NOTICES

O~'

THE WOltK.

GRADUAL LESSONS

From Daniel Foster, Principal of Hopkinton Hii!h ScltooL

:I

'' Dear Sir, - I lntru<luced the c Grndun1 LHiOtli in GTammar' into my
school last spring, and after using it eight wee~s with a class of beginn ers, I have no hesitation in saying that I consider it superior to any elen urntnry tren tise in use in our country.
" It occuµies, in grammar, the place that Colburn's 'First L essons' does
in Ar ith metic. It a nalyzes the language , and fixes in the mind of the
schola.r the principles of Grammar, which, when understood, enable nny
one to use correctly and fluently our terse and powfiiful Saxon tongue.
" I predict th at it will ush er into our schools a new system of studying
grnm urnr, a nd will mak e this brunch as interesting anc.l improving, as it
li aioi bee n hith erto dull and useless.
" I wish it all s uccess ; and I doubt not it will soon be found in all our
pu l>li c and private schools.
" I·loP K INTON 1 June 7, 1847."

Uf

'

G.R A¥MAR;
GUIDE TO THE CONSTRUCTION

W . R. Ellis , E sq., Principal of a Hi gh School in Kingston, ordering
m ore of T ow er's Grammars, writes, - "This is an admirabl e work; I am
much pleased with it, and shall have every schola.r in my school use it."

CF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

"To W . J. REYN OJ. os & Co.
"Ge ntl emen : - I have examined Tower's 'Gradual Lessons in Gram
mar,' publi shed by you ; and I have no hesitation in saying th at I am
exceedin gly w ell pleased with its plan, and I should be happy to see it
ge nrrnlly introduced into our public ~c h oo J s .
"H.B. MAGLATHLIN, A. M.
"Principal of Waterville Liberal. Institu.t.e
"WAT.ER YILLE, Me., May 71 1847."

BY THE

ANALYSIS AND COMPOSITION OF SENTENCES.

The foll ow ing is from one of our mo st successful T each ers, the experi enced Principal of th ~ Young Ladies School iu Park S treet.

BY DAVID BKaWER,
A. M
,,

" !\'In. T ow.en :
B o sTON, June 21, 1847.
"Dear Sir,-A pretty thorou gh examination, and some practical ex periencl~ in th e u:;:e of you r 'Gnulual Lessons in E n glish Grammar,, have
sati:;:ficcl 111 e that it is a valuable addition to our list of school-books.
"The plun you a rlopted in the execution of th e work is rationnl and philoso1>llical, nnd cal cu l<.atcrl to give to the pupil a mucb better knowl edge o(
~h e la11 J!11ago th a n a ny other elementary w ork with which I nm acquainted i nud, ind ecrl, the plan, as a whole, is so different from that of any
oth e r Gramm a r in our language , that f do not see why it may not be profitably stud ied in connection with other Grammars n ow in UMe, as the
ground it cove rs has hitherto been almost wholly neglected, or, at least;
u ot systematically improved.
GEO. EATON."

.u; J'HOB. - o r

"!NTJ:LLECTUAL

41.0EBRA ,

C'B.

~

ORAL 'LEUONS Il'f

4LGEB

l"OR COMM'Olf ICHOOLJ;" u 0RA.DU4L PRUlER j n U IN1•0DUCTJOK
10 GR.l.DUA.L Rl!.t.DE&,

oa

PRU:U.B.Y ICHOOL ENUNcu.-

Toa, P.&.llT 11 . j,, "GRADUJ.L R:EJ.D.ER',,

'J GIU.DU.&.L

.l.1'D

The Pu blish ers have been gratifit::d by the glad w elcome universa1ly
gi ve n to these 0 L essCln ~ in Gra mmar." T eachers say that this Grammar
ope ns a NE W PATH to the pupil, enabling him not only to pursue this hithnto dry st udy und e rstandingly, but with interest and pleasure. It is said
th a t th ese " Lesso ns " will produce as great n chan ge in the m ethod of
teaching ~ rnmmar, ns Colburn's a First Le sso n ~" did in nrithmeti c, or as
T ow er's 11 Oral Les.so ns" produced in th e study of alg ebra.

IPl:W.ER."

.......

J

NEW YORK:

PUBLISHED BY CADY & ·BURGESS,
BOSTON:
j
,_

W. J. REYNOLDS, & CO.
/

18 50,

TOWER'S SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS

Gradual Primer.
The merit& or this book consist, Jst, in couplinl7' letters by t hei r rtsemhlantu
2d. In giving only o. /tw-letters of tl1e tt.lphnbet~before wurds are 9 ivon, com.
posed solttly of tltose feUJ leU~rs. 3d. In givi ng on ly one vowd rn a lesson,
with words which contain the name-somul of th at vowel. 4th. Ia considering
th e several powers of each vowel in a separate lesson, with easy words, and
short, plain sentences, t o illustrnte eacli individ11.al power or sound- thus
teach.in~ only one thing at a time. 5th. The diphthongs, or combined vowels, aro
taught rn the same manner. 6th. Ench consonant eJeme.flt i1 then considered
by itself in iL sepnrutc lesson, with O:l.Bf words and sentences for exercise on
it!'I particular sound. 7th. Particular and specific dirutions are, fur t!Le Ji,rllt
time, l!"iven to teachera, fo r uttering each elementary sound in the lnnguago
8th. l\lore general directioru or suz.1re.ati01UJ are also given for tt1achers.
Ta bles, pccnli11r to thii. i.AriA$1 nl~1 0 , are inserterl for daily practice of claue1,
limultaneou.sly, in all lhe simple e lem entary sounds.
These aro the prominent fenturesofthis Primer, and nre peculiar to it alono.
Th e teacher, as well ns tho pupil, will 1 from its use, Jay the foundation of a
di s tinct arti c ul atio n, and bo saved from much expense of time ancf labor in
karniug. This is" the right step taken in the right place."

Inti·oduction to the ·Gradual Reader.
The peculiarities of thi1 book consiat, 1st, in taking the pupil gradually
through a ll the easi~o1isonant combiuatio1la by a regular progressive exercise
on each combination. 2d. Through a.II the points, or mnrk1 used by writeu,
illustratmg each in a separate lcuon. 3d. Through the simpl e slides of the
voice, in th e same mann er. 4th. Progressive reading lesson a, adapted to tho
rogress of the pupil. The rending leBSo ns are kept entirely distin ct from the
essons in articu lation, point.fl, .Ste., that only one t.Aing may be taught at a time,
as in the Primer, which it is designed to follow. 5th. Table,, for daily simultan eous practice o f Lh e e lementary sounds, and simple combino.tiOna. ThiR
book is th e socond progressive step in attaining a distinct utterance and correct pronunciation. 6th. Suzgestimls to teachura for avoiding t1rrora in rending.

r.

Gradual Reader.

I

1·

~

This book contains, 1st, auch a •election of re ading matter as will interest
as well as inatruct the learn er, progressively euited to his capacity. 2rl . A
complete and original sy11tem of articUlatim&, coneisting nf exercises upon eve ry
vow~l and consonant dement, and upon ·every vowel and con!onant combinatim&
in the language, eve n the moit difficult. This wa1 the firat ever published,
nnd is the only complete system. 3d. Tables for simultaneou1 practicA, by a
whole ,;c hool, on all the e lementary sounds and thei r combinations. Since the
1mblication of these ex e rcises, in l.841, the suhject of articulation haa received
mu ch atten tion; o.n d they are said to have done morn, for hoth t eache r and
pupil, m m'nking good renders, thRn any other book. The Gradual Render wna
pre pa.red, ns stated in tho prefoce, on th e plnn of Uadiing only one tJiing at a
time, a plan peculinr to thjs hook, unlesA copied by others. The ~ rerci.Jca nre
kept aepn.rau from the rea.dinz luaou, that the whole school, at once, may be

2

TOWER'S SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS.

doily drllled In some portion of them previous to rending; then tho pupil'•
attention will not be ·continually called ftom the eentimcnt and expression of
n pieicebby constnnt inturruption, to correct tho articulation. The exerctsel
in this ook are full, to supply nny deficiency in the elementary instruction of
advanced pupils. (See printed notices of the book nnd system.)
These three books furnish complete and thorough instruction in n.rticulation,
the groundwork of all good reading. They will be followed by two mout
rend a rs, each being a distinct step, as essential to good reading oe is its basis,
distinct utterance, furnislUng a complets and 81JSttmatic acriu for schools.

G1·adual Speller.
This book is the first attempt to arrange words, in separate clnsaes, by tbe
constant combinations, thus aiding
on thEi principle of association.
It iR free from the unmeaning cuts which disfiaure most books of the kind, arid
furnish a gratuitOU!I supply of playthings to aistract the attention. It is not
cumbered witb reading lessons, useless, becau11e out of place. 1t contains an
exercis e on each consonant ele ment, as weH as each Vowol element. It gives
nhio a.n exorcise on each consonnnt combination separately. No other spellingbook doc~. It givelil the sound. of each vowel in every word; without which,
nny
woul<l be worse thnn useless in a school. · The sounds of the
,,owels are rndicated by a 11e:w method, 110 simple, thnt. any child can readily
master ancl use it. Tho samo notation answe rs for the diphthongs, which is o.n
advantage over any other plan. As each e lemeut, and oach combination, i1
considered in a
exercise, the book is a great colln.tern.l aid to articulation, while it gives the correct pronunciation in cor.necti 0n with tenching tho

t~memory

spellin~-book

s1~pamte

ortJwgraJJhY of the lungun.ge.

Intellectual Algebra.
This is on a new and original plan, and is the first attempt so to simplify and
ilJustrntc this sc ience th a t it may be taught orally. As a "discipline of the mind,
in teaching the pupil to tJLink and reason, algebra is preeminent; nnd thil!I

work places it in the power of younger clossos to be benefited by •uch mentnl
exerci~es. Whe.Ie it h a.a been used, it. hn.s more than answered the high expectntions of teachers. It cnn be very profitably studied in connection with
written fuithmctic. This Al ge bm baa received the commendation of the most
prominent educators of the dny, an<l a few of their notices may be found priutorl
rn it. Tho operations are limited to such small number• as not to embarrasa
the reasoning powers, but, on the inductive plan, to lead the pupil under..
standingly to h)gh ment.nl efforts. T eachers say that the author ha5 done for
nl~cbra the same thnt Colburn did fQr arithmetic, when he publi•hed his
"First
Lessons."
'l'he success
of this hook lms been for bey ond tho most sanguine expectation•
of the publishers . Although it has been puhlished but fifteen months, it has
bee n adopted in the public schools of Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Baltimore! l
Charlestown, Salem, a od many other cities of the Union; also, by severo.
County Conventions of Superintend ents and Teachers, and by a 1'tr!/ large•
numher of tho hest schools of the country. It has lately been recommended
by th~ County Conventions of Superintendents and Tenchere in Vermont.
It needs but to be examined, to be pot into use in a]mo1t every school in the
1ountry.

A Complete Key to the Algebra.

This work contains Explanations nnd Solution~ to all the que9tions in tha
A lgl'bra , for the couvenicnco of teach ers , and for tlrnir use only.

NOTICES OF THE WORK.
At a meeting of the Trusiees f
IJHARLEnowr< •.March 29 1847
o the Charlestown 'Free Sch00Is
That the new Gre.:imar call d "
.
' ts
Dav1d B. Tower, be used a~ a te:t-booGkr~dual
Lessons in Grammar"
' by .
m our schools.
JONATHAN BROWN, JR., Sec.

th·

evening1 it was voted

0

ad~~t
;;,e,z~~~ ?,fJ~:ci~~ 01.1.~~mmitteG
~~ s:~t~~~~:i7;g,1i..'.:.J !,,~~~-to
a text-book.
ns m ramma1J_" into the public schools

Wi

.'

LILLJCY EATON, Chairman. '

From Prof. Win,.., Princi;al of Ute celebrated Oak/a
ton, New Jersey
nda &hool, near Bur!i1'g•
·
E .
" D B T

".De~r s:,~·1 h~~~:exa
~10rou1h ~hiloso"p"?i:\"~~d~h~fol'~~io~, t~_at

~~~

pow~r~:,~~h ~:~retJ:n~ resu~ts,

k~ 0';., 1 ~g~~

i~~fii ~~:tt~~t~':~ s~~cess ~f

kind~~~:··~:,,,G~::shal~

·
"
•
·
feel no besit. atiuu in
mu:1ed the Gradual Lessons in G
"
and
it is T1nirnn'::;,"Karfor
s(.~~c1p e. on whi ch your Grammar is ba•ed ng ish language. The great
.' ~, -1s one of vital importance It ffi , - that of -analysis from the
c1phne, the attractiveness and i'nter!8~ _ca~y, as a means of n;entnl dis
d
tt imparts to the st d
f
gnage, and the impo t t
nd intellectnai
in respect or°
ong course of experience I rejo'
t' ave een fully tested by me i
.... in
developed,
!''"de, and I hope
attempt
the
tntrod!"ce your Gramlnar, immediatelye
so well deserves. I
"v
' o myitown
school
".8.pril 13, 1847.
ery respectfully and faithfully you;s,
E. C. WINES."

f

~~~~ ·~·: rr:"a~t\c~ man~

a~e.1~m":~t;~ ~~~~i~l~

i~ ~

Rev. J. J., Owen, Principal of th
.
Cu.sucAL SERIE• places him a e Com elms Institute New York wh
the author of "Gradual Lessons
dGreek
"I
mar,
ated April 26th 1847
. the,
exceeding1y ·well pleased with our
, '
:
that
it isd J1b1Jst
• in...,. so Ion t
our country abounds h Id
- an a e

~od~a:~ fir~~

th~~
teachers~· to~ ~v;i~~·~~i~;frisod

'sc~olnrs, \~rite::

th~ mul~~~:J'.":,'f'iea!~~;~k

~~~·~~!~gt~~: ;~~;~~*1\~~~t ~~rin~:;i:~~~~ ~~~~~·i~il~r~r~~i~d~n°F~r

~~~~~·~~r~n,~• . will fill a niche ~·hie~ ' tl,be:~~..' p~robation
of all ~ho!:
18 not occupied by any
!J

E .ttrMt from '!' letter to tlta Publisher
.
from Damel Fost~, &q. Princi
qfenr,losing ~rdera /OT th.a Gram-mar
• "T want to form a cla.•s ~f
,P
Ute Hopkinton High SehouL
•
Gradual L e:'suns in Gramma~~g1rners m Grammar. I like Tower'
I have ever examined." ***
, for such a
b:;;tter than any thin:

cl~s,

PREFACE..

Entered accordmg tG Act of Congress, in the year 1840,
ilY · DAVlu

li.

TOWER,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.

STEREOTYPED AT THE
BOSTON TYPE ANJJ STERE:OTYPE FOfTNURY

r

WHEN a child begins to read sentences, he should begin to learn
how these sentences are formed, and for what purpose each word is
used ; otherwise he only utters words witl)out perceiving the meaning of what he reads, and forms the habit of uttering sounds irrespective of ideas.
To read understandingly, he should know the particular force of
each word in the •entence . iu which it ie found; that is, how it ~od­
ilies the idea expressed by the general proposition. He should know
the subject and the predicate of each sentence, the several modif,ying or
limiting words, and in what respect they affect the meaning. The
study of language, when thue presented as the .medium of thought,
eeldom fails to interest the pupil. To find the principal parts of a
eenience, and to discover how each part is limited or modified by the
different words that cluster W:ound it, and how the meaning of the
part or of the whole is affected thereby, is an effort of the under. standing, which is as grateful as it is useful to the. learner.
The pupil' should first construct a simple •entence, consisting only
of a subject and predicate; then introduce the several classes of
limiting words, one at a time, till he is familiar with all, and with
their relations to the words they limit. Next, Jet him construct
compound •entences, till the connection or dependence of clauses is
rightly understood, with their limiting or modifying power. Thus, hA
will become acquainted with the fact, unencumbered hy technical
terms. He will learn the dependences of words and clauses ; and his
mind will be str~ngly exercised on these great and prominent features
of thought, without being bewildered by the intricacies of the minor
distinctions which are involved in these relations.
The pupil should thus analyze and construct sentences, and should
be made to understand the relations of the several parts, whether
words or clauses, and comprehend the lim itin;r fnrce of each, befom

8

PREFACE.

the distinctions of mode and t ense in verbB, and of person and casu
in nouns, can be rentlcred clear and .. intelligible .
The method of instruction is undergoing a change in this respect,
and many of our best teachers are di sposed to adopt a more rational
and philosophical system. For the aid of such. - that they may the
be tter carry out their wholesome intentions, by a text-hook suited to
the purpose, - th is work has been prepared. It has been long tested
in the Author's school, and has been tried by other teachers witl1 a sue
cess tha t they did not an ticipate. The plan has been submi tted to
the examination of school com.mittees, teachers, and other literary
ge ntlemen interested in education, and their decided approval has
encouraged the author to publish. it, with the hope that it will be
acceptable t o teachers generally, and be found useful in leadi ng the
young to think, and to learn understandingly.
The plan is somewhat analogous to that pursued in the best German schools, though greatly m odified ; but it does not alter the established nomenclature of our grammars. Innovations are often made,
to introduce some peculiarity of doubtful tendency, but so magnified
in 11nportance in the author's eyes, as to overshadow the subject, to
the exclusion of just and rational views. In this work no sue)! irmo·
vations are made; but the Author claims to have presented the subject in a more natural and reasonable manner, unencumbered by tech1
niealities which the pupil cannot understand.
A large r Grammar, on the same plan, carried out more fully for the
use of advanced scholars, is in co urse of preparation. It will embrace subjects purposely omitted in this work, and a practical system
of punctuation, based on thi s me th od of analysis and construction.
This book is commended to th e use of those who undertake the
study of gramm or without t he aid of a teacher, as offering facilitie•
th at can hardly foi l to in sure interest and success lil the study.
BoSTON , Park Street, December, 1846.
TO TEACHERS.

The "Tables" in the " Gradual Lessons" contain an
abstract of the principles developed in the several sections, and should therefore be committed to memory
No other part need be committed, it being intended to
exer<:ise the understanding, rather than the memory.
The age and mental developement of the pupil; will
decide, whether the "Sequel" would be more profitably
studied, while going through the Exercises in the "Gradual L essons," or while reviewing them. This is pro·
perly left to the discretion of the Teacher.

GRADUAL LESSONS
IN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
~ I. A

of grammar enables
us to speak and write correctly.
KNOWLEDGE

REMAR.K 1.
'!'he first step is taken, in grammar,
when we learn, m the spelling book, the names and
powers of letters singly and in syllables, and the
meth_od of representing words by their proper letters.
REM. 2.
The second step is the classification of
words'. according to the several purposes which they
serve m a sentence.

~ 2.

Words used as names are called

NOUNS.
REMARK I •
TheY may be names of persons· as
Charles, woman ' John Smith • cI.11"ld ;-or names
' of'
p1aces ; as, Boston, Medford, Vermont Euro e . names 0 f th"
'
'P '
or
. mgs; as, book, house, liorse, sliip; _ or
names of thmgs of which we can only have an idea;
as, goodness, truth, wisdom.
REM. 2 .. N a'.11es of particular persons and places
should begm with a capital letter.

•
10

GRADlJAL LESSONS

I N ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCI~S.

Let the pupil tell which of the following nouns are
n ames of persons, places, &c.

Baltimore,
wisdom,
Jnanner,
William,

-l
J

art,
money,
snow,
tree,
truth,
Mary, ·
sound,
fire,
New York,
Henry B. Adams,
George Harrison Otis.

goodness,
glory,
accent,
stage,

NoTE. The pupil should be required to give twenty
examples of nouns, telling of what kind they ar~ ~ also. to
point out nouns in his reading book till he is fanuhar with
this class of words .

~ S. A word used to expre~s existence
or action is called a VERB ; as, is, was, eats,
loves, is loved, has been loved, exists.
EXERCISES.

Let the pupil point ou,t the verbs expressing exist·
ence, and those expressing action.
'

des1·re '
stand,
am,
p1ay,
ride,
walk,
believe,
sit,
give,
live,
. exist,
begin,
will talk,
might have been,
could have been loved.

I
I.

11

§ 5. The principal parts of a ·sentence
are the SUBJECT, which is the name of the
person or thing spoken of; and the PREDICATE, Which expresse& What is said of the
subject; as in the following proposition: EXAMPLE.

Boys study.
. In this sentence 1 the noun "boys,, is the subject, because it denotes t~e per~ons of whom something is
said; and the verb "study" is the predicate, because
it denotes what is said of the subject, " boys."
EXERCISES.

· Analyze the following senten~es, telling wlty any
word is a noun, and of what kind it is; ·o r wlty it is a
verb, and whether it expresses existence or action ;
which· is the subject, and wlty; the predicate, and
wliy.

William walks.
Charles learns.
Men die.
Birds fly.
Man exists.
Virtue will be rewarded.
Children are taught. Time was.
Duty exists.
Diamonds sparkle.
REMARK.
A proposition may be stated in the form
of a question; as, "Does William walk 7" " Will virtue be rewarded 1 "

NoTE . Give ten examples, and point out others in the
reading book.

NOTE. Construct five sentences, and analyze them as in
the example.

~ 4. Words combined in sentences are
used to express our ideas.

~ 6. Nouns may be modified in various
ways, directly and indirectly.

12

~ 7. An ADJECTIVE .is a word which
directly limits or modifies a noun.

Q.UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the noun?
What is the verb? Why ? b
What word directly limits the noun ?
What is the limiting word called? •
What is the subject? Why? d
What is the modified subject?
What is the predicate ? Why? d

R EMARK 1. This class embraces the usual words
that directly modify nouns, except names.
R EJI'.!. 2. Three of these limiting words, a, an, and
the, are called ARTICLES.
EXAMPLE.

Good boys study.
.j

l
1
I

In the sentence "Boys study,'' " boys" is a noun,
because it is a name; it is the subject, because it
denotes the persons spoken of. " Study" is a verb , because it expresses action, and is the predicate, because
it denotes what is said of the subject.
The proposition is now general, and may be applied
to all boys. But in the sentence " Good boys study,''
it is limited to a particular class of boys ; hence,
"good" is an adject'ive , because it directly limits the
noun " boys ;" and the subject, thus limited, is called
the MODIFIED SUBJECT.
EXERCISES.

Analyze the following sentences, as above, and state
each proposition in the form of a question: -

Industrious men work. Good men may be found.
Idle boys play.
Dutiful scholars study.
Bad men are punished. Good people are rewarded
Beautiful flowers will wither.
Little children will grow.

13

JN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL I,ESSUNS

Why ? a

NoTE 1. Construct five sentences, in which the subj~'ct
is limited by an adjective, and analyze as above.
NoTE 2. The pupil should be required to point out adjectives in his reading book, till he .is perfectly familiar with
this class of words. ·

~ 8. . Verbs also may be directly and in
directly modified or limited.
~ 9.
An ADVERB is a word which directly modifies or limits a verb.

REMARK. This class embraces the usual words that
directly modify verbs, except names.
EXAMPLE.

The man talked foolishly.
In the sentence " Man talked," " man " is a noun,
because it is a name; it is the suqject, because it denotes the person spoken of. " Talked" is a verb
because it expresses action'; and is the predicate, be:
cause it denotes what is said of the subject.
The proposition is now general. But in the sentence "Tlie man talked,'' it i's limited to a particular
man by the article, " the;" and the phrase " the man"
is the modified subject.
a

§ 2.

b

2

§ 3.

c

§ 7.

14

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH

In the sentence "The man talked foolislily," the
predicate also is limited by the adverb "foolishly;" and
the phr ase " talked foolishly" is called the MODIFIED

EXAMPLE.

William, the blacksmith; has arrived.
In the sentence " William has arrived," the nou11
"William" is the subject,• and the ve1·b "has arrived"
is the predicate.• The proposition is now general,
and may refer to any person Qf that name.
But in the above example, the noun "Wilham., is
limited to a particular person of the name, by the noun
" blacksmith," here used in explanation.
The noun " blacksmith" is also limited by the ar·
· ticle "the;" and the phrase "William, the blacksmith," is the modified subject.

PREDICATE.
F."XERCISES.

Analyze the followincr0 sentences, as above; remembering hereafter to state each in the form of a
question.

The horse ran swiftly.
Goon lv: ys behave well. Cold water runs freely.
Rich men should give liberally.
Wise men decide carefully.
Sometimes boys act foolishly.
Now John studies diligently.
Mother will soon be here.

EXERCISES. ·

Cicero, the orator, wa.S admired.
Elijah, the prophet, was translated.
Solomon, the king, reigned then.
Stephen, the martyr, was stoned.
Howard, the distinguished philanthropist, was
universally loved.

Q.UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the subject? Why?
What is th e predicate ? Why ? •
What word directly limits the subject?
What is it called ? b
What word directly limits the predicate ?
What is this limiting word called ?
What is the modified subject?
What is the modified predicate?
NoTE. Construct five sentences, each containing a modified subject and predi cate, as above. Also point out ad·
verbs in the reading book till familiar with this class of
words
Q

·I
I

I

II

~I

I

~ IO. Nouns are ~:lirectly modified or limited by other nouns used to explain or describe them, denoting the same person or
thing.
• § 5.

b

§ 7, R. 2 .

15

GRAM~IAR.

J

Q.UESTIONS.

Why are "Cicero" and " orator" nouns? 6
What is the subject in the first sentence ? Why?•
By what is the subject limited?
What is limited by the article "the " ?
Why is "was admired" a verb?•
Why is it the predicate 1•
What is the modijied subject 1
Is the predicate modified?
·
NoTE. Construct and analyze two sentences similar lo
the above .

• §·5.

c

§ 3.

-

Some verbs are directly modified
by a noun denoting the same person or
thing as the subject.

NOTE.

~ 12. A noun may be directly modified
or limited by another noun denoting the
owner or possessor.

Honesty is the best policy.
Here the noun "honesty ,,a is the subject, b which
has the verb " js" ' for its predicate. b
The predicate is directly modified by the noun
"policy," which is itself directly limited by the adjective " best," d and the article " the."•
Thus the phrase " is the best policy" becomes thf1

EXAMPLE.

Edward's book has been badly used.

predicate.
EXERCISES.

Q.UESTIONS.

'a

In the first sentence, what words are nouns? Why
What is the subject 1 Why! b
What is the verb in this sentence? Why?•
What is the predicate? Why 1 b
By what is the predicate limited ?
.
. .
By what two words is the noun in the prediwte hm1te<!?
What is each called ? d & •
a

§ 2.

b

§ 5.

c

§ 3.

• § 7, It 2.

Construct nnd analyze four sentences aim.Jar to

the above.

EXAMPLE.

ls Howard called the great philanthropist ?
Virgil was a Latin poet.
The boys are good scholars.
The child will be named John.
Was Milton a great English poet?
Anna has been a good girl.
Are all birds good songsters?
Bacon was esteemed a profound philosopher.

17

What is the modified predicate?
ls the subject modified?

~ 11.

11111rl ificd

.

JN ENGLISH GRHDIAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

I

I.

In the sentence " A book has been used," the noun
" book" is the subject, and the verb " has been used"
is the pre'dicate. Here, the proposition being general,
it may refer to any person's book, and any kind of
usage.
Bnt in the above example, the noun "book" i; limited to a pq.rticular person by the noun "Edward's,"
denoting the owner of the book ; and the verb " has
been used" is modified by the adverb "badly," denoting the manner in which the book has been used.
Hence, "Edward's book" is the modified subject,
and " has been badly used" is the modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

The president's message will soon be received.
Has William's father returned?
Virtue's reward is a quiet conscience.
The king's son visited the' boy's father.
Should not George's parents rejoice ?
A friend's infirmities should be borne patiently.
Ch~rles was William's classmate .

2•

-,

18

IN

GRADTJAL LESSONS
Q.UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the subject t ~
What is' the predicate ? •
How is the proposition stated ? b
What word denotes the possessor ?
By what is the subject limited?
What is the modified subject? •
Is the predicate modified?
NOTE . Construct and analy_ze several sentences as above .

~ 13.

Some verbs are directly modified
by an object which limits the action originating in the subject.
EXAMPLE.

Men worship God.
Here the noun " men " is the subject whence the
action originates; the verb " worship," the predicate,
expressing the action ; and the noun "God," the obj ect, which directly limits the action of the verb.
H ence " worship God" is the modified predicate
EXERCISES.

I

Charles struck the bail.
The pupil should study the lesson.
William's father bought a fine house.
Has George read Anna's new book ?
'J'he man purchased ten apples.
Did the wheel hurt the boy much ?
A friend should bear a friend's infirmities.
" § 5.

• b

§ 5, R.

• § 7, Example

ENGJ,ISH

GRA~IMAR.

19

Q.UESTIONS.

\Vhat words are nouns in the first exerpise ?
What is the subject? Why?
What.is the predicate ? Why ?
What object 'limits the action of the ve rb? ·
By what is the object limited? 0
What is the phrase "struck the ball '' called? •
Is the subject modified ?
NoTE . Construct and analyze several sentences similar lo
the above examples.
-

~ 14. A noun may be indjrectly modified. or limited by another noun, connected
with it by a word usually placed before it, and
hence called a PREI.'OSITION:
EX.A.\i:PLE.

Men of sense sometimes differ widely.
In the general proposition " Men differ," the noun
" men" is the s_ubject, and the verb " differ" is the
predicate. But in the above example, the subject is
indirectly limited to a particular class of men by
the noun "sense," connected with it by the preposition
" of;" and the phrase " Men of sense " is the modified subject.
The predicate is directly limited by the adverbs
"sometimes" and "widely," denoting how often anti
how much men differ.
Hence ' 'sometimes differ widely" is the modified
predicate.
0

§ 7, R . 2.

b

§ !l, l<:xample.

• ::kc T~ble of Connectives, § 32,. p. 41.

20

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES .

EXAMPLE.

A noise from the street alarmed the inmates.
A lecture on history may be expected.
Did the pupils obey the directions of the "teacher ?
rremperance is the best preserver of health.
Hope is the balm of life..
Attention to business is security against want.
'The company of profane persons should be carefully avoided.
Q.UESTIONS.

ln th e first exercise, what are the nouns?
What is the subject? Why?
What word directly limits the subject?
What is it called?•
By what is the subject indirec tly limited?
' Vhat preposition connects the limiting noun to the subJec t?
By what is the limiting noun itself directly limited?•
What fiv e words constitute the modified subject?
What is the predicate ? Why?
What obJect directly limits the action of th e verb? b
By what is the limiting noun, which is the object of the
ve rb, itself lim ited?
Wh at is the modified predi cate?
NoTE. Construct and analyze. several sentences as in the
ab ove examp le.

~

15. A verb may be indirectly modified or limited by a noun connected with it
by a preposition.
• § 7, R. 2.

21

b

§ 13.

John went to Boston.
In the proposition "John went," the noun "John"
is the subject, and the verb "went" is the .rredicate;
and the action expressed by the verb is not limited to
any direction or place. .
But, in the above example, the action of the verb is
limited to a particular place by the noun " Boston,"
and the limiting noun , is connected with the verb
"went" by the preposition "to."
'
Hence the pltrase "went to Bos(on" is the modified predic!l;te.
EXERCISES.

Charles found a knife in the street.
The girls gathered flowers in the garden.
George has written a long letter to Anna.
Men gain fortunes by diligence.
The boy has been sent to school.
Charles has returned from Baltimore.
William brought the book from England.
Industry contends successfully against poverty
Q.UESTIONS.

In. the first exercise, what are the nouns?
What is the subject? Why?
What is the predicate? Why?
What object directly limits the action of the verb ' •
By what noun is. the verb indirectly limited?
What conne cts tb.is limiting noun with the verb?
What is the connecting word called? h

• § 13.

b

§ 14 .

22

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH_ GRAMMAR.

Ily what is this limiting noun itself limited ? •
What Jimits the noun which is the direct object of the
ve rb?
What words constitute the modified predicate?
I s the subject modified?
NoTE . C onstruct and analyze several sentences, as in the
above example.

!\. disposition to quarrel mak~s trouble.
The girl doe& uot lack ability to understand.
Men seldom find time to play.

~

16. A noun may be indirectly modified or limited by a verb connected with
it by the preposition "to."
EXAMPLE.

A desire to excel leads to emmence.
In the proposition "A desire leads to eminence,'' the
noun " desire" is the subject, and the verb " leads" is
the predicate, which is indirectly limited by the noun
" eminence," connected with it by the preposition
" to"; and the phrase "leads to eminence" is the
modified predicate. Here no particular desire is specifi ed.
But, in the above example, the noun "desire" is indirectly limited by the verb "excel," connected with
it by the preposition " to"; and the proposition is now
limited to a desire for excellence. Thus, "A desire to
excel " is the modified subject.

Q.UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what words are nouns?
What is the subject?
.
What word di~ectly modifies the subject ?
What· is the modified subject?
What is the predicate?
By what object is the predicate limited ? •
Is the Iiinitation direct or indirect?•
\Vhat noun does the adjecti'oe ."no" directly limit?
By what is the limiting noun indirectly limite d?
What word connects the v erb with the noun which it limits>
What is the modified predicate? b
What are the limiting words in this sentence?
H ow many connectives are there?
What are they ?
NoTE . Construct and analyze several sentences, as abovi.

~ 17. A verb may be indirectly modified or limited by another verb connected
with it by the preposition "to."
EXAMPLE.

Engines are used to extinguish fires.

EXERCISES.

Idle boys make no attempt to improve.
A firm resolve to persevere will be crowned with
success.
The wish to obtain wealth is a strong induC'ement to action.
" ~ 7, 'R . 2.

In the unlimited proposition " Engines are used,'
the noun "engines" is the subject, and the vc1·b
" are used" is the predicate. But, in the above example, the use of engines is limited to a particular
purpose by the verb " extinguish." The limiting verb
• § 13.

b

§ V, Example .

24

GRADUAL LESSONS

25

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

is connected with the predicate by the preposition
"to," and is itself directly limited by the noun "fires,"
which is the object of the action expressed by it.
H ence " are used to extinguish fires" is the modified
pred icate.
EXERCISES.

H enry has gone to Boston to obtain a situation.
Soldiers are compelled to fight.
The crew were obliged to swim.
Does the murderer expect to escape ?
Men of integrity intend to deal justly.
The man consented to leave the place.
Father wishes to borrow the newspaper.
Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject in the first exercise?
I s the subjec t modified?
What is the predicate?
Dy what noun is the predicate modified ? •
What verb indirec tly modifies the predicate?
By what is th e limiting verb directly modified?•
Witrrt are the limiting words in the sentence?
What is the modified predicate?

which the noun and verb may be limited ;
and attention should be specially directed
to the perfect symmetry and correspondence existing between the two principal
parts of a sentence, _in regard to the modifications of which they are susceptible.
TABLE 1.
Direct Modifications.
NouN,
VERB,
(an adjective ; a
(an adverb ; b
a noun denoting
a noun denoting the
the same person
same person or
or thing as thf'
by a thing. as itself; e by
subject; 4 ·
noun denoting
a noun denoti1,g
the possessor or
the direct object
owner.•
of its action. I

jl

Indirect Modifications.
NouN,
VERB,
a· noun connected
a noun connected

\ \'hat word limits the direction of the action expressed by
the vr.rb "has gone "?
What word expresses the purp ose of the action ?
N OTE.

Construct and analyze several sentences, as above.

~ 18.

The following recapitulation of
principles already illustrated, exhibits a
con cise view of the different methods m
• § 15.

b

§ 1:-! .

by

Il

with it by a preposition ; fl
by
a_ verb connected
. by the preposition " to." i

G
§ 7.
• § 9.

• § 10.
d § 11.

3

, § 12 .
I

§ 13.

with it by a preposition; h
a verb connected
by the preposition "to." i
I

A

§ 14.
§ 15.

-, § 16.
§ 17.

J

26

By
.By
By
By

what
what
what
what

27

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

QUESTIONS.

Highly important measures will be brought
forward.
William writes a tolerably good hand .
George's copy is- written in an unusually careless
manner.
An incalculably large sum has been expended in
the prosecution of the war.

may
may
may
may

a 110uu be <lirectly modified?
a verb be directly modified?
a noun be indirectly modified?
a verb be indirectly modified?

~

19. The limiting classes of words,
call ed adjectives and adverbs, may be
modified in various ways, directly and. indirectly.
~ 20. Adjectives may be directly modified or limited by adverbs.
EXAMPLE.

Very good boys study well.
In the sentence "Good boys study well," the
noun "boys " is the subject, and is directly limited
by the adjective " good." " Study" is the predicate,
and is directly limited by the adverb "well"; thus
" study well " is the modified predicate.
But the proposition is susceptible of still ·farther
limitation; for, in the above example, the class of
boys is limited to those who possess a superior degree of goodness, by the adverb "very," which directly mpdifies the adjective "good."
Hence the phrase " very good boys " is the modified subject.
EXERCISES.

The man owed a.n xxceedingly large amount.
The address was intensely interesting.

QUESTIONS.

I., the first exercise, what are the nouns? a
What is the verb ? b
What are the articles?•
What is the adjective? d
What is the adverb?
What does the adverb limit?•
In what respect does it modify the word which it limits r
NoTE.

Construct and analyze several sentences, as above.

~

21. Adverbs may _be directly modified
or limited by other adverbs.
EXAMPLE.

Good boys study very faithfully.
In the sentence "Good boys study faithfully," the
adjective "good,,- directly limits the noun "boys";
and the phrase "good boys" is the modified subject. The verb "study" is the predicate, and is directly modified by the adverb "faithfully."
But the above proposition is still farther limited;
for a higher degree of faithfulness . is predicated of
the boys, by the adverb "very," which directly limits the adverb "faithfully."
a

§ 2.

b

§3.

' § 7, R. 2.

d

§ 7.

• §9

28

GRADUAL L ESS ON S
IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Hence " study very faithfully" is the modified
pm<dicate.
E XERC I SES .

The boy has lately behaved much better.
Th e copy was written exceeding ly well.
The pupi l should study most diligently.
W'"as not the work done too carelessly?
The -boy behaved not less foolishly.
'l'he man was very easily frightened. ·
(iUESTIONS.

-~

To what class does eac h word in the first exercise belong f
By w hat two words is the predicate directly limited?
By what is the adverb "better " limited>
In what respec t does "la tely " li mit the propos ition?
In what respect does "better" li mi t the proposition ?
What is the modified predicate?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze several sentences, as above .

~ 22. An adjective may be indirectly
modified or limited by a noun connected
with it by a preposition.
EX A~1PL E .

The mas ter found the pupil adequate to
the task.
Here the noun " master 11 is the subject, and is directly limited by the article "the." The verb "found 11
is the predicate, and is directly limited by the noun
"pupil," which is the object of its action, and which
is itself directly limited by the article "the" and the
adjective "adequate."

29

The noun "task,'' connected with the adjective "adequate " by the prepos·ition "to," indirectly limits the
competency of the pupil .to some one thing; and the
11
article " the limits the noun " task 11 to a particular
thing.
Hence the p"j;rase " found the pupil adequate to
11
the task is the modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

Eager for -improvement, the boy studied
diligently.
Charles is a boy worthy of confidence.
Glad of the opportunity, John mounted the
horse.
Desirous of promotion, the man persisted in the
attempt.
William continued the operation, h eedless ot
consequences.
<tUESTIONS.

What is the subj ec t, in the first exercise?
Wh at is the predica te?
What adjective limits the subject?
By what ls the adjective limited?
I s the limitation direct or indirect?
What word connects the noun with the adjective

r

N oTE . Construct several sentences, and analyze, as above.

~ 23.

An adverb may sometimes be indirectly modified or limited by a noun connec ted with it by a preposition.
3•

30

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH . GRAMMAR.

EXAMP LE .

~ 24. An adje~tive may be indirectly
modified or limited by a verb connected
with it by the preposition "to."

The just man always acts consistently with
conscience.
i',

l1

I•

..'·,'
1·

H ere the subject "man" is directly limited by the
adjective "just " .and the article " th~" ; hence " the
just man" is· the modified subject.
The predicate "acts" is directly limited by the adverbs "always" and "consistently"; and the proposition, "The just man always acts consi.s tently," is
farth er modified by the noun " conscience," which
indirectly limits the adverb "consistently," showing
Thus " always
with wltat his acts are consistent.
::'.cts consistently with conscience" is . the modified
predicate.
EXERCISES.

Men should live agreeably to the dictates of
reason.
The cars ran fast enough for safety.
The horse travels too slowly for the purpose.
William studies too diligently for health. ·
The man came too late for reconciliation.
(iUESTIONS.

In the first ex ercise, by what is the predicate directly limited'•
·
Ily what is the adverb indirectly limited?
Whn.t connec ts the noun with the adverb whi ch it limits?
Ily what is the limiting noun indirectly limited? b
By what is it directly limited? c
NoTE.

Con struct a few sentences, and analyze.

• § 9.

I

1

I
•

b

§ 14.

c

§ 7, R. 2.

31

EXAMPLE.

William soon found a boy ready to play.
H ere "William" is the subject, and ' 'found" the
predicate.
The verb "found" is directly modified
by the adverb "soon," which limits the proposition
with regard to time; and by the noun "boy," which
denotes the direct object of its action. " Boy " is
directly limited by the article "a" and the aqjcctive " ready.i'
"Ready" is itself indirectly limited by the verb
"pl ay," denoting the purpose for which he was ready.
Hence the plirase, "soon found a boy ready to
play," is the modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

1'he man, now able to stand, walked off.
Eager to improve, the boy studied diligently.
Desirous to succeed, the man ·persevered.
Is the girl anxious to excel ?
Too old to learn, the man remained in ignorance.
A n~an, impatient to acquire weahh, is always
harassed.
Too wayward to listen to the advice of friends, ·
the man persisted in a course of folly.
Unable to \Vork, the man depended on charity.

32

33

IN ENGLISH . GRAM~UR.

GRADUAL LESSONS
Q.UESTIONS.

