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INTRODUCTORY LESSONS

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IN THE

GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

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BASED UPON AN

BY/
WM. HENRY PARKER,
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PRINCIPAL OJ" THE RINGGOLD GR.Ul'XA.R SCHOOL, PB ILADELPUll.

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INTRODUCTORY LESSONS
IN THE

GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
BASED UPON AN

BY~

WM. HENRY PARKER,
PRINCIPAL

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TUE RINGGOLD GR..UUCA.R SCHOOL, PBILADELPllU.

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THE ENGLISH L..4.NGIJ'A.GE.

PHILADELPHIA:

ELDREDGE & BROTHER.
1866.

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OFFICE OF THE CONTROLLERS OF PuBLIC SCHOOLS,
FIEST DISTUICT OF PENNSYLVANIA.

At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, First District of
Pennsylvania, held at the Controllers' Chamber, on Tuesday, May 8,
1866, the following R esolution was adopted :Resolved, That Parker's Grammar of the English Language be introduced to be u sed in the Schools of this District.
From the Minutes.
H. W. HALLIWELL, Secr-etai·y.

Philadelphia, May 9, 1866,

SERIES

OF

GRAMMARS
BY

WM. HENRY PARKER.
PARKER'S INTRODUCTORY LESSONS in the Grammar of
the English Language. Arranged in simple style, and showing reasons
for the classification of elements, words, etc., before giving · the d efini-

tions, · 119 pages.
PARKER'S GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
based upon an Analysis of the English Sentence. The plan and
arrangement are philosophical, it contains a concise system of Analysis, tabular synopses of forms and uses, excellent models for parsing
and correcting, and rules for the place of element.~ and words.

Enter ed according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by
WM. HE.l'IRY PARKER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

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STEREOTYPED DY L. J OIINSON &· COMPANY,

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PREFACE.
v

IN the author's larger Grammar, the science is considered
in all its parts, but the matter is necessarily very much condensed, so as to be included within the limits of a text-book
for the use of schools.
This condensation is especially noticeable in the Analysis
of Sentences, on which Syntax and etymological classification
are founded. •
portion of the book, therefore, may seem
hard for beginners, and for those who have not had the benefit• of instruction in Analysis, and who have been taught in
what may be called the empirical method, in contrast with
the scientific or philosophical method.
A more elementary book, omitting difficult constructions
and all special · rules, is ne~ded for beginners, who can, after
obtai.n ing a general idea of the .science, take up the larger
and m?re comprehensive w:ork more advantageously than they
could 1f they had not studied the introductory lessons.
It is not intended that this work should be considered as
containing the whole science of Grammar in condensed form.
The subject is too extensive for a small book to contain even
a sketch of all its parts.
Only. the more important parts of Grammar, as usually
taught m schools, are here considered, leaving for the larger
work the consideration of Orthoepy, Orthography, Punctuation, and Prosody. Some portions of these divisions of Grammar are studied by pupils, from Spelling-books and Readers,
before books on Grammar are put into their hands.
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PREFACE.

As a philosophical method of instruction requires gmng
the reasons for the separation of sentences, parts of sentences,
and words into classes, before giving the definitions of these
classes, and as teaching a collection of arbitrary definitions
and rules, without first showing the motives and causes for
making them, leads to senseless and burdensome tasks for the
mere memory of the pupil, without any appeal to his reasoning facu.lties, much of the matter in this book has been pre- '
pared for reading and discussion by the teacher and pupils,
and for introducing definitions and rules which should be
committed to memory.
This introductory matter is not full enough to make the
subjects clear to the comprehension of all pupils, and it is not
expected by the author that any class of beginners will be
able to fully understand many of the definitions, with the
small amount of explanation that can be given in a text-book.
No book, however extended, can supply the place of the
living teacher, and give to each pupil the precise explanation
that he, and perhaps he only of the class, may need.
rt would, h owever, be a great error to burden the memory
of the pupil with the explanatory and introductory remarks
and teachings of the book, or with th·ose of his instructor.
For this reason the matter to be committed to memory and
recited, has been printed so as to be readily distinguished.

To Teachm·s.

Tlie lessons to be memorized and recited
should include only the numbered paragraphs printed in large type.
These will be found to be the same, word for word, in the
larger Grammar.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
IN most cases, children learn to talk by the time they are two
or three years old, and a child of three years of age can tell
a great de.al of what happens before him, and can relate what he
does, easily and often correctly.
_
From the time that a child begins to learn to talk, he takes
lessons in the ri~1!!;se of speech, and he l earns from his pa.rents
and from other c.ren, not only words, but the way of joining
them to make sentences.
Many men and women often use words which do not express
their meaning, and more often still, they use wrong forms of
words, or join words that do not suit each other, and thus make
incorrect sentences.
Of course, children learning from them learn their errors o.nd
imitate them, instead of speaking properly.
A child learning from those who speak correctly, aoes not
always succeed in his attempts., but he sometimes makes errors;
he should then be told of the error, and told how to speak his
meaning in the right manner.
Very young children often, in their play, tell each other of
these errors, and thus give and receive instruction.
In time, as they grow older, these children learn to read ; when
· they can read easily, they may begin to read books which give
them information about speaking correctly, as well as those on
other subjects.
. After learning to read, people learn to write ; as soon as they
can write words, they should begin writing their own words, and
their own thoughts, so as to be able to write letters, or any thing
that they may wjsh to keep, either to read again or to use in a
written form.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Of course, reading and writing should be learned as soon as a
child is old enough, or he will not have the use and benefit of
these branches of knowledge, which may be called the key"s to
all other branches, during the time when the mind is most fit for
learning, and is most impressible.
When a person speaks or writes his own words, he should be
able to give his exact meaning in the right way, so that others
may know what he means, without mistake.
To do so, he must know, not only the words to be used, but
how to use them, and how to arrange them and put them together, and also what forms many of the words are to have.
There are books which teach' these things: some only show
what letters are used to form words ; some show this, and give
the meanings of the words; and some teach every thing else that
must be known by persons, to enable them to speak and write
correctly. These books are spelling-books, dictionaries, and
grammars.
·whenever a person speaks or writes, he uses · what is called
language.

If man. were without .t his faculty, language would not have
·
existed.

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.1. I.anguage is the expression of thought by
any series of sounds or letters formed into words.
2. Language is either spoken or written.
3. To speak is to express thoughts by words
uttered by the mouth.
4. To write is to represent sounds or ideas
by letters or characters, by means of a pen, pencil, or similar instrument.
5. To read is to peruse any thing written or
printed, so as to understand it.
6. To read audibly requires the utterance of
words that are written, with their proper sounds.
7. Speal.:ing conveys ideas or thoughts by
addressing the ear.

8. Writing conveys ideas or· thoughts by addressing the eye.
Men spoke, long before writing was invented.

9. Reading is the reception, by means of the
eye, of the ideas or thoughts written.
10. Reading aloud conveys the ideas or
thoughts · read, like speaking, by addressing the
ear.

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11. The rules and principles by which language
is regulated, form the science of GRAMMAR.
12. As an art, Grammar is concerned with the
right use and.plication of such rules, in either
speech or writmg.
13. Language is composed, for the most part,
of letters, syllables, words, and sentences.
14. Letters are the least parts of written language; syllables, of spoken language; words, o_f
language conveying ideas ; and sentences, of language conveying complete sense.
15. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the correct use of the
English Language, and its analysis, with a view
. to its correct use.
16. Analysis is the separation of a thing into
its parts, for the purpose of examining those parts
and their relations, so as to understand better the
whole thing.
17. Synthesis is the putting ·together of parts,
so as to make a whole.

ANALYSIS.

EXERCISE

AN ALY SIS.
WE converse or discourse upon certain matters,
or we write essays, compositions, letters or communications, books, &c. ·All these manners· of ·
using language may be termed Discourse.
The above paragraph may be separated into three sentences;
each of which has a complete meaning, and tells something.
'l'he first and the second are connected by the word or.
The three sentences are, when separated,
" We converse or discourse upon certain matters."
"We write essays, compositions, letters or communications,
books, &c."
"All these manners of using language may be termed Discourse."
·
In each sentence an idea or a thought is put forth to be considered. The word proposition means what is put forth.

18. Discourse is composed of pTopositions.
In every proposition there must be something to speak of or to
write about; and there must be something said or written about
it.

19. A proposition is a subject combined
with its pTedicate.
ExAMPLEs.-Men breathe; I live.

20. The subject is that of which something is
said, or told.
ExAMPLEs.-Men - - . I - -.

21. The pi.•edicate is that which
told, of the subject. -

IS

said, or

ExAMPLEs.- - - breathe. - live.
The subject and the predicate each are one or more words.
8

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1.

Select the subject in eacli of the following sentences or propositions.
Birds fly. Fishes swim. Lions roar. The wind blows. The
leaves rustle. The sun shines. Birds are singing. Cattle are
feeding. Flags wave. Men shout. The boys· run. Children
are playing. The streams are frozen. Visitors have come. He
should have returned. She will remain. They will have recited.
· Africa is a peninsula. Victoria is the British Queen. J ohn is
a poet. Socrates was a philosopher. Hogarth was a painter.
Henry might have been an engineer. He is not a foreigner.
He has become a citizen. She is named Eliza. Mary is sick.
The flower is beautiful. It is sweet-scented. The words have
become obsolete. They are very affectionate. He has money.
Joseph struck his brother. They are running a race. He may '
not have observed, it.
In many prop"-i.ons, wordi are joined to the subject to show
more plainly of
thing something is told. In learning to point
out the subjects of propositions, these added words may be dis- ·
regarf!,ed.

rat

The wise God makes the sun shine. Some good men live there.
The poor child was cold. My pretty little bird sings beautifully.
Frank's little brother cried. The old man's granddaughter had
died. One cross old goose ran toward them. Seven little white
pigs went past. How sweet the new-mown hay smells! A sharplooking bustling little man said so. In a distant field stood a.
large chestnut tree.
EXERCISE

2.

Select the predicate in each of the following propositions.
The predicate often tells an act or condition of a person or a
thing, or of a number.
Birds fly. Fishes swim. The wind blows. The leaves rustle.
'T he sun shines. Birds are singing. The boys run. Children
are playing. Visitors have come. He should have returned.

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ENGLISH . GRAMMAR.

She will remain. They will have recited.
pointed. All cannot be satisfied.

Many will be disap-

In many proposition• words are added to the predicate to show how, why,
or where, what is told by the predicate is or is done. In pointing out the
predicate• these word• may be disregarded.

The predicat~ often tells what a person or a thing is, was, will
be, or may be.
Africa is a peninsula. Victoria is the British Queen. John
is a poet. H ogarth was a painter. Henry might have been' an
engineer. H e is not a foreigner. He has become a citizen. She
is named Eliza. Mary is a sensible little girl. Raisins are dried
grapes. Lucy is a good, kind girl. Little Dick was a gay, merry
fellow. This is called mowing. That man was made a captain. H e has been elected secretary.
The predicate often tells what kind of a person or a thing some
one is, was, will be, or may be.
The flower is beautiful. It is sweet-scented. They are very
affectionate. The sky is dull. He is young. Jane is eight years
old. The brook is small there. The flowers smell sweet. They
will keep fresh. Pussy lo.oked very wise. It is strange. She
had been very naughty. They all felt gratified.
The predicate often tells what a person or a thing does to some
one or some thing, or it has words used with it in like manner.
Joseph struck his brother. I love you. His father plays the
violin. This woman has a basket. Charles has broken the
pitcher. The little girl holds a book. They are running a race.
He has money. He may not have observed it. Boys should never
throw stones. To play school amuses children. India-rubber
makes a very light and smooth ball.
Here iS a dog. There is your book. Wqere have you been?
So I saw him first. It was a cold, winter day. Ice was on the
pond. The trees were loaded with snow. It was growing dark.
Tom sat on a little stool by the side of the fire. He could see to
read. He read a story of winter. Trees grow on the bank of
the stream.

ANALYSIS.

11

The pupil must learn to distinguish between propositions, and
collections of words which are not propositions, not having subject and predicate.
EXERCISE 3.

Point out the propositions in the following collections of words,
and point out the subject and the predicate of each proposition.
For the first time. You may go, my boy. A dark-eyed, pretty
little girl. Was very angry then. He can skate very well. It
eats. Does not seem to be afraid. If you wish. She is reading
aloud. It i.s noon. Toward the north. Will ~ting. Work. Any
brothers and sisters. In the world. Thinking so. Henry then
said nothing. Something must be done. Little white lily. A
dear little girl, with blue eyes, curly hair, and merry ways. Your
parents. Will soon be able to read. Half as much. Trees and
churches and houses. About fifteen feet high. Sloped gently
down. An affectionate, good-hearted, honorable man. In a
minute. You were right. He must never know. She listened.
That letter is for me. Stood looking at him. A row of fine
houses. Five months llllli eight days. Wished it very much.
Getting on horseback. Wen another discovery. I rather liked
it. Cannot remember any more. 0 my dear friend. There I
So soon? Is he angry? Fourteen or fifteen thousand miles. ·A
little after dark. I do not. This may not be true. But not so
tall. In a cold prison house, in a damp cell, with no books but
an English grammar and a Shakspeare.
SENTENCES.
22~

Discourse is usually divided into para-

graphs.

23. A 1>aragra1>h contains one or more smitences.
24. A sentence is a thought expressed m
words.
Sometimes a sentence is short, telling but one thing of one
subj ect, without many words to limit or explain its meaning;

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ANALYSIS.

sometimes it has many words used to change, limit, or explain its
meaning.
Sometimes a sentence tells something different about each of
several things ; and sometimes a proposition is used as part of
another proposition, or with another to change, limit, or explain
its meaning.

Who is he, and what is he?
Stop, I command thee. No violence. Talk to him calmly.
If you will sit down by my. side, I will explain my meaning.If he should come, what would you do?
When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that we leave
them.

25. A sentence is simple, compound, or complex.
26. A s.illlple sentence contains but one
proposition.
EXAMPLE.-Man is mortal.

27. A COlll}lOund sentence contains two or
more propositions, of which each might be used
alone.
E xAMPLE.-You may go, but I will remain.

28. A COlll}llex sentence contains a proposition, modified by one or more other propositions.
ExAMPLE.-He will r ead, if you desire it.
The modifying propositions cannot be used alone, to express a.
complete meaning.
EXERCISE

EXERCI'SE

sentences as "Come.", and _the two following, the subject ia
omitted; it is either thou or you; the subject is said to be understood.

5.

State which of the follo~ sentences are simple, which are
compound, and wliich are complex.
Point out the subject and the predicate of each proposition,
omitting all words used to limit or explain tlie:rn.

4.

State which of the following sentences are simple, whicli are
compound, and which are complex.
H e was there. I cannot believe it. What ar e your intentions?
Come.* Arouse. Sit down again. What are you doing?
Life is short, but art is long.
One comes, and another goes.
I did not say he struck me; I said he pushed me.
I heard him, and I saw him.
The blind see; the .lame walk; the lepers are cleansed ; the
deaf hear; the dead are raised ; and to the poor, the gospel is
preached.

•In such

As a great deal of practice is needed on every point of analysis,
and as learuers should be drilled on such sentences as they read
and study, a few examples are taken from school-books.
If every lesson to be committed to memory were first analyzed,
it would be much more clearly understood, and in addition to
this, the learner would find his task easier, and would, at the
same time, be gaining knowledge of the power and value of
words, and gaining ability to use them.

From Hillard's Second Reader; page 'T2.

1. This little boy is playing with his foot-bal l. He kicks it
along the ground and into the air. Many boys can play together
at this game.
2. They take sides, and each side tries to kick the ball beyond
the limits of the other side; the side which does so, wins the
game .
4. This game is played in the fall of the year, as it is then cool
weather, and boys do not get too warm.
From Mitchell's New Primary Geography; page 30.

1. The United States oC North America is that

large country lying south of British America. It extends from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.
2. It is chiefly settled by the English and their descendants;
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ANALYSIS.

ENGLISH GRAM;&!AR.

17

Some sentences declare something, or tell some fact others ask
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some question, others contam orders or r equests, and others express feeling or emotion. ~ These kinds of sentences differ in the
arrangement of the subject and the predicate.

How came he to the brink of that river?
How dared he cross it?
Shall private men respect ·the boundaries of private property,
and shall a man pay no respect to the boundaries of his country's

36. Every proposition or sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.
37. A sentence may include more tha:n ,,one
kind of proposition.
38. A declarative proposition contains a
declaration or assertion.

rights?
How dared·he cross that river?
O I bU:t he paused upon the brink.
·.
He should have perished upon the brink ere he had crossed it I
Why did he pa:use?
·
Why does man's heart palpitate when he is on the point of
committing an unlawful deed? .
.
Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping bef?re h1_m,
and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide
of the mortal part? Because of conscience.
Point out the subject and the predicate of each of the sentences
in the foregoing extract. Many of the answers are elliptical•
Select the different kinds of propositions from a page in a
reading-book.
·

ExAMPLEs.-Mary believes him. She does not believe that tale.

39. An interrogative proposition. contains
a question or interrogation.
ExAMPLEs.-Does Mary believe him?
that tale?

Does she not believe

40. An imperative proposition contains a
command, entreaty, permission, or exhortation.
ExAMPLEs.-Mary, believe him.

Do not believe that tale.

41. An exclam.atory proposition. is one
uttered in such a manner as to show surprise or
emotion. Its form is like that of a declarative or
an interrogative sentence.
ExAMPLEs.-Mary believes him !

She does not believe his tale!

EXERCISE 7.
State which propositions in the following extract are declarative,
which are interrogative, which are imperative, and which are
exclamatory.
A GENTLEMAN, Mr. Chairman, speaking of Cres~r's benevolent
disposition, and of the reluctance with which he entered into the
oivil war, observes,-'iHow long did he pause upon the brink of
the Rubicon !"
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A Dialogue, or a passawf an .~n~ated styl?, of ei:her prose or poetry, ·
will be the most suitabl. contammg the :various kmds.
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DIVISION OF· PROPOSITIONS. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

42. Every proposition may be divided into the
entire subject and the entire predicate.
ENTIRE SUBJECT.

43. The en.tire. su.,ject names the thing or
person spoken of or ~bout, and includes all words
.
. .
descriptive of that thmg or person.
ExAMPLES.-The third boy in the first class has recited all his
lessons very well. And I, even I, .Artaxerxes the king, d~ make a.
decree.

44. The same ·thing may be said, or told, of
more than one subject.
45. The subject is sim.ple when it consists of
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ANALYSIS.

but one word, or a set of words representinO' one
b
idea.

ExAMPLES.~ohn has read and recited well. John and James
have read well and conducted themselves propei·ly.

ExAMPLEs.-Jolm has read well. 'To play is pleasant.

46. The subject is co111plex when words are
joined to a simple subject to describe or affect it.
ExAM PLEs.-A little black dog bit him.
time.

To play too much

waste.~

4 7. The subject is compound when the same
thing is said, or told, of more tlian one simple or
complex subject.
·
ExAMPI,E.-John and James have read well.
John and James are here combined into one compound subject.

ENTIRE PREDICATE.

48. The entire predicate contains the word
?r words :w~ich'say or tell something of the subJect, and it mcludes all words which change limit
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or modify these words.
ExAMPLEs.-The third boy in the first class has recited all his
lessons very well. And I, even I, Artaxerxes the king, do make
a decree to all the treasurers which are bei;ond the river, &c.

49. More than one thing may be told, or said,
of the same subject.
50. The predicate is sim1>Ie when but one
thing is said, or told, of the subject.
ExAMPLES.~ohn

11as read.

You, who hear me, know.

51. The predicate is complex when words are
joined to the simple predicate to modify or affect it.
ExAMPLE.-John has read very well.

52. The predicate is compound when more
than one thing is told of the same subject.

The last exampie is · a simple sentence with a compound subject and a
compound predicate.

EXERCISE

8.

Write the entire supject of each of the following propositions,
or sentences ; do not inclu,de any part of the predicate.
Fishes swim. Birds can fly. The wind blows. The air is
cold. Clouds are forming. Mary must go ho.me. John's brother
is very young. '.l'he starry-flag waves in the breeze. Man is an
. animal. Both rich and poor die. The surface of the earth is
composed of land and water. One-fourth of twenty-eight is
seven. Who .is there? You cannot be allowed t<i enter. Who
came? Who is he? May she speak to you? The Northmen
visited America. I have a beautiful flower in my hand. Has
the boy no books? How infinite is the power of the Creator!
The .ratio of 4t to 2! . l s that of 2 to 1. "Where did th~ man
live.?" asked the colonel. "Yes, yes," answered John quickly,
"no doubt."
EXERCISE

9.

