THE

.

YOUTH'S
CATECHETICAL
.
GR~MMAR,
OR

A SIMPLE ILLUSTRATION OF THE PRINCIPLES
j)F THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
ADAPTED TO THE

CAPACI TY OF THE JUVENILE MIND;
€onrptis fng a ;jilpilosopNrnI VfelD
OF

ORTHOGRAPHY,
~YNTAX

ETYMOLOGY,

AND PROSODY,

ILLUSTRATEI! DY

APPROPRIATE EXERCISES,
DESIGNED FOR THE IMP-ROVEMENT OF YOUTH,

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BY

Ff'GILBERTU
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If you would converse with children, nd:ipt your language to their
capnciry.

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1P>7!}JJ;~.' J
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Ne\IJ,.Yotlt:

//

Sold by Howe & Dates, 68 Cbatbam-stroet ; Leavitt, Lor<f&,,q.>.,
•
180 Broadway ; D & s. Collins, 2SO Pearl·•treer, nud'°b.)" .&be .•
llooksellers in goneral.
"'

18 3 5.

THE

YOUTH'S
CATECHETICAL
.
~

GRAMMAR,
OR

A SIMPLE ILLUSTRATION OF THE PRINCIPLES
PF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
ADAPTED TO THE

CAPACITY OF THE JUVENILE MIND;

QJ:omptisfnlJ a ;j.'lpf!osopWrnl Vfelll
OF

ORTHOGRAPHY,

..

~YNTAX

ETYlUOLOGY,

AND PROSODY,

ILLUSTRATEI! BY

APPROPRIATE EXERCISES,
DESIGNED F OR THE IMr.ItOVEMENT OF YOUTH,

I

BY

-d:°:~LBERTM ~.

If you would converse with children, adapt your language to their
capacity.

Nelll<Yotlt:

rm

~ 5:_ ;/··~,

tP>'iJ;~.:J

Sold by llowe & Dates, 68 Chatham-street; Leavitt, Lor~&,p_o., 180 Broadway; D. & s. Collins, fJSO l'earl·street; au by. eie.•.~
Booksellers in goneial.

18 35.

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INTRODUCTION.

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1834, by
ELI G ILBERT,
in the Clerk's ofllcc of the Dis~ric t Court of Connecticut.

a S ·r?

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A s the public arc already furnished with a multiplicity
o_f authors on the science of English Grammar, all pro·
1 ess-Lng, and many of them justly claiming, some important
improvement; it may with propriety be asked by an
enligh tened co mmunity, 'Vhat improvement has the author
of this work discovered, or what is his motive for th;{s
presuming to introduce a n ew Grammar ·1 T o the first
question the author would reply-Examine the work for
yourselves, and as the.term im pro\'ement 'is not to be found
in the title-page, it remains for you to decide whether it is
worthy of the appellation or not ; and .in reply to the
latter question, it may be said that the author of this work
h ~s been for the las t ten yrars engaged in the business
of itrntructing, during which time he has labored under
a great disad vau tagc in teaching the principles of the
English language, in consequence of not meeting with
an autl10r whose views on that subject were in accordance
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-PlUNTED DY W · MlTCIJELL, 2G5 BOWERY, NEW YORK.

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and to whom he had commumcated !us intention and
ex plain cil his system, earnestly solicited him to publish it,
pleadin g that such u work was needed in schools i11 g~n e­
raL A fter a due cons ideration of the subject, the author

INTRODUCTION•

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has consented to offer it to the public, hopin~ it may be
useful both to teachers and pupils, by facilitating that
once dry and much dreaded task-the study of English
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Grammar.
T o present a summary view of a work so small as this
Is deemed needless, ns it is presumed that every person
who wishes to judge of its merits, will examine it in detail;
therefore the anthor will only aud that this work recognizes most of the principles adopted by Murray, but differs
in the mo<le a rnl style of illustrating them. H e would
also acknowlell<'c himsclf imlebtcd to several more modern
authors, for n;any valuable hints which have been of
service to him in preparing this work. In altering the
<lefinitions and style of language, it has been the author's
object 110t only to render the definitions more appropriate,
1V r1;;1s 9s
'? the gpacitJ or tt:e
1 t
1111
juvenile mind; he has also ondeavourc<l lo ex am s
orrcc mg a se synt.ax

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and orthography in such a mann er as to exercise the
understanding of the pupil. How far he has succeeded ,
and also the comparative merit between this and the works
of other authors on the same subject, is left for a scrutinizing anll enlightened commun ity to judge.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

r

Errn~~sn GnAn!MAJ~ is the art of speaking
ai:d wntmg the Englrsh language with propriety •
...-. The science is divided into four parts, viz.
ORTHO GRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY SYNTAX, and
PROSODY.
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<?RTHOGRAPHY is that part of grammar
which _teaches the use of letters, and the proper
format10n of words.
.
ETYMOLOGY is that part of grammar which , - ·~
t~aches the definitions, variations, and deriva- " ,
tlon s of the pa rts of speech.
SYNTAX is that part of grammar which
t eaches the proper formation of sentences. .
PROSODY is tha t part of grammar which
teaches the proper pronunciation of words the
pun~tuation of s entences, and the laws of v~rsi.
fic a t10n.
·
QUESTIONS.
What is English Grammar 1
How is the science divided?
Wha t is Orthography?
What is Etymolon-y?
What is Syntax
What is Prosody ?

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLlSH GRAillillAR .

G

Ncte.-.:Here the pupil should be required to pronounce
the letters of the alphabet separately, and thereby distinguish the vowels from the consonants.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY teach es the use of letters, and
the proper formatio n of words.
LETT ERS are the ch aracters wh ich are used
to represent the sounds of the lang uage.
There a re twenty·six letters in the English
alplrnbet, viz. A BC DEF G H I J K L M

N0 P

Q,

R S T U V W X Y Z.

T he letters are divided into vowels and con sonants,
A vowel is a letter which rep resen ts a sound
tlrnt can be pronounced without chang ing the
position of the tongue or lips.
A consonant is a letter which represents
a sound that cannot be pronounced without
changing the position of t he ton ;rue or lips.
T he vowels are A, E, I, 0, U, nncl sometimes W and Y.
Wand Yare consona nts when th ey begin a
word or syllable, and they are vow~ls w hen
they do not begin a word or syll able.

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A.

H ate,
Hat,
B all,
B art,
Mete,
M et,
H er,
They,
I.
Mite,
Hit,
S tir,
0.
_Note,
Not,
Love,
l\llovc.
U.
T ube,
Tub,
Bush.
W . New.
Y.
T ype,
Hymn.
The pupil should be required to substitute other words
for examples, to illustrate the sounds of the vowels.

E.

Q.UESTIONS AND DIRECTION S.

How many sounds has .8.1 l\'Iention a word
fm)xample,which contains the first sound of
Also one which contains the second sound, etc.

Q, UESTIONS .

,. ·w hat does orthography teach i W hat are
-, etters? H ow many letters are there in the
En g·lish al phabet? H ow nre the letters
divided? 'W ha t is a ?;owcl ? What is a conso n ant? "\Vhich of the letters a re vowels 1'Vhen are W nncl Y consonants i When are
W and Y vowels ?

For example. Is A a vowel or a consonant i
Ans. A is a vowel, because it represents
a sound that can be pronounced witho ut
ch anging the position of the tongue or lips.
Is B a vowe l or a consonant 1
Ans. B is a consonant, because it represents a sound that cannot be ptonounced
without changing .the position of the lips.
E ltch of th e vowels, except W, has two or
more sounds, which may be learned by observ·
ing their sounds in the followi ng word s, viz :

A'.

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C and g have also two sounds, viz. the hard
a nd the soft.
Chas its h ard sound like k, when it is placed
before a, o, or u, and it has its soft sound like s
when it is placed before e, i, or y.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

8

Can, cork, cure; celebrate, citizen, cy_

prus.
. G has it hard sound when it is placed before
a, o, or u , and it generally h as its soft sound
like j , when it is placed before e, i, or y.

Ex. Gain, gold, gun; gern , cngiae, Egypt.
Note.-In some words g has its hard sound,
when it is placed before e, i, or y. Ex. Get,
gird, craggy.
The different sounds of g when it is placed
before e, i, or y , are to be learned by observation.
E ach of the other consonants has usually
only one sound .
Compound sounds are represented by two or .
more letters united.
·
Ch has three sounds,' viz. like tsh in English
words , like sh in French words, ancf like k in
Greek wo rds.
E x. C!iarni, chaise, chord.
G li has a variety of sounds, which can only
be learn ed by observing the sounds as they are
used in differe- vords. E x. Ghost, high, laugh,

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bur zh, do1~gli.

Phhas usually the sound off. E x. P hilip,
philosophy.-Note. In the word S tephen , pli
has th e sound of v .
Th has two sounds, viz. the acute and, the
obtuse. Ex. 'Ihick, tkas e.

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QUESTIONS.
Have any of the consonants more than one
sound 1
How many sounds have c and g, and what
are they 1
When does c have its hard sound, and what
is it like? When does c have its soft sound,
a nd what is it like 1 Mention a word which
contains the hard sound of c. Mention a word
which contains the soft sound of c.
Wh en does g have its hard sound 1 When
does g havt: its soft sound, and what is it like ~
Mention a word which contains the hard
sound of g. Mention a word which contains
the soft sound of c. Does g ever have its hard
sound when it is pl aced before e, i, or y? How
must we learn the different sounds of g, when
it is placed before e, i, or y?
How many sounds h as eac h of the other
consonants 1 How are compound sounds represented? How many sound has ch? .
What does ch sound like in E nfdish wo rd s?
What does c!i sound like in French word s?
What does ch sound like in Greek words ?
Mention a word wh ich contains the English
~o u nd of ch.
Mention a word which contains the FHncli
sound of c!i.
ME;ntion a word which contains the 'Greek
sound of c/i,

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLI SH GRAMMAR.

'What ar'! the sounds of gh, and how are
they to be learned ? Mention examples w hich
contain each of the sounds of gh, a nd describe
the sound in each.
Wh a t docs ph usually sound like 1
vV hat does ph sound like in the word S tephen?
How many sounds has th, and what are
th ey called 1
G ive an a mple of the acute sou nd of th.Give an example of the obtuse sound of th.
The compound sounds of t he vowels. are
called diphthongs and t riphtlion[J·s.
A diphthong is a compound sound fo rmed of
t wo vo wels.
A triphthong is a compound soun d formed of
three vowels.
A diphthong is called proper when both of
the vowels are distinctly sounded.
A diphthong is called improper whe n only
one of the vowels is dis tinc tly sou nded.

E XAMPLES.
Dll'!IT ll ONGS.

P roper, - Voice.

'l.'RLl'HTHONGS.

Beau.
View.
QUESTIONS.

l mproperi---Bcut.

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' Vh at are the compound sounds of the vowels
cnl led ?
Wh at is a cl i phthon~? Wh at is a triphthong i What is a proper diphthong? Wbat
is an imp rop er Diphthong ? Why is the sound
of oi, in voice , called a proper diphthong?

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Why is the sound of ca, in beat, called an improper cliphthong? Why is the sound of cau,
in bccm., called a triphthong ?
Here the pupil should be required to substitute other
word s fo r examples which contain diphthongs and triµh·
thongs, and to distinguish the proper from the improper.
WORDS .

vVorcls are signs of our ideas.
Words are fo rmed of letters and syllables.
A syllable is a letter or un ion of lett.crs pro·
no u nced by a single impulse of the v01ce.
A wo rd of one syllable is called a monosy liable.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable.
.
.
A word of three syllables 1s called a tn·
syll able.
A word of more than three syllables is called
a polysyllable.
QUESTIONS.

vVhat are words?
Of what are words
form ed? Wha t is a syllable? Wh at is a
word of one syllable called 1 What is a word
of two syllables called 1 What is a word of
three sy ilables called ? What is a word of
more than three syllables called i
Nole .--- H ere the instructer'should mention a variety of
words, nntl the p11 pil should be required to count the sylla·
bles , antl also to give examples of monosyllables, d1ssyllnbles, &c. and give the reason why they arc called so.

Accent is pronouncin'g ·one syllable in a
A6
worcl louder than the rest.

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ENGLISH

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GRA~IMAR.

Note---Here the pupil should be reqnired to <listinguish
the accentc<l sy llable in a variety of words, nn<l also to
change the accent from one syllable to the other, by pronouncing the words.

QUESTIONS.
What is accent 7
.
What syllable is accented in the f?llowrng
words :-Congratulate, d-ilatory, optics, auctioneer, q.c. Pronounce the word cont.ent,
with the accent on the first syllable, and likewise with the accent on the las t syllable.
This mark, CJ is used to distinguish the accented syllable, wh en written or printed,
E xainples.-Dcjorrn' ity, e11iula' tion, cit' Y·

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DIVISION OF WORDS.
·w ord s are either primitive or ~leriyative.
A primitive word is on.e which IS not de.
ri ved from any other English \~ord . .
A derivative word is one which is denV&d
from some other English word.
vVorcls which are composed of two or more
simple words, are sometimes called compound .
EXAMPLES.
P r im.it-ivc.
Delight.
Conten t.

Derivative.
Delightful.
Contentment.

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Q.UESTIONS.

·,;

Compound.
Tea-cup.
Stove-pipe.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

13

vVhy is delight a primitive word 1 Ans.
Because it is not derived from any other
En dish word. Whv is contentment a derivative0 word 1 Ans. Because it is derived from
content, which is also an English word1 Why
is tea-cup a compound word 1 Ans. Because
it is composed of the t\Vo simple words, tea
and cup.
The pupil shoul<l be require<l to give other examples of
primitive, derivative, and compound words, an<l give the
reason why they arc such.

SPELLING.
Spelling is the art of exp ressing words by
the proper a rrangement of letters.
The spelling of a large proportion of the
English words is arbitrary, a nd consequently it
is to be learned by observation. The following
rules, however, will serve to assist the learner
jn spellin g many of them.

RULES FOR SPELLING.
RULE l.

l\9nosyllables, which end inf, l, ors, double
the fn al consonant when it is preceded by a
single vowel.
E x ceptions. -Of, if, as, is, has, gas, pus, his,
7;es, his, was , thus, us.
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.

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How are words divided? Wh a~ is a pn.mi~
tive word ? What is a denvat1ve WOid ·
What is a compound word ?

Staf
kil
gros
Puf
wil
mis
S1rnf
mi l
kis.
The pupil shoul<l be required to give the reason why tho
al.iovc_'exumplcs arc spellc<l wrong, and also to rectify them.

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For example. Why is staf spelled wro~~ 'I
Ans. Because it is a monosyllable er~dmg
in /, and the f is preceded by the smgle
vowel a, which requires the f to be doubled. It
should be staff. (Here repeat the rule, &c.)
Why i\> kil spelled w rong?
·why is gros spelled wrong 1 etc.
RULE II.

EXAMPLES OP p ALSE SPELLING.
ma pp
tuub
Mam'
mudu
dogg

RULE Ill.

Primitive words ending with y, preceded by
a consonant, change the y into i before an additional syllable or termination. E xceptions.When the additional syllable begins with i, the
y is retained to prevent the i from being doubled ; also, the words slyly, slyness, and some
others, are exceptions to this rule.
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.

1VIonosy1lables which end in any consonant
xcei)t J, l or s never double the final consoenant when
, ' it is• prec eded b y a smg
. 1e v_ow el ·
E xceptions. A dd, ebb, odd, egg, err, inn, butt,
bu'm, purr, buzz.

Pinn
Tenn

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ENQLISH GUAMl\lAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

stirr

sitt

QUESTIONS.
Why is 11 iann spe~led wrong?
. er
Ans. Because it is lt monosyllable endrn"'
in n, and the n is preceded by ~he smgle vowel
a, which requires the n to be smgle. It should
be 11u:i;1, etc.
Why is t·ubb spelled wrong?
Why is pim1 spelled wrong 1
''\'hy is tenn spelled wrong 1
Why is dogg spelled wrong? etc.

Sp yes
Happyness

Carrycd

can dyes
la<lyes
foll yes

skyes
dcnycd

c.Jrycd.

QUESTIONS.
Why is spyes spelled wrong?
Ans. Because it is formed by annexing es
to the word spy, which ends in y, and they is
preceded by the consonant p, which requires
they to be changed into i. It should be spies,
etc.
Why is lulf/lli!J·aess spelled wrong 1
W by is carryed spelled wrong? etc.
RULF. IV.

Primitive words ending with y, preceded
by a vowel, retain the y before an additional
syllable or termination.-Exccptions. Daily,
gaily, gaiety.
·
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.
Emploimcnt
Coiless

juiless
plaiful

gainess
joiful.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR•

RULE VI.

QUESTIONS.
·why is j oiless spelled wro ng 1
Ans. Because it is formed by annexing less
to the word joy, which ends in y, and the y is
preceded by the vowel o, which requires the y
to be retained . It should be joyless, etc.
Why is plaif1d spelled wrong?
"Why is gainess spellerl wrong? etc.
:Monosyllables and words accented on the
last syllable ending with a single consonant,
which is preceded by a single vowel, double
th at conso nant when an additiong,l syllable is
annexed beg inning with a vowel.
N ole.--· vV hen the final consonant is preceded by a
lliphtbonJ::, or when the accent is on the preceding •yllable,
it is seldom doubled.

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.
nJmitance

rober

begining.

QUESTIONS.

:.\

When words which end in ll have ness, less,
ly, or Jul, annexed to them, one l should be
omitted. NotG.-Words ending in any other
double letter, preserve the letter double when
these syllables are annexed.
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.

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Fullness
Skillfull

chi Ilncss
dullness

QUESTIONS.

RULE V.

