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.COMMON THINGS;
FOR THE USE

OF

SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
ON
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DR. MAYO'S LESSONS ON OBJECTS.
I(
'•.

EDITED BY JOHN FRosrr, LL. D.

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J. B. LI P P I N C 0 TT & C 0.
- 1 8 5 i.

ADVERTISEMENT OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR,
PREFIXED TO THE FIRST EDlT!ON.

following work is an improved edition of
an English book entitled Lessons on Objects, ·
originally published by the teachers of a Pestalozzian school, in which the lessons were given _
for many years before their publication.
In presenting them to the American public, the
Editor has found it necessary, besides frequently
, changing hard and Latinized \vords for common .
ones, to remove one fault existing in almost every
.. English school-book; whiCh is an apparently
· studied neglect of this country. With the exception of works on Geography, it · would be
difficult to find a book of this class in which the
existence of tbe United States of America as one
of the nations of the earth is recognized. The
removal of this objection in a work ,treating of
productions and manufactures, was a matter of
obvious necessity.
It is presumed that the mere announcenient of
the subject and design of the present work, will
arrest the attention of all those who are desirous
of improving the methods of instruction. A demonstrative, explanatory, thorough system, in all
the different stages . of instruction, is now demanded by the public. The foundation of such
a system must be laid in Lessons on Things.
THE

Entered, according to Act ofCongre8s, in the year 1857, by

J. B. LIPP IN COTT & CO.,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for
the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

I*

I

CONTENTS.
ADVERTISE::\IENT
FIRST SERIES

TO THE THIRD EDITION.
INTRODUCTORY
LESSON
I.

MANY

instructors have used this book without

giving it out to the classes.

Others have made a

more succcssl'ul cxpcrirnent by using it as a class
book, allowing each pupil to r.ave a copy, an<l
learn his lesson from the book as well as from
the ol ij ccts. Dy pusscssillg this do11ll lc adrnJJtagc,

the pupil acquire;:; more Jefi.Hite iJeas of the meaning of word~, and the exact properties and qualities they indicate, than he dnes by the ucmnl mode
or committing tu

finer. "

lllClllury

the pages of u "De-

II.
III.
IV.

v.

VI.
VII.
VIH.
IX.

x.

XI.
XII.

Page
19
r.Jass ..............•.........•... 22
Indian Rubber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Leather . . . ........ .. .. . .... .. , ..• 25
Loaf Sugar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . • 26
A Piece of Gum Arabic ....... .. ... 26
Sponge .........................• 27
\Vool ............................. 28
\Yater . .. ...... . ................. 28
A Piece of \Vax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 29
Camphor ........... , ... .......... 30
Brea d .... . ....................... 30
Sealing \Vax ..........•....•... , •. 31
\Vhalcbonc ........ . ..... . ........ 32
REMARKS ••••••••••••••••••••••••

xnr.
XIV.
xv.

Cin g-er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Blotting Paper ............... , . . . . . 33

xrx.

~;1]1 . . .• . .. . . . . . ••• • •.• .• •. . ...••

XVI. A Piece of Willow ......•......•. , • 33
XVII. Milk . . .. . . ......... . ......... ·.. . . 34
XYJU. Ric e . .. ... . . ......... .. . .... ..... 3,1

xx.

1 forn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . •

3!i
:1!l

XXL Ivon· ... , ......... .. . . ........... 36
XXII. Chaik........... . ............... 36
XXIII. A Piece of the Dark of the Oak Tree 37

SECOND SERIES.
REMARKS • ••••• .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
A Pin .... ... ............••..• , •• ·41
II. A Cube of Wood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 42
III. An uncut Lead Pencil. . . . . . . . . . . . • • 42

INTRODUCTORY
LEssoN
I.

IV. A Pen .......................... .' 43
V. A Wax Candle. . . . . . . • . . . • • • • • • • •

44

LESSON

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

x.

XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.

ix

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

viii

Page
45
A Chair .... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . ' . . . . . 46
A Book .......................... 47
An Egg.········''''' ............ 47
A Thimble .. ..................... 48
A Penknife · · · · · · · · • • · · · · · · · · · · ' ' · 49
A ICey · · · · · · · · · ' . ' .. ' .... ' . . . . . . . 49
A Cup · · · · · · · · : . ' . ' .. ' . . . • . . . . . . 50
A Grain of Coflco · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · 50
A Pair of Scissors· · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · ·

ON THE SPICES.
LESSON

Pa§~

Pepper .........................
Nut1neg........................
Mace..........................
Cinnamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ginger.........................
XI. Allspice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XII. Cloves.........................

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

x.

89

91
93

94
95

9G

ON LIQ.UIDS.
THIRD SERIES.

. . . . . . . . 54
51
I. A Quill. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ' · · · · · . · 57
II. A Cent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Ill. Mustard Seed.······ · · · · · · · · '· · ·' 59
IV An Apple · · · · · · · · .. ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . 61
V. A Glass ofa Watch ................ 61
VI. Brown Sugar· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · · 62
VII. An Acorn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
VIII. A Piece of Honey-Comb· · · · · · · · · · · ' 64
IX. Refined Sugar ........... .' . . . . . . . . 65
X. A Butter-Cup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 66
XI. A Lady-Bird· · · · · · · · · · ' · '' ' ' ' . . . . 67
XII. An Oyster. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ' ' · ' ' ' ' · 68
XIII. A Fir or Pinc Cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
XIV. A Fur· · · · · · · · · · ' .... ' . . . . . . . . . . 69
XV A La.urcl Leuf. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 69
XVI. A Needle· .. ··· .. ·· ..... " " ... 70
X.VII A Stone. . · · · · · · · · · · · · ' ' ' .... ..•

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.................
LESSON

FOURTH SERIES

ON THE SENSES.
INTRODUCTORY
LESSON
I.

R .EMARKS. . . • . • • . . • • • • • • • •

•• •••• •

F eeling or Touch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
· · · · · · · · · · · · · .... ' .........
II. Si<rht.
0
•
• •• ' • •••••
Ill. Hearmg · · · · · · · · · · · · · •
IV. Smell.·············'·•·•''······'

v.

Taste .. •·····••·····•·•·•••''·•··•

79
81
84
85
86

87

XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.

'V n.ter ................•......•.

Oil .................. .....•.....
Beer ....................... .. .
Vinegar . .... .. ". ... ...... . ..... .
Foreign White Wine .......•.....
Ink ........... .............•..
Milk ......................... .

99

101
102

104
105
106

107

FIFTH SERIES.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ••••••••••••••••••••••••
uESSON
I. Leather ... ... . .... . ..... ' ..... .

II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.

Cork ... ... .................. . .
Indian Rubber, or Gum Elastic ... .
Sponge .........••..•.•...• • ..••
Camphor ..............•..... ..•
I-lorn ....... ... ....... ........ .
Shell Lac ... ..... .......•.....•
Wax Candle . .' ................. .
IX. Glue ...........•......•.•..•••
X. Coffee ... . ...............•.....
XI. Tea ......................... .
XII. Sago .......................•.•
XIII. Rice ...........•.............•
XIV. Paper ................ .•.. . •....•
XV. Parchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......•
XVI. . Glass ... ·...................... .
XVII. Whalebone ....................•
XVIII. Bread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .
XIX. Sugar .......................•

113
114
115
116
117
118
118
119
119

3

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120
121
122

J

i

122

~

123
124

~

127

j

i

128
129 .
130
131

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CON TE '.'\ T S.

LEssoN

xx.

11

I' age
1-fcmp . . . .• . . · · · · • • • · • • · · • • • • J ;>;~

XXL FLix ... . .............. ','. . .. . i:~:i
XX lI. Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l~l.5
XXIII. Wool. ..... ..... .............. 1:35.
XXIV. Silk . ... .. . ... . ... ··. ·· .· · ···· 1:11
Court Plaster. . . . . . . . · .... · · · · 1 :~f<
XXVI. Sa fli'oll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l :rn
xxvn. H11Ucr ........ . .... · · · · · · · · · · · J 10
XX VlLL C JH 'CSC ••••• •• • • ••• • ••• •• •••• • Hl
XXJX. l'u t.1 y . . . .. .. . .. ..... . . ... ... . . Hl
xxx. Stn rcl1 ..... .. ... . . . . . .. . . · . · · · ] 4:2
xxxr. Felt ......... ·········· ··· ··· · H'.~
XXXII. Porcelain ......... . . . .. . .. . · · · 1'1•1

FIRST SERIES.

xxv.

IVORY.

ON THE :'\lJ:'fAT.S.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ••••••••••.• ••• • ••••••••

LEssoN XXXIII. Gold ... ·· .· ·················

XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVJ.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.

QimsTJONS

ON

Silver ...... · .. ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Quicksilver, or Mercury. · ...... ·
Lend . .• .......... · · . · • · · · · · ·
Copper .. . ....• · · · · · · · · · · · · · · •

158
lli2

166
Tin .... . . ... ········· ····· ··· 170
Comparisons of the Metals ... · .• 173
On l\iclals in gcncrnJ ....... · . . . 174
THE l\TF.TALS . • . . . . . . . . . . .. .. •. ..• 176
EAHTJlS ,

XLII. Lime .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
XLIII. Silica ...... . ................ .
XLIV. Alumine, or Argi!. ...... . ..... .
QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
LESSON

XLV.
XL VI.
XL VII.
XL VI II.
XLIX.

\

151
154

I ro11 ... .. . . ... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · •

O~

LESSON

14G
146

Coal. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · ·

Granite ............. · · · • · · · · • •
Salt .......•.....••. · • . • · · · ..
Sfa.te . . . . . . . · . · · · · • • · • • · • · · · · •
Coral. . . . . . . . . . . ....... • · · . •

DICTIONARY ... .•••...

f

•

•

I

I

••

I

•••••••••••••

I.

180

184
186
189
191
194
195
199
200

Trrn teeth of Ekphr-ints, 'Vr-il ru scs , &e . nrc cn.11 qd ivory. Ivory is very sr'n:iceahle in the useful
and ornamental arts; and the quantity of it which
is annually consumed for va rious purposes is very
considerable'. There is said to be a marked difference in th e texture and quality of the ivory of
the 1\-siatic and African Elephants. That of the
Walrus is much superior to either, and was much
used by dentists before the invention of porcelain
teeth.

202

•

11

'15

FI R S T SE R IE S.

BREAD.

IlRRAn, crnpl1a tically call c1l the staff of life, rq
produced Liy the labour of the hu s liandn::~.~
Flour, whic h makes the fin est brea d, is made of
wheat' ground in a mill, and bolted through fine
sieves w h '. ch separate it from the coarser part of
the grain, which is called bran.

FIRST SERIES.

SALT.

. MosT of the salt ~v hich we use is produced' from
the water of the sea. · By exposing sea water to
heat, the water is driven off in the shape of vapour,
:and the salt which was held in solution (dissolved)
in it, becomes solid. Salt is also found in a solid
state in the earth ; and is dug out thence ·in greht.
quantities.

13

FIRST SERIES.

FIRST SERIES;

LEATHER.

WATER . .

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'

'"HEN

enjoyin g the pleasures of a sleig h-ride,
we may be forcibly reminded of the m any uses
of leather. Not only our ridin g.ca ps a nd boots,
but many other parts of our dress, as well as our
whip and harness, are made of this materi a l; and
their presence suggests many other applications
of this every.day article, which will readily occur
to the youthful reader.

•

IT were an end less task to enumerate the uses
of water, since it is indispensable in almost every
operation of the useful and scientific arts. Not
only the mill a nd the steamboat are set in motion
by 'its agency, but all the mechanical bus.iness 'of
life, and all the changes which are going forward
in the kin gdoms of nature, depend on the presence
of water, in the ocean, the river, the earth, and
the air.
2

<.,.

.
,II

BREAD,

FIRST SERIES.

FIRST SERIES.

BREAD.

SALT.

c rnpliaticnll y c:cll('(l the: st:-ifT

or lilt;,

f<;i

tl1 c ]111 ~; li : 111d1 ~;·'·"
Flour, which 11iakcs t.he fi1w ~, 1. brc;1d, is macJc of

produced liy flJC ! lab1 111r

11('

wheat gro und in n mill, nn<l Loll ed th ro ugh fim~
sieves wh ~ cli se parate it from tl1 c coar::;er part of
the grain, which is called I.mm.

MosT of the salt which we use is produced' from
the water of the sea. Dy exposing sea water to
heat, the water is driven off in the shape of vapour,
.and the salt which was held in solution (dissolved)
in it, becomes solid. Salt is also found in a solid
state in the earth ; and is dug out thence ·in greb.f
quantities.

15

FIRST SERIES.

FIRST SERIES.

BREAD.

SALT.

Bnr.:An, cmp lia ticnll y ('a\ lc1 \ 1l1 r: :"; f :1 fr n[ li fi:~ , 1~
produced l1y tltc h1bun1· "[' the h 1 1 :·dJ anc11>.; ·'.~
Flour, which rnakcs the linc:-:t bn "< 1d, i:; m:1dc of
wheat g roun d inn mil l, etncl lwlil'd throu g h fine
sieves ,.,,-h ~ch sc pa rate it f'rorn 1l1• ) <;Parser pnrt 0{
the grain, whieh is called Imm.

MosT of the salt which we use is produced from
the water of the sen. By exposin g sea water to
heat, the water is driv en off in the shape of vapour,
and tl1 e salt which was held in solution (di ssolved)
in it, becomes solid. Sa lt is also found in a solid
state in the earth ; and is <lug out thence in great
quantities.

·'

FIRST SERIES.

LESSON I.
GLASS.
GLASS has been selected as the first substance
to be prese nted to th e children, because the
qualities which characterize it are quite obviom;
to the senses. The pupils should be arranged
before a black board or slate, upon which the
result of their observation should be written
The utility of having th e lesson prese nted to the
eyes of each child, with the power of thus recalling attention to what has occurred, will very soon
be appreciated by the instructor.
The glass should be passed round the party
to be examined by eac h in<li vidual. *'
TEAcirnR. What is that which I hold in .my
hand?
Cunumrn. A piece of g lass.
TEACirnn. Cau you spell the word " glass"?
(The teacher then writes the word " glass" upon •
the slate, which is thus presented to the whole
class as the subject of the lesson.) You have all
examined this glass ; what do you observe? 'Vlrnt
can you say that it is ?-t
Cn1LDirnN. It is bright.
*By this means each individual in the class is called upon
to exercise his own po\vers on the object presented ; the subsequent questions of the teacher tend only to draw out the
ideas of the children, and to correct them if wrong.
t This question is put instead of asking, "'Vhat are its ·
qualities?" because the children would not yet., in all probability, understand the meaning.of the . term, hut by its frequent
application to the answers to this question, they will sl,ortly
b~come familiarized with it.

LESSON !.-GLASS.

·23

TEACHER. (Te.1cher having written the word
"qualities," writes under it-It is bright.) Take
it in your hand and feel* it.
CmLDHEN. It is cold. (Written on the board
under the former quality.)
·
TEACHER. Feel it again, and compare it with
the piece of sponge that is tied to your slate, and
then tell me what you perce ive in the glass.t
CmLDREN. It is smooth-it is hard.
TEACIIEH. Is there any other glasi3"in the room?
CmLDHEN. Yes. The w-i·ndows.
TEAc1rnn. (Closes !_he '~hutters) Can y~m see
the garden now ? · 7 '
·
CnILDREN. No.
TEAc1mn. Why cannot you?
CmLDHEN. \Ve cannot see through the shutters.
TEACIIEH. \Vhat can you s::iy th en of the glass?
CmLDREN. We can see through it.
TEACHEH. Can you tell me any word that will
express this quality?
CnILDREN. No.
TEACHEH. I will tell you then; pay attention,
that you may recollect it. It is transparent.:j:
* The urt of the teacher is to put snch questions as may
lend successively to tho exercise of the <lilferent senses.
t The object of the teacher here is to lead the pupil to the_
observation of the quality smooth, and ho does so. by making
. him contrast it with the opposit.e quality in .another substance;
. a mode of suggestion, of whiph frequent use may be ·made. '
t Th.e fact of the glass being transparent is so familiar to
the 9hildren, that they will probably not observe it, till its
great use in consequence of that quality brings it forcibly
}).efore their minds. They then feel the want of a term to
. express the idea thus formed, and the teacher gives them the
·wo"rd, as a sign for it, and in order to impress ft upon their
minds. To ascertain whether they have rightly comprehended

24

FIRST SERIES.

'Vhat shall you now und erstand when I tell you
that a substance is transparent?
CHILDREN. That you can see throu g h it.
TEACHER. You are right. ')(' · Try anJ recollect
somethin g that is transparent.
C111LDRE N. ' Vate r.
'I'EACILER. If I were to let. this gl:i 'S fall, or
you we re to throw a ball at the wind ,w, what
would be the consequence?
CurLDREN. Th e g lass would be broke n. It is
brittle .
TEACHER. Could I in the same mann e r break
th e shutter?
CurLDREN. No.
T EACHER. Cou ld I break it if I us ed great
forc e 1
CnILDREN. Yes.
TE Acimn. ' Vo u Id you th ere for e ca 11 the wood
brittl e?
CnrLDREN. No.
vVhat su hstanccs th e n do yo u c all
T EACH ER .
brittle?
CnrLDREN. Those whi ch arc easily hrok c n.
Th ese arc probabl y ns man y qualiti es as •vo uld
occur to c liil:lrcn al t!H )ir lirst ;itf c rnpt, which
bein g arrarwed on th e s hte form a n exe rc ise in
spelling . 'They should th en b e effaced, and if
the pupil s are able to write, th ey may e nd eavour
to reme mber th e lesson, aml put it Jown on their
slates.
the meaning of the word, . they arc called upon to give examples of its appli cation.
* It is but too common a practice to call a child good be·
cause he gives a right answer, thus confounding intellectual
truth and moral virtue.

LESSON 11. ur.-INDIAN RUBnER LEATiIEn.

25

LESSON II.
INDIAN RUBBER.

This substance has been chosen that the class
may observe the qualities opaque, elastic, inflammable. The first would be made clear to
them by contrasting the Indian rubber with the
glass of the preceding lesson ; the second, by
stretching it, and allowing it to resume its former
shape; the third, by setting it on fire.

Qualities

of

Indian Rubber.

It is opaque.
elastic.
inflammable.

tough.
smooth.

Uses.-To rub out pencil marks-to form balls
and shoes.

LESSON III.
LEATHER.

ldeas to be developed by the examination of
this ~mbstanc e--.flexible, odorous, durable.

Qualities

of Leather.

It is flexible.
odorous.
tough.
wiooth.
durable.
opaque.
3

/

26

FIRST SERIES.

Uses.-For shoes, gloves, reins, saddles, portmanteaus-for binding books-covering trunks.

LESSON IV.
LOAF SUGAR.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson , soluble,
fusible, sparkling.

Qualities

of Loaf Sugm"

It is soluble, or dissolvable in water.
fusible,* or may be melted by heat.
brittle.
hard.
sweet.
white.
solid.
opaque.
Use.-To sweeten our food.

LESSON V.
A PIECE OF GUJII ARABIC.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, semitransparent, adhesive.
*The difference between fusibility and solubility may be
rendered obvious to the children by dissolving one piece of
sugar in water and holding another ..16.ver the candle. If any
experiment be necessary to exhiqit "!he quality of an object,
the operation should be performed beforfl tJie children, that
they may themselves observe it.

LESSON V. VI.-GUM ARABIC, SPONGE.

Qualities

27

of Gum Arabic.

It is hard.
bright.
yellow,
scmi-transparcn t.
dissolvable, or soluble in water.
sticky when melted.
solid.
Use.-To unite light thin substances.

LESSON VJ.
SPONGE.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, porous,
absorbent.

Qualities

of Sponge.

It is porous.
absorbent.*
soft.
tough.
opaque.
elastic, or springy.
flexible, or easily bent.
light brown.
Use.-For washing.
* The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to the
class, by showing that the sponge sucks up any liquid. . It
possesses this quality in consequence of its being full of pores.
The use to which an object is applied, often leads to the observation of the quality upon which the. use is dependent.

30

FIRST SERIES.

LESSON X.
CAlllPUOR.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, aromatic,
friable, volatile.

Qualities ef Camphor.
It is aromatic, i. e. spicy or fragrant.
easily crumbling or friable.
white.
semi-transparent.
bright.
soluble in spirits.
hard.
solid.
very inflammable.
medicinal.
light.
volatile, flying or evaporating.
Uses.-For medicine. To prevent infection,
to preserve Cabinets from small insects, and
clothes from moths.

LESSON XI.
. BREAD.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, eatable,
wholesome, nutritious.

Qualities ef Bread.
It is porous.
absorbent

LESSON XI. XII.-BREAD, SEALING·WAX.

31

It is opaque.
solid.
wholesome.
nutritious.
eatable.
The crumb is yellowish white.
soft when new.
moist.
The crust is hard.
brittle.
brown.
Use.-To nourish.

LESSON XII.
SEALING WAX·

Idea to be developed by this lesson-impressible.

Qualities ef Scaling Wax.
It is hard.
bright.
brittle.
fusible.
opaque.
soluble in spirits.
light •
solid.
smooth.
colored.*
inflammable.
odorous.
• The color may be determined by the specimen presented.

,.

.)

3!

FIRST SEHIES.

LESSON

It is opaque.
solid.
elastic.
flexible.
white.
odorous.

xn:.

xx.-SALT, MILK.

35

It is bright.
solid.
porous.
absorbent.
wholesome.
nutritious.
Uses.-~o nourish, to make drawing paper.

Uses.-To'. make hats, and bonnets, and to bu~n
for fuel.

LESSON XIX.

LESSON XVII.

SALT·
MILK.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, granulous
saline, sapid. .
·
'
Qualities of Salt.
It is white.
sparkling.
granulous, or full ·of grains.
salt, or saline.
hard.
opaque.
soluble.
fusible.
It has taste (or is sap id.) .
·
Uses.-To flavor food, to preserve from putrefaction, to manure land.

Qualities of Mille.
It is white.
fluid.
liquid.
opaque.
wholesome.
greasy.
nutritious.
sweet.
Uses.-To make cheese, butter, puddings, and
to drink.

LESSON XVIII.
RICE.

LESSON XX.

Qualities of Rice.
It is white.
hard.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.

A HORN.

~

.

Qualities of a horn.
It is hard.
uneven.
hollow.

36

LESSON XXIII.-DARK.

FIRST SERIES.

It is odorous when burnt.
tapering.
opaque.
stiff.
yellowish brown.
fibrous.
Uses.-To make combs, glue, lanterns, handles
to knives and forks.
·

It is dull.
hard.
solid.
dry.
soluble. ·

LESSON XXIII.
PIECE OF TUE RARK OF THE OAK TREE.

LESSON XXL

Qualities.
lt is brown.
rugged.
opaque.
dry.
inflammable.
'3lifl:

IVORY.

Qualities of Ivory.
It is hard.
white.
smooth.
bright.
opaque.
solid.
durable.

inside smooth.

solid.
durable.

filnous.
<lull.

LESSON

xxn.
4

CHALK.

Idea to be developed by this lesson-":ffervescent."

Qualities

of Cltallc.

It is white.
friable.
effervescent in acids.
opaque .
• This quality may be made apparent to
l>Utting the chalk in vinegar.

th~

children bv

37

as
SEC 0 ND SER IE S.

F~MILIAR

A Cube of Wood.

OBJECTS.

SECOND SERIES.
FAM ILIA R OBJECTS.

A Grain of Coffee.

A Pair of Scissors.

A Key.

A Pencil in use.

An Egg

I

A Chair.

~
\~

A Thimble.
A Candle.

..

A Pin.

A Pen_

A Cup.

42

SECOND

SEHrns.

Uses.-To keep together the parts of our dress·
or whatever we wish to be united only for a time:

LESSON II.
A CUBE OF WOOD.

The cube will convey to the class a good idea
of a surface; they will observe that the outside is
divided into several parts, and may learn that the
boundaries of a solid are ealled surfaces.
'
Parts.
(Juaiities.
The surfaces.
It is hard.
light.
edges.
corners.
solid.
brown.
smooth.
i nflammablc.
opaque.
the surfaces are flat.
.
square.
the edges arc straight.
the corners are sharp.

LESSON HI.
AN UNCUT LEAD-PF.NCH,.

The new ideas presented to the children in
this lesson are the ends, which arc flat surfaces
and the curved surfac~: from this object they
therefore become acquamted with the form cylindrical.
Part.r;.
Qualities.
The surfaces.
It is hard.
ends.
odorous.

43·

LESSON IV.-A PEN.

Qualities. ·

Parts.
exterior or outside.
interior or inside.
middle.
lead.
wood.

long.
solid.
opaque.
inflammable~

dry.
reddish.
veined.
one surface is curved.
the ends are flat.
circular.
form cylindrical.
the lead is black.
brittle.
friable.
bright.
Uses.-For wntrng, drawing, &c. Let the
children point out on what occasions a pencil is
preferable to a pen.

LESSON IV.
A PEN.

A pen leads to the observation of many parts,
.rnd also presents opposite qualities in its different
parts.
Qualit·ies.
Parts.
The quill is transparent.
The quill.
cylindrical.
shaft.
hollow.
feather.
lamime, or parts of the feather. bright.
hard.
pith.
elastic.
nib.
1 yellowisJ..
split.

'_1

1

j
J

44

SECOND SERIES.

Pm·ts.

LESSON VI.-A CHAIR.

45

·Qualities.

shoulders.

horny.
the shaft is opaque.
angular.
solid.
white.
stiff.
hard.
grooved.
the pith is white.
spongy.
porons.
elas tic .
comprcssililc.
soft.

surfa~es.

skin.
groove.
inside.
outside.

LESSON Y.
A WAX CANDLE.

This oLject recalls the idea of the form cylindrical, gained in a previous lesson, an!l presents
the peculiar parts of the candle itself.

Parts.
The wick.
wax.
surfaces.
ends.
cur1ed surface.
edges.
top.
bottom.
middle.
inside.
outside.

Quo litif's.
It is cy liwlrical.
!t:ml.
opaque.
yr;llowisli white.
'Va x i"s sticky.
fusiLle.
The wick is inflammable.
tough.
white.
porous.
flexible.
Use.-To give light.

LESSON VI.
A CHAIR.

This and several of the succeeding lessons,
arc ch~sen on account of th e great variety of the
parts of the obj ec ts.

Parts.
Th e bac k.
front .
scat.
top.
bottom .
frame.

legs.
straw.
edges.
upµer part of scat.
under part of scat.
bars .
surfaces.
corners .

It is olnio11s that the quali ti es arc not nam~~d,
:is thcv would d0p cnd so r11tircly upon the Jund
of chai·r clrnscn for the lesson.
.
It is a us eful exercise to m;i.kc the _cl11l(!rc11
compare tlw rclati \' C 1~roporli~i11s a1;c~ s1tu'.tt1ons
of the diJfrrcnt p:uts of an ollJCCI. 1 h11s, 111 the
chair, the depth of the sc::it is about one-half the
height of th e chair; the .legs arc rather sho'.t:'.
than the back; tlic srat Is narrower at th? back
than th e front, &c. T he legs arc pcrpcnd1cular,
the seat horizontal, the back sla nti11g, the bars honzo11 tal and parallel.

4()

SECOl'iD SERIES.

LESSON VIII.-AN EGG, A THIMBLE.

LESSON VII.

LESSON VIII.

A BOOK.

Parts.
The outside.
inside.
edges.
corners.
--binding.
paper.
back.
sides.
top.
bottom.
title-page.
preface.
introduction.
contents.
end.
leaves.
pages.
margin.
beginning.
type.
letters.
numbers.
stops.
words.
sentences.
syllables.
title.
lettering.
stitching.
lines.

47 .

AN EGG.

Parts.

Qualities.
It is oval.
white.
hard.
edible.
nutritious.
opaque.
shell is brittle.
smooth.
thin.
The white is liquid when raw.
solid when boiled.
semi-transparent when raw.
opaque when boiled.
adhesive.
sticky.
insipid.
· Yolk is yellow.
liquid.
soft.
opaque.
odorous.
sapid.

The shell.
skin.
white.
yolk.
interior.
exterior.
surface.

LESSON IX.
A THIMBLE.

Parts.
The inside.
outside.

Qualitie.~.

It is hollow.
silver.

S.F:COND s1mrns.

Parts.

LF.SSON XI. XII.-A

Qualities.

top.
bottom.
nm.
border.
indentations.

cylindrical.
white.
bright.
opaque.
hard.
curved.
Inside is smooth.
Outsi<le is rough.

/

Use.-To prese rve the middl e finger from being
pricked in working with a needle.

LESSON XI.
A KEY.

Parts.
The ring.
barrel.
wards.
grooves.
edges.
surfaces.
corners.

LESSON X.
A PEN-KNIFE.

Pa1·ts.
The handle.

KF.Y, A CUP.

QuaZ.itics.
It is har<l.
steel, or iron.
bright.
col cl.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.
liable to rust.
part of the b~rrcl is hollow.
the barrel is cylindrical.
the ring is curved.

Qualities.

The blaclc is steel.
blade.
bright.
plates.
cold.
grooves.
hard.
back of th'e handle.
reflective.
hack of the blade.
opariue.
point.
brittle.
edge.
the front edge is thin.
spring.
sharp.
rivets.
the back edge is blunt.
pivot.
thick.
heel.
handle hollow.
flat.
T.lse.-To cut.
The otlier qualities depend upon the kind of
kmfe shown.

LESSON XII.
A CUP.

Pm·ts.
The bowl.
handle.
upper nm.
lower rim.
bottom.
inside.
outside.

edges.
surfaces.

Qual·i ties.
It is hollow.
hard.
glossy.
curved.
smooth.
glazed.
cold.
brittle.
thin.
useful.
The rim is circular

5

l>O

LESSON XIV .-SCISSAHS.

SECOND Slcnrns.

Parts.

LESSON XIII.
A GRAIN OF COFFEE.

Parts.

Qualities.

Tl1e surfaces.
If roasted it is brown.
curved surfaces.
hard~
flat surface.
c11sp.
groove.
sapid.
edge.
aromatic.
stimulating.
agreeable to
the taste.
pulverable,
or may be
turned into
powder.
solid.
If unroasted, dingy yellow
in odorous,
without
smell.
disagreeable
to the taste.
lTse.-To make a beverage, or drink.

LESSON XIV.
A PAIR OF SCISSARS.

Parts.
The limbs.
bows.
blades.

Qualities.
It is steel.
bright.
reflecti vc.

51

(J_ualities.

It is }.ard.
opaque.
cold.
useful.
solid.
the blades are pointed.
one surface flat.
the other curved.
front edge sharp.
back blunt.
bows are curved.
Uses.-The children should name the kind
of materials which · scissars will cut, and point
out the different manner · in which knives an<l
scissars cut.
shanks.
rivets.
pivot.
points.
surfaces.

·'

THIRD SERIES.
T HIRD SER IE S.
.F .A M I L I A R O Il J E C TS.

