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A

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR

OF THE

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ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

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Ill WHICH THE

PRINCI~LES ESTABLISHED BY LIN~LEY MURRAY,

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'A RE INCULCATED, AND BIS

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THEORY OF THE MOODS

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llLEARLY ILLUSTRATED BY DIAGRAMS, REPRESENTING THE NUMBER OF TENSJ:S
Ill EACH MltOD-TBEIR SIGNS-AND THE MAllNER Ill
WHICH THEY ARE FORMED ,

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SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED.
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" BY ROSCOE Q;crGREENE.

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l'OR.TL.4ND I
Pl1BLISBED BT SHIRLEY AND HYDE, EXCHJ.llGE·ITREE:r.

1830.

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DIST.RJCT OE MAINE••TO

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WIT:

District Clerk'$ Office.

E IT REMEMBERED thot on th e fir' t dny of Mar ch, A. D. 18 ~0. and in the fifty -fifth . yen of

11w Tn!ierw nd P.uce of t he Unito-,d 8mtcs o~ Am enca. I\h'. Th01~a !< T edd, u t _s a id .thstnct, bas
d eih is it f'(l \c thi s oflk e.Jl1e tide uf a bo ok the r1g l1t wher eof he d a 1m s a s pro1:rietor rn the words

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RECOMMENDATIONS.

fo~l,o~i~~;)~~.:1tGrammar

of thP. F.ugli~h Lnn{! u<tgn. in which t~ie Principles e~tablisbed by Lind·
1ey Murray. arc incuJcated, ;rnd hi · thet1ry •)f lbP m ood ~ d P.arly 1llus t~·a te d .by d1a~r nms represent~
in g thP. num ber of ten ses in c; 1d 1 mon<l- tl1e il· E i,!:!11 ~-nnd the m a nner m which thoy a re formed.S eC~ \ud ~ dition iJl1 ~ruv ed . Bv Ra scoP. G. Green e.' '
In <:onft1 rn.-itY tt', t lw a ct ;,f Congre!-i_s cf ya: Unite d Sta tes , en_tit ~e.d ' 'An Act .for the en.coura~ ement of \enrnio g, hy i.: e.c uriu f tl. e ~oprn s ~' M<lp.~. cha~·ts <ind books , t~ the a1:1tl;101 ~ .~proprietor~
of such copies, dur ing the tuw~s thf're m OIH~ nli.> IH!d ; ' t.111 e1 also, to ri 1 ~ net •. rmhtle?
An Ar~ sup
plmnen.t ary to on acr entitlf:d An Act for tl1 e f'n co~ 1·nf!r:menft<1 flt..cHn.rn g. by .securm ~ t?e copies ~f
map s , 1 'chart ~ and bo ul;.s tn th e au t hors and pruprie1or1' of s nch cop1~ :-. . .~ luring the. tm1 es tli cr.e1n
mentiom~d : a nd fo r i' xtendiu g th e benefit :; thereof to t1w art s of de!" 1g nm g , t?n g~ o v1.ng a.nu et~hm~
historic ;· In: d o tt .~ r ririnr.~ .11 ·
J . MU8SEY, Clerk qf the Dtstric' of Jlfaine •.
A true co1•y 1:1 ~ nf rcc'1nl ·
.\ttest, 1. MUSSEY, Clerk of the Distr·ict of Maino.

Having examined Mr.1t. G. Greene's compilation of English Grammar, and tested its utilily by
nctual experiment'in my own school, I do not h esitate to say that I cousider his arrangment of
the subjec t-matter,and particul arl y his manner of illustratin g the Moods and T en.tt.1, far preferable to any other .syste_m which I have seen. And I confidentl y beiieve that wherever his book is
used, and his pla11 pursued, much la bor will be savid, both to the T eacher and th e Pupil. I there ~
fore earnestly wlsh him success in his laudable und ertaking, an<l ~onfidently hope his industry
will be liberally rewarded by the patron age of th e public.
"HENRY JACKSON," Tu.ch<r of llfonito1'ial Schoo.I No . !.
Portland, Dec. 10, 1828,

The follo wing rtmarks, ji·om the Christian M irror of Jun e 6, are f rom the pen. of Rev . .J.sa C"mm ings.

REf'OMMENDATIONS.
"Messu.

SHmL'EY

& HvnE.

Gent!..!m,•rt · - H ;~vm~ usP.d Mr. GHEENE'S GRAMMAR in my School for a nuwPer o.f:mon~J
past, I do 1101 h .....~itoU! to ~ ay tbilt for it i- simfJir.·l ly und concise11 r-s8, tho ~wo ~ost Mseuhal requisites in a Text Book fnr Srhool.s, I consider u ~util\ecl ton li q?h <l e. ~t"..JI! {I! ment.
J• >S E PH LfJJBY," Teachtr, Clauical School.
Portland, Feb. 26, 1asg.

To

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THE PUBLISHERS.

Portland English High School, }
Feb. 25, 1830
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Guatlemen - 1 ra w1 :11t better express my opinion of. R . G. GREENF.'8 HRAMMAR, 1hanby al•
·,..ring yuu that l lugbly approve Ille School Commillee•s Hloction of it for thi. f:lcbuol.
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J. M. PUIUNTON, Tesel&..-.

".Mr. Gree ne's plan of teachj11g the Englitih Grammar has the best of all recommendntions to
sustain its pretensions-that of "successful experiment.'' He commences with a familiar explanation of the noun, which is the onl y part o f speec h except the interj ec tion, \\'hich can be explained unco nnected with an y other. When the noun, with its person, number aud gender, i:-i
w ell und erstood, he explains the article and Jts uses, a nd then exercises the pupil on examples
prepared for the purpose. H e next takes up the adj(ctive, ex.plaining its variations, office, and
connection with the noun, and exercising the vupil on a variety of examples composed of the
article , adjective and noun. The next in his order is the act .ve verb, which also is fu lly explained,
and the office of a nou n in the nominative case, as an actor. is illustrated by appropriate exer·
ciJes. Into the next following lesson th e adve rb is introduced, and the ex.am pies for exercise con
tain the adve.rb and the parts of speech before mentioned, thus combining what is new, at each
step, w ith what has before been r endered familiar to the pupil. In this manner the pupil is
carried forward, unembarrassed, and understandingl y, from the simplest to the abstruser parts
of' tl1i8 complicated science. He is prepared, by previous acquisitions, to comprehend each part,
as it i8 successively prese nted to the mind. When all the parts ofspeech have been introduced,
aud their characte,·, govtn·nment, agtetm<. nt, &c. are already understood-for which from ten to
flfteen lesso ns are requisite-the pupil enters upon the study of the moodl and t en1es, in which
the same regard to order in the arrangement of examples for exercise is observed, as in the introdli ction of th e several parts of speech. In this perhaps the most ditncult part of Grammar,
the learn er is assisted by Diagrams representing tha mood1 and t en.1es 1 in which their various
characteristics are impressed on the mind, by being presented to 1.he eye. Their regular location in th ese Diagramaa aided by th e principle of association, is admirably adapted to favor t~eir
~ete ntion in the student's mind, as well as tO facilitate his further progress.

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RECOMMENDATION~.

\V.i ien t'he regurar Verbs li're disposed of, ditrer~nt kfo<fs of verbs are intr·o d.uced and· il'ftlstrat'ed'.
followed by iessons- in analytical par:-iiug,-supplying el-lipsea-exercises·in bad syntax-- Pu11ctuaJ
tion, Ilhe foric, Comp~ition , &c .. &c:

T~i s im_perfect ourllne of hie·pl'l n will show'fthat Mr: G'r eene's· mod"e, of reaching is philosophic.al, rn the app.r.oved sense of the term'. As a mun. and a teaclre r. he needs not our recommendation. A five· year's residence in this town has secured him. the esteem. und confidence of those,.
~ll-0 have had the be:>t opportunity to know li.im."
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l'1~he undersigned, having· witnessed· the examination of- a crass· in E'ngli_s h· Grammar und'er

RECOMMENDATIONS.

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'"From ft' Knowledge of the great defects, arising from want of metlod,. in the Jong estabffsbM
mode of h1stl'uction in English Grammar, and also from a n acquain~unce with the syst t.m p-uraued Uy Mr R . G . . Greene, which is now before the public, I am fuHy satisfied th at the progresa:
of the student may be focil-itatet.I thereby, in a degree for exceeding that of any other; and I dQt
contidently believe, th a t no one, who I~~ fuidy al1d imparti3.ll y ex.a m.ined the Same, w ill he~i \&I'°
to give it his decided approbation."
"DANIF:L CLARKE, A. M."
forthmd, Aug. 6, 1823..
Late P.,:eceplo ·· of Warreu .dcadeiuy.

Th e fellowin g, 1)y 1Vill-ium B. Sewall, E sq. i.s taken f 1·om tli..c Portl"and Gazette,,

fllC tuition of l\'lr. R. G. Green e of thi s town , and feel ing desirous to promote 01 e diffu sion of the·

"·W e were rcce11 tl y illllulged with nn oppol'tu11ity of witnetising th e progress made by a cJM&

be ..,t p~·inciple~· of ed.uca(-ion, as weU as to do- n-n ac~ of justice ~o· Mr. GJeene as an instructer,,
de em 1t propf?r ·to state the following foe~.

of yo : • n~ iad ies, having nearly corn 11leted a cour:-:1 e of ius tructiou iu EngHsh Grnmmu, under the

. ~ The cfass e .. . ~mined in our pr&ie.ncc, co-nsis1ed o(se"ve n- Tadies·. They had received t'we·n tv
dmly !eswns; of one· lrnur t:a.ch·,. e.tnd-stated that they had not de vo1e<l more thau one addit-ion~I:
hour to. the s tudy upon a·n tt.Y~age~- each day, rnuking the whol e not to· exceed forty hours. Mos t
of.th ~ m, wh e n they cou,rnenceJ· this course· of lessons,. were entirely un acq uainted with t.h e
J.m n·:.1µles of Grammar.. '1'h.oy no~ appeared to be fumiliar with aU· tile parLs of speech· und.
iheir vnrin:us ~nodi.fi.ca;tio_n~, could rea~ily p~rse flny simple co11struction of the Englis h language,.
und ans we~ ~h.~ ~1~~~ .d1filcu~t quest1011s w1t.Jl. respect t.o th e formation of the seveJ:"al medes aud
UJt UlJ!},e·{\re<l .lo u~ th at t~~ pr~gr-ess· ~f thi~ clns~ fo r the thn e they h.nd d"e vo ted to tbe study
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hall been much greater thsu 1s u1:1unlly made 111 o ur schools und er the ordinary mode of instruc-:
h our u1u.l w e cl~~erfuUy r.ecomm e nd to public pu.trouage btlth the system aud the ma-n."

"Al.HION K. PAThltlS," Governo1· (If the State of ll(ain4 -:
R e v. "A S A I!.ANlt,'' EtlilQr lJost on R r:coJ-·dc1·.
"SEBA SMITH, Jr." A. ~L

tui·t ic111 ofi.\1r. <•ret ne, who hus bt::e n e ngaged in that branch of e duca~ion in this town, for a.few
ll is but justi ce to th e in s tru ctor and his pupils to say that the mod e of explaining.
a nd i!l 1JS!.'.'ftting t, e el e1 n~11t:S of our language, by the system th is ge ntleman has adopt ed, i~ sucl\
a s lO ltu ve IJ.t•e11 Htl <'w.led with un common succe8:s. It is uot merely by a mechanical exercise
of r11 L' ~, : or y t hat tile p11pll is con1lucted in his co urse· o r instru ction, but the r ationale of every
precep r is expiained at each step or his prog ress, umil th e priuciples of gnrnunar and the con-.
atru:·.cion or htngua:-;I! are full ~ tuid clearly unJ erstood. It has been said of old, and the maxim;
lrn.:. truth as well lln ti q aity in its f'u vor, H Thert: is 110 royal way to learning.'' It is undoubtedly
lrn e tlru.t no valuab le iotell P.c lual s up erior ity cau be allained hut by nssiduous aL.Jplica tion and
nnwe uricd i11dustr y; but th a t th ere are more direct np proac;l1e111 to th e eminences of learning~
tirnn are sometim es pur:;ued, cauuot be de 11ied by those who have bee11 in any degree conversani
wi.Lh \he history of the prog ress of th e human m,i11d . Those, who are able to afford us any such
facilities to th e acq ~lisi t. i on of know ledge, in whatever bra nch iL may be 1 are entitled to ~ ubstan­
tiaJ e J1 cou r ligeme11l- ai!li believing, its wt: do, Mr. Gree ne to be altogether deserving, we most corll1U ;:t!1::1 Jlf1s r..

diall y wish him an a1J u1H.l ani harves t of public patronage.''

~'ort~nnd, July 29, 1823/

~ IJ ~vi ug attmafod an ex ami11nLio11 of a duss of yo ung Pu11ils, '"·ho h ad· received !wenty fes ..
son s in ~Hgli ~ h Gnt111111ar fro m llJCif in s tru c t~r, Mr .. R. G. t: r~ene, I am a:bl e to ex pr~ss my t ntirt~ ~oucmTe11 ce in the upiuiou heretotOrt: ce rtil"ied from vari ous quarter~, in regard ~o hi~· q.u a ~i ..
fi ctttIOn alld s uccess in tnis Je;JH:trt1 uc m uf i11 s t1'11r.tio u. I hav e uever witnessed any o1;h~r j.11
to;tun ;,:c or :m ch prolicic ucy in so !S hor t u titn e. i\lr. Greene's iliSl81lCtio n ilLtsLrtt.Les, very forcilJly~
th e iruporuw cc of' i11·cse 11ti11g a cou1plicated subject LO youug rni11U s iu tlistin<.:L and s uccc.ssi.ve·
}J0rtio11s , un <l o f co11.sta11tly calling tiie aueution i.O th e r et1.soi1s nu d gc ut:rul µrin ci,plel!i which a p·
pertain to t.h1H s.ubject."
Hon. " JOSEPH G. KE N U.t"LLL, .'\ . M.'1

Late a 'l'-utor(n. Han..•ard Colt.:ge.·

Leominster, (Ms. ) MllcY 24, 1828 •.

"At the request of Mr. R. G.. Greene, we -visited u School: ~11.sCructed by him i11 E.ngl'isb. Gram·-·
He upp eu1·s to us we ll quali,Jled for p~dUrmiug lids duty.. From th e rapid proficitmcy
mude by ~1\ s Pupils, and from th e. cri ti;caJ anc,J. ~borough e xamina t ion , which we utte u d~d, we:
cheerfully rt::c~mimenJ his course of i11st~1,1,c~i.011, as highly 1ttvorable fbr young men and women,.
who, in the pre~1.4L urrange::: meut of our :-,c.hools,, have. lmt a short s.ea:sou Wr literary i·mprov.e-:
n~a1:-.

mcnt.

'!NATHANIEL 'rlU\'ER," D. D.
"NATHANIEL WOOJ),.~' A, Il .. T1<(or· _f.(,.r~Q•·cl College, Cam.,
Lancaster, (Ms.) Jan . 11 1 1823.

.._ D ear Slr-So far ns J have had opportunity to. examiue your Grammaruf the English Language, I arn sn tl sfieU tlrnt, while it does uot, und should not nim at originality of matt .. ,., its ar.
ran g11tt:n:ts, und vt:ry upprO )H'iate examp les for illu::1trution 1 will be fouud by thtr teacher well
ad.:i.pted to lead the lear ner, s Le p by ste p, throug h th e elernentar)~ forms of the lang uage, tiU he ii·
able to underst.nnd, if uC?t in some cases to anticipate the generalizutions, which a ·e gi"en,.iu
Jhat vurt of the Treatise which follow s th e e lemen tary ins truc tions.
"ResvecLfully, your olJe<lient servant,
llev. ''S. ADAMS,"
P 1·incipal oft~ H igh School/or Fcma/u.,
"Mr. R. G. GREENE.
"Por tland, Pee. 18, Ul2 8."

.fj:xtract f rom tie journal of the p roceedi'A.gs of the A rtisan's Institute ..
"VoC<d, That the ,Society highly approve of the Grammar published by Mr. R. G. Greene, anii:

1hat it be used in the School under their

direction~"

"CHARLES HOLDEN, Chairman."

"L. WHITNEY, Secretary.''
}'orlland, Dec. J 828.

PREFACE.

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A competent knowledge of the Grammar of the English Language, is·
now considered so essential a part of a business education, that no apology
for attempting to render the acquisition of it less difficult to beginners, is
deemed necessary.
In selecting materials for the following pages, (though the system ·o(
Lindley Murray was considered the standard,) the works of other eminent
writers on Grammar were consulted, and their opinions in some instances
adopted. It was not however, th e object of th e compiler to make "
innovations in the sciei1ce itself; but to present an improved method of
teaching it-to give to long established principles, a form more interest-·
ing and usefol to the learner, than any yet presented to th e public.
That oral instruction is calculated to make a more lasting impression'
upon the mind, than that received solely from books, will, he thinks, be ad-·
mitted by all who· are acquainted with the difficulties of teaching this·
science. He has, therefore, presented nothing, in the.first lessons, but the·
Definitions, Rules, and Examples necessary fo r practice in parsing, &c.·
leaving it for the instructer to supply whatever may be found necessary,
by verbal illustration.
The verb, with beginners in the study, is found the most difficult parf
of Grammar ;-uot in itself, but on acco unt of the di fforent .· forms that
it takes, and the great variety of changes which it undergoes in passing
through the Moods and T enses . In order to obviate these perplexities,.and give facility and interest to the progress of the student, the compiler
has formed Diagrams of th e several Moods; presenti·ng, at one view, the'
number of Teuses in each, their Signs, and the manner in which they are
formed.
The utility of these Diagrams has been testea in the instruction of
several Classes; and it is confidently believed, that if properly used, they
will be found as useful in acquiring a critical knowledge of the most complicated part of Grammar, as maps are in the study of Geography.

PREFACE.
Expe.rienee has abundantly s]iown to eve ry teacher ·0f Grammar, 1hat
.iearne·rs, especially young learners, find m11ch difficulty 'in committin g .to
memory the variations of the verb in the several mo ods a nd tenses, and
.etiH more. in understanding anrl retaining th em.
Something rno re .than the mere metaphysical distinction conveyed ·by
words, seems to b e necessary in .orde1· to render the first efforts .Jn this·
.~ubject, successful and pleasant.
A strikin g view of sensible object s, u nder such morlifications as w'ill
~ugges t and illustrate the proper disti nctions, and afford, at a glance, the
:means ·Of comparison, must nece~sai'ily po~·Ee~s for untuto1•ed minds,
:great advantages over the subtle, distilling process of worrls.
Every person, who has at all obse rved the operations of hi s own mind,'
must have felt the power of exteru al object8 i11 call ing 1111 a traiu of ide.as ,
w hich for years be fore, may not have ·recurred to him.
Reflection wi ll always effectually serve those who in di sposing of thefr
a<leas, employ the princi 11le of loca l association. Wh en they touch upon
a link of the well uni ted chain, wbetl1er "tenth or ten thournnd th,'' they
:are able to follow ihe successi·ve co nnection to each extremity.
'.It is u on this u fa iling principle of loca l :associat

ENGLISll GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing th~
En crlish language with p'ropriety
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ft is diviled Into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOJ.OGY, SYNTAX, and PRosonY.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
1gns y w hi ch OUT thou ghts are exp ressed"' says Dugald
'S tuart, "are add ressed either to the eye or to th e ear ; and th e impres.sions made on these organs, at the time when we first receive an idea,
•contribute to give us a firmer :ho'ld of".it. Visible objects are remembered
more easily than th ose of any other of our senses; and hence it is, that
lhe bulk of mankind are niore· aided in thei r recollection by impres~'\ons
.m ade on the e·ye, th an by tffo~e made on the ear. Eve ry per$o n must
have reinarked, in sfot.lyir.g the elemen ts of geometry, how much I1is
.r ecollection ·of the theohmts was aided hy th e diagrams which a re co·n ·fiected with th'erm T.firs a'd.vnntage, which the abjects of sight, ·natura:Hy
:have over :those ·o f 1;·e·ai-fng, 'in the distinctness and permanence of .the
Impression which" they foa'ke·011 the me rnory, continues,and even increase!!
th1•otrg'h life, in the ease -0.f ·tlrn hu lk ·of mankind."

v1·tnography teaches the nature and powers of letten, and the just
1nethod of spelling words .
L etters are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself:
as, a, e, o; which are formed without the ~ e lp of any other sound.
A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly uttered
without the help of a vowel: as, b, d,J, l; which require vowels to express
th em fully.
The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w, and y.
Wand y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in
every other situation they are vowels.
.
Consonants are divided into mutes and senu-vowels.
The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. They
are, b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard.
The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are,/•.
m, n, r, v, s, z, x, .a nd c and g soft.
. .
.
Four of the semi-vowels, namely, l, m, n, r, are also distmgmshed by
the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and
flowin g as it were into their sounds.
.
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A dipthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a smgle rmpulse
of the voice; as, ea in beat, ou in sound.
. .
. A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced m like manner;
as eau in beau, iew in view.
A proper dipthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded; as oi
in voice, ou in ounce.
.
An improper dipthong has but one of the vowels sounded; as, ea m eagle,
oa in boat.

·z,

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ORTHOGRAPHY.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

SYLLABLES.

they take another syllable beginning with a vowel: as, ;vit, witty; thin',
thinnish; to abet, an abetter; to begin, a beginner. ·
But ifa dipthong precedes, or the accent is on th e preceding syllable, the
consona nt remains single; as; to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; m~lt,
maiden, &c.

A syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a
single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or pa rt of a word: as,
a, an, ant.
Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables; or of
expressing a word by its proper letters.
WORDS.

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our
ideas.
A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trisyllable; and a word of
four or more syllables, a polysyllable.
All words are either primitive or derivative.
A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler wQrd
in the language; as, man, good, content.
A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in Engl·ish of-greater simplicity; as, munfol, goodness, couteutment, Yorkshire.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
The orthography of th e English language is attended with much uncer:
tainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconv enieuce may
be remedied, by attending to the general law s of formation ; a nd, fo r this
end, is presented a view of sud1 general maxims, in spelfo1g pri1r1itive and
derivative words, as have been almost universally received.
RULE!.

Monosyllables ending withf, l, ors, preceded by a single vowel, double
the final consonant: as, staff, mill, pass, &i:. The only exceptions are, o:fj
if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus.

RULE VI.

Words ending with any double letter but l, and takiug ness, less, ly, orJul,
. after them, preserve the letter double ; as harmlessness, c11relessness, carelessly, Htifily, sll.ccessful, distressful, &c. But those words which end with
double l, and take ness, less, ly, or Jul, after them, generally omit one l: as,
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fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c.
RULE VII.

Ness, less, ly, and Jul, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it
off; as, palene8s, guileless, closely, peaceful; except in a few words: as,
duly, truly, awful.
RULE VIII.

.J!-!ent, added to words ending with silent e, generally prese1-ves the e from
ehs10n: as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. The words judO'0
ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are df'viations from the rule.
Like other terminations, it changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant: as, accompany, accompanied; merry, merriment.
RULE IX.

./.lble and ~ble, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, almost
alwt~ys cut 1t off; as, blame, blamable; cure, curable; se nse, sensible, &c.;
bu~ 1fc or g soil: comes befo:e e in the original word, thee is then preserved m words compounded with able, as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c.
·
RULE X.

RULE II.

Monosyllables ending with any consonant butf, l, ors, mid preceded by
n single vow el, never double the final consonant ; excepting only, add, ebb,
butt, egg, odd, err, i1rn, bmm, purr, and buzz.
nur.E 111.
\Vords ending with y, preceded by a consonant form the plurals of nouns~
the persons of'verbs, verbal HOtms , past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by chan ging y int0 i : as spy, >"pi es ; J curry, thou carriest; he
.carrieth or carries; carri er, earried; haµp y, happier, 11a ppicst.
The present participle, in ing, retains they, that i rnuy not be doubled;
as, cany, canyin g; bu ry, burying, &c.
But y, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as th e ahove, is not changed; as, boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys, cloye<l, &c.; except in · lay, pay, and
say; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds,
unl aid, unpaid, unsaid, &c.
RUJ.E IV.

Words enrling with y, prer;eded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable bngin ni11v witli a consonant, ~ommon l y change y into i; as,
happy, happiiy, 11appiness. But when y is preceded by a vowe\, i~ is very
rarely c ha nged in the ttdditio ual sylh>.ble: as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood : annoy, annoyed, annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful, &c.
RULE V.

l\fonosyll uhl es, and word s accented on the last syllable, ending with a
:-:ingle coi1sonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant, when

~hen ing, o~· ish, is added to words endin g with silent e, the e is abnost

umversally .omitted: as, place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish;
prude, prudish.
·
RULE XI •

. Compounded words are generally spelled in the same manner, as the
sunple words of whi ch they are form ed : as, glasshouse ; skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words ending with double l , are exceptions to this
rule; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil: and also the words wherever
Christmas, lammas, &c.
'
'

-eeE T Y M 0 L 0 G Y AN D S Y N T AX.
The i;econd part of Grammar is ETYMOLOGY; which treats
of the different sorts of words, their various modifications and
their derivation .
The third part of Grammar 'is SYNTAX, which treats of the
agreement and construction of words in a sentence.

; .

.12

IS

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN

LESSON I.

LESSON II.

·OF NOUNS. A noun is the name of any thing that we cau
see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of.
·

OF ADJECTIVES. An adjective is a word added to a noun,
to express some quality, or circumstance of the thing for
which the noun stands.
·

The noun has four properties, viz. Person, Number, Gender and Case.
. 01' PERSON. Person is· that quality of the noun, which modifies the
verb.
There are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third.
The first person denotes the speaker-the second, the "person spoken
to-and the third, the person spoken of.
'OF NUMBER. Number is the consideration of a n object, as one or more.
Nou11s have two numbers, viz. th e sin gular, and the pl ural.
The singular 11mnber denotes but one object-the plural denotes moro
h an one. ·
01' GENDER. Gender is the distinction of nouns witl1 rngard to sex.
There are three genders, viz. the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter.
The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind-the feminine,
animals of the female kind-but the neuter denotes animals neither male·
!'lor female.

Adjectives have, commonly, no modification but comparis?n.. .
Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express qualitym different
d.egrees; us new, newer, newest.
..
.
There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparatwe,
and the superlative.

Rule 1.
derstood.

F.XAlUPLES TO BE PARSED,
In which it is rtqufrtd of the pupil (in addftion to par.si1lg tht noM.n as i.n tht 1 reatding /es.son)
]' .• rst the .,,;ldjtcti~C! •nconnt.rion with tht noun, and to apply Rxle 1.

Large ships
Green trees
Black clouds

} ar,e seen.

l

} are tastad.

are seen.

Sour grapes
Ripe apples
Sweet plums

} is heard1

~

are taste .

Softer music
Distant thunder
boud laughter

Parsing a w~rd means pointing out the part of speech to wh ieh it Lelongs, nnll naming it f;
properties, r elations, &c.

EXAIUPLES TO B E PARSED,
In tuhich it is r equired of the pupil to name the part of 1peech, and gi11c its perso11 1 1mmbcr, rm«
gender.

Men
vVomen
Trees
vVines
Apples
Plums

Every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or un-

'

d

i\Iusic
'fhunder \is heard.
Echo
Odour
Incense
·is s111elled'
l'erfume

Sweet fragrance
Delightful odour
Rich perfume

} is s111elled,

Deep sorrow
Ecstatic Pleasure
Greatest fear

}isfelt.

J oy
F ear
Hope

Future events
Celestial regions
Endless miseries

} arc conceived oj'.

t

Time
Space
Vacuity

\is f elt.

I

is concei-ved of

· Q.UESTIONS.

Who.tis a NOUN ?-How many properties have no uns ?-What are the~ called r-What I~
m eant by person ?-H ow many perso ns hu.ve uouni ?-What doc8 eu~h perison denote ?~Whu~
is number ?-How mun v nmnben1 have 11ouns ?-Whut ure they cull~U .-What tloes the ~m&ruhu
number denote t-Whllt doe~ tho plurul number demote t-Whut is m eant by Gender .-~l?w
uurny Genders are th ere ?-What does th e l\Iasc uliu e Geuder denote ?-What doe~ the Femrnuu·
Gender denote I-Wh at doe• the l'\vuter Ge11dor denote 1-Wuut i• meant by pars111; R woru !

Q.UESTIONS.
WI

·

.

t~

ADJECTIVE >-Have ad jectives any properties ?-What moditlcation• have they ?
-Ho~t~~~ degree& of co~imri~on are there ?-,Vhat are they co.Bed ?-What rule &o you 1:.n·e
when yo u pu.ne an atlje<'. tivc ?

14

EXERCISES IN

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX .

LESSON III.

LESSON IV.

OF ARTJCLES. An article is a word prefixed to nouns,
and pronouns, to limit their signification.
There are two articles-The i• called the de.finite ar.ticle, a
or an the indefinite.

OF VERBS. A verb is a part of speech whiduignifies
act ion, (being or suffering.)
An a ~tive verb denotes action, either of matter or mind.

.!J.n and a are one and the same article. An, is used when the following
word begins with a vowel sound; as an urn, an hour; and a when the following word begins with a consonant sound; as a meadow, a horse, &c.

Rule 2.

The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) in limita-

tfon.
EXAiUPLES TO BE PARSED,
. Jn which it is required flj the pupil (in addition t o pars ing tke noun and adjective
in~ lesson) to ptJr•c tlte .Article6, and to g·hu; Rule 2.

The largest vessels
The tallest forests
The brilliant stars

} are seen.

The choicest fruits
Th e ripest melons
Tlie finest wines

1
J

A true report
A distant sound
A loud voice

I

in the preced-

J

is heard.

} is smelled.

An acute pain
An eager joy
An ardent wish

} is f elt.

The celestial spheres
The highest heavens
The acutest pains

} are conceived of.

Rule 3. .J1. verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person.
EXAMPLES TO IlE PARSED,

a~

are tasted.

A sweet perfume
A refreshing odour
A delightful incense

OF CASE. Case is the condition or situation of the noun in reliition to
other words in the sentence.
.
No uns have three cases, viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
.
.
The nominative case to an active verb denotes the doer of the act10n.

Q,UESTIONS.
What is an ARTICLE ?-How many articles arc there ?-Which is call ed th e definite ?-WhicJ1
li called the ind efini te ?-In wb.at cases hi a Uiiied ?-When is an used ?-What rule do you give
when rou parse an artjcJe ~

In which it is required of th e pupil (in addition to parsing tht. article, adjective, and noun as in the
p1·cccding ltJsson) to tdl the ca.Ye of the now~-d•isti»gu.·i.sh the active ve1·b, give its penon and number,
its agreenunt with ·its nominative, cnul apJ>ly Rule 3.

A brave soldier fightsA valiant chieftain conquersThe worthless coward tremblesAn honest tradesman prospersA n industrious pupil studiesA true friend reprovesThe aged veteran tottersThe wisest men errThc lonely captive rnournsThe imprudent youth sufiersThe furiou s lion roarsThe awful thunders rollThe smallest birds singA modest female blushesAn artful culprit begsThe wilful sinner diesAn idle student playsA careless reader blundersThe angry tempest ragesThe foaming billows dashThe active farmer thrivesTAe pupil should be required to repeat the rule applicable to ea.oh part .of •sptech
curs in the exercises, fO'r the piopose of rendering its application farniliat-.

al 'Often .a.a .it

Of.:
·

Q,UESTIONS.
What is a VERB ?-What is an acLiVe VERB I-What is CASE 1-Ifow many cases have
Nouns ?-What does the Nominative Case to an aetiv< verb denote I-What.rule do you gtve
·wllen you parse a verb?
·

16

17

EXERCISES IN

'ETY.MOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

LESSON V.

LESSON VI.

OF PARTICIPLES. A participle is a wor<l <lerive<l from
a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb an<l of an adjective.

HELPING ADJECTIVES AND HELPING ADVERBS.
The words* very, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, . too,
and some other words, are called helping adjectives, when
they 1-X:odify adjectives-when they modify adverbs, they are
called helping a<lverbs.-Blair.

The present participle is formed by adding ing, or ning to th~ present
tense of a verb; as,
Speak-speaking-fly-flying-go-going-run-running.

OF ADVERBS. An adverb shows the manner, the time,
or the place, in which an a~tion is done, when adde<l to a verb,
or to a participle.

Quite small children read exceedingly well.

Ad verbs have no properties; hut they are of different kinds: as, of manner, time, place, &c.

OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead 'of a
Noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word.

Rule 4.

.B.dv.erbs qualify verbs and participles.
EXAMPLES

·ro

BE PARSED,

In which it is requit'ed nf the pupil (in addition to par1ing the a1"t·icle, adJtctive, mmn, and tttttivf
"t:wrb,) to distinguish the Adverb, point ou.t the word it qualifie1, and apply Rule 4.

The angry waves dash violently
The heavenly bodies revolve steadily
The small bird sings sweetly
A prudent Jlerson speaks cauti01isly
A good servant 1aboursfaithfully
A large stream flows rapidly
A swift horse trots nimbly
An old man walks slowly

EXAllIPLES.

VenJ large ships sail very rapidly.

A personal pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of what
person it is.
There are five personal pronouns ; viz. I, Thou, H e, She, and It- with
their plurals, We, Ye or You, They.
A '.!'ABLE OF '.!'HE PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN '.!'HE THREE CASES.
S ING U LAR NUMBER.

manner.

A brave general embarks to-day
The old ship arrived yesterday
An able statesman speaks to-night
An industrious student improves daily
A large army encamped here
The stoutest yeomen march hither
A wealthy farmer lives there
The gallant stranger travels thither

Rule 5. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, (or are governed by prepositions.)

.First person.
JVom. I,
Poss. Mine,
Obj. Me.

2d person .
Thou,
Thine,
Thee;

Reading slowly, boys read correctly.
Judging hastily, people judge erroneously.
Q,UESTIONS.
What is a PARTICIPLE?- How i• the Present Participle formed I-What is an A~VERB !
-Have Adverbs any properties ?-What rule do you give when you parse an adverb .-What
rule do you give when you parse a participle 1

His,
Him;

3d per.Jein.
She,
H ers,
H er;

3d per. neu·
It,
Its,
It;

PLURAL NUMBER.

Ye or You,
Yours,
You.

Nom. "Ve,
Poss. Ours,
Obj. Us.

They,
Theirs,
Them.

They,
Theirs,
Them.

They,
Theirs,
Them.

EXAllIPLES TO BE PARSED,
In whU;h it is required of tht pupil ( \n add·ition to the prtcc:ding txtrcUts) to decline:, and parse:
tlae personal pronouns.

Ari industrious boy studies-he learns exceedingly fast.
A beautiful girl dances-she moves quite gracefully.
The largest book falls-it falls very frequently.
The young ladies sung-they sing extremely well.
I write-thou w ritest-he writes- we read correctly.
You walk.-They play.-We run.-They work.

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED,
In which the pupil (in. addition to parsing the other words) will distinguish the Present Participle,
tell what word it refers to, and apply Rule 5.

3d per. mas.
H e,

Q,UESTIONS,
What is a PRONOUN ?-What is a personal pronoun ?-How many personal pronouns are
there ?- Name them. · Declin e each person, in the singular and plural number.

*These words are commonly denominated ADVERBS · of DEGREE; and
are parsed as such under the Rule "jj_Jverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, par,
ticiples, and sometimes other ad11erbs."
·

3

IS

LESSON VII.

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 'rhe words Who, W!i-ic!t,
and That, (when That can be changed into who or which) are
relative pronouns.
These pronouns are called relative, pronouns because they
repre~ent either antecedent words, or phrases.
CASES OF THE R E LATIVE PRONOUNS.

Sin. Nom. Who,
Poss. Whose,
Obj. Whom;

"VHo is applied only to persons.
Ptu. Nom. Who,
Poss. 'Vhosc,
Obj. Whom.

w·mcn is applied to animals and things . .
Sin. Nom. "Vhich,
Ptu. Nom. Which,
Poss.--Poss. - -Obj. Which .
Obj. Which;
THAT

Sin. ,Nom. That,
Poss. - Obj. That;

is applied to persons, aninials, and things.
Plu. JVom. That,
Poss. - Obj. That.

'Vhen no nomin ative comes between the relative pronoun and the verb,
the relative is the nominative.

Rule 6. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in Person, Number, and Gender.
EXAlUPLES TO BE ' PARSED,
In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding erenisu) to decline, and pa1·sc
the relative pronouns, an.cl apply Rule 6.

---The men

----

( men
who work well

)

labour very diligently.

A 'horse

( horse --)
which trots hard

travels very rapidly.

A horse

( horse
that trots hard

)

travels very r apidly.

The boy

( boy
that reads well

)

speaks very slowly.

- -- The man

(man
)
who speaks to-day

----

- - -- -- - - -spoke here, yesterd ay.

Q,UESTIONS.
What words are called RELATIVE pronouns ?-Why so called ?-Decline the rel•tiv_e pronoun who ?-To what is w ho applied ?-Der.line the R elative TJ,:hich. To w lrnt 1s u.:h1ch applied ?llccline the Relative thal. 'fo what· is th•t applied?

19

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES. IN

LESSON VIII.

OF INT ERROGAT IVE PRONOUNS.

T he words Who,

Which, and What, when used in ask ing questions, are Inter-

l'Ogative P ronouns .

·

EXAlllPLES TO BE PARSED. ,

Who labours here? 'Vhich performs best? What flo ats hither? Who
speaks to-day? Which came here yesterday? Who believes sincerely?