Commitee

17

"Why is c01nmitee spelled wrong ?
Ans. Because it is fonr.ed by adding ce to
the word co1n11iit, which is accented on the last
syllable and ends in the single consonant t,
and the t is pre ceded by the single vowel i,
which requires the t to be doubled. It should
be committee, etc .
Why is admitcmcc spE:lled wrong?
Why is rober spelled wrong? etc .

Why is full ness spelled wrong?
·Ans. Because it is formed by annexing ness
to the word full, which ends in ll, which requires one l to be omitted. It should be ful·
ness, etc.
Why is skillful spelled wrong ?
Why is dullness spelled wrong? etc.
RULE VII.
Words ending in silent e, generally retain the
c when a syllnb~ added which begins with
a consonm1t. Exceptions.-Dulz.i , tnd~1 , av:ful,
judgm ent, a/;1idg11ient , acknowltdgr:1.cn t. ;
EXAMPLF'.S 01" FAL SE SPELLIJ'\G.
Di s!!l'llCftc l

ern[>rovement

J\l ::i.n:i~n1~ n t

sincerly
palncss.

A<l ~:-a n cn:cH t

QU:.:STIONS.
\V by is d isgra cf1d spelled wrong 1
An s. Because it is formed of the word
disgrace, wl: ich ends in silent e; · and the addit.io1rn l sy l!able.ful, which bt'gins with the conA*

ENGLISH 6RAMl!lAR.

IS

sonant ; ; which requires the e to be retained.
It shou ld be disgracef1d, etc.
Why is arl-vancment spelled rrronrr?
\Vhy i;; sincerly spelled wro~g? "'e~c.

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When word s w hich end in sil ent e have an
a dditional ~yllable or term in ation annexed to
them, beginning with a vowel, the e should
generally be omitted . Exc eptions. - vVords
which end in gc and a retain thee when able
i;; a nnexed.
EXAMPLES OF FALSE SPELLING.
Blameable
Curea_blc
Scnsc1llle

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ENGLISH G RAMl\IAR.

slavcish
lo<lgljng
placeing; .

QUESTIONS.
Why is slavcislt spell ed wrono·?
Ans. B ecause it is formed of Uie wo rd slau
wh ich e1:as in _silent e, and th e add itional
syllable ish, wh ich begins w ith the vowel i
which requires thee to be omitted. It shoul rl
be shtvisli, etc.
Why is placcing spell ed wrong?
vVhy JS citreable spelled wrong?
RECAPIT ULATION.

W hat is spelling ?
.
. H ow do we !0arn to spell most of th e B 1w
0
h sh words ')
I:Io\~ many rc1les arc given in th is boo k to
assist m !_earnin g: spel ling?
What JS rule 1st ? Wh a t is rule 2d? etc.

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Directions for Placing C apital L etters.
Rule 1st. The first word of every piece of
w ri ting, and every distinct sentence, should
becrin w ith a cauital letter.
Rule ~cl . The names of all individuals,
either persons or places; also words .derived
fro m individual names, should bo;! gin with capital l etters.
·
Rule 3d . The pronoun J, and the interj ection 0, an d also the first word of every line in
poetry, should beg in with a capital letter.
2Vole.- Othcr wor<ls may with propriety begin with
capitals, if they are remarkable from any case.

ETYMOLO GY.
Etymology is that part of gr'.tmmar which
teaches the definitions, variations, and de rivations of the parts of speech .
In En,...Jish the re are ten parts of speech,
yiz . Art~le, Noun , Adjective, Pronoun, Verb,
..l:.'art iciplc, Ad verb, Preposition , Ccnjunction,
anLl Interjectio n.
DEFINITIONS.
An article is a pa rt of speech used to li mit
a no un .
A noun is the name of a thing, or sort of
things.
An adjective is a part of speech used to
describe a nou n.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR~

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A pronoun is a part of speech used instead
of a noun.
A verb is a part of speech which expresses
action, or existe nce, in a direct manner.
A particip le is a part of speech derived from
a. verb, ancl expresses action, or existence, in
an indirect manner.
An adverb is a part of s peech used to add to
the meaning of verbs, arlj ectives, a nd participles.
A preposi tion is a part of speech u sed to
sho w the relation betw een other words.
A conj-unction is a part of speec h used to
connect words and sentences.
An inte1jc ction is a part of spech used to
express sudden passion or emo tion .

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E.'l:amplcs <if Articles
The boy
the door
an orange
A map
an inkstand

An apple

and ..'\'ouns.
a boo k
a slate
t.he winuow a bir<l
a pin
the hursr.

QUESTIONS .
"'Wh at part of s peech is the in t he first ex .
ample, and w hy? An s. T ltc is a n articl e,
beca use it is used to limit th e noun boy .
What part of speech is boy, a nd wh y ?
A ns. B oy 1s a noun, because it is the name
of a sort of persons , etc.
E :ra niplcs qf A. rticlcs, A clj cct ir cs , an(l 1\Tv-..t ns .
A goo<l .ho use, a httlc <log, a loug ropr., the large boys,
an olJ rh::n_r ~ a long lesson, a ::; liort lesso n, a n e asy Iessou

a shar p kmfc, an ugly boy, a broken window.

21

What part of speech is a in the first example, anrl why? ·what part of speech is n-ood
and why? Ans. Good is an adj ective~ be:
cause it is used to descr ibe the noun house.
Wha t part of speech is house, and why?
E :rnmples of Articles, Adjectives, Nouns, Pronouns,
and Ve rbs.
' ·

The blind man lost his hat.
T he large boys have recited their lesson.
I have studied my grammar lesson.
You must be a goo<l chil<l.
The little <log caught a red squirrel.
Sec the old hen feed her chicke ns.

QUESTIONS.
What part of speech is the in the first example, and why? What part of speech is blind,
and why? ' Vh.r.tt part of speec h is man, and
why! Wha t part of speec.i._ is los: , and why?
Ans. L ost 1s a verb, be. . use 1t expresses
an ac tion in a direct manner.
What part of speech is his, and why? Ans .
lfis is a pronoun , because it is used instead of
th e noun 1nan.
What part of speech is fia t , and w hy?
E :r:am ples qf Articles, Nouns , Adjectives, Pronouns,
Ver bs, P articiples, and Adverbs .
; ·,·
I heard the boys studying loudly.
.·..::. , ,
John has a lillle book neatly bound .
An old man caught a thief stealing his apples sly l)'I

.~ ' '

ENGI.ISH GRAnIMAR.
I .

22

ENG LISH GRAMMAR. ·

QUESTIONS.
What part of speech is I in the fi rst sentence,
aml why? Ans. I is a pronoun , because it is
used instead of the n ame of the person speaking.
Wh at part of speech is heard, and wh y ?
\ Vha t part of speech is bo?Js, and why?
What part of speech is sturlying, and why ?
Ans. Stiulping is a p articiple, because it
is derived from the ve rb study, and expresses
an action of bo11s in an indirect manner.
What part
speech is loud ly, a nd w hy?
A ns. L oudly is an adverb, because it is
used to aM to th e meaning of the participl e
studying, etc.

of

E.i·amplcs of P r epos itions, Conj unctions,
I nterject ion s, <f·c.

J ohn aml C harles went to sch ool. O h! J have cut my
fin crcr with a knife . Bats fl y in the air, and catch small
ins7'cts. Oh! see that black snake craw ling on the ground.
The men raised the heavy timbers of .the C hurcl! with
ropes and pullics suspcndetl on a gin-pole. The book was
neatly bound, and it containcu many valuable \cs sons.

QUESTIONS.
·w hat part of s peech· is and in the first sen·
tence, and why? Ans. A nd is a conjunction,
because it is used to connec t tho words J ohn
and Charles.

What part of speech is to? Ans. To is a
preposition, because it is used to show the rela·
tio n bet wee n iQen t and school.
What part of speech is oh, in the second
sentence, and w by 1 Ans. O/i is an interjection, because it is used to express a sudrlen
e motion of pain .
What part of speec h is a,nd in the third
sentence, and why? An s. And is a conjunction, because it is usr,d to connect the preceding
and s ubsequen t se nten ces.

···'.:.'

'!;

Nutc.---The other words in the sentence shoulu be parsed
according to the •amc vrin ciples, as illustratcu in the
foregoing examples.
Obs.---Having illustra.teu the principle by which thr
p upil should distinguish the parts of speech in a sentence,
I next procceu to show their clas>ifications anil varia tio r"
Class-ificalions a7'd Variation s qf lhe P arts of Spccc!1.

OF ARTICLES.
An a rticle is a part of speech used to lim it. :::.

noun.
There a re two kinds of articles, viz. the
d efinite and i ndefin ite.
,
The definite article limi~s a noun by de·
fini_n g some particular thing or things.
An ind efini te articl e limits a noun to one
thing of the kind, without defining any particular one.
This is called the de.finite article, because it
defines the noun to which it refers.

,.

",,,.

24

·.

ENGLISH GRAMMA.tt.

A, or an, is call ed indefi nite , because it does
not define the noun to which it refers.
EXAMPLES.

'I

"

T he boys are studying.

Will you lend me a pencil '!

QUESTIONS.
·wh at is an article? H ow many kinds of
articles ct re there? How does a definite article
l i111it "-noun? How does an indefinite article
l imit a nou n? Wha t words are used for a rticles? What is the called, and why? What
is a, rir an called, and why?
"\Vhat kind of an article is t!te in the first
ex amr.le, a nd why? An s. Tlte is a definite
-,.. ;,,1~, becatise it defines some particul ar boys.
., V!J;:a kind of an article is a in the second
e: :·1 ri1'.•le, and why? Ans . .fl is an indefinite
n1tio:lc ,!ieca use it limits the noun pencil to one
,.f 1!rn kind , without defining any particular

OF NOUNS.
·:, 1un is the name of a thing , or sort of
,.
l \ 0 u 1: s whic h express th e union of many indivi tluals, are called collective nouns.
.
EXAMPLES.
M ullitucle, assembly, congress, flock, school.

Nouns have variations of gender, person,
number and case.

ENGLISH

ORAM~IAR,

25

GENDER.
Gender is a classification made in consequence of sex. Nouns have three distinctions of
gender viz. the mascu line, fe11i inine, a nd neuter.
The masculine gender denotes animals of
the male kind.
The feminine gender denotes animals of the
female kind .
The neuter gender denotes objects which
are neither male nor female.
EXAMPLES.
JYlas.
nian

hoy

Fem.
woman
gi rl

Neuter.
house
desk.

QUESTIONS .
What is a noun? '\Vhat does a couecnve
noun express 1 Men tion seYeral examples.
Why is school a collective noun? Ans. Sch ool
is a collec tive noun, because it expresses the
union of many individual scholars. Why is
asse 1nbly a collective noun 1 vVhat variations
ha ve nouns 1 vVh at is gender ? How many
distinctions of gender h ave nouns, and what
are they 1 ·wh at does th e masculine gender
denote? Wha t docs the feminine gender denote 1 What does the neuter gender denote?
What gender is man, and why 1 Ans. Man
is in the masculine gender" because it is the
name of a sort of persons of the male kind.
What gender is cow, and why ? Ans. Cow

,'

1,

I

,· ·

'\

.1·
"I

• I·

'

\
'1·

:i,\

. -·l'

is in the feminine gender, because it is th e
name of a sort of animals of the female kin d?
Wh at genrler is house, and why? Ans. H ouse
is in,.Jhe neu ter gcn1ler, because it is neithei·
male nor female. ·w hat gend er JS boy , and
wh y ? What ge nde r is g oose, and why ?
W hat gender is desk, and why?
Nouns have a different fo rm in the masculin e a nd fe minine genders.
T here are three different modes of dis tin gui shing the 1nasculinc an d feminine gend ers.
'l'he first mode of distinguishing the mascu lin e and femcnine genders, is by differen t
worcls which h ave no relation of rn und.
EXAMPLES.
,1fas.

bachelor
boar
boy
buck
bull
cock
<lo~

<l rake
ea rl
fath er
friar
garnlcr
hus\Jancl
king
man

Fem.
maiJ
sow

girl
doc
cow
hen
bitch
<luck
countess
mother
nun

gooslJ
wife
queen
woman

1Vias .
Master
nephew

Fern.
Mistress

TO.Ill

ewe

singer
sir

sloven
son
sta~

unc e

wizard
hart
horse
laJ

27

ENG LISH GRAMMAR .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

26

niece

{ son~stre ss
or s mgc r

ma<lam
slut
<laughter
hind
aunt
witch
roe
mare

lass

The second mode of distingui shing the masculin e and feminine genders JS by different
terminations.
EXAMPLES.

.Mas.
Abbot
actor
ad ministrator
a<l ulterer
ambassador
arbiter
auditor
author
baron
benefactor
bridegroom
cannon

caterer
chanter
condu ctor
count
czar

<l eacon
detractor
director
duke
elector
embassa<l or
emperor
enchanter

executer
fornicator
god
governor

heir
hermit
hero

Mas.
host
hunter
actress
administtatrix inheritor
adulteress
ambassadress instructor
j ew
ar\Jitrcss
lion
auditress
marquis
authoress
mayor
baroness
patron
\Jenefactress
peer
bride
poet
canoness~

F em .
Abbess

catercss

chantress
co n~ uctress
coun tess
czarina
<lcacones.:; ·

detractress
directress
du chess
electress
crnbassaJress
empress
enchantress
executrix
forni catresi
goddess
governess
heiress
hermitess
heroine

pr~est

prrnce
prior
prophet
proprietor
protector
s hepherd
songster

sorcerer
s uitor
s ultan
tiger
testator
traitor
tyrant
victor
votary
viscount
widower

i

~I! i
1;

F em.
hostess
huntress
inheritress
or inh eritrix
instructress
j ewess
lioness
marchioness
mayoress
patroness
peeress
poetess
pr~estess

prrncess
prioress
prophetess
proprietress
protectress
shepherdess
songstress
sorceress

,,

1'

~uitrcss

sultana, or
sultaness
tigress
testatrix
traitress
tyranness
victrcss
votaress

viscountess
widow

;!'·

t

11

28

E~GLISH

ENGLISH QRAMMAR.

GR.UfMAR.

The third mode of di s tingui ~hing the masculine and feminine genders, is by prefixing a
word to the noun.
EXAMPLES.
l\fas.
;.\!Jan-servant
he ·goat
cock-sparrow
male.descendants

.,,

P er.
Maid-servant
sh~-goat

hen-sparrow
femalc-uescendants. '

QUESTIONS.
H ave nouns the same form in the masculine
and feminine genders?
. .
.
How many mod es are there of d1stmgmshin o- the masculine and feminine genders?
bWhat is the first mode of tistinction?
·w hat is the second mode of distinction 1
What is the third mode of dist inction 1
Note.-- - The different forms of the masc uline and feminine genucrs shou ld be carefu lly committed to me~ory
by the pupil, and renuered familiar by frequent rec1tat10ns.

PERSONIFICATION.
Personifying is representing obj ects as
.
thou g h t hey were persons.
In fig urati ve la ng uage, names which denote objec ts th::1.t impart their r1ualtttes ; also
those that are remarkable for power, g~eat­
ness or sublimity, are sometimes personified
and spoken of as masculine, although naturally neuter.
.
Names which denote receptacles, or ?bJeCts
which are distinguished for the more m1lcl and

29
'I

delicate qualities, are sometimes spoken of ~s
feminine.
N ote.- The appropriate use of figurative language adds
much tc. the force anJ beauty of an expression.

EXAMPL ES.

,.

Nouns personificd
ll'ouns personified
as m asculine.
asfeminine.
Sun
Ship
Wint!
Moon
• f'
Spring
D eath
Time
Earth.
Can Tl'isdom !encl,
With all he1· heavenly power,
The plcJgc of Joy's ant1cipatetl hour.
CAMPD~LL.

QUESTIONS.
Wh at is the meaning of personifying?
·what kind of words are personified as masculine?
Wh a t kind of words are personified as fe.
minine 1
Wh at is the use of figurative language?
·

[See the n ote.}

Why i~ wir:.d personified as masculine?
Ans. Il eca1.1se it is remarkable for its power.
Why is ship personified as feminine? Ans.
Because it is the receptacle of freight or load ing.
Why is spring personified as feminine ?
Ans. Because it is distinguished for mildness.
Why is sun personified as masculine? Ans.
Because it imparts lig ht.
How is wisdom personified in the example,
and why?

·1·

.'·

\

ENl:l!;!'.SH GRAMMAR·

30

PERSON.
P erson is that variation of nouns and pronouns .which distinguishes the speaker, the
person spoken to, ancl the person or thing
spoken of.
Nouns nave three distinctions of person,
viz. first , second, and thir1l.
The first person is th e person speaking.
The second person is the person spoken to.
The third person is the person or thing
spoken of.

N ute -Nouns have the same forms in each or the

persons.

EXAMLPES.

I therefore the 1'risoncr of the L ori!, ber;eech you, &e.
Ephe;ians, 4th chap. 1st verse.
Juir1cs 1 come anJ recite.
Tho \Joys ro<le on the pony.

QUESTIONS.
·wh at is person 1 How m any distinctions
of person have nouns 1
W hat is the fi rst person i
·what is the second person i
·what ~s the third person i
Have nouns a different form in each person?
\Vhat person is prisoner in the first example,
and why 1 Ans. Prisoner is io. the first person,
because it is the name of the person speaking.
What person is J ames in the second example, ancl why 1 Ans. J aines is in the second
person, because it is the na me of the person
spoken to.

."

31

ENGLISH GRAJIMAR.

I

What person is bo s ·
h
.
a nd why 7 A 11s By ii; .t e third example
·
·
oys 1s m th
]· '
because it is spoken of.
e t uni persoµ,
Note.-Exa mples and
.
•
bo ex tended till the JU -{l~esti on_s_ of this kind, shoulil
1 pi 18 famihnr with the different
person5.

