ROBERT E. PETERSON'S CHEAP EDUCATIONAL SERIES.
THE

YOUNG COMPOSER;
OR,

PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES
IS

EXGLISH

CO~IPOSITION:
CO::'dPRJSING

~E:\TE~CE

:MAKINO, VARIETY OF EXPRESSION, FIGURATIVE
LA:\GrAGE, THE USE OF CAPITALS AND PUNCTTTATION,
AND THE PRINCIPLES OF VERSIFICATION ;

WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES ON EVERY TOPIC .
...

•

BY REV. F. KNIGHTON, A.1'I.
At:THOR OF PRIMARY GRAMMAR, AND THE A:'tlERICAN E'IYMOLOGICAL
:";CHOOL GRA~I:\IAR.

I'll ILADELPHIA:

ROBER'!' E. PETERSON & CO.
ARCH STREET: AEOYE SIXTH.

1853.

ROBERT E. PETERSON'S CHEAP EDUCATIONAL SERIES.
THE

YOUNG COMPOSER;
OR,

PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES
IN

ENGLISH COMPOSITION:
COMPRISIN G

&E:'\TE:SCE MAKINO, VAIUETY OF EXPRESSION, FIGURATIVF.
LAl'iGl'AGE, THE USE OF CAPITALS AND PUNCTUATION,
AND TIIE PRINCIPLES OF VERSIFICATION i

I
II

WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES ON EVERY TOPIC.

BY REV. F. KNIGHTON, A. l\L
At.:TBOR OF PRIMARY GRA MMAR ,
~ C llOOL

A~D THE AMERICAN ETYMOLOGICAL
GRAl\li\lAR.

l'fJILADELPHIA:

ROBERT E. PETERSON & CO.
ARCH S TREET, ABO\'£ STXTH.

1853 .
•I

PREP.A.CE.

Entered ac · cnnli1~:;

\f)

th e :\ct 0f f '0 ;1~rr:s:-:. in ti1e year l ·i::.,~,3, liy

1Wl3ERT E . PETERSON,\:, CO .
In the Clerk' s ORke of the Distri c t Court of the Ea:n~rn Dionict of
Penn~ylvania .

DEACON & PF.TERf\ON, Pn1NTERs.

T 11;; remark of Bacon, that "writing makcth a correct man,"
i.; now for the first time fully believed, and the id e:i of its necess ity
us an essential clement of common school education is beginning
to l;c generally adop ted. But every instructor, who requires
altl'ntion tu the subject of composition \niting as a r egular school
L·xc· rcisc. has perhaps found the enforcement a ttended "·ith serious
dini,·11lti1 ..s an•l increasing perplexity .
Tl11 ·n· is an olistacle in the \'>ay more serious limn the pupil is
,.,'1,.i<' i•HI.' ,,f, wh l' tl lw states hi.' tliffo·nlty to con-;i,-;t in the selection
of a s11hi•·d - it is the want nf rl11ly train ed habits nf thinkin;c: for
l1 i1i1..._d(. and th(· al1-.;t ll 'T nf ;i\ l li: tl ,it 1i[' ;..:·i v in ,~ ( ' \:pn ·.~: -.:inn 1r1 hi . .;
thnuµ:ltts in writinµ-. 'rri1in.:.:: co1npo.-.: ition:-; is a lll(1rc intc11L·(·tual
cxncise than any other :o;d1 ool duty , and its diflk1dlil's arc peen liar.
Tn remov e th ese obstacles, hy preparing the pupil to unclcrtakc
the di sc 11 ssion nf a topic 01· a s111..jcct in a methodical or l o.~;, .,.\
1na11ncr, is th e aim of the foll owing treati se. lii the opinion of tl1< ·
anthor , (lonnrlccl on thnroitp:h examination,) the text liooks 11011·
in nsc as guides to compos ition writing arc open to two objccti,111.' ,
viz : either of r endering too little as.-;istan cc , or of giying too nrncl1 .
" 'ith lhc first the pupil is di scoma p:ecl, and with the !"cconrl th e
de.' irl'•l Lcnclit is lost.
To remedy these evils, the author !1as h ere p:iYcn expression !11
his own practice in teaching this important branch or education .
lt consists i11 this-lo rnak e it in its principles confirm and illu'·
tra tc those of English Grammar, arnl \Yhen thc·sc may })(' in a
l!H::1surc tixe<l, to give dirccti0ns or ofrcn sng;gcstions simply, \\·hi(·l1
"ill call these principles into practica l W'C'1ri1h till'se ideas of the a<lrnntagc·s ot' h is \)"'t• ·111, tlie \l' urk i.,
co rnmendccl to lhc attention of all Yonn :c: Cornposcrs.
The author acknowledges his oblircations to scY r ral trcati.,c., ,
fro lll wl1ich he has gathered i1l cas ilf the cxocnlion of the work .

-

v

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Of Cn u>e , ..•• ..•• .. •..... .. • , ..••.•••.• •• • • ••• • • •• • .•• •••• •.
Abridged Adverbial Sentences, ••.•.. .• ••• •• • ••• • •••• •• • • .••• •
Anolysi• of Complex Sentences, •..•••• ••. .••• .. . .. . • •••• • ••••
S)· nthesi' o f Simple Sentences, • ••..•.••••••••. •• .••••••••••••
Srnthesi< of F ables, . • • .....•• •.. •• ..•••.• • ••••• ••.••••••.• ..
E'xc rci !Ee on co mposing Fnbles, . ..••••• •... , • . •.••••••• • •••.••

CONTENTS.

59
62
62
63
67

70

DIVISION II.
DIVISION I.

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
,~ ar i c ty

SENTENCE MAKING.
PA.GR

Simple Sentences, ••••••• ... •• ... .• •• •• •• ••• ••• ••••• • •• • •••••••••• 9
Part< of a Sen ten ce , .•.••...... ...• ••••.•••.•.•. .• •• • •• •.......••• 9

Algfi~~'.·~::.:·:. :.:. :._:. :._:·.:·:·.:·.:·:·:·:·ii:"ii:·.:.:::.:.::::::::.:.:::::: ~~·; ~-;~·;·;·; ·; ·;·;·; ~!~ !!
S nbjecl enlarged, . ... • .. •• ... • ••• • .•... .••.•. . • . . ••... • . . . .. .•.
Object e nl arged, ....••..••. .. •.. ••. • ••• .. . . ... •. .. • ....... ...•.
P red icate e nlarged, ..•..•• . • .. .. . . . ••.•........• . • •..... • ...•.
Adj un c ts oft he Predicate, . . .••• .. ... . .• . .•...... . ... . .•. .. • .....
1. P lace, . ... . .... ... . .. . . .. . ..• .. ...•... . •••. • ......•. . ... 20,
Pronominal Adverbs, •• . • . . •...••.•.•...•.• • .... •• . ••. •.....

