~w o;
AMERICAN LINGUISTICS, 1700-1900
Charlotte Downey, Editor

Brown University

Volumes published

to

date:

John Ash, Grammatical Institutes ( 1785)
Caleb Bingham, The Young Lady's Accidence ( 1785)
published together with
Caleb Alexander, A Grammatical System of the English
Language ( 1 795)
Thomas Dilworth, A New Guide to the English Tongue
(1793)
Robert Lowth, A Short Introduction to English Grammar
( 1775)
Noah Webster, A Grammatical Institute of the English
Language, Part II ( 1800)
Lindley Murray, English Grammar(1824)
Samuel Greene , First Lessons in Grammar ( 1848)
and An Analysz~- of the English language ( 1874)
Goold Brown, The Institutes ofEnglish Grammar ( 1823)
Roswell Smith, English Grammar on the Productive System
(1864)
Peter Bullions, The Principles ofEnglish Grammar ( 1846)
William Harvey Wells, A Grammar of the English Language
(1846)

~

A GRAMMAR OF THE EN({:bISH
LANGUAGE
·~'"'· ·-~,.. ., .

(1846)
By William Harvey ~ells
A PHOTOREPRODUCTION
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
CHARLOTIE DOWNEY, R.S.M.

SCHOLARS' FACSIMILES & REPRINTS
DELMAR, NEW YORK, 1984

?[111/
. l1Us3

/ 1 ·1/{
INTRODUCTION
SCHOIARS' FACSIMILES & REPRINTS
ISSN 0161-7729
SERIES ESTABLISHED 1936
VOLUME 393

A GrammaroftheEnglishLanguage(l846) by William Harvey
Wells, also called Wells's School Grammar, made its debut about
the same time as two other prominent grammars. Robert Pooley
(1957) informs us that
Toward the close of the first half of the (nineteenth] century, three ·
. . texts appeared which had considerable influence. William H.
Wells published his School Grammar in 1846, Samuel S. Greene's
The Analysis of Sentences came the next year, and in 1851 Goold
Brown brought out his colos~al Grammar of Grammars (p. 25).

Published by Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints
P. 0 . Box 344, Delmar, New York 12054, U.S.A.
New matter in this edition
© 1984 Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, Inc.
AH rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America

Wells' School Grammar will be the subject of this introduction.
It can be considered a transitional text in the development of
grammar teaching in America. While it leans toward the traditional
methods and definitions we find in Brown's Institutes ( 1823 ), it
also looks toward Greene in its modern methods of instruction.
Wells' definition of grammar immediately places him in the school
of Brown, the originator of which is Lowth ( 1762 ). Lowth defines
grammar as an "art," and grammarians copied his definition for
over a hundred years. Ash (1763), Webster (1784), Murray (1795),
Brown, Institutes (1823), Bullions (1834), and Farnum (1844 ) give
definitions which closely resemble Wells'

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Wells, William Harvey, 1812-1885.
A grammar of the English language.
(American Linguistics, 1700-1900)
(Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ISSN 0161-7729; v. 393)
Reprint. Originally published: Andover: Allen, Morrill,
and Wardwell, 1846.
Bibliography: p.
1. English language-Grammar-1800-1870. I. Title. II. Series.
III. Series: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints (Series); v. 393.
1984
428.2
83-20458
PE11 l l.W53
ISBN 0-8201-1393-X

f

,,f.

",J .

\

~.,6 \
.

English grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English
language correctly (p. 23 ).

But some of these grammarians consider grammar as a science
as well as an art. Peter Bullions, for example, in his Principles of
English Grammar ( 1834 ), states:

'J'--

~
(\'\
I

Ix>

\

Grammar is both a Science and an Art.
As a Science, it investigates the principles of language in general. . . .
v

vi

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

vii

As an Art, it teaches the right method of applying these principles
to a particular language, so as thereby to express thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to established usage (p. 1).

A Sentence is an assemblage of words, expressed in proper form ,
and ranged in proper order, and concurring to make a complete
sense (pp. 67, 68).

After further study, however, Wells broadens his view of grammar and gives an expanded definition, which is closer to that of
Bullions, in his 1847 edition:

Even when Wells breaks the sentence into its principal parts, he
follows the Lowth-Brown tradition. Lowth establishes the structure pattern with:

Grammar is the science which treats of the principles of language.
English grammar teaches the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly (p. 22 ).

The Principal Parts of a simple sentence are the agent, the attribute, and the object (p. 71 ),

Although Wells omits the part of Bullions' definition which makes
"established usage" the norm, he includes it when he explains the
function of syntax, stating that: "Syntax treats the construction of
sentences according to the established laws of speech" (p. 119).
Noah Webster, too, after further study, sees grammar as a science as well as an art, as we can see in his Philosophical and
Practical Grammar ( 1807), where he explains:
Grammar, as a science, treats of the natural connection between
ideas and words which are the signs of ideas, and developes the
principles which are common to all languages (p. 12).

Wells names both Bullions and Webster in his "Catalogue" of
sources, so he may have been influenced by them in his later concept of grammar as a science.
When Wells defines the sentence, he again places himself in the
line of Brown, who in his /nstitutes gives:
A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense,
.. (Brown, p. 104),

which matches Wells'

explaining:
The agent is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the thing
or action affirmed or denied of it, and the object- is the thing affected by such action (p. 72).

Some years after Lowth, Brown follows with:
The principal parts of a sentence are usua)ly three, namely, the
Subject or nominative-the Verb--and, (if the verb be transitive,)
the Object governed by the verb; as, "Crimes deserve punishment."
(p. 104).

Both Lowth and Brown are in Wells' inventory of sources, and
he seems to have studied them well.
It is not until Wells works further with analysis of sentences that
he alters his view of the principal parts of the sentence. The treatment of analysis in the first edition ( 1846) of his School Grammar
does not reach the conclusion of only two principal parts. The
change shows up in the 1847 and 1849 editions and those following, such as the 1862, which reads:
·

A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense
(Wells, p. 119).

Every simple sentence consists essentially of two parts; -a subject and a predicate. The subject is that of which something is affirmed; and the predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject
(p. 110).

Murray's and Smith's ( 1831 ) definitions seem to be formed from
the same mold, except that they use the word "forming" where
Brown and Wells use "making. " Both versions, however, are derived from Lowth's

But in all these later editions, Wells retains three principal parts
in the syntax section. In his Elementary Grammar ( 1848 ), also
known as The Elements o/English Grammar, he gives his revised
version of the principal parts:

viii

INTRODUCTION

Every simple sentence consists essentially of two parts; - a subject and a predicate ( p. 125).

In dividing sentences into categories, Wells again follows the
view of Brown's Institutes, for he omits the complex sentence.
Brown states that "Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound" (p. 104). And Wells echoes Brown with "Sentences are of
two kinds; -simple and compound" (p. 119). But Brown and Wells
are not alone in this classification; Weld ( 1849) also states that
"Sentences are simple or compound" (p. 23). In his later School
Grammar( 1862), however, Wells, through the influence of other
grammarians, discovers the category of "complex" sentences. In a
footnote he names Greene as one of his sources for :

INTRODUCTION

ix

The chapter on Analysis has received special attention; and it is
earnestly recommended, that pupils attend to this department of
Grammar as early as their capacities and attainments will permit
(Elem Gram, p. 3).

In his revised School Grammar ( 1858) Wells expands and improves the method, explaining:
In the present edition of the School Grammar, that portion of the
work which is devoted to Analysis has been re-written and greatly
enlarged (1858, 1862, p. iv).

By this time Wells is fully convinced of Greene's statement that:

A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses so combined
that one of them is dependent upon another; as, "He will be pardoned, if he repents" (p. 119 ).

If English grammar teaches "the art of speaking and writing the
English language correctly," -the only successful method of obtaining a knowledge of that art is by means of construction and
analysis (p. 4 ).

It was Greene's early Analysis ( 1847 ), also called A Treatise on
the Stmcture of the Eng lish Language, that helped Wells arrive at
the complex sentence. In this text Greene states that "a complex
sentence is formed by uniting a principal and a subordinate clause"
(p. 127).
Wells turns toward Greene in his acceptance of other ideas as
well. Pooley, in his Grammar and Usage in Textbooks (1933),
links him with Greene, perceiving that:

And Wells adopts the method of "construction" as well as that
of analysis. Roswell Smith is believed to be the pioneer in construction or sentence-building. Smith and Gteene both perceive
the value of sentence-building for applying the rules of grammar.
Furthermore, they are aware that we communicate our thoughts
by constructing sentences rather than by copying ones already tailored for us. And Wells, too, strongly advocates the method. Lyman
( 1921) informs that:

In Wells and Greene . . there is apparently a new spirit which
clearly forecasts the change in language attitude appearing in the
latter part of the nineteenth century (p. 28).

Wells, in 1846, urged that teachers write models on the board
and that they also write lists of words and have the pupils compose
sentences embracing them (p. 152).

Wells resembles Greene particularly in his strong conviction of
the importance of analysis as a means for acquiring competence
in language. Wells feels analysis is far more important than the
traditional parsing, and advocates that

Wells supplies plenty of practice in constructing sentences
throughout his School Grammar, so that pupils learn to apply rules
in the sentences they form. And he states a strong defense for the
method, explaining:

Pupils should pass on as early as practicable from the formalities
of common parsing, to the more important exercise of analysing
critically the structure of language (p. 181 ).

Rules may be recited very fluently without being understood; but
an application of them in the construction of sentences, requires a
careful attention to principles, while it also aids the learner in forming an accurate style of writing (p. 132 ).

Even in his Elementary Grammar Wells shows that children need
to perform analysis of sentences as early as possible. He stresses
that

Although Wells is careful to prepare students for "forming an
accurate style of writing," he neglects to prepare them for unity

'

x

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

and sequence. Instead of having students write sentences about
the same subject, he has them do exercises in isolated sentences,
such as:

inductive method, for it is Smith's name we find listed in his sources.
Lyman lists the "chief features" of the inductive movement found
in Smith, Wells, Greene, and others as:

Write sentences containing examples which illustrate the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents; one or more examples
of it, used to represent a word in the plural ; (p. 13 7).

First, the attempt to make learners understand thoroughly every
step of their progress; second, the use of oral and visual instruction
. . . ; and third the addition of the pupil's own activity in actually
applying principles as he learned them . . . [by) exercises in sentence building and composition (p. 144).

In his later editions Wells continues to have students construct
sentences which are not connected by the same thought. Even in
the 1862 revised edition of the School Grammar he goes on assigning construction without having students relate the sentences
to one another.
Samuel Greene, too, gives sentence building exercises without
having students connect the sentences in his early Analysis ( 1847).
But in his New Analysis ( 1874) we find such directions as:

xi

The feature of oral instruction can be said to be Wells' contribution to the inductive method. For, according to Lyman,
It is probable that his influence more than any other man really
introduced oral instruction in English grammar (p. 148).

Wells tells us in his Preface that:

Write short sentences and describe some object, as a shower, a
ride, a garden, and let the thought be so connected as to require
pronouns or substantives of reference (p. 30).

The chapter on Oral Instruction was prepared at tbe request of
Henry Barnard, Esq., Commissioner of Public Schools of the State
of Rhode Island . . . (p. iv).

And then he supplies an example with connected sentences.
Wells resembles Greene in his use of the inductive procedure
for language learning as well as in advocating construction of sentences. Students are asked many questions which lead them to discover the definition for each part of speech. For example, after
asking such questions as:

Wells' School Grammar, with its oral instruction in the inductive method, was used widely in the American schools of the nineteenth century. In the National Union Catalog we find that the
260 thousandth was published in New York in 1864. And Jack
Capps ( 1966) adds further prestige to the book when he discovers
that it must have been used by the great American poet Emily
Dickinson in her preparation for admission to Mount Holyoke.
Because the Mount Holyoke catalogue was very specific in prescribing subjects to be mastered by prospective students and because of Emily's eagerness "to be upon the safe side of things" [Ltr.
234 ], when she arrived in South Hadley she probably studied the
recommended books very carefully. The catalogue listed these
"Studies Required for Admission to the Seminary:"

Are all the words names? Can you mention any words that are
not names' Are "good" and "bad" names' Why not? . . (p. 10)

and continuing with such questions, Wells then proceeds with:
. . . the pupils are informed that the names of all objects, whether
material or immaterial, are called "Nouns;" and the teacher proceeds at the same time to write this title over the column of names
on the board (p . 10).

Smith's maxim "names should succeed ideas" on the title page
of his Intellectual and Practical Grammar ( 1829) is certainly followed in Wells' application of the inductive method. Wells was
more likely influenced by Smith than by Greene in the use of the

A good knowledge of Wells' English Grammar, with an ability to
apply the principles in analyzing and parsing, . . . (p. 103 ).

Perhaps it was Emily Dickinson's strong hold on the principles
of English grammar that enabled her to experiment with language
without violating these principles. Wells included the principles

xii

INTRODUCTION

of poetry as well as the principles of grammar in his text. To be
sure, this part of the book must have had a greater appeal for Emily
Dickinson. In this section, however, she certainly would argue
against Wells' opinion of the importance of rhyme in poetry. He
says: "Rhyme . . . is undoubtedly the most important ornament of
English versification" (p. 197). She would have been more willing
to accept Walt Whitman's view ( 1855) that "the poetic quality is
not marshalled in rhyme" (p. 714), for she often uses only a partial
rhyme, and sometimes no rhyme at all.
Wells' section on the ellipsis must have opened many possibilities for Emily Dickinson; he suggests that "poetry admits of a great
variety of elliptical expressions" (p. 202). Throughout her poetry
Miss Dickinson reveals the art of omitting words (ellipsis) to accommodate her rhythm or to let the more important words fall
into the more significant slots. She can stress the action or mood
created by a verb by omitting the subject:

INTRODUCTION
Water, is taught by thirst.
Land-[ ] by the Oceans passed.
Transport-[ ] by throePeace-[ ] by its battles toldLove, [ ] by Memorial MoldBirds, [ ] by the Snow. (Poem 135).

The concept of climax, which Wells defines as "a figure in which
the ideas rise or sink in regular gradation" (p. 208), must have had
a special appeal for Emily Dickinson. She is a genius in building
up to a climax and she does show a regular gradation. But once
she reaches that climax, there is a sudden drop in her surprise
ending. This surprise ending can be a humorous one, a happy one,
or a disappointment. In "The Spider Holds a Silver Ball" the humorous ending becomes a tragic one for the spider after the climax of rearing supreme.

[ ] Feels shorter than the Day
I first surmised the Horses' Heads
Were toward eternity-(Poem 7 12, 11. 22-24).

An Hour to rear supreme
His Continents of LightThen dangle from the Housewife's BroomHis Boundaries-forgot-(Poerp 605, 11. 9-12).

Her Golden finger on Her lip[ ] Wills silence-Everywhere-( Poem 790, 11. 23, 24 ).

The dash, Wells points out

[ ] Was saying Yesterday
To Somebody you know
That you were due-(Poem 1035, 11. 2-4).

And she can stress the words which are more important to her
by omitting the weak verb "to be":
For only Gossamer [ ], my Gown
My Tippet-[ ] only Tulle-(Poem 7 12, 11. 15,16).
Her Household-[ ] Her Assembly (Poem 790, 1. 11 ).
Birds, [ ] mostly backThe Clover [ ] warm and thick-(Poem 1035, 11. 7, 8).

In her art of stressing the essentials, she states the verb in the
first line of the poem, and then through ellipsis, she sustains the
meaning of the verb through the rest of the poem:

xiii

is used where a sentence is left unfinished; where there is a sudden turn, or an abrupt transition, and where a significant pause is
required (p. 191 ).

Emily Dickinson makes very frequent use of the dash, as we can
see in the above poem, where there are both "a sudden turn" and
"an abrupt transition."
Whether Wells had any direct influence on Emily Dickinson's
language, we cannot be sure. We are certain, however, that he
made definite contributions to the teaching of language in American schools during the nineteenth century through his famous
School Grammar. In addition to this text he also wrote The Elements of English Grammar, popularly known as Wells' Elementary Grammar. The National Union Catalog shows the 90th edition in 1860. And Wells contributed to the field of lexicography
as well as to grammar. His "Memoriam Record" ( 1887) shows that
he "assisted in the revision of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary."
In the field of grammar he was one of the most prominent con-

xiv

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

tributors. Lyman sums up by stating that:
Most conspicuous among grammarians were Kirkham and Smith,
Wells and Greene; among educational leaders, Carter, Rand, Barnard, and Mann (p. 154).
CHARLOTTE DOWNEY,

R.S.M.

Brown University

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ash, John. Grammatical .Institutes. Worcester: Thomas, 1785; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1979.
Brown, Goold. 7be .Institutes o.fEnglish Grammar. New York: Wood, 1823,
1853; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1982.
Bullions, Peter. The Principles o.fEnglish Grammar. New York: Pratt and
Woodford, 1834, 1846; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints,
1983.
Capps, Jack L. Emily Dickinson's Reading 1836-1886 Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966.
Dickinson, Emily. The Complete Poems o.fEmily Dickinson Ed. by Thomas
H. Johnson. Boston: Little and Brown, 1960.
Farnum, Caleb. A Grammar o.f the English language. Boston: Mussey,
1844.
Greene, Samuel S. An Analysis o.f the English language. Philadelphia:
Cowperthwait, 1874; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1983.
- - · A Treatise on the Structure o.f the English language or The Analysis and Classification o.fSentences. Philadelphia: Cowperthwait, 1847,
1855.
Lowth, Robert. A Short .Introduction to English Grammar. Philadelphia:
Aitken, 1775; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1979.
Lyman, Rollo LaVerne. English Grammar in Amencan Schools Before 1850.
Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Chicago, 1921; Chicago: Privately printed, 1922.
"Memoriam Record" in William Harvey Wells, Sketches o.fHis life and
Character, Memorial Addresses and Proceedings and Resolutions o.f
Public Bodies on the Occasion o.f His Death. Chicago: Fergus, 1887.
Murray, Lindley. English Grammar. Bridgeport: Baldwin, 1795, 1824; rpt.
Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1981.
Pooley, Robert C. Grammar and Usage in Textbooks on English. University of Wisconsin Bureau of Educational Research Bulletin, No. 14,
August 1933.
- -· Teaching English Grammm: New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
1957.

xv

Smith, Roswell C. English Grammar on the Productive System Richmond: Bidgood, 1830, 1864; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1983.
- -· .Intellectual and Practical Grammar. Providence: 1829.
Webster, Noah. A Grammatical .Institute o.f the English language, Part
II. Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1784, 1800; rpt. Delmar: Scholars'
Facsimiles & Reprints, 1980.
- -· A Philosophical and Practical Grammar o.fthe English language.
New Haven: Steele, 1807.
Weld, Allen H. English Grammar. rev. ed, Boston: Sanborn, Carter, and
Bazin, 1849, 1858.
Wells, W[illiam] H[ arvey]. Wells's Elementary Grammar, or The Elements
o.f English Grammar. Andover: Wardwell, 1848, 1849.
- -· Wells's School Grammar, or A Grammar o.f the English language.
Andover: Allen, Morrill, and Wardwell, 1846. (The work reproduced in
this volume.)
- -· School Grammar. 1847.
- -· School Grammar. 1848.
- -· School Grammar. 1858, 1862.
Whitman, Walt. "Preface to 1855 leaves o.f Grass." leaves o.f Grass. Ede
by Harold W. Blodgett and Sculley Bradley. New York: Norton, 1965,
1968.

WELLS'S SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

A

GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE;
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.

BY W. H. WELLS, M. A.,
INSTRUCTOR IN PHILLIPS J.CJ.DEKY, J.NDOVEB, llJ.88,

ANDOVER:
PUBLISHED BY .ALLEN, MORRILL, .AND W.ARDWELL.
NEW·YORK: MARK H. NEWMAN.
CINCINNATI : W. H, MOORE 1G CO.

1846.

PREFACE.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by
.ALLEN, MORRILL, AND

W..\RDWELL,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

A BRIEF notice of the circumstances under which the following work, has been written, will give a general idea of its
prominent characteristics.
About nine years since, while engaged in the instruction
of a class of teachers, the author commenced a critical examination of several grammatical works, in connection with a
systematic course of English reading. All the important
principles of the language were familiarly discussed before
the class. The definitions and rule;s of different grammarians
were carefully compared with each other, and tested by constant reference to the usage of standard writers. In conducting the exercises of successive classes of teachers, a similar cou~se has been repeated from year to year till the present time. The result of these labors is embodied in the
work now offered to the public.• •.
English Grammar is too often taught as if it were merely
the art of parsing. It is hoped that instructors will find ihe
present work adapted to teach " the art of speaking and writing." Copious exercises and illustrations have been introduced, and the learner is required to make constant application of the principles as he advances.

*

In pursuing this investigation, the author has collected between
three and four hundred different treatises on English Grammar, and
noted above eighteen thousand illustrative examples in the productions
of the best English writers.

iv

PREFACE.

The chapter on Oral Instruction was prepared at the re·
quest of Henry Barnard, Esq., Commissioner of Public
Schools for the State of Rhode Island, and first appeared as
one of his series of E~ucational Tracts.
The author's ackn~wledgments are due tO Mr. J. M. Ordway, of Lowell, for important assistance in the preparation of
the work ; and tO several other teachers and friends of education, for valuable suggestions during it.s progress through
the press.

W.H.W.
Phillip11 .!lcademy, 1846.

CATALOGUE
OF THE ENGLISH GRAMMARS REFERRED TO IN TUE FOLLOWING
WORL

Adams, Daniel, 3d ed. 12mo. Montpelier, Vt.; 18H..
Alexander, Samuel, 4th ed. 18mo. London; 1832.
Allen, Rev. William, 2d ed. l2mo. London;. 1824.
Allen·and Cornwell, 3d ed. 18mo. London; 1841.
Arnold, T. K., M. A., 2d ed. 12mo. London; 1841.
Ash, John, LL. D ., new edition, 18mo. London; 1785.
Bal.ch, William S., 12mo. Boston; ·1839.
Baldwin, Edward, 2d ed. 18mo. London; 1824.
Barnard, F. A. P., A. M., 12mo. New-York; 1836.
Barrie, Alexander, 9th ed..18mo. Edinburgh; 1800.
Bell, Jolin, 12mo. Glasgow; 1769.
Bingham, Caleb, A. M., 12th ed. 24mo. Boston; 1801.
Booth, David, 12mo. London; 1837.
Brace, Joab, 18mo. Philadelphia; 1839.
Brightland, John, 5th ed. 12mo. London; 1728.
British Grammar, 12mo. London and Boston; 1784.
Britta.in, Rev. Lewis, 2d ed. 12mo. London; 1790.
~rown, Goold, stereotype ed. 12mo. New-York; 1846.
Buchanan, James, 12mo. London; 1767.-Philadelphia; 1792.
Bucke, Charles, 18mo. London; 1829.
Bullions, Peter, D. D., 15th ed. 12mo. New-York; 1846.
Butler, Noble, A. M, 12mo. Louisville, Ky. ; 1845.
Cardell, William S., 3d ed. 18mo. Hartford; 1827.
Chapin, Joel, 12mo. Springfield; 1842.
Churchill,'.]'. 0., 12mo. London; 1823.
Coar, Thomas, 12mo. Loudon; 1796.
Cobb, E., 2d ed. 12mo. Boston; 1821.
Cobbett, William, 12mo. London and New-York; 1833.
Connel, Robert, 2d ed. 18mo. Glasgow; 1834.
Connon, C. W., M.A., 12mo. Edinburgh; . 1845.
Cooper, J. G., 12mo. Philadelphia; 1831.
Coote, C., LL. D ., 8vo. London; , 1788.
Crane, George, 12mo. London; 1843.
Crombie, Alexander, LL. D., F. R. S., 4th ed. Svo. London; 1836.

1•

vi

LIST OF AUTHORS,

Cutler, Andrew, 12mo. Plainfield, Ct.; 1841.
Dalton, John, 2d ed. 12mo. London ; 1803.
Davis, Pardon, 12mo. Philadelphia; 1845.
Day, Parsons E., 2d ed. 18mo. I thaca, N. Y.; 1844.
Dearborn, Benjamin, I 2mo. Boston; 1795.
Del Mar, E., ·12mo. London ; 1842.
Dilworth, Thomas, 26th ed. I 2mo. London; 1764.
D'Orsey, Alexander J . D., 12mo. Edinburgh; 1842.
Earl, Mary, 18mo. Boston; 1816.
Elphinston, James, 12mo. -London; 1766.
Emmons, S. B ., 12mo. Boston; 1832.
Farnum, Caleb, A. M., 2d ed. I 2mo. Boston; 1843.
Farro, D., 12mo. London; 1754.
Felch, W., 12mo. Boston; 1837.
Felton, 0. C., 2d ed. 12mo. Salem; 1843.
Fenning, D ., l2mo. London; 1771.
Fisher, A., 28th ed. 12mo. London; 1795.
Fletcher, Levi, 12mo . .Philadelphia; 1834.
Flint, John, 18mo. New-York; 1837.
Flower, M. and W. B., 18mo. London; 1844.
Fowle, William B ., 12mo. Boston; 1842.
Frazee, Rev. Bradford, 12mo. Philadelphia; 1844.
French, D'Arcy A., 12mo. Baltimore; 1831.
Frost, John, A. M., 12mo. Philadelphia ; 1842.
Fuller, Allen, 1_2mo. Plymouth, Mass.; 1822.
Goldsbury, J ohn, A. M., 12mo. Boston; 1842.
Goodenow, S . B., 2d ed. 12mo. Boston; 1843.
Graham , G. F., 12mo. London ; 1843.
Grant, John, A . M., 12mo. London; 1813.
Green, R. W ., 5th ed. 18mo. Philadelphia; 1834.
Greenwood, James, 2d ed. 12mo. London; 1722.
Gurqey, David, A. M., 2d ed. 18mo. Boston; 1808.
Hall, Rev. S. R., 2d ed. 12mo. Springfield'; 1833.
Hallock, Edward J ., 12mo. Andover; 1842.
Hamlin, L. F., stereotype ed. 12mo. New-York; 1832.
Hart, J ohn S., A. M., 12mo. Philadelphia; 1845.
Hazen, Edward, A. M., 12mo. New-York; 1842Hazlitt, Wm. , 18mo. London; 1810.
Hiley, Richard, 3d ed. 12mo. London; 1840.
Hodgson, Rev. Isaac, I 2mo. London; 1770.
Hort, W. Jillurd, 18mo. London; 1822.
Jaudon, D., 4th ed. 18mo. Philadelphia; 1828.
J enkins, Azariah, 12mo. Rochester, N. Y. ; 1835.
Joel, Thomas, 12Ili.o. London; 1775.

LIST OJr'J.UTBORS.

Johnson, Samuel, LL. D., (prefixed to Dictionary,) 4t.o. London; 177!!.
Judson, Adoniram, A. B.,-1'2mo. Boston; 1808.
Kennion, Charlotte, 12mo. London; 18'2.
King, Walter W., 18mo. .London; 1841.
Kirkham, Samuel, 36th ed. 12mo. Rochester, N. Y.; ISM.
Latham, R. G., A . M., l;qno. London; 1843.
Lennie, William, 13th ed. 18mo. Edinbnrgh; 1831.
L ewis, William G., l8mo. London; 1·821.
Lindsay, Rev. John, A. M ., 18rno. London; 1842.
Locke, John, M. D ., 18mo. Cincinnati; 1827.
Lowth, Robert, LL. D., 18mo. London; 1763.-Cambridge, U.S.; 1838.
M'Culloch, J.M., D. D., 7th ed."18mo. Edinburgh; lS.'1.
Meilan, Mark Anthony, 12mo. London; l803.
Menye, J., 12mo. New-York; 1785.
Milligan, Rev. George, 2d ed. 18mo. Edinburgh; 1839.
Murray, Lindley, 8vo. Holdgate, Eng.; 1795.-Ne.w-Yoak; 1814.
Nutting, Rufus, A. M., 3d ed. 12nio. Montpelier, Vt.; 1826.
Oliver, Edward, D . D., 12mo. London; 1807.
Parkhurst, John L., 18mo. Andover; 1838.
Perley, Daniel, M. D., l8mo. Andover; 1S34.
Perr.y, William, (prefixed to Dictionary,) 12mo. Edinbnrgh; 1801.
Picket, A. and J . W., 12mo. Cincinnati; 1S3·7.
Pinnock, W., 12mo. London; 1829.
Pond's Murray, 6th ed. 12mo. Worcester; 1835.
Priestley, Joseph, LL. D., 3d ed. 18mo. London; 1772.
Pue, liugh A., 18mo. Philadelphia; 1841.
Putnl!'m, J.M., 18mo. Concord, N. H.; 1831.
Reed, Caleb, A. M., 18mo. Boston; 1821.
Robbins, Manasseh, 12mo. Providence; 1826.
Ross, Rohen, 7th ed. 12mo. Hartford; 1782.
Russell, J., D. D., 10th ed. 18mo. London; 1842.
Sanborn, D. H., 12mo. Concord, N. H.; 1836.
Simmonite, W. J., 12mo. London; 1841.
Skillern, R. S., A. M., 2d ed. 12mo. Gloucester, Eng.; 1808.
Smart, B. H., 12mo. London; 1841.
Smetham, Thomas, 12mo. London; 1774.
Smith, Eli, 18mo. Philadelphia; 1812.
Smith, Peter, A. M., JSmo. Edinburgh; 1826.
Smith, R. C., stereotype ed. 12mo. Philadelphia; 1845.
Snyder, W., 12mo. Winchester; 1834.
Spear, M. P ., 12mo. Boston; 1845.
Staniford, Daniel, A. M., 2d ed. lSmo. Boston; 1815.
St. Quentin, D ., M. A., 12mo. London; 1812.
Story, Joshua, 3d ed. i2mo. Newcastle, Eng. ; 178-3.

viii

LIST OF AUTHORS,

Sntcliffe;,Joseph, A. M., 2d ed. 12mo. London; 1815.
Swett, J, A. M., 2d ed. 12mo. Claremont, N. H.; .1844.
Ticli;nor, Elisha, A. M., 3d ed. 18mo. Boston; 1794.
Todd, Lewis C., 2d ed. 18mo. Fredonia, N. Y.; 1827.
Trinder, William M., 12mo. London; 1781.
Ussher, G. Neville, 12mo. London; 1787.-Exeter, N. H.; 1804.
Walker, John, 12mo. London; 1805.
Wallis, John, D. D., (in Latin,) 6th ed. 8vo. London; 1765.
Ward, H., 12mo. Whitehaven, Eng.; 1777.
Webber, Samuel, 12mo. Cambridge, Mass.; 1832.
Webster, Noah, LL. D" 12mo. New-Haven; 1831.
Wilbur, Josiah, .2d ed. 12mo. Bellows Falls·; 1822.
Wilcox, A. F ., l8mo. New-Haven; 1828.
Willard, Samuel, 18mo. Greenfield, Mass.; 1816.
Wilson, George, 18mo. London; 1777.
Wilson, J. P., D. D ., 8vo. Philadelphia; l)ll 7.

TO TEACHERS.
. That portioi;i of the work which is printed in the largest type, is designed for begmners; and th~ c~rrespondii;ig questions are printed ln
Roi;iian character~. That which is pnnted m type of the second size, is
des1~ed ~or pupils mo~e IJ:<lvan.ced; ~nd the corresponding questions
are m !~hes. That which 1s printed m the smallest type, is designed
for occa.s10nal reference.
The Exercises :which occur in different portions of .the work .a.re intended to be modified or extended at the discretion of teachers.

ORAL INSTRUCTION
IN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

THE following Outline of Oral Instruction is designed to fur_,
nish practical suggestions to tea~hers engaged in in1parting a
knowledge of the rudiments of English Grammar.
By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this
subject, it may be rendered highly attractive to young learners;
and the practice of introducing illustrative exercises in composi~
tion, will be found to afford great assistance to pupils in comprehending and re~ining the principles presented, while it alro
leads them to cultivate the habit of expressing their thoughts.
with fucility and accuracy.
It is not expected that teachers will confine themselves strictly to any particular system, but it is hoped that the general features of the sketch here presented will be found to meet thewants of all clll.Sses of beginners.

PARTS OF SPEECH.
The claasijication of words may be introduced by .referring tothe different kinds of trees.; to the different kinds. of animals;
Ol' to any other 901Jection of objects that admit of a regular division into disti(lct classes. Thus, when we go into a forest, we
find that the number of trees about us is greater than we can
estimate. But we soon oboervA that a portion of them have certain striking resemblances, while they differ essentially from all
the rest. We also observe that others, which differ materially
from these, have similar resemblances to one another. And by
extending our observ11tion, we find that this countle.ss multitude

10

11

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

ORAL UiSTRUCTION.

of trees all belong to a very few simple classes, which are easily
distinguished from each other. Those of one class we associate
together, and call them Oak trees; those .of another 'c\ass we
call Pine trees ; and in this manner we proceed with all the
different kinds.
Just so it is with the words of our language. Though their
number is about 80,000, yet we find, on a ·careful examination,
that they all belong to less than a dozen different classes, called
ParU! of Speech ; so that we have only to learn the character of
these divisions, and we shall be able to tell the class to which
any word in the language belongs.
By some such introductory illustration, the curiosity of a class
of beginner!! may be easily excited, and they will thus be prepared to enter with eagerness upon the labor of lear,ning .to .di11tinguish the different parts of speech.
The teacher should lead his pupils to take an active part in
these lessons from the beginning; not only by proposing frequent questions for them to answer, but also by encouraging
them to ask such questions as their own curiosity may suggest.

pupils, or written on the board ; and each member of the class
proceeds to selec.t all the nouns, .a nd write them iJJ a column on
a slate or piece of paper. The teacher should commence with
sentences of the simplest construction, and afterwards introduce
piore difficult forms of expression as the learners advance.

THE NOUN.

Sun, bird, idienR.ss, night.
The hawk is a bird of prey.-Idleness often leads to vice.-The sun
shines by day, and the moon by night. .

MODEL

L

The earth 'ill a large globe or ball...,- Vi1tue is ,better t1w.n ricks.

NouN!I.
Earth

Globe
Ball
Virtue
Riches

Exercises of this description shou)d 1.Je contlnued till the pupils are able to point out the nouns of any common sentence
with readiness.
The teacher next writes several DOUDS OD the black-board,
and calls on the class to construct one or more sentences embraciDg the words which he has placed before them.
Moi>EL IL

Having prepared the way for the consideration of wori18, the
teacher next requests his pupils to mention the na11Us of any objects that occur to the m. They proceed with book, de&k, inkstand,
etc., which the teacher writes in a column on the black-board.
The teacher now asks a variety of questions, similar to the·
following :-Are all words names ? Can you mention any words
that are not names ? Are good and bad names ? Why not?
Can you think of any object that has not a name ? Do any objects that you cannot see or touch have names? Is wise a name?
Is wisdom 'J Virtue 'J Virtuous ') Knowledge 'J
After these questions have been disposed of, the pupils are
informed that the names of all objects, whether material or immaterial, are called Nouns; and the teacher proceeds at the same
time to write this title over the column of names on the board.
One or more sentences are now placed in the hands of the

After going through with several exercises of this kind, the
pupils should be required to construct a variety of sentences,
and write the lette~ n over !!JI the nouns embraced in them.
MoDEL III.
"

"

"
n
In winter the ponds and rivers are generally covered with ice.Yir·

.

"

"

ginia is the largest St.ate in the Union.

THE .ADJECTIVE.
When the pupils have become sufficiently acquainted with
the nature of noun13, they may he introduced to the class of Jl.d-

12

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

jectitJe8 in a similar manner. The teacher directs the attention
of the pupils to a book, and asks if they can mention ~y words
that express its character or quality 'I To ·this they will readily
answer, that it is a good book, a large book, an interesting book,
etc. The teacher then calls on them to name as many words
as they can, that express the qualities of objects. As they proceed to enumerate words of this class, tho teacher writes them
in a column on the board as before.
Such expressions as "These books," "A wise man," " Ten
days," are next written on tbe board ; and the learners are requested to point out the words which serve to dejim or limit the
nouns, but do not strictly quaJ,ify them. After this is done, they
proceed to mention others of the same. character, which are
writlen under the column of qualifying words already commenced. It is now time to inform them that all words which are
used .to qualify or define nouns, belong to .the class called .ll.djectivea; a.nd this title is accordingly placed at the bend of the column of }VOrds on the board.
The pupils may also be told, in thid connection, that the words
a or a11 and th.e are distinguished from other definitives by the
title of .11.rticlu.
Simple sentences are again placed before the pupils, and they
are required to select all the adjectives, writing them in a column as before. They should also distinguish the articles, by
underlining them in the column.

MoDEL

N.

Great, men are not always wise. - The climate of Egypt is lwt in summer,
but dRJ.ightful in winter.

NOUNS.

Great
Wise
The
Hot
Delightful

Other sentences are now given to the pupils, from which they
select the nouns and the adjectives, writing them iu separate
columns, and distinguishing the articles as "in the previou11 exercise.

ADJECTIVES.

Plants
Countries
Ivory
Substance
Color

Few
All

A

Hard
Solid
Tum
A
White

The teacher next writes a number of adjectives on the board,
and the pupils proceed as before to form sentences which embrace them.
MODEL

VJ.

Diligent, cold, warm, sweet.
Charles is a diligent scholar. - In cold weather we pro.tect ourselves
by the use of warm clothing. - The rose is sweet, but it is surrounded
with thorns.

After this, the pupils write sentences containing adjectives of
their own selection. In exercises of thia character, .the learners
should distinguish all the par,ts of speech to which they have
attended, by their several abbreviations.
MoDEL

VII.

adj ;.
co;per is a very useful metal, which is found in a.lmost all ~arts of
ar
"
ar adj
n
. .
ad~ .· !'
the world. It is of a red ·color, and may be drawn out. mto fine wire,
adj

adj

ADJECTIVES.

V.

There are very few plants that will grow in all countries. - Ivory is a hard,
solid, and firm substance, of a white color.

ar

MODEL

13

n

"

or beaten into thin leaves.

THE VERB.
This part of speech may be introduced in a manner similu
to that exhibited in the following dialogue :.Twihu. What part of spetlch is horse~
Pupil,. A noun.

2

14

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

T. Why?
P. Because it is a name.
T. Can you think of any words that tell what the horse does'!
P. Runs, walks, etc.
T. Are runs and walks nouns ?
P. They are not.
T. Why not?
P. Because they are not names.
T. Are they adjectives 'J
P. They are not.
T . Why not?
P. Because they do not qualify or dtji,ne any thing.
T. Will you name as many words as you can recollect, th11t
tell what any thing does, or that express some kind of action")
P. Speak, read, study, sing, play, etc.
These words are written in a column on the board, after
which the dialogue is continued:T. In the sentence, " The sea is calm," does the word is
express any degree of action "J
P. It does not
T. Doeti it express the being or existence of any thing?
P. It does.
T. Can you name any other words that are used to express
the being or existence of objects ?
P. .IJ.m, was, live, etc.
These words are placed under the column already commenced on the board, and the pupils are informed that all words
which express action, and those which express being or existence,
are called verbs.
A number of sentences are next placed Lefore the pupils,
from which they select all the verbs, writing them by themselves as in previous exercises.

15

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

VJmns.
Fly
Shook
Trembled
Is
Wrote
Received

Other sentences are now given to the learners, from which
they select all the nouns, adjectives, and verbs, writing them in
separate columns, and distinguishing tbe article!!.
l\foDEL IX.

He came in the morning, and went away at night. - Trulli nevl!T' fears ex·
amination. - Venus is the &rightest of all the planets. It is sometimes visible
at mid-day.
VERBS.
ADJECTIVES.
NOUNS.
The
Came
Morning
Went
The
Night
Fears
Brightest
Truth
Is
All
Examination
i:s
The
Venus
Planets
Visible
Mid-day

Several verbs are next placed before the learners, and they
are required to form sentences whic'l1 include them. (See Models II. and VI.)
The pupils next write sentences containing several verbs of
their own choice ; and distinguish all the verbs, adjectives, and
nouns.
MODEL
arn

arK

:x.

v

n

"

n

In the spring the farmer ploughs his ground and sows his s'eed ;
ar

n

n

v

n

ar

n

in the summer and autumn he gathers his harvest; and in the win·
1'

n

"

n

ter he cuts his wood and threshes his grain.
MODEL VIII.

Birds fly in the air. - The earth shook and trembled. - Boston is the capi·
tal of Massachusetts. - I wrote a•lettl!T' to my friend last weelc and received
an answer this morning.
'

The teacher ahould make frequent suggestions and explanations during these exercises. It is highly important that learners become. thoroughly acquainted with the nature of verbs, before advancing to consider the other parts of speech.

16

OR.A.L INSTRUCTION.
ORAL INSTRUCTION.

THE PRONOUN.
Teacher. In th e sentence "John · d'J·
" fc
'
is ' igent and lie will improve, or wl1at name does th e word h
d' •
Pupil. John.
e stan r

. T. Can you mention any other names for which '- .
times used ?
"" is some-

P.

Gecrge, Charles, man, boy, etc.
For what nouns does she stand?
P. Jane, Susan, fjirl, woman, etc.
T. What words besides he and she are used
nouns ?
in the place of
T.

P.

Him, her, I, wh-0, e tc.

These words are w "tt
h
nouns . and the
·1 rt en_on t e board under the title of Pro'
pup1 s are informed th t th 18
.
a
term applies to all
words wh" h .
IC RI e used to Sllpp)y the place Of nouns,
Sentences are now pla d b fc
they select all the
ce
e ~~e the learn era, from which
pronouns, wntmg them ·
themselves. (See Models I. and IV.)
m a co1umn by
Other sentences are also ·
all the no~ns, adjectives ve:~ven ~1em, from which they select
columns as before (Se~ M ;,JanV pronouns, writing them in
.
·
o es . and IX.)
an:~~r this,_ the teacher writes several pronouns on the board

II. andevi~p1l13 form sentences e mbracing ti.em. (See

Model~

The_y then write sentence.s includ1'ng a
number of. pronouns
of t h e1r own choice.
MODEL

When the
v

wi~d bl~ws

· I

v10

XI.

I
ar
"
pro
.,
cnt y among the trees, they bend and

almost break. Thouah th~Ir r~ts v
adj
pro
"
ar
n
"
are very 5trong, they sometimes
. Id
ar
n
v
y1e to the force of the wind and fall t th
ar
n d
o e groun .

In this manner the
·1
h
pup1 s secure by frequent repetition what
t ey a~e before learne.i;I, and also cultivate habits of careful
companso~ and disc:imination, by examining the different
of speech m connection.
parts
h

17

THE ADVERB.
Teaiher. In the sentence, "The horse runs very rapidly,"
what word tells how the horse runs?

Pupil. R.apUJly.
T. What word then does rapUJly modify ?
P. Ru718.
T. What part of speech is ru718 'J
P. A verb.
T. What word in the sentence modifies rapidl,y 'J

P. Very.
T. In the sentence, "He is an exceedingly diligent scholar,"
what word modifies diligent 'J
P.

Exceedingly.

T. What part of speech is diligent ')
P. An adjective.
T. The words rapidl,y, exceedingly, and very, all belong to the
same class, and are calle<l .lldvub8. Rapi,<JJ,y modifies a tJerb ; exceedingly modifies an adjective ; and very modifies an adverb.
Just remember, then, that nil words which modify verb8, adj,.ctives, or ·adverbs, belong to the clll!lll of .!ldvtrb8.
T. Can you think of any other words that are used in this
manner?
P. Wifely, here, no10, when, etc.
These words are written in another column on the board, and
beaded .lldverbs. When this is done, sentences are again placed
before the pupils, from which they select all the adverbs, (Models I. and IV ;) and othen1 from which they select all the nouns,
adjectives, verbs, pronouns, and adverbs. (See Models V. and
IX.)
The teacher next writes a number of adverbs on the board,
and the learners form sent1mces which embrace them. (See
Models II. and VI.)
After this, they construct sentences containing adverbs selected by themselves, and distinguish all the parts of speech to
which they have attended, as in former exercises. (See Models
VII., X., and XI.)

,,,I

18

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

THE PREPOSITION.

Teacher. When I say, "My hand . is over the table," what
word expresses the relation of my hand to the table ?

Pupil.

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

19

They are then reguired to select all the conjunctions from
given sentence!!; and afterwards to write senten·ces containing
conjunctions, and others embracing all the parts of speech which
they have yet learned. (See· previous Models.)

Over.

T. "Vhen I say, "My hand is under the table," what word
then expresses the relation between my hand and the table?
P. Undtr.
T. Mention any other words that express the relation of
different things to each other.
P. On, between, in, above, etc.
These words are written in a column on the board, and heu,ded Prepositions. The pupils are told at the same time that every
word which is used to express the relation of one wor!l to another, belongs to this class.
Sentences are now given to the pupils, from which they select th(') prepositions; and oth(')rs, from which they select all th~
classes of wordi; which they have learned. (See Models VIIL
and IX.)
They then proceed to construct sentences containing prepositions assigned by the teacher; and others embracing examples
of their own selection. (See Models VL and XL)

THE CONJUNCTION.
Teacher. In the sentence, "I saw James or his brother,"
what word conner.ts Jarttes and brother 'J
Pupil,. Or.
T. What word connects the different parts or clauses of the
sentence, "James went to school, but John remained at home?"
P. But.
T. Can you think of any other •words that are used to connect words, or clauses of a sentence?
P. Jlnd, nor, if, etc.
These words are written on the board in a column headed
Conjunctions; and the pupils are told that all words used merely as connectives, belong to this class.

THE INTERJECTION.
Teacher. In the expression, "Alas! I am undone," what word
is used merely to express strong feeling or emotion ';t
Pupil• .11.las.
T. Can ·you name any other words that are used to express
strong or sudden emotion 'J
P. Oh, ·ah, ho, etc.
These words are written in a column on the board ; and the
pupili;i are told that they form a class called Interjectioru. They
are then directed to write a few sentences containing examples
of this part of speech.

GENERAL EXERCISES ON ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Having considered the several classes of words separately, the
learners are now prepared to take up a variety of selections from
their reading lessons, and classify the different words as they
occur; writing those of each part of speech in a column by
themselves. (See Models V. and IX)
They should also devote several lessons to the writing of sentences which embrace copious examples of all the parts of
speech; placing an abbreviation over each word to indicate the
clHss to which it belongs. (See Models X. and XI.)
All exerci;ses of this kind should be made progrusive. From
simple sentences, the learners should advance to the construction of those which are more , difficult; and from difficult sentences, ' to short compositions; and from short compositions, to
those of greater length.
By p11rsuing the course. here described, the pupils will soon
become familiar with the nature of words in common use, and
be able to classify them with .facility.

20

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

MORE PARTICULAR EXAMINATION OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF WORDS.

The subdivision of the parts of speech, and their most important offices, may now be brought under consideration.

NouNs.
The distinction between proper and comnwn nouns, and the
~istinctions of gender, person, number, and case, may be severnlly
mtroduced by familiar interrogative exercises, similar to those
which have already been given to aid in distiuguit1hi~g the parts
of speech.
As soon as the pupils understand the nature of proper and
common nouns, they are required to select all the nouns from
given sentences, writing the proper nouns in one column and
the common nouns in another. They then construct sentences
which embrace examples of both proper and common nouns.
(See previous Models.) The other distinctions of nouns should
be illustrated and enforced by similar exercises.
ADJECTIVES.

The degrees of comparison are now taken up, and made the
basis of a familiar oral exercise. The distinction between <kscriptive and defi.nuive adjectives should also receive some further
attention. These distinctions are next exemplified in written
exercises.
VERBS,

The verb is the most difficult and important of the parts of
speech, and the teacher should make special effort to impart
clear and correct views respecting its principal uses.
The division of verbs into regukr and irregular, and into transitive and intransitive, with the <listinction between the active and
the passive voice, should be introduced with practical inductive
exercises.
The government of the objective case by a transitive verb,
and the agre.ement of a verb with its subject or nominative,
may be explained in thi8 connection.

ORAL INS.TBUCTION.

21

The writing. of illustrative sentences, on the part of the p.upil111
follows uext in order. (See previous Models.)
It is generally better not to attempt a full exhibition. of the
modes and tenses, till pupils have advanced further in the study.
They should, however, ·be taught at thiil period to distinguish
between declaratory, conditional, and interrogative sentences; and
to determine whether the time denoted by a verb is pruent,
pa8t, <>r f ulure.
A ge11eral idea of participlu, and of auxililvy and COl!lpound
verbs, may also he communicated at tbia time.
Each of these subjects should be explained in the familiar,
conversational manner already described; and accompanied by.
practical exercises in the construction of sentences.
PRONOUNS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS.