NUMBER.
Number is the distincti I b •
more than one. There ar~ \ .et"· e_en. one and
nu~;ber, _the sin gular and the\~~m~rtmct10ns of
. l he smgula r number im plies on.ly one b
0 JeC t.
The plnral m HTI b er -•rnplies mor·e th
..-..,
object.
an one
Obs.--- Collective nouns are
.
number, when the members a~ons1de'.ed in the singular
th e>' are considered in the · 1 \or exist as one bady, and
111d1v1dually .
P ura when the members act

Note-Most ofthe noun s have a iliJfercnt form in each
n umber.

Tl. he plural number is ..,.enerally ~
,prmed by
!c mg s or es t:> the sing~1Iar.

a(

~~ngular
i'lousc

Slate
Book
Finger
'

EXAMPLES.
P llu
. ra z·
{jing ular
iouscs
bench
slates
desk
~ooks
boy
rngers
plate

Plu ral.
"
"

..
.;

Some nouns w.l;iich . d .
plurals by cha n"' in,,. t~n f 111."'5 ~r fe, form their
"'
e 01 .1 e 111 to ves•
0

'i,
. •,

1·

34

ENGLISH GRAMMAR .

EXAMLPES.
\ Villiam broke Daniel's slate .

QUESTIONS.
.
. .
and why? Ans.
Wha t case i s William, e case because it
William is in the nomrnativ
,
is the agent of ~he Der~ ~,rok=~d why? Ans.
What case 1s
ani~ ;ive case, because 1t
Daniel's is in the P.o~ se~ slate
relates to the possession ol hy i Ans. Slate
VI/hat case .is s~ate, am' wb ec~use it is the
. . the objecti ve case,
&
~~.~~t of the transitive verb b~oke, 'C . ouns·
J
I es t o i·zzusirate
the variations of N
.Exam.p
.
.
finHie<l
l11s sum.
0
Francis 1ias
l ' I . phy lesson.
D aniel study your P "·~so <l l .
Henry's mother has v1s1te 11m.

QUESTIONS.
Wh at part of speec h is Francis in tbe first
sentence, and why 1
number, and case,
What gender, person,
and why ?
.
ma be applied to each ot
Nole.- The same ques.t~o~~c ablve sentcnc.es; ancl th e~
the nouns and pronouns 11 ti' " to the principles alrca<l)
should be answere<l accor •no
ill ustrnte<l.

ADJECTIVES .
An adjective is u. part o f speec h used to
describe a noun. 1 es of adjectives, viz. the
There are three .c ass i1c1 superlative.
•
· ·
comparative,
a
·
pos1ttve,
'

ENGUSH GRAMM.AR.

as

The. positive adjective describes a. noun in a.
positive manner, without comparing it with
any other object.
The comparative adjective describes a. noun
by comparing it with another object.
"
The superlative adjective describes a noun
by comparing it _with more than one object.
Q.UESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS.

'What is an adjective?
How many classes of adjectives are there i
Describe the positive adjective.
Describe the compantive adjective.
Describe the supe~lative adjective.
EXAMPLES.

Boston is a large city.
~
New-York is larger than Boston.
P ekin is the largest city in the world.

QUESTIONS.
What kinrl of an adjective is large tn the
first sentence, and why? Ans. Large is a
positive adjective, because it describes the city
of Boston in a positive manner, without comparing it with any other object.
What kind of an adjective is larger in the
second sentence. Ans. Larger is a com para.
tive adjective, because it describes the city of
New-York by comparing it with Boston.
What kind of an adjective is largest in the
third sentence. Ans. Largest is a superlative
adjective, because it describes the city of Pekin
by comparing it with more than on~ city.
b2

ENGLISH GRAMMAI!.

Personal pronouns are such as are used to
perso·n ate other words.
Relative pronouns are those which relate to
some preeeding word or sentence, which is
called the antecedent.
Adjective pronouns are those which serve
to describe the nouns to whioh they relate.

QUESTIONS.
· what is a pronoun?
How many classes of pronouns are there?
What is a personal pronoun?
What is a relative pronoun?
What iJ an adjective pronoun 1
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Personal pronouns have variations of gender,
person, number and case.
Note. - The gender, person, and number of personal
pronouns, are always the same as the nouns which they
represent.
Obs. -It mny be observed that the distinction of gender
is confin ed to the third person, singular number of personal pronouns.

EXAMPLES.

J will lend my book to you, if you will return it.
Juhn asked me to hear him recite his lesson.

QUESTIONS.
What va riations have personal pronouns?
How are the ge nd er, person , and number
of personal t)ronouns asce rtain ed?
vVhich person and number admit of the variation:i of ge nder ?

BNG LJSII GRAnU!1-R·

39

What kincl of a pronoun is I in tho first
example; and what person, uumber and case,
andwby1
..
.
Ans. I is a personal pronoun, .,because it
personates a person ; first person, because it
persona tes the person speaking; singular number because it personates only one person;
no~1inative case, because it is the agent of the
verb will lend.
What kind of a pronoun is you, and what
person, n.umber, and cas.e , and why?
.
Ans. You is a personal pronoun, because it
person ates persons; second person, because it
personates persons spoken to ; plural number,
because it personates more than one person ;
objective case, because' it is the object "of the
preposition to.
·
Wha t kind of a pronoun is it, and what
g end er, perso n, number, and case, and why i
Ans. It is a personal pronoun, because it
perso11ates th e noun book; neuter gender, be.
cause it personn.tes book, which is neither male
nor female; third pers·o n, becau:;e it personates
book, whicl1 is spoken of; singular number,
because it personates only oue book; obje~tive
case, bec ause it is the object of the transitive
verb return.
Whal kind of a pronoun is 1ny in the first
ex o.mple; and what person, number, nnd case,
and why i
b4

),.

40

41

ENGLISH GRAMM.A.R.

What kind of a pronoun is liim in .t he
example; and what gender, person,
number, and case, and why?

~econd

DECLENSION OP TUE PEI!SONAL PRONOUNS.

Each variation has a different form, which may be
learned by observing the following table of declension.
First P erson.
Plural.
Singula1·.
Nam. We
Nom. I
Pas. Our or ours
Pos . My or mine
Obj.
Us.
Obj. Me
Second Person.
Singular.
Plural.
.Vom. Thou
Nam. Ye or you
Pas.
Thy or thine
Pas. Your or yours
Obj.
Thee.
Obj.
You.
Note.-Mo<lern writers Us,f/ the pronoun :you in the
nomi n~live and objective case,' and also your and yours in
the possessive case ofbolh numbers.
EXAMPLE.
Singular.
Plural..
Nom. You
Nom. You
Pas. Your or yours
Pas. You or yours
Obj.
You.
•
Obj. Yoll
Third P erson, Jrfasculine Gender.
Singular.
Plural.
Nam. They
Nom. He
His
Pos.
Their or theirs
Pos.
Him
O~j.
Them.
Obj.
T hird Person, Feminine Gender.
Singu/rir.
Plural.
Nam. They
Nom. She
Pos.
Their or theirs.
Pos. Her or hers
Her
Obj.
Them,
Olij.

Third Person, Neuter G..end~.
Singu/'1.r.
.Plur(Jl.
Nom . lt
No~n. They
Pos.
Its
.Poa. Their or theirs Ubj.
It
Obj. Them.
COnIPOUND WORDS.

Self is sometimes annexed to the singular,
and selves to the plural of personal pronouns.
They are tlius declfaed.
Singular.
Plural.
1st Per. Myself
Ourselves
2d
Thyself
Yourselves
3d Mas. Himself
Themselvo~
3d Fem. Herself
Themselves ·
3d Neu. Itself
Themselves •
Note.-'l'he compound words are never used ill the
possessive cese, but are used indiscriminately in the nominative and objective.
The declension of the personal pronouns should be
rendered familiar by frequent recitations.

QUESTIONS.
Have all the variations of per~onal pronounsthe same form ?
How are the different forms of personal
pronouns to be learned 1
_How are the personal pronouns declined in
the first person 1
How are personal pronouns declined .in
the second person ?
How do modern writers decline the second
person .?
How arc pernonal pron9uns declined in the
third person, masculine gender?
b5

42

ENGLISH

ENGLISH

GR.HlMAU.

How are personal pronouns declined in the
third person, feminine gender?
How are personal pronouns declined in the
third person, neuter gender?
What termin ations are sometimes annexed
to personal pronouns ?
How are the compound words declined?
In which of the cases a re the compound
words used?
RELA T 1vE Pnor--ouNs.
Relative pronouns are those which rela te to
some preceding word or sentence, which is
called the antecedent.
R elative pronouns have variations of person,
number, and case.
Th e person and number of rela tive pronouns
a re a lways the same as the nouns which they
represen t.
R elative pronouns, like nouns, have three
Cases, viz . th e nominative, possessive, and
obj ec tive.

I

I

EXAMPLES.

This is the pen cil 1vhich I bought.
The sheriff caught the men w ho stoic the goods .

QUESTIONS.
Wh at a re relative pronouns?
H ow are the person and number of relative
pron ouns asce rtained?
How many cases have rela tive pronouns,
an<l how are they distin gu ished~

J

GRAMMAR.

43

. What kind of a pronoun is the word whicli
m the first example, and why; and what person, number, and case, and why?
,
. Ans, Which is a relative pronoun, because
It relatos to th.e antecedent, pencil; third person, because 1t represents a pencil which is
spoken of; singular number, because it repre~ents only one pencil; objective case, because
1t 1s the ob~ect of the tmnsitive verb bought.
What k111d of a pronoun is who in the second example, and why; what person, number, and crtse, and why?
Ans. W!to is a relative pronoun, because it
relates t~ the antecedent men; third person,
because 1t represents men which are spoken
of; plural number, because it represents more
than one man; nominative case, because it is
the agent of the verb stole.
l'V!w, which, that, and what are used for
relative pronouns
'
Wh~ is .used to relate to persons.
W/iich 1s used to relate to animals and things.
That 1s used to prevent repeating who a nd
which too o(ten , and consequently relates to
both pernons a nd things.
. Wliat 1s called a compound relative, because
1t supplies tho pince of that which · and when
it is parsed, it should be resolved in~o those two
wo1rds, each of which· shonld be parsed separately-that hemg an adjective pronoun and
which a relative.
'

., .

!.

.., ·I

,.·1

DECLENSION OF WHO AND WHICH.

Nom.
Pos.

Who
Nom. Which
"Whose
P os. Who.e
Obj .
Whom
Obj.
Which.
Note.-A s is called a relative pronoun when it supp'lies
the place of who or which.- Ex.. "Eat such things as ,are
set before you."-Luke x. 8.

·'

46

ENGLISH GRAMlfAR,

44

Ever and soeve1· are sometimes annexed ·to
ioho, which, and what, but the meaning is not
changed, and the compound words are parsed
the same as simple ones.
Wlto, which, and what, are called interrogatives when they are used in asking questions,
and always relate to the answer of the question.

QUES1'IONS.

What words are nsed for relative pronouns i
What is who used to relate to?
What is wltich used to relate to?
What is the use of tAat, and to what does it
relate?
What is what called, and how is it parsed i
How is who declined ?
How is which declined 1
What other word is used for a· relative pro·
noun, and when 1
What terminations are sometim es annex·ed
to who, which, and what, and what effect do
they have on the meaning of the words 1
What are who, wliich and what called when
they are used in asking questions, and to what
do they relate ?
.

AnJECTIVE PRONOUNS·

Adjective prnnouns are those which serve to
describe the nouns to which they relate.
There .are three classes of adjective pronouns, viz. the definite, indefinite, and dis-

;i '

tributive.

'4 1;: .:

The DEFINITE are those · which relate to
nouns in a definite or pointed manner.
D efinite adjective pronouns have two distinctions of number, viz. the ·singular and
plural, e'.1-ch of which has its peculiar form.
The srngular relates only to one object.
The plural relaxes ro more than one object
EXAMPLES.
Singular.
This
That

'

.,·

Plural.
These
Those.

;'.i1'
/r •

The INDEFINIU: are those which relate to
nouns in an indefinite or general manner.
Some
Other

EXAMPLES.
Any
One

All
Such.

The DISTRIBUTIVE are those which relate
to nouns separately or singly.
Each

EXAMPLES.
-- Every

Either.

,j

QUESTIONS.
What are adjective pronouns ?
How many classes of adjective pronouns
are there?
What are definite adjective pronouns 1 -

I
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i

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46

ENG·LISH GRUB1Alt.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

47

What variations have rlefinite. adjective pronouns, and bow are they distinguisheg ?Mention the examples.
What are indefinite adjective pronouns?Mention the examples.
What are distributive adjective pronouns 1Mention the examples.

Ans. Every is . an adjective pronoun, because it serves to describe the noun nian, to
which it relates; dislributive adjective pronoun, because it reldtes to a nian, separately
. or singly.

EXiL\1PLES.

A verb is a p8.rt of speech which expresses
action, or existence, in a direct manner.
·There are four classes of verbs, viz. transitive, intransitive, passive, and neutP.r.
A transitive verb expresses an action which
effects some object.

See this book.
Some person has torn my book.
E very man must account for himself.

QUESTIONS.
What kind of a pronoun is tliis in the first
example; and what number, and why?
Aus. This is an adjective pronoun, because
it serves to describe the noun book, to which it
rel ates; definite adjective pronoun, because it
relates to the book in a definite or pointed
manner ; singuhtr number, because it relates to
only one book.
What kind of a pronoun is some in the
second example, and why '?
Ans. S o11Le is_ an adjective pronom:i, because it
serves to describe the noun person, to which it
relates; indefin ite adjective pronoun, because
it relates to the person in an indefinite or general manner.
What kind of a pronoun is every in the
third example, and why?

VERBS.

EXAMPLES.
I strike the c.lesk.

What kind of a verb is strike, and why?
Ans. Strike is a transitive verb, because it
expresses an action which effects the object
desk.
I opened my book.

What kind of a verb is opened, and why 1
The bovs built a fort .

What kind of a ve1:b is built, and why?
Samuel studied his lesson.

What kind of a verb is studied, a nd why?,
An intransitive verb expresses an action
which Joes not effect any object.

'

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48

49

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

.ENOLISJ-1 OR.AMMAR.

EXAMPLES.

EXAMPLES.

I walk.

The snow is white.

What kind of a verb is walk, and why 1
Ans. Walk is a n in transitive verb, because it
expresses an action which 1loes not effect any
object.

·what kind of a verb is is, and why? Ans.
is a neu ter verb, because it express.es existence.
·

What kind of a verb is st1iily, an •l why 1

What kind of a verb is sit, and why 1Ans. Sit is a neuter verb, because it expresses
a state of existence.

The boys study .

The grass grows.

!' '

!s

The boys sit on the bench.

What kind of a verb is grows, a nd why?

The tongs stand by the stove.

The horse runs.

What kind of a verb is stand, and why ·?

What kind of a verb is ru ns, and why 1
A p~~i'IJe verb ~xpresses an action which is
received by a subJeCt.
The book was torn.

The horse was beaten.

What kind of a verb is was beaten, and why?
The corn was planted.
wM

The bir<l was shot.

boy~

slept l&tc this morning.

L afayette was in the U nite<l States in the year 1824.

What kind of a verb is was torn, antl why.?
Ans. W as torn is a passive verb, because 1t
expresses an action which is received by ·the
subject book.

w~?

The

What kind of a verb is slept, and why?

EXAMPLES.

What kind. of a verb is

I am in the house.

·wha t kind of a verb is am, and why?-

planted, and
•

·w hat kind of a verb is was shot, and why 1
A neu,ter verb expresses existence, or
of existence.

a: state

What kind· of a verb is was, and why?
QUESTIONS AND

DIRECTIONS.

What is a verb ?
How m any classes of verbs are there, and
what are their names ?
How is a transitive verb distinguished 1Give an example of a transitive verb, and tell
why it is such.
. .
.
How is an intransiti'IJe verb distrngu1shed 1
-Give an exa mple of an intransitive verb,
a nd tell why it is suc h.
c

"
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50

E:SGLISll OltAM!llAT< .

How is a passive verb distin g uished '! Give
a n example of a passive verb, and tell why it
is such.
How is a nw ter verb distin g uished? Give
an example of a neuter verb, and tell why it
is su ch.
E ach class of verbs have variations of mode,
tense, perso n, and nmnber.

ENGLISH

on,\ !'\l\'ll4.Jt.·

INDICATIVE MODE.

The inrlicative mode express,cii an
existence, used in declaring.
.

1;1-Cition, ,or
.

EXAMPLES.
The U oiled States are independent.

In what mode is the verb are, and why 1
Ans . .9.ra is in the indicative mod.e, becii.µs~ ii
expresses an existence, used in declaring.

MODE.

Arno kl was a traitor..

Mode is the manner of ex pressing a ction or
existence.
There are ftve modes of expressing action or
existence, viz . the infinitive, indicative, imperat·ive, potential, and subjunctive.

In what mode is the verb was, and why 1

INFINITIVE MoDE.

The imperative mode expresses an action or
ex.is~cnce used i~ commanding, exhorting, p~r­
m1ttmg, entreatmg, or begg·ing.•

The irifinitivc mod e ex presses an action or
exi stenc e in a general manner, wi~hout any
agent or subject.

The rain fell in torrents.

In what mode is the verb fell, and
lMPERATFE MoDE.

EXAM PLES.

EXAMPLES.

The boys love to sludy.

" Disperse, ye rebels."

In what mode is
w·hy 1 Ans. To study
because it expresses
manner, without any

th e verb to sturly, and
is in the in fi nitive mode,
an actwn 111 a general
agent or subject .