OF ADJECT IVE PRONOUNS. Adjective pronouns are
of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives.
There are five kinds of Adjective Pronouns.
The
"
"
"
"

Possessive are My, thy, his, her, our, your, their.
Distributive are Each, every, either.
Demonstrative are This, that, these, those, former and latter.
Indefinite are Some, one, any, other, all such.
Interrogative a re Which and what (when prefixed to nouns.)

Rule 7. E very adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood.
EXAIUPLES TO BE PARSED,
Jn wh·ich it is required of the pupil (in addition to the prtceding exercises) to parse the adject-ivc
pronouns, m~ll apply Rule 7.

My pupils improve daily. Thy son studies hard. His horse trots nimbly. Every child walks well. This young lady dan ces gracefully. That
man speaks wisely. Some people live carelessly. Every pupil (that studies diligently) parses fluently. He (who speaks naturally) speaks eloquently. Those (who attend steadily) improve very fast. ' Good men
live happily- th ey die cheerfully. Who sins lrnowingly? ·which sings
best? That stream flows very rapidly. Our pupils parse exceedingly
well. Which company meets to-day? Wh.a t officer commands here?
"Vhen the preceding ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are not prefixed to nouns,
they are parsed as pronouns merely, viz. "Demonstrative pronouns"- " Indefinite pronouns," &c. having person, nw11ber, gender, and case.
Q,UESTIONS.
"Whot words are coiled INTERROGATIVE pronouns ?-What are adjective pronouns ' - How
mnny kinds of adjective pronouns nrc thcre t-Whnt are they called ?-Nume th e possessivedistrihutive-dcrnonstrntive-iudefinite-interl'ogative. \Vhat are tbesc words called when they

arc not

prctl.~ed tQ

uouus?

20

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN

LESSON IX.

LESSON VIII.

OF ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND ACTIVE-INTRANSIT IVE VERBS . An active-transitive verb expresses an action
that effects an object.
An active-intransitive verb expresses an action, confined to
the actor.
. *The objective case denotes the object of a verb, (participle, or preposit10n.)
.
Government means the influence that one word has over another in directing its case, &c.

Rule 8.

Transitive verbs govern the objective case.
EXA!UPLES TO BE PARSED,

I n. :v.hich it is 1·equfred of the pupil (in addition. to the preceding exerc·ises) to distinguish the act·ivt:
tru:n..nh v e, und the active intramitive verbs- parse the nouns in the objective case , and apply Rule 3.

The base tyrant slew his friend treacherously.
A generous man bestows his favors seasonably.
That accomplished lady spends her time properly.
This wealthy farmer cultivates his land thoroughly.
Every valiant sgldier performs his duty promptly.
A profligate prince bnrdens the poor needlessly.
An indulgen t master govern s his servants easily.
Our genero.us commander pardoned him instantly.
My noble companion releived them effectuall y.
Each worthy member performs his part cheerfully.
The young girl reads*
A correct scholar speaks
That aged veteran hears
A careless penman writes
The new vessel sails
Those little birds fly
A wide stream flows
The m ail coach arrives

(
(
(
(

(

"
"
"
"

(

(
(

21

) correctly.
) slowly.
) distinctly.
) badly.
) rapidly.
) swiftly.
) smoothly.
) daily.

Q.UESTIONS.
What does a TRANS ITIVE VERB express 1- \Vhat does an intransitive Verb express ?-What
does the Objective case denote?- What is meant by government?-What rule do you give on
parsing a noun or pronou n, governed hy a transi ti ve verb?

*All active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates-when they
do not govern such an object, they are intransitive.

Rule 9.

Participles have the same government, as the verbs have
f ronl which they are derived.
EXA!UPLES TO BE PARSED,
In which it is rt.quired of the pupil (in addition to the preced·i ng exercilu ) to parse th e woriU gol.t~rned by

the participles, and apply Rule 9.

The farmer caught the boy stealing his apples. We saw the stranger
writing a letter. The officers arrested the man carrying off goods.

o ·F CONJUNCTIO N S. A Conjun ct ion is a word that is
chieflv used to connect sentences, so as out of two, or more
senter;ces, to make but one : it sometimes connects only words.
Conjunctions are of two kinds, Copul ative and disj unctive.
Copulative-and, if, both, that, then, since, for, because, th erefore.
Disjw1ctive-but, or, nor, as, th an, lest, though, unless, notwithstanding.
Note 1. The conjunctions and, or, nor, aml as, are used for connecting
words, as well as sentel)ces.
The other conjunctions are chiefly used for connecting sentences; or
members of compotmcl sen tences.
.Note 2. A simple se ntence contains but one verb, and a noun, or a pronoun with which th at verb agrees as its nominative; as," the heavenly
bodies revolve steadily."
·
A compound senten ce contains two or more simple senten ces; as, "Time
flies suYiftly" and" death approaches."

. Rule 10. .Nouns and Pronouns connected by conjunctions must
be in the same case.
EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED,
lnwhich it is required of the pupil (in addition to the exercises in the preceding lusons) to parse
the conju1lCtion-:point out it s office in eonnectin!," words and senteneei, and apply Rule 10.

H e and she saw the transaction. J\'.ly friend kn ows him and her. H e
or she wrote this letter. The officer arrested him or his neighbour. I-le
rides and walks alternately. They read or write continually. The f7rm er
bought and cultivated the land.
The snow falls very fast and the storm rages violently.
My neighbour resides here or he gave false information.
Your son improves fast because he studies cWigently.
Our pupils write badly but they read correctly.
QUESTIONS.
What is n CONJ UNCTION ?-How many kinds of Conjunc.tions are th ere ?-What are tlicy
called ?-Repent the Copu lative. Repeat the Disjunctive. Name the Co11j 1rncti ons th nt Plre
used for connecting single words. What constitutes a simple Henteuc" ?-Whut constitutes a
compound sentence?-\.Vhat rul e do you give for the Conjunction ?-Whrt.t rul e do you give o"
parsi ng a noun or pronoun, governed by a participle?

ETY~fOLOGY

EXERCii:iES IN

LESSON X.

AND SYNTAX.

23

LESSON XI.

OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions serve to connect words,
and show the relation bet ween them.

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
notes the possession of property.

A list of th e principal prepoi'itions. .11.bove, against, auout, after, amidst,
across, among, athwart, at-behind, below, before, beside, beneath, between,
betwixt, beyond, by-conce:rni11g-down, durinf$-exccpt-for, froin--i,n, into
-near-of, on or upon, over-round or aroima- since-throwrh, throughout,
till, touching, towa.r d-under, imderneath, up-witk:.i, without-out ojover against-ne:rt to-according to--i,nstead of, and some other words.
Note. 'When the preceding words do not govern the objective case of

*The possessive case of nouns, in the singular number, is formed by
tidding an apostrophe, followed by an s, thus {'s) to the nominative; and
in the tplural numb{i-, when the noun ends ins, by adding an apostrophe
-0nly.
THE THREE CASES OF NOUNS.

nouns or pronouns, they become adverbs, conjunctions, &c.

Rule 11.

Preposit'ions govern the objective case.
EXAMPLES TO IlE PARSED,

In 1uhich it is required of the pupil(in uddition to thtp rtctd in.g exercises) to purse the prepositio n.s~C. lfOVtrned by thtm-u11d to apply Rule 11.

nouns,

They confided in. him. H e spoke unto them in parables. They called upon h er in person. The mast foll athwart the ship. He walked with
me by moonlight. My friends reside beyond the mountain. The fleet sailed down the river. He stands above me. The man lives over the store.
The General march ed on that day against the enemy. The stranger
passed up the hill, near the fort, and he saw a vast plain below him. He
walked before me for the space of an hour. His fri ends fo llowed after him
during the day, and on the next morning, they found him behind a cabin
in the forest.

OF INTERJECTIONS. The interjection simply expresses some sudden emotion of the mind. It has no connexion
with the sentence, nor any properties belonging to it. Tlie
principal Interjections, are, Ah ! 0 ! Alas ! Fie ! Poh ! &c.

9

7

3

2

14

Q,UESTIONS,
What is a PllEPOSITlON I-What is meant ~y the government ofa wordl-Wl1at i$ an IN•
TEilJECTION I

Norn.
Poss.
Obj.

Nam. Women,
Poss. Women's,
Obj. Women.

"Voman,
Woman's,
Woman;

Noni. E agle,
Poss. Eagle's,
Obj.
Eagle;

Nam. Eagles,·
Poss. tEagles',
Obj. Eagles.

Noni. Deer,
Poss. Deer's,
Deer;
Obj.

Nom. Deer,
Poss. Deer's, (ors')
Obj. Deer.

EXAMPLES TO IlE PARSED_,
In which it is requiud of the pupil (in addit'ion to the preceding exercises) to distinguilh t!ae noua.r

t Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The -officer's conduct destroyed all hopes of success. He doubts the gentleman's
integrity. A friend bears a friend's infirmities. The deepest sorrow prey~d upon that amiable lady's mind. She rang for her child, and in its infantine caresses, she forgot her misery. His opinion coincides with mine
"
His performance deserves no commendation but h ers " does.

5

\Vhom ye ignorantly worship him declare I unto you.
1 lost a book yesterday which my friend found to-day.
The farm which you bought I improved many years.
The gentleman whose house you built lives very genteely.
The person whose name you mention left town yesterday.

Plural.
Nom. Men,
Poss. Men's,
Obj. M:en.

and pronoun! in the poue11ive ca1e-point out their gO"Oernmcnt, and app ly Rule 12.

EXAIIIPLES 'TO IlE PARSED.
6

Singula1..
Nom. *Man,
Poss. Man's,
Obj.
l\'Ian;

Rule 12. .fl noun 01· a p1·onoun, in the possessive case, ·is gov·erned by the noun it possesses .

\Vhen a nominative comes between the relative and the verli, the relative
must be in the possessive case, and gove rned by the following noun, or in
the objective, and governed by the following verb or some participle, or
_preposition, in its own member of the sentence.
8

The possessive case de-

Q,UESTIONS.
~

What does the possessive case <lenote ?-How is the possessive case formed ?-How is the pos1essive case formed in the plural, when the singular and plural are spelled alike in the no1ninative r-How is th e singular of proper names ending ins, formed ?-H ow is a noun in the posse•-'
sive case governed ?-Decline the nouns, man, woman, eagle, and deer.

t Proper names ending in s, in the singular number, form the possessive,.
by the addition of the apostrophic $ ('s) to the nominative; as, Thom:is'!'I
almanack, Niles's Regiilter.

.24

EXERCISES IN

LESSON XII.
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED,
Containing all tht /iirts of speech.

Religious intolerance drove our fathers from their native country. They
sought an asylum in the trackless wilds of America. H ere, in voluntary
exile, they lived free . . H ere, they worshipped their God accordii1g to the
dictates of their own consciences. To them liberty appeared more lcively
in her wild mountains, than tyranny ( " ) in his gaudy palaces. From
such men we originated. They instilled into the minds of their children,
a love of that liberty ( " " " " " " " " " ) a hatred of that
tyranny. They cherished independence of mind in their offspring, and
" ) entwint::d it so firmly with their existence, that it grew with their
growth, and ( " ) "strengthened with their strength."
Two centuries rolled on- th e wilderness blossomed like ( " ) the
rose ; and our free and happy colonists soon increased to the number of
three millions. About that time Great Britain commenced a system of
oppressive taxation. This measure aroused their indignation. They considered taxation and representation as inseparable ( " ). In parliamerlt
they had no voice-and, therefore, they resolved on freedom or death.
Ah! then came the "tug of war!" But the wisdom, ( " " ) valor, and
( " ) example of the illustrious Washington, inspired a band of hardy
heroes, who (rising in defence of their wives, ( " ) their children, and
( " ) their homes,) led us from bondage to freedom, and ( " ) secured, to the nation, a glorious independence.
"Ve now enjoy the fruits of the labours, .( " " " ) toils, and ( " " )
cruelties which our fathers suffered. Cities, ( " ) towns, and villages
spring up in the forest. The 'vilderncss becomes a garden. Peace and
plenty, handin hand, wander through our happy vallies and ( " ) sport
upon our mountains. The wealth of distant nations pours into our lap;
and our enterprise explores every section of the globe.

ETY~OLOGY

25

AND SYNTAX.

0 F THE M 0 0 D S AND TENSES .

Mo~n is a J?articular fo~·m

?f the verb, showing ·~l;e manner in which
t~e b_e:ng, actwn, .o:· p~s:1on? 1s repre.s~nted. There are five; viz. the Ind1catn e, Subjunctive, I o,ential, lnfimt1ve, and Imperative.
The Indicative Mood simply indicates, or declares a thing.
Tense is a distinction of Time. The Indicative Mood ha~
s 1x te_n ses; v1z.-the Presellt, the Imperfect, the Perfect the Pli:iperfect
t 11e First, and the Second Future Tenses.
'
'
. OE" TENSE:

. Thh~ P r~s~nt Te~se represents
1n w 1c11 Jt 1s rnent10ned.

::in

action or event, as passincr at the time
"'

~'he I_mperfoct.~ense represents an action either as past or finished or
as 1 emamrng unfimshed at a certain time past.
'
T l~e P erfect Tense not only refers to what is past but also
all11 s10n to the present tim e.
'
conveys an
~fhe Pluperfect Tense represents a thino- not only as a~t but also
pr10r to some other point of time specified i~ the sentenc!. " '
as

_The Fi1:st Future T ense represents the action as yet to come, either
with or without respect to the precise time.
The_ Second Future T ense intimates that the action will be fi 11
complished, at or before the time of another foture action or eveut y ac-

01: Co_NJUGATJON. ~onjugation literally means, uniting a Verb to its
d
Nomrnat1ve case, of chfferent numbers and persons in the ;\f d
T enses.
'
n oo s an
..Y~rbs ~re,, called reg ula1: when their Iuipeifect Tense and Perfect p ._
t1c1p e ate ronned by addmo· to the Present Ten
d
ai
the verbs encl in e. All othe~· verbs are Irregulm~. se e ' o1
only when

i .

EXAiUPLES OF REGULAR VERBS.

Present Tense.
I walk,
I learn,

Iinpeifect Tense.
1 walked,
I learned,

Perfect Participle.
walked.
learned.

EXA!UPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

"The food (that nourishes the body) contains the elements of its decaythe soul (that animates it by a vivifying fire) tends to wear it out by its
action. Death lurks in ambush along all our paths."

Present Tense.
I go,
I break,
I find,

Imperfect Tense.
I went,
I broke,
I found,

Perfect Participle.
gone.
broken.
found.

The following is a list of the irreo-ular verb ~ as the
used. Those marked with the lett~r r aclin1·t"a'!so of tyl are nolw g,,enerally
1e regu ar ronn.
·,
·
'
Q,UESTIONS.
What is Mood ?- How many Moods are there ' - H

·

·

·

~ct1on or event ?- '"':hat is the meaning of Tense ?-n~,'; does t?e u~d1cnt1ve mood r~pr~sent nn

t1on of each. What is meant by Couju«alion ~ \Vh
many renses are there ?- Give a dctini0
cs.lled irregu1ar?
J at verbs iue called regular ?-What verbs nro

4

EXERCISES IN
iJrut..nt.

P resent.

I abide,
I am,
I bea r,
I beat,
I begin,
I benrl,
I beseech,
Ibid,
I bind,
I bite,
I bleed,
I blow,
I break,
I breed,
I bring,
I lrnikl,
I burst,
I buy,
I cas~,
I catch,
I chide,
I choose,
I cling,
I co me,
I cost,
I creep;
I cut,
I deal,
I di g,
I do,
I draw,
I dream,
I driv e,
I ch-ink,
I dwell,
I ea t,
I fall,
I fee d,
I foe l,
I fight,
J find,
! flee,

21

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

~6
lmpcr.

P erf

P ar t .

abode.
I abode,
been.
I was,
borne.
I bore,
beaten.
I beat,
begun.
I began,
bent, r
I bent, r
I besought, besought,
bidden.
I bad e,
bound.
I bound,
bitten.
I bit,
bled.
I bled,
blown.
I blew,
1-!roken.
I J:irpke,
bred.
I bred,
I bro ught, brought.
built, r
I built, r
burst.
I bun;t,
I boug ht, bought.
cast.
I cast,
I caug ht, r caug ht, r
cliidclen.
I chic!,
I chos·e ,
chosen.
clung.
I cluug,
CO!lle.
I came,
I cost,
.cost.
I crept, r crept.
cut.
I cut,
I dealt, r
dealt,r
dug, r
I dug, r
I did,
done.
I drew,
drawn.
I dTemnt, n drea1nt.
I drove;
driven.
drunk.
I drank,
I dwelt, r dwelt, r
I ate,
eaten.
I fell,
fall en.
fed.
I fed,
felt.
I felt,
fought.
I fought,
found.
I found,
I fled,
fl ed.

P resent.

J fling,
I fly,
I forsa ke,
I fi·eeze,
I get,
I gild,
I gird,
I give,
I go,
I grind,
I grow,
I hang,
I have,
I he ar,
I hirle,
I hit,
I hold,
I hurt,
I kn eel,
I lmit,
I know,
I lade,
I lay,
I lead,
I leave,
I lend,
I let,
I lie,
I Jose,
I make,
I mean,
lm!')et,
I pay,
I put,
I quit,
I read,
I reave,
I rend,
I rid,
I ride,
I rin g,
I rise,

Imper.

I flung,
I fl ew,
I fo rsook,
I fro ze,
I got,
I gilt, r
I g irt, r
I gave,
I went,
I ground,
I grew,
I hung, r
I had,
I heard,
I hid,
I hit,
I held,
I hurt,
I kn elt, r
I knit,1·
I knew,
I 1:1.Lled,
I laid,
I led,
I left,
I lent,
I let 1
I lay,
I lost,
I made,
I meant, r
I met,
I paid,
I put,
I quit, r
I read,
I reft, r
I rent,
I rid,
I rod e,
I ran g,
I rose,

P C>f ,.Pa rL

flung.
flown.
forsaken'.
frozen.
got.
gilt,,.
girt, r
given.
gone.
gro und.
grov.rn.

hung, 1·
had.
heanl.
hi1lclen.
hit.
h<J ld.
hurt.
kne lt, 1:
knit, r
known.
lad en.
la id.
led.
left.
lent.
let.
lain .
lost.
made.
meant, 1:
met.
paid.
put.
quit, r
r e a cl.
reft, r
rent.
rid.
ridden,
rung.
ri se n.

I
I
I
I

run,
say,
see,
see k,
1 sell,
I se nd,
I set,
1 shake,
I shed,
I shine,
I shoe,
I show,
I shoot,
I shut,
I shred,
I shrink,
I sing,
I sink,
i sit,
i slay,
I sleep,
I slide,
I sling, _
I slink,
I slit,
I smite,
I speak,
I speed,
I spend,
I spill,
I spin,
I spit,

Imper .

I ran,
I said,
I saw,
I sought,
I sold,
I sent,
I set,
I shook,
I shed,
I shone, r
I shod,
I showed,
I shot,
I shut,
I shred,
I shrunk,
I sang,
I sunk,
I sat,
I slew,
I slept,
I slid,
I slung,
I ;Junk,
I slit, r
I smote,
I spoke,
I sped,
I spent,
I spilt, r
I spun,
I spit

P e?f. Part.

run.
said.
see n.
so ught.
so ld.
sent.
set.
shaken.
shed.
shone,?'
shod.
sliown.
shot.
shut.
shred.
shrunk.
sun g.
sunk.
sat.
slain.
sle pt.
sli1lclen.
sltmg,
slunk.
slit, r
smitten.
spoke11.
sped.
spent.
spilt, r
spun.
spit.

Present .

I split,
I spread,
I spring,
I stand,
I steal,
I stick,
I sting,
I stride,
I strike,
I string,
I strive,
I swear,
I swe ep,
I swim,
I swi11g,
~ take,
I teach,
I tear,
I tell,
I think,
I throw,
I thrust,
I tread,
I w ear,
I weave,
I weep,
I win,
I wind,
I wont,
I work,
I \Vring,
I write,

l rnpcr

Pc,f.

Purt.

split,
I split,
I spread, spread,
I sprang, sprung,
stood.
I stood,
stolen.
I stole,
stuck.
I stu ck,
stting.
I stung,
i strode, stridden.
struck.
I struck;
I strung, r strung, r
I strove, r striven, 1'
.s worn.
I swore,
swept.
I swept,
swum.
I sw am,
I sw ung, swung.
taken.
I took,
I tau ght, taught.
torn.
I tore,
told.
I told,
I thought, thought.
thrown.
I threw,
thrust.
I tlirust,
trodd en.
I trod,
I wore,
worn.
woven.
I wove,
I w ept, r w ept, r
I won,
won.
I wouncl,r wound.
I wont, r wont,r
I wrought, rwrought, i
I wrung, wrung.
I wrote,
written.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

A defective verb is a verb whi ch wants some of th e principal partili
All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are detective.
The following is a list of the defoctiv e verbs.
P e1fect Participle~,
finp e1fecl.
Present.
are wanting,
May,
n1i glit,
Can,
co uld,
---Must,
must,
Ought,
ou ght,
---Shal1,
shonlrl,
Will,
wo.ulcl,
QnotJi.
fji!Oth.

28

•..29

EXER CISES IN

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

VARI ATIO NS OF TH E DEFE CTI VE AN D AUX IL! All Y VEJtllS.

INDICATIVE l\IOOD.

Have vari es bo th in the secon<l and th ird persons. Must has no vnrio.tio u. Q uo th is u.J so a dctec 1ive verl>, a nt.l has n o variatio n. The ot her defec tive verbs vury o nl y in th e scco ml person
. " ingula r; thus,

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing.

Singular.
P re.sent

Imperf ect
P res.
Imptr.
P 1·es.
I mper.
P res.
lmpe1·.

P res.
l mp c1·.
P resent
~

Imper.

I,

Thou,

He,

May,
l\I ight,
Cun,
Could,
Sh•ll,
S hould,
Will,
W ould,

May-st,
M ight-st,
Ca u-st,

!\I ny,
M ight.,

Have,
H ad,

~Ought,

Cnn,
Could,
Shall,
Should,
W ill,

H u<l-.¥ t,
Ought-est,

Oug ht,

O ught.

S hal-t,
S hou ld-st,
'Vil-t,
VVou ld-st ,
H o.s-t,

Per. Part.

Imp.

I
Thou
He

l\·I ight,

Clln,
Could,
Shall,
Sho uld ,
Will,
\ \7ould,
Jl u.s,
Ji n. cl ,

Couh.l -~· t,

P·re6.

Phira/.
\Ve, Ye oi·Yo u, They.
May, ,

Have
H ast
Has

We
Ye
They

\ Vo uld,

H ave,
ll ad,

I
Thou
He

E X PLA NA TIO N OF TH E DIA GRAM ON THE ll lC: llT l l Ai\D P AG E .
This D iag1·am is divided into six sq uRre:;, to represe nt the six tCIHiCS or the lndirnt ivc Jt food. The
fi rst squ are represents the pn~scnt tense , a nti the s cco11d th e imperf ect. Th ese \Jcing si111ple tenses,
fo rmed w ithout th e a i<l of au xiliari es, the squares re prese nting the1n 1 contain nothin g but the pron ouns with w h ic h, in coujugnting, the verb, write) a nd its imperfect ten se, wro te, are to be united j
th us ,

Hau
Hadst
Had

We
Ye
They

Shall

or

I

Had
&c.

Thou

Will

He

Have

We

&c.

Ye
They

INDI C ATIVE MO OD.

Presen t T ense.
Sin . Nu111 .
I w rite,
Thou wr it-est,
He write-s;
Jmptrftcl T eme.
S i11.Num.
I wrote,
Thou wrote-st,
He w rote;

Pluperfect.

Ptu . .Nnm.
\ Ve wri te,
Ye or you wri te,
Th ey w rite.

P tu. Nw11.
\ Ve w rote,
Y e or yo u w rote,
They wr ote.
Perf ect particip le wr it ten.

The 3d squ are rep resen ts the pe1fect tense; the signs of w hich !.Ire hu.ve a nd its varia tions.
The perf ect tense is fo rmed by prefixing the sign , Aave, hast or hus, to the perfoc t pa rticiple (w1·itte1l) as is indicated by a li ne of reference con necti ng th e f urme1· w ith th e latter- formin g the
phrases, I have written-Thou. hast written-He has written, ~c.
The 4th s quare represen ts the pl11,pe1f ect t ense; the signs of which arc hnd nnd its varia ti on.
The pluperf ect tense is fo rm ed by prefixing the sign, /uu.l or lwdst , lO th e pe rfec t par ti ciple
(written) as is ind icated b)• a li ne of refere nce co nnecting the f ormer with th e la tter- fo rmi ng the
phrases, I had writt en.-T/i ou hadst written-Ht had writt en, ~c .
The 5th square represents th e fi rst ftt ture tense ; th e sig ns of whi ch are shall a nd will and th eir
variatio ns.
Th c fi rst fut ure tense is for med by prefix ing th e sign, shall or will, shalt or wilt, to the present tense of the verb ( tdfite) as is indicated by th e li ne or refe re nce co nn ec ting the form.er with th e
latur- formin g the phrases, I shall or will write-'!'lwv.shult or wilt write-H t shall or will write, t c.
The 5th sq uare represe nts th e sccond f 11,tm·e tense, the signs of w hi ch are shall have a nd will have
and their vari a ti ons.
The second f uture tense is formed by prefuing th ese signs shall have and will have to the perfect
participle (written) ns is ind icated by the li ne of refere nce co nn ec ti ng th e form er wi th th e /attcrforming th e phrases, I sh all have written-Thou wilt have written- He will have lvrittcn, ~c.

1st Future.

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED

-

, In wlti ch it_is required of the P1f]!il, in paraillg the verbs, to tell whet;er the are re'"·'
.rreg.~lar-wnet/J.e: tlteyare transttivr. or i ntra n sitiv e-give the mood and tense ~'Mmbe 6 ;:r, or
~on OJ each, and its agr eement wit/, it• nomitiative, t\-c.
'
r a per7

! w~ite. ~hou write~t. We ~rite. Ye write. They write. She writes.
The girl ,wntes. Your son wntes elegantly. His pupils write daily. I
wrote. 1 hou wrotest. He wrote. We wrote. You wrote. They wrote.
The boy wrote yeste~day. The clerk wrote the letter. I have written a
Jet~er. Thou ha~t written before. He has written repeatedly. We have
written ou.r copies. ·You have written enough. I had written before
you saw him. Thou hads.t written in the new book. He had written
:any letters. :We had written, our ex~rcise~. Ye had written ten pa0es. I shall write y.-morrow. Thou wilt wnte again . He will write to
yo~. ~ e sha.11 wnte to them. Ye will write to your friends. They will
write 1~med1ately._ I shall have written ·ten letters by to-morrow noon.
TJ;iou wilt have fimshed thy work. H.e will have completed his engagement.
QUESTIONS.
How does the indicative mood expres s an action or event ?-How man· t enses has iL
called '?- -What nre th~ ~ig!1s
the µer feet tense '? .:_Ho w is it form P.d 7-Wha!-;!'~!
fo~med 7~~~~pClrfect~-1:fow JS Jt 1urme1l ? --\Vhat are the si~n s of thei fir st future'?-How is it
tenses express p'a~ ~eti~ e ;1gHns of tb(.} sfec" nd fu1ure.'?-How is it fo rmed 7--H•Hv maay uf thesa
e ow many utnre ?-Cmuugate the verb 1orite, through the tenses.

:ren';1:1

of

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS.
H1we :vaT'i~s both in the second anµ third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a defective verb, antl bas no.variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person sin~
gulaq lh.u •,

SinlJlilar.
I.
.

Thou,

May -st,
Might-st,
Cau-st,
Could-st,
Sbal-1,

PreuP.t May,
Im.pei{e,ct l\1 igbt 1
Press.
Lan,

lmpe~.

Pre• .
Jmp•t·

-0 ·1Uld,
Shall.
Shoulii,
Will,
Would,

Can,
Should,

\Vi\ .t,
Would-st,
Ha!'-t
Had-st,

Shall,
Should,
Will,
Would,
Ha s,
llad,

Ought-st,

Ought.

~hollld-st,

P ,·es.'
lmper,.
Pres.''
Have,
Impe r.
Had,
P res"('tl
<\- .
Ought.
Imper.

He,
May,
Might,

· The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a conditibl), motive, wish, or supposition.

.
Plural.
'We Ye or You, They.
May,
Might,

II

Can,
Could,
Shall,
Should,
Will ,
Would.

~

1

Have,
Had,

I\

Ought.

Pres.
Study

If

If

Have
&c.

If
Th o'
Lest
Unless

~~

&c.

EXPLANATION OF .THE DIAGRAMS ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE.
Thia Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tensea of the subj un ctive m ood.
The f\8.IDe1t ~f tbeso tenses are like those of the mdi ca tive ; viz. tb o present, the imperfect, the per..
feet, tllc rilupr.rfect, the first future, and the 5ocond. Each tense has th e same sign, or sii:ns, and
is formed in t\le same mann er as its correspondent tense in the indicative mood.
Tbe 11rincipa& differt n.:e between tbe conjugation of a verb in ·t he indicative mood, nod in the
subjuoctive, i~ the Present t oose, consi sts in the latter's beir.g alway& preceded by 9. conjunction
expr:ssin1t, ~- do\lbt, n;otive, wish or supposition (as is indicat1~d by the list of conjunctions given
on the left of the diag'ram,) and wbon futurity is denoted, in the verb's not varying its termination
in the seconcl and tJ1i; d person singular, as it does in th e indica tive.
When the verb has nu reference lo future time, but sim ply expresses a doubt, motive, wish, &c.
th ough in the subjunctive mooll, it. varies on account of the person of ils uomiaative as it does iu

Perftct.

Present
If

Shall

H ad
&c.

I If

&c.

Shall

Have

Pluptrfect.

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED,

the indicative; and is conjugated thus,

0

1n which it is .required of th£ pupil (in addition to the preceding exerciua) to disti•p•h 14a
TJtrbs , in the subjunctive mood-conjugate tht.m, and explain tll.e difference be.tween t4e BUl!functiv•
mood and the indicative.

SUBJUNCTIVE MO OD INDICATIVE FORM.

Present Terue .
Sin. N11.m.
Jr 1 s tU<ly,
1f thi>u .: tudiest,
If he studies;

.SI

ETYMOLOGY. AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN

Plu. Nu11i.

He will study if 1 re~uire it. Thou wilt study if I give ( " ) thee
t!te stage arrive in season. We shall leave
a book. We shall go
town to-morrow. ~nl ess it st01·m. I shdl go without him unless he come
s~on. ?n ~on~1~1on that lte come I will consent to his proposal. He
SUDJUNCTIVE MOOD ELIPT!CAL FORM.•
will !Il~mta1.n his argument, thoug h he lose his reputation. He will gain
Present 'l'cnse.
Sin Num.
Plu. Num.
a~misswn.J[_. lte pass the guard. He will unish his n.emies though
~~~~~~~~~~--'I~f~l-st~n~d~y~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-"I~f~11~.•~s,~u~d-y,~~~~~~~-ll1-~~~-+h~y-desjnse n1s po\ver.
ir thuu study,
If ye o r y ou study,
,If ~te desire it! I ~ill perform the operation. Tlioug lt he ·slay me,
If he study.
I f they study.
yet w1ll. I t~ust. m him. .Tlwugli lie excels her in knowledge, she exceeds hm1 m \'Jrtue. I will support him if lte conduct honourably.
Jf we study,
If yA or you stuqy,
If tbey study.

The r en1aining t enses of the suhjunctive mo 'ld are conjugated like the corresponding tenses of
th o indicativP. n1 ood, except, that · a conjucti ci n cxp re s!> inct a doubt, motive , &c. i; used before the
verh; and, that will an d w ilt., arc not used 111 form in~ lhe second future tense.
.. Ue10r.e thi s f 1rm of the subjunctive mo••d, !lome ~uxilit1ry h understood; as in lhi following
. e1.a1nµles-0 lfl study," i.e. u If I (s bJuld) study" - 0 If thou sLUdy," i.e. '' Jf thou (shuuldst)
0

study."

if

QUESTIONS.
How does the subjunctive. ::nooc1 express an action or ev4nt 'l How
·
are they callcd7--Does tl.Je present t ense of tbr. sub·
. ..
. many tenses bas tt 1-Wbat
the indica tive 7-In what p~rticular does it dilf~r 1 _.:~c.uv~ ~-'ffid f~iffcr frC?m .the. pre.sent tense of
feet tens e.1-Wbat are the signs of th ~ erfect
I oesfi1t t er 10111 tho md1cat1vc in the impersubjunctivc ruood 7-- How is each tense rof1:n ed 7_'....y~ ~bert ect, _fir~! n~d "e~ond futur? ten.s es of tb'e
onr~ futu.re ten se differ from th a t of the indicative1-~hparhcu. ar ~~s \Uc format~on of t~1e secsUPJunctive mood·7-0olijugnto the verb Uu.dy , thro~gh allatht oco,•~unctiofnsbs:i.re
u.sed 1!1 forming r.he
enses o t e sutuunct1vo mood.

32

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN

POTENTIAL MOOD.

VARIATIONS OF THE .DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VliRBS.
Have varies botli in tho second and third p~rsons. Must bas no variation. Quoth is also a clofective verb, and hns no variation. The other defective verbs vary <.i nly in tbe seco n<l person singular ; thus,
Singular.

I,
Present
May,
Imperfect Might,
Pres.
Oau
Imper.
Could,
Pres.
Shall,'
Imper.
Sbould,
Pru.
Will,
J11iper~
Would,
Pres.
Have,
Jmper.
Had,
Present~
and
Ought,
Imper.

He,
May,
Might,
Can,
Could,
Shall,
Should,
H as,
Had,

Will,
Would,
Have,
Had,

Qnght-est,

Ought,

Ought.

WouhJ,

obligation.

Plural.
We, Ye or You, They

Thou,
tMay-st,
Mig ht-st,
Can-st,
Could-st,
Sha! t,
Should-st,
Wil-t,
Would-st,
Has-t,
Had-st,

Will,

The Potential Mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, or
It has four tenses.
Imperfect
Struck

P1esent

May,
Might,
Can,
Could,

Shall,

Per. Part.
Struck

Illig ht
Could
Would
or
Should

l\tay
or
Can

Should,

.

&c.

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE .
This Diagram is divided into four sq uares, to represent the fo~1· tenses of the Potential Mood .
The tst represents the present teuso ; the 2d, the imperfect ; the Sd , the perfect; and the 4th, the

.

pluperfect

The signs of the present te11se, are may and ca1t, and I.heir variatious,
-The present tense of tbo JJOtential mood is formed by profi.~ing the sign may or can., to the verb
(strike) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter-forming
the· phrases-/ may or can strike--T/iou mayest or canst strike- ·· He may or can strike, ~c.

=-

May
or ,
Can
Havo
&c.

L-

~~
~--

Might
Could
Would
or
Should
Have

.

Pluperfect .

TLe signs of the imperfect tense are might; could, would, and slwuld, and their variations.
The imptrfect tense of the potential moo<l is formed by prefixing th e sign ·might, eould, would.

or should, to the verb (strike) as is indicated by the liue or reference connecting the former with
the latter-fQrming the phrases-/ migltt, could, would, or should 1orite-Tl1.ou rnighlst, c<JU7:dst
t~ouldst, or 1houldst write-He migllt, could, would, or slwuld write, 4-c.

The signs of the pefect tense, are may or can lta1:e, and th eir variations.
The perfect tense of the potential mood i s formed by prefixing tho signs may or ca'Jt b.ave, Co the
perfect participle (struck) as is iudicated by the line of rcfe r en~e connecting the former with the
latter-forming the phrases-/ may or can 11.ave struck-Thou mayest or canst II.ave struclt.-He may or C41• h.aru struck, 4:-c.
The signs of the pluperfect tense, are might, could, would, or sltould have, and their variations.
The pluperfect tense of the potential mood is formed IJ}' prefixing the signs, might, could, would,
or should have, to the perfect participle (strur.k) as is in1\irate<l by ~e line of reference connecting the fornu:r w ilh the 10.tter- forming the phrases-/ might, could, would, or sllOuld ltave struckThou miglLtst, couldst, wouldst, or sho~ldst have struck-He migltt, could, 10ould, or should 11.ave
struck, c.\-'t.

Shall and Will, when they deuole inclination, resolution, or promise, may be considered as well
ns their variations skuflld and would, as b13longrng to the potentlol mood . But as they g'enarally
signify futur11y. they have been RlJpropriated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses uf the im.tico.ative anc.l subjunctive moods..

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED,
In whieh it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding ezercises) ta
parse, a!'d conjugate the sevtral verbs, in t!te potential mood.
·

djatin~h,

I may strike thee. Thou canst strike the man. He may strike the
soldier. We can strike them again. You may strike him. They may
strike the boys. I might strike them together. Thou couldst strike
the man's dog. He would strike him-We would strike thee-Ye
might strike them-They might strike us-I may have struck the·
wrong person-Thou mayest have struck-He may have struck his
antagonist. I might have struck my enemy. Thou mightst have
struck the master.. He might have struck the soldier. My-fr-iendwrites letters very often. He wrote many letters to his friends. -1 will
attend if he require it. Thou wilt hurt thyself, if thou injure him. He
acts uprightly unless he deceives me. We shall arrive by noon unless
it rain. I will trust in him, though he slay me.
QUESTIONS.
How does the Potential 1\lood oX"Press an action or event 1-How ·many tenses has the potential
mood 1-Wbat are they called 7--Wnat are the signs of the present t.ei:ise? --· How is the prasent
tense. of tho potential muod form >":c.l'?- What are the signs of the im perfect teose ?-How is it
formed 7---Wha.t Jt.re tb e s igns of llle perfect tense '!-How is it formed 1--Wbat are tho signs of
the pluperfect tense 1---How is it formed 1--0onjugate the •erb >trilr.e through all the tense• of~
pote.u tial mood,

5

EXERCISES IN

ETYMOLOGY AND·' SYNTAX.

V AUIA TIO NS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Have varies both in the second and th ird persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a de ...
1
fective verb, and bas "Do variation. The other' defective verbs vary only in the second person sin·gular i th.us,

Singular.
I,
Present
May,
Imperf.ct Might,
Can,
.l?reaent
Imperfect Could,
!'hall.
·Present
Imperfect Bbauld,
Will,
Prutn t
Imperfect Would
Present
H ave,
, .
· Imperfect Had,
PreBBnt
~

} Ought,

Thou,
May- st,
Might-at,
Can-st,
Could -st,
8hal-t,
Should-st,
Wil-t,
Would-!t,
Has-t,
Had-st,
Ought-est,

H e,
May,
Might,
Cao,
Could,
Sha11 ,

Should,
Will,
Would,

Has,
H ad,
Ought,

Plural.
W e, Ye or You, They.
May,

Might,
CaH,
Cc•uld,

Shall,
Should,
Will.

The Infinitive Mood expresses an action or event, m !l general a'n d
unlimited manner, without regard to number, or person.

It has but

two tenses ; viz. the present and the perfect.

r

P1'esent

Imperfect

Go

Went

Would~

Have,.
Had,
Ought.

Imperfect
EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE.
This Diagram is divided into two squares, to represent th9 tenses of the Infinitive Mood: Tbo
tirst square represen ts tbP. present tense, which is formed by prefixing to , the sign of the in:finitiYi&
mooc.1! to the verb1 (go) as is indicated by the line of referenco connecting the f orm er wi1b the lat ter--forming the phras e, to go.
Tho second square represents th e perfect t ense, which is formed by prefixing to have to the perfect .participle ( g11ne) as is ind.icated by the line of reference cunnecting the former with the ta.tter
-forming the phrase. t~ have gone.
When a verb in the infinitive mood follows make, need, sec, bid, dare, feel, hear, lt t, say, knOfJJ,
have, observe, behold, perceive, or their participles, th e sign to is omitted; as, I.make him study.-!
bade ~im do it.
Ez.ceptiou~ The sign To is sometimes employed after need st know, have, &c. as in ~e following examples, and some others.
"Vice is a m oni:i tflr of so frif?'htful mien,
As to be bated needs but to be seen. 11 --Pope.
"One needs no more than to observe how strong-ly we are touched by mere pictures.'' The use
·of to after need is frequent among the best writers, especially, wllen there are any intervening
words. Have, d enoting possession or obligation, is generally followed by to; as, "I .have to
write daily"--" I had ·t o do this." When have implies volition, to is ge.nerally omitted; as,
'~ Would they have us reject so good an offer 1"
The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sen tence, supplying the place of the cor.junction that, with the potential mood; as,'' To confess the trut~ I was
io fault;" u To begin with the tirst ;" " Tu proceed;" ''Tu conclude;" that is, "Thai I may
tconfcss," &c.

To

To Have

PrcHnt Tense

Perftcl Ter;1e

Rule 13. The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun,
adjective, or participle.
EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED,
Jn which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises,} to distiagvilh, conjvgate, and farse, the several verb:r, in the infinitive mood, and to apply Rtde 13.

He promised to go immediately. They intended to destroy their
enemies. He ought to embrace the first opportunity. The boy ought
to have studied grammar earlier. She expects to see her friends from
the country. No person can expect to improve without application;
We see many persons conduct themselves very foolishly. He will not
let the people go. He made each man perform his duty. He saw the
fleet enter the harbour. He began to figure to himself the miseries of
confinement. She resolved to do good and to avoid evil, without regard to the opinions of men. I dare say he wilt arrive in season.
QUESTIONS.
How does the infinit·ive mood express un acti\ln o r event 7 -· Hnw many tenses has it 7--'What
are they called'?- -- What is callPd the sign of the in5"ltive mood 7 ..• \Vba1 are the signs of the perfect ta nse'?--How is the present tcmrn of the infinitive moud formed 7 --How is tbei ;>erfP.cl tense
formed 7. --Is tho sign lo always prefixed to a verb in the infinitive m6ocf1--When should it be
omilted7

36

ETYMOLOGY AND

EXERCISES IN
VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILTARV VERBS.

Have varies both in the second and third persons. !\lust bas no variation. Quoth is also a defec..
tive verb, and ha s no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person · singular;
thus,

Singular.

Present
Iinperfect
Present
Imperfect
Present
Imperfect
Prese1't
Imperfect
Present
imperfect
Present
~

Imperfect

I,
May,
Might,

Can;
Could,
Sha JI,
8houlcl,

Will,

~~~'.d·

l

Ought,

I

Thou,
May-st,
Jllight st,

He
May,

Oan-st,
Could-St,
Shal-t,
Should.st,

Can,

Wil.t,
Would.st,
Has.t,
Had-st,
Ought-est,

Might,
Could,
Shall,
Should,
Will,
Would,

Plural.
We, Ye or You, They.
May,
Migbt,

. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

.