The remaining points which demand special consideration in
these introductory lessons, are the division of pronouns into personal, relative, and interrogative, together with the person, number, and case of pronouns; the connutic!n of words·and sentences
by conjunctions; and the relation expressed by prepositions.
These modifications, like those before presented, should be introduced in a familiar and practical manner, and m~de the basis
of exercises in the construction of illustrative sentences.
Before closing this course of lessons, the learners should perform several exercises in composition, exemplifying all the Important principles to which they have attended. The first exercise may embrace the different modifications of the noun ;
thf:l second, those of the adjective; the third, those of the verb;
the fourth, those of the pronoun ; and the fifth, the principles
relating to the remaining parts of speech.
MODEL

XlL

Modifications of the Noun.
I am highly gratified, my dear friend, to learn that your efforts have
proved successful. My brother and sister expect to leave Boston in
about ten days. They will spend a day at Springfield, in compliance

22

ORAL INSTRUCTION.

with your father's invitation.-!, Thomas Smith, have written this short
composition.
Comnwn noum.-Friend, effarts, brother, si11!er, days, day, compliance,

father's, invitation, composition·.
Proper nouns.-Boston, Springfield, Thomas Smith.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Nouns in the Masculine Gender.'-Brother, father's, Thomas Smith.
Noun in the Feminine Gender.-Sister.
Nouns ·in the Neuter Gender.-Efforts, Boston, days, day, Springfield,

compliance, invitation, composition.
Noun in the Comnwn Gender.-Friend.
Noun in the First Person ...:-Thomas Smith.
Noun in the Second Person.-Frierid.
Nouns in the Third Person.-Efforts, brother, sister, Boston, days, day,

Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, composition.
Nouns in the Singular Number.-Friend, brother, sister, Boston, day,

Springfield, compliance, father's, invitation, Thomas Smith, composition.
Nouns in the Plural Number.-Effort.s, days.
Noun& in the Nominative Case.-Efforts, brother, sister, Thomas Smith.
Noun in the Possessive Case.-Father's.
Nouns in the ObJective Chse.-Boston, days, day, Springfield, compli-

ance, invitation, composition.
Noun in the Case lndependent.-Friend.

I

~I

After the pupils have in this manner exemplified the various
modifications of all the parts of speech, they should .he required
to write several compositions of considerable length, and parse
each word by itge)£ Thu~, in parsing a noun, the learner should_
tell why it is a noun ; whether it is proper or common, and why;
its gender, and why; person, and why; number, and why;
case, and why. If it is in the nominative case, he should point
out the verb of which it is the subject; if in the possessive, the
noun denoting the object possessed ; if in the objective, the
word which governs it. A similar course should be adopted in
parsing all the other parts of speerh.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English Lan~age correctly.
Grammar is divided into four parts;- Ortlwgraphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, and the proper method
of combining them to form syllables and words.
Etymology treats of the classification of words, their
derivation, and their various modifications.
Syntax, treats of the construction of sentences, according to the established laws of speech.
Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of
versification.

PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, and the proper
method of combining them to form syllables and words.
LETTERS.

A letter is a mark or character used to represent an
elementary sound of the human voice.
The word letter, like many other terms used in orthography, is often
applied to the sound represented, as well as the written character.
What is English Grammar1 How is Grammar divided 1 Of what
does Orthography treat 1 Etymology 1 Syntax 1 Prosody 1. What
i8 a letter?

25

ORTHOGRAPHY.-A.LPHABET.

CAPITA.LS A.ND ITALICS.

The letters of a language, taken collectively, are called its
.Alphabet. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, which have the following different forms:-

U and t1 were formerlv considered the same letter, and were used indiscriminately, the ~ne for the other; as, hau.e for have, and clwrch for

24

ROMAN.

ITALIC:

OLD ENGLISH.

SCRIPT.

Capital. Small. Capital . Small. Capital. Small.

A
B

c
D

E
F
G
H

I
J
K

a

.A
B

e

E.

t

$f

Ql;'.

/

JI

h

11f

b

~ JI

i

I

f

j
k
l
m
n

3J

J

iLt

1L

lt
l

~

m

N

n

J.16
lb

0

c@

0

@

p
q

lJJ

p

.f)l

®.,

q

2

r

~

r

s

.s

c!7i

1J

~

t

f

.f1

g

G

g

h

H
I
J

M

m

N

.n

0
p

0

L
M
N
0

p

p

Q

q

R

r

Q
R

s

8

s

T

t

T

u

u

v

v

w

w

x

x
y
z

z

<ff

F

L

u
v
w
x
y

z

A
£!

d

D
E

K

a

~
§Z5

d
e
f

a

j
k
1

y

«

A.
Bee.
See.
Dee.

a

b
c
d
e

b
c

Capital. Small. Namf!:•·

)!J

tJ

~

t

ii

1B

lJ
t

a

b
c

$

A

J

t

/

$

/

j,

.z

y
y

I
m
n
0

Elf.
Jee.
Aitch.
I.
Jay.
Kay.
Ell.
Em.
En.

o.

.d

Pee.
Kue.
.Ar.
Ess.

t

Tee.

a

u.

~

f

""

m u
v u

u
v

v

'W

~tu

1f!

w

Double-u.

x
y
z

!!Ii

x

l!

Eks.
Wy.
Zee.

u
ti

x

z

J:
!?
?

~

$)

,Y
z

Vee.

church.

The sounds of i and j' were ooth originally represented by the letter i;
laine,s for James.
When the diphthongs ae and oe, have either of the sounds of e, the
letters are united in printing.
.
Examples :-1Egis, diairesis, <Esophagus, antreci.
M,

CAPITALS .AND ITALICS.

The following classes of words should commence
with capital letters:1. The first word of a sentence.
2. The first word of every line in poetry.
3. The first word of a direct quotation.

.

Example,s :-.And Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the man."Remember iliis ancieilt maxim: '' LlbW thyself."
.An indirect quotation may be introduced without the .use of a capital.
· Exa111ple :- It is recorded of him who " spake three thousand proTerbs,'' iliat "his songs were a thousand and five."

4. Words used as names of the Deity.
Examples .~" Our

Faiher, who art in Heaven."..;..." Remember now
thy Oreaior, in the days of thy youth."
".And chiefly thou, 0 Spirit, that dos~ prefer,
Before all temples, the upright heart and pure."-Milton.

5. Proper names and titles of honor or distinction.
Examples :-The city of Boston ;-Th41 Hont>rahle Daniel W~ , Sir M<JJl.W Hale ;-Pliny the Younger.

6. Common nouns personified.
E:ramples :-"If Pam comes into a heart, he is quickly followed by
PIR.asure; and if Pleasure enters, you may be sure that Pain is
not far off."-Addison.
".And Discipline at length,
O'erlooked and unemployed, fell sick and died.
Then Study lan~uished, Emulation slept,
.And Virtue fled."- Cowper.
What are the letters of a languRge called 1 What are ~ seTeral
classes of words which commence with capitals 1

3

26

ORTHOGRAPHY.-CAPITALS AND ITALICS.

7. Every important word in a phrase used as a title
or caption.
Examples:-" Prescott'~ History of the Conquest of Mexico;"-" Virtue the only true Source of Nobility;"-" The American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions;"-" The New-York Historical
Society;"- " The American R.evoluti011."

The pronoun I and the interjection 0 should also
be written in capitals.
Examples:-" Must I endure all this 1"-" Come forth, 0 ye children of gladness, come !"
Most adjectives derived from proper names should commence
with capitals.
Examples:-" A Grecian edu cation was considered necessary to
form the Roman orator, poet, or artist."- Whelpley. "The Copernican System is that which is held to be the true system of the
world."- Olmsted.

A personal pronoun referring to the Deity, is often commenced
with a capital.
Examples:-" All that we possess is God's, and we are under obligation to nse it all as He wills."- Wayland.
" Will He not hear thee
Wbo the young ravens heareth from their nest 1
Will He not guard thy rest 1"-Hemans.
There are also numerous cases in which words may commence either with ca(J itals or small letters, according to the
tal!te of the writer.
Short, detach ed pieces of writing, are often composed entirely
of capitals. (For examples, see tithi-pnges, heads of chapters
and sections, monumental inscriptions, cards, etc.)

Italic letters are those which stand inclining. (See
the Alphabet, p. 24.) This sentence is printed in Italics.
[The questions and directions which are printed in Italics, are designed to be omitted by beginners.]
Wbat two words of one Jetter are always written and printed in capiMat pieces of writing are often composed entirely of capitals f
What are Italic letters 1
tals 1

CAPITA.LB AND ITALICS.

27

When an author wishes to distinguish any particular word or phrase, for the sake of emphasis, or for any
other purpose, it is generally printed in Italics.
Examples :-"If we regard enunciation and pronunciation as the
mechanical part of elocution; inflection, emphasis and pausing,
may be designated as its intellectual part."-Russell. "To be perfectly polite, one must have great presence of mind, with a delicate
and quick sense of propri.tty."-Mrs. Chapone.
Sentences of special importance, are often printed entirely in
ltaiics.
When a particular word, phrase, or sentence, is designed to
be made still more conspicuous than it would be if expressed in
Italics, it is printed in capitals.
Examples :- " OBSERVATION and EXPERIMENT constitute the basis
of the s<;ience of Mechanics.''-Olmsted. "To the numerous class
of young men in the United States, who are m.ainly dependent
on their own resources for knowledge, or respectability, one of the
most important counsels of wisdom which can be addressed, is,
STUDY YOUR OWN C.EIARACTER AND l'ROSPECTS."-B. B. Ed·
wards.
When a word or phrase, embraced in an Iuuic senltnce, is to
be distinguished from the rest, ·i t should be printed in Roman
letters. If it is particularly important, jt may be expressed in
capitals.
Examp"les :-" The grand clew to all syntadical parsing, ·is the sense."
-G. Brown. "HYDROSTATICS is that brani:h of Natural Phiksophy, whii:h treats of the mechanical properties and agencies ofLIQUIDs."
-Obruted. "To.find the surface of a REGUUR SoLrn."-Day.
When a word is used merely as a word, it should generally be
printed in Italics.
Examples:-" The adjective same is often used as a substitute."Webster. "Who is applied to persons, and which to animals and
inanimate things."-MutTay.
Words and phrases introduced into English writings from
foreign languages, are generally expressed in Italics.
For what purpose are they generally employed 1 Spedfy the several
circumstances whii:h require the use of Italics. How is a word or phrase distinguished from the rest, in an Italic seit!ence f

28

ORTHOGRA.PHY.-C..+.PlTALS A.ND ITALICS.

Exampl,es :-"An adjournment sine die, is an adjournment without
fixing the time of resuming business."- Webster's Diet. "The
White Pine is, par excellence, a New England trce."-N. .A. B.eview.

In the common English version of the Scriptures, Italics are
used to indicate those words which are not found in the original.
Examples:-" After two days was the feast of the passover ;"-in
the original, " After two days was the passover."-" There are
yet four months, and then cometh the harvest ;"-in the original,
"There are yet four months, and the harvest cometh."

In writing, it is customary to underline such words
as would be italicised in printing.
Example.
u

.;:

c../~

/ D~

ao~

de t.eda~ny

~A//
~Anot .Jetnn Jl-$-<'tbte,
e-ven 'Y
~"

o/ o{.(4;

.dfYMM. ,,

EXERCISES.
[After •tudying attentively the rules respecting the nse of Capitals

and Italics, pupils should be required to select from other works a variety of examples to which they respectively apply. The following directions will serve as a guide in performing this exercise. Those which
are printed in Italics, are designed to be omitted by beginners.]
Point out examples of words commencing with capitals, at the
beginning of a sentence ;-at the beginning of a direct quotaticn.
Select sevel'al names representing the Deity, which commence
with capitals ;-several examples of proper names and hqnorary
titlea. Examples of com77Wn nou7111 personified ;-of important
words in a title or caption. Examples of the pronoun I and the
interjection 0. Examples of adjectivfS derived from proper namu.

Examples of short pieces of writing, printed entirely in capUals.
Poiut out examples of important words and phrases, printed
in Italics. Examples of entire sentences in Italics. Examples of
words, phrases, and sentences, in capitals. Examples, in Italic sentences, of words and phrases printed in capiials or small R.uman letters. Examples of words 11sed merely as words. Examples of forF&r what purpose are Italics employed in our translation of the &riptures 1
How are important words and phrases distinguished in writing 1

VOWELS AND' CONSONANTS.

29

eign worth and phraaes employed in Engli8h writings. Examplu

of Italic words in the

Scriptures.

wriu a 1enlence containing some prominent word or phraie, and

distinguish it from the rut by underlining it.

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.

The most general division of letters is into vowels
and consonants.
A vowel is a letter which represents a free and uninterrupted sound of the human voice. The vowels
are {],, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.
A consonant• is a letter which represents a sound
that is materially modified by some interruption during its passage through the organs of speech.
The consonants are- b, c, d, f,"g', j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r,
s, t, v, x, z, anq sometimes to and y. H, which is a
simple breathing, is also cla3Sed with the consonants.t
What is the most ·general division of letters? What is a vowel 1
Enumerate the vowels. What is a consonant 1 Enumerate the conso·
nan ts.

*

A consonant has commonly been defined, "a letter which cannot
be sounded without the aid of a vowel;" but this seems not to be the true
idea of this class of letters. In pronouncing a syllable commencing with
a consonant, a distinct sound is always uttered before the vowel aound
is commenced; and we have many syllables in which the vowel, though
written, is not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words taken, bur·
dened, which are pronounced tak-n, burd-nd. There are instances also
in which a consonant is sounded as a distinct syllable, without the use
even of a written vowel, as in the words chas-m, rhyth-m.
The etvm0 logy of the term OOllSQnant, (sounding with,) seems to have
misled many modem grammarians, and thus aided in perpetuating the
error here alluded to.
t " The claims of h to be regarded as a letter have be11n denied by many
grammarians; and certainly, .when it is remembered that the sound of
this letter is produced by a mere emission of the breath, without any conformation of the organs of speech, this opinion would seem weoll founded.
There are others, however, who insist that there is no feature in tho
sound or qualities of this\letter, which it does not possess in common
with some other consonants, and consequently any attempt to invalidate
its claim to the distinction1militates equally against them."--,Brande's

Enc.

30

31

ORTHOGR.A.PHY.-CONSONANTS AND DIPHTHONGS.

VOWELS.

W is a consonant when it is not preceded by a vowel in the
same . ~ruble; as in win, swift, thwart.
Wt. Jlaually considere4 as a vowel, when it follows another
vowel i.n ·the same sy liable ; as in mw, htJw.
Y is a consonant when it begins a syllable, and is immediately
followed by a vowel in the same syllable; as in yet, youth.
In all other cases y is a vowel ; as in very, rhytM, beryl.
Vowel sounds are · called open or dose, according to the relative size of the opening through which the voice passes in forming them. Thus, a in father, and o in nor, are called open sounds,
because they are formed by a wide opening of the organs of
11peech; while e in mt, and u in rule, are called dose sounds, because the organs are nearly closed in uttering them.

by b in but, d in did, g in go, v in vain, z in zero, th in that, z in
In a natural whisper these soundtt cannot,
of themselves, be readily distinguished from the corresponding
aspirates. H has no cognate.

Two vowel~ combined in the same syllable, a.re
called a diphthong; as, oi in coil.
A diphthong in which both vowels are sounded, is called a
poper diphthong; as in oil, boy.
A diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded, is
-called an improper diphthong, or digraph; as in rain, eat, believe.

Three vowels combined in the same syllable, a.re
called a triphthong; as in eye, awe, lieu, beauty.
Those consonant sounds which are formed by the vocal organs during the passage of a mere breathing, are called aspirates.
They are represented by p in map, t in hut, k in book, Jin fine,
s in see, th in thin, sh in ash, ch in church, and h in hero.
The cognate or corresponding sounds, which are respectively
formed by a similar disposition of the organs, during the passage
of the voice, are called vocal consonants. They are represented
l¥hen is w a. _consonant? Examples. lt?ien a vowel? Examples.
When is y a consonant ? Examples. When a vowel f Examples. Ex·
pl.ain the terms open and close, as applied to vowels: D efine a diphthong.
Examples. A. proper diphthong. Examples. An improper diphthong.
Exa'mples. A triphthong. Examples. What consonants are caUed aspi·
rates f Enumerate th.em. Jt?iat·are vocal consonants f Enumerate them.

azure, and j in just.

Cognates.

Vocal
{

'!> If• ~· 7,• th,t
t, k, j, s, th,t

b,

;

z,§ ~·

sh,

Aspirate p,
ch.
The remaining sounds, m in 'man, n in no, ng in sing, l in look,
r in race, w in world, aud y in youth, which, though produced by
the voice, may also be distinctly uttered in a whisper, are called
intermediate or neutral consonants: In forming the first three of
these, m., n, and ng, the voice _is made to pass principally through
the nose; and they are, on this account, called nasal consonants.
An aspirat\I and a vocal consonant cannot easily be pro~ou~~ in
immediate combination. Hence, when they occur together m wn=un"',
one is generally changed, in pronunciation, into its c,ognat.e or cmres
•
ing sound. Thus, looked, dropped, confe.ssed, a.re pronounced loo/Ct, op't,
confes't.
.
dil
. .
. t'
'th 'th
.A neutral consonant wil1 rM y umte m pronuncia ion wi e1 er an
aspirate or a vocal consonant; as in mend, meant; shelve, shel.J.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
[In performing the exercises which accompany the eleme~~ BOJl!lds,
the pupil should first pronounce one of the words contammg a given
element and then utter distinctly the elementa.ry sound by itself. The
other ex'a.mples should be uttered successively, in the same manner.]
VOWELS.

.11. has six sounds : 1. Long; as in late, base.
Exercise: - Vale, a; hale, a; mane, a; pace, a; lade, a;
safe, a ; range, a ; ancient, a; display, a ; relate, a.

ef

What aspirat.e is the c,ognate
b 1- of d 1-of g in go 1-ofv 1of z in zero 1- of th in that 1- of z in azure 1-ofj in just 1 Which
of th.e aspirates has no rognate f Wluzt are intermediate or neutral consonants f Enume>'ate them. Which are th.e nasal consonants f Why so called 1
What are the dijferent sounds of a f Give an exampk of au:h ; pror;ouncing
first a word which contains it, and then the el.eme11tary sound by itself.

• Z in zero.

t Th in that.

i Th in thin.

i Zin azure.

32

VOWELS.

ORTHOGRA.PHY.-VOWELS.

2. Grave ; as infather.
Exercise :-Mart, a; art, a; star, a; large, a; calm, a;
alarm, a.

3. Broad; as in fall, walk.
Exercise :-J.lll, a; call, a; hall, a; talk, a; war, a; malt,
a; altar, a; water, a.

4. Short ; as in man, hat.
Exercise : - J.ln, a; can,. a ; lad, a ; sat, a; and, a ; catch,
a ; carry, a ; began, a.
5. The sound heard in care, hare.•
Exercise : - Rare, a ; . fare, a ; glare, a ; careful, a ; ensnare, a.
6. Intermediate between the short and the grave ; as in grau,
p<u11, brancli.. Many persons pronounce this a incorrectly, giving
it either the grave or the short sound.t
Exercise: - Fast, a; am, a ; glass, a; prance, a ; glance, a.
.9. is also employed to represent,(1) The sound of o short; as, what.
(2) The sound of e short; as, many.
E ·has three sounds:1. Long ; as in me, complete.
Exercise : - We, e ; he, e ; scene, e ; mete, e ; scheme, e ;
supreme, e.
2. Short ;

Ill!

in let, men.

What are the sounds of e 1 Give exampl.es of each.
-~~~~~~~

•Walker, Webster, Sheridan, Fulton and Knight, Kenrick, Jones,
and Na.i-es, give to a in care the long sound of a, as in late. Page and
Day give it the short sound of a, as in mat. (See Page's Normal Chart
and Day's Art of Elocution.)
Worcester and Perry make the sound of a in care a separate element;
arid this distin~tion is also recognized by Russe;u, Mandeville, and
Wright. (See Russell's L essons in Enunciation, Mandeville's Elements
of Reading and Oratory, and Wright's Orthography.)
t " To pronounce the words fast, last, glass, grass, aance, etc., with the
proper sound of short a, as in hat, has the appearance of affectation ; and
to pronounce them with the full Italian sound of a, as in part,faUier,
seems to border on vulgarity." - Worcester.

Exercise : - Fell, e; egg, e ; pet, e; well, e ; bless, e i ten,
e; preface, e ; forget, e.
3. Obtuse; as in her,fertile.•
Exercise: -Term, e; fern, e ; pert, e ; mercy, e ; alert, e;
internal, e.
E is also employed to represent, (I) The sound of a in care; as, there, where.
(2) The sound of short i; as, England.

E is very often silent, especially at I.he end of ~word.
I has two sounds : 1. Long; as in yi.ne,.fine, excite.
This sound consists of two simple elements ; the first of which i,s near·
ly the sound of a in past, and the second that of short i.

Exercise : - lee, i ; time, i; kind, i ; ire, i ; ripe, i ; idle,
i ; incline, i.
2. Short ; as in pit, live.
Exercise : - In, i ; his, i; dip, i ; fix, i ; wwh, i ; since, i;
intend, i ; begin, i.
I is also employed to represent, (1) The sound of Jong e; as, machine, police.
(2) The sound of e in her; as, bird, affirm.
I is sometimes employed to represent the consonant sound of

y ; a11 in JUial, chri.stian, union, alien.
What are the vowel squnds of i? Give examples of each.
nant sound does i represent f Exampl.es.

What conso-

*"

Those who can perceive a difference between the solll).ds of a and
o in the words far, cart, nor, burder, and the proper ~hort sounds-of. these
letters ·in fat carry not, bomiw, will not find it difficult to perceive an

analogous differen~ be~een th~ sounds. of~ in ~rn, verse, "!'l"cy, and
in men, very, merry; of i m fir, bird, and m.pzn, ~irror; of u m hurdle,
turn, and in tun, hurry; of y in myrtle, an.d m lync. '!'hese. vowels have
all nearly or quite the same sound, as will be perceived m the words
her, sir,Jur, myrrh, herd, bird, surd; but their proper short sounds are
widely different, when followed by r. as well as by other 1consona~ts1 as
in merry, mirror, Murray."- Worcester. (See also Russells Enunciation,
Mandeville's Reading and Oratory, and Barber's Grammar of Elocution.)

34

ORTHOGRA.PHY.-VOWELS.

DIPHTHONGS.

0 has three sounds : 1. Long ; us in rwte, remote.
Exercise : - Old, o ; tone, o ; globe, o ; hose, o; rode, o;
post, o; sofa, o.

2. Short ; as in not, folly.
Exercise: - Stop, o ; odd, o ; lot, o; clock, o ; doctrine, o.
3. Close ; as in move, approve.
Exercise : - Do, o; to, o; improve, o.
0 is also employed to represent, (I) The sound of a in fall; as, nor, fortune.
(2) The sound of e in her; as, world, attorney.
(3) The sound of short i ; as, women.
(4) The sound of short u; as, son, done.
(5) The sound of u in ful,l; as, wolf.
In one and some of its derivatives, o has the sound of short u, preceded
by the consonant sound of w.
·

35

U is also employed to repreljent, (1) The sound of e in her; as, burn, furnace.
(2) The sound of short e; as, bury.
(3) The sound of short i ; as, busy.
When this short, obtuse u commences 11 syllable, it generally has the
consonant sound of y prefixed; as in failure, feature, verdure,fle:xure.
U has sometimes the consonant sound o( w; as in persuade, languid.
Wis never used as 11 vowel, except when it forms 11. part of 11 diphthong. (See Diphthongs.)

Y, as a vowel, is employed to represent, (1) The sound of long i; as, thyme, rhyme.
(2) The sound of short i; as, hymn, crystal.
(3) The sound of e in htr; as, myrrh, myrtle.
In unaccented syllables, the vowel sounds are oft~n so much obscured
as to be hardly distingwshable. The following examples will serve to
illustrate this remark : -altar, alter, liar, martyr.
DIPHTHONGS.

JJ.y, standing by itself, is a proper diphthong. The first of
Uhas three sounds:1. Long; as in tune, lute, juvenile.
Exercise : - Due, u; true, u ; rude, u ; assume, u ; reduce, u.
This sound is usually regarded as diphthongal. The first of its ·elements resembles the sound of e long, rapidly pronounced. The second
is similar to the sound of o in move, but somewhat closer.

For the sake of greater ease in pronunciation, the consonant
sound of y is, in many cases, prefixed to the long sound of u;
as in we, unite, universe.
Exercise: - Union, u; useful, u; educate, u; speculate,
u ; opulent, u.

2. Short; as in run, shutter.
Exercise: - Bud, u; us, u; shut, u; dust, u; dumb, u ;
rebuff, u.
3. Middle ; as in ful,l, bush.
Exercise : - Put, u ; push, ·u; pulley, u ; cushion, u.
W7iat are the sounds of o 1 Give e:xamples of each.

ef u 1 Give e:xamples of each.

What are the sound.

its component sounds is that of a infather, and the second that
of short i.
Oi is generally used as a proper diphthong. It is composed
of a in all, and i in pil ; as, toil, recoil.
Ou, when used as a proper diphthong, is composed of a in
father, and o in move ; as, house, around.
Ow, when a proper diphthong, represents the sound of ou in
bound; as, town, crowd.
Oy represents •the sound of the proper diphthong oi; as, boy,
oyster.
CONSONANTS.

B has but one sound ; as in but.
Exercise : - Be, b ; boat, b ; orb, b ; barb, b ; double, b.
What vowel sound. does y represent 1 Give exampl.es of each. W7aat
are the component sounds of the proper diphthong ay 1 Of what sounds is the
proper diphthOng oi compos«l 1 Examples. What sound. unite to form the
proper diphthong ou 1 Examples. What sound is represented by the proper
diphthong ow 1 Examples. What sound is .represented by the proper diphthong oy 1 Examples. How many sounds has b 1 Examples.

36

ORTHOGRAPHT.-CONSONANTS.

Bis generally silent after m and before t, in the same syllable; as in

dumb, debt.

C, standing before a consonant, or before either of the vowels a, o, u, or at the end of a word, represents the sound of k;
as in care, conduct, atldetic.
Before e, i, and y, c generally represents the sound of 11; as
in ctn.tus, city.

. Ce aryi ci,_ followed by ai;other vowel, have often the sound of sh, as
m ocean, social; and sometimes of she as in associate oceanic
C ~as in some words the sound of ~; as in sdcrifae, suffic~.
EIS sometimes u_sed after c, merely to give it the s,oft sound as in

lac~, P6f!Cea!1le, practice; and u, in like manner, to give it the hard ~ound
as m circuit.
'
C is sometimes silent; 118 in czar, muscle, indict.

Ch has generally the sound he11rd in church.

But in Scripture p\-oper names, with the exception of Rackl, in most words
derived from the Greek, and in a few others, ch represents the
sound of k; as in Erwch, Chaldea;- chorus, achromatic;- ckmiat, alckmy. Ia words derived from the French, ch represents
thi:. sound of sh ; as in chaise, chagrin.
Ch is silent in drachm, yacht; and in schism and its derivatives.
D bas the sound heard in did.
Exercise: - Do, d; deep, d; aid, d; day, d; deduce, d;
indeed, d.
When the termination ed immediately follows an aspirate, and is not
pronounced as a separate syllable, it represents the sound of t; as in
stopped, fixed.
Tu the first syllables of Wednesday and stadtlwlder, d is silent.

F has the sound heard in fate, scarf; except in of, where it
represents the sound of v.
Exercise : - Fall,J; if, f; fife, f; field,/; safe,/; roof,f.
G, before a, o, and u, has a hard sound ; as in gate, gone. It
is also hard before all the consonants, excepting g soft, as in
glad; and at the end of a word, as in dog.
Exercise : - Gay, g; gold, g ; gone, g; Jog, g; gig, g;
regain, g.

W7uzt sounds is e used.to represent 1 Give examples. Utter the principal
sound ef ch. What other sounds are represented IYJI ch 1 Utter the sound of
d ;-the sound ef f, What is the pri'liCipal sound ef g 1 Give examples.

CONSONANTS.

37

Before e, i, and y, g usually represents the .,.sound of j ; as in
ginger, g'!}psum.
In some few words adopted from the French and Italian, gn has the
sound of ny; as in vignette, pronounced vin:;l:l.
G is silent before m or n, in the same syllable; l\S in phlegm, consign,
g11omon. It is also silent in seraglio.
Gh, at the beginning of n word, represents the sound of g
bani ; as in ghost, ghaatly. In other situation!:' it is frequently
silent; as in thought, plough.
Gh, at the end of a word, is sometimes pronounced likef, as
in laugh, rough; and i;;ometimes like g hard, ns in burgh.

H bas the aspirate sound heard in he.
Exercise: - Hut, h ; home, h; hall, h; harm, h ; behave, hH is sometimes silent; as in heir, huur, honest, rhomb.
J bas the sound heard in jar; except in hallelujah, where it
represents the consonant sound of y.
Exercise : - Joy, j; just, j; jar, j; jolt, j; judge, j.
K is invariably hard; as in look.
E:rercise: - King, k; kind, k ; keep, k; bulk, k; elk, k.
K is silent before n in the same syllable; as in knife. In English
words, k is never doubled; but this combination occurs in a few Scripture proper names ; as, Habakkuk, Balcbalclcar, Halclcoz, Bukkiah.

L has but one sound; as in live, slow.
Extrcise:-.Low, l; lark, l; lute, l; fail, l; flaw, l.
L is. sometimes silent before a consonant; as In wal.k, calm.

M has but one sound, as in man.
Exercise:- Aim, m; me, m; home, m; map, m ~ murmur, m.
Mis silent when it stan\}s at the beginning of a word, and is immediate! y followed by n ; as in mnemonic.

N has two sounds : 1. The sound heard in no, nine.
Exercise: - On, n; nay, n; name, n; alone, n.
2. The ringing sound heard in bank, thing, ainging.
What other sou"iid does g represent f Give examples. What sounds are
represented IYy gh 1 Give examples. Otter the sound ofh ;-the sound of j ;
-the sound efk ;-the sottnd ofl ;-the sound efm. How many sounds has
n 1 Give examples.

4

38

39

Exercise :-Think, n; ink, n; brink, n; drank, n; thank, n.
N is silent when it immediately follows m or I, in the same syllable;

Ti, followed by a vowel, has usually the sound of sh, or she ; as in pwtion, partiality.
Tis occasionally silent; as in christen, depot.

P has the sound hea rd in pine; except in cupboard, where it

Th has two sounds : I. Vocal; as in then, they.
Ererci.se : - This, th; though, th; benenth, th; other, th.

as in hymn, column, kiln .

represents the oo und of b.

E :r:ercise : - Pay, p ; help, p; post, p; harp, p; p eople, p.
P is sometimes silent; as in psalm, ·pneumatics, receipt.
Ph generally repn~sents the sound off; as in philosopher. In
Stepl.en it is pronounced like v.
In phthisic and its derivative phthisical, phis silent.

Q represents th e sound of k, and is always followed by u,
which, in this connection, ge nerally has its consonant sour1d;
as in quiet, conquest. But in so me cases, qu is pronounced like
k simply; as in conquer.

R• has the sound heard in rare.
Exerci.se :-Run, r; read, r ; robe, r; harm, r; war, r;
absorb, r.

S has a sharp, hissing so und ; aa in say.
Exe.rci.se: - So, s ; sage, s; thus, s; mist, s; exist, a.
S is also used to represe nt the sound of z in zeal; as in rose,
odds.
When s is immediately followed by the consonant sound of y, the
two sounds combined are softened into the so und of sh, as in the words
sure, censure, torsion: or into the sound of z in azure, as in the words ·
leisure, ambrosial. When s is doubled, both letters take the sound ·of sh;
as in assure, passion.
Sis silent in isle, demesne, corps, and viscount.

T has the sound heard in tide.
Exerci.se. : -

At, t; sofl, t; ten, t; time, t ,· intend, t.

Example of the sound of p. What sound is generally represented by ph 1
What sound does q represent? Utter the sound of r. What sound lu:u s 1
Give examples. What other sound is represented by s 1 Utter the saund oft.

*

CONSONANTS.

ORTHO GRAPH Y.-CONSONANTS.

"R has one constant sound in English."- Worcester. (See also
Day's Art of Elocution, Page's Normal Chart of Elementary Sounds,
and Mandeville's Elements of R~ading and Oratory.)
Many ortho Jpists give this letter two distinct sounds. "R initial, or
before a vowel, is always hard, though not rolled. R fin al, or before a
consonant, is always soft, but never silcnt."-Russell. (Se'.l also Smart's
Principles of English Grammar.)

2. Aspirate ; as in thing, thought.
Exerci.se: - Throng, th; thin, th; theme, th; foith, th.

V hns but 011e sound ; as in vine.
Exerci.se: - Vie, v ; view, v ; proTJe, TJ; cave, TJ.

1V, whe11 a consonnut, has but one sound; as in way, swift.
Exerci.se: -

Wise, w; world, w ; wander, to.

JV is sometimes silent; as in write, wltole, answer, sword.
lVh is commonly pronouuced as if written hw; as in where, wheel.•

X represents, (1) The sound of ks; as in axle, execute.
(2) The sound of gz; as in existence, txonerat,,.
At the beginning of a word, x takes the sound of z; as in Xerwphon,
xylography.

Y, when a consonant, has but one sound ; as in year, youth.
Exercise: - Yet, y ; young, y; yoke, y ,· you, y.
Z has usually the sound heard in zeal.
Exerci.se : - Zone, z ,· ooze, z; prize, z; zebra, z.
When z is followed by the consonant sound ofy, the combination has the sounds heard in azure.
Exerci.se : - Seizure, z ; glazier, z.
The great diversity of languages from which English words
are derived, has occasioned much irregularity and inconsiatency
in our orthography. Our alphabet is both redundant and defective. C is represented by k or s ; q, by k ,· and x, by ks or
gz. The remaining twenty-three letters are em I' Joyed tor q1What are the sowids of th 1 Example• of each. Utter the sound of v.
Utter the co1iso11ant sound of w. What sounds are represented by x 1 Examples of each. Utter the consonant sound ofy ;-the two soundsof z. What
redurulancy is there in the English alpluWet f What defed f
• See Smo.rt's Principles of English Grammar.

40

ORTHOGRAPHY.-GENERAL EXERCISES.

resent about forty elementary sounds. Many of the letters are
used to denote several different sounds, and many of them are
sometimes silent.
GENERAL EXERCISES;

GENERAL EXERCISES.-CONSONANTS.

41

11. I in pit; e, o, ii., y.
Sit, .i; if, i; timid, i; England, e; women, o; busy, u ,·
hymn, y; symptom, y.

12. 0 in note; ew, au.
Roll, o; remote, o; sew, ew; hautboy, au.

EMBRACING ALL THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.

lIn performing these exercises, great care should be taken to give each
clement the same sound, when uttered by itself, that it bas in the word
which contains it See the directions given on.p. 31.)
VOWELS.

1. A in late,- ei, ey.
Name, a ; favor, a ; debate, a; weigh, ei ; obey, ey.

2. A in father.

13. 0 in not,- a.
Blot, o; proxy, o; robber, o; what, a; was, a.

14. 0 in move.
Prove, o; ado, o; who, o.

15.

u• in tune;

ew.

Lute, u; human, u; new, ew :-use,t u; regulate, u.

16. Uin run,- o.

Far, a; large, a; balm, a ; arm, a; calm, a.

3. A in all; o.

But, u; u1>, u; sunder, u; done, u.

17. Uinfull; o.

Call, a ; walk, a ; also, a ;. nor, o ; border, o.

4. A in rnan.

Pull, u; cushion, u; push, u; wolf, o.

Oi:j: in boil,- oy.

Ha.t, a ,· lad, a; cancel, a ,· outran, a.

5. A in care; e.
Dare, a ; snare, a ; there, e ; w he.re, e.

Coil, oi; soil, oi; boy, oy; destroy, oy.

Ou§ in pound,- ow.
Around, ou; thou, ou; house, ou; town, ow; crowd, ow.

6. A in past.
Fast, ct; m:zst, a; grass, a,· branch, a,· advance, a.

7. E in me; i.
We, e; era, e ,· complete, e; marine, i ,· caprice, i.

S. E in let ; a,

ii.

Met, e ,· express, e; any, a; many, a; bury, u.

CONSONANTS.

18. Bin but.
Rob, b; glebe, b; by, b; bulb, b; imbibe, b.

19. Din did.
Day, d; door, .d; made, d; hard, d; deduct, cl.

9. E in her,-. i, o, u, y.
Term, e; fervid, e; mirth, i; world, o; burn, u; myrrh, y·

10. Iinpine,· i.
Sign, i; life, i; decide, i; comply, y.

*Seep. 34.
t Jn the examples placed after the dash, the consonant sound of Y is
prefixed to the sound of u.
t Composed of a in o11 and i in pit.
§ Composed of a infather and o in move.

4•

42

ORTHOGRAPHY.-GENERAL EXERCISES.

20. Fin fate; ph, gh.
.FUU,/; scarf,/; defend,/; phantom, ph; rough, gh.

21. G in go; gh.
Give, g; g reen, g; goodness, g; ghost, gh; burgh, gh.

WORDS AND SYLLABLES.

34., Win way .
Want, w; dwell, w; beware, w.

xjO;

H ead, h; hall, h; heart, h; hope, h; behold, h.

23. Jin joy; g, di.
Jail, j; jest, j; jury, j; gesturn, g; giant, g; soldier, di.

24. Kin look; c, ch, q.
Kid, k; ask, k; kiudle, k; cube, c; faction, c; chasm, ch;
quite, q.

25. L in live.

in tax.

Box, x; text, x; axle, x; execute, x.

Xt

22. Hin he.

43

in exist.

&ample, x; exert, x; executive, x; exonerate, x.

35. Yin year; i, j.
Ye, y; yield, y; youth, y; filial, i; union, i; hallelujah, j.

36. Z in zeal; s, c, x.
Zenith, z; zealous, z; zone, z; is, s; rose, s; suffice, c;
Xenophon, x.

37. Z in azure; s.

Let, l; law, l; file, l; also, l.

26. Min man.

Seizure, z; measure, s; leisure, s; ambrosial, s.

38. Th in this.

Move, m; same, m; roam, m; complain, m.

27. Nin no.

They, th; scythe, th; thine, th; father, th.

39. Th in thin.

New, n; one, n; begin, n; complain, n.

28. Nin bank; ng.
Sink, n; drink, n ; anxious, n; song, ng; bring, ng.

29. Pin pine.

Thorn, th; breath, th; truth, th; anthem, th.

40. Cit in church.
Child, ch; check, ch; touch, ch; march, ch.

41. Sh in ship; ch, ti, ci, ce, s, si.

Put, p; p ear, p ; reap,p; comply,p.

30. R in rare.

Shine, sh; show, sh; chaise, ch; portion, ti,· social, ci; octao,
ce; sure, s; torsion, si.

Rose, r; round, r; rain, r; far, r; world, r; declare, r.

31. S in say; c.
See, s ," fost, s; mistrust, s; cedar, c; city, c; police, c.

32. Tin tide ; ed.
Tre e, t; tent, t ; time, t; ancient, t; mixed, ~d; rocked, ed.

33. Vin vine ;

f, pit.

Vague, v; dove, v; live, v; remove, v; of, f; Stephen, ph.

WORDS AND SYLLABLES.

A word is a letter or a combination of letters, used
as the sign of an idea; as, I, man, science, extemporaneous.
A syllable is a word or a part of a word, which is
What is a word ?-a syllable?

* Composed of k and s.

t Composed of g and z.

..
44

ORTHOGRA.PHY.-WORDS A.ND SYLLABLES.

pronounced by a single impulse of the voice; as, art,
ar-tic-u-la-tion.
Every syll11ble is written with at least one vowel; but in
m11ny words. the vowel of the final syllable is not sounded, as
in sea-son, whis-tle, happen-ed.

A word <if one syllable is called a monosyllable; one of two
syllables, a dissyllable; one of three, a trisyllable; and one of more
than three, a polysyllable ; as, in, intend, intention, intentionally.
Words are divided into two general classes;-primitive and
derivative.

SPELLING.

45

ph, wh, are never separated. Thus, we write, church-es, wor-thy,
feath-er, ring-ing, a-while.
.
.
2. Comp~und words are commonly separated mto the. s1mp~e
words of which they are .c omposed; as, care-less, bee-hive, railroarl.
3. The termination ed, though not always pronounced separately, is regarded in writing as a distinct syllable; as, lov-ed,
bum-ed.
SPELLING.

A primitive or radical word is one that is not derived from any
other word or words in _the language; as, hill, tree, kind, consider.
A derivative word is one that is formed from some primitive
word or words in the language ; as, hillock, kindness, inconside:rate.
Words are also divided into two other classes, called simple
and compound.

Spelling is the act of expressing words by
proper letters.

A simple word is one that is not formed by uniting other
words; as, hand,fortune.

peat.
.
odd
rr burr inn,
ExcEPTIONs.-The final letters m add, ebb,
' egg, errJ::, • 'f, l

A compmind word is one that is formed by joining two or
more simple words, without materially modifying either; as,
book-seller, rail-road, common-place-book.

Division of Words into Syllables.
As a general principle, it may be ohderved, that the syllables
of a word are those divisions which are made in a correct pronunciation of it.
The following are perhaps the only dPfinite rules that can be
given on this suhject : 1. Two consonants forming but one sound, as ng, ch, th, sh,
"What is required in w ery syllable 'i Name a syllable which has no vou:el
sound. What is a word ef one syllable callEd?-eftu:o?-efthr,e?--efmore
than three? Into what two general classes are words divided? What is a
primitive wo1d? Examples. A derivative word? Examples. A simple
word? Examples. A compound word? Examples. Wliat are the syllables of a word ? What three rules are given respecting the division ef u-ords
into syllables ?

~heir

RULES FOR SPELLING.

I. Final consonants are generally single ; as in man, book, re-

so exce~t a~d
and s immediately preceded by a smgle vowel, or b;i: gu or q
a single vowel_. Under these circumstances, f, and, m mon~~~ 11;;hies l and s, are doubled, as in rebuif, call,~· quill; exc~p her ,;
has 'was as his is this, thus, us, yes, if, of and its compoun s
eoJ,
wh~eof, 'eic. ' C~nderning l ~nd s, in words of more than one sylla·
ble, no certain rule can be given.
.
C assumes k at the end of all m.onosyllables, except lac, zinc, a~ d :ire:
K was formerly used after c, 1n many words of more than one sy 1 a de'
but it is now gcnero.lly omitted, except in some few words, as atta •
butt, and buzz, are exceptions to this i:nie.- We must

hillock.

II. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change Y to i
on receiving an addition,# unless this addition is 's, or~ syllabl.e
beginning with i; as, carry, carries, carrier; fancy, fa'TICl,f,d,fanciful ;-lady, lady's; carry, carrying.
III. But words ending in y preceded by a vowel, generally reWhat is spelling 1 What is the rule respecting. final consonants Y Examples. What is the rule respecting word~ e~ding rn y preceded by a ccmso~
Mnt f Examples. Respecting words ending in y precedtd by a vowel? Ex
amples.

* The 2d, 4th, and 6th rules are not intended to include such !ldditions
as form compound words.

46

47

ORTHOGR.A.PHY.-SPELLING.

SPELLING.

tain the y on taking an increase; as, boy, boys, boyi.sh; journey,
journeys; money, moneys; valley, valleys.
Exe.;--P~id, .laid, lain, saith, said, and most of their compounds, as unpaid, mislaid, are exceptions to this rule.

VII. Words ending in a double consonant, generally retain
both consonants on receiving an addition ; as, call, calls, caller,
calling.
Exe.-Some words ending in ll, drop one l on receiving an increase
beginning with a consonant ; as,full,fulness,fully.

IV. Words ending in silent e, generally reject thee before an
additional syllable beginning with a vowel; as, strive, striving;
sense, sensible.
..
Exe . .1.- Words ending in oe, retain the final e · as shoe shoeinn 1· hoe
hoetng.
J
I
)
,'1
J
Exe. 2.- When e is preceded by c or g, it is retained before ous and
ab/,e; as, courageous, peaceable.
Ex?. 3.,-The e is retained in a few words to prevent ambiguity: as in
s1"!fe•nt;, to disti~guish it. from singing; in dyeing (coloring ), to distinguish it from dymg (expmng ).
Exe. ~·;-Wor?s terminating in ee, drop the final letter only when the
. add1.t10n ~egms with e; as, see, seer, seeth; fl~, jleest; a_qree, agr~d.
Fmal ie, besides dropping e, chan"'es i to y before an additional sylla'
ble beginning with i; as, lie, l,ying. "

V. Words ending in silent e, generally retain eon receiving an
additional syllable beginning with a consonant; as, large, largely.
Exe.-Duly, truly, wholly, awful, judgment, abridgment, aclcnowledgment,
Wdgment, and argument, are exceptions.
Beforefy and ty, e is sometimes changed to i; as, pure, purify purity.
VL Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable,
ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, generally double the final consonant, on taking an additional syllable
beginning with a vowel; as, tan, tanner; fulfd,Juljilling.
Exo. 1.-X, '" and k, are never doubled; and when the accen t is shifted, .the final letter remains si ngle; as, wax, waxe11; confer, conference.
Excel follows the general rule; as in excellence.
Exe. 2.-The derirntives of gas have only ones; as, gases, gasify.
When a diphthong precedes the final letter, or when the accen t is not
o_n the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled, on assuming an additional syllable; as, boil, boilin_q; visit, visitor.
Respecting words endi ng· inland p, which are not accented on the
last syllable, usage is not settled. Jn many words these letters nre now
generally doubled;. as, .travel, traveller; worship, worshipper.
~an.y wo1:ds ending m c, assume k on taking an additional syllable
begmnmg with e, •, or y; as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking.
'What two rules are given respecting words ending in silent e ~ Examples.
What is the rule respecting monosyllables and words accented on tlui last syllable, eliding i11 a single co11Sonant preceded by a single vowel 7

VIII. Compound words are usually spelled in tho same manner us the simple words of which they are composed; as, hueaftu, ice-house.
Exe.-An e is d,ropped in wherever; and words ending in ll often
drop one l iii. composition, as al-ready, with-al, un-til.
E is inserted before s, in forming the plural of nouns and the third
person singular of verbs, ending in. ch soft, sh, s! x, z, o, or y preceded by
a consonant ; as, churches, wishes, hisses, cooes, flies.
Exc.- Cameo, eml:nyo, and nouns ending in io, form the plural by adding s alone. In the. following words, e is co'!1monly .6.mitted :.canto, folio, ,grotto, ]Unto, motto, memento, nu11cw, punctilw, portico,
quarto, octavo, solo, two, zero, seraglw, tyro.
Many words in o~r language a4mit o_f two or m.ore different modes of
spelling· as, c01me.ctwn, co11nexion; chermstry, -chym1stry, ch1m1stry ; octahedro-11 oct~edron, octohedron, octoedron. In such cases the prevailing usage
is to' be learned by observing the practice of the standard authors of the
present day, and by consulting the best dictionaries.
iii some kinds of writin<>, such as bills and inscriptions, symbols are
often used to represent either whole words or parts of words; as, XII,
18 29th etc. But in literary compositions, elegant usage generally reje~ts th~se, except in giving dates an~ the ~~veral d!visio_ns of a subJect.
V arious other marks are employed 111 wntmg, which will be descnbed
under the head of Punctuation.
What is the rule respecting words ending in a double consonant ?-respecting compound words 7

NOUNS.

PART II.

E TY MOL 0 GY.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification of words,
their derivation, and their various modifications.
PARTS OF SPEECH.*

The different classes into which words are divided,
are called Parts of Speech.
There are in English eightt parts of speech ; namely, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb,
the Adverb, the J;>reposition, the Conjunction, and the
Interjection.
A Noun is a word used to express the name of an
object; as, America, man, book, wisdom.
An Adjective is a word joined to a noun or pronoun, to qualify or define its meaning; as, honest
men; ten days; this book.
A Pronou.n is a word used to supply the place of a
Of what does Etymology treat? ·what are the different classes of
words called 1 Enumerate the parts of speech 1 What is a noun 1
Examples. An adjective 1 Examples. A pronoun 1 Examples.
• For a familiar explanation of the parts of speech, see Oral lnstruc• · Words are divided into eight classes, called Parts of Spe,e;ch."-

Bi:f~he

eight Parts of Speech are,-Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, VeTb,
Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Int.e~jectio.n."- Connon .
.
" I adopt the usual distribution of words mto eight classes'.because,.if
any number in a thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon, tlus seem.s.·to
be as compr~hensive and distinct as any."-Priest/ey.

49

noun ; as, " When Cresar had conquered Gaul, !te
turned his arms against his country."
A Verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affirmation ; as, I am; I love; I am loved.
An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as," He is not
understood;"-" A remarkably diligent boy;"-" She
reads very correctly."
A Preposition is a word used to express the relation
of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some
other word in the sentence; as," He went from Boston to Albany;"-'' Washington was the father of his
country."
A Conjunction is a word that is used to connect
words or sentences; as, "Seven and five are twelve·"
'
-'' Straws swim on the surface; but pearls lie at the
bottom."
An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used merely to express some passion or emotion ; as, Oh ! ah!
alas!
0

THE NOUN.

A Noun• is a word used to express the name of an
obj.ect ; as, Amefica, man, book, wisdom.
This part of speech not only embraces the names
of mat~al objects, as horse, tree, carria<re · but it
•
0
'
also mdudes the name of every thing that can be con<;1..ived to exist, as hope, virtue, strength.
·What is a verb 1 Examples. An adverb 1 Examples. A preposition 1
A conjunction 1 Examples. An interjection 1 Examples.
noun 1 Examples. What names, besides those of material
obJects, are embraced under this part of speech 1 Examples.
· - - -- - .. Noun is delived from the Latin word nomen, which signifies a name.

Exam~les.
~t is a

5

50

ETYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.

CLASSES.

