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HECOMMENDATIONS.

The following, am ong other testimonials in favor of this work,
were receiver.I by the compiler while it was in manuscript.

From th e Rev. George R. Noyes, D. D., Hancock Professor of
Hebrew anr.I other Oriental L anguages, aur.I Dexter Lecturer on
Iliblical Literature in llnrvartl University.
"Cambridge, September 4th, 184 L.
"Dear Sir,
" I lm ve given your Grammar as careful an examination as my
leisu re will permit; nnd am of opini on, that, for clearness, brevity,
happy tnmngerucnt, nbununnce of in stru ctive illustrations, and exclusion of use less or uni111portant matter in n treatise for the young,
your book dese rves a very high rank among the manuals which are
in use . If it shou ld displace some of them, the public will be a
gainer in several respects.
" Yours, respec tfully,

J.
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" G. R. NOYES."

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Extract of a letter from Cornelius C. F elton, A. M., Eliot Pro-·
fessor of Greek Literature, in I-lanru·r.1 University.
" Cambridge, September 27th, 1841.
"Dear Sir,
"I hnve read your 'Manual of English Grammar' with attention.
It seems to me to have the qualities of simplicity, brevity, and clear./

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n css , to a re markable degree. All that is esse ntial to an exact knowledge of the En glish lang uage , and of the practi ce of the most conect
writers, it appears to rn c yo u lrn.v e brou g ht within a very narrow
co1npass .

From the Rev. Elbridge G. Brooks, member of the School
Committee of Cambridge.

As a practi c al g ramrnar o f the En g lish language , it canno t

fail to be use fu l, both t.o teachers and scholars. The outline of the
principl es of Rh etori c, at th e e nd , is concise and intelli g il>l e. It contain s directi ons in the art of co rn positi on, w l1i ch will prove valuable ,
not only to young scholars, but to many practised writers.
"ll c~pcc tfully, yo urs,
" C. C. FELTON."

From the R e v. Arte mas B . l\luzz cy, c hairman of the School
Committee of C ambridge.
" Ca1nbrid gc, Se ptc111ber, Hl41.
"This ce rtifies, th at I have c x:11nirn'1l I.h e Gra111111ar prepared by
Mr . .J ohn G ol<l sbury, :1 11d fi11d it dese rvin g of hi gh co rn11 ie r)dati on for
its methodi cal arran g c mc nt a 11 d c lea rness of ill ust1ation, and for its
union of co 111prc li e 11 si ve n c:.:s and brev ity.

JL

is f'rec fr om e xtrn11 eo u s

n1altl' r, nnrl , at the sa1HC li111f' , ~o si1!lp le in its plan anti de tail s , that it

can hardly fail lo intcn"st yo un g pupil s in a bran ch of st1.dy usually
regarded as dry and irk so me. I hope it rnay soon reach Lim!. phLce in
our schools, to whi ch its meri ts so fully entitl e it.
"J\ . J3. MUZZEY."

"

Fro111 tl1 c R e v . .l. \V. l'urk e r, 111c111licr of th e S c hool Com-

" East Cambridge, September 28th, 1841.
''Dear Sir,
"Agreeallly t" y onr request., I have give n your' Manual of English

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Grammar' a some wh at care ful e xaminati o n , and have ar ise n frotn the

work very hi g hly gratifi ed with your arrangeme nt and management
of the subjec t. I tun far be tte r pleased with it, than with any other
work of th e kind with whi ch I have met. I have ne ver seen any,
that, in my estimation, re lie ves tl1e study so much of tediousness, or
is so we ll calculated to mak e it interestin g to children. Jn too many
of the Grammar books, the young mind i• only e nvel oped in mystery,
and loses the id ea because of the multiplicity and confusion of words;
and in others, wh ere a tte mpts are made to •implify, there is too much
of tedious detail. Doth these e xtre mes , I think, y ou have bee n so
fortun ate as to a void. In definin g, in the general un fo lding and explanati on of prin c iples, and i11 g ivin g mi es , y ou are brie f, out com1irehensiv e , ex press in g e very thing th at is necessary in a few word s ; concise , but all un<l antly pl ain and e xplicit. But I will not particularize.
" S ufli ce it lo say , J. a111 pl eased, hi g hly pleased, with your book;
a nd l a111 co nfident, I.h at, if introduced into our sc hools, It will be the
means of lesse nin g the lallor of th e teac he rs, a nd of making pleasant
and eas il y und erstood a study very important, but so ollen regarded
by th e yo un g learner, a nd by th ose e ven more advanced, as dry, uninterestin g , and tedious. I hope yo u will prese nt it lo the public, and
th at it will mee t with much success , of which, I am sure , it is very
richly deserving.
" .Respec tfully , yours,
"ELlllllDG~ G. BROOKS."

