had subjected to itself pity and
with wealth, made them happy in love and v1ctonous 111 war..
hatred, ambition and fear. Death had lost its terrors and
Such a spirit is Liberty.· At times she takes the form of a
pleasure its charms. They had their smiles and their tears,
hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe
their raptures and their sorrows, but not for the things of this
to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her! And ·
world. Enthusiasm had made them Stoics, had cleared their
happy are those who, having dared to receive her in her de·
minds from every vulgar passion and prejudice, and raised
graded and frightful shape, shall at length be rewarded. by ~er
them above the influence of danger and of corruption. It
in the time of her beauty and her glory ! - Essays, R1vers1de ~
sometimes might lead them to pursue unwise ends, but never
to choose unwise means. They went through the world, like
Edition, Vol. I, p. 245.
Sir Artegal's iron man Talus with his flail, crushing and trampIV.
ling down oppressors, mingling with human beings, but having
Paragraph f~om the same, referred to on page 223.
neither part nor lot in human infirmities, insensible to fatigue,
Thus the Puritan was made up of two different men, the . '
to pleasure, and to pain, not to be pierced by any weapon, not
rrnP ::i 11 self-abasement, penitence, gr~ titude , passion, the other .,,,-_ _ .._
0

ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

292

293

APPENDIX II.

to be withstood by any barrier. -

Essays, Riverside Edition,

Vol. I, p. 256.

which ennobled whatever it touched, and under which vice
itself lost half its evil, by losing all its grossness. - Burke,
Select Works (edited by E. J. Payne), Vol. II, p. 89.

v.

VI.

Paragraph from Burke's Reflections on the Revolution '
in France, referred to on page 224.

Paragraph from Macaulay's Essay on Milton, referred
to on page 224.

It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Queen
of France, then the Dauphiness, at Versailles ; and surely
never lighted on' this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch,
a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon,
decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she had just
begun to move in ; glittering like the morning star, full of life, ·.
and splendor, and joy. Oh, what a revolution ! and what a
heart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall ! Little did I dream, when she added titles
of veneration to those of enthusiastic, distant, respectful love,
that she would ever be obliged to carry the sharp antidote
against disgrace concealed in that bosom; little did I dream
that I should have lived to see such disasters fallen upon her ,
in a nation of gallant men, in a nation of men of honor, and
of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped
from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened
her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone. That of
sophisters, economists, and calculators, has succeeded ; and
the glory of Europe is extinguished for ever. Never, never
more, shall we behold that generous loyalty to rank and sex,
that proud submission, that dignified obedience, that subordination of the heart, which kept alive, even in servitude itself,
the spirit of an exalted freedom. The unbought grace of life,
the cheap defence of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment
and heroic enterprise, is gone ! It is gone, that sensibility
of principle, that chastity of honor, which felt a stain like
a wound, which inspired courage whilst it mitigated ferocity,

The Puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar
character from the daily conte~plation of superior beings and
eternal interests. Not content with acknowledging, in general
terms, an overruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every
event to the will of the Great Being, for whose power nothing
was too vast, for whose inspection nothing was too minute. To
know him, to serve him, to en joy him, was with them the great
end of existence. They rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage which other sects substituted for the pure worship
of the soul. Instead of catching occasional glimpses of the
Deity through an obscuring veil, they aspired to gaze full on
his intolerable brightness, and to commune with him face to
face. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. The difference between the greatest and the meanest
of mankind seemed to vanish, when compared with the boundless interval which separated the whole race from him on whom
their own eyes were constantly fixed. They recognized no title
to superiority but his favor; and, confident of that favor, they
despised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the
world. If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God.
If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, they
were recorded in the Book of Life. If their steps were not
accompanied by a splendid train of menials, legions of ministering angels had charge over them.
Their palaces were
houses not made with hands; their diadems crowns of glory
which should never fade away. On the rich and the eloquent,

294

ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

APPENDIX II.

on nobles and priests they looked down with contempt: for
they esteemed themselves rich in a more precious treasure, and
eloquent in a more sublime language, nobles by the right of an
earlier creation, and priests by the imposition of a mightier
hand. · The very meanest of them was a being to whose
fate a mysterious and terrible importance belonged, on whose
slightest action the spirits of light and darkness looked with
anxious interest, who had been destined, before heaven and
earth were created, to enjoy a felicity which should continue when heaven and earth should have passed away. Events
which short-sighted politicians ascribed to earthly causes, had
been ordained on his account. For his sake empires had risen,
and flourished, and decayed. For his sake the Almighty had
proclaimed his will by th.e pen of the Evangelist, and the harp
of the prophet. He had been wrested by no common deliverer
from the grasp of no common foe. He had been ransomed by '
the sweat of no vulgar agony, by the blood of no earthly sacrifice. It was for him that the sun had been darkened, that the
rocks had been rent, that the dead had risen, that all 11ature
had shuddered at the sufferings of her expiring God. -Essays,
Riverside Edition, Vol. I, p. 254.
NOTE. -The

paragraph numbered IV above immediately succeeds this
in the essay on Milton. Its beginning illustrates Rule 94.

Essay on "Christmas" from Irving's Sketch Book,
ref erred to on pag~ 242 and thereafter, to illustrate the
various processes of planning. The plan is indicated ·by .
notes in the margin.
THERE is nothing in England that exercises a more delightful spell over my imagination, than the lingerings of the holiday
customs and rural games of former times.

They recall the pictures my fancy used to draw in the May
morning of life, when as yet I only knew the world through
books, and believed it to be all that poets had painted it; and
they bring with them the flavor of those honest days of yore,"
in which, perhaps with equal fallacy, I am apt to think the
world was more home bred, social, and joyous than at present.
I regret to say that they are daily growing . more and more
faint, being gradually worn away by time, but still more
obliterated by modern fashion. 1~hey resemble those picturesque morsels of Gothic architecture, which we see crumbling
in various parts of the country, partly dilapidated by the waste
of ages, and partly lost in the additions and alterations of
latter days. Poetry, however, clings with cherishing fondness
about the rural game and holiday revel, from which it has
derived so many of its themes - as the ivy winds its rich.
foliage about the Gothic arch and mouldering tower, gratefully
repaying their support, by clasping together their tottering
remains, and, as it were, embalming them in verdure.
Of all the old festivals, however, that of
Christmas awakens the strongest and most
TRANSITION to presheartfelt associations. There is a tone of
solemn and sacred feeling that blends with
our conviviality, and lifts the SJJirit to a
state of hallowed and elevated enjoyment.
The service.s of the church about this season are extremely tender and inspiring.

VII.

INTRODUCTION:

H ow powerful over my
imag ination are the old
lzoliday customs.

295

ent subject: Of all
these, Christmas awak-

ens the strongest and
m ost heartfelt associations.
r. cu R 1 s TM As IN
GENERAL.
i. I ts inspiring sacredness mingled with
its conviviality.

They dwell on the beautiful story of the
origin of our faith, and the pastoral scenes
a. Embodied in the
· d its
· announcement. They clmrch services.
tlrn t accompame
gradually incre~se in fervor and pathos during the season of
Advent, until they break forth in full jubilee
culminate
on the morning that brought peace and in b.theWhich
jubilant music.
good-will to men. I do not know a grander
effect of music on the moral feelings, than to hear the full
choir and the pealing organ performing a Christmas an them in

I

.I
I

11

11
I
·;1
,;

11

il:1
i\

\.

'296

APPENDIX II.

a cathedral, and filling every part of the vast pile with triumph-"
ant harmony.
2 • ltsocoasionof/am.
It is a beautiful arrangement, also, de. l
ily reunion.
rived . from days of yore, that this fest1va ,
which commemorates the announcement of the religion of peace
and love, h~s been made the season for gathering together of.
. ,family connections, and drawing closer again those bands of
kindred hearts which the cares and pleasures and sorrows
of the world are continually operating to cast loose; of calling .,.
back the children of a family, who have launched forth in life,
and wandered wid~ly asunder, once more to assemble about
the paternal heart,h, that rallying place of the affections, there
.to grow young and loving again among the endearing mementos of childhood.
3. Its charm derived
, There is something in the very season of
from tlie season of ihe
the year that gives a charm to the festivity year (without).
a. At other seasons
of Christmas. At other times we derive a
·
f
1
f
th
we revel in out-door
great port10n o our p easures rom
e
brightness.
mere beauties of nature. · Our feelings sally
forth and dissipate themselves over the sunny landscape, and
. we "live abroad and everywhere." The song of 'the bird, the ·
murmur of the stream, the breathing fragrance of spring, the
soft voluptuousness of summer, the golden pomp of autumn i·
earth with its mantle of refreshing green, and heaven with its
deep delicious blue and its cloudy magnificence, all fill us with
mute but exquisite delight, and we revel in the luxury of me~e ­
sensation. But in the depth of winter,
b. But in winte~·
~hen nature lies despoiled Of every Charm, 1 ' gloom WC turn to mora/
and domestic associa·
·and wrapped in her shrou d of s h eete d snow,
tions.
we turn for our .gratifications to moral
.
sources. The dreariness and desolation of the landscape, the :
short gloomy days and darksome nights, while they circ~m- .
scribe our wanderings, shut in our feelings also from ramblmg ,
abroad, and make us more keenly disposed for the pleasures ·
of the social circle. Our thoughts are more concentrated ; our.

ILLUSTRATJYE EXTRACTS.

297

friendly sympathies more aroused. We feel more sensibly the
charm of each other's society, ano are brought more closely
together by dependence on each other for enjoyment. Heart
calleth unto hea1't; and we draw our pleasures from the deep
wells of living kindness, which lie in the qui et recesses of our
bosoms; and which, when resorted to, furnish forlh the..:pure
element of domestic felicity.
4. Its cn!tanccd
The pitchy gloom without makes the
charm derived from \
- heart .dilate on entering. the room,. filled the g low and warmth
with the glO\\~ and warmth of the eve ning of t/ze home (wjt/zin).
fire. The ruddy blaze diffuses an artificial
summer and sunshine through the room, and lights up each
countenance into a kindlier welcome. Where does the honest
face of hospitality expand into a broader and more cordial
smile - where is _the shy glance of love more sweetly eloquent
- than by the winter fireside? and as the hollow blast of
wintry wind rushes through the hall, claps the distant door,
whistles about the casement, and . rumbles clown the chimney, · •
what can be mo.r e grateful than th at feeling of sober and
sheltered security, with which we look round upon the comfortable cha1nber, and the scene of domestic hil arity?
The English, from the great prevalence
11.
CHRI STMA S IN
Of rural habits throughout every cJaSS of ENGLAND.
society, have always been fond of those festivals and holy days
whi ch agreeably interrupt the stillness of country life ; and
they were, in former days, particularly obr. ,How thoroughly,
servant of the religious and social rites of in f ormer days, the
' Christmas. It is inspiring to · read even English combined all
the dry details which some antiquarians these ch arms of Clzristmas.
have given of the quaint humors, the bur.
.
\
lesque pageants, the complete abandonment to mirth and good- ·
fellowship, with which this festival was celebrated. It seemed
to throw open every door, and unlock every heart. It brought
the peasant and the peer together, and blended all ranks in
one warm generous flow of joy and kindness. The old halls

298

APPENDIX JI.

of castles and manor houses resounded with the harp and
Christmas carol, and their ample boards groaned under
weight of hospitality. Even the poorest cottage welcomed
the. festive sea:;on with green decorations of bay and hollythe cheerful fire glanced its rays through the lattice, inviting the passenger to raise the latch, and join the gossip knot
huddled round the hearth, beguiling the long evening with
legendary jokes and oft-told Christmas tales.
One of the least pleasing effects of mod2. How modern reern refinement is the havoc it has made finement /zas caused .
among the hearty old holy-day customs. many of tlze roug/icr
and more spirited cus·
It has completely taken off the sharp touch- toms to die out.
ings and spirited reliefs of these embellishments of life, and has worn down society into a more smooth
and polished, but certainly a less characteristic surface. Many
of the games and ceremonials of Christmas have entirely disappeared, and, like the sherris sack of old Falstaff, are become
matters of speculation and dispute among commentators. They'
flourished in times full of spirit and lustihood, when men enjoyed life roughly, but heartily and vigorously; tinies wild
and picturesque, which have furnished poetry with its richest
materials, and the drama with its most attractive variety of ·
characters and i~anners. The world has become more worldly.
There is more of dissipation, and less of enjoyment. Pleasure
has expanded into a broader, but a shallower stream; and has
forsaken many of those deep and quiet channels where it
flowed sweetly through the calm bosom of domestic life.
Society has acquired a more enlightened and elegant tone;
but it has lost many of its strong local peculiarities, its home- .·
bred feelings, its honest fireside delights. The traditionary
customs of golden-hearted antiquity, its feudal hospitalities,
and lordly wassailings, have passed away with the baronial
castles and stately manor houses in which they were celebrated.
They comported with the shadowy hall, the great oaken
gallery, and the tapestried parlor, but are unfitted to the

JLLUSTRA TJVE EXTRACTS.

