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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

III
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1 11

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I i il

·HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

AN

E·LEMENTARY GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
FOR THE

..

BY THOS. W. HARVEY,
A. M.,
.
.
AUTHOR OF "PRACTI CAL GRAMMAR Of" THE ENGLISll LANGUAGE."

CINCINNATI:

-WILSON, HINKLE &

CO.

PHH/ A: CLAXTON, Rm!SEN & HA FF EI.FINGER.
NEW YORK: CLARK & MAYNARD.

,,

-.....ii

HARVEY'S ELE 1lIENTARY GRAMMAR.

AN

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
FOR THE

BY THOS. W. ffARVEY, A. M.,
AUTHOR OF ' ' PHAC1'I CAL GRA?II MAR OF T H I:: ENG LISH LANGUAGE."

C IN C INNATI:

WILSON, I-IINKLE &

00 .

PHIL' A: CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER..
NEW YORK: CLARK & MAYNARD .

\ t. \ \ \l
'\-\ "i· b

I'? ~'t

PREFACE.

rJ

I

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0

·crv

J.<;nt.ercd acco rding to Ac t of Congr ess, in th e ye ar 1869, Uy

WIL8 0N , HI N KLE & CO.,
In th o Clerk's Ollico of,th c Dis trict Court o f the Un ited 'S tates, for the
:Southern Di stri ct of Ohi o.
J: u :cTJWT Yl'l:!l AT Tin: Fl\,\:\IU,I:'\ TYPE 1'' 0U :SllR'!:, CINCf:SXA TI.

IN the preparation of this work, the aim of the author has
been to present the subj ect in a style neither too difficult for·
the beginner nor too simple for the more advanced student.
As its name indicates, this is an elementary, not a primary
grammar.
Part I consists of model oral lessons, illustrating methods
of elementary instruction in language culture. These need
not be given in the order in which they are arranged; and,
if it be found necessary or desirable, they may be varied or
subdivided to adapt them to the wants and capacity of the
pupil. With these as models, any ingenious teacher can
read ily prepare similar lessons to simplify or elucidate the
more difficult sections in Parts II and III.
Part II is similar to Part I in spirit and design. The
topics, however, are more systematically arranged and developed. Great care has been taken never to define a term or
to enunciate a principle without first preparing the mind of
the pupil to ,grasp and comprehend the meaning and use of
the terms defined or the principles enunciated. Ideas are first
developed by intelligent questioning and appropriate illustrations; then, clothed in words. The examples in the drill exercises have been chosen with great care.
Part III contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the
properties or modifications of the different parts of speech;
(iii)

lV

PllEFACE.

carefully prepared models for parsing and the analysis of complex and compound sentences-making, with the analysis
taught in Part II, a complete and perfect system; rules of
syntax, and cautions, with appropriate exercises in false syntax. Notes, remarks, and suggestions have been but sparingly
introduced, as they serve rather to confuse than to assist the
b eginner.
The author would call special attention to the synthetic
exercises in Part II, and the exercises in false syntax in
Part III. No thoughtful teacher will neglect or give undue
prominence to either class of exercises. Grammatical instruction is of little value unless its aim and end is to teach the
pupil to detect and correct inaccuracies in the use of language, as well as to give forcible, elegant expression to
thought.
It has been said that there is no royal road to geometry.
The same may be said of grammar. The meaning and application of its technical terms must be learned, sentences must
be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can
comprehend the philosophy which underlies the correct use
of any language. The labor necessary to acquire this knowledge may be made attractive, but it can not be dispensed with,
neither can it be materially lessened. All that is claimed for
this work is, that it shO\rs how this labor should be expended
to secure the best results.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

PAGE.

PAGE.i

\

Na.mes of Things,
'l'eaching new Words,
Action-words,

Qnalit.y-words,

-

Sentence-makin g,
Things seen in Pictures,

Possess iv e ·

0

1~

Relative

12

50
51

Relativ e Clnuse,
Interrogative Pronoun.~ . .

53

The Adverb,
" AdvCrUia.l E l(•tm•ut, .

' Vord-p icturin g,
l\lispronounccd "' ords,
Incorrect Expressions,

18

Cliisses of Sen tcnces, ·

21

19

"

Preposition,

"
"

Phrase,
Conjunction,

Compound

PART II.
The Senses, .

23

Definition of Ol>ject,
" \Vord,

Z3
2·1

Langu1\go,

21

.

48

u

"
Scut.cnce,

C~mplex

11

46

Pe-rsonal Pronouns,

Parts of Speech ,

25

'!'he Noun, .
The Sentence,
Parts of a Sente nce, .
The Noun as Predicate,

2.5

57

60

I~lem e nt,

The Interjection,

62

or

63

Cla:sses

Sentences,

64

Principal "Elemc11t s, .
Subordinate Elements,

64

PART III.

27

The NouN,

(ii

28

Gender,

f,7

29

Perso11,

Elem ents,

31

Number, .

70

'l'he VerlJ,

32

Case,

i2

Classes of Ve rbs,

33

Declension,

74

Objective Elemcut,
The Adjectiv e,
u
Article ,

3.1

Parsing, .

'j;"")

36

38

Personal Pronouns,

78

Possessive
Relativ e
Interrogative

81

u

Participle,

40

"

Adjective Elem ent,

43

~'

Pronoun,

7~

The PRONOUK,

82

85

11

( v)

'

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I

vi
Jfn.ls o Syntax, Cauti ous,
'l'h c AD.JE CTl\' E ,

CONTENTS.
P~\ GE .

00

Co m11ari so n,

no

D l'st.: riptiv {! AdJcc ti n·s,

"u

Definitiv e

91

False :Syntax , Cauti o us,
Th e V i:; u11,

Voi ce ,

AIJri dgm cnt,

v:,

Rul t!S of Sy ntax ,
.M i ~ce!Jau cou s Ex1 •1T is<·8,

Ques ti o ns for lkvi <· w ,

Te nse ,
AHxiliari cs ,
U11iperso11al V<·rlis,
Co 11jug ati (l !l ,

Coi:i rdiuat c J;'o nu s ,
Rug 11br Ve rbs,
Irreg ular Vcr lJs,

100
IOI

IOI
IOI
JO\)

Th o CO XJ UX C"l'I OX,

Th e IxT£U.JF.: c·r·10 N,
Simpl o Se ntc· ncc,
Co mpound Se n te nce,
Compl ex ffont r. nc es ,

"

Scmi co lo 11,

"

Co lon,

11

P eri od,

"

Inte rrog ati on P oiut,

"
"

Ex c lamatio n P o iut,
Dn sl1,

"

Drackets ,

120

Fal so Sy nta x , Cau t ions,
Th e JlnErOR ITI ON ,

The Comma,

Ill

121

PAGJo: .

132
132

133
1.1::

1::.1
J3li

HO
1< 3

Oili e r M a l'ks ,

PART I.
J.l f.
l 'lfi

123

J.1 9
H~

150

uo
1.'>U

127

12S

PART V.

129

Capi t a.I Le tter s,

130

Sy llab le• -Wor<ls,

T? Teachers. - The lessons in Part I are intended to precede the use of a book in grammatical instruction. That they
may be useful, as well as animated and attractive, observe the
following directions :

151

l ;) J

Elem en t ary Sound s,
Tabl e of So unds,
Letters,

ORAL LESSONS.

1-18

121

125

ELEMEN11ARY GRAMMAR~

1.13

PAH'l' IV.
P U X C TUAT IO ~·,

11 2
11 .J

Dcfc c ti,·c and R r. dnrnla11t Vc rlHJ
False Sy n t ax, Cauti ons,
.'
118
Th e ADYEIW,

Compar iso n ,

Grammat ic al l're(licatc ,
L og ica l l'rcdi catc,
Ell ips is,

~1.1

~ l o <l c,

Pe nson and NumUc r ,

Gnunmat ical ~ ul.Jj cc t,
Logical SnUj cc t,

$7

] {;4

15.')
15&

1. Require prompt answers, always expressed in complete
sentences.
2. Require pupils to copy on their slates whatever you write
on the blackboard.
3. Correct with great care all errors in pronunciation, spelling,
pQ.llctuation, and the use of capital letters.

LESSON I.

1. Names of Things.
Teache r (taking a boo le from his desk ).-What

is this?

Pu1•ils.-That is a book.
The teacher writes this answer on the blackboard : the pupils
copy it on their slates.

(Pointing to the word "book").-Is that a book?
P.-No: that is a word.
T.-That is right. It is a word used as the name of a thing.
Mary, you may bring me a book. .James, you may point to
'I'.

I 7\

8

9

ELE1IENTARY GRAM.MAll.

ORAL LESSONS .

the word " book". Now, observe that Mary has brought me
a lh.ing we ca ll a book, a nd James has pointed to its name.

Remember that the object of th ese lessons is not to give instruction in matters of science, but to lead pupils to observe things,
and to teach them how to express their thoughts in correct

Ca ll th o attention of your pnpil•, in a si milar manner to an
inksta nd, a pen, a bell, a crayon, a p encil, a slate, a ruler.

'

·1·.- ·write th ese names on your slates, in columns, as I
wri te them on th e blackboard:
Book.
Inkstand.
P en.
Bell.

Crayon.
P encil.
Slate.
Ruler.
'I'.- , Vith what does each 1vord commence?
P.-Each word commences with a capi tal letter.
'I'.- W hat is placed after each word?
Jl>.-A period is placed after each word.
T.- ,Vhat are these words?
I>.-They are names of things.
·write, in columns, the names of all objects in the school-room.
L et th e pupi ls give the names of objects in the kitchen-in th e
sitting-room - in the parlor - also, the names of objects seen on
th eir way to school.
TVr ite
Wn:te
TV n te
lVi·ite
Write

six names of thi'.n,qs tha.t may be known by the sense of sight.
si.r names of th.'.ngs that ma.y be known by the sense of h~aring.
·'1.1; name.l of t/11.ngs that may be b wwn by the sense of touch.
si.r 11wnes ~/'things that may be kno wn by tlte sense of taste.
six names of things that may be known by the sense of smell.

Talk with your pupils about the things whose names are given.
Encomage th em to tell what they know of th eir uses - of the
places wh ere they are found, etc. L et th em write sentences li ke
th ese : " Pepper grows in the E ast Indies." "Oran"'es
"'row in
0
F lo11.. d a. " " Q
. Ims a bitter
·
- u1.111ne
taste." " I heard an owl"' hoot."
Pay particular attention to the spelling of these sentences. See
that every word is correctly spelled ; that each sentence and every
proper name begins with a capital letter, and that a period is
placed at the end of each sentence.

language.
LESSON II.
'l'eacber.-We have written th e names of fiv e kinds of
things. One kind we know by the sense of sight; a nother, by
the sense of touch or feeling; a nother, by the sense of hearing;
another, by the sense of taste; another, by th e sense of smell.
Seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, and smelling a re called th e five
senses. What are the fiv e senses?
Pnpils.-The five senses are seeing, feeling, h earing, tasting,
and smelling.
T.-Any thing which we can see, feel, hear, taste, or smell
is called matter. What is matter?
P.-Matter is any thing that we can see, feel, h ear, taste,
or smell.
'I'.-,Vrite this on your slates. Now repeat it in concert.
Those things which are made of matter are called material
things. Do you know what material means?
P.-vVe do not.
'l'.-It means composed of matter. ·what, then, are material
things?
P.-Things composed of matter are material things.
'I'.-' Vrite this answer on your slates. What kind of thing
is this pencil ?
1>.-It is a material thing.
'l'.-Why is it a material thing?
1•.-Because it is composed of matter.
T.-How do you know it is composed of matter?
P.-Because we can see it and feel it.
· 'l'.-How many new words have you learned in this lesson?
P.-We have learned three new words.

10

11

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

ORAL LESSONS.

\Vlrnt are t hey?
P.- Th cy a rc senses, matter, and material.
T. - \Vh at are t he fi ve senses?
rupib answer th e question, and then defin e rnaticr and
material.

things. y ou mriy now affirm the following action-words of
appropriate things: walk, trot, cackle, whistle, pl~w, fly, play,
jurnp, scratch, sing, rernernber, whisper, quarrel, recite.

T. -

In ibis lesso n is cxcmpl ificcl a meth od of teachin g the meaning
ancl n ;;c of new words, or words with whi ch pupils arc not familiar.
vVh cn teachin g the name oi' an obj ect not famili arly kn own, exhibit th e obj ect, or a picture of it, befo re giving its name.
The names of pa.rts of objects should be taught in n, similar
manner. Consult any good work on obj ect lessons for illustrative
exercise;.
LESSON III.

2. Action-Words.
Teacher.- \Vhen I say " The boys run " , which word tells
wh at the boys are doing ?
Pn1>ils.- Th c word " runs" t ells wh at th e boys are doing.
'1'.- When l say " The dog barks" , which " ·ord tells what
the dog is doing?
1•.- 'l'h e ll" o rd " ba rks" tells what the dog is doing.
W rile

these

t ll"O

se ntences on the blackboard.

T. - T hcrc arc a great man y words which tell us what dif~
fo rcnt things do. Such words usuall y express actions. \Vhat
is a good 1rnmc fo r them ?
P.-Action-w orcls is a good name.
T.- \Vhat, t hen, a re action-words ?
P.- Action-11·ords are words which tell us what different
th ings do.
T.- \Vhen acti on-words are used with the names of th ings,
th ey usually aJjirm something of those things. D o you know
what "affirm " means ?
P.-·w e do not.
'I'. - " Affirm " means to say. Acti on-words say something of

Pupils write on their sbtes, "~I en walk", "Horses trot'',
"Scholars r~c ite ", &c.
'I'.-You may tell what the following things do: hens,
geese, cats, sheep, horses, men, j armers, merchants, vessels, wind.•,
trees, flowers.
Pupils write on their slates : "rlens cackle", "Vessels sail",
"Trees grow ", &c.

.

Let the pupils . also tell all the actions which any specified
object may perform: as, scholars study, scholars learn , scholars
recite, &c.; horses walk, horses trot, horses gallop, horses neigh,
·horses kick, &c.
LESSON IV.

3. Quality-Words.
Teacher.-Copy on y~r slates what I write on the blackboard . (Writes) "Oranges are sweet". ·what word describes
oranges ?
Pns>ils.- The word "sweet" describes oranges.
·r.-That is right. It is a word used to denote that oranges
possess a certain quality -that of b eing sweet: Now, place the
word "ripe " before "oranges ". Norman, you may read what

you have written .
Norman.-" Ripe oranges are sweet."
T.-\\That other word here describes oranges by denoting
some quality?
I>.-TJ{e word " ripe" describes oranges.
'1'.-As both of th ese words-ripe and sweet -denote quality, what will be a good name for th em?
P.-Quality-words will be a good name.
T.-Is " sweet" placed before or after "oranges"?
P.-It is placed after "oranges".

12

13

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

ORAL LESSONS.

is the word "ripe" placed?
1•.-It is placed before "oranges".
'I'.- Wh ere may qual ity-words be placed, then?
P.-They may be placed both before and after the names
they describ e.
'I'.-Write all the appropriate quality-words you can think
of before the word "apples".

T.-Arrange them so that they will express some meaning.
A 1m1>H.-"Good scholars .are always happy."
T.-Arran,ge them so that they will ask a question?
A 1•u1in.-" Are good scholars al ways happy ?"
T.-W ell done. When groups of words express some meaning, they are said to make complete sense. Such groups are
·called sentences. What, then, is a Sentence ?
P.-A Sentence is a group of words making complete sense.

T . - ·where

Pupils write : So11r apples, sweet apples, pleasant apples, large
apples, small apples, sound apples, rotten apples, &c.
'I'.-Write all th e appropriate quality-words you can think
of after the word "ice".
Pupils write : Ice is cold, ice is heavy, ice is sol'id, &c.
'l'.-vVhcn a quality-word is written after the name it describes, a word or group of words is usually placed between it
and that name. Wh~t word is thus used in the sentences you
have just written?
1•.-The word "is" is thus used.
'I'.-·when the word "is" or some similar word is placed
between a quality-word and the nanle it describes, the qualityword is said to be ajjirined of the name.
1iJ!i·ite I he following quality-words bejore appropriate names :

Round, square, large, small, light, heavy, red, yellow, green,
smooth, rough, dark, muddy, pretty, sweet.
lUodcI.-A. ?"Onnd table.
H"i·ite the same words ujler appropriate names.
Model.-The table is round.

LESSON V.

4. Sentence-1\faking,
Tcachcr.-Copy these words on your slates: always, good,
happy, are, scholars. Are these words so arranged as to express
any meaning ?
Pn11ils.-They are not.

If necessary, the teacher may assist the pupils in expressing
this definition.

T.-Arrange these words into a sentence: unknown, the, to,
were, fire-arrns, ancients.
A 1m1>il.-" Fire-arms were unknown to the ancients."
'l'.-Arrange them so that they will ask a question?
A 1mpil.-" Were fire-arms unknown to the ancients?"
'l'.-Now write a sentence containing the words we, ip, sun,
da:ylight. Supply words necessary to make complete sense.
A tlllpil.-" Yv e were up by daylight to see the sun rise."
'l'.-Very well done. Has any one a different sentence?
A pu1>il.-" 'Ve got up after daylight before the sun rose."
Let the pupils read the sentences th ey have written.
T.- You may now arrange these words and groups of words,
separated by commas, into a sentence: left, he, of the academy,
house, for tl"l,fl halls, father's, his.
A 1mpil.-" For the halls of the academy, he left his
father's house."
T.-Has any one a different arrangement?
A 1m1>il.-" He left his father's house for the halls of the
academy."
T.-Anange these words in to a sentence, supplying necessary words: beautiful, oitr, ganlen, flowers.
Ist JlllJ>il.-" Beautiful flowers grow in our garden."
2d pu1iil.-" How beautiful the flowers are in our garden!"
Sd 1m1>il.-" Our garden is full of beautiful flowers."

I,

14

ORAL LE SSONS .

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

4th 1m11il.-" How

beautiful the fl owers look in our garden!"

This exe rcise may be nrnde Yery interesting and attraetiYe.
Let th e lengt h of th e sentences to be co nstructed be adapted to
th e :igc and mental develop ment of the pupil. Select the best
arr:ingccl of th e 'entences given - write it on the blackboard, and
g ive rC':tsons fo r preferring it to all ot hers.
Turning poetry into prose is :Ln exercise wh ich may follow thi s.
Select so me sim ple ballad ; read it to yo ur pupils; then read each
verse slowly and distinctly, and instru ct your pupils how to exprcs;; th e thought or sentiment of the Yerse in prose, and in their
ow n langu:-tgc.

15

Ask similar questions of other pupils, until all th e prominent
obj ects in th e picture hrcve been pointed out and nam ed.

LESSON VI.

5. Things Seen in Pictures.
Th e teac her exhi bits a picture. Suppose t he principal objects
in it to be a lady and a gentleman on horseback, :1 boy playing
with a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill in th e background.

.,,

.,

Teacher (to a pupil) .- '\Vhat do you see in t hi s picture?
1•1111i1.- I sec a laLly and a gentleman on h orseback in t he
pi cture .

Th e teache r ll"ritcs th e answer on the blackboard ; the pupils
co py it on th eir slates.
'I'cac1.., .. (to another p 1tpil).-vVhat do you see in this
pi ct ure"?
1•1111i1.- I sec a boy in the picture.

·1·.- What is th e bo~· lloin g?
1•.- The b oy is playi ng with the dog.
\Vri te this answer, as bcfor('.
T.- Wh at makes you th ink th e boy is p layin g with th e dog?

'\'\'rite th is an swer, as before.

rupils give reasons.

T. (lo a

thfrcl pupil) .-'Nhat do you see ?
P.- 1 sec a dog in the picture.

T.- Into wh at d oes t he gate ope n ?
P.-The gate opens in to a lawn in front of th e h ou se.

\\·rite th is arn;ll"er, as before.

\ Vrite th is answer, as before.

'J'.

(to a .fourth pupil) .-What do you see?
P.- I see a house in th e picture.

T . - \\'

\ Vrite th is ans ll"er, as befo re.

vVrite this answer, as before.

here is t he t ree?
1•.- The tree is at the corn er of th e fe n ce, n ear the gate.

14

ELEMENTARY GR AMMAR .

OllA L LESSONS .

4th 1m1•il.-" How beautiful the flowers look in our garden!"

15

Ask similar questions of other pupils, until all the promine11t
obj ects in the p ictu re have been po inted out and nam ed.

This cxc 1·cisc may be made very inter esting and attractive.
L et the lengt h of th e sentences to be co nstructed be adapted to
th e nge and mental development of th e pupi l. Select th e best
ananged of the sentences given-w ri te it on th e blackboard, and
g ive reasons fo r preferring it to all others.
Turning poetry into prose is a.n exercise which may fo llow thi s.
Select some simpl e ballad; r ead it to your pupils ; then read each
verse slowly and distinctly, and instru ct your pupils how to express the th ought or sentiment of th e verse in prose, and in their
own language.

LESSON VI.

5. 'l'hing·s Seen in Pictures.
Th e teac her ex hibits a pictu re. Suppose the principal objects
in it to be a lady and a gentleman on hor. elmck, a boy p laying
with :t dog, a house, a gate, and a hil l in th e background.

(to a pupit) .-\Vhat do you see

Teac h e r
1•111•il.- I

pi d m c.

in this picture?
sec a lady and a ge ntleman on h orseback in the

Th e teacher writes the answer on the blackboard; the pupils

co rw it on th eir slates.
'l 'cac11,,..

p k tu re ?

,,

\Vlrnt is the boy doing?
J>.- The boy is play in g wi th t he dog.

T.-

(to anot!ier p upil).-vVh at d o yo u see in this

\ Vrite this answer, as bcfor<'.

sec a boy in the picture.
\·\' rit e th is answer, as before.
J•n1•il.- I

T.- What makes you think th e boy is playin g wi th the clog?
Pu pi ls give reaso ns.

'I'. (to a third pupil ).-What do yo u see?
1•.- I sec a dog in the picture.
VV ri tc lli is :111Rwe r, as before.
T. (to a foui·tfi pupil ).-What do you see?
1•.- I see a house in the picture.

\ Vritc thi s an swer, as before.

T.-Into what does t he gate open ?
P.- The gate opens into a lawn in front of the house.
\ Vritc thi s answer, as before.

I

T . - \ V'h ere

is the tree?

1•.- The tree is at th e corner of th e fe nce, near the gate.
vV rite this answer, as before.

16
''I

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

T.-Is th ere any thing else near the gate?
P.- There are some steps leading up to the gate.
\V rite thi s answer, as before.
Wh ere is th e hill?
P . -The hill is back of the house.

ORA L LESSONS .

17

T.-What are they ?

P.-Tb ey are foreg round and background.
Let the pupils give the definit.ion of these terms a second time.

T.-

vV rit e this answer, as before.

.1

·II

!
'

,.j

',i

:1

T.-Si las, yo u may tell me what you see in the picture.
Silas.- ! see a lady and . a gentleman on horseback, a boy,
a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill , in the picture.
T.-Pupib, you may erase the first four answers written on
your slates, and in their place write the answer Silas has just
gi 1·en. Now see wh at a nice composition you ha ve written.
S usan, you may read what is written on your slate.
Susan reads: " I see a lady and a gentleman on h orseback,
a boy, a dog, a house, a gate, and a hill, in th e picture. The
boy is pla ying with the dog. The gate opens into the lawn,
in front of th e house. The tree is at the corner of th e fen ce,
n ear the gate. There a re some steps leading up to th e gate.
The hill is back of the house.
·
T.-Sarnh, will you point to that part of the picture whi ch
appea rs to be nearest you ? Do you kn ow what that is called?
Sarah. - J do not.
Otl. ~ r pupi ls say that they do not.

'1'.- It is called th e Joreg1'0und. w·rite that word on your
sl at es as I write it on the blackboard. Now p ronoun ce i t.
Can any one now tell me wliat th e foreg1'0und of a picture is?
A 1m1>il. - Th e foreground of a picture is that part whi ch
);Ce n1 s to be nearest us.
Thio definiti on is written on blackboard and ~ J ates, and then
rl'peated in conce rt.
Teac h in

:c ~ imilar

manner th e meaning of th e term back-

yrnund.

T.- H ow many new wonls have you learned in this lesson ?
P.-Vv e have learned two new words.

Should a painting or colored picture be used in giving this
lesson, call attention to the different co lors; write th eir names,
and co mpare them with similarly colored obj ects in the schoolroom - such as articles of dress, flowers, etc.
LESSON VII.

6. Word-Picturing.
Teacher.-! will read you a short story, which I find in
"Coicdery' s JJ{oral L essons" .-

" In one of our large cities, a meclrnni c, in going to his wo rk,
had occasion to pass a group of ragged immigrants just ln nd ed
from a British shi p. 'They appea red forlorn and destitu te.
They made no appeal for assistance, but sat silent on the sidewalk, in their mise ry and squalor. The mechanic regard ed them
for ,t moment, and then, as if seized by ;t sudden impulse, drew
hi s dinn er, wrapped in an old newspaper, from his pocket, and
g:wc it to a woman who crouched near him, to .divide among
her ch ildren. H e did not wait for thanks, but hurried off."
Now, pupils, can you tell m e the na me of the feeling
whid1 led this mechan ic to g ive his dinn er to the poor immi grants?
Pupil s suggest different names; as, pity, good-nature, &c.; or
s:iy, "He pitied th em"; " H e wanted to do good"; " He \\'US
sorry they were so poor and hungry ", &c.

T.-The word I h a ve in my m ind, as a name for his fee ling
fo r them, is "compassion". The immigrants looked so forlorn
and di stressed t hat h e felt so rry fo r them, and sorrow e:i:cited
b1; the distress of others, is called compass-ion. Can you now
tell me what compassion is?
E . G.-~.

18

OltAL LESSONS.

A 1mJ1il.-Cornpnssion i:; so rrow ex cited by the di stress of
others.

tion to the difference between the sound represented by " n" and
that represented by " ng ".

Wri te thi s defi nition on blackboard and slates; then recite it
concert. In i:ev iew lessons, let so me pupil tell the story as
:.m illustration of the meaning of the word.
111

R ead or relate stories which illustrate charity, honesty, conragc,
p ity, benevolence, kindness, obedience, self-denial, &c. L et the · words
illm;tt·ateLl remain on the blackboard until ectch pupil thoroughly
understands thei r meaning and application.
This lesson may be given to the whole school, as a portion
of the opening or closing exercises.

LESSON VIII.

7. Mispronounced Words.
Teach er.- ! will write on the blackboard what I once
hen rd a boy say. ( IVrites) "It is orful cold this mornin' " .
~ow :;pe ll th e ' rn rd " orful " as b e prono un ced it. Sp ell by
~o uncl .

P11p i1, spell : o- r,

01 ·,

/-1i- I, Jul, Oiflll.

·1·.-Do you th ink there is any su ch word as " orful" ?
P11pil 8 m:1;· see m und ecided : different opinions may be given .
T.- W hat other word sounds so m ewhat li k e it?
A 1>•111i1.- The word "awful " so unds somew hat li ke it.
T. -~ pcll t he word "awful " by sound.
jl

·:·

19

ELEMENTARY GRAM MAR.

l'u pils . pell: a, aw, J- u-1, .fnl, awful.
T.- Tbat is th e word h e intended to u se. How many will
remember the correct pronunciation of the word "awful "?
A11 hands rire raised.
T.- ·what oth er word did the boy mispronounce?
l'.- H e mi spronounced the word " m orning " .
Spell both "mornin'" and "morning" by sound, calling atten-

T.-Is "awful " a proper word to be used h ere?
P upils express diH:erent opinions.
T.-" V ery" is the word the boy should have u sed.
should have said, "It is very cold t hi s m orning".

He

Write the corrected sentence on blackboard and slates. Read
. it, pronouncing each word slowly and distinctly - then let th e
pupils read it.
Correct, in a similar manner, th e pronunciation of the italicized words in the following
EXERC I SES.

1. Father sold our bay hoss yesterday. 2. Ap,.U comes after
l\I arch. 3. I o:.tw ~i dol"g-fight. 4. Drive the keows (cows) to
pasture. 5. That was a dre.Dul (dreadful) mistake. 6. The schoolmarster punished me for laffin' . 7. I oncet went a miled for a
bunch of voilets. 8. I kin (can) read word s of tu (two ) sy llctbles.
l'r.foke lists of words niisprononnced by yonr pnpils, and tecich their
proper pmnunciat,ion.

LESSON IX.

8. Incorrect Expressions.
Teaeher.-I on ce h eard a boy say; " I hain't got no slate".
Did h e use correct langu age?
A pu1>il. - H e did not.
T.-'\'\That should h e h ave said ?
A 111•1>il.- H e should hav e said, " I h ave got n o slate" .
•1·. -Do you all think that is correct lang uage?
A 1m1>il.-I do not.
H e should h ave said, " I h ave no
slate".
T.-That is right. The word "got" is unnecessary, a nd we
sh ould always omit unnecessary words.

ORAL LESSONS.

20

E LEME NTARY GRAMMAR.

\-\'rite the in correct and correct expressions on the blackboard,
and let the pupils wri te them on their slates.

,,
II

!

i

·d

'I'cach m·.-Scc wheth er you can correct this expression :
" Give me th em pencils".
A 1u1pi1.- l t sh ould be, "Give m e those p encils" .
T.-That is right. Before the nam es of thin gs, the word
" those" should be used instead of " them". Correct this
expressi on: " Them appl es are sour " .
P.- I t should be, " Those apples are sour"; b ecause
" t hose" sh ould be u ~ ed instead of "them " b efor e the nam e:;
o f t.liin g:;.
T.-1 once h eard a saucy, ill-mann ered boy say, "Old Jon es
has lo ts of tin " . \Vas such language respectful ?
•
A 1111pi1.- I t 11·as not. H e sh ould T1ave said, " lVIr. Jones" .
'l '.- 1' that all the correction you would make ?
1•.- It i:; not. H e m ean t to say th at Mr. J on es h ad plenty
of m oney : h e should h ave said, "Mr. J ones h as plenty of
m oney", not " lots of tin ".
T.- That is ri gh t. D o you know what such language as
t hi s bo ~· used is called '!
1•.- '.Ve do not.
T.- It is called slang, which m eans low, vulgar language.
N eYer use sla ng.
Let the pupil s now defin e ,/ring- write the definiti on on blackboard anrl slate•, and repeat iL in concert.
EXER C I SES .

1. I can' t tell yo n no more. 2. I am almost froze. 3. He ha s
just ca me. 4. Tha t excuse is all wore out. 5. I have n't saw him
for murc ' 11 a wee k. 6. I wonId n' t h:w e went., if I had been rn
your place. 7. I am sure one of th em sentences are wro ng.
8. Th ere is many kinds of fa me. 9. H arl any one a pencil
th ey [1rc willin~ to knd. 10. I am e'en-a-most tn ckcred out. 11.
It was not me. 12. Is that all the far that you can count ? 13. My
money is all done ' P<'nt. 14. I guess she come lately.