1 told the boys to recite.

In what mode is the verb to reci te, and w by 1
The teacher showed ine how to write.

In what mode is the verb to write, and why?

·

wily?

In what mode is the verb disperse 1 ~pd whr?
Ans. Disperse is in the imperative mode b~­
cause it expresses an action us.e d i1;1 comm'andin~
··
"Ask, and it shall be given you."

In wha~ r:iode i~ the v~rb ask, and why 1
Ans. Ask 1s m the 1mperat1ve mode, because it
expresses an action used in exhorting.
e2

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52

We should <lo good, even to our enemies.

Do as you please.

In what mode is the verb do, and why 1
Ans. Do is in the imperative mode, because it
expresses an action used in permitting.
"Give us this day our 1hily bread." ·

In what mode is the verb gi·ve, and why?
Answer. Give is in the imperative mode,
because it expresses. an action used in entrea ti ng.
PoTF.NTIAL Moo£.
The potential mode expresses an action or
existence, which implies possibility, liberty,
will, duty,.obligation, or necessi ty.

!13

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAlt.

II

.

In what mode is the verb should do, and
why ? Ans. Should d:o is in the potential
~od~, because it expresses an action which
unplies duty or obligation.
.
.
You may write a Jetter.

In wlrn.t mode is the verb .1nay write, and
why! ·
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

'.l'he subjul!ctive mode i:xpresses an action or
existence, which impl'ies a condition or a wish.
EXAMPLES .

. EXAMPLES.
Yem can !Qarn t;rnmmar.

In what mode is the verb can learn, and
why? Ans. Can learn is in the potential
mode, because it expresses an action which
implies possibility.
You may go anil play soon.

In what mode is the verb 1nay go, and why?
Ans. Jtiay go is in the potential mode, because
it expresses an action which implies liberty.
Hannibal would have conquered Rome.
~·

"·,·,.

In what mode is the verb would have con·
quered, and why. Ans. Would have conquered
is in the potential mode, because It expresses
an action which implies a will.
·

If you study your lesson well,

In what 1!10.de is the verb study, and why 1
!111 ~. Study ism. the subjunctive mode, because
it expresses an action which implies a condition.
I wi sh.I hail a new book.

In what ?1ode is the verh had, imd why 1
~ns. Had is in th~ snbjunct'ive mode, because
It expresses an act10n which implies a wish.
" Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."

In what mode is the verb slay, and why?
'' 0 that it u;c1·e my chief <lcli,,ht
To do Lile tl1ings_l ought." " '

·

In what mode is the verb were, nnrl why 1
c3

I '1· ,'

ENGLISH GRA~lMAR.
QUESTIONS AND

,,,

In wh;i.t te.nse is the verb walk, and why?
Ans. Tfalk 1s Ill the present tense, because it
exornzses an action which is now taking
pl~ce.

I',,

1'NGLISH GRA.MMA!t.

EXAMPLES.

EXERCISES.

Whnt is the mode of a verb 1 How many
modes of expressing action or existence are
there; and what are their nam es ?
H ow do you describe the infinitive mode?
Give an example of a verb in th e infinitive
mode, and explain why it is such.
How do you describe the indicative mode 1
Give an example of o. verb in the indicative
mode, and explain why it is such.
How do you describe the imperative mode?
Give an example of a verb in the imperative
mod e, and explain why it is such.
How do you describe the potential mocle?
Give an example of a veru in tr1e potential
moLle, and explain why it is such.
H ow do you describe th e subjunctive mode?
Give an example of a verb in the subjunctive
mode, and explain why it is s uch.
J"\°ot c. - T hese cxerciocs may be c.xlcndcd till the pupil
can readily dist inguioh each of the rnodca.

TENSE.
Tense is that ,·ariation of a verb whic h distinguishes its time.
V erbs have six tenses, viz . the present,
imperfect, peifect, plupc1jf:ct , first futuu, and
secnnd future.
PRE SF.!'l'T

55

•'

TENSE .

The present te1isc expresses an ac t ion, or existenc e, which is present or now taking place.

I walk on the floor.

I am in this room.

In what tense is the verl;i wm, µnd why 1
Ans. .!1rn is in the present tense, because it
expresses an ·existence which is present.
The children are drawing.

In what tense is the verb are drawing; nntl
why1
1 lhink they imprnve..

-

In what tense is the verb tkink, and why 1
Washington is the capital of the United States.

In what tense is t be verb is, aml why?
IMPERFECT T1msE .
.T he imperfect tense expresses an action, or
existence, some time past.
EXAMPLES.
You learned your lesson yesterday.

In what tense is the verb learned, and why 1
.Learned is in .the imper~ect tense, because
1t expresses a n act10n some time past.
~ns .

He was an excellent scholar.

In what ten se is the ve.tb was, and why~
Ans. Was is in the imperfect tense, because
it expresses a n existence some time past.
Buonaparte invaded Russia . .

In what tense is the verb invaded, and why?

t

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56

EiSGLISH GRAMMAIL

1':NGLISH GRAMMAR.

57
;;. ,

Scipio was a Roman general.

In what tense is the verb was, and why 7
P E RFECT TEN SE.

T he perfect tense expresses an action, or

existence, which is past, but the period of time
in which it happened, or existed, is not fully
past.
EXAMP LES.
You havo studied your lesson to-day.

In w hat tense is the verb /;av e studied , and
'why 1 An s. H ave studied is in the perfect
ten se, because it expresses an action wh ich is
pas t, but th e period of time in which it happened is not fully past.
I

h a~c

been at school three weeks.

In what tense is the verb have been, and
why ? An s. · H ave been is in the perfect
tense, because it expres_ses an exislence which
is past, but the period of ti me in which it
existed is not full y past.
"Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated ."

In what tense is the verb have loved, and
why?
"The L ord hath been mindful of us.''

In what tense is the verb ltath been, and
w hy?
PLUPERFECT TE NSE .

T he plupe1fect tense expresses an action, or .
existence, which had pns t before some other
past time.

EXAMPLES.
I hail learned my lesson before the teacher came.

In what tense is the verb ·had learned, and
why? Ans. H ad learned is in the pluperfect tense, because it expresses an action
which had past before the teu.cher came.
The boy hail been idle before he recited, or he would
have known his le>sons.

In wh at tertse ls th!i V!irb had been, and
why? Ans. H arl been is in the pluperfect
tense, becanse it expresses an existence which
h ad past before he recited.
Milton hail lost his sight before he finished his' last
poems.

In what ten se is th e verb liad lost, and why?
The British ia ws· had become oppressive to the Colonies
before they declared themselves independent.

In what tense is th e verb had become . and
why'I
FmsT Fu-ruRE TENSE.

T lie fir st future tense expresses an action,
or existence , w hich is yet to come.
EXA MPLE S . .
I will give you a new lesson to-morrow.

In what tense is the verb will give, and
why? Ans. Will give is in the first future
tense, because it expresses an action which is
yet to come.

"(
> '

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58

ENGLISH GRA}IM AR

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

b9
I.

i
I

I

Your friends will soon be here.

You will have finished reciting pretty soon.

In what tense is the verb will be, and why ?
Ans. Will be is in the first future tense, because
it expresses an existence which is yet to come.

In what tense is the verb will have finished,
and why?

You will soon acquire a knowledge of grammar.

In what tense is the verb will acquire, and
why?

Next s[l\'ing, Jackson will have been President six
years.

In what tense is the verb will have been,
and why?

SE CO ND FUTURE TENSE.

Tlie secondfuture tense ex presses an action,
or existence, which will be finished a t or before some future timf'.
EXAMP~ES.

I think you will have learned your next lesson befJre
to-morrow noon.

In what tense is th e verb will havt learned,
and why? Ans. lVill have learned is in the
second future tense, becau se it l'xpresse,; an
action whi~h will be finis hed before to-morrow
noon.
Nexl week, I shall have been at school two years.

I n what tense is the verb shall have been,
and why? Ans. Shall have been is in the
second future tense, because it expresses an
existence which will be finished next week.

•I ·•

·!·

qUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

What is tense 1
How many tenses have verbs, and what ·a re
they called ?
How do you describe the present tense ?
Give an example of a verb in the present
tense, and tell why it is such .
How do you describe lhe imperfect tense?
Give an example of a verb in the imperfect
tense, and tell why it is such.
How do you describe the perfect tense 1
Give an example of a verb in in the perfect
ten se, and tell why it is such.
How do you describe the pluperfect tense?
Give an example of a verb in the pluperfect
tense, and tell why it is such.
How do you descrihe the first future tense 1
Give an example of a verb in the first future
tense, and tell why it is such.
How do you describe the second future tense?
Give an example of a verb in the second
future tense, and tell why it is such.

I

:1

...·r' :·1l'·

I '
Ii
I

The wealher will soon be pleasant.

In what tense is the verb will be, and why?

1I,.
l:

l'i

I
I

!,',,,,
,• i
~

·1.

I:

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

60

Note.-These exercises may be continued till the pupil
understands the tenses.
.

The person and number of verbs are always
the same as their agents or subjects
EXAMPLES.
I am writing.
You are grammarians
The horses were beaten.

QUESnON~,

1n what person and number is the verb am

!

f .'

i,11f
I~I

),

i •;

I·~'
'

II".

61

ENG LISH GRAMMAR.

writing in the first example, and why 1
.Ans. Am writing is in the first person, because it expresses an action of the person speak·
ing ; singular number, because it expresses an
action of only one person.
In what person and number _is the verb are
in the second example, and why i
Ans. Are is in the second person, because it
expresses the existence of the person spoken
to ; plural number, because it expresses the
existence of more than one person.
In what person and number is the verb were
bea:en in the third example, and why?
Ans. W ere beaten is in the third person, because it expresses an action received by horses, .
which are spoken of; plural number, bec~use
it expresses an action received by more than
one horse.
Co.NJUGATION OF VERBS.

The conjugation of verbs is the proper formation of their several modes, tenses, persons,
and numbers.

Note.-Mo;t of the variations of verbs have a peculiar
form.

The_ conjugation of a verb is called regular,
when its imperfect tense and perfect participle
are formed by adding d or ed to the present.
Th~ cc_njugation of a verb is called irregular,
when its imperfect tense and perfect participle
arenot formed by addin~ d or ed to the . pr~!?~nt.
V!!rl:Hi 't.\'l'lich can only be used in part of the
modes and tenses, are called defective.
Note.-To illustrate tho conjugation of regular verbs
take for example the verb love, which is conjugated th~
•ame as all other regular verbs.

EXAMPLE.
Present.
Imperfect.
Perfect Participle.
Love.
Loved.
Loved.
Obs.-We see that it is regular, because its imperfect
tense and perfect participle are formed by adding d to the
present.
Note.- The other variations of verbs are chiefly formed
by the use of a class of words called auxiliaries.
Aux1LIAR1Es are words used to help conju·
gate the verbs.
QUESTIONS.
What is the conjugation of verbs? ·
Have all the variations of verbs the same
form i
Wheu is the conjugation of a verb called
regular?
When is the conjugation of a verb called
irregular 1
What verbs are called defective 1

62

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

Are all regular verbs conjugated alike? . .
Conjugate the verb love, and tell why it is
regular.
.
How are the other variations of verbs chiefly
formedi
What are auxiliaries?
Corijugation of the Infinitive Mode.
Verbs have only two tenses in the infinitive
mocte, viz. thi: present and p~rf~ct. .
The infinitive mode is conJugated m the pre·
sent tense, by prefixing the auxiliaryfit~ to t~e
verb, and in the perfect tense by pr~ .xmg t e
auxiliaries to have to the perfect part1c1ple.

:I

EXAMPLES .
Present.
To love.

Perfect.
To have loved.

Verbs in the infinitive mode have no variation of person or number.
• '{

\, i
llii!.
I}

I '•
'· ~

Note.-The auxiliary to is sometimes omitted in tho
present tense, as in the follow i~g example:
I made the horse run, (that 1s,) to run.

QuEsT10::<1s

AND

E xJ<:ac1sEs.

D escribe the infinitive mode.
.
..
How many tenses have verbs in the mfimt1ve
mode, and what are they?
.
.
How is the infinitive mode conJugated m the
present tense?.
..
.
.
How is the mfimt1ve mode conJugated m the
perfect tense 1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Conjl1gate the verb love in the infinitive
mode, present and perfect tenses.
Wha t other variations have verbs in the
infinitive mode 1 Ans. None.
Wh at omission is sometimes made in conjugating the present tense? Men lion an example.
Conjugation of the Indicative Mode.
Verbs in the indicative mode are used in .e ach
of the tenses , NtSQrlS, anrl numbers. ·
1
rhe following conjugation will exhibit the
various forms in each of the.tenses.
P resent -Tense.
S ·ing ular.
J . Pers. I love

2 . Pers. Thou loves(

3. P ers. He, she, or it,
lovoth or loves

i
S

Plural.
I. W e love
2. Y e or you love
3. They ·Jove.

The auxiliary do is sometimes prefixed to
the verb in the present tense, to express positiveness.
EXAMPLE OF THE POSITIVE FORM.
Singular.
l. I do love
~. Thou dost love
3. He, she or it doth
or does love

Plurnl.

1. We do love

i

S

2. Ye or you do love
3. They do love.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.
Describe the indicative mode.
In what tenses, persons, and numbers, are
verbs in the indicative mode used 1
What is the form of the present tense of the
verb love in the second person singular 1

i
I

64

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

What is the form of the present tense of the
verb love in the third person singular 1
What i>i the plural form ?
Wha t aiJxiliary is sometimes prefixed to the
verb in the present ten se, and for what purpose?
Conjugate the verb love through the present
tense according to the first form.-SingularPlural.
Conju&ate the verb love through the present
tense In the positive form. -Singular-Plural.
Imperfect Ten se.
The imperfect tense of a regular verb is
conjugated by adding d or ed to the present.
EXAMPLE.
Singular.
1. l lovcd
2. Thou love1st
3. He loved

Plural.
1. VVe loved
2. Ye or you loved
3. They loved·

The imperfect tense is sometimes conjugated
by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present.
This form is used to express positiveness.
EXAMPLE OF THE POSITIVE FORM.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I did love
1. We did love
2. Thou didst love
2. Ye or you did love
3. He did love
3. They did love.
N OTE.-ln asking a question, the first auxiliary
should precede the noun or pronour.. Example. Do
you love. Has he bun loved.
·
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

How is the imperfect tense of a regular verb
conjugated in the indicative mode 1

ENGl.ISH URA~IMAR.

What is the form f h
the verb love in the o . t .e imperfect tense of
se cond person, sin·g ular
·number Q

~hat.is the plural form
.
.
the unperfect tense~
of the verb love in
How is th e imperf~
. .
gated, when it is r"" .ctdtcnse sometimes conJ· u.
.
··1 u1re to expres
··
·C OOJugate the
·b l
s pos1t1veness?
nerfi
ve1 ove througli th .
,. ect tflnse, accordl11g to th fl
• e imgular-Plural.
e 1rs_t fom1. SinConj ugate the verb love h.
. .
l 10ugh the im.
perfect tense in the
..
Plural. .
pos1t1ve form. Singular-"'
How
should. th e fi ist
. auxriiaru
..
lJ 1
.
as k mg a question?
J
e p acec;! m

. Peifect T ense.
he perfect tense in tl . d. .
. .
IS Conjugated by p. fi .
le Ill ICatJve mode
r
,
Le xmg auxil' ·
'
per1ect participle.
1anes to the
.

T '

EXAMPLE.·
Plural.
l. We have loved
2
Tye
or
have loved
·
3 · hey you
Q
have I
c1·
JO\" . UhEST!ONS AND EXERCISES ovc .

Singular.

l. I have loved
2. Thou hast loved
3. He hath or has loved

I 1 .. Ls t e perfect t
· · · ·.
indica tive mode?
ense conJugated in the
Wha t auxiha:ry i.s
d ·
singufar number~
use m the first person
. What auxiliary is used in h
,
srngular number?
t e second person;.

i'

I

66

ENGLI8H G HAMMAR.

. p erson,
·what auxiliaries are use din the th;rd
singular numb er ?. .. cl in the plural number 1
',Yhat aux1ltary1s u ~~ . th rourrh th e perfect
o
Conjucrate the yer_b ove
i?:·ncruiar- Plurn l.
tense. -.... i 0 p Lu eifect T ense. . .
• - ~ . in the in d1cat1ve mode,
T he _pln perlfo~, tep1~:~xing a11x ilia ries to th e
is conJll gat ec_ y
perfect \1arnc1p\ e. EXA iVJ PLE .
S ing11la r.
1 lh a d loved
2: T hou ha dst lov ed
3- H e had loved

I

!.,

'

P lural .
1. We h ad love d
,
Yeor
youhad lo\ed
2
3 : Th ey ha d loved .

N D ExEHCISES.
Q.ussnoNs A
·
·ugated in
tense conj
. tl1e. plu1
How !S
1Jerfect
n
· · ve rn oc e'
' first and t h'H d
the ind1cat1
. . ~ 1 · n the
' Vhat anx1hary is u~e c ;
· ular numbe r ·
cl in the second person,
persons, smg . ., . . ,
vV hat aux1ha1y I " use

sing ula r num~er i .
1 in th e plural numbed
What auxiliary :s ~s;c. throu rr h the pluperCon1'ugatc th e ve1 oi;c .
o
Sinrru \ar- Plu1al
Fi·st F uture Tens~.
db
. feet tense .
· conJU ocrate Y pi e
T he first fut ure tense is
·i· .· s to the verb.
fixing auxi i::m e . i\1PL E.
EXA I
Plural.
S in"ular.
\Ve shall or will love .
1
~
r
will
love
I
shall
1
2: Thou shalt or wilt love 2. Ye or y~u shall or will
love .
3. They shall or will love.
3. Il e shall or will love

ENGLISH

GRAM-at.AR.