Nouns are of two kinds ;-proper and common.
A pmper noun is a n~me used to distinguish an individual object from others of the same class; as,
George, Boston, Ontario, Vesuvius, January.
The particular names of nations, ranges of mountains, and
groups of islands, are generally classed with proper nouns ; as,
The Jews, the ,/}:rules, the .11.zoretr.
The pupil should he careful to discriminate between a proper
name used to distinguish an individual ohject, and the same
word used to denote a class or species. · Thus, when we ~y,
" The Prussians are distinguished for their system of free
schools," Prussians is a proper noun, because it is used to distinguish a particular nation from all other nations ; but, in the
sentence, "I saw several Prussians in Paris," the word Pr11s6ians becomes a common noun, because it may be applied in the
same sense to any other portion of the whole cl1UJs of individuals
composing the kingdom of Prussia. So also in the expression,
"He is the Oicero of liis age," the word Cicero .is employed to
denote a class, and is applicable in this sense to other individuals in common with the celebrated Roman orator.

A common noun is a name that may be applied
to any one of a \vhole class of objects ; as, desk,
house, town, scholar.
Common nouns embi·ace also the particular classes, termed
abstract, participial, and collective.
An abstract noun is the name of a quality considered apart
from the object to which it belongs; as, hardness, strength, wisdom, benevolence. Thus, in beautifulflower, the quality expressed
Into what classes a.re noun s divided? What is a proper noun? Ex- ·
amples. What of the particidar names of nations, groups qf islands, etc. 7
Exampks. Show how the same word may be either a proper or a cpmmon
noun. Example.s. What is a common noun? Examples. JVhat particular dasses are embraced under common nouns 1 What is an abstract
noun 7 Illustrate. Examples.

NOUNS.-GENDER.

51

by the word beautiful, when considered as separated from the
objectjlotl!f.r, forms the abstract noun beauty.
A participial noun is a word which has the form of a participle and performs the office of a noun ; as, " They could not
avoid submi.tting to this influence." ·
A oollective noun, or noun of multitude, is a name that denotes
a collection of many individuals; as, aclwol,flock,people, assembly.
EXERCISES.

Ship, London, army, .Alps, virtue, industry, Palestine,
mountain, field, pleasure, France, assembly.
Which of the foregoing nouns are common 1
Which abstract f Which collective f

Which proper

"Paris is the metropolis of France.''-" In the days of
youth the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure . as their 'chief
good.''-" Industry is the law of our being. It is the demand
of nature, of reason, and of Goel.''
This was said in the
hearing of the witness.''
Mention the nouns in the foregoing sentences. Which are oommon 1
Which proper 1 Whu.h are abstract f Which partici.pi,al f Which collective?
Write a sentence containing both a common and a proper noun.
One containing an ahst.ract noun.;-a participi.al noun ;-a collective iwun.
PROPERTIES,

The properties belonging to nouns are gender, person, number, and case.
GENDER.

Gender is the distinction of objects with regard to
sex.
There are four genders ;-the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter.
W7uit is a po.rti.cipial iwun f Examples. W7uit is a collective noun f
Exampks. What properties have nouns 1 What is gender 1 What are
the different genders 1

52

E'.FYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.

Nouns that denote males, are of the mas.culine gen·
der; as, man, brother, king,fatlter.
Nouns that denote females, are of the feminine
gender; as, woman, sister, queen, mother.
Nouns that are applicable alike to both sexes, are
of the common gender; as, parent, child, fri end.
Nouns that denote objects neither male nor fe.
male, are of the neuter gender; as, rock, wind, paper,
lmowledge.
Nouns of th~ ma.sculine or feminine gender are frequently used in a
general ~ense, mcludmg both sexes; as, "And with thee will I break in
pieces the. horse and his rider."--Jer. 51: 21. "Go to the ant thou sin"·
gard; consider her ways, and be wise."-Prov. 6: 6.
'
"
When we speak of males and females of our own species, without re·
gard to sex, we generally employ a term in the masculine gender· as
"Man is m?rtal ;"- " '.l'he a.1tthors and poets of the age."
' '
In speakmg of young children, and of animate objects whose sex is
unknown , we often employ the neuter pronoun it; as, " The child was
well when I saw it;"-" He caught the bird, but it soon escaped from
him."
In the ~nglish l ang un~c, t.he gender of nouns follo}vs the order of nature; but m the Greek, Latm, and .German tongues, the grammatical
genders are frequently assigned wJthout regard to sex; while in the
Fre.nc~, Italian, etc., wh.ich h.wc no neuter ~e1.1der, every object is, of
necessity, regarded as either masculme or femmrne.
•·
.BY a figure of speech called Personification, gender is sometimes attnbuted to ol\jects without sex. Thus, the sun, time, death, etc., are usu~
ally considered as masculine ; and the earth, a sh1p, virtue, etc. are com'
monly cho.racterizcd as fe minine.
This figurat.iv e mode of expression, by which we give life and sex to
things inanimate, contribu tes greatly to the force and beauty of our language, and renders it, in this respect, superior to the polished langua~es
of Greece nnd Rome.
No fixed n~le can be .give!1 to determine, in all cases, which gender
~~o';'ld be assigned to mammatc oh1ccts persomfied. Those which are
distmguished for masculine qualities, as energy, boldness, or strength,
are generally regarded as masculine; and those which are distinguished
for femi~ine qualitie~, .as beauty, mildness, or timidity, arc generally
c~~ractenzed as . fcmmme. Abstract nouns, and the names of ships,
cities, and countries, are usually considered as feminine.
Example,s: - " They arrived too late to save the ship, for the violent
current had set her more and more upon the bank."- living.
Vvhat nouns are of the masculine gender? Examples. What of the
feminine? Examples. ·what of the common? Examples. What of
the neuter? Examples.

53

NOUNS.-GENDER.

"Statesmen scoffed at Virtue, and she avenged herself by bringing
their counsels to nought."-Bancroft.
"Earth, with Mr thousand voices, praises God.''-Coleridge.
" Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound,
Save his own dashings.''-Bryant.
"The oak
Shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould."-lbid.
"And see where surly Winter passes off,
Far to the north, and call his ruffian blasts.''-Thomson.

The distinction between males and females is expressed in
three different ways.
1. By the use of different words: J[asculine.

Masculine.

Feminine.

Beau
Boy
Brother
Buck
Drake
Earl
Father
Friar or monk
Gander
Gentleman
Hart
Horse
Husband
King

belle
girl
sister
doe
duck
countess
mother
nun
goose
lady
roe
mare
wife
queen

Feminine.

Lad
Landlord
Lord
Male
Man
Master
Master
Nephew
Papa
Son
Stag
Uncle
Wizard

lass
landlady
lady
female
woman
mistress
miss ·
niece
mamma
daughte.r
hind
aunt
witch

2. By a difference of termination : Masculine.

Feminine.

Abbot
abbess
Actor
actress
Administrator administratrix
Adulterer
adulteress
Ambassador
ambassadress
Arbiter
arbitress
Author
authoress
Baron
baroness
Bridegroom
bride
Benefactor
benefactress
Caterer
cateress
Chanter
chantress
Conductor
conductress
Count
countess
Czar
czarina

Masculine.

Feminine.

Dauphin
Deacon
Don
Duke
Emperor
Enchanter
Executor
Giant
Governor
Heir
Hero
Hunter
Host
Instructor
Jew

dauphiness
deaconess
donna
duchess
empress
enchantress
executrix
giantess
governess
heiress
heroine
huntress
hostess
instructress
Jewess

In whaJ. three i.cays is tlUJ distinction between niale8 and females eipressW. 1
Examples of roch..
.

5•

54

ETYMOLOGY.-

Landgrave
Lion
Negro
Patron
Peer
Poet
Prior
Prophet
Protector
Priest
Prince
Shepherd

land gmvine
lioness
negress
patroness
peeress
poetess
prioress
prophetess
protectress
priestess
princess
shepherdess

NOUNS.

Marquis
Margrave
Songster
Sorcerer
Sultan
Tailor
Testator
Tiger
Tutor
Viscount
Votary
'Widower

NOUNS.-NUMBER.

marchioness
margravine
songstress
sorceress [tana
sultanessorsultltiloress
testatrix:
tigress
tutoress
viscountess
votaress
wiclow

3. By prefixing another word : Masculine.
Man-servant
Male-child

F eminine.
maid-servant
f~male-ch ild

Masculine.
H e-goat

Feminine.
she-goat

Some words are used only in the feminine; as. Amazon, brunette, dowager, shrew, siren, virago.
PERSON.

P erson is th at property of nouns and pronouns
which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing
addressed, and the person or thing spoken of.
Nouns have three persons ;-the first, th e sec.and,
and th e third.
Th e first p erson denotes the speaker; as, " The
salutation of m e, Paid, with mine own ha nd."
'l'he second p erson denotes the perso n or thing
spoken to ; as, " These are thy glorious works, Parent of good;" - " Com e, gentle Spring."
The third p erson denotes the person or thing spoken
of; as, " D ependence and obedience belon g to yout!t."
EXEltCISES.
Mention the gender of each of the following nouns :-

B ellf uncle, cherry, girl, neighbor, sister, tree, rose, grass.
Wh at is person 1 Name the person,;. ' Vhnt does the first person
denote 1 Examples. The second 1 Ex:amples. The th ird 1 Examples.

55

Mention three nouns in the masculine gender ;-three in the feminine ;
-three in the common ;- three in the neuter. Give an example of a
noun in the first person ;~in the second ;-in the third.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the masculine gender;-in the
feminine ;-in the common ;-in the neuter. One containing a noun in
the first person ;-in the second ;-in the third.
NUMBER.

Number is the distinction of one from more than one.
Nouns have two numbers;- the sing·u.Zar and the
plural.
The sing·ular number denotes but one object ; as,
da.71, book, volitme.
The plural number denotes more objects than one ;
as, days, books, volumes.
The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s or tll to
the singular.
Words ending in a sound which will unite with the sound of
s, form the plural by adding /1 only; as, herd, herds; tree, trees.
Words ending in a sound which will not unite with the sound
of 11, form the plural by adding es; as,J<1x,Joxes; l,ash, lashes.
vVords ending in silent e, whose last sound will not combine with the
sound of s, add s only, for the plural ; as, rose, roses; voice, voices.
Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, form the plural by
the addition of 'es ; as, cargo, cargoes; hero, heroes; but the following
nouns are commonly written in the plural with s only:- canto, folio,
grotto,junto, motto, num1011to, nuncio, punctilio, partico, quarto, octavo, solo, zero,
seraglio, tyro. There are also a few others, with respect to which,
usage is not uniform.
Several nouns ending in f or fe, form the plural by substituting ves
for the termination in the singular ; as, loaf, loaves; l(fe, lives; beef, beeves;
shelf shelves; knife, knives. Others, as diief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, handkerchi~f, hoqf, proq.f. roof, reproof, safe, scmf, strife, surf, tu~{, and most of
those ending in.ff, form the pluraf regularly ; as, gulf,gulfs; muff, muffs.
Stuff has staves in the plural, but its compounds are regular; as,jla.gstaif .fia9sta.ffs.
vVhat is number 1 ' Vhat numbers have nouns 1 What does the sing ular number denote 1 Examples. What does the plural number denote 1 Ex:amples. How is the plural of nouns generall,y formed f What
words form the plural by adding s only f Examples. What words by adding es 1 Examples.

5{)

ETYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.
NOUNS.-

Nouns ending in y after a consonant, form the plural by changing y
to ies; as, lmiy, ladies. Bui nouns ending in y after a vowel, form the
plural regularly ; as, day, days.
Man:y words ending in y, were formerly spelled with ie in the singular;
as, glorie, vanitie. The termination ie, in the singular, is now laid as.ide
for!!• while the old plural termination ies, is retained ; as, glory, glories;
vanity, vanities.

The plurals of the following nouns are variously formed:man, men ; woman, WIJmen ; child, children ; o.r, oxen ; mouse,
mice,· tooth, teeth,· goose, geese; foot, fut; brother, brothers (when
applied to persons of the same family); brother, brethren (when
applied to persons of the same society or profession) ; die, dies
(stamps for coining); die, dice (small cubes for gaming); genius,
genii (aerial spirits); genius, geniuses (men of genius); pea, pease
(the species); pea, peWi (the seeds as distinct obj ects); penny,
pence (in computation); penny, pennies (all distinct pieces of coi n ~
Spoonful., mouse-trap, camera-obscura, Ave-Maria, and other similar compound nouns, form the plural regularly; as, spoonfuls, mouse-traps, camera-obscuras, Ave-Marias. But words composed of an adjective and a
noun, or of two nouns connected by a preposition, generally form .the
plural by a.ddina s to the first word; as, court-martial, courts-martial;
kn iyht-errant, knfghls-errant; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp ; cou.sin-german,
cou.sins-gennan ; son-in-law, sons-in-law.
Examples:- " Those who are carried down in coachfuls t.o Westminster-hall."- Addison. "Captains Orme and Morris, the two other
aids-de-camp, were wounded and disabled.''- Sparks. "The lunacy as to 7fnights-errant remaining unabated."- Ha/lam.

Letters and numeral figures general ly form the plural by adding an apostrophe w ith the letter s; as, Twelve a's; three 5's.
The plural of words, considered as words merely, is formed in
the same manner.
Examples:-" I busied myself in crossing my t's and dotting my i's
very industriously."- Willis. " The dividend contains two x's,
two y's, and two z's."- Young's Al,qebra. "Cast all the ·9's out of
the sum of the figures in each of the two factors."- Hutton's Matliematics. " 'Vho, that has any taste, can endure the incessant,
quick returns of the also's, and the likewise's, and the mo1·eover's,
and the however's, and the notwithstanding'sf"- Campbell's Phil. of
Rhet.

Give the pluru.l. of man ;- woman ;-<:hild ;--0x ;- mouse ;-too/h ;- goose;
- foot ;-brother ;-die ;- genius ;-pea ;-penny. lf'hat rule is observed in
forming the plural of letters, numerical figures, and words considered merely as
words f Examples.

57

NUMBER.

Many nouns adopted from foreign languages re ta.in their original
plurals:A lumnus
alumni
Genus
genera
Amanuensis
amanuenses
{gymnasia
Gymnasium
Analvsis
analyses
gymnasiums
Antithesis
antitheses
Hypothesis
hypotheses
{ apices
Ignus fatuus
ignes fatui
Apex
apexes
Index
indices (refer"'
{ appendices
rin~ to algeAppendix
appendixes
bra.re quanArcanum
arcana
tities)
{automata
Index
indexes (pointAutomaton
automatons
ers or tables
Axis
axes
of contents )
{ banditti
Lamina
laminre
Bandit
bandits
Larva
larvre
Basis·
bases
Medium
med!a
Beau
beaux
mediums
{ calces
Calx
Memorandum memoranda
calxes
memorandums
{cherubim
Metamorpho- metamorphoCherub
cherubs
Miasma [sis miasmata [see
Chrysalis
chryslLlides
Momentum { momenta
Crisis
crises
momentums
{
criteria.
Monsieur
messieurs
Criterion
criterions
Nebula
nebulre
Datum
data
Oasis
oases
Desideratum
desidevata
Parenthesis
parentheses
Direresis
direreses
Phasis
phases
Phenomenon
{dogmas
phenomena
Dogma.
~ogmata
Radius
radii
Effluvium
effluvia ·
{ scholia
Scholium
E llipsis
ellipses
scholiums
Emphasis
emphMes
{seraphim
Seraph
{ e.ncom~ums
seraphs
Encomium
cncom1a
Speculum
specula
Ephemeris
ephemerides
{stamens
Stamen
Erratum
errata
stamina
Focus
foci
Stimulus
stimuli
Stratum
{formulas
strata
Formula
formulre
Thesis
theses
Vortex
{fungi
vortices
F ungus
funguses

l

~ome nouns have the s.ame f?rm in both numbers; as, deer, sheep,
swine, tr~ut, salmon, ~ongeries, se:1es, SJ?eci·es, means, odds, bellows ; ethics,
~matics, metaphysics, pMumatics, optics, and other similar names of

sciences.
There are al~o seveml nouns of number, which do not commonlv vary
their forms in the plural; as, "Six dozen;"- " Three score and tenf~
The words horse,foot, and infantry, denoting bodies of soldiers are
singular in form, but plural in signification. Caval,ry is often us~d in

58

the same manner. The words cannon, sail, and hR.ad, are also frequently
employed in a plural sense.
Examples:-" Nelson now proceeded to his station with eight sail of
frigates under his command."-Southey. "A body of a thousand
horse was sent forward to reconnoitre the city."-Prescnit. "He
ordered two cannon to be fired."-lrving.
The following words, though sometim es used as singular nouns, are
more properly plural :-alms, anumds, pains, riches, wages.
The following are used
Annals
Dregs
Archives
Embers
Ashes
Entrails
Assets
Goods
Billiards
Hatches
Bitters
Hose (stockBowels
ings)
Breeches
Hysterics
Ides
Calends
L ees
Clothes
Drawers (an ar- Letters (literature)
ticle of dress )

only in the plural:Literati
Shears
Lungs
Snuffers
Manners
Thanks
Minutire
Tidings
Morals
Tongs
Nippers
Vespers
Nones
Victuals
Orgies
Vitals
Pincers
Pleiads
Scissors
Shambles
Nouns denoting objects which do not admit of plurality, are used only
in the singular; as, gold, silver, wheal, molasses, wrne,flour, industry, pride,
wisi:Wm.

When however different kinds or varieties are spoken of, words of this
class sometimes take the plural form; as, "The teas of China."-" He
also acquired a lucrative monopoly of wines."-Bancroft. In these examples, the different species or classes are signified, and not a number
of individual objects of the same class.
The word news is now regarded as s;ngular, though it was formerly
used in both numbers. Shakspeare has it most frequently in the plural.
Proper names are sometimes pluralized like other nouns; as,
The two Scipios, the Howards, the Johnsons; Lut these plural
names are not used to designate individuals, and may with
more proprie ty be classed with common nouns.
In forming the plural of a proper name and a title, taken as
one complex noun, the plural termination is most freque~ily annexed to the title only.•
Examples:-" The lrfisses Barrett." - Graham's Magazine. " The
What of proper names, pluralized 7 How do writers most frequendy fom1
the plural of a proper name and a title, taken as a complex, noun ~ Examples.

*

NOUNS.-NUMBER.

ETYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.

In forming the plural of proper names to which titles are prefixed,
usage is still unsettled. While a decided m:i,jority of our popular-writers
pluralize the title and not the name, as " The Misses Smith," there is ·

59

Misses Vanhomrigh."-Edinb. Journal. "The Misses Wood."B oston Courier. " The Misses Fellows." - H. Winslow . " The
Messrs. Carey."-Palfrey. "The lrlessrs. Abbott."-Judge Hubbard. "The Messrs. Harper."-N. A. Review. "Messrs. P ercy."
-Southey.

The proper names of nations, societies,_gronps of islands, and. chains
of mountains, are generally plural; as, The French, the Maravzans, the
Azores, the Alps, the Andes.

EXERCISES.
GiYe the number of each of the following nouns :-

Cloud, vices, knives, life, lyceum, mirth, men, feet, brother.
Give the plural of the following nouns :-

Month, lion, church, poet, woman, thought.
Give the number of the following nouns: -

Oxen, brethren, die, cherubim, data, hypothesis, beaux,
analysis, series, means, mathematics, alms, wages, ashes,
scissors.
Give the plural of the following noum : -

Penny, pailful, father-in-law, amanuensis, focus, stratum,
erratum, genus, phenomenon.
Write a sentence containing two or more nouns in the singular number ; - one containing two or more nouns in the plural.
CASE.

Case denotes the relation of nouns and pronouns
to other words.
What is Case ~
also a large class of writers equally reputable, that pluralize the name
and not the title, as "The Miss Smi.lhs."
Examples:-" The Miss Byleses."-Miss Leslie. "The Miss Hornocks."-lrving. "The two Miss FlanllxYroughs."- Gol.dsmith.
Besi(les the two fo'rms alreadyexhibi~d, there is still another, i1:1 which
the plural termination is annexed to both the name and the. title; as,
"The Misses Smiths." This form, though not very common, is not entirely destitute of authority.
Examples:-" The Messrs. Harpers."-N. A. Review. "The Misses
Mores.":......B. B. Edwards. "The two Misses Beauvoirs."-Black-

wOod's Magazine.

..
..
..
- ----- ---60

NOUNS.-C.A.SE.

ETYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.

N. A. R.eview. " CollinIJ's Odes." - Sou.they, " The character of
Dougkis's original poetry." - ·Halipm. " The original remained
in manuscript nntil Sands's writings were collected." - R. W.
Griswol.d. "Edwards's work on the Will." - Channing. "Stephe11s's Incidents of Travel.'' - N. Y. R.eview. "Erasmus's Dialogues.'' - Macaulay.
"Achilles' shield his ample shoulders spread,
Achilles' helmet nodded o'er his head." - Pope.
"A train of heroes follow'd throi:igh the field,
Who bore by turns great Ajax' seven-fold shield.'' -Ibid.

Nouns have four cases ; - the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the independent.•
The nominative case denotes the subject of a finite
verb ; as, " Birds fly;" - " Life is short."
All parts of the verb are called finite, except the infinitive and the
participle.

The possessive case denotes ownership or possession; as, "John's book;" - " The sun's rays."
The possessive singular of nouns, is generally formed by adding an a postrophe, with the letter s, to the
nominative; as, nom. man; poss. man's.
The possessive of singular nouns ending in the sound of a or
z, is sometimes formed hy adding only the apostrophe; us,
"Achilles' shield." In poetry, this omission of the additional a
must be "regarded as fully sanctioned by usage; It is also allow•
able in prose, when the use of th ~ s would pequire the utterance of severul hissing sounds in rapid succession ; as, "Moses'
disciples ;" - "Da~ies' Surveying;" - "For conscience' sake."
In all other cases the regular form is to be preferred.t

Examples: - " Mrs. Hemans's fine lines on the death of Fergus," What cases have nouns? · What does the nominative case denote 1
Examples. The possessive 1 Examples. How is the possessive singular generally.formed 1 Examples. Under what circumstances is the
additional s omitted. Examples.

*

The .nominative case is defined by the best grammarians, to be" that
form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a
verb ;" and since a noun or pronoun, used independently, cannot at the
same time be em ployed as "the subject of a verb," there is a manifest
impropriety in regarding it a.~ a nominative.
"Is there not as much uifference between the 'wminative and independent case, as there is between the nominative and objective f If so, why
class them together as one case 1"-S. R. H all.
" Nouns have four cases ; - the nominative, possessive, objective, and independent." -Felton.
·:
See also Kennion, Parkhurst, Fowle, Flint, Goodenow, Bucke, Hazen,
Goldsbury, Chapin, S. Alexander, and P. Smith.
t With respect to the manner of forming the possessive of singular
nouns ending in s, the usage of good writers is, to a considerable extent,
divided. In a collection of n~arly a thousand examples, gleaned from
the productions of several hundred different authors, about two thirds of
the number retain the additional s, while others reject it. . The rule

61

Plural nouns ending in s, form the ·possessive !Jy adding an
apostrophe only; as, nom.fathers; posf,!.jathers'.
Plural nouns that do not end in s, form the possessive by adding both the apostrophe and s; as, nom. men; posl!. men's.
The import of the possessive may, in general, be expressed by the
particle of. Thus, for "Man's wisdom," we may say, "The wisdom of
m.an."
The sign 's is a contraction of es or is. Thus man's, king's, were formerly written mannes, kiiiges.*

How do plural 11ouns ending in s, form the possessive f Examples. How
do plural nouns that do not end in s,form the possessive f . Examples.
given above has, therefore, for its support, the principle of analogy, and
a decided preponderance of reputable usage.
Several respectable authors and critics have fallen into the error of
regarding this possessive termination as a cont:a~tion of the pronoun
his.. "The same single letter (s,) on·many occasions, does the office of a
whole word, and represents the his or her of our. forefathers.'' -Addison.
It is true that the word his was frequently written after WEJrds to form
the possessive, by Spenser, Dryden, Pope, an~, other ~pular,, ~,uthors,
during a period of two or three CtJntunes, as Chnst l11s sake_, Socr?-t"" liis rules;" but the present contracted form of the possessive was m
use still earlier, and our ablest philologists have uniformly referred its
origin to the old Saxon termination.
"From the introduction of the Saxons·into this island, to the Norman
conquest, the Saxon genitive was in universal use. Fr?m the latter period to the time of Henry II., ( 1170,) though the English language underwent some alterations, we still find the Saxon genitive. In Gavin
Douglass, who lived in the ~eginning of the ~ixteenth century, w~ find
is instead of es, thus, fadens hands. In the time of Henry the Eighth,
we find in the works of Sir T. More, both the Saxon and thti English
genitiv~; an~ .in a letter written in 1559 by M~tland. ?f Lethington, the
English gemt1ve frequently occurs. Had this. gemtive, then, been an
abbreviation for the noun and the pronoun hzs, the use of the words
separately would have preceded their abbreviated form in composition.
This, however, was not the case.'' - Orombze.
See Wallis's Grammatica Lingure Anglicanre, Hickes's .Thesaurus,

*

6

62

63

ETYMOLOGY.-NOUNS.

.A.DJECT.IVES.

The objective case denotes the object of a transitive
verb or a preposition ; •as, " Boys love play;"-" The
queen of England."
The independent case denotes that the noun or pronoun is used absolutely, having no dependence on
any other word; as, " Your fathers, where are they?"
- " The treaty being concluded, the council was dissolved;" - " Stoop, Romans, stoop;" - " Webster's
Dictionary ;" - " Liberty ! Freedom ! Tyranny is
dead!"

live forever?" - "A wise man's anger is of short continuance." - " Genius lies bµried on . our ..mountains and in our
valleys." - " Columns, arches, pyramids, - what are they
but· heaps of sand?" - "As virtue is its own reward, so
vice is its own punishment." - " Friends, Romans, countrymen ! lend me your ears."

The J\Orninative, objective, and inqependent cases of nouns are the
same in form, being distin guished only by their relation to other words.

Write one or more sentences, containing examples of nouns in all
the different cases.

Norn.

Obj.

Norn.

Obj.

John struck James.
James struck John.
H~re ~he meaning is. rev~rs~d by the .interchan~e of the nouns, the
no~mnative or a~ent be~ng md1cated by Its precedmg the verb, and the
object of the action by Its fol,/owmg the verb. A noun in the independent case is distinguished by its denoting neither subject, object, nor possessor.
DECLENSION.

To dedine a noun, is to express its cases and numbers.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.
lndep.

Singular.

Pluraj.

Singular.

Plural.

Father

fathers
fathers'
fathers
fathers

Man
Man's
Man
Man

men
men's
men
men

Fathe1~s

Father
Father

" ~usan used Eliza's book.". H ere Susan is the subject of the verb,
and IS therefore m the twmmatwe case; Eliza's is in the possessive case
because it denotes the owner of the book; book is the object of the actiod
expressed by the verb used, and is therefore in the objective case.

Point out the nouns in the foregoing sentences, and give the case of
each, with the reason. Give also tlte gender, person, and number of
each, with the reasons.
Give the posse8$ive singular and the possessive plurol, of the following

nouns :-

Man, child, body, dar, needle.

THE ADJEC'l'IVE.

An Adjective• is a word joined to a noun ·or pronoun, to qualify or define its meaning; as, honest
men; ten days; this book.
Adjectives may be classed under two general divisions ;-descriptive and definitive.t
A descriptive adjective is one that expresses some
quality or property of the noun or pronoun to which
it belongs; as, a dutiful child; a faithful friend; large
trees.
A definitive adjective is one that defines or limits

EXERCISES.

"Romulus founded tlie city of Rome." - " The king's
heart is in the band of the Lord." - " The prophets, do they
What does the objective case denote 1 Examples. What does l.he
independent case denote 1 Examples. What is it to decline a noun 1
Brightland, Fisher, British Grammar, Fenning, Lowth Priestley .Ash
Brittain, Grant, Sutcliffe, Latham, Johnson, and Webst~r.
'
'

What is an adjective 1 Examples. What are the principal classes of
adjectives 1 What is a descriptive adjective 1 Ex11DX11les. What is a
definitive adjective 1 Examples,
• The term adjective is derived from the Latin word adjectU8, which
11ignifies addul to.
t "Adjectives are of two kinds, <hfining and describin!l a:djectives."Ca.r<hll. (See also Butler, R. W. Green, and Goodenow.)

64

ETYMOLOGY.-A.DJECTIVES.

the meaning of the noun or pronoun to which it belongs; as, three days; these books; the lesson; all
men.

ADJECTIVES.-A.RTICLES.

Other is thus declined :No·m.
Poss.
Obj•.
Ind.

These two general classes of adjectives may also be divided
into several others, of which the following are the most important:-

A proper adjective is one that is derived from a proper name;
as, ./.lmerican, Ciceronian.
A numeral adjective is one that is used to express ·number; as,
one, two, three; first, second, third.

of the pronoun and the adjective.
When used to defin e a noun expressed, it is parsed as an adjective; but when employed as a substitute for a word OJ' phrase,
it is fiarsed as a pronoun. Thus, in the sentence, "Some cried
one thing, and some another," one is co be regarded as an adjective; hut, in .th e expression, "Every .one has his peculiar
trials," one performs th e. office of a pronoun or substitute.
T11e priucipal pronominal adj ectives are each, every, either, neithtr, this, that, these, those, all, any, one, other, another, none, some,
8uch, same, both, several, few, much,. many.
Each, every, either, and neither, are callei] distributiv~, t>ecause
they denote the persons or · things that make up a nun'lber, con.
sidered separately ; as, "Each man in his order."
This, that, these, aud those, are called demonstratives, because
tl1ey point out precisely the oJ1iec ts to which they refor.
Both denotes two objects taken together. Another is composed of an
and otlier. None (no one) is used in both numbers.

Into what other: classes are adjectives divided 1 What is a proper aqjective f ExampZ.. A numeral adjective f .Examples. A pronominal adjective f Exam[Jh!s. . When is a pronpminal cu(J·eetive parsed as an adjective,
and when as a prorwun f 1/1.usijate. J Vhat a1'e some of the pn"ncipal pronominal cu!jectives 1 Which of fhe pnmominal .ac{jectives are caJled distribu~
tives, and
Which demonstratives, and .wliy,
.

wky,

Plural.

Other
Other'3
Other
Other

others
others'
others
others

Another and one are also declined, but arwther is used only in the singular.

A participial adjective is a word that has the form of a participle, but performs the office of an adjective; as, a. beloved chi!~,
a lasting impression•

.One, two, three, etc., are also called cardinal.adjectives: and first second
tlurd, etc., ordinal adjectives.
·
'
'

A pronominal adjective is a word that partakes of the nature

Singul.ar.

ARTICLES.•
~he · definitive

adjective a or an1 and the, are denominated artides.
A or an is called the indefinite article, because it
does not point out any particular object; as, a book;
that is, any book.
H ow is other declitie.d 1 What is a participial adject.ive f Examples.
What words are' called articles 1 Which is called the indefinite article, and why?

*

The most approved definition of the ~~le is equally app~c;a~Ie to
the words one, that, this, these, and other defimti~es; ~d any defirut1on <?f
the adjective, which is sufficiently comprehensive to mclude th.e defirutives this, that, etc., will include also the words a and the. 'Y!th what
propriety, then, can the articles be separated from other definiuves, and
made to constitute a distinct part of speech 1
"A or an, lllld IM, are not a distinct part of speech in our language."

-Webster.
•
" The Article, as usually defined, is a small word, prefixe~ to a n01.m,
to distinguish it; but it might more properly be classed with the Ad;ec·

tive."-S. R. Hall.

·
.
ad"
" The best authorities do not hesitate to call the articles mere !Jectives."-Fowle.
.
.
" The wordS a or an, and the, W reckoned by some grammanans a
separate part of speech; but, as th~ in all respects coi;ne: under the definition of the adjective, it is unnecessary, as well as =proper, to rank
them as a class by themselves."-~·. .
.
.
The articles w·e also ranked with adJec!Jves by Pnestley, E .. Oliver,
Bell, Elphinston, M'Culloch, D'Orsey, · Lindsay, Joel, · Greenwood,
Smetham Dalton King Hort, Buchanan; J. Russell, Frazee, Cutler,
Perley, s.:Vett, Day, Goodenow. Willard, Robbins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, and others.

66

67

ETYMOLOGY.-ADJECTIVES,

.A.DJECTIVES.-COMPA.RISON,

T!te is called th e definite article, because it indicates
some particular object; as, the book; that is, some
particular book.
·

The comparative degree denotes that one object
possesses a higher or lower degree-of the quality than
another with which it is compared; as, better, wiser,
·
less wise.
The superlative degree denotes that one of several
objects poss~ses a. higher or 19wer degree of the
quality than any bf the rest; as, best, wisest,' least wise.
The comparative of adjectives of one syllable, is
commonly formed by adding r or er to the positive;
as, wise, wiser; g-.eat, greater; .and the superlative,
by adding st or es~s, wise, wisest; great, greatest.
Adjectives of more than one syllable, are generally
compared by prefixing more and most to the positive j
as, generous, more generous, most generous.

~9. is used before words beginning with a consonant sound;
as, a tree, a house, a union, a ewe, a youth, a eulogy, a one,
.a world.
Th e words union, ewe, and eulogy, beo-in with the consonant sound of y •

and the word one, with the consonant ~o und of w.

'

.11.n is used before words beginning with a vowel sound; as,
an eagle, an hour, an outline.
.11.n is also employed, by most writers, before words begin ning

with h not silent, when the accent fall.ton the second syllable.
Examples :- "An historical piece."- Irving. "An historical subject."
- Gddsmith. "An hereditary government."-E. Everett. "An
harmon ious whole."-Southey.

A -or an is the Saxon word ane or an, signifying one.

COMP ARIS ON.

The comparison of adj ectives, is the variation by
which th ey express different. degrees of qnality;
There are three degrees of comparison ;-the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
The positive degree• is that which expresses the
simple state of the quality; as, good, wise.
Which is called the definite article, a nd why1 B efore what words is a
used ? Examples. When is an used ? Examples. What rule is <JWerved
respecting the farm of the article, before a word beginning with h not silent?
Examples. What is the comparison of adjectives~ What are the dif~
ferent.d egrees 1 Wha t is the positive degree 1 Examples.
.

*

.I t ~as. bee~ objected to t_he pos!tive form, that, as it denotes the
quality m Its simple state, without rncrease or diminution, it cannot
properly be called a degree. It sho~ however be considered that all
adj ectives ii:ipl.f a general con:iparison of qualities. Thus, when we say
that a man I S discreet, we obv10 usly mean that he has more discretion
than the generality of men. So also, when we say a man is tall it is
implied that he is taH- compared with other men. Hence arises th~ dif-·
ference between the height of a tall man and that of a tall tree each being co~i;iare.d wi~h others of the same kind. In this sense, 'therefore,
the pos1tive is strictly and properly a degree of comparison.

Dissyllables •mding in y or silent e, and those accented on the
and
last syllable, are often compared like monosyllables, by
est; as, hnppy, hnp]Mr, hnppiest; noble, nobler, noblest; profound,

er

profounder, profoundest.

Diminution of quality is expressed by less and least,
whether the adjective is of one syllable or more than
one; as, bold, less bold, least bold.
The foregoing principles respecting the-comparison of adjectives, are
those which conform to the prevailing usage of the language. They
are, however, in rnme cases, disregarded by the best writers.
Examples:-" Objects of our tenderest cares."-E. Everett. "The
commonest material object."...:....Dana. "The soberest truth."-Channing.
In all qualities capable of increase or diminution, the number of degrees from the highest to the lowest is indefinite. Whenever we wish
to express any of the different shades of quality, which are not denoted
by the ·three forms of the adjective, we employ various modifying words
What does the comparative degree denote 1 E :1mmples. The superlative 1. Examples. How are adjectives of one syllable generally com. pared 1 Examples. Of more than .9ne syllable 1 Examples. What
CW.Sses of dissylW.bles are often compared by er and est 1 (What is a dissyllciblef] Examples of dissyllabks compared bjJ er and est. How is diminution'~f quality expressed 1 Examples.

68

ADJECTIVES.

ETYMOLOGY.-A.DJECTIVES.

and phrases; as, rather, somewhai, slightly, a little, so, too, very, greatly, high·
ly, exceedingly, in a high degi·ee.
The termination ·ish is also joined to certain words, to denote a slight
degree of quality; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish .
. When the words more, most, less, and least, are prefixed to adjectives, they may be considered as forming a part of the adjective. Thus,
~e c~mpound terms ~1ore happy and less happy, are regarded as adjectives m the comparative degree; but when· the words are coneidered sep·
arately, the prefixes more, 11wst, etc., are properly .adverhs.

The fullowing adjectives are compared irregularly:Positipe.

Comparative.

Good
Bad, evil, or ill
Far
i .

better
worsl1

{ further
farther

Fore

former

Late

later

Little
Much or many

less
more

Near

nearer
{older
elder

Old
Some

adjecti~es

Superlative.

most

nearest (referring to place)
{ next (in order)
oldest
{ eldest

in the superlative degre.e are formed by adding most

to the compai:at1ve or to the word from ~h1ch the comparative itself is
made; as, hi.nd, hinder, hmdermost or hindmost · nether netherowst · up
1•

'

'

Adjectives whose signification doel!I not admit of increase.or
diminution, cannot be compared; as, square, first, one, all,· any,
wooden, daily, chief, in.finite.
The word perfect,* anct some otherst which are not strictly comparable, are often qualified by more and most, and by less and least.
Examples:-" A more r,erfect civilization."-B. B. Edwards. "The
71Wsl perfect society. '-E. Everett. "Less perfect ·imitations."Macaulay. "The more perfect oneness."-Dana.

W7iat cufl'ectives are compared irregularly f
}ectives cannot be compared f Examples.

Compare them. What ad-

*"Usage has given to' 71Wre and most perfect' a sanction which we
dare hardly controvert."-Crombie.
·
t "More complete, nwst complae, less complete, are common expression.a.'.'

-Webster.

.Adjectives are sometimes used to perform the office of nouns, as
"Providence rewards the good;" and nouns to perform the office of ad·
jectives, as "An iron fence;"- " Meadow ground."
EXERCISES.

Good, this, seven, round, British, the, those, straight, for·
tieth, white, all, rich, any, Chinese, two, an, virtuous, eigh·
teen, destructive, a, some, Alpine, first, many, boiling water,
heated iron.
Which of the foregoing adjectives are descriptive and which definitive 1 Which of them are proper f Which numeral f Which pronominal 1
Which participial f WhiclLtre articles 1
Compare the following a(l'jectives :-

best
¥Wrst
jltthest
,fhrthest
foremost (in place)
{ first (in time or order)
latest (referring to time)
{ last (in order)
least

upper, uppermost or upmost; in, inner, innermost o; inmost.'

69

Strong, robust, sincere, low, swift, grateful, little, bad, stu·
dious.
" This site commands an extensive view of the surround·
ing country."-" The rapid current of a large river, the foam·
ing cataract, the :vivid flash of forked lightning, and the ma·
j~stic rolling of the mighty ocean, are objects which excite in
our minds emotions of grandeur and sublimity."-" Every
leaf and every twig teems with life."-" Homer was the
greater genius; Virgil the better artist."-" Virginia is the
largest state in the Union."-'' Numbers are expressed by
ten .Arabic characters:'
Point out the adjectives in the foregoing sentences. Which of them
are descriptive 1 Which definitive 1 Which are proper 1 Which nume·
ral 1 Which pronominal f Which participial f Which are articles 1
Which of the descriptive adjectives are in the positive degree 1 Com·
pare them. Which are in the comparative 1 Compare them. Which
in the superlative 1 Compare them.
Write sentences containing examples of descriptiYe and definitive adjectives; and others containing examples of adjectives in each of tho
three degrees of comparison.

..

\•

70

ETYMOLOGY.-PERSONA.L PRONOUNS.

P.E RS ONA.L PRONOUNS.

71

Declension of Personal, P ronouns.
THE PRONOUN.

A Pronoun• is a word used to supply the pl!lce of
a noun ; as, " When Cresar had conquered Gaul, he
turned his arms against !tis country."
The word that is represented by a pronoun, usually precedes
it, and is hence called its antecedent.

Pronouns may be divided into three general classes ;- personal, relative, and inten:t;gative.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses
person and number of itself.
The personal pronouns are I, thou or you, he, she,
and it. I is of the first person; thou or you, is of the
second; and he, she, and it, are of the third.
Pronouns, like nouns, have gender, person, number,
and case.

FIRST PERSON.
Singtilar.

Plural.

Norn. I
P oss. My or mine

we
our

Obj.

Me
Me or I

Ind.

Mine and thine were formerly employed instead of my and thy, before
words beginning with the sound of a vowel. This usage is now confined chiefly ·to ·poetry and the solemn style of prose.
Examples : - "I kept myself from mine iniquity." - Ps. 18: 2:i.
" M ine hour is no~ yet come."- John 2: 4.
" God stay thee in thine agony, my boy."- Willis.
The first perion sino-ular is seldom used in the independent case, except by exclamation. IThe first person plura), when used independently,
properly takes the same form as the nominative, though the objective
form is sometimes employed.
Examples:- "0 wretched we l"- Dryden. "0 rarewe/ 11-Cuwper.
"Ah I luck.less L"- Francis.
"Ah me! neglected on the lonesome plain."- Beattie.
" Me miserable I which way shall I fly
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ~"-Milton.

SECOND PERSON.-Solemn Style.
Singular.

Personal pronouns are varied to distinguish the numbers and
Clll!es; but variety of form to distinguish the genders, is confined
to the third person singular.

Nom.
P oss.

As persons speaking or spoken to, are supposed to be present, and their
sex sufficiently obvious, variety of form in the corresponding pronouns,
to express distinction of gender, is unnecessary. But persons or things
spoken or, being considered as absent, it is proper to make a distinction
of gender; and the third person of the pronoun is accordingly distinguished by using he for the masculine, she for the feminine, and it for the
neuter.

Ind.

What is a pronoun 1 Examples. What is the antecedent of a pronoun f
Into what general classes are pronouns divided 1 What is a personal
pronoun 1 Enumerate the personal pronouns, and give the person of
each. What modifications have pronouns 1 For what are personal prorwuns varied f
* The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word pronomen, which
signifies for a noun.

~·

we

Obj.

Plural.

Thou
Thy or thine
Thee
Thou .

ye or you
your
you
ye or y ou.

The pronoun thou is employed i n a ddressing the Deity, in the
sacred Scriptures, and in poetry. It also occurs in solemn or
impassioned prosaic composition, and the Society of F 1iends
still use it in common discourse.
The poets sometimes employ ye instead of you, for the objective plural,
but this usage is inelegant.*
Docl.ine I. Doc.line thou.

When is thou employed 1 Examples.

*"Brother, sweet sister, peace around ye dwell.11- Hema111.
"-1 told ye then he should prevail and speed
On his bad errand."- .Mllton.
·

72

SECOND PERSON.-Common Style.
Singul,ar.
Norn. You
Poss. Your
Obj.
You
ind.
You

Plural.
you
your
you
you

The word you"' was originally plural in signification, but it ia
now unive rsally employed in popular discourse, to represent
either a singular or a plural noun.
Dedine you.

What was the cmginal use

of you ~

How is it now em-

ployed?
*No usage of our language is more fully established than that which
recognizes you as the representative of nouns in the singular number.
"In the using of you to one, as well as to more than one, (which is the
Language of the Nation, not only spoken by the private persons, but extant in the both private and publick Writings of it,) we do seem to imitate the French, who, as they have one word, viz. tu for thou, and one,
viz. vos for ye; so they have one which they use both to one, and to more
than one, indifferently; namely, vous, you."- Walker's Treatise of English
Particles; London, 1653.
Brightland, one of the earliest of our English grammarians, who wrote
in 1710, classes you with the singular pronouns I, thou, and he. Greenwood, in his celebrated grammar, which appeared the following year,
says, " Thou or you is of the second person singular." This disposition
of you was followed by the author of the British Grammar, and by Farro, Fisher, Joel, Buchanan, Dilworth, Smetham, Bell, Hodgson, G. Wilson, Menye, Ross, and several other grammatical writers of the last century.
Mr. Murray's grammar first appeared in 1795. Following the practice of the Society of Friends,-the community in which he was educated,
-he restricted you to tho plural number; and such was the influence of
his example, that this word was, for a time, very generally excluded from
the list of sinaular pronouns.
There has however always existed a r.espectable class of authors, who
have treated the pronoun you as singula.r, when used to personate an
individual; and, during the last twenty.five or thirty years, the number
of this class has very rapidly increased.
"It is altogether absurd to consider you as exclusively a plural pronoun in the modern English language. It may be a matter of history,
that it was originally used as a plural only; and it may be a matter of
tkcry, that it was first applied ·to individuals on a principle of flattery;
but the fact is, that it is now our second person singular. When applied
to an individual, it never excites any idea either of plurality or of adulation; but excites, precisely and exactly, the idea that was excited by the
u se of thou, in an earlier stage of the language."-Jefrey, in the Edinburgh Review.
"If a word, once exclusively plural, becomes, by universal use, the

73

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

ETYMOLOGY.-PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

THIRD PERSON.

Masculine.
Singular.
Norn. He
Poss. His

Obj.

Him

Ind.

He

Plural.
they
their
them
they

Neuter.

Ftrninim.
Singular.
She
Her
Her
She

Plural.
they
th eir
th em
they

Singular. Plural.
they
It
their
Its
them
It
It
they

In the third person, masculine and feminine, the in~ep~nd~nt case has
usually the nominative form, though the use of the ob;ectlve lS not wholly destitute of authority.*
Examples:-" Ah luckless he !"-Shenstone.
" God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top
Shall tremble, he descending, will himself
Ordain them laws."-Millon.
" Miserable they
Who, here entangled in the gathering ice,
Take their last look of the descending sun."-Thomson.
Hist was formerly employed as the possessive of both he and it.
Exampks :-"Put up again thy sword into his place."-Matt. 26: 52'.
"Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning, and almost
childish."-Bacon.
My, thy, h£s, her, its, our, your, and their, are sometimes, though improperly, termed pronominal adjectives.

Mine, thine, hi8, has, ours, yours, and theirs, are possessive pronouns, used in construction either as nominatives or objectives ;t
Decline he, she, and it. What is said
thine, et.c. f 11/ustrate their use.

of the

possessive pronouns, mine,

sign of individuality, it mu~t take its place in the singular number. That
this is the fact with you, is proved by national usage."- Webster.
See also Sanborn, Brace, M'Culloch, Barnard, Picket, Goodenow,
Fowle, P. Smith, R . C. Smith, Frazee, Lindsay, Booth, J. M. Putnam,
Gurney, Davis, Pinnock, Graham, Allen, Frost, Felton, R. W. Green,
Wilbur, J. P. Wilson, Wilcox, Swett, and Cutler.
Of the two forms, 'him excepted' and ' he excepted,' the former, (contrarv to the sentiment of the majority of grammarians,) is the correct
one:"-Prof Latham's Eng. Grammar.
t "The possessive its does not appear before the seventeenth century."
-Booth. "Its is not found ·in the Bible, except by misprint."-G. Brown.
t Mine, thine, etc. are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case,
and governed by nouns understood. Thus, in the sentence," This book
is mine," the word mine is said to possess book. That the word book is
not here understood, is obvious from the fact, that, when it is supplied,
the phrase becomes, not" mine book," but" m.11 book," the pronoun being
changed from mine to my; so that we are made, by this practice, to parse

*"

7

74

75

ETYMOLOGY.-RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

as," Your pleasures are past, mine are to come." Here the wor.d
mine, wh ich is used as a substitute for my pleasures, is the subject of th e verb are.

The words used as relative pronouns, are who,
which, that, and what.
Wlw is applied to persons, and which to irrational
animals and things without life ; as, " The man wlto
is accustomed to reflect, finds instruction in every
thing ;"-'' I have found the book which I had lost."
That is used for who or which, and may be applied
either to persons or things; as, " He that gathereth in
summer, is a wise son ;"-" A city that is set on a
hill, cannot be hid."

The words myself, thyself, yuurself, himself, herselJ, and itself,
with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves, are. ca ll ed
compound p ersonal pronouns. They nre frequently joined to
nouns nnd simple pronouns, to express emphasis; ns, "You
yourselves nre the contrivers of your own ruin;"-" The mountains themselves decay with years." They are also useci \\hen
the suhject nnd the object of th e verb both represent the same
person or thing. :•I blame myself;"-" He blames me." I and
myself h ere denote the same person, and we use the compound
pronoun. He and me denote different persons, and we use the
simple pronoun.

