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P,rlictical Grammar.
A

GRA ·M.MAR;

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PROGRE s's 1vE EXE RC I sEs
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O R THOGRAPHY; '

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ANALYSIS, AND GRAMMATICAL COMPOSITION,.

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ADAPTE D TO THE

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USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE STUDENTS, ;

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BY JO H N ii-ROS T, A. M. .
••

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:PROFESSOR' _OF BELLES LETTRES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 'or PHILADELP HIA ;
AUTHOR OF "EASY EXERCISES I N COMPOSITION," "HISTORY OF.'
THE UNJ'XED STATES," " ·AMERICAN SPEAKER/'

&c. &c.
,',

.:
PHILA D ELPH I A:

T HOMAS, COWPER T HWA IT & CO.

1 842.

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PREF ACE.

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'' ·}~ ir' the title-page, this book is

Entered, according to the Act of Congress , in the year 1842, by

JOHN FROST,
in the office of the clerk of the district court of the United States in
and for the eastern dist ri ct of Pennsy lvania.

d~ -·.

J,. -_t

called "A Practical English
!l':~_Grammar." The Author' has endeavoured to " give it a
' ,.\"•,
'
-,~ - just Claim to this title, by rendering it strictly practical
'..~:: _:· thro~ghout. He has observed that- most of the ·gram( . mars how in use appear to consider the English iangliage .
~~~
as. having beeh formed not for the purpose of being spoken
': ' . and written,' but ll)erely for the purpose of being parsed.*_
;·-' Accordingly, ;arsing is made the' gnl.nd' object of gram~
(~ ; maticai instruction; - and it is considered, that ff a boy
-111
can - p~i~e ' correctly ~nd fluently, he- is a good ' gram~-~ rriarian-. 1 The ' consequence is, that pupils toil for years in
/ •
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English grammar; learn to parse with great fluen cy and
exactness; and: nevertheiess, violate the most obvious rules
bf grammar in -almost every sentence which they speak
or write. Many of them are deep in the theory of syntax,
-:.' : _w ho are- wofully deficient in the practice of orthography. ·
I. '.·'\\. This deficiency is not the fault of teachers, but of the text- '
'· ' b6oks which · they are Under the necessity of using ; and
it is precisely for the purpose of remedying the evil and
..,.~ . givi.n g a more practical character to grammatical instruction,
that the following work has been prepared.
'As it ~as, the -Author's pb]ect to suggest i,m provements in
th~ methods of' teaching, rather than to offer any new theories oh the stil;>ject of grammar, he has left undisturbed the

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AN D P .

G.

COLLl N S, PRINTERS .

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J . FAGAN, ST EREOTYPER.

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*The Author would not be understood to di sparage par'sing, _oe a
grammatical exerci ~c . It is useful in its proper pl ace and proportion,
nnd it has received_its due share of attention in- this work.
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forms and
. classifications in general use.' and.has en d eavoured, as far as possible, to render the pupils who shall use the
book expe~t grammarians, by req1:1iring them, through the
use of cop10us oral and written E xercises, to reduce thelr
knowledge to practice, as fa st as it is acquired. To enliven
the ta!'k, Qf writing grammatical, composition he nits -~ot
lies1ta ea lo introduce pictures; experienc~ an~ observation
having eonvi.nced him- of their utility in aidi~g the exertions
of both pupil and teacher•
I
,
In accorda nce with this desig n, it has been found neces-·
sary to .assign differeht proportions of space to the various
parts of the subject from those which they have received·
in ? ther grammars.
.0 .rthography has been more fully treated than usual; and·
cop10us exercises are given. A faithful inculcation of the
g:neral . rules for spelling, by means of exercises of this
kmd, will occasion a grea t. saving of tim e to . the learner .
The most obvious rules are perpetually violated by thos;
who have neglected this species of exercise. The rules of ,
construction are much shorter tha n usual; and the rules of
arrangeme.nt *are more numerous and pa rticul,r.
The subject of Derivation, which is now claiming so large
a sh.are of attention from teachers, has, for the sake of convemence, been thro wn into a n Appendi x. This portion of
the boo k WJ.
·n by no means be deemed superfluous,
·
by those
who
have
witnessed
tlie
delight
with
which
youna
tl 1
ti
.,. persons
a c ress 1 e m s ~l.ves .to the study of the origin and history of
w:ords. Its utility m forming accurate ha bits of th
It ,
. umversally
.
oug 1 '
a nd givinO'
. '°' a ma stery over language, JS
admitted.
The article de voted to this subject will be fo u d
_ _ ·--·· __ _ ________ _
n more sys"

,...

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' PREFACE.

~. The .s~m:

fo;rn;-~~~1:-A~thor's

rul.es of arrangement whi ch are
Easy Exercises m Composition ' " are used n ti ns
. wor k,
1'

. PREFACE ... " ·

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.V .

}.~i.\W~~~~-~qll a~? ; exact, than

any tre.atise, compr,ised ~n. so
1/-ppeared. The writer wo~ld 4
',,_,+ . 1}2L!J~P,r~,ss, h'm.self . so ~trongly on this subject, if it were
'•~( nbl also'tlie'fact that this article has been copied entire from
7
"' · f.N·~dtl~~h's cifammar. To , the same work he is also in.!_'

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-~F~IJ..~;~~,li-.~~: .~.hlsh h~s yet

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~~fa~. for many,~f his .definitions, rules, an.d exer~ises.
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He
\ " puld have adopted also Mr. M'Culloch's views with respect

".':··tt~~hfclassification of adjectives and pronouns, rand the.
.... . conjugation of verbs, butl.pe was desirous to leave the prevailing system of English grammar, introduced by ·Low th,
~~fAisseminated by Murray, and his other commentat~rs,
~.ntouched; and to innovate only where he believed that the
~).. ~eihods of instruction could be improved. · ·
· r - ·~ The definitions· .and rules designed to be committed to
~~mory; have ,be~n expressed with as much brevlty as was
' ·deemed consistent ~ith clearness and simplicity; and the .
1. · ~t~ct!cal :Exerqi~es appended .to each separate branch, have.
' - beeh made as copious and varied as .the limits of a cheap
.
permit.,
·
. ,
. , ·,I Fr9m the same work to which the author acknowledgesf ·
;.: ·: · himself so largely indebted in every part of this volume..'...
>"'·; -_1'{'Ctilloch's Grammar-he copies the following article, as
·... the ·m~st ~uitable ~u~plement to this Preface.

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$~hqol~b~ok ~ould

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~ · -~; ,;H,~nts' in.regard to th~ mode of teaching Grammar.
I

..- It is ·desirable that . the pupil, before proceeding to study gr~mmar
· 8}'Bletrtatically·, should possess as much previous acquaintance with the
· ~ul!ject a.ii will enalfle him at lea~t tci distinguish the four principal Part&
· M Speech 1 and this preliminary information the teacher should attempt
''
, to give him by, oral in~truction, in the ,course of his daily leesone' in r~~d· •
. ' ·•
• ·
. ··
·
.·
· · ing and 'spelling. .· · · .i
; in ul\ing text•book~ the chief error to be avoided is that of' making'
th~ titudy a mere exercise of memory . . It is ·cfesirable; no doubt, that
fundamental definitions and lending rules should be got by heart; but it
ill etiil more desirable that the young person should be able to undentand-

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· PREFACE.

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their signification, and to ans\ver all questions that may be put regard
to them.
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It may perhaps be thought, that the exercises which are subjoined to
the various sections, afford such means of ascP.rtaining the progress of
the learner as ought to supersede the necessity of teaching those sections
themselves catcclietically. But experience will prove this supposition to
be erroneous. These exercises are, indeed; designed as a trial of the
pupil's knowledge and acuteness; but they are -0eccssarily too general
and limited to afford a sufficient test. And it \Viii probably be found,
that a child may be able to perform them all, who has but a vague comprehension of the principles, and a scanty acquaintance with the leading
facts of the science.
·
IL may be proper also to guard against the error of supposing that the
exclusive, or even the chief end in view, is to make the pupil acquainted
with the practice of parsing. Were this all that is designed, there would
be no necessity for calling in the aid of a text-book, as a knowledge of
the distinguishing properties of the different kinds of words as well as
of their syntactical connexion, might be communicated wii'h suffioient
accuracy by mere viva voce instruction. The obj ect of teaching grammar, as a science, is not merely to enable the student to parse, but also
to familiarize him generally with the structure of language, and to givo
him such an accurate acquaintance with the etymology, application, and
combination of words, as will fit him to understand his mother-tongue
with ease, and to speak and write it with propriety.
·
In teaching from the following work, different methods may be followed; nnd the type in which it is printed will be found so varied and
disposed, as to afford the tencher considerable facilities in ndapting his
course to the scholnr'e acquirements, and the time that can be allotted
to the study.
If the master wi shes merely to communicnte a general kno~vledge of
the subj ect, or if the period for study is limited, h.e may satisfy himself
with what appears in the large type, and that part of the smnll which is
necessary to exemplify the rules.
If his pupil has no previous knowledge of the sciencP., and is not restricted as to time, he may take the large type with its illnstrations,
(omitting, however, the introductory scctio1t, headed "N nture and Objects of Grammar,") as a first course; and leave the remaininu small
type to be taken up, along with the introductory matter, in n sec:.id and
supplementary course.
If the scholar has adequate preliminary kno\l{ledge, and possesses the
command of time, the best plan will be to follow the order of the work·
in which case - with respect to the large type-the pupil, after havin~
studied it so as to understand its meaning, should be required to commit
it nccurntely to memory ; and with respect to the small type, to make it

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reading lessons in seminaries.- It 19 only m this. ~ay ; ': ·. •
, o en
.>.'
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d tit!' its >l11e- "
.~~'that the~H~ e ecicnee· cnn be brought fully ye1ore t e s~u .~n
,
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. ' • ' pcoporUoflM~ · :, : •
·
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. ..
. • · · •.
,:_ '." " 'reac ~~~ · "1ho have previously employed text-books 1n which •pelltng_- ;.,f
'J. .'; Q,oJ'dii dei'~vati'on, and arra.11gement of word• in •ente;icc•, are deepatch- · ,: .~.
· • ii: ·~few paragraphs,' will probably object to the great sp~ce a!lo tt':d to
1
, • . th~·se. subjects in the present work, and fed disposed .to.omit them, either
".;.,,~ .Wli'olly .or in part, in th~ process of w1t1on. But 1t 1s ~oped ,that th'.s
•• ~- :-expedient .will not bi! adopted without mnture_ ~ons1de!nt10~ . _rhere is
{....;; ' !no brahch of grammar of grenter pracllcal unl~ty than ,tlmvatwn. An
.:.'r ' acquaintance with its deta.ils is of incalculable. moment, .esp~cially to
." ''llthdse who have no prosp~ct of obtaining a classical educat10n' and the
'. : teacher cannot confer a greater benefit upon mere Enghsh sch~lars, than
" .; ,·b. ' '
· · them to get accurately by heart the leading roots, prefixes,
·
y requmng
.
·h 1
l
'•; · ·: and affixes, of the language. Nor is an acquaintance. wit t 10 gener~
' ·1 • rules which apply to the ·•pelling of words, and their arrangement m ,
•'. - sentences, unimportant. Arrangement is a ,part of Syntax as e~sential
-' •
either Concord or Government; and the general law• of spelling will
88
'1
· scarcely be deemed us~less by any one who remembe~s that the design
'
• < u{ including Orthography in a course of gramm~r, 1s not so much to
teach the art of spelling, as to impress upon the mmd the ge~eral analo.gies"which prevail in this, as in every other bran~h of the science.
· ·'with respect to the mode of teaching the details of the grammar, no
specific directions ·c an be given. But it may be suggested generally, that
much explanatory informntion, which no text· book cnn supply, .must be
' . ' given by the teacher in the course of instruction; that the pupil sl:~uld
. 'be required to find out 11dditionnl illustrations of each of th~ defi~1~1ons
· and rules; that he should not be allowed to pnss any sect1?n until he
has · thoroughly mastered it; that the knowledge thus ncqu'.r~d should
be impressed npon his memory ~y frequent revisols and .repet1t10ns; that
•\ .. . the exercises should be written out as well as rend b~ him .; and that he
· should be constantly called upon, iii the course of his ordmary rend1~g,
• ' ·• to apply his grammatical knowledge to the explanat10n ~f nll the vanelles
·
' of phraseology which may happen to occur.
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C N.T.ENT S.

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/· · · q~TH~~APit\• :
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~Letters .... . .. . ·. • .. ....... . . . .. . ... ' . .. , . . .......... .,... • i 20

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·lnflCction of Noune- ,· Number •• ·. . . •.. 1 ••

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•• : · · · · · .. · · · · · · · • · · · · · · ; •••••• '.:·•••

...
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.: ::::'::::-:~ ::::::::::::~: ::::.:::::::~ :::::::::~!

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... Inflection of Adjectives . ". • . . ........ , •••••.•••.. . •• • . , .-. .• :) 55
.'' Inflection of Pronouns ,,.,..,; ... . ... . .... . : . . . . . .. . ....... •..: • S7 '
Inflection of Verbs • . ,', .. . .... . .. -. . .... . .. ,'." • .• , .' . ,: • . •.• ;· 58 '"'
Inflection of Compound Verbs ........ . : ...... . .. . . .'.·: , .... ; ib
Inflection of Act\ve and Passiye Verbs .• , .. •1 • • • • • • • : . : • I', ••••
Moods . •••. . : ; . . • . ". • , .•. ". . ; '. .. . •.• " ' •... ·.•....• ; •• • . i ' 71
· i · Tens~S' ......... ~ .. . , • : • , ..... .... '., ,., .... . .. , •. .' ." . . ; , 73

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INFLECTION OF W~RDS: .

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Classification of Words-'-Nouri ......... .. ......... . : • •.•.. 29
. Articl.e- Adjective •• • • ; .••.. . • : . ... .. ... ... ... ... .. .. ... . • 30
· Pronoun ·••. .-. •• , ••.• • .•• : ..•• . ..•. . •....• . • ..• . ; .• ...• ,, 31 .
.Verb .•• . •..•••••• ._ .•••., •.••...•••..••• . • ••.••.. ; ••. , .•,; 3:i
. : Adverb;' : .• ..• • , • , .. . .. ... . . ... '. •..•...•...• : •. . •.. • . •_, . ..• 33
·: • · Iritetjection·.•• • .•..••.•. •• ....• •• •...•• . •.•. : ••.•• . • . ; • ; · 35
!;. " ·. Exereisee on·tlie Classification or 'Vorde . . .. . ... . ~ . , : • ; . ; .. ; ; 37· •
· Add itional Exerdses . •. ; . .... . .. . .. • • . •• : . . • . . . • . • • • • . • • • 43 , .
Exercise• to be written by the Pupil . . ·. . . . . • . •.•. . •. .. .••. ; ... 44 .

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ETY MOLO<JY :

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t.~TllODUCTION :
' Origin and uses of Grammar ....... . ... .... . .. .. , . ... . Page 13
. · General description of Engl is~ Gq1mmar . . • •••••• . ; .• , . ·•••••. 19

Syllables- Spelling • ·•••••• ;; •• .' . • . .. : • • . .• ·.•. .•..•.•.•. . .. 22
. · · Finiif Letters : · : • • . • • .. •• : . .· ..•.. ·. . ;' ••... . . ...• • .••. • • : . ·23
· ' · (Augments .• . 1 • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• . '• • • • • • • • " • • • • : • •• " •• : • •• • 24
. Comp;unds, &c •.•.• . .• . •••• • •.•••• • ; • 1 ••••• •••• •• , • •••••. 25
" ' · · ; Exerci•cs o.~ Or~~~graphj '. ' : . • •.' ........ : • . •••. • • ; '. . ••••.•• 26 .

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the Verb
the Verb
the Verb
the Verb
the Verb
the Verb

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7b Have •....•..••..• •.• ...•.••• ••
7b Be ... •. .. : .............. . ... •
To Love-Active Voice . . . • . . . . . . . .
Th Love-Passive Voice............
70 /(now-Active Voice............
To ](now-Passive Voice ... , ..•. •..

86

90

ExEnc1sEs oN THE INFLECTION OF \Vonns :
On the NounNumber ..........•....•••.........•....•.••.....•.••
Exercises to he written ••. ..•. ". -.. • ........ : .......• .
Gender . . . . , ......•.......... .• .•..... •. .. •. •...•.. ..
Exercises to be written ...•............ • ...... : . • · •

. ...~

CON T E N T

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.;'/J' PosiilOIL of 'Adverhs i •. • • • • • ·: · • • • • • • • • • •

,S,:.;~'. Position ~f Conjunctions · · · · • • · · • ' · · • • · · · · · · • · · · • ' · · ' · : : :
~ ... "'."'xe~Ciseli
• if -~ ..,, .

on Arrnngeme!lt .. ; •.•. , . • .• • .•..... ... ' •.. ·.
.
....
'\I.;·<
-Exercises t<i"be written .... ··•· .. •·"'"···.·"···'' .. ·
1
,~ '., ;~;C'·Exer.ci!!es in Syntae:tical Parsing • · · • • • • • · · •.' ·,• ' ' · • · · • ' • • • ·
if· . -1. l'-unciuntion .. ; · • ?· · · · · ·., · · · · ' · · ' · · · · · · ' •·' · · · · '. ' · ' ._...
, , ,~•''~..· -" Ex~rcises I,on ·Punctuation ... · • .. • • • · • ' : · '.' • · • · • ·" ·' ''· ·'

158

• . Verse
.
1:: >·_.<•·f1:Anuprest1c
;·. ·.• • .-. · • · · • • · · · ·-· · • • · ······ · ··' · ··· ·· ·· ·.
:.· ,. :. ~: Poetical Lic~nse · ; : • · .. • · .. ; ~ · • · · '. · .'; :· .. '" '. '' ·" '. · .. . . •

Exercises to be wrilten .......................... ~ .

100
100
102
102
104
106
112

SYNTAX :'
Rules of Syntax .......•. ... •.... •.• •.... ..•. .....•...•.
Rules of Construction ...... .. .• . .••..• • ... . ; ......•....•
Subject and Verb ................................ : ......
Object ..• .... ; .. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nouns and Pronouns ............................. : ......
Article. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Verbs .. ... ..... . ...•.. .. ........•.. ...... . . ..•... : ... •

115
115
115
116
117
119
119

~:~~::i~~~::. :::: :::: :: :: .·:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~~~
Interj ections .. ........ . ....•. . ........ ...•. .... : ....... . · 123
Exercises on Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Miscell aneous Exercises on Construction ... . ....•..... • ; . . . 128
Exercises to be written . ... . ... • ... . ................ ... .. 130
Rules of Arrangement ................................ · . 139
Subject and Verb . . .... ... ....•... .. .. .........•.......• 13!)
Verb, and its Object. ... . ......... : ............ • ......... 140
Position of Adjectives .............. '. ..•.•.... ..• .. .. .. .. 140
Position of Pronouns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . • . . . . . . 141
Position of the Infinitive and the Auxiliaries ..... .. . • .•.•... 141

"·

l43
145
0
15
154

::~~: ~ t~;~~:~~ation .·.. ; :: · : . .. ' " · · ; ..·• · ' : -. • · .. • ...... • · ·' ' ; .. i~~

On the Adjective .......... .. .......•.... ..• ..... .•.... .
Exercises to be written .................•....... • ..
On the Pronoun .......... : . .... . .....•• . .. . . • ..........
Exercises to be written ... . ........•...............
On the Verb ...... _... ...... ...... • .....................
Exercises to be written . . . . . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derivation . ....• .... •.. .... ... • .• •... .•. .. . . . " . . • • . . . . .

:

' -.;~·

142

92
93
95
95

97
97

Case: ........... · ...... · ... .. • · · • .. ·· • ····•·········

~

' ' ' ·.. '

_ ·_
:::.::: ~
'/{rosilion' of l'repositi~ns ~ ......... . ............. . .. .... . : • 142 c .:;:

74
77 ·
80
83

I""

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CONTENTS.

Conjugation of
Conjugation of
Conjugation of
Conjugation of
Conjugation of
· Conjugation of

•2',..\

:. ,,

~- ·:· ~· Iambic Verse'"' " " '\'. " ' ' " ' ' " ' " " ' ' ' ' "', ' "" "' " '. " 164
~·
l

'. 'Trochaic Verse.•·"·•····•·· ·' '· ·· '' '' ···' ' · '·'·' · '. '.'•' 165
166
167
.'. , .. i'Exercises on .Prosody · ••• :· ·•·······.·. · • • ·.: • · • · · · · .• · : ~: ·, • ·

',{§~~;:;1·;.;;.:i. ,::::::;:: ::::'::: ::::·::::: :: ,::::::'m
," : : :' ~:Origin of, EngHs!:i Roots ~ • .. ·-. ' " • · ' · " '. ' ' ... ' • .. . . .. .. . . l 7l

;··.;;~f,~parabl~Jlools • · .. ' · • ... ·" ··"" • ·" • :: ... : :·.·.: : .·.~ '. :: :. 174
_
84
1 -':; :,\ ,Jnseparable R'!ots •,. .... · · " · · ": '. · ·.· " · • '
,:~_.'.~ · • Latin Roots found only in Composition.·•· · ··•· ·· ····••·· '· _ 1
~ · ·,;_ ..:.-'. dr.iek Roots found only in Composition · · · · • • · · · • · · • · : • • • · ' . ~~'i'4
,-.' .~ ,' Prepositions and Conjunctions • • · · · · · '.· · • • • · · · ; ·" ' • '· · • "' .
•
·.H·_ ~'i o · in of Eriglish Derivations· .'. ·······,' ;·· ··· .-.; ·•· ····· 189
'\ ·'!.:<! ng
_
.
' •... ; . •., . -. . . 190 .
., .' ,.,_ Prefixes • • · • • · · " · • • • · · ... • · • · ·' · • • ''..' · · · ·' ·'
192
·~~ • .-'' :,'Affix~e · .'. .~ .... ,; ... • · • .". · · · .. , ... '· .. ' '. ·: '.' ...... _. · ... 198
·':': Primary Signific~tion'. of_ Worc!s .. ·-· • · · • • • ·' • · •• · · · : • •• ·' ·' •
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(, that he.was speaking incorrectly ~ and that he could. not have
·· '( 're~eived a>good· education;·: The person, thus censured, might .
;
.
.
'.: .: inquire iu-'rettirni «.Why .his language was incorrect, since it
~--~;' 'Was1~q~ite '.plaid :· ~nci ',lntelligible1" The answer would, ' of _
£;;"\:lfurse{~~- tt:lti':in~otrect,~ becuuse it is' not according to the / .'·piilihipies' of G~JITihiar; He might theri reply,' " What· is this ·
I
~
\
.
• ':'. ' 'Gramf09.r, which undertakes to direct how I must speak; and _
·('.'wfiat,.worci~ i must use, in order to be considered a person. '
•/:•,::- 'o{;'good edocation i" ' W ~ might then · reply to . him ·with a
~~ ·d~finitio~ 'of the subject of 'this little volume. ,· , . ·, ' : '
1
i 1:(foimm ar is 'a science and an art : as a science, it explains
f < '\he' p~inciples a~d usages ~f language ; and it is the art of
,-:, ·: 1speakiilg and · ,~riling correctly; · There are many who un;'. . ·· derstand. it 'as a science, but do not · practise it as .an art. It
.'~ '. ; i~ '.our' purpose, in the following pages, to aid the pupil, as' far
" as~· may' be in "out pow~r, in . becoming '. a proficient in both
~thesi( tesp~tS,:tn'- t·;'>'. ~ ' , ..
:r · ·_· The. person~ d whom we have a.lrea.dy spoken, might, pursue: 'his ' inquirie$ ;1l )ittlei. farther, and .say, "Whence I does '
' Grammar receive 'its ~tithority 1 ·Did 'it exist before language 1 ·
0
· ~· Did people learn to spiiak by it'at first .1" · ·: ·. . ·, . .· ,
-;) : .. .
•'
) .
~
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,"~·/..t~Give ~ s~ci~~h ~f incorr~ct Iangiiage. ' Why is it incorrect 1 ; What ._,..:·;.- •( ''.'''•'''.' 2 . ' ··',,. ,' ' ., _" ,,. ,·,, ' ·'
'"
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~.) b, in 6onversation, We should hear a person use the fo\loW•
expres~ion, (< 'H,im and I me are broth~fS," We should SliY

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·, I.

ORiGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR.

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14

INTRODUCTION.

•r.)}:~}

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•;"·: .:. , ORIGIN '·AND Uf?ES OF GRAMMAR.
r,l ~&' .~f·· .. ~·.~
,··, ' ..··•. ' .
.
.
, .
1 ', ;~lltbn•'1angu~ge• ;: ..-rrhe importlihce of conforming tci these
..;;principles may~ thus illustrated. • Ifa piece of writing, for
,:"~e::ta~pleia ·eontract,:'o r a: man's will, were executed in s·uch a
' ;tlianner· a·s ' to admit of two different interpretations, one 1ln·
·. ,;·~,·~gri!'nmatical, giving the advantage, to ~ derived from the'
' ;-- 7~contract
\v.ill, to John j abd .the other grammatical, giving ,
'<;theo :advantage t(}"fhomas, the Jaw of the land 1 which detel'·
.'.•!mines '
such matters, would ~ecide' in favour of the 'gram- .
.-' .'.matica\ , interpretation; and Would,, consequently; · give the
: •'~dvnntage to Thorr\as. · It is easy to perceive, therefore, that
~~ ·thif·disposal a foriune · might be made to .d epend upon the
'f i · '. grn~r!ia.tical_ interp~retation of a sentence: , · .· . ' .
' · JJ!iiThis . illustration is sufficient to show that it is useful and ·
·-~: .j~pQrtant'· to u~derstand \~ahi·n\ar suffic_iently to .. be· able .
. .. conform strictly. to.its rules in,, writing. ' .
". . . .,, ;, ""
· ;~ri Bui: .the utility:' of gr~mmar is, not . cqnfined to th~ correct

We should nhswer, By no means. Lnnguage .existed long
before Grammar wns invented; in the same manner as animals, plants, and rocks existed before the sciences of zoology,
As the animals,
botany• ahd mineralogy were invented.
plants, ai:d rocks nre the subjects of these sciences, so words
and phrases, which have been sanctioned by national and re- '
putable usage, are the subjects of the science of Grammar. It
derives its authority from the accuracy with which it determines what is, and what is not, the usage of good writers and
speakers.
This brings us back to the point from which we started;
Jr
and enables us to show that the expression above cited is incor·
reel and ungrammatical, because .it is contrary -to long established usage among educated, people, who speak the ;English
tP
language.
The person who used the expression might turn upon us
again, and inquire," Why should I learn English Grammar?
, ;eMeutio!l; of·legal_instr.uinents. ·
.
.
Of what consequence is it to me or to my friends, whether I
:_ iiirtJH!Ji, also· an ·indispensable qualification for those who
_speak according to its rules or not, if I can make myself un.: · iseek:distinction . ih li.terary purs.uits; and· it is necessary to the,
'
· , · .. · respeetable discharge. of the commonest offices and tnist:> i.n . '-·
derstood ?" .
As this is a question which ollen arises in the minds of , i; : ·,business. ,': The'. clerk, the trader, or .the m.e chanic, as well us .
young pupils who have not the courage to put it to their'teac~ · :·: ; jh~ author. or ihe professional man, ,will meet with difficulties . .
ers, we will endeavour to answer it fully.
~.-l· : and·· mortifications at every step of his career in life, ff .he_is.
ln the first place, it is not easy, nor is it always possible for
·. '.. · 'tUh~l>]e, to' write a correct an~ handsome letter, or ·draw. up a
·
·
a speaker or writer to make his language intelligible without : ;, r·Jieatly' composed report. or mem.o rial.
,: ." ~·;j iAgain, -'on'e should Jearn grammar to enable him to form a
conforming to the rules of grammar. Where the subject on
,: ; .J just_,cfitical estimate of the English and Ame,rica.n literature,
which a person speaks or writes is difficult or intricate, it is
absolutely necessary to use grammatical language, in order to ' ··: ' · ~ nnd to r!!lish its, beauties; ' If he doe~ not understand grammar,
convey his meaning clearly to the mind of the hearer or
f ·' ' • hei cannot.pronounce with confidence whether this or that book
reader.
i be correc;.tly writte.n .or not; . still less is he qualified .to decide
, , , rei;pecting .lts· rhetorical beauties or blemisqes ;. because gram·
In the next place, the principles of grammar having been
adopted by general consent, th ey are the best means which we
, . ;; mar is· ~he introduction to r_hetoric,. and ·no profi~ienct. can be
have for interpreting or explaining the meaning of spoken or
. "g~~~ma~ 7-the s~cond? Giv'e the illustraticin. Fo~ w.ha~ is gram mil~

or

all

'"'•("

~· Grammnr? Did language exi st before grammar 1 \Vi th what sciences
is grammar compared? What is ihe first reason assigned for learning

.,' , '

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•

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. . :··

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'1 an: indispensable qualifi~ation 7

1.;:,

In what olhe~ pursuits 1s ~t necessary: · .
~-Jlpw 4oe,s g_ramma,r. ai_d. out ju.d gment re~pectmg . the me~1ts. of books t .

·I ,.
· ,~

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-

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.•_ l.J ·";,.i. ' ~

16

INTRODUCTION.

made in the latter study without a previous acquaintance with . ·
the former.
·
'
It is also important to understand and apply the .Principles
of grammar in our common conversation; not only because it
enables us to make our language understood by educated persons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our
having received a good education ourselves, enables us to
converse with intelligent people on equal terms, and, to a
certain extent, furnishes us with a passport to the best society.
Every science reduces the objects of which it treats into
certain classes, in which these objects are arranged according
to the degrei: of resemblance which they bear to each other.
To a person ignorant of botany, the innumerable plants and
trees which form the subject of that science present a complete chaos; and he is unable to determine their properties,· or
even remember the names of a thousandth part of them; but,
by means of regular classification and systematic arrangement, the science of botany has rendered the study of plants
an easy and agreeable task; and one who is acquainted with
it is delighted with its simpli city and order.
. ,
In like manner, to a person ignorant of grammar, the many
thousand words in a language, the relations of those words to
each other, and the laws which determine their correct usage
in speaking and writ ing, present a subject of much perplexity
and doubt; and, in attempting to write his own language, he
is always uncertain whether he is expressing himself correctly,
or exposing his want of knowledge by palpable blunders. On
the other hand, the person who is acquainted with the science
of grammar, having seen the words reduced to a few comprehensive classes, their relations pointed out with accuracy, and
the proper method of using them strictly determined by reference to the practice of reputable writers, is never at a loss
what word to use, or how to place it, in order to express him-

••

., .~ :</). ;·,
. ..-f '. :'.i,_'
: ORIGIN AND USES OF G~AMMAR,
,,17
\'t~ '.iJelf' correc;tly: A)! such questions have been d~cided by t~e
it iicie(ice. '.'· ··· ·r
,
,

1
. ..;;'' The application of taste ~o fine writiilg_:_the determining
j!~c-'l: ~h!it form ~f expression is elegant -or coarse - belongs pro•
,:• periy to rh,e toric, which treats of ,t he higher efforts of co~pol
'· sition,. · It· is the province of grammar simply to determine
·,, what is .correct acco rding to the usage of reput~ble writers'.
'. - ' ''A . ~ente~ce may be grammatically correct wh}ch is not written '
· ;-- iiccording to the . laws ofrhetoric; but a sentence cannot . be
, 'ihetorically correct which violates the .rules of grammar.
, 1 , G~ammar, therefore, as . we hav,e already remarked, is abso,: ' ( lutely necessary as an introduction to the study of rhetoric; it
. : · Js,° consequently, indispensab le for any one who \vould. atte.~pt
· the hig}Jet' beauties of co.wposition. ·
· ,'

.

I

fully applied in gramm~r 1 What is it the province of grammar to
tei:mine 1
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To what is grammar the introduction? In what other respects is it
important? Why is classification necessary in science? How is it use'I

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ENGLISH ·GRAMMAR·.
1. GRAMMAR is the science which exhibits, in a systematjc .
form, the leading principles and ·u sages of language.
2. Grammar, when applied to practice, is also considered
as an art; anc;l, in this poim of 'view, it fa defined to be the ·
art of speaking and writing correctly;
3. In languages whieh have both a written and a spoken
form, the usages of the former, rather than of the latter, de·
termine the rules of grammar.
· •, · .
4. The writteµ is always more perfect than the spoken
form of a language. Cori versa ti on being common to the unlearned and ignorant, as well as the educated . classes of,
society, admits of many liberties which are no longer permitted when the language is reduced to writing. In this
case, it become$ necessary to conform to the usage .of the
best writers. It is upon the practice of!?uch writers that the_
rules of grammar are founded. .
·
5. Written language consists of a succession of sentences.
{). Sentence.s are composed of words, words are composed of syllables, and syllables of letters; so that the gram-.
mar of a written language treats of letters, syllables, words,
and sentences.
.
·
7. ENGLISH GnAMMAR ·exhibits, in a systematic form., · the
principles and usages of the English language; and, when
applied to practice, it is the art of speaking arid writing the
English lan guage correctly.
8. It is divided into four parts: ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLoov;
SYNTAX, and PRosoov. ·
·
'
9. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the spelling
of words.
1. What is grammar considered as a science ?-2. As ~n ·a rt? 3. What
is said of written language 1 1. Upon whnt are the rules of grammar
founded? 6. Of what does th~ grammar of n writte!l la11guage trea.t 1
7. Define English Grammar. , ,$. How is it divided 7 9. What· is the

'

19

20

ORTHOGRAPHY.

de!~~a~!~m:t!~r~~ats of the

classification, inflection, and

1l. Syntax treats of the ro
.
so as to form sentences a~c P~'. method of arranging words
approved writers.
or mg to the usage of the most
12. Prosody treats of th e structure of poetical composition.

PART I.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
13. OrthoO'raphy t
t f
. rea s o letters, syllables, and the spellbig of word=.
I. LETTERS.
14. A letter is a inark or cha
mentary sound in Jang uage. · racter representing an ele·
15. The English alphabet ~onsists oft .
.
16. Letters are divided . t
wenty-s1:~ letters.
. 17. A Vowel is a letter i:l~i;~:~~:;dbyco~tsonJfants.'
sound~
l se
a perfect

18. A Consonant is a letter wh· I1
without a vowel.
·
ic cannot be sounded
, 19: A, e, i, o, u, (and wand

' h

wor~ or syllable,) are vowels. y, v en they do not begin a
· 20~ The remaining nin t
they begin a word or syllebelen) letters, (with w and y, when
·. . . .
a e, arc consonants.
The d1stmct1on of letters into vow I
~tructure of the human
fe s and consonants arises from the
h
organs o speech Th
d
t e, openings of the organs a d ·h· I .
e soun s produced by
changing their position
' n " ic I may be prolonged without
.
, are represented by the vowels ; the sounds
t!uBject of Orthography ?-lO. Et mo
1
14\ Define II letter. 15. How ~a lop .-1 ~·Syntax ?-12. Prosody 1
15
11~ llefine U! VoweJ.--18. A Conso~~ ~n E1n9g1W
h ~ 16. How divided 'l
,
·
n•
·
h1ch nre vowels 1 20;

LETTERS;
•

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. produced by .the joinirigs or shuttings of the : organs are rep_resented
by the consonants. '
..
,• .
' .
. .. . ."
·Consonants are divided into mutes arid semi-vowels, according a.a the ·"
articulations, or joinings .of the organs in the enunciation of them;
are more or less close. " Thus k, p, and t, which wholly intercept
the voice, as in the syllables ek, ep, 'et, are called mutes; b, d, and g,
which admit a short prolongation of sound, as in eb, ed, eg , are called .
semi-vowels.
'
The consonants have also rec<>ived different nam~s from the org~ns
chiefly employed in uttering them. · Thus, p, b, f; v, are' named
labials, or letters of the lip; s, z, dentals, or letters of the teeth; ·
d, t, gingivals, or letters of ihe gums; g, j, 'k, palatals, or letters
of the palate; m, n, nasals, or letters of the nose; l, r, linguals, ·
or letters of the tongue. But, as more than one orga~ is concerQed
in the utterance of almost every consonan~e names are not
strictly, but only generally, applicabl::
·.

\

'

21. The union of two vowels in one sound .is called ,a Diph-thong.
· ...
i: · ' · · ' ·
' · ,-,- · ·
When both vowels are heard, the diphthong is called proper; ·as oi in
voice. When only o~e is . he ~r_d, it is called an improper diphthong;
·
.
·
as ea in eagle.

I.

22. The union of three vowels in one sound
is called a<
" .
1'riphthong.

The diphthongs in English are numerous; the triphthongs are o~ly. .
three, eait , ieu, and iew: U, preceded by q, is never reckoned part
of a diphthong or triphthong; but treated as if it were part of the q• .

23. In written compositions, the letters · have two forms...::. -~
capitals and small letters.
.
'
.
24. Capitals are used only at the beginnirig of words in ·
particular situations. .
·
·
25. Small letters form'the body of the composition. . . -~26. The following are the situations in which words are ·
begun with capitals :-,
··
·. '
.

I

'

'\

'

-

The first word of every sentence, whether in prose or verse; the -first
\vord of every line in poetry ; the · first word of a quotation in a
direct form .; the nam~s of the Supreme ' Being; all proper namtis,
and adjectives derived from proper na~es j the names of the d~ys
of the week and of the months of the year ; any word 'which the
.

. . .

"

I

.• ·

t

· "

, J

.) .

W\1ich consonants? 21. Define Diphthong.-22. Triphthong.' 23. How .
many forms have letters 7 24. When are capitals used? 25. · Small let; ·
ters? 26. Describe the situations in which words begin with capitals. '

'.

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-

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The best mode' of dividing words into syllables is to follow, as nearly
as possible, the divisions made by the organs of speech in accurately
pronouncing them . Thus, hab-it, ham-let, cru-el , an-i-mal.
The only .case in which it is allowabl e to adopt a difterent mode is
when the pronunciation is anomalous or peculiar. Thus, in s'uch
words as vicious, condition, &c., where ci and ti are pronounced
like sh, the division is vi-cious, con-di-lion, not vici-ous, con-diti-on.

II I. SPELLING.*
30. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper
letters. ·
The spelling of the English language, in common with thai of nil
living languages, is regulated chiefly, though not wholly, by the prevailing mode of pronunciation.
·
The chief anomalies in Englieh orthography proceed from the number

'

II
j

·l
·r

i1

J·
~

.

II
~

I

~.

Ip

*To TF.ACHERs-The rules and exercises here given are of a strictly
; practical character, and are, of course, design ed to accustom the pupil
to correct fipelling. Every t.e acber will use them in the manner which
his own judgment may . dictate. I would, however, suggest that, at
fir~t, the pupil should be requirctl to write the exercises, and merely
refer to the rules in order to write them correctly. In reviewing the
grnmmar, it may be expedient for the pupil to commit the rules to
memory. The importance of spelling correctly will furnish a sufficient
inducement to the most indolent learner lo incur this small amount of
labour for the purpose of acquiring so necessary an accomplishment.
27. What is a syllable? 28. What must there be in every syllable?
~9 . . How are words classified with respect to the humber of their· sy1J11..
bles 1 30. What is Spelling ?
'

~

;.

\ ,,. :t..-:· ;

~ '.f"'t.. -.,. \

..

I

...

~

,FINAL LETTERS.

. .
. . .. ~ d th~ ii:ifpbsllibilitY bf describihg their ~it~.i".
· of silent consonants; nn
.
. . .
..
· ·· ·l
.
b
th. g like general rules. · ··
. attons. y .any_ m
f wotds in · ~hich the consonants b; 4:,. d_,,g_,
The following instances 0 . •
f E liBh usage on this ,
. ·' , ' ' ··
an d. ·h, are .st.1e nt , will
. · exhibit the
. ,nature .o . ~g
· .,
.

~oint : -

II. SYLLABLES.
27. A syllable is a single sound, represented by one or
more letters ; as a, an, and, wand.
28. Iri every syllable there must be at least one vowel.
29. Words of one syllable are called Monosyllables; words
of two syllables, Dissyllables; words of three syllables Trisyllables ;. and words of more than three syllables, Polysyllables;

..

SPELLINtl i

ORTHOGRAPHY.
writer may thmk very important, as the Reformation, the Revolution; the pronoun I, and the interjection 0; and generally, also,
the name of an object personified, as, " Where is thy sting, 0
Peath !"

(

\

.~

nnt
Thyme °. .·
Handsome
. Debt
Gtoundsel
Reign
Asthma '
Dumb
Knowledge . Impugn
Heir
Subtle
Scent
b·
Ph le m '
Rhetdric: ·
Ascehil
r teldfare
g
.
. Bdellium
. 1
that approach to such umform·
.' Almost the only orthographic~ us~ge:neral rules from them, are t~ose
ity as to -warrant the dci~ncllon 0
d and the mode in which
, '.
which respect the finat letters o wor 9,
• or additional syllables, are appended to .them.
. ,,
t
augmen .,
.,,,.
., '· i
G
.

Indict
Victuais

r

.'·

1. FIN. At LE'i'TEREL

,.

fin~l f

. the rincipal final vowel in English words; and

wa~s

ex.ce,pU~s

J:e: ~~~~b:~~~~~~s,~~

i:sal
silent,d,
a
-tvc he, she; a few wor s m. ee, '
'
' . ,
, , ..
fe~ terms of foreign ,origin, as ep~omefi,sy;t~~~~~~e~' with ~h~ .
2 All the consonants arc use_ as . n
· : .
f .
v and c and g soft.
d is in general, either a si)ei:it
exception o l• q, ' f .
3 The final Jetter o a wor
'
. d . the
·
·
d' g as the vowel contame m
,,
. has not its Jong sound. ',
e or a consonant, accor md h
fi l liable of the wor
as or
..b
. na sy d
d. mete met . pine,'pin; note, not; lube,.
Thus, ma e, ma ,
•
'
. .
1
From this general prindple, however' t11ere 11re .some. dev1nt1on.~. :-;- .
. . he words have bade, are, were, gwc, come, one, do.ne,
~~;!:)\v~h some others,' end. !n silent e, though the preceding , .

W.:.

vowels have not their l.ong. sou,nd. . t h do not a.c'i.init a ~f'.G
.· " (2.) Words ending m the consona.n
. l be Jori"",;._.. .
. e• . .
h
though the precedme: vowe
' silent e after t em, ·
ded by
as bathe, ln.vlith ~i
except, sometimes, _wh~n prece . ; .. ' .
' ,' :. ~' ': ··

,.

,

t.

. 1

tithe, clothe. . d' i two different consorl~nts do nol, in .
·. (3 ) words en mg n
.
. .
. eel'
.· .
. . .
·1 nt e after them though the. prl'\c mg
·genera], admit a SI e. /it bolt host~· such WOf"S as. ht).r ,<J,e,
vowel be fong; as mg · •· . · •·, . . '», . . . r . •. .. , 'H ' · .. ...
.,.
&
e except10ns
:m;~n~w~~:;g;h~~=t~na~·~;~abfe contain°s a ~di~h,t~?ng ~o,· '
·.. • •' ' . . 1 admit the silent e after them; as f a1~h, gruf,
,not ,m ,gene~a .
· ·
·

'

...
..

I

24

ORTHOGRAPHY.

z· .

her:t, toil. The exceptions are such words as b
~ve -e
. . &c.
e ieve, perC ~·
, , nounce, rejoice,
14. In Mo~osyllables, the final consonant is generally singe, excep~ m words ending inf, l, ors, preceded b a sin le
vo~el, wlnch ~enerally double the consonant.
y
g
'I hus we write rub b1td fro"

zz

.

each with a single' cons~nan~; ~'.;t ~~:nd;~'~ien~~~~itr, pet, Joe:, pl1iz,
stijf, scoff, stuff; all, ell, hill, roll skull . mass onlsonahnt 111 staff,
truss .
'
'·
, ess, us, toss,

The
ha

e~or:;din ~~1ich thi.s rule does not
'

hold are chiefly the following:
' o ~ eg~, inn, err, purr, butt, buzz; and if of.

s, was, yes, is, Ins, this, wis, us,

tllUS.

'

as, gas,

,

. 5. In words .of more than one syllable, the final conso nant
Is generally single, except in words ending inf
ceded by a single vowel, which double the consonao:t s, pre.
Thus we write syllabub, cinnamon, sinis ter ' &c . but 'V d .bl h
·
·
,,.
·•
• e au e t e
consonant Ill disla:ff, mastiff, rebuff, harass , &c.

6d

The use of c hard as a final consonant is pec uliar It is
use as~ final letter only in words of more tha n one.s llable, and m these only when preceded b . 01. . .
y .
maniac . ·
. .
Y i,
ia , as, music,
. m mo~osyll ables, it Is always accompanied b k .
a.s lack, deck, trick, lode, luck, except lac, zinc.
y '
2. AUGMENTS.

Whden words ~re increased by appending to them such additions as s
e ' 6 "• est,
ing able ible
· h r. l
'
th
d
'
' . 'en, is ' JU ' ott .Y, ly , y, ment n e~s &c
hey un erg? changes, in certain cases., in their final iett~r~. th~
c ange varymg according ns the final letter is a vowel or a 'co
sonant.
n-

7. Words ending in silent 'c, upon assuming an augment
gen:rally lose the e, if the augment begin with a vowel. bu~
i·etam the e, if the augment begin with a consonant.
,
Thus, silent e is cut off before able ibl . ,,. 1.8 h & .
bl .
.
' e, inc' · , c, as cure , c1trab ef;' sf:ensle,lsensible; place, placing; slave, slavish ; but is retained
e ore tt ' ess, ly, mcnt ness & .
.
c.' as peaceful, guileless, closely,
incit ement, paleness.
'
'
The principal deviations from this rul e are in ti
f l
bl
1e cases o t 18 augments a e and ous. When silen t e is preceded by v or b
soft, the e is retained before abl .
'
y c or g
Wh
.·
e' as moveable, peaceable chargeable
.
en s1 1ent e is preceded by g soft, it is retained b efo~e ous • ~.

'

'

SPELLING-'- COMPOUNDS.
I

'

'

,

'

'

courageou8; a;1d when preceded by c soft, it is changed into i liefo're ·
' ous; as grace, gra~ious. .
.
..
{ .

-· 8. Word~ ending in y, preceded by a vowei, generally .·
retairi y; upon taking an augment ;·as boy, boys, boyish; coy,
,., ~· coyly. But words ending in y, preceded by a . consonant,
change the y into i before receiving an addition j as fancy, '
' . fanciful; ready, readily /: except when the addition is ing or, .
-_iah or 's; iri both of which cases the, U is retained; as, carrying, babyish. .
.
.
- '
· ' , ' . :. ~
Words ending in ty, upon assuming the affix ous, change y into e; ·~s,
· beauty, beauteous.

·

· ·:
.

,

'.

-

.'

'~

~

.•• ; :. .

9. Words which end in a single consonant preceded by-a

single vowel, on receiving an augment beginning with a
vowel, either double the final consonant; (or preserve it
single,) according as the last syliable is or is not' accented. ..

·. ,_

If the last syllable be accented, (or if the word be monosyllabic,)
the consonant is doubled upon assuming an augment; 'as, begin,
beginntr; glad, gladden. But if the accent fall on any syllable .
except the last, (or if a diphthong precede· the fin!!! consonant) the
consonant is not doubled; as offer, offering; d1f<at, defeated.~
. , The words apparelled, cancelled, caviller, coralline, counsellor, try&• .
ta/line, du ellist, jeweller, levelling, libeller, revelling, rivalling,
traveller, are not spelt in accordance with this rule·.
, ·r

IO. Words ending in a double consonant retain both con~
sonants upon assuming the augment, whet11er the augment
begin with a vowel ot a consonant; except words in ll;
which generally drop one l before taking an . augment
'beginning with a. consona~t. Thus, scoffer, oddity; fulness,
chillness.
. I··
3. COMPOUNDS, &.c.

.. _..~ ,

\··

11. Compound words are generally written in the same
way as the simple words which compose them: Thus,
herein, uphill, hereafter
&c.
1 recall,
.
.
(

..

·ji

...

. /

·. * Jn 50me instonceR ~he accent of a W~rd' is changed in ordef fo admit .
1

the augment ;-in which case, the accentuation of the augm'e nted, riot the
original word, determines the spelling'. Thus conffr, conference; refer, •
reference; preftr, prefera ble; metal, metallic; m edal, medallibn. Overlooking this circumstance, Rome (!rammarians have thought it necessary
to treat conference, reference, preferable, metallic, . med.a l/ion, &c., na if
they were deviations frorri the ordinary rule. ' . "
·. ·· ·
. . .

3

.

·.. ~

,.

26

ORTHOGRAPHY.

But there ·are many deviations from this usage, especially among words
which end in ll; as, albeit, almighty, already, also, altogether, alway s,
withal, bulrush, fuljil, careful, handful.

·" I

··, ,

.\ ' I

.. r

.- . '},f:

.,·.·

... :t~:~ .

. ···~.

:,

, f ,...

12. There are many English words which may be used
with propriety in two different ways.

-'.'!<

.....;,.

:' :

.

Thus, the words connection and connex ion; enq1tirc, inqu ire; faunrtr,

.

favor; hono1tr, honor ; inflection, inflexion ; negotiate, 111'gociale;

&c., are used indiscriminately; by the bes t modern writers.

13. TJ1e deviations from analogy in English orthography
are so numerous, that they .can be fully acquired only by
a practical acquaintance with the usages of the language.

I

•

The follo\ving nre some of the most fr equent :In ndopting French words, it is the general usnge of the language to
change the French termination tre into t er; accordingly we write
chamher and cl1arter, instead of the French chambre and chartre; but
we still retain met re, nitre, sceptre, sepulcltre , spectre, and theatre.
We write author without u, but retain the u in honour.
Moveable and immovable are both established usnges ; so are tameable
and blamable.
We write equalize with only one l, and t1·anquillize wit h two, though
the primitive words equal and tra11q1til both end alike in one l.
D efence and 0;ffence are established usages; but their derivatives arc
defensive. and offensive.
We write exceed, proceed, and succeed; bu t, though the Latin cedo be
the root of all alike, we write accede, recede, secede.

.· '
.

·

.

SYLLABLES.'
·
llables · · '
'
Divide the following words into sy .. · . h ·sh · coalition, ·

h
bluster capnc10us, c en ,.
Abjure, ancient, arrogant, as .esd, l' .
' efficacious ferocious, filter '
'
t
.
. .
debase
e ICIOUS,
•
bl . t pi' d J'udicial, momen ary,
coeval, conv1ct1on,
.
pregna
e,
m
. I'
, filtration, gar dener' im
.
.re
...:ty 'quaternion, reverenua
. .
. . . . n optical pervero• '
musi cian, nunc1c, omo •
. '
. t unanimity,· union, ven·
..
t
sol1'
dity
tergiversat10n,
trans1en
'
.
J
soc1e y,
•
.
_ -.
.similitude, worshipped, yellow1sh, .za~~- , '
..\
I

..

.f

...·;

': D t d m clim com, crum, lam, -lim, num , ~utle.
. • ou ' u '
'
.
tre zanna.
' .A.send, desent, musle, sene, mence, sep '
.
Hankerchief, hansel, grounsel. " .
. .
'
•
I \
.
· f. rein nash pomanL
'
. '
b rb Tames Tomas.
Benin, desm, ensm, 0
A ast, onest, rnpsody' reumausm, ru a '
' .
. g
il t e a! the .final letter.

•'

. - ..
'• '

· - l . e blade CQne,
. d"
ivme, ~e te ' guide , hue, pique.
.
· · A pm '
' .
·
ecipice courage .
,,
. Grotesque, festive, passive, pr
' lathe, tithe.
Come done, give, have, more, were,
'
'
. ..
.. sen t ences, (see Rules 4 and. 5) .:-;.
. thefollowtng
Co1·rei;t tlte false spelling m .
d tl . fishes leap in the nett ;. let
b dd the bees humm, an IC
th
b f
, The trees u •
· . ·h
· ·th thss water before . e e ·o ·
us al hasten to fil .o ur p1tc ers_~1" . , ·" . . .
'
. . , ...

....

LETTERS.

Rectify the errors in the use of capital letters, in
tences:-

r.. ~·,

SPELLING.
'·
·
ds by introducing tk
l
Correct the J'°"a l se epe~l1'n'
" in the follo wing wo.r ed'
silent c01l.!01z.ants that are omitt .

E l in why each ·of the following words has a B en
2:1' a
(See Rules 1, 2, 3) :~

EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY.

·,

... ,.
':·,
"

tltP.

following sen-

The Great phocion, one of the most celebrated personages among the
Ancient grecians, was condemned to death by his ungratefu l Countrymen; And, when about to drink th e fatal Ilemlock, was asked if he
had any thing to say to his Son. "bring him before me," said He.
"my Dear Son," said phocion, "i entreat you to serve your cot.In try
with as much Fidelity as I have done, And, above all, to forget
that an unjust death :was the Price with which She recompensed My
services."

. the tid.
·.· .:
s u n. learni~g to spel properly._ '''. ,:
y mi cannot place too much st~e po .
y· yet 'stil coiTiirig onn.· . .
.
·
·1
·
earmg
. Tiine is like a nver st1 app ,
.to. pas awn
.. ' Ith .·though be came to .
·. Thiss strangerr· hass bee~ able .to h~.m~s ;~~ " ' ' . .· I ,~~· ; . ' .
. ... our country with only his staf m ,is Ian . - e of tho cnna_II untill_it'
i
th t I may follow t IC cours
.
. .
d . . . · a's my fing er . along it.S course.
· Unroll that foapp, 8
Cal inttJ the se~. Now hol ' It u 1 1 p
.;
<· • '
'
•
: _.
I

.

. ..

..~

.'I·

...

.·

.,.~

1
1,,c

..{
_,

. !

.-

'••

28

·'

ORTHOGRAPHY.
Correct the spelling of the following words, (see Rule 6) :..'....

.

As

the lark with varyed tun
Carolls to the · evening loud, ~
Mark the mild resplen dent moon
\ Brenkking through a partted cloud,.
Linnets with unnumberred nots,
And ihe eukoo bird with two, •.
'l'uneing sweet their mellow throateii,,
Bidd the setti1ig sli.n adieu! ·

,--

Affix the augm£nts ing, ed, to the following word1, (see Rules 7 & 8) :-

Amplify, amuse, analyz1>, annoy, behave, calumniate, charge, defy,
dedicate, destroy, efface, flay; fortify, humble, menace, rejoice.
Affix to tlte following words such of the augments, able, ible, en, ish, ful,
oils, ly, y, ment, ness, &c., as their signification will allow them to
' take, (see Rules 7 & 8) : -

',

.)}.(';
f <'~ ; i.. '
J."I •

..,.

:_.-[·. I

·•

/,

.

~ I~,

•.

r:·-

PART II.

:

.

..

29

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

Attac, ecclesiastick, logick, musick, napsac, schismatick, sic, terrifick,
trac, zinck, zodiack.

Able, acknowledge, allege, allow, allay, ample, appellative, battle,
beauty, blaspheme, body, bone, branchy, busy, cognosee, commence, cure, dandy, deduce , deface, . duty, drone, elope, envy, force,
fury, godly, grace, knave, ignoble, issue, joy, judge, measure, pity,
plenty, space, lnme, usury, white.

.,...

-

I

ETYl\'lOLOG Y.

. j

,..

~

\

.

'

.~

(

-.1i! ..... ,

j>\
- .-~

. ;,.'i

I

'31. Etymology trea ts of the Classi}i.cation, theh1fiection,
the Deritiation of words.
' : · ' ··
I '

~nd

Affix to the follow ing words ed, er, ing, or such other of the aitgment1 a1
lhey HliU admit, (see Rules 9 & 10) : -

Assess', nnnul', aver', begin', cn'per, · cnv'il, decrep'it, entrap', jew'el,
inhab'it, intermit', li'bet, permit', rebel', refer', spir'it, transfer', trepn:n',
vis'it.
Correct the false spelling in fhe following sentences, applying the rule&:-

A wis mnn is never !es ulon than when alone.
The finn of u fish iA, a~ it wer, the limb by which he balances his
body.
Modesty in youth is better thnn comelyness; nnd diligence thnn a
plaiful fancy.
By defering repentance, we become the destroiers of our own h1ppyness.
Cultivate sedntness of manner; be servicnble to others; live harm lesly;
avoid wilful evil!; be always obligeing: These quruitys are nil trucly
desireable.
A favorr confered with delicacy doubles the obligation.
But, 0 ! how alterred was its sprightlyer tone
When Cheerfollness, a nymph of healthyest hue,
Her bow acrciss her shoulders flung,
H er buskins gemed with mornning dew,
Blew nn insplreing air, that dal nnd thickett rung,;
The hunters' call, to Fawn and Dryad known!

.

I CLASSIFICATION' OF WORDS.

32. The words of the Engli~h langirng~ are di.vidt;d into
~igh t classes, called P arts of .Speech.
· · · · · · ( · ·· .
· 33. The names of these parts of speech are, No1tn, Artfrli;
Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, p q·eposiiwn; Conjunctwn, and Inter',·
:·1.
jection.
NOUN.

'

I,

,· ..,,.

'

;

·."f,

34. A Noun is a word which is simply the rn1~e of an
' <:>bject; as, boy, school, lesson, .obe,dience.
·· .
,,
35. There are tw o kinds of Nouns, Prop er anci Common.
36. Prnper Noun8 de note the names of in~ividuals <:>nly j' ,
as, John, Philadelphia.
'
. ·
·. \ . · · ·
37. Common Nouns . denote a whole kind or ' specie~;..~~ ,
man,cily.
.
·
, · .,
· 38. Proper nouns are used to dis~ingµish individ~ als frpm;.
the rest of the species. Com~o!1 nouns are appl1lca_ble ,t.~
any individual ofJhat s°pecies. .
•\, . ·;:•. ,·,,
.,..
,i .:.:;;
~

I

~.

'.

~

If.·_,

• ,I

. 31. Of what does Etymology tr'eat.1 3~ : llow ar,e ' the 1w~nls of t!JU
English language classified 1 ~3 . Name. the parts ofspeeeh; · 34. What .
is a noun 1 35. How many kind s of nouns are there 1 , 36. What artt
proper nouns? What are common nouns ? 38. How are proper nouns .. .

3*

..

•

.-

"

.

.. .

\'
' :j~: I ., .,.

-l :

_

30

ETYMOLOGY.

39. Proper nouns are classed as common nouns when
they are employed to describe more than one individual.
Thus, "the Howards," the "Stuarts," being descriptive of
classes of individuals, may be considered as common nouns.
It is the same in such expressions as "He is the Cicero of
the age;" "he is a Hercules."
40. The names of qualities, conceived as existing apart
from the subs tances to which they belong, are called Abstract
Nouns; as, hardness, gentleness.
ARTICLE.

41. An article is a worcT which is used to limit the signifi.
cation of nouns.

42. The words a or an, and the, are the only articles in the
Englis_h language.
43. A and an were originally ae and ane, and were
probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity;
as ae man, ane ox. They still express the idea of unity; but
Jess emphatically than when they were written after the
ancient fashion.
44. A or an is called the indefinite Article; and the the

definite Article.

ADJECTIVE.

45. .An ' Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as
good, tall.
46. An adjective expresses the quality of a noun not
simply, but as conjoined with th e noun; and is therefore
never used without a noun being either expressed or understood.

47. Thus, tallness, goodness, greatness, and the like, which
express properties or qualities simply, are not adjectives, but
abstract nouns; though tall, good, and great, which qualify
nouns, and cannot be used without them, either expressed
or implied, are adjectives.
used? 39 . When are they classed as common nouns? 40. 'What is
an article? 41. What the only articles in the English language 1 42. ·
What were a and an originally 1 43. Distinguish the definite from
the indefinite article, 45. What is an adjective 1 46. How does it
express the .quality of a noun? 47. Give examples. 48. How are

..,

I

... . ,.. ...

,.

~

~4

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

, .. "ttf.1 .

·31

~ou ns. ·' and'
. it. some. . . ,. ·
. ·, ... times. happens tha.i .nouns are us~d in our language ~: adJec~1ves ' as .
. i ' gold ring coal fire, sea water, slnp stores. . .
.
.
. .
_ Chr11t1a~,
Among t h e' wor ds, use d bolh as adj ectives and nouns. ere
. z·
· te
.
d;v1'1ie
, evil, liquid, miHionary, origzna ' .prwa '
cold, · cun~nng,
'
.1:· · ritual:

· .all adjectives were
· ongma
· · II y
'· . I'\ ·:It· is piobable that

48. Adjectives ar.e .divided into t~vo classes: Adjectives
.
denoting quality, and Adjectives denottng number.
- ·49. Adjectives denoting.I quality are_ such as good, ba~; .
d N
l Ad' large1 great.
.'
. .. 50. Adjectives denoting number are calle
u~era_
'jectives. They are divided into two kinds,· Cardinals and

Ordinals.
.
. l'f · or denote ,
51. The Cardinals are those which s1~p_ 1 y
,.number· 'as one, two, three.
·
52. The Ordinals are those which denote, ,o rder, or num. per in succession ; as .first, second, tl~~rd.
PRONOUN.

53. A Pronoun is a '~ord which s.upplies the
noun; as it, which.
·. '
·

pl,ac~ . of
..

a

.

Thus in the sentence, "John said to his bro\her, I reques:, you to
'Ly arid bring me the book whi ch I ordered, I, me,
II
th.
wa 1. to e c1 ,
.
d
h' h r t ti\
' . h , are pronouns .or relative wm s, · w I IC' re1er
d o· Jye
you, an d wmc
h n, ,, brother •" and "book" reiip0o
· . t1ve y, an
, . . .supp .
wor ds " J o_
their place.
·
·
·

54• The wont to which
· f·elative or Antecedent.

a pronoun refers is ~ailed the Co,r·

Th;s c~rrelative is al~ays either a noun, a word, or
in signification to ti noun.
.

.

. .

jVOrd~ e~mv51-lent
i

.

'

.

.

,_ I , ~

-

55. Pronouns are divided ' into Personal, Relative, and
\

. ..

·

' . !i

.

.Adjective.
·
·
i
l · d 't ·
. .. 56. The Persona( Prono1hls are /, thou, ie, B ie, an . t ,
and their plurals we, ye or y~u, and Oiey.
,..'. :i
d' . d d 1
Give ~xamples ~f adjectives denotin1{qu~lity.
adJ eC 1ves 1v1 e
·
.
b
lled? 50 How are they
50. What are adjectives denotmg _nulm er5_2 ca0f d' j . 53. What is '
51 G'
·
Jes ofcurdma s ·
or ma 8 '
divided 1
• ~ve ex amp '
·, Whal is m~ant by the Correla.
· b 7 · 55 How are
a pronoun 1 Give me an examp1e. 54 · .
i·
·
antecedent of a pronoun 1 .' What must .it ~
.. · . . .· h ,·
uve
or d'1v1'd ed?· .· 56· Which are the Personal }'ronouns 1 Wh_1c Ill
pronouns

· . 't· ·

,fo

.-··· >

~·

.''!.'.

~·

-~

ETYJIIOLOGY.
1 is called the p
s peaking.

ronoun o

f

..

~he

1

They are so call ed, because their re fore nc
I .
. .
gene~ally more direct and immcdial e than tl;at t~f :1 ic1r corrcl,,tzve Is
. Thus, in th e se ntence " Tl
te oth er pronouns.
.
.
•
ie sc 1io 1ar who d isobeys tl
. . d
pum 0 hment " ti
Ii
ie mas ter · esen ·es
•
ie re erence of who to s ;, l
·
imm ediate that the co rre lative cannot be ~ ~ ~ ~r is so obvious and
TV!w is app lied to ers ong. , .·
.
. i1s a lC n.'
. d'
. .
P
, ' Wlllch , to 111an11na le thtn O's. that nnd
Ill iscrmunnte ly lo persons a11d ti .
..
I
" '
,,,.,
such fo r its corrcla~ive .
ling s' as , ms ge nerally the word
0

"'

_,

I

Thus beat, love, k ill, are transitive verbs, as expressing a kind of
action by which th e agent affects something besides him self. Sit,
sleep, stand, aro intransitive verbs, .a s denoting simple being, or
action limited to lhe subject or agent.
·
·'
In dictionaries, the words active · and 11euter are invariably used to distinguish the tran;itive and intransitive verbs. It is customary in
grammars to use the te rms transiti~e and intransitive, partly because
they are considered mciro ·accurate and expressive ; and partly
because the word active is used in ·grammars, in opposition to tha
word passive. The distinction between these two words ~vil l be
conside red in that part of this work which treats of the inflecliona
of verbs.' In the mean time, the pupil will suffer no inconvenience
by using the word active'Bs synonymous with transitive, and 11rutr.r
as synonymous with intransitive. The uniform practice in Ji•>
tion aries and in general li:eraturc h as a uthorised such a use of the
words.

T-V!wt and whether arc Com ound R I .
that whi ch
· l'
e attvcs , what. being equivale nt to
' or thou winch; wli cl11cr deno1 ing wl 1ich of th e two
wever and in!wrever ore •ir I I
I .
.
affix
dI d :
~ np y t HJ re a11 v"s ll'lto nnd 1l'ltat w ith llte
ever a c e m ord er to re I
I .
1· .
'
lVl
'.
'
nc er t tc tr app tcatt nn indcfini lc
w, W1L1cl1, and what, when use d to ask a
.
called Int errogative Pronouns.
qn cs iion, arc commonly

TV~

, 5~. The Adj_ect.ive P1:on~u11s are divid ed into three kinds
viz. Demonst1 ative, JJistnbutive, and lncll{finite.
,
The D
1
·
p
tit
em~'.is 1'at1ve ro1101tns are this , that , and th eir plurals
th:sye.r 'fil hey ore used to point out ernphali cally th e obj ec ts t;
c e r.
The Dist ribut ive Pron 1
l
.
.
d enote ti
oms ai c, eac ' • overy , eit11er, and ncill1er.
1C persons or things which mak e up
b
a num er, as
separate IY or dist rilrnti ve ly.

33

60. As the noun is the word in a sentence \Vhich names
thing about , whi~e speak, so the verb is the word
·
which asserts or deciare'S what we say concerning it.
61. Verbs are divided into 7'ransitive and Intransitive.
62. Transitive Verbs denote that kind of. action which·
passes from the agent to something· else.
63. Intransitive Verbs denote that kind of action or state
· of bei.n g which is li.m ited to the agent or subject. .
·,

.
pe rson, dc nuln1g the person

lt, a pro11011n of the third 1
d
,
,
• >e rson , enotes the thing ~pok c n o[
57. 'I li e Relative Pronouns are ' wh o, i t ·'1Llu1,
. ·' t11at,
'
as.

.

,., .

.· ...

Thus, in the sehtences "John walks;" "James 1i;ikes the table;"
"The boy is idle;,.. walk!, strikes; and is are verbs.

Thou, th e pronoun of the second
d
or addressed ,
person, enoles th e person epoken :;;
spok e n of.

...

.

i .. ~·

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

the .first person, whi ch is the pers~n

Ile a11d ,<lie are pronouns of the th ird

...

\ .~

l11r•c
whi·cl;
Th ey
taken

.,

'"

·.;,

ADVERB.

64. An Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb,- an
adjective, or another adverb; as, 1c He reads well;. she is
'fJery gentle; I will go most wi:tlingly."
· 1
•
•
'
65. Adverbs seem to petform the same office to verbs,
adjectives, and other, adverbs, that adjectives perform tq .
nouns.

The In~tjinite Prono1t11s are some, other, another, any , and such Another IS other with the indefinite article an prefixed.
.
VERB.

59. ~ Verb is a word which affirms or asserts. as stri~
walks, 1s.
·
' •
ces,

Thus, in the sentence " Cicero was eloqztent," the term eloquent,
being a word used to modify the noun Cicerd, is an adjective; but in
the sentence "Cicero was exceedingly eloquent," the termexc~edingly,
b eing a word used to modify the adjective eloquen~, is a~ adverb . . In

itch ' ~ronounhof the. fi rst person? -The second ? -The tl~~~--1c 1 an~ t e relati ve pronouns? ' Vlr
, ti
57.
an CX 'llllfJlc T 0
I t ·
,
.
Y arc icy '0 ca lled 1 Give
'
•
IV w
IS w110 applied 7
'rVlticl 1
II
r elativ es? Whnl j 8 the cffoct 0 f
·t I
are JC compound
WJ
· · '
cve1· a t tc end of who and 1 l t 7
ti i cAnd~re ·'~ / and wlial ~~lied In trrrog"tive Pronoun~? 58. Ho via
ie
Jecl1 1·e pronouns d1V1ded 1 \ VJ . I
D
w aro
buti ve? - lndefinitc? 59 ' "l
lie J are ~ nions trative ?-Distri.
. n mt is a verb? Give an exa mple. GO.

7

'

'°

.

l

.

Explnin the office of the verb. 61. How are verbs divided 7 62. What are
Transitive Verbs 1 63. What are Intransitive Verbs 7 Give examples.
How are th e t erms active nnd neuter used in dicti ona ries 7· 64. What
is an Adverb? 65. How is it used 7 G.i ve examples. 66. Whu.t does

'
I

.(

'.
.,

.~

34

ETYMOLOGY.

CLASSIFICATION OF ,WORDS.

like manner, in the sentence "Crosar fought bravely," "bravely,"
mo.difying the verb "fought-," is an adverb.

•.'

I NT E It J EC T J 0 N .

83

72. An Interjection is a word used . to express sudden
emotion.
.....

66. The ad verb serves merely to express in one word
what may always be expressed by two or nlore words.
Thus, had we not possessed such words as here, there thither,
eloquently, we could have expressed the id eas conveyed by
them, by using the equivalent phrases, in this place, in that
place, to that place, in an eloquent manner.

They are so called, because they are generally thrown in b ~ tween the
purls of rt sentence without any reference to the strupture- of the other
purls of it.
·

73. The following are the chief Interjections ::-A~, alas;
pshaw, fie; ha, ha, ha; lo, hush, huzza, 0, oh, hei.gho.

PREPOSITION.

,67. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
which one thing bears to !lnother ; as, "Death entered in.to
the world by sin."
Prepositions are so called from their being generally put before other
words.

68. Th e Prepositions in most common use are,-About,
ab011e, across, ajter, against, along, amid, amidst, among,
amongst, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, besides,
between, b.e twixt, beyond, but, by, down, except, for, from., in,
into, ·n ear, nigh, of; off, on, out, over, r oun d, save, through,
tliroug!i.out, to, towards, under, underneath, up, upon, with,
within, without.
69. A number of prepositions which are of great uso in
modifying the words to which they are prefi xed, are ca ll ed
inseparable prepositions, from their never being used but as
parts of other words. Such are, a, be, con, mis, pre, re, sub;
as in a foot, befall, conjoin, mishap, prefix, regain, subtract, &c.
CONJUNCT ION.

70. A Conjunction is · a word used to connect words and
sentences.
71. The Conjunctions in most general use are, a,nd, also,
either, or; neither, nor; though, yet, but, however; for, that;
becaiise, sfoce; therefore, wherefore, then; if; unless, ll'.st.
an adverb cxpreRs? 67. What is a Pre position? Why so called? 69.
Which are th e prepositions in most common m e? 70. What is a con.
' junction? 71. Which are the conjunctions in most common use 1

35
. . . .. -

Some verbs, nouns and adje ctiv es, uttered by way ,of exclamation, in
a detach ed manner, are classed among interj ections: as, hail! welcome! strange!

,.

74. The learner will perceive, by the above'classification
of the words of our language, that the N otin is the principal
part of speech; that it is the only : one which <expresses a
distinct idea without the help of any other word; and that
all the other parts of speech are employed to denote the
actions, qualities, and relations of the Noun. The . whole .
subject might be familiarly treated thus. Nouns_ are the
names of persons or things; adjectives express the qualities
of those persons or things; verbs express their action.s j
adverbs, the modifications of those qualities or actions; '
prepositions express the relations of nouns, and conjuni::tions,
their connections. Pronouns supply th e places of nouns, to
avoid the inconvenience of repeating them too frequen~ly;
Articles limit · their signification; and finally, Interjectfons ·
express the sudden emotions of persons, of whom the names
are nouns. Thus, all the other parts of speech ha v.e a direct
relation to the noun; and derive all their importance from
this relation. By keeping this important fact constantly ~n
view, the pupil .will find the task of understanding grammar
greatly simplified. Even, in performing th e following exercises on the classificati<;m of words, he will frequently be
enabled to determine, without hesitation, what part pf sreec!t

'•

"

.

\

'- l r-

.

..'
\.

(

>

. ~ } l
\

.... •f •