15

17

18
19
21
20

~~~,i~~- i~,": :::::: ::: : :::: :: : :::::::::::::::::::: : ::::::: : :: ~~
2.

~::~r-~~~·:,:·:::::: ::: ::: :::::: ::::: :: ::::::::: :::::::::~~

of Arr angement , ••• .•••• ••••••• .. •• • ••••• .• • •. ••••• , ••••• 71
\' ari t·lr of Str11cl11re 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • •• 73
Q11 c :1 i on~ and As~ertions, •. •• •• •• •• ••• • • •. ••• • ••••••• •• •••••••• 73
· n ,·pctit ion of \V o rds avoided , ...••.• • ... . ..•. •• • .. • • •• .•• •••.. . 74

' ' t·rh, . . . ..........•. . ..... ... .. . . ....... . . .... ....... .. .... , 74
75

~ 11 1111, ••• • ••••••• ••••• ••••••• • •••••• • ••••••• ••• • • •• •••••••••

1\ d j1•('t iV<', .. , . . , • . , , , , , , , , , , , . . . , , , . , , , , , , , • , , • , • , , • , , • , , , ,, 75
(' ,111j 11111 ·11n n , ••• . • ••• • . •• ••••••• ••• • • •••••• • ••••• • • • •••• •• • , • 76

l : rn11l1n ... i~- · 1 Thal too, · 1
1\ nnl \· ... i:-4 o f J>oc lr \' 1 • •

•••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • ••• • •• • • • •• • ••

79

• ••••• • ••• •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• , •• , . , • ••

81

\ '1ir1;;1 i0 n of S 11hjt:c t , Prt>d ic atc , nn<l Object, .. .. ... •........ , .. . .
Cha11J,:'c fr o m A ct in! 10 Pu::i !"i\·e, 1..\:;c .. . •... . • ••.. •... •..•.••••..•
l 11fini1i,·e of ]J11r pos~ , . . ..• • .•.••.•. • •.• • • •• .•••••••. •••• • ••••••
ncncru l Excrci~es in Equivale nt Expr essions, •.••••••.••• ••• •• .•

84
85

86
87
S~· 11 o n y 1n s., ..••. •. •........•.•••••. . . ••.•• , •• , •• .••.• •• , • ••••• 93
C olloquial nnd Narrative Form s, •..... . ..•.•.....••....•• • . ••• 105

DIVISION Ill.

{i,~-~e~~r!~ r1;;~;~::::: :::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::: :::::: : ::: ~!

DESCRIPTION AND F IG URATTVE LANGUAGE.

s:Lrr:~~,~;~·;,·~:, ~.: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~g

~~,:-~~~r~-~~ '.::::::::::::: : :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: fgJ

E'JYI~~~~~: '.~~~·:::::: :::::::::::::::::::: : ::::::::::::::::: : :::: ~l35

l·:p i... tolnry l<'orrn~, •. ••.• . •.•• ••• • .....• . ••. . • . . ..•...•.•••••• 125
~ 1 111 rl e , . ........... .. .•......•........ . ... . . ..•.••..........•..• 127

f'<•nte nces comb ined and ex panded , .. . .. . . . . ..•. . . .... • .......... • 30
Order of W ords, ......••• ... ••••..••••.. • . •• • • . .••..•.•••• ...•• 31

Order o f the Adjunct ~, .• .. ••..••.• . • .• .••...• . . . .. .. • ••... •..... . .
Complex Sen te nces, . .. • ••.. •• •..••••.• • • • • ••• ••.••••...• ••.•• •.•.
J\ c..:cu :-::-:o r y S ent ence:':\, . •••••••• • •••••• • • • • ••• • • • •••• •• • • ••• •• •••••
Co· ord inate t3e n"te nccs, .•••... • . ..... . ..... ... • . • ... ..• ..... . . ....
S nb orJinate Sente nce>, •..•••...••..••.•• . •... .. ..• .••.• . .... . 37 ,
Ki nds of S11hordi11ate Sen t e n ce~, ...•• • •. .•... •.• . ••. ... .•...• . ..•.
No 11n

36
36

37
48
38

Seu I e n eel", ••••• • •••• .••••• • •••••••••••• • •• • • ••••• •••• 38 1 48
48
50

t:>11hjcc 1 Se nt ences , .. . ... .. .... ... . . .... . .... ... .. . .. .. . ... 38,
Obj e c t S e n1 c 11 cel" , ....... . . . ... .. •.• . . . . . .•.•. . •.. ••. .••.. 38,
Adjective 8e n1 e nr.e :-< 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 38,
H ]311t " -"D11t v..•hat," ..• . ..•••• •• .••• • ••••• . . •. • .. . • •••.•• ••
A1l verl>iu\ S e ntc 11 ccs, ............. .. .. • .. .......• .. ...•. ... . 39,

53
55

56

8~ ~~i1~L.: :::::: :::: :: ::::::: ::::::: ::: ::::::: :: :::::::: ::: ~!
4

0

J ~ i ni::; r 1 1 p l1~· . • •••• , ••• • ••• . ..•••••• ••• • •. • ,, •• , • • ••• •••• , •• ••••• , , 11 1
l ~ 1og r nph i C'nl 011rlines, . • ..••• . .••••••••••••..•..•.•. . .•..•• , ., . 112
I f i .;.tor 1cnl F.\·enl~ , •.... . .•.... . .. . ... . •. .... .....•. . , .• •. . , . . • 123

l·: pi.. to lnry \V ri ting, ....... . • . . ..• . ......... . .•...... . ..• . , .. . . 124

J\J,.1 ap hor, ....... . • . •. .•• •.••••••... ..•.. . . ..•••. . ...• . •..• ... .. 12\J
All e;r<ir)· .. .•........•• ••••..• . . . •.•.•.. • • .•...•....••..••••..... 131
i'Vl e1011ym~· 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 132

~-:-~~~::·:~·~~:::::::::::

::: ::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: ::::::::: ::::m

Pro~opopa!ia or Per~onifi cat1on , •• ••. • •••••••• •• •• •• •• •• ••••••••• 134

Th e me>, ....••• •.• • •••.••••.••..••••.. • .•...••• .•. •••• ••• •••• •. 137
0111! ine• or Analyzed T hemes. •••••• . •••••• . • •••...••••• • •••••• 1:39

E --an, .. •. · · .•••••. .• ..•....... . . . .. ... ....• . ..•••...•...•.... 145

Outline ~ of Es ~ ay~, ..••.. . .. • ... .....••• • . ••. .••.••• •••••••••.
Dt•c• !a111nt ion, .•. . . . • . .•.••.•• .•• •• ..•• ..•. .. •••• .•. ..... ,, ... •..
:\' c 1 ·c ~ :-: nry part~ of an Orati o n, • • • •.....•• •. • , •.•.•• , , , • • , •• , . •.
::iu bject> fo r Oral ions , .. ..• .••.•••• .•... • .•. ••••••••• • •••... •••

1"

146
]52
152
154

-

- - •
VI

CONTENTS.

DIVISION IV.
PUNCTUATION AND PROSODY.
PAGE

Capital Letters, ... ... . . ... . ............ . .................... . . . , 155
J>1 1n cluation, . .•• . . • •.. • • • .•.. .• ....••..•...• .. .• • . •••.••. ...•. • 158
Co1nn1rt, .••• . , .•••••• , •• ••• , • , .•• • .•• , . •• ••••••••••••••••• • . •• 158
Semi~olon, ........................ ... ......... ... ... .... • ••.. 160
Colon , ............ .. ........ .. ................... ; ... . .... ... 16 1
Period ,. .. .......... ....... ...... .. . ................ ... . . .... 162
Note o f In te rrogation, . , .......... .. .. . ..... . ............. .. . . 162
Note of Exclamation , ........... .. ....... .. ...... .. ........ .. 163
l'arenthe,i •, Dash, and Hyphen, ... ... .... .. ... . .. .. ........ ... 163
Ver:->ifi ,·atill ll 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1G5
J1;1 n1 !1ic Ver~e , . .. .. . ... .. ... . . . .... ................. ...... . ... 165
Tr. ,c ltaic Verse, ............. . ................................ 167
The Pyrrh ic , .. . ... ... . .. ......... . . ..... . ........... , ...•... • 169
The Spondee, .. .. ......................................... ... 169
Anape,ti<'- V e rse , . ............ ......... . ............... . ...... 171
Dactylic Verse, . . .... ....... .................... . ............. 173
H e roic Verse, .... .............. ....... . . .. . . . .. . ............. 174
The Amphibruch, ... ... ........... ... ...... ... ..... , •..•. • ..•• 175
The Tribrac h, ... . ......... ... . , •• • .• , , , •• • • , • , ........... , .•• 176

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.
DIVISION I.

SENTENCE-MAKING.
1. \VE think an<l speak.
2. That whi ch we think is called a thought.
~t :\ t houg-ht. put into w ords, and either spoken or
wri tten, j_, a ·~rntc 11 cc . (Gra m., Lat. Deriv. 418).
I. A ,;cntcn cc is an a~"c 111bl a!2;C of words, conveying
a co mpl ete id ea o r thought; as, Time flies. (Gram . 220).
Ex.Pl. AS .nrox .- These worJs contain a complete thought. Flies
alone would not he
Tim e alone would
Time dncs wha t?
1r/w1 Time does.
thou)::ht, they form

a complete thought; we should ask, what flies?
not be a complete thought; we should ask,
Both words together tell us what flies, and
As these words together. convey a complete
what is cr;.lled a Sentence.

;') , The art of writing do wn one's thoughts in suitable
lang uage, ancl in their proper order, is called CoMPOSITIO'.'I.
(Gram., Lat. Dcri1·. 346).
EXEllC !S E I.
M :1kf' se n tence~ frorn tli c fol lowing 'v orcl s:
,YIJtr 1
T ake care to put a pe r iod at th e e nd of eve r y sentence.
1Ynt t 2 .

Tu kc <" arc to 11sc <'apit:i l letter~ in the ir proper places .
EXA'.\fl'I.F.. -Th c h u r ~e i~ S\vift.

Horse, dog, elephant, lion, )
bear, Rugar, stone, stream, I
house. man, moon, coach, ~
strcet, bridge, tree, boy, g~. me, I
cloud.
)
2. \Vh at j._ a 1h o 11 ~ht?
.1 . \Vhat i' a se nt e nce ?

(

Swift, dull, sagacious, hard ,

I strong. sweet, fierce, slow,

i large, gr eat, bright, full, narI row, wide, green, lively, stupid,
l dark.

Q U ESTIO NS.

\Vhat is the derivation of the word?
5. Wh at is Compo,ition? Wh at is its derivation?

-

107

)

DIVISION III.

DESCRIPTION.
163. This consists in such a representation of the
name, nature, and properties of an object, as would
impart a correct view of it to another. The truthfulness of the description, also, depends upon the accuracy
of the statements made, and the fulness of the particulars
mentioned.
A definition is a description, but of the shortest kind.
164. The completeness of a description depends in a
great measure upon the habits of observation whicli a
person has acquired. Thus, one person traveling over
a district of country, will give his attention to objects
and features of nature which would entirely escape that
of another person. A farmer would observe most
strictly the state of the crops; a physician would conjecture the probable health of the inhabitants; an artist
or seeker of pleasure would regard the beauty of the
landscape; a geologist the nature of the soil and rocks;
a botanist the trees and flowers, &c.-so that attention
to every feature should enter into a complete description. Care must be taken, however, that it does not
become tedious by being too particular-.
165. There is a natural order also to be observed
in a proper description: as, for instance, if we should
describe a country which we had visited, we ought to
begin with its geographical features; then give what is
QUESTIONS.
163. In what do~•- descripti on consist? On what does its truthfulness
depend?
164. On what does its completeness depend? How will person• of
different pursuits be affected by the same object or appearance? Give
the illustration .
165. What is the natural order in describing a particular <'ountry?

108

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

DESCRIPTION.

interesting of a historical nature; next its agricultural
capacities or products; and then its domestic scenes.
The following, from the Dairyman's Daughter, illustrates the foregoing remarks on this topic:-

ExAMPLE.-The passage given (165) is a simple description;
but the several descriptions of the treatise all form one Narrative
of the Dairyman's Daughter.
A Narrative, then, is a contiuned account of the particulars of
an event or transaction.

ExA11rLE.-As I rode home by departing daylight, tranquillity
charackrizcd the scene. The gentle lowing of cattle, the bleating
of sheep just penned in their folds, the humming of the insects of
the night, the distant murmurs of the sea, the last notes of the
birds of Jiiy and the first warblings of the nightingale. broke upon
the car, anJ served rather to increase than lessen the peaceful
serenity of the evening and its corresponding effects on my own
mind. Tt invited and cherished just such meditations as my visit
had inspired. Natural scenery, when viewed ln a Christian mirror,
frequently affords very beautiful illustrations of divine truth. Vi'£
are highly favored when we can enjoy them, and at the same time
draw near to God in them.

EXERCISE LXXII.
Form Narratives from the following topics:

A visit to the country. A visit to the city. An excursion by
water. An excursion by rail-road. The manner of spending a
holyday. The events of a day-a week-a year. Your studies
~ince commencinli school. Your plans or expectations for the
future. A thunder storm. A snow storm. A sleigh ride. Thanksgiving day. Fourth of July celebration. Christmas. A circus.

From this example it will be seen that the imagination
will lend considerable aid in properly filling up a description.

EXERCISE LXXIII.
Form into a connected Narrative the incidents you remember of-

Robinson Crusoe. Cinderella. The Forty Thieves. Blue Beard.
Anna Ross. Ermina. Little Henry and his Bearer. Dairyman's
Daughter. Pilgrim's Progress.

EXERCISE LXX.
Give descriptions of the following

sen~ible

objects:-

Give the following subjects from the Bible in your own language:-

The house where you live, both outside and inside. Your garden. A plantnlion. A school-house, with its recitation room,
and play grounds. A saw mill. A cotton mill. A paper mill.
A printing office. A post office. A grocery store. A market.
A rail-road depot. A rail-road train. A canal. A stage coach.
A watch dog. A horse. '!.'he cow. The deer. The fox.

The expulsion of Adam from Paradise. The Flood. Destruction
of Sodom. The offering of Isaac. Jcphtha's daughter. Anointing
of David. Our Saviour's temptation. The search for our Saviour
by his parents. Christ in the Temple. His entrance into Jemsalem. Denial by Peter. Walking on the sea.

EXERCISE LXXI.
Give more complete

d~scription•

of the following subjects:-

Fruit gathering. Hay making. Harvesting. Bathing. Skating.
playing. Pla.ying marbles. Kite making and flying. Dancrng. Waltzing. Visiting. A menagerie. A steam-boat ride.
A rail-road trip. Sunrise. A view from a high hill or any emin_cnce. The street you live in. The town where you live. '!.'he
n'l'crs and creeks in the county where you live.

~11

. lGG. A description may be extended and made to
mclucle several topics and many particulars, and then it
becomes a NARRATIVE or a mixed description. .
QUESTIONS.
ltl6. Whot is a narrative? How does it differ from a description!
Show this from the passage cite d before.

109

\

EXERCISE LXXIV.
Give n continuous Narrative of the following topics in !he specified
or<ler:

(a) The county in which yon reside.

1. Its situation in the state.
2. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES-mountains and valleys, mines and
minerals, rivers a.nd creeks, and for what na'l'igable.
3. HISTORY; including the date of its formation and alterations.
Interesting incidents of early settlement.
4. AGRICULTURE-for what best suited, and what most generally
cultivated.
5. MANUF ACTUREs-all kinds, and where disposed of.
6. TowNs, or cities and villages, a.nd whether approachable by
navigable streams or not.

10

110

ENGLISH COJ\lf'OSITION.

BIOGRAPHY.

7. . P UBLIC BUILDINGS-court· house, churches, and academics.
hoHpi tals, asylums, poor-house, &c.; depots.
· '
8. P u~r.JC rnrttovirnENTS-rail roads, canals, and plank roads
or turnpikes . and wh c~rc leading.
9. l\hsc~LLANEO~s, including every thing <!f inter est not coming
under previous topics.
Prepare il sim ilar Narrative of the s tat e in which th e connty is 8ituated.

Give a general d~scription of each section of the Union, viz:
1. Eastern. 2. Middle 3. Southern. 4. W estern. 5. Pacific
states.
(h) Gi 1•e n Narrati\·e of the longest journey you reme mber, m e ntioning,

1. The sotting out.
2_. Inci?ents of traveling.
3. Arrival at the place of destination.
4. Pleasures enjoyed, both from friends and new scenes and
acquaintances.
5. Any unpleasant incidents or misfortunes.
6. Return, and estimate of the advantages of the excursion.
EXERCISE LXXV.
The following hi storital topics will afford good snbjects for Narrative:

Discovery of America.. The Pilgrim Fathers. Execution of
Lady J ane Grey: Conduct ?f Elizabeth towards Mary Queen of
Scots. D<·strucbon of Tea m Boston Harbor. Banishment of
Roger Williams. Witchcr'.l'ft in New England. Battle of Lexington. Batlle of Bunker Hill: Surrender of Burgoyne. Treason
?f Arnold. Capture of Andre. Surrender of Cornwallis. Fonndmg of Rome. Invasion of Russia.
EXERCISE LXXVI.
Give full descr ipti ons of the fo ll owing subjects:-

A l\fayi ng Party. A Pie Nie. A Camp Meeting. A visit to th e
M11se~m. Account of Christmas or New Year's P resents. Dis-

tnbutiuu of & hool Prizes. School Examination. Exhibition. Different uses of Bells. Uses of India Rubber. Of Glass. Describe
th e vari?us articles for which we are indebted to the Cow. Th e