FAMILIAR OBJECTS•

•

Au Acorn.

Refined Sugar.
A P inc Cone.

•

A. Laurel Leaf.

A. Piece of Honey-Comb
A.n Oyster.

A Dutter-Cup.

A Cent.

A Watch-Glass.

58

THIRD

SERIES.

LESSON JV.-AN Arru:.

Remarks on words.
"Mineral," from what derived? Mine.
"Metallic,"
Metal.
"Fusible,"
to fuse.
" Artificial,"
lat. Arte, by an
art; and lat. f acere, to make.
' Durable,"
lat. durare, to

59

Remarks on Words.
"Pungent," from what derived? Lat. punge1·e, to
prick.
"Pulverable," from Lat. pulvis, dust.
"Indigenous," from the Latin indigena, native, or
produced in a country.

las~.

TEACHER. Do you know any other words de.
rived from durare?
CHILDREN.
Duration, <luring, endure.

LESSON JU.
MUSTARD SEED.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson,-indigen·
ous, pulverable.

Qualities.

It is pungent.
dull.
yellow.
opaque.
hard.
dry.
pulvernble.
natural.
indigenous.
vegetable.
spherical.
solid.
stimulating.

LESSON IV.
.AN APPLE.

Qualities.
It is spherical.
bright.
odorous.
colored.
opaque.
p~Ip.
natural.
JUICe.
vegetable.
stalk.
juicy.
surface.
hard.
inside.
nice.
outside.
solid.
pleasant.
The eye is dry.
brown.
shrivelled.
The · pips or seeds are brown on the outside
when ripe.
white in the inside.
pointed oval.
hard.
bright.

Parts.
The eye.
core.
pips, or seeds.
peel.

60

THIRD SERIES.

The core is thin.
Etiff.
yellow.
hard.
semi-transp:uen t.
cellular, or divided into cells.

Remarks on Wonls.
"Spherical," from what derived? Sphere.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar terminations'!
. CHILDREN. Cylindrical, critical, conical.
"Odorous,'' from what derived? Lat. odor,
scent.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar terminations?
C1ULDREN. Porous, numerous.
"V!getable," from what derived? Lat. vegetare, to grow as a plant.
TEACHER. Name other words derived from this~
CHILDREN. To verretate, vc1retation.
"J.
h
b
mcy, " from what
derived?
.Tu ice.
TEACHER. Give some other instances in which
the names of qu alities arc derived from those ot
·substances in a similar manner?
CurLDREN. Stone, stony; milk, milky; water,
watery.
"S~mi-transparent," from what derived? Semi,
trans, through, and parens, appearing.
TEACHER. What is the meaning of semi?
CmLDREN. Half.

L:Fl5SO~ v. VI.--GLASS OF A WATCH, SUGAR. 61

LESSON V.
GLASS OF A

WATCH.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson,--conca11e1
and con11ex.

Qualities.

Parts.•

It is artificial.
transparent.
brittle.
bright •
thin.
bard.
clear.
cold.
curved.
useful.
Upper surface convex.
Under surface concave.
Edge circular.
Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch from
being injured, and to keep the works from dust.
LESSON VI.
BROW~

SUGAR.

Ideas to be developed, foreign, imported.

Qualities.
It is brown.
granulous.
• The children should he asked whether there are any
parts to this object peculiar to it ; and as there are not, the
considemtion of the parts had b.i.ter be omitted.

6

64

'J:'UllW SF. Urns.

J,ESSON x. -

A JIUTTEH cur.

LESSON IX.

LESSON X

IlErI ::'\ED SFG A.Il.

BUTTER CUP.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, are crys-

talline, arnorphnus.
Parts.

Qualities.

The surfaces.
edges.
middle.

It is white.
sweet.
sparkling.
cry~tals.
crystalline.
grams.
solid.
pores.
fusible.
soluble.
shapeless or amorphous.
hard.
refined.
nutritious.
useful.
friable.
opaque.
artificial.
vegetable.
brittle.
Brought from the Indies in its raw state. Refined by sugar-bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves
of a conical form.
Remarlc.~

on Words.

"Crystalline," derived from crvstal.
"Amorphous," Greek a (a) ·not, and fJ.opcp'J
(morphe) shape.
"Nutritious," Lat. nutrio, I nourish.

Parts.

Qualities.

It is vegetable.
Petals.
inanimate.
margins or edges.
concave.
cnp.
natural.
leafi ts of cu P·
odorous.
' stamens ..
petals are yellow..
·
pistils.
<Flossy
in
the
inside.
staik.
dull
on
the
outsiJe.
place of insertion.
circular.
inside.
pointed at the place
outside.
of insertion.
surfaces.
striped.
opaque.
pliable.
Leafits greenish.
thin.
membranaceous.
semi-transparent.
pointed.
·
Stalk green.
grooved.
angular.
stiff.
fibrous.

LEBSOl" XIL-A1' OYSTER·

66

67

TilIRD SERIES.

LESSON XIL
LESSON XI.
A.llf OYSTER•
LADY DIRD·

Parts.

Qualities.

It is animate.
The Head.
natural.
eyes.
hemi spherical.
feelers or palpi.
elytra
are
red.
horns or antennre.
spotted.
wmgs.
hright.
wing cases or elytra.
hard.
thorax.
brittle.
legs.
opaque.
body.
stiff.
back.
011tsic1c con rcx.
spots.
inside concave.
surfaces.
one: 1mrgin straight.
margrn.
tlic other curved.
daws.
the wings arc mcmhraneous.
pliable.
t Iii 11.
transparent.
fragile.
the body oval.
black.
e1c legs are jointed.
short.
black.

Parts.

Qualities.

The valves.
It is animal.
hinge.
opaque.
outside.
marine.
mside.
natural.
margin.
valves circular.
impressions.
hard.
mollusca, the Ii ving part. stiff.
pulverable.
scales or laminre.
outsides rough.
scaly or laminated.
irregular.
dull.
dingy brown.
uneven.
inside pearly.
bright.
smooth.
slightly concave.
cold.
mollusca soft.
edible.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
lubricious.

l

.1
·J1

68

THIRD SERIES.

L.bl!:iSON :;.y. XVI.-A. LEAF,

LESSON X II I.

.a.

NEEDLE·

6\J

LESSON XV.

A FIR OR PINE COl'rn .
A LAUREL LEAF.

P aris.
Qualities.
Scales.
It is brown.
seeds.
opaque.
top.
hard.
place of insertion.
vegetable.
fibres.
natural.
outside.
conical.
inside.
inflammable.
surfaces.
otlorow;.
stalk.
scales hard.
outside brown.
pointed at the top.
rough.
inside of scal es chestn11t-color.
shaded.

Qualities.
Parts.
Upper surface bright.
Upper surface.
under surface dull.
under surface.
oval.
edge or margin.
smooth.
point or termination.
pointed.
ve1ns.
vegetable.
middle rib.
odorous.
opaque.
bitter.
stiff.
slightly toothed.
long.
margin curved.
rib straight.
raised, or keeled on
the under side.
grooved on the upper

base.
stalk.

LESSON XIV.
FUR.

Parts.
Hair
surface.
points of hair.

side.
Qualities.
It is animal.

hairy.
inanimate.
hairs flexible.
slender.
soft.
straight.
pointed.
The color and other peculiarities to be de~ided
by the specimen presented.

veins curved.

LESSON XVI.
A. NEEDLE.

Parts.
The eye.
sharik.
point.

Qualities.
It is mineral.
· metallic.
artificial.·

70

TllllW SJ<.:Hrns.

The middle.
top.

...

It is opaque.
bright.
cold.
taper.
pointed.
slender.
useful.
fusible.
gray or steel color.
hard.
brittle.
sol id .
steel.

Made of steel, which is a preparation of iron,
having been subject to great extremes of heat and
cold

LESSON XVII.
A STONE.

Idea to be <lcveiopcd-inorganized.
To -give the class an id ea of "orga11ized'' and .
"inorganized," a plant might be shown with the
s~one ; and similar quest-ions to the following
given.
TEACHER. If I put these two into the earth,
aP.d visit them in a month, what great difference
should I perceive in them?
Cnn,DREN. The plant will have grown ; the
stone will have remained the same size.
TEACHER. How did the plant increase 1
CHrLl>REN. It absorbed moisture.
TEACHER. Ey what means?

LESSON XHI.-A STONE.

71

CnnDREN. Through its roots and pores.
T1::Ac1rnR. Did this nourish only the roots and
pores?
Cnn,DREN. No.
TEACHER. You are right; the sap was pro·
ducecl , which circu lated through the plant by
means of vessel s. You remember why we called
the eyes, cars, &~. organs?
CmLDREN. They are natural instruments, by
which something is effected.
TEAcmm. '\Vhat would you therefore call the
pores, vessels, &c. of vegetables?
Cnn,DREN. They arc organs.
TEACHER . A body possessi ng organs is called
organized : name some organized bodies.
CnnDREN. A tree, an insect.
TEACHER. '\Vhat sy llable, placed before a word,
expresses the absence of u quality 7
CnrLDREN. Jn.
TEACHER. What would you call a body which
is destitute of organs?
CmLDREN. Inorganized.
TEACHER. M ention some inorganized sub·
stances.
CnILDREN. Earth, water.

Qualities

of

Stone.

It is hard.
cold.
inorganized.
opaque.
mineral.
solid.
•
natural.

72

THIRD SERIES.

It is shapeless or amorphous.
inanimate.

Remarks on Words.

FOURTH SERIES.
SPICES, (GROWING.)

cc Inorganized,U derived from Greek orravot
(organon) an instrument.

The Cinnamon,

7

-

.-I i)

F 0 U R T Ji
~---­

~

k.

}' p 1 1''
'

l,

_..

c•
~~.

F 0 U RT lI S E R l E S.

-- ----

SPICES, (GROWING.)

Nutmeg.

Pepper.

BEER.

BEER is extensively manufactured in most of
our great cities and towns. Ale and Porter, which
are manufactured from nearly the same materials,
are very much used in all !?arts of our country;
and the use of malt liquors will probably increase
in proportion as ardent spirits are laid aside.

7G

77
F 0 U R 'I' H S F, TU E ~ .

FOURTH SERIES.
0 IL.

IN IC

Tim oil used for lamps is generally obtainc.!
from the whale; although the oi l of other animals
1s sometimes used for this purpose.
The hardy
whalemen of N antucket and New Bedford penetrate the remotest parts of the Pacific Ocean, in
searc h of wl1a lcs, and encoun te r a g reat variety
of .dangers, a nd "hair-breadth escapes" in cap.
turmg them.

How little are we a ccustomed to reflect on the
utility of this liquid!
Ink is indcc~l ~necessary
artic le in civilized life, inasm uch as it ·1s made th e
means of preserving nearly all that we hold valuable. Could all the ink at present on paper be
insta ntl y a nnihilated , the world wou.l<l be thrown
into a state of confusion more terrible than was
ever occasioned by war, famine, or pestilence.

7*

_...

,.

F 0 UR TH SER IE S.

FOURTH SERIES.
MILK.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

MTLK is one or the most ll scflil of nll a rticles
of food. It is om chief nourislrn1ent in infancy
and debiilty ; an d it is usc(l in the co mp os iti o~
of some of th e most g rateful aliments with which
ou1· tables <lre fi_irnish cd.-Th r: possession of a
co w has o tlen saved a poo r family f'ro m utte r famine. vVe should look upon the gentl e and harmless animal to whom we are indebted for this article of food, as one of the renl benefactors of
man.

TnE chief aim proposed in this series is, to exercise the c hildre n in arranging and classifying
obj ec ts ; thus d eveloping a hi g he r faculty than
that of simply observing the ir qualiti es. The ·
complex ope ration of connecting thin gs by th eir
points of rese mbl ance , at th e same time individually distin g ui s hin g them l_>y th eir poi1:1ts of dissimilarity, is one of the hi ghest exercises of our
reason. Yet thi s habit mav be cultivated in chi].
dre n m11 c h more early tha~ is usually imagined,
by trainin g th e m to arrange th eir id eas. With
this view th e spices have bee n chosen as forming
a connected se ri es of obj ects. The me tals,
liquids, dilfore nt kinds of wood, grains, &c. are
good subjects for similar let'so11s.
The children may now be led to consider more
fully the senses th e rnselVfli':. having already determined by whic h of th em th ey di scover th e presence of any qu ality. The first lesson is drawn
out for th e use of the teacher, th e substance only
of the othe rs is g-ivcn.
'J'EAc1mu. Do you und erstand how you gained
the knowl edge of various qualities?
C1nLDREN.
lly our sen::.es.

FOURTH SERIES.

FOURTH SERIES.
MILK.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

MILK

is one of the most u seful of all a rticles

nf food. It is our chi ef nouris hm ent in iufancy
and de bility; a nd it is userl in th e co 111pos ition
of some o f th e m ost gratd Li! a lime nts with which
our tables n re fiJrnisli cd.-Th r, posscss io11 of a
c ow has oflc n saved a poo r frun il y fro m utte r fa.
mine . vVc sh ou ld look up()n the gr ntl c n11J harmless animal to whom we arc iudc btcd fo r this article of food, as one of' the re al ben e factors of
man.

Trrn c hi e f nim proposed in this series is, to exercise th e c hildren in arrangin g and classifying
ohj ects; thu s d evelopin g a high e r faculty than
that of simply observing their qu aliti e s. The
comple x ope ration of con nectin g thin gs hy th eir
poin1s of rr sr mhlan cc , at. th e snme tim e individually di sti11g11i shi11g th e m hy th eir points of dissimilarity, is one of the hi g hest exe rc ises of our
reason. Y e t thi s habit mav be cultivate d in childre n mu c h m ore earl y tha;1 is u sually imagined,
by trainin g them to arrange th e ir id eas. ~ith
this vi ew th e s pi ces h ave ueen c hosen as forming
a c onn ec te d series of objects. The metals,
liquids , difl c re nt kinds of wood, grain s, &c. are
good subjec ts for similar le i::so11s.
Th e c i1ildre11 may now b e led to co ns ide r more
fully th e se nses th e m se lv fl ~. havin g alre ady determin e d by whi c h of th e m th ey di scover th e presence of any quality. The fir s t lesso n is drawn
out for th e u se of the te ac her, th e s ubstance only
of the oth e rs is g iven.
TEAC1mn. D~ you und e rstand how you gained
the knowl e dge of various ci11alities ?
Cn1Lnmrn. Uy our se n::,es.

7;)

71

FOURTH SERIES.

FOURTH SERIES.

SPICES, (GROWING.)

BEER.

Nutmeg.

Pepper.

BEER is extensively manufactured in most of
our great cities and towns. Ale and Porter, which
are manufactured from nearly the same materials,
are very much used in all I?arts of our country ;
and the use of malt liquors will probably increase
in proportion as ardent spirits are laiu aside.

7G
F 0 U RTH SE RI ES.

FOURTH SERIES.
OIL.

INK.

Tim oil used for lamps is generally obtaine.!
from the whale; although the oil of other animals
is sometimes used for this purpose. The hardy
whaleriicn of Nantucket and New Bed ford penetrate the remotest parts of th e Pacific Ocean in
search of whales, and encounter a great variety
of .dangers, and "hair-breadth escapes" in cap.
tunng them.

How little are we accustomed to reflect on the
utility of this liqui~ ! . Ink is indce~ ~ necessar.J~
article in civilized hfe, inasm uch as 1t 1s made the
means of preserving nearly all that we hold valuable. Could all the ink at present on paper be
instantly annihilated, the world wou.ld be thrown
into a state of confusion more terrible .than was
ever occasioned by war, famine, or pestilence.
7 '~

84

85

FOURTH SERIES.

LESSON III.-JIEART NG.

foll Yrithin its ro::;nizrinrr, rinrl to rrrriritnlntr :rny
i11cidc11t<tl i11t(1rrnation rcr·ci1r·d d11ri11g the lesson.

v; ious mn(lifications, of color, siz(', arn1 shapr .
1'iil 11y may he :1srcrtai1wd citl1er liy fo11cli or
sigl1t ; as those of size , forrn , kind of surface, and

LESSON II.

The eyes are the organs of ::;i.ght, nnd arc
oeautifully atfoptc<l for tlic oflicr "liicli tli<'y kn-e
to perform. ;fhcy arc so co 11 s trnctrd ns to allow
us to see th in gs at a di stam:c, or 11 c ar; to confine
ourselves to the inspect io11 of n11c ohj<'rt, or to
take at 011cc a Ltrgc :-plll're uf 'i "11n1. T J11· part
of the eye which admits the lig·l1t rnriy be expanded or co11tr;ictcd, acconli11!! :is tl1c r:1ys are
more or lrss powerful. '1'liis is rcm:nk:1hly exc 111 p Ii fl f ' d i 11 t Ii 1: , ',\ r·,; o 1· t l w r ·:it ;111 rl of 1I1r~ o 11 I.
Indcrd 11otlii11g· :1tli1rils :1 111orr• st riki11 !_!· 11rnof of thr
kind 1iru1idc1wc nf God tl1a1 1 tlic peculiar formation of Ll1r: C'\'l'S of different a11i 111 :ils , c:wh c:-;actly
suited to their peculiar modes of life; those of
moles, fi shr s, :rnd liir<l s, am u·rna rkalilr; illu strations of this fort.'
Of all the sense's, 1li:1t of sight is in lllost frequent and r,ontinua l c:-;c rci sc. It Jill.~ tlw mind
with the grr·atcst Ynrictv of idras, whi c h it gathers
both from the works of n:itme, and tl1c writings
of the wise and good of all a[!cs.
The qualities .we di scove r by this sense are:
transparent, semi-tra nspare n t, tran sliwcnt, opacJ11e,
glimmering, bright, dark, spa rkling , dull, and the
*The T enchcr Hhould hero folly Pxplnin lo the class the
circumstances referred to, anti give other similar instances.

SU OStllllCC.

HEARING.

The cars arc the organs of this srnsr: i11 many
animals the c:-;ternal form is th at of a trulllpe t,
which is lwst rid;1ptrd for g;ithcrir1g the sound, a nc l
hri11g,i11g it. to a t (u~1 1s; in rna11 it co11t:1 im; 11J:1IJy
c01nol11tio11s and clianncls 1rhich reccirc the vibrations oC air in every dircctio11, :111d conrcy them to
the drnm oC the c ar 11·hicli is thf' rid11al sca t of tl1i s
Si' JIS (',

The fo r111ntirn1 of th e r·a rs oC :111i111:1h is hca11tif111ly ac c onnnorhtrrl to tlH·i r pcr1iliar h:il>i ts of
life. I n hc~1sts of prey the lrnlllpct pnrt is in-

or

cl ined for\\'ards, ca:-;iJv to c ~1tch tl1c so111 1ds
those
they arc p11rs11in ,i_;. j~11t i11 t/10.,r: a11irn:1ls 1\hose
chief mca11s of protr· c tio1 1 is Jlight, these organs
arc t11rnrd lin c k\1·arrl:;, tl1~1t tl1 cy may l>c readily
apprizcd of the ~1ppn1~wh of thci.r cn~rnic::; .
.
Thr cars arc tl1c mcdi11m thro11gh which all
sensations of srrnnd reach the mind : without them
we should br: dcprin·d of the :Hlrn11tngrs of vc1:bal
instrnction, the pleasures of conversation, and the
charms of musi c.
The mot ion of thr parts of a body, or the collision of one body ngriinst nnothcr, occ:isions a vibration in the air "·hich is similar to the effect
produced on water when a stone is thrown into it
Circle succeeds circle till the power of motion jg

8

86

FOURTH

SP.Urns.

exhausted: and just as any light substance within
the influence of these undulations is agitated by
them, so when our ear is within reach of these
vibrations of air, the sensation of sound is produced.'"- The chirping noise of the cricket is occasioned simply by the constant friction of a little
membrane against its wings. 'Vlu:n two bodies
are rubbed or struck toge ther, we a:re in many
cases able to determin e, by the sounds emitted,
the nature of the substances brought into contact.
Different sounds are occa sioned by the collision
of metals and that of wood, the sound produced
from hollow bodies from thtt resulting from solid
ones. There are various kinds of sounds : as
shrill, <lcep, grating, harsh, loud, soft., harmonious,
sweet. Animals produce different sounds. The
cat mews, the dog barks, the lion roars, the ass
brays, the cow lows, th e horse nc igfo::, the rook
caws, the goose cackl es, the cock crows, the fly
buzzes, the bee hums. lVIan speak s, laughs, cries,
shouts, groans, whistl es, sings.

LESSON IV.

The nose is the organ of this sense; its cavities are lined with a thin membrane which is supplied with ne rves conn ected with a principal one
which is essential to the perception of smell.
*This account may appear, at the first sight, above the
comprehension of children: a class, hO\\'eYer, which had
gone 1hro11gh the preceding exercises, wus fuu11d fully cupab:e
of understanding it.

LESSON v.-TASTE.

87

From this source we derive all our ideas of
odor. Though not so important to !flan as the
other senses, yet it adds muc~ to ?1s ~leasure i
and to many animals it is essential, dm'!ctmg ther:n
in the search of their food. The scent of dogs is
peculiarly fine, and on this account they are employed in the chase.
.
.
O<lor is produced by exceeclmgly small partlw
cles called effiuvia, which escape from odorous
bodies · these diffuse themselves in the atmosphere,' and whenever they reach_ the olfactory
nerves, they occasion the sensation. of sm~ll.
Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which
are of a volatile nature; hence . when. th~ s~m
shines brightly, vegetation scents the air w1th its
fragrance.

LESSON V.
TASTE.

The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin
within the mouth is fine and more delicate _than
that of the rest of the body: it is supplied with a
great numher of ~lood vessels, and covered with
innumerable pap1llre, or small protuberances.
Sapid bodies, or bodie~ which hav~ a flavor,
however, before they excite the se~satwn of taste,
require to be moistened_ by the saliva. In grasseating animals, the pap1llre are defended from the
action of the stiff bristles of grass and corn by a
strong skin, which being f1!ll of holes, allows the
dissolved juice to reach tDe seat of ta~.;te. The
principal qualitias discovernble by ~he taste_ are
bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, ocrid, lusc1011s.

88

FOT'RTH S T': R l T:S .

J,F.SSON vn.-NUT;11EG.

There arc rnauy oll1crs \\ li ic li Jc rir c the ir nam 2 s
from the substances in whi ch th ey ex ist.
.Many of the animals have some one of the
senses. in gre ater perfection than man ha8, but
th ere is no ammal in which they all occur in the
same degree.

SPICES.
LESSON VI.

It. is eonservati ve, or fit to preserve things •
dry.
dull.
sap id.
pungent.
odorous.
aromatic.
medicinal.
whol esome.
useful.
stimulating.
The pepper plant is a creeping shrub requiring
support, and is therefore ge nerally planted near
some thorny bush, among th e branches of which
it creeps like ivy. It produces berries, which
grow in clusters: they are first gre en, become
red as they ripen, and black when dried. It
grows in the countries which lie between the
tropics.

PEPPER.

Qualities of Pepper.
It is hard.
vege table.
for eig n.*
tropical production.
wrinkl ed.
spherical.
roug h.
black.

LESSON VII.
NUTMEG.

Qualities.
•

TE~crmR.

If it come from a fore ign country, how do

we ge t it 1
It comes in a ship.
Th!s is _called importing; nnd sending out of
our own country 1s _called exporting. \Vhat do we call it.tr
exchan ge of productions ?
CmLOR F. N.
Trade or co::imerce.
T E A CH E R,
And what are the people callod who carry 't
CHILDREN.

T E A CHER.

oo?

CHILDREN.

l

.Merchants.

89

It is sapid.
hard.
oval.
dingy brown
dull.
opaque.
dry.
Surface u~even.
It is vegetable.
8*

92

LESS ON
FO URTH SERTF.S.

It is orange color.
dull .
opaque.
thin.
fibrous.
brittle.
foreign.
tropical.
natural.
inflammable.
medicinal.
dry.
pulverable.
membranaceous, or composed of
membranes.
conservative.
imported.
sapid.
stimulati11g.
Mace is t~e covering between the shell of the
nutmeg and its external husk.

Remarks on TVords.
TE~CHER. "F~reig?." Should you call mace
~ foreign produr,t1on, if you were in the place of

its growth?
CnrLDREN. No.
1:EA?TIER. Should you call it pungent and aro·
mat1c, if you were there?
Cu1LDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Can it be mace without being for·
eign?
CaILl>REN. Yes.
...,

rx.- ClNNAnlO N.

93

TEAC HER. Can it b e mnr.1: without being pungent and aromatic?
CnILUHEN. No.
Those qualities which determine any thing to
be what it is, are called essential, from the Latin
esse, to be.
Qualities which are not essential are called
accidental.
What qualities of mace are essential?
'Vhat qualities of mace are accidental 1
LESSON IX.
CINNAMON.

Qualities.
It is light brown, and gives name to a color!
thin.
brittle.
conservative.
aromatic.
pungent.
agreeable flavor.
opaque.
hard.
sweet.
inflammable.
dry.
vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
inanimate.
light.

.

.

'

94

FOURTH SEJUES.

It is pulverable.
medicinal.
stimulating.
Cinnamon is the under bark of the branches of
a tree of the laurel tri he, growing in Cey Ion and
Malabar. The branches of three years old
furnish the best cinnamon. The outside bark is
scraped off; the branches are then ripped up
length way~ wi.th a knife, and the bark is gradually
loosened till it can be entirely taken ofi: It is
then exposed to the sun, which has the effect of
curling it up. The pi eces of bark so curled are
called quills, and the smaller ones are inserted
into the larger.

LESSON XI.-ALLSPTCE.

95

It is foreign.
aromatic.
pungent.
dry.
dull.
solid.
hard.
conservative.
light.
yellowish brown.
pulverable.
medicinal.
stimulating.
wholesome.
opaque.

inflarnm:ihle.
Remarb on Words.
"Inflammable" is derived from Latin flamma,
a flame.
Medicinal from medicine.

LESSON X.
GINGF.R.

Qualities.
It is fibrous.
knotty
sapid.
rough.
jagged.
inanimate.
·vegetable.
tropical.

Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a reed,
which grows both in the East and 'Vest Indies.
The root <loes not strike to a considerable depth,
but spreads wide. When first dug up it is soft,
and eaten by the Imlians as a salad. That intended for exportation is placed in bundles, to be
dried in the sun.

LESSON XI.
ALLSPICE.

Qualities.
Parts.
It is aromatic.
The inside.
odorous.
outside.
pungerit.
skin.
spherical.
seeds.
brown.
partition of seed-vessel.
speckled.
point of insertion.

98

FOURTII

SERIES.

ing, vegetable. Then let some othe r similar sub
stance be presented to them as mustard.
TEAc1rnu. Is this a spice ?
CHILDUEN. No.
TEACHER. \Vhy not ?
CmLDUEN. It has not the qualities of a spice 7
TEACIIEU. If I showed you a substance with
which you were not previously acquaintecl, an<l
you found that it possessed the essential qualiti es
of the spices you have examinecl, what would you
consider it to be ?
Cn1LDUEN. A spice.
TEAClrnR. To what th en do you apply the
term spice?
CHILDUEN. To a set of natural procluctions
possessing certain qualities.
TEACHER. vVh en a number of things are
arranged together, eac h having sim ilar qualities,
what woulcl you call the collection? ·what would
you call a number of boys who arc placed tog ether because th ey are nearly equal in knowledge?
CHILDREN. A class.
TEA.CHEU. vVhat th e n may yo u call a collection of substances that possess the same qua]ities?
CnILDUEN. A class.
TEACHER. ·what may you call all substances
which are aromatic, punge nt, tropical, &c.?
CHILDREN. A class.
TEACHER. And what is th e name of that class?
CHILDREN. Spice.
TEACHER. What then does the term spice
express?
CHILDREN. A class of substances possessmg
the qualities aromatic, pungent, &c.

LESSON

xn1.--WATER.~

99

TEACHER. T ell me all the substances belonging to that class.
CurLDREN. P epper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon;
ginger, allspice, cloves.
'
TEACIIEit. Are all the substances of this class
alike in all respects?
CmLDREN. No.
TEACHER. How can you tell one spice from
another?
CHILDREN. Th ey all differ in some particular.
TEACHER. Name the particular circumstance
which distinguishes each.
CHILDREN. Ginger is a· root; pepper is a
berry; nutmeg is a kernel; mace is the membranaceous covering of that kernel ; cinnamon is
a bark; pimento is a seed-vessel ; clove is a cup
and flower-bud.

ON LIQUIDS.
Idea to be developed, incompressible.

LESSON XIII.
WATER.

Qualities

of Water.

It is fluid.
transparent.
clear.
colorless.
liquid.

JOO

FOUH'fll SERIES.

It is useful.
bright.
incompressib. e.
re flee ti ve.
drinkable.
wholesome.
tasteless.
cold.
ino<lorous.
natural.
solvent.
refreshing.
inanimate.
penetrating.
purifying.
cooling.
fertilizing.
heavy.
some waters medicinal.

Dijfe1'ent kinds oj Water
rain.
spring.
sea or salt.
river.

LESSON XIV .-OIL.

ram.
mist.
fogs.
cloud.
vapor.
dew.
steam.

Natural Collections

~tflgna n t ,

of

Water.

Ocean.
sea.
lake.
rivers.
pon_ds.
springs.

Operations of Water.-It purifies, evaporates,
freezes, quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level,
penetrates, fertilizes, is a solvent, ebbs, flows,
~xtinguishes fire, separates easiiy into parts which
assume a spherical form.

LESSON XIV.
OIL •

'.a.1.&
YYH'lrl:,..,:
.... ..-.1
\.. \A.lV.&Jll.L.l•

hot . sprinrrs.
b

Qualities

of

Oil.

It is fluid.
yeiiuw ish.
~ r ml - tT"~ncpnrpnt ,.

1ce.
snow.
hail.

101

soft.
liquid.
penetrating.
emollient, or softening.
9 ;}:'.:

FOURTII SERIES.

LESSON xvn.-WINE.

105

LESSON XVII.
LESSON XVI.
VINEGAR.

Qualities.

Qualities.
H is yellowish.
bright.
fluid.
liquid.

It is acid.

orange brown color.
liquid.
tluid.
yielding to the touch.

penetrating.
stimula1 iug.

vegetable.
solid, as occupying space.
arti ficia!.
medicinal.
odorous.

useful.
COll ;; (.;f i

FOREIGN WHITE WINE·

ali \ C.

s~·1n i-tra Tl"l':t rent.