EXERCISES.

In th e fir st exercise , by what adjective is the noun" m11n
direc tl y limited ?
Wh at otlwr word directly limits "man"?
What word directly limits th e adj ective?
In what re spec t does it limit it?
By what is the adj ective indirec tly limited~
By IV hat is t he limiting ve rb connected with the adje ctive 1
What is the modified s ubject?
Hy what word is th e predicate directly limited 1
To what class doe s it belon g ?
Wha t is th e modifi ed predi cate ?

Charles drove fast enough to hnrt the horse.
Is the soldier wounded too severely to recover?
The boy pursues the object too carelessly to
succeed.
The orator spoke too eloquently to fail in the
object.
Men sometimes do not persevere long enough to
succeed.
The soldiers fought' too bravely to be defeated .. ·
The tea._cher considered the boy old enough to
lrnhave with propriety.

NOTE.

C onstruct several se ntences, as above .

~ 25.
An adverb may be indirectly ,
modified or limited by a verb · connected
with it by the preposition "to."
EXAMPLE.

The man was running too rapidly to stop.
H ere "man" is the subject, and " was running"
the predicate. The subject is directly modified by
the article "the," limiting .the proposition to a particular man. H ence "the man" is the modified subject. The verb "was running" is directly limited
by the adverb "rapidly," deno.ting the rate at which
he was running;. and this adverb is itself directly limited by the adverb "too," expressing more definitely
the de{[ree of rapidity. The adverb "rapidly" is indirectly modified by the verb "stop," indicating a
purpose for which he was running too rapidly. Hence
" was running too rapidly to stop" is the modified
predicate.

Q.UESTIONS.

By what is the predicate directly limited, in the first ex·
erci se? a.
By wh at is th e adverb" fast" directly limited ?b
What word indirl'ctly limits the adv erb "enough" l
By what word is it conne cted with the adverb?
What word dir0ctly limits the 'Dtrb "hurt"?•
ls the subject modified?
What is the modified predicate?
NOTE.

Construct several sentences, as above.

~ 26.

The following ~able exhibits a
connected view of the correspondence
between the limfring classes of words,
called adjectives and adverbs, in respect
to the various modifications of which the)'
are susceptible, as already illustrated.
• § f).

6

§ 21.

c

§ 13.

•

•

34

GRAD UAL

TABLE II.

'I

Direct Afodijications.
ADJECTIVE,

ADVERB,

II by

an adverb.•

by

an adverb.b

the two nouns are ·Connected by the conjunction
" and," and placed before the modifi<?.d predicate
" went to Boston."
The two subjects, thus connected, constitute a
COMPOUND SUBJECT .

Indirect Modifications.
AnJECTIVE,

ADVERB,

a noun connected
with it by a preposition; c
by
a verb connected
by the preposition " to." •

by

a noun connected
with it by a preposition; d
a verb conl1f~cted
by the' preposition " to." /

QUESTIONS.

By what can
By what can
How may an
How may an

an adj ec tive be dire ctly m odi fied?
an adve rb be directly modifie d?
adj ec ti ve be indirectly modified?
adverb be .indirec tly modified?

~

27. When the same 1s asserted of
two or more persons or things, ~he predica te is not repeated; but the subjects are
joined toget her by a class of connectives
called CoN.JUNCTIONS.g
EXAMPLE.

John and James went to Boston.
Il »re the same thing is assnted of two persons,
J ohn an<l J cimes ; but, to save unnecessary repetition,
a

§

~'U.
K

b ~

§ 22 . d § 23. ' § 24. I § 25.
See T:tblc of Connectives, § 32, page 41
21.

c

35

IN ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

LES SO~S

EXERCISES.

An old man and a boy attempted to cross the
river.
The man and the horse were seen from the top
of the hill.
Charles and Anna have gone to school.
Did William and Samuel arrive in season to see
the play?
Will the governor and the council meet soon?
A gen.tleman and lady can be accommodated
with boardJ
QUESTIONS .

in th e first exercise, of how many persons is the same thmi.
asserted?
Is the predicate repeated !
·what two nouns constitute the compound subject?
What word connects them together ?
What is the connectini word called ?
What t wo words directly limit the noun "man" > •
To what classes do the limiting words b e l ong? ~
What w ord directly limits th e noun "boy"~
What verb indirec tly limits the predicate.? b
What is the word calle d, that connects it with the pre dicate ?
What is the obj ect of the action expressed by the rcrb
"cross"?

c

Does it directly or indirectly li mit "cross"? '

• § 7, An<l 7, R . 2.

b

§ 17

• § 13

•
36

GRAD UA L LESSONS

Wh at does th e m·ticle "the " limit?
W hat is the mod ified predi cate ?
N oTE.

Construc t several se nte nce s, as above.

~ .28. When two or more things are said
of the same person or thing, the su hject
is seldom repeated, but the predicates are
joined together by a conjunction.
EXAMPLE.

Charles reads and writes.
H ere two <lifferent things are asserted of the same
person, Charl es; namely, " Charles reads,-Charl es
writes." But, to sa1•e unnecessary repetition, the two
predicates are connected by the conjunction "and,"
and pl aced after the subj ect, "Charles." .
The two predicates, thus connected, constitute a
COMP OUND PREDICATE .

37

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Q.UESTIONS.

In the fir st exercise, how ma.ny thing11 are asserted of
William?
What is the fir st predicate? The second?
Why is not the subject placed before each?
What is the word that connects the two predicates, called?
What do the predicates, thus connected, constitute?
I s the first predicate directly or indirectly limite d?~
What connects the noun "Boston" with the verb" went"'
What ·is the object of the action expressed by the verb
"sold"?b
What word limits that obj ect? •
In what respect does the adverb "there" limit" sold"?

NoTE .

C onstruct several sentences, as above.

~ 29. When any thing is asserted of s~me

one of several persons or things, t~e subject
is compound, and the parts are connected by
a conjunction.
EXAMPLE.

EXERCISES .

William w ent to Boston, and sold a horse there.
The man returned, but brought back no money.
The children gathered flowers, and made a
nosegay.
The stranger's horse ran away, and upse t the
carriage.
T he man went to T e.xas, and never returned.
·warren saw the boy, but said nothing of the
matter.

John or William will go to Boston.
Here it is asserted that o~e of two persons " will
go to Boston," without stating definitely which. The
nouns, therefore, denoting the persons, one of whom
will go to Boston, are connected together ?Y the conjunction " or," and placed before the predicate; coni>tituting the 'compound subject.
EXERCISES,

The old gentleman or the boy must rem~i~
0

~

b

15.

4

§ J 3.

c:

7, R.

~

38

GRADUAL LESSONS
IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

D(d Henry, or Simon, or Nathan, know the
man?
The author or the printer committed an error.
The teacher or the pupil was in fault.
Th e boy's father or mother deserved great
praise.
Q.UE ST IONS.

ln th e first exercise, is it said that the gentleman must
rema in?
I s it said that the boy mu st remain?
I s it sa id that one of the two must rem ai n?
Is it stated which of the two must remain?
"What is th e compound subject?
What words direc tly limit the noun "gentleman"?
What nre the limiting word s called?
By what word is the noun "boy" directly lim ited?
- What is the modified compound subject t
Is the predicate modified?
NOTE.

Construct several sentences, as above.

~ 30.

Wh en some one only, of several
things asserted, applies to the person or
thing denoted by the subject, the predicate
is compound, and the parts are connected
by a conjunction.
EX.UfPLE.

39

oy the conjui!.ction "or," and pl_aced after the subject
!onstituting the compound predicate.
EXERCISES.

Joseph always comes early, or brings an .
excuse.
Charles remained at home, or returned very
·
early.
The horse walks slowly, or trots very fast.
Anna's brother will return soon, or will send a
letter.
Q.UESTIONS.

ln the first exercise, how many things nre asserted?
Do both assertions apply to the subject?
D oe s one of the assertions apply to the subject?
I s it stated which?
.
hat two words is the verb "comes" directly limited (
B
:hat is the v"erb " brings" directly limited?
What word connects the two predicates?
To what class _does this word belong?

l:l~

NoTE.

Construe.! se veral sentences, as above.

~

SL Words of the same class, in similar relations to other words, are connected
by conjunctions.

William studied or played.

EXAMPLE.

H ere it is asser ted that William did one of t1rn
things, but not derniteJy which.

A prudent and industrious man will commonly succeed.

The verbs, ther2fore, expressing the actions, one
of which WiJii:im performed, are connected together

In this sentence, the suldcct "man " is directly
modified by the two adject~vcs "prudent" an<l "in-

40

GRADUAL LESSONS

dustrious." These two words, therefore, being of the
same class , &nd sustaining similar relations to the
noun "man," are connected together by the cortjunction " and."
EXERCISES.

'

' '.
' '

Men of sense and judgment act with great
caution .
Washington, the soldier and statesman, is the
idol of the country.
The man manifested great wisdom and firmness.
The boy talked calmly and wisely.
A man without money or friends is an object
of pity.
William is inclined to whisper and play.
Q,UESTIONS.

In the first ~xercise, by what two words i11 the subject
ndirectly modified?
How are they connected with th e subject?
Vo they sustain the same relation to t~e subject?
By what word are they connected together?
To what class doe s it belong?
What is th e modifi ed subject?
What word indirectly limits the verb "net"?
Hy what is the limiting word directly modified?
What is th e modified pre?icale ?
NOTE.

~

Constrn ct and analyze several sentenc es, as above.

32. As the two classes of words, called
prepositions and conjunctions, cannot well
be recoguized by any definition, the following table may be of. service to the pupil.

41

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TABLE III.
CONNECTIVES.
CONJUNCTIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

down
about
during
above
except
across
for
after
from
against
in
amid
into
amidst
of
among
on
amongst
over
around
round
at
since
athwart
through
before
to
behind
towards
pelow
under
beneath
underneath
beside
unto
besides
up
between
upon
betwixt
with
beyond
within
by
concerning without

although
and
as
because
both
but
either
·for
if
lest
neither
nor
notwith::;tm.d1r1g
or
since
than
that
then
therefore
though
unless
wherefore
yet

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

according to
4•

instead of

out of

4.2

GRADUAL LES S ONS

The following words are sometimes used
as prepositions : past for by; excepting for
except; regarding, respecting, touching, for
concerning or ltbout; along, c!ff, till, until.
The following words are sometimes used
as conjunctious: also, so, still, and some
others.

J .,

~ SS. A noqn or an adjective in the predicate, directly modifying a verb expressing
existence or being, is coupled with the subject
by the verb, which is hence called a copula
EXAMPLE.

Charles was industrious.
H ere the noun "Charles" is the subject, the verb
" was" the predicate, and the phrase " was industrious " is · the modified predicate.; the adjective " industrious" being coupled with the subject "Charles"
by the copula "was." a
a The copula is a verb uniting the attribute with the sub.
ject. Thus," virtue ennobles" may be resolved into" virtue is
ennobling;'' in which "ennobling" is the attribute, expressin g the action ascribed to virtue, and "is," the copula, unitin g " enn obling" with '.'virtue."
In the sentence, " Five
a nd thrPe are eight," the attribute " e ight" is united with
th e compound subject "five and th ree," by the copula

EXERCISES.

The rivers are wide and deep.
Hope is the balm of life.
The pupils have been attentive to the lesson.
The boy's conduct had been very manly.
Contentment and humility are rich blessings.
The sea will be very tempestuous.
Charles might have been a useful and happy
man.
The night ~ill be unu~ually dark and dreary.
QUESTIONS.

What is the subject, in the fir st exercise?
By what is it directly limited ? a
What is the predicate?
What are the adjectives in the predicate?
What joins these two adjectives toge ther?~
What is the modified predicate ?
What are coupled with the subject by the copula " are "?
NOTE.

Construct and analyze other sentences, as above.

~ 34. A proposition, not depending on
another, but · making ·complete sense by
subject and the predicate are the tu:o 1ncmbers, while the copula is the sign of their equality. Thus,
"Five and three are eight."
5+3= 8.
" 'I1he square of four is sixteen."
4•= 16:
"My name is Norval.~'

My name= Norval.

" are. '

T o borrow an illustration from mathematical science, a sentence may be regarded as a species of cquation, ·of which the

43

IN ENGLISH GRAM)lAR.

Crosby'a Grfek <hmnmar.
a.

§ 7, R. 2.

' ~ ~7.

44
itself,

GRADUAL LESSONS

IS

called an

INDEPEND"E!NT PROPOSI-

TIO N.

~ _ 35. Two or more distinct propositions, joined together by a conjunction,
constitute a COMPOUND SENTENCE; and the
several propositions are called CLAUSES or
MEMBERS.
EXAMPLE.

John remains in the city, and William ·
has returned to the country.
This sentence contains two distinct propositions,
with different subjects and predicates, each clause •
ma.king complete sense independently of the other.
In the first clause, "John" is the subject, and "remains in the city" is the modified predicate; in the
second, "William" is the subject, and " has re.turm·d to the country" is the modified predicate.
These two clauses, connected by the conjunction
"and," constitute a compound sentence.
,

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.

The teacher is here, but the pupils have not ·
yet come.
The bank was robbed, and the officers have
caught the thief.
\Villiam must have been sent, or J ohn would
not have informed the teacher.
The regiment will go, if more soldiers 'hre
required.

45

Q.UESTIONS.

What are the two propositions, in the first exercise ?
Are th ey independent? •
What word connects them ?
T o what class of connectives does it belong 1 b
What is the subject of the first prop?sition?
By what is it directly limited?
What is the predicate?
By what is the predicate directly limited ?
What is the modified predicate?
What is the subject of the second proposition?
Is the subject niodified?
What is the predicate I
.
In what respect does the adverb "yet" limit the pre dicate t
How does the adverb "not" modify it?
What is the modified predicate ?
Is the sentence simple or compound?

~ 36.

Tlie following ·table exhibits a
concise view of the manner in which prepositions connect the same or different
classes of words in different relations, expressing what the relati~n is ; and of the
manner in which conjunctions connect
words of the same class in the same relation, without expressing what the relation is ; also how they connect clauses,
sometimes showing their relation.
.. § 34.

b

§ 27

4G

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

Conjunctions
connect clauses, sometimes expressing their
relation,

TABLE IV.

Prepositions
connect words of the same or different classes
different relations.
Noun
with

111

j
l

a noun,•
\
{a noun•
a verb,6
Verb a verb,;
an adjective,' J with an adjective, '
an adverb/
an ad verb. h

Conjuncti'.ons
connect words of the same class in the same
relation.
COMPOUND SUBJECT.

COMPOUND PREDICATE.

Two or j the same is
more \ asserted of

Two or (they apply to
one subject; •
more
predicates only one of
conthem applies
nected,
to the subwhen
ject. 1

1mbjects l
connected
when '

'I'

I

il

nouns,
}
verbs,
limiting the
wo or more
. .
adjectives,
same word."'
{
. adverbs,

• § I l.

• § ~ 4.

them i'
any thing is
asserted of
only one of
them/

h

41

b § 15.
' § 22.
d § 23.
• § 16. f § 17.
§ 25. I § 27. J § 2!J. k § 28. l § 30. m § 31.

independent}
{
and
propositions forming compound.
.
sentences.
·
d epen d ent
QUESTIONS.

Are words connected by prepositions always of the same
cla ss?
Can th e connected words be 'in the same relation?
Do prepositions express what the relation is which exists
between the connected _words?
With what classes of words do they connect nouns? Verbs?
Do conjunctions connect words of the same or different
cl asse s?
Can they connect words in different relations 1
Do conjunctions express what the relation is between the
words which they connect?
Which class of .c onn ectives must be u sed to form a com
pound subject? A compound predicate ?
Do conjunctions connect clauses?
What is the sentence then called?
Do conjunctions ever express what the relation IS betwee n
the clauses they connect?

~ 37.

To avoid too frequent repetition,
nouns are represented by a class of words
used instead of them, called PRONOUNS.
EXAMPLE •

George has returned, and. he is now m
the house .
In this sentence, the two independent propositions,
n

§ 35 .

48

GRADUAL LESSONS

" George has returned " - " George is now in the
house," - are joined by the conjunction " and," constituting a compound sentence. In the first clause,
" George" is the subject, and " has returned," the
predicate; in the second, to avoid the repetition of
the noun "George," the pronoun "he" is substituted
for it, and thus, representing the same person as
"George," becomes the subject of the clause, and
has the verb "is" for its predicate.
The predicate is directly limited by the adverb
"now," and indirectly by the noun "house." "House"
is limited by the article "the," and is connected with
" is" by the pi·eposition " in." Thus " is now in the
house " is the modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

Charles looked for the book, but he could not
find it.
William may have come, though I have not
seen him.
Has Jane bought the bonnet? or did she decide
not to have it?
The men saw the fire, and they labored hard to
extinguish it.
I consulted a physician, and he told me to
travel.
(lUESTIONS.

In the first exercise, how many propositions are there •
How are they connected together;
What do they constitute?

IN ENGLISH . GRAMMAR.

49

What is the subje-::t of the first clause?
What is the subject of the second clause ~
Why is the pronoun "he " substituted for " Charles"?
What is the preficate of the second clause?
By wh;t adverb is the predicate dire.ctly limited? .
What other word directly limits it?
For what noun is the pronoun substituted?

~ 38. The following pronouns are used
as the subject of a proposition, or to explain and describe the subject denoting the
same person or thing : I,

"I;hou,
We,
Ye.

He,
She,
It.
They.
You,
EXAMPLE.

1 informed George of the arrival, and he
was very sad.
In the first <;Jause, the pronoun " I," used to designate the person speaking, is the subject, and "informed George of the arrival " is the modified predicate.
In' the second clause, the pronoun "he," which is
substituted for the noun "George," and represents the
person denoted by that noun, is the subject, and " was
very sad " is the modified predicate.
"Very" is an adverb, limiting "sad," and "sad"
1s an adjective in the predicate, coupled with the
subject "he" by the c.opula verb "was."
The two clauses, connected by the conjunction
" and," form a compound sentence.
5

50

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.

speaking, and shows. wh~se son is spoken of. "Found"
is the pi:edicate, and is . directly limited by the noun

Thou art the man, if I am rightly informed.
\Ve requested Anna to go, bui-oshe refused.
You were angry, because they were rewarded.
I would not quarrel if I were yon. ·
Ye are base deceivers of the public.

"book," which i.s .the object of its action, showing
what the- son has found, and indirectly, by .the noun
" sfreet," showing where the book was found.
"Book" is directly limi.ted by the pronoun "your,"
representing the person addressed, and denoting the
owner of the book. Hence, " my so11" is the mod-

Q.UESTIONS.

ified subject, and ." found your book in the street"
is the modified predicate.

In the fir~ t exercise, what is the subject of the first clause?
Wh at is it used to de signate?
Wh at is the modifi ed predicate?
What is th e subject of the second clause?
Wh at is it .used to designate?.
Wh at is the pre dicate ? .
By what is the predi cate directly limited?
"What is the modified predicate?
What word connects the two clauses?
Are· both propositions independent?
·what do the two propositions form?

E.XERCISES.

Sounds of tenderness are in thy voice .
His father .was pleased with h er appearance.
Your friends are also our frie nds.
I was pleased with the plan and its operntion.
The men and their families were already there.
We sought ·our friends, but they had rRtunuu;l
to their homes.

NorE. Construct and analyze other sentences, as above.

~ 39.

The following pronouns, denoting
the possessor or owner, directly limit words
denoting the persons or things possessed or
·
owned:My,

51

GRADUAL LESbONS

Thy,
Our,

His,
Your,

Q.UESTIONS.

In the first. exercise, what is the subject?

Her,
Its,
Their.

EXAMPLE.

My son found your book m the street.
Here "son" is the subject, and is directly limited
by the pronoun "my,'' which represents the person

..

By what is .the su.bject limited?
Is the limitation direct, or indirect?
What is the predicate?
By what is it indirectly limited?
What word dir.e ctly limi.ts the noun "voice"?
What does "thy" represent?
What does it d'!note?
What . i~ the. 010(,ii(ied subject?
What i~ the 'inddified predicate r
NoTE. Construct and analyze, as above.

53

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

40. The following pronouns not - only
represent the possessor or owner, but also
save the repetition of the word denoting
. the person or thing possessed or owned : -

May the consolations of religion be thine.
James said that the apples were his.
Jane was pleased with her doll, but we disliked
ours .

52
~

Q.UESTIONS.

Miue,
Oms,

Thine,
Yours,
and sometimes
His.

Hers,
Theirs,

EXAMPLE,

The horse and chaise are mme.
H ere the two nouns, "horse" and "chaise," connected by the coryunction "and," constitute a compound subject, and have the verb "are" for a predicate.
The pronoun "mine," which limits the verb "are,"
not only represents the speaker, and denotes the owner
of the horse and chaise, but also prevents the necessity of repeating the words that indicate the things
owned. The pronoun is connected with the compound subject by the copula "are."
E'.XERCISES.

The h at is mine, but the coat is yours.
Her friends were pleased, but mine were
disappointed.
The book is mine, and the new sled is yours.
William and Thomas said that the books were
theirs.

Whal are the two clauses, in the first exercise ?
What is the word called which connects them ?
What is the modified subject of the first clause?
What is the modifie d predicate ?
What does the pronoun "mine" represent?
Of what does it save the repetition?
With what does the copula "is" connect the pronoun r
Who is the owner of the hat?
What is the subject of the second clause?
To what class does the word "yours" belong ?
Whom does it represent as the owner of the coat?
Of what word does it prevent the repetition?
What couples it to that word?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 41. The following pronouns limit words

directly and indirectly, in all the relations
of nouns, except those of the subject, and
of the possessor or owner : Me,

Thee,

Us,

Himy
You,

Her,
Them.

It,

EXAMPLE.

William gave the book to me, and I now
give it to you.
In this sentence, "William" is the subject of the

5*

62

53

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

40. The following pronouns not only,
represent the possessor or owner, but also
save the repetition of the word denoting
the person or thing possessed or owned : -

May the consolations of religion be thine.
James said that the apples were his.
Jane was pleased with her doll, but we disliked
ours.

~

Q.UESTIONS.

Miue,
Onrs,

Thine,
Yours,
and sometimes
His.

Hers,
Theirs,

EXAMPLE.

The horse and_ chaise are mme.
Here the two nouns," horse" and "chaise," connected by the conjunction "and," constitute a compound subject, and have the verb "are" for a predicate.
The pronoun "mine," which limits the verb ''are,"
not only represents the speaker, and denotes the owner
of the horse and chaise, but also prevents the necessity of repeating the words that indicate the things
owned. The pronoun is connected with the compound subject by the copula "are."
E·XERCISES.

The hat is mine, but the coat is yours.
Her friends were pleased, but mine were
disappointed.
The book is mine, and the new sled is yours.
William and Thomas said that the books were
theirs.

What are the two clauses, in the first exercise?
What is the word called which connects them?
What is the modified subject of the first clause?
What is the modified predicate ?
What does the pronoun "mine " represent?
Of what docs it save the repetition?
With what does the copula "is" connect the pronoun r
Who is the owner of the hat?
What is the ·subject•of the second clause?
To what class does the word "yours" belong?
Whom does it represent as the owner of the coat?
Of what word doe~ it prevent the repetition?
What couples it to that word?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~

41. The following pronouns limit words
directly and indirectly, in all the relations
of nouns, except those of the subject, and
of the possessor or owner : Me,

Thee,
Us,

Himy
You,

Her,
Them.

It,

EXAMPLE.

William gave the book to me, and I now
give it to you.
In this sentence, "William" is the subject of the

5*

54

GRADUAL [;ESSONS

first clause, and "gave" ·is the predicate. "Gave''
is directly limited by the noun "book," which is the
immediate object of its action, and denotes the thing
given; and indirectly by the pronoun "me," repre- ·
s-enting the person speaking, and denoting to whom
the book was given.
The pronoun "I," representing the speaker, is the
subject of the second clause, and the verb "give" is
the predicate. "Give" is directly limited by the adverb " now" and the pronoun "it," here u~P.d to save
the repetition of the noun " book "; and indirectly
by the pronoun " you," representing the person addressed, and denoting .t o whom the book is now
given.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

55

By what is the predicate mdirectly limited ?
What" word t:-onriects .it ·w"ith the. predicate? ·
Of what does the pronoun "her" save the repetition?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 42.

The folJowmg COMPOUND PRO·
NOUNS are used emphatically or reflex·
ively,G in the several relations of the words
which they represent, except that of pos·
sessor or owner : Myself,
Himself,
Ourselves,

Thyself,
Herself,
Yourselves,

Yourself, _
Itself,
Themselves.

EXERCISES.

Anna brought the apples to us, and we returned
them to her.
Samuel's father depended on him for support.
The horse ran with the carriage, and broke it.
I charge thee to fling away ambition.
Q.UESTIONS .

In the first exe rci se, what is the subject of the first dnuse?
What is the predicate! 41o
By what is the predicate directly limited?
B y what is it ind irectly l imited'
Wlrnt doe• the pronoun "us" represent!
Wh at is the subject of the second clause?
What <lops it represent!
Wh at is th e predicate!
By what is th e predicate directly limited?
O f what does the pronoun "them" save the repetition 1

EXAMPLE,

I saved the boy myself, but the sailors put
themselves in great peril to render assist·
ance.
Here the· pronoun "I," representing the person
speaking, is the subject, and is rendered emphatic by
the compound pronoun "myself," directly modifying
it, and denotmg
,.
· the same person; h~nee "I, myseIf"
is the modified subject.
"Saved," the predicate, is-> dire.ctly limited by' the
noun " I.Joy,"· denoting the object of the action of the
verb; hence " saved the boy" is the modified predicate.
a They are said to be used rejlexi-oely when they dire~ tly
or 'indirectly limit a verb, and denote the same person or thmg
as the subject of that verb.

56

GRADUAL LESSONS
IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

In the second clause, "sailors," the subject, is directly modified by the article "the." "Put" is the ·
predicate, and is directly limited by the compound pronoun "themselves," representing the same persons as
the noun "sailors," and used instead of that word, to
denote that the action expressed by the verb, as originating in the sailors, also terminated in the same
persons.
The nou?I "peril," connected with "put" by the
preposition "in," is directly limited by the adjective
"great;" and the verb "render," connected with
" put" by the preposition " to," has the noun " assist·
ance" as the object limiting its action. Hence "put
themselves in great peril to render assistance" is the
modified predicate.
The two clauses constituting the compound sentence, are independent propositions, connected by the
conjunction "but."
.
EXERCISES.

The gentleman, himself, was there; and cautioned the boys not to injure themselves.
Anna amuses herself with h er doll~
Thou, thyself, wilt shortly find, that the story is
without foundation.
We must blame ourselves for the failure.
You, yourselves, must have known better.
Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first exercise?
By what is it directly modified, besid es the article "th;, ··?
For what is th e pronoun "himself'" used '

57

_W hat are th_e two predicates?
By what are they connected ?
What directly limits the second predicate?
What verb mdirectly limits it?
By what adverb is the 'IJerb "injure" limited?
What other word directly limits it?
What does it represent?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~

43. The following words, used to
specify particular persons or things, like
adjectives, directly limit the words denoting those persons or things, and are called
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

This,

That,
These,
Those,
and sometimes
Former,
Latter.
EXAMPLE.

Father bought this sled, but that knife was
a present from my uncle.
In the first clause, " father" is the subject, and
" bought" is the predicate, having for its limiting
object the noun "sled" i which is itself directly
limited by the demonstrative pronoun "this," specifying the particular sled which was bought.
In the second clause, the noun " knife" is the
subject, which is directly limited by the demonstrative
pronoun " that," specifying definitely what knife was
given by the uncle; thus "that knife" is the modified subject.

.-

58

GRADUAL LESSONS .

Th e predi cate is limited by the noun "present/'
denot111g the same thing as the subject, and connected
with it by the copula "was." The noun "uncle" is.
co1rn ectcd with the noun "present," which it limits,
by _the prep osit£on "from"; and is itself directly
l1m1 ted by the pronoun "my," representing the speaker,
and denoting the possessor.
The two cl auses, conn ected by the conjunction
"but," constitute a compound sentence.
EXERCISES,

I will gladly ex change these skates for tha t book.
W illiam made this basket, and his sisters made
those calms.
Intempera nce and slavery were proposed for
discussion, but the speakers dwelt
upon the latter subject.
This book treats of fishes and birds but the
.
'
larger part is devoted to a description
of the former class.
QUESTIONS.

In the fi rst exercise , what is the subje ct?
What is the pred icate ?
W hat adve rb direc tly limits the predica te ?
Wh at is the obj ec t whi ch directly limits th e predicate?
By what 1s "skates " direc tly limitt' d ?
IV hat does the pronoun "these" •peci(y?
B y what is th'e pre di ca te indirectly limited?
~' hat word dire ctly limits th e noun "book"?
F or wh at is it use d ?
Wh at is the m odifie d predic ate?
Non:.

Construct and analyze, as above.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

59

~ 44.

The following words, referring to
persons or things, without specifying any
particular one of them, like adjectives · directly limit the words denoting those persons 01' things, and are called INDEFINITE
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Some,
No,

Other, One, Any, . All, Such,
. and sometimes
None,
Whole,
Both,
Several.
· EXAMPLE.

Some teachers allow their pupils to study
rn any manner.
In the first clause, the noun "tellchers" is directly
limited by the indefinite pronoun "some,'' which-does
not specify any particular teachers, but leaves it indefinite who they. are.. The noun "mapner;" which
is indirectly connected with "1>tudy " ' by "in," is directly limited by the in.definite pronoun "any," making the signification of " manner " general, instead of
particular. The pronou.;,, "their,'' representing the
noun "teachers,'' denotes possession, and directly
limits the noun "pupils," denoting the persons possessed.
EXERCISES . .

Some men are envious of other people.
All men desire to be· respected.
Such persons should be regarded with no favor.
One boy derives _pleasure from study.

..
60

GJ

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Other boys are idle and mischievous.
Man's whole life on earth is a struggle.

the conjunction " and," constitute a compound predicate; " stood" being limited by the adverb " up," and
"recited" by "word," which denotes the object of its
action, and which is itself directly limited by the distributive pronoun " every," indicating that the words
are considered singly. '"Word" is indirectly limited
by the noun "lesson," with which it is comiected by
the preposition " of."

Q.UESTION S,

In the first exercise, what is the subject?
By what pronoun is the subject limited?
Does it specify what men are envious '
What does the adjective "envious" limit!
By what is it indire ctly limite d?
What word directly limits the noun "peoplti"?
To what class does "other " belong !
Why is it called indefinite .~
What is the modified subject?
'\V'hat is the modifie d pre dicate ?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 45. The following words, used to indicate, separately or singly, the several persons- or things included in a number, like
adj ectives, directly limit a word, denoting
one of those persons or things,' and are called
DISTRIBUTTVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS : -

Each,

Every,

Either,

Neither.

EXAMPLE.

Each boy stood up, and recited every
word of the lesson.
Here the subject "boy" is directly limited by the ·
distributive pronoun "each," including the whole, but
denoting them singly.
The verbs "stood" and "rec ited," connected by

EXERCISES.

Either gentleman may have been present, for
the house is very large.
Neither person is a favorite of mine, but I
uniformly treat all men with courtesy.
I wish to see every man temperate and kind.
Each day brings intelligence of some _disaster.
Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first clause?
By what is it directly limited?
D oes the pronoun indicate that only one was pres.,nt?
What is the predicate ?
What adjective directly modifies it?
What connects this adjective with the subject!
What is the subject. of the second clause?
By what is the predicate modified?
.
.
By what is this adjective in the predicate connected with
the s.u bj ect?
•
What directly modifies this adjective?
\Vhat word connects the two clauses?
What is the meaning of the word?
To what class does it belong?
Non:. Con struct and an11lyze sev ernl sentences

0

62

GRADUAL LESSONS

63

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~ 46. The demonstrative, indefinite, and
distributive pronouns are sometimes used
alone, in the relations of the words which .
they limit, and thus· save their repetition. ·

The officers followed the thieves, and caught
both.
Some were angr Y, b ut these were perfectly calm.
Q.UESTIONS.

EXAMPLE.

·
.ts t 1le su bJe
· ct of the first clause?
ln th e first exercise, what
To wlrn,t class of words does it belong?
How is it used ?
. ,
Of what does it save the expression .
What is the predicate?
B what is the predicate· directly limited ?
.Jhat is the subject of the secund clause ?
To what class does it belong?
What is the predicate? . .
. .
?
By what is the predicate mdirectly lm11ted .
.. ?
Of what word does the pronoun " it" save the repetition

All have studied the lessons, but these
can recite it best.
Here the indefinite pronoun "all," used alone, in
th e relation of the word "scholars,'' which it limits,
and of which it saves the expression, is the subject
of the first clause; and the demonstrative pronoun·
"these," used alone, in the same manner, and for the
same reason, is the subject of the second clause. The
first predicate, "have studied," is directly limited by
the noun " lesson," which is the object of its action.
The second predicate," can recite,'' is directly limited
by the pi·onoun" it,'' used to save the repetition of the.
noun "lesson," and by the adverb "best," used to
denote the comparative . manner in which "these can
recite it."

NoTE.

I

~

47. Clauses connected with ~th~rs by
the following RELATIVE PRONOUNS, rndHectly
'lirnit the words which the pronouns represent.
Who,

EXERCISES.

Either may have done the mischief, but all must
have known about it.
My father took these, but I should have chosen
those.
One remain ed in Boston, and the other returned
to the country.

Construct and. ana1yze, as a b ove.

J.

Which;

That'

Whose, ·Whom.

. EXAMPLE.

Here is the boy whos~ sled I borrowed.
. . I ca
I use ' the sub;ect
"boy" is directly
'J
h
In-the prmc1pa
.
. y. by t de
limited by the ar t u" l e " the ' " and indirect!
clause "whose sled I borrowed," which 1s co.n nec.t.e
· pr moun· " w h 0 se •" expressing
with it by the relative

64

the relation of the modifying clRuse to the wbject of
the principal one.
. In the limiting clause, the pronoun "I " rPpresentIIl"
spea k e;, is
· t h e subject; "borrowed"
'
"' the
.
is .the
predicate, and is directly limited by the noun "sled:"
. The noun " sled,'' denoting the thing borrowed is
directly limited by the pronoun "whose " re
:
the noun " b ,,
. . .
,
presentmg
oy' and md1catmg that he is the owner
of the sled. Thus " whose" is both a pronoun an d
a connective.
The modifying clause of this compound sentence
may be enclosed by the principal one, thus : " The boy
whose sle<l I borrowed is here."

What limits the noun "horse" 1
What is the modified predicate of the principal clause
Non:.

QUESTIONS.

What is t~e subject of the principal clause?
By what is it directly limited?
By what is it indirectly limited?
WhatI connects the limiting clause with the princ1pa
. . I one~
Of
w i~t word does the pronoun "who" save th e repeff ;
What is the subject of the limiting clause?
' ion.
What is t.he p~edicate of the limiting clause?
Ily what '"it !united?

I

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 48.

The following words stand in a
twofold relation to a sentence, constituti11g
a part of each of the two clauses which they
connect, and are called COMPOUND RELATIVE
PRONOUNS:-

. What,
Whatever,
Whatsoever,
Whoever,
Whosoever, Whichever, Whichsoever.
Whom.soever.

EXERCISES.

The man who purchased father's horse seemed
to be well pleased with his bargain.
They are the boys with whom the teacher requested ns not to associate.
James lost the knife which John has found
An adjec.tive is a word that directly limits a no~n.
H ere is the child that made so much noise.

65

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

EXAMPLE.

What the man earned during the day was
ssuandered in the evening.
Here the two clauses are connected by the compound
pronoun " what."
"The man" is the modified subject of the limiting
clause ; "earned" is the predicate, and is directly
limited by " what," which is the object of its action.
" What" is also the subject of the principal clause,
and is modified by the limiting clause, " what the man
earned during the day,'' denoting that the amount
squandered was equal to the amount earned. Thus
the word " what,'' besides being a connective, represents two \\rords; an<l the sentence is equivalent to the
following: - " That was squandered in the evening,
which the man earned during the day."

·6·

66

GRADUAL LESSONS"

67

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERC IS ES.

w:hoever wishes to excfll, must study hard
.
ate;er we undertake, we should accompli~h.
ou can tal~e whichever you choose.
.
Whosoever desires riches must be d ·1·
W!· t
1 1gent
ia soever our hands find ' t d
.
o o, we are commanded to do diligently.
What cannot be avoided, must be patiently
endured.
I forg_ot what the teacher said.
Q.UESTIONS.

1n the fi rs t exercise what
d.
.
be in g th e subiect of ' h I wor is used Ill a twofold relation,
J
eac cause?
What is it called '
To what two wo;ds is it equivalent?
What is the predicate of th I d.
WJ
e ea mg clause '
Jal adverb directly modifies it?
. •
Wh at is the predicate of the mod ·f .
1
B
h · · .
' ymg c ause?
y w at is it u1d irectly limi ted?
What connects the limitin word .
Wh at word connect ti
g
with the predicate?
s le two clauses?
Non:. Construct and analyze , as ab ove.

. ~ 4.9. vVheu the followin word
sent persons or thina-s as b.g
~ repreh
b
o ')ects ef inquiry
~ ey ~re used iu the relations of the word;
enotrng those persons or th"
d
rngs an ar
ca 11 e d INTERROGATIVE' PR ONOUNS:'
e.
Who,

Whose,

Whom .
, Which,

What.

EXAMPLE.

W horn did you find ready to enlist [
H ere the pronoun "you," representing the person
spoken to, is the subject ; the verb " did find" is the
predicate, and is directly limited by the interrogative
pronoun" whom," representing the persons concerning
whom the question is asked, in the relation of the object of the action expressed by the verb.
The adjective "ready" directly limits "whom,"
expressing the willingness of the persons represented,
and is itself indirectly limited by the verb " enlist,"
expressing the purpose for which they were in readiness ; and "did find whom ready to enlist" is the
modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

Whos~

knife did you find on the floor ?
Who bought the book and gave it to Anna ?
What does the artful man gain by his intrigues ?
What man can we find ready to lead in this
undertaking ?
Which horse did father conclude to buy ?
By whom has temperance been uniformly
opposed?
Q.UESTIONS.

In thE! first exercise, what word is the subject?
To what class does it belong? •
·what does it here represent? b

•

~:is.

b

9 37.

68

GRADUAL LESSONS
IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

69

What is the predicate?
What word directly limits it as the 'o bject of its action?

vVh~t word represents the person concerning whom the

question is asked?

Sometimes a noun used independently
EXERCISES.

ln what relation does it represent him?
What does it directly limit?
What is" whose" here called?
By what word is the predicate indirectly limited?
What is the word called that connects .it with the predicatl! f
· NoTE.

REMARK.

. 1s modified.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 50. Words are sometimes used without any connection by grammatical relation
with other words.

The pilarim
fathers, where are they?
0
· hty's form
Glorious mirror, where the Al m1g
glasses itself in tempests.
Friends, I come .not here to talk. ?
James, have you recited your lesson.;hich
Mr. President, I have but o~e lamp by
.
my feet are gmded:
.
..
I submit these. considerahons
Fellow-c1t1zens,
t ·
to your cool and unbiased JUdgmen .

~ 51. Nouns having no grammatical re,,
lation to other words in the sentence are
said to oe independent.
EXAMPLE.

Soldiers, the time has arrived which must
test our valor in the open field.
Here the noun "soltliers," hav ing no grammatical
rel ation to other words in the sentence, is independ~
ent, and is used merely to call the attention of the
persons whom it represents, and who are addressed.
The noun " time," which is the subject of the principal clause, is limited by the rel ative clause, "which
must test our valor in the open field."
The relative pronoun " which" is the subject of the
limiting clause, and connects it with the noun "time."

Q.UESTIONS.

.
"fathers" modified~
By what is the nou~. cal relation to other words?
Has it any gramma •
How is it used ?
?
What is the subje~t of the sen!~~:t:ers" used.
For what purpose is the noun
.
What is the predicate ? • . · ,
By what is the predicate hm1t~d .
How is this proposition stated.
NuTE. Cons truct and analyze, as above .

Words having no grammatical re.
her words, and used to express
}atlon to ot
. _ are called lNTERJEP
passion or emotion,

~

52

rIONS.
EXAMPLE.

, the remedy came too late.
Al as.
1 .

· al ,

.
. ·t·zon "alas,, has no gramm11t1c
Here the mtcr:;cc

70

GR~DUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMM.4.R.

relation to oth er words, but is used independent!
merely to express the emotion of disappointment ::_
regret.
"Remedy," the subject, is modified by the
"the" " C
,, h
.
ame, . t e predicate, is modified
adverb "late," which is itself modified by the
" too."

t. l
ar zc e
b th
dy be
a ver

EXERCISES.

0 Lord ! how great is thy goodness !
Ah ! it is Pythias himself.
Ha ! they please me now.
Hush! we must trust alone in Heave
Pugh! the man, sir, was a fool. n.
O! I have lost parents, and home, and friends.
Q.UESTIONS.

ln the first exer,cise, what word is u·s ed merely
clamat1on of reverence?
ns an ex
To what clas~ does it beloncr ~
_
0
•
•
Has the noun "L d "
word ?
or
a grammatical relation to any other
H ow is it used?
What is the subject of the sentence~
Wh at is the predicate?
·
How is the adject'
· th
.
·
subject?
ive m
e predicate connected with. the
By what is the adjective" great" limited?
NOTE.

71

EXAMPLE.

When father returned, the boys received
presents.
Here the dependent clause,'-' when father returned,"
is connected with the leading clause, " the boys received presents,'' by the adverb " when," which
expresses the relation of tin;ie e~isting between the
two actions to be the same, or that of immediate
succession.
. The sef!tence ID!lY be arr.anged thus : " The boys
received presents -when 'father returned.''
EXERCISES.