299

light showy saloons and gay drawing-rooms of the modern
villa.
Shorn, however, as it is, of its ancient
3. H ow the social
and festive honors, Christmas is still a cheer and the sacredperiod of delightful excitement in England. ness of C/1ristmas re- .
main.
It is gratifying to see that home feeling
completely aroused which seems to hold so powerful a place
in every English bosom. The preparations
a. Indicated in the
making on every side for the soc.i_al board preparations for cheer
that is again to unite friends and kindred ; of 1·eunion.
the presents of good cheer passing and
b. C/zaracteri::1ed by.
presents and tokens.
repassing, those tokens of regard, and
quickeners of kind feelings ; the evergreens distributed about
houses and churches, emblems of peace and gladness ; all
these have the most pleasing effect in producing fond associations and kindling benevolent sympathies.
c. !viade charming
Even the sound of the waits, rude as may by t/1e music of tlze
be their minstrelsy, breaks upon the mid- waits.
watches of a winter night with the effect of perfect harmony.
As I have been awakened by them in that still and solemn
hour "when deep sleep falleth upon man,'' I have listened with
a hushed delight, and connecting them. with the sacred and
joyous occasion, have almost fancied them into another celes, tial choir, announcing peace and good-will to mankind.
How delightfully the imagination, wrought
111. IN FLUE N CE oF
upon by these moral influences, turns every- ALL THis ON THE
IMAGIN ATION .

thing to melody and b eauty! The very
1. H ow it turns
crowing of the cock, who is sometimes everything to melody
heard in the profound repose of the country, and beauty.
"telling the night watches to his feathery dames," was thought
by the common people to announce the approach of this sacred
festival: " Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes
Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated,
This bird of dawning singeth all night long :

300

APPEND.IX JI.

And then, they say, no spirit dares stir abroad ;
Th e nights are wholesome - th en no planets strike,
No fairy takes, no witch hath power to charm,
So hallowed and so gracious is the time."

Amidst the ge neral call to happiness, the bustle of the spirits,
and stir of the affections, which prevail at this period, what
bosom can remain insensible? It is, indeed, the season of
regenerated feeling- the season for kindling, not merely the
fire of hospitality in the hall, but the genial flame of charity
in the heart.
The scene of early love again ris es green
2. H ow it comforts
to memory beyond the sterile waste of witli tltoug!tts 0! !tome.
years ; 'and the idea of home, fraught with the fragrance of
home-dwelling joys, re-animates the drooping spirit, - as the
Arabian breeze will sometimes waft the freshness of the distant
fields to the weary pilg rim of the desert.
Stranger and sojourner as I am in the
co N c Lu s 1o N: its
land- though for me no social hearth may preciousness to a stran·
ger.
blaze, no hospitable roof throw open its
doors, nor the walm grasp of frie ndship welcome me at the
threshold - yet I feel the influence of the season bea ming
into my soul from the happy looks of those around me.
Surely happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven ; and
every countenance, bright with smiles, and glowing with innocent enjoyment, is a mirror transmilting to others the rays of
a supreme and ever-shining benevolence. He who can tun~ .
churlishly away from contemplating the felicity of his fellowbeings, and sit down clarlding and repining in his loneliness
when all arom~d is joyful, may have his moments of strong
excitement and selfish gratificatio n, but he wants the genial
and social sympathies which constitute the charm of
Christmas.

APPENDIX III .
,. GLOSSARY

of Words, Synonyms, Idioms, ancl Phrases, which are in

frequent Misuse, or concerning which some Peculiarity
"
n eeds to be pointed out. 1
A 1, an indefinite superlative imp orted into slang from the business
vocabulary.
Aberration of intellect, an unn ecessarily pretentious term for insanity.
Ability, capacity, often confounded with each other. Ability
is the power of doing ; capacity th e
faculty of receiving. A statesman
has ability; a pupil has capacity.
Ab initio, from the beginning ;
an alienism for which there is little
occasion in English.
Abortive, abortively, sometimes
misused in the sense of secret, secretly.
Abortive is untimely in
birth. A plan may be abortive, but
an act cannot.
About, sometimes ambiguous ; as
in "the conversation about her,"
where it may mean "around" or
"concerning." - Not to be used in

the sense of almost, as, "the day is
abo ut gone by."
Above, n o t to be used adjectively;
as, "the above remarks."
Say
rather, "the foregoing remarks," or,
"the remarks quoted above."
Abstractly, abstractedly, not to
be confounded with each other.
Accede, n ot to be used for sue~ .
ceed, as in " acceded to a large
estate."
Accept, sometimes confounded
with excep t.
Acceptation, not to be con
founded with acceptance ; as, in "his
acceptation (say rather acceptance)
of the office."
Accession, not to be confounded
with access; as in "accession (say
rather access) of grief."
Accredit, not to be confounded
with credit ; as, "to accredit (say
rather credit) with good intentions."

1 This Glossary is not intended as in any sense a substitute for a dictionary or book of synonyms. Under each word is given, with the utm ost
brevity, merely th e one point that most needs to be, noted in usage. First
planned to furnish h elp in doing the exercises, the Glossary has grown to
wha t th e reader here sees.

i1

I,I•

,,ii

I

302

APPENDIX III.

Accident, not to be used in the
sense of wound or hurt; as, "his
accident was very severe."
Accord, not to be used in the
sense of give; as, "the information
was accorded him."
To a<1.cord
anything is to grant with great condescension or favor.
Acme, used pre ten tiousl y for
summit or height.
Action, abstract noun, not to be
used for the concrete act or deed ;
as in "his actions (say rather acts)
were very strange."
Adherence, adhesion, not to be
confounded with each other. Adherence is used mostly in ·a mental
sense, adhesion in a physical.
Adhesion, see adherence.
Administer, not to be used m
the sense of deal ; as, " administer
blows."
Admire, not to be used in the
sense of wonder ; as, "admiring
what could have changed his companion." - Not to be used with infinitive.
Admit of, - the of is superfluous; as, "that admits of no doubt." .
- Leave out of.
Adopt, not to be used pretentiously in the sense of take; as,
"What cour;e will you adopt?"
Say rather take.
Advancement, not to be confounded with advance; as in, "the
advancement (say rather advance)
of the season."
Afraid, much used for fear; as,
"I am afraid (better, I fear) it will
rain."

After, the preposition, not to be
used for afterward, the adverb; as,
"it was not known till after (say
rather afterward)."
Afterward, see after.
Aggravate, not to be used for
vex or ~xasperate. A mood or an
injury may be aggravated (increased,
made heavy), not a person.
Ain't, vulgarism for isn't, - to
be avoided.
Ales, not to be used as plural, a trader's technicalism.
Alike, not to be coupled with
both; as, "They were both alike."
The both is superfluous.
Alleviate, not to be confounded
with relieve. An injury is allevi·
ated; a person is relieved.
All over, not to be used for over
all; as in, "all over the country,"
say rather over all.
.
Allow, used provincially for be of
opinion; as, "He allowed she was
the handsomest." To be avoided.
Allude to, wrongly used for refer
to, mention. An allusion is only an
indirect reference.
Almost, not to be used as adjective; as, "an almost reconciliation." .
Use the word only as adverb.
Alms, used sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural.
Alternation, not to be used in
the sense of series; as, "the alternation of dry hot days." Alternation is reciprocal succession, as,
"alternation of red and white balls."
Alternative (alter, two), refers
properly only to two.
Amateur, not to be confounded

GLOSSARY.
with novice. An amateur is skilled
in something but does not pursue it
professionally; a novice is inexperienced, a beginner.
Ameliorate, not to be used intransitively in the sense of_improve;
as, "his health ameliorates," say
rather improves.
Amends, used sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural.
Amount, wrongly used for number; as, "a great amount of carriages," say rather number.
Anent, a Scotticism for near or
about, sounds somewhat affected in
literary English.
Anniversary (mmus, year), not
to be used of events that are not
yearly; e.g. "centennial anniversary" is wrong.
Answer, reply, - we answer a
question; we reply to ·a statement
or remark. A reply is more formal
than an answer.
Antagonize, not to be used in
the sense of alienate ; as, "this will
antagonize many supporters," say
rather alienate.
Anticipate, not to be used in
the sense of expect; as, "the vessel
was hourly anticipated," say rather
expected.
Antiquarian, adjective, not to be
used for antiquary, a noun.
Any, not to be used for at all;
as, "He could not hear any," say
rather at all, or omit the adverb.
Anybody else's or anybody's
else - which? The predominance
of usage favors the former, especially when a noun succeeds, "as any-

303

body else's house" (better than
anybody's else house). ·when the
noun goes before, as, "Is the book
anybody's else?" the usage seems
about equally divided.
Anyhow, not to be used in any
but colloquial style.
Aortic aneurism, a technical term,
but with no exact equivalent in
~impler language.
Apartment, sometimes used needlessly as refinement on room.
Apartment implies one room of
several ; we do not speak of a
house of one apartment.
Apparatus, has no plural form.
Apparent, apparently, to be distinguished from evident, evidently.
What is apparent may or may not
be as it seems ; what is evident admits no doubt.
Appreciate, not to be confounded
with value or prize. To appreciate
is to rate anything at its true value ;
hence, in "to appreciate highly" the
adverb is superfluous.
Apprehend, comprehend. To apprehend is to take into the mind ; to
comprehend is to understand when
the idea is there.
Approach, sometimes used pretentiously for come.
A propos, a foreign term, to be
avoided when English will answer.
Apt, not to be confounded with
likely, liable. Aptness suggests fitness ; liability, exposure to something, as "liable to take cold"; likelihood is probability.
Arctics, a provincialism ; use rather the word overshoes.

304

'·

APPEND.IX JU.

Aren't, contraction for are not;
to be used only in colloquial s tyle.
Argue, not to be confounded in
meaning with augur.
Argument, to be distinguished
from plea. Argument is the process of reasoning ; plea th e thing
reasoned or requested.
Around, round. The former is
used of things at rest, a s, "the
shelves around the room"; th e latter of motion, as, "he went ro und
the world."
- Artist, to be used only of th e
higher orders of workmen, as painters, sculptors, musicians ; no t of
tailors, barbers, and boot.blacks.
As, not to be used for th at ; as,
"I do not know as (say ra ther that)
it is so." - Not to be used for so in
negative a ssertions, as, "this is not
as good (say rather so good) as th e
other."
Ascend up, the up is superfluous,
bein g implied in the ascending.
As though, not so good as as if;
e.g. "I feel as though (say rather as
if) I should faint."
Assets, always used as a plural.
Assist, not to be used in th e
French sense of b e present at ; as
"to assist at a wedding."
At auction; say rather by auction.
At best, at worst ; it is better to
say at th e best, at th e worst.
At length, not to be confounded
with at last. At leng th m eans fully;
at last, finally.
At worst, see at best.
Augur, see a rgue.
Average, a word much over-

worked nowadays, as, "the average ,
1nan."
Avocation, often used wrongly
for vocation, business. An avoca·
tion is a side occupation, subordi·
nate to a vocation.
Awful, awfully, not synonymous ,.
with very ; to be used only of
something adapted to produce
awe.
Back up, colloquial a nd slang for ..
support.
Bad, not to be used for severe;
as, " a bad cold." - Not to be used ·
adverbially ; as, "to fe el bad," say
rather badly.
Badly, not to be used for greatly;
as, "I wish to see my friends badly,"
say rather greatly.
Bag, not to be used for capture;
- a slang expression.
I
Baggage, an American· word, for
which the English use "luggage."
Both are correct in their place.
Balance, not to be used for
or remainder ; - a technicalism imported from the vocabulary of business.
Banquet, not to be used preten·
tio usly for an ordinary meal.
Barbaric, not to be confounded
with .barbarous. Barbaric means
pertaining to a barbarous nation ;
barbarous refers to their cruelty and
lowness.
Barbarous, see barbaric.
Beastly, a colloquial English exaggeration for any undesirable qua).
ity.
Beat, not to be used in the sense

GLOSSARY

of defeat ; as, " He beat George a t
th e game," say rather defeat ed.
Beau monde, fashionabl e world,
a foreig n word, unnaturalized.
Been to, - the to is superfluous ;
as, "vVhere have you been t o ?"
Behave, not to be used in the
sense of behave well, or be good ;
as, "Now you must behave while I
am gone." It is a neutral word ,
and needs the adverb to denote th e
character of the conduct.
Behest, an archaic word, to be
used only in antiqu e or solemn s tyle.
Beside, besides. It is better to
use beside only as a preposition, and
besides wh en the meaning is adverbial. Besides as a preposition
may also mean " in addition to"; as,
"besides all this."
Besides, see b eside.
Between, to be used of two things,
among of m ore than two.
Blase, s urfeited, wearied, - a foreign word, unnaturalized.
Bogus, not to be used in dignifi ed
style.
Bona fide, in good faith, - a foreign term, unn a turalized. ·when
used as nominative or objective it
should be bona .fides.
Both, often used superfluously;
as, "They both resembled each
other," omit both. - Not to be confounded in meaning with each .
Bound, not to be used in th e
sense of determin ed ; as, " He was
bound to go," say rather determin ed.
Bound implies obligation.
Bountiful, not to be used 111 th e
sense of plentiful ; as, "a bo untiful

305

repast. " Bountiful applies to perso ns rather than to things, and refers not to quantity, but to th e disposition to confer benefits.
Bravery, courage. Bravery is inborn and instinctive ; courage the
result of reason and determination.
Bravery is natural ; courage commendable.
Bright, a provincialism for cl ever.
" Bring, fetch. Bring means simply
convey hith er ; fetch means to go
and b ring.
Brush, a provincialism for bushes,
shrubbery.
Bulk refers to s ize, not to number.
Do not say, "The bulk of th e inhabita nts," but th e most, or greater
part of th em. - Hulk is not to be
used in th e sense of proportion ; as,
" the greater bulk of th e people,"
say ra ther proportion.
Burgle, a n unauth o rized formation from burgla r, burglary.
But that. In "I do not doubt
but that he will come," the but is
superfluous.
But what, no t to be used · with
words of d o ubt ; when two words
are admissible use "but that." See
but that.
By, with. By denotes agency;
with instrum entality. A man 1s
killed not by a bullet but with a
bullet, and by a man.
By the bye, - th e last word to
be s pelled with the e, being an old
word meaning pl ace .
Cablegram, a word mu ch used
in th e newspapers, but ill ogically