same with the Sheep. The habits of the Rabbit. The Squirrel.
The Fox. The Weasel. The Dog. The Cat. A H en and
Chickens.

111

BIOGRAPHY.
167. Biography is a history of the life and character
of any particular person. As the person must be fully
portrayed, skill in description is necessary; and as the
several incidents of a life must be con!ensed into a connected story, it falls under the same rules as Narrative.
168. In a complete Biography, mention should not
only be made of the more important actions which a
person ever performed, but w~ shoulc~ al~o have a .competent knowled ge of th e motives which mduced him to
act in one way rather than in another. But of this we
can never be sure, since we selclom hav e such a clue to
the conduct of any one, however intimat ely we may
think we know him. We accordingly are left to form
a judrrment of the motives, the principles, and the purposesb of men from their actions, rather than estimate
their conduct from known principles. And from this
cm1se different writers will convey very different opinions
of the same man .
ExAMPLE.-The Puritans are represented by some writers as
ardent friends of liberty, and upright, conscientious and pious
persons, or men of whom "the world was not worthy ;" and by
others they arc called " the old hypocritical Puritans, than whom
th e earth never had greater tyrants."

As these diverse characters cannot both be true of the
same person, we can readily see that one writer or the
other is greatly influenced by prejudice more than by
truth.
QUESTIONS.
167. What is Biography?

How is it allied to Desc ript ion?

H ow to

Narrative?
JG8. \V lrn t is. necess.nry in a comp lele Ili oµ' raphy? \Vhat prevents a
biographe r from a full k11 owledgc ofa pe 1·!'-011':-: c ha racte r ? H ow nre we
m o:-:tl v left to for m a judgment ofa pe 1·..-on? \Vh at i ~ the Example of the
different e>t imate of the Puri ta ns ? or wha t i.- one or 01her the elfeC't?

112

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

BIOGRAPHY •

. ~G?. No gen.e ral rule can be given for describing

Agrippa. Character-devotedness, st~adf~stness, energy and zeal.
Dies at Rome about A. D. 66. Contnbut10n to the sacred canon.
Admiration of him in all ages.
. 4. Columbus.
State of navigation before the discovery of America.
Birth of Columbus P.t Genoa, 1435. Early life and occupation.
;'llcditates the existence of another hemisphere.
Proposes his plan to the king of Portugal. When rejected, goes
to Spain.
Yarious applications to the king and queen. Isabella, at length,
furni shes means to fit out an expejji;ion.
Sails on first voyage August 3, 1492.
,\ccount of voyage. and discovery of land.
Suspicion of natives. Loses one of the ships.
Returns to Spain, and encounters a terrible stom1 .
Received with great honors in Spain.
Second voyage and return sick to Hispaniola.
Sails for Spain. ~.nd dissatisfaction of crew.
Third voyage. Bobadilla seizes upon his property and imprisons him, and sends him to Spain.
Last voyage. Forms a settlement and sails home
Visits court afte1· death of Isabella.
Death. Monument, and removal of remains .
Character-enterprise.

1~~1.v1duals, as m some .we desire a knowledge of the
1Je1 sonal appearance, ,~·~11.le of others we prefer a know~edge of the mental a brittles, and all that constitutes the

Intellectual man.
The following topics, however, should receive more
or less attention, viz :
1. Person's size and height.
~· M annei_-, g11'ceful or otherwise-active or indolent.
. :3 . Profess10n-rank in society-rich or poor-educat10n and skill.
4. Disposition-principles-firm or undecided habits
<ind degree in which is esteemed.
'
. 5. ~ental character-estimate for judgment, prudence,
d1scret10n, and general talents.
EXERCISE LXXVII.
Frnme Biographies of the following persons, embracing the annexed

particulars:-

1. Life of Joseph.
. Birth 1750 B. C. Occupation of father and brothers. Cause
o~ en,vy of ?rothcrs. Treatment by. His dreams, and their proti,tl>lc nwanmg. His sale to merchants. Reuben's intention Tl
statement to his fath er, and his grief. His imprisonment, a~d ho~~
!1.c was rel cased. Promotion. First interview with his brothers.
1 he same when he i~1akes himself known to them. Removal of
Jaeob to Egypt. His sons. His death. Removal of his bones
m th the exodus of Israel.

2. Life of David.
1085 B; C. Occupation. Place of r esidence. Anointing
u7 Samuel. Combat with Goliath. Intimacy with Jonathan.
hda t1on to family of Saul: and persecution from. Anointed king
~ f .Judah, a,t, HeLron, 10u5 B. C. His wars. Preparations for
e 1c<.tlon of lemple. R,evolt of Absalom. David 's grief at his
death. lJ eat.h 10 1 '~ B. C. Length of reign and his successor. Charac ter and d1spos1t10n.
3. Life of Paul.
. TI~m .a,~ Tar~n~, in Asia Minor. Educated by Gamaliel. Pre;:c.11t :tt .ch .'1th ?f StPphcn. Persecutes the churches. J ourney to
J ),t. lll.l ., <; u~.
Stoned at I ' ystra • .Beaten an d 1rnpn·
··
d
Pl ·1·Com·crs10n.
·
sonc at 1i.1pp1. Arrest at Jerusalem. Appeals to the Roman
emperor. Escape from conspirators. Appears before Festus and
B~m

5. Captain Jolin Smith.
Born at Willoughby, England, in 1579. Sale of school satchel
and books to procure means to go to sea, at age of 13.
Apprenticed to a merchant, whom he dislik es and leaves.
Tmvcls in the train of a nobleman to France, and thence to the
Netherlands, where he entered the army.
.
Shipwrecked in returning . to Scotlai;d.
Leaves home at age of 19 to engage m the .war .a gamst the Turks.
Combat with the Lord Turbashaw, hts friend Grualgo aud
l\lulgro.
'Vounded and taken captive at Rottenton; is sold, and comes
into possession of a lady who mani~sts great sympathy, and sends
him to her brother in Tartary.
.
Treated with great severity, he kills and hides the body of his
.
master, and escapes to Transylvania.
Reaches England when at.tention is directed towards colonizmg
America, and joins the expedition.
In Apn1, 1607, explores James river .
.., Founds .Jamestown. I s excluded from the council.
Visits Powhatan, on a voyage to explore the source of James
river.

10"

114

ENGLISH CO!IIPOSITION.

~elieves the wants of the coiony, by obtaining corn from the
Indwns as a ransom for their idols.
; Is captured in a m.arsh. Beguiles the Indians with a compass.
'.I.h ey .make preparat10ns to put him to death.
~Vntes a_ note ~o the colony at Jamestown for certain articles,
which obtained, gives great surprise.
Ts carried about in triumph and brought to Powhatan when
his death is decided on.
'
Pocahon tas interferes and save<; him, and he returns to Jamesto\\·n after an a bsencc of seven weeks.
Various efforts to preserve the colony from starvation.
Leaves Virginia in 1609 for England.
.In 1614 sails for New England. Surveys the coast and trades
mth the Indians.
On a second voyage is taken prisoner and carried to Franceescapcs and reaclws England.
Poca_hontas visits England in 1616, and Smith addresses the
Queen m her behalf.
Dies in London, 1631, at age of 52.
Character for energy, perseverance, enthusiasm, bravery and
prudence.

G. Sir Walter Raleio1i.
Born in Devonshire, 1552.
"'
Enters Oxford , but remains only a short time.
. " Spends a good part of his youth in wars and martial exercises"
111 France.
Esca pes the ma ssacre of St. Bartholomew's day, by taking
r efu ge mth the English am bassodor.
r In 1579 accomp.itnics Sir Humphrey Gilbert on a voyage to
Newfoundland, which proves an unfortunate <'Xpcdition.
·
I~ 1584 th e queen grants him a patent of discovery.
Fits out t wo sh ips, and arrives on th e coast of Carolina in July.
Takes possession of tlw country and calls it Virginia.
Second voyage in 1585, wi th seven vessels. Colonists fail in
th ei r ~~icct, and first intro~luce tobacco into England.
. Pro.iects '.I voyage to Gmana, which is ultimately the cause of
hi s dcslrur,tJon.
I~fluence and favor lo:5t at.death of the queen.
hmg James clrnrges !um with treason and scdilion, and he undergo es n <lisgraceful trial.
His life is reprie-yed, and he is imprisoned twrlve years.
In ~ 617 sails with twelve vessels to Guiana again. Failure of
exp~di~10n ,. and on r.eturn to England is beheadc<{, Oct. 29 , 1618.
Distm~m~h ed for his li terary character. en te rprise and ·experience
a~ a na_
vigator. One of th e most remarkable men of his age for
his varied knowledge and r emarkable talents

BIOGRAPHY.

115

7. William P enn .
Born in London, Oct. 14, 1644. Only son of Admiral P enn.
Great attention paid to his education, and in 1660 enters University of Oxford, where he neglects the usual r eligious duties and
holds private p.rayer ineetings , for which he is fined by the
college.
.
His father is greatly displeased at his conduct, and bamshes
him from his house; but when ·his opinions are found unalterable,
is reconciled to him.
In IG68 begins to preach, for which he is frequently imprisoned,
where he writes his "No Cross no Crown."
In 1681 a large tract of land in America granted him by Charles
II., in consideration of a debt due his father.
Arrives at Newcastle, Delaware, Oct. 27, 1682, and in company
with Swedes and other colonists towards the close of the year locates
the town and borough of Philadelphia, " having a high and dry
bank next to the water, and a shore ornameuted with a fine view
of pine trees."
After two years, returns to England, to exert his influence for the
release of the Quakers from prison.
Embarks with his fami ly for America in 1699. Soon returns
again to England, and dies, July 1718.
Character for firmness, decision, integrity, benevolence, and
active philanthropy.

8. Washington.
Born at Bridges Creek, Westmoreland county, Virginia, Feb.
22, 1732.
Father's death, before his tenth year, devolves him upon the
guidance of his mother. Influence of this event upon his character.
At fifteen receives the appointment of midshipmnn in the English navy, but declines it at the request of his mother.
Practices the business ofa surveyor, and before the age of nin eteen
holds the appointment of ndjutant general and major in th e forces
of the colony .
At twenty-one selected by the governor of Virginia to cross the
state to the Ohio river and demand from the French, posted at
Fort Duquesne, (Pittsburg,) the withdrawal pf their forces.
Publication of the journal of his expedition.
Appointed lieutenant colonel of the forces to expel the French
from their posts.
Engagement with them, and vote of thanks of the legislature for
his gallantry and skill.
Serves as a volunteer under Braddock in 1755.
Superior judgment displayed, but which neglected cost the life
of the general.

=

116

ENGLlSH COMPOSITIOK.

Appointed clelcgatc to congress in Philadelphia, 1774, and by
th e same body chosen comn1m1du· in cl1ief of the army.
Proceeds to Cambridge aml enters on th e dutiPs, juJy l, 1775.
Engagement, then "·ithdrn1rs to New York, March 1776.
Contest ' " ith the British on Long Jshnd, and skillful r etreat to
New ·York, and thc·ncc to ·whi te Pl:1ins.
Diflercnt enco unters 11·ith enemy rluring the war. Encampments at Valley Forge, Morristown, Newburg, etc., and condition
of' troops. Crossin g the Delaware.
Difliculties arisin g from d(·prcciatcd bills. want of clothing, etc.
J1111ction "·ith Co unt de Grasse and siege of Yorktown.
C' lo.se of \\·ar, and surrender of commission at Annapolis.
Pre., i1lcnt of a convention for framing a constitution, and i~ snbf;t•qucnt ly chosen President.
,\rrives at New York, and inaugurated April 30, 1780. Reelected,
l.J11t declines further ~crvice .
Retires to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he dies, Dec.
14 . 17\!0.
Remarks on his character and integrity-" First in war, first in
fll'a~c. a11d first in th e hearts of his countrymen ."

,,

9. Howard.
Born near Lonrlon , ] 727. His father a man of considerable
fortune, acqu ired in business.
Aliout fift een apprentic e<! to a g rocer, but on decease of his
fath er purcha ses his remaining tim e.
l\Iak cs a tom through Frnnce and Italy. Is in ill health on hio
r etu rn; and at the age of twenty- five marries a widow of fifty-two,
wh o 011Jy lives three years after.
Determines to visit Portugal, and particularly Lisbon, which
had jns t been laid in ruins by an earthquake, but is taken captive
l>y a Frcnch privateer , and treated with great crnclty in prison.
Influence of this cap tivity upon his futur e efforts to relieve the
su!Terings of prisoners.
Efforts while residing at Cardington for the benefit of the poor
an<! manufacturers.
Receives th e appointment of sheriff of Bedford, and commences
his survey of the prisons of the county and then of England.
Visits to foreign prisons, and attempt to gain admittance to the
Bastile.
In 1777 publishes the results of his observations and travels of
more than forty thousand miles.
In 1784 retires to his estate, in order to spend the remainder of
his days; but after two years embarks on another expedition of
phil anthropy.
ViRitA prisons of Italy, Greree, Asia Minor anrl Turkey.

BIOGRAl'HY .

117

In 1790 again quits England, and goes through Holland, Germany, Prussia, and reaches Cherson in Russia, where he falls a
prey to a malignant fever, in the sixty-fourth year of his age.
Oh<tracter for perseverance, philanthropy, and the amelioration
of wretchedness in th e worst form.
10. La Fayette .
Born 175.7, at Chavagnac, in Auvergne.
Marries at seventeen a grand-daughter of the Duke of Noailles.
Inherits a large fortune. Is of high rank and influential connections at com;t.
Comes in 1777 to join the war of independence in America,
when he raises and equips a body of men at his own expense.
Fights as a volunteer at battle of Brandywine in 1778, where
he is wounded, and at that of Monmouth in same year, and receives
the thanks of congress.
Returns to France to obtain reinforcements, and return s with
the armaments under Rochambeau. Appointed to the command
of Washington's vanguard at Yorktown.
After the -surrender of Cornwallis returns to France, and is
elected a m ember of the notables in 1787.
During the French revolution is made command er in chief of the
national guards. Sympathises with the royal family, and assists
them in their attempted escape.
For his advocacy is burnt in effigy, 30th Jun e, 1702, and
obliO'ed
to escape from France. Is imprisoned by the Austrians at
0
Olm utz for fiv e years, and at requ est of Bonaparte is set at liberty.
In 1824 visits the Uniled States, and is received with distinction
and enthusiasm.
In the revolution of 1830 is again appointed commander in chief,
and is influential in raising Louis Philippe to the throne.
Dies in 1834, more deeply lamented in the United States than
in his native land.
Character-love of liberty, consistency, and honor.
1]. F ranklin.
Born at Boston, 170(), and was the fifteenth of seventeen children. His father had emigrated from England, and pursued the
business of a tallow chandler.
Apprenticed to his elder brother, a printer and publisher of a
news paper, where his early taste for reading was gratified. Influence or this on his future life.
Conducts the paper during the imprisonment of his brother, and
after his release embarks secretly on board a vessel for New York;
bu t finding no employment here, sets out on foot for Philadelphia,
with a penny roll in his h:md and one dol!ar in his purse.

118

~

':'I

D!OGRAPHY.
ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

Obtains employment here, and attracts the notice of the governor,
by whom he is induced to visit England for the purchase of type.
R eturns to Philadelphia in 1726, and two years afterwards
established a newspaper.
Ia l i35 appointed clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania,
and nex t year postmaster of Philadelphia.