The Imperntive M ood is 11sed for C•Hn rnand ine;, exhorting, en~

treating, or permitting. It has but one Lense and one person; viz:
the present tense, and the second person.

Can,
Could,
Shall,
Should, ·
Will,

Had,

Would,
Have,
Had,

Ought,

Oui;ht.

Has,

~YN'T'AX.

Present Ttmse

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE.

Singular

Plura.l

Tlle Diagrams representir.g the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, and the Infmilivc Mood~..
are subdivided to in<licate the number of tenses in each mood; viz. that for the Indicative Mood, into
six square s, to show that, tbat mood has six tezu:es; that for the Subjunctivo, into the same num ber;
that for the Potential into fou r; that for the Infia•i tive ioto two; but the ImPerative, having but one
tense, tile Diagram representing it, remains entire.

March thou

March ye

or

or

Do thon marcil

Do ye m;irch

As verbs v~ry for person and number, as well ns for mood nnd tensa, it has been thought more
convenient and useful , (on the page opposite each Diagram) to present the verb with referencA only
to ·its variations for person and number, and afterwards to inculcate by means oftle Diagrams, the
distinctions of mood and tense.

By these remark s it is bclievert that any-in telligen t pupil will be enabled to conjugate r eadily and
understandingly the following verbs --viz. Write, in the IndicatiVBl'mood; Study, in the Subjunctive; Strike, in the Potential; Go, in the Infinitive; and March, in the Imperative. ~fter which,
he will be' able to conjugate any other verb in the samo mann er, with fluency anrt correctness.
In pbilos.opbical stricthcss,"botb number and person might be entirely excl uded from ev.e ry verb.
They are in fact, the properties of nouns, not a part of the essence ofa verb. Even the came of tho
Imperative Mood, does not always correspond to its nature; .for it some times petitions as well as
commands. But, with r espect ta these points, the practice of our grammarians is so uniformiy fixed, and so analogous to the lan g uage s, ancient and modern, which our youth hal' e to study, that it
• ould be an unw a rrantable deg ree of innovation, to deviate from the established terms and arrange.
·men ts.

EXAMPLES

•ro BE PARSED,

Jn wldchit is rcq11.irc1l of tlle Jntpil (in addition to tile vreccdin" exercises) to disti11,-'1'uish
conju0
gate, and parse the several vei·bs in t!Le imp1:rativc mood.
.:o
'

Study ( " ) thy lesson. Study ( " ) your less~n s. Go ( " ) to
school in season. Depart ( " ) from me imm ediat, ~: Behave( " )
well if ,t,hou lovest _virtue. Imitate ( " ) thy superiors in wisdom.
Lov~ (
) . t~y neighbour as thou lovest thyse.Jf. Waste ( " ) not
~hy time ..Omit ( " ) 110 oppor.tunity for improvement. A void ( " ) sin,
1f you des1r~ to esc~pe temptat10n. He can write elegantly or I have
m1sta'.rnn his e,xerc1ses.. Let ( " ) no ma.n pi;ete nd to superior attainments unless he can fairly support his claim s. H e can excell me if he
chooses. The man" might have seen his fri end if he had asked permission. Betray (
) not thy friends. R ender ( " ) rrood thinrrs
fo1· evi'l ( ," ) - L'1ve ( " ) proper ]y t Jiat you may die cheerfully.
"'
"
QUESTIONS.

38

EXERCISES IN
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

REMARKS ON CONJUGATION.

Insfead of the form-of conjugation already given, which by way of
distinction may be denominated the com11Jon, or simple form, we often prefix th e n euter verb BE, or AM, ( as a n auxiliary) through all ih;
moods and tenses, to th e present participle; thus, I am writing-Thou·
art writing-Fie is writing, ~·c. This may be called the participial
· form of conjugation.
When we mean to express ourselves with energy and positiveness,
we prefix the verb oo and its variations as auxiliaries, in forming the
present and imperfect te nses to the verb ; thus, I do w1"'i te-Thou dlf}t
write-He does write, ~c. This may with propriety be called the em-.
phatic form.
EXAMPLES OF THE THREE FORMS OF COJUGA TlON.

Participial Form .

Simple Form .

Emp!tatic Fonn .

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular Number.
I am writing,
Thou art writing,
He is writing,
Plural Number.
We a re writing,
Y e are writing ,
They are writing,

I write,
Thou writest,
He writes,
We write,
Ye write,
They write,

I do write.
Thou dost write.
H e does write.
"!/Ve do write.
Y e do write .
They do write.

IMPERFECT TEN SE .

l wrote,
Thou wrotest,
He wrote,

•

We wrote,
Ye wrote,
They wrote,

Singular Number.
I was writing,
Thou wast ~vriting,
H e was writing,

I did write.
Thou didst write .
He did write.

Plural Number.
We were writing,
Ye were writin:Jt,
They were writing,

W e did. write.
Y e did write.
They did write.

Rul e 14. Verbs connected by conjunctions must be ·in the same
mood and tense, and of the snme form of conJ"uga11:on .
.EXAMPLES TO llli.! PAHS ~ <;D,

•

In which. 1~t is 1·er111.ired of the pupil , (in ari1l ition to lltc 11uccd i 11.![ e.1 rrr: isr.s) in pan1:nl! tlte verb, tu
tlistmguis lt the form of c1mJ11gatiMt, pu inl uut tlte office oftltc co1~juuctiu11:J, a.wl up ply Jl11 lc 14.

He did tell ( " ) his fault, and entreat me to fo rg ive him . If thou
siricerely des i.re, and really seek virtue, tho u wilt find he r. My friend
is writinrr letters and 'Se ndin rr them abroad. H e will succee<l, and obtain his ~nd. Ile rides or w~lks daily. They are pursuing their e nemies, a nd destroyi ng th e m with the sword.

S9

. A neut~r verh expresses neither action, nor passion, but

:m11ply berng, or a state of being.
CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB, BE ( OR .J.M.)

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.
lam,
Thou art,
H e, she or it is. ·

Plural,.
We are,
Ye or vou are
They are.
'
IMPER FECT 'l"ENSE.

Sing1ilar.
I was,
Thou wast,
He was.

Plural,.
\Ve were,
y e or ~' OU were,
fhey were.
l'ERFECT TE NSi:.

Plural.
\Ve have been,
Ye or vou have been,
They have beeu.

Singnlar.
I have beeu,
Tl1ou liast heen,
H e has been.

PLUPERFi:CT TENSE.

Plural.
\,Ye had been,
Ye or yo u had been
They had been.
'

Singular.
I had been.
Th ou hadsi been,
He had been.

FIRST FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.
I ~ hall or will be,
Thou sl1alt or wilt be,
H e shall or will be.

Plural.
\Ve shall or will be,
Ye or you shall or will be,
They shall or will be.
SECOND FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.
I shall have been,
Thou wilt havc been,
H e will have been.

Plural.
W e shall have been,
Ye or you will have been,
They will have been.
PARTICIPLES.

Present Being,-Peifect Been,-Coinpound Perfect Having been.

ETY~IOLOGY

AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN

40

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Singular.
Plural.
I might, could, would, or should have We might, co uld, would or should
been,
have been,
'fhou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
Y e or you rn!ght, could, would, 01'
shouldst have been,
should have ue en,
He mig ht, could, woulcl or shotilcl have They rni ght, could, woukl, or should
been.
have been.

Elliptical Fb1"11i,

Indicati·ve Form.

Singular.

Singular.
If I am,
If thou art,
Ifhe is;

If l be,
If thou be,
ff he be;

'Plural.
Ifwe are,
If ye are,
If they are.

Plural.
Ifwe be,
If ve he,
If th ey be.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present tense, To be,

Pe·1fect tense, To have been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
IMPEllFh'.CT TENSE.

Singular.
Ifl was,
If thou wast,
Ifhe was;

Singular.
Ifl were,
If thou wert;
If he were;

Plnral.
·lfwe were,
If ve were,
If they were.

Plural.
Ifwe were,
lfve were,
J(they were.

I.

Singular.
Be thou, 01· do thou be;

Plural.
Be ye or you, or do ye be.

OF PASSIVE VERBS. A Passive Verb expresses
tion, done to its own nominative.

an ac•

The remaining tenses of this moocl are conjugated like the corr~~pond-.
1mt tenses of th e indicative mood, exc·eptmg, thut will and wilt a1e not
used iu forming the second future tense.

To form a passive verb, prefix be, am, art, is, are, was, were,
wast, (wert,) or been, to ihe Perfect Participle of a transitive

POTENTIAL MOOD.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

verb.
THE PASSIVE FORM OF THE VERD LOVE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Phmil.
"Ve may or ca u h e,
_ Ye or you m ay or can be,They may or cau be.

Singular.
I may or can be,
Thou mayst or canst be,
He may or can be;

PRE SF.N 1' TENSE.

Singular.
I am loved,
Thou art loved,
He is loved;

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Plural.
Singular.
I might, could, would, or should be, 'Ve mi!l:l1t, co uld , wuulLl, or should be;
Ye or'-you 111ight, co uld, would or
Thou mightst, coulclst wouldst or
shonld be,
· shouldst be,
Th ey might, could, would or shouldf
He might, could, would, or should
he.
be;
PERFEC'l' TE NSE .

Singular.
I may or can have been,
Thou mayst or canst have been,
He may or can have been ;

Plural.
"Ve may or can have been,
Y c or you may or can lrnve been,
They may or can Jiave ueen.

Pl1tral.
·"Ve are loved,
'Ye or you are loved,
Th ey are loved.
BIPF.RFECT TENSE.

Singular.
I was loved,
Thou wast loved,
H e was loved;

Plural.
vV e were loved,
Ye or yo n were loved,
They v.-ere loved.
Q,UESTIONS.

How many forms of conjugation are there ?-,Vhat nre they called ?-How is each formWh a t is a neuter verb ~ - Co 11ju ~;-lte th e neuter vcrh Be or Am, through th e
everul tenses of the Indicati ve, Subjunctive, Pote nti ul, Infinitive and Imperative i\Ioods, an<l give
il<s prefcnt, perfect, and compound perfect purticiplei.
t:d ?-{See prigc 38.)

6

42

EXERCISE: S

PERFECT 'l'E NSE.
Plural.
'Ve have bee n loved,
Ye or you have heen 101·e1l.
They have bee n loved.

Sing ular.
I have been love1l,
Thou hast been loved,
.
He hath, or has b eeu loved;

PL UPER}' ECT TENSE.
Pluml.
"Ve l1ad bee n loved,
Ye or yon had been loved,
They had been loved.

Singula.r .
I had been loved,
Thou hadst been loved,
He had been loved ;
l ' IR S'l'

Singular.

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

IN

43

Rule 15. .fl. Peifect Participle, itnconnected 1vith an au:i:iliary,
relates to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes.
EXA!UPLES TO DE PARSED,
In wh ich it is ~·e9ufred of th e pu.pil, (i't aclditio1• to th t preceding exercises) to distinguish, and pnrst
the perfect pw·tic1pfrs, 1md to <tpply Rub: 15.

The Captain found the ship considerably injured. H e di scovered a
soldier badly wounded. They left th e prison stro ng ly guarded. He met.
a gentlcm:rn neatly dressed. 'Ve saw a man sorely aftlicted. My neighbor !Jlll'Chased a house w ell furnished.

}'U'l'URE TENSE .
Plural.
W e shall or will be loved.
Ye or you~hallorwill be loved ,.
They shall or will be loved.

I shall or will be loved,
Thou shalt or wilt be loved,
lle sh a JI or will be loved ;
SECO.'ID FUTURE TENSE.
Pl'ttml.
Singiila.r.
We
shall
have been loved,
I shall have been loved,
Ye or you will J1ave been loved,.
Thou wi lt ha1·e b een loved,
They will l1 ave been loved .·
H e will have been loved ;
The Nomin::ttive to an ACTIVE verb denotes the doer of the aetiou.
The Nominative to a NEUTER verb denotes m erely tl1e subj ect of the
ve rb.
The Nominative to a rAssrvE verb denotes the sufie rer, or receiver of
the action.
·
EXAMPLES TO DE PARSED,
In which it is rcqufrcd of th e pupil ( (n adclition to the pn!ctding exercises) to distinrru,ish, ciml pa rse tlie
passive and nt11ttr t1trbs.

The Lottery is drawn by th e Manager. The manager draws the lottery. The goods were purd1ased by th e merchant. The merchant purehased the goods. H ealth is promoted by exerci se. Exercise promotes
health. The thief was taken by the officer. The officer took the thief.
The goods w ere sold by the Auctioneer. The Auctioneer sold the goods.
The house w as furni shed. The rogue was detected. I am in good h ealth.
Thou art in business. He is in Europe. '\Ve are in good company. You
are with your friends. They are in constant employment.
Q.UESTIONS.
What is a passive verb ?-I-row is u passive verb formed ?-What do es th e nomi11n1ivc to nn active verb de note ?-Whnt does the 11omi11utiv e case to a pn~s ive verb denote ?-Whut ck,es th e
nom inati ve cnse to a newer verb denote ?-Conjugate th e verb Love in th e passive form, through·
the <litrercn t tcm:es of th e sevel'n1 moods.

Rule 16.

Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs take the samt
after as before them, when both words signify the same person, 01·
thing. '"
ca~e

EXAIIIPLES TO BE PARSED,
Jn which il is requi~·ul 1if the pupil ( in tlddition lo the preceding e.-1:ercis1:s) to rlisti11guish, and parse the
nouu.s and p1·onouns m the nomfoutive cusc liftt1· the scvernl i:trbs, und. to npply Rule 16.

Washington was a brave general, and an able statesman. This gentleman is my protecto r, and friend. Addison is a teacher of wisdom, and
a faithful copier of lifo and manners. Death is the kin g of terrors. I
know him to be my fri end. *Who do es he think that we are.? She fo ll
a victim to de spair. She walks a goddess, am! sh e moves a queen. Her
name was called Penelope. Bonaparte was made emperor of France.

Rule 17. Two or more noiins, or nouns and pi·onouns, meanincr
the same thing, and having the same grammatical relation are ptd
'
by apposition in the same case.
EXAltlPLES TO UE PARSED,
ln which it is requfrcd of the pupil (in addition to th e p receding e:rercisrs) to di.Jtinguish the nouns
and pronouns 1 in apposition, and to uzJply Rule 17.

Artaxerxes the king, decreed that Ezra, the priest and scribe of the law,
should be obeyed in all things. Paul th e apostle, was a preacher of righteousness. I paid the money to the merchant, him who bought your
house.
"'The indicative mood •imply indicateii or declares a thing, or asks a
qtiesl.ion.

44

EXERCISES IN

Rule 18. .fl verb, having two or more nominative words connected by the copulative aud, must be of the plural form.
EXAJlIPLES TO BE PARSED,

ETY'VfOLOGY AND SYNTAX

45.

Ru le 22. The Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is some- .
times the subject of a ve rb, and ther~fore its nominative.
EXA!UPLES TO BE PARSED,

Jn whii'h it is 1·cpi.ired of th:.. p npil (i1~ culditio11 to the p1·cct:ding cxr:rc-isrs) t o d istinguiJh t he words conneclt'd iJy and, crn.i, on pa.s:ng the t.<t:rb agri.efug w it h tht-m., to apply Rule J 8.

I n which. it is 1·equired of t h: P"fil (in addit ion to the precerz.ing e:rerci..s~·~) to distingu ish, a tld par:ie
·
t ht p h:·ascs th aifo rm t he nomuwl 1vcs to th r s··vu-al v1·1·bs, and to apply Rule 22.

Diligenc e and industry are m aterial duti es of th e yo un g. 'Vealth and
titl es are th e gifts of fortu ne. P eace and contentm ent are tli e pec uliar
endowments of a w e ll-<l ~spo se d mind. Time and tide w ait for no man,
Quin the comedian was a grea t wit.

To err is human nat ure-to forgive, divin e. To eat is pleasant, but to
fast is wh oleso me. To b e w ell aC' ciuainterl with one's native language, is
nothing to boast of; but not to be w ell acquainted with it, is a di sgrace.

Ru le 19 .

.fl verb , having two or more nominatives connected by
the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of th e singiilar form .
EXAiUPLES TO BE PARSED,
Jn which it is reqidred nfth c pupil (in wltlit io11 to t he preceding ert::1'Ci$CS) to clistimrv.ish the words co11nccted by or mul n or, and to apply R ide 19.

fV!t en the par ticip le of th e neut er v erb B >:, pr eceded by a transitive v erb 01•
a p r epo sition, i s ac~ o mp ani e d by a noun , adjective , or adve1•b, it f r equently 11u:ke&
p art of a substant ive phra3e , an.a . the whole phra." i s i~ the obj ectiv e case, and
.governed by the precedi ng t rans it i 1Je ve·r b, or tlie prep osition.
EXAMPLES.
An Indian will resent his being deni ed the use of his musk et. T J1e atrocious crime of being a young man, J shall n either attempt
to palliate or deny.

The m aster or l1i5 servant is greatl y in fault. Indolence or intemperan ce is the cause of his misfortun e. He or she has do11e this mischi ef.

0 F E L L I P S I S.

Rule 2.0.

When a noun or pronoun has no verb to ag ree with it,
but is placed bejore a partic1]1le, it is in the n ominative case absolute.
E XAlUPLES TO BE PARSE D,
I n wh ich it 1·s required of the pupil (in addition to the pn!cecling ext:rciscs)t o cli6ti11g-uish, and pane
the word s, in t he Cl W! uhso{u!e, aml to apply /lute 20.

The business bei1 1g fini shed, th e court adj ourn ed . The sun being ri sen,
the d ay becam e fi ne. The orator having fini shed his disco urse, th e p eople reti red. Th e wiu tc r being se vere, th e inhabitants sufie red. Barlow,
the book-seller, h as publi :;hed th e Garland, _a valuable work.

TJ1c omission of any w ord s n ecessary to the "'rammatical co nstruction
E L LI PS I S; as, I be" vo u ~viii co me · fo r I beo· t/ia/
, seve n of the 'clock.'
""
_y ou w1·11 come : I rose at se \'en ; to· r, I. rose"" at
T!1 c pri~1ci1,ml dc~ i g 11 of ellipsis is to avoid repetitions, and to express
our ideas rn few word ~ .
Alm ost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical ; it is, th ere,
fore, ve ry necessary to a ttend to thi s fi g ure, or mode of 1:xpression.
of a se ntence, is ea lled

EXAMPLES,
~h erein th e method of s upplying th e words that are i mplied, aud of anal yzing sentences, is
p omted out.
ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN.

Rn le 21. When a direct address i s rnadc to a person or thing,
the n oiin or pronoun is in the n ominative case independent.*

She is a, good-natured, diligent, well-behaved g irl; instead of, Slie is a
good-natured (girl, and a) dilige nt (girl, and ct} we ll-behaved girl.

F. XA!l!PJ,ES TO B E PARSED,

.M.iich ra·i n and snow; i. e. Mu ch rain and (rn11 ch) snow. J1. delightful
~arden and orchard ; i. e. A de li ghtful garden and (a del-igltl: ful) orchard.

ELL!Pi; IS OF THE ADJE CTI VE .
Jn which it is rt'qttirtd oft!tr. pupil, (in mfrWion to l.li : 7u·rce1Z:ng exe1·cises) to d·istinguish, an d parse
t he words in t he nomrnatit1t: case independ:m t , and to ttp])ly Ruic 21.

Plato, th ou rcasoncst well ! It must be so. Hail! we dde r! lov e, perp etu a l fo un tain of do111cstic sw eets. Oh , stre tch th y reig n, fair P eac e,
from sh ore to sho re. M y son, go to th y repose. 0 Grave, w here b tl1y
victo1·y ! 0 Deatl1, wh ere is th y stin g !
*All 110uns in tli c o;ccuml p c r~o u are i11 the nolllina tive rnse indepen d.c nt.

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE.

J1. inan, woman and child; i. e. A man, (a} woman, and (a} child.
ELLIPSIS OF THE VERD.

I desire to hear and to learn; i. e. 1 desire to h ear, and (l desire) to learn.
She was !fOitng, a.nd bcantifnl, and good; i. c. She was young, an? (she
was) beautiful, and (she was) l:Ood.

46

EXERCISES lN
ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB.

Th ey sing and play most delightfully; i. e. They ~ing (most delightfully,)
and (they) play most delightfully. She reads and writ es well; i.e. Shll
reads (icell,) and (she) writes w ell.
ELLIPSIS OF THE PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

I love and fear him; i. e. I love (him,) and ( l) fear him. I have recid the
book you lent ine; i. e. I have read the book (which) yo u lent me. This is
.the man they love; i. e. This is the man (whoin) th ey love.

I

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

47

· he was then,' i. e. 'in which he the'n was.' 'The little satisfaction and con3istency, to be fom1d in most of the systems of divinity I have met with'
made me betake myself to the sole reading of the scriptures;' it ought to
be, 'which are to be found,' and 'which 1 have met with.' 'He desired
they might go to the a ltar together, arid jointly retum their thanks to
whom. only they were dne ;' i. e. 'to him to whom,' &r..

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION.

I desire yoit will be good; i. e. I desire (that) you will be good.
ELLIPSIS OF THE l'REl'OSITION.

I gave thern to your brother and sister; i. e. I gave them to your prother,
and (to your) ·sister.
ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION.

Oh ! pity and shame; i. e. Ob, pity! Oh, shame!
ELLIPSIS OF A PART OF A SENTENCE.

Nature h as given to animals one time to act, another to rest: i. e. Nature has given to animals one time to act (and natu,.ehasgiven to animals )
another (time) to rest.
"There is nothing m en are more deficient in, than knowing their own
characters."
There is nothing (in which) men are more deficient, than (in) knowing
their own characters.
The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis :'\Vo is me;' i.e. '"Voe is to me.' 'To let blood ;' i. e. 'To let out blood.'
'To let down;' i; ·e. 'To let it fall or slide down.' 'To walk a mile ;' i. e,
'To walk through the space of a mile.' 'To sleep all night;' i. e. 'To
sleep through all the night.' 'To go a fishing,' 'To go a hunting;' i, e.
'To go on a fishing voyage or business,'-' To go on a hunting party.' 'I
dine at two o'clock,' i. e. 'at two of the clock.' 'lly sea, by land, on shore ;'
i. e. 'By the sea, by the land, on the shore.'
The examples that follow are produced to show th e impropriety of
ellipsis, in some particular cases. 'The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those entrusted with the command ; it should be, 'those
persons in trusted;' or 'those who were entrusted.' ' If he had read further,
he would have found several of his objections might have been spared;'
that is, 'he would have found that several of his objections,' &c. 'I
scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety
and use;' it should be, 'which would yield,' &c. 'In the temper of mind

OF TRANSPOSITION, OR INVERSION.
There are two kinds of style-the natural, and the inverted, or transposed.
A natural style is that in which the order of the words corresponds with
the natural order of the ideas that compose the thoughts, or to speak more
clearly, that in which the words succeed each other in their natural order.
An inverted or transposed style is that in which th e words are thrown
out of their natural order, for the sake of some superior beauty r but it is-,
seldom of advantage to invert the style, except in poetry.

EXA1\1PLES.

,

"Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing.''
Natural Order. Heavenly goddess! sing the wrath of Achilles, the
el.ireful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece.
"No bounds the Almighty's glory can restrain,
Nor time's dimensions terminate his r eign;·
At his reproof convulsive nature shakes,
And shivering earth from its foundation quakes.''
Natural Order. No bounds can restrain the glory of the Almighty, norean the dimensions of time terminate his reign; convulsive nature shake.q.
at his reproof, and shivering earth quakes ·from its foundation,
"Men in adversity most plain appear,
It shows us really what, and who they are;
Then from their lips truth undissernbled flows,
The mask falls off, and the just features shows.''.

Natural Order. Men appear ~nost plain in ad'versity, it shows us really
what (they are) and who they are; then, undissembled truth flows from:
their lips, the mask falls off, and shows the just featurPs.

48

EXERCISES

!.

IN

Although n ve rb in the Infi111tive Mood, is genera lly connected witi1 it
finit e verb, yet, it may follow a NOl•D, Adjective, Participle, or almost any
othe r part of speech.
EX A ~1P J, ES .

"I am abo11t to give _you a fow examp les, hy wa y of illustration ."
"He is olrl eno ugh to know better, than to spend l1i s time in this manne r."
"He is anxiou~ to sec ure th e el e~ tion of that randiclate, because he
knows him to be well qu alified to f11llil tl1e duties of t:l1e office."
"Endeavouring to pe rs uade us, h e became qnitc warm in his argum ent."
·
The definite article is frer111ently applied to ad-verbs of th e comparative
and s uperlative degrees, to niark th e degrees more stro11gly .
E XA MPLE S .

The more yon strn1y th e faster yo u w ill learn .
sooner you will return.

The soo ne r yo u go, th e'

Tbe Ind efinite ::irtide refors to a plural noun , when fen·, or th e words
great and many immediately precede the n oun: ns, lt few trees- ct g reat
mC£n'!) houses.

A FEW INSTANCES OF TI-TE SAME WORD'S CON STITUTING
SEVERAL OF THE l':\RTS 01<' SPEECH.
CALM.
Gu ilt often casts a damp over our
Calm was the day, an d the scene sprightly hours.
tlelightful.
SL•fi: l1 odics d:u11p t il e sound much
' Ve may exp ect a c.:alrn after a 111orc than Jiarcl o nes.
storm.
.
.
.
)
YET.
To prevent pMswn, ts eas ier t 1a11 Tli ey a re yet Y<•ung a nd must s uslo calin it.
I
I
·
·
I
"
I ·1
LITTLE.
pen~ t 1e1 r JUI g in e nt. 1or aw ~'. c.
B ette r is a little with content. than 11iong h sl,_e is nch and fall", yet
11 great deal with anxiety.
·
she 1s not an11 ablc.
A little attention will r ectify some ..,
FEW AND ~IbANY.
errors.
H 1any person :, a re
ette r t 11an we
The gay* 11:nd cliss_o lute think li~tle sup_pose.~l'.~-1~1 to be. _.
_ _
.,
of the mise ri es which are stealmir I.h e feV> _ <111L1 the many l1ave thea
softly after them.
" prc.po ssess 1 ~ 1: s . . • --·
STIJ.L.
F ew day" rH"" with out so me
·
Thou g h he is o ut of dan ger, he is clouds.
still afraid.
.
MUCH.
H e labored to still the turnul.t.
H e has see n 11111elt of the world,.
Still waters are co rnmouly deep- and bee n rnw·li caressed. .
e8t
Thmk mu ch a nd speak httle.
•
DAMP.
i\lucli learning hath made thee
Damp air is unwholesome.
mad!

I

*An adjective with the definite article before it, becomes a noun, (of the
third p er son, plural number,) and must be parsed as s uch.

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
l\!ORE.
I shall write to-morrow.
His years are more than hers; but
HAIL.
he has not more knowledge.
We hail you as friends.
. Th e more we are blessed, the more Hail virtue ! source of every good.
gratefu l we should be.
The hail was very destructive.
'fli e desire of getting more, is rareTHAT.
ly satisfie rl.
An eclipse of the sun took place
INFERIOR AND EQUA.L.
on th at ~lay. .
.
He has equal knowledge, but in fo- Why is ot~r~lan guage less r efmed
than rhatt ot I· ran<" e?
. .
r io r jud gment.
S he is hi s interior in sense, but his! I hope that we sliall arnve m sea·SOn. .
equal in prudence.
LIKE.
He · is the most generous person
Every being love.s its like.
tliat ever lived.
'Ve mu st make a like space beSIN CE.
tween tlie lines.
I have nut seen him since th at
B ehav e like m e n.
tin1 e.
W e are too apt to like pernicious I have seen yom friend since I saw
company.
you.
He may go or stay, as he lik es.
L et us re turn since the affair cannot be settl ed.
TO.
AS.
They stri ve to lea rn.
.
H e o-oes to and fro .*
As li e p as~cd aloug his_ ears were.
.· · deli ghted with the mornmg song ot
To "'1i1·s. ' ·vi·sclon1 we owe om. p11v1f J>
cl'
b" .
Jeo-e
t 11e ll'C1s o . ara 1se.
proportion is tom to one.
Ast m_any a~ arri\'ed in season, crnUTMOST.
barked free ot expense.
H e ha s se rved tlicm with hi s ut- Sucl1.j: as behe,•e shall be sa ved,
most ability.
&c.
.
-.
"\!Vhen we do our utmos t, no more \~ e l~!t th.e1~1 a ~ w e _fom~d ~1e m . .
'" e ."il l t,11'c the Oath as cOOn as
is required.
FOR.
he arnves.
I will s ubmit, for I know that s ub. BTJT.
.
mi ssion brings peace.
The path of glory leads but to the
·
f'
·
1.
I
h
"
rave.
I t 1s or our nea t to be temper- 0 SI .
.
cl
ate.
. ie 1s 1ian some, 11Ut s 11e 1s not
Oh! for better time,.
un~iable.
.
.
trhey asked nothrng but thell' libI have a reuard for him.
~
er y.
BOTH.
THAN. .
H e is estee med botl1 on his own .Man wants no more than may suf~
account, and on accouut of hi s pa- fice.
rents.
H e is no more r espected thau his
B oth of ~110 1" dese rve praise.
[l redecessor.
·
VESTER DAY.
WJTA T.
Yesterday was a fi11e day.
"\!Vhat was 11is com1nct in his prre1 rode out yesterdav.
torship he re nt hom e?
i·o-MORROW.
'Vhat man is so J1 ardened as to deTo-morrow may be brighter than 11y these facts.
to-day.

Tim

. *T\~o, or mo re words, used to s how the mann er, tim e, or place, in which
an act10n is performed, are called an Adverbial plJJ'ase.
f When" that" is used for a noun, it is a demonstrative pronoun.
t.l.ls, whe n it ~ollows such, and frequ ent ly ·w hen it fo llows same and nwn.y,
ber,omes a r elanve pro11oun.

7

50

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN
WHATEVER.

What wise men are our council- Whatever purifie;, fortifies tile
]ors!
h ea!'t.
What! are you here, already'
Whateve r useflll or e n!l'agin.g enH e extols what* he sees.
dowments we po8ses~ , v1~·tue is ~·e'Vhat tho1.wJ1 in silcm:c all move qui site, in or<ler to tlietr slmung with
round this da~k terre~ trial ba ll, &c. proper lnstre.
I will try what virtue th ere is in W'ha tever they may say of me, I
stoues.
shall heerl the n1 not.
Corne, I'll tell thee what - - .
WHO,; OEVER.
.
.
She knows uot wh at colors are in \Vhosoever shall rece ive tlus child
fashion.
in my name rcceiveth me;_ and who'"-' hat with ltunger and what with soever receiveth m e rece1veth !urn
tliat :ient me.
fatigu e he was overcome.
'
'Whomsoever I shall ki ss the same
is he- - - .
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES TO BE PARSED.
I would rath er be myself t the\ The plank is one iuclt too thick.
slave and w ea r th e chains, thau fas- . I wish to have tl1 e $ervant come
h1tl1er.
.
ten tlwm on him.
R ex and Tyra nus a re of very clil~ Give us this.clay our d~ul y bread.
ferent ~haracters. One1 rul es his 'Vltat llo peo ple say it is?
.
peo ple by laws to wltidi they co~1- They .were spoken to respectmg
sent; the oth er,t hy bis abso lute will that subje~t.
.
. 1
an'' power, that II i; called freedom, Tl.1ey .cned away with him·
II thi;, tyranny.
1\'l1n.e 1s by yo urs --.-.-.
.
H e was laughed at by his compa u •. Des~re,_ 11ot r~ason, wil l be the iulions, and talked of by all who knew mg pnnc1p le of our condu ct.
.
him.
\ H e has gon~ a hu11trn g, and he will
He rose and rebuke,] the wiuds, walk many mil es.
and said unto tlrn sea, peace, be still. Th e 111a11 being 1lisrnissed from ofI will give you a solution of' the fice, his family suffered.
com-ma, and, a Hd it:
, The boy's bemg confined, was a
\Vh v make ve this ado? th e dam- gri ef to hi s parents.
.
sel is 1i ot dead ·but slee pcth.
! Y e a re one a11other's JOY· Be ye
Who do men say that I a:n?
helpers one of a noth er.
T 1, live long, ought uot to be yo ur They love each _othe1:- .
fav<1rite wish, so much us to live well. Whom do you imagme it to have
Th e weather is much too warm for bee n ?
comfort.
*'Nhat is a compound pronoun, including both th e antecedent and the
relrt,li've, nnd i ~ ertuival m1 t to tlw.t anrl which-He exto b that which he see.s.
Thrit is a demonstrative pronolln, of the tlmd pers? n, .Rmgular. number, m
th e objeetive case, aml is governed by extols. .wl.11ch ts a relati:ve pronoun,
of the third pe rso n, singular uurnher, in the ob.Jective case, and is governed
by sees (agreeing with that for its antecedent.)
tThe words myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, S,c. are called compound
pe:r3onal pronouns.
tW lrnn th e words some, one, any, other, all, _such? are not prefixed to
noun s, exp ressed or und erstood, th ey arc called rnd efi mte pronouns.
ll' Vhen th e w orrls this, that, these, those,foriner and latter, stand for nouns,
they are demo11strative pronouns.