~~~~~~~~~~~~-'~~~~~· ~~(~~~·~~·-}~
· -'-,

72. What is un Interjection 7 Why so called 7 73. Which are _the
chief interjections? Give exampl e~ of .oth er pa~ts _o f speech occas1onnlly used ns interjections. 74. Wh1,c h 1s the pr~nc1pal ~art of speech 7
D escribe the offices of the other parts of speech with relat ion to the noun.
How may you distinguish the parts of ~peech? What gives law to

.I

.

I

36

~TYMOLOGY.

any word is, by inquiring how it stands related to the
noun.

\

Some words, from the different ways in which they are used, belong
sometimes io one part of speech , sometimes to another.*
The same word must originally have been, both in import and use,
only 'one part of speech: Present usage, however, gives laws to
. · grammar, not original import.
The chief words, which belong sometimes to one part of speech,
sometimes to another, are, as, but, either, neither, much, m01·e, 1TWst,
that.
As is used both as a relative pronoun and as an adverb. Thus, " Only
such punishment is inflicted as serves the end of government." "As
great as Cresar."
But is used both as a preposition and conjunction. Thus, " Nothing
but religion can give true peace." " John lives in London ; but
Jam es resides in Edinburgh."
E ither and n either are used both as adj ectives of number and as conjunctions. Thull, " Of these two books I will take either." "Either
speak truth or keep silence ."
~fuch, more, and most, are used both as adjectives and adverbs. Thus,
"In most' towns much money has bee n collected, but more ough t to
hav~ been collected for so good a purpose." "lllost certainly; but
I am much gratified with what I have got, the more so as I did not
expect it."

EXERCISES.

grammar? What are the chief words which . ~elo~g sometimes to one
. part of speech, sometimes to another? 'Vhat 1s sa id of as? - but?-;--. either and neither ?-much, more, and most ?-that? How do you distinguish a Noun ?-An adjective of quality ?-A Verb ?-Adverb?.., Preposition ?

I

.37.'

'

.. ·. q
.
·.

· ' That is used as a d~rative pronoun, a r elative pronoun, and ,a
conjunction. Thus; "I will thank you for t11at book." "I will
thank you for the book that is beside you." "I beg that you will

hand me the book .."

~

c~

"

.. ~ ·~

· ,

' •.'

I

1:

''·

\,

..

~

.

,·

''

EXERCISES ON .THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
1.

THE N ouN.-Give instances of words u'/iich belong to the
class Nouns.

Distinguish between Common and Proper Nouns
tences : -

in

the followin~ ten-

London is the chief city of Britain.
The first king of Israel was Saul, the son of Kish.
The children of Israel left Egypt under the guid ance of M oses: th iiy
received the law at Mount Sinai, and sojourned · forty years in the
wilderness of Arabia. Joshua was their conductor across the river
Jordan into Canaan, the promised land. ,
The first twelve emperors of Rome are distinguished by the name 'of
Cresars, The first of them was Julius Crnsar, a man equally illustrious as a general, a historian, and nn orator. · He was alike . the
Alexander, the Demosthe,nes, and the Xe,nophon of his ag ~ .

.. '
,

2.
"'The following simple dire ctions have been given for e~ab.ling the
pupil to distinguish the principal parts of speech; though. 1t 1.s b~tt~r
when he is able to distinguish them by a knowledge of their d1scnm1.
nating properties without the help of rules : . .
A word that can properly be added to the phrase, I am thinking of, or
I am thinking of the, is a Noun.
.
.
. .
.
A word that will take the noun thing or th111gs afler 1t, 1s an Ad;ec.
tive of quality. .
.
·
'
.
' A word that will take before 1t, the pronouns I, thou, !te, or we, IB a
Verb.
'
.
\Vords that answer to the questions how? how much? when? or where?
join,ed to a verb or an ndje?tive'. are Adverbs. .
.
.
_Prepositions may be distrngmshe? from conJunct1ons by their admitting alter them the words me, us, him, them, &c.

"

THE

.,

ADJECTIVEs.-Distinguish between Nouns and Adjectives in the following sentences:-

Diligent scholars le~rn rapidly.
Obedient children are dear to their parents.
Verdant fields appear at a distance . .
Flowers beautiful and fragrant were1offered to her,
King Alfred was good and great.
.
The river is deep, dark, and rapid .
'

Distinguish between Abstract Nouns and .Adjectives m the following ·
s~tences : - .

Happy are merciful men, fi;>~ th.ey ~hiill. obtain mercy.
_
;
· The meekness of.Moses, the patience of Job, and the wisdom of Solomon, have been celebra.t ed In evety nge . . We shoulq be .ineek, ·f!nd
wise, and patient, lik e them.
. '
·
, In warm weather, we complain of warmth; ip -coJd weatJ1ef;',We c~m- : _
plain of coldness.
·
. ' · ·.', , · '. ''
t'·;
\
' :
The external elegance of that mansion is surpassed by the elegant
.
;'
·
nature of its internal arrangqmcnts. '

4

•

:.

..

·~

r' ·:

38

ETYMOLOGY.

There have been many excellent and generous men; but how rare is
such generosity and excellence as Howard disp layed !
Distinguish when the followihg words, Christian, cunning, evil, good,
missionary, divine, original, are Nouns, and when Adjccti-vcs , in the
following instances : The Christian religion is little understood by many a man who calls
himself a Christian.
The enemy was cunning ; but his cunning was nothing to that of our
commander.
·
How can ye that are evil do good 1 but, alas ! good men ofien do evil.
He went out mi a missionary to the heathen ; but he had little of the
missionary spirit :-a great divine, he had little of the divine spirit
either of the original missionaries, or of the great Original of our
holy faith.
·

3.

THE NUMERAL AnrncTIVE.-Distinguish Nouns, Adjecti-ves
denoting quality, and Adjectives of number, in the following
sentences :-

A good boy loves his book.
An open countenance inspires confidence.
The Forth, the Tay, the T.weed, and the Clyde, arc the four principal
rivers of Scotland.
Many a flower is born to blush unseen. That new palace is not so
picturesque as this old castle.
Some of the greatest personages of antiquity were men of one virtue
and a thousand crime:;.
The parrot is a foreign bird, of beautiful plumage. It can be taught to
pronounce a great many words and even sentences. But all its
agreeable qualities arc connterbalanced by that inclination which it
has to gnaw and destroy every thing you put within its reach. This
bird is found in flocks in the woods of several warm countries. It
makes a nest in any hollow tree which it can find, and it lays but
few eggs, commonly only_two or three.

4.

THE PRoNou:N.-T-Fhat do the Pronouns lie, she. his, her, it,
and they, refer to respectively in thefolloU'ing .s ent ences?

The huntsman wished his dogs to take the water. At first they
refused: but at last they crossed it, he following on horsebac k.
The street was originally named after a Indy of rnnk; but, ns she did
not choose that it should uear her name, the name was changed into
· that of a famous general: he, however, was never consulted in the
matter.

EXERCISE1?.

>

Point out the Anti&f!ts or Correlatives of ~ho, · which, that, and as, in
.
·
. ihe following sentences.
·

The bark which is stripped from the oak ' is used in tanning lenther1.
Some oaks · are said to be older than the oldest lb an that 'ever ·lived.
The fruit. which grows upon this tree is called an acorn . .There are
men in some countries who eat acorns. In this country, the only
animals that now feed on them are pigs and poultry ·; though such
men as originally peopled Britain .were glad to use them.
. \
Supply the blanks in the followin[J pa~sage~ with R elati-ve Pron,ouns, .
distinguisliing when who, and when wluch, ought _to be used.

The fuel
is most commonly used in the British Islands is coal.
It is dug out of deep pits in the earth by men . are called miners.
Long ngo, the foul air
· collects under grounc). used sometimes
to be set on fire by the I;imps of the miners, and to blow up, to the
great hazard of the lives of all
were in the. mine; but t!Us has
seldom occurred since the celebrated Sir Humphry Davy
devoted much ·atte.ntion to the 'subject, f~und out a kind of gauze
k~eps in the flame, and prevents it from igniting the foul air.
Supply the blanlcs in the following .story with appropr.iate Pronoun;:...;:.

Three friends entered into partnership; Charles gave the -shop as
,
contribution to
general stook l David agreed to manage the business; thus giving
· time and talents as
contribution; Edward
advanced the money to buy goods for filling
. · After carrying on
the business for some time in a manner' that reflected credit on the
manager, and brought gain to all,
suddenly lost both shop nna
goods by a fire that broke out in
neighbourhood ; and it came to
be a question among the partners which of
had ·incurred the
greatest loss. "vVc hnve all lost equally," argn,cd David,' .' for
each contributed equally to
general stock, and all is gone."
"Not at all," replied Charles; "I have Inst
shop, certainly, and
Edward has lost
money; but
, David, lrnvc lost only your
time:
talents for mauagetnent,
formed the other part of
your contrihntion , still remain 'u~impaired ; nay, , . .are improved
by the exercise they have received in conducting. .business. You
are , therefore, .not to be considered .as a loser to the same ex_ten_t as
Edward and have been , but rather as one
is a debtor · to the
firm." It is for the ingeniouA reader to determine which of the
parties had the advantage in _this argument . .

.

'·

-

,

.-

40
5.

TH.E V.Enn.-JJistinguish Nouns, Adjectives denoting quaHty,
~c?Jectwes of number, Pronouns, and Verbs, in the following sentences:-

John 'is a tall boy: he has three sisters.
Our ma ster strikes the table three times.
That horse gallops at the rate of twelve miles an hour.
The sun sets.
Our h1Ja rts urn <l1Jccitful.
The diligent scholar surpasses his competitors, and stands leader in
his class.
·
An . i<lle boy grieves hi~ teacher, disappoints his parents, an<l ruins
lmnself.
·
I love my parents, my preceptor, and my lesson: you are idle; you
neglect your duty ; you deserve punishment.

Disting1tish VcT"b., from .Adjectives in tlie.following sentences:- .
The
The
We
The

m eadows are joyful: the little hills r ejoice.
shadows of the long night lengthen about us.
mourn at the mournful tidings.
whole family are sad:· their sadness saddens us.

Distinguish between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the following
instances: Afflict, arise, begin, beg, bite, bleed, cleave, creep, drink, eat, fall,
liy, go, g row , hang, heur, kno w, lie, ride, ring , rive , run, scatter,
se~k, se ll, shave, shine, sink, smite, stride, strew, swim, take, tear,
thmk, throw, walk, wax, weave, weep, win, word, write,

In the following s cnl ence.~, diRlingni.•h whrn the worrl in italics is a Noitn
'
'
.
when an Aqjective, .and when a Verb.
Thy fri ends are in the garden: th ey walk from walk to walk.
So great is th e heat given out by the burning pines , that they heat
the whole surrounding airc
The fig ht still continues: th ey breathed a little , !mt now they fight
agam .
So· ri ch an.cl f~agrnnt, the poets tell us, is th e .<m.ell of th e spicy fields
of Arabia I• ehx, that the mariners who naviga te the coast smell
them far out at sea.
·
This damp night might be expected to cast a damp over us; yet we
damp not o~r ardour. ~calm has succeeded the storm, aad again
the ocean 1s calm. · It 1s proper that we calm our foars also.
If you labour diil ge ntly you will not lose your Zaboitr.
They liope to gain wealth, and the liope of gain sweetens labour.

41 -_,

EXERCISES.

ETYMOLOGY.

,·

They are of humble rank, but they rank high in the ; estimation of
their fellows. This flower is rank.
He should moderate bis \\·ishes, .and he content ~ith , moderate gains.

,,

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..

)'

1

6. AovERns.-/n each of tl},e following sentences thefe is an
Adverb: point it out; and state, in each case, which part
of speech it qualifies, whether an Adjective, Verb, or .other
Adverb.
·
The master twice corrected · John.
Your lesson is not sufficiently prepared.
The boy who lately entered school is now at the head of his class.
You act foolishly ; your conduct is truly mournful.
That story is not true.
.
,
That is not very wisely said ; you certainly deserve punishment.
This is too bad ; such misconduct will very speedily find you out.

7.-8entences fo which all parts of speech occur, to be parsed
with reference·. to the
classification
of. the words.
·
.
...
.
.

. .- ~

.,

'

.

~

,·.

.

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\

God bestowed on man the faculty of speech for great and importapt
purposes : but, alas ! we frequently pervert it to the '~orst purposes ..
Alexander the Great had a high esteem for knowledge and learning.
.· He used to say, ''He was more obliged to · Aristotle, h1s · tutor, for
his learning, than to Philip, his fath er, for' his lifo !" 6 , what a pity
he devoted his life so little to the learning he so greatly loved ! • ·. ' '
The tongue · of the slanderer is
fire which blackens , whateyer .it
touches-which directs its fury .o n the good grain equally as on .the
chatf,-which, wherever it 'rages, produces· nothi~g but devastat.ion
and ruin. O how vile a character is the slanderer! The tongue is
an inestimable blessing; but he perverts and prostitutes it. '
Words descriptive of natural sounds generally bear some resemblance
in their sound to \vhat they represent. We call a certain bird the
cuckoo, from the sound which it emits. We say of the wind,, at one
time, that it whistles, at another, it roars. \Ve say of serpents, they
hiss; of flies, ' they buzz ; of falling timber, it crashes. Of the stream
we say, it.flows; of th.e hail, it rattles. In all which instances. ihe,re
is obviously a manifest resembl~nce between t_he word and t~e thipg
, • "
.·
· .
signified.
,
.' '
·
"'(... ~ ~
', ~
At noontide hour
,The imprison'd inmates of the. school ' rii~h forth, .
And sport the ·hnppy interval away. ,
·.
· Upon the sward they gaily spread their store!, · '·
And, happy! feed UP,On the simple fare.
·

a

·<:

4*

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>,

. I

44

ETYMOLOGY.

79. A sent.ence is imperfect when it contains a word
which implies that an additional clause is required to complete the sense.

(

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45

,·'

Dy examining the following sentences a1Jd parts of scnlencee with·
reference to their exp lanation, antl poin1i11q ont whi ch nmong then1

nre , complete, nnd whicl1 are not, the pupi l will rcnd ily lcnrn to dis·
tinguish between th em, and to apply the distinction in writing gram·
maticn l exercises.
A great hero. A great hero is not always a good man. The boy who
studies. The boy who studies dilige.ntly. The boy who studies
diligently may hope to become a good scholar. A house built of
stone. The house is built of stone. ·when ·w nshington arrived.
\\>'hen \Vashinglon arrived , the enemy retreated. The days being
short. The days being short, afforded li ttle time for amusement.

Chasing a Butterfl y,

\Vrite Aent cnces relating to tbe ohjecls in thi s picture, introducing
noun~, aTticles, adjectives, and ~erbs.

EXERCL'3ES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL.
[In writing the following exorcises, the pupil i!I not required to confine himself to the
parte of epccch enumerated under each, l.tut ho may Juae othor1 also.}

The hnnd·orgnn 'r larer.

Write sentences relatirig to this · picture,_ includi~g nouns, article1,
mvectiv .. ; ~~rba, and. pronouns . .

,.

.\
·,

Write a uumber of short sentences, the ideas being suggested by the
nbove picture, the words employed including 1wuns' articl.. , and
verbs.

.,.' .

~·

MODEL.
'rho b.oy plays. The fath er observes. The mother smiles. Tha
sistdr enjoys the sport. A pipe lies on the table. The sister leanl
on the table .

/. ,

··. r,;, ,; '
~

·· Autumri. ·

.:..

.

'·. ·· Write se~tences . relating to this plcture, includipg nouni, verbs, ·adjec.
.,
, .
'
,. .
•
tivd, and prepositions. , 1
(

...
46

..

ETYMOLOGY.

·i .

47

· EXERCISES.

''

,.
The Cottage Girl.

Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjuncti.on1.

'

A Ride.

Write sentences inclu~g Muns, verbs, adjectives, and relative pronouns.1

'

r

Chinchillas. ·

\Vrite sentences including nouns, verbs , adjectives, articles, and inter·
jections.
'

.t .

. The Village Inn.

'\ '

Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectivea, ,and adji:ctive pro··
tiouna.
'·

'.

.,

48

)

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'. :
.,

:~

ETYMOLOGY.

.

'

.

, ...

,,

~-

",

)

INFLECTJQ,N ' Ol!' WORDS. · ·•
I

II. INFLECTION OF WORDS.
80. /11.flection is tha.t change of terrnination which words
Undergo to expre"s their various relations.
Thuss in boys, er in harder, se in whose, ed in killed are inflections
of boy, hard, who, and kill.
.
'
Inflections, though nc:iw 'so incorporated with words as not to be used
a?ar_t from them, _appear to have been, originally, separate words,
significant of the circumstances intended.

81. The parts of speech \vhich admit of inflection, are
the Noun, the . Adjective,, the Pronoun, the Verb, and th~
4dverb.
INFLECTION OF NOUNS.

82. Nouns admit of inflection to express Number, Gender,
and Case.
I . - N U M ·B E R •

83. Common Nouns, only, admit of Number.
84. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural.
85. The Singular exp1:esses only one of a class; the
Plu1·al, any number tnore than one.
86. The singula.r is always (O!xpressed by the noun in its
simple form; as, book, fox.
. 87. The plural is generally formed by adding s or es to
the singular; as, boolc, books; fo.1:, foxes.
~~ '
'

1. The termination/, orfe, is ofte~ ·changeii into ves; _as, :calf, calves;
knife, knives.
. . . / : ·., .
·
The following words; however, ,follow the general \rule, viz., .brief,'
chief, fief, grief, handkerchi~f; hoof, proof; reproof, ropf; dwarf,
scarf, wharf; gulf; turf; cliff, sheriff, skiff, whiffi ' cilff, m~ff. puff, ..
ruff, snuff, stuff; ,fife,' strife; safe.
·. .
.·. . ....... . "' . ,· .' '
2. Y, preceded by a consonant, ii! changed into iesj · as,' citY,, cities;
. but y pre9eded by a vowel, follow~ the general .rule, as also y in
proper names, used as common nouns, though prece,ded .b:i a:consonant; .thus, joy, joys; Henry, the Henrys. Moriey, moriie~;, clp)ll·
riey, chimni~s, are exceptions, sanctioned by good 'ati.ihority. "':
·
3. Some nouns take 'the Saxon ter~ination, en, in the formatiort of the ·
plural ; as,
.
·
·· , 1 · • : • • • · ., . ·:
Alderman ........ ·Aldermen.
Ox ••. , ........... Oxen. '
·'
Child ............. -Children.
Statesman ::·.... ;. Stateen!1m.
Footman ......... Footmen.
Woman .. ,: •. : ..• Women.
Man ............. Mf?n.
ork~an ..... ~ .. workmen.
4. Some vary the plufal to ·expr~!!s a difference of meaning. . l· .. : ;'r ' .
Thus, brother makes brotliers, when d~noting sons ofthe 'same parent;
· and brethren, ·when denoting persons 'of th~ same society or ,pro·
fessioll; die, a stamp fqr coining, makes dies; dip, a little ·cube used .
in games, dice; genius makes,. geniuses, when signifying persons of
genius '; genii, .when deriotin'g aerial spirits; inde3: fualces t'nde:ces,
when it expresses a table of contehts, arid indic~~ when it denotes
the exponent of Bn·Blgebraic quantity; penny makes pehniei; When
it is used for:real coins; ·p.ence, for their vnh-1e'. in computation. ~ \ · . '
· 5. Nouns which ·have· been· adopted, without' alteratio{.l, from ·fofeign ...
languages, ·generally retain their original. plurai.s;· i ·1 he. , ~rihcipal . ' · , .
words of this class are the following : .: , :. ·. · ; •: ;..:.: 1... ,' . .,.. ,·:-' '.: . .

.w

·. FROM THE GR.EEK.

The no~n~ '~hich take es are chiefly those which end in x, clt soft; sli,
ss, an mi and o, preceded by a consonant;* as, fox, foxes; church,
churches,· brush, brushes; class, classes,· alkali, alkalies; hero, hero es. 0 pu.'.e, th~t is, o preceded by a vowel, a11d clt hard, take 8
only; as, folio, fohos; patria_!.ch, patriarchs.

Antithesis .• .".••• " antitqeses. .
.
'
Automaton • ~ •••• , automata.
Basis •.•.•••••... bases. ,'
· Criterion •••.••••. criteria.
I
Crisis . , .. ; .....• : crises. ·
•

i

(

,

* Modern usage i_s rather in favour of nouns in o, though preceded b
a conso~iant, follo:vrng the general rule. Thus, the plurals of cant!
grotto, Junto, portico,. quarto, solo, tyro, are now generally written can~
tos, &c.
· ·
·
so.- vVh_at is i~fl ectio n ? Give an examp le. 81. vVhnt parts of speech

admit ofmflectJOn? 82. How are nouns inflected? 83. What nouns
hav,e_l').umber 1 . 84. How many? . 85. How distinguished? 86. How is
the smgular expressed? 87. How 1s the plural genera lly formed? Whnt

.

•

,

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!"

·,.:,,... •

Ellipsis •• , ••• ·•• : • :ellipses. . . ,
. .... •,; hypotheses.
Hypothesis
Metamorphosis , ~ • nietamorphoses.
Phenomenon .•• : • pheriomena: · .'
'
.
.
Thesis 1. • •••• ;·.,•···.theses; '. J' ·. !
t

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To this list ·it is common. to add fish, which is · Jilaid ,to-mak,e flsh in._., the plural, when iantity is to he . den,otcd-; flslies, .when ,we sff.e ak'.' of
number; and pea hicli is said to make'. peas, to ,s ignifr. the1 ~~eds," as
distinct objects :.pe e, the seeds in mass. ' But it is probab\yb~tter ~li con!.
sider.fish, When it si ifies quantity, and peast, a4 collective Il'Ol.lllslipkular.

*

nouns take es in the plurai 1 (1) ~hat change i~· ni~,?:~ ;'iq {p(>~~ :~m;ling
:inf, or fe ~ What are ,the exceptions 1 (2) . What remarks are made on
. nouns ending in y 1 ( (3) . Give e,x~mple.s of .the .Slllf.on t~rmi)ialiem ' ln en,.
(4) For what is the plural sometimes varied 1 Give l!xafuP,les;•_ (5)'Whal
is the rule for nouns of foreign origin, t -Give examplea:frpni the«lree~~

p

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.. ·

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·:----

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50

ETYMOLOGY.

genera.
ignes-fatui.
laminre.
magi.
medii.
memoranda.
n;dii.
stimuli.
strata.
vertices.
vortices.
,

FROM THE HEBREW.

FROM THE FRENCH.

Monsieur ..•...... messieurs.

FROM THE ITALIAN.

Bandit (_
b d' .
Banditto 5 · · · · · · · · · an ittJ.

Dilettante .•....... dilettanti.
Virtuoso ........... virtuosi.
I
6. Some npuns are entirely ano.malo.us in the formation of their plu.
rals ; thus,-:Foot ............... fest.
. Cow . ...... ........ kine. t
Goose ..• •' · .... . .... geese.
Sow ................ swine .'
Louse •.••.. '. ...•... lice.
Tooth .............. teeth.
Mouse ............. mice.
7. Some nouns are used alike in both numbers; as, deer, horse, sheep,
swine.
Proper names have necessarily no plural; but there are also some
common names which want the plural. Of this kind are names of
grains; as, rye, wheal~ names of. metals; as, iron, gold; names of

* " Cherubim and Seraphim are real Hebrew plurals; but such is the
propensity in m.en to ~orm regul.ar inflections in language, that these
words are used m the smgular, with regular plurals, cherubims seraphims.. In like manner, the Hebrew singulars, cherub and seraph, have
obtamed regular plurals." - \VEBSTER.
t If kine was originally cowen, and swine, sowen, which their sound
.would seem to render not improbable, they belong to exception 3d, rather
than to exception 6th. '
I

Give examples from the Latin-the Hebrew-the French-the Italian,
-(6) Give examples of anomalies. - (7) Of nouns used in both numbers.

'. -

.

.

.

0

Cherub .......... Cherubim.* . Seraph ............. Seraphim.

Beau •.. • · ...••.• • · beaux.

.

fossils; as, man, clay; and names of abstract and moi:al _qualities i
as, gravity, benevolence."'
.
,.
There are some common nouns, on the other hand, which have no
singular; for example, nouns expressive of what nature or art has
made double; ·as, scissors, snuffers; and nouns descriptive of objects
which are not easily conceived without a reference to a plurality of
·parts; as, attnals, archives, vespers.
·'
There are also some nouns having a plural termination, which, from
their being expressive of either unity or plurality' admit of being
used in either number, according to' the vi~w of their me'aning pre·
sent to the mind of the writer or speaker, when he employs them.
The following are those most comm?nly used:~
Alms,
Hydrostatics, · Metaphysics,
Pneumatics,
Hysterics,
'News,
Amends,
Politics,
1
Billiards,
Mn thematics,
Odds,
Riches,
Economics,
Means,
Optics,
Statistics,
Ethics,
Measles,
· Pains,
Tactics • .
. Physic~,
Hydraulics,
Mechanics,

. FROM THE LATIN.

Animalculum .••• animalcula. Genus ............
Apex .•. ...•• ••. apices.
lgnis-fatuus ...•...
Appendix ••••... appendices. Lamina •.•........
Arcanum ..•••... arc~na.
Magus ....•.......
Axis ..••••••..•. axes.
Medium .. . . .. .. ..
Calx .. .• l ....... calces.
Memorandum . ....
Datum ...•.•.... data.
. Radius .... ; .......
Stimulus ..•.•.....
Desideratum •••. desiderata.
Effluvium ••• ..•. effiuvia.
Stratum .... .. ..•..
Erratum ........ errata.
Vertex........... ·..
Focus . · · .. .. .. • • foci.
Vortex . • .. .. .. .. ..

. 51

INFLECTION 'oF ·WORDS. · '
·1 ,.

ir. (]END .ER.
88. There are three Genders, the Masculine; the Fem.f:nine,
and th~· Neuter. ·
89. The masculine .distinguishes male animals ; the feminine, females; the 71euter, things destitute qf sex.
I

As there are only two sexes, there ought to be gut two genders, the masculine and the feminine. But it has been found convenient
to add a third, the neuter. t, This word signifies neither, and t~ere·
• It is to be observed, however, that nouns' of the above Classes take ' •"
a plural to express varieties of the substances denoted by them. Thus, r
we can say, wheats, golds, clays, gravities, when we wish to describe
different kinds of wheat, &c.
'
·, · ' '
,.
' t All things inanimate are consider_ed as neuter, except in caAes
where, by an easy analogy, the imagination conceives of ihcm as ani •
. mated, and assigns sex to them. · . This mode of giving .life and sex to
things inanimate, is nearly p!)Culiar to our language, and forms one 0 f
. its striking beauties .. . But it Is not easy to reduce the us-age of the language, on this point, t<> fixed 1rules.- Ind~ed, .,fancy, more than na ture· Cir
1
reason, may be traced in the regulation of the ·.ma~ter; ,and- the. same
' objeci may be found described as sometimes of on~__genaer; a11d some. times of another. ~'h nearest approach ·to uniformity of usage is in '
'the words, sun, death me, and names ·of great rivers,•,which take the
· masculine; and in · e words, ,morm, morn, ship; earth; which:.;_ta~e the·
' femiriinegender. .
· 1 • ·. ·: . . ' . - ~ f-• ·';.: .. ··~· t"
.

.

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(

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\

. : What remark is made on proper nouns.?-On some' common nourui?-bn
nouns used in either numblr 1 Give examples. 88. How many genders

.·',

,/' ~;;~•:·· '>', (,•·: ·~ \",~L"';'~;•.o~~::~: ·1&:r~ ".;;;~~;
~ '·

52

'

·.

INFLEC'T.I ON . OF WOR])S.

, fore intimates that the objects to which it is applied are neither of
the masculirte ·nor of the feminine gender.
The English is almost the only language which, in the distribution of
Gender, (ollows the order of nature.

• 11-Iasc.... ,

are applicable to either sex, are
said to be of the common gender ;* as, parent, cousin.
91. There are three modes of distinguishing sex.
92; (l.) Distindion of sex is most commonly expressed by
a change of terminat.ion to denote the feminine gender.
93. The feminine terminations most frequently used, are,
ess, ix, a, inci, arid ine.

Abbott ....••. . . . abbess. t
Acter . . •. .. . . . •. actress.

Jlfasc.
Fem.
Administrator . administratrix.
Director . .... directrix.

Masc ..
Czar ... ;.; .' •..•
· He ro . . . • . . . . . .
L andgrave . .. . .

Adulterer . ...... adultress.
Ambassador •.•.. ambassadress.

are there 7 89. How are the genders distinguished ? 'What is said of
the English language? 90. What is meant by the common ge.ndtr 7
91. How many modes of distinguishing sex are there? 92. Which is
the first and most common? 93. ·which are the most usual feminine
terminations 1 Give examples of those words which retain the whole '

:··!
"1

Fem .
czarina.
heroine.
lundgravine.

, :· '

1

Masc .
Beau ..... • •. . .• . ·.
Boy .• ·.•. . . . ..... .
Bridegroom .. ·.. .. .
Brother . ..... •

1 •••

~

• •

Fern.
belle.
girl.
bride.
sister.

Buck .. . .......... doe.
'• , Bqll .. .... ·. . ..... . .. cow.
Bullock : .: '. . . ..... heifer. ·
Colt . . .... .. ·. . . .' ... fillf ~'
l

•

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-

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<1

;~

. ~ ~'
·"'•

..._
.

!

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·...

-~

71
>~

Jl'Iasc. ,_
. Fem.
E xecutor .. •. : •• execlrtrix . .·,
Testatoi-. •. . ••••• testatrix. · ,

'(i

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Jlfasc. ·
Margrave . . •.• •• margravine.
Sultan ... . ...... sultana. ,; .

•

·1
·iI

";•
_,·'

JI.lase.
Gaffer .' . ... : ..... .
Gander : .. .•. . .. •
Hart . . . .. . ••.•. . .
Horse ... •. ·" ., ...
Husband ..• ••.•• ;
King . ·.' . • .....•..
L ord . . .. , . • . • .. ; .
1

Nian .... . . . : . . •

• •

"

.:J

.1!,;

.Fem.

..

gammer.
goose.
roe. ,.
mare.
wife. :
qlieen . . ·',
lady. .
. '" woman. ·
'

· , ,

. )

1

~

..'j

'

;

'1

.'i

.. .iii-~

'j

~

I

·)

v·

•
.

•

~~2

...,

Drake ..• .. .' . ; .•. . . duck..
Monk ..... , •.• •,. : . nun •. 1-. ~
',. E arl : . -. . . ....•. : .. ·countess. · __:,, Nephew : .' . ~: ·::_ . ·:'. niece. ·.'':: ··. , ~
'
., I(
', ,~ ..
' R
. . . ., I "
am . .'. : •., ... _.• • ew~. - '~ -·
F at her .. . .. .. ... . . mo ther.,-.
,. '
ni~scu\ine. Of .those which ha~e lmd~rgone co~traction. '. Of those-··
·which express the feminin e by the. termination ,ix. :' Of those which
express the feminine · by the termination in a, ina, and ine: · 94. · (2.) ' ·
What is the .s econd ;node of diRtfoguishing sex k:. Give ex.amples. ·

'.

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5*

'.')

.·

94. (2.) Distinction of sex. is also expressed by a different
word being employed to ~eriote the feminine, thus : .....'... .' .-

Fem.

The appellation "common;, gender is sufficiently descriptive of
llUch a word as pan11ts (in the plural), which necessarily includes both
the masculi ne and the feminine. But for the singular, parent, and for
such wo rds as cousin, &c., " either" gender would be a more correct
appellation.
t These femini nes must have been, originaHy, abbotess, actoress,
adulteress, &c. DuchesR, and marchioness, have not been formed from
duke, and marquis, but from duch and marchion.

~;~

.Those whi~h expres~ the feminine by the termination~ a, ina, aP:d i~
" are also of foreign. qrigin, ~ and are few ,i n number, thus : - ,
·

'

*

:J

1

The following have undergone contrnction : -

Mast.

Ma'sc. • ,
Fem..'
Lad .....•• .' • . . lass. '
Marquis .•..... marchioness.
Master :·.. . ... . mistress.
Protector ... . ·. .' protectress. , ·
Seamster ••.•.. ·aea1ns[ress. '.
Songster ....• , songstress,, ·
Sorcerer .. ; .. : sorceress. .
Tiger .• '..: ...... .tigress. · ·.>.
Traitor • . . '.; ••• traitresS:

~
'·~

The words which express the f~minine by the tei;mination i:r, aro of
' Latin origin, thus: -

Originally, the termination ess was simply added to the masculine;.
but, latterly , the feminine , thus formed, has, for convenience of utterance,, been variously contracted.
The followin g words still retain the wlwle masculine : llfosc.
Fem .
Jl[au.
Fem.
Author •. . ..... .. authoress.
Mayor . ... . ...... mayoress.
Baron . .. .••.. . .. baroness.
Patron .. . ... • .... patroness•.
Count •.• . • • •. . .. countess.
P eer . . . . ....... . . peeress.
. Dauphin . ... . .... dauphiness. Poet . .. •. ....•.•. poetess.
Deacon •. •• .. •• . . deaconess. Priest . . •. •.... • .. priestess.
Giant .. . .. . . . . .. . giantess.
Prior .. .. ... . .... prioress.
Heir . .. . .... .. ... heiress.
Prophet . •...•. .. . prophetess.
Host . . •...•... . . hostess.
Shepherd . ..•.. . . . shepherdess.
J ew : . .. .. . .. . . . . J ewess.
Tutor .. .......... ta toress.
Lion .... . .. . ... . lioness.
Viscount . .. .•.. . . viscountess.

Fem: ·

Arbiter ·•.' ~ ~ ... ~ . arbitress. · · '
'Benefactor .. • .. . ' benefactress.
Chanter .... . . . chantress.
Conductor . . . . ; conductress.
Duke ........ . d11chess. .
Elector .... ~ ... electt ess.
Emperor . . . . . . empress.
Governor ·..•... governess. ·
Hunter •...... , . .huntress. ·. ,.

90. Some nouns, which

Fem.

.

'·

ETYMOLOGY.

Masc.

f

.,
,•1.,

J

-i
v

'

'.j

~
,
·~

"
r ·' .

54

ETYMOLOGY.
lvlasc.
Sloven ..••.......
Son ._.' ..........
Stag .. . .. .' ... .. ..

Fem . .
slut.
daughter.
hind.
,

Masc.
Uncle .. .•.•......
Widower ...... . . .
Wizard ..•.......

INFLECTION OF WORDS.
Fern.
aunt.
widow.
witch.

95. (3.) Distinction of sex is also sometimes expressed by
prefixing a separate ~ord to indicate the gender, thus: Masc.
· Fem.
He· gnat ...•• she.goat.
Man-servaN.t . maid.servant.,

Masc.
Fem.
Cock-sparrow .•. hen-sparrow.
Male-child .•...• female-child.

.

.

101. The possessive is .formed,-in the singular,' by adding
s, with an apostrophe before)t ('s) ;*as, Father, Father's.
102. The posses~ive is formed, · in the plural, by ,' adding
only an apostrophe; as, Fathers, Fathers'. . · .

103. A noun is thus declined : ,III.
_\_

CASE.

9(:). There are three Cases, - the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective.
As the only relation of nouns which is expressed in Engllsh by n ch~ng~
of termination is that of ownership, or possession, there are, strictly
speaking, only two cases, the noun in its simple ' form, and the noun
with the possessive termination; as, boy, boy's.

97. The noun is in the nominative case when it is the
name of the person or thing which acts, or is spoken of.
98. The noun is in the possessive case when it expresses
ownership, or possession.
99. The noun is in the objective case when it is the name
of the person or thing which is the object or end of an action or movement.
Thus, in the sentence - " .James strikes John's horse," James, as the
agent, is in the naminative case ; John's, as expressing the relation
of ownership, is in the possessive; and horse, being the name of the
·
object,* is in the objective. ·

100. The nominative and objective are both expressed by
the noun in its simple form.

, * When a noun does any thing, it is called the agent, and when
somethirig is done to it, it is called the object.
- 95. (3). Wh,a t is the third mode of distinguishing sex 7 Give examples. 96. How muny ca~es are there 7 97. Whnt is meant by the
fiominative ca~e? 98. What is meant by the possessive case 1 99. ·\Vhat
is meant by the objective case? Give an exumple of each, in the same
1entencc. 100. How are the nominative and objective expressed 1

i. ... ..

\Vhen the noun ends ins, ss ~ ce, or ai1y other termination which does
not easily admit of a hissing sound after it, the possessive is formed
by simply annexing the apostrophe wi\hout . the letters.; as,, ". for
_,
righteousness' sake; for conscience' sake."
When the plu~al does not end in s, the pos~essive plural is formed in
the same manner as the possessive singular; as, men, men's:
Singular.
Nom. Father .... .
Poss. Father's ...
Obj.
Father .....

Plural:
Fathers
Fathers'
Fathers

'

Singular.
Plural.
.' Nam. Man ..• ....... Men
'Poss. Man's .••.... : . Men's
Obj.
Man , • ·· ~ ....... M_en·

-~•;

,

,

I

-

'

.I'•.,

.-

* It has been supposed that the termination ('s) of the English pos-. !lessive, is a contraction for the possessive pronoun his . . Thus, "- Johh 's · '·
book" has been said to be an abbreviation of" John his book." But
this opinion is evidently erroneous. The termination ('s) cannot always be resolved into the pronoun his. We cannot resolve·" queen's
crown" into "queen his crown " or "children's bread" into "children
his bread." The fact seems ~o be, that 'the English possessive termination is one of the parts of our language which we have preserved from .
the Saxon. The casal termination of the ,Saxof\ possessive is es 0 or is;
as appears in such phrases as. " Godes .sight,' 1 "kingis crown." •; 'fhe
progress of change in the tej tn_ination seems t 0 ~ave .b~_en es, is~ 'B. _~

.

.

- ·

I

t·

,

·~
'~

.J'

104. The adjectives which admit of inflection, are tmch as ·
denote qualities susceptible of increase, and a few Numerals.
105. Adje~tives . which denote qualities susceptible of in· '
crease, admit of infleCtion to express comparison. ·
108. There ai·e three degrees of comparison, - the PositiVe, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
,
107. The positive is expressed by the adjeCtive i~ its sil!i·
pie state ; as, hard.

1O~. Ho~ is the possessive formed in the si~gula~ 7 102. How i~
the pl urn!? - How when the noun e_nds in B, ss, or ce 7 - .W hen the
plural does not end in 8 7 103. How is a noun qeclined 7 :104', What
adjectives admit. of inflection? 105. ' What adjecti\'.eS are compared 7
,106. What are the delirees of comparison 7 . -lll7, 10_8, ' ~09 .. How are

.. .

• I'.,;.

~: -

,

'·
-_, ''-ii
~ ::

,:( ·. · :

, (

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES.

'

I '

1

.

,

'

'

...

#,

.-·J·~l
-

"._ ,·,
·~

·'·

,_

.'

56

.. INFLECTIOWf>F: W.ORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

108. The comparatfoe denotes a greater degree of the
quality expressed by the positive; as, harder.
109. The sup erlative denotes the greatest degree of the
quality, expressed by the pos1:tive (as, hardest.
110. The comparative is general,ly formed by adding r, or
er, to the positive ; 1 as, safe, safer; tall, tall er.
11 J. The superlative is generally formed by adding st, or
est, to the positive; as, safe, safest; tall, tallest.
112. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: Good .... .•. ....• better ................ best.

~~ti

( .......... wor~e ........ ........ \\'orst.

s

I

1

f. '
·,.;.:·.
\

\

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS.
'

114. The Pronouns which admit of inflection, are, the
Personal, the Relative, the Reciprocal, and the Demonstra.tive.
'
·
·
115. The Personal Pronouns admit ' of Number, . Gender,
and Case.

'

Ill
Little .. . ... . ....• less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. least.
Many (
l\iuch ~ ..•....... more ..... ..•. .•..... most.