67 -

Q. UESTIONS AND EXERCIS..:s.
How is the first future tense conjugated i
What a u xili ari es are used in the second
p erson, singular numher ~
·
vVhat au x ilia ries a re used in the first and
third persons in each num ber?
Conju gate th e verb love throu g h the first
futur e tense. Singu lar-Plnral.
S econd F &1tw·e Ten se.
The second fut ure tense is con.iugated by
prefixing aux iliaries to th e perfect participle.
EXAMPLE .
Sinfptlar.
P lurat:
1. I shall have loved .
1. W e shall have loved
2. T h ou wilt have loved 2. Ye or y ou will have loved
3 . H e will have loved
3. Th ey will have loved.

Q.uESTIONS AND EX ERCISES.
How is th e secol1'tl futur e tense c onjuga ted~
'Vha t a ux ili a ri1~s are used in the first person
in both nu mbers?
"Vha t auxiliaries nre used in the second person, singu lar numbe r?
What aux ilia ries a re u sed in the third person,
si ngula r number, a nd also in the second and
th ird persons, plural?
Conjugate the verb love through the second
futur e ten se. Singular- Plural.

Conjugation of the I mperative Mode.
The imperative mode is a lways in the present tense and second person, consequently
d 2

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

68

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

it has no variations of tense or person, and the
form is the same in both numbers.
Singular.
Love thou, or
Do thou love.

EXAMPLE.

Plural.
Lovo ye or you, ar
Do ye or you lov e.

Q.uEsTJONS AND EXERCISES.

In what tense is the imperative mode always
used 1
.
In what person is the imperative mode al·
ways used 1
Has the verb, in the imperative mode, any
variation of form i
Conjugate the verb love in the imperative
mode. Singular~Plural.
Conjugation of the Potent{al JYfode.
The potential mode is only used m the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses.Future time is expressed in the potential mode,
by the use of adverbs. For exa1nple-You
may go to school to-morrow.
The potential mode is also used in each of
the persons and numbers.
Present T ense.
Tf1e potential rnocle is conjugated in the present tense, by prefix ing auxiliaries to the verb.
EXAMPLE.
Singular.
1. I may, can or must love

Plural.

J. V'Vc may, can or must
Joye

2. Thou mayst, canst or 2. Yo or you may, can
or must love
must l ove
He may, can· or must 3, They may, can or
must love.
love

a.

. Note .-:-The auitiliaries mt,ty and can nrc used to
or possibility, and must is used to imply
obhgat1on Ol necessity.
1m~ly l~berty

Q.UESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

In what ten ses is the potential mode used?
How is future time expressed in the poteritlal
mode? Give an example.
H ow is the potential mode conju~ated in the
presfmt tense 1
What auxiliaries are used in the second
person, singular number?
What auxiliaries are used in the other persons and numbers?
What do the auxiliaries may and can imply i
What <loes the auxiliary mtlst imply?
Conjugate the ~·erb lov~ thrnugh the present
tense. · Singular-Plural. ·
·
· '
lmpe1fect Tense.
. The ?Oteptial mode is conjugated in the
imperfect tense, by prefixing auxiliaries to the
verb .
EXAMPLE.
Singular.
Plural.
1. Tmight, could, would, 1. We might, could, would,
or should love
or shvu ld love.
2. Thou mightst, couldst., 2. Ye or you might, could,
woulds_t, or shouldst love
would, or should love
3. Hem1ght, could, would 3.They might, could, would
or should love
or should )o\'9
. Note._-Tho auxiliaries might and could are used to
imply hherty or possibility. Wottld implies will an<l
ahoi.,/d implies duty.
·· · '
'

pS

''· !

i. , 1

l::NGLISH GRAMMAR.

70

71

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Conjugate the verb through the perfect tense.
Singular-Plural.
Plupeifect Tense.
The pluperfect tense , in the potential mode, is
conjugated by prefixing auxiliaries to the perfect participle.

QUESTION S AND EXERCISES.

How is the potential mode conjugated rn
the imperfect tense?
What au xiliaries a re 11sed in the second person, singular number?
Wha t auxiliaries are used in the other
persons and nu mbers?
What do the auxilia ries 1wig!it and omtd
imply?
What does the. auxiliary w ould imply ?
Wh at does the auxilia ry should imply?
Conjugate the verb loi:e through ~he imperfect tense. Singular-P luml.
P erf ect T en se.
The potential mod e is conjugated in the
perfect tense, by prefixing auxiliaries to the
perfoc t participle.
EXAMPJ,E.
Sin!!itlar.
1. I may, ca n, or must
have loved
2. Thou n1ayst, canst, or
mu st lrnve loved.
3. He may, can, or must
hav e loved .

Plural.
1.

Vvc may, can,

or must
h ave loved.
2. Ye or you may , can, ur
must have loved.
3. Theymay, can, or must
have loved.

ExE nc 1sEs.
H ow is the pote ntial mode conj ugated m
the perfect tense '!
'VIMt auxiliaries am used in the second person, singular nu rnber ?
What aux iliarie~ are used in the other persons and numbers?
QuESTIONS AND

EXAMPLE.

•

$lng1ilar.

Plural ,

1 . I might, cuul<l, woul<l , or 1. W e might, could, would,
or should have loved
shoul<l have love<l
2. Thou mightst, cotrl<lst, 2. Ye or you might, could,
would, or should have
woul<lst, or shou l<lot
lo"e<l
'
have lo\'cd
3.
They
might, coul<l, would,
3. H e might, coul<l, would,
or
slioul<l
have
loveu.
or should have loved
QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

H ow is th e potential mode conjugated in the
pluperfect tense?
What auxiliaries are used in the second
person, singular number?
What auxiliaries are used in the other persons and numb ers?
Conjugate the verb love through the pluperfect tense. Singular-Plural.
Conjugation of th e Subjunctive Mode.
T he subjunctive mode is used in each of the
tenses, persons and numbers.
Verbs a re conjugate_cl in the subjunctive
mode, the same as in the indicative in all the
tenses, except the present and imperfect.
d4

..'

"

Present Tense.
When the verb in the present or imperfect
ten Ee expresses a wis)1 or a condition which
refers to fhture tim e, it has the i;ame form in
each person and number, which is generally
the same as the plural form_in the indicative
mode.

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES.

Tn what tenses is the s11bjunctive mode used 1
How arc all the tens.es, except the pr.esent
and imperfect, conjugated?
Bow is the present tense conjugated when
it refers to future time?
How is the condition of the subjunctive mode
generally applied 1
Wh a t conjunction:;; i:\Hl chiefly used to e~­
Pl'ess co nditi on~
Conjugate the verb love through the present
tense of the s:ibjunctive mode. Singular-Plural:
In what at.h er way is condition sometimes
implied? G ive an example.
Conjugate the verb love through.the imperfect tense. Singula r-Plural.
How are the present and imperfect tenses
conjugated when they do not refer to future
time?
I rregular V erbs.
An irregula r verb forms its imperfect t~nse
and perfect participle, by substituting other
worrls.

1Yol.".--The cond!Uon is generally implied hy placinrr a
conjunction before the sen tence. The conjun ction s which
are cheifly used to imply con.<lition ~ are, ~f, t/1911.gh., urdess,
01i·cept, whethe·r, lest, lf1lJl1.JHlhstandirzg, and some othe1s.

EXAMPLE.
Singular.
Plura/.
l Jr I love
I. If we·lo.ve
z. .If thou love
z·. If ye qr you love
3. l f he Jove
3. If they love.
Note.- The conclition is sometimes impliecl by the use
of nuxiliaries.

EXAMPLE.
Should it rain to-morrow, we will stay in the house;
is) if it rain.

(th~ t

I mperfect T ense.
Sing11lar.
l. rf I loved
Z. lfthnu loved
:l~ lfhe loved

Plural.
1. If WC lovPcl
2. If yc·or you lov~d
3~ 1f they loved·.

·w hen the present or imperfect terises of the
subj unctive mode do not refer to future time,
they are conjugated the same as the indicative.
'• 't

N ole. - There are some exceptions to these rules, and
the st1bjunctive mo<lA is subject to many irregularities, for
which no general rule can be given. They are best learned
by observing_ the form in which they are used bi correct
,~ nd nppro,·et1 author..

73

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Present.

I

Do

EXAMPLE . ,
Imperfect.
uid

P er. Particip/e.
<lone.

Th ese variations are arbitrary, and may be
learned by studying the following catalogue
oft he irregular verbs :-

J ' ~

·;

·''

74

ENGLISH

GilAMMAR·

N ote. - Those distinguished by the letter R arc sometimes conjugated reg ularl y, and where two forms arc used,
the form er is conside red preferable.
P resent.
Auide
Am
Arise
Awak e
Bea r, to 7Jrod11cc
Bear, to carry
B eat

Begin
Bend
Bereave
Brsccch
Bit!
Bind
BitP.
Bleeu
Blow
Break
B reed
Bring
Built!
Burst
Buy
Cast
Catch

,II

,,\
I

II

\
I

Chide
, ,~,

i

C house
C lea vc, lo s7>lil
Cl ing
C lothe
Corne
C reep
C row
Cut
Dare, lo rcn ture
De.ii

I mperfect.
abo<lc
was

arose

awoke, R
bare
bore
beat

abode
uee n

urisen
uwake<l

\J('llt
bereft, lt
bcsougiJ t

1.Jcsou1Tl1t

bid, bade
OIJ UHcl
bit
bled
blew
broke
!ired
brought
built
bu rst
bo ugh t
cast
caught, ft
ch id

biddc17, biu
bound
bitten , b!t
bled
blown
broken
bred
brought
built
burst
uought

cl105C

clove or cleft
clun g

clot bed
ca1ne

crept

crew, 1l
cut
du rot
dealt, R

Present.

P e1:ft cl Participle.

born
born e
bcalen, bent
begun
bent
bereft, R

b1~ga n

75

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ca::;t

eaught, R
chid<lcn , c hitl
c hosen
cleft, cloven
clung
clat!
come
crept
crowed
c ut
dared
~alt,R

'

•
\

:

I

· Dig
Do
Jlrnw
Drink
Drive
Dwell
Eat '
Full
Feed
Feel
Fi" ht

Fi~<l

Flee
Flin 0"
Fly
Forget
Forsake
Freeze
Get
Gild
Gird
Give
Go
G rave
G rind
Grow
H ave
Hanrr

1°-Ica:'
H ew
Hide
Hit
H olt!
Flu rt
l (eep
Kll it
Know

L ade

l mpc1:fect.
dug, R
did
dre w
<lrank
druve
dwelt, R
oat, or utc
fe ll
fe<l
felt

fo ught
founu
llcu
fl11n g

P erfect Participle.
dug, R
<lone
drawn
dru nk
dri ven
dwelt, R
eaten
fa llen

fed
felt
foug ht
founu
;led
'flu ng

Ocw

flown

forgot
forsook
froze

forgotten
forsaken
frozen
g?t
g ilt, R

gut

gilt, R
gi rt, R

g~ r t,

gave
went
graveJ
g rounJ

given
gone
g rave n, R
g round

r.rrew

tYWW l1

had

R

had

hun g,-1~

hun~, R

l:c·al'll
he wed
hit!
hit
held
hurt
kept
kuit, R

hca1:d

J ~1H!W

bdcu

hcw i1,

R

h icld cn or hicl
hi t
held
hurt
k ept
k11it, R
know n

bden

.jJ,,,1i

T
·,

,,

76

ti

Present.
Lny
L eave
Lend
L et
Lie, to rest
Load
L ose
Make
M eet
Mow
Pay
Read
R end
Rid
Ride
Ring
Rise
Rive
Run
Saw
Say
Sec
Seek
Sell
Send
Set
Shakp
Shape
S have
Shear
Shed
S hine
Shoe
Shoot
Show
Shrink
Shut
Sing

ENGLISH GRAMMA R .

bnpc1:fect.
laid
left.
lent
let
lay
loaded
lost
made
met
mowed
paid
reatl
rent
riil
rode
rung, rang
rose

rived
ran
sawed
sa id
saw
$0llCTht

sol<I
sent
set
shook
shapr1 l
•havcd
sheared
shed
shone, R
shod
shot
showed
shrunk
shut
sung, sang

Pe1:fect ParticipbJ _
·
laid
left
lent
let
Jain
lailen, R
Jost
matle
m~~

mown, R

paid
read
rent
rid
rode
r~ng

nsen
riven

run
sawn, R
Enid
seen
so'J'hl
sol
sent
set
shaken
shaped, shapen
shaven, R
shorn
shed
shone, R
shod
sliot
shown
shrunk
shut
sung

Present.
Sink
Sit
Slay
Sleep
· S lit
Smite
Sow
Speak
Speed
Spend
Spill
Spin
Spit
Split
Spread
Spring
Stand
Steal
Stick
Sting
S tride
Strike
String
St'rive
Strow
Swear
Sweat
Sweep
Swell
Swim
Swing
Take
T each
Tear
T ell
Think
Thrive
'fhrow

'

lm pe1jcct . .
sunk, sank
sat
slew
slept
slit
smote

sowed
spoke
speil
spen'
·spilt, R
spun
spit, spat
split .
spread
sprung, sprang

stood
stole
stuck
stung
strode or strid
struck
strung

strove
strowcd
swore

swet, R
swe~t

swe led
sw um, swau1

swung
look
taught
tore
told
thought ,
throve, R
threw

~I

77

:1

P erfect Participle.
sunk
sat
slain
$le pt
slit or slitted
smitten
sown, R
spoken
sped
spent
spilt, R
spun
spit
split
spread

j!:: 1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

t

v

I

:1
,;;.,
· 4·

~·

.p.:

sprung

stood
stolen
stuck
stung
stridden
stiuck or stricken
strung
striven
slrown
sworn·
swet, R
swe~t

swo len; R
swum

sw ung
taken
taught
torn
tolu
thought
th riven
thrown

·~

.;.
·'
''•

t
'i

1!
·, ,'

,.

78
P resen t.

EN GLISH GRAMMAR.

Impe1:fect.

Thru st
Tread
"\Vax
lVea r
'l·Vca vc
W eep
"\•V et
\ Vin
'IVinil
Work

thrust
t rod
wa xed
wore

"\·V 11ing

wrucg

'IV rite

wrcte

WO\'C

wept
wet
w on
wound
wroL1ght, R

79

ENGLISH GRAJ\11\IAR.

P ei.feet Particlplc.
thru st
trodden
lvaxcn, R
worn
woven
wept
wet, R
\\'O n

wound
wrough t, R
wrung
written

Th e oth er variations of irregular verbs are
conj ug<i.ted by the use of auxi liaries, the same
as regu I<i. r ver bs.

•

Conjugation

0 !1s.-To illu ;; tratc s till fort her the co:·:J 'Jgation of ir·
re ..•:J lar \'erbs, I give fo r example t he conj ugation of the
, ,. ,:, to be through the infiniti ve and indicative modes ; and
the pupil s hould be requ ired to conjugate the otber vanations acconling to the principles a lready cxpla111ed. T~e
learner should also observe wha t auxi liari es are u•ed m
each variat ion, am! the same questions may be a pplied a s
arc u rnil in the cPnjugation of the regn lar vcJbs, or t hey
may be cx tenilcd or varied acconling to the judgment of
the instructcr.

verb, Jo be.

P resent T c;·,sc.

P e1:fect Tense.
To have t.een.

To be.
INDI CA TIVE

l\>IoD E .

P resent T ense.
Singular.

P lural.
1. vVc are
2. Yz or vo u aro
3. They arc.

l. l am
2. Thon art
3. H e is

I mpc1fcct T ense .
Singular.
I. l was

Plural.
I. 'W e were
2. Ye or you were
3. They were,

2. Thou wast

3. He was

P e1fect Tens e.

QUE STIONS XND Dm. EC TIO:'<'S.

H ow clues an irregula r verb form its imperfect tense anrl perfect participle 1
H ow <i.re tl1e imperfect tense ancl perfect
partici ple of irregula r verbs to be lenm<>d i
Conjugate anrl spell the imperfect tense and
perfPct partici ple of th e verb abide, etc.
H ow . are th e other variations of irregula r
verbs conjugated?

of the

iNFIJX I TTVE MooE.

Singu lar.
I. I ha Ye hecn
2. Thou hast been
3. H e h as been

Plural.
1. W e have bee n
2. Ye or _you have been
3. Th ey have been.

P luperfect T ense.
P lural.

S ingula1".
1. I had been

2. Thou hadst been
3. He had been

I. vVe hat! been
2. Y c or you had been
3. They had been .

First Future T ense.
Plural.

Singular.
I. I shall or will be
2. Thou shalt or wilt be

I. We s ha ll or will )le
2. Ye or you shall or will be

3, H e shall or will be

3. They shall or will be

S econd Future T ense.
Singular.
I. I shall have been
2. Thou wilt have been

3. He will have been

Piural.
I. vVe sha ll have been

2. Yc or yo u will have been
3. They will have bern.

80

Ji:NGLIS!f GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Conjugation of Passiz•c Verbs.
Passive verbs are conjugated Lhrough all
the modes anJ tenses, by prefixing auxiliaries
tO the perfect participle.
EXAMPLES

S howing lhc conjugation of the. ~crb k>ve·, in the firnl
person, in each of the tenses of the mdtcahve mode.

Present.
Singular.
I am loved

P lural.

W 1rnre lovc1J.

1mperfect.
P b r al:

Sing ular.
f was loved

" re were loved.

P eifc ct.
Plural.

S ingulO.r.
l ha,·c been loved

vV c ha vc been loved.

Singula.r.

Plural.

·w c had been loved.