Extract of a letter from th e Rev. James D. Green, of East

"Dear S ir,

"1 have e xamin e d y our l\1anual of Grammar w ith as niu c h care as

Cambridge.

my leisure w ould pcnnit. ]11 E'.C veral importnnl pnrli c nl ars it possesses
peculiar merit. It is s impl e and co 11 cisc. Tl1e d1;/inilivns with whic h
it furni shes the learner , a re clear , Ut'finite , and prese nt th e true id ea to
hi s mind , as no oth e r ma11n:1l w ith whi ch l am ac riLrni11ted doc s.
With th e si111plc elc11 w 111.s for hl'g in11 (' rs it coJllbin cs many importnnt

dec id e d improv e me nt up on tltf~ Grammars in c ommon use in our

prin c iph·s and s u ggc~t i o n s to th ose w ho estee m thc mse l ~s pro fi c ie nts

sc hoo ls.

in the scic11ce.

and ill ~ arran gc d as m os l o f the m are , and co ntainin g a vast amount

l earn estly hope y ou will gi ve it lo the JJUl.ilic .
" Very truly y ours,
"J . W. PARKER."

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mittee of Cambrid ge.
"Cambridge , October, 1841.

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"East Cambridge, October 2d, 1841.
''Dear S ir,
"I ha ve look ed over your 'Manual of En g lish Grammar' with
great pl eas ure, and have no hcsilalio, , in say ing , that I regard it as a
With th ese I have long llee n di ssati sfi ed ; - ill -constructed

of unimportant matte r, in fin e print, uninteresting and discouraging
to the pupil. Your work is bri ef and comprehensive ; - containing

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THE COMMON ScI-fOOL GRAMMAR.
nothing thnt could well be omitted ; and excluding nothing essential
to be learned. The definition s and rnles are <'xpressed with clearness and precision. I think you have adopted the true method of
leaching th e pupil to parse with facility and pleasure, by the exerci ses interapcrsed throug h the work, and adapted lo the Revera! parts
of speech, in t.he ord er in which they arc Rludi cd. Hoping your
J\1anual will meet wilh that rec~ption in our con11non schools, to
which it seems so well e nlillc<l by its merits, I am, dear Sir,
" \Vith great respect, yours, truly,
"JAM.ES D. GREEN."

A

CONCISE AND COMPREHENSIVE

MANUAL

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OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR:
CONTAINING,

From Dr. Anson Hooker, member of thef School Committee
of Cambridge.

IN ADDITION TO THE FIRST PRINCIPLES AND RULES
BRIEFLY STATED AND EXPLAINED,

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" East Cambridge, October 1st, 1841.

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"Dear Sir,

A SYSTEl\1ATIC ORDER OF p ARSING

" I have carefully examined your J\1anual of Grammar. It is
truly a' concise and comprehensive' work, and its concisenes• is not
at the e xpense of perspicuity. Many pf the definitions and rules are
much simplified and very happily illuslrated, and can be much more
readily comprehen<led by !he y oung learner than those of any treatise
of English Grammar with wl1i ch I am acquainlcd.
"I cann ot but hope you will give il to the public, and that il will
ge nerally be adopled in onr sc hool s. It will, I think, do much to increase an interest in lit e sludy of g rammar, to overcome lhe dislike
there now is to the s tudy of il, to dimini sh lhe labor of the teachers,
and lhe perplexity of lite pupil s.

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A NUMilER OF EXAMPLES FOR DRILLING EXERCISES
AND

A FEW IN FALSE, SYNTAX :
PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE USE OF

COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.

" Yours, w ith n1uch esteern,

"ANSON HOOKER."

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DY JOHN q,OLDSilURY, A. M.,
TEACHEn OF' TUE llIGH S CHOOL, CAMllRIDGE, MASS.

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BOSTON:
JAMES MUNROE AND COMPANY.
NF.IV YORK

CO

~OWPERTl~VAI"~L~~~ KEESE<"<
.

CO. PHILADELPHIA: THOMAS,
BALTIMORE: CUSHING & BROTHERS.

1842.

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Entered according to Act of CTongrcss, in th e year 1841, by
J OHN GOLD S BUR\",

This little manual is respectfully dedicated, as a token
of personal respect for you and your profession. The
station you occupy, in its bearings, its influences , and its
consequences, is alike honorable to yourselves, and useful
to the community. To your fostering care, th e interests
of education are in a great measure intru sted. To the
young, you are made the guardians of innocence, the patrons of learning, and the promoters of good morals. To
you, therefo1·e, I inscribe this work, believing, that, in
your hands, it will facilitate the progress of knowledge,
and subserve the cause of human improvement.

in the Clerk 's oflice of the Distri ct Cou rt for the District of .Massachuse tts.