Far . .....•.•••. . . farther .. , .. . . ........
Fore .......... . .. former ...... .. .......
In ...... ..... . ... . inner . ................
Late .. . ....... ... later .................
N ear ............ nearer .... ...... ... . .
O Id . . .......... .. older or elder . .. .... . .
Out ............. outer . ..... ~ .... .. ...
Up . ..... . ....... upper . ... ............

adding wost either to ~~~ - positive or to tpe comp,fl,rative; as, ~ind,
hindmost, or hindermost. · . '
.- · · . , <
'.
' ·
There is also a species of comparison made by adding the affix iah, ·
which lessens the ~Jgnification o( the positive; bS black, blackish;
' white, whitish.* fothis for~ the adjective is calle~ a diminutive.

116. They are thus decli~ed: First Person Masc, or F~. ·

farthest.
foremost or first.
inmost or innermost.
latest or last.
nearest or next.
oldest or eldest.
utmost or outermost.
upmost or uppermost.
\

113. Adjectives are also compared by prefixing the words
more and most to the positive; as, gentle, more gentle, most

gentle.
It w~uld 'seem, from the diversity of usage which prevails, that it is
left to the ear and taste to determine whether the comparison should
be expressed in any particular instance by a change of termination,
or by prefixing more and most.
Adjectives of one syllable, and. dissyll~ble adjectives in ?/ and le pure,
nre generally compared in the former way; adjectives of more than
iwo syllables, and dissyllables which do not end in y or le pure, in the
latter.
A few adjectives form their superlative by adding most to the compa. rative; as, nether, nethermost; lower, lowermost; and a fow by

Second Per$dn Masc. or Fem.
Sing.
Plu .,
.~

t

Sing.

Plur.

Norn. I ·.•....... _
. Wet
Poss. My' or mine Our or ours

· Obj. :Me ••••••• .'Us·

Thou .••.... Ye or you t ·
-Poss. Thy or thine You or yours
' Obj. Thee ••_.;·.• Yod' , ~: ,·

·

Third Pers. llfa:fc.
Sing.
Plur.

I

.~-

- Nam.

.

-

I•

'

"r

. Thi'l't/Pers. Fem. •
, Sfng. .
Plur.
Nom. She ..... They -.. · .
Poai. Her or hers Their or theire

,, -

Nom. He ••••.. They .

· Frm. His ..•. .. Their or theirs

Obj.. Her .. .

Obj. Him •..•• Them.

•• •
1

..

Them

,,·

• The words, prior, exterior, infe.rfor, superior, ulterior, &c., which 1
have the form of Latin comparatives, are not to be considered compnra, ' tive irt English. Besides wanting the termination of the. English .com- ,
. p'ralive, they are not followed by than, ita distinguishing mark. · . · ..
t The idea expressed by the plurals of 1 and ihou, is not the same
with that expressed by the plural of nbuns. In nouns, . the · plural'is
, equivalent to the sihgular ·repeated. .Thus, boys is equaHo boy+. boy+
· boy, &c., .indefinitely. But· we is' not equivalent to 1+.1+'1, ~c.,- but ,
, to 1 othtrs, joined with myself. · Jn the same manner, ye, or 'you, is 1not
equivalent t~ thou+ thou+. thoy, &c.; .but ." to : thou +others, ' jo,it!E:Q .wi\h..: .
1 you. · ,
-1 1'' ..
· ~~,: .. f ·\:\ ~, .,. .~ \~;- -:~;/ !' :~\·.:.·: ·1;:1

+

.

th«,Jy distinguished ? 110, 111. How are the comparative and superla·
tive formed ? · 112. \Vhat adjectives are irregular? 113. What is the
other mode of comparison? What general rule is gi1,en respecting, the
tw:o inocles of comparison 1 When is most used ns a termination 'I

'"'

.

..

.

.

. ~ ..

I

.'~

.

'· : What is indicated by' the termina.tio~ 'ish .7'. 114. Whi9h.. pf,o;oiins ·~d­
; mit of · inflection? 115. Of whlit d!i tqe ·personal. ptonouns ' ~dmit?

· 1i6. Decline1-T/10-u-,....He-She._1t.

117dJ~_pl!n~; 'W/io.:._;Whi~~· -

' ' -\ ' ... 'J J •
~

•

•"I

,.

r

•

..

~

< :'

.,

:

. 58

.

ETYMOLOGY.

Nom.
Poss.
Obj.

'

Sing.
Nom. Which ..•••.
Poss. Whoset .....
Obj. . Which •.....

,,.

.l

In_strictness, th~ participles are not parts of the ve~b , as they do not
imply affirmation, but are m,erely adjectives, formed from verbs. ·

128. Verbs are divided Jnt~ Regular, lrregula;, ~hd ,Defective.
· ·'
-

The Indefinite Pronoun, another, is the only adjective-pronoun which
admits of variation to express case- another's being the possessive
case.

129. Verbs are regular \vhen the Past t~nse, and Perfect
participle are formed by adding d, or ed, to. the present; as,

'

INFLECTION OF VERBS.

118. What is said of that and as ? l l!l. What is said of self? 120.
· . What is said of the Demonstratives? - Of another?· 121. What do
verbs express by inflection? 122. How many numbers have . verbs 1
' 123. How many persons? 124. What distinctions of time are ex-

·.

i

118. The Relatives that, and as, admit of no variation.
119. The Reciprocal Pronoun, self, has, in the plural, selves.
120. The Demonstrative Pronouns, tlds, and that, have,
for their plurals, these and those.

¥ The oblique cases of the personal pronouns arc so different, in some
instances, from the nominative, that they must have originally belonged ·
to different words.
·
t \Vhatever grammarians may say, it does not admit of doubt, that
whose, as the possessive of which, is the general usage of the language.
t The pupil will recollect that inflection is that change of termina.
tion which words undergo to express their various relations. The variations in the signification of verbs, produced by the use of the auxiliary,
or generic verbs, are not, strictly speaking, inflections. They will Ile
brought into view uncle~ the head of INFLECTION OF CoMPOUND VERBS. ·.

l

126. Th~ Present Participle is formed by adding fog to
the. verb, a~d denotes that the action is proceed,i ng; as,
loving, walking. ,
,
··
"
.
127. The Perfect Participle is 'formed by adding
dr ed .
d
'
t
I t
an denotes that t.h.e action is finished ·; as, loved, walked. ··

Plur.
Which
Whose
Which

121. Verbs admit of inflection to express Number, Person,
and Time.
122. Verbs have two Numbers, the Singular, and the
Pforal; as, he loves, they love.
123. Verbs have three Persons, corresponding with those
.of the personal pronouns; as, I love, thou lovest, he loves.
124. The -only distinction of Time, or Tense, made by inflection,+ is into Present and Past; as, I love, I loved.

...

125. Ver~s .als·o· admit of inflection to. form the Present
and Perfect Participles.
' .

117. The Relatives, who and which, are thus declined: Plur.
Who
Whose
Whom

., 59 ',

. -:

The pr~~e?t tense denotes th_at the a~tiori, ~r state, expr~~sed ·by th~~\­
.. verb, ism present time . . THe past tense denotes that the· a~tion, or .. ·
-' ', , ·:
'
state, expressed by the verb, is in past time.

Third Person Neuter.
..,
It ••. '. ................ They
Its ................... Their or tlieirs
It .................... Them*

Sing.
Nom. Who ........
Poss . Whose .•....
Whom ......
Obj.

1NFLECTION ,'OF . WORDS. -~

.

Present . . ··

..

.,

Rast. :

Perfect Part.

, Love ...... '. . 7: .. • Loved .. . ......... ·. Loved.
Walk .......... '. ':. Walked ........... ; Walked ..

. l

' '/
-

130. Verbs are IrrBgular when the Past tense, and 'Perfect participle, are formed in any' other w~y thafl by. a.d~ing ·
. d, or ed, to the present; as,
, ,
_ ', ' • · • "-••,,
· r · -:•t •I . ;.
.~

Present.

Pasi. :. '

· Perfect Part• .

Write ...... , . ; .... Wrote ... ,; ........ Written: .
Do . ................ Did ...... ·•••.: .... ,; . Done!. .

.
' t .•

·

131. Verbs ar~ Defectiv~ when they want -o~e ,o~ ~ore of
these three. parts ; as, ·
.
. .. · · . \\ . · · . ·,. ·_
.
Present.
Past.
Perfect .. Pa,rt.
''
May ............... Might
Must .... , ; • .,. : ...... Mu~t

~ . I '

, ·
• ' .· -' \

\

~'! '

; ·, .
·· ·\

\:I

~ ·. ·:I_ !'~

•

(

'

.I.
.~.

:. -

.'

",J

»·

' : •. .-

!. .

pressed by inflection 1 . What does ~he Presen~ t~bse .-d.criot ?i:-The ,
, · Past? 125. Wh~t.participle~ are formed by inflection 1 . 126. How is
the present participle formed 1 127. How is the Perfect . formed 1
_128. How ii.re ".erbs divided 1 129. ~hen are ,verbs . regular?- , 130'.
·\\'hen are verbs Irregular ? 1 131. When are verbs . ·DefectitJe 1
\ ~:~(
-~

.. t

""'i..

J

•• ·,

•

•

'

"

,.
' J'

"-~

TO LOVE.

Past.

Perfect Part.

Love ...... '""" ....... Loved ................ Loved.

Present Tense.
Singular.
Plural.
1st Per. I love .................... 1st Per. We loved,
2d Per. Thou lovest .........••.... 2d Per. Ye or you loved,
3d Per. He, she, or it loves,(_ ..... 3d Per. They love.
or loveth
5

Past, Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
I. I loved .............................. 1. We loved,
2. Thou Jovedst ...............•.•...... 2. Ye or you loved,
3. He, she, or it loved ........•....•.... 3. They loved.

...

Past.

._

.·

135.. Some reject · ed, in the past tense and perfect participle, from the difficulty of making this terdiinatiop coalesce
'
· :: " with the verb in its simple form; as, ,
-'
Prese11.t.
Past.
,
Perfect Part. '
Cost ... _........ ·. .•... cost ..... : . . . . . . . . . . . . cost:
Put . • . •· ...... . . : .... put ....... ·........... -.
Spread .. : ..... • ..... .' spre~d .............. .' spread.
'
.
'

puL

136. Many have ght in- the past tense and perfect parti' ciple; as,
Present.
Past.
Perfect Part.
Bring ................. brought ...... : ... ."... brought.
Buy ... . . . , .. ; .. ...... bought······ ·~·: ··; ~; bought.
Car.ch .. : ............. caught ................ caught.

Loved.

.

137. Many retain the old participial termination, en, or n1
,instead of adopting the modern ed; as,
·
Presen~.
.[Jast.
Perfect Part;
Freeze ......•. : ..·: ..•. froze ..•• • ..... • ...... froz en.
Show ........ . ......•. ' showed .......•...... shown.
Smite ........... ~· .... s111ote -_._... -. ..:....... '. . ,. ;smitten.

TO WRITE.

Perfect Part.

Write •••.... . ...• . : . ... Wrote .•.... :· ...•...... Written.

Present Tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I writ.e ............. : ................ 1. We write,
2. Thou writest ................... . ... . 2. Ye or you write,
3. He, she, or it writes, -or writeth •...... 3. They write.

138. Several verbs in' ing retain the Saxon, ung, ·in the
. past tense a,n d perfect participle; as, ·
Present;
Past.
Perfed Part . ..
Cling·' . .'........ :_.: ... dung ·:. .' ....... : ...... .citing. ,
.
.
' I
-Fling .•.• '. """ " ':''. flung ...... r. ..... ., .. .. . flu_ng. ' \ · ._,,
Ring ..........·-. • ..... ran~ 'or rung ... ·,: ...... rung-: \ .

139. Tqe followingis a list oflrregular
•

Past 'J'ense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I wrote ............................. 1. We wrote,
2. Thou wrotest . ........ . ............. 2. Y e or you wrote,
3. He, she, or it wrote ..........•.. ... · 3. They wro,te.

Participles.
Pres ent . Writing .. .' .. .... ......... .. ... Perfect.

132. How arc Regular verbs inflected?

'. «:. . · ~l

'

Loving ........................ P e1fcct.

133. Irregular Verbs are thus inflected: -

Present.

.

,·

· Some of the irregularities are rr:i ere abbreviations; as, crep,t, for
cr:eeped; lrft, for leaved; had, for haved.

Participles .
Present.

·'

.

·.

134. There are', fit least, one hundred and ~eventy irregu- . .,~
. Jar ver,bs in : the English lang uage;. but there is ~some uni' .'. . . ' . ' .' 4
rormity even in thei,r irregularities. ' '

132. Regular Verbs are thus inflected: Present.

·'" ••

. . ....''"
INFLECTION. OF WORDS. ~

ETYMOLOGY.

60

1.

Writteri.

133. How are Irregular verbs

·\

Verbs~ ~ -

p

* The most convenient inode "of reciting these verbs is for the teacher
to give the Present Tense, or si~ple fcmri o~ each verb, and thi:i, upil. to .
. : · ·.,
give the three parts, in .allswet. · · · · .. · · r , J . ' · ,· ; · ._ ·
I

\

I

,--

inflected? 134. How many irregular · verbs are there in · the : English ,
language? 135. Give e:rnmpl ~s of those which reject . iq the , past
tense, from the difficulty of making this termination coalesce with the
verb in its simple form. 136. Give examples of those having ght in the
. past tense, and perfect partici pie. , lin. Give exam pies of: rliost1 retafo.
, ing the old participial .termination in en. · 138. Give examples 'of tlwse
· - which retain the Saxon ung, in the past tense ·and ·perfeot participle.

ed

6

.

-

/

'

/

..
-

·\

•' .

..

"·
'. I

INFLECTION ' OF WORDS. ' , ,

ETYMOLOGY.

62
Present.

Past.

63
)

_,. Past.L

· Present.
Perfecl Part.

Abide , . • . • . . . . . . abode . . . . • . . . • . • . . . . . abode
Am . . . . . . • . . • • . . was . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . been
Arise •..•, ... : . • • . arose ........ · . · · . · · · arisen
Awake ........ l. awoke, or awaked .. .. a waked
Bake .. ... . ...... baked .... · · . . .. · · · · · · baked, or baken
Bear, to bring forth bore, or bare · · · · · · · · · born
Bear; to carry .... . bore, or bare · · · · · · · · · borne
Beat ....•....... beat ............ •• •· · beat, or beaten
Become ••....... became .............. become
- I Begin.. . • • . • . . . . . began.. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . begun
Behold ... . .... . . beheld ............... beheld, or beholden
Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . bent, or bended . . . . . . bent, or bended
Bereave ......... bereft, or bereaved ... bereft, or bereaved
Beseech . . •. . . . . . besought ....... . ..... besought
Bid ... , ••• , ....•. bade, or bid . . ... · . ... bidden ·
Bind .. ·. . . . . . . . . . bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bound
Bite ... , ......... bit . .......... ........ bitten, or bit
Bleed ... , . . . . . . . . bled ................. bled
Blow ............ blew . .....•. ..... .... blown
Break ....... . ... broke, or break . . . . . . broken
Breed .... , . . . . . . . bred . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . bred
Bring . ••..... ; : . . brought .............. brought
Build ..... ._.. . • . . built, or builded ...... built, or builded
Bul'$t ......... . .. burst . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . burst
Buy ... . ... ······ bought ............... bought
cast
Cast ...... ·•····· cast . .·... · · · · · · · · ·· · ·
Catch .. . . ·· .... · caught, or catched .. . . caught, or catched
Chicle ..•' ..... . . . chid ................ . chidden
Choose ...... •. .. chose ..•. '. · . · · · · · · · .. chosen
Cleave, to adhere . clave, or cleaved···· .. cleaved
Cleave, to split .. . . clove, clave, clefL. · · · cloven, or cleft
Cling ...........• clung .... ·. · · · · · · · · · · clung
Climb •... : .... . . climbed, or clomb _·· .. climbed
Clothe .• ~ .•. .,. • . . clothed, or clad · .... · · clothed , or clacl
Come· ..•.•.• ·... ; came ................ come
. Cost.. . . . . • . . . . . . cost . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cost
Crow . •........ ; . crowe d, or er ew ..... . Cro wed
Creep ........ . .. crept ... . ...... ..... ·· cr.ept
. Cut ....•.... .... cut .................. cut
Dare, to ventttre . . durst, or dared ....... · dared
Deal ............ dealt, or dealecl . . ..... dealt., or denied
Dig . .. ... •• ..... • dug, or digged . .... • .. dug, or digged
Do . . . . .. . . • . . . . . did .................. done

I

1

Perfect Part.

Draw ......... :~. drew ...... ~ .. ·. . ....... drawn
. (·
Drink .·.......... · drank ...••. · • ...... , .· drunk, or drunken
Drive .. - ~ ... .. , .. drove ...... ~ . . : ..••.. driven Dwell .. .'.' ....... dwelt or.dwelled ·...... dwelt, or dwelled
Eat. ...... • ... : .. ate .-......... • .•...•. eaten
Fall ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . fell ..... ·........•••.. 'fallen
Feed .. ......,; ... fed.'. ..••....___•....... fed
Feel ............. felt .... ·... ,-. , .. .-..... felt
Fight. .... ' ..... . fought . "' .. ; .... .•. ·. . . fought
Find .....• ·...... ;- found .-. ~. • . . • • • . . • • . • found
Flee ............. fled . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . fled
Fling. .. . . . .. . . . . flung ............... : flung
Fly ... .... ..• .... · flew ............. ·' . . flown
ForlJear.. . . . . . . . . forbore, or forbare . 1 ••• forborne ·
Forget . . ....... , . forgot .. ... " '. ~· ........ forgotten, or forgot
Forsake . .....-... forsook .•._•.... ; . : .. ; · forsaken ·
' '
Freeze .... . .•.... froze. '. ............ : . • frozen
Get ............ . got, or gat. ... ·.. • . . • . . gotten, or got
Gild ..... . . . ... ·.. gilt; or gilded. : . . . • . . • gilt, ~r gilded
Gird .•... ..... ... girt, or girde_d ..... : . . girt, or girded
Give .. .. : .... ... gave ................. given
Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 'went .. .......... :.- . . gone
Grave ...... , . . . . graved ......1•••••••• ! graven, or graved '
Grind .... , • • • . . . . ground ...... ; •... ~ •.. ground
·
· Grow .. . ~ ..... : . . grew . ~ .... : .. . .... .... grown
,
·(.
Hang ..... : ... :.: hung, or hanged.: ...• hung, or hanged '' _

I-lave . . . . . . . . . . . . had . ... '° • •••• ••

•• 1• • • •

had · .~ :-. ~ .

1

:!

' ·

Hear . . . . . . . . . . . . heard ........... .'' • : •. · heard · ·
Heave ....•...... heaved, or hove ...... heav~d, or hove11 ·::
Help . . . . . • . . . . . . helped . : .... : ...•...". helped,' or Ipen .
Hew .. : .. .. . I. ... hewed ....•. , . " . ;> • . hewn; 01; he\fed 1~
Hide .....•.. : . . . hid ........ ; ...; . \ , ... hidden, or hid \ ' ·' i
I
.
h' ,
I . .
,
. h'
\
H It .... , . •. ; • , . , . It .• •. , . 1, , •• , , ••• , • " It
Hold,, ..... ~ . • .. ·held .• .••••••• . . : .•. " held, or holden '· · · ~ : ' Hurt . . . • . • • . • . • . hurt •• .• :~ . • • • . •• • . . . . h~rt .. · · .· ·. ·· '
~
Keep • • • • . • .. •• . . kept •• •• . . .. • • • . • • •.• . kept • ·: " - '!\ .... .. .
~
• •
• •
• I
•
..,t"H.. t' .
KneeL ..••....... knelt····· ·: · ·· ···· :• .. knelt · ~·--•· ·" ','. •1 _., ~ ·
. Knit ••••..•••.. ·(. knit, or knitted. .•• .• L .. knit, or;khitted. -~·~ ;· ·
Know .....•.•. • . . knew.: ••• : •• ';, ;. ~,.'; known ....,. .. , .;•.itf,f.·· 1:'
~
,,! ~.
~
Lade ........ .'..• jaded .•••• ._ ............ laden ; .... ··/" ··.-' ;.!: · ·;
Lay ,; .....
laid ..... •... • .·.... .' •• laid · ..;,t<:· 'i~i-' ,
L d
. . . l d
. \
. .'I l d . '·.
~; • - ._~, ... ;

ho

"·--<:· · ,-.

'

I

•

1.

ea

'

...-1, • •,. . )

' '

1-

.....

······~·····

e ·- ·····!•·""~·! ······ · \ e l

_. ~ _~ i · ~i·.~: ... '. ·,, .. ··

Leave.; ........ ·; left .......... . .... : •• left .: ."''· ..,_ '· -_· .

•

' •

1

.f
I .

64

\

INFLEOTION ·oF WORDS. ·

ETYMOLOGY.

Present.

Past.

.·

Perfect Part.

Lend ..•.......• , lent . . . . . . . • . . • . . • . . . lent
Let. ..... ' ..... ; . let .............. ; . . . let
Lie, to lie du~n '. lay ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lain, or lien
Lift ....... '.. . . . lifted, or lift . . . . . . . . . . lifted, or lift
Light ....•... ; . . . lighted, or lit ......... lighted, or lit
Load . ............ loaded ............... loaden, or loaded
Lose . . . . . . . . • . . . lost .. ..• : ........•.. : lost
lHak,e ..........• ' . made ...... ...• .... .. made
Mean·· . · . . . . . . . . meant, or meaned • . . • meant, or meaned
Meet ........ ; ... met . ..... ........• ... met
Mow •. . . . . . . . . . . mowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mown, or mowed
Pay .... .. ... ' ... paid .... ...... .. . . .. . paid
Put. ............. put •· ... . ............ put
Quit... . . . . . . . .. . quit, or quitted . . . . . .. quit
R ead ...... ' . . . . . read . . . . . . . . . . • . . . •. . read
R end ...... ...... rent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rent
Rid ....... . ..... rid . .. ... . ... ...... ~ .. rid
Ride ...... ..... • rode, or rid ........ ... ridden, or rid
Ring .... . ...... · ' rung, or rang ......... rung
Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . risen
Rive . ... ..... ; . •. rived .•. ... .. .... ..... riven
Rot ...... ... .. . . rotted ................ rotted, or rotten
Run ............. ran ..... . .. . ......... run
Suw . . ........... sawed .. ...... ....... sawn, or sawed
Say ............. said ... .... .......... said
See .............. saw ................. . seen
Seek . . .. . . .. . .. . sought .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . sought
Seethe .. ; . . . . . . . . seethed, or sod . . . . . . . sodden
Sell ' ... , . . . ... . . . sold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sold '
Send . • . . . . . . . . . . sent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sent
Set . . ... ; . . . . . . . . set ...... . .. ; .... ' . . . . set
Shake .......... ; shook ..... ; ... • ... : . . shaken
Shape . ........ : ' shaped ... ·. · · ... . .... shaped, or shapen
Shave ........... . shaved. · · •........... shaved, or shaven
8hear.•........ . .. sheared, or shore ...... shorn
Shed ·. . . . . . . . . . . . shed ................. shed
Shine ............ shone, or shined .. .. .. shone, or shined
Shew . . . . . . . . . . . . shewed ........ , ..... shewn
Show . . . . . . . . . . . . showed ..........• ... shown
Shoe .... . .. .. .... shod .................. shod
Shoot. . . . . . . . . . . . shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shot
Shrink ......... .. shrunk, or shrank ..... shrunk
Shred . . . . . . . . . . . shred . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . shred

· Phsent.

,,.

·: Past. ' ·

Perfect Patt. ' ·

,.

Shut .• .•. ; • .- ...... shut ••...•..•. ·'.· ..... shut
Sing ............. sung, or sang• . . '• ..... sung
·Sink ............. : sunk, or sank ... ; . ." ... Sfnk, or sunken
Sit.. .. .. . . . • . . . . . . sat .............. .. . ;.. s1tten, or sat
Slay .... .': .... ·.•. · sle\v '; ..... .-: . ........ slai11 . ·
Sleep ; ...... .'. . . . slept ..•••..•... • · • ;·· • slept
Slide .......... .'. slid ..... : . . • . . . . • . . . . slidd~n
. Sling ........•.. .' slung; or slang ..... .. . slung
Slit ..... ........ .' slit, or slitt~d . .'...•. ; .. slit, or slitted
Smite ... •..... .. . smote.. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . smitten,· or smit . ·;
.... ·....... ;'.·•. ' sown, or sowed .\·.
S OW .. .... ··••••..• So n•ed
"
Speak .... , ...... spake, or spoke .•...... spoken
Speed .. . .·. . . . . . . sped ... • ...•.. ..•.. ·.;. ·sped
Spend .... ~ .... .. spent ........ . .•••... spent .
Spill.. . . . . . . . . . . . spilt, or spilled. : . . . . . . spilt, or spilled ·
Spin . . . .. .. ... . .. spun, or span;·.• ...... spun ~ '
Spit ...... .. .... ; spit, or s,pat .... ·. ...•... spit, or spitten '·.
Split. ... .. ..... . .. split, or splitted. T ..• , split, or splitt~d :-,\
Spread. . . . ..• . . . . . spread ....... ·.... : . . . spread ·
Spring ......... .. sprung, or sprang . ; ; . . sprung
·,·
Stand .... ·........ stood .. .. ,..... ... ; .... stood
Steal ............ stole ................. stolen
Stick ... ,. .•..... stuck . . ,, .,·...... .': ... stuck
Sting . . • . . • . . . . . . stung ...... ·.· .. ...•.. . sturig .. ·
. ..
Stink. . . . . . . . . • . . stunk, or stank .. :.: . :·. stunk
Stride . . . . . . . . . . . strode, or- strid .•...._. . stridden ·
Strike ......... : . struck ... : ...... ·· '··. strnck, or stricken .t
String . . • . . . . . . . . s!rung .. ·: ... : . . . . . . . strung ·
·
Strive,. . . . • • . . . . . strove .... ·. .'.... • . • • . striven

.

.