Write the entire predicate of each sentence in Exercise 8.
Write .the entire subject .of each simple sentence, and of each ·
olause of the complex and compound sentences, in Exercises 4, 5, 7,
and 8.
Write the entire predicate of each simple sentence, and of each
clause of the complex and compound sentences, in Exercises 4, 5,
7, and 8.
·

,

A sentence with a compound subject or a compound predicate,
or both, is often equivalent to two or more sentences with simple
subjects and simple predicates.
Complex subjects and predicates may be considered as mere
modifications of simple ones.
Thus, "John and James have read well'', is equivalent to the
two sentences, "John has read well", and" James has read well".

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"John has read and recited well", is equivalent to the two sentences, "John has read well", and "John has recited well".
"John and James have read well and conducted themselves
properly", is equivalent to the four sentences, "John has read
well",-"John has conducted himself properly",-"James has
read well",-" James has conducted himself properly".
EXERCISE

10.

In the following sentences, show which subjects and which pr,§dicates are simple, and which are compound.
'
Write the simple sentences (with simple subjects and predicates)
whicli are equivalent, inserting omitted words. Commence each
with a capital letter, and end each with the period or other proper
point. .Alter the form of words when necessary.
Reputation, virtue, and happiness, depend greatly on the choice
of companions.
To err is human; to forgive, divine.
The young should be diligent and industrious, and make a
proper use of their time.
Diligence, industry, and proper improvement of time, are material duties of the young.
Will you go, or stay?
Is that a Grammar, or a Geography?
Doctor Blimber, Mrs. Blimber, and Miss Bliniber all pressed
forward to attend· him to the ball ..
The young gentlemen bowed and withdrew.
He was temperate in eating, drank sparingly, arid usually rose
an hour before dawn.
Change a passage selected from a reading-book into simple sentences, with simple subJects and predicates.
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
We have seen that every proposition has a subject and a predicate ; but unless the proposition is very short, there are other
words than those which form the subject and the predicate.

ANALYSIS.

21

The entire subject often contains many words which limit,
.
. .
explain, or qualify the simple subje~t.
The entire predicate often contams many words which limit,
explain, change, or modify the simple predicate.
Sometimes the limiting or modifying words may be used separately with the simple subject; in ~~er cases ~here are ~everal
which must be taken together to limit or modify the subJect or
the predicate, for, although each .word has its separate u~e and
meaning, the separate use is not to limit or modify the subJect or
the predicate.
Sometimes we find among several words thus used together to
limit or modify, one used as a subject, and one or more used as a
predicate, thus forming a proposition.

l

.I
i

53. The parts into which sentences are divided
_
in analysis, are called ,eleDJ.ents.
54. The subject and the predicate are called
principal eleDJ.ents.

55. A princi. element may be modified by
words, phrases, or clauses.
56. Any word, phrase, or clause, ~hich modifies another word, phrase, or clause, is called an
adjunct.
57. A word is

a ri.umber of letters writte~, or
syllables spoken, used as the _sign of some idea.
EXAMPLES.-Is, word, number.
Three ·English words consist of only one letter each; they are, a, I, 0.
Many words have but one sylli>ble.

58. A phrase . is a combination o.f ~ords, n?t
making a proposition, but having a d1stmct use m
a sentence.
ExAMPLEs.-'.ln the beginning. He did it Cor me.
He wished to read. To play is pleasant.
A phrase is used like a single word ; it generally expresses a oomplex
idea, which a word would not represent.

.,
I

22

23

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A.NA.LYSIS.

59. A clause is one of the two or more propositions which make a complex or a compound
sentence.

Words modifying adjunct words.

An adjunct clause is a subordinate clause in a complex sentence.

EXERCISE

11.

Point out the words which modify the subjects of the following
sentences: then those·which modify the ·predicates.
Point out the phrases which modify the subjects: then t{iose
which modify the predicates.
'
Point out the clauses whicli modify the subjects: those whicJ,
modify the predicates.
·
Point out the words, phrases, and clau.ses, which modify other
modifying words, phrases, and clauses; that is, those which
modify adjuncts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
who

SENTENCES .FOR EXAMPLES.
The bright sun shines.
The sun shines brightly on all.
The sun now shines brightly in a cloudless sky.
The summer sun shines brightly from a cloudless sky on all
are exposed to its powerful rays ..

EXAMPLES
Words modifying subjects.
l. The
modifies
" Bright
2. The
"
3. The
4. The
" Summer

"
"
"

2.
3.
4.
"

OF

ANALYSIS.
Words.modifying predicates.

sun.
sun.
sun.
sun.
sun.
sun.

2. Brightly modifies shines.
3~ Now
shines.
"
Brightly
shines.
4. Brightly
shines.

"

"
"

3. A
" Cloudless
4. A
" Cloudless
" Its
" Powerful

modifies sky, in the phrase
" sky, " " "
" sky, " "
" sky,
" rays," " "

"

"
" "

"

"

"

rays,"

1

in sky.
in sky.
from sky.
from sky.
to rays.
to rays.

Phrases modifying adjuncts.
4. To its powerful rays

modifies are exposed (a predicate).

Clauses modifying adjuncts.
4. Who are exposed to its powerful rays

modifies all.

Elephants are sometimes taught to work; for they are very
strong, and they can drag heavy burdens with ease.
Their tusks are ivory. Many pretty and useful things are
made of ivory.
Look at the elephant's trunk! It answers the purpose of a.
hand. With it he puts his food into his mouth. He lengthens
and shortens it at his pleasure.
He can pick up a. pin from the floor, untie knots in ropes, open
and shut gates, fire off a pistol, or draw a cork from a bottle.
Elephants are grateful if they are treated kindly, and they
sometimes become very strongly attached to those who have the
care of them.
.Analyze the previous exercises in the same manner; first pointing
out the subjects and predicates.
•
.Analyze a passage from any schoolrbook, taking simple style at
first, and proceeding gradu' to poetry, &c.

Phrases 'T(!odifying subjects.

PRINCIP.A.L ELEMENTS.

(None.)

60. A subject may be a word, a phrase, or
a clause; or more than one of them.

Phrases modifying predicates.

On all
In a cloudless sky
From a cloudless sky
On all who are exposed to its powerful rays

modifies shines.
" shines.
shin es.
shines.

"

I
I

ExAMPLEs.-You are attentive. To play is pleasant. That he
did so is true. My father and Jbear the same name. That he
did it and that I saw him, are facts. ·

24

25

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ANALYSIS.

61. A predicate may be a word-or aphlrase*;
or .more than one of them ;-never a clause.

Ex .u1PLE.-A child should obey his loving parents, who cherish
and protect him.
·

ExAMPLEs.-John studies. He is spoken to.
elected President. Mary reads and writes.

It is 1.

He was

SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS.

62. An element which modifies another is calle.d
a subordinate elelllent, or an adjunct.
·
63. An adjective elem.cut is one which
limits or describes a subject.
EXAMPLE.-A good child is beloved.
Here a and good are adjective elements. ··

64. An adverbial elem.ent is one which
modifies a p 'r edicate, usually in time, place, or
manner. ·
EXAMPLE.-..,.-A good child is much beloved by all who know Mm.

65. An objective elen1ent is one which
limits or restrains the meaning of a P'red'icate to
some object.
ExAMPLE.-A good child obeys his parents.

. 66. As an objective element is composed of exactly such words as might compose a subject, it is
very frequently limited or described by an adjective element.
*A predicate of more than one word is really a phrase, but it is found
more convenient not to consider it as one. When the simple predicate,
without elthor object or adjuncts, contains more than one word, as in "He
may have been •pokcn of," we are accustomed to call those words a verb
though ~eally c~ntaining several, and we may consider them as formin~
one predicate, without distinguishing between a word and a combination
of words, unless some of these may be separated as modifying words or
unless the predicate is compound.
'

67. A subordinate elem.cut may be a
word, a phrase, or a clause; or more than one
of them.
·
ExAMPLEs.-A~ective elenients.-This boy obeys me. The
city of London. is populous. The water which I drank was cool.
A red and white flag was displayed.
Adverbial elenients.-The boy obeys me p1·omptly. He
went in great haste. She will be at leisure, when her task is
finished. He went to and fro. It swung backward and forward.
Objective elenients.-He drinks water. They wish to play
continually. He said that he desired wealth. He drinks both tea
and coffee.

EXERCISE

12.

Point out the adjective elements in the preceding exercises; the
words, phrases, and clauses modifying subjects and olJ:jects directly;
and then those modifying the adjunct subjects and objects.
Point out the adverbial elements, in the same manner.
Point out the objective elements in the preceding exercises;first the whole element, then, if it is a word modified by adjuncts,
the chief word, as the simple object.
CONNECTIVES.
In compound and complex .sentences, and in compound elements of sentences, there ar~ords used t.o join the clauses or
the simple elements.
p ·
.

68. A word_used to join clauses or ,elements of
a sentence is called a connective.
EXAllPLEs.-John and James study. I will if you will. Go
when you are ready. Come to me. All who saw, know.
Frequently a connective does not form part of a simple proposition, or an element; sometimes it is part of a phrase or a
clause.
·

s

SYNTHESIS.

SYNTHESIS.
Synthesis, or Composition, in Grammar is the
combination of parts, or elements, to m~ke ·sentences; and of sentences to make discourse · that
is, descriptions, addresses, letters, poems, &~. ·'
EXERCISE

are cleft, was admitted, will be closed, have passed, are being
received, must fly, was ebbing, will terminate, &c.
Was laughed at, have set off, would come in, may go off, &c.
Is sick, became happy, grew strong, were industrious, might be
untenanted, would be idle, might have been ignorant, &c.
Is a carpenter, are quadrupeds, am a man, art a girl, became a
woman, was named John, was elected Governor, are men, may be
Russians, are Philadelphians, &c.
EXERCISE

13.

Form propositions by adding to each of the following words one
·
word making sense as a predicate; thus,-Man thinks.
Man, boys, dogs, flowers, light, grass, wheat, water, coal, fire,
lambs, wolves, cats, lions, snakes, birds, &c. John, Mary~ Victoria, &c.

27

Form propositions, or sentences, by adding or prefixing adjective
elements to the subjects of the sentences formed from the words
given in Exercise 18.
EXERCISE

16 . .

Each word to which a predicate is added becomes the subject of that
predicate.

Form propositions by adding to each ·of the following words is or
are, and another word making sense with it as a predicate; thus,Man is mortal ;--The sun is shining.
· Man, the sun, the wind, pictures, paper, tools, sugar, vinegar,
knowledge, the grass, truth, ice, snow, falsehood, learning, books,
&c.

Form sentences by combining with the following words or
phrases, other words making sense as subjects; and limit each
predieate by a simple objective element; as, Cows eat grass.

EXERCISE

14.

Each word has become a predicate when Joined with a subject.

Form propositions by putting before each of the following worda
or phrases, a word with or without a or the prefixed; tlius,-The
moon has risen.
Has risen, talked, will arrive, may have gone, would have been
astonished, were received, glittered, remember vanish change
26

'

,

,

,,

15.

Form sentences by combining adverbial elements with the predicates of the sentences formed from the words given in Exercise 14.

Form propositions by putting before each of iltefollowing worda
one word making sense as a suliject; thus,-Fishes swim.
Swim, walk, run, gallop, read, talk, sing, exist, look, hear, remember, forget, saw, began, improves, burns, shine, grow, &c.
hearest, writest, composest, &c.

'·

EXERCISE

\.

17.

Eat, drink, run, walk, trot, see, read, sing, .l).ear, remember, has
heard, will strike, may observe, would have passed, must like, is
reaping, has been siiifjg. was cutting, would have been tating,
should not have . eateftt'has formed, have been writing, &c.
Pupils should be habituated, as early as possible, to writing, both
their own ideas, under the direction of the teacher a.a to matter and manner,-and .exercises connected with their various lessons, for the sake of
acquiring habits of precision, and as a direct .aid to the memory. Composition should keep pace with Grammar, and rules learned should be
applied in practice.

In this elementary work, Orthoepy and 0Pthography are not
included. The beginner will find enough to occupy him on these
points in his lessons in the Spelling-book and Reader.

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(I

ETYMOLOGY .A.ND SYNT.A.X.

29

PARTS OF SPEECH.

71. Words are divided, according to their use,
into classes, called Parts of Speech . .
72. There are nine Parts of Speech; namely,
the Noun, the Pronoun, the Article, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conju_n ction, and the Exclamation.

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
Some words are used as names of the persons or th~ things of
which we speak or write; other words tell what kind of things
those are whose names are given;_others again tell of the doing
of some action; and others tell how,. or why, or where the action
was done. There are also other uses to which words are put.
Some words can be used in only one of these ways, and others
can be used sometimes in one way, and sometimes in another.
Some words are built up of parts, and we can learn the meaning of these parts separately, and so know better the right word
for any particular meaning. Thus,-The· str~am is rapid. It
runs rapidly.
Some words are changed in their form according to the particular way in which they are used, and must have one form for a
single person or thing, and another form for more than one;
other words have different forms for other differences.
Sometimes words have such forms that we know the meaning
of the sentence if the words are differently arranged, and the
meaning is the same through the different arrangements.
· Sometimes changing the arrangement of the words changes the
meaning of the sentence entirely. For .example, to say-The bird
eat the cat-is not the same as to say-The cat eat the bird.

We never can speak.of a thing unless we give it a n.ame, or
unless we use a set of words which will serve as a name.
. Every person or thing that exists, has or may have a. name of
some kind; when new things are found, invented, or discovered
new names or old ones. newly applied, are given to them. . _
Many things which never have existed, and many particular
li;inds of ideas or thoughts, have also had names given to them.
These words are called nouns, from the French word nom,
which is from the Latin :word nomen, ~ach meaning a name.

.•

73. A Noun is a word used as a name.
Any word used as a name, is a·noun.
Persons speaking seldom name themselves or the ones to whom
they speak, but certain short words are regularly used instead of
the names.
It would be tiresome to h e . y name re_peated very often, and
we have short words to use instead of names, so as to avoid the
repetition of them, when repeating is not needed to make th~
sense clear.
These words ar~ called pronouns; pronoun means for a noun;
it is derived from the Latin word pronomen, a word used for a
name.

69. Etymology relates to the different kinds
of words, and to their origin, affinities, and inflections.
70. Syntax relates to the manner in which
words are combined so as to express thought in
grammatically accurate sentences.
28

.

! .

I

l[

I.•I ·

74. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a
• noun.
Certain words used frequently instead of nouns are pronouns.

l

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30

~·

'

31

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ETYMOLOGY .AND SYNTAX.

There ar e words which are used with names to limit or describe
them; that is, to show what ones are meant, or to show how many
are spoken of, or what kind of persons or things they, whose names
are given, are.
Two words used to limit nouns (one of them liaving two different forms), have particular uses, and they are therefore classed
separately.
These two words are called articles, from the Latin word artiCU:.
lus, a little joint. The others are called ad;'ectives, from th~
Latin word adjectus, added to or annexed.

These words are called adverbs; adverb means to a verb, or,
joined to a verb; it is derived from the Latin word adverbium.

75. An Article is the word th~, or the wo~d
wn or a, used before a noun to limit its signification.

The, or an or a, use\! before a noun to limit its signification, is
an article.

76. ·An Adjective is a word used to describe
or limit a noun or a pronoun.
Any word used to describe or limit a noun or a pronoun, is an
ad;'ective.
Some words are used especially to form predicates, and to say
or tell something of·some subject; they also take forms which
cannot be used for forming predicates, but have the general
meaning of the forms which can be used in p~edicates. Names
and these predicate words form the most important classes of
words. The predicate words a.re called verbs, from the Latin
word verbum, a word.

77. A Verb is a word used to say, tell, _or
assert.
Any word used to say, tell, or assert, so that it may form a
predicate, is a verb.
So,me words are used to show the manner of doing a thing, or
the time or the pla·ce of doing it; or to show the degree of a.
qua_lity, .or to change or modify the meaning of propositions, or •
a~Junct words or phrases.

78. An Adverb is a word used to modify a
'l'erb, an adjective, another adverb, or .a limiting ph'Pase.
Any word used to modify a. verb, an ad}ective, another adverb,
a. limiting phrase, or a. proposition, is an adverb.

There is a. kind of connective words used to join a noun or a
pronoun to som·e other word, ·a.rid to form a. phrase which is an
adjunct of such word ..
These words are called prepositions, from . the Latin word
prcepositio, which has also the form prcepositionis, what· is put
or set before.

79. A

Prepo~ition

is a word used before a

noun or a pronoun to show its relation to

another word.
Any word used before a. noun or a pronoun to show. its relation
to another word, or to form with it a phrase equivalent to some
part of speech, is preposition.

a

SoD;1e words are used to con. . clauses ; or to connect words,
when, to avoid repeating so many words, only the dissimilar parts
of one or more additional clauses nearly like the ·first, are used.
Such words are called con}unctions, ·from the Latin word conjunctio, or .con}unctionis, a. joining together.

80. A (Jonjnnction is a word used to connect words,"phrases, or clauses.
A word used merely to connect words, phrases, or clauses, is a.
conjunction.

32

33

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

Some words are used merely as cries caused by emotion, or as
calls not forming any part of a proposition.
Such words are called exclamations, from the Latin word excla,matio, or exclamationis, an outcry.

VERBS.
Before treating of the parts of speech in the given order, a
partial analysis of the verb wiJ.! be given to simplify the syntax
of other words.

81. An ExclaDJ.ation is a word used merely
to express feeling ·or emotion, or to attract notice.

82. A verb is the asserting word in a sentence,
and there is no sentence without a verb in its
predicate. No combination of' words without a
verb, can form a sentence ; but there is sometimes
an ellipsis of the verb.
83. A verb may be used with or without limitation.
84. Any verb may be limited to a sub.feet.
85. Many verbs may be limited by ob.feds; that
is, they may have both. subjects and objects.
86. A verb limited to a sub.feet, ~s a :finite

Any word used merely to express feeling or emotion, or to
attract notice, is an excla?nation.
·'

· In classing words, the main question is,-How is the word
used!
In the sentence "Softly is an adverb," the word "softly'' is
used as a name,-the name of the word considered or spoken of,it is therefore a noun.
'
EXERCISE

18.

verb.

Write a .list of the nouns in the following passage.
Write separate lists of the pronouns, articles, ad}ectives, verbs,
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and exclamations.

"John plays."
are excluded.

Harold was crowned King of England on the very day of the
maudlin Confessor's funeral. He ·had good need to be quick about
it.° When the news -reached Norman William, hunting* in his
park at Rouen, he dropped his bow, returned to his palace, called
his nobles to council, and presently sent ambassadors to Harold,
calling* on him to keep* his oath and resign* the crown. Harold
would do no such thing. The barons of France leagued together
round Duke William for the invasion of England. Duke William
promised freely to distribute* English wealth and English lands
among them.

cate. ·

Select the nouns, &c., from passages of this book, or any other.

This assertion is made of John alone; all others

87. A finite verb . . the chief part of a predi•

Finite means limited; it is derived from the Latin word.finis,
a bound, border, or limit.
Infinitive .means.not limited, not finite; it is derived from the
same Latin word, finis.

88. A verb not limited to a sub.feet is an infini·
tive .verb, and does not form a predicate.
Ex.U!PLEs.-To play, playing, having been played.

Some infinitives are called participles.
89. A verb limited by an ob.feet, is a transitive
verb.

• A form of the verb.

Eu.HPLE.-John plays ball.
'l'he playing is limited to "ball"i all other plays are excluded.

'' ·

I
I
1J

34

Transitive means ·passing over to another; it is derived from
the Latin word transitio, a going from one to another~ .i n the.
simple or active form-Of.a transitive verb (finite), we go from the
subject to the object.
Intransitive means not transitive, not going over to another; it
is also ·derived from transitio. In an intransitive verb, Wll d'o not
pass or go to any object.

ln1lntttve
and

Transitive.

lnftnitlve ·)

The playing is not limited to ball, the piana, a trick, truant,
chess, or any one or more of the objects which, with the different
proper meanings of the verb '~play", might be allowable. ·

91. A verb joining two words meaning the same
person or the same thing, is intransiiive, unless one
of .the words is a compound of "self".

l

Synopsis of tlie manners of using Verbs, with eiamples.
Finite
a"d

Su1/ject

Transitive.
Subject .
Object

and
are

different.

John
He
He
John
He
Dress

+ Verb + Ol{ject.

plays
writes
writes
is playing
ts writing
becomes

ball.
a page.
English.
ball.
a page.
her.

Subject
Object

Ball ii pw:yed. (by J ohn.)
A page ii written. (by him.) ·
English ;, written. (by him.
Ball is played. (by J ohu.)
A page ii being written.
(by

him.)

and {
She loves
herself.
Self ii 1.oved
are
Men deceive themselves.
the same.
Finite
and

Intransitive.

Sul{ject

+ Verb,

John lives~
John plays.
He
write8 (well).

He and man a-r e

om.

..

He and hero are

,,,.

He
He

became a man.
is a hero.

by her.