The officers took the thieves, while they were
dividing their plunder.
The books will be f<?und where ~hey were left
by' you.
·
I shall remain here till William returns.
He recognized me while I was passing in the
street.
The teacher instructed me how I should enter
a room.
I was fond of sport when l was young.

Construct and analyze, as above.
~UESTIONS.

~ 53. Adverbs sometimes connect clause.
and express the relation that exists bet'\' s,
them
veen

Of how many propositions does the first exercise consist?
What connects the dependent with the leading clause? ·
Does it sho~ the relation existing between the two actions~
In what respect?

H1 1

;.!

72

GRADUAL LESSONS

What is the subject of the first clause?
What is the pred icate?
By what is the predicate directly limited?
What is the subject of the second clause?
Of what does it save the repetition?
What is the predicate ? '
By what is it directly limited ?
By what is the noun "plunder" directly limited?
NOTE .

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 54. A phrase or clause may be the
subject of a proposition, or may limit the
predicate, either representing the object of
the action expressed by the verb, or doooting the same thing as the subject.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.

The gentleman could not ascertain how his
money had been recovered.
That wealth is often preferred to wisdom, is
only another proof of human weakness.
To see the sun, is pleasant.
To know God, and to serve him, should be the
great objects of pur existence.
To treat our enemies kindly, is the surest way
to make friends of them.
His object was, to get money.
The benevolent man loves to be al ways engaged
in some good work.
Q.UESTIONS.

EXAMPLE.

To relieve misery and ·want, is the great
boon of wealth.
H ere the two nouns " misery" and "want," con
nected by the conjunction "and," directly limit the
ve1·b "relieve," expressing the objects of its action.
and the p!trase " to relieve misery and want" is. th~
subject of the proposition.
The predicate "is," which is directly modified by
the noun " boon," connects it with the subject.
" Bo~n" is directly limited by the adjective "great"
and article" the," and indirectly by the noun" weahh "
..-hich is connected with it by the preposition "of." '

73

In the first exercise, what is the subject of the first clause?
What is the predicate?
What could not the gentleman ascwrtain?
What does the phrase" how his m.o ney had been recovere•"
represent?
·
By what is "could ascertain " modified, besides the adtierb
"not"?
..
What is the subject of the limiting clause ?
What is the predicate?
By what adverh is the predicate limited?
What connects the limiting with the leading clause ?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 55~ When a sentence has ·several parts,
each containing. one · or more distinct prop7

74

GllADUAL LF.SSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.·

osi.tions, these parts are called members._
and the propositions in each member, its
..:lauses.

EXERCISES.

EXAM!' LE.

William looked for the book where he left
it, but it had been removed; then his
father, who had just returned, searched
for it, and it was soon found.
H ere the first member contains three distinct propositions, two of which are independent, and connected
by the conjunction "but."
The leading clause, "William looked for the book,"
is modified by the dependent clause, " where he left it 1 "
connected with it by the adverb "where," expressing
the relation of place between the two actions to be
id entical.
The second member is connected with the first by
the adverb "then," expressing the relation of time
e xi sting between them to be, that the actions set forth
in the second, immediately succeeded those in the first
member.
The second member contains three distinct propositions, two of which are independent, and connected ·
by the conjunction " and."
The subject of the leading clause is limited by the
relative clause, "who had just returned," connected
with the noun " father" by the pronoun " who," representing the same person.

75

As we are soon to part, we will take you by the
hand; and we hope that the Great Spirit will
protect you, and return you to your .friends.
We considered them to be friends, for they called
us brothers ; and we believed them, and gave
more land to them.
We consider that the tree has answered its highest purpose; for it has arrived at maturity, and
has yielded perfect fruit.
Q.UESTIO N S.

How many propositions does the first member of the first
xercise contain?
What word connects them?
How may the first member be transposed?
How many propositions are there in the second member?
What clause represents the limiting object of "hope" 1
What part of the limiting clause is compound?
What ·is the subject of the limiting clause?
What are the two predicates?
What word connects the two predicates?
By what word is the limiting clause connected with the
clause "we hope"?
What connects.the two members of the sentence?
N oTE. Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 56.
The following table exhibits a
concise view of the classes of words tliat
may be used as connectives:-

76

TABLE V.
CONNECTIVES.

Prepositions•

showing the re- .
lation between
{ wor s on y, } them.

c~nnec\

( connect }
Conjunctions ; ~ words or s?~wing the relal clauses tion of clauses.

'

con~iect an adverbial ~ause
w1th the word it limits
'

l

·showmg the
I rela.
{ relative, d I connect a relative r tion
P1onouns,
clause
.the of the
relative, J word it limits, clauses

Adverbs, {

cump~un~ r

.wi~h

J

Q.UESTIONS.

What do prepositions connect?
D o tliey ever connect clauses?
Between what do they show the relation?
Vl' hat do conjunctions connect?
Of what do they show the relation?
'iVh at do adverbs conn eot?
Of what do they show th e relations?
D oes the modifying clause , which is connected with another
clau se by an adverb, modify a verb or a noun?
What do pronouns connect ?
What pronouns are used as connectives?
Does the relative clause, which is connected with the other
by a pron oun, modify a verb or a noun?
Of what do they show the r~lations?

• § 14.

; § 27.

.c § 53.

d

§ 47.

77

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

• § 48

~ 57. The following is a connected view
of the relative, interrogative, and adjective
pronouns, as illustrated in the preceding
sections:. TABLE VI.
PRONOUNS.

Relative.•- Who, whose, whom, which, that.
Compound Relative.I> - What, whatever, whatsoever, "\ffl.oever, whosoever, whomsoever,
whichever, whichsoever.
Interrogative.' - Who, whose, whom, which.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Demonstrative.• -This, that, these, those, former, latter.
Indefinite.'- Some, other, one, any, all, such,
no, none, both, several.
Distributive/ - Each, every, either, neither.
Q.UESTIONS.

Which are th!! relative pronouns ?
.
Which of the relative pronouns cannot be used as an inter·
rogative?
Which are the compound relatives?
Into what three classes are adjective pronouns divided ~
Which are the demonstrative ?
Which are the indefinite ?
Which are the distributive?

• § 47.

6§ 48.

7•

• § 49.

a § 43.

• § 44.

I ~ 45

I\

78

GRADUAL LESSONS

~

58.a A noun always represents either
the person speaking, the person spoken to,
or the person or thing spoken of; and, in
each of these relations, has its appropriate
pronouns, hence called PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
~ 59. When a noun denotes the person

speaking, it is said to be of the FIRST PERSON,
and may be represented by the following
;.
pronouns:I,

My,
Mine,
Me,
Ours,
Us,
Myself,

We,
Our,
Ourselves.

EXAMPLE.

I, George Washington, hereby advise, that
we should publicly give thanks to God
for our success.
• Th e preceding sections exhibit the relatiou existing be·
twe e n each word and the other words of a se ntence, showing
for what purpose it is used, and how it affects the meaning.
The relations peculiar to each class of words have been
illu strated by appropriate examples, one of which has, in every
case , bee n an alyze d, to assist the pupil in understanding them,
and co nstructing similar sentences.
W e h ave deviated from the usual course of perplexing the
child with the intricacies of wha t are call ed the properties of .
word s, as mode, tense, person, ge nder, &c. , at a time when
h e is but ill prepared to comprehe nd the application of such
det a ils. If the pupil is familiar with the principles already
illu strated, he is now prepared to enter understandingly upon
these details, and to see their adaptation and use.

.

IN ENGLl SH GRAMMAR.

79

Here the persoiial pronoun " I," representin~ the
speaker, and consequently of the .Ji.rst ?erson, .1s .the
subject of the leading clause, and is directly hm1ted
by " George Washington," denoting the name of the
speaker, and representing the same person as "I"
' and
therefore of the first person.
.
The personal pronoun " we," representing a compa~y of whom the speaker is one, is of the first person,
and is the subject of the second clause.
. .
Th prerlicate " should give" _is directly hm1ted by
e
the adverb
"publiely," and the noun" t h an k s, " wh'ich
is the object of its action; and indirectly by the nouns
" God " and " success," showing to whom thanks were
to be given, and for what cause.
" Success" is directly limited by the persona~ pronoun " our ," denoting possession, and representing
·· a
company which includes the speaker, and consequently of theftrst person.
· The two c1auses are Conne cted by the co11juncti'on
" that."
EXERCISES.

We, the subscribers, vouch for the facts which
have been stated by our secretary.
I, Paul, have written it.
·
We James Morgan and Samuel Draper, agree to
' pay one hundred dollars, on demand.
Q.UESTIONS.

Whom does the pronoun" we " represent?
Of what person is it?
By wliat is "we " directly limit<>d ?
W horn does " subscribers " represent?

80

81

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENG;LISH GRAMMAR.

Of what person is it?
What is the predicate of the first clause?
By what is it indirectly limited?
What is the subject of the second clause?
What does the relative pronoun " which " represent r
W'l1at connects the two clauses ?
What is the predicate of the relative clause?
By what is the predicate indirectly limited?
What word directly limits the noun " secretary"?
What does "our " represent?
Of what person is it?
What does it denote ?

" Art" and "dost see," connected by the conj1_mction " and " constitute a compound predicate.
" Art" 'is directly modified by the adverb "still,"
and the adjective " young," connected with the sub-

NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 60. When a noun denotes the person
spoken to, it is said to be of the SECOND
PERSON, and may be represented by one ot
the following pronouns : .

Thou,
· You,
Thy,

Thine,
Thee,
Ye,

Your,
Yourself,
Yours,
Yourselves.
Thyself,

EXAMPLE.

Thou, William, still art young, and dost not
see the danger.
H ere the personal pronoun ''thou," representing
the person spoken to, and consequently of the second
person, is the subject, which is directly limited by
"vVilli am," denoting the name of the person addressed, and representing the same person as "thou,"
and therefore o~ the second p erson

ject by the predicate.
" Dost see" is directly limited by the adverb" not,"
and the noun " danger," which denotes the object .of
its action, and is itself directly limited by the article
"the."
EXERCISES.

Sir, I must believe you, for these mourners are
your witnesses.
Cassius, if I have veiled my look, I turn the
trouble of my countenance upon myself.
Good Brutus, can you see yourself?
Fitz-Eustace, you, with Lady Clare,
May bid your beads, and patter prayer.
Q.UESTIONS.

Has the noun "sir" any grammatical relation to the other
words in the fir~t exercise?
How is it used ?
For what purpose is it used? ~
Whom does it denote?
Of what person is it said to be?
What is the subj ect of the first clause?
What does it represent? .
,
Of what persoi:i is.it?
What is the predicate ?
By what is the predicate directly limited?
What does the pronoun "you" represent?
Of what person is it?
What is the subject of the second clause?

82

By what is it directly limited?
T o what c lass does " these " belong'
B y what is th e predicate "are" directly limited?
W horn does the pronoun "your " represent?
What does it denote ?
Of what person is it?
NOT E .

Cons,truct an d analyze , as above .

~ 61. When a noun denotes the person

or thing spoken of, it is said to be. of the
and may be represented by
one of the following pronouns: ,
THIRD P ER SON,

He,
His,
Him,
Himself,

She,
H ers,
Her,
Herself,

It,
Its,
Itself,
They,

83

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL L ES ~ONS

Their,
Theirs,
Them,
Themselves.

EXAMPLE.

George bought the book, but he has smce
given it to his brother.
The noun " George" is of the third person, because
the person indicated by it is here spoken of.
The p ersonal pronouns "he" and "his " are used
to prevent the repetition of "George,'' being of the
t!tird p erson.
" Book,'' also, is of the t!tird p erson , because it
denotes a thing spoken of, and is represented by its
appropri ate p1·ono1m," it," which is of the t!tird person.
"George " is the subject of the first clause, and
"bought" the predicate, which is directly limited by
the noun "book." "He" is the subject of the second

·
h" · b ther " is the
cl ause, and " has since given it to is ro
modified predicate.
EXERCISES.

The Indians assembled under a prodigious elmm Penn ' with his friends, went
tree, an d un r·11·
l ia
to meet them.
'tu t his b
William purchased a knife, and gave l
o
d
sister, who c showed it to herb parents, an
. c
d them b that . it d was a present from
· in1orme
G

him.G
The lady herself' was much pleased with the
article, and soon learned its b use.
Q.UESTIONS.

· the noun "Indians"? Why ?
Of what person is . .
t d in the second Clause ?
By what pronoun is it r ep resen e
What is the subject of the first clause ?
What is the pre dicate?
. .
,
By what is the predicate lind;re;:~y~;:'~~~ · predicate?
What word connects " e m· re
What is the subject of the second clause.?
B what pronoun is it represented ?
y
d" t '
What is the pre ica e. .
" . . h "went"?
What word connects "friends . w~t ' b
B what is "friends " directly hm1ted .
y what person .is" h"is ". .' Why
Of
. i·.
1
hm1ted .
B y W hat verb is the predicate
" j" 't d? G
B what is the verb" meet
imi e ·
y what person 1s
· "t.h em " ·' Why 1·
Of
"

" OT E .

G

Construct
and analyze,
as aQove.
.
.

.§ 41.

b

§ 39 .

c

§ 47

d

§ 38.

' § 4~.

84

85

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH .GRAMMAR.

~ 62. Nouns are varied in their forms to
denote one person or thing, or more than
one, an~, in each case, are represented by
appropnate pronouns.

" Knife" is limited by the relativ~ clause " which
Jchn lost," connected with it by the pronoun "which."
"John," the subject of the relative clause, is orthe
third person, because it denotes the person spoken of;
and of the singular number, because it denotes but one
person ; and is represented by its appropriate p~onoun
" him," which is of the same person and number as
the· noun it represents.

.~ 6~. ~ noun denoting one person or
thmg, is said to be of the sinrrular number
.
b
'
and may b~ represented by one of the following personal pronouns : I,
Thou, You,
His,
Her,
My,
Mine,

Thine,
Thy,
Me,
Thee,
Myself, Thyself,

Your,
Yours,
Yourself,
He,

Him,
Himself,
She,
Hers,

Herself,
It,
Its,
Itself.·

EXAMPLE.

James found the knife which John lost, and
gave jt to him.
In this sentence, the nQ'lln " Jam es" is the subject
and the vei·bs "fou.nd " and "gave,'' connected b ' .
the conjunction " and," constitute a compound pred{.
~at.e. As "Ja'.11es" is the name of a person spoken of,
it is of the tl11rd person; and as it denotes but one
person, it is of the singular number.
.
"Found" is directly limited by the noun "knife"
which is of the third person, and sinrrular numbe~
because it denotes but one thing, and" that, a thin;
spoken of; and is represented by its appropriate pi·;_
noi'.n "it," which is of the ·same person and number
as itself.

EXERCISES.

Anna,• you b may take your• grammar, and
analyze a. sentence.
The gentlem~n himselfd saw the house before
he b purchased it.'
Jane examined the bonnet herself before she
decided to take it.
Virtue is its own reward.
(lUESTIONS.

In the first exercise, of what nu~ber is "A~a."? Why 1
By what pronouns is it represented ?
.
Of what number are the pronouns representing "Anna."?
Of what person are the words "Anna," "you," and
" your" ? I Why ?
Has the noun "Anna" any grammatical relation to the
other words in the sentence ? c
How is it used?
What is the subject of the sentence? .
What is the-first predicate ? The second?
What connects the two words constituting the compound
predicate?
~-~~~~~~~~-~~~~

a §

51.

b

§ 38 .

c §

8

39.

d

§ 42.

• § 41.

I

§ 60

86

GRADUAL LESSONS

Of what person nnd number is "grammar"?
Of what person and number is "sentence "?
NorE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~

64., Nouns denoting more than one
person or thing, are said to be of the plural ·
number, and may be represented by the
following personal pronouns : - "
"\-Ve,
Our,
Ours,
Us,

Durse1 ves, Yours,
Ye,
Yourselves,
You,
They,
Your,
Their,

Theirs,
Them,
Themselves.

EXAMPLE,

The boys were highly pleased with their new
books, and preserved them carefully.
Here the noun "boys," the subject of the sentence,
is of the third person, because it denotes the persons
spoken of; a.nd plural nqmber, because it denotes more
than one person ; and is represented by the personal
pronoun "their," which is of the same person and
number as the noun it represents. "Were pleased," the first predicate, is directly ljmited by the adverb
"highly," and indirectly by the noun "books," _which
is of the third person and plural nu~ber, and represented by the personal pronoun " them," of the same
person and number. " Preserved," the second predicate, is directly limited by the pronoun " them," representing the books, and by the adverb "carefully,"
denoting the manner. in which they were preserved
a

87

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Why?
Why?

It is generally formed by at'!ding s or es to the singular.

EXERCISES,

w·1r ma and

I~ have

been to school, a and have
rn t our
. c teachers\ a proo f:s a of our• at ten.
given 0
.
a
'
tion a to their c instructions.
ld b
. Is, a nd they a shou
e
Horses are useful amr:ia
treated kindly.
f 11
Children should treat their a parents respecdt u ty,
and never grieve t h emdb y 1·mproper. con uc- ·
l

(lUESTIONS,

Of what person and num b er 18
. the noun " W i·11·iam, " in the
first exercise?•
"I" represent? I
What does the personal pron~u~ ' Wh '
Y·
d number 1s it ·
Of what person an
l
" our" represent? I
What does the persona pron~u~
Wh '
.
d
mber 1s it?
Y·
Of what person an nu
-. the noun "teachers" ?
Of what person and number is

sentence~

Why ?
. it represented in this
By what personal pronoun lB
•
the nouns "proofs,"
Of what person and n~mb~,\ ar~h '
Y·
h
.
,,
d " instructions ·
"attention,
anconstitute
.
th e co m Pound subject of t e senWhat words
tence ? If
.
om ound predicate?"
What words constitute the c . P. - 1 limited?

By what is the first pr;dica~~c::'~~~;~ly limited ?
By what is the secon p~e.
,
By what is it indirectly limited.
,_. " '
- 't the noun "proo1s .
What word indirect1y·Iimtle1 st. n" indirectly limited
. the noun "at \ n io
By w h a t 1s
.

NoTE.
~

§ 61.

r

Construct and analyze, as above.
b

§ 38.

c § 39.
' § 27.

d § 41.
" § 28.

• § 63.

f

~

59.

88
~ 65.

Nouns, by variation in form or
otherwise, indicate the sex of the objects
which they denote, when such distinction
exists.
RE~IARK. In construction and analysis, the pupil
may d1sr~gard the distinction of sex, except in nouns
of the third person and singular number, when they
are representeil by appropriate personal pronouns.

~ 66. Nouns denoting males are of the
masculine gender, and are represented in
the third person and singular number by
the following personal pronouns : -

He,

His,

Him,

813

JN EN:GLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

Himself.

EXAMPLE.

The sagacity of Newton led him to his
great discovery, and he now stands at
the head of philosophers.
H ere "sagacity," the subject of the first proposition,
de.notes one thmg as spoken of, and is therefore of the
third person and singular number.
,
The subject is indirectly limited by the noun
"N ew t on, " denotmg
·
a male, and therefore of the
m~sculine gender ; spoken of, and therefore of the
tl~ird person; denoting but one, and therefore of the
singular number; and represented, in this sentence,
by the pe1·sonal pronouns " him ' " " his ' " and " he. "

The predicate "led" is directly limited by "him,"
which appropriately represents a noun of the masculine
gender, third person, and singular number, in the relation of the object of an action.
"Discovery" is din;ctly limited by "his," which
appropriately represents a noun of the masculine gender, third person, and singular number, in the relation
of a possessor. The personal pronoun "he" is the
subject of the second clause, and appropriately represents a noun of the third person _and singular number
in this relation. ·
EXERCISES.

The gentleman• sent his b son• to school, and
requested the teacher to instruct him• in the
usual branches.
The boy • injured himself d as he b was coasting
on hl.s • new sled.
Every f·man is himselfd responsibJe for his conduct.
Q.UESTIONS.

Of what person, number, and gender, is the noun" gentleman " in the first exercise? Why?
B; what personal pronoun is it represen.ted in the relation
of a possessor ?
What word directly limits the verb "sent" ?
Of what person, number, and gender, is the noun "son··?
W~?

·
b

.
.
By what personal pronoun is it represented m the relation

of the object of an action ?

" § 61.

b

§ 63

c

s•

§ 41.

d

§ 42.

' § 39.

I

§ 45.

90

GRADUAL LESSONS

"She," the subject of the second clause, appropriately represents a noun of the feminine gender, third
person, and singular number, in this relation.
"Would try," the predicate; is indirectly limited by
the verb " deserve," connected with it by the preposition "to"; and "Jl.eserve" is directly limited by
"them,'' which appropriately represents a noun of
the third person and plural number, in the relation
of. the object of an action.

~ 67 · Nouns d
·
fi
·
the fi . . enotmg . emales are of
eminine O'end
d
in the third o
er, an .are represented,
b
person and smgular numb
y the followinO' personal
o
pronour.s · _ er,
She,

H

ers,

Her,

91

IN ENGL! H GRAMMAR.

Of what person and
b
'teacher " and "b
h num er are the nouns "school,'
'
ranc es,,? Wh ~
Wh at part of this
.
y·
WI t . h
. sentence JS compound?
ia JS t e subject?
What is the first
d'fi
N
mo ' ed predicate? The second?
DTE,
Construct and analyze, ''as above.
.

. •
Herself.

EXERCISES.

Jane" bought the books herself/ and sP,e •has
given them" to me.d
Woman is the companion of man, and he should
treat her• with the kindness due to herf rank.
This~ bonnet is Mary's, but that cloak is not hers.~
Anna injured herself by her improper conduct.

EXAMPLE.

Ellen was
plea,sed with her presents and
resolved
that she would try to d:serve
therp.
Here the noun "Ellen " th
.
e sub3ect of the first
clause, denotes one fi z'
ema e as snoke if. I .
fore of the thi;d p
.
r
n
t Is there.
erson, smgular n
b
nme gender, and represented by "h u~1 erd, and femi" ~·rv as pleased" and" 1 d
er an " she. ,,
reso ve "
constitute th e compound p d · ' connected by" and , "
" \-Vas pleased" i's . d're icate of the first clause.
.
m 1rectly ]' · t d b
"presents " wh · h ·
um e
Y the noun
'
IC
IS of the third
.
person, and plural
number, because- it d
h' ·
enotes more tit
spoken of, and is re
an orie t mg> as
"P
' ,, .
presented by "them ,,
. d by "h . ,, h'
.resents IS directly 1·1m1te
propnately represents
er, w ich ap.
a noun of the t; · ·
third persqn, and sinO"u]ar
h
. emmme. gender,
•iossessor.
"'
num er, 10 the relation of a

°·

Q.UESTIONS.

Of what person, number, and gender, is the noun" Jane,"
in the first exercise ? Why?
By what compound personal pronoun may a noun of the
feminine gender, third person, and singular number, be rep·
resented?
For what is "herself" used in this sentence?
Of what person and number is "books"? Why?
By what" personal pronoun may a noun of the third person,
plural number, in the relation of the object of an action, be
represented?
Of what noun does "she,'' the subject of the second clause,
sav e the repetition?
G

§ 61.

• § 63.

• § 38.

~
A

J

§ 59. • § 41.
§ 40.

I

§ 39.

6

§ 43.

. '1r1l1·
•. ~rl

92
GRADUAL LESSONS

.What personal pronoun, then m
third person smg ul
' ay represent a noun of the
ar number and fj . .
.
'
rela t10n of a subjec t?
'
emm1ne g ender, in the
N OT E.

Construct and analyze
·
, as a bo ve.

~ 68 · Nouns denotin 0 b'
!Jects neither
male nor female
f g
d ·
' are 0 thtl neuter
and are represented in
. gen er,
and singular numb . b the thir.d person
sona1 pronou . er, y the following per-:ns. .
It,
Its,
Itself.
EXAMPLE.

George, father has got his new 1 • h
.
.
s e1g , and
you may nde In it.
H ere the noun "Geor e " th
addressed, denotes but o g ' I .e n ame of the person
ond person and sin l ne. t is therefore of the sec.
· gu ar num ber.
H avmg no gr
.
·
..
ammatical rel ation
to other words, it
is used mdependently, and is
represented by the
personal pronoun " you."
The noun " father,, the
b'
slu ~ect of the first clause
denotes one person of th
tiierefore of the th' d e ma e sex ' as sp ok en of. . It is
Ir person s ·
J
masculine gender
d.
' mgu ar number, and
' an Is represented b l
pronoun " his."
Y t 1e p ersonal
"Has got " th
d'
rectly limited bye t~re icate of the first clause, is di.
e noun " sleigh " h' h
one object neitli
l
' w 1c denotes
.
'
ter ma e nor fim al
k
is therefore of the th . d
. e,. as sp o en of. It
,
Ir person; smgular number, and

93

IN ENGLIS H GRAMMAR.

neuter gender; and is represented by the personal
pronoun " it."
'Sleigh" is directly limited by the a4jective "new,''
and the personal pronoun "his,'' which is used to represent a noun of the masculine gender, third person,
and singular number, in the relation of a poisessor or
owner.
" You," the subject of the second clause, is used to
represent a noun of ihe second person, in this relation.
" May ride," the predicate, is indirectly limited by the
p ersonal pronoun " it," used to represent a noun of the
third person, singular number, and neuter gender, in
the relation which it here sustains.
EXERCISES.

The house• is old, and it 6 should be repaired.
The book" is well written, and reflects credit
upon its• author.
We 4 should love the truth, and always adhere
io it.•
Marble itself f :will finally crumble to dust ,
Fame may give praise, while it withholds
esteem.
Sooner or later, virtue will obtain its reward.
Q.UESTIONS.

Of what person, number, and gender, is "house," in the
first exercise? Why?
By what is the verb "is" directly limited?

• § 61.

6

§ 63.

• § 39.

" § 64.

• § 41.

f

§ 42.

94

GRADUAL LEBBONS

What ~onnects ~he adjective "old" with the sub·ect?
What is the subject of the second clauie ?
~
Of what does it save the repetition?
.
Of what is "it" th
.
subject?
e representative, in the relation of a
What is the predicate of the second clause?
NoTE.

Constfuct and analyze, as above.

. ~ 69. Nouns are used in various relations to other words, and, in these relations
are represented by appropriate personal pro~
nouns.

. ~ 70. When a noun is used as the sub~ect of a. s~ntence, or to explain or describe
it, denotmg the same person or th"
.
t l" ·
mg, or
o im1t the predicate denoting the sa
person or thing as the subject; it is in ~e
NOMINATIVE CASE
. represented t ine
.
' an d. is
the same relations, by one of the follo~in
personal pronouns : _
g
SINGULAR NUMBER.

First
Person.

{IMyself.

You,
S econd Yourself,
Person. { Thou,
Thyself.

Third Person {He
masculine.
Hi:Uself.
Third Person { She
feminine.
Her~elf.
Third. Person { It,
neuter.
Itself.

95

JN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PLURAL NUMBER,

First { We,
I\ Second {You or Ye,
Person. Ourselves.
Person. Yourselves.
Third {They,
- Person. Themselves .

a

EXAMPLE.

The boy has
strong desire to learn, and
he will undoubtedly succeed.
In this sentence, the noun " boy " denotes one person of the male sex, as spoken of. It is therefore of
the third persGn, singular number, and masculine gender. It is the subject of the first clause, and .therefore
in the nominative case.
The predicate " has'' is directly limited by the noun
" desire," which is itself directly limited by the article
"a" and the adjective "strong," and indirectly by the
verb " learn," connected with it by the preposition " to."
The personal pronoun " he" represents the noun
" boy,'' and is therefore of the third person, singular
number, and masculine gender. It is the subject of the
second clause, and therefore in the nominative case.
" Will succeed," the predicate, is directly limited
by the adverb "undoubtedly."
EXERCISES.

The girls• were good scholars,b and their• parents b were desirous that they d sl.!ould be
rewarded.
• § 61.

b

§ 64 .

' § 39.

d

§ 38.

..

•"

96

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

Thou,• thyself,~ wilt find that the smile• or
frown of Heaven d is given to virtue or vice.
We• found ourselves f in the greatest trouble.
Anna' gave a ring to herd sister, and she• wore
it h constantly.
How blessings brighten as they take their flight l

97

SINGULAR.

Third Person
{ H'IS.
.
mascu line.
Third Person {Her,
y
I
y
;
feminine.
Hers.
Second Person.
Third Person { Its.
{ Thy,
Thine.
neuter.