'\

~

~:_

,

,

J

•

-

I

~~~~:· orJ •• ·~ .• :!~:::~· orJ ......... str~~~! o~ !:~~~::~

Swear , .... • .. .. swore, or.sware . ·. • ... . sworn . \ .\ ~ - ·
Sweat ........ . .. sweat .. ; . . . . . . . . • • . . . sweat
, \ · , ·;
Sweep ..... ... ; .. swept ·.......•... ; .... swept. .' '·
, .; .• .swelled ·. : ·, ... '. ••••. '. ~ swelled;
.
. Swell ......•
...
. or
. swollen
. ... .
Swim .... ....... :'· swam, or swum . •• ; , .. !!WUm .~ · .- . ./''
Swing .......... , .swing, or ~wang ' ! •• : ,· swung ..:,,; ·" ·).t.-y:.··..
Take ·..••... ; .•. • ~ · took :: . ~· .... .-••. ; .... .'. taken ,. . ,,, .;;· ;:'.~·<·~ ;.: i: . ·h· '
1
Teach .•. :, ... .. . taught . • • • • ; ·._. • • .': . •• taught , · )"" ' ··,':·>. , i
Tear ...... ; ..... tore, or tare ";.; ~ •; •. torn·· ·_. - . · !. · •.·,.. ',
I
'
Tell ............. tol d ......
•· ....:..... i •• t old ·· .-,,.,. ~"·~~! . ~ .. ,~ ,. f ,
Think ... : •• ; ; . ; , .thought . • . . : :-. .'. ; .. ·. : thought · · ',: :< t.' '• ?\·>},·r '
Thrive .. ~ ....... ; throve, or _ihrived .•• .; . . thrive.n ."·:,, -'"t;::: ''"'
{,

' 6*

.

I

I-

.

···

1

·"

'

. .I·

.,.

)

. ,.

' ,

·/

66

ETYMOLOGY.

Present.

thrown
thrust
trodden
waxed, or waxen
worn
woven
wept
won
wound
wrought, or worked
wrung, or wringed
written, or writ
writhen, or writhed

'
I'

Past.

Present.

\

140. Give a list of the Defective Verbs, with all their putts. 141.
Which nro the most useful verbs in the language ? Why are they
called Generic Vorbs 1 What does to be denote 1 7'o do 7 7'o have 1

Past.

Perfect Part.

Present. Tense.
' Sing'.
,
Plur.
1. I am ' ••••..... ·.•.••• 1 •••••• .; •••• ~ . .. 1. We ate,
2. Thou art ...•.......•,.............. 2. Ye or you are,
3. He, she, or it is .••• . . ' .. ... : . . . • . . . . 3. They are.

Perfect Part.

They are . called Gener ic Verbs from the extreme generali,t.y of the
ideas they express, and to distinguish them from such verbs as love,
write, which, being expressive of more limited ideas, are called
Specific Verbs ..
To ~e, denotes being or ea:istencefo general; as, " He i3," " He is old,"
" It i11 written."
To do, denotes action in general; as, "I do wrong," "I do write."
To have, denotes possession in general; as, "I have knowledge," "I
have written.''

:•

Am ................ was ..•• ~.·' .......... .-,been

Can ... . ......... could ....... . .•......
Forego ........... .. ... ·· ......... . .. ·.. forgone
May . ...•........ might.. ·.. . •....... . ..
Must . . . . . . . . . . . . inust . ...... .. ...... .
Ought . ...... . .. . oug ht ...... . .... . .. . .
Shall . . . . . . . . . . . . should .... . ......... .
VIili.: ... ~ .. . .... would .............. .
Wis ....... . ..... wist ....... . ..•......
Wit, or Wot . . . . . wot ..... • ........... .

141. The Irregular Verbs, be, do, have, and the Defective
Verbs, shall, wW, rnay, can, are perhaps of greater use than
any other verbs in the language.

'

142. The Geh,eric Verbs are thus inflected:-- .

TO BE. _

140. The Defective Verbs are the following; and they are
generally irregular, as well as defective: Present.

.

'

Shall, denotes duty or obligation in g~neral, and, by infe;ence, fut.u.•
rity; as, - cc He shall obey me,' 1 "I shall write to-morrow."
,
Will, denotes volition ot intention; and, by inference, futurity; as, ·
"I will, be. thou whole," "He will write to-morrow." · ''. '
May, ~onveys the idea of liberty or permission, and, by inference,· con·
tingency; as, "He may go if .he will," " He may have written or
not."
·
( Can, has the sense of is able, and denotes power or ability in general;
~~ · as, "I can write, though you cannot. 11
.
·

Perfect Part.

Throw • 1 •••••••• · threw .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thrust. .......... thrust ..•..... ~ . •. . . . .
Tread : .........• trod, or trode .........
Wax : , •...•..... waxed .. ' ..... . .......
W ear .. ; .•.... ' • . wore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W eave . . . . . . . . . . wove . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weep .•••. ; •.... wept •........ J , ••••••
Win . . . . . • . . . • . . . won . . . . . . • . . . . . • • . . •
Wind. ·. .. • . . . • . • . wound, or winded. . . . .
Work . . . . . . . . . • . wrought, or worked . .
Wring ..•.••.•.•. wrung, or wringed ....
Write •· •........ wrote, or writ ...... . .
Writhe ..... . .... writhed ..............

6'7\ )

,.' INFLECTION' OF
WORDS.
. .
.
'·
'

' Past.

l

''

Past Tense.

Elur.. .
Sing.
1. I was ...... ' , ' •.••.. • •••••• ·... '. . :,· ,• . 1.- We were,
2. Thou wast: .. ·................... ·.. . 2. ye
you }Vere,
•
t
3. He, she, or 1t ~as· : · , ··. ·:· ..... ·· ~ · 3. They .,were.
I

or

,

,;

,·

Past Tense Conditional. , .. · '· ~ . :
(When used to assert contingent or conditional existence •.•)
1. I were .. .. .......... : ..... . .. ; ..... 1. We were,
,
>
2. Thou wert .... :. ................... 2. Ye or you ·were,
· 3. He, she,
it were ...•••••..,; .•••.• 3. They wer~. . .

',

or

.
Imperfect.

Participles.

Being. ·.. ; •• ~ . l ..._. _i •••••••••••
lnfin#ive. t

Be, or to be.

.
..

. .. \.

A

,

Perfect. , Been. _
•..

*The verb to be is the only one' in the English lang'uage .whieh has
simple conditional form. , In the case bf nil other \'erbs, the .form; when
it _oe~urs, is purely elliptical; Thus, "If, h~ MY sp, it is 1 we,11;~1,. is .an , .
elhps!S for 11 If he shall say S0.11 , , ,
• _
'
, ; • (,
J · ,' :, · · r
"Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him," 'is an . el!ipsi~ . 'for
"Though he should slay me." l ·
• .
- .. ·~· • · • • ;;.~-. ·
" •
· t The infinitive is given in the conjugation of the verl:> to b~, because
it is the only instance in which . the infinitive is different in form from
b.

ShaU 7 Wul 7 i.fay 7. c:n 7

142. How is the Ge~er~Verb to be infl~cted 17

, ...

. I

',

68

SHAftL.* .··

TO DO.
Past.

Perfect Part.

2. Thou shouldst ..... .............. ; .•. 2. Ye or you should,
3. He, she, or it should • ~ •••••• • .... , ••. 3. They should,

WILL.
.,...
Present Tense.
Sing. .
.
- Plur.
1. I will ........ _; ........ ~ ........ ; ••• : 1. W \l will;
2. Thouwi\t .. •.. :.:., .... ,. ............ 2. Ye or you will,' .. .
3. He, she,_or.it 'rill ............... ~ . ... 3. They will.

Participles.
Done.

TO HAVE.
Pe1fect Part.

Present Tense.
S i91g,
Plttr.
1. I have.. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. We have,
2. Thou hast .... . .. . .. . ...•......... .,. 2. Ye or you have,
3 . .He, she, or it hath or has............. 3. They have.

Past Tense.
1; · I had ... '. ....•...•••.. . ... .' . ..•...... 1. We had,
2. Thou hadst . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, Ye or you had,
3. He, she, or it had ..............•.... 3. They had.

'

Participles.
Imperfect.

Having ...... '.'. .•... · .• '. · ........ . Perfect.

Had.

the present tense. But it is more than proba!Jl~ that even this verb did
not originally furnish an exception to the universal usage of the Ian.-·
guage. The present tense, I be, thou beest, .&c., is used by old writers;
and it is ' still used (with perhaps the exception of beest,) when doubt or
contingency is to be expressed. Thus, " If thou be the Son of God, cast
thyself down." I
l:low is the Generic Verb to do inflected 1 · The Generic Verb lo hav,e 1

Plur:

1. ~should .; ........................ : •. 1. We should, ··

Past Tense.

Have . .......... "_...... had ........•.......... had. -

'

Past Tense.
Sing.

Plnr.
Sing.
1. I did ........•••••• ;,.,. . .. ....•. ; ... . 1. We did,
2. Thou didst • . . . . . . . . • .... '\' ........ . 2. Ye or you did,
3. He, she, or it did .......... "....... . 3. They did.

Doing .............. . ..... ... ... . Perfect.

.~

Present Tense.

Presen-t Tense.

Past.

I

Sing.'
··Plur.
1. Ishall ... .: ... : .................. : .... ·1. We shall. ·
.1
2.. Thou shalt ... '.; . .... .......... ;; .. ~ . 2. Ye or you shall, .·
3. lle, she, or it shall; .................. 3.· They s_halL

Sing.
Plitr.
1. I do ............................... 1. We do,
2. Thou doest 0 r dost.. • . . . . . •• . . . • • . . . 2. Ye or you do,
3. He, she, or it doe th, doth, or does ..•• . 3. They do.

Present.

'\ , I

\.• .

· Do ..•.......•... ·.... did . . ..... .•. .. . ..... done.

Imperfect.

.,

:·j '} \
'

INFLECTION ~ OF' WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

Presen,t. •

,,

''

Past Tense.

Sing.
,
Plur.
1. I would ......... ; ............... ; •• 1. We would, '
2. Thou wouldst ...•........••.• • •.... 2. Ye or you w9uld,
3. H11, she, or it would .. . : .. : ......... . 3. Th_ey wouid.. . '
. "
* Shall is a derivative from the Saxon sceal, i ow'e,_ot,' j o~kht, and~
signifies, "it is my duty." It is used in this sense by our old write!s;
as, .for instance, by Chaucer, when he says;:•• The faith 1 shall to God;"
that is, "the faith I owe to God;" nor has it ev~r yet lost its. original
eignification. "Thou shalt not kill,'.' is, "th.~u .oughtest not to· kill."
'llut as all duties, though p~esent in • respect of their .obligation, must b~
future in their performance, so, by a ilattirnl transitidn, th~s word, whjcli
strictly p.redicates only !resent.duty, has come to be used .as a1,a_1;1ot_e o~
future time." Hence it is described, in the text, as expressjve of. duty; .
and, by inference, of futurity • . Will, in like manner; ·only hpresses ·· .
pres~nt intention ; yet, as the , petfotmance 'of present intention. is necesllllrily future, it is employed to!_riclte futurity. ·, " lshall w ~ite,' 1 fo_-;!trict! . ,.
ness, intimates no more Hian it Is _my presiint dutj·t 0 Write I -but the . , ' :. ··I''
ph:ase is univ~t'~ally' interprete~ as if i~ mea.rit to. _inti~!lte ..tha~ ~; ~!:? to :- · ·. ·, "~ .,
\vnte at some hme now future. ''He willwnte," 11i_str1ctne.f!s, mli!Jlates , .· · . .• "
· no ' more than that it .is h1s present' intention . to' write ; -but 1iflef~am6 ;. · . ·· ~ J,
. ,· , ;nterpretat\on is universally put Upon it es\1pon the _othei;: pfltase~ ..r, The · :~ 11 , -~·
'; . ' difference between the ' present applicaiion of shall and ' will is · ~learlt
' ; ' ~
''· stated by W,e bster: shall. is merely fufo~e ,in the first .perilon,'ilnd,im: '
· ; · .;. 1,• ~
perative in the other two; ,with ·will, .the C;ase is exa~tly r!JVerse~., · ~.-: ·
. ! i-,'1
'·.

· ' H:ow iS tl1e

.

~ J.1

'

generi~-;;i:bShati ihflected 7.,- H~w is'iWill
, ·,, ·,

, • -.J

\

inflecte'il 1 ·

.,. • • •

~

1
,-

.

........

-'

.-

I

--" I:

.'
ill'

·(
I .

70

'

ETYMOLOGY.

-"<, :

'

;

:I,:_

iNFLEGf1(nf OF' woR.b13.

·"'~:<:. The generic verbs have

obtained the name of Auxili~ry ·Verbs, from
i ·
being used,' prirtcipally, to form compound verbs.
Compound verbs
essential, in ' order to enable ui;i to express those
' additional tenses and modifications which languages of a more arti,:,. ' ficial structure express by inflection.
· · ·;: · · · '. \
' ;. '. In .consequence of the facility it affords for forming ·coinpouhd tenses,'
. t/, ',\·: · our language, though limited . in tenses formed by inflection, ·is rich ·
,, ;, beyond most languages in tenses formed by combination. ·
111 . 1· ~.· When combined with 'other verbs, our generic verbs serve ·the same
"', . ·
pu:poses .as the inflections of the simple verb, in languages which
. u ., : · have numerous inflections.
'
·

·MAY.

''

..

, '

.

Present Tense.
Sing.
Plnr.
1. I may ............................ . 1. We may,
. 2. Thou mayest ........... . ...... ; ... 2. Y e, or you may,
3. He, she,'o~ it may ................. '. 2. They may.

Past Tense.
Sing. ·
Plur.
l. I might .... , . . ..................... 1. We might,
2. Thou might est . : .. .... ....... . ..... 2. Ye, or you might,
3. He, she, or it might ................. 3. They might.

are

ENGLISH.

FRENCH.

t :

LATIN.

I did speak ... .... Je parlais .••••••• ;'••• Dicebam •.
I shall speak .•... J e parletai .......... • D icam.
I might speak ..... J e parlerais .•.• ._ .. , •. D icerem.

CAN.

.
.
,,, ,.· Here, did, shall, and might, correspond to, and serve the same purpose
•
•i ' . ·with, the flexional terminations, ais,_erai, and erais,_in French, and
ebam, am, and erem, irt Latin. .
·''

Present 'l'ense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I can ...................... . ....... 1. We can,
2. Thou canst ....................... . 2. Y e, or you can,
3. He, she, or it can ................... 3. They can.

, ACTIVE

AND

P A's SI
.

VE

V 0 ICES,
.

145. Compound Trahsitive verbs have two Voices, or

Past Tense.

-'.i. Forms, - the Active and Passive. - .
·'~ ;. 146. The Active Voice is the form which the verb assumes
.: · when its subject, or nominative, is the agent";- as,'.' " I have
· ,:I struck' "
·
·
·
·· ·
· . .· " · ·,· · .,· '
I
'
• ,• . 147. The Passive Voice is' th e form which the verb as• /
.. ,. ·.~ sumes when its subject, or nominative,
the. object of the
!. ·:· action; as, "I have been stn1-ck." IJ- ·
·'.
·-· · ·

Sing.
Plur.
1. I could •. ·....... ~ ......... ~ ..•• •... 1. We could,
2. Thou could st. ; ...........• .• .. . .... 2. Ye, or you could,
3. He, she, or it could .. '. ....•......... 3. They could.

1

is

II. INFLECTION 01!..., COMPOUND VERBS.

.

'

143. The gen~ric verbs are most commonly used in combination with other verbs, which are joined with them to
limit their ~ignification.

'";

work, to conform to the usual arrangement of mnods !ind tenses, by which the •imple ere
exhibited in connexion with the compound forms of the verbs. Before proceeding to .
hibit the moods ohd tenses.in 'their usual order, an explanation of their meaning nnd interi-

ex·.

'.': ', .~°,"/s. gene~ally under.•tood,,_.is

I

How is the generic verb Jlllay inflected ? - How is Can
143. How are. the generic verbs used? Give an example.

her~ g,'.ven.

.:

. .

.

..J

'

;

:"'~ .;_1.-.ij ..

, . HS. Mood, or , mode, is a fo~m·, of the · ve.rp, sl:1owiiig' the
inahnet in which the 'ac~ion is r~pr~~ented~ ,,, .. .,,;- r. ;·~·(,:.fr
''
.

1

l

••

·; Jn giving the inflection of compound verbs, it hns been deemed necessary, in the prelient

144. The generic. vci·bs, when combined with other verbs~ .. ~
,form what are called Compound Verbs.
Thus, 1 have loved, I had written, I shall have walked, I might
been struck, are compound verbs.

,i ...._

· MOODS .•

Thus, if I say, I can, I affirm that I have power or ability in general,
without limiting it to any particular kind, or application of power.
But if I subjoin the specific verb, write, and say, I can write, I restrict my affirmation to my power to .write.
, '•

•·

.~. ~...

¥"•

., '• .

.'. compound verbs 1 Give nn _example: , What ; are "'a.uxiliary.':· v~tbs 1 :.
-. What.is the .use of comptmn_d ve,rbs 1 lri what is ,our lat;guage rich 1' ·
' What is the use 'of the genedc verbs.in ·c\ombination 'with 1other :~erbs 7 ·
;; ' Give.examples of French and Lntin inflecthmi:i C?mpared'_-with th.~ E11g··
•· • lieh 'combinations' qf generic verbs, with the irregular :ve'rH Speak~ .- 145.' ,
' .. How ina,ny voices 1 have Transitive verbs ·? 146.' •De~he the · Active
.fi Voice. 147. Define the Passive VoiCe. 148. Whal is meant by moud,

:r.;,

..

.

•. i ,'

'

'

72

'

..

I ,

• :i;! .
?'~

INFLECT~oN · b:F WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

., '(

·.-1:,
. , ;1

149. There are five Moods, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and .Jnfinith;e.
150. The lndieatfoe Mood simply affirms or declares a
thing ; ' as, I love1; I am loved.
151. The Potent1:al Mood is the form of the verb which is
used for asserting the poss1:bility, liberty, power, will, or obliga.tion to be; to do, or to suffer; as, I may go or stay; I can
write; I would walk; We should respect the Ia ws.

.5

As the essence of the verb c.onsists in affirmation, the infinitive is not ·
strictly speaking a part of the verb, · aiiy more than .the participl!l8;
it is more properly a noun, and it was formerly called the noun; or
. . nameoftheverb. · - , . ·'- · · '.- " · ' · . - ',. ,; :" ·•.i'<!·)· ;
The Infinitive Mood is a simple form or the verb, like th~ Imperative i
and it is included in the arrangemertt of the compound forms fo~ · the
~ same reason.
,.
··
'
·
·
.. ·
·-

·r

)

. '\'•~

,, J4

.

.J

,, . · !

. TENSE.

For convenience the forms of this mood are arranged under different
tenses; but in strictness they appear to have very little distinct refer. ence to time. For example , in the form of the present tense there
is nothing to indicate that the action is not referred to a future and
even a remote time; as, I rnay have permission to leave college today, next week, or next year.

152. The Subjunctive Mood represents an action under
a condition, motive, wish, or supposition. It is generally
preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and
attended by another verb; as, "If ye love me, keep my comma ndrnents."
153. The Imperati'.vc Mood is the form of the verb which is
used for commanning, exhoi·ting, entreating, or permitting;
as 1 Obey me; Remember thy Creator; Hear, 0 Israel; Depart
in peace.
Perhaps it is more accurate to limit the definition of the Imperative
l\~ood to commanding, as it will be observed that in each of the above
·examples the verb assumes the Jo.rm of command.
.
The Imperative Mood is a simple form of the verb, having no infiec"
tion. In the following arrangement of the mood and tenses, it will
be found with the compound forms, in order that the pupil may
.recite the whole in connection.

'/

15§. The Tenses are modifications of the verb which nia,rk
·
· ; ' '' . ;
the distinctions of time.
' I 156. There are ~ix tenses, including thos~ expressed ' by
inflection al9ne, and those expressed by the use of auxiliary
or generic verbs. ' They are, the Present, the Imperfect, the
Perfect, the Plupei}~ct, the Fir~t ' Putu~e, . and . the Second
Putut·e.·
'
·
157. The Present Tense denotes that the action ·or state
-~...- expressed by the verb,_ is in. present time; as, I love.
. - 158. In order to give greater, force to the affirmation the
Present Tense occasionally assumes what is call~d. an Emph~tic Form, by the use of the auxiliary: ,ve~_o " ~o, ~. ;a,s ,} do
write.
· ' .
.:
.... ·. . ..... · . :' ,. . ' : ·
159. The lmRetfect Tense denot~s that th~ .action or s.t ate.
· , · ' · · :~
expressed by the verb is past ; as, I loved.
. 160. The Imperfect Te~se has an Emphati~ .Fbrm, similar
to that of the Present Tense; as, I did 'write. · .:,:··,,::
·
. 161. The Perfect Tense rep.r esents an action as .c opipleted •.
at the present time; as, I have wri.tt~ri my. letter~ ·y·;; ·,;' '
162. The Pluperfect Tense denotes that the action e,v ent
has taken place at
before 'it certai.n tim~ past j as, i,had :.
left the city before he , arrjved.
·
'· .i, 1 ' ·
163. The First Future Te7Jse denotes _an actiqrt ,9r, eyen~
which is yet to come; as,~ will,walk. .;. He shall depa-tt. _,..·.~ '/.
'. 164. The Second Futur.e Tense - J~enotes that an action. 5->t ;.'.
event will take place at or before a future ~im.e ;: as, I shall ,
have finisiied my 'theme-at·sfx o'clock·;.''Be' willh'tive··a-rAiJea , .1:
:
•
.H-. · ~ !! .... ~\,.J: . \·f ~ 1 ·~ t: ~t;.~-OU't/<·,~ ~l~
'
. ·,. before the gates will be shut. · . , :- .
, , _. :.. '/. .,...r _ .

.j

The preposition to being genernlly prefixed to the verb in this mood, is
~
' . . called the sign of the Infinitive.

·'
or mode? 149, How many moods are th ere, and what are their
names? 150, Define the Indicative Mood. 151. The Potential Mood;152. The Sul1juncliuc Mood, 153,: The Imperative Mood. 154. The
Infinitive Mood. What is the sign of the Infinitive?

1

•

..

·'

··~,

. <''
,;•

,.

or

or

154. The Infinitfoe Mood expresses action or being in a
generai manne1', without any distinction of number or per.:
son; as, To lov.e; to write:

'

I

'

'

•

'

' '

"" '

~

,

.,

155. What are the Tenses 7_ 156. · How mnhy.Tenses are therll:7' Nanl,e
them. · 157 . .Describe the Pres1mt Ten8e. ·ISS. Its Emphatic'Form:~ l59 i · ''
The · Imperfect. ·. 160. Its Emphatir, · Form. t6L •The ,Petfm. · ,.' 162; ..

. The Pluperfect. 163. The First Future. ·' 164.:·Th~ l .Sei~hd:<Paii~re-: _ . .

7

.,
'}.

'

I

I .

.

·.,.·

. /l

,r
'

..

. ETYMOLOGY.

.

INFLEO'i,'ION~ OF WORDS;

CONJUGATION.

'

· The term Conjugation is sometimes applied to the nnming of its
three principal pnrts, viz : the present and imperfect tenseR, and the
perfect participle ; as, Present, go; Imperfect, went ,· Perfect Participle, gone.

166. In the followin g pages the generic verbs, have and
be, the regular verb love, and the irreg ular verb lcnow, are
conjugated. The verbs love and lcnow being active or transitive, are conjugated in the passive as well as in the active
voice.*

Form.

Imperfect Tensf!;...;;. Emphdtic
Sing.'
PluT.

'

165. 'rhe Conj ugation of a verb is the enunciation of its
· several modes, tenses, numbers, and persons, in their regu-·
lar order.
·
·

, I. I did have· .... : ; •• .'; •.. . •• 1. We did have,
2. Thou didst have .. .... : . . . 2. Ye or you did have,
3. He did have ............ •· . · S. T hey did have. j
'

!

•

\

'

.

•

· ·"·~

· Perfect Tense.

..

•

'

'

'

'

•

',

I

•

~

'

!'

Sing. •

\

Plttr.

Sing.
I'lur.
I. I have .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . 1. We have,
' 2. Thou hast ..... . .......... 2. Y e, or you have,
3. He, she, or it hath, or has .. 3. They have.

Present Tense - Emphatic Form.
Sing.
Plltr.
1. I do have ................. 1. We do have,
2. Thou dost have ........... 2. Ye, or you do have,
3. He d.oes have .. . . .. .. .. . .. 3. They do have.

'

·,·: ....,

· '· · 't,

Sing.
.
PUt,r,.
1,
1. I shall or will have •· • • . • • 1. W e shall or will have;
,,
2. Thou shalt (Ir wilt have ~ ... 2. ye OT yon shall or will hne,
3. H e shall o~ w111 have .. . , •. ·.. 3. 'I: hey .ehaH or will. have. · ,
'

Second Future Tense.
'

)

f

•

Sing~ .

,
Plur. ·, ,
t. I shall have had . .... -. · :. :· 1. We .shal{ have had;
..
2. Thou wilt have had . . .• . . . 2. · Ye 11r you will have had.
3. He will have ha~. : ..... ·r . .3. They will have had. ··
. ·.;·

IMPERATIVE
'

~i~ig.

.

.•

~

l

;~

...

. ..r

. !1

.:.._

~ .''
: '~
/
.

MOOD.

\'

'·

\

. , ~r~sen( Tense.
·~

\I , '

.

...

\

'

I ',

.

1
Plur.
·
•
• • ·:
•
2. Have or have '. ~~.011 . o.r do l :~- ..i:~v~ or have ~~, :~::.d~ fe l :" · . :
thou have ..............5 ·
.• or you have. ·
·· ' ' ·J\

• Some ne~ter verbs are occasionally used in the passive form by
good writers ; as, We are come ; they are gone.
165. What is the Conjugation of a verb 1 How is the term Conjuga. ·
tion sometimes limited 1 166. What verbs are conjugated in the fol. ·
lowing pages 7 Which of them have the passive form 1 Are neu~er
verbs ever used in the passive form 1
, ,

. .

'

.

'First Future .'Tense.

'

.

,..

·'·

Imperfect Tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I had ................... . I. We had,
2. Thou hadst .. . ... . ....... . 2. Y e, OT you had,
3. He, she, or it had ........ . 3. They had.

.

2. Thou hadst had ....... • ... .2. Y e or you had had.
3 . He had had .. .• . . •• . . . . . . . 3. They h.ad had. ·

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present 'Tense.

t'

P.fupeifect Tense. ·

L I had had . .. • . . . • •• . . .. .. 1. We liad had,

TO HAVE.

·/

.'

Sint.
Plur.
I. I have had .............. ; . 1. We have had,
2 . Thou hast had . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Ye or you have had;
.3. He has had .. ·~ ........ ,. •. ,3. Th~y have had. . ' '

'

''

..;

' , '•

;

/~

·· ·

.-:: <.' '". .' . •• , . . :

1

I

• ,:

~1 ;o

','l

~ ·1y:.~:"

:"

1'

POTENTIAL ·MOOD.:!! ' · ..r,JU.3,
L a... ... ,Ji,_ ,.· ,. ,1:. •; ••
'•

. .~ ·.
. .p r.es~t. Ti}!'f e.: - ' ·"

. . .l"/

., ~' ,,.";:
"'

Sing.
· <'" , · · " Plur. ·
._. :.j.f;Y1. /. ·. · .:1: .,
": ... I. I may or can have 1 . -1 . : : .!l • .we .may ti?; canht\Y,Elf~\ :; (~.'t ·~
,.. '2. Thou mayst or cans( have ~, 2• .;Ye. or. you niay ~rl. C,ari· ~~' _ ,
.:2. He may or can hav11 ; ;:, :.: 3•.. They. may ~' caiibtl.« H ..t ' ·•
·

·J· '

~ \

:

· ETYMOLOGY~ ·

···. ' 76 ~

Sing.

fmperfect . Tense.
Plur.

1. I might, could; would or · 1. We might, .could, would or
should have,
should have,
2. Thou ' mightst, couldst; · 2. 'Ye or you might, could,
would or should have,
wouldst or shouldst have,
~· He might, could, would or . 3. They might, could, would or
should have.
should have.

Perfect.
Sing.
1
I. I may or can have had,
2. Thou mayst or canst .have
had,
·
3. He may or can have had. ·

Plur.
1. \Ve mny or cnn have had,
2. Ye or you may or can have

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
' Sin.g.
l. If I have ••••...•..• : •••• ; 1. If we have,

.

'

f ~ '
~

. ..

~ ~ ~ .. .

I'luperfe.ct Tense•. ··

"'

,. ·

.c . . •
, ;pz~,,·
i. If I had had ••••• :.: ..... •·. 1. If ~e had had .·;~ . - ~i'•. · '
2. If thou hads~ had ,· : .• ••.: • . 2. Jt ye .or' #o'u' h~d h~d ' ! .. : ·; rj ·. .
::J•. Ifhe had h~ .•• ~ 1 . : •• ••• ;,••:a.;)(~h,·~:y hii.d ha!i.:)·. ~. 1.. ,.r . ·L
'-

.

·- ,

"<

1 ~ :~·~~~·; , ,

~ ..; . " ' \/': ,· •' w

'

'First if'uture .Teiise. .' · · ·

\;r.; il,.,

,. .· .

• ·. : ·

. ~•: :. .
'J F
' ' ',\1 ~ '
- ·
•
· S ing.
·. ) .
r.
Plar
·· , ..
1. If I shall of will hav~ :. ·: ~.. L If we sh~ll or wili .hilve; ' ., .
"2. If thou eha:lt or Wilt hav~ ... ~. ·If ye.or }'llu shall or wilt ha~$,~ ·.a. If he shatl. or will havt; •• •• 3. ' If the}" shall·" will have,\ .'" .
4 \

'

. '':

~

/'

'

:

"

: . : ;·1,

·~ ,_l· Ji: · 1 .•:.1

,'t

I ·

-~..

Second Future Tense. · . . ·

.
. rf- :··
~ -..
~
S ing.
,•
· · '." :· ·Plur;· ·
· 1. If I shall have had ... l •.. - ~' I. · If we shallha~e had ; •,
·
· 2. If thou .wilt have had ; • ." ;;. ;, 2. :'If.rt:' y~u ~ill hav~ had;; .'t , .
~. If ~e will ,have had •• .~ ••••• · 3. JJ t~e~ .w~l h~ve h~d•,,->: '· /" A

.

2. If thou have . • . • • • . • • . • . • . 2. If ye or you have,
3. I~ he have .............. •. 3. If they have.

Imper/eel Tense.

Si1tg.
Pl1ir. :
. .;;,, ,_. ,.' ' ~~ "
l. Iflhavehad ........... .~< J. I(we.havehad, ;_ , \';[ , ; ·
. - '2. If thou hast had'..••• ; •·•••'. 2. If ye or. you hav~ had, , :· «~
3. If he has had •••• ; • ~ •·· , . ; ~ 3. If they have had.> •"~"

or.

Pre.sent Tense.
Plur.

Sing.
Plur.
· I. Ifl had ..•...•.. ·.•....... 1. If we had,
2: If thou hadst .•.• • • • • . • • • • • 2. If ye or you had,
3, If he had • .. • . •• • • •• • • •• • • 3. If they had..

. , · ; ' •"'\.

1

Pluperfect Tense.
Plnr.
Sing.
1. I might, could, .would or ,1. We might, could, would or
should have had,
should have had,·
2. Thou mightst,
couldst, ,2. Ye or you might, could,
wouldst ~r shouldst have · · · would or should have
had;
had,
3. He might, could, would or 3_. They might, could, w0uld 01"
should have had.
should have had.

l. If I do have •• ,••• ; •.•••••• 1.. If"1e do have,
2. If thou do have ; • • . . . • • . • . 2. If ye or you do have,
3. If he do have •• •• • • • . • . • . • 3. If they do have.

Tense. '. :

Sing.

had,
3. They may or can have had.

Present Tense,;__ Emphatic Form.
Sing.
Piur.

.

.

'( .

Pei'f~ot

Present1 To

1NFINIT1vE-· MOOD. . .

. ... . '"

have .'~ ' ;.'.:' · ·,-~~· :;., •._ . J!.eifect. Tohave~ad.. ·
.

·'

...

,

"

\
1-,.· ,

'": ''

,·
" ;

', 7

. ~:'.·,·:;

.\

111
•·

,

ETYMOLOGY.

1.
2.

Perfect .Tense.

3.
'

I

Plur.
Sing.
· I. I have been.·. . . _.... : .··.•.. 1. We have been,
2. Thou hast been .•••.••• • . : 2. ye or you have beenr
3. He hath,· or has been .••... 3. They have been.
1

Sitig.
· · .:'- J' .
I might, could, 'would; _br,':
'··
s,hOU!db
\ ..
e, '·' --·.
'. ; r.
T~ou mightst, . couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst be; '
He might, could, Would, or
should be. '
•

Sing.
. .·
.
Plur.
l . i had been .. . .. .• •..••. . •. 1. We had been,
2. Thou hadflt been.. . . . . . . . . 2. Ye or you had been,
3. He had been .. ~ . • : .••..... 3. They had been.

.

Plur.
will be •. •... ". .'. 1. We shall or will be,
. . 2. 'thou shalt or wilt be . . . . . 2. Ye or you shall or will be,
3. He shall or will ~e •• •• .·•. 3. They ehall or will be.
~r

Present Tense •

Sing. ·
Plur.
2. Be thou or do thou be • • • • 2. Be ye or you or do ye be.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

' .

~

1•

,.

..-.

/

:..,
:

, \.'

...

:;-- ~ ~ (; ~i. , ~~·>

·. ' - )~ _': . . - .. \ :;' < ' : ... ' : .

I . 7'

~,

~
~.~ '.;(•\'_'.·.:~). ~;~. '-.' \~~.·ij~·-~.j:
,,..
·· ~. ~:
. SUBJ,tJNCTJVE ·Moon; . .
.~ '
· · Pre>sen~ . T'ense•.' · · ·, _' , ' ' '_ ' ..: · - ·

• ,•, I

'

• • ·.- ,' '

•'

Sing.
·-- · 'Plur. · .·
{_
I. Iflbe ...... . ... . .... ;.',. ;. I.' If we be,
. ·..-· · · :-.
· 2. If thou 'be .• •. ,• . '(; •.. • .••. : 2. If ye or you be;
.! ; i
3. Ifhe be ••••.. : • ; , • ~. ; • ••• ·3,' if they be. · ·

.,
,
. . . , '--,
r ., ., '-'-,
• . Imperfect Tense. · --.. ·, }, .
·I·
Sing. · , _ --, ~. ~- ... . .
· PZ:Ur.
. ,.
.
·1. Iflwere ..• : ·· · ·· ;.!,; ... ;:· 1. Ifvyewere, , , ' - _· ·.1.t ' ·-. ;:. ..· '
2. If thou Wert., ,.,; ... • . : •~ ; 2. If ye or you ~:wer~ : . ; ~~{? -'; ..
3. If he \Vere .. ... : ••.•• '. i.S.'., 3~ If they were"; I ' ·: .:
J: ' : , :i
,

;

' ";o' !·:·

• ,

' ·"',. ... ~ . •

:~.

..., · .. [

· P_~r.fec~ .::n~se.

Present .Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I may or can be ...... .. . . 1.. We may or can be,
2. Thou mayst or canst be . . . 2. Ye or you may or can be,
3. He niay or can be • ~ ...... 3. They may, or can be.

•

'

-. , · Pluperf(Jct .Tense•..· -~- .>:-; 1 1 •· . , :,,,.,« ', ·

•

)

•

I ,. ',). : :

~.,

Second Future Tense.

.

i.:,We .mjght; c~illd, ~otiid,.' or ·
sh"
9u"!db"
e,, , •. " ~'·;·.
~ ·~:· · ··~·:
2. :Ye . (ir ; you'~'hlight;. '. could, ·
woµld, or shduld be, . ··· · .
3. 'They might,' could, would : '
or should be. ··. ,' 1" . c ·~ ' ·

wouilor

, Sing.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

' -.. · ·
" , · Plur. '. · ' . . ''if
.

Sing.
· · · · · · · . · · · Plur. ·. ,: · · · ' " : '-' · 1. I might, could,.' W:ould,·, or\ ){ We might, C\)uld',
. . should have been, ·
·· .. . : . should have been, ,: '.·:·
2; Thou . mighist, couldet, ' 2. Ye or you ·:might, co~ld,
wouldst, Or shouldst have .,: " ' :would, o f should •have . '
been, ·: .·. ·. ,.
' ' been I , .. ·.-":'·'
.·. __:\ : "-~ 1': . ...
,
. •
3: He might, could, wou~d, .or : 3. ;:r'hey mi2hi 1 i:O~i_d, -;'lf?,uld.
. should have b11en. . . · . ··· · or should have been. · · ..

First Future Tense.

Plur.
Sing.·
I. I shall have been ..••..• , .. I. We shall have been,
2. Thou wilt have been • • •••. 2. .Ye or you will have been,
3. He will have been .•...•. •. 3. They will have been,

. . ..:

P~rfect 7'ense.
:'.· ~ •
, .·; . ·
. Sing. .
,_·_ Plur.· : ,-·,,,
.·: -:·
1. I may ar can have been, ·
1. ·We may or ·cari have been,
2. Thou mayst or can's t .have ·. 2. Ye or you may 'or Can have
. ,
been,
., . ' been
1
3. He may or can. have be~n. 3. {They :nay· or can have been.

\

1£ I l!lhall,

.

l'. • '

"'

Pluperfect Tense.
'

~ hr-,:· 1',J~~};

. .:1f{~~E,~·q~~~~F:-: .W:~~es. , ~.
• .\ . ·.: !_ .l_'liJp~je~~/I':~r,ise. ~ '\;:~~.

•-·
·.Tense
•
.. '.i/m:per"ect
I ,
J'
. .
, Sing.
• .·
.
Plur.
L I wal!I ·.. . . . . • . • • . • • . • • • . . . 1. We were,
2. Thou wast ••• . , ... ; ... ·• . . 2. Ye or you were,
3.· He was •• ~ · •,• .. .•• •· •••... 3. They were.

'

. '. • I ,

• .,~ ~-·;

.

fii

· ·: ~/'-1.' .:;~: ,·. ~ .:>r~ . ~· J'

· ' ··);. ·,.

Sing.
· Piur · · ' 1 · ,'b · '
·
·
·
•
I· Ill'
· ··
1. If I have been ••_~-· .... o,:- .: 1. , If we .haye .lJ«leJ:l; ,, , ,~, , l(S, .'!, . , _.
· 2._If thou h,ast been .. •. ; . :,; . .. 2. Jf y~ or .Y.QU hay~,ti,en,<f~J'
. 3. ,If he ~ath. or .~as _been ,: .:- _; , 3_. ·J( they, hay~ . pf,J~~i,;:£, ,"k/ "-;' .
..

'. (

'

.

. ,•

.

.

.

. -: . .

.. ~·· . .'fJ .··.~...,_,: ~. '!'' '·

.

•

.

'

'
'•

' so

Pluperfect Tense.
Sing.
·;
' Plur.
1. Ifl had been . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. If we had been,
·2. If thou hadst been . ...•.. • 2. Jf ye or you had been,
3 . If he had' been : . • . . . . . . . . . 3. · If they had been.

Imperfect'

•

To have been.

Participles.
Present.

Being ................... .. Perfect.

Been.

Cotitpound Perfect. Having been:

AC'TIVE VOIC'E. - TO LOVE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sing.
Plttr.
1. I love .. . .. • .. . .. . . . . .. .. . 1. We love,
2. Thou lovest .. . . •. .. .. . . .. 2. Ye or you love,
3. He, she, or it loveth or loves. 3. They love.

Present .Tense. - Emphatic Form.
Sing.
Plttr.
1. I do Jove .. •· ............. I. ,We do love,
.2. Th bu dost love ........... . 2. · Ye or you do love,
3. He does love. . . . . . • . . . • • . • 3. They do love.

lmperfe.ct Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I loved . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. • . . . 1. We loved,
2. Thou lovedst ............ . 2. Ye or you loved,
."' 3. He loved , ................ 3. They loved.

'J

,

(·'

1
Sing.
Plut.
1. I have loved .. ' ..... .· .. .. . 1. We have loved, .
2. Thou hast foved ' . • • . . • . • . 2.' Ye or you have loved,
3, He has loved~ ••••••• •; . . . • 3. They have loved:
. I

Pluperfect Tense.

Sing.

' ..

Plttr.

i. l had loved . .'.. .. . • • .. .. . . 1. we had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved ....... .. 2: .Ye or you had loved,
3. He had loved .............. 3. They had loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
To be .. ...... .. Perfect.

·""··
I

Perfect Tense.

Second Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1.1< If I shall have been . . . . . . • 1. If we shall have been,
2. If thou wilt have been ..... 2. If ye or you will have been,
3. If he will have been . .. .'. . . 3. If they will have been.

,.

:,

Te~;e1 -~)!:mpliatic F?rfn.

I

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I shall or will be . • . . . • . 1. If we shall or will be,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be . . . . 2. If ye or you shall or will be,
3. If he shall or will be . • . . . . 3. If they shall or will be.

...

81~

"
.Sing.
.
Plur. '
1. I did lov'e . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . 1. We did love,
2. Thou didst love •.• ; ....... 2. Ye or you did love ,
3. He did love ...... .' •.••. .' .. 3. ':fhcy did love.

First Future Ten.se.

Presen.t Tense.

, ....

INFLEct~oN 'OF :·WOltbs:

ETYMOLOGY.

. First Future Tense. .

.,

-·
r .

~·

··. ·· .

'

.

. Sing.
Plrtr.·
1. l shail or will love • . • • • . . . 1. ' we shall or will love: ' \
2. Th~u shalt or wilt love .. .. 2. Ye or you shall or will love,
3. He shall or will love . . . . . • 3 . .They shal~. or will love.
.
. ..
.

,

\ '

Second Future ,Tense.
..

l

'

' :

. • Jir

••

'

Sing. ·
..
·
· Plur.
. -'
1. I shall have loved.... . • .. .. 1. We shall have lo':'ed, ·
2. Thou wilt have loved. ... . . 2. Ye or you will have loved;
3. He will have loved.. . . • . • • 3. They will have loved. : ·
11

.. :

.

•

J

.

..

·' 1

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
.

;

]'resent Tense.

'

::
' •

".I ..

.'

' ~

.-:

·.:r

1.

Sing.
" .; ' "
l!litr.' · · -':: ·;·
\
2. Love, or love,) hou, ,<>r. d~>'( ,,2., Love, 01•,Jove Y~ , ~7' you,'~~{
thou love.:; ... ; i-. .. .... 5 . do
love. : •••• ;. ·· · ' ·'· ~· s
.

.

re

.

. . • 1-:....~-.~ . ...~ :·· ':\ . _ : ~ ·. · \l·~·· .... :'..\~:), ~liZ <.~

i>oT.ENTIAL .Mbob. · ",...,: .,... '/;' ;; ·"'
'·'

\ ,

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I

•

Present.· Tense.'.
Sing.
Piur.
·~!
1. I may or can love : ..... ; :· ). We may hr can Iove; ';i ·
2. Thou mayst or.canst loye ·•• . 2. Ye or you may iJ~ ean ,l~ve~.
3. He may or.can love •.• ; : . • 3. ' They .may or. cari love. , '." '· ·

'·

,·

82

ETYMOLOGY.
!

IN.F LE;CTiON OF WORDS.
(

Imperfect Tense.

Plur.
Sing.
1. I might, pould, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should love,
should .love,_
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,
would, or should love,
wouldst, or shouldst love,
3. He might, could, would, or . 3. They might, could, would,
or should love.
should love.

'

Sing. ' ' . .
Plur.
1. If I did love .•• ; • ~ .... ._. .. 1. If we did love, ,
2. If thou. didst lo_
ve .•... , .. ••\ 2. Hye or you did 1o,:e,
· 3. }f he d1~ I?;~. :.... •.: . . . . .. 3. If they did love~ · '.

a·

'·

Plur.

I. If we had loved 1

or you had loved ·-•
3:. Ifthey had' loved. ,-.,' · '

2. If ye

Ji'ir~~ Future. Tense . . , .

''

Second Future Tense. :

')

Sing.
~
Plur." · ·
~- If I shall ~ave lo~ed ....... ' I. If we shall have loved,
2 . . If thou _wilt have loved •• , .., 2. If ye 0 ;. you ·will have loved,
3. If he will have lo".ed. .. .. .. 3. Hthey will have loved. · i
I

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I love • • • • •• • . . . . . . . • . . . 1. If we love,
2. If thou love. . . . . . . . • . • •• . . 2. If ye or you love,
3. If he love.. . • • . .. . • . . . •. .. 3. If they love.

'

\

r

-

~

•

'

I

-•
~•-".

INHNITIVE MOOD.

-

I '

.' '

!'ruent. ·To love '. ., .. ; ... ; .;'. ~' •. . . . Perfect. To have

p

Present. Tense. - Emphatic Form.

3. If he loved . . .. . •• • .. . .. .. 3. If they loved.

,1I

.

· ~

.
Sing.
_
Plur.
1. If I shall or .w\ll l~ve ·. •. .. :; I. If we shall or will love;
· 2. If thou shalt .or .wilt love ... .2. • If ye or you shall or Will love,
3. If he shall or ":ill love .. , . . 3. If they shall or will love. ·.

Present Tense.

Plur.

"

i'luperfect Tense. - .

SUBJ.UNCTIVE MOOD.

Sing.

I

•·

Sing.
. : .
1. If I had loved ..... _.; •• , . ..
2. If thou hadst lcived , .. : •. ; . '
3. Ifhe had loved ...... ·:. '; .. '.

Plur.
Sing. '
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should have loved,
should have loved,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye .or you might, could,
would, or should have
wouldst, or shouldst have
loved, .-· ~ ·
loved,
3. H e might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would,
or should have loved.
should have loved.

I. If Iloved.. • . • . . • . . . . • • . . . 1. ff we loved,
2. If thou lovedst . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. If ye or you loved,

.- ~

_J!erfe<;t Tense. ·

Pluperfect Tense.

Imperfect Tense.

_J

·'

Sing.
.· . .
_· Plur.
1. If I have loved· .... : .. .. . . 1. If we have 16ved
,·.
2· · If tho u· h ast 1ove d ., .... . : •• ; 2. ' If ye or .you
· .have' loved
· ' -.
3Ifhh
·
e as 1ove .... ~ . .. .. . . 3, If they have loved. · · " ·
'

Plur.
1. We may or can have loved,
2. Ye or you may or can have
loved,
3. They may or can have loved.

.
Plitr.
,S tng.
1. If I do love . . .... 1 .'••• • . • • 1. If we do love,
2. If thllu do love ............ 2. If ye or you do love,
3. If he do love.. . . • . • . . . . . . . 3. If they do love.

· ,,;;~

. · lmppefect _T,ense. ~ Emphatic Form.

Perfect Tense.
Sing.
1. I may or can have loved,
2. Thou mayst or canst have
loved,
3. He may or can have loved.

-., ~.~

'. BS. ·
.. -. '·

Parttciples. ·

L

' '

.

lov~d.

I

re11ent.
oving •••.. ; . ; •.•• : •••.• • . Perfect. r Loved ~ ' I
Compound Perfect. Having foved.
'. ·
, · ~ . · ··· ·'
c

. I

'

'

•·

·" -

'

,

' '

:

-

~ ··~

::; :

PASSIVJ? vq~cE'.· ~ J'9#1f- L~~lpD.'
INDICATIVE MOOD. '
-

r

..

Pres~n_t 1• Tense.'

smg.
·

.

.

·

,.,

_::.; ,'

. · · : /, ,:
,'

"'

·. -·· . · . ·

'

·'

- .. . .,1
~

_
-. · ~- ~ ·, :Plur. " ..., ~.,,. ;; 1
1
. 1. I am loved ................ 1. .We ..'are loved ·. :.
'. ·• ·''-"
' ... . "1'
2. Thou art loved ........ ·• ·.. 2. Ye or vou are . l~~ed ~':;;...;.,(~
3. Heisloved .. . . : .... ". ... L 3. Th~y~elov~d · :. '. ' • .
l

•

..'. , .· :~·!r··

·)·; ... ~ . ·

.I

: :

84 .

. ....

. ETYMOLOGY.

.(

Imperfect 'l'ense.

Sing.
Plur ,' ·
l. I might, could, · ~ould, or I. We might, could , would, o~ • .
should be loved, - · · '. ·
should be ·Joved , ·· ·
2. Tho~ mightst, , . couldst, 2.' Ye or, ·you, ·might, could,
wouldst, or shouldst be
. would, or should b~ loved,.
loved;
3. He might, could, wo-~lcl, or · 3. Th ey might, coqld, · would,
should be loved.
.
or. sh~uld be .loved. , , / . · '

Perfect Tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I have been loved ......•.• 1. We have been loved,
2. Thou hast been loved .. . . . 2. Ye or you have been loved,
3. He has been loved .. . • ... . 3. They have been loved.

. . ' .

_., P~rfed
, Tens¢ . . .·
.. . . . .
~

Pluperfect Tense.

First Future Tense.
' Sing.
Plnr.
1. I shall or will be. loved ..... I. We shall or will be loved,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Ye or you shall or will be loved;
3. He shall or will l;>e loved. . . 3. They shall or.will be loved.

Second Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I shall have been loved .. .. I. We shall have been loved,
2. Thou wilt have been loved . 2. Ye or you will have been loved,
3. He .will have. been.loved •: . 3. ,They .will have been loved.

Sing.

i. I may

Plur.
1. :We may °;1'. ca~ ' pav~ .bee~
lqved, _ . .,. _ ·1 • •
,
1
canst have . 2. Ye or yoti ·may or can.have
v .
:
been loved,. · , ' ,' .,
hav~ .been· 3. Th~ y may can hav~ been
·. ·i' ·.· · ' · loved. ·-· ·'· · ,
.
',

or can have' been

loved ;
.
2. Thou mayst or
been loved,
3. He may OT can
loved.

or

·i'

1

!

Pluperfect Tense.

·: nu;-.·

-~

,

Sing.
'
1. I might, cbuld, · would, or . 1. . We might,. could, would; or
should have been loved, ·
shoulg have been loved, ,
2. Thou mightst, ' couldst, 2. . Ye or you , might, .could,
. .. .would, or.should have been .
wouldst, or shouldst have
been loved,
loved,
.
. .. · -·'
3. He might, could, wo~ld, or 3.. Th~y might, ~ould, ~ould,
' should have been loved. ·'\: ·• · or s~oul_d ha~~· ~e~n)?.\~d.
j

i_

· -IMPERATIVE MOOD.

/

·Present Tense.

SUBJUNCTIVE l\fO.OD.

Sing.
Plur.
2. Be thou loved, or do thou(_ 2. Be ye, or you loved, or do(_
be loved .............. 5
ye be loved ............ 5

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Ten,se.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I may OT can be loved ..... I. \Ve may or can be loved,
2. Thou mayest or canst be 2. Ye or you may or can .be
loved •••........ . ..... .
· · loved,
,
3. He may /JT can be loved ... 3. They may or can be loved.

Present :7'ense. ·
t

1.
. 2.
.3.

'

•

•

<pzur ·

-•{
..... ,

•• •

·_, l

Sing.
; .o '
If I be loved .. '; . .... .. .. . . • t: H we be ioved; '· :·-:.:. . . ,,:, '~>
If thou be loved .. ; . ~ . L·. ; •.• ' 2, .if ye or ·you be.Joved; ~,: x A·
. .,
If he be loved .. i ·.·;. ~ , •: .·: .'. 3. ,If they be Ioveck·'·; -.. '~ ·1(·:' . _ . <
. ., .< ·' .:: . :! . • ' ·,- . .i. ,t ·_ .':<21:' .. ;,{(,. ~:~·;:,• ' ·'::.
· .i ·

Imperfec(Te~s~; ·,, '· J' ...:t

Sin!!.
~

.·
,

•

.

•zur. '

.i. .

.. ·

...~/g]:?,
./ ·/

' c:::·:.J

"\ Y..

· L IfI were loved. : . .' .... . ; ·1. .Ifwe .W ere loved,.;,;L 1d.: .r .
2. If thou wert lov,e f .. ; .• ; .. 2. , ~f Y.e or you w~re loved, '.''..,(
3. If he were loved ! .. : , ,-.... ·.3• .If they. were lqved."' J. tT·~ ·, ':

s

.

. ·.

(',

·

~

: .J

•:TJ

··'J·~i

:.. Imperfect 'Pense.

Sing.
Plitr.
1. I was loved.; .... .. ·. • . . .. .. 1. We were loved,
2. Thou wast loved ....... • .. ~· Ye or you were loved,
3. He was loved ••••• •. ·..... . 3. They were loved.

Sing.
Plur.
J. I had been loved .. . . . . . . .. 1. We had been loved,
2. Thou ·hadst been loved . . . . 2. Ye or you had been loved,
3. He had been loved ... . .... 3. They had been loved.

·s5.,,,.

JNFLEGTlON ' OF WORDS. ,

' . .'. . ' .·. .-· -

l

' ._;

'

I

~
.

·.r

I ).·

..

.

;

'

r .'., 1 ·,

'.

86

I

' .

· · Imperfect Tense;

Perfect Tense.
.

.•'

·/

INi<'LECTION ' OF . WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

Sing.

'

Plur.

1. If I have been loved . . . . . . 1. If we have been loved,
2. If thou hast been loved ; . . . 2. If ye or you have been loved,
3. If he has been loved. . . . . . • 3. If they have been loved.

Sing.
' Plur.
.
.
'·
1. I. knew ...... ·.. ,·• .', .•.••. 1. -We knew,
2. Thou kne.west: . .' ...... : .. 2. Ye llr you knew,
"3; ·He knew • .• " ..: •••.... , .. 3. · They knew. ·

' · .'

Pluperfect Tense.
Plur.
· Sing.
1. If I had been loved .•..••.• 1. . If we had been loved,
2. If thou hadst been loved .. . 2. If ye or you had been loved,
3. If he- had been loved ..... . 3. If ~hey had been loved.

F'irst F'uture Tense.
Sing.
't . If I shall or will be loved,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be
loved ,
3. If he shall or will be loved.

Plur.
1. If we shall or will be loved,
2. If ye or you shall or will be
loved ,
3. If they shall or \vill be loved.

Second F'uture Tense.

·Imperfect Tense-:- Emphatic Form • .
~
· ' Plur.
1,. I did know ...•• .'.·~; •.••. L We did know,
,
2. , Thou didst know ... : • • . • . 2. Ye or you did km>W,
3. He did know . ; .. •.•••• ;,. . 3. They did know.

Sing.

.Plnr.
1. I have known , . • •....•... 1. We have known,
2. Thou hast known •.•..••.. 2. Ye·or you have known,
3. He has known ~ ... : .• . , • ~. 3. They have known.
... \ -

Sing. '

Plur.
1. If we shall lrnvt> hPen lovetl ,
1. If I shall hnve been loved,
2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or you will have been
loved,
loved,
3. If they will have been loved.
3. If he will have been loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present.

To be loved ........ Pe~(ect .

Present. Being loved ..............•....... Perfect. Loved.
Compound Perfect . Having been loved.

ACTIVE VOICE.- 'I'O KNOW.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sing.

Plur.
1. I know .•..• ·.•.•••.....• 1. We know,
2. Thou knowest .•.•... •· ... 2. Ye or you know,
3. He knows ..........•..... 3. They know.

' I

'

Sing.
Pfor.
1. I do know ..•............. 1. We do know,
2. Thou dost know ..•.•..•.. 2. Y e or you do know,
3. He does know ...•••••.... 3. They do know.

' I

.

•

'

' Pluperf~ct Tense.
Plur.
1. I had known ........ . . •. : 1. \Ve had k nown,
2. Thou hadst known ...... .' . 2. ·Ye or you had known;
3. .He had known ..••• :!: .; .. 3. They had known.
,.

·-.~.~
,,

'

,
Plur. 1
''"
know . : .... 1. We shall
will know; ~
2. Thou shalt .or wilt know ... 2. Ye or you shall or will kriow,
3. H e shall 01· will know . .. .. 3. They shall or will know •.
'
' .
Sing.

i: I shall or will

.

or

I
Seco~d F;,uture .Tense.
\.
Sing.
' .. · · •
Plur.
1. I shall have known ..•.•• ; • . 1. We· shall have kn<>wil,
·
· 2. Thou wilt have known ,. .<·: .2. Ye or you ~ill ha~e ·known,
3. He will haye known : :, •• ;.~ 3. TJ:iey .will h~v~ known.;/< ,

'}

\ ' i·

'

' 1•-

0

r

t

. IMP~RATIVE MOdD. ' .•~'. _',\

q~ •;/.J. ~ ',: ~ .,

::~ . ,- ·." •'

Present Tense.
• f . ,:.

Sing.

:\~

1 · 1 1' {

·:
. ·, ",·.,

.

1 . .'·. ·. f .

Plur
.
• i· ·'' - ·
2. Know,
know thou, ~r (_ 2~ 'Know, o~ kn~lie'~r l'.~1i; "2. ·,
. do thou kriow .•.•..•. 5 - · or do ye know. . · " S :

or

~

:'

F'irst F'uture, Tense.
_

Pr€sent Tense. - Emphatic F'orm.
I

'

Sing;

To have been loved.

Participles.

..

Perfect Tense.
Sing.

·· _~<(..,..·1·
.

.• ,··

•
,_·,
~

':..

88

POTENTIAL MOOD."

•

•

I

•

s9?
i '

Plur;
.

Plttr.
1. ·we may or can have known,
2. Ye or you may or can have
k tH _n vn,

3. They may or can have known.

' '· Pluperfect Tense.

.
h ·If I did know .. . •••• -•• ••. :· I.

Sing.
Plur.
I. If I know ......... ·'····. 1. Ifwe know,
2. If thou know ..... . ... ... . 2 . .If ye or yon lrnow,
3. If he know .. ............. 3. If they know.

"·

· Perfect. Ten,se. Plur.

1. If I have known ... ...... . 1.' tf we have known,
2 . If thou hast known ••••.... 2 . . If ye ~r you have knO"wn ,
3. If he has known ...••.•.•. 3. ._If they have known.
•
1

.

Pluperfect · Tens~.

'

Sing;

Plnr.

l. .If I had known ......•.•. . 1. If we had known,
2. If thou hadst known ...... 2. If ye or you had known,
a• •

3. .If they ~ud known.

r .· •

First Future T ense.
Sing ..

Plur.

l. If I shall or will know
1. If we shall or will know,
2 . If thou shalt or wilt k no w . 2. If ye or you shall or will know1
3. If he shall or will k now . .. 3. If they shall .or will ,k now • .

Second Future 1'cnse.
Sing.

.I'lur., ·
1. If l shall have k,nown ' .. ~ .• ;
.If we shail have known,
2. If thou wilt have .Jtuown .~" 2. If ye or _you. will h ave known,
3. If he .wJll have: known ·~ ': ••:.', 3._ If t.hey.
haye known. '../,

t.'

.

~

... /

·f

: .·

·--.~(''··

· .

will
.- ·

·_ . 1 ~'--,

.' . -· , i ' 'i-'

\

·~ 1f11 }' , , ,

!·····. ;i ·/ .

. INFINITIVE ~IOOD • .· "
. ·1
Present . .To know ............ ...Perfect. To have known,

Present Tense - Emphatic Form.
Sing.
Pfor.
1. lfldoknow .. .... . .. .. .. 1. Ifwedo lrnow,
2. If thou do know .... .. .... 2. If ye or you do know,
3. If he do know ..... ....... 3. If they do know.

Plur. ·

If we did know

Sing.

kno\Yn,

Pre.sent Tense.

, '·

2. If thou didst know ..... •. ~ 2. If ye or you did.'. know,
3. If he did know .. : ... ·.. • • .. 3. If they did k now.

. 3~ -If he had knoWn ..... :·.• .

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

' '

L ,

l'lnr.
l. We might , could, would, or
2. Y c or you m ight, could,
wottld, or should have
known,
3. They mi g ht, could, would, or
fhn1ild ha\'c known .

)

Imperfect Tense - Emphatic Fo~m~

Perfect Tense.

~hould h<:1\·c

•

,. "-

Sing.

Plitr.
Sing.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should know,
should know, '
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye o~ you inight, could,
would, or should know,
wouldst, orshouldst know,
3. He might., cou ld, would, or 3. They mi ght, could, would, or
should know.
should know.

1. I niight, oonld, would , or
Fhoulrl Jiayc known,
couldst,
2. Thou mights!,
wouldst, or shouldst have
known,
3. He mig ht, con Id, won Id , or
should hztvc kno\\'n,

•

' ' .

Imperfect Tense.

Sing .

. ,.

knewest. , .. , .. .' ... 2. If ye or you .knew,
3. If he knew· ..... ~ ••••'. ..... 3. If they kn~w . .

2. Thou mayst or canst know. 2. Ye or you may or can know,
3. He may or can know .. . ... 3. They may or can know.

kno"·n ,
3. He may or can have known.

;

2. If thou

1. I may or can know . . , .... 1. We may or can know,

1. I tnay or can have known,
2. Thou mayst or canst have

•

l. lfl knew ........ :.: .... . 1. If we knew,

Plur. ·

Sing.

t

· Imperfect Terisi. :\
Sing.

Present Tense.
Sing.

•

INFLEC'.I'lON ' OF · WORD~.

ETYMOLOGY.

.

. ..

~~rt;~~p'l~s:\:.' •t I/'~ . ' ~-.:~./

1

. Present.

· ·'

Knowing . •;~.'. ........ : •• , .. .. ..

Cumpo;,nJ Perfec~.

8*

'

Having knoW!J•

·

•

'
. ..

·. ·.

\

Perf~·-:· l!now.ru. · ·
·"·. "~I!; ;•:1• · · :,~

r·

, ..

:

.

• ,'

'•.

'

\

.__.,

I

.
.

·. ·:,..
•, .-

90

ETYMOLOGY.

J

PASSIVE VOICE.

•.

...

..

,,:__

,,.·

..:;-

;,

"

)

,

•

':

POTENTIAL MOOD; _'
•

P1·esenl Tense.

· , , .-

'

I\

•

'

.

.:

. · - · · Pr~sent .Tense . . ' .

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Sing. , .
Plur.
1. I am known .. ; .... ; ...... 1. We are known,
2. Thou art known . . . . . • . • . . 2. Ye or you nre known,
3. He is known •....•.•..... 3. They nre known.

:

,.l( ..• ·~ ·
·.INFLECTtON· OFlWORDS •. · '"~ · .
I

'. 1. 1·

..

Plur.
Sing.
I. ·we nia}'or can be known,.
· 1. I may or can be known,
· .2. Thou mayst'. or c'anst be 2. Ye or you rnay · or can . be
" · known,
.
' . ' kno\~n, \' '·
3. He may can be kno'Yn. 3. They may ~an be known. '
J
.

or

or

:· . .~
i'~

/

.Imperfect Tense.

Imperfect Tense.

Perfect Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I have been known . .. .. .. I. We have been known,
2. Thou hast been known . . • . 2. Ye or you have been known,
3. He has been known . . . ... . . 3. They have been known.

Sing.
Plur.
I. I had been known
1. We had been known,
2. Thou hadst been known. . . 2. Ye or you had been known,
a. He had been known . . . . . . 3. They had been known.

I

First Future 7'ense.

·

1

Second Future Tense.

Sing.
1. I shall have been known,
2. Thou wilt have been
known,
3. He will have been known.

Plur.
1. We shall hnve been known,
2. Ye or you will have been
known,
3. They will have been known.

.·
beeri

been
' : -_
.' I

Plur.
2. Be ye or you known. :

'

'

•

1

'/< '.
f

'

.
, Sing.
.
· ·. .
lur • .". ,,. "- ·F· . ,
1. I might, could, w,ould, or 1.' We might, could, would, or
should have beert known,
, should have been .Known,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, : . 2. . Ye ,or yoU' · might, could,
would, Or should have been
. WOUldst1 OT shouldst have
·
' , known, . .
\ : · '.'
been known,· ~ 1 , ,:
. 3. He might, could, w~uld; or ; '3.· They might; could, . would,
should have beeq known. ; '. •. ·.. (Jr should have been lp1own;

!.

•,'' I

'

•.

,

~· .

:... ·

,

.-

~·,I

,- '

• ' ·,(

.

'.° .'· ,

:

~:

\

·~> .I

·,. , ~

r

~·

'· /

~

·,

sus:ruN:c.~ivE . MO;oI?..·~ _;:·,...;zX"·\;:. ·,'.:'
•.

•

Present" T.ense.
~!

·.·' ., * ; · ~·;

.,/ ., ,'· ~ •.~ :

· · •· " · c"

.

·••· :.· ·

Sing.
, \ .. """"'· · ·· Plur; -· :· ·: ,i." ,1 - 1 ~·· · 1
l. If I am known .... ". ~ ... ·.. i, If we are known, :, •· ·: .'. · JC
2. If thou art known • . • • • • • • 2. . If ye or .you ate kno~n, ,; ; . •:
3. If he is known •• : .. : ... r .. 3~ If they are known. " 1::"' ' .
•'

~:

.

~

I"; •

•

~ ~~
?

'

' ·,

: : Pluperfect' '!'ense. · -:~ ; ,, , · '.
)
. p . ·; :, : ·" , ...

,; _. ' . .

Sing.
1. 'Be thou known.... •• • . • . .

·'. ~
'

1. We may or qan hav:e been
- known, .'
· '. . .:. · · · · · ·
2. Ye or you may or can have
been known, ·
"· '
3. They . mayo~ cari have been
· :, ;· ·
• known_. < ..
• ...,

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

'

···-ii

Plur . .·

have

'?ii

s

:.. · Perfect Tense. :
Sing.
- . .'
1. I may or can ha~e
known,
2. Thou mayst or canst
been known, ,·.
3. He may or can have
known.'
···

Pluperfect Tense.

will

'-$.

Sing. .
. ·
.
. · Plur'.
1. I ,might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should be known,
should be known,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, ,2. Ye or you might, . could,
wouldst, or shouldst be
. would, ;· ·or should .' be
· '.
known, .
kriown,
. 3. He might, could; would, or '. 3. -They might, , could, · would, 1
should be known.
or should .be Ju:iown.
.
'
; ...

Sing.
,
Plur.
1. I was known . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. We were known,
2. Thou wast or wert known, 2. Ye or you were knowm
3. He was known ........... 3. They were known.

. Sing.
Plztr.
1. I shall or will be known ... 1. We shall or will be known,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be known, 2. Ye or you shall or will be known,
3. He shall or
be known. 3. They shall or will be known.

·'

\

ETYMOLOGY.

J

· ~.

I,mperfect Tense.

·.
Berries,

known~

3. If he will have been known.
Present.

. ,.

.

.......

•.

'

••

•

'1

:

~

.

1

. ct,, ~he. ~rro;s in: th~ followin~ expressions:.- ,
Corre
h
. .
· · ·
. r
l.d ,. I' ; sharp reproves young calfs, tall footrnans; t ey
Two.1oxs, o 1o wes,
'
d
· · I ow many
are brethren sons of the sanHi,.fi;nhcr, two. war_ves, 1 . .
. swines? I have two foots, handsorn~ lrrdyR, idle bo.1es,. sturdy. oxes.'
. Tolcanos are .genez:ally on isl~°.ds.
.- '

First Future 'Pense,

Plur.

.'

ch~rch, days, .hills, lashes, .fiiosses, 'nuts, pe~ce, plane~s, s'.1k•

'

Pluperfect Tense.

1. If we shall have been known;
2. If ye or you will have · been
known,
3. If they will have been,known.

;

.
' How do ·w eform" the Plura~ of, .' 1 ~ r .
.
. .·. d . f d
'
·fife flsh . folio .' 'geniusf grotto, hoof, im~ex, JOY,
·
:
Die, war , ungeon,
'
•
'
·.
·
. lamina, ox, pe_a, radi1;1s; se.raph,. sheep.' toot~, v1rtu~so 1
• .'

Sing.
Plur.·
1. If I had been known ~ . • .. . 1. If we had been knowri,
2. If thou hadst been known . 2. If ye oT you had been known,
3. If he had been known. . . . . 3. If they had been kno;vn.

· · Second Future T ense.

.

.
book . brush .chair, City, delay, dandy'; envoy, fly, fox,
As~,
adrrny,h o h' orse . i~ch ~elly, knife, lake, monarch, negro, pass,
.gran ee, er ,
•
'J
·
· h · hiff. · '
.. penny ,-_queeJ!!. 're~b;tis, ros_trnm: s~arf, stra~ur~ '. ~.a~c .. '.· w '.. . '.

. Perfect Tense.

Sing.
1. If I shall have been known,
2. If thou wilt have been

~s ;he Numbe; of th~ f ollo~ing Nounst

.

Pro~ounce aiid•spe,ll th/~lural. of the following:lf"ou11& ;-:-

.

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I have been known .. : . . 1. ·If we have been known,
2. If thou hast been known,.. 2. If ye or you have been known,
3. If he has been known ; • • • . 3. If they have been known.

Sing.
.Pl11r.
1. If I shall or will be known, 1. If we shall or will be known,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye oT you shall or will be
known,
known,
3. Ifhe shall or will be known. 3. · If they ~hall or will be known.

What

.oa .

• , ,

. ; ·:E'X ERCISES.

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I was known . . . • . . • . • . · I. If we were known,
2. If thou wert known . . . . . . . 2. If j:e or you were known,
3. If h_e was known.. . . . . • . . . 3. If they were known.

I

.'

.

..
92

'.

forcg~;ng

___

_:___..__~

~ay recit~d\r~ity,

' The
Exercises
be
'and also may •be written • . Tbote which
. follow, referrin1 to the Picture~. are to lr!rwntten ..
.

.

'

'

'

EXERCI~ES . T~'.' J3i. . ~¥~1~~~N.
":BY T~E .PUPI,L.
..
;-: ..

.

· 1 •·

XNFINITIVE MOOD.
To be known ...•. P,erfect. To have been known.

PartiCiples.
Imperfect.
Being lmowri.
Compound Perfe~t •. Having been known.

/
'I

EXERCISES ON THE INFLECTION' OF WORDS. ·.~

~

THE NOUN.

I.

-Point out which of the following Nouns a<l,.. ·
mit of number: -

. ,..

NUMBER.

Ark, Babel, church, Darius, elm, France, girl, hamlet, innkeeper,
iron.

'
:,. Wolf,Huiii.

('

I"

,. •.

~eferring t~·~h~: ~ict~r.~, inciudi~g.

bi~ t~~ s;::ij~:

Write sentences
funs
- lar number, and nouns in"the plural n,um~ei:~ w.1~ /~~~- s '.~ , ·'· . .

tives. · · · · ·

,·

,; :.· . ·... ,, , .

'
.

·iff

...'

"-~·.: ~<~~jr~:'.;;
).,

r:·
: )

'f .

"

94

ETYMOLOGY.

2.

gENDER; .;__What.is
'

-·

·,

r

I

' ·,

'

•

'

.

.

I

1 ). '':"

I

'• "~ 95 .._.
.

Ex'.EilCISESi

J

; ·

the gender of, . . . . - '
.

'

. '.\

'.

.

,

,

'

, ,

'

: ..._

.

Boy, Charles, 9hild, cousi.n, dog, father, far'thi~g, ,friend, h?rse, hu~ts­
man, inkstand, Jr~!b.~d; ' joy; .king, lass, mast~r,: parent 1 quantity,
st11.g,

widow~~:°.. ;.' ;/.

~r

•...

, ; ·. ,

':"J, '.

:'

· .

..

fonvert thefoll~w,ing ,l\fasculine Nouns into Feniinin~ Nouns,pronounc·
.
. : i1!'g and spell!ng .the Feminfou_;' . .'.:
'\

, \'
I

-~

~f,.
~----=
. °""'""~=z~'°".o~:--­
~--'~ · ~~::::;;;411m~,..,.,,,~~

Drake, duke, earl; .ilmperor, gentleman, hart, hero, . host, hunter, lion, , ,
male-child, master,· nephew1 'sb,eph!=Jrd, widower. .· · ~,
·

A Conversaiion.

•

Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in the singular nulll.ber, and nouns in the plural nurriber, with verbs , articles, and
adjectives. Introduce proper names, by giving names to the persons
represented in the picture.

'

.'

'

•

-·'

.

'

.

,'

~l

'

Correct the .E rrors · in the followi7ig, exp~essions: -:---.

Alexnnder, my sister. David -is a. widow. Elizn is a bridegroom.
Charles the Second. was a bad queen. She was .µiy benefact9ress•.
How sweet . a ~origsteress· ! . , This is iny-ttitress. .0, the traitoress !
Look at that goatess. : . ' - ':< ·'- .. , ..' · _. ·. . ·
..
,
-:
'
, . . . . ·'.
\, .
;{

', \.

~

.

. -· ' - ~

·::.;; -

.\ '·

EXERCISES TO
. " ' BE. WRITTEN. - ·
' I',
~

•·

Hop-Gathering.

Write sentences referring to this picture, including noun1 in both num.
bers, p.ronouns, articles, verbs, and adjectives.
, .
r'

l'
r.

I

: Charity,°· .
....,,

,r
The Village Sch~oi: -·

Write sentenc~s referring to this picture, including nouns in both num- . '
bers, articles, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

'

.

/

~.

i· ' ,

. "' .

Write sentences referring to .this picture, including n.ou~s .in ~th gtfl·
.. : . ·aer1, with verbs and adjectives.
· ' ·
·, · .,, . · : ".' , .'
1

·

~ I

I I'

...

-

.i.;.

~~ .t' ~.

,.

·1

'

'.
.

~

.

\

~- .. ~

;•

1·

. ... ,,

.·. ~

' ,-

'

' .

'·
' 96

,,

I .

ETYMO~OGY •

•

...

~ '"~

,,

,_ -

' ·' .

9jf,

E:XERCISES. · · ;_

CAsE._:_·Poin:t out the Nouns in, ~liefqllowi1tg Se~tence~,
and meriti~n .i n U)hat :case each of them is, o

1

_:

I

John struck the ~able. . .r· ,_ , . - . ' · ', - . •· • ~.'
John's horse kickedJam~s. :; ·\;'~ •>
'.'
"
My brother's dog b~tni~ i but.I stoned my brother',s dog •
.The wall of the city shelters my father's house.- \) ',. " ,.