Phrasu, not propositiom.
For ball w b< played . . . ... .
For a page whave been written

Playing
ball.
Having written a page.

Ball b<ing played •. • •.. ' •.
A page having b<en written .•

Loving

· ··'

play; Jolin plays.

lntr::::itive.

+ Ol{ject.

To play
ball.
To have written a page.

- - - Verb

90. A verb not limited by an obfect, is an in•

transitive verb.
ExAMPLEs.~To

35

ETYMOLOGY · .AND SYNTAX.

ENGLISH GR.A.MMA.R.

self.

Self being 1.oved ••• •••• • ...

~:i:~' -::::::·written.
Having written.
Existing• .

On the· right of the transitive examples, are placed. examples of the
passive voice, sometimes called the passive verb.

92. A transitive verb may be used in two forms;
th.us,
.
·
"John saw the picture";:-and
"The picture was seen 'John", or" The picture was seen."

In the first form, the word representing the
agent (or doer), is the subject of the proposi-

tion.
·
This fdl'm is called the active voice.

·

ExAHPLE.-Jolin saw the picture.
The word active is derived from the Latin verb ago, actum, to
do, t-0 execute.

In the second form, the object (or limitation)
of the verb in the active voice, is made the subject of the proposition. The word representing
the agent (or doer), forms part of a phrase which
may be omitted.

36

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

This foi:m is called the passive voice.
EXAMPLE,_;'.._ The picture was seen by John; or,
The picture was seen.
The word passive is derived from the Latin verb patior, passus,
to rec.eive or bear, to suffer or be acted upon.

93. The active voice asserts of the agent,
or doer of the action expressed by the verb.
94. The passive voice asserts of thEl pat'ient,
or receiver of the action expressed by the verb.
95. In the active voice the subject is active; it
acts.
96. In the passive voice the subject is passive;
it does not act.
·
97. Either voice is infinitive, when it is without
a subject.
98. The active voice· always has an objedive
element limiting it.
99. The passive voice, like an intransitive verb,
has not an objective element limiting it.
100. Intransitive verbs have no voice, not having ·
the two forms which are distinguished as- the two
voices.

N 0 UN S.
101. A Noun is a word used as a name.
.Any word used as a name, is a noun.
The pupil must learn to distingui~h between an object and its name.
He may speak the word" horse", or may write ·" horse" upon his slate, or
a blackboard; but he cannot ride the written or spoken word, nor can he
sp_e ak or write the actually living animal. He may ride the animal, and
may speak or write its name.
Writing "book" a thousand times would not furnish one with a library,
or with a stock for sale. The real object is not a noun,-its name is.
We name not only persons, and things that are perceived by the sen1es,
but also ideas and qualitie•. A name for any .thing that can be thought
of or spoken of, is a noun. ...

EXERCISE

Select all the nouns
book.

ori~ · page;

19.
on any page of a reading·

· Every person has a name meant to distinguish him from all
o~her ·persons; and every· town and country, and every known

river and sea has a name meant to distinguish it from all others.
There are many things of which there are large numbers alike,
and of which no one is so important as to need a. distinguishing
name ; thus there a.re many articles called chairs in a. house,
many called doors, and there are many things having the name
of trees, out of the house.
.
We may point out a particular one by using other words with
the name given to every one.
·
·
All persons and things which .have distinguishing names, have
also names belonging to every one of the same sort; so there are
many men, many towns and countries, and many rivers and seas.
4

37

38

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

102. Nouns are divided into two classes;pTopeT
and common.
103. A 1>roper noun is a special name, given
to one being or thing, or to one collection.
ExAMPLEs.-Adii.m, Philadelphia, the Delaware, the White
Mountains, the West Indies.
A proper noun always has an initial capital; and if ~o!llplex,
all the principal words have initial capitals.

104. A common noun is a general name,
given to every one of a class of beings or things.
EX.UJ!PLES.-Man, city, river, trees, mountains, archipelago.
.A common noun when joined with a proper noun as a single
name, forms with it a proper noun.
E XAMPLE.-Mountain,-the Alleghe11y Mountains.
Initial capitals are required in this case.

EXERCISE

20.

State which of the following nouns are proper, and which are
common.
Write a list of the proper nouns, using capitals correctly, and
separating them by commas.
Write a list of the common nouns, in the same manner.
Europe, boy, Frenchman, city, river, Joseph, tree, book, house,
Euphemia, slate, woman, parents, Philadelphia, Atlantic, the
Gulf of Mexico. B ottle, Bread, list, oregon, United states, money,
Calves, Isle of Man, north Carolina, cup, Map, Soldier, benjamin
franklin, poet, Maple, lowell, Letter-carrier, goodness, General,
Army, Andes mountains, River schuylkill, germans, easter, palm
sunday, oak, Museum, Doctor, physicians, glue, Charles, wheat,
regiment, King, H onor, hexagon, Porte-monnaie, parisian, englishmen, Photograph.
Write lists from a page in a geography, a reading-book, &c.

105. Personal nouns represent human beings ;-non-personal nouns represent inferior
animals or inanimate objects, qualities, ideas, &c. · .

, , 1

106. A compound noun is one of any kind,
composed of two or more words Joined, and forming but one name.
ExAHPLES.-Penman, flat-iron; none-so-pretty, (a plant);
(an officer).

Murad the Unlucky.

(:I

aide-de-~amp,

107. A complex noun is one composed of
two or more words not joined, but forming only
one name.
ExAMPLEs.-John .Adams.

I

The Sea of Japa.n.

.ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS, OR ACCIDENCE.

108. Nouns have the attributes of GendeT,
NumbeT, PeTson, and Case.
GENDER.
· If we should say "Tell the girl that it must recite his lesson";
we would use words that would not suit one another.
Change "it" to she, and change "his" to her, and the words
will suit one another.
The sentence will then be "Tell the girl that she must recite
h er lesson".
She and her may mean the same person that girl means; but it
and his cannot mean th.me.

109. Gender is a distinction of Nouns and
Pronouns in regard to sex.
Pronouns have gender because they represent
nouns.
110. There are two sexes; the male and the
female. Sex applies to animals; inanimate objects have no sex.
111. There are three genders; the masculine,
the feminine, and the neutC'r.
·
Animals have sex; their names have gender.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Masculine.
. Nephew,
Papa,
Sir,
Sloven,
Son,

112. The masculi~e gender denotes males.
Ex.urPLEs.-Man, horse, prince, drake.

113. The :feminine gender denotes females.
ExAMPLEs.-Woman, mare, princess, duck.

114. The neuter gender denotes things .w.hich
are without sex.

Feminine.
niece.
ma mm a.
madam.
slattern or slut.
daughter.

Masculi~e.

Swain,
Uncle,
Wizard
Youth
Young man,

I

Feminine.
nymph.
aunt.
witch.
damsel.
maiden or maid.

f

l

Also, compounds formed by prefixing to any of the above an
adjective, or a noun used as .an adjective.

ExAMPLEs.-House, death, tree, fear, fright.
The three genders form classes, to one of which every noun may ho
assigned.

ExAMPLES.- Grandfa.tber, grandmother ; schoolboy, schoolgirl; mer•
man, mermaid; gentleman, gentlewoman.

The gender of some nouns is uncertain, unl~ss shown by the
context, or accompanying words; as, parent, pupil, bird.

Non-personal Nouns.

One's parents must include a. male and a female,

Masculine.
Boar,
Buck,
Hart,
Stag,
Bull,
Horse,

Sex is distinguished in three ways : by using
'different words,- by the use of a suffix,- and by
prefixing a word showing sex.
,t

Feminine.
sow.
doe.
roe.
hind.
cow or heifer.
mare.

Masculine.
Colt,
Ram,
Drake,
Gander,
Ruff,
Milter,

Feminine.
filly.
ewe.
duck.
goose.
reeve.
spawner.

Also, compounds and derivatives, made from the above by a
word or a syllable prefixed.

I.
SEX DISTINGUISHED BY USING DIFFERENT WORDS.

Personal Nouns.
.Masculine.
Bachelor,
Beau,
Boy,
Bridegroom,
Brother,
Earl,
Father,
Friar,
Gran!] sire,
Husband,
King,

Feminine .
maid.
belle.
girl.
bride.
sister.
countess.
mother.
nun.
grandam.
wife.
queen.

Masculine.
Lad,
Lord,
Male,
Man,
Man,
Master,
Master,
Master,

Feminine.
lass.
lady.
female.
woman.
maid, (servants). .
mistress.
dame. (old style).
Miss(youngperson).
:rvr r. (Pl"ij~':;,~d) . . Mrs. (pr:b:*) .
~feSsrs . (P)i;::,ed ) (none) .
Monk,
nun.

II.
SEX DISTINGUIS4 BY THE USE OF A SUFFIX.

I

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I

I. The feminine formed by adding - ess to the masculine ; as,
accu ser, acc useress.
2. The feminine formed by dropping e before the final r of the
masculine, and adding - ess; as, arbiter, arbitress.
3. The feminine formed by dropping o before the final r of the
·masculine, and adding - ess; as, acto 1·, actress.
4; The feminine formed by dropping - er, and adding - e11s ;
as, murderer, murderess.
5. The feminine formed by dropping o before the final r of the
masculine, and adding • Ix; as, a dj u t o r, adjut r l x.
4*

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42

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

NOUNS.

43
,1

Examples of Proper Names.
Josephine.
Julius
Julia, Juliet.
Augu'sta.
Louis,
Louisa.
Cornelia.
John,
·Jane, Joanna, &c.
Georgia.
Frank, }
Fanny.
{ Frances.
Henrietta.
Francis,
{ Harriet.
-William,
Wilhelmina.

Joseph,
Augustus,
Cornelius,
George,
Henry,}
Harry,

buck-rabbit, earl, negro, manservant, carter, conductor, engineer,
acquaintance, turkey-cock, murderer, .man, lord, prince, drake,
&c.
Give the masculines corresponding to tke following feminines:
Ewe, reeve, demoness, shelduck, witch, nun, mamma, sister,
mermaid, schoolgirl, portress, filly, goose, widow, she-bear, hyena,
donna, tyranness, directrix, idolatress, grandam, .damsel, spectatress, oratrix, hind, &c.

[
j

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III.
NUMBER.
"Now a dollar is worth as much as a hundred cents are, and
it is carried more easily than they are."
If "dollar" were changed to dollars, in this sentence, it would
be grammatically incorrect; for "a", " is", "it", and "is carried",
all refer to one dollar only, and the word dollars means more than
one.
.
·so if cent were used instead of "cents", the sentence would be
incorrect; for "hundred", "are'', "they", and "are".(carried),
cannot refer to only one cent.

SEX DISTINGUISHED BY PREFIXING A WORD SHOWING SEX.

.Masculine.

Feminine.

.Masculine.

PERSONALS.

Man-servant,
Mr. Adams,

maid-servant.
Mrs. Adams.

ama.rri.cl ooupla.

Mr. Zell,

Miss Zell.

-

uuw-riod.

Master N.

F eminine.

NON-PERSONALS.

Miss N.

He-bear,
He-goat,
Buck-rabbit,
Cock-robin,
Cock-sparrow,

she-bear.
she-goat.
doe-rabbit.
hen-robin.
hen-sparrow.

Most masculines have no corresponding feminines.
ExAMPLES.-Cook,

driver, hostler, aergea1't.
hag.

Unity is derived from 'm1is,' of one; plurality, from 'pl·v.ris,' of m~re.

The masculine is.generally used if both a.exes are included or
if no distinction is made.
·
·
'
ExAMPLEs.- Man is mortal ;-A parent should be honored ;-The actoro
were applauded ;-The lion is called the king of beasts.

In a f ew cases the feminine is used if both sexes are included
or if no distinction is made.
.
'
EXAMPLES.-They kep_t liens ; - I saw a !lock of geese ;-Ducks are
aquatic birds.

EXERCISE

1

115. NuJD.ber is the distinction of words as
expressing unity or plurality.

A few feminines have no corresponding masculines.
Ex ..urPLES.-Brv.nette,

f' I
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21.

Give the feminines corresponding to tlte following masculines:
Father, cook; lion, tiger, bear, he-goat, baker, cock-sparrow,
poet, sultan, brother, male-child, peacock, chanter, songster,
horse, hart, uncle, nephew, widower, neighbor, friend, Mr., hero,

I

j

116. Number is . considered in nouns, pronouns,
finite verbs, and some a4J'e4es.
117. There are two nlmbers, the singular
and the plural.
118. The singular nulll.ber denotes one
person, thing, or idea, or one class or collection.
119, The plural nulll.ber denotes more
than one person, thing, idea, or class.
Formation of the Pl1tral of Nouns.

120. The plural of a noun is generally formed
by adding -es or -s to the singular.

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44

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ·

·Es is added to a noun ending in a sibilant
sound,* or having but one vowel at the end, except a.
·S is added to a noun ending in a, or in a consonant sound not sibilant, or one having more than
one vowel .at the end.
The• in either case sounds .l ike z, if it follows a subvooal or ..11' vowel
sound.
after a sibilant, forms a separate •yllable.
Final e of the singular is dropped on adding -••·

-E•,

Examples.
rebu11,
miss,

~
§
~

i!i:l

;g
;;_;

~
;

it;

purse,
ice,
lynx,
axe,
phiz,
rose,
adze,

fish,
douche,
rouge,
leech,
niche,
wawh,
oage,
edge,
hadj,
simile,
alkali,
cargo,
gnn,

city,

Sound.
30 rebu s-ea.
" miss-es.
" purs-es.
ic-es (i-ces) .
" lynx-es.
" ax-es.

.

31 phiz-es.
ros-es.

adz-es.
32 fish-es.
" douch-es.
33 roug-es (rou-ges).
34 leech-es.
" nich-es.
" watch-es.

"

35 cag·es (oa-ges).
" edg-es (ed-ges).
" hadj-es.
similes.
alkali es.
oargo es.
gnu es.
cities.

r·
..

cab,
"of,"
head,
oath,
bag,
barrel,
dollar,
ham,
pan,
soug,

comma.

razee,
beau,
folio,
hollow,
boy,

ra.zee s.
beaus.
folio 8,
hollow 8.
boys.

cap,

~

~"'2
R.
truth,

~i

Sound.
21 cab 8.
23 of s.
25 head· 8.
26 oath 8. Sound 27.
29 bag 8.
36 barrel 8.
38 dollar 8.
39 ha.m 8.
40 pan 8.
41 songs.

comma,

"-!! brief,
part,

oak,

.45

NOUNS.

8.

20 cap 8 •
22 briefs.
24 parts.
26 truths.
28 oaks.

*The teacher may explain the meaning of the terms •ibilant 8 ound,
•harp and flat •ounda, vowe l, &c. · The numbers refer to the larger gr,ammar of the author, where the elementary sounds are numbered.

NoTE.-Y after ~ con1011ant is changed to i, before adding - ; as,
body, bodie1.

..
;

Exception 1.-Forty nouns ending in single o, add -s to form
the plural.
ExAMPLEs.-Bra.vo, canto.

Exception 2.-Twelve nouns ending in C, and three in Ce,
change f'to v, and add •es, to form the plural.
EXAMPLEs.-Beef, beeves; knife, knives.

Exception S.-Letters, figures, and signs, and sometimes words,
used as nouns, add an apostrophe and s, instead of -es, to
form the plural.
EXAMPLES.-" HeJ'orms w•s like o's";" To multiply by any number of
9 's"; "The he's and she's".
EXERCISE

I

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22.

Form the plurals of the following nouns:
Nazarene, absence, freckle, navy, foreigner, navvy, jockey,
pippin, cipher, .bulletin, planning, chisel, repartee, gourd, buffalo,
anticipation, triphthong, nuisance, lily, cicatrice, pickaninny,
trombone, ibex, manifesto, rose, sfokness, cabin, class, writing,
stove, witch, papa, row, hind, sultana, negress, snath, sluice, idea,
sortie, hiccough, dish, duellist, fac-simile, sonata, metre, .sac,
cypress, valley, hoe, money, virago, assignee, &c.
·
Nouns irregular in the p{ural.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
geese.
men.
Man,
4oose,
mice.
women.
ouse,
Woman,
Louse,
lice.
children.
Child,
feet.
Ox,
oxen.
Foot,
teeth.
Tooth,
These irregular plurals, are used in the plurals of compound
nouns.
ExAMPLES.-Englishi;nen, statesmen, eyeteeth, woodlice.
German, Jfuaaulman, Norman, Ottoman, Turcoman (national na.mes),dragoman '(an interpreter), hetman (a Cossa.ck oomma.nder), lema11 (one
loved),-cayma11 (o.n alligator), deaman (a quadruped), dolman (a. robe),

II
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46

GRAMMAR.

firman (a certificate), ottoman (a seat), tali1man (a charm), and toman

(money), form the plural regularly, as simple words.
Mussulmans, &c.

Thus, Germao11,

PERSON.
In the sentence " I thought that you would send him to me",
there are four words that represent persons, " I", "you• I: "him",
and "me". If "you" means one person, there are only three
persons referred to in the sentence, for "I", and "me" mean
the one person who speaks or writes the sentence,- " you" means
the person who is spoken to or written to,- and "him" means
some one else, who is not the speaker or writer, and who is not
spoken to or written to. He is spoken of, or part of the sentence
is written especially of him.
If "you" z;ieans more than one, it still me~ns the persona
spoken to or written to.
.
We might use the name of the person spoken of or written of.
. or there might be more than one.
·
_
'

121. Person is the distinction of words in their
relation to the speaker, or the one spoken to or
of..

·

Person is considered in nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs.

122. There are three persons; called the first,
the second, and the third.
123. The first person relates to the speaker
oi writer.
·
EXAMPLE.-"

I, John, say it."

12~.

The second person relates to the person
or thmg addressed in speech or writing ..
EXAMPLE.-"

John, you did it."

125. The third person relates to the person
or thing spoken of or written of.
EXAMPLE •....:.."

John did it."

126. .Pronouns are used for the first and second persons. A
noun is in the third person, except when a person or thing is
addressed directly by a name.

CASE.
In the sentence "I wish that you would give my book to me
only", three words, "I", "my'', and ''me'', all represent the
same person, and yet their forms are different. " I " is the subject of the sentence, · "my" is an adjective element limiting
"book", and "me" is the object of a preposition in the phrase
''to me".
In the . sentence "He hurt himself with his stick",-" he",
"himself'', and "his", all represent the same person. "He" is
the subject," himself" i1!-the object limiting the predicate "hurt",
and "his" is an adjective element limiting "stick" and denoting
possession.
The three words in each of the .sentences are in different cases,
or conditions.

127. Case is the condition or state of a ri.oun
· or a pronoun in its relation to other words in a sentence .
.A. noun has gender, number, and person, without reference to .
other words; its case usually depends upon its relation to a verb,
a preposition, or another noun, in the same sentence ; that is,
upon its !!yntax. · .
..
A pronoun has case as any noun p'TI in its place would have
it; its gender, number, and person, depend on the noun it represents.

128. There are three cases; the nominative.
the possessive, and the objective.
129. The nom.inative case of a noun or a
pronoun, is that form or state which is usually the
subject of a verb.
EXAMPLEs.-John

reads; he reads.

'I

48

49

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

NOUNS.

130. The possessive case of a noun or a pronoun, is that form or state in which it limit$ a
noun by denoting a possessor, actual or probable.

of the different forms of a noun or a pronoun, in
the numbers and cases.
A proper noun is declined in the singular only.

Ex.1.l!PLEs.-John's book; children's shoes.
The possessive case is an adjective element.

Singular. Nom. Man,
Hand,
,
h. a.'Q d'.s,
"
Poss. mans,
"
Obj. man,
hand,
·
hands,
Plural. Nom. men,
"
Poss. men's, hands''
Obj. men.
hand§.
"

131. The objective case of a noun or a pronoun,. is that form· or state which is us~ally the
object of a verb or a preposition.
Ex.1.MPLE.-John reads his book to us.
Form of the Cases.

Singular. Nom. Hero,
Poss. hero's,
Obj. hero,
"
Plural. Nom. heroes,
Poss. heroes',
"
Obj. heroes.
"

132. The nominative and objective cases of
nouns are alike, and they have the simple form in
each number.
~
' nom.
ExAMPLEs.- Singular, nom. man, obJ. man ; plural,
men, obj. men.

1$3. The possessive case of either number
is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the
nominative; as, IDan's, IDen's, lady's, .alumni's ;- except where the nominative plural ends
in s, when an apostrophe only is added to form
the possessive plural ; as, Criends', fromfriends.

Fox,
"ox's,
''
fox,
foxes,
foxes',
foxes.•

Lady,
lady's,
lady,
ladies,
ladies',
ladies.

Sister-in-law,
sister-in-law's,
sister-in-law,
sisters-in-law,
sisters-in-law's,
sisters-in-law·.

Folio,
folio's,
folio,
folios,
folios',
folios.