306

APPENDIX 111.

formed, and not in good literary
use.
Calculate, used provincially for
think, deem.
Calculated, not to be used in
the sense of liable, likely, apt ; as,
"some of these publications are calculated to injure society." With
the word is associated the idea of
intent, and it should be used only in
cases where this idea is present.
Calibre, to be used of men, not of
things : "a man of great calibre,"
not "a literary work of great
calibre."
Called upon, - use on, not upon :
"He called on me."
Calligraphy, not to be used in
the sense of handwriting or chirography. Calligraphy means "beautiful writing"; hence it is inconsistent to say his calligraphy is
wretched.
Can (could) but, and cannot
(could not) but, are to be distinguished. "Can but do" means can
only, can no more than do; "cannot
but" means cannot help doing.
Capacity, see ability.
Captain, not to be used as verb;
as "to captain the base-ball nine."
Caption, not to be used in the
sense of heading ; as, "caption of a
chapter." It means literally a taking, seizure.
Captivate, not to be used in the
mere sense of capture; as, "I have
no desire to captivate a seat in the
House."
- Carriage may be used ambiguously in cases where it may mean

either vehicle or demeanor;
"proud of his carriage."
Carry, bring. Carry means to
convey, without thought of the
direction ; bring means to convey
from some other point hither. See
bring, fetch.
Casket, not to be used in literature as in advertising, for coffin.
Casuality, not to be used for the
correct form, casualty.
Catch, not to be used in the sense
of get to, overtake. One can catch
up with a train, but not catch a
train.
Celebrity, the abstract noun, not
to be used in the sense of a celebrated person ; as, "A great celebrity is to preach to-morrow."
Ceremonial, to be dis tinguished
from ceremonious. Ceremonial refers to the system of forms ; ceremoniou1> to the strictness in observing it.
Ceremonious, see ceremonial.
Certain may be ambiguous when
used in cases where it may mean
both sure and some ; as, "a certain
report."
Ceteris paribus, "other things
being equal"; an alienism, not to
be used where English will answer.
Champion, not to be u!>ed as a
verb; as, "to champion a cause."
Character, reputation. Character refers to what a person is in ..
himself ; reputation to what others
think of him.
Cheap, low-priced, not exact synonyms. Cheap means at a moderate
price, whatever it is ; low-priced for

GLOSSARY.

its worth. Low-priced refers merely
to the a mount, whether too mu ch
·or too little.
Cherub may have an English
plural, cherubs, or the H ebrew plural, cherubim ; but not the double
plural, cherubims.
Citizen, not to be used in the
mere sense of person. A citizen is
spoken of only in relation to the
state, as "a citizen of no mean
country."
Claim, not to be used in th e sense
of assert or affirm. Claim means
properly to demand as clu e.
Clarionet, a wrong form for
clarinet.
· Clerk, not to be used as a verb ;
as, "he was clerking in a store."
Clever, not to be used in its provincial sense of good-natured. It
means properly able, skilful.
Climax, not to be used for the
highest point, as, "this has reached
its climax"; but for th e ascent
thith er, as, "this whole sentence is
a climax."
Closure, not to be used as a verb ;
as, "he closured the debate. "
Collect a bill, to, is not a proper
expression; but one can coll ect the
amount of a bill.
Combine, not to be used as a
noun ; as, "a huge combine of railroads."
Com me ii faut, "as it ought to
be"; an· alien ism which it is better
to avoid.
Commence, not to be used with
an infinitive ; as, "He commenced
to play." Use rather the verbal

307

noun, "commenced playing," or a
noun implying action. In mos t cases
begin is preferabl e to co mmence.
Commencement sounds more
formal and pre tentious than beginning.
Complected, unauthorized formation from complexion.
Completed, finished.
That is
complete which is lacking in no
particular; that is finish ed which
has had all do ne to it that was
intended. A house may be finish.cl
and yet very incompl ete.
Completion, th e act of completing, to be distinguish ed from completeness, the state of being complete.
Composure, not to be used in the
sense of composition ; as," the composure of an essay."
Comprehend, see ap prehend.
ConGision, not to be used in the
sense of conciseness.
Conclusion, sometimes used pretentiously where end would be better.
Concrete, not to be used as a verb
m eaning put in concrete form.
Condone, which m eans to forgive,
no t to be used in th e sense of to
a ton e for ; as, "he condoned his
fault."
Confess, not to be used in the
sense of admit; e.g., " as any one
will confess."
Confliction, an unauthorized form
for conflict.
Confuse, not to be used of only
two things; to be confused th ere
must be a greater number.

308

•

APPENDIX .ill.

Conscience, not to oe confounded
with consciousness.
Conscious, no t to be used in the
sense of aware. We are conscious
of what is within our own mind ;
we are aware of what is without.
Consequence, which m eans res ult,
not to be used in the sense of importance or m oment; as, "this is of
no consequence."
Consider, which means to deliberate, not to be used in th e sense of
refard; as, "He is considered a
very able financier."
Constantly, which m eans steadfastly, not to be used for .often, or
continually.
Contemptible, not to be confounded with contemptuous ; as,
"a contemptible opinion" (which
means an opinion d eserving of contempt).
Contention, not to be us e~l of an
individual act or contest. Con tention refers mo re to the spirit or
habit.
Continual, continuous. Continual. is used of acts tha t are freq uently
repeated ; continuous of action that
is uninterrupted.
Continuity, to be distin g uished
fro m continuan ce. "The continuity
of th e di vine favor," for ins tance, is
in correct.
Convene, convoke. A body of
men convenes ; they may be convoked by some one in a uth ority.
A person cannot be said to con ve ne
a body.
Convict, convince. C o n v i ct,
which is always used of so methin g

wrong, refers to one's outer
dition; convince, which may
used of eith er righ t or wrong,
fers to th e inn er judgment.
Convince, se~ convict.
Cortege, often used pretenti01.1sly
for pro cession.
Cotemporary, not to be used for ·.
con temporary.
Cou/eur de rose, "rose-color"; an
ali enism, which it is better not to
use.
Counterfeit presentment, a stock
expression which it is better to avoid.
Couple, to be used o nly of things
th at are paired together ; do not
say, e.g. " a couple of d oll ars."
Courage, which refers to what one
does, to be distinguished from fortitude, which refers to wh at one bears
o r undergoes. See also bravery.
Crayonize, a n unaut ho1'ized verbal
formation.
Creditable, that may be approved,
not to be confounded with credible,
that may be believed.
Crime, sin. Crime is th o ught of
as against th e s tate, o r agains t human
law ; sin as against God .
Culinary department, a preten·
tious expression, referrin g to affairs
of the kitche n.
Culture, not to be used as a verb.
Cunning, not to be used in -the
sense of small, dainty, pleasing. It
contains properly a sense of skill or
of artfulness.
Cure, not to be used intransitively; •as, "He will cure of that."
Curious, not to be used in the
sense of strange, remarkable ; as,

GLOSSARY.

cuno us event occurred yesterday."
Custom, habit. C ustom refers to
usages of society ; habi t to wh at is
clon e by o ne's self.
Cute, 1 a pro vin cialism , formed
probably from acu te, and m eaning
dainty or shrewd.
Dangerous, no t to be used in th e
sense of in danger; as, " He is very
ill, but not dangero us. "
Dare, used with ano th er verb,
omits th e preposition to after it, and
takes for pas t tense durst, 3cl pers.
singular dare. Dare as prin cipal ve rb
takes as past tense dared, 3d person
singular dares.
Darky, a provincial or slang word,
say rather negro.
Deadly, deathly, no t to be confounded with each other. O ne may
tak e a deadly poison, that is d eath
producing, and become deathly pale,
that is, lik e [the paleness of] death.
Debut, a n alienism which it is
better to avoid.
Debutante, an alienism s uch as is
affected by newspaper English.
Decease, not to be used as a
verb.
Deceiving, not to be used in the
sense of tryin g to deceive; as, " You
are deceiving me."
Decimate, which means literally
to take the tenth part, sho uld not
be used for a greater proportion ; as,
"the army was t erribly decimated."
Decisive, decided, not to be confounded with each oth er. That is
decisive which causes a decision ;

309

that is d ecided which reaches a decision.
Declinature, a newspaper word
fo r declination.
Defalcate, which means to lop
off, not to be confo unded with defa ult, which means to fail in duty.
Deface, disfigure. Deface is applied to things, and implies wilful
intent; disfigure to persons, and has
no"such implication.
Defect, see fault.
Deference, see regard.
Definite, definitive. Definite is
th e opposite of indefinite; definitive
of provisio nal. "A definite a nswer
was given ; but it was not definitive," that is, not final.
Dejeuner, breakfast; an alienism,
to which ordinarily the English word
is preferable.
Demand, not to be used in the
sense of reques t ; as, •; He demanded
Godfrey to allow him to sell his
h orse."
Demean, which means simply t0
behave, not to be used in th e sense
of d egrade. For this latter sense
use bemean.
Dentrifrice, an erroneous fo rm
for d entifrice.
Depot, the American word for
railway station ; th e wo rd station is
better.
Deprecate, depreciate, not to be
confounded with each other. To
deprecate is to regret, or desire the
removal of; to depreciate (tran s. ) to
estimate slightingly, or (intr.) to fall
in value.
Description, no t to be used in

.

310

•

APPENDIX III.

the sense of kind ; as, "animals of
every description abounded."
Despite does not need the words
in and of; as, "in despite of all our
efforts." " Despite all" is sufficient.
Detect, which means bring to
light, expose, not to be used in the
sense of see, distinguish ; as, "the
men could be plainly detected."
Deteriorate, which means make
or grow worse, not to be used in
the sense of take away from ; as,
"This deteriorates from his greatness."
Devouring clement, a stock newspaper expression for fire.
Diamond, a technical expression
for the base-ball ground, presumably
unfamiliar to many readers.
Dice, a plural ; singular die.
Die with a disease is incorrect.
Say rather "die of."
Differ with, in the sense of disagree, is not so good as differ from.
Different than, and the Briticism
different to, are incorrect; say rather
different from.
Dire, direful, words belonging to
the poetic vocabulary, are out of
place in most prose.
Directly, not to be used, as the
English use it, in the sense of as
soon as ; e.g. "Directly he came, we
fell to business."
Dirt, not to be used for earth ; as,
"a dirt road," "ten loads of dirt."
Disappoint, not to be used as a
noun ; as, "That was a great disappoint."
Discommode,- a better form than
this is incommode.

Discord with, not to be
a verb.
Discovery, not to be confounded
in meaning with invention.
Discriminate, see distinguish.
Disdain, not to be used with per:
sonal object. See scorn.
·
Disfigure, see deface.
Disposition, the act of disposing,
to be distinguished from disposal,
the arrangement itself.
Disremember, provincial and vulgar for forget.
Distance, for way, as "a short
distance" for, "a little way," sounds ·
somewhat stiff in simple style.
'
Distinction, [in] to, is not
good a~ "In distinction from."
Distinctly, distinctively, not to
be confounded with each other.
They differ in meaning somewhat
as definite, definitive, which see.
Distingue, "having an .air of distinction," an alienism which sounds
rather affected in plain English.
Distinguish, discriminate. Distinguish, often used with two objects, is an act of observation ; dis- ~
criminate, used with a number of
objects, an act of nice and accurate
judgment.
Divine, not to be used as a noun,
for clergyman or preacher. This •
usage is obsolete.
Dock, wharf. A dock is a place
where things are received; a wharf
a place at which shipping lies. · One
can fall into a dock, but not off a
dock.
Doesn't, contraction for does not, .
singular.

GLOSSARY.
Dolce far nfente, lit. "pleasant
do-nothing," an alienism which is
better avoided in good English .
Donate, an unauthorized formation from donation.
Don't, contraction for do not,
plural ; not to be used with singular
subject; as," IIe don't know much,"
- say doesn't.
Done, not to be used for did ; as,
"He done it."
Down, not to be used as a verb ;
as, "We will down them in the next
game."
Down in the .mouth, slang for
discouraged.
Dregs, used only as plural.
Dress, - a better word for the
article of apparel so called is gown.
Drive, ride. Drive is to urge
along ; ride to be borne along. In
England the two words are used respectively for being conveyed in a
vehicle and going on horseback.
Due, owing. That is due which
ought to be paid as a debt; that is
owing which is to be referred to a
source. Do not say, "His fever was
due to impure water,'' say owing.
Dumb, mute. He is dumb who
cannot speak ; he is mute who does
not choose to speak.
Dumfoundered, slang or provincial for astonished.
During, often misused for in. It
contains a sense of continuance of
time.