Wlw, which, and that, are thus declined : -·
Sing. and Plur.
Nom. Who
Poss. Whose.
Obj.
Whom
Ind.
Who

The word self, when used alone, is a noun; as, " The love of self is
predominant."
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates directly
to some preceding word or phrase, and serves to conn ect sentences.
The connec tive office of a relative pronoun should always be
pointed out in parsing. Thus, in the compound sentence," Bless
them that curse you," the pronoun that is the 8ubject of the verb
curse in one of the members; nnd it relates to them, which is
the object of the verb bless in the other member. A relative
pronoun always relates to some word out of the clause in which
it stands, nnd thus joins th e two c lauses together.
What are the compound personal pronouns ? When are they em71loyed 7
Examples. What is a relative pronoun 1 Illustrate the connective office of
relatives.

mine as possessi ng a '~ord understood, before which it cannot properly
be used. The word mme 1s he.re evidently employed as a substitute for
the two words, my and book.
"1:hat mine, t/1 irtP, yours, his, hers, theirs, do not constitute a possessive
case, 1s demonstrable, for they are constantly used as the nominatives to
verbs and as the object ives after verbs an d preposi tions."- · ~V,bst.r.
See al so Dr. Wilson, Smart, Jenkins, Goodenow, Jaudon, Felch Hazen, Todd, E. Smith, and Davis.
'

Sing. and Plur.
Which
Whose"'
Which
Which

Sin_q. and Plur.
That
Whose
That

The word what is often used as a compound rdative pronoun,
equivalent in signification to that whicht or those which; as," One
Enumerate the relative pronouns. What are the respective applica·
tions of w)o, which, and that f Examples of each. Dedine the relatives
who, which, and that. How is what often used 1 Examples.

*

The possessive of which is, in many grammars, marked as wanting;
but the use of whose as the posses~ ive both of who and which, may now
be regarded BS fully established by the authority of our most eminent
writers and spe.akers.
Examplts :-"The chasm . throu:;h whose dark depth," etc.-Pres·
colt. " He wanted learning, wMse place no splendor of genius
can supply to the lawyer."- Wirt. "At such times, I am apt to
seek the ·Hall of Justice, whose deep shadowy arcades extend,"
etc.- Irving. " Passages whose excellence," etc.-Coleridge. " That
renowned sea, whose opposite shores," etc.-E. Evereit. Other
examples from the best authorities, might be multiplied at pleasure.
" I have given whose as the genitive of which; not only because this usage is sanctioned by classical authority, but like·
wise, because ' the other form, of which, is frequently awkward
and inelegant."-Dr. C,-ombie.
t Many grammarians erroneously substitute the two equivnlent words,
that which, and parse them instead of the original word what. This is
parsing their own language, and not the author's. The word wllill,

76

ETYMOLOGY.-INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

man admires what [that which] displeases another." What here
sustains the relation of both the nominative and the objective case.
As a nominative, it is the subject of the verb displeasea; as an
objective, it is the objei:t of admires.
What sometimes performs, at once, the office of an adjective
and a pronoun ; as, " What time remained, was well empl~yed."
As an adjective, whg.t here qualifuls time; as a pronoun, it is the
subject of the verb remained.

Whoever, .rtJhichever, whatever, and whosoever, which.soever, whatsoever, are also used as compou.nd pronouns, and parsed in the
same manner as the compound what. Thus, in the sentence,
" Whoever di sregard::1 the laws of his being, must suffer the
penalty," whoever is the subject of the two verba, disregards and
must 1111jfer.
Whoso was formerly used as a compound pronoun, in the sense of
whosoever; as, " Whoso, therefore, shall swear by the altar, sweareth by
. it, and by all things thereon." It is now nearly obsolete.

Which aud what are sometimes used as adjectives; as, "For
which reason;"-" What tongue can tell?''
The distinction between personal and relative pronouns should
receive special attention. Each of the personal pronouns is used
to represent one of the three persons, and no other. Thus, 1
is always of the first person, and he always of the third. A relative pronoun does not express person of itself, but always depends on its antecedent for person. . Thu3, we may say, "I
who speak ;" "You who speak;" " He who speaks." Who is
here employed in each of the three persons.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used
Mat two parts of speech does what someJ.imes represent f Examples.
What other words are emplo_'fed as compound relatives f E xamples. Give
examples ef which and what, used as adjectives. Explain and illustrate
the distiuction between personal and relative pronouns. What is an interro-

gative pronoun 1

when compound, should be parsed as pe1forming the office of two
nominatives, or two objectives, or of both a nominative and an objective.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

77

in asking a question ; as, " Who is this ?" T.he
words used as interrogative pronouns, are who, which
and what.
Who, used interrogatively, is applied only to persons; which
and what, are applied to both persons and things.
Whether, signifying whi~h of the two, was formerly used as an interro~­
ati vc ; as, " W7iether of them twain did the wi!' 0£ his father 1" In thlS
sense, it is now out of use.

EXERCISES.
Give the person, number, and case of each of the following pronouns:His, she, its, thee, he, they, our, I, them.
lVhat personal, pronoun is in the third person singul.ar, masculine gen~er,
and possessive case f-in the second person ~ing~ar, sol.enm_ styk, and ob1ective case f-in the third person plural,, non11nat1ve case f-tn the first person
plural, objective case f-in the first per~n singuZ<:r, possessive _case f-in the
second person plural,, nominative case f-tn the . thtrd person singular, n~
gender, possessive case f-in the second perso~ ~ngular, common st~le, nominative case f-in the third person singular,fennmne gender, nominative case f i11 the first person plural,, possessive case f

"As he was valiant, I honor him."-" The crime which
has been once committed, is committed again with less reluctance."-" I charge thee, fling away ambition."-.:." He
that trusteth in his riches, shall fall."-" Virtue is most laudable in that state which makes it most difficult."-" Who
wrote the letter?"-'' You forget yourself."-" 0 tl;iou that
rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers l"
Point out the pronouns in the foregoing sentences. Which of them
are personal 1 Which relative 1 Which interrogative 1 Give the person, number, gender, nnd case of each, with the reasons.
MonEL.-He (in the first sentence above) is a pronoun, becaus.e it is
a word used to supply the place of a noun ;-;personal, because 1~ expresses person and number of itself;-in the third person, be~use It denotes a person spoken of;-in the singular number, because It denotes
Enumerate the interrogatives. To what are the interrogatives who,
which, and what, respectively applicalJle f Exampl('.Jl.

7•

78

79

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

VERBS.

but one ;_- i~ the masculine gender, because it denotes a male ·-and in
,the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb was. '

An intransitive verb is a verb that doe~ not have a
noun or pronoun for its object; as, " He is.;"-" The
horse runs."

W ~ite sentences containing examples of personal, relative, and inter·
rogat1ve pronouns.

There are some verbs which may be used either transitively or intran·
sitively, the construction alone determining to which class they belong.

THE VERB.

A Verb* is a word that expresses an assertion or
affirmation ;t as, I am; I teach,· I am taught.
A Verb may also be used to command, exhort, requ est, and inquire; as, "Be silent;"-" Spare me;"
-" Have you written the letter ?" and to express an
action or state in a bo-eneral and abstract sense · as
' ,
doing, to obey.
V erbs are divided into two general classes ;-transitive and intransitive.+
A transitive verb is a verb·that has some noun or pronoun for its object; as, " H enry has learned his lesson."
The term transitive signifies passing over.
What is a verb 1 Examples. What other uses have verbs 1 Examples. Into what general classes are verbs divided? What is a transitive verb? Examples.

* The t~rm verb is deri ve_d

from the Latin verbum, which signifies a
word.. This part .of speech is so called because the verb is the principal
word m a sentence.

t ~~e idea of a verb is not easily expressed in a single sentence. The
defimt1on here adopted is based on the _most distinguishing characteristic
of tlns part of speech ; and 1s substantially the same as that of Priestlev
Blair, Harris, Beattie, Crombie, Andrews and Stoddard the British
Grammar, Rces's En cyc., Brewster's Encyc., Grant, Sutcliffe M'Culloch
Bullions, Fletcher, Cooper, Goldsbury, Frost, Parkhurst, Butler, Ha.rt:
and others.
f "The prop~r division of verbs is into transitive and intmnsitive ·
for this distinction is practical, and has an effect in the formation of
sentences, which is not true of the other distinctions."-Goodenow.
"Tl~is classification of verbs is founded on their use in the construc·
tion of sentences."- Ji'razee.
The di vision of verbs into transitive and intransitive is also adopted in
the grammars of Arnold, Wehster, M'Cullorh, Hart Cr3ne Frost But·
ler, Ba~lions, Connon, R._ W. Greei:i, l{eed, Perley, Ussher, F aller, Staniford, Bmgham, Locke, Ticknor, Lmdsay, Earl, Spear, Story, Webber,
Natting, Cobb, and others.

Transitive verbs have two forms, called the active
and the passive voice!''
The active voice represents the subject or nominative as acting upon some object.
The passive voice represents the nominative as
b eing acted upon.
In the sentence, " Cresar conquern_d Pompey;" the verb conquered represents the nominative C<Uar as acting upon the object Pompey. The verb conquered is therefore in the active voice.
But in the expression, "Pompey was conquered by Cresar," the
verb was conquered represents the nominative Pompey as being
acted upon. The verb was ronquered is therefore in the passive
voice.
When a verb is said to be transitive, and no_ mention is made _of the
voice it is understood to be in the active voice. The passive voice of a
transltive verb is often denominated a passive verb.

A verb in the passive voice is composed of the perfect participle of a transitive verb and one of the forms of the verb to
be ; as, are heard, were heard, am heard, to be heard.
Most intranliitive verbs do not admit of the passive form.
·what is an intransitive verb 1 Examples. What two forms have
transitive verbs 1 What is the active voice 1 The passive voice 1
Illustrate. Of what is a verb in the passive voice composed? What ~bs do
rwt generally admit the passive form 1 lllw;trate.
there to this principle 1 Example$.

What exceptions are

ll< " Active and passive do not denote two Q.ifferent ~inds of verb, b.u t
oue kind under two different fonns, denominated the ectnie and passive

voice."-BuUions.

.. .

" It needs no argument to prove that '~ ~m struclC is JUSt ~ :refi/J.y a
modification of to strike, as, 'I have struck 1s ; an~ _yet, U!l_!l-i!r the old
classification of active, passive, nnd neuter, t~e pup1l "'.~~ght to con·
sider these forms as two verbs belongmg to different classes. 1-Hart,

80

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBB.

Thus, instead of saying," Very great abuses are crept into this·
entertainment," it would be bettei· to say, "Very great abuses
have crept into this entertainment." But the verbs come and go,
and perhapa a few others, may, in some cases, properly assume
the passive form; as, "The time is come."-Channing. " The
sharp touches of the chisel are gone from the rich tracery of the
arches."-Jrving.

Verbs are also divided into regular and irregular.
A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present;
as, present, wve; past, loved; perf. part., loved; call,
called, called.
Regul~~ verbs termina~i;ig in silent e, form their past tense and perfect part1c1ple by the add1t1on of d only; and those ending in any other
letter, by the addition of ed.
The verbs hear, pay , say, and lay, which do not end in e, and which
add d only for the past tense and perfect participle, are classed with irregular verbs.

An irregular verb is one that does not form its past
tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the
present ; as, present, see; past, saw; perf. _part., seen;
go, went, gone.

EXERCISES.

"The tree grows."-" Columbus discovered America.''" You were expected."-" Man is mortal."-" We are observed."-" He received an injury."
Point out the verbs in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are
regular? Which irregular? Which arc transitive? Which intranaiti ve ? Which passive ?
Name three l'lgular verbs ;-three irregular.
Write sentences containing examples of transitive, intransitive, and
passive verbs.
Into what other classes are verbs divided, besides the division into
transitive and.intransitive? What is a regular verb ? Examples. .An
irreguill!' verb ·1 - Examples.

VERBS.-MODES.

81

PROPERTIES.

The properties belonging to verbs are mode, tense,
number, and person.
MODE.

Mode is a term used to denote the manner in which
the verb is employed.
V crbs have five modes ;*-the indicative, the sub• What properties belong to verbs ? What is mode~
different modes.

*

Enumerate the

The recognition of a potential mode in so many of our popular
grammars affords a striking example of the power of custom. T~e expressions, :, It may rain,'' "He may.go,'' "I can ride,''. etc. are manifestly
dedaraJ.ive; and the verbs may rain, may go, can rule, etc., are app~o­
priatelrranked in the indicative mode. "I can walk,'' expresses qmte
as distmct a declaration as ';I wait" Thus," I can walk," declares !hat
I have the power to walk; while ' I walk," dedares. the act of walking.
Most authors who recognize a potential mode, still class such expressions as "If I should go,'' with the subjunctive. Bu,~," I should go,"
£1$Serls or declares the same thing that " If I should g?, ex~resses und.~~
a condition · and hence the difference between them IS precisely the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive. And since the use
of the conjunction if, produces n'o other effect than to change the se.n·
tence from a declarative to a conditional form, it is obvious that all of its
potential qualities must still remain; he?ce, the senten.ce, "";,I should
go," has the same claim to be ranked with the .Potent1al, .as .I should.
go." If, then, this fo1m of the verb is classed with the sub1unct_1ve mOO:e
when it is used conditionaU-JJ, ~on~istency ~ould s~em to require that 1t
should be classed with the indicative when its use 18 diJclaratory.
•
Do the expressions "He would walk," "They should learn," im_plr,
will or obligatwn, more 'clearly than "I will obey," "Thou shalt not kill,'
"He ought to learn"?
.
" The mere expressions of will, possibility, lihe:rty, obligatwn, etc., belong
to the Indicative Mode."-Lowth.
"As to the potential mode, it may, I think, in al~ cases, be resolved
into either the indicative or the subjunctive."-Beattie's Themy of Lin·
p~
" The forms of expression, I can go, we mall ri?e. ~ must obey, are reallY
declaratory, and proper!;>' belong ~o the Ind1catl'l:e. - Webster.
The potential mode is also rejected by J~m1eson, H. ~ard, Coote,
Cobbett, Lewis, Hazlitt, Hodgson, St. Quentm, B.ell, Bai;1e, Buc~anan,
Coar, Trinder, Adam, Arnold, l'erry, Ross, Nutlmg, Wilson, Willard,
Hallock, Dearborn, J. Flint, D. Adams, Judson, Pue, Cardell, Cutler,
Baich, French, and others.

..
82

83

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

V.ERBS.-P.A.RTICIPLES.

junctive, the imperatiVF~, the irifinitive, and the participial.*
The indicative mode is that which indicates or declares, or asks a question; as, he can learn; does he
learn? can he learn?

principal, and the other subordinate. The subordinate clause is
usually preceded by a conjunction, subjoining it to the antecedent or principal clause, on which it dependf!. Thus, in the sentence, "I will remain if you desire it,'' the dependent clause,
"you desire it," is preceded by the conjunction if, which subjoins it to the principal clause, "I will remain."
The condition of a verb in the subjunctive is sometimes expressed
without the aid of a conjunction; as, "Had he taken the counsel of
friends, he would have been saved from ruin."

The common form of the indicative mode is that which merely
expresses a dec laration or an interrogation; as, "He improves;"
- " Will you go~"
The potential form of the indicative is that which expresses a
declaration or asks a question, and also implies possibility, libt.rty, power, dttermination, obligation, necessity, etc. ; as, "He can
learn;"-" All men mu.st die;"-" What would they have~"
Were is sometimes used for would be or should be; as, "Ah! what were
man, should Heaven refuse to hear 1"
" Had is also occasionally em ployed for would hm•e or should have; as,
Had thought been all, sweet speech had [would have] been denied."-

The subjunctive mode, like the indicative, admits of the potential form ; as, " He might improve, if he would make the
necessary effort."

The subjunctive mode is ,,that which implies condition, supposition, or uncertainty; as, " If he had the
opportunity, he would improve rapidly;"-" Take
heed, lest any man deceive you." .

The imperative mode is that which commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits; as, " Go thou;"-" Study
diligently;"-" Forgive us our trespasses;"-" Depart
in peace."
The infinitive mode is the root or simple form of
the verb, used to express an action or state indefinitely; as, to hear, to speak. It is generally distinguished by the sign to.

Every subjunctive clause implies two propositions, the one

When the particle to is employed in forming the infinitive, it is to be
regarded as a part of the verb. In every other case it is a preposition.

Young.

What is the indicative mode 1 Examples. What is the common form
of the indicative mode ? Examples. The potential form? Examples. What
is the subjunctive mode 1 Examples. What does every subjunctive clau.se
imply? Illustrate.

*

If the participle is properly regarded as a form of the verb, it i3 obvious that it must be employed in some mode. Jn the conjugation of
verbs, it is uniformly introduced in connection with the other modes,
and treated in every respect as a mode.
"The participle is merely a mode of the verb, and it might properly be
termed the participial mode."- Sanborn.
"If modes be the manner of representing the verb, we see no good reason
why participles should not be reckoned a mode."-Goodenow.
"That the participle is a mere mode of the verb, is manifest, if our
definition of a verb be admitted."-Liwth.
"Mr. Murray contends strenuously for the participle, as 'a mode of the
verb,' and yet has not the consistency of wisigning it a place among the
modes, as it must have, if it be any verb at all."- Willard.
The participle is also ranked as a mode of the verb by Elphinston,
Allen and Cornwell, Connel, De Sacy, St. Quentin, Felch, Fletcher, Gur·
ney, and Day.

Participles.