:M:y,
l?irst Person. { :M:ine.

~~~~

(tUESTIONS.

What is the person, number, gender, and case, of" girls"?'
Why?
What is the predicat~ of the first clause ?
By what noun, denoting the same persons as the subject, is
it limited? I
In what case is "scholars"? Why?
What is the subject of the second clause?
What is the person, number, and case, of " parents"?
Why?
By what is it directly limited?
Of what is the pronoun" their" the appropriate representative? d
What is the subject of the last clause?
Of what does it save the repetition? J
Of what is it the appropriate representative? <1
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 71. When a noun denotes the possessor or owner, it is in the POSSESSIVE cAsE,
and is represented, in the same relation, by
one of the following personal pronouns : • § 60.

6

§ 42.

• § 63.
§ 41.

h

d
I

§ 61.
§ 11.

J

• § 59.
§ 37.

I

§ 42. ,

g

§ 67.

PLURAL.

Your,
First Person. { Our, l\ Second Person. { Yours.
Ours.
{Their,
Third Person.
Theirs.
Mine, thine, liers, ours, yours, tli~irs, '·;s , are used in a twofold
relat10n,
.
es
t
an d some 1m
"'
.
denoting the possessor and the thing possessed.
REMARK.

EXAMPLE.

William's father has sold his horse.
In this sentence, the noun "father," denot~ng one
per~on, of the male sex, as spoken ~f, and bem~ the
subject of the sentence, is of the third p~rso~, smgucase.
lar n umber , masculine gender, and nommative
"W'll' , ,,
It is directly limited by the noun
l iam s'.
denoting one person, of the male sex, as spoken of'. Ill
the relation of a possessor. It is therefore of the third
person, singula~ number, masculine gender, and possessive case.

9

98

99

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

" Has sold," the predicate, is directly limited by the
noun "horse," which is itself directly limited by the
personal pronoun "his,'' - which, being of the third
person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case, appropriately represents the noun" father"
in the relation of a possessor.

What does "your" represent? In what relation?•
Of what number is" your" in this sent~nce? b Why?
In what case is it?
In what two relations is the pronoun "yours" used?
What does it represent in the relation of a pronoun?
1 What does it represent in-the relation of an object, by' saving
the repetition of the word?
NoTE.

EXERCISES.

My• father• bought my• book, and your d father
bought yours.'
Henry's sisters / were here with their• brother's'
carriage.
The gentleman's house• is very elegant, but I•
dislike its• color.
Jane abused her books, but Sarah carefully
preserved hers.'
John attended to his lessons, but William neglected his.'
Angels sing, to harps divine,
Their sweetest hymns of praise.

~ 72. When a noun denotes the object
directly limiting the action of a verb, or
indirectly limits a word, it is in the OBJECTIVE CASE, and is represented, in the same
relations, by one of the following personal
pronouns:SINGULAR.

.-

Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first clause in the first exercise?
What is the person, number, gender, and case, of" father" l
Why?
By what is it directly limited?
What does" my" represent? h Jn what relation?•
What is the person, number, and case, of "my"?
By what is the subject of the second clause limited ?

• § 63.

b

§ 70.

c

§ 39.

d

§ 60.

A~

59.

' § 40.

I

§ 61.

I

§ 12.

Construct and analyze, as above.

First {Me,
Person. Myself.

Third Person { Him,
masculine.
Himself.

You,
Second
yourself;
Person. { Thee
'
Thyself.

Third Person { Her, ·
feminine.
Herself.
Third Person { It,
neuter.
Itself.

PLURAL.

First { Us,
Person. Ourselves.

.

II

Second { You,
Person. Yourselves.

Third { Them, - .
Person.
Themselves.

I

.. § 39

6

§ 63.

100

101

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS
EXAMPLE.

Q.UESTIONS.

I saw the boy, and called him to me.

What is the subject of the first exercise?
What is the first predicate 1
.
By what object is it directly limited?
What is the peraon,0 number,6 and case, of "apples"?
Why?
.
By what pronoun is it here represented ?
In what relation?• What is the person, number, and case,

Here the personal pronoun "I," denoting one per•
son as the speaker, and being the subject of the sentence, is of the first person, singular number, and
nominative case. The predicate " saw " is directly
limited by the noun " boy," which, denoting one person, of the male sex, as spoken of, and being the direct
object of the verb "saw," is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case.
"Called," the second predicate, is directly limited
by the personal pronoun " him," which, representing
the noun " boy," and being the object direct! y limiting
the verb " called," is of the third perso~, singular
number, masculine gender, and objective case.
The personal pronoun "me," representing the
speaker, and indirect! y limiting " called," is of the
first person, singular number, and objective case.
EXERCISES.

Joseph

has some b apples, and will give them•
to you.•
The boy behaved badly, and disgraced himself."
I was looking for lfis •father, and found the
boy f himself. d
The engine regufates itself.&"
The bird escaped from us,h and flew into the
woods.
They injured thems~lves by their imprudence.
0

0

• ~ 70.

6

§ 44. • § 4L

d

§ 42. ' § 71.

I§

13.

l

§ 61.

A

§ 59.

of" them"?
What does the pronoun "you" represent?"
ln what relation?• In what case is it?
NoTE.

Co11struct and analyze, as above.

~ 73. A verb which can be directly limited by a noun or pronoun: in the objective
case, is called TRANSITIVE.
EXAMPLE.

Children should obey their parents.
In this example, the noun " children," denoting
more than one person as spoken of, and being the
subject of the sentence, is· of the third person, plural
number and nominative case. The verb " should
obey," being directly limited by "parents," is tra~si­
tiue; and the personal pro.;;oun "their," representm.g
the noun " children" in the relation of a possessor, is
of the third person, plural number, and possessive case.
EXERCISES.

James will study the lesson before he recites it.
• § 61.

b

§ 64.

c

§ 41.

d

§ 60.

9•

-------mi

102

John struck William, and his father punished him.
We should love our neighbors as we love ourselves.
Virtue ennobles us. Vice degrades us.
Hop~ befriends the prince and the beggar.
The boy pleased his teacher.
Did the .man acquire his property by industry ?
(!UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the subject of the first clause (
Of what person, number, gender, and case, is it? Why?
What is the predicate?
By what is the 'l!erb "will study" directly limited?
What kind of a verb is it? Why?
What does" he," th e subject of the second clause, represe.nt?
Of what person, number, gender, and case, is" he"? Why?
By what is the 'l!erb "rec ites " directly limited?
What kind of verb is it? Why?
What does "it" represent? In what relation?
Of what person, number, g~nder, and case, is it? Why?
NOTE.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

103

a subject, is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case.
As the predicate "came" cannot be directly limited
by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, it is intransitive. It is indirectly limited by the noun " Boston,'' indicating the p1ace to.which he came, and by
the vei·b "engage,'' denoting the purpose for which he
came. "Engage" does . not admit a direct object; it
is therefore intransitive; but it is indirectly limited bv
the noun " business."
EXERCISES.

I stood upon my native hills.
The clouds were upon the height.
The stream murmurs slowly by the village
churchyard.
The rivulet leaps gayly over the pebbles.
John walked to school, but James rode.
The boys were anxious to go to the Museum.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~

74. A verb wh~ch cannot be directly
limited. by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, is called INTRANSITIVE.
EXAJIIPLE.

William came to Boston, to engage in some
business.
In this sentence, the noun " William," denoting one
person, of the male sex, as spoken of, in the relation of

(!UESTIONS.

Of what person, number, and case, is the pronoun "I" f
Why?
.
.
Can the ?Jerb " stood " be linlit.ed by a noun or pronoun m
the objective case?
Is it transitive, or intransitive? Why?
By what is it indirectly limited?
What word connects the limiting word with the verb?
By what is "hills" directly limited?
What does the personal pronoun "my" represent?
In what relation? Of what perso n, number, and case, is it?
Of what person, number, and case, is the noun "hills" i
Why'

,\

104

TABLE VIII.

~

75. The following table exhibits the
noun varied by number and case, as illustrated in the preceding sections : TABLE VII.

FIRST PERSON."
SINGULAR,b

I,
Myself;
My or Mine ;
Me,
Myself.

Nom.d
Poss.'
Obj/

PLURAL_.

Nominative Case. Boys, M:en, Ladies, Heroes,
Possessive Case. Boys', Men's, Ladies', Heroes',
Objective Case. Boys. Men. Ladies. Heroes.
REMARK.
The possessive, in the singular, is generally formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the
noun; in the plural ending in s, by an apostrophe
only; not ending in s, by an apostrophe and s.

~

76. The following table exhibits a
connected view of the personal and compound personal pronouns, varied by person,
number, gender, and case, as illustrated m
the preceding sections : § 70.

c

§ 71.

d

§ 72.

8

Common Style.
SINGULAR.b

Nom.d
Poss.'
Obj/ \
4

Nom.
Poss.'
Obj.' \

PLURAL.c

Y oti,
Yourself;
Your or Yours ;
You, Yourself.

You, Y oursel vcs ;
Your or Yours ;
Yoµ, Yourselves.

I

Formal Style.
Thou, Thyself;
Ye,
Yourselves;
Thy or Thine ;
Your or Yours ;
Thee, Thyself.
You, Yourselves.
THIRD PERSONh SINGULAR.b
M.A.SCULINE,i

FEMININE.!

NEUTER.

1

Nom.d \He, Himself; \ She, Herself; It, Itself·
Poss.' His;
Her or Hers;
Its;
Obj/ Him, Himself. Her, Herself. It, Itself.
THIRD PERSONh PLURAL.°

Nom.d
Poss.'
Obj.'

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- b

We,
Ourselves;
Our or Ours ;
Us,
Ourselves.

SECOND . PERSON.

Nominative Case.b Boy, Man, Lady, Hero,
Possessive Case.c Boy's, Man's, Lady's, Hero's.
Objective Case.d Boy. Man. Lady. Hero.

§ 63.

PLURAL.•

1·

I

SINGULAR."

G

105

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

<!IRADUAL LESSONS

• § 64.
G

§ 59.

b

They,
Themselves;
Their or Theirs ;
Them.
Themselves.

§ 63.
l

c

~ 61.

§ 64.
I

d § 70.
• § 71. I § 72.
§ 66. f § 67. l § 68.

106

lN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

~hen

a personal pronoun is used in<lependentl y, it. has the nominative form, except in the
~r s t person smgular, which generally takes
tive.
the objecREMARK:

~

77. . The following table gives a conview of the relative and compound
relative pronouns. They represent nouns
of any person or number.
n e ct~d

TABLE IX.

Representing only Persons.

Norn.

Who,
Whose,
Whom,

Poss.

Obj.

Whosoever

Which,
What,

'

Whomsoever.

Generally representing any
KOMINATIVE

Whoever.

AND

Objf~t

except Persons.

OBJE~,IVE

Whichsoever
Whatsoever

1

'

ALIKE.

Whichever.
Whatever.

AND

OBJ'l ii. ·t'lVE

~ 78. When the subject of a proposition
denotes the object of the action expressed
by the predicate, the verb is said to be in
the PASSIVE FORM.
EXAMPLE.

Thomas was injured by the partiality of
friends.
In this sentence, the noun " Thomas,'' denoting the
object of the action expressed by the verb " was injured," is the subject. The verb is therefore in the

passive form.
The noun "partiality," indicating the agent by
which Thomas was injured, indirectly limits the verb,
and is therefore in the objective case.
The noun "friends" indirectly limits "partiality,"
and is therefore in the objective case.
This analysis may be aided by transposing the sentence, and putting the verb in the active form, thus.:
" The partiality of friends injured Thomas."
EXERCISES.

Representing Person• _,- ,..,..,
·
.1. mngs.
NO?tllNATIVE

107

ALIKE,

That.
R EMARK
. I . Th e ab ove pron::>U"-.'I. except those
representmcr
.
o only p ersons, are sometiraa
•1..,,d in the
.
,
re1at10n of adjectives.
R .r:: MARK 2.
liV!wse is somet1"mes used a thP. possf'.ss1ve case of wliiclt.

The lady was .much admired by her friends.
The scholars were delighted with the exercise.
The b9ys were corrected by their parents.
The horse will be sold by the present owner.
A captain has been elected by the new company:
The meeting had been adjourned before we ·
arrived.
I am pleased with my situation.

I'
I

108

IN ENGLISH

GRADUAL LESSONS

,
Q.UESTIONS .

lnhthe fi rst ~~ e rcise, what is the subject?
W at does 1t denote ?
~n what form is th e 'l!erb "was admired" t
y what IS the verb indirect) }" . d
Wh t d
Y 1m1te ?
a oes the limiting noun indicate 1
Of what pers on, num b er, and case is ·it i
'
.1
W hat does the pronoun " h er " represent
·
I n what relation?
Of what person ' num b er, gender, and case, is it?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

fl ~ 79. Verbs are varied in form to denot
le manner or mode in which th ey are used.e

a verb is used fior s1mp
· 1e
de ~J SO. · When
·
. c ~rat10n, it has an appropriate form and
IS said to be in the INDICATIVE
' (
the verb "love."
MODE ; as in
Love,
Loves,
H ave l
Shall}
H as Jloved. Will love.
H ad

Loved.
Shall have}
Will have loved.

EXAMPLE.

Charles loves his book, and he will soon
go to school.
H ere the verb " loves " tl
.
, . 1le predicate of the first
clause beinO" used fi
"'
or simp e declarat"
· ·
'
indicative mode and b . d. '
wn, is m the
"book " th
~rng irectly limited by the noun
,
e o Ject of its action, is transitive.

b"

109

GRAMMAR·

The verb " will go," the predicate of the second
clause, being used for simple declaration, and not
admitting a direct c. bject, is intransitive, and in the
indicative mode.
The other words may be disposed of as in the preceding examples.
EXERCISES.

William loves his parents, who have al ways
loved him.
I love to look on a scene of wild and careless play.
. Father had returned when I arrived.
The scholar will have learned his lesson before
he leaves school.
We shall have completed our task before we
return.
Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first clause, in the first exercise l
Of what person, number, gender, and case, is it?
What is the "predicate? Is it transitive, or intransitive?•
Why?
For what is it here used? In what mode is it?
By what is it directly limited?
Of what person, number, and case, is the noun "parents 'l
Why?
What word does the personal pronoun " h.is" repre sent ?
In what relation? b Of what person, number, gende r, and
case, is it?
What is the subject of the second clause?
What does it represent?
~

§ 73.

10

b

§ 71.

110

GRADUAL J,ESSONS

With what does it con
What is the predicate ?nect the relative clause r
How is it used?
In what mode is it?

~o_es

it a~mit a direct object?
it tran sitive, or intransitive ?a

NoTE.

C

onstruct and analyze, as above.

~ _8~.. When a verb is used
Poss1bl 1Hy, liberty, power will, to .declare
.
'
obhgatwn,
or necessity it h
'
as an · appro ·
fi
and is said to b . h
pnate orm,
' .
e Ill t e POTENTIAL
a:s m the. verb "I ove. "
MODE ;

May}

Can
Must

love

1

Might
Could ,
May have} .
. Would /love. Can have· loved.
Must have
Should j
Might have 1
Could have I
would have loved.
Should have J

r

REMA~K. Both the indicative and
are used m asking questions.
potential forms
EXAMPLE.

John can p
rocure a book with his

111

IN ENGL,ISH GRAMMAR.

It is therefore of the third person,a singular number,b
masculine gender,° and n"o minat_ive casc.d
The ve1·b " can procure," here used to declare his
power to procure a book, is in the potential mode; and
•being directly limited by the noun " book," it is transitive.
The noun " book " denotes one thing, as spoken of,
in the relation of ~n object. It is therefore of the third
person, singular number, and objective case.
The noun " money," denoting one thing, as spoken
of, and indirectly limiting the verb "can procure,"
with which it is connected by the preposition " with,"
is of the third person, singular number, and objective
case;• and it is directly limited by the_ personal pronoun "his," representing the noun "John," in the
relation of a possessor, and therefore of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case.
EXERCISES.

Soldiers must obey their commanders.
Children should obey their parents.
William must have stu~ied well, or he could not
have improved.
The scholars may leave the yard.
The boy's parents may have seen him.
George might have finished his lesson.

In this sentence th
money.
, e noun "John,, d
son, of the male sex_
k
enotes one Per' as spo en 0 +
d 1. h
.
----------=--~~:;~,,~a:n:·~-:_
st e s11qject.

QUESTIONS.

\Vhat is the subject of t~e first exercise?
Of what person, number, and case, is it?

a § 73
a

§ 61.

b

§ 63.

c

§ 66.

d

§ 70.

• § 72.

..
-112

What is the pred icate ?
By_what is it directly limited?
Is it transitive, or intransitive I a
How is it use d? In what mo~e is it I
What does "their" represent
- 1
·
I n what relation? b
Of what pe rson, number, and case, is it
NoTE.

113

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

I

Construct and analyze ' as abo ve.

~ 82. When a verb is used in a de endent clause
.
p or
. . expressing a con d"it10n,
doubt
~upp~s1t10n,- generally indicated b '
JUnct10n
preceding it '-1t
. is
. said
. to
yabeconth
in
e SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
REMARK.
This mode has
.
except in the anom I
no appropriate form.
a ous verb " be" S
."
ometimes
it
appears
to vary from the m
. d"icahve
fi
and
potential

. omitted.
orms, because a part of the verb is
EXAMPLE.

The gentleman ';1'11 be P1eased if his son
improves.
In this sentence, the noun " e
one person of the
l
g ntleman," denotin(J'
.
'
ma e sex as s:poken 0,+ .
o
t10n of a subiect · f h . '.
J' m the rel a;/ ' is o t e third pe
·
her, masculine gend
d
. rso~, smgular numd .
.
er, an nommative c
by
the
t.
l
ase; an is
irectly
limited
d
ar ic e " the "
As the subject denotes the obje~t of the
.
pressed by the ve r b ' th e predicate "will be act10n
expleased"

is in the passive form; a and as it is used for simple
declaration, it is in the indicative mode.b
The noun " son," denoting one person, as spoken of,
and being the subject of the dependent clause, is of
the third person, singular number, and nominative
case; and is directly limited by the personal pronoun
" his," representing the noun " gentleman," in the
relation of a possessor, and therefore of the third
p erson, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case. The verb "improves" is the predicate,
and is here used to express a condition indicated by
the conjunction " if," which connects the two clauses.
The verb, therefore, is in the subjunctive mode.
EXERCISES.

I will ask, though he refuse.
The boy feared lest his father should hear of his
misconduct.
We shall inform the teacher unless you amend.
The gentleman Should not have purchased the
house, if he disliked it.
The girl will attend schooi if her parents consent.
Q.UESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what does the pronoun" I " represent ?
In what relation? Of what person, number, and case, is it?
I s the predicate "will ask" limited by a direct object?
Is 1t transitive, or intransitive ?
How is it used? b. In what mode is it?
What is the predicate of the depende nt clause ?
b

a

§ 73.

b

§ 71.

§ 80.

114

I s it lim ited by n direct object?
Is it tran si tive, or intransitive? a
H ow is it here used? What conjunction indicates the
supposition?
In what mode is the ve rb? What part of the verb i1
omitted? Is the verb in the indicative or potential form'

lurai number, and posses"1ore o f the second person, p
,, d
ting more than one, as
sive case.
The noun "parents, eno
b' t is of the third
.+ . the relation of an o Jec '
spoken OJ ' m
d obiective case.
·
,
person,
pl ural number ' an

Construct and analyze, as above.

N OT E .

~ 83.

When a verb is used for commanding, exhorting, or entreat~ng, it has
the indicative form, and is said to be in
the IMPERATIVE MODE; as in the verb love.
Love.
REMARK.
The subject of this mode, tltou, you, or
ye, representing the person or thing addressed, is generally omitted.

EXAMPLE.

EXERCISES.

se b of your• time.
1\'lake a a properd ~o think of the distresse!"'.
Accustom yourRelves
.
of human life.
l · d e t brethren.
Never ,.ior get that all man nn· har
t
.
Prefer virtue to nc es.
ill always lower.
d
not that clou s w
d
T h'nk
l
d
.t & for the rewar .
Labor faithfully, an ~a1 book to my desk.
h b · g your wntmg·a
John, rm
f the ant, 0 sluggard, an
Consider the ways o
be wise.

Children, obey your parents.
In this sentence, the noun "children," denoting
more than one person, as spoken to, and having no
grammatical relation with other words, is of the second person, plural number, and used independently.
The p ersonal pronoun "you," the subject, is here
omitted. The verb "obey" is the predicate, which,
being directly limited by the noun "parents," is transit ive, and, being · used for commanding or exhorting,
is in the imperative mode.
Th e pcrso'nal p ronoun "your" represents the noun
"children," in the relation of a posse.jisor, and is there~
• § 73.

115

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADU ALI LESSONS

Q.UESTIONS .

.
."
.
ub" ect expressed?
ln the first exercise, is the s J
What is the subject?
.
What does it repre~en~? I
h
umber of the subject?
Does the se.ntence md1cate t e n
What is the predicate ?
How is it used?
In what mode is it?
. .
,
what is it directly limited . . . '
By
'
fv
e
or
intrans1t1ve
·
Is the verb . trans1 I '
Co nstruct and analyze, ns above.
NoTE.

a

§ 73.

b

§ 72.

c

~1.
I•

d

§ 51.

§42. • §64 .
I § 38 .

I

§ dO.

•

~

74.

111

IN ENGLISR GRAMMAR.

116

GRADUAL LESSONS

~ 84.

When a verb is used in an Indefinite mann er, without a grammatical
subject, it is said to be in the INFINITIVE
MODE ; as in the verb love.
To love,

1'o have loved.

REMARK.
This mode has the indicative form, and
is generally preceded by the preposition or particle to,
connecting it with the word which it limits.

EXAMPLE.

The children came to play;
In this sentence, the noun " children," denoting
more than one person, as spolcen of, and being the
sHbjcct, is of the third person, plural number, and
nominative case. The verb " came," the predicate,
does not admit a direct object, and is therefore intransitive; it is used for simple declaration, and is therefore in the indicative mode. The verb" play," having
no di rect limiting object, is intran_sitive ; being used
in an indefinite manner, without a grammatical subject,
it is in the infinitive mode; and it indirectly limits the
verb " came," with which it is connected by the p1·eposition " to."
EXERCISES.

James went• to school to learn. 6
The boys ran to see the soldiers.
·William rose to address his teacher.

do- d • him::ielfb to abstain from
The man pl e oe
. 1
.ntoxicating drm rn.
.
i
.
to learn• his lesson.
finds
time
·
Charles al ways
· t d temptation.
be
unable
to
resis
Some seem to
Q,UESTIONS.

•
.
hat is the subject?
1 Why?
I n the first exercise, w
b r and case ·
Of what person, num e '
.
What is the predicate ? .
1
1' t dmit a direct obJect .
Does a . .
· transitive ?
Is it transitive, or m
de is iU
. .
d? In what mo
How 1s it use . . . . rectl limited?
By what noun is it md1
yd se is "school"'
ber an ca t"
' 1
Of what person, num '
.
l limits " wen .
. 't 1
What verb indirect Y ht mo de 1s
w a
. 1 ••
H ow is it used ?. I n' th
the predicate 1.
What connects it wi
b ve
N
Construct and analyze, as a o .
oTE.
• a form of the verb,
A P ARTICIPLE lS
5
~8 ·
.
f
adiective or noun,
· t h e relations o anfi . shed
"
used m
action, an d
·
finished or un m
denoting a .
. as follows : Perfect. Loved.
named accordmg~y'

Imperfect. Lovpm~~ t
Compound erJec.

EXAMPLE.

.
e came and spoke
The gentleman, seemg m '
.
of meeting you.
.
Here ," gentleman," the
.. § 80

• § 80.

b

§ 17.

Having loved.

b

§ 42

subiect, is of the third per..,

• § 16.

d

§ 24.

•

pi

118

119

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
GRADUAL LESSONii

son, singular number, and nominative case; and is
directly limited by the participle "seeing," used in
the relation of an adjective. The participle "seeing"
is directly limited by the personal pronoun "me,"
representing the person speaking, in the relation of
a limiting object, and therefore of the first person,
singular number, and objective case. '
The verbs " came" and "spoke," connected together by the conjunction " and," constitute the compound predicate.
They are intransitive, because they do not admit a
direct object; and in the indicative mode, because they
are used for simple declaration.
The verb "spoke" is indirectly limited by the participle " meeting," connected with it by the preposition
"of," and used in the relation of a noun in the objec- .
tive case.
The participle " meeting" is directly limited by the
personal pronoun "you," representing the person addressed, in the relation of a limiting object, and therefore of the second person, singular number, and
obj ective case.
EXERCISES.

The teacher found his pupils playing and
whispering.
Being a good workman, he will find employment.
The gentleman, having settled his affairs, left
the country.
Hunting wild animals is the principal employment of savages.

His having lived in a barbarous ~e ~ust palliate,
'but it will not excuse, his cnmes.
Q.UESTIONS.
.

I

What is the subject in the first exercise .
What is the predicate ?
.
. .
1
directly bm1ted .
B y what is the predicate
.
.. I
it transitive, or mtrans1t1ve.
In what mode is it? Why?
What does "his " represent ?

Is

.

I

In what re 1at1on.
d
d case is it I
rson number, gen e~, an . . '
: "i· t'
0 f w Iia t p e
'.
. . "
d "whispering 1m1 .
What do the participles "playmg a~
In what relation are they here used ?
Non:.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 86. Verbs are varied to denote distinc.
t1ons of t1'me ' called TENSES.
· use d to
87 . The PRESENT TENSE is
~ . prese nt time ., as the following forms
denote
of the verb love : loves . lovest, loveth.
love ;

Indicat~vle 1 "J1f~~e. ~;~~~ve, ca~ love, must
Potentw

LrLO

•

;

a st love, canst love.
.
Indicative or potential form
.m ~ M d

Sub1unctive

o e.

T

receded by if or though, &c.
P
. le J'.r.0 rm
. Jr.LO
.,.,,. de. Love. S imp
Imperative
ative.
Infinitive Mode . To l ove.
ative preceded by to.

Simple form

+ indic-

0'J

.+ ·

OJ in

d·
ic,.i'
' '

"

1!!'

,I,

lN

120

1'21

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

W .iat is its \imitin.g obj ect.?
1
Is it ·transitive, or mtrans1ttve .

EXAMPLE.

Anna loves her book, because she can read it.
Here the verb "loves" is in the indicative mode,
because it is used to declare what Anna does; it is in
the present tense, because it denotes that she does it
now; and it is directly limited by the noun " book,"
denoting the oqject of her love ; hence the verb is
transitive, and the noun in the objective case.
The verb " can read" is in the potential mode,
because it declares Anna's power to read ; in the
present tense, because it declares that she can read
now; and is directly limited by the personal pronoun
"it," which is the object of its action; hence "can
read" is transitive, and "it" is in the objective
case. The remaining words may be analyzed, as in
the preceding examples.
EXERCISES.

If ye love me, keep my commandments.
The general intends to go to the seat of war.
The gentleman desires to see his daughter happy.
When father returns, we can finish our work.
The scholars may go to their seats.
Soldiers must obey their officers.

NoTE.

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Construct and analyze, as above.

88.

The
·

IMPERFECT TENSE .is
•
tfme·asm
1

denote indefimte pas
'
lowing forms of the verb love: -

. . JYli de Loved, lovedst.
Indicative o ·
.
ld love would
Potential Mode. Might lov~, cou 1
'couldst
love . micrhtst ove,
love, sh ould
'
.o
love, wouldst love, shouldst love. .
Subjunctive l\'Iode. Indicative and potenttal forms
preceded by if, though, &c.

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EXAMPLE.

The boy loved play, but he could not

wo~k.

b '~ l ed " used for simple declaratwn,
H ere the ver
ov '
.
. definite past
. · ·
de · denotmo- m
is in the md1cative mo '
od b ·no- directly.
. e it is in the imperfect tense ; an . . e1 o
t 1m ,
· · t
t ve
. . d b the noun "play," it is rans1 l •
.
hmT1tle
y b "could work," used to declare power, is
1e vcr
.
·
t ( e
. l mode . denoting mdefinite pas un '
of the poten t ia
'
· ·
a direct
. . . h .
fi ct tense . and not adm1ttmg
it is m t e imper e
' ..
limiting object, it is intrans1t1ve.

QUESTIONS.

Is it transitive, or intransitive ?

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EXERCISES.

In what mode is "love," in the first exercise?
By what conjunction is the condition indicated?
In what tense is the verb? Why ?

Why?

Why?

In what mode and tense is the verb "keep"?

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used to
the fol-

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Sarah .heard her mother, but would not obey her.
. She stood upon the loftiest peak.
William might learn, if he would study.

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GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

We could not tell our exact position, till we saw
the lighthouse.
·
The gentleman informed us that he should
return.

declare possibility, is in the pofontial mode; and it is
in the perfect tense, because it denotes past time, and
alludes also _to the present.
The verb " fiave mentioned," being used for simple
declaration is in the indicative mode; and it is in the
perfect tens~, because it denotes past time, and alludes
to the present. The other words are disposed of as
in preceding examples.

Q.UESTIONS.

ln the first exercise, what is the first predicate?
Is it transitive, or intransitive ? Why?
In what mode and tense is it? Why?
What is the second pre dicate ?
Is it tran sitive, or intran sitive ? Why?
In what mode and tense is it? Why?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 89. The PERFEcT ,TENSE is used to de·
note past time, alluding also to the present;
as in the following forms of the verb love: -

Indicative. Have loved, hast loved ; hCJ.s loved,
hath loved.
Potential. May h ave loved, can have loved,
must have loved; mayst have loved, canst
have loved.
Su.bjunctive. Indicative and potential forms pre·
ceded by if, &c.
Infinitive. To have loved ; a form of the indicative preceded by to.
~

EXAMPLE.

Our friends may have heard of the disaster,

but they have not mentioned it.
H ere the verb "may have heard," being used to

EXERCISE S.

If the gentleman has left town, he has probably
returned to his family in the country.
George must have rejoiced at his father's
success.
William has not received a letter, though his
brother may have written.
I will search the records, lest he may have
disposed of the property.
Q.UESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first clause, in the first exercise?
What is the predicate? By what object is it directly
limited?
Is it transitive, or intransitive?
In what mode and tense is it? Why?
What does "he" represent? In what relation?
Of what person, number, gender, and case, i• it?
Is the verb "has returned" transitive, or intransitive 7
Why?
In what mode and tense is it? Why?
What connects the two clauses?
NoTE . Construct and analyze, as above.

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124

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

125

GRADUAL LESSO NS

~

90. The PLUPERFECT TENSE is used to
denote past time, preceding a specified past
time ; as in the following forms "of the verb

love:Indicative. Had loved; hadst loved.
Potential. Might have loved, could have loved,
would have loved, should have loved ;
mightst have loved, couldst have loved,
wouldst have loved, shouldst have loved.
Subjunctive. Indicative and potential forms preceded by if, &c.
EXAMPLE.

Washington had served his country m the
army before the revolution.
In this sentence, the noun " Washington" is of
the third person , singular number, masculine gender,
and nominative case, because it denotes one person,
of the male sex, as spoken of, in the relation of a
subject.
The verb " had served"· is the predicate ; and is
transitive, because it admits a direct object; in the
indicative mode, because it is used for simple declaration; and in the plupe1fect tense, because it denotes
past time, preceding a specified past time. It is
directly limited by the noun "country," showing what
he had served, and indirectly by the noun "army,"
showing in what he had served, and the noun "revo,uti:..n," specifying past time, before which he had
served.

EXERCISES.

The Puritans had heard of America before
·they left England.
The children would have obeyed the teacher,
if he had not yielded to them.
The boys had gone to school when I arrived.
If the girl had behaved well, her teacher would
not have reprimanded her.
Q,UESTIONS.

. tli
b. ect of the first clause?
I n the first exercise, what is e su J· ·p Why?
Of what person, number, and case, is I .
What is the predicate ?
Is it transitive, or intransitive? Why?
In what mode is it? Why?
In what tense ? Why?
' Vhat is the subject of the second clause ?
"What does it represent?
Of what person, number, and case, is it?
What is the predicate?
I s it transitive, or intransitive?
In what mode and tense is it? Why?

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~ 91. The FUTURE TE~SE is u~ed to
dPnote indefinite future time ; as m the
following forms of the verb love : ve, will love ; shalt love,
Indicative. Shall lo
wilt love.
.
Subjunctive. Indicative form preceded by if, &c.

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EXAMPLE.

James will see his father.
,J

Here the noun ' · ames,

" denoti·ng one person, of

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IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

126

12'i

GRADUAL LESSONS

~he male sex,_ as spoken of, in the relation of a subject,

is of the third person, singular number masculine
gender, and nominative case..
'
. . verb " w1·11 see " is
The
· the predicate; and is
~r a~s1t1~ e , because it admits a direct object; in the .
1~d1~at1ve mode, because it is used for simple declara~1on' ~nd future ~ense, because it is used to denote
mdefimte future time. It is directly limited by th
noun. "f:ath er, ". wh"ic h' denoting one person, as spokene
of,
· m 1the relat10n of an obJ"ect ' is of the th"1r d person
smgu ar number, and objective case.
'
The personal pronoun " his " representing the .
" J a mes, ". ·m the rel at10n
.
'
noun
of a possessor, is of the third
pers_on, smgular number, masculine gender, and possessive case; and directly limits the noun "father."
EXERCISES.

If Jane will learn her lessons, she will deserve
the commendation of her teacher.
We will try to do our duty.
I s:1all. g_o to my friend's party.
If you :v1ll :1s1t me, I will return with you.
I will anse, and will go to my father.
(lUESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the predicate of the hrst
claus e?
ls it transitive, or intransitive? Why,
In what mode is it?
lly what conjun~ tion is its mode ind icated'
In wh:tl te nse is it' Why?
I s ,the vr,rb " will deserve " transitive, or intransitive .
\Vhy
Jn ,,,Ji al. mode iind ten se is it?

Why?

~ 92. The

FUTURE

PERFECT

TENSE

IS

used to denote future time preceding a
specified time ; as in the following forms
of the verb love: Indicative.
Subjunctive.

Shall or shalt, will or wilt have
loved.
Indicative form preceded by if, &c
EXAMPLE.

I shall have dined before you will return.
Here the personal pronoun "I," representing the
person speaking, in the relation of a subject, is of the
first person, singular number, and nominative case.
The verb "shall have d.i ned" is the predicate;
and is intransitive, because it does not admit a direct
object; in the indicative mode, because it is used for
simple declaration; and future perfect t ense, because
it denotes future time preceding a specified time.
"You,'' the subject of the second clause, is of the
second person, singular number, and nominative case.
'l ne verb "will return" is the predicate; and is
intransitive, because it does not admit a direct object;
in the indicative mode, because it is used for simple
declaration; and in the future tense, because it denote8
indefinite future time.
Tl1e connective "before" shows the relation of time
between the two actions; the action in<licate<l by the
future perfect tense preceding that indicated by the
future.

•

128

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Q.UES TIONS.

In th e first exercise, what is the subj ect?
Of wlrnt person, number, gender, and case, is it,
·what 1s th e pred icate ?
I s it transitive, or intransitive ? Why?
In what mode is it? Why?
lnwh a ttense? Why?
B y what is it direc tly l imite d?
By what is it indirec tly limited?
' Vhat conn ec ts "recess" with the predicate?

Why/

Con struc t and analy ze, as above.

. ~ 9s. A subject of the third person and
srn g~l a r . number, requires a change in the.
ttnmnatrnn of the verb in the present and
perfect tenses of the indicative mode.
.Present.

Rc~IARK.

Loves.

P erfect.

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EXAMPLE .

Charles will have learned his lesson before
recess.
The cars will have gone before the time which
the gentleman mentioned.
The resolution will have passed both houses
before the close of to-morrow's session.
James will h ave arrived before sundown.
Ere to-m_orrow's dawn, how many of our race
will have ceased to exist on earth !

NoTE.

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129

', I :

EXERCIS ES .

H as loved.

Lovctlt will sometimes be fou nd instead
of loo!'s , and li.at/i. loued instead of has loved.

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A good boy loves his parents.
In this sentence, the noun "boy," denoting one
person, of the male sex, as spoken of, in the relation of a subject, is of the third person, singular
number, masculine gender, and nominative case. It
is directly limited by the adjective "good" and the
article " a."
The verb "loves" is the predicate; and is transitive,
because it admits a direct object; in the indicative
mode, because it is used for simple de ~laration; in the
present tense, because it denotes present time ; and
changed in its termination by the addition of the
letter s, because its subject is of the third person and
singular number. The noun "parents," denoting
more than one person, as spoken of, in the relation
of a direct object, is of th~ third person, plural
number, and objective case; and is directly limited
by the personal pronoun "his," representing "boy,"
in the relation of a possessor, and therefore of the
third person, singular number, and possessive case.

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EXERCISES.

William's father has sold his house.
This has been a pleasant day to me.
The glimmering landscape fades away.
The lowing herd winds slowly over the lea.
The path of glory leads to the grave.
He has suff Ted the penalty of his crimes.

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130

GRADUAL LESSONS
Q.tTESTIONS.

In the first " " ercise , what is the subject?
Of what person, number, gender, and case, is it? Wh:;:
By whn.t is it directly limited?
Of what person, number, and case, is" William's"? Why?
Wh at is th e predicate?
I s it trnn sitive, or intransitive? Why?
In what mode? Why?
In what ten se ? Why?
Wh at ch ange is made in the _verb to adapt it to a noun
of the third person singular number?

~ 94. Thou, who, and that, representing
nouns of the second ·person and singular
number, require a change in the termination
of the verb, from the common to the formai'
style.
INDICATIVE MODE.

Present tense.
Imperfect. .
Perfect. . .
Pluperfect.
Future. . .
Future Perfect.

Lovest or dost love.
Lovedst or didst love.
Hast loved . .
Hadst loved.
Shalt or wilt love.
Shalt or wilt have loved.

IN ENGLISH

GRAMMAR.

131

EXAMPLE.

Thou, 0 God, hast created all things.
In this sentence, the personal pronoun "thou,"
representing the noun "God," as addressed, in the
relation of a subject, is of the second person, singular
number, and nominative case. The predicate "hast
created" is transitive, because it admits a direct
object; in the indicative mode, because it is use~
for simple declaration; and perfect tense, because it
expresses past time, alluding also to the present; and
is changed from the common style, " have," to the
formal style, " hast," being the appropriate form of the
verb when joined with the subject "thou."
The interjection " 0" is used to express the emotion
of reverence.
The noun "'·God," denoting the being addressed,
and having no grammatical relation to other worde
is of the second person, singular number, and used
independently. The predicate " hast created" i~
directly limited by the noun "things," which , denoting
more than one, as spoken of, and being the direct
object of a verb, is of the third person, plural number,
and objective case;_ and is directly limited by the
indefi,nite pronoun " alL"

POTENTIAL MODE .

EXERCISES.

Mayst or canst love.
l\'Iightst, couldst, wouldst, or should st
love.
Perfect . .. Mayst or canst have loved.
Plnpc1fect .. lVIightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst
have loved.

Thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the 'desire
of every livin g thing.
Thou, that art the Author of all good things.
God, who art ever near us, wilt thou hear
and answer us ?

P resent . .
lmpe1fect.

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IN ENGL ISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS.

132

Thou shalt lie down with kings.
If thou wouldst learn this truth, enter these
wild woods.
QUESTIONS.

In the first exercise, what is the subject?
What two words constitute the compound predicate?
Of what person and number is the subject?
ln what mode and tense are the verbs "openest" and
" satisfiest" ? Why?
What is the form of each verb in common style, when
used in the indicative mode and present tense, with a subiect of the second person?
vVhy are they changed to the formal style in this sentence?
By what is "openest" directly limited?
By what is "satisfiest" directly limited?
By what is "desire" indirectly limited?
In what case are the nouns "hand ," "desire," and
"thing"?
NoTE. Construct and analyze, as above.

~

95. Verbs in their formation are either
regular or irregular.

133

(b.) "When the imperfect ten~e or perfect
participle is not formed by addmg d or ed,
the verb is irregular."
~ 97. The following table exhibits a
connected view of all the forms of a verb,
except the passive, in the te?ses of the
several modes, as illustrated m the pre·
·ceding sections.

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TABLE X.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

.Present.

LovE.
Imperfect. LoVED.
Perfect Participle. LoVED.

Common Style.
REMARK.
A verb in the common style is not varied ~n
account of the person and number of i~ s~bjec.t, except lll
the present and perfect tenses of the indicative form.

INDICATIVE MODE.

~

96. (a.) A verb is regular, when its im·
perfect tense and perfect participle are formed
by adding to the simple form of the present
ed, or d only when the verb ends in e.a
a Sometimes, when . ed is added, the final consonant 1s
doubl ed; ar permit, perm itted.
Wh e n ed is ndded to n verb ending in y preceded by a
consonant, the y is changed into i. The same change is
made, under the same circumstauces, when es is added

~

When the subject Is of the! Loves or
third person smgular.•• I

does love.
l
With any other subject•• ' • Love or do ove.
Imperfect. . . . . . . . . . . Loved or did love.
When the subject is of the \Has loved.
Perfect.
third person smgular. • · H
l
d
With any other subject.• • •
ave ove •
Pluperfect. . . . . . . . . . Had loved.
Future. ~ .
Shall or will love.
Future Perfect.
Shall or will have
loved.

Present.

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134

IN ENGLISH

GRADUAL LESSONS

Future. .
Future Perfect.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present. .
Impe1fect..
P erfect.
Pliperfcct.

May, can, or must love.
Might, could, would, or should love.
May, can, or must h ave loved.
Might, could, would, or should have
loved .

GllAM~L\R.

135

-

Shalt or wilt love.
Shalt or wilt have loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.
Mayst or canst love.
Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst love.
Mayst or canst have loved.
Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have loved.

Present. .
Imp erfect ..
Pe1f ect.
Plupe1fect .

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Indicative and potential forms preceded by if, N-.c
IMPERATIVE MODE.

' I•

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

P resent. • . . · . . . . Love or do love.

Indicative and potential forms preceded by if, &c.

INFI NITIVE MODE.

~ 98. The following table exhibits the
manner in which the several modes and
tenses are formed from the principal parts
of the verb, as shown in the preceding

Present. .
To love.
P erfect. . . . . . . . To have loved.
PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect. . . . . . Loving.
Perfect . • • . . • . . Loved.
Compound Perfect. . Having loved.

table.
TABLE XI.
CoJDJllOll Style.

Fonnal Style.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Used onIY WI·th a subject of the second person
and srngular number.
R EMARK.
.

INDICATIVE MODE.
Present.
Lovest or dost love.
Imperfect . .
Lovedst or didst love.
Perfect. ..
Hast loved.
Pluperfect.
Hadst loved .

The compound tenses of this mode are formed
by the aid of the following words prefixed
to the present t ense or perfect participle: -

I

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Perfect. . • . .
Pluperfect. . •
Future Perfect.
F1lt1tre. . . . .

H AVE or HA S,
I to the
HAD,
~ perfect
SHALL or WILL HAVE, participle.
S 1-1 A LL or w11.L , to the present.

J

136

GRADUAL LESSONS

'·'

137

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
POTENTIAL MODE.

:

The tenses of this mode are formed by the aid
of the following words prefixed to the present
tense or perfect participle: P resent . . MAY, CAN, or MUST,
l
to the
l mpe1fect.
MIGHT, COULD, WOULD, or ~
present.
SHOULD,

J

P e1fect. . •
Pluperfect . •

l\'IAY, CAN,

or

llIUST HAVE,}

MIGHT, COULD, WOULD,
SHO ULD HAVE,

or

to the
perfec t
participle.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Jn this mode, the p e1fect tense is formed by prefixing

HAVE

to the perfect participle.

PARTICIPL E.

The compoimd perfect participle is formed by
prefixing HAVING to the perfect participle.
REMARK.
W ords prefixed in the formation of the modes
and tenses, are called auxiliaries.

EXERCISES.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present.

Live,
Brand,
P ermit,
Den y,
Buy,
Send,

Imperfect.

Lived,
Branded,
Permitted,
Denied,
Bought,
Sent,

P c1fect F articiple.

Lived.
Branded.
Permitted.
Denied.
Bon g ht.
Sent.

Present .

lrnpc1fect.

Perfect PartiC'lple.

Find,
See,

Found,
Saw,

Found.
Seen.

NoT E. L et th e pupil give th e forms of all th e tenses of each
of the above verbs, in th e several modes, telling h ow each is
formed.
QUESTIONS.
COMMON STYLE.

In what tenses of th e indicative mod e is th e verb varied
on account of the person and number of its subject?
With what letter does ·a verb of the indica t ive form and
prese nt te nse end , wh e n its subj ec t is third pe rson singular?
Into what is the <mxiliary "have," used to for m th e perfect
tense, c hanged, when the subject is third person singular?
What auxiliary is u sed in the format ion of the pluperfect
t ense ?
T o which of the principal parts of a verb is this aux iliary
prefixe d?
What auxiliary is used to form the future?
T o w hi ch of th e principal parts of a verb is it prefixed?
'\\'hat auxiliaries are u se d to form th e future perfect'
T o wh at part of a verb a re the se prefi xed ?
What tenses in the indic ative form are compose d of auxiliaries prefixed to th e perfect partic iple?
Wh at auxiliaries are pre fix e d to th e simple form of the
prese nt indi cative to make th e rresent in the potential mode?
Wh at is prefixed to the same to form the impe rfec t ?
What auxiliaries are pre fixed to th e perfect participle to
form th e perfect?
What prefixed t o the same to form the future perfect?
vVh'1t forms of the ve rb are used for the subj unctiv e m orle?
By what are th ese forms generally prec eded when a ve rb is
in this mode?
'
H ow is the perfe ct of the infinitive form ed?
H uw is th e corrrpound perfect participle forme d ?
V\'ith n subject, of what person and number is a rf' rli in t!:te
formal style used?

12•

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138

IN ENGLISH GRA~DIAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

POTENTIAL MODE.

FORMAL eTYLE •

.What are the f~rms of the verb in each tense of the indicland potential modes, when the subject r equires the
1orma style?
~t 1 ve

~ 99· The following table exhibits a
11
of tl1e ·.ureg.,.
connected view of the corms
ular verb AM or BE, in the several . modes
and tenses : -

May, can, or must be.
Might, could, would, or should be.
May, can, or must have been.
Might, could, would, or should
have been.

Present.
Imp eifect.
Pe1fect.
Plnperfect.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
REMARK

2.

Indicative and potential forms preceded by

TABLE XII.

if, &c.; and sometimes, in the present and imperfect tenses,

PRINCIPAL PART·S.

the following forms, which are not varied on account of the
person and number of the subject: - Present, Be ; Imperfect,

A~r or BE.
L?1perfect.
Pe1fect Participle. BEEN.

Present.

139

WAS.

Were.
IMPERATIVE MODE.

Common Style.

Present. . . Be.

This verb, in the common style, is not varieL
~n account of the person and number of its subject, excep
rn the present, imperfect, and perfect tenses of the indicative.
REMARK

l.

form.
INDICATIVE MODE.

P resent.

~

th e subject is of the first person l
singular, • • • • . • • •
I Anl
When the subject is of the·tl;i;d· ~.;.~~I I
.
singular, . . , . . . . .
j S.
Wi.th any other suhJ·cct • • · · • · • ·

Present.
Perfect.

To be.
To have been.

Wh~n

.
• · · · · · · ·. Are.
\VlJC.n the subject is of th e first or l
l mpe1fect.
third person sin gular, .. . • • .. • I Was.
With any other subject, • . • . . • . • Were
p ./.'.
~'¥hen the !:i1tbjcct is of th e third
.
. er.feet. .
perso n sin gu.I ar, . . . . •.• . . . . !Has been.
With any othc.· subj ect
H
b
Plupcifect.
1·T' d.. b. . . . . . ave een.
,
:ia een.
Future.
. ·
,
•Sh all or \viii be.
l• nture Pe1fect •
SJl .ai'l or will
. have been.

~

INFINITIVE MODE.

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect .. . . . .
Perfect .. . . . . .
Compound Perfect.

Being.
Been.
Having been.

Formal Style.
R1:,1.u<K 3.

Used only with a subject of th<' ~"cond

person and sin6nlar number.

140

IN

GRADUAL LESSONS
IN, DICATIVE llIODE.

I,

Present . .
I mpe1fcct.
Perfect . .
Pluperfect.
Future ·
· · · •
Future P erJect
.r.. . ..

Art.
Wast or WP.rt.
Hast been.
Hadst been.
Shalt or wilt be
.
· been.
Shalt or wilt have

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present . .
Imperfect.
Perfect . . .
Pluperfect.

Mayst or canst be.
l\'Iightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst be.
Mayst or canst have been
l\'Iightst, couldst, wouldst . or
shouldst have been.
'
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

· forms preceded by
if, & c . I 4. tl lndicativ e an d potential