51

\ .Yltat sculpture !s to a block of will be discharged immediately.
marble, educatio n rn to the human Properly speaking, th ere are but
so ul.
two genders.
. ff thine enemy be hun gry, gi ve Tbe1e being mu ch obscurity in the
!u m bread to eat; if he be tl1irsty, case, lte 1eillses to decide upon it.
give him water to drink.
Junius Brutu s, the son of l\'lnrcus
One danced, aiiother ran to andlBrutus, and Cullatinus, th e husba nd
fro.. .
.
1of Lucretia, w ere chosen first consuls
S1ttrng is the best posture for de- i11 R ome.
liberation; s tar~din g for pers11a:;io_n.: To learn is our duty.
A J11dge, th eretore, sho uld speak s it- ~ Jn order to become a grammarian
tin g; a pleader, standin g.
IJ m ust stud y with dili ,,e11 ce.
'
Wltat i.s th e bigot's torch, the ty- 1 I ham so me recolkction of my
r am's cham !
fat l1 er's bein g a judge.
Fathers !. Senators of Rome! the [ They rode for two days together.
Ar~1te rs ot nations! to you I fly for j l! c called th e co mpnuy man by
retugc.
1rnan.
I. do not care a sixpence wh ether H e began to speak unto th em in
he 1s wet or dry.
parnu les.
On the same night lie dreamed a A nd be said unto them, exact no
drea m. . .
.
more than that which i ; appointed
The ship is anwed aml lier cargo you.
AGE.

. The minds, of the ~ge d are like the tomlJs to whi ch th ey are approaching; '~here t11ougb til e brass and th e marble rema in, yet th e inscriptions
01.re eflaced by trn1e, and th e unagery has mould ered away.
-TR UE HO !l'OR.

'Vould Y?U not thiuk it an honor to be employed by God in creatino· a
~v~rld ? "'-'. ould you 11ut tl1ink it a u honor to be elllployed by him in p~·e­
se1 v111g ano goveruwg a world ? But greate r, far greater is the J10n;·,r of
berng e1uployed as a co-worker with God in savina a world. This honor
have all his saints. This honor w e are invited to ~hare.
PAYSO!I'.
SCR IPT U RE.

From th~ antiquity of our transla tion of the Bible, th ere is often a
quawtn es~. 1~1 It~ expressions, a~1d th eir ~Jl~rodL~ct ion . may give a point to
some sat111ca l i emark, or fun11 sh a stnkrn g tonn fo r some sa lly of wit.
Bu.t w ~ s hou~cl beware. _Scn1Hu re 1s a pure strea m, rlow ing turtll ii-.)m
the tlnone of Gori!. all(] Jt sho uld never be mad e to retlect th e fantastic
images of human lolly.
NEWMAN.
THOUGHT.

. "\Vhat i.s tho~i g ht? 1t is an emanation from Deity. It is at once, the
fear and JOY of youth,-the solace of retirement-the co 111pauion of a"e
-:and .the .telegraph of worlds. Though its first dawning in the i11t~n~
mrnd'.!s f~rnt and uncertam, yet h_ke_ th e mys tha.t gild tl1 e early morn, or
the fo ~t fL.1shes of th e young ~orea li s, it gives pron11se ofrom ing brightuess.
Subtle m its. essence, myste nous am\ uncontrolable in its fli ght,-it ri ses
from the rnmt!test. obJe?t and encircles empires. A1rnin it ri ses,-expands- ~nd _wrngs its silent, rapid way, from star to ~ tar-from sun to
sun ;-still n srn g- still expanding, it reaches th e co urt of Hcaven- th P.
throne of God-and embraces the Universe.
.T. Dow.

52

ETY~'IOLOGY

E XER CISES IN
I N T E MPE RA NC E.

. As .to tlt e vice of i11 temperau ce-it,.; disg ustin g effec ts upon th e hody1ts r u111o us consequences to t he heal t h-i ts degrarli n" a nd bn 1ti (y irw influ e nce upo n th e 111ind and cha racte r- its dan ger t o s~cicty as th e fr~tfUI
pa re nt of eve ry c rn ne-1ts n ms:11wc to tir e publi c as rlr e c lti e f~an cl almost
0111 ,v ~OLtrce of me ndi city an d pa nperi s m- its p es t to domes·t.·ic life-the
md1v1du al a 11cl secret w1·e~c h ed11 eHs infli cts-and the s till g reater, whi ch
a re t hrea tened aga111st 1t m the sc nptures of G od-there r an he-a nd
rh e re is-but 011e convict.ion.
N1 ct10Ls's .fldd.

!t

l. ANGU .<GE .

An d wl ml. is la ng 11 ago :i L a nir uage is th e power
Vvl1 c rcli.v, as wi t h th e arrow y li g ht of Hirn ,
Tir e broad hrave s un th at fl ashes th ro ug h the s ky
U uint:c rruptecl g lory, Tho ught go es fort h,
Fr01 n rni 11d to 111ind, fl as h a frer flas h, fo r ever :
At first a litl'le fo unta i11 b11hbled up,
' Vith in the desert or rh e· wildP r11 ess,
Tl1 e o utle t to a rnin e o f w ealth-of powe r,
T en thousand t im es more precious t han t he eartl1 ,
G litteri11 g w ith di a rn onrl :s or cha rgecl w it h or e
Th a t m a n, s hort-sigh ted ma n, wo ul<l pe ri sh fo rA treasury of th o ug ht a nd s peec h: anon ,
lt fi lte rer! fo r th and ro lled away a brook.A st.rcam :et the n-a river - then a seaB eho ld it n ow ! It ove rspreads th e eartli.

OF T HE USE OF P R EPOS ITIONS.
Th e sam e preposition, ge nerally speaki ng, shou ld foll ow a noun, or a n
aclj ective, as wo uld p roperly fo llow til e ve rb from which the noun, or ad
j ec ti ve is deriv ed.
Acquit,
Accuse,
Abh orren ce,

~require of

Discour11 ge nwnt requires lo .
Disappointme nt requires 1:n or of
E nter r equires in or into.

Ag reeable,
Averse,
Adapted,

~ r equire to.

E ngaged,
Eager,

B rag,
B oast,

~require of

B estow r equires upon.
Contend requires for or with.
Confide ,
Conversant,

~

require in .

Call requires on.
Conso nau t,
Co nfo r mable,
Corr esponde nt,

S till , w l1 at is la ng 11 agc' \Vouldst thou know in truth ?
F or sake th y nati ve la ud ; go forth alon e,
" All , a ll al one," wh e re th y clear m o th e r-ton g ue
\.Vo uld not. ava il th ee, th oug h tli y lips were parched
\.V ith rnor tal fo ve r, th oug h t lt y l 1c :~r t w ere wrun g
\.Vit h 111 orta l a ngui sh ; pu t. fo rth all th y power ,
By signs a nd looks, rl ro p tems a 11d utte r cries,
A nd see how ver y helpl ess ma n may be,
Th e mi g hti est man that s ways it o'er th e earth ,
For "va11 t of la ng uage. Ar t th ou a nswered now?

53

AND SYNTAX

~ require to .

Cauti on req nires against.
Co mpli a nce r eqnires with.
Divid e r equires into.
Diminution,
Disapprove,

~ re~uire of

Diffe r,

Srequire fi'01n.

D~~·ogati on ,

S

2

D1 ~sen t ,

~ r equire in.

E xce ption r equires Ji'oin.
E x pert req uires in or at.
F ounded req uires on.
Glad r eq uires of or al.
Insis t requires upon.
Ma rtyr r equiresfor .
N eed r equires of
Observance requires of
Profit requires by.
Prej udice requires agciinst.
P rov icle r equires with .
Preva i'l req ui res over.
R edu ce 1·equires under or to.
R eplete requires with.
R esemblance requires to.
Swerve requiresfi·oin.
T hi nk requires of o r on.
T aste requ ires of or fo r.
T rue r equires to.
\'V ait requires on.

D e pe nd a nt requires upon.
S till , wl iat is la ng nage? L a ng uage is th e pow er,
Tli f' e \'1· rlasting, o in 1 1 i prn~ei1 f pow e r,
\ Vhe re h.v man holds <'O l111 ntlllion ,,·ith hi s God, \.V li cre\\'ith he does i111pc ri s lmble t ir ings :
By it. ma nki nd pe rpetn atc their stre 11 gth,
Th eir wisdo m and th eir virtue, yea, a nd all
Th nir 111igli ty fat hers ever thou ght or did ,
Or eve r kn e w: by pouring forth for aye,
In to the stream of k11 owl edve, fl owin g on
F orever a nd for ever , u!I tli a~ they
H ave harl bequeathed the111 he re, and all th at th ev
\ Vo ul rl leave to oth ers-all th at i:hey have kuown ·
B y la nguage only, tha t mysteri ous p ower,
W hic h cann ot be describ ed but bv itself,
So lik e it is to Deity.
·

OF THr: IMPROPE R USE OF WORDS AND PHRASES.
TJic phrases inore pe1fect and rnost p eifect, a re imp rope r ; because perfection adm its of no deg rees of com pari8o n. \Ve m ay say nearer or n earest to pe rfection , or m ore or Jess irn per feet.
Wh en the compnrative degree of an adj ective is used, the la tter term of
com parison should n ot in clud e the form er. It is th er efo re improper to say
" the scr iptures a re mor e valu able than a ny writin gs;" w e should say,
"than any other w 1•itings."

NEAJ,.

54

EXERCISES IN

When the superlative deg ree of an adjective is used, the latter term of
comparison sho uld never exclLFle the former. Th e1·cfore, in steac1 d' ~ay ­
ing "profane swearing is, of all other vices the most i11excnsable; we .
,
:>hould say, "of all vices," &e.
Farther applies to place and distance; and further to quantity or addition.
Later anrl latter cannot be used indifferently with propriety; latter refers
to place; later respects time only.

The phrase "seldom or ever,'' is improper; we should either say, " seldom if ever"- or "seldom or never."
" I had rath er,'' is often improperly used, instead of" I would rather."
To lay (to place something·) in th e present ten~e, is p roperl v writtt'n lay,
in the imperfect laid ; the perfe ct parti ciple is also laid. To lie (dnwn)
is lie in the present tense, lay in th o imperfect, and la.i n in tlrn perfect participle. Lie is conjugn.tecl regularly when it means to tell a falsehood;
as "he lied"-" he has lied."
Set is an intransitive verb in some senses, which make~ it proper to say,
"To set out on a journey ; to se t up in business; the sun sets, and fair
weather has set in."
The following are examples of .m istakes in the use of the transitive
verbs lay and set; and of the intransitive verbs lie and 8it, with the correction after each .
"He lays in bed too long"-(lies.)- -" I have a work laying by me"(lieing.)- -" Go and lay down"-(lie.)- - " I laid and slept an hour"(laJ;. )- -" I was laying on th e grass"-(l·i eing.)--" He has . laid tb<Cre a
long time"-(Zain.)--"He has lain himself clown to rest"-(laid.)-" Let me set down"-(sit.)- -" I afterwarc1s w ent and set rlown"-(sat.)
- -"He sat him <e lf down"-( set.)--" The hen is set:ting on her eggs"(sitting.)- -" The wind S'its in the east"-(sets.)

The verb to learn, is never nsed transitively, except when it has for its
subj ect th e person who obtains the knowledge, or information, and for its
only object the knowledge, or information obtained . It is proper to say,
"I am learning µ:ram rnar ;" bnt improper to say, "the master learns ?1ie·
grammar,'' instead of teaches ine; or "learn me to do th at," instead of teadi
me.
Tav.tology, which means the repeating of a word , or an idea that has
been fully expressed before, is a frequent error in composition.
The verb to retttrn, sivnifies to go, or come hack ; g·o, or come again ; yet.,
we sometimes l1 ear, and read the phrases, return back- and nt-urn againand even return back again.
To converse means to talk together, therefore it is wrong to say "they
are conversing together.
To fall includes the id ea of down, as to rise c1r> e~ that of ttp; for we cannot say to fall itp, or to rise down. It is therefore improper, he-cause it is
unnecessary, to say fall down, or ri se np.

The adj ective mutiinl, includes the meaning of tlw words, each other, or
one another; therefore it is wrong to say, "They bear a mutual likeness to
each other."

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.

55

" .To enter" means to go (or corne) in; therefore we should not say," enter in."

Resto: ;' means to give back; therefore it is wrong to say of a thing, " I
restore 1t back, or again," &c.
. The phrases,jirst of nil, last of all, are irn.proper; one of the things men- .
.. twne~l,or ~t!enrle_d to? cannot be first, if any of the others are before it; and
certarnly, 1t a tlun g 1s not last of a.ll, it canno~ be th e last.
It is wrong to use b.oth, wl1en th e two things unrl er consideration, have
been expressly nam ed ; as, "I to ok some wine, and some water, and mixed t1 rnm both together." "I saw two chairs fa stened both together." "My
1 · c:allecl on rne, and we both took a wnlk."
bn>L1e1
. Throughout exnress~s the idea of_throitgh all, or through every part; we
~houh! JJOt say, tlw.refore, "I seai·c1JOd a ll the cmmtry throughout," or,
vVe found these sen timents tli.ro-u,,.!wiit the wh0le book."
"In the expression I have just n~w written,'' the adverb now is redundant, and ough t to be expunged.
UNGRAMMATICAL WORDS AND PHRASES CORRECTED.
UNfJRAMMAT ICAL.

He only spoke three words.
He is seldom or ever right.
He said how that he would go.
They never will believe but what I
am to blame.
Be it never so true.
Wh ere are you goi11g?
Are you travelling there?
I have not ]warn the story.
. I ca tched colrl last evening.
Th ey rode in a horse and chay.
Who did you speak to?
Was I an officer, &c.
He has got it.
W'ho find him in mon ey ?
He put money in his pocket.
The report was founded in truth.
This house is to let.
I shall call upon him.
Is the gentleman in?
He cove red it over.
If I had have known it earlier.
Frequent opportunity.
He hadn't ought to do it.
H e killed them dead.
Give me them books.
The villain was hung.
He mentioned it over again.
I done it myself.

CORRECTED.

He spoke only three words.
He is seldom if ever right.
He said that he would go.
They never will believe but that I
am to blame.
Be it ever so true.
\<Vhit.her are you going?
Are you travelling thither?
I have not heard the story.
I caught cold last evening.
They rode in a one-horse cJrnise.
To whom did you speak?
W ere I an officer, &c.
He has it.
Who finds him mon ey?
He pnt money into his pocket.
The report was founded on truth.
This house is to be let.
I shall call on him.
Is the gentleman within 2
H e covered it.
If I had known it earlier.
Frequent opportunities.
He ought not to do it.
H e killed them.
Give me those hooks.
The villain was hanged,
He mentioned it again.
I ~lid it myself.

56

EXERCISES IN

I have eaten heartily.
I have eat heartily.
It lies on the table.
It lays on the table.
He is lying dow11.
He is laying down.
He is a gentleman.
He is quite the gentleman.
H e saw him befo re.
He seed him afore.
The fields are overflowed.
The fields are overflown.
Overseer of his house.
Overseer over his house.
Opposite to the church.
Opposite the church.
This.
Thi s here.
That.
Tha t there.
I am not cold.
I an't cold.
W e were not there.
We wer'nt there.
H e came into town this morning.
He came in town this morning.
'il/hether he will or not.
Whether he will or no.
W e go to church to worship.
We go to church for to worship.
I can by no means allow it.
I cannot by no means allow it.
Over all the co untry.
All over the country.
Be that as it may.
Be that as it will.
H e answered. ·
He answered and said.
H e knows uoth ing of it.
He .knows nothin g on it.
They met.
They both m et together.
I would rather not.
I had rather not.
Said I.
Says I.
I purpose to vi sit them.
I propose to visit them.
H e is one of my acquaintances.
He is one of my acquaintance.
I intended to have rewarded him. I intended to reward him.

ETYMOLOGY.

l ln case ·any teacher who may use tliis work, should not have sufficient leisure verball y to illustrate to his pupils, the rules and definitions given in 1he preceding exercises in Ety mology a.nd
Syntax; or, in case his pupils should be too young fu1ly to understand such illus_tration wh~u g1~·
.en, the <:ompiler would recommend, that they be required to comme nce the subject by getting, m
.J.istin ct nnd successive portions, the answeri!i to the ques tions on Etymology, at th e bottom of the
following pages. Thhr · will enable tb.em understandingly to enter upon the exerc ises in Etyrnolngy an<l Syntax, and with a little aid from their teacher, to make rapid .improvement in the business of parsing, &c.
The num ber pre fixed to each question corresponds t.o the number given in tbe portion of matter designed for the answer.]

Etymology (l) treats of the different sorts of words, their various modi. fications, and th eir derivations.
Etymology is compounde<l of two Greek words, which signify ori,in and word.
rally the derivation of a word from its original.

It means lite.

There (2) are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly
called, parts of speech; namely, th e Noun, the Adjective, the Article, the
Verb, the Participle, the-Adverb, the Pronoun, the Conj1mction, the Preposition, and the Inte1jection.
OF NOUNS.
A Noun (3) is the name of any thin g that we can see, taste, hear, smell,
• fe el, or conceive of; as, man, wine, virtue.
The word Noun, is derived from the Latin word 11emcn, which signifies n namt.

Nouns are (4) divided into proper and common.
Proper (5) nouns are the names appropriated to individuals; as, Georae,
0
London, Thames.
,
Common (6\ nouns stand for a whole species, class or kind, whether
the class consists of one, or more individuals; as, animal, man, tree, &c.
The General is the Washington of the age.
.
When (7) proper nouns or names, have an article prefixed to them, they
are used as common names; as, "He is the Cicero of his age;" "He is
reading the lives of the Twelve Cresars."
QUESTIONS.

(1) What does Etymology trent of?-(2) How many sorts of words are th ere ?-{3) What is n
uoun ?- (4) How ore nouns divided '-(5) Whnt is a proper noun ?-(6) What do common nouD!'
~•anti for ?-(7) When proper nouns have an article prefixed, how are they used t
·

s

59

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY .

. Common (1) names may also be used to signify in<livi<luals, by the ad1htion of articles or pronouns; as, " The ·boy is studious; that girl is dis·
creet." *
Nouns (2) have four prnperties; namely, Person·, Number, Gender, and·
Case.

Nouns (1) ending inf, orfe, are rendered plural by the change of those
terminations into ves; as loaf, loaves; half, haLves; wife, wives; except
grief; relief, reproof, and severnl others, which form the plural by the ad:
<lition of s. Those which end .in .ff, have the regular plural; as, ruft,
ruffs; except, staff, .staves.
'
Nouns (2) which have yin the singular, with no other vow~! in the sa.mc
syllable, change it into ies in the plural; as, beauty, beautie.s; fly, flies.
But the y is not changed, when there is ano ther vowel .in the syllable ; as,
key, keys; delay, delays; attorn ey, attorneys.
Some (3) nouns become plural by changing the a. of the singular into
e; as, ri1an, men; woman, women; alderman, aldermen. The words, ox
and (4) child, form oxen and chilrlren; brother, makes either -brothers, or
brethren. Sonrntimes (5) the dipthong oo is changed into ee iH the plmal;
as, foot, feet; gorn;;e, geese ; tooth, teeth. Louse and ·mouse make lice
und mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die,
dice (for play;) die, dies (for coining.)
It is agreeable (6) to analogy, and the practice of the generality of correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns; pains, riches, alrns ;•and also, mathematics, rnetaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pnenma.tics, with other similar names of sciences.
The word (.7) news is now almost universally considered as belonging
to the singular number.
The (8) noun rneans is used both in the singular and the plural number.
The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin lang uages, are thus distinguished, with respect to mnnher.

OF PERSON.
Person (3) is that quality of the noun, (or pronoun) which modifies the·
verb.
There are (4) three persons; namely, the First, Second, and Third. •
The (5) first person denotes the speaker-the seco nd, the person spo·
ken to-::ind the third, the pe1:son, or the thing spoken of'.
OF NUMBER •.
Number (6) is the consideration of an object, as one or more
Nouns (7) are of two numbers, the singular and the plural.
The (8) singular number expresses but one object; as, a chair, a
table;.
The (.9) plural number signifies more objects than one ; as, chairs, tables.
Some (10) nouns, from the nature"of the thin gs which they express, are
nsed only in tho singular form; a s, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ;others, only in the plural form; as, (ll) bellows, scissors, lungs, riches,
&c.
Some (12) words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine,
&c.
The (13) plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the
singiilar; as, dove, doves; face, faces; thought, thoughts. But (14) when
the noun si ngular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash; lashes ; kiss, kisses; rebus,
rebusses. If the si ngular (15) ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by adding s; as, mon arch, monarchs; distich, disti chs.
Nouns (16) which end in o, have sometimes, es, added to the plural; as,
cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo; and sometimes
only s; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio.
QUESTIONS.

(1) Can common names be used to signify in di viduals ?-(2) How many properties have nouns?
-(3) \Vhat is person ?-(4) How many persons are there?-(5) What does each person denote ?- (6) What is number ?- (7) How man y numbers are th ere ?-(8) Whilt does the singular
number express ?-(9) What docs the plur11l number signify ?-(10) Give examples of nouns used
<:mly in the s~ngular form ?-(11) Give examples of nouns, used onl y in the plum I form ?-(12) Give
examples of word~ having the same form in hoth numbers ?- (13) How is the plural number of
nouns generally forme9 ?- (14) How is the plural number forr:ned of s.uch nouns as end in_,., ch
soft, ss, ors, rn the singular ?-(t5) If the singurar ends in ch hard, how is the plurarformed ?-\ 16) How do nouns ending ino, form theirplurnls?

*Nouns may also be divided into the following classes; Collective nouns,
or nouns of multitude; as, the people, the parliament, the army; .flbstract
nouns, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances; as,
knowledge, goorlness, whiteness; Verbal or part·icipial nouns; as, beginning, reading, writing.
The Englii;h lunguage contains in all about forty thousand words. -

Singular.
Cherub,
Seraph,
Antithetis,
Automaton,
Basis,
Crisis,
Criterion,
DiaJresis,
Ellipsis,
Emphasis,
Hypothesis,
Metamorphosis,
Phrenomenon,

Appendix,

Plural.
(9) Cherubim,

Seraphim,
Antitheses,
Autoi;nata,
Bases,
Crises,
Criteria,
DiaJreses,
Ellipses,
Emphases,
Hypotheses,
Metamorphoses,
PhaJnomena,
5Appendices, o.r
.l Appendixes,

Singular.
Datum,
Effluvium,

.En co mi nm,
.Erratum,
Genius,*
Genus,
Index,t
Lamina,
Medium,
Magus,
Memorandum
Radius,

Plural.
Data,
Effluvia,
5Encomia, or
.,( Encomiums,
.Errata, ·
Genii,*
·Genera,
5 Indices, or
l Indexes,t
LaminaJ,
Media,
Magi,
5Memoranda, or
l Memorandums.
Radii,

QUES'l'IONS.

. (1) How are nouns ending inf, or fe, rendered plural ?-(2) How do nouns ending in yin the
~rngular, form th eir plurals ?-(3) What nouns form their plurals Uy changing ri in.to t: ?-(4) How
1s the plural of the words child, ox, and brother, formed ?-(5) Whiu. uouns form their plurals by
chnngmg th e dipthong oo into u.?-(6) How are the noun s, pains, riches, alms, mnthematics, .&c.
coniStrued ?-(7) Of what number is news J-(8) Of w hat number is m Lans considered ?-(9) What is
the plural of Cherub 1-.Rcpelit the plural of each word in the table of Greek and Latin words.

*Ger:ii, when denoting ffirial spirits; Geniuses, when signifying pexsons
of gernus.
t Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. Indices w11en
i·eferring to algebxaic quantities.

60
Arcanum,
Axis,
Calx,

Arcana,
Axes,
Ca lees,

Stamen;
Stratum,
Vortex,

Stamiwr,
Strata,
Vorti ces,

Some words, derived from learned languages, are confined to the pfo-·
ral number; as, (1) antipodes, credenda, literati, minuti:e.
Th~ following (2) nouns being in Latin, both singular and plural '1·e
used m t~e same. manner when adopted into our tongt1·e; hiatus, appa-·
ratus, senes, species.
OF GENDER.

GENDER (:1) is the di stinction of nouns with regard to sex. (4) There·
are three genders, th e MASCULINE, the FEMININE, und th e NE·UTER.
The (5) Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind: as, fi
man, a horse, a bull.
.
The Femi nine Gender signifies anima ls of the fema le kind: as, a wo·
man, a du ck, a hen. •
The Neuter Gencler de-notes objects which are neither I~hles nol'
females: as, a field, a house, a garden.
. Some (6) nou!lS nat 1~rally.n e uter, are, by a figur e of speech, converted
mto. the masculmc o.t femmm.e gender: as, wheu we say of the sun, he is·
settmg ; and of a sh1 p, she sails well,
. The (7) English language has three methods of di stinguishing the sex,
VIZ:

1. By different words ; as,
Male.

, Bachelo1·,
Boar,
Boy,
Brother,
Buck,

Female.

Male.

Maid,
Sow,
Girl,
Sister,
Doe,

Husband,
K .ing,
Lat!,
Lord,
Man,

F emale.

"Wi fe,
·Queen ..
Lass, ·
L ady,
Worqan.

2. By a difference of termination : as,
lllaJe.

Abbot,
Actor,
Administrator,
Adulterer,
Ambassador,
Arbiter,
Baron,
Bridegroom,
Benefactor,

Female.

Male.

Abbess!
Actress,
Administratrix,
Adultress,
Amba8sadress,
Arbitress,
Baroness,
Bride,
Benefactress,

Landgrave 1
Lion,
Marquis,
Master,
Mayor,
Patron,
Peer,
Poet,
Priest,

61

ETY)'IOLOGY·

E1'YMOLOGY.

Female.

Lnndgravine1
Lioness 1
Marchioness,
:Mistress,
Mayoress,
Patroness,
_P ee ress,
Poetess,
Priestess.

QUESTIONS.
(1) Of what nu1:11ber are antipodes; c1·cdtn da, /it1:1·ati, and minuta co nsidered ?--(2) How arc hfo. ..
tu.r, appai·atus, srrt~s! species used ?-(3) What is Gender ?- (4) How many genders are there~­
i5~ G1ve the defimt1on of each ?- (6) Are nouns naturalJy neuter made of the mascu line or re'm_ ..
mne gender ?-(7) Hew many methods are there, in Euglish, to distinguish the sex?-(' 8) Give·
examples of each .
·

;J, By a noun, pronoun, or adjecti"ve, beingprw;,:red to the noun; as,

A hen-sparrow,
A maid-servant,
A she-goat,
A she-bear,
A female child,
Female dest:endants.

A cock-sparrow,
A man-servant,
A he-goat,
A he-bear,
A male child,
Male descendants,

It sometimes happens that the same noun is either masculine or femi11ine. (1) The words parent, child, cousin, fiiend, neighbor, sei·vant, aml
several others, are used indifferently for males or fema les.
OF CASE.
CASE (2) is the condition or situation of the noun, in relation to other
words in a sentence.
In English, (3) nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive,
nnd the objec tive.*
The nominative (4)case simply expresses the name of a thing, or the
subj ect of a verb; as, "The boy plays ;" ." The girls learn."
The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession;
und has uu apostrophe with the Jetter s coming after it; as, "The scholar's duty;" "My father's house."
When (5) the plural ends ins, the others is omitted, but th e apostrophe
is retained; as, "On eagles' wings;" "The drapers' company."
Sometimes, (6) also, when th e singular terminates in ss, the apostrophi~
6 is not added; as, "For goodness' sake ;" "For righteousness' sake."
The (7) objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation;
and generally follows a verb active, or a preposition ; as, " John assists
C harles;" "They li ve in London."

Nouns (8) are declined in the following manner!

/l/ominative Case.
Possessive Case,
Objective Case,

'Singular.
A mother,
A m other's,
A moth er,

Plural.
Mothers,
Mothers',
Mothers.

Nominative Case,
Possessive Case,
Objective (Jase,

The man,
The man's,
The man,

The men,
The men's,
The men.

QUE STIO NS .
(1) How are the nouns parent, ckild, cou..s in, friend} neighbour, and .un:ant used ?- (2) What
is case ?-(3) How muu y cases are th ere ?- (4) Giv e a definition of the nominati ve and possessive,
(5) H ow is the possessive case fbrm ed, when the nominati ve ends in s ?-(6) How is it formed
when the noun ends in ss ?- (7) What does the objective case express ?-(8) How are no uns de·
clined ?
'

*The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objective, the accusative.

62

E'fYMOLOGY.

OF ADJECTIVES.

worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer,
nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest ;" and a few others.
An adjective (1) put without a noun, with· the definite arti cle before it,
becomes a noun in seuse am! mea ning, and is written as a noun ; as,
"Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad."
Various nouns (2) placed befo re other nouns assume·the nature of adjectives; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow gro und, & c.
Nwn eral adj~ ctive s (3) are either cardinal, or ordinal; cardinal, as, ona,
two, three, & c.; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c .

.A~ Adjectiye (1) is a word added to a noun, or a pronoun, to express some
quality, or circumstance of the thin " for which the noun or pronoun
stands; as, "An industrious man;"
virtuous woman;" "He is good."
In English, (2~ the adjective is n.o t varied on account of gender, number, or case. Tjrns w e say, "A careless boy; careless girls."
·
1:he only variation (3) which it admits, is that of the degrees of companson.

"A

There are (4) co mmonly reckon ed three deO'rees
of comparison· the
0
Positive, the Coinparative, and the Snperlative.
'
. The Positiye .S tate (5) expresses the quality of an obj ec t, without any
m crease or d1mmut10n ; as, good, wise, great.
~h e Comp~rative Degree (6) increases or lesse ns th e positive in significat10n ; as, wiser, greater, less wise.
The Superlative Degree (7) increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise.
. -i:he ~i'.11pl e word, (8) o!· positive, .beco mes the co mparative, by adding
1, ?I er, .and the superlative, by addrng st, or est, to th fl end of it; as, wise,
wise r, wisest; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs inore and most
placed before th e adjective, have the sam e effect· as wise more wise most
wise.
'
'
'
'

OF ARTICLES.

An Article ( 4) is a word prefix ed to nouns, and pronouns, to
signifi cation.

The w ord rather (10) is very properly used to ex press a small degree or
excess of a quality; as, " S he is rather profuse in her expenses."
. Mono ·yllables, (11) for the most part, are compared by er and est; and
<l1ssyllables. by nwre ~nd most; as, mild,. milder, mildest; fru gal, more frugal, most fi qgal. D1ssy llables endmg my ; as, happy, lovely; and in le
aft~r a mu~e, a s, a? Ie, ample ; or accented on the las t syllable, as, discreet,
~ohte ; e'.1s1ly admit of er and est; as, happier, happiest ; a bler, ablest ; po.liter, poht~st.. Words of more than two syllab.l es hardly ever admit of
those termmat10ns.
·
In some words, (12 ):the superlative is formed by adding th e adverb most
to the en~ of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, undermost uppermost, foremost.
'
In Engl~sh, a~ in most la~1gua&es, there. are some words of very common use, (111 ~luch the capnce of custom 1s apt to get the better of analogy,) that are 1rregulur in this respect; as, (13) "good, better, best; bad,
Q UES TIO NS .

ard

.

Ii~, their
··.

.Articles are so called from the Latin word a rticubLS, signifying ajoiut, ora very small jlart .

. The ~ermination (9J ish, m_ay .b: acco1;1nted _ii~ some sort a dfigree of
compa11son, by wh1cl1 th e s1gmficat10n 1s d11rnmshe<l below the pi:>sitive ;
as, black, blackish, or .tendmg to blackness ; salt, saltish or havin O' a little
taste of salt.
'
o

(1) What i.s ~ n Adjecti ve ?- (2) Are adjecti ves varied on account of person, number &c i>_
(3) Wh~t. v~r~ut10ns .iw.v e they ?-(4) How man y degrees of com parison are th e re ?- (5) wirnt does
th e pos1~1ve s tute ex press ?- (6) What does tile comparative degree ex press ?-(7) What does the
superlati ve <l et;ree CX J>ress?- (8) :"H o~ do.es th e si mple wo rd , or po1S iti ve, becom e th e com arative?
-(9) Wh at e ffec t does th e terrnm ution 1sh have ?-( IO) How is th t: word rath e1• used i> _ (i l ) How
m~nbosy l ;ub l(es compared ?-(12) .What words are compared by add ing the adverb most to the
en o t cm. - I 3) Compu.re the adJect1ve g-ood, bad, tittle, mu.chi near, l ate, and old.

63

ETYMOLOGY .

,.

In English (5) th ere are but two articles, a and the; a beco mes an when
the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, an acorn, an hour.
But when the following word begins with a consonant sound, n is used ;
as, a hand, a heart, a highway.
.fl. or an (6) is styled the indefinite arti cle; it is used irr a vague sense,
to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate;
as, "Give me a book;" "Bring me a.n apple."
The (7) is called th e definite article; because it ascertains what particular thing or thin gs are meant; as, "Give me the book;" "Bring me the
apples;" meaning so me book, or apples, referred to.
A noun without any article to limit it, is generally taken. in its widest
~e n se ; as, "A candid temper is proper for m an ;" th at is, for all mankind.
The pec uliar use and importance of th e articles will be seen in the following examples; "The son of a king-the son of the kin g-a son of the
kin g." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different meaning,
through the different application of th e articles a and the.
The article (8) is o mitted before nouns that imply the different virtues,
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c.; as, "prudence
is commendable; falsehood is odious; anger ought to be avoided;" &c.
It is not prefixed to a proper name; as," Alexander," (because that of
itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thin g,) except for the
sake of di stinguishing a particular fam ily; as, "He is a I'Ioward, or of the
family of th e Howard s ;" or by way of eminence ; as, "Every man is not
a Newton;" "He has the courage of an Achilles ;" or when some noun is
understood; "He sailed down· the (river ) Thames, in the (ship ) Britannia."
The indefinite (9 ) arti cle ca n be j oined to nouns in th e sing ular number only; (10) the definite article may be joined to plurals as well as singulars.
Q U ES'l'IONS .

(1) H ow is an adjective with out the definite before it, usetl ~-(2) Do nouns bec om~ adjectives!(3) How are numeral adjectives divided ?-('1) What is an artide ?-(5) How many articles arc lh ere?
-··(6) Which is styled th e indefinite article ?--·(7) Which L' call ed the definite article ?-'8) Before
whnt c lass of nouns are the articllil$ omitted ?---(9) Ho\Y i!i the im.lefi01te arttcle u&ed ?---(10) Ho\T ts
the definite use<!?

65

ETYMOLOGY.

ETY.MOLOGY·

But there (i} appear~ to be a remarkable ex~e ption to tl1is rule, in the use
of th e adjectives Jew and 11!£tny, (the latter cluefly w1tl1 the word w·eat before it,) which, thou gh joined with plural nouns, yet adrrnt of the smgulur
article a; as, cifew men; a great many men.
The reason of it is manifest, from th e effect which tl1e article has in
these P,hruses; it m e~ ns a small or great n.umb ~ r c.ollectively t.aken? and
therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of u111ty. Thus ltkew1se, a
dozen a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate o'f many collectively token; and th erefore s ~ill retains th e arti~_le a,
though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive; as, a hundred years,
&c.
Th e indefinite article is some tim es placed between the adjective many,
and a siugular noun ; as,

Many verbs (1) are used both in a transitive, and in an intransitive sighification; ·the construction determining of what kind they are ; as, to
flatten, signifying . to make even or level, is a transitive verb; but; when
it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb.
An intransitive verb, (2) by the addition of a preposition, may become a
co·rripound transitive verb. To smile is an intransitive verb, but to srnile on
is a compound transitive verb; therefore we properly say "He was srniled
on by fortune"-" She smiled on him."
·
Auxiliary (3) or helping verbs, are those by th e help of which the principal verbs are conjugated. They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can,
with their variations; and rnust, which has no variations.
·

·"

OF l\fooo.

"Full rnany a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfoth om'cl caves of ocean bear;
Full rnan!J ajlow'r is born to blush unseen,_ ,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. '
In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and inany ajlow'r, refor to many
gents and nia71y flowers, separately, not collectively considered.
Th e definite (2) article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparat.i ve and superlative degree; ~nd its (3) effec~ is, to mark ~he degren
the more strona:ly, and to define 1t the more precisely; as, " 1 he more I
examine it, the 'better I like i t. I like this the least of any."