EXERCISE

Boy,
boy's,
boy,
boys,
boys~

Adams,
Adams's,
Adams,
Adamses,
Adamses',
Adamses.

Thus; J ames's, church's, Burbage's, are pronounced like Jameaea,

Exal!PLEs.- A man-of-war's crew is numerous.
He heard George Francis Train's lecture.

USES OF THE CASESJ'
NOMINATIVE CASE.
SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE.

1 36 _.RuLE. -A noun or a pro~oun used as_ the
s1ibject of a finite verb, must be m the n onuna •

135. D eclension is the regular arrangement

t i ve

~ase.

5

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1

Declension of Nouns.

f

.I

23.

churches, Burbage•, the nominative or objective plural.

134. A compound or a complex noun takes the
sign of the possessive only at the end of the whole
compound or complex noun.

I

boys.

Decline the following nouns.
. goose, d ear, Engl"ishman '. Englishwoman,
Conductor, mermaid,
.
thief color Maria, Charles, James, hero, herome,
horse
owner,
,
'
'
· d
d boy
arc, arch, penny-a-liner, staff, stave, canary, JU ge, erran '
American, Israelite, &c.
Jones (common noun); J ones (proper noun), &c.

The apostrophe and .; added to a word ending in a sibilant sound, are
pronounced as a separate syllable.

"

50

PARSING.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of a finile verb, is
called the subject-nominative.

137. The subject of a v~rb in the imperative
mood is always a pronoun, thou or yon; and it
is generally omitted by ellipsis, except in parsing.
Ex.u1PLE.-" Go", -meaning "go thou", or "go ·you".
PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE.

138. RuLE.-A noun or a pronoun used in predication with an intransitive verb, must be in
the nominative case.
A noun or a pronoun used in predication with an intransitive
verb, is called the predicate-nominative.
ExAMPLEs.-The boy is an apt scholar.
The boy gradually becomes a man.

51

PARSING.

141. Parsing
matical properties
other words in a
properly apply to

is the enumeration of the gramof words, and their relations to
sentence, with the rules which
them.
NOUN.

In parsing a noun, name the word parsed; show its meaning
in connection with the word or words necessary to explain its use,
and only those; then name its class and its gender,-state in what
number and person it is found,-and in what case, with the reason
and the rule for it.
Always in parsing give the part of speech of words quoted
from the given sentence, and.in writing mark such words with
quotation marks. Punctuate carefully, in written parsing.
N OTE.-The gender of a noun is fixed, unless it is personified.
N OTE.-Answers to questions are very frequently elliptical.

EXAMPLES,

139. Some transitive verbs in the passive voice,
such as, is named, is called, is appointed,
&c., may have nouns, phrases, or clauses, used in
predication with them.
ExAMPLEs.-He is named John.
Paul is called the apostle to the gentiles.

140. The subject-nominative and the predicatenominative of a simple sentence refer to the same,
and they must correspond in gender and number.
ExAMPLEs.-John is a carpenter.
The boys have become men.
Mary and Jane are sisters.
The verb to be is so often used to connect a subject-nominative ·
and a predicate-nominative, that it is called the copulative
verb. Such other intransitive and such passive transitive verbs
as are used in the same manner, may take the same name, even
when infinitive. They form the copulas of predicates.

S uqject-Nominative.
"John reads and writes English."
1. John.-John reads and writes. "John" is a name. "Any
word used as a name, is a noun."
It is a pr~per noun. "A proper noun is a special name, given
to one being or thing."
It is of the masculine gender. "The masculine gender denotes
1111...
males."
It is in the singular number. "The singular n~r denotes
one person, thing, or idea, or one class or collection."
It is in the third person. "The third person relates to the
person or thing spoken of or written of/'
It is the subject of the verbs "reads!' and "writes", and it is
in the nominative case. "A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of 11- finite verb, must be in the nominative case."
Predicate-Nominative.
"Mary and Jane are sisters."
2. Sisters.-Mary and Jane ure sisters.-" Sisters" is o.
name. " Any word used o.s o. name, is e. noun."

1

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52

NOUNS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

POSSESSIVE CASE.

It is a common noun. "A common noun is a 'general name,
given to every one of a class of beings or things."
It is of the feminine gender. "The feminine gender denotes
females."
It is in the plural number. "'£he plural number denotes more
than one person, thing, idea, or class."
It is in the third person. " The third person relates to the
person or thing spoken of or written of."
It is used in predication with the intransitive verb "are" to
form the predicate "are st'.sters'', and it is in the nominative case.
" A noun or a pronoun used in predication with an intransitive
verb, must be in the nominative case."

142. RULE.· A noun or a pronoun in the _p~s­
sessive case is governed by the noun limited
by it.

..
Ir .
'fhe noun governing the possessive is often omitted by e ipsis,
when clearly understood.
ExAMPLE.-He

It .
1'

worshipped at St. Paul's.

The Possessive case is used after" of", when a(ter the possessive there is an ellipsis of the plural of the .noun prece d.mg " oif" •
In such cases "of" governs the omitted word.
'd

ExAllPLE.-R ea

a

Thatis-o/Wlton•s
1omiet1.
sonne t oJ·'°Milton's.
.
'
.

PARSING.
Possessive Nouns.

EXERCI~24.

Parse tlte nouns in tlte nominative case, wltich are contained in
tlte following sentences.
If the weather is fine, the children will come.
John Adams was the first Vice-President of the United States,
and the second President.
A Gulf or Bay is a body of water extending into the ·land.
A, e, i, o, and u, are vowels.
A square is an equilateral right-angled parallelogr11;m.
A polygon may be a pentagon or a hexagon.
.
" Hawaii" is now found on maps where " Owltyhee" formerly
was.
Little J enny is a wise little white-headed darling, about three
years old, and her observations are often quite amusing.
Cresar, Alexander, Aristotle, Descartes, and Lord Bacon w.e re
witty men.
THE Giraffe is a native of Africa. It is of singular shape and
size, and bears some resemblance both to the camel ·and the deer.
The mouth is small; the eyes are full and brilliant; the tongue
is rough, very long, and ending in a point. The neck is long and
slender, and from the shoulder to the top of the head, it measures
between seven and eight feet ; from the ground to the top of the
shoulder, iB commonly ten or eleven feet; so that the height of a.
full grown Giraffe is seventeen or eighteen feet.

63

EXAMPLES.

"David was J ohn's brother."
3. John's.-John's brother.~" Joltn's" is a name. "Any
word used as a name, is a noun."
.
It is a proper noun. " A proper noun is a special name, given
to one being or thing."
It is of the masculine gender. "The masculine gender denotes

l

males"
.' · the singular number. "The singular number denotes
It 18
lll
.
"
one person, thing, or idea, or one class or collect1on.
It is in the third person. " The third person relates to the
person or thing spoken of or written of."
I//(
It limits the noun" brotlter", showing whose ?~r, and .d~
noting an implied possessor. It is in the poss~ss1ve case, a~d it is
m the
governe d b y the noun" brotlter". "A·noun
. . or ba pronoun
. ,,
possessive case is governed by the noun limited Y it.
.

EXERCISE 25.
Parse all tlte nouns tltat are in the possessive case, contained in
tlicfollowing sentences.
.
Dickens's "Pickwick Papers" are amusmg. .
Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" has been
much read.
5*

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

NOUNS.

He spoke of William's last exploit in terms of admiration.
John's friend's father had purchased for him Blair's Rhetoric
and Copp!Se's Elements of Logic.
Susan borrowed Mary's "Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress."
John and Jarnes's parents were both dead.
Henry's and George's fathers were near neighbors.
Hart's Grammar was used in the school, but he had studied
Smith's and Brown's.
The Duke ofWeiliQgton's windows were broken by a mob •.

An intransitive verb must not have an object.
A transitive verb in the passive voice, must not
have an objective.

iI '

An objective may.be governed by several verbs, and a verb
may govern several objectives.
Prepositional · Objective.

146. RuLE.-A noun or a pronoun used as the
object of a preposi-tion, must be in the objective case.

He bought the goods at White and Stone's.
He stopped at White's and Stone's.
The Bishop of London's diocese is large.

14 7. A preposition governs its object, and the
two words form a prepositional phrase, generally used like an adjective or an adverb.

OBJECTIVE CASE.

Exu1PLEs:-A man of" peace. Adjective phrase.
He goes in baste. Adverbial phrase.
The ob}ect of a prepositional phrase may be limited by adjective
elements, and the phrase may be limited by adverbial elements.
A preposition may govern more than one objective; as,

V erb<il Objective. ·

143. RULE.-A noun or a pronoun used as the
object of a transitive verb in the active voice,
must be in the objective case.

I we.a in company with .J'ohn and Sames.
Here ""toith" has a compound object.

An active transitive verb, whether it is finite or is an infinitive,
has an object, and is said to govern it.

•

Several prepositions may jointly govern the s~Fe object_i've; as,
He went into,. through, and from the house without pausmg.
He shall he.ve power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties.

EXAld'.PLEs.-Some love themselves only.
· To repeat words is not to underatand them.
Having repeated his leuon, he took his seat.

148. There is often an ellipsis of the prep.osition

144. Most verbs may be used either transitively .
or intransitively.
·

145. A transitive verb must, when active, have
an object in the objective case.

ii

Its subject is the object of the verb in the active voice.

Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend, '
His actions', passions', being's use and end.

Ex.1.liPLEs.-" He sees ;" that is, he is not blind; or, his eyes
are not shut. "Sees" is not limited by an object.
"He sees the moon." "Sees" is limited to the moon; every
other object is excluded from the assertion made.

55

to· or for, when its object precedes the object o_f

a verb · but, after the object of the verb, there is

r

'

..

no ellipsis of the prepos1t10n.
ExAMPLEs.-Give John the pen.
Give the pen to John.

In changing to the p~ssive voice, the object of
the verb in the active voice, must become the subj ect of the verb in the passive voice.

l.

I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PRONOUNS.

PARSING.

EXERCISE

OilJECTIVE NOUNS.

26.

Parse all the nouns that are in the objective case: i;i tlie following sentences.
The men are just coming from the meadow with a load of hay.
A man and a boy are riding oil. the load. One man, with a
whip in his hand, is walking by the oxen to keep them in the
road.
The man who drives the oxen walks so that they shall be next
to his right hand.
When the man wants the oxen to turn to the left, he says,
"Haw.'' When he wants them to turn to the right, he says,
"Gee."
Two men are behind the load of hay. One of them has a rake
on his shoulder, the other has a scythe.
The one with the scythe has been cutting down the grass.
This is called mowing.
In the winter there is no fresh grass in the fields; then hay is
given to cows, and horses, and sheep, to eat.
Parse the nouns in selected passages from an Arithmetic, a
Ge<?graphy, a Reader, or any other school-book.

EXA.MPLES.- Verbal Objective.
"He sees the moon."
4. Moon.-Sees moon.-" Moon" is a name. "Any word
used as a name, is a noun."
It is a common noun. " A common noun is a general .name,
given to every one of a class of beings or things."
It is of the neuter gender. " The neuter gender denotes things
which are without sex."
It is in the singular number. "The singular number denotes
one person, thing, or idea, or one class or collection."
It is in the third person. "The third person ~el ates to the
person or thing spoken of or written of."
It is used as the obj ect of the transitive verb "sees", which is in
the active voice, and it is in the objective case. "A noun or a
pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice,
must be in the objective case."

Prepositional Objective.
"He is a man of peace."
5. Peace.-Of peace.-" Peace" is a name. " Any word used
as a name, is a noun."
It is a common noun. " A common noun is a general name,
given to every one of a class of beings or things."
It is of the neuter gender. "The neuter gender denotes things
which are without sex."
It is in the singular number. "'l'he singular number denotes
one persoii, thing, or idea, or one class or collection."
It is in the third person. "The third person relates to the
person or thing spoken of or written of."
...
It is used as the object of the preposition "of", in the phrase
"of peace" which limits the noun "man", and it is in the objective case. "A noun or a pronoun used as the object of a preposition, must be in the objective case."

57

The t61Lcher must be careful to select such passages as contain only the
simple constructions ·given in this book.

PRONOUNS.

J

That is the man who spoke to me. Who is he? I do not know
his name, but ke lives near us, and I see him often.
In the above sentences the words who, Who, he, his, he, and
him, all represent the same person that the noun man does. Each
one of these words is used instead of the noun man.
Me, I, and I, all represent the person who· speaks the sentence.
Us represents the same person i;ogether with other persons.
These words are used instead of names or nouns.

58

59

PRONOUNS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

149. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a
noun.
Certain words used frequently instead of nouns, are pronouns. There are fifty-five different forms of the pronoun~.

Second person, of any gender.
Plural.

Singular.

Nam. Thou,
Poss, thy
(with a noun),

thine (without a noun),

An adjective, whose noun is omitted by ellipsis, is used instead of the
noun, but it must not be considered a pronoun.

Obj. thee.

150. The.noun for which a pronoun is used, is
the antecedent of the pronoun.
. "

Singular.

Nom. You,
Poss. your (with a noun),
yours (without a noun),
Obj. you.

Third person, 'niasculine gender.

N OTE.-A pronoun of the first person has reaJry no antecedent noun; it
refers to the 1peaker or toriter, whether named or not.
In the second person the antecedent noun is generally understood: it is
but seldom given in words.

A pronoun often has a pronoun for its antecedent, when both
are used to represent the same noun. ·

151. Pronouns have the attributes of Gender,
Number, Person, and Case.
A phrase or a clause may be the antecedent of a pronoun, and
may for this purpose be considered a noun.

Division of the Pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

153. A personal pronoun is a pronoun
which shows the grammatical person by its form.
Declension of tlie Personal Pronouns.

First pei·son, of any gen<ler.
Nom.I,
Poss. my
(with a noun),
mine (without a noun),
Obj. me.

Plural.

(with or without a
noun),

Nom. They,
Poss. their (with a noun),
theirs (without a noun),
Obj. them.

Third person, feininine gender.
Singular.

Plural.

Nom. She,
Poss. her (with a noun),
hers (without a noun)
Obj. her;

Third person,

Nom. They,
Poss. their (with a noun),
theirs (without.a noun),
07Jj. them.

neui

gender.

.u ral.

No . hey,
Nom. It;
Poss. its (with or without a noun), Poss. their (with a noun),
theirs (w'ithout a noun),
Obj. them.
Obj. it.
The apostrophe is never 1,lsed with a pronoun in the possessive.
It is used in an elision of a verb; as, it'• for it i1.

Thus,

1t8, not it'1;

In the second person, the plural is commonly used instead of
the singular, as more polite or complimentary; thus, Singular or
Plural, Norn. you,-Poss. your or yours,-Obj. you. The
proper number is used in prayers to God, and in solemn style,
and it is used in all cases by the Sor.iety of Friends.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

· Nom. We,

Poss. our
ours
Obj. us.

Plural.

Obj. him.

Singular.

152. Pronouns are divided into three classes:
Personal, Relative, and Interrogative.

Singular.

Nom. He,
Poss. his

(with a noun),
(without a noun),

154. A relative pronoun is a pronoun used
to append to its antecedent noun or pronoun a
limiting clause of which the relative is an element.

, II

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60

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ExAMPLE.-He who is wealthy may become poor.
That is, He may become poor.
The limiting clause may be called a. defining or descriptive clause.

A relative clause is an adjective element.
The antecedent may be a phrase or a clause, used as a noun.

155. The relative pronouns are who, 'vhich,
what, that, and as, and some compounds of the
first three.
Declension of the R elative Pronouns.

156. The relatives are not varied m form for
gender, number, or person.

61

PRONOUNS.

ExAMPLEs.-This is the child which was hurt.
He saw the troop which was passing.
H e bought the hoxse which he rode that day.

159. What refers to non-personals; that
and as to either personals or non-personals.
INTERROGATIV:FJ PRONOUNS.

160. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.
161. The interrogatives are who, which, and
what.

·

TYho is declined like the r elative who.

Who.

Masculine or Feminine.

First, second, or third person.

Sing., Nom.

Who,

Plur., Nom. who,

Poss. whose,
Poss. whose,
Obj. whom.
Obj. whom,
"Which" and "that" have the possessive whose, but
no other variation of form.
•
"What" and "as" have no variation of form, and are
never used in the possessive.
Use of the Relative Pronouns.

157. Who is used in referring to persons, or
personified objects ; that is, to 1>ersonals.
ExAMPLEs.-I saw him who wrote to me.
Till Death,-who in his vast affairs,. ne'er puts things .off, as
men in theirs,-winked at our hero as he passed.

158. Which is used in referring to young
persons whose ·Sex is disregarded, to collective
personal nouns when the collective is used as one
whole, and to inferior animals and inanimate objects, not personified; that is, to non-pe1.•sonals.

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162. An interrogative has no antecedent, but
it refers indefinitely to a word in the answer, and
agrees with that word.

,! 1

The interrogatives which and what refer to personals
as well as non-personals.

Hi3. Who asks for one or more persons to be
named; which asks for the p~cular persons or
al; what asks
things, or a particular one of s
for a description of one or more persons, or, for a
tiling or act to be named or stated.
EXAMPLEs.-Who did it? A pupil of the school. ·
'\Vhich of the.m? The head of the first class.
What is he ? A good and industrious boy.
What is that? An exercise.
What is done? The task is finished.
AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT.

164. RuLE.-A pronoun must agree with its
antecedent noun or pronoun in gender, nuDJ.ber,
and person.

· 1

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62

63

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PRONOUNS.

Case.

It is a personal pronoun. "A personal pronoun is a pronoun
which shows the grammatical person by its form."
The antecedent, the noun "father", is the name of a male
person, only one, spoken of.
The pronoun "his" agrees with its antecedent, the noun
"father", in the masculine gender, the singular number, and the
third person. " A pronoun must"agree with its antecedent noun
or ·p ronoun in gender, number, and person."
It limits the noun "son", showing whose son, and denoting an
implied possessor. It is in the possessive case, and it is governed
by the noun " son". " A noun or a pronoun in the possessive
case is governed by the noun limited by it."

Rules for the case of a pronoun have been given:
they are the same as those for the case of a noun.
IB the second person, a plural pronoun is commonly used
for the singular; as, You, for thou.

PARSING.
Pronouns.
In parsing a pronoun, name the word parsed; show its meaning
in connection with the words necessary to explain its use, and only
those, looking to both agreement and government; show with what
word it agrees and in what gender, number, and person,-give the
rule of agreement; state in what case it is, with the reason, a11d
quote the rule of syntax/or it.

"The women whom I saw, were his aunts."
8. Whom.-Saw whom. Saw women.-" Whom" is used
instead of the word "wcnnen", which is a noun. "Certain words
used frequently instead of nouns, are pronouns."
It is a ;elative pronoun. "A relative pronoun is a pronoun
used to append to its antecedent noun or pronoun a limiting
clause of which the relative is. an element."
The antecedent, the noun "women", is the name of female
persons, more than one, spoken of.
The pronoun "whom" agrees with its antecedent, the noun
"women", in the feminine gend~he plural number, and the
third person. "A pronoun muil'Wgree with its antecedent noun
or pronoun in gender, number, and person."
It is used as the object of the transitive verb "saw", which is
in the active voice, and it is in the objective case. "A noun or a
pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice,
must be in the objective case."

EXAMPLES,

"Father works all day, and mother tells me that he does it all
for her and his little son."
6. He.-He does. Father does.-" He" is used instead of the
word "father", which is a noun. "Certain words used frequently
instead of nouns, are pronouns."
It is a personal pronoun. " A personal prono un is a pronoun
which shows the grammatical person by its form."
The antece.dent, the noun "father", is the name of a male person, only one, spoken of.
The pronoun "he" agrees with its antecedent, the noun" father",
in ·the masculine gender, the singular number, and the third person. · "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent noun or pronoun in gender, number, and person."
It is the subject of the verb "does", and it is in the nominative
case. "A noun or a pronoun u sed as the subject of a finite verb,
must be in the nominative case." ·

EXERCISE

27.

Parse the pronouns contained in the following sentences.
Relative and interroga.tive pronouns need not be parsed by beginners.

There was once a little boy named Willie. One day his fatht>I
came to him with a basket of lettuce. .., H ere, Willie," said he,
" take this lettuce to our neighbor, Mrs. Burns."

7. Hls.-His son. Father's son.-" His" is used instead of
the word "father", which is a noun. "Certain words used fr&quently instead of nouns, are pronouns."

•

.,
.1
i

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II

......... ;.

'.

.

64

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

I

So Willie took the basket, and carried it to her Sh
much plea d
d .d I
·
e was very
se ' an sai • " am very glad to see you Willie fo I
have got something for you. You know my little bantam ~hi:k­
ens ?"
"0, yes, ma'am," said Willie; "they are the prettiest little
bantams I ever saw."
·
" 1Vell,'' said Mrs. Burns, "the old bantam left her chickens
yesterday. You know hens always leave their chickens when
they are able to take care of themselves."
"'I'hen I am glad I am not a chicken,'' said Willie. , "for I
should not like mother to leave me, even when I could t~k
of myself."
e care

16 7. An is shortened to a before a word or
character beginning, when spoken, with a consonant sound.
ExAMPLEs.-A man, a young man; a horse, a walk; a
eulogy, a unit, such a one, au, a y.