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COMMON SCHOOL TEACHERS,

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Yours,
Very respectfully,
JOHN GOLDSilURY.
CAJ'\IHH ll> G F. :
ST Er.f.:O TY l'!!D A:\'D Pr.JNTEO

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wc::r.r.s.

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PREFACE.

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THE materials of the following work have been collected
from various sources; but chiefly from Mr. Murray's Grammar. It may be expected of the compiler, that he should
assign some good and satisfactory reason for appearing before
the public, especially as there are already so many works
upon this subject. Ileing a school teacher by profession, and
thoroughly dissatisfied with most of the Grammars already
in use, lie prepared this manual for the use of his own
scholars; and he has been induced to give it to the public
with the hope of its being usefuJ. to others. It has been his
sole object to produce a si mple text-book , containing the elementary principles of the science, freed from all the obscurity
and perplexity which usually attend it. H e has endeavoured
to exhibit a clear and systematic order of parsing, and to develope and explain the principles in such a manner as to
enable scholars to understand their nature and use. He has
not aimed so much al originality of expression, or elegance
of diction, as at simplicity and conciseness. Consequently,
all discussions for the defence of principles, all general and
loose remarks, such as are usually contained in the "fine
print" of almost all the Grammars in common use, have
been rejected as foreign to his purpose, and as quite useless,
if not discouraging to scholars.

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His apology for adopting so much of Mr. Murray's language, is, that it has become, as it were, a common property,
th e current and popular language of the schools, with which
most sc holars are already acquainted; and to adopt any
other i11 its stead, especially if it be not a decided irnproven1 e11 t, wou ld retard the progress of the science, and be
a*

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ETYMOLOGY.

NOUN •

Part s of Speech ; nam ely, the .!1.rticlc, .Noun, .!1.djective,
Pronoun, Verb, .!1.clvcrb, Preposition, Conjunction, and
Inte1jcclion.

Atlditional Questions.

8

ARTICLE.
7. AN Article is a word placecl before a noun,
to point it out, and to show how far its signification extent.ls.
8 . Th ere are two articles, a and the.
9 . .n. becomes an, before a word beginning with a vowel, or with a silent h ; as, cm ind ex , an hou r.
10 . But before words beginning with ti !Gng, or with h,
if the h be sounded, a should be use d; as, a univ ersity,
a hero ; except before words beginning with h not mute,
wh en th e acce nt is not on the first sy llabl e ; as, "an hereditary estate."
11. .fl. or an is call ed the indefinite article, that is, not
definite, becau se it limits the noun to one single thing of
the kind , without particularizing which one ; as, a man
means any man ; an apple., any apple of any kind or descripti on.
12. The is called the de.finite arti cle, beca use it points
out what parti cular thing or things are mea nt ; as, " Thou
art the man," mea ning the particular man referred to.
13. A noun, without an article to limit it , is genernlly
taken in its widest sense ; as, dogs are faithful ; horses
are useful ; man is the most noble creature in thi s lower

How many articles are there ? When does a become,,.
an ? When a noun has no arLicle to limit it, in what sense
is it taken ? ·when is a or an placed before a plural
noun ? See note.
EXERCISES

ORDER OF PARSING ARTI CLES.

IN PARSING.

A man, the man, the men ; an eagle, the eagles ; an
hour, the hour, the hours ; a horse, the horse , Lhe horses .
A hea rt, the heart, the hearts ; a heathen, the heath.en i
an enemy, the enemy, the enemies ; an inkstand, the mkstand, the inkstands; a union, the union.
A multiLude, the multitude, the multitudes ; a uniformity, the uniformity ; a book, the book, the books ; the
chair, the chairs, a chair.
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Bread is the staff of life. Honesty is the best policy.

Idleness produces want.
EXERCISES 1N FALSE SYNTAX.

See No. 216.

A ox , an oxen, a idler, a feet, a eye, an heart, an bed,
a army, a apple, an handsome woman, an unicorn, an
high fence, a umpire, a men, an yard, a Italian, an taller
man, a benches. Corn in the garden, grows well ; but
corn in the field, does not. Sky is blue. S~a is green.
Lion is bold. The money is the root of all evil. Law
was given to Moses ; but the grace and the truth came
by J esus Christ.

NOUN.

world.
·what is it ? Why an article ? Definite, or ind efinite ? vVhy definite , or indefinite ? ·with wha t noun
does it agree ? vVhat is the rule ? Huie I st, or 2d,
or not e.

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14. A Noun is the name of any person, place,
thing, or idea ; as, man, Boston, book, virtue.
15. There are two lcincls of nouns, common and proper.
16. A common noun is a general name i as, animal, ·
man, tree.

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ETYMOLOGY.