The participle is a mode of the verb, partaking of
the properties of the verb and the adjective; as, seeing, seen, having seen, having been seen.
Participles may be classed under two general divisions ;-imperfect• and perfect.
~~~~-~~~~~-

What nwdification inform does the subjunctive admit? Examples. What
is the imperative mode 1 Examples. The infinitive 1 Exnmrlcs. How
is the infinitive generally distinguished 1 What is the participle 1 Examples. Into what general classes are participles divided 1

'*' "The distinguishing cha.racterislic of this .PRrtiri~le is, that i~ den?t~s
an unfinished and progressive state of the bemg, acnon, or rass1on; it is
therefore properly denominated the IMPERFECT participle.' - .G. Brown.
"All that is peculiar to the participles is, that the one sigmfies a per-

84

85

ETYMOLOG Y.-VERBS.

VERBS.-TENSES.

An imperfect participle denotes the continuance of
an action or state ; as, calling, seeing, being seen.

can be indicated only by the use of various modifying words .a nd phrases; as, "The storm beats violently;"-" The horse sleeps standing.'

Imperfect participles relate to present, past, or future time,
according as they are connected with verbs in the present, past,
or future tense.

A perfect participle denotes the completion of an
action or state; as, called, seen, having seen.
Participles are also divided into two other classes, called simple and compound.
A simple participle is a participle that consists of only one
word ; as, doing, done.
A compound participle is a participle that is composed of two
or more words; as, being seen, having seen, having been seen.
Being 3een is a compound imperfect participle; having seen and
having been seen, are compound perfect participles.
Participles, like other modifications of the verb, are either
transitive or intransitive. Thus, seeing and having seen are trimsitive; being and walking, intransitive. Transitive verbs are also
distinguished by voices; as, active, seeing, having setn; pa.ssive,
seen, having been seen.
Participles often lose their verbal character and become adjectives· as
"A mo•inq spectacle;"-" A revised edition." They are then called }iar~
ticipial adjectives.
Participles .are ft!so .u sed to. p~rform the office of nouns; as, "They
could not av01d sulmnttw_q to this mfluencc." When used in this manner, they are called participial nouns.
~es ldes the regular gram matical modes expressed by the verb, it is
obv10os that t.here must be numerous other distinctions of manner, which
What is an imperfect participle 1 Examples. To what time do imper·
feet participles relate 7 What is a perfect participle 1 Examples. A
simp/,e participle 7 Examples. A compound participle 7 Examp/.es. Name
a tra11Sitive participle ;-intransitive. A participle in the passive t'Oice.

feet, and the other an imperfect action."-Pickbourn's Dissertation on the
Enghsh Verb.
"The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the
action,.passion, or state, denoted by the verb, and the other to the completion of it."-Murra.¥.
'
See also Grant., Baldwin, Lewis, M'Culloch, Churchill, Connon, But·
ler, and R. W. Green.
·

TENSE.

Tense is the distinctiq,n of time.
Verbs have six tenses
the present, the past,• the
future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the

i-

futwre perfect.
The present .t ense denotes present time ; as, I write;:
I am writing.
The past (imperfect) tense denotes indefinite past
time ; as, I wrote ; I was writing.
The future tense denotes indefinite future time; as,
I shall write; I shall be writing:..
The present perfect (perfect) tense denotes past time,
and also conveys an allusion to the present; as, I have
written; I have been writing.
The past perfect (pluperfect) tense denotes past
time, that precedes some other past time, to which
it refers; as, "When he had delivered the message,
he took his departure."
The future perfect (second future) tense denotes
What is tense 1 Enumerate the tenses. What is the present tcnu 1
Examples. The past tense 1 Examples. The future tense 1 Exam·
pies. The present perfect tense 1 Examples. The past· perfect tense 1
Examples. The future perfect tense 1 Examples.

'*' The names of the tenses adopted in this treatise, have the sanction
of Connel, Skillern, Hiley, Butler, Perley, Goodenow, :fletcher, and
Farrium. Similar terms, corresponding with the signification of the
tenses, are also employed by Webster, Frazee, Day, Swett, Felton, Brace,
Simmonite, Flower, Barrie, and others.
"Several of the old names either convey no idea, or an erroneooa one.
The Imperfect Tense does not in one case of a hundred, signify an imperfect action; the Perfect Tense is not the only one which represents a
finished action; and, if we speak of First and Second Future Tenses, .
we may with equal propriety have First and Second Present, and First
and Second Past Tenses.''-Perley.
.
8

- 86

87

ETYll!OLOG Y.-VERBS.

VERBS.-.A.UXILIA.RIES.

foture time, th at precedes some other future time, to
which it refers ; as, " I slzall ltave finished the letter before he arrives."

less an auxilia1·y is understood. Thus, "If he Ma.r," may properly be used for "Ifhe shall hear' or "If he shovU hear," but not
for "If he Ma.r11."
Infinitives and participles have neither number nor person.

B esides these six grammatical tenses there are numerous other distinctions of time, which are expressed by rnrious modifyino- words and
phrases; as, " I wi ll go immediatrdy ;"- " I will go soon;"- ':: I will go in
an lwur ;"-" I will go to-monow ;"- " I will go in the course of the wtelc."

NUMBER AND PERSON.

V erbs have two numbers and three persons.
The person and number of a verb are always the
same as the person and number of its subject or nominative.
In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the second person singular of the solemn st.yle ends regularly in st or est, as Thou see.st,
Thou l.earest, Thou sawest, Thou heardest ; a nd the third person singular
of the present, in s or es, as He hears, He wishes; and also in th or tth, as
He saith, He loveth.
In the simple form of the present indicative, the third person singular
of the common or familiar st.yle, ends in s or es; as, He sleeps; He rises.
The first perso n sing ular of the solemn style, and the first and secon d
persons singular of the common style, have the same form as the three
persons plural.
In forming the compound tenses of the verb, the auxiliaries only are
varied.
Be and ought, and the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, must, are irregular
in their modifications to denote person.
. The verb need is often used in the third person singular of the indicative present, without the personal termina tion.
E xamples: - " The tru th need not be disguised."-Channin.q. " It
need not be added."- Prescolt. " It need not be said."- £. E verett.
" There was one condition, which need not be mentioned."Jrving.

CONJUGATION.

The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several modes, tenses,
numbers, and persons.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

The three principal parts of a verb are the present
tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle. These
are called the principal or radical parts, because all the
other parts are formed from them.
AUXILIARIES.

An auxiliary verb is one that is used to aid in the
conjugation of other verbs.
The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shal,l, will, may, can, with their
variations, and must, which. bas no variation. Do, be, have, and
will, are also used as principal verbs. Thus, in the sentence,
"I have heard the news," have is used as an auxiliary to the
principal verb heard; but in the .sentence, "I have no time to
devote to trifles," have is employed as a principal verb.

The subjunctive of all verbs except be, takes the same form
as the indicative. Good writers were form erly much accustomed
to drop the perso nal termin ation in the subjunctive present, and
write "If he have," "If be deny," etc., for "If he has," "If he
deniu," etc. ; but this termination is now generally retained, un-

In affirmative 11entences, shall, in the first person, simply foretells; as, "I shall write." In the second and third persons, shall
is used potentially, denoting a promise, command, or determination;

How many persons and numbers have verbs? Wi th what do the
person and number of a verb correspond ? What is said 1·especting the
form of verbs in the subjunctive mode 7 Illustrate.

What properties are wanting in infinitives and participles ? What is the
c~nju,,.atioil of a verb? "What are the principal parts of a verb? Why
so called 1 What is an auxiliary verb ? Enumerate the auxiliaries.
Which of these are also used as principal, verbs Y

S h a 11 and W i 11.

88

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

as, "You shall be rewarded ;"-"Thou shalt not kill;"-" He
81uill be punished." Wiil, in the first person, is used potentially,
denoting a promise. or determination; as," I will go, at all hazards."
In the second and third persons, will simply foretells; as, "You
will won be th ere;"-" He will expect you."
In inierrogative sentences, shall, in the first person, may either
be used potentially to inquire the will of the party addressed, as,
"Sluill I bring you another book?" or it may simply ask whether
a certain eve nt will occur, as, "Shall I arrive in time for the
cars?" When shall ia used interrogatively io the second person,
it simply denotes futurity; as," Shall you be in New-York next
weP.k?" Shall, employed interrogatively in the third person, has
a potential signification, and is used to inquire the will of the
party addressed; as, "Shall John order the carriage?" Will,
used interrogatively in the second person, is potential in its signification ; as, "Will you go?" Will may be used interrogatively
in the third person, to denote mere futurity, as, " Wiil the boat
leave to-day?" or it may have a potential signification, inquiring
the will of the party spoken of, as, "Will he hazard his life for
the safety of his friend ?"
In the subjunctive mode, shall, in all the persons, denotes mere
futurity; as, "If thy brother sluill trespass against thee, go and
tell him his fault." Will, on the contrary, is potential in its signification, having respect to the will of the agent or subject; as,
"If he will strive to improve he shall be duly rewarded."
The following conjugation of shall and will is inserted to give
the pupil a more distinct idea of the proper use of these auxiliaries.

S h a 11 and W i 11.
AFFIRMATIVE.

Simple Indicative.
Plural.
Singular.
I. We shall
1st Person, I shall
You will
will
2· {You
2d Person, { Thou wilt
Ye will
3. They will
3d Person,
He will

V:ERBS.-CONJUj;A.TION.

Potential Indicative.
Singular.
PllJl'cJ.
]. I will
1. We will
You shall
2. { You shall
2. { Thou shalt
Ye shall
3. He shall
3. They shall
INTERROG.&. TIVE.

Simple Iµdicative.
Plural.
Singul,ar.
I.
Shall we?
1. Shall I?
{ Shall you ?
2. { Shall you ?
2· ~hall ye?
Shalt thou?
3, Will they ?
3. Will he?
Potential Indicative.
Plv.rcJ.
Singular.
1. Shall we?
I. Shall I?
you?
2. { Will you ?
2 ' {Will
. Will ye?
Wilt thou?
3. Shall or will they ?
3. Shall or will be ?
SUBJU;iiCTIVE.

Simple Subjunctive. .
Singiilar.
Plural.
I. If I shall
]. If we shall
If you shall
2 { If you shall
2 · { If thou shalt
· If ye shall
3. If he shall
3. If they shall
Potential Subjunctive.
Plv.rcJ.
Singiilar.
1.
Ifwe will
] . . Ifl will
{
If
will
If you will
2• If you
2· { If thou wilt
ye will
3. If they will .
3, If be will
Which of the verbs in the f oflnwing sentences are simpk indicatives, and
which have a potential signification f-" I will go;"-" I shall go;"-".He
shall obey;"-" Will you go 1"-" Will they go 1":-" You sho~~ ~­
prove your time." [Other similar questions respecting these auxiliaries,
should be added by the teacher.)

s•

90

91

VERBS.-CONJUGA.TION.

E'JiYMOL-OGY.-VllRBS.

Potential Subjunctive.

Shou.]d and Would.
AFFIRM.&.'1'1VE.

Simple Indicative.
Plural.

Singular.

We should
2 {You would
· Ye would
3. They would

1.

1.

I sh<>uld
2 {You would
· Thou wouldst
3. He would

Potential Indicative.
Singular.

Plural.

1.

I should or would
1. We should or would
{You should or would
{You should or would
2
2
· Thou shouldst or wouldst · Ye should or would
3. They should or would
3, He should or would
INTERROGATIVE.

Simple Indicative.
Plural,.

Singular.

I

'I

1.

Should I?
2 { Should you?
· Shouldst thou?
3~
Would he?

1.

Should we?
Should you?
2· { Should
ye?
3. Would they ?

Potential Indicat.ive .
Singular.

Plural.

1. Should or would I?
1. Should or would we(.
2. { Should or would you?
{ Should or would yo.u?
2
Shouldst or wouldst thou? · Should or would ye?
3. Should or would he ?
3. Should or would they ?

Singular.

Plural,.

1.

If I would
~ If you would
2
· ( If thou wouldst
3. If he would

1.

If we would
~ If you would
2
· ( If ye would
3. If they would

Will, used as a principal verb, is conjugated regularly.

Correct Examples.

" Yes, my son, I will point out the way, and my soul a.hall
guide yours in the ascent, for we will take our flight together."
-Goldsmith. "The life of a solitary man will certainly be miserable, but not certainly devout."--Johnson. "The man who
feels himself ignorant, ahotdd at least be modest."-ll>i.d. " He
that would be superior to external influences, must first bec~me
superior to his own passions."-Jbid.

lncorred Examples.
"What we conceive clearly, and feel strongly, we will naturally express wiili clearness and strength."-Blair. "A limb
shall swing upon its hinge, or play in its socket, many hundred
times in an hour, for sixty years together, without diminution of
its agility."-Paley. "We have much to say on the subject of
this life, and will often find ourtJelves obliged to dissent from
the opinions of the biographer."-Macaulay.

Conjugation of tlie Irregular Verb To B e .
PRINCIPAL PARTS,

Present, Am.

Past, Was.

Perf. Participle, Been.

INDICATIVE MODE.-SIMPLE FoRM.
PRESENT TENSE,

Singulai-.

SUBJUNCTIVE,

Simple Subjunctive.
Singular.

I.

If I should
{ lf you should
2
· If thou shouldst
3. If he should

Plural,.

I.
2

·
3.

~

t

If we should
If you should
If ye should
If they should

1st Person,

I am
You are
2d Person, { Thou art
3d Puson, He is

Plural,.

1.

We are

2. S You are
3.

(Ye are
They are

Corred tk erroneous examples relating to tk use of shall and will, and show
why tky are erroneous. What are the principal parts of the verb to be 'I

92

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

93

VERBS.-CON.JUG.A.TION.

In the Scriptures and other grave writings, be is sometimes used for
are; as, "We be true men."

INDICATIVE

MODE.-POTENTU.L

FoJW.

PRESENT OR FUTURE TENSE,
PAST TENSE,

Plural.
). We were
were
2. {You
Ye were
3. They were

Singular.
1. I was
S You were
2
"l Thou wast
3. He was

Singular.

PRESENT, PAST, OR FUTURE TENSE,

FUTURE TENSE,

Singular.
I might, could, would, or should be
2 {You might, could, woul<l, or shoul!l be
' Thou migbtest, couldat, wculdst, or shouldst Le
3. He might, could, would, or should be

Plural.
We shall be
S You will be
2
· l Ye will be
3. They will be

Singular.

I.

I.

I.

I shall be

2 {You will be
· Thou wilt be
3. He will be

Plural.
We might, could, would, or sh.ould be
2 { You might, could, would, or should be
' Ye might, could, would, or should be
3. They might, could, would, or should be

l.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE,

Plural.
We have been
{ You have been
2
· Ye have been
3. They have been

Singul,ar.
I have been
2 {You have been
· Thou hast been
3. He has been

I.

I.

PRESENT PERFECT, OR FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

Singul,ar.
I may, can, or must have been
2 {You .may, can, or must have been
' Thou mayest, cnm1t, or must have been
3. He may, can, or must have been.

PAST PERFECT TENSE,

1.

Plural.
We had been
S You had been
2
· l Ye had been
3. They had been

Singular.
1. I bad been
2. { You had been
Thou hadst been
3, He had been

I.

Plural.
1. We may, can, or must have been
2. { You may, can, or must have been
Ye may, can, or must have been
3. '!'bey may, can, or must have been

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE,

Singular.
I. I shall have been
{ You will have been
2 · Thou wilt have been
3. He will have been

Plural.

1. I may, can, or must be
I. We may, can, or must be
{·You
may,
can,
or
must
be
{ You may, can, or must be
2
· Thou mayest,canst,or must 2· ~ Ye may, can, or must be
3. He may,can,or must be [be 3. They may, can, or must be

Plural.
We shall h11ve been
2 { You will hnve been
· Ye will huve been
3. They will have been

I.

PRESENT PERFECT, OR PAST PERFECT TENSE,

· Singular.
I might, could, would, or should have been
2. {You might, could, would, or should have been
Thou mightest, could~t, wouldst, or shouldst have been
3. He might, could, would, or should have been

),

Conjugate the verb to be, in the indicative mode, simple form, and
present tense ;-past tense ;-future tense ;-present perfect tense;past perfect tense ;.-future perfect tense.

94

VERBS.-CONJUG.A.TION.

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

Plural.
We might, could, would, or should have been
2 {You might, could, would, or should hav.e been
· Ye might, could, would, or should have been
3. They might, could, would, or should have heen

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1.

Singular.

Style.
Plural.
1. If we be
2 {If you be
· If ye be
3. If they be

PRESENT TENSE.---..1ncient

I.

lfl be

2 {If you be
· If thou be
3. If he be
PAST TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

1.

1.

lfl was

Ifwe were
{
2 If you were
' If ye were
3. If they were

{ If you were
If thou wast
3. If be was

2·

FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

1.

If I shall be
{ If you shall be
2
· If thou shalt be
3. If he shall be

Plural.
If we shall be
2 { If you shall" be
· If ye shall be
3. If they shall he

I.

Conjugate the verb to be, in the simple form of the subjunctive mode,
present tense, and common style ;~present tense, ancient style ;-past ,
tense ;-future tense ;-present perfect tense ; - past perfect tense ;-future perfect tense ;-hypotlldical tense.

1.

Singular.
If I had been

i

2· l

Plural.
If we have been
S Ifyou have been
2
· l If ye have been
3. If they have been

1.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

generally be governed by the sense of the passage which contains it,
without any regard to the form of the verb.]

Singular.

3.

If I have been
If you have Men
If thou hast been
If he has been

I.

The potential use of the auxiliaries sluzll and will, constitutes
another form of the potential indicative. (See p. 89.)
[In determining the tense of a verb used potentially, the pupil §hould

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.-SIMPLE FORM.
PRESENT TENSE.-Com11Wn Style.
Singular.
Pktral.
1. If I at•>
1. If we are
you are
2. { If you are
2· { If
If thou art
If ye are
3. If be is
3. If they are

95

Plural.
If we ·bad been
2 { If you bad been
· If ye bad been
3. If they bad been

1.

2 { If you had·been
· If thou hadst been
3. If be bad been

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

If I shall have been
you shall have been
2. { If
If thou shalt have been
3. If he shall have been
1.

Plural.
If we shall have been
2 { Ifyou shall have been
· If ye shall have been
3. If they shall have been

1.

HYPOTHETICAL TENSE. It

Singular.

1.

IfI were
If
you were
{
2
· If thou wert
3. If he were

Plural.

1.
2

Ifwe were

J If you were

· i If ye were

3.

If they were

This form of the verb be is commonly used, in the subjunctive mode, to express a supposition or hypothesis. When employed in a negative sentence, it implies an affirmation; as, "If
it were not so, I would have told you." WLen used in an affirmative sentence, it implies a negation ; as, "If it were possible,
they would deceive the very elect/' The time denoted by this
use of the verb is sometimes present, and sometimes indefinite.
What is the use of the hypothetical form of the ll€1'b 7 What peculiarity
respocting the p.ffirmoJ.ive and 71%Jative use of the hypotktical form of the
verb f Exampks. What time is 4enoted by it f
'*'See Hiley, Webster, Frazee, Butler, Waldo, D'Orsey, and Crane.

96

VERBS.-CONJUGA.TION.

ETYMOLOGY.-YERBS.

The potential form of the subjunctive mode, is the same in
most of the tenses as the potential form of the indicative. · The
only difference between them, is in the use of the auxiliaries
shall and will. (See the conjugation of shall and will; pp. 88, 89.)
INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, To be

POTENTIAL INDICATIVE,

Present or Future,
Pres., Past, ;or Fut.,
Future,
Prts. Ptrj.; or Fut. Perj.,
Pres. Perj., or Past Perj.,

I
I
I
I
I

Present Pe1fect, To have h!)en
PRESENT TENSE.

Plural, Be, or

{ Be you
Be ye

Though imperatives are mostly co?fined to the second person,
they are sometimes employed in the first and third persons.*
Examples :-" Do we all holy rites."-Shak. " Come, go we then
together."-lbid. "Proceed we to mark more particularly."Bp. ff'ilson. "Be not the muse ashamed." - Thomson. "This
be thy just circumference, 0 World."-Milton. "Thy kingdom
come."-Matt . 6: 10.

Present tense, common style, If I am
Prtsent tense, ancient style, If I !>e
Past itnse,
If I was
Future ttnse,
If I shall he
Present perfect,
If I have been
Past J!€rfed,
If I had been
Future perfect,
If I shall have been
Hypothetical fonn,
If I were
INFINITIVE.

Present, To be

Present Perfect, To have been
IMPER.& TIVE.

"My soul, tum from them; turn we to survey
Where rougher climes a nobler race display."- Goldsmit~.

Present, Be, or Be you or thou .
PARTICIPLES,

PARTICIPLES.

. {Been
Having been

Imperfect, Being

may, can, or must be
might, could, would, or should be
will be
may, can, or must have been
might, could, would, or should
have been

. SUBJUNCTIVE.-SIMPLE FORM.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

.
i Be you
Singular, Be, or l Be thou

97

Perftct,

Imperfect; Being

Perfect, Been

Synopsis of t!te verb To Be.

Conjugation of the Regular Verb, T o Lo v e, in the
Active voice.

SIMPLE INDICATIVE.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present, I nm
Past, I was
Future, I sliall be
With what does the potential

Present perfect, I have been
Past perfect,
I had been
Future perfect, I shall have been
jor11L of the subjunctive oorrespond f What

is the infinitive present of the verb to be f-present perfect ?-imperative
prese.nt 1 What is said of the person of imperatives f What are the participles of the verb to be f Repeat the synopsis of the verb to be, in the
simple form of the indicative.

•"In imitation of other languages which have two or thr~e persons in
the imperative mode, we·occasionally IQ;eet with verbs used in a similar
manner in the first, but more frequently in the third person."-Sanborn.
(See also Kirkham, Frazee, Perley, R. W. Green, Gurney, Crane, Grant,
S. Oliver, and Coote.)

Present; Love.

Past, Loved.

Perf. Part., Loved.

INDICATIVE MODE.-S1:MI'LE Fofil!.
PRESENT TENSE,

Singiilar.
1. I Jove
2. {You Jove
,Thou lovest
3. He lores

Plural.
We love
2 j You Jo\'e
"l Ye love
3. They Jove

1.

Repeat the synopsis of IM verb to be, in the potential indicative ;--m the
common form of the subjunctive ;-in the infinitive. Give the impera. tive ;-the participles.

98

E TYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

99

VERBS.-CONJUGATION.

P A ST 'l' ENSE.

Singular.

I.

I loved
{You
2 · Thouloved
lovedst
3. He loved

We loved

·
3.

Ye loved
They loved

Singular.

I shall love

J You will love
· l Thou wilt love

2

3.

He will love

Plural.

W e shall love
2 { You will love
· Ye will love
3. They will love

IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

.
{Love you
Singular, Love, or Love thou

1.

have loved
2· {You
Thou hast loved

3.

H e bus loved

Perfed, Having loved

Syrwpsis of To Love.
Plural.

I have loved

1.

We have loved
have loved
2· {You
Ye have loved
3. They have loved

SIMPLE INDICATIVE.

Present perfect, I have loved
POJJt perfed,
I had loved
.F'u.ture perfed, I shall have loved

Present, I love
POJJt, I loved
.F'u.ture, I sball love

INFINITIVE.

PA ST PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.

].

I had loved
J
You had loved
2· l Thou had;;t lo ved
3. H e had loved

P lural.

W e had loved
J
2 You had loved
· i Ye had loved
3. They had loved

I

I

'I
I,
I

I shall have loved

J You

will have lo ved

2· l Thou wilt bu ve loved
3. H e will have loved

IMPERATIVE.

Present, Love, or love thou or you
PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Loving

FUT URE P E RFECT TE NS E.

1.

Present perfect To have loved

Present, To love

1.

Singular.

Love you .
Plural, .Love, or { L ove ye

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Loving

PRES E NT PERFECT T ENSE.

Sinf!ldar.

1.

Present perfed, To have loved

Present, To love

~ {You loved

FUTURE TENSE.

1.

INFINITIVE MODE.

P lural.

I.

Perfect, Having loved

Plural.

1.

W e shull have loved

You will have loved
2· { Ye
will have loved

3.

Conjugation of T o L o v e, in the Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MODE.-SI)IPLE FoRH.

They will have loved

In the potential indicative of this and other verbs, the auxiliaries are the same as those already exhibited in the potential indicative of the verb to be. The subjunctive of all verbs except to
be, has the same form as the indicative.
What are the.principal parts of the verb to love ? Conjugate this verb
in the indicative mode, simple form, and present tense;-past telllle ;future tense ;- present perfect ;-past perfect ;-future. perfec~ What
is said res~ing thef orm of the potential indicative ?--0f ~ subjunctive j

. PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

I.

I am loved

are loved
2. • ·{ You
Thou art loved
3. He is loved

1.

We are loved ·
are loved
2• { You
Ye are loved
3. They are loved .

Give the infinitive present of the verb to love ,~present perfect;the imperative ;-the participles. Give the synopsis of the verb to love.
Conjngate· the plLSllive voice of the verb to love.

i't'

I

100

ETYMOLOGY.-VERB.S.

VERBS.-CONJUGA.TION.

101

1J
PA.ST TENSE,

P .ARTICIPLES.

Singular.

Plural..

I was loved
You
were loved
{
2
· Thou WRst loved
3. He was loved
1.

We were loved
2 J You were loved
' ! Ye were loved
3. They were loved
1.

Syrwpsis

Plural,,

1.

I shall be loved
2 {You w\IJ be loved
· Thou wilt be loved
3. He will be loved

Perfect, { Having been loved

of

T o b e L o v e d.

SIMPLE INDICA. TIVE,

FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

Loved

Imperfect, Being.loved

I.

We shall be loved
{
2 You will be loved
· Ye will be loved
3. Tuey will be loved

Pre,acnt, I am loved
Pre,aent perfect, I ba\'e been loved
Past perfect, I had been loved
Pa.st, I was Joyed
Future, I shall be foved . .Future perfect, I shall have been loved
INFINITIVE,

Pre,aenl, To be loved

Pre,aent perfect, To have been loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE,

Singula1·.

IMPERA. TIVE.

Plural..

1.

I have been loved
" 2 {You have been loved
· Thou hast been loved
3. He has been loved

We have been loved
J
You
have been loved
2
· ! Ye have been loved
3. They have been loved

Present, Be loved, or Be you or thou loved

l.

PARTICIPLES,

Imperfect, Being loved

Perfect, Loved, Having been loved

PA.ST PERFECT TENSE.

Singul.ar.

Plural.

I. I had been loved
2 j You had been loved
' ! Thou hadst been loved
3. He had been loved

\t

I. We had been loved
2 { You bad been loved
· Ye had been loved
3. They had been loved

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb T o S e e .
PRI1'CIPAL P A.E.TS,

Present, See.

Past, Saw.

INDICATIVE MODE.-SIHPLE FORK.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE,

Singular,

PRESENT TENSE,

Plural,.

I. I shall have been loved
J. We shall have been loved
2 { You will have been loved 2 j You will have been loved

·
3.

Thou wilt have been loved · ! Ye will have been loved
He will have been loved 3. They will have been loved

Singular.

Plural.

I.

I see
2 J You see
· ! Thou seest
3. He sees

1.
2.

We see
J You see
! Ye see
3. They see

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, To be loved

PA.ST TENSE,

Singular.

Present Perfect, To have been loved

IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE,

.
{ Be you loved
Singular, Be loved, or Be thou loved.

Plural,

Perfect Participle, Seen.

j Be you loved
Be loved, or ( Be ye loved

Plural.

I.

I saw
J
You saw
2
· ! Thou sawest
3. He saw

].

We saw
.{ You saw
2
· Ye saw
3. They saw

Give the synopsis of to be loved. '"Conjugate the verb to see, in · the indicative mode, simple form, and present tense ;-past tense.

9•

·I

i

102.

ETYMOLOGY.-YERBS.

VERBS.-CONJUGA.TION.

FUTURE TENSE.

I.
2

·
3.

Plural,.
1. We shall see
2 {You will see
· Ye will see
a. They will see

Singular.
I shall see
{You will see
Thou wilt see
He will see

Synopsis of To See.
SIMPLE INDICATIVE.

Present, I see

Present perfect, I have seen
Past perfect, I had seen
Future perfect, I shall have seen

Past;

I saw
Future, I shall see

INFINITIVE.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.
1. I have seen
~You have seen
2· l Thou hnst seen
3. He has seen

:I

I

1.
2

·
3.

Plural,.
We have seen
{You have seen
Ye hnve seen
They 11ave seen

Plural.
We had seen
2 {You hnd seen
· Ye had seen
3. They hnd seen

Singular.

1.

I had seen
5
You had seen
2 · ( Thou hadst seen
3. He had seen
I.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

Singular.
I. I shall have seen
5 You will have seen
2 Thou wilt have seen
3. He will have seen

Plural.

1. We shall have seen
5 You will have seen
2

·l

"l Ye will have seen

3.

They will have seen

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present perfect, To have seen

Present, To see

Present perfect, To have seen

Present, To se.e

IMPERATIVE.

Present, See, or See thou or you
PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Seeing

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

See you
Singular, See, or { S ee t hou

{ See you
Plural,, See, or S ee ye

The progressive form of a verb is employed to denote the continuance of an action or 1State. It is com·
posed of an imperfect participle and one of the forms
of the verb to be; as, " I am toriting a letter;"-" He
is studying French."

Synopsis of T o W r i t e , in the Progressive Form.
SIMPLE INDICATIVE.

Present, I am writing
Pres. perf, I have been writing
Past, I was writing
Past perf., I had been writing
Future, I shall he writing Fut. perf, I shnll have been writing
INFINITIVE.

Present, To be wdting

I

,,'
I

Perfect, Having seen

Conjugate the verb to see in the indicative mode, simple form, future
tense-;-present perfect ;-past perfect r-future perfect. Ip the infinitive
·present ;-present perfect. In the imperative. Give the participles.

Present perfect, To have been writing
IMPERATIVE.

Present, Be writing, or Be thou or you writing

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Seeing

Perfect, Having seen

PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB.

IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

103

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, Writing

Perfect, Having been writing

Give the synopsis of to see. What is the progressive form of a verb ?
Of what is it composed? Give the synopsis of to write, in the progressive form.

104

IRREGULAR VERBS.

The Auxiliary D o .

NEGATIVE FORM.
A verb is conjugated negatively by intrnducing in connection,
, with it the adverb not; as, I know not; I do not know; 1 shall
not have known ; I shoUld not have been known.

In sentences which express emphasis, interrogation, or negation, the present and past tenses of the indicative and swbjunctive modes, and the present imperative, are often formed by the
aid of the auxiliary verb do ; as, "I do know it to be true;""Do you intend to return to-morrow?"-" I do not understand
you."

Syrwpsis of T o He a r, with tlte Auxiliary D o.
INDICATIVE.

Pruent, I do hear

Past, I did hear
SUBJUNCTIVE.

Pruent, If I do hear

Past, If I did hear
IMPERATIVE.

Pruent, Do hear, or Do thou or you hear
Do, as a principal verb, is conjugated like other irregular verbs.

1·

INTERROGATIVE FORM.
In interrogative sentences, when the verb has no auxiliary,
the.nominative is placed after the verb; when one auxiliaryjs
used, the nominative is placed between the auxiliary and tbe
principal verb; and when more auxiliaries than one are employed, the nominative is placed after the first.

Synopsis of To Hear, used Interrogatively.
SIMPLE INDICATIVE.

Prue.nt, Hear I, or do I hear?
Pre,s. perf, Have I heard?
Past, Heard I, or did I hear? Past perf., Had I heard?
Jiluture, Shall I hear ?
Fut. perf., Shall I have heard ?
In what sentences is the auxz"liary do employed f W"hat tenses are oft.en
formed by the aid of the auxiliary do 1 Give the synopsis of to hear, wz"th
the auxiliary do. What is the place ef the nominative, in interrogative sen·
tences f Give the syrwp>is of tlw verb to hear, used interrogatively.

I

105

ETYMOLOGY.-VERBS.

EXERCISES.
"I was."-" He had been."-" They think."-" We will
return."-" Strive to improve."-" It is found."-" If we
shall hear."-" Thou Ca.nst see.".:_" If he bad been."-" If
he would learn.".,....." Shall I re"ad ?" -" Cari it be understood?"
-"Honor thy father and thy mother."
Give the mode, tense, number, and person of each of the verbs in the
foregoing sentences. Which qfthem are in the potential form of the indicative mode f Which in the potential, form of the subjunctive 1
Mention a verb in the third person plural of the past perfect s.ubjunc·
tive. One in the present imperative. One in the present perfect infini·
ti ve. One in• the first person singular of the future perfect indicative.
One in the third person singular ef the present or f ul.ure indicatiu~ and poten·
tial form. Mention three perfect participles. Three imperfect partici·
ples. Mention a verb in the third person singular of the present perfect
indicative, and passive voice. [A variety of similar directions should be
added by the teacher.]
Write sentences containing examples of verbs in the · simple form of
the indicative and subjunctive modes ;-in the potential indicative and p<>tential subjunctive ,'-in the imperative and infinitive modes ;-containing
examples of both imperfect and perfect participles ;-of verbs in the pas·
sive voice ;-of shall and will, correctly employed.
.
IRREGULAR VERBS.

An irregular verb is one that does not forin its past
tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the
present; as, see, saw, seen; go, went, gone.
The following list comprises nearly all the simple irregular
verbs in our language.
When more forms than one are used in the past tense or perfect participle, that which stands first iil to be preferred.
How is a verb conjugated negativel.y 1 Examples. What is an irregular
verb 1 Examples.

-

I' !I
I

I

106

Compound verbs, (except welcome and behave, which are regular,) are conjugated like the simple verbs from which they are
formed; as, see, saw, seen; foresee, foresaw, foreseen.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

I

I·I

I

I,

Present.
.Abide
Amor be
Awake
Bear (to bring forth)
{ Bear (to sustain),forBeat
Begin
Bend, unBereave
Beseech
Bid,forBind, tu1-, reBite
Bleed
Blow
Break
Breed
Bring
Build, re-, upBurn
Burst
Buy
Cast
Catch
Chide
Choose
Cleave (to adhere)
{ Cleave (to split)
Cling
Clothe
Come, be-, overCost
Creep
Crow
Cut

Past.
abode
was
awoke, awaked
bore, bare*
bore, bare*
beat
began
bent, bended
bereft, bereaved
besought
bid, bade
bound
bit
bled
blew
broke, brake•
bred
brought
built, builded
burned, burnt
burst
bought
cast
caught, catchedt
chid
chose
cleaved, clave*
clove, cleft, clave*
clung
clothed, clad
came
cost
crept
crowed, crew
cut

Perf Part.
abode
been
a waked
born
borne
beaten, beat
begun
bent
bereft, bereaved
besought
bidden, bid
bound
bitten, bit
bled
blown
broken
bred
brought
built, builded
burned, burnt
burst
bought
cast
caught, catchedt
chidden, chid
chosen
cleaved
cloven, cleft
clung
clothed, clad
come
cost
crept
crowed
cut

How are compound verbs conjugated f Give the past tenses and perfect
participle of the verb abide ;-of the verb am ;-qf the verb awake. [The
teacher should proceed in this manner through the list, and repeat the
exercise till the pupils are able to name with readiness the past tense
and perfect participle of all the irregular verbs.]

* Obsolete.

I
I•
.I
'i

mREGULAR VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY.-IRREGULAR VERBS,

t 0 bsolescent.

Present.
Daret (to venture)
Deal
Dig
Do, ui1-, mis-, overDraw, withDream
Drink
Drive
Dwell
Eat
Fall,beFeed
Feel
Fight
Find
Flee
Fling
Fly
Forsake
Freeze
Get, be-,forGild
Gird, be-, un-, enGive,for-, misGo,fore-, underGrave, enGrind
Grow
Hang§
Have
Hear, overHeave
Hew
Hide
Hit
Hold, be-, with-, upHurt
Keep
Kneel
Knit
Know,foreLadell (to load)
Lay (to place), inLead, misLeave
Lend

Past.
dared, durst
dealt, dealed
dug, diggeu
did
drew
dreamed, dreamt
drank
drove, drave*
dwelt, dwelled
ate, eat
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fl.cd
fl.ung
fl.ew
forsook
froze
got, gat*
gilded, gilt
girt, girded
gave
went
graved
ground
grew
hung
had
heard
heaved,.hove
hewed
hid
hit
held
hurt
kept
kneeled, knelt
knit, knitted
knew
laded ·
laid
led
left
lent

107
Perf. Part.
dared
dealt, dealed
dug, digged
done
drawn
dreamed, dreamt
drank, drunk
driven
dwelt, dwelled
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fl.ed
fl.ung
fl.own
forsaken
frozen
got, gotten
gilded, gilt
girt, girded
given
gone
graven, graved
ground
grown
hung
had
heard
heaved, hoven'*'
hewn, hewed
hidden, hid
hit
held, holdent
hurt
kept
kneeled, knelt
knit, knitted
known
laden
laid
led
left
lent

* Obsolete

t Obsolescent.
l Dare,.to challenge, is.regular. . .

§ Hang, to take away life by hangmg, is regular; as, "Judas departed,
and went and hanged himself."
II Lade, to dip, is regular.

108

Present.
Let
Lie§ (to recline)
Light
Load, un-, overLose
Make
Mean
Meet
Mow
Pay, rePenj (to enclose)
Put
Quit,
Read
Rend
Rid
Ride
Ring
Rise, aRive
Run, outSaw
Say, un-, gainSee, foreSeek
Seethe
Sell
Send
Set (to place), beSit (to rest)
Shake
Shape, misShave
Shear
Shed
Shine
Shoe
Shoot, over:·
Show or shew
Shred
Shrink
Shut
Sing
Sink
Slay
Sleep
Slide
Sling
Slink
Slit

*Obsolete.

I,

Past.
let
lay
lighted, lit
loaded
lost
made
meant
met
mowed
paid
penned, pent
put
quit, quitted
read
rent
rid
rode, rid*
rang, rung

rose

rived
ran
sawed
said
saw
sou~ht

see ed, sod
sold
send
set
sat
shook
shaped
shaved
sheared
shed
shone, shined
shod
shot
showed or shewed
shred
shrunk, shrank
shut
sang, sung
sunk, sank
slew
slept
slid
slung, slang*
slunk
slit, slitted

j Pen, to write, is regular.

Perf. Part.
let
lain
lighted, lit
loaded, loaden*
lost
made
meant
met
mown, mowed
paid
pent, penned
put
quitted, quit
read
rent
rid
rode, ridden, rid*
rung
risen
riven
run
sawn, sawed
said
seen
sou5ht
see ied, sodden
sold
sent
set
sat
sliaken
shaped, shapen
shaved, shaven
shorn, sheared
shed
shone, shined
shod
shot
shown or shewn
shred
shrunk
shut
sung
sunk
slain
slept
slidden, slid
slung
slunk
slit, slitted
§ Lie, to deceive, is regular.

109

IRREGULAR · VERBS.

ETYMOLOGY.-IBREGULA.R VERBS.

Present.
Smite
So wt (to scatter)
Speak, beSpeed
Spell, misSpend, misSpill
Spin
Spit§
Split
Spread, over-, beSpring
Stand, with-, underSteal
Stick
Sting
Stride, beStrike
String
Strive
Strow or strew, beSwear.forSweat
Sweep
Swell
Swim
[re-, overSwing
Take, mis-, under-, be-,
Teach, un-, misTear
Tell'{~re-

Thin , beThrive
Throw, overThrust
Tread, reWax
Wear
Weave, unWeep
Wet
Whet
Win
Wind, unWork
Wring
Write
*Obsolete.

Past.
smote
sowed
spoke, spake*
sped
spelled, spelt
spent
spilt, spilled
spun, span•
spit, spat*
split
spread
sprang, sprung
stood
stole
stuck
stung
strode, strid
struck
strung

strove
strowed or strewed
swore, sware*
sweat, sweated
swe!it
swe led
swam, swum
swung
took
taught
tore, tare*
told
thought
throve, thrived
threw
thrust
trod
waxed
wore
wove
wept
wet, wetted
whetted, whet
won
wound
wof'ed, wrought
wrung, wringed
wrote, writ•

Perf. Part.
smitten, smit
sown, sow,ed
spoken, spoke
sped ·
spelled, spelt
spent
spilt, spilled
spun
spit, spitten*
split
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
stuck
stung

stridden, strid
struck, stricken*
strung
striven
{ strown, strowed
strewn, strewed
sworn
sweat, sweated
swept
swoll~n, swelled
swum
swung

taken
taugqt
torn
told
thought
· thri ven, thrived
thrown
thrust
trodden, trod
waxed, waxen
worn
woven, wove
wept
wet, wetted
whetted, whet
won
wound
worked, wrought
wrung, wringed
written, writ•

t Sew, to stitch, is regular.
§ Spit, to put on a spit, is regular.

10

110

ADVERBS.

ETYMOLOGY.-VE"RBS.

When the past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a single vowel,
the sec~nd person singular of the solemn style is generally formed by the
addition of est; as, heardcst,fieddest, tookest. Hadst, wast, saidst, and didst,
are exceptions.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.

A defective verb i:o one that cannot be used in all
the modes and teni;,es. Thus, we cannot say, " I had
could," " I shall can," etc.
The _defective verbs are can, could; may, might; shall, should;
will, would; must, ought, quoth, and beware.
UNIPERSONAL VERBS.

A itnipersonar;; (impersonal) verb is one that is used
only in the third person singular; as, It hails; It
snows; It behoves.
Methinks is an anomalons word, compounded of me and thinks. It is
generally ranked with unipersonal verbs.
EXERCISES.

Write sentences containing examples of irregular verbs;of defective verbs ;-of uni personal verbs.
What is a defective verb? Enumerate the defective verbs 7 What is a
unipersonal verb 1 Exam pies.
oM< The term imperMnal ~commonly applied to this class of verbs; but
a word which is always employed in one of the three grammatical persons, cannot, with any degree of propriety, be said to be witlwut person.
"As to the verbs, which some grammarians have called impersonal,
there are, in fact, no such things in the English language."-CObbett.
" This form is commonly called impersonal; b11t this denomination is
incorrect and inadmissible, since these verbs are really in the third person."- De Sacy.
Hiley denominates these verbs mon.opersonal; and D e Sacy, Sutcliffe,
and Morgan, call them verbs of the third pP,Tson. The term unipersonal is
adopted in the English Grammars of Crane and Fowle, in Bachi's
Italian Grammar, and in the French Grammars of Bolmar and Bugard.

111

THE ADVERB.

An Adverb• is a word .used to modify the sense of
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, "He is
not understood;"-" He speaks very fluently;"-" A
remarkably .d iligent boy."
Ad verbs generally express in one word, what would otherwise require
two or more. Thus, now is used for at this time; there, for in that place.
Many ad verbs are formed by the union of two or more words. Thus,
indeed is composed of in and deed; sometimes, of some and times; herein, of
here and in.

Adverbs may be divicled into several clasaes, of which the
following .are the most important:1. Adverbs of Manner; as, justly, rapidly.
2. Of Place; as, here, there.
3. Of Time; as, now, soon, lately.
4. Of Degree; as, more, less, hardly.
5. Of Affirmation; as, yes, certainly, doubtless.
6. Of Negation; as, not, no.
Other classes might be enumerated, but they are less distinctly marked; and the different uses of adverbs are so numerous that a perfect
classification is impracticable.
The words to-day, to-night, to·moiTow, and yesterday, though sometimes
classed with adverbs, are properly nouns.
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS.

A conjunctive adverb is one that performs the office of a modifier and also of a connective; as, " When Crusoe saw the savages, he became greatly alarmed."
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. Most of
those ending in ly are compared by more nnd most; as, wiscly,
more wi.sely, most wi.sely.
What is an adverb 1 Examples. Name the principal classes of adverbs,
and give ip:amples of each.· What is a co11junctive adverb Y Examples.
How are adverbs ending inly genera11y comparedY Examples.
>II< The term adverb is derived from the two Latin words, ad and verbum, which signify to a verb.

112

ETYMOLOGY.-PREPOSITIONS .

A few are compared Ly adding er and est; as, soon, sooner,
soonest.

The fo llowing are compared irregularly :Far { further, furthest
' farther, farthest
Well, better, best

Little, less, least
Much, mo re, most
Ill or badly, worse, worst

" The tree grows very rapidly."- " Iron is much harder
than copper."- Fortnne sometimes favors those whom she
afterwards destroys."- " Diligence is seldom unrewarded."" T ruth never fears examination, however rigid it may be."
---'" Whatever is done willingly is done well."
Point out the adverbs in the foregoing sentences. Give tlie class of
each.
Name three adverbs ending inly ;- three that do not end in ly.
'Write sentences containing examples of adverbs which modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs.
TVrite sentences containi'11g adverbs of manner, place, time, degree, a.f!i.rmation, and negation.

THE PREPOSITION.

A Preposition• is a word used to express the relation
of a no un or pronoun depending u pon it, to some
other word in the sentence; as, "He went frorn Boston to Albany;" - " Washington was the father of
his country."
In the foregoing cxamples,from expresses the relation between went
and Boston; to, the relation between went and Albany; and of, the relation between father and country.
T he following list of prepositions embraces most of those in common
use:·-

Give examples of adverbs.compared by er and est.
irregularly. What is a preposition 1 Examples.

*

About
above
across
after
against
alon~

amid or
amidst
among or

EXERCISES.

Of adverbs compared

The term preposition is derived · from the Latin word prrepositus,
which signifies placed be/are.

113

CONJUNCTIONS.

amongst
around

at
athwart
before
behind
below
beneath
beside ar
besides
between
betwixt
beyond

by
concerning
down
during
except
excepting
for
from
in
into
of

on
over
respecting
round
since
through
throughout
till

to
towards

under
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
with
within
without
worth

T H E CON JUNC TI ON.

A Conjunction• is a word that is u sed to connect
words or sentences; as, "Seven and five are twelve;"
- " Straws swim on the surface ; but pearls lie at the
bottom."
The words belonging to this part of speech do not admit of a satisfactory division into classes.t
The following is a list of the words most frequently employed as conj unctions : though
than
neither
And
but
unless
that
although either
nor
wherefore
as
notwithstanding then
for
yet
therefore
if
or
because
lest
since
both
What is a conjunction 1 Examples.

*

The term con}unction is derived from the Latin word conjungo, which
.
..
.
signifies to join together.
t "The old distinction of conjunctions into copulative and dis1unctwe,
was f?,unded in error, and is, happily, going into disuse in our gram.
.. .
mars. - Frazee.
"Conjunctions are generally divided into copulative and ~is1unctive;
but more confusion than practical advantage seems to be denved from
the division."- Goodenow.
" I shall not take up time, and confuse th~ und~rstnl!-ding of the. leai:i·
er, by dividing ~e wo;,ds, con~i.dered as COllJUnctions, rnto copulative, du;junctive, concessive, etc. - Lewis.
.
.
.
"The common division of the words termed conJunct,1ons, mto. copulative as and· disjunctive, as either, .ar, neither, nor, etc. ; concess1ve, as
though, although, yet; adversative, as but, however.;, causal, .as far, ~use,
since; ilkuive, as therefore, wher~fare, then; conditional, as if; exceptive, as
unless; deserves little consideration."- Grant.

10•

------- 114

ETYl\IOL OGY.-DERIVATION.

THE I NTE RJECTION.

An Interjection'$ is an exclarr.atory word, used merely to express some pas;;ion or emotion.
T he followin g list of inte1jcctions includes most of those which nre in
general use: Ah ! alas ! fie ! ha ! halloo ! indeed! lo ! 0 ! Oh! pshaw ! ho! welcome!

Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office of interjections ; as, hark! surpn'sing ! mercy !
EXERCISES.

ORIGIN OF WORDS.-PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.

115

the common parent just. So also, the words terrace, terraqueous,
terrene, terrestrial, terrier, territory, inter, interment, disinter, Mediterranean, subterranean, etc., are all connected with their parent
terra, the earth . .

Words are divided into two general classes; primitive and derivative.
A primitive word is one that is not derived from
any o.ther word or words in the language ; as, man,
obev.
A derivative word is one that is formed from some
primitive word or words; as, manly, disobey.

"Of what use are rich es without happiness?" - "·whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
them.''-" The sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending power.'' - "Righteousness exalteth a nation; but sin is a r eproach to any people.''- " Whence
are thy b eams, 0 Sun!"

l

The basis of the English language is the AngloSaxon, which was introduced into England from Germany about the middle of the fifth century.

DERIVATION.

TLis original stock, besides being greatly modified by nse, bas
received large and constant additions from other Janguages.
The invasion of the Danes and Normans introduced many Danish and Norman-French words; and a great number of Latin
and Greek words have been since incorporated. We are also
indebted for some of our words to the French, Italian, Spanish,
German, and other languages.

Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats
of ihe origin an<l primary signification of words.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.

Point out the prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections in the foregoing sentences.
Write sentences containing examples of prepositions, conjunctions,
and iutc1jcctions.

i

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH WORDS.

The words of every cultivated language may be reduced . to
groups or families, each of which is composed of words related
to each other by identity of origin and similarity of signification.
Thus, the words justice, justify, 'justification, justly, adjust, readjust, unjust, injustice, etc., are all kindred words, connected with
Wliat is an interjection 1 Examples. What is derivation 1 To what
may the words of every c1d1ivated language be '!leductd f Examplts.

*.

The te1m interjection is derived from the L atin word interjecius,
which signifies throum between.

Most of the derivative words of our language, are
formed by the aid of prefixes and sujfixes.
A preftX is a letter, syllable, or word, joined to the
beginning of a word; as, aloft, r ebuild, overcome.
Into what two general classes arc words divided? 'Whut is a primitive word 1 . Examples. A derivative word 1 Examples. What is the
basis of our language 1 What changes has our language undergone since
the period ~fthe Anglo-Saxons f How nre most English derivatives formed 1 What is a prefix 1 Examples.

116

DERIV ATION.-LATIN PREFIXES.

ETYMOLOGY.-DERIV A.TION.

A suffix i" a letter or syllable annexed to the end of
a word ; as, stormy, proudly, lawless.
Most of the suffixes do not admit of precise and accurate definitions.
Two or more prefixes or suffixes are sometimes employed in the same
word ; as, rediscover, powerfully. Rediscover contains two prefixes, re
and dis; and powerfully, two suffixes,ful and ly.
Many of the roo ts or essential parts of the words before which prefixes
are placed, are not used as distinct words in our language.

When a prefix ends in a sound that will not readily unite with
the sound of the word before which it is placed, the final letter
of the prefix is often changed or omitted ; as, ignoble, for innoble ; coexist, for conexist.

Engli-sh or Saxon Prefixes.
The following are the prefixes of English or Saxon origin,
with their significations : .1.J. ·signifies on, in, or at ; as, ashore, on shore ; asleep, in
sleep.
Be signifies upon, over, about, etc. ; as, bespeak, bedew, besprinkle.
For signifies from or against; as,forhear,forbid.
Fore signifies before; as, foresee, foretell.
Mis signifies wrong, erroneous, or defective ; as, misconduct, misrule.
Out signifies beyond, more, or exttrior; as, outrun, outlive, outside.
Over Impli es excess or superiority; as, overdo, overcome.
Un denotes negation or privation; as, uncerW.in, unbind.
Under generally signifies beneath, inferior, or .subordinate; as,
underlay, undermine.
Up denotes elevation or subversion; as, upland, upset.
Wilh generally denotes opposilion or .separation; as, withstand,
wilhdraw.
What is a suffix 1

Example~.

What is sometimes done with the.final

letter of a prefix Y

[Pupils should be required to give the signification of each of the prefixes, with copious illustrative examples.]

117

Latin Pre.fixes.
The following are the principal prefixes derived from the
Latin, with their significations : .fl, ab, or abs, signifies from; as, avert, to turn from; absolve,
to release from ; abstract, to draw from.
,.
.1.J.d signifies to or at; as, adjoin, to join to. In composmon:
this prefix may become a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, or at; as,
ascend, accede, aftix, aggrandize, allot, annex, appeal, arrest, assume, attract.
.!lnte signifies befure; as, antecedent, going before; antediluvian, nefore the Flood.
Circum signifies round or about; as, circumnavigate, to sail
round.
Con signifies· with or togdher; as, convoke, to call together.
This prefix takes 11lso the forms co, cog, col, com, avd cor ; as,
cohere, cognate, collect, compress, correlative.
Contra signifies against ; as, contradict, to speak against. This
prefix is sometimes changed to counter; as, counteract.
De generally signifies from or down; as, deduce, to draw from;
debase, to bring down.
Dis generally implies separation or disunion; as, dissolve.
It has sometimes a negative use; as, disapprove. Dis takes also
the forms di and dif; as, diverge, diffuse.
E or tx signifies ,out, out of, or from; as, eject, to cast out;
ev.aiJe• to escape from. This prefix takes also the forms ec and
ef.;
eccentric, 'ifl'ace.
Extra signifies beyond, or more than; as, extraordinary.
Jn, before an adjective, has a negative signification, nearly
equivalent to not; as, inactive, not active; insecure, not secure.
Before a verb, in signifies in, into, Cir against; as, insert, to place
in · indict1 to speak against. This prefix takes also the forms
en,' im, ig, il, ir.!. and em; as, engrave, implacable, ignoble, illegal,
irradiate, emboss.
Inter signifies between or among; as, intervene, to come betw~en ; intersperse, to scatter among.

as,

118

ETTIIOLOGY.- DERIVATION.

Ob generally sign ifies against; as, obstruct, to build against.
Ob takes also th e forms oc, of, nn<l op; as, occur, ojfend, oppose.
Per generally signifies through 01· by ; as, pervade, to pass

through ; perchance, by chance.
Pre or pr(£ signifies before ; ns, precede, to go before.
Pro signifies for, forth, orfo-,:ward; as, pronoun, for a noun;
provoke, to cull forth ; promote, to move forward.
Re signifies again or back; as, reenter, to enter again ; recall,
to call back.
Se denotes departure or separation; as, secede, to withdraw
from.
Sub signifies under; as, subscribe, to write under. Sub has
also the forms sue, 3uf, sug, sup, and sus; as, succeed, sujfuse,
3uggest, support, suspend.
Super generally signifies beyond, above, or over; as, supernatural, beyond nature ; supervise, to oversee. This prefix often becomes sur f as, surcharge.
Trans signifies over or beyond; as, transfer, to carry over ;
trans-Atlantic, beyond the Atlantic.

Greek Prefixes.
The following are some of the principal prefixes derived from
the Greek, with their significations:.11. or an denotes privation, and is generally equivalent to without; as, ath eist, without a God ; anarchy, without government.
.11.nti signifies against; as, antichristian, against Christianity.
Mono signifies single; as, monosyllable, one syllable.
Poly signifies many; as, polysyllable, a word of many sylla-

bles.
Syn signifies with or together; as, synthesis, putting together.
Syn takes nlso the forms sy, syl, nnd sifm ; as, system, syllogism,
S!J71!pathy.
[For extended treatises on the subject of D erivation, the learner is referred to McElligott's Anillytical Manual and Town's Analysis.]

PART IIL

SYNTAX.
SYNTAX treats of the construction of sentences,
according to the established laws of speech.
A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense.
Sentences are of two kinds ;-simple and compound.
A simple sentence is a sentence that contains only
one no~inative and one finite verb ; as, " The sun
rises in the east."
A compound sen,tence is one that contains ttvo or
more simple sentences; as, " Industry })¥>Cures competence, and frugality preserves it;"-" He fills, he
bounds, connects, and equals all."
The simple sentences which unite to form a compound sentence, are called members or clauses.
The principal parts of a simple sentence ure the
subject or nominative, the verb, and the object. Thus,
in the sentence, " Temperance promotes health ;" temperance is the subject~ promotes the verb, and health
the object.

Of what does syntax treat 1 What is a sentence 1 Into what two
general classes are sentences divided 1 What is a simple sente~ce 1
Examples. A compound sentence 1 Examples. What are the sifil!lle
sentences embraced in a compound sentence called 1 What are the
principal parts of a simple sentence 1 Illustrate.

120

SYNTAX.-RULES.

A sentence in which the verb is intransitive, has only two
principal parts, the subject ancl the verb; as, "He runs."
A Phrase is a short expression, or form of speech ; as, " At
length;"-" Hand in band."
Words used to ex1Wiin or modify other words, are called adjuncts. This term embraces all the words of a simple sentence
except the principal parts. Many adjuncts are composed of two
or more words; as, "Printing was invented in the.fifteenth century." The whole phrase, "in the fifteenth century," is here
an adjunct of was invenud. The and .fifteenth are also adjuncts
of century.
An Idiom is a form of expression peculiar to a language; as,
"Bear with me ;"-" They came forward, to a man."
The idioms of a language are not governed by the ordinary rules of
syntax. A knowledge of them is therefore best acquired by observing
carefully the phraseology of the best speakers and writers.

Agreement is the correspondence of one word with
another, in genderJ number, person, case, or form.
Govemme'nt i~ 'the power which one word has oyet
another, in detefulining its siate.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

121

same case· as " The Salutation of me, Paul;"~
;, Xenopho~, th~ soldier and historian, was a disciple
of Socrates."
RtrLi III.-POSSESSIVES.
The possessive case is governed by the.noun which
denotes the thing possessed; as, "T~ sun's rays;"
-" My native land."
RULE IV.-lNDEPENDENT ',CA.SE.

When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, having no dependence on any other word, it i~ put in the
independent case ; as, '' These are thy glorious works,
Panmt of good;"-" He that hath cars to hear, let
him hear."
RuLE v.-PxoNouNs.

Pronouns must agree with~heir antecedents in gender, number, and person; as, " On the seve1,1th day,
God ended his work which he had made;"-" Every
tree is known by its fruit."

R UL E S 0 F iil 'Y N T A'JC
RULE VI.-PRONOUNS.
RULE 1--.lilbMINATIVES.

The subject of a finitw ver!:> ,..must be in the nominative case; as, " The moon i:;hines with borrowed
light;"-" Thou shalt not steal."
RULE IL-APPOSITION.

A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain
~nother noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the
What

of a se!!tence in which the vfrli is intransitive f

Examples. ·What
E xample-3\ What is an adjunct f
Examples. W7iat is an
Examples. What is agreement 1 'Vhnt is government ·1 ·What

is a pl11·ase f
Uliom f

is the rule respecting nominatives 1 Examples. Respecting appositiou1
EXa.mples.

When two or more words denoting different objects are taken conjointly, forming one common a~­
tecedent, the pronoun agreeing with then;i must be. m
the plural number ; as, " Virtue and good breedmg
render their possessor truly amiable."
RuLE VII.-PRONOUNS.

When two or more singular antecedents are so conWhat is the rule respecting possessives 1 Examples. Respecting
the independent.case 1 Examples. Respecting the agreement ?f pro·
nouns'!" Examples. Respecting the agreement of a pronoun with two
or more ·words denoting different objects, taken conjointly 1 Examples;
11

122

123

SYNTA.X.-RULES.

·RULES OF SYNTAX.

nected that the pronoun agrees ').Vith each term sep·
arately, or with one of them exclusively, the pronoun should be in the singular number.

rately, or with one of them to the exclusion of the
others, the verb should be in the singular number.

Examples: - " Man is not ·such

a machine

as a clock or a watch,
which moves merely as it is moved;"-" He, and no one else, was
allowed to follow his inclinations;"- " Every good act and every
good purpo~e will receive its reward."
RULE VIII.-AnJECTiVES.

Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which
they qualify or define; as, "A good man;"-" These