I had been lo·vc<l

First Future.
P lural..
vV c shall be loved.

Singular.
I sha ll be loved

\ 1
II '

Second

Futur~.

Plural.
Singular.
vV c shall have beca lo,·cJ
l shall ha vc been loved
Notc.-The auxili aries used in conjugatin_g pussive.
verbs, have the same variations a5 the verb to be 111 each of
the modes, tenses, pcrn<>ns, and numbers.
QuESTIONs AND ExERcisEs .

How are passive verbs conj uga:t ed ?_
the verb lo ve, in the passive form,
throuo-h each of the tenses.
Wl~at variations have the auxilia ries which-·
a rc used in conjug-a tin g pltssive verbs1
Conj ~gate

81

1

. W_hat auxiliary is used to conjugate the indtcatn·e mode, present tense, first person, sino-u.
lar 1 And a lso in the second and third perso~ i
These questions may be ex tended to each ofthe modes,

ten ses, persons, anc] numbers.

Note.-Thc verb to be, through all its variation~, is also
used to help conjugate tran •itive, intransitive, and neuter
verbs, when they assume the definite form.
. Obs.-1:'he definite fo rm is used t~ ~XPT~~s action or ex1 st~noc wl11oh 1s unllnl ~hcd. lt is conjugated in each of
the modes, lenses, persons, and numbers.

· EXAMPLES.

--

I.am writing.
He bad hccn studying.
You should have been learning your lessen.
EXPLANATION. 'i
Am, in the fi_rst sentence, is an auxiliary, because it is
used to help conjugate the verb toriting.
1"' writing is a verb, because it expresses -an action in

a direct manner.

"

/

Ha.d been., in the second scnt c'ncc, are auxiliaries, because they are us~d to. help conjugate the verb studying.
H a_d b_een studying JO a verb, because it expresses an
actwn Ill a d1rccl manner, &c.
QUESTIONS .

When Is the verb, ta be, i1sed to h elp con·
jugate other verbs i
What is th e use of the definite form of conjugating verbs ?
How do you explain the first example?
Ho,,- do you explain the second exa:mple 1
How do you explain the third example 1
.11.T~te. -Th c pupil should be required to conjugate some
''erb in the <kfi mte form through a!I the variations.
; ,9

82

ENQLISH GflAMMAU.

ENGLlSll GRAMMAH.

PARTICIPLES.
A participle is a part of speech der.ived from
n. ve rb, a nd expresses an action or existence m
an indirect manner.
There are three kin r~s of pa rticiples , viz.
impe1fect , pe1fect, and compound.
.
The imperfect participle ex presses an action
or existence which is no t completed.
Th e perfect participle expresses an action or
existence which is completed.
Thf! co mpotwrl p ~lrti c iple e:;:prcsses an action
or existenc e prcrious ly completed.
EXAMPLES.
haw the children ploy ing in the yar.<l.
The stage has just arrived, loadccl with passengers. .
The witness, h»v ing been s worn, was pcnmtted to test!fy.

' :ha.t kind of a participle i~ /iaving been
swain, ll1 the thml example, and why? Ans.
H aving .been sworn is a compound participle,
because it expresses an act10n previously comple ted.
. Each of the participles has a different form.
. I mperfec t part1c1ples are formed by add i q~
ing to the vm•bs fr om which tliey are derived .
Verb~

vVork
Meet

EXAMPLES.
] 1,,.

Participles.

workini;
meeting

I

Verbs Im . P arUC'i1les
_ _1

Kill
Delay

.

Perfect partici pies which are deri vecl from
regular verbs; are formed by arldino- d or ed t 0
the ve rbs from which they a re deriv;'d.

QUESTIONS.
What is a participle ?
.
How many kinds of participles are there, ancl
what a re they called?
Describe the impeifect participle.
Describe the pe1fcct participle.
D escribe the co111.pouncl participle.
·what kind of a pa rticiple is playing, in the
first example, and why ? Ans. P laying is an
imperfect participle, beca use it ex presses an
action which is not completed.
·
What kind of a participle is loaded, in the
se~ond example, and why? Ans. L oaded is
a perfect participle, becau se it expresses an
action which is completed.

83

EXAMPLES.
Verbs P er. P M ticiples.

Talk
Bake

ta lkcc.l
baked

p,,,. .

Verbs
W hittlc

Partici /es

___P

·

P iny

. Not~.-Thc form< of perfec t partici~lt',; which arc deri ved lro111 irreg ubr verbs, may be lea rned from the .list of
the irrcg uJ:ir vt·rbs.
'

EXAMPLES.
J:'erbs P er. P articiples.
Go
gone
vVo rk

wrnught

Verbs Per. P art-iciples.
__

r\ m
Think

.

N otc.-Thc auxiliary being j,; sometimes ptefixcc.l to the

perfect part1c1plc.

Bcincr made

Being lust

-

\

EXAMPLES.

.J

Bein~ lovc1l

B<'in~ JCstroyctJ

e 2

84

ENGLISH GRAMJll.A.R.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The compound participle is formed by pre.
fixing the word having to the perfect participle.
EXAMPLES.
Verbs Com. Participles.
Verbs Coni. P articiples.
Love
hi..ing loved
L earn
Find
having found
Write
The foregoing vacancies shoukl be supplied by the pupil.
Obs.-It may be observed t hat the distinction between
o. verb and participle is, that a verb ex presses an action or
existi·ncc in a dired manner, and u participle cxpre~ses an
oclion or exi stence in an indirect manner.
QuESTIO;"llS AND

EXERCISES.

H ave all the par:iciples the same form?
How are the imperfect participles formed?
What is the imperfect participle from the
verb work? &c.
How are perfect participles formed which are
derived from re g ula r verbs ?
What is the perfect participle from the verb
talk? &c.
How are the forms of t.he perfect participles
to be learned, which are derived from irregnlar
verbs?
What is the perfoct participle from th e verb go?
·what auxiliary is sometim es prefixed to the
perfect participle? Mention an example.
How are compound participles formed?
·what is the compound participle from the
verb love ? &c.
What is the distinction between a verb and
a participle?

85

ADVERBS.
to ~hn Adverb is a part of speech used to-add
· ·
· e meanm °rr of \'erb s, a dJect1ves
and parci·
cip 1es.
'
.
~Vote.-Some adverhs adm"t f h
. .
adjectives, and are subject t 0 ~l o t e same -:arial!ons as
10 "ame syntact19'll tules.

EKAM!'LE.
Comparati11c.
Superlative.
fast<>r
fastest.
Obs.- AJverbs tni<Tht be
·
classes, but as the a~e nea arranged '!1toa variety of other
tactica l rules it if dcei <.I rly .~ 11 subject to the SQtne syn'
ne n eeu ess to class them.
1'ositi-oe.
Fast

1

A phrase or part of
'
performs th~ office f adsentence, sometimes
o an a verb.
EXAMPLES
T hree days ago we
·
ri '"er.
were encamped on the bank of the
He did not go a great ways into the cou ntry.

,

EXPL :1 NA TION.

Three days a "O i• an ad ·b· l
used to ad<l lo tl~c mca·niu" 0 ~etil Ia ~brose, because it w
A
c:o
ie veru were encamped
great ways Is an a<lverbial 1hra
b .
. '
•
to a<lcl to the 111ea11in<T of tl1
,I
se, ecause it .s used
c
c veru go.
·
QUESTIONS,

vVhat. is an adverb 1
~hwh.at .variaLions do some adverbs admit2
·
Y 15 1t deemed unn ecessary 10
the ad verbs mto oth.cr classes~
arrange
e4

86

st

ENGJ;.ISH GRAMMAR .
l:NGLISH GUAMMAR .

PREPOSITIONS.

What is sometim es used t.o perform the office
of a n adverb?
How do you explain the first exam pl e?
How do you explain th e second exam ple?

A Pre position is a pa rt of speech used to
show therelal1on between other words.
Prepos1t10ns do not admit. of classifica tiort.
I

:he importance anU USe

Of

prepositiO!lS may be itn•

l re • seJ . 0 :1 the mm<l, uyol.Jservrng their improper omission

F ormation of Jldvcrbs.

1n 11lC 1o 1.vw1ng sentences.

A large propo rtion of the ad verbs a re derived
from a dj er, ti ves 1 and areforrned by adding ly to
the words (rorn which they are derived.

The fi sherman waclcd
t he ri ve r.
riwn•1]
A
The children run
the streets .

[It sbou!J be in

tl1 0

A

Abbey J ,111c ruJe

EXAMPLT·:S .
A djcclircs.
.Nc:it
Great
Vv onuerful
Large
Bountifu l
DreaJrul
SLrangc

Adjectives.
Cool
uc!ightfnl
comfortable
liiv us
n>ugh
first

Aclrc·rbs.

uealiy
grwtly

wonuerful!y
1argdy
bountifully
~ readfull v

Adrerbs.

strn ngeiJ
r;H11r:st
1\1ule.-Advcrhs ::nc s1)Jnrt i111cs comliinell "'·ith prcpo~i ·
tions, am! r.ot on ly :i tld to t lie mca1: i1w
words, I.Jut a];o
0
ex pr ess a rrlation .

the horse.

The following ~s a list of the principal words
used for prepos1t10ns:
To, for , under, without, from, a<7'1\nst beneath towards•

u~ross, ulo.ng, bctwcc11, <_t1nong, ~mongst, nea r: beyond,
s1n7c~ <lo\\ ni . thro ugh, till, round, within, into,
a truJ ~t, abou t, above, of, around before behind

ur

·

EX/d\.1 PLFS.
\V hcrclty, whr.rrn( lhcwi n hrrcin, whrrei11, whcreunto,
hereby, thereof, hvrewith, thereto, wherewith, &c.
1

UuE STIO NS.

From w hat p cllt. of spe8ch is a larg e proporti on of th e arll"c rbs dPrived?
U ow are th ey formed ?
What adv e rb is de ri1·erl from the adj ecti ve
ne::it? &c.
With w hat part of speech is the adverb
some times cotnlnned ? Mention t.he examples .

below,
afte
l.Jet"'.1xt, u~, over, un~crneath, unt~, up, u[Jon, with.
r,
2\ote.--Jhe 1~1ea mn g of the words may be impressed
"t<t
on the mrnd ol the pupil , hy selectin11 words of 0
meamr.g.
FOR EXAMPLE.
pposi
What word ts opposite in meaning to for? Ans.
Against, ·etc.
Q UE STION S.

What is a preposition 1
Do prepositions admit of classification?
What word is omitted in the first sentence
and what is its use?
'
"'\Vhat word is omitted' in the second sentenc e, and what is its use?
What word is omi~ted in the third sentence,
a nd what is its use?
e4

'

i

...
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

CONJUNCTIONS.
A conjunction is a part of speech used to
connect words and sentences.
Conjunctions t\re divided into two classes,
viz., copulative and disjunctive.
A copulative conjunction connects words
and sen tences, by adding them together.
A disjunctive conjunction CQl111eCt;! WQl'Q~
and sentences, by expressiri_~ oppos ition of
meaning.
The following is u list of the principal conjunctions : Copulative.-And, if, then, both, for, as, because, sine~,
therefore, wherefore.
.
Disjunctive. - But, exce.pt, nor, or, than, neither,
either, thougli, yet, whether, notwithstanding, Jest, save,
unless.
Q, UESTIONS.

,)

I

l

What is a conjunction?
Into how many classes are conjunctions
divided, and what are they called?
Describe a copulative conjunction.
Describe a disjunctive conj unction.
What are the principal words used for copulative conjunctions?
What are the principal words used for disjunctive conjunctions?
. EXAMPLES.
The boy has learned his lesson, and recited it.
Englisl1 grammar was once considered an irksome ta•k,
but now it is a pleasing study.

ENGLISH GHAMMAR.

89

QUESTIONS.

What kind of a conjunction is and, in the
fir~t example, and why? Ans . .And is a copu·
lat1ve conJunct10n, because it connects the two
sentences by adding them together.
·what kind of a conjunction is but, in the
second example, and why ? Ans. But is a
disjunotive conjunctibn, because it expresses
opp_osition of meaning.

INTERJECTIONS.
An In terjection is a part of speech used to
express sudden passion or emotion.
1:he leat:n er should be careful to acquire a
habit of usrng appropriate words for interjections, an d also to avoid low or vulgar words.
. '~h e following is a list of a part of the inter
Ject10ns, with their appropriate uses, viz.Those which nre use<l for the expression of grief or
surpn se, are 0 ! oh! ah! alas!
Those used for . the ex press ion of contemp t, are
pshaw! poh ! fie! p1sh ! &c.
Of wom1er, what! hei~h ! really! indeed! strange!
Of a call of the attention, ho! hallow ! Jo ! behold ! Of silence, hark! hush! hist!
Of salutation, welcome! hail! all hail!
Of exultation huzza ! hurrah !

r:
j'

j

.: I
1. , ,

~

.J

:, I

vLl.·I.
;! !

r
', ·

• •
90

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1'NGLISI-I GRAMMAR.

QUESTIONS .

EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE NouNS.

What is an interjection?
\Vhttt care should be taken in using interjections?
What interjections are used to express grief
and surpri'le?
"What interjections are used to ex press contempt ?
What inte1j ections are used to express
wonde r?
What interjections are used 111 calling the
attention ?
What interj ections are used in commanding
silence?
Wh a t interj ect.ions are usP.d in salutation?
W hat in te rjections an~ used to expres8 exultation?

J ames's sisters caine in the stage.
Jamcs's is a noun, because it is the name of a pcrsonmasculine gender, beca use it is the name of a person of the
male kin<l; third person, beca use it. is spoken of; singular
number, because it implies only one person; possessive
case, beca use it relates to the possession of sisters.
Sisters is a noun, because it is the name of a sort of
persons ; JlJ1111t1 llH! gMJer, because it is the name a sort
of persons of the fomal e kind ; third person , beca use it is
spoken of; plural nurnbcr, because it implies more than
one sister; nominative case, because it is the agent of the

The learner having acquired a knowledge of the tleli11i·
lion s an<l variations of the parts of speech, may nex t
}>Toccc<l to parse or analyze sentence:;.

The followin" illu strntions will serve to exhiuit to the l e~rner a ph ilosophical modt: of
parsrng.
EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE ARTICLES.

l want a boy to ride 0 11 the ]JOny.
A is an article, because it is used to limit the no•.1 n boy
-ln<lcf in itc article:, Lrcause it limit::; th e 11 ou n boy to ouc
ofl hc kinJ, with out tlcfiuing 11ny partic ul ar. OJ~e.
'l'h c is an mtidc. because it is u!-'ell to ltnut the noun
po11y-1kli11ite article, because it · defines some particular
pouy.

91

or

verb C{t1HC .
I
Stage is a noun, hecat1 ,>e it is the name of a sort of
carriages; neuter gender, because it is neither male nor
female; thir<l person, b<'cause it is spoken of; singular
number, because it implies ouly one stage; objective case,
because it is the object of the preposition in .
ExAMPJ,ES To 1L1,us·1' RATE ADJECTIVES.

J esse has a new houk. ~
New is an adjeclive, because it is used to describe the
noun book-po•itive adjective, because it describes the
book in a positive manner, without comparing it with any
oth~r object.
Benjamin is older than J csse.
Older is an adjective, bccau ~e it is use<l. to describe the
noun Benja min; comparative mljc~tive, because it descrihcs Benjamin by comparing him with Jesse ..
Rho<le Island is the s11wllest state in the Union.
Smallest is an ailjeclive , beca use it is use<l to describe the
11oun Stale; superlative adjective, because it describes the
Stale by comparing it with more than .one State.
EXAllIPLES TO ILLUSTRATE PRONOUNS.

'This is the boy whom J saw studyiurr his lesson.
'J'h is i• a pronoun, because it is use:i instead of the

92

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR .

noun boy; a<lj cctive pronoun, because it serves to describe
the noun boy, to which it relates; <lefinite a<ljectivo pronoun, because it relates to the noun boy in a definite or
pointed manner ; sing ular number, bcca ~ se it relates to
only one boy.
'
Whom is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the
noun boy; relative pronoun , because it relates to the anteCl'<lent boy; th inJ person, beca use it represents a boy ,
w hich is sµoke n of; ::;ingular number, beeause it re presents
on ly one buy ; obj ective ca se, becauso it is the ol~ect of tho
trans itive \'erU saio.
I is a prunou11, lJ~ttlU~~ it is used instead ol the name

of the person speaking; personal pronoun, because it
pcrsonates a pe rson; first pcr::;Jn 1 beca use it personates the
person Bpeakin g; s ing ular n Gmbcr, because it personates

un ly one person; nominative case, becaLl;e it is the agent
of th e verb sa1c.
H is i; a pron oun , because it is used instead of the noun
hoy ; pe rsonal pron oun, because it pc r::iOnatcs tho noun

boy; masc uline gender, because it personates a person of
the ilialc kind; third person, because it personates a boy
which ii-i spoken uf; sing u lar nu ff1ber , because it personates

only one boy; pu&;essive case, because it relates to the
possessivn of les,;on.. .

This knife !s 10hat l wanted, ( i. e.) this knife is that 10hich
l wantcJ.
T h.at is a pronoun, becau se it is used instead of the
n oun kni fe; uJjecti' e pronoun, bcca u ~c it serves to <le·
scrihe the n ou n knife, to which it relates; definite adjecti ve pronoun, becau se it relat es to th e kni fe in a <lefinite
'or pointed manner; sing ular numbe r, because

it relates to

only one knife.
fVhich is a pronoun , because it is used in sleau of the
uoun kni fo i re lat ive p ronoun, because it re lates to the
anteceden t knifo ; thirJ person, because it represents a
knifo, which is 'poken of; singular number, because it
represents only one knife ; objective case, because it is
the obj ect of the transitiyc verb wanted,

93

ExAMPr,Es TO JT,LUSTRATE VERBS.