u~ed o~lyai~othi:e twdo forms pec uliar to this verb alone, and
mo e.
REMARK

To what are the se auxiliaries prefix ed?
Are the tense s of the pote ntial forme d as in the ve rb lo'IJc 1
What two forms in the subjunctive are pec uliar to this verb
n.h..me?

In what ten se s are they used?
Which form is appropriate d to each tense?
Is either of these two peculiar forms varie d on account of
the person and number of the subject?

~ 100. When an imperfect participle is
annexed to the verb AM or BE, in any of
its modes and tenses, the verb is said to be
jn the PROGRES SIVE form; as,
Present . .
Impe1fect.
Perfect . .

PASSIVE

form.

Present. .
Imperfect.
Perfect. .

COMMON STYLE.

In fowhi
ch tense of the ind·ica Czve does this verb alone have
two
rms?

&c.

What are the three forms of th e present?
used'

When is eac h

Wh :i.t are the two forms of the imperfect?
.
used?

Wh en is each

What are the t wo r.arms of the perfec t '
usPd?

Wh en is each

A re the pluperfect, fu tu re and fut
prefixing the same a1 T . , .
ure pe rfect form ed by
ix1 iar 1es as in th e verb lvve?

Am running.
W as running.
Have been running.
&c.
[See APPEND JX . j

&c.
~ 101. When a perfect participle is an·
nexed to the verb AM or BE, in any of its
modes and tenses, the verb is said to be in

the

Q.UESTIONS.

14.l

ENGLI SH GitAMMAR.

Am loved.
Was loved.
Have been loved.
&c. [See APPENDIX. ]

~ 102. An adjective is made to express
different degrees of the same quality, either
by a change in termination, or hy prefixing
certain adverbs to its positive or simple

form.

--

-::--

-

-

~---

-

-

-

-

143

I N E N GLISH GRAMMAR.

L 4~

G~ADUAL

LESSO NS
REMARK 4 .
Many adjectives of two syllables,
ending in y or sil ent e, are compared in either

103. (a.) An adj ective m the pos-iti11e
J ann simply e~presses the quality of an
o l~ ect.
(b.) An adj ec tive in the comparative
form expresses a higher or lower degree
of the quality.
(c.) An adj ective in the superlative form
expresses the highest or lowest deo-ree of
the quality.
b
~

~.

manner; as,

COMPARI S ON

Positive.

OF

Wiser,
T aller,
T all,
More
industrious,
In dustrious,
In dustrious, L ess industrious,
Wisc,
Less wise,
\ Vise,

·Ample,
Ample,
Ample,
H appy,
H appy,
H appy,

. Ampl er,
More ample,
Less ample, .
H appier,
More h appy,
L ess h appy ,
5.

Superlati?;e .

Amplest .
Most arnple .
L east ample.
H appiest.
Most happy.
L east h appy .

Some adjectives are irregul arly com-

pared ; as,
Comparative.

P ositive.

Good,
Bad, ill, or evil,
Littl e,
Much or many,
Near,

Better,
W orse,
Less,
More,
Nearer,

Superlative.

Best.
W orst.
Least.
Most.
Nearest or next.

R E M ARK 6.
Some adjectives cannot be comp ared,
because the quality does not admit of change m

degree; as,

Endless,

ADJECTIVES.

Comparative.

Co1nparativc.

R E M ARK

1:

An adjective of one syll able is generall y made ~o express a higher degree by adding r or
er , and the highest by adding st or est to the positive
fo rm.
. R EM ARK 2.
An adjective of more than one syll able
i: .generally made to express a hig her degree by prehxmg more, and the highest by prefix in 0rr most to the
'
positive form.
REM ARK 3.
Adjectives of one or more syll ables
are ~ ad e to express a lower degree of the qu ality by
pre fi~m g less, and the lowest by prefixing least, to the
pos1t1ve form.
R E M AR K

P ositive.

Superlative.

Absent, Present,
Almighty.

Boundless,

N oTE. An adj ectiv e derive d fr om a noun w hich is the
name of a particular person or place , should begin with a capital Jrtter; as," the American n ati on," "the P latonic sch ool .

Wisest.
T allest.
Most industrious.
Least industri ous.
Least wise.

(d. ) The articles a and an are called
indefinite, and limit nouns in the singnl a1
number only.

j

!·

ii

'I

,, . "'
'·V

''\

· 1 ·1'

'!
•'

144

GRADUAL LES SONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

( e.) The article the is called dejiliite, and
limits nouns of eithe1.: number.
(f) The indefinite article an is used only
before words beginning with a vowel sound,
and before words beginning with the sound
of h, and accented on the second syllable.

Q.UESTIONS.

By what article is the noun "heroes" limited?
Is it definite, or indefinite?
By what other word is "heroes" directly limited?
To what class does it belong?
What quality does it express?
What degree of the quality?
In what form is it?
Is it regularly compared?
What quality does the adjecti1Je "best" express~
What degree of the qnality?
Is it regularly compared?

EXAMPLE.

An honest man is the noblest work of God.
In this sentence, the indefinite article "an," placed
before the ar:ijective " honest," which begins with a
vowel sound, limits the noun "man," which is of the
singular number.
The a(ijective "honest," simply expressing quality,
is in the positive d1'grcc, and directly limits the noun
"man." Th e de.finite article "the" directly limits
the noun "work." The adjective "nobl est," expressing the highest degree of the quality, is in the superlative degree, and limits "work."
The other words may be analyzed as in preced ing
examples.
EXERCISES.

The greatest heroes are not always the best me i:Truer men never lived.
The most industrious children will probably
be the most successful men.
The lecture was less interesting than I expected

145

NoTE. Construct and analyze, as above.

~ 104.

•1

J

Adjectives, like adjective pronouns, are sometimes used in the relations
of the nouns which they limit, and thm!
save the expression or repetition of those
words.

1· .
,..

h" ' I
'

'

I

'

EXAMPLE.
•;

<

;, I

~~

'

The benevolent never neglect an opportunity to do good.
In this sentence, "benevolent" not only performe
the office of an adjective, but is used as the subject,
in the relation of the noun "persons," of which it
saves the expression. It is of the third person, plural
number, and nominative case, because it represents a
noun of that person, number, and case.
The verb " neglect," the predicate, 1s transitive, in
the indicative mode, present tense, and directly limited

13

"Ii"

147

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR·

14()

GRAlJUAL LESSONS

by the adverb "never," and the noun "opportunity,"
which is its direct object.
"Opportunity," denoting one thing, as spoken of, in
the relation of an object, is of the third person, singular number, and objective case; and is directly
limited by the indefi,nite article "an," which is placed
before a word beginning with a vowel sound; and
indirectly by the verb "do," connected with it by the
preposition " to."
The verb " do" i" transitive, in the infinitive mode
and present tense, and directly limited by the adjectivt
"good," used as its object, in the relation of the noun
" deeds," of which it saves the expression.
"Good" is of the third person, plural number, and
objective case, because it represents a noun of that
person, number, and case.
EXERCISES .

The most gay became thoughtful.
Wise men are not always the happiest.
Do good to all men.
Many desire wealth, but few obtain it.
We should cultivate a taste for the beautiful
QUESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first e xercise?
In the relati on of what noun is it u se d?
What other office does it perform?
By what adverb is it limite d?
Wh at is the predicate ?
By what is the predicate directly limited?
Wha t connects the adj ective "thou ghtful" with the subject?
N oTE.

C on struct and analyze, as above.

~ 105. Some adverbs, like adjectives.
may be compared ; as,
Positive.

C01np11rative.

Ofte n,
Soon,
'W isely,
Wisely,

Oftener,
Sooner,
More wisely ,
Less wisely,

RE ~iARK

1.

Su,zi crli•ti·ve.

Oftenest.
Soonest.
Most wisely.
Least wisely.

com·
Some adverbs are irregularly

pared; as,
Positive.

Well,

Ill or badly,

Compar11tive.

Better
Worse,
More,
L ess,
Farther,
Further,

Superl1ttivc.

Best.
vVorst.
1\'lost.
L east.
Farthest.
Furthest.

Much,
Little ,
Far,
Far,
The force of the comparative . or
· <>
R EMARh ,..,
superlative degree is sometimes increased by prefixrng
the article the to the adverb.
REMARK 3.
Adverbs which connect clauses are
called connective adverbs.
EXAMPLE.

The gentleman urged his reques~ most
earnestly.
In this sentence, the noun "gentleman," the sub, t ·s of the third person, singular number, masculine
JeC, I
.
.
J" · d
gender, and nominative case; and 1s directly 1m1te
by the drfinit e article " the."

iu

148

lN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

The verb ~'urged," the predicate, is transitive; in
the indicative mode, imperfect tense, and directly
limitea by the noun "request," and the adverb "most
earnestly," which is in the superlative degree.
· "Request" is of the third person, singular number, and objective case, and is directly limited by the
personal pronoun "his;" which is of the third pe~son,
i;ingular number, masculine gender, and pos.sessive
case, and represents the noun " gentleman."

RULES
FOR

ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION.

I. THE subject of a proposition is in the
nominative case.

EXERCISES.

I honor him the more for his frankness.
The better the boy behaves, the sooner he will
be dismissed.
Edward saw the gentleman when he returned.
Beauty is less desirable than goodness.
William has thought more wisely upon the
subject.
Men think more of their rights than of their
duties.

REMARK I. The subject may be a noun; as, " Virtue ennobles ; " - or a pronoun ; as, " He learns ; " or a phrase; as, " To see the sun is pleasant;" - or
a clause ; as, " That lie spoke the truth was evident."
REMARK 2. The subject or the predicate may be
compound; as, "John and William went to ~oston.
John called, and saw his uncle."

2. The predicate is sometimes varied in
form on account of the person and number
of its subject.

QUESTIONS.

What is the subject of the first exercise?
What is the predicate?
What is the direct object of the predicate?
By what adverb is the predicate limited?
In what degree of comparison is it?
What word is prefixed to it? For what purpose?
What noun indirectly limits the predicate?
What word denotes whom I honor?
What word denotes the degree .P
What word denotes the cause?
NoTE.

Construct and analyze, ns above.

149

·I
'

~
I

REMARK I. This vanat10n occurs, in common
style, in the present and perfect tenses of the indicative form, when the subject is of the third person
singular. It consists in adding s or es to the common
form in the present, and substituting " has" for
" have" in the perfect; as, " He runs ; " " He has
run."
REMARK 2.

The verb " be" is varied in the pres-

•

.
150

•

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAi. LESSO NS

ent and imperfect tenses of the indicative form, when
the subject is of the first or third person singular, and
in the perfect, when the subject is of the third person
singular. (See Table XII.)
REMARK 3.
Two or more nouns or pronouns of
the third person, connected by " and," and constituting a compound subject, are generally represented
by a plural pronoun, and require the common form of
the verb; as, "Virtue and vice have their reward."
REMARK 4.
Two or more nouns or pronouns of
the third person singular, connected by "or" or
"nor," and constituting a compound subject, are represented by a singular pronoun, and require the appropriate form of the verb for that person and nurnher;
as," N either James nor J ohn has seen !tis father."
REMARK 5.
The formal style requires an appropriate form of the verb when the subject 1s of the
;;econd,person singular. (See Table X .)

3. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and

REMARK 4.
1.'he definite article is sometimes
placed before comparatives and superlatives; as, " The
more I see him, the better I like him."
REMARK 5.
Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and
participles, are sometimes used in the relations of

nouns.
REMARK 6.
An adjective directly limiting the predicate, is connected by it with the subject to which it
refers; as, "William is industrious."

1

participles, direct) y limit nouns and their
substitutes; as, "Good boys;" " All men;"
" That he spoke the truth is evident."
REMARK 1.
The indefinite article directly limits
nouns of the singular number only; as, "A man;"
"An hour."
REMARK 2.
The defi nite article limits nouns of
either number; as, "The house ;" "The houses."
REMARK 3.
The indefin ite article sometimes limits
an adjective of number; as, "A few men;" "A nun·
drcd men."

151

l

•

4. Adverbs directly limit verbs, adjectives, participles, and other adverbs; as,
"A very wise man may sometimes act very
foolishly."
5. A noun or pronoun directly limiting
another, and denoting the same person or
thing, is in the same case ; as, " William,
the blacksmith, has arrived."
6. A noun or pronoun directly limiting
an intransitive or passive verb or its · participles, and denoting the same person or
thing as the subject, or word preceding it, is
in the same case ; as, "Honesty is the best
policy;" " I know him to be an honest
man ; " " William, being a good boy, was
happy."
7. A noun or pronoun denoting the possessor or owner, directly limiting another,

152

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

is in the possessive case ; as, " William's
book has been badly used."

10. A verb indirectly limiting a word
with which it is connected by the preposition to, is in the infinitive mode.

R EMARK.
"vVhen two or more nouns denoting
j oint possession limit a word, the possessive Jann is
r equired only in the one which immediately precedes
the word limited; as, " William and llfary' s books
are torn."

'·

8. The direct object of a transitive verb,
or its participles, is in the objective case;
as, "Men worship God;" "I saw Johr
studying his lesson."
1. P articiples derived from transitive
verbs, though used in the relations of nouns or adjec- ·
•ives, are directly limited by nouns or pronouns in
the objective case; as, "The exercise of singing bass
ha5 a great effect in imparting command of deep-toned
expression."
REMARK 2.
When ihe participle is limited by all
article, adjective, or a noun or pronoun in the possessive case, it becomes a noun, and will not admit a
direct object; as, " By the using of the faculties they
become strengthened."
REMARK

9. A noun or pronoun indirectly limiting
a word with which it is connected by a preposition, is in the objective case; as, "Men
of sense differ;" "John went to Boston."
.\

153

GRADUAL LESSONS

REMARK .
The preposition is sometimes. omitted,
but must be supplied in analyzing.

REMARK 1.
When a verb in the infinitive mode is
preceded by bid, dare, !tear, feel, rnake, see, let, or
need, and a few others, the preposition to is commonly
omitted.
REMARK 2.
The word limited by a verb in the
mfinitive mode, is sometimes omitted; as, "To con·
fess the truth, I was in fault;" i. e., "I say."

11. A noun or pronoun having no grammatical relation to the sentence, is used
independently in the nominative case .
REMARK.
A noun or pronoun may be independent
either by direct address; as, " Charles, come to me;"
- or by exclamation; as, " Poor Indians! where are
they now 7" - or by redundancy; as, " The pilgrim
fathers, where are they 7" - or with a participle ; as,
"John being sick, a physician was called."

12. The inte1jection has no grammatical
relation to the sentence; as, "Alas! I fear
for life ; " " 0 ! how wretched is the man
that hangs on princes' favors!"
13. P ersonal pronouns must agree in
person and number with the nouns which
they represent; as, " I saw the gentlemen
when they left."

154

GRADUAL LESSONS

1. Personal pronouns of the third person
and singular number, must agree also in gender with
the nouns which th ey represen t; as, "John saw his
father;" "Anna loved her mother."
REMARK 2.
A noun used fi gur ati vely requires · the
pronoun to agree with it in gen der, in the figurative
. sense; as, "Give to R epose the solemn hour she
claims."
REMARK 3.
The personal pronoun it is sometime:;
used to represent a phrase. or a clause; as, "It is
pleasant to see the sun;" "It was evident that he told
t!tc truth."
REMARK 4.
It is sometimes used without reference
to the number or gender of the noun which it represents; as, "I took the child, and it cried;" "It is our
passions whi~h we ought most to fear."
REMARK

14. Prepositions connect, and show the
relation between words; as, " He went
from Boston to Providence."
15. Conjunctions connect words, phrases,
and clause·s. (See T able III.)
REMARK 1.
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, " H e and she will be
here ;" "I shall see him and her."
REMARK 2.
Conjunctions connect verbs of the
same mode and tense ; as, "He came and told me."
REMARK 3.
Conjunctions sometimes connect verbs
of different modes and tenses; as, "He saw , and
inu.>t ha•Jc known it ."
REMARK 4.
Conjunctions connect words of the

IN ENGLISH GRAMi\IAR.

155

s::une class in the same relations; as, " A great and
good man ;" "They labored steadily andfaitlifully."

16. A connecti ve adve rb connects an
adverbial clause with the word limited by
that clause ; as, " I saw him when he was
here."
17. A relative pronoun connects a relative clause with the word limited by the
clause ; as, " William, who was present,
acquiesced."
18. Substitutes for nouns are of the same
person, number, and gender, as the nouns
which they represent.

EXAMPLES
OF

SJ<:NTENCES ANALYZED ACCORDING
TO THE PRECEDING RULES.

1.

William speaks well.
In this sentence, the proper noun " William" is the
subject, and is of the third person, singular number,
nnd nomin ative case,
. .
The verb "speaks" is the predicate, and 1s irregul ar,

156

157

GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

intransitive, in the indicative mode, present tense, and
has the appropriate form for a subject in the third
person singular.
The adverb "well" directly limits "spe.aks."

singular number, objective case, and indirectly limits
"gave," with which it is connected by the preposition
" to," which is not expressed.
The common noun " book" is of the third person,
singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and
directly limits the verb "gave," of which it is the

2.
To see the sun is pleasant.

object.
The definite article "the" directly limits the noun

In this sentence, the phrase "to see the sun" is the
subject, and is of the third person, singular number,
and nominative case.
The verb "is" is the predicate, and is irregular,
intr ansitive, in the indicative mode, present tense, and
has the appropriate form for a nominative of the third
person singular.
The adjectiv·e "pleasant" directly li mits the predicate, which connects it with the subject, "To see the
sun," to which it refers.

"book."
The conjunction " and" connects the two clauses.
The personal pronoun " I" is the subject . of the
second clause, and is of the first person, smgular
number and nominative case.
The ~erb "give" is the predicate, and is irregular,
transitive in the indicative mode and present tense.
The adverb "now" directly limits the verb "give."
The personal pronoun " it," representin_g " book,"
in the relation of an object, is of the third person,
singular num her, neuter gender, objective case, and
directly limits "give."
The personal pronoun " you" is of the se~ond
person, singular number, o~jectiv_e case, and md1rectly limits "give," with which 1t 1s connected by the

3.
William gave me the book, and I now give
it to you.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of two
clauses.
The proper noun "William" is the subject of the
fir st clause, and is of the third person, singular num, ber, and nominative case.
The verb "gave" is the predicate, and is irregular.
transitive, in. the indicative mode and imperfect tense.
The personal pronoun "me" is of the first .person,

preposition " to."

4.
Thou, William, still art young, and dost
not see the danger.
Here, two things are predicated of the same person ;
the predicate, therefore, is compound.
The personal pronoun "thou" is the subject, and

158

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRADUAL LESSONS

is of the second person, singular number, and nominative case.
The proper noun " William " is of the second person, singular number, and used independently, in the
nomin ative case, by direct address.
The verb "art" is the first predicate, and is irregul ar, intransitive, in the indicative mode, pre.sent
tense, formal style.
The adverb "still" directly limits the verb "art."
The adjective "young" directly limits the verb
"art," which connects it with the subject "thou," to
which it refers.
The conjunction "and" connects the verb "<lost
see," which is the second predicate, with the first
predicate, " art."
"Dost see" is irregular, transitive, in the indicative
mode, present tense, and formal style.
The adver~" not" directly limits the verb "<lost
see."
The noun "danger" directly limits "dost see,"
and is of the third person, singul ar number, and
objective case.
The definite article "the" directly limits the noun
"danger."

"
eive" is the predicate, and is regThe verb rec
. .
d
d present
ular, transitive, 1·11 the indicative mo e an

·,
\

1

5.
In loving the excellent, we receive strength
to follow them.
In this sentence, the personal pronoun " we" is the
subject, and is of the first person, plural number, and
nominative case.

159

l

'

th" is of the third person, sintense.
" t
The noun s ~en~
d directly limits the
gular number, objective case, an.
what we receive.
the relation
Predicate, denoting
.
"
· " here used in
The partic1p 1e 1ovmg'. .
d indirectly
. . the objective case, an
of a noun, is. m
. h h' h it is connected by the
b which we
limits the predicate, wit w ic
..
" in ' " denoting the means y
prepos1t10n
receive strength.
·n the relation of
d.ective "' excellent," used 1
.
The a J
" of which it saves the express10n,
un " persons
h
t e no h h" d erson
'
p1ura1 nu mber , obJ. ecti ve case,
is of t e t IT P
'
. .
"loving " of which
and directly limits the parhCip1e
'
it is the direct object.
..
. the
b "fi 11 w" is regular, trans1t1ve, m
T~~ ver
o osent tense, and indirectly limits the
h' h 't ·s connected by the
infimt1ve mode, pre .
noun " strength," with w ic I I
. .
" t ,,
prepos1t10n
oi ... oun " them " representing "perThe persona pron
. . '.
. t is of the
" . the relation of a hm1tmg obJeC '
sons, in .
l al number objective case, and
third person, P ur
' ,,
directly limits the verb "follow.

SEQUEL
TO

GRADUAL LESSONS IN GRAMMAR.

BY

D AV I D

B

~:)T 0 W E R ,

.i! .

..
.,
I'

AND

TIENJA.l\1IN F. TW8ED,
r' l\1:-il ll'AL OF THE ll l ' :"O'Ki!n HILL SCHOOL,

<; HARl.~STOW~

H
'.
NE

w-

YORK:

CADY AND BURGESS

BOSTON:
W. J. REYNOLDS AND COMPANY.

l 8 5 0.

'i
.!

I '

'

Entered n.ccordiug to Ac t of Congrc Rsi ,
fly

DAVID

111

the year 1848,

H. 'J'ow£K,

In th e Cle rk's Office of th e Dis trict Court of Massa chu se tt s.

SEQUEL

PREFACE.

TO

IN the study of language, some acquaintanc e with the nature
and relations of words, phrases, and clause s, is requisite before
the pupil can fully comprehend th e technicalities of grammar;
and th ' s knowle dge can only be acquired by the analys is and
const..ucti on of se ntence s. A still hi g her degree of knowle dge
is necessary to define the te rms used, or to understand the de finitions.
In the" Gradual L essons in Grammar," the pupil was introduce d understandingly to the diffe rent classes of word s, and
their several relations to each other; the n to clauses and their
relations . Each successive step was distin ct, clearly defin ed,
and consequent upon the pre ceding. One was fully illustrated
before he was required to take anoth er . First, the fact was
exhibited, and th.en the t echnical term was applied. The pupil
was made familiar with the relations, and then with the nomen clature of those relations.
The " S e quel" is an atte mpt to g ene ralize th e principles
de veloped and illustrated in the precedin g L essons . The principles thus deduce d will be found, in substance, the same as
those in ge neral use; the pe culiarity of th e work consisting
principally in its arrange me nt, and in the promine nce given to
Analys is a nd C onstru ction.
The minute di stinctio ns, almost with out a differe nce , and the
superflu ous nome nclature arising the re from, wh ich cumbe r
late European works of thi s cla ss, and whi ch have bee n sedulously copie d uy som e of o ur own grammarians, are carefully
e xclud ed fr om thi s work, as te nding to produce " confusi on
worse con fo und e d ; " as frittering away time in trimming foliage , whil e th e ungathe red fruit is left to decay; as weakenin g
intell ec t by the continual pressure of verbal minutim, wh en
it should grow strong by wrestling with thought.

r ARK

STREET,

Nov. 1847.

GRADUAL LESSONS IN GRAMMAR.

~ 106. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is .the art
of speaking and writing the English language correctly .a
It is usually considered under four general
divisions.
~

107.

Orthography treats of the powers

of letters, and of their combination in syllables and words.b
This part is fully explained m spelling-books and
other elementary works.

~ 108. Etymology treats of the classific~tion of words, and of the changes made m
their forms.°
~ 109. Syntax treats of the construction
of sentences, and of the relations of the
words and members of sentences.
~ 110. Prosody treats of utterance, and
of the arrangement of syllables in verse.
• § I.

b

§ 1, R . 1.

c

§ 1, ll. 2.

-

-16'1

165

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

This part is practically considered in elementary
nnd scientific works on elocution.

~

118. A noun is of the first person when
it denotes the speaker ; as,
" I, George Washington, hereby advise, that we
should publicly give thanks to God for our suetess.''

NOUN.
~

~

111.
112.

Words used as names are nouns.•
~
A common noun is a name common to a class of objects; as, man, city.
~ 113. A proper noun is the name used
to distin guish a particular individual of a
class ; as, Charles, Boston."
~ 114. Names of things of which we
can only have an idea, as of qualities, are
called abstr•act nouns; as, goodness, truth,
W'isdom, hardness.'
~ 115.
A collective noun is a name used
to designate an object consisting of many
individuals ; as, school, senate, jury.
~ 116.
P erson, number, gender, and case,
belong to nouns.
PERSON.
~ 117.
P erson is applied to nouns, to distin guish the speaker, the person or thing addressed, and the person or thing spoken of. d
a

& 2, R, I.

b

§ 2, R. 2.

' § 2, R. 1.

a § 58.

a

119.

A noun is of the second person
when it denotes the person or, thing addressed ; as,
"Thou, William, still art young, and dost not see
the danger." b

~

120.

A noun if3 of the third person when
it denotes the pu2'.Jrt. or thing spoken of; as,
" George bought the book, but he has since given
it to his brotlie1·." r.
NUMBER.
~

121.

Number is the distinction between
one object arid more than one ; as, apple,
apples.d
~ 122.
A noun denoting but one person
or thing, is 0f the singular number; as, man,
cane, tree.•
~ 123. A noun denoting more than one
p~rson or thing, is of the plural number ; as,
men, canes, trees.I
" & 59.

b

§ 60,

c

§ 61.

d

§ 62,

' § 63.

J

§ 64 .

-166

167

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

REMARK 1.
The plural number of a noun is
generally formed by adding s to the singular, or
es when s will not unite with the terminating
sound of a word ; as, book, books; church,
churches.

Give the plural of the following nouns : - chief,
ltoof, roof, life, .fife1_ gulf, grief, handlcercltief, 111uff,
knife.

·write or give the plural of the following nouns: tax, girl, arch, cart, coach, horse, cow, box.
2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i, and have es added, to form the
plural; as,fly,flies; lady, ladies.
R EM. 3.
Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel,
generally have the regular plural; as, day, days; key,
keys.
Give the plural of the following nouns : - story,
ray, duty, valley, beauty, toy, delay, fairy, boy, cherry.
REM. 4.
Nouns ending in o preceded by a conson ant, generally have es in the plural; as, hero, heroes.
ExcEPTIONS.
Canto, grotto, junto, rnotto, portico,
solo, halo, octavo, zero, tyro, quarto, rnernento.
REM . 5.
Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel,
have s only in the plural; as, cameo, cameos; folio,
folios.
Give the plural of the following nouns : - zero,
potato, cargo, quarto, echo.
REM. 6.
Nouns ending inf or fe generally change
these terminations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves ; wife,
unves.
ExcEPTIONS.
Nouns ending in ief or oof; also,
snfe,fife, s tr~fe , dwarf, scaij, gulf, turf, surf
R EM. 7.
Nouns ending in ff have s only in the
plural ; staff sometimes has staves.
REM.

IRREGULAR FORMATIONS.

Singular,

Plural.

Si11gular.

Man,
Footman,

Ox,
Foot,
Tooth,
Goose,
Mouse,

Men.
Footmen.
Boatmen .
Kinsmen.

.Boatman,
K ins man,

~' omen.

\'V oman ,
Child,

l
l
l
l

Penny,
Hrother,
D ie,
Genius,

1 •

Plu.raL

Oxen.
F eet.
T eeth .
Geese.
Mice.

Children.
Pence;
P e nnies, (7,ieces of coi'll. valued at a penny each.)
Brothers, (of the same fmnily; )
Brethren, (of the same association.)
Dies, (used to stamp coin;)
Di ce, (used in gaming.)
Geniuses, (applied to human beings;)
Genii, (applied to spiritual beings .)

REM. 8.
Words composed of a noun and the · adJCCtive full, have the regul ar plural; as,

Handful,
Mouthful,

Handfuls.
Mouthfuls.

I

Spoonful,
Pailful,

Spoonfuls.
P ailfuls.

'"1

·'

R \:M. 9.
Words composed of a noun and an adjective, have the plural termination added to the noun;

as,
Sing1Llc&r.

Court-martial,
Knight-errant,

Plural.

Courts-'Tlartial.
Knights-errant.

REM. 10.
Words composed of two nouns have the
regular plural; as,

Night-steed,
Tide -waiter,
REM.

11.

Night-steeds.
Tide-waiters.

Words composed of two nouns, with a

.

,>

~.

-1GS

Singular.

preposition between them, have the plural termination
added to the first word ; as,
Singular.

Father-in-Jaw,
Son-in-law,
Ship-of-war,

Formula,
Nebula,

Plural.

Fathers-in-law.
Sons-in-law.
Ships-of-war.

Dogma,

Fungus,
Stimulus,

7 a 's; 3 e 's; four 9's; seven 3's.

La1nina,
Larva,

Some nouns do not vary their form, but
remain the same in both numbers; as,
Swine,
Species,
Apparatus,
Ethics,
Metaphysics,

Pride,
Temperance,

Salmon,
Means,
Hiatus,
Politics,
Pneumatics,
&c.

Bread,
Wisdom, &c.

Some nouns are seldom used except m
the plural; as,
Dregs,
Embers,
Entrails,
Goods,
Hysterics,

Lees,
Literati,
Lungs,
Minutire,
Orgies,

Index,

Pincers,
Scissors,
Shears,
Snuffers,
Tongs;

Cherub,
Beau,
Monsieur,
or Mr.,
Effluvium,
Encmnium,

and the following articles of dress :
Hose,

Drawers,

P!'ntaloons~

Laminre .

l

REM. 15.
Annals,
Ashes,
Assets,
Billiards,
Bitters,
Clothes,

Fungi,
Funguses.
Stimuli.

Miasma,
Focus,
Radius,
Ignis Fatuus,
Genius,

REM. 14. Some nouns are seldom used except m
the singular ; as,
Gold,
Silver,

l

Plural.

Formulre,
Formulas.
Nebulre.
Dogmata,
Dogmas.
Alumni .

Larvre.
Miasmata.
Foci.
Radii.
Ignes Fatui.
Genii.
Arcana.
Arcanum,
Data.
Datum,
Desideratum, Desiderata.
Errata.
Erratum,
Apices,
Apex,
Apexes.
{ Calces,
Calx,
Calxes.

REM. 13.

Sheep,
Series,
Amends,
Odds,Optics,

l
l

Alumnus,

REM. 12. A letter or figure is rendered plural by
adding s and an apostrophe; as,

Deer,
Trout,
News,
Bellows,
Mathe matics,

169

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQ.UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

Medium,

Trousers.

JlEM. 16. The following nouns, from foreign languages, generally retain their original plural · -

Momentum,

l

l

Indices,
Indexes.
Cherubim.
Beaux.
Messieurs,
Messrs.
Effluvia.
Encomia,
Encomiums.

l
l
l

Media,
Mediums.
Momenta,
Momentum•

15

I

Singular.

Gymnasium,

l

Plural.

Gymnasia,
Gymnasiums.

~ Memoranda,
Memorandum•.
Scholia,
Scholium,
Scholiums.
Strata.
Stratum,
{Automata,
Automaton,
Automatons.
Phenomenon, Phenomena.
Genera.
Genus,

Memoran•,
dum,

Amanuensis,
Antithesis,
Basis,
Dire re sis,
Emphasis,
Oasis,
Phasis,
Chrysalis,
Speculum,

Criterion,
Stamen,
Analysis,
Axis,
Crisis,
Ellipsis,
Parenthesis,
Thesis,
Appendix.
Vortex,
Seraph,
Bandit,
Virtuoso,

l

Amanuenses.

l
l

Antitheses.
Bases
Direreses.
Emphases.
Oases.
Phases.
Chrysalides.
Specula.
Criter ia,
Criterions.
Stamina,
Stamens
Analyses.
Axes
Crises.
Ellipses. ·
ParenthesPs.
Theses.
Append ices,
Appendixes.
Vortices.
Seraphim.
Banditti .
Virtuosi.

,,.
\

l

·~·,.
·~

j

'

' 1' ,;

170

..

SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GENDER.
~ 124.
Gender is the distinction of objects in regard to sex or the want of iv
~ 125. Nouns denoting males are of the
masculine gender; as, man, boy, father .b

" The sagacity of N ewton led him to his great
discovery, and he now stands at the head of philosophers."
~

126. Nouns denoting females arc of the
feminine gender ; as, woman, girl, mother.•
" Ellen was pleased with her presents, and resolved
that she would try to deserve them."
~ 127. Nouns denoting objects of neither
sex are of tI:e neuter gender ; as, table, book,
rain.d

" George, father has got his new sleigli, and you
may ride in it."
~ 128. Nouns used to denote either sex
may be represented by personal pronouns of
either gender, as the sense requires ; as, parent, friend, cousin, bird, child.

"My fri end wore a new hat, and his cousin her new
bonnet."
"My friend wore a new bonnet, and her cousin liis
new hat."
• § 65.

b

§ 66

• § 67.

d

§ 68.

\
I
I
I

171

REMrnK 1.
One of a company composed of
both sexes, is generally represented by a pronoun
of the masculine gender; as, "Each scholar will
take his seat."
T ell the gender of the following nouns: - boy,
gir l, book, sister,fatlter, parent, desk, neighbor, child,
bachelor , maid, widow.
REM. 2.
A young child, or any animal whose
sex is not known to us, may be represented by
the pronoun it.

:'~

.··I :

·; j .

"It was a healthy child when I saw it."
" Even a babe is pleased with its rattle."
REM. 3.
Sometimes, when the sex is not
known, if the animal be characterized by superiority, it is represented by a pronoun of the
masculine gender ; if by delicacy or timidity.
by a pronoun of the feminine gender.
"The lion was in a rage when I saw ltim."
"The hare starts when she hears the least noise."
REM. 4.
Pronouns of the masculine or feminine gender are used to represent inanimate objects, when they are personified.

" The sun flings his parting glance."
"The moon was shedding her silver light."
"The sltip was ploughing her way."
"Ifope, enchanted, smiled, and waved her golden
hair."
The distinctions of sex are expressed, -

}

11. •

.:

"
K

·~

l
t
i>

172

SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

l s t. By d ifferent words; as,
.il1aJculine.

Feminine.

.Masculine.

Bachelor,
Beau,
Boy,
Brother,
Bu ck,
Bull,
Drake,
Earl,
F ather,
Friar,
Gander,
G entleman,
Hart,
Horse ,

Maid.
Belle.
Girl.
Sister.
Doe.
Cow .
Duck.
Countess.
Mother.
Nun.
Goose.
Lady.
Roe.
Mare.

Husband,
King ,
Lad,
Land lord,
Lord,
Man,
Master,
N ephew,
Papa,
Ram,
Son,
Stag,
Uncle,
Wizard,

Feminine.

Wife .
Queen.
Lass.
Landlady.
Lady .
Woman.
Mistress.
Niece.
Mamma.
Ewe.
Daughter
Hind.
Aunt.
Witch.

173

I N ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Ftminin1.

Peeress.
Poetess.
Priestess.
Prioress.
Princess.
Prophetess.
Protectress.
Shepherdess.
Songstress.
Sorceress.

3d.

Ftmiiniue.

Jlfasaulinc.

JJ!asculme.

Peer,
Poet,
Priest,
Prior,
Prince,
Prophet,
Protector,
Shepherd,
Songster ,
Sorcerer,

{ Sultana,
Su!taness.
Tailoress.
T estatrix.
Tigress.
Traitress.
Tutoress.
Viscountess
Votaress.
Widow . •

Sultan,
Tailor,
Testator,
Tiger,
Traitor,
Tutor,
Viscount,
Votary,
Widower,

By different words prefixed ; as,
MasclLline.

Feminine.

Man -se rvant,
Male-child,
He-goat,

Maid-servant.
Female-child.
She-goat.

2d. By difference of termin a tion; as,
.Afasculine.

Feminine.

Abbot,
Abbess.
Actor,
Actress .
Administrator, Administratrix.
Ambassador, Ambassadress.
Arbiter,
Arbitress.
Author,
Authoress.
Baron,
Baroness.
Benefactor,
Benefactress.
Bridegroom, Bride.
Conductor,
Conductress.
Count,
Countess.
Czar,
Czarina.
Dauphin,
Dauphiness.
D eacon,
Deaconess.
Don,
Donna.
Duke,
Duchess.
Elector,
Electress.

.illasculinc.

Emperor,
Enchanter,
Executor,
Giant,
Governor,
H eir,
H ero,
H ost,
Hunter,
Instructor,_
Je w,
Landgrave,
Lion,
Marquis,
Margrave,
Negro,
Patron,

CASE •

Feminine.

Empress.
Enchantress
Ex ecutrix.
Giantess .
Governess.
H eiress.
Heroine.
Hostess.
Huntress.
Instructress.
Jewess.
Landgravine .
Lioness.
Marchioness.
Margravine
Negress .
Patroness.

~ 129.
Case is a term used to denote thPrelation which a noun or pronoun sustains to
some other word."
~ ISO. A noun is in the nominative case
when it denotes the subject, or signifies the
same thing as the subj ect.b

" Boys study." c
" William, the blacksmith, has arrived." d
"Honesty is the best policy."•
"The boy has a strong desire to learn, and lie will
undoubtedly succeed." f

• § 69.

b

§ 5, 10, 11, & 70.
c §5
I§ 70.

d

§ 10.

• § 11.

174

SEQ.UEL 'l'O GRADUAL LESSONS

~ 131. A noun is in the possessive case
when it denotes the possessor, and directly
limits the object possessed. a
"Edward's book has been badly used." b
" Williarn's father has sold his horse." c

POSSESSIVE CASE.

Boy's,
Boys',

Man's,
Men's,

Lady's,
Ladies',

" John went to BostiJn." "
" The master found the pupil adequate to the
task." b
"The just man always acts consistently with conscience." c

. REMARK I.
The possessive, in the singular,
Is generally formed by adding an apostrophe and
s to !he noun; in the plural ending in s, by an
apostrophe only; not ending in s, by an aportrophe and s. d

Singular.
Plural.

Hero's;
Heroes'.•

2. Nouns ending in ss or nee, to avoid
a succession of1 hissing sounds, generally take
the apostrophe only; as, "for conscience' sake,"
"for goodness' sake."
REM.

"I saw the boy, and called liirn to rne." 4
" Children should obey their parents." •
;,•·

~ 132. A noun is in the objective case
when it indirectly limits a word, or is the
direct oqject of a transitive verb.
"Men worship God."/
" Men of sense sometimes differ widely." I!
• § 12.
.I

• § 71.
§ 13.

§ 75, R.
§ 14.

d

8

• Table VII.

"'

1.:.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS..!
SINGULAR.

Lady,
Man,
Man's, Lady's,
Lady.
Man.

Hero,
Hero's,
Hero

Nominative Case.
Possessive Case.
OlJ.jective Case.

Boy,
Boy's,
Boy.

Norninative Case.
Possessive Case.
OlJ.jective Case.

Ladies, Heroes,
Boys, Men,
Boys', Men's, Ladies', Heroes',
Ladies. Heroes.
Boys. Men.

PLURAL.

REM. 3.
"The prince's life," "the witness's
testimony," "James's sorrow," &c., are correctly
used.

• § 12, 71.

175

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ADJECTIVE.
~ 133. An adjective is a word used either
to directly limit or express the quality of a
noun.If
" Good boys study." "John is a good boy."
" Solomon was wise."
• § 15.

b

I

§ 22.
• § 23 .
§ 75, T able VII.

d

8

§ 72.
§ 7.

• § 73.

176

177

SE~UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

R EMARK 1.
An adjective formed from a noun
which is the name of a particular person or place,
is usually called a prop er adj ec tive; as, "the
American nation." "
REM. 2.
Adjectives expressing number, are
called numeral adjectives. They are,

REMARK 1.
An adjective of one syllable is
geRerally made to express a higher degree by
adding r or er, and the highest by adding st nr
est, to the positive form.
REM. 2.
An adjective of more than one syllable is generally made to express a higher degree by prefixing more, .a nd the highest by
prefixing most, to the positive form.
REM. 3.
Adjectives of one or more syllables
are made to express a lower degree of the
quality by prefixing less, and the lowest by
prefixing least, to the positive form.

CARDINAL ADJECTIVES.

ORDINAL ADJECTIVES,

First,
Secon d,
Third,
Fourth,
&c.

One,
Two,
Three,
Four,
&c.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

~ 1.34.
An adjective is made to express
different degrees of the same quality, either
by a change in termination, or by prefixing
certain adverbs to its positive or simple form.
~ 135. An adjective in the positive form
simply expresses the quality of an o~j ect.
~ 1.36. An· adjective m the comparative
form expresses a higher or lower degree of
the quality.
~ 137.
An adjective in the superlative
form expresses the highest or lowest degree
of the quality.
• §

JO ~ ,

Note .

Positive.

Comparative.

Superl.ative.

Wise,
T all,
Industrious,
Industrious,
Wise,

Wiser,
Taller,
More industrious,
Less industrious,
Less wise,

Wisest.
Tallest.
Most industrious.
Least industrious.
Least wise.

REM. 4.
Many adjectives of two syllables,
ending in y or silent e, are compared in either
manner; as,

Positive.

Comparative.

Ample,
Ample,
Ample,
Happy,
Happy,
Happy,

Ampler,
More ample,
Less ample,
Happier,
More happy,
Less happy ,

Superl.ative.

'I

Amplest.
Most ample.
Least ample.
Happiest.
Most happy
Least happy.

.

178

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQ,1!EL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

179

I

if

*

REM.

5.

Some adjectives are irregularly com-

pared; as,
P ositive.

Comparntive.

Superlative.

Good,
Bad, ill, or evil,
Far,
Fore,
Little,
Late,
Much or many,
Near,
Old,
Old,

Better,
Worse,
Farther,
Former,
Less,
Later,
More,
Nearer,
Older,
Elder;

Best.
Worst.
F arthest or forthest.
Foremost or first.
Least.
L atest or last.
Most.
Nearest or next.
Oldest.
Eldest.

.

Comparative.

Superlative.

Hinder, .
Inner,
Nether,
Upper,

Hindermost or hindmost.
Innermost or inmost.
Nethermost.
Uppermost or upmost.

REM. 6.
Numeral adjectives, and those whose
quality does not admit of change in degree, cannot be compared ; as, endless, absent, present,

boundless, one, two, almighty, annual.
RE~I. 7. Adjectives are sometimes used in
the relations of the nouns which they limit,
and thus save the expression or repetition of
those words ; as,

" The benevolent never neglect an opportunity to do
good." a
• § 104.

Compare the following adjectives, and tell which
are propci·, and which of them are numeral, and
whether cardinal or ordinal : -great, vigorous, three ,
infinite, beautiful, second, rnuclt, Mexican, black, twenty, ninth, long.
Write sentences using the above adjectives.

~ 138. Three of the limiting adjectives,
- a, an, and the, - are calle.d ARTICLES. a
~ 139.
The indefinite article a or an
limits a noun to one object of a kind, but
not a particular one. 6

.;·!\

,! ·:
'

·~·,;

1,:·

" Bring me a book."
" An honest man is the noblest work of God." 0
I

~ 140.

The definite article the limits
nouns to particular objects. d

:'i"'
(

H

~t 1.

" Bring me the books."
"The man talked foolishly."•
"An honest man is the noblest work of God." f
REMARK.
The indefinite article an is used
only before words beginning with a vowel sound,
or with the sound of h when accented on the
second syllalJle. g

" A man ; a house ; an heroic deed; an ox; a unit i
an honorable man."
• § 7, R. 2.
d &103, (e.)

• § 103,
§ 103, (d.)
I § 103,
• § 9, Example.
g § 103, (J.)

b

Cf.) Example.
Cf.) Example.

·-

- -- ..

--· ·----· _,._

180

..i

SE~U EL

REMARK 1.
Personal pronouns of the third
person have different forms in the singular to
di st inguish the genders. a

PRO NOUNS .

. 1;'

~

A pronoun
stead of a noun.

141 .

IS

a word used m-

"George has returned, and
house." a

lte

IS

now

lil

"the

~ 14.2. Pronouns may be divided into
P ersonal, Adjective, Relative, and Interrogative.

"The sagacity of N ewton led ltirn to his great
discovery, and lie now stands at the head of philosophers." b
" Ellen was pleased with lter presents, and resolved
th at she would try to deserve them." •
" George, father has got his new sleigh, and you
may ride in it." d

143.
person •of
They are,
with their

b

§ 58.

• § 4 J, Example.

c ~ :~s ,

Example.
I § 59, Example.
h § 61, Example .

d

1

§ 39, Example.
§ GO, Example.

Plural.h

Singular.I

Personal pronouns indicate the
the nouns which they represent. b
I, you or thou, he, she, and it,
variations, as given below.

Nominative. 1
Possessive. 1
Objective."

I,

.,

· ,·

My or mine,
Me;

i' .

W e,
Our or ours,
Us.

SECOND PERSON.

very sad." c
"JJfy son found your book in the street." d
"William gave the book to rne, and I now give
it to you."•
"I, George W ashington, hereby advise, th at we
should publicly give thanks to God for our success." f
" Thou, ·William, still art young, and dost not see
the danger." I!
" George bought the book, but lte has sin ce given
it to !tis brother." h.
§ 37.

.

FIRST PERSON.I

"I informed George of the arrival, and lte was

a

.~

-~ f:t., .

, 1

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.•

PERSONAL PRONOUNS .

~

181

IN ~NGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

j

i r

I

' .

'i

1

Common Style.
Singular. I

You,
Your or yours,
You;

Nominative.
Possessive.
Objective.

Nominative.
Possessive.
Objective.
a

§ G5.

b

• Tub le VIII.
j

I

Plural. h

You,
Your or yours,
You.

Formal Sty le.
Thou,
Thy or thine,
Th ee ; .

Y e,
Your or yours,
Y ou.

§ GG, Example.
' § G7, Example.
I § 5ll.
1 § 6:3.
" § G-1.
§ 30, 7l.
k § 4 I , 72.
I § GO.

i

d § Gtl.
§ 38, 70

lG

,.

;1

!'

182

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS
THIRD PERSON SINGULAR.•

I

lliasculine. b

Nominative.
Possessive.
Objective.

He,
His,
Him.

I

DECLENSION.

FCrninine. c

N euier. d

She,
Her 01· hers,
H er.

It,
Its,

I

It.

Po~ses~ive.

Objective.

They,
Their or theirs,
Them.

Emphatically: { "I myself saw the man."
" I saw the man ltimself."
Reflexively:

{ "I injured myself."
" The man saved ltimself."
"I ~aved the boy myself, but the sailors put tltem·
selves m great peril to render assistance." K
§ 66.
§ 42.

c

§ 67.
d § 68.
§ 42, Example.

II'

Plural, Ourselves.

SECOND PERSON.

I llfaswline,

~ 144. Compound personal pronouns are
generally used emphatically, - reflexively in
the several rdations of the words which they
represent, except that of possessor or owner/

f

OBJECTIVE

Singular, Myself;

Plural, Yourselves.

l .

Himself;
F eminine, Herself; Plural, Themselves.
l Neuter, Itself; J

r

Singular,~

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

b

AND

FIRST PERSON,

THIRD PERSON.

REM. 2.
When a personal pronoun is used
independently, it has the nominative form ex-.
.
' .
cept m the first person singular, which generally
takes the objective ; as, "Ah me/ " " O thou ! "

• § 61.

NOMINATIVE

Singular, Yourself or thyself;

THIRD PERSON PLURAL.'

Nominative.

183

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

• § 64

. REMARK.
Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours,
theirs, and sometimes his, are used in a twofold
relation, denoting the possessor and the thing
possessed, thereby saving · the repetition of the
noun denoting the object possessed.

" The horse and chaise are mine."

a

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

~ 145.
Pronouns directly limiting nouns,
like adjectives, are called adjective pronouns.
~ 14,6. Demonstrative adjective pronouns
specify particular objects. b

They are, this, that, these, those, and sometimes former and latter.
" Father bought tltis sled, but tltat knife w,as a
present from my uncle." c
• § 40.

§ 71, Remark.

b

§ 43.

c

§ 43, Example.

184
~

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

147.

Indefinite aqjective pronouns do

not specify particular objects.

The relative pronouns are,

a

Nominatfoe,
Possessive ,
Objective,

Who,
Whose,
Whom.
" H ere is the ·boy whose sled
"William, who was present,

They are, some, other, one, any, all, such,
and sometimes no, whole, both, several, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever.
"Some teachers allow their pupils to study ·in any
mann er." b

" Each boy stood up and recited evei·y word of the
lesson." d

These pronouns, when used alone
in the relations of the words which they limit,
thereby saving the expression or repetition of
those words, may be call ed demonstrative, 111definite, or distributive pronouns. e
REMARK.

44.

PR 0 N 0 UN S.

b § 44, Example .
' § 45 .
' § 46.
I § 46, Example.

Which.
That.
I borrowed." a
acquiesced." b

~ 150. Pronouns which stand in a twofold relation to a sentence, constituting a
part of each of the two clauses which they
connect, are called compound relative pronouns. c

~ 149. A relative pronoun represents a
word or phrase, and connects with it the
limiting clause in which it stands. /J
~

That,

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

" All have studied the lesson, but these can recite
it best." f

•

Which,

REMARK 1. Vfho is applied to persons; wMch,
generally to other objects.
"I saw the man who was injured."
"I have found the knife which Charles lost."
REM. 2.
That may be used instead of who
. or which, and be applied to persons or things.
"I saw the man that was injured."
"I have found the knife that Charles lost."
REM. 3.
Whose is sometimes used as the
possessive case of which.

~ 148.
Distributive adjective pronouns
indicate, separately or singly, one or all
of the several objects included in a number. c

RELATIVE

18:')

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

· They are, what, whatever, whatsoever, whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, whichever, and
whichsoever.

d § 45, Example.
• § 47.

• § 47, Ex11mple.

16.

I

r

b

Rule 17, p. 15C,.

c

§ 48.

186

SE~UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

" 'W!tat the man earned during the day was squandered in the evening." a
" I heard w!tat was said."
" 'fV!wever wishes to excel, must study hard." .
REMARK. These pronouns are generally equivalent to he who, the p erson who, the persons
who, or to that which, the thing which, or the
things which.

REMARK.
Words which will form the predicate of a proposition, are verbs. a

"Boys study." b
" Virtue will be rewarded."

~

153. A verb is transitive, which may
be directly limited by a noun in the objective case. c
" Children should obey their parents."

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

~ 151. When pronouns represent persons or things as objects ef inquiry, they
are used in the relations of the words denoting those persons or things, and are
called interrogati·ve pronouns. b

Who, whose, whorn, which, and what, may be
so used.
" VVlwm did you find ready to enlist 7 "

187'

IN ENGLI SH GRAMMAR.

c

Which and what may be used
terrogatively in th e relation of adjectives.
REMARK.

in-

'• .!:

d

~ 154. A verb is intransitive, which cannot be directly limited by a noun in the
objective case.•
.

"William came to Boston, to engage in some business." f
~ 155. A verb is passive, when it represents the subject as the obj ect of the
action expressed by the verb, and is formed
by prefixing the verb be to the perfect participl e of a transitive verb. fl

" Thomas was injured by the partiality of his
friend s." h

" 'fVldclt horse did father conclude to buy 7 "

~

156. Verbs in their formation are regular or irregular.'
~ 157.
A regular verb forms its imperfect tense and perfect participle by ed added

VERB.
~

152. Verbs express existence or action!
I am,

• § 48, Example.

I love,

• § 5. b § 5, Example. ' § 73. d § 73, Example .
I § 74, Ex amp le.
i § 78.
A § 78, Example.

I am loved.

q 49. - ' § 49, Example.

d

l

• § 74.
§ ~5 .

§ :.l

.i
~.

..
188

'

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

to the simple form of the present, or
when the verb ends in e. a
Present ,

I mpe>fcct.

Limit,
Love,

Limited,
Loved,

d only

P mfect Participle . .

Limited.
Loved.

REMARK 1.
Sometimes, when ed is added,
the final consonant is doubled ; as, p ermit, p ermitted.*
REM. 2.