My father's house is sheltered by _the wall-of the city. ·.; '
Men's thqughts are v:anity.'. · '. ._<."

'>. _, "·

.

''

'

1

Decline tllefollowing Nouns_, both orally and in .writing:---'

Ass, authdr, bcnu!·Chnrles, hero, mother,

p~rcdt,

9uccn, ruler,

WO•

man .
. Domestic S~eno.-- ·

\Yrile sentences referring to this picture, in cluding 11onns in both genders, with verbs au<l adjcctiueR. Introduce proper nouns.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN:

Domestic Scene. _'
·

The Iloy nnd the Geese.

.·

Write sentences referring to this picture, including nouns in both gen•
ders, with articles, verbs, _adjectives, and pronouns.
'

.

1

, .. Write sente~ccs r,eferring to this' pi\!t~re, ..jncludmg· 7i~u~s in the nomi· ,
native, and n(JUns in · the .objective case, articles, verbs, and adjec.tives.

'

'

Tho Acc.n•ntion•
The Procession.

Write nouns referring to this picture, including nouns in the masculint
gender, with verbs, articles, adjectives, and pronouns.

,' Write sentences includi~g· nou~s i~ the nominative, possessive,. a~<l ob- ~ .'jective cases,,verbs; adjectives, nnd articles. ·' ,' ; . .. .. . ..

)

9

'· " ' '

~

'· : .

-

,·,

.:··;

.. ::,;~ --- '.\

If ~.·

• •, ' • ',.t>

r ' ,· , A

.,

98

,..

: 09

·. EXERCISES.

ETYMOLOGY.

" '.r'.

' .

~' · )

: i)
J ,

. l·

, ..

!.
:.'' i!.

Gleaners. ,

Write sentences including · nonns in the nominative and possessive
cases, articles , verbs, adjectives , and pronouns.
r "·.

·/ -

The Ilise~ ~~d his Poof Relationi~ .

eenten~es ,eh~wi~g,the inflection~

n~mbe~; ·gmd~,

of'oo,u ns, i'n
.a nd case; and in~rodueing proper, as well ae common n~uns;

..: Write

.

I

i, J

•

•

> •

·,' " \

.

• •

\ '·

' · : \\

.._ ·

t.

·

·

'

\

. .' ·.·

The Pigs 'and their Keeper.

l
·.· ~

I

· Write sentences including nouns in the nominative and objective crue1
articles, verbs; adject?ves, and pronouns.
'
'

. ,·

The Gardener.
Writ~ sen~ences

referring to this picture, introducing nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and articles, and showing the inflections of nouns, in num·
ber, gender, and case. ·
·

·

.

...

. . Write sentences showing the

:1-' ,:

/ '
{nflecti~n-S .o f noun,s, in. ~umber• .ifender,

Fanny and

'

Luci,\. at Play.

and case; and introducing proper nouns.

' " \•

I

·

y ~-

~

.:•:.·

•

.,"

(:

'

"

100

(" .

'¥' .

. .~ERCISES. · i.

'I

ETYMOLOGY.

.

,JI

.\'

'·

THE ADJECTIVE.
Point out the Adjectil!e~, in thefollnwing list, wlticlt admit of compa1:i-'
'
··
· son:.:...!.

Able, beautiful, circular, ' cold, evil, few, four, full, golden, hilly, ill,
jnst , long, mournful, ninth, open, right, ~quare, supreme, universal
wonihipful, worthy.

; ,.

..

~'

·,

..,

·' '

l

~-if

·,.

,_)
I

' \·

-~- ·

.

f

!

·., . donven111tion on
!~

. .I

\

.. . .

~~

What d.cgrcc of comparison are,

Ancient, better, costliest, dreary, envious, gayest, huge, lazy, more,
most, tremendous,' next, superior, uttermost l

.•.1
.1',,•

.

.

.

.

ihe
'

Road;

·•

'

,•

.
'

.

.

.

' •

~

.

'j·.~'.'.· Write eente.ncee intr9ducing nouns, q,r,ticl~s~ and ~erbs '. ~ith a~jective•
in' the positive and comparative ~cgrce:r.

· "' ·

·

' ·

· ·· .

'

· .. ,

I'ronounce and Spell the oomparatives and superlatives of,

Dad , big, coy, cruel, faithful, grave, hale, ill;' littlc,,low, 'mad, pretty,
pure, true, white, worthless.

' A._.····:."-·-.
.'

('

Correct the following expressions: -

'fhe good scholar is happyer, as well as attentiver than· tho idler.
Spring is the beautifullest season of the year; summer is the hotest;
winter is the gloom yest; autumn is ·tho livelyest. I havo llone it
the right.est way, and deserve the chiefest price. John is littler, but
gooder than you.

:1'

·''

' $ick.ness. ' ' .

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTE~ •.

. write sentences inCiuding' nou~s, verbs, and articles,',vith ~aj~ctive• in
the positive, comparative, .and superl,a tive degrees. .
·
·

--·

"

The Cow.
Tho Pedlar.

• Write sc~tences referring to this picture, including adjectives in the
positive degree, nou1is, articles,' and verbs.

. . "Trite sentences including. noztns, adjectives in the 11ositiv!J .a nd co~pa·
rative degrees, verbs, ,artir.les, and adverbs.
~- "'' " \t ,::5 . .' 1. ,

. ..
1

9*

·~'..:::~_,,,,~}

~I -- ' .- .,. , ,. \: -

•.,
'

102

/

•

'

•

I

: <'

.'

' . EXERCISES. ;:

ETYMOLOGY.

-~ ~ .:.

',.

'·.'

, <•I

•'"';'

·!"

THE PRONOUN.
TV/tat kind of Pronoun is,
Who, self, he, .she, we, they, tha,t, whether, our, their, which, what,
thy, thou 1
'
Tell the Person, Number, Gender, and Case, of eaclt of the following
Pronouns: - .
Him, us, I, them ;• thine,
yours,
thei~s, ours, ye,• he,
she, mine, we.
t
•
•

/'

..

\

Parse tl1efollowing sentences, telling the Number: Gender, and Case of
Nouns; the degrees of comparison of the Adjectives; and the Per1on,
Number, Gender, and Case., of the I'ronoitns: I love the boy who loves his !eflson.
I dislike these idle fellows.
Charles and David are the best wrestlers, b1.H. the worst schoiars in
their respective classes.
The girl who gained the third prize last year is the head of her class
this year : she deserves the highest praise.
Many children , whose parents are poor, attain to learning, wealth and
honour.
I
Good character, and good education, are surer roads to eminence than
either large estates or illustrious birth.

'The Stenm-Bo'at.

·':'>> write
~h. ·

_/ '

, "

.

se~tence~ showing ~he inflections of the relative prono~~·· in caae.
'

.

'

'

"I

'

.

•

•

' ... '

1.: :

" .. • ' ..

~

l,

;

. ... ~::;t /·:}:',

~.:·~ ~~;~::., . -~ :-=·

'· ~

1,

l

~

· I .I ) • ; ;-,

,r • •

.°'

.

'~'· ~· ·, !.
\ ..
~

r
I • f

,:~.).! ... ': · ' 1._~

, :~ ;, ~ ··~ <

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Starting on n .Journey.

'·;:J{::;;,r;·'

' .
'

Write scntc1ices showing the i11jlcctions of the perMnal pronouns in ·
ti umber, and case.

~

I

':'

'

The Shepherd.·

1

Write ~entencee ;hor-'ing the fajl.~dions
pro11ouns.

.,

: .••

'',_:. ,···!/ : 1 ~'• . ·,·; ,··:·.

of ihe 'pe~s~~al,; ~~d :adject.if71

•

t

··r .: .. ') ..

106

I

ETYMOLOGY.

' 'fo7

)

EXERCISES,

· l

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

)

.

_ !Ji. \'~·:: '
---~- ~\\111~~

--~<.~ 1: ! I

';J

··.. "'. '

'I,.---,
.
I

•

'

•

~

•

- ~~

•

•

•

r

, . '-....

Eagle .n~d tlie .'Tortolse.

.The
•

' - ~ _. t ' . ~

• • ' '

' .

•

.
-

.

•

(.

;

i

Write eent~ncee iilustrating' the :i~ftections . bf tlie 'verb to have, in the
imperative, su~Junct ive; and infinitive moods. - ''

· -

·

'.

·

} ,

The Tra\'eller.

•'

\V rite sentences illustrating the inflection11 of the verb to l1ave, in the

· I

indicative mood.

'·.
\1

MODEL ..
The traveller has his cloflk drawn closely about him. He had a hat ;
but the wind blew it away. He has !tad hot sunshine' on the plain;
he will have rough winds to encounter in ascending the mountain ;
but when he shall have had · the perseverance to reach the summit,
all his toils will be amply rewar'ded.
, '

"

'

The Dear and lh~ Trav~llers.
I,

'

Write sentences h1troducing th~ jici1·*iples of t,he verb. to h~v~, .~
-(

'

._

••

•

.

'

'

,'

·,

I

J

' .. ·,

- .l •. .

\

(I'

,,'

·-.

,/

"

'.

,

'

A Sea Fight.

The Dog and the . Wolf.

write sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to have in the .
potential mood.

.Write

e~ntences

'

.

'

.

'

. •

l '

I

.\: .

illustrating the. inflectio~s of the :verb.Jo· ~e, in ', t_he

indicative mood.

'

'

·

"

·"

·.

'

-·

..

l

.

-~·

.

'.

.

.,
108

.
- E~RCISES ..

ETYMOL'OGY.

.

J .

•

I

.·

•.

~.

.

'199.r.

!· ·

'-

"I .

..

'A Battle .

1
•

. Write sentences illustrating the inflections of reguiar ve1·b8 . in the in· ·
dicative mond ..

The Eagle, lite Cat, uuJ lhe Hug.

Write sentences illustrating the i11Jlections of tho verb to be, . in the
potential, and imperative moods.
'J

' I

. I

·-,..;;;~
=·~.··" -::··
~
i~ ··

The Shipwreck.

w ·rite !ientences illustrating the inflections of the verb to be, in tho
subjunctive m{)od.

•1

·

'

1

---

The General.

; ':. c\_:r Wtite iientences illustrating the
tial mood.
. -

•

•

~

. ·

I

·

· '

.

infle~tions of r~gutat'~erbs in the pOten•
·

."

1 •

•.•
t

:

\

"I

.,.,.

(

'

'•

)

.....
(.

The AseaHin •.
Tho Fox nnd tho Stork.

'Vrite sentences introducing the participles of the verb to be.

' :: Write sentences illustrating the i~jlecfions of regular f{erbs
· · iiinctive mood._
·
\· !

in. tbe_aub·
·

i"'"" .'<'·

10

.)

.-

.; , .
I

,

1·

-·110

,,

ETYMOLOGY.

/

. EXERCISES." !

."

;'

\,I"' .5 :..:. .

: :.' . 1

•

L

...

,..,, .

1

~

' "· · ,

. , r, ' ~r:

\

'

·I ,

~

. .

.

'·,'

i

The Cro w and th e Pilcher.

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the im· .

A .IJ atlle. '

perative a nd infin il ive ;1wods.

Write sentences illustrating the inj/tetion s of irreg ular nnd reg ular
verb.• in the subjunclive mood. ·

.)

,•

:, · ·
\.

·.~

'

)

.

·:

."

,l'.•

•• ·

.' l

I

"I

,

::: . ~

,

The Pri•oner.

Write sentences illustrating the in.jlecti.ons of irregular verb.t in
indicative mood.

.·1

... ·~ . f

. .\

Death of Wat Tyler.

0

·Write sentences illustraling the ?njlections of irregular. verbl in the
imperative and infinitive mcods. '
' I.

-~ \

"

/,, :. , .

;

.,. " ~'. '. \ . )

"

,_'

. . -·j'; '..~· . '
'l'ho Stork .and the Frog•.

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of irregular verbs in the
potential mood.

• t;'!it

;'· .,' ·.Write sentences illustrating the participles o(regular ;nd ·:irre.gular
'

verbs;

",

·

' 1··

...

.

· ~"

.." ." ' "

·,'

' .

\'

. •~ . . ~~··

~·;~_··:r

r.

·'

.·

r:...

'"
r'' ..

130

,,

131
. ·· .' .''..' •

EXERCISES . .

SYNTAX.

forbidding form 1 Iri the case of those persons
hav~ . ''.'
unpappily deviated from the path of virtue, how many ,
been :.~· ·
stopped, converted, brought back, by consideration of maternal
the recollection of early lessons, and principles, and
foelings, and
resolutions! Having been trained up, when a .child, in the way
should walk, the man calls
wherein
to remembrance in
oh! age,
returns to , , and
from
no more.
Hyenas generally inhabit caverns, and other rocky places,
whence
they issue , under cover of the night, to prowl for food . They
gregarious, not. so mur;h from any social principle,
from a
greediness of disposition, and a gluttonous instinct, which
many to assemble even over a scanty nnd insufficient prey. They
arc said
devour the bodies
they find in cemeteries, and
to disinter
as
hastily or imperfectly inhumcd.
seems, indeed , to be a peculiar gloomiucss and malignity of disposition in the aspect of the hyena, and
manners, in a state of cap- ··''
tivity, are savage and untractable. Like every other animal, however,
is perfoctly capaulc of being tamed.

.. ,

..

. · .;

.,

lEsop an<l the Iloys.

'Vrite simple sentences illustrating th is picture •.

"' .
EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN
BY THE PUPIL.

The. Prince instructed.
I

Write simple and complex sentenc~s illustrative of this picture,
•

I

'

\

•

' •

\.

'

•

~

\

.
~

The Travellers.

. <:Vrite simple sentences illustrative of this picture.

. io l

...
-. •

MODEL.
'l'he tri.vellers have found a purse. They will divide the money. ·.
One of the travellers holds the purse. He is kneeling. The other··'"
traveller claims his part. They may quarrel. Money is the source.· , '
of many contentions.

·)

. I ..

· ,,/~ . ·

(:~:..

-

.!

/· . .j .. '
• - / > ; : ;" •
'•
.:·.J

.

I

The .Fox ·and the Rat.

/;.'

~

, ..,

...

: '.~ <,. Write complex llente~ces illustratiye ·Of this picture, intro'ducing .some
·• ·
of the different kinds of complex·sentences, as adjeftive! .~elative, &c._

,.

' . '.°'' ...

i. ......

•• •

"
•I •

t

. J.

· •

.

\·

.-

,.

132

SYNTAX.

.: .133,:

EXERCISES.

The two PotB.

\Vrite sentences illustrating Rule I. (the Sttbject and the Verb).
Birds of Prey.

Write sentences illustrating Ru,lc IL (Obj~rf)·

'
The Prince shown I~ the People by the King.

I

Write sentences illustrating the second observation .under Rule I.

)'

"'

'

The Rescue.

Write sentences ill~strating Rule IIi. (Possessive case),

.

'

. I

,,
'

/
~·'

'•

)

.

,.
'.

. i

A Gcnemf lending an Army to Battle.

.

Execution
of. Lady Jiine Grey.
.
, _
,~·

Write sentences illustrating the third observatio11 un<lcr Ruic
specting colledtive nottns.

Write. sentences illustrating Rule IV_. (>{Jppositi.on).

12

I .

(

,\

.

.,

/ '

' . 1,

134

SYNTAX.

135

EXERCISE$.

The Fox and the Frog .

The Prisoner in dnnger .

'\Vrite sentences illustrative of Rule IX.

'Write sentences illustrative of Rule V.

King John signing Malina Charla.

Labour nnd Rest.

'\\'rite sentences illustrative of Rule VI.

I

Write sen~ences ilhtstrating . .Rule

x.

(

.I

An Engagement nt Sen.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule VIII.

The Petitioner•
\

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XI.·1

'
1. ·

.,

• ·.1 '

"

I~

. '.... \

(

... ... ........

-~·.··":,

-._., .

-~

.

....

~

i

'

.~

"'l!!

136

. EXERCIS~S. · -

SYNTAX.

••

·r

Death of' Cardinal WolRl'y.

\Vrite sentences illustrative of Rule XII.

~

\Var. ·

Write sentences .illustrative of Rulo XIV.

j

.
"'- -

--.:-.:::::--~~_J

A windy Dny.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIII.

.

.

.

...

The Country Mouse entertaining
Mouse.
. . ' the Town
.'

MODEL.

.

I

• .

',

,.. ·- ,

/,

I

,,.,:
The .be11d Bir~.Tho Wolf and the Lamb.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIV.

Write sentences illustrative . of Rule XVi.

12*

\

.·'" -

Write sentences illustrating Rule XV • . '

The man could no't prevent the wind from taldng off his wig. This
will teach him the necessity of tying it on securely. He will be.
tired of running after it. He holds up his cane for the purpose of
catching it.

/

.

.

~

.

\

\

'j\

.

',

. ..

.

~.

,.,

'~

-

. ',!"-;~ . . . ... ~ : . • .

. . :'i

,,......
.~

.
(

: ,t .
~
I

138

,.,."'!
~-

'j'

RULES OF ARRANGEMEN1'.

SYNTAX.

I

:/

'

., ".,•\'

\-'

.,

"'

_'t ',

f

I

~

II. RULES ' bF .ARRANGBMB.NT.

'

..

•

.

'

•

.

.

.

. '~

... ~

·~!~

1
< 210. · The words of a sentence may .be ~rranged · either in

---,~T."--- the Convention al or R hetorical order.

· ·
211. The Conventfonal Order is that arrangement of word s
which is most usual in the language.
212. The Rhetorical Order varies from the usual arrangement, for the purpose of rhetorical effect.
· The co nve11tional order is best suited for t he ord inar y purposes of
Fpeec h ; ns, narration, description, and reaso11ing.
T he rhetorical order is generally dicta tee! hy passion, em otion, or fan cy,
and he longs to the higher efforts of eloquence or poetry, or to those
composit ions where great attention is paid to rhetorical expres~ion.

Edwar<l, tho Black Prince , with his Pri•oncr, tho Kin" of Fra nce.

·w rite sentences illustrative of Rule X \"II.

213. The
rangement.

follo\~·ing

ate some of the leading rules of ar-

SUBJECT

AND

VERD .

214. RuLE XXI. In sentences conventionally arranged, the '
~J subject
or nominative case precedes .the . verb,
in all , ca~es,
I
'
,
'-

·,except four; as, "James walks;" " Time is _precious."
•

#

•

•

•

'

•

••

••

1 ' "

-

. ' ..The following are the four exceptions to this rule i
";. r: • .
~i:·.i 1. When the se~tence is interrogative ; as, ., ' 1,' · ..
1 • .'
1,t··
''Are wealth and power necessary to happinesst'''.'
~·
...

·write sentences illustrative of , Rule , XVIII.

:i . . ,. ,,

.
f ' ' ·'
.... • t
2. When the sentence
is imperative; as,•
1
"Go thou lo the propI;tet." <1' • ..- ' ·::: ' . .. . '-, , " ' •
3. When the verb is preceded by there 1 here, hence, il1enj thus, ..yet, i_o,
nor, neither, such, herein, therein; whereini ·&c:; ns, : ~ - .
"There was no rain."· ,· ' ·· · · ! ::. .-.... t! ! 10 1: ; : ..'·
" He.re are the companies."
· r" l _ : "
'·'Hence ari~e wars and convuls~ons."': ,.:, ,.,
· 4. A few phrases, such as,: raid he, replied they, are deviations from
$.e general rule, which scarceiy deserve notice. '.. · , "· ,. · ·

,·

I

.

215. Ruf-E XXIL Iri septences rhetorically arranged, the
>predicate often pr.eced~s,tlie. subject; as, .iJ>? ;' ~ fi<I ., F .i' ! ~ .:
,'. · "Forgot were want,

) \ t.

The Captive.

Write sentences illustrative of Rules XIX., and XX.

dis~se and death, bfthat iµipassi~ned -thtlll1g!; ·
'

'

'

•

,.

I

!

~ . 210. How may the words of a sentence be arran·ged 7:;~· 211. What
~..' \is the conventional order 7 212. What is the rhetorical order? What ,
• k'~ is .the conventional orde~ suited : for 7 ....,..·What· is the rhetorical _order· • . -. suited for 1 214. What is the twentv,fitst rule 7. What:·are the four .
~ · .exceptions 1 215 .. What is the twenty-second. fule 1 ·~.16._1:What .is ·

.

..

·"

.;. • '},

I' ,

.
144

SYNTAX.

.;

.- 1
"W'

.

J .....

"t

I ·

EXERCISES .
\o

,,, 1

'

'·-· '.:

~·-

145

I

IT once! loathed Melancholy ,
Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born ,
In Stygian cave forlorn,
'Mongst horrid shGp-c s nnd shrieks, and sights unholy, _
Find out some uncouth cell,
\Vhere brooding darkness spreads his jealolls wings,'
And the night r!).ven sings ;'
There, under ebon ·shades and low-brow' d rocks,
As ragged as thy locks,
In dark Cimmcrian desert ever dwell.

If the cost were duly estimated beforehand, nation" would seldom go
tu Wl\f;
To become learned, yon must be diligent; use , t/1 errfnre , nil the means
within your reach for acq11iring knowledge; for unless you are .,:·
nttentivc to this matter now, in your youth, you will remain, to a
certain degree, illiterate all your lifetime.

'

( t

,,,

To him who in the lo've of nature holds· .
communion wit~ her visible forms, she .!>reaks A -various language; for his gayer hours · ·
. She has a voice of gladness, and a, smile
And eloquence of beauty; and she glides
Into his da~kcr mu~ings, with a p1ild
And gentle sympathy, that steals away
Their sharpness, ere he is aware • ._

\ .'

EXERCISES TO . BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL.
. ',

Convert, by transposition, the following Rhetorical Sentences into C071·
ventional Sentences.

Great are their names! Honoured and revered be their memory ! ·
Associated with Washington and Franklin, their glory is a precious ; ~
possession, enriching our annals, and exalting the character of our ·
country. Greater is the bright example they have left us. More
precious the lesson, furnished by their Jives, for our instruction. ·
From the charter of our independence, breathes a nobler counsel. To
our rPpnblic he longs a happier province. Peace we would ' extend, ·
hnt by persuasion and example, -the mom\ force by which alone it
can prevail amon g the nations. Wars we may encounter, but it is "
in the sacred character of the injllred and wrongr.d.

......

or

IIc thou£;ht that h e should arrive in season; bul tlw rnil -ro'1cl cars ran
off the track; and the whole train was tlelayctl two hours. , He
arrived, liou· cL' cr, in the course of tlic 11ig ht.

Plant of celestial seed, if dropp'd below,
Say in what mortal soil thou deign' st to grow:
Fair upeJJill!.! tu 8t)lll8 e:ourt' s propitio1is shrine,
Or deep with diamonds in tli e t1an1ing mine 1
Twined with the wreath Parnassian laurels yield,
Or reap'<l in iron harvests of the field?
Where grows! where grows it not? if vain our toil,
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.

.

•'.

High o~· tlie lbronil of royal state; which far
. Outshone the wealili -of Orm us
of Incle,
Or where the gorgeous . East, with richest• hand,
Shdwers, ·on - he~ kings -barbaric, pearl and 'gold,
Satan exaited -~at.
-' ·
·
· ·
·

Point out, in tltefollovnng Sentences, the conjunctions which connect sen·
fences, and those which connect only part.• of sentences; also the sen·
fences and p(l1·/s nf .•enfenr.e.• wlticlt they respecli·v ely connect . .

As yon sow, ~n yon will rc~p .
I would reply, if I thought his arguments sufficiently strong to require
refutation ; but he appears to me to have refuted himself.
Unless he will retire, I cannot remain in the room; llltt if he will go
out, I will stay.
Though ;:e was eloquent and learned, yet he was not a ready debater~ ·

:·.

.·,... ..
: ·.

. - The Deer.

, 1 ,·"

••·

,1

'

...

'! · ·

Write conventional• scn}ences illustiative, of the t~enty.first rule of
.
:
arrangement.

)3

,.

'

• •1 .

146

SYNTAX.

E~ERCISEfS.

/

I

N Apoleon on f:! . Helena ,

·w rito

rhetorical sentences illustrative of Rule XXII.

MODEL .
F :ill rn is th e mi g lity 1·n11<111r rn r. <~r r at w a s Ir is 8t1c't'css ; but te rrible
w c rr. th e cab1ni1 i1·s 11·hich 1rrc bro 11glr t 11pon the iwtions : lirilliant
w r rr his victo rir s; hnt not lrss sig na l and comp le t e 11·.rrc the rey r r srs w hir h t r rm inat rr! h is r ~n·0r . Sn rl nn d g loomy must have
bee n the thoughts which passed .through his mind, as from his rocky
prison he surve yed the wide a u<l restless ocean - fit emblem of his

Herald forbid ding n Duel.

Write rhetorical sentences illustrati ve of Rule XX! V .

boundless ambition, ond of the turbulent times which made and
maned his splendid fortunes.

' A Fright.
.J

Write sentences illu~trative of R~1le 'XXV. '

Queen Victoria.

Write rhetorical sentences il!i1strntive of Rule XXII.

·The .Highlander.

' Write sentences illustrative of Ruic XXVI.
Write conventional sentences illustrative of Rule XXiII

. ._.; ~

'(...

.'
.

.....

149

EXERCISES.

148

.....
·
.._;,4,,-...;
__;· ...;:..-

SYNTAX.

Dinner Time.
A Cunvcrsntion.

Write sentences illuslralive of Rule XXVII.

Write ee!J.tences illustrative of Rule XXX.

"''
. Fishing with Spear~:·· ·

-

.....! .

Write se~tences illustrative of Rule XXXI.
Sport in the Gorden.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXVIII. ,

'' The
The unstrung Bow.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXIX.

Ocelot.

·,

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXJI,

13 *

..

.

,,

-..:

•·

I.~

..· ;,,.

~ J

•

·iio·r ·

· j,

".

,

. ·~~y

: . ·~· .. ,;.,,, ·~

J

!!~, i~ ~;-:•'*'
1

loo

,•

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES ;IN !P.A RSING. .

: .:~.

.:·~ ·:.t Wno is a' relative ·pronoun,
.

.

.

I,

f•

' , f '\. '
0

. ,: ·. ~\'l.<-":·

., 3.51
I

'

Or

The Ba.boon.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIII.

I

1.'--:'.

:..1··!" -RuleXVII. ·

.1::">

·".:. ···~ · :; .

j ...... .

: :

•

• ..,..

, ••

~~·:·,~1 1'~ ; ..lr ··

~ -. ·

The Lynx.

EXERCISES IN SYNTACTICAL PARSING.
"Those men, who destroy a healthful constitution of body by intern~
perance, and an irregular life, do ns manifestly kill themselves, as
those who hang, or poison, or drown themselves/'
])fode of parsing the above untence. ' .

TnosE is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the plural number,
agreeing with the noun MEN. - Ruic VII. (R ecite the rule. )
MEN is a common noun , of the third person plural, and nominative
case to the verb Do KILL. - R ulc I .

' ~ ;.

.

AN is an indefinite article : . prefixed, ,to .the . noun, t.l:FE.~Rule · VIII. - .• - .
·, ,. ·.; -IRREGULAR is an adjective qualifying the noun LIFE! ;:_ Rule
i. ·· r · ·LIFE ·is a common ,• noun .· of, the ·third. person,
singular. 'nu~ber~ ~nd ·
• ' •' , ~ ..
~
I
'
"'
object of the.preposition BY. -Rule .XVI. · .< · .
. ·
·
xiLL is a regular active vetb, of the indicative mood·, present tense,
emphatic form, third person ·plural; agreeing. wit4 -:its nominative
MEN. - Rule I. ·· · ·
.
. · ··' · : '
.· :' ·
As is a conjunction, connecting its own' clause 9f the .eeritence wiih the
clause which followa . ._ Rtile XXXIV. ' · . '.· ,; :···.· · 1 ' :. · ·
. MANIFESTLY is an adverb, qualifying the verb D.O KILL; -Rule.XXXI.
· THEMSELVES is a pronoun, compounded of them .and the ..reciprocal
pronoun selves.* It is of the third perso~, phiral mumber,. object .o f
the verb no KILL •._:_ Rule II. · ·
· ·-..
~
As is a conjunction, connecting its own clause of the sente~ce with
the clause which precedes it..
THOSE is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the . plural number,
:.
· agreeing with MEN, understood. - Rule VII. ·
:.·. ;: -;° Wno is a relative, agreeing with ·its antecedent MEN, · understood.~
,: 1' .· ' Rule V. It is of the third person plural, ·and .ri6mi.natiYe cnse to .
'
··
the verb HANG. - Remark under Rule I. · .: '. : -'· ·.
HANG is an irregular active verb, of the in~icative mood, pre~·ent tense,
1
· third person plural, 'agfeeing w.ith WH.o. ~Rule L . ,'.
,
On is a conjunction , connecting its own clause \VHh .t hat which pre•
1
· cedesit.
·
·"
~. • ' •
: '.'_. : \,· ··.1:: · ~

xxv. ..

Do

Write sentences illustrative of Rule ..XXXIV.

·~ -~) ·

. ,....

agreeing "with Its antecedent, MEN.;.~ . ~ -":'~!', . ._..:.::"1' '
· Rule V. It is of. the ' third peraon plural, an4 inontinative.case to the · · ' ', :.··.-\; '~
.
.
I .
..
, ,., :..~ ~ ., >Jrf
verb DESTROY. - Remark under Rule . ;· .. ., .,, .' ,
". "
· ~ -~ :·. : ·: ::'!1'!1';
:pEs:RoY is a regular activ~.verb,. of.~he indi~11t~ye ; mo.od, present ten~e, '. i,.
.·. '',.,;:
}i,'.' { , ;.. · .t1~1rd p?rson ~lural, agreemg ~1th 1.ts .nomm~~1~~· wn~: ""7 .~ule I. .
•
\ · .;':
~ ., ./>,., 1e an mdefim~e article, prefued to the notin ·CONst1TU'.(ION.-Rule
.. {.•{ ""
·. .
VIII.
.
.r
nualif'y1'ng
. . . •. .
'. ~
.
~' ; ~:.~
HEALTHFUL is •ail adjective ' i
the ,' noun ·CONSTITUTION. .·
Rule XXV. ·
" · ·,
. \ ;',' .· CONSTITUTION le a common no~~. of the thir4 person ~illgular, and
1
'
·
object of the verb DESTROY. ....:_ Rule It/ ' "
· ·, · ·"' ,
is a pr~position.. \'
'
: .: · ·
··
' '·
lJoDY is 8 noun of the third person !!ingu)ar, tlnd objecfof the preposi- .
. tion OF.-Rule XV.I. · ,
,
..
· ..
BY ·is a preposition. · ·' : ' : · ' · ·· ·
· : ;•. · · : . · . · .: '
INTEMPERANCE is a co~mo11 noun, ·o( the third ·person, sirigular num·
_, .
·bei:, and object of the preposition BY. - ·Rule X:VI..
· ·.
·
.'': ·.~: .:AND is a conjunction connecting ·! he,J i.o uns .1.l'f:i'EMPER.,.NqE and .LIFE. 1 •· •

··' '

111

See Section 1191 p. 57i : :- ,.;/ ': ; : '; ' · ,,i -~.

!ij~l

-·.

.)

I. ' ·~ .

.~

.· · ' 152

•

,."((; .. :- : .. ..; .;/~:,;r· ;. ' ; .1

';·/> • ·

~YNTAX

I'

I

.

'~'

• • .

:1JJ ·. .•:

~ .·

.

I

..:. . . ' .
E'~ERCISES

;.::;·Po1soN is' a r~gular active .verlj, _of the indic!ltive mood, present tense,
:-:; :;
~,
,~th\rd p~~s9~. ~~?.i;~l".~gr~l)in~:w~t~'Y.~~· ~ndersto?d· - Rule I.
,.
",(i_• ;; , ·. ~ '(,;
OR. , (Pa11~.ed as qbov(l.) ~
i,' '"»:"r.·· 1 \,} ....
•
1
•
~~! '. • :J.h};1. D~ow~. 1 S t<Parse·d ln .th~~~t . ,1
aa·'ro1soN.) · '
.
·~
,. Jc ~ ·f <r , , •tu , r ,
, .
f ' ~ n .r•,J:1-~ .t ,HI.. ~~· 11:
; •
• ~
;"
.,;
'}i .'1)u;;MsELVES.' . .' {Pars~d. ~g abqy~/ exbepqh11~ it IS the Object of DROWN.) '

:'.>

1

iq

· . -, ·r
·

1·,

aµiier

<J.;a!#:~::f~;~~~~'..'Y-~...

'.: :; •.,.. _.. :

: .' . · .. '~ ;

· ! -'• Parse tlif. following. 1entence~ 1' givjng the. Rul~B of Syntax.

1

· "•'

1

.. .·'.*We ·,find .'11,1t/ f~~ µi$~~~~a¥ ~f :~i(·: ~g~~~ ,.w~o have been diligent ,:"~·
·enough iq theii:' searcl\'for tfilth; it iii their · common method to take .
· '. on ~rust'wpai, they dist~ibhte tO thl) public, .by which means, a false; -_:,
. t_-'. :' "· ·~11hood
pnce
~received' from
a famed .·writer
becomes
traditional to pos- .;·
· '
,, . , , .·
,.
\
,,.
·
' terlty." ' · ··' ·r..
· ·
.
.
·' '
·,,.,· ', . ··• •·· .
•

· ..,

•

I

,

'

0

> ,

•

,

(

_,

' "~ The punishment of ·criminals should be of 'use: when a
.·
" .. :" :, :.;..'hanged1 he is good for n9thing." , '. , .
.-· . ·,~,· The moralit~· of ari action depends upon the motive from 'which we
>.~~
·Jl~V If I fling half-a·Cl'O~n io a beggar with intention to break his
. - " . ·_ · .· heaq, an_d· he pir::ks it·up and buy~ victuals 'with it, the, physical effect
. ,l ·;<' ~s good i;. buf :.vith.respe9f to_~ple, the action is very wrong." ' .
'
~· • , - ~ •
••'How·
difficui{!i 'ihi'nf it i~ to 'p~rsuade a man: to rettson against his
11
~~-;~~- ' ;·' ...! " , o~ti intere?t~·::ih~u~h -~~ is' conyin~ed tl_iat equi'ty is ·against him!"

·<·

!t·,,,:.. ..·,~,~ r~e aj~ of e~u~atip~ ~h~uld l)e t~ teach ~s rather how

l()

..}

'\

.
,~'
' •'
.· .
- ~.

,;
:•

think th~n : ',)

{ ~ - : · ~ :;:~ .Fliat _to ~Wn~ ,:. ra~hef ,t<?, improve our mmds,. so a~ to enable us to ."'

thipk for··ouiselves,·than· to loail the .memory with the thoughts of .~ ,

ii~ i/ >o,thef 'mef1:'.-: ::,. . :.

..... -·\ •.- :···:· · :· .';". ."-"
.'- .
- .. :~
·"No enter\ainment is so cheap as .reading, nor ariy pleasm:e so lasting." ·"
. l. : u · Re.ad not' to contradict l!hd : confute, but to Wfiligh and consider. . r
J•i ,v- , Some books; are to be tasted, others to be S\Vfl.llo'wed', and some few . .•·
'l::•f·io b~ digest~d t•that is;·.eom? boo~s ar<to be r~ad, only in parts j · ~
, , ot}iere IQ be rend, b~t no~ cunously :i and some few to be read wholly · :.
'. .
fi.~.~v ·and With dilig.ence ~rid attentio~. ':' Re~ding rnaketh a full man, con· ~ ·
1 ;:
-·. ference a ready man, and writing' an ~xact man.'~ .
' ' . ' A : 4:1 IT'o do a~iU~ a"ctio~ is base; 'to do· a good one, which involves you · ,.
~ ·.~··
'. -i? J!O dan~e·r,is no'thin~ ·more tnan 'coml!10n; but it is the property .'
.i, of-ii truly good · man, to _
M great . and good things, though he risk ,;:;,
.:<J·:.t-: every.thingby :ity _,_'·: ,.! . .. .·'1·---· ; ,_ -_ • ·: ·i · ' · ·
·
' ,',.\

!,

IN PARSING.

Nor bays and broad-arm'd ports, ,
Where, laughing at the storm, rich. navies ride;
Nor st arr' d and spangled courts,
Where low-brow'd baseness wafts perfume to pride. No !-men, high-minded men,
•.
With powers as far above dull brutes endued, · ·
In forest, brake, or den,
A'.s beasts excel qold rocks and brambles rude; .
JYien, who their duties know,
But know their rights; and, knowing, dare maintain,
Prevent the long-aimed blow,
And crush the tyrant, while they rend the chain,~
These constitute a state;
And sovereign law, that st~te' s collected will,
High over thrones, and globes elate,
Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill.
Smit by her sacred frown,
The fiend . discretio~, like a vapour sinks ;
And e'en the all-dazzling crown
Hides his faint rays, and at her bidding shrinks.
Such was this heaven-lov'd isle,
Than Lesbos fairer, and the Cretan shore!.......:
No more ~hall Freedom smile ?
Shall Britons languish, and be men no more?.
Since all must life resign,
Those sweet rewards which animate the brave,
'Tis folly to decline,
And steal inglorious to the silent grave.
Sir TVilliam Jones.

Love of Fame.

1!

.:

·::,, ,{~(~~;'. <i: ,/~:;:;~ ~.~:: ': _: .:~f{,: f:~;a~.e..•./ ;•·

•1:,·; , ... . W~atjlon. 'sti!µt, e~ ,a . s.tate. 1,': ," .' ' .'·.. ..
'
•
,
· A, 1.r. Nofhigli-'r!liB'd . battleinents,
or labbl!f'd
mound,
._~_. 1_;: • _i • • ':£'hick ~all, pr moated g~te; ·
l
: /
•.· 1'l ot c\tie~ proud, with epir~f!! and )urrets ~rown'l;I,

~:

· ~··~~~
1

··,.. _ ~ .

· ·'?'_,7. "

. ) .

'

' ·;

--

., ..

·· · ~

'·.- . ~ -

.... ,., .· · ' '. .

· 1.

'

.\

'
. ,L

~.~ .

~,

-.~

.'

l

•

.

· ,.
, ,

...

The love of praise, howe'er concealed by art,
Reigns more or less, and -glows in every heart:
The proud to gain it toils on toils endure,
The modest shun it, but to make it sure ;
O'er globes and ·sceptres, now on thrones ii swells,
Now trims the midnight lamp in college cells.
''.l'is Tory, Whig; it plots, prays, preaches, pleads,
Harangues in senates, speaks in masquerades.
It aids the dancer's heel, the writer'~ .heucl,
And heaps the plain with mountains of the dead J
Nor ends with life ; but nods in sable plumes,
Adorns our hearse, and flatters on our tombs.
Young.

153

., .

\.-." J,J. .'. .

.,.~I

<

~~.!'~~; :-~_...

~

:~ ..:·: :i/. ~'~1;~x~

,

PUNCTUATION . .

..' i "'\"'f { ::.:. ::~:: \·i~; :: -: .. : . ",- ~ ' " ' .
.
:• !i·~' ,/,' " 1'. /~ r· . ,
;·-.Y~u ~J1,. 1"~"Jl:. ~. .}1 . Id· t r ., ~ .. .. ,, • . ,
~·.• ' .~ ? i:~ :.1 ).: (?.~ ·~ · ·: . )'.~ !' ·r ; ~·~·n :·,.'~~1,\~~:~t. 't. ~f . :1·~ ,;.~ .. ·
•• •

1

1

"We should honour, reverence, love and defend our parents."
"Give it to him, her or me."
·
"You should conduct yourself honourably, dutifullJJ, affectionately
and discreetly in this matter. "

,, ,

t;,

t · ::; ~>· '-~"'

· ,..p . U

-<· ,.:·.·. ··:t

N' c :rr U;'A TI 0 N .

~ · ·. :~·.;::··

_:i

'. .:..· ,

;~~~t~:.~L~;·_:;·, ,

~.

.. ' ··I..IN .'Sp{:!aklng!?or 'readiri~ ·a. S~n~ence, various

pauses are .
···made; for 'the pt,1rj>ose 'or'rr1&kin'g tne·-cohstructton arisl meaning more dislinctJd the=hea'rei:\ "'·., \" . :_ :- · ·
·
.
..
•\ .... , ,
' ' . .
. .. 2: -P~µc~uaF?~,}~ th~ "m'ar,kiri~ these, ·pauses1 by points, ·
'/: · ",
· mtlwahve·ofthe1r l~ngth,: · ; · ·
; . , 3. Thq· prirqipa~ points a.·re the Comma (; ); the Semicolon
. · . ·
· ·
• ( ; ),'. the' Colon ( : ), and the f eriod ( . ).
. _4.. T~e Co~iria 'fepresents the shortest pause, and is .often
u~ed to mark th!( construction where very little interruption
,_, , c:i( vo_ice is allowable. : .: ,. · . , . ; . . . , , . .
_ ... :, .
.
~, · ·, 5: • 'rhe _Semic~lon mark~· a)ong-er pause than a comma,
arid separates cla;tises _les.s cl<?sely connecteq. · . ,
'" · .6. The Cq!Qn ' marks. a longer pause than the semicolon,
. 11fid indicates a still looser connexion between the clauses
which it separates. , . · ~. ' - · : · : ,
· . ·
·
7." The Pe~iod, or .fµli'"poiri 't, is used
the .end of a sen- ··;
tence, to indjcate that if is c~mpl¢ted. ..
·

of

10. RuLE III. Absolute, relative, and, in general, all parentheti0al clauses, are separated from the other parts of a sentence by commas; as,

{

" The clock having struck ten, the meeting was adjourned."
"The man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."
"We were always successful, because we were careful,"
" The war, even at the close, was not universally popular."
"He returns, I think, under very favourable auspices."

11. RuLE IV. The modifyh1g words and ...phrases, nay, ,
however, hence, beside.<1, finally, in short, at least, and the
like, are usually separated by commas; as,
" The Romans understood liberty· as well, at least, as we."

12. RuLE V. Words de.noting the person' or object ad".'
dressed are separated by commas; as,

at

.· .1.'
'

_ii '

J'

' ' •

' '. co' MM~ ·~ .. ~ .~ . '·'..
I

_ · ;: 8~ B:vi.t: L Wh,e n a., ~impla · s~ii~ence : is<Jong, the subject
· ' and :p~epicate,• eactr .comii:iting of ' a, ri~mber of words, a
.1
·comma is· placec}.. petween ·them; 'as,
: '. " ' , · ' .' ToJ>e ¢onst~n~ly apprehensive 'o( unknown dimge1·~, is a .mark of ii
- ·.}: ..weak '.~ind<.: .;~,· · .~; ;· 11 .;;. ~ ~~· .: . ·~·
'. .. _9'." Jl?LE 1,11.J·Y.h_
ep two or ~ore wqrds, whefher nouns, ad. jectives, prono'uqs, verbs, o~ au verbs, are connected without
the conpecting word l;leing ·expressed, the· comma supplies ·
·
. the plac~ of that word ; as, .
l

...·

. .

••

•

.

••

•

•

.

.' . ffe

duty, ajfectiOn· and i~te'rest require.cl the dct."
was 1tonourable, dut{ful, ajfC(:tion~te a'?d' wise."

'

. .'

,

"Hon~~r,

.

.

.

.

.'

'

.. ·l

.

. .

.. .

..

.'

'

. '

.

-

.

'

.

.·

'

'

.
"JI" '

.

. '

'

'

I

> r

' ; ••

<·t: ·/~.1,4'

·h,

.,;, \.~- 'J : ~-. ~ ~ .~ · ,
·.\

' ,. i .-;· :. ..· . 1~

" I write, my f riend , in great distress of mind."
" Thy daughters, Columbia, are fair."

13. RuLB VL A word or phrase emph~tically repeated is·
separated by commas; as,
"The people, the people, if we are true to them, will carry us, and
will carry themselves , gloriously, throtigh this str~ggle."

14. RuLE VII. The words of another writer cited, but not
formally introduced as a quotation, are separated by commas; as,
" Lord Bacon tells us that, He that hath wife and children, hatlt given
hostages t~ fortune."

15, RuLE VIII. Words and clauses, though closely connected in construction, are often separated by a comma,
when contrast or opposition is expressed; as,
"He came full of hope, and returned disappointed ."

.

· 1. Why are p~use11 -qsed 7 · 2. What iii punctuation 1 3. What are
• . t~'e · princip~l · points . used . in writing 7 / 4; ' Des~ribe the Comn_ia. ~ 1 ,
. ~. ,The .Sem1caJ011., 6. Th¢ Colon.--" 7, The Penod. · 8. What 1s th!l
·, , ' _'. '. :;. fi.rst ,rule~ for the ' use of the comma 1..::.._Give ex!lmples; 9. What is
.. ' the se~ong· n~le, (or . the use of thti comma 1- Give examples. IO.
(

. ·: .: \ ..

155

.
/ ' Ies.
What is the third rule for the use 'o f the coinma 1 - G 1ve
exump
11. What is the fourth rule '/ - ' Give examples. 12. What is the fifth
rule? - Give examples. 13. 'Vhat is the sixth rule?--.- Give examples. 14. What is the seventh rule? - Give examples. 15. What is

'

--.,......,,..---------------~
_ ..
¥ .... ~-

-

.1 ~,

• ·~}

:'-

;~

I

• f
'

...

I

.'

.. --. '

"

''

-~ I

'-•

"

_ EXERc1sEs ~oN :PuNcTuAT10N/ _
- · .., ,

SYNTAX.

159

.ii'5o"»

-e~nd people e~plhy~d :irl lea~ · t~· ir~ri c6pper ~d: · ~oai llihres"th~~e·;:.
unhappy wretches sc~rce evel"Jiee the light of the s11n they ~rj\ burib.d · ,
in the bowels of the earth 'there' th~f Wo~k'.~t· ·a severe and dismal ,
1

· .

I

. EXERCISES ON PUNCTUATION.

·:1

1

•

1

•

" Corfect .the. Er-roril, ~nd supply the Defects, in the followin'iJ Sentence1:
1
•

.

task without the' least ptosp~ct"of being d~iivered ·from ·it tlie.y Isub•
· ' ..•·",\
,
,
B!St On the Coarsest and . Worst sort of fare they have .their healtli ' . . ~
miserably impaired "arid :·theit lite~ cut 'shoft by ·i;eing peq}etulllly'
:~'
confined in the ·close vapour of these malignant m!nerale.-" A 'i mn·
dred thousand more at, -least are ,t ortured witho_u t .remi.ssion · by. the_·
suffocating smoke intense .fires . and constant drudgery iiecessary in
-. refining and managing· thidiroduct~ hf these' mih~s. ' · _;, i"':.' " ~;<. '_ ~. { , . , " :.

COMMA.

Politics,_ is the application of morals t_o social institutions.
The peculiar character of the doctrine of Confucius is. that .all, the
duties of man are presented as various forms of domestic duties.
Pinto ; Epicurus; and Aristo.tle ; were great, Grecian philosophers.

••.•

'

,

. . •" . ?

•

:.

•

J

. . , !-. {•

••

•,_.. .

,

. ' ' ' •.

•

•

_.. ,

'~.,.

',...

;

, If any man informed us t~at. two huppr~d •thousand ' inno~ent persons

, Iremeus Tertullia:i 9rigen and Clement; of Alexandria were fathers
of the Church.
,
. .
Time, a~d rri~ney I industry' and talerit: were thrown away' in this '. "
.- "useless pursuit.
..
, :He rose ; like the sun ; wh~n he is shrouded in vapours, but he soon • .:
burst forth in meridian splendour.
:. :·1,

. f

. '

,,

I

p

. ,_ " ";
were confined to
iritole}abie ~ a. 'el~very ho~_'should we pity the .
:"
unhappy sufferers 'and ' lu:h\r 'jf~~ai ~ would · he"·ohr ,just'; ir;'digmition .
against thos,e that inf1i~ted sb btuel'and fgnqminiou,S a punishment. ) ,
This is ,an instari~~- I co~ld' h~t wls~ " a 'iltrdngH 'tif the !riumberlese ' things .which we pasa by in their common dress yeb which'shock .u& .'
when they _are· nak~diy
'repr~senie<L, '· ' ·· ·. \ ..:.. ·.-~_-..;.,\1
..~\~1i-;.,:;,~.~~
"11,\~-t·
.- :..' .·.-:
.
.
• .. 1r ,t-; _
y,.,,.' ~ ::'1· ~-,;-r.,
.., ). ....

so

·; - But this numb~ considerable as it ig amhhe eia~~ry with.all its base- . -_· . · , ,ness and horror which ~1hiave .at _h bnie is .hothin~t~'iwbat'·the -· ·.
'._ ~ I
rest of the world affords· of the s~n\.e tuitur~.'. '<.'rf<)',',_ "11L~\1t'r - j./,
;"' ' ; ' .
'
. N afor~ has placed . ~~iikind' h~d~~-' th~"go~erMfi~i/!ot t~~i.:J~veteigil · - ' ; ~.>
'
masters Pain and Pleasure It is fdr them al~ne' tb' pbirtt'dtif)Vhai'lve ought to do as :well -as ~ to determine' wha( wil' :~hall do ?.O.n the' one · . -.•
hand the stnn.dard of,ri~ht, and wrong 'o~ -~hjJ~~~.erd,h ~ ~liain\!>~ ; . .,) ; ;
cmµies ~ng e~ectS ai:~ ·~astened ~o- t~~fr .t.hron~; T~ej\g(?X~lp . ~ ~ a11'1-. - '. :~
, ~e do m all .wfil, ~"'! ,1~ 1 ~.n, 1~11. t~\?,k fl!llrY ~tf°'~t!w-~ '.'~~fl.. "11).~e 1 t~ .~ "- , .q,:'
throw off our subjection w11I serv.e · Uut to demonstrate ail<l 'to con- _, - ·: . · ,,:
- firm it . In w~rds a man .may pretend to abjure their empirk' !Jlii ib. -: \ ~- . ·:'.>
reality he wil! remain subjec-t '~o · it' ah ibe W.~il~ ; Th{ ~riiidipi;-~n, '· ;
utility recognises this subjection.'and ·itssume~' it foi' .th'e folittdiltiort tit · . ·;., ' 7·
that system the object of which is to_rear the_fabric ot feljc'ity'. by .ihe _, . . ·' ~:;'.
hands of reason and ; of law Systems . whi_ch attempt {~, question' it -. · ;,::,
, _ deal in sourids ins~e!!.d of Bense.in caprice insteruJ of ~eason in dark. ,',~ • ',:''.·
ness in-s tead of light '· The "happiness ·of th~ individuals of whom a 7 ,. : '-,;,,'.
. , commu'?ity is co~po~~~ ,t,~a~)~ ~_th~i r .pleas.ures ~n.d _, t~,ei~- ~eFu~ity ie
; _~ .
the end wh,ich the, legislato~ oiigryt to have iri yiew.the '¥ole . slarid8'd .: , · ., .:
in conformity to which each individual oiight mi' faf .as iJ~"jiefide' upon . '. ! :·
.I
. I ' • ' d ' .• ,, {'. ' ,_ .h .I ,f. ''t'h it. ,, • •:'f} i,, •,
._. .~ '
. 'f>
~,he leg.V3 ntor to .oe :i_rlli, e · !!? · ~,~~orj..~ . is,: peh.~~wu~.!. J!-7,,'Jpe,~er ,,-.; ' ' ',1
1t b.e this _or any t~ing. e.l~e · that \ is 1;to : ,be:-_4on.~· iltete, i,!l;P,~thing by ,:i", "~ .,.~
which a man can ulllmately
made to do.Ji ' but ~~hef pain,.1 ot
- ;~1 .
pleasure Plautus l~rne<ra 'mili Tere~~e .J nt}l--;"'1!1nie 1JJ~ih'itle ·died. ·Z·
:
in a jail P~ul}3oig?e,~~ h,;a~,,~ft~,epj fiµl:~i~nt;,1f~~,i~··w·
""af~~' ~ji
them all. . , · ,, , ., ,i ,,,-,, !1'(' "N ,-.,;_,,J;.~---~.~·:{. :,.;:>.1>i:t}I'
..,.Ii. "t" i\ ·~ . . '2""
1

SEMiCOLON.

He often comes; t~ see me, but he seldom . tarries long.
..
Parrots like all other hooked-clawed _birds walk awkwardly, they \,
- make use of their bill as n third foot climbing and descending; with :.1,
1
a ridiculous caution.
· · · i .:
Owls move in a buoyant manner; as iflighter than the mr, they seetn
,
"t.-..
to want ballast.
,, Most small birds hop, but wagtails and larks walk;
alternately.
· Skylarks rise ~nd fall; perpendicularly! as . they si~g, wood-larks _,,.
hang poised in the air, and tit-larks rise and fall i m large curves,; ~ ,;
singing in their d~scent.
~:

f

'

,_

COLON.

1

He who possesses a treasure does not care to show it to all the world,
he preserves it to use in time of need, you would do the same if you
were ·a true sage.
- · Correc~ ibis fault, purge yourself from all desire of pleasure, this will
make .you much more useful than all you are trying to learn about
the ancients.

·~
.- ""
_,_;,

:-: ;
.~ .

Point the following Sentences:
· We schrce believe a thing when we are told it which we actually B~~ -.~.
1 1
before our eyes every day without being the least surprised.
· '-. ·' · -~
' I suppose that there ~re in Great Britain upwards of a hundred . tho~~ )

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PROSODY.

PART-IV.
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' ceiv~ that without. th~ . ~ife;riate,.'p~t6tis~idh :of iicbJhted an~(:' '.~~,'
·1 unaccented .s.yllable~· i~ f'q~~,~ ; ii~~ . b ~,~h~~~~~!q~~' ,;,~l~us :~:.: , : ·'-.L
1

11. Some mstan~es ..9ccur;9f.,,liar,moni ·Prbdttct!d by•Jhe . i Jf
quantity
alone,
a'p arffr6m
abcent';':;a.s;·
,.. e~r::t'..'\ :,:·. , "; :... ;· ;,.· ''/
,
. .. , •
~ .}·" • : , .
. .. : " \1 , . ·,v ,,,..,lf~J:~.-:r ·'SJ o ., \r! ~J .:.1:·;.t.~ .j/, . ~· ·/.;1
. ..
. . "Fuii_nt~ih~·; "arltl. r~ th_a t"wai:iile _ril~ · ~l!Jlalb:'f~ i-" .-. ,; 7':." \,·,}(.
"For EIOqidnce 'th~ tmti j' Sting t:hii.rifis'"'tl1~=i3ense :~ 1;_ f .."~~ ·.'.'. .
:ii.

PROSODY.

· 12. But such ~r;istan~~s.·_ ~~e:' fe~ ·; _ th~; ~~b~~t;;1'if:tt1~.;-~&~t .
majority of cases; det~rinine¢ ·t~e p1·oh linc~~tion:/ ii.ritl conse~ .
quently, .the harhion.,Y 1'o f the: line, withotit!t regard to the .
natural length
.Syllables~:' !; ThJs i...::: ;d·;;11-..: I ·;i!· ''.. : · .~ f

i.· PRosooY* is t/mt part of grammar which treats of the
structure of Poetic.al C 0 mpositi01~.
Poetry differs in structure fi::om prose chiefly in requmng a more measured arrangement of words, and in
, ~dmittihg great~r license in the application of them.
. 31 The measured arrangement which distinguishes poetry
from prose .is called Versification.
.
· 4. The application of words, peculiar to poetry, is called

7·.

·Poetical License.

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V_ERSIFICATION.

i:l

.. 5. The harmony of Verse depends upon the regular recurrel)~e, at fixed intervals, of syllables of a certain quantity.
· · 6. Syllables are either long or s_hort, accented or unaccented. · .,
· 7. A syllable is long or short . according to the time occu- . ;..'
pied iri pronouncing it ; as, tube, tUb.
.,.
· .~8: A syllable is accented or unaccented according as stress ·~
_o f the voice is placed upon it in pronunciation; as, det~'r, "
i'njury.
·
·
· . 9. The harmony of English verse depends chiefly upon
the return at regular intervals of accented, and not of long
syllables.

I

* Proso.dy strictly denotes

\ 1. ":'hat is. Pro~ody 1 2., How .does p~try. differ from prosli,J . 3.
What IS v;ers1ficat1on 1 4. What IS poetical hcense 1 5. Upi;>n what
t!oes the harmony of verse depend 1 6. What is said of syllables _? 7.
Are syllables always long or short 1 8. Are they nlwnys accented? . ·
9. Upon ~hat does the harmony of English verse depend? -10. ·How _·, .

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similar

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only that musical tone or melody which ::· .
_ accompames speech. Bu~ th.e usage of ~odern grammarians Ju~tifies ; .
· . · . ;.i-),
an extremely
general apphcahon of the term.
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10. It is.only necessary to repeat any verse in English to per- ··:
-

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>

«'" ·"·.

" Of ma'n's first di'sobe!dience a'nd the fru'it
Of iha't forbi'dden tre'e, whose. mo'rtal tas'te
Brought de'ath into' the wor'ld and a'll our wo'."
' - -- - --·

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13. A V: erse is ~ me~tire.d line ~oqslsting of a certain:hum~
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.· ber ofregµl~r re~u.~~~ ,~t .acceht~d 1 ~~J;4h~6~~'fo~~f 1~Hia(~l.~~·,
14. The number •of accents in a verse.: ·aetef mh1es ."'the "
1 ·. , ,, " ' ' ' -,
, llUmbef Of feet
• ,• ;If? l'., ; · 1 ',l'.:li '.:{¢\'7~1 , :
is.. A ~foot · c·~n:~ists ·geri~r~l,y •) 'i~9·;~~·rij ·~6Jri~'fi;h~J ~l,r <~.
·t]J,ree syllables; oqe '.o ( \,\:"~ich i_
s:.a.1.w ays_~ccentecL" 1:; 1;i>_'' l_:. t~'.J'.;• : · •·
rn.' It is called fq'ot, betaiu;€! '.it' ls ,t bf thif"a,id1 o(the'.: ~c~ent
,;..·
,W hie~ ffia~kS ,its p~inc_ipal Sylla 91~ ,t~~~ ~'. ~ .~t~I? ~10-!lg. (hf~tJgli •"., '.. It 1,
the verse ma measured pace1 .. . : , .,. · · : ~ ·.'. !.;"-- rt, ~1·:.~
.:·f':'-. ' . · .. .::•
J
~ , · ,. "
.. · 17. The prin9ipal {eet:: ~i:~ . th§l 1 (~~ibtts;:,,the. 'Ihichte; ·and. . ··:' ~"'
theAnapcest, ... ~-~- - ..;.;_ .. .. " :! '~'"
"'}:"~',:·~
·•~'.::>JA
! 18. : An Iambus .is ~~'.di~§yfia~iff~of~· h·~yttlg'; tR~ ~~~eiifed :.' ' '. 1;:, •
· syllabl"e· last;' as ' ado'r··e·• ' (1 Lr ;v:
,u:;~ Xd /\'I'< -{~ "~1
q1~.-JH:~
~v ' ,..,;,;·
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,. . 19. A Troche~ is .ll:· ~!s.syll~~!cJqot, :~~ving·t~1e; ii6.tr~h.ted · :_ ·:).':;;
' syllable first· as no'ble.- 1 '. )~, ,: .':1 :• :!,~1•! : .t-._-,. ,N11,C', .;' ' \. ·.;. ,,. ).
. ' '~ .
' " ~ i. ' .. ~ ' . ; . \,, ~ .' ' ' .;, .;. r'/'f '
•
)
20. An Anap<;.est co.n~is_ts of three syllabfos,•the' two~first ·. .'
unaccented, and. the last ~ccertted ;.: as; intet<ie'de. , -~· ~· . · , · " · .. i.
' ' · 21. Rhyme is th,e' rtaii)i:!,: fyy which .,we · dis~inguish verses ~ , ~ :i.:
.. that are Closed by'final 1syllables .of a:
soun(t ;. as,:,,'' ,· ' ' .~~-

· .·
I

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tlL; eihe'r~Ul sky~.·!
" ~~ ~ ·~· tP. ''.f "t~r~ · - ~: '1\ Y;t.· ~t·J: J.1:,: 7 ·.;;.. ,f ':~~

. "Hurl'd he1adl0ri{ fla'rliYng from
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· ''Hope,'

for '~'- :;~~~~', ~~~J/";h~..~~;1t;:;;~;;eii?:;tr;'_~f{-'i~?' -_.,-. . :~

An_d:; ~ree~o;it/ ~hrle;~' d7,'i!s:~~sc!u~4.<> .{r~?z;t,;Jl t ' 'J(~' (' x' , .: :,
. :'. · , -· ' '
"'. ' ":""-":""']' ' :,:,\·,•.;.\~ .; ,.... ;·,:;~ ·;;::~ ..;;o/1~1.::~l .f.,-;-" , '.;' ,,
. -.'; ,, i~ its' harmony perceive~'? l...2i Giv~ ari;:e.xafuple:t-'1' \·1.}Ili:h,atqiohY)~iiie~ ·: / ·;:~
i .· "

; : .•,

" '.~'. . bmes produced bJ. quarl,tity alone l1....., G1"°e:.ai;i ,e.xampl ~• 1 · l~,JX~,at"does ' : · ;; ~k
../ Jhe acc~ntdetern_i.me ?_13, :'\Y4nt 1~ .a .ve.rse ~,~ 14. -Whe,ft.~~~.the nli.mool' .',> : · -$}
. , 'of,l!-ccents de term me} . 15."Wh11.t 1s 8: foot 7, :fl 6i .'.\-Vh,~1s; 1treAtlild fO<)t 1 . · . ' J.~ 17. ·What nre the principal'.feet;?.:~· ;lS.: What" i(iln ~;IaniliuJ.:M4•; 19 .' A
"
-~ .'"Trochee 1 :::.:::. 20: Ari 'Anaprost?·N f21 .. :W.tiu.t_ ifthy)heJ~ G!':eiexa.irlplel. ,,
'!;. ,

14*

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P\tOSODY·
"A king sat on, the rocky _brow
Which looks o'er .sea4iorn Salamis;
And ships by thom;;ands . lay below,
,
. And men in nations :-all were his !
H e counted them at break of dayAnd ·when the· sun set-where were they 1"

· ~: 'J:hi~.. m~as1.nei1"<~~mrnonly J:ialled~~the ·. n~~oi~t · has '.. li ~" : : "~?,
grave and maNstio ·iµ{\rcp{;wE:II suiteilJQ>h¢r~i9J a:·rgumeiit; - ; ,;~~
" especially if it,,be p~~" ~et,t~ted ,}Vith)~yill,11,~; i ,.;·:, ·,1; : · ·:', ·".""' ·~-_
29. It admits Of s~me freedom for th~· pu;P,os~ of gi~iilg it' '; } (
variety, esp~cially in the beginning and end of the line.' The
:'· ",_
first foot is. often ~ -Trochee instead of an iarril;m s; and the •. · ' ·
last has often a short unaccented :syllable~rt~pended . to,. the" '
., ·:;. ·,t.>,· .· .. ~.:. · · ·
· Iambus. Thus:-·"' ..,\ ·1 >·"·:( . ,.- _

22. Verses which have not this similarity of sound in their
final syllables are called Blank Verse; as,
" How still the morning of the hallow' d day !
Mute is the voice of mral labour, hush'd
The ploughboy's whistle, and the milkmaid's song;
·. The scythe lies glittering in the dewy wreath
Of tedded grass, mingl~d with fading flowers
Thafyestermorn bloom'd waving in the breeze.~'

!·

I

"Da'ughter

"Ple'asutes I

.

•

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. "'Tis Heav~en· itself tpiit points ' out ,a n ·he~e!ef- J t'lr.'~
1

'!,' '

''

I atho'n I

and Leu'c·

I tra

"How sw'eet I the moo'n· f light slee'ps I upon' I this ba'_n k ! I . ·
Here will we sit, and let the sounds of music
Creep in our ears ; soft stillness and the night
Become
the touches of sweet harmony ! ''
.
I.
22. 'What is iBiank Verse? -Give an example. 23. How ni'e verses . . ·
distinguished 1 24. Name the most common kinds. 25. Describe the · .
Jambic verse. "':""' 26. The Trochaic. 27. Give examples of Iambic v~rs~

.'

.: " "

~ ~-· i ·· ~J·,,

tq. the·· botfom:tkst 'pit. , ;:1.1~-:;;it'_r:

· '.' Burnt .aft!Jr.' hiih'

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,. .\ '; : _.... {,·, . '1·~:. ' · .. J {.,"fP'' J,l'"'\-",r-' ·" ·i ...~~ ·t 'f: _.:. · '~~O!" ·. ;; "' (

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Su~h as I Crea". I tipri'.s da_',"n.J behe1d, "l '. t_h9uJ9U~ l~estnow.'! f ..>~.
.
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f t • • ~. ' . : . ·. ;1 l;rt •. •
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32. (2.) A s~orter, lam bic;.verse is m_ade from the ' former,
.· ·-~-1 "
by out ting ·off one·Iani ~\ts,- or two ·sy1labl¢s ;t as '., ;-. :·: · · ..:,: . · r. .-)''.1.1
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Thou, . Ste 11-1 a, .,va'st,I no lon'g- J ~r. yo'ung 1 I _'.: : '.. : \
.
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. When fir'st-j . for, tfie'.e-.1.my, ·ly're [ .l strtlng~' l f ~...::"-\'.Gi •·
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O .Go'd~ · I th~; li'fe J, end,' I' fiigllf
.:f1'.*-1J ';:J/'.:;: ·, ·.'''f · .:";_
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(_)f a'll.J'. this wd'nd.: I r~tls. ~o;r,1d- I : w~ :~e'e ..!j:;~~- 11
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ble'd !"

"Perha'ps J in thi's I neglec't- J ed spo't I is la'id I
Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ;
_Hands, that the rod of empire might !!ave sway'd,
. Or. waked to ecstasy the living lyre."

·> .. ' ".i,~'. .. ,f,·· : .•t : . .~: ·: · -·r~· ~:,;; ·p'":

' ·J · . ··

" Time writes no wrinkle on thinb ' azure' br~w:.:;..·' '. ; I

. 27. (1.) The. most common and also the most dignified
- verse in English · poetry consists of five Iambic feet, or ten
. $yllables ; as,
. .
'.' Depa'rt· l ed spi'r· I its o'f I the mig'h- J ty de' ad!
.,,
at Ma't-

· ·

·.t. •

•IAMBIC VER!'IE,

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31. A verse of 's b( feet 'pr lwely_~ · sy,ll~bles; : ¢a.lied.' an . "
Alexan_drine lin,e, i~ . ocqlisionally · introduced ) 'nto :,h~ro!c \ : : ..:17~
verse, especially'- .at the dose ot a "p' assag~ :.•a" s'' -', '. :'i"i •~ : - ~ff.. ~-! ' ". ·• '"':::' ·~

' ;

. Ye ~ho'

I · ·..

30.'. Someti_n;ies : eY~n.'.i ·&-r~~. ter :· frregula,rlH~s are admissi·
ble. ' as
-' . " "'""" ' 'vl ' >:lft~.,., , ., " )':'Ol.

',

23. Verses are distinguished by various names, according ··
~o .the feet that prevail. in them; as, Jammc, Trochaic, Anap<Estic.
. 24. The tw<;> most common kinds of verse are the Iambic ·
and Trochaic.
.
25. Iambic verse has the weak percusslon first, and the
1oud last. · ·
'
·
·
·26. Trochaic verse has the loud first, and the weak last.

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of Gpd ·and map, ·accomplished· Eve/q i ~ ., ·,
the' se1', ·iis · ch.i ldren birds ' putsu'e.' ;,,; ,·i: • \"',""~ ._· •

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. It,s glqw by day, its ·smile. by·. night, . :: .!.",<./ ,. " '\: ·~ ~ ·;:J:,. 1·· •-:-~.: ..' : J · '"
: : ; ::·..
... -•1·
. Are· bu(reflectiOnd c~ught from thee l\ ! '.1 , . ;;e;~" ,; ;_! ':" \ <'. ~'.;','_j: ··
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.3~. This meas,u re is~ ~oi1l,~tiµ)~s;vtir1ed 1 .,t~,_a~~Pt]t;.J~Jight ·1; . ;._<~
subJect~, by the.iiP~lGi~zj., _~·~'. t~~1 .s~l1~ ~J~_s, .~oplti~g~
~~ . oubl_e·.(- ."·,~;
"·~. ·thyme, as,
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·1_ f• t·11:.~ ~ It~·~ .,'ff
~~fl ~'1 -.11'~ ' ~· ~t; .,
, · · .' / , . · "His braw'.~- I y; ~a'c~ J1a'l_c\, ~iW~~tl. ;·Jr~t!;.~/t: l·" ~.:~1·:~k
- ~~.:
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·.:· ·;, ·,

Suppo~t thintar· a~q, "~r.~f;tcf-111~~-~{.~~~A~}Jk:"~·;~f.f~'.· r '( ·..~.
.~~>_ of five f'eet. -2~. Whatis ·it ~~n;~~Jj' c'lk~ r:_::·2 97.1Jc,;;i~'itv~;l~d 1:: ~..,/:~·

,d , .:

;:

.:::.. ' - 30. Wh~t ai:e o!len edftiissible.? .·~ ~11 1 ;~~at', i~,..~1vers~ t-~£;el,x fee~.;·.' .,- )
· called.-G1ve an example., .,32. What - iil . sa1d -,of1L sh0He~ verse7~ .'
.,"
· :•.: · Give examples. 33. How i~ double rhyme formed;?:::_ Give·~x~mple1; '· · , )·,,

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•• Though tho'u l the wa't- I ers wa'rp
Thy sti'ng I is no't I so sha'rp.'' I

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Once she' I was a'll I thine ow'n:
Her Jove thy fairest heritage,
Her power thy glory's throne."

36. A residuary syllable or half foot is
Iambic line, for the sake of variety; as,

- ..

Ia

fr'ag-

I have i'n-1
I ment o'fl thy

be. I st'Hl, the,I: Ro'.~an's.'.~ -fl~t··'.'· 'J~A~~·;~;~.:t~ii~~f . ,
"Li'ke le~ I vi'a-· l·.tha'ns : a~ I floaf i .,,- ' '; ; ~l:t~+~ .~- .<.
' Ln:y th~jr l_b! ul,warl\s . l, o'Ii~hfiJ~rin~; .>-: .~- . "'
. :· W:hi/e the . sig~ : Pf, ~attle . ~e;W. · ·~ · rs
<'"· ·
' , q~ th,e°' l~f~y,J~r1.t,1~µ t- ~~·; ' ·i~~ro:'t 1 ,"'.' :;., : . , .

. . - ' :'.: ;'· .' ·,·

l

. , .· :· :i' ~-~:i· ;~1~.;·
. ; ~~:1~;- ~ '. :zii ·~~~~i( ._ . ..>·
~., .~ '. ·r '"·~ ~'· :.itrl· ~"'' ·
.· , • . ' •· · .,.

:.

.·~

1

· ·· -·

••:· ·

'"l'1 ' 1•1fr'.!1H •« ·• · ·

In' .Anapre~tic fers~,' theint~r·vtif:·be'iw:~ ~ri th~ a~<l~nted
".
syllables is doubled, and th~. - p_ercu~~iop_ifaii~ ·. Qh:ev~ry ,tnird · :f;
syllable._
~- \ , . r ~\ '.' ~,': :' · : ' !. ' ~( '; 'i' ,.,;:{-i, ... · ~,;~·~,I :~.
.
'. 3~. Anaprestic verse is, in ~comm_ori with Iambfo.and rro-·
chaic 1 of various lengths.-' t · .i: , , '. ~· · '·, . · ' ' · 1 ' " · · ; "
I. it soajet}~~~ : c;pil,-~is~~
fout;i:,(e~t , , ?,~ ·t.'Y.~J.~~F ~Y;Jl~:-.
bles; as 1• ·. · : i• .' ,. ,, . ;:,,;, . · . :, · •. _- . ! ·,., . 1: .,' .,,;, r. . .., .. L:, :"· ·
1
"From the k_na 1ves, I and ..the fo 19J13,; l•and. th.~fo'p,s:-l,11~ ;1,~!l;· ti'~w ,i+ - . , • -1
'. \ Frotn, tqe, dru~g_es .1!1 t:>.r«~l" !. 11n~ , the;, trl&,~J~).~ J hY: ti:Fi ~t~i'f' ~· i\ ·. > ,

· ss.

ofi~n added' to an

to du'st I been hu'mb- I led,
/
, b I z d ,,,
fle'sh I has er um - e • ·

"Waft,wa'ftl ye wind's! his sto'-1 ry,
And on' I ·ye wa' I ters ro'll, I
Till, li'ke l n i;;e'a I of gio'- I ry,
It sprea'd~ I from po'le I to po•le !lf I

TROCHAIC

... ·;
'I

B·~i

35. The four-lin~d stanza_of Psalmody generally consists
of alter~ate IambiC verses of four and three feet; as,
" Lord; · tho'u I did'st Jove I J em's- I ale'm, I

While no't

•.'

• (

'as,

"In pla'c- I es fa'r I or ne'ar, I
. Or fo'm- I ous o'r I ,obscu're, I
"Where wholesome is the air,
Or whe~e the most impure."

.~A nd coun
·
't- I less kin'gs

.

...

· 4. · It someth:pe~, cpntain~tl~ree :fe~f.qr"~j~,, syllabl~s;
~'f,.:;( .:::: :;•
· 11li:>r 1>w11ehil iiti 1 bru~; 1~'~h<lets{· 1; ,.-:,,:. f . ~ ., ·
:
.;,: ~,;.< 1.' t·' ·
-11· .. · ·< '.. rl ,; :\ ..... ·.;~ ·- ,..... \• ., ' · , .
, :R. '? 1 11~ 11}~~\l.1,1,Y,erlif,, '; 't~1. "'i:ikf.//·.~if.·:; "", .11.. . .·
,; 5. The Trochatc Jin~ .rriost g'e~eriiHy1~¢.mplqye,d·: contains ~
.iree feet 1 ahd an._a~~Uiqn_al syll~bl~ ;, ~-s~ ~ ri' ., ·.h\ti~ ;·i:l., ';1. . .
. . "Ro'me~be ·' I c1:'uah'd t0Jo'n11 wide l . ~ombi.ft i [;"/;~ ~i~ :

34: (3.) Iambic verse is sometimes further shortened int~
six syllables,, by 'c utting off another foot; as,
.
. .

,

_,

. ' ' '. _. . ' ' ~~~~~·~-""~ -' '.-.-'· ''. ,· ~ : :· '-'~-,..!~":i-~:>~~ ::~:

PROSODY.

164 '

• .,

.(

.~

1

...

,,

?f

•

·.

'

•

q.

•

• :

~

'

'

.

···•.

.... ....

' )~

• ' ....

, .

\;

..

"And the ~'id- 1 1 ~ws _ of,~ A.~ I $h1,1r il,r.~ . ,?'!:~, l .in;'t~,'1i;·iw~~~1,.Jl //
,
And · the idols ..are. brok~ .l~,th~,·~;e~P,.l.~,Pt ~~~l: ~ '<:,;,,~.,.:,ii} ~;.f.,~t··: .'· >

·

2. It sometimes con~~sts 6£ three fe·~t -,ot. i:i~ne.,.sy1Jl;lj>J,e~·; :as;

VERSE.

37. Trochaic verse is also of various lengths.
.
L It sometimes contains six feet or twelve syllables; as,
"0 ;~ a m'ountain I streich'ed I be I ile'ath ~I h' ~ary 1,;-v'illow, I

i

Lay a shepherd swain and view'd the rolling billow.

I ih~t no\v "bi'Q. jus be s!av;e'sf l:~}'.h{ /5 ". :
I tp' th~ •go'. o<J lap.d th!ldr~ \e J!,1<>.' l
; ' . 3. ' It' sometimes ' consists. of two 'feet 'b~ six'1 syllables; < as;;~
' ' ' ' ' ' " " B-. ' . h' ' . '
I
,' •','J. •" t I _,,,, - : . • .: ; " j
' ', .~ . ' ; 'ut IS C?u.r~; age "r, (58~: tru'ld ·~ .. ~ ' l J;' L.J. ""~f· 1H ' - :. {.\",·
For >·.no··1:a'rts
· ..'~rr~ '. ;·}· ··,. ·.,....1 .~
· :t
~
. ;.· .
. ·
, ' ·~ ·...
·-; : ..,. I could
, ava1'l
,, · "'.{ ·· "1·.· 1-J ·.··.~ ..'\1;,,
r., '.:,
' ' " Who are the'y
-'· They are fo'es

>-.·. ;

I

• •.

1

.· :_bi.:~n!;a:O~~~~~J~hisi:i:&1;·~~~:/4~.t:~~1,~~~;~l~~~t~~~:~~~:~: .· ~·:0::

' 2. It: sometimes contains .five feet or ten,syllables; as;

"' A•n

3.

that I wa'lk on I fo' ot or I ri'de in I ch'ariots;

I

All that dwel.l in palaces or garrets."
.
It sometimes contains four feet or eight syllables;

of'

' arid some,times
'a dissY.' IJabtc-~·h,f¢ot'
a.t .~.the·· beginning.' the .;':,. .~/ >;·:t..
: . ;· ''"' I · . •,
•<;.-'f• ..OJi ~ ' •l•fh.tp'j.i ·· t - ~iol 1~1\. · t.-'\.J~\ ' j -.
. .line· as.
· ..1 - .~· ~ . 1 ~~ \~1·.~·.:.;
..
_
..
··
t. · :·A .... :r·:::;: · ·-7. ·~t.j.:~(· · . _ 1 ~- .: •. ~ ~ ... ·, ,··; ..:~
1
~· ~ '
t_
.·
• 7 .\~'·r '\p. •)r.. f1.'t'(\ 1 f':'~'. .\~ ~ii.- ~ r::1~~J·~Jfi~·-- ~~~~~{)'1 ::t· ~ ·:.. · • ~.:
i; .. • : ;

as,

, , "On' .they I i:na'rch though I to' self- I sl'nughter, I
Regular as rolling water."
_ _ _______ .. __ · ·_ ____ __ __)
3·4-·-; - - :- Iatnbic . ~~~;-~~rther shortened? - Give example!!.
. 37: Gi~= examples o~Trochaic verse of six feet. -Offivc feet. -Of four

..

.

,,,,>.

' On the war'm I cheek ofyc;m 'th I smiles a:1id .r_o-.:I see.are blc:i'nd•J ., .