168. An is not shortened before a word or
character beginning, when spoken, with a vowel
ExAMPLEs.-An egg, an inn, an hour, an honest man,
an odd one, an S, an h, an &;.
An means one, but it is used differently; it was formerly

~·
165. An Article is the word the, or the word
or a, used before a noun to limit its signification.

I
I .
I

I

I

l

if·
. :f

written ane.

EXERCISE 28.
Use the proper form of the indefinite article before each of the
following nouns or phrases.
Man; young man ; old man; tall man ; honest man; upright
man; Englishman ; Arab ; European ; Hindoo ; African ; egg ;
horse; hour; clock; eight-day clock; book; useful book; arithmetical rule; uncomfortabl:y warm day; h eir-at-law; hair-clothcovered chair.
·. .

i

There is sometimes after an adjective an .ellipsis of the noun
which an article belongs.

to

·ExAMPLE.-Turn to the right [hand or side.]
. The adjective may be considered as used as a noun, or the eilipsis may
be supplied.

PARSING..
Articles.
In parsing an article, name the word; show its use in connection
with its limitea noun; state the kind of article, and to what it belongs, and quote the rule of Ryntax.

idea of an ignorant man.
'l'he idea of the ignorant man.

ExaM PLES.-An.

6*

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169. RuLE.-An article belongs to the noun
which it limits.

The, an, or a, used before a noun to limit its signification i
article.
' s an

166. The is called the definite article· it
refers to one or more as known, or distingui;hed
from others.
Au is called the indefinite article ; it refers
to .one only of several as unknown, or not distingmshed from others.

!·

sound.

you t~ut I have put two of the chiekens into a basket; and one of
them is for you, and the other for your cousin George."

~n

65

An idea of tlie ignorant man.
The idea of an ignorant man.

"I dare say not," said . Mrs. Burns; "but I was going to tell

ARTICLES.

ARTICLES.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXAMPLES.
"The first and last lines may be omitted."
9. The.-The lines.-" The" is used before the noun" lines"
to limit its signification. " The, an, or a, used before ~ noun t~
limit its signification, is an article."
It is the definite article. "The is called the definite article. it
refers to one or more as known or distinguished from others." '
It belongs to the noun "lines". "An article belongs to the
noun which it limits."
"He is a very good boy."
. l~. ~--~boy.-" A" is used before the noun "boy", to 'li~it
its s1gmficat10n. " The, an, or a, used before a noun to limit its
signification, is an article."
~t is _the indefinite article. "An is called the indefinite
ar~wle ; it refers to one only of several as unknown, or not distinguished from others."
. " Ve1y", when spoken, begins with a consonant sound. "An
is shortened to a before a word or character beginning when
spoken, with a consonant sound."
'
The article "a" belongs to the noun "boy". "An article belongs to the noun which it limits."
EXERCISE

2 9.

Parse the articles in the following sentences.
~n hour-glass is a machine, or instru~ent, for measuring time.
It is made of two bulbs of glass, with a very narrow passage from
one bulb to the other. It has sand inside of it; and it takes just
one hour for all the sand to run out of one bulb into the other
Sometimes the bulbs are made smaller, so that it takes a half.
hour or a quarter of an hour for the sand to run out of one into
the other. But these are still called hour-glasses, though they
. measure a smaller amount of time than an hour.

ADJECTIVES.
170. An Adjective is a word used to describe
or limit a noun or a pronoun.
Any word ~sed to describe or limit a noun or a pronoun, is an

adjective.
Participles following nouns, n.nd limited by adverbial or objective elements, are excepted, and a.re not onlled adjectives, although they nre
adjective elements.

Some adjectives teli what kind of a persoi::i or thing the noun to
which they belong represents. If we say "He is a good boy", •
we tell what kind of a boy we speak of, and the word "good"
describes the boy, by telling one of his qualities.
Some other adjectives do not describe or tell what kind of a
person or thing is meant, but they let u~.Jmow what one, or how
many, or some other fact concerning . . is represented by the
nouns to which they belong. They limit the meaning in some
way.
In the sentence "Thia boy was the first one to finish all his
tasks", "This" points out a certain boy, "one" belongs to boy
omitted by ellipsis, and stands in place of it, "first" shows the
order of the one, or boy, as to finishing, and "all" shows that
no task was omitted ; but not one of these words describes the boy
or the taslcs.
Classes of Adjectives.

•'I

"

171. Adjectives are divided into two classes ;
descrilJi.ng and limiting •

172. A desci.•ibing or qualifying atljective
shows some quality, condition, or circumstance.
ExAMPLEs.-Good, red, wide, loving, ladylike, upper, southeastern.
67

,..

68

69

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ADJECTIVES.

173. A lim.iting adjective merely limits with..
out describing. ·
174. Limiting adjectives are either numeral
or pronominal.
~ 75. A num.eral adjective is an adjective
which expresses a definite number.

179. When an adjective is not predicated of a
noun or a pronoun, it is assumed.

1

''·i

EXAMPLES.-The sick. man died.
A man, sick, sad, and sorry, sat by his side.
In such case, the only assertion is contained in the verb; as,
died,-sat.

ExAMPLEs.-One, two; third, fourth; five-fold, &c.
We may often use an adjective that describes a noun, in different forms, so as to show that two or more persons or things have
different degrees of the quality.
In the sentence "That is an old man, but my father is older,
and yours is the oldest4't' the three", the adjectives "old",
"older", and "oldest" all~ve the same quality to the man and
the two fathers, but in such a way that we know the relative age
of the three. This way of varying words to show degrees is
called comparison.

. 176. ~ pronom.inal adjective is an adjec.fav~ which frequently represents its limited noun
'
omitted by ellipsis.
ExAMPLEs.-This, each, one, both, same, &c.
A descriptive or a numeral adjective may also represent the noun it describes or limits.

An adjective of any kind may be compound, and composed of words of any part of speech.
ExAl!PLEs.-Ladylike, nut-brown, theatre-going, four-footed, North
American ;-twenty-two, five hundred and three, one-and-sixtieth, manypetaled.
·
· Only four pronominal adjectives are compouna; they are, whatever,
tohataoever, whichever, 1ohichsoever.

180. Many describing adjectives are varied by
compwrison.
A very few limiting adjectives are comparabl~.

1 77. Which and what are sometimes interrogative adjectives.
ExAMPLEs.-Which one do you prefer?
By what means will he do so?
When which or w/r.at is an interrogative adjective, it begins the question,
or is preceded by a preposition,-sometimes by a participle or an infinitive.
ADJECTFES PREDICATED OR ASSUMED.

EXAMPLE.-The man is sick.
Here "is· sick" is the predicate, and the adjective" sick."
belongs to the subj ect, the noun "nian".

,·.
I

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

•

178. Adjectives may be used in predication
with copulative verbs (be, seem, &c.), and then
they are asserted of the subject.

''

·

[

181. CJomparison is, properly, a regular arrangement of the inflections of an adjective or
an adverb, to show different degrees of the quality.
There is also a comparison made by using certain
adverbs with an adjective or an adverb.
182. Adjectives are cqmpared to show in·
crease, or a greater degree, and decrease; or a
less degree of tae quality.
183. There are three degrees of comparison ;
the positive, the compm•ative, and the superlative;
184. The positive degree expresses the qual-

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71

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR.

ADJECTIVES.

ity simply, without direct reference to it in
others.
185. The com.parative degree gives more
or less of the quality than to another, or to a
class, put in contrast.
186. The superlative degree gives the most·
or the least of the quality, of all contrasted. ,

positive,-and form the minor suP_e!'lative by
taking the word least before the positive.

Adjectives denoting color, and some others, take the suffix
-lsh, meaning somewhat; as, bluish, (somewhat blue),-reddish,
blackish.

Regula1• Inflected Comparison.
Positive.

Comparative.

- bright
red
feeble
serene
tender
narrow
happy

,,

187. Some adjectives are not comparable; in
their meanings they express qualities which are
absolute or fixed. These are used ·in one form
only.

Superl.

Minor.
Compar.

least bright

less bright

ExAMPLES.·-Equal, square, correct, dead, three, second, single,
bifid, whole, &c.

least red

less red

least no.rrow

less narrow

188. l'tlonosyllables, and dissyllables ending in e not sounded, in er, ow, or y, generally
form the major comparaUve by adding the
suffix -er to the positive,- and form the major
superlative bv adding the suffix •est to the
positive."
189. All comparable adjectives except monosyllables, and dissyllables ending in e not sounded,
in er, ow, or y (and these sometimes), form
the major comparative by taking the word
DJ.ore before the positive,-and form the major
superlative by taking the word most before the
positive.
190. All comparable adjectives form the minor
comparative by taking the word less before the

Superlative.

brighter
redder
feebler
serener
tenderer
n arrower
happie1·

brightest
reddest
feeble.st
serenest
tenderest
narrowest
happiest

Full Comparison.
Positive.
bright

Jfa}or.
Superl.
Compwr.
brightes'
brighter
more bright most'bright

red
(reddish)

redder
more red

r eddest
most red

narrow

narrower
more narrow

narrowest
most no.rrow

Adjectives compared only by Adverbs.
l east solemn
l east capable
l east indecorous

l ess solemn
less capable
less indecorous

~olcmn
capable
indecorous

more solemn
more capable
more indecorous

most solemn
most capable
most indecorous

Ir1•egular Comparisons.
Positive.
{good

bad
evil
{ ill

{

little
much
mo.ny

Conipwrative.

better

worse

less (lesser)

more

Superlative.

best }

..J
lea.st

mosJ

72

ADJECTIVES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCISE

30.

.Give the comparison of the following adjectives, both ma}or and
minor.
"'."hite, large, yellow, slender, noble, holy, r espectable, dazzling,
strait, straight, crooked, brave, generous, shallow, honest, un~
happy, little, gentle, dirty, simple, hard-hearted, unforgiving,
hollow.

.191. The comparative degree refers to two, of
different classes, and one should not include the
other.
EXAMPLE.-" John is growing taller;" that is, taller now than
before,-two different ti1nes.

192. The superlative refers to two or m.ore,
as of one class.
ExAMPLE.-Gold is the most ductile of metals.

193. Ru1E.-An adjective belongs to the
noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits.
194 .. An adjective used in predication with a
copulative verb, belongs to the subject of the verb.
EXAMPLES.--John is amiable.
He appears happy.
The apple tastes sweet.
The boy was m ade miserable.

PARSING.
Adjectives.
In parsing an adjective, name. the word parsed; show its meaning in connection with the word or words necessary to explain its
use, and only those; name its class (and sub-class) ; give its
num~er, if ~ertain or invariable; if comparable, name its degree,
and mflect it ; note any speciality in its use; state to what word
it belongs, and quote the rule of syntax.

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73

EXAMPLES.
"Wise men sometimes err."
IL Wise.- Wise men.-" Wise" is used to describe the noun
"men". '" Any word used to describe or limit a noun or a pro. .
noun is an adjective."
It is a describing adjective. "A describing or qua:lifymg adjective shows some quality, condition, or circumstance."
It is in the positive degree. "The positive degree expresses
the quality·simply, without direct reference to it in others." .
· It is inflected,-positive, wise; comparative, wiser; superlative,
wisest.
.i.,
·
It belongs to thRoun "men". "An adjective belongs to the
noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits."
" The poi;ir woman was unfortunate."

12. UnCortunate.-Woman-was unfortunate.-" Unfortunate" is used to describe the noun "woman". " Any word
used to describe or limit a noun or a pronoun, is an adj ective."
It is a describing adjective. "A. describing or qualifying adjective shows some quality, condition, or ci:~umstance."
It is in the positive degree. "The pos1t1ve degree expresses
the quality simply, without direct reference to it in others."
It is not inflected but is compared only by adverbs.
It is used in predication with the verb "was"' and .it b.elongs
to the noun "woman", the subject of" was". " An adJ ect1ve belongs to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits." .
" She brought but one book, and that is it."
13. One~- One book.-" One" is used to limit the noun
"book". " Any word used to d(;lscribe or limit a noun or a pronoun, is an adjective/'
It is a numerai limiting adjective. "A limiting adjective
merely limits without describing." !'A numeral adjective is an
adjective which expresses a definite number."
It is not comparable.
It belongs to the noun "book". " An adjective belongs to the
noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits."
7

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

14. That.-That (book) .-"That" is used to limit the noun
"book", omitted by ellipsis. "Any word used to describe or
limit a noun or a pronoun, is an adjective."
It is a pronominal limiting adjective. "A limiting adjective
merely limits without describing." "A pronominal adjective is
an adjective which frequently represents its limited noun, omitted
by ellipsis."
·
It is not comparable.
It belongs to the noun book, understood. "An adjective belongs to the noun or the pronoun which it describes or limits.';
ExERCISE

31.

Parse the adjectives contained in the following passages.
In a large forest in France there lived a poor woodman, whose
name was J ack. He made a little money by the sale of his
fagots,-enough to support himself, his wife Jenny, and their trro
children. The eldest child was a boy, with dark hair, seven
years old, called J ean, and the second was a fair-haired girl,
called J eanette.
They had also a large, black dog, with curly hair and a white
nose,-the best dog in all the country,-and this dog was called
Bandy.
When the snow ·lies deep in the forest, the wolves that live in
its depths grow very hungry and fierce, and come out to look for
food. The poor people also suffer much, in the time of deep snow,
because they cannot get work.
J ack did not fear the wolves when he had his good axe ill his
hand, and he went every day to his work. In the morning he
said to· J enny, "'Vife, pray do not let Jean and Jeanette run out
to play until the wolves have been hunted. It would not be safe.
Keep Bandy in, too.''
Every morning Jack said the same thing to Jenny, and all
went well till one evening, when he did not come home at the
usual time. Jenny went to the door, looked out, came in, theu
went back, and looked out again. "How very late he is!" she
said to herself.

VERBS.

. 'I

195. A Verb is a word used to say, tell, or
assert.
·

Any word used to say, tell, o~ assert,-or to .form a predicate
(either alone or wit\lii,ther words), is a Verb.
.

If the verb be takelrway from a proposition, the remaining words do
not say, assert, atlirm, or deny any thing; they make no oomplete sense;

they convey no thought.
"Attention -the proper and distinguishing excellence of the hum~n
. d. •nd ·n connection with the faculty of abstraction, - the essential
mm , w , 1
•
Uy "
difference between man and the brute, as well mtellectua11 y as mora :
Here are words of different parts of speech, some of t~cm . forming
phrases which may be considered parts. of speech, yet nothing is told or
•aid There is no subject, nor any predicate.
I~sert "i•" in the first blank, and "form•" in the second, and ':,e have.
a sentence, expressing a thought, or, more correotly, two thoughts on attcn-

tio~:·ttentfon"

is the subject, and the predicate is compoun_d; the tw: predicates of which it is composed, arc separated by the sem1oolon, an connected by "and'', following it.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

196 . A verb is either transitive ?r intransitive. A verb is either regular or 'irregular.
19 7. Some verbs are copulative, some are
irnpersonal, some are redundan~,. and some
are defective. Eight verbs are aux'ihar~ verbs.
198. A transitive verb is a verb which has
an object.
75

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

199. An intransitive verb is a verb which
has not an object.
200. Most verbs are used at times transitively,
and at other times intransitively.
ExAMPLEs.-He sees 1ne ;-He sees clearly.

.

201. T••ansitive verbs have two voices; the
active, and the 1)assive.
202. Voice is that form of a transitive .verb,
which shows whether the subfect of the proposition
is the doet• or the 1•eceiver of the action expressed by the verb.
203. The active voice of a verb is that form .
which, when finite, predicates an act of the agent,
and which is limited by an object.
ExAMPLEs.-They call m,e; calling nie; to call me.

204. The passive voice of a verb is that form
which~ when finite, predicates an act of the object
receiving the action.
ExrnPLEs. - I am called;

being _called; to be

called.
F or further explanation, see pages 33 to 36.

An intransitive verb does not take the for~ of the passive
voice; thus we may say to exist; ·but not to be existed, or is existed.

205. A verb is transitive whenever it is correctly used with an object, or is correctly used in
the passive voice.
206. A verb is intransitive whenever it is
correctly used in the simple form without an object.
207.. A verb usually intransitive may take .an
object of like derivation; then, being transitive, it
has a passive voice.

77

EXAMPLE.-To blow; to blow a blast; n blast is blown.

,.

208. A regular verb is a verb that forms its
past tense and its perfect participle b~ adding the
suffix •ed to its present tense.
ExAMPLEs.-Present, call; past, called; perfect participle,
called.
·
·

.

209. An irregular verb is a verb that does
t form its past tense and its perfect participle
y adding the suffix ·ed to its present tense.

t

Ex.-Present, hold;
"
hear ;

pnst, held; perfect participle, held.
" heard;
"
"
heard.

The rules of spelling are observed in regular verbs; thus,
hate, hat ed, hat ed (not hate-ed).
dry, dried, dried (not dry-ed).

210. A copulative verb is an intransitive or
a passive-transitive verb, which takes after it a
predicate-nominative representing the same person or thing that the subject represents.
ExAMPLEs.-He is a man.
.
He is named John.
The boy became a man.

211. An hnpersonal verb is a verb which
when finite, always has the indefinite subject it. '
ExAMPLE.-It rains.
We may say lo rain; raining; but .never I rain, he rains, &c. with the
usual meaning.
·

212. A redundant verb is a verb which has
more tl~an one form for its past tense or for its
'
perfect participle, or for both.
Ex.-Pres., bid; past, bid or bade; perf. part., bid or bidden.
"
eat; "
eat or ate;
"
"
eaten.
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79

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

213. A deCective verb is a verb which is not
used in all the usual forms.

meanings, although the general meaning of "going'' remains the
same.
We may also vary the form of the verb so as to correspond
in meaning with words showing that we tell of the present time,
some time past, or some time yet to come, and we may show
that what we speak of is completed or ended at any of these
· times. Thus; "I speak to you." .; I spoke to you." " I will
s.~k of it." "I have spoken of it." "Thou hadst spoken behe spoke.''

ExAMPLES.-;-Must; ought.

214. An auxiliary verb is a verb used before another yerb, to modify it with respect to
manner or time.
·
The principal verb and the auxiliari~s used with
it are considered as one verb, but not as a compound verb.
215. The auxiliary verbs are be, do, have,
will, shall, may, can, and must.
Be, do, have, and will, are also u sed as principal verbs; shall,
may, can, ·and must, are only used as auxiliaries.

216. The auxiliary be has all the forms of
the principal verb be~· it is used to form the
passive voice of transitive verbs, and also the progressive form of all verbs.
Thus, I am loved, I 'vas loved, I have been loi•ed, &c.,
are passh·e forms ;
I am loving, I was loving, I have been loving, It "·as
being shaken, &c., are progressive forms.

217. The auxiliaries do, have, will, shall, may,
and can, are used in but two forms each, and must
in but one form ; thus,
·
Present,

Past,

do, have, will,
shall, may,
did, had, would, should, might,

can,
could.

must.

These forms, however, take. personal suffixes.

f.

ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS.

218. Verbs have mood, tense; numbe1·, and
person.
Transitive verbs have also voice.
For voice, see pp. 35, 36.
MOOD.

219. 1'1ood IS that form of the verb, which
denotes the manner in which the assertion is
expressed.
A verb is used either with or without a. subject ;-when with a subject,
it is called finite; wh.e n without a subject, it is called an i11finitive ~erb.

The meaning of a finite verb may be expressed in four different ways.
1. It may be expressed unconditionally ; as,
The boy writes; (or, writ•• a letter.)

2. It may be expressed as a possibility, obligation, volition, or
duty; as,
The boy may wr·i te,-or must write; (or, may write a. letter.)

3. It may be used in a conditional dependent clause, limiting
the verb in the principal clause of a complex sentence; as,
You may see if the boy write•.

"I go often." "May I go?'~ "Yes, you may go."· "If I go,
I may not return in time.'' "Go at once." " I wish to go."
" I 8aw her going to school." The verb "go" is used in different
manners in the above sentences, which have therefore different

4. It may be used as a command, entreaty, or permission; as,
Write; or, Write, boy.

The meaning of an infinitive verb may be expressed in two
different ways.

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VERBS.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

junctions, if, though, although, lest, unless, except, whether, or
provided.

1. It may be used vaguely, as merely naming the meaning of
the verb ; as,

226. The indicative form, as well as the potential, may be used with a conjunction, sub/unctively,
and limiting another verb.
·
227. The im.perative IDOOd is that form of
the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting,
entreating, or permitting.

To write ; to write letters.