21

15. I just wanted he and Charl ey to see that. 16. I have ate
all my dinner; hain 't you ate your 'n? 17. Hirn and me are
classmates. 18. That book is his 'n. 19. L et us try and learn all
wc can.
20. I ' II shut his peepers for him . 21. If any one strikes you,
go for him. 22. \Vhar are you toting that gun, stranger ? 23.
Thi s 'ere road is orful muddy. 24. D o n't tell nobody where I am.
25. I li ve to home. 26. ·watch ont fo r .t he steamboat.
27. I catched ten fi sh last evening. 28. Eli, he run , and John,
he rnn. 29. Eggs, th ey is very dea r. 30. \ Vh en does your school
trike np? 31. Our taters is all rott.in'. 32. I s n't that are line writ
well ? 33. IV hat's the heft of that s! nn ?
34. 'Where you gwin e ? 35. I !mowed what he done thar; but
36. Ghosts can't skeer me. 37 . Multiply the multiplier on to the mult.iplicand. 38. That's what's the matter.

I never let on.

Observe Cltrejully the langu£tge of yoitr pitpils, ancl correct all itngrammatical express ion•.

Suggestiou.-Usually the corrected expression onl y should be
written on the blackboard.
LESSON X.

9. Classes of Sentences.
Teacbc1·.-\Vhen I say, "The window is op en", I state a
fact. ·what kind of sentence do I u se ?
PuJ>ils.-You u se a senten ce th at states a fact.
'I'.-That is ri g ht. I use what is called a Declai·ati ve Sentence. Can you now t ell me what a d eclarative sentence is?
A ,.. 1,n.-A declarative sentence stat es a fact.
1
T.-\Vrite that definition on y our slates. Now repeat it in
concert. \\Then I say, " I s the window open?" what kind of
sentence do I u se ?
1>.-Y ou u se a sentence that ask s a question.
T.-Such a group of words is called an Interrogative Sentence. Can you t ell m e what an interrogative sentence is?

,I

22

A 1m1•il .- A 11 interrogative sentence asks a question.
·1·.- Wr ite that definiti on o n your slates. R epeat it in concert. \\Th en I say, "Ularencc, open th e window", what kind
of sentence do I use?
I'.- You use a sentence th at makes a command.
'J.'. -Such a sentence is call ed an I mperative Sentence. Can
you tell me what an imperative se nten ce is?
A 1m11il.-_.\11 imperative se ntence mak es a command.
T.- \ \Th en I say, " 0, that winu ow is open again! " I exprc~s so me fee ling or emotion. I then use wh at is called an
E?:clamatory 8c11 tcncc. ·wh at i ~ an exclamatory sente1ice?
A 1mpil.- /u1 exclamatory sentence expresses some fe eling _or emotion.

T.- \\Tri tc this defini tion on your slates. Repeat it in co ncert. These a re all th e classes of ~enten ces th ere are. How
man.v arc th ere ?
1•u11ils.-There arc fo ur classes of ~entences.

·i
I

'!'.- Repeat th eir names.
1•.-Dedar,Ltivc, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclam,
atory.
EXE R C I SES .

T ell the kinds ql sentence.~ in the following exercises :

1. The winds bring perfum es.

2. Where is my new book? 3.
Necessity is the moth er of invention. 4. Go to th e ant, thou
sluggn rd 1 5. Oh, how I trembled wi th disgust ! 6. Does God
uni fo rmly work in one way? 7. Be not fo rward in th e presence

of your superiors. 8. L end me your wings ! I mount! I fly!
ti

PARTS OF SPEECH .

E LEM EN 'l'AHY GRAMMA R.

T ell the !:ind of sentences ·in your 1·cciding lesson. Chcinge the fo1·m
of these sentence~, fl'Oin cleclcirntive to interrogatii-e, &c.
Sn~·;;· cstion. - \\Thil e studying Parts II and III of this work,
let the pupil s change th e 'form of many exe rcises in analysis and
parsing. This exercise will teach th em how to express different
shad es of meaning by diffore nt arrangements of the same words.

23

\ '.

PART II.

p ARri'S OF SPEECH.
10. Objects.
1. The Seuses.--'--We have ft ve senses : seeing, hearing, f eeling, tasting, and smelling .
· 1 things by means of
vVe obtain a knowledge of matena
these senses.
or smell things, we arc said
\~T h e n we see, h ear, feel , taste,
to p erceive th em.
.
.
are not material, or
\ \Te can not perceive tlungs "'. lnch
be
consciou.s of such
composed o f m at ter · vV e ar e tia1d to
thin gs.
fl
A forc e called gravitati'.on
.
bool· upon the oor.
d
I rop
a
'
f
l
.
d the center o t 1e ear th · Vv c can n ot p ercewe
draws it towar
.
. ·t-that is 11-c know such a
this for ce, but we are conscious ~1 l '
'
force must exist.
vV e are conscious of many oth er things which we ca n not
percei v c ; as, love, hatred, y"oy, sorrow.
vVhat, then, is an
All these thin gs are called oby"ects.
~-

I

l'

.
An Object is any t lnng
we can p erceiv e or be

conscious of.

I

).

. . f ob" ects. wh en we talk, we
\ Vh cn we think, we thmk o
.J
·•
b. ·t<
write, we write about o ~ ec ~ ·
h
en
we
t alk about objects: 'v
.I

24

ELE1v1E N TARY GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

·when we ta ]k or write, we use wo rds to express our
thoughts. What, then, is a woi-cl .•

12. Parts of' Speech.

3. A Wm·d is a syllabi c or co mbination of syllables useLl in the ex1)ression of thoun·ht
b
.
Ctuc,.tio_us.-How rn an_
,. senses have we? Name them . H ow
a kn owlcd ''"e or
"s ·)· Ca n we perce ·ive
do
ti· we
.-.--. obtam
•I·
. m·1tc1
· ·1· ··1l tl11·11 ,,.
1111,.,, " uch are not material ? \Vha t is a n obiect ·1
· .. a
word
?
"
. "vv'!1at 1,

11. Grammar.
1. I.angnagc is the expression of thought by means
of wor ds .
. 'Vhen we talk, we express our ideas by spoken words. This
is called Spol.:en L anguage.
"
II
i

.,
'I '
1,
I

2. S1>olrnn :r,:mguagc is the expression of ideas b
the voice.
y
·when we wri te or print our though ts, we use letters which
rep resent sounds. T his is called TV!·itten L anguage.

3. lh·itten Language is the expression of th ouaht
0
by the use of 11Ti ttcn or printeLl characters.
Different nations use diffe rent lanirt1a_'!es·.
'VIm t Ianguage
~ -~ .
do we use? Th e E1wlish
Ian"
ll
"
"
C
;::,
' o ""o •

4. Grammm· treats of the prin cipl es and usages
of lang uage .

5. Engli~h Grauunm· teaches how to speaJ( and
write the Engli sh language correc tly.
Cl•~ cs~; on~. -\Vhat is lang uage? S poken Jan ,-,u:w e?
lang u,1gc . G ram1n:ir ? Eno-1ish o- ra n1 m a r ·~
b
o .
What is a n obj ect ? w1i,7t iR a" word

i .

·written

25

"Scholars study." What word is here used inst ead of the
name8 of th e pcr;ons of whom we are speakin g? "Scholnrs."
\Vhat word tells wh at scholars do? " Stud y."
" Good scholars study." ·what word here describes scholars? "Good."
"Good scholars stud y diligently." ·what words here tells
how good schola rs study? "Dilig.ently."
'vVords, then, not only have different meanings, but they
are also used in different ways.
They can be divided into classes, according to their meaning and use.
These classes are called Parts of Sp eech.

Parts of S1>eecb are the classes into whi ch words

are divided according to their rn e11ning and use.
It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to
determine to which class any word belongs.
Qu e stions.- Wh at are parts of speech? ·what is necessa ry in
ord cl' to determine th e class to which any word belongs?
· 'vVha.t is langnage? S pok en language? 'vVritten language?
Gra mmar ? English g ra mmar ?
\ ,Vhat is an object ? What is a word ?

13. The Noun.
' ' V' hat are the words boy, girl, eity, door, window, booh, desl-?
They are names.
That is correct. They are th e names of obj ects, not the
object;; themselves. E ach word is called a nonn, which means
a name.
vVhat are the words ho·itse, f arm, garden, clog, lw1·se, blacksmith, 1nerchant ? They are nouns. W'h y? Because th ey are
names.

26

·w hat arc the words Jl.fw ·y, J ohn, TVa.shin9ton, Chica.go, Ohio,
America :-' Th ey are nouns. Why? Because th ey are names.
Can the name boy be appli ed to all l.Joys? It can . Can
the nam e J ohn be applied to all boys? It can not. iVhy?
Bccrns u b<Jys ha ve d iflercnt n:un cs, suci, as C'liarlcs, Fmnk,
&1111.ud, Clarence. Why arc bo>·s called by different names?

'!

In order to distinguish one from :moth er.
Ca n th e narn c ri/1; be :t. ppli ct.l to all eitics ·1 It can. I s the
name Chi('r190 appli ed to a ll citi c~? It is not. iVhy? Be·
ca u ~c it i., tli1· nam e of a pr1rt icula r eit.1·.
T here arc, then, two kinds or classes of nouns : those which
can l1e appliecl to etu.:h on e o f a class of objects, and those
whi ch :i re applied to a pa ni cular one onl y.
The fi r.';t kind arc called Common J.Y oitns : th e second kind,
P rop er _\ i1 u11 -' .

1 . A Xouu is a name; as, boy, John, railroad.

..
'1

"

PAll TS OF SPEEC H.

ELEMENTA RY GRAMMAR.

2. A C.' ommou Xoun is <t name whi ch may be ap plied to any one of a, class of objects; as, bird, door,
ligli ining.
3. A Pl'oper Noun is th e name of some particular
perso n, place, people, or thin g; as, Susan, R ome, lJ!Iex'ico, 81i11.

\ ¥ hat are these words? iVhy?
and which are proper nouns.

.,
ir.

TVi·itc th e 1wmes of fi ve kinds of frnit : of .five kinds of grain:
of three art ides of clothin,q: qf .five games : qf jive betel li.ab'its :
of si.~ fanning ·impleme11ts : of four tra.des : of si:1: townships
in :iJOlll' county : of si.i: large cities : of .five large 1ivers : qf five
m.ounta.i11 s : of se1:en qf youi· schoolmates.

Tell which are common

Tell which a.re common and which a.re 1n·o1>c1· nouns ·i n the
following list :
.

Lake Eric, railroad, barn, Boston, Sarah, Augusta, ram,
snow dew, N iagara Falls, thunder, lesson, slate, Indianapo lis,
hour: minute, April, Vesuvius, volca no, Palestine, temple,
college, church, organ, steeple, Black Sea.
n
.1

· t.
. t all the nouns in yow· read·i ng lesson, a.nd tell which
.
I }' l
ai·c coinuion and which a.re · 1n•opc1· ·nouns, us mg t 1.e o lowing

OU/.. OU

MODEL.

"Cicero was an orator."
Cicero is a no1m; it is a name : 1>ro1>cr; it is the name of a
particular person.
Orator is a noun; (why? ) : common; it may be applied to
any one of a class of objects.

is a noun ? Hm~. many classes of nolll:s
ti e ? What is a common noun ? Give examples. VI1 hat is
are
lCl' nonn
·
?. Gi·ve. examples
a proper
.
· "Which class should commence
with. capital letters'?
b'
?
Can you write objects? Can )'.OU write the nam es of o .~ect; ·
·what are p::irts of speech '? ·what JR l::inguage? ·what nn object .

I'
1'

<tucstious. ··- \\That

14. The Sentence.

Proper nouns should co mmence with capital letters.
\ Vlrnt k in e! of noun is plow? It is a com mon noun. Why?
Because it can be applied t o all plows.
I V!rnt kind of a noun is New York '! It is a proper noun.
\\Th y? I t is the na me of a p:irticular place.

27

What is the color of chalk? It is white. Chalk breaks
easily: is it tough or bi-ittle? It is brittle. iVe can not Bee
through it: h ence we say it is opaque. What part of speech
is the word chalk ? It is a noun. Why?
\Ve will join the words white, brittle, opaque with the noun
chalk, thus:

Chalk is white.
Chalk is brittle.
Chalk is opaque.

I

I ;

28

E LE1'fENTARY GRAMMA!l .

PARTS OF SP EEC H.

E ach of these groups of words is called a Sentence.

1. A Sentence 18
· a g roup of words making com-

plete sense.

29

3. The Co1mla is a word or group of words used
to affirm the predicate of the subj ect.
The word copula m~ans a link. It is used t o join the pred-

E:ich ~group b· a lso ca 11 ed a P roposition.

2. A P1·opos ition is

:1 th ought expressed in words.

In wri t ing sentences, t he
the fo ll o11· i11 g di rectio ns:

jJ UIJ 1· 1 ~~ 8 Iiou 11
c

1st. Com mence ench sentence wi th
2J. Spell en.ch word correctly .

carefull y observe
:1

capital letter.

3J. P lace a period [. J at th e end of every sentence
thnt deehr es sornethin o>
()' or mal'es
'
a comman cl .
4th. P bcc :rn interrogation point [ '! J at the end of
every q uestion .
,.
5 th . Never divide a syllable at th e end of a line.

icate to the subj ect.
In the sentence, " I ce is cold ", what is the subj ect ? " I ce.''
·wh y? Because it is that of which somethin g is affirmed.
What is the predicate? "Cold." vVhy? Because it is that
which is affirmed of the subj ect. What is the copul:.i. ? " I s."
Why'? Because it is the word used to affirm the predi cate
cold of th e subj ect ice. vVhy is it called the copula'? Because it links or joins the predicat e t o the subj ect.
P oint out the sitbject, p redicate, and copula in each of the follow ing sentences:
1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is h eavy. 3. Nero was cruel.
4. J ane is studious. 5. W alter will be tardy. 6. Mary should
b l' kind. 7. Ell en is unhappy. 8. Martha was ch eerful. 9.

George is industrious.
. (luestion ... - \ Vhat is a sentence? A
· · ?
cl1 rcc;10n' for writ ing- se nte nceR.
·
p ropos1t10 n .
\\ hat :i re parts of speech? \ Vhat is hn o-u· "" ? \ r

do th e Germans u:;c 'I
,i

.

.
G ive the

" rt . . · . . " b: « " ,i,,e · . \hat language
Wt IS «n 0 ~ ect?
vVhat IS a word?

·I I·~

'

I

l!il ~.
,1

15. Parts of a Sentence.

·:i

. In the sentence, "Chalk is white", chalk is called the Subject; fo r,

! :i'
i i'

l

I'

H
t.
j .

1. The Sn~jcct of a proposition is that of which
somethi ng is affirm ed.

I" is caller! the Cop1da; fo r,

and which are 1>ro1>er nouns.
<tnestions.-Wh at is the subj ect of :1 propos ition "! The predicate? The copula '/ vVhat does the word copulci mean "!
\ \T hat is a sente nce? A proposition ?
\ \T hat is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun ?
Wh at is language? Spoken language? W ritten language"!
What is a word? vVhat is an obj ect ? I s thunder an object?
Wh y? I s a ho,.se an object ? Why ? I s love an obj ect ? Wh y?
G ive the directions fo r writin g sentences.

16. The Noun as Predicate.

TVhite is called th e P 1·edicate; for,

2. The P1·cdicate of a pr oposition
·
is that which
affirm ed of the subj ect.

Point out the nouns in these sentences, and tell which are common

18

In the sentence, " Man is mortal ", the predicate mortal
denotes a quality belonging to th e subj ect rnan. \Vords which
exp ress qualities may b e called qiiality-words. QuaJity·wo rch
are ye ry frcq nen tly used as predicates.

30

Nouns may be used as predicates.
used, th ey denote /:ind or class.

\ Vh en they a re th us

l11 .tl1e,,sr 11 tc n ~c, " Hor.~cs arc a nimals", what is t he subj ect?
J ! 0 1 ~c,_ ·why? \Vh at i,; th e predicate? "Anim a ls." Wh ?
\VI iat doc,; t he w e; rel animals d enote ? It denotes tl l . d y .
cl .
i e ;:1 n or
.b .
·
ass o 1 c111gs to whi ch h orsrs bclono- \ Vh·tt part of
I
i · it? It'
o·
'
speec 1
~
·
· i ,; a noun .
\ Vhy? \ •V hat is th e copula ? "Are. "
"

A.fj inn qualities of the followin,q subjects :
Fishc>, app les, lead, iron, ]Jlay,
. ~wimn11·11g, sc h oo l , ma rbles,
IJooks, tlow cr,:, ora nges, trees.

17. Elements.
W e have seen that a sen tence is composed of parts.

1. An Element is one of the distinct parts of a
sentence.
2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Principal Elements, because no sentence ca.n be form ed
without them.
3. The co 1m1t~ is n ot called a n el em ent.

~\Y~et.' bitter, so ur, opaq ue, transparen t,,. r ed, ye llow, blue,

"·'i
I

We can sep arate a ny sen tence into its elem ents.

h.11 cl , ~o ft, round, square, m ellow vo un o'
o- old , hapIJ)' , m1se1a
. . bl e.
Uodcl. -Supar is sweet.

called Analysis.

-·l.fiinn

elements.

1

ldud th' cl ass

It is u sed m erely

to affi rm t he pred icate of the subj ect .

,.~(jinn the f ottowing qualities qf appropriate s ubj ects:
.

These

parts ar e call ed Elements.

i'llodcJ.- Oranges ar() yellow .

.;

31

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAM.MAR.

..

of the following subjects :

ax locomot·1vego Id
. ::Sheep, eagles, hoc, rake , \Yh eat ' corn ,,.,
s11Yer, cn:it, w~1go 11 , hott.'"iC:;, oxe n, r i ve r, road, ta Ule.
,
,

This 1.-;

4. Analysis 1s the separation of a sente nce into its
Analyze the following sentences, iising this

:uot1 c1.- Eag lcs :1rn bi}'(/;;.
A .(/irl!I qualifies of the same subjects.

MODEL.

I

\

is the subject ; it is that of wh ich somet hing is aftirmed:
h cav~; is the p redicate; it is t hat wh ich is affi rm ed o: the su~ject :
Iron

A.ffinn them of t fie

1'lo•lel .- Sugar is s1ceet; sugar is opaque; s ug ar is combuslibf,., &c.

is

is the copula.

I.

2. Go ld is heavy. 3. Co rk is light.
5. Mary was tardy. G. Sarah is t rut hful.
7. G lass is transparent. 8. Apples are plentiful. 9. B oys will

•t.11 <>stio11s . - --Wha t are qual itv -word s? Can ti
predi cates ? (; iYe an exa m1J le
ie,r be used as
as " pred ica te.
·
n e .rn ex.unpl e of a noun used

-1. F li es arc insects.

W hat is th e sn l~ject of a 11roposit ion?·
eopnl"?

be playful.

a· ' ' . ' .. '

Th e p red icate?

\ •Vh:i t !·' a "e nt cnre'! A proposition ?
\ Vha t rn " nou n., r\ common noun? <\. •
•
Give rh e di recti o n ~ for wr it.I n"' ent. r p1opet noun ?
" · ences.

- -- ~ - -

Th e

10. Chil dren shoulrl b e care ful. 11. lVIe n may. b e imprud ent. 1:2. John can be studious. 13. Iron is useful. H. f: ilver is white. 15. Roses are fragra n t. 16. W' at er is h eavy.

,\,

;1

i

I

EXEl{ C l S E S.

l. Imli go i ~ blu e.

!,,•

r

"Iron is heavy."
Th is is a sentence; it is a gro up of words making co m pl etc sense.

A .;certain all the propci·tics of five s11bstances.
"11 b-'tan cc.< /fJ 1l'hic/i th e11 belon.r;.

\1

32

33

ELEi\IE~TARY GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

17. Yi olets are fl ower:;. 18. Cherries are
ripe. 19. Flowers
may Li e white. 20. Axes may be sharp. 21. Juliu,; should
I>"" '' 11· 11·g·c11t. 29.
- L csson:; may be difli cult. 23. Oxen may be
useful.

·what is the subject of the sentence, "Boys play"? "Boys."
Why? What is the predicate? " Play." Why? What part
of speech is the word "play"? It is a verb. Why?
W1-ite sentences, using the jollowing ve:rbs as predicates:

Puint out the common ancl 1n·o1•e1· nouns in tlw above sentences.

Run, limp, stand, sing, whistle, mow, reap, study, recite,
sail, look, listen, loiter, reform, neigh, whine, p_ur, cackle,
scream, quarrel, work, play, remain .

. •Ctn<'sl/ons.- \\' h:i t is an element? 'What arc the
. .
clc111c1!'-'· L; the t:opula an clcmem ? vVhat i' o i" ts Ilse"/ pnnc1pal
anah·, 1, 1
° ·
.
What is
v\'h at is the subject? The pred_ic_ate? The co1rnl·a ?
\Vha l j, a se nt ~ u ce ·.1 -"' propo> m on ? Give the directions co1·
writing sent e n ce~ .

ltlodel.-Birds sing.

Point out all the verbs in your reading lesson.

J.I

~~: :1a t ~s a no11!1 ? A co mm on noun? A proper noun ?
r 1'.1t !" :in ub.1ect
\Vl1:tt i;; a word ?
.,
·
\\ l1 .1t Jo language! Spoken language? Written language?

',,
'I

7

Questions. - ·what is a verb?

What does it u"sually express?
What is an element? What are the principal elements?
What is the subject? The predicate? The copula?
What is a sentence ? A proposition ?
What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun?
vVhat is a word? What is language? Grammar? English
grammar?
Give the directions for writing sentences.

18. 'l'Jie Yerb.
" F~1~ the sen te nce, " Fishes swim ", wh at is the subj ect?.
' 1" ie:;." \\' h r'? What is the predicate ? "Swim." Wh y ?
fa th ere any copula exp n:sscd ? Th ere is not.

19. Classes of Yerbs.
In the sentence, " Boys study", lesson, grammar, algebra, or
some other word is required to complete the meaning of the
predicate "study". That which tells ·what the boys study,
completes its meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or

, A word 1d1ich aflirms someth ing of a subj ect is called a
rt usually ex pressc' action bcino- or
dc· no tc" I ,. '". I .
I
.'
.. "''
state ; as, I am,
· Je tn ,,, ,
11111, t c11otes a ction; J sleep, denotes 8tatc.
verf,.

Object.

A \ "crb is a 1r onl " ·hi ch e xpresses ac ti on, b eing, or
I am, George wr-ites, h e dreams.

words which compl etes the meaning of a verb,.

\ \' hn t is th e word "tr ot" in the sentence, "Horses trot"?
It is a 1·c rb. WI iy.? Because it
· aflirrns action of the s ll~j ec t
"hor:-;cs" .

" h<iu. . c:-;''.
I
.
1

1

I.
rl

'.I

!

I.

'I

1\1

,l 11

I

.~

"I
II
:1

...,I

1. An Objective Element is a word or group of

s tat' o; a s,

~ \' hn t is t he word "stand " in the sente nce, "Houses stand"?
1.-; a 1·erb.
Wh y? Because it affirm s state of the subject

i\,

1.J !

The prcd il?ate,. th en, can Lie affirm ed of the subj ec t directl!J;
one "01 d expre.-s111g both the cop ul a and the predicate.

It

I

Ex.-" Indians hunt buffaloes." The word "buffaloes" completes the meaning of the verb "hunt", and is an objective
element.

Those verbs which require the addition of an object to complete their meaning are called Transitive Ve:rbs.
E. G.-3.

I

1:
'

:·1

34

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

}Vi·ite seven sentences containing co1mlative verbs.

J, x,-" Colu mbus discovered America." The verb "discovered"
req uires the addition of some word, as ".America", to complete
its mea ning, and is therefore trcmsith-e.

TVrite sentences, using the f ollowing nouns as objective elements:

Ex.-"Horses cat." The obj ect of th e predicate " eat" is not
expressed; but so me word, as hay, oats, corn, &c., can be made its
object.
• ,r

"
'

35

2. A Tr:tnsitil'e Ve1·b requ ires the addition of an
object to compl ete its meaning.

The obj ect of a tran siti re verb is not al ways expressed; but
so me word different from the subj ect can always be made its
object.

!,

PARTS 01'' SPEECH .

In th e sentence, "Clarence walks", no word is required to
complete th e mean ing of the verb "walks". Those verbs
whi ch clo not req uire the addition of an object to comp lete
th eir mea ning are called Iiitransi'. tive Verbs.

J110<1c1.-The weather was warm.

Lions, elephants, wheat, oats, boats, cars, letters, books,
churches, laws, grass, trees, mountains, sun, geography, debts,
pictures, wood.
l'llodel.-Fire burns wood.

Ex.- -" H orses run." The verb "run" does not require th e
addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is therefore

MODEL.

"Scholars learn lessons."
This is a sentence ; (why ?).
Scholars is the subject; (why? ) : learn is the predicate;
(why? ). "Learn" is modified by lessons, an objective element.

1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. Jane studies botany. 3. Eli
drives horses. 4. Horses draw wagons. 5. Men build houses.
6. Farmers sow grain. 7. M erchants sell goods. 8. Haste
m ak es waste. 9. Soldiers fight battles. 10. Cats catch mice.

i ntransitive.

The copula is always a verb.

4. A Co1mlath'e Verb is used to assert the predicate of the subj ec t.
Ex.-"La mbs are playful". The verb " are " is used to assert
th e predicate "playful" of the subject "lambs". It is therefore a
copulative verb.
H'i·ite seven sentences containing transitive verbs.

l'llo1le1.-John sti-uck J ames.
TVi·ite seren sentences containing intransitive verbs.

l'llodels.-Houses stand.

Boys swim.

.

I'

'

· Analyze the following senten,ces, using this

EXER CISES.

3. An Intransitive Ve1·b does not r equire the additi on of an obj ect to complete its meaning.

It).

,."

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, using these
MODELS.

I. "The nights are chilly."
Are is a verb ; it denotes being: copulative; it is used to assert
the predicate of the subject.
II. "Corn grows."
Grows is a vei·b; (why?) : intransitive ; it does not require an
object to complete its meaning.
III. "Horses draw wagons."
Draw is a verb; (why?) : transitive; it requires an object to
complete its meaning.

"''
f I~

l

I

: ~ ,, I

I( ~
: \

,1

'.I
i'

I

36

37

E LEMEN'l'ARY GliAMl\1AL

PARTS OF SPEECH. ·

EXERCISES.

Those w'o rds which modify nouns by expressing quality,
.
pom t"mg them out, or denoting number are called Adjectives.

1. Viola blushed. 2. Stephen was a martyr. 3. Boys may
be useful. 4. The merchant sold goods for money. 5. Houses
stand on the river bank. 6. Fish es swi m. 7. Elihu works on
a farm. 8. James is a clerk. 9. James reads good books.
10. Birds build nest5.

Point out the nouns in these sentences.
P oint ont the nouns and vci·bs in yow· reading lesson.

which modifies the
1. An Adjecti· ve ls . a "ord
"
'
meaning of a noun.
2. There are two classes of Adjectives: Descriptive
and Definitive.

l"I~ j1

All quality-words are D escript·ive Adjectives.

.

3 A Descdptil'C Adjective modifies a noun by ex -

pre~sing some quality belpnging to it; as, ripe peaches,
'i

QnC'stion,.. - '~T hat is an objective element ? ·what is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb? I s the
abject of a transi tive verb always expressed? Give a sentence in
which it is not ex pressed.
·what is a verb ·1 ·what is an element? 'What are the principal
clements?
Wh at is the subj ect? The pred icate ? The copula? A sentence? A proposition'! G ive the directions for writing sentences.
'Vhat is a noun ? A common noun? A proper noun?
'What is a word? Vvhat is la.nguage? An object?

20. The Adjective.

i'

':

,1

I' I,

,.11

'f

\ Vhen quali ty-words are j oined to nouns by copulas, they
are said to be p redicated of those nouns.
They may be written or printed in connection with nouns,
wi thout being joined to them by copulas; thus: white chalk,
sour apples, a square table, good boys.
·when thus used, they modify or restrict the meaning of
nouns, but are not predicated of th em.
Words which do not express quality may be used as modifiers of nouns. In the sentences, "This book is heavy", "That
book is light ", '"l 'wo boys were sick", " Three boys were idle",
the words this, that, two, three, are modifiers of the nouns which
follow them; but they do not express any quality. This and
that point out the nouns to which they belong: two and three
denote number.

bad examples, round tables.

I

•

I
I

''
~ I ''.

Pointing-out word s and nu mber-words are D efinitive Adj ectives.

4. A Definitive Adjecth'e limits or defines ~ noun
without expressing any of its qualities ; as, this boy'

\\I

'I

~

' I

I '\\
' '

that house, five dollars.
Every adj ective derived f rom a proper noun should commence w1"tl1 a cap1"tal., as ' American cotton, French customs.

Place each of the following adjectives before a nouri:
.
Good, bad, hun gry, thirsty, agreeable, healthy, d~y , mo~st,
warm cold round, squ are, light, heavy, h ard, soft, rot'.,,h,
s1~oo;h, cle~n, dirty, pleasant, m;ipleasant, Spanish, Australian.
Hodels.-Smooth ice.

: 'r

I r'
\ I

\.

•

:I

Clean hands.

What kind of adj ectives are these?

Why?

Place each of the .following adjectives before a noun :
This, that, these, those, such, same, another, some, ~onder,
each, every, either, neither, former, latter, botl~, certain, few,
many, much, several, sundry, four, seventh, four-fold.
lllodcls.-.ilfuch money.

Sundry books.

What kind of adjective~ are th ese?

i

'i

1 •!

Why?
~ I:
11

38

ELEMENTARY GUAM.MAR.

Point out Uie adjectives in the follow ing sentences, 'using this
MODEL.

" Fearful storms sweep over these islands "
F
f
.
.
.
ear ul is an adjective; it is a word which
.
rng of a noun : desc1·ipti ' . •t d
modifies the meanve , I
enotes a <1uality
Th
.
esc 1s an adjecti:ve . (why?) . d j, . .
. .
.
noting 'my quali ty.
,
. . e nitive ; it defi nes without deEXERCISES .
1. Both horses are lame.

Large houses 'trc ex
. ~. Ripe peaches are plentiful. 3.
th
, . pensive. 4. Beautiful flowers blo
at garden. 5. Either road leads to to wn.
om in
9

6. Every man carried a sq uare box
.
8. The brave soldier received
. 7. Tlus lesson is hard.
a severe wound 9 w·
cI ou ds th e sky is bl a nched . 10 Bno-ht
.
· d .·
ith fleecy
·
"
an Joyful is the
mornirw. 11. Th d
· "
e ay was clear and
1
wl11te house stood at th fi
coo . 12. A small,
e oot of th e hill.