OF VERBS.
A VER B (4) is a wonl which signifies action, being, or suffering.
Verb is <lerive<l from the Lntin t:t:rbum, wJ1ich signifies n word.

Verbs (5) are di vided into three sorts, nam ely, Active, Neuter, and Passive.
Active ve rbs are also divided into Transitive, and In transitive,
A transitive verb (6) expresses an action which affects :rn object; as,
"The teacher instru cts his pupils."
An i11transitive verb (7) ex presses an action confined to the actor; as,
" Tli e bird.flies swiftly."
A neuter verb (8) expresses neit lier action nor passion, but being, 01·
a sta te of being.
A passive verb (9) expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving
of a n action.-( See page 41.)

•.

Mooo or Mode, (4) is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner iu wbich th e being, action, or passion, is represented.
Mood consists in the change which th e verb und ergoes, to signify various intentions of the mind, and various modifications aud circwnstances
of action.
There (5) are five moods of verbs, nam ely, th e Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Infinitive, and the linperati·ve.
The Indicative Mood (6) simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He
loves, he is loved;" or it asks a question ; as, "Does he love?" " Is he
loved?"
The Subjunctive Mood(7) represents a thing under a condition, motive,
wis h, supposition, &c.; and is preceded by a co njun ction, expressed or
und erstood, and attended by another verb ; as, "I will respect him, though
he chide me."
The Potenti al l\lood (8) implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or
obligation; as, "It may rain; he may go or stay, I can ride ; he would
walk; they should learn."
The Infinitive Mood (9) expresses a thing in a general and unlimited
manner, without any chstinction of number or person; as, "To act, to
'Speak, to be feared."
The Imperativ e Mood is (10) used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, "Depart thou; mind ye; let us stay ; go in
.p eace."
·
OF

THE

TENSES

OR

TIM ES .

· TEN ~E , (11) b;ing th e means or method of dividing tim ~, might seem
to acllTI!t only of the present, past, and future; but to mark it more accuQUES TION S.
( t ) Is the snme verb ever used both in a trrrnsitivc nnrt an intranRitive sense ?-{2) Does an inl'rm1sitivt verb ever become tnms ilive .'l-(3) wyat are nu.cilittry verbs ?-(4) What is moo rl or mode~
-(5) How mnu y 111001.l s ure th e1·c ?-(6) Wh1it does ihc intlicalive moorl indicate ?-(7) Whnt does
the S1tbJu11ctive mood l'epresent ?- (8) \¥h at does the potential mood im ply ?- (9) What does the
1· 1!fin.itive mood express ~-(.10) \·Vhat is lh e imprratit:e mood used for ?-(11) What is Tense?

QUE S'l'ION8.
( 1) ' \That excep tion s arc there. ?-(2) l s the definite arti cle ever applied to adverbs ?-(3) \~h u L
is iH; effect?-(4) \Vh at is n Ve rb?-(5) Into how rnnn y sorts ore verbs Ji vide<l?- (6) \ Vhn.t
does u transit ive v erb express ?- -(7) Whut does nn i1 1trcrns~tive t•crb exp ress ?- (8) Wha t does a nwtu rub ex press ?--(9) \Vhnt does n passive verb express?

·J

66

.ETY:MOLOG\". ·

rately, it is made to consist (1) of six variations, viz. the Present, the Jut•
per:fect, the Pe1Ject, the Plupeifect, and the First and S econd Future T enses.
The Present T ense (2) represen ts an action or event as passing at the
time in which it is mentioned; as, "I rule; I ,am ruled ; I think; I fear."
The Present T ense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present existing; as," He is an able man;" "Sh e is an amiable woman." It
is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to th e present time; as, "He frequen tly rides ;" "He walks out
every morning;" "He goes into th e country every summer." W e sometimes apply this tense even to person s lon g since dead ; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well;" "Job speaks feelingly of hi s afHictions."
The Presen t T ense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, as soon
as, &c. is some times used to point out th e relative time ofa foture action;
as, "When he arrives he will hear th e n ews;" "He will hear the n ews
before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at fartl.Je~t, soon ajter he arrives;" "The more she improves, the more amiable she will be."
In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted
for the imperfect tense ; as, "He enters the territory of the peaceable in·habitants; h e fights and conque1·s, takes an immen se booty, which he divides ainongst his soldiers, and returns borne to ei1joy an empty triumph."
The Imperfect T ense (3) represents the action or eve nt, either as past
and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past;· as, "I
loved h er for h er modesty and virtue ;" "They were travelling post when
he met thern."
The P erfect Tense (4) not only refers to what is past, but also conveys
an allusion to tli e present time; as, " I have fini sh ed m y letter;" "I have
seen the person that was recorn111e11ded to me."
The perfect teuse, and the imperfect tense, both denote a thing that is
past; but the former denotes it in such a rnauner that there is actually
remaining so me part of th e time to slide away, wherein we declare the
thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action
past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of th e time in which it was
done. If we speak of the present century, we say, "Philosophers have
mnde gr eat discoveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last
century,:we say," Philos_ophers 1nade great discoveries in the last century."
The Pluper fec t (5) Tense represents a thin g, not only as past, but a lso
as prior to som e other point of time specified in the sentence; as, "I had
finished my Jette)· before he arrived."
The First Future Tense (6) r epresents the action as yet to come, either
with or without respect to the precise time; as, "The sun will rise toJ
i1101-row ;" "I sh all see them again."
The Second Future (7) intimates that the actio n will be fully accomplished, at, or before, the time of another future action or event; as, "I
shall have dined at one o'clock." · "The two houses will have finished
their business when they adjourn."
It is to be observed, that in the SLtbjunctive mood, th e event being spo-

67

' ETYMOLOGY.

ken of under a condition or suppos1t10n, or in the form of a wish, and
th erefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb itself in the present, and
the auxiliary-both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry
w~th them somewhat of a future sense; as, "If he come to-morrow, I
may speak to him;" "If he should, or would come to-morrow, ,I might,
would, could, or should speak to him." Qbserve also, that the auxiliary
sho·u ld and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express the present
and future, as well as the past; as, "It is my desire that he should, or
would come now, or to-morrow;" as w ell as, "It was my desire, that he
should or would come yestenlay." So that in this mood the precise time
of the verb is very much determined by the nature and drifl: of the senten ce.
The present, past, and future tenses may be used either definitely or indefinitely, both with respect to time ttnd action. \Vhen they donote custo~s or habits, and not . individual acts, they are applied indefinhely ; as,
"Virtue promotes happrness ;" "The old Romans governed by benefits
more.than by fear;" "I shall hereafter employ my time more usefully."
~n th~s.e example~ , the words pro~1wtes, gov_erned and shall employ are used
mdefimtely, both m regard to action and tmrn ; for they are not confined
to individual actions nor .to any precise points of present, past, or future
time. When they ·are applied to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they are confined, they are used
de~nitely, as in the following instan ces. "My brother is writing;" "He
built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." "He
will write another letter to-morrow."
T_he differe1~t t~nses also r epresen t an action as complete or p eifect, or,
as, incomplete or impe1fect. In the phrases, "lam writino-," "I was writing," "I shall .be be writing," imperfect, unfinished .acti~ns are signified.
But the followmg exampl es, "I wrote," "I h ave writ.ten" "I had written," "I .shall have written," all denote complete perfect 'action.

OF

CoNJUGA'rION.

The conjugation (1) of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods and tenses.
. The Indicative (2) Mood h as six tenses; namely, the present, the impiirfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESEN'l'

'l'ENSE.

Singular Number.

Plural Number.

I have,
Thou hast,
He, she or it, has or h'.1th ;

We have,
Ye or you have,
They have.
QUESTIONS •

. ~UESTIO NS .

(I) How mnn y ,·arintions of tense are there ?-(2) \Vhat doest.he present tense represent?(3) What does the imperfect trnae represent ?- (4) 'Whnt does th e p t: ijl.:cl te1tse represent ?-(5) What
does the p lup•!i'fect tens~ represent}-(6) What do es the jfrst future tense represent ?-(7) What does
t.he secondfuJ.urc un.fe rcpreient?

( ! ) What i• Conjugation ?-(2) How many tense• has the Indicati ve Mood~

68

SuBJUNC.'l'IVE Moon.

IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

I had,
Thou hadst,
He, &c. had,

69.

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

'l'he Subjunctive Mood (1) has six tenses; namely, the present, the imperfuct, the perfect1the pluperfect, the first future,. and the second.

We had,
Ye or you had,
They had.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .
. 'J'.he Perfect Tense (1) is formed by prefixing the sign have, and its vanatwns to the perfect participles; thus,
PERFECT 'l'ENSE.
Singular.

PRESENT TENSE (2) INDICATI,VE FORM.

I have had,
Thou hast had,
He has had,

Plural Number.

Singular Number.

If we lw.ve,
If ye or you have,
lfthey have.

If J have,
If thou hast,
If he, she, or it has, or hath,

Plural.

"Ve have had,
Ye or you have had,
They have had.

PRESENT TENSE (3) ELLIPTICAL FORM.
I

1:'h~

Plupe.rfect Tense (2) is formed by prefixing the sign i. '1d, ap.d .its
vanation, to the perfect participle; thus,
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

The remaining tenses (4) of the subjunctive mood (in all verbs except the
neuter verb .Be, which has two forms in the impe1fect tense, as well as in the
imperfect, see.page 40,) are, in general, similar to the correspondent tenses
of the inrlil'.ative mood ; with the addition to the verb, of a conjunction,
expressed or implied, denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.

"Ve had had, 1
Ye or you had had,
They had had.

Tl?e Fir~t J'.'uture T ense (3) is formed by prefixing the sign shall or will,
and its vanauon, to the present tense; thus,
·
F'IRS'i' FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.

(It will be proper for the teacher to require his pupils to repeat aU the tenses of this mood
Seepages 30 and 31.)

with a conjunction prefix111d to .each of them.

Plural.

I shall or will have,
Thou shalt or wilt have,
He shall or will have,

If we ( . ) have,
If ye or you ( ) have,
If they ( ) have.

If I ( ) have,*
If thou ( ) have,
If he ( ) have,

Plural.

I had had,
Thou hadst had,
He had had,

Plural.

Singular.

PoTEN'l'IAL Moon.

We shall or will have,
Ye or you shall or will have,
They shall or will have.

The Potential Mood (5) has four tenses; namely, the present, the imperfoct, the perfect, and the pluperfect.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB · HAVE.

_The Second Ft~ture ?-'ense (4) is formed by prefixing the signs shall or
will have, and theU" vanatwns, to th e perfect participle; thu s,
SFCOND FUTURE TENSE .
Singular.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
The Present Tense (6) is formed by prefixing the sign, may or can, and
its variation, to the verb ; as,
PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.

I shall have had,
Thou wilt have had,
He will have had,

W e shall have had,
Ye or you will have had,
They will have had.
QUES'l'IONS .

. (t) How is the \>erfect tense formed ?-(2) How is the pluperfect tense formed ?-(3) How is the
li rst fu~ur~ te~se formed ?-(4) How is the second future tense formed? Conjugate the verb Have
1n the indica~ive mood.

The present and the imperfect tenses are called simple tenses because
they are formed without auxi liaries-the perfect, the pluperfect: the first
fut_u re, and the second,_ are . called. c_orripound tenses, because they an~
fo1med by the help of signs, or auxiliaries.

Plural.

Singular.

I may or can have,
Thou mayst or canst have,
He may or can have,

We may or can have,
Ye or you may or can have,
They may or can have.
Q.UESTIONS.

(I) How many Tenses has the Subjunctive Mood '-(2) Give t)1e conju.gation of the present

tense indicative form.- (3) Give the elliptical form.- (4) How are the remauung ten ses conjugated ?_'._(5) How many tenses has the potential mood ?-(6) How is the present tense formed?

'

.

*This form of the subjunctive mood has should, or some other auxiliary understood.

I

ETYMOLOGY .

70

7l

ETY'MOLOGY.

. The Imperfect Tense (1) is forme
..
would, or should, and its variation t d hby Vpref1xmg the sign, might, could,
• o t e erb ; as,
IMPERF'ECT 'l'ENSE.
Singular.

A verb (1) in the Infinitive Mood has no.nominative case, and therefore,
it is unlimited in respect to number and .person. Hence it is called the
injiniti·ve or unlimited mood. In all the other moods, the verb is' attended
by a nominative case, by which it is limited as to person aud number.

Plural.

I might, could, would, or should
\Ve might, cou ld, would or should
have,
have,
Thou mightst, couldst, wouklst or ye oil· yolu might, could, would or
shouldst have
'
s iou d have, .
'
He might, could, >~<mid, or should They might, could, would or should
have,
hav&
'
The ~erfect Tense (2l is formed b
.
.
.
and their variations to the f)erfect p!a1?t.1efixl
the signs, may, or can have '
. 1c1p erng
; as,

Plural.
We may or can have had
¥~or
you may or can ha~e had
ey may or can have had
'

The Pluperfect Tense (3) is formed b
.
.
would, or should have, and their variat'10ns,
y prefixhmg
the signs,
might,. could
to t e perfect
participle
as '

' '

Singular.

. Plural.
We nught,
could, would or should
have had,
'
Ye or you might, could would or
T sho~l<I. have had,
hey might, could, would or should
have had.
'

1NPJN1T 1v.1:: Moon.
The Infinitive Mood (4) has b t t
the perfect. The preseiit tense u(5) :vo tenses ; namely, the present and
called the sign of the infu '(
.1s formed by prefixing to wh'' h .
u ive mood, to the verb; as ' to go , t'o run,
IC to
is
·.strike, &c·
.
. ';l'he perfect tense (6) is formed b
tic1ple ; as, to have gone to l
y prefixmg to have, to the perfect par'
iave run, to have beaten.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB If.AVE.

INFINITIVE MOOD
PRESENT TENSE. (7)
To have.

PERF'ECT TENSE.
To have had.

QUESTIONS.
How
is
the
impe
fi
perfect formed ?-Con·r ect tense formed ·?-(2) How is the e ti
the infi11itive n{ood !__.!l~g'iie the verb Have, through ull the" t~.~~!/~med ?-(3) How is the pluCOllJU~alion of the verb aveowint•s,thepresenl
many?-Give
tenses hllll
1e IRfimrjveformed
mood. ?-(6) How is the p(4)}f.ow
erJ ect formed
the
( 1)

k

CON.JUGATION OF THE VERB HA.VE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Plural Number.
Have ye or you, or clo ye or you have.

OP AUXILIARY AND DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs (4) are so called, because they can be used only in
some of the moods and tenses.
The principal of them are these, (5) may, can, shall, will, must, ought,
quoth, and their variations.
[For the vnriation of these words on account of tense, &c. see page 28.]

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

I might,
havecould,
had would, or should
Thou mightst: couldst wouldst 01.
shou ldst have had
'
He might, could, would, or should
have had,

peace.

Singular Number.
H.ave thou, or do thou have;

PERl' ECT TENSE.
Singular.
I may or cai1 have had
Thou mayst or canst h~ve had
He may or can have had
'
'

IMPERATIVE Moon.
The Imperative Mood (2) has hut one tense, and one person; namely,
the present tense, and the second person.
. This form (3) of the verb is generally used for commanding; as, depa.r t
thou; and is therefore called the imperative mood; but it is also used for
exho1·ting, entreating, and permitting; as, mind ye; let us stay; go in

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification, appears from the following sentences; "I must own that I am to
blame;" "He must have been mistaken;".:_' Speaking things which they
ought not;" "These ought ye to have done."
The verbs (6) have, be, will, and do, when they are unconn ected with a
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not aqxiliaries, but principal
verbs ; as, "We have enough ;" "I am grate fol ;" "He wills it to be so ;''
QUESTIONS.
(t) Why is this Mood called the infinitive mood ?-(2) How many tenses h•s the imperative
mood ?-(3) What i• th.e imperative mood used for ?-Give the conjugation of the imperative
mood.-(4) Why are defective verbs so called ?-(5) Repeat the principal ofthem.-(6) Are the
. verbs have be, will, and do, always use<l

RS

auxiliaries?

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to make a
few observations in this place, on some of the tenses, &c. The first is,
· that, in the potential mood, some grammarians confound the present with
the imperfect tense; and the perfect with the pluperfect. But that they
are really distinct, anrl have an appropriate reference to time, correspondent to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few examples; "I
wished him to stay, but he would not;" "I could not accomplish the business in time;" "It was my direction that he should submit;" "He was ill,
but I thought he rnight live;" "I may have misunderstood him;" "He cannot have deceived me;" "He might haiJe finish~d the work sooner, but he
could not have done it better." lt must, however, be admitted, that, on
some occasions, the auxiliaries, might, could, would, and should, refer
also to present and to future time.

72

73

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

'

"They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries;
as, "I shall have enough ;" '·I wi,ll be grateful."
The Auxiliary and Defected Verbs seem not to be includerl in the common definition of the verb.
The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the following' account of them.
Ought (1) denotes duty; as, he ought to be here.
Have (2) denotes possession; as, Children, have ye any meat ?-Have
also denotes time; as, we have performed our duty.
May (3) implies liberty; as, he ?nay return if he desires it. May als0
implies doubt ; as, he may not be here, although I expect him.
Can (4) implies power or ability; as, he can pass the guards.
Must (5) denotes necessity or compul sion; as, he must pay the debt.
Might (6) implies liberty ; as he might have passed th e gua rds, had he
been so disposed. Might also implies power; as, he ?night have returned
in spite of his keepers.
Could (7) signifies power or ability; as, h e could have paid the demand.
Tf'ould (8) implies determination ; as, he would go in. Also, inclination; as, I would that all woiild come to the knowledge of the truth.
Should (9) denotes duty; as, you should treat your superiors with deference.
Shall, (10) in the first person, only foretells; as, I shall go to-morrow.
In the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, or threatens;
as, you or they shall be re.w arded. Thou shalt not steal.
Will, (11) in the first person, denotes promise ; as, I will not let thee go.
In the second and third persons it foretells; as, he will reward th e righteous.
OF REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS.

Verbs (14) which do n ot form their imperfect ten se, and perfect participle, by adding d, or ed, to the present, are irregular.

b -regiilar Verbs are of various sorts.
1. Such (15 ) as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect participle, the same; as,
Cost,

IMPERFECT.

Cost,

as,
PERFECT PAF.T.

IMP ERFECT .

PllFSF.NT.

Sold.

Soll!,

Sell,

3. Such as hav e the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle, differe nt ; as,
PERF' EC'l' PAHT.

IMP ERFECT .

PllESf; N'r .

Blown.

Blew,

Blow,

. . . " I . b contra ction; as, "Feed, ferl; leave,
Many verbs become n_ie,,~ ai Y_ . "F· 11 f 11 fall e n ·" ot hers by the
a ' e. ',, & . . '
left·" others by the termwanon, en' as,
ten;·,in ation, giit; as, "Buy, bougl1t ; tead 1, taught, . c.
[For a list of th e irregular v erb~ see puge 26.]
.

.

.

l

r

f' .. .

1hr verbs referred to,
or clislcourtse, :1cnl(tl
.
·
u .,
•
"
·
·
. l
f d · ·1• earn sp ,
which are improperly rermi natr rl h,v I, in s t~· ac o t~ ' < . , siti on ' It i•
s ilt &c These should be avoided in evP. ry sort o ~om p o
·
P ·'
t~w~v~ 1 :· Jro Jer t~ observe that soine contractions of cd mto I, ar_e UJ? x-

SLI T('.1!,1evec1~'.~pailse ral1'.:si:~.~ctrr~1l~1~·rt~~j,:1~1: '1: n~~fi1~r t~,'.1~i7i\1~
(T

1
o th P.rs, 1te o nl}t'
1:eptional1fe;
• • • fr
crept o-ilt &c. · a n 0 1ost., 1e 1 , s 1ep , < ·• • ,. ' .
contr;l~tidns m{1st th erefo re be caref11!1_v disti11!'_L11shed u_v,th el 1e ,11ln~ 1, '.~1·~
.
bl
Th e wurrls ~v h1 <' li are ou~o ete Mv e d ~
1
~~~~ ~~~~t~ ~; ~~~~l~f:~nl~m~;er might not be inrl11 ccd to mistake them f~r
words in re~ent use. Such a re, wreath en, drunken, h olpnn; m~1ten,-~~:
p 1Jouncleii
ten, ho11
c en,
· , &c . ., and -~wan""' wranrr,
" tila nk, straw ed, ,,at, b1ake,
tare, ware, &c.

\mcl

;i

~~~'. lili~~1~t~~e1 ~~;~~,a~~ee~fi~e~s~~~s~;~~

OF NEUTE!l AND PA S S J\' E VER BS .

Verbs (12) which form their impe1fecl tense, and pe1fect participle, by adding to the verb ed, (or d only, when the verb ends in e,) are called regitlar; as,
PRESENT TENSE . (13)
IMPERFECT TENSE.
PERFECT PAR'l'ICJPLE.
I destroy,
I destroyed,
Destroyed.
I love,
I loved,
Loved.

PRESEN'l'.

~- :::iL1 ch as have the illlperfect tense, and perfe ct participle, the same;,

PERFECT PA RT.

Cost.'

a

A Neuter Verb (1) irnplics bein g or ?xist'.mce, o_r
.sr~t\~F -~x:;~; 1 ~ey·
1,
witliout action; as, " I am in hen Ith ;" '·He ?S wea1 Y of 11~ 1 c •
rest from th eir labors."
Some verbs (2 \ may lie used eith er in an aerive or a neuter. sen~e . ln
the scn;,ence, "Here i rest"-(re pu:o:e,) tlt c verb re;~!. i s_.u~e~l ~n .a nw _er
sense; but in the se11tence, " Jfr re J rest 111y ltop e ~, it 1 ~ 11scd 111 dll active
sense."
.
. .
A P assive Verl.J (3) is n verli tl1at represeuts its snh.1 ect or non1111~t,1 v;;
a~ beiiw (or having been) acted 11 p011 ; a~, " J a in p~r~ewt eJ b~, my e n emie~ .
,: H e h:'i's bee n injure 11 by slaud crcr;;." In its _o_n;;rnal ~pplirS1t1~n, p~ss·{?n
si,... 11 ifies a suffoi:in"'-(enduring.) Th e Crne1tix1 01 1 ot our • a110m _is or
~his rea~<:n callctl Jii s P as:!io n; that. i$, Iii ~ suft<;ri11g
th e ~rost .Fr~1~
passion is deriv ed p n~s iv P.. Hc11ct• ~lie 11an1r ot the c l a~~ o~ vet s ~
uoniinated; the mcaniug nml u~c 111 tlie word, hus, howeve1, been g1eut Y
exte ud ecl .

c:n

f

QUESTIONS.

(1) What does: ottght denote ?- -(2) ·w hat doe8 liave denote ?-(3) Wh nt does may imp ly ?(4) What does canimply?- (5) What does must denote ?- (6) What dues miirht impl y ?---(7) What
does could signify ?-(8) What does would imply ?---(9', What docs slw uld de note ?-i' IO) \Vhnt UoeA
1
3"all impl y -(11 ) Whnt does will denote ?-(12) What verbs nre culled regu lar ?---(13 ) Giv e nn
.example of the regular verb in the present, imperfect, &c.-(14) \\1 hat verbs ure called irreg ular?(15) Give an example of th e several sorts of irregular verbs?

Q UES TIO NS .
(J) '"'hrt.t is u Neu ter Vcrh ?- (2) l s the sume verb used both in on active antl a neuter s·ense ?-·
(3) \¥hat docs a pn:;sivt! \'crh express?

10

74

75

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

Th_e Pas.s~ve Verh' _(I) is form.ed by prefixing the neuter verb Be (or Am)
or some of ~t~ vanat1011s (a_rt, 1s, was, wast, were, wert, or, been, ) to the
perfoct. pa rtrn1µl e of a transitive verb; as, I mn loved-He is beaten-The
coach is drawn.
In th e followi!l~ sentences,. a part. ?f the n e uter verb Be is prefixed t~
t~e p~rfe c t part:Jc1ple of an mtran.s1t1ve y~ rb. The ship is arrived, the
bJrd is Jl?wn; such verbs (2) are intransitive verbs, in the passive form.
So:i1e .w1:1ters on grammai: r ej ect this form of expression as incorrect, and
wnte rn its ~t ead, "The bird has flown," &c.-(See conjugation of the nt!uter and passive verbs, pages 39, 40, and 41.)

Adverbs seem (1 ) originally to have b e~n contrivecl t~ expres~ compendiously in one word, what must oth erwise have r eqmred two or mo~e;
as "He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom; "Prudently," for, with
p/ude nce; "He aid it here," for , he did it in this place.
Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to the following casses, namely,
OJ M anner, Prudently, hon estly, wisely, well, ill, &c.
Tirne present, Now, to-clay, &c. ·
Ti·me past, Before ,. al ready, lately, lon g ago, &c.
Tirnefuture, Presently, immediately, to-morrow, &c.
Tiine indefinite, Sometimes, seld om, always, &c.
In a.place, Here, there, where, &c.
To a place, Hither, thither, whither, &c.
Towards a place, Hi therward, thitherward.
.Froni a place, ~en ce, th.ence, whence..
.
.
Repetition of tirnes definitely, Once, twice, thnce, agam, & c.
Repetition of tirnes indefinitely, Often, seldom, frequently.
Order, First, secondly, thirdly, &c.
Qnantity, S ufficiently, enough , &c.
N egation, Nay, no, not, &c.
Separation, Apart, separately, asunde.r, &c.
Conjunction, Together, gen erally, umv ersally, & e.
Interrogation, ' Vhy, when, how, &c.
D efect, Alm ost, nearly? &c.
.
Preference, Rath er, ch iefly, especially, &c .
.fl.baternenl, Scar cely, hardly, &c.
Contiiio-ence, P erh aps, peradventllre, possibly, &c.
Certaii~t:.J, or affinnation, Verily, truly, yea, yes, certainly.
Cornparison, !Hore, most, less, worse, &c.

OF PARTICIPLES.
A Participle (3) is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the_ natu)·e
of a verb and of an adj ective.
Participles (4 ) often become adjectives, and are placed before nouns to
denote quality; as, "A lying tong ue ;" "A burning fever;" "A loving
child;" "A rnoving spectacle ;" "A heated imagination ;""A leanied m an."
The words mark simply the qualities referred to, without any regard to
time; aud may properly be called participial adjectives.
'
. When (5) p:eceded by ai~ ~rticle, and adj ective,· or a noun, or pronoun,
m the possessive case, part1C1ples b ecome nouns; as, "The be!!inning
·''
0
"A good und~rstanding ;" "The chancellor's bei1w
attached to the king
0
secured his crown."
'
. Th ere are (6 ) three Participles; namely, the Present or Active, the
P er fect or Passive, and the Compound Perfo ct; as, lov·i ng -loved*-having loved.
Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they al so signify
actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do.
OF ADVERBS.
An ADVERB (7) is a word j oined to a verb, or to a participle, to show
the manner, tim e, or place in which the action is don e ; as," He· reads
correctly;" "1-fo mentioned it before;" "They l~bor here."
[Adverbs are more frequently added lo verbs, th an to any other par ls of speech, and therefore
·
tlley are called adverbs.]

Some (8) adverbs are compared, thus ; soon, sooner, soonest; often oftener, oftenes t. Those endi11g in ly, are compared by 1nore and most ; as
wisely, more wi sely, most wisely."
'
'
QUE ST IO NS .

(1) How is a passh1 e verb formed ?--f2) What ki nd of verb;; are is jlo1Un -is arrivtd , &c. ?(3) What is a Participle ?- (4) Do participles become adjectives ?- (5 ) Do participles ever become
noun s ?- (6) How m u.ny pnrticiplcs are there ?- (7) \Vhat is au A<lverl.J ?- (8) How arc adverbs
compared?

*When this participle is joined to the verb to ha.ve, it is called pe1fect ;
when it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denominated pa.ssive.

Besides the adverbs al ready m entioned, ther e ar e m any which al'e
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions, ·with the adverbs
of place, here, there, and where; as, (2) hereof, th er eof, whereof; hereto;
th ereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, wh er eby; herewi th , therewith, wherewith; h erein, ther ein, wh er ein; th erefore, (i.e. th ere-for,) wh erefore, (i.e.
where-for,) here upon or h ereon, thereupon or thereon, wh er6upon or
whereon, &c. Except therefore, th ese are seldom used.
In (31 some instances th e preposition sufters no change, but becomes
an adverb merely by its application; as wh en we say," He rid e;; about;"
"I-le w as near falling:;" " But do n ot after lay th e blame on me."
There are (4) also- sohrn adverb s, w I 1ich a re composed of nouns, and
the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, athirst, afoot, ahead,
asleep, aboard, ashor e, abed, agr ouud, afloat, &c.
_
The words (5) when and where, aml all others of th e same nature, such
as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &.c. may be prop e-rly called adverbial conjnnctions, because th ey participate th e nature both of adv erbs and
conjunctions; of conjun ctiou s, as th ey conjoin senten ces; of adverbs, as
th ey denote the attributes either of time or of place.
QUESTION S.
r (t) For what purpose ,\•ere adverbs con trivet! ?-Give an exnm ple of each kind of ad.v~rUs ?(2) Give examples of adverbs formed by a combination of uclverhs of place anrl prepos1llons ?(3) Do preposi tion s becon1e adverb111 ?-(4) Are adverbs composed of nonns ?--{5) '\Vlrnt wordi nrt\
c alled a<lverbial conjunctions ?

76

. !t may be par1.i c11 J;:rly. ouser~cd with 1·e~pect to t l1 c wo rd therl;jorc, that
1t is an aclverli, when, without .io1111ng se ntences, it only g ives the sense of;
fo r lhnt reason. When it g ives that ~ense, and a lso co nn ects it is a conjunction; as, "He i ~ good, thereJm·c he is happy."
'
There are seve ral co mbinations of ;;hort word s wl1i cl1 are used a<lve·rbially, and whieh ~orne grammarian:> do not ana lyze in parsin g; as, Not
at aU, a l-iltte while ago, to and fro, ·i n vaiu, Bfc.
·
·

Ch·

particular perso11 or thing is spoke11. ot; that ought to be more distin ct])"
marked; accordingly tile pronoun singu lar of the third person has tl ie
three "enders, he, she, it.
.
Pro~ouns (1) hav e three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the
Objective.
.
.
.
Th e objective case of a pronoun lt '.is, in ge nera l, a form different from
that of the nominative, or the possessive case.
JI Table of the Persona.I Pronouns in the Th ree Cases.

1-IELl'ING ADVERB 'S .

A H e lping-A dv e rb \1) is a word emp loyed to aid an adVl' rb, 01· auotl1 e r
helpi ng-a d ver b ; ll $ , "He rides too fast;" "He rid e$ 11mch too fast."

H elpi11g -C£dveros, (2 ) very, qu ite, exceedingly, excessively, e xtremely,
too 111uc h, &c.
The same w ord ~ are call ed helpin g-adjectives when th ey :J,re employed to aid adjectives ; as, "Tl1e house is too large;" or another h e lpi1w0
adjective; as, " Tl1 c house is 11mch too large."
These word ~ arr., by some writers on g rammar, called adverbs of degree. (See page 1'1.)

Singular Nutn!Jcr.

qu e nt repe titi on of tli e same word; as, "The man is happy; he is !Jenevole nt; he is usefid."
(Pronotmcomes from th e Latin word ,pi-o-nomen, compo unded of pro, for, und nomcn, a noun or
naine.l

Th er e are (4 ) four kinrls of pronouns, viz. th e P ersonctl, the R elati-11e, the
OF PER SOl'\AT.

'

PRONO UNS .

There are (5) five Pe rsonal Pronnu11 ~, viz . I, thou , he, she, and it; with
th eir plurab, we, ye or yoii, they.
Perso nal Prono1111 s admit of per:;o11, nuruber, gcuder, a nd case.
The numb e r~ of. vro11 ouns, like those of uouns, are two, the singular
and th e plural; as, I, /:hnn, he; we, y e or you, thcJJ.
·
Gender h as respec t only to tli e third perso n :< ingu lar of the pronouns,
he, she, it. H e i~ 111asculinc; she is !Cmi11i11e; it iti m:uter.
The perso ns s pea king and $pol\e 11 to, be ing at 1!'1 e sa 1n e time the subj ects of th e di scourtie, ar e suppo,;ed to be present; from whi c h, and other
circumstances, th eir sex is commonly known, and 11 eed~ uot to be marked
by a distinction of ge nder in t!t e pronouns .; but tli e tliirrl person or thing
:<poken of, being ab~ent, ancl iu rnnny res pects unknown, it is necessary
that it should be nmrked l.iy a distiu ction of gend er; at leas t, when some

1/WS.

He
Hi ;,
Him;

3d per.fem.
She,

3dper.nw.
It,

H e r~,

It~,

H e r;

lt.

They,

They,
rI'IJ eirs,
Thern.

Plural Number.

Nom. 'Ve,
P oss. Ours
Obj. Us.'

They,
Th eirs,
Tl1 e 111.

Y e or You,
Yours,
You .

01'

A PRO!\'O U:"I (3) i:< a w ord used iustead. of a no11n, to avoid th e too fre-

3d pe1·.

2d p er~on ,
Pirst person.
Tl1ou,
Nom. I, (2)
Thine,
Poss. l\'line,
Thee ;
Obj. l\'Ie;

OF PRONOUNS.

fnt errogative, and tl1 e .!ldjective Pronouns,

77

ETY}IOLOGY·

ETY~IOLOGY.

Th e ir~,

Them .

TIH: RELA'.l'IVE PRONOUNS.

R elative Pronouns (3) are sucl1 as relate, i11 general, to .some w.~rd or
before which i;, th e nce call ed the anrrcede11t, tl1 ey a1c, who,
Plll·ase ,.,o-oirw
,.,
.
1Y· "*
which, a nd that;
as, ' " The man is ha ppy w h o 1·1ves virtuous
.
What (4) is a kind of compo und pronoull, inclu.ding bo~,h t.~1 e ~n:~?ed e '.lt
and the rel ative, aud is equiv alent to that a.11d which_; a~,. H e p1a1,c::. ''hat
you dispraise;" that is, he praises that wlttch you dis praise. .
.
Who (5) is applied to person s, which to animals, and 1.na!l11n~te _thwgs i
as "He is ufriend, who is foithfol in adv~ rs1ty ;" " fhe bi.1.'d? i~hich ~1m g 80
' tl ·s flown ·" " This is the tree, wlnch produces 110 f1mt.
swee y, 1
'
·
f
·
··
Tl t (6) as a r elative is often used to preven t th e too ref[uent 1epet1 f
~f~vho and which. It is appli ed to both p ersons. an1l thmgs ; as," 1-le
tl~: acts wisely deserves praise ;" "l.Hodesty is a qmilily that highly adorn~
a wo11'Htn."

Who is of both nurnl.Jers, and is thus dec lined;
Singular n.111.J Pl ura l.

"Vho,

JVominative, (u )
PossesS'ive,
Objective,

'Yhose,
' \Thom.

QUESTIONS.

> (

R

-• t the trtble of p ::-rs ounl pronouns ?- (3) Whnt

(1) How many cases have Pron~unsl.- 2) . e 1~c.u t to >- (5) Huw is who applied ~-(6) For what
arere lnti ve pro11ou11s ?-(4) What ~s w iat equ1va cu
·
is that used ~-(7) Decline th e rch1uve who.

QUE ST IONS.
( J) What is a Helping-Adverb ?---(2) Gi>e a list. of thcm.- (S) Wh at is a Prononu ?- (4) How
many kinds of pronouns nre there?

*The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, re la~es to a word or
phrase which is not anteccilmt, but sttbseqttcnt, to the relative.

78

Which, t~at, .and what, are likewise of both numbers, but they do not vary
th ell' term1.nat1on ; except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive
case of which; as, "Is there any other doctrine whose fo llowers are punished?"
T¥ho, which, and what, have sometimes the words soever and ever ann exerl to them; as, whosoever or whoever, whichsoever or whichever, whatsoever
or whatever; but they are seldom used in modern ~tyl e .
The word (1) that. is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative
pronoun, 3:nd sometimes .a conjunction. (2) It is a relative, when it may
he turned mto who or wlnch without destroying- the se nse; as, "'I'hey that
(wh?) reprove us, m~y 1:rn our best fri ends;" "From e \·ery thing that
(winch). )'.Oil see, derive m stn.1<'. ti on." (a) It is a demonstrative prunoun
when 1t 1s fo llowed i~11m~di?te.l,v by a noun, to which it is either joinec~, or refers, and wlJi ch 1t l11mts or qua lifies; as, "That boy is indus~nous ;" ."Thr:-t belongs .rn rn e ;" meaning, th at book, that desk, &c. (4) It
is a conJunct1on, when 1t JOllls sentences torrethcr ancl cannot be turued
into who or which, withot1t destroying the sen~e; as', "Take care that every
day be well employed;" "I hope he will believe tlwt I have not acted improperly."
. Wh~, which, ~nrl what, (5) are called Interrogatives, wlicn they are nsed
u1 ask111g quest10ns ; as," Who is he?" " Which is the book?" "What art
thou doing ?"
OF TH E ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
Adj ective Pronouns (6) are of a mixed nature, participatincr the properties bot h of pronouns a11d adjecti vcs.
"
The Ad.ie.ctive Pro1!ou!1 s (! ) may be s ubdivid ~rl into five sorts, nam ely,
the Possessive, the Distriuuhve, the Denwnstrative, the Indefinite and the
Interrogative.
'
, The possessive(~) are th~ se which r~late to possession .or property.
There are s:!ven of them; viz. 1ny, thy, his, her, our, yonr, their.
T~e fo Uowing sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns.-" Mylesso n 1s firn shed; Thy books are defaced; H e loves his studies; She perfo~·ms he: duty; vVe own our faults; Your situation is distressing; I admire then· virtues.''
The fo l!ow~ng are ~xa1~1ples of the po~se ssive cases of the personal pronouns.-" Tins desk 1s niine; the other 1s thine; TJ1 ese trinkets are his ·
those are hers ; This J10use is ours, and that is yours; Theirs is very com~
modious."
Seif is added to possessi.ves ; a ~ , myself, yourselves ; and sometimes to
personal pronouns; as, himself, itself, theinselves. It th en, like own expresses emphasis and opposition; as, "I did this myself"" that is ;, not
an?ther ;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun; as," vVe hu;·t oursel~es by
vain rage."
QUES'r!ONS.
, (l),How is th ~ wo:d t~<tl ~ons tru c d ?-(2) \.Vhcn is i~ a relntive. ?- (3) \ Vhen a demonstrative?-

~ 1) ~h e n n co11Ju;1cr10n . -(a) \Vha~ W?r<ls are c1t.llcd mterrogat1ve pronouns ?-(6) What are adJec u v ~ pronoum; .-(7) How are adJCCtivo pronouns 1mbdh·ided ?-(8) \Vhich are the possessive?