ing." I
· , ·~ ·:i: / •·.;; ··.'.' ,..• , i':'.~, . ·f!~/~ :.;;i.., ".f: ...:!·: 1:''-.~~~.
•

•

• •

.•

•

', •

~

.,

.- :

-

••• ... :•.;<1• '. •';

• ·• • f;..

'

.

· feet...,.. ~f three feet.~ Of three feet and one . syIJable. ~ 3.8~JD~~c_i-ibe · '.
; Ana pres be· verse,'!.... Give. e~air) pJe~ :of -f.hE). difft1ren~! viU'h#etJ ~,of, feeL .
)
· ·..
} ~ ·. :· .. f
-~ ~ .. ri ;~·.,:"~: ~''· n.'"" )t.ti11~ri.tJ_~·, .~:' .'
· ;1.

'(

,_

1:,

,
•

'i
, ,.

PROSODY.

l66

~·But his cou'r· I age ;gan .fa'il I him, I
For no a'rts {could ava'il I him." I
1. ·

e'er I in thy sigl~'t I I found fa'v- I our, Ap'ol- I lo, I
Defe'nd I me from al'l I the dis'ns· I ters that fo'l- I low."

."If

41. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anaprestic feet all admit of bccasional interniixture ; and many beautiful passages in our
poets cannot be scanned without the use of all of them.
' The following are examples: ". Rests ,secu're I the ri'gh-1 teous ma'n:
At h'is I Redee'm- I er's be'ck, I
Sure t' ,ern'erge I and ri'se I agai'n, I '
And mo'unt I abo've I the wre'ck."

,,

',

I

"And the're I lay the ri'd I er distor't I ed' and pal'e, I
With the de'w I on his bro'w I and the ru'st I on his ma'il."
"Awa'ke I 'tis the te'r I ror of war', I
The cr'es I cent is tos's' d I on the wi'nd."

...

I

I

POETICAL LICENSE.

l

~

I

42. The la~guage of poetry admits of several peculiarities
in its grammatical structure, in order to fit it the better for
being formed into regular numbers.
1. Poetry admits of the use of words and phrm;es which _.
in prose would be accounted obsolete . .

'~

Such phrases give to poetical composition that rust of antiquity, which · :. •
is a great beauty, if not carried so far as to make the diction uncouth ,'
and obt clire.
'
..
2. Poe.try admits of a bolder transposition of words tqan . ·.:1

prose :' the rhetorical arrangement being as much the usual . , ~
order in the for~~r as the conventional is in the latter. .
--_ '~
3. S_ome words are lengthened by a syllable, and others .
· apbreviate,d, to adapt ti1em to the purposes of measured com-L.
· position . . Thus, for part, the poets often use dispart; fo·r . · ·
· cltain, ·enchain; for morning, morn; for valley, vale.
'· : ·
4. Poetry admits of a liberal l:'tse of nouns for adjective~; .,
as,

·.. Amid the greenwood shade this' boy was br11d."

· 42. What is Poetical License? Give instances 'vith respect to obsolete ~.
· · words. - What is said as regards transposition?- What is said aboilt :
leri~thening and shortening words?- Using nouns for adjectives?-"'- '"
'

. ,· ,

)

.\

·:~.·~J'\

.

·.,..

• , ···.:ll;..

\

'

i

168 .

'. !--i.·:' :,.,~ 1'.~\ '1':''J', l~. ,

PROSODY.
·, Should fate ·command ine to the farthest verge
Of the green earth, to distant barbarous climes,
Rivers unknown to song; where first the sun
Gilds Indian: mountains, or his setting beam
Flames on the Atlantic isles ;-'tis nought to me,
.Since God is ever present- ever felt,
In the void waste as in the city full ;
And, where He vital breat~es, there must be joy.

Derivatfon is that pa~t tif Etymology wh-ich .tre~ts of the
Origin and Primary Signification of words:
· ·
·
'.i'he words of a culti.vated language, P°'~~ver ~umerous and apparently
unconnected, ai~ found on examination to be reducible to groups or
families, and to be related to each other by identity of origin and
similarity of signification.
1
Thus, the words, justly, justice, justify, justifu:ation, j~sticiarjj, adj ust, recadjust , unjust,' inju.<tice, &c. are all kindred words, connected with their common parent , just . In like manner, teri:ace;.
terfaqueous, terrene, terrestrial, terrier, territory , inter , interment, ·
disinter, JJiediterra11ean, snbterranean, &c. are all connected with
, their parent, terra, the. earth.

Our n<itivc land-our native valeA long - a last adieu !
Farewell to honny Teviotdale,
And Cheviot's mountains blue.
The Latt le-mound- the Border tower,
'!'hat Scotia's annals tell The martyr's grave - the lover' s Lo\1·cr,
To each - to all-' farewell!

,

•

~ ·

No longer Autumn's glowing red
Upon our forest hills is shed;
No more beneath the evening beam
F~ir Tweed reflects their purple gleam ;
·Away hath pass'd the heather-bell
That bloom'd eo rich on N eedpnth-fell ;
Sallow his brow , and russet bare
Are no'v the sister heights of Yare.

Last came Joy's ecstatic trial:
He with ivy crown advancing,
First to the lively pipe his hand arldress' d;
But soon he saw the brisk awakening viol,
Whose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best.
They would have thought, who hea_rd the. strain,
They saw in Tempe's vale her native maids,
Amidst the festal sounding shades,
To some unwearied minstrel dancing;
While as his flying fingers kiss'd the strings,
Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round i
Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound,
And he, amidst his frolic play,
. As if he would the charming air repay,
' Shook thousand odours from his dewy wings.

.1- • ,

:~)~~ ~·,.~

'

,W ords are either P rimitive or Derivative.
A Primitfoe word is · not derived from ariy simpler word .
in the language ; as, m an, just;
A Deri"<ativ~ word is formed from some word .o f great~r _
Simplicity; as, m.anhood, unjttst. · ·. '· · ,-. • - ' · .:. ·· '··. •' ·
· . ·-. The primitive words 6{ !a.n guage
Mm· .

a'

are''ahvayKtew

.pared with the whole ainqunt of its vocabulary. ' ' '. :~ ·, ·· _'· ;.•:\
T he primitives of thfl Greek, - one of the most various a~d coplou!I.

of languages, - do not, according to Dr. Adam Smith, exceed three
. ·hundred: and Lord M:onboddo even goes so far as to ~aintain that'
its whole \ 1 ocabulaty is derived from five duadSf rir ~d,rnbihations .o f ·
, !. · two letters. ·
· . ,. ''· ~· . · .~ :·\;. ~ · , ·· ·. · ~ '. .. . ·, .··;, ·~. ; . ' r ., .·:.' ·
.,
.~· . '.· A language .i~ considered p~f~cf.irt respect of ·etymologicali structure
· ·": . : when its primitives are very fe,w in comparisoh of its dertiaiives; and
~
, ~hen it has .no,t only all the,:~~!~~F; ~u~ , ~l~~:J ~~(.~~e ;:f.9~ni~~t,~i.t~ :' .. ,:.
, .
itself, and of its own gt~~ih. :r; \~r:\i·,r, 1 i~~· '/~~,fi~·1.'i·'~·~i!~·if,<_h , ' ·· . ,

w:\ Derivation seems to be. a.n artifice:oflangua:ge~~o\1 keep th.e ·:· · ·

~,J1umber of words withi~ ~~?~~d5~~H~~·:·~~~~~~~1~~::,·'.· .

.

the enlargement Of hts ·knowledge, teqmr,es ,·,the .use1 o£r& new ·'. word, it is natural for man, iliste-a.d Of inventing af5hbe 1,lfMU'i11ratM- ' . ,.
getller arbitrary;: to gr.aft -~ · derivative, signific;liil ·:ot<th~'~ih~'g : h~

!oi' ~ When

(.

' t.".-.
.

<

~.' 1:
\ ""

"'\ •

15 ,

· -

·

:d.

·

., · "

, ..-

· · '""~'ffe,~~·.-:'c1~w'.~ ~·c'
'
.. • " r ••i, ( ·~ 1T.f, 'J/: ·, ~
I

~

'-

.. ,.

APPENDIX.

170

.
II-known !!tock: and the principle on
· the derivative, ·,
<w1she.s to express, on some. we
li' h he proceeds in selectmg the stock end formmg
. h' h ..I;·
. is,
~ to-expre
IC
Ss thi' ngs which . ere connected together by Words W IC .· ,
I 0 8 connexion with one another.
. , '
h
1I·
of this modification of old words in
the
t'10 of new ones is well illustrated by the derivative~ w ic are
ca n
·
employed
to express
num her . • We give names tod particular
k t numnd
bers to t he exten t oft en • and then we turn back nn rec
h on en a
d three &c giving names to t e new numone, ten and two, ten an
' f ;h Id Thus * thirteeen (three- '1
hers compounded of the names o
eo .
'
.
., ,

Th::~=c~

preve~tin~

• four tens (f,or t y) ' &c . ' till we come to ten
three tens (thirty),
I tens,
. "•I.
which is expressed by a new word (hun?red!. Then the re:~:~~:~ ,'
ds till it come to ten hundred, winch IS expressed by
h
.
procee
t ou· ,
new word (thousand): an d so on , till we come to ten hundred
d ( illion)
. ,"
d which requires the invention of another new wor
m
• .
by the help of derivation and composition, we
, ;.
' by a few new words all possible numbers, - wh1c ' wit ou "
t
press them express
.
such help, would alone have reqmred a 1anguage o ex .
. , .

!;~u~

ar~ ~nab~ehd t~

ORIGIN . OF WORDS.
I.

ORIGIN OF .ENGLISH ROOTS .

. The English .language derives its roots from various Jan-

..

g~!e:~sis of the language is the Saxon, which was sp?~en in England ~.'
. th e time
- 0 f the Anglo-Saxons. But ·the ongmal
dunng
1
dstock, tbe-t .'
. great1y mo d"fi
. sides bemg
I ed by use ' has received arge an . cons. an .
additions from ot her Ianguages. The Danishanrl Norman mvas10ns
h
d •'·
.
dnee d a ,.iew Danish and N orman-Frenc wor. s.d ··
uccessively mtro
s
t
ber of Latin and Greek words ob taine
Subsequently, la grea n;~:nch Italian and Spanish words. And, '.
currency, as e so some
'
'
h
f tu \
more recently, many scientific terms, especially t e na~es o ~~ • ;,
1 roductions, have been adopted from the German' as we as.
ra p names of new commo dities of commerce borrowed from
many
. 't ,the-.
f
untries whence they have been imported. The gre~t m ~J~n yo .'.
co
our wor ds, h owev er ' are still either of Saxon or of Lahn ongm. . ... 't'J
..
.
m !es becau•c the word ten does not
• Eleven and twelve n~e. not ?'.tcd asr~~i~hlp O\~e thei; or igin to combina.tions .
enter into their compos1t10n. 0 l l)iey
t
z Yve _ meaniug that in countrng a '
111
of the words leave-an e (leave !'"d.1 1~d a~:· ,:1ie~ the radix t~n is counted off, we,
u
.f.ollection
of
eleven
or
twelvdelrn
.
v
·n'
tlie
other._ See Lardner's Cytlop111dia,' ~
ltave one in the one case, an eave 1100 1
Arithmetic, p. 11.
'

S

•

~ Elli.\tATION.' '; .. ' .- "'' ... ". ~ tfl.-i:

i-; ·.~ rhe rOf!fS ~r· t~e·· Eng~is~; lang.~ag~~;1!11lY':ber, d,_vl~~d>1nt6:'.':';
1--) ~epar~ble and' J7i:separ.ab!~-·~· .·:-::~.'. ' ~r1 -.' 1 !•;~~·;~f"fr»::r~>: ·:~•rJ·'~~:; .. >~
•

I

~

'

,

'

1

~?~1p

ten~'.{io;:t~::~o:-t~?~~ f!~~e:h~~~ei·;ee~~r~~~d ~~ ~h:o;da~t::n~~ : .:~atagous to the ' names of two and ten. In like manner we count ·, ',

~

1

'

'

,

•

'';

.

l ,

·. ,

1
, '. . .. .. Such roots as
irl the form ·
1
", 1 · words have been adopted : 4ito :. the Janguage ' without almost · ~ny·
change except a slight alteration or transposition of their fihal letter!.
· ., But such as have been naturalized for. the purpose of appearing only in
"- composition as · inseparable .' .foots: · have 'also ' lost · their .distinctive ·
charac~er es parti,cular parts 0 f speech. ·····' ~ r: : ~~·:'? ~ :~

ha~~ been 1 iiatu~~li?:~d

6r 'J ntfr~ ~r' ~ep;.te
: ".' ." ,.•..,

. .s. '-<' .t . .'R . ·/·: ;,~~·JJ,{ .:.;,: 1,·'~;:::\;
'
-~~•}.~:, /E. P .\RAB

E

0 0 _TB'-"':.;-'_.,_' ,,.; ,,

' '

The roots of th~ principal parts
speech are more easily
. ~ .traceable to their origin,' and have undergone more regi.tiar .
.f changes in passing ,into the. language, .t})an ,those of inde.
,. : clinable words. . . . '.
. •. . · ·· . · ;;. · : ' '.: ·. The Saxon words, _which form the basis, of the language,
have undergone variOqs changes in their grammatie~l · struc­
ff, ture as well as. in their final ·letters. · 1· ; ·,.,,.; ~.. , .... , r, " '"·'-· J"

of

>·

'; · ~· Ail the Saxon"~ases h~ept

_ ,,

. pos~essive·.:_ ~here i; h~~

the
a)
takenthe
place of ea - have disappeared; the Saxon plural -terminntiori -e11 ·
has been supplanted by 8, except in a few word.~;· as, b±en_, -hok~n, -.
&c. ; the termination of the Saxon infinitive ·an has beeh dispensed
with; · as, forgive for forgivan ; end the variations of the verb in
the several persons have also been materially changed.
, _, .
1

' . The Latin words which have been 'adopted have, for the
"'·-: most part, suffered a,ch~nge of termiIJation .. · - i· ..._. .. "·

ali~ i~

~rientalia;·

:·;_.1 Thus, the termination
changed into al,- -as, .from
•:
oriental.
·
-· .
'1 ·: ... .:, :
•
·;·· . '. .,,\. ' ..i:.~. :'. 'J
Atua is changed into ate; as, from -atatus, state.
. .'. .... , ....(.i .;,- ,.•.
Bilis is changed into ble; as, from laudabilis, laudable: · "'/'::·"· . •
:· -'· 'Crum is changed into i:re,- as, ·from lucrum , lucre. '"('.' /,.:":;;·:.':' :
'~:·· Ctus and ctum are changed int6 ct,- 'as, from actu~, qct; from tff.ectu1,
.'.' effect,- from edictum, edict:' -.·.'.;_: ' .,,_. ,. · ' '- .... . •-:'y/r. ·;; ;:11'•.:• '• -) .., : Culus and culum are changed into cle; as, from c;ir~ulus,· Cirae/'.from
~r.t.:•;. curricu~um, curricle.- , ,. . -.:. · . , , .,, ~>: ~ . :O:l~:.;~.;i'
::. " Enua is changed into ene,- ·as, from terrenus, terre;ie:< · ' "'1"'.' -' ": ' 7
.
'

~

;:~

I

~

· Separab.le _roo~ts.· a:e_., s':';ch ~~: have . ? ~~[.}~~?~Bt~~t:n.!?. the , ..,
- language m the· form ot entire word8 ; \ as, :lucre; if~om .the
L .
;,.i
~.,i, ·'·.!';!• t,~ ;}I ' ·• '."'t ,..
.
ahn lucrum. · -- ..,,. t• .. .' .. ,;" . ohr;-t.
-,<;.;;.,,;,-" - _
Inseparable roots ar~ such as have been admitte<J·only as
the ·radical pat-ta of derivative · or compoun4 •words; :as, ·
~mrzi in omnipotent, from the La.tin omnia; ,,;,,,' ·: : ~·~}Y"t'• <.; -:~'t, 'AO

1.1

I

~

-~

.

~· '

.'
APPENDIX.

172

Erit1r i$ changed into ere; ·.as, from sinceru1r, sincere.
Gnus and gnum are changed into gnj as, from benignulf, benign; from
lfignum, sign.
ldus is changed into id; as, from candidus, candid.
llis is changed into ile; as; from docilis, docile.
Inus is changed into ine; as, from divinus, divine.
lo is changed into ion; as, from religiO, religion.
lvus is changed into ive; as, from activus, active.
Ns is ch~nged into nt ; as, from innocens, innocent.
Ntia is changed into nee; as, from scientia, science.

0, when preceded by a single consonant, is changed into e; as, from
scribo, scribe ; from confido, confide ; from reviso, revise ; from
altitttdo, altitude.

0, when preceded by a double consonant, is, together with the last
· consonant, omitted: as, from committo, commit ; from compello,
compel.
Osus is changed into ose or ous ; as, from jocosus, jocose ; from calamitosus, calamitous.
'Sus is changed into se; as, from 3ens1ts, sense.
Ssus is changed into ss; as, from .recessus, recess ; from remissus,
remiss.
Tas is changed into ty; as, from charitas; charity.
Ugium is changed into uge; as, from refugium, refuge.
tTnus is changed into une; as, from jejunus, jejune.
. u;us is changed into ttre;
from securus, secure.
Usus is changed into use; 011, from ustis, ttu.
Utus and utum are changed into ute; as, from arbutus, arbute; from
tftatutum, statute.
Xus is changed into :r; as, from proli.xus, prolix.

as,

The Latin words which have suffered more than a change of termina·
t'ion in passing into English are chiefly such as have been received
through the medium of the French ; as,
LATIN.

FRENCH.

Ala, a wing
Aile
. Auctor
Auteur
Bonte
Bonitas; goodness
Bos, an oi
.
Bceuf
Brevis, short
Brief
Echauffer
Califacere, to warm
Canalis, a pipe
Chennl
Canne
· Canna, a reed
Caput, the head
Chef*
Carmen, a song or incantation Charme
Catena
Chalne
'

EN GLISH,

Aisle
Author
Bounty
Beef ,
Brief
Chafe
Channel
Cane
Chief
Charm
Clmin

I

*There can he no doubt that chef is from ca.put; because it c:rn be traced in old

writers through the successive stages of its progress,-c/iept, chep, chef.

t

,. .'

J

~·

DERIVATION.
AT IN-. ' ·, ">'~; " ,, ;< FR-EN' cit ./·1~~;-,r;
'

!

'

'

•

'

('

. •

Coluber, a snake* ! · '.l
Computa,re, to reckott
Cooperire ,
'
Cultellus
Diabolus
. .
·
Dignari, to think worthy_ ..
EE•'xb.turran,eus,· o·•·tw'nr·a· • '
- ~
Feretrum
Ferox
I
Fidelitas, fidelity.

E'~Gtl"
1n ·r
!
('-6. ' .

.

.

·'

11•

· :~~

.;

; , ' , Couleuvrine ;1(· '-'l;H\ Cnlveriri ;,.. : ",;:., .1
. Compter
_,_
Count ., . ' ·.' "·'
Convrir
. ~·. ::,·.;; · Cover . . ·. , ;-, .,.
Coutelas
.., , ; Cutlas5 ·:· - ·' . '
•· Diable
· · ,.-~·"'.;,,De-vii,· ) ·· i ~ : .1
• Dei~rter
:.- -., : J)eigrt ,;
. ' ;_
Elvoire
·. , 1vorf . ,)·:"'" - '
' ~ tranger
· -.. tranger , '.
Biere , Bier . . ·. ,
' Feroce
· Fierce >'
'' ·1
. S Feodalite , ,. : l F It ';·"';r<' .,;y
' ~ F~aulte ·
, 5 ea 1 :,,.· , ·_,,
Gigas
Geant
Giant ,' ' ·
Gubernare
.Gouverner
·.... , Govern '. . · ·
Gula, the throat
Goulet
' Gullet
Incantare
.,. , Enchanter .1 1 ., 1, Enchartt
lnimicitia
lnirriitie ·
" : '. Errmity' · '
r • Litiere·•· ,. _, ··· ;. t i Littet· .·; " ..
Lcctarium, ·a bed ··. ' '
Lever ·. J. ·
/ " i .,' Liftt ;·
Levare, w lift · '
Lex
.s
Loi
·
' ..·" \'' Law·
, .,
Mai~e ·. ·' · ! "i;>, l,\1e8.gre (
•.· ii
Macer, lean
J\1agister
· ·
Maistre, Ma.'ltre .: -. •, Master ,• . ,. : ,
Macrnus, great
Ma~ne
·Main · '
Me~ie tas, the middle
. Mo1tie
.
,
Moiety
Mirabile
' Merveille ·
Marvel
N omen, a name
N om
Noun
N umerus, a number
N ombre
Number ·
N utrix
'
N ourrice
N urBe - . 1
Oleum
· Huile
Oil . , . ,
, , .· ·',;
r· ·
·
P
·P
t ·
·
P aganus
'um, a ba•ket
Pay~an
,- pea~n ,\:·'· ·: . . ' '
Panarl
/
"
amer
, anmer J
Pa&sius, a step
Pas
J?ac;e .. ; ; , ;:;' "' ,
Pauper
·
Pauvre
' Poor- .. " . .! :. · ;
Peregrinus
· ·
Pelerin
, .'"'·' Filgrln~·:, \ -~ ,-- ~).:
Populus, the people
Pe~ple
, ;. People , \'. I :_,,:.,;-"'' ~
Prrepositus; p'laced over
Prevost, now Prev,otProvost:
·":; ,; f;,
Presbyter ·
~PrebstrE) orPre8- .lp1::·. t'.I ,. ·"' .-\ ·- \
1·
ies · ..:·.~· :·?' -.'t
( , tre, now Pi~treS
Probare; to prove
Prouver ' · .; ,' :· Prove .'' · · . · · 'le
Pullmi, a chicken
Poulet
' · · - Poult 1 • }'oultry ::,/
Pu~pis, the stern of a lfhip ' Poupe
Poop · · · .·
:
Ratio, reason
:: ' · -.. · . Raison
' , r Reason . . ·, ·.. _t,
Recipere, to receive
Recevoir
Receive
. .. ,
Regnare, to rule
Regner
' .,: .Reigrt ''.. / _;, .. , .\
Rotundus ·
Rond
. ,,. , Round .1 • ·, . . ·! ,: , ·''
Sapor, taste
Saveur . ·,
Savo~r. '· ... :;·" ./' ; .\Supernus, sitpreme
Souvernm .. Sovereign : .. ,, • ,:;,
Tegula, a tile · · .
Tuile
', •'· Tile l .: · ~,, .'. : '..:
Traditor
· Traltre . ··' , . , ' T;ai.tcir ,• , . ~ 1.,,.,./ .•
Visus, a eight
Vue
,.. .....:·, ..• View ,: ,- • ., ::,, ;\

-~

~

s·

,,·i-

.:

•Many' warlike instruments t11ke their · nnmes froin animnld ' as ' balili~k · fl l·

e011et, ramrod, &c .

. ,

.

·

·

1

/

15. ) .

.

~crb lt~c

•

}

•• , _

_

r.

as drlJI rrd~-~ritr•
It is still used as a participle in two instances in the Bible' ' · .,' .·, , . ..
. .~ •

. t Lift i• from the petfer,t participle of an obsolete

·1 . ~ .

·

. If.;• ./; "· ..., . ,, .. '

'-!

---

,_

1111!1!
,"V, ~

\ . .·~'

t.
174

.APPENDIX.

TM Greelc words which have been naturalized have

al~o

undergon~. in general, a change of termination.

·,

· Thus, the termination ia is changed into y; as, from proaodia,prosOdy; .'
from apol~gia, apology.
Jkos is changed into ic or ical; as, from mechanikos, mechanic .or .
me~hanical.
Jsmos is ch~nged into ism; as, from aphorismos, aphorism.
.
Ogos is changed into ogue; as, from epilogos, epilogue:
The number, however, of Latir~ and Greek words which have been
adopted into English as separate words is comparatively small.

I

INSEPARABLE ROOTS.

' The greater iiumber of the Latin and Greek roots of the 1
English language is found only in composition:
.
The changes which roots that are found only \n composition undergo, cannot easily be reduced to gener~l rules;
but the following lists will sufficiently illustrate their nature: ·
L A T _i N R O O T S F 0 U N D 0 N L Y I N C 0 111 P 0 S I T I 0 N •
Root arid Meaning.

,.
\

\,

..

·.

Representative.

acri
Acris, sharp
.edi
Aedes, a house
equ, equi
Aequus, equal
aeri
Aer, aeris, air
ev
Aevum, an age
agri
Aiter, agri, a field
Agger, a heap
· agger
ag,act
·Ago, I do, actus, done
ali
Ala, a wing
.
alt
Altus, higli
amic, imi.c
Amfous, a friend .
Amo, I love
!am,
amor
Amor,.love .
· anim
Antmu·s, mind

Example.

acrimony
edify, edifice
eq1tanimity, equilibrium
aerial, aeriform ·
·
coeval ·
agriculture
exaggerate
agent, actor
aliped
exalt, altitude ,
amicable, inimical
amiable, amorous

animate, unanimous, Jzni· ·
madvert
Anmis, a year
· ·1
an_n , an'n.1t, enni annals, annual, biennial ·,
aqiiatic, aqueduct
.·
Aqua, wat".r
,
, aqua, aque
coercion
Arceo, I dnve away· (erceo ere
when compounded)
arable
Aro, a plough . ·
ar
artful, inert
Ars, artis, art
art, ert
articulate
Artus, the joints
arti
asperity, exasperate
Asper, rough
_
aspe;
.
Audio I hear, aud1tus, audi, audit
audience, audit, auditory;
' hea;d
·
'Augeo, I increase, nuctus, aug, auct, aut11 augment, attqtion, author ;
.
....•.
increased
aviary .
· Avis, a bird
avi
beatitude
Beatus, blessed
beati

·· '

·APPEND.IX. '

176
Root and Meaning.

.'..

.

'

~

'

'

·"

I '

....'.:.

_____

.___

),

·)

Representative.

·Example.

procra8tinate
Cras, to-morrow.
eras
credit, credulous, credible
Credo, I trust .
cred
incremation
Cfemo, I burn
crem
·cmcify
Crux, orucis, a cross .·
cruci
incubation, incumbent
<;;ubo, ·r lie (cumbo .when cub, cumh .
· compc;mnded)
··
Culpa, a fault, culpo, I £:.d culp
culpable, culprit
fault with . ,
.
.
curator, smecure
Citra, care
. cura, cur
Curro, I run ,
Scur, curr, cour, (_incur, ~urr~cle, succour, ex·
Cii.rsus, a runmng
; ( curs, coura
5 c1~r.s10n, mtercourse
. addit10n
Datt1s, given (ditus when dit ·
compounded)
.
decorous, decorati~n
Decor, . decurif!, grac~; decor
· .. beauty
· ' · . i· ·
··
dentist, dentifrice
Dens, dentis, a tooth ·1 , dent
Deity, deify
Deus, ·dei, a god
· · Dei
dexterity, dexterous
. Dexter, right-handed, cle- dexter
ver ·
.
predict, dictate
Dico, I say, dictus, said diet
dial, diary, meridian
di
. Dies, day
dignity, dignitary ·
digni
Dignus, worthy
diurnal , journal
diurii. , joum
Diurnus, daily
docile, doctor, doctrine
Doceo, I teach, doctus, doc, doct
taught
condole
dol
Doleo, I 15rieve
dolo·r ous
dolor
Dolor, gnef
domineer, dominican
domi11
.Domfous, a. master
domestic, domicile .
dom
Domus, a house ·
~onation ,
don
Donum, a gift ·
md11ce, aqueduct
Duco, I lead, ductlts, led dttc, duct
dual, duel
du
·
Duo, two
d1m1ble
dur
Durus, hard
ebriety, inebriate
ebri
Ebrius, drunken
edible
Edo, I eat
·
ed
egotist
·
ego
'Ego, I
redeem, exemption
Emo, I buy,. emptus, eem, empt
bought ·
Exter, outward
exter
external
.
Faber, a workman
fabr
fabri?, fabr1cat.e
..
Facllis, easy, ·
facil, facul, ficttl facilitate, faculty, d1tjiculty
Facio, I make, fio, I am fact, feet, fit, fie,
'
made, factus, made (ficio fy
factor,. perfec~, benefit, BO•
· and fectus when componfic, purify
,:
pounded)
.
infallible, fallacious
fall
Fallo, I deceive
profanation, profane
Fanum, a temple
fan,fane
ineifable, fate
F~ri ; to speak, fat us, hav· fa ; fat
mg spoken
·
f elicity
.
·
Felix, felicis, happy
. felic
feminine, effeminacy
Fem'i'na, a woman
femi-n
ferry, infer, circumferenc~
:Fero, I carry or bring
fer
fervid, effervescence
· ...
Ferveo, I boil
'ferv
fidelity
'
. Fidelis, faithful
fidel
con.fide, diffidence
Fido, I trust
fid

~

J

•

-

7

\'

,J

Root and Menning.
I

"'

Halo, I breathe
Haurio, I draw, hausttis,
drawn
Homo, a man
Horror, I exhort"
Hospes; hospltis, a guest
Hostis, ,an enemy
Humus, the ground
Idem, the same
lgnis, fire
Infra, below
Insula, an island
Intra, intus, within
Iter, itineris, a journey
,Iterum, again
!tum, io go

Representative.

Example.

hal
haust

exhale, exhalation
exhaust

homi, hum
ho rt
hos pit
host
hum
iden
ign
infern
insula, inml
inter, inti
itiner
it er
it

homicide, human
exhort
hospitable
hostile
inhumation, posthumous
identity
ignition, igneous
infernal
peninsula, insulate
internal, intimate
itinerate, itinerary
iteration
exit, circuit, transit, ee·
dition
ad}acent
inject, conjecture

J aceo, I lie
jac
J actus, thrown (jectus ject
when compounded)
J ailua, a gate
jan
J ugum, a yoke
jug
J unctus, joined
junct
J uro, I swear
jur
.- J us, juris, right, law
juris, juri
J utus·, assisted
jut
J uvenis, a youth
juven
Lacer,' torn
lacer
Lredo, I hurt. Iresus, hurt lid, lis
(lido and lisus when
compounded)
lap id
Lapis, lapldis, a stone
la!
Latus, carried
lat, lati
Latus, wide
later
Latus, lateris, a side .
Legiitus, an ambassador legat
leg
Lego, I bequeath
Lego, I gather, I choose, leg, lect
lectus, gathered
·
L ego, I read, lectmi, read leg, lect
Lenis, gentle
len
Lenius, gentle
lent
Levis, light
·
lev, liev, lief
Levo, I lighten, I lift up lev
· Lex, legis, a law
leg·is, leg
Liber, a book
·
libr, libel
Lib er, free
liber
Libra, a balance
libr
Licet, it is lawful
licit
Lignum, wood
lignum, lign
Lirro, I bind
Zig, liga
Li~quo, I !eave, relictus linqu, lict
1
left
liq1te, liqui
Liqueo, I melt
liti
Lis, litis, strife
liter
. Litera, a·letter
,··

,DERIVAll'IO~ .

APPENDIX.

l78

janitor
corvugate
.
adjunct, conjunction
conjure
·
jurisdiction, jnridical
adjutant, coadjutor
juvenile
lacerate '
collide, collision
lapidary, dilapidate
elation; trnnsla!e
dilate , lat·itude
lateral, equilateral
delegate, legation
legacy, leuatee
allege, collect
legible, lecture
lenity, lenient
relent
levity , relieve, relief
elevate, lever
legislator, legal
library, libel
liberty, liberal, libertine
libration, equilibrium .'
illicit
lignnmvitre, lig neous
oblige, ligament
relinquish, relict
liquefaction, liquid
litigious
·· ·
literal, literature

'"\ '• '

.' j7s;J

•''.'\ ~:,.!<.

Root and Menning.
Representative, !
Example( :, <:•U , . ·
Locus, a place · ,··~ < ·"~ loc;, loco·
. ("·.u Zocality, locomotion ;.,. .,,,,>{'.

1

,

,

' ; ..

Long!ls, long · · - • " ' »(., ,' long? longi : · 1'oblong,.tongitude . (.~ '~ ... ..:~ ".~
Ld\J.m, to spe~k ' ,_ ,: ·>''> ·:.loqm, lot.?~Y• loqu;' c?l~oquial, opll>9u_y, " loqua~'J
.,
' ... "" ·; •r•·•• ·. · ~ locu . 't · :1 ,<.vn: · P'c,itynv~ntn~oqu1st 1 :·eZoc~_.
···; 1 1 ~

1-,.<·

.: · t1on

-:.

'

'. ·" ":~· 1 :4"1 't'

·

}

Ludo, I play, lusus, de- ludi, lus
. '.·., ,lud.~c)ro\lJ!, il_
?u/l_i.Qn .; ;..,<,..,,·:;.r
ceived
, , ' · ,·. ~
· '
• .
•
· , ~-'.·'
. r"'._\~j ·~f !..:'1f~.;
Lumen, lutnfois,-light . ~ lumfa
.. , ,luminary'· '· •
•-r' ,,,. .,,. ·
Luna, the moon .
. . -, lun
· ati. c, su.blunary
.
1z
u~
· ; ..,, ,-~~
,,,
'luc
l .'
.luc1,d.
" ·: ;i•; t· ,. ., ~ ., , ,.':_
Lux, lucis, ligh~ '
Macies,
leannliss
·
"\
•
maci
t
'
·
·
.M
~macta. e
. , '{: ,,, ,~ ;.;·1;
acula, a spot
macul ,.
·1mmai:ulate . ! ;, . . :1' . -,~! ()"
M afEnus, great ,
magni .. .
. magnify ·
" . ~ • · . 10
Ma e, wickedly
,.
male, mal
.,, : . malevole.nt,".malversatiori , .\
Mando,lbid
·
mand .
":'.· · cotn~and,mandate · ,t ·:, '{l
.Mando, I chew .,
~ m,iznd · · ·
·. mandible
, . ' f' ": l
Maneo, I stay ·
'. man, main · ... /· permanent, remain .,:"·', 1
1
Mano , I flow
·;'.· · . ,' •'• : ...
" ' · ' e mana
· te · · ·.. · , ·-. '·<,
' \"11 .
"'an
.. ._.....
Manus, t;i hand ., .~ .' . · " , manu,· man& ' '.' '" ma.~ual, ma1_1~pulatiqn .r ·" ,.,l
Mare, the s~a . ,. . · mar .
,. · .. matme, maritime ;r: ,},;1, . •;:)
Mars, . mart!B, the, .god of. mart . ' '
' : 1 ! ma~ialJf :; '1:..,.-~;,:(f -~~. ;<l. . A
•

war

·

•

.

•

~

... .

~

••

··.f';

.... . ~ .·

•

..

1

·• •

'

·~.. ·. ;: 1: ,. ,

.,:.·/7 , ...

·

Mater, m~tris, a inoth~r "" mater;. _m atr.i , ·.! \ ..· ma:t~rnal,· ~airicid.e ,~.~·,"::i: ."
Mel! melhs, honey
. : mel~
· .~ ·" , melli~uous, ..,tjl ·~..,, .,~'J1; ·; ·
,
. Mehor, be~ter ,
. ,melwr : ' "'· ~;" '":. amelwrate, :ti./ i;{i'...> ; ;;.• . • . ;'" ··· ·t ~
Memor1 mmdful' · ' '
memor .1• • · \, •;."·.. ., ... . ' memorable .. _
:•.,.,,__.'
, ·, . · '' •".,t ,.,)•. ft,•, · ' · · "' '
. M ens, mentis, the mind ,'· ment ·
• ', ·. mental -· "' 1· • • •~;;;··, ;.,. .'. '~ ~ •
Mergo, I plun~e; , m_er~us, merg, mer1 . <· - ~merge, im~eisi9n v.;_~'.i~,·, ·: r;:'.'< .;· .
plunged ·
· . . ..
·.
: · · .,· ....,, .. \" \• - '." "· · ·~·: 1·"'< '
Metior, I measure, ineri- met, m'e nsu · . .,; ~ie 1 coin,,;en1itr11te' .ri~~~ . · ;;, . ,.,
I .
., . ,
" ' . \, l
Sus , measured :_' "- . : 1 · '
:
.... · P·~··-,
· ' ' . ~ t , ,,..,1 ~\l >~~1.~
J. ·,..(,;,.r~t · ''· '-· ~/ r.
M!l.le, Ii thousimd, · <:."'\ ~ . m~ll · • .." .' m~llennium •· ·:f.7~ .'IJ~:"<,•·" -, -..:~:;
, M!tor, I gaze
:· ·. m~r ·';' · ·: _.. ''""' m~rr.or;. admtf!l i!i;<} .:~t:u 1 ,~ " : ·.. , .,
Miser, wretched
,. ' . mu er
. · ·· miserable · , "
· " · '
1. M!tis, mild
. · · · ·.. · miti' · ·, .;_. :{; :'\~· ~ mit~ate ·· ,, ,'.;.~ , · -.·. ~ ~;(
M1tto, I send, missus, sent .mit; mi~I · .." .. remit, _mfs.~ioriary '.l,;;;~:nf' .
· Modus, a i;neasure
mod.
.· .. ' •':I_::,.' mode, modify:. ·)!'J'. t~ ~ Y!fq.·
Mola, a m1llstone., Jfour. mol
· . • ;.-.., emolument .!; " i'f. &'1ij•.t'.E1
MolE'.s, a mass · · : ,' , ". mol . > · ): ( molest; demoli~~ · !; :;rl}'1)J
Molhs, soft .· :· ,. . , . molli .
emollient; mollify',. <>r•h -'"oi
Moneo, I warn, m,onltus, mon, monit
admonish, mo?tttor.• :;, ,,~ .·~.
· . warned
' ' ~- . ' -<
'
, . \ - .' .. . , .., ..1 .~\i" .
1; · ",," · · Mors; mortis, death · · • .mort
moriify immortal ·-, >;:::; .
Mos, moris, ·a manner , . mor
moral '·
·
': ·_.:., ·!-. .::.;' .;t:"
.'Multus, many
, ·. . · :.\ multi ,.; .., , .. ·-· multiform muZtltude \ ·'.•• • ·
· ·)
' ':.' mttnttion
..
'- .J'' \; · · ,~,:·.
• ·:,
Mun -1tus. , ''rort1'fied
. _ . . . . , ?'luni~
Mun us, rnunens, .a gift : ~; muner
;,1 remunerate it-r
." ~ ·
· Murus , a wall ·<\
.. ..\• ,:.·
· · 1. mur ·., :.. . '.; ""·"·' immure
·
,. -- ,;~
'· ·
"~"
· ...
.:;;•
'.~"~'!'.;:
.J\! uto, I change
.. ."·,· .1. • • "!mut . .... :_;,~,"' .I ' ~< mutable
"Ommttt
'" .':;il!f
t-~ . ,.., ·
.
• , ' "'!
-:1,~, '•
N at us,
nat · · . , · native t nata 11' ' "'•t'1J1hf·
.. '"·.
~ ...
. born
h'
.·
N av1s,
as . tp
- >-vigiite
1 ' :rr.c
" d' -..' nav . ' -\. . " .. ..• ."na••al
\ y '· ·1~
• ,,.,.,.':.:·~~r.!'
l'r. ;s ·
N ecto, I. He,
nexus, tie
nect, . nex
connect,
annex
-;r;::.-.
'
.
,.,.. ., •.,. ....·
N ~~o, I de!1y
neg . ,
· .... ,,;• . negative. ·~;, ..- ,:t,_,.;r:.~ · -.~1 ;. i
N1lltl, nothmg
.
nihil
_ ,\,..: annihilate c. >"in Ir .";v•.:.;;;,;
N omen, nomrnie, a name nomin
:,.:.;;; nominal; den0minaie ~;""';. ~ ·
Non , not
'
..
·'
· · · ' .. · · i: . '. J
• .
non ..,
i · -·~ no.~~n,1ty. ii,1 11't, :-~!i ,r } :'# (
I

.

"it",,''

r·

1•!

Jj

f'

·'·

t~'i

. :·~

180

,,. .•

norm,
Norma, a rule
,
nov
Novus, new
Nox, noctis,' nigh't
nox, noct ·
N ubo, ·I .marry, nuptus, . nub, nupt
married
N udus, naked
-nud
N ugru, trifles
nug
Numerus, a number
nu71l-er
Nuncio, I tell·
nttnci, 1101tnc
N utrio, I nourish
.nutri
Octo, eigh.t .
oct
Oci:ilus, the eye
ocul
Oleo, I smell
ol
Omnis, all
.
omni
Onus, oneris, a burden
oner
Opto, I wish
opt
Opus, operis, a work
aper
Orbis, .a circle
orbi
Omo, I deck
orn
Oro, I beg ·
ora
Os, oris, the mouth
or
Os, ossis, a bone
oss
Otium, ease
.
oti
Ovum, an egg
.
ov
Pactus, having bargamed pact
Pando, I spread , passus or pand, pass, pans
pansus, spread
Par, equal
par
Pareo, I appear
par
par
Pario, I produce
Paro, I prepare
par, pair
Past us fed
past
Pater, patris, father'
pater, patri, parri

Patior, I suffer; passus, pati, pass
having suffered
pauci
·Fauci, few
Pax, pacis, peace
paci
Pecco, I sin
pecc
Pectus, pectoris, the breast pector
Peculium; property
· pecul
J;'e'cunia, money
pecttni
Felio, I drive away, pulsus, p el, puls
· driven
·
Pendo, I hang, I weigh, pend, pens
pensus, hung, weighed
Pene, almost
pen
Pes, pedis, the foot _
ped
.
Peto, I seek, - pet1tus, pet, petit
· sought
Pingo, I paint, pictus, paint, pict
painted
Piscis, a fish, piscor, I fish pisca
Placeo, I please
plac
Placo, I appease
plac
Plebs, the. common people pleb

'i

'~-~..~~:.·.·~ '.\ .:-~ :._::~_.,f::_),.,'._~.~f

.. ,.

-

'

Example.

Representative.

a

•

: ... .>j'{,

~E~t:irA!ribk_, , ':•> . ; ~ ; > ~I~).'. ;~:

APPENDIX.
Root and Meaninv;.

I". • '-',I.le

:t••• ) f'l ;'f

enormous
innovate, novice
equinox, nocturnal'
connubial, nttptials

' .. .

·:'\i

·

.,

!

1-" '. ·

, ". _. .

' gnawed

1-

·

·r• .. ·

pa.inter, depict
I,

,/ 'i

··..:; .

11\ ,

.~

•••;f

,·)1·•'.4 .

~t::

i.,. ·.1

J'
'
..
~
,:...,r·
' I
' '··
-. '·'1 R ota, aw hee
· "
rota
rotation ·
, ,. · ,J· • , " ', -.; ~"
·•
Rumen, rumlnis, the throat rumin .;., '\ ' ) '· ·,~.. ruminate ,..;,· ;~"I 'C ,i.'!41 ~01 :--.p •
·: · ·" - ~
, .r Ruptus, ·broken
I· ."i t rupt
~. .,, )' bankru.,t
er~+.£1'o
' n'4:-,11~.",·,
• ·.,.·1:·1
.·.·
'
·
<" '
rl
(.' .. A\:. .. ,
.s
h
• R. us, runs,_t e co?ntry_· i.·r~s, rur
, ... ·~·~ rtis1ic ,' rural «";f'
,,~1;·~ .' · . · ·
1
1
,. · Sacer, sacn, sacred ·• " ·t· sacri 1' a·eer.' ('• :• "' sacrifice "cfJn 1 ectiate"'>1 <It< 1
!~
U; Sal, salt
_, , - · · · aal
' · saline ,·,!.,,,, ~ ~ l ti ' , ·~'~ , .. . .~. ,-,,(·
. Sali<~ •. I leap, saltus, leapt tali~ aault, :: sil, salient .assafilf~ 'resiie"Jijn~ 1 • ' · - - 1 ·'.I!,
(s1ho a,nd eultus .whert ·" ' sult · :. - -. . ; 1 ~.-· 1u'tt 4."'~· '/''•
v:O:: ·:.;-;;I " . :, ~~(
compounded)
. ; ' : · : ;:. · ·
. :- ,· · ~. ; ,<. :
ii!:!! :". ·.:
··,\,,. ·
. Salviis, safe
·" -' -' safo\ -;; ·,,1-:; 11 \~. , h,··· saZ!latl6n')t.;· rf'.,
"'.Ji_;~~)(: . .- ' ; : :
"': ~af!ctus, holy : . · ,._ '. . · - sanct ~-> - ~
sa~Ctity/4 l'-! ..~!t.. J:Jll i} . ,Salls, enough · · ' ·; '· :·· 1.'' ·'satis\ :Aati' '-\"\-"'. " satisfy /&ait'\lt~•l ' ,f· d \ iti• . :" ' 1 •
" ' Satur, full
;
1atur
aatiirate ·
'•r · .-;t.rt·,,._;{j
.1·

'.

•

•

•

1

' depend, pendulum, stipend; .' .
pensive, compensate ::• :1 , •"
p eninsula
- ,, .· ,
biped, pedestal
. .. · · ' ·, ·. <.
centripetal, competition

.1

.

·~

parity
apparent
parent,. viviparo'!s
reparat10n, repair
pp.stor, repast .
. · ,,
pat~rnal, patrimony, parnc1de .
patient, passive, passion

piscatory
placid
implacable
plebeian

·;· • ,_ ~. ·~·.. 1:1,, •

-.

Plumbum, lead . .
, .. plumb, p'(p,m . : · plumber,' plummet': : ,'1,·1,-. , '
Pono, I place~ ·posJtusr pon, pas, posit · ~" <Lepohj:l 1 im~os·e;· position '·j
placed
. · 1 ·
. ; , · -; . ·'' . : , •.-1 ~-';• . , 'V»V ' ,-:•···•'.f·.
PopUlusi_ the people .
. popul
popul~~. ~, ) ·'. ~: .'.p·) ~"'''!~ \f;· ·
Porto, I carry
'.:
port
export; portiib'l(r ·~ ~:-.'\1'. t;,~; .
Poto, 'l drink
, pot . ·
'· . potion
... · · ·.;-· ~, !.lt~·'J;.~·.
Praeda? pl?nder
' -~preda_ 1
P,redat~ry 1 depre~~tibn )·1,;.,
Pravus, w19ked
. ' ' .· prav . ' . . -·
.oeprav1ty ' ., • .,- ,, •' Y -'.r
Precor, I pray
: · prec . . ' . deprecate
·r
· ) ·, '
\ Prehendo, I take, prehen~ prehend;, prehens·. appreMnd, comprehenliotf': . I '
sus taken
.- - · · "
1
_,
·
..
.
~ • • ·,. __ ;.i
Preti~m, a _price ·-· · ' . .'pr~ci
.
· appreci~te :'. -~ ;~._<, ~ -; ~-, ·
Probo, I prove , · < -, --!·-···prob
C· " ·' . '· probable : . ,.... ;;f};.~.. . :,-·-;·.-«':Probus, good · · . ·· prob . · ..:-. . ..•; ,'. . J?robity · ·' . '.' !·: \ t· '>1' '· >~ .
Pudens, pudentis, bashful pudent
.' . impudeni • ,1,n;=·.r:. :. -.l;·l;.i·.-'
.·•
Puer, a boy · ·
"
',.f puer :
·, ". puerile : '· -. Jr_..1., "· "'" ':~ 1~?'· ·
Pugna., a fight · . .
·: . pugn.
. ' :· pugnilcidus,~ ihifiign .·~ ~"''.'f: -Puto, I lop, . I thii1k
put. , :'
: ~ ". e,mputa!e, reputation; ~ dis~' . -'
, 1
'
'· • •
p·u te .. , ·,,, ·AJ. ....i , ..1 :f, --O· .
- Putris, rotten
. p~tr .
., : ' putrefaction <.:·;-:; l '! !.1 t~;if','!'t ' ·:
9~aero, I ask, q_u aesitus; quir, ques,t, ' qui- iqq~frei · inque1_t, ' ~eiu#Jf
sought
_
sit, que-r. .
t10n" query · " • ' .1! .,: ~ :;
Quassus; shaken (cussQs C¥38
discuss, pefcu8si6n. 1 ·:., "''1' . ·~ -,,
- when compounded) ··. · '
;:
. .: ,
· · .-;<:t·~ ·t c::.;, !»,~'.~ ..
·· Q
t £our. . . .
·a ,._ . 1 .
,.1
., ., t.1 . . . . .
ua uor,
qua r .
quadrangle . :•'": vi. i'"· : !-:' . . · ._ . :2,;
Qu~ror, I compla1µ .
quer
: · querulous · -_. .. - .!.":\''' '-.-'.
c.; i.;;
Qumque, five "·~· · ~- ,•·, . quinqa .
"' "' quinquennial ·-..~" --: r~!r,,11.:w,.: .1,..
-."·.;i'.·~
Radix, 'tadicis, a root ".•.\~··, radic . · '
·i ~·· radical ; ~radihato'·:- ' ,·;~~,ki-r:-~· · I - •;.,. : ,_
Rn.mu~, a branch . •:•lh•'·~'ram . '· ''<1i ,•h·'•ramificaiion f¥<. ·~. \,·~- ,~~~,~ :· ""- :.;~
Rasus, scraped
ras
·
. rasor er(lse'.. · •t' ,\·~~bl!°:, )-· ~ ·~ : ··
Ratio, ratiu~is, reason .• , ·ratii>n
· l' · ' ratio~al :• - (};.~,J:;\.'" ~ r.;~i , -t. ::
Rectus, str1ught ... · recti
" , .., _reetilirlii'al · :i··~A ·'.t.~1·iit1•: -i > ·"
Rego, rule, rectus, ~uled ~eg_, · r~t
. regnl, i-ett.o~ ~-~.~~· :.c-r-1 ·i·"~.~~;~~.~::~ ·
R~te, a net .
r~ti . ·.
. . ·' ·. ·reticuhlte, retf.na 1. ·~;:'.:··-(~"
R1deo, I laugh_at, · risus,. ri.d,..ns
· 1 ·· - deride, mible ,,, :1'1 " ~-- ' ~. • . .
, laughed nt ·
· ·
· ·
·' · '" '·!,,
··
Rigo, I water
· -~ -··· -~ ri1r
/.
irri.,,ale ' \"·'·'· ', ,-;_;;··"<· ·., · ,...,·
'
"·
"'
'
'
"'
'
J
'
•
•
....
•
.
•
R odo; I gnaw, . rosus;• rod, ros
corrode, corrosiori ':'. ''"': ,· · ~;_, •~ ,?-'
1

denude
migatory
nttmeration
annttn.ciation, renounce
1mtriment
octagon, octave
oculist
olfactory, redolent
omnipotent
onerous, exonerate
adopt, option
operose, operation
orhicular
adorn, oriiament
inexorable, orator
oral, adoration, orifice
ossify
otiose, negotiate
oval, oviform
compact
expand, compass, expanse .

paucity
pacific
impeccable
expectorate
p eculation
p ecuniary . .
expel, repulsion

'

, Riip/e;@bi1!°tlvc~ ' · .· - '; li!:i,dipJ~i;~~ ;i,_,~---- ''.~"·>. ~}
Ple~us, full '· · :," ··:: I'> 1·-plen. . . , ·~, replenish, pleniliide_.tftti'; ~ /'-;·.~~'·
Pleo, I fill, pletus, filled · :pl'!/, plet ' . ·l• ·'-l·' sii!J,PZYf compiete1 llXpletif tl .: /:•":
Plico, I fold . ' • . • pltc " · .; · · compliiate ••;-::i~·j.< :J·<,1 .,Y/..-· ,,.~ ''. .. ;Ploro, I wail
' · 1 ,· .. ~·' ·'" plor
· "' _¥ ... .., •• dep~or'Ei~- ::RJ.:;J ..1,'i .....tl•iil'<~'. , ..,.-,.. ,t
Root anil Meari1D1.

'

'

.,,.}

,.1:.

'. ·'. ·

.'

16

· A

.

\

'\

• '

...

1

)

i-

-

nm

Scando, I climb (scendo
when compounded)
Scinrto , I cleave, scissus,
cleft
Scio, l know
Scriba, I write, scriptus,
written
Scrutor, I search dilige ntly
Scuna, a srofler
Seco, I cut, sec tus, cut
Scdco , I sit, sessus, sat

~I'
"•

L
~· (

·'
s

~

--

..

.i

.,·1,

Root arnl l\Icaning.
Saxum~ a rock

I

~

;

182

::===========~•

---

so

APPENDIX.'

DEtllV'ATION.
Exnmpfc.

Rep resentative.

Hoot nnd

M~nnlng .

Representative •. ,-

183 ·
. ' E xample.

.

scend

saxifrage
ascend

scind, sciss

rescind, rescissory

Struo, I pile up, strudus1· stritct, strite, stroy str1icture , constr~e , destroy·
ptledup ,
'' , ··"""\r
·•·' • ': ·· . ··'·:·····' .. •. : ·· · · ·· ·- ·
Stultus, a fool
- ~ stulti
·, , stultify · . '· · - " · .·
' <,;T
Suade.o, I advise,' suasus, • suad, si1as
di ssuade, per~nasive
f ·

sci

pre .< rience
iascrilie ,. scripture

S uavis, sweet
suav
Surno, I take, sumptus, sum, sumpt

suavity
assume, consnmption

Surgo, I rise, surrectus, snrg, surrect
risen
Tango , I touch, tactus, tang, tig, tact

insurgent, re3u,rrection

,,ar.i

' advised '·

scien~e,

scrib, script

scrnt
.<cnrr

sect
sed, sid, sess

Semen, scmlnis, .seed
Semi, half
Senex, senis, old
Sentio, I fee l, sensus, fel t
Sequor, I fo llow , scciitus,
hav.in¥ followed
Sidus, s1deris, a star
Silva, a wood
Simllis, like .
Simul, at the same time
Simlilo, I feign
Socius, a companion
Sol, the sun
Sol or, I comfort
Salus, alone
Salvo, I loose, · soliittis,
- loosed
Somnus, sleep
Sopor, sopuris, sleep
Sorbeo, I suck in, sorptus,
!lucketl in
Sors, sortis, a lot
Sparsus, spread (spersus
when compounded)
Species, a form
Specio, I . see, speetus,
seen
Speclila, a 'watch-tower
Spero, I hope
Spiro, I breathe

semtn
semi
scni
sent, sens
scqu , scc1it

Spondeo, I promise, sponsus, promised
Stillo, I drop
Stinguo, I put out, stinctus, extinguished
Stipiila, a straw
Stirps, the trunk of a tree,
offspring
Sto, I stand, stans, standing, statum, to stand
Stringo, I bind, strictus,
bound

spond,

sider
silv
simil
simul
simul
soci
sol
sol
sol, soli
solv, sol1t, solut

.<crntiny, in,<crntable
.<wrrilir.y
dissect, sectarian

sel7entary,

nosiduon~,

side, session
tlisseminate, seminary

pre•

semicircle
senili ty
sentient, sensation, diss ent
obseq uies, subsequent, per:
secute
sidereal
silvan
similar, similitude

simitltaneous
dissimulation
social, society
solar, solstice
console
sole, solitude, soliloquy
dissol ve, soluble, solution
somniferous

sort
spers

as.~ort,

speci
speci, spect

specific

spewl
sper, spair
spir

spec ulate
desperate, de.<pair
respiration, expire (ecspire).

.<oporific
absorbent, absorption

·

·

.~~
l',

-,, 1

tangent, contigµou s, con~
tact
tardy , retard
int egument, protect

tond1Prl

'I'ar<lus , .slo w
ta rd
'l'egu, I cover, tectus, tcg, ,tcct
covered
Tempus, tcmporis, time tcmpo r
temporal, contemporary '
Tcn<lo, I stretch, tentus, . tend, tent, te11s : d1ste11d, tent,- extent, intense
stretched
T eneo; I hold, · tentus, ·ten, tain, tin, ten~ tenant,· contain, continent,
held
-.. detention
· - "' ·. ··· ., '
Tenuis, thin
· tenu
.. , ' tenuity ; attenuate · : • ~ · 1
T epeo, I am warm
tep, tepe'
tepid, tPpefaetion '· ·
Terra, the earth
terr, ter
'
. teri·acjueous, inter:. . ·~ ,. :
Testis, a witness
t est testi fy, · attest . '·
T extus, woven
text
texture, context
Tollo, I lift up
' tol .
extol·
'
Tortus, twisted
tort
tortuous, extort ·-.
Traho·, I draw, tractus, trah, tract ~
subtrahend, tractable, ex•
drawn
'
tract
. ·.
Tritus, .rubbed
trit
trituration · ;· - · ·«. ' -·
.
Trudo, I thtust, trusus, trud
·· intrude, obtrusion -'. ,,,.~, ·i ·
. thrust
. _.. .... .. _.
· .·
· · ' '· "'··" l ·:': \ i::r ..
' Tueor, I eee, I protect; I tuit
·• ·'
tuition, ·intu·itive ; '.' ;.'; •:·: '.f
look
·. ·
.
•
' · ..... ~ ; t
Turba, a crowd '..
-'' turb ·
. turbulent, dist~rb :~1-'r_- ,f '
Turpis, b~se
turp ·.
-turpitude . 1 • %'t'~·J'~ , - r.-·~n·:
Uber, fertile
.
uber
· exuberant · ~ •: '>;<;· ·f'. •·i t .. ·
Umbra, a shadow. . -_ umbra, umbr : ' ·' - umbrageous,' umbrella ":>;· ·, .·
U nda, a wave.
und . .
·,
undulate, iiluhdate . '. · ·""_ .
Ungu?, I anomt, unctus, ungu, ttnct .;;. · unB"uent1 unction · ·-r i• i'.·' ·.·
anomted
·..«. · · \
·
~ · '
·
unus, on~ ' .
.·~·
un, uni . ;. ' . l. unanimous~ i.tniform -i :. :.;·
Urba, a. c1t.y
-' .
" · urba., u,rb .
· sub1trbs, urban ··1,, \ } :'fr:.Vi'r .
Ust1;1s, burnt
' . ust " ·
• .-..1 , c.ombustion'fl ,,: ·c . ~i .·.;~ .',,i.~\. ;
U tlhs, useful
·· ;;_ util . .. , · · ·., ' ·<-·.'!. utility ... ,: · ··: . ~'{N ·.;,. ;. ·;~<ll -.-~. ;,
u_xor, a w1"fie ", · -·,.' .,-.
.'/' 'iv:f
'>'I< '~·
·, u.xo.r .-; · .::;. ... ·.J 1txor.ious ..· '\'
;, ' tj)p-..Y/.~
·!!'.t:;~
Vacca, a cow
· vacc . .,
· ~ Y>'fl' vacci~ation ::i; '1~':aJ: ~( J~:·· '"
Vaco, I am ,erppty.
Svac
'.'.~-r,'.!~<· vata.uon~ ' Vac~~cr,;' .,::u~l.~~;.1
-'
( vacu
.
,~ · -;. ~vacuat~i va.c¥,\J.m ~ ·"1:1-1•;.;
Vado, I ·go
vad 1 va8, wade ·. • mvade,. mvas1on 1 wade.1 . ·:"· ..
Vagor, I wander ,
vag; vagr, ;, , .,.. :\... vaga.bond( tiagranl'i~·: · ii/;: ~ , ·
Valeo, I am strong ' .val; vail :· .t
1~· prevalent / j:!retiail•t.r ,.1},;fR' ·
Vasto, I lay waste
' vast ; waste ' · ~; ":' devastat.ibn, tndati!. ~ · · :;;,_·.:
'V eho, I carry
:.
. : vehi, ·vey
.... ,. · ~ velticle,' cqnvey ..,,~ ~ ,f,\ ,1 '-·
Venio, I come, . ventus, ven,· ve~it ·~·.~. convene; _adventJ ~ ~·;.k•i" ~..
come
~ ,
\ . ·
_ >' '' ~11: · ~
: t~t,~~ l. #: .~ 1

·:;:

consort
disperse, a.<persion

specious, aspect

conspiracy

. '

respond, response, sponsor_.
\._

stil
stingu, stinct

·· ·

tit ken

somni
sopor
sorb, sorpt

~pons

·

, distil
extinguish, extinct

stipul
stirp

stipitlate
extirpate (ec-stirpate)

stat, stunt, stic

stature, distant, solstice

string, strict

astringent, restrict

"
,11"

n

"j ,-,
t.1

l . ·;.

.

'

'·

.

"

---

'/ .

, r

·f84

, APPENDIX.
Root nnd 'Meaning. .

\\

r

'

-

LATIN

ROOTS

,M E ri I

-,

R oot nnrl llleaning.

•'•

,,,,.

GREEK R09TS

'.

Root 11nrl Menning.

i

____... .. .
, ll

-

ver
veter
vi
vid, vis
vigil
vine, vi<.

verity, aver
vestment, invest
veteran
obviate, obvious
provide, visible
vigilant
invi11cible, victory

vit
viv, vict

vital
vivid, survive, victuals

voe, vok, vocat
vol
11nl
volv, volut

irrevocable, revoke, vocative
.
voluntary, benevolent ·
volntilo
revolve, revolittion

vor
vu lg
vu ls

voracious, carnivorous
vulgar , divulge
convulsion

ve.~t

ONLY

INTO

\

IN

COMPOSITION, WHICH

ENGLISH

French. ·

Champ
Chere
Jour, a day
Lol
Livrer
<E1tvre
Roi
Veloper
FOUND

ONLY

' Representative.

adelph
Adelphos, a brother
a.lhlet
Aethlos, n combat ·
, agrJgU
Agugos, fl: leader
acous
Akouo, I hear ·
ant1w
Anthos, a flower
anthrop
Anthrupos, ;i man
Arche, beginning, sove- arch .
reignty
·aristo
Aristos, best .
arithm
Arithmos, number
astro
Astron, a star
· atmo
Atmos, vapour
auto
Autos, self
bapt
Bapto, I dip

\

..._

vernal
revert, divers, versatile '

THR .OUGH

THE

UM 0 F T H E F R E N C H •

Campus, a field'
Carus, dear
Diurnus, daily
Lex, law
Liberare, to free
Opus, operis, a work
Rex, regis, aki'ng
Velo,: I cover

,.

Example.

ver
·' ~
vei;t, vers

FOUND

• HAVE · PASSED
,!'!:

Repre'Bentative.

,Ver, the spring
·
V erto, I turn, versus,
turned
Verus, 'true
Vestis, a garment
Vetus, veteris, old
Via, a wily
Video, I see, visus, seen
Vigil, watchful
Yinco, · I conquer, victus,
conquered
Vita, life · .
Vivo, I live, victum, to
live
Voco, I ·call, vociitus,
called,
.Volo, I will, I wish
Volo, I fly
Volvo, I roll, voliitus,
rolled
V oro, I devour
V ulgus, the rabble
Vulsus, pulled

E<Rmple.

Champaign.
Cherish ·
Adjourn
Loyal .·
Deliver
Manreuvre
Royal, viceroy
Envelop

', '

IN COMPOSITION;
Example.

philadelphia
a.lhletic ,
demagogue
acoustics
anthology
,
philanthropy
heptarchy, archbishop
aristocrat
arit.ltmetic
astronomy
atmosphere
auiograph
· baptism

j

,

. ··..
·,

,t

'

...r .. : •'

-I··

''.

....;_

·....
'·'
f!>.

"

' ' 186

Mache, a fight
inach
Metron, a measure
metr, meter
Micros, little
micro
Misos, hatred ,
mis
Monos, alone
mono
. Morphe, shape
morph
Mythos, a fable
mytho
N aus, a ship ,
naut
N ekros, dead
. necro
N eos, Iiew ·
,·
neo
N esos, an island
nesus
N omos, a law
nom
N osos, sickness
noso
Oikeo, I dwell
oeci, ochi
OJrgos, little, few
olig
Ophis, a serpent
ophi
Optomai, I see
opti
Ornis, ornithos, a bird
ornitho
Orthos1 right
ortho
Oxys, acid
,
o:r;y
Pais, pnidos, n boy
ped ,
Pathos, feeling
path
Pen~, five
pe~
Petra, a stone
petra, petri
Phagein, to cat
phag
,
Philos, a friend
philo, phzl
Phobeo, I terrify
phob
, Phone, the voice
phon
Phren, the mind
phren
Phthongos, a sound
phthong
Potemos, war
polem
· Poleo, I sell
pol
Polis, a city ..·.
polis
Polis, many ··
poly
Potamos, a river
potam1t1J
Pseudo, I deceive
pse1tdo
Pyr, pyros, fire
, · pyro
Sarks, sarkos, flesh, the sarco
body ·
·
sit
Sitos, corn, food
scop
Skopeo, I see
soph
Sophos, wise
. st le, stal
Stello, I send
streph
Strepho, I turn
. tele
Tele, distant '.
techn
'l'echne, art
taph
'rhapto, I bury
the, thus
Theos, God ·
Tithemi, I put, I suppose, .t hesis, thet
thesis, ·a position
tapo
Topos, a place
:zoo., :io
Zoon, an animal

,

I

' ,

~'

~

•

*> •'\..,

\

,

ca~

• ·.-.· ~

¥)',"' ··. , ·,i/

'

'I . ~·:;:4: 1° ·-._\;_;.!:·~·

1

naumachy

.

. .

'

•

'

I

. ...

' ;":

.

. .

'

I I

\.

"·

~'

>. . ,: ,t.!'~ :..'·

:-.•

F.ormerty it was the practice of gramIT!~rian.~ . t.o .de,~,~~i.b~ !hese ')ai:_ts •. "; · ~.·.·
· o~ speech, ra.ther.as the pegs and .n.ails tha~ (aste~ ..tl113 ·.l\ev.ei::al.parts ··;1 ~'; .:
of the language together, than as ports oCthe language i(~gjt.•, 1 :··But ' 1 _., >·.'
• since the researches of• Horne Tooke and ·,tir. John Hunte~ ; have . ; ··i ,
J
thrown light on their history; .it- is u,ni~e~sally heici that' th~f·a~o J' .
.abbreviat,ions, corruptions, or ,combinatiqns .of .ot~el,' \vo~da, ~~spe~ '
cially of ver~s ~n~ µou11~'. · '/, ·'. ; . .
i . .
; ·.' ' '.: : ,. : : ,; , \ :.;
.

geometry, thermomet~r
microscope
'

misanthrope
monosyllable
metamorphosis
myt11?logy
nautical

necromancy

1,::.:

neology
Peloponnesus
astronomy

The leading prepo.sition~ are of Saxon origin ~ ; r_rhu.s 1 ··; : · ' , .'' : ':_:,
·
hi™1 or b.ack part .of' lhlnk'; "~o:w disused
excep't by ee~men: ·· · · ..·.. · · '· ·-.i .,. •· -" -.,~· !°"~ ! . · ·.' ''.;'"'iT : : . ·· ·.<~ · .
About is from abuta; the verge or ~ xt~emitf qf 'a thiiig;~ :f._:::::::·,,. ;~; : ...
· Above is from ufa'; high:· . . · . " ' >:p· ~ :·' ·. ·. ,n•}i:.<<.;.,f:''.[f.j.\'.r . ~..Amid or amidst is compounded of a , ort
in, n_n~ mid~ the middle~ -:.·. ·
Among is from gernong, mixed,' the per.feet ·participie' of nuingari, to
mix.
.( . !
'- .; .
.... .
'
._ :
. ; ~· : .
: '. -. '.:.~
." ~.·~\~~· r 1. 1:~·. ··~~ ··:_1:j ~ ·: ~ J',:
l3efore is cofupounded of the imperative. be !lnd the ~dJectivejo~~:l . '\,(: ~ ·
l3ehiizd is compounded of the lm.p,erative be and the iidjectivk-hiM.::·~:· ·.. • ' M
l3elow is compounded of.t.he imperativ'e be and the adje~tive low .. ,_,· ' ... ,.·:~
Beneath .is compounped qf the !mperative .be .,arid die, adjec,tive , ~eaih; ·, ·... . ,
}OW (from Whence nelh~r end netherrlzf?St).' 1 . ' • ·\!";!,:"·:.; • I:'' .•;-:~ •:> :· · < ·• ·: >'
f
•' r....
~
13eside or bs8idos.is compounded of the imperative be and · the noun :. '··. ·-

'

oligarchy
ophiology
optical
ornithology
orthography
oxygen
pedagogue
apathy, antipathy
pentagon
petralogy, petrifaction
an th ropophogi

1

or

1

philosoph}'., phila~nthr~py _
hydrophobia
·
euphony
.
phrenology, phrensy

'

.

I

.

•.••

•

'

'

: :·--

1

I I

•

l

'

,

I'

r.

'id. .' ·
· ···
·
~· ~ : ··.,. : : ~ . ~ .__
_,·t . :, ~ i··.
'~ ~ :! ::.: ..lf.;<;-.:, _~· i: .·
i ·r. ' -,
8 e.
-.
,
· ·~~# •
/"\ '(~' •\ .' ! '" i •l• ' \ •;/' i •
-' .. ~;\ ,-~
. Between is compounded of the imperative be ·~ncl th~ ~~mer~i'acij~cti~ , '.: :~: :~,
twain . .. I ·'
.
·: ' · .·
.;,,
:
'
·. . ,.";_'' :,\,. · " {t~ ~,:~ . · .\
f · -~'. "{ '., :"
.
1

diphth_ong
polemical

'

1

•

•

• •

.,

I

1
•

.!'·

<;

1

bibliopole

•

metropolis

co~po~~ded . of the i1;11peraii~e . ~ll •,imd g:~n,~ :,j~~' .p.~rfec~ ·
, ·. ; . ·; · , ...... · .•: .. .• ,-.. , ,
participle of gan,_to go. · · ·.
1
•
· ·
l3yt is the imperative of beon, to be.
For· is from faran, passing to wards 1 · consequ~nce .or'· object r ,as;
''They .contend. for ,vict.ory ;" that is, .the :.conse.quence ·i>r; object · r,;;
being victory, · . · ; ~.: '. .· . ·· :· , ~ ··- .·... 1.:·:'' ,, ,. :·. ~· 1:.; :.:{·i. . :~··
. From is from frum,, beginning or sdurce'j ~ JlS; ~ 1. Figs; co!V-ejrtim ~>jf·.f:'
. Turkey;" that is, the s6ut¢e or _beginni.ng ~eipg !I'ur.k.ey~ :::;,:r;: 11t;;:_;:r: ~ '.
. Near and nigh are th~ !!-l'ij~c_tivee
~fk, ,t::Ontig~~u~;.·;:;, ;~:~ ~: ~<:<~:r,f ~·:;'
.. . ·
·
•
·
" _ •
• _ · ~ . . · · · 1) • • ··
. :_. ~ -~ • .• : • :1"r; .,
- ~ ~ ' .r~;':'· ...~' ::;·:f: ._, ;
'.: *This is the language eveii ot' MdnbQddo, the mo~t~ phifos'bphicai'br oiir old .• . ~
Beyond is

polygon
hippopotamu.,
pseudo-apostle
pyrometer

sarcophagus
parasite
telescope
sophist, philosophy
apostle, peristaltic ·
peristrephic
telescope
technical
epitaph

atheist, enthusiast
hypothesis, hypothetical

a

After is from aft, . .the

1.1ntorc1, perioeci, parochial

topography '
zoology, a:iote

~ '

_' ";.

v

laity
lithography, chrysolite
. logomachy, chronology,
talogue

nosolo~y

.,,

The !?repositions, anq ,Conjun.ction~ 1.are ttie-~qs,piffi~~
. words in the English-.Jangthtge to . trade Ltd )heir:' ol:,igifif; a~ 1if
well as the most µ-r~gu1ar \in : ~~e · cha,~ges_. ~~ich ,'th-gyihaY,e0'Z~•
1
t1nd.ergohe/ ~ · · -1 ,. 'J}'.\':>;";... ~
· ..
' ~~,"'_:~ ,~- ~tf~; .-\:'!7.~~~1- .~ '\· · ~ ,...,, ~ ~:1?; •~?·! . r '!~ ._,,

Example.

Representative.

lai
·L\IOS, the people
lit710, lit
Lithos, a stone
.
Logos, a ,word,.description logo, logy, logu

\:.;":/ ,~:'.~ '. ,. ~··'./' ,.

1, '

,· \"~ ,' ·.. ~ ; , . . t.,,r;. .,
bERIV~'flo~ . .:. ,·:. :· ·;· ~ · .. '· ,, · ,. ;l,S

. APPENDIX.
Root a'nd Menning.

•

.l

.

nea\r,

,j

'Ii.

gra~mai-ians.'

·

1

·

i·. :. :.• '

./

.' .". • • ;

~·

'-,, ·.; ./

· '.:

~· ~ •

. _

(i.i-'. ; ;::r~.!'~~.:·i·;s~ ·

t Our ancestors wrote either be or by; as, ·" Dam\lille' be right "ought- to

..

·

~

have . ,. '.

· the .leading of the army." The force of .this p~eposlti,on i,s to.~xpreBs ~ne'~ thing · ;' .;;_,
,ns the cause or means of another; as, "Damv1lle by,.rlgl+t,"1 that, ls, righ.t .&eing,
·
.·"ought to have the leading of the army."..;_TooKE:i••l'•:r•'· · ·"n"'" "t"' ~;;r·· .-,:.,, ··'

.. '·I

. ·.

' . ', ' \::

.

·< ·,:·..'. '.. ,:,: ;' ,;" ,'.;-~, ~fr.f. ~~~~h~!~tt:·:~'.ff}'
, .•

188

APPENDIX.
·1

Of* (generally pronounced ·ov) is from have, to possess; as, "T.he
city of David;" thatis, poss~ssed by David.
' '
Over is from . itfer, the comparative of ufa, high; as, "He stood over
· me ;fl that is, higher than I. Up, upper, uppermost, have the same ,.
origin.
Save is the impetative of the verb save.
Throttgh is front thuruh, a door or gate ; as, " The eagle flies through
the· uir;'' that is, the air being the passage.
Tlwrough is' of the same origin; also door.
Till is compounded of the preposition to and while, time.
·To is · the same originally with do, and signifies act or completion 'o f
an act. It is opposed to from, the ' beginning; as, " Figs come
•
, f~om . Turkeytci Englarid;" that is, Turkey being the beginning, , , ·:.
England the finishing or end.
J
';I.'oward is compounded of to and v:ard, the imperative of wardian, to ,
!Ook ··at;- as, "I mdve towards the city;" that is, with my view.
directed to the city . . lVard, to guard, is of the same origin.
}Vith is the imperative of withan, to join; as, " A house with a party
~·all;" that is, " A house, join a party wall."
Without is from withutan, the imperative of wyrthanutan, to be out ..
- . JV ithouten occurs as a preposition in old English writers, and is .still
used· in Scottish poetry .

.

~

··...

.· Th~ leading Conjunctions are also of Saxon origin. Thus,
. And is an abbreviation of anad, the imperative of ananad, to add; 11s,
"Two and two make four;" that is, "Two add two make four."
As is the same with es, equal.
But is .from bot, the imperative of botan, to superadd; ail, "I came ·
expecting to find you, but I was disappointed;" that is, "Add, I was
· disappointed." "To boot" is of the s~me origin. The preposi·.. ,·1
tion but is an abbreviation of be out, or by out, and signifies unl'ess •
or except ; as, ''I saw nobody but John;'' that is, ''unless'' or '
"except" John.
Either is the same with the adjective either, one of two; as, "It is
either day or night;" that is, " One of the two, day or night.'! ·
.Eke is the imperative of eke, to add; ns, "John Gilpin was a citiz.e n; .:~.
a train-band captain eke was he;" that is, "Add, a train-ban~ clap· . :·:,
1
·
.
l ·~
tairi was he.''
Else i~ the imp~rative of alesan, to dismiss; as, " Give me the book/ -, .
or el&e I will go;" th~t is, " _Omit to give me the book, and.I wiU ~_.~
go.''
·' l ~
1'
•Of is so vague in its signification, thnt it may be uscid for mnny of the other.~~·",
prepositi.ons. Thus, we cnn sny, a dc~cendnnt of or from.: n friend of or to; ·.
hntred of. or for; an associate of or wit'1; beloved of or by, &c. But possesaitttl ,·

,:

is probably its original signification, in common with that of the termination of ..
the possessive ca~e, lo which it is equivalent.
.

.. ..
i

190

-

...........

....---.

' ~ ' '~ '; ''. •,.~...·. . :' ·!;:,:~(:<·~ ;;:i~"

1\.PP!<:NDIX.

DER:1VATib:rf.

An 4ffix or termination is a particle added 'to the root to
vary its signification; as, plentiful, darki8h.

•

P.r efixes are chiefly- prepositions, and are of as great
diversity of origin as the roots which they modi(y.
The following ore the prefixes of purely English or Saxon origin, with
their import: ·
'A signifies on or in; as, a-foot, that is, on foot; a-b ed, that is, in bed.
Be signifies abottl; as, 'besprinkle, that is, sprinkle aboitt; also for or
before; as, bespeak, that is, speak for or before.
En signifies ih or on; as, encircle, that is, circle in; also, make; as,
enfeeble, that is, make feeble. (En is changed into em in roots beginning with b or p; as, embark, empower.)
Fore signifies before; as, foresee, that is, see beforehand.
JYiis denotes error or defect; as, misdeed, that i8, a wrong or evil deed.
Out denotes excess or superiority; as, outrun, that is, surpass in running.
Over denotes eminence or excess; as, otJercharge, that is, to charge too
mttch.
Un, before an adjective or adverb, signifies not; as , unworthy, that is,
not uwrthy; u-n, * before a verb, signifies the 1tndoing of the ect e.."{pressed by the verb; as, unfetter 1 that is, to take o..ff f etters.
Up dcnotel!! motion upwards; as, upstart; - al;io subversioii; as,
upset.
JVith signifies from or against; as, withdraw, that is, draw from; witl1stand, that is, stand ngainst.
The following are the prefixes of Latin origin, with their import: -

A, ab, abs, signify from or away; as, avert, that is, turn f rom; absolve,
that is, loose from; ·abstain, thatis,h.oldfrnm.
Ad signifies to; as, adhere, that is, stick to. (Ad assumes the various
forms of a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, according to the com- ·
mencing letter of the root with which it is joined; as, ascend, ac- .
cede, affix, aggrandize, allot, annex, appeal, arrest, assume, attract.')
Am signifies round about; as, ambient.
Ante signifies before; as, antecedent, that is, going before.

* Un is some limes prefixed to a verb without altering the sense; as, ioose,
loose.

'ltlt•

•

'

.t~· :· , ~ .. ,i, .. ;. '}'lj~{ ~ "' .
/.

•

~· 'r-' ~ : "\ .

>

·.:,,

.,..- C~rc~m ~1gh1fies round or .'about'; as, c~T.citmn!lvigatej··thatA.8[$dii ;~~,£

j

<'

:" "~ ~.
f

'thai• i_S,' on. ;t~u·•
'1.1 ;de'thi.
l
f
I~
''1. .atp8~ 1J ~·
J'. f'
, on signifies t~g~ther;, as, c~nvoke, ' that)s, ~al} tog.~theh, ~. (.Con ~tiikeir'.'· t{
also the vanou~ for~!:J of co, cog, col, com; corf~ as,:~o.-;op~rate; cog•
. nate, c?ll~ct, com~ot1on, correla~ve.)
. , '. ', .I: '::.; • >. ~ · ..
Contra s1gn~fies agam~t; 'ls, contradict, that iB; 8peli!, against; ' (Contra_ so~et1mes takes the form counter/ l,\B, counterbal!i.nce.'i . ·
De s1g111fies down; as, deject, that is, cast down. · · · ''. . ~· ' · /.· ·
Dis. signifies asunder,· as,· distract, that is; draw "'asunde~~ · ·als~ 1ze1ra•
tion or undoinf!; as, disarm, that' is,' take arms fr~m. : - (Dis ·has also
the fo:m~ of di and dif; ·as, diverge, dijfuse.) ··· \
•.. '· ' ·~ -' ·. :" .. ·
E, ex, s1gmfy out. of; . as, ep'ess, that . is, going ·out;' exclude, that ·is, .
sh.ut o~t . .(E, ex, take al~o ,t h.e form of ec, ef; · as, eccentric, efflux.)
Extra s1gmfie~ b_eyo~d; a.a, ~xtraordinary, that· ls; peyond ordinary.: · ' ..
In, before an adjective, s1gmfies .not; as, inactive, .that is 1 not active· 1:
in, before a verb, signifies in or intb' ;"a~ "inJ'ect that· is ;thr" _., ' •
h
_ ..
·' • .• ,.
. • . . ., .• ~, vw.. tnor .
7l
~nto . . 1 n .as also _the ~anous forms , 01(.ig, i~,'
ff!J, ir'; ';~s 1 ignoble, . -.. : ·;'
1
illuminate, import, irradiate.) . '.
. " .-' "" " ""' ,-.11 ·: ' " .: '·" .. • • .
Inter si~ni_fies 'between; ~s,- intervene; that i~; com~ betw~e~:~~::;;.• ·;;,
.
Intro s1gmfies to within; as, introduce · that is 1 lead"within "'':(,: 1.'. ·
Juxt.a signifies nigh to; as, juxt~positl~n, that is, p0sition. nigh io :'(a
thing).
: ,: , · ' "" \
Ob sign~fies. in the 'way qf or opposition; as, obstacle, that is; Mmethl.ng .
- standing in the. way; . (Ob also has the varioit~ forrn~ of oc,· of, 0 , op;
as, occur, offend, omit, oppose.) .
·
.,
. . ·
"
Per s!gnifies t~rough .o r th.oroughly; .as, perforate ; that is; 4re ikro;tgh,·
pcdcct, that 1s. tl10rmitrhb1 donP
· ·"
·
Post signifies ~ft~r; as, po;tdil~~ian, ti1at is,-after the flood. ':-.;~ ~-;.;- .
- Pre, or prm, s1gml'ies befor·e'; as; predict, that is, tell before.:<..,:;. ·'· ~-·· "
Preter, or prmter, signifies past or beyond;· a,s;, preternatural, that is, r
beyond th.e course of nature.
. · ...
· _: · '·; · , ,., , "" ·
Pro signifiesfor,fortl1, or forward; as, pronou'n, that is, for a noun ·
pr~vo~e, that is, call forth; proceed, t.hat i~ , go forward: · '. ,
'
R~ signifies ha~k or again; as, r~tract., ihat ii>, draw back;·· re!rni!J , tliat
· ·
is, build n.g n.m ,
t

A derivative formed by means of a prefix is always of the same part
of speech with its root, provided that root exist as a separate word in
the.language; as, tttrn, return; navigation, cirrnmnavigation.
A derivative formed by means of an aflix has the part of speech to
which it belongs determined by the affix rather than by the root; as,
life, lifeless; brother, brotherly.

•

cCis signifies
• • on this.side;\ as;. cisalpine

0

. ...

0

Ret~o s!gnifies_backwards; ~s,_: re~rospebt, th31t .is, a looking,lf~ckwards.
S~ s1g1~1fi~s aside or apart,: as, secede,' thiit.is, go aside or apart. ; · · '
Sine s1gmfies without; as, si1iecure, that is, without care of labour
(~ine also .has the ~orin of sim .ahd sin; . as; .simple {without- a fold)~
s1.ncere (without mixture). ,
· : 1 '..
:• .
1
Sub signifies uridcr or. .after; as, sult-beaclle, . that is, under-beadle.
(Sub has also the forms of sttc, .<1tf, sug, sup, sus · (contracted for
subs); as, succeed, suffuse! iinggest , .suppress , suspend'. ) · , : 1
Sttbter_signifies under or beneath-; as, subterfuge, that j5, a flying under,

a sh~{t.

•

"

•

'

•'
"

-

-

:\,.,.r ·l<I .
~~~
X· ·~ , .• ~ , ..... ..,.) .•~~-~~ ..,