17. A proper noun is an individual or particular name ;
as, John, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
18. When a proper noun is used in the plural number,
or for the purpose of characterizing another noun, it beco mes a common noun ; as, the tweh·e Cccsars ; Vv ebster
is the Demosthenes, and C lay, the Cicero, of America.
HJ. Some co mmon nouns arc call ed collcctinc nouns,
or noun s of nwltitiule, because und er a singular form,
they inclu<lc 111any persons or things ; as, army, multitud e , society.
20. So111e common nouns are called participial or verbal uuuns, b ecause they are derived from verbs, and partake of the nature of a verb and a noun ; as, by relieving
the wants of others, and by coniforting th e afllicted, he
promoted his own happin ess.
21. Some common nouns are called abstract nouns, because they represent subj ects of thought, apart from material objects; as, wisdom, knowledge, good ness, ll'hitcness.
22. To nouns belong person, number, gender, and case.
23 . Nouns have three persons, the first, second, and

NOUN.

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third.
24. The first person is the person speaking ; as, I,
.fl.ndrew Jaclcson.
25. Th e second person is the person spoken to ; as,
Thomas, attend to your studi es.
2G. The third person is the person spoken of, or about;
as, Henry has found his bool•s.

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NUMBER.

27. Number is the distinction of objects, as one or
t1Wt'e.

28. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the
plural.

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29. The singulai· number expresses but one object ;
as, a chair, a table.
30. The pltiral number expresses more objects than
one ; as, chairs, tables.
31. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which
they express , are used only in the singular form ; as ,
wheat, pitc h, golJ , sloth, pride, &c.
32. Other nouns are used only in the plural form ; as,
bellows, sc issors, tongs, riches, &c.
33. So1:ne nouns are the same in both numbers ; as,
sheep, de er, swine, &c .
34 . The plural number of nouns is generally formed by
adding s to the singular ; as, dove, doves ; book, books ;
thought, thoughts ; face, faces; chair, chairs .
35. Nouns singular ending in o, x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s,
form their plural by adding es·; as, cargo, cargoes ; ~ox,
boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses.
3G. J\iost nouns ending inf, or fe, are rendered plural
by cba11ging those terminations into ves; as, loaf, loaves ;
half, halves ; wife, wives ; knife, knives ; thief, thieves.
37. l\fost nouns ending in y, with no other vowel in
the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as,
beauty, beauties ; fly, fli es ; city, cities ; study, studies.
38. Many nouns form their plural irregularly ; as, foot,
feet ; man, men ; ox, oxen ; child, children ; mouse,
mice ; goose , geese, &c.
39. Nouns derived from other languages, generally form
their plurals according to the rules of the language from
which they are derived ; as, cherub, cherubim ; basis,
bases ; criterion, criteria ; calx, calces ; datum, data ;
radius, radii ; genus, genera ; lamina, larninre ; stamen,
s tamina ; ax is, axes, &c.

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ETYMOLOGY.

Male.
GENDER.

40. Gender signifies sex.
41. Though there are but two sexes, male and female,
yet noun s are said to have four distinctions wi1h regard to
gend er, masculine , feminine, common, and neuter.
42. Th e masculine gender denotes animals of the male
kind ; as, a man, a boy, a horse.
43. 'l'h efemininP- gend er denotes animals of th e female
kind ; a~, a woman, a girl, a cow.
44. Common gender denotes animals that are either
male or female ; as, parent, child , bird.
45 . .N'eule1· gender means no gender, that is, neither
male nor female; as, a house, a chair, a table.
4G. Some nouns naturally neu ter, by a figme of speech
become either masculine or feminine; as, (1he sun,) he is
ri sing ; (th e ship,) she sails well.
4 7. 'l'he masculine and fem inine genders are distinguished in th ree ways :

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Female.

Male.

Bachelor, Maid. Ea rl,
Beau,
Ilell e. Father,
Boy,
Girl.
Friar,
Brother, Sisler. Hart,
Buck,
Doe.
Horse,
Drake,
Duck. Husband,

Female.

Mal e.

Countess.King,
Mother. L ad,
Nun.
Lord,
Roe.
l\1an,
Mare.
l\1aster,
Wife.
Nephew,

Femnle .

l\Jale.

Female.

Marchioness.
Mayoress.
Patroness.
Peeress.
Poetess.
Priestess.
Princess.
Prioress.
Prophetess.
Protectress.
Shepherdess.
Songstress.
Sorceress.
Sultaness, or Sultan a.
Tigress.
Trailress.
T"°ress.
Viscountess.
Widow.

3. By prefixing another word ; as,
Female.

Queen.
Lass.
Lady.
Woman.
Mi stress.
Niece, &c.

2 . By a different termination ; as,
Male.

Male.

Female.