2. It may be expressed as a condition or state, used to describe
a noun or a pronoun, or used as a noun ; as,
Writing .i 10rit·ing letters; in t01·iti11g.

220. V erbs have five moods; the indicative,
the potential, the subjunctive, and the Unperative, which are finite,-and the infinitive
mood.
Certain forms of infinitive verbs are called
participles.

Exu1PLEs.-Write; write the letter.

.pronoun
2f. Theof the
subject of the imperative mood is a
second person, following it, and
·generally omitted by ellipsis.

FINITE MOODS.

EXAMPLEs.-Write (thou).

221. The indicative mood is that form of
the verb, which simply indicates or declares.

Whether it is thou (singular), or you, used for
the singular or the plural, is understood from the
context.

ExAMPLE.-1 write.

222. The potential m.ood is that form of
the verb, which expresses liberty possibility or
power, obligation, willingness, or d~ty.
'

INFINITIVES.

229. The infinitive IUood is that f9rm of
the verb, which names its meaning without asserting of any subject.

EXAMPLE.-! n1ay w1·ite.

ExAMPLE.-To write.

223. The indicative or the potential mood
is used in asking a question.

The infinitive mood does not assert, because it is not used to
form a predicate. It is used as .a noun, as an adjective, or as
an adverb.

ExAMPLEs.-Write I? or, Do I w1·itel May I write?

224. · The subjunctive mood is that form of
th.e verb, ~hich exi:iress.es .a condition, contingency,
or uncertamty, which lmnts some other. verb.
225. The subjunctive rnood is only used in a
depe.ndent ~Ia:use, which generally limits the
verb m the prmc1pal clause of a complex sentence.
ExAMPLE.-He would know it, if it were true.
The subjunctive mood is usually preceded by one of the con-

Write (you).

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Participles.

230. A participle is a form of
which expresses the meaning of the
condition or state, without predication,
may be used to describe a noun, or,
itself.

the verb,
verb as ·a
and which
as a noun·

~n active-transitive infinitive or participle governs an objoctive

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

case as a verb, while it is used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
P articiples (not having subjects) are classed among infinitive

verbs.
A participle, or an infinitive, combined with one or more auxiliaries, becomes a principal verb; and the combination forms
a mood and tense, or a compound participle, of the principal
verb.

231. Besides the participles, there are but two
infinitives; the indefinite or present, and the
perfect.
These are sometimes called tenses of the infinitive mood.
Transitive verbs have the two in each voice.

232. The infinitive-indefinite gives the
meaning of the verb, without regard to tense or
time, in a form which is used like some other part
of speech.
ExAMPLEs.-To hear is not always to understand.
He is the very one to do it.
He was so foolish as to recuse.

233. The infinitive-perfect gives the meaning of the .verb as completed or :finished, in a form
which is used like some other part of speech.
ExAMPLE.-He was said to have finished his task before
he left.

r

Both forms commence with to, except when
following certain verbs.
234. There are three participles; the impe1·fect, the pm'fect, and the compound perf~ct.
Transitive verbs have the three in each voice.

235. The imperfect participle denotes what
is progressing and unfinished.
EXAMPLES.- Writing; being written.

VERBS.

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It ends in the suffix -ing,-except in the passive voice, which
has " being" and the perfect participle.

236. The perfect participle denotes what is
complete and finished.
EXAMPLES.- Written; been written.
In regular verbs it ends with the suffix -ed.

23 7. The colllpound perfect partici1>le dedenote*-hat is, was, or will be complete and finished
before &!"me tiµie or act referred to.
ExAMPLEs.-Having written; having been written.
It is composed of "_having" and the perfect participle.

Tense.

238. Tense is that form of the verb, which expresses the time referred· to.
239. Verbs have three distinctions of time, as
present, past, or future.
240. There are three silllple tensesl..-the
present, the past, and the future; and three
colllpound or J>erfect tenses, denoting completion,-the present perfect, the past perfect,
and the future perfect.
241. The present tense denotes simply present time.

'·

EXAMPLE.-! write-( to-day).

242. The past tense denotes simply past
time.
EXAMPLE.-! wrote-(yesterday).

243. The future tense denotes simply future
time.
EXAMPLE.-! shall write-( to-morrow).

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

244. The present perCect tense denotes what

is complete and finished at the present time.
EXAMPLE,.-! ha1'e wrltten-(to-day).

245. The past pm•Cect tense denotes what was
complete and finished at a past time referred to
or implied.

these forms are called the number and person of
the verb.
Like their subjects, finite verbs have two numbers; the singular and the plural ;-and three
persons; the first, the second, and the third.

ExAMPLE.-1 had written-(before you saw me) . .

246. The Cutm.·e perCect tense denotes what
will .be complete and finished at a future time
referred to or implied.
ExAMPLE.-1 shall have written-(before he will see
me).

Number of tenses in each mood.
1
Any definition of a tense applies strictly to the indicative mood
only; and only the Indicative has six tenses.
The potential mood has no futures ; but the meaning of the
future may be expressed by any tense in the potential mood. The
tenses are named only from their form.
'fhe sub:junctive mood sub:junctive form, has only the present and
the past ;-the past is used only when formed with the auxiliary
. "be". Either tense may ha~e a future meaning.
The imperative mood has only the present tense; it implies the
future in the fulfilling of the command, entreaty, &c.
The infinitive mood has the present tense, or infinitive-indefi,nite,
1
used for any time,-and the perfect tense, or infinitive-perfect,
used for full completion at any time.
The three participles are equivalent to three tenses, but the
word tense is not applied to them, and it need not be to the infinitive mood.

Number and Pm·son.

24 7. Finite Verbs have forms which vary
with the number and person of the subject, and

85'

VERBS.

The Progressive Form.

248. The progressive Corm of a verb is a
form which · expresses what is in progress, or is
incomplete at the time referred to. Other words
fix the time definitely in any tense but the present.
. 249. The progressive form of any verb is
made by placing before its imperCect participle
the proper mood, tense, number, and person of the
verb "to be". Thus,
Write. Ind., pres., 1st p., sing.,-am. I am writing.
In the progressive form the principal verb always ends in -ing,
except in the passive.

Form of the Passive Voice.

250. The passive voice of any transitive verb
is made by placing before its perCect participle
the proper mood, tense, number, and person of the
verb "to be". Thus,
Write.

Ind., pres., 3d p., sing.,-is.

It is written.

The Emphatic Form.

251. The emphatic form of any verb is a
form which expresses the_assertion in the affirmative and negative styles with emphasis; and which
8

...-----------~-~---------- -----

86

- - - ---·- ·-

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87

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

is used in the two interrogative styles to avoid
abruptness.

preceded by the auxiliary be, which follows all the above rules of
formation. "Be" is irregular in the present and past, indicative.
The passive voice is the perfect participle preceded
by the auxiliary be, which follows all the preceding rules of formation, but the passive is not used in the progressive, where
" being" would follow "be" or " been".
The emphatic Corm with do, is used only in the present
and past t. .es simple,-it is not used in the potential or the infinitive;
ollows the above rules of formation where applicable.
The above rules apply to all verbs, regular or irregular.

The emphatic form is used only in the present and past tenses of the
Indicative active, and the Indicative form of the Subjunctive active,-in
the present of the Subjunctive form active,-and in the Imper.ative, both
active and passive.
.

252. The emphatic form of a verb is made
by placing before the simple form, -the proper
tense, number, and person of the auxiliary" do".
Thus, I do write ;-1 do not write ;-emphatic.
Do I write 1-Do I not write ?-not emphatic.

253. A form which is not progressive or emphatic, is called the common form of the verb.
Forms of the Moods and Tenses;
In the common form, excepting the potential mood and the
whole passive voice of transitives,The present is the uninflected form of the verb,-one word,
except that the infinitive has "to" before the other word. Thus,
Ind., I write; Subj., If I write; Imp.,· Write; Inf., To write.
I talk;
If I talk;
Talk ;
To talk.
" To be" is irregular in the indicative.
The past is an inflected form, one word.
Thus, Ind., I wrote; I talked.
The Cuture is the uninflected form with shall or will placed
before it.
Thus, Ind., I shall write; I will write; I shall talk; I will talk.
An; perCect tense whatever is made by using have before the perfect participle, and "liave" follows the rules given
above for the present, past, and future.
The potential uses the other auxiliary forms, except those
of " be" and " do", and the auxiliaries follow all the above rules
of formation, omitting the futures. The simple form of the principal verb is used, except after a form of" liave".
The progressive Corm is the imperfect participle

Forms of the Numbers and Pm;sons.
The first person singular of a tense has the simple form
of the tense, except the verb " to be".
Each person of the plu1·a1 is .like the first person singular,
·except the verb " to be".
The second person singular of the present and past
tenses of the indicative, and of an auxiliary (the first only, if
more than one is used), takes the suffix -est.
The suffix is contracted to -st after -ed, and in some other
cases,-and in a few verbs, to -t.
The third person singular of the present ind,icative,
takes the suffix -es after a sibilant or a single vowel except a,
and -s in other cases.
The suffix of the 2d person singular is often omitted by those who habitua.lly use thou, and not you, for the singular.

CONJUGATION.

254. The conjugation of a verb is the regular
arrangement of all its forms, in the voices, moods,
tenses, n11mbers, and persons.
An intransitive verb has no object, and. therefore cannot have a passive
form ; it has no distinction of voice, but its forms are like those of the
active voice of a transitive verb.
The subject forms

no part of the verb, but in

IL

conjugation, personal

88

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

pronouns a.re used to allow the .different forms for number and person of
the verb, to be shown combined with the corresponding ones of the subject.
The object of a. transitive verb is no pa.rt of the verb, but it is needed
with the active voice, to show the transitiveness of the verb. The object
becomes the subject of the passive voice; if the object be a. noun or a. pronoun certain, the passive corresponding contains the number and person
of that object only; thus,

To call John. Active, Ind., pres.
Sing., 1stp. I call John
Plur., 1stp. We call John
2d p. Thou callest John
2d p. You call John
Sd p. He calls John
Sd p. They call John.
Passive, Ind., pres.
Sing., Sdp. John is called--(by me, by thee, by him, her, &c.
-by us, by you, by them, &c.)

To aid me. Active, Ind., pres.
Sing., 1st p. I aid myself.
2d p. Thou aides.t me
Sd p. He aids me.

Plur., 1st p. - - - - - 2d p. You aid me.
Sd p. They aid me.

Passive, Ind., pres.
Sing., 1stp. I am aided. - - ( b y myself, by thee, &o.)

The active corresponding strictly with the passive for all persons
and numbers, must have a number of objects for any one person and
number: thus,

To See

(trans.).

Active, Ind., past.

Sing., Sd p. She saw me, thee, hbn (it, John, &e.), us,

you, them (horses, &e.).

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89

VERBS.

Passive, Ind., past.

Singular.
1stp. I am seen

Thou m·t seen
Sd P· He
} .
It
.
John is see~

£d p.

1

&~

Plural.

l

1stp. We aJ•e seen

l

You m·e seen
by her. Sd p. They
Horses are seen
2d p.

by her.

&c.

.

..ln the following conjugation, the letters ob. are used to repreWt an object of either number and of any person. It may be disregarded in reciting, or a noun or a pronoun may be substituted.
The left hand page, if the ob. were omitted, would show the
conjugation of the intransitive verb " to call".
.If the last word (called) were omitted on the right hand page,
it would show the oonju$ation of the verb "to be", as a principal
verb; except the perfect participle, "been". The right hand page
now shows the conjugation of the auxiliary verb "to be" in con. junction with the principal verb "to call", forming the passive
voice of " to call".
The imperfect participle active (calling-), is used after "be'' to form
the progressive form active.
The perfect active participle (called), is used only after "ll.a1!e'' to form
the perfect tenses of the active voice.
The· perfect passive participle (called), is used after "be'' to form the
whole passive voice.
The full form of the perfect passive participle (been called), is used after
"have'' to form the perfect tenses of the Jl&Bsive voice, and in no other ca••·
"Will" in the 1st person, and "•hall" in the 2d and 3d persons, make
an emphatic or promising future.
Instead of "may" in any form, can, ·or must, may be used.
Instead of "might" in any form, . could, would, or •hould, may be used.
Instead of "if'', in the subjunctive, though, although, leat, unleu, except,
whether, or provided, may be used.
In all verbs, "wert" is the only word having a. per•onal ending, that is
used in the aubjuncti1Je form of the subjunctive mood.
8*

l
i

l

90

91

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

Conjugation of the Transitive verb To. Call.

Conjugation of the Transitive verb T o Call.

Regular.

Regular.

ACTIVE VOICE.
Principal Parts. 1, call; 2, called; 3, called.

PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD;

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present tense.

Sing., 1st p.
2d"
Sd"
Plur., 1st"
2d"
Sd"

I call ob.
Thou callest ob.
He calls ob.
We call ob.
YoU: call ob.
They call ob.

Past tense.

Sing., 1st p.
2d"
Sd"
Plur., 1st"
2d"
Sd"

{l)

(2)

I called ob.
Thou calledst ob.
He called ob.
We called ob.
You called ob.
They called ob.

Future tense.

Sing., 1stp. I was called
2d" Thou wast called
Sd" He was called
Plur., 1st" We were called
2d" You were called
Sd" They were called

will

shall
shall

(3)

I shall have called ob.
Thou wilt have c11lled ob.
He will h:we called ob,
We shall have called ob.
You will have called ob.
They will have called ob.

Past tense.

·\I•

Future tense.

Sing., 1st p.
2d"
Sd"
Plur.,1st"
2d"
Sd"

(3)

Future Perfect tense.
will
shalt
shall
will
shall
shall

(3)

I shall have been called
Thou wilt have been called
He will have been called
We shall have been called
You will have been called
They will have been called

POTENTIAL MOOD.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

The tenses named from their forms only .
Present tenae. (3)
Present Perfect tense. (3)
Sing., 1st p. I may be cal led
I may have been called
2d" Thou mayst be called
Thou mayst have been called
3d" He may be called
He may have been called
Plur., 1st" We may be called
We may have been called
2d" You may be called
You may have been called
Sd" They may be c~lled
They may have been called

(1)

I. may call ob.
Thou mayst call ob.
He may call ob.
We may call ob.
You may call ob.
They may call ob.

Present Perfect tense. (3)
I may have called ob.
Thou mayst have called ob.
He may have called ob.
We may have called ob.
You may have called ob.
They may have called ob.

;I

Past Perfect ten•e. {S)
I had been called
Thou hadst been called
He had ·been called
We had been called
You had been called
They had been called

{3)

I shall be called
Thou wilt be called
He will be called
We shall be called
You will be called
They will be called

(3)

I have been called
Thou hast been called
He has been called
We have been called
You have been called.
They have been called

The tenses named from their forms only.
Present tense.

.Sing., 1st p.
2d"
Sd"
Plur.,lst"
2d"
3d"

shalt
shall

P resent Perfect tense.

Past Perfect tense. {3)
I had called ob.
Thou hadst called ob.
He had called ob.
We had called ob.
You had called ob.
They had called ob.
Fut'ure Perfect tense.
will

(3)

Sing., 1st p. I dm caHed
2d" Thou art called
Sd" He is called
Plur.,1st" We are called
2d" You are called
~d" They are called

(1)

Sing., 1st p. I shall call ob.
2d" Thou wilt call ob.
Sd" He will call ob.
Plur., 1st" We shi.ll call ob.
2d" You will call ob.
Sd" Th ey will call ob .

Present tense.

Preaent Peifect twae. (3)
I have called ob.
Thou hast called ob.
He has called ob. ·
We have called ob.
You have called ob.
They have called ob.

tI
~

I

92

Sing., 1stp.
2d "
Sd "
Plur., 1st"
2d"
Sd "

To Call.

Active Voice.

To Call.
Past te11se.

(I)

Pas.I Perfec t tense.

I might call ob.
Thou mighlst call ob.
H e might call ob.
We mi°ght call ob.
You might call ob.
T_h ey might call ob.

93

VERBS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Past tense.

(3)

Sing., 1st p.
2d "
3d "
Plur.,lst"
2d "
Sd "

I 1wight have called ob.
Thou migh tst have called ob.
He might have called ob.
We might have called ob.
You might have called ob.
They might have called ob.

Passive Voice.

(3)

Past Perfect tense.

I might be called
Thou mightst be call~d
He might be called
We might be called
You might be called
They might b~ called

(3)

I 11iight have been called
Thou mightst have been called
He might have been called
We might have been called
You might have been ca.lied
They might have been ~ailed

SUB.JUNCTIVE MOOD.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

The Subjunctive mood indicative form, is the form of the
indicative mood preceded by a conditional conjunction; as, If thou
call est.
·
The Subjunctive mood potential form is the form of the
potential mood preceded by a conditional conjunction; as, If thou
mayst call.
·

The Subjunctive mood indicative form is the form of the
indicative mood preceded by a conditional conjunction; as, If thou
art called.
.
The Subjunctive 1noo_d potential for1n is the form of the
potential mood preceded by a conditional conjunction; as, If thou
mayst be called.
·

The tenses named from their forms only.
Present trnse. (I)
Indicativ• fo rm.
Sing., 1st p. If I call ob.
Pres. t. If I call ob. If tbou ca!l2d " If thou call ob.
est ob. If ho calls oh. If we call oh. &c.

.The tenses named from their form s only.

Su/dwnctive f<»"Yn.

Sul!}unctive f<»"m.

3d "
Plur., 1st "
2d "
3d "

ca~:::·ob~f

If he call ob.
If we call ob.
If you call ob.
If they call ob.

Present tense.

ir ~:~~~ ::.·&o~ thou

P otential f orm.

Pres. t. If I m,ay call ob. If thou
mayst call ob. If he may call ob. &c.
Past t. If I might call ob. If thou
mightst call ob. &c.

Past tense- not used. The
indicative form is used in the
six tenses, and the potential
form in the four tenses of that
mood.

Calledst thou ob. Hadst thou called ob.
Called he ob. &c. Rad he called ob. &c,

I

The caret (/\) shows the place of the

I
IInfin.perf;,(3)Tohavecalledob.

subject understood,-thou or you. It ia
seldom expressed.

INFINITIVES.

Infin. indef., (1) To call ob.
Imperf. particip., Calling ob.
Perf.;J'articip. (3) Called ob.

Oomp. perf.} JI, .
II d
partic.,(3) · avmg ca e

b
0

•

Pres. t. If I am c.,.lled, If thou art
called, If he is called, &c.
Past t. If I was called. If thou waot
called, If he was called, &c.
Pres. t. If

•

Sing., 1stp.
2d "
Sd "
Plur., 1st p.
2d "
3d ·~

Potential f<»"Yn·
I may be Clllled, If thou

mayst be called, If he m ay he call ed, &c.
Past t. If I might be called, If thou

Past ten••·

Subjunctive mood without conjunction.
Prtst tense.
Past Perfect tense.
Called I oh.
Had I called ob.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Sing., 2dp. Call/\ob.
Plur., 2d" Call/\ ob.

Ind·i catlve form.

Sing., 1stp. If I be called
2d " If thou be called
Sd i, .l'f h b
d
e e ca11e
Plur., 1st" If we be called
2d " If yo~ be called
Sd " If they be called

mlghtot be called, &c.
If I w~ecalled
Subjunctive mood without conjunctiOn.
If thou wert called
Past tense .
Past Pe1fec t tense.
If he were called
Were I called Had I been called
If we were called
Wert them called Hadat thou been called
If you were called Were he called, &c. Had ha been called, &c.
I/they were called.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Sing., 2d p . Be /\ called
Plur., 2d " Be \ called

I

The caret (/\)"shows the place of tho

subj~ct

unde_rstood,-thou in the sing.,
you m the plur., com.manly omitted.
INFINITIVES.

I

Infin. indef., (3) To be called
Infin.perf ., (3) To have been called
Imperf.part.,(3) Being called Oom. perf.}
.
called part., (3 ) Having been called
Per/. part. (3) _ _

94

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PROGRESSIVE FORM.
To Call.

.Active Voice.

VERBS.

PROGRESSIVE FORM.
To Call.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present tense.

Sing., 1stp. I an-i calling ob.
2d " Thou a?·t calling ob.
Sd " He is calling ob.
Plur., 1st" We are calling ob.
fdd " You a.re calling ob.
Sd " They a.re calling ob.
Paat tenae.

Sing., 1stp. I was calling ob.
2d " Thou wast calling ob.
Sd " He was calling ob.
Plur., 1st" We were calling ob.
2d" You' were calling ob.
Sd " They were calling ob.
Futu1·e tense.

{:Jing., 1stp. Ishallbecallingob.
2 d" Thou wilt be calling ob.
Sd " He will be calling ob.
Plur., 1st " We shall be calling ob.
2d " You will be calling ob.
Sd " They will be calling ob.