Services during the French wa1· in 1744; and about the same
time commences experiments in electricity, and proves its identity
-with li"h tnin oIn 1747 ch'Zi~en representative. Jn 1757 visits Englund as agent
for Pennsylvania, and there chosen fellow of the Royal Society.
Jn 1775 elected delegate to congress, and is active in the revolntionary cont~st, and after the close is sent to France as commissioner, where he oigns 11 treaty of alliance between that country
and America.
Hetmns in 1785, nncl chosen president of the supreme council.
Dies, 1790. Place of burial. Bequests for individual and munici pal improvements.
Character-energy and perseverance ; industry and economy ;
application; eminence as a philosopher and politician.
12. D r . J udson .
.Bom Anp;ust 9th, li8R. Son of the pastor of the Congregational
Church at l\ladcl en , l\Iass. , and subsequently at Plymouth. Influence of this place on his after missionary character.
I s nnwl'ari ed in pursuit of knowledge, and graduated at Brown
University, Rhode Island.
In early lif'c entertain~ skeptical opinions, but by the aid of !\is
fath er's lihrary is able to solve his doubts in favor of Christianity
and the Bibl e.
Stuclil's th eology at Andover, Mass. ; and from reading Bnclinnan's Hesearches and a sermon entitled "The Star in the Eust," is
indn ced to devote himself to the cause of l\lissions; also promoletl
by in tercourse \\'ith Hall , Newell and Nott, fellow students.
·Writes a communication, which is read before the Association
of Massaehusctts, offering himself and his three friends as missionari es for India, which results in the formation of the "American
Boan! of Commissioners for Foreign Missions."
In 1812 embarks with his wife and other fri ends for Calcutta,
whrre they nre cordially rrceivccl.
Be1~0rncs involved in difficulties throue-h a "·nr l>dwcen the
F.rn!lish and Bmmn.ns. Imprisoned, nn.d lon.ckrl " ·it h C'hains.
Infln r nce :rnrl heroic efforts of his wife with the governor for his
rc~ easp.
Arc in the hands of the cxcc11tionrrs, nm! nt t.hc point
of rh•n.th. Ca11se of relaxation of r igor for a lime. Sufferings an d
endurance. Death of l\Irs. Judson.

119

Returns to America 1845. Intrrest excited by his narrations
and addresses. l\Iarries and returns, 1840 .
Illness and death.
Clrnracter-intluence of convictions of duty, and his decision;
ardor in cause of missions, and zeal for the kingdom of Christ.
Influence upon the world in exciting a spirit of missions.
Remarks on the importance of missionary operations, and the
self-denial of such men as Judson and others.
14. Henry Martyn.
Born at Truro, Cornwall, England, 18th February, 1781, of
humble but deserving a.nd industrious parents.
In childhood had good opportunities for education, and entered
college 1797.
Attentive to study, ambitious for distinction, and graduates with
highest honors.
Influence of his sister on turning his attention to the subject. of
religion.
In 1802 is elected to a fellowship in the college, a.nd r esolves to
enter the ministry, and then to become a forei gn missionary.
Spiritual ch aracter of his diary.
Ordained 22d October, 1803, and becomes assistant in church
at Cambridge .
In July, 1805, sails for India as chaplain of East India Company.
Voyage thither. Visits a battle field at Cape ot Good Hope.
Lands at Calcutta. May, 1806.
Employment till he reaches Dinapore, where he soon learns the
death of his sister.
Is engaged in translating different portions of the Bible, in company with Sabat.
Journey to Cawnpore, and debilitated health. Voyage to Shiras.
Extreme heat of the days.
Discussions with Mohammedans about Christianity. Completes
the translation of the New '.l.'estament-th e Psalms in 1S12-and
commences a journey to Tcbriz, to present a copy to the king.
Is seized with fever. Sufferings on the way.
Pul'poses a r eturn to England, and travels towards Constantinople to Tocat, where he dies, in his 32d year, in 1812,
No particulars known of his last illness and death.
Character-admiration of; ardor and fidelity; devotedness and
piety.
Remarks upon the necessity of the hea.then world that the
gospel should be carried among them, and its civilizing influence~ .

- ....
120

J::l\"G LI S H COMl' US ITI ON .

..

J 5. Milton.

tio~.or°E~~ir~mber2, 1608. H~s fath er 's a.nxiety about his educaEnglishman w~1~l~':'1~~t {~~-nlmd~~- ~i1s studies .there. '.l.'he first
Intended for the churcl1 mbuvtersl es afte1l· ~he i:ev1val of learning.
iY .·
.
,
c rnnges us rnmd.
.
, T 11 tes Comus m 1634, and Lycidas in 1637
ravels m 1638. Visi ts Grotius in p .· I ·
Reception from the learned in It 1
taly, Florence, Rome.
alls
N I
I
a y.
L~gc~~ V iecalled by the tumults of civil war in England.
h eim . Retu~·~~c~h;~e~~a;•. Acquamtai;ice with_ Dioda~i and Span\ Tarious literary wo;k/ J
RecHe1vcs pupils for mstruction.
· · ames.
is wife separa tes from him.
A r econciliation.
His first wifed'
L .t
.
R eturn of Chai;~~- II 'Hra1;;'/dr0Jects. "_Paradise Lost.,,
the pl ague.
·
is m ness. Retires to Chalfont during
"Paradise Lost" publish nd
.
y ears after publishes a histo; -amount received for it.
Three
also, Paradise R egained and §of EngAland ~o thl'l Norman invasion;
.
amson gomstes.
Dies of out
Extensive l~arni~g~67iielig~~~ss·onaald appletaralnce .. . Domestic habits.
.
· n po 1 1ca op1mons.

Mee:.

16. Goldsmith.
Born November IO 1798 t p 11
R ev. Charles Goldsmit'h . C~n~der:d ~· 1Y~la11~· His:ather the
college 1774. His conduct at colle"'e. u m is yout . Enters
"'
His father now dead h
b_y the bishon D t , .e proposes to en ter the ministry. R ejected
. ·
"'·
e ermm es to prepare for th 1 1
fi .
His folly. Goes t o Dublin to stud • d..
e ega pro cssion.
compl ete his studies. Sets out on ~o~t t~;~~:,.h i~es Jo .LeyFden to
Germany, I taly. Returns to ·E o-J d
. "'
an eis, <ranee,
1' t .
l
n., an .
.
u or m a sc 1001. Assistun t to an
th
.
gagcment with th e llfonthly H .
adpo f ecar3 · 11fakes an enit up.
eview, an a tcr seven months gives
Writes the Vicar of W I· fi Id h
In 1768 l .
d
a , e le - t e Traveler-the Hermit
·
·
iis come Y of the Good na tu d M
'l'h c Deserted Village H'st " . f- G r e
an is unsuccessful.
/ 1npointed 1rofe,so.r
' mies o . r eece. Rom e, E ngland.
Stoops to Co~quer ",,
At ncienft AHi~tory. Great success of" She
18 ory o
-·
.
mmated Natw·e
D
, ies, 1 1 I 4 , aged 45.
·
Character-amiable a db
.
less ; want of decision annd fie~evo1ent but improvident and thoughts••Y 1e of 111s. writings.
unn ess.

ff

BIOGRAPHY.

121

17. P atrick H enry.
Born in Vi1·ginia, 1736. Common school education. After
spend ing some time in trade an d agriculture, commences the practice of law after only 'ix weeks ' study.
Strn ggles with poverty. Cause of his first b eing distinguished.
In 1765 elected to the house of burgesses, with r eference to opposing
the stamp act.
Appointed a delegate to th e first congress, 1774, where he distinguishes himself by his boldness and eloqu ence.
In 1776 appointed governor of Virg inia. In 1786 a deputy-for
revision of federal constitution. Is opposed to adoption of constitu tion of United States.
Retires from the bar in 1794, and dies in ] 799.
Remarks upon his scanty Information both on legal and political
topics; oratory natural and of high est order; powers of ;magination, sarcasm, humor; force and energy of manners, and profound
knowledge of human nature.
] 8. General Jackson .
Born in Waxsaw, South Carolina , March 15, 1767. His family
had emigrated from Ireland two y ears before. His father dies
soon a fter his birth , and his mother in tends him for the ministry .
Studies in terrupted by revolutionary war, and at age of 14 leaves
school for th e camp. Taken prisoner, bu t exchanged :lfter battle
of' Camden . Narrow escape from death by hi s officer. Death of
his mo th er and eldest brother, by which he is h eir to a considerable estate.
Co mmences the study of law in Salisbury, North Carolina, and
in l 786 ad mitted to practice, and removes to Nashville, Tennessee.
Incident of first practice. Appointment as attorney general of the
district, and in 1796 is a delegate to the state convention. Elected
to congress. In 1797 is a senator in congress, but resigns at the
close of th e session through .di sgust for political life. I s also maj or
general of the Tenn essee mili tia.
Receives au ap pointment to the bench of the su preme court of
th e state, but soon r esigns, and retires to his farm.
Jn 1812 ap poin ted to command of 2500 volun teers, to protect
Louisiana and Mjssissippi from invasion by British forces. Encou il ter with Indians at Talledega and 'l'ohopeka.
In 1814 attacks Pensacola, th en a Spansh town. Different
skirmish es, and .final engagement at New Orleans, January 8, 1815.
Disproportion of forces engaged and killed .
Elected presid ent 1829, and again in 1833, notwithstanding the
strongest partizan opposition.
Dies, June 8, 1845, at the age of 79.
Character-for determin ation and decision inflexibili ty of purpose. -Influence of his administ ration on the prosp erity of the
country.

11

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122

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E~GL I S H

Hl.

CO~ !F OSITIOl'\'.

f[P11n; Clo'l.

_ Bor~

in Hauonr c:ounly, Virginia, April 12, 1777. His father,
a Baptist clergyman , die, while he i,; quit e young , and only enjoys
the advan tage of a commo11 ~c hoo l.
Commences study of Jaw at nin eteen, and admitted to practice
next year. Hc·rnoves lo Lc:xin gton , pur:;ues his studies and practices public s peaking in a debating society. Embarrnssment of his
first attempt.
In 17U8 takes a prominent pa rt in tlisc ussions about the constit ution of the state. In 1803 is elected a member of the legislature,
and in 180G lo a vacancy in the United States senate. His first
speech in the senate.
Entcrn the s lntc legislature ngnin , and is chosen speuker. Jn
1809 is again elected to a vaca 11c1' in lh e United States senate.
Advocacy of the " American Systcu;." In 1811 is elected to house
of representatives, of ~· hi ch he is chosen speaker. In 1814 chosen
one of the commissioners to Ghent . R esignation of speakership
for the purpose.
In 1825 is secretary of state. Recognition of independence of
th e Spanish colonies of South Am erica . Influen ce in congress in
l 833 to avert th e evi ls of nullification .
Candid ate for presidency. Speech in the United States senate
upon his contemplated withdrawal from public life, in March, 1842.
Motion on compromise measures in 1850.
Dies, .Jun e 2\) , 1852, at Washington.
R emarks upon his charnctrr, abil ities, statesmanship and influ-

..

Pnce.

20. D aniel Webst er.
l3orn in Salisbury, Nr:w Hampshire, J anuary 18, 1782. His
fath er a farm er , but an officer in revolutionary war , and a judge
of t h e court of common pleas. Struggling wi th diffi culties for an
cclucation, is at length graduatecl at Dartmouth in 1801.
Studies law, first in his native town ancl afterwards at Boston,
and ad mitted to the bar in 1805 Removal to Portsmouth , where
he rises in his profession .
Elected to congres.~ in l 812, at age of 30. Opposes a conscription and the United States Bank.
Removes to Boston, 1816. Important suits in which be is engaged. In 1820-21 is a member of n convention to revise the
constitution. His speech nt Plymouth, on the two hundredth
anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims. In 1825 his speech at
Bu nker Hill l\Ionurnent.
Is also a member of the house of representatives from 1823 to
1827, when he is transferred to the senate. Speech in reply to
General Ha yne. of South Carolina. Visit to Englund in 1839.

BIOGR AP HY.

123

From. 1841 ~s _secretary of state for two years, and ngain in 1850.
Speech m 1846 m favor of the Oregon boundary, and in 1850 on
the compromise re$o]utions.
Settlement of the north-east boundary question. Retirement
to private life till again elected to the senate.
Attachment to his home and farm at Marshfield, where ·he dies,
October 24, 1852.
_Re~1iarks upon ~he greatr.ess of his intellect-knowledge of consbtut10nal law-his character-patriotism and services.
EX ERC ISE LXXVIII.
Prepare Bi ogrnphies of t!.e follow in g persons , embracing the principal
events ot their

Jive~,

with rema rks on thefr charncters :-

1. Socrates, B. C. 468-399
2. Alexander the Great, B. C. 356-323.
3. Julius Cresar , l3. C. 99-43.
4. Cicero, B. C. 106-43.
5. P eter the Great, 1672- 1725.
6. Gustavus Adolphus, 15 5-1632.
7. Mary Queen of Scots, 1542-1587.
8. Captain J ames Cook, 1728-1779.
9. Napol eon Bonaparte, 17GU-l.821.
10. Oliver Cromwell, 1599-1658.
11. Alexander Hamilton, 1757-1804.
12. De Witt Clin ton, 1769-1828.
1 3. John C. Calhou n, 1782-1850.
14. Whitefield, 1714-1770 .
15. Claudius Buchanan, 1766 -1815.
16. Bishop Hcbe1·, 1783-1826.
17. Samuel J. Mills, 1790-1818.
18. Hannah More, 17 44-1833.
19. Harriet Newell, 1793-1812.
20. Ann H. Judson, 1789-1826.
21. Mrs. Hemans, 1794-1835.
EXERC ISE LXXlX.
Give a succinct histor y of the following e vents:-

Th e Tr~j[Ln W ar. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. T aking of
Rome by Brennus. Hannibal's Campaigns in Italy. The Knig·hts
Templars. 1'ho F eudal System. 'fhc Crusades. Th e ·wars of
York and Lancaster. Th e Plague of London. The Trial and
Execution of Strafford-Of Louis XVT.-Of Mari[L Antoinette.
Cor tez' Conques t of Mexico-The "Melancholy night" of his
departure. Pizarro's Conquest of Peru. E;<pulsion of the Moors
from Spain.

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124

EPISTOLARY WRITING.

.

EPISTOLARY WRITING.

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

170. Epistolary or Letter ~riting, whe_n ski!lfully
performed, is a great ac.comphsnment. It I~ a krnd. of
writing in which very few excel, ?nd a _subject. which
admits of no rules to direct how, m all its particulars,
it should be done. It would be as useless to offer rules
or directions which should be fully obeyed, as it would
be to give rules for social intercburse with a friend.
171. There are rul es, however, which must not be
'liolated or transgressed; as, for mstance, ~ lett~r should
be natural, simple, and free from restramt: 1t should
part ake of all the sprightliness ?f social _intercourse,
and be upon subjects which are smta~le topics for such
kind of writina. Some authors of Hrntory have chosen
to aive their J~arratives in the form of letters; but this
is ~ topic which would never enlist the intercourse of
friends. A letter req uires care, but not the appearance
of too much study, for then it is formal. :1Jere, _if any
where, the perfection of art seems to be its entire absence.
172. \Vhen a letter is commenced with a pronoun of
the first person it should be retained throughout; and
so of the third person, it should be retained.
EXAMPLES.-" Dear Sir: I write to inform you," &c., commences
with a pronoun of the first person. Again: "Mr. Wilson's compliments to Mr. Ford, and r cg:rets,,. &c., is co1:nmenccd with a
pronoun of the third person, which should be retamed throughout.
The replies to such letters should also be written in the same
·
p erson with the letter.

QUESTIONS.
170. IIow i:-; le1te r writin g rega rd ed ? Why can no rules for the proper
perf"ornian<"e of it be given? In what re~pe ct~ are_ ~nch r11le~ u~el~ : ~?
171. \Vh a r are >om e rul es that •l101lld not be v10lated? Wh y IS not
Hi~t nrv n ~ 11i tahh~ topic for letter writing-?

.
.
172. -\Vhat rule :-:. are 10 be ob~erved with regard to the per~on rn w~1ch

u Je tt e r i:-t eommenced?
tion o apply 1

Give the examples, and s how \\'hen the 1.hrec-

125

173. The form of address of a · letter should be dependent in some degree upon the relationship, the intimacy of acquaintance, or the state of friendship existing