Uses.-To flavor food; for pic klin g; for medicrnc.
It is callPrl VinPg-nr, from tlw FrPnrh , Vinni gre. · Vin, wine-aign, sour; lwr,:rnRe it j g fref!l!C'ntly pror:urcd from ll"inc . The ferm e ntation
by whir:h this acidity is pro<lncf'n , is <>nlle<l the
acetous fermentation, from L<t. acctum, vinegar.

fermented.
spirituous.
intoxicating.
heating.
vegetable.
artificial.
scrn i-transparent.
sap id.
medicinal.

stimulating.
clear.
strengthening.
bolid, occupying a spac o.
yielding fo !111: lm1ch.
'Vine is made from the g rnp r·, 1\io frnit of the
vinr:, whir-h is cu ltivated in Yirzcyards. The
season of its g;.i.Ll1 cri ng is c alkd tlie Y in tagc. The
grapes , w hen g-nt hPrf'<l , nm placed in ~ '~i?e­
press, hy which lhn j11ice is exp ressed: tl11s .J~ICC
undergo es a fc rrn c nt:iti on, and b~comcs wme.
This, whid1 is th0 ~econd fermr:ntnt10n vegetable
matter undergoes, is called the viJwus jermcnta,..

lion, from it.:3 producing wiue.

106

FOURTU SERIES.

LESSON XIX.-MILK.

107

LESSON XIX.
LESSON XVIII.
MILK.
INK.

Qualities.
It is black.
bright.
useful.
opaque.
artificial.
liquid.
astringent, or contracting.
fluid.
solid, as occupying a space.
yi ~ lding to the touch.
poisonous.
Ink is made of galls, gum, sulphate of iron, and
water. Galls arc excresce nces, or bunches taken
froi_n the oak; they arc occasioned by an insec t,
winch wounds the bark of the tree, and lavs its
eggs in the aperture. The torn vessels ~f the
tree clisch:irge some of their co11tcnts, which hard.
cning, form a protuberance, which becomes a de.
,.
.
.
r
l
1e ns1vA covAnng 1111· l 1P Pgg" . The insect having
burst from the egg, feeds, during its larvm statf1,
on this substance, throuuh which it eats its way
"' fvrrn. Sulplwte of ir~11'
whilst :issuming its perfect
is a dissolution of iron in sulphuric acid, and when
appl iPd to thP nrid of thr ~rill"' , it bccnmcs qu ite
black, upon which qu ality the great utility of iuk
<lcpcr1L1:;.

Qualities.
It is white.
fluid.
liquid.
wholesome.
mce.
animal substance.
natural.
opaque.
soft.
smooth.
yielding to the touch.
emollient.
solid, as occupying a space.
when fresh, warm.
nutritious.

Uses.-For animals to feed their young (all
animals that do so belong to the class Mammalia);
for making cheese, butter, to drink.
Cows arc the animals that in genmal supply
milk to man. lnvali<ls drink the milk of asses.
In Tarla"y tl1ey II !'" lhP mi lk of mares; in
Switzerland that of goats; in the northern
countries that of rein-Jeers ; in Arabia that of
cctmd.;;.
T li0 T• : ~wli0r ,,·oul <l li 11<l it a n·ry improving
arnl interesting exercise, occasionally to take two
p;1hstancc", awl cnrnp~uc the m toge ther-as wat,_'!"

108

109

FOURTH SERIES.

and milk, and desire the class to find out in what
respect they are both alike. · They arc Loth fluid,
liquid, cold, incompressible, penetrating, natural,
&c. And then to mention by what qualities they
are distinguished from each other. The water is
transparent, the milk is opaque; the water is
colorless, the milk is white; the water is tasteless,
the milk is sweet, &c.
Liquids are distingui shed by qunlities that
separate them very definitely from other substances. They may all become solid, they are
all fluid, incompressible; their pnrts easily separate, forming into spheres or drops; they penetrate into the pores of substances ; and they find
their own level. This circumstance can easily
be proved to the pupils by means of a sy phon .
Having named the properties common to all
liquids, the class should also be required to mention t~e qualities peculiar to each, as in thlil ksson
on spices

FIFTH SERIES.
METALS, &c.

A Specimen of Native Copper.

/\

~p0rimrn

nf Mcrcnry in thr form of Sn1plmret.

A Specimen of
Na.ti~·c Gold.

A

~peeimcn

of

Silic:i. or Flint.

111

lIO

F I F T II 8 E R I E S.
CORK.

FIFTH SERIES.
METAL S, &c.

A Specimen of Rock Crystal, (Silicn.).

A Specimen of

Native Silver.

A Specimen of
Sparry Lead Ore.

ConK is the external bark of a species .of oak
which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern countries of Europe, and is distinguished by
the fun gous texture of its bark, and the leaves
being eve rgreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy
unde rneath, and waved. The principal supply
of cork is obtained from Catalonia in Spam~
The above cut represents a cork tree.·.

•
112
F I F T II S E R I E S.
WOOL.