79

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

~

I

Himself, themselves, are n~w use~ in the nomin'.ltive case, instea~ ~~
his.•elf, theirselves; as, "He came lumself ;" " He hrmself shall do dus ,
"They performed it themselves."
.
2. The distributi1ie (1) are those which denc:ite the persons or dungs that
make up a number, as taken sepn_ra~el y and smgly. . Tl~ey ~~·~:each, e·very,
either; as, "Each of his brothers 1s m a favora~le s1tu~t1on, ,, Every man
must account for himself ;" "I have not seen either of them.
E ach relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of
the two, or every one of any uumber taken se parately.
E verlj relates to several perso ns or things, and signifies each oue of
them a'll taken separately. This pronou n was. formerly. used apart from
its noun but it is now constantly ann exed to n, except 111 legal proceedings ; as' in the phrase, "All and. every o 1· t Irnm."
. .
Either relates to two persons or things taken separate.ly, and s 1 gn1~es
the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," 1s therefore unproper.
.
Neither imports" not either;" that is, not one nor the other ; as," N either
-0f my friends was there.''
The demonstrative (2) are those which precisely point out the subjects to which they relate i this and tha~, these ai~d those'.Jor:iner .a~~ latter,
are of this class; as," This 1s true chanty; that 1s only its image.
The indtjinite (a l are those which e.xpress their s_ubj~cts in an indefinite or general manner. The follow mg are of tlus Jund; soine, other,
any, one, alt, s·nch, &c.
Of th ese pronouns, only the words one and other are v,aried. .One
has a possessive case, wh ich It forms III t~rn .same. manner ~~ nouns, as,
one one's. This word has a general s1gmficat10n, meanmg people ~t
Jar;,e · and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is
spe"aklng; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind.': " One is
· pt to Jove one's self'." This word is oflen used, by good wnters, m the
~lural number; as, '"l'he great ones of the world.;" "The b?Y wounded
the old bird, and stole the young ones;" "My wife and the little ones are
in good health."
Other is declined in the following manner :
No in.
Poss.
Obj.

Singular.

Plural.

Oth er, (4)
Other's,
Other,

Other~,

Others',
Others.

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which it
r efers, whether expressed or understood ; as, " \Vhen you have perus~d
these papers, I w ill send you th e others.''. "He pleases some, but he disgusts others.'' VVh~n ~his pronoun is JOl~ed to,,,n,?uns, e1th ~r SIIl~~Jar or
plural, it has no vanat1on; as, "the ot he1 ma~1 ,
t~e oth~1 men.
The word another (7) is composed of the mdefimte article prefixed to
the word other.
QUESTION.

(I) Which are the distributive •---(2) Which are the demon•Irative ?- (3) Which are the indefinite ?-(4) Decline the pronoun other.

80
~o.;;c

ETYMOLOGY .

ETYMOLOGY.

,:s used in both rn1111he rs; as," None is so deaf as he tlmt will not

~'.~,'1 1. ,
J"V_o.'.ie o.f tl1ose. arc e rpud to these." It beerns originally to have
.. J"'tufi ecl , accorc1111g t'.1 its rler 1vat1on, not one, and therefore to have had
no plural; h.ut tl1 ere Js good allt ltnrity for th e use of it in the plural uumber; as, "J•iune tliat go unto her 1·eliim agnin ."-Pruv. ii . 19.
Tlte (J) Interrogative an'l -which and what wl1cn preiixed to nouns; as,
" What ti Ill e dirl li e arrive?" " Which house' did h e occurJY ?"

OF CONJUNCTIONS.
A CoNJUNCTION (2) i.s a pa rt of speech tbnt is chiefly used to connect
s~Jitenc<>s; so as, out of two or more senten ces, to make but one. It sometim es connects only words.
Conjunc!i?ns ('.1) are principally di\'ided into two so rts the Copulative
and th e D is1unclive.
'
The Conjuncti?n Co pulative (4) sen ·es to co unect or to co ntinu e a se nten ce, by expre.ss 1n15 an aclrlitio n, a s 11ppo;;iti o1 1. a cau~•~, &c.; as," He and
~~is, brothe r reside Ill Lowlon ;" "I wi ll go if lie will accompauy m e ;"
1 ou are happy, because you arc good."
·
. The Conjunction Disj unctive (5) serves, not only to connect and continu e the sentence, bnt also to ex pre s~ opposition 1if rncaninrr in differ ent
~egTees; as," T_hoiigh he was frequeJJtly reproved, yet h e rlid ~10t r eform;"
They C(nne with her, but th ey went away without her."
The following is a list of' the principal Conjunctious.
The Copll/a.tive. (6) And, if, that, both, th en, since for because therefore, wherefore.
'
'
'
· '.£'lie Disjttnclive: (7) B~1t, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either,
neither, yet, notw1tb sta nd111g.
'
The same word i.s occasionally u~ e <l both as a conjunction and as an
adver~,; and .sometim es, a.s a r:1repo.sition. "l rest then upon this argume.n~," th en ~ s. he re a . conjunct10n; 111 the following phrase, it is an adve1 ~,. ~!e. m n ~~cl then, and no~ before.'.' "~ s ubmitt ed; for it was vain
to 1.e~1st, "Jll tin~ se ntence, .for 1s a con.i unct10n ; i.n the next, it is a pre1)()~111011 ; l~e c~ntcnded .for victory only." In th e first of the fo llowing
~e ut e nc es, since JS a conjun ~tio n ; in the ·second, it is a preposition; and
~:1 th: third, an adverb.; "Since .we mu st part, let us do it peaceably;"
.I have not seen him since that time;" "Our friendshijl commenced long
since."
.1:~l ative P1:011011ns, as well as conjunctions, serve to co nn ect sentences;
as, . Blessed 1s the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments."
Conjunctions very ofte~l unite sentences, when they appear to unite
0!11.Y w~rds; as, 111 the following instances; "Duty and interest forbid
v1c10us rndulgen?es :" "\<Visdom or foll y governs u s." Each of th ese
forms of express10n con tain s two sentences, namely; "Duty forbids vi-

1.

cio11s i11dulgencP.s; interest forbids vicious indul genc es;" "\Visdorn governs ns, or folly govern s us."
As there are many .c onjunctions and connective phrases ~1ppropriated
to the coupling of sen tences, that are neve r e1npl~yed Ill JOllllll.g the rnemb i>rs of a sentence; so there are ~everal co nJunctwns appropriated to the
latte r 11 se, whicl1 are never employed in the for!ner; and 80n?e that are.
•iqually adapted to both tlioHe purposes; as, ap;mn,[urther, bes~de, &c.. ot
the first kind; tha.n, lest, unless, that, so that, &c. ol the second; and Ind,
nnd,for, therefore, &c. of th e last.

OF PREPOSITIONS.
PREPOSITIONS (1) serve to co nn ect wc>rcls with one anothe r, and to
show the relation between th ern. Th ey are, for the most part, put before
noLms and pronouns, m,, 'He w entji·om Lo11clon to York;" "She is above
di sgui:;e ;" "They arc instructed l>y him."

p~~epo.~it i.on comes fro1n the Latin P ·rewpo 110, which signifies to put before, and prepositions are
so called because they ure pul before nou ns and pronon11s.

A list of the principal prepositions; (2) .1lbo·ve , agaiust,_ avoid, after, amidst, across, a.mong, athwart, at--:behind, belou', b.ifore, b~s1de, beneafh, between; betwixt, beyond, hy-conccrning-dnwn, during-excepi;-for, Jromin, into-nea_r-of, o;i or 11pon , over-round or aruimd-~in~e-t!irough,
throughout, 11.ll, to~iching, toward-unde:-, 11.n dern_eath, iip-mlhm, w1thou/otd of-01Jer against-next to-according to-instead of, and some other
words.
Verbs are often rompoundecl of a verb and a preposition; as, to npholcl,
to invest to overlook; and this compo;;ition sometim es gives a new sense
to the v~rb; ns, t.0 un r!en•tancl, to withc1nnv, to for;:- iv c. Bnt in English,
the preposition is more. freq11.ently. place<l after th e verb, an<l sepa rately
from it. like an adverb, in wli1 ch s1t. uat1on 1t 1s not Jess apt to affect the
se nse ~fit, and to give it a new m eanin g ; n nd may still be consid ered a~
h elonging to the verb, und :1s a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw ; but lo
east 'Up, or to compu te an account, i ' quite a different tilin g; thus, to fa ll
on to bear out, to giv e over, &r. So tl 1at the meanin g of th e verb, and
tli~ propriety of tile phrase, de pcn1l on the preposition s ubj oined.
In the com position of many wonl~, th er e are ce rtain syllables employed, whic-h grammarian s have called inseparable prepos itions; as, be, con,
mis, &c. iu bedeck, conjoin , mistake.
One great use of pre positions, in English, is, to express those relation~,
whi ch, in some languages, are chiefly mark ed by cases, or the diffe rent
cmlings of 11ouns. (Sec page 5;1.) Th e n eres,;ity and use of them will
appear from the following examples. If we ~ay, "He writes a pen;"'
" T hev ran th e river;" "The tower fell the Greeks ;" ." Lambeth is \Vestminst~r-abbey ;" there is observ nble, in eacl1 of th e;;e ex presiou~~ eitl1er a
total want of con11exio11 ; or 'uch :t co11nexi011 as prorl uces falsehood or
11011 sense; and it is ev id P.11t, that, before th ey cn11 he turJt ecl into sen~P,
he vacancy must be fi ll ed up. hy som e comiecting word; as thus, "He
QUES'f l ON S .

~U ES'l' IOl'iS.

(1_) W~ich ar~.~he . i1~terrogative .adjectiv_e pl'onouns , -(2) "~huti:i a Conjunction ?-(3) How are
c.0_11J~nc t.10ns dn 1ded . - (•J) W.lrn.t is tl~e 01J1~e of n copulative co njuncrion ?- (5) ~Vhat of n disjunct1' e . -(6) Repea t th e copulative cOOJU ll Ct1011s.-(7) Re1lcnt the disju11rtive.

81

: 1) \Vhnt is 11 Prepos ition ?-(2) Given li!>t of t\Je pri11cipid prt>posi tions.

11

8.2

ETYMO L OGY.

ETYMOLOGY.

' vritG
e s with a pen;" " They ran towa.·rds the river"' "The tower fiell 'tnoi•
· over against
·
'
bI 11e I· reeks"'
. ' •"L um b et]1 is
"Vest minster-abbey."
'Ve'rsee'
Y t iese 11.1sta!1ces, how prepositions may be necessary to connect thos~
w~~~s, w.h! ch ll~ _th eir. sig~i~ cation are not naturally connected.
eposltl.ons, m their ongmal and literal acceptation seem to have denoted relatwns
of place
·' b u· t t1my are
·
' ·
.
.
now used· figumtively
to 'express
ot 1ier re 1atwns. Fo r example, as they who are 1ibove have in several
;espects the advantage of s1:1ch as are below. Prepositions expressino- biuh
,mHd l?w p laces, are used for superi ority and inforiority in 0o-ener~l a"s
" e IS .above
cJ'1sgmse,
' . -'' "We serve under a good master ·" "He ru
' l e~'
.
over a w1lhng people;" ""Ve should do nothing benecith our ~haracter." ,.

OF I N TERJECTIONS.
. ~n~e~jections (~) are word s. throw:n in between the parts~of a senteuce, to
<.xp1ess the pass10ns oremotwus of the speaker· as "Oh 1 J hav · 1· .
ted n1y f'n.en cl ;" "Alas .' I f'ear fior lifo ;"
. "0 virtue!
'
'
. amiable
e a 1thou
enahow
art!"
·
}'lie E_ng!ish Intc1:jection~, as well as those ofotl1 er languages ar e comp11sed ~v1t l11n a s1:nall compass. They are of differe nt sorts, acc'onl in ..,. to
th~ different pass1?11~ wluch they serve to expres~. Those which intii~ate
eat nestness or 11nef, are, 0 ! oh! ah! alas! Such as are expressive of
contempt, are, pish ! lush! of' wonder, he1'.gh! reallv ! straiirre 1 of' ca11 1·11
71e11•
l I sow.
Z I o f' aversion
.
1·
,,
't>
'
g,
· • .I .w.
~ r < 1sg ust, f~h ! fie! awa,i1 ! of a call of tl~ e
attent10n, to! behold! hark ! of reques t11w silence h11sh' hist 1 of' salii tat·o
·
'
·
' · in I thn,e
weI come.I l wi'I .I all · l_w1.I' .' ·lles1des
tli ese," several' ot hers,
frequent
rno11tl1~ of the n111lt1tll(l c, mi ght be enu lfl erated; uut, in a grammar of a
e'. ilt1_vateil t~ng11 e, 1t rn u1m ecestia ~·y to ex patiate on such expr essions of
pa s~ 1 on, as are scarce ly worthy of bcmg ranked among the bran clies of
a rt1:fic1al lan guage.

o1· af\ixes, it fits the word to which it is added, to be joined to other

words.
·
k·e, t I1at 1~,
· no t bi'd , no t·
For implies negation or privation; as,Jorbid,Jorsa

h d fi _r. t
seek.
· ·
b , r.
Fore si<rni:fies before; as, see, foresee, that JS, see <:JOre- an ' oreJoo '
Jore-j'alhe1~ The opf?osite is hi_nd, as hind-foot.
.
. .
.
Gain is a contraction of agamst; as, gam-sa:y, 01 con ti ad1ct.
.
Jlfiss denotes defect, or eii·or; as, take,, mistake, tak.e wr?ngly. Tins word
is said to be derived from the Saxon 1ms and Gotluc missa, .a fault or defect; hence probably th e En glish l? miss, or to fai l, and amiss, and hence
abo the French ·1nes, as in meconno·itre, to forg et .
.In has its usual sirrnification, in in.stil, imprison, inlay, imJ!~int. ·
Over denotes eminence, superiority, inversion, or transition; as, come,
overcome, o11erthrew, oversee, overlook, also· e:i:cess, as overlwsty, or too hasty .
Firr11ratively, overhear, overtake.
Cfot ;;igni:fies excess or superiority, as out-~o, out-rm_i. .
Un, before an adjective, denotes 1ie{{ation or privation;. as, u:1.worthy,
that is, not worthy. But, before verbs. It denotes the undoing 01 .the destroying ener gy or. act; as, unsay, that 1s, retra.ct wha~ Y?U ~1nv e_ said.
Up denotes motion upwards, as start, npstart; rest rn a l11ghe1 p lace, as,
hold, uphold; sometin~es subversi?n, as, set, npset.
.
. .
.
W·ith si()"nifies against; as, withstand, that 1s, stand against, fi om 01
back, as, u~thhold, that is, hold from or back; withdraw, or rlraw ?ack ..
Under implies inferiority or d~fect, as, under-do, tinder-sell . F1gurat1vely nnder"'o understand, undertake.
'The f'olidwing ar e borrowed from the French cou~ler, en, enter, ~u1"
Counter denotes ngainst; as, co1tnterbalnnce, that 1s,, balance against . .
En or em, th e same as in; enrich, enco11.rage, embroider; enrage, that 1 ~,
put in a rage .
.
.
.
.
z· b
.
Enter denotes between; enterhne (interlin.e) that 1s, put a ine etween,
cnterlace, that is, intermix; enterprise, something taken in hand, or between

.

~~~

I NSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.
. . These are word s chiefly cleriverl from other languages. They have,
like all other word s, though seldom employed singly, a separate and distinct meaning of' t heir own. As the most d~ffi c ult, but. most necessary
part of study (to use the words of a great philosopher) 1s to :find out and
fix th e meaning of words, the following explanation of what are called
inseparable prepositions or particles, is particularly worthy of the attention o.f tl~e learner.-:-A fow of th ese words are still used separately.
• .11. s1g111:fies on or m; as a-foot, a-shore, a-bed; that is, on foot, on shore,
in bed.
.11.fter denotes po8leriority of' time ; as, ajlernoon, afler-tiines.
Be is said to signify about; as, besprink.le, best-ii', that is stir ctbout · also,
.for and before, as, bespeak, that is, s peakfor or before.
'
'
" The true ch aracter of be,'.' says i\'Lr.Grant, "seems to be, to communicate or deeply iuvolvc in,an action, a thing, or quality; as,bedcmb bewilder
bewctil, belove." Be has the same general effec t as all tlie othe;· pre:fixe~
qUES'l'lON.

( I) Whal is un lu terjeclio u c

Sur denotes over or addition; as, surpass, that 1s, exceed; sur.name, sm·-

loin
. Latin vrepositions used in th e compos~tw_n
· · o f E~ n grisI1 wo.r d s. are,
The
a, a.b, or abs, ad, ante, con, circuin, contra, de, di, dis, e, or ex, extra, t?t, inter,
intro, ob, per, post, pre, pro, preter, re, retro, se, sub,. subter, super, trmis,
· t h at 1s,
ultra.
· k eep firom;- a buse
JJ., ab, a.bs, denote from or awa.y ; as, a bstain,
that is,from the use, wrong use.
.
.
JJ.d signifies to or at; as, adhere, that 1s, s~ick to .
.flnte signifies before; as, ant~cedent or going ~efore. .
.
Circuin si o-nifies about; as, circumspect, that 1s, looking about . .
Com, con, "co, col, from cum, signify together; as, condole, that is, lament.
.
.
together ; co-operate, th.at is, work togetl~er.
Contra denotes against; as, contradict, that 1s, speak against.
De sicrnifies down orji'oin; as, deject or ca.st down; depart, or part from .
D·i dis sicrnify asunder; as, distract or dmw asu_n~er. In m.any words
dis s~em~
denote negation or privation; as, disinter, that 1s, unlmry;
displease, that is, not please.
.
.
.. .
'fhe French say, de-courager, to dis-courage. Their preposition is de~ .
E, ex, out of, as, eject or cast out; exclude, or shut out.
.
E xtra, without, beyond, out of; as, extrn·v aganl, or wandering be,yond.

t!:

84

ETYMOLOGY.

In , before au acl.1ective, like tm, denotes pri·vation; as, ·1:ndecent, not decent. B efor e. a ve rb it has its simpl e meani ng.
Inter s1g111f1es among or between; as, intervene, or come between. In interdict, orforbid, it ha:; a rtl'!!ative efte<:t.
I ntro deno tes to witltin ; ~~, fr1trod11ce, or lead in.
_Db ~l enote~ ?l?JlOSifion; as, object, or cast aga·i nst; obstacle; tliat is, sometlnng in oppositwn.
Per ~ i g11ifi,,s through or t!wroiwlily; as, pervade ; that iti, pass thro'Ugh,
.11e1ject ; that is, thoronghty done. " ·
Pre, befo1·e; as, prepure, or prowre before-hand.
Post, after; us, post-script, or written after.
de notes forth,fo1wcird; a:::, promote, or move forward, produce, 01·
bring forth.
Preter signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, or beyond the cotl1·se
of nature.
Re signifies again, or back; as, reprint, or print again, repa.y or pa.y
back.
R etro sig nifies backwards; as, retrogra.de, or going bcickwards.
S e, apart, or witlwtil; as, to secrete, or pnt a.side, secure, or without care.
.5ub ~ig11ifies under; us, subscribe, or write under.
S11bter signifies under; ai', S!lbte1fiuo11s, or flowing under; subteifuge, or
escape under.
Super, above, or over; as, superadd, add, over, or above.
Traus or trn signifies over or beyond; as, tmnsgress, go over or beyond;
it <l e notesfi·om one place to another; us, transplant, transpose, /¥c.
Ultra. signifies beyond; ,aB, ultm marine, or beyond the sen.
Th e Gre e k pre position s ancl p art iciples compounded with English
worrls are a, wnphi, anti, apo, hyper, dia, hypo, epi, meto, para, peri, S'IJ?l,
henn'..
.11 signifies prfration ; as, aiw.rchy, or the state of being without governinent .
·
Jlmphi, both, or the two ; uo, amphib?:ons, or the state of livin~ in two ways.
.!ln ti, against; as, antidote, or something given aga·i nst poison .
. IJ.po,fi·om; as, apogee, or from the earth.
ff?1per, over, a nrl auoi•e.; as, hypercritical, th a t is, over, or too critical.
.
Dia., through ; as, diaphoresis, or a weal"ing through, perspiring_.
Jl.11po, under, iinplying; as, hypocrite, or a perso11 concealing h~s real character.
Epi, upon; as, epidein.:C, or upon the people.
·
.]\feta, denotes change, or transnrntation; as, inetainorphose, or change the
shape.
Para, beyond, on one side; thus, paragraph; th a t is, a writing by th e
side, (011'.ginally used to mean a marl!inal note) paradox; that is, an opinion. beyond, or on one side,an extraordinary opinion; paraphrase ; that is, a
phrase tlwt may be placed by the side, an equivalent phrase.
P eri, about, as, pe1·iphrases, or a speech in a round about way, a circmnlocution.
Syn, sym, syl, with or together ; as, synod, or meeting together, sympathy,
orfeeling together.
H emi, as w ell as seini and demi, den otes half, heinis71here, or half of a
sphere; semi-circle, or half a circle; de1ni-god, /:af/ u god.

!'ro

85'

ETYrvIOLOGY.

OF l)ERIVA'f!ON.
.
,·' . ,. , \VUVS. viz
W ords are deri ved from one anotlier m. va1iou:s I , ,;
-·es " lov e r·"
1. Nouns are derived from verbs; a.s, from ''.to ..?,ve: colll
'
from " to visit visiter ;" from" to surviv.e, ~m·vive i ' &c. .
..
a.cl8 1
2. Verbs ai~e derived from nouns, ~~IJeCt:ive,;; ~~·~: ~ ~ ~ei~~j~e:t/~~~~arm,
verbs; a~, from the noun salt,dco 1~1besr. .to ::;·~lt:,to forward." Someti 111es
"to warm·," and from the a ve1 Joi wai '
t'
.
tl1 e con«o1..1·rnt .
·
l v O'vve l, dd'
or .so
g from "Jenrrth,
- '
'
they are formed by l engt \1emng
ne
" rnnrn
, . as
as from "grass, to graze;" some~une~ hy i: 1n[<' E~ .'
' h . . . . uri<rht
to '1enrrthe n ·" especially to adjecuves; as, from s h01 t to s oi teu '
o
to bri~l1ten.i'
.
·
.
· · Ad. ·:3. Ad'ectives are derived from non;i s, 111 the followmg .mann~i .'
~~~1
tives dii1oting plenty are der ived from nou~s l~t ~~drng Y' us, fi
"health healthy; w ealth, w ealth y; m1gh.t, un.,ht)'
. I addin" t'UL .
Adjedtiv~s de notin g <~bun.da!1ce are. denv.ed n',~1T·1, r'.ouns, JY
"
'
as, from "joy, joyful ; sm, smful; frun, frllltful, &.c. t
ldin LEss· as
AdJ. ectives denoting want ar e denv ecl from . nouns ,;y&ac
g
'
'
., .
· c~ ·eles· · JOY Joyless
c.
from" worth, wortI 1less, caie, "'1
".' · · '
' ,
b addin " ly · as
A•l'iectives denotiurr0 lik eness are derived tro1n 11011.1.s, Y
o
'
'
..,
I
"l
t courtly" &c
from "man, manly; eu rt i, eartu 'f; ~our ' . · ' b : dcl'ncr
1 the terrni. 'l Nours a re deri ved from ad 1ect1ves, somenrnes J a
:::
b
.
,
l.
h't . . . S\ ,ift "w iftn es~ ·" sometimes y ac1n at ion NEss; us, " w 11 te,w I e ness ,. ' . .,...
f 1, 1 tt ·s· a• " lonrr
dirw th or t, a nd making a srnall change Ill so ni c o tie e er. ' ·'
"'
l en~th "· hi!!:li, height."
· ·
ddin" l1 or
.-." Adve;:b~ of "quality are derived from acl.1 ect1 ves, by .~
. o Hf-'·
v·
:
'
__
nlitr as the auject1ves 1om
1 e ~ani~,
changinrr le rnw /y, all(] deno~e ti
qu •. .:"b
1 "' from "slow
whi ch thev are dPril' ed; as, from" base, conies
ase Y'
'
1
slowly;" f.Tom " a· 11 ,c, n11
J Y· "
f
. .
d·· from one another,
The re a rc so m any otl ier wnys 0 r1c n vrn g '~ o r " ·
0 enumerat1•
that it would be extremely diflii.:ult., nnd 11 en rly 1mposF ihle, t
·
th em .

11 1

- - --------- ------

SYNT AX.

.
.
, . ~ his . assions." H ere, a wise m~u is th e
verb; as, "A wise mm\t~·~'u~~n~ : tl~ng affi rmed; and Ins pass10ns, th e
subj ect ; governs, t 1e a 11
,
object.
.
ftwo parts CONCO RD and GOVERN MF. NT.
Syntax p~·incipally consists ol . ·l on~ w~rd h as with a noth er, in gender,
Concon1 is the agreement w u c 1
number, case, o~· person.
.
. h on e part of speech has over ano ther,
Government is that power w 111c
in directing its mood, tense, 0 '." c~s~ . 1 t dis position of words in a sentence.
T o produce the agrede nb1ent_ ~1~~ i~~ ~hou ld be car efully studied.
th e followrng rul es an o sen a JOI
.
,

01

1

SYNTAX .
'l'm,; tl1ird p art of' grammar is S YNTAX, which treat~ of th e ag reem ent
and construction of word s in a sentence.
A sen tence is an asse mblage of w ord s, forming a complete sense.
S enten ces are of two kind s, simple and co mpound .
A simpl e sen tence has in it but oue subj ect, and one finite* verb ; as,
" Life is short."
A com pound sentence consists of tw o or more simple sen tences connected togeth er; as, "Life is short, and art is long." " Idleness produce·s
want, vi r.e, and misery."
As senten ces themselves ar e cli\•ided into simple and compound, so tho
m em bers of sem ences m ay be divided likewi se into simple and compound
1uembers; for whol e sentences, wh ether simple or compounded, may become m embers of other sentences, by means of some additional connexio11 ; as in th e following example ; "The ox knoweth his owner, ancl the
ass l1is master's crib ; but I sraPl do th not kn ow, my people do n ot cons ider." Thi s sentence con sists of two co mpound ed m embers, each of
which is subdivided into two simple members, which are properly called
clauses.
There are three sorts of simple sentences; the EXPLI CATIVE, or explaining; the INTERROGATIVE, or asking; the IMPERATIVE, or commandin g .
An explicative sentence is, w hen a tl1ing is said to be or n ot to be, to
d o or not to do, to suffer or not to s11 ffor, .iu a d i n~ct mann er ; us, "I am;
thou writes t; Thomas is loved." If the senten ce be negativ e, th e adverb
not is placed after th e auxili a ry, or after t he verb itselfwlie u it has no
auxiliary; as, "J did n ot touch fiim ;" or, "I tou ched him not."
In a n interrogi;ltive se ntence, or wh en a questio n is asketl, the nomin:itive case follow s the principal verb or th e auxiliary ; as, "\Vas it h e?"
"Did A lexander conquer the P ersian s?"
In an imperative se nten ce; wh en a thing is connn:111 ded to b e, to do, to
s uffe1·, or n ot, th e n om inat ive ca. e likewise follows th e verb or th e auxiliary; as, "Go, tl1 o u traitor 1" " D o thou go;" " Baste ye a way;" unless
the verb let be used ; as," .Let us be gone."
A phrase is two or more word s ri g htly put toget her, m aking some times part of a sen tence, and so metim es a whol e se nte nce.
Th e princip al p arts of a simple sentence are, th e subj ec t, th e attribute,
and th e obj ect.
The subj ect is th e thing chiefl y spok en of; th e uttribu te is th e thing or
a ction affi rmed or denied of it; and the obj ect is the thing affocted by
s uch action.
The nominative denotes th e subject, and usua lly goes before tl1e verb
or a ttribute; and the word or phrase, denoting the obj ect, follows the

* Finite verbs are those to whi ch number and person appertain. Verbs
in the infinitive mo od have no r espect to number or perso n.

87

.llDJECTIVES.
RULE I.

E very Jldjective belongs to some nottn, expressed or understood.
. .
.
l<l u ot be used fol' n<l vcrhs; ·as, " Indiffe r ent honest ; excelNot c I . At.lJechves (m prose) shou
I d"ffi en tl y h ones t . ~xcellently ~.vell; m iserably poor."
le nt well ; m iser able p oOrj"instead of " n J er
le~" '"con "or mably.n " End eav or t o liv e
f
ble to th a t rrr eat ex.amp ,
'-:.I,
''H e behnve<l himself con orma
. .. ,, " 't bl " ~' I can never thiuk so ver y m ean of
.
. ·on in th y station;
sw " Y·
bl "
l1ercufle r suitable to a pe1s
. . . o
hle to the common r ending;" n agree a Y·
. " "
l ,, " H e describes thi s r1ve1 Roreea
lum ;
mecm Y ·
· .u u a rceabl ."
"AgreealJle to m y promise, 1 now wnte,
g
Y

FALSE SYNTAX .
E xamples to be corrected m{der Not e I, R u LE I .

She , vrites very 11 e0:t. .
. .
0 le rl y usetl 10 exp ress th e m anner in which th e
[No t proper because th e adJeCLIVe n er~. 1 s im~o:c 1 nude r U.ul c I. wljcct ivesshaulcl not be used
0
acti on wr it e is , performed. But Jc~or ~~~ ~ . thus l~She writes very n eatly."]
for mlvub,. Thercfo.re ueat shon .
ei
d ' 'J.'l1ey Ii ved conformabl e to the rules

1 1

1

His property is ne~r exh~~~~~ ~lcar. H e was extrem e beloved. H e
of prudence. H e 1 eason~
Y11 t but does n ot think very coherent.
speaks very flu_ent, h e rebad~ e::-ce e 1~ 'cannot think so mean of him. H e
H e behaved hunself su nuss1ye.
was s<;arce go ne when yo u arrived.
. . o h el 1i11(J' ad verb not ending inly, the word excted in.z
Note 11. When united to. an adJecuve r
l 1-° ly w ell . n but w h en it is joined to a helping
.
" xcecdin gly 1rrent;
e x. cee1 mg
1
d
0
hru; ly ndde<l to it; ns, e.
•
•
. mittcd . as u So me m en think excee 1 /
adverb or au adj ec tive hnviug th a t term111auon, tie y is o <l on t~1 is ~cession exceeding lovely."
d" g forc ibly " 'l She appcare '
,
ing clearly, a nd reason excee rn
. .
d '' " They beh aved the no blest , because they
. b .
s b Ider tha n was ex. pec te .
u H e ac ted in this usmcs o 111 . e been;, more boldly,"" most uobly."-'fhe adjective pro nou n
.
, t youtt" man thtt.l h e spe nt his wh olr.
we re disinterested." Th ey shou t rnv
. <l
, H lie was such nn extrnvagan
i::o
'
siwh is often misapphe ; ns,
·
t
ung mun " " I never before saw
.
.n "t should be)" so rxt ravagan u yo
·
.
.
patrimony 111 n few years' i
·tT "
Whe n we refer to the species or n ature ot a t1ung, the
such large trees;" "saw h·ees so lm ~ e .
.
.
Id n found _,, bu t wh en deg ree is signified,
word such is prope rly applie~; us," Such n temper is sc o~,,
.
we use the word so ; w;, " So ba<l a tem pe r is sddom foun .

Examples to be corrected under JVo te 2, R u LE I . . 1 . d",
I
I ti emselves exceedmg Y m isTh ey rej ect~d his advice uu_d r~o~~i\\~~=~ ar~d ex~eeding upri ght. The
giea
fr
·ts beino- known to m any.~
creetly. He 1s a per~on
conspiracy was eas1~r d1sc~v er~d ~ o~1 J t he rgnld affirm no stronger
Not bein g fully a r q11a111tPcl with T HJ .. 11 .1ec . , .

°!

' 88

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX.

I han he <li<l.
Sucli an amiable <lisnosition will sec m e universal regard.
Sll(;J1 distinguished virtues sr.l<lom occ ur.

89

Not e v. Wh en the comparative degree ofnn adjective is used, the latter term of comparison
'Should u ot incllide the former; and when the superlative is used , the latter term should never

exclude the former.
N ote lll. Advel'L:S shou ld not be use<l as adjectives; thus, " They w e re see n wan de rin g a hout
soli1.arily unt.i <listresse<l ;'' "solilary. 11 HThe s tudy
Syn tu x: s huultl be p r eviou sly to th ut of
pnuctuution ;·" "previous."*

or

E:wmples to lie correcled1mder Note 3, R u LE I.
Confonnauly to tl1 eir veh emence of thotwht w as th eir vehemence of
ge~t.ure .. ':Ve sl1011ld. irnplant in th e mind ~ ol' youth, suel1 seeds and principles of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest a nd rleepest root.
Use a little wm e for tliy sto rn acb's sake a nd thin e often i1Jfirrnities. He
addressed se vornl ex l1 ortations to tl1 em suitably to their ei rcumstances.
/'tote IV.

Comp a rative tertuination s Rllll h c lpill~ adj cc. Lives,~hould not be appli e d to udjcc1.iv e111

ll iat ure not susce pti Ule of comparison; nud c1 ou hl e comparativ es 11.nd s up erl ati ve!':! should be

avoided; s uch as "A wur;.;e r rond uct. ;" n 011 IL.::;~(; I' hopet:i; ' 1 11 A murt: i;ercncr tempt:r."
should be," Worse co11duct ;'' ur. ess h opes i" tt A m ore :ser e ne temper."

The r

E:i:mnples to he correclcrL under Note 4, Rur.E I.
'Tis i~1ore easier to build two cl1inmeys than to rnai11tain one. The
tongue 1s hl~c a. race-horse, which rnns the fa ster tl1 e l c~~e r w ei,;l1t it curries. The nightrn gale ~ 111 gs; her;; is the most swee test vo ice in ·th e grove.
The Most Hig hest hatl1 created 1~ s for his "Jory and our own !J appilless.
Th e Supreme Being is ~he mm't wisest, th e n'1~st powcrfi.1ll est, a 11<l tlie
mo~t h e~ t of hc111 g.~.
_Yll'tll e _co:1fors th e supremes t di gnity on nrnn, ancl
should be his c: h1 ef desire. His ii:c H<' rti o11 was 111 ore trn P thau that of his
opp oneut ; nay, the words of tl1 e latte r were most untru e. H is work is
perfect; his hrotl1 er's 111ore pe rfect ; a wl J1i s fath er's the most perfect of all.
~ Y oun g p c· ~·so 1 ~s who stud y l!rammu r, find il dilli cult to d ecide 1 in particular constructions
\\'l1:etl_1cr an 1H~Je~t1 vc: or un ad v e r~ ought to Uc used. A tew observ3tions o n thi s poi11t, may se r vd
to 111t.o!m lhetr JU dg_rne~ tt , and dire ct th eir dcre r111i11nli o11.-Thcy s hould ca refull y altc ud to tlte
de!lnnwn s .of_th~ adJCCIJvc nnd the u<lverb ; a nd consider whethe r, in th e case in quest ion, qu.ality
or mmmcr JS 111d1cutcd._ _In lhe form er case n n adjec ti ve is propel' ; in th e latter an ad verb. A
numbe r of exumpl es w ill 11l11:" trate lhis direction, au<l prove useful on oth er occu.~ions.
She loo ks co ld- Shr l ook s coldl y on him.
1
He feels wnrm-IJ c fee ls warmly th e iu.snll o ffi:r ed to him.
H e becRmt:: si nce re u nd virl"11011s-Hcbeca mc s incerely vi rtuou s.
SIJP. 1.ives free fro 111 care- li e li ves frct'ly at n11 otlwr 1s expe nse.
H nrnet n1wnys ttpµ eu rs H f~a t-Sli t: dres:ses 11t:ntly.
Charles hos grow11 _gr1 :s.L by his wi sdom-H e h as gl'own greatl y in reputalion.
Th ey now appear IHt pp y-Th ey 11ow np}H'ar ln.1. ppil y in earn est.
The stateme nt seerns exaet-The srn.tcment ~\'e m s exnc tl y in poi nt.
_ .Th ~ verb to be, i.11 nl_J its moods and te nses, ge nerall y requires th e word immedintcly co nn ec ted
\\ llh 1l Lo Ue i~u adJCCI l\' t~~ not an adverb; n11ll co nsequ e ntl y wh e n this word can be subs tituted 10r
a ~y othe r 1 .w1 1_hou t vmy1_ug th~ sense or th e co11s t ructio11, lha t oth er verb m ust also be co1111ecle1l
w1tl~ Ft.ll adJCCtt\·c. T he lo.llowrng sen tences e lu ci date th es~ oblSc r vati ons.
" This is nureeable LO
our rnterel':i t; That ll~: hnvwur was 11 ot suita ble to his stat io n; H.ules should beconfonnable tn
1s
is
ts
~cnse ."' " The r ose s111 t:lls sweet; How sweet th e hay sm t: lls; H ow delig htful th e country appears!

are

nre

wns

fl ?w pleasnnt th e Ht>Jds look' The clo11t!s lo ok dark; How black th e sky looked ! The apple

w ere
is
tas tes sour! ~l o w bitt~ 1: the pl 11111 s tnstcLI ! B e fce lsliap py.'' Jn a ll these sentences 1 w e can with
perfec t propne ty, subsutnle ~0111c tenses of th e vt::rb to lu:, fo r til e oll1 e r verbs. But in th e fol l ~w i 1 i u
~e ntc 11 ccs w e ea unot do tlu s: HTh e dog s rn cll s disagn.:eubly; G eo rge feels ex 11uis it ely · Hm~
plensuntl y ~he l oo!.;~ n1 us!"
>
T he rl! 1·cc:t io11s cont:1i11ed i11 thii; note nre offe red as useful, not ns co1np lelc an<l un excc plionali lc.
A 11rn11 ali1.:s .111 J:111;;u 1:1g.c C\'C I")' wlit.:n: cucu uutcr u::s; hut we l llW:i t 11ot n •jt!c t rul e:s bcr.a u::ic thi:::y are
1i:.i

'
E:i:amples to be corrected under Note 5, RuLE I.
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. Prof~ne. swearing is, of all
other vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this km~ would, perhaps,
prove the likeliest of any o~l1er to succe_ed. He spok~ with so much propriety, that I understood !nm the best of all the others, who spoke on the
subj ec t.
/tote Vl.