between the correspondents. If to a parent, it should
be "My dear Father or Mother;" if to an intimate
fri end, "My dear James or Isabella."
174. Letters on business transactions are generally
addressed as if to persons with whom an intimate acquaintance exists;· as "Dear Sir," or "My dear Sir."
This is of course a mere formality, as well as the nearly
obsolete form of subscribing one's self "Your humble
and obedient servant."
175. The following are appropriate phrases of respect
for closing letters : ( 1.) To a relative.
"I rema.in ever your affectionate son," &c.
(2.) To a person on business.
"Respectfully and truly yours," &c.

( 3.) To a pe1·son of superior station or office.
" With much respect, I am yours," &c.

176. Cards of invitation are variously written:As, (1.) "Miss Barclay's compliments for Thursday evening next.
" Pinc Street. J unc 1st."
Or, (2.) "Mrs. Barclay requests the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs.
Wilson's company on Thursday evening next.
" Pine Street. June 1st." .
To which th e following or some similar reply of acceptance
8hould be returned :"Mr. and Mrs. Wilson accept with pleasure Mrs. Barclay's
invitation for Thursday evening next.
" Broad Street."
Or, if circumstances render compliance with the invitation inconvenient, a note of regret should be sent immediately, as follows:
QUESTIONS.
173. What are the different forms of proper address for letters?
174. What is observed of the address of business letters?
175. What are appropriate phrases for closing letters?

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126

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

•

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

127

"Mr. and Mrs. Wilson regret that previous engagements mnst

?e~riv~ them of the pleasure of accepting Mrs. Barclay's polite

mv1tat1on for Thursday evening next.
" Broad Stree t."

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

177. Letters of Introduction, when carried by the
persons mentioned in them, should be sent unsealed.
The following form will give an idea of the contents of
such a letter:DEAit Sm,

PmLADELPmA, June 1, 1853.

This will introduce to you mx friend , Mr. William Potts
who vi8its your oity clncfly for tclaxatibn from the cares of bus1~
ness. Notwithstanding his close application to his avocations,
J\fr. Potts finds time to cultivate intellectual pursuits, and has
at.tained considerable distinction in the department of letters,
through the medium of his contributions to the Review,
The attentions which it may be in your power to offer him for
my sake, I am confident you will be more pleased to continue for
your own-and they will all be duly acknowledged and gratefully
remembered by
Yours, truly and respectfully,
JOHN GRAY.

THos. ·wmrE, EsQ.
EXERCISE LXXX.

\Vrite _notes or letters upon .the following topics, giving a proper addre •s
nnd closing phrase :-

A note of invitation to dinner. Th e acceptance of it. A note
?eclin!ng such in~itation for sufficient reasons. A note wishing an
mterv1ew on particular busmess. A note requesting the loan of a
book or any favor. A letter announcing the death of a friend any near relative. A letter describing a journey, with particular
mention of the passengers and their peculiarities. A letter conveying information of some disaster or mi sfortune that has befall en
a mutual friend. A letter of sympathy or cond olence for some
affliction. A letter to an absent parent, giving a detail of what
has taken place during such absence. A Jetter introducing your
]Jr()ther to a friend , A letter proposing an excursion, and invitiilg
a friend to join it.

178. Language is figurative when words are used in
a sense different from their ordinary signification, or are
applied to objects to which they do not strictly belong.
ExAMPLE.-She is of a sour disposition.
ExrL.-In this sentence the word sour is of course not used
literally to characterize the disposition , for in that way dispositions
are neither sour nor sweet, for these are qualities whiuh are to be
ascertained only by the sense of taste. But what is meant is this,
that, as that which is sour produces a disagreeable sensation to
those tasting it, so her disposition causes a similar disagreeable
impression on the mind of those observing her. The word sour
then is used figuratively. In plain or lit eral language we might
say, She is of a peevish disposition.

179. Ons.-Figurative language is employed to give greater
energy and clearness. A young writer, should therefore be careful
not to make use of any figure for the mere purpose of what appears
to be elegance, remembering that every word that does not add to
the force and perspicuity of a sentence, weakens and obscures it.
Vigorous thought can well support itself without such aid ; and
on the other hand, to quote from an old writer, "To clothe lowcreepiug matter with high-flown language is not fine fancy but flat
foolery. It rather loads than raises a wren, to fasten the feathers
of an ostrich to her wings."

180. The principal figures of speech are Comparison,
Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Meiosis and Personification.
SIMILE OR COMPARISON.

181. .Things may be compared in two ways, either
by way of resemblance or of contrast. Vie may view
two things together, wl)ich are alike in some points,
QUESTIONS.
178. In what two_ cases is language called figurative? Give the ex·
ample and explanation .
.
179. For what is figurative language employed? Why should young
writers gvoid it? What i~ nn old writer's obse rvation?
180. What are the principal figures of speech?

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128

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

and ~mlike iu. others; and we may dwell on and draw
out e1thc1' the11· resemblances or their differences. If we
look mere ly at th eir points of resemblance, we make a
S ·i mile or Comparison; if at their points of difference
an .!l:ntithesis.
'
182. In a Simil e tl;e Comparison is marked by like or
as, or equivalent words or phrases.
Ex~MPLE.-Talkativc pcrs;;1s arc like empty barrels; the less
th ere is rn them the more noise they make.
ExPL.- Ilore u oomp~r!~on ls made between talkative persons
and en;ipty barrels, and it 1s shown by the word like The figure
of speech th ere made use of is a Simile. So again, '.!_'here is a
resemblance between food and books; for, as the former nourishes
the body, so the latter do the mind.
EXERCISE LXXXI.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

EXERCISE LXXXH.
Compnre !he ro!lowin g·pai rs of oLjects respectively, showing their
points of resemblance:-

1. Food and books.
2. The troubles of a child and
an April shower.
3. The wings of a bird and the
·sails of a ship.
4, Life and a battle.
5. Heaven and hoa;ie.
·6. An infant and a flower.

. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow: Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream.
My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the
dew, as the small rain upon the tender herb, as the showers upon
the grass.
The groans of the people spread over the hill like the distant
thu~der of the night wh en the clouds burst on Oona, and the
shneks of a thousand ghosts are heard on the hollow winds.
·
She came in all her beauty like the moon from the cloud of the
cast. Lovcliuess was around her as light. Her steps were like
t.he music of songs.
Thou wast swift, 0 Morar! as a roe of the desert ; te1Tible as a
meteor of tJre.. Thy wrath was as the storm. Thy sword in
battle :is hghtmng m the field. Thy voice was a stream after
rain; hke thunder on distant hills.

7. Idleness and an uncultivated
field.
8. Prosperity and sunshine.
9. Misfortune and a dark
cloud.
10. Youth and spring.
11. Age and winter.
12. Music and eloquence.

EXERCISE LXXXIII.
Make similes for the following w orJ:; :-

Books.
A passionate man.
An ambitious conqueror.

Mention the words compared by way of s imile:-

.Grateful persons resemble fertile fields, which always repay
with more than they receive.

129

Time.
An avaricious man.
Life.

METAPHOR.

183. A Metaphor is a figure of speech which transfers a i.vorrl from its usual application to another. It is
used in reference to an object which in its usual sense it
resembles.
ExAMPLE. -Thus, we may say, In this battle Hannibal lost the
ffower of his army.

Exn.-Here the word flower is transferred from the object to
which it is usually applied, to a.n army. It is implied that what
the fl ower is to the plant, that the men whom Hannibal lost were
to the army. Thus it is a metaphor.
A metaphor is an implied comparison, but in which the sign
like or as is not used. Thus, if we say, Our life is but a shadow,
we mak e use of a metaphor ; but, Our life is like a shadow, is not
:i. metaphor, but a simile or comparison.
EXERCISE LXXXIV.
Show the words made use of us melaphors, and Ii kewise those as

~imiles: -

QUESTIONS.
_1'8L In what_wny:' mav 1hing-. be compared? Give the derivation o{
S1m1le and An111hesI", an(] tell when each applies to Comparison.
182. H ow i s Comparison marked in Simile! Give the example and
its explanation.

QUESTiONS.
183. What is Melaphor? Give it s derivation. Give the example
nnd expla nati on. Show the diffe rence between a Metaphor a nd a
Simile.

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130

ENGLISH COMPOSITIO N.

Idleness is the rnst of the soul. '.l'he hope of success is the
spring of exertion. Infancy is lhc <lawn of life. He spent the
sunset of his life in case and contentment The sun gladdens the
landscapl'. Both in this world and the next we reap the fruit of
our conduct. Every repetition of an action adds a new link to the
chain of habit. '11 hc wind was moaning through the trees. A
wise man hold s in his tongue as with a bit and bridle. He was
inflamed with anger. His prejudices are deep-rooted . Thoughts
that breath e and words that burn. The thunder of Demosthenes
aroused the Athenians. Hust eats into iron. Cares corrode his
heart. Language shol\ld be the mirror of the mind.
·
The Lord is a sun and shield.
In peace t)1ou art the gale of spring, in war the mountain storm.
'l ' hcre dwells a deep meaning in old customs.
Why dost thou build thy hall, son of the winged days?
l\lany foll by thy arm ; they were consumed in the flames of
thy wrath. Hut wh en thou didst r eturn from war how peaceful
was thy brow! Thy face was like the sun after rain ; like the
moon in the silence of night; calm as the breast of the lake when
the loud wind is laid.
Deep is t he sleep of the dead, low their pillow of dust.
The black ingredient which foul s our disposition is envy.
Villainy when once discovered is irretrievable; the stains which
it leaves behind no time will wash away.
The love of money is th e root of all c,·il.
Th e ~ !nt e ly .s hip , ac] 0\\'11 !h e boy ,
A co r~let f'rnrned of heav ing 800'W 1
And f111rred on hiah th e !"lender !:=pray ;

Till rainbows gleamed around her prow.

Th e )' melted from the tield , as rnow,

\Vh en :s tream ~ are swolleni and south winds blov.' i
Di~solve s in s il e nt dew.

On life 's Va!': t ocean di versely we $ai l,
Reason the card, but passion is th e gale.

EXERCISE LXXXV.
C han ge the following metapho ric expressions into plain ones:-

H e is the head of his class. (Plain expression.) He is the first
in his class. The valley was smiling with fertility. The ship
was ploughing the stormy main. Virtue is a j ewel. Time fli es.
The cloak of hypocrisy will one day he tom off: Vice is a plant
that bears misery as its fruit. Th t' loss of his son was a heavy
hlow to Durke. Th e cup of his happiness r an over. The hurricane S\vept every thing before it. The clouds thrmtcned ruin .
Death enters the paluces of kings as well as the cotbgcs of tlw
poor. ·walk in th e s traip;ht. path of honor.

FIGURATIVE LA NGU AG E.

131

Change the fo ll owing 8-Cnlences into me taphoric ones:-

Life is short. ( 111etaplwric expression.) Life is but a span.
Beauty does not last long. Let not thyself be overc?me by passion. Let the gospel be spread. The yellow corn is to. be cut
down. He was drowned. Virtue is always connected with happiness. The grave receives all. No one is without some trouble.
Do not be conceited.
Find metapho1·s for the follo.wing expres.sions, making use of either
verbs, a<lject1 veg, or nouns, as rn the follow mg
EX.A.MP LES.

ADJECTIVE. The dry soil =The thirsty soil.
VERB.-The soil absorbed the water= The soil drank in the
water.
NouN.-What we should do is evident= The path of duty is
clear.
EXERCISE LXXXVI.

Friend. (Metaphorically.) A friend is a P?rt in. a :storm, to
which we may resort, secure of such protect10n as it is able to
afford. Death . . Youth. Riches. Happiness. Life. A proud
man. War. A -storm at sea. A cloud. Sleep. Reason. Ignorance. 'rhc President began his administration in 1853.
A storm at sea (sea raged-waves-mountains high-thunder
roared-lightning flashed-ship driven-feather on wind.)
An unproductive soil (hungry-swallowing up every thing.)
W e ought not to be too much affected by troubles, ·for a period
of adversity is often followed by one of pros perity. (Not lose
heart-storm succeeded by sunshine.)
The progress of time is imperceptible. (Time-treads- noiseless s teps.)
He has an easy life (stream-runs smooth.)

184. An Allegory is a Metaphor fully carrietl out.
The 80th Psalm is a beautiful Allegory, as are also
:Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Addison's Vision of Mirzah
(Spectator, No. 159), and Johnson's Truth and Falsehood (Rambler, No. 96). All Fables and Parables are
a kind of Allegory.
QUESTIONS.
184. What is an Allegory? ·wh at examples of Allegories are given?
What of Fables and Parable s?

132

ENG LISH COMPOSITION.

-

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

133

METONYMY.

185. A Metonymy is the use of the · cause for the
effect ; the thing contained for that which contains it;
the sign for that which is signified, and vice versa.
As, Gray hairs should be respected. Flee from the
bottle. The throne is secure.
ExrL. - ln the first sentence g ray hairs is the Effect used for
the Cause, old age.; in the second , bottle stands for that which the
bottle holds, into:r:icating liquors; in the third, thr one, the badge,
or embl em, or sign of the royal office, is used instead of royalty.
'fhc expressions, gray hairs, bottle, and throne, as used here, are
Metonymies.
EXERCISE LXXXVII.
Point qut the Metonymies, and then change the figures into pl>J.in
langu age:-

I have read Milton. Changed to, I have read Milton's works.
Have you studied Addison? In the reign of George the 'rhird the
House of Commons resolved, that the power of the crown had
increased, was increasing, and ought to be diminished. He has a
lon g purse. The country was was ted by the sword. Cromwell
seized th e sceptre. Constantine assumed the purple while in Britain . The time appears to be corning when the destinies of nations
will be determined rather by the pen than by th e sword. Does
th e kettle boil '! Ile reads Pope daily. The stranger praised the
eloquence of our pulpit, ba1·, and senate. Alexander gave the
following opinion of two of his courtiers: Craterus loves the king,
but Hephrestion loves Alexand er;
>T j::.; all th y

busi n e:-~, bu~ine ss

ho\:v to shun,

And bask thy naked body in the s un.

I call upon th at reverend and this most learned bench, to vinilicate the r eligion of their God, to support the justice of their
country. I call upon the bishops to interpose the unsulli ed sanctity of their lawn; upon th e judges to interpose the purity of their
ermine, to save us from this pollution.