FIFTH SERIES.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

~~~~~~~~?::~~~~

.

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_... ......... ~....--~·::.·: ~~ ....

~ .. _...

.
./L,I'.~...:- --·'-"' '' ' ""
~

'VooL is one of the most. f'xtensiv('l y usc fo.il n rticles in ex iste nce. The Sheep which f'urni sh
wool nre rai sed chiefly in the northern nl1ll temperate r('gions o f the ea rth. 1\Juch a ttenti on hns
bee n pni<l in the Un ited S tates to irnp ro\'itJ!T our
Sheep, by t_he introrhwtio11 of foreign vari~tics ;
and the Me nn ocs and Sa:-;nn Shee p hnv e now become quite co mm on. Still immense quantities
of wool continu e to be imported from forcirrn
countries, for th e supply of our numerous focto r~'s
of woollen cloths.

TnEsF. lessons are intended as a first exercise
in composition. The object should be presented
to the children, and th ey should continue, as
before, to make their own observations upon it.
They are the n i;iterrogate<l as to what they know
concerning the substance; and all the information
which can be obtained frori1 them is collected by
th e Teacher, who may then communicate any
further particulars on the subject, calculated to
interest or instruct. The materials thus obtained
Rhould then be arranged, and repeated to them.
After this, the class should be examined. upon all
tll<~t has passed, and finally required to draw up a
written account th emselves. Children, from eight
to ten years of age, have derived great improvement from this exercise. It not only serves to
stimulate their atte ntion during the progress of
the lesson, but also furnishes a test of their hav- ·
ing well understood it; and leads them to arrange
and ~xpress their ideas with clearness and facility.
In this course the substance should be exhibited
10'"'

•
114

115

FIFTII SERIES.

LESSON II.-CORK.

both in its raw, and in its manufactured state.
Thus, in the lesson on flax, the plant itself, the
fibres when separated from the stem, the thread
wh en spun, and the various substances into which
it is made, may be brought before the class, and
likewise pictures of the machinery employed in
these operations.
Many of th e lessons in th e following series
will contain too much matter to Le presented
at one time to the pupils, and must therefore be
divided.

it all to an equal degree of thickness, and also to
render it supple by oil or grease. The skins are
then tanned. Tan is the bark of the oak, pos·
sessing a remarkable degree of astringency; it
conseq uently contracts the pores of the leather,
and renders it impervious to wet. The quality
which the leather thus obtains from the tanning,
combined with its durability and suppleness, par·
ticularly adapts it for shoes, boots, &c.
LESSON II.

LESSON l.

CORK.

LEATHER.

Cork is the bark of a kind of oak, growing
chiefly in Spain. When it is taken from the tree,
the bark is cut longitudinally, and at the extrem·
ities of the slit, incisions are made round the
trunk; it is th en easily stripped off by means of
a curved knife, with a handle at both ends.
When the bark is taken from the tree, it is piled
up in a ditch or pond, and heavy stones are placed
upon it in ord er to flutten it. After being dried, it
is slightly burnt, th en packed for exportation.
, One principal use of cork is to stop bottles, for
which purpose it is fitted by its elasticity; a piece
rath er larger than the nec k of the bottle, being
inserted into it, the tendency it has to resume its
form er shape causes it completely to fill up the
aperture, and exclude the air. Being lighter
than water it is very useful to those who are
learning to swim, by buoying th em up; it is
also employed in th e construction of life-boats,
an<l the floats of fishing nets. The Spaniards

Leather is the prepared skin of animals; that
of cows, oxen, and horses, is c hiefly used for
shoes; that of kids, goats, and dogs, for gloves;
and also shoes ; and that of calves for bookbind·
ing, saddles, harn ess, &c.
· The unprepared skin is called a hi1lc; the first
operation it un<lcrgoes is soaking in Ji me-water to
cleanse it from grease and other impuriti es ; the
hairs are then removed by a kind of knife, the
oil and grease are afterwards more completely
extracted by alkali, or diluted sulphuric acid.
After this it is taken to the tan-yard, stretched
·over a pit and covered with tan; in this state it
remains about two months. Bnt if the leather
be intend ed for the upper part of shoes, seats of
saddles, and such purposes as do not require it
to be very strong or water-proof, it is first sent
to the currier: his work is to scrape it, reducing

FIFTH SERIES.

make lnrnpblack of it. The men employed in
cutting and preparing it for sale are callc<l corkcutters.

LESSON IV .-SPONGE.

117

LESSON IV.
SPONGE.

LESSON III.
INDIAN nunnEn,

on

GUJ\I ELASTIC.

Indian Rubber is the thick ened or hardened
juice of a tree whi ch grows in South America.
In orde r to procure it, the Indi ans make incisions
throu g h th e bark of th e tree in we t weather and
a milky juice . oozes out, whi ch is sprcacJ' over
moulds ~f ~lay. ; wh en thi s is dry, a second laye r
of the liquid is put on it; thi s ope ration is repeated till the Indian RuLber is of the thickness
required. After this it is placed over th e smoke
of burning vege tabl es, which hard ens and dark ens
it. The Indians conve rt it into bottles, boots,
and flamb eaux. Th e principal uses to which
indi an rubber is appli ed here, arc, for the effacing
of bl ack-l ead marks, for c ri c ket-balls shoes for
fl ex1. h l c tu bes, syri ngcs, and of her 'i nst rurn' ents
used by surgeo ns and c hemi sts. Cloth of all .
kinds may be madfl impenetrabl e to water if im~
pregnated with the fre sl1 juice of the indian' rubber
tree. Indian rubb er c ut ve ry thin, is now also
used to sheath the botto1~ of vessels, and is an
effectual prcservati ve from the injuries of shellfish.

Sponge is a marin e production ; it w~s ~ormcrly
supposed to be a yeget~bl e, but. th~ oprn10~1 n_ow
ge ne rally e ntertam ed 1s, that it is a hab1tat1_on
constructed by a little worm, one of the ~pec1es
consicle re<l to occupy the lowest rank rn the
animal kingdom. It is found adhering to various
marin e substances at the bottom of the sea,
especially in the Mediterra~ean; it is_ procured
by divers, who are early tramed to tl~1s ha~ard­
ous employment. Sponge absorbs flmcls rap1dlf,
and yi elds the m again when compressed ; this
prope rty occasioned it to he frequ ently saturated
with myrrh and wine, and giv~n !o pe ~sons suffering the punishment of cruc1fix10n, 1~ order to
all ev iate th eir pain, and subdue the 1~tole rable
thirst which is the consequence of thmr agony.
To thi s custom the sacred historian refers in the
history of our blessed Lord ; but his unrelenting
persec utors, instead of offering him the e nliv en~ng
portion of myrrhed win e, which was rarely dem.ed
to th e vilest malefactor, "filled a sponge with
vinegar, and put it upon hyssop, and put i~ to his
mouth." The offe r of vinegar was cons1dered,
among the Jews, as an intoler_able outrage. to
their feelings. It is alluded to 111 the followmg
passage, which at the same time, foretold . the
future sufferings of the Redeemer of mankmd •
., Reproach hath broken mine hP-art, and I am ~ull
of heaviness; and I looked for some to take pity,

118
-

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-

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r.

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Ufllll'll!OJI~"'";,~-.···~~

-

1

J

nur.

FIFTH SEIUES.
~I

r~-H~~~

V.7:-!~

nor:~;

t

,.

:!nn 1or

J.F.SSON VJT.
~

.

r o rn ~ nr t r r::;

nnt l

found n011 e . They gave me also gall for my meat,
:ni t! !; 1 ;: ;'_ th: r. -:f ti+t': g ·: i;-·, , Jett' vi11 · " : i· to dritrk ."'
i jsaln1 1xix. ::::u,

~l.

LESSON V.

vrrt.-srmr.r, T.M~ ,

WAX rANllT.F..

110

forrn rri 1nto thin :~ m i r. ~ nr pl~tr ~, ~ ~ cm l11 oye d
instead of giass for lanterrn;: It_ w~s Uw first
1i·:11 1- i;,i1·t 11 1

~: ; l•:..:! ,1111· 1 •

11 -=• ·1 1 ;., r

\\-·;i, .] , , ·,\

~-

T!

i :.::.

now d11cflv ewpluveJ fur cu1uu:o, haudl es to
kniv~~ and_, forks, o;casionrr11v for drinking- utensils and inkhor;1s. It was - formerly in- much
high er request than now, glass having been substituted for it.

C.DII'HOTI.

Camphor is the peculiar juice of a species of
laurel called the camphor tree, which is abundant
in China, in Dorn co, and in Coy Ion. It becomes
thick or concrete by exposure to th e air. It is
remarkably inflammable, and is used by the Indian
princes to give light in th eir rooms. It.is pungent,
volatile, acrid, and stro11gly aromatic. These
qualities have rendered it useful as a medicine,
and in si ck-rooms to prevent contagion. It is also
placed in collections to keep off the small insects
that prey upon the specimens.

LESSON VI.

LESSON VII.
SHELL LAC.

Shell lac is the production of a little insect
,,.,]],,,-)
).,,.,..,
faarlQ
nn thi:>
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.__..._. .............. ,' 1uh1,.h
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............. .................
- ......... Tndi:in
.. ..
-•.-~.--

fig-tree; on this plant it also places its eggs,
forming a cell around them from a viscid liquid,
which is contained in its own body; it hardens in
the sun, and in this state is the substance called
slick lac j when broken into small grains, it is
called seed lac; and, if melted and formed into
thin laminre or folia, is shell lac. It is the principal ingredient in sealing-wax and varnish, and
is employed in japanning. Its usefulness arises
from its being fusible, soluble, and adhesive.

HORN.

Horn is the hard substance that forms the frontal projections of horned animals; these are all
graminivorous,* i. e. eating grass. ThiR substance, when boiled, becomes a soft jelly, and can
be moulded into any shape. By a peculiar process it is rendered semi-transparent, ant! when
• From Lat. gramen, grass, voro, I eat.

LESSON VIII.
WAX CANDLE.

Wax is the produce of the industrious hee; it
is a substance which is secrete<l in their bodies,
and of which they construct their cells. When
the honey is taken out of the comb, . the .fatter is

..

120

FIFTII

s1mms.

melted, and afterwards bleached by exposure to
the air. In making candles of it, wax in a liquid
state is poured into lead en moulds in the centre
of which the wick has been previously fixed.
The wick is made of cotton or flax, and when
lighted th e melting wax rises up its fibres and
feeds the flame. *

LESSON IX.
GLUE.

Glue is a sticky substan ce, used as a cement. ·
The best is obtained from th e skins of animals, ·
generally the shavings, parings and strips, which
have b ee n rejected by the currier. An inferior
kind is proc ured from the hoofs, sinews, &c. of
animals. It is prepared by steeping th e skin fo1
two or three days in water, the n boiling it till it
b ecomes a thick jelly; whilst hot, it. is strained
throu gh osier baskets : the pure glue passes
through the interstices, lea ving th e impuriti es in
the baskets. It is then melted a second time,
poured into square fram es or moulds, and placed
in th e air gradu ally to cool and congeal. When
used it is melted again. Glue is used by carpenters, joiners, hatters, bookbinders, &c.
A glue prepared from fi sh, parti c ularly the
whale, is call ed isinglass, and is used for culinary
purposes, and for refining wine.
~ ~he tencher will find this n fovornblc opportunity of or·
plnmmg the nature of capillary attraction.

LESSON X.-COFFEl'J.

121

LESSON X.
COFFEE.

Coffee is the seed of a plant growing principally in Arabia and the West Indies ; the flower
rese mbl es white jessamine, an<l the leates are
evergreen; the fruit when rip e is like the cherry;
it generally contains two cells, sometimes only
one, and each cell has a single seed, which is of
a hemispherical shape. Wh en matured, it is
either gathered by the hand or shaken from the
trees, and placed on floors for the sun to dry the
pulpy substance which surrounds the seeds. The
ski 11 is broken by heavy roll ers, and afte rwards
removed by winnowing. In order to prepare the
coffee for a be ve rage, it must be roasted till it becomes of a dark brown color and extremely
odorou s, after whic h it is ground, and either infused or boiled in water. It i~ re rnarlrnble for its
· very stimnhting prope rty, which is said to have
led to its discovery. Some goats, who browsed
upon this plant, were observed by the goatherd to
be exceedin gly wake ful, and ofte n to caper about
in the night; th e prior of a neighboring monastery, wishin g to keep his monks awake at their
matins, tri ed if it would produce the same effect ·
·upon th em as it was observed to do upon the
goats : his success led to the appreciation of its
·value.

11

122

FIFTH

s1mrns.

LESSON XI.
TEA,

Tea is an infusion of the leaves of a plant grow
ing in China and Japan. It bears a flower resembling the wild rose; the leaves arc narrow,
pointed, and scrr.ated. The plnnt grows only m
a stony soil, and at the foot of mountains and
rocks, exposed to a southern aspect. There is .
great art exercised in gathering arnl drying the
leaves, which arc afterwards s11bjcctcd to the vapors ·of boiling water, to moist.en them. In this
state they are laid upon plates of metal, which
being exposed to great heat, cause the leaves to
curl up in the manner they appear when brought
into our market. Green tea is the produce of
the same plant as black; the <li(forcnce of its
qualities arises from the leaves being gathered in
a different stage of their growth, and <lricd upon
plates of copper.
LESSON XII.
SAGO.

.\

Sago is the pitch of the sago palm, a tree indigenous to Japan and the rocky dry mountains of
Malabar.
It is hardly possible to imrigine a plant more
graceful in its foliage, or more beautiful when in
fruit than this species of palm. The foliation,
which slightly resembles that of the fern, is placed

LESSON XII. XIII.-SAG0 1 RICE.

123

on the stem in the manner of the feathers of a
shuttlecock, forming a gigantic basket of the most
graceful form; at the bottom of this is the salmoncolored fruit, resembling, both in ' shape and
texture, the coxcomb, but of a pale btiff color,
inclining to brown. The fruit is a drupa, that is,
a nut surrounded by a pulpy substance (as a plum.)
The nut ·is eatable. The growth of this plant · at
first is slow: it appears for some time a shrub
thickly set with prickles; as it increases in heiITht,
it loses its thorns. When the tree has reached
its maturity, a whitish powder passes through the
pores of tho leaves, and sticks to· their extremities.
On this i11t.irnntion of the trees being filled with
pith, the .M alays cut them clown near their roots,
and divide them into several sections, which are
split into quarters. The bark is woody and about
an inch in thickness; in the centre of the stem
is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago.
'fhis pithy substance being scooped out, is diluted
in pure water, and strained through a bag of fine
cloth, which separates the gummy from the mealy
matter. This latter .having evaporated part of its
moisture, is put in earthen vessels, where it dries
and hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely
nutritious and wholesome, and .forms an excellent
light diet for invalids.
LESSON XIII.
RICE.

Rice is the grain of a kind of corn which
grows very abundantly in China, the West Indies,
the Southern States of North America, and in

124

FIFTH SElU E S.

South America. It will not thrive without much .
moi sture an<l th erefore com es to th e g reatest per.
fection ii1' marshy land s. The cultirnto:·s of nee
always inun<late their groun<ls, a11<l the hi g her the
wate r ri ses the hi ghe r the pla11t grows, the ear
always appearing above th e water. It r?quires
as mu c h lieat to mature th e seed, as 1t does
moi sture to nourish the plant. Ri ce g rows in a
spike resembling oats. In Indi a th e women
thresh a nd prepare th e ri ce , whi ch is a very
laborious etnployrnent.
Brahmi11s li ve almost
e nti re ly upon it, th eir religion forbiddin g them the
use of animal food. Rice se rv es not only for food,
but is also manufactured into paper, an<l vessels
which resemble china or al abaste r.

LESSON XIV.
rArER.

There arc several ki11ds of paper, viz. Egyptian
paper, mad e of a rc:cd ~ ail e d P:~p y ru s , g rowing ?n
the banks of th e Nile, from wlu c h paper takes its
name.
Bark paper is rna<l e of th e inn er riu<l of trees-.
co t.ton .
Cot ton paper
asbestos.
Incombustible pape r
line n ra gs.
European paper
silk rngs.
Indian paper
n ee.
Ri ce paper
th e ends of ropes.
Coarse brown paper
American straw paper straw.

LESSON xrv.-rAl'ER.

125

Linen paper was first introduced into England
in the fourteenth ce ntury. It is made of linen
rags; these are first carefully picked and sorted,
according to th eir qu ality; th ey are then reduced
to a pulp by a mac hine, which consists of a
soli<l cylin<lrical piece of wood, into which are
fasten ed plates of steel, ground very sharp : this
is fix ed in a trough into which th e rags are put
with a sufficient quantity of water.
At th.e
bottom of the trough is a plate with steel bars
also ground sharp: th e engine being turn ed round
with considerabie velocity, and the rags passmg
throu gh the two sets of iron plates are torn to
pieces, and in the course of four hours are reduced to a pulp. The motion of the engine causes
the wate r in the trou g h to circ ul ate, and by that
mean s con stantly return s the stuff to the engine.
Th e trough is fe d with clear wate r at one e nd,
whil e the~dirtv water is carri ed off at th e other
throu g h a h ol~ defend ed with wire grating to pre·( ve nt the escape of the pulp also. From this, which
is call ed the washi ng -engine, the pulp passes in a
' state of purity and whiteness to another engine
similarly constructed, and called the beatingengine. The only difference of this operation
from the former is, that the velocity is increased,
and that it is no longer necessary to introduce
fresh water, th e pulp having bee n already cleansed
from its impurities. From hence it passes into a
large vat connected with boilers, and the heat
produces a degree of consistency : it is afterwa~ds
.conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which
is a wh eel called an agitator, which prevents the
pulp from sinking to the bottom. Into these
11 *

126

vessels a workman <lips a mould, a kind of sieve
the size of the paper to be made, and about an
incll deep; the bottom is form ed of fine brass
wires through which the snpcrfl 11011s water passes.
The
skill of the workrnan consists in takincr
up
•
b
JUSt so much pulp as is necessary to form the
paper of a proper thickness. A11other workman is
statio11 ed to rece ive from th e firs t the mould, out
of which he turns the sheet upon a felt or woollen
cloth; another woollen cloth is placed upon it
ready to recci vc the next sheet. Thus they
proceed, placing alte rnately paper an<l felt till
they have made six 'luircs of pap e r. This is
then wlieelcd tu tl1e pre:>::>, where greal furt:e is
appl1nd, :111d tlrn wntrr is s11111'rz0d from it. After
this the pape r is separate d from the felt, one
.sli ud i;-; Li:! 1q,.111 ;i11u1i1n, ;11 1d i L 111 Hlu goes a
sr r·nn rl p rr'""' llrl' .
Tli i '~ r1:1rr:i t inq ,,. rri;(':l t<'d
fi\· e or ::. ix t iH1 L·0 Lefore iL ];s ::; izcd, aJHJ the
:,;h e el::; are .separated from one anoth e r between ,
eac h a111Jlicatio11 nf thr~ srrcw prr's s. Tlirv :irn
ai'!cnv:1rd .-; i11111g, 1q1 io dry 111 rt; u1 1i,; \ili c ;,,; .th e re
is a fr esh c111TP. nt of air. 111 1his si ;11r. tlw paper is
;th:...;nrhPnt 1ikr: h l nitil1f! p ;i pr·r : In tit Ji ! (1r \Vr ii l n,g-,
it IS S l/:l' d. ;-, 1/. l: 1,-; l! Jd t l t'. () {, \ t 'ii1111 1 ' ;-;iid\ tll g'S
lH)!l::d 11i \\. ; 1l 1: r, \\.· 11:l \Vllll•' \. i! rH •l. ;ti!•I ulu.n
ii111 ·i,1 [1t111111 l1,d. :\ 11 1 r 111,· 11:1p1 r 1-; >l/,!'il , 1t is
ag·aiu pr c:::iscd fuur ur fi\' c tin1 c:.;, and Lun .g up to

Ji I' i't1 I' <', j i i ,, I I 11 11 I 11], i I I 1111 1I I 11 i'< ,,; , ; 111 cJ ~'(' 11 t
~ 1 :1l it11 ll'r, 11 li 11 11r11 i:1r1 ·:it f',; r -::1! · •
It is proliaiile tliat ::;ki 11 s we re tiiu fir ;; t suLstance
upu11 11 h1t:li diameters wcrn 1n1Ur.11.

tJ l'I

;i-;

(u.llw

127

LESSON xv.-PARCHMENT.

FIFTH SERIES.

LESSON XV.
PATICIIJIIENT.

Parchment is the skin of sheep or goats, prepared in the foll~wing . ma?ner. The wool is
stripped off the skm, which 1s then tak~n to the
lim e -pit; after this it is stretched as tight as a
clrum u pun a frame, and the rcmai ning fie s !'. pared
off with a kee n-edg-P.d instrument; ' a Jund of
white stone ur clialk reduc ed to a tine pow de r is
then spread upon tlw !'mfacP, and .a large pumice
stone flat at bottom is ruhbe<l over 1l, wliidl sc ours
off the rcmaimln u l Ui1 : fh,"li. Tlic kni fe is O ilCC
111 r1rr· :q1l' lif' d to 1hr skin . \·:h ir·h is rn oi-- trrwd a11t1

rubi.;t_;J

a_u (1iH

\\

~

illi t b 0 j)U in l cc stouc , unt1 l .f hr

inner ,si<le is srnuulit. Tl1e outside th e n um:crirrw" :i s irnihr onrralio11 . It is now left to dry,
~llll a [Lc rn <trd s i,,; L t k<'11 oil' 1ii: : fr :u 11 c , a nd gi 1 cr1
to the parclmw11t ma kn. J IA tirst sc:·al??s. it .dry
in :--:! n 1111 ·nt e~1 lled :i ~l i ii i llH' r, \ \v: :1c ll 1:; a
u11 :t fr:u1w,) 11 :ll1 :t
~li:1rp i1,,>11 t no l , 1111til 0 111: J1 ;tl l ()!' 1\:t: tl11ck1H:~s ul

on

;i n

1

call .. ,; :-ki11 \n:ll c:lr1 klwd
th<~ :-:kill i :--; jl ~ \ITd

passed ov e r it
(111it1 · '.'ll lillllk
l' :t1Tliiiw1it

Oil

()![';

ti1~

1

fl l i!i\il ' t '

;--:\()l\1~

1.~

ll( .\ t

Lu th s ides , till it is r e nd ered

11 ·:h i11

11~1· lt>11(1. l wf'1>ri · 11H ' i11rf'111 inn

of pap e r. \VilL>, aml otli e r~doc urn cnts , inte r, " le <l
to lw prPsPrvrrl tiir 1111v le111,t!li o f time , are \vr1llen
on it. 1t is abo usul for drums.

128

FIFTJI SERrns.

LESSON XVII.-WIIALEBONE.

LESSON XVI.
GLASS.

C l:ic:s is 1n:ul i: frnl!l :111 :ilk:ili r111il ,.; :1 rnl or flir 1t
v.·l_1 w li :m: ::,11Lj<'1·1,.,1 lil tl11· :wli1H1 of' lir r·. Tlii ~
rn1.\l_11r1· is <:1id t1i '1:11 1· lll'1 · 11 d1<1·1i 1r·n·d :wi ·i dl'uf.
ally 111 ~y r1:1 by "0111e 111cTc li a11 1,,, 11 lio \\' C' rc dril"cn
hy "t r1' ss r~f \\'l':tllwr 1q1u1 1 ih sl1ll rcs. They iJ ;id
l 1 .~· l1 t'.·d a J1rc 1qr1111
,.::u 1ds I() r·onk 1Jir ·ir ·food;
the lire was mad e o l tlic plant c:illr·d k:ili . 11 ·h ich
grn11·:0 011 tl11~ s1 ·:1-sl 1llr1·; tl11· c-; :111 d 111iv·d 11 -itli its
asl1r·s, liccarn1 ~ 1 itri lic d liy the lll' al, :llld gl:iss was
produc1~d 'l' l1 c 1111 rc·li:111h oliscncd the: ctll ·i:t of
t.l1 c _1 111i1r n o( tl11•;-;1: ll\() s1i\:;.;l:1111·1' C', and tl 111s \\'as
1u r~11:,d 1 cd tl1c li rsl l1i111. for tl1<~ 1naki11g· of g·l:iss,
'·\,l'.11:li lia ~ ;"Ille<: lrcc11 c;1rn cd to snch gr(':1t per.
1cct1011. llie Jn,;t. ]•lace wh e re the 111:11111f:1ct11re
of g lass was ca rri ed 011 w:1s Sidn11 in Svria. Eng·
land i_s now.rnuclt cc lc l1ntcd for its gL1;;;s. The
'.lu.al 1t1cs 1vli1ch rc11dcr gl;iss so \":d11alilr: :1r0 , that
i_t IS l1ard, tra11sparc111, i 11corrosi n~, not hr: i ~ 1 ir nf.
iccLcd by a1 1.y s1ilisla 11c c !lilt Jl11oric :t('id, all!lthat
:vhcn fused If lwconws so ductil1~ :rnrl pla .~tic that
Jt may he moulded into :my forrn, ll'!iir:li it will
rctarn wh en cool. ft can be cut by tlw diam ond
only: There arc thre e so rts of fiirn:1c es used in
makrng glass. One to prepare the frit, a second
to '~·ork the glass, and a third to an ncal it. After
having p~·operly mix ed tlic ashes and sand, th ey
arc __put 111to _the firs t furnace where they are
bullled or cal_crned for a s11ffi cicnt time, and be.
co111e what is called frit. T11is being boiled

l!w

_,
·!

129

afterwards in pots or c rucilJlc s of pipe clay in the
second furnace, is fit for th e operation of blowi ng;
the ann ealing furnac e is inte nd ed to coo l th e glass
Yc ry grad 11all y, for if it be ex posed to the col d air
immrdiatclv after hcin!..; forincd into 11tc 11 si ls, it
\\ill fall i11to a tliousa11d picccc' , as if struck by a
l1<11rirrwr.
Bcl(l rc !_!h<.~ \1:1c' i11n ·11tt-d, 1!iin folia 1Jf mtca
\\"I re ti;-;cd i'u1· I\ i11du11 s.

LESSO.\' XY l f.
""lL\.LEHO:'>E.

"\V li all' lion c is tak en from t he jawhon c of the
\\'hai r', tlw la rg1·st a11 i111al that now i11!1ali its our
glolw, a11d \\'hose rn crn th or·r:11p ic s a third part of
its hod1'. T lw 11l1:1ks :nc c;1 11!..;'1t in th e fol llll1i11g
man11c~;-. \\ he11 the Yici11i ty of tlic fish is asccr·
tai 1wd hy tl1c water wl1ich ;t s po11ts up, :-;ix boats
are d ispatch ed frolll the vc,.;sf' ls c 111pl oycd in this
fi shery, with s ix rO\\' e rs in cac li, and a rn :m c all ed
an h:.1rpoo11 c r, arm ed \1·ith a forked instrument
called a harpoon; to thi s is a flix cd a rope, at the
other c 111l of \1·hi c h is a gourd; t hi s in strnrn cnt
ha1i11rr li cc n darted i11to the whal e, th e 1-'.0urd
mark~.. , the s pot wh l' re th e \\'OJ tndcd animal ;lis:1p·
pears. The whale whe11 struck dives with such
velocity into the sea, th:1t it is necessary to wet
the rope whi c h he dr;nrs over the sides of the
boat to prevent its taking fire, and the fish ermen
find it nec essary to let go the ro;ie for a time, till
the whale be spent, otherwise he would sink the
boat by his extreme violence. The whale cannot

130

FIFTH SERIES.

LESSON XIX.-SUGAR.

remain long nn<ler water; he soon reappears
spouting up blood, and is again attacked by the
harpoon e rs , who, after repeated efforts dispatch
hir~. ~Vhen d eacl, th ey cut him up'; the fat
which 1s called blubber is stowed into casks
and oil is afterwards proc ured from it. Th~
Lone is used as a stiffener, for whips, bows,
bludgeons, &c. Th e c hi ef whnle fisheries are
on the coast of Greenland, and in other parts of
the northern seas.

131

himself the bread of life, the nourishment bread
affords our bodies, re presenting in a faint degree
the nourishment lie affords our souls when he
feeds th e m with the hidden manna of his word.
Bread from its nutritious and wholesome properties is often terme d the staff of life, and is frequently used to signify food in general. A man
is thus said to earn his bread, and we pray for
our daily bread.
.
Rye, oats, and barl ey, Indian corn and buckwh e at, are sometimes made into bread.

LESSON XVIII.

LESSON XIX.

I:READ.
SUGAR.

Ilreacl is compmwcl of fl our, yeast, and a little
salt, kn eaded toge th er with water into a soft paste
~:11! r d doqgh , I~lour i~ 1 ;10 ~ l frt:qucnUy ;nadc of
•vl1e<.tl, wi1id1 wi1e11 taken from the barn is tirst
thrashed; the instrnmcnt employ ed fi)r this purpose is eiLlier a Hail, or a tl11a:-d1i11g·-machine; the
_['."r:1in is nrxf srrr1r:1 tr rl frnill th « ei1 ifl' li 1 \\ i11 11011·in1T, awl the forrn0r is 1·onv Pv0d to· th0 mill
wl1<:;re Lv 1ni1 Hi111t1 11. i:-< r·1111vr•r1r»d intn t in11r: th~
skin Of ti lt: !!faill- IVlJt-.: 11 St:jl:ll:1t.,.J i:-; r·;oJir•rJ l1rnn ,
wl1eJJ Jefl with t.iie Jiour, it makes tile t1011r hrnwn('r :1r1il ('o;tr::<T.
Tlw \·1 ·<1 i,; rlH• l~·rn w11f;!l i111 1
wl1icli risP:" tu t•li1-• iOf' 1ir' iww h(•pr; it prnrtmtrs
the dong-h , d1suni11·s tlw p:irtir lrs, r:i11.c;r c: them to
ri::;c, a1 1(11li11 :-< makes tl1c Lrcacl light. It is sirnil:ir i1t i1c: {'fr1·cts to t lir• !1 ·:1r(·1: 11w1Jf irnwd i1; f-;cripturc, which is sour dou~h pcnctrn.tin~ nnd chanrT.
I
.
. .
.
M
ll l i,~· Lie "'fate of tlic wlwlc 111a,:.~ . 0 11r Navior c nlls

...
\

Sugar is the protluce of the sugar-cane, a plant
grtnviu:.;· ptittc ip:t11y iti t11 e Ea::: t uiH..1 ':1\·Tt:jt I11d!c:~,
a11d tlie soutl1ern111ost slates oi the Guion. A
tir!d of r:rn f' s in h!ossorn prcsrn ts :i. hr~ :111tif"1:l
Higld.; Ilic sf(~111 is a joi1if(,d c1il11111s or re1,d;
11·it rn ripr it i~ nf :i hrir:ht !!nlrl rn hnr , g-rr.1\-ingnmid"'t lnnr; n:irrnw p<'rnl0nt 1Pnv0"'. 'T'h0 flow0r~
ap111·;1r iii<" a pl1111w rd wi11i" irc;iil11•.rs iir1tr"tl w1lit
liiac . T!ie ];"ave::; aflu1d furn] for U1e caU.lt: ; wl1en
ripe, tlic cane or stem is µ-ati 1ercd arnl eonvc:>cd
t'o 1111' !ll ill , \\ lwr<' i1 i~ prl'~<r•rl 1w1\1,·c r·11 111,·o irnn
cvli11rl1·r,.: ; tilt' j11i1•rJ i"' n•r,Jivr·d i!!fo n tro11'!l! , :ind
from tllf'nrc it is con\'<'Yf'.rl to a hoikr, into whi1'.h
so!11c q 11ic k-l illle i::; tl n ~w11; thi ::; , Ull iti11g '' ith t!tc
ole:1_!.;·in011 :; pa rt ieles :rnd tl1<' st1pcr :1!)1111d:111t ;wirl,
rises with th e m to the snrfacc ancl is skimmed off.