The words a and the, in these sentences, are definitive adjectives, because they limit nouns, without denoting any of
their qualities. They are also called Articles.
A and an are different forms of the srime word. A is used
when t he following word b egins with a consonant sound; An,
when the following word b egins with a vowel sound.

1. Tlac is called the Def'ulite Article, because it
points out definitely the ,object which it restricts.
2. A or an is called the Indefinite A.l'ticle, because
it restricts in an indefinite or general manner.
Place a or au before the following words, and tell why it shoitld
be used:
Ode, measure, cart, egg, house, honor, h earth, oven, advantage, goat, opossum, turkey, orange, humor, stand, eagle,

Point out the a<lj ceti ves i n your reading
.
lesson. '
(tu estions.-\ Vhat i.8

d'

.

adjective? 'Vh~t J:~J~~~i:es ·~h~~fJiptive adjective?
.
commence with
1
1
• .
'
is
an
objective
I
?
s1t1ve
verb?
A copul't•
e emenbt
verb?· An intran.
u r
~ ive
ver ?· \·AVI·transitive
t ·
'
n 1int 1s an element?
\VJ · .
ia IS a verb ?
.
iat I S the subject? The predicate ?
The copula?
IVhat is a noun? A
What is langua;e?
Spo:kme101nlan
noun?
A proper noun?.
o .
"O'uaae?
" · W n'tten Ianguage
?

1

21. The Article.
· \~Th e n we say, "A l10rse was stolen"
d
' a enotes that one h orse
is meant, but it does not .
pomt out any
f 1
\ Vh en we say "Tl. h
· par icu ar horse.
.
'
ie orse was stol " ,
en ' t1ie denotes that a
particular horse is meant.

'

I ., I

,I
,j
I

tell why it should be used:
1. Temperance is - virtue. 2. The house stands on - hill.
3. - loud report was h eard. 4. Life is but - vapor.
6. He has - ax to grind. 7. F a5. He is - h onest man.
8. I , being - child, was - plea
ther has bought - horse.
for my admission.

tlie

~

l

vulture, elephant, memory.
Use a or au instead of

\VI . t ·

''·,,

39

Point ant ti.ie nouns and ' .c rbs in
· the above sentences.

~p1~~fi ~~tive

'I

PARTS OF SPEECH .

dashes in the fallowing sentences, and

I

•I

I

fl

fl

\

,·I1·1

Use the propei· articles instead of the dashes in the following sentences:
1. Such - law is - disgrace to any state. 2. Repeat - first
four lines in concert. 3. L ove took up - h arp of life, and

smote on all - ch ords with might.
4. - fox is cunning. 5. - days are calm. 6. I had dream which was not all - dream. 7. - wise son maketh glad father. 8. - rain is over and - sun shines. 9. - crime,
not--;- scaffold, makes - sh ame.

,.

PARTS OF SPEEC H.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

41

I

~.

1

I

;111

Point out the articles in your reading lesson, using 'this
MODEL.

"The i i 1an was ndin
·
g in a wagon."
The is a dejinite article . it oints ou
.
it restricts.
' p
t defimtely the object which
.

A is an ·indefini te article; it restricts in an . d fi .
m e mte or general
manner.

d fiQ?esti~ns.- "What words are c~lled
. e imte :itl·t.1cle? The indefinite arti~Ie? wlicle~? Which is the
·
ien is a used ? ·when
is an usec ?
. .
·what is an adjective? <\. d
adj,~ti ve '. What adj ecti ~es. sho~:1~·1 ~t1 ve
adj ecti~e ? A defi nitive
1
hi:t 1s a verb? A transitive . ·b~ menc~ with .c.apitals?
copulative verb ?
\ei · An mtrans1t1ve verb ? A
.
.
·
·what is an element? WI t . .
The ,copn.la? What is ,{nalysi~\ is the subject? The predicate?
\\hat ':~ a noun ? A commo1~ nom1 ? '
·what 1s an object? \VJ t .
·
. \. proper noun ?
Grammar ? English Gramm'~r ? 1s a word? ·what is language?

22. TJ1e Participle.
.

"James saw th e man plowing."

. \~hat is the subject of this sentence? Wh ?
p1 ed1cate? Why ? What is th
. .
Y· What is the
What word 1· 't
.
e objective clement? Why''
· 11111 or restnct " man"?
T
·
"plowinO' " . vVhat do . th
.
he words "the" and
es e word " lo · ,,
•
0
what th e man was do· O' D
. p wmg denote? It tells
I
lll". oes it affirm any th'
f
t does not: it modifies it l'k
.
mg o man?
1 e an a d'Jective.
The word " plowing " ' th en, partakes of th
.
.
e properties of
b.otJ1 a verb and an ad.Jec t'iv.e. Like
a verb .t
t1on: like an adj ective it
d'fi
' I expresses ac'
mo 1 es a noun B
.
a
;:es
of
the
propertie"
f
t
·
ecause it par·
t l
, o wo parts of spee h 't .
p,articiple, which means . t ,..
c , 1 is called a
par a"'ing of
A participle may partake, also,
and of a noun .
.
of the properties of a verb
'·'

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb,
partaking of the properties of a verb, and of an ad-

·I
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jective or a noun.
\Vhen we say, "The boy is writing", the participle "writing" denotes a continuance of the act: the boy is continuing to

'"

·11

write.
\Vhen we say, "The l etter is written", the participle
"written" denotes a completion of the act: the writing of the

~ :. I
I

letter is finished.
·when we say, "Having written the l etter, he mailed it ", the
words "having written" denote that the writing of the letter
was completed before the time represented by the verb

,I

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,\

·:I

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"mailed".

2. There are three participles : the Present, the
P e1:fect, and the Compound.
When a participle represents the subj ect to which it belongs as acting, it is called an active participle. When it
represents the subj ect as · being acted upon, it is called a
passive participle.
In the sentence. "The boy, laughing, ran away'', the participle "laughing" is active: it represents the boy as acting.

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In the sentence, "The boy being punished was a truant",
the participle "being punished" is passive, because it repreents the boy as being acted upon.

3. The P1·esent Pal.'ticiple denotes the continuance
of action, being, or state; as, loving, being loved.
The present active partimple always ends in ing.

4. The Pe1·fect Participle denotes the completion
of action, being, or state; as, loved, been, lived .
The peiject partimple usually · ends in d or ed, but fre-

,. '

quently in n, en, or t.
~

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43

PARTS OF SPEECH .

ELEM EN1'ARY GRA MMAR.

I

I
Ill

I

. 5. 'rhe Compound Participle denotes th

1

t1 on of action b .
e comp e' emg, or state, at or before th t'
r epresented by the principal verb. as " rr . le ime
th J
h
'
' naving earned
e csson, e recited it. "
T he "p rincipal Yerb" is t he verb u . d
cate of the sentence i .
.
.
se as copula or pred ifou nd.
n which the co mp ound participle is
T he compound pa rtic iple is form ed b
.
.
hewing been before n I) ·f' t
. . . y placmg having or
I ·
.. er ec parti c1pie
a present partici pie . a I .
' or iaving been before
, .
' ' s, iaviny leai·1ied, having been leari'er/,
riavmg been leaniing.
' "
Give
the J>reseut,
verbs : 1>erfoct' and eom1•ouud 1•11rtiei1•les of the
following

is a participle? Why is it called a participle? How many participles are .there'! Name them. When
is a participle called active! When pass·ive !
What does the present participle denote? How does the present
activ e participle end? What does the ,perfect participle denote ?
H ow does it usually end ? What does the compound pa1·ticiple
denote? What is the " principal verb"? H ow is the compound
partici
?
Whpie
at isform
theed
definite
article ? The indefinite article? ·when is
a used? When is an used ? What is an adj ective? A descriptive
adj ective? A definitiv e adjective? ·what is a verb ? A transitive
verb? An intransitive verb ? A copubtive verb ? What is an Plement? The subj ect ? The predicate?
What is a noun? A common noun ? A proper noun ?

I

ciuestions.-What

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23. The Adjective Element.
In the sentence, "Small lakes are abundant", what word

R ecite, answer ' inquire' spell ' fi n cl , h e1p study grow
· t
.
. ' enJ· o ' pam
I11ope, suffer, resemble' sit ' see,
go, come 'arnve
k '
earn , de ma nd, ench ant, reco ncile.
,
'
y, ma -e,
Fo rm sentences, using any of these pai·tiei:plc's a s predicates.

lllo1le1.-Sarah is stiuly·ing h er lesson.
Point out all th.e 1iar· t •e•1•les
" .
.
in
youi· readfrg
' lesson, using these
MODELS.

I. " The boy, I augIung,
·
ran away."
r.aug·hiug is a participle . it is a
d
.
and partakes of the proper(.
f • wor derived from a verb,
.
ies o a verb and of an adiective .
present; it denotes th e continuance of an act.
,
.
II. " The lesson ' stud'ied caref n IIy, was recited "
Studied is a participle; (why ?) : perfect
,· it denotes. completion.
J'

III . " H avmg
· recited,
·
we were dismissed."
Having recited is a partici le . ( I ?
notes the co mpletion of
t b ~ ' w 1y .) : compound; it dean ae eiore the f
principa l verb.
une represented by the

modifies "lak es"? The adj ective " small " .
In the sentence, " J ohn's h at is torn ", what word modifies
" h at"? The noun " John's" . In wh at manner does. it modi fy " hat "? It denotes that it is th e h at which John owns.
In the sentence, " l'i'lr. Jones the mason is insane", "·h at
word modifies " Mr. Jones"? The noun " mason". In what
m anner does it modify "Mr. Jones" ? It tells his trade or
business.
These m odifying words are called .Adjective Elements, because
they modify nouns.

1. An Adjective Element is

a word

or group of

words which modifies a noun.
In the sentence, "Ripe peach es are plentiful", what element is " rip e"? It is an acljecti ve element. Why? Be-::ause

;I

it modifies the noun " peach es ".
In the sentence, " Milton the poet was blind", wh at element

.II

is " poet" ? It is an adjective element. Why?
In th e sentence, " Solomon's t emple was destroy ed ", what
element is "Solomon's "? It is an adjective element. 'Vhy ?

''

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4i

PARTS OF SPEECH. ·

ELEMEN'fARY GRAMMAIL

H'i·ite five sentences, modif.ying
their s·ubiiects
v:
"
by descriptive -".
jectives.
'""

"I

lUodel.- Cold 1" e a th er is
· unp.leasant.

lf!-ite five sentences, modifying their subiects
jecti \' CS.
"
by definitive ndlUo<let.-Both horses are lame.

)f'i ·ite fi ve sentences, modifying
thei:,.• subjects by nouns.
":
Mo<lels.-Eli's uncle is rich. fM r. Todd the mason is young.
I'

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.,

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1'Vi·ite
· both subjects and
•
• five "·e11tence.•, mo d'ifying
J ect.h •e eleuients.

objects by ad-

1'.lodel.-Etlcn's moth er bou"l1t
a new b· onnet.
"

: • .d
j I~
1'

.,

I ••
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i!.;

Point out alt th e nlljective eI ements in your reading lesson.
A nalyze Ifie following sente'ices
' , using these

I. I

r i/lii

. .·r.:I.··
I ·:1;j
t }:

I

~
:

.'

I. ,

,qH
l ~P '
' ~1· :,
: i:;

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r

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; ·1
:tI

,11

liner is dead.
5. The thief stole father's horse. 6. The sheriff caught Hobbs
the burglar. 7. Five boys earned three dollars. 8. Both ves-

I.

I

I

sels have sailed.
9. Several scholars were tardy. 10. Few m en escaped. 11.
Many men died. 12. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr. Sears

Questious.-\>Vlmt is an adjective element? Can nouns be used
as adjective elements?
What is a participle? How many participles are there? What
is the present participle '! The perfect participle? The compound
participle?
·
How does the present participle end ? The perfect participle?
H ow is the compound participle formed? vVhy is this part of
speech called a participle?

MODELS.

Sounds is the subj ec t. (why'I)
"Sounds II is modifi ed b'
. : soot~1e, _the predicate; (why ?) .
by ear,
. .
y swe'e' t, an adj ective element; "soothe"
an objective element: ear,,
.
' ' bY ti•e, an adjective
element.'

II . "Fr-inl·'"
· a merchant."
, '" f:atlier is
This is sentence ; (why?).
F'ather is the subject. (why ?).
(why?). "Father" is m d:li db . , merchant, the predicate;
0 1 e
Y F1·ank'
d' ·
"merchant. 11 b .
. d' .
s, an a Ject1ve element:
'
Y .t, an ,\ Ject1ve element.

III. "Milton the poet was blind."

Tlus is a sentence; (why?).
!

1. Clarence is a good scholar. 2. Charles found an .old
knife. 3. H elen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young the mil-

I. "Sweet sounds soothe the ear,,
This is a sentence ; (why?).
·

. .
•1

EXERCI S ES .

the tailor.

1,11·

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45

lUilton
is the subject ·' (why?· ) .· bl.111 d , tl le predicate
.
·1 (why ?) :
.
was 18 the copula . "Milton" is modified b
•
•
element: " !)Oel" b h
d' .
Y l)Oct, an adjective
·' ' Y f , e, an a 1ect1ve element.

24. The Pronoun.
"John put John's hat on John' s head."
Is this a correct sentence? It is nqt. What word is unnecessarily repeated? "John's." How should the sentence be
written? It should be ·written; "Joha put his hat on his
head".
\>Vhat word is here used instead of "John's"?

I

I:·

" His."

This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead of a

I

I

'!

noun.

1

1. A P1·onom1 is a word used instead of a noun;

l\;1

as, he runs, she sings, they listen .

I

In th e senten ces, "I write'', "You r ead", "They study",
what are the words "I", "you'', and "they"? They are pronouns. Why? Because they are used instead of nouns-"!'',

•

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46

.'

'

instead of the. name of the person speaking; "you'', instead
of the name of the person spoken to; "they", instead of the
names of the per:;ons spoken of.
The name of a per;;on speaking is said to be of th e first
person ; the name of an object spoken to, of the second p erson;
th e name of a n object spoken of, of the tkird person.
Those pronouns which show by their form wheth er the
nouns 1d1ich they represent are of the first, second, or third
pcr,;on, :ire called Personal Pronouns.

I'

2. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and
show by their form whether they are of the first, second, or third person.
Ucm.-The perso nal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, we,
onr, us, iny, mine, ye, you, youi·, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her,
its, they, their, them, myself, himself, &c.

Point out all the personal 1>ro11onus in the following sentences:
1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her.
5. T hey arc hone~t. 6. H er lesson was learned. 7. I borrowed
his booh. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. You should
study your lesson . 10. Ye are the people. 11. It can not find
its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee.

Analyze the foregoing sentences, and point out the nouns and
' 'crbs, using these
MODELS.

I. "It is he."
This is a sentence ; (why?).
I t is the subject; (why?): he is the predicate; (why?): ts is
the copula.

II. "He has lost his book."
This is a sentence; (why?).
' ;

,1

He is the subject; (why?): has lost, th e predicate; (why?).

47

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAlt.

. ·
element ·, and
. mo d'fi
d by book ' an ob~ect1ve
"Has lost" is
I e
.
t've
element
"book" by bis, an adJeC l
.
1

II I . "Their horses drowned themse ves.

,,

d' t
Tl11·s 1·8 a sentence; (w hy?).
· · . I
b' ect. (why?) : drowned, tl1e pre ica e ·'
Hors es J S t I C SU ~
'
. d'
t'
elen1ent
. mo dified by tbc ir, an a JCC ivc
. .,
"Horses " is
( w11y ?)
,
.
· ·
an
objective
element.
and "drowned", by tbe1nse1 'cs,

.
. jior the dashes in the following
Substitute appropriate pronouns
sentences :
f 'th 2 . _ _ house to
1. Ste.phen died a martyr to - - a_1d . f - - son, " - land. 3. - - sa1 o
.
- - was a strange
b
o strife b etwixt - "
4
Let
there
e
n
.
·
.
, 't __ exercise.
is - - b ro th er ·
en t1 l1 - - "n e
.
P
d
5 Len - - - · t
7
an d - - .
.
. d
brother and - - sis er.
.
6. H ow much - - nusse. - - - say - - are - - fnend.
1l s as snl1jccts.
Wi·ite five sentences, using p ersona l pronou
Model.- We are scholars.

I ":

.Jj\

Jt

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.I. ,

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•.

Wi"ite five sentences, using p ersonal pronouns as objects.
lllodet.-Henry admires them.

nouns as adjccthe
Write five sentences, using p ersona l Pro
ele1nents.
1'1odeI.-His book is in his hand.
in your reading lesson, using
Point out the personal pronoun S
this
MODEL.

"His book is in my desk."
. 's a word used instead of a noun: perJUs is a pronoun; it i.
d 1
that it is of the third
t
sonal; it represen s a noun ' an s iows
person.

is a pronoun; (why? ): pei·so
shows that it is of the first person.
My

nal

;

1.1

it represents a noun, and

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48

Questions.- What is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun? Name
some of the personal pronouns.
What is an adj ective element ? ·what is an adjective? A descriptive adj ective? A definitive adjective?
What is a participle? The prese nt participle? How does it
encl ? Th e pe rfect participle? H ow does it end? The compound
participle? H ow is it formed?
Wh at is the defi nite article? The indefi ni te article?
v\'hat is a verb ? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A
cop ul ative verb?
What is an element ? The subject? The predicate? The cope
ul:t '? Fo r wha t is the copula used ? vVhat is analysis?
\\' hat is · :L noun? A common noun ? A proper noun ? Can
you write obj ects? Can yo n write the names of objects? vVhat is
a n obj ect? Wh at i;; a word?

"•

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

49

In the sentence "That is his book" what is the predicate?
l
' d"fi
" Book." What mo
1 es "book"?· "His" ' an adjective .e e.
\Vhat is "his" ? It is a personal pronoun. Why is it
ment.
.
onoun? Because it modifies the noun folnot a possessive pr
d the
· 1"t, and does not represent both the possessor an
I owmg
thing possessed.

H!.iitc five sentences, using possessive pronouns as subjects.
ltlodeI.-His is a hard lot.

W?··ite five sentences, using possessive pronouns as predicates.
ltlotleI.-That desk is mine.

25. PossessiYe Pronouns.
In the se ntence, "This house is ours", what is the subject?
"Ho u.,c." Why? ·what is the predicate? "Ours." Why ?
I t is that which is affirmed of the su bj ect. What is the cop·
11l a 9 "b."
Wh at modifies "house"? "This", an adj ective element.
\\T!Jat words can be used instead of "ours"? " Our house."
\\rhat do cs the pronou n "our " denote? It denotes that we
own the house.
"O urs", then, is used to denote both the possessor and th e
thing possessed. In this sentence, it r ep resents both " our "
a nd " house". Because it does this, it is called a Possessive
Pronoun.

Posscssil'c Pronouns are words used to represent

both the possessor and the thing possessed.
Th e Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, .ours,
yours, theirs, our own, &e.

i

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Iii the se ntence, " That book is his", what is the predicate?
"His." Why? Wlrat does it r epresent ? It represents the
words " hi s Look". 'iVhat is it ? It is a possessive pronoun.
Wh y~ Because it represents both the possessor and the thing
possessed.

Analyze the fallowing sentences, using these
MODELS.

I. "Ours is an easy task."

This is a sentence; (why? ).
Ours is the su b~. ect; ('vliy? ) : tn!lk , the predicate; (why? ) : is
. n1odified by nn and easy, both adj ecis the copula. "Task " is
tive elements.
II. "That factory is theirs."
This is a sentence; (why? ).
. tlie sub•i, ect ·' (why ?); theirs, the predicate; (why?)
Factory lil
d" . :
.
h
la
"Factory"
ls
modified
by
that,
au
a
Ject1ve
is is t e copu ·
element.
III. "This lai1d is otir O\Vn."
This is a sentence; (why? ),
.
I.nntl is the subj ect ; (why? ): otir own, the predicate; (why ?} .
" L and" is modified by t.hi~; an adj ective elemen t.
. EXERCISES .

I

'l'I:
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2. .Those apples are his. 3. Y ours '. s
1. This book is h ers.
.
.
5. This book is
.
a hard lesson . 4 . Those marbles are mme.
thin e. 6; The evenings are our own. 7. The victory 1s ours.
E. G.-4..

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50

PARTS OF SPEECH .

Point out the 1•os!lcsshe 11rononns in these sentences, u,s·ing th-is

owns that house ", and "who is rich" ; the second proposition
modifying th e· subj ect of the first. Such a sentence is called
a Complex Sentence.

MODEL.

" That book is mine. "
illin e

possc~so r

is a ]J1'0noun ; (why ?) : possessive ; it represents both the
and th e thing possessed: it is equivalent to "my book''.

Src ?Uhether there ct?'e

Wl!J 11ossessh ·e

pronouns

in your rcad-

'ir1:; le8SO!L

(tn c stions.-

.i:

51

ELEME NTARY GRAMMAR.

\\'hat arc pos,;essi \' C pronouns'?

Name some of

t!1 ~ 111 . . vV};at is " pronou n ?. .A p.ers? n:d pronoun ? vVhat is a pur-

t1 c1pl c?

.lhc prc,;ent part1c1ple? The perfect participle? The
pa rti ciple " What. is an adj ective? A descriptive ad.i ective '? ,\. defi ni tive adj ecti,·e 9
vVh at is the definite article? The indefi ni te article? When
shou ld a an<I whrn should an be nsccl '! vVhat is a verb ? A tran sitive verb ? .An intransitive verb ? .-\ copulative verb ?
"Wha t is a. nou n'? A common noun ? A proper noun ?
. Wh at is an element? The su~j ect? The predicate '? The ob.1 oct ivo clement '? The allj cctive clement? \ Vhat is ana lysis?
~ompo11ml

,d i
\ 11

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1. A Colllplex Sentence consists of a proposition
some part of which is modified by another proposition.
The propositions of which a co mplex sentence is composed
are called clauses.
\\That is the proposition, "A man owns that house " ? It is
a c.Jause. Why? It is a proposition which forms a part of a
complex sentence. \ \That is the proposition, "who is rich "?
It is a clause. Why?
The pronoun "wh o" is not only th e subj ect of the proposition, but it also joins 'the modifying clause, " who is rich", to
the noun which it limits.
Those pronouns which represent preceding words or expressions, to which they j oi n modifying clauses, are called R elative

\\

.l
.

'I

p

. I

!

Pronouns.

:.!6. Relafrrn Pronouns.

'J

,1'
i·, .~: n

i

When WL: 8ay, "A ri ch man owns that h ouse " , what ele"
ment i5 the word " ri ch "? It is an adjective element. vVhy ?
\Vhen we say, " A ma n \\'ho is ri l:h owns that house", what
word s do we use instead of "rich " to modify "man" ? \ Ve
u:;e the words, " IYho is rich " . What element do these words
form ? An adjective element. \\'hy? Because they m odify a
noun .
Is the exp ression, " who is r ich l', a proposition ? I t is.
Wh y? Because it has a subject an<J a predicate. What is th e
su bjeet? " Wh o." ·why? \Vh at is the predicate? ·"Rich ."
Why? What is the cop ula?
IVhat part of speech is " wh o"? It is a pronoun. \Vhy ?
It i;; a word used instead of a noun. Instead of what noun 1s
it used? The noun "man".
This sentence, then, contains two propositions: " A m an

2. A R e lative Pronom1 is a word used to represent a preceding word or expression, to which it joins
a modifying clause .
3. A R e lative Clause is a clause introduced by a
relative pronoun.

.i

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that. A s is
also a relative after the words such, many, and same.
Th e suffixes ever, so, and soever are sometimes added to these
pronouns ; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever.
Point out the relative pronouns in the following sentences,
using thi$
MODEL.

"A m:in who is industrious wi ll prosper."
Wi10

is a pronoun; (why? ) : relative ; it represents a preceding

i 1

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52

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

word, to which it joins a modifying clause.
sents i,s " man" .

Th e word it repre-

is is the copula.

5.

gave him all that I had. 6. Jurlge ye what I say. 7.
8. A kind boy avoids doing whatever lnJUres others. 9. Whoever studies, will learn. 10. Whatever ye shall ask in my nam e, that will I do.
'i

11P
JI,,

·' .tic'

Point out the relath•e J>ronouns in your reading lesson.
P oint 0<1t the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and personal pronouns in the above sentences.

' 1 !~

ti• ...

11':··

Substitute pronouns for the dashes in the following sentences:

}! I

ii:
,.\•

I ·id·
I

I~· ,
'l·f"'
~ I

t

r,,

1

\''~

,:

•i

;.11"Jl'I
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"
~ 1·~!1
'

11

1. D eath lifts the vai l - - hides a brighter sphere. 2. BJ est
~r e the feasts - - simple plenty crowns.
3. __ God
m - - - trust.
'
r-

jj:U

11;
:'1·f~
'"
',1

I'

,I'

tell - - others may do.

7. - - will do __ is proper.

fVi·ite five sentences, inodifying their subjects by relative clauses .
lllodcI.-The b oy who studies will learn.

1¥i·ite five sentences, modifying their objects by relative clauses.
lllodcI.-I have lost the book which you gave me.

A nalyze the for egoing sentences, using these
MODELS.

I. " The fish which you caught, is a trout."

This is a sentence; (why?).
'I
,11
I
l

];~

This is a sentence; (why? ).
I is the subject; (why?): remember, the predicate; (why? ).
"Remember" is modified by what you satd, an objective element.

Fish is the ~ ubject i (w hy?) : tro u t, the predicate; (why?):

I .i

,. d . t

\.~, ·

!,~ '
I

',I'
11

1 1,

' l'

I
\I

I

• 1.

, ' .. I

(lnestions.-What is a clause?

What is a relative p1:onoun ?
What is a relative clause? Name the relative pronouns. What
terminations are sometimes added to these pronouns?
·what are possessive pronouns?
What is a pronoun? A personal pronoun?
What is a participle? The present participle? The perfect
participle? The compound participle? What is the ending of the
present participle? Of the perfect participle? How is the compound participle formed?
What is an adjective? . A descriptive adjective? A definitive
adjective? What is the definite article? The indefinite article?
What is a verb? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A
copulative verb?
What is a noun? A common noun? A proper noun?

!'
I

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!

27. Interrogative Pronouns.

:~ The man - - paid - - the money was the cashier.

o. Ih e m essage - - - - sent was r eceived · 6 . N o one can

i',

1!·."

II. "I remember what you said."

~

~e '~11.1 do what is right.

1:·

"Fish" is modified by the and which you

caught, both adjective elements.

EXERCISES .

H l.hTelll m e wh~m you saw. 2. Those who sow will reap. 3.
e. t at iateth, d1ssembleth with his lips. 4. This is the house
which my father bought.

53

In the sentences: "vVho is that man?" "'Vhich comes
first?" "What is h e ?", what. words ~re used instead of the
answers to the questions? The words "who", "which", and

.i

"what".
These words, together with whose and whom, when used in
asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns.

An Iuterrogative Pronoun is one used in asking

'lI

questions.
The interrogative pronouns which and what are sometimes
placed before nouns. They are then called Interrogative .Ad-

j ecl'ives.
Ex.-"vVhich road shall I tak e?" The word "which" is an
interrogative adj ective, modifying "road''. "What noise is

~

..

54

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

that
?" The word " w ]1at" is
· an mterrogative
·
.
adJ'ective, mo<l1·1y· -

28. The Adverb.

1ng " noise".

P oint out I he interrog·ntivc
·
1u·onouns in tl
tences, usin_q thio
ie

fi

allowing. sen-

M ODEL.

""Who visited your school yesterday?"

"
,(

Wh~ is a pronoun; (why ?) : interrogativ~ . .
a q uestwn.
, it is used in asking
EXERC I S E S .

1. What did h e say? 2· Wh o wrote that letter ? 3. Which
trots the fastest? 4. Whom die! you call ? 5. Whos~ house
was burned ? 6. What. can he mean ?· 7· \XTh
" o 1ias lea rned
th is lesso n ? 8. 'Who discovered America ?· 9· Wh o b orrowed
Joh n's slate? 10. Whose book is this?

In the sentence, " Birds sing sweetly", does the word
"sweetly " denote what the birds sing? It does not: it t clb
how they sing. Does it com plete the meaning of the yerb
" sing ", like a n objective element ? It does not: it modi fi es
it in another way.
In the sentence, "Very large vessels were seen " , wliat is
modified by "very"? The word " large". \ Vhat is " large"?

rod e?

1. An Ache1·b is a word used to modify a verb,

E lement.

"C You is the. ·subi"ect·' ( w I1 Y?)
· : c an tr~1st, the predicate· (why?).
an trust" is modified by whom • •an o'"
0 JeC t'ive e1ement. '

,'I 1

.jJ.,
I'

,. '

A group of words used like an adverb is called an Adverbial

2. An Adverbial Element is a word or group of
words used to modify a verb , adj ective, participle, or

I

I

"'

adverb.
Point out the adverbs in the j ollolfing sentences, using this
l\IODEL.

"The wind blew furi ously."
Furiously

is an advCl'b ; it is used to modify a verb.
EXERCIS~S .

.
. Qnes tlon;-.-vVhat i ~ an interro..,ativ
a.1e used as rn terroga tive p ron ouns ~
e pi onoun ? What words
tunes used as interro..,at 1·,·e ad ' t' ·? Which of these are some' ·VI
·
o'
·
Jec 1ves
1
iat is a clause? A relaf
·
Na.me th e relative i)l'~noun s
ive pronoun ? A relative clause?
\ Vhat are pooscss'
. ·
\\' hat is a p~i~o~~~~ ?p i o~oun s? N ame so me of them.
th em.
· : persona 1 pronoun ? Name some of

\\ ·I

The word "quite' '.

&e whether
there are any ii.1t crro~·ative )lrououns or inte r- ·
.
roi;·at1ve adjectives ·in your reading lesson.

" Whom can you trust?"
This is a sentence; (why ?).

"iI ''·I

Words used in this manner are called Adverbs.

adj ective, participle, or adverb.

MODEL.

•'

' I

It is au adjective.
In th e sentence, " H e rode qui te fast", what word t ells how
he rode? The word "fast". IV hat word tells how fast he

P oint out the nouns, adjccti'\'es, verbs ' an d p ersonal 1... 0 .
nouns in these sentences.

A nalyze the foregoing sentences, itsing this

55

·1
I

1. That vessel sails slowly. 2. H e built a house there. 3.
Emma is qui te unwell. 4. Those mountains are very high .
5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will sh ortly return . 7.
You will never see him again. 8. I would gladly pardon you.
9. So thought Palmyra. 10. H e afterward escaped.

,..I

56

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

Point out the nouns ' verb s, 1•ronou11s,
· and adjectives in these
sentences.

29. The Preposition.

Point out the "'1verbs

·
in

youi· read·ing lesson.

Wi·ite seven sentences, modifying
t ,.'· e·;•1• predicates by adverbs.
,:
Model.-We should walk quietly.