things."
RULE IX.-V ERBS.-AGUEEMENT.

A verb mm;t agree with its nominative in number
and person; as, " I go;" - " Thou seest ;"-"He
hears."
RULE X.-VERBS .-AGREEMENT.

When two or more nominatives denoting different
objects are taken conjointly, forming one common
subject, the verb agreeing with them should be in the
plural number; as, "Socrates and Plato ·were eminent
philosophers;"-" The air, the earth, the water, teem
with delightful existence."
Ruu:

Xl.-VERns.-AGREEMENT.

When two or more singular nominatives are so
connected that the verb agrees with each subject sepaWhat is the rule respecting the agreem.e nt of a pronoun with each
of two or more antecedents taken separately, or with one of them exclusively 1 Examples. What is the general rule for adjectives 1 Examples. The rule respecting the agreement of verbs 1 Examples.
R especting the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives denoting different objects, klken conjointly 1 Examples. R e!IJ>ecting
two or more singular nominatives so connectec!. that the ver!ifagrees
with each separately, or with one to the exclusion of the others 1
Examples.

Examples:-" Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of action ;"__:" Nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, . breaks the serene of
heaven;"-" Neither ,Astrology, nor Alchemy deserves the name
of a science;"-" In every tribe, superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a particular family;"-" Cresar, as well as Cicero,
was remarkable for his eloquence;"- " Thine is the kingdom, and
.the power, and the glory."
" Every tongue alid every eye
Does homage to the passer by."
RULE XII.-VERBS.-GOVERNMENT.

Transitive verbs govern the objective case; as,
"I have heard him;".......-" Honor thy father and thy·
mother."
RULE XIII.-S..urn CASE.

Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case
after them as before them, when both words refer to
the same person or thing ; as, " Society· is the true
sphere of human . virtue;"-" They wished him to be
their king;"-" He soon became the leader of his
party;"-" He was chosen librarian;"-" Homer has
been styled the prin.e of poets."
RuLE XIV.-GovE~NMENT OF THE INFINITIVE.

'rhe infinitive mode may be gbverned 'by a ·verb, a
noun, or an adjective; as, " Strive to improve;"-" I
am in haste to return;"-" 'l'he ship was ready to
sail."
RuLE XV.-TENSES.

In the use of verbs, those tenses should be employed which express correctly the sense in tended.
What is the rule respecting transitive verbs·? Examples. Respecting the same case 1 Examples. Respecting the government of infinitives 1 Examples. Respecting tenses 1 Examples.

124

SYNTAX.-RULES.

ORDER OF P.,\.RSING.

RULE XVI.-P.A.RTICIPLES.

other words of a sentence ; as, ·" These were delightful days; but,· alas! they are no more."

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns; as, " He
stood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness in the west."
RuLE XVII.-AnvERBS.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " Meil frequently contend for trifles;"-" It
was very thankfully received."

125

RULE XXII.-GENER.A.L RULE.

The different parts of a sentence should be made fo
harmonize \vith one another; an~ the several clauses
should be so constructed and arranged as to express
clearly the various relations, connections, and dependences intended, according to the best usages of the
language.

RULE XVIIL-CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions connect words or sentences; as,
"Idleness arul Ignorance are the parents of many
vices;"-" H e fled because he was afraid."

PARSING.

Parsing is an explanation of the properties and offices of words, according to the princip!es of grammar.

.RULE XIX.-PREPOSITIONS.-RELATION.

ORDER OF PARSING.

Prepositions connect words, and show the relation
between them.

[The Order of Parsing here given, and · the MOdels of Parsing introduced in connection with the Exercises, arc inserted for the guidance of
young learners. Advanced classes should attend less to the common
Order of Parsing, and more to the Analysis of language.]

Examples:- " He travelled FOR plwsv.re ;"-" They were destitute OF
food;"-" This is an age OF improvement;"-" Ambassadors were
sent previously TO the declaration."
.

R ULE XX.-PREPOSITIONs.-GovERNMENT.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, " They
came to us in the tpirit of kindness;"-" Prom him
that is needy, turn not -away."
RULE XXL-INTERJECTIONS.

Interjeetions have no grammatical relation . to the
What is the rule respecting participles 1 Examples. Respecting
adverbs 1 Examples. Respecting conjunctions 1 Examples. Re•
specting the relation expressed by prepositions 1 Examples. What do
prepositions govern 1 Examples. What is the rule respecting inter·
jections 1 Examples.

A Noun, and why ?-Common or Proper, and why?:Gender, and why ?-Person, and why ?-Number, and why?
-Case, and why ?-Disposal, and Rule.
An .AdJective, and why 7-Class, and why ?-If a descriptive adjective, give the Degree of Comparison; · with the
reason. Compare it.:-Disposal, and Rule.
In parsing an .Article, the pupil ~ould tell whether it is
Definite or Indefinite, and why? to what it belongs; and
assign the Rule. (See Modds for Parsing, under Rule V1II.)
A Pronoun, and why?- Cl~s, and why?- Gender,
Number, and Persoq; and why? [If a relative pronoqn,,- ·
point out its Antecedent.]-Case, and why? Decline ii) if
declinable.-Disposal, and Rule.
A Verb, and why ?-Regular or Irregular, and why?What is the general rule of Syntax 1 What is pa.rsing 1

11•

126

SYNTAX.-NOMINATIVES.

Principal Parts. -Transitive or Intransitive, and why?
transitive, tell whether· it .is in the activ~ or passive
Voice.J~fode, and why?-Tense, and why?-Person and
Number, and why ?-Disposa~ and Rule.
In parsing a Participle, the following order should oe observed :-A Participle, and why ?-Principal Parts of ihe
verb.-Peifect or Imperfect, and why ?-T~ansitive or Intransitive, and why? [If transitive, tell whether it is in the
active or passive Voice.J-Disposal, and Rule.
An .Adverb, and why .?- Class, and why? - Disposal,
and Rule.
A Preposition, and why? - Relation expressed, and
Rule.
A Conjunction, and why ?-Connection, and Rule.
An Interjection, and why ?-lli.ilc;i.

ur

)<OUNS. AND PRONOUNS.-APPOSITION.

127

inative usually precedes the verb; but in interrogative and imperative sentences, tbe nominative most commonly follows
either the principal verb or au auxiliary.
·OBSERVATION L-The nominative is also placed after the verb :-I.
When a sentence is introduced by the expletive adverb there; as," There
are many good pieces in this collection." 2. When a supposition is. expressed without the use of the conjunction if; as," Were there no diffe:rence, there would be no choice." 3. When a sentence is introduced
by neither o.r nor, not used as a correspondent to another conjunction; as,
"The eye which saw him shall see him no more, neither shall his place
any more beho)d him."
0Bs. 2.-When who, which, or what, is used as the subject of the verb
in an interrogative sentence, and also when which or wluit is used as an
adje_ctive belonging to the subject, the nominative precedes the verb; as,
" Who is there to oppose him 1"-" What objeqt. will be accomplished ·1"
Oas. 3.-Besides the cases here enumerated, there are many others in
which the nominative may either precede or follow the verb, and for
which no definite rules can be given.

RULE II.-APPOSITION.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
.RULE !.-NOMINATIVES.

The subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case; as, " The moon shines with borrowed
light;"-" Thou shalt not steal."
REM~RK 1.-A verb · in the infinitive mode, a sentence, or a
.phrase, sometimes performs th e office of a noun or pronoun in
the nominative; as, " To err is human;" - HThat one man slwuld

be punishe,dfor the

cri~of another,

is unjust."

RE~L

2.-In poetry, the nominative is sometimes omitted; as," Lives
there, who loves his pain 1" When the verb is in the imperative mode,
the nominative is frequently omitted, both in prose and poetry; as,
" Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves."
REM.

3.-In declaratory and conditional sentences, the nom-

What is the rule respecting nominatives 1 Examples. . What is sometimes used to stipply the place of a noun or pronoun in the nominative f Examples. What is the most common position of the nominative, in declarative
and conditional sentences, f Examples.

A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain another noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the
same case ; as, " The Salutation of me, Paul;" "Xenophon, the soldier and historian, was a disciple
of Socrates."
REM. !.-Apposition signifies adding to, and denotes that another name
is added for the same person or thing.

REM. 2.-A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence or p'brase; as, "He permitted me to make free use of his
valuable library;- a kindness which' I shall remember with
gratitude."
RElI. 3.-A noun denoting a whole, is sometimes followed
by two or more words in apposition with it1 den.oting the parts
of which it is composed; as, "They travelled in company, some
on horseback, some in carriages, and others on foot."

Jn interrogative and imperative sentences 7 Examples. What is the
rule respecting ap.position 1 Examples. W ith what besides a noun or
pronoun, is a noun sometimes in apposition 7 Examples. What remark is
made respecting words denoting the several parts of a whole f Examples.

128

SYNTAX.-POSSESSIVES.

REM. 4.-A distributive term in the singular number, or a
word in the singular modified by a distributive, is often put. in
apposition with a noun or pronoun in the plural; as, "They
have fallen, each in his field of glory."-Couper. "They fled,
every man into his tent."-1 Sam. 4: 10.
REM. 5.-ln the phrases one another and each other, the words
one and each have-6 constrnction similar to that described in the
last Remark ; as, " They confide in each other;" - " Bear ye
one another's burdens." In the former of these sentences, each
is in apposition with they, and other is governed by the preposition in. In the latter, one is in apposition with ye, and another's
is ·governed by burdens.
REM. 6.-A plural term is sometimes used emphatically after a series
of words or phrases comprehended under it.
Examples:-" Ease, fortune, life, all were squandered." -Bancroft.
" To be murdered, to be tortured, to be robbed, to be sold into
slavery, to be exposed to the outrages of gangs of foreign banditti
calling themselves patriots, - these are evidently evils from which
men of every religion, and men of no religion, wish to be protected."-Macaulay.

REM. 7.-Two or more proper names, applied to the same
individual, may be regarded as forming one complex noun; as,
"Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States."
REM. 8.-Anomalous expressions sometimes occur, in which a noun
used without the sign of possession, is put in apposition with a noun. or
pronoun in the possessive case; as, "This did not prevent John's bemg
acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy.':-:-Hen:;y's
Hist. qf Brit. " His eminence as a judge was great !tnd undernable. -

Brougham.
RULE III.-POSSE SSIVES.

The possessive case is governed by the noun which
denotes the thing possessed; as," The sun's rays;""My native land."
What is the remark respecting a distiibutive term in the singul.ar number, or
a word in the singular nwdified by a distributive 1 Examples. Explain and
illustrate the construction of the phrases .each other-and one another. What
is said qf two or more proper names, applied to the same individual Y Examples. What is the rule respecting p9ssessives 1 Examples.

NOUNS ..um PRONOUNS.-POSSESSIVES.

129

REM. 1.-When the governing word is rendered obvious by the use
of the possessive, it is frequently omitted; as, "I ca.Ued at the booksel-

ler's/' that is, "at the bookseller's store."

REM. 2.-When the thing possessed belongs to. two or more
possessord coujoit{tly, the sign is annexed to the last only of the
possessive nouns; as, "Mason and Dixon's line;"-" An,drews
and Stoddard's Grammar;"-" Allen, Morrill, and Wardwdl's
store." But when different things of the same name, belong
severally to two or more possessor's, the Bign should be annexed
to each possessive ; as, "Johnson' a, .Walker's and Webster's Dictionary;" that is, Johnson's Dictionary, Walker's Dictionary, and
Webster's Dictionary.
REM. 3.-Two or more words closely united, and forming
essentially one complex noun, have the sign annexed to the last
only; a.;;, "Ilmry the Eighth's reign;';-" Thomas Jejferson'a administration ;"-"John the Baptist's head."
REM. 4.-When two or more possessive nouns in apposition
are governed by a noun expressed, the governing word is usually
placed after the others; and the sign annexed to the last only of
the possessives; as, "For David my seroant's sake."
REM. 5.-When an explanatory term consisting of several words, or
a number of exp~natory terms, are subjoined to a. noun in the possessive, and the governing word is understood, the sign is generally annexed to the first possessive only; as," I left the book at Johnson's, a respect.able bookseller, and a worthy man."
REM. 6.-0ther cases sometimes occur for which no certain rule can
be given. Thus, we may say," I called at Mr. Brown the jeweller's,"
or " I called at Mr. Brown's the jeweller;" since both these forms are
authorized by usage.

REM. 7.-When a noun or a pronoun, preceding a participle
used as a noun, is properly in the possessive case, the sign of
possession should not be omitted.
What use is made of the s(qn, when the thing possessed 'belongs to two or
more possessors conjointly f Efamples. • What, when different t.ltings of the
same name belong severally to two or more possessors? Examples. · What,
when two or more words closely united fom1 on.e complex noun? Examples.
What is said respecting two 01· more possessives in apposition, governed IJy a
noun expressed ? Examples. Wltat care slwuld 'be observed respecting possessives before pai"ticipial nouns f Examples.

130

SYNTAX.-INDEPENDENT CASE.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

Correct Examples.
"A great public, as well as private advantage, arises from
every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers,
and for which he is specially fitted."-Wayland. "This is
known by the moon's always keeping nearly the same face
towaras us."-Olmsted.
False Syntax.
"Such is the advantage we receive from the chain being
composed of so many Jinks, the spine of so many bones."Paley. "There was a chance of him recovering bis senses."Macaulay. "A contemporary scholar speaks of the author
being unknown."-Campbell.
REM. 8.-The prepositi?n of, followed by ~~ objective, is fre,~~~ntly
used instead of a possessive; as," The dec1S1on· of the court,
The
genius of Homer ;" for "The court's decision," " Homer's genius." .
Ons.-This form is often more agreeable than the regular .Pos;;ess1ve,
but no definite rule can be given to decide, in, every cas.e, which 1s to be
-preferred. Care should be taken to use that form which accords best
with good usage.
.
REM. 9.-When we wish to mention a part only of the obJeCts P?S·
sessed we should employ both the preposition of and the possessive
ease· ' as " An anecdote of Dr. Franklin's ;"-" These poems are as
good as s~me of Dana's."
REM. 10.-An explanatory clause should never be inserted bet'Y~en
a possessive noun and the word by which it is governed. The followmg
sentence is faulty In this respect :- " She began to extol the farmer's,
as she called him, excellent understanding." It should be," She .be9an
to extol the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him. 1
RULE IV.-INDEPENDENT CASE.

When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, hav·
ina no dependence on any other word, it is put in the
independent case; as, "These are thy glorious works,
Parent of good ;"-"He that hath ears to hear, let him
hear."
This rule applies,-

1. When a direct address is made, and the noun or pronoun
has no dependence on the rest of the sentence; as," These are
Carrect. the false syntax, and show why it is false.
specting the independent case 1 Examples.

What is the rule re·

131

thy glorious works, Parent of good, .1.1.lmighty." This is the case
independent by· address.
2. When a noun or pronoun is joined with a participle, having no dependence on any other word; as, " The sun having
risen, we departed on ou_r journey." This is the case independent with a participle.
3. When a noun is used to introduce the subject of remark,
and then left independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, "'l'he
Pilgrimfaihe:rs, where are they?" This is the case independen t

by ple<masm."'
0Bs.-This redundant use of the noun or pronoun is generally inelegant, but in poetry and animated prose it is sometimes employed with
happy effeGt.
4. When a noun or pronoun is used to express an exclamation; as, "Oh, the miseries of war!" This is the case independent by exclamation.
5. When a noun having no dependence on any other word,
is used to express a name or title, as " The Sketch Book,''
"Day's Algebra ;" or tO denote time, measure, distance, direction,
or place, as "He left the country ten years ago,'' "The tree
was found to be eighty feet in height," "He walked twelve
miles." This is the case independent by ellipsis.
0Bs.-This class of words in the independent case is not intended to
include those nouns before which a preposition is properly understood.
In all such examples the preposition should be supplied Jn parsing, and
the noun made to depend upon it in the objective case. There are, how·
ever instances in which the noun is not properly dependent on a prepo·
sitio~ either expressed or implied; and examples of this class should be
put in the independent .case.t
Name the severa? circumstances under which nouns and pronauns are used
i1uiepende11tly, and give examples of each kind.

*For several of the divisions embraced in this classification of words
in the independent case; the author is indebted to the excellent treatise
·
of Mr. G. Brown.
t "In expressing distance or duration, either in time or space, we use
the noun absolutely; as, 'He walked ten miles;'-' He stood three hours.'"
-Latham.

"Lowth, followed by the w!iole tribe of writers on this subject, alleges
some prepositions to be understood before these expressions of time; but
this is a oalpable error, arising from preconcei~ed notions of the ncces·
sity of such words. The fact is otherwise. All these peculiar phraSP.S
are iuiomatic; and the remains of the early state of our language. The

132

SYNTAX.-PRONOUNS.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
[It is hoped that teachers will not fail to ins!st on a thorough pe~form·
anc.e of these exercises. Rules may he reclled very fluently without
being understood; but an application of them in the construction of sen·
tences, requires a careful attention to principles, while it also aids the
learner in forming an accurate style of wi·iting.-Sce Oral Instruction.]

Write sentences containing nouns and pronouns in the nominative ;-containing a verb in the infinitive, a sentence, or a phrase,
used as the subject ·of a verb ;-nouns and pronouus in npposition
with other word~ ;-nouns and pronouns in the possessive cuse;
-two or more possessives, governed by a noun dmoting joint possession ;-two or more possessives, governed by nouns denoting different objeds of the same name ;-two or more tl'ords, forming essentially one complex noun in the possesaive ;-two or more possessivP,s in apposition, governed by a noun apressed ;--a noun in the
possessive, preceding a particip1:a1 noun ;-a noun or pronoun in
the case independent by address ;-in the case independent toith a
participle ;-in the case independent by pleonasm ;-in the case independent by exclamation ;-in the case independent by ellipsil.

RULE V.-PRONOUNS.

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, number, and person; as," On the seventh day,
God ended his work wltich lte had made;"-" Every
tree is known by its fruit."
1.-The neuter pronoun it is one of the most general
terms in the languuge. It may be used,}. To represent a noun in the plural number; as, "It was the
heretics that first began to. mil."
REM.

What is the rule respecting the agreement of pronouns 1 Examples.
Enumerate the peculiar uses of the pronoun it, and give examples of each.
same idiom is found in the Greek nnd Latin limguagcs, which were built
on a Teutonic foundation ;-it is found in the Saxon, from which it is
derived into modern English;· and is therefore to be considered as origi·
nal, or coeval with the lan guage."- W ebster.·
See also Smart, J.M. Putnam, Frazee, Goldsbury, Webber, Flower,
Alle.n and Cornwell, and Nutting.

PRONOUNS.

13$

2. To repre;;;ent a noun in the masculine or feminine gender;
as, "It was a brother of the prince."
3. To represent a noun in the first or second person; as, "It
is I;"-" Is it you?"
4. To represent a sentence or phrase ; as, "It is impossible to
please all men;"-" It .is observed. by Seneca, that prosperity
greatly obstructs the knowledge of ourselves."
5. To denote some state or condition; as, "It rains;"-" Hus
it come to this?"
6. It is sometimes employed in 11 vague or indefinite sense ; a.s,
"During this time they had lorded it over the laud with
absolute swny."-Prescott.
Oas.-In most of the cases here enumerated, it is an inceptive pronoun
'
used to form an easy and agreeable introduction to a sentence. .
REM; 2..;_The personal pronoun them should never be employed as an adjective. We should sny, "Bring me those books;"
-not, "them books."
REM. 3.-When two or more pen;onal pronouns in the second
person, are employed in the same connection, they should be
made to COITespond in style. The following passage is therefore
inaccurate:-

"Enjoy your dear wit, and gay rhetoric
That hath so well been taught her dazzling fence;
Tlwu art not fit to hear thyself convinced."-Milton.

Your should be thy, to correspond with thou and thyself.
False Syntax.
"Ere you remark another's ~i11,
Bid thy own conscience look within."- Gay.

"What strange events can strike with more surprise
Than those which lately struck thy wondering eyes?
Yet, taught by these, confess th'. Almighty just;
And where you can't unriddle, learn to trust."-Parnell.
Wliat improper use is sometimes made of the pronoun them 1 fllustrate.
JVhat rule should be observed, when two. or more personal pronouns in the
second person, are tmployed in the same connection f Correct the Jobe synt=,
and show why it is false.

12

134

135

SYNTAX.-PRONOUNS.

PRONOUNS.

REM. 4.-The use of different relatives in the same sentence, referring
T~e following
sentence is faultv in this respect:-" I have amused myself with remarkin"' some of the "motley characters that have thus usurped the ancient
ab";ide of roy9.lty, and who seem as if plared here to give a farcical termination to the di·ama of human pride."-lrving. Who should be changed
to that, to correspond with that in the preceding clause.

"The army that was defeated, was composed of veteran
soldiers.''
OBS. 2.-There are other cases in which that may be employed or not,
according to the taste of the writer; as, "He thn1 formed the eye, shall
he not see ?"-Ps. 94: 9. "He wlw flants an oak, looks forward to futu.re ages, and plants for posterity.' - Irvin,q. "There is a serene and
settled majesty in woodland scenery, that enters into the soul and.dilates
and elevates it, and fills it with noble inclinations."-Jbid.

to the same antecedent, should generally be avoided.

REM. 5. - Monnrchs and ed itors of periodical publications
often employ th e plural form of a pronoun in th,e first person,
instead of the singular ; as, " We, taking into our royal consideration the various disorders and abuses,'' etc.-" We charge you,
on nlleginnce to ourself."
RE111. 6.-The relative who is applied to persons,
and which to irrational animals and inanimate things;
as, " Hom er, who wrote the Ilia<l ;"-" The man whom
we saw;"-" The horse wlticli Aie·x ander rode;"" The rain which fell."

Ons.-The pronoun who should not be used to represent a name
which is taken as a word merely. Thus, "The court of queen Elizabeth,
who was but another name for prudence and economy," should be, " The
court of queen Elizabeth, whose name was bllt another word for prudence
and economy."
·
REM. 7.-The pronoun that is applied either to persons or
things ; as, " The man that informed us;"-" The bird that sung
so sweetly ;"-" The house that was built last year."
0Bs. 1.-That should be em ployed in preference to who or
which,!. When its use will prevent nn unpl easant repetition of either
of these pronouns ; as, "Who that has any discernment,
will believe it?''
2. When persons form a _lJart only of the antecedent; as,
"The meu and things that lie saw."
3. After a collective noun denoting a body of persons; as,

- - - - ------ - - W7iat form of expressio11 is peculiar to sovereigns and editors of periodical
publications? Examples. What distinction is observed, in the use of
wlw and which ? Select several exampies of each, from other works.
To what is the pronoun th r\t applied f Examples. When is that employed
i11 preference to who 01· which ? Examples of each class.

REM. 8.-The possessive whose is applied to both persons
nnd things; as, "Franklin, whose name will ever be remembered;"-" Virtue, whose reward is lasting;"-" Frowning rocks,
whose lofty sumn1its." (See note -0n p. 75.)
REM. 9.-When two or more pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, of differen t persons, are closely united in .the same construction, the word wl.ich is in the second person should generally he placeg. first, and that in the first person, last; as," You,
and Charles, and I, were engaged in the same transaction;""You and your friend were absent;"-" My brother and I were
detained."
HEM. 10.-The word what should not be used for the conjunction that,
nor 4zat for the compound relative whai. . The following sentences are
faulty in this respect:-"They would not believe but.what he was
guilty;"-" W c speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen."
REM. 11.-Relativee should be so placed as to prevent all
ambiguity in regard to the wor<ls which they are intended to
represent. The following sentence is therefore objectionable:
-"He is unworthy of the confidence of a follow-being, that disregards the laws of hii! Maker." Corrected:-" H~ that disregards the laws of his Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a
fellow-being."
0Bs.-" I am the man who command you." This sentence is ambiguous, and may be 'corrected in two different ways. If wlw is intended to
refer ·to I, we should say, "I who command you, am the man.!' But if
who is intended to refer to man, then we should say, "I am the man who
commands you."
REM. 12.-In familiar language, the relative is sometimes improperly
omitted. Thus, "He is a man I greatly esteem," should be, " He is a
To what is the possessive whose applied f Examples. W7uzt is the rule
respocting two or more pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, of different persons ?
E xamples. What is the rule respocting the position of relatives ~ Illustrate.

136

137

SYNTA.X.-PRONOUNS.

NOUNS .A.ND PRONOUNS.-EXERCISES.

man whom I greatly est eem." So also, "I am dissatisfied with the man·
ner I have spent my time," should be, " I am dissatisfied with the man·
ner in which I hn.vfl spent my time."
REM. 13.- Whatever is sometimes employed merely for the purpose of
rendering a word or phrase emphatic ; as, " No condition whatever."
RElr: 14.- Wlwt is sometim es used adverbially, in the sense of partly,
·or in part; as, " l-Vhat with ' wooding' at two or three places, and what
with the excitement of th e day, we were too fatigued to give more than
a glance and a passing note of admiration to the beauty of the scene."Willis.

second person ; as, "James and I have finislied our lessons;"" You and Henry shared it between you."

REM. 15.-A pronoun is frequently employed to represent a
sentence or phrase; as, "Josephus received a liberal education
a1iumg the Pharisees, after which he went to Rome, where he cultivated his talents to ·great advantage." Which here represents
the whole clause, " ·received a liberal education among the Pharisees."
REM. 16.-A pronoun sometimes relates to an adjective for its antecedent, but this usage is inelegant and should generally be avoided.jt
REM. 17.~A pPonoun sometimes relates to a verb for its antecedent,
but this ilsage is also objectionable.t

RULE VII.-PRONOUNS.

When two or more singular antec~dents are so connected that the pronoun agrees with each term sepa·
rately, or with one of them exclusively, the pronoun
should be in the singular number; as, " Man i3
not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which
moves merely as it is moved;"-" He, and no one else,
\.Vas allowed to follow his inclination.s;"-" Every good
act and every good purpose will receive its reward."
REM.-When a singular and a plural antecedent are joined
by the connective or or no~, the pronoun agreeing with them
Bhould be in the plural number; as," Neither he nor his friends
have interested themsdves in this subject."

RULE Vl.-PRONOUNS.

When two or more words denoting different objects,
are taken 'conjointly, forming one common antecedent,
the pronoun agreeing with them must be in the plural
number; as, "Virtue and good breeding, render their
possessor truly amiable."
REM.-When the antecedents are of different persons, the
plural pronoun referring to them should be of the first person, if
either ·Of the antecedents is of the first; but if neither of the
antecedents is of the first person, the pronoun should be of the
0

What besides no uns are ·often employed as the antecedents of pronouns f Ex·

amp/es. . What is the rule respecting the agreement of a pronoun with
two or more words denoting different objects, taken conjointly 1 Examples. What is the rule respecting the agreement of a plural with antecedents
of different persons f E :i;amples.

*"

If this enumeration is complete, which, of course, we would not af·
firm .it to be."-N A. Review.
t "Nor is it less pleased with its first successful endeavors to walk,
or rather lo run, which precedes walking."-Paley.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Write sentences containing examples which illustrate the
agreement of pronouns with their antecedents ;-one or more examples of it, used to represent a word in the plural ;-of it, representing a noun in the masculine or feminine ;-containing examples of JDho, which, and that, correctly employed ;-of whose, refeni.ng to persons ;-of whose, referring to irrational animals and
things ·wi.thout life ;-two or more pronouns, or rwu11s and prorwuns, of different persons, joined in the same construction ;-examples illustrating Rule 6th ;--a plural pronoun riferrin[! to antecedents of different persons ;-examples illustrating Rule 7th ;-a
prono!Jn agreeing wi.th a singular and a plural antecedenJ connected
by or or nor.
What is the rule respecting the agreement of a pronoun with each of
two or more antecedents taken separately, or with one of them exclusively 1 Examples. What is the rule respecting a pronoun agreeing with a
singular and a plural antecedent, connected by or or nor 1 Examples.

12•

138

ADJECTlVES.-AGREEMENT.

SYNTAX.-EXERCISES.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
[The words which are designed to be parsed, are printed in Italics.
The sentences following the dividing line, require an application of the
Remarlcs, and may be omitted by beginners.]

Models.

" Hw task is accomplished."
His is a pronoun, because it. is a woro used to supply the place of a
noun ;-personal, because it expresses person and number of itself;
-in the masculine gender, because it denotes a male ;-in the third
person, because ft represents a person spoken of;-in the singular
number, because it implies but one object ;-in the possessive case,
because it denotes possession. Norn. he; Poss. his; Obj. him; ' Ind.
he.-It is governed by task. The possessive case is ·governed by
the noun which denotes the thing possessed.
Taslc is a noun, because it is used to express the name of an object;common, because it may be applied to any one of a whole ciass ;in the neuter gender, because it denotes an object which is neither
male nor female ;-in the third person, because it·denotes an object
spoken of ;-in the singular number because it implies but one; and
in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb is accomplished. The subject of a tinite verb must be in the nominative
case.

"The cars have arrived."-" He who overcomes his passions,
conquers hw greatest memiea."-"Venerable mtn ! yott have
come down to us from a former generation."-" Alexander and
Napoleon were destroyers of their race."-" Gibbon the historian,
was an infidel."-" It was neither he nor his brother, that brought
the intelligence."-" Our country is ruined, if it becomes too
prosperous."-B. B. Edwards. "There is no service which a 77Uln
of commanding intellect can render hi.a fellow-!'reatures, better
-than that of leaving behind him an unspotted exampfo."-.Bn.drews ~Yorton.
" Whether teachers are 'to c•mtinue in the brighter ages which
propheiy announces, i.a rendered .doubtful by a very striking prediction of the times of the Messiah."-Channing.
·

"Scenes must Le beautifol, which, daily viewed
Please daily, and whose novelty survives
Long knowledge and the scwtiny of years;Prai.ae justly due to those that I <lescribe."-Cowper.

139

"Edward tbe Confessor's tomb."-" It would be fruitless to
inve.stiga.te the peculiarities of their respective institutions, which
hear a very close affinity to one anolher."-Preacott. "John Marshall was an illustrious judge."-" Marsh, Capen, and Lyon's publications."-" Thes.e points being know11, his ignorance of other
points, his doubts concerning other points, affect not the certainty of his reasoning."-Pa/ey. "These are different quutions
from the question oftbe arti.at's existence; or, which is the same,
whether the thing before us be a work of art' or not."-lbid.
"They had heard of the arrival of two independent companita
twenty da.y s before."-Sparka. "No member or members could
arrogate to themselves the exclusive merit."-N. Y. Review. "It
is we who are Hamlet."-Hazlitt.
"My Jr.ienda, do.they now and then send
A wish or.a thought after me 'J''-Cowper.

RULE VHL-ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which
they qualify or define; al:!," A good man;"-" These
things."
REM. 1.-The adjectives thi.a and that, these and those, must
agree in number with the nouns which they define; as, this book,
these books ; that man, those men.
REM. 2.-'When this and that are used in the sense of.former and latter,
this and these correspond with latter, that and those with/armer.'
Examples.-" Religion raises men above themsel vcs; irreligion sinks
them beneath the brutes ;-this [irreligion J binds them down to a
pitiable speck of earth, that [religion] opens for them a prospect
to the skies."
" Then palaces and lofty domes arose ;These for devotion, and for pleasure those."-Pope.
REM.

3.-Adjectives which imply unity, must be joined

to

What is the general rule for adjectives 1 Examples. What rule is
observed respecting the number of the adjectives this, that, these, and those 1
Examples. What of adjectives wl!lch imply unity or plurality f Examples.

140

SYNTAX.-ADJECTIYES.

singular noun s, and those which imply plurality, to nouns in
the plural; as, one lwur; three days; both lwuseJJ; all men.
OBS. 1.-The adjective every is frequently joined to a plural noun
used collectively to denote one aggregate; as, "Every ten years."
OB~ . 2.-The. word all is connected with singular nouns denoting
quantity, and with plural nouns denoting number; as, "All the corn was
consumed ;"- "All things pass away."
Ons. 3.-The adjective many is sometimes placed before a singular
noun, the article a or an being inserted between them; as, "Full many
a gem of purest ray serene."
REM. 4.-An adjective is snmetimes used to qualify a phrase
or sentence; as, "To be blind is calamitous;" - "That he
should hnve refused the appointment, is. extraord~nary."
REM. 5.-An adjective is often used to qualify a poun and
another adjective, taken as one compound term; as, "A venerable old man ;"-"The best upland cotton."
REM. 6.-An adjective is sometimes used to modify the sense
of another adj ective; as, "Red bot iron ;"-"Five hundred men."
REM. 7.-Either is occasionally employed by good writers in the sense
of each.
Examples: - " This merciless devastation extended more than two
leagues on either side of the line of march."-Prescott. " The
Sabine hills and the Albanian mountains stretch on either hand."
-Irving.
" On either side the giant guards divide."-Soutliey.
REM 8.-When an adjective is employed to express a comparison between two objects only, or objects of two different
classes, it should generally take the form of the comparative;
as," Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist."Pope. "Our brig was the Jaster sailer of the two."-Willis.
"William is taller tho.n James;"-" William is the taller of the
two;"-" George nnd Jolm are more studious tbun James and
Charles."
0Bs.-Sometimes, however, the superlative form is employed when
What besides nouns and, pronouns, do adjectives sometimes qualif!J f Examples of each cl.ass. What is the general. rule respectirig an adjective used
to express a comparison between tu:o objects, or two cl.asses of object& f Examples.

.A.DJECTIVES.-.A.GREEMENT.

141

only two object!; are compared;* as, " Of the two, the English system is
the safest."-Humphrey. "The wr,qest boat of the two was cut loose."
-Cooper. ''Both of .these opinions have the sanction of high authority,
and it maybe worth while to examine which of them be w1sest."-N. A.
Review. "I think the English one rather the best of the two."-Lockhart.

REM. 9.-Wbep a comparison is expressed between more
than two objects of the same class, the superlative degree is
employed; as, "The last of the Roman tribunes;"-" The most
ancient poet;"-" The nobleJJt of the Greeks."
REM. 10.-ln the use of comparative and superlative adjectives, care should be taken not to include a noun or pronoun in
a class to which it does not belong, nor exclude it from a class
to which it does belong. Thus, it would be improper to illly,
"Socrates was wiser thnn any Atheniau,'' because Socr!ltes was
himself an Athenian, and could not be wiser than himself. The
correct form would be, "Socrates was wi3er than any other
Athenian,'' or " Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians." The
following sentence is also erroneous:-" The vice of covetousness, of all others, enters deepest into the soul." Covetousness
is not one of the other vice3, as the construction of the seutence
would imply. Corrected :-" Of all the vicee, covetousness
enters deepest iuto the soul."

Correct Examples.
"An aristocracy is, of all form3 of government, the most
What is the general 1·ule 1·espectin.q an adjective used to express a comp<Lrison between more than two oojects of the same dass f , Examples. What
care should be ooserved in the, use of comparativea and superlatives f

*"

We say rightly, 'either ' This is the weaker of the two,' or ' the
weakest of the two.' If, however, we ma.v form 't judgment from the
most general principles of analogy, the former is preferable, becaustl
there are only two things compared."-Cmnpbelt's Philosophy of Rhetoric.
"The strict rule laid down by grammarians, that the comparative is
to be used when two things are spoken of, and the superlative when
more than two arc the subject of discourse, has not been observed, even
by the best writers, and still less by the best speakers, and need not now
be insisted on.''-Connon.
" The superlative is often more ngreeahle to the ear; nor is the sense
injured. In many cases a strict adherence to the comparative form ren·
ders the language too stiff and formal."- Lennie.

A.DJECTIVES.-ARTICLES.

142

143

SYNTA.X.-ADJECTIVES.

tenacious of life, and the least flexible in its purposes."-Bancrofl. "Time ought, above all other kinds of property, to be
free from invasion."-Johnson. "Transcribing was; of all occupations, that which Cowper dioliked the most." - Southey.

REM. 15.-N ouns are sometimes used · to perform the office
of adjectives, as "A stone cistern,'' "A gold watch ;" and adjectives to perform the office of nouns, as "The great and good
of all ages."
ARTICLES.

False Syntax.
"The high reputation which he afterwards obtained, came
too late to gladden the heart which, of all others, would have
most rejoiced in it."-Southeij. "This kind of wit is that which
abounds in Cowley, more than in any author that ever wrote."
- Jiddison. "Breathing with ease, is a blessing . of every
moment; yet, of all others, it is that which we possetis with the
least consciousness."-Paley. "In the age of Elizabeth, England was more distinguished for patriotism than any nation in
civilized Europe."-N. JI. Review.
REM. 11.-Duuble comparatives and superlatives, as worser,
most straitest, should be carefully avoided.
Ons. -The word lesser is, however, sometimes employed by good
writers; as," Thelfesser incidents."-N Y. &v1:ew. "Lesser sympathies."
- Dana. " Of l.esser note." - Goldsmith. "Fifty lesser angels." -Prnf.
Wilson. "Lesser graces."-Blair. "Like /e,sser streams."-Coleridge.
REM. 12.- An adjective is sometimes used to perform the office of an
adverb; as, "Soft sighed the flute. "-Tlwmson. This usage is mostly
·
confined to the poets.
REM. 13.-An adjective may be used to express an attribute
or quality, which results from the action of the verb with which
it is connected. Adjectives of this description relate both to
the verb and the nonu or pronoun, and may be called adverbial

adjectives.
Examples: - " The door was painted green." - "Heaven opened
wide her ever-during gates."-Milton. "The exiles of a year had
grown.familiar with the favorite amusement of the lndians."Bancroft. "Children just let loose from school."-Goldsmith.
REM. 14.-An ndjective is sometimes used absolutely, having no direct

reference to any noun or pronoun expressed or implied; as," The desire
of being haPP.¥ reigns in all hearts;" - "To be wise and good is to be
great and rwble."

Correct the fizlse syntax. lVhat of double comparatives and superlatives 1
What is an adverbial adjective 1 Examples.

16.-The article a or an belongs to nouns of
the singular number only, or to nouns denoting a
plurality of objects in one aggregate; as, "A house;"
" An eagle ;" " A million."
REM. 17.-The article the belongs to nouns either in
the singular or plural number; as," Tlte President;"
" The Europeans."
REM.

REM. 18.-Articles are sometimes used to modify the sense
of other adjectives; as, "JI few days;"-" JI thousand years;"
-"So much tke stronger proved he."
REM. 19.-The article the is sometimes used to modify the
sense of an adverb; as, "The longer you delay, the vwre your
difficulties wiJI increase."
REM. 20.-When the article a or an is placed before the words.few
and little, it generally changes their meaning from negative to positive.
Thus, when we say," There were few persons present," the wordfew is
used in a negative sense, in distinction from many, to denote the smallness of the number. But when we say," There were a few persons
present," the word few is used in a positive sense, in distinction from
none, to denote that there were some persons present. The expressions
" He needs little aid," and "He needs a little aid," serve also to illustrat~
tl1is remark.
REM. 21.-When two nouns following a comparative refer to different persons or things, the article should be repeated before the second
no~n ; but when the two nouns· refer t~ the same person or thing, the
article should not be repeated. Thus, m the sentence, "He is a better
soldier than a scholar," the terms soldier and scholar relate properly to
different individuals, and it is implied that he is a better soldier than a
scholar would be. But, in the sentence, " He is· a better soldier than
scholar," the terms soldier and scholar are limited to one individual and
it is implied that he is better in the capacity of a soldier than in that of
a scholar.

----------------------

Give examples of nouns used to supply the place of adjectives, and adjectives used to supply the pfuce of nouns. What is the rule for the agreement
of the article a or an f Examples. Of the article the f Examples. What
besides nouns, do artides sometimes modify f Examples of each class.

144

SYNT.AX.-.ADJECTIVES.

Rur. 22.-When two or morll adjectives ·standing in connection, are used to describe 1lifferent objects of the same name,
the article should generally be placed before each of them; as,
".11. red and a white flag;" that is, two flags, one red and the
other white. But when no ambiguity i3 likely to arise from the
omission of the article, its repetition is not essential. Thus we
may say with equal propriety, "The fourteenth and the fifteenth
century," or "The fourteenth and fiftee nth centuries."
REM. 2:3.-When two or more adjectives are used to describe
the same object, the article should generally he employed before
the first only; as, ".11. red and white flag;" that is, one flag,
both red and white. But when we wish to give particular prominence to each adjective, the article mny be inserted before each,
if no ambiguity would arise; ais, " The learned, the eloquent,
the patriotic Chatham."
Rur. 24.-A noun tnken in its widest al)d most general sense,
is commonl y used without an article; as, "Man is mortal;"" Vice is odious;"-" Iron is the most useful of the metals;"" He was called Jl:faster."
Oes.-Sometimes, however, the article the is used with a singular
noun to denote the whole species, or an indefinite portion of the species;
as, " The horse is a noble animal."
REM. 25.-The article is generally omitted before proper names and
such other nouns as are of themselves sufficiently definite in their signification; as," George Washing-ton was born in the year 1732."-" Today is yesterday returned."- Young. Th ere are, however, some cases in
which the use of the article before proper nnmes, is admissible; as, " The
Pyrenees;"-" The French;"-" The Earth ;"- " The illustrious Franklin;"- " A Mr. William Jones addressed the meeting."
REM. 26.-The letter a is sometimes employed by mercantile men in
the sense of th e preposition to;* as, "Baltimore !lour sold at $4,50 a
$4,58 ;" that ii, "Baltimore flour mid at pricci varying from $4,50 to
$4,58."
0

ADJECTIVES.- POSITION.

145

Ons.-A appears also to have the force of a preposition in the following and other similar examples :- " He set the public a readiilg."B lackwood's llfagazine. " There is some ill a brewing."- Shalcsprore. In
such expressions as, " Thomas a Becket," "Thomas a Kempis," a is employed in the sense of the preposition of.
REM. 27.-.A is sometimes employed as a mere expletive prefix; as,
"I begin to be a-weary of thee."-Shalcspeme. "Poor Tom's a-cold."lbid.
REM. 28.-An wns formerly used as a conjunction, in the sense ofij;
as, " :Fortune is to be honored and respected, an it be but for her daughters, Confidence and Reputation."-Bacon.
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES.
REM. 29.-Acljectives should be so placed as to show dearly
which nouns they are intended to qualify. Thus, instead of
·saying, "This disconsolate soldier's widow," we should say,
"This soldier's disconsolate widow."
011s. 1.-When an adjective is used to qualify another adjective and a noun, taken jointly, it s\10uld not be placed between
the other adjective and the noun. TIJUs, in the expression,
"An amiable,.young man," .the word amiablt qualifies the phrase
young man; it would therefore be improper to say, "A young
amiable man."

What is the general rule respecting the article, when two or more adJectives
standing in connection describe d\fferent objects qf tlie same name f Exam·
ples. 1'Vhat exception to this ride f Examples. What is tk general rule,
when two or more adjectives describe the same object f Examples. ff'hat
exception? Examples. 1Vhat of a noun taken in its widest sense f Ex·
amples.

Ons. 2.-Thc adjective generally precedes the noun to which it belongs; as, "A patrwtic citizen;" but in the following cases the adjective
most commonly follows the noun :-1. When some word or phrase is
dependent on the adjective; a.~, " The knowledge requisite for a. statesman;"-" A river twenty ~yardg wide. I!. When t.he adjective is used a.s
a title ; as, "Alfred the G,-eat ;"-"George the Po11rth." 3. When the
quality expressed by the adjective is dependent on the action of a tra.nsiti ve verb; as, " Yanity often renders man contemptible."
Oas. 3.-When an adjective is qualified bl an adverb, it is sometimes
placed before the noun and sometimes after it; as, "A very good man;"
-"A man conscientiously exact."
Oes. 4.- When a verb comes between an a-:ljective and its noun, the
adjective may either precede or follow the noun ; a.s," Great is our God;"
_u Gaming is ruinous."
"How vain the ardor of the crowd,
How low, how little are the proud,
How indigent the great !"-Gray.
Ons. 5.-When several adjectives belong to one noun, they may either

*"This I take to be a relic of tlie Norman French, which was once
the law and mercantile language of England ; for, in French, a, with an
accent, means to or at."-Cobbett.

What rule is to be observed 1'especting tlte position ef adjectives f l/lustrall.
What rule is to be observed respecting an adjective used to qualify another
adjective and a noun f Illustrate.

-----~~------~---~~---~

13

146

SYNTAX.-ADJECTIVES.

precede or foll ow the noun; as, " A learned, un'se, and amiable man," or,
" A man learned, wise, and amiable." The longest adjective is usually
·
placed last.
Ons. 6.-An adjective relating to a pronoun is generally placed after
the pronoun ; as, " He isfaithjid and hnd."
Ons. 7.-When a noun is preceded by an article in connection with
one or more other adjectives, the article is generally placed first; as, "A
great and good man.;' But when the words many, such, both, all, and
what, are employed, they generally precede the article; as, "Many a
day;"- " Sw_h a favor;"- " Both the trees." The article is also placed
after adj ectives whid1 are modified by as, so,hou:, and however ; as," How
great a work ."

0Bs. 8. -Some gra mmarians object to the use of the n.umerals two, three, four, etc., before the adjectives.first and last. There
seems, however, to be no go0d reason for the objection,* and
the expression3 two first, three list, etc., are fully sanctioned by
good usage.
What is said of the use of numerals before the adjectives first and last 1
Examples.

*

" It has been fashionable of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the three .first. P eople write in this way to avoid the seeming
absurdity of implying that more than one thing can be the.first; but it is,
at least, equally ab&urd , to talk about the first four, when (as often happens ) there is no secondfour."-Arnold.
"Surely, if there can be only 'one last,' ' one first,' there can' be only' a.
la.st one.' ' a .first one.' I need only obse rve, that usage is decidedly in
favor of the former phraseology.''- Gra11t.
" The only argum ent against the use of two Jfrst, ~nd in favor of substituting first two , so far as I can recollect, _1s. this. In ~he natu;e of
things, there can be only one first and one last, m any series of thmgs.
But is it true, that there can never be more than one first, and one last 7
If it be so, th en the adjectives firs t and last must, always be of the singu·
./ar number, an d can never agree with nouns in the plural. W e are told,
that the .firot .1rar~ of a lawyer's practice a.re seldom very lucrative. .'J!ie
poet tells us, that his first essays were severely handl e~ by the cn~1cs,
but his last efforts have been well received. Examples hke -these m1ght
be prod uced wi thot1t number. They oc~ur .everywhere in ~11.our s~nd­
ard writers. * * * V{hen a numeral ad,1ective and a. quahfymg epithet
both refer to the same noun , the general rule of the English language is
to place the numeral first, then the qualifying epithet, and afterwards the
noun. Thus we say, ' the two wise men,' ' the two tall men;' and not,
'the wise two men,' ' the tall two men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. W e say,' the tu'O wisest men,'' the two talltst men;' and not' the
wisest two men,' ' the tallest two men.' Now if this be admitted to be the
general rul e of the E nvlish lan"'URi!'e, then it follows, that generally we
should sav ' t.he two fi~st,' 'the two last,' etc., rather than,' the .first two,'
'the last t;/,o,' etc. 'i'his I say should generally be the order of the words.
Y et there are some cases in which it seems preferable to say, ' the first
two,'' the .first three,' etc."-Dr. J.furdock.

.ADJECTIVES.-EXERCISES.

147

Examples :- " My two la.st letters."-Addison. " The tu,'Q jfrst lin es
are uncommonly beautiful."-B/air. "At the two last schools."
-Johnson. " The three first generations.'' - E. E verett. "The
two first years."-Bancroft. "The t1w first days ."-lrving. "The
two first cnntos."-A. H. EvereJ.t. "The four first centuries."Prescott. "The two last productions.''-N. A. Review. "The four
first iire altogether and unequivocally poetical."-Cheever. "The
three first of his longer poems."-Southey.

0Bs. 9.-The expressions first three, last two, etc., are a!Ro in
good use, and, in some cases, are to be preforred.
Examples :-" The first eighteen years.''-N. A . Review. " The history of the world for 'the last fifty years."-E. EvereU. "Duting
the last seven or eiglu years."-Brougham.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

Write sentences containin.g examples of descriptive and definitive adjectives ;--containing an adjective that qualifies a sentence
or phrase ;-an adjective that qualifies a noun and another adjective,
taken as om compound term ;-an adjective expressing a comparison
between two objects onl,y ;-om expressing a comparison betiDetn
nwre than tu;o object~ ;-an adverbial adjective ;-a noun used to
perform the office of an adjective, and an adjective used to perform
the office of a noun ;-examples of the articles ;-one or mere examples illWJtrating Rem. 22nd ;-Rem. 23rd ;-Rem. 24th.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Models.
"The country abounds in excellent fruit."
The is an article. This title is applied to the definitive adjectives.
a or an, and tlie.-It is definite, because it indicates some particular object ;- and belongs to couniry. ·"Adjectives belong to the nouns
or pronouns which they qualify or define.
Excelle1lt is an adjective, because it is joined to a noun to qualify or
define its meaning ;-descriptive, because it expresses some qualitv
of the no un fruit ;-in the posi tive degree, because it expresses the
simple state of the quality. Positive, excellent; comparative, more
exce/Jent ; superlath•e, most excellent.-It belongs to.fruit. Adjectives
belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or define.
What other form is also employed 7 Examp/et;.

148

SYNTAX.-EXERCISES.

" Wise men." - ".fl. virluous life." - "Rural scenery is al'ways
.interesting." - "Are these things so?" - "The noblest spirits
sometimes grow up in the obscurest spheres." - "More agreeable
conversation.'1 - "./J.n ab[t. statesman." - "The rose is sweet." "Our highest interests."-".IJ.ll hope was lost."-"Time is so swift
of foot that none can overtake il."-" Modesty is one of the greatest ornaments of youth.''- "Our good or bad fortune depends
greatly on the choice we make of our friends."
"Men grew old _:n camps, and acquired the highest renown by
tluir warlike achievements, without being once required to face
aerioua danger.''-Macaulay. ".IJ.ny one can conquer his passions,
who calls in the aid of religion.''-Crabb. "Every nine days
must have its wonder, no matter of what kind."-/rving. "We
have the rather availed ourselves of this testimony of a foreign critic
in behalf of Shahpeare, because our own countryman, Dr. Johnson, has not bee n so favorable to him."-Hazlilt. "I made the
greater progress."-Ji}anklin. "A century is a period of a hundred years.''- " Rectitude in all its branches, is the supreme good."
-Channing. "The purest clay is that which burns· white."" The door was red hot."-Dickena. "That mind and body often
aympathize, is plain."-J-.nyna. "The two last qualities are indeed
so common in all the poetry of hi;; nation, that we need scarcely
enlarge upon the praise as belonging peculiarly to him."-Lockhart. "Without frugality, none can be rich; and with it, very
few would be poor."-Johnaon.
"Man often clouds with vain or fanci.ed ills,
His narrow span, when Nature's stainless light
Dispenses only happiness, and fills
The world w ith things so beautifu1 and bright.
Her plains, her mountains, and her valleys, teem
With living verdure in the fairest dress ;
And ocean, river, lake, and singing stream,
Combine to harmonize her loveliness."-W. C. Lodge.

VERBS.-AGREE:MENT.

U9

RULE IX.-VERBS.-AGREEMENT •

A verb must agree with its nominative in numbel'
and person; as, " I go;" - " Thou seest ;" - " He

hears."
Falae Syntax.
"The singular admixture of serious faults which call for
severe criticism, with great merits which excite our warmest
admiration, render our task one of unusual perplexity."-We8t
minster Review. " He was forced to account for it by one of
the most absurd, unphilosophical notions that was ever started.'
-.!lddison. "They dwelt with a contented fondnesa on the
scenes amidst which they had been born and nurtured, with a
purity and exultation of feeling which powerfully captivatet1 the
heart."-N. .fl.. Review.

"A few brief summer days, and thou
No more amid these haunts shall glide."-Bernard Barton.
"What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown,
While others sleep, thus range the camp Rlone?"-Pope.
REM. 1.-When a verb is placed between two nominatives of
different numbers or persons, it should geuerally be made to
agree with thnt which precedes it; as, "His meat was locusts
anrl wild honey ;"-"Thou art the man.'' But when the verb
is followed by the direct and principal suhje.ct, it should be
made to agree with the latter nominative; as, " Who art thou?"
- " What are we?"

COLLECTIVE NOUNS:
2.-The singular form of a collective noun, may have
a verb agreeing with it either in the singnlar or plural number;
ns, "The nation is powerful ;"-"The assembly were divided in
their opinions."
REM.

What is the rule respecting the agreement of verbs 1 Examples .
Correct the false s9ntax, and slww why it is false. What of a verb placed bctwzen two nominatives of different numbers or persons 1 Examples. What is
sai.d respe,ctfr1g the agreement of a verb with a collective noun f Examples.

13•

150

SYNT.A.X.-VERBS.

VERBS.-AGREEMENT.

Ons.-No defi n!te rule can be given to decide, in all cases,
which number should be employed to agree with a collective
no~n. When the noun most naturally suggests the idea of
UKily, th e verb should be singular; but when the noun conveys
the idea of plurality, tbe verb should be plural. In modern
usage, the pl11ral form is most frequently employed.

is silently diminished, the renovation of friendship is hopeless."
-John,on. " The stamp and denomination still continues, but
the intrinsic vulue is frequently lost."-.llddison.

• R&M. 3.-Tho transitive verbs ned. nnd want, are sometimes employed
m a general sense, without a nominative, expressed or implied.*
Examples :-" There neened a new dispensation of religion for the
moral r~fo rm of s?ciety.''. - Caleb Cushing. " There needs no
be tt~r picture of his destitute and piteous situation, than that
furnished by the homely pen of the ehronicler."-/i·ving. "Wheresoever the case of the opinions can\e in 817itation, there wanted
not patrons to stand up to pie.ad for them.' -Sparks's Am. Biog.
" Nor did there want
Cornice, or frieze, with bossy sculptures graven.''-Milton.
. RE~r. ~.-A verb in the imperative is sometimes used al;sOlutely, havmg no direct reference to any particula r subj ect expressed or implied.t
Ex~mpl~s :- " And God said, 'Let there be light;' and · there was
light. - Gen. 1: 3.
"' rve lost a day,'-the prince who nobly cried,
Had been an emperor without his crown.
Of Rome 1- say, rather, lord of human race."- Young.

RULE X.-VERBS.-AGREEMENT.

Wh en two or more nominatives denoting different
obj ects are taken conjointly, formina one common
'
0
subj ect, the verb agreeing with them ~hould be in the
plural number; as, "Socrates and Plato were eminent
philosoph erR;"-"The air, the earth the water teem
'
'
.
with delig hted existence."
~/i'alse

Syntax.

" When th e desi re of pleasing and willingness to be pleased
H ow are we to be govemed in deciding which mtmber sho1dd be employed to
agree with a collective noun? What is the rule respeNing the ngreement

of a verb with two or more nominatives denoting different objects, taken
conjointly~ Examples. Correct the false syntax, and show u:lty it is false.

*

See \Vebster, Perl ey, and Ingersoll.

t See Frnzec, Allen and Cornwell, Nutting, and Chnpin.

151

REM. 1.-When two or more nominatives are thus employed, they
are generally connected by the conjunction and, expressed or under~tood.