Each, to be distinguished from
every; as, "Each day I see him sitting in the same place." Here

311

" every" would be better, because
reference is made to something that
occurs on all days without exception,
whereas the reference of each is to
single days.- Each is also to be distinguished from both ; as, " Both
parties maintained their original positions." Here "each" would be
better because the parties are thought
of separately, not together.
. ·Each other, one another. It has
been maintained that each other
should be used where only two are
concerned, and one another where
there are more than two ; but the
distinction is not necessary. The
expressions are interchangeable.
Eat (pronounced et) an old-fashioned preterite of eat, not in good
use. Say ate.
Eaves, used only as a plural.
Ee/at, brilliant effect ; an alienism,
to be avoided if possible, but expressing a class of ideas not easily
given in native English.
Editorial seems to be coming into
good usage as a noun, instead of
"editorial article."
E'en, a contraction suitable rather
to poetry than to prose.
E'er, a poetic contraction, not
suitable for prose.
Effectuate, a pretentious word,
for which the word "effect" is generally an equivalent.
Effluvia, a foreign plural, not to
be used as singular. The singular is
"effluvium.•
Effort, work, labor, task, toil.
"Work is effort (not necessarily
painful) viewed in the light of the

312

r

APPENDIX III.

accomplishment of an end. When
our work is something definitely appointed us, and when it has a ten dency to grow irksome, it becom es a
task ; wh en it is ha rd, we d esig nate
it labor ; when wearisome or fatiguing, toil." - DAVIDSON . .
Either, to be used of twn objects;
any one of more than two -Eith er
is to be distinguish ed from each ;
"either" refers to one of two things,
"each" to two things taken severally.
" Eith er side of the street was lin ed
\vith the police," means which ever
side you choose to regard; h ere melt
would be better; or you cotild say,
"Both . . . were."
Elder, see older.
Elective, i10t to be used as no un,
for elec tive course ; as, "Th ere are
many electives this term ."
See
·optional.
Electric, not to be used as a noun;
as," (ca me by the electric."
Electrocute, an unauthorized formation, m eanin g to execute (put to
death) by electricity.
Elegant, not to be used in th e
vague sense of anything rema rk able ;
as," elegant clay,"" an elegant view";
but as containing the sense of
"choice." A much misused word.
Eliminate, not to be used in th e
sense of elicit or draw forth; as,
"we wish to eliminate the truth."
It m eans literally to cast out of doors.
Elite, an alienism, much used
where an English word would be
better.
Elocute, an un a uthorized verbal
fo rm ati o n fr o m elocution.

Else but, say rather else than.
Embarras des richesses, "embarrassment of riches," an alienism, ·
better avoided.
Embrace, not to be used in the
sense of comprise ; as, " This society embraces five auxilia ries."
Emigration, to be distinguished
from immigration. Emigration is
moving from a country, immigration moving into a country.
Employe. - the preferable form
is employee.
Empty, not to be used of a river
in the sense of flow into, discharge.
Enact, not to be used as a finery
for act.
End up, - the up is superfluous.
Endorse, not to be used in the
sense of approve; as, "I endorse
his sentiments."
A technicalism
from the voca bulary of business.
Energy, zeal, enthusiasm, fanaticism. All but the first "are forms
of mental energy . . . ; but, while ·
' zeal' points to the warmth or ardor
with which we take to a thing, 'enthusiasm' is vehement zeal combined with rapture, and excessive
and extravagant enthusiasm is what
we know as •fanaticism.' "-DAVIDSON.

Enjoy, sometimes erroneously
used in the sense of have ; as, "to
enjoy poor health ."
Enormity, to be distinguished
from enormousness. Enormousness
refers to great size ; enormity generally carries with this .meaning the
idea of something monstrous or
o utrageo us.

GLOSSA NY.
Enormousness, see enormity.
En route, an alienism, for which
"on the way" is a preferable substitute.
Ensure, to be distinguished from
secure.
Enthuse, a vulgar and unauthorized verbal formation from enthusiasm ; better not to use it.
Enthusiasm, see energy.
Entre nous, "between ourselves";
an alienism, unnecessary because an
English equivalent is so easily found.
Environment, an overworked
word for surroundings.
Equable, not to be confounded
with equitable.
Equally as well, a redundant expr ess ion.
Say "as well" or
"equally well."
Erewhile, archaism for formerly,
- more suitable to poetry than to
prose.
Esprit du (de) corps, lit. "spirit
of (th e) body"; an alienism, generally better avoided.
Esteem, see regard.
Estimate, to be distinguished
from estimation , as concrete from
abstract. .
Estimation, see es timate.
Ethics, sometimes used as a singular, sometimes as a plural.
Evacuate, not to be used intransitively, in the sense of depart.
Eventuate, a bookish term, to
which "turn out" is ordinarily preferable.
Every, see each.
Every confidence, not to be used
for greatest confidence, - as if one

313

could have more than one confidence.
Everywhere s, vulgarism for
everywhere.
Evidence, testimony.
"Ev idence is that which tends to convince; tes timony is that which is
intended to convince."
Evidently, to be distinguished
from the weaker word apparently
(which see), and from the somewhat
stronger word manifestly.
Examination, inspection, scrutiny, survey. "Inspection denotes
close o r minute and critical examination of a thing ; strict or severe
inspection being known as scrutiny
In surveying we range over a wide
field of observation, and our object
is less to examine than to comprehend." - DAVIDSON.
Except, not to be used as a conj unction in the sense of unless ; the
usage is obsolete.
Exceptionable, not to be confounded with exceptional. Exceptional refers to that which constitutes an exception ; exceptionable,
that to which exception may be
taken.
Ex cathedra, lit. "from the chair,"
a uthorita tively; an alienism, for
which there is not much occasion,
except a.s referring to papal utterances.
Excite, incite. Excite is to rouse
feelings ; incite to urge forward
from feelings to acts.
Execute, not to be used of a personal obj ect, in the sense of put to
death.

';"·-....,. -- ... - «•
11'

_. -

-

4

••

I

·,. .

r .-

_.

314

,

r

I

-

'

-.

•,

'

~

'--'

~i-".

..

-·

-'

APPENDIX III.

Exemplary, not to be used in the
mere sense of excellent. It means
fit to be an example, whether of
good or of ill.
Expatiate, not to be confounded
· with expiate.
Expect, not to be used of past
or present events; as, "I expect
you had a pleasant time yesterday."
Suspect, or daresay, 1s
better.
Experience; it is better not to use
this as a verb; as, "to experience
much difficulty."
Extend, not to be used in the
sense of show; as, "He extended
me great courtesy."
Extreme, extremely, not .s usceptible of comparison.
Factor, not to be used in the
sense of source, part. The word
contains the idea of effecting, working something.
Fait accompli, "an accomplished
fact," an alie;1ism, of which the
literal translation is a French idiom.
Better to find an equivalent if possible.
Fall down the "clown" is superfluous.
Fanaticism, see energy.
Farther, further. The two words
are not very strict! y differentiated
by writers; generally, however, it is
better to use fartlter of literal distance andfiwther of quantity or degree.
Fault, defect. A defect is so mething wanting; a fault is something
wrong.

Feature, not to be confounded in
meaning with circumstance.
Felicity, sometimes used as a
finer word, when happiness would
be better.
Fellowship, not to be used as a
verb.
Female, not to be used for
woman.
Fetch, see bring.
Few, and a few, are different in
meaning.
"Few p ersons like Mr.
Smith,'' means but few, implying
that more dislike him . "A few persons like Mr. Smith" means some,
perhaps all 'w ho know him.
Fewer, to be distinguished from
less, as number from quantity.
Fictitious writer, to be distinguished from writer of fiction.
Finance, not to be used as a verb.
Finished, see completed.
•Firemanic, a country newspaper
word, - to be avoided.
Firstly, not to be used as adverbial form; first is an adverb as well
as an adjective.
First four is preferable to four
first; strictly, there can be only one
first, but a group of any number can
stand at the beginnin g of a series.
First-rate, not to be used as adverb; as, ... I-le succeeded first-rate."
Fix, not to be used in the provincial sense of repair, mend.
Flee, pret. fled, to be used of
persons; fly, pret. flew, to be used
of winged creatures.
Flown, not to be used as pi-et. of
flow; it is the perf. part. of fly, and
the pret. of flow is flowed.

GLOSSARY.

Forbid, not to be used with from;
as, "I forbid you from going." Say
"forbid you to go,'' or "forbid your
going."
Fortitude, see courage.
Freight, n~t to be used as a verb ;
as "to freight the goods through
from Chicago"; nor to be used as
contraction for freight-train.
From thence, from hence, from
whence; the fi·om is superflous, as
the adverbs already contain the idea
from.
Funny, not to be used in the
sense of odd or unusual.
Future, not to be used in the
_sense of next or subsequent as,
"His future course was very exceptional."
'Gan, a contraction suitable only
to poetry.
Gent, not to be used for gentleman or person.
Genus homo, "human race"; an
alienism and stock expression, better a voided.
Gesture, not to be used as verb.
Give away, a slang expression
not suitable to composition.
Give upon, a French idiom, to be
avoided; as, "The drawing-room
gives upon a well-kept lawn."
Go, pret. went, per.f. part. gone.
The parts to be carefully observed ;
do not say, "He has went."
Go in for, a slang expression,
more used in England than in
America ; to be avoided.
Good, not to be used as adverb ;
as, "Did you sleep good last night?"

...

~.......

-

~

:~. -·.~ ~-- .

" '

-.

-- ~- _ ,::.~ -

-

315

Good deal, an idiom in perfectly
good use, and less formal than very
much.
Got, not to be used with have in
the sense of possession; as, "Have
you got that book you had yesterday?" vVhen used, it should convey the sense of obtaining.
Got to, as in, "He has got to go,"
- the got is superfluous.
Graduate, not to be used of persons as active verb; as, "He graduated last year." Say rather "was
graduated."
Graphic, which refers to something written or pictured, should
not be used of sound.
Grateful, sometimes unnecessarily used for pleasant, -·a Latin
m eaning.
Gratuitous, not to be used in the
sense of untrue, unfounded; as,
"That is an entirely gratuitous
assumption."
Great deal, a good idiom, which
need not be neglected on the score
of homeliness. See good deal.
Grieviance, a vulgar and incorrect
form for grievance.
Grow small, not to be used for
become small.
Gubernatorial, a clumsy and pretentious word, better avoi~ed.
Guess, a common Americanism
for suppose, think; ,better not used
in literature.
Gums, a provincial name for
overshoes.
Habit, see custom.
Had better, a good idiom, and

•

316

APJ'END.IX .I.I.I.
GLOSSARY

rath er more na tural than would
better.
Had have, are so m etimes erron eously joined together; as, "Had I
have known it." The have is of
course superfluous.
Had rather ; would rather is more
regular and on the whole better th::.n
this.
Had ought to, . hadn't ought to,
provincial and in correct for ought
to, ought not to.
- Hain't, a vulgarism, no t a dmissible .even in colloquial style.
Half an eye, a slang expression
quite inconsistent with dignified language.
Hanged, the pret. of hang (tr.)
when a person is spoken of; hung
·when an inanimate object.
Hard lines, slang for ill-fortune.
Hardly . . . than, no.t to be used
for hardly when. - Hardly as adverb
means scarcely; with another meaning use hard, as "He struck the
man h ard."
Hate, wrongly used as a provincialism for detest, dislike; as, " I
hate to do this."
Headquarters, sometimes used as
plural, sometimes as singular.
Healthful, healthy.
That is
healthful which promotes health;
that is healthy which has health.
Persons are healthy, surroundings
are healthful.
Healthy, see healthful.
Help meet ; in this expression
meet is an adjective meaning fit;
as, an "help meet for him ." Hence
these two a re not to be used as

one word in
helper.

abouts.
Het, vulgar
heated.
let.

Hurry contain~
disturbance, confusion;
n o t.
Hymeneal altar, a stock and p ,
tentious expression for marriage.
;~

ulec\ -: -

Identified with, not to be
in the sense of prominent in ; as, to .
be identified with a movem,nt.
To identify is to prove to be th
same.
If, to be distinguished from
whether ; as, "I do not know if ho ·-

co me," - say ra ther "whether
he will co me."
Illusion, no t to be confounded
with allusion.
Illy, no t to be used as an adverb
modifyin g an adjective or participle;
as," a n illy equipped establishmen t,"
- say ill. Illy as an adverb is almost obsolete.
Imagination, fancy. Imagination
refers more to the picturing of actual
things in the mind ; fancy to the
· creating of new things. •This, however, is only one distinctio n between
two much-discussed words.
Immediately, not to be used as
· ., conjunction meaning as soon as· as
"I'
'
)
- "Immedia tely he said this, his whole
·manner changed." See directly.
Immigration. See emigration .
Implicit, not to be usecl in the
-:·:: sense of unlimited; as, "I have the
most implicit confidence in him."
Implicit is properly opposed to explicit, - lit. infolded as contrast to
unfolded.
Impugn, not to be used in the
·• sense of impute ; as, "to impugn
motives to any one."
In our midst, in their midst.
The possessive not to be used, but
the of-construction ; as, " in the
midst of us," "of them."
In respect of, not to be used for
_ in respect to.
-.. In so far, - the in is superfluous.
· Inaugurate, - no t to be used pre- tentiously for begin.
lncog., abbreviation of incognito,
an alienism, used considerably by
newsnaners. but h avin P- P-nnrl P nn11 0- h

317

Incomparable, absolute in degree,
not capable of more or less.
Incredulous, used of persons, not
to be confounded with incredible,
used of things.
Individual, not to be used in th e
mere sense of person. When used it
sho uld always convey some thought
of.. a single person or thing as opposed to many.
Initiate, not to be used pretentiously for begin .
Inspection, see examination .
In toto, alienism for wholly, entirely, and not needed in ordinary
English.
Invention, to be distinguished
from discovery.
Invest, not to be used for buy ;
as, "He invested in that. " With
the word inves t the sum shou ld be
named ; as, "He invested two th o usand dollars in wheat."
Invite, not to be used as a no un ;
as, "a long list of invites."
Irrevelant, sometimes erroneous1y writ'ten for irrelevant.
Is being done, is being built, etc.
Grammarians prefer "is doing,'' "is
building," etc., to passives of this
class.
Issuance, a new and no t fully
a uth orized word for issue.
Item, - a better word is paragraph ; as, "a newspaper item"
(paragraph).
Jeopardize; all that is exp ressed
in this word is better expressed by
the sho rter word jeopard.
·

318

GLOSSARY.

APPENDIX III.