Marquis,
·Baroness.
Baron,
Mayor,
Benefactress.
Benefactor,
Patron,
Bridegroom, Bride.
Peer,
Cateress.
Caterer,
Poet,
Chantrr,ss.
Chanter,
Conductor, Conductress. Priest,
Prince,.
Countess.
Count,
Prior,
Deaconess.
Deacon,
Prophet,
Duchess.
Duke,
Protector,
Empress.
Emperor,
Enchanter, Enchantress. Shepherd,
Songster,
Executrix.
Executor,
Sorcerer,
Governess.
Governor,
Sultan,
Heiress.
Heir,
Heroine.
Hero,
Tiger,
Hostess.
Host,
Traitor,
Huntress .
Hunter,
Tutor,
J ewess.
J ew,
Landgrave, Landgravine. V iscount,
Widower,
Lioness.
Lion,

I . By different words ; as,
Male.

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NOUN.

Female.

Abbot,
Abbess.
Adulterer, Adulteress.
Actor,
Actress.
Ambassador, Ambassadress.
Arbitress.
Administrator, Administratrix. Arbiter,

l\Iale.

Female.

Male.

Female.

Acock·sparrow, A hen-s parrow. A he.bear,
A she-bear.
A man-servant, A maid·se rvant. A male-child,
A fem:ilc-child.
A he-goat,
A she-goat.
Male-descendants,Female.descendants.

CASES.

48. Case means the state, relation, or condition, of a
noun .
49. Nouns have four cases, the Nominative, the Possessive, the Objective, and the Vocative.
50. The nominative case is the agent, actor, or doer,
or the subject of a verb ; as, Paul writes ;. the girls
learn.
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ETYMOLOGY.

51. The ~Jossessive case expresses the relation of property, possession, or authorship; as, John's book, the mas-

EXAMPLES
Sing ular.

ter's desk, l\fmray's Grammar.
52. The possessive case of nouns, which do not end
with the sound of s or z, is formed by adding an apostrophe (') with the letters after it; as, John's hat, Maria's
book, Nancy's lesson.

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NOUN.

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Plural.

Nom . .Man, Men .
Poss. llrau's, Men 's,
Ohj • Man, Men.
Voe. Man, Men.

OF DECLENSION.

Singular.

Scholar,
Scholar's,
Sc holar,
Scholar,

Plural.

Scholars.
Scholars'.
Scholars.
Scholars.

Singular.

Plural.

James, The Jamcses.
James', The Jameses'.
Jan1es, The Jameses.
James, The J amcscs.

ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS;

53. But when nouns do encl with the sound of s or z
(wh~tever le~ter or letters represent the sound,) the pos-'
sessive case 1s formed by adding an apostro11hc on ly · as
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J_Jesus '1·r
ue, conscience' sake, Hodges' hat, goodness' sake,
. abez' cont.

What is it ? Why a noun ? vVhat kind of a noun ?
vVhy common, or proper ? What belong to nouns ?
What pernon, number, gender, and case ? and why ? If
in the nominative ca.se to some verb, which is the verb,
and what is the rule ? Rule Sd. If in the nominative
case absolute, what is the rule ? Rule 12th. If in the
possessive case and governed by some noun, which is the
noun, and what is the rule ? Rule 5th. If in the objeci.
tive case and governed by some verb, participle, or preposition, which is the word, and what is ti: rnle ? Huie
8th, 9th, or 10th. If in the vocative case, what is the
rule ? Rule 11th.

Note. vVith regard to this last rule, the Compiler is
aware, that good usage is, to some extent, divided ; that
some writers, notwithstanding the sibilant or hissiurr sound
~t the end ?f a word, still adhere, in all cai;es, to the practice of add111g another s after the apostrophe ; while others, to avoid this unpleasant sound, ad111it uf a large number of exceptions to their rule, which, in effect, rend er it
useless. For these reaso ns, the examples relatinrr to this
subject, under the head of False Syntax, arc incl:dcd in
brackets. It is generally conceded, however, by all critics,
that the above rule always holds true in poetry ; as,

Additional Questions.

vVhen does a proper noun become common ? What
are collective nouns ? \Vhat are participial or verbal
nouns ? vVhat are abstract nouns ? How is the plural
number of nouns generally formed ? If the s ingular ends
in o, x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, how is the plural formed?
How are nouns ending in J, or Je, rendered plural ? and
nouns ending in y ? \Vhat nouns are irregular in forming
their plural ? How do nouns derived from other languages form their plural ? \Vhat nouns are used in the
singular number only ? and what ones in the plural only ?
What nouns are the same in both numbers ? What is
gender ? How many sexes are there ? How m.any distinctions have nouns, with regard to gender? Do nouns

"Achilles' wrath, lo Greece the direful spring";

and also in prose, in all plural nouns ending in s. But in
the singu lar number, in prose, many good writers, to aYoid
the disagreeable hissing sound, adopt a different mode of
expression, and instead of saying, "Xerxes's army," say
" the army of Xerxes."