Ri,;M. 2.-A singular nominative and an objective after with, are some·
times made to form the joint subject of a plural verb; as," Pharaoh
with all his host, were drowned in the Red Sea." Thi~ copulative use
of with is occasionally adopted, by good writers, but it would be better,
in most cascs,.either to put and in the p!!l{!e of with or to employ the singular form of the verb.* Thus, instead of saying, " This noble ship
urilli her gall11nt crew were buried beneath the waves," it would be more
correct to say, "This noble ship and her gallant crew were buried beneath the waves.'' So also, "This brave officer with a company of only
fifty men , have succeeded in quelling the insurrection,'' would be better
expressed by saying, "This brave officer, with a company of only fifty
men, has succeeded in quelling the insurrection.''
Examples :-" This principle, with others of the same kind, supposes
man to act from a brute impulse."-Johnson. "He himself, with
others, was taken.''-Bancroft. "A body of two thousand men
succeeded in surprising the quarters of the marquis of Cadiz, who,
with his followefS\ was exhausted by fatigue and watching."Prescott.

3.-When two or more singular nominatives denoting
the same object are tuken conjointly, the verb agreeing with
them must be singular; as, "This renowned patriot aud statesman has retired to private life."
REM.

RuLJ~ XI.-VERBs.-AGREEMENT.

When two or more singular nominatives are so
connected that the verb agrees with each subject sepa·
What verb is used to· agre,e with two or mare singular nominatives d~noting
the same object f Examples. What is the rule respecting two or more

singular nominatives so connected th at the Yerb agrees with each separately, or with one to the exr!usion of t.hc others 1 Examples.

*

The use of a plural verb to agree with a sinj;,ular nominative nnd
an o~jective aft er with, is sanctioned by Priestley, Grant, Milligan, Cobbett, Lewis, L ennie, Hort, Del Mar, and Simmonite; and condemned by
G. Brown, Murray, Sanborn, Kirkham, Picket; Hiley, Meilan, Hazlitt,
and Latham.
" This phraseology, though not strictly consonant with the rnles of
concord, frequ ently obtains, both in ancient and modem languages. In
some cases indeed it seems preferable to the syntactical form of expressiun.''-.Dr. Oromhie.

152

SYNTAX.-YERBS.

rately, or with one of them to the exclusion of the
others, th e verb should be in the singular number.
E.r:amples :-"Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of action;"- " Nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, /Jreaks· the serene of
hea,·cn ;"-"Neither Astrology, nor Alchemy deserve11 the name
of a science;"-" In every tribe, super8tition, or gratitude, or
fo-rtune, has exalted a particular family;"-" Cresar, as well as
Cicero, was remarkable for his eloquence;"-" Thine is the king·
dom, and the power, and the glory."
" E very tongue arid every eye
Does homage to the passer by."

False Syntax.
"Neither romantic fancy, nor extreme pathos, nor sublimity
of the very first order, are discoverable in Pope."-Edinburgh
Review. " The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of
flesh or lentils, .the neglect of an accustomed salutation, a n;iistake of precedency in the public baths, or even a religions dispute, were at any time sufficient to kindle a sedition."-Gibbon.
"Danger, long travel, want, or wo,
Soon change the form that best we know."-ScoU.
REM . 1.-When a singular and a plural nominative are connected by or or nor, the verb should generally be in the plural;
and, when the harmony of the sentence admits of it, the plural
nominative should he placed next to the verb; as, "Neithe1•
poverty nor riches were injurious to him."
REM. ~. -When two or more nominatives of different persons are connected by or or nor, tl1e verb is often made to agree
with the neareat nominative; as, "Either you or I am in fault."
But it would generally be better .to express the verb in connection with euch nominative, unless the different persons of the
verb agree in form; as, "Either you are in fault, or I am."

Correct the fulse syntax, and .show why it is false. What is the rule respoct.ing a singular and a plural nominative., connected by or or no~ 1 Examples. R especting two or more nominatices of d1:fft~·ent persons, connected by
or or nor. Examples.
·

VERBS.-AGREEMENT.

153

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Write exP.rcises containing a verb that agrees with a singular
nominative ;-a plural nominative ;-a nominative in the first
person;-one in th~ second ;-one in the third ;-a verb agreeing with a collective noun ;-a verb agreeing with two or more
nominatives denoting different objects, taken conjoiutly;-several different examples, illustrating Rule 11th ;-a verb agreeing
with ·a. singular and a plural nominativr., connecttd by or or nor ; a verb agreeing with two or more nominatives of different persons.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
. Models.

"I saw the sun sinking behind the hills."
Saw is a verb, because it expresses an assertion or affirmation; -irregular, because it does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or e,d to the present ;-see, saw, seen ;-it is a transitive verb, in the active voice, because it governs the object sun ;-in.
the indicative mode, because it expresses a declaration ;-in the past
tense, because it denotes indefinite past time ;-in the first person
singular, to agree with its nominative 1. A. verb must agree with
its nominative in number and person.
S inking is a participle, because it is a mode of the verb which partakes
of the properties of" the verb and the adjective ;- sink, sunk, sunk;imperfect, because it den otes the continuance of the action ;-in·
transiti ve, because it does not have a noun or pronoun for its
object ;-and belongs to sun. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns.

"I will obey."-" He ha8 returned."-" It ia lost."-" Strive to
improve."-" The multitude pursue pleasure."-"Tiim and tide
wait for no man.";._" The intellect, aud not the heart ia concerned."
-"Neither the tiim nor the place' was known."-"- The origin
of the city .and state of Rome is involved in great uncertainty."
"In civilized life, where the happi,ness, and indeed almost the
existence of man, depends so much upon the opinion of his fellow
men, he ia constantly acting a studied part."-lrving. "ThM
great critic and philosopher endeavors to palliate this imperfection in the Greik poet."-.flddiaon. " Thi.s, and this alone constitutes the worth and importanr.e ~f the sacrifice."-Channing. ·
"A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, ar•

155

SYNTAX.-YERBS.

VERBS.-AGREEMENT.

sufficient to attract a colony of .sedentary .11.rabs."-Gibbon. "·'ifrica, as well as Gaul, was gradually fashioned to the imitation of

"/lsk him his opinion;"-" This experience taught me a valuable lesson."-" Spare me yet this bitter cup."-Hemans. "I
thrice presented him a kingly crown."-Shakspeare..

154

the capital."-Jbid.
"Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green,
That host with their ban11ers, ut sunset were seen."-Byron.
"The almost .unobserved advancement and diffmion of knowledge were paving the way for discoveries."-Mackintosh. "The
iron, as well as the wood, was taken from· the wreck of the same
ship."-Southey. "It has been frequently observed by writers on
physiognomy, that every emotion and every op1Tation of the mind
has a corresponding expression of the countenance."-nugald
Stewart.

Ru LE. XII.-VERBs.-GoYERNMENT.
Transitive verbs govern the objective case; as,
"I have heard him;"-" Honor thy father and thy

mother."

REM. 1.-A sentence or phrase often supplies the place of a noun or
pronoun in the objective case; as," You see how few of these men .have
returned."

Rur. 2.-An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective, when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of
kindred signification ; as," To live a blameless life;"-" To run
a race."
REJ\l. 3.-Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which intransitive
verbs are followed by objectives depending upon them i. as, "Pe.rhaps

we have wanted the spirit, and manliness, to lrx;_k the suh,7ect fully m the
face."- Channing. "They laughed him to scorn. -Mau. 9: 24.
"The broken soldier, kindlv bid to stay,
Sat by his fire, and talk'd-the night away."-Goldsmith.
REM. 4.-Transitive verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and
some others, are often employed to govern ·two objectives;• as,

Whn.t is the rule respecting transitive verbs 1 Examples. What of
an intransitive verb followed by a noun ef kindred signifo:ation f Examples.
Transitive verbs ef aslcing, te,aching, etc . . Examplts.
-'---~~~~-~~~~~-

• Many grammarians supply a preposition to govern ·o ne o'. th~ o?jectives following :his class of ve;bo, but such. a mode. of parsmg is, m
many cases arbitrary and does ' 't0lence'to an important and well established idio~ of the l~nguage. In the expressions, " Teach them to obey

REM. 5.-Verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others,
are often employed in the passive voice to govern a noun or
pronoun in the objective.

Examples:-;-" He was 'asked his opinion."-Johnson. "The pupil in
fuore advanced.life is taught the science in its strictly logical form."
-N. .A. Review. "He was denied admission to the most important public repositories."-Presrott. "He had been refused shdter."
-Irving. " They were denied the indUlgence."-Macaulay. " They
have been denied every ennobling institution."-Channing. "Am I
to beasked such aquesti.onf"-Cooper.

Ons.-!his form of expres~ion is anomalous, and might, in many
~ases, be 1m1;>r~~ed :*' Thus, mstead of saying, "He was offered a seat
rn the council, 1t would be preferable to say "A seat in the council was
'
offered l to] him."
REM. 6.-The passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connec·
tion with a preposition, forming a compound passive verb.
Examples:-" He was listened to without a murmur."-.A. H. Everett.
"Nor is this enterprise to be scoffed at."-Channing. '.' This is a
tendency to be .q1uirded against."-Paley. " .A bitter persecution
was carried on."-Hal.lnm.
REM. 7.-Idiomatic expression~ sometimes occur in which a noun in
How are verbs
Examples.

ef asking, t;,~hi~g~·-~tc., eften employed in the passfre voice 1

the laws," and" Teach them obedience to the laws," it is manifest that the
grammatical influence of the verb teach upon the pronoun th.em is the
same in both examples. Why then parse the word them as gover:ied by
tlie verb in one example, and in the other hy a prepositi'on understood?
The rule for the government of two o~jectives by a verb without the
aid o.f a preposition. is adopted by Webster, Murray, Alexa~der, Frazee,
Nuttmg, Perley, Goldsbury, J. M. Putnam, Hamlin, Flower, Crape,
Brace, and many others.
·G. ~rown, Sanborn, Murrar., and several other grammarians, condemn ~his usage altogether; while, on the other hand, it has the sanction
of a st1.ll larger cl~s of authors, equally respectable, including Dr.
Crombie, Flower, D Orsey, Crane, Frazee, R. C. Smith Emmons Hamlin, Lennie, Arnold, and Nutting.
·
'
'
"Exam pies of the application of this rule are furnished b;ir the best
writers. Phrases such as these,...!..' She was asked the quest10n,' ' She
w:as tau~ht her les,son,' 'They were offered a pardon,' ' They were de·
med their request, etc., are of frequent occurrence; and it seems better,
after the example of the Latin, to provide for them by a special rule
'
than to condemn them as .inaccuracies."-Pond's Murray.

*

VERilS.-GOVERNMENT.

SYNTAX.-VERBS.

156

the objective is preceded by a passive verb, and followed by a preposi·
tion used adverbially.
Examples:-" Vocal and instrumental music were made tl~e of"-:. Addison. "The third, fou1th, and fifth, were tak£-n possesswn of ~t
half past eight."-Southey. "The Plnta was soon lost sight ofm
the darkness of the night."-lrving. "It ought never to be lost
sight of"- N A. R.eview.

OBs.-This idiom is anomalous; but it has the sa!lction of many
good writers, and is therefore shielded from the unqualified conde~na·
tion of the critic. It would, however, generally be better to avoid it.
RE, . s .-There are some verbs which may \le used either transitive·
1
ly or intransitively; as, "He w~ll return in a fe.'~ days," "He will r~urn
the book;"-" The wind blows v10\ently," " The wmd blows the chaff.
RE~!. 9.-The verb learn is often improperly used for tecich; as,"
is of little utility to learn scholars that c~.rtain words are signs of certain
modes and tenses." Insert teach in the place of learn.

!t

REM. 10.-The transitive verbs lay and set should not be confounded with the intransitive verbs lie and sit. (See .the principal parts of these verbs, in the list of irregular verbs, PP· 107,

108.)
Correct Examples.

"He fasted and lay in sackcloth."-1 Kings, 21: 27. "He
laUI his robe from him."-Jonah, 3: ·6. "I have sat for hours
at my window."-lrving. "Thou hast set a bound that they
may not pass over."-Ps. 104: 9. "They have forsuken ~y
Jaw which I set before them."-Jer. 9: 13. "We say, a thmg
lies by us until we bring it into use; we lay it by for some future purpose; we lie down in order to repose · ourselves; we
lay money down by way of deposit."-Crcibb.
Folse Syntax.

"My al~ friend sat himself d~wn in the chair."-.llddison.
"The mate of a British vessel then laying· at anchor in Boston
harbor."-Sparks's .llm. Biog.
"Even now, where Alpine solitude;:ni"lleend,
I sit me down a pensive hour· to spend.":..-Goldsmith.
"For him through hostile camps I bend my way,
For him thua prostrate at tby feet I lny."-Pope.
What of the verbs lay and set 1 Correct the false syntax, and show why
ii is false.

157

Ons.-Tbe different parts of the intransitive verb set arc the same as
those bf the transitive verb set. Thus we say, "The sun sets ·"- ·•The
'
sun has set;"- " The current set westward an hour ago."
REM. ll.-A verb in the infinitive is often preceded by a nonn or prononn in the objective, which has no direct dependence on any other word.*'
Examples:-" One error is that of concluding the thi»qs in question
to be alike."- Whately. "Columbus ordered a stron". fortress of
wood and plaster to be erected."- lrving. "Its favors here should
make us tremble."- Young.
. REM. 12.-Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur, in which the active form of a transitive verb is used in a sense nearlv allied to the passive; as, "The goods sell r.apidly ;"-"The cloth tears;"-'' Mahogany
planes smooth;"- " These Imes read well."
REM. 1:3.-The imperfect participle of a transitive verb is
sometimes employed in a passive sense.t
Examples:-" The spot where this new and strange tragedy was
acting."- E . Everett. "An attempt is making in the Engl ish Parliament to provide by law for the education of the poor."-Daniel
rVtbster. "The fortress was building."-lrvi11g. "The fame of
the Portuguese disl'overics, and of the expeditions fitti119 out, drew

H'hat peculiar use is somttimes made of the ir11perjtct partic1};/e of a transitive verb ? Examples.
.

*' "The infinitive has sometimes a subject in the objective case· as
'I believe him to be an honest man;'-' He commanded the horse :o b~
saddl~d ;'-' ~ confess myself to ~e in fault ;':-' Let him be punished.'
Him, rn .the first sentence quqted, 1s not the object of the verb beiiroe, but
the subject of to be. In the second sentence, horse is not the object of
command ;-it is not meant that a command was given to the horse."Butler.

"The agent to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the objective
case."-Nutti11g.

t piffere.nt opini?ns h~ve long. e.xisted among critics respe.ctin~ this
passive use of the imperfect par11c1ple. Many respectable writers ~ub­
stitute the compound passive participle; as, " The house is btinq built ·"
" The book is bein9 prinred." Ilut the prevailing practice of the 'best a~­
thors is in favor of the simple form; as, "The house is building."
"The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by
almo3t all our grammarians; though I believe but few of them have
written many pages without condescendrng to make use of them. Dr.
Beattie says, ' One of the greates~ defects of the English tongue, witli
regard to the verb, seems to be the want .of an imperfect passive participle.' And yet he uses the impe1fect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers."-Piclcboum's Dis.m·tation 011 the English Vtrb.
" Severn! other expressions of this sort now nnd then occur, such as
the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism,' is beiug done,' for the good
old English idiomatic expression' is doing,'-an absurd Feriphrasis driving om a pointed and pithy ttlrn of the English language."-N: A. Beu.

14

158

TENSES.

SYNTAX.- VERBS.

the attention of th e world."-Jbid. "Vfe mu st pass to IL rapid
notice of the magnificent chureh, now erecting in the city of New
York."-N: A. R l'Fiew. " vVhile this necessary movement was
makin:r"- Cooper. " While these things were transacting in England."-Bancroft .
REM. 14.- vVh en the ohjceth·e has the same form as the nominative,
jt should generally follow the verb that governs it; but when tl1e objective differs in form from the nominntive, jt may either precede or follow
the gove~n in g verb; as, "Cresnr conquered the Britons ;"- " 'Ve have
seen him;"-" W/;om , therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I
unto you."
RULE XIII.-SAME CASE.

Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case
after them as before them, when both words refer to
the same person or thing; as, " Society is the true
sphere of human virtue ;"- "They wishe<l him to be
their king ;"-" He soon became the leader of his
party;"-" H e ·was chosen librar'ictn ;"-" Homer has
been styled the prince of poets."
REM.-ln some instances the words so agreeing in case are both
placed either before or after the verb; as, " Are they friends 1''- " Friends
they cannot be."

REM. 3.-The infiniti"ll is sometimes governed by a phrase or IL sentence; as," Too nP.edy ever lo luive leisure for attcmptin" to execute any
great and worthy dc,ign."- &ut/iey.
"
"In ag;c, in infanry,ji'om others' aid
Is ult our hope, to teach us to be kind."- Young.
REM. 4.-The infinitive is sometimes usP.d absolu.lely, having
no dependence on any other word ; as, " It was, so lo :pealc,
a branch of the Executive Power."-N. Y. Review.
REM. 5.-A verb in the infinitive usually relates to some noun
or pronoun.• Thus, in the sentence, "He desires to improve,"
the verb lo improve relates to the pronoun he while it is governed by desires.

REM. 6.-When the infinitive follows the active
voice of the verbs bid, dare, feel, see, let, make, need,
and !tear, the sign to is usually omitted; as, "I felt
my strength return;"-" Nothing need be said;"" We !teard the thunder roll;"-" Pride guides his
steps, and bids him shun the great."

R EM. 7.-'rhe sign of the infinitive is also omitted, in some instances,
after the verbs. have, behold, observe, perceive, lcrww, and help; as, " Would
they have us re;ect such an otfer ?"
RuLE xv.__:TENsEs.

RuLE XIV.-GovERN:lIENT OF THE INFINITIVE.

The infiniti ve mode may be governed by a verb, a
noun, or an adjective; as, " Strive to improve;"-" I
am in haste to return;"-" 'l'he ship w as ready to
sail."
RE~I. 1.-The infinitive is often governed by than or as. ·The
following are exampl e:s :-"An object so high as lo be invisible;"-" It is sometim es bP. tter to submit to inju8tice, than lo resort to judicial proceedings."

RE)l. 2.-The infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition; as,
" The shipmen were about to flee."
What is the rnle respecting the same case~ Examples. Re~pecting
the government. of infinitives• Examples. 1Vhut conju11ctio11s are frequently employed to govern the ;,,ji,,itive? Examples.

159

In the use of verbs, those tenses should be employed which express correctly the sense intended.
REM.

1.-Thi~

rule is somewhat indefinite, but when taken

What <if injfoitives having 1w dependence on other word.• 1 Exampl.es.
To what do infinitives relate 1 Examples. · After what verbs is the sign
of the infinitive usually omitted? Examples. Give the rule for the
employment of tenses. Illustrate its application.

*

Some teachers pay little attention to the government of the infinitive
while they direc~ their pupils to point out in all cases the noun or pronoun to winch 1t relates. Others require their pupils to designate both
go ~ernme~t .a:id relation. (See Sanborn's Gram. p. 144.)
1 : An mhmt1vc refers to .the noun which is the agent or subject of the
action expressed by the infinitive. The reference is precise.Jy of the
same nature a~ that of a particle to its substantive or of a finite verb to
its nominative."-Parkhurst.
'

160

161

SYNT.A.X.-VERBS.

VERBS.-TENSES.

in connection with the defi11itions and illustrations of the tenses given und er Etymology, it will, in most cases, be a. sufficient guide to th e learner. It is violated in . the following example :-"I expected to have seen you." The verb to have seen
cannot here relate to a time prior to that denoted by the verb
exptcled. It shou ld uot therefore be in the past perfec t tense.
Corrected :-" I expected to sre you."

that expressed by the verb with which it is connected; as, "He is to engage i11 teachino-;"-"JEncas went in search of an empire which was one
day to comma;;J the world."

Fa!.se Syntax.
"Wh en I was \n France, I bave often observed, that a great
man has grow n so insensibly heated by th e court which wus
paid !Jim on all sides, that he has been quite distracted."-Sttele.
"Columbus had fondly hoped, at one time, to have rendered
the natives civilized, industrious, and tributary subjects of the
crown."- l rving. "As Dr. \Vallis hath long ago ohserved."Lowlh. "vVe had hoped that Lord Nugent would ha\·e been
able to collect mu ch new and interesting information ."-Macaulay. "They continue with me now three days."--Jlfatt. 15: 32.
2.-The present tense is often employed in expressions
that relate to the future; 11s, "The world to come;"-" He leaves
in hulf un hour;"- " I am about to write."
Ons.- When a finite verb in the present tensii, occurs in a senten ce
denoting fu turity, it is generally preceded by before, as soon as, when, till,
or after; or accompnn ied by an adverb or modifying phrase denoting
future tim e; as, "When the mail arrives, the letters will be d~.livered ;"
- "Hol.d you the watch to·11ight ?" "We do, my lord ;"- "Ring the bell
REM.

at a quarter before eight."
REM. 3;-vVhen the infinitive present is connected with another verb, it generally relates to the same time as the verb with
which it is joined; as, "He began to write;"-" He will begin to
write." In the first of these examples, to write corresponds in
time with began, and is th erefore past in respect to the time of
speaking. In the other example, it relates to the same time
that is expressed by will begin.
Ons.- Sometimes, however, the infinit.iYe denotes time subsequent to

C\J1nct thefalse syntax, and shou: why it is false. Give examples ofverbs
in the present tense, used i11 expressions that re/ale to the fu111re. What of
the infinitive present, ustd in connection with othtr verbs·?· l/lustrale.

REM. 4.-In animated narrat.iOns, the present tense is occasionally
used for the past; as, "·After the lapse of eight precious days, they again
weigh- anchor; the coast' of England recedes; already they are unfurlin,q
their sails on the broad oceirn, when the captain of the Speedwell, with
his company, dismayed at the dangers of the enterprise, once more pretends that his ship is too weak for the service."-Bancroji.
REM. 5.-The fnture tense is frequcnt.!y employed for the futw·e perfect; as, " I slwllfinish my letter before the mail closes."
REM . 6.-vVhen a verb in th e present pe1fcct tense is preceded by before, as soon as, when, till, or ofier, it usually pe1forms the office of the future perfect; as, "vVhcn he has finished his engagement, he shall be rewarded."
REM. 7.-The hypothetical tense of the verb to be is used to express
either present or indefinite time; as, "If he were present, he would convince yo.~ of your en·or." (See p. 95.)
Ons.-The past subjunctive of other verbs is often employed in a
similar manner; as, "I should walk out, if it did not rain;"-" If I had
the power, I would assist you chtcrfnlly."
REM.' 8.-The past perfect su~junctive is often employed to express
indefinite past time; as, "I should have walked out, if it had not rained."
REM. 9.-In expressing general propositions which have no
direct relation to time, the present tense of the verb should be
employed; as, "The passion for power and· superiority is uni-

versal."-Channing.
REM. 10.-The perfect participle of an irregular verb should
not be used for the past tense, nor the pa~t tense for the perfect
participle. The followin~ expressions are therefore incorrect:
-"The storm begun to subside;"-" I done it in greut haste;"
"He was displeased to receive a letter wrote with so little care."
Corrected:-" The storm began to subside ;"-"I did it in
great haste;"-" He was displeased to receive a letter written
with so little care." This rule is also violated when the past
tense of an irregular verb is used with an auxiliary. Thus, instead of saying, ''The sun has rose," we should suy, "The sun
haJJ ristn."

lVhat tense is employed in general propositions, luwi11g no direct relation to
time Y Examples. }Vlmt is said n-specting the use of tlte pe1Ject pa1ticiple
and tlte past tense of an irreg1Jar vtrb f Illustrate.

14•

--162

SYNTAX.-VERBS.

False Syntax.
"\Ve a re uot condemned to toil through half a folio, to be
convinced that th e writer has broke his pro1uise."-Joh'll.Son.
"The champions hav ing just began their career, the king stopped the combat."-Gold.smilh.
"Rapt into future times, the bard begun."-Pope.
REM . 11.-The adverbs rathet and better are often used in connection
with the auxiliary l1ad; as, " I had rather rem ain;"- " He had better
return.'' These fo rm s of expression arc anomalous, but their use
in the familiar style is too well established to be controverted. Good
authors sometimes employ them also in elevated writings, but this practice is not to be recommended.
Examples:.- " You are therefore to consider whether you had rather
oblige, th an receive an obligation."-Spectalor. " l:'ractices which
had much better be inferred from general rules."- N. A. Review.
"They had rather part with life, than bear the thought of surviving
all that made life dear to them."-Jlazlitt.
REM. 12.-The expressions, " had as lief,"" had like," and "had ou,,.ht,"
are anomalous and inelegant., and should be carefully avoided. Erroneous examples:- " More serious l'Onscquences had like to have resulted."
-Prescott. " I had as lie/ the town crier spoke my 1ines."- Sha/c$peare.

XVI.-P ARTICIPLES.
Participl es relate to nouns or pronouns; as, " He
stood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness in the west."
RULE

REM. ].-Whe n a participle is preceded by the negutive particle un, it beco mes an adjective, unless the verb from which
it is formed admits the same prefix. The words untiring, unsought, unseen, a nd unknown, are exam pl es of this class of adjectives. But th e words unbinding , unfolded, undone, etc., when
used in u verbal se nse, are to be rega rd ed ns participles, since
they are form ed regularly from th e verbs unbind, unfold, undo,
etc.
Rut. 2.- Participles are · often used in the sense of nouns;
Con·ect the false syntax, and show why it is false. Give th e rule for the
agreement of parti ciples. Examples .. Participles precedtd by the negative particle un. E xamples of each class. Give examples of participial nouns.

163

VERBS.-PARTICIPLES.

as, "There was again the smacking of whips, the clattering of
hoofs, and the glittering of harneas."-lrving.
REM. 3.-Participles often perform, at th e same time, the
office of a noun and a verb; as, " I could not avoid e.xpres11ing
my coucern for the stranger."
REM. 4.-A participle is· sometimes used ahsolutely, having no
dependence on any other word; as, "Properly sptaking, there
is uo such thing as chance;"-" This conduct, viewing it in the
most favorable light, reflects discredit on his character."
REM . 5.-A participle sometimes relates to a sentence or phrase· as
"He had been strictly secured and guarded, owing to his former esca'pe.'i
- Walter Scott.

" To do aught good never will be our task
But ei:er to do ill our sole delight,
'
As being the contrary to his. high will
Whom we res1st."-Milton.
REM. 6.-There are certain adjectives which are derived directly
from verbs, and supply the place of passive participles. Their use is
mostly confined to poetry.
Exam~les:-:-" Regions consecrate to oldest time.'' - Wordsworth.
"'Tis dedicate to ruin."- Coleridge.
"To save himse.lf and household from amidst
A world devote to .universal wreck."-Milton.

EXERCISES IN COMl'OSITION.
Write exercises containing objectives govern€d by transitive
verbs ;-intransitive verbs governing obJectives of kindred signification .: -verbs having the same case after them as before th em;
-verbs rn the infinitive governed by verbs, nouns, and adjectives ;-verl:is in the iufinitive used without the sign to ;-imperfect and perfect participles ;--participial nouns.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.
"Evil communications corrupt good manners."-" Thy nnme
shall be .!lbraham."-" He shall be called John."-" I heard him relate the anecdote."-" I hnve written exercises, containing all the
examples required."-" Couversation enriches the und~rstanding, but
What double office do participles often perforoi ~
ples of participles used absolutely.

Examples.

Give exam-

164

AIH'ERBS.

SYNTAX.-VEims.

Examples:-" Which is .<o at war* with na.ture."- Prof. Haddock.
" The final debate on the resolution was postponed for nearly a
month."- lYfrt. " They introduce the Deity to human apprehension, under an idea more personal, more determinate, more within
it.~ compass."-Paley. "The other productions of this indefatigable scholar, em/Jrace a large circle of topics, independently of his various treatises on philology and criticism."-Prescott. " Verily I
say unto you, they have their reward."-Matt. 6: 2.

solitude is the sclwul of genius."-Gibbon. "Napoleon was never
known to change his opinion on any subject."-.&ison. "The
Puritans were men whose 'minds had derived a peculiar character
from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests."-Macaulay.
"The daily press first instructed men in their wants, and soon
Jounrl that the eagerness of curiosity outstripped the power of
gratifying it."-StonJ. "He that teaches us any thing which we
knew not before~ is undoubtedly to be reverenced as a master."Johnson. " This universal pacification has hardly betn thought of."
-Channing. "ltformed so important and singular a feature of
their social economy, as to merit a much more particular notice
than it has received."-Prescott. "He was offered un employment."
-Campbell. "He lay like a warrior, taking his rest."-Wolfe. "In
the beginning they may be assailed by the clamor of self-interest,
and frowned upon by the worshippers of expediency."-N. .A.
Re-vitw.-" Many 11 pproximations have been madt, and are now
making, to the truth."-Lockhart. "We make provision for this
life, as though it were never to have un end ; and for the other
life, as though it were never to have a beginning."-.flddison. "The
desire that our country should surpass all others, would not be criminal, did we understand in what respects it is most honoT11ble for
a nation to erctl."-Channing. "To keep always praying aloud
is plainly impossible."-G. Brown. "Jl1r. Fitzgerald has breathed
his horse this cool morning."-Cooper.
RULE

XVII.-ADVERBS.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; as," Men frequently co ntend for trifles ;"-" It
was very thankfully recei ve<l."
Ru1. 1.-An adverb is frequ ently used to modify a sentence
or phruse."'
Give the rul e for adverbs ? Examples. lVhut are adverbs frequently
11.Sed to 111odifg, bc·sidr·s n rus, adjectives, cmd otlu-r adverbs? E:i:a11qilts.

--;:Thc-- ~clvcrl> clocs not always belong to any one single worcl;

165

RE)!. 2.-An adverb is sometimes used to modify a preposition ;t as,
"He sailed nearly round the globe;"- " He was wounded just below the

ear."
REM. 3.-.Adjectives should be employed to qualify nouns and
pronouns, and adverbs to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It is therefore incorrect to say, "She writes elegant,"
"Thine often infirmities."

Oas.-There are, however, certain forms of expression in which adverbs hear a special relation to nouns or pronouns ;t as, " Behold, I, even
I, do brin~ a flood of waters."-Gen. 6: 17. "For our gospel came not
unto you m word only, but also in power."- l Thes. 1: 5.
REM. 4.-The adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen, are generally used independently; as, "Will you go?" "No.'' - "Has
the hour arrived?" "Yes."
REM. 5.- Never is sometimes improperly used for ever; as, " They
might be extirpated, were they never so many." Corrected :-" They
might be extirpated, were they ever so many."
REM. 6. - The adverbs hither, thither, and u:hither, are now seldom
employed except in grave discourse, their places being supplied, in common writings, by here, there, nnd where; as, "It was dangerous to go
there."-lrvinq. "Traders flo cked there as to a fair."- Prescott. "With
out knowing' where to go."-Paley. "When you come here."- Willi&.

What distinction should be observed in the use ef adjectives and adverbs f
fllustrate . What ef the adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen 1 Examples.

nothing being more common than the relation of an adverb to a clause,
all of whose words are taken as one word; and almost or quite as frequently, an adverb stands in relation to a whole sentence."-Smart.
"Sometimes a preposition and a noun t-0gether have the signification
of nn ndjective; and, us such, the phrase mny be qualified by an adverb;
as, douhly infault,- doubly criminal."-Parklturst.
t See Sanhorn, Parkhurst, J. M. Putnam, Wilbur, Brace, Emmons,
Goldsbury, and Goodenow.
i See Bullions, Allen and Cornwell, Brace, Butler, and Webber.

*

166

SYNTAX.-ADVERBS.

REar.

7.-Adverbs are sometimes used to su pply the place of

nouns.
Examples :- " Till now they had paid no taxes."-A. H. Everett.
" On th e following day Columbus came to where the coast swept
away to the northeast for many leagucs."-Jn•ing. " Save where
the beetle wheels his dronin~ flight."- Gray. "Till then, who
knew the force of those dire arms 1".-l'rlilton. "The several
sources from whence these pleasures are derived." - Addison.
"From hence I was conducted up a staircase."-lrving.

On s.-At once, and by f ar, are in general use; and the adverbial phrases from hence, from thence, from whence, constitute an
authorized idiom. But s uch expressions as from w here,from
there, to here, are seldom employed by the best prose writers.

In poetry, their oc~u rrence is morP. frequent.
REM 8.- Where, an adverb of place, is sometimes improper!! ,employed without refc.rcnce to pl::we, for the phrase m wluch; a.s. 'I hey
framed a protestation, where lm which] they repeated all their former
clai1ns."
RE~!. 9.-The adverb there is often used for the sake of euphony, without any reference to place ; as, " T here is an hour ?f pcac~fu!, res~.''- W.
B. Tappan. "There came to the bearh a poor e'."ile of Erin. - Campbell.
When used in this sense, there is called an explttwe adverb.
RE)t. 10.-Thc word all is frequently used as an adverb, in the sense
of wholly; as,
" Yet our great enemy,
All incorruptible, would 0 11 his throne
Sit unpolluted."- 111ilton.
REM. 11.-A negation is properly expressed by the use of
one negative only. The following sentence is therefore erroneous :"I never did repent for doing good,
Nor shall not now."-Shakspeare.

Ons. !.-Two ne~atives in the same clause are generally equivalent
an affirmat.ivc, and arc sometimes elegantly e.mployc.d to express ~
positive a'5ertion ; as, " The pilot was not w1acquamted with the coast;
- "Nor did he pass unmoved the gentle scene."
"Nor did they not perceive the evil pUght
,,
.
In whi ch they were, or the fierce pum not feel. -111tlton.

ro

lV/w:t part qf speech are adverbs sometimes used to represent? Examl'les.
Which of the different forrns of expression named are allthoriu d, mid u-111<11
are obj eciionable ? H ow is a negation properly expressed 7 Give examples of
the violation of this rule.

ADVERBS.

167

The int<Jrvention of cnly, or some other word of kindred meaning,
preserves the negation ; as, "He was not only illiberal, but covetous.''
Ons. 2.-A repetition of the same ncg.itive renders the negation more
emphatic; as, "lwoulcl never lay down my anns;-net'er -11ever nwer.''-Pitt.
REM . 12.-The adverb no is spmetimes improperly used for not; as,
"Whether he will or 110, he must be a man of the nineteenth century.":Macaulay.
REM. 13.-Two or more words are sometimes used in connection, as a compound adverb, or adverbial phrase.

Examples:-" We will see about this matter by and by."-lrvin,q.
" Ishmael went forth to meet them, weeping alt alon11 as he went."
-.Te:r. 41 : 6. " lf we hope for what we are not likely to possess,
we act and think i11 vain."-Addison.
REM. 14.-Adverbs should be placed in that situRtion which
contributes most to the harmony and clearness of the sentence,
and which accords best with the usage of the language. This
rule is violated in the sentence, "Thoughts are only criminal,
when they are first chosen and then voluntarily continued."
As it now standd, the adverb only properly qualifies criminal,
whereas the author intended to have it qualify that portion of the
sentence which follows the comma. Corrected: - "Thoughts
are criminal, only when they are first chosen and then voluntarily continued."

False S!Jntax.
"In following the trail of his enemies through the for.est, the
American Indian exhibits a degree of sagacity, which almost
appears miraculous."-.Blison. "There are certain mi3eri es in
idleness, which the idle can only conceive."-Jolmson. "It not
only hRs form but life."-N. .!l. Review.
0Bs. 1.-An adverb should not be placed immediately after
the infinitive particle to.'* This rule is violated in the following
sentence :-"Teach scholars to carefully scrutinize the sentiments advanced in all the books they read."
What 1:S an adverbial phrase f Examples. What rule should be observed
res11eclin9 the position qf advffus? ll/1~<trate. Cvrrect the false synta.>:, and
slw!v wh.~ it isfulse. What of the position of mfoerbs modifying ir~/i!l iti1:ts?

* See Davis, Parkhurst, Perley, and K cnnion.

168

169

SYNTAX.-CONJUNCTIONS.

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.

False Synlax.
" To make th is sentence perspicuous, it would be necessa ry
to entirely remodel it."-Newman's Rli£toric. "It costs the pupil
more to simply state the examples in such a form, than it does
to perform them without any statement at all."-N. .11.. Review.
Oss. 2.-Thc adve rb enough is placed after the adjective which it
modifies, and both the adjcrti\·e and the ad verb arc placed after the
noun ; as, "A house large enough for all."

REM. 2.-There are certain idiomatic forms of expression in which the
connection between different clauses is implied in the relation which they
bear to ench other in sense; as, " Jn this last case, the more apt. and
striking is the analogy suggested, the more will it have of an artificial
appearance."- Whately. "Whatever was his predominant inclination,
neither hope nor fear hindered him from complying with it.."-Johns<!n.
" Sad as his story is, it is not altogether mournfol."-Southey.
REM. 3.-The conjunction that is often suppressed when the connection of the different clauses is obvious ; as, ... But Brutus says he was

ROLE XVIII.-CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions connect words or sentences ; as,
" Idleness and Ignorance are the parents of many
vices;"-" H e fled because he was afraid."
REM. ! .-Relati ve pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are also
em ployed to perform the office of c.onnectives.
0Bs. ].-In the compo und sentence, "He who expects much,
will often be disappoimed,'' th e relutive wlw is th e subject of
the verb txpects in one cluuse, ancl relatea to the pronoun he,
which is th e subject of will be diSappointed in the other clause.
The connection exp re~sed by who in this example, and by relative pronouns generally, is quite us close as that expressed by
conjunctions. (See p. 73.)
Olis. 2.-1\'fany cor:ijuncti ve adverbs modify the two verbs embraced in the different clauses whicl1 th ey con nect; as, " When
h e luui delivP-red hi s message he dtparled ;"-"Fame may give
pruise, while it withholds esteem."
0Bs. 3.-A conjunctive adve rb used to supply th e place of a
preposition and a relati ve pronoun, is called a relative adverb;
as, "The shepherd leaves his mo~sy cottage, where [in which] he
dwells in peace;"-" The colonie8 had now reached that stage
in their growth, when til e difficult problem of colonial governm ent must be solved."
Correct the fu lse syntax. Give the rule respecting conj unctions. ExWhat othe-r classes ~f uxmls are also t mploytd as connectives Y Illustrate the connective office of a rtdativP. pronoun. Tu·ofold modi}!Jing power
of numy conjunctive adcL1-bs. Examples. l Vhat is a n lative adL·erb? Examples.

amples.

ambitious."- Shakspeare.

0Bs.- When, however, the connection of the clauses is less intimate,
tho omission of that is objectionable; as," His ingenuity was such, [that]
he could form letters, make types and wood cuts, and engrave vignettes
in copper."-Bancroft.
REM. 4.-Two or more words are sometimes used together
as a compound conjunction, or conjunctive phrase.
E xamples:-" It has been observed that happiµess, as well as virtne
consists in mediocrity.'1-Johnson. "The writer, by whom the
noble features of our scenery shall be sketched with a glowing
pencil, and the peculiarities of our character seized with delicate
perception, cannot mount so entirely and rapidly to success, but
that ten years will add new millions to the numbers of his readers."-£. Everett.
0JJS. 1.-Many expressions of this class are elliptical, but it is generally better not to attempt to supply the words omitted unless they are
obviously implied.

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.
0Bs. 2.-Some conjunctions nre composed of two corresponding words.· 'fhe following list embraces most of this class of
connectives, and exhibits the correct mode of employing them:Both - and: "It is the work of a mind fitted both for minute
researches and for large speculations."-Macaulay.
Though, although - yet, still, nevertheless : " Tlwugh deep, yet
clear, though gentle, yet not dull ;"-"Tlwugh a thousand rivers
discharge themselves into the ocean, still it is never full."
Whether - or: " Whether it were I or they."
Compound Conj1mctions. Examples. Corresponding cxmjunctions. What
conjunction is used to correspond with both 1 Give an example. (The teach-

er should proceed in a similar manner through the list of corresponding
conjunctions, and repeat the exercise· till the pupils are ahle to distinguish readily the terms which properly correspond with each other.)

15

170

171

SYNTA.X.-CONJUNCTIONS.

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.

Either- or: "No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide."
Neither - nor: " Neither act nor promise hastily."

no sooner risen with a burning heat, but it with_ereth the grass."
Jame11 1: 11.
REM. 5.-The conjunction as, used in connection with an adjective or adverb in the positive degree, is sometimes improperly coupled with a comparative, and followed by than; as, "The
latest posterity will listen with as much, or even greater pleasure
than their contemporaries."-.ll. H. Everett. Corrected:-" The
latest posterity will listen with as much pleasure as their contemporaries, or even greater."

0Bs. 3. - Some conjunctions are used in correspondence
with adverbs or adjectives. The following are the principal
connectives of this class : .!Is- as, so : "She is as amiable as her sister;"-" .Ila he exceh1 in virtue, so he rises in estimation."
So - as: "No riches make one so happy as a clear conscience ;"-"Speak so as to be understood."
So - that, expressing a consequence: " She speaks 110 low
that no one can hear what she is saying."
Not only- but, but also : " He wa.s not only prudent, but also
industrious."
Such - as: "There never was such a time as the present."
Such - that : " Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment,
that we are always impatient of the present."
Mort, sooner, etc. - than: "They have more than heart could
wish ;"-"The Greeks were braver than tlie Persians."
0Bs. 4.-The poets frequently use or- or for either-or,
and nor - nor for neither - nor ; as,
"Not to be tempted from her tender task,
Or [either] by sharp hunger, or by smooth delight."-Thomson.
"Nor [neither] eye nor listening eur an object finds.''-Young.

0Bs. 5.-Than shoul<l be used Lo correspond -with rather and
with all comparativts. The clause following othtr"' is also more
properly introduced by'than, though good writers occasionally
employ some other term.
False Syntax.
"She is in that time of life which is neither affected by the
follies of youth, or infirmities of age."-Spectator. " The sun is
ll'hat words are employfd by the poets to correspond with or a11d nor 1
Examples. Correct th~_!'
_a_ls_e_s_y_
nta_x_._ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __

* "Jn the book of Common Prayer we have, 'Thou shalt have no
other gods but me ;' and the same expression occurs in Arldison, Swift,
and other contemporary writers. Usage, however, seems of late to have
decided almost universally in favor of than.''-Dr. Crombie.

Correct E:r:ample.
"I am as well as you have ever known me in a time of much
,trouble, and even better."-Cowper.
False Synta.x.

" A vision came befo1'e him, as constant and more terrible
than that from which he had escaped."-Dickens. "I have proceeded in the revjsal, as for, and somewhat farther than the
fifteenth book."-Cowper.
REM. 6.-The conjunction or is sometimes employed to connect words that are in apposition ; as, " No disease of the mind
can more fatally <lisable it from benevolence, than ill-humor or
pe.ev-ishness." Peevishness is not here a distinct thing from illhumor, but merely another term for the same idea.
REM. 7.-The word a11 has a variety of uses, some of which
deserve particulm· notice. It is employecl,-

1. In conllection with certain prepositions; as, "It would
have been idle for the philosopher to form conjectures, as
to .the direction wl1ich the kindling genius of the age was
to assume."-E. Everett. ".Ila for the rest of those who
have writte·n against me, they deserve not the least notice."
-Dryden.
2. To connect nouns and pronouns which are in apposition;
Improper use qf than to correspond with as. Com;ct the false syntax, and
show why it is false. What peculiar office does or sometimes perform f fllustrate. What peculiar uses of as are mentioned f Give examples of eacl
kind.

172

SYNTAX.-CONJUNCTIONS.

as," Nor ought we,
act."-Cha.n ning.

CUI

citizens, to acquiesce in an injurious

3. To connect adjectives and participles with the nouns or
pronouns to which they belong; as, "The infantry was regarded as comparatively wo1·thless."-Macaulay. "Their
prese nce was of great moment, as giving consideration to
the enterprise."-Prescott.
REM. 7.-The con_iunction that is often employed to introduce I\ sen·
tencc or clirnse, which is u;;cd RS a noun in the nominative or objective

case; RS, " That the idea of ylory should be associatt·d strongly with military
exploits, ought not to be wondered at."-Cllllnni11g.
RE~!. 8.-The conjunction so is occa~ionally used in the sense of if, or
provided that; as, " It signifies little whether it be Yery well executed or
not, so it he reasonably wdl clone, and without any glaring omissions or
errors."-Brougham.
RE~L 9.-The word Dian was formerly employed' as a preposition, and
still retains this character in the phrase if.an whom;* as, "There sat a
patriot su~, than whom the English language does not possess a better
writer."-.8. Euerttt.
"·which, when Beelzebub perceived, than whom,
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave
Aspect he rose."-Milton.
"Felon unwhipp'd ! than whom in yonder cells
Full many a groaning wretch less guilty dwells."-Sprague.
Ons.-Th c phrase thqn which is also sometimes used in a similar manner; as, "A work, than which the age has certainly produced none
more sure of bequeathing its author's name to the admiration of futru·e
times."-J. G. Palfi"e!J.

r1

li

Rur. 10.-The word both should not be used with reference
to more than two objects or classes of objects. The following
exaf!lple is tberefore erroneous:- " He paid his contributions
to literary undertakings, and a~sisted both the Tatler, Spectator,
and Guardian."-Johnson. Both should be omitted.
REM. 11.-The conjunctions than and as are frequently followed by an ellipsis of one or more words requirnd to complete
th e construction ; as, "More than one [ ] of his plays . are devoted exclusively to its illustration."-Prescott. " He was the

Wnat care

should be observed in the use of the word both 1 Illustrate.

By what are the conjunctions than and asfr«Juenll!J followed~ Examples.

*"

"The comp,amtive agreeth to the parts compared, by adding this

preposition, than. '-Ben Joh11son; London, 1640. (See also Crombie, Priest-

ley, Wm. ·ward, Bicknell, Melian, and Lindsay.)

173

PREPOSITIONS.-RELATION.

father of all such as [
21.

J handle

the harp and organ."- Gen. 4:

Ons.-Example.s sometimes ocrur in which it is impossible to supply
the ellipsis satisfactorily, while the sense is clearly conveyed by the ex·
pression in its abridged form . In parsing such exampl~>, it would be
better for the pupil to refer to the foregoing remark, and not attempt to
supply words which are altogether rejected by the idiom of the language.
RuLE XIX.-PREPOSITIONs.-REL.A.TION.

Prepositions connect words, and show the relation
between them.
RE.'11. 1.-ln parsing a preposition, both terms of the relation
expressed by it should he pointed out. One of these terms is
alwayt1 the object of the preposition ; the other may be either a
verb, an adjective, a noun, or an adverb. In the sentence, " He
travelled for pleasure," for shows the relation between pleasure
and the verb travelled. In the sentence, "They were destitute
of food,'' of shows the relation between food and the adjective
destitute. In the sentence, "This is an age of improvement," of
shows the relation between improvement and the noun age. In
the sentenc,., " Ambassadors were sent previously to the declaration," to shows the. relation between declaration and the adverb
previously.

Ons.-There are certain elliptical forms of speech in which the antecedent term of relation is omitted; as,
" 0 for the voice and fire of seraphim,
To sing thy glories with devotion due !"-Beattie.
REM. 2.-A preposition and its object should be so placed as
to leave no ambiguity in regard to the words which the preposition is intended to connect. The following ·sentence is faulty in
this respect:-" The message was communicated by an agent,
who had never before discharged any important office of trust,
in compliance with the instructions of the executive." In is here
intended to show the relation between was communicated· and
compliance; whereas the present arrangement indicates that it

Give the rule for the relation expressed by prepositions.

Illustrate.
][.

W7zat rule is given respecting the position of a preposition and its object f
lustrate.

174

PREPOSITIONS.-GOVERNMENT.

SYNTAX.-PREPOSITIONS.

expresses tl1e relation between had discharged an.d compliance.
Corrected :-"The message was communicated in compliance
with the instructions of tl1e executive, by an agent who had
never before discharged any important office of trust."
RE)L 3.-The use of two prepos itions before a single noun, though
inelegant, often contributes to perspicuity and brevity, und has the sanction of many good writers.
Examples:- " Men's passions and interests mix with, uud are expressed in, the decisions of the intellect."- C/ianni11g. " They
were never revealed to, nor confronted with, the prisoner."- Prescott. "W' e have never uttered a word in this Journal, either in
uuvocacy of or in opposition to, any particular religious sect, or
political party amongst us."-Ilorace .t.farin.
0Bs.-The same remark applies also to the use both of a preposition
and a transitive verb before a single object.
Examples:- " It was created to iujluenc-., and not solely t0 be influenced by, the opinions of the comm unity."- N A. Review. "And
may readily associate with, and promote eit.her."....:.Dr. Hopkins.
"We are so made as to be capable, not only of perceiving, but also of being pleased with, or pained by, the various objects by which
we arc surrounded."- Wayland.

REM. 4.-Two or more words are sometimes used together :is
a compound preposition ; as, "Front between the arcades, the eye
glances up to a bit of blue sky, or a passing cloud."-Jrving.
" Over against this church stands a large hospital."--J.lddison.
REM. 5.-Care should be taken to e mploy such prepositions
as express clearly and precisely the relations intended.

Correct Examples.

"He went to New York;"-" He arrived at Liverpool;""He rode into the country;"-" He resides in London;"-'' He
walks with a stuff, by moonlight;"-" The mind is sure to revoltfi'om th e humiliation of being thus moulded and fashioned,
in respect to its feelings, al the pleasure of another."-Whately.
False Syntax.

"We differ entirely with Lord Brougham."-N. Y. Review.
"The posthnmons volumes appeared in considerable interrnls."
-Hallam. " It was not evident what deity or what form of
Give examples of compound preposition·s. What care should be observed in
the choice of prepositions 1 Correct thefalse syntax.

175

worship they had substituted to the gods and temples of antiquity."-Gibbon.
RuLE XX.-PREPOSITIONs.-GovERNMENT.

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, " They
came to us in the spirit of kindness;"-" From him
that is needy, turn not away."
J_lE~~ · 1.-A prepositi~n should
~vh1c~ 1s prop~rly the object of a

never be introduced to govern a word
transitive verb. ·Thus, instead of saymg, We delight to contemplate on the Wonders of creation" we should
say, " We delight to contemplate the wonders of creation."'
REM. 2.-A noun or pronoun following like, unlike, near, or
nigh, is often governed by a preposition understood ;* as, " Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like [to] one of these;"
-"The house stands near [to] a river."
REM. 3.-The word save is frequently used to perform the
office of a preposition ; as,
"And all desisted, all save him alone."-Wordsworth.
REM. 4.-Butt is sometimes employed as a prep~sition, in the sense
of except; as,
" The boy stood on the burning deck,
Whence all but him had fied."-Hemans.

What do prepositions govern 1 Examples. Nouns and pronouns fol.lowi11g the words like, unlike, near, and nigh. Examples. The W<JT'd save.
Examples.

*

L {k.e, unlike, near, and nigh, are classed by some grammarians with
prepositions.
"We ht1ve not placed them with the prepositions for four reasons : (1.)
because t~cy arc somc~.imcs compared; (2.) because they sometimes have
ad~erbs ev1?ently relaLmg to them; ( 3.) because the preposition to or unto 1s sometimes expressed after them; and, (4.) because the words which
ttsuali.'I stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjecti-ves."G. Brown.
t The use of but as a P.reposition is discountenanced by G. Brown, Sanborn. Murray, and S. Ohvcr. (See also an able article in the Mass.
Common School Journal, Vol. II. p. 19.)
.
The use of but a:i a pr~positio~ is approved by J.E. Worcester, John
Walker, R. C. Smith, Picket, Hiley, Farnum, Fowle, Goldsbury, Perley,
Cobb, and Goodenow.
"It is ~ p~·cpo.sition w!1cr~ we ~ay, 'I saw no one but him;' yet we may
by an e!hp~ is still explam 1t as. a .conjunction,-' I saw no one, but [I
saw] him ;-or, by another ellipsis, as an adverb,-' I saw no one LI

176

SYNT.A.X.-EXERCISES.

REM. 5.-" O'clock" is an elliptical expression, contracted from " Of

the dock."*
RULE XXI.-INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections have no grammatical relation to the
other words of a sentence ; as, " These were delightful days; but, alas ! they are no more."
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Write exercisP-s containing example!:' of adverbs ;-conjunctions ;-conjunctive adverbs modifying verbs in two dif/trent dauses ;·
-a relative adverb ;-several examples of corresponding conjunctions ;-the conjunction that, used to introduce a senteiice 11r dause
which is taken as a noun ;-examples of prepositions and interjections.
EXERCISES IN PARSING.
Model$.
"He came in haste, and soon returned."
In is a preposition, expressing the relation of the noun haste to the

verb came. Preposi Lions connect words and show the relation between them .
.And is a conjunction, connecting the two clauses, He came and [he]
returned. Conjunctions connect words or sentences.
Soon is an adverb, modifying the sense of the verb returned. Adverbs
modify verbs, adjectives, and oLher adverbs.

"He is venj cautious."-" Hea lth and pleuty cheer the laboring
swain."-" The weakest kind of fruit drops soonest to the ground."
-Shakspeare. "If men see our faults, they will talk among
themselves, though we refuse to let them talk to us."-" War is
to be ranktd among the most dreadful calamities which fall on a
guilty world."-Channing.

GENERAL RULE.

177

" 0 Solitude ! where are the charms
That sages have seen in thy face 'J"-Cowper.
"It is not true, that the state of public morals nnd virtue is as
elevated as that of the individuals who compose a community."
-B. B. Edwards. "Wlien a great principle is at stake, we must
learn to dismiss all minor differences."-lbid. "Now Moses
kept tliejlock of Jethro hisfather-in-law."-Exodus, 3: 1. "How
little opportunity for mental improvement do even they possess!"
- E. Everett. "He did not, like a leader, get up on an eminence, and from thence survey the subject in all its bearings."Brougham. "Their road lay through the beautiful land where
they had been so long lingering."-Prescott. "The sanctity of
private property was recognized, as the surest guaranty of order
and abundance."-Bancrofl.
"Doth he come from where the swords flashed high ?"-Hemans.
"We took our seats
By many a cottage hearth, where he received.
The welcome of an inmate come Jromfar."-Wordsworth..
" Nor pride nor poverty dareJ come
Within fhat rifuge-house, the tomb."-O:oly.
"Liberty, as well as religion, has too deep an interest in the
change which is to be e.ffi.cted."-Prof. C. Dewey. ".!ls to the
question of abstract right, I should hardly undertake its discussion
at this time."-Dana. " I have all along gone on the ground of
the mutual influence of the private upon the public, and the public
upon the private relation."-lbid. "Nor is thi~ enterprise to be
scoffed at as hopeleJs."-Cllllnning. "It was my good fortune to
meet, in a dinner-party, with more men of celebrity in science or
polite literature, than are commonly found collected round the
same table."-Coleridge.

What is the rule respecting interjections 1 Examples.
saw] but him ,' that is, '011/oy him .' Th e simplest exr,lanation, or that
which di sp~ n scs wi th the contri vcd ellipsis, is the best. '-Smai·t.
"At seven of the c/ock."-Spectalor. · "By five of the c/ock."-Shak-

*

speare.

RULE XXII.-GENER.A.L RULE.

The different :parts of a sentence should be made to
Repeat the general rule of Syntax.

178

SYNTAX.-GENERAL RULE.

GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING.

harmonize with one anoth er ; and thP. several clauses
should be so con·structed and arranged as to express
clearly the various relations, connections, and dependences intended, according to the best usages of the
language.

to be futile, many of them ill-founded, and some of them contradictory to others, is inconceivable."-Cowper. "The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another."Spectator.

Rmr.-This rule is sufficiently comprehen,ive to embrace all the different forms of construction in the language. It is, however, too general to afford special guidance to learners, and should be applied only in
cases for which no definite rule is given.

False Syntax.
"It belonged to that peculiar class of ppetry, which never hns,
and never will awaken sympathy in the universal heart."-.V.
.IJ.. Review. "Among all th e an imals upon which nature hns
impressed deformity and horror, there is none whom he durst
not encounter."-Johnson.

" The sun looketh forth from the halls of the morning,
And flush es the clouds that begirt his career."-W. G. Clark.
"The manner in which these essays were give n to the world,
on sepamte sheets, and with an interval of a few days between
the publi cati on of each, di~tinguished them from everything of
the kind which had preceded th em."-N. .IJ. R e1Jiew.
"Domestic society is th e seminary of the social affections, the
cradle of sensibility, where th e first elements are acquired of
that tenderness and humanity which cement mankind together;
and which, were th ey entirely extinguished, the whole fabric of