I intend to ride to -morrow; and, i!' it were.convenient., you
1night accompany me.
Intend is a verb, be.cause it it expresses action in a direct
manner; intransitive verb, beca use it e xpresses an action

which <l acs IJOt effect any object-( intend, intended,
intended,)-its conjugation is regular, because its imperfect tense and perfect participle are form ed by ooding ed
to the present; in J icative mo<le, because it expresses an action used in declaring ; present tcn<e, because it expresses
an action whiah ie now laking place; flr~t p~rs6h, l:iecausc
it expresses an action of the person speaking,'rcprcsen tcd by
the. pronoun l ; singular number, bccam~ it expres,es an
actrnn of 011ly on e person, represented by the pronoun I.
T o is an auxiliary, because it is used to help conjugate
the verb r ide.
To ride is a verb, brcause it expresses an action.in a
direct manner; int ransitive verb, br.ca u~ e it expresses an
action which does not effect any object, (ride, rode,
rode;) its conjugation is frregular, because its imperfect
t.ense and perfect participle are not formed by ad<ling d or
ed to the present ; inlinitive mode, because it ex pre!ISes an
action in a general manner, with ou t an y agent or subject;
present tense, because it expresses an actio n which is now
intended.
JVcn is a verb, because it expresses existence, in a direct
manner; n eu te r ve rb, because it expresses c -xistcnce, (am.,
1.cas, been;) its conjugation ~ s irregul a r 1 becau se i ts~mpe rfect
tense and perfect participle ar-e not formed by adding d or .ed
to the present ; subjunctive mt•dc, becau w it expresses an
action which implies a condition; imperfect tense, because.
it expresses an ·ex istence some ti me past; third person,
becau se it expresses th e existence of a stale of com·cnience
w hich is spok en of an•] personate,1 b,v the JHOnoun ·i t;
singular number,. beca use it expresses the ex istence of
only one ohject , personate<l by the pronoun it.
] I.f ight i,; an aux il iary, bcca11se it is used to help conjugate the vcrh accomp an!l·

94

ENULISH GRAMM AR.

..11/ ight accom7x1ny is a verb, because

ENGLISH GR AMMAR,

it expresses an

act ion in a Uirect manner; transitive verb, because it expresses an action which effoct" the object me; ( accompany,
accompanied , acconipan icd;) its conjugation is regular,
because its imperlcct te!'se and perfect pa rticiple are formed
by add in g ed to the present; potential mode, because it
expresses an action which impl ies liberty; imperfect tense,
because it imphes liberty some ti me r~st; second person,
because it expresses an action of a perso11 spJkcn to, r epres.,ntrd hy the pronoun yo11,; singular numb<' r, because
it expresses an action of on ly one person, represented by
th e pro1191m yq·u.
ExA llIPL ES TO ILLUSTRATE PAnTIClPf.ES.

I
(

The boys having recited their lessom, and being found
in good onler, may have the privilege of c:rercising in the
field.
H aving is an auxiliary, beca use it is uscJ to help form
the participle recitecl.
Ila1•·i11g recited is a participle, because it is derived from
the verb recite, and expresses an action of t he noun boys
in an indirec t manner; compournl participle, because it
expresses an acti<•n-prcviously completed.
Bein g is an a uxiliary, because it is use<l to help form
the participle foun<l.
Bc-ir1g.fuu nd is a partici11lc, beca use it is derived from
the verb.find, aml expresses an actio n i11 a n i11dircct manr.er, which is received by the noun boys ; perfect participle,
because it expresses an action which is completed .
E.i:ercising is a part iciple, because it is derived from
the verb c:i:crcisc, and e xpres,;es an action of the noun
boys in an indirect manner; imperfoct part.ic:iple, because
it expresses an action which is not completed .
EXAMPLE S TO ILLU S'l'llA'l'E AnVERBS.

Thomas has written a ury pretty l e ~ter lo-day.
Ver y is a11 adverb, because it is u sed to add to the
mean in g of the a<lject ive p rell !I·

7' d

to

.

95

.

1

th~-m'~;~in~ 0~·':~~r~~~i,r;~:'~~~Z~~~1~se it is used to add

EXAl\IPf.l!: S TO ILLUS'l'RA'l'I' PR

T

.

.

'·

El'OSI'l'IONS

he ladw;.J;·om New York h ave been riding on horse~. .
From is a prcpos1twn, because it is used - h
to s ow tho
relatwn_ between ladies and New York
On Is a prepo· ition u
· .·
rcbrion betwee n rid.in<r' a 11c<lral· use it is used to s how the
o

10rs e~ .

.

J!;xA11rPLES TO lLLU S'rRAT E CoN

'

.( f I h
.
JUN C'l'IONS.
c n prncuru a horse and cur riao-c I sh· II .· I .
h

. L·Juntry i but yo u lllll:;t re1r~li;~ at h~m~~t e in t c
ij1s a conjun cJ ion , because it is used
.
two subsequent sentences; co rnbti v ·~ - to connect th e
it connects the two sentences ft . d I~ c n.1unct1on, beca use
And is a con. unct iun b ' 'Y '' '. mg them together.
words horse add carri~a-~ci1use It is used to con nect the
cause it conner.ts the t wo ~vo;rd~';fyulalt~ve coh1junction, beBut is a conjunction because it '" mg t em together.
a n<l s ubs<'quent sentc~ces .' d' . c~~nects ·t!1e pr_eccding
C'\l)se it expresses oppositio~ of~Ju nc'.ive con1uncllon, beneanmg.

Ex&MPLESTOILLUS'l'RATEI
.
N'.l'EHJEC'.l'IOl\'S

.
Alas 1 and did my Saviour <lie.
'
Alas 1s an int - t'
b
su<lden emotion e~{e~o:~~:.,. ecause it is usc<l to express a:
I n dee~! I did not think it poss'ible.
I ndeed is an rntcrjeeli on b
. .
a sudden emotion of s urprise.' ecause it L~ used to express
.
_
.Ilurrah ! for victory !
IIurrah is an mterj ecti on I
· ·
s u<lden emotion of exu ltatio:1.'cca nsc it is use<l to express a

,'

'

96

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES FOR

ENGLISH ORAi\IMA!i.
PARSI~G

SELECT SENTENCES.

Moral and religious inst ru cti on should be
early imprcss0d on th e minds of youth.
The children of the United States s houl cl he
ca refull y instrn cted in th e principles of republican ~o v e rnm e nt.
Th e prcpe r direction of the you thful mind is
a charge which lays a g reat respo nsibility on
those with wh om it is intru sted .
If you would qualify a chil<l to enj oy h a ppin ess, teach him to check hi ~ ev il propensities,
befo re th ey hecom e too strong for him to restrain.
A strict and unvaryin g ad herence to truth is
a certain indication of a nobl e mind.
He who practices deception, in a ny form, is
in great danger of contracting a habit which
wili finall y in vol ye him in disgrace and misery.
Th e cultivation of th e huma n mind has ever
bee n considered a mong th e most important concern s of civilized society.
Youth is the season in whi ch the mind rece ives impressions with th e g reatest facili ~Y:
Gamin 0o- is a vi ce whi ch infu ses its permc10us
influ ei1ce under the specious title of innocent
amuseme nt.
Th e veil whi ch covers fr om our sight the
events of succeeding y ears, is a veil woven by
the hand of mercy.
No tc.-In order to parse poetical composition, it is freflU Cntly necessary to transp1lsc it and ::ive the meaning

in prosr.

For example.

97

"V_h,u_ noble en<ls, by noble means obtains
0_1 fa1lrng, smiles m exile or in chains. '
P:ood Aurelius, let him reio-n orble d
1 rn ::Socrates, that man is great"'in'deed. e

t -•f<e
'r

.

TRA NSPOS ITION.

e nd~i ~yt i~ alnl IS great ind eed'. wl10 ohtains noble

.
.
.
OJ e m ea n ~, or faihno.
or Ill <.: Il a in• . J..ict hi111 rlo\ ll>'n lik ' ~n1 1
J~ m e:x:1Ie,
o r let him bleed like Socr~tes . , e .,oo Aurelius, _
DISCIPLINE.

.

In coll eges and halls in ancient l

\Vh en lea rnin o- "11. '
·
cays,. .
v tu e, piety, and truth
, e1e p1 ec1ous, a nd m cul ca ted with car'
1 here dwe lt a sao·e call'd DiscI.pl'
H 'e, l
1'I t
t b ·
"'
me.
is 1ead
'
. o_ ye Y. ti me completely silver'd o'er .
~espok e hcn.1 past the bounds of freakish'
th
Jl~1t strcmg for se rvic e still, and unimpair~~~ '
I_s ~ye wa~ mee k a nd gentle, and a smile· '
. ,lay don hi s li ps; and in his speech wa · l
ci
_l ate rnal sweet ness di o-111'ty a·i·t·! J .
s 1ear
Tl
.
' "'
, , O \ · e.
' ie_occu p<it1.irn dea rest to his heart
to enco
zood ness
L ea1·1·11·n g o-rew ·
13Va,
· uraze
· • v1'0cnea(•.1I Ili1s
care~ , a~ thri
vino·
>.
1'"'
'l'I
.
" ' ,.,, l OUS pa nt..
.S ie
I mi11c
- 1· • tw as well. .rnfonn ed ' ti 1e pass10ns
1..' ,1 l
~ ;01Cu1 a e, a nd chli ge nce w as choice .
. .
:;,le er It chanc'd, as sometimes c han ce i t must
, , 1atone amo ng- so nmny , overleap·u
·'
l he l1m1ts of con trol, his ge ntl e eye
GI e w_ stet n , a nc! darted a sev ere rebuke :
Hes f1 own w as ltd! of tcrroi· and 1 ·
.
SI 1 I
·
'
u s voice
ioo_{ t.1e dclrnquent with rnd1 tit s of a we
A s left !um not till penitence had \VOil
.'
L os t favor back aga in, an<l clos ' d the breach.

"V ., . . "''

p

Cowper,

f

us

ENGLISH OUAMMAr..

. .
. human nature rei_gn;
"Two pnnc1ples 111 . son to res train;
Self-lo~·e.to urge. aml:~fiat a bad w e call, "
Nor tlus is a guod, In~
ove a nd .rovcrn all.
Each w erk s its enc• o m
"
GllATl'l'UDE . .

·inn- l' molt on.
. l
Gratitude IS a P.1ca_s r -"ti 1wui shccl by th e lone.The se nse of be111 p; ' 11 '. .. "'tl1 e l1 ea rt warms it
Ce » ~ .incl gi \''es to .an y
>=>,':' .• •
ness of a noll 1e r, 1rl·•tl
with rccip roc_a.l al1cd1~~~~b lc in ii.se lf n -~oubl~
profess ion wh1 ch1 s ap; o·i(l ot' a fri cntl. I•avo1s
relish, from its be111 g tl'.\ ''beco me burclens?me;
confcrrccl by inen ,_ ma, l
n affect th e mtcrbut noth!ng_ of this ,~,y;; t l~~av~n . . Its fav:.:ir~
co urse of g 1 ~ t.1tu clc ·eel The Alnnghty a1111s
, 1 ,.c wh olly d1 s1nte1es t .·
. f those whom he
,.
·' b t ti I1a11p111 eso, o
l t
return fr om them, JU
at n o enu 11 1°,. '
bl esses, and he de,11 e~ no .
a devout and th ankful h ea1t . .
.

1

OF DElnV ,\TION.
.
• lar ~·e ll rop ort .wn _of th e w. ords in the English
.a
"'
l · l ··es
hrn o-uao-e arc l en va 1'. ·
l a re de riv ed from
•1'11 c J iffc rcnt part s_o t spcec l that is nouns
.111 y an ous 'v avs ,
'
'
one anoth e r,
'
1 . Jjectiv cs.
are deri ved fro 1~1~elrlhs 1~11\ o~n s , adj ectives, and
Ycrb s arc dc11v c. io
· .. from ad ve rbs .
s o m ct 1111 ~ ' • . 1. ' 1 , ·i\·cd fro m noun s.
Ad.1e ct1v c ~ a _,c cci , fr om adjectiv es.
1
.Ad ve rbs a re ueuv et
.
f"or 'hc uerivation
1 . r1iO'hl be IT\\'CH
"
.
. .
c
cd from Dictionancs, it is

N ule.- N umerous ru cs '

i

of won.lii1 hut as thnt is_ h:~s~ i ~~~nthcm here.
not t ho u :~h t propt: r to 1n, r . . . l1l!C

E~GLISH GHAJIIMAR.

99

SYNTAX.
Syntax is that part of grammar which teaches
the proper formation of sentences.
A sentence is a set of words so arranged as to
convey an idea of some action or existence.
Simple sent ences generally contain · three
principal parts, viz, the agent or subject, the
action or existence, and th e object of the action.
The agent or subject is a noun or pronoun, th~
action or e~ i~tence i ~ expressed by li. verb, and
th e object of the ac tion is also a noun or pronoun. For example :
Cobwl.Jus t1i=-covcrrJ. .iimcrica.

N ote.-Somc scnl ences harn hut t wo principal parts-,
viz. the agc11t or s ul~cct, and tile veru. For example:
C::csa r wa s mu rdered.

The other parts of a sentence are used to describe or add to th e meaning of the principal
parb, or to show some r elation or connection
between them.
A compoµud sentence co·nsists of two .or more
simple sentences connected together by conjunctions . For example :
vVi llia m foll from the horse, and hurt his head.
QUESTIONS ANrl Dr.l{ECTIONS.

What is syntax?
'\Vhat is a sentence ?
How many principal parts have simple senten ces generally, and wfiat are they?
What pa rt of speec h is the agent or subject?
By what pa rt of speech is.the action or existence expressed ?
What part of speech is the object of the
action?
·

f2

ENGI.lSII GRAMMAR.

100

ENQLISH G.RA!IUIAR.

.
n example ofa simple sentence.
G 1ve
· tlue e parts
Do alla sentences con ta m
.
.1
Mention a st0 nlence wluch contams only two

pa~~;at are

th e various uses of the other parts
of a sent ence ?
.
\'Vhat is a compound sentence·1
Giv e an e xample of a compound sentence,
and tell why it is such.

RULES
F1 the P roper 1l 1Ta'1gcment and P ur ms
or
qf :Sjicech i n a S entence.

I
'..

f:

of the P art s

ExA M I' I. t:: s uF FA LSE SY r<i T A X.

a.n

EXAMPLES OF FAL SE SYNTAX .

Will you lenu me a umbrella 1

A is imprnper, because it is useJ for an in-

definite arti cle before the word um brella, which
begins with the sound of the vowe l u. It should
be an umbrella.
I bougl 1t a oranJC fer y ou an<l me.
H e was a intimale fricrnl of miue.
Q UE STION S.

W !u lt is rul e second?

RULE I.
OF An'l'ICLES.
.
A 11ould be used for an indefinite article be· cli be ,..,
,.
s
rrin with a consonant sound.
1ore wore1s w 111
Brin cr me

101

boo k.

.

A n is improper, because it is used for an ~n­

..:. ~Jinite article before tl~ e word book, '~luc~
beo-ins with th e sound of the consonant .
shguld be a book.
.4nglobc is r ounu.
h ubd:c wus throw n from an h orse.
QuE S'l ' ION.S.

\'Vhat is rul e first?
d
What is improper i~1 th e first sentence, an
1
why and how should 1t be.
what is improper in the second sentence, and
why? etc.

RULE II.

An shouhl be used f?r an indefinite article

before words which begm with a vowel sound.

\Yhat is improper in the first example, and
why, and how shou Id it be?
What is improper in the second example, and
why? etc.

RULE Hi.
OF NOUNS AND PRO N OUNS.
A noun or pronoun, which is the agent or
subject of a ,·erb, should be in the nominative
form .
EX .UfPL E S OF FALSE SYNTAX •

C harles nnd m e went i11to the cotintry.

l'ile is improper, because it is the objective

form of th e pronoun, and is agent of the verb
w ent, whi ch requires it to be in the nominative
form . It should be / .
1

J ohnson's t!i c hooksr ll e', is the pen<on to whom I alluded.
J ohnson's is in1proper, because it is the pos-

sessive fono of th e noun, and is agent of the
verb is, whi ch requires it to be in the nominative foru1. It should be Julmsun.
·
riim and m e playe1l in the meadow.
If thee were in the habit uf s muking, I wou l<l·offer thee
a cl!!ar.
W ho msoever incul cates corrupt principles, becomes responsible for thP, evil resulting from the m.
f 3

102

103

ENGLISH GRAJ\UIAR.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

QUESTIONS .

A noun or pronoun, which relates to the
possess ion of property, shou Id be in the possessive form.
Ex c1;PTIO-Ns.-\Vhen several nouns, in the
poss e~· ~, ! vc ·case, are uGcd to represent the same
thin g, rJr whe n they are co nnected together by
conjur. :::tions, none of them should be in the pos·
sessi vc form, except those which immediately
prececfo th e 6bj0et wl\ltli they pMsMS. For
exampie:

RULE V.

What is rule third?
What is improper in the first example and
why, and how should it be?
'
What is improper in the second example
and why ? etc.
'

RULE IV.
A nc;>un or prono~n.' which is the object, of a
trai:isitive ve.rb, participle, or preposition, should
be m the objective lbtm.

1'his ia R euben 1 the crazy man's hat.
This is H enry a1'd "Williams book .

EXAMPLE S OF FALSE SYNTAX.

This lhiok

vva~ boug~1L

fur Jolin a!HJ I.

1 is improper, because it is the nominative
form o.f. the pronot~n, and i~ the. object of the
preposition }or, wl11ch requires it to be in the
objective form. It should be me.