\\'!ten the sugar nearly boils, it is st.rained off

132

133

FIFTI-l SERIES.

LESSON ·xxr.-FLAX.

-into anoth er boiler, where it und ergoes the same
process as before. This is repeated six or seven
tim es, wh e n it is received into coolers whi c h are
shallow wooden vessels.
Jn th ese the sugar forms into grains, separating itse lf from the molasses ; wh en dry, it is call ed raw sugar, and is
barrelled for exportation. Th e process of con~
verting it into wh ite or r efin ed sugar, is the
business of the sugar-refiner or baker; he boils
it ov er again, putting bulloc ks' blood and white
of eggs into it to c lea nse it from it s irnp11riti es.
The planter is th e c ulti1'a1.or of the sucrar-canes.
The merchant imports it. Tl1 e sugar-ref iner conve rts it into white sugar. The g roce r se lls thP.
sugar in retail qu antities.

The extreme toughness, pliability, and durability of hemp, fit it peculiarly for purposes where
great strength is required, as t~rn cordage an_d
tackle of our vessels, and fishmg nets. It is
computed that the sails and cordage of a first-rate
man of war, require as much hemp for their con;
struction, as wculd be the yearly produce of four
hundred and twenty-four acres of land.

LESSON XX.
HEJ[ P.

Hemp is obtained from a.n annual plant which
thriv es in a rich moi st soil in temperate c limates.
It is much cultivated in Sollie ))nt'f.s of E11rrland
b
and th e United States; and in Russia it fonhs
on e of the c hi ef articles of comm erce. Th e stalk
mainly con sists of a ti ssue of fibr es joined together
by a soft substance which easi ly rots. At the
proper season it is gathered ancl steeped in water;
th e n beate n in orde r to loose n th e bark from the
fibres. This is completed by an operation called .
ca1·ding, perform ed with an instrum ent resembling a comb. It is next spun, and the n passes
into the hands of the ropemaker or weaver, according to the use for which it is designed.

LESSON XXI.
FLAX,

Flax is a slender annual plant with a hollow
fibrous stem, and bearing a delicate blue flower.
From its fibrous bark we procure the comfort of
lin e n, the beauty of lace ; our vessels by its means
are wafted across the ocean, and even its rags are
made into paper. In the book of Genesis we
read that Nuah slept beneath a tent. Egypt also
very early attained a wondflrful perfection in the
manufacture of Linen. The seeds of the flax
are much liked by birds, and ,produce an oil
called lin seed oil; from Linum the botanical
name of th e plant. Whe n the flax is gathered, i.t
is exposed for some time lo the influence of the
sun to ripen the seeds; which are afterwards
thrashed oul:, and the oil is pressed out, or expressed from them. The stalks are then loosely
tied in bundles fastened to poles, and placed in
stagnant pools, where they' are left to steep for
about fifteen days. By the fermentation which
ensues, the bark or flaxy substance becomes separated, when the stalks are thinly spread on the
12

134

FIFTH SERIES.

grass, in whicl~ ~tate they exhale a very disagreeable and perrncious odor. After this operation
they are beaten with a mallet, whi c h removes the
pulpy substance and loosens the fibr es ; these· are
then drawn through a comb with coarse iron te eth.
and nfterwards through on e with finer teeth. The
refuse is called tow, and is the su !>stance used to
make packing cloths, and for the callling of
ships. The operation of spinning which next
succeeds, is drawing out several of the fibres and
twisting them; this was form e rly done by means
of a distafl~ but now it is performed in a more
expeditious manner by machin e ry. '\'caving is
the final operation; it may he recrard erl as a finer
• •
1
. ,-,
._ . .
·~ "
...
.•
o,
K111u or mawng. .to perlorm it, tile threads
which compose the length of a pi ece of c loth are ·
first clispo~ e d in order, and strained by weights to
a proper t1glit:ncss ; this is call ed the warp. These
threads arc separated by an instrument called a
recd, into two sets, eac h cornposcd of ovc ry other
thread; and while by the working of a treadle,
each set of threads is thrown nit.ornately up and
<low~, the cross threads call ccl the 1co1?f or w~ft
arc rnscrte<l between them, liy rncnns of a little
instrument, sharp at both en ds, cal lc<l a shuttle,
which the weaver bri skly throws from one hand
to the other, and which carries the thrend with it.
This. is the most simple kind of weaving. The
quality of the flax dep ends upon the soil in
which it is cultivated: but the fineness of the
thread in some degree also upon the dexterity of
the spinner.
'

LESSON XXII. XXIIl.-COTTON 1. WOOL•

135

LESSON XXII.
CO'ITON.

The cotton plant is cultivated in the East and
West Indies; it produces a beautiful yellow
flower; and the seed vessel is a pod containing a
white downy substance which surrounds the seed.
This is picked by the hand, and separated from
the seeds by a machine which at the same time
loosens its fibres; afterwards it is packed in large
h-..rr:::
. . . ,.,,rl
.... 1.tb.,_,) U.L. ...

-n.n~
::n ; I t.

+., ....

1-.~· .f.1, -. .,..... l...., .-. +.~~· " . -. . -4-l ~ n .....................
f ... . ,."_
l.l J
tL.t;; e;u.Utt.:l t.V t.U.'L .lii tti i U i t.t ;_ t.".. t l. \... i ~

It is then carde<l; that is, wound upon cylindrical
cards worked by machi110ry; aftmwards it is
roved, by which process the loose fibres arc removed wi11) nn instrnmcnt rrscmhlinir a comh;
it is then twisted and drawn out into threads or
ynrn, and sc:nt to tho weaver. It is made into
muslins, calicoes, slm:ki11gs, quilts, corderoys, &c.
The machinery employed in the United States in
carding, roving, and spinning, is quite admirable,
and occasions our cotton goods to be much sought
after. In India and China some of the plants
. produce . a bnff cotton, of which nan keens are
manufactured.
0

LESSON XXIII.
WOOL.

The clothing manufactured from wool, is particularly adapted to cold countries; it does not

13[)

J.'I FT ll

f' lmn;s.

c01111nu11i catc warm th, h11t hc i11 g a 11 011 -co ndn ctor
of heat, it preve nts th at of 011r bodi es from csc;iping. \ Vool is fli c h:tiry CPH' ri11 g ol shee p,
and is take n from t.h c li1i11 g a11i1n:il i11 th e s11mm cr seaso 11 ; th e 01wrnlio11 is c:: ill1 ·d sht1 p-sli caring, an<l th e wool in t Ii is st:1t c t li c .flt1·1·e. Th e
\Vool of th e Spnni sh sli 1•c• p is parti <' ul :1rl y fin e ;
in that co untry a flo c k oft e n co111 ai11 s a tl;ousan<l
sh ee p.
The first opcrat. in11 pnf"o rnl!' d 011 tli f' r:1 w wool
is to pic k nn<l sort it; tlii " is parti c111:1rl y nrc clful ,
as th e sa111 e shee p produ<' C'S \1·01il of \' :ui ous
qu aliti es. It is n n t c lc:111 s1·d fro1n its impuriti es
a nd committed to th e 11·ool-c ·o111l wr, \1·1i o by mean s
of iron spik ed co111hs of di ll i:ri ·11t d<'.!.!T1 ·1·s of Ji11 c·
ness drmrn out th e fibr es, s rn oo tJi ~; , a11d s t rai g htcns
t.h c rn. Jt is th r n prc·p;1r!'d li1r tli1 · spi1111 r r who
forn1 s it i11to thn ·ad s, t I)(' 111Prc t 1ri skd of' 11 lii ('. h
arc c all<·d 1rnrc<tcd, and th e k ss :1ri st!'d prn. lt
is th en clllployc d i11 t.h e 111:u111t':w lmc of e very
desc ription of hos iery, sl1dJ ;.;, <' :tq l!' ts, Jl a1111 cl,;;,
Lla11kct, and cloth s. E11 .!.tl :111d 111an11fo c lmes so
mu c h woo ll c11 clul liill):f, 111.:tt it 11·:1s fom )(' rl y co ns id e red tl1 c stapl e co 111111ocli1 y of t li:1t. c01mtry,
and to mark t.h e cstimatio11 i11 1rl1i d1 it. 1rns held,
th e Lord CIJa11 cc llor sit s upo11 :1 1rnokwk. Th e
woolle n rnanufac tlll'cs of tli e U11i tc: d S lates are
becoming very important.

LESSON XX I V. -SI L K.

137

LESSON XXIV.
SU,J(,

Rilk is the production of a cate rpillar, and con
sfi t11t C' s tl in cove rin g in whi c h it e n velopes itself,
wh e n it c hangrs fr olll th e larva st.ate to that of the
c hrysali s.
F ro m thi s inanim ate condition it
c me rg<'s as a moth, a nd ha ving laid if s eggs, it
soo n ceases to exi st.. " Then we con s ide r th at
011r mos t 111 x mio11 s ::ind spl endid attire is th e prod11 c ti on of a worm , ho w arc we led to adr~ ir c t.li c
pow e r a11d wi sdom of that Ilcin g, who \rnrks by
sncli in sig nific:ant mr:rn s !
'flH ! <"oi:o011 or wc· h of th e s ilk-worm is an oval
ball of sil k, whi c h it ha s sp1111 011t. of a suhstan cc
sec reted in its own body . The shades of th e silk
va ry from th e palest stra\1·-color to deep ye llow.
In a stain or naturr th e silk-worm s form their CO·
coo11 s 11pon th e .l\lullicrry- trcc itself, wh ere th ey
shi11 c lik e go ld en frnit s amid st. th e leaves ; hut
the co lcl C' r c li11rntcs of E urope will not allow of
th nir IH' ing rnar(' cl i11 th e ope n air. Th ey arc in
co11 sr·r:11 r· 11 r·c kr pt. in warlll bu t airy rooms, :md
fo d 11·itl1 nlllllic rry-l r nv cs till tlwy r.rc fully g rown.
Th ey c·l1 :rn g·n th f' ir skin scvc rnl tim es whil e th ey
:ire in tl1 c c:it c rpill:ir st:it r ; at Ieng-th tl1 cy become
so full of th e silk y matt er that it g ives th em a
yello wish tinge; th ey tli r n cease to cat. Twigs
arc 11 0\V plac<'d OVl'r t.JH·rn 11]10 11 lit.ti c singes
wi c ke rwork, 011 which fh f'y imrn cclintcly begin to
foun th eir we bs. Wh e n th ese arc fini shed, the
12 i(c

of

1!38

FIFTH

smu.Es.

s ilk is 1ro11rnl off, 11·lti c. h wh e n u11rar f' ll r'1l , mn:i sm cs
from S(' 1·c 11 hundred to 011 (") th011 s:111d frct. Aft.er
scparati11g th o down y 1J1atl.cr 011 tlH· 011t :-: idc c all ed
.fins, th e cor:oon s arc thrown into 1r:1r111 11·atcr to
cli ssolrn th e gl11ti11ou s parti c: lf's 1rl1i1 ·li kid <"a 11 scd
th e silk to adl1 erc , :111d t!H' (' 1Jd s of tlli' thread s
bein g J'o11nd, sc r cr:il :1rn .ioi1 wd tog1 ·tllf'r and
1rn11rn] upon a ree l ; th is is (' :ill 1· d r:m l' ilk. It
n e xt und ergoos so11 H' np1·r:1tio11 to r·l1 ·:111 sc it, a n1l
re nd er it 111ore s11ppl1' , :i f't 1'!' 1rhir·h it is twi ste d
into threads of difkr< '11t d1·!.'.r r·1·s nf fi11r '1 11' ss :1s rf'quired by thr. wcar1 ·r; i11 .this s1:11 c it is ca ll ed
thrown silk. Th e <' xr·1·ll r· 1wl' of' si lk :1 s a 111 :1 1f' ri al
consists in its str e ng th, liglit 111 •ss, l1 1s fr <', and it s
be ing- capable o(' fakin g· th e Ji11 PSt rl y<'S. f;ilk
ma y be n1ad r. info s1illst:11w <'s 1·:1ryi11 g· i11 fl1ir :kn c:->s , fr p1n th e Ji11 ('s t. tr:111 sp:rn' nt _g:1 11 z<', 1o th e
riche st ye)vets a nd hror~ : 11k s . 'l'l1 c l-:11 ,g·l i:-d1 m:1 11ufoctur crs arc d 1i c fl y s11ppli1·d ll' it h l' ilk f1wn
C hin a, P f' rsi;i, and lt :il y. Fr:1 1wc is tli r. 111oo; t.
north e rn climate in wliil'li l' ilk is pmd111 :1·d in any
quantity. Th e 111 : 11111f:l<' fnr r~ of s ilk is :ilrf' ady
COlll lTl Cll Ce <l ill th e l 111it ('d ~tall' s .

LESSON X S V.
COUHT l'J,.-\ STl:H..

Court-pb stcr is a hl:wk, ndl ws i1·f', thin su hstanc c, appli c<l to 1ro111uls 0 11 tlw sk in, lo profcf't
thl'm from th e injurio11 s <' fli :ct s of f lie~ :1 i r. The followin g is th e m:111n cr of prf'p:iri1 1 _~- it: a th i11 l1hc k
~<>.rs 11 o t is stretc hed 011 a fr a111 c; a \\·:um so lution

J,T:SSON XXVJ.--SAFFRON.

139

of isin gla ss (a g111tinom; substan ce prcparc<l from
th e ho1 ws of fi sh, parti c 11l:uly the whal e) is appli f'< l ll'ith a bru s h eq11ally over th e surfacewhen dry, thi s is repea ted a seco nd or third tim°'
It is ll f'X t washed ove r with so me Benzoin di ssolvc<l i11 Rpirits of wine. Bcnzoin is a resinous
g 11m, 11·hi c h is found on a troc g rowi11g in Suma tr:t. .It possesses a11 arom a tic perfume, and acts
as a styptic" i. e . stanch es blood. It is also the
c hi c· f i11 g n ·dic11t in Fri;ir's llal sa rn, and gives it
the hea lin g rirtu c it possesses.

LESSON XXVI.
SAFFRON .

~afli-on

is th r. or:rn gr. -colorcd pi stil of a species

o f croc us, th e leav es of \\·hi c h app ear in spring ,
and th e hl ol'sorns in ;i 11t.111nn. lt abounds in the

n e ighborhood of ~afl'ron 'V:ild f' n, in E ssex, En gh11d , whi<· h t.ak f's it s 11:i1n r. frolll that. c ircurnst:11w e. h is al so c o1111r1 011 in 011r Ameri can gardf' 11s. T hi: fl ow ers arc gatl1 crcrl every morning
j11 ::: t hf' fore th ey ex pand, and as t hey co ntinu e to
op<'n in s1wr;r• ss io11 t<.J r sc vf' ral wee ks, thn saffron
han·f' st. l:i sts a co 11 s idr~ rahl c tim e. '\Vhcn th e
flmr crs :Hf' g·:1 1lwrr' d, tli <'y ar c spread on a t;ihl c:
thr. 11ppl' r part of tli r. pi stil only is M an y value.
' Vll(' ll a l'11fli c ic11t quantit y of tllf'sc arc collec teu,
flt <')" ar f• dri <' d 11po11 a ki11d of port ahl o kiln; over
thi s a ha ir c loth is strclchC'd, and upon it a few
s l1 f'f' ts of 11·hif r' papn; tli p, sa ffron is placed upon
th ese to th o tlii t; lrn css of t1ro or three inc hes; tli o

] 1j()

\\l1oln I:·' 111('!1 1·ov4·r"d 11itl1 wltil" p;1prr, OH·r
wlii(·l1 I:' l' ];,,. ('41 :t (' ();1r ,1· lil:111L 1·i 01 (';111\; 1s li:1 ;_;ii ll1·d wit l1 :-:1r:11v . \\ lw11 111 " lir1 · L:i:< l11· :11t-d 11H :
]; ilr1 , ;1 ho:tn!, 011 ,.,·iJif'li j,, ;1 \\ <'i•.>lil , i:' pl:w1 ·if
11po11 tl1c blanket and pn:sscs th e s:ill'1011 1ugdbcr.
It is used as a medi e inc, sr: r l' in g· :1s n slight 1011ic,
and to cx liilaratc tile s pirits, also to Jlavor cakes,
U!l(l

J,F,SSO N X XVJII. xxn.:: . -CIIEF.SF., PUTTY.

rrrTrr snnrc:.

to form a ye lJ ow d) c.

LESSON XXVH.
JlU'l"J'.F.R.

141

CllEESE.

C heese is prc p:ir c d f'ro111 Ill ilk \\Ji ich is coa~11la k d I>\' rni.\i11~ it \1·11'1 a liq11m called rl'11111:t,
\\' hi ch i ~ 111:id c by s f. el'ping 1li c i1111cr llJ<'J11hr:rnc
of a cnlf's s:o n;ad1 in \rater; t ile curds thus
forr11cd nrc a w hi te solid s uli sta1 1ec ; i li cy :ire
separated fro111 th e wh ey or wntcry particle s, .and
1he11 pre:-:s<:d aml dried. A co lor is usu:illy g1r c 11
to c li cesn hy saffron or !Jy a snhsta11co called
an11alfo, wl1i1;li is tlii; seed-vessel of a shrub grmYi1w i11 the W c;;l Iudics.

"'

ll11ttcr is :m mwt11n11 s s11h:-Lrnrf' pr<' p:Hrd from
the milk of th e co irs. \Vlt c 11 rnil k ha s br c11 allowr,d to sta r1d a frw liomc:, a th ic k ric h s1il >stance
calle d cream ri ses to th e s m f: tc 1·. Thi s is sk imm ed ofr, cLlll1 lJy l >cin;~· l 1r i ~ J, ! y :1 1~ il: il1· .J i.: 1·n11\r ·r1Pr1
into butte r. The i11 :strumf' 11t by \\·l1i c li thi s op0r:d.ion is pc rlorm c11 is 1:all cd a d1i1r11; ;1. ce rtain
degree of l1c:1t assists 1lw p rncc ::;:-;. Th e; lrnttc:r
tha.t is required 1o be l\ q>I ;111y lc1 1.u: tl1 o!' ti1nc, is
s alte d and packed in s11iall t11hs or li;:rrcls. Besid es the liuttcr th ere is :11101lwr s1il 1stn11 ce remainin g in lit e chum, whi ch is c :ill <' d l111tl ermilk.
Th e person \rho te nd s 1h c c.a ttl n ic: ca llc ~ d a cowhe rd: an d th e place wh ere the wilk is kept is a
uairy.

LESSON XXIX.
l'VTTY.

Putty is a soft rn1cl.110t1 s s uhstarwe wluch
hard1·11s l>v cx pos mc to the air, and is used by
gLtzi1·1s t1 ; c1·111 c11t tlin g \;1 o-;s to wi11dow-fr:uncs.
It. is crn11poscd of li11 si:nl oil a11d \\'b iting, sometimes \\·ith the addition of wl1itc lca<l.
Tlic
whitirw is gT011nd info a fin e powd e r, and the oi;
an d wl~tc lead arc work ed inlo it, till all tl1 c sul>slam:os arc th oroug hl y in co rp orate d tDge tlicr.

1-12

J,ESSOC'< XX:XI.-FEL'l'.

f l ! FTH SEIUES.

LESSON XXX.
STARCH.

Starch is a snhc; tancc old:1i1wd fro111 S0,V<' rn l
m ealy vogot:d1lcs; it is gr·1wrnll y pr1' 1':1rcd from
wh eat lJy th e followin g prnc c:-: c: . Th e \\!teat is
put into tubs of wate r, :111d cx pllc:1·d f'llr so111 c days
to th e heat of the su 11 , wliid1 hri11 g·s 011 a dl'grec
of frrmP'ntntinn: I.li e 11·:1lr•r i,.: !'.!1:111!r<'rl f\yi cn a
day. Having uy tl11 s procc c:s IH· r·1 1111 ;: ~' iil li1 ·1 1· 11tly
softened, it is pomcd int o l:1rg <' c:1111·as baµ-s,
which arc worked or h o:i.tc11, i11 ord r· r 1n s« pnrntn
the husks from tho me aly parti c les, \rli ic h arc
received i11to an em pty 1·r's:'<'I. F 11 ·:-d1 w:1tf"r is
aga!n p oured upon tl1 c111, :111 d :iffrr thi s li:1 s l1cc_11
w e ll shaken , it is left to se tt le ; t li e water is
poured oH~ anll tli e sc di1n c 11t \rlii c h rc111ains at
the bottom of the \; esse l is s tarc lt: thi s is formed
into small pieces a11d dri< ·rl.
f-ita rc li. with tl1e
addition of s malt or stone bl11 c , is user! to stifl(; n
linen; it. is al so fornu :d i11to a po wde r tor lite lt:1ir.
S tarc h or 1"cci tla is tlic 1Iutr1tiY c p:1r t nf 111ost
grains and roots; it. m ;1y li e ex tracted Ill considerable quantiti es from potatoes.

LESSON XXXI.

I

FE.L T.

i

F e it is tl10 s11h stan ce of whi ch haf s arc made.
!t is composed of hairs ; those of t.be beaver are

f

c hi enr usr: <l by li:itt.er:::. Tho operation of felting
dc pc 11d s upon a pcc 1iliar r:on s trncl.ion in all hairs,
1d1 i(;lt !1owc rcr s111ootlt :111 ll c 1·c 11 flt <:y rnrty :1ppcar,
ha re i 11 reality a ti led or c;caly 1.cx f: urc 011 the
smfaec. Tll o sc ales arc so placed , t.!tat they
yi e ld lo the finger drawn alo11 r.r t.li o lwir from tho
root lo t!t r: po int, hu t: prc s<·11 t: a rcs ist nrw o whc11
111or ed i11 a co1 1trary direct. ion. [n co11so q11cri co
of thi s peculiu.rity, if a hair Le seized in the
111idrll o be t.w ee n 1h e two fing e rs and ruhb ed , the
root \\ill gr:idually rec ede a11d the point will :ipproach tho fin gers, ex hibitin g a prng re:-siv0 rnntion
tmrard s tlt c root; tlio imbri eat.c d surfacr:, prercntrng all m ot ion i n tho op pos ite way. From this
property, hairs, when bc:1 t en or presPc d 1(>gcthcr,
hegin to move in tho direc tion or the root, and
;nc di sposed to ca tch hol d a rnl llvi s t ro nnd eac h
ot lwr, and thu s to sti c k i11tn a c lose nw ss, ;\·l1i c h
is c alled F'clt. C mlcd hairs e ntwi ne tlH;ms clrcs
lll orc c lose ly into OIH~ :111ntli <·r 1h:m th ose wh ich
;i re stra ig ht thou g h nf'xilil(~, as these lat.tcr recede
fro111 f lie root. i11 a din'd Ji11c. T he l1:ifff"r howc r e r finds tlwm \'cry uscf1il: ho s preads tl1 cm
ove r the s11rfo cc of !tis <'n:1 rs<'r c lot Ii , and when
pr(' E' S<cl, lllf' :-= t: li11c ,_,trai!_!l1t l1:1ir:o lllOl'i1w in tho
direct.ion of their roots fo r111 a co;1ting; ti~e i r base
1,ci11 g in se rt ed in th e felt, \1·hil e d1cir extremiti es re main fre e. Jt is in cons cqnen cr: of this
tend e ncy to felt, t!wt 1rnollcn c lolli s in c rease in
thi c kn ess, a11d co11trnct in l<' 11gth and bre:idth, by
being was hed; and tk1.t t. li ey do JJot ravel out
;\'lien cu t. Tho Z oth nd Ns, a vai Ii ng themselves
of thi s pr:c11li:1r co nst ruction of l1airs, fo lt tl1eir
wool by puqing it into n arrow inle ts of the sea,

FIF TH SERIES.

LESSON XXXII.

I

l'ORCF.LAIN.
, ..- <1

1

l"f '

.

I

'

l

•

r •

\.Aay 1:!.llll illlll ;ue Ult; C IJl C1

~ .,

i' •

llt !_! l\ ; ll i L IJI "

ill

lll U

te ry to th e fin est sc mi-tr:rnspare nt c hina.
I ''I'

i l )' i II f.. "I 1:l I " '; t I If '

I II

t

mak es it hard and a lit.tic gla ssy. Th e followin g
is tlw usual prucc:::; c: trr ic\l on in tl w E n g l i .~ h
m:innf::irtnri Ps

nf

( :1i111:1w;1ri-.

T l11 ~

ii11il"

:irn

first redu ced to powd er hy th e ac ti on of fire, then
ini :~ c d in ce rt.Jin pr o ~ 'c~ rti 0 : 1~ v: ;q 1 l' nrn ic- h ~-r1 n~
ite ,"-' and g round to a ve ry fin e powd f' r; water
is pourc<l upon t his 1'1i ". t11r0 , :1 11il it i" t11·if'0
:,; lrai m:tl Lli rnug h ,;il ke1 1 ,;t; i H ;;. It i" tlu , 11 buik<l
till it is of the co11 sistc ru:y or cn;:i111, a11d tlJ j~
wate ry particles bc i ng cva poratcd, it l1 ccorncs a
toug h pas te. A p o rt io n of t!ii" ,: 1d1,: I :tJlf'I' j,, nll'll
placed upon a turnin g wh ee l; ;u1d 1no1ild c c1 by
th e h and ·wi th a prec ision a nd r:ipidity, th at
prac tic e only cnn g ive. Thi s is th e mann er in
which ve sse ls of a c irc 11lar sltnp c urc form ed, as
bowls, plates, c ups, and s;1w:c rs . l Jt.c nsils of
oth er fr-.:·ms arc mad e in mould s of g yps um, the
pores of whid1 ahso rhin g th e moislure of the
cl ay, th e ve:::sels ;u e r,nn tr ar.tr <l i11 s iz e : and thus
1

"' The two principal ingrcdienlR of grauito uro silcx and
nlumi11e.

n·r 0 •1

~..i

,

~

' ••

f f, !

r

l ,'

'

1,

1l

.

'

UH.; \r t:S :--J t~Js

· •• • •£ •...; Jn .... . ) i.l.i v ,:_-, J/, t__; ui

•

z \ V l11rh

rn Uii S s t.:i l c

The

n

c:i sil y looscn ~ rl from th0 mn nld . F.arh r cs;:;c f
:1: 11.:; f,~ 111c d .1" place d in a separate c lay c:ise .
1 he fiirna ce is fill ed with th ('se, and th e n hri c krd
('. lo.-;c ly np, and tli('y :ire s 1il 1j rc t<' cl to a r ed Ji eat
for s ixty honrs.
'J'h o fcmpcraturo is th e n
g·1:nd1r:1lly low ered,. nnrl wh e n th e p01-r.0hin is
.wr .1l1drawn , wl11 c h m thi s s t:at e is c all (' d hi sc ni t
it i s a w l ~ 1t.~, ~l1ill , porou s s 11bs t:111 ce. Thi s proc cs~
n;adil .v rccr:iv0 th 0 hli1 0 " nl o r, cnll cr!
cobalt; 1t h:i s the nppearan ce of a clirt:y crrcv till
0 h r "tl
Tl
·] ·
·
· ,... ·
,. • ·
·
- ir £1 17111? r·rn1 -:1..: f..: (I f Jr. ad <Ill(] g·Li ;:;.s,
g~ound to a very fine powd e r, mix ccl in wat e r
,'~ 11th ~:n10 .o tl~ rr in g rf' rli f' 11b 11 l1 i1: l1ar c b :pl. ::;ccrct.
.J. Jj (_;
ii k ;c ulL 1,; IJ H: rt:lv '.11 1•1:".J rnt n thn z '·1·' :n.;,
an cl i s th e n bnke.cl Dgn.111 f0 r forty hours. It is
now rr•nd v lo r 0r 0 11·0 :ill th 0 <' ll ici· C l ' i. ; 1· . . 1. 1lii t'lJ L!
g ddi1 1,!.! , \\ iii cli n1 e pattern may require. lt is
th e n ba ked a tl11rd f-i m ,., fnr t 0 n hours o r mo re.
f ,:i <: f"l ..v , fi.>0
•ril rl;
fi' " ; _ 1. · · -! . J 1v1l.11
· ' J'
]
. .~
" ....., ' " , ,1111 11.~ t c t
>IU l H stunc
11r, ·I
nr
:i
••.··ft·uu
l
t
I
1
·
J
1
, c 11u a 1s r<· n 1 y or t 1
, , o ·' · , , ·
c ware-room.
1.h ~. ~o hm:; arc <:li :1J1 g~cl l1y bnking, a ppearing very
d1fl c1 cnt n-li c 11 f1r ,, 1 Li1d 0 11 •

m:rn11(;1rrnrc of porci'hin , from thA ro:irsPst potc l:t y rn : 1lu·" i t \\' \l r k

14[)

I .P.SSON XXXII.-PO RCET,AI N .

wh ere it is exposed to the c ontinual motions of
t he ti des.

•

,,
j

•

•

''.'

1

•I

I J l

,...., ,

t_ · '

14G

FIFTll SERIES.

It is ductil e . 2.
te nacious,-holding together strongly. 3.
J1eavy. 4.
i_nrles lructible, i.e. it cannot be destroyed.
f1rs1ble.
i11c:ornhustiule, i. c. it cannot he burnt ex
cept hy e lect ric ity.
soft, compared with o1 her meta ls.
pliahlc.
co rnp:ict.
ycllun.
solid.
opaq11c.
l H. i 11i;i/)1.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
ON

NIETALS.
In th ese le:osons on tlie con:mo r1 md als, it is
necessary to prese nt th ;: s pc c. iili r:: iis to tl1 e cbss in
their several naturnl :u1d :1rtili< :i:1 ! fd;11e:::, tl1nt is to
say, the natire , th e or es , ~~rJ<! th e 111:urnf:1cturcJ
metals. The teacher \rn1ild ii11d tlie interest of
he pupils awak c ucd l1y th e c.\:1r11i11:1(i1J11 (lf the
eycr;tl s ukct:u1 ct>, :'11·! r·uil-'' 'i''' 11:l y 1:1:,t th ey
wn11l<l lH ~ 111<irn i1wli11< :d f(l 1T<'i'i; <' \\ i:li prnlil 1lll!
information cor 1v r: yc<1. Tii<· pl:i11 oi' \'.T1i111 .1/ ilnwn
the list: of' q11alifi<·s li :1 :-: lw1 ' 11 :l!~·: 1i11 :1d"pkd with
the lllctal s, as Ll1cy 11,:111 to :1 1w w r;i11 g 1: oi' i1ka c;,
and Corm so llec:ck-dly 1lw ('!t:1r:wfc·1i ~ tir · disti11ctions of the substances.

rdl1'<'fi1c.
:-:011orn11:.:.

111<: 1:i11 i e.
Not :ifli:ctcd hy a11y acid, lrnt aqua r<'gia.j(o

Tr. .1c111c rr.
C1111.1>n F.'1.

LESSON X :X XII f.

Qualities.
It is perfect as a rnclul.
rnallcahleJ 1.

1l11is he <'xl1'11ilcll by heating, arc called
11Ur, 11 " 111 T.nl. '1 lufl!'11s, a lici11111>n

TJ<l( ' ll;·:H. , ( 'o,J!d gl: 1ss '"' ll111s l1 r ;i;,.ll 011! 1 Cn11ld ckilk?
Cni'.iphnr. \\ hnl. •111:il1ty J'r<'VL'll[S 1111•111 fr111n being malleable l
~,,11r1.1>11 r·:s. C.l:i"" lirilliP. Ch:ilk fri :1hl('.
1, 1·: .;.r-r11·:it. \\'/,,11 q 11:1/i1y i11 g"!d 1/11' n rc11<krs it rn:illr:iblc 1
CnrJ.nlU<N. ff-.: IH'lll~ rrn:-t('inns.
·
rr
'
. · r•:.icrr_r.n.
\\' hat oilier <j11ali1y in gol J urisc.s fro 111 ils be-

mg tennr1011s?
Cn1Ln1tr.N.

*A

solid piece of gold nnll so rn e lcnf.gol1l shonld bo pre1cnted lo the chss, :llld the cx tre111c li gli1 11 cs• a11J thinness of
tho lenf mny be !Ci t.
T1uc1n:n. Ilow waR 1ho gnhl made so thin 1
C111LDllEN. It was beaten out.

""i1h nlinl?
\Villi a J,,111>11wr.

~,ll ll'.i'':t:' lh :ll •::rn
fWI

GOJ,Jl,

147

J,ESS ON XXXJII.-GOJ,J>,

'l'EACllEI!.

Tt is dnr.tilc?
Ductile is cl eri\'e1l frolJ1 Lal. Duca,

r lcacl.

Aqna r<"g in (royal wnt cr) is n mixture of murintie aci'<l
an<l nitric u e id.

J,ESSON xxxnr.-GOT.D.

148

Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a

It is a p e rfec t metal, u ccause it d ocs not lose
any of its weight. when fu sed.
\Vhe n th e children u11d crst; u Hl f111l y the <l i ffercnt qualiti es, the teache r may 111cntion t.o the m
the fac ts that illu strate th e e xtr;iordinary d egree
rn which th e pec uli ar q11aliti es ex ist.
I. "Malleable." A g rai11 of gol<l th e s ize of
a pin's head, way be Lca tc 11 out to cover a space
of 50 square inches.
2. "Ductil e ." A gTain of gold ca 11 b e drawn
out to cove r a wire of :1:i:! f ee t i11 length; a
guinea ca11 be drawn out to reac h 11i11 e mil es and

~ ub ~ t:rn c~ with gold: thi s is e ffecte d by applying
it e 1tl~ c r 1~1 th e s ~.atc of a le af, or liquid gold.

Qu1cbalver di ssolve s g old , and unites with it,
'.tnd has from thi s circumsta11cc bee n used in gildllll{ button s, an e ffec t which is produced very
rapidly lJy the following process . T!t c metals arc
lll ixc d togetlwr, a nd the lrn t to11s i rnmcr:-:cd in the
co mpo_u11d. They arc t.h c n exposed to groa t heat,
by wl11 c h th e mercury 1s evaporated, and the gold
is l e ft upon t.h c buttons.
Tli o pmpl e co lor u se d in porce lain is obtained
front ~'.o ld.

a half.

Co.Id is beaten into leaves ttpon a smooth bl oc k
of Jllarble fitted i11to a woo d en fr;1mo ahont two
feel f':r111are; 0 11 tl1rcc l'i di•s tllC'rc is :i lii crit lcdtr<'
and Ili c front ha s a ll:ip o f lcatlwr uttac~rd t(;'"'
whir-_li tlic \rorl;man ll S('S :is an ;1pron to prcs crrc
tl1 r fr:11:·111(•1 il s tl1:it foll ofl'. T ltr·n· arc tlm :n kinds
~)f a11i111_:il 111e1nl1ra11c 11 ~T d i11 !li e oprralion.
For
rntcrhy111g· \Yi 1h t he gol<l !hf' srnoo l!IC' st :111d
c losest Ycllum is proc t;r cd; a11d 11·ltc11 the u«ild
lir.1'nrnr·s thin, t!t is is C'\('lta11u·r'rl for rn1wl1 Jirwr
sl; _i11 111:1d1· (Ir 1l1c· c1Ji r :1il.~ (\r 11\ <'11 pr('11 :rn·rl for
tlt1 s 1i:1rp:i;:r•, :lllil l1 r· 11r· 1· r·:ill1·d gnlrl hn1ttr s' sl.-in ,
:111 d 1lio \\ liolr: is r·m·i·n·d 11it 11 p:ircl111w111 fo pri'vr•1t1 !It<' k1111111r•r from i11j11ri11~~ it. A ft er tlw
gc,!d !tas hcr•n rc'111ccrl fo a :-<11flicic nl dccrrrc of
t!ti111w sc;, it is p11t hct1iccn paper ,,·hich h~s hc c n
well s111ootl1 (' d ;111tl rnbl1 cd "it It red bole'·"' in order
to prevent it adh c rin[[
o-old.
,__, to th o b

D. "Te nac iou s." A \rirc of an i11ch in diame t e r will support GOO po1111 ds wit hout breaking.
4. "\Vt:ight." JL is 11i11 ctccn time<; h e:tvicr
than water of the same hulk.

i;

Uses <!{ Gold.
vVhen alloye<l" with c u11pcr: guJ tl is uscrl as
coin and for orna111e11tal purp oses; ib beauty,
;rnrl its not lwi11'.!· li; 1l.J l' 1.. Jit :d , Iii it. CD r 1 11'~ lat1cr
purpose .
T h e gold used i11 coi11; 1g ' " c: tl l1· d .<L:111il :tr d golil,
COIJSi StS of a mixture ol' g·oJ d a11d l'O j>[> t:r.
Goltl threa d is 111:1d c hy cove rin g silk or silver
with gold beaten very tJii 11 .

*The combinnlions o f rn e1nls " ·irh cnch

01l1cr are calle<l

in chcmiRlry, alloys, buL 1l1 i~ Lu11ll is cu11111HJ1ily c 111 pluycu . I•)

dcsigrm1 e thos e snbst:rnccs \vhich lcs:3cn the v:\luc of any with
\1·hid1 1hcy arc unitnd.

14!J

.

f

i

"'

* Bol e, n

ki'ld of earth.

13

:i(

IGO

FII'TII

s:imrns.

Geographi cal and Geological situation

LESSO N XXXIV.--SILVER.

ef

Gold.

Gold is found principally in hot clirnates, either
native or as an ore. A me t.al is call ed native
wh en it occ urs in nature pure, antl an ore when
mixed with other s11hst:u1ccs. Gold is found in
min es in Brazil, P cm, alld J\l r:s ico. l'art: of tho
w es tern coast of Africa is ca ll ed the Gold Coast,
from the gold du st brou g ht do1r1 1 hy the nativ es
to trade with. A great q11a11tity of golcl is obtained in th e form of fin e sa 11d from American
and Afri can rivers; and in small quantiti es from
the Danube, the Rhin e, and th e Rhone: it
is supposed to be washe<l cl 01v 11 by th e mountain
torrents. The wandering· triues of g-ypsies em
ploy th emselves in w:1slii11 g it. fro m the hcds of
the European ri vers. Th e lli1 11laya 1111J1 111t:1in s in
Asia arc rich in gold. It so111 c t i11w s 01;c11rs i11