EXERCISE LXXXVIII .
Use M etonymies in stead of the plain language of the following senten ces:-

'l'he kingly office is less powerful than it once was. I would
advise you to read South's Sermons attentively. The Palatinate
QUESTIONS.
185. What is Metonymy?

was devastated by war during the r eign of J ames th e First. Let
us defend our homes and.our religion. Literature has much influence. I would rath er pass my time in writing than in fighting.
He earned th e election by means of his riches.
SYNECDOCHE. ,

186. A Synecdoche is a figure in which we.-.ise the
part for the whole, or the whole for the part, or gene;ally where any thing g1:eater or any thing less is used
instead of the exact object meant; as, There are ten
sail of the line in port. Ten thousand evils attend us
in life.
ExPL.-In the first sentence, sail, a part of a ship , is used for
the whole, ships, and is therefore a Synecdocbe. In the second,
ten thousand is the Syneccloche, being used for an indefinitely
great number.
EXERCISE L XXX IX .
Menti on the t:l yne edoehe,, and th en c onvert them into plain Ian·
guage:-

There were a hundred hands aboard. The town is full of soldiers ; a hundred horse entered last night, and there was a regiment of foot quartered in it before. H e k eeps a good table. In
the bay more .than a hundred sail are often in sight at once. The
·
face of the deep is frozen.
All hand s e mpl oyed, th e ro yal work grows warm.
Bl e~:-: ing~ ,

0 Fath e r! sh o\ver,

Father of Mercies 1 round h is preciou s head.
Rel urn to he r? nntl tlrtv men di !'- 1ni sse<l?
No ; rath e r I ahjure nil.roof.... , and r.h oo$e

T o be a c omrnde with th e wolf and ow l.
Bnt Kempenfelt is gone,
Hi ~ victori e~ nre o'er,
A nd he sn<l his eight hundred men

S hall pl oug h the waye no more.
Ch an ge the plain language of the follow ing sentences into
cloches :-

Synrc ~

Half our men were at the pumps. Clianged.-Ilalf our hand.,,
&_c. H e has lived fifty ye11;rs. (Us e a metaphor , snows-piled on
h;s head.) Innumerable msects were s portin~ in the sun shine.
A ship was seen in the distance. My house shall always shelter
you.

G ive examples and the explanations.

QUESTIONS.
186. \Vhat is Synecdo.c he'

12

Gi,-e exa mples and the expla nations .

134

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE .
MElO Sl S.

187. Meiosis is the saying less than is.mc~nt-stating
a thing weakly, or witl.1 Jess force than 1t might be; as,
Ile is not very industrious, \\·h en we mean to say, but
Jess offensively, He is lazy.

i
;.

188. 'ihis mod e of staling :i thing sometimes, by a sort of
r eaction, produces more effect t~an a strong statemei:t. The
suppression of what might be ~aid has more weight (bemg more
suggestive) than the full exprcss10u of it woul.d. So St. Paul calls
J1 ;msclf "the citizen of no mean city;". that 1s. of a most famous
city: for Tarsus (still l1 respeotl1ble city) wns one of tqe most
cdcbratrcl in Asin Minor, and was a great school for the study of
philosophy and. the arts.

~~

EXERCISE XC.

'l

Express the sense of the following sentences in a more softened
fo rm:-

,.

1. George is a lazy fellow.
(Changed lo-George is
not verv industrious.)
2. He is insufferably vain.
3. She is very passionate.
4. Ile is n grcnt ignoramus.
5. Samuel is always playing.
G. Ile is n thorough coward.
7. He was a inurcferer.
8. They are liars.
!J. H e 1icvcr does right.
10. That is a filthy river.
11. 'l'he statement is false .
12. He is a villain.

13. She is a gossip.
14. The Dutch are very rich.
15. Nero was a most hateful
man.
16. Needle-making is very injurious to health.
17. The Spanish are excessively
proud.
18. Dr. J ohnson was a great
scholar.
19. It was as ill-contrived a
plan as I ever knew.
20. It is a wretched place to
live in.

PROSOPOPCEIA OR PERSON IFICATION .

189. Prosopopceia is a figi;re of speec~ by whic~ t~e
qualities . of per.sons are attnbuted to .things . H 1s, 1.n
fact making thmgs persons, or speak rng of them as 1f
they were so. Thus we speak .o'. a river gliding at. its
own sweet will, of valleys smiling, flowers laughing,
&c.
QUEST JONS.
187. \Vlrnt is M eio5is? Give the example.
188. \Vhut adnu\l age does this produce as to elfect?
amp le from Paul':-; defence, and !"how it s force.

Give the ex-

135

ExPL.-Here the acts or properties of persons, viz., a will,
.<miling, and laughing, arc attributed to a river, valleys, and
flowers. They arc, therefore, severally, instances of personification.
190. Ons. 1.-In the above examples, the acts or properties of
persons are attributed to things; sometimes things are addressed
as persons, and represented as hearing what we say, and even
answering us. The fol1owing are examples:An Ocean, mi<l hi s uproar w ild,

Speaks safety to his Tsla11<1-Cliild.
0 Solit ude! where are the charms
That sages ha ve see n· in th y face?

Ons. 2.-0ur language possesses peculiar advantages in the use
of this figure, because the grammatical distinction of gender corr esponds to the natural distinction of sex. All males are masculine,
all females feminine, and all other nouns neuter. In the very act
of attributing gender to these last, we personify them, and have it
th erefore in our power to confer the dignity or energy, which arises
from a right use of this figure, on all our neuter nouns. Thus
America, Virtue, Ocean, are really neuter, and in ordinary language
are so used. They may, however, be personified for the purposes
of grace or energy; the first two as femal es, and Ocean n.s male.
I n most ·languages, however, nouns corresponding to our neuter
nouns cannot be thus personified, for many of them are already
either masculine or fem inine. Thus of modern languages, those
derived from the Latin, French, Spanish, &c., have no neuter
gender, and all nouns arc therefore unalterably either masculine
or feminine. La mer, the sea , is always feminine, and /' ocean,
the' ocean, is always masculine. No strength is therefore gained
by so using them . 'fhe languages of th e Gothic stock, like the
classical languages, are not thus destitute of a neuter gender; but,
unfortunately for the purposes of rhetoric, many nouns without
sex, or what we should call neuter nouns, arc clnsscd as masculine or feminine. They therefore cannot be personified by attributing to them gender. Thus the sun, which with us is ordinarily
neuter, and can be so energetically personified by making it masculine, is with the Germans unalterably feminine.
QUESTIONS.
189. What is Prnsopopmia? What
explana ti on of the examples.
190. 1-Iow a.re thin gs ofte n r ega rded
tl oes our language affordi nnd ·wh~: '?
!"Onilie<l? Give the !S uU stu 11ce of th e
Iung uag·es?

examples are given?

Give the

nnJ treated? What advantageq
\Vhcn may nouns ne uter be pcr-

obse n ·ation about other modern

-

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ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

THEMES.

137

EXERCISE XCI.
Mention 1he v.·ords perso11lfie d 1 and like wise those which express the
per:--U111fiC'ation : -

.{

·1t.ri .
~J

.

~\

EX ,\ 2\[PJ.E.-Our fields arc CROWKED with plenty.
The pupil
shouhl mention the "· ord.fields, as it is the word personified, and
the word c1t0w1' 1rn, as that which makes the personification.
Our fi eld s arc cro1rnecl with pienty. When summer reigns the
flmY crs r<'joicc. '.L'h e wind whispers. The mountain frowns in
lonely rnnjesty. The ol1ip was cleaving t~e waters . . The water
saw its God anrl ul11shcd. Ocean was puttmg forth his strength .
Hoaring; m\\"es cl i1llb the distant rock.
Confusion hea rd his voice. Cu rses, like chickens, always com e
hom e to roost. U Death! where is thy sting? 0 Grave! where
is thy vi ctory ? .
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.
The wildern ess and the solitary place shall be glad for them ;
and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose.
The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from · the ground.

Chan ge the plain lnnguage of the foll o wing sentences by mnking u se
of personifit'ations :-

The mighty one died (death-dart). He was very rich (wealth
poured tn•a sm es-fcct). She is deeply in love (love-soft chain) .
As the evening \Vas so fine, ll" C \\'ere induced to visit the sea shore
(i11Yi lcd ). Hoi LI and n1aj(·slic mountains closed in the view (frownino-). No rain falls in th e great desert (never drinks in a genial
sh7iwer.) The l°'ou ntry wa s devastated, first by famine, and then
by pes til ence (stalk eel through the country).
EXERCISE XCII.
Per~onify

ExA~lPLE

the following· \ Vo rds :-

1. (Adversity. )-Let not the frown of adversity too
much depress thee.
2. (Fortun e. )-Smiling fortune ; Fortune smiled on
him.
Time. Age. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Winter. -Death.
Om country . Th e sun. Night. Flowers. The laws. Success.
l\Ji>fortnne. Poverty that has known better clays.
An evil conscience. An unpolish ed diamond. Firmness. A
wnrri or. An army. Th e moon. Nature. Earth. Th e wind
ov<"r a. fi elrl of p:rni n. Joy anrl sorrow . A flow er in the desert.
A vonth ,,Jain in lmttl e. Th e sta.rs. Life. Knowledge. Science.
Ariger. J'\klancholy. P eace. Jus tice. Calumny.

THEMES .
191. A THEME is a subject or topic on which a dissertation is written or spoken. All the previous exercises have kept in view the full discussion of different
parts of the Theme; and though all may not have place
in the elucidation of the same subject, yet in particular
subjects one method of treatment may be far preferable
to another. The method of discussing these must be
determined from the nature of the topic or the Theme
under consideration.
192. Subjects proposed as Themes are of two sorts;
either some abstract idea, concerning which it may be
requisite to give an opinion and prove its correctness
according to established rules ; or some established
maxim, the truth of which must be proved by a similar
process of reasoning. Of course all questions will not
ndmit of the same method of argument, or can even be
divided in the same manner; and any attempt to follow
a particular model would show too much formality, and
often an awkwardness which would be disagreeable.
193. The object of observing a proper order is to
strengthen as well as to cultivate the reasoning faculty,
and 1t is necessary that there should be some general
plan which, in a modified form, will apply to the treatment of all Themes.
The various heads under which subjects for Themes
are generally treated, are,
QUESTIONS.
191. What are Themes? Are all to be discussed in the same way?
What determines the proper method of treatment?
192. What are the two different kinds of subjects proposed for Themes?
What effect would following a particular model have upon a compo·
fiition?

.

193. What is the object of any proposed order in the treatment of a
Theme? What are the variou s heads that apply to Themes in their
treatment? Apply this to the subject of industry.

12*

•
138

ENGLISH COMPOSITION,

1. The definition or proposition. 2, The judgment
or opinion. 3. The cause or reason. 4. The confirmation or proof. 5. The simile or comparison.
' 6. The example or illustration. 7. The quotation.
8. The conclusion.
These different heads may most satisfactorily be
illustrated by a particular example. If the subject proposed for a composition was Ind us try, in accordance
with the foregoing directions we would, after some proper introduction,
1. Explain the meaning and show the derivation of
the ·word. 2. Show how the possession of it increases
the enjoyment of life. 3. Show the effects of it upon
the body as well as the mind, and the cause of it.
4. Show whether it is a virtue necessary for all ranks,
and the effects of idleness. 5. Show to what it may
be coinpared. 6. Give some example, and show in
what light we should regard pleasure. 7. Show what
motives we have for acquiring industrious habits, and
cite any opinions of their worth. 8. Conclude.
19.:J. This sketch may be called a brief, and it should
always be carefully prepared before commencing the
duty of writing a composition. Indeed, nothing will so
greatly facilitate and convert the labor of writing a
composition into a pleasure so effectually as some definite plan of this kind.
195. The definition of words, as well as their derivation, should be accurately sought from some dictionary
or w.ork on etymology. The judgment or opinion given
rcqmres great care and deliberation, since upon it clepends the whole management of the remaining topics
of the Theme.
The cause or reason is a statement of the reasons
which induce us to entertain the opinion expressed lllider
the head of judgment rather than any other. These
causes may be either the evidence of the senses, the
consent of mankind, or the testimony of witnesses.

THEMES.

139

Simile or comparison has been sufficiently elucidated,
(181,) to which the writer should refer.
In example, history or observation must supply all
that is needecl ; and if nothing appropriate can be
thought of, it should be ~ntirely omit~ed .. I~ quotation
is thought desirable, let it be very brief: 1t I~ a r~sort
of which the less use is made the better. It 1s noticed,
to show the proper place for introducing it, not to
authorize or recommend it.
The conclusion should express, briefly and strongly,
the conviction which has been accumulating throughout
the discussion of the Theme.
196. Other sources of argument will often be considered necessary, and suggest themselves to the mind
of the writer. These should be examined with proper
care, and if found not included in any of the heads
mentioned, they should claim an appropriate place in
the list of topics.
197. We will present a list of subjects analyzed according to the method here stated, which the pupil will
do well to follow, unless he can prepare a brief, which
will answer his purposes better.
EXERCISE

xcm.

Prepare compositions on the following Th e mes, pursuing the me·
thod indicated:-

1. Education.
What is meant by the word? Give its derivntion. Amplify.
Opinion of its importnnce. Why? How did the ancients regard
the subject? Does it claim much attention at the present time?
Is the opinion of its importance universal? Why? When is it
most esteemed? What provision has been made by the state for
QUESTIONS.
195. What is said of defi nition and derivation? What of judgment and
the nece.-ity of eare? How does cause or reason stand related to judgment? What is said of example, and its importance in a composition?
How should quotation be treated? What is the peculiarity of con·
clu~ion?

196. · If these sources of argument appear necessary, how are they to
be disposed of?

- 140

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-

- 141

ENGLISH COllfPOSITION.

THEllfES.

enforcing and encouraging it? What are its effects upon the mind
and the body? Upon the station in life? Draw a contrast between an educated and an uneducated person. Show the advantages and disadvantages -bodily-mental. Conclude.

6. Time.
What is it? How measured ? How formerly reckoned ? Remarks on the variety of seasons-change of day and night. What
impression should it make on us? What u s~ ~hould we ~ake of
it? The shortness of life. Improvement of 1t m the practice and
culture of virtue. Necessity of diligence. Opinion of poets and
moralists. Concluding reflec tions.

2. Society.
What is it? Hus it always existed? In what form at first?
'!'he benefits-disadvantages. How does it improve the mind?
How the arts-the sciences ? Show the difference between a. state
of barbarism and civilized society. Mention some of the vices of
what arc considered tl1c more elevated ranks of society, and their
pernicious influence or example. Show the truth of the obscr\'ation,