Th e personal pronoun them should never be used in the place of the adjective pro-

noun those; as, "Give me them books ;n instead of"Give me those books."

E:i:amples to be corrected under Note 6, RuLE I.
Go and ask for tl1em articles. How many of them apples did you purchase? 'Vhich of them three men came to his assistance? I will give
them two quills.
Not e VII.

The <lemonstrative this and these relate to the th ings last mention ed, or nearest; that

and those to things first 1nentioned, or farthest. off.

Examples to be correcledttnder Note 7, R ULE I.
R e]icrion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath
th e br~tes; that, binds them down to a poor, pit~able speck of perishable
~arth ; this, opens for them a prospect to the skies.
"Farewell my fri ends ! farew ell my foes !
My peace with these, my love with th ose!"
lYot e VIII. The adjective pronouns tliis and that 1 these and thvse, should agree in uwnber, with
the nouns to which they nre add ed; ns, " Th ese th ree years," n ot, " T his three years."

E :i:amples to be corrected under Note 8, RuLE I.
These kind of indulgencies soften and .i njure. the mind. Inst~ad · of improving yo~rselve~, .you have been playmg thi s tw_? hours. 'I hose sort
of favors dul real m3ury, und er th e appearance of kmdness.
Note IX. The adj ective pro noun s each, every, citht1·, (and n.cithe ~·,) agree with pronoulli and
verbs in the singul9.r number onl y ; as, u Ead' of you hru; his iricn<ls."

E :i:ainples to be corrected under l'<tote 9, R uLE I.
Each of them in th eir turn receive th e· benefits to whi ch they are enti·
tl ed. By diBcussing what relates to each particular, in th eir order, '~e
shall better und erstand the subj ect. Ev~ry p erson,.whatever be their
station are bound by the duties of morality and rehgwn. Every leaf,
every twig, every drop of wat~ I", teem with lifo. Every man's heart and
t emper is productive of much 1.nwru·d JOY or bitterness. "Vhatever he un dertakes, either his pride or hi s folly chsg ust us. Every m an and e ~·c ry
woman were nnmherc(l. Neither of those men seem to have any idea
th at their opinio ns may be ill founded.
' Not e x. The ntlj ec ti ve pronouns eitht!.1' and ntithtr1 must l>c usctl in reference to two . thing'
11
only; ,...-hen more arc referred to, 11 u y nml nnnt !iihou ld be m~cd ; n1t 1 "~4. ny of the Chrce:" net J:: l1
ihcr of the three;" it,."{onc of the four, 11 not H N eit he r efthe lbu r. '

;1ttewli;d w 1th e xecp11011s .

12

..
SYN TAX .

Examples to ue corrected tm .
H ave yo u recited either of th
de1 JVote IO, R uLE I.
presented fi ve copies ' but neit
. I ier
e ten
commandments
this. mo.i 111ng.
. ~
of th
e m were received
.· Note Xl.

rcnce," my meaning is negative. And these two are by uo mean• the fame, or to be used in the
snme cases. B y the former, I r ather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake
of this distinction, which is a very useful one, w e may better bear the seeming impropriety of the
ar ticle before nouns of number. ..When I say, "There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, a nd mean to represent tbem as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say,' There w ere a few
men w ith him, I evidently intend to make the most of them. It is correc t to aay, with the arti·
cle, " He is in a great hurry," but not" in great h urry." And yet, in this expression," He is in
great haste," the article should be omitted; as, it would be improper to say," He is in a great
h uste." A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage are necessary to direc t u•,

He

Wh en tie
I adjec
. ti ve: is necessar il
·
" Twen ty ~~~~~u'J,' t~ noun to w hich it belongs must be plu-

~::.uls:; .~s, " Twenty pound," not
'

91

SYNTAX .

90

, A hundred he ad of cattl e," &c.

.

here nre, however, aome exceptions to

E xamples to be co rrected u d
The chasm m ade b th
.
n er Note 11, R uLE I.
hundred fathom in depyth.e em th quake was twenty foot b roa d , and one
.N ote XI~. The noun mea11s1 has th e same
w1th nn nd;ectivc pronoun of the !:iinguJar or

E

.

p

~:~: m

onNot•
theseI .occasions.
Wilen a noun or pronou n is used in an unlimited sense the article sh ould be omitted;

as," Man is the noblest work of creati 011," not "A man," &c. The articles are-omitted before
nouns that imply the differen t virtues, vices, passions, qualities, scie nces, arts, metals, herbs, &c .
They are not prelixed to proper names; as," Washington," «J efferson," (because th ose ofthemaelves denote determ inate individ uals, or particul ar th ings,i except for the sake of
a particular family; as, "He is a Howard, or of the fam il y of the \Howards;" or by way of emiu ence ; as, " Every man is not a Newto n ;" or when some noun is understood ; as, ''He sailed

distinguishin~

both numbers; it should therefore be used

number, as the sense requires.

xamples to be corrected d
Charles w as extravao an
un er Note 12, RuLE I.
ble. It was b tha
~ t, and by th is mean became
.
.
1
n pbromising
thl alt he obtained
em raced every
·
w Jc 1 cann ot ad
T ·
"
re ndered
}o display his talents.
by ti Ins person
and by this means
fru gal
n i eputanon.
'

m~asu;e~~fi~n~r~.:::ar;:eahn.

•own th e triver) Thames, in th e(ship) Brittanin."

hi~1eJ~~~ ~et~~~c,:i-

FALSE SYNTAX.
E xamples to be corrected under Note 1, R u LE II.
R eason was given to a man to control his passions.

himselfo1;~f~~romty
a~~t.
obtain~~· p1~spe~~!t1ywaasdiJ~dustri?~S,
an1;~is~:~ea~~~

Th
·ecNote
ts. XIII.
"
. e comparative degree of an a<l'ectiv
J . ' as, H e is the t aller o f the two ,, Th
J
e can be used on1 y Ill reference to t
as," He is the you>1J:est of the twelve.;,
e superl ative degree has reference to three

(Not proper, because th e article an is used before man, which should be used in its widest senac.
But, according to Note 1st, Rule 2d, "When" noun or p i·onounis u.ml in anunlimi1e<l sense, the••:tic/• shoulil be omitted." Therefore it should stand thus, R eason was given to man to control In•

or'~:o~e;

}lussion s.]

b

The fire, th e air, the earth, and th e water, are th e four element;;
of the philosophers. Ar.jthmetic is o. branch of the mathematics. My
fri e nd is another sort of a man. H e is strong in the faith. I am persecuted this w ay unto the death. Such qualities honor the nature of a

Examples to be corrected
d M
H e is the stron"est of th e t . b mt er ote 13, R u LE I.
accented on the funner sylla~~~: ut not the wisest. Trisyllables are often

man.
Not e II.

Note
. atte nded b two
. . XIV.
.
. WIten a noun ts
. .
most d1stmgu1shing qunJity shou Jd be placedyncxt t o:l more ndJec tives, th at which expresses the
.
' 0 ie noun; as "A poor old ma n," not "An old
poor man."

When a noun is n ot used in an unlimited sense, an article (or some otller defini tive,)

should be prefixed to it; as," Th e wisest and the best m.en sometimes commit errors."

E xamples to be corrected under l{ote 2, Ru LE II.
'Ve h ave within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and from
matter. Beware of drunkenness; it impairs understanding. There are
some evils of life which equally affect both prince and people.

Examples to be corrected
d
..
He spoke in a distinct enou h
un er Note 14, R u LE I.
~Jy . Thom.as is equipped w~th~a;~:r to. ?e heard by th e whole assem::;lov~s ; h e JS th e son of a n old rid pan shoes, and a new pair of
c ieny trees; the two others are pe~r z;iran.
ees. he two first in the row are

?J

Note III. In expressing a compar ison, if both nouns r elate to the same thing, the article should

not be prefixed t o the latter ; if to differen t things, it should not be omitted .

E xamples to be corrected under Note 3, RULE II.
H e is a much better writer than a reader. I should rather wrong a

.!lRTJCLES.

friend than foe.

RULE II.

The .fl.rticle

r~fers

The article a or "" agrees w 'th

i~' th

as "A 1 . .

t

Note IV. When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the article should not be used.

to its noun or roi
. . . .
.
P wun in limitation.

no uns m the singular nu

E xamples to be corrected under Note 4, R uLE II.
The king .has conferred on him th e title of a duke. Our com 8
presented him the commission of a captain. The highest title in t{;1 8nder
1s the Governor.
e tate

b

c. m stian, an intidel, a score, a thousand. The <l etlm' ter onl.y, individually or collec tively.
e • mgular and plural number- as "
n1 e arti cle, the, may agree .
'
The artic lea are often pro
I ' . ' The garden, the houses, th e stars "
with nouns
It .
per yo m1tted. wh
d
.
I e1r distin ct natu re. as "Gold . .
~ g . en
, th ey shou ld be j ustly ap11r d
.
Jr
d .
' '
'" corruptm
theuse
ie , accord mg to
.
6
ave with a little reverence,, m
. .'
ea is green; a lion is bo]d." If I
, "H
,
y me!imng is positive. If I s ay, " lie behaved with
RS)'
e be·
little revr·

\

'
92

N ote V. When the indefinite article is required, a 1hould alwayli be used before th e sound of a
com;onant, and an before thut of a vowel.

E xamples to be corrected under Not.c 5, Ru LE II.
This is an hi storical allusion. This i8 an h ard',;aying. I have not see».
1Such an one.
Nott VI.

93

'

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX.

I nconsisten t qualtties should not be joined to the snmc noun; as, " Tile old and new

method."

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, R u L E II.
The book w as read by th e old and young. I h ave both a large and
small gramm ar. I saw both the large and small vessel.

VERBS.

RULE III.

.!l. Verb must agree with its nominatiae case in number and persoit; as, " I learn; thoii art improved; the birds sing. "

J

The following nre n few instances of the violation of th is r ule :-What sig nifies good opinions
wh en our practice is had~ Wh at sit:nify. \Ve may suppose there was more imposters than one ;
Th ere were more. l f thou would be healthy, live temperatel y; If th ou wouldst . T hou sees
h ow HttJe has bee n don e ; Thou sccst. Though thou cann ot do much fbr the ca use, thou mny
and sh ould do something; Canst not, mayst, and shou.ldst. FuU m any a flow er are born to blush
unseen ; Is horn. A variety ofbl t:.ss ings htt.Ve been conferred upon us; Has been. Ju piety un<l
virtue consis.t th e h uppi n es~ of man; Consists. T o these precepts urc sul>joi11 ed u copious selec·
tion of rules and m ax ims; I s s ubjoined.

FALSE SYNT A~.
Examples to be corrected under
A vari ety of pleasin g objec ts charm th e eye.

RuLE

III.

[No t pr oper, beca use th e verb clw rm, is of th e plnru ) number, and does not ag ree w ith its nominative va riety, whi ch is singulnr. But, ucconJin g to Rul e Sd, " A v erb must agree wil h 'its nom-ina~
ti;;c: case fo nmnbu aucl p erson." Therefore ch arm shou ld be charm..s j lhus, t'A variety of pleas'i ug
ohjec ts charms the eye. j

Disappointments sin ks the heart ofnmn; but th e renewal of h ope g ive
consola tion . The smiles that encourages severity of judgment, hides
m alice an d in8incerity. He dare 11ot act contrary to hi s instru cti ons.
Fifty pounds of wheat contains fo rty pounds of flour. Th e rn echauism
of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuri es ago. The
number of inhabitants in Grea t Britain and Ireland do not exceed sixtee n
millions. Nothing but vain and fo olish pursuits delight some perso ns. In
th e co ndu ct of P arn1enio, a m ixture of wi sdom and fo lly w ere very conspicuo us. The inqui sitive and curiou s is g enerally talkative. Great pains
has b een taken to recon cile th e parties. I am sorry to say it, but there
was more equivo cators than one. The sincere is always esteem ed. There
is m any occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity is true wi sdom.
Thou, who art the A uthor and Bestower of lifo, can doubtl ess r estore it
also ; but wheth er tho u will please to r estore it, or not, thou only knows.
0 thou my voice inspire,
"Vho touched I saiah's hallowed lips with fir e.
A ccept th ese grateful tears; for thee th ey flow,
For thee that ever felt another's wo.

.
..
d) must 11ave a nominative case, either
ting th e mfimuve moo ,
Note I. E very verb (excep
. ·" th tis '(Awuk e ye; ar ise ye."
. r •<l· as " Awake ; arise,
a '
pressed or m1p ie ' '
·
d I " " t 1 R uLE III.

ei..-

·reeled 1in ei J vO e '
Examples to be coi
d bted right and he has long
· · f 1ce
. I1 h e has
If the privileges, towh ic
' . an un
h' nouw ould be 'fla grant lllJUS
• •
enjoyed sh ould now be ~!·este~ fJofi~1 mucl1ina and are similar to those
These c~riosities w e h ave 1mp01 tel f~ ·o Africd.
f
a"o broug 1t 1om
·which were, some ime ".' fi
fo ·ever fir e thy mind,
"Vil! martial amebs I H o.v'n resi"n'd?
And never, never e to e
"
.
.
.
.
t the case absolute, and when an ad dress is ~inde t~ ~
E very n om111at1Ve case, excep
. r ed. a.c; " Who wrote tlus book ?
b either expressed o1· imp I '
'
perso n, sh ould belong lO some ver ' " T o '~h a m Lhus Adam," that is," spoke."
"'James ;n th at is," James wrote it."
.IV'ot e II.

E xamples to be corrected under Note 2, R u LE III. . 'f th
.
ome to!!eth er, and do not s1gm Y .e
Two substanuves, when they. c
eilitive case. Virtue, however 1t
1
;;ame thing, the form er lll~St be 111 t 1.e ~O constituted as ultimately to acma bo i1eg lected for a tun~, men m e
knJwie<lge and respect ge umne rn ent.
. d (or si"'nifying m any,) may hav e a verb, or a pronoun
Nott. 111. Though a noun of mulu tu e,
.::. . . I ~ i·et reo ard must be hat.I to Lhe im port
'
.'
t' l ~ siuuulur
or plural UU lll lt.~ r,
) 0
" " r I
.
0
agreeiu rr wilh IL, earne r o t le
f .d . . •t1'hc meeting was large;
r is nauon
•
o
. ,· "
nity or plura lity o I eu ' a~,
"
of Lhe wo rd, as conv c) Ille u
pleas ure as their chief good.
.
ful ·" ''The multitude eagerly pursue
is po wer
>
R
III

E

.. les to be corrected under JVote 3, ULE
•
.
.
ir h shou ld rriv e it sorrow. The crowd
'!' lie ))eOj)\e r e101ces 111 that wh . 1 d'"h'cul"ty made th eir wav through
·
I
· dges w it 1 11:
.
• ·
·
w ere so great t hot t 1C JU. . · lai n th e rul ers should listen to th e1.r voice.
th ell1. vVh en th e na11on c.ornpl . cl' eao·crly 11 ursues pleasur e as its chief
· lnnent. Th e
In tl1 e days o f. yoth·l '' t l1 e m u ntu . eto '"
intlicL corpora1 pums
"O<J11. The church has no P0\Vet 1 Th e re "iment consist of a thou"
1 .
"
T 1 o· LI{) th e c 1ianne .
fl ee t w ere seen sa1 11 " .
· tabJi ~\w d sever al salutary r egu auon s.
sa nd men. 'fhe m eetmg 1iave es . ~ fet '
The fl eet is all arrived and moored JI1 sa ) .

xa~i!

.!ID V ERBS.

RULE IV.

.fldverbs qualify verbs and participles.

.

.

. should hav e lhat position wlu ch will rentler
Adverbs thou gh they h ave no pi·opcrtte!i,
the sen tence most peNipicuous and elegant.
No te I.

,

FALSE SYNTAX.

t 1 R U LE IV.
E xamples to be corrected iin der J""
vO e '
d'
,
.
·e
in
motion
p
erpetually.
The h eavenly b o 1es ,u
.
ot in ilS proper place. But,
18
. b

Nl~co:si~E~~ 4t1~.~~.11dverbs,though ~hey ";'~c '~;1

t he srnl t:1~ce rnost p crspicuo.~ «"~ c eg:~~ll

according to

hould hcnJe that position 1uh ich will ren~er
;~;? ~ rt:e.~rpctually should be placed before mi

use the adverb perpt.tually

n_1 ·

1

in motio1:.f1]

Yause he was vain. ' Villiam nobly acted,
H e was p leasing not of1:~7' b eW nay h appily live, though our possestliough he was unsncce~stu .
et
•

th11•, " The heavenl y bodies nie perp

94

SYN1'AX.

~ions arc sm:dl. Ile offered a .
.
.
became submissive
S
II ndapulogy, wluch bemg not ad.rn1'tte<l I
t' · d
·
o we e uca te<l b
·
, 1e
_rb1eln s. :We ahvays should prefer o d a oy gives great hopes to his
"~ e con tmu ally to be at work
ur uty to our pleasure. It is im osr1se from another. These thid Ohne aldrgbument should happily appe1fi· to
gs s ou
e never separated.
Note II. The adverb A
. " .
s ere, there, and where, ought not t b
.
as, He cnme herclinstily .,, u Th
d
o e applied to verbs signifying mor
rode thither," &c.
'
ey ro e there With speed;" instead Of" He came 'lu"t!u.r," u;~~;

I .

Examples to be corrected under Note 2 R
IV
.t is reported that the prince will
' ULE
•
~ct1ve; he walked there in less than co~e here to-morrow. George is
m such haste? Whither have they be:~ si~ur. th Wlhefire are .YDU all going
ce ey e t the city ?

~ote II~. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another
.
.
'or are equ1va.Jeut to an affirmative.
.as, Nor did they not perceive him·" tl1 t . " I
. l
.
'
n JS1 t iey <lid pe
. 1 . ,,
,
me egan t! is not ung-rammatifal ·"that i's H ·1 .
.
rce1ve um.
"His language though
'
, l is grammatical.''
,
N .
. Example; to be corrected under Note 3 R
IV
. either nch~s, nor honors, nor no sue
. . ' ULE
•
des1res of an immortal spirit B h h perishmg goods can satisfy the
blance of disguise. \,Ve nee 1·
e onest, nor take no shape nor sem,
·
· c not nor do not co fi . 1 ·
. ..
l' · ·
n au
~w nm ts.
fh ere cannot be no ·
. . n. n~ 11s operations to
Not!11ng never affected her so mucl1 tlu~li' mo.1e rns1gmficant th;,in vanity.
not rnterrupt me yourselves
.
as t JS m1scond uct of her child D
.
, 1101 1et no one d' t 1
.
·
o
measure 1s so unexceptionable th t
IS ur l my retirement. The
b'.lve received no information 'on ~t we ~armor b.y no means permh it. I
lus friend.
ie su ~ect, neither from him. nor from

P.11.RTIC!PLES.

RULE V.
Pai·ticiples relate to
osit;ons.
nouns
or pronouns, or are rr overne d by preP •
0

95

ETYMOLOGY.

FALSE SYNTAX.
Exmnples to be corrected under Note I, RuLE VJ.
Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and
put them on Jacob.
[Not prope~, because the pronoun them, is of the plural numb~r, and therefore does not properly represent the noun 11aiment, which is si-ngnlnr. But, nccordrng to Note Ist, Rul e 6th. H..J.fl
p ronourumust agree with the nouns for which they .stand? in p (!nwn.,numbcr, a.nd gcnc~'!r." Therefore, them should be it; thus," Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her m the house,
and put it upon Jacob."

Th e male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color of
its species. The wheel killed another man, which JS the sixth which
have lost their lives by this means. The fair sex whose tas;,; is not to
mingle in the labours of public life, has its own part assigned it to act.
The mind of man cannot be long without some food to noudsh the activity of his thoughts. I do not tliink any one sho uld incur censure for
being tender of th eir reputation. Thou, who has been a witness of th fl
fact, canst give an account of it. In reli gious concerns, or what is conceived to be such, every man must stand, or fall, by the decision of the
Great Judge .
Note II. The relative pronoun, who, should be applied only to persons (un~ to other animals
personified,) wh'ich to other animals, and iltahimate things.

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, RULE VI.
I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. The exercise of
reason appears as little in th ese sportsmen, as in the beasts whom they
sometimes huht, and by ·whom they are sometimes hunted. They which
seek wisdom, will certainly find her. The wheel killed another man,
which is the sixth that has lost his life by this means.
Note III. The relative that (applied to persons) is preferable to who in the follo\ving cases;First, after the interrogative who; as," \Vho that has any sense of religion, would have argued
thus"'?" Secondly, when persons make but part of the antecedent; as," The woman and the
eHtate, ~hat became his portion, were rewards fur beyond his desert. Thirdly, after an adjective
in the superlative degree,-and after the adjec tive same, that is generally used in preference to
who or which; - as, "Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of th e greatest madmen tbat the world
ever saw."

PRONOUNS.

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, RuLE VI.

.
RULE VI
Relative pronouns agree with th . .
eir antecedents ·i n person, number,
and gender.

Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament.
Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. The
men and things which he has studied have not improved his morals.

[The relative bein" f 1
. .
" o t ie same person that the a .
.
;v1th it, .to be Of·the same person that it would bet nt:ceden~ is, requires th e verb which agrees
ovest wisdom Walkest uprightly; 1-Ie who loves . o agree With the antecedent; as," Thou who
.
wisdom, walks uprightly."]
Not< I. AU ·p ronouns must
.
gender.
agree with the nouns for which th ey stand .
, m Person, number nnd

Note IV. When the name ofa person is used merely as a nnme, the relativewhicl should be
Wied, and not who.

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Ru LE VI.
Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero,
who was indeed anoth er name for cruelty. Flattery, whose natw·e is to
deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder.
Note V.
ambiguit~·

The relativ e prbnoun should be placed a& near its nutecedf':nt
iu the sens•.

Rii

poii~ible~ to preve-nt

97

SYNTAX.

96

SYNTAX.

Examp les to be corrected under Note 5, R

u LE

The king dismissed his mini ster without any inquiry ; who h a11 never
before committed so unjust an action. There arP. millions of peopl'e in
the empire of China whose support is derived almo st entirely from rice.
Not~VI. \Vh c n th e ant ecedent onl y implies th e idea of persons, and ex presses th e m by s om e
circumstance· or e pith et, wl1i ch should Le used, and not. w ho; Rs, " T he fac tion which, 11 &c .

E xainples to be corrected under Not e 6, R ULE VI.
He instructed and fed the crowds who surround ed him. The court,
who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary.
Note VII.

P ersOl\lll prono uns bein g used to suppl y th e plflce of .the noun, should not be em·
ploy ed in the same p&.:rt of the sentence; as, "The king Ac ls just."

Examples to be corrected under N'ot e 7,

RuLE

P.IJ.RTICIP LES.
RULE IX.'

VT.

VI.

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erron eously. The cares
of this world, they often choke t11e growth of virtu e .

RULE VII.

Every .B.djective Pronoun belongs to ~ome noun or pronoun expressed or understood. [See examples under RuLE I. J

VERBS.

RULE VIII.

t as the verbs hm,1 e from which
Participles have the same governi~ien ith hearin rr him ·" " She
d · d . as " I am wea1 v w
o
'z
,,
~he']J are e:ive '·"'.,The tutor i"s admonishin g Char es.
1s rnstructmg us '
FALSE SYNTAX.

E~amples to be corrected under R u LE .IX. .

r. .
I was studious to avoid all mtercourse.
· · ·· th e
i :s m
S uspe c t ·1ncrb ye of un1ntrness, . . 1 b·ect of the participle su.spectmg,
lN ot proper, beennse th e pro_noun fi' 1'~,l~~fih !~ ~~~-t~c~pfrs hnv t th e same go-vr- n.uucnt as
vt:bs

ft!

nominuti ve C t~se . But, ucc.~ r~h~ ~' to1'h~1~ford ye should be you ; thus1 Suspectin g you o un a1rh<t1.: e from. 1ulnch th ey ar e d'. 1 ~.ie interco ur~e ] '

to av o"I all
.
.
l
fool '
Sus pectinrr not only
E stee m in a th e\rse1ves 'nse, they J.ecamle.1 11 i1~te r course . { ' could not
d 1
- \
I · v·1s st udiou:; to ,wmc '
·
· '.
tl cv as ene mies to m e ; an 1e as a
ye but t l my a so, .' '
av~icl cc.nsidering, 111 som~ d ~g1 i ee , _ p~ - ;;a' hi ~ self too fr eely in different
su spicions friend . . From . . ~v u .g ex ~
climates, h e entirely lost !us h ea lth .

ness, l w ns studious

.
.
,\ Lr cct ive Pronoun , or N oun in th e possess ive c nsc, i~
VVhc n n.n Arti cle, P ossesiuvn. J I I I 1 be follow ed by the P repositi on of, if there
.
. . . . b omes a Noun nnc s iou r
'Prefixed to a P aru c 1plc, it cc
,
B oth m ust be used, or both omi tted.
be any following w ord which nce<ls governme nt.
No t e 1.

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, R u LE IX.
.
.
'
·11 comm:rnrl estee m as w ell as secure
By observmg of trnth,} ot~ w 1. vent h ' th e se ndin g to th em proper
peace. H e prepared them fo~ this·e\t m-'ri~h by chan<' e ; but cannot be
information. A pen;ou may . e gi '.
fioi· 'it N othin" conic! have made
· · 1cs.
w ·ise or gooc,l wi'tl101it th e ta1~· m· "'cr p am s11 who · [10ssessec1" such pr11w1p
h er so unh appy as the marrymg a ma

Transitive Verbs govern the objective case.
FALSE SYNTAX.

CONJUNCTIONS.

Who did they entertain so fre ely?
[Not proper, because the relati ve w ho, whi ch is the object of th e transitiv e ve rb cl-id tm t ertain, is
in the n ominative case. Bnt, according to Rule 8th. " r r ansit ive ver lJt g overn tlic object ive case."
Th erefore, who shou l<l be whom; thus, " \.Yhom did they entertain so freely?''

Tl:i'ey, who opulence has made proud, and who luxury h as corruptecl,
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. Who h ave I reason to love
so much as thi s fri end of my youth? Ye, who w ere dcacl, hath he quickened. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. H e and they w e
know, but who are you? She. that is idle and mischievous, reprove
sharply. Who did they send to him on so important an errand? That
is the friend who you must receive cordially, and whom you cannot estee m too high ly. He invited my brother and I to s ee and examine his
library. He who committed the otrence, you should correct; not I who
am innocent.

RULE X.

Nouns cmd Pronouns connected by conjunct-ions must be in the
same case.

FALSE SYNTAX.
Exainples to be corrected under Ru LE X.

y

1 115 enJ· oy many privil eges.

·. o L1 anc

..

[Not vrop c r, .h ec ause th e
in th e nominativ e.

llut,

. . .' . in the oh. cc ti ve cnse1 is connectc1l lo you,_wh ic.h is
~ll'o~1~1u~1 us, w h1c!10:~1 " No tt :~.,. irn f 711·ono1ms com~. ccted by con.?~~h·t1011s

ncco1d1~1 0

to

H.~l c

Id

b~

-oe . thus Y ou und wt CllJ OY mun y pr1vilegcs.J

· '
'
.
l \.
.
-. . . .
\ ., bl , oTammannns. S he anc 1im ai e
My brother and 11111i ,111 e tl~ ei ,1 'c
n and I th ere is :;;ome disparity
,·crv unh a ppily connecte• . ~_e tw ee n
1
of ~'. e ars ; but non e betw een him and she.

'om.st be in th e sume cust."

The re1orc us s iou

1

hi

13

\

98

SYNTAX.
Note

PREPOSITIONS.

RULE XI.

Exarnples to be corrected under .Note 2, Ru LE XII.
lt was the m en's, women's, and cl 1ildref1's lot, to suffer great calamities. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fi shermen.

.
FALSE SYNTAX.
E:ramples to be corrected nnde R
X.l·.
He la' l ti
· .
r ULE
.
u rn susp1c1011 upon somr,, body ' I I01ow not who i11 the company.
[Not proper,
because
the JJ~o!1oun who, wlu. ch is the obj ect f l
nominative
case.
B
fore wlw should be w~~t;n a-~~~:1d11~gkto Rule 11th, "Prepos·itiom· ~OlJ~,~- -~
I 1
. .
'
s,
now not whom in tile compa~1 y.] '

Nute Ill.

Examples to be corrected imder Note 3, RuLE XII.
And he cast himself down at J es us feet. Moses rod was turned into a
;oerpent. For Herodias sa ke, his brother Philips wife. If ye suffer for
righteousness's sake, happy are ye. Ye should be subject for conscience's

l~1 epbo.s_1,~1.~n npon, is ill tl1e
e o ~" '"' '""·" Thcre.

. .

j~:.;~~} tr~flle<ld.

~ake.

h~;.~;!

RULE

orNute
participle.
I. When" verb in the infinitive moo<l follows "'"ke, n eed, se<, bid, darc,jecl, hw r, let , and

. Not_' L The preposition to is used before Nouns of I .
c1plcs ~I motion; but at is generally usetl afler t1 \ 7 ~~ace, when they follO\v Verbs, and particount
· ·
ie
eib to he Tlie r ·
··
.
nes, cities and large tow11 s ; hut before ''ill1I"es ; irI"
.
' e po;i11011 in i' set befin·e
tnnt countries, precet.led by a Neut . V I
. ~ '. ole houses, an<l ci ties, which arc iu <lis
ei er ), at 1s usccl.
1

so me other

word~, th e sign to should be omitted;

as, I ma.kc him study.

FALSE SYNTAX.
E xarnples to be corrected under JVote 1,

·.

°

[I or further remarks on the use of Prepo"'t"
. page BJ.)
.
.,, 1 IOll:s.. see

xm.

The infinitive mood may be governed by ·ci verb, noun, adjective,

•

Examples lo be corrected nnder Note 1 p . . X 1·
I ha rn b
t L <l
' · '- u LE , •
'. · . een
on on, after havino· rc~· 1, 1 .
...,
now l!Ye rn I slirwton. Th e \' l .. . 0
. If cc. a.year at r' raucc · an<! I
LiY eipoo
.
I· Th ey
" rntend
.
.reside
i.ne .,JUSt 1and
ed m H11ll
. 1 arc gouw
'. 0 for.
to
·
..
·
'urn
, ·
~0111e tuue at Ireland.

To avoid a recurrence of hissing soundi:;, the s, is sometimes omitted, :m<l th e Rpos -

t ophe only retay1etl; ns, "Achilli~' wrath."

10pe it is not I who he is dis 1lease 1 .
'
much hope remaining. Does th~t l1.o : with. fo poor we, th ere is not
does he offer s11ch lan«uan·e to~ It . } know who he speaks to ? ·who
\Vhat concord can subsist be1'~een ;~as no~/1e they w e re so angry with.
who abhor them? The eror
wse '' 10 commit crimes and t'w .
which h e rode 011 clurin/ou:·
with, has sole] his
gence from?
JO id he receive th :c ~ intelli-

RuLE

XIII .

I need not to solicit him to do a .kind action.
,r
.<.,.

[Not proper, becnuse the sig n to is inserted before the verb so/ica, which follows need. llul,
according to Note 1st. Rnle 13th," When a ,.,,.b in the ;,>jinit ;,,e "'oodfolluws, make, ,,.,a, s'<, .<rc .
t he
to should be omitted." Therefore, to should be omitted; thus, I 11 eed nm solicit him lo do

si~n

a kiml action.)

RULE XII.

. .fl. noun or a pronoun in the possessive ca : o· . •
it possesses . as <' ""v fat h ' h
' se is o ove1 ned by the no·un
.
'
'
in
er s ouse · ' " M ', h
.
"Virtue's reward.''
'
an :s appmess ·"
Note I.

When several Nouns in the possessiYe case com e together, the apostophe with"'

i:s annex:ed t.o tlte l ast, an<l u11dcrstood ul\er the otller::i.

Prepositions govern the objective case.

j

n.

99

~YNTAX.

It is better to live on a little, than outliYe a great deal. You ought not
walk too hastily. I wish him not wrestl e with his happiness. I dare
not to proceed so hastil y, lest I should give oftenee. I !Jave seen some
yoµ11 g persons to conduct themselves \•ei:y discreetly. It is a great SU}Jport to virtue, when we see a !lood mind to maintain its patience and
tranquility under injuries and aftliction, and to co rdially forgive its oppressors.

In writing the poss1::ssive case, h s proper form should IJC o\J ~ervcd.

RULE XIV.
FALSE SYNTAX.
.
Examples lo be corrected under JVote 1 R
. XII
H1 ~ brotl mis. oft'ence w11l
.
, ULE
.
N not condemn him.

~~;~ 1~~/'1",;~I

Verbs connected by conjunctions must be
tense, and of the same form of conjugation.

. [ ot proper, because the noun bro'he1·s whicl 1.. . 11
number, and has not th~ prop:,,. ~2,~~ ~ ~7~ ;~:·~iesing~lar numhe.rpossessfrccasc
shOuld
,case, its prop".1· fm"'ln should
I ..
'
" 1> ' o er s offence will not condemn him.]
1e1 e 01 e, b.·othcrs

b;·brot/~1':/1/li;~~!hil~sbs· ~s;hivl'

1

1

~:e~bs'. '1~';J)~cc~1~dn_1g1·' ~Note lSl:

Will not destroy the city for ten sake N
was perfect with ihe Lord. A n~oth . ~ I r,ver~heless, Asa his heart
are natures gifts' for mans adr111ta .e1s 111em einess arnl a fathPrs care
. ence _his fortune. vVisdorns
mannd
e r's frequentl y in
11
happmess.
ie goo · mans mterest awl

pt'.ec~I~~; t 1 ~'1!~~

flu~

in

the same mood and

FALSE SYNTAX.
Examples to be corrected R uu: XIV.
Did h e not tell me his fault and e ntreated me to forgive him.

[Not pro1~er, becau~e t?e word entreate~l, which is of th e common form of conjug:fltion, is connected. to Did tell, w!11d1 is of the emplrnt1c form. But, accordiug to Rule 13th, " Verbs connected
by con1nnc t1ons ma.st be ui the same ?1wod mid tcnse 1 awl of the sMne fo rm of conjug(ltion." There{bre, cntreattd should be entreat; thus, Did he not tell me his fault, and entreat me to forgive him.]

Professing regard, and to act differently, 11iscovers a base mind.

.....

Ifhe

100

SYNTAX.

under~tand the suh'ect an l . .
,
. .
fml of success. If~ ' c. attends to It rnd1.1 strio11 1 ]
.
doth h
a man lwve a hundred shee > • ls y, .ie. ca11 scarcely
and
11!nety and nin e
is gone
views and pr
d'
.11c.1 is gone astray ? T"' \J .
rn uwunensl!re
mg temperately in pursuit
tl iem, ei s. mod
in our
~ ·
tlte erute
best way
to·

a~tray,

ti~ins

Nole I.
.

101

SYNT.\X.

seek~:~o;h1~:v'~'lt~1:;

~1;1~n<~o~;,1I~ ~'1~t~J~:11,

suc~e~scee

~f' ~

J',issive, «nd Ncutc» verbs take th e same "'" «Jtc ;· as l> cf nrc th em, when both word• signify the same
p m o>i "" 11.ing." '1'\lt'. refore, hi!>• sh ould be'"; 1hu•, Ir I were/" or in his oituatio11.J

Be composetl: it is me-yo u have no cause for fea r. I know not
whether it were them w ho co11du cted tbe business ; bur. I am certain it
was not him. He so mw·.b r esembled my brother, th at at first sight, I
took it to be he. After all their professions, is it possible to be th em?
If it was not hi in, wh o do yo u imagine it to have been ? \ Vho do you
think him to be? Whom do the people say that we are?