social institutions wo uld Le dissolved."-Hall.
"Deliver me from the hand of strange children, whose mouth
speaketh vanity, and th eir right hand is a right hand of falsehood."
-Ps. 144: IL "I have only touched on th ese several heads,
which every one who is co nversant in discourses of this nature
will easily enl arge upon in his own thought~, and draw conclusions fr'lm th em which may be useful to him in the conduct of
his life."-Spectatox. "The perplexity th at attends a multiplicity of criticisms by various hands, many of which are sure
0

Correct thefalse syntax, and show wh1J it is false.

179

GENERAL EXERCISES IN P ARSJNG.

The happiness of life is made 11p of an in.finite number of little
things, and not of startling events and great emotions; and he
who daily and hourly diffuses pleasure around him by kind offices, frank salutations, and cheerful looks, deserves as well of hia
species, as he, who, neglecting or despising all these, makes up for
it by occasional acts of generosity, justice, or · benevolence.G. S. Hillard.
It were, indeed, a bold task to venture to draw into comparison
the relative merits of Jay and Harnilton.-Dr. H(lwks.
Success being now hopeless, preparations were 111.ade for a retrea t.-.!Jlison.
The name of a mother; - what a long history does it bring
with it of smiles and words of mildness, of tears shed by night
and of sighiTl{!'B at the morning dawn, of love unrequited, of cares
for which there can be no recompense on earth.-Prof Park.
How feeble were the attempts at planting towns, is evidtnt from
the nature of the tenure by which the lands near the Saco were
held.-Bancrofl.
The language and literature, as well as the history of Spain,
have, till within a fow years past, attracted little attention in the
Uni.ted States; a neglect which would be a subject of the greater
reproach to u.s, if we could not find some apology for it in the
le.as pardonable indifference of other nations, who have more leisure to indulge themselves in the ple11sures of literature, than/alls
to the lot of the ever-busy inhabitants of the United States.-N.
Y. Review.
When events are made familiar to us by history, we are perhaps disposed to undervalue the wisdom that foretold them.Th. Campbell.
Fortune, friends, kindred; home,-all were gone.-Prescott.

180

181

SYNTAX.-GENERAL EXERCISES.

ANALYSIS.

This spirit of knight-errantry mi ght lead us to undervalue his
talents as a gtneral, aud to regard him* merely in the light of a
lucky adventurer.-Jbid.
There leviathan,
Hugest of living creatures, on the deep
Stretchld like a promontory, sleeps or swims,
And seems a moving land.-MiLton.
But now the door is open'd soft and slow.-Prof. Wilson.

The mind courses to and fro through the past, and casta itsdf
into thefuture.--Jlm. Quart. Rev~w.
The rill is tuneless to his ear who feels
No harmony within; the south wind steals
.As silent as unseen, amongst the leaves.
Who bas no inward beauty, none perceives,
Though all around is beautiful.-Dana.
Nine times the space that measures day and night
To mortal men, he with his horrid crew
Lay vanquiahed.-Milton.

We all of us feel, that virtue is not something adopted from necessity.-Channing.
Sir William Berkley was elected governor.-Bancrofl.
I have little doubt, but that the contempt with which a ploughman would look down upon me for not knowing oats from barley,
would transcend that of au astronomer at my not being able to distinguish between Cassiopeia and Ursa Major.-Prof Wilson.
No farth er steps for procuring his release we re taken at this
time; either because the means for defraying the legal expenses
could not be raised ; or, which is quite as probable, because it was
certain that Bunyan, thinking himstlj in conscience bound to
preach iu defiance of the law, would soon have made his case
worse than it tlum was.-Southey.
This court was composed of three officers, than whom none are
more distinguished in our nuval service.-N. JJ. Rei:iew.
Of what immense benefit had it been to England in all subsequent ages, if her Elizabethan era had been a Christian era; if
the great men who then toiled in the fields of knowledge, had
all been Boyles and Miltons.-B. B. Edwards.
lf Ch.ristianity may be said to have given a permanent elevation
to woman, as an intellectual and moral being; it is as true, that
the present age, above all others, has given play to her genius, and
taught us to reverence its influence.-Story.
The private wars of the nobles with each other, were the first
circumstance which ren~wed the cou1•age and revived the energy
of the feudal barons.--Jllison.

* Cortes.

ANALYSIS.•
[It is particularly-desirable that pupils s~ould pass as e~rly a.s practicable from the formalities of common parswq, to the more important ~x­
er.cise of analyzing critica!IY t~1e struc~ure of language. The mechamcal
routine of technical parsmg is peculiarly liable to. become.~onotonous
irnd dull while the practice of explaining the vanous relations and of·
fices of ~ords in a sentence, is adapted to call the mii;id of th~ ~earner
into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the
deepest interest.]
The analysi.s of a sentence consists in resolving it into its con-

stituent parts, and pointing out their several relations, connections, and dependences.
In analyzing a simple sentence, the first thing to be done is
to name its principal parts. The next step in order is, to designate the several modifying words and phrases which belong to
the subject or leading part of the sentence, and explain the particular office of each. When the adjuncts of the aulded have
been thus disposed of, the adjuncts of tbe other principal parts
may be taken up in the same manner.
If the sentence to be analyzed is compound, the pupil should
first resolve it into its component members or clauses, and exln what doe.s the analys~ of a sentence consist ? What are the steps to be
taken in analyzing a simple sentence f What is first to be done, if the sentence
is compound f

*

See De Sacy's General Grammar, and .Andrews and Stoddard's
Latin Grammar.

16

182

SYNTAX.-ANAL YSIS.

GRAMMATICAL A.ND LOGICAL DISTINCTION.

plain the nature and office of the connectives. He may then
proceed to analyze the differer1t memhers or simple sentences,
in the manner already described.

183

Not senseless of its charms, what still we love,
That such short absence may endear it more.
Then forests, lJr the savage rock, may please,
That hides the seamew in his hollow clefts
Above the reach of man. His hoary head,
Conspicuous many a league, the mariner,
Bound homeward, and in hope already there,
Greets with three cheers exulting.-Cowper. ·

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS.

Model.
"The reverence for our own moral nature, on which we have
now insisted, needs earnest and perpetual inculcation."-Chan-.

ning.
This sentence embraces two clauses. First clause :-The reverence fOr
our own moral nature, nwls earnest and perpetual inculcation. Second clause :
- on which we have now insisted. These clauses or simple sentences are
connected by the relative pronoun which. 1-Vhich relates to reverence in
the first clause, and is governed by the preposition on, which connects it
with have insisted in the second clause.
The principal parts of the first clause are reverence, needs, and inculcation. The adjuncts of the subject are the article the, an~ the phrase, for
our own moral nature. Our, own, and moral, are also adJ uncts of natm·e.
The object is qualified by the two words earni;st and perpi;tual, which are
.
connected by the conjunction and.
The principal !?arts of the second clause are we and have insisted. The
adjuncts of have insisted are now and on which.

Men of great and stirring powers, who are destined to mould
the uge in which they are born, must. first mould themselves
upon it-Coleridge.
He who would advance in any department of knowledge,
must know what other8 have done before him.-B. B. Edwards.
War will never cease, while the field of battle is the field of
glory, and the most luxuriant ·1aurels grow from a root nourished with blood.-Channing.
The Eurth was made so various, that the mind
Of desultory man, studious of change,
And pleased with novelty, might be indulged.
Prospects, however lovely, may be seen
Till half their beauties fade; the ~enry sight,
Too well acquainted with their i;mile, slides off
Fastidiou~, seeking less familiar scenes.
Then snug enclosures in the sheltered vale,
Where frequent hedges intercept the eye,
Delight us; happy to renounce awhile,

GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL• DISTINCTION.
The noun or pronoun which stands as the direct and principal subject of a verb, is called the grammatical subject. The
grammatical subject may also consist of a verb iu the· infinitive,
or of a sentence or phrase used as n noun.
The logUo.l subject of a verb consists of the grammatical subject and its various mo<lifying adjuncts.
In the sentence, "A new order of cultivated intellect is greatly needed," the grammatical subject of the verb is order, while
the logical subject is the phrase, ".!J. new order of cuUivated in-

tdlect."
"Those who attain any excellence, commonly spend life in
one pursuit."-Johnson. In this selllence, the logical subject of
the verb spend emhraces the expre.>siou, " Tlwse who attain any
excelle111ce ;" and the grammatical subject is tlwse. Who is both
the grammatical and the logical subject of the verb attain.
'l'he same distinction applies also to other divisions of a sentence. Thus, in the sentence, "We are in~lined to believe
those whom we do not know, because they have never deceived
us," the grainmatical object of to believe is those, and the logical
object, "those whom we do not know." So also, in the sentence,
Distinguish between the grammatical and the logical subject ~f a verb. Illustrate. Show the application of this distinction to other portions of a sentence.

* See De Sacy's General Grammar.

184

18~

SYNT.A.X.-PUNCTU.A.TION.

PUNCTU.A.TION.-COMMA..

"Neither genius nor practice will always supply a hasty writer
with the most proper diction," diciion is the grammatical object
of the preposition with, while the logical object is the phrase,

hood are lost in those of youth." On the other hand, points
are sometimes inserted merely to indicate the syntactical construction, without requiring a suspension of the voice in reading; as in the phra;;e, "No, Sir."

the most proper diction.

I

THE COMMA.

PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation treats of the points or marks inserted
in written composition, for the purpose of showing
more clearly the sense intended to be conveyed, and
the pauses required in reading.
'l'he principal points or marks employed in punc·
tuation, are the comma (, ), the semicolon (; ), the
colon (:),the period (. ), the note of interrogation (? ),
the note of exclamation ( ! ), and the dash ( - ).
The comma req11ires a momentary pause ; the semicolon, a
pause somewhat longer than the comma; the colon, a pause
somewhat longer than the semicolon ; and the period, a full
stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation,
may take the place of any of these, and accordingly requires
a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted.
~he

duration of these pauses depends on the character of the com; ~h e irrave style requiring much longer intervals than the lively

pos~t1on

or

im pu.ss10ned.

The sense of a passage often requires a pause in reading,
where usage does not allow the insertion of a point_ in writing;
as, "He woke I to die;"-" Our schemes of thought in childOf what does punctuation treat~ What are the marks chiefly employed in punctuation~ What pauses do they severally require f What
departure from the grammatical punctuation of a sentence is often required
in reading?

RULE 1.-When a relative and its antecedent are separat-

ed from each other by ol)e or more words, a comma should
generally be inserted before the relative;. as, "Think not man
was made in vain, who has such ·a n eternity reserved for him."

-Spect'aior.
"There is a pleasure in poetic pains,
Which only poets know."-Couptr.
Exc.-Wben, however, the intervening word is an adverb, the comma is more commonly omitted; a.s, "It is la/xJr only which gives a relish
to plea.sure."
RuLE 2.-'\Yhen two or more words come between the adjective and its noun, a comma is placed after the intervening
words ; as, "To dispel these errors, and to give a scape to navigation, equal to the grandeur of bis designs, Prince Henry called
in the aid of science."-/rving.
RuLE 3.-When the subject of a sentence consists of several
nominatives, or of a single nominative followed by an adjunct
consisting of several words, a •comma should be inserted before
the following verb.
Examples:-" Many of the evils which occasion our complaints of
the world, are wholly imagin!ll"Y·"- " The effect of this universal
diffusion of gay and splendid light, was to render the preponderating deep green more solemn."-Dwight.
" The golden sun,
The planets, all the infinite host of heaven,
Are shining on t.he sad abodes of death."

Examples.

[The teacher may repeat an example under each of the rules for the
use of the several points, and require the pupil to give the rule that-applies to it. Pupils should also be required to select examples from
other works, illustrating all the rules of punctuation.]

RuLE 4.-When 11 sentence or clause is used as the nominative to a preceding or following verb, it should be separated
from the verb by a comma ; as, "How dearly it remembered

16•

186

SYNTAX.-PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION.-CO.MMA.

the parent island, is told by the English names of its towns."Bancrofl.

tence contain distinct propositions, they are generally separated
from each other by commas.

187

Examples:-" They shrunk from no dangers, and they feared no

5.-Two successive wortls, in the same constructi1m,
without a conjunction expressed, are generally separated by a
comma; as, "An aged, venerable man."
RULE

"Has Nature, in her calm, majestic march,
Faltered with age at last ?"-Bryant.
An apparent except.ion to this rule often occurs in the case of two
successive adjectives ; as in the expression, " A venerable old man."
But the two adjectives, in this example, are not in the same construction, since old qualifies man, while venerable qualifies the phrase old man.
. A comma may also be inserted before a conjunction expressed, if
either of the words connected is followed by an adjunct consisting of
several words ; as, " Intemperance destroys the vigor of our bodies, and
the strength of our miudll."
RULE 6.-Three or more distinct, successive words in the
same construction, with or without a conjunction expressed,
should be separated by commas; as,

"Beside the bed where parting life was laid,
And sorrow, gu..ilt, and pain, by turns dismayed,
The reverend champion stood."-Goldsmith.
" An elegant sufficiency, content,
Retirement, rural quiet, friendship, books,
Ease and alternate labor, useful life,
Progressive virtue, and approving Heaven."-Thomson.
" How poor, how rich, how ahject, how august,
How complicate, how wonderful, is man !"-Young.
The same apparent exception occurs in this rule as in the last. Jn
t~e expression", "A light bluish green tint," bluish modifies green, and
lzghi modifies the phrase bluish 9rew ; while the three words, lighi bluish
green, taken together, qualify tini.
RULE 7. S11ccessive pairs of words should be separated
from each other by commas; as, "The authority of Plato and
.fl.rislotle, of Zeno and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools."

RuLE

8.-When the different members of a compound sen-

hardships."-Story. "And thus their physical science became
magic, their astronomy became astrology, the study of the composition.of bodies became alchemy, mathematics became the contemplation of the spiritual relations of number and figure, and
philosophy became theosophy."-, Wliewdl.
RuLE 9.-When the different members of a sentence express
a mutual comparison, contrast, or opposition, they should generally be separated from each other by commas.

Examples:-" The more I reflected upon it, the more important it

appeared." - Goldsmith. "The Quaker revered principles, not
men; truth, not power."-Bancroft. "As the hart panteth after
the water brooks, so panteth my soul after Thee."-Ps. 42: l.
RULE 10.-To prevent ambiguity in cases of ellipsis, a comma is sometimes inserted in the place of the word or phrase
omitted.

Example : - " As a companion he was severe and satirical ; as a

friend, captious and dangerous ; in his domestic sphere, harsh,
jealous, and irascible."
RuLE 11.-When two or more successive clauses end with
words sustaining a common relation to some word in a following clause, a comma should generally be inserted after each.

Examples: - " The truest mode of enlarging our benevolence, is,

not to quicken our sensibility towards great masses, or widespread evils, but to approach, comprehend, sympathize with, and
act upon, a continually increasing number of individuals."-Channing. " Such compulsion is not merely incompatible with, but
impossible in, a free or elective government."-H. .i\fann.
When however, the word in the following clause is not accompanied
by sever~l words, the comma before it is often omitted; as, "We may,
and often do employ these means."
RULE 12.-When several words intervene between the verb
of a principal clause and the commencement of a subordinate

188

SYNTAX.-PUNCTUA.TION.

clause, the clauses should be separated from each other by a
comma; as, " Had we stopped here, it might have ·d one well
enough."-" lie was nineteen years of age, when he bade adieu
to his native shores."-Prescott.
RULE 13.-When 1 the connection ofa sentence is interrupted
by one or more words, not closely related in construction to
what precedes, a comma sho11!1l generally be inserted both before and after the word or words introduced ; as,

"He, like the world, his ready visit pays
Where fortune smiles."-Young.
RULE 14.-The independent case, and the infinitive absolute
with their adjuncts, should be separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas.

E xamples:- " To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish re-

ligious peace,-these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore
during his long supremacy."-Bancreft. " The playwriters, where
are they 1 and the poets, are their fires extinguished 1"-H. More.
" Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done,
Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won.v
Goldsmith.
" Rejoice, yon men of Angiers, ring your bells."-Shalcspeare.
RULE 15.-When either of two words in apposition is accompanied by an adjunct, the latter of them, with the words
depending upon it, should be set off from the rest of the sentence by comma~; as, " The following is a dialogue between
Socrates, th e great Athenian philosopher, and one Glaucon, a
private man."
RULE 16.-When a word or phrase is repeated for the sake
of emphasis, a comma should be inserted both before and after
it; as, " Here, an d here only, Iiea tbe democratic character of
the revolution."-Bancrofl.

" Where are th e flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately
spraug and stood,

PUNCTUATION.-SEMICOLON.

189

In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood-?"
BT"!Jant. ·
NOTE-When the word or words to be set off according _to the three
rules, stand at the beginning or end of a. sentence, qne of the
commas is of course unnecessary.

precedin~

THE

SEMICOLON.

l.-When a sentence which is complete in .construction,
is followed by a clause containing a rell$on, an explanation, an inference, or a contrast, it should generally be preceded by a semicolon ; 11s, " The past seems to promise it ; but the fulfilment
depends on the future."-" To the latter it is a double advan. tage; for it diminishes their pain here, an<l rewards them with
heavenly bliSB hereafter."-Goldsmith.
RULE

RULE 2.-When several successive clauses have a common
connection with a preceding or following clause, a semicolon is
generally inserted after each.
Examples:-" Children, as they gamboled on the beach; reapers,
as they gathered the ho.rvest; mowers, as they rested from using
the scythe; mothers, as· they basied themselves about the household ;-were victims to an enemy who disappeared the moment
a blow was struck, and who was ever present where a garrison
or a family ceased its vigilance."-Bancro/t. "Ree.son as we
may, it is impossible not to read, in such a fate, much that we
know not how to interpret; much of provocation to cruel deeds
and deep resentment; much of apology for wrong and perfidy;
much of doubt and misgiving as to the past; much of painful
recollections; much of dark foreboding."-Story.
RuLE 3.-When several particulars are enumerated in a sentence, some of which nre expressed in several wordB, they are
often separated frnm each other 'by semicolons ; as, " The
Aragonese cortes was composed of four branches or arms; the
ricos hombres, or great barons; the lesser nobles, comprehending the knights; the clergy; and the cornmons."-.Pre,,coU.
RuLE 4.-Two or more successive short sentences having no
common dependence, are often separated by semicolons instead
of periods.
Example:-" As we have already noticed, its bruised leaves afford·

190

PUNCTUATION.

SYNT.A.X.-PUNCTUATION.

ed a paste from which paper was manufactured ; its joice was
formed into an intoxicating beverage, pulque, of which the natives,
to this day, are excessively fond; its leaves supplied an ii;npene·
trable thatch for the more humble dwellings; thread, of which
coarse stuffs were made, and strong cords, were drawn from its
tough and twisted fibres; pins and needles were made of the
thorns at the extremity of its leaves ; and the root, wl,len proper·
ly cooked, was converted into a palatable and nutritious food."Prescolt.
THE COLON.

The colon is at present much le.ss used than formerly ; its
place being often supplied by the period, the. semicolon, or the
dash.
RULE 1.-When a quotation or an enumeration is introduced
by such expressiorn; as in these words, the following, as follows,
either expressed or implied, the quotation or enumeration may
be preceded by a colon.
Examples: " The following items of the tribute furnished by dif.
ferent Cities, will give a more precise idea of its nature: - 20
chests of ground chocolate; 40 pieces," etc.-Prescott. "Mr.
W cbster rose and said : - ' Mr. Chairman - '.fbe honor,'" etc.
" All were attentive to the godlike man,
When from his lofty couch be thus began :Great Queen," etc.-Dryden.
In the case of enumeration, a semicolon ia frequently employe_d instead of a colon.
RULE 2.-lt is customary in title pages, to insert a colon between the name of the place at whi ch the book is published and
the name of the publisher; as, "New-York : Harper and Brothers."-" Boston: James Munroe & Company,"
THE PERIOD.

The period is placed at the end of a complete sentence.
A period is sometimes inserted betwee n two complete sentences, which
are connected by a conjunction ; as, "By degrees the confidence of the
natives was exhausted ; they had welcomed powerful guests, who bad
promi>ed to become their benefactors, and who now robbed their humble
granaries. But tlie worst evil in the new settlement was the character
of the .emigrants."-Bancreft.

191

The period should be used afte~ all abbreviations; as, "Mass.,"
"N. Y.," "M. D.," "Aug.," "Esq.," "Mrs.," "Mr." Such expressions as 1st, 3d, 10th, 4's, 9'a, ·4to, 8vo, 12mo, do not require
the period after them, since they are not strictly abbreviations,
the figures supplying the place of the first letters of the words.
THE DASH.

The dash is used where a sentence is left unfinished ; where
there is a sudden turn, or an abrupt transition ; and where a
significant pause is required.
Examples:-" Let the government do this-th( people will do the
rest."- Macaulay.
" Ah, that maternal smile! it answers-Yes."-Couper.
"He suffered,-but bis pangs are o'er;
Enjoyed,-but his delights are fled;
Had friends,-his friends are now no more;
And foes,~bis foes are dead."-.Montgpmeiy.
Modem writers often employ dashes in place of the parenthesis.
THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

The note of interrogation is placed at the end of a sentence
in which a direct question is asked ; as, " What is to he done?"
THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION.

The note of exclamation is used after expressions of sudden
emotion or passion, and after solemn invocations·and addrec es;
as,
" Liberty ! Freedom I Tyranny is dead :
Run· hence, proclaim, cry it about the streets !"-Sltakspeare.
"Night, sable goddess I from her ebon throne,
In rayless majesty now stretches forth
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.
Silence'bow dead! and darkness bow profound I"- Young.
" Hail, holy light l offspring of heavenfirstb9rn I-Milton."
When the interjection Oh is ·used, the point is generally placed immediately after it; but when 0 is employed, the point is placed after one
·
or more intervening words ; as,
·"Oh I my offence is rank, it smells to heaven."-Shakspeare.
The note ef interrogation.

Examples. Note ef exclamati0n.

Examples.

192

PUNCTUATION.

SYNT.A,X.-PUNCTUATION.

"But thou, 0 Hope! with eyes so fair,What was thy delighted measure?".:..._ Col.lins.

The following characters are also tmployed in Composition : The parenthesis ( ) generally includes a word, phrase, or remark, which is merely incidental or explanatory, and which
might be omitted without injury to the grammatical construction; us,
"The tuneful Nine (so sacred legends tell)
First waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tcll."-CampbeU.
"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness bclow."-Pope.
The parenthesis is now employed less frequently than formerly; com·
mas or dashes being used to supply its place; as, "The colonists-such
is human nature-desired to burn the town in which they had been so
wretched."-Bancrojt.

Brackets [ J ·are used to enclose a word, phrase, or remark,
which is introduced for the purpose of explanation or correction; as, "Putting off the courtier, he [the king] now puts on
the philoscpher."
The parenthesis if often used to 0upply the place of brackets, and
brackets are occasionally employed to supply the place of the parenthesis.
The apostrophe ( ' ) is used to denote the omission of one or
more letters ; as, o'er, tho'. lt is likewise the sign of the pOS!!CB·
sive case, being used instead of a letter which was formerly inserted in its place; as, man's, for manes, or manis.

Marks of quotation("") are used to indicate that .the exact
words of another are introduced; as, "In my first parliament,"
said James, "I was a novice."
When a quotation is introduced within a quotation, it is usually distinguished by single inverted commas ; as, "I was not only a swp-boy
on the 'high and giddy mast,' but also in the cabin, where every menial
office fell to my lot." If both quotations commence or terminate togeth·
er, this commencement or termination is indicated by the use of three
commas; as, " In the course of this polite attention, he pointed in a cer·
tain direction, and exclaimed, 'That is Mr. Sherman, of Connecticut, a
man who never said a foolish thing in his life.' "
When a point is inserted immediately after a quotation, it should be
placed within the quotation marks. ·
Thepare:nihesis. Examples. Brackets. Examples.
Exampks. Marks of quotation. Examples.

The apostrophe.

193

A small dash (") is sometimes placed over a vowel to denote
that it is long; as, noble. A breve (" ), pluced over a vowel,
shows that it is sh0rt; as, resptle.
A mark of accent (' ) is sometimes placed over a syllable to denote that
it requires particular stres~ in pronunciation; as, dding.
A diansis (") is sometimes placed over the latter of two successive vowels to show that they do not form a diphthong; as,

r,oopcrate.
The cedilla (,) is a mark which is sometimes placed under the letter
c to show that it has the sound of s; as in "fa~ade.''
The asterisk ( • ), the obelisk ( t ), the double dagger ( t ), and paral·
leis (Ii), as well as letters and.figures, are employed in referring to
notes in the margin, or at the bgttom of the page.
The ellipsis (• • •) or ( - - ) is used to denote the omission of
some letters or words; as, " H " " "y 1\1 " • • • • I,'' " C--s
K--g."
is used to connect words which have a common
The braCI! {
application.
The caret (A) is employed in writing, to show that some word
or letter has been omitted; as," Washington uniformly treated
,

and

Mr. Sherman with great respect , attention."
The hypli.e.n ( - ) is used after a part of a word at the end of a
line, to show that tlie rem!iiuder is at the beginning of the next
line; and to connect the simple parts of a compound word, as

all-absorbing.
In dividing a word at the end of a line, the break should always be macle betwee n two syllables, and not between different
letters of the same syll!ible.
The index (o::T') refers to some remarkable passage.
The section ( §) is used to distinguish the parts into which a
work or portion of a work is divided.
How are l011g vowels distin,guished 1-slwrt vowels f The diairesis. Examples. The asterisk, obelisk, etc. Marks of ellipsis. Examples. The &race.
Exampks. The caret. Examples. The hyphen. Examples. Division of
a word at the end of a line. The index. Examples. The section. Exampies.

17

194

SYNTAX.- PUNCTUATION.

The paragraph (~) is used in the Old nnd New Testaments to
denote the beginning- of a new subject. In other books, paragraphs nre distin guished by commencing n ne w line . farther
from th e margin than the beginning of the other lines. This is
called indenting.
[For E~crciscs in punct~ation, th e teacher may write on a black-board
some por~ion of a well pomted book or o.ther piece of writing, omitting
'.I'll the pomts.; nnd th en require the pupils to transcribe and punctuate
it. \Y,hcn this 1s done, the several copies may be co mpared and corrected" I he tcad1er ma_v also read one or more parni::raphs aloud, nnd reqmre the pupils to wrue and pu.nct uatewl.1at is read. witho ut seeing the
prmted cop_v. Exercises. of this descnpt1on shou ld be repeated till the
pup1.ls beco me famt!tnr w1t!1 nil the common principles of punctuation.
~up1ls sho.uld also be :equ1red to devo te careful attention to this subject;
m connect10n with their ordmary exerC"ises in compos ition.]

The paragraph. Examples.

PART IV.

PROSODY.
PROSODY treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of
versification.•

.&cent is the stress which is laid on one or more syllables of
n word, in pronunciation; as, rP.verberate, und ertake.
The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words; as,
"Content is wealth,° the riches of the mind."-Dryden.

The quantity of a syllable is the relati ve time occupied in its
pronunc1at1on. A syllHhle may be long in quantity, as fate; or
short, as let. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the
quantity of syllables; but modern versification depends chiefly
upon accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded.
A pause is a brief suspension of the voice in reading or speaking.
There are two pauses which are peculiar to poetry ;-the casural and the.final. The C<I',SUra is a pause which is introduced
into a line to render the versification more melodious; as,
" Not half so swift I the trembling doves can fly."
"Thrones and imperial powers, I 6ffspring of heaven."
The cresural pause generally occurs, after the fourth , fifth , or sixth syllable; but it occasionally takes place after the third or the seventh.
Of what does prosody treat 1 What is accent f Examples. What i8
said of quantity f What is a pause f What pauses are peculiar to poetry 1
Give an account of each. Exa11qiles.

* Emphasis, Tone, Pitch, and Inflection, which are oftc.n treated of
under the head of Prosody, belong more properly to Elocution.

196

PROSODY.-VERSIFICATION.

VERSIFICATION,

!Vhen the crosura occurs after the fourth syllable, the verse is1ively and
spmted; as,
"Her lively looks I a sprightly mind disclose,
Quick as her eyes I and as unfixed as those."
When the crosurn orcurs nfter the.fifth syllable, the verse loses its brisk
and lively air, and beeomcs more smooth, gentle, and flowing; as,
"Eternal sunshine I of the spotless mind,
Each prayer accepted I und each wish resigned."
"When the cro<ura ocrurs after the sixth syllable the verse becomes
more solemn, and its measure more stately: as,
'
"The wrath of Pcleus' son, I the direfol spring
Of all the Grecian woes, I 0 Goddess, sing."-Pope.
The final pnu3e is that which occurs at the end of a tine.
In reading . poetry, careful attention should be given to the
final and cresural pauses.

197

His chamber in the silent halls of death,
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave, at night,
Scourged to his dungeon, l.>ut, sustained and soothed
By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave,
Like one that draws the drapery of-his couch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams ."-Bryant.
Blank verse posse~ses; in many respects, important advantnges over
rhyme. It allows the lines to run into onu another with perfect frredom,
and is hence adapted to suJ:\jects of dignity and force, wl'.ich demand
more free and manly numbers than can be commanded m rhyme.Rhyme, on the other hand, is undoubtedly the most important ornament
of English versification.
Blank verse is always written in lines of ten syllables. Rhymed ver:;es
may consist of any number of syllables.

A foot is a rhythmical division of a verse; as,
"Our thoughts

I as bound I less, and I our souls I as free."

A coupltt, or distich, consists of two verses making complete
VERSIFICATION.

Versijicaticn is a measured arranger"ent of wonls in which the
accent is made to r ecu r at certain regular intervals.
This definition appli es only to modern verse. In Greek and Latin
poetry, it is the regular recurrence of long syllables, according to settled
Jaws, which constitutes verse.
Tliere are two kinds of verse ;-rhyme and blank verse.
Rhyme is the correspondence of sounds in the last words or
syllables of ver~es ;• as,
"Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride,
And e1'cn his failings leaned to virtue's side."-Goldsmith.
For two syllables to form a full and perfect rhyme, it is neccssitry that
the vowel be the same in both; tl1at the parts followin"" th e vowd be the
same; that the parts preceding the vowel be different;' and that the syllables be accentcd.t
Blank verse is ve rse without rhyme; as,
"So Jive, that, when thy summons comes to join
Th e innumerable cararnn, that mo ves
To that mysterious realm, whe.re each shall t.uke
}Vhat care should be observed in readin,q pOftry? What is vers;jication f
"1-Vhat different kinds of verse are there? D'fine rhyme. Examples. Define blank verse. Examples.

* The lines of poetry are properly called verses.

t Latham.

sense; as,
"Indulge the true ambition to excel
In that best art,-the art of living well."

A tripld consists of three verses which rhyme together; as,
"Of many things, some few I shall explain,
T each thee to shun the dangers of the main,
And how at length the promised land to gain."-Dryden.

.lllliteralion is the frequent recurrence of the same letter; as,
"The lord/.y lion leaves his lonely lair."
"Weave the warp and weave the woof."

A stanza is a cornbinntion of several lines, or verses, constituting a regular division of a poem.
In populur language, stanzas nrc frequently c11.lled verses.

Scanning iB the resolving of verses into the several feet of
which they are composed.
The principal feet used in Engli~h poetry are,1. The Iambus, which 'consists of two syllables; the first unaccented, and the second accented ; as, con-tt!nd.
-~~~~~~~~~~-

What is afoot? Examples. What i~ a coup/a f Examples. "What is
a triplet f Examples. What is alliteration r Examples. De.fine a stanza.
What is scanning f What kinds offeet are principally used in English poetry f Examples of each.

11•

198

PROSODY.-IAMBIC VERSE.

2. The Trochee, which consists of two syllables; the first accented, and th e second unaccen ted; as, no-ble.
3. The .-1napest, which consists of three syllables; the first
two unaccented, and the last accented ; as, in-tr.r-cede.
~he foll~wing feet are employed Jess frequently:-( 1.) The spondee,
which consists of two accented syllables; (2.) the pyrrhic., which consists
of two .unaccented syllable.s; (3.) the dactyle, consisting of three syllables,
of which the fir~t only is accented; (4.) the amphibmch, consisting of
three syllables, of which the second only is accented; (5.) the tribrach,
consisting of three unaccented syllables.

Iambic Verse.
Iambic verse is composed of iambic feet, and has the accent
on tbe even syllables. The most common forms are the following:l. Four iambuses, or eight syllables in a line; as,
"And may I at last I my wea I ry age
Find out I the peace \ ful her \ miti\ge."
This measure is sometimes varied, to adapt it to light subjects, by
taking an additional unaccented syllable; as,
"Or if\ it be \ thy will \ and pleas \ ure,
Direct \ my .plough \ to find \ a treas \ ure."
In some cases, a syllable is cut off from the first foot; as,
"Praise \ to G6d, \ immor \ tal praise,
For \ the Jove \ that crowns \ our days ."

2. Five iambuses, or ten syllables in a line; as,
"For me \ your trib \ uta I ry st6res \ combine.''
This is usually called the heroic measure, and is the most elevated and
dign,ificd kind of English. Yerse. It frequently admits of s.ome var.iety,
particularly at the begmnmg or end of a !me. A trochee 1s rnme!.lmes
employed instead of an iambus, and an unaccented syllable is occasion·
ally attached to the last foot; as,
"His house she enters; there to be a light
Shining within, wh en all without is night;A guar \ ditm-an \ gel, o'er \ his life \ presid I ing,
Doubling \ his pleas \ ures, and I his cares I divid \ ing.''-R.ogers._
A .verse of six feet, or twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine is occasionally introduced into heroic poetry, especially at the close ~f a pas·
aage; as,
What is iambic verse 7 WI.at are the principal forms of iambic i·erse f

E:i:ampl£s of each.

TROCHAIC VERSE.

199

" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow;Such as \ Crea I tion's dawn I beheld, \ thou roll \ est now."
H eroic verse may be written either with or without rhyme. Milton's
Paradise Lost, Thomson's Seasons, Cowper's Task, and Pope's Translation of Homer, are examples of heroic verse.

The four lined stanzas of Psalmody often consist of alternate
verses of four and three feet; as,
"Thou didst, I 0 might I y God! \ exist
Ere time I began \ its race;
B efore \ the am I pie el \ ements
Fill'd up I the void \ of space.''
A single syllable is sometimes added at the end of a line, for the sake
of variety ; as,
" ·waft, waft, I ye winds, \ his sto \ ry;
And you, ye waters, roll,
Till, like I a sea \.of glo \ ry,
It spreads from pole to pole."
The following forms of iambic ve.rse. are also occasionally employed:( l) One iambus, with an additional syllable; as,
"Consent \ ing,
R epent I ing."
(2) Two iambuses, with or without an additional syllable ; as,
" What place I is here !
What scenes \ appear!"
"Upon \ a moun I tain,
Beside I a foun \ tain."
(3) Three iambuses, with or without an additional syllable; as,
" A charge I to keep I I have,
A God I to glo \ rify."
" Our hearts \ no long \ er Jan \ guish."

Trochaic Verse.
Trochaic verse is composed of trochaic feet, and bas the accent on the odd syllables. The pl'incipal forms of Trochaic
verse are the following: 1. Three trochees in a line; or three trochees and an additional syllable; ao,
What are the principal forms of trochaic verse f Exampl£s of each.

200
u

"On the cold J cheek of death, I smiles and ros I es are
blend I ing."-Beattie.
Iambic, trochaic, and'anapestic feet, admit of occasional intermixture.

Wo is I me, Al I h<lma."

"Haste thee, I Nymph, and J bring with J thee
Jest, and J youthful I Jolli J ty."-Milton.

Trochaic and Iambic.

2. Four troche es ; ns,
" Round us

201

POETIC LICENSE.

PROSODY.-ANAPESTIC VERSE.

"1',ijrant
J

roars the J tempest J louder."

J

and slave, ·I tho8e names I of Mte I and f~ar."
Iambic and Anapestic.

"My s6r I rows I then I might

3. Six troche es ; as,
"On a J mountain, J stretch'd be J neath a I hoary
The following forms are sometimes employed: (I) One trochee, with an additional syllable; as,

I willow."

Poetic Lu:ense.

" Tumult I cease,
Sink to I peace."
I

(2) Two trochees; or two trochees, with an additional syllable; as
" Wishes

I rising,

Thoughts sur I prising,"

Custom has given sanction to certain modes of expressi0n in
poetry, which are not comformable to the ordinary rules of
grammar. The following are the most important of tl.ese peculiarities: 1. Poetry admits of many antiquated expressions and irregular forms of construction ; as,
"Let each, as 'likes him best, his hours employ."
"Long were to tell what I have seen."
" He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme."

" Give the I vengeance I due
To the I valiant I crew."
(3) Five trochees; as,
"Virtue's I bright'ning I ray shall J beam for

assu~ge."

I ever."

Anapestic Verse.
.!lnapestic verse has the accent on every third syllable. Tbe
following are the principal forms: -

1. Two anapestic feet; or two anapests and an unaccented
syllable; as,
" They renew I all my joys."
" l!'or no arts I couId avail I him."
2. Three anapestic feet ; as,
" I am out I of human I ity's reach,
I must fin I ish my jour I ney alone."-Co~.
3. Four anapestic feet; or four anapests and an additional
syllable ; as,
"For a field I of the dead I rushes red I on my sight,
And the clans I of Cullo I den are scat I ter'd in fight."-CGmpbel/.

What are the principal fornu; of anapestic verse? Examples of each.

2. Many words sometimes undergo changes in spelling, that
the number of syllnhles may be made greater or less; as, 'gan,
for began; e'e1", for ever.
3. The arrangement of words frequently departs from the ordinary requirements of syntactir.al rules; as,

"In saffron robe with taper clear.":.._l'vlilion.
"No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets."- Gray.
"A transient calm the happy scenes bestow."-lbid.
" When first thy sire to SP,nd on earth
Virtue, his darling child, designed."-Gray.
"Heaven trembles, roar the mountains, thunders all the
ground."
"Thee, chantress, oft the u;oods among,
I woo, to hear thy even song."-.Milton.
4. Adjectives are often used for nouns or adverbs; as,
"Gradual sinks th e breeze into a perfoc>t calm."
What p eculiarities of exin·tssion are allowed in po<iry?
class.
.

Examples of eacli

202

PROSODY.-POETIC LICENSE.

5. The conjunction nor is often used for neither, and or for

either; as,
" To them nor stores nor granaries belong."
" He riches gave, he intellectual strength,
To few, and therefore none commands to be
Or rich, or learned."- Pollok.

APPENDIX.

6. Intransitive verbs are often used transitively; as,
" He mourned no recreant friend."" Virtue still may hope her promised crown."
" Yet not for thy advice or threats, I.fly
These wicked tents dernted.-"
7. Poetry admits of a great variety of elliptical expressiong; as,
" The brink of [a] haunted stream."
" F or is there aught in sleep [which] can charm the wise 1"
" To whom thus Adam" [spoke.)
[Hel "Who does the best his circums tance allows,
D oes well, acts nobly, - angels cou!J l do] no more."- Young.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.
A FIGURE of speech is a departure from the ordinary fonn o(
words, from their regular construction, or from their literal sig·

nijication.

Departures from the usual form of words are called figures of

Etymology.

Departures from the regular constructiqn of words are called

figures of Syntax.

Departures from the literal signification of words are called

figures of Rhetoric.

F igures of Etyrrwlogy.
The figures of Etymology are .11.phceresia, Syncope, Jlpocope,
Prosthesis, Paragoge, Synaresia Diciresia, and Tmlaia. .
1. Jlpharesia is the taking of a letter or syllable from the be·
ginning of a word ; as, 'neath for beneath; 'gainat, for against.
" But his courage 'gan fail,
For no arts cou".d avail."
2. Syncope is the elision of one or more letters from the middle of a word ; as, ling'ring, for lingering i lov'd, for loved.
3. Jlpocope is the elision of one or more letters from the end
of a word; as, thro', for through; th', for the.
4. Prosiheaia is the addition of one or more letters to the beginning of a word; as, beloved, for loved; enchain, for chain.

D~fiM a figure <?f speech. What are figures of Etyrrwlogy f - of Syntax 1
- of Rhetoric f D efine Apharesis. Examples. ..S yncope. E xample&.
A pocope. E xamp/e1;. Prosthesis. E xamples.

204

205

.A.PPENDIX.-FIGURES OF SPEECH.

FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

5. Paragoge is th e addition of one or more letters to the end
of a word; us, awaken, for awake; bounden for bound.
6. S!Jnceresis is the con tracti on of two syllables into one; as,
alienate, for alienate ; learned for learn-ed.
7. Diceresis is th e separation of two vowels standing together,
so as to connect them with different sylluLles; as, cooperate, ai!rial.
8. Tmesis is the separation of a componnd word into two
parts, by introducing another word between them; as, "Thy
thoughts which are to us ward," for "Thy th oug ht» which are
toward us;"-" How high soever," for "Howsoever high."

(8) Phrasu and entire clauses; as, "l Jove you for nothing
more than [I love you] for the just esteem you have for all the
sons of Adam."-Swifl.
2. Pleonasm is the use of more words to express ideas, than
are necessary; as, "What we have se~.n u.Uh our eyu, and Leard
with our ears."
The repetition of a conjunction is termed Polysyndeton; as, "We have
ships, and men, and money, and stores.''

3. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another ; as,
" Slow rises worth, by poverty depressed."-JohllSQn.

4. Hyperbaton is the. transposition of words ; as, "All price beyond,'' for "Beyond all price."
Figures of Syntax.

The principal figures of Syntax, nre Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enldlage, and Hyperbaton.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words which are
necessary to complete the grammatical construction. The following examples will serve to illustrate this figure:(1) Nouns; as," St. Paul's" [clmrch] ;-"The twelve" [apostle,;].
(2) .!Jdjedives; as, "Every day and [every] hour;"-" A gentleman and [u] lady."
(3) Pronouns; as, "I am monarch cifall [which] I survey;"" He left in the morning, und [he] return ed the same day."
(4) Verbs; as, "To wliom the angel" [spoke];-[Let] "No
man eat fruit of thee."
(5) .11.dverbs; as, "He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely."
(6) Pri:posilions; a~, "He was banished [from] Eugland ;""He Ii ved I ike [to J a priuce."
(7) Conjunctions; as, "I came, [and] I saw, [and] I conquered."
Define Paragoge. Examples. Synceresis. Examples. Di<eresis. Examples. T mesis. Examples. What are the pn'ncipal figurfs of f:>yntax f
Define Ellipsis. Examples of the omission of nouns ;-adjectives ;-pronouns ;-verbs ;-<Uiverbs ;-prepositions ;-conjunctions.

Figures of Rhetoric.
The principal figures of Rhetoric are Simile, M~tap1wr, .!Jllego-

ry, .!Jntithuis, Hyperbole, irony, MeMnymy, Synecdoche, Personification, .11.pastrophe, Interrogation, Exclamtition, Vision, and Climax.
1. A Simile is a direct and formal comparison ; as, "He shall
be like a tree planted by the rivers of water."
"As, down in the sunless retreats of the ocean,
Sweet flowrcts art< springing, no mortal can see;
So, deep in my bosom, the prayer of devotion,
Unheard by the world, rises silent to the.e."-Moore.

2. A M etaphor ia an implierl comparison ; as, "What are the
sorrows <>f the young ! Their growing minds soon close above
the wound."
3. An .11.Uegory is a continued metaphor. In the following
beautiful example, found in the 80th Psalm, the people of Israel
are represented under the aymbol of a vine :"Thou ha.st brought a vine out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the
heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst
cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered
with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereo.f were like the goodly
Give examples of the omission of phrases and clauses. Define Pleonasm.
Examples. Enallage. Examples. Hyperbaton. Examples. Simile. Examples. Me.taphor. Examples. .Allegory. Exampks.

18

206

207

APPENDIX.-FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto
the river. Why l1ast thou then broken down her hed<>'ee so that all
they which pass by th e way do pluck her 1 The boar o~t ~f the wood
doth was te it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it."

addresses himself to some perso n or thing, present or absent;
as, " Dea th is swallowed up in victory. 0 Deflth ! whe:re is thy
sting~ 0 Grave! where is thy victory ~"-1 Cor. 15: 54, 55.

4. An .!lntiilwsis ill an expression denoting. opposition or contrast; as, "The wiC'ked dee wh en no man pursueth, but the
righteo us are liolJ as a lion.'"
" Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho ' gentle, yet not dull."

5. An 1-Iyperbole is an exaggera tion in the use of language,
representing obj ects as greater or less, better or worse, than
they really are. Thus, David, spea king of Saul and Jonathan,
says, "They were sw ifter than eagles; they were stronger than
lions."
6. Irony is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to
that which th e speaker or writer intends to convey. The
prophet Elijah employed this figure when he said to the priests
of Baal, "Cry aloud, for he is a God ; either he is talking, or he
is pursuin g, or he is in a j ourney, or peradventure he sleepetb,
and must be awake d."
7. M etonymy is a figure by which one thing is put for another;
as, "I have been reading Milton;" that is, his poems or worb." Gray hairs [old age] shc uld be resµe cted."
8. Synecdoche is a fi gure by which the whole is put for a part,
or a part for the whole ; as, "Man return e th to dust;" that is,
his body.- " Thi s roef [house] Rhall be his protection.''
9. Personification, or Prosopopeia, is a fi gure by which we attribute li fe uud ac ti on to inauimate objects; or ascribe to irrational a nimals and objects without life, th e ac tions and qualities
of ration al beings; as, "The ground thirsts for rain.''
" See Winter comes, to rnle the varied year,
Sul./en and sad, with all his rising train."-Thomson.

10. .!lposlrophe is a figure by which a speaker or writer turns
from th e party to which his disco urse is mainly directed, and
Defin e Antithesis. E xamples. Hyperl>ole. Examples.
ples. M etonymy. E xamples. Synecdoche. Examples.
Examples. Apostrophe. Examples.

Irony. ExamPersonification.

In modern usnge, the term A11osrropl1.P. is applied to any address made
to an inanimate object, an i.rrational animal, or an absent person; as,
" H ail holy Light, offspring of H eaven, first-born !"-Milton.
"Sail on, thou lone, imperi al bird,
Of quenchless eye and tireless wing."-Mellen.
"Alas ! my noble boy ! that thou shouldst die!
Thou, who wert made so beautifully fair!
That death should settle in tliy glorious eye,
And leave his stillness in this clustering hair !
How could h e mark thee for the silent tomb !
My proud boy, Absalom !"-Willis.

11. Interrogation is a figure by which a question is asked for
the purpose of e xpressin g an assertion more strongly ; as, "Do
we mean to submit to the measures of Parlia men t, Boston portbill and all? Do we mean to submit, and conse nt th at we ourselves shall be ground to powder, aud onr country and its rights
trodden down in the dust? I know we do not mean to submit. We never shall suhmit."-Webster.
12. E xclamation is a figure em ployed to express some strong
emotion ; as,
" 0 wretched state ! 0 bosom, black as death !"- Shakspeare.
"Ah ! how unjust to natu!·e and himself,
I s thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent man !"-Joung.

13. Vision, or Image1:;, is a figure by whi ch past or futw·e
events are represented ns passin g before our eyes. The following is a beautiful example of this figure:" Methinks I see it now, that one solitary, ad venturous.vessel, the Mayflower of a forlorn hope, freighted with the prospects of a future state, and
bound across the unknown sea. I behold it pursuing, with a thousand
misgiv ings, the uncertain, the ted:ous voyage. S uns rise and set, and
weeks and months puss, and winter surprises th em on the deep, but
brings them not the sight of the wished for shore. I see them now scantily supplied with provisions, crowded almost to suffocation in their ill- --- - --- ·-·Define Interrogation. E xamples. Exclamation. Examples. Vision.
Examples.

I.

208

APPENDIX.-FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

stored prison, delayed by calms, pursuing a circuitous route ; -and now
driYen in fury before the raging tempest, on the high and giddy waves.
The awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging. The laboring
masts seem straining from their base;- the dismal sound of the pumps
iB heard ;-the ship leaps, as it were, madly, from billow to billow;the oeean breaks, and settles with engulfing floods over the floating deck,
and beats with deadening weight, against the staggered vessel."-E. Everett.

14. Climax is a figure in which the ideas rise or sink in regular gradation ; as, "·Giving all dil'ige nce, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperanr.e;
and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and
to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness,
charity."-2 Pet. 1: 5--7. "What a pie~e of work is man!
how noble in reaso n! how infinite in faculties! in form and
moving, how express and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a goil."-Shak.Ypeare.
Define Climax. Examples.

ABBREVIATIONS.

A. B. or B. A. artium baccalaureus, Co. company; county.
bachelor of arts.
Adj . adjective.
Adv. adverb.
Ans. answer.
Abp. archbishop.
Acct. account.
A. C. ante Christum, before Christ.
A. D . anno Domini, in the year of
our Lord.
Admr. administrator.
Ala. Alabama.
A. M. ante nieridiem, before noon ; .
or, anno mundi, in the year of
the world ; or, artium magiater, master of arts.
Anon. anonymous.
Apr. April.
Ark. Arkansas.
A. U. C. anno urbis condita, in the
year of the city. [Rome.)
Aug. August.
Bart. baronet.
Bbl. barrel.
B . C. before Christ.
B . D. bachelor of divinity.
Benj. Benjamin.
Bp. bishop.
Capt. captain.
Chas. Charles.
C. or cent. a. hundred.
Chron. Chronicles.

Col. colonel.
Coll. college.
Cor. Corinthians.
Cr. credit, or creditor.
Ct. or Conn. Connecticut.
Cts. cents.
Cwt. hundred weight.
D. (d.) denarius, a penny, or pence.
D. C. Diatrict of Columbia.
D. D. doctor of divinity.
Dea. deacon.
Dec. December.
Del. Delaware.
Deg. degree, or degrees.
Dep. deputy.
Dent. Deuteronomy.
Do. or ditto. the same.
Dolls. or $, dollars.
Doz. dozen.
Doct. doctor.
Dr. debtor; doctor.
Dwt. pennyweight.

E. east.
Eccl. Ecclesiastes.
Ed. editor; edition.
E . g. exempli gratia, for example.
Eng. English, or England.
Eph. Ephesians.
Esq. esquire.
·Etc. et cetera, and others, and so on.
Ex. Exodllll; example.

-

210
Exr. executor.

APPENDIX.-ABBREVIATIONS.

Josh. ,Joshua.
Jun. or Jr. junior.

Feb. February.
Fig. figure.
Kt. knight.
Fla. Florida.
Ky. Ken tucky.
Fol. folio.
Fr. French.
La. Louisiana.
F. R. S. fellow of the Royal So- Lam. Lamentations.
ciety.
Lat. latitude.
L. C. Lower Canada.
Ga. Georgia.
Lev. Leviticus.
Gal. Galatians.
Lieut. lieutenant.
Gall. gallon.
LL. D . legum doctor, doctor of 18.ws.
Gen. Genc>'is ; general.
Lon. longitude.
Gent. gentlemen.
Lond. London.
[seal.
Geo. George.
L. S. locus siglili, the place of the
Gov. governor.
Gr. grain.
M. mille, a thousand.
M. A. master of arts.
H . or hr. hour.
Maj. major.
Heb. Hebrews.
Mnr. March.
Hhd. hogshead.
Mass. Massachusetts.
H . M. His or Her Majesty.
Matt. Matthew.
R B . M. His or Her Britannic M. C. member of Congress.
Majesty.
Md. Maryland.
Hon. honorable.
M. D. medicinre doctor, doctor of
Hund. hundred.
medicine.
Me. Maine.
Ia. or Ind. Indiana.
Messrs Messieurs.
lb. or ibid. ibidem, in the same place. Mi. o,. Miss. Mississippi.
Id. idem, the same.
Mich. Michigan.
I. e. id est, that is.
Mo. Missouri.
Ill. Illinois.
M. P. member of Pl\fliament.
Incog. incognito, unknown.
Mr. Mister.
Inst. instant, i.e. present, or of this Mrs. Mistress.
month.
MS. manuscript.
Isa. Isaiah.
MSS. manuscripts.
Jan. January.
Jas. or Ja. James.
Jno. John.
Jona. Jonathan.
Jos. Joseph.

N. north.
N. A. North America.
N. B. nota bene, take particular notice.
N. B. New Brunswick.

ABBREYIATIONS.

211

R. I. Rhode Island.
N. C. North Carolina.
N. E. New England; north-east. R. N. royal navy.
Nern. con. nemine contradicente, no Robt. Robert.
Rom. Romans.
one opposing.
Rt. Hon. right honorable.
N. H . New Hampshfre.
N. J. New Jersey.
S. south; shilling, 01· shillings.
No. number.
S. A . South America.
Nov. November.
S. C. South Carolina.
N. S. Nova Scotia; new style.
·Sec. secretary.
N. T. New Testament:
S. E. south-east.
Num. Numbers.
Sen. senior.
N. W. north-west.
Sept. September.
N. Y. New York.
Sq. square.
ss. scilicet, to wit, namely.
0. Ohio.
St. saint; street.
Obt. obedient.
S. T. D. sanctre theologire doctor,
Oct. October.
doctor of theology.
0. S. old style.
S. W. south-west.
Oxon. Oxonia, Oxford.
Oz. ounce, or ounces.
Tenn. Tennessee.
Thess. Thessalonians.
Pa. or Penn. Pennsylvania.
Per cent. per centum, by the hun- Thos. Thomas.
Tim. Timothy.
dred.
Tit. Titus.
Pct. P eter.
Tr. translator; treasurer.
Pl. plural.
U. C. Upper Canada.
P. M. post-master.
Ult. ultimo, (.last,) the last month.
P. M. post meridiem, after noon.
U. S. United States.
P.O. post-office.
Pres. president.
Prob. problem.
Prnf. professor.
Prop. proposition.
P. S. post sC?iptum, postscript.
Ps. P salms.

Q. or qu. question.
Q. E . D . quod erat demonstrandum,
which was to be demonstmted.
Q. v. quod vide, which see.
Qr. quarter.
Qt. quart.
Rev. reverend; Revelation.

V. or vid. vide, see.
Va. Virginia.
Vi" videlicet, to wit, namely.
Vol. volume.
Vols. volumes.
Vs. versus, against.
Vt. Vermont.
W. west.
W. I. West Indies.
Wk. week.
Wm. William.
Wt. weight.

212

A.PPENDIX.-ABBREVIATIONS.

Yd. yard.
Yds. yards.
& and.
&c. et cetera, and others, and so
forth.

4to. quarto.
Svo. octavo.
12mo. duodecimo.
l Smo. octodeciruo.

INDEX.
Abbreviations, 209.
Accent, 195.
Adjectives, 11, 20, 63, 122, 139.
Adverbs, 17, 111, 124, 164.
Allegory, 205 .
.Alliteration, 197.
Alphabet, 24.
Analysis, 181.
.Anapestic verse, 200.
.Antithesis, 206.
Aphreresis, 203.
.Apocope, 203.
Apostrophe, 192, 206.
Apposition, 120, 127.
Articles, 65, 143.
Asterisk, obelisk, etc., 193.
Auxiliary verbs, 87.
Blank verse, 196.
Brace, 193.
Brackets, 192.

Couplet, 197.
Dash, 191.
Declension of nouns, 62.
Declension of pronouns, 71, 75.
Defective verbs, 110.
Derivation, 114.
Direresis, 204.
Diphthongs, 30, 35 .
Ellipsis, 204.
Enallage, 205.
English Grammar, division of, 23.
Etymology, 48.
Exclamation, 191, 207.
Exercises, passim.
Feet, poetic, 190.
Figures of speech, 203.
Gender, 51.
General rule of Syntax, 125, 177.
Grammatical and logical distinc·
tion, 183.

Capitals, 25.
Caret, 193.
Case, 59.
Hyperbaton, 205.
Cedilla, J 93.
Hyperbole, 206.
Climax, 208.
Hyphen, 193.
'Collective nouns, 149.
Colon, 190..
Iambic verse, 198.
Comma., 185.
Idiom, 120.
Comparison of adjectives, 66.
Comparison of adverbs, 111.
Independent case, 121, 130.
Index, 193.
Conjugation of verbs, 87-105.
Conj unctions, ·1s, 21 , 113, 124, 168. Infinitives, government of, 123.
Conjunctive adverbs, 111, 163.
.Jnterjections, 19, 114, 124, 176.
Consonants, 29, 35, 41.
Interrogation, 191, 207.
Corresponding conjunctions, 169. Interrogative form of verbs, 104.

214

INDEX.

Interrogative pronouns, 76.
Irony, 206.
Irregular verbs, 105.
Italics, 25.
L etters, 23.
Logical subject, object, etc., 183.

Progressive form of verbs, 99.
Pronouns, 16, 21, 70, 121, 126, 132.
Proper and common nouns, 50.
Prosody, 195.
Prosthesis, 203.
Punctuation, 184.

Quantity, 195.
Metaphor, 205.
Helative pronouns, 74.
Metonymy, 206.
Models of Oral Instruction, 11, 12, Rhyme, 196.
13, l4, 15, 16, 21.

Models of parsing, 138, 147, 153.
Modes, 81.
Negative form of verbs, I 05.
Nominatives, 120, 126.
Nouns, IO, 20, 49, 126.
Number, 55, 86.
Oral Instruction, 9.
Origin of English words, 115.
Orthography, 23.
Paragoge, 204.
Paragraph, 194.
Parenthesis, 192.
Parsing, 125.
Participles, 83, 124, 162.
Parts of Speech, 9, 48.
Pauses, poetic, I !)5.
P eriod, 190.
Personal pronouns, 70.
Personification, 206.
P erson, 54, 86.
Phra.~e,

125.

Same case, 123, 158.
Scanning, 197.
Section, 193.
Semicolon, 189.
Sentences, 119.
Shall and will, S7.
Simile, 205.
Sounds of the letters, 31, 40.
Spelling, 45.
Stanza, 197.
Suffixes, 116.
Syllables, 43, 44.
Synreresis, 204.
Syncope, 203.
Synecdoche, 206.
Syntax, 119.
Tenses, 85, 123, 159.
Tmesis, 204.
Triphthongs, 30.
Triplet, 19 7.
Trochaic verse, 199.
Unipersonal (i.mpersonai) verbs,
ll<Y.

•

Pleonasm, 205.
Verbs, 13, 20, 7S, 122, 149.
Poetic license, 201.
Versification, 196.
Position of adjectives, 145.
Vision, 207.
Possessives, 121, 128.
Vowels, 29, 31, 40.
Prefixes, 115-118.
Prepositions, 18, 21, 112, 124, 173.
Words, 43.
Principal' parts of verbs, 87.