" Man in society, is lik e a flower
Blown in its native bed," &c.

Give examples from history , showing the effects of the fashionable
vices of society. Show that the middle ranks are the most virtuous. Conclude.
3. Anger.
What is meant by it? Docs it produce any effects upon · the
perso n? If so, what 'i Give your opinion of its impropriety.
vVh at arc the usual effects ? Show the resemblance of some natural objects to th e effects of unrestraincrl rage. Give examples from
h istory or observation . 1\Icntion the best method of regulating it.
Show its effects upon society. Draw a contrast between a person
of a calm, placid temper, and one of a hasty and irritable disposition. Show, the advantage and the propriety of regulating the
angry fe elings of our nature.
4. Temp erance.
What is meaut by it? Give a.n opinion of it. How are the
actions of a temperate a.nd of an in temperate person distinguished ?
Mention the effects or results of intemperance and those of abstemious habits upon the ha.bits and character. Give examples.
What is the general opinion of temperance? Ca.n the word be
taken in more senses than one? How? Explain: temperance in
food-language-pleasure-exercise. Mention the general adyantagcs. Draw a conclusion.
5. Perseverance.
How do you define it? Is it a commendable qu ality? How
does it differ from obstinacy? What are its certain results?
What the bad effects of fickleness? Give a comparison in nature.
What does the Bible say of a double-minded man? What of
Reuben? Cite examples from history to prove what may be done
by its exercise. Is it necessary to all persons? Conclude.

7. Procrastination.
Define the word, and give its derivation. What are the effects
of the habit? What excuses are generally made by those who
indulge it? What the results of a contrary habit? The gain and
loss by procrastination. Opinions of poets. Motives for exertion.
Concluding remarks.
8. Flattery.
What is to be understood by it? Various degrees of it. With
what feelings should we regard those who use it? How those
who receive it? What the effects vpon different persons? Propriety of the motives of those who use it. On what age does it
exert the most baneful influence? Opinion of poets· and moralists.
Draw proper conclusions from foregoing remarks.

9. Envy.
What is it? Who are o~j ec ts of it? Is it common? Is it
difficult to overcome? 1Vhy? vVhat considerations should induce
us to rid ourselves from it? 1Vhat are its effects upon us? What
is the difference between a robber and a slanderer? What circumstances aggravate injuries caused by envy? '!'he consideration
which should influence us to avoid it. Reflections.
10. R esentm ent .
What is it? and how does it differ from anger? Show the
effects upon those who indul ge it, and upon the objects of it.
What reflections should induce us to overcome such feelings?
What motives? Show its injustice, and how generosity would
teach us to act. What allowances are to be mad e for others-for
passion-for prejudice-for natnral impetuosity and want of reflection? Show how true magnanimity disowns it. Show what
effects it often produces, vi:<1., self-hnrniliation, inconvenience-disadvantages, internal disquiet, and unhappiness.
11. Piety.
Who is the proper object of piety? How do you explain it?
What did it mean among the ancients? 'l'o \rh at rlocs it serve as
a foundation? 'Vhat does its absenc.e argue? Why should God

142

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t'

jo

ENGLISH COMPOSITI01\'.

be the special object of our veneration? Give r easons-MakerCreator-Preserver . Grat itude. Reverence due to sacred persons
and things. Impropriety of lev ity towards r eligious matters.
Caution against pride. True religion, social-kind-cheerful.
Profession of it should be without ostentation, but from a conYiction of its necessity.
12. Courage.
How should it be defined? State the difference between the
moral and physical quality. Show its results to the possessor,
and why. Is it natural, or must it be acquired ? To what re.fl ections does this lead? May it be perverted? Give examples of
courage. What conclusions can be drawn from preceding considerations ?
13. Hcp e.
Define it. Show its effects upon the mind. Under what circumstances are its effects mostly felt? In what consist the
" Pleasures of Hope?" Is it limited to things of this life? Why
does the pleasure of anticipation so often exceed that of possession?
How does it act in the affairs of life? How does it support in the
hour of death '? · What r eflections appropriate to the subject?
14. Providence.
What th e dcrirntion and meaning? Whr1t attribute of the
Divine Being is expressed by th e word? Show what would be
the condition and the \l'rtnls of man if left unaided by Providence,
as to food-clothing-shelter-animals. Reason superior to
strength of anirhals, What do these remarks show ? Show the
necessity of reliance upon it. Conclude.

-.
15. D eatk
Origin anrl cause. Wh:•t necessity is imposed upon us by the
consciousness that all must die ·1 State the difference between the
death of the righteous and that of the wicked. Give an example,
·when is it viewed as the beginning of a new state? What is the
best preparation for death? To what resolutions should these
r eflections lead us ? How should life be considered ? What
should be our constant aim?
16. Night .
Define the su hject. State the cause of it. Describe the circumstances of night- flowcrs-birds-bees-slecp-tranquillityvoices or men- noise of oc•upation, &c. Analyze Milton's description in Paradise Lof;t. Refl ecti o n ~ on th e wa tc hful care of Provid ence. Show the force of th e simile, "curtains of darkness."
Thoughts for the ensuing day, &c.

TllEME ~..

143

17. I' octry .
~hat is it ? Its origin-its date ? Metre? Rhyme? Object of?

Or1gmal use of? Various kinds of'? State the difference between
poetical and prose corn position. Why is it productive of greater
plea~ure than prose ? l'.1-Icntion .so.me ~f the most celebrated poets,
and m what krnds they were d1stwgmshed. Conclude.

18. Sloth .
. How .may this vice be defined? W~t are its general, and what
its partJcul.ar effects? State the diflerent effects produced by the
contra~·y virtue. Show from Scripture that men are intended to
b~ actively employed. What is t~ be unde1:stoo? by acJivity of
mmd . What wo~ld he the cond1t1on of society if all were indolent? :1Jow does 1t affec t study and habits of thought? Give
compansons. Cultivation of the earth, &c. Conclude.
19. Adversity.
W.h.at is it?. Its advantages, general and particular? Truthh~mihty-for~itude-resig~ation,-how should we consider it ?
V\. hat s~ould 1t teach ? Give examples. Cite the Scripture, doctnne-c~te from Sh~kspeare and the poetR. Trial of friendship.
Compapson-all subject to it. Rxamples from historv. Concluding
r emarks.
•
20, Falsehood.
What is fals ehood ? How do falsehood and untruth differ ?
Its baseness and me~nness? What moti~es generally prompt it?
Its eff?cts upo~ somety-upon the deceiver and the deceived ?
What. is ever g;amed by it? How may fal sehoods be distinguished?
The h.e of vamty-of commerce-of malice. Enlarge upon these,
and give. exam ples of rach . Show the evil cffccis of exn~o·eration.
00
Concludmg remarks.
21. Avarice.
De~n~ it. , Wh:y so detestable? How does society suffer from
the vice. '.Ihe misery of th~ avaric!ous deadens sympathy. The
coyetous shunne? by rnan~md. '.Ihe real use of money. Tho
evil of.the excessiv~ love of 1t. Avance its own punishment. The
necessit:i; of restramt Motives. Considerations on the subiect.
Conclus10n.
"
22. Friendship.
~ow define?? It.s uses and advantnges, Proper foundation
for it. The fri e.ndslup of the base and unprincipled, what? Examples from Scripture and history, A favorite subject of discussion
a~ong ~he ancients. ~alse friends. The infrequency of firm
fnendsh~p-causes of it-sympathies-artificial modes of life.
Concluding rcmm·ks.

144

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-

23. Pride.
What is pride? What its effects? How docs it differ from
vanity? In what respects and to what d~gree is it necessary?
Of what vices is it the originator? How the disturber of happiness?
To what miseries docs it give rise in the h eart? What evil conSC'}Uenccs won!d attend its banishment? What good? Show the
necessity or humility' &c
24. B enevolence.
What docs it mean ? State the source of it. The necessity of
cherishing ki11dly sympathies-the sacrifice of selfishness-maternal sympathy. Show the condition of a person devoid of all
sympathy. The necessity of it for the existence of a social state.
The motives for benevolence. Concluding remarks.
25. A.ffectation .
Define it, and show th<:! folly of assuming a character. Who is
deceived by such an assumption? What gives rise to affectation?
What feelings does it create in others? To what quality is it
opposed? ·what is gained by it? Motives for avoiding it. What
age is most liabl e to it? How should they guard against it ?
Concluding r emarks.
26. F ilial A.ff"ection.
What is und erstood by it. Duty-Gratitude. Odiousness of
tilirtl ingratitude. Sentiments of moralists on the subject. The
ordina tion of Providence. Mutual affection of parents and children.
Happiness of both interested . Strong bond of society-all affected
Ly it. Conclusion.

198. The foregoing subjects have been analyzed, for
the cloubl c purpose of showing the pupil the necessity
of m ethod in writing Themes, and to aid him in the
performance of what might at first appear a difficult
and forbidding exercise. Some topics are now presented
for t he student to exercise his skill upon.
·
E XE R ClSE XCIV .
P repare a brief of the following Themes, o.n<l construct u composition
upon each:-

1. History. 2. Curiosity. 3. Generosity. 4. Learning. 5. :Music.
G. Order. 7. Drawing. 8. Painting. 9. Ohe<licncc. 10. Punctuality. 11. Vanity. 12. Wealth. 13. Truth. 14. Rm;lmess.
15. Knowled ge. 16. Virtue. 17. Commerce. 18. Familiarity.
19. Discretion. 20. Habit. 21. Attention. 22. Good manners
23. Cheerfulness. 24. Traveling. 25. Visitin g.

145

ESSAYS,

E:--GLISH COMPOSITION.

ESSAYS
. Hl9. An EssAY is a composition intend ed to prove or
1llustrnt:e a J?a rt1cular subject. It is usually shorter, and
less methodical and finished, -than a system. Thus a
trratise, desc ribin g th e partirulars of fossils, would be
C'all ~ d an E ssay on Fossils; a discussion on the life,
ge mus, and writings of \\ralter Scott, would be called an
Essny on Scott, &c. .A rticles in Reviews are generally
styl ed Essays; and since the.. <l;iys of Addi son, Steel e
and· Johnson, whose E ssays appea red in the S pect a tor
n.nrl Ra.mbl,er, ~hey. em brace the best efforts and com pos1t 1ons rn En?;lish literature. Macaulay, Sidney Smith
~effrey and Carlyl e, are among the most popular essay~
1sts of the present century.
~00. The Ess<iy difTers from a Narrative, im1smuch
as it more generally treats of moral qualities; and from
a Them e, beca use its subdivisions are not so much
de per;c!ent upon a~y natural o rd er as upon· the pleasure
o.r. wil l of the w~·1ter . As a model of such a compos1t10n, refer ence is made to the Sp ectator, No. 411,
On the l!leasures of the Imagination.
In this E ssay the followin 0rr di visions "ill be found
treated, viz:1. The superiority of sight over the other senses.
2. The pl easures of im;w ina ti on derived from sight.
~· The author's meaning of pleasures of the imagi
nation.
4. A comp<irison with other ple<isures.
5. The extent of these pleasures.
6. The ad vantages.
7 · How they are preferable to purely intellectual
pleasures.
QUESTIONS.
.199. \Vhat is nn E ssay ? \Vho rank <le<ervedl1· h irrh
in rnch compo0

811

ion$?

·

200. How does an E s,a \' differ rro m a Narrative? Ho w from a T he me!
What d 1v1>lons are trnated 10 Addt >ou 'ti Pleasure• of the Imarrination?

1:3

"

ESSAYS.

ENGLISH CO;\IFOS ITJO N •

146

201. Outlines of su bjects are given for the scholar to
exercise his skill in constructing Essays upon them .
EXERCISE XCV.

1. Th e Advantages of Int ellectual Education.
l. Show th e superiority of the mind over the body:
.
2. The ad vantages of educat ion arise from the cultivation of the
mcnta l fa culties.
3. Explain th ese adwnta.gcs.
4. Compare them with other advantages.
5. Show th e ex tent of them.
G. Th e effects of them.
7. How tll ey are prefer:ible to other advantages.
2. The I mportance of Governing the Temper.

.

1. A bad t emper a source of unhappiness: the necessity of
i;eeping it in subjection.
.
2. A bad temper often arises from a flattered vamty, and the
neglect of proper cultivation when young.
3. The culture of the understanding one of the best methods of
subduing the evil pas3ions of our nature.
.
..
.
4. The effects of au ungovernable temper m fa~1hes-v1rtues to
be instilled into young persons proper for preventmg these effects.
3. R emedy for Distontent.
l. Those complain most who Irn_v~ least eause.
2. A rem edy-consider the cond1t10n of those who arc worse off

147

L Reading for Amusement.
5. Some persons read merely to pass the time-character of
books-pamphlets-memoirs-novels, &c.
2. This kind of reading may be innocent, but it has bad effeetsvitiates the taste-history, poetry, &c., preferable.
3. Our information dependent not so much on the quantity as
on the quality of what we read.
4. Light reading more allowable to persons of advanced age.
5. The young should be discouraged from this kind of reading.
6. Patiell(;/. distinct j)·om A pat!ty.
1. All not alike affected by misfortunes-the cause in some
arises from patience, in others from apathy.
2. Show the contrast between an insensible and a patient man,
nnd the advantages of each.
3: Sensibility should be cherished, notwithstanding its inconvemences.
4. 'rhe utility of forcibly feeling our afflictions.
5. The necessity of opposing om sufferings.
6. Influence of reason and religion.

5. The Taste for Simple Pleasures.

the chief duties of Christianity is to alleviate misfor~
tunes and remove discontent.
. .
5. Scenes witnessed by clergymen and p_hys1c1:ms. .
6 . Good done by medical relief-concludmg observations.

1. Pleasure the natural pursuit of all persons, but pernicious
pleasures should be avoided.
2. 'l'o accomplish this end, simple pleasures should be substituted.
3. Th_e simple satisfactions of nature easily acquired .
4. Filial piety, fraternal affection-domestic pl easnrC€.
5. Wordly pleasures-loss of innocence-no n'al happiness.
6. Rural scenery-gene:al prefer ence for the co untry.
7. Pleasures of gardenmg, &c.-the culture of a benevolent
disposition towards our fellow creatures-doing good, &c.

4. Parental Indulgence.
1. The love of children intended by Providence for a good purpose-this purpose sometimes abused.
.
. _
2. Improper indulgences of p_arents enumerated-capnces
appetite-mind and,body both rumed.
. .
.
3. Contempt for superiors-a most permc1ous mdulgence.
4, The strong propensity to indulgence common to all parentsthf> pernicious effects of a bad example.
.
5 The practice of any particular indulgence ment10ned.
The djfference of the treatment of children by a father nnd
a mother.

8. The Efficacy of lvloral Instruction.
l. The o~jection of too rigid attention to books since they are
of littl e utility in the conduct of life.
'
2. A knowledge of the world, uncontrolled by moral principles
'
a despicable kind of wisdom.
3. B~oks accused of rep resenting things as better than they
are-this sometm1es doue pnrposely-state why.
4. Relate the influence upon society of the moral essays of Addison and Johnson.
5. Necessity of greater attention to works on morality.

than ourselves.
h h If l' "
· 3. " One half the world is ignorant how the ot er a 1ves -