Jolly, a colloquial word used so
loosely as to have little definite
meaning. To be used only in its
proper sense· of merry, hilarious.
Journal (from French jour, day),
not to be used of a monthly or quarterly magazine.
Jubilant, an overworked word
for rejoicing.
Jump on, slang for oppose; not
suited to composition.
Juvenile, not to be used as 'a
noun.
Juxtapose, an unauthorized verbal
formation from juxtaposition . .
Kind of a, as in "a kind of a
S'_Ving '.'; the a after of is superfluous.
Knight Templar, forms the plural by adding s to both words : they
are nouns in apposition.
Know as, not to be used for know
that: as, " I do not know as he can
be seen to-day."
Labor, see effort.
Laborites, an unauthorized ·formation to designate the labor party.
Lachrymal, of or pertaining to
tears, to be distinguished from lachrymose, tearful.
Lady, not to be used for wife.
Last, to be distinguished from
latest; a man's last book is not the
same as his latest book.
Lay, lie. The parts of these two
verbs are to be carefully dis_tinguished ; see above, page 14.
Learn, not to be used in the sense
of teach ; as, " He learned us arithmetic."

Lease, let, to be
from hire. See hire.
Leave, i>ot to be used .' intranal•
tively; as, " He left this morning!'
Leave alone, see let alone.
Lengthy, not to be used · indii:.
criminately for long. Applied .to ·
expression lengthy may be regafded
as meaning length without force;
see Practical Elements of Rhetoric, "
page 50.
Leniency1 an unnecessarily lon.1 "
.'.,
equivalent for lenity.
Less, not to be used for number; · .
"No less than forty persons." Say :._
fewer.
Let alone, let be, preferable to ·:~:
leave alone, leave be.
Level-headed, slang for thought~
,
ful, able, judicious; not adapted to ·.)'
dignified style.
' :~
-Liable, not to be used for likely.
Likely suggests probability, liable •_
unpleasant probability. See apt.
.
4
Like, not to be used for ~; as, '
!' Uo like I do." Like is used with ,
nouns, as with verbs. - Like "ill
verb ; see lov~.
Limb, not to be used, from a.1'
false feeling of modesty, for leg. Tho
substitution only reveals the more j,.,:.
plainly what you are thinking of. - - ,
Limit, limitation, to be clislin• ·
guished from each other, as concreu~ -,~.:
and abstract.
Line, border. To line is to put:._'"
something on the inner or . under"':
side; to border to put something OJ(',:;,'ll_
the edge.
·
Lit, as pret. of light, is obsol~le.
Say lighted; as, " He lighted .tbt .,_

""'

lamp," or alighted; as, "The bird
alighted on the fence."
Literally, an over.worked word;
. · not to be used except as distinguishing from figuratively. No one could
say, for instance, "The audience was
literally melted to tears by the oration"; - figuratively, if at all.
Loan, not to be used as a verb ;
as, "He loaned me this book."
Local, not to be used as a noun,
in the sense of local reporter ; as,
"The locals are busy writing up the
•accident."
Locality, sometimes used pretentiously where pl~ce would be better.
Locate, not to be used intransitively ; as, "He located in the
West."
Loose, sometimes used carelessly
or ignorantly for lose.
Lords of creation, a stock and
would-be humorous expression for
men. It will bear to rest.
Lotion, not to be used as a verb.
Lots of, provincial and colloquial
for a great number. Not adapted
to dignified composition.
·
Love, like. Like is to be pleased
with in a moderate degree ; love
includes devotion, affection. Love
is not properly used of inanimate
objects; as, "I love beefsteak."
· Low-priced, see cheap.
Luggage, the English word for
which the American equivalent is
baggage. Both · equally good in
their place.
Lunch is the verb ; luncheon the
substantive. "To take lunch" is,
therefore, not a good expression.

319

Luxuriant, luxurious. Luxurious
means indulging or delighting in
luxury; luxuriant, growing abundantly or excessively.
Mad, provincially used in · the
sense of angry, enraged. Better to
confine the word to its legitimate
:;.ense of insane, and the senses
directly suggested from this.
Magnum opus, "great work"; an
alienism, the sense of which is ordinarily expressed in English.
Make, not to be used in the sense
of earn, gain; as, "He did not make
much in that job."
Managerial, a newspaper adjective, clumsy and pretentious.
Manifestly, see evidently.
Martyrize; an unauthorized verbal formation.
Masses, an overworked word.
Better not to use it for the people.
Materialize, not to be used in the
sense of appear; as," Kelly failed to
materialize when he was wanted."
Mathematics, sometimes used as
singular, sometimes as plural.
Means, in the sense of instrument, as "means to an end," may
be used as singular or plural; in
the sense of resources, - "ample
means," - is used as plural.
Memorandum takes for plural
memoranda, except when it means
books; then the plural is memorandums.
Meretricious, not to be confounded with meritorious ; what
is meretricious attracts by false
show.

320

APPENDIX IU.

Miasma takes for plural, not miasm;:e, but miasma ta. In somewhat
elevated style one can say miasm,
miasms.
'Mid, a contraction suitable only
to poetic style.
Mise en scene, "setting on stage,"
an alienism, for which it is better to
use an English equivalent.
Mistaken, to be, not to be used
for to mistake ; as, " If I am not
mistaken," say rather "If I mistake
not."
Monogram, not to be confounded
with monograph. A monogram is
a character or cipher composed of
two or more letters ; a monograph
is a treatise on a single or special
topic.
Most, not to be used for almost ;
as, "He comes most every day." It is also much overused for very,
as," a most profound silence." Use
most only where an actual superlative is suggested.
Motion is the general word ;
movement the concrete.
Much, to be used of quantity ;
many, of number. Do not say, "I
have seen much of the trials of
life."
Much of any, a provincial and incorrect · expression for "much if
any" ; as, "It is not much of any
hotter to-day."
Mutafis mutandis, "things being
c.h anged which are to be changed,"
an alienism, very convenient sometimes, as shortening expression, but
subject to the caution regarding
foreign words.

GLOSSARY.

Mutual, not to
sense of common ; as, "a mutual
friend."
·when used, the wos;d
should contain a sense of reciproc- ,
ity ; as, "hearty expressions of
tual good-will."
Myself, not to be used for un•
emphatic I ; as, "When "t he soldiers
and myself had gone."

mu·

Nasty, not to be used in the Eng·
lish colloquial sense of disagreeable.
Near, not to be used adverbially, '
for nearly ; as, " He is not near._
so good as his · brother,"-say
nearly.
Near-by, not to be used
adjective; as, "a near-by church.'~ . ,.
'Neath, a contraction . suitable
only to poetry.
Need, meaning to lack, and used
as principal verb takes s in 3d·per·
son singular ; meaning to be nee~ ·
sary and used as auxiliary (with·
out to) its 3d person singular ijJ
need; e. g. "He needs money~;
still he need not beg." See. Dare:
-LONG.

Ne'er, a contraction suitable only.
to poetry.
'
Neglect, negligence. Neglect is
the concrete act or instance ; negli·
gence the disposition or character~
istic of the man.
Negligence, see neglect.
Neighbor, not to be used
verb, for be neighborly ; as, "The .·
two never neighbored well."
Neither, not to be used of more
than two.

Nether extremities, a pretentious
expression for legs.
Never, not to be used for not ;
as, "I never remember to have seen
such a thing."
New, to be distinguished from
novel.
New beginner, - the new is superfluous.
News, to be used as a singular
noun ; as, "The news is favorable
· this morning."
Nice, not to be used in the general loose sense of agreeable ;
its correct meaning is delicate,
Nicely, not to be used in the
sense of well ; as, " How do you
do? Nicely, thank you."
No good, no use, not to be used
without of; as, "The thing is no
good," - say of no good.
Not as, not to be used for not
so; as, " Not as good." After a
negative, expressed or implied, use
so instead of as.
Nothing like, not to be used for
not nearly; as, "He was nothing
, like so well to-day as yesterday."
· Notorious, to be distinguished
from noted, famous. Notorious implies some bad or doubtful quality.
Nought, poetic form of nothing ;
its use to be confined mostly to
poetry.
Now, not to be used adjectively,
for present; as, "He is calculating
his now resources."
Nowhere near so, vulgarism for
not nearly so.
Nuptials, used only as a plural.

321

O, Oh; "We should distinguish between the sign of the vocative and
the emotional interj ection, wntmg
O for the former and Oh for the
latter." - EARLE.
Obligated, erroneous form for
obliged.
Obliged to; in passive the idioms
has t<:>, had to are preferable ; as,
"He was obliged to be punished for
the fault." Say had to be punished.
Observation, to be distinguished
from observance. Observation is
looking at carefully; observance is
ceremonious regard for.
Observe, not to be used for say ;
as, "He observed that he was very
tired."
Odds, sometimes used as singular,
sometimes as plural.
O'er, a contraction suitable only
to poetry.
Of any, not to be used for of all ;
as, "This is the finest specimen of
any I have seen."
Off of; the ef is superfluous; as,
"Four yards off of that piece."
Official, which is an adjective, not
to be used for the noun officer.
Oft, a contraction suitable only to
poetry.
Old veteran, the old is ;;uperfiuous.
Older, elder. Elder is used only
of persons ; older of persons and
things. Older is used when the
comparative conjunction is used;
as, "older than the other"; elder
when the than is . omitted ; as "the
elder of the two." The same distinctions apply to oldest and eldest.

322

APPENDIX U/.
GLOSSARY.

T·

Oldest, eldest, see older, elder.
On one's ear, slang for indignant; not consistent with dignified
style.
On the street, not to be used for
in the street. In is the correct preposition.
Once, not to be used for after or
as soon as; e. g. "Once this was
done, there was no turning back."
See immediately and directly.
One another, see each other.
One-time, not to be used as an
adjective; as, "His. one-time principles."
Ones, plural of one, to be used
sparingly. See preceding, page 9r,
note 2.
Onto, not to be written as a single
word, and not to be used at all
as a compound preposition. Use
upon.
Open up, the up is superAuous;
as, "This opens up beautifully.
Optional, not to be used as a
noun ; as, "He takes three optionals.''
Oral, to be distinguished from
verbal. Verbal is in words ; oral is
by word of mouth.
Organism, to be distinguished
from .organization, as result from
process.
Orthography, which means correct writing, cannot take such an
adjective as poor, incorrec t; and
~orrect, as applied to it, is redundant.
Ought to, should, differ in degree ;
ought being stronger, as implying
moral obligation.

Outstart, not to be used- for out~
set; as," We see this clearly at the
outs tart."
Ovation, as used for mere sho.uting or cheering, is an exaggerated
term. Keep the word for great
occasions.
Over and above, not to be used
for more than.
Over one's signature, not to be
used for under one's signature. The
word under means under the sanction of.
Overflown, not to be used for
overAowed. See . Aown.
Overlook, not to be confounded
in use with oversee or superintend.
It may easily become ambiguous;
as, "He was employed to overlook
th e affairs of the company."
Owing to, .see clue.
Pains, in the sense of labor, care,
used with singular verb more commonly than with plural.
Pal, slang for companion, confederate ; not suitable to serious
composition.
Pants, not to be used for pantaloons or trousers; do not use the
word at all.
Paradox, not to be used with
seeming - a seeming paradox - because the word already means a
seeming absurdity.
Partake, not to be used where
only one person is concerned; as,
"He partook of dinner." The word
implies sharing with.
Partially, had better not be used
in the sense of partly; as, "I have

323

only partially examined it."
It
Photo, not to be used as an abbreviation for photograph.
means "with partiality."
Piece, provincialism for distance ;
Party, not to be used for person;
as, "I went a good piece with him."
as, "He is an odd old party."
Paternal affection, pretentious
Piece de resistance, "piece of
and bookish for a father's love.
(for) resistance"; an alienism, better
expressed by an English equivalent.
Patron, patronize, patronage,
should be used only when there is
Pile, slang for a fortune ; as,
a sense of condescension and obli".He made his pile in Cincinnati."
gation; not in the sense of customer,
Not consistent with good style.
give custom, custom.
Pincers, used only as plural.
Pell-mell, not to be used of a
Pitiable, pitiful, to be distinguished. Pitiable is deserving pity;
single person; as, " IT e rushed pellmell clown the street.". It implies · pitiful is compassionate, sometimes
!amen table.
a crowd.
Plastic, not to be used of the
Penchant, inclination ; an alienagency that fashions but of the
ism, not really necessary in English ..
thing fashioned.
Per, not to be used except before
Plead, sometimes wrongly used
Latin nouns ; you can say "per
as th e pret. of plead. The correct
diem," but not per day.
form is pleaded.
Peradventure, an old-fashioned
connective, whose use in ordinary
Plenty, not to be used as adjective in the sense of plentiful; as,
prose sounds affected.
"Money is plenty this year." Not
Perchance, better suited for
poetry; perhaps for prose.
to be used as adverb in the sense
Perform, not to be used for play;
of fully; as, "This is plenty large
enough."
as, "He performs exquisitely on the
violin."
Polite, not to he used in the mere
Period, not to be used for a point
sense of kind; as, "your polite inof time; it implies extended time.
vitation."
Perpetually, to be distinguished
Politic, to be distinguished from
from continually. Perpetual is neverpolitical.
Politic means shrewd:
ceasing; anything that is continual
political means having to do with
politics.
may have stops and interruptions.
See continual, ·continuous.
Politics, predominating usage favors treating this word as a singular.
Persuade, meaJls more than advise; it means that the advice or
Portion, not to be used for part,
plea has effected its result. Do not
unless it means a part set aside for
use the words as synonymous.
some special purpose. Do not say
"A portion of the street was under
Phenomenon forms its plural phennn1Pn~

r,::i.n".l 1r "

- ..
..

-·--·

"
324

APPENDIX II/.