the veins which run thro11i~-h th e 11101rntnin:,, and
somctirnes in rou11dccl ui:1 :<ses in soil s that arc
e videntl v the ruins of rock s. Th e 1nines which
form er] y. yielded th e L1rg·cst <p1an1 ities of goh l
were those of Peru a nd Li ma ; tli i; pri ll Gi pal of
E11rop0 arc thos e ~ of H111Jg·ary a11cl f-':illzln1rg. The
mod e of ex tracting· g·old frrnu the ore , is l>y reducing th e whole to lin e powder alld mixing it
with q11icksilvcr. The la.ti.e r ;mit es with every
partic le of th e gold, bu t be ing incap:1hl c of forming a combination with any l>11t lllc talli c substances, it se parates th e gold from th e i:arth· with
whic h it is intermixed. Th i) qlli c ksi lv cr which
has absorbed t.hc gold, is thc ~ 11 e vaporated by
means of heat, leaviug the pure me tal in tho

151

vessel. Certain parts of the States of North an<l
South CaroliJJa, an<l Georgia, have recently been
found to abound in gold.

LESSON XXXIV.
SILVER.

Qualities.

It is mall eable. 1.
ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
hea vy. 4.
indestructibl e .
fosiblc.
soft.
fl e xible.
perfect metal.
opaf(ne.
white.
solid.
compact.
11al.11ral.
suhterrancous production.
brilliant.
reflective.
sweetly sonorous.
not ::tffocted by common acids.
I. " l\hlle:ible." Silve r can be reduced to a
thinness nearly equal to that of which gold is
capable.

r,EssoN xxxrv.-su,v:im.

I"IFTH smtu:s.
152
2. " Ductile." It can al so be dram1 out to the
fin est wire.
3. "Te nacious." A wire onc-t r: nfh of an inch
in t hi ckne ss will support 277 po1111d s without
breaking.
1. "\,Y eight." It is abo11t clcYcn ti mes heavier
than water.

mad e by dissolving ni trntc of silver (lunar causti c)
in ,rate r, and ;uJdi11 g g 111n. The yellow color
e mployed ill pon:c lai11 pai11ti11g is obtained from
s il vcr.

Geological and Geographical situation of Silver.

Silver is combine(l n-ith co pper fo r coin, to
render it harde r and lwUc r :1d:1pl!:<l to receive a
fine and sharp impression 011 li C' i ng r.:1s t. The
same all oy is crnploy r· d for orn ;1 111 (' 11 ta I pmposes.
Silve r is used mu c h as a c:is i11g· to co p11 l' r ute ns il s, to preve nt th e in.i11rio11 s cffo c ts or aci ds, or to
rend er them more pleasing to th e s ig· ht. 'J'li c most
p c n nan r: nt. platin g is cfl (.:c fl'd hy t:ik in g f.\10 thin
plates of sil ve r aud co ppe r, til e fornl('r i1.1 tl1 c proportion of one to t\r clr c of th e latt e r ; a lit tle powd ered borax is placed hc t11·('(' ll tl11 ·111 to promote
th e fu sion of tho l\rn 111 c t:1l s, \l' l1i (' l1 :1i'l('r !icing
exposed to a whit e li C'ri t, ,,·ill he fo11nd .firrnly
united; thi s is pa c·sr: d lll'f\1 vc 11 rollns till the
whol e is of th e proper tl1i<·k1w ss fo r th e int c1 111ed
manufacture.
S il ver di ssolved in :iq11 a fort is ( nitri c ac id)
y i c l~ s crys tal s, 'rltich. hc i11 g nffl'rn ;1rds 11~ r lt ~ (! i.n
c n1c 1bl r::s, form what l S called l1111 :1r c: 111 ~ t.I('.. 1111s
preparation, is of con ~ id c rali l c r :1 l11c in sm gical
operations being employed to li11rn :11r;1 y proud
fl es h ; and al so for cons11111i11g wart s, we ns, and
oth er cxc rcscc nccs on Ili c skin. ]11d c libl c: or perman e nt tt rnrking ink, used fo r marking lin e n, is

S il r<'r i::i fo1111d 11 af.ivc and :i s :in ore, in minrs
A111cri ca is the co11nt.ry richest in
si l vc r rn i ncs. It is also fo und in Saxony, Bohemia, No rwa y, Hungary, and England ; lint the
mi nes of l\lr:x ico and P e ru fmni sh ann11alt y ten
tilll <'S more th a11 all those of E urope toge th e r. So
poi so nous arc th e cx lwl ations fr?m the min r::~ of
P~ nr, tli:tt man y thou sand s of fodrnn s h:tv e pe ri shed i 11 th c~m, :rn d th e cattle th at g ra ze on the outsid e arc affoc te,J by th eir mali g nant vapors. The
quantit y fo 111J(l in E nglan<l is not great; it is
tak e n from th e lead min es of Cumbe rl an d, Cornwall, n11cl York s hire. A l:i.rge Linc k was fouml
at. Frc,y li11rg i11 Sax on y, 11po11 whicli D11ke A lbert
too k hi s dinn er. \V l1 e11 111cltcd, it yi elded 44 ,000
pound s of p11re silver.
The or<'s of sil ve r arc ve ry 11umero11s, nncl vario~r s 11 1etlr ods :irn c 111pl oycd ;11 difforcnt co1111 tri cs
to sc p ~1rat e it from tlH ) ore. Jn J'\lcxico and Pcm
th e rn i11 c ral is pou 11cl crl, ro:1 stcd, was hed, and
th en 111i xcd wit It me rc ury, in vesse ls filled with
wate r, a !llill be ing employe d for th e purpose
of more perfec tly :ig if atin g it, whi c h thu s causes
th em to c0111 hi11 c. Th e s il ver 1111itcs with th e
merc ur1· , and hc i11<T
,.., s ubmitted to heat, the latter
1s ev aporat ed. Tir e p11rc metal is th e n rn eltecl
....nd cast into Lars or ingot s.

~ntl ve in s.

Uses of S ilver.

I

154

J,ESS ON xxxv.-QUICKSIJ,VER.

FIFTH SERU:s .

4. It is capabl e of divi sion, by the slightest
e ffort, into an indcfi11itc number of particles, each
of a sph eri cal shape.
G. Tlt c brillianc y of m etal s is so peculiar and
great, that it is caUctl the metallic lustre.

LESSON XXXV.
QUICKSILVE R o n

llrnH CUHY.

Qualities.
It is heavy. I.
fluid. 2.
cold. 3.
di vi siblc. 4.
'l :' volatilc \rh cn heated.
white.
brilli:rnt. 0.
opaqu e.
least tenac ious of all bodi es.
<lilatablc hy heat.
mcdici11al.
11atural.
i naninmte.
min eral.
I. "'Vciglit:." Nearl y fomt ccn ti mes heavier
than wat er-th e hcari cs t knO\rn fl11id.
2. "Fluid." It alw ays rf'1ains if s fluidity in
~rnr temp e rature, 11111: in co 1111tries IH 'ar the poles
it con geals, and tl1c11 is mall cahlc, ductile and
tenaciou s.
3. " Coltl." It is the coldest of all fluids, an<l
the Jwttes t wh en boilin<r.
tl

* Vo!nrnc,

155

from Lat. r eT.1 rr, tu fly.

Uses

I

f'

il

ef Quicksilve1·.

Qui ck silver pcndrat:cs an<l softens other metals,
losing its own fluidity and formin g a kin<l of paste
c all ed an Amal gam. This affinity or attraction
that it lias for th e other metals makes it exceedin g ly use ful in separating th em from substan ces
with whi ch IJiey arc found combined; th i: y learc
th ese to unite with the me rc ury, a nd thi s being
volatilized, the pme metal remains. It is easily
affe c ted hy th e atm osphere, a11<l is on thi s account
nsed in Tlrnrmom ete rs aud Baromete rs." The
TIH") r1r10111 c t c r is a11 in strnm c nt con structed in the
following- mann e r :-a tub e of gl:1 ss te rminating
in a hollow hall whi ch c onta ins mercmy, is
pl1111 gc <l into boiling water, which c au ses th e
rn c rc my 1o cx paml and ri se to a cert ain hei g ht.
At this point, whi ch is callc<l boilin g heat, the
tul1 c is broken off and hermetically scaled ;t the
* B:iromc tc r from (lrrpo > (liar ns) wc ig!1t :iml 1u r po v (m clron)
a meas ure. Th c rmc met e r from ;:lrf'J'°> (!t ot) .
t Tn orilf'r to s('a\ nny thin g hNm c ti r:ill y , th e ne ck of a
glass t1i!Je is hc:it cd till on the point o f m cl1i ng, aid th en with
a p~1ir of h ut pin cl' rs it is close ly twi ste<I tog ctli or, hy whi ch
me:ins th e nir i ~ l' xd111lc<I. lform c ti c:i lly is d e riv ed from
IIcrmcs , a n nmc o f J\forc nry, the d eity uf an cie nt mythology
wl10 \;as thou ght to prcsi<l e ov er the art s, parti cula rly ch e m~~

.

l!J()

107

Fl. F'l'lf REH l l·:S.

fr cc zi11 !! point is 1hrn1 nsc(· rtai11r•d, n11rl 111nrk otl,
and t.li c intcnrning space g rnd11:1tcd. The Thermomct(' r, li y 1.lrns rn:irki11g· thr ~ <'~pa n s ion and
co11lrnc tion of the <]llick s ilrn, i11 <li (':1t f's the inc rease and decrease of heat nncl co ld i11 the atmo::;pl1 cre.
To form th e TiaronH;ler a 1.+1 ss 11 ii >e open at
one e nd, and fill ed with ci11i f' l;s i lrc r, is i1111n crsed
in a bowl co11ta i11i11 ,g· rn 111 c of tl w s:1111 c fiuid.
Part of th e merc ury in th r; ti:L c fl o \ \S into the
c up, leav in g a space It> 1r Jii ,:!t th e :1ir c:11111ot ga in
access, conscq uc11tl.r tlin<' is a r:w11111n. The atmosphere, when hC':1ry, :wts 11po11 tl1 <' 111f'rc11ry in
th e bowl, cau sin g it to ri se i11 t.l1 c tulll', ;111d when
li g ht, th e pr<'ss m o hci11 g rr·11Hn«·cl, :illo w in~ it to
d cscen rl. Th o B:1rn111ctcr, hr th11 s s limr irw th e
we ight 0f th e air, imli(';1tr·s t!t.c proh::hilit.r of we t
or dry 11·cat.1H'r. Fnr 11lw11 th e ;t1111os pllf'rn is
light , it. 110 longer s11pports tl w 1·:1pnr :111cl c. lond s
" ·Jii c h no:lt in it, a11d th<'y (' Oll S<' <!'l (' lll J\· fl cscc nd
toward s th e earth; hut 1rh (·11 th c air is more
d ense, th ey are born e 11p, a11d "·c k1rr; fine
weath e r. The clnatio11 or 111 01 111t;1i11 s i " al so ascc rtai11C'd hy rm·an s nl' Iii<' ll:iro11wtn , f'nr as it is
know11 th at th e rarity pf t11f' ;i1:110:.:11lwrn i1wrcascs
in proportion to tli e ascc1 it, tl1 c ]l(' i!!111 is cn sily
calc ulated.
Qu icksilver is al so 11s<'d for ('.O ati11<r mirrors.
Thi s proc<~ss is effec ted in th e follo11 i11g mann er:
a s h ~ct of tin foil th <~ si;~n of th e pl;1t1' of glnss
is pl:1 r:(' d evenly on a s111ooth hlrwk of stone;
orc r thi s is pomcd soi nc q11ick sill' c r, which is
carefu ll y s pread 11pon it wit.Ii :i fc:it !H ~ r or rubb e r
of lin e n. Tin i11 arn~l g· ;1111nti11µ· wi th mercury
qui ck ly form s an oxid e of a blac k ;1ppcarance;

this lici11g rc111or cd, rnorc nf tli c fluid is po1ircd
it. Th e g iass is tii c11 iwld horizontaiiy, a11d
c arefully sl id ove r th e amalg·a111, swccpi n1..; before
it the s tql cr!lurrn s rncrc11rv, a11d any more ox id e
that 1:1 ay har e fornwd. \\\: ig·!it s ar~ th e n p:acc<l
upon th e glass, and after l1a l' i11ff re main ed sc r eral
driyc;, th e mi x tur e adl1 cr<' s lir;~tl y a11d fo rrn s the
mirror.
Ycrn1iliii11, u:::w<1 ill colu ri11 g sca li1 1g-1" ;1x, ;u1<l
th r. 11wdi,.i11 c call ed calo1n('I, arc prepitratio11 s of
thi s metal.
lljl (J ll

G CO!fro1il1
ical o 11rl Gcol<wical situation o.f
..__
J.lfcrcllr!J·
(~

]\fr rc u ry is found in th e native f-' tat c in
glolml es or drops in the c <il'iti cs of rninr• s ; hut
it is 111nst fr('<j:l<'11t.I y co111liin r <l "·ith s11lph11r,
fonni11<r th e llli11 c ral c:ill< ·d c i1111ahar, wltir;lt is of
a ml ~~ lcir.
Tl lC' qui cbil rN 111 i1ws of ldrca arc s:1id to yi e ld
n1111 11 ;1 ll y 100 tono: ; those of f' pain still more; but
th e min es of Pn11 arc th e r ic lwst.
T!rn rnincs of Jrlrca were :-iecirlcn t:illy di s<' OV<' rcd ahn11t tlir<'O h1111drr~ d vcars s in ce. 'J'lwt
part of tltc <'Ot1ntry w:1s t.lt c11 ;rn1ch inhabited hy
coope rs; and 0110 of th e m e n, when retiring fro1~
work in thr• e ve11i11g, pl:te<'d a new t11b und er
a dropping s prin g , t<; try if it. would holrl wate r,
anrl wh r•11 he c am n in th e mornin!! he fo1111d it so
On
hea vy t!t at he co1ild sc;1rc c ly ~11ove it.
cxam in:tfinn, he fo1rnrl a. s hinin ~· ponderou s fh1id
at the hoftrn11 , "·J1i c h pro l'cd lo lie q11i c ks ilver.
\\Then this circu111sta11r c wa s made k11own, a
14

IG B

rlFTll SERIES.

J,F.S S(l::'i' :XXXVI.-J,EAD.

society wris formed t.o <fo;cove r and \rnrk the mine
from wh e nce th e m erc ury had issued. In some
parts of th e mine, it flow s in small odrcams, so
tlrnt in s ix hours ns 11111 r,h as th1rf y -s1x pounds
have be('11 co llec ted. Iii oth e r p;irf s of the mine
it is diffu sed iii small g lob ul es .

I. \Ve ig ht-Tt is e lev e n times h eavie r than
wate r; rath e r h e avi e r tlt<tn s ilv e r.
2 . Tt nwlls <tt n m11 c h lower temp e rature than
th e of li e r rn e tal s.
3. It is tl1c softest of all m etals.

Uses
LESSON XXXV I.

Qualities. ·
It is he avy. 1
brig·ht,

~.
wlt c 11

first melted or cu t.

rnalleahle.
d11 ctilc.
vcrv rnrt. 3.
pli ~bl c.
livid, Lluish gray.
eas ily c:ib 111·d, 11::1t. is, r<'duce<l by
h eat tu a f'riahl c sub stan ce .
a111orphous.

c ry stalli zed.
opaqu e.

min eral.
tarnishes easily.
inelastic.
natural.
It makes a g ray s treak on pap er.
It boils anrl evaporat<>s at a great heat.

Lead.

and pottery.
\Vlt e n roll ed hcl:wce n iron cy lind e rs to a ro(]lli sitf! dcg rrc of thinn ess and uniformity, lead
is c111ploy rd to cover the roof.<; of hou ses and
cl111rc hcs ; though, in case of fire, it s m e lting is
aUcnd cd witlt much danw~ r. It is al so u sed for
g·11tfns and pipes of ho1iscs, and for ci str-rns :111d
rcsr: rrnirs for wat e r, because it docs not rnst.
H.11 st is o c ca ~ ioncd hy tltc oxygen uniting with a
m e tal; but th e oxyge n of the wntcr having a
greater a0i11ity for hydrogen, its other constituent,

solid.
~0 111 c ti111 ('S

ef

'J'h c calx " of lead is t.lic hri s is of many co lors,
which arc obtained from it hy diffe rent deg rees
of hcnt. R e <l lcatl and white lead, so much use<l
in paints , arc tltc calces of l ead . They arc
solubl e i11 oil, ancl arc all very poi sonou s , and
occas ion th e ill-h ealth to which painters nrc s1il1j cd. Any acid will extract a poif:on from le ad,
and th e re for e tltc u se of it shot1l<l be avoided in
c11li11ary operations. It is em ployed in g lazing

J,EAD.

fo sihl e.

150

,,

* Cnlx

iR th o dro~~ form ocl on the snrface of lead, when
This 11nm e i ~ now gc nrrally nppliecl by ehemisls to
th o~o s nb~ lnn cos \Yhich hnrn been redu ced by burning to a
friabl e s la te'. The uperalion by whi ch !his clfcct is producetl
is called calcinatio11.
mclrcd.

LF.S SON xxxvr.-LEAD •.

IGO

FIFTH S:Ell

n:s.

than for lead, it docs not separate from the water
to u 11 i tc 'r i th th is metal.
Th e g reat softness of lc<ld, and it s be in g so
cnsilv f11 scd, arc the properti es \rhi e h ha re brough t
it so mu c h into use . '.l.'h c pc rsom; ll'ho ll'ork it
arn ·cal kd l.'li1111hcrs, from the ! ] ,:if i 11 , 71' mnlmm,
lead. Th e so ld er th ey us e as a cc :111 <!11t is a n
alloy of Jca<l a11tl ti11 , i11 the proport io n of two
part s of the forn1 cr to 011 c of th e latte r.
Great quantiti es of le a<l nrc t:o 11sumc<l rn
makin g shot. Tl ie me tal for thi s pmpose is
alloyed with arsc11it:, lo rend e r it 1uorc hanl nml
brittle , and c::i.pa hl c of ass rn11i11 g :t perfe ctly
spheri cal shape. Sl1ot arc forn1 ed hy d ropp in g
the melted alloy into 'rntc r, throu g h n11 iron or
coppe r frame, perforated 1rit It round holes, which
are larcrc
r or small er, acconlin!!
b
,, to Ili c size tlw
shot arc required to he. :Mix cd \rit.li antimony,
lead is used for printing-t ypes ; and, with tin and
copper, it forms pewter.

Geolorri
ca l and G co[Tra11hicnl
sit 11a.lion
b
v
.

of L ead.

L ca<l abounds in England, partic ularly in tl1 e
counties of Derb y, No rlhumh crl and, Somerset,
Cornwall, 1nd Devon, and in \\' a les. It is plentiful also in Scotland, Gen 11 :111 y, Fran ce , and
Am er ica. It is very much doubted whether it is
eve r found uat ivc ; it occ urs fr cq11 cntl y combined
with sulphur, when it is call cll gale na.
,
The lc:Hl min es of Mii-:souri arc pe rhaps tho
most i 111porta11t in the world. \ \"hcu the ore i&
brought out of th e min e, it is sorted and washed,

161

to fr ee it fr om dirt o.nd rubbi sh; it is then spread ,
and 1hc h ost pi eces arc separated. After the ore,
hy pi c kin g a nd wa shin g, has bee n suffi ciently
c lea nsed from e xtran eous matt.er, it is roasted* in
n kind of kiln, to fr ee it from th e s ulphur usually
comhin c cl with it. The next process is to mix it
with a f]llantity of cokc,t and snbrnit it to t.hc
smclti11g fu mace. Jn th is there a re lap-holes, and
wh e n 1hc lead is me lted th ese arc opened, to allow
it. to run in a flnid state into an iron vessel. 'rho
dross whi c h floats on its surface is s kimm ed off,
and th e metal is taken out by ladles, and poured
into cast-iron moulds with round e nd s. It is th e n
call ed pig-lead, and is fit for use.
* Roasti11g is t.he process by -..vhi ch the vo latile parts of an
ore are evaporat ed. Sm elting is that by which the pure m etal
is sr pnra ted from th o en rlhy pnrli cles co mbined wilh it in
th o o rt>. Thi ~ is done hy th rowi ng tho who le into a furnace,
nn d mixing \Yith it suhstan ces that will combine with the
ear:hy pnrl s; th e m e:al be ing th e h eaviest, fall~ to the
boll o rn, anti ra11s out by ihe proper O]Je ni ngs , in its pure
metalli c sta te.
t Coke is fi11Jl, m ad<: lJy burning pit-coal - nnder ea rth, and
quenching th e cinden: : .ls charcoal is macle with wood.

lG'.!

L:C:SSON xxxvn.-COPI'ER.

FIFTH SEHIES.

LESSON XXXVII.
COI'l'Jm.

Qualities.

It is heavy. 1.
tena c iou s. 2.
vcrv sonorous. 3.
fo s;l,l c. 4.
e lasti c. fi.
c;q1;1 \ik ol' C:\lrc rn e divi sibility. 6.
111 ;ill1·;illl('.
ductile.
compac t.
opacpr c.
ornno·c
l1ro\\·n color.
t:>
mineral.
somc ti111 r s c rystalli zed .
amo rph ous.
brilliant.
rcfl ecti ve.
sapid. 1
hard .
odorous.
solid.
medi c ina l.
e asi ly corroded
useful.

•

f
I1

1G3

I. "'V eight." Copper is eight times heavier
than water.
2. "Te1mc iou s." A \\· ire on e-tenth of :rn inch
in thi c kn ess wi ll s11pport two hundred and nin ctynin e pounds and a half without breaking.
3. It is the most dee ply so11oro1 1s of all metals.
4. I t is morn easily fu sc<l than iron, but less so
tk1.11 gold or si lver.
5. It is tl1 c rnosf: elastic me tal next to iron.
6. A h11rain dissolved in an alkali will • give • a
perceptible color to more than G00,000 t1111es its
weight of water.
U.~cs

<?f Copper.

The uses of copper arc 111111wrn1 1s and important. \Vh 1: n roll <·d into slll'cl s IH'tlr l'. <'11 iro n
cy lind e rs, it: is used to cor er th e rouls of lio11 scs,
cspce i:ill y arsenals and rnan 11fac tori cs, wh e re th ere
is liab ility to fire . Th e bot1oms of ships arc
coppe red, in ord e r to make th e m sail fa ste r a11<l
to prevent sl1 e ll-fish from perforating t lie wood.
riaf:es of copper arc used for e1 1gravi11gs ; which
is done 11·ith a sharp ins1rum cut or by co rroding
them with aqua for tis." The c opper is cov ered
with " ·ax, and the des ign ske tch ed upon it. with
a point ed in ~ lrnrn c nt:; the aqua forti s reach es the
coppe r ju st in those places wh ere th e wax l1 as
bee n re111or cd by th e sketching, and cats into it.
Copper is muc h used for cooking ute nsii s, but
great c are is necessary, f,)r sho11ld any ac id or
* Aqua fortis (slroug wal er) is nitric acid diluted wilh
water.

rJF'J'I[

srn: I ES.

P,ve n water be allo\rCll to st.and any tim e in the
vessels, a poi son is extracted; but \r11il c boiling,
this ev il docs not ari se. It is customary, in order
to preve nt any dan ge r, to lin e co pper r css(; ]s with
tin. Verdi g ri s is a ru st or (lx id c of co pper, usually
prcpa t'c<l from that meta l by co rroding it with
vin egar. There is a largc rn :rnufac tory at Montpeli e r in Fr:u1cc, wl1 ere vercligri s is prepared in
th e following mann er :-coppf'r plates and hu sks
of g rap es arc placed alt ern ate ly on e up on :in otl1 cr;
th e la tter speeclily corrod es tlH ) smface of the
m e tal. Tile verdigri s tli11 s for111< ~ d is sc : r ~1pe d off
as it coll ects on tlw coppr·r; it is :1rt c n\'~1rd s dried
and pack ed in cas ks or h:1 g·s . It is f:l1idl y e mploye d in cl yi11 g , a11d is a 111oc; I. ,·i rnl1 ·11t poi so n.
Copper is used in th f' 1n:11111(ac tori <· s of 1~· 111111nwd c r,
bec au se it docs not lik e iro 11 g irn out. sp;irks by
coll ic; io11. Tlwrc arc s1:rr~ r:il :i I loys of' copper.
lJr;i ss is Lit e 1110:-; I. i11q1 .1rt :111t. : ii. is co111po11nd cd or
zin c and copper, in the proporti on or tl1rcc p::i·rts
of th e form er to one of t he ht.t r r. Tl1i s is a ve ry
b eautiful and useful s1il1stan ce ; it. docs not n~ s t
so easi ly as coppe r ; is rnorc d1wtil c 1.h:u1 either
that me tal or iron , a11cl is tlwrf' [orc used i11 tho
construct ion of 11111 sic:il :111d 111 ;1t l!C'111at i<" a l i11 stru.
m e nts, and in cloc k work. Sic r cs a.11d ti .ind s are
wov e n of brass wire of rx fr <' me fin c11 ess. Brass
is used bot:•. for purposes of orn :1111 e11t. and use.
Bronze and tb e met.al of \I hi c h <::11111011 arc made
arc alloy s of copper with tin. U c ll lllctal is three
parts copper and on e tin.
1

J,ESS ON XXXVJI.--(;Ol'l'Elt.

IGG

Geographica l rrnd Geological .situation cf Copper.
Coppe r is found i 11 Swe d 011, S:nony, A rn c ri ca,
and (;reat Britain. It \1·;1 s \\«:II known 1.o th e anc ic·11t s ; the Bi hi e speaks of th e workers of brass
be for e th e fl ood.
ll is fo 11rnl in a great r:iri f' t y of' forms; some;.
tin1 r·s i11111:i sscs of'pmc metal, h.ut 111ore fr<'q11 ent.ly
co n1hin cd with other substan ces, part.ic11l:1rl y s11[.
pl111 r. Th e co pper rn in es of A 11 g le se a arc- r c ry
prod11< :tir c ; ti1 c·y arc sitnatcd 011 the top of a
1no11nt :1in , a11d form an c normo 11 s c a vit y 111orc tl 1:in
GOO yards long , HJO broad, a nd 100 ~l cr- p. 'J'li o
ore is obtain ed frrnn the 111i11 c cit.li e r by pi c k<I X<'S or liy ],Jast.in g· U1 0 n wk w itl1 g 111111m1 d <' r.
It
is tl1 c11 hro kr n with a lin rnnwr i11to s:11:ill pi <' <'< '~
a11 op< ~ rat.io11 wl1iC'li ('hi<'fl y 1·11qdo1 s \rtn111·11 n11cl
c hildre n. J\ fli'r thi s it is pil (· d 111 1. ;1 kil11, tu tl1c
upp e r part s of whi c h flu es :ue attac hed , t.lt at. co111m1111i c;it c wi th sulpl111r e ha11ilw rs. Til e: kiln is
co vc rf'd, a11d th e fibres li g hte d in dill c rc11t: parts
that tlic ore may und crg·o th e process of roasti1w.
'l'h c wh ole m:1 ss g rad11:tll y kindl es, and th e s 1~­
phur \1- hi c h is co1nbin cd with tl1 c ore is cx pclkd
lll fom es b y th e hea t, and is co nvcv'-' d thro1wh
·'
b
t I1c il11 cs to the s11lph11r c h:imh er. Thi s process
occu pi es fro111 tlirer to te n 1nn11lhs, accordi 1w to
th e Rize of the kiln s. \Vit c n th e opr:ratio~ is
~ornplet.c or tl1 c ore is frr ~c d fro111 th e sulphur, it
~s s ub1rntt.cd to th e s111c lti11 g- l1 ouscs, wh ere, by t he
inte nse lwat it 1111dcrgoc8, th e p11rc metal is forced
off in a fl11id state .

lGG

J,r.ss oN xxxvnr.-nwN.

FIFTH SERU::3.

3. It is th e li g htest of th e common m e tal s exce pt tin; b e tw ee n sc r e 11 and e ig ht tim es he avie r
t han wate r.
4. l\Tos t te nac iou s of th e m e tals. A wire about
on e -te nth of u11 inch i11 diame te r will s upport 550
JH11111ds without breaki11 g .
5. Th e air is compose d of two in g rccli c nts,
ox yge n :i.ml nitroge n; th e forn1 c r ltavin g a g rr atc r
a fli11it y for iron than for ni t roge n, attac hes itself
to it, a11d th e n forms th e oxide of iron, commonly
call ed ru s t.

LESSON XX XVJII.
IHO N .

Q ualiti es.
It is elas ti c . l.
du ctil e . :2.
he avy. :L
tenac iou s. 1.
mall 0alil c.
li ahl c fo ru s t.
snnoro11 s.
minf'ral.
fu si lil e .

1G7

Uses of Iron.
5.

hard.
very fu sible.
livi;l g r:iy-color.
bri g ht.
rl'llC'('f ir e .
solid.
s usee plibl c of ;i hi g h polish.
cold.
some ti mes ;1n10rp llCln s.
c rys talli ze d.
I. In I.h e s tate of s t.ee l it. is th e mnst e lastic
of all me tal s.
2 . Iron is m ore dnr.til c titan g:nld; it may be
drawn into a 'rire a s fine as th e !lllman hair.

Iron is th e most use ful nf all the m e t als, and
ma11 ve ry ea rly b ecam e acquainted with it s value.
Moses s peaks of furnaces of iron and of th e ores
from which it w as extrac ted. lly mean s o f this
m e tal th e ea rth lta s l> cr n c ultiv ated, hou ses and
citi es built-, and \rithout it fow art s c ould be practi se d. Iron is used in three :=; talcs, c ast iron,
wro11ght iron, and s tee l. \Vh c n r edu ce d to a
Ii q II id by t li e :iction
th e s mcl ti ng -fmnacc,
it is rcr'. c iv cd in forro ws 111adc in a be d of
sand: th e hrgc r m assc·s whi c h have flow ed into
th e m:tin forrow s arc c all ed sou:s , th e sm all er z1igs,
of iron. Jn thi s s t:ttc it tak es the narn c of cas t
iron, :in<l fr om th e process it ha s und e rgo ne it is
b ecom e cxtre1rwly hard, :rnd haYin g- los t its tenacity, it res is ts the ha111rn e r and the fil e, a nd is
ve ry brittl e ; it. is of ;i dark g-r:iy o r lilacki s h c olor.
It is used for th e hack s o f c himn eys, grates, boile rs, pipes, rail-ro:id s a nd c ommo n c annon-ball s.
C as t iron is c onve rted info wrought iron hy a
proc ess call ed blooming; it is thrown into a fur-

or

lGS

FIFTH

SEnrns.

n ace and kept m elted by th e fir e produced by
crnnbu s tih lcs ; it re nnin s i11 111i s sit11.ilion for
about t1ro lioms, a work111a11 lw i11 g· ('011 tinu al ly
e mpl oyed in stirrin g it, u11til, 11ot.1r itl1 :-; tanding the
heat to wli:ch it is ex posed, it n('q11ir<' s li y deg rees
c on s is tc 11 cy aml tcn:w.ily , a11d r·on!~· r· :-il s into a
rna;;;s whi c h is now 111:illr·:1lil1" 11 i:-: l:1k <·n 011t of
th e fornac c whil e ]101 , :111d rio l: '11tl y lw:1l cn hy a
large l1 :unm cr, \rn rk cd li y rn :1c l1 i1J('ry; in this
man11er it is fonn ed into h:irs or iro11. Th e value
of wroug ht iron in 111:1 c lii1ll'ry, am! tool s of all description s, is in calc1ilahl c.
Steel is prepared fr om \\ro11 g·l1t irn11 i11 1h e fo llowing mann er: Ili c h:irs of irnll ;m ~ kr ' Ji l i11 contact with li11r11i11 ~ r·h :1rcnal for sc rn:tl l1r111n: in
ea rth en c ruc ible~; from wh il: h th e :1 ir is <'xr. l11d cd.
Steel, if heate<l to red11 css :111d th e n s 1dforcd to
COO] slowl y, b ecn 11H~ S soft ;111d pJi:il1J(• j if pl1111 geJ
wh!l e hot into co ld 1rnl c r, it is r<'nck ri:d s11 see ptible of a high poli s h, and ac q11irl's sll<'li ext re me
hardn ess as eve n to sc r:ll r:h µLise:, 11l1i le at the
sam e tim e it beco mes cla ,.; t.i c nnd hritt.l r. Ti s softness and ductilit y rnny limrr:n ' r he res tored by
heatin g it aga in and cooli11 g it. sl01r ly. f'lrr·l vari es in color u11d c r th e i11f111('11 cc of lt1 ':!t; first. it
ass nmos a straw co lor, flt c11 a li g ht. y<' llow, purpl e,
viol et, red; de e p blue :-: 11<.'Cf'rrls, a11rl !:1st of all a
bri g ht bl11 0. Th ese h1H'S i11dicatc lit e difforent
tempers wliic~h stee l ar:q11irc• s, frrnn t.hal prop <'r for
con1111011 Jil es, 1o that. req11i ,.; ifr: for 1he fin ely
clnstic s11ring of watcl1cs. f' lf'f' I ic: tJ C'f' d for all
kind s of edge d fool s, i11 \rhi c h kcf'11 1tr' ss i.3 n0cossary : it is also rnu c h Clllplo_1·r,d for nrn:n1w11tal purposes, on ac co11nt of th e c l e~· :rnt. poli s h whi c h it
is capaLl e of taking. ln 11H;di c i11 e stee l is valua-

LF.SSON XXXYITI.-ITWN.

lGfl

bl c ns a tonic. ' Valors whi ch pnss over iron .ind
beco me impregnated \\'ii Ii it, · arr <·allr:d c lt aly bea fr:
,,. ;~f e r s : tl1ose of Tunbrid ge :rnd Hampstead arc of
tl11 s 11 a t11re. Steel is a co111lii11ation of iron, and
a sma ll portion of carbon. Ca s t iron contains a
grratr:r proportion of carhon, and is prohnhly s:ttura1ed wi11t it. Cast. iro11 is c onvert ed i11to
wrou g ht iron , hy burning away I.he carbon, and
wliolly• cl c1>rivinrr it of its OX)' Mrrcn.
PJ11mhago or black lea d, wlii c h is employe d in
the manufac ture of pencils, is an ore of iron con. .
.
'
ta 1nrng rnn e parts of carb on to one of th e rn ctal:
suflicicnt is found in Cumbe rland to s upply the
trade of En g land. The bronze co lor 11 sc <l in
Porce lain pai11t. i11 g is an oxid e of iron. .l\Je t.co ric
st.or'.es, whi c h have bee n th e s ubj ec t of so rnur:h
con.1cct11rr, arHl \Vhi c h <ire now g(' n<'rnlly l1 e li cvC'1l
to be cjecf.erl frorn Yolca11o cs i~1 th e m~on, arc a
species of iron ore.
~ron. is n ' ry 1·:1'11a.lil e from 1h r rn ;igne ti cal proper! 1cs 1 t may acq u 1re. By t.IH:se it cuaJ,]r.;:; llJC
mariner to s:rc r across th e ocean, the travelle r to
direc t hig course with safety in t.hc pnthless dese rt,
a nd th e min r: r to g nide hi s rese arches after suhtcrran eo11s t.rnasmcs. The loadstone or natural
mag net, is an oxid e of iron; it communicates its
pow e rs t~ bars of iron or stee l, when plnced in
cont.act with th em. The artific i.il mag·net is now
alway::i 11 sed; .is it possesses and retains all the
properties of th e load ston c. The qnaliti es which
rc nd:r it 11 s<' ~·,i1 , arr 1 f' t, i1 c: nttrnrtin g iron, and
2d, its pol:mty, or th o pow r. r hy which it points
to the pol es wh C' n free ly suspended. 011 c end invariably t11rn s to th e North, and th e oth er to the
South, e xcept wh e n it approaches the pole, when
15
~

170

nvrn sr.nrr.s.

th e directive power cen ses nl1ngc 1h r r, 'rhi c h circumstance constit11t cs on e of fh c great diflicultics
in navi gating the Arc1i c Re g ion s.
The opposite poles whe n prrs rnt cd 1o e nch
other, are attracted at one c11d a11<l mut11ally rep elled at th e other.
The mariner's compa ss is a c irc ulnr uox, in
which a magn etic needle is pb c rd in suc h a manner that it can mov e in eYcry direc tion .

Geological and Geographi ca l situation ef Iron.
Iron is the most uni\'Crsally diffu sed of the
metals. It is everywllC're prod11 cc<l in g reater or
less quantiti es ; but En g larnl, France , Swed en,