54. _The objective case is the object of an action, or of
a relation; as, James threw a ball against the side of the

house.
55. The vocative or independent case is used in callin,,.
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a person, or m makmg a direct address; as, lfenry, come
here ; scholars, mind your studies.

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in the neuter gender ever become masc uline or feminine ?
and how ? How many methods of distinguishing gender
are there ? ·w ha t is the first ? second ? third ? What
is case ? How many cases are there ? vVhat are they ?
How is the possessive case formed ? and why ?

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ADJECTIVE.

ETYMOLOGY.

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York and Boston. Two cherubims stood on the right
hands of the altars . [Thebes's rise and foll . . Socrates's
sufferiug and death. Archimedes's tomu. Alcibiades's
success. Hughes's work. Sophocles's Grammar. Ulysses's strength. . Xerxes's defeat.]

EXERCISES IN PARS I NG .

l\Ian, Boston, books, virtue, animals, tree, J olm,
women, boys, si ster, wi sdom, girl's bonnet, father's house.
F eet, goose, Camuridge, penny, t::iusan, 0 Moses, I
James Madi son, armies, thief, lawyer's oflice, sheep, people, cargo, loaf, Leauties , mal e-chi ldren, man-servant.
Scissors, heroes , wheat, votaries, Lydia, pride, mice,
ellipsis, potato, datum, radii, hen-turkey , tigress , actor,
criteria , series, uncle's wife, clothes, lioness, earl, governor's duty, President Tyler's administration.
Boys, come in. Washington was his country's deliverer. Pope's translation of Homer's Iliad. Alexander,
th e conqueror of Darius . J osepb New ton, my father's
cousin, marri ed a niece of Thomas vVinchester. Peter's
wife 's mother is sick with a fever. G irls, attend to your
'rnrk. The horse kicked the cow. The cow kicked the
horse . The wicked.
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Caroline, though an old bachelor, is the greatest beau in
town. Phineas's wife was nephew to General Jackson,
the hero ine of New Orleans. His wives prop erty is in
the hands of Joseph C larke, her niece. That gi rls book
is b etter than those boys books. Five foot of timb er.
For conscience's sake. Nancy is a very good songster,
as well a.3 in strucler. His mother was th e heir and admini strator of the estate. He was a witch, and his sister,
a traitor. He visited all the churchs in the citys of New

ADJECTIVE.
56. AN AdJective is a word added to a noun
to describe, qualify, or limit it ; as, a good man ; a
virtuous woman ; twenty dollars.
57 . In English, adjectives are not varied on account
of gender, number, or case, but only to express the different degrees of quality of their nouns ; as, good book,
better book, best book. Three books are here supposed
to be compared together, and the adj ect ive good is varied
to express their different degrees of quality.
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58. Though some adjectives have six variations of
comparison, yet there are commonly reckoned only three
degrees ; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla-

tive.

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59. The positive merely describes or qualifies, without
any comparison ; as, good, wise, little.
60. Th e comparative, implying a comparison between
two, increases or lessens the positive in signification ; as,
better, wiser, less.
61. The superlative, implying the highest or lowest
degree, increases or lessens the positive to the utmost;
as, best, wisest, least.
REGULAll COMPAIUSON.

62. The simpl e word, or positive, if a monosyllable
and regula rly varied, becomes the comparative by adding;
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RHETORIC.

RHETORIC.
280. Rhetoric, as it teaches the skilful use of
language, may be termed the art of composition.
281. lt treats of the proper use of words, and phrases,
of the right construction of sentences, of .figures of speech,
of th e best method of forming a discourse, and of the various lr.inds and qualities of style.
WORDS AND PHRASES.

282. Words are articulate sounds, used by common
consent, as signs of our ideas.
283. Phrases are two or more words, used in the same
connexion, but not making complete sense.
284. There are three kinds of phrases, viz. adjunct or
impeifect phrase, incidental phrase, and appendant phrase.
285. An adjunct or impcifect phrase is so closely
united with the rest of the sentence, as not to be separated from it ; as, men of good character, are frequently
guilty of some improprieties.
286. An incidental phrase may occur in almost any
part of a sentence, and it is generally separated from it;
as, I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me.
287. An appendant phrase is generally annexed to
the end of another phrase or sentence ; as, he went to
Boston, with his father.
Note. The incidental and appenda11t phrases are often
used synonymously. On th e right use of words and phrases ,
much of the beauty, force, and elegance of languag e depends.
SENTENCES.

288. A sentence consists of a number of words, making complete sense ; as, Timothy goes to school.

SENTENCES.