'• I
I

}Jli·ite seven sentences, modifying their subjects by adJeclives, and
those ac(jectives by adverbs.
Model.- Very

loud reports were heard.

lVi·~te seven sentences, modifying their predicates by adverbs and
ttiose adverbs by other adverbs.
'
,
l!Iodct.-He

walks quite slowly.

Analyze the above e:1:ercises, using these

57

In the sentence, "A man of wealth rode by our house",
what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? It modifies the noun "man". What element is it? It is an adjective
element. "\.Vhy ? Because it modifies a noun.
What does the group of words "by our house " modify? It
modifies the verb "i·ode": it tells where h e rode. "\.Vhat element is it '! It is an adverbial element. Why? Because it
modifies a verb.
The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun
"man". The word "by" connects.the noun "house" with the

1 •·
I I
• 1,1' ·1

I'I
i k\
I

• '

I

1I

1·1

verb "rode".
They are said to show the relations between the words
which they connect.

MODELS.

I. "Our house is very small."
This is a sentence; (why ?) .
:iiouse is the subj ect; (why? ) : small, the predicate . (why?) .
is is th e cop ula. "House" is modifi ed b
.' .. . .
ment: "s 11 " b
Y our, an adjective ele·
ma ' Y ' 'ery, an adverbial element.

They are called Preposit'ions, and the nouns which follow
them are called their objects.

1. A P1-eposit.ion is a word used to·show the relation between its object and some other word.
LI S T OF PREPO S ITIONS.

II. "We should study our lessons carefu II y."
This is a sentence; (why?).
We is the snbject ; (why ?) : should study the
redicate
P. . . ;
(why?) . "Should study" is modified b 1 . ' ,
element •tnd b
.
Y essons, an objective
. ' .
y carefully, an adverbial element : "less , " .
modified b)' our, an a d'Ject1ve
. element.
Ono 1s
<tucstions.- ·wh at is an adve 1·b?

;I,

·wh d
denote? Wh at is .111 ·idve;·b'1al 1 · ? at o adverbs usually
"\Vhat is a 1n·o~~ un'? A ' . e ement ·
noun? A clause 'I A ·rel· .Peisonal pr? noun? A possessive pro1
. t
.
·
. ·'11ve pronoun
I
?. An
m errogat1ve pronoun? vVI t
.
, : A relat·
• ive cause
placed ' before noun s ? ·
•a ai e w"ich and what call ed when
Give the directions for writing sentences.

=

A
ctt, on, or in,
Aboard,
About,
Above,
According to,
Across,
After,
Against,
Along,
Amid,
Among,
Amongst,
Around,
As to,

At,
Athwart,
Before,

Ere,
Except,
For,

Behind,•
Beside,

From,
In,
Into,

Besides,
Beneath,
Between,
Betwixt,
Beyond,
But,
By,
Down,
During,

Of,

Off,
On,
Out of,
Over,
Past,
Round,
Save,,

Since,
Till, until,
Through,
Throughout,
T o,
T oward,
T owards,

Under,
Unto,

Up,
Upon,

With,
Within,
Without.

''

58

ELE:.\! EN'l'ARY GHAMJ\IIAR.-·

PARTS OF SPEECH.

\\'h en t wo prepositions
ple.v preposition.
come together they form a com-

2. A Preposition and its object form a Phl'ase.
P oint o1tt th e JWCJ•ositions in the following sentences, using t!tis
MODEL.

" H e cam e from France to A men·ca. ,,
l'rom is a prepos ition ; it shows t he relation bet wee

and some other word
arH1 "carn c ".

.

.
.
It I
n its Obj ect
s iows th e relation betwec11 "F1·." 11ce"
•\,

59

EXERCISES.

1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the
ship. 3. I differ from you on that point. 4. The two thieves
divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driYen
upon the rocks.
6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The
young lambs are bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to
the co untry of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among my
three sons. 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The sleep
of a laboring man is sweet.

is . a preposition ; (why ?) : it shows
"Ameri ca" and "came ".
the relation betwee n
To

EXER C I S E S.

1. Th e old ma n was often in want of th
.
2. The boy irent throtwh th e gate' into ti e ne~essanes of li fe.
forwa rd in th e presenc: of
.
. ie gar en. 3. Be not
you1 supen ors 4 H e
.
t
tha t t ime, in th e city 5 H cl. .
·
·
was no , at
city 6 H
. .
e io ve over the bridge into the
.
.
e we nt to the docto r for ad vi ce
"
broug ht them to t he encl of th e ' 00 cl
8
. 7. I he path
·
· S he turned to ti
II
"
o c man wi th a lovely smile upon h er face.. 9 '
. _ie
came through th e stained windows of th e old
h gnt

chur.ch~he

P oint out the nouns, ' 'erbs, atljecth•cs, and 1n·o11ou11s ;1, t 'tese
sentencc.s.
• • ''

(tucstious.-What is a preposition ? 'Vhat is the obj ect of a
preposition ? What is ~t phrase?
\ Vhat is an adverb? What do adverbs usually denote? \ Yhat
is an adverbial element?
vVhat is a pronoun ? A personal pronoun? A prn;sessive pronoun? A relative pronoun ? An interrogative pronoun ? A
•
clause? A relative clause?
What is a verb? A transitive verb ? An intransitive vcrli ? :\
copulative verb?
What is a purticiple ? The present participle? ·The perfect.
participle ? The compound purticiple?
What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A definiti ve
adj ective?
What is· u noun? A common noun ? A prope r noun ? vVhich
of these should always commence with a capital letter?

30. Tlle Conjunction.

l 'oint out tlie 1wc11osil.lu11s in yow· reading lesson.
A 11al.11zc the followiug sentences, using this
MODE L.

" Ha!Jil s of industry will Ica u to prosperity."
Thi ~ is a sentence; (why?) .
is th e subj ect· (wh ?) .
1· 11
"H· b"t·" ·,·
'.
y . · "'
lead, th e predi cate·
. •t ' s
,. rnod ifieu by the ph nse or .
'
adj ec tive element : "will 1 d " .
. '.
intlusti·y, an
1>ro>1pt•1·lt" ·rn nclve1·b· 1 lea
is modified by th e phrase to
J, • •
ia e ement.
·
Habits

( why '?)

. .

I I

,

,!~

I

In th e sentence, "Ellen and M ary study botany '', what two
word s ar e used as the subj ect ? "Ellen " and "Mary" . \ Vh y'?
Because something is affirmed of th em: both Ellen and M ary
study botany. What word joins th em? The word "and " .
In the sentence, "Ellen or Mary studies botany ", what two
words are u sed as the subj ect? " Ellen" and " Mary" . Are
both r epresented as studying botany"? They are not: if Ellen
studi es botany, Mary does not. What word j oins them? The
word "or".

! '

PARTS OF SPEECH.

In the statement, " Ellen will study botany if Mary studies
algebra", how ma ny sentences are there? Th ere are two:
"Ellen will study botany", and "Mary studi es algebra".
·what word is used to connect these two sentences? The
word "if".

Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, using this

The words "and ", "or", "if", and all other words used
merely to join words, phrases, clauses, aud members are called
Conjunct-ions.

1. A Conj unction is a word used to connect words,
phrases, clauses, and members.
Conjunctions merely connect words, they do not express
relat-ions, Ii ke prepositions.
Two or more pa rts of the same proposition, connected by
conj un ctions, form a cornpound elernent.

2. A Compomul Element consists of two or more
parts of the sa,me proposition connected by conjunctions.
Ex.- " J ames

and Samuel are kind, hones t, and faithful."
"James" and "Sam uel " are the parts of the compound suqject:
"kind", " honest", and "faithful" are th e parts of the compound
pred icat e.
Th e comma [ ,] is omitted after "James" because two
par ts only are connected ; it is inserted after " kind " and
" hon est", because more than two parts of a compound element are conn ected.

:J

I'
•11.

61

ELEMENTARY GRAMMATI.

Dir~tions for 'Vritin;;.-,Vlrnn a compound element consists of more than t wo parts,

1st. Place a co mma after each part except th e last.
2d. Use the conj un ction between the last two parts only.
Point out the conj unction s ·i n your 1·eading lesson.

MODEL.

"Eli and Silas will improve, if they study."
it
And is a conjunction; it is a word used to connect words :
ts "Eli" and "Silas"·
. d
conn ec
t
"Eh an
.
.
i·
, (why?) : it connects the sen ences,
If is a conJunc wn,
.
"
Silas will improve" and "they study .
EXERCISES .

1. We moved along silently and cautiously. 2. I consent
to the .constitution, because I expect n~ better. 3. H e heaped
4. H e is both
up great n. ches , but passed his time miserably.
f .
.
.
5 I shall-not go i it ram.
learned and wise.
·
'
h
b ·t
k
t h er care. 7. T ey su m1 '
f Its still he
6 Cold and hunger awa e no
uer 8 He has many au '
.
since they can not conq
.
.S
n' will remain at home.
9
Emma
or .usa
is yery popul ar.
·
10. Neither Clara nor Jane were m the room.

\

1' 1

· tii ese sentences.
I'oint out all the parts of speec Ii m

A nalyze tl•·e above sentences, using this
• MODEL.

thought."
"He ca me and went 11·1rn a pktsant
'
This is a sentence ; (why? ).
.
b' t· (why?): cnme nml went, the compound
He 1s the su .iec '
of the subj ect. The co mt
l)l·edicate ·, it is that whic_h is affirmed
b the phrase, like a plcasnn
d b
d
d Predicate is mod1fie d y
pou n
"thought" is modifie y a an
thought, an adv erbial element:
. t've
pleasant, adJeC
I elements.

-------

.
n'unction ? "What is t.h e difference
4\uestious.-W.hat IS a aco i~e ositio1~? . "What is a compou nd
between a conjunct10n. an~ pf P,;ritin" a compound cleme_n:.
element? Give the ~1;ect;on,vr
t is th~ object of a prepos1t1on?
13
·wh at is a prepos1 t.ion ·
What is n; phrase '! b? ~"h t 1·s an adverbial element?
vVhat IS an adver · " a

I

I

I

63

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

31. 'l'he Inteijection.

thrown ! 10. Alas! they had been friends in youth. 11.
Hark! hark! th e lark at h eaven's gate sings. l 2. Alas! for
.th e rarity of Christian charity.

I)\

o

I

I'

f.~ •

I'! I
I

" Hurra! we have found him."
I s this a sentence? It 18
·
'Vb t .
·
.
v
a is th e subj ect? The pron o u1~ " we" . \Vbat is th e predicate? " H ave fo und " \ VJ t
modifies the pre d'ica t e ?. The pronoun "him" an · b' .ia
ele 111 cnt.
•
o ~eet1ve
·wh at docs th e word " hurra " den 0 t ? It d
.
.
'
e·
enotcs that the
speaker. or wn tc r is hi"'hly
])leased
D oes. 1't a ffi rm or deny
o .
'
·
a.ny th.rn g 1 I t does not : it siinply impli es a feeling
t1 on of pl easure.
or emor ·Th ere -~re worclo, also, used to denote sorrow, grief surprise
c bgust, pity, hatred, &c.
'
'

All such words '·uc call
ee! 1rt
'
n erJ·ect'ions.

•''. 1
'I

Point out alt the parts of speech in the above sentences.
Point out the interjections in your reading lesson.

. !'

I
I' •

I

11

I·,I\
Questions.-Wh at is an inte1:jection?

·what should usually

be p laced after an intc1jection?
'W hat is a conjunction? What iR a compound element.? Giv e
the directions for writing a. compound element..
What is a preposition? What is the object of a preposition?
What is a phrase?
·what is an adverb? An adverbial element?

32. Classes of' Sentences.
I

An

Jn(<'aj<.,'('fiou

i.s •"' 'vo1·d use d to denote some

sudden or strong emotion.

Sentences may be used to declai·e something, to ask que.stions,
to express coininands, or to denote emotion.

Inte1j ections usually, but not always, require an exclamati on po in t [ ! J after them .

1. There are four classes of sentences: D eclarative,
Interrogative, Imperative, and E :rclamatory .

P oint out I he in tcr:jcction"' in each
of the following sentences,
using this

2. A Declarative Sen 1.e n ce is one used to affirm
or deny something ; as, Fishes swirn. Fishes clo not
walk.

Ii
I

MODEL.

"Hush! they are comin"'"
,,.
llnsh

is :in ·inte1jection ; it denotes sorne sudd en emotion.
EXERCISES.

l . Ha! i t freezes

?

me. -· Aha! yo u are a truant, I see.
b
irn ;: a ot~t it. 4 Hark! the clock strikes
on e. 5. P sh aw ! I knew that Ion 0o- a"'o
6. Alas! we shall
0
see him no more.
'
·
3. Ah em ! I will ti · I

'I'
,1'
I'•

1•':\!

'I

,j,

7. Tush
! tu sh! man' I ma cl e n o reference to von . g A"
.
eve ry in ch ·1 kin 0()' 9 0
h t
•
- - --,,
'
•
•
' w a
a noble mind is h ere o'er-

I

3. An Intel'1·ogative Sentence is one used to ask
a question; as, Are you siclc? Where clo yo·u live?
4. An Imtlel'ative Sentence is one used to express
a command or an entreaty; as, Corne here. Do not
sti·ilce me .
5: An Exclamatory Sen tence is one used in ex clamations, or in the expression of strong emotion ;
as, Oh, how glad I arn iu i;ee yu·u, !

I'

,,

'·

64

Tell the different kinds of sentences in your reading lesson, using
these
MODELS.

I. "Attend to the duties I have assigned you."
This is a sentence; ( why?) : imperative; it is used to express a
command .

II. "\V hen wa s America discovered?"
1'

1.\.

Thi ,; is a sentence; (why?) : intei-,.ogative; it is used to ask a
q ucs ti on.

<tuestlons. - H ow many classes of sentences are there? Name
them . ·whnt is a declarative senten ce ? An interrogative sentence? An imperative sentence? An exclamatory sentence?

33. Review.
1. We have now learned that there are nme Parts
of iSjJeech; viz. , Noun, Verb, Adjective, Participle,
Prononn, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interj eetion.
2. We lrn.ve also learned that a sentence may cont ain five Elements.
3. The Princi1>al Elements are the Subject and
the Predicate.
4. Th e Subo1'tlinate Elements are the Objective,
Adjccl'ive, and Adverbial Elements.
B efo re proceeding farther, be sure that you can answer a ll
th e follow ing
QUE S TION S FOR REVIEW.

,I

IT

1,J"

11 "

I

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

H ow man y senses hav e we?
Name th em. How d o we obtain :t kt\ 6wledge ol mate rial

things? Can we perceive things
which are not material ? What
is an object? What is a word?

I

65

What is a verb ? What does
What is language? Spoken
language ? Written language? it usually express ? 'W hat is a
Grammur? English grammar? transitive verb? An intransiWhat are parts of speech ? tive verb? A copulative verb'!
How many purts of speech are Is the object of a transitive verb
th ere? Name them. How do always expressed? What is an
you determine the class to which objective element?
What is an adjective? A deany word belon gs?
·what is a noun? A common scriptive 'adjective? A definitive adjective? 'What adjectives
noun ? A proper noun ? Give
shou ld always commence with
examples of each class. 'W hich
should commence with capital capitals?
Wirnt words are called arletters? Can you write objects?
Can you write the names of ob- ticles? What is th e definite article? The indefinite article?
j ects?
·wh at is a sentence? A prop- When is a used ? 'W hen is an
osition? How many classes of used?
\~'liy
What is a participle? 1·.,501v
sentences are there? Name them.
\Vhat is a d eclarative sentence ? is it called .a . partici pi e? ci . 'I
.
? A
. many pa.rt1c1ples are tl1 e1e.
An int e'.-rogat1ve scn~ence .
~1 ' Name them. \Vhen is a parirn perat1ve sentence. G1:n ~;- i ~iciple call ed actil'e? 'Wh en pasclamatory senten_c~?
ive le sii-e? What does the present pardirections for wntmg sentences.
H
d
tl
.
.
ti ;:iple denote?
ow oes ie
\Vh ttt is the subj ect of a propsent active participl e end?
d'
?
Tl
pre
ositi on? The pre i~ate ·
'.~ What does the perfect participle
copu la ? \Vhat does the wor
denote? How does it usually
copula mean?
end? What does th e compound
·what are quality-words? ~an participle denote? What is th e_
they be used as predicates ? Grve "principal verb"? How is the
an exam ple. Give an exa~ple compound participle formed?
of a noun used . as a predicate.
What is an adjective element?
What do predicate-nouns de- Can nouns be used as adjective
note ?
elements ? Give exampl es.
' Vhat is an element? 'What
A
'
'What is a pronoun? 1 ' perare the principal elements? I s sonal pronoun? N amc some of
the copula an element? ·what
is its use? What are the su b - the personal. pronouns.
?
·
\~.,' hat are possessive pronouns ·
ordinate elements ? Vi' hat is
N ... 1J1 e ~omo of thorn.
analysis 1

I

i "

I

E. G. -5.

I

I',,

66

NOUNS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

67

, ~,I

'1 -' "

~i

"
N
I

·what is a clause? A re lative
pronoun? A relative clause ?
Nam e the relative pronouns.
·what terminations are sometimes annexed to these pronouns '!
\ Vhat is an interrogative pronoun? Name them. "Which of
these are sometimes interrogati ve adjectives?
What is an adverb? What do
adverbs usually denote? What
is an adverbial element ?

vVhat is a preposition? What
is the object of a preposition?
What is a phrase ?
'Vhat is a co njunction ? What
is t he di fference between a conjunction and a preposition '?
Wh at is a compound element?
Give the directions for writing
a compound element.

PART III.

What is an inte1:jection? What
mark of punctuation shou ld usually be placed after an interjection?

SYNTAX-PARSING.
THE NOUN.
To nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and
Case.

34:. Gender.
1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns
with regard to sex.
2. There ar e four genders: Masculine, Feminine,

Common, and Neuter.
3. The 1'1asculine G~nde1· denotes males; as, fa ther, Icing, governor.
4. The Feminine Gende1• denotes females ; as,
mother, queen, governess.
I

5. The Collllllon Gender denotes either males or
females ; as, children, parent, cattle.

6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor
fomales ; as, 1Jluve, p en, locamotiue.
I"
,,,!lj

'i

't

' .'

68

69

ELEMENTARY GRAMMA R.

NOUNS.

7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine
and feminine genders:

n ? A common noun? A proper
How many
noun? What be;on~\° t~u3~e· masculine o-ender? The feminine
genders are there ·
rn d . ? Tl e neut~· gender? How many
gender'? tThle1er·ecoomf %~ti;ge~ish\~g th~ masculine and feminine genways are
ders? Give them.

' I ~

1. By using dlfferent words; as, father, mother; brother,
sister ; boy, g irl; gentleman, lady; Mr., Mrs.; Charles, Caroline; drake, duck; hart, roe.

.

<iuestions.-What is a nou? . What is gender?

I'

1! I

I

I:!',

2. B y different terminations; as, actor, actress; executor,
executrix; hero, heroine.

3. By .faining some distingui.shing word; as, man-servant,
maid-servant; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; merman, mermaid.
EXERCISES.

Tell the g·e1uler of the following nouns:

Baker, milliner, poet, father, aunt, nephew, cart, Susan,
J oseph, duke, countess, administratrix, madam, president,
empress.

35. Person.
1. Pei-son is that property of a noun or pronoun
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to,
and the person or object spoken of.
First, S econd, and
2 . There are t hree persons :
Third.
3. The Fil'St Pei-son denotes t h e speak e~; as," I,
Geo. Iv "·, "We are contented with our lot .

feminine for the follow-

4. The ·second Pei-son denotes the person addresse d ; as, " u'Tames, shut the door"; "You are care-

Grandfather, uncle, niece, count, widow, prophet, sorcerer,
earl, fe male, hen-sparrow, Miss Jones, Augusta, Francis,
mediator.

less".
5. The Tbit·d Pei-son denotes t~e objec: s;,oken
fath er sold his farm this morning.
of ; as, "My
~

Give the corresponding masculine
ing nouns :

01·

I

"
I

H1i·ite five sentences, ·using masculine nouns as subjects.
l!Iodel.--John

EXERCISE S .

left his book on my desk.

Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in the fallowing
1'Vi·ite .five sentences, using feminine nouns as objects.
Model.-The teacher sent my sister home at recess.

Wi·ite si:i: sentences, using nouns in the eommon or neuter gender
as subjects or objects.
l!Iodel.-A beggar frightened me this morning.

1'ett the gender of all tlie nouns in your reading lesson.

sentences:

. 1earne d ·
1. My lesson 1s

2· Have
you seen our
'
lately? 3. Ellen, t ell your sister to come home. '.1·
he battle eve. 5. They left the plowsha~e rn
on t
k 1 7 He
6. Your horse is . in our barn, Mr. Ee e.
.
early iri the morning.

I

I

old fri end
I saw him
the mold.
left home

Tell the person of the nouns and pronouns in your readi:ng lesson.

I

I

rI
I

I

l
l
i
I

..

70

,

'i.'"

.. : .

Wi·ite jive
. using
: nouns o1· pronouns OJ,rt'tie first perso11
b . sente1ices,
as su ')eels, predicates, 01· objects.

37. Formation of the Plural.

I

iJ

.t1

;:·\
r'',. , .,
i "'

,,

t'i l
I

,,

,:.··

·"

Model.- We

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s, form their
plurals by adding sonly to the singular; as, book, books; boy,

are pupils. I defended myself

Hli.,ite jive sentences, i1s-ing nouns or pronouns of the second
1>erso11 as subjects 01. objects.
Moclel.- You

may be excused.

their homes

111

sorrow.

,,

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y

1>erson

learn long lessons easil

Y·

into ies; as, mercy, mercies.
4. Some nouns ending in

1'/i ey left

f or Jc, change these endings

in to ves; as, knife, knives.
5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add
es; as, cargo, cargoes.

6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, add s; ns,
folio,. folios.
7. L etters, figures, marks, and signB add 's; as, p's and q's ;
9's and ll's; the *'s; the 3's and 3's.
8. Proper nouns usually add s only m forming their plurals; as, lVIary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero, Neros. The forms
1l1aries, Neroes, &c., are sometimes used.
9. Most nouns from foreign languages change us to i;
·u m and on to a; is t o es or ides~· a to ce or ata; and .x to ces
or ices ; as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; phenomenon,
phenomena; thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides.
10. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man,

36. Number.
Nouns may deno t e one object
.
or more th
an one· Thus,
"ho
se "clenotes one obiect
.
J
'
uses ,, , more than
. ''ox"
one .
d enotes one object.' "oxen" ' nior.e th an one.
"hou

This modification or use

0f

a noun is called .Number.

1. Number is that property of a
noun or pronoun
wh· I i· ·
. ic l cistmguishes one from mo1·e· tlian one.

2. There are two numbers : 8ingula1· and Plural.

men; ox, oxen; mouse, rnice.
11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, sheep, deer,

3. 'l'he
· l Singular Numbe1· denotes b u t one· as
boy, gir ' apple.
'
'

.I
I
'!

,1,

•.,,·:'

boxes.

Questions.-·what is per-·on? H
P~fin e them. What is gender~? Tb 0 .w m~ny persons are there?
rnme gender ? The common ;
:.lm,tsculme gender? The fembelong to nouns?
"endei · The neuter gender? \Vhat

,,.

11

2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their
plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bush, bushes; box,

third

as sub1ects, predicates, or objects.
~Io<lcls.-:-Studious pupils

,,

boys ; desk, desks.

I envy thee.

TVi· ite jive. sent ences, using
· nouns or pronouns of the

71

NOUNS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

trout, yoke, hose, vermin, and others.
12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is
generally pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, cow·ts-martial, ox-

4. The Plul'a.l Nlllllber deno t es more than· one .
as, boys, girls, apples.

'

,.

- •.

.

-

carts.

..

~

.

---

--

----::::-·--.

~

~

_.....,,,

'

1.

72

,,

73

NOUNS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

;, z or ,,u
;, ll' 1.orm their plurals by add
. 13. t Nouns
1 .ending in Ju
1
d
rng s o t 1e smo-ular
"
; as, ii.an ifuls, nw1itlifuls.

In no two of these sentences has the word "sun" the same
relation to the other words.

' I

I

T¥rite the
't! i
1• •

1;\,.1

W!·ite the singular of the following nouns:

. Horses, .. oxen, men, children, pence, badges
mice
b
, loaves, feet,
. ' ge n11, eauti es, geese, J·udges, h eroes, ellipses, st t
b
.u 1es, errata, valleys, folios.
ra a,

I

Tell the number

0'.Ir

. your reading lesson.
all t<
.ne noims in

vV'hat
Qn~stious.-"'hat is number?
is the sin<>ula.r number . T

H

ow many numbers are there?
1
rules fo r the for~ation of th . I he] plural number? R epeat the.
er
·1 'fl ie second person?e Tl
P urati.. What
· person? The first
. IS
P son .
Th e mascnli ne <>ender? Tl · ~ 1 ~ . nrd person? What is gender?
der ? The neut~r gender? 1e emuune gender? The common gen:

38. Case.

'r'
r~
l··j .
,.I ~

ii

!J!

) .'

,. ·It

1. Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to

plurals of
r. llowing
. nouns:
. t'iie Jo

Plow, rake, wrench, hoe calf turf tooth l .
cameo, vase o-Jorv fiolly e 'b
'
'
' c umney, clam,
' b
• '
m ar<YO WOITI 'Lll h 'ld
.
tax, studio mischief 'a b '"' i'r t '. ' c I ' armful, tariff,
'
' ' ' c, '
incubus rad' · J l
re 1
'
'
ix, o rn,
CJ iarles ' creature
•
'
P y, sa 1mon horse
·
1 d
tum, tooth, analysis.
'
' wagon- oa ' momen-

"Th e sun is
· shining": h ere "su ,, .
of a proposition. "Ever t . .
n is used as the subject
Y s a 1 is a sun". h
"
,, .
. ere sun is used
as the predicate "Th . '
·
e sun s rays are wa ,, 1
used as an adjective ele . t
. . . . rm : 1ere " su.n" is
men, mod1fyrn0' "r ·" "W
. ,, .
"
ays ·
e saw
th e sun at noon,, : h ere " sun
is used as an ob' t•
mo d ifying "saw" "D . .
.
'
~ec !Yee1ement,
.
·
ea1 IS thy lwht 0
1,, h
't .
" '
sun·
ere "sun"
is used absolutely-:
i. e., 1 is absolved
grammatical connection with th
or separated from any
e rest of the sentence.

I

These different relations are called Cases.

EXERCISES.

•

J

other words.
2. There are four cases : Nominative, Possessive, Ob-

' ' [;

Ii·

1.

It

\( !

}ective, and Absolute.

3. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or
pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ; as, Boys skate ; Horses are animals.
4. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or
pronoun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or
kind; as, John's hat, Ray's Algebra, the sun's rays,
men's clothing.
The Possessive Case Singular is formed by annexing 's to
the nominative; as, Ellen's, Chai·les's.
A few singular nouns, ending with s or ce, form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe only; as, goodness' sake,
conscience' sake.
The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing the apostrophe only, when the nominative plural ends in s; as, boys',

"The Teachers' Association".
Plural nouns not ending with

s: form their possessive case

by annexing 's; as, men's hats.

5. The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in the active
voice, or of a preposition ; as, " Indians hunt buffaloes "; "'They ran over the bridge"; " John threw a
stone at the dog ".

'!

ELEMENTARY GHAMMAR.
I , .'

if~

{ ,

., . ... 1

Iii '

6. The Absolute Case is the use of a noun or pronoun independent of any r elation to other words; as,
"Oh, my son " ; "Soldiers, attention".
Uem.-A noun may be in the absolute case:

1. By direct address; as, "James, bring me a book".
2. By e:i;clainai'ion; as, " Oh, my claitghtei· I"
3. By pleonasm; i. e., by placing it before a sentenqe in
which an affirmation is made concerning it; as, "Your fathen,
wh ere are they?"
4. ·w ith a pari'ici,ple; as, "The sun being risen " .

7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun
denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition,
in the same case; as, Washington the general became
Washington the statesman.

40. Parsing.
. ts (l) In naming
Parsing cons1s
2) In telling its properties ; (3)
(
. (4) In
relations to other wor d s '
its construction.

the part of speech. ;
In pointing out its
a ' v' ng the rule for
o1 1

41. Order of Parsing.
1. A noun, and why ?
2. Common or proper, and why?
3. Gender, and why?
4. Person, a nd why?
5, Number, and why?
6. Case, and why?
7. Rule for construction.

39. Declension.
'l'he Declension of a noun is its variation to denote number and case.

42. Models for Parsing.

Th e absolute case always h as the same form as the norninatiYe.

.
. it is a ~ame: common; it can be applied to
'\Vb eat . , . is a noun,
·
.
f 1-ind or class . neuter gender; it c1enotes
·
. ·
1
any one o a '
neither males nor females: third person; it JS s~o '~n
.
of: singular
numbei. ,. J't denotes but one: noininatn:e
••
. "t . used as the subject of the proposJtJon .
case' l i s
. .
. .
l
Rule I. "The subject of a propos1t10n is 111 t ie nom -

EXAM PLE.

1Vom .,
Pos.1.,

Obj.,

Singular.
Fly,

Plural.
Flies,

F ly's,
Fly,

Flies',
F lies.

Noin.,
P oss.,

Obj.,

Singular.
Goodn ess,
Goodness',
Goodness,

Plural.

---

'

- --,
---

•tnestions.-Wlrnt is case? How many cases are there ?
The possessive case? The objective case ? The absolu te case? H ow is the possessive case sino-ular
fo rrn ed? Th e possessive case plural ? In how many ways nZay a
noun be in the absolute case? Give exa mnles.
vVh at is declension ? Decline " boy '', 'igirl", "farmer ".
~Vhat is th e nomin ative case?

I. "Wheat is a vegetable."

inative case."
.
. (why ?) : common; (why?): neuter gender;
Ve ..etable JS a noun,
.
b
"
h' d
.
. (why ?). singular nmn er;
(why?): t ir
person,
. . . .
redicate
(whv ?) : nominative case; it JS used as the p
•
. .
R I II "A noun or pronoun
of the proposJtJon.
ue ·
. .
. .
used as the predicate of a propos1t10n is 111 the nominative case."

76

SYNTAX.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

EXERCI S ES .

II. "He nry 's tmc1e, the sheriff, was wounded."
Henry's . is a noun; (why'! ) : pi·oper· it is ti

ticular
'
le name of a par. ' person : masculine gender; it denotes a
.I .
th 1.rd. person ' . (w l 1Y '1)
.
· : singulai·
number . (why?).ma e .