and Russia, are richer in this m etal than th e other
countries of Europe. Jt is ve ry rarely if ever
found in a 11;1tivc stat(\ h111. g m1 P. rall y :i s :111 oxirl c,
or rn combination with Sulphuric or Carboni~
. Acid.

LESSON XXXIX.-TIN.

171
lt is opaque.
solid.
bri JJ i ant.
very little c lnstic.
usoful.
pliable.
easily calcined.
natural.
mineral.
reflective.
s?norous, making a crackling noise
ddatablc by heat.
I. It is seven times h eavier than water thou(J'h
. 1it.est of the ductile metals.
'
b
I1g
2. It is softer than silver, uut 'harder than
lead.
2. Tin may Le beaten into sheets. the IOOOlh
part of an inch in thickn ess.

Uses

LESSON XXXIX.
TIN.

Qualities.
It is heavy. I.
soft. 2.
malleable.
du ctil e.
fu sible .
wl1ite.

3.

of

Tin.

Tin is chi e:Jy employed in the manufacture of
culinary utensils ; th ey arc not however made
?f solid tin, lrnt of what is cal.l ed tin plate, which
is thus pre pared.
Thin iron plates are first
cl ean sed c ompl ete ly, uy washing them in water
and sand; 1hey arc th e n dipped into m elted tin,
af~crwa!·\ls_ steeped in water mixed with sulphuric
acid. l J11s rroccs~ cau~c s the trn not only to
cover _1 he s urfa ce of the Iron plate, .but to penetrate 1t so tlw.t the whole mass hccomes of 11
~hiti eo h c olor.
Pins arc made of brass wire
t1~ncd. ~Vhc11 the pin is formed, a vessel is filled
with strata or layers of tin plates between the

·

l'i2

u :ssoN

rrFTH s1rnn:s.

Lra::s pin3 ; th e vc;;scl is tli e11 fill ed \rith water and
some tart a ri c ac id, hy 11 H·:111 s of \rhi c h th e tin is
dissolred, n11d annr Jiv e or s ix ]1oms' boiling, the
pin s :ire fo 1111d u11iforrnly tin11 r d. It. is th e zinc
of th e hra ss whi c h h:1 s a11 :llli11it y f'nr th e tin, and
form s th e union whi ch t:1kl's pl:1<'< '. Thl' pin s arc
aft cnr ards poli shed, hy t!IJ'(mi11 g· tli1 ·111 into a tub
con tainin g a q11a11tit y of l1r:in, 11·l1i c h is se t in
motion by turnin g a sha(t tl1at n111 s through its
centre, :111d by rn cn11 s of fri ct io11 t lwy hce nrnc
perfectly bri ght. 'flw 11 scs of ti11 in 1·c·n11ornical
purposes arc very rari o11 ::', p:1rf ic1ilarl y 1rlwn laid
over oth er metal s, ns i11 i"t i rr 1qis, IJuc k Ics, &c .
The oxid e of ti11 is 11 sr d in dyin g.
Tin form s allo rs with se r cr:1! oth er metal s.
These cotnpounds • han-: bee n Jl! (' J1tio11 C' d IJcforo ;
as bell-metal, pe11· tcr, l1 ronzc. Tin lca\·cs arnn lgamat.e<l with 1nc1Tmy, ;ire l! Sf~ d for silrc ri11g and
plati1Jg other 11n:lab.

Geographical and Geological situation

ef

Tin.

Native Tin is never founcl, ancl its ore is of less
common occurrence than that of irn11. E11gland,
Germany, Chili, and J"\lc:xirn, 11rod1wc 1IH~ largest
quantity of thi s nwt:1 l. Th< ~ tin 1ni11 <'s of Cornwall were well known 1.o th e an c ic11t s; and the
Ph e nician s traded wit.Ii the Brito n;:; for it long
befor e the birth of our Savi or. lt is ahrny s found
ns a n oxid e, or mix ed with s11lphur a11d. copper.
It occurs c hi efly in ve in s ru1111i11 g t.lrnrn g h granite
and oth e r rocks. " ihc n it is tnk c n f'ro1n t.h e min e,
it is brok e n into sm:1 1l pi eces , and strea ms of
water pnssed over it, to free it fro111 th e earthy
particles with which it is intermix ed; it is then

XL. -

COMI'ARISON OF J\U:TJ\ LS.

17 :i

roasted :irnl srncltccl, when the metal is poured
out into <111adra11 g 1ilar moulds of stone, and receives the name of bloc k tin.

LESSON XL.
co:nrrARISON OF ]llETALS.

Gold, a perfe ct metal, is the most prec ious.
most compact.
heavies t.
Its \r e ig ht is between nineteen and t.w enty times
that of water.
Silver, a pe rfect metal, is next in value to gold
and more 11 se [11J ; its weight is between ten and
eleven times that of water.
Quick silver is flui<l.
easi ly volatilized.
immall eable.
Its we igh t is betwe en thirtee n and fourteen times
that of wate r.
Copper is the most sonorous.
elastic except iron.
Its weight is between eight and nine times .that
of water.
Iron is th e most elastic.
tenacious.
useful.
ductile.
Its weight is b0twecn seven and eight times that
of wat~r.

HrTrr ::um u :s.

L E SS O N Xl,L.-O N JltETAL!:i I N GEN EH AJ,.

Lead is tho s oft<~s t.
most eas il y fu se t1.
Its wei g ht is b etw e en e le ven ancl twelve times
that of w;lfcr.
Tin, next to ]e ncl, is th o suft c st. of th e m e tals;
it dilates most by li cn.t; it is th e lightest, its
we ight being only seY c 11 time s that. of 'rate r.

alloy becoming hrittl e. Thi s is ve ry re markably
the case with gold a nd lead, wh e n u niteJ, th e
hitte r of which e ven in the trivial proportion of
half a grain to an ounce of gold, renders lhc mass
(1uitc de stitute of tenacity.
'J'h c kmlncss of metal s is rnri c cl by c ombination. Gold , by combination with a s rnall <1tiantity
of c oppe r, ancl silver, hy a minute proportion of
th e s;1m e metal, ac q11irc s uch an in c rease of hardn ess, that th ese additions are alway s m ade to gold
or silv e r whi c h is to be exposed to w ear. By a
small addition of gold, iron is said to · gain so
mu c h harcln ess, as to be ev e n supe rior to ste el
for th o fabrication of c utting iHstrum c nts.
C han g e of color is a common cffoct of the union
of me tals with e ach other. Arse nic, for e xample,
whic h r ese mbl es stee l, and copp er, whic h has a
r ed color, afford by their union a compound, which
has n e arly tho whiten ess of silv e r.

LESSON XLI.
ON 1\mTAT, S IN GE N ERAL.

Mehl.ls are simple e le me ntary bodi es, distinguished by b e in g h r a vier tltnn all oth er substanc es,-by possess ing a pcc1iliar lu stre whi c h
is c all ed the metallic ll! strc-by refl ec ting light
and J: eat,-hy th e ir hc i11 g op;1q11 e, f11 s ihl c , ma.ll eabl c , tc 11ac io11 s, cl11ctil c , a11d gr' 11 crally c Listic.
Upon this last qnalit y sco rn s to dep e nd their fitn ess for excitin g so11nd , or snnoro11 s 11 r'ss . l\fo tals .
nre capable of u11itin g wil11 one a11ofltcr in a t' t.ate
of fu sion; thi s u11io11 is c alkd ;rn 117loy. It jg
remarkabl e that by th ese c ornhi11ati o11 s, m e tals
und e rgo a con sicl erahl c c l1a11g·c i11 t lt c ir prop e rties,
and acq11ire new 011es not lll'lo11 1fiJ1g lo either of
th e rn W'h e n not. unite d. Tli11 s lit e weig ht of the
alloy, or th e t:lrn rn ctals i11 c o111hi11atio11, is som etimes ve ry Jiffe re 11t from th e \r c ig-lit of both the
m e tal s take n se parately: a11 alloy or s ilr c r with
copp e r or tin, or 011 e of s ilv e r or gold 1rith JP.ad,
is lt e av icr th a n the sarn c q 11a11t iIi cs of those
m etal s un combin ed. Th e ir dudili1 y and mall eability are changed and ge nerally i;npaircd, the

l /;j

In order to asce rtain how for the children had
rcUun ed th e knowl edge communicated to th em
in these lesson s, th e following qu estions were
given them to answer in writiug.

17G

FIFTH SERIES.

QUESTIONS ON 'l'IIE METALS.

177

3. What d egree of te nac ity does it possess?

4. ·w hat are the c hi e f u ses of silver?
5. Upon what qualiti es do the uses of si lver

QUESTIONS ON THE METALS.
GOLD.

1. W h at. arc the c l1i c f qualities of gold 1
2. What is its weight?
3. Give a proof of its <l11 c tility.

4.
5.

depend?
.
.
G. D esc rib e th e opcrnt.1on of pbtrng.
7. \Vltat is lunar caus tic ? and what are its
u ses ?
8. Gi ve a gr-ographical and geological account
o f si lver?
9. Why arc gold un<l silver called perfect
meta ls 1

tr 11ncitv.

1l1all ra i>ilit y.
6. Upon what other quality docs it s mall e ability
depe nd?
. .
7. ·what qmhti es :ire direct ly opposed to
mall eability?
8. What is rln alloy?
9. Why is go ld ~lloyed for the purpose of
coinacre?
10.b 'Vhat m e tal is u secl :i s its all oy?
1 I.· How arc hutto11 s g ilt?
.
12. Describe th e 1n:innn of forming le af gold.
1:-l. In what stat.PS is go ld fo1111d?
11. What. is :in or<~?
15. ' Vlrnt is mea nt hv a n:itirc m c t:il 'I
16. In what co untri c; is gold fo1rnd?
17. What p eopl e employ tlt c!nsc lr cs i1~ scpa.
rating it from th e sands of the b1rnpc:rn nvers?
SILVER.

I. w·hat arc the chief prop erties o f sil ver?
2. ""What is its we ig ht?

QUICKSILVER.

I. ·what arc the us es an<l properties of quick·
s ilv e r?
2. What is its weight.?
3. In what res pec t i s it rc markahle as a liquid?
4 . \Vhat effec t do cs h ea t produr,e upon it?
5. U nd e r wltat c irc ums tnnc cs d ocs a c hange in
it s qualiti es take place? <Jll(l what is the change?
G. " TJi a.t is an amalgam?
7. J\Tc 11tio1: the nscs of quicksilver.
8. W l1 :1t. arc t.lir: prop<'rf.ir·s that fit it for a
Laro111ct.cr?
9. ' Vhat for a t h c rmom e te r?
JC. How is a l>aro111 c t cr made? a11<l what is
its u se ?
11. How is a. tli rn norn cter made? and what is
its u se ?
12 . ' Vltat color is obtained from quicksilver?
l::l. \V lt c rc is quicksilver found?
13. \VJiat 1"'. irc 11m s t at J1~c l ed to lhc<liscoveryof
i.he mines of Idria ?

17.'3

FtrTH s 1m m s .

QlJF.STIONS ON 'J'lrn llrnTA r..s.

Ii!)

J,F.A D.

1. What arc the remarkable q ualitics of lead?
2. What is its weight?
3. ·what are the ditlerc nt cn<.~ c l s of h eat upon
lead?
4. "\Vhat arc t.hc chief 11 s1's of l1 'a cl?
5. "\Vhy is it used for l"l' scno irs of water?
G. Ilow arc shot mad e '!
7. VVhat is the U SC of th e oxides of ]c ad?
8. What are its alloy s?
9. In what state is lead fon11d?
10. "\Vhat is lead ca lle d 'rhc n found united
with sulphur.
11. "\Vl10re is lead most aln111tl:i11t?
12. Describe th e process of roasting and
smeltmg
COPI'I~R.

1. ·what are the chief qualiti es of copper?
2. What is its weig ht and d eg ree of te nacity?
3. How is it prov ed t.o b e c apable of extreme
divisibility?
4. What arc the uses of coppr r?
5. What is ve rdi g ri s ? ;ind l1ow is it mad e ?
6. "\Vhat is the danger irn:.: urrc d by e mploying
copper in kitchen utcns iIs ?
7. vVhat a re the alloy s of copp e r ?
8. In what r cspe<.:t is br;1 c;s preferable to
coppe r?
9. \Vher c is copper found, antl in " ·hat states?
10. Describe the copper 111ir1 cs in Anglcsca,
and the ma1111 c r of extract ing tl1c m e tal from the
ore.

IHON.

I. "\Vhat are th e chief qua! i ties of iron?
2. What quality docs it possess in a higher

llcg rc r. thnn any other m e tal '!
3. What is its woight and tenacity?
4. What are the . differe nt states in which iron
is used?
fi. How is cast iron prepared?
6. "\Vhat are its qualities and uses 1
7. How is wrought iron prepared 1
8. "\Vhat are its qualities and uses?
9. Ilow is steel prepared?
IO. What are its qu aliti e s and uses?
11. What is meant by the tempe r of steel 1
12. What is plumbago 1 and what quality makes
1t u seful?
1 !3. What. is the geographical situation of iron 1
and in what slate is it found?
TIN.

I. What arc the chief qualities of
What are the uses of tin ?
Ilow is it prepared for use 1
How are pins tinned 1
What is block tin 1

2.
3.
4.
5.

tin 1

1·'3 0

1.1-:;;sn;-:

ON EAHTHS.
LESSON X LIC.
LDI E.

TnE substan ce c:ill ed Lim e is 11 c r e r frnrnrl pure
in nature , owin g to its g reat :illi11i1 y for C'arbo11ic
acid* and wate r. All th e earth s of 'rhic h lim e
form s th e bn s is nrc calkd cnln1rco 11s, f ro111 rah ,
th e Latin for lim e. .It is th e 111 iF f 1rni 1"C ro::ll l.1 ·
diffu sed of all subs tan ces , rind 011 0 of t l1 P most
abundant; it is comput ed tl1at it co 11 C< fil1 1l<'s on e
e ighth of th e c ru st " of th e earl Ii.
1n t Ii is di stri bution we hav e g rc:it ca.i 1sc to adrnirc th e
grac ious pro viii P!lr_·r· of ni1r lTr·:1v0 1il y F:tfl1 0r,
as the utility of Ji111 c in r:.uiou s art s , i11 ;1 ~Ti c ult.urc ,
in manufac"turcs, and in mcdi c i110, is ,:<'ry g reat.
Lime united with carbonic ac id i11 dini ·rc nt proportions , form s corn111011 lim e-stone, c li :t!k, marb.l e,
&c.; with s ulphuri c ac id , it cons titu tes gy ps um
or alabaste r; and with n11oric ac id , f111or or
D e rb ys hire sp ar. 'J'h csc :He it s lllost inte res ting
combinations with 111i1lf'rnl sulis tanc.r- s. It: e nte rs
al so into th e compos ition o f ani 1n al matter, as
sh ells , bon es, antl th e hard co 1·<'rin gs of i11 sects ;

* Cnrbon is ch:ucon l in ils pm c~ t sta le; it is m o~ t
abundant in th e VC'go lnhl c ki11gdo111, :111d is f'. h;r)lly obtained
from woor7. l ' nitcd wilh ox yge n, it fo rms cn rbo1,ic ac id.

X T.Tr. - - r.1 :.JE .

I '-~

[

nm hnr10 s r.011t:1in HO p:irt s in 100 lime; and th 1:
egu·-c: l11·1l s or l1irds , !) p:i rt s in 10.
J'mo lim e is pror. 11rcd fro m c lt alk, or limcston C' ,
lt y lll(':Jll S or linrnin g-. For 1hi s pmpose alternate
!:tyNs _of c:i lcareous ea rth and fod arc arran ge d
111 a kiln ; a fir e be in g kindl ed , tlt e rarli oni c ac id
<i lld 11·;it cr hPco111 e Yolatili ze d, :111d :ire drive n oil'
l r :l\- ill ~· 1h r. lim o pme . Jn thi s stafr. it. is c:1lkd
111i ,.k-li1111', rin d is \\' li it:r>, c :u1 sti1: , :inid, )l! ill" Cll f
.
('
., I
'
•
,
h
'
1:1 l l. ·1 : :w ; 1·01 i111l11 1g <111 11 de. 1111 1 111 !.!· :11111 11a l lll<tl1_0r. .Wl lC' n 1rntcr is rourcd n.p011 it, it s we ll ;:; ,
f:ill s rn1 o a pnwrl l' r, fll!d g il' cs 011t gT<':it hr :i t.
This l:ts t opn:1tion is c:ill cd s1nckintf th e Ji1n f'.
Tl1 r \\·:tf pr c·nll1hillill!! with 11i f' lin;c ii f' c·o111 r·s
c:n )id, :111 r! th r l H :d i,: uct·:1.·-iu11\ d 111 i i;-; cl 1:111"i 110
iro 111 a tl111d lo a "ol1d state , for i; i do i1w thi s
p:irl s \\'iflt its r :ilorir. Tli f' nsf's of l ~ n 0 rir0
1111111c ro11s nlld irnpr• r1 :i 1it.
Tr is f'urn wd illtn
m ort a r, Ili c' C<' tn <' n t 11.<::r cl in bnildin!!. Tl1 c lim e ,
~1r• inrr " '''"" " " : i" pp d 0 in fn :1 l';~ <: f .~ liy t rm p c rin~
11 w 11!1 11 nll' r ; fo !hi s
is add ed sa11d, an d
son1 011111r•s c l1 oprcd ha irs ; as it dr ies it becom es
c: olid , lia rd, a nd d1:r ~thl c . Exam ples ham hee l!
k11n1r1J , of' buildin gs a th onsand y ears old, in
w hi c h flt e 111 orl:1r is as h:ml as tli f' st on es \vhi c h it
unit C'=' ·
./\ s _a man11r0, lim n is usr f1il in loo0wning th e
f01101 r: 1011 s n:ifn rc of srnn n soil s, and rc 11d c rin g
t.h c 111 111~r0 fr1 alil e and recr pti\'f! of vege table
f1hr f's ; 1t al so fo c ilit a tf's 1h c di i"so lut io n a 11d
p111n ~ f;1 c 11011 nt' :lllim ~d :-ind \'f'!_r0t nhl 0 c:nhsf:Hwf's
of wh ir. It rno1 tlcl is c hi d ly co mf1n se d, a11d gives it
a pow e r of' :wq11iri11g and rc·tainin g moisl.11re, so
n c r;cs s~ir r to the gro1r tli of r' ·gclaLl es. Li me is
16

i,t

FIFTH SF.JI I Efl .

iil so employed in f lt c rn a1111fo r..t11rc of s11gar, to
d r: priv e it. of a port.ion of it s ac id. T:i1111 crs 11 sc
it in remov ing hairs from tli c hid es, :rnd cleansing
them from fat and g rease.

Carbon11lc tf Li me.
Lime occurs most fr equ entl y co mbi ned with
carbonic acid in difforc11t propo rti o11s. The ge neric term fo r th ese suhsta1kcs is Carh on:ttc of
Lime . Th ey vary rnnch in app earance, but all
nc:ree in th e followi 11 g properti es ; th ey readily
yie ld to the kni fe ; nc ntrali ze ar·i ds (t he <:haractc ri stic prop('rti cs of ca'·.li l11 ~ ing· d(' :'f r 1Jy1' d ;) and
hav e a we ight two or three t i!llcs g r1:alc r than
that of wate r.
Limestone ucc m s in :i1111 ost cvr ry cn11!1t ry, :iml
produ ces hil ls of f'O llH~ r 1ni1w11r:•'; it. is very
abundant in Eng·l:111 r1; it is 11scd for 111:1l:i11g mortar. fonnin g road>', l\.<"· llitll: rc1it ki11 1h llf' Li111cston e arc used i11 l111ildi11 g-, ;1 :1 1101 l. l:i;1 d sto ne,
Bath slo11c Oolit.r . Tl w J\J1111cr h:1>' lw<' n mu c h
<~mploy cc.J i11 SCV<'l'al or 1Ji <~ pri11 c i1 1a l Ji11i!d ings in
London, ns ~ 1. P <llll':=: , th e 1\ln1 11111 w1 il , :11 HI some
of th e hrirl cres. Som e li1 11 r stonrs :1 r1' s 11Ct, when
first 1.:1kc•11 "' rro111 1111 : q11 :1rry, IJ111. lll' ni1n0 hanl
wh e n long 1:-;pmwd to th <' air.
.
Calcareo us E: pnr is th r- pmcst c:1 rh on:11.r- or lime.
Jt occ urs bot.Ii amo rpli o11 s :rnd er.1 :. L1 lli zcd, is
tra11 sp:irc11t, shmrs a do11hl e n ' rr:tf'li o11 , or makes
a sma ll ohjcd. S<'(~ ll tlirouµ: h it, :i 1•11ca r dotil Jlc, and
takrs th e limn or th e rli om ho!wdre11 , occm rin.g Ill
eight !11111drc·cl va.ri eti cs or thi s fi g·11n:. Ca:honate
of lim e is ofte n fou nd i11 st:1 1act1 l<'s, \\'l11ch are
long nendulous masses. They arc d q>~is ilcd

J.rn:;soN

XT.H.-I,Il\rn.

from water loaded with parti c les of carbonate or
lime; thi s trickles throu gh fi ssures in rocks, or
crevices i 11 the roofs of caverns, &c. The water
e vaporates, and the particles of lime gradually
hard nn; drop succeeds drop, till a long irregular
tub e is sm: pend e<l of a mos t grotesq ue nppearance.
\ ¥ he n carbonate of lime occ urs of a very closegrain cd texture, it is called marble ; being susccpt.ihlc of a lii g h poli sh, it is much use <l for ornamenta l pnrposes, as chimney -pieces, pillars,
and sta tu arv.
Cha lk i ~ anoth er carl1onate of lime, not S(\
ge ne rally occ urring as limetone , but very abun dant in the south-cn stern counties of England,
along- whic h it stretch es in a con tinu ed line
fonni11 g it s noted white cli lfs, aml passing over
to France appears on th e opposite coast. It forms
hill s of a moderate elevation, characterized by
th eir gentle slopes and rounded sum mi ts, arising
r fro1n tlt is suhstan ce brin g of t.oo so ft a natmo 1o
resist th e dl<..·c ts of th e wea th er upon it. There
:i re tlrn kd s of c halk, the npp 0r one di sting ui shed by r.011t:1ini11g parall d horizontal lay e rs of flint
with ma 11 y petrifact ions; and the lower being
des ti tute of both. C halk is whitP,, dull, friabl e,
1n e:1gT r lo th r- tou ch, adheres to th e ton gue , is of
an ea rthy fracture ; alwa ys amorphous, and opaqu e.
It is usuall y d11g from pits ; but in some parts of
K e nt th ey und e rmin e the sides of the hill, th en
di g a t rcnf:h whi ch is fi ll ed wi1h water, this soak ing in , loosens the rna:sscs, whi ch consequ ently
fa ll. 1\Iost. of th e usrs of c h:1lk are nearly th e
same as those of lim <'s lone ; when freed from its
coars<' r parfi r. les, it forms whiting.
\Yater i mpregnatcd with calcn reous su hstanc cs,

184

FI F TH

s1mn:s.

is occn sionall y depositc<l 011 vcge la lil es , clothing
th c rn wifh a s lo11y coat; this i11C..: ru stat.ion is called T11ja.
G.1JJ!Sll1Jl is a s ulphate or lin w : i. c. a combination of s ulphuric acid wi1h li111 c. Jt is much
softe r than marbl e and mo re easil y wo rk ed: it is
somc t.irn cs of a bn:111lif"1il f r:111 s pa H· 11 t \\'ltitencss,
wlt e 11 it. is ca ll< ~ d alaba ~; f.c r, :111d is 111ad c info vases
and of.li e r ornamC'1 J1 s. 'J'!t c l-!'.\'11s u111 , whi c h is
ve ry ab 1111d:1.11f. i11 I.li e 11(' ig·lthorl1 ood of Paris, is
of a yc ll o1ri slt c olor. \ \' hen l1 c:1 k d if. p11ln ~ ri ze s ,
and water pomcd oH' r it, is qui c kly ab sorbed,
forrn .in g a p:1s tc " ·hi c l1 dri<' s a11<I l1 :1 rd c 11 s very
rapidly. Thi s is th e Pla:;f. c r (Jr l':iri s so much
used for casfs, sfat.u cs , &c. \ \' lt c 11 1ni xC' <l with
g lutinou s substances, it form s stucco and plaster.

LESSON XLll.l.
SIJ, I CA.

A large number of tli e rock s 1rith 1rlii c lt the
earth ah~ou11d s , ancl a g reat pr(lpor1.io11 of compound earth y s11hstan ccs and rnin r ral s, h:t ve sil ex .
for their c hld ingrr:di<'11t. It r-rr·111s lo form t.ltc
solid basis of th e crn~t of th e _!.! IPbc , µ: ivi11g firmness and d m alJility to t.ltc 1n rn 111fai 11 ~' by which
th ey l1a ve res is t.eel the v:iri011 s re Yolut ion s th:it the
earth hn s und ergone. I t is f'o1111d in if s greatest
purity ill roclc-crv.~tal and qu artz. rt is th e basis
of almost a ll lit e min eral s1il>t' f:11 1<'.CS, whi c h arc
s ufri c ie 11tlv ltard to strik e fir e wit.11 stee l. Th ese
s11 bs t a11 ccs a re ca \l ed sil ic'i<ms, frn111 the laf.i n silex
a flint, becau se fliJJt is alrnost e11lirc ly compose<l

J.l•:SSON X L.tII. -SIJ,ICA .

185

of silicious earth. S il ex forms a lnrge portion of
granite, enters in considerabl e proportion into the
com position of slate; it: is also the substa nce
whicl1 con stitutes sand and ge nerally the shingle
of th e SC' a- s hore. It is very hard, striking fire
with s tee l, and scratc hin g g lass ; it has neither
ta s te nor s mell; wh en pe rfec tly pure (in which
state it is, howev e r, ne ve r fo11nd i11 nature) it is
inf11 s ihlr:, l1uf. wh e n heated with an alka li , it unites
w11lt it , tn f' lt s and form s g l:i ss. Jn c on sccp1 cncc
of thi s pr lp <·rty, s ili ca has a lso Lee n call ed vit.rifiahic C':nfh, from 1jifr mn, th e Latin for g la ss. It is
not afl(' cted hy :rny of th e nc ids e xce pt th e fluoric.
Comm on smul is a granu lated si lex, genera lly
of a white or ye ll ow co lor.
In tli e torrid regions
of Afri ca and Asia there arc imm e nse tracts of
d ese rt cove red only with sa11ll so fin e anrl dry ns
to he mov al1l e with th e wind, and forming into
Wa\' C' S li ke those' or lit e sea.
Th e " ·i11d s wee ping
th e sand from th e s ur face continu all y, th e successiv e w:11·cs form 11101111tni11 s or sa nd . Th ese a.re
in ccss:i11fl y shifting, a11d oft en ov er whe lm the
trave llin g caravnns. Sa nd is of g reat utility. It
ente rs i11to the compos ition of mort(lr. It prod11c cs f lt c vi t.ri fi cation of g lass a n<I porcelain, and
its hanl11 rss ha s caused it to he much used in
scourin,g kit.che:·n ut e nsils. Jn ag ri c ul ture, it is
va l11 ed as a manure; it giv es li ght ness to c lay ish
and heavy soi ls, and assists in th e work of filtration.
Sa.11clstone is form ed of grain s of sil cx cemented
togeth er, producing a solid roc k, thou g h of a very
friable nature.
. Cammon flint contains of sili ca ninety-seven
parts in one hundred. rt _is g enerally of a g rayish
Hi ,,,

LESS ON

Fi J.'Tll S l·: l:.n: s .

is occ;1sion:ill y d( •posiled 011 n ·gTlalilt•s, c lothin g
tl!l'n.1 1r itlt a :s lo11 y c.;oal; tl1 is i11n w,!at.ion is called '1'1!ff1..
Gypsum is a sulphate ol li11 11' : i. e. a co mbination of sulpliuric ac id wit Ii Ji1111 ~ . .It is rnu ch
soft.er tli :1n marbl e a11d rnorc: c;1:- i ly 1rnrk cd : it is
sornct i mes of a hea11 t.i(1ii I r;1 11 s pa r: · rIf 11 I1i1 cncss,
wli e11 it. is ca ll ed alalia ~;f< ; r , a1 1d is 111 ;1<lc i1110 vases
and of.li e r ornam ent s. Ti t< ' i..:.1· p:-: 11 111 , 11 lii c h is
1·c ry ab 1111 dru1t in tl1c 1wigl 1l1orl1ood of J';1ris, is
of a yc· ll o1ri sli co lor. \ \° ht:11 l1 L' :1kd it 111ilr<'ri zcs,
aml w ate r po1 1rcd or<'r iL j c; q11i <· k ly a l1 so rb cd,
fonni11 g a p:1stc 1rlii<.J1 dri(' s :u1 d li :1rdc 11 s ve ry
rapidl y. Tli is is th e l'la:; Lc r of l':i ri s so much
11 sed for casts, stat11c s, t\:,c . °',\· l1f'11 111i x('d with
g l11ti11 ou s sub ::; ta11 ccs, it fo rnr s stucco ;r11d plaster.

L l::SSON XJ, llf.
SI LI L \.

A lar12·e n1nnhcr or the nwl;s 1r itli 1rl1i c h th e
ea rth al;;H1 1Hl s, a11rl a !-!Tc:1f. pro11(1rl irn 1 of c ompo1111<l cartl1 y s11hst:11l<' ('S a11d 11 1i1ll'r:1 l:-:, li an°) silc x
for th ei r c lii cr in grrdirn t. It. ~;r · 1· 111 s 1n f(1 rn1 th e
soJi cl b;1s is or th cc<'rll SI of' t!w !!lPIH', ~: i1· i11 g· fir11111 cs,.; n11d d11r:1li.ili1y to tl w 111.p1 111! ;1i 110' h y . whi ch
1. hc )' ]1ave res iste d t:lie \.·:1rilll1 s rc rnl11t io11s .th at th e
1 ~ nri: h li as und e rgon e. lt i ~ ro1111 d i11 it s .i.:-rc:i.tcst
puri1 y i11 ro rk-rTf/8f<tl ;u1d c1 11rrr / -; . It is th e bas is
llr a l111nst a ll the min r ral f': 1il 1sf:11wf' s, 1r li ic h are
s uffi c ic 11 tlr hard to strik e firr~ 1r itl1 sf<'t· l. Tl 1cse
s uhs1a11c<· s ar c ca l b l sili cious, frrn11 1lw lat. in silex
a flint, Lcca usc JliJJt is alm ost e ntire ly co mposed

of sili c ions c;irflt.

XL lJJ , - S J LJCA .

l 8 ii

Ril n x. fon11 s a large port.ion of
g rn11it c, en te rs in <'01tsid crahlc propo rtion into the
comp( sitio11 of slate; it. is :tl so the substance
which co nst.itntcs sand arnl ge nerally th e shingle
of th e sea-shore. It is r ery bard, striking fire
\\"1th stC'c l, a 11d sc rat c h ing ~~· lass ; it has ne ith er
ta ste nor s111e ll; w he n per fect ly pme (in whi c h
state it is, l1 owcver, ne ve r fo11n d in nature) it is
i11 fu sibl c, hut 1riH' n l: eated wi th nn :ilkal i, it nni tcs
w11li it, rn r lt.s ancl form s g lass . In co nseq11 e ncc
of thi s pr npert y, silwa has a lso bee n ca ll ed vi trifi:i lil <' c:irtli, fr o m tJif rum., th e Lntin for glass. It is
not affcctcrl liy n11 y of th e ac ids exce pt th e fl11ori c .
Com1110n smul is a granu lat.cd silex, gene rally
of a whit e or yP ll ow color.
In th e torrid rC'gio11s
of Afri c a and Asia th e re arc imm c11 sc trac is of
d esert covf' n 'd onl y with sand so fin e nnrl dry as
to be n1o v:1 lil e with th (~ win d, a11d forming i11 to
W :t\' f'S li ke th osf' of th <
' i'C <l. Tl1 c wi11d S\Ycc pi11g
tl1 e sa11rl fro rn th e sur fa<' <' eo11 tin uall y, th e s uc.;ccsl'il'c w:11'('S for m 1110 111 1ta i11 s of sa nd . Th rsc are
i11 ccss:111t ly shifti ng, aml oftc 11 01·c nvhf:' l111 the
tra1·c ll i11 g· carn v;ins. Rand is of g reat utility. It
e nt e rs i11to t he compos iti on or mortar. Tt prod11 cf's tl 1c l'itr ifi catio11 of g lass :in d porcelain, an d
it s lt :ml11 rss ha s c au sed it to he mu c h used in
sco11ri11 .Q' ki1 c hu1 ut e nsils. In ag ri c ulture, it is
n l11 f' d as a 111a11nrc; it: g ive s li .!.d1t1JC'ss to c ln yish
and hcayy soi ls, and assists in the wo rk of filtration.
Sandstone is formed or g rain s of silcx ceme nted
to/!et.h cr, produci ng n solid rock, thou g h of a very
friabl e natllrf'.
. Common fl-int conta in s of sili ca ninety-seven
parts in one hu nd red. It is ge nerally of a grayish
Hi '"'
1

lt G

Fl FT!I

1. Jo:SSO N J ,X[\' . _:.AlWlL.

s 1rn n: s .

c olor, approa chi11g often to l>l ;w l;, if is opaque,
h11 t trn11 slu cl'nt at it s edge:;. Jt s trik l's fire by
<' nlli sio n, and is 011 thi s act.:01 111f: 11 :" ·d i11 g·1111-locks.
Frn m its huing 011 u of' Ili c hank st. s1il1s1.a11 ccs i11
11 at1 1rc , it is ortcn tak en ;1 s '111 (' il!bll-111 of 1nural
liard11 ess. Jt. is fo1 1nd pri1J('ipall y i11 lwds or strata
in c halk formatio11 s. Jt. is w.; l'cl i11 the rnanuhd11rc of' g·l;1 ss and porcc:Lii 11 , i11 tl1e <'011 st.rn c t.ion
of i>nildings a11d 1rnll s, a11 d it a! :-< n f'urn 1s l' \ Cc ll c11 t
road s.

1\T. U .' lL\' E

01{ AHc:u ..

This s11 k :lan cc ol.t ai 11 cd tl 1c 11:11 11e o f' 1\ lumi11 e,
from its fo r111in'. ',· lit e J,;1 ;-; '' of c·rn 11111 n11 ;il 111ll , and
;i rgi l, fro111 th e ·L1ti11 arg illu, ,.J;i ~- , t111 :lf ·c· n11 11 t: of
its IH' i11 g tl 11 ~ ('t111 ~;( it 111 ·111 itf :ill (' l:1 n: , 11 l1i1· h :1 rn
t!i crdur c tcrnH·d 11 n.rillcu ·1·011s l':1rtk:. 'l'lwir di stin g ui s hin g q11aliti v~ arc, that t! ic ·y li;ir u ;111 c:arthy
tex ture , g·ive out. ;1 pel' 1iliar odo r 1rl 1(' 11 hr cat.li cJ
11po11, w l1i c li has lwen tl1 cll('C c;i lkd tl1 c arg illac co1 1s odor; tlif' y acll l('n' to the trn1~·11C · ; arc never
found c ryst;illi zc'. d , 1J11 t s•1111:·ti1 11 vs ~ l a 1 _1· ; ;1rc genera ll y opaq t1 c, :111d ll11·ir m · i ~:· lii ic' ;il1 P1il t 1\'i cc as
[!'l'eat as that of' \\'atc r. \\'l1 c 11 lc- illJ IC' l'Cd with
water, mos t ar!.(· ill :i c <" o11 ~: r; 11 li:-:1 :111c ·r·s lw< ·011 1c soft,
1r; 11 ac io 11 s, :i1 1d pl :1 st ic, '- llll 1 ~ 1tr i11 k :1 1H I !1:1rden by
tli c appli c::!ion of' hr'ot L A !i 1 111i1ll ~ i" 11 , · r< ~ r fo un d
11me i11 11allll'C' : it is r;o 11sid l' i'\'d to li e t.li c most
pl cntif'ul ('a rth lll'.\t to sil l'> ·
0

* Pl asli f' , f'n11 11 ::-A'""''" ( p l a,~u) Ill
., 111u!JeJ i1110 \·nri uus fimns.

lurn1 , 1111 •a11 s

l! Drc, easily

187

Common da.1; is a nc:irly eq11al nt1rnix1.ure of
a lulll i11 c and sil e x: it is fo11nd in most count ri es ,
a11d is ve ry va l11 abl c in va ri ou s arts ; Cor th ese it
is pl'c 1iliarl y fit.t.c.: d, ns it rnay be mould ed into
au y f'orrn, \\'hi c li it rc ta i11 s 1111 c han gc ll after cxpo ,.; m c to heat. The beds of l:tk cs, pond s, and
spr i1 1,!.('s, :1 re al111 ost c 11t.ircly of clay: in stead of
:1ll r111' i11 g 111 c filtration of water, as sa11d do cs, it
fnrin :.: ;111 i111p c 11 c frn.hl c holt om, nn d by tl1i s rn C' ans
\\ <ikr is ar :<;u111ul :1t.c<l in th e cave rn s of th e ea rt h,
11rod11 c i11g th ose 11a1ural rcse rr oirs , wli c 11 cc spri11 gs
1ss1w :i11d s p011t out at t he s urface. C layey so il s
i11 l'n1:
sc q11<' 11 cc of th e ir ab so rbin 0<r a111l rctai11inff
.
0
11HW"l11 rc arc hea vy an(l s ti cky . C lay is oft f' n
ns<' d l}y the poores t classes of soc ie ty in forming
th<'ir mml cotta ges. L oam is a11 arg il! acco us