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289. There are three kinds of sentences, simple, compound, and complex.
290. A simple sentence has but one subject, and one
attribute ; as, the sun shines.
291. A compound sentence consists of two or more
simple sentences united, having more subjects or more attributes, than one ; and it may be resolved into as many
simple sentences, as it has subjects or attributes ; as, faith
worketh patience ; and patience, experience ; and experience, hope.
292. A complex sentence is one which has more subjects, or more attributes; than one ; but which cannot be
·resolved into simple sentences, without destroying the
sense ; as, more scholars attend the school, than can be
conveniently seated.
Note. It seems to be the object of a complex sent/nee to
secure brevity, strength, and elegance, without the sacn·
fice of perspicuity.
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SENTENCl;!S.

293. The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are Unity, Clearness, Strength, and Harmony.
294. Unity. In order to preserve, the unity of a sentence, the following rules should be carefully observed.
1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should be
changed as little as possible. 2. Never crowd into one
sentence things which have so little connexion that they
would bear to be divided into two or more sentences.
3. A void all unnecessary parentheses:
295. Clearness.
Jlmbiguity, which is opposed to
clearness, may arise from a_bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. A leading rule in the arrangement of
sente11ces, is, that those words or members most nearly
related, should be placed in the sentence as near to each

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FIGURES OF SPEECH.

other as poss ible, so as thereby to make their mutual relati on clearly appear.
29G. Strength. J3y the st rength of a sente nce, is meant
such an arrangement of its several words and phrases,
as sha ll bring out the sense to the best advantage, and give
eve ry word and eve ry phrase it s du e weight and force.
For this purpose, the following rul es may be use ful.
I. Strike out from the sen tence all redundant words and
phrases. 2 . Pay parti cular attention to the us·e of conjunctions, relativ es, and all the parti cles e mpl oyed for
transition and connexion. 3. Dispose of the prin cipal
word or wor<ls in that part of the sen tence in which they
will make the most striking impression . 4. Cause the
members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance
one above another . :.; . Avoid concluding a sentence with
an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsid erable word, unless it be e mphatic. G. vVhen two things are compared
or contrasted with eac h other, a resemblance in the language and constru c ti on shonld be observed.
297. Harm ony. Harmony consists in giving a just proportion and symme try to a sentence or a discourse.

301. An allegory is a continued metaphor ; or, 1t 1s
several metaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs
from a single metaphor, in the same mann er as a cluster
on the vine differs from a single grape. The following is
an example : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt :
thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and did st cause it to take deep
root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with
the shadow of it ; and the boughs thereof were like the
goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea,
and her branc hes into the river."
302 . A simile or comparison is when the resemblance
between objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed
in form ; as, our Indians are like those wild plants which
thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed
to the influence of the sun.
303. A metonymy is where the cause is put for the
effect, or the effect for the cause ; the container for the
thing contained; or the sign for th'1rthing signified ; as,
grey hairs should be respected ; the kettle boils.
304. A Synecdoche. When the whole is put for a
part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a
species for a genus ; in general, when any thing less, or
any thing more, is put for th e precise object meant, the
figure is called a Synecdoche ; as, a fl eet of twenty sail,
instead of ships.
305. Personification is that fi gure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as,

298 . Figures of speech may be consi dered as the language of th e imagination, or of the passions.
299 . The principal fi gures of speech are th e following ; viz ., .Metaphor, .11.llegory, Simile, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification, .Rpostrophe, Antithesis, Hyperbole, Interrogation, Exclamation, Irony, and .B.mpli.fication.
300. A metaphor is found ed on the resemblance which
one object hears to another ; or, it is a comparison in an
abridged form ; as, Daniel \Vebster is a pillar of the
Const itution.

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FIGURES OF SPEEC H.

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"Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean ~miles."

306. An apostrophe is an address to some person,
either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening

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RIIE:TORIC.

to us ; as, 0 death ! where is thy sting ? 0 grave!
where is thy victory ?
307 . .11.ntithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of
two objects ; as, if you wish to enrich a person, study
not to increase his stores, but to d-ini-inish his desires.
3 08. IIyperbole, or exaggeration consists in mngnifying an object beyond its natural bound s ; as, he is as slow
as a snail ; a mouse as large as a horse .
309. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a qu es tion ; Lut when m en are s trongly
moved, whatever th ey would affirm or deny with great
earr.estness, they naturally put in the form of a question ;
as, hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder
with a voice like him ?
310. E :vclamations are the effec t of strong emotions,
such as Slll'Jlrise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like; as,
0 that I had ''"ings like a dove ! for then would I fly
away, and be at rest!
311. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to
add force to our re marks. vV e can reprove one for his
negligenc e, by saying, you have taken great care, indeed.
3 12 . .11.mplification or climax consists in heightening
all the circumstanc es of an object or action, which we
desire to place in a strong light ; as, it is a crime to put
a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the height of guilt to
scourge him ; little less than parricide to put him to
death : what name, then, shall I give to the act of crncifying him?
METHOD OF FORMING A DISCOURSE.