When ed is added to a verb endinoin y preceded by a conson ant, the y is changed
into i. The same ch ange is made, under the
same circumstances, when es is added · as try
.
' ' '
tried, tries. t

~

158. An irregular verb d0es not form
its imperfect tense and perfect participle by
adding ed or d to the simple form of the
present. b
Presm t.

b nperfect.

P e>]ect Participle.

Come,
Say,
Lade,

Came,
S'lid,

Come.
S aid.
Laden.

Laded,

* A single fin al consonant, pre ceded by an accented sino-le
vow el, is doubled before a n a dded sy llable beginning with a
vowel. (See" Gradual Sp eller," Ex ercise 346.)
1 Whe n final y of a primitive word is prec eded by a consonant, it is changed into i before an added syllable not beginning with i, and into ie before fin als. (See" Gradual Speller,"
Exercise 342.)

• § 96, (a .)

b

§ !l6, (b .)

189

~

159. A defective verb cannot be used
m all the modes and tenses, and is generally
auxiliary.
Present, Can, May, Shall, Will, Quoth, Must, Ought.
Imperfect, Could, Might, Should, Would, Quoth.
MODE.

~ 160. Mode signifies the manner m
which a verb is used. a
~ 161.
There are five modes ; viz., the
Indicative, Potential, Subjm~ctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.
~ 162.
The Indicative }J!Jode is used for
simple declaration or indication. b

" Charles loves his book, and he will soon go to
school." •
~ 163. The Potential Mode is used to
declare possibility, liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity. d

"John can procure a book with his money."•
REMARK.
Both the indicative and potential
forms may be used in asking questions.

" Docs Charles love his book, and will he go to
school?"
"Can John prowre a book with his money?"
• § 79.

.• §SO.

' § 80, Example .

d

§ 81.

' § 81, Example.

190
~ 164.

The Subjunctive Mode is used
in a dependent clause, expressing a condition, doubt, or supposition, generally indicated by a conjunction preceding it .. a
" The gentleman will be pl eased
proves." b

if

his son im-

REMARK.
This mode has no appropriate
form, except in the anomalous verb be. Sometimes it appears to vary from the indicative and
potential forms, because a part of the verb is
omitted.
~ 165. The Imperative ~Mode is used for

commanding, exhorting, or entreating. c
"Ch ildren, obey your parents."

d

REMARK.
The subject of this mode, thou,
you, or ye, representing the person or thing
addressed, is generally omitted.•

~ 166. The Infinitive Mode is · used in an
indefinite manner, without a grammatical
subj ect.I

"The children came to play." g

This mode has the indicative form,
generally preceded by the preposition or particle
" to," connecting it with the word which it
limits.h
REMARK.

§ 82.
b § 82, Exampl e.
c § 83.
d ~ 83, Example.
• § 83, Remark. f ~84. 1 § 84, Example . • § 84, Remark.
a

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

191

~ 167. The Participle is a form of the
verb used in the relations of an adjective or
of a noun. a

}\:'.

"The gentleman, seeing me, came and spoke of
'7/.ceting you." b
~ 168. There are three participles, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect.

Imperfect, Loving.
Perfect, Loved.
Compound P erfect, Having loved.

t'

1·

TENSE.

~

169. Tense signifies the variation m
verbs to denote distinctions of time. c
~ 170. There are six tenses, viz., the
Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect.
~ 171. The Present Tense is used to
denote present time. d
" Anna loves her book, because she can read it."•
~ 172. The Imperfect Tense is used to
denote indefinite past time.'

"The boy loved play, but he could not work."
• § 85.
b § 85, Example.
• § 87, Example .
f § 88.

g

• § 86.
d § 87.
1 § 88, Example

j
·~

Hl2

SEQUEL TO GRADlTAL LESSONS

193

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

I '

J

The Perfect Tense is used to
~ 173.
denote past time, alluding also to the
present. a

..

" Our friends ltave lieard of the disaster, but they
have not mentioned it." b

'

ber of its subject, except in the present and
perfect tenses of the indicative form. a
REM. 2.
A verb is sometimes used m the
FORiUAL STYLE, with a subject of the second
person and singular number. b

.•1:

~ 174.

The Pluperfect Tense is used to
denote past time preceding a specified past
time.•

CONJUGATION OF THE IR REGULAR VERB

PRINCIPAL

~

Present.

17 5. The Future Tense 1s used to
denote indefinite future time.•

" I sliall have dined before you will return."

h

PRESENT

IMPERFECT

~: ~

1. A verb in the COMMON STYLE is
not varied on account of the person and num-

I

i

c

§ 90.

d

If

§ 92 .

h

§ 97.

§ 90, Example.
§ 92, Example.

TENSE.'

ou } taught.
3. He
·Formal Style.

~: or ye } taught.

They
Thou taughtest.

------

*

th will sometimes be found instead of s, especially in the
tlible ; as, teacheth for teaches, and hath taught for has taught.

• ~ 93.
b § 94, & Table X., Remark.
'§80,&Ta.ble X.
•§ 87.
1§93.

17

tr
i

r
~I

ii
~:I

· ~:

!'
.,.

l

.t

TENSE,h

(Not varied by the number of its subject.)
Singular.
P lural.

RE~IARK

§ 89, Example .
§ 91, Example.

1:

MODE.d

First Person.
I
{ teach.
We
}
Second Pers!ln. You 5
You or ye teach.
Third Person. He teaches. "
They
Formal Style. Thou teachest. c

177. The Conjugation of a Verb 1s a
connected view of all its forms in the several modes and tenses.;

b

~·

TAUGHT.

(Varied only when the subject is third person singular. f)
Singular.
Plural.

~

§ 89.
• § 91.

TAUGHT.

i'I .
i
i•

INDICATIVE

~

a

Jmpe1Jcct.

P erfect Participle.

"Jam es will see his father." f

176. The Future Perfect Tense 1s
used to denote future time preceding a
specified time. ff

"

PARTS,

TEACH.

~·

··r.

TEACH.<

" Washington had served his country in the army
hefore the Revolution." d

c

§ 96, a. & b

g~D4 .

h§88

,i

194

SEQUE L TO GRADUAL LE SSONS
PERFECT

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TENSE."

Fonnal Style.

F U TURE

OU

FUTUR E

1

\0U

2.
3.

I. I

} shall or wiU

2.
3.

teach.

PERFECT

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE .~

P lural.

PRESENT.

Singular.

J

POTENTIAL MODE.f
PRESENT. C

Singular.

Plural.

~: ~~u :~;t ~::~~~

~:

}

a

§ 89.

b

§ 93.

c

We
} mi g ht, could,
You or ye would, or should
He
have taught.
They
have taught.
Formal Style. Thou mightst, &c., have taught.

TENSE.'

I shall '
We shall
}
You will ha ve taught.
You or ye will have taught.
He will
They will
Formal Style. Thou wilt have taught.

Formal Style.

or. ye }

:~;;t ~::~:

Thou mayst, canst, or must teach.

§ 90.

d

P lural.

J might, could,
You would, or should

P lural.

shalt or wilt teach.

Singular.

I.

PLUPE RFE C T. c

or ye
Th ey
OU

teach.

P lural.

} may, can, or

Singular.

WY e

Formal Style. ']

I

We
} may, can, or
2. You
must have
You or ye
must have
3. He
taught.
They
taught.
Formal Style. Thou mayst, canst, or must have taught.
I.

TE NS E . d

} shall or will

3. He

PERFECT, 0

Singular.

(Not varied.)

Singui«r.

YI

TENSE .c

We
}
You or ye had taught.
They
Thou hadst ta ught.

He

I.
2.

I
} might, could,
We
} might, could,
You
would, or
You or ye
would, or
3. H e
should teach.
They
should teach.
Formal Style. Thou mig htst, couldst, wouldst, or shoul<lst
teach.

P lw·al.

~: ~ou } had taught.

P lural.

I.
2.

(Not varied, &c.)

Singular.

3.

Singular.

We
}
.
You or ye have taught.
They
Thou hast taught.

PLUPERFECT

195

IMPERFECT."

(Varied only when the subject is third person singular. 0 )
Singula1·.
P lural.
.

I. I
~have taught.
2. You S
3. H e has taught.
Formal Style.

l

§ 91.

' § 92.

f

§ 81.

C

§ 87

1· If I

Plural.

~ teach.

2. If you S
3. If he teaches.
Formal Style.

If we
}
If you or ye teach.
If they
If thou teachest.

REMARK.
This mode has the forms of the indicative and potential, preceded by if, &c. Sometimes
the auxiliaries sltall, will, sltould, or would, are omitted, and then the ''erb appears to vary from the usual
form; as, "if he teach," for "if he shall, will, would,
or should teach."'
a

§ 88.

b

§ 89.

c

§ 90.

d

§ 82.

82, R

·>:.

~ }1,

·· '.,

196

IN ENGL I SIC GRAMMAR.

IMPERATIVE MODE. 0

ing auxiliaries prefixed to the present tense
or the perfect participle: -

Singular.
Plural.

Teach, or Do you or thou teach.
Teach, or Do you or ye teach. b

I NFINITIVE

To teach.

I' K E "E NT •

MODE . c

PF. R F E

cT

.

To have- taught.

PARTICIPLES.•
IM p E R F E

c0

c 'l' .
Mp 0

Teaching.
u ND p ER FE c T

FORMATION OF

c T • T aught.
Having taught.

.Future. .. .

P eifcct. . . . .
P luperfeet . . . .
Future Pcifect.

THE TENSES.f

SHALL or WILL, to the present.
HAVE or HAS,
~
to the
I-Ll.D,
perfect
SHALL or WILL HAVE,
participle.

~ 179.
The tenses of the PoTENTIAL
mode are formed by the aid of the followb

§ 83, R.

§ 84.
d § 84 , R .
§ 98, Table XI.
c

I

Present . .
lmpeifect.

MAY, CAN, or MUST,
~ to the
MIGHT, COULD, WOULD , or
present.
SHOULD,

Perfect . .
Pluperfect ..

MAY, CAN, or·MusT HAVE,~ to the
MIGHT, COULD, WOULD, or
perfect
SHOULD HAVE,
participle.

p E R F E

.

~ l 78.
In CoMMON STYLE, the compound
tenses of the I NDICATIVE mode are formed
hy the aid of the following auxiliaries, prefixed to the present tense or root of the
verb, or to. the perfect participle : -

• § 83.

197

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

• § 85

~ 180.
In the INFIN ITIVE mode, the present tense is the root of the verb, and the
perfect is formed by prefixing HAVE to the

perfect participle.
~ 18 1. The CoMPOUND PERFECT PARTICIPLE is formed by prefixing HAVING to
the perfect participle .
REMARK .
Let . the pupil give all the forms of
each of the following verbs, in the several modes
and tenses, telling how each is formed.

PltINCIPAL PAitTS .
Present.

I mperfect.

Pe1:fect P articiple.

Love,
Live,
Bind,
Brand,
Deny,
Buy,
Send,
See,

Loved,
Lived,
Bound,
Branded,
Denied,
Bought,
Sent,

Loved .
Lived.
Bound.
Brar.ded.
Den ied.
Bought.
Sent.
Seen.

Saw,

·

.·.

17 *
.,:·.,

198

SE~UEL TO

GRADUAL LESSONS

199

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PERFECT.

~

182.

(Varied only when the subject is third person singular.)
Plural.
Singular.

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VEEB

AM or BE.a
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

lmpeifect. W A!i.
Pe1:fect P articiple. BEEN.

Present.

AM or BE.

PLUPERFECT.

(Varied on account of the number, and in the singular on account
of the person of its subject.)
Singular,
Plural.

I. I am.
2. You are.
3. He is.
Formal Style.

We
}
You or ye are.
• They
Thou art.d

IMPERFECT.

P lural.

I. I · }
We
}
2. You had been.
You or ye had been.
They
3. He
Formal Stijle. 'l'hou hadst been.
t'UTURE.

INDICATIVE MODE.•
PRESENT.

We
}
You or ye have been.
They
Thou hast been.

Singular.

1.

In the COMMON STYLE, this verb is
varied on account of the person and number of its
subject, only in the present, imperfect, and periect
tenses of the indicative form. b
REMARK

I. I
~ have been.
2. You S
3. He has been.
Formal Style.

Singular.

Plural.

~: ~

~:

ou } shall or will be.
or ye } shall or will be.
They
3. He
Formal Style. Thou shalt or wilt be.
FUTURE

PERFECT.

Singular.

P lural.

I. I shall }
•
2. You will have been.
3. He will
Formal Style.

We shall
}
You or ye will have been.
They will
Thou wilt have been.

(Varied only on account of the number of its subject.)
Singular.
Plural.

i

~ou } was.

3. He

G

§ 99,

·
Formal Style.

b

~: or ye } were.

They
Thou wast.

§ 99, Remark 1.
d § 99, Remark 3.

' § 99, Table Xll.

~

183.

POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.

Singular.

Plural.

I.' IYou } may, can, or
;: He
must be.
Formal Style.

We
You or ye } may, can ' or
They
must be.

. ~ ',·

.•·

Thou mayst, canst, or must be.
~

.-'"•

~ ~,,:·~ f':-·

'.
l

. ·. f.
'"

SE~UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

200

201

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

'

"I

' ·f
.:J

Singular.

Plural.

I
} might, could,
We
} might, could,
2. You
would, or
You or ye
would,. or
3. He
should be.
They
should be.
Formal Style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be
1.

Singular.

2.
3.

IMPERFECT.

' Ve

} may, can, or

1. I
2.
3.

P lural.

}

might, could,
'Ve
} might, could,
You would, or shoul d
You or ye would, or should
He
have been.
They
have been.
Fonnal Style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have been.

~

J84.,.

S U B J UN C T I V E

M 0 D E .•

PRESEN'.fl.

Singular.

P lural.

I. If I am.
2. If you are.
3. If he is.
Fornuil St_yle.
PRE S l: NT.

If we
}
If you or ye are.
If they
If thou art.
(Old Form.)

Shigulai·.

l . If I
2.

3.

P lural.

}.

If you be.
If h e
Formal Style.

If we
}
If you or ye be.
If th ey
If thou be.

}
were.

(Old Form.)
Plural.

!fl }
2. If you were.
3. If h e
I.

Formal Style.

If we
}
If you or ye were.
If they
If thou wert.

This mode has the forms of the indicative and potential, preceded by if, &c., besides the
two old forms given above.•
~

185.

IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRE s ENT.
Be.

~

186.

INFINITIVE MODE.

PRESENT.

~

To be.

187.
c0

PERFECT.

' :l

Tohavebeen.

PARTICIPLES.

IM p ER F E

c T. Being.
u ND p E RF E c T.

Mp 0

c T. Been.
Having been.

p E RF E

~ 188.
When an imperfec t participle is
annexed to the verb AM or BE, in any of its
modes and tenses, the verb is said to be m
the progressive form. b
a

" § 99, R emark 2.

If you or ye
If they
If thou wast.

REMARK.

PJ,UPERFECT.

Singular.

If. we

Singular.

P lural.

You or ye
must have
They
been.
Thou mayst, canst, or must have been

Formal Style.

Plural.

If I was.
If you were.
If he was.
Formal Style.

1.

PERFECT.

Singular.

l. I
} may, can, or
2. You
must have
3. He
been.

,) '

IMPERFECT.

IMPERFECT.

§ 99, R emark 2.

b

§ 100.

...,.

. '·'· ··

102

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

203

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~:

;

· .,'

FUTURE.

P1·og1·essive Form.

Plural.

Singular.

l
I

INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT,

Singukr.

~: ~:~are } teaching.

3. H e is

Formal Style.

·2.
P lural.

We are
}
You or ye are t·eaching.
They are

3.

I shall or
W e shall or
}
will be
will be
You or ye sliall teaching.
You shall or teaching.
or will he
will be
They shall or
He shall or
will be
will be )
Formal Style. Thou shalt or wilt be teaching.

I

Thou art teaching.

l

FUTURE PERFECT.
IMPERFECT.

Singular.

Singular.

P lural.

1. I was
}
You were teaching.
He was

2.
3.

Formal Style.

We were
}
You or ye were teaching.
They were
Thou wast teaching.

PERFECT.

Singular.

1

Plural.

J

I. I have been )
W e have been
2. You have
You or ye h ave t h'
teaching.
been
eac mg.
been
3. He has been
They have been)
Formal Style. · Thou hast been teaching.

J

P lural.

J

POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.

1

Singular.

I. I may, can, or

PLUPERFECT.

Singular.
1.

I had been
You had
been

P lural.

)

"Ve had been )
2.
l
You or ye had
I teaching.
b
teaching
ee n
1
3. He had been)
They had been)
Formal Style. . Thou hadst been teaching.

r

l

I shall or will
W e shall or will
have been
have bee n
2. You shall or will t eac h.mg. You or ye shall or te ac h.mg.
·
have been
will have been
3. He shall or will
They shall orwi\l
have been
have been
Formal Style. Thou shalt or wilt have been teaching.
1.

2.
'3.

must be
You may, can, teaching.
· or must be
He may, can,
or must be )
Fornwl St.'1le.

Plural.

We may, can,

~

f

or must be
You or ye may, teachin"'.
0
can, or must be
They may, can,
or mu st be )

Thou mayst or canst be teaching.

·~

,

. ·'
.. }~
'J ' 'f

:"-·' ~~:

·' y;;_;
/~~·

·"

.

._i..1,

(~~

' 1~·: j:1 ~

204

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS
IMPER}'ECT.

PRESENT.

Singular .

::

3.

Plural. .

:o~&:g:itb~:c.,Ji re~hiog.
c., e
He might,
&c., be

Formal Style.

\V:~11ight, &c., }\
.
You or ye might, .·teachmg.
& c., b e
They might, &c., ·
·
be

Thou m1ghtst, &c., be teaching.

l

I.

I may, &c.,
have been
2. You may, &c.,
. have been
3.

.
teachmg.

He may, &c.,
have been )
Fonnal Style.

l

PERFECT.

Singular.

205

IN ENC>J.ISH GRAMMAR.

Plural.

Singular.

1. If I be
}
·If we be
}
2. If you or thou be teaching. If you or ye be teaching.
3. If he be
If they be
IMPERFECT.

Sinqular.

}
If you were . teaching.
If he were
Fornwl Style. If

We may, &c.,
have been
You or ye ma
y, teachin".
&c., have beenj
"
They may, &c.,
have been

Thou mayst, &c., have been teaching.

Plural.

I. If I were
2.
3

;:,•

Plural.
!

.' I

.111;· \:I'
i..

If we were
}
If you or ye were teachmg.
If they were

tbou wert teaching.

IMPERATIVE MODE
PRESENT.

Plural.

Sinr1ular.

Bo you

;ir

Be you or ye teaching.

thou teaching.

I

'l

J
'',(1

PLUPERFECT.

.

1.

ha\.·e been

2.
3.

l

Singular.

I might, &c.,

P lural.

We mi"ht &c
have

be~n

.,

You might, &c.,Jteachin" You or ye might,
o·
& c., have been
have been
H e might, &c.,
They might,
have been
&c., have been
Form.al Style.

INFINITIV~

l
I

PRE
PER FE

s ENT.
c T.

MODE.

To be teaching.

To have been teaching.

'1

.
teachmg.
PARTICIPLE.
C..JMPOUND PERFECT.

Having been teaching.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
lnclicative and potential forms preceded by if, &c.; also
the two following peculiar forms: -

·. '·t ·

r

Thou mightst, &c., have been teaching.

- - -- ----- -

I

L et the pupil s give the P1toG RESSIVE FonM by
annexing the imperfect participle of each of the
following verbs to the verb AM or BE, in all the
modes and tenses: - walk, run, go, buy, eat, drinlc,
sleep, write, draw, &c.
18

t.1

. .·,,.

206

SE~UEL

~ 189. When the perfect participle of
a transitive verb is annexed to the verb AM
or BE, in any of its modes and tenses, the
verb is said to be in the passive form.
Passive Fo1·m.
INDICATIVE MODE

1.

I "'"ll " will
be
2. You shall or
will be
3. He shall or
will be

He is

.

Formal, Style.

We are
}
You or ye are taught.
They are
Thou art taught.
P lural.
W e were
}
You or ye were taught.
They were

~: ~::swere} taught.

3. He was

Formal Style.

Thou shalt or wilt be taught.

FUTURE PERFECT.

1. I shall or will
have been
2. You shall or will
have been
3. He shall or will
have been
Formal Style.

taught.

We shall or will }
have been
·
you or ye shall or taught.
will have been
They shall or will
have been

Thou shalt or wilt have been taught.

T hou wast taught.
POTENTIAL MODE.

P lural.
We have been
}
You or ye have been taught.
They have been

Fonnal Style. Thou hast been taught.
PLUPERFECT.

Singular.
I had been
}
You had been taught.
He had been

1

P lural.

Singular.

PERFECT .

Singular.
I . I have been
}
2. You have been taught.
3. He has been

Fonnal Style.

t

j

Formal, Style.

IMPERFECT.

Singular.

I.
2.
3.

taught.

J

Pha·al.
We shall or will ")
be
You or ye shall
taught.
or will be
They shall or
will be

P lural.

~: ~~:are } taught.

3.

l

FUTURE.

Singulm-.

PRESENT .

Singula1·.

201

I N ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

P lwral.
We had been
}
You or ye had been taught.
They had been

Thou hadst been taught.

.
PRESENT.

L
2.
3.

Singular.
I may, can, or '\
must be
\
You may, can, ~taught.
or must Im
He may, can,
or must be

J

Fonnal Style.

Plural.

We may, can, or )
must be
You or ye may,
taught.
can, or must be
They may, can,
or must be

.
(

·.•'

'

..·1

Thou mayst or canst be taught.

., ·.

..

208

SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

209

IN ENGL ISH GRAMMAR.

IMPERFECT.

l

S ingula1-.

1. I might, &c.,
be

2.

YOU might,
& c., be
3. He might,
&c., be

'Ve might, &c., \

Jtaught.

t

be
You or ye might,
· h
&c., be
taug t.

PERFEC'l'.

2.
3.

I.
2.
3.

Singular.

P litral.

If I be
}
Jf you or thou be tau ght.
If he be

If we be
}
If you or ye be taught.
If they be

J

They might,
&c., be
Thou mightst, &c., be taught.

Fomuil Style.

I.

PRE SE NT .

P lumt.

IMPERFECT.
Singular.

l

Singular.

P lural.

I may, &c., }
have been
You may, &c., t
have bee n
aug1it.

W e may, &c., have
been
You or ye may &c
have been '
., taught.

He may, &c.,
have been

They may, &c., have j
been

I.
2.
3.

IMPERATIVE

2.

3.

1

~!~:\!~.,

)

You might, &c.,
h
have bee n
taug t.
He might, &c.,
have been
)

y 0 ~a:~ ~:e~io-ht

&c., have b~e~
They might, &c.,
have been

MODE.
Plural.

Be you or thou taught.

Be you or ye taught.

INFINITIVE MODE.

P lum l.

W e might, &c.,
1

we were
}
you or ye were taught.
th t>y were
wert taught.

Si1;gular.

PLUPERFECT.
1.

If
If
If
If thou

PRESENT.

Formal Style. Thou mayst, &c., have been taught.

Singular.

I'litral.

If I were
}
If you were taught.
If he were
Formal Style.

p

}I
p

RE s E NT.

ER FE c T.

To be taught.

To have been taught.

taught.

Formal Style. Thou mightst, & c., have been tau b" ht.

PARTICIPLES.

P n E s ENT. Being taught.
co Mp o u ND PER)' E c T.

PF.RF E c T. Taught.
Having been taught.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Indicative and potential forms precedecl by if, &c.; also
the two following peculiar forms : _

L et the pupil g ive th e PAss1vE Forr~r, by annexin g
the perfect participle of each of the follmvin g verbs
to the verb AM or BE, in all its modes and tenses : -

.•

'

~

.

·. ~:

:

18 *

~l .~ I

I , .~

210

SEqUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present.

Love,
Brand,
Permit,
Deny,
Buy,
Send,
Find,
See,
Destroy,

~ 190.

Imperfect.

Loved,
Brand ed,
Permitted,
Denied,
Bought,
Sent,
Found,
Saw,
Destroyed,

Perfect Participle..

Loved.
Branded.
Permitted.
Denied.
BotJght.
Sent.
Found.
Seen.
DestroyE:d.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

The following verbs are irregular in the formation of one
or more of their principal parts : Present.

Imperfect.

Abide,
Abode,
Was,
Am or Be,
Arise,
Arose,
Bear, to bring forth, Bare or bore,
Bear, to uphold,
Bore, bare,
Beat,
Beat,
Begin,
Began,
Bend,
Bent, bended,
Beseech,
Besought,
Bid,
Bid, bade,
Bind,
Bound,
Bite,
Bit,
Bleed,
Bled,
Blow,
Blew,
Break,
Broke, brake,
Breed,
Bred,
Bring,
Brought,

Perfect Participle.

Abode.
Been.
Arisen.
Born.
Borne.
Beaten, beat.
Begun.
Bent.
Besought.
Bidden, bid.
Bound.
Bitten, bit.
Bled.
Blown.
Broken.
Bred.
Brought.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

211

Presmt.

Imperfect.

Perfect Participle.

Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Chide,
Choose,
•
Cleave, to splil,
Cling,
Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Cut,
Do,
Draw,
Drink,
Drive;
Eat,
Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,
Flee,
Fling,
Fly,
Forget,
Forsake,
Freeze,
Get,
Give,
Go,
Grind,
Hear, ·
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,

Burst,
Bought,
Cast,
Chid,
Chose,
Clove, cleft,
Clung,
Came,
Cost,
Crept,
Cut,
Did,
Drew,
Drank,
Drove,
Ate, eat,
Fell,
Fed,
Felt,
Fought,
Found,
Fled,
Flung,
Flew,
Forgot,
Forsook,
Froze,
Got,
Gave,
Went,
Ground,
Heard,
Hid,
Hit,
Held,

Burst.
Bought.
Cast.
Chidden, chid.
Chosen.
Cloven, cleft.
Clung.
Come.
Cost.
Crept.
Cut.
Done.
Drawn.
Drank, drunk.
Driven.
Eaten.
Fallen.
Fed.
Felt.
Fought.
Found.
Fled.
Flung.
Flown.
Forgotten, forgot.
Forsaken.
Frozen.
Gotten or got.
Given.
Gone.
Ground.
Heard.
Hidden, hid.
Hit.
Held, holden.

.,·. ;·

t

.... ,

.,.c

'i

· [l
.

1~

212

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQ,UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

Prdermt.

Imp erfect.

Perfect Partlclplt.

Present.

Hurt,
Keep,
Know,
Lade,
L ay,
Lea<l,
Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie, to lie down,
Lose,
Make,
Mean,
Meet,
P ay,
Put,
R ead,
R end,
Rid,
Ri de,
Ring,
Rise,
Rive,
Rnn,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Sit,
Shake,
Shed,
Show,
Shoe,

Hurt,

Hnrt.
Kept.
Known.
L aden.

Shoot,
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Smite,
Speak,
Speed,
Spend,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
Strive,
Swear,
Sweep,
Swim,
Swing ,
T ake,
Teach,
Tear,

K~pt,

Knew,
Laded,
Laid,
Led,
Left,
Lent,
Let,
Lay,
Lost,
Made,
Mea nt,
Met,
, Paid,
Put,
R ead,
Rent,
Rid,
Rode,
Rang, rung,
Rose,
Rived,
Ran,
Said,
Saw,
Sought,
Sold,
Sent,
Set,
Sat,
Shook,
Shed,
Showed, shewed,
Shod,

L ai~.

L e<l.
L eft.
Lent.
L et.
L ain.
Lost.
Made.
Mea nt.
Met.
P aid.
Put.
R end.
R ent.
Rid.
R ode, ridden
Rung.
Risen.
Riven.
Rnn.
s.~ia.

See n.
Sought.
Sold.
Sent.
Set.
Sat.
Shaken.
Shed.
Shown, shew1~
Shod.

Imperfect .

Shot,
Shred,
Shrunk, shrank,
Shut,
Sang, sung,
Sank, sunk,
Slew,
Slept,
Slid,
Slung, slang,
Slunk,
Smote,
Spoke, spake,
Sped,
Spent,
Spun,
Spit, spat,
Split,
Spread,
Sprang, sprung,
Stood,
Stole,
Stuck,
Stung,
Strode, strid,
Struck,
Strung,
Strove,
Swore, sware,
Swept,
Swam, swum,
Swung,
Took,
Taught,
Tore, tare,

213

Perfect Participla..

Shot.
Shred.
Shrunk.
Shut.
Sung.
Sunk.
Slain.
. Slept.
Slidden, slid.
Slung.
Slunk.
Smitten.
Spoken.
Sped.
Spent.
S pun.
Spit, spitten.
Split.
Spread.
Sprung.
Stood.
Stolen.
Stuck.
Stung.
Stridden, strict.
Struck, st1 icken.
Strung.
Striven.
Sworn.
Swept.
Swum.
Swung.
T aken.
T aught.
Torn

't•f!~

. ··1

.t

:·[

.\ r.I
·· . I
': ~

'· !·'.
. . 1. ~

:,11··:~

.~

~<

·1 ~ ':

f~. '.i

;,!I

:·
- )~

-:

1tt 11
· ~· ii

. -\·i,·

I

b

.::i. '~,

.,,...

f .'

r~

. "•

. I;!

;'•,

:
f.

I

lzt:.. ·

--- --- ----iiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiy:·;
,.

214

SE~UEL

Pruent.

Tell,
Think,
Throw,
Thrust,
Tread,
Wear,
W eave,
Weep,
Win,
Wind,
Write,

Imp erfect.

P erfect Participle.

Told,
Thought,
Threw,
Thrust,
T rod,
Wore,
Wove,
Wept,
Won,
Wound,
Wrote,

Told.
Thought.
Thrown.
Thrust.
Trodden, trod.
vVom.
Woven, wove.
Wept.
Won.
Wound.
Wptten.

The following verbs are sometimes regular, and sometimes
irregular, in the formation of their principal parts: Present.

l 1"perfcct.

Awake,
Bereave,
Blend,
Build,
Burn,
Catch,
Cl eave, to adhere,
Clothe,
Crow,
Dare, l<>- venture,
Deal,
Dig,
Dream,
Dwell,
Gild,
Gird,
Grave,
Hang,

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

Awoke, awaked,
Bereft, bereaved,
Blended,
Built, builded,
Burned, burnt,
Caught, catched,
Cleaved, clave,
Clothed, clad,
Crowed, crew,
Dared, durst,
Dealt, dealed,
Dug, digged,
Dreamed, dreamt,
Dwelt, dwelled,
Gilded, gilt,
Girded, girt,
Graved,
Hung, hanged,•

P erfect Participle.

A waked.
Bereft, bereaved.
Blended, blent.
Built, buildcd.
Burned, burnt.
Caught, catched.
Cleaved.
Clothed, clad.
Cro1ved.
Dared.
Dealt, dealed.
Dug, digged.
Dreamed, dreamt.
Dwelt, dwelled.
Gilded, gilt.
Girded, girt.
Graven, graved.
Hung, hanged.

• Regular when it denotes the taking of life.

Imp erfect.

Present.

Heave,
H ew,
Kn eel,
Knit,
Light,
Load,
Mow,
P en,
Quit,
Saw,
S eethe,
Shape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shine,
Slit,
Sow,
Spell,
Spill,
Strew,
Strow,
Sweat,
Swell,
Wet,
Whet,
Work,
Wring,

H eaved, hove,
H ewed,
Kneeled, knelt,
Knit, knitted,
Lighted, lit,
Loaded,
Mowed,
Penned,
Quitted, quit,
Sawed,
Seethed,
Shaped,
Shaved,
Sheared,
Shone, shined,
Slit, slitted,
Sowed,
Spelt, spelled,
Spilt, spilled,
Strewed,
Strowed,
Sweat, sweated,
Swelled,
Wet, wetted,
Whetted,
vVorked, wrought,
Wrung, wringed,

215

P,;.fut Participle.

Heaved.
Hewn, hewed.
Kneeled, knelt.
Knit, knitted.
Lighted, lit.
Loaded, laden.
Mow ed, mown.
P enned, pent.
Quit, quitted.
Sawed, sawn.
Seethed, sodden.
Shaped , shapen.
Shaved, shaven.
Shorn, sheared.
Shone, shined.
Slit, slitted.
Sown, sowed.
Spelt, spelled.
S pilt, spilled.
Strewn, strewed.
Strown, strowed.
Sweat, sweated.
Swollen, swelled.
W et, wetted.
vVhetted, whet.
Worked, wrought.
Wrung, 'vringed.

~ 191. DE FECTIVE verbs are those which
are not used in all the modes and tenses ; as,
ought, quoth, beware.
REMARK.

methought.

The anomalous .. erbs, methinks,
idioms.

o..:-;e

1·.
1'

.\

216

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

TN

Positive.

ADVERB.

Well,
Ill or badly,
Much,
Little,
Far,
Far,

~

192. An adverb is a word which directly limits or modifies a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb. a
"The man talked foolisltly." b
" Very good boys study well." c
"Good boys study very faithfully." d

1. Some contracted phrases are called
adverbial phrases ; as, at once, at least, in general, by and by, in vain, on high, in short, &c.
REM. 2.
Adverbs are sometimes formed from
nouns by prefixing a; as, abed, ashore, aboard,
afoot, &c.
REM. 3.
Adverbs are often formed from adjectives by adding ly; as , wise, wisely; great,
greatly; tru e, truly ; &c.
REM. 4.
Some adverbs, like adjectives, may
be compared; as,
REMARK

Comparative.

Superla#ve.

Often,
Soon,
Wisely,
Wisely,

Oftener,
Sooner,
More wise)y,
Less wisely,

Often est.
Soonest.
Most wisely.
Least wisely

5.
pared; as,
G

§ 9.

Some adverbs are irregularly com

b

§ 9, Example.

c

§ 20.

d

Comparati?:e.

Superlati·l'e.

Better,
Worse,
More,
L ess,
F arther,
Further,

Best.
Worst.
l\Iost.
Least .
Farthest.
Furthest.

R EM. 6.
The force of the comparative or
supe rlative degree is sometimes increased by
prefixing the article, the to the adverb.
R EM. 7.
Adverbs which connect clauses are
called connective ad verbs.

-

,,

.

...,.;

"vVhen father returned, the boys received preserits."a

PREPOSITION .
~

193. A preposition connects a noun or
pronoun with the word which it limits. b
The preposition to is also used to
connect a verb in the infinitive mode with the
word which it limits. c
REMARK.

Positive.

REM.

217

F.NGLlSH G.llAMMA R .

§ 21.

"Men of sense sometimes differ widely." d
" John went to Boston." •
"The master found the pupil adequate to the task."/
"The just man always acts consistently witlt conscience." !l

' '

•,
'~ ..

... ·'·

.

~.

;i:.. ·

o § Tabl e IV.
• & 153, Example,
.r § 22.
' § 15,
d § I ·I.

' § § 16 & 17
g

§ 23 .

J;)
· .'',

. .,·, ..

218

S E~UEL

" A desire to excel leads to em inence."•
" En " ines are used to exti n"
uish fir es." b
0
"Willi am soon found a boy ready to play."
"The man was running too r apidly to stop" d
LI S T O F P R EPOS ITIO NS. •

over,
round,
since,
throu gh,
to,
towards,
under,
und erneath,
unto,
up,
upon,
with,
within,
without.

beside,
besid·es,
between,
betwixt,
beyond,
by,
concerning,
down,
during,
except,
for,
from,

ab out,
above,
across,
after,
against,
amid,
amidst,
among,
amongst,
around,
at,
athwart,
before,
behind,
below,
beneath,

in,

into,
of,
on,

PREPOSITIO N AL PHRA SE S .

instead of,

according to,

out of.

The following words are sometimes used as
prepositions : - p ast for by ; e.'Ccepting for e.'Ccept ;
regarding, resp ecting, toHching, for concerning or
about; along , off, till, u n til.
• § 16.

b

§ 17 .

c

§ 24.

d

§ 25.

• §_Table llI

219

IN ENGLISH GRAMM.All.

TO GRADUAL L ES bONS

CONJUNCTI O N .
~

194. Conjunctions are words used to
connect sentences and clauses, or words of
the same class generally, in the same relation.•
" J ohn and James went to Boston ." b
" C harl es re ads and writes." c
"John or Willi'!m will go to Boston." d
" Will iam studied or pl ayed." •
" A prudent and industrious m an wi ll commonly
succeed." /
" J ohn r em ains in the city , anrl ' Villi am has return ed
to th e country." g

·i.:' ·]·
i.

·i
": l
. ·I

I

LI S T O F C O N J UNCT I ON S .

Although ; and ; as ; because ; both ; but ; either ; for ; 11 ;
lest; neither; nor; notwithstanding; or; since ; than;
th at; th en; therefore ; though; unl ess ; wherefore; yet.
Also, so, still, and a fe w other word.s, are sometimes used as
conjunctions.
CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTION S .

Whether and either with or ; neither with nor; both tiith and ;
although and though witli yet and still.
R E MARK 1.
When corresponding conjunctions are
used, only one of the m is a conn ective.
R E M. 2 .
The conjunction and expresses an addition ; for, a cause ; &c.

• §Table IV .
< § 30.

b

§ 27.
I § 31.

<

§ 28.
g

d

§ 29.

§ 33.

• ,,

220

SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

221

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~ 199.

INTERJECTION.
~ 195 . An inte1jection is a word used to
express passion or emotion, and generally
has no grammatical relation to other vvords. a
"Al as ! the remedy came too late." a

.

LIST OF INTERJECTIONS .

Ah! aha! alas! alack! adieu! hail! halloo ! hark! ha! ho!
hist! hush! ha, ha, ha! pshaw! pugh ! poh ! fie! huzza'
lo! bravo! hey! heyday! well-a-day! what! &c.

SYNTAX.
~ 196. SYNTAX treats of the relations of
words in clauses, and of the relations of
clauses in compound sentences.

The former may be called verbal,
and the latter clausal syntax.
REMARK.

~

197.

Construction relates to the gram-

matical connection of words in a sentence.
~ 198. Arrangernent relates to the position which words occupy in a sentence.
" § 52.

A sentence is an assemblage of
words which convey a complete sense.
~ 200. Ths idea expressed by a simple
sentence is called a proposition.
'I

A sentence may be grammatical or
ungrammatical ; a proposition is either true or
fal se. Tbus, "Good boys deserve punishment,"
is a grammatical sentence, but a false proposition.
REUARK.

~ 201.

The essential parts of a simple
sentence are the subject, or that of which
something is asserted, and the predfrate, or
that which is asserted.•
~ 202.
E-ither part of a sentence may be
compound . b
~ 203. Both parts of a sentence may be
compound, constituting a compound sentence.<
~ 204. The simple sentences which constitute a compound sentence, are called

clauses. d
REMARK.
A compound sentence, that cannot
be resolved into clauses, may be called a c01nple1:
senten ce; as, "John and James went to Boston
and bought a horse."

~

205. A clause may be independ ent or
dependent.•
• § 5.

b

§ § 27- 30.

§ 35.

c

d

§ 55.

19 *

-

-

-

.. _._.._ -.l..

• § 34.

'I

, ,: :1'1
:.1, F:

y,
•'

I

'• i .

't
i .

222

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LE SSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~

206. A dependent clause comiected
with another clause by a relative pronoun,
is called a relative clause, and is generally
equivalent to an adjective, limiting the word
to which the pronoun relates. a
~ 207. A dependent clause connected
with another clause by an adverb, is called
an adverbial clause, and is generally ~qu i va­
lent to an adverb limiting the predicate of
the clause with which it is connected. 0
~ 208. A dependent clause connected
with another clause by a conjunction indicating a condition or supposition, is called
a subjunctive clause.'
~ 209. When a clause is the subject, or
denotes the same thing, it is called a subjective clause. d
~ 210. When a clause is the obj ect of
a transitive verb, or the indirect object of a
word, it is called an objective clause.•
~

Simple Sentences. J

211.

I. Boys play. g
2. Good boys study. "
3. The man talk ed foolishly. i
a§§47&48.
' § 54,

b

I

§ 53.

§ 201.

§ 82.
' § G.
c

d

h

§ 54, and page 149
§ 7.
i § 9.

223

4. William, the blacksmith, has arrived. a
5. Honesty is the best policy. 0
6. Edward's book has been badly used. c

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.
15.

Men worship God. '1
Men of sense sometimes differ widely .•
John went to Boston. /
A desire to excel leads to eminence. g
Engines are used to extinguish fires . "
Very good boys study well. i
.
Good boys study very faithfully.J
T he master found the pupil adequate to the task. k
The just man always acts consistently with con-

science.1
16. William soon found a boy ready to play.,.
17. The man was running too rapidly to stop. n
l8. Industry is a substitute for genius.
19. Me n become indolent through the reverses of

·. · ·. ;

l

1

j,:

,,!'

..J··:

·..

l

fortune.
20. Of all things on earth, next to his God, a broken
man should cling to a courageous industry.
21. Intemperance, in all its forms, i.s a ~in.
22. A man's happiness depends primarily upon his
disposition.
23. A good boy loves his parents. 0
24. Thou, O God, hast created all things.P
25. William speaks well. q
26. T o i;ee the sun is pleasant. r
27 . William's father has sold his horse.•
a

~

§ 10.
§ 16.
m § 24.

b
h

§ 11.
§ 17.
n § 25.
r

d § 13.
• § 14.
I § 15.
§ 12.
j § 21.
k § 22.
I § 23.
§ 20.
P § 94.
q Page 155.
0
§ 93.
' § 71.
Page 156.
c

i

.·t·.. •

i t \W,.
.. .

I

'· ·.l

I1

1·,

224

SE~UEL

28. Children should obey" their parents. a
29. Ch ildren, obey your parents. b
30. Will iam came to Iloston to engage in some busi
ness. '
31. Thomas was injured by the partiality of hi~
fri ends. d
32. John can procure a book with his morn~y . •
33. The children came to play.I
34. J am es will see his father. g
35. vVash ington had served his country in the army
before th e Rem I ution."
36. Abs! the rem edy cam e too late. i
37. The gentleman urged hi s req uest most earnest.Jy.i
38. An honest man is th e nobl est work of God. k
39. The benevolent never neglect an opportunity to
do good. 1
40. In loving the excellent we receive strength to
follow them.'"
41. The acquisition of kn owledge is the most honorabl e occupation of youth.
D1RECTION I.
Name the essential parts in each of th e
above examples.
DrnE CTION 2.
vVrite fifty simple sentences, like th e above,
as an exercise in composition.
~

212.

Sentences in whfrh the
is compound."

SUBJECT

1. John and James went to Boston. 0
2. John or William will go to Boston. I'
• § 73.
K § Dl.

§ 83 .
' § 74.
d § 78 .
' § 81.
J § 84 .
§ 90.
§52.
i § 1()5.
k § 103.
I§ 104
0
Page 158.
" § 198.
§ 27.
1' § 29.

b

3. Will John or William go to Boston?
4. Reason, eloquence, and every art, may prove
dan ge rous in the hand s of bad men.
5. There were no brid ges nor roads, nor any
hou ses, except Indian wigwams.
6. The king and his counsellors rashly determined

i.•

·1.1:·

I

i

I;,.. I.

'

' ;·:·.
I
,I

.:: >:f: ~; i
1 11 <..

to tax the colonies .
7 . Peace of mind and a quiet conscience are of
inestimable value.
8 . The dirk, the assassin's knife, the cruel sword,
aud the spear, are made of iron.
9. Withou t wealth, there can be neither books nor
impl ements, neither commerce nor arts, neither towns
nor cities.
10. Surely, despondency is a grievous thing, and a
heavy load to bear.
11. A slip, a false step , a breath of air, would have
been sufficient to plunge me headlong down the fearful
steep.
12. The horse and chaise are mine. a
13. Truth and error, virtue and vice, are things of
an immutable nature.
DIRECTION 1. Tell the conjunctions that connect the parts
of the compound subject in each of the above examples.
DIRECTION 2. Write forty sentences like the above, as an
exercise in composition.

~

213.

Sentences in which the
is compound. b

PREDICATE

1. Charles read s and writes. c

h
m

i

225

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

• § 40.

b

§ 108 .

' § 28.

j,!'

I'

'l

Hl

·i ·X
1

',,

2'26

IN ENGLISH

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

· 2. William studied or played. a
3. Steam serves man, and also destroys him.
4. Fire warms our dwelling or consumP.s it.
5. vVealth is the scholar's patron; sustains his leisure, rewards his labor, builds the college, and gathers
the library.
6. According to the popular notion, a genius. learns
without study, and knows without learning.
7. E ach boy stood Uj:\ and recited every word of the
lesson. b
8. Thou, William, still art young, and dost not see
the danger. c
9. The boys were highly pleased with their new
books, and preserv ed them carefully. d
10. I saw the boy, and called him to me.•
11. The ge.n tleman, seeing me, came and spoke of
meeting you.I
12. vVords are like arrows, and should not be shot
at random.
13. Hast thou grown' pale over books, and spent thy
nights in studies?
1-!. Hast thou, toiling with adverse. fate, wandered
in distant countries, pl oughed unknown seas, and
culled healthful fruit from thorny trees?
15. Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and
forget not the kindness of thy mother.
16. Man's animal organization gives him superiority,
and is among the most wonderful of the works of God
011 earth.
•§30.

b§45.

c

§ 60, and page 1G7.
f § 85.

d

§ 6~.

'§ 72.

~27

GRAM~TAR.

17. Fix upon some pursuit, and follow it with zeal
and assiduity.
18. The teacher calmly closed the windows and
doors and then seated himself quite near the younger
pupils,' to await the result.
DIRECTION 1. Tell the conjunctions that connect the
parts of the compound predicate in each example.
DIRECTION 2. Write thirty sentences like the above.
~

214.

C01npoitnd Sentences, consisting of
two INDEPENDENT claitses. a

1. John remains in the city, and vVilliam has returned to the country· b
2. George has returned, and he is now in the house. c
3. I informed George of the arrival, and he was very
sad.d
4. I saved the boy myself, but the sailors put themselves in great peril to render assistance ..•
5. Father bought this sled, but that kmfe was a present from my uncle.I
6. All have studied the lesson, but these can rec ite

,...

.j
·t

it bestJ
7. George bought the book, but he has since given
it to his brother."
8. The sagacity of Newton led him to his great discovery, and he now stands at the head of philosophers. 1
9. George, father has got his new sleigh, and you
may ride in it. i

' · ·1

§ 43.

·•.

a

§ 1!)9.

§ 35.
• § 4G.
b

§ 37.
,, § Gl.
c

§ 38.
' § GG.

d

' § 42.
j

§ 68.

f

i

.~

i

!

I .

I

i.

I 1;

228

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

: 10. The boy has a strong desire to learn, and he
will undoubtedly succeed. a
11. Charles loves his book ' an d Iie w1.1l soon go to
school."

~ 215. Compound Sentences, consisting of an
independent and a RELATIVE clause. a

12. Anna loves her book, because she can read it c
13. The boy loved play, but he could not work. d.
14. Our friends may have heard of the disaster, but
they have not mentioned it.•
15· William gave me the· book ' and I n ow give
· 1t
· to
you.!
16'. The storm passed rapidly away, and the sun
burstm~ forth in his might, threw across the heaven~
a magmficent arch of peace.
17. Horses are use ful animals, and they should be
treated kindly.
18. Jane abused her books, but Sar_a h careful] y preserved hers.
. 19. We 8hould ever feel willing to trust God, for he
Is ever able to grant us deliveran ce from all our danrrers
20. The pastures are clothed with flocks; the valley~
also are covered over with corn.
21. Hope is the leading-string of youth; memory the
staff of age.
22. Avarice blights the heart, as autumnal fires ravage the prairies.
DIRECTION 1. Tell the clauses and connectinO' words in
each of the above examples.
b
DmECTION 2. Write thirty sentences like the above, as
an exercise in composition.

4

r ·i

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LES SONS

§ 70.

b

§ 80.

c

§ 87.

d

§ 88.

• §. SD.

f

Page 156.

;'i i
1· t
'·

1. H ere is the boy whose sled I borrowed. b
2. What the man earned during the day, was squandered during the evening. c
3. Soldiers, the time has arrived which must test our
valor in the open field. d
4. James found the knife which John lost, and gave
it to him.•
5. It was Cresar who won the battle.
6. A good conscience is to the soul what health is
to the body.
7. There is a pleasure in seeing the uses to which
knowledge may be applied.
8. The man who tells nothing, or who tells every
thing, will equally have nothing told him.
9. I never knew an early-rising, hard-working, prudent man, careful of his earnings, and strictly honest,
who complained of bad luck.
10. He can never have a true friend, who is often
, :"t

changing his friendships .
11. ·what genius performs at one impulse, industry

I

.l

'!~

· ·1

gains by a succession of blows.
12. Adversity is the mint in which God stamps upon
us his image and superscription.
13. Riches bless that heart indeed, whose almoner
is benevolt;!nce.
14. Whatsoever our hands find to do, we are commanded to do diligently.
• § 202.

b

§ 47.

c

§ 48.

d

§ Gl.

' § li:J.

;·.

. •·. ·

20
:··;
:~

- - --

..

- -----··-------=-=-'

'
·1i-11
, I ·1
'•
;

230

5E~UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

15. Whoever wishes to excel, must study hard.
And so the storm
16.
That makes the hi gh elm couch, and r~nds the oak,
The humble lily spares. Keen are the pains
Advancement often brings.
Tell the independent clause, and the rein.tive clause ; also the relative that connects them, in each
example.
DmECTION 2. Write thirty sentences, each contaming a
relative clause, as an exercise in composition.
DIRECTION ].

~

IN ENGLISH GRA:"rIMAR.

2!6. Compound Sentences, consisting of an
independent and an

ADVERBIAL

clause. a

1. When father returned, the boys rece ived presents. b
2. A smile now joyously played where before sadness and discontent had held their mood/ reign. '
3. One person, with a good profession lost his luck
in the river, where he idled away his ti~e in fishincr
when he ought to have been in his office.
"''
4. The alarm-bells of the nation tolled the knell of
dep~rted royalty, while, every now and then, came
pealmg through the air the deep and distant thunders
of the insurrection gun.
G. Where one or more facult\es exist in the highest
state of ~evelopment and activity, we call their possessor a gemus.
6. The spider will exhaust life itself before he will
live without a web.

7. The teacher instructeil .me how I should enter a
room.
8. The throne of Philip trembles while D emosthenes

b

§ 53.

'
:

I

·:

I\
1·

i

·I . .

··!\' ··i\ ,'. : :

i

.

'

I

:•·,I· I

"

}'•I

speaks.
9. Just as the teacher had finished these words, the
rain began to fall.
10. Your heavenly Father sends the storm as well
as the sunshine and the gentle breeze.
11. We are hurried on from object to object, before

.,,:i; ,1
i ''\· ,.
'j

we can call any thing ours.
12. While we cling to our friends, the unseen hand
of Providence tears us away from their embrace.
13. Wherever Hope went, he diffused around him
gladness and joy.
DIRECTION 1. T ell the adverbial clause and the connect
ing adverb in each example.
DIRE CT ION 2.
Write twenty sentences like the above, as
an exercise in composition.

~ 217. C ornpound Sentences, consisting of an
independent and a

SUBJUNCTIVE

clause. a

l. The gentleman will be pleased if his son improves. b
2. If the gentleman has left town, he has probably
returned to his family in the country.
0
3. I will ask, though. he refu se.
4. We sh all inform th e teacher, unl ess you amend.
5. The boy feared lest his father should hear of his

misconduct.
a

• § 203.

231

I '

§ 204 .

b

§ 82.

' Supply sh ould.

I

232

IN ENGLISH GRA~D!AR.

SE(tUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

6 . No bounteous grant of intellect, were it the
pleas ure of Heaven to m ake such grant, could raise
any of the brute creation to an equality wit!) the
human race. - 7. Were it bestow ed on the le viathan
he must remain, nevertheless, in the element necessar;
to his ph ysical existence. -8. W ere the elephant" made
to possess it, it would but teach him the deformity of
l11s own structure. a
9 · If man had bee n so made as to desire nothincr
he would want almost every thing worth possusing. "'
If wealth descends upon avarice, does it confer
happmess?
11. Had either of you given him self time to lofJk at
the opposite. side of the shield, all this passion and
bloodshed might have been avoided.
1-9,. If on I y 1N ewton's mind could reach out to the
secrets of n_ature, even his could only do it b the
homeliest toil.
y
13. It is more dreadful if the man is wrecked with
his fortune.
14. If the
be abundant , the be e t 01·1 s none
. summer
.
the less; if it be parsimonious of flowers, the tiny
laborer
a wide r circle ' and by industr y repairs
.
i
fi sweeps
.
tne rugal1ty of the season.

10:

. DmECTJON ].
T ell the s ubjun ctive clause, and the con
_.Junction
· 11·that connects the clauses ' in eac h exa mp le, supp lymg it w en not expressed.
DIRECTWN 2. vVrite twenty sentences like the above as
an exercise m composition.
'

• Supply if.

233

iI !;,I :. i:

~ 218.

Sentences in which a clause is iised
as the s uBJECT of another clause, or denotes
the same thing as the subject. a

·1,

I.

I. That wealth is often preferred to wisdom, is only

\

1.I

I'

another proof of human weakness. b
2. That he spoke the truth, was evident.
3. " Honor thy father and thy mother," is a divine

j,,

command.
4. That children should obey their parents, is the

,,

command of their Maker.
5. Whether the motion will prevail, or not, is yet a
matter of doubt.
6. That evil communications corrupt good manners,
needs no confirmation.
7. That all our faculties may be improved by exercise, is a law of our nature.
8. That you have wronged me, doth appear in this.
9. It is often said, that tim e is wanted for the duties
of religion . c
10. Whether the gospel history can be demonstrated,
is not th e question.
11. It is true that objections have been often m ade ,
and often answered .
12. It appeared almost certain that the cns1s wa.s
over, and that the flower would not fade.
DIRECTION 1. Tell the subjective clause in each of the
above examples.
DmE CT ION 2.
\Vnte fifte en sentences, each containing
subjective clause, as an exercise in composition.
• § 20!).

b

§ 54.

20*

' P nge 154, Rule 13, Re m. 3 .

a

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234

SE(lUEL '.l'O GRADUAL LESSONS

IN

ENGLISH GRAi\li\l,\R.

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23.)

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219. Compound Sentences, consisting ef an
independent and an OBJECTIVE claU·Se. a

1. The farmer declared that his watch had gained
half an hour in the night.
2. The gentleman could not ascertain how his money
had been recovered. b
3. "Thus you play upon the inexperience of youth,"
said Memory, reproachfully.
4. God has commanded, that children should obey
their parents.
5. All men know that honesty is the best policy.
6. The criminal acknowledged that his sentence was
just.
7. The pupil says he now loves to study.
8. "My dear Edward," he said, in a firm, and even
cheerful voice, "this is truly kind ."
9 . " You will be able to send me to school all the
year round now, father," said the youngest boy.
10. It would be unjust and ungrateful to conceive
that the amusements of life are altogether forbidden
by its beneficent Author.
11. Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw?
12. I did not know how hard a thing it would be
to leave my children
13. She told me shame would never betide,
With truth for my creed, and God for my guide.
DIRECTION I.
Tell the independent and the objective
clause in each of the above examples.
DIRECTION 2.
Write fifteen sentences, each containing
an objective clause, as an exercise in composition .
• § 206.

b

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220.

CLAUSAL ANALYSIS.

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1 The first end, to wh ic

independent, and one adv~r!~~~ the sun was low," is conThe adverbial clause,
"when" and limits
nected with the independent chlausffies boyf an ad~erb of time.
. t
erforrnlll" l e o ce
their pre d1ca es, P
b
cted torrether by
The two independent clauses are conne
o
the conjunction " and."
3. When the dying flame of ~ay
Through the chancel shot its ray,
Far the glimmering tapers shed
Faint light on the cowled head;
And the censer burning swung,
Where before the altar' hung
That p~oud banner, which with prayer
Had been consecrated there

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.

EXAMPLES.

. h ll wisdom or knowledge
a
.
.
b
Joyed is to illustrate the wisdom or
ought to e emp
•
f the Father of Nature.
1 uses
goo d ness o
f
This is a compound sentence, co~sisting o two c a
'.
de t
d the other relative.
one indepen . n ' an
"to which . all wisdom or knowledge
The relative clause,
-. . h
b · t of the in1 ed" is used to limit t e su 'Jee
~~~~~;:n~ec~:~2and is equivalent to an adjective.
On Linden, when the sun was low,
2. All bloodless lay the untrodden snow'
And dark as winter was the flow
Of Iser, rolling rapidly.
This compound sentence contains three clauses, - two