~:;·:e Ic~~e ':, 1denotes possession, and m~difies "·u~ci:~:

. "

.

noun o.r pronoun used to limit the meana different person
or thing, is

~n,,, of a noun denotmg
m th e possessive case."

ijl. ;.·
,f '

~;herHT .

is a nonn; (why? ) : common; (why ?)· nuts 1·
dcr · ( \\' h v ?) . t' . ·d
· ·
cu ine gen,
J·
•
1w
person·(
wh y?)
·
l
Wh)··? ) .
.
.
'
· : s-ing·u ar number ·
case ' rn
. appos1t10n
. .
( ·I . I . .. nom·inative
.
with "uncle",
w uc l it modifies. Rule IV "A
'
used to limit the meaninonoun or pronoun
d
"' o a noun or pronou b
. h.
. . n y
enoting the same person pl
sa me case."
'
ace, ol t mg, is m the

t:

77

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns:

l. Borneo is a large island. 2. Our father lives in Washington. 3. John's dog bit Clarence. 4. Johnson's farm is
mortgaged. 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. Oh, Helen,
father is coming. 7. The statue fell .from its pedestal. 8.
Gad, a troop shall overcome him. 9. Jocko has stolen my
spectacles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doc-

s

. a111uel .. i_
s a noun '. (wl1y ?)
· .· p1. .opei· · (wh ?)

der· (w l ?) .
'
Y · : masculine gen,
1y. . second pe1·son . it de t
I
add re- d
·
'
no es tie person
'
ose : stng1tlar nwnber; it denotes but
solute case . it ·
d .
one : ab,
is use .rndependently. Rule V. ",..
noun or pronoun used
d
_.,,
lu te cnse."
m ependently is in the abso-

Lesson . . is n noun ' · (w l1Y·?) : common; (wh

?) .
l_whv ' J. t' · ·d
Y · · neuter ge:nde:r·
·
ob · Jt.• • 1rn person
. . '· ( 1vhY?)
· : singulai·number·
(w hy ?)·'
ucc we case; it is the b.
.
,
. .
Rul e VI "Tl
.
o aect of the verb "study".
•
.
ie obj ect of a transitive
b .
act1 ve voice or f .
. .
·
ver m the
'
o its participle · ·
i ve cnse."
s, is rn the object-

Ca1·c .. ··is a no11n·' (why
?)
.
· ·· common; (wh ?)·

.
whv? ) . t' · ·d
Y · · neuter gender·
( J • • irn pason · (wl ?) ·
obiec(
. . '
iy. : singula.rnmnber · (w hy? ) '·
" we case; it is used ns ti
b.
,
..
"with" R l V.II .
, . ie o aect of the preposition
.
u e
"Tl
b.
th e objective case." .
1e o aect of a preposition is in

~

.~ l '

' '

tor's office open?
12. Next to sincerity, remember still
Thou must resolve upon integrity.
God will have all thou hast; thy mind, thy will,
Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works.- H erbert.
Wi·ite the first two sentences of a composition on "Winter
S1•orts", and parse the nouns.

III.
. "Samuel, st ud y your lesson with care."

\,

I·

Correct the following sentences :
l. Jane has two brother-in-laws.

2. Storms are interesting
phenomenons. 3. ThretJ chimnies were on fire. 4. The Shaker's are industrious. 5. Did you attend Mr. Chance' l ecture.
6. I called at Coleman's the jeweler's. 7. She is reading in her
sister's Mary's book.

I

I

\',

\

I

I

(luestions.-What is a noun? A common noun? A proper
noun? What belong to nouns?
.
What is gender? How many genders are there? What is the
masculine gender? The feminine gender? The common gender?
The neuter gender?
•
What is person ? The first person? The second person? The

third
person?
What
is number ? The singular number? The plural number?
Repeat the rules for the formation of the plural.
What is case ? How many cases are there? What is the nominative case? The possessive case? How is the possessive case
singular formed? The possessive case plural? What is the obj ectiv e case? The absolute case? In how many ways may a
noun or pronoun be in the absolute case? Give examples.
What is declension? Parsing'! Order of parBing a noun?

78

PRONOUNS.

THE PRONOUN.

SECOND PERSON.

To pronouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and
Case.

43. Personal Pronouns.
1. The Sim1)Ie Pe1'SOnal Pronouns are I, thou,
he, she, and it, with their declined forms we, our, us,
my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her,
its, th ey, their, them .
2. The Com1)ound Personal Pronouns are formed
by adding self or selves to some form of the simple personals; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves.
Item.- You

is used to repreHcnt both singular and plural

nouns.
We is used in place of I, in editorials, royal proclamations,
&c.; as, " We, Geo. IV, King of Great Britain and Ireland " ;
" FVe were mistaken".
It is sometimes used in the nominative, without reference
to any part.icular antecedent, and in the obj ective for euphony
alone; as, "It thunders"; "Come and trip it on the green".
·when pronouns of different persons are used, the second
should precede the third, and the third the first.

FIRST PERSON.

Singular.
I,
My, mine,
Me,

Pl'Ural.
We,
Our,
Us.

Nom.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

S ingular.
Myself,

Nam.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

Plural.
Ye,
Your,
You.

Singular.
Thou,
Thy, thine,

Thee,

Singular.
Thyself,
Nom. & Obj., {
Yourself.

1."l'oni.,

Poss.,
Obj.,

Plural.
Ourselves,

--,

--

Myself,

Ourselves.

'

Plural.
You,
Your,
You.

Singular.
Y ou,
Your,

You,

Plural.
yourselves.
Norn . & Obj.,

'1

'

'

:

'

THIRD PERSON.

Plural.

Singular.
Mas .

Nmn.,
P oss.,
Obj.,

He,
His,
Him,

Com. o>· Nettt.

N eut.

Fem.

She,
Her,
Her,

It,
Its,

Norn.
Poss.,

It.

Obj.,

They,
Their,
Them.
'i

Singular.

I

Mas.

Himself,
Fem.

Nom. & Obj.,

Herself,

Pliiral.
Com. 01· 1Veut.

Nom. & Obj.,

{

Themselves.

Ne11t.

Itself.

45. Order o~ Parsing.

44. Declension of' Personal Pronouns~

N01n.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

79

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

1. A pronoun, and why?
z. Personal, and why ?
3. W'hat is its antecedent ?
4. Gender, person, and number ?
5. D ecline it.
6. Case, and why? Rule.

Rule.

,\

•'

..

80

oun? A. personal pronoun? What
ayron ? · The compou nd personal pr oare the simple personal ~;onouns . t? Flow is "we" used? H ow
'
. " 'l
d
"you represen .
nouns ? " 1at oes
G.
mples of the use of t 11ese prois "it" sometimes used? f d~ffe~~~t persons are used, how should
noun s. '\Vhen pronouns o
th ey be a rranged ?
b eeline the perso nal pronouns.
ns
R epeat the order of parsing personal pronou .
C}u estions.-'\Vhat

ii::

46. lUodels for Parsing.
I. "I see them on their winding way."
l1 • .. •.

Them .

is a prono'Un ; (why?) : personal ; it shows by its form that
it is of the first p erson: its antecedent is t he nam e, understood, of th e sp eaker: - - gender, first p erson, sing'Ular
nmnber, to agree with i ts antecedent. Ru le IX. " Pronouns must agr ee with their antecedents in gender, person,
and number." Decline it: nom·inat-ive ca.se : Rule I.
is a pronoun; (why ?) : personal ; (why?) : its antecedent
is the nam e, understood, of the person spoken of: -.- ·
gender, third person , pluml number: Ru le IX. Decline it:
objective case ; it is the object of the tran sitive ver b " see":
Rule VI.
II. " I , myself, told you so."

EXER C I S ES.

A nal!JZC the f ollowing sentences, and parse the nouns and personnl 1n·onou11s:

1. Y ou and he are my friend s. 2. I saw them in their carri age. 3. The soldi ers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the
m an. 5. H e saved thy mon ey for thee. 6. Y our fath er knows
us. 7. H c himsel f hid your sla te.

.

1. The Possessh'e P1·011ouns ar e mine, thine, his,
hers, ours, yoiirs, theirs.
· cl1.st1.nction, my own 18 used
9 To denote emphatic
. th y own for thine, our
for....mine his own ~ior 7iis,
. own
'
~
th
·r
own
for
theirs.
for ours, yoitr own ior yours, ei

48. Order of Parsing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A P ro noun , and why?
P ossessiye, and why?
vVhat is its antecedent?
G ender, person, and number?
Case, and why? Rule.

Rule.

49. Models for Parsing.
I. " That h ouse . is mine, not yours."
F I R ST METH OD.

8. Wh ere shall I see him ? angels tell m e wh ere.
Y ou kn ow him; h e is n ear you; point him out.
Sh all I see glori es b eaming from hi s brow,
Or trace hi s footstep s by th e risin g flowers ?-Young.

T¥i·ite the first two sentences of a composition on " Our Garden ",
and p arse t!te 1•ei·sonal p1·onou11s.

.
.
.
?)' : ossessive; it represent s both the posJlline is a pi onoun, (why·
P
.
1 t ·s "house ":
1·t11
Sess or and the thing possessed : its antecec en i
·
b
w
th -.d person singular nmn er, to ·10-ree
'o
neuter gender, 11
cl as the
'
• •
.
. cl t. Rn le IX: nomincttive ca.se ; it is use
its antece en . ·
p . " ours" in a
predicate of the proposition: R ule II.
ar se y
similar manner.
E. G. - 6.

l~J;!ll

i'l

~

t1·

i

'J

JS

47• Possessive Pronouns.

11Iyself is a pronoitn ; (why?) : personal; (why?) : compound: its

antecedent is t he nrune, und erstood, of th e speaker: - gender, first person, sfagular nmnber: Rule IX. Decline it:
n omincil ive case, in apposition with "I": Rule IV.

81

PRONOUNS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

"'

82

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

SECOND METHOD.

l!Iiueisa pronoiin; (wh y?) : possessive ; (why ?): it iseqnivalent
to " my house ". p ,irse "my" as a personal prononn in th e
possessive case, according to Ru le III, and " house" as a
predicate nominative, according to Rn le II.
EXERCISES.

A11alyze th e f otfowing sentences, and parse the possesshe

83

PRONOUNS.

111•0 •

nouns:

1. Th at h orse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours:
it. must be hers. 3. The money is your own. 4. Friend of
1'.1111e, you are welcome.
5. That garden of theirs is a very
fin e on e. 6. This book is not mine; it must be his or h er~.
i. She is an old friend of ours. 8. T hese books are yo urs,
not th eir.;.

-. (tne,.Uons.- ?vhat is a pronoun? A possessive pronoun ·1
~-Iow is emphatic distinction de:
noted.1 Repea t the order of parsmg possessive pronouns.
l\ ,11 ne. th e pos;ess1ve prono~ns .

50. Relative Pronouns.
1. '!.'he Simple Relath'e Pronouns are who whidi
'
'
whal, and that.
Item.- 1'/i.at i8 a relative when who, which, or whom can be
med in its place.

In the sentence, "I got what I desired ", what is used instead of the thing which - " I got the thing which I desired".
"Thing", the object of "got", is the antecedent, and is
modified by " the" and "which I desired", both adjective
elements.

,.

,:')

In the sentence, "Tell what you know " , what is equi valent
to that which - "Tell that which you know " . "That ", the
object of "tell " , is the antecedent, and is modified by "which
you know" , an adj ective element.
In the sentence, "Whatever is, is right ", whatever is equivalent to that which - " That which is, is ri ght". "That", the
subject of the proposition, "That is right" , is the antecedent,
and "that ", the subject, is modified by "wl1ich is'', an adj ective element.
In the sentence, "Whoever runs may read", whoever is
equivalent to he who, or any person who- " H e who runs may
read" . "He", the subj ect of the sentence, "He may read",
is the antecedent of "who", and is modified by "who runs'',
an adj ective element.
In the sentence, " \Vhi chever road you may take will lead
to the city" , whichever is equivalent to any which- "Any road
which you may take", &c. " Any " and "which you may take"
are adj ective elements, modifying "road ", the antecedent of
" which".
That part of a sentence which is intfoduced by a relative
pronoun is called a Relative Clause.

2. The Com1louud Relathre Pronouns .are whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatl'l'cr, and whatso ever.
3. Some relative pronouns nqt only connect clauses,
but also compri se in themselves both antecedent and
relative.

I

I\ I ~

51. Declension.
Singular and Plural .

S ingular and Plural.
:Nom. ,
P oss.,
Obj.,

'Who,
Whose,
Whom.

:Nom.,
P oss.,
Obj.,

\ Vhich ,
Whose,
Which.

84

PRONOUNS .

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

85

Which .. is a pronoun; (why? ): relative; (why?): its antecedent

is "that" : neuter gender , third person, singular number:
Rule IX : objective case ; object of the tra nsitive verb

52. Order of Parsing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

A Pronoun, and why?
Relative, and why?
Name its antecedent.
Gender, person, a nd number?
Decline it.
Case, and Rule.

" said": Rule VI.
EXERCISES.

Rule.

53. Models for Parsing.
I. "Happy is the man that fi n<leth wisdom."
That

. is ~ pronoun; (w hy?) : relative; it represents a p.
ce<lrn ,,~ word or p lirase, to which it J"oins a 11"m ' " 1 ech' use .. I"t s antece d ent is "m·1n" .
i ,111~o
· gender third
.
'
· rnctcu1.me
person,
sm.gulai· number: Ru le IX.· nom·incit-ive case;
'
·
jt
is the, s11Lijcct of the relative clause' "That findeth wi sd om ': Rule I.
II. " ·whoever perseveres will succeed."

" 'hocver is a pronoun; (w hy?): relative. (why?)·

· . eqmva.
I
'
· · I"t is
J
ent
to
ie
ii· ho, or any one who - " he " b .
tl
d
d '
erng 1e antece ent, an 'w ho", the re lat ive. Parse
" he" as a l)er'
Sona 1 pron oun subject of "
·n
~1 n ·1d "cc fv '
.
w1 succeed ", o r "one" ns
• .J I e used as a noun snbi ect of " · 11
and " ,l ,,
.
' · "
WI
succeed '',
,,
" 10 as a r elative, subj ect of "p .
cording to R ul e I.
e1severes ' acIll. "I r emember what you said."

WI aat . . . JS
·

prnnomi ' . (why?)
. la t"ive; ( why?) : it is ec1uiva
· .· ie
'to that which-" that " bein ~ tJ .
"which" 1 .
•
o
ie antecedent part,
' tie 1elat1ve. Purse " that"
d"
used
as an a J ecas a noun, in the obj ective case after
"remeinber " .

a
lent
and
ti ve

1'1

·,.:!ll
i'I"'
~.

-

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 1•ronouns:

1. H e th at hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 2. This is the
child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought was stolen.
4. He will do what is right. 5. Ask for what you want. 6.
That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This is t he dog
that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that
lay in the h ouse that J ack built. 8. My sister, whom I \uyed,
is dead.
H'i·ite the first two sentences of a composition on " Veloc i1>e dcs ",
and parse t.he nouns and 1>ronouns .
Questions. -vV11at is a pronoun ? A relative pronoun? "\¥hat
are the simple relatives? The compound relatives? ·what do
some relatives comprise in themselves? To what is "what" equiv-0
a lent? " "\¥hatever "? "Whoever"? "'Which ever"? "vVhoso"
and "vVhosoever"'! A ns.-He who. D eclin e " who" and " which " .
Wh at is :i relative clause?
Repeat the order of parsing a relative pronoun .

54:. Interrogative Pronouns.
l. The Intel'l.'Ogative P1·01iou1is are who, which,
and what, when used in asking questions.
2 . The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun 1s
tlrnt part of the an swer which it r epr esents.
Rem.-An interrogative pronoun must agree with its sub·
sequent in gender, person, and number. H ence, when the

\i

r

86

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

FALSE SYNTAX.

answer is not g iven, or clear] im .
.
uuml.J er are indeterminate. y
plied, its gender, p erson, and

EXEllCISES .

Ex
-".WI 10 1.s hurt? " Tl
•
• •
given , it is evident that .ti
1e answer to this qu estion not b .
1e gend er p .
erng
. . .
.u c rnd cterminatc
' e1son, and number of" w h0 "
"

<

•

·wh o is hurt ? - Silas " Tl
118
· masculin e o-end
' ·ei· ti .ie·d answer to ti·
." \Vh o" is
question is given
·
"'
• u1 p erso
·
·
n, srngul ar number agree
rng w1th "Sil as" its sub
•
'
· sequent.

Apply Rul e JX m
· parsing
.
int
cedent" to "sub seqncnt".
errogatives ' cha ngm
· g "ante-

87

.Analyze the f ollowing sentences, and parse the i•ronouus :
1. Who came with you? 2. Whose horse ran a way ? 3.
Whom did you call ?-Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. Wh at
is that? - It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you h ave ?-The
large one. 7. Whom did you t ake me t o b e? 8. Wh o
told you h ow to parse " what"? 9. I do not know wh o

you are.

10. "Al as for t hose who never si ng,
But die with all th eir music in th em."-Holmcs.

55. Order of p arsinoe•
1. A Pronou n, and why?

2. In terrogative, and why?
3. Na.me its
· subsequ ent 'f·
4. Ge nd er
' I expressed.
. ' person, and number? R I
5. Dechn e it.
u e.

Q,uestions.-Wh at are the interr ogative pronoun H'? \ Vhat i;;
the subsequent of an interr ogati ve? \Vith what !'l1ust an interrogative agree in gender, person, and number ? R epeat the order of
parsing an interrogative.

57. False Syntax.

6. Case, aud Rule.
I

1. False Syntax is any violation of the laws of
good usage, in th e appli cation of words or the con-

i

56. Models for Parsing.
.
\\'ho

I. "Who ·in ve-n ted gunpowder?"
.
is
a
· _·
p. ronoun; (why?)
. 1errogatwe
. . .t . ·
. .. m
•1uestion : its subsec1uent .
. , I is used in asking a
I
Is not ex .
d
am number indeterrninat .
. p1 esse : gender, person .
ti
b"
e · nominative
· .
'
le su ~ ect of th e propo-"t
'
case; it is used 'as.
o l 1011 : Rule I.

struction of sentences.
2. Most of the com mon errors in the use of language may
b e avoided b y observing the "Cautions" in ibis and subse-

quent sections.
See Part I, L esson IX, fo r

mod~l for correction.

caution 1.-Do not ornit the subjects of declcirative sentences.
\\'hat

is a

II. '"What is ti

t

ia man ?- A lawyer."

p ronoun ; (why?) . .
quent is " bwyer" · ;n;is inl:errogative;
.
.
cu me gende.
nmn
.
ber : Rule IX.. nominative
.
case .·>,.

(why?): its subse-

t' . d
1.iir pei·son' singu
·
Iai·

icate of the proposition: Rule II. , i t is used as the pred1·1·i

,Ji ii(

1·1

!1'

1(

Ex.-1. Glad you h ave come. 2 H ope you will remain long
with us. 3. \ ¥hat say ? 4. 'Tis a poor school can't k eep itself
h alf an hour. 5. It was J ohnson saved the drowning man. G
After a long tramp, felt very much fatigued. 7. R ead his poems:

like them very much. Think them sublime.

'l..,

88

FALSE SY NTAX .

ELEMENTARY GRAM MAR.

Caution II . -D o not omit the si n 0,r
the possessive case of
·
. ,nouns, nor u.se g't .J possession in fio rming
case of p ronouns.
i
in form ing the possessive

then amuse yourself.
lend m e thy sk ates.

89

5. You may have my sled, if you will

Cnution v111.-Do not iise irnproper fo rrns of possessive pro-

Ex.-1. Mr. M ood Y se
. II s mens ha ts

2 Tl
unc Ies land lord. 3 Tl 1e IlOl S ti
··
· . iat boys fatl1e.I IS
· my
h er 'o. 5. F..
.
·. e ll'ew it's rid er. 4. T. hat book i's
1.1nces m other is an act ress
. .
'\' I •.. I
.
· G. vVh ere was Mr . p 1erce
·
,
,um broken?
7. ' 10 , l OU SC I S that.

,
as

"

D o not use the ob ·e . · .
or prediwtes of seniences.'.J clive-case forms of pronouns

Caution
III ...

sa~;ec/,

j

·I F.x. - 1 H er. .a ncJ me study a lo-ebra 2 I .
lO yo" " i,;h lO see
4 H.
"'
•.
. t is me. 3. I t is her
I
·
· I Ill and you ot I1 t
ou am him and me were b ,_
ig to go lo school. 0O), toget her.
•

.;

Caution
IV . -D o not use " who "
'·
veru or preposition.
as the object of a transitive

Ex .- 1. Do vo11 kn ow wh o '

.
.
low who l do not like. 3. T el; ou .tre tn lk111g to? 2. H e is a fc lme wh o you work for.
Ca ution
, .. - Tli.e second person sl
.
ll
the lh.11'<1 the .first.
wu c precede the third, and

not

sh ou ld study harder .

13. \.Ye'uns are learning fa st.

caution 1x.-Do not iise " which " to represent p ersons ,

01 ·

2. I and you will

, .l.-Do n 0 t

sub'.l·cct··., n.I · the same p i·op osition.
use a pronoun a n d is
·t antecedent as

1\Ir. K ell og" he has b
they cl a 1·kcn speech. ; T
ought our farm . 2. Many worclo
Tl1e Iiorsc he run nncl ti· he boys. they a JI stn1d
· in at recess 4.
'
IC man he h ol.lerecl "wh oa".
Ex.- 1.

Caution '\' II. - .A voic
.l
the same construction.

1
foe
1tSe

of

d;+r. .

Ex.-1 . She is a fri end which I have l ong prov ed. 2. Th ey
wh ich h onor me, I will honor. 3. This is the child wh o was lost.
4. That is th e man which sells pi ctures. 5. It was our old cl og
H ero, who was killed. 6. I assisted the poor old woman whi ch

was hurt.

Correct the f ollowing sentences by riiference to R ide I X:
1. Every person sh ould mind their own business. ?.. Each day
has their ow n anxieties. 3. If any one h as n't voted, they will ri se
in their places. 4. Many a youth have injured their h ealth by
k ee ping late hours.

E~·I ·~ 1. H e and yo u nrc in th e sa me class.
\\ 1 1S
· jl(' I' · 3· I and he went s katin oo- ·

Caution

2. Is that book your' n ? 3. N o,
4. H e h ad no gun ; so h e borrowed our'n. 5. Y ou'uns

Ex. -1. That h ouse is his'n.

it is h er'n.

"who " to represent anirnals, r.hildren, or objects without life .

Y
!

nouns.

.

'\J.i ei ent kinds of pronouns i 11

Ex.-1. If you will o I .·
hope you will ]Hit mo g ' . 11111 take ca re of thy farm. 2. I
.
h
ney mto thy
w at we have
cl I .
pm se. 3. I will tell th ee
' an w u ch will 8ui t you. 4 · Learn thy lesso n

. '

t\uestio1I,..-'W hat is a pron oun? A p ersonal pronoun? ·what
are the simple persona l pronouns? Th e compound personal pron ou ns? ·what does "you " represent ? H ow is "we" used ?
" lt "? D ecline th e personal pronouns. R epeat th e order of

prtrsing
eroonal
Whatp are
the pprononns.
ossessive p ron ouns ? How is emph atic di stin ction
denoted? Repeat the order of parsin g possessive prononns.
What is a r elative pronoun ? What are the rtimple r elati ves?
The compound relatives? vVh at do some r elatives co mpri se in
th emselves? T o what is "what" equivalent? " \ Vhatever "?
" vVhoever "? " \ Vhoso" and " Whosoever" ? D eclin e "who " and
"which". Wh at is a r elative clause? R epeat the order of parsing
relative
pronoun.
th e interrogative pronou ns? ·what is the subsequent
·what are
of an interrogative? With what must an interrogative agree in
gender, p erson, and number? R epeat the ord er of parsing an in-

it

terro,gati ve.
What is false syntax?

R epeat th e ca uti ons .

I•

'

11

90

91

ADJECTIVES.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

. ts., as ' "'rhe oldest man"·' "The least f ertile farm
ObJeC
t
I

~

THE ADJECTIVE.

l
. t , ..

,.,'i ..

58. Descriptive Adjectives.
Most descript i1·e adj ectives, by change of form or the addition of mod ifying words, express quality in different degrees.
This is called CompaTison.

1. Comparison is a va1·iation of the adjective to
express different degrees of quality; as, rich, richer,
richest.

in the township"·
.
nos llables is regularly fo rmed by
The superlative of rn~ . y f" d" ctives of more than one
t t the pos1t1ve: o a Je
·
t the positive. as roiighest,
adding st or es ·O
syllable, by prefixing most or least o
'
'
most honorable, least honornble.

Some adjectives are comparecl irregularly; as, good, bcttei',
best . bad worse, worst.

.

'
' . .
ot be compared; as, square, infinite,
Some adjectives can n
d
Adjectives should not be doubly compare .

snpreme.

2. Th ere <1re three Degl'ees of Com1lal'ison : P ositive, Comparative, and Superlative.

EXERCISES.

the following adjectives :

3. 1'he Posithe Degl'ee expresses the simple quality, or ::tn equ::tl degree of the quality; as, "An old
man "; "She is as good as she is beaut~ful ".
ltem.-Th e suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, &c.,
exprc,ses a ::;mall amount of the quality; as, saltisJ., having a
little taste of salt; rather warm, somewhat awkward.

4. The Comp:trative Dcgl'ee ascribes to one of two
objects a, high er 01· lower degree of the quality than
that expresse d by the positive; as, " An older man ";
"Charles is rnore studious than Mary".
Th e comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by
add ing r or er to the positive: the comparative of adj ectives
of more than one syllable is formed by prefixing more or !e.18
to the positiv e; as, i·ough, 1·ougher; more honoTable, le$S honorable.

5. The Supel'lative Deg1·ee ascribes the highest
or lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two

h
wise, agreeable,
1, 0 1y,
cheerfu
Prou d , angry, lau{l"hable
o
'
.
honest, sens1"ble, near ' far ' little, skillful.

con1pare

•
.; the following cidjectives:
0'J
I
of con11»n·1son
•
Tell tie degree
h
f 1 least sensible, greenish,
f l more ope u •
t
f th st eldest later, stormy, very
Taller, mos use u ' .

less confident, rather mce, ar e '
frightful.

'

59. Definitive Adjectives.
. l Ad•ectives are those definitives,
1 P1·ononnna
"
fi d .
. may, w1"th ou t the article pre xe ' iepmost. of which
r esent a noun understood.
· l s are '
The principal pronomma
. that, these, those, former,
1. The De1nonst1·atives, t llIS,
latter both, same, yon, yonder.
.
'
h
ery
either
neither.
2. The Distribntives, eae ' ev '
'
h
3. The Indefinites, all, any, a nother ' certain, divers, enoug '

ADJECTIVES .

92

93

ELEMENTARY GRAl\il\iAR.

more fearful, llUP· most fearful : positive degree, and belongs to "storms". Rule XII. "An adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pronoun."

few , I ittle, many, much, no none on
some, sundry whi ch h ' l '
'
e, own, other, several
• w w i ever ' which soever,
.
whatsoever. '
what, whatei·er ''
These . .

& Rem. I.-The phrases such a ' many a what
b t
c., are pro nominals, and should b
'
a,. u a, only a,
e parsed as smgle words

·
. ~ma
." -·- ~ me pronominals can be co
.
.
.
mpar ed like descriptive adj ectives· us 1:e Ji
• ' ' ' J' w' ewer ' Jew es t , much, more most
2. Nu mei
....ti AdJechvcs
.
.
are tho d fi .' . .

denote numb er and
f oiwjolcl.

·d

01

er

d

. se e 111t1ves which
efi111 tely ·
t
' as, wo, fourth,

I

is an adjective; (why?): dejinibive; it defines without denoting any quality: it can not be compared, and belongs
to "islands": Rule XII.

II. " I have been there many a time."
Many ,.

is an adjective; (why? ) : definit·ive; (why?): it can not be
compared, and belongs to " time": Rule XII.

II

EXERCISES.

Analyze the .following sentences, ancl parse the nouns, pronouns ,

There a re t hree cl
. f
dinrtl• a11d 11r
~sses o numeral adjectives: Carcl inal, OrLit 11·
1p z·1.cativc.
1. Ca r•linals denote th
b
J
a
tho1tsa11 cl.
e num er of obiects
,· 's,
a two, Jour,
;:
2. Ordinals ma rk- the pos1't'ion of an obi ect .
.
seconc,l fourth, thonsandth.
'
J
lll a series.; as,
3. lllulti1•lieatives denote h
fou.ifold.
ow many fold; as, twofold,

60. Order of Parsinoo
o•
1. An Adj ective, and why?
2. Descriptive or definitive and I ?
3. C
. .
''
w1y.
ompare it, if it admits of co mpa .
4. Dco- .
f
r1son.
,, tee o comparison?
5. ·what does it mot! ify? Rule.

and adjectives:
1. I saw a large drove of cattle. 2. Jane is studying modern
history. 3. Fido is a Newfoundland dog. 4. Y ou may have
the smallest melon. 5. Every man received a penny. 6. Either
road leads to town. 7. That course was most honorable. 8.
He took a twofold view of the subj ect. 9. What noise is that?

10. Two men wanted the fourth horse.
11. With many a curve my banks I fret,
By many a field and fallow,
And many a fairy foreland, set
·with willow, weed, and mallow.-Tennyson.
TVrite the first sentence of a composition on " What I did lal!it
Saturday", and parse the adjectives.

62. False Syntax.
caution

GI. lllodels for Parsing.
I. "Fea rfnl storms ·sweep over t Irnse islands."
Fearful ~s

an adj~ctive; (why?): desci·iptive ; it modifies a noun
.v t! enotmg some quality: compared, pas. fearful, com.

1.-Do not use

a be.fore vowel sounds, n or an be.fore

consonant sounds.
E3"..- 1. An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should
be an universal rejoicing. 3. This is a open country. 4. He is

a honest man.

\;

94

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

. . Cnntion Il.-Do not use th e1u fior those, this he1•e for this
0 1 that 'e1·e for that.
'
Ex.-1. Look at them beg"'ars
2 That 'e.1
. 1.
h·l l ·
.. ,
.
"' ·
·
'
e gu 1s not very
'm so m.c. .). Nhat is the nam e of this he1·e to1·v·11 ?. 4. Put them
peae I1es 111 the pan try.
Caution 111.-Do

not use ad-verbs as adjectives.

Ex.-1. Did you arrive safely? 2. The country looks beauti fully. 3. Th e eggs boi led hardly. 4 · I feel poetically. 5. Matters look more favorably j· ust now. (j · I like our now minister.

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THE VERB.

J;x.- 1. H e is the most miserablest man in town
2 N
can't be more nentrril er than I on the temperance qu~stio;1 ~ ~~n
'eems
er to-day
· of
" · twoe
- . more
- , cheerfull
.
' · 4 · Al ways cI10ose the lesser
cv1 1'· ·J. 1 ha t is more preferable
tha11
.
.
cl .
•
' to be 11upnsone
Ca ution

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P erson.
L et the pupil now review section HJ, Part II.