Post, no t to be used in th e sense
co nfounded with prin cipal, the adof inform ; as, "He will post you on
jective.
all our requirements."
Probate, not to be used as a verb; ·
Postal, n o t to be used as a n ou n ;
as, "The will was probated." Say
as," Send me a postal occasionally."
admitted to probate.
Say postal carCI, or p ost card.
Proceeds, used only as a plural.
Practicable, to be distinguished
Procure, often used pretentiously
from practical. Practicable is that
where get would be b etter.
may be practised or clon e ; practical,
Product, t o be distinguished from
that may be turn ed to use or acco unt.
production, as result fr om process.
Practical, see practicable.
Production, see product.
Predicate, not to be used in th e
Prominence, not to be confounded
sense of base ; as, " I predicate my
with predominance.
opinion on his statement." Not to
Promise, no t to be used in th e
be confounded with predict.
sense of assure ; as, "I promise you
Prefer . . . than, is wrong; say
we had a good time."
rather prefer . . . to.
Proof, n ot to be used in the sense
Preferable . . . than, n o t to be
of evidence ; it takes considerable
used for preferable to.
evidence to es tablish proof.
Prejudice, n o t to be used for prePropose and .purpose, not to be
possess. vVe a re prepossessed in
confounded. Propose is to se t forth
favor of some p erson or thing;
for consideration o r action ; purpose
prejudiced against.
to have th e intent.
Present, not to be used in the
Proposition not to be co nfounded
sense of introduce ; it is an affectawith proposal. A proposition contion.
templates discussion or consideraPresume, no t to be used for
tion; a proposal contemplates acthink, b elieve, daresay ; as, "I preceptance or rejection .
.
s um e h e is correct." Presume to
Providing, not to be used fo~ prosay would b e the full expression.
vided ; as, " Providing he has time,
Pretend, n o t to be used in th e
he will come."
sense of profess or claim ; as, " I do
Proven, incorrect pret. from prove.
not pretend to be accurate." P reSay proved.
ten ce conveys an idea of falsity.
Purchase, som etim es used pretenPreventative, incorrect form fo r
tiously wh en buy wo uld be bette1.
preventive.
Put in an appearance, s tock exPrevious, n o t to b e used adverbipression, and o utworn, for app ear.
ally, as, "Previous to his departure
h e made this s tipulatio n." Say pre· Quantity, not to be used for
vio usly.
number; as, "There was a great
Principle, the n ou n, not to he
aLiantitv of ca rri ::iaP<:> 1wP~Pnt"

CLOSSAR Y.
Quite, no t to be used with a no un ;
as, "H e is quite a boy." - T o be
used in th e sense of fully or com pletely, n o t in th e provin cial sense
of n ot quite, as, "H e is not \'ery
well, but quite well."
Quondam, alienism for fo rm er,
a nd no t really necessary in E nglish .
Railroad, no t to be used as verb;
as, "to railroad a scheme through
Cong ress."
Railway, the English word, rail·
road being th e A merica n.
The
two are eq uall y corn;!c t.
Raise, n o t to be used as no un ;
as, "He made a raise."
Raison d 'efre, "reason for existing"; an alienism, very co nv enient
sometimes, but the tra nslation is to
be vreferred .
Rampageous, a slang word, suitable o nly for colloquial style.
Rattled, slang for co nfused ; not
suited to dignified style.
Rarely, not to be used as an adjective ; as, " It is rarely that yo u
see such a m an."
Rarely or ever, n o t to be used for
rarely if ever, rarely or never.
Ratiocinate, one o f the big and
pretenti o us words th at give more
sound th an intelligibility to s tyle.
Real, no t to be used as adverb;
as, "I think it is real mean."
Receipt, to be distin guished from
recipe.
Recherche, choice, re fin ed ; an
alienis m, much used in society annals, but unn ecessary in o rdin a ry
E nglish.

325

Reckon, provincialis m for think,
suppose.
. Recollect, remember. \\' e re·
member when an im pression remains o n our mind ; we recollect
wh en we recall something to mind.
Referee, not to be u s~cl as a verb ;
as, "He refereed th e game."
Regard, respect, esteem, deference, reverence, veneration . " Of
th ese, respect and esteem signify
th e same kind of regard (but in
different degrees of intensity), namely, the regard that springs
from o ur knowledge of high characte r or of sound judgment in him
wh o is the obj ect of regard. Deference is yielding to a not her, a nd has
refere nce to admitted s uperio rity a s uperiority that may be intell ec tual, or that m ay a rise from rank or
age or s tati on . . · . . l~evere n ce a nd
veneration are profo und regard, and
are drawn forth by high or elevated
qualit ies; th ey are associated with
the grand or th e s ublime. . . .
G reater intensity or depth of devotion is implied in ven eration th an in
reverence." - DAV IDSON.
Region, to be distinguished fr om
neighborhood, as a broader, more
compreh ensive term.
Reliable, a word over which
gramm arians have fought much ;
but in spite o f all it has made
a place in usage, tho ugh careful writers generally prefer trustworthy.
Remember, see recollect.
Remit, n ot to b e used m th e
mere sense of send. It means send

'

''

326

APPENDIX Ill.

back, and th ence to surrender,
rel ax, forgive.
Rendition, no t to be used for
rendering or performance ; as, "the
r endition of the character." Rendition means properly the act of yielding or surrendering.
Repeat, not to be used as a nou n;
as, "each repeat of the pattern ."
Replace, not to be used in the
sense of tak e the place of ; as,
"This machine replaces th e old."
Replace means properly, restore to
its place.
Reply, see answer.
Reporterial, a newspaper ad jective, not in a uth o rized use.
Reputation, see character.
Requirement, requisition, requisite. Requirement, that which is
required as essential or necessary;
requisition, that which is required
or imposed by authority; requisite,
that which is demanded by th e
nature of things.
Reside, often used pretentiously
for live.
Residence, ~sed pretentiously by
those for whom house or home is
not good enough.
Resort, resource. In reso rt we
think m ore of th e act of betaking ; in
reso urce, more of the aid o r supply.
Respect, see regard.
Respectfully, no t to be co n founded, in writing, with respectively.
Restitute, a n unauthorized verl>al
formation from restitution.
Resurrect, an un a uthorized verbal
formation from resurrection.

Retiracy, a n uncall ed-fo r substi·'
tute for retirement.
Retire, used for go to bed by
those who cannot bear common
language.
Rev ., as a titl e, not to be used
without the: - "The Rev."
Reverence, see regard.
Revolting, may be used ambiguously; as, "The revolting Bulgarians."
Riches, used only as plural.
Ride, see drive.
Right, not to be used in the sense
of obligation, duty; as, "You have
as good a right to be searched as I
have."- In the sense of very the
word is a provincialism ; as, "This
watermelon is right good."- Not to
be used in th e sense of just ; as,
"right here," ".right there."
Right away, right off, provincial
and obj ectionable for directly, immediately.
Rise up,- th e up is superfluous.
ROie, an alienism; mostly unnecessary because fully represented by
th e word part.
Rooster, provincialism for cock.
Round, see around .
Rubbers,- a better word is overshoes.
Rubeola, technicalism for measles.
Sacred desk, a stock expression
for pulpit ; has a formal and arti ficial sound.
Slfme . . . as, not to be used
for same . . . th at ; as, "This is
the same picture as I saw yesterday."

CLOSSANY.

Sang, as pret. of sing, 1s preferable to sung.
Sartorial artist, pretentious for
tailor.
Save, for except, m ore s uitable to
poetry and the higher effects of
prose.
Savoir faire, lit. "knowing to d o,"
good management; an alien ism, not
necessary in ordinary E nglish.
Scarce, th e ad jective, not to be
used for scarcely; as, "Scarce had
he gone, when Vincent returned.''
Scarcely . than, not to be used
for scarcely .. . when; see hardly
. . th an.
Scion, a pretentious word for so n;
sometimes inaccurately used for fellow, person.
Scissors, used only as plural.
Scorn, disdain, not to be used
with a personal object; as, "He
scorns · Mr. B." Say despise, or
look clown upon.
Scrutiny, see examination.
Section, " an unpl easan t Americanism for neighborh ood, vicinity,
q uarter, region "; as, "In o ur section
we do things differently."
Seem, appear. What seems is
in th e mind ; what appears is external.
Seldom or ever, not to be used
for seldom or never, seldom if ever.
See rarely or ever.
Sensation, not to be used in the
sense o f exci ting news ; as, "The
newspapers have a great sensation
this morning."
Sensible of, means aware of.
Sensitive to, affected by.

327

Seraph forms ' its plural eith er
seraphs or seraphim ; but not seraph ims.
Series, same form for singular
and plural, but used generally as
singular.
Seriatim , "in order"; an alien ism,
for which there are good equivalents.
S .e t, sit, seat, th e parts to be distinguished ; see preceding, page
14 .

Settle, not to be used in the sense
of pay; as, "He settl ed th e account."
Sewage, sewerage, not to be confotinded with each o ther. Sewage
is the contents of a sewer· sewerage
th e system of sewers.
Shears, used only as plural.
Shock, to be distinguished from
receive a shock; as, "He was
shocked by electricity." Say "receiv ed a shock of elec tricity."
Sick, ill. Sick is the stronger
term. The E nglish generally use
ill as a euphemism for sick, and restrict the latter to nausea; but the
distinction is not observed by A mericans.
Sight, a provincialism for many,
a g reat number ; as, "There was a
sight of fl owers on exhibition."
Used also in plural.
Sightly, provin cialism for well si tuated ; as, "This is a very sigh ti y
location ."
Sin, see crime.
Since. It is better, instead of
this as adverb, to use ago; reservin g
since for the conjun ction al use; e. g.,
" A Jong tim e ago" (not since).
"It is some tim e since I saw him."

,,
!I
I

"!

'I

328

APPENDJX JI!.

Sine qua non, something indispensable; an alien ism, conven ient
sometimes, but generally better
avoided.
Sink down, th e down is superfluous.
Sit upon, slang for repress ; not
consistent with dignified composition.
·s ize up, slang for show th e char··
acter or measure of; no t to be used
in any but colloquial style.
Slue, provincialism for a la rge
number or amount; as, "A slue of
books."
Small, suitable only to dimension; not to be used for quantity;
as, "The s mallest assistance will be
thankfully received." Say least.
Smart, used provincially for able,
capabl e. Bet ter to confine th e word
to its proper meanings of keen, vigo rous, showy.
Smell of, th e ef superfluous. See
Taste of.
Sociable, social. Sociable means
companionable, fitted for society;
soc ial, the relations of m en in society or comm unities.
Soiree dansante, "an evening
dancing party," something th at the
English is fully competent to name
without borrowing the alienism.
Solicitation, not to be confounded in meaning with solicitude.
Some, not to be used for somewhat ; as, " He is som e better today."
Somebody else's, see anybody
else's.
Spare, not to be used for give ;

as, "I cannot spare the money."
Its proper meaning is to save.
Speciality, an erroneous writing
for specialty.
Species, except m scientific lang uage, not to be used for kind; as, "a
species of saw-horse."-The word is
the same for sing ul ar and plural ;
and specie is anoth er word.
Splendid, not to be used for
what is merely great or good. It
means brilliant, literally or metaphorically.
Spoonfuls, th e correct plural of
spoonful.
Square, not susceptible of com- .
parison.
Standpoint, a preferable equiva.lent for this is point of view.
State, statement, not to be used
for say, assertion; as, "He states
that he is going to Philadelphia tomorrow." State a nd statement arc
more formal words, used only of
some important assertion.
Steal, not to be used as a noun;
as, "Th ey are in for a big s teal."
Stimulation, not to be confounded with stimulus. Stimulatio n is the act of stimulating; stimulus, that which stimulates.
Stop, not to be used in the sense
o f stay ; as, "He h as been stopping
several month s in London."
Storm, not to be used for mere
rain or snow. Storm refers to atmospheric disturbance, with or without rain or snow.
Strata, not to be used as a singular. It is a plural ; the singular is
stratum.

GL OSSARY.

Sub rosa, secretly ; an alienism
for which the English has no need.
Subsequent, not to be used as
adverb. See previous.
Subtile is delicate, fine, nice.
Subtle is sly, cunning.
Success, not to be used with the
verb to be; as, "He is a success. "
Say rath er has success, or is successful.
Such, not to be used for so ; as,
"such a good workman."
Suds, used only as plural.
Sugars, not to be used as plural;
an advertising idiom.
Suicide, not to be used as a verb;
as, "He suicided yesterday."
Summons, not to be used as a
verb ; as, "He was summonsed to
town." Say summon.
Superior, not to be used for able ;
as, "He is a very superior man." Superior is not susceptible of comparison by more and most.
Suppositions, not to be used for
supposed. It means sp urious.
Survey, see examination.
Swain, an archaism, which does
not sound sincere in modern style.
Swell, a slang word not suitable
to any but colloquial style.
Swelled, not to be used instead of
swollen, as perfect participle of swell.
Tableau, forms its plural tableaux.
Tactics, sometimes sing u l a r,
sometimes plural.
Take dinner, take tea; - better
to say h ave dinner, have tea.
Talented, a word that, though
much opposed, has gained and

329

maintained a pl ace in good usage,
though the most careful writers
avoid it.
Tapis, lit. "carpet." Better to
say "The s ubj ect came up" than to
say it came on the tapis; the alienism do es not help the expression.
Task, see effort.
Taste of. The ef is unnecessary
when the verb has an object ; as,
"Taste of this jelly." Used intransitively the verb may take ef; as,
"This coffee tas tes of p epper."
Team, used only of th e horses
and not including the carriage. "A
team with two horses " is wrong.
Teas, not to be used as plural ;
an advertising idiom.
Testimony, see evidence.
That far, that many, that much,
not to be used for so far, many, much.
Then, as adj ective, as in "The
then ministry," "seems," says Professor Hill,· "to have established
itself in the language."
Thereabouts, see hereabouts.
Think for, as in "more than you
think for," - the .for is superfluous.
Those kind, not to be used for
that kind; as, "Those kind of cattle
are th e best."
Tidings, used only as plural.
Tip-top, old slan g word for extreme, excellent; not a literary word ..
To, not to be used with a verb
implying rest ; as, "I have been to
Chicago": say at.
Toil, see effort.
Tongs, used only as plural.
Tonsorial artist, pretentious for
barber.