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SE~UEL

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

The first member of this compound sentence contains two
clauses, -one independent, the other adverbial.
The adverbial clause, consisting of the first two lines, is
connected with the inde pendent clause, consisting of the
ne:rt two lines, by the adverb "when," and limits the predicate of the independent clause, performing the office of an
adverb of time.
The second member, which is connected with the first by
the conjunction "and,'' contains three clauses, - one independent, ("and the censer burning swung,") one adverbial,
("where, before the altar, hung that proud banner,") and one
relative,(" which with prayer had bee n consecrated there.")
The adverbial is connected with the independent clause by
th e adverb "where,'' and modifies its predicate, having the
force of an adverb of place.
The relative clause is here used to limit the subj ect of the
adverbial clause, performing the office of an adjective.

4. There is a contented poverty, in which industry
and peace rule, and a joyful hope, which looks out
into another world, where riches shall neither fly nor
fade.
5. If God open to yo ur feet the way to wealth, enter
it cheerfully; but remember that riches will bless or
curse you, as your own heart determines.
6. Beware of false reasoning, when you are about
to infli ct an injury which you cannot repair.
7. None more imp atiently suffer injuries than those
that are most forward in doing them .
8. When I learned that this man was once the
teachable child that I had loved, the beautiful infant
that I had gazed upon with delight, I said, in my bitterness, "I have seen an end of all perfection; " and
I laid my month in the dust.

1!

237

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9 . There's nothing dark, below, above,
But in its gloom I trace thy love,
And meekly wait that moment, wh~n
Thy touch shall turn all bright agam.
. ·ty the ancients may have had
10 Whatever supenon
.
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in all arts where the natural
m pomt o genrns, y
wledge
has
had room to produce any
pro<rress of kno
h ,
" .d ble effects the moderns cannot but a\e
COTISI era
'
some advantage.
DIRECTION

1.

Analyze t hese sentences as in the models

· t' " of
" W 't ten sentences each cons1s m,,,
DIRECTION -«.
n e
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e cise in compos1t10n.
three or more clauses, as an ex r

given above.

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"RULES FOR ANA

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TO THE USUAL MODE OF PARSING.

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~ 221.

RuLE I. The su~jec~ of .a clause
or simp1e sentence is in the nommat1ve case.

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as,
1• The subject may be a noun;"H
"Virtue ennobles ; " - or a pronoun ; as,
.e
"
.
h 1·ase . as " To see the s1in is
learns · - or a P
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the truth w as ev1'den t . "
REJ\[ARK

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SE~UEL

2. The subject may be compound; as,
"Jarnes and John will come; Sarah or Mary
REM.

must go."

3.

The subject is not commonly expressed, when the predicate is in the imperative
REM.

:239

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8. To be pressed down by adversity hm; nothing in
it of disgrace; but it is disgraceful to lie down under
it like a supple dog. - 9. Indeed, to stand compos- ·
edly in the storm, amidst its rage and wildest devastations ; to let it beat over you, and roar around you,
and pass by you, and leave you undismayed; this i~

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REM.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

.!;.

4.

In arrangement, the subject gener-

ally precedes the predicate, except in interroga-

tive clauses.
Exceptwns. In subjunctive clauses, when the conjunction

implying a condition is omitted, the predicate precedes the
subject; as," Were it true, he would know it;" also, when
the clause is introduced by the expletive " there ; " as," There
1s a pleasure in the pathless woods."

to be a MAN.
10. It a is the infirmity of little minds to be captivated by every appearance, and dazzled with every

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Let me set up a warning over against the special
dangers which lie along the road to riches.
12. Do not begin life supposing you shall be heart-

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rich when you are purse-rich.
13. Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and for
get not the kindness of thy mother.

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EXERCISES.

j

How many clauses does each sentence contain? '\'Vhat
kind ? How are the clauses connected ?

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I. Parse all the words in each sentence, to
which Rule 1st is applicable. For further exercises, sef'
Examples, § 211, &c.
DIRECTION 2. Write twenty sentences, each illustrating
the above rule, or some one of the remarks, as an exercise
in composition.

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DIRECTION

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its nominative in number and person ; as,
"I teach;" " He teaches."
REMARK

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A compound subject, consisting
4

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~UESTIONS.

1. The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm ; and
the sweet breeze, that makes the green leaves dance,
shall waft a balm to thy sick heart.
2. When the farmer came down to breakfast, he
declared that his watch had gained half an hour m
the night.
3. To do what is right arg.ues superior taste as well
as morals.
4. Doing well has something more in it than the
fulfilling of a duty.
5. That you have wronged me doth appear in this.
6. May the lord of the world forgive the slave whom
he has honored, if Mirza presume again to lay the
bounty of Abbas at his feet.
7. Whatever is, is right.

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Page 154, Rem . 3.

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240

of two or more singular nouns denoting different persons or things, and connected by "and,"
requires the plural form of the verb ; as, "Virtue
and vice have their reward."
REnr. 2. If the nouns denote the same or
similar things, the verb has, commonly, the singular form; as, "This good man and exemplary
0hristian is no more ; " " A bustle, and the
sound of horses' feet, was now heard."
REM. 3. A compound subject, consistir.g of
two or more singular nouns connected by "or"
or "nor," requires the singular form of the verb;
as, " The boy's father or mother deserves great
pra ise."
REM. 4. If one of the nouns constituting a
compound subject is plural, the verb is commonly plural; as, "William and his brothers were
presen t; " "Neither Sarah nor her sisters were
there."
REM. 5. If the nouns or pronouns constituting a compound subject are of different persons,
the verb must agree with the one which immediately precedes it ; as, "The gentleman or you
are mistaken ; " " You or I am in error."
In the Second "Rule for Analysis nnd Construction," the fact that" the predicate is som etim es vari ed on account of the person and number of its subject" is stated; and
in analysis, the pupil is require d t o tell whe n it is done, and
in what the variation consists.
It is recommended that this method be continued until
NOTE.

l/'I ENGJ,l;;H

SEQ.DEL TO GRADUAL LES:>ONS

GIL\:.DlAlt.

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241

r T . with all th e variations which occur in
scholars are ami iaI
.
nd formal
\'ffPren t modes and te1rnes , and m common a
:~;lee. • They will the_n be able to apply the above rule under-

The sun never sheds more cheerful beams, and
never proclaims more loud ly God's glory and goodr eturns after the coldness and
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'
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dampn ess o mg ,
.
.
. . Is to the various purposes of their bemg.
amma
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The
The dim eye has become bright an p1erc mg.
deceased had been destitute, and the survivor was pen-

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EXERCISES.

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I am fond of loitering about country. churc es; an
this was so delightfully situated, that it frequently at-

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tracted me.
The golden sun, the planets, all the infinite host
of heaven, are shining on the sad abodes of death,
throu!l'h th e still lapse of ages.
Th~ u art, and wast, and shalt be.

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tive pronouns directly modify nouns, and
substitutes for nouns ; as, " Good men;"
"All men.''

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R E~lARK 1 · A11 a dJ. ective used with a verb. in
the infinitive mode to express an abstract quality,
does not refer to any noun, either expressed or

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irn pli ed.

Adjectives directly limiting the predicate, refer to the subject ; as, " Charles was
R EM. 2.

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242

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

industrious ; " " The man grew old; " "The
house is painted white ; " " To see the sun is
pleasant ; " " That he did it, is evident."
RE~I. 3.
Adjectives and adjective pronouns
impl ying unity or plurality, must agree in number with nouns; _ as, "This man; " '·' These
men ; " " One house ; " " Ten houses."
The adjective "many" may limit a singular
noun, when the article "a " intervenes; as, "Many a ma,1;"
" Full many a gem."
Exception.

REM. 4. 'I'he indefinite article " a " or " an "
is prefixed to nouns of the singular number only;
as, " A house ; " "An ounce."
REM. 5. The definite article " the " is prefixed to nouns of either number ; as, " The
man ; " " The men. "
RE~r. 6.
The indefinite article is sometimes
prefixed to an adjective of number ; as, "A few
days; " " A hundred men."
REM. 7. The definite article is sometimes prefixed to adjectives and adverbs of the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, " The more I
see him, the better I like him; " " The older he
grew, the more obstinate he became."
REM. 8. Participles used in the relation of
adjectives, directly modify nouns or substitutes
for nouns; as, " The king, extending his hand,
raised the suppliant."
REM. 9. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

243

participles, are sometimes used as nouns ; as,
" The good are happy ; " " That was foolish ; "
" R eadin g good books cultivates the taste."
EXERCISES.

It wonld be unjust and ungrateful to conceive that
the am usements of life are altogether forbidden by its
beneficen t Author.
In every thing we call am usement, th ere is generally
some display of taste and imag in ation.
The ties which bind us together are never too close
. to be parted, or too strong to be broken.
When a few more friends hav e left , a few more
hopes deceived, and a few more changes mock ed us,
we shall be brought to the grave.
Of near two hundred and fifty authors, whose works
are cited in these volumes, there are not thirty who
now enjoy any thing that c cin be called populcirity.
Full many a gem, of pur est ray serene ,
The dcirk, unfathomed c aves of oce:i.n bear;
Full many a flower is born to blu sh unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.
The mountain falling cometh to nought.
Thy shores are empires, changed in all save thee.
Having done this, he laid the roll of parchment on
the ground, observing again, that the ground should be
common to both people.
The Jame, the blind, and the aged, repose in hospitals; the rich, softened by prosperity, pity the poor;
the poor, disciplined into order, r e~p cc t th e ridi.
Say, to be good, and kind, and wise,
There solid self-enjoymc11l li es.

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SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LES SONS

GRAMMAR.

245

224. RuLE IV. Adverbs directly modity verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as,
"A very wise man may sometimes act very
foolish! y. ''

place, is an expletive ; as, " There was a man
sent from God, whose name was John."

Adverbs modify substitutes for
adjectives and adverbs; as, " Th e boy .threw
the stone almost over the wall." Here the
phrase " over the wall " modifies th e verb
" threw," having the force of the adverb
"there,'' and is modified by th e adverb "almost."

hardly sensible it was day.
Almost the first words Arthur spoke, were those I

~

REMARK

1.

" Their familiar voice, even to old age, beguiled his
leisure hours." "James is doubly in fault."

2. The phrases "in vain,'' " in general," " in fine,'' "by and by, " " till now," &c.,
perform the office of adverbs, and are subject to
the same rule.
REM. 3.
The adverbs of affirmation and negation, "yes," "no,"- " yea,'' "nay,''- are used
independently, performing the office of a sentence; as, "Will you go to the city?" "Yes,"
- that is, "I will go to the city."
REM. 4.
A connective adverb performs the
office both of a conjunction and adverb ; as, "I
saw the gentleman, when he was in Boston."
In this sentence, " when" connects the clauses,
and modifies " was."
REM. 5.
" There," when not an adverb of
REM.

EXERCISES.

Leaning back in his carriage, he was carrie<l along,

have mentioned.
Arthur's mother was peculiarly dear to him, in having a character so much like his own. For thou gh
the cares and attachments of life had long ago taken
the place of a fanciful existence in her, yet her nat ural turn of mind was strong enough to give to these
somethincr of the roi11ance of her natural disposition.

I.

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Almost at the root
Of that tall pine, the shadow of whose bare
And slender stem, while here I sit at eve,
Oft stretches towards me like a long, straight path,
Traced faintly in the green sward; there, beneath
A plain, blue stone, a gentle dalesman lies,
From whom, in early childhood, was withdrawn
The precious gift of hearing.
Quoth the landlord," Till now, I ne'er had a dispute;
I've let lodgin gs ten years; I'm a baker, to boot;
In airing your sheets, sir, my wife is no sloven,
And your bed is immediately over my oven."

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same person oc thin brr, is in the same case,
•
21

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24.6

IN ENGLI!'.H GRAMMAR.
SEqUE L TO GRAD U AL L ESSONS

b~

apposition ; as, " Homer, the poet, was
bhnd ; " " He spoke of Howard, the phifanthropist."
R~~rARK

1.

A word is sometimes used iri apposmon with a phrase, or clause, and the case can
b e asce rtained only by supplying the ellipsi~ · as
"we to ld h'un tha t others h ad the same m ,eans'
of knowing as himself, - a fact that he seemed
t o doubt."
REM. 2 .
The parts, taken separately, ~~e
often 111 apposition with the whole ; as, "The
men struck each other." H ere " each" is in
apposition with "men," denoting them separate ly, and "other" is the obj ect of "struck."
REM. 3.
The p arts are sometimes connected
b.y. a conjunction, and collectively are in appos1t1011 with the whole; as, " The people disp ersed, some one w ay and some another."

Do unto others as you would that they should do
unto yo u; - a command th at is too ofte n disobeyed.
We are commanded to love one another.
The acquisition of knowledge is the most honorable
occup ation of youth; - a truth that is seldom appreciated.
A few hours more, and the great mass, now before
me, will be scattered, some to their merchundise, others
to their works hops, - u few, it may be, to qui et retirement, - and the rest to their several pleasures .
That cunnon bull is now gilded, and suspended in
fr ont of the dwelling, with the inscription, "An orange
from Charles X. ; the lust token of his paternul Jove. "
Men, . women, and children, - u motley throng of
uncounted thousunds, - were on their way to pay the
fa ll en monarch a most unwel come visit.
On the same day, and almost at the same hour, tivo
detachments arrived at the residence of Louis Philippe;
-- one from the victorious people of P aris, to conduct
him in triumph to the capital; the other, a detachm ent
fr om the royal guarrl, to rlr ag him, with hasty violence,
to imprisonment.

EXERCISES.

Who would dream of a bee's knowing the highest
brnnch of the mathematics - the fruit of Newton's
most wonderful di scovery- a resu lt, too, of which
he was himself ignorant ; one of his most celebrated
followers having fo und it out in a late r age 7
The queen of cities, Babylon, was fa llen.
When first thy sire to se nd on earth
Virtue, his darling child, designed - -

~ 226. R uL E VI. Intransitive and passive verbs require the same case after as
before them, when both words denote the
same person or thing ; as, " Honesty is the
best policy ; " " I know him to be an honest
man;" " "William, being an industrious boy,
was successful."

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IN ENGLISH

GRAMMAR.

249

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

This rnle refers to construction, not
to arrangement i as, "Are they brothers? "
REMARK.

EXERCISES.

She thinks that authors sometimes go a little too far;
but concludes with what appears, in her opinion, to be a
universal case, -- that much may be said on both .,ides.
vVe do not know what man was in Paradise : but
what he is, and may be, and ought to be, in thi~ gen-

One great end of all knowledge is the improvement
and exaltation of our own minds.
It is not the lifeless mass of matter, he will then
feel, that he is examining; - it is the mighty machine
of Eternal Wisdom.

eration, we know.
The drunken man becomes a log, a leer, a scoff, a
livi1w achin" misery to himself and to his fri end s.
o>
o
Now, I maintain that the best way to save and rescu e him, is to rebuke him for his own sin.

His mind was a thanksgiving to the Power
That made him; - it was blessedness and love.

Man walks forth a lord of the earth to-day,
And to-morrow beholds him a part of its clay;
He is born in sorrow, and cradled in pain ;
And from youth to age, it is labor in vain ;
And all that seventy years can show,
Is that wealth is trouble, and wisdom woe.

The men called the Lords, and others called. the
Commons, met at the Parliament House in London.
The sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from
which we refuse to be divorced.
The love that survives the tomb is one of the noblest
attributes of the soul.
vVar is the element, or rather the sport and triumph
of death.
Homer was the <Treater genius· Virgil the better
.
'
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'
art 1st.
Devotion is a delicate and tender plant.
vVell, honor is the subject of my story.
Youth is the time for improvement.
It is a dreary and chilly evening.
To impart the secret of what is called good and bnd
.uck, is not a difficult task.
No bounteous grant of intellect, were it the pleasure
of Heaven to make such grant, could raise any of the
brute creation to an equality with the human race.

·I : '

~ 227.
Ru LE VII. A noun or pronoun
denotincr the possessor or owner, directly limb
.
iting a noun, is in the possessive case; as, ·
"-William's book has been badly used."
REMARK 1.
A nonn or pronoun in the possessive case limits the word denoting the thing

possessed.
REM. 2.
Two or more nouns denoting the
JOint owners, require the possessive form only in
that which immediately precedes the word Jjmited ; as, "Harper and Sandford's piano-fortes ; "
- but if the nouns denote the several owners of

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IN ENGLISH GRAMllUR .

250

25 1

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL L ESS ONS

d~fferent

thi ngs, the possessive form must be
g iven to each; as, ""William's, J ohn 's and J\lfary's books."
'
R E111. 3 . . The noun limited by the possessive
may be omitted when it w ill not cause obscurit y; as, " That h ouse is Carter's;" " We called
a t Porter's; " " This book is mine."
EXERC I SES .

Sweet was the sound, when oft ' at even in 0cr's c1ose
.
U
P yonder hill the vi ll age murmur rose.
'
Let that pl ebeian talk; 'tis not my trade.
So, then, Mr. Gil Bl as , this piece is not
to you r
tas te.
Once she fl unrr
H er arches o'er Euphrates' conquered "tid e.
l am glad your grace has made a ri ght use of it.
Of man's fir st disobedience,' and the fruit
Of th at fo rbidden tree, whose mortal tas te
Brnugh t death into the world, an d all ou r woe,
Sing, hem·enly ~'luse !
He woke to hea r his sentry's shri ek.
T om F orge moves to my shop, and I move to hi s
Iutemperance, in all its forms, is a sin .
.
It was so bold it feared not to pl ay its joke
With the doctor' s wig and the gen tl eman's clo:•k .

Willi am and H enry's kite was destroyed.
\Vill iam's and ,Henry's kites were destroyed .
A fter all , yo u Know, the loss mu st be min e.

"It is mine, sir," said young Edmund.

"Yours,! "

said the duke.
Who would dream of a bee's knowing the highest
branch of the mathematics - the fruit of Newton's
most wonderful discovery 1

~ 228.

RuLE

1.

....
\ ·.'
.. .

Vlll. The direct object of

a transitive verb is in the obj ective case ; as,
" Men worship God ; " " James heard hi s
father, and saw him. "

I

I.

.1

,·.

REM ARK 1.
The direct object of a participle
derived fr om a transitive verb , is in the objective case ; as, " The exercise of singin g b ass
h as a great effect in imparting command of deep-

t oned expression."
R Eii'!. 2. When the participle is limited by an
article, adjective, or a noun or pronoun in the
possessive case, it becomes a noun, and will n ot
admit a direct object ; as , " By the u sin g of the
fac ulties, they acquire strength."
R EM . 3.
An objective clau se is often u sed as
the direct object of a transitive verb ; as, " Yon
will find that the story is with out fo und a tion."
R E11L 4.
An intransitive verb b ecomes transitive , when the obj ect h as a signification similar
to that of the verb ; as, " H e ran a race. "
R EM . 5.
Some verb s are either transit ive or
rntransitive , accordin g to th e m anner in which

.,,

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'2 53

2:32

SEQ,UE L TO G.llADUAL L ESSONS

ih
ey are .used '· a< s,. " J ames return ed to Boston . "
" Th
'
. e g irl has re turned my shaw l!'
EXERCISES .

th No
t . ne more imp atient ly suffer ,·nJ' ur·1.es than those
a are most forward in doing them.
when you are abo ut to
B eware
0 '
inf!"
t
· of· fal se reasoninD'
.
ic an mJury which you cannot repair
our vices leave us,. we fl atter ·ourselves that
weWhen
leave them.
. The man who tell s nothing, or who tells
.
will have nothinrr told h"
every thmg,
b

1m.

th!e,~~:u1!:a~l:s~alk to amuse ourselves, but to please
L e_t Fate do her worst, there are relics of ·o
of the past ' which s·lie can not
J y'
Brig<l ht beams
·
destroy
A
'
T n b w. 111chb come in the night-tim e o f sor row and care
o .rmg ack the featu res which J oy used to wear. '
virtu e, than to ra1·1
.
I t is eas ier to praise p eop 1e mto
them out of vi ce.
The· Wind ' one mo rnmg,
·
sprang up from sleep
o • "NowD
. or a firo]"I C.1 now for a leap ! " '
S ay u1<T
no:' ~~:r c~~s"o~ab:siness ;,the ~ress of occupation, will
ti es
.
' .' y one, to give that time to the du"
, of piety' whi ch otherwise I would glad! bes
y
tow.
S ay you this without a blush 7
offers. Could
,
Such are th e excuses
that irre
. ]"ig10n
.
'
' they were so empty, so unworvou
lrnve beli eved th·1t
ny, so hollow, so absurd 7

I heard the bell toll ed on thy burial day, I saw the hearse that bore thee slow away , And, turning from my nursery window , drew
A Jon g, long sigh, and wept a last ad ieu.
H e left the room to see whether ever y thing was safe.
Has he not manifested a total disregard for the welfare of those whom it was his duty to ptotect 7
In runnin g their career, how many mistake the true

\
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object of li fe !

~ 229.

RuLE IX.

Prepositions require
the o~jective case after them ; as, "I spoke
to W illiam , and he replied to me."
l. After verbs of g iving, asking,
teachi ng, &c., the preposition is frequ ently omitted, but must be supplied in parsing; as, "Give
me th e book ; " that is, "Give the book to me."
" H e asked me a question ; " th at is, " He asked
a question of me." " I tanght hi.m g rammar:"
R EM ARK

that is, " I taught gramrnar to him. "
REM . '2.
Before nouns signifying time , spar-e ,
d irect ion, and some othe rs, the preposit ion is
commonly omitted ; as, "The gentleman remained an h our ; ,, that is, "during an h our."
EXERCISES.

The drunkard' s course is over a long path of sin.
And does not fame speak of me, too 7
To the skeptic, all the events of all the ages of th e

· 22

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254

SEQ~EL

lN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO GRADUAL LES SONS

world are but a scattered crowd of useless and indigested materials.
The. li gh~ of prophecy illuminates not to him the
obscurity of ancient annals.
Sweet was t~e sound, when oft, at evening's c.lose.
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose.
Connected with all these scie nces, and subservient ·to
them, though not one of their number, is history or
the 'record of facts relating to all kinds of .knowledcre.
~her e are mP.n who, supposing Provid ence to l'~ve
an implacable spite against th em, bemoan, in the poverty of a wretched old age, the misfortunes of their
lives. Luck forever ran against them, and/or others.
I did send
To you for gold to pay my legions,
~
'Which you denied me.
You .al l did see that, on the Lupercal,
I th~1c e presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse.
Two nights together had these crentlemen
Marcellus and Bern ardo, on the~r watch '
In the dead waist and middle of the ni"l1t
0
Been thus encountered.
'
One day he livelier seemed, and they forgot
The care, the dread, the anguish of their lot.
I tax not you, ye elements, with unkindness.
I never gave you kingdoms; called you children.
You owe me no subscription.
Each day, each hour, I ever hear
Th at voice still ringing in my ear.

255

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.I

Many a weary league I have sailed,
Full many a race have I run.