. emrJeror. 9 A
r Ex. - 1. Th ey gave him the title
. of ,in
1
ior1ncrlv
meant
a
serv·rnt
,,
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rasca
•
'
.
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I C i es allC! honor are the giTts of
f~rtune. 4. H e is a better sailor than a soldier.
huu as a chairman.
5. They elected
Caution
·t. ' ' I ·-Ptac
· e

63. Voice.

·'. or

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'

To verbs belong Voice, .LWode, Tense, Number, and

v.- Om£t the article before a word used as a title

as a mere name.

: u., •

'I'

Q,nestions.-What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective?
What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there?
What is the positive degree? ·what does the suffix ish denote?
"Rather"? "Somewhat"? \\That is the comparative degree'? How
is it regularly formed? What is the superlative degree? H ow is
it regu larly formed ? How are some adjectives compared? Can
all adjectives be compared?
What is a definitive adjective? ·what are pronominal adjectives? Name some of the principal demonstratives: distributives :
indefinites. V\7 hat is said of the phrases such a, &c.? 'W hat are
numeral adjectives? Cardinals? Ordinals? Multiplicatives?
Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.
Repeat the cautions in false syntax.

I''• -A"'o;
. ble coinparatives
·
.
v '"z ( z
ou
and superlatives.

~~aution

01

95

·cl'ina l acl(Jectives
z· . before cardinals in most

C. Oil.({ I l'lU.: tOJl.'3 .

l,x. -~.· The four first houses on the right hand belon
me. 2. Smg th e two first and two last verses.
g to
firs t chapters.
3. Read the three

A verb may r epresent its subject as acting or as being acted
upon. In the sentence, "John struck Jam es", "John" the
subj ect, is represented as acting: in the ~entence, "James was
struck by John", "James", the subject, is represented as being acted upon. This property is called voice, and is peculiar
to transitive verbs.

li

I

1. Voice is that form of the tran sitive verb which
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

2. Transitive verbs have two voices: an Active and
. Cnntion vn. -Pluml adjectives should modify plural nouns:
s111y11(ar adjectives, singular nouns .

Ex.-1. I do not lik e these kind of apples ·

peop le cl o n't amount to much
seventy-fi ve doll ars.
·

2. These sort of

3 Tl
1
·
wse yo rn of oxen cost

a Passive Voice .

3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting upon an object; as, "The boy wrote a letter";
"Eli is studying his lesson"

I
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96

I

VERBS.

4. The Passh-e 'Voice r epresents the subject as
being acted upon; as, "The letter was written"; "The
lesso n was studied " .

2. There are five modes: Indicative, Subjunctive,
Potential, Irnperat·ive, and Infinitive.

5. The Pass ive Voice is formed by prefixing some
form of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a
transitive Yerb .

·1

~· ~·

Rcm. - A Yerb in the active vo ice is changed into th e pas-

siY c by making the direct object in th e active the subj ect in
the passi1·c; as, " Th e cat caught the mouse" (active); " The
m ouse 1cas ca11gltt by th e cat " (passi·ve) .

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97

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

'

Tell which 11erbs are active and which 1.assive in the f ollowing
exercises :

1. The g irl sings. 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed.
4. Trwu1 b will be punished. Ii. A meteo r was seen . 6. He
sh ould ha1·c told the truth . 7. Children love play. 8. H e has
fo und his knife. 9. A 1rntch was fo und in th e street. 1-0. The
b urg h r rn ight harn been arrested . 11. The bad boy · was
whipped f'or >'teali ng app les.
Quest ions. - 'What is a verb ? A transitive verb? An !ntrans it ivc Yerb 9 A co pula tiv e verb?
'Wh at i,; a part icipl e? The p resent participle? H ow does the
pre>ent parti cipl e al way8 en<l ? Wh at is t he perfect participl e?
H 11w docs it usuall y end Y 'Vh at is t he co mpound participle?
11 nw i., it. for med '?
'What belong to verbs? ·what is voice? How many voices
ha ve transitive verbs? Wh at is th e active voice ? The passive
voice? H ow is the p assive voice fo rm ed? How is a verb m the
acti vc voice changed into th e passive? G iv e examples.

6-i. Mode.
1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being,
0 r sta tc is expressed.

3. The Imlicative Hode asserts a thing as a fact,
or as actually existing; as, "Fire burns"; "A battle
was fought " .

4. The Subjunctive Hotle asserts a thing as doubt ! ul, as a, supposition, or as a future contingency; a~,
" If this be true, all will end well"; "I shall go, if

. ".
you rernain
5. The Potential Hode asserts the power, necessityi , libei·ty, duty, or liability of acting, or of being in
a certain state ; as, "He can tal1c1 " ; "Y ou mus t go "·,
"They should be more careful".
Rem.-JV[ay, can, innst, _might, coidd, would, and shonld are
the signs of th e potential mode.

6. The I1ni>erative l'tlode expresses a command,
an exhortation, an entreaty, or a p ermission; as, " Go " ;
" Do not lmrt me " .

7. The Infinithie l'tlode expresses the action, beO"
or state, without affirming it; as, "To go"; "He
in o>
wants to spealc ".
1.-The infinitive may usually be known by th e sign
This sign is omitted after the words bid,
"L
dare f eel, help, let, mal:e, need, see, and a few others; as,
et
th em' [ to ] come 011 " ; "See him [to ] run " ; " B t'd tl1em [to ]
Item.

to p l aced before it.

come".
ntem. 2 . -1' h e indieatirn and IJotential modes may be used

·
as, " ,,,T's. he honest ?'.' "Has she arrived'!"
in askin g quest10ns;
";l fay I go home? "
E . G. -7.

· ~1 .:- ' '

1\:j 'l l
I

98

EL EMEN TARY GRAMMAR.

E X ERC I SE S .

Tell the mode of the verbs in t!i.e fallowing sentences:

''~ '

'1

I j

VERBS.

1. The army encam ped by t h e river. 2. Run for some water.
3. You must recite yo ur lesson. 4. I will recite my lesson, if
I can. 5. I lik e to play. 6. Hope thou i n God. 7. Do let
me go to the picnic. 8. He sh oul d h av e come h ome. 9. L ift
up your h eads, 0 ye gates ! 10. Were I rich, I would p urchase
that property.

11. Hope not th e cure of sin till Self is dead;
Forget it in love's service, and the d ebt
Thou can st not pay the angels will forget ....'._ Whittier.

6. The Past Perfect Tense r epresents an act as
ended or completed in time fully past ; as, "I had
written"; "The bridge had fall en before we reached it " ·
. ; as, '' l
7. The Future Tense denotes f uture time

shall write"; "The lion shall eat straw like the ox"·

8. The Futlll'e Pel'feet Tense r epresents an act as
fini shed or ended at or befor e a certain future time ;
as , "I sliall have written the letter before the mail
closes".

66. Signs of the Tenses.

I·
'

Questious.- ·what is mod e ?

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I

How many modes are th ere ?
Name them. 'What is the indicative mode ? What is the subj un ctive mode ? ' 'V hat is the potential mode? Wh at are the
signs of t he potential mode? ·what is the imperative mode?
What is the infinitive mode ? What is t he sign of the infinitive
mode ? " ' hat modes are used in asking questions ?

65. Tense.
1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event.
2. Th ere are six tenses : the Present, th e Present
P erfect, the Past, the P ast P e1ject, the Fitture, and
th e Future P e?f cct.

3. The PJ"esent Tense denotes present time; as, .
" I write"; "'l'he wind is blowing".
4. 'l'he Present Perfoct Tense represents an action or event as past, but connected with present time;
as, " I have written"; " The wind has been blowing".
5. The Past 'I'ense denotes past time; as, "I
wrote"; " The wind blew" .

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99

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ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative lllode.

Simple form of the verb.
Present,
When regular, add ed to the simple form.
Past,
Prefix slw,ll or will to the simple form.
Future,
"
have, hast, or have to the perfect participle.
Present P erf ect,
"
had or hadst to the perfect participle.
Past P erf ect, .
"
shall
have or will have to the perfect p arFuture Peifect,
ticiple.
Subjunctive Jllode.

.
in
If, though, except, unless, &c., placed before tense forms given

the conjugation.
Potential Jllode.

Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form.
"
might, could, would, or should to the simple

Present,
Past,
Present Peifect,

"

Past Per/ect,

"

.

form.
may, can, or must have to the perfect participle.
might, could, would, or should have to the
perfect participle.

'. I

100

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

2. A verb must agree with its subject in person

lfn11>e1•ntive Mode.
Present, .

.

. Let, or a comma nd.

and number.
Rem.-The infinitive, having no subject, h as neither person

Inliuitive Mode.

nor number.

Present, ·
Prefix to to the simple form.
Present Peij"eet,
to Imve to t Iie perfect participle.

68. Auxiliaries.

Pnrtici1>les.
Present, .
P e1fect, .
Compound,

101

VERBS.

A..uxiliai•y Ve1·bs are those 'vhich are used in the

Ad<l ing to the simple form.
·when regular, add ed or d to the simple form.
Pre fi x having to the perfect partici pie, or having
been to the present or perfect participle.
.
EXER C I SES .

conjugation of other verbs.

They are do, be, have,

shall, may, can, must.
Rem.-Do, be, have, and w-ill are often used as principal
verbs; as, " H e does well"; " I am"; "He has money"; "He
wills it ".

Tell the tense of the vei·bs in the following sentences:
1. Emma sings. 2. I went home. 3. J ohn ran. 4. ·write.
5. Let him go. 6. The man shouted. 7. I had bee t ()"ht
·11
n a uo .
8 Tl
.
iey w1 succeed. 9. W e shall be glad. 10. The letter will
ha Ye
· ht
d been written. 11. If you go ' I shall stay· 19
~. y OU m1g

stu y. 13. He may have written. 14. Know most of th
rooms of thy native country, before th ou goest over the
old thereof:-Ful!er.

thresh~

Questions. -"What is tense? H ow
·what is the present tense? Th e.present P~1:f~~t./en~rs a:etihrr
plast perfect? The future? Th e future perfect? . G " ietpl ,is :
ief.
tie ten ses.
·
ive ie signs o
. dyVh~t is mod e? H ow many modes are there 'I WI t · th
.
.rn is e
rn 1c~t1ve mode? Th e subjunctive. mode? Tl
Th e imperative mo<le? Th e infini tive m;de? ie potential mode?

67. Person and Number.
1. The Pe..sou and Numbe1· of verbs are the
changes which they undergo to mark their agreement
with their subjects.

69. Unipersoual Verbs.
A lJnipe1'SOnal Ve1·b is one by which an act or
state is asserted independently of any particular subject; as, "It snows"; "It behooves us to be watchful".
Questions.-What is meant by the person and number of a
verb? With what must a verb agree in person and number?
What are auxiliary verbs? Name them. Which of these are
sometimes used as principal verbs ? What is a uni personal verb?

70. Conjugation.
1. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct expression, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices,
p erson.s, and numbers.

2. The P1ineipal Pru•ts of a verb are the present
indicative, the past indicative, and the p erfect participle.

I~
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~

102

103

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

3. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form,
through the different modes and tenses, in a single
person and number.

71. Synopsis of' the Verb "To Be".

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

Plural.
We
have been,
1.
2. You have been,
3. They have been.

Singular.
have
been,
I
1.
2. Thou hast been,
3. He has been;

PAST TENSE.

Princi1»•l Parts.
Present :l.'ense.

Past Tense.

Peifect Participle.

Be, or am.

Was.

Been.

Indicati ••e lllode.

Present, . . . I am.
Present Perfect, I have been.
I was.
Past,

Past Peifect,
I had been.
Future, . .
I shall be.
Future Peifect, I shall have been.

1. We were,
2. You were,
3. They were.

1. I was,
2. Thou wast,
....? H e was;

PAST PERFECT TENSE·

1. We had been,
2. You had been,
3. They had been.

1. I had been,
2. Thou hadst been,
3. He had been ;

·11

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Subjunctive Mode.

Present,

If I be.

.

Past Peifect,

Past, . . . . . If I were.
. . . If I had been.

Potential lt.lolle.

Present, . . .
Present P erfect,
Past,
Past Peifect,

I
I
I
I

may, can, or must be.
may, can, or must have been.
might, could , would, or should be.
might, could, would, or should have been.

FUTURE TENSE.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have been,
2. Thou wilt have been,
3. He will have been ;

Conjugation of' the Verb "To Be"·
"'

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INDICATIVE MODE.

1. We shall have been,
2. You will have been,
3. They will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

1. If I be,
2. If thou be,
3. If he be;

1. If we be,
2. If you be,
3. If they be.

I

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Note.-Shall, i n the first person, and will, in the second and
third, denote futurif'IJ. Will, in the first person, and shall in
the second and third, denote dctennination or necessity.

1. We shall be,
2. You will be,
3. They will be.

1. I shall be,
2. Thou wilt be,
3. He will be;

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.
1. I am,
2. Thou art,
3. He is;

Plural.
1. We are,
2. You are,
3. They are.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I were,
2. If thou wert,
3. If he were;

1. If we were,
2. If you were,
3. If they were.

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104

PAST PERFECT TENS.E .

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f'

Singul<Lr.
1. If I had been,
2. If thou hadst been,
3. If he had been ;

Plural.
L If we had been,
2. If you had been,
3. If they had been.

Present, Being ;

72. Synopsis of the Verb "To Love"·
ACTIVE VOICE.

PRESENT TENSE.

Principal Parts.

1. I may be,
2. Th ou mayst be,
3. H e may be;

I

I·'

1. IV" c may be,
2. You may be,
3. They may be.

Past Tense .

Perfect Particip le .

Love.

Loved.

Loved.

1. 'vVe may have been,
2. You may have been,
3. They may have been.

; 11

Present, . .
I love.
Present Perfect, I have loved.
Past,
I loved.

,\'

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Past Perfect, . I had loved.
Future, . . . I shall love.
Future Perfect, I shall have loved.

... ,r

Subjunctive Mode.

1. We might be,
2. You might_be,
3. They might be.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have been,
2. Th ou mightst have been,
3. H e mig ht have been;

;fl

,,

PAST TENSE.

1. I might be,
2. Thou might st be,
3. H e might be;

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PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

2. Thou mayst have been,
3. He may have been;

I

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Indicative Mode.

1. I may have been,

1 I

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. ; H ,,

Present Tense.

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PARTICIPLES.
Compound, Having been.
Peifect; Been ;

POTENTIAL MODE.

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105

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

1. " re might have been,
2. You might have been,
3. They might have been.

Present,

.

If I love.
Past,
If I loved.
Past Perfect, . . . If I had loved.
Potential Mode.

I
Present, .
I
Present Pe1fect,
I
Past, . . ·
I
Past Perfect,

may, can, or must love.
may, can, or must have loved .
might, could, would, or should love.
might, could, would, or should have loved.

Note.-In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must.

Conjugation of the Verb "To Love".

..
f

IMPERATIVE MODE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

2. Be, or do thou be;

2. Be, or do ye or you be.

INFINITIVE MODE.
Phsent,

To be ;

Present Perfe~t,

To have been.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.
1. I love,
2. Thou lovest,
a. He loves;

Plural.
1. We love,
2. You love,
a. They love.

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I:
,,1

106

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

Sin91dar.
1. I have loved,
2. Thou hast loved,
3. H e has loved;

Plural.
1. W e have loved,
2. You have loved,
3. They have loved.

107

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PASl' PERFECT TENSE.

Plural.
1. If we had loved,
2. If you had loved,
3. If they had loved.

Singular.
1. If I h ad loved,
2. If thou hadst loved,
3. If he had loved;

PAST TENSE.

l. I loved,
2. Thou lovedst.,

1. W e loved,
2. You loved,
3. They loved.

3. H e lo1•0d;

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

l. I had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved,

1. We had loved,
2. You had loved,
3. They had loved.

3. He had loved ;

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall love,
2. Th ou wilt love,
3. H e will love;

1. We shall love,
2. You will love1
3. They will love.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have loved,
2. Thou wilt have loved,
3. H e will have loved;

1. vVe shall have loved ,
2. You will have loved,
3. They will have loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

1. vVe may love,
2. You may love,
3. They may love.

1. I may love,
2. Thou mayst love,
3. He may love;

"•1

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have loved,
2. Thou mayst have loved,
3. He may have loved;

PRESENT TENSE .

I

l

'l

~-t

1. If I love,
2. If thou love,
3. If he love;

1. I might l ove,
2. Thou mightst love,
3. He might love;

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l ~'j'.ii ft .
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2. You may have loved,
3. They may have loved.

1. W e might love,
2. You might love,
3. They might love.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

2. Thou mightst have loved,
3. He might have loved;

t

Ir

I. We might have loved,
2. You might have loved,
3. They might have loved.

IMPERATIVE MODE.
2. Love, or d9 thou love;

Iii

·'

1. If we love,
2. If you love,
3. If they love.

I. We may have loved,

PAST TENSE.

1. I might have loved,

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

:1

2. Love, or do ye or you love.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I loved,
2. If th ou loved,
3. If he loved;

1. If we loved,
2. If you loved,
3. If they loved.

INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, To love;

Pruent P~rject, To have loved.

l
I

)

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108

PARTICIPLES.
P resent, Loving ;

P e1:fect, L oved ;

Compomid, H aving loved.

13. Synopsis of the Verb "'l'o Loye "·
PASSIVE VOICE .

The Pnssh•e Voiee i ~ formed by prefixing the various forn 1,
of the verb to be to the peifect participle. The tense of tht·
verb lo be determines the tense in the Passive Voice.
l"

ludicath•e iUode.

i

1·

Present,
Ptesent Pe1fect, .
Pnst,
Past. P ciject, .
F1ltttre,
Fii/.ure Pe1fect,

I
I
I
I
I
I

am loved.
have been loved.
was loved.
had been loved.
shall be loved.
shall have been loved.

Subjnncth·e l!Iode.
Present,

If I be loved.
Feist, . . If I were loved.
Past Peifect, .
If I had been loved.

l'ote ntial Mode.
Present,
Present P erfect, .
P ast,
Past P e1Ject, .

I
I
I
I

may be loved.
may have been loved.
might be loved.
might have been loved.

..

,

109

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR .

~

74. Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.
1. The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrog·ative are called the Coordinate Form,;; of Conjugation.
2. The P1·ogl"essive F01·m is used to denote action,
being, or state in progress ; as, "He was writing" .
In the Progressive Form, the various forms of the verb to be
are prefixed to the present participle.

3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with
emphasis; as, "I do write"; "He did write".

,i,)r

...

4. The lntel"l"Ogative Fo1·m is used in asking
questions; as, "Love I?" "Did he write?"

·1
•:I·

SYNOPSIS.
PROGRESSIVE FORM.

lndicath•e
I
I
I
I
I
I

Present,
Present Pe1/ect, .
Past,
Past P eifect, .
Future,
F1lture Pe1fect,

~lotle.

am loving.
have been loving.
was loving.
had been loving.
shall be loving.
shall have been loving.
'

Subjunctive Mode.
Present,

:r
I

If I be loving.
Past, . . If I were loving.
Past Pe1fect, . . If I had been lovin g.

I

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Note.-The pupil should be required to commit to memorv
the Synopsis, then to write the full conjugation of to love, ; r
some other transitive verb, in both voices, correcting or veri~iug his work by comparing it with the paradigms already
given.

Potential Jllode.
P resent,
Present Pe1fect, .
Past,
Past P eiject, .

I
I
I
I

may be loving.
may have been loving.
might be loving.
might have been loving.

't
.ii

I
I.

I.

r

110

VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.

Infiuith'e lllode.

Present, To be loving.

P resen t P,e1j.r.ect, T o have been loving.

Im1>erative lllo<le.

Present,

·

· . .

Be thou loving.

Partici1•Ies.

:11

Present,

. Loving.

Goinpound,

. Having been loving.

THE E 11fPHA TIC FORM.

.

.

I do love.

Past,

·

I did love.

Snbjuucth•c lllo<le.

If I do love.

I'resent,

Past,

.

If I did love.

.

In1perntive lllode.

P resent,

Write a synopsis of the transitive verbs think, instruct, coin-.
mand, pwiish, teach, and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and
Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices.
Tell the motle, tense, 1>ersou, and number of each verb in the

1111

following sentences:
l. He ran. 2. You teach.

3. They have seen. 4. If he go.
5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed? 7. They
will command. 8. Emma will have recited. 9. The army
will be disbanded.

Indicative lllode.

P resent,

111

Do thou love.

10. America was discovered. 11. The people should be contented. 12. He has invented a velocipede. 13. Attend to your
lesson. 14. He can go, if the carriage is not too full. 15. The
man loves to see it rain.
Q,uestious.-What is conjugation? 'What are the principal
parts of a verb? vVhat is the sy nopsis of a verb? Give th e
synopsis of "to be". Of "to )ove", in both the active and the
passive voice.
What are the coordinate forms of conjugation? vVhat is the
progressive form? The emphatic form? The interroga tiYe form'!
Give the synopsis of each form.

.,,t'

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INTERROGATIVE FORM.
Present, . . .
Present P eifect,
Past,
Past Peifect, .
Future, . . .
FL<ture Pe1fect,

L ove I ?. D 0 I 1ove ?· A m I loving?
Have I loved? H ave I been lovinn-?
Loved I? Did I love? Was I lo;i~g?
Had I loved ? H ad I been lovina?
Shall I love? Shall I be lovinn- ?,,, .
Shall I have loved?

Shall I

ha~~ been loving?

75. Regular and Irregular Verbs.

1. A Regulai· Ve1·b forms its past indicative and
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present
indicative; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, count-eel,
count- ed.

Potential lllode.

P resent, .
P resent Peifect,
P ast, . . .
Past Peifect,

Must I love?
Must I have loved?
Mi ght I love?
Might I have loved?

2. An inegula1· Ve1·b 1s one which docs not form
its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed
to the present indicative; as, go, went, gone ; see, saw,
seen; do, did, don e.

'11
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112

j
··~ I

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76. Irregular Verbs.

Present..

The fo llowing list contains the Pri11ci1>al Parts of most
of the irregular verbs. Those marked R have also the regular forms.

l·:I

Ir

1 «' 1. : j
1

.

1i.;'
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113

IRREGULAR VERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

I

P1·esent.

J>a~t .

Abide,
.-\m,
Arise,

,\·as,

Awake,

~n\· O '"e, R.

Bear,
<bring forth)

abode,
arose,

. . J·

{bore,
bare,

Bear, (ca rl'y), bore,

Beat,
Become,
Befall,
Beget ,
Begi n,
B ehold,
Be!a.y,
Bend,
Berea.Ye,

Beseech,
Bet,
Bet ide,
Bid,
B ind,
Bi te,
Bleed,
Bless,
Rreak,

Pe1:fect
Partici1>le.

abode.
been.
arisen.
{ awaked,
awoke.

born.

born e.
{beaten,
beat,
beat.
became,
become.
befell,
befall en.
begotten,
{ begat,
begot,
begot.
began,
begun.
beheld,
beheld.
belaid, n. beJaid, R.
bent, R.
ben t, R.
bereft, R. bereft, u.
beso ught, besought.
bet, R.
bet, R.
betided,
{betided,
betid,
bet id.
bid,
{bid,
bade,
bidden.
bound,
bound.
{bitten,
bit,
bit.
bled,
bled.
blessed,
{blessed,
bl est,
bl est.
broken,
{broke,
. brake,
broke .

Present.

Past.

Perfect
Pm·ticiple.

Breed,
Bring,
Build,
Burn,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catch,

bred,
bred.
brought, brought.
built, R'.
built, n.
burnt, R. burnt, n.
burst,
burst.
bought,
bought.
cast,
cast.
caught, R. caught, R.
{ chidden,
Chide,
chid,
ch id.
Ch oose,
chose,
chosen.
Cleave, { cleav ed,
cleaved.
(adh ere),
clave,
cleft,
{cleft,
Cleave'.
clove,
cloven,
C::pliO,
clave,
cleaved.
Cling,
clung,
clung.
clothed,
Cloth e, {clothed,
'clad.
cla.d,
Come,
came,
come.
cost.,
Cost,
cost.
Cr eep,
crept,
crept.
Crow,
crew, R.
crowed.
Cut,
cut,
cnt.
durst, R. dared.
D are,
Deal,
dealt,
dealt.
Dig,
dug, n..
dug, R.
Do,
did,
done.
Draw,
drew,
drawn.
Dream,
dreamt, R. dreamt,R.
Dress,
drest, R.
drest, R .
Drink,

drank,

{drunk

drunk~n.

'°I

P<ut.

Peij"ect
Participle.

driven.
drove,
Drive,
eaten.
ate,
Eat,
fallen .
fell,
Fall,
fed.
fed,
Feed,
felt.
felt,
Feel,
fought.
fought,
Fight,
found.
found,
Find,
fl ed.
fled,
Flee,
flung.
flung,
Fling,
flo wn.
flew,
Fly,
forbore.
Forbear, forbore,
{forgotten,
forgot,
Forget,
forgot.
forsa,ken.
Forsake, forsook,
froz en.
froze,
Freeze,
Freight, freighted, fraught, R.
{got,
got,
Get,
gotten.
gilt-, R.
g ilt , R.
G ild,
girt, R .
girt, R.
Gird,
given.
gave,
Gin»
gone.
went,
Go,
graven, R.
graved,
Grave,
ground.
ground,
Grind,
grown.
grew,
Grow,
hung, R.
hung, R.
Hang,
had.
had,
Have,
heard.
h eard,
H ear,
hoven, R.
hove, R.
Heave,
h ew n, R.
hewed,
Hew,
{hidden,
hid,
Hid e,
hid.
hit.
hit,
Hit,
{held,
held,
Hold ,
holden .
hurt.
hurt,
Hurt,
kept.
kept,
Keep,
knelt, R· knelt.
K~1cel,
E. G.-8.

Present.

Knit,
Know,
Lay,
L ead,
L ean,
L eap,
L earn,
Leave,
L end,
L et,
Lie,
(1·ecliue),

Light,
L oa,d,
Lose,
M ake,
Me.an,
Meet,
:Mow,
Pass,
Pay,
P en,
(inclose),

Plead,
Put,
Quit,
Ra,p,
Read,
Reave,
Rend,
Rid ,
Ride,
Ring,
Rise,
Rive,

Past .

knit, R.
knew,
laid,
led,
leant, R.
leapt, R.
learnt, R.
left,
lent,
let,

··:· r '· .

kniL, R.
known.
laid.
Jed.
leant, R.
leapt, R.
learnt, R.
left.
Jent.
let.

'', ~c.
I' 11

Jit, R.
loaded,
Jost,
made,
meant,
met,
mowed,
past, R.
paid ,
R,

{plead, R .
pied,
put,
quit, R.
rapt, R.
read,
reft,
rent,
rid,
rod e,
{rang,
rung,
rose,
rived,

o•; t

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I.

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Jit, R.
hden, R.
lost.
made.
meant.
met.
mown, R .
past.
paid.
pen t,

'ti: ~ .
11

lain.

} lay,

} pent,

Pe1:f'ecl
Pm·ticiple.

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i·

R.

plead, R.
pied.
put.
quit, R.
rapt, u.
read.
reft.
rent.
rid.
{ridden,
rode.
rung.

risen.
riven,

R.

\, ~ :
I

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.nj!

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114
Present.

Past.

Run,

ran ,

run.

Saw,

sawed,
sa id,

saw n, R .

Say,
See,
Seek,
Set,

Seethe,
Shake,
Shape,
Shave,

Shear,
Shed,
Shiue,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Show,
Shred,
Shut,
Sing,
Si nk,

Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Sling,
Slink,
Slit,
Smell,

saw,

sought,
set,
sod, n.
shook,
shaped,
shaved,
shore, R.
shed,
shone, R.
shod,
shot,
showed,
shred,
shut,
sang,
{ sung,

Jsa nk ,

l su nk ,
sat,
slew,
slept.,
~dun g,

slunk,
sli t, R .
smelt, R.

Smite,

..

UM:
'

j

N
~.

P erfect

Participle.

Sow,
(.v:a ller),

Spea k,
Speed,
Spell ,
Spend,
Spill,

} so wed,

spoke,
sped, n.
spelt , R.
spent ,
spil t, Ji,.

said.
see n.
sought.
set.
sodden, R .
shaken.
shapen, R.
shaven, n .
shorn, n.

shed.
shone, R.
shod.
sh ot.
shown.
shred.
shut.
sung.

Spin,

sat.
slain.
slept.
slung.
slunk.
slit, R .
smelt, R .
sm'.t.ten,
{ Snllt.
R.

spoken.
sped, R.
spelt, H.
spent.
spilt, R.

P ast.

spun,
{ span,

spit,
Spit,
{ spat,
spl.it, it.
Split,
Spoil,
spoilt, R.
Spread , spread,
s pran~

01
Spring, { •
sprung,
Sta nd,
stood,
Stave,
stove, R.
Stay,
sta id, R.
Steal,
sto le,
Stick,
stuck,
Sting,
stung,
strid,
Stride, {
strode,

Strike,

·stru ck,

String,

st.rung,
strov e,

St rive,

sunk.

sown,

P resent .

Strow,

fl wear,

l sware,

Sweat,

sweat, R .

Sweep,
Swell,

swept,
swelled,

Swi111,
S wing,

Tak e,
Teach,

Prrfcct

swain,
{ swum,
swung,

took,
ta ught,
tore,
T ear,
{ tare,
T ell,
told,
Think,
thought,
Thrive,
throve, R.

Past.

Participle.

Pre.sent .

spun.

Throw,
Thrust,

threw,
thrust,

Tread,

trod,

W ake,
Wax,
\ Vear,
\Veave,
Wed,

woke, R.
waxed,

spi t,
;;pittcn.
split, n .
spoilt, IL
spread .
sprung.

stood.
stove, n.
staid, R .
sto len.
stuck.
stun g.

strid,
stridd en.
stru ck,
{ stri cken.
st rung.

striven.

str owed, { strowerl,
strown.

f RWore,

115

DEFECTIVE AND REDUNDANT . VERBS.

ELE.MENTARY GRA.MMAR.

sworn.

sweat, R.
swept.
swoll en, n.
SWlllll.

Perfect
Participle:

Prut.

Present.

thrown.
thrust.
trodden ,
{ trod.
woke, u.

wore,

waxen,
worn.

wove, R .
wed, R.

woven, R.
wed, R.

R.

W eep,
'..Vet,
Wh et,
Win,
Wind,
\ Vork,
vVring,
Write,

wept,
wet, R .
whet, R.

wept.

won,

'von .

R.

whet,

R.

77. Defective and Redundant Verbs.
1. Defective Ve1·bs are those which want some of
the principal parts.
They are beware, from be and aware, ought, quoth,
quod, wit, and its derivatives, wot, wis, wert, wist, wote.
2. Reclundant Ve1·bs are those which have more
tha,n one form for their past t ense a,nd perfect participl e;
as, cleave, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleavecl .
(tucstions. - What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A
defective verb ? Which are th e defective verbs? What are redundant verbs? G ive examples.
EXER C ISES.