330

APPENDIX III.

Too can modify some participles
used as adjectives, without an intervening much, as "too tired," "too
fatigued"; with others it requires
much, as "too much pleased," "too
much disgusted." The same applies
to very.
Touch, to be in, a good enough
expression, but considerably overworked nowadays.
Transpire, not to be used in the
sense of occur or elapse. See preceding, page 12.
Tremendious, erroneous writing
for tremendous. \__
Trend, a somewha) overworked
word.
Tribute to, not to be used in the
sense of proof of; as, "a tribute to
his judgment."
Truth, veracity. Truth used of
the thing; veracity of the person.
· Try, not to be used in the sense
of make ; as, " try an experiment."
Try and, not to be used for try to;
I will try and come to-morrow."
A very common fault. ·
'Twixt, an abbreviation suitable
only to poetry.

as,"

Ugly, in the sense of malicious,
is a provincialism; the word refers
more to appearance.
Umpire, not to be used as a verb;
as, " He umpired the game to universal satisfaction."
Unanimous, not susceptible of
comparison by more and most.
Unbeknown, not to be used for
unknown. A provincialism.

j · Underhanded,-as in "under·
handed dealings"- not- to be . used •
for underhand.
_unexampled, !"JOt susceptible , of
comparison.
Up, used sometimes superfluously or as an expletive, as "end up:•
"open up." See these words.
Upward of, not to be used for
more than ; as, "upward of twenty
ships."
·
Utter, to be distinguished from
express or say. With utter goes the ,
idea of articulate expression.
Valuable, not to be used
valued; as, "One of our most valu·
able contributors."
Veneration, see regard.
Veracity, see truth.
Verba~, not to be used for oral.
See oral.
Verdict, not to be used in
sense of testimony; as," The verdict
.of the community was unanimous
in his favor."
Very pleased,-the word much
is needed. See too.
Vexation, a weaker word than
anger.
Vicinity, used sometimes pretentiously for the better word neighbor·
hood.
Villiage, an erroneous writing for
village.
Violincello, wrong form for violoncello.
Visitor, visitant. The latter term
is used of a supernatural visitor.
Vitals, used only as plural.
Vocation, see avocation.

GLOSSARY.
Voice as a verb, as "I wish to
voice the sentiments of a great
,many," is much used nowadays,
but the usage is objectionable.
Want, need. Want should include the idea of wish or desire ;
need, of lack or necessity. To say
"The man is so poor that he wants
bread" is ambiguous.
Way, not to be used for away;
as, "way off among the hills."
Ways, not to be used for way ;
as, "A good ways from this house
was a pool of water."
Weaker sex, not to be used as
would-be humorous for women.
Wharf, see dock.
Whereabouts, see hereabo uts. As noun the word may take th e s; as,
"His whereabouts are uncertain."
Whole, not to be used with reference to individual p ersons or things;
as, "The whole of the soldiers were
out to-clay.". Use all ; and restrict
whole to something of which nothing
is lacking.
Wholesome, see healthful.
Whose else, preferable to who
else's. See anybody else's, somebody else's.

331

Widow woman, the word woman ·
is superfluous.
Wight, an archaism, too quaint
for ordinary modern style.
Wire, not to be used as verb for
telegraph.
Without, not to be used as a conj unction, in the sense of unless; as,
" You ,\rill never succeed without .
you labo r."
Witness, not to be used in the
mere sense of see ; as, "This is
the most beautiful view I ever
witnessed." To witness properly
means bear testimony.
Work, see energy.
Worse, not to be used in the
sense of more_; as, " He dislikes
oysters worse than olives."
Worthy, not to be used without
of before the succeeding noun; as,
"He is worthy your esteem."
Would better, see had better.
Would rather, see had rather.
Yours, etc. The etc. is a mean·
ingless addition. Say" Yours truly,"
or "Yours sincerely."
Zeal, see energy.

HIGHER ENGLISH.

7

The Practical Elements of Rhetoric.
By JOHN F. GENUNG, Ph.D., Professor of Rhetoric in Amherst College.
12mo. Cloth. xiv+ 483 pages. Mailin~ price, $1.40 ; for in trod., $1.25.

THE treatment is characterized by good sense, simplicity, originality, availability, completeness and ample illustration.
f It is throughout constructive and the student is regarded at
every step as endeavoring to make literature. All of the literary
forms have been given something of the fulness hitherto accorded
only to argument and oratory. No important principle has been
presented without illustrations drawn from the usage of the best
authorities.
Genung's Rhetoric, though a work on a trite subject, has aroused
general enthusiasm by its freshness and practical worth. Among
the many leading institutions that have introduced it are Wellesley, Smith, Vassar Colleges ; Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Vanderbilt,
Northwestern Universities; and the Universities of Virginia,
North Carolina, Illinois, Minnesota, Kansas, Michigan.
C. F. Richardson, Prof. of English,
Literature, Dartmouth College, and
autho1· of a History of American
Literature: I find it excellent both
in plan and execution.
Miss M.A. Jordan, Prof. of Rhetoric, Smith College, Northampton,
~Mass.: The critic is conscious of a
feeling of surprise as he misses the
orthodox dulness. The analysis of
topics is clear, the illustrations are
pertinent and of value in themselves,
the rules are concise and portable.

T. W. Hunt, Prof. of Eng. Litera-.
ture, Princeton College, Princeton,
N . J.: It impresses me as a philosophic and useful manual. I like
especially its literary spirit.
W. H. Magruder, Prof. of English,
Agricultural and Mechanical College
of Mississippi : For clearness of
t hought, lucidity of expression, aptness of illnstration,-in short, for
real teaching power, - I have never
seen this work equalleP...

A Handbook of Rhetorical Analysis.
Studies in Style and Invention, designed to accompany the author's
Practical Elements of Rhetoric. By JOHN F. GENUNG, Ph.D., Professor of Rhetoric in Amherst College. 12mo. Cloth. xii + 306 pages.
Mailing Price, $1.25; Introduction and Teachers' Price, $ 1.12.

THIS handbook follows the general plan of the larger text-book,
being designed to alternate with that from time to time, rui
different stages of the subject are reached.
J. H. Gilmore, Prof. of Rhetoric,
University of Rochester, N. Y.: This
strikes me as a very significa nt attempt to open a road that college
students especially need to travel.
C. L. Ehrenfeld, Prof. English,

Whittenb er,q College, Springfield,
Ohio: Its actual use in class work
has confirmed my former favorable
judgment of it. It is not surpassed
or equalled by any other work in the
same line, .
~

8

HIGHER ENGLISH.

HIGHER ENGLISH.

Minto'~

Selections 1n English Prose from Elizabeth to

Manual of English Prose Literature.

Victoria.

Designed mainly to show characteristics of style. By WILLIAM MI.xoro,
M.A., Professor of Logic and English Literature in the University of
Aberdeen, Scotland. 12mo. · Cloth. 566 pages. Mailing prke, $1.60;
for introduction, $1.50.

THE main design is to assist in directing students in English
composition to the merits and defects of the principal writers
of prose, enabling them, in some degree at least, to acquire the one
and avoid the other. The Introduction analyzes style: elements
of style, qualities of style, kinds of composition. Part First gives
exhaustive analyses of De Quincey, Macaulay, and Carlyle. These
serve as a key i:o all the other authors treated. Part Second takes
up the prose authors in historical order, from the fourteenth century up to the early part of the nineteenth.
Hiram Corson, Prof. English Literature, Cornell University: Without going outside of this book, an earnest student could get a knowledge
of English prose styles, based on the
soundest principles of criticism, such
as he could not get in any twenty
volumes which I know of.
Katherine Lee Bates, Prof. of
En,qlish, W ellesley College: It is of
sterling value.
John M. Ellis, Prof. of English
Literature, Obei·lin Colle,qe: I am
using it for reference with great in-

terest. The criticisms and comments
on authors are admirable-the best,
on the whole, that I have met with
in any text-book.
J. Scott Clark, Prof. of Rhetoric,
Syracuse University: We have now
given Minto's English Prose a good
trial, and I am so much pleased that
I want some more of the same.
A. W . Long, W~fford College, Spar.
tanburg, S.C.: I have used Minto's
English Poets and English Prose the
past year, and am greatly pleased
with the results.

I

Minto's Characteristics of the English Poets,
from Chaucer to Shirley.
By WILLIAM MINTO, M.A., Professor of Logic and Englis~1 Literature
in the University of Aberdeen, Scotland. 12mo. Cloth. x1+382 pages.
Mailing price, $1.65; for introduction, $1.50.

THE

phief objects of the author are: (1) To bring into clear
light the characteristics of the several poets ; and (2) to trace
how far each was influenced by his literary predecessors and his
contemporaries.

9

1580-1880.

By JAMES M. GARNETT, Professor of the English Language and Literature in the University of Virginia. 12mo. Cloth. ix + 701 pages.
By mail, $1.65; for introduction, $1.50.

,,

THE selections are accompanied by such explanatory notes as
have been deemed necessary, and will average some twenty
pages each. The object is to· provide students with the texts
them~elves of the most prominent writers of English prose for
the past three hundred years in selections of sufficient length to
be characteristic of the author, and, when possible, they are complete works or sections of works.
H. N. Ogden, West Virginia UniF. B. Gummere, PrQf. of English,
versity: The book fulfils my expec- Haverforcl Co llege: I like the plan,
tations in every respect, and will the selections, and the making of the
become an indispensable help in the book.
work of our senior English class.

Sidney's Defense of Poesy.
Edited with au Introduction and Notes by ALBERT S. CooK, Professor
of English in Yale University. 12mo. Cloth. xlv + 103 pages. By
mail, 90 cents; for introduction, 80 cents .

AS a classic text-book of literary msthetics, Sidney's Defense has
enduring interest and value. Something of the character of
Sidney as a man, of the grandeur of his theme, of the significance of poetry, of sound methods of profiting by poetry and of
judging it, - ought to be disclosed by study of the book. In
the notes everything is considered with reference to the learner,
as far as possible ; and the point of view is not exclusively that
of the grammarian, the antiquary, the rhetorician, or the explorer of Elizabethan literature, but has been chosen to include
something of all these, and more.
William Minto, Prof. of L ite1·atitre, Un'ivers'ity of Aberdeen: It
seems to me to be a very thorough
and instructive piece of work. The
interests of the student are consulted
in every sentence of the Introduction
and Notes, and the paper of questions is admirable as a guide to the
thorough study of the substance of
the essay.
Homer T. Fuller, Pres. Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, 1'Vorcestm',
Mass.: I think everv lover of tbP.

good writing in our mother tongue
must confess his obligations to both
ed itor and publishers of such a
volume as this. First, for the breadth
and accuracy of the notes ; second,
for the historical research and good
criti cal judgment displayed in the
ii1troduction ; third, for the good
ta~te and clearness of the type and
prmt; and fourth, for the timeliness
of the appearance of a volume whi ch
just at present calls attention to some
of the eRRentialf:i of nn<>t.rv .

10

HIGHER ENGLISH.

Shelley's Defense of Poetry.

HIGH.ER ENGLISH.

11

The Art of Poetry :

Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by ALBERT S. CooK, Professor of
En~lish in Yale University. 12mo. Cloth. :xxvi + 86 pages. Price by
mail, 60 cents; for introduction, 50 cents.

The Poetical Treatises of Horace, Vida, and Boileau, with the translations by Howes, Plft, and Soame.

SHELLEY'S Defense may be regarded as a companion-piece to
that of Sidney. In their diction, however, the one is of the
sixteenth century and the other of the nineteenth. For this reason
a comparison of the two is of interest to the student of historical
English style. But, apart from this, the intrinsic merits of Shelley's
essay must ever recommend it to the lover of poetry and of beautiful English. The truth which he perceives and expounds is one
which peculiarly needs enforcement at the present day, and it is
nowhere presented in a more concise or attractive form.

Edited by ALBERT S CooK, Professor of the English Language and
Literature in Yale University. 12mo. Cloth. 214 pages. Mailing
price, $1.25; for introduction, $1.12.

John F. Genung, Prof. of Rhetoric,
Amherst College: By his excellent
editions of these three works, Professor Cook is doing invaluable service
for the study of poetry. The works
themselves, written by men who were
masters alike of poetry and prose,
are standard as literature; and in

the introductions and notes, which
evince in every part the thorough and
sympathetic scholar, as also in the
beautiful form given to the books by
printer and binder, the student has
-11 the help to the reading of them
that he can desire ..

Cardinal Newman's Essay on Poetry,
With reference to Aristotle's Poetics. Edited, 'with Introduction and
Notes, by ALBERT S. CooK, Professor of English in Yale University.
8vo. Limp cloth. x + 36 pages. Mailing price, 35 cents; for introduction, 30 cents.