When the se nse requi res til e V . ,

must
bs toco11
be ne
of' •tdiffernut
I or te nses, the nomi1rntive
wo
1·ds be repea ted.,- th en the Conjun ction c1
will
t
. moots
(.;

Exaniples to be correct d

wo m cmbi.: rs ot' th e se ntence uot two

l

.

.
V Note. II. When a n·ISJUllClivc
occurs betwee n
.
erb is made to agree with the JJlurul Nou u or pa.~111gular N~un or Pronoun , nud a plural one the
I uoun, which :should Ue placed
'
E 2:mm!les I b
next to the Ve rb.

,.
o e corrected under M 0 1 9 I
· oth of the schola rs OJ'
,
e -, l uL•: -XIV.
act'
e ·ol ,them
. R· on: s ome partHof' tlieon-J
.
'·it Jeast, was prese nt at ti·
.. .
th:-1sail ors nor th e c>ntain
:t11d carg,o were recovered. b ie t1.a11sce1tfulness of ri ches Aa l "'1_.isl saved. 'lhe cares of thi - rfnheith er
mind.
' s c 10 , cc the seeds of vi1·t ue Ill
. mauy
~ I ae, 11ror
o1 t me.srn
de. g

~.1'.p

u:

. :A~o tc. Ill. \.Vhen two pronouns, or a n oun
t:onnected, th e ve rb mu ~·t agree .111 munlJer and
andperson
a pronoun
-. .
w·tl of
ti diffe rent pc r .::. . ons, m.e LlisJunctivel
y
E
.
' I ie word nearest to it

'xaniples to be correct d

d

RULE

,

Rank may co11 "e1· i'nfl
e unc er /Vote l, R uLE X IV.
H
'
. uence
.· e d oes not want 1courage
but' i"b ~t ~VJ·11. rwt necessari lv produce virtue.
~:;~~::lllf~d acquired gndt ricl;es ef~~;n~e m sensib ility. These people
a
olf1mprovement is short. ·u;rl ' ol not command
esteem.
Our
01
11
, way.
e rni,,.ht
' '
w11et 1er used
" lrnve b een happy
·not, w1. soon
of it. pas-~
' ·md.
,
is now ·fully convinced

·

E ither th ou or I a rt . 1
.e wi er Nole 3, R ULE X IV.
I o1· t 11ou am tl1
' e per~ongiw]1
eat Y m1srnke
· · our .i· urlgrnent on this s ' ·.
_. .undertal'e
n , Ill
rnu
st
ti.ie 1.uusrn
..
IIuJ ect.
0
'
ess proposed.

xvn.

Two or rnore nouns, or nouas nncl pronouns, meaning the same
thing-, ancl having the same grammatical relation, are put by apposition in the same case.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Exw1nples to be corrected under Ru LE XVII.

I paid the mon ey to the merchant, he that b nught yo ur house.

m<anin~the

[Not prope r, becnuse the pronoun he, w hi ch is in ap position w ith merchant, is in the nomin a·
11
sam•
tive case. Bui, • ccortl ing to !l.ule 171h, " 7' rno or mor< no mlS or no uns and pronouns,
th ing, a>tcl
the rnme. gr,,,onm<ttical n/alion, arc pod /,y appositirn i n th ' same case. Therefore .
h e should be him; thus, I paid th e money to the reerch unt , liim th at bought your housc.l

h<ivin~·

vVe should fear and obey the Author of our being, even H e who ha~
the power to reward or puni~h us forever. They shew Varus, he th a1
was rnentionecl before .
R UL E

xvm.

Jl verb, having two or more nominative 1vords, connected by th.
copiilative and, must be of the plural Jonn.
FALSE SYNT AX.
Exarnples to be corrected u n der RuLE XVlll.

·p atience and dilig ence, like faith , removes mountains.
RULE XV

.11 Perfect p ar tictp
· · z.e, unconnecte ·l · ·a
tie noun J'or ' pronoun
wl . I : 1
;i; ( w·i i an aiixiliary
relates to
i1c t i qiialt.J,eS or describes.
'
I

. .

RULE XVI.

lntransitwe ' Pa·ssive ' an d .;..,.{'
~ the same case after
as b•r.
eJore them, when both wordsyeule;·
si ;r.Ve·b
ii s tace
. .gniJ y t w same person, or thing.
F ALSE SYNTAX.
l

wonlrl

n.~.t

E:r:amples to bc corrected under RULE XVI
t bA. ,~ame part i·f I were him, or in his sit11a· .
.

ronoun hmi, which follows the n
- . tJOn.
ase with th e pronoun I. H t, ~ute~: verb were, is in the objectiv
u according to Rule 16th, "lntransitiv~

[Not proper, bec1rnse the verb ,., moves, whi ch ;, of the s in gular form, h as two nomin11ti ·
connected by the copulativ e a>1 d. But, uccordiug to !l. ule t 8th, "A verb,
two or mo,-o nu•
·i>wl i" e w ords, conn,ct cd by the cop ulat iV<' a nd, nmst be of the plurnl Jmn.'' Therefore, """o"
sh ould be remove ; thus, P atience and diligence, like faith, ,.,,,,ave mountains.]

hm>in~

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. vVisdom,.virtu
havpiness, dwells ...vi th the golden mediocrity. In unity c,onsists th e wr
fare and secu rity of every society. Time and tide w aits for no man. B
politeness and good disposition, was, on failure of their effect, entire
changed. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels pride a1
ip;norance under costly attire.

RULE XIX.

.11 verb, having two or more nomi.natives connected by the disjm
tive or, or nor, miist be of the singular form .

103

SYNTAX.

102

SYNTAX.

" oo-y Sll]>po ·t tl ·
·
''" _'
l
11S opmion.
~Is l_\\ 0 11 0 1u11rn
ti v<!S, C LIS LOJI\
' SIL)JiW · t I S of the plu ra l for Ill
~'.~""'If.two
ur ,,..,,., nornin11tivc.~''.~. a1111lo~y 1ake11 separately. ' J~::~ lh~~·e~.re does l\ Ol agree with
ierelorn, l"PP'"' shoul<l be ' c '"""'"/ by the d isi,.act ive or " , ucc•H mg lo Rule I 9th ",J ··c ,.b
!\fan's lrnpJ ii J l!'"S 0 .. upports; thu,, i\'1Jid1er custo11:
."f t he
hands. l\iau is ;;
1_'.'.1s.ery, are, in a grmtt 11 w a . ·co· "'l'l"'.'·ts tlus opinion .!
m ere lv as tl1 c' . .ot , uL-11 a maclun e as a clor·J · •>t' ".u1 , ., pnt 11110 l11 s O\\" I
· ·
·) «l e m ove l S
·
· ' · <L w·tt('l1
J· J
tli.in g tlint lrntrn ys
i111pa ti r, 11tly t.o '
l
m e . m:rny fault s in .
. .' o1 .1. -1!111 1nr, a re cerra;1i1 . . .· .:1 . .., o! , '" 'Y
'Vl1 e11 sicl· spcH1n g: win c h neithe r :.111n hw ,. ! u1111 1.'1,d. .I l1orc
uf
rntirn11ty, o r r ever se or 01 t11uu1
o11trnc
w t1011
" 11 Jl b J) l'O ,-ed.
1tc ptaffec
t us,
tli fl

. _[Not proper, hecal\'e the verb

,',',:.:•·; ,;',:'i'~'., ;'.·

.~

.111~t1(v.

~iucerity

inattc11~i~1 l'. ~'11!k l1 :g

creature~,

he just and kil1ll to our fellow
and to b e pious and faithful
llitll tli a t 111ad e ns, ad111it not of any doubt in a ra tional and w ell i11!'orme<l mind. T o be o f a pure and liuni\.Jle mind, to exer~ise he11e vole nce tow a rds othe rs, to c ultivate pie ty ~owards G od, is tli e ~me means
o r bccon1i11 g peacc fi.il irn1l happy. The
of Olli'
e ntire, of
a i;o untl 11ntle rstan1ling, of fri end s and L'.OlllJH• t1ions, are ofte11 ove rlooked;
though it woultlhe th e ul t i11mtc wi sh o f 111a11y, wh o, as for as w e ca11
Jlltl gc, deserves 1t a:> muc h as ourselves,

to
to

FALSE SY NT AX.
E :i:ainples lo be cor
N eith e r custom no r a n"] .
reeled under R.ur,E XIX.

,;,,~"'";I,,,'.,. , ,

pos,;e~sion

scr~awt:w ~n.cvc

fricnd·· J·'nc~~'.

'-i .

H'.ll~es

ON THE USE OF THE MOODS .1.:VD TENSES.

rr~arl
il to Llrnt rdill iPll shn11Id he nl >'crvcil. !11>tca<l of S:l' i11 g, ''th" Loni hath givc11 a111l the Loni
hath taken nway," we sholliJ •ay, "the Loni guvc a111I 1he Lmd lrnlh tuke11 um1y." lustend 01;
" I rc1 11cmhe1· 1he fi11 nil y 111orn 1h1111 twcuty ycilrs," it should he, " I have rem~mbercd the famil y
Nu te l .

In

the 11sc of worrl s

rn orn th an twen ty ycars.

uni!

phrases which in point of lime relnte

IO

each other, a due

11

R ULE XX

F AL S E SYNTAX.

Tiflhen a noun or pro''
/· no verb
·" .' t
.
cecl be.f'ore a participle, ,,oim
it is inws
tiic. nommative
. o. agree
th it, biit is plctcase wi
absolute.

E :rninples lo be co1Tected u nder JVol e I.
The next new-yea r's d ny [ tiha il be at sc hool three years. And he that
wai' d ead ,
up a ncl bega u to
I sho uld be obi'1 geJ to li i111 ii' he
will g ratify rne in t hat varti c ul a r. And th e multitude wond erer!, wh en
th ey saw th e dm11b to spea k, th e maimed to be wh ole, th e lame to walk,
aml r.he blind seeing . Ju tli e treasm y belon gin g to tli e Cathedral, in this
cir.y, is prcse n ·e(l wi t h th e !Ireatest ,-e neration , fo r upw a rds of six hundred
ye ar~, a (1i~lt whicli th ey prcto llll to be 111ade of '' 1nera \d.

r.rT/
RULE XXI
YY ten a clir'.ect address i
.
pronoun is ·in the n01 " / made ~o a person or thing, the noim or
, nina we case independent.

~at

Note

~peak.

n. All Verbs cxpressh·e of hope, desi re, in tention or command, must invariably, be fol-

lowcd Uy the ·r rcse nt te nse, A. uc1 not the Pcr lt!ct, of the 1nfi ui tive.

Tl
RULE XXII
rut o;.r a sen. tence, is so met imes tl•e s·t•b1cct ofie aInfinitive
verb andMood,
ti . J .or f ·.
'
'
ie1 cJ ore 1ts nominative.
• '
.

I\ ute I. ':.;'hen the sentence ro nve ' .
. . ..
hut wh en it conveys n pluralit .
)s, _u UJllL) of idea., the V erb m ust be of t

.

.

' "'' when the nomi1 1·
l of meaning, it must be plural Tl V
he smgu lar number.
ia ive sentences, or parts of sc n t ences, are. preceded
ic crhhYrnust
ue. :-;111g11.. · '
I always
.
~ t le COllJllllClIOU

E

.

that.

FALSE SYNTAX

" .

':i:ainples to be corrected
d
To live sobe rl y, ri rr]Jteou sly . I im er Nol e I, R uLl: XXJI.
!Not
"
' . '<lllf p1 0 11 ~l y a. .
·
th e prec;Ji~1'::"
wl~ern11s<: Jheverha,. e,is of lhe ' . " .' I P, J.Cfj llll'f'r!
of 0JJ 111e n
11
Note Jst. Rule
convey n uni1y ·.,r
""".'!"''"
"""
dneg 1101 n·o, I , .
.•.m mbe·,-," &c.
Ti: rh~n t h• Wilrnce conv<y1 ",and (onn its 11 0111i1.. 1livJ. Ler y agree. wit.h
i.r required of all m:re] o1e, are ough t to be is . ti
·den, 0 1Jcrl"
ti" v erb.-.,must
,
.
11.
' 1uo, oof.hve
o t he srngu/ntor
1 b' ut>f,
.ro do unto all m e t
. , "~ iteou<ly, an<l piously,
s hould do unto us
i, as w e w o11kl th a t rh ev in ~. · .
.
of tb e w orld's
th e g reat pri11 cij 1le o /' m.il a r c1rc um stan<' es,
tli e heart appro ves. i e.,d to be osl1arncd of tli e pract· ' 11tf1.1c. From a fea r
Tl
au e111brace.
o prece t
I·
1 a fee bl e a11we
. ie erroneo u: opinior s ,, . ]· s, niar'
d i1 . ·f· , p s, wit c h
!!JVes ri se t
II I
.' " 11 c 1 w e form con . . ·
. itpei ect cha racter
iife. That
tie.
and
a nd mi sery .
. ou1 c uty to promote
purity ";."ion s th at e mbroils om'.
o our nrn1ds and b odies

22~d•,;rh1ch

iJ~;; ul

m'. •t~

ncCOi ~lmg

cen'.5 1~?nst1t11te

~tais

t~11stake11

dan"ero1~:1
~~~¥'. happiness
th~

'

E wm71les tu l>e co rrected under JVote II.
I always intc nd eil to ha ve r ew a rd ed my so n ac cording to hi s merit.

It
w o11 hl o n re Hectiol! , ha ve give n me great satisfaction to r eli eve him from
tlt nt
It i t rp1irerl so much care, that I thought I
have lost. it befor e I r eached h om e. Vil e have don e no niore than
it w as our duty to Jia,·e done. H e w oulrl have assisted one of his fri eml R,
it' he cn ul r1 1lu it w itli ont iujuri ng th e oth e r; but as that co uhl not hav e
bee n r1one.' li e avoided all inte rfe re nce. These cnemie.s of Cltristianity
w e re cont ..J1Jnd ed , wl"lst th ey w nre e xpecttng to have fo und an opportunity to l1:we betrayed it:; a11thor. His sea-sickness w as so great that I
foarcd li e wo11\d l1nve ilicd befor e our arrival. If these persons hnd intc11rkrl to 11 ecie\'o, r.he v wo11\ Ll li a ve take n care to hav e :woidecl what
wmild expose tl1 e 111 t.<; the ohj ec t'1 011s of th eir opponents .

rlistre~sed ~irnation.

~hould

Not< \ll . Some co nj1111ctio11s require the imlica,tivc form of the suhjunctivc moot!, and som e the
clliptirnl, after them. lt is a gnn1l ~encrul rule, that when something ,1oub1ful is c'pressetl, with
'"' a\lusioll to filtul'l' 1i111c, tlic cl li t•ticnl form ought to ue used ' ns, "he will not be pardonecl,

un lcs:i lie repe11t."

E 1:a111plcs lo be corrected un der Nute Ill.

H li e acquires r·1r hes, th ey will corrupt hi s mind, and be 11seless to oth ers.

Tb o11µ-h

lu~ 11rgcs me y et more earnestly, I

shall n ot comply,

unle~s

104

sYNT.\X.

SYNTAX.

he arlvanr.es more forcible re aso11~. I shall walk in th e fi eld8 to-dav
unl ess it rain s. As the govern ess were present, the ch ild ren behaver!
properly. She disapproved the measure, because it were very imp roper.
Though he be lt1gh, he hath respect to the lowly.
Note IV. Le.st nutl that, annexed to a command precedi1~ g, neces~m!·il y require th e eJUptical
to1·m of !he Subjimctive Mooll; aud i1;with but followng it, when futurity is <lcnoted, a lso requirP
the elliptical form.

E.iwnples to be corrected ~mder JVote IV.
Despise not any condition lest it happens to be yo ur own. L et him
that is sa ng uine, take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that tho11
breakest not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his
desire, it will be suflicient to produ ce obedience. At tl 1e time of his return, if he is but expert in th e business, he wi ll find employment. If he
do but speak w tli ~play his ab ilities, he is unworthy of attention. Ifhe
be hut in health, l urn coutellt. Though he do praise her, it is only for
her beauty. If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not he forgiven.
If thou do sincerely believe the trutbs of religion, act acco rding ly. Un less he learns faster he will be H O scholar. Though he falls he s~\ll not
be utterly cast down. On cond11·wH that be comes, I will co nsent to stay.
Note V. The Imperfect Tense, and all th e compou nd T e nses or th e Subju nctive, retain the
same termination with the Conju ucti on, that they wou ld, in :.iny oth er mo od, wit hou t it..
This Note applies to all Verbs exce pt the Neuter Verb B e, thi~ verb wh e n in the subjuuctivc
Mood , varies its form from tile Indicative, in tlic bnpe,fcd as \Veil us the P resen t Tense.

Examples to be corrected under JVote V.
_ If thou have promised, he faithful to thy engagement. Though he
have proved liis right to submission, he is too generous to exact it. Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the office. If thou had succeed ed,
p erhaps thou would not be the happie-r for it. Though thou did injure
him, he harb ors no rese ntment. '1Vas he ever so great and opulent, this
conduct would debase him. \<Vas I to enumerate all lier virtues, it would
look like flattery. Though I was per f•:ct, yet I would not presume.
Unless thou ea11 fa irl y s11pport the cause, give it up honorably. Though
thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could not have avoided it.
Note VI. Wh en the qualiti es of differe nt things a re compared, the latter Noun or P ronoun, is
not governed by the Conjunction tlwn or as, but agrees with a Verb, or is gove rneLl by n Verb
or a Preposition expressed or understood; as, "thou art wiser than I;'' that is, "than I am."
" They lo ved him more than m e ;1' that is, "more th an th ey loved mc. 11 "The se ntim ent is well
expressed by Plato; but much better by Solomon than him; thnt is, "than by him.''

Examples to be corrected under JVote VI.
In some respects, we liave had as many advanta"es as them· but in
the a rti cle of _a good library, they have had a great~r privilege than us.
Tb e undertakrng was much better executed by his broth er than he. They
arc much !5'reater ga iners t~rnn me by this un expected event. Th ey kno\.v
how to wnte as well as him; but he is a much better "Tarnmarian than
them. Thou~h she is not so learned as him, she is as nZt1eh belovell anrl
respected. These people, th~ugh they posse~s more shin ing riualities, arc
not so proud as lnm, or so vam as her.

105

TN FALSE SYNTA<""X..
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ;
d"
Rules and Note$.
To be corrected by the prece ing
k The first proposal was
Several additions have _b~en ~a~e ~~~h:e:O~~d." He is more bold a1;d
essentially different _and Jl1 eno~ o
his companion. Thou beares~ tie.
active but not so wise and stud10ns a~ teH whence it cometh, and wlnth_ex
sound' of the wind, but thou c_anst noth er ersons, suspected so much d1sit "oeth. Neither has he,,no1 any o. Enfland was to he th e ump1re. In
si1~ulation. The co urt of Fl"~n.ce, o1 rn~odities were plenty in ~ngland.
the reirrn of H enry II. all OJ e1gn_rl~osuc cess in bu sin ess, or which puts
There is no talent so useful ~?wm. d t~, than that qu ality generally posmen more out of the reach o acc1 en <l' i~ in common language, called
sessed by persons of c~ol temp:~~ a:hor;~n discour;;;e, by cutting polydi scretion. The first p1 OJeCt wa. 11 I can to persuade others to take the
syllables into one. I ~haH do ah" h I have. Tl1 e great.est masters of
arne measures for th e1r cure w ictl ei· Micaiah said, if' thou certainly
S
·
I not suppose,
. learmng
. d"""
w er, amonrr" one
h ano
L ·di spoken
hv me. I co
critical
r etu rn in peace, then ·h ath n_ot t e o~h ~n the rest of our neighbors. The
gern us morlre irl liis ton"ue loosened, doubtless
th at we Britons \·van·t avere
opene ai
·
>•
deaf man wh ose ears" .. ·
Gro~e s fields and meadows, are ~t any
k ' ·ion. but never so much as m the
lorified the great Physician.
~eason of the yea~·, pleT~~~~l~~t~id~~~ebdkecl them, b~cause they should.
opening of the spnng. .
.
f ~ome of th ese Philosophers, nay, of
mtentions o ..l It is an unanswerable arglllnent
h old their. peace.d The
. bahly were gooc .
l h
I
10
m any, might an P
derful ci'iilities that have passe< etween tie
a
refined
age,
the
wou
f
d
.
It
was
an
un
snccessful
undertakOf
d that o rea er s.
·
natibn of authors, an .
. eel is no ob jection at all to an enterpnze
in" . which, although it has fail d' . \i"is cine and it has· already, or will
'
d The. rewar
1s
' with wise
- and ex pe n· enr.~ d
so,.., well
concer~e ·
B intercourse
h ereafter, be given to hu~;rld rve may irnprove and rub off th e rust of a
persons, who k_n ow the w . n ' Sincerity is as valu able, anrl even n~ore
private and retired educatioNo er~on was ever so perplexed, or sustamed
valuable, than knowledge.
P t • da'' Th e R omans gave, not only th e
.. ·
·
the rnortificatwn,
as he has c1one.t .o for. employments,
to severa I towns ·m
freedom of the city, but capaS Y1 writers have no other standard on
G aul Spain, and Germany.
uc ~ what chances to he fashionable and
which to form themselves, exce1l) 11 all be disjJlayed and heard in the
"b
we
do
secret
popular. \v atever
·
.
" v,
·f s ossessinrr a person of such uui;omc\earest ligh t. T? tli e haph~1estl1~ s~ti.sfactio~ of obtaining the highest
mon merit, Boethms soon
honor his country could bestow.
•

14

PROSODY.

OF POETICAL

FEE'&.

A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They are callecl
feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through
the verse in a measured pace : and it is necessary that the syllables,
which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some w~,
be distinguised from the others.

..

PROSODY.
~

107·

.

. .· Rosony consists oft
....
atwn ofwords
.. wo p,uts, the former tea ·l . J
and the latter' t~on~~rism~ ./lcce~d, Quantity Ernrilc JC.s. t),e true pronunci' e aws of Versification.
'
r i.asi~, ause, and Tone.;
AccENT.-Accent is the l .
certain letter or syllabl . .a ymg of a peculiar stress of tJ
.
rest
d' ·
·
e 111 a word th t ·t
l
ie voice on a
th ' o~· istmguished from tliem . .~s . a ]1 may le better heard than th e
1 stress of
th e voice must b e on th e letter u ' andm .t 1e dword presmne, tie
· e accent.
'
secon syllable smne ,vl· · l
' · uc 1 ta 1ms
: QUANTI'l'Y.-The quantit of
.
m pronouncing it. It is cori'side:C~{;la~le is that time which is occupied
A vowel or syllab i . l
's ong or short.
.
o ccaswns
•
·
e is ong whe11 t~1e accent is on the vow l
It to be slow! . . ' .
.
as, "Fall, ba~e, mood, lio~,~~~~~~:::r~~?nm1ciation, to the followi ~g ';I:~~-I:
~ syllable IS short, when tlie a
.
caswns the vowel to be uickl . .ccent is on th e consonant . which
q
Y Jomed to the succee(! 1'11 .,. J''tt '
ocbonnet, hunge 1· "
.
o " er; as, "ant,
. A. long syllable requires doubl h .
~~~/JWa'f!1~:d ''.}~aotte::. and "Note~' tsl~o~\~r~eo1;r~1~~1;}1~~eo(.(naes si·1l1owpr,onouncy agarn,
EMPHAs1s.~Bv emphasis. 1
J~~r~~hifh we distinguish son~! ~~~~dto~· ~e~o~~ger and ~uller sound of voice
JC'! ar stress, and to show h
i s on which we clesi"n t l ;
~~~1~t}1~e~ the emphatic wordso'~L:!~e)Jea~~c:. the .rest of the s"ente~1c':;',
'o1ce, as well as by a greater stress. is rngmshed by a particular
PAusEs.-Pauses or rests in '
1-·
ofthevo·
d ·
' .pea.in"'andread·
.
ice, urmg a perceptible and j 11
mg, are a total cessation
f
o tnne.
'·
' many cases, a measurable space

1

VERSIFICATION
VERSIFICATION, or Poetry is
.
.
~f comp~sit i on, made accordin,.
to certain harmonious meas~res a~~~pe~rns
1 opo1 tions of so und
.
'
u
R hyme is that kind of poetr ·
.
·
line, agrees with that of anotli~1~~1 ~luch the terminating sound of one
G 0 tell my son said lie' '
All thou hast heard of me.
Blank verse, like other poet1. , ..
J, 1s meas ured but l .
All on eartl1 is shadow. ·· JI b
'd
t Oe8 not rhym e ; as,
I
b
, u
"VOil
s su stance: the reverse is f~·Jly's creed.

Feet are all reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of
three syllables ; viz.
A Trochee
An Iambus
A Spondee
A Pyrrhick

- '"'
'"' - '"' "'

A Dactyl - '"' '"'
An Amphibrach - An Anapaist '"' " A Tribrach '"' "' .,

A Troe/tee has the first :;iylluble accented and the last unaccented;
as, hiitefUl, pett'ish.
Restless mortals toil !or nought ;
Bliss In vain fr om earth Is ~ought.
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accent ..
ed; as, delay, behold.
An.d may at last my weary age,
Find out the peaceful hermitage.
A Sponclee has both the words or syllables accented; as, a high
tree, the pale moon.
See the bold youth strain up the threatning steep,
Old time brings man to his long home.
A Pyrr!tick has bQth the words ~r syllables unaccented; as, on
the tall tree.
Jn a small stream, by the side of a mountain,
We bath'd with delight.
A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccent·
ed ; as, conqueror' horrible.
From the low pleasures Of this fallen nature,
Rise we to hig·her, &c.
An Ampltibracli has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the
middle one accented; as, delightfUI, amazing.
The piece you say is incorrect, why take It,
I'm all submission, what you'd have it m1tke it.
An Anapmst has the two first syllables unaccented, and the las
accented ; as Incommode, contravene.
l\'lay I govern my passions w1th absolute sway,
Anrl grow wiser and better, as life fades away.
A Tribraclt has ~II its syllables unaccented ; as, uupardonablt
innumerable
And rolls impetuous to the plain.

PUNCTUATION.

108

Some of th ese feet ma b
.
~o.et1/ may be wholly, or ~hi~fl~e;~~:~1~at~~l princ·ipal fe et ; as pieces of
I oc iee, Iambus, Dactvl and A
e o, any of them. Such are the
erous variations by mixi~; them naprest. fhey are ca pable also ofnum
secondary feet. T he S
and by the
ach, are secondary feet.
P
' Y11 hick, Amplubrach, and Tri-

,~:.the

on~~t~1 e;c~. ~t~1er,

admissio~

!J;~e~n ;y~fahmlea~ubres'
that l:ren~~~~te;~ ~1~esy~~~l~sl1oor fefet contained i.n a
' es. ut the Ji b. lr
'
se o ten e10-ht
rl
sometimes very short and ~m ic_' T rochm·ck, and .!lnaprestick ~er~ean.
.
'
:sometimes long measure.
.
' is
. .ll'IeaS1tre, in poetry is tl

CA

DrRE
CTIONs RE.SPECT l .:vG
.

I . ~n A Ls ar~ u ~ed

•
'IHE

.
USE OF

CAP ITAL L ETTEHS.

tlw following situations.
. t the beg1m1mn- of eve r ' _. .
ters,_ &c. as, "J ohn80~1's Dictfofi~1'.1c1pfal . word in ~he titles of books, chapAnc1cnt H1storv."
Y 0 the English Lt111"n·irre. Rb !!. ,
9

Ill

•

"''"'

3. The. beo·inninrr
0 f tiie Ii11'St word after a p . 1 .- d .
te. nce"
". ly .111
0
· tl1e two sen"a1e tot.t
dependent
after.
. ~ 10 , and 1f
1
~;~'.1. Il_ut, if a number of in terroo-:. i~~te ~f rntlerrogation or exclmna1own rnto one general .n-ro11 J . ."'.'
o1 exc amato ry sentences are
tcn<"c depen ds on th e forn~e r ~l l o~t'11fthe constrn cti on of the latter ~en-'
1
sma
· with
·.
. ' ve . iem
I ll letters ·' as. ' "'-Io
' w 1Oii"
I except .the fir"t
• ' nav
. b eo-rn
ie scorners dP, light in
Will ye love simplicitv? anrl
Alas ! how different ! vet br 'v ,· .,. i nhmg. a!J(l fools hate kno,,;'Ied"e ~
4 T
J
' '
J ,e t e same I"
o .
. ._·. he ~rst w?nl of a qu otation int.10
.
.
It lo ll1 a direct form . as "A.I . .'
cluced after a sc rmcolon or wh
'Kuow
thy'
·
self.·'"
' '
ways rem e mb er 111 ·is. rnax1111;
en

~'

tl~~ii· s~~·~r.e o~es,

" I5.wnte
'~he ;pronoun
and ."
the inter·Jec. uon
.
Hear, 0 I,eartli
0, must always be capitals; as
At the be"innin"
· in poetry.
7G. All
o . "' of every lme
names, epithets, or qualities f
~
wholly written, with c·t1)1trrls: o Gour Greator, are always begun
m1g
Jtv
Most
11·
J
n·
'
'
·
•
as,
OD
b . o '.
1g i , 1vi11 e Prov'1 ii .
T ' Lonn
01 ' S upreme B einrr Al-'
a capita l, wh e 11 used
h1;_f!ven must
- a
eaven pros per yo u " B
. 0 t e "-mg of heaven · as
of tl.1e blessed, it mav.
it is used as the name of'
., 11111111 g of a sentence; as "'rh
ith a small letter, exce pt at tli e Le heave n and earth ."
'
e an gels of heaven." "The L ord of

·r
.
I _no] t

"~'.ny,~lth

a$e~l~:·nan~~e '} ~

berri1~1~"~,·hen

ah~ays
th~

8. Allproper11 ames,ofwha
..
. .
of I?P,rso ns, heathe n, gods anrltev~1 de_sc npt1 ~n, must begin with ca itals;
and constell atio110
b1utes, the planets,* thep fixed
is. ands, mountains, ri\'~'r; sh/r o, ·mgr oms, states, cities, towns stre-ets
Sir _Isaae ·Newton; the Ah,., I ~, sea~, oce~ns, &c. as, Benjamin F'rankf '.
the R ed Sea . the
;·the Ohio Ri ver. L ak e Sn'
from p.
'
11gate . uern ere Al
II
. .'
u.. FI oper names; as, the Newtoni . S . .
so a. ad1ecuves derived
c.in, rench, I talian, &c.
an ystem; Grecia n, R oman, Ameri-

~tf1 s

~enor;

coun·ri~- d~l_e:ss~s,

p". ~ny ~Gfount'.uns

*Earth excepted.

9 . .(\II titles of ho11our, professions, and callings of men, particularly
when an add ress is made, ought t\) begin with capitals; as, Presiden t
Governor, General, J urlge, Esquire, Mr. &c. Also all qualities used as,
titles of men; as, Honorable, R everend, &c.
10. Capitals are always used to begin the names of all courts, societies
and public bodies of men; as, Congress, th e General Assembly,.the Su-•
prerne Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane Society,
th e Corporation, &c.
11. The names of all r eligious sects and denominations, are begun with
capitals; as, Episcopalians, Baptists, Friend;,, ,&c.
12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the
days of the week; as, January, F eb rnary, &c. Monday, Tuesday, &c.
Also nil public days; as, a Public Thanksgivi ng, a Solemn Fast, &c.
13. The names of all articles of comnierce, wh en entered in merchants'
books, atlverti~ernents, &c. should liegin with capita ls; as, Linen, Cotton,
S ilk, Rum, Sugar, T ea, &c. Also all sums of money specified in notes,
bonrls, &c. as, Ten Dollars, an<l Sernnty-five Ce nts.
14. Very em phatical words m·e fr equ ently begun, and sometimes wholly

lllS

. -· The
fi ff t word
of e vei
. .Y b ook, chapter, letter ' note ' 01. any ot 11er
piece
of writirw
"·

~?ode

109

PROSODY.

written in capitals.

RULES FOR PUNCTU.11.TION.
COMMA
The Cornmn. 11sua ll y separates those pal'ts of' a sentence which, though
\'ery closely con nected in sense an d construction, require a pause between
th em.
Ru LE I. The seve1·al words whi<"h com pose a simple sentence, have in
general so ucar a relation to eac h other, tli at no pui11ts arc requisite, except a foll sto p at th e end of it.. But ,,·hen the simple sentence is a Ion"
one, and the nominntiYe case is accompanied with inseparable
a comma should be inserted immediate ly before th e Verb.
R u LF. 2. \Vh en the con nexion of th e different parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imµ erfect phrase, a comma is usually placed
befor e the beginning, anrl at the end of such phrase.
RULE 3. \Vh en two or more Noun~, two or more Adjectives, two or
more Verb5, or Participles, or Adv erbs occur in the same grammatical
construction, th ey are separated from each other by a comma; but when
they are closely connected by a Conjunction, the comma should not be

adjunct~,

inserted.
RuLE 4. Expressions in a direr,t address, th e nomin ative case absolute,
and the Infinitive Mood absolute, arc separated from the body of the sentence hy a comma.
R u1,E 5. Simple members of se ntenr.es, connected by comparatives, are,
for th e moF-t part, separatecl liy colllmas. lf the members are short, the
corrnua is better omitted .
Ru1,E 6. vVhen words are placed in op position to each other, or with
some marked variety, th ey ~hould be distinguished by a comma. Such
sentences are called antithetical.

110

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION.

.
11 b ., cl also after every abbreviated word ; as, M.
The period sl1ou c e u,,~ 'S
S. &c.
s p s-N. B.-A. D.- · ·
'
' .- • •
. •
? . u sed when a question is :iskecl. ~he
The Point of 1.nterrogat1on (.] is " dden emotion of s urpnse, JOy,~ne.f,
Exclamation [!) 1s used "pvhen s~m~;u[()] are u sed when some nece,.smy
&c . is expressed, The are1~t .es.
ed into the body of the sente~1ce
inf~rmation or us~ful rema~k isd:~~~~~e~1~vithout injuring the grammatical
obliquely, and which may e a
construction; as,
. . th (enourrh for man to know,)
"Know, then, t 111s t1.u ,
':,,
·
Virtue alone is happmess be1ow.

-N:

RuLE 7. Rel:ltive Pronouns are connective words, and generally admit

a comma before them; but when two memb ers or phrases are closely
connected by a Relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent
to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted. The whole of this .
rule applies, when the Relative is understood, as well as whenexpressed,
R u LE 8. A simple member of a sen tence, contained within another. or
following another, must be distinguished, by a comma. If, however, the
members succeeding each other are very closely connected, th e comma
is unuecessary. When a Verb in the Infinitive Mood follows its governing Verb, with several words between them, those words should generally
have a comma at the end of them. S e veral Verbs in the Infinitive Mood,
having a common dependence, and, succeeding one another, are also
divided by commas.
·

. . ters which are frequently made use of in comThere are other chai ac
!
·
l · · lace viz:
l
ay
he explamed !11 t 118 P
'
.
position, w h ic l m·
.
d
bb . v1· ate or shorten a word;
L
.
'
s
use
to
a
1e
I
J· f
1
An Apostrophe, marl rn d tllUS '
.' . en. ·udrr'd for judged. ts c 11c
as 'tis for it is ; tho' fortho1.igh; e en
e:ns'· J aso" A man's property ; A
use is to show the possessive case o no
'
'
woman's ornamen t"
·
d happens to b e left
. laced where some wor
A Caret, marked th1~s -"\is. J~ ·erted over the line.
out in writing, and winch is 11 " .
d .
meeting compounded
• employe 111 cm
l
·
th ·
A H yphen, marke d t rns - ' 1" _. .
. self-love to-morrow, mo eitea-JJOt, pre-existence,
'
dog
Lal)
won1s; as,
'
in-law.
.
.
·ire rrenerally placed at the
A Quotation"". Two rnverted co11n·1111as."<C\no~ed
or ~ranscribed from
1
or a passa rre w i1e 1..
·
ti · r di.rect
b eo-in nin g of a P1n·use..
. •
" '. I . and two commas Ill 1e1
··
I " . Jeaker or author !11 his own ~oIC s '.
t ~~i.~lon arc placed at the co nclus1on: as,
.
.
an "
p
'
"Th e proper study of rnank10c1 is m ' .

RuLE 9. When the Verb to be is follow ed by a Verb in the Infinitive
Mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative, the Verb
to be is separated from the following Verb by a comma.
·

}01

RULE 10. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be ,properly

r

introduced.

Ru LE 11. The words nay, so, hence, again,first, secondly, formerly, now•

lastly, once inore, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, and
all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated
from the context by a comma.

SEMICOLON.
The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound se nten ce into two or
more parts, not so closely connected as th ose which are separated by a
com•:na, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as tl10se which are distinguished by a colon.

COLON.
(This point is not so much used as form erl y.]
The Colon is used to divide a sen tence into two or more parts, less conn ected than those which are separated by a se micolon; but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences.
The colon may be app lied in the three following cases : 1. When a member of a sen tenclol is complete in itself, but followed by
some explanatory remark.

2. Wh en a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, and a still
greater pause is Jlecessary, in order to m ark the concluding sentiment,and
s how its r elation to the first.

3. The colon is generally used when an example,a quotation,or speech
is introduced; as,The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the
D eity, in these words: "God is love."
PERIOD.
When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in
construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period.

111

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