s 11hs tnn cl', c·o1 1tai11i 11g a g rf' at proporti o n of s;:i nd,
:Ille! is gc 11 f' rally fo1111d upon a b ed of sand. It is
Iii ! ~ s11hst:11w c nf' whir -. h hri<'. ks ;111d til l~S arc co ns tnwk d ; 11·l1 e n \1-c ll bak c ll i11 a kiln, or in the
s 1111, it bcc o111 cs ve ry hard an d d11rabl c. A proof
nf thi s is f11rni shccl in 1.h c cxi st.c 11cc at t he prese nt
<hy of th ose mi g hty E gy ptian I'yrarnids, wh ich
ar c g <: 11 C' rally s11pposed to ha ve bee n the work of
th e lsrae lif r's i11 th e ir bond:wc.
l'on-e ll/i.n clo y is th at. c~11pl oyc d in om c hin a
rn:i1111f:wturi cs ; it. absorbs 111 oisi11rc rnpidly, and
hc•<· o11lt 'S Vf' I'\' tc1;ac io11 ::; wl1 c 11 k11 cndr ·d.
It is
cl isl i11!,!·1 1is lH'<i' fr 01 11 ot li e r c lay s hy the fin e ness of
it s f<o:-;t 1 irr ~, if s f'1 ·ial1ility :111d nH':1 gc r to 11c h. A
co:tr:-< (' r k i11d c:1 ll c·d l'ott crs' c lny, is used in the
111a k i11 g· llf <0111111011 ealh e rn \\·:trC'.
A11ot li (' i' dC'sc ription of clay is eall c<l PipP. c lay
frrn11 ih I H'i 11 ~· 11 s< 'd i11 tlw 111:i1111f:icturc of pipes
it is \' cry plas ti c , an<l is cast in a cylindrical
0

'IJ .

:\

•

188

FJ FTJ[ SEltl ES.

mo11ld, a 11·ire bein g afte rwards run 1hrong h it to
forrr. tlie holl ow tlm1u g h \r li ic h th e f1111ws of the
tobacco arc i11hal cd; wh e n h;il;cd it becomes
lrnrd and \1· liilc. Thi s c luy is al ~o 11 scd in extractin g g-r casc out of difl i,n·nt s1tl1st:i11ccs. Fullers' earlIi is a11othcr ar ori l b cc o11 s s1il1o; ta11 cc similnrly cltlpl oyc<l.

Q Ii r-:::;TION S ON THE EAHTl IS.

18 !1

Ql'ES'1'10NS ON THE EARTHS.

1

The so il or monld whi<'h co rr rs om fi e ld s and
g :<rdcn s , co nlain s 111orc or less of th csc three
subst:111ccs, al11rnin<', silie:1, or li11 w. Tli cy occ ur
in \'cry di(] c re11t pro1,ort iP11 s ; tlH ~ lH',- t. so il s ~i re
those whi c h :ire a 111ixt11rc or :ill , for dwr cor rect
an<l kee p wit hin th e ir d11e prnpurtio11 1h r:q11alities
of each othr:r; th11 s ill a c h ycy so il , filtr:1lion is
carried on by 111 c:u1 s of sand, whi le cl:1 y 011 the
oth er hand gircs con si:;; t.t·r1c.1· to a ' "'1<h· .so il , and
lime loosen s the te:x t11 rc or l1<':1n hr1d ,::, and
correc ts tl1 c coldn ess wl1ic·h the 1' (' t: 1i.11i11g· or watc 'r
occ <ision s. How lw auti1'1 ill y 111:i y m ~ tltu s trn ce
thro1r g h naJmc, co 11t cr1di1r g· a11d 0111 10-:ilr' q11:iliti cs
workin )I toe·cth e r to fornr :rn h:tr111p11i o11 s whol e.
Th e f~ i·ti li ~ in g propnt y of om soi Is, lrnw c ver,
grea tly df'pc nd s upo11 tli c :Hln1ixlurc of decayed
animal and vcgc tal1lc n1 altcr.

1. W iry is lime never found pure in nature?
'.!. \ V liat

Harn e is gi vcn to tir e su bsta m.:cs cun1aini11e· li111 c, and from what is the name deriv ed '!
:3. j~: u11 c t he various minerals of whi c h lime
form s a princ ipal part.
4. Frolll what suustance is pure lime ge ll erally
p1L :urcd '!
;J. Desc ribe th e process • .
G. \Vlml is the ope ration of slacking lime, and
tl1 c c{fret procl1r ccd '!
7. N:u11c th e difforc nt uses of lime, with the
prop f~ rt ics t lr :tt fit it for those uses.
8 . \Vlrat is a carbonate of lime?
D. Mention the lliffc rent carbonat es of lime.
1 O. W hat q nal i ti cs do th ey all possess ?
11. Desc rillc lir e cakarco11 s spar.
l ~. \V!iat. arc stalactites ? desc rib e th eir formatior1.
1 :3, '\Vhat is marl> le, and how used ?
14. Dcsc riue chalk, its sit1rat ion, qualities, an<l
app<':i ran ees.
J ;-, , Wh:tt is calc ar eo us tufa?
Hi. Na 111 e t.h c li111csto11cs used in building.
17. Wh at is gyp surn, its c1ualitics, and uses ?

i:; u

J, ESSON XLV.-COAJ,.

::; IL 1(' .\.

1. In what rni11cr;il s is f<ili ca found m the
greates t purit y ?
2. Wliy \Vas it called f< ili rn '!
2. \Vliat arc th e ca rt 1i ,., c alled that contain
silica?
4. ' Vhat othf'r 11 :u11c is so11 w ti111 cs .cr1vc 11 to
th c rn, ;-i rid y,·hy '!
5. \Vlia t arc li1c di sfi11 g ui s lii11 g q11 ;t!ilius uf
silicio11 s earth s '/
6. ·what arc th e ir c hief uses 7
7. ' Vhat is sand?
8. '\Vl1crc do!'s it ahnrrnd, arnl 1o w!i:tt mi sfortune arc those li :1hl c 1\'ho tra\'cl in tl1 c c ountrieo.
where it abounds?
O. P cscrilic <·011i111011 fli1!1, :111d 11 :1n1r: it s 11scs.
10. In what gculogica l s ilt1at io11 is it foun d?
AI.U)IlNE OH ARCJT,.

1. ' Vhy is clay call ed argi l ? 11 liy alu 111inc ?
2. 'Vh rr t arc th e distin g 11i s l1i1 1g q11:tliti cs ol
nlumi11 c ?
3. \\That qualiti es rend er it !"o 11s1' f'ul in the
arts?
4.. N~1111 c th e difrcrr~ 11t arg ilbcco 11 s ea rths.
5. Nallie tl1 ei r v:uious usc·s .
G. \V lr: lt is loalll, its situation :111d nscs ?
7. H ow is porce lain clay di st i1wui :-d1 cd?
8 . '\ili ;lf. clay is wwd ;II Ili c ~11;111u l'actme of
co rrnn on cartli c nw arc, a11d how do cs it ddfor from
porc c lairt cby?

1!.)1

9. 'Vlrnt dav is used in the manufacture of
pipes, and how 'arc ihcy mad e?
10. Wlmt c lays arc used for extracting grease?
11. Why arc clays used for the bottoms of
lak rs, ca nal s, &c.?
12. What kind of soi l docs c lay form?

LE880:\' XLY.
COAJ,.

Coa l may be considered as a min e ral, both from
its subte rrn11 co us s ituation, and th e qu alit ies whi c h
it possesses ; many c ircumstan ces howe ver ju stify
1li c 11ow prevale nt opinion that it is of vege table
orig in; th e followin g arc perhaps the most c onvi11ci11g. q arho11, whi c h is th e c hief co nstitu e nt
of all vegetable matter, partic11larly wood, corn·
posf's th rnc- fourt hs of th is substance. Coal is
:il so fn1111d in the various st:igcs or mi11l'raliz at io11.
Sorn c t i 111cs it possesses a complctqly fibrous text m e and li g-neo 11s appearance, eve n the knots of
wood be ing discern ible, whilst th e same bed prod11 ccs s pec im e ns of pe rfec t mineral coal. That
whic:lt prese rv es most di stin c tly th e character of
1rnod, is fo11nd at Bovey near E xeter.
Jn co nfirmation of thi s opin ion is th e fact, that
in lrl'land :t stand in g fore st has bee n di scovered
at 1.11 0 depth of one hundred fee t below the soil.
To thi s ,·ve may ndd the i11Jla1rnnability of this
s uhst;rn c c, tlie 11u111c ruu s vcgt.:l.au le n.:111ai11s a1J<l
impressions tli:it accompany it, and that it has
ne ve r bee n di sco vered above the li11e to which

.L ESSON XJ.v.---co .u ••

vcgc t;-ition rt':1clws. It i:-; nf a lilack co lor, bri ght,
and frcq11('Jltly iridcscc11t / tlt c c; tr11 c t11rn is slaty;
it occ 11rs :ii ways amo rph o11 s; it is rny cn1nl1ust. ihl c, a q11 :ilit y whi c h few inill (' r:il s po ;; s (' S,~ . 'f ile ·
pl:i rrs fr om 1r hc11 cc it. is 1:1k1' 11 , ;m: <'.:il k d <'oril
mines ; th ey ahou11d in 111:111 y p:1rt s of E11.c2· !;1nd,
;-ind li a r c 111 ai11l y co ntril111t 1~d to t li e \\"r: il th or om
co 11ntry. Both t he pn snr1 s ('111ploycd 111 the
min es, a11d th e Ycssc ls 1rlii c h tr:111s 1H. rf tl. c f'n: 1l s,
;-ire eallcd colliers; th e place 1rlt (' r< ' tlH ~ tr :1 rl e is
ca rri ed on, a colliery . Th c ac(· css to 1·0:1 I 111111es
is gc 11 c rally tlt ro 11 g lt a n:irro w, p(' rp <' 1Hlir:111:1r 1·1111n el, callc(l a slw(t, up 1r!iid1 tli (' 1nirl\ mcn :ind
coa ls a rc draw11 °h v 11 iac lti11 rrv . Tl1 c rni11 0s at
"\Vltitcli:wc n arc srn.nc of Ili c ;11 o"t <'\ tr:1o rdi11ary
in th e ,,·o rld. Th e prin c ipal <'1i1r:1nrc is 11y an
ope nin g at the bott om of a )1 ill tlir{)l1 g li a long
s loping· p:i s:o::i ~1, r , which is l1 r1r11 in tli1: n wk . and
lead s io th1 ; lo west vci 11 or ill'd of l'o:il : t li r: descent is c hi efly throu gh spal' io11 s g·;1 ll c ri 1's i11tcrsccti nu eac h othe r, fontH'd hv th e cxc ·;11·at ion of
th e c~a l, large; pilbrs or \\'li.ic: l1 011l y ; 1rr ~ left to
support the poncl cro11 s roo f. Tl lf' s r ~ 111i11 cs are
ve ry deep, and arc extc 11d \' rl und er th e hc; d of the
sea, c r cn to wh e re th e de pth of th r: \rn 1n is s11ffi c ic nt:ly <rrc;1t to acllllit ships or i>11rd c 11. Jn th ese
mrn cs tl ~ere arc three stra ta of cord 11'11i ch lie
co ns id e rabl y :ipart from 0 11 c a not!wr , :rnd are
made to communi cate by pi1s. J\ li11 L' rs arc frefJU c ntly imped<l d in th e ir prng rcf's hy ve rn s of
hard roc k s called rlvkcs, and th e coal is se ld om
found in a direc t lin e e n th e oth e r s id e of th e m;

to asce rt ain it s prcc i:o:c situation is oftr,n a work
of c o11 sicl crahlc lnho r a11d ex pe nse . Coal is gene ral Iv sit.11 atcd at th e foot of mo11ntai11 s, a nd in
hollc;1vs which vary 11111c h i11 extent: it rarelv
li es 1n11 c h abo ve tl;c leve l of th e sea .
•
Seve ral dan ge rs atten d tl1 r, la hors of min e rs;
th e g re:ttes t. is that ari s i11g from .fire damp;
w hi c h is occa sioned by th e hydrogen g;lS or i11namrnalil c nir, procl11ccd i11 th e rni11c, am) whi c h
wh e n mixed wit.It atmosp her ic air, ex pl odes with
g reat viole nce if brought into contact with any
li g hted substance. To avoid thi s da nge r, s:1fctylamps arc used, whicli were invented hy Sir
Humphry Davy . They arc of a very s iinpl 0
co nstrn c tion, co nsistin g of wire gauze , so c lose ly
in terwoven as fo preve nt a sufficient quantity of
the gas from e ntering, and thus causin g igtiition.
J\ not h0r danger arises from I.hr. formation of c:irhon ic ac id gas or fix ed air, which, bci11g hr,av icr
than th e commo n air, occupies th e lower part of
min es, and occasions death by su ffoc ation.
Coal is 11 scd to rai se the temperature of room s.
to coo k food, to s upJ~Y th e fu el for manufactorics.
(p:irti c ul arly wh ere steam is recp1ired) and in th e
worki11g of metal s. It is one of the substa nces
from whi c h gas is procured: wh e n thi s has bee n
ex tracted from th e coal, the res idue is called
co ke, whi c h is employed wh ere intense heat 1s
reciui"ite. Coal abounds in variod's parts of the
U nited States, particularly on th e banks of the
Lehigh and Schuylkill riv ers, in Pennsylvania.

17
" Trid r~cc 11t, cx hil>i1i11 g a vari< ' f.y of co lors l ike the rn i11bow
from Gree k t p < ~ o ,- (iridos) of a rainbow.

1

I.

I.:E SSON XJ,VII.- -S AL'I'.

H15

LESSON X LVI.
GHANLTF. .

Granit e is a com po1111d roc k, for111 cd hy an agg regation of Lit e g rn ins of quart z, fr l:-: par, a nd mica . Tl1 c proporliori s i11 1rliic li tl w:::c \'\1 111po11 ent
part s occu r, vary mu c h. Velspar i:o: th e predo minatin g, as mi ca is th e lc r1st co nsid• 'r:ili lc of' these
in g redi e nts. Th e gT:ii ns am :1 lso of different
ma g 11it1u1cs ; wh en th ey a rc Lirg·(', tl1<) gTa11ite is
of a ve ry coa rse text ure; lnit. :::0 11 t<'t.i 11 ws th ev are
so snmll, a!I almost to g ir c th e app ca r:11 1cc "of a
uniform mass. Th ese c in:11111 st:i11 ccs occas ion a
great va ri ety in th e dia ra cf<' r of gr:rnit e. \.Vh en
l10rnbl e nd e occ urs in t.li e pl:i cc of rni ca, th e roc k
is c:dl1 ~ cl Fl ie11it c. Fl1ll111' f'1 ,ls p:1r is li :1J,J 1, to de.
CO lllJH 1:-: itio11 , :111<l wl1< :11 thi s i:-: tJ1< , pwr:iilillg· ~illb·
stauc c in th e rock s, tl1 cy yie ld to til e cfl'ects of
tli e weather, and beco ni c !llorc \1r le::::; of a ro nnd ed
fo rm: bu t wh en th e grallit o j ,_ li :ml ""d closegrainerl, whi c h is mo n' us11 :1 ll y 111< : 1·as1" tl1 cy rise
in hold prom in ent p1'ak :;, g·il' in g· gTa 11d c11r and
bold1l('ss to t.li c scc rH 'l'\·· (; ra11itc is f'rn111d in most
c01 111 tr ics whf're th en:. arc 111<11111t ;1 i11 s of <1 11y cons id c rnh! c f' levn.tion. It for111 s th e lofh (; r:unpian
Ilill s in ~co tl :rnd ; :rnd tl11 ~ lo!_!·: lll or rocki11!,!'sfo nes
of Co nnrn ll arc irn111f'11sc hl tic ks of tli i::: 11'1ateri al.
G ranit e' is rnl11alil o 011 acc ount. nf it s ,!.!Teat hardness :llld dmability, is w:o d fo r 1nill -sto11.f's, troughs,
and sk ps, tir e st reels of' Lo11dnn <l1'<' p:ire< I with it,
and it is c rnploy c1l in a reliif cd11m. ' ¥atcrloo
Bridgf' , on e of th e fin est spcc i111 cns uf art:, is constructed of g raIll to.

LESSON XLVJl.
SALT;

Sa lt is a min eral substan ce, bcn utifully white,
sp:irlding, nn<l c rystalline; it is solubl e, fu sible,
gra11 11l o11 s, and of a saline flavor. There are
several vari eties of thi s useful min e ral whi ch are
di st.i11 g·11i sli ed by th e different s ituat ions in whi c h
th ey arr, found. The principal are sea-salt, call ed
also !Jay-salt, whi ch is produced from th e ocean;
the bes t comes from Portugal: salt drawn from
brin e sp rin gs : and rock salt, which is du g out of
th e ear th. Amongst the most exte nsive sa lt min es
hith e rto di scovcn 'd, arc those at ' Vielizka , a pi ct m c:;q11e liUl c town s if:11 ate rl on th e si des of a
ge nt.l e va ll ey , about e ig ht miles from Cracow, tho
c hi e f city of Poland. The trav eller who visits
tli csr. s1ilite rran eous d()posi ts of salt, being furlli slicd wit'l1 a g uid e a nd two lamp-bearers, is let
down a shaft of about 150 feet by a rope. At the
de pt.Ii of DO feet ne arri vcs at ihe rock of pme
salt. of a din gy soot color, here and th ere g li ste ning
hy f li e Iig·ht of th e lamps. The swing is now abando11 c rl , :rnd the car is assai led by th e busy sound
o f spades, matt oc ks, an d wh eelbarrows, in eve ry
direc tion. Thi s is t.h e fi,rsljl.001· of a large cave rn
co ntainin g in dirfcre nt parts the stable, and
twc 11t y horses, quantiti es of salt, some in bare
mass<'s, s0111e in cas ks ready to be hoisted to the
s urface , stores of i111pl cmc11ts for the min ers, &c.
'l'hi s excavation is about 100 fee' long and SO

I DG

Hll

1"1FTll SE Hn: S.

J,E SS ON XJ.VJI. -SALT.

hroad, (beside the stable,) and about 20 feet hi gh .
From he nce a lon g ga ll ery 12 feet hi g· h by eight
hro:td !0ads toward s th e int e rio r of the mirH~;
whil e lateral av enn cs branr:l1 off in nrio11s direc-

occasio11s a s111 a11 lJ:uul play a few airs of slow :rnd
sim pl e rn11 sic, 'vliich has a Jllost si11 g11 lar effect
in hann ony \vith the f;urroun(ling ser· 1ic~ I__,ong
<ralleries and Jlii.d1t s of ste11!", all spacious enough
b

tions,

car:ii n;1mr)cl

afir ~ r s 1n1H~ A11siri:111

prince or

pri11 <.:css , and rcsc1J1bii11g- mo re in ap1>r~a1: ancc the
avcn11 cs of so111 c s11btcrrn11co11s p:iL wr', t.l1an the
passages of a mine. A fli g ht of ste ps conducts
down anoth er 100 fret to the sccn11rl.f1oor; in this
desce nt th o bed of salt is int errupted li y a narrow
stratum of pure clay, so111 ctim cs hy a mi xtmc of
salt, and the s01.mr. c:irth; t.h rs<' str:1ta arc in
places very c urio11 sly cm vc d, as tli011 g· li a rolling
wav e had been arrested in it s co m sc and preserved
in its original form. The 111i11 e rs :ire here found
at work, so me hew ing pillars of salt. from th e rock,
some cutting thorn into mn sscs for horn e co nsumption, a1Hl so1111; sto wi ng the ma sses in barrels
for expo rtation. Th o cavern on thi s fl oor is
rat.h e r smaller than th e fi rst : it co nsists of one
spacious hall, and has no pillar to s upport the
roof.
. Proeecding on this irnlitcrra.nro11s jn11rncy, the
frav rdlr'l" ariv( ~S at :t woork11 platf(mn, fr0111 wh ence
he lonk s dow11 11ro11 an abyss, whi<'.h th e si rnplo
lights of th o condu <.: tors foil to ill11111in atc, though
the spars of th e min era l reflec tin g th o mys of
lig ht, produce a nov e l and hca 111.if1il effect.
'Vhcn princes or other great pe rsonagrs visit the
min es, a chand eli er of c ry stal salt, whi c h hangs
in th e ce ntre, is furni shed with lGO li g ht s, and
di spla ys a stupe ndous cave rn, havin g- th o appearance of a castle in ruins; at th e hottorn are some
rows of sca ts ri sing lik e th o Lc nc hes of a th eatre,
opposi t.e to whi c h is an orch es tra; here on grand

~

1n !"! !l rnv (r 0f'. co!!n==r lo thr~ frr ~ h nir~ 1, ~;1d clcc!Jl:f

anrl deeper in the sal in e rock; tile sce ne 11ow
a1Hl then vari ed by a cave rn full of \rorkmcn, and
su111u along th e galleri es wheeling th eir little
carts fu ll of sa lt, each with its lamp in front. On
th e .fourth .floor there is a li ttle su lit crrnn e?us
lake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad, orcr which
ill11 str irn1 s pt'r!"011:igcs arc ferried 0 11 r:1fl s of fir
lo.,.s, li•rl1t.cd by num erous f1arnlicaux. Herc tor""'
D
minat es the bed of green salt, th e most co mmon
sor t ;ind easiest lo be c ut. That next to it is
call ed spisa, salt, which is hard er and more close
grai ned; and next succeeds a whi te and finer
grain ed variety. This part of th e min e is 700
feet below the surface of the ea rth; aoo feet beneath this li es the finest crystal salt, which is
rcnchc<I by long flights of stops an<l inclin ed
plan es. Th e c<;ye rn iu which it is found is suffi c i<' ntl y F' pn c ion f' for a rr:giinc11t of f'Oldicrs to
pr ~ rfor111 th e ir rna11rc11vrcs in it. Thi s is t.lic deepes t part of th e min e : th o air is quite pure, rather
cooler than that of the open day, but much
warm e r than it is about half-way down. The return is f"l1rou g h a different se ri es of corrid ors and
ca r e rn s. O n the third floor is a simple tomb of
salt with the nam e of the late Emperor of Austria
in sc ril> e(l with lette rs of \mod neatly g ilt. On
the seco nd floor is a large saloun with all the impleme nts of mining and the mode of lettin g th em
down with me n and horses ex hibited in tran ioparcncy. On the first is a chapel, presenting an
17 *

H>9

FIFTH SER rns.

altar, statue of th e Virgin, crucifix, ancl figures
of Gw irnir [. and hi s wife, all c ut out of the solid
salt; before the chape l is a small p11lpit in the
Gothi c s1yl e. To visit th e whole of thi s ex traordinary and e xtensiv e mi11 c, with all it s g all eri es
and c av e rn s, no less a di s1ancc 1ha11 300 miles
must be traversed.
Tlw salt used in En glarnl is c hi efl y obtained
from th e sea, or s:ilt l1rin c sprin gs. Th e saline
water is ad 111i t.tcd i 111 o ope n sh a l lo w 1rc nc hcs, and
b e in g exposed to lit e sun or :i rtifi c i:il heat, the
wa te r is evaporated, and th e sa lt is le ft in a crystalline state.
Th ere arc salt springs and ex te nsive manufactories of salt at Salina in N e w-York and in various other places in th e I J11 i tr·d Sta tcs.
Th e con se rvative propr rti cs of s:i lt n~ ncl c r it invaluabl e for econom ic al pu rposes, a nd its st in111latin g fl avor in correc ting th e in sip idity of food.
Wh en fus ed it is used in g laz in g pntkry. It is
valuabl e as a m:11rnre, on acco11111. of i1 s promoting
th e growt h of vege1.a1 ion.
It was employed in nll th e J ew ish cr rr moni es,
be ing c111hl c111atical of p11ri1 y n11d iworrnptibility.
011r lil csscd Lord c all s his di sc ipk s 1!H~ sa lt of
th e earth, th ereby ::;ig11if'yi11 g 1o tlwm , 1!wt hc ing
seasoned wilh g race th c rnse lr es, th e \' sli o1 ilcl season and p11rify oth e rs, com1111mi cnt i1;g to 1h ern a
prin c ipl e whi c h will pr 2sc n c them fr om the corruption that is in th e world.

J,ESSON XLVIII.--SLATE.

199

LESSON X L VIII.
SLATE.

Slate is a mineral substance; it is never founrl
c rysta lli ze d, thou g h it is of a foliat ed structure; it
is e ith er of a gray, blui sh, or blac ki sh color; and
is opaque, dull and brittle. It consists chiefly of
a lumine, with a small quantity of sil cx. It is dug
out of quarries; when first take n from th em, it is
compa rativ ely soft, but becomes hard . LY ex posure to the air. It is used for writing, for whetsto nes, and for roofing houses. In ord er to ascc rtai n its fitness for th e latte r purpose, it is
we igh ed as soo n as it is excavated; it is then put
into water for some days: if afte r b e in g well dri ed
it is found to have increased in we ig ht, it is laid
asid e as unsuitable for the purpose, the trial hav ing
prov ed th at it was porous. Such slate would not
only allow water to pass through it and so destroy
th e wood-work of buildings, but it would al so be
liabl e to be covered with li c hens and moss, in
co nsequ enc e of the moisture which it retnins. If
its quality is ascerta in e d to be goocl, it is split
into thi11 plates for roofing. The til es arc fastened
to the rafte rs by pegs drive n through holes which
h ave bee n previously made in th em; the edge of
one is laid over th e other in th e same mnnner as the
scales of fi shes. Slate which is <lark-colored, compact, and solid, is th e best adapted for writing upon.
Jn ord e r to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is
rend e red smooth with an iron instrument, and it
is th e n g round with sandston e, and slightly polished. That which is softer and more friable is
used for pencils.

200

l ' lFTil

LF.SSON XLIX.--COUAL.

SEHlE ~; .

LE SSON X L!S.
CORJ\J,.

Corals are th e secr e tion s rn :Hl e hy polype insects inh ahitin g th e tlc cp . Tlic·y somet im es assnrnc the form s of br:rnchc s of the mo s t. h c:111tif'nl
appearan ce : so m etim es th cy rc s r 111hlc h eads
strnng in a .n eckl ace ; whi ls.t. others present a
m?re consolidated m ass, h11t :ire all 1wrl'oratcd
with pores more or le ss rninute, the h a bitations
of the little arc hit ec ts .
Amon g th e variou s plic·nnrncn:i th <1 t th e works
of creation op en to our vi e w, there arc prrk1ps
non e more c<1lc11lat ed to exl· it c ast o11i ,;J1111c '11I. a nd
admir:1t.inn th :l!I t.h c n s t. L'i• r:il rc C' l's th:1t ri s 1 ~ 11p
from the dee p, and at ti1n es e r<' n cnn st itutl' is l:1 nd s .
Th e y are pro du ce d frolll a e:i lc :nT011 s m a tt e r
which exucles from th e coral "·nm:. a nd h :1 rd cnin g, forms ;it once th e ir h ab it at ion :111d th l' ir rnauscilemn. This creature is o l' tl1e l'l :1ss or zoophytes, th e lo w es t g rad e nf' :111i1n:tl lll'1 ·, th r link
b e tw ee n it and th e vege tab le ki11 g do 111. Th cy onl y
work und er water, so tl1 at th e co r :il reC'fs neYer
r ise above the }e ye] of thr sr:1; " ·hc·11 tl1c t.ide
r e tire s, th ey appe a r to be dr y eo111p:1l't nwk, ru gged aml p e ~· fora.tecl; but wh e n th e r C' l11rni11 g wat e rs ':1 :ish ..1t~ s td P.s, :1 mo s t. intrrr s tin~· s pr1•.t:1PIP.
of:1ct1:·e life 1s pr ese nted ; :md 1'1rn n1:, ,,,, 111y ri ;:i.d.s
of vanon s shap es :rn cl co lors prn truilr th e m selv es
front the orifi1 :cs, :lllcl 1lie wltol c r·difil: e seems
t eemin g " ·ith life :111J. animal.ion.

I

1,

201

Th e growth of the coral ceases when the worln
is no lo11 g e r ex pos ed to th e washing of the sea;
the work is then comm e nced at the sides, and
othN part s ri s e in s uccess io n till they reac h the
same h e ig ht, an~ '.orm a le vel surface at the top,
w1t.h s teep prcc 1p1tous s id es.
In this manner,
and by such in s ignificant age nts , atom depositerl
upon atom, the solid rock is at le ng th produc •~tl;
upo n thi s th e se a d e posits san<l, mud, a nd d ecayed
s ea-w ee d; these prepare for mosses and lich en s
whi c h in th e ir turn form a soil for more p e rfect
vege tation; till at las t. the island thu s form e <l b ecomes a fit res idence for man.
'
A s th ese roc ks are con struc ted beneath the
surfac e of llw sea, I.h e y prese nt 110 Le aco11 to warn
the marine r of th e ir ex istence , and thus re nd e r
navi g ntion in thnsn i;inas in which the y ahound ,
exceedingly dangerous.

20:!

DICTIONARY.

203

C:1a11irl. ;;;s, tltat \\hi ch se parates into grains or sma ll partick;;
n' 'n nd.

IT11rrl, th :1 t 11·hi ch presents n s trong res isl:111ce to th e touch.
I 111!1rimtrrl, 11tat which is an;angcJ in the mann er of the til es
A subslnnce is n e 1·er ah~i H"hcnt 11·i1l1011t lic i1 1g nt. th e snm e time
porous, for if th e re w ere nn pores lh o 1!11id 1·011 hl not enter
th e substa nce. All subs1n11 ccs nrc in n 1l1•g ree porous,
but we 011 ly attribute tho t1uali1y to those in whi ch it
is obYious.
Adhesive, th at which is composed o r p:irli r lcs, n ot only uniting
firmly toge th e r, b11t 1\°11i ch join tl1 c 111sr lvr s tu oili e r substances. Tims gnm, 11·hc11 pl:i ecrl bol\Y ee n two pi eces of
paper, alta ches ilse lf tu c tu.:h, a11J ca11scs a 1111io11 between
th e two.
Aromatic, that whi ch ha s n p11n gr 11t spicy sm r ll.
Astri11ge11t, co11trac 1i11g, c:rn si11g ~n!i. s nhslnn ces to eontrn r; t.
!Jrig lit, shining.
Brilllc, that w hi ch is cnsil y brok e n: h ard s11bslnnccs 011 ly are
brillle.
Cm11 ·111,r, any pnrtinn nr 1!111 i1i1 r rn nl s11rf:1 cc or a h oll ow spl1 ero
C n11 sr· n ·fltirf' , 1i 1al \\·hi1·i1 pr P st • n· f'~ .
C onvc:r., nny portion t>r lh fl cx le rn a l snrf?1 co of :1 sph 0 re.
Cylindrical, a form hn 1·i11 g t\YO /lat aml ono c 11r1·ctl su rface
ns n rnl er.
Ductile, thn t which is r a pnhlr. nf !ic in g d ra11· 11 0111 inlo length.
Dull, th a t 11"11id1 nb~orbs 1h o lig h t i11 >1t•: 1d of rc fl cc ti11g it.
Erliblc or EataMc, thnl 11·hi t: h i' lit fiir fiJnd.
E/o stir, 1hat 11·hi ch, 11·hc 11 lient o r stre tc hed, rl'tu rns lo its
ori g inal position.
E_Oi:rncscc 11t, that 11·l1ich hu hltlrs up frnm intrrn:tl com motion.
}';3·nti1', that \1·hi ch is 1101 prod 11<'1·d in n 11 r 0\\"11 1·11 11ntry.
I:.r11ortcrl, that 1Yh ich is sen l 1H1t l'ro111 01 1r porl,.
Flat, a s11rl:1 ce is lint lh nt. li es e n ·nl y hl't \1· ee11 its boumluries:
ns 1he co iling , floor, &.c.
Ffr.ri'1/c, lltnt whi ch cnn be bent cn, ily.
Fluid, 1hat wltid1 has purl s ca ~ ily s0 pnrnhlc, 1Yhich flows
nbout.
Fm/~ ra11t, !h at 11·l1i r l1 l1 as nn n.t: n'o:ihl e s mell
FriaJ.lr, that which n11111l1l cs r,a silv.
Fu sif;lc, thn t whi ch m e ll s in firo. '

Af;sorbcnl, thnt whi ch rn cks 11p liq uid s, ns s ponge.

1

or

a hou se.

I111prr'.<s ililc, th a t which easily re ce ives and retains an imprc,s1un.

lmpor!ed, that whi ch is brought into our ports.
l11 rm1171rrssiblc, that which cnnnot be forced into a smaller
1·0 111pass.

l 11r1ig,,11n11s, tl_1 a t whid1 is the natural pr0tlnc1ion of a country:
th1 ° tel"rn is nppl1et! to vege t:ibles, a~ native is a pplied to
n1 cn.

Jn,,dn •·m1s, thnt which hns no smell.
I.m11 i11nf1"d, tlrnt which is arran geJ in thin coats or luminm.
Lirprir!, prope rly si¥nifies that \Yhi c h is m e l't ed; any thing
11·l11 c h w e cnn_dnnk, or whi ch forms into drops. A ir is u
/1111d. \Vat e r 1s holh fl11id mid liqnid: wh e n we sponk of it
as a stre :irn or curr? nt:, it is prope rly c:ill ecl n jlll"id; Jmt
when we ~p ~ak of 1t as passing from a conge a leJ to a dissolrn_d _s tal e , It sho11 l1l proper ly he ca ll ed n liquid.
Mo:rn r/.11111.!!.» ll111t. ll"h11:h 111ak es thin gs npprn r lnrg<'r tltnn t.hev
nr :t.1inll y ::tr!'.
•
Mallco{1fr, th :il. whi ch is capahlc of g rea t exte nsion 1Yhen
IJl'a len, \Yithont th e pnrticles heing sepa rated by th e operntio 11. 'J'h1"1s n g rnin o f gold ca n be hea te n out to a sh ee t of
cx lre nrn 1hin11css.
J1lrt111/ir, thnt \\·hi c h has the nature of m e tals.
1Y u1r ir ious, !hat whi ch conln ins mu ch n o uri shment.
Orl11rous, !hat ll"hic h has an y s111 c ll.
01)(/qur:, th at lhrou gh whi ch nothing can be seen.
U m!, 1he fo r111 or a n egg.
l 'li11Mr, 1ha1. \I hic h <:n11 lie fohlctl eas il y into plaits. Thus a
yo1111g tmg 1s ll cx1hl e , !me n is pliable.
l'nrnus, lhnl. 1d1i c h is foll of small pores or holes.
1;ulrcml1lr', thnt '': hi c ~1 ran ho rcd11 ceJ lo a powd e r.
1 u11g 1•111, !ha t 1Yh1 ch is 1rnrm to th e tnste.
•
R 1:fl1·c1i1·c, rcll cc ling or g i1·in g ha ck an imnge; this quality
'.' " l"'1t cl s 11pon th e former. A riY er th at is bri g ht r cflocts
i I s I 1:111 k~.
S api1l, lhat 11·hi eh has a fl:ivor.
S cmi-lrn11."J.iarcnl, that which is se en through imperfectly

CAT A LOGUE
204

OF

DICTIONARY·

VALUABLE B 0 0 IC S,

Soft, th nl wl1ich yield s to th o t o 11 c ~1.

.
.
S olid, th a t w hi (' h is co mposell o[ pnrl1 cles ndh c rm g closely
ton-e th er; in thi s se nse it is opposl'J to .fiu irl.
S oli1/. th at ,,·hi ch !ills up n space ; in th is se ns e it iH opposed
to hollc·11.
Soluble, that whi ch melts in n fl11 i1l.
Sph erical, th e form of n s ph e re or globe.
.
.
Sparhling, th a t w hi ch docs nut prrsc11t. a rontm11r.1l lm ghtnes~.
but one in le rrupt cd, as in s11g:H.
. .
. .
Tena cious, t.hat which is co mpnsr. d of p:u11 r les 11n11Ing firmly
toge th e r. Thus g um being tenacious , th o pa rl1c les cannot
e::isily be separate d, anJ 011 tin s ac1·01111t 1t :lf' ls ns n ce ment
Glu e be inrr more tc nacirrns acts ns n stil l stro ngN ce me nt.
T ough, that ~vhi ch is capnhl c of be in g be nt or slrctc h cJ without breaki11g
'l'ranslucent, th at 1hro11gh ,,·hi ch li ght on ly cn n be seen
'J'ran.<parent, th a t wh ic h ca n be see n througl ~
'J'ubular, a hollow cy li nde r

ruIJLI S rrnn DY

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