f'

•

'

1 '.

•

\

,:

l ~.1· · ~

.I

• ,

"
• /

1 •

( ....,. ( • ,_, •,;,.., ~!( !.-: ~'
1:.r ·~ 1· -n..,i

nER:tvi~.io'N,_. ~.-.- '·.

APPENDIX.

•'

Super signifies above or aver ; as, superfluous, that is, .fiawing over· or
above. · · (Super has also the French form, sur; as, surmount.)
Trans signifies over from .one place to another ; as, transport, that · is,
carry over.
Ultra signifies beyond; as, ultra mundane, that is, beyond the world. ·

"

\

/;

, - . ;, ,:~ , ·iu
·~

:·

•

~l:,.'

,.,

•I

J# '

1- ..

f

/st

J

•

.,

Ina .
Ory

fvtJ

1

•

~;

, ,

11 ~

,-v

,

•

·,....: •

..-

•

,.!" .

•

..,.,;

1 .~ . _

,

1

..

~:} "::t·~~~~::f::~::i:1:: ~~1J~ ,.'' .":,,, ;.;, ;::'L..L.. .

Ito
.s1ve tenmnation ed.
'
.ticy
1, •
.llgc
·'.,
.!Jnce or .llncy
\ ·
Ence or E11cy
·· '

A mphi Rignifies both or the two; as, amphibious, that is, having both .
lives , or capable of living both in land and water.
Ana signifies through or up; as, anatomy, that is, a cutting through
or up.
Anti signifies against; as, anti-Christ, that is, opposed to Christ.
(Anti has sometimes the contracted form of ant; as, antarctic, apposite to the arctic or north.)

Hood
Ion

.Many

. state

of' . being

' taken ,absfracllr:

NcS1J ·
Ry

, ..

Ship
Tll.
Tude
Ty or ity

Cata signifies down; as, catarrh, that is, a flowing dawn, a slight cold.

•

1•

- .

. ;

•

l

.

1: ·

. '

;' . \

' ".. ·

,..

1

1

'.'- 1 ,fl:-,·,.u.

.: ·.

~1·; 1 :J-'.....
~ ,

·;.

·- - •-.

.llble den cit mg_.capacity in.: a ·: p~riv11
l.!Jle ·' sett~e. , , - ~ · l}! :•1..fi't'"~ . .... , ; ;
:L~ss denoting privation.
j· >, ·
, .

< ;· "·. ·

..

· ~"-·' '

Li1lg

1·
1

'

:- -.....

•

-"

:-.T. . .r1

i!: I'"""""'"'""'."" •:
-

·,

' .. ' ·t

i

Tsh denoting a smaller degree .of. , 1 .•_,.
·
- ' · · _, \. · · · ·-- · '

·· • ... , ~~ ·

·-

~~ lf diminut~ve. ,terminati~n~.

or too

· .

sense~ .1~~;.... :...•\

'

£=I '""";ogj••i."""':.

Dia signifies ikrau.gh ; as, diaphanous, that is, appearing through,
transparent.
Bpi signifies upon ; as, epitaph, .that ,is, 1tpan a tamhstone.

1: . ·· ·· ·

/vii · 1· denoting . ~apadty i~ an ~~ve

·' ,
denOtirig liiibig . or

Jtfent

·.

y - .. .
/sh } ~· ."- · .·
·
:· -'·'.'.
Like ·denoting likeness:~ Z1 1 . '
Ly · ·, • ·', ; .
.-<J:,j

~

. Ism

Ure

Ous

Soma

.'·. .. :· ·/.:_· ,

1

Apo signifies from or away; as, apostasy, that is, a standing or depar·
turefrom. (Apo has sometimes the contracted form of ap; as, aphelion, away from the sun.)

/

·';~·

Ize
':
Ly den.o ting like in quality:
TYard dCnoti.ng iii llu. direction a/.·

Ork J
'
-"-. ·
The parts of speech which are formed . from . radical words by means
of affixes are, the Nqun, the Adjective, the, Verb, and the AJverb.
N ouNs denoting the agent, or doer of a thirtg, are £;rmed' from nouns
an<l verbs denoting the 'act, by adding the affix_es an, 'ant, ar, a1_'d,
ary, eer, ent , er, isi, ive, or, stet; as, ·
·. , . ,
• . ·i· .·-~ ::·., .
1

critical.
Hypo signifies under; as 1 hypothesis, that is, a placing under a suppo, sitian.
JYieta denoles change; ·as, metamorphosis, tha t is , a change of sliape ..
Para signifies near ta or side by side as ~f for the purpose of comparison,
and hence sometimes similarity, and sometimes contrariety; as,
parody, a poem !milaled from. anothe r ; parrrtiox, an apinian contrary
'to the general opinion.
Peri sighifies ra~tnd about; as, periphrasis, that is, c; round about mode
. of speaking, a cirwmlocution.

From Guard · · · g·u anlian '
assistant
Assisi;
RPg
heggar ·
Dote
dotard : , .
~dve_rse .
adve_rsary , _
Cha not
charioteer · ·
Adhere
adherent

Syn signifies together ; as, synthesis, that is, a placing together. (Syn
has also the forms sy, syl, sym; as, syslem, syllogism, sympathy_.)

From Bake
·:: baker
.;.,:; ·
Murder
; murder1'r · ·
Conform .
conformist
.,
Operate : _ operative ; · ..;:,:;. ~: J: · .,., :·
· . ., luspect ';;·;'; .-inspector. i{.-" } ;f_ , ' ~ .. ·.
, -. .. Pun
; ., . punster o.; ~:. . . ·-:'-. ,... .
.
. · , · ... ·, ~ ' .- · 'Ill\::%:'> · ..,._. ,.,,

Nouns denoting .the per;oh. ·~te.4 u~n,,'ar.~ ' forni~d .frorJ~ RkriJs · and~ .
.
v.erbs denoting t~e. adt , or, obj!'.c.t,~ py' !ldding~.t.hi, !l:~e~:.ate 1 t.,,~ei'~,, ..; ··:·-'<
"t
i
,
. .,/
.. .... ' • : .,/ '""\'~ ~.... \..i~.·..;.,~ ~..\ ., .• - ...~""
' . .
! e; as,
,
·..
.
. ..._ -~~~:!. -~~: J-.:'~,f,,£~--~~r .. , i·~.: ' ·. .
1: '

' ·
1

The Affixes have probably, in common with the Prefixes,, _,
considerable diversity of origin; but their origin, as well as
their import, it is more difficult to ascertain.

1 '

1· ' . , .

A or an signifies without or privation; as, apathy, that is, want of feeling; anonymous, that is, with_out a name.
·

m>Pr

(

I
'"-' :;,.;

, The following are, ~h<JSl!, wiiiclu~1.o~ ftequ~ii"t\Y ~ur'_ ::~~~l~ ·r~~ ' :µ;".". ;¢1\'-/I '.:: ~-~ :~r
.!Jn ~' '
_,:..,w• f',;. 'H'"
.,1 . ~ . -i,_ll!~
"" ~' ;'i•·,. I .Ile ..f,J' "".iJ"
'
;;.1 :r ••
~.,, Ji"1"",. -<iJ!~
~ ·· ···'
~-~ ~k,t"! '' :,,~,,.\j
,. ~ "~.• "
~ '•t.11
.!Jnt
. • r. " •', ~1 •} ' .,.}. .Ill ~ j•
~ ~. ~'"!' ' ' ~· ., . '" -. .
I
':;/ ~ )I •: '
/ ,
1
1
1
·:r
.flr
"'r ~h r-:' ' -' · 1·~.. ·:r:· t .. ~ An ~ .. 1,..\ 1!'° ;~th ('d~ ~·., .. ~ %~~~:i:9f'i".(~ ~ •• ~ ~.of ··"
./Jrd
•;
.~ ·' \,~., {, _; :1 !~ \ ·I • 41·..,l\ ,[l~.'..... 1'; r~~4.i<£.'~'t"4 ~·:~ ~,,',
';;,~t
.llry
. ,'.
./lry : .
,
~
.
·..-·.:
r' • ' :"1. l;'
Eer denoting.the __- agent,9r -doer En . ' Jd~n~ti~i~~-r, 1,mai1tingta.. ':· : :.·;~.
Ent
of a .tl1mg.
· ·•
Jc or ical
., :
"'•'f.-1: .· ·~· . ·
. .,_ ., ,.,
Er
Ile
. 1' ,
, · ~~' . •
\• ~· · •

The fo llowing are the prefixes of Greek origin, with their import : - ~ '

JJ.ypcr signifies ovPr rrnd rrbot•e i as , hy1>er<'ri1i,-,nl, thnt ;,,,

I'

_
·y.;...., ,..

·>,:=:.'~:~;:.: ~·r:::~~f

. ' . '·. ! ' : .• }_', :'

192

, _,• 1..::'f~:,..-

r

_ From Potent
Trust

•

.

. potentate
trust~e ,' .
'

•

'

•

4r

1 - F~om Bed)~m :. · . bedlam1te .- .:, ,:..:.,.-;,~ ,.
. · Favour ,." < ". favourite ·' . ~:.: .. ~'
•

•

~.

I

.

-·'

/,

~ •I ' " ·. '~ "'

Nouns ending in the affixes er,or or, mid ee ,' are us!'ld jn opposition·the former denoting the ngent, the fatter the person acted upohj ru.i,
assigner, assignee; ind~rser', . indorsce. '. · ·: · • :·'"' "J" ·,., ...;· i

17

.

"

.1.94

AP.P ENDIX.

Nouns denoting being, or state of being, are formed from nouns, verbs,
and adjectives, by adding acy, age, ance, ancy, ence, ency, hood, ion,
ism, ~ent, mony, ness, ry, ship, .th, tude, ty or ity, ure, and y; as,
From Pirate
Corispjre
Intricate
Bond
Dote
· Repent
Fragrant
Expectant
Flagra nt
Adherent
Cond.ole
Abstinent
Agent ·
Emerge
Decent
JJoy
J,ikely
Exhaust

piracy
conspiracy
intricacy
bonµage
doq1ge ·
repentance
fragrance
expP.ctancy
flagrancy
adherence
condolence
abstinence
agency ·
emergency
decency
boyhood
likelihood
exhaustion

From Contrite
Despot
Parallel
Achieve
Merry
Acrid
Acute
Rival
Friend
Deep
Grow
Apt
Loyal
Absurd
Durable
Di~clo se

Master
Jealous

contrition
despotism
parallelism
achievement
merrim ent
acrimony
acuteness
rivalry
fri endship
depth
growth
aptitude
. loyalty
absurdity
durability
di~closure ·
mastery
jealousy

Nouns denoting jurisdiction are formed from nourts or adjectives, by
adding dom or ric ; as,
From King

kingdom

( From Bishop

bishopric

Diminutive Nouns are formed from the names of persons or things,
, by adding cle, kin, let, ling, ock; as,
From Corpus
Lamb .
St~eam

-·
...,

corpusc)e
lambkin
streamlet

I

From Duck
Hill

duckling ·
hillock

ADJECTIVES denoting of or pertaining to a thing are formed from the
name of the thing described, by adding ac, al, an, ar, ary,' en, ic .or
ical, ile, ine, ory; as, ·
. From Elegy
Autumn
Republic
Consul
Moment
.w ood ·

elegiac
autumnal
republican
consular
momentary
wooden

From Angel
Canon
Infant
Adamant
Expi11te

nneelic
canonical
infantile
adamantine
expiatory

Adjectives denoting abundance are formed from the names of the property, _by adding ate, Jul, ose, ous, some, y ,· as,
. From Affection
Hope "
Globe

affectionate '
hopeful
·

I

From Hazard
Glad
Pith

1 globose

hazardous
gladsome
pithy

Adjectives de~citing liken.ess are formed from nouns, by adding ish,
like, ly; as,
·From Child
·· '· Saint

childish
saintlike\

·I From Maiden

maidenly

·

- Adjectives denoting -~apacity in an active sense are formed from ~erbs,·
by addi~g ive; as, ·
· -, ·-

-

From A_c cumulate

accumulative,

4 ,dject,ves denotigg capacity in a passive sense are formed fro1J!.__nounl!I
verbs, by adding able, iple ; as,
.
'

' ' or

' From

Dete~t

detestab.le '

I _Fr~m Contempt

contem.ptible ,

I.

.APPENDIX. -

1.96

from other languages, without having any correspontimg pn •. u ••. __
in English. But in no class of words.is this so apparent as in adjec.
tives formed direct ly from Latin nouns.*
The following are those which most frequently occur: From
Adjectives from Latin.
Nouns from Saxon.
initium
Initial
Beginning
conterminus
Conterminous
· Boundary
pcctus
Pectoral
Breast
cadaver
Cntlnverous
Carcass
fclis
Feline
Cat
rus
Rural
Coun try
Rustic
vacca
Vaccine
Cow
gradus
Gradual
Degree
morbus
Morbid
Disease
tan is
Can ine
Dog
a?Lris
Auricular
Ear ,.
finis
Finni
End
· ho.• tis
Hostile
Enemy
octtlns
Ocular
Eye
a.~er
Agrarian
Field
digitus
Digital
. J~ingcr· ·
grcx
Gregarious
Flock
. farina
Farinaceous
F lour
JTutelar
t11tcla
. Guardianship
Tutelary
man.us
Manual
Hand
caput
Capital
llead /
mere es
Mercenary
Hire .
cquus
Equestrian
Horse
donius
Domestic
House
in.s11la
Insular
Jslamt
culina
Culinary
Kitchen
lnx
Lucid
Light
lztm.c-,,,
Luminous
Light
lco
L eo11 ine
Lion
pnlmo
Pulmonary
Lungs
mens
Jllcntal
Mind
Pecuniary
J>ecunla
Money
l!lna
Lunar
Moon
OS
Oral
Mouth
nasus
Nasal
No8e
locus
Loca l
Place
'IJ!tlgus
Vu lgar
Rabble '
annulus
Annu lar
Ring ."
cmulus
Emulous
R iva l.
radix
Radical
Root
rcgula
Rei:u lar
Rule

I

I

I

...

•.'

.,
'

1 '

·. * "In Englisi1, instead of adjeetiving ou r own nouns, we have lJorrowed; in
immense nuinl>era, adjcctived Eigns from other languages, without bmrowing t he
unadjectived signs of these same ideas; because our our.hors found they had occasion for the former but not fort.he latter . And, not understanding the nature of
la nguage, or the nat ure of the very benefit thf'.Y were t~ce.i vi~g , they did not improve t heir own language by the same contnvance w1thrn itself, but borrowed
from other languages abbreviations ready made to their hands. '11rns, instead of
turn i ng such nouns as finger, mind, life, skin, &c:, into adjectives, they n~o~ted
adjectives formed from thP,. corrn~pondm.g n.ouns in other languages; ae, d~gital,
mental, vital, cutaneous, &c. T ins practJce 1s the more to he lamented, as 1t has
rendered the English language very difficult to be acquired. For, as the mat.ter
now stands when a poor foreigner has learnPd all the names of things in the
English ton'gue, be m11st go to other languages for the acljcctivcd nam es· of !he
~ame things. And even an un learned native can never understand the mean.mg
of one quarter of that which is called his native tongue." - HoRNE TooKE..

Shepherd
Shoulder
Side
Sight
Soldier
SJiring
Sun ..
'l'heft '
Thigh
'l'oot h
Treaty
Whale :

,>f.

"·

',.

.A PPENDIX.

• t

Sqine derivatives, from contraction, change of cognate
fotters, and similar causes, have undergone such alterations,
that their origin is scarcely discernible.
Tlius, curfew, the evening-bell (litera\Jy, cover-fire), is an abbreviation
of cover and f eu (fire), because it was the signal for ext~nguishing
fires.
Quiver, that which holds or covers arrows, is another form of cover.
Proxy, one who is deputed to supply the place of another, is a contraction of procuracy (compounded of pro, for, and cttra, care).
The two points which determine the affinity of words in respect of
origin, are identity of. lette~s and identity of signification, or letters
of the same orgaij', and a signification obviously deducible from the
same sense.

I I. P RIM ARY SI G N I.FI CAT I 0 N 0 F W 0 RD S .*

Language being intended for the communication of
thought, the words of which it consists must each have a
ce~tain signification.
There does not seem to be any necessary connexion between words
and ihe thoughts they express. They appear to have become signifi~ant merely by usage ; and it is now impossible to say in what
. manner the conventional connexion between the sign and the thing
signified was at first established.

Originally all words seem to have been applied in one
sense only.
Words, after being introduced into a language, are often
employed in different and successive meanings.

I.

. .
'
The same bias which leads man to enrich language rather by the
~odification of words already in use than by the c~eation of new

:1
'•

* The p1q:iil .shoulr! be cant.ioned against the error of ~uppo~ ing that the prese71t
meaning of words is to be ncl]uired by learning the hi story of the ir pedigree. It

\.

'

1

is .from established usage, not etymology, that the preci se mPaninl! of words must
he g"athercd. • Etymolo~y is a rleccitful guide in qu cs tirrns ubnut th e propriety or
impropriety of expressions. The instances ure few i11dced, ns is well rr.rirnrkPr!
by Dugald Stewart. in Which etymology furnish es c(foct.ual aids to guide ns jn
fixing the exact signification of ambii:uons t.r.rms, or in drawing th e li11e b"twecn
expressiqns which seem to be nearly equivale nt. In such cases, nothiliir can he
safely trusted to but that habit of accurate i11cl11ction, which, hy the study of the
. most approver! models, elicits gradually and insensihly th~ preci se notions \vhich ·
our best authors have annexed to their phraseology. Etymolo.i;icul resenrchce
are, however, of great use. Independently of their beini: calcnlater! to gratify a
natural nnrl lihernl curiosity, they furnish itnportant. dntu for i1111stratini: the mi·
!?rat.Inn• of manki11<I, and the progre~s of lnws, of nrt.s, n1ul nf ro111merr.c; I.hey
throw li!!ht on peculiar const.rnctions, nn<I they enahl e n 1111111 t.o ohtnin a familiarity with t.he irr.ncrnl meaning, ns well as to ac11uirc a mastery ovet the use of
his language which no other study can inqmrt.

. . . ,. ..;.

; .

',

~ ,.

' ••

•

~:

. " ·~ ·-.. :··•
.. . .

.

•.

..

~

,' ' ; .: . : . ,;...._-:""=-_.·:~.·

•

'

:\

'

: DERIVATION. · ·"

.

",.'~ .·~/:.--· :~·:=·~; ·~;;
I

'

..

'

r .

.. ..\.. ..·,Jflrl :".1!.>

.

' t;f , ·, ,"' ~ ~a. ..:;;-·.}
' . . .
·- ' -.1 . -· . ·~"

.