ex~~a~~e of

6:

148

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

ESSAYS.

A cultivated 1Wi nd necessary to render R et irement agreealile.
l. Few C'an bear solitude-a sp irit of philosophy and a stock of

!).

lC' nn1inp~ 1a c c~~riry.

.

2. The d isappointn;rnt of those who expect happmesr from
rctirclllcnt.
3. A lm·e of ru:~l nlcnsures assists us to bear solitude.
4 . E•·il dfrcts of soiitude.
5. Plcnsmcs of a country life-habits-circumstances-enjoy·
mcnts, &c.
10. Temp erance necessary to Mental Vigor.
]. The mind aff~ctcd by bod ily health.
. ·
2. Con twction hrt\Yccn mind and body rnystenous but real.
:3. Proved by mind recovering its vigor on return to bodily
heaHh.
4. Ahs tincncc generally recommended to students. Early rising
in \jg·01,·ating.
;-,, I,eason from this why formerly the principal meal was
supper.
11. The Choice ~fa Profession.
l . The difficulty of d eciding tl1is at an rnrly age.
~- The changes.which the mind undergoes in the course of a few
y r ,1rs.
.
.
:~. Th e tlisnosition and charnctrr best smtcd for the cleriral
prnf,-s,inn. Th e circumstances, trials and conditions of a clergyn1rin 's

life.

The
The
The
The

13. '1 'lte fear of seeming singular.
1. Men seldom think independently, but follow the opinions of
a leader.
2. Evil effects when the leader is interested or injudicious.
3. Propose a model for imitation-useful imitation not servile.
4. Discretion to be used. No principles should influence us
which will ever conflict with duty.
5..Moral courage requires us to act rightly.
6. The fear of appearing singular leads young persons into many
follies and vices.
7. Debts incurred from want of this kind of courage-ruin of
health-of fortun e-of peace of mind.
14. Patriotism.
I. Heroic virtue more frequently talked about than seen. What
is necessary to produce it. a.
2. To what kind of character the name of patriotism has been
improperly applied.
3. What constitutes a patriot. No bad man a patriot-why?
4 ..Qualities most desirable in the chief executive officer of a
nation. Private virtues are the source of public ones.
5. Selfish and designing views of demagogues.
6. Military patriots-literary patriots-patriotism not confined
to public life.
7. Examples from history.

-

4. J.aliori011s sturly requi site for kn owl ed_ge of_th.e la~-re~rnrds
or ic,e·nl Jrarning--but difficulty of gammg d1stmcllon without
l)('rorning cnirng<'d in po!il ical life.
.
.
.
!i. Thl' profrs,ion of ml'dicine-its hardships and its self-demalstlill'icul ty in ncguirinp: rn 'inrncc.
..
.
(i OhjC'ctions to military. naval, or pohtICal life. .
.
7. Tei1dency of rncrcamile pursuits upon the mmd-mtluencc
of comnierce.
8. All profc.~sions have tlwir advantages and. thrir disadvanbges. A life of usefulness preferable to n ltfe of idleness.
1
2.
:~.
4

149

12. The Influence of Fashion.
tyranny nnd the inconvenience of fashion_.
cxdusivencss of it, wi thout nnv real 111er1t.
fn ll v of n desire to ,l1c considcr~d foshionnLle.
rni;lrll e ranks th e most 11·orthy as "·ell as most capable

of Pn.i0~-i t1~ n:-lhlr:tl pl cnsnrc~.

.

5. The absurrlity of submitting to :ill the form s prescnbed by
fa~hion .

6. The ev ils of fashion-morality affected by its influence.

15. The style of H isto"!J"
1. The object of history-a style suited to the object.
2. The different style of oratory and poetry-a simple anrl majestic dignity better sui ts historical composition.
3. Veracity of the historian "needs not the foreign aid of ornament. "
4. Livy, Tacitus, Hume, Gibbon, Macaulay, Grote, Niebuhr,
Marshall, Prescott, Bancroft, Hildreth, &c.

16. Affectation of the vices and follies .of Men nf Rminence.
1. The frequent imprudence and folly of men of genius.
2. The silly ambition of imitating their follies.
3. A false opinion that vice is the mark of a noble spirit.
4. The propensity to imitation is a sign of weakness rather than
of dignity.
5. Many men of the highest genius were exemplars of prudence
a.nd virtue. Particular examples.
6. The ill effects of entertaining the idea that vice is a charac·
teristic or an clement of greatness.

13•

150

ENGLISH COMPOSITION.

202. The abov e sketches will be sufficient as exampl e ~ of th e necess ity of preparin g an anal ysis of any

s ubject ce lcct cd fo r an E ssay. In what follow, the
stud t" nt wi ll ex ercise l1is own skill in preparing such an
an<il ys is Lefo r e enterin g 1,1pon the composition of th e
E ssay .
EX ER C ISE

xcvl.

I' rt•p;lre an un n h· ~is o f eaeh uf the fo ll o\\· ing ~ ubj e ct s. , and c onstruct

E :-::-: a y~ u po n the m·:

1. On Di vcn;ions. 2. On Dress. 3. On Taste. 4. On Good
:i\fa n nr r.<. 5. On Ko>els. 6. On Con templation . 7. On th e Art
of Plc~ .< in g . 8. On Sympath y. 0. On Generosity. 10. On the.
eYil s of 0 listinacy . 11. Un th e fr a r of growing old. 12. On the
wisdom of aimin g at some elevated standard of excellence. 13. On
the sati.<fo ction n i' ult ing from a c on~cirnti o us discharge of our
d11ty. 14. On the nern<sity of comentional laws and forms in
rnciety. l !i. On th e evil s of th e nep:lect of the eal'ly cultivation of
th e ment al po \Hrs. 10. On th e folly of exp ecting too much from
onr fell ow creatures. ] i On th e duty of patience and resignation
un dC'r misfort u rns . l R. A well-rrgulatcd and contented mind is
the secret of tru e happin ess.

151

ESSAYS.

12. Th e du ty of obedience to parents. 13. Obedience to t eachers.
H. Horrors of \>at". 15. Distinction between vanity and conceit.
16. Th e views with which we should r egarrl d ~ath . 17. The
dan ger of il)rlul ging a habit of exaggeration . 18. The foll y of too
s trong a brl ief in the marvelous. 10. Idl e conversations lead to
slan der. 20. Th e passion for dress. 21. Th e influence of prej udice up on lh e .iudgmenl. 22. Th e necessity of repressing: idle
curiosity . 23. Th e arlvantnge of system in stndy. 24. The advantage of sys tem in the spending of ti me. 25. Th e lo ve of neatness and order. 26. Th e influ ence of religion on civ ilization.
27. Th e d anger of beco min g too mnch absorbed with th e pl easures
of t he world. 28. Our duties as citizens. 29. Onr duties toward s
· ou r inferiors. 30. Th e folly of end eavoring to pleas e every one.
31. The necessity of submission to our lot.
32 . C ontemp 1are , ·w h en !he ~ nn d e c line ~ ,
Th~r d~alh w ilh df' ep re ft ecl io 11 ,
And wh t> n ag-ni n he ri ~i n g sh ine s,
The <l ay ot' resu rree tio n.

31. The rose. 34. A flower 11;arden. 35. A grave-yard. 36. Suspi cion. 37. Fables and Allegories. 38. The age of chivalry.
30. Th e crusnrlcs.
40 . R e a•on' • whole pl ea "'11·e, all th e j oys of rnn•e,
L ie in three w o rd s-h e alth , peace, and co mpe tence.

E XE RC ISE XC VJ[.
A tlcl it iona l :-; uhj eets. fo r

T H EM E!" :-

1. Th e power of nssocia tion. 2. Evil communications corrupt
good mmrn ers. () . The lO\' C of praise. 4. Th e earth a scen e of
pl easure and d elight. 5. Charity. 6. P overty not discreditabl e.
i . Brncrnl cnce. 8. Loral att achm en t. 9. Home. 10. Cruelty.
11. Th e grand eur of th e universe. 12. Liberty. 13. Am erican
ind ependence. 14. Future greatness of our country.. 15. Intelligenc e necessary for 1he perpetuity of our institutions. 16. Civilization. ] 7. Influen ce of commerce on ciYilization. 18. Influence
vf Christianity on it. rn. :Missionary efforts. 20. Prospective
evangclization of th e world.
EXERCISE XCVIJI .
Addi tional subjects for Ess AYS :-

1. Decision of character. 2. The difficulty of overcoming bad
habits. 3. National prejndice. 4. Firmness distinct from obstinacy. 5. The advantages of a country life. 6. The influence of
music on the feelings. 7. The necessity nnd importance of an
early cul tivation of the affections. 8. The advantages of traveling.
9. The beneficial effects of so,~iety . 10. Charity an essential part
of religion. ll. The danger of forming a hasty judgment of others.

41. Oh! wh at a tangled w eU w e ·w eaYc,
\Vh en fir:-: t w e ,·e nture to deceive .

42. C o n ~ ci e n ce does make c oward s of us all. ·
43.

!(

44.

th e r ea r \ Ve l't" p ln ~· i _tl g- h oJ~· J u~· ~,
~por t wo l1l<l be a s ted 10 11 s a s to work .

a JI

To

or entrance

Bewa re
lo a quarrel; hu t bt"in g in

B ear it tha t the opposer ma y be wa re ~fthee .
45. Trifle ~ lighl a ~ air
Are to ! he j e a lo 11 ~ <' on firma tio n s st rong

A ' proofs of holy writ.

4G. Di ,;crc tion is the better part of valor .
47. H o w bl es> ing' brighten as they take their flight.
48. Frienchh ip i' ~on > tant in"" oi he r th ing s
Save in the office and affairs of

Jove.

49. Misery is close all ied to gu ilt.
50. Angels are bright still, though tho b rightest fell.

152

DECLAMATION.

ENGLlSH COMPOSITION.

DECLAMATION.
203. DECLAMATION or Public Speaking requires a
more animated, and often a more impassioned feeling,
tha n Essays or Themes. It is a speech made in public,
in the tone and manner of an oration; whereas the other
is a composition which is not. to be recited with the
accompaniment of any active gesture, but rather to be
read, and subject to the directions of reading. On the
subject of oratorical composition, there is great danger
of a writer becoming too vehement, and of using language which more judicious persons will regard as too
ficrurative and ardent. But, on the other hand, the style
sl~ould not appear inanimate, as then the audience wi~l
inevitably partake of the dullness of the speaker and his
subject.
204. The foundation of all eloquence has been said
t o consist in good sense and solid thought, and it should
be added, uttered with a proper degree of earnestness.
The animated manner of the speaker will often in a
considerable degree atone for defects in composition or
inaccuracies of style. And if an oration should be composed under any such impulse as it should be spoken,
there will not fail a sufficient supply of what is conside red ornament, without the writer going in search
of it, which, in too great abundance, will only weaken
his oration.
205. The necessary parts of a. Discourse or Ora!ion
are seven, viz : 1. The Exordrnm or Introduction.
,
QUESTIONS.
203. What does declamation require? What is it? To what dan~er
i• a writer liable in this kind of composition? What is the opposite
fault?
.
:204. Whal is the foundation of all eloquence? For what defects will
earnestness atone? Why should not orn11ment be sought?

153

2. ~he Enunciation of the subject. 3. The Division of
a Discourse. 4. Narration or Explication. 5. The Argument. 6. The Pathetic part. 7. The Peroration.
YVith regard to these in their order.
(1.) The Introduction sllC>ulJ be natural, and easily
bel?ng to the subject. It should also be calm, and not
anticipate any part of the stfbject, and not too long.
(2.) The Enunciation should be as clear and as distinct as the impression intended to be conveyed.
(3_.) The Divisions of a Discnurse should be distinct,
~nd 111 a natural order,
They shou ld exhaust the subJCCt, and be expressed with precision, without being too
num erous.
(4.) The Explication or Narration, whid1 consists in
a_st~tement of the facts, must be probable, concise and
, d1st111ct, for reasons which are sufficiently obvious.
. (5.) The A_rgument requires three points, viz: in vent10n, or the discovery of the reasons and motives-the
proper arrangen:ient of these so as to produce convict ion,
and the expressrng of them in a manner that will carry
the greatest force, and generally the strongest last.
(6.) No part of th~ Disc<'iurse should be specia ll y set
apart for th_e Pathet1~, _a~ th e manner of the speaker
shou ld s~ffic1ently exh1b1t 1t, and any formal an noun cement of 1t would defeat the object.
. (7 .) _T!1~ Perorat~on may properly inclucle the prev10us d11'Js1on-but 111 all cases it should not terminate
too abr up tly or unexpected ly-neith er should it be t oo
prolonged, so ~s to_ ca~se we ari~e.ss of expec t<1ncy. It
should close with chgmty and spmt, and le<1 ve the minds
of t_he hearers warm and favorably impressed with the
subject.
QUESTIO NS .
. 205. ~bat are 1.hc nec~~ ~a r~· parf:q of a di~rour~e? What is E-aid of
1 ~1trod11ct1on? 0 1 en11nc.1a11on? Of c.l iv i:-!-ions ? Of explicat ion? Of ar -

gument 1

Of the pathetw?

Of peroration?

- - - 154

( 155 )

ENt;LISH COMPOSITION.

200. In many respects here enumerated, a young
writer is often an inadequate judge of his performances;
<inti because he feels a personal interest in his efforts, he
must not necessarily infer others will do the same.
EXERCISE X CIX.
811l ijec ls. for Oratiou:-:., to be composed in nccordRnce \Vjth the foregoing
fi n al y:o:' i::o: o f con5: titue nt pa rt s of n Discourse:-

1. Future greatness of America. 2. Prevalence of the English
language. 3. The memory of Washington. 4. The heroes of the
Revolution. 5 Patriotism. 6. American Independence. 7. Liberty.
8. Plymouth Rocle 0. Magna Charta. 10. Influence of American
principl es upon the liberties of the world. 11. Eulogy on John
Hampden. 12. Sir Walter Raleigh. 13. Earl of Strafford. 14. Edmund Burke. 15. Lord Chatham. 16. Col. Barre. 17. Franklin . 18. Washington. 19. Clay. 20. Webster. 21. Calhoun.
22. Jackson . 23. Washington's Birth-day. 24. A Valedictory
Omtion. 25. R adicalism. 26. Character of Richard Henry Lee.
27. Character of John Hancock. 28. W estward the star of empire takes its way. 29. The Sunny South. 30. Imposture.
31. Acc umulation of riches not the end of life. 32. " Cromwell,
guiltl ess of his country's blood ." 33. Milton . 34. English Literature. 35. Shakspeare. 36. Influence of the Drama on English
Literat ure. 37. Tnfluence of th e Bible on the permanence of our
langunge. 38. \Voman. 39. Gold smith. 40. Discoveries of the
nin eteenth century. 41. American enterprise. 42. Reverence for
antiqui ty. 43. Characteristics of modern Poetry. 44. The contrasts of History. 45. Ideal Philosophy. 46. Ruins of Tyre.
47. Discoveries at Ninevah. 48. The Power of Imagination.
4'.l. The last of the Moors. 50. The last of the Barons.
QUESTION.
20G. Why is a writer an inadequate judge of h is own

performance~?

DIVISION IV.

CAPITAL LETTERS.
207. It was formerly the custom, as it is now in
German and the northern languages of Europe, to be~in
every noun with a capital letter i. but at presen!, ~1th
us, the use of the capital letters 1s much more hm1ted .
They must, however, be employed in the following
cases:They must commence(1.) The first word of a book, chapter, letter, or any
other piece of writing.
(2.) The first word after a period; as, Fear God.
Honor thy father and thy mother.
(3.) Th~ fi rst word after interrogative and exclamatory sentences, provided such sentences are independent
in construction of those which follow them; as, Where
is your friend? She is here! How beautiful a day it
is! , You seem to enjoy it! .
But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences
are thrown into one general group, or if the construction
of the latter sentences depends on the form er, all of them,
except the first, may begin with a small letter; as, How
long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity? and the
scorners delight in their scorning? and fools hate knowledge? Alas! how different! yet how like the same!
(4.) The first word in every line of poetry; as,
A solitary bl essing few can find;
Our joys with those we love a re intertwined;
And he whose watchful tenderness removes
The obstru c ting th orn wh ich wounds the friend he loves,
Smooths not onother's rugged path alone,
But scatters roses to adorn hi s own .

QLJESTIONS.
207. Whnt was the former u •age of capital letters? What are the
differen t rules now observed? What kind of adjectives? Of quotation~?
What w ords in book t i t le~? What 01her11 >