Present Perfect tense.
I have been calling ob.
Thou hast been calling ob.
He has been calling ob.
We have been calling ob.
You have been calling ob.
Th.ey have been calling ob: '
Past Perfect te11se.
I had been calling ob.
Thou hadst been calling ob.
He had been calling ob. ·
We had been calling ob.
You had been calling ob.
They had been calling ob.
Future Perfect tense.
I shall have been calling ob.
'l.'hou wilt have been calling ob.
He will have been calling ob.
We shall have been calling ob.
You will have been calling ob.
They will have been calling ob.

95

Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present tense.

Sing., 1stp. I am being called
2d " Thou ,art being called
Sd " He is being called
Plur., 1st " We are being called
. 2d " You are being called
Sd " They are being called

The progressive form of the passive voice is frequently used with
verbs whose meaning d.oes not
show a permanence, but yet allows
a. continuance for e. time; nnd it

is proper with such verbs only;
thus,
I am being examined, aided,
injured, helped, trifled with, im-

Paat ten1e.
posed on, &c.
Sing., 1st p. I was being called
In the third per1on, its use is
2d '' Thou wast being called
more exten sive; as,
Sd " He was being called
The house is being built, dePlur., 1st " We were being called
2d " You were being called atroyed, torn down., &c.
The book fs being read, critiSd " They were being called
cized, talked of, &c.
Like the rest of the progressive
form it is only used in the present, or when other words fix the
time definitely. .

. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Subjunctive form.

Past ten••; named from its form.
POTENTIAL MOOD.

The tenses named from their forms only.
Present tense.

Present Perfect tense.

Sing., 1stp. I may be calling ob.
I niay have been calling ob.
2d " Thou mayst be calling ob. Thou mayst have been calling ob.
Sd " He may be calling ob.
He m:iy have been calling ob.
Plur., 1st "We may be calling ob. We may have been calling' ob.
fdd" You maybe calling ob.
You may have been calling ob.
Sd " They may be calling ob. TheY. may have been calling ob.

Sing., 1stp. I/I we·r e being called
2d " If thou wert being called
Sd" I/he were being called
Plur., 1st " If we were being called
2d " If you were being called
Sd " If they were being called

The p;ogressive passive is not used in other forms than the above. In
other tenses two words from the root "be" would come together, and make
a. oaoophonous combination; as, I will be b..ing ea.lied.

,,1.
I

.

96

VERBS.

To Call. P1·ouressive Form, Active Voice.

List of Irregular Verbs.

Past tense.
Singular.

P ast Perfect tenae .
Singular.

1st p. I n"'iyht be calling ob. I n"'iyht have been calling ob.
2d" Thou mightst be calling ob. Thoumightsthave been calling ob.
Sd " He might b e calling ob.
He might h ave been calling ob.
Plural.

Plural.

1st" We might be calling ob.
2d " You might be calling ob.
Sd " They might be calling ob.

We might have been calling ob .
You might have been calling ob.
They might h ave been calli~g . Qb.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Subfunctive mood·indicativeform,-as before; thus, If I am call•
ing ob. ; If thou art calling ob.
Subfunctive mood potential form,-as before; thus, If I may be
calling ob. ; If thou 1nayst be calling ob., &c.

Subjunctive form.
(The tenses named from their forms only.)
Present tense.

Sing., 1stp. If I be calling ob.
2d " If thou be calling ob.
3d " If h e be carnng ob .
Plur., 1st " If we be calling ob.
2d " If you be calling ob.
3d "

If

they be calling ob.
Past tense.

Sing., 1st p . If I we1•e calling ob.
2d " If thou wert calling ob.
3d " If he were calling ob.
Plur., 1st " If we were calling ob.
2d " If you were calling ob.
Sd " If they were calling ob.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Sing., 2d p. Be /\ calling ob.
Plur., 2d p. Be /\ calling ob.
INFINITIVES.

...

97

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Infin. indef., To be calling ob. Inf.per., To have been calling ob.
Imp erf. particip.
Calling ob. Oomp. perf.} Having been calJ.
Perf. particip., * Been calling ob . part.,
Ing ob .
•Used only after" have" to form active progressive perfect tenses.

255. The principal parts of a verb, in English, are the present infinitive, the pas~ in_dicative, and t,he perfect participle (active, if
the verb is transitive) .
. The present infinitive gives name to the verb, and it is the form
found in a dictionary, "to" being omitted.
' When the past indicative and the perfect participle are f~rmed
by adding the suffix - ed to the present infinitive, th~ verb is regular; any variation from this makes the verb irregular.
Personal suffixes (-est, -es), are disregarded.
The past tense is never used after an auxiliary.
The auxiliary "have" must be followed by .t~e ~?r~ect
participle of the principal verb, or of the aux1hary be .
The auxiliary "be" must be followed by the imperCe.ct
or the perCeCt participle of the principal verb.
I. Ve1•bs having but one fot•m for the tlwee parts.
Preaent.
Beset
Bespread
Beste ad
Burst
Cast
Cost
Cut
Hit
Hurt
Let
R~ad

Per/. part.
Preaent.
Pait.
Paat.
Put
put
b eset
beset
reset
Reset
bespread
be spread
rid
Rid
bestead
bestead
set
Set
burst
burst
shod
Shed
cast
cast
Shred
shred
cost
cost
cut
Shut
shut
cut ·
hit
Split
split
hit
hurt
Spread
spread
hurt
let
Thrust
thrust
let
read
read
(spoken differently).

P 01f. part.
put
reset
rid
set
shed
shred
shut
split
spread
thrust

II. Two forms: Past and Perfect participle alike.
Preaent.
ee
Bleed
Breed
Feed

Patt.

e
bled
bred
fed

Change of vowelB only.
Perf. part.
Preaent.
Paat.
Meet
met
e
Speed
sped
bled
e
ea
bred
led
Lead
fed
9

Perf. part.
met
sped
e
led

-~8
Pre1enl.
Mislead
e
Get
Sit
i
Abide
Win
i
Bind
Fight
Find
Grind
Unbind
Unwind
Wind

..

..',

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Paa I.
misled

Perf.part,
misled

P.reaenl.

Paat.
i
u
Cling
clung
0
0
flung
got (gotten, Fling
got
shrunk
obtol'O Shrink
a
a
Sling
slung
sat
sat
Slink
slunk
0
Spin
spun
0
Stick
abode
stuck
abode
String
strung
won
won
Swing
swung
OU
OU
Wring
wrung
bound
bound
fought
fought
0
e
found
found
Behold
beheld
ground ground
Hold
held
unbound unbound
Withhold withheld
unwound unwound
00
0
wound
wound
Shoot
shot

99

VERBS.

Perf.parl.
u
clung
flung
shrunk
slung
slunk
spun
stuck
strung
swung
wrun~

Bend
Lend
Misspend
Rend

bent
lent
misspent
rent

Pre'lenl.
od ·t ·t
Send
bent
lent
Spend
misspent
Unbend
rent

Make
Unmake

made
unmade

made
unmade

Pre.en I.

Past,

Per/. part.

Paat.
sent
spent
unbent

I

stood
Stand
Withstand withstood

Per/. part.
sent
spent
unbent

Become
Come
Outrun

beheld
held
.withheld

became
· came
outran

become
come
outrun

I

Overcome overcame
Overrun
overra.n
Run
· ran

overcome
overrun

iiin

Relay
Repay
Say
Sell
Shoe
Tell
Undersell
Unsay

rel!lid
repaid
said
sold
shod
told
under~old

unsaid

•t added.

Beseech
Bring
Buy
Creep
Feel
Keep
Leave
Lose

besought
brought
bought
ore pt
felt
kept
left
lost

besought
brought
bought
crept
felt
kept
left
lost

Mis teach
Seek
Sleep
Sweep
Teach
Think
Unteach
Weep

mistaught
sought
slept
swept
taught
thought
untaught
wept

mistaught
sought
slept
swept
taught
thought
untaught
wept

j:
I

;,

III. Three Forms.

shot

relaid
repaid
said
sold
shod
told
undersold
unsaid

·:,

I

0

-cl added.

fled
had
heard
laid
mislaid
overlaid
paid
prepaid

~

Two fm•ms: Present and Perfect participle alike.

·'

0

()bauge in consonants.

fled
had
heard
laid
mislaid
overlaid
paid
prepaid

·!

stood
withstood

•en (•n, -ne) added to past, to form p_erf. part.

Flee
Have
Hear
Lay
Mislay
Overlay
Pay
.Prepay

'i'

.,
'

Bear (~.';;ill bore
bespoke
Bespeak
broke
Break
Choose
chose
flew
Fly
forbore
Forbear
Forswear forswore
Free to
froze
Lie
lay
outwore
Outwear

borne
bespoken
broken
chosen
flown
forborne
forsworn
frozen
lain
outworn

Overlie
Slide
Speak
Steal
Swear
Tear
Tread
Underlie
Wear
Weave

arose

arisen

was
been
befell
befallen
betook
betaken
blew
blown
did
done
. drawn
drew
drove
driven
fallen
f~ll
forewent foregone

Foreknow
Foresee
Fores how
Forgive
Forsake
Give
Go
Grow
Know
Lade

fJ

overlay
slid
spoke
stole

overlain
slidden
spoken
stolen

t

swore

sworn

tore
trod
underlay
wore
wove

torn
trodden
underlain

t(,

fdreknew
foresaw
foreshowed
forgave
forsook
gave
went
grew
knew
laded

. !'

~·
I

worn

I''

woven

:

-en (•n, •ne) added to present, to form perf. part.
Arise
Be
Befall
Betake
Blow
Do
Draw
Drive
Fall
Forego

:1

.I

foreknown
foreseen
foreshown
forgiven
forsaken
given
gone
grown
known
laden

~
'~

l'

:.~:
<

I

I

II:
I: ;

. I
• I,

I

,I

I ~

r· i1

di
I

! .:

.'' 'I

100
Misdo
Mis give
Mistake
Outdo
Outgrow
Overdo
Oversee
Ov_ertake
Overthr ow
Retake
Rewrite
Rise
Rive
See

Pait.
misdid
misgave
mistook
outdid
outgrew
overdid'
oversaw
overtook
overthrew
retook
rewrote
rose
riven
saw

Begin
Drink

began
drank

P resent.

Perf.part.
misdone
misgiven
mistaken
outdone
outgrown
overdone
.o verseen

overtaken
overthrown
retaken
rewritten
risen
rived
seen

Pre•ent.
Shake
Show
Slay
Smite
Strive
Take
Throw
Undergo
Undertake
Undo
Unlade
Withdraw
Write

Paat.
Per/. part.
shaken
shook
showed
shown
slew
slain
smote
smitten
strove
striven
t ook
taken
threw
thrown
underwent undergon11
undertook undertaken
undid
undone
unladed
unladen
withdrew withdrawn
wrote
written

Dare (~:::'·) durst
dared
Dare (to challenge) is regular.

IV. Two f'ornis fo1• past tense.
crew
hove
rang
sang
sank
spat
sprang
stank
swam
throve

Pait.
or crowed
" heaved
" rung
" sung
" sunk
" spit
sprung
stunk
"
swum
"
thrived

"
"

Perfect part• .
crowed
heaved
rung
sung
sunk
spit
sprung
stunk
swum
· thriven

The first form of the pa.st of the above verbs is older, and is now less
gener.nlly used, than the second; it will, perhaps, soon become obsolete.

V. Two forms for perfect participle.
Both irregular, a1 well as past ..
Bear('°"'°""°'''""')
Beat
Beget

bore
beat
begot

.borne (..u .. )
beat
or
begot
"

born (,,...r,.)
beaten
begotten

Perfect part.
bit
or bitten
ch id
" chidden
forgot
" forgotten
hidden
hid
outridden
outrode
overridden
overrode
ridden
rode
struck
" stricken
trodden
trod

"
"
"
"

"

.;

H
•

ti

I

"

Regular, except the redundant participle.
clothed
Clothe
graved
Grave
hewed
Hew
loaded
Load
misshaped
Misshape
mowed
Mow
proved
Prove
reloaded
Reload
sawed
Saw
seethed
Seethe
shaped
Shape
sheared
Shear
shaved
Shave
sowed
Sew (to see.d}
swelled
Swell
unloaded
Unload
waxed
Wax (to grow)
The irregular participles

REDUNDANT IRREGULAR VERBS.

Pruent,
Crow
Heave
Ring
Sing
Sink
Spit
Spring
Stink ·
.Swim
Thrive

Paat.
bit
ob id
forgot
bid
outrode
overrode
rode
struck
trod

Preaent.
Bite
Chide
Forget
Hide
Outride
Override
Ride
Strike
Tread

I

begun
drunk

101

VERBS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

J

VI.

or
clad
graven
hewn
"
laden
misshapen"
mown
"
proven
reladen
"
sawn
sodden
sh a pen
shorn
"
shaven
"
sown
swollen . "
unladen
waxen

"

"

"

"
"
"

"

"
"

clothed
graved
hewed
loaded
misshaped
mowed ·
proved
reloaded
sawed
seethed
shaped
sheared
shaved
sowed
swelled
unloaded
waxed

are obsolescent.

i
1.
I

't

Two forms for past tense and two for perf. part.
'I

.All irregular.

j
Preaent.
Bestride
Bid
Cleave (to split)
Eat
Stride

bestrid
-bid
cleft
(ate)
strid

Past.
bestrode
bade
clove
eat
strode
9*

I I

P•rfecl· part.
bestridden
bestrid
bidden
bid
cloven
oleft
eaten
eat
stridden
strid

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102

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

Both regular and irregulat· forms.
Pre1ent.

Past.
Awake
awoke
a waked
Bereave
bereft
bereaved
Build
built
(builded)
Burn
burnt
burned
Catch
caught
(catched)
Deal
dealt
dealed
Dig
dug
digged
Dwell
dwelt
dwe!led
Gild
(gilt)
gilded
Gird
(girt)
girded
Hang
hung
(hanged)
Kneel
knelt
kneeled
Knit
knit
knitted
Quit
quit
quitted
Rebuild
rebuilt
(rebuilded)
Regild
(regilt)
regilded
Shine
shone
(shined)
Slit
slit
slitted
Spill
spilt
spilled
Stave
stove
staved
Stay
staid
stayed
Sweat
sweat
sweated
Ungird
(ungirt) ungirded
Wet
wet
wetted
Work
wrought worked
Pr~s~nt.
Past.
Bestrew bestrow bestrewed bestrowed
Strew strow
strewed . strowed

Perfect p,art.
awoke
a waked
bereft
bereaved
built
(builded)
burnt
burned
caught
(catched)
dealt
dealed
dug
digged
dwelt
dwelled ·
gilt
gilded
(girt)
girded
hung
(hanged)
knelt
kneeled
knit
knitted
quit
quitted
rebuilt
(rebuilded)
regilt
regilded
shone
(shined)
slit
slitted
spilt
spllled
stove
staved
staid
stayed
sweat
sweated
(ungirt) ungirded
wet
wetted
wrought worked
Pt1fect participle.
bestrewn bestrown. bestrewed
strewn
strewed strown

EXERCISE

Show which are regular and which are irregular, and give the
principal parts of each one.
.
Change the voice of each verb, taking the -proper word for the
subject, and giving the object with' the active voice.
Change the verbs to other.moods and to other tenses.
Do ihe same with the verbs in·other selected passages.

Finite Verbs.

...

Some of the forms are enclosed in curves ( ), these are but -little used
in comparison with the other forms. Many other forms, now obsolete,
were formerly used. They are to be found in Dictionaries.

32.

Tell the voice of each transitive verb in the sentences in Exercises
27, 29, and 91.
Tell the mood of each verb in the same sentences.
Tell the tense of each verb in the same sentences.

103

j'

256. RuLE.-A :finite verb must. agree with
its subject in number and person.
A finite verb agrees with a subject pronoun in the first or

second person, and not with a noun.
Thus, in

•i John,

i
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I
I

write"; "write" agrees with thou (or you) understood.

A finite verb agrees with "we" or "you" in the plu ral,
even when used for the singular.
Ex.UIPLE.-John, you were right.

I
,1
I

A plural verb is required when two or more subjects of the
verb are connected by "and", expressed or understood.
.
ExAMPLE.--John and James learn.
Here John and Jame• form a oo~pound subject equivalent to a plural
noun.

When there are several subjects of the same proposition, the
verb must be in the first person, if there is a subject of the
first person; and in the second person, if there is a subject
of the second person, but none of. the .first.
ExAMPLEs.-Yo11 and I are= (we are) .
You and · he are = (you are).
He and she are = (they are).

PARSING.
Finite Verbs.
In parsing a finite verb, name the ver? parsed,.t1;1ki.ng the'wh?le
erb if of more than one word ; show it.s meaning in connection
.:ith its subject, and, if transitive and in the active voice, with its

I'

104

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~bject

also ; then, state the kind of verb ; whether regular or
irregular, giving the principal parts; if transitive, give the voice;
state the form, the inood, the tense, and the agreement in number
and person, quoting the rule of agreernent, and any special r~le
applicable.
·
EXAMPLES.

"John calls me, and I must go."
15. CJalls.-John calls me.-" Galls" is used to tell something
of "John", and to form a predicate with "John" for the subJect.
"Any word used to say, tell, or assert,-or to form a predicate
is a verb." "A verb limited to a subject, is a finite verb."·' '
It is limited by an object, the pronoun "me". "A verb limited
by an object, is a transitive verb."
Past tense, John called me. Present perfect tense, John has
called me.
It is a regular verb. "A regular verb is a verb that forms its
past tense and its perfect participle by adding the suffix -ed to its
present tense."
It is in the active voice. " The active voice asserts of the
agent, or doer of the action expressed by the verb."
It is in the indicative mood. "The indicative mood is that
form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares."
It is in the present tense. " The present tense denotes simply
presimt time.''
It agrees with its subject, the noun "John", in the singular
n1;1mber and third person. "A finite verb must agree with its
subject in number and person."
"John, write the letter, if you desire to do it."
16. 'Vr~te.- Write (you_) letter.-" Write" is used to say or
te~l something of you, meaning " John". It forms a predicate
with you for the subject. "Any word used to say, tell, or assert,
-or to form a predicate, is a verb." "A verb limited to a subject, is a finite verb."
·
It is limited by an object, the noun "letter". "A verb limited
by an object is a transitive verb."
Present tense, I write. Past tense, i wrote. Present perfect
tense, I have written.

VERBS.

105

It is an irregular verb. "An irregular verb is a ·verb that
does not form its past tense and its perfect participle by adding
the suffix -ed to its present tense.''
It is in 'the active voice .. "The active voice asserts of the
.
agent, or doer of the action expressed by the verb."
It is in "the imperative mood. "The imperative mood is that
form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exho~ting, entreating,: or permitting."
It is in the present tense. The imperative mood has only the
present tense.
It agrees with its subject, the pronoun you, understood after it,
in the plural number, used for tlie singular, and the second per~
son. "A finite verb must agree with its subject in number and

person.''
"The boys might have been hurt.''
17. Might have been hurt.-Boys rnight have been hurt,
-something might have hurt boys.-" Might have been hurt" is
used to tell something of "boys", and to form a predicate with
"boys" for the subject. "Any word used to say, tell, or assert,or to form a predicate, is a verb.'' "A verb limited to a subJect
is a finite verb.'' ·
If the agent were the subject, it would be limited by an object,
the noun "boys". "A verb limited by an object, is a transitive
verb."
Present tense, I hurt now. Past tense, I hurt yesterday. Present perfect tense, I have hurt.
It is an irregular verb. "An irregular verb is a verb that
does not form its past tense and its perfect participle by adding
the ~uffix -ed to its present-tense.''
It is in the passive voice. "The passive voice asserts of the
.
patient, or receiver of the action expressed by the verb."
It is in the potential mood. "The potential mood is that form
of the verb, which expresses liberty, possibility, or power, obligation, willingness, or duty."
It is in the past perfect tense, named from its form, composed
of the past form "might" and the perfect participle "been hurt"
used after" have".

106

VERBS.

ENGLISH GRAMMA.R.

It agrees with its subject the noun "bo s" .
ber and third person "A'fi .t
Y 'm the plural num.
· ·
m e verb must ag
•th ·
.
ree wi its subJect
m number and person."
EXERCISE 3 3.
Parse the finite verbs contai1;ed in the following pa .
d . .
ssages.
O ur uncle Robert came to u
. s, an mvited us to dinner. He
promised to ive
lo d
g
us a puddmg, the materials of which had emP ye more than a thousand men l
" A pudding that has taken a thousand men to mak l . .
must be as large as a church."
e Then it
"\Vell, my boys," said uncl~ Robert "t
time, you shall see it."
,
'
o-morrow, at dinner-

Scarcely had we taken our breakfast th
got ready to go to our uncle's house.
' e next day, when we
When we arrived there we were a
.
as calm and quiet as usuai.
urprised to se.e every thing
At last we. sat down to the table
moved; our eyes were ea er! fi
. The first course was repudding I It was a plum-:udLn x:~ o: the door,:--in came the
larger.
g
t e usual kmd,-not a bit
" This is not the pudding that you
brother.
promised us," said my
"It is, indeed," said u~cle Robert
" 0, uncle I you do not mean to sa. th t
.
men have helped to make th t l'ttl y da. more than a thousand
"E
a i e pu dmg ?"
at some of it first m bo
pencil, and help me to c~u:i thy ; ankmd th~~ ~ke your slate and
.
e wor en, said uncle Robert.