Correct the following sentences, using this
MODEL.

tak en.
taught.

"The man th rowed a stone."

told.
th ought.
thriven, R .

wet,

I

".: ,.~
I

wound,
wound.
wrought, R. wrought, rt.
wrung,
wrun g,
written.
wrote,

swung .

torn.

P erfect
Participle .

This sentence is incorrect. The ' rnrcl "th rowed" shou ld be
"threw", the past indicative of the verb "throw". Th e sentence
should read, "The man threw a stone"·

l. I have saw some fine cattle to-day. 2. He ought to have
went home. 3. The beads were stringed on a silk thread.

~' 11

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116

117

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

MODELS FOR PARSING.

4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5, The
cloth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantering
along. 7. This coat has wore well.

Shall ioo . .. is a verb; (why ?): irregular; (why?): give its prin-

8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed
when the news was got. 10. I clumb the tree and shaked the
apples off. 11. That candle should be blowed out. 12. I laid
down, and ris much refreshed. 13. Vv as the cow drove to pas·
tu re? 1-1. The plastering has fe ll from t he ceiling. 15. I seen
him git it.
Correct all errors ·in the use of irreg·uinr verb!! yoit may notice
in your conversat'ion with your school-mate;;.

IL "I shall go, if you remain."
cipal parts: intransitive; it does not require an object to complete its meaning: indicat-ive nwde; (why?) :
future tense; it denotes future time: first person, singular number; (why? ) Rule XIII. "A verb must
agree with its subject in person and number."
llemain . .. is a verb; (why ?): regular; it forms its past indica-

1111;

i•I

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l

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!
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I

tive and perfect participle by adding ed to the present indicative : give the principal parts: intrnnsiti·ve; (why?): subfuncti·ve mode; it represents an act
as conditional ; present tense; (why? ) : second person,
singular or plural number; (why? ) : Rule XIII.

I!

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I

78. Order of' Parsing.
III. "The boy caught the horse."
1.

,,

2. Regnl ar or inegular, and why?

'

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!

3.
-1.
5.
6.

Uive its principal parts.
Cop ulative, Transitive, or Intransitive, and 1~hy ?
Voice, and why?
Mode, and why?
7. Tense, and why~
8. Perso n and number, and why? Rule.

;i,lr
.~,;
IJJI

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cau19ht . . . . is a verb ; (why ?): irregu,/ar; (why ?): give the ·prin-

cipal parts: transitive; it r equires an object to complete its meaning: acti·ue voice; it represents its subject as acti ng : indicat·ive mode; (why? ) : past tense;
(why ?): third person, singular number; (why?):

i.l

-' i,'.

l I

I· .

Rule XIII.
IV. "We heard the owl hooting."
Hooting . .. is a pa?·tic:iple; it partakes of the properties of a

79. lllodels for Parsing.

I

I ·I ··1
I ",

1tI.

A Verb, and whyY

I. "Liberty is sweet!'
l" ' . ' . '

· is a verb; it is a word which denotes being: ·irregular;
it does not form its past tense and perfect partici pie
by adding d or ed to the present indicative: principal
pctrts are pres. ain, past ind. was, perf. part. been:
cop 1dat1:ve; it asserts the predicate of the subject: ·indicative mode; it assert s a fact: p1·esent tense; it denotes
present time: third person, sin,r;ulur nitmbel', to agree
with its subj ect "liberty". Rule XIII. "A verb
must agree with its subject in person and number."

verb and an adjective: present participle; it denotes
continuance : it belongs to "owl". Rule XII. "An
adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pronoun."

V. "I study to improve."
To improve is a verb; (why?): regidai·; (why?): give the prin-

cipal parts: transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?):
infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming
it: it depends upon "study". Rule XVII. "An
infinitive not used as a noun depends upon the word
it limits."

. ~ I·

.• ,..

118

FALSE SYNTAX.

ELEl\fENTAlW GRAMMAR.

119

11.-Tense-joi·ms should ea:press time in harmony
with I hat indicated by other parts of the sentence.
caution

EXERCISES .

Parse the nouns, 1n·onouns, atljccti\'cs, verbs, and I>nrticii•Ies
in tlie following sentences :

J' ·

1. The earth rings h ollow from b elow. 2. W e soon shall
reac h the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous. 4.
H e sho uld be more industrious. 5. R emember thy Creator.
6. The poor must work in th eir grief. 7. I could not learn that
lesson . 8. H e was beaten with many stripes.

9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They mi ght ha Ye
fini shed th eir task yesterday. 11. The crops were destroyed by
grasshoppers. 12. Th e g irls were playing croquet. 13. He did
not return my umbrella. 14. I s h e writin g a letter? 15. H elp
us to help each oth er. 16. Shake off the dust that blinds thy
sight.
17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a single thing
out of Nature's "establishm ent" at half price.-Ruskin:
18. l\Iay is a pious fraud of the almanac,
A ghastly parody of real Spri ng,
Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds.
Lowell.

r.

.·f i

Ex .- 1. They have visited us yesterday. 2. You may take a
walk after you finish your task. 3. H e was tardy every day this
week. 4. I would help you, if you can't get some one else to do
so. 5. He was und er obligations to have assisted me.
Caution

111.- General truths should be expressed in the pres-

ent tense.
Ex.-1. I have heard that each star was a sun. 2. I always
thought that meteors were falling stars. 3. What did you say was
- the capital of Indiana? 4. I should think it was time for school
to be dismissed. 5. I always thought that dew fell.
caution IV.-Do not use the perfect participle to express past
t·ime, nor the past tense form instead of the peiject participle.

Ex.-1. H e come here last week. 2. He don e it: I seen him.
3. The tree had fell, and it was broke· in two. 4. The squirrel had
ran up a tree. 5. H e set down on a log.
caution v.-Avoid the inelegant use of participles in place
of other f orrns.

Wi·ile fiv e answers to questions in yom· geography lesson, and
parse th e , ·erbs.

Ex.-1. Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I do
not like being punished. 3. H e neglected the plowing of his land.
4. Boys, be ashamed of being found _in bad company.

TVi·ite the fii·st two sentences of a composition on "Lazy Boys",
and pa?'Se th.e verbs.

or

(;aution VI.- Do
haint

for

not use

or aint for is not, haven't
for it is not, 111ight of for

i s n't

have not, 'taint

1ni;;·ht have, &:c.

80. False Syntax.
Caution

1.-Nei•ei· iise will for shall , no1· would for should.

2. If I would try, I
would learn fast. 3. I shall go : no one will prevent me. 4. I
would be very careless if I would leave my books .at home.
Ex.-1. I was afraid I wou ld be hurt.

Ex.-1. 'T aint one swall ow that makes a summer.

2. J ane
hnint got her lesson. 3. Aint you going to the concert? 4. Samuel might of done his task long ago. 5. He should of taken the
accommodation train.

Coi'rect alt inaccuracies in the ttse of verbs you may obsei"l!e in
your own language or that of your sclwol-mates.

. ~ l· (

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120

ADVERBS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

121

Correct tlie following sentences by reference to Rules XIII and XIV:

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where'! Whither.~

1. Henry and Charles was very much disappointed. 2. You
was there, I suppose. 3. The yoke of oxen were sold for a hundred dollars. 4. Ellen are not at school to-day. 5. The scissors
is dull. 6. The fleet were seen off Hatteras. 7. Time and tide
waits for no man.

Whence?
Ex.-Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, somewhere, far, yonder, forth, aloof, away, backwards, first, &c.

Questious.- vVhat is a verb? A transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copulative verb?
vVlint belong to verbs? What is voice? How many voices are
th ern? What is the active voice? Th e passive voice? How is
th e passive voice formed?
. yVhat is mode? How many mod es are there? What is the
rnd1cat1vc mod e? The snbjun ctive mod e'! The potential mode?
The imperative mode? The infinitive mod e? What are the signs
of the potential mode'! The sign of the infinitive mode? When
is it omitted'?
What is tense'! How many tenses are there? What is the
present tense? The present perfect'? The past? The past perfect? The future? The future perfect?
'\'Vhat is an :tuxiliary verb'? A uni person:tl verb?
What is conjugation? What are the principal parts of a verb?
What is tl1 e sy nopsis of a verb? Give a synopsis of "to be". Of
"to love", in.both voices.
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vVha'. are the coordinate form s of conjugation? ·what fa the
p1:ogress1ve form'? The emphatic form? The interrogative form?
Give the sy nopsis of each form.
vVhat is a regular verb? An irregular verb? A defective verb?
A rednndant verb?
G ive the order of parsing verbs.
Repeat the cautions.

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4. A<lverbs of Cause answer the questions, TVhy '! TVherefor e .9
Ex.-\Vherefore, therefore, then, why?

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5. Adverbs of lllanner answer the question, How?
Ex.-Amiss, anyhow, well, badly, easily, sweetly, indeed, nay,
no, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, &c.
6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much?

How little'!
Ex.-Almost, enough, even, equally, much, more, little, wholly,
partly, only, scarcely, nearly, too, chiefly, &c.

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7. An Adverbial Pluase is a combination of words useJ
and parsed as a single adverb; as, "In general", "hand in

hand", "no more".
8. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two propositions, and modify a word in each .
Ex.-" I shall see yon when I return.'' The conjunctive adverb
"when" connects the two clauses, " I shall see you" and "I return", modifying "shall see" in the first clause, and "return" in
the second .

THE ADVERB.
81. Classes.
1. Adverbs are divided into five classes : Adverbs
of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree.
2. Adverbs of Time answer th e questions, TVhen '! How
long ? H ow often?
Ex.-After, again, always, early, never, frequently, hereafter,
lately, immed iately, now, often, seldom, then, when, &c.

82. Comparison of Aclverbs.
1. Many adverbs admit of comparison.

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2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the
simple form, viz.: fast, faste1·, fastest; often, oftmer, oftenest;

soon, sooner, soonest.
3. Adverbs ending in ly are compared by prefixing more
and most, less and least to the simpl e form; as, wisely, more

wisely, most wisely; swiftly, less swiftly, least swiftly.

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

4. Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better,

best; little, less, feast.

PREPOSITIONS.

123

H'1·ite the first two sentences of a composition on "llly Last Vaca·
tion " , and parse the verbs and adverbs.

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83. Order of Parsing.
1. An Adverb, and why?

2. Com pare it.
3. Tell what it modifi es.

85. False ·Syntax.
caution 1.-Avoid the itse of two negatives to e:r:press negation.

R.nle.

84:. Models for Parsing.
I . " The soldiers fought bravely."
Drnvely .. is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a

verb: compared, pos. bravely, coin. more bravely, sup.
most bravely: it modifies "fought". Rule XVII.
"Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and
:id verbs."
II. " I will go whene.ver yo n wish."

Ex.- 1. I don't know nothing about geometry. 2. Don't s:iy
nothing to nobody about it. 3. You don't look no better than you
did yesterday. 4. We didn't find nobody at home. 5. The peddler hadn't got no needles.
I
Caution 11.-Do not use adjectives as adverbs.

2. He does not speak di stin ct. 3. Helen seems tolerable well. 4. His voice was sc:ircc
heard. 5. She dresses neat. 6. I am that hungry I could eat any
thing. 7. He was exceeding glad to hear from you.

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Ex.-1. You ought to read slower.

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Observe and correct a.ll inaccuracies in the use of mherbs in yo111·
own conversa.tion mid that of your school-mates.

Whene,·e 1· is an adverb; (why ?) : co1ijuncl'ive; it connects two

clauses, and modifies a word in each: it modifies
"will go" and "wish": Rule XVII.
EXEllCI S ES.

:,,,

Parse the nouns, 1n·onouus, adject.i\•es, verbs, and ath•e rbs
in ti1e following sentences :

I.,•,

1. I saw him frequently. 2. You must call often. 3. How
rapidly the moments fl y. 4. He has b een reproved again and
again. G. P erhaps h e can tell yo n. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise
man. 7. Peradventure, the old dragon is asleep. 8. I haye
not seen him since I returned from California.
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If.

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9.

Live and l ove,
Doing both nobly, b ecause lowlily.
Lirn and work, strongly, because patiently.
~£rs. Browning.

Qnestions.-\Vhat is an adverb? Into how many classes are
adverbs divided? ·what are adverbs of time .f Of place? Of manne,.? Of degree.f "What is an adverbial phrase? vVh:it are conjunctive adverbs? Are adverbs ever compa~·ed ?_ How are three
adverbs compared? How are adverbs end mg 111 ly compared ?
How are other adverbs compared '?
Repeat the order of parsing an adverb.
Repeat the cautions.

THE PREPOSITION.
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86. General Remarks .
1. The relations between obj ects of thought are sometimes
so obvious that they need no expression. This occu rs when
nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or valite follow
verbs or adjectives; as, "He left yesterday"; "He lives south

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CONJUNCTIONS.

of this town " . Such words are said to be in the objective case
without a governing word.

moon rising behind the eastern pines. 5. I came from beyond
Richmond to-day. (Parse "to-day" in the objective case
without a governing word, by Rule VIII.) 6. I went to D etroit yesterday.

The names of things followin g the passive forms of th e
verbs ask, lend, leach, refuse, provide, and some others are also
in the objective case without a governing word; as, " I was
asked a question"; " I was taught grammar".
3. A phrase commencing with a preposition is called a
prepositional phrase.
4. The in fin itive is usually called a phrase.
5. The words of some phrases need not be separated in
p arsing ; as, in vain, on high, round and round, ·i n general, &c.
Parse such combinations as single words.

87. Order of Parsing.
1. A Preposition, and why?
2. ·what relati on does it show?
3. Rule.

88. Model for Parsing.
"They went aboard the ship."
Aboard is a preposition ; it shows the relati on between its. object
and so me other word : it shows the relation. between
"ship " and "went ". Rul e XIX. "A preposition shows
th e relation of its obj ect to the word upon which the
latter depends."
EXERCISES.

,
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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Analyze the fotlowing sentences, and parse the nouns and prci•·
ositions:
1. A lark reared her brood amid the corn . 2. They wandered in throngs clown th e valley. 3. Emma came from th e
village, through the woods, to our house. 4. W e have seen the

7.

The locust by the wall
Stabs th e n oon-silence with his sh arp alarm.
A single h ay-cart down the dusty road
Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep
On the load's top.- Whittier. ·

Write the first two sentences of a composition on " Our Flag ",
and parse the 1>rcpm;itions.

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lVi-ite the answers to three quest-ions in your arithmetic leswn,
and pai·se the 1>re1>osi tions.
Parse all the 1•repositio11s in three sentences of your reading
lesson.
j

ciucstions.-vVhat is a preposition? Do th e relations between
obj ects of thought always need expression?. '\Yhen do t!1ey not
need expression? vVhat words are m the objective case with out a
governing word? Wh at is a prepositional phrase? Car: th ~ words
in all phrases be separated ? How should such combmat10ns be
parsed?
Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.

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THE CONJUNCTION.

89. Classes.
I·'

1. Conjunctions are divided into three classes :
Copulative, Disjunctive, and Correlative.
2. Copulathrc Conjunctions join on words, phrases,
or members denoting addition, consequence, cause, or
supposition.

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THE INTERJECTION.

E LE MENTA RY GRAM MAR .

Ex. - } .. nd, also, as, because, consequentl y, even, for, if,
so, since, seeing, thnn, that, then, moreover, th erefore,
wh erefo re.

II. " N either Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson."
are conjunctions; (why?) : correlative; one
refers or answers to the other. " neither " introd uces the
sentence, and "nor " con nects " Ellen " and " l\1ary " :
Rule XX.

Neitber .. . nor . . .

3. Disjunctive Conjunc tions j oin on words, phrases,
or members denoting opp osition of me;111ing .
Ex.-Although, though, b ut, either, neither, except, lest,
nor, notwithstandin g, or, provid ed, save, still , unl ess, wh ether,
whereas, yet.

4. { :oncl:tti,·e Conjunctions ar e copulatives or disjunctives used in pa,irs, one r eferring or a,nswering to
the other.
Ex.-Both-and, as - as, so - as, so -that, either- or,
neither - nor,
if - then , th ough - yet, nevertheless, not
only-b ut also, wh ether -or, or - or, nor-n or.
Rem.-Such co mbi nations as as i;; as though, as w~ll as,
as soon as, forasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but fi!.-cwise, not onl!J, &c., should be parsed as s ingle conjun ctions or
conjun cti ve adverbs.

E X EliCIS E S .

A nalyze the following sentences, ancl parse the conjunctions:
l. Cold and hunger a wak e not h er care. 2. H e came and
went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is th e principal
th ing; therefore get wisdom. 4. W e can not thrive unless we
are industrious. 5. Though he slay m e, yet will I trust in
him. 6. H e was not only proud, but vain also.
H1i·ite the first two sentences of a composition on " Po1>1>ini;
Corn ", ancl pm·se the conjunctions.
Parse all the conjunctions in three sentences of your reading

1. _-\ Conjunction, anti why'?

91. 1Uodels for Parsing.
L "Ellen and Mary study algebra."

a conjunction ; it connects words: copulative ; it denotes :1tldition: it conn ects "Emma " and "Mary ".
Ru le XX. "Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and

<tue stions.-vVhat is a conjun ction ? Into how many classes
are con,iun ct.ions divided ? "\\' hat are copulative conjunctions?
Disj unctive conjun ctions? Correlative conj unctions? H ow should
cM ff, not only, &c., be parsed ?
Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.

THE INTERJE CTION.

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92. Remarks.
l. Inte1jectiorui ar e expression s of emotion only.
They are called interj ecti ons- because they ar e thrown
in between connected parts of discourse, though ge nerally found at the comm encement of a se.n tence.

And . . . I S

Re ntences."

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lesson.

90. Orcler of Parsing.
2. Copu lative, Disjunctive, or Correlative, and why?
3. vVhat does it connect.? Rul e.

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2. Most words wh en used as exclamations may b e treated
as interj ections; as, "What ! a.rt thou mad? " "Revenge I cried
he ".

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

93. Order of' Parsing.
1. An Interjection, and why?
2. Ru le.

9!. lUodel for Parsing.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

2. A Com1>onnd Sentence consists of two or more
connected sentences, each of which will make complete
sense when standing alone.
ltem.-The sentences of which a compound sentence is
composed are called Members.

"Eh! are you sure of it?"
it denotes some sudden emotion.
Rule XXL "An interjection has no dependence upon
other words."

Eh I .. . . 1s an

129

Model for Analysis.

1:nte1jeclion;

EXERCI S E S.

P arse all the words in the fallowing sentences :
1. H ah ! it is a sight to freeze one! 2. Ah.! ha! you
thought me blind, did you ? 3. 0 ! 0 ! 'tis foul! 4. 0 excellent young man! 5. Alas, what h ave I seen or kirown ! G.
.i\Iercy, how it burns! 7. Fie upon th ee ! 8. Soft! I did but
drea m . 9. Tush ! tu sh! man, I made no reference to yon.

"Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil."
This is a sentence ; (why?): compound; it consists of two connected sentences, each of which will make complete sem;e when
standing alone. " L ead us not into temptation " is the first member; "deli ver us from evil", the second member.
Thou, understood, is the subject of the first member; lead, the
predicate. "Lead" is modified by us, an objective element; by
not, an adverbial element; and by th e phrase, into te111ptntio11,
an adverbial element.
'l'hou , und erstood, is the subj ect of the second member: deliver, th e predica te. "Deliver " is modified by us, an objective
element, and by th e phrase, fro1n evil, an adverbial element.

Qnest.ions.- Wlutt is an inte1j ection? Why is it called an
in te 1j ection ?
R epeat the order of parsing an inte1jection.

EXERCISES,

1. Night comes to our bed , and breathes it in our ea r~ .

95. Simple and Compound Sentences.
" \\Th cat is a vegetab le." This sentence consists of a single
propositio n. It is called a 8 ·iinple Sentence.

1. A Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition.
" 'W h eat grows in the field, and men r eap it." This sent ence consists of two propositions, each of which will make
co mplete sense when standing alone. It is called a Compound
Sentence.

.
2.

H e li ved for his love-for his coun try he died. 3. Art is
long, and tim e is fl eeting. 4. Y ou must reform, or you will be
ruined.
5. She raised her glazed eyes, and looked about with a
faint wildness. 6. The dignity of woman has its peculiar
character; it a wes more than that of man. 7. The earth is
hidden yet, but not dead. 8. It is the day of inan's trial, not
the tim e of his reward.
H'i·ite five co1n1>oui!d sentenees, each containing two members.
Ascertain w!tat sentences in youi· 1·eading lesson are compound.
E. n.-0.

132

9. The poor too often turn away, unheard,

F rom h earts that shut against them, with a sound
That shall be heard in h eaven .- Longf ellow.
TJ!i·ite fi ve sentences, us-ing

claus~s

as subjects.

JU01Ie1.-" H aste makes waste" is a true saying.
H'i ..itc .fi ve sentences, using clauses as l'"edicates.

JUo<lel.- The rum or is, th at Mr. Ju dson has fai led.
TY rite fii:e sentences, u.sing clauses as objects .

Model.-1 believe that th e earth is round.
lYritc five sentences, 11sing clauses as adjective elements.

lllodeI.- Thc report th at he is insan e, is un fo unded.
~Vritc

ELLIPSIS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

fir e sentences, using clauses as a<lvel'bial elements.

11101Ic1.-0 m teacher is delighted wh en we a re stud ious.

133

3. The G1·ammatical P1·edicate of a prop osition
is the unmodified predicate.
Ex.-" The storm rages furiou sly."
matical predicat e.

" R.ages" is th e gram-

4. The Com1>Iex or Logical P1·edicate is the grammati cal predicate, taken with all its modifiers.
Ex.- " The storm rages furiousl y." "Rages furi ously " is
th e logical predicate. " The wind blows with great violence."
"Blows with great violence " is th e logical predicate; " blows"
is the grammatical predicate.
Rem.-All the parts of a sentence may be simple or complex ; but it is not necessary, in analysis, to distinguish th em
as such. The distinction, however, may be observed with th e
subj ect and predi cate.
P oint out th e g 1·a.n11natical and logical subjects aud 1u·cdicates in any of th e p receding sentences.

Qucstions.-\'V' hat is a cJanse ? A princi pal clauseJ A su b·
ord inat e clau se ? A complex sent ence? H ow many elements of a
sentence may be complex'! H ow many kinds of clauses are th ere ?

Wi ..ite the first two sentences of a composition on "Coastin;;" ',
and p oint out the g rammatical and logical subjects and
t>rcdicatcs.

97. Modified Subject and Predicate.

<tncst.! 011,..-vVhat is the grnmmati cal subj ect of a propositi on?
The complex or logical subj ect.? The grammatical predicate?
The co mplex or logical predicate ?

1. Th e Gn1.nmmtical Subject of a proposition 1s
th e unmodified subj ect.
Ex.- " A great storm is rag ing.' '
m ati cal subject.

98. Ellipsis.

" Storm " is the gram-

2. Th e ( )om1)Iex or Logical Sn~ject is the gr am,
mati cal subj ect, ta.k en with all its modifi ers.
Ex.-" A great storm is raging.' ' "A great storm" is th e
log ical subject. " H e wh o runs may read." "He who run:; "
is th e logi cal snhj eet.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words
of a sentenc e.
derstood .

The words omitted ar e said to be un -

Rem.-lf required in analysis o r parsing, the words omitted
must be supplied.

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135

ELEMEN'fARY GRAMMAR.

ABRIDGl\IENT.

2. All but the most import:1llt part of a sentence
may be omitted.

I believe that he is insane", is equivalent to, "I believe
"When the 11wyo,. ar,.fred, the rabble dispersed", is equivalent to, "'l'he mayor having an'ived, the rabble
di spersed ".

l. Xonus u1:1y be omitted; as, " Ye are Christ's [disciples J ".

2. P1·011ouus m ay be omitted; as, "Come [thou]".
3. Adjecthcs may be omitted ; as, " A slate and [a] penc il "; " Tha t kind of exercise may be good for you, but not
l good] for me" .
4. 1•a1·ti<'.iplcs may be omitted; as, "This [being] done,
we res um ed our journey".
ii . Ve1·bs may be omitted; as, " I '11 [go] hence to London"; " [ 'lb be] England's friend [is to be ] Ireland's foe".

6. A•herbs may be omitted ; as, " H e acted honorably, but
you did not [act honorably]" .

i

7. Prc1•ositions and Coujuuctious may be omitted as,
" H e gave l to] me a n orange"; "A good, [ a.nd] wise, and
truthful friend".
8. Entire Phrases and Clauses nmy be omitted; as, "Yun
have more to do than you can accomplish; I, less [to do than

I can accomplish J ".
q,uestious.-What is ellipsis? vVhen are words said to be
derstood ? vVbat parts of a sentence may be omitted?

Ex. - "

him to be insane".

2. In analyzing, let the pupil expand each abridged cln use
into a complete proposition, aud state its office or use in th e
sen te nce.

Models for Analysis.
I. "Forward ! "
This is 't sentence; (w hy ?): its subj ect and predicate are omitted
by ellipsis. It is equivalent to, "March ye forward!" Ye is the
subj ect; (why? ) : march, the predicate; (why? ). "March" is
modified by forward, an adverbial clement.
II. "The snow being deep, we co uld not proceed."
This is a sentence; (why ?). We is the subject ; (why ?) : could
1.roccell, the predicate; (why? ). "Could proceed" is modified
by not, an adverbial element, and by the absolute phrase, llhc
snow being dec1>, an adverbial element, equivalent to, "because the snow was deep".
Snow" is modified by the and
being dce1>, both adjective elements.

1111-

99. Abridgment.
1. Complex Sentences are often changed into simple ones by abridging their subordinate clauses.
!tcm.-Tliio is done by dropping the subject or changing its
case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an
infinitive or a participle.

EXERCISES.

1. Attention ! 2. On, Stanley, on ! 3. A rope to th e side !
4. Magnificent! 5. How now, my old friend. 6. Honest, my
lord? 7. Better late than neYer. 8. Are you cold?-Somcwhat.

9. No rain having fallen, the crops were destroyed. 10.
There is no danger of his falling. 11. The storm continuing,
we dropped anchor. 12. Having led an active life, he could
not endure confinement. 13. Being human, he is not perfect.
14. Honor being lost, all is lost.

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137

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

100. Rules of Syntax.

Rem. 1.-A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and a
sentence with a noun; as, "He is dangerously ill - a fact that ca n
not be denied"; "Remember Franklin's maxim, 'God helps them
that help themselves' ".

1. Synfax is that part of grammar which treats of
th e construction of sentences.
Rcm.-All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in
this 1rnrk, are exercises in sy ntax.

2. A Unle of Syntax is a statement of the manner in which words should be used in sentences.
Rule I. 'rhe subj ect of a proposition is in the nom~

inative case.
Rcm.-Any thin g that may be used as. a noun may be the sub- ·
jcct ; as, "A is a vowel"; "To play is pleasant"; "That the t.imes
are hard is undeniabl e " .

Huie H. A noun or pronoun used as the predicate
of a proposition, i:; in th e nominative case.
Rcm.-A noun or pronoun used as the pred icate, denotes the
same person or thing as th e subject, and must agree with it in ca~e,
and generall y in num ber and person.

Ruic III. A noun or pronoun, used to limit the

meanmg of a noun denoting a differ ent person or thing,
is in the possessive case.
Rem. I. - The limited noun is sometimes omitted; as, "\Ve
vi sited St. Paul ',; [clmrch ]"
Rem. 2. - Th e limi ted noun need not be plural because th0
possess ive is plur:tl; as, " Their intention was good".
0

Ucm. 2.-A word in apposition with anoth er, is frequently introd uced by as or or; fl;S, "As mayor of th e city, I fee l aggrieved";
"mayor" being in apposition with " I": "1lfaize, or Indian corn,
is extensively cultivated" ·

lbde V. A noun or pronoun used independently is

in the absolute case .
Rtile VI. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case.
Rem. 1.-A phrase beginning with a noun or pronoun may be
the object of a transitive verb; as, "I want friends to love".
Item. 2.-Some verbs have two objects, one represent ing a person, th e oth er a thing; as, "He ask ed me li question". vVh en snch
verbs arc used in the passive voi ce, if the thing is made nominativ e, the person is govern ed by a preposition, expressed 0 1· und erstood: if the person is made nominative, the thing is in the obj ective case without :i governing word.
Uem. 3.-A noun or pronoun fo llowing the infinitive to be, is
freq uently in the obj ective case in apposition with a word which
precedes it; as, "I did not think it to be hiin"; " him " is in apposition with "it": "lYhom do you take me to be ?" "whom" is
in apposition with "me".

Rule VII. The object of a preposition is in the ob -

jective case.
Uulc Vlll. Nouns denoting time, distance, m easure,

Rule IV. A noun or pronoun, used to limit the

or value, after verbs and adjectives, are in the obj ective
case without a governing word.

meaning of a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case.

Ex.-" He came home yesterday." Both "home" and "yesterday" are in the oQjective case without a governing word.

138

139

EL EMEN'l'ARY GRAMM AR .

RULE S OF SYNTAX.

R c m.-N ouns and pronoun s fo llow ing th e passive form s of certain ver bs, a re in th e obj ective case wit hout a governi ng word ; as,
" I was ta ug ht grammar "; " I-Ie was offered a s'ituation" . .

Rule XIV. A verb, with two or more subj ects m
the singular, connected by and, must be plural.

Ruic IX. Pronouns must agree with their anteced-

ents in gender , person, ancl numb er.
lt c m.- A. p ronou n used in stead of a collective noun , denoting
uni ty, should Le in the neuter singular: on e used instead of a co llective noun , denotin g p lu rali ty, sh ould be p lural, taking the gend er of th e in d ividual s composing th e coll ection.

Ihde X. A pronoun, with t wo or more antecedents

in the sing ular, connected by and, must be plural.
U c m .- vVhen th e antecedents a re the names of the same person
or thin g, the p ronoun mu st Le singula r : wh en th ey are li mited
Ly each, every, or no, t he pronoun must be singu lar: when th e
an tecedents, tak en together, are regarded as a single th ing, the
p ronoun muse be singula r.
Ex .- " The patriot and statesman rece ives his r eward " ; " Each

oljicer, each prirn te, did his duty " ; "Bread and rn·il/, i.s healthy .
foo d " .

Ruic X I. A noun or pr onoun, with two or more
antece dents in the singul ar, connected by or or n or,

must be singular.
Ite m.- 1.Vhen one of th e anteceden ts is plural, it should be
p laced last, and th e pronoun should be p lural; as, "Neither the
fa rm er nor his sons were aware of their danger " .

Rule XII. An adj ective or participl e belongs to

som e n oun or pronoun.
U c m .- An adj ective used as a predicate belongs to the subj ect.

Rule XIII. A verb must agree with its subject in
person and number.