· ones, leads; him".also,to prefer:
using. . an·
old word
in"'a iiew, sensif
to ,.- r,, •
.
..
• •
,. ;.·· . ••• '1"' · --',: • ·.::.
'· ,.t.. '
· the inventlf!g of an· ad~iti?naUenn. -~-·~~.. ;,~,:. ( .j :t.;·/. h, :;;,. ',: •ti<•,;-: f .. ·· 'I>
The words charity; conver8ati0n,. offence, · pre?Jent, .11re .instaric.es -of. re::. ·, · .
words applied in th~ · succe~sive ~cceptlitions ' at different .period:' of · ..:,~'; ·
time. · , i: I· : ., •.. \· ~ 1 '.:. · ··.. . ' ; :: ; ' ; " ; . ,.•;_",-'. ~ .,:: , '."::.: . •~l
} '~.~;:
Chfl.rity is u.sed in . Scriptqre a!!' synpnymous With l9ve,; : itJs no"71 v,e ry· ', ,: .~ .•
much restricted to liberality to the p.oor. _.:.,< ;.; .! ., / ; , ·7 .'.._ • : _.... ·: ;· :,.-:: · ,·.-<·~; :(;
Conversation is ·used in Scripture to· signify; ~ citiienship,. _or"fre~n- ' . · .~l<
. ship·;. it 'now coinmonlf means famili.ar. d~scourse~ O! ;intercoursei ·
\', .··
Offence, in Scripture1 signifies" stumhling-bl~k or ·0cca1ioh.of
bling j . it no* SigpifieS a CaU~e of'di.splea8U~~: '. ' ·y ,:l:>I~ ·.·· : ::···::;: ; ~ , . . · ;. ,
To preve.nt, in Scripture.and in· the English liturgy,_means tifgo before _·. ±,,,.'
. or qnticipatilj it ri~~ ·generaUy._means to: ~b.st~~ct or hinder.: ··· ·,~: :.~ .·;~ .r:.
-~

~

:·· ·

a

•

atum-

..

..

.

.

l

•

.

_,,,

·<t•

The s1gnificatWh .of -wor,ds is either ~'Pr"imary qr ·secon- ,:,.,_·:,.:".
\ '· ·, · '~ •: :: '' ,. :. ·;,;· 'i' .r:·, .·- .. .''.. \·'·~:co:~ '.•·; ::\ ,.,
~' ~.I
~ · .~·: ,' :r
·. 'The Prim.~~iiortadica} sense ofrt· '.~ofd is that 'itl :-which. ·.": -. ~
't •, fi.- ·t' . d • I
. .} : . \. ,.!"".r,\~· ... ~~ - ~.-~-. \~·~- - ~ .'! A~f. r(r( ~1,: :. -i: 1..t-"'
, .·~;.
J IS · rs use in anguage. ·· .-i · :.-. ,~ .. ·.·::,• --.· ·. .'"'.• ··· ~ '·1• . -::··· i ·
·· ." ·
. The Seconr-ary ,or ~r.ai.i~~· s~ns~'is'•t~3~t '.~~·~ri~)~~-~~eri.;_· :\.'- ,·:
wards superrnduced on the primary. i· •~: :·: ·:.:.> •·' ~,.i • ...,.;z, ,. I
·.A word can .have o:nly on~ p~_iip~ryrb~~ i~ ~-~y ~avey~ri .. _
ous secondary meanings. ..:_., \' -.:, ::· · · .. ' -.." _·,•. ·i·.-.;. ".. ,. · -·:~..j . ·':·'. '. ·r " 1,
. . Some ,word~ are, tJ.,s~.~ I in ;t_he_ir..primat~ sense, _qnly ..,:::~ .~ .. ~ :';.: :·/·.
' ' bqt.h jn th~ii: ..ptimary·' arn;Fsecon-, ·-, ;>;~_
s are -r,u~eP.
Some •word.
'
.•... r ~',
' ~ ,. • .. ........ .,
·~r; :-·.: • ..,t /' ;1:· · ~.1 .e:.,
. .
.,, ~ •:
dary senses.
·
.
·'
.
~
.
·.' · - ~ .' . .', _' •.···. ···...., ~. ~.-"_..1!;,...:,. ~'"I:·· <"-~ •-- •;t···'.-"~I)' i' ·,·r·.·
.
'
:·'
(~
ddry.

1.'l 'I'

',

1

4

1

...

' ' '

:·

'. ::... : ,:.

: Thus, to tra1i$port, signi(i..e~. to' c~rry,.acr6i{.(r~ o.no. p~ace :t~,dft.~th~h. -.,, ,_::
\V hioh i~ its primary meaning'.;. and also· to cai;t:"y tnto banithmen~ ai ., _f )f
''
•
• •
t
· . :_ ·
... ' . ,
'• .
... ..
. a felon, and to ' car,ry ·away . with . pleasure,·· ·whicl\-..ate . secondary . : ;'. . ~ .
meanings. · · . . ·... -~ ..;~~ ·. .. ,: .. ~:::!· ~ -·\ ;:'.';, :,_~."t;::.:: ...\.\-~~~:.><.:i: t::~ . ~~. , ~

.

.

1

Some wo~d&· have lo~t (hP-ir.origlnai 'nnd 'ret~in onh~ th~it
, secondary significations. > . ·· _,, ._...-~~, :q·L'·' :· .:,:;.'·i ~f:"':'.'"·· 1 •;_· .
4

•

•

• •

. ..

•

-,

•

._ ·.

•

•

'

•

:

'

•

·' .

•

'

• • • ••

•

•

I

· .·,·.•

1·.' .

/•

·,; ··.·,i
•

1· "'(. • .;,

Thus, period, which p~im~_rily sign~fies a. pa.th rou'n~ 'izbiiut, a cfrt:Uit,~. 1»;:·:,·~
. is ~estricte? .to ex~rEiJSS ~ ·d_~f-~ite.podion of ,~ime, ~r· t~e - ~n~.°t ~ctr: .:1
tam duratiqn, or tlte potnt.wl11clvnarks the end o,fa-cQmplete .Be.J!;.ief!.Ce. '' , JI ,_
•
s
•
'
"1 •1'
\ ·· '
'•
· .!
.
~;"'- ·,·-..;:· : · · :!. ~I-<·. · ~··'·/ ,·
The words' which .:ad'mit ." of the1igieatesLJatitude ~ an~ .-; " ~·-'·

.<,_\

-.
. variety of meaning are thos'e which :Crit~t.Jar~~lyfotc; t·~ful :::, ':;/
position as. .-.th~.. . ' tadlcal
. p~rts
"i:>r · ;:ieriv"aiiv~:,r9'J: ;,cortiP.d:~hd .''!; -~~ . .
~•. · -f,· _·.1 . · •• ; .. _
... _"; ·-· -~~.;·~ -, ,,.f_.~-,i ··M"'l!'l$.~(l ~,, ,; \, 'ti· , . . .
1-·:·1·.:•,·.· ·
\vords.
·
.,.
··
.:--"
'·
,
·
··. i~ : l', 'f ·, · ' ''1-.1-1"; ".-~ t i· ,,, •.Hi :.... - - · .;
1 ff:'f f'l~ 1tL.·~ ~-'\·ft. I!. ~- - ':\. ..
.,
. .
-I .. . •
"r" 11 .r/Ji•i
1

j(,

• :

' ·'.•

.

:

:'

, •

• ..

1"'

·· ". Thus, the
radicarparts
i.of ~ the
following
~orde
·J'':' aU :whicii
: repre11cmt
· .. ~~ 'I_. •••
' '
.
~
" ,.
. . . . I'
' '
.
. j
"'' ' I~' Ii. -I".(
" 1'¢t t
, '" .. pater,. a father, 'have. a ·,diffetence
of
meaning
m.
"
each::
;
,.,
~;.': .f.?~ ' '.:. / · ···.. · · ~
. ...
. • .... .
,
·Jlil ' · ·.'~i ;-,~_~ r: ,., -; ...,.11: /j.' """ -. - ;.,;,., .
.. Paternal, belong.ing to·. a father. · ' « ··.'.' -'. / ·1 • • ~P"\"'.f;1';· .- " "~·: :- · . ·:. ·,,.. ",.
1
. Patrim01iy' an inlierit~nce' acqtifred froni aJi ther> ~ii3·'.~ :: .;~::~{~ '
~Y·t
.<

l(•

>h .' ;

.

• ,

' .

.. .
,; ; .

. .

'

.. ..··~~_.:::; ~'! ..
. . . -.. .i, f;

~ ' :~:.: ~" ;-: t\~ ~

..
-

..

_

...

/~ '·

...-~

..
.,
.
-

.

.

~,

'

\·

..

·
~-.

'·· '

~-1i

I'

' .

200

APPENDIX.

•'

f.
l.

Thus; to let, which signifies both to allow and to hinder,"' has its opposite meanings explained by a referenc e to its root let, which signifies
a sluice or vent for water, which, of course, either allows or obstructs
the flowing of the water, according as it is opened or shut.
In like manner, heat and hate, though apparently unconnected in pre·
sent significaiion, are found to be reconcileable when discovered to
be both derivatives of the same Saxon root h.aetan, to stir or agitate,
hate and heat alike involving the idea of violent excitement.
So also reek, reckon, and right, though greatly varied in their application', are all from a root signifying stretching or straining. R eck,
) that is, care, is a stretching of the mind towards an object; reckon,
both in its sense of think and in its sense of calculate, is also a
stretching 'of the mind; and right is strait or stretched, whether used
in its primary sense, !IS in the expression " A right line," or in its
metaphorical sense, as in the expression, "The Lord will do that
which is right." t
·
Many of the prepositions may also bo cite<! as lllustrntions ; their
diverse and often opposite applications admitting of explanation from
their primary meaning. Thus, for denotes both in favour of (as,
"The gift is for a frieild"), and in opposition to (as, "It rains; for
all that, he will ride,"- that is, "in opposition to all that," or,
,., notwithstanding the rain, he \vill ride.") But the primary sense
· (from Jaran, to pass towards) of passing or moving tou:czrds a pbce,
reconciles both significations. The moving or going towards a place

* As," He let me ,::o ;" that is , " he a.llomcd me to go." "I \Vas Jet from coming unto you;,, that is, "I was hindercd/ &c.
t These examples prove that words of the same generic m eaning are often
found in v"ry ditren•nt npplications. But still 111ore striking illu,trntions of this
fact are furni s hed hy the opplicntion of words of the sanrn gpneric nrnaninl( in
different lnng11ages. The sa111e word, lca.p, is used hoth in Engli s h and in German; hut in the form e r it 8igi1ifies si111ply to •pring; in the latter it Rignifi es to
run.. .11nti iii Greek and n.ntc in Latin 11ot cinly represent the sanle irlen, viz.
priority, hut they are the same word s. Yet the for111 e r signilies on10sition, and
never jiriority in point of time merely; whi.lo the latter is cmploy,c<l to denote
only priority in point of ti111c.
1

~

I

'

2ot·'.

;.f
f

· Patriarch, one who governs by paternal right.
Patrician,· a nobleman (of the rank of patres, or senators).
Patriot, one who loves his native or father land.
Patronymic, a family-name~
Patron, one who takes a~other under his care.
Parricide, one who kills his father.
Pater-noster, the Lord's Prayer (so called, because it begins "Pater
noster," that is, "Our Father.")

The radical meaning of a \Vord, when discovered, always
furnishes the key which explains and reconciles the remotest
of its secondary significations.

,,' .

DERIVATION.

\

,.

~.

._;:;

-:~\ .

. or thing may either be in friehdship or in hostiiity. ~ Which ,of ,ihe
two it is, iri any one ~ase, must be d~termined by. the context,...w all
that the preposition expre~ses being simply · the ·goini or- moving
., :'.• · ;·.; 'i' . 1 ' .:
.' , ·
towards.
.
' ..

Words pass fi:om original to seconda~y applications accord_ing to fixed r:ules..·· ' ·
· ' · · "" ' · ' .: · ·. ··: -:- ;
The changes of meaning which words undeigo being ultimately dependent upon the laws .that govern human 'thought in the use of'
arbitrary signs, the connexion between . the original and e~ery successive sense in which they ·are employed is necessarily fixed. But
this connexion cannot be always teduced to fixed rules; nor is it
even possible in nil cases to trace the progress of their meanings, or
to show by .what steps they have p,assed from their p,rimitive to their
present application. .
·
· :, .:...
The

f~llowing .am the

transitions ,tha~

m~st frequently

occur:.._

I. Words which primarily denote the qualities 'of sensible
obje~ts are extended to deSC_[ibe the ilnaJogou~ mental and
moral qualities. ·T hus1: · · :· , :·· . "':
· : '., ' . :\ .. . ·
0

Sour signifies primarily acid ; secondarily, ait slere or peevish:'.· ' -· ' ·
Acute (from acus, a needle) signifies primarily sltarp, opposed to blunt;
secondarily, ingenious, opposed to !'itupid.
· ·
Sanguine (from sanguis, blood) signifies pr~marily red,. like blood;
secondarily; ardent.
·
·
.. ; - · ·

2. Words are often transferred from.one object to another
which has some resemblance,· real .or supposed, to the former. · Thus,
·
· ' ' ·
· ·
·' · ·
The Latin grannm, a grain of corn '(from whence .tho English grain),
...
is the parent of granite, a stone spotted as if with grains.
Lens, a kind of lentile or pul.~e, is the parent of lens, ·a lentile-shaped
. piece of gJags or, either transparent substapce used in ~piical science.
Pyr, the Greek w.ord for fire, is perhaps the parent of pyramid, a build·· .
ing resembiing in shape a flalne .of fire.

3. Words of a generic signification are often restricted in
application to a spGcific object or idea. 1 Thus, / ·

~heir

'

'

.•

l

.

"'

-

.

Deist, which primarily de.notes one who has or . admits ~ · God, is the
name for one who belieyes 1n a God but rejects Christianity.·
Prelate signifies literally a p~rsol1 . preferred ~or . elevated; but it is
'limited to express a11 ecclesia.stical dignjtary, a bishqp. ~. ,
Rector literally means a1rnler in general; ' but it is commonly restricted to mean either, bs in England, a clergyman of a certain rank, or,
as in Scotland, the head-master of a prin,cipal school. .

.'

.

'

• . •• ' '

· ~~- ?.•. '

\

: :

202

APPENDIX.

I

Of this description are all proper names which are used as common
nouns, and adjectives derived from the1m. Thus,
J esuit, which primarily means a member of the Society of Jesus, is
applied generally to describe a person of great subtlety and cunning.
Philippic, the name of the orations in which Demosthenes inveighed
. against Philip of Macedon, is used to denote invective in general.
But words of this kind are riot the only instances in which the tendency to .generalize the signification of terms is to be found.
Birch, the twigs of which are employed in some English schools as
the instrument 'of punishment, has come to mean an instrument of
correction in general.
.
Emolument, which primarily means the grist of it mill, or toll taken
for grinding, has been-generalized to signify profit or gain, whatever
·
be the source of it.

5. In many words the change from one meaning to another consists merely in a slight deflection or difference of
application. _

,• '

\.

,' • :
•

_'{~..if~.,;
';

'\

-lrrt,,..

• '··DERIVATION. · ~. '
"',,, ', .... ' · 203 _.· ,. '. ·
..
.,. ~ : . ,\-~\··.~ . .~~· : · ..: ~ :, .\, 4:· . .:." . :.: . ·:·:~.~~''-. ;~~ . :!~
Parole, word of prom1s~. ''. . · :..
'·· . ,· ·,, '-; ". · .'
. ; ·'" ,. •, ;," ~
• . ,t h
.. B' . > h' .
,· '
: ,,.,, . . •!'? 'f" .',."\\'""" \ . . r • '.
P ar l tam.en
, t e great, nt1s . council. . ..: ·;, .t i ,. · .. . .:_ ..' . ·, ' : ;,, ' , " ·1,_; fi-' s.
p l
·.
r·
· · '
-··
" , , .'f.."')1\ t%r,.,_rf: 1·,Hf.·~~ 1,.::-; ~J · , ~~ "¥•• , ·,,,
.:,t..
..:; ~
ar our, a room (1or conversation), .< '. "··'f;' ,
".'.: ·. . . ""''(' . 1 ·. o. ,, ~'·>:1 ,,,
From the Saxori pocca (in Scptch and .·m { "En'g}kh "~i~t'~" 'fug
' Ii.;~·
'.-d d d ' · "·
' . ....... · · ' " ·~'"' , ... ,, .... ,...~ .. .. ,. ' t i'i , ,. ' ' ·:' jo.;
e u~e :.
~".
... .
· . ..~~ ':.
,~ ~ ~··~~: _ ~~ '.·
~~ ···~ -~-~i,
Pock'(in the_ p~~ral ~x); .pustu!e :Cir "~sicl~ ,(()f.,~~6;-sh~p~:~(a;,;;,,g;,::~· ·. · .._ ·, , "l,.
Pock~t, a bag .mserted. m.to clothes.
· · . ·.-. '· ·: ; , ·· ·\ · "i .> ..
Poach, to s\eal game (from the practice of ~ut{hig it j;i'~·:bQg):~,.i.:• "
1
• '. .
From the Latin pondus, jJonderis, a weight are deduced '. ·~ ! : . : ~ ' ..~.. ·, , · " "\1 •
'
~
"
·
·I ' ' :t ' l ' '. · . ··' l . ..,.."\ 1l'...,,'7,
~--, . ., ,. ' · . .. ·.
P onderous 1 heavy,•
. ' •' •
•
. . -~ I· . , j
\l s• ..:~tr' •
Pond,er,toweighmentally. >. .
.
. .·
·:· , , __.,., ..,.~ ~;.
: , ....';l< _ ~
Pound, a speeific ,'weight .i also a .s um of.money, 2ci~. val~~, ·~d ·citlled ~. ·~-K)
from the money',being originally weighed. '·.· '. : _; ' '. ":: i ·, , ~'. · •. Y · . • · <":.
Pounder, a gun that carries a,_bullet of so many pounds, as a 1 iz., · ·'
. ·. . ·

· 4. Words which are specific in their primary application,
often pass into general terms.

·"

f .~:

The following instances will illustrate the naiure of the deflections by
which words successively slide from one original import to a variety
of figurative and remote applications: From the Latin corpus, corporis; the body, are derived
Corpse, a dead body.
Corporeal, of or belonging to the body.
Corpulence, bulkiness of body.
eorps, a bod!f of soldiers.
Corporal, a subordinate military officer, commanding a small body
of soldiers.
. Corporation, a body municipal.
Fiom the Latin liospes, liospitis, a host or guest, are derived
, Hospitable, kind to strnngers.
Hospital, a refuge for the sick.
IIot el (formerly hostel), an inn.
Hostler, the keeper of the horses at an inn.
F fo m the French jour, a day, are deduced
Adjourn, to put off till another day.
Journal, a diary, and also a paper or book published periodically.
Journ ey, travel by land, originally the travel of a day.
Sojour1i, to reside for a time, originally for day.
Journ eyman, a workman for a limited timr., originally by the day.
From the French parler, to speak, are deduced
Parley, an oral treaty .

a

_;V >::·
·:i ":

".

J\.

• ., ..

• ••

°t;

t

.'..

•,

pounder.
. .· '
., . t' ..
' . .•
. .'L· ~ 1 ,
(" .'F • 1 :
''
'·
, , ,. ' .·
Poi8e, to .balance (a y»eight). · ·, ' .... . · · _.._ :~· ..1., .:.~~·,.· · -., .'. .' .
From the Latin . pono, .I, ~ut, or pl!lfe,; p11'itu~ 1·, PJ.tt.; ,pr; pl~!~, are .
.. · · • · " • · · ,·
. · ·, deduced
'
, Positian, situation. '.' " ,.- .
.·: _.: :·: '.·:· .. ,•;:;. ~ · · r·,;\_ :· ·
~

I

'1! •f"' ; • '

_•')•t,t;-:

4·

·~t

,1 .. ~' ,"'\

,,,. ;

··.. '•

· Posture, attitude or· place of·the body, : . , ~'-\ ,~ . :. ~:: _... ·".i,,"'. :1 :
· Positive, certa~ (properly or.,c.ert~inly p~a~ed pr s~t),j -. ~~,~\l~~atical
· (r~ady to place or lay .do'YJl notions wit.h i:onfidence). <'-;i!;;:· .;:.·; · ' ··:
Post, a beam ~et erect; also anydixedplace·or st.ation. ,.._;'- ·" · · .,,. , , .
Post, mode of. conyeying Jet.ter~ .or pf,trav,elµpg ·by P>,ean". ofhotses
placed at dijferent s,tages: . l ·
: •1/ ;,,: '.. :1<'i.~ .:.\,.: ;· ;·,. .
Postage, payml:lnt . for .conveyance
~·
.•
. of letters • . . ' . ' .,,;,
. .. (_ '
l?.epos#ory, a piace ~here things are depo~ited Rt kept:.1 .•; .' ~". '..'-'
Supposititious, · not genuip~; P!lt ~Y trick · ill .the place ·,or:'cli~a~ter
belonging to another:
·
' ,.,. ... ._ •"'' · "".\-:_;:t·.=,..,. .
'·'
1~ ·' '
Depose, to put down from ah pffice ; to degrade, ·or divest ot ·: '': ·. .
Deponent, one ~ho 'lays down or gives evidence in~~ cqur~ oh~sti~e. ·
Repose, rest; ht.erally placed or laid back (for rest). . · · ·,
.:
·
Expose, to lay open ; generally applied to the e~posure
.evil.
Expound, to ·interpret~ ·
·
· ~ '.
' · · · " · · ;,1
Expositor, ' one who ~xpounda or interprets.
·· ._ ;":
Impose, to lay on, to cheat.
. . . .. .
. ' · ,v-'
Imposition, laying on; cheating. ·· ,,· • .· <"';
·. \.'.f. r~<.·
I,mpost, a tax (laid on): ._._. :;·~ " ',', .: ' ,. ~ -- .. r ','': '~'Y,.1 : · ._... ·,
Impostor, one who cheats
~asuming a fictiti~u~ ch~~c~~~:T.:'f!
From the Latin primus, .first, · are deduced .. ·~ . :': . -''l ;·:· ,. ~-~
1 fi
.
" ,.,,. . •1c" ... . ... • ..
.
.. ~' " · / ·~ · _.... "-: · :P rime, ear y, rst-rate. ·
To Prime, to put the first powder in the pan of a gun: ·
·
·
· Primer, a first book for children.
,. · · 1 '·
Premier, the .first minister of state. '
Primate, the first or. highest ecclesiastic.
1

:<· .': "· \''.'}': ,;-• :' .· ·

~·

'

"f;''~

•

•

• t

•'

'\ / , '

!

I 11>

1

of

..

h.

•

f

\

...

f '• \.

APPENDIX.

204

CATALOGU~,

Primitive, ancient.
Prim (from primitive) , formal, precise.
Primrose, an early flow er in spring.
From the Latin senex, old, are deduced
age or in office.
S enior, elder
Signior, a title of respect (given originally to age).
Senate, a council (because composed originally among the Romans of
old men).
Se1iator, a pl).blic councillor.
Sire, father; also a ,title of address to kings.

in

01"
. -...~~~

'

.

THE END.

•,

.,... -.'" ·

'"

}

,

VALUABLE

6. Many words owe their secondary sense to purely accidental and often very singular associations.
The followin g are instances : · Atlas, a collection of mops, is derived from Atlas, an African king,
who, from his fomlness for astronomy, is said to have snpportcd the
heavens on his Lack, and whose portrait in this attitude is often
prefixed to books of maps.
Cabal , n close intrig11e , is said to owe its origin to the i11 i1iril letters of
the names of five celebrated cabinet ministers of Charles IL ,Clifford, Ashley , Buckingham, Arlington, and L auderdale . Cabal,
the science of the Rabbins , is a word of Hebrew origin.
Clergy, the order of men set apart for the service of God, is from
cleros (Gr.), a lot or inheritance , probably because the Hebrew priests
had a special lot or portion assigned them among the other tribes.
Clerk1 one who records transactions in writing, and formerly the usual
name for a scholar, is from clerims, a clergyman, because the clergy
were at one time tile only persons who were fit for situations requiring learning.
Dactyl, a, foot in verso, con~isting 'o f one long and two short syllables,
is from dactylos (Gr.), a fing er,-a fin ge r consisting of a long and
two short joints.
Pagan, a heathen, is from pagus (Lat.), a village ; because, after the
establishment of Christianity in the Roman empire, the heathen
being driven to villages and other parts remote from cities, were
called pagani, that is, village rs.
'
Pontiff, priest (in Latin pontifex, that is, bridge-maker), is said to, have
beeri originally applied to the ministers of religion ; because at Rome
they had the charge of repairing a particular bridge, which had also
been built by them.

...

., ; '1
•.-;i,.a:, _,·
..~ i

SCI-I 0() L :6 9

,>

'

:--;· ~

~{

.
·..

O _ K ~S,

.

.. '

TO WHICH

THE

THE ATTENTION OF PERSONS INTERESTED IN
CAUSE OF
EDUCATION IS RESPECTFULLY SO,LJCI'.f~I)· · .
' •

'

' .• •

~t

G'·

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'

Of the SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS, tho' publi•hers have received ,
(

;,.

nnticipntions of furniehing n. s~rics of ge6gr·ffphi~al works bf· eue;h i gtrinsj -:. rTierit ·_

AMERICAN SYSTEM
OF

.STANDARD SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
IN A SERIES:

Adapted to the progressively developing Capacities
. '·

,·'i.

'

""~' '

fi:;~~ne•;;.~~~e:~~t~;~~~i==~~~~~;,o::~~s l~:;;i~ :;,:,:·11!r ~~~~:~~,~~~;/~;:i 1' -~

MITCHELL'S

,·,

-

of

Youth.

PUBLISHED BY

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAI'f & CO., PHILADA.
AND FOR SALE BY THE BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY.

ADVERT IS EM ENT.
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,
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•eience throughout the world .
A part or the before-nnmed series is now before the puhlic, viz: the PlllM ARY
SCllOOJ, GEOGRAPflY, the f'CHOOL GP.OGBAPllY 1\ND ATLAS, the
ATLAS OF OUTLINE M;\Pf', ""'I theGEOG!L'\l'f!IC 1\L ItE .\IHCH ,
2

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ns t? become the stoodard text-books in the science .~~e og·r~p~~· ~ill ;•be.~ full.~ /.'f'·
renhzed.
,
•
. .\fti . , ... :t .. · ~
.
'l'he ATJ,AS OF OUTLiNE MAPS. whether co"nsideri!d ' osf n a€i!~piini· _'
_.,.
~cnt to fnci.lit ate the progress. of th.e ~tlpil, as nn agreeable ·f iltiat.ion in .~he ro.~ ~ ~·tf. •
!me of studies, or ns an cosy 111troduct1on to the useful art o( map-draWID!khos;
in nil instancee, met with the Same decided apprOval. , _
, ~ .· '!;~;' .. "I' ·

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The GEOGRAPHICAL READER is designed riot 1Jnly as a readin1ii'fi'tJAk fot
, .. ";, ~;
schools, where it .can be introduced by substituting it fo r other books \vithbut ad • :
ditional Cost, and present the do~ble advantage of communicating, at, the same '/, ':, 'I ,_..' .•• <,.. ~..
time, the art of reading and an enlarged knowledge of geography, but .also for · : :, '
• · ~~ ·
instruction in families, as well as for perusal by those who are desirous ot".'liLtain- •' ~
:, )'.
I .
ing informntiOn by private study. Though but recently published, it has alreddy
4
received the decided approval of many intelligent teachers and other g.eatlemen, •. '\,'~ .
whose opinions are !le•ervedly of high authority .
· ·

·~i--. •

Tho HIGH SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, and Tf:!E KEY TO THE STUDY
OF THE MAPS COMPRISING MITCHELL'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY,
yet in the press, will be judired of bJ' their merits, both as separate worke ilnd as
iinks in the series, when presented for consideration. They will be published with
lie little delay as a careful preparation o( all parts of the books will permit • .·
That teachers and all ~there ioterested in the. cau•e of gener~I education: who
would be pleased to examine these w·orks with reference to · their fitness
the
place claimed for them, may fully understand the plan, a prospectus of each is
hereto subjoined, in the order in whicli they will stand in the .series.

for

Mitchell's Primary Sc_hool, Geography;
This little work is intended as a first geo~raphy for children, and i• prepared for •
the u•e of those who hn ye begun to spell. and read, with some degree of facility.
The nuthor has endeavoured, accordingly, to render It ns easy of comprehension,
and no rnteresting to the youthful pupil, as its limits will permit. '
·
'l'he Primary Geography contains 176 pages, about 120 engravings, and fourteen
rnnps. These are executed from original deaigns, by the best . artists, in their
resper,tive branches, in the United States.
·· ·
·
Pictorial~illustrations, well designed, and 'especially t11lapted to the work they
nccorripany, nre auxiliaries so essential, that without them a geography for young
pcrnons would poss~ss but li1tle value. Many of the most important facts of the
•cience of geography may be irrjpteeeed on H.e !'Rind by visible images more forci·
b!y than by any other means. ,
.
The introduction of moral and religious sentiments into bookB intended fo r the
instruction of young perROnS, is Calculated to improve the heart, and Jend .additional strength to parental ndmonitinn , Accordingly, througho ut the work, when·
ever the suhjeCt permitted. such reflections and . observations have been made ns
arc calculated to show the superiority of en!ighiened Institutions, the e.•cellence o f
the Christian religion, and ChA advantages of correct moral principles, 118 may
readily be comprehended by the juvenile learner • .· ·
.,,, /,

--[ 4 ]

.Mitchell's Sch ool Geography and Jltlas.
This work has bee11 publis hed upwnrde of a yea r, nnd hns bee n already lihcrnlly
e nc our uge<l um1 ci~u lnte<l in v a ri ous pn r ts tif th f• {f nitf'rl ~ tn f f'~ . 1'ho ... x ff'nt to
w hic h j\ ho.~ hrn n introrlur. Ptl into th e mos t tf's p 1~1j tn b lc 8C minnri r.s, nnd tlic s trong
nnd decided tes timo ni a ls in its favour received. fr um e min ent tenche rs uncl gentle·

men of the hig hest respecta bility for ta lent am! discriminati on, justify the publish·
e rs in prese ntin g it ns

R

t rnn ti~A of nnclouhtcd m e rit.

The Geogra phy contains :!JG pages, u nd is illustrated lly m ore th an WO cngrav·
in e:g: th ese o. re nl1 from nr. w designs. a nd a re exec uted in n style g rea tly su pe ri o r
to- wlrnt is us unlly .een in work• of this descri ption; m a ny of the e ngra vings e.luc id nt e important facts El a t ed jn tho toxt , nnd oth e n~ fl mhrncr. a numl1er o l Mlnk111 g
objects in nature n. ml url: these inle rc8t the scho lar , excite a epi rit of inqu iry, nnd
relie ve the m ind from th a t dull uniform ity, so justly complained of by those who
study ~c ho ol geograp hi es defi cient in this respect.
rr he work is divided into sections of 8~CJa extirnt flS are Considered sufficient for
one lesson: these are gradu a lly e nla rged from the beginning to the e nd of the
hook, so a s to kee p pace with th e inc reasin g c a pacity of tho pu pil. The description of the defini tion• . so t'sse ntia l to a clear und crstnndmg of the scie nce of geogra phy, will be fo un d, perh a p•,
simplo nnd easy of compre he nsion as can we ll
be o bta ined. It is a rra nged c hiefly in the method of question a nd an• wc r, ye t presenting, it is believed, sufficie nt scope to exe rci•e the menta l fac ulties ?f the pupil.
The A tlas c onta ins eig hteen m a ps, which a rc nil e ngra ved f1 u 10 0C1 g1nal d ra w ·
ings, and are executed in the clear a nd distinc t m a nne r for '~ h ich Mr. Mitchell's
maps are di; t.ingui• hed . The c are besto wed upon nil pa rts c l the eng ra vrn g, the
e ase w ith which e very na me on the ma ps ma y bo read, the location of re mark ab le
events connected with the history of our own a nd othe r cou ntries, with the insertion o f the li nes of rail-roads and cana ls, and the dis ta nce • from one cont inent :o
an other, are nil reg n;ded a~ essentia l im provements.
,
The geographical and sta tistical t a blos appended to the Atl a s contain n grea t
nmoiJnt Of interesting inform a tion , co mp ri ain g n vie w of the ex rent and po pulation of all the countries re presented on the m a ps, toge ther with the heights of
mount a ins, leng ths of ri ve rs, nncl s tnt istics of th e U nited States. the latte r embracin g Iisls of uni ve rsities, co lleges, a nd o ther insti tution s, can a ls, mil-road s, & c.
These tables m ay b~ cons idered as formin g n n aggregate of the whole work, and
give it n c ha racter of perfoc tion, with out wh ich it w ould he deficient in comple te'
ne•• a 11d fin ish.

as

Mitchell's Jltlas of Outline Maps.
(AN ACCOMPANilllENT TO MITCHELL' S SCHOOL ATLAS.)
This Atlas c orresponds with seven of the princip a l and most use ful maps accompu nying the S c hoo l Geograph y. On these the na mes of ~laces '"? e ntirely om itted,
lca vini: no thin g but the n a1ural fe atures of the countries they 11lustratc, and the
chie f p o li1i cnl boundnrics or divisions.
It is well kn own that. no method so well fixes in Hie m i11d of the learn e r the form
nud rela tive pos iti on of countries, isla nrls, &c ., a s drawin g m a ps. To draw them
e ntirely is a wo rk of tim e, and wh a t com paratively but fe w scholars e ve r attain
the nrt of doin g well; but the e xerci•e of compl c ti~ g th e O utline Ma ps .from ~lu•
fin is hed A tlas posse, ses a ll the nd vantngcs to be d•mrn<l from map ·dmwmg, w1lh
a greu t saving of time.

[ {j ]

Jllitchell's Geographical Reader, .fm· Schools and

FamiNes. ·

' ·,, .
Thi~ worK contn. ing 600 pn ges, and e o m pri se8 a. ~e n e r'i:il rl e!3c ri ption of the vnrious di vieions of the ea rth , wit h the ir several em pi res, k in gd oms a rnl states, pre~
ce1led by n compend ious histo,Y of the progress of geographical science.
T ho desi gn o f the work is imlicnted by the title. It ma y be rend in cl•••e• Irv
those w ho a re us ing M itch e ll' s Sch ool G eograp hy, or by pup ils fart\:er advanced
in the ir studies. Thi• book w ill be fou nd eq ua lly convenient to heads of families
w ho w ish to tea ch the ir children, or to adu lts wh o ha ve paosed their peri od of
1.11i11on.

'l'lie arrangement of cou ntries is tho •a mo ' as ·in the " School Geogra phy,' ' the
1le•c ri ptive deta ils a re exte nded In p ro por tion to its e nla r ged di mem ions, a nd w ili
he fo und to given live ly !\ nd. inte resting p ictu re of the world, acco rdi ng to its con·
cl it ion al the pree:ent day.
Th e R e nde r is also nrrnnge<j, to correspond with "Mitchell's School A ti n•, " so
th nt those w ho alre ad y have the latte r will be in possession of a su itable a cco mpa ni me nt to the form e r; and indi yiduals who are noi ma y obtain it at a cost much
below the pri ce charged for Atlases compiled to illus trate treatises of 'e qual d tent
witn th e Geog raphica l R ead er. ·
·i
' · ··
A n import a nt and, perh aps, paramount fe ature of the Read er iii, that its intro<l u cti o~ into schoo ls c a n be e ffe cted w itho ut additional cost; by diepensing with
o th er re ndi ng books. Th is w ill bring it wi th in the meaqs of ih e hµ m blcst pup ils,
a nd e na ble our whole p opulntiun to acquire a n accura te knowledge of tho scie nce .
'/

Jl Key
·

to

the Study qf the Maps, co~prising .l~fit~hell's
· · ·, · School . Jltlas. ...; ,.,; .,;_ · "' · 1•.',;-~,. .;,::,
.•
.
.

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The K~y to the study or M ti ps comprises a s1lries of iesions atrtinged to corre· .
Fpo nd in every respect with Mitchell's School Atlas: ' The work forms an easy in• '
geo1raphical knowJ ~ l
tro1lu c tion 'to the study o.f Maps-the foµhdaiion of< all
le 1l g ~ , a nd hna boon pre pared as 'he most proper ptelimiriat!, iltudy fo,r ~eai.f!ne~i} '! ,:5. ,
geo graphy.
· ·
·~· .; :·.· "·.' :
· · !" : -::~·.. ,..,/ ; ·"('ltl (_!._1jl~ ·.. ~:. ... ) ·

ex11Ct'

1

; ., . J:~. ·~ ... ~~ ~:~:.:~ ~.·-.;.-1 , ·(~t~~~~~~~7::A
Mitchell's Higlt School :·Geogr.aphJ/'-<;n~:1./#l,a$~:· ::~· ·;;~ ·
The HiKh S c hool Geography will contnin about 600 pages.' onitwilrcoi;:iprise 11. ·It··
c om plete syetb m of mathemt!ticol, physical, political, statistical, arid descriptive •
m odern geography, together with a compendium of ancie nt gco'grtiphy, iind the
wh ole will be illustrated by vie ws, representations of remarkable natural objecta;
1Tien, animals, &c. The :whole of
illustrati ons of costume&, architeeiure, raceii.
the en~ravings will be executed by the . first artists in the country. ,
·. ,
Th e Atlas to nccompan·y the above \vi ii cont11in not less than thirty maps; con·
etru cted particularly for the work~ and designed to correspond with 'and illustrate
it in !he 1-nost precise manner. ·'l'he m11ii• will be engraved ill the neat and di.a tinet
etylo for which those of ·'.' l\lit~hell'a School Alias'' are distinguished /they wilt: .,,
contain, ho we ver, in some reepects.' a greater amount of detail, and fauch additional •..... '
!'nrticulars aA the higher find more ad vanced i'r!i-do of. tuition . for l~ic.~ .th~y are w

of

rntendrd mny_<lcmand • .

· .

'.

· .<

•

· · ·. ~·~-~~

_,~ ~( ·J>~/i...!;_ .;1 l·.,1.....

·""'' ( '·~·'\.°'"':,.·.~·~". --

1/,
I'

,.,,

·r.;;, ..,., • •
.'
::: '

··."'

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i;

. i\=:fJ
· ;n

·.~

[ 7

CATALOGUE
OF

SCHOOL B 0 0 l( S.
FROST'S UNITED STATES.
HISTORY OF THE UNITED ST ATES; for the
use of Schools ancl A.caclemies.
with 40 engravings.

By Jo11N FnosT.

Illustrated

The design of the author in thi ~, his larger history, has been to furnish a
text-book full and complete enough for the use of co ll e~es, acadP.mies, an1I
the higher seminaries. It begins with the discovery of tne New World, and
presenting the series of events in a clear and connected narrative, rejecting
whatever was cons id ered irrelevant or unimportant, and dwellin~ chiefly on
those striking features of the subject which give it vividness anu character;
the history is brought down to the present day. "Althouuh,'' says the author
in his preface. "the considerable period e mbracP.d, the multitude of characters
and events delineated, and the extent of the field in which they figure, have
rend ered the preservation of historical unity no easy task, he ha~ laboured to
givo the work ~u c h a degree of compactness as would enable the student :n '
perceive th e relation of all its parts, and to grasp the whole without any rnry
difficult exercise of comprehension."
The num erous testimonials to the merit of this work, and its popularity
evinced q!lite unequi vocally by the sale of ten thousand copies within a few
months after its first publication, afford a strong presumption that the author
has succeeded in his purpose of making it a first·rate sc hool history.
The following notices and recommendations of Frost's History, are selected
from an immense number which have been sent to the publisher,

RECOMMENDATIONS.
Ma. BIDDLE,
Dear Sir,-l am glad to see thnt the "History of the United States,'' which '
you announced some time since, has made ils arpearance. The extensive
research which has of late years been carried c,n upon the subject of American
history, and the careful investigation of ori•inal sources of intelli~ence IJy
lndiv1duals eminently qualified-for the task~ have furnish ed valuable m~te·

6

•• .4 ~ ~

J

tlale fr~m which to enlarge arid t~ correct the hlst(/rical records of o.ur coun~
try. It was time to have these advantages transferred to works designed for
the purpose of education. I \Vas happy, therefore, to obl!erve by your an·
uouncement, tha.t a book on th!s plan was to be prepared. I have sin~e been
i;ratified with the perusal of the volume; and I take pleas!ire In saying t~at
1t appears to me in every respect well executed. It avoids the fault with
which most compilations are c.h argeable-that of merely sketching a general
outline of events, too brief and abstract to gain the attention of tfie student.
It is free; at the same time, from injudicious prolixity and detail.
·
The style is clear, concise, and spirited; free on the one hand fr~m the
ambitious and rhetorical character, and on the other, from the negligence
and Inaccuracy into which most of our popular com pends have fallen.
.
As a history of the UnitP.d States, it is, in my opmion, more full and more
l')xact than any of the same size, and in all other respect.1 prefera!Jle, as ll
book intended to aid the business of instruction.
·
·
,
.
.
.
WILLIAl\'l RUSSELL,
.
Editor of the American Journal ef Educati(ll'l. 1jirilt serie11.
Philadelphia, Oct. I836. · · ·
·
·
.
. .
. Ne10 York, january 11, 1837.
We fully concur in the sentiments above expressed. .
·
G. J. HOPPER,
,
JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN,
RUFUS LOCKWOOD, ·
MYRON BEARDSLEY, ·
WILLIAM H. WYC.KOFF, ' ,
ROYAL MAN~J . ·
JOHN OAKLE xb .
. THEODORE W. PORTER;
HENRY SWOR S,
C. C. JENNINGS.
GEORGE INGRAM,
ROBERT J. FURNEY,
JOHN C. TREADWELL,
AARON RAND .
·
JOSEPH J\t'KEEN, ·
EDMUND D. BARRY, D.D., Prine!·
F. S. WORTHi.
pal of a Classical Academy.
WILLIAM FOKREST,
SAMUEL GARDNER, .
F. A. STREETER,
D. STEVENS,
'
JAMES LAWSON,
SAMUEL BROWN,
DAVID SCHOYER.1.
JOSEPH M. ELY,
SOLOMOJ:'l' JENNt;R
P. PERRINE,
·
· ' C. WM. NICHOL~l '
SAMUEL RICIIARDS.
'JOSEPH MOONEx,
I
F'r<mi 8. Jories, .A.M, Philadelphia; corner qf Se:oenth and Carpenter ·street~
A History of the United States for the use Gf scho6ls, such as the preseric.
has loni1 been greatly needed-something to correspond in its general character with the admirable histories of Goldsmith, which have been re.ceived witn
so much favour. I have examined the volume prepared by Mr. Frost, and
"alLhough the considerable period embraced, the multitude of characters and
events delineated, and the extent of the field in which they figure," have
in the
call ed for the exercise of 1Veat judgment in th e seleetion, as well
arrangement of his materials , yet this difficult task has been accomplished
with a success which Is highly creditable to the author. The great ilidustry
and fidelity with which it bas been composed are very apparent; and tha
"List of Authorities,'' at the end, evinces th.a t he has availed himself of the
best sources of information. It gives me pleasure to commend this History
of the United States, as being better suited to the valuable purpose for whic1'
It was designe~han any other which has hitherto.come under my notke.
flbruary, ltxfi.
S. JONES.
:Ma. E. C. BIDDLE,
. Your" Frost's United States' 1 is, In my judgment by far the best school book
In the department of history that we have. It ought to supersede, In respect
to more advanced )lupils, any other text-book extant on this subject. , 1 can
only wish that it may be placed within the reach of.those for whom It Is intend ed, Inasmuch as the work 'n erde to be known merely, In order to be gene·
rally adopted.
.
. .. ,.
.
CHARLES HENRY ALDEN.

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[8]

[ 9 ]

Columbia Academy, Philad., N<ro. 15, 1836.

Baltimore, .March, 1837.
.
' d'

Mn. EnwAnD C. H10DLE,
Dear Sir -I nm so well pl eased with "Frost's History of the United
StaleR," anJ its merits "" a school boolr, that I have organized a. class who
R espectfully yours, &c.
J. H . BROWN.
·
We fuily concur in the opinions expressed above.
AUGUSTINE LUDINGTON,
SAl\lUEL CLENDENIN,
ARC HIBALD J\llTCHELL,
THOMAS T . AZPELL,
T. G. POTTS,
J. Il. WALl{ER,
~I~H
· l\1J\'~r·Au.".'£"HN.Ef:z LSON,
II. LONGST!U:TH, A.M., Classical
·~
W
T eacher, Fri e nds' Acad emy.
DAV[]) Si\1.ITH
D. R. ASHTON,
BARTl{AM KAIGHN,
WILLIAM MARRIOTT, Principal
IH. SEMPLE,
of l'hil<tdel phia Select Academy,
R. VL BL~CKWOOD,
corner of Fi lth and Arch streets.
WILLIAM J\1'NAIR,
RIAL LAKE,
E. W . HUBBARD,
E. FOUSE , N . E . corner of Race a.ml
WILLIAM. LEWI::>,
Sixth streets.
E. NEVILLE
WILLIAM A. GARRIGUES, Me.theJOHN ALLEN,
mati cal T eacher.
WILLIAM MANN
I. I. HITCHCOCK,
JAME S E. SLACK',
THOMAS BALDWIN,
L. W . BURNETT,
T . SEVERN
CHARLES MEAD,
JOHN SIMMONS,
THOl\JAS l\1'ADAM
JOHN EVANS,
WILLIAM ALEXANDER,A.M. JOHN STOCKDALE
JOSEPH RAPP, No. 41 Sansom Hev. SAJ\IL. W . CRAWFORD, A.M.
street.
Principal of the Academic.al Dept.
JOHN PURLZ,
of the University of Pennsylvania.

0

1

I ha ve examined "Frost's History of the United States," just published, nml
cheerfuUy recnmn1eml it to th e attent ion of teachers as n very superior work
of the kind. In styl e, a most important point in works of this character, it is
decidedly superior to some of the most popular historical com pends now used
ln our schools a nd academiPs.
Baltimore, March 16, 1837.
R. CONNOLLY.

Dear Sir,-! have long felt the want of a good Histor:y of the United States,
nnd was pleased to hav e the opportunity of perusing l•rost's. I am so much
pl eased with its elega nce of language, neat nrranpement, copious questions
and style of getting up, that I shall at once introouce it into my school, a.net1
use my influence to give ii a wide ci rculation.
Baltimore, March 16, 1837.
·
E. B. HARNEY.
'Ve fully concur In the above.
EDWARD S. EBBS,
MICHAEL POWEil,
ANDREW DlNSl\JORE,
JAJVIES WILKISON,
N. l\'I . KNAPP,
DAVID KING,
J OHN R. GA/WOE,
JOSEPH W ALICER
JAMES E. SEARLYL
THOMSON RANDO PH
CHARLES H. ROBERTSON,

CHARLES F. BANSEMOS,
ROBEHT O'NEILL
JOHN HARVIE,
'
E. YEATES REESE,
PHILIP WALSH,
JOHN KIRBY, A.l\'I.
BENJAMIN G. FRY,
S. M. ROSZEL,
JOSEPH H. CLARKE,
JOHN KEELY
PARDON DAVis.

Mn. E. C. BIDDLE, ,
•
.
Sir,-1 have exammed with some attention "A History of the l!mt~
States, by John Frost," pul.illshed by you. I a~ so ~ucl! pleased wit~
· happy arrangement, correct sty.le, aml cM~ful mvest1gat10n into the incl·
dents of our history, that I shall introduce 1t 1nto !l)Y school, as earlr e.B practicaUe, and I think its merii. need only be known, to recommend 1t to every
school in the country.
Iain, respectfully, &c.
·
A. A: DOWSON.

1"'

a.re now engaged in studying it.

JOHN COLLINS,
MATTHIAS NUGENT,
RI C HAH.D O' ll. LOVETT,
S. H. REEVE;.;,
JAMES CltUWELL,
TllOMAS COi.LiNS,

...

;~·:

/

By the politeness of the puolisher, Mr. E. C. Bi<lill~ 1 .of Philadelphia,. we
have received, lhrouah his agent, a copy of Frost's "tt1story of the Umted.
States;'' and h4ving .examine.d it, are infinitely pleased with the ~or~. The
co111piler he.B departed sutlic1ently from Lhe path of common historians, to
render his work truly entertaining,wi1.hout overlooking any important .hist<>rical fact. The chronological and statistical tables are full, the subject matter well arranged, and it seems adapted in every imporlan( respect for use
·
KNAPP & WILLS.
in Rchools and academies.
G1iy !$treet Seminary; Mai·ch 20 1 1837.

•

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l(

Ba.ZU1nore Femiile Classical Schoo!. _:..
l\tn. BmDLE,
·
h. h
Sir,-.tv; far as I have e:umi ned "The History of the United States," w. 1c
you put into my hands for that purpose, it receives my decided approballon .;
and in corroboration of this, l shall introduce it inunediately1 as a text-book,
· ·
· ·
·
· ·
Into my school.
. A: B . CLEAVELAND, A.M., M.D., Sch.oolmaster.
Baltimore, March 16, l837.

Flrom Stephen S. Roszel, A.M, Principal <if" Spring Seminary," Baltimor,e.
.MR. E. c. B10DLB1 .
. •'
'
•
•
Sir -A superficial eX:aminat10n of" Frost's United States" 1s quite suffici ent 'to c<>nvince any impartial and enligh•,ened mind of its generd excel·
lence, and especially tJf its admirable adaptation to the purposes 01 scholastic stwly. · The simplicit.y .ot its arrange1f!ent, the perspicuity. of its dt;lineations, and the elegance 01 ns style, cumbme to recommend its ~dopuon .in
all nur literary institutions, and to secure in its favour the cheert ul plaudit.I
1 . Respectfully,
<if universal approbation.
·
.
,
S. S. ROSZEL.

·

.

Philadelphia, March

24, 1s3s.

This Is to certify, that "Frost's History of the United States" has been ·
adopted as a class-book by the Controllers of the Public Sehobls of the l'irst
School District of Pen.ns'llvania; and is in general use ln the public school•
.
In the City ancl county Q Philadelphia.
·
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R. l'ENN SMITH, .

· Secretary of the Board of Contruller•.

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has been rep.rioted m.
as the' first of a series· of NATION A[, HISTORIES written by
natives of the respectivEicotlhtfies to 'which they relate. This is a
compliment not often paid to American school books by Bri\ish publishers.
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FROST'S HISTORY" or TIIE UNITED STAT!:!

LONDON

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FROST'S
IIISTORY FOil COMMON SCHOOLS.
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOH
THE URE OF COMMON SCHOOLS. By Jo11lf FnnsT,
nu th or of "History of the lJ nitcd States for the use of Schools
nnd Academies," "The American Speaker," &c.
This work Is cond ensed from the author's la rger Hi story of the United
States for rh o Use of ~chool~ and Acadmni es. In redu cin g the qu antity of
matte r to suc h a compass, a.sw ill place thA volum e within the reach of the
Mm11wn sc h011ls, n ~ pains havn lieen •rarer! to preserve all that is esse nti al"
to a clear and cnn1J:rehenslve hi~wry of th e country. No evenL of imporl!\nce,
H;>tif:ed in th e larger history. is pnH~etl over in this, nlLhough mariy of the
minor cletails arn cons id erably co ncl ensPcl; and some circumstances 1tnd obse rvation~ havin~ a co111paratively unim['Orlanl bearing on 1he main story,
are fll~irely omittt<I.
The authnr's d esi~ n , in accmnpli~hing th e conrlensation of his former work,
h as b9P.n to furni sh the c11mn10n sc hool~ of the cou ntry wi th a histo ry, In a
ch eap and r.nnvPni ent form, whi ch wouli-1 be comple•,e an<I sufficient fo r lhA
purposes of soun d instnictio n, not only in the plnn and arran.e e111ent, but in
the n.mount of so lid infum;ation which it should comprise. How far he mny
h1tve succ<'eded in this attempt it remain~ for the friends of popular e1luc1ttion
to determine.

RECOMMENDATIONS.
The followmrr are selrcted from a large numbe r of recomm emlatlona of lheo
above "nrk wh ic h hav<> bee 1~ rece ived by the pu blishers. It ha8 bP.en adopted
by the Controll e re of th e Public Schools,Jf the City anrl County of Philadelphia,
and by Nthor commi ttees of public schools in various parts of the country.

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duced. The elmpliclty and ele~ance of the style cannot fa ii to pleaBll ev11ry
attentive reader. The appe11i.11x, containing the consLilution of our beloved
land, as also a UBeful · chrunologkal tabl e, will render the work doubly
WM . ALEXANDER,
vnluable.
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October 1!11 1837.
7'eaclw· of Langieuges, Philadelphia.
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PhiladelJJhia, NoTJ . lG, 1837.
I have just got through .,...ith an examination of "Frost's History of the
United States for Common Schools." I have, for a long time, felt the need
of a history of our country that shoultl embrace all the most lmrK>rtant event.,,
and, at the enme time, prceent a style and nrrnngeme nt attractive lo the
common reader. My wish es were fully met upon rec.e lvlni; a copy of the
!t.rger work, by the same author: Thie work ought to be placed m every
li~mry' al! well as in every sch ool.
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This sma.ller work, whi ch appears to be condensed from the larger one,
contains all the important facrs a nd retains the same easy style that characteri ze<! the book from which it was abridged. I feel safo in recommending
it i.o others, and shall introdu ce It ipto my seminary as an introduction to the
large work, so soon as~ can dispense with other works now in use;
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Yours, &c.
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. H. B_l"L U11ion /fall.
Mn. E . C. BmnLE:
Dear Sir,-( have to acknowledge the favour of copies of" Frost's United
. States for the use of Common Schools," and uf'.' The American Speaker" by
the same gentleman. As you have my opinion of the book from which the
first of ttlese works i& cond ensed , it is not. necessary 'to say much of the pre.sent
volume. The, author it seems to me, has furnish ed a book better suited to a
!ar_ge cl ass of pupils than his former work; and while it is complete and suf.
fic ient for tl)e pu rposes ofsourid instruction, not only in th e plan and arrangement, but in \he amount of so.lid information which it comprises, r,an be afforded at one-half the price of the Jarg~r volume. I am makina use of both
of these "Histories," ·.with entire satisfa ction . "The Spwker?' contains a
great variety of pieces, selected, with mu ch care and judgment1 from.our most
successful orators1 and is well adapter! to promote the object 01 the compiler.
The Princip~es ot Elocution, by Mr. Ewing, which arn prefixed to the collection, and the number of exercises mark ed with inflect ions, give this work
claims over all otller books of tho kind I have exa1i1ined, and will, doubt·
less, secure for it a ready l11troduction to our colleges and academi es. ThA
work has been precured by, a number of my pupils, and I unhesitatingly
commend It.
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.Yours, &.c.
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S. JONES,
Philadelphia.
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From th~ Ref!. C. IT. Alden, Principal of the Philadelphia High School for .

Girls.
"Frost'R History of the United States" is a text-book in my Achoo!, and Is
justly a fav<>urite. I have often regretted thnt an edition, in a sma ll er
volume, with n11merous illustrative engravings, was not furnish ed for the use
of our junior cla~ses and cf'.lmmon schools. I am glad, th erefore, to see what
I tbo11ght a desidAratum, and in a style, 1tnd Ill a price 10 well 1tdapted to the
purposPS intenrl ed. This volume, I find, is abridged from the larger volume
,·e ry judicious ly, and can be recommended very contldently to general use.
Th ere is n<' hi story of our country, In my opinion, at all comparable with itns
a common school book.
CHARLES HENRY ALDEN
Philadelpht'a, Oct. 23, 183~
I jurlge "Frost's History of the United States"to be a most excellerilepitom9
of American history. Many Interesting and important facts relative to Arne:.
rican affairs, in other works gf the kind omitted, are therei n judiciously Intro-

Pliiladelpliia, Marcli 24; 1838.
Thfo is to certify, that "Frost's History of the United States"
nas 'been adopted as' a class•book by the Controllers of, the Public
Schools of the First School District of Pennsylvania, and is in
•general use in the public ~c~ools in thJ city amlcounty of Philadelphia
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. R. PENN. 8MITII,
Secr~tary of Board of Co1itrol1eri. ,
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