313. Though a good method is of vital importance to
the successful communication of our thoughts, yet the various subjects of discourse are so diflerent in their nature

METHOD OF DISCOURSE.

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and meaning, that no definite rules can be given for their
division and arrangement, which will apply equally well
to all.
314. The following rules may be serviceable in arranging the plan of a discomse. 1. Never attempt to
write on any subject, until you fully understand it. 2.
Fix definitely in your rnind th e precise oLject in view;
3. l\fark the outlines of the iliscourse, or, in other words,
determine the grand divisions. 4. L et the divisions be
natural, such as obviously suggest themselves to the
mind, and as may aid yulll' main design, and be easily remembered. 5. Let the divi sions be distinct ; one part
should not inclurle another, but each should have its
proper place, and be of importance in that place , and all
the parts well fitted together and united, should present a·
whole.
ILLUSTRATION:

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315. Our subject is Filial JJuties, and our object is to
show 1 that c hildren should render to their parents obedience and love. 0lll' division is as follows :
Children should render obedience and love to their
parent s :
I. Because they are under obligations to their parents
for benefits received from them.
2. Because in this way they secure their own happ111ess.
3. Because God has commanded them to honor their
parents.
316. In this division there is a manifest reference to
the object in view. The different heads are also distinct
from each other, and, taken together, give a sufficiently
full view of the subject. It is in accordance, then, with
tlie preceding rules.

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RIIETOnIC.

QUALITIES OF STYLE.

317. After the division has been made, the filling up
of the discomse must depend very much upon our ingenuity and abi liti es, the extent of our information, our command of language, and our literary taste.

Here, every sentence has its meaning and its importance;
and the whole abounds with sublime and elevated views,
and with noble and in spiring thoughts.
327. The clignified style has a certain stateliness, formality, and parade about it, which are the result of art
and labor .
328. The neat style is not only free from faults, but
sprightly in thought, and becoming in language.
329. The elegant style is not only neat, but graceful.
It is distinguished for its perspicuity and propriety, for its
l1armonious and happy arrangement, and for its beautiful
imagery and polished diction.
330. The ornamented style abounds in tropes and figures ; and is adorned with metaphorical language and highwrought imagery.

KINDS OF STYLE.

318. Style means the peculiar manner in which a person spectlcs or writes. 'l'o speak well, or to write well,
he mus t think well, and be master of his subject.
319. The following may be numbered among the different kinds of style ; the idiomatic, the labored, the concise, the diffuse, the forcible, the vehement, the elevated,
the dig nified, the neat, the elegant, and the ornamented.
320. The idiomatic style is a simple, easy, artless, and
flowing style, easily written, and easily understood.
321. The labored style is opposed to the idiomatic,
b ecause it is a studied, artificial, and inverted style, and
requires close attention and effort to understand it.
322 . The concise style is a short, pithy, bold, and
sente nti ous style, in which the thoughts are expressed in
a few words, and in a vivid, distinct, and pungent manner.
323. The dij}iise style is opposed to the concise, because the sentences are long and verbose, and contain
many and varied illustrations.
324. The forcible style is plain, direct, strong, and
convin cing, and implies good intellectual powers, and a
well disc iplined mind.
325. The vehement style not only implies sound and
convin cing arguments clearly and forcibly expressed, but
a greater degree of excitement and a deeper current of
feeling than the forcible sty le.
32G . The elevated style, as it relates to the thoughts
and moral fe elings, may be called the sentimental style.

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QUALITIES OF STYLE.

33 1. Correctness, as a quality of style, implies the use
of words that are purely English in their true and proper
sense, and the construction of phrases and sentences, according to the rules of Grammar.
332 . Perspiettity, as a quality of style, is opposed to
ambiguity and obscurity, and implies that the expressions
used , be such as to convey, and clearly convey, the true
meaning of the writer.
333. Vivacity, as a quality of style, implies that the
thoughts of the writer are exhibited with distinctness before the mind, and in a manner which arrests and fixes
the attention . ~ See Nos. 293 - 297 .
334 . Euphony, as . ~ quality of style, means a certain
smoothness of expression, produced by a happy selection
of words and phrases, and by the harmonious arrangement of them into sentences .

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335. Naturalness, ns n quality of style, implies that
the writer has exercised good sense and taste in the
choice of his words, in the form of his sentences, in
the ornaments he has used, nm! in his turns of thought
and expression.

THE END .

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