Itc m .- vVhen t wo or more subj ects in th e singular are but d ifferent na mes fo r th e same thing, the verb sh ould be singular; as,
" D escent and fall to us 'is adverse." vVhen two or more singul ar
subj ects are emphat icall y d istinguished , the verb sh ould be sin gular; as, " E very bird and beast cowers before the wil d bl ast."

Rule XV. A verb, with two or mor e subjects in the

singular, connected by or or nor, must be singular.
Ruic XVI. An infinitive may be used as a noun m
any case except the p ossessive.
Itcm.-The sign to sh oul d neve r be separated fr om the r est of
the infinitive. " T o rapidly wr ite" should be, " To w1"iie rapidly" .

Rule XVII. A n infinitive not used as a noun , de-

p ends upon the word it limits.
R c m . -A n infi nitive may depend upon a ny of th e p arts of
speech , except the prep osition, conj unctio n, and inte1jection.

Rule XVIII. Adverb s modify verbs, adj ectives, participles, and adverb s.
Itc m . - A d ver bs also modify p hrases and entire propositions;
as, "He lives just around th e co rner " ; "Verily, ye are the
p eop le " .

Rule XIX. A preposition shows the relation of its
obj ect to the word up on which the latter depends.
Ruic XX. Conjunctions
mimbers, and clauses.

connect words, phrases,

Rule XXI. Interj ections have no dependenc e upon

other words.

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140

ELEMENTARY GllAMMAR.

101. Miscellaneous Exercises.
1. She saw a g lory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are commonly deepest. 3. To-morrow may be brighter th a n to-day.
4. Few days pass without some clouds. 5. She made acquaintance wi th th e birds that fluttered by. 6. It was a h arper,
wand erin g \\·ith his harp.
7. H ow long did st thou thin k that h is silence was slumber ?
8. At length th e su n departed, setting in a sea of gold. 9. The
smooth sea, th e se rene atmosphere, th e mild zephy r, a re th e
proper embl ems of a gentl e temp er, and a p eaceful life.
10. 'Tis grea tl y wise to talk with our past li ves,
And ask th em what report they bore Lo h eaven.
11. Th e night, methinks, is but the dayl igh t sick. 12. Evils
h a1·e been more painful to us in the prospec t than in the actu a l pressure. 13. A written or printed paper, posted in a
publi c place, is call ed a placard. 14. Few ar5 qualified to
sh ine in com pa ny; bn t it is in most men's p ower to be agree- ·
able.

15. H ow often ha1·e I bles;;ecl th e coming clay,
Wh en toi l remittin g lent its tu rn to play,
And all t he Yillage train, from labor free,
L ed up t heir spo rts beneath th e spreading tree.
Goldsmith.
16. Alas, we thi nk n ot that we dai ly see
A bout our h ear ths, angels t hat are to b e,
Or may be if th ey will.-Leigh Hunt.
17. Th e insect t ri be are h ere : th e a nt toils on
Wi th its white burden ; in its n etted web
Gray gliste nin g o'er t he bush , th e spider lu rks,
A close-crouched ball, out-dar ting as a hum
T ell s its trapped pray, and looping qui ck its threads,
Cha ins into h elplessness th e buzzing wings.- Street.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.

141

18. Princes have but their titles for their glories;
An outward honor for an inward toil.- Shakspeare.
19.

My Bou! is an en ch anted boat,
·which, like a sl eeping swan, cloth fl oat
Up on the silver waves of thy sweet singing;
A nd thine cloth l ike a n angel sit
Beside the helm conducting it,
W hile all t h e winds with melody are ringi ng. - Shelley.

20. Th e year leads round the seasons in a choir
Forever ch arming a nd forever n ew,
Blending the grand, the beautiful, th e gay,
The m ournful a nd the tender in one strain.-Percival.
21. King David's limbs were weary. He had fled
From far J erusalem ; and now h e stood,
Wi th his faint people, for a lit.tie rest
Upon t h e sh ores of Jordan. The light wind
Of morn was sti rrin g, and he bared his brow
• To its refreshing breath ; fo r h e h ad worn
The mourn er's covering, and h e had not felt
That h e could see his p eople unti l now.- Willis.
22. On e h our beheld him sin ce the tid e h e stemm ed,
Disgui sed, discovered, conquering, ta'en, condemned,
A chief on la nd, an outlaw on the deep,
D estroying, saving, prisoned, and asleep.-Byron.
23.

W"ho e'er, amidst the sons
Of' reason , valor, liberty, and virtue,
Displays disti nguished merit, is a noble
O(Nature's own creating.-T/wmson.

24. H e t hat attend:; to his in teri or sel f,
That ha:; a h eart, and k eeps it; h as a mind
That hun gers, and suppli es it; and who seeks
A social, n ot a dissipated life,
Has business.-Cowper.

142

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

25. The timid it concerns to ask th eir way,
And fear what fo e in caves and swamps may stay;
T o ma ke no step until the event is kn o wn,
An d ill s t o come, as evils pnst, bemoan.
K ot so t he wise ; no coward watch he k eeps,
T o py IYhat danger on his pathw ay cr eep s.
Go 1Yherc h e will, the wise ma n i at h ome H is h ear th th e earth, hi s h all th e a zure dom e.-Emerson.
2G . E1·c ry wo rm beneath th e m oon
Dra1Ys d ifferent threads, and late or soo n
Spins toilin g out his own cocoon.-Tennyson.
27 . S weet is t he breath of morn, h er risin g sweet,
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun,
·wh en first on this delightful l a nd h e spreads
His ori e nt beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flow er,
G liste nin g wi t h dew.-Llfilton.
28. Th e clay h ath gone to Gocl, Stra ight- like an infa nt's spiri t, or m ock ed
An d mourning m essenger of g race to man .-Bailey.

a

29. It is a li ttle t hing to speak a phrase
Of common co mfort, whi ch, by daily use,
Has alm ost lost its sense ; y et on th e ear
Of him wh o thong ht to die unm ourned, 'twill fall
Like choi cest music.-1hifourcl.
30. Labor is li fe ! ' Tis the still water fail eth;
Idleness ever clespaireth, bewail eth ;
K eep the wa tch wound, for th e da rk rnst nssaileth;
Flowers droop and die in th e stilln ess of noon.

Frances S. Osgood.

143

102. Questions for Review.
Vvh:it is a noun? A common
noun? A proper noun? What
belong to nouns?
·what is gender ? H ow m:iny
gend ers are th ere? 'What is the
masculin e gender ? The feminine gender? The common gender? The neuter gender? How
many ways of distinguishing the
masculine and feminin e genders?
G ive ihern.
What is person? How many
persons are there? Define them.
·what is number? How many
nnrnbern are ih ere ? '\Vh:it is the
• in gnlar number ? The plural
number ? R epeat the rules for
th e fo rmation of th e plural.
'.Vlrnt is case? H ow many
cases :ire there ? ·what is th e
nominative case? The possessi ve case? How is the possessive
singular form ed? The possessive plural? ·what is the object'ive case? The :ibsolute case?
In how many ways may a noun
be in th e absolute case?
'\Vha t is declension? What is
parsin g? R epeat the order of
p:1 rsing a n oun.

Wh al is a pronoun ? A pers.o nal pron onn ? '\Vhat are the
si rnpl e perso n:tl pronoun s ? The
com pound personal pronouns ?
'When prnnouns of different per-

sons are used, how should they be
arranged? Decline the personal
pronouns. R epeat th e order of
parsing a personal pronoun.
·wh at ar e th e possessive pronouns ? H ow is emphatic di~­
tincti on denoted ? R epeat th e
order of parsing a possessive pronoun.
What is a relative pronoun ?
What are the simple relatives?
The compound relatives? To
what is "what" equivalent'?
"Whoever?"
"'Whichever ?"
"Whoso" and "Whosoever ?"
Decline " who" and "which ".
What is a relative clause? R epeat the order of parsing a relative p ronoun.
·what :ire the interrogati ve
pronouns ? What is the snb~e ­
quent of an interrogative pronoun? '\Vith what must an interrogative agree in gender, person rind number? Repeat the
order of parsing an interrogative
pronoun. R epeat the "cautions "
in section 57.
What is an adj ective ? A de scriptive adj ective ? A definitiv e
adj ective ? Wh at is comparison ?
H ow many degrees are th ere?
·what is th e positive degree?
What docs the suffix ish denote ?
What is the comparative degree?

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144

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

H ow is it regularly formed?
\\'hat is the supe rla tive degree?
H ow is it reg ularly formed?
H ow are so me adj ectives compared?

tential mode? What is the sign
of the infinitive mode ? When is
it omitted?
Wh at is tense ? How many
tenses are there? \Vha t is the
present tense? The present perfect? The past? The p ast perfe ct ? The future? Th e future
p erfect? Give the signs of the
tense;;.

Vvhat arc pron omina l adjectiv es'! Name so me of the principal pronom in a ls. ·wha t is sa id
of the phrases such a., &c.? \Vhat
arc num eral aclj cctives? Cardinal num erals? Ord inal num eral s ? J\foltipli cat ive num erals ?
R epeat th e ord er of parsin g an
adj ect ive.
R epeat th e " caution s" in sect ion 62.

What is said of the person and
num ber of verbs? ·with what
must a verb agree i 11 p erson and
number ?
'~T h at are auxiliary verbs?
Name them. "Which of them are
sometimes used as principal
verbs? What is a uni personal
verb ?

"What is a verb? A tran sitive
ver b? An intransitive verb ? A
copulative verb ?
\\' hat is a participl e? The
present participl e ? H ow does the
pre;;c nt parti ciple always end?
\\' hat is th e perfect participle?
H ow does it u'ua lly end? What
is the con1 poun d participle?
H ow is it fo rmed'?

Wlrnt is conjugation? What•
a re the principa l parts of a ve rb ?
"What is the synopsis of rt ve rb?
Give the synop f)is of "to be".
Of "to love", in bot h voices.
"What are th e coordinrtte forms
of co njugation ? 1'he progrcssi ve fo rm ? Th e empha tic fo rm ?
Th e interrngative form? Give
th e synopsis of each form.

\Vh at bel ong to Ycrbs? \ Vhat
is Yoi ee '! H ow many vo ices have
trarniiti 1· c Ycrbs? "What is th e
act i1· c Yoice ? T he pass iv e voice?
H ow is the passive Yo ice fo rm ed?
H ow is a verb in th e active voice
changed into th e passive?
\Vh nt is mode? H ow mrtny
m odes are there? Name them .
\Vh at is the indi cat ive mod e?
Th csubju nC't ive mode ? Th e potential mod e '1 Th e imperative
rnorle? Th e i n\111itive mode?
\\' h:1 t a re th e si,!:';n;; of th e po-

·w hat is a reg ular verb ? An
inegu lar verb? A defect ive :
verb ? A redundant verb? Repeat th e order of parsing a ve rb.
R epeat the "cautions" in section 81.

I

QUESTIONS FOH. REVIEW.

tim e? Of place ? Of cause ?
Of mrtnn er? Of degree? What
is an adverbial phrase? \\That
are conjunctive adverbs ? How
are adverbs co mpared? Repeat
th e ord er of parsing an adverb.
R epeat the "crtutions" in section 86.
'What is a preposition? A
prepositional phrase ? R epeat
the order of parsing a preposition.
What is a co njunction ? Into
how many classes are conjunction s divided? Wlrnt are copulative conjun ct.ions.? Disjunctive conjunctions ? Correlative
conjun ct ions ? Repeat the order
of pars_ing a co nj uncti on.

predicate ?
cate 1

145

The logical predi-

Whrtt iR ellipsis? What parts
of speech may be omitted?
How are complex sentences
changed into simple o~es ?
What is syntax? What is a
rule of syntax ? R epeat the rule
for the subject of a proposition.
For a noun or pronoun used as
predicate. For th e possessive
case. For the "same case". For
the rtbsolute case. For the obj ective case rtfter transitive verbs.
For the oJ:\j ect of a preposition.
For nouns denoting time, distance, measure, or value.

Repeat the rule for the gender,
"Wh at is an in terj ection? Re- person, and number of pronouns.
peat th e order of p arsing an in- ._For pronouns with two or more
rtntecedents connected by and.
te1:ject.ion.
Connected by or or nor.
\ Vhat is a simpl e sentence?
R epeat the rule for acljecti ves
A co mpou nd sentence? "What
are the parts of a compound sen- and partici pies.
tence call ed?
R epeat the rule for the num' Vh at. is rt clause? A principal ber and p erso n of verbs. For
clause? A subordinate clause? verbs with subjects connected by
A com pl ex sentence'/ How many and. Connected by or or nor.
element s of a sentence ma y be For the infinitive used as a noun .
com pl ex? Ho w many kinds of For the infinitive not used as a
noun.
clauses are there?
What is the grammatical subj ect of a proposition? The logical subject? The grammatical

"Wh at is an rtclverb? Into how
ma ny classes can adverbs be divided? What rtre adverbs of
E. G.-10.

R epertt the rule for adverbs.
For prepositions. For conjunctions. For inte1:jections.

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PUNCTUATION.

PART IV.

Rule II. The memb er~ of a compound ·· sentence, when
short, and connected by conju nctions, should be separated by
commas.

PUN CTUAT ION.
103. Definition.
1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into sentences and parts of sentences, by
means of points or marks.

2. The principal marks used m punctuation are tho
following:
Comma,
Semicolon,
Colon,
Period,
Interrogation Point, 1

Exclamation Point, !
Dash,
Curves,
()
Brackets,
[]

147

Ex.-He was not fond of the technical language of metaphysics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its most formidable problems.-Everett.
Rule III.

Two correlative clauses should be separated by

commas.
Ex.-As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made alive.
Rule IV. Each coll'plet of words arranged in pairs should
be set off by comm_as.
~ Ex.-Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart
to this vote.

Rule v. Words placed in opposition to each other should
be separated by commas.

Ex.- Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull.
Rem.-This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed in
opposition or antithesis to each other.
Rule VI. When a verb is omitted, its place is usually supplied by a comma.

104. The Comma.
The Comma denotes the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.
Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or
adverbs, in the same construction, should be separated by
commas.
Ex.-1. Spring, summ er, autumn, and winter are called the
seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was a
brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon our .
acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously.
Rule 1.

Ex.-War is the law of violence; peace, the law of love.
Rule VII. Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usually set off by commas.

Ex.-1. Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite.
ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.

2. Whom ye

Rule VIII. Adverbs used independently, or modifying an
entire proposition, should be set off by commas.

Ex.-Indeed, you must wait awhile.
Rule IX. Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from the rest of
the sentence by commas.

148

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Ex.-1. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal
joys. 2. Take, 0 boatman, thrice thy fee!
Rule x. Nouns in apposition, modified by other words than
the, sho uld be set off by commas.
Ex.-The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.
Rem.-Nouns in apposition, introduced by or or as, should be
set off by commas.
Uulc Xi. A direct quotation should be set off by commas.
Ex.-Quoth the raven, "Nevermore".
Rule

xu. Words repeated for emphasis should be set off

by commas.
Ex.-Verily, verily, I say unto you.

105. The Semicolon.
The ~cmicolon denotes a degree of separation
greater than that denoted by the comma.
Itule 1. The semicolon should be used before as, namely, &c.,
introducing an example or an illustration.
Ex.-There are four seasons; namely, spring, summer, autumn,
and winter.
Rule II. Clauses having a common d ependence should be

PUNCTUATION.

149

operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; th at
knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not
the least idea.

106. 'fhe Colon.
The <Colon denotes a degree of separation greater
than that indicated by the semicolon.
Rule .11. The colon should precede an example or a lengthy
quotation, and follow·the introduction to a speech.
Ex.-The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the
Deity in these words: "God is love".
itule II. The members of a compound sentence, whose parts
are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons.
Ex.-~'e do not say that his error lies in being a good member of society; this, though only a circ~m stance at present, is a
very fortunate one: th e error lies in his having discarded the
anthority of God as his legislator; or, rather, in his not havin g
admitted the influence of that authority over his mind, heart, or
practice.

107. The Period.
:i

The Pe1iod denotes the greatest degree of separation.

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separated by semicolons.
Ex.-Expcrience teaches us, that an entire retreat from wordly
aJfairs is not what religion requires; nor does it even enjoin a long
retreat from them .
Itule 111. Semicolons should separate the members of compound sen tences, if the con nective is omitted, or if their parts
arc separated by commas.
Ex.-1. Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the bottom. 2. Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her

Rule I. The period should be placed at the end of a
declarative or imperative sentence.
Ex.-1. Evil communications corrupt good manners.
quietly.

f.

, 11!i

2. Walk

Rule 11. The period should be used after every abbreviated word.
Ex.-H. G. Lloyd, Esq. ; Mich., Ind., Ill.; Ps. lxxv, 6, 7;
Chap. XIV.

11111111'

111111

150

151

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PUNCTUATION.

108. Interrogation Point.

111. The Curves.

The Interl'ogation Point denotes that a question
is asked.

· The Cm'l'es include an expression which has no
necessary connection, in sense or construction, with
the sentence in which it is inserted.

Ii

Ex.-1. Where is Singapore?

2. Do you own this farm?

Uulc I. The curves should include those words which may
be omitted without injury to the sense.

109. Exclamation Point.
The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emotion.
Rule 1. The exclamation point should be placed after expressions denoting strong emotion.
Ex.-Al as, poor Yorick!

,,
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Ex.-K now, then, this truth (enough for man to know),
Virtue alone is happin ess below.- Pope.
n em.-The curves sometimes include letters or figures used to
enumerate subj ects or divisions of a subject; as, " (a) What it
does ; ( b ) What it is."

112. The Brackets.
Bl'acli:ets are used to include words, phrases, or

The Dash is a straight, horiwntaJ line, placed between the parts of a senten ce.

clauses explaining what precedes them, or correcting
an error.

nu1e 1. The dash should be used where a
off abruptly, or where there is a change in
construction.
Ex.-Dim-dim-I faint-darkness comes
thou art he, so much respected once - but oh !
degraded!

sentence breaks
its meaning or

Ex.-1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing.
fer with [from] you in opinion.

over me. 2. If
how fallen I how

113. Other Marks used in Writing.

Rule 11. The dash is frequently used before and after a
parenth esis.
Ex.-They see three of the cardin al virtues of dog or mancourage, endurance, and skill-in intense action.
Rem.-Th c clash is frequently used where there is an omission
of letters or figures: as, L-d N - h; i. e, Lord North: Ps. xxxv,
6-10; i.e., Ps. xxxv , G, 7, 8, 9. 10.

2. I

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Fie on you!

110. The Dash.

~

dif~

I. The Apostro1>he [ ' ] is used to denote the omission of
one or more letters, or to mark the possessive case; as,
" You 're mistaken"; " The Queen's English".

JI. The HYJ>hen [a] is used ( 1) to join the parts of compound words and exp ressions; ( 2) to divide words into syllables; ( 3) after a syllable at the end of a line, when the rest
of the word is carried to the next line; as, "N ut-brow!l m!lid:"
"con-fu-sion ".

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153

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PUNCTUATION.

III. quotation lUarl<s [ '° " J are used to show that a
passage is ta ken verbatim from som e author; as, "Shakspeare

Suggestion to Teachel"s.-Rcquire pupils to give rules for
the use of all the points fonnd in their reading lesso n. Select
passages from good authors, and pronounce th e word s in consecntive ord er, as in a spelling lesson, without indicating the g ram matical constru ction by tone of voice or inflections. L et the pupils
write these as pronounced, and separate them into sentences and
parts of sentences by the proper points.

152

says, 'All the world's a stage'''.

IV. The Imlex [ ~ J and Asterism [ ·:C ,,. ·:<· J point out a
passage to which special attention is called; as, "~Be punctual in your attendance at school".
V. The Asterisl< [ ''· ], the Obelisl< or Da:;ger [ t ], the
Double Da:;:;ge1· [ t ], the Section [ ~ ], the l'arallels [ II ],
and th_e Pa1·ag..a1>ll [ 1f ] , r efer to note s in the marg in, or :it
the bottom of the page.
VI. The Ih·acc [ __....._, ] connects a number of words with
a common term.

VII. Th e Pa ..agra1•ll [ 'J J denotes the beginning of a n ew
subject.

VIII. Th e Section [

~

J denotes

the divisions of a t<c:itisc.

IX. Th e caret [ /\ J is u sed in writing to show that something h as been omitted.
a
not
countries
Ex.-The sesons :ire alike in all of th e same r egion.
/\

/\

X. The Tilde [ ii ] annexes to n th e sound of y; as, caiion,
pronounced canyon; th e Ce<lilla [ 9] gives to c the sound of s;
as, far;ade: t h e Mac1·on [ - ] marks a long sound, as in tone:
the nrcve [ v], a short sound, as in ton: the Die1·esis [ · · J separates two vowels into two syllables ; as, aerifonn .
XI. The Acute Aecent [ / J com m only denotes a sharp
sound; th e Grave Accent [' ], a depressed sound; the Circun1flex Accent [ i' or '1 ], a broad sound.
Item.-In most r eading books, the acute acct!nt denotes the
rising inflection ; the gi-ave accent, the falling inflection; the circumflex, a nnion of th e acute and th e i:-mve.

I

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P unctuate properly the following example, and observe the ru{es
for the use of capitals:
his p ersonal appearance contributed to the attraction of hi s
social intercourse his countenance fra me expre.ssion a nd presence arrested a nd fixed attention you could not pass him
unn oti ced in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of hi gh
m ark and ch aracter np one could see him and not wish to sec
m ore of him and this alike in public and priva te.
edwai·d everett,
Qnestions.--\Vha t is punctuation ? \ \That are th e princip'd
marks nsed in p11nctuution?
·w hat does the co mma denote? R epeat the rul es for the use
of th e com ma.
·wh at does the semicolon denote ? R epeat the rules fo r its use.
\Vhat does th e colon denote ? Repeat th e rnles fo r its use.
\Vh at does the period denote? Repeat the rnl es for its use.
\\That does the interrogati on point denote?
What does the exclamation point denote? R ep ea t th e rul e fo r
its llf>O.
.
\\That is th e dash? Repeat the rul es for its use.
v\lhat are th e cun"es? ·wh at should they include?
What ::ire the brackets -used to include?
\Vhat does th e apostrnph e denote? For what purposes is th e
hyphen used ? The <Jnotation marks? The index and asterisrn ?
The asterisk, &c.? What does the brace connect? What does th e
p:iragraph denote? The section?
For what purpose is the caret used? What does th e tilde denote ? The cedilla? The macron? The breve? The di eresis?
Wh ::it does the acute accent denote? The grnve accent? The circumflex accent? What do these denote in most reading books?

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154

155

ORTHOGRAPHY.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

5. AspiJ:ates are mere emissions of breath.
are also called Atonics.

They

PART V.

116. Table of Elementary Sounds.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Vowels.

114. Sounds-Letters.
\Vhen we speak, we use sounds made by the voice.
sounds are called Elementary Sound.~ .

These

1. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be
separated into two or more distinct sounds.
When we write, we represent these sounds by letters.

2. A Letter is a character used to represent an
elementary sound, or a combination of elementary
sounds ; as, a, x.

115. Elementary Sounds.

v,

w,

1. There are forty elementary sounds in the English language. They are divided into Vowels and Consonants.

2. Vowels, or Vocals, are those sounds which are
made with the vocal organs open. They are also
called Tonics.
3. Consonants are obstructed sounds, or mere
emissions of breath. They are subdivided into Subvocals and Aspirates.

In,

d,

th,
j,

z,

zb,
I,

r,

"
"

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
as in.

g,

"
"
"

y,

"

·u,
ug,

4. Snbvocals are those sounds which are obstructeii
by the vocal organs, in the process of articulation.
They are also called Subtonics.

Aspirates.

Subvocal~.

b, as in

bib.
save.
way.
am.
lid.
with.
jar.
size.
azure.
lull.
roar.
man.
song.
nag.
yes.

p,

as in

c,

"
"

wh,

lip.
li fe.
when.

Has no corresponding aspirate.
tat.
t, as in
th, "
myth.
church.
ch, "
hiss.
s,
"

"

hush.
Has no corresponding aspirate.

§It,

"
"

"
"

"

"

I
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d

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I:

"
"
"

kick.
k, as in
Has no corresponding aspirate.
how.
h, . .. a.s in.
•.

I
I

1,
I

1!
I

i II
1

I!

156

157

ELEMEN'rARY GRAMMAR.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

:U7. Letters.

II. The first word of every line of poetry should
begin with a capital letter.

1. There are twenty-six letters m the English alphabet. 'rhey are used as either capital letters or as

III. Proper names of persons, places, days, &c.,
should begin with capital letters.

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small letters.
Rcm.-Printers call small letters lower-case.

2. Two or more letters are sometimes joined to
represent one or more sounds.
3. A Dipl1thon;;- consists of two vowels sounded together
in the same sy llable ; as, ou, foul; oi, boil.
4. A Digrai>h consists of two vowel letters written t-0gether in the same sy llable, one only being pronounced, or
both representing a single elementary sound; as, aa, Canaan;
ai, gai n.
5. A Trigra 1,i. consists of three vowel letters written together in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or
the three together representing a single vowel sound, or diphthong; as, aye, aye; awe, awe.
6. A noublc <Consonant consists of two consonant letters
written together in the same syllable, representing n single
elementary sound; as, ch, chord; gh, laugh.
7. A Silent Letter is one which represents no sound; as,
e in the word mute.

118. Capital Letters, Italics, &c.
I. The first word of every sentence should begin
with a capital letter.
ncm.-The word "that'', commencing a sentence which
follows an introductory word or clause, ·often begins with a
capital letter; as, "Rewlved, That section fourteen, &c."

11

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IV. Titles of honor or distinction should begin with
capital letters.
V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with
capital letters.

11

Rem.-vVords used as substitutes for the name of the Deity
sometimes begin with capitals ; as, "The Hand that made us
is divine".

VI. Words denoting the race or nat!on of individuals should begin with capital letters.

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,.

VII. Word; derived fr om proper names should begin: with capital letters.
Itcm.-iVhen such words become common nouns, they
should not begin with capital letters; as, a guinea; chinaivare..

,;
I.

VIII. Words of special importance may begin with
capital letters.
Rcm.-Comrrion words used as names ?f particular obj ects
become words of special importance, and should begin with
capitals; as, the Garden City; B ig Creek; the City of Brotherly
L ove; "Have you visited the Round Tower?"

IX. I and 0, used as single words, should be capitals.
X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are frequently printed in italics.
Item. 1.-Words requiring special emphasis are often
printed in small capitals or capitals.

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158

159

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Rem. 2.-Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied
by translators to explain the original.

insurrection. "I have-just read 'homes without hands' and
'the world before the deluge'."
.

Rem. a.-In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word
indicates italics; two lines, SMALL CAPITALS; three lines,

9;...ii can't remember these rules. o, how i wish school
was out. there isn't any fun . in sitti~g still all day. let's
run away and see the circus come into town.

CAPITALS.

Vi

Exercises to be Corrected.

119. Syllables-Words.

1.-the mornings are chilly. sugar is sweet. rainy weather
is unpleasant. the snow was more than eight inches deep.
hundreds of bird8 were singing in the park.

1. A Syllable is a sound or ()Ombination of sounds
uttered with one impulse of the voice; as, . man,
man-ner.

2.-The day is past and gone;
the evening shades appear.
o may we all remember well
the night of death is near. ,
3.-edwin and james went to chicag6 last may. The legislature meets on the first monday in january. Mr. smith left
new york on saturday the 22d of may.
4.-Eli Hughes, esq.; Alexander the great; George the
third; earl Russell ; gen. Scott. Eli french, esq. argµed the
case for the defendant before judge Lynch.
5.-Remember thy creator. The lord shall endure forever.
"I am the way, the truth, the life." God spake these words,
and said : I am the lord thy god.
·
6.-The french; the mexicans; the americans. . " The gypsies wander about from place to place." The spaniards were
the first european nation that established colonies in america.
7.-A russian serf; an italiari sunset; an african sun; a
canadian winter. the foliage of australian trees · is remarkable. the prussian army was provided with the best fire-arms.
the commander of the russian forces was wounded.
8.-The tariff bill; the Missouri compromise; the whisky

Rem. 1.-Every syllable must contain a vwel.
Rem. 2.-A syllable is analyzed by giving the sound represented by each letter, except those which are silent.
.

2. A lV01·d may consist of one or more syllables.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; as, care, man.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, care-Jul,
man-ly.
·
A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, care-julness, man-li-ness.
A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable; as,
com-pla-cen-cy, ec-cen-tric-i-ty.
·
3. A Primitive or Radical word is one in no way derived
from another in the same language; as, mind, faith. 4. A Derivative.word is one formed by joining to a primitive some letter or syllable to modify its meaning; as, remind, faith-Jul.
5. A Con.:pound word is one formed by uniting two or
more primitive or derivative words; ·as, man-worship, Anglo·
Saxon.

160

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

6. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which is
placed before the radical; as, re-call, sub-join.
7. A sumx is that part of a derivative word which is
placed after the radical; as, faith1ul, change-able.
8. S1>ellini; is the art of forming words by arranging their
letters in due order.
The proper way of spelling words is best learned from
spelling-books and dictionaries.
Q,nestions.- What is an elementary sound? A letter? How
many elemental'y sounds are there in the English language? How
are they divided? What are vowels? What are they also called?
Whn.t are consonn.nts? How are they subdivided? What are ~ub­
vocals? What are they also called? What are aspirates? Vi' hat
are they also called?
How many letters in the English alp1iabet ? What is a diphthon g ? A digraph ·1 A trigraph? A double consonant? A silent·
·
letter 't
Repeat th e rnles for the use of capital letters.
'What is a syllable? '\V'hat must every syllable contain? How
is a syll able a.na lyzed? What is a monosyllable ? A dissyllable?
A tl'isyllable? A polysyllable? What is a primitive word? A
derivn.tive word '/ A compound word? A prefix? A suffix?
What is spelling?
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160

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

6. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which is
placed before the radical; as, re· call, sub-join.
7. A Suffix. is that part of a derivative word which is
placed after the radical; as, faith-jut, change-able.
8. Spelling is the art of forming words by arranging their
letters in due order.
The proper way of spelling words is best learned from
spelling-books and dictionaries.
Q.nestions.- vVhat is an elementary sound? A letter? How
many elementary sounds are there in the English language? How
nre they divided? What are vowels? What are they also called?
What are consonants?· How are they subdivi.ded? What are ~ub­
vocals? What are they. also called? What are aspirates? ·~'hat
are they also called?
How many letters in the English a\phabet? What is a diphthong? A digraph'/ A trigraph? A double consonant? A silent·
letter?
·
Repeat the rules for the use of capital letters.
vVhat is a ~y llable? vVhat must every sy liable contain? How
is :t syllable analyzed? What is a monosy liable? A dissy liable?
A trisyllable? A polysyllable? What is a primitive word? A
derivative word'/ A compound word? A prefix? A suffix?
What is spelling?
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