~ 230. RuLE·x. A verb indirectly limiting a word with which it is connected by the
preposition " to," is in the infinitive mode.
1. 'rhe infinitive m ode may limit a
verb, noun, adjective, or adverb; as, "Eng ines
are used to extinguish fires ; " "A d esire to excel leads to eminence ; " "William soon found a
boy ready to play;" " The man was running too

.:
~

'f
"

REMARK

rapidly to stop."
REM. 2.
When a verb in the infinitive mode
is preceded by "bid," "dare," "hear,'' "feel;"
"make," "see," " let," or "need,"- except in
the passive form, - and a few others, the preposition "to" is commonly omitted.
REM. 3.
The infinitive mode often follows
" than" or "as," the word which it limits not
b e in g expressed ; as, " The boy was so foolish
as to be angry; " " It is better to suffer wrong
than to do wrong."
REM. 4.
The word limited by a verb in the
infinitive , is sometimes omitted ; as, "To co1~­
fess the truth, I was in fault," i. e. "I say."
R u r. 5. When the infinitive is used as a subject, it has no antecedent term of relation ; as,
:< T o be good is to be happy ; " " T o see the sun
'11;

pleasant."

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256

IN ENGLISH GR;\MMAit.

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

EXERCISES.

The relation of sleep to night appears to have been
expressly intended by our benevolent Creator.
The young of all animals appear to receive pleasure
simply from the exercise of their limbs and bodily faculties, without reference to any end to be attaine<l, or
any use to be answered by the exertion.
I wish that fate had left me free
To roam these quiet haunts with thee.
The orator spoke too eloquently to fail in his object.
Here let me pause and breathe awh il e, and wipe
These servile ·arop3 from off my burning brow.
To impart the secret of what is called good a~d bad
luck, is not a difficult task.
L et F ate do her worst, there are r el~ s of joy ,
Bright beams of the past, which she cannot destroy,
And which come in the night-time of sorrow and care,
To bring back th e features which J oy used to wear.
A man's first care should be to avoid the rep roaches
of his own heart; his next, to escape the censures of
the world.
Why hath man the will and power to make his fellow mourn 1
I hear thee speak of the better land.
Thy spirit, Ind ependence, let me share.
All nature seems to listen and repose :
No zephyr dares disturb the tr anquil air.
Have I not in my time heard lions roar 7
Have I not heard the sea, puffed up with winds,
Rage li ke an angry bear 7

257

What can be more important and interes~ing than to
inquire into the existence, attributes, providence, and
moral government of God 7
.
A wise man will desire no more than to obtain
justly, use soberly, and distribute cheerfully . .
The goddess heard, and bade the ~iuses r ruse
The golden trumpet of eternal praise.
Let us (since life can littl e more supply
Than just to look about us and to die)
Expatiate free o'er all this scepe of man.
How dar' st thou look on that prophetic sky'
And seek to save what all things else condemn I
Brutus would rather be a vill ager,
Than to repute himself a son of ~o~e,
Under such hard conditions as this time
Is like to lay upon us.
H ast thou a charm to stay the morning star
In his steep c1;mrse 1

~ 231. RuLE XI. A no?n or pronoun
having no grammatical relat1?n to the sentence, is used independently m the nomina-

tive case.
oun or pronoun may be ind eR EMARK 1• A Il
ndent either by direct address; as, " Charl es,
pe
to' me . "
or b·y e:i:clamation ; as, " P oor
come
, Indians ! where are they now?" - or l1y reriun.
" The pilgrim fathers, where are
dancy, as,
22•

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258

IN ENGLISH GRATIDL\.:1.
SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

they?"
· a partici,,.,le .
. , .a -h or· with
sICk
·
-r ' as, "John.· being·
' p ys1cmn was called."
. REM. d2 . The fi rst person i's some tun
. . es_. ! ---.:.i L
mde
. pen ently in the obJ'ective
U1M::U
miser· a bl e .1 ,, "Ah me ! "
case,· as, ·" au.
•.r..
. ·,:..· '(
~..

EXERCISES.

.

0, 7days of ancient g rand eur, are ye gonet foreyer
gone
.r{\J"
But 0, thou mi ht M"
.Said, "Thus letgalyltl _md, whose powerful word
11ngs be I "
d
·
Where shall I seek tl1y
. an thus they were,
presence 1
you wrong me every wa y' you wrong me Brutus I
Wh
H

259

ence and what art thou, execrable sh:pe 1

";woke to hear his sentry's shr~kTh o arms! they come ! the G ree k -the Greek I"
ese emmets, how little they are 111
. our eyes 1
.
.
Blest tears of soul-felt pemtence
!
In whose benign, redeemin flow
Is fol t the. first ' the onI y ~enseg
'
Of guiltless joy that guilt can k
now.
,. Peace of mind bein g secured we
.1
iortunes.
'
may sm1 e at misCome,
A
d bright Im provement, on the car of T"
n rule the spacious world from clime t o c 1me.

11~e,

The sun! the sun 1
He riseth, but his better light .
That then
O d"
is gone.
'
' isgrace upon manhood I
You should falter-should cI'mg to your p1t1ful
·
e en
then, .
breath!

~

I .
. I. .

Brutus - and Cresar - what should be in that Cresar 1
Why should that name be sounded more than yours 1
Ye dreadless flowers, that fringe the eternal frost I
Ye wild goats, bounding by the eagle's nest!
Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain blast!
Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds!
Ye signs and wonders of the elements!
Utter forth God! and fill the hills with praise!
Maternity ! ecstatic sound! so twined round our
hearts, that they must cease to throb ere we forget it I
'tis our first love! 'tis part of our religion!
Now Harry he had long suspected
This trespass of old Goody Blake.
Beneath the sun, beneath the rnoon,
His teeth they chatter, chatter still.
Ah me! how dreadful is this gloom!

~ 232.

RuLE XII.

The . interjection has
no grammatical relation to the sentence; as,
"Alas! I fear for life ; " " 0 ! how wretched
is the man that hangs on princes' favors ! "
EXERCISES.

Lo, how impatiently, upon the tide,
The proud ship tosses, eager to be free!
The wise may suffer wreck,
The foolish must. 0, then, be early wise!
0, my honor, my honor, to what infamy art thou

fallen!

I

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260

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LF.SSONS

it cried ; "

0, deep-enchanting prelude to reposeThe dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes!
Alas I what need you be so boisterous rough I
Humph I I guess at it.

_

Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn T
~o ! t~1e . death-shot ~f foe men outspeeding, he rod;• •
omp arnonless, bearmg. destruction abroad •
: , •
But down let him stoop from his havoc on high I
Ah! home let him speed - for the spoiler is ni~h.

. ~ 233 · RuLE XIII. Pronouns must agree
m person_, number, and gender, with the
nouns
which they represent '. as ' "Th e men
7
w w were present heard the~conversation."
"John saw his father;" "Anna loved lier
mother."
REMARK 1.
A noun used figuratively requires
the pronoun to agree with it in gender, in the
figura tive sense '· as ' "Give to R epose t h e so 1emn h onr she claims."
. R EM. 2.
The personal pronoun " it " is sometim es used to represent a phrase or clause . a
" It is
. pI easant to see the sun . " " It
' s,
'
was ev1.d ent
th at he told the truth."
R E M. 3.
"It" is sometimes used without
refo.renc_e to the number or ge nder of the noun
which it represents; as, '.' I took the child, and

'i

261

" It is our passions which we ought

m ost to fear. "
RE~I. 4. Two or more singula~ nouns, denotin g diffe rent persons or things, and connected by
"and," require a plural pronoun ; as, "Virtue
and vice have their reward."
REM. 5.
If the nouns denote the same person
or thing, they are represented by a singular pro:noun ; as, "This eminent statesman and patriot
h as gone to his final resting-place."
REM. 6.
When either of the nouns connected
by a conjunction is plural, the pronoun representm g them must be plural ; as, "Neither J ames
n or his classmates could recite their lesson."
RE~L 7. ·when either of the words connected
is of th e first person, the pronoun representing
them must be of the first person ; as, "Charles
and I have found our hats;" - but when words
of the second and third person are connected,
th ey are represent-ed by a pronoun of the second
person; as, "You and "W illiam have forgotten
your books."
EXERCI SES .

The deep consciousness of the benevolence"of the
Supreme Being renders the beautiful in his works ever
embl ematic of himself.
E arth sends up her perpetu al hymn of praise to the
Creator.
The definition of a sin is, an offence committed by

I1.

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262

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

263

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

His father now thought it necessary to indulge him
a man. against his own nature, against his fellow-men
or agamst God.
'
Women are, perhaps, less addicted t h an m~~- to
:!
annoy others with their pet subjects.

in a little walk, and off they set.
Memory again reproached her companion ; but he
only asked her if she recollected the little girl they had
met a long time ago, who was so miserable because she

.
And looking ·
.
Like a stray babe of paradise
Just light~d on that flowery ;iain,
And seek mg for its home again. .

was so young.
"Behold!" said Memory, "the consequence of thy
deceptions;" and she looked reproachfully at her com·

1

••

Ly

The bee can be decoyed from its labor neither
plenty nor scarcity.
Man's grand distinction is his intellect, his mental
capacity.
.
1:'here are men who, supposing Providence to have
an implacable spite against them, bemoan, in the pov·
e_rty of a wretched old age, the misfortunes of their
~
hves.
A smile. now joyously played where, before, sadness and discontent had held their moody reign.
They who are given to tell all they know, generally
tell more than they know.
Speak gently to the little ~hild;
Its love be sure to gain ;
Teach it in accents soft and mild;_
It may not long remain.
Speak gently to the erring; know
They must have toiled in vain .
Perchance unkindness made the~ so.
0, win them back again!
'
W e should not talk to amuse ourselves, but to please
those wl10 hear us.

panion.

~ 234. H.uLE XIV. Prepositions connect
words, and show the relation between them ;
as, "John went to Boston."
REMARK.
In this rule, let it be understood
that it is the grammatical, and not the logical
relation, which is meant. One of the words
connected by a preposition always sustains the
relation of a limiting word to the other.

EXERCISES.

The Romans built three walls across the island, in
order to prevent irruptions of the inhabitants from the
north. The first was built of turf, by the emperor
Adrian, extending from Solway Frith to the mouth of
the Tyne ; the second, by Antoninus, of earth and
stone, reaching from the Forth to the Clyde; and the
third by Severus, of stone, running nearly parallel with
that of Adrian.

'l
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IN ENGLISH

2fi4

GllAMMAll.

265
!

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

' 1

There '.s a pleasure in the pathless woods,
There 1s a rapture on the lonely shore,
There is society where none intrudes
By the deep sea, and music in its roar.'

EXERClSBS.

~hen .first on this delighted land he spreads
His onent beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower.

There all are equal ; side by side,
The poor m<in and the son of pride
Lie calm and still.
I have seen a beautiful female treading the first
stages of youth, and entering joyfully into the pleasures of life. I returned - but she was not in the
dance; I sought her in the gay circle of her compan-

~

ions, but I found her not.
There is no beauty, or grace, or loveliness, that continu eth in man; for this is the end of all his glory and

s,~eet

.is the breath of Morn; her rising sweet;

W 1th charm of earliest birds; pleasant the Sun

235. Ru LE XV. Conjunctions connect
words, phrases, and clauses.
.
RE llIARK 1.
Conjunctions connect nouns and
pronouns in the same case ; as, " He and~ sh-a
will b e here ; " "I shall see him, and her."
REM. 2.
Conjunctions connect verbs of the
same mode and tense ; as, " He carne and told

n1e ."
REM. 3.
Conjunctions sometimes connect
v e rbs of different modes and te nses ; as, " He
saw and rnust have known it."
REM. 4.
Conjunctions connect words of the
same or of a similar class in the same relations;
as, "A great and good . man ; " "They labored

steadily and faithfully."
NOTE.
An apparent exception to the above remark sometimes occurs; as, "The boy was not here, but at school." Jn
thi s se ntence, "but" connects the adverb "here" with the
phrnse " at school," which is eqnivalent to tJie adverb" there."

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perfection.
Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and forget
not the kindness of thy mother.
Thou art, and wert, and shalt be! Glorious! GrPat !
Light-giving, life-sustaining Potentate!
Words are like arrows, and should not be shot at
random.
Truth and error, virtue and vice, are things of an
immutable nature.
The temperate man's pleasures are durable, because
they are regular ; and all his life is calm and serene,
becrruse it is innocent.
Judge not, that ye be not judged.

~ 236. RuLE XVI. A connective adverb
connects an adverbial clause with the word
limited by th at clause; as, " I saw him when
he was here."
23

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266

267

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.

EXERCISES.

He feared when there wa!I no danger, and · when
there was no sorrow he wept.
He thought himself strong and healthful while his
foot tottered on the verge of the grave.
Such is the comtitution of men, that virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, will ultimately he
acknowledged and respected.
·w hen the proud steed shall know why man restrains
His fiery course, or drives him o'er the plains;
V/hen the dull ox, why now he breaks the clod,
Is now a victim, and now Egypt's god;
Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend
His actions', passions', being's use and end. ~

The 8hepherd, who had given the alarm, had lain
down again on the summit of the precipice.
Death is the season which brings our affections to
the test.
On wit and learning the just prize bestow;
For fame is all we must expect below.

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'Tis common good restored, when lovely peace
Is joined with righteousness in strict embrace.
0 Edwin! while thy heart is yet sincere,
The assaults of discontent and doubt ~epel.
Who, that bears
A human bosom, hath not often felt
How dear are all those ties which bind our race
In gentleness together, and how sweet
Their force ?

. ~ 237. RuLE XVII. A relative pronoun
connects a relative clause with the word limited by the clause ; as, " William, who was
present, acquiesced."

Our proper bliss depends on what we blame.
In spite of pride, in erring reason's spite,
One truth is clear, - Whatever is, is right.

Every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and
doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man,
who built his · house on the sand.
Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's
eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own
eye?
Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that
would borrow of thee turn not thou away.
Whosoever, therefore, shall break one of these least
commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be
called the least in the kingdom of heaven.
Though dark and despairing my sight I may seal,
Yet man cannot cover what God would reveal.
·Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just;
And he but naked, though locked up in steel,
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.

11

268

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

269

A period should . be used after mitials an<l abbreviations; as, "b. Webster; "
"U. S. A.; " " R. I.;" " Mass.;" "Gov."
RE111ARK.

PU NC TU AT ION.
~ 238. Punctuation treats of . the method
of dividing written languages info sentences
and parts of sentences, that the construction
and sense may be more readily apprehended
by the reader.
CHARACTERS USED IN PUNCTUATION

Period,
Interrogation,
Exclamation,
Colon,
Semicolon,

?

Comma,
Dash,
Parentheses,
Quotation,
Apostrophe,

.L'

()

""

~

239. A PERIOD should be placed at the
end of a complete sentence; as, "Life is
short."
ExcEPTION 1. An Interrogation Point should
be placed at the end of an interrogative sentence ; as, " Where did you see him ? "
Exe. 2. An Exclamation Point should be
placed at the end of an exclamatory sentence ;
as, "Hurry, hurry to the field!" also after words
or phrases used to express passion or emotion.

EXERCISES.

1. Dependence and obedience belong to youth
2. Industry is the law of our being
3. What is the end of all government
4. The end of all governmen~, is the happiness of
the governed
5. What are we to think of a government, whose
good fortune is supposed to spring from the calamities
of its subjects; whose aggrandizement grows out of the
miseries of mankind
6. In the midst of perplexities, never be discour
aged
7. Can you be misled by such arguments
8. Rejoice you men of Angiers ring your bells
9. What sighs have been wafted after that ship
10. How beautiful is the sunset hour
NOTE. Let the pupil place the appropriate character at
the end of each of the above sentences. Write ten sentences,
placing at the end of each the character required.

~ 24.0. The CoMMA indicates the smallest

division in written language.
It is used, chiefly, •
I. To prevent obscurity m inverted anJ
parenthetical sentences ; 23*

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270

SE~UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

2. To prevent obscurity in elliptical sentences; 3. l'o separate dependent clauses from
those on which they depend; L1. To separate from a clause the words
that are not connected with it in construction;5. To indicate the dependence of words
and clauses.
~

24..I.

Examples of Inversion.

I. The man of faith discovers some gracio(i! purpose in every combination of circumstances.
2. The man of faith, in every combination of circumstances, discovers some gracious purpose.
3. The man of faith discovers, in every combination
of circumstances, some gracious purpose.
4. In every combination of circumstances, the man
of faith discovers some gracious purpose.
ExAMPLE I, being arranged in its natural order, requires no
comma.
In Ex. 2, the inverted portion is enclosed by commas, the
first indicating that " faith" is not limited by "combination,"
and the second marking the termination of the inverted parl
Jn Ex. 3, since "discovers" is limited by "combination,''
a comma is required only ~ mark the termination of the inverted part, and in Ex. 4, the comma is used for the same
purpose.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

271

:

i

EXERCISES.

I

I I

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11

Let the pupil invert and punctuate the following: 1. Science is conquering the great obstacles of nature by its application to the arts of life.
2. We gain no confidence by turning to our contemporaries.
3. New races of animals rise into existence with
each succeeding month.
4. This destruction raged from the gates of Madras
to the gates of Tanjore for eighteen months without
mtermission.
5. I found the following fragment in looking over
the papers of an acquaintance.

~

242. Examples ef the use ef the Comma
in elliptical sentences.

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1. We should seek truth steadily, patiently, perseveringly.
2. Thomas is a plain, honest man.
3. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere,
uniform and consistent.
4. Human society requires distinctions of property,
diversity of conditions, subordination of ranks.
5. There is no precept like a great principle,
wrought into the mind, the heart, the life.
6. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted, relied upon, esteemed.
7. Reading maketh a full man; conversation, a
ready man; and writing, an exact man.

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IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

273

SEQ.UEL TO GRADUAL LES SONS

In the first four of the above sentences, the comma is used
to denote the omission of the conjunction "and." In the fifth,
the comma after "principle" denotes t)1e omission of" which
1s ; " the other commas, in that and the sixth, the omission of
the conjunction. In the seventh, the commas denote the
omission of the verb.
EXERCISES.

Punctuate .the following : I. Men change ,by change of place p f fortune pf acquaintance.
2. Industry is the demand of nature ,o f reason . and
~G~.
.
3. Complaisance rend ers a su perior amiabl\{' an
equal ag reeable r and an inferior acceptable.
4. H a tred ,malice~and anger_ are passions unbecoming to a disciple of Christ.
5. It was not John )but James who was in the
wrong.
6 . One can never be tired with admiring the beauty
of th e capital, the length of the shaft ior the extraordi·
nary simplicity of the pedestal.
7. Rise with the lark ·and with the lark to bed.
8. We will wait a lit;le and see what effect your.
preaching has had upon them.
9. Y et pure its waters ,its shallows are bright
With colored pebbles ,and sparkles of light.
And clear., the depths where the eddies play>
And dimples deepen,and whirl away.

of the use of the Comma
in separating dependent clauses from those
on which they depend.

~ 24.S. Examples

I. It is evident, th at he spoke the truth.
2. That he spoke the truth, is ev ident.
3. I knew very well, th at he could do it.
4. That he could do it, I knew very well.
5. I shall not contradict you, if you praise them for
their excellence.
6. If you praise them for their excellence, I shall
not contradict you.
7. The man of long experience, who seldom errs in
judgment, is a suitable person to be consulted.
8. The pious man is a happy man, even when he is
persecuted.
!). The pious man, even when he is persecuted, is

!:'
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a happy man.
10. Even when he is persecuted, the pious man is a
happy man.
11. The pious man, even when persecuted, is a
happy man.
In the above examples, the pupil will observe that the dependent clauses, however situated, are separated from the independent clauses by commas.
EXERCISES.

Invert and punctuate the following sentences : 1. A straw will furni sh the occasion when people
are determined to qnarrel.

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SEQ.UEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

IN ENGLISH GE.AMMAR.

2. But whatever may be our fate be assured that
this declaration will stand.
3. Uive me one look before my life be go_ne.
4. Conscience remonstrates while we are doing
wrong.
5. Conscience _reproaches us after we have · done
wrong.
.
6. Wherever Hope went he diffused around hrm
gladness and joy.
. .
.
7. In the present exercise emphasis is the subject
to which the pupil's attention is called.
8 . While hope remains there can be no full and
positive misery.

~ 244. Examples

of the use of the

'

Comma .in
separating from a dause, the words .which
are not connected with it in construction.
EXAMPLES.

I. Do good, my son, first of all, to them who most

deserve it.
2. A healthful old man, the first slumbers of night
held him in their soft embrace.
3. The ship having arrived, the people dispersed.
4. Again, we must remember that we are all mortal.
5. Above all, swear not.
6. L astly, let me repeat what I said before.
7. Besides, this conduct may heal the difference;
nay, it may prevent any misunderstanding in future.

275·

EXERCIS.<:S.

1. Now Harry he had long suspectecj this trespass
of old Goody Blake.
2. Bear .with me . good boy) am much forgetful.
3. Whence are thy beam~) 0, sun thy everlasting
light?
4. Arm arm my lords the foe is in the field:
5. Descend 1ye Nine, descend and sing.
6. In the first place a sure way to please in company is to seem pleased with the company you are in.
7. Secondly we should not talk to amuse ourselves
but to please those who hear us.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COMMA.
I

I. A simple sentence requires no comma,
when the arrangement and grammatical con·
struction coincide. a
2. When the arrangement and grammatical construction do not coincide, the inversion is marked by a comma. b
3. An ellipsis of the conjunction between
words and phrases having a common dependence, is marked by a comma."
4. An ellipsis of the predicate in clauses
• §'239, Ex. I.

b

§ 241,Ex.2,3,4.

c

"'

§ 242, Ex.1, 2, 3, 4,5,6.

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SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

separated by a semicolon, is marked by a
comma."
5. Dependent clauses are separated from
the clauses on which they depend, by a
comma.b
A relati_ve clause is not preceded.
by a comma, when used in a restrictive sense,
unless words intervene between the relative and
th e word it represents.
ExcEPTJON.

EXAMPLE .

The man who lives a righteous and

pious life, preaches sublimely.
H ere, as the assertion is not made of man in general, b't is
restricted to the class speoified in the relative clause, the
comma is omitted. When, however, words intervene betwee n
the relative and the word which it represents, the comma is
used; as,
"The man preaches sublimely, who lives a righteous
and pious life."

6. Words not connected in construction
with a clause, are separated from it by a
comma.
7. When a conjunction is used to connect
a word •vith two or more words in the same
coustruction, it is preceded by a comma ; as,
• §242,Ex.7.

b

§ 243, Ex. l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, D, 10,' ll.

IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

'277

"Happy is the man who honors 1 obeys, loves,
and serves his Creator."
8. Where several words intervene between
the subject and predicate, the verb is preceded by a comma ; as, "Men of virtue, integrity, and intelligence, may be confided in;''
"To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is
the whole duty of man ; " "The young, the
healthy, and the prosperous, should not presume on their advantages."
9. Contrasted words and phrases are separated by a comma ; as, " He was a great
poet, but a bad man."
10. Nouns denoting the same thing are
separated by a comma, when the word used
in explanation, is limited by other words ; as,
"Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal."

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~ 24.5. The SE:MICOLON separates the parts

of a sentence, less closely connected than
those that require a comma.
It is used chiefly to separate the inde pendent clauses of a compound sentence ; also
phrases and clauses which have a common
de pendence.
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278
~

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

246. Exarnples of the use of the .Sernicolon
i"n separating the independent clauses of a
compound sentence.

1. The light disappeared; yet still he gazed upon
that distan t point, which seemed to touch the sky; .
and, as he pondered, his thoughts shaped themselves
into words.
2. Make a proper use of your tim e ; for the loss of
it never can be repaired.
NOTE. Here the first sentence consists of three independent and two dependent clauses. It will be observed, that
the independent clauses only are separated by a semicolfn.
'l'he second sentence consists of two independent clauses,
separated by a semicolon.

EXAMPLES TO BE PUNCTUATED .

1. Speak gently to the erring know
They must have toiled in vain
Perchance unkindness made them so
0, win them back again!
2. Music is certainly a very agreeable entertainment
but it must not take the entire possession of our hearts.
3. Reading makes a full man conversation makes
a ready man and writing makes an exact man.
4. Every gift of H eaven is sometimes abused but
good sense and fine talents, by a natural law, gravi_tate
towards virtue.

IN ENGLISH GHAlrIMAR.

I

279

~ 247. Examples of the use of the Sernicolon

in separating clauses, or complicated phrases,
which have a cornrnon dependence.
1. To feel no joy in such pu~suits; to listen carelessly
to the voice which brings such magnificent instruction;
to see the veil raised which conceals the counsels of
the Deity, and to show no emotion at the discovery,
are symptoms of a weak and torpid spirit.
2 . He who, in the study of science, has discovered a
new means of alleviating pain, or of remedying disease; who has described a wiser method of preventing
poverty, or of shielding misfortune; who has suggested additional means of increasing or improving the
beneficent productions of nature, - has left a memorial
of himself, which can never be forgotten; which will
communicate happiness to ages yet unborn; and which
renders him a fellow-worker with God himself, in the
improvement of his creation.
EXAMPLES FOR PUNCTUATION.

I. The world is still renewed with fresh life and beauty with a constant succession of trees and plants with a
new race of animals with a new generation of men .
2. ]f the taste is refined if the affections are pure if
conscience is honest if charity listens to the needy, and
generosity reli eves them, - then is the rich man happy.
3. Indeed, to stand composedly in the storm, amidst
its rage and wildest devastations to let it beat over you,

I.
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280

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

JN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

and roar around you, and pass by you, and leave you
undismayed this is to be a man.
.
4. If, then, the beauties of the year are so fadmg,
and its bounties so soon perish if the loveliest scenes of
nature lose their power to charm, and a few revolving
years break the spell tpat binds us to thos~ whorn we
Jove best if the very figur e of the earth 1s changed
by its own convul si0ns if the forms of human government, and the monuments of human power and
skill, cannot end1:1re if nothing .on "the earth ~e­
neath or the waters under · the earth," preserves ,ts
form 'unchanged, what is there that remains forever
the same1
RULES FOR THE SEMICOLON.

J

1. The ind epend ent clauses of a compound sentence are separated by a semicolon. a
2. Clauses and phrases, some of which
are divisible by the comma, having a common
. 1on. b
dependence, are separate d by a sem1co
3. As or namely, when it introduces an
example, is preceded by a semicolon; as,
"The direct object of a transitive verb is
in the objective case ; as, 'Men worship
God.'"
• § 243.

L

§ 244.

281

~ 248. The CoLoN is sometimes used to
separate the parts of a sentence whid1 are
themselves subdivided by the semicolon ; as,
" The discourse consisted of two parts : in
the first was shown the necessity of exercise ;
in the second, the advantage that would result from it."
REMARK.
The colon is now but little used ;
its place being chiefly supplied by th e semicolon
and dash ; aud examples like that above may,
without any impropriety, be punctuated thus;
" Th e discourse consisted of two parts; - in the
first was shown the necessity of exercise ; in the
second, the advantage that would resu lt from
it."

~

249. The-OASH is used,
I. To .denote that a sentence is rncomplcte ; as, " Once upon a tim e, some men,
dressed all alike - - "

2. To denote that the sense is suspended; as,
"0, ' twas a sight - that heaven-that childA scene - th at might have well beguiled
Even haughty Eblis of a sigh, ·For glories lost, and peace gone by."
24 *

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282

SE~UEL

TO GRADUAL LESSONS

3. To denote an abrupt turn in the form
of the sentence, or in the sentiment expressed
by it; as, "Was there ever - - But I
scorn to boast."
" He modest merit sought to find,
And pay it its desert;
He had no malice in his mind No ruffles on his shirt."

4. It is used after the comma and semi·
colon, to denote that the parts are less clostiy
connected than is indicated by those points.
5. It is used sometimes to enclose a parenthetical phrase or clause ; as,
" An oyster, cast upon the shore,
W as heard - thing never heard before Complaining, in a speech well worded,
And worthy thus to be recorded."
~

250. MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. - Marks
of parenthesis denote that the words enclosed
may be omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence, or detracting materially from the sense ; as,
"Kn ow then thi s truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue al one is happiness below."

JN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

283

REMARK.
Marks of parenthesis are less frequently used than formerly; their place being
supplied by the comma, or dash.

~ 251. QuoTATION MARKS. - Quotation
marks are used to denote that the passage
enclosed is taken in the words of the author;
as, The poet says,
"The proper study of mankind is man."

~ 252. · The APOSTROPHE is used to denote the omission of a letter or letters, and as
the sign of the possessive case of nouns ; as,
" I'm sure you'll ne'er forget; " "A. friend
should bear a friend's infirmities."
USE OF CAPITALS.

~ 253. I. The first word of a sentence
should begin with a capital ; as, " The boy
studies."
2. Proper nouns and words derived from
them, should begin with capitals ; as, " Spain,
Spanish, Spaniard."
3. All names applied to the Deity should
begin with capitals; as, "The Almighty;
God ; Su pre me Being."

284

SEQLTE L TO GRADUA L L ESSONS.

4 . The names of th e months, and of the
d ays of the week, should begin w ith capitals;
as, "January, February; Tuesday, Friday."
5. The names of public bodies should begin with capitals; as, "The L egislature ;
Boston T emperance Society."
6. The words " I " and " 0 " are written
with capitals.·
7. The names of religious denominations
and political parti es should Legin w ith capitals; as, "Baptists, M ethodists; Whigs,
Democrats."
8. All titl es should begin with capitals;
as, "Mr., Col., Esq., R ev., Dr."
9. A direct quotation sho uld begin with a
capital ; as, "They said, 'Never man spake
like th is man .' "
10. The principal words in the titles or
divisions of a book or discourse should begin with capitals; <ls, "Gradual L essons in
Grammar;" "Rules for Analysis and Construction."
NOTE.

rul es.

Write examples illustrating each of the above

INDEX
TO

.1

GRADUAL

LESSONS.

NOU T
Pago.
DNS,. . j.,{' :i·fi· ..:· ...... ........ •• ....................... ·9
I idect o i _cations,. ............................. 12 14 17
pn irect Modifications, . •. ••..•.• , ....... . .. . ..... . . .'.19' 22
NE1tsoN oF NouNs, •••••• • ••••••••••• •• ••• • • • •••• ·• 78 80 • 82
G UMRER, •••••••••• • •••••••••••• • ••• •• • •• • •••••• •• • .'. 84: 86
ENDE!t, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 88 90 92
~ASE, •• •' • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • ••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • .94' 95' 99
N Phrase or Clause used as a Noun, . . .. .. .. .......... '. •• .'. 72
ouns used I udependently, •• ••••. •. •.•... • .• ..••..••• •. 68
VE11BS, .• .•• ·:· .• ·: · · . . ... . . ........ .... .. .. . .. ... .. . .... . . IO
ir~c t Modifications, . •••••. •••••••• •.. ...• .• ..• . •. 13, 16, 18
Indirect Modifications, .................. ·.•.•.•••..•.. 21, 23
TRANSITIVE VERD, ••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• ••••• •• •• ••• • •• 101
p ASSIVE FORM,. • , . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . , •••••••••••••••• 107
PROGRESSIVE FORM, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . 141
INTltANSITIVE V EllD, •••• •• , •••• • • , •••• •••••• , •••••••••• 102
REGULAR AND I RREGULAR VERDS, ••••• • •• ••• •• • •• • 132 133
MODE, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• •• ••• •• • • 108, llO, ll2, 114: ll6
f'ARTICIPLE, • ••, ••• ••• •• •• • ••• ••• •• • •• •• ••• ••• • • •• • •• •• ll7
fE NSE, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • •• , ., . ll9, 121, 122, 124, 125, 127
~ormal Style,. .... ... .. . . •• ..••. • •• •... .. ••.••.•. .•... • . 130
erson and Number, .. . .. .... ..... . .. . ....... ... . .. ..... 128
CONJUGATION OF VEllDS, • • •••••• • •••• • •• ••• •••••• • 133-140
ADJE_CTIVES,_ ..• . : ..••.•••••....•.••..••.....•. .- •.•• , •••. 12
Direct Modifications, ••• ..•.....•.•.•.... . ...... • • •. . .. . . 26
Indirec t Modifications, .•. . ... •••• ... •. ... .. . .•..• ..• . 28 31
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, •• •••• •••• ••• •• ••• • 141, 142, '143
ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS, • • •••••• •• • •••••• , ••••••••• 145
ARTICLES, •.••••••••••••••••••••••••..••..••..••.. 12, 143, 144
ADV~RBS, ... : ... ••••...•.• •...••..••.............••..•••.. 13
Direct Modification, ..••• •••••• .•.•.. . . .• .. . . . ...••••.... 27
Indirect Modification , ••• ... • .•.. •• .. •.. ... •.. .. . • . . .. 29, 32
COMPARISON OF ADVERDS, . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
CONNECTIVE ADVEllDS,. •• •••• •••• ••• ,. ••• •••• , • • • •• •• 70, 76
PREPOSITIONS, .. . .. .. ... . .. . ... ...... ..... .... . 19, 41, 46, 76
CONJUNCTIONS, . ... ... . .. .. .... .... ... .. .... . . . 34, 41, 46, 76
INTERJECTIONS, .•••••••.•••••••••••••.•. • ..••••••••••••• 69

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INDEX.

INDEX.

287

Pago.

PRONOUNS,. .............................................. 47
PERSONAL PRONOUNS, .•••• • ••••• 49, 60, 52, 53, 94, 95, 97, 99
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS, ••••••••• . 55, 94, 95, 97, 99
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE PRONO UNS , ••.•. • •••••••• 57, 77
I NDEl'INITE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, ................... 59, 77
DrsTRlllUTIVE AD.TECTIVB PRONOUNS , ••••.••• •••••••• 60, 77
Demonstrative, Indefinite, and Dis tributive Pronouns used
as Nouns, ........................................... 62
RELATIVE PRONOUNS,. ••••••••••• •••••.•.••••••••• 63, 77, 76
I NTERROGATIVE PllONOUNS, .••••••• •• •••••• •••• •••••• 66, 77
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS, .... • •• -••.• ••••• .65, 77, 76
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE, ...... 11
MODIFIED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, .•••••.•••••••••• 12, 14
COMPOUND SUBJECT, .............. . .................. 34, 37
COM!'OUND PREDICATE, .............................. 36, 38
COMPOUND SENTENCE,., •••••• ,,, .•.•• •.•• , • , , ••••• , ••••• 44
RULES FOR ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION,.149-1.55
Examples in Analysis, •••••••••••••••••••••••••.••• 155--159

ADJEC1'IVE PRONOUNS,. , •••••••• , • • • • • • • • • •
Page.
D-EMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS
••••••••••••• 183
INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE PRO:NOUNS ' ' •••.••••••••••••• 183
DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOJN;· •. • • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • .184
'
' • •• •••••••.••••••• • 184
RELATIVE PllONOUNS
COMPOUND R ELATIVE 'p:i;~~~~;~.
184, 185
' • • • • • • • •• • • • • •. • • • • • • • .185
I NTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS .
VERBS
' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 186

•••••••'• ••••••••..

Tra~~i·t;;; ·;~d i~t1:;~~tti;~' • • • • • • • • • • • '· • • · • • • • • • • • • • • • .186
PASSIVE FORM,., ••• ,• .•• .'.:::::::::•.••••••••••••••••• .187
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR
• • •. •. • • •. • • • • • • •• • .187
Defective
' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • 187, 188
Mode, .. '. : .'::: .'::::: .' : : : : : : : : : : .' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••. 189
Participle
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 189
Tense
' • "· • • • • • •• • • •• • • ·• • • •• • • • ••• • • • • •• •• • ••• •••• 191
CoNnfG~·;;~.;," • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •••• 191
Conjugation 'o'f ti;; ~;b T~;~h
.192
Formation of the Tens
' • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • .193-196
6' 19 7
Conjugation of the V c:~·,; A~;:: ~· ;;B~· ;; · · · · · ·' · · · · 198PROGRESSIVE FORM
' ••••• ••••• 19 201
gonJugation of the
T~;~i;;,; p;0·g;;s~~;;~ ·:F~;;,; 2oZ.:.:.~~~
I onJugat10n of the Verb" Teach," Passive Form
'206-209
rregular Verbs - Principal Parts, ••••••••••••• : : : : : 210-215
ADVERBS, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
PREPOSITIONS
• • •••••••• • •• • • •• 216 , 217
CONJUNCTIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 217, 218

·

0

0

V ·,;

·,; · ·· ··· ······ · ··· ··•···

0

·

V;;b -,;

INDEX
TO THE

SEQUEL TO GRADUAL LESSONS

NOUNS, Common, Proper, Abstract, Collective, ..••••••••••• 16'1
PERSON, •••••••.••• , •••.•••••••••.••••••••••••• , ••••••• 164
NUMBER,' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••• 165--169
GENDEit, .... ... .................................. 170-173
CASE, ............................................. 173-175
D ECLENSION OF NouNs,. ..... ........... ... ............. 175
ADJECTIVES, ............................................. 175
Proper, Cardinal, and Ordinal Adjectives, ................ 176
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES,, ••••• •••••••• .•••• .•• 176--179
ARTICLES, .•••••• ••• • • •••••• •••• ••• ••••••• ••••••••••••••• 179
PRONOUNS, .............................................. 180
PERSONAL PRONOUNS, . •.••. •• ••••••• ••• .•••.••••••• . ..• 180
DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS,, ••••••••• , ••• 181, 182
COMI'OUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS, •••••••••••.•. ..•.•••• • 182
DECLENSION OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS,•• •••• 183

Corresponding 'c~~j~~· ·t: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • .219
INTERJECTIONS
c wns, . •. • ••••••••••••• •. • • •• •. • •• 219
SYNTAX
' • • •••• • •••••• • •• • • ••••••••••• • ••••• • • • •. 220
' ••••.••••• ••••• ••••••• •••••••
220
Construction and Arrangement
• • • • • • • • • • • • • '· • • • • •
SENTENCE-Preposition
' • • ••• • •••••••• · •••• ••••• . 220
CLAUSES, ........... •. :: •' • •. • •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .221
- - - Independent
••• • •••• •••· •• •• •• •• ••• •••• ••• .221
- - - Relative,. . • ::::::::::::··············•····••· .221
- - - Adverbial,. ••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 222
- - - Subjunctive,. ••••••••••• :::::::::············· .222
- - - Subjective
•••• ••• ••• ·•• .222
Objective ' ·' · • • • • • • • • • '· • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 222
Simple Sentences ' · · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·: • · • • • • • •• 222
Sentences in whi~h ti:e· S~~~~~~·
(;~~~~~-;;~: ·::::.2iz7,-~~
C
PREDICATE is CO)IPOUND
225-2·17
omt ound Sentences, consisting of two Indej;;~dent 1
a uses, · • • • • • · • • • '· • • · • • • • • • • • ·" • · • • • • • • • • ••• 227, 228
an Independent and
a Relative Clause
- - - : - : : - - - --- ·-·_·_··_ ·_·_··_·_·_··_·_·................ 229, 230
an Adverb' 1 Cl
an Independent and
ta
a use,. ••••• , •••••••••• ••••• • •• ••• 230 231
an Independent and'
a Subjunctive Clause
- - - - - - - - · , . . .......................... 231 232
· - - - - - - - ' - n which a Clause is the Subject, • .'.2 33
a Clause is the Object, •••• 234

;; .

288

INDEX.
Page.

CLAUSAL ANALYSIS, ............................... 235---237
CASE of the Subject, ...... . ... . .......... . .............. 237
- - - a Noun directly limiting another, &c., ••••••••••• 2-15
- - - a Noun a fterlntramitive and Passive Verbs, •••• •• 247
- - - a Noun denoting Possession, &c., ..•••••••••••••• 249
- - - the direct Object of a Transitive Verb, ••••••.•••• 251
- - - Nouns- after P repositions, •••• ••••• ••••••••••••• •253
- - - Nouns u sed independently, .••• •• ••••••••••• . •• • 257
AGREEMENT OF THE VERD, .• •••• ... ••• • •• •••.••• • •• ·· •. 239
Verb in the Infinitive , .... . ......... ...... . .. ...... . .... 2.55
Modifications of Adjectives and Adj ective Pronouns, ••• ••. 241
- - - - - - - Articles, ............... . ............... 242
- - - - - - - Adverus, ............................... 244
Connective Adverbs, .................................... 26.)
I NTERJECTIONS, .... .. .. . . ............ . . . ............... 220
AGREEMENT of Pronoun s, .......... .... ..... .... ....... 260
RELATIVE PRONOUNS , ....... .. , •••. , ...... ....... ••.••. 266
PREPOSITIONS, ..... .... . .. . ............... ... .......... 263
CONJUNCTIONS, ...•••.•.•••..•••.••••••••••••••••••••••. 264
PUNCTUATION, .• ..••••••••••••••••• •• • •• •••••••••••••••• 268
PE!l!OD, . .•••..••.•••.•••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••. 268
I NTERROGATION POINT, •••••.••••.•••••••...••• • ••.••••. 268
EXCLAMATfON POINT, •.••••••.•••••..•....•••.••••••••. 268
CoMMA, - its Uses, ... . . . .. ........ . . ... ................ 269
Use of the Comma in Inverted Sentences, .••••••••••••••. 270
- - - - - - - - i n Elliptical Sentences, •• ..• • • • .•••••• 271
- - - - - - - - in separating Clauses , .•..•••••••••••. 273
- - - - - - - - - in separating Words from a Clause, ••• •. 274
R ULES FOR THE USE OF THE COMMA, . . ................. 275
SEMICOLON' .. . ... ........... .. . . ..... .. ........ .. ..... . 277
Use of the Semicol on in separ atin g I ndependen t Clauses, . 278
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Clauses or Phrases
having a Common Dependence, ...................... 279
RULES FOR THE SEMICOLON, .••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,.280
COLON , ••••••••••.•••••••••.•••• ; .••••.••••.•••••••••••• 281
DASH, .. .. ........................... . ................ . 281
p ARENTHESIS, .......... . ....... , ........ • .•••••• • •• • • • • 282
QuoTATION MARKS, .••••••.••••.••••••••••••••••••••••. 283
AI'OSTROPIIE, .••••••••••.••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 283
1JSE OF CAPITALS, . ............................ . ...... . 284