Infinitive Verbs.
Infinitive used as Noun.

257. RYLE·· An 1."n:fini•t•1.ve or a J>artici 1
. p e,
if ~ransitive and in the active vo.
.et noun; and
object.
we, I governs an

~sed as a noun, takes the case of th

107

258. A participle used as a noun and pre- ·
ceded by an article or an adjective, is used intransitively, and it' takes t~e preposition "oC" to
govern the objective.
EnuLEs.-In this reading oC the poem, omissions ~ill be
made; or,
In reading the poem, omissions vrill be made.
A. reading of the poem satisfied him.
Some beautiCul readings oC the poem,
. pleased all.

Describing Participle.

259. RuLE.-A participle not used as a noun
or as part of a finite verb, belongs to the noun or
the pronoun which it describes.

.!

A participle describing a noun or a p1·onoun1 may be
modified by adverbs; and when transitive and in the active
voice, it governs an object.
EXAUPLE.-John, hastily

I

finishing his ta•k, prepared to leave.

Modifying Infinitive.

260. RULE:-An infinitive not used as.a noun
or as part of a finite verb, belongs to the word
it describes or modifies, or whose meaning it completes.
261. ''To" is a part .of the infinitive mood,
but it is omitted after the active voice, finite, of
the verbs bid (to command), feel, hear, let,
make, need, and also see and verbs of like
meaning (as, observe, behold, watch, &c.), and after
the intransitive verb dare.
Thus, He need not go. (To go.)
I hear him speak. (To speak.)
The passive voice of the verbs bid, feel, hear, let, make, need,

l
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f
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~

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ADVERBS.

108

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

see, &c., requires the "to" of the following infinitive to be expressed ; and, in some instances, the active voice requires it.
EXAMPLES.-llfan is 1nade to 111ourn.
I feel it to be my duty to go.

109

Some words are sometimes used to limit or describe no~ns or

pronouns, and then are adjectives ; and at other times to
limit or modify verbs, adjectives, adve1·bs, or phrases, and
then are adverbs.

. ExAllPLES.-Much, little, well, ill, and their comparatives and superla-

tives ;-no, only, atill, first, last, fa1t, &c.
1

In this elementary book, no examples of the manner of parsing infinitive verbs are given, they being difficult for beginners.
If .the teacher desires to take up infinitives for parsing before using the
larger grammar, those of simple construction may be parsed as words of
other classes than verbs. For instance, those used as subjec(s' or objects
of finite verbs may be parsed as nouns, those limiting nouns or pronouns
as adjectives, and those modifying verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, as . adverbs.
See the author's larger grammar.

ADVERBS.
262. An adverb is a word used to modify a
verb, an atJ,jective, another adverb, or a limiting phrase.
Any word used to modify a verb, ·an adjective, another adverb,
or a limiting phrase, is an adverb.
An adverb should not be used to qualify a noun or a

p1·onoun.
Thus, "The apple tastes sweet" ;-not aweetly, for the adjective
"sweet" is used to describe the noun "apple", and n ot to show the manner of tasting.
Sometimes an adverb modifying a verb, at the same time relates to a
noun or a. pronoun.
ExAMPLE.-She called not you, but your sister.

An adjective should not be used to modify a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb.
Thus, "She sang sweetly" ;-n~t 8!oeet, for the adverb "sweetly"
modifies the verb "sang", showing the manner of 1inging; it is not used
to describe the pronoun "she".

Interrogative .Adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs are those uired in asking questions; as, how, when, where, why, &c.
.
They are derived from old forms of interrogative pronouns.

.A. word a phrase or a clause, which gives the answer to
· '
'
an interrogative
adverb,
is an adverb, or an a d v.e rblal
phrase or clause.

tl

Thus, When will he go .? Soon.
Where was be? He was at bo111e.
Why did be do it? He did it l>eeause be knew no better.

yes no -yea and nay are used to answer questions,
' implied;
'
' one used ·belongs, not t o th. e verb a lo n e,
asked or
the
but to the whole question, subject as well as predicate, and particularly to the emphasized word.
.
Not is used to make an assertion negative. Its place is ~ft~r
the first word of the verb, and after a subject pronoun if it
follows the verb.
EXAHPLES.-He would not have been overtaken,-had lte no' fallen.
He heeds not, be cares not.

Not is often combined with can; as I cannot go.
Classes of .Adverbs.
Adverbs are classed according to their meaning and use.
The principal classes are

1. Interrogative Adverbs,
2. Adverbs of Manner; answering the question How 1
orWbyt
3. Adverbs of Degree; answering How t

or How

mucht
4. Adverbs of Time; answering When t How long 1
How oftent
·
10

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110

111

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ADVERBS.

5. A<lvm·bs of Place; answering Where 1 Whence 1
Whither 1 Whereaboutli 1

!Regula1• Inflected Comparison.
Positive.

Compwrative.

fast

faster

Superlati-

fastest.

Comparison of Adverbs.

263. Most adverbs of manner from quality or
mode, and some adverbs of degree are compared.
A few adverbs of time, and of place, or direction, may be compared.
Many adverbs are not comparable.
264. Adverbs have _three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the
supe'r lative; corresponding to-- the degrees of
adj ectives.

Pull Compari$on.
Major.

Minor.
Super.

Comp.

265. 1'1on o syllabic adverbs generally ~orm
the maj01• comparative by adding •er to the
positive; and form the major superlative by
adding · est to the positive.
ExAMPLE.-Positive, late; comparative, later; superlative,
latest.

266. All comparable adverbs except monosyllables, and these sometimes, form the major comparative by taking the adverb JDore before the
positive; and form the major superlative by
taking the adverb J11ost before the positive.
267. All comparable adverbs form the min01•
comparative by taking the adverb l ess before
the positive; and form the minor superlative
taking the adverb l ea.st before the positive.

C01np.

Super.

latest (last)
later
least late
less 11Lte
more late
most la~e
least brightly less brightly brightly more brightly most brightly
least so
l ess so
so
more so
most so
late

I

-!

I1·1·egular Comparison.
Positive.

{ well

Inflected Comparison.

Positive.

ill
{badly

Compwrat'ive.·

better

best

}

worse

worst

}

{much
little
far

Superlative.

more
less
{farther
further

most
least
farthest
furthest

}

! '

! '

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}

More, most, less, or least, wh en used to modify an adjective or an adverb, may be parsed. separately, but the common
practice is to consider the two wo~ds ~s forming the compa~·ative
or the superlative degree of the adJect1ve or the adverb modified.

.,

268. The comparative degree refers to two
states, conditions, times, manners, &c.; and the
superlative to two o r J11ore.

?Y

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112

PREPOSITIONS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

It is inflected,-positive, long; comparative, longer; ~uperlative

269. RULE.-An adverb belongs to the verb,
the adjective, or the adverb, which it modifies
or limits.

longest.
h
"lived". "An adverb belongs tot e
It b e1ongs to the verb
.
.
.
r •t "
verb, the adjective, or the adverb, which it modifies or uni s.

An adverb sometimes belongs to a plwase which takes the
place of an adjective or an adverb.

EXERCISE

EXAMPLE.-He came exactly in tinw.

34.

Parsdhe adverbs contained in the following sentences.
He very seldom came late, pe~haps never.
How do you do t<rday? Very well.
Where have you been so very early?
.
H e appeared as nearly drunk as I ever saw a.,Granadmo.
After the ceremony was over, they went on homewards.
The river here is about as broad as the Hudson at Albany, and
much more rapid.
Some persons have very many fri ends, oth~~s have but few, but
h e who has none at all, is very much to be pitied.
H ow far off lie these armies?
If he does not read the poem well, he must read it over again.
She ~as still in her hat and velvet jacket, seated rather on the
edge of her chair, talking very volubly, but looking . breathless
and anxious.
Wherefore do you not try to read correctly?
.
I could not get here any sooner, for I was necessarily and unavoidably detained.
She sings beautifully; I heard her"only yesterday. -

An adverb sometimes belongs to a clause or a sente'fice.
EXAMPLES.-Fortunately, he knows nothing of the affair.

Did you see him 1 No.

An adve1·bial ph1·ase belongs to the verb, the adjective, or the adverb, which it modifies or limits.
PARSING.
Adverbs.
In parsing an adverb, name the word parsed; show its meaning
in connection with the word or words necessary to explain its use,
and only those; name its class; if comparable, name the degree;
if inflected, give the comparison; note any speciality in its use;"
state to what word it belongs, and quote the rule of syntax.
EXAMPLES.

"They lived together there, long and happily."
18. Together.-Lived together.-" Together" is used to modify the verb "lived". "Any word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a limiting phrase, is an adver];>."
It is an adverb of manner; it shows how" they lived".
It is not comparable. It belongs to the verb " lived". "An
adverb belongs to the verb, the adjective, or the adverb, which it
modifies or limits."
19. Long.-Lived long.-" Long" is used to modify the verb
"lived". "Any word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another
ndverb, or a limiting phrase, is an adverb."
It is an adverb of time; it shows how long" they lived together".
It is in the positive degree. "'.!.'he positive degree expresses
the quality [or modification] simply, without direct r eference to
it in others."

113

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PREPOSITIONS.
270. A Preposition is a word used before a
noun or a pronoun to show its relation to an-

other word.
10•

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114

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

CON JUNCTIONS.

Any word used before a noun or a pronoun to show its relation
to another word, or to form with it a plirase equivalent to some
part of speech, is a preposition.

"He is a man of peace."
20. · Of".-Man of peace.-" Of" is the connective of the phrase
"of peace", which limits the noun "man". It is placed before
the noun "peace", and shows its relation to the noun "man".
"Any word used before a noun or a pronoun to show its relation
to another word, or to form with it a phrase equivalent to some
part of speech, is a preposition."
It governs the noun "peace", and the phrase "of peace" describes "man" like an adjective. "A preposition governs an
objective, and with it forms a phrase which describes or modifies
a preceding word."

Prepositions are simple, derivative, or co1npound.

Si1nple: a, at, but, by, down, for, from, in, like, near, nigh, of,

' I

EXERCISE

35.

Parse tlie prepositions contained in the following sentences.
A greedy mastiff was once carrying a large piece of meat in his
mouth, having stolen it from a butcher's shop. He came to a
river, and was passing over it by a bridge, when, looking down
into the water, he saw his own shadow. This he thought to be
another dog, carrying, like himself, a piece of meat.
He fancied that this dog had a much finer piece than his own,
and greedily made a snatch at it. But, in opening his mouth to
snap at the other dog's meat, he let his own fall into the water,
and lost it.

271. RuLE.-A .p;reposition governs an objective, and with it forms a phrase which decribes or modifies a preceding word.
PARSING.
Prepositions.
In parsing a preposition, name the wo~d parsed, giving the
whole of a complex preposition; connect it with its antecedent term
of relation and its object, but with no other words ;- show the
words b~tween which it expresses a 1·elation, and which word (or
phrase) it governs" show what the prepositional phrase describes
or modifies, and quote the rule of syntax.

1.

EXAMPLES,

"He ca.me in ha,te." "In•• is used before the noun "ha1te" to show its
relation to the verb "came"; and the phrase "in ha•te" is equivalent to an
adverb of manner, modifying "came".
"He was a man o/ great talent." "Of" is used before the noun " talent"
to sh ow its relation to the noun "man"; and the phrase "of great tal;.t"
is equivalent to an adjective, describing the noun "man".
, ·"

on, round, since, through, till, to, up, with, worth.
Derivative: after, over, under (wltich were comparatives);
past, concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, touchmg ( whicli were participles) ; except, save (which were imperative
verbs).
Compound: into, notwithstanding, throughout, toward, towards, underneath, unto, upon, within, without:
(A) about, above, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among,
·
amongst, around, athwart:
(By) before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between,
betwixt, beyond.

115

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CONJUNCTIONS.

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272. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or Clauses.
Any word used merely to connect words, phra.ses, or clauses, is

a conjunction.
A preposition connects words, but it governs an objective case, and
with it forms a phrase which limits like an adjective or an adverb.

,,

.

116

CONJUNCTIONS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAH.

ExAMPLES.-Sul!1ects.-Neither Mary nor her·suter was there.
Verbai-objective:..-Honor thy father and .thy mother.
P,.ep.-olrjectives.-Give it for me and thee.
.A.<{jectives.-He was both heaithy and vigorO'US.

A relative 1uonoun connects clauses, but it usually forms at the same
time a chief element of its own clause, and r elates to a ~ord in the other. '
A co1>nlative verb connects words, but it is tha asserting clement of
a proposition.

273. Conjunctions are divided into co-ordinate, which connect words or clauses ' of equal
rank in compound elements or sentences,- and
subordinate, which add modifying clauses in
complex sentences.
Some conjunctions are used in pairs, and are called correlati;~s;
as, both-and, either-or, whether-or, neither-nor, though
- yet, as - so, where - there, for - because, if - then, now therefore, not only - but also.
Ex .u rPLEs.-Both John and James were present.
Either act as you should, or take the consequences.
I do not know whetber it is true or [it is] false.
Thou shalt neitber vex a stranger nor oppress him.
Thougb I fear not God nor regard man, yet becauH this widow troubleth me, I will avenge her.
As 2 is to 6, so is 3 to 9. As ye sow, so shall ye reap.
For wbere the treasure is, tbere will the heart be also.
For the crop is heavy, because the land is good.
If this is true, then I have been deceived.
Now he had lost his strength by sickness, therefore he was physically
unable.
He lost not only his health, but his property also.

117

PARSING.

Conjunctions.

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In parsing a conjunction, name the word par.sed; if it connects
clauses combine it with the. principal. parts of the clauses connected,' omitting adjuncts, and placing the pr~ncipal parts of the
clause which makes sense before the conjunction, first,-then the
conjunction and the princip~l parts of its clause.. If, ins.tead of
clauses, the conjunction joins phrases or words,. Ill showmg the
connection, take care that similar elements are given. Tell what
it connects, and quote the rule.

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EXAMPLES.

"John and J ames study."
21. And.-John and J ames.-".And" is used to connect the
two subjects, "John" and "James", of the predicate "study':.
"Any word used merely to connect words, phrases, or clauses, is
a conjunction."
It is a c0-0rdinate conjunction; it connects two words of equal
rank in a compound element.
It connects the nouns "John" and "James", forming the compound subject of the verb "study". "A conjunction connects
the words, the phrases-, or the clauses between which it stands."

274. Ru1E.-A conjunction connects the
words, the phrases, or the clauses between
·
which it stands.

"I will go if you remain."
22. JC.-1 will go if you remain.-"..lf" is used to connect the
two clauses, " I will go" and "you remain", and " if you remain"
modifies the first clause, or its predic_ate "will go". "Any word
u sed merely to connect words, phrases, or clauses, is a conjunction."
It is a subordinate conjunction; it adds a modifying clause in
a complex sentence .

A conjunction introducing a sentence, is correlative with another between
members, or it connects clauses inverted in order.

A conjunction connecting words or phrases, connects like
elements; that is, two subjects or objects,-predicates, adjectives, or adverbs, like infinitives, &c.

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118

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

It connects the subordinate clause "if you remain" with the
principal clause" I will go". "A conjunction connects the words,
the phrases, or the clauses between which it stands."
EXERCISE

36.

Parse tlie conjunctions contained in the f ollowing sentences.
We see and hear, smell and taste, as well as touch, a great
many things every day of our lives. We are always using either
our eyes, ears, mouth, nose, or hands; but we scarcely ever think
how badly off we should be if we were without any of them . .
By means of our eyes we are able to see all th e beautiful things
which God has made,- the sun and the moon, th e clear blue sky,
and the golden sunset, the bright green fields, and the pretty
flowers, and the kind and loving faces of our dear friends. You
could not learn to read this book if you had not the sense of
seeing.
When we see a pretty thing, such as a shell, an orange, or a
flower, we begin to think we should like to touch it, and find out
whether it is hard or soft, smooth or rough, hot or cold. So we
take it in our hands, feel it all over with our fingers, and perhaps
touch our faces with it.
Every part of our bodies has the sense of feeling. But our
hands, and, above all, our fingers, have a great many nerves
spread under the thin skin, which give t9 them a greater sense
of fee ling than any other part of the body has.

EXCLAMATIONS.

119

Exolamations may be classed according to the emotion or feeling expressed ; as of
J oy,-as, Hurrah! Ah! &c.
Sorrow or pain,-Oh ! h oo I
Approval,-Bravo !
Averaion,-Pugh ! Faugh ! Fie!
Ourio•ity,-Ha. ! Eh! (pronounced ii); He! (pronounced hay).
Desire for the presence of another within hearin9,-Ho ! Hollo I
De1irefor atte1ttio11,-Hist ! 'St!
Di•covery,-Oho ! Ay, ay ! (pronounced i, i).
WearineH,-Hei gh ho!
Surpriae,-Ah ! Oh!

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276. RuLE.-An exclamation is used independently.
PARSING.
Exclamations.
In parsing an exclamation,.merely state what the word is, and
that it is used independently, and quote the rule.
EXAMPLE.

"Oh! John, why do you speak so?"
23. Oh!-" Oh" is an exclamation, used independently.
exclamation is used independently."

"An

For Punctuation and Prosody, see the author's larger Grammar.

,,

EXCLAMATIONS.
275. An Excla:m,ati(_m. is a word used merely
to express feeling or emotion.
.
Any word used merely to express feeling or emotion, or merely
as a call or cry, is an exclamation.
Exclamations are, by some grammarians, called inteijection1.

THE END,

BTAREOTYPED BY L. JOKNSOM A: CO.
PB.IL.U>ELI'Bll.

A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

Based upon an
Analysis of the English Sentence, with Copious Examples in Parsing and the Correction of False Syntax, and an Appendix containing Critical and Explanatory Notes, and Lists of Peculiar and
Exceptional Forms. For the use of Schools and Academies and
those who Write. By WM. HENRY PARKER, Principal of Ringgold
Grammar School, Philadelphia.

The attention of those interested is directed to this book. The
thorough acquaintance of the author with his subject, and his practical knowledge of the difficulties which beset the teach er in the use
of the text-book, and the necessity for the teacher's supplying deficiencies and omissions, and amending the text, to suit constructions
found daily in parsing, and in other pr.actical exercises in grammar,
have enabled him to prepare a work which will, on trial, be found
a labor-saving aid to both teacher and pupil.

TESTI::1'!d0NIALS_
"Mr. Pa.rker's exposition of the subject is r emarkably clear and philosophic. The
style in which the thought is expressed is itself a model. It must be a great satisfaction to every ed ucator that grammar ha.a at la.st come to be treated upon sound,
practical, and scientifi c principles. Mr. Parker's eminent qualifications both e.s a.
scholar and teacher, have enabled him to make a book that will etand the test of
scholarly criticism and the best practice of th o class-room."
SAMUEL P . BATES,
Deputy Superintendent of llnnm<>n Schools of Penniylvania.
"I have given special attention to Parker's English Grammar, and am free to say,
that I prefer it to any of the numerous Grammars which I have examined. 'l'he
treatment of Etymology and Syntax t ogether, I r egard aa a decided improvement.
The whole work bears the marks of sober common sense without affectation of
novelty."
A. WILLIAMS, D.D.,
Late Professor in Jefferson College, Pa.
"There is such clearness and simplicity pervading this Grammar, and such fresh..
ness in the manner of presenting every prominent part, as ought to insure its general
use."
REV. JNO. ll. CLEMSON, D.D.,
Principal of Ci<zymont &minary.

"I am highly pleased with Mr. Parker's Treatise on EngliSh . Grammar, and find
much important and useful matter in the text and App endi x n ot u sually contained
In workB on thle subject."
S. S. HALDEMAN,
·
Author of "Affixes to English Words."
"This is, in m a ny respects, a very able and noticeable work. Orthoepy, relating to
spoken, and Orthography, to written language, are treated of together, and so are
Etymology and Syntax,-for the reason that the m embers of each of th ese classes
are respectively dependent on, or connected with each other. Punctuation, the great
regulator and interpreter o! all uninflected or partialJy inflected Innguages, is treated
of, as it should be, separately and fully. Much of the matter ha.a been prepared, t oo,
with a. vi ew to written exercises rath er thn.n oral r ecitntions, and the writing of
Compositions is strongly insisted upon. Other points th er e are, in which this very
original work differs from a.nd we think is superior to Most of its predecessors."
'.l'HOS. H . BURROWES,
Edi/QT of Pennsylvania School Joumal.

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