THE study of what is essential and what accidental in poetry is
more and more engaging the attention of thoughtful men,
particularly those occupied with educational work. Newman's
Essay expresses the view of one who was a man of both action
and theory. Besides this, the Essay is a notable example of the
literary work of one who has been considered the greatest master
of style in this generation. The illustrative apparatus provided by
the editor includes practical hints on the study of Greek drama in
English, an index, an analysis, and a few suggestive notes.
Hiram Corson, Prof. of English, multiim in parvo bit of writing; and
Cornell University . In its editorial. the notes show the recherrh~ scholar•
character it's an elegant piece of ship of the editor.
work. • • • The introduction is a

THIS volume is intended to meet the wants of three classes of
teachers and students, those of,,Latin, French, and English or
comparative literature. To the first class it will furnish the best
Latin metrical criticisms, ancient and modern, on poetry ; to the
second, a classic which every highly educated Frenchman is supposed to know by heart ; and to the third, an authoritative statement, by poets themselves, of the canons recognized in the
Augustan ages of Latin, Italian, and French literature, and, to a
very considerable extent, in the so-called Augustan period of
English literature, the reign of Queen Anne. Those who read
Latin and French will here find the originals, while those who
read only English are provided with standard translations. A
full index, containing lists of the Homeric and Virgilian passages
illustrated and a topical analysis of the threefold work enhance
its value for the class-room and the private student.
:Bliss Perry, Prof. of English, as well as his scholarship. . . . I
Williams College : The fullness and wish to express my admiration of
accuracy of the references in the such faithful and competent editing.
notes is a testimony to his patience

Addison's Criticisms on Paradise Lost.
Edited by ALBERT S. CooK, Professor of the English Language and Literature in Yale University. 12mo. Cloth. xxvi + 200 pages. Mailing
price, $1.10; for introduction, $1.00.

TI-IE text of this edition is based upon the literal reproductions
0f Arber and Morley, and, allowing for the modernization of
spelling and punctuation, is believed to be more correct than any
published in this century. The index is unusually full, and will
enable Addison's comments on any particular passage of Paradise
Lost, as well as on those of the ancient epics with which it is
compared, to be found with the least possi?le trouble.

I

V. D. Scudder, Inst. in English be welcome a s an addition to our
Literature, Wellesley College: It store of text-books.
seems to me admirably edited and to

16

HIGHER ENGLISH.

Hudson's Expurgated Shakespeare.
For Schools, Clubs, and Families. Revised and enlarged Editions of
twenty-three Plays. Carefully expurgated , with Explanatory Notes at
the bottom of the page, and Critical Notes at the end of each volume.
By H. N. HunsoN, LL.D., Editor of The Harvard Shakespeare. One
play in each volume, Square 16mo. Varying in size from 128-25:1
pages. Mailing Price of each: Cloth, 50 cents; Paper, 35 cents. Introduction Price: Cloth, 45 cents; Paper, 30 cents. Per set (in box)1
$12.00. (To Teachers, $10.00.) For list see next page.

SOME of the special features of this edition are the convenient

size and shape of the volumes ; the clear type, superior presswork, and attractive binding; the ample introductions: the explanatory notes, easily found at the foot of the page; the critical
notes for special study; the judicious expurgation, never mangling
either style or story; the acute and sympathetic criticism that has
come to be associated with Dr. H UDSON's ·name; and, finally, the
reasonableness of the price.
Oliver Wendell HolmeB: An edition of any play of Shakespeare's to
which Mr. Hudson's name is affixed
does not need a line from anybody to
commend it.
Cyrus Northrop, President University of Minnesota : They are convenient in form and edited by Hud~on, -two good things which I can
,ee at a glance.
Hiram Corson, Prof. of Rhet. and
Eng. Lit., Cornell University: I consider them altogether excellent. The
notes give all the aid needed for an
understanding of the text, without
waste and distraction of the student's
mind. The introductor y matter to
th e several plays ie especially worthy
of approbation.
C. F. P. :Bancroft, Prin. of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.: Mr.
Hudson's appreciation of Shakespeare amounted to genius. His
editing accordingly exhibits more
than learning and industry, - it reVP.al~ ;nsight, sympathy, and conviclion. lle leacxs the pupil into the

very mind and heart of " the thou
sand-souled Shakespeare."
Byron Groce, Master in Public
Latin School, Boston: The amended
text is satisfactory; the typography
is excellent; the notes are brief, al•
ways helpful, not too numerous, and
put where they will do the most good;
the introductions are vigorous, inspiriting, keenly and soundly critieal,
and very attractive to boys, especially
on account of their directness and
warmth, for all boys like enthust.
asm.
C. T. Winchester, Prof. of English,
Wesleyan University ,· The notes and
comments in the school edition are
admirably fitted to the need of the
student, removing his difilcultioo by
stimulating his interest and quicken.
ing his perception.
A. C. Perkins, Prin. of .Adelphi
Academy, Brooklyn: In the prepa·
ration of the School Shakespeare,
Mr. Hudson met fully the capacities
and needs of students in our school&
and colle~es.

HIGHER ENGLISH.
The list is as follows : *A Midsummer-Night's Dream.a
*The Merchant of Venice.I
*Much Ado About Nothing.a
Twelfth Night .1
*As You Like It.1
*The Tempest.2
The Winter's Tale.2
'King John.
Richard Second.
Richard Third.2
*Henry Fourth, Part First.1
Henry Fourth, Part Second.I
Henry the Fifth,2

17

*Henry the Eighth.a
*Romeo and Juliet.a
*Julius Cresar.1
*Hamlet.I
*King Lear.2
*Macbeth,2
Antony and Cleopatra.7
*Othello.a
Cymbeline.a
*Coriolanus.a

'' Old Edition, paper, plays starred above. By mail, 20 cents; for introduc·
tion, 15 cents.

Hudson's Three-Volume Shakespeare.
For Schools, Families, and Clubs. With Introductions and Notes on
each Play. 12mo. Cloth. 636-678 pages per volume. By mail, per
volume, $1.40; for introduction, $1.25. The plays included in the three
volumes respectively are indicated by figures in the above list.

Shakespeare's Complete Works. Harvard Edition.
By HENRY N. HUDSON, LL.D. In Twent11 Volum es, 12mo, two plays in
each volume. Retail price: Cloth, $25.00; half calf, $55.00. Also in
Ten Volumes, of four plays each. Retail price: Cloth, $20.00; half
calf, $40.00.
Buyers should be careful not to confound the Harvarcl Shakespeare
with an old edition made in 1851 and still sold by another house.

TIUS is pre-eminently the edition for libraries, students, and
general readers. The type, paper, and binding are attractive
and superior, and the introductions and notes represent the editor's
ripest thought.
The first volume contains the Burbage portrait and a life of the
poet. •-The history of each play is given in its appropriate volume.
The plays are arranged in three distinct series : Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies ; and the plays of each series presented, as
nearly as may be, in the chronological order of the writing.
An obvious merit of this edition is that each volume has two
sets of notes ; one mainly devoted to explaining the text, and
placed at the foot of the page ; the other mostly occupied with
matters of textual comment and criticism, and printed at the end
of each play. The edition is thus admirably suited to the uses

HIGHER ENGLISH.

HIGHER ENGLISH.

18

Other Works by Dr. Hudson.

both of the general reader and of the special student. General
readers prefer to have explanations directly before them; and in
at least nine cases out of ten they will pass over an obscure won~
or phrase or allusion without understanding it, rather than looh
up the explanation in another volume or another part of the same
volume. Often, too, in case the explanation be not directly a\
hand, they will go elsewhere in quest of it, and then find, aftei
all, that the editor has left the matter unexplained ; whereas, with
foot-notes, they will see at once how the matter stands, and will
be spared the labor and vexation of a fruitless search.
Mr. Hudson's notes are always fresh and original, aiming to
give the pupil such help as he needs for a thorough understanding
of the poet's meaning rather than for the technical teaching of
philology. It was always Mr. Hudson's wish to bring his students
into close communion with the author. ·If he could accomplish
that, his great obj ect was secured, and anything that would tend
to distract the attention of the pupil to foreign matters he considered a very great mistake. ·while studying Shakespeare, his
desire was to understand him, and not to make him the subject
for the teaching of the English langu~ge.
OPINIONS OF NOTED SHAKESPEARIANS.

Horace Howard Furness: A noble
edition, with happy mi11gle of illustration, explanation, and keen, subtle, sympn,thetic criticism.
E. P . Whipple : Hudson's is the
rnost thoughtful and intelligent interpretative criticism which has,
luring the present century, been
wri tten, either in E nglish or German.
Professor Dowden: Hudson's edi-

tion takes its place beside the best
work of English Shakespeare students.
Dr. A. P. Peabody: I regard the
edition as unequalled in Shakespearian scholarship, and in its worth in
the library and for current use..
Prof. C. T. Winchester: It seems
to me, without question, the best
edition now printed.

Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare.
By HENRY N. HunsoN, LL.D., Editor of The Hai·vard Shakespeare, etc.
12mo. 1003 pages. Uniform in size and binding with 'l'he
Harvard Shakespea1·e. Retail prices: Cloth, $4.00; half-calf, $8.00.
Besides th e topics m entioned in the titl e, this work treats of t.hc origin
and growth of the English drama and of Shakespeare's coutcmporaries.

In 2 vols.

19

See also English Literature Pamphlets below.

Classical English Reader.
Selections of the choicest prose and poetry from Spenser to Longfellow,
with notes. 467 pages. Clo~h. By mail, $1.10; for introduction, $1.

l

F. :1. Child, P1·of. of English in are good for anything generally know
Ifai·vm·d University : A boy who their readers, might almost be sciid
knew this book as well as boys who to be liberally educated.

Essays on Education, English Studies, and Shakespeare.
Paper. 118 pages.

By mail, and for introduction, 25 cents.

Text-Book of Postry.
'J

Selections from Wordsworth, Coleridge, Burns, Bflattie, Goldsmith, and
Thomson. With Lives and Notes. Cloth. 704 pages. By mail, $ 1.40;
for introduction, $1.25.
-

Text-Book of Prose.

Selections from Burk~, W ebster, and Bacon. With Lives and Notes
Cloth. 648 pages. By mail, $1.40; for introduction, $1.25.

Shakespeare and Chaucer Examinations.
Edited, with some remarks on the "Class-Room Study of Shakespeare,"
by WILLIAM TAYLOR THOM, l\LA., recently Professor of English iu
Hollins Institnte, Va. Sqnare lGmo. Cloth. 346 pages. Mailing price,
$1.10; for introduction, $1.00.

THIS volume contaim1, b.eside other inteTesting and valuable mat
ter, examinations on Hamlet (two), Macbeth, King Lear,
Othello, and The Merchant of Veuice, with a Chaucer examination.
set chiefly by Professor Child of Harvard U!1iversity, and based
upon The Prologue, The Knight's Tale, and The J•lun's Priest's Tale.
W. M . ..Baskervill, Prof. in Vander-, ers. They are full of suggestive
hilt University : vVe heartily recom- information. They will serve as
tnend these examinations to t each- admirable models.

Introduction to the Poetry of Robert Browning.
By WILLIAM JOHN ALE:XANDER, Ph.D., Munro Professor of the English
Language and Literature, University of Toronto, and formerly Fellow
of J ohns Hopkins University. 12mo. Cloth. v + 212 pages. Mailing
I'rice, $ 1.10; for introduction, $ 1.00.

I

F. :1. Furnivall, Founder of the analysis of his limitations and their
original Brownin,q Society: I think causes are the best and truest yet
your estimate of Browning and your made. (From a letter to the author.)

20

HIGHER ENGLISH"

English Literature Pamphlets.

A LL of these are printed in good type, on good paper, and have

been judiciously annotated for the use of students. All are of
12mo size. The first of the prices given below is the mailing price,
and the second the introductory. The name of the editor is in
brackets.
Burke. [Hudson.]
I. Five Speeches and ten Papers. 20 cents; 15 cents.
II. Life. A Letter to a Noble Lord, and eleven Extracts. 20 cents;
15 cents.
Webster. [Hudson.]
I. Reply to Hayne, and six Extracts. 20 cents ; 15 cents.
II. Life, and extracts from twenty-five Speeches. 20 cents; 15 cents,
Webster. [Montgomery.] First Bunker Hill Address, witl1 I~ife. 12
cents; 10 cents.
·
Bacon. [Hudson.] Life, and Extracts from thirty Essays. 20 cents;
15 cents.
Wordsw!Jrfh. [Hudson.]
I. Life. The Prelude, and thirty-three Poems. 20 cents; 15 cents.
II. Sixty Poems and Son nets. 20 cents; 15 cents.
Coleridge and Burns. [Hudson.J Lives, and forty-five Poems. 20
cents; 15 cents.
Coleridge. [Hudson.] The Ancient Mariner. 6 cents; 5 cents.
Addison and Goldsmith. [Hud son.] J,ives, fifteen Papers from Addison, eleven Prose Selections from Goldsmith, with The D eserted
Village. 20 cents; 15 cents.
Macaulay. [Montgomery. J Essay on Clive, with Life. 20 cents; 15 cents.
Macaufi17. [Montgomery.] Second EBsay on the Earl of Chatham,
with Life. 20 cents; 15 cents.

Craikjs English of Shakespeare.
Illustrated in a Philological Commentary on Julius Caisar. By GEORGE
L. CRAIK, Queen's College, Belfast. Edited, from the third revised
London ed ition, by W. J. RoL1rE, Cambridge, Mass. 12mo. Cloth. 400
pages. Mailing Price, $1.00; Introduction, 00 cents.
·

AN exposition in regard both to the language or style of Shake·
speare, and to the English language generally.

8hakspere's Versification.
Notes on Sbakspere's Versification, with Appendix on the Verse Testa
a.nd a short Descriptive Bibliography. By GEORGE H. BROWNE . .A.M.
12mo. Paper. 34 ;pages; Price, interleav~d, 25 cents.