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYr{TAX.

I will ca! l at the Librarians and deli ver a book of him
L ibrarians is improper, because it is the ob-'

jective form of th e noun, and relates lo the
' possession of hoitse u nderstood, which requires it
to be in the possessive form. It should be

This is the person, who I invited to dine with me.
I invited no person but he.
1-Vho sh~ U l send to catch the pony?
I:le that IS idle, I shall detain ai'ter school.
I called at the house of Mr. Whiti ng's this morning.
N ote.-:-- In the last exampl e, the preposition of expresses
the i:c~at10n bet\Yeeu T.Vlii:ing a11d house, which requires
1-Vhitrng to be m the obj ective form; but if a instead of
the were Jlaced bclurc the noun house, it wo uld then be
con~i.dcrc a house of l\'.lr. \.V hiting'~ houses, and the prepos1t10n cf wo uld relate to t.he noun houses undcrstoodlcaving tlic relation between T.Vhit i1;.g and lwtisc to be ex-

librarian's.
H im is im prope r,

•

because it is the objective
form of the pronoun, and relates to the possession of bDoks irnder; /ood, which requires it b be in
the posse&si ve form. It should be his.
Th is l:ook is not l·Villiams it is Cliar/eses.
1iW fi nge r very b:1tl!y.
Juhn} s and Samuel's b :>ok was torn.
(S eo the note cf axce p~iuns)

J Inv :.! hurl

pressed by the po;scssive form of the noun.

Q. UESTIONS.
\Vhat is rule fifth?
Wh a t are the exce ptions to rule fifth?
"\Vl1at is improper in the first example, and
why, and how should it be?
What is improper in the second example,
and why? etc .

QUESTIONS.

'Vhat is rnl e fourth?
·what is irnproper in the first example, and
why , a nd ho\\1 ~houlrl it be?
' Vhat is improper in the second example and
why? etc.
'

..

104

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

RULE VI.
Pronouns, which represent on ly one object,
should be in the singular form.
Ex .uIPLEs OFF ALS E SY.NTAX.

Each hoy must study their ow n Je,so1l.
T heir is improper, because it is th e plural form

of the pronoun, and represe nts only one boy,
wl1ich requires it to be in the singqlar form.
It shou Id be his .•
W e may reprove a child without almsing lhern.
T he nation will enforce th eir ow n laws.
Either Geoq'e or Peter hae hurt thernselves hy falling .
It is a J uty of the Senate to keep a record of their own
rroccct.l ings,
QuESTIONS.

What is rule sixth ?
What is improper in the first example, and
why, and how shou ld it be?
What is improper in the second e xample,
and wh y? etc.
.
RULE VII.
A noun or pronoun , whi ch represents more
than one objet:t, should be in th e plural form.
E x.HIPL E s OF FALSE SYNT AX.

Envy a nti malice puni•h itself.
Itself is improper, because it is the singular

ENGJ.ISfI GRAMMAR.

105

ton, which requires it to be in the plural forru.
It shou ld be tuns.
The council did not agre.e, and ii. separatedwi.hout
funning any tfctermin atio11 .
.
'1'h'' servant took the coals from the stove and put ii in
th e fu rnace.
Modesty and di•cretion adorn the mind ofils possessor.
U c received a hunurcJ pou nd a year.
Qt::E STlONS ·

'\<Vhat is rule seve·nth?
Wha t is improper in the first example, and
whv, and how should it be?
What is improper in the second example,
and why? etc.

RULE VIII.
The forms of pronouns should correspond
with th e nouns, which they represent in person
- and gender.
EXAMPL E S OF FAL SE SYNTAX .

The 1bg carried rhe basket in its mouth.
It s is imprope r, because it is the n euter form

of th e prono un , and represents an animal of the
male kind, which requires it to be in the mascu line form, It should be his.
'\Ve will take an early breakfast by yourselves.
Your selves is improper, because it is in the form

form of th e pronoun, and represents more tl1an
one object, (mali ce and en11y) whi ch requires it to
be in tlie plural form. It shou ld be thernse lves.

of the seco nd person, and represents the persons
speaking, which .requires it to be in the form of
the first person . It should be ourselves.

I bought two tun of cou l.
Tu n is improper , because it is the singular
form of the noun, and represents Il.\Ore than o~e

You have hit. the nail on his head.
You and the children i; iay h'lve the room to themselves,
this evening, if you will pre.erve good order.

106

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
QUESTIONS.

·what is rul e e ighth ?
'Vhat is improper in the firs t example, and
why , an d h ow shoul d it be ?
¥Vhat is improper in th e second example,
and wh y ? etc.
RULE IX .
0 1" AnJ.,;C'l'1vEs.
Adjectiv es, and ad verbs , whi ch com pare only
two obje ~S, ~ hi:n d rl be in th e aompnrn tiv e fbrm.
ExA~rPLEs uF FA L sv. S YNTAX.
H ~ nry

is the o/dc.,l

or t he t\\'O brother,1.

Oldest is improper, becaus e it is in the super-

lativ e form of th e adjective, a nd compares only
two brothers, whi ch requires it to be in th e
com pa rative form. It should be older.
\ Vluch i< the.fa rthest north-London or Xew York?

Lrt us see which of the two classes will lea rn thr f as: est.
QUESTIONS .

' Vhat is rule ninth?
vVhat is improper in th e fir st e xample, and
why, and ho w s hould it be?
·wh a t is imp rop er in the secoml example, and
why? etc. ·
RULE X .
Adjectives, whi ch compare more than two
ohjec'ts, should he in the su perl ativ e form.
EXAMPLES OF FALS E S Y i'iT ,\X .

Vvhic'"t was t hc.fann~r of' tl :c t 1·.-d vc Cmsa r' ?

is im proper, because it is the co 1111,a ra·tiv c fo rm of tl1e adjectiv e, and compares more
th an tw o persons, whi ch req uires it to be in the
s uperlati ve form . It should be .first.
F orm er

ENGLISH

GRAM~IAR.

107

EnghlRd bas th e more powerful navy in tho world.
·which i• the larger o l the United 8tates 1 , ,
QUESTIONS.

Wh at is rule tenth?
vVhat is improper in the first exa mple, and
why, and h ow should it be ?
\Vha t is improper in th e second example, and
why? etc.

RULE XL
0 F VE It BS.
V erbs , whi ch ex press the action 'or existence
of on ly one object, should be in the singular
form.
Notc.-The sin"u!ar fo rm of verbs is generally ma<le l.Jy
a<lJing s or cs to th ., plnral form.
Ous, -The Ji!frrcnt forms of verbs may l.Je learncJ hy
ob3er,ving the conjugat ion of verbs in etymology.

Ex ..u1 PLES ol'

FALSE SY NTAX.

The C ong:rcss of the U nitecl S tates consist vf a Senate
anti H ouse of R epresen tatives.
Con sist is improper, because it is the plural form

of th e v erb, and expresses the existence of only
one Cong;ress, which requires it to be in the
singular form. It should be consists.
•
O ne of the hoys st ud y longer than the others.
E ither William or F'rancis are studying Jouclly.
Which of the two boys learn the faster?
The slave d are not Jisobey his master.
QUESTIONS.

vVhat is rul e eleve nth ?
What is improper in the first sentence, and
why, a nd how should it be?
What ii; improper in the secQnd sentence,
and w;1y? etc.

.fi

I

I

108

F.NGLISH

, ENGL ISH GUA:lil\IAH.

Ex AM PL ES OFF ALSE SYN TAX,

Cotton an<l tobacco grows in tho So uthern S tates.

is imp rope r, because it is th e sifi~ular
form of the verb, a nd ex presses the action of
rn oro thun one object, (~Vt /Ml a.nd lobacco ,) whi ch
requires it to be ia th e plural fo rm , It sh ould be
Grows

grow.

The Congregat ion
of th e speaker.

1cas

111 uch aflccterl by the c:oqucnce

}Vas aj)'ccted is improper, because it is .i n the
sin ii;ular form of the verb, a nd expresses an
action receiv ed b y more than one person,
which req uires it to be in the plural form. It
should be were ajJ'ect ed.

Disappointments frcq uen :ly p roduces a gloomy stall' of
the mi n<l.
Her expressive feat ures discloses a penetrati ng mind.
Franci; an<l Dan id rcaidcs in N cw Y ork.
Eight of the American; w ns killed in the battle at
L exington .
Q, uESTfONS.

W 'hat is rul e tw elfth?
vVhat is improper in th e first exam ple, and
whv , and how shou ld it be?
What is improper in th e seco nd example,
and why? etc.

RULE XIII.

Th e conjugation of v e rbs should corres pond
with the time and manner of the action or existence ; and also with th e pt' rson of their agents
or subjects.

109

E xAlllP L ES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE XU.
Verbs, whi ch express th e action or existence
of more than one object, should be in the plural
form.

GRAlllMAR.

M y agent done the business for me last week.
Done is improper, because its conjugation
does not co rr espo nd with the time of action. It
ex presses a n action some tim e pas t, which
requires it to he in th e fo rm of the imperfect
tense . It should be did.

'!' houg h he Wrl1Wh me, yet I:will not shrink from my
<luty.
To rtures is imprope r, because its conjugation
does not co rres pond with th e mann er of the
ac tion. It expresses an action that implies a
futu re condition , which requires th e conju gation
to be in th e form of the subjunctive mode. It
should be torture.

"Our father who is in heaven, hal:owed be thy n ame."

I s is improper, because it is in the form of the
third person, and expresses th e exi~tence of the
p erso n spoken to, whi ch requires it to be ib. the
fo rm of th e second person. It should be· ar f.
An<l he that wa s <l~ad, sat u p un<l began to speak • .
I seen the steamboats when they started frum the wharf.
A lexander 's books lays on the floor. .
·
You had not o1lglil tu waste your time in i<llenefs.
I shall ride to· morrow unless it rains.
vVhy d id not thou return before dinner?.
QUESTIONS.

vVhat is rul e thirtee nth?
Wh a t is improper in the first example, 'and
why, and how sh ould it be ?
What is imp roper in the second example, and
why? etc.

..

110

ENGLISH GUAMI.iIAR,

OF

ENGLISH GllAnIMAIL

Ill

RULE XV.

ADVERBS.

Wor<ls, whi ch are used to add to the meaning
of verbs, adjectiv es anrl pa rticipl es, should have
adv erbia l foru1s ,and a lso, thos e whi ch are used to
describe nouns, shou ld h ave th e lurm of adjectives.

S ote. - Pcrspicuity of style depends much upon the
a! iproprbtc ~itua 1i o11 uf'udvcrbs, arnJ many rules have hrcn
g tvcn Uy G rn111111ari~11s fo r thei r arrangement ; but there
are so many except101Js to all general rules rcspectin"
th ei r ~ ituatiun, that they ten<l morc to perplex tban instruct
t he you1Jg learner, thoro foro, the • ulijcct is Jett fo r in•
future ob;":) crvation.

EXAJ\IPLl!:S OF FALSE SYNTAX.

Th e bird flew l'Cry su·iji thrnl1gh the air.

R ULE XIV,

Su:ift is imprope r, because it is in the form of
th e adjective, anti is used to add to the meaning
ot th e ve rb fl ew , whi ch requites it to be in the
adverbial form. It sho nltl be sicifl ly .

Negative e:lq:lh~ss ions should never contain
m ore than one nega tive word.
N ote. - Aflicinati1·e expressions arc sometimes forme<l
b_y the use of two ncgati res. For example ; Ile was not
dishonest, (i.c.)_iw u:as honest.

The wen t lier seems 1rar1J1 nr;<l 7;/easantly.
Pleasantly is improper, becau se it is the ad-

verbial form of the w ord , and is used to desc ribe
the noun weather, which req uires it to be in the
form of the adjective . It should be pleasu :il.

E X AMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

You should not make no blots on your book.

This sentence is improper, because it is a
negative expression, and contains two negative
words (not and no.) It should be, You should not
make any b lots on your book, or you should
make no blots on your book.

The people treated me very kind.
You appear very soberly to-<lay.
H e was pun ished very sevore.
. We passc<l our ti me agreeable.
The company was very agreeably.

\ Vasl:ington wou l<l not take no pay for his services
Uuri11g t he wa r.
Never by no means practice fra ud.
I did not see nc,body in the stage.
I have nrver heard nothing about it.
I di<l not speak to lii m, nor he <li<l not speak to me.
I cannot n e ver learn Ll!ls lesson.

QuESTIOKS.

What is rule fifteenth?
'Vhat is improper in the first example, and
wh y, and h ow sheuld it be?
' Vhat is improper in the secon<l example, and
why ? etc.
Add·itio1wl 1Y otcs and O/,servatio 11 s on the Arrangement
and Use efthe d~f)'crent P arts ef S peech.
·

QUESTIONS.

'Vhat is rul e fourtee nth?
Vi' hat is imprope r in th e first example and
why, and how should it be?
'
What is imp roper in the second example,
and wh y? e tc.

OF 1;.tt'T ICL ES .
1. ./\r ti c ~e s somi.:: ti mcs li mit nouns through the mf'Uium
of th ~ adj ccti1·e ; as-A dozen sheets of l:nper-A hundred
:-;!!l'l"p-.Atex undcr the Great.

,. .

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112

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

2. The article a is sometimes improperly used before imperfoct participles, and verbs which ass ume the form of irr.pcrfect participles: as-- l sa w the man a wal king in the street.
He was a going to the ston'. Th e a shotold be omitted.
3. When seve rnl adj ecti ves, which arc cnnnectcd together, expre's Jillerrnt qual ities of the same thinrr, the
article shou ld be omittet.1, except before the first~ asCha.rles ha.s a black and white dog; but wh en adj ectives
describe different thin gs of the same name , the article
shou ld be placed before each ,,fthem: as---Clwrlcs h<H q.
black an!f ii 11)/iitc dog.

Ol" NOUKS.
1. A part of a sentence is someti mes tlrn acrcnt OT subj ect of a verb , and is comequen tly called a n;u n phrase :
as-Riding on horseback has been the means of improving 1ny health.

2. \V hen nouns or pronouns arc used independently of
the r•·st of the sentence , their cases may be decided hy
con sidcr:.ng whether I hey arc spoken of us agents or subjects; or ns objects of sornc action: as--George; how long
hare you been at school?
George is in the nom;.native c1se, becaufe he is called upon
to act by giving- atten tion to what yu u have to my to him.
':Shame l>eing ll1st, all virtue is lo.:;t.'·
Sha.me is in the nominative case, because it is spoken of
as the subject of an action.
"Ah me ! what evils do environ

The man that medJJcs with cold iron."
111/c is in the objective ca~e, because it personatrs tl'le
person a llecteJ.
3. A noun or pronoun sometimes relates to the possession of an action or existe nce, which is expresstd liy a
noun phrase: a;;- The scholar's studying diligently was
the means ef his becoming very learned.
Scholar's relates to the possession of the action expressed by the phrase studying diligently, which is the
agen t o_f the verb u·as, and his relates to the possession of
the ex istence expressed by th e phrase becoming very
/earned, which is the ol>jf ct of the preposition of.

11 3

ENGLISH GflAJ\IMAfl.

Of<' Al>JECTIVES.
/ \ n ad_jt.:d.i ve is sorr:rti mes use<l to <lcscribe a noun
phrase: ns- 'T'o ~··~c !he su.n 1·s pleasant.
ilJj cctivcs arc !;o mc ti;nc~ useJ to cb '. eJ ibe nouns, which
nrc no'. , · ,q)n·s~ed in tbc sen:P-nce, kut. Uic_·pshou lJ be sup1.Jicd by th e imaginllli on, when the adjective is parsed: as
-He <;)(l.S a. fa ther to the fatherless.
Fatherless is an adj ccfae, becau se it is used to dcsvribll
tl1y)Hrn n children mufori tood.
The si t.ua1!on of adjectives is chiefly regulated by fancy,
( i. c.) they are eit her ;Jbccd before or after the nouns which
they de.;cribe, an d the·; am sometimes detached from
thc :n, as best suit ..; the s(y!e of cJmposition.

CF PRONOUNS.
1 i\,,sonal prJnouns c: rJ sometimes improperly placed
in the same part of the sentence witl1 the nouns which.
they personal c: as- John he went wilh me. He is improper, bccanse it is superfluous.
2. T hem is some-t imes im]Jroper!y uzEd for a definite
adjccli ve i•ronoun: a'l, bring me them boaks. It should
be I hose books.
:l. The personal pronoun ii !T.ay be used to personate
t lie su'ii .cl of discourse; as, it was a qucst·ion ef importw1ce; ~1· the state or cor.dition of a person or thing: as/ think it wW rain to-moT>"OIJJ.
4. The rl'lative pronoun who is sometimes improperly
used to represent animals: as-this is the horse who won
the pri.ze. TV ho should never be used to represent any
thiner0 but persons.
5. IV hich is sometimes improperly used to represent
persons : as- / saw t.'1e man wh1:ch commit led the crime.
It shoulJ be who. V'lhic!1 is sometimes properly applied
to persons wbe n it is u::; ~ d in asking q ucstions; ns, Which
of the two men is the taller?
G. TV/wt is frequently used improperly, insleacl of who
nnd which :--This is the ball 'chat you gave me. It
shonlJ be which. Peter is the boy what went with me
afwr apple's. It should be who.

'r

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114

7. Relative Pronouns should be placed in that situation,
which will n{ust readily present thoeir antecedents to tlie
Jll!od of the render or hearer.
9. The iqtl)rrogatives which and what may be classed
with the definite adjective pronouns when they are used 111
a•king question& in a definite or pointed manner: as'W[i.at book did you rl"l!l 1 ln which room did you slee p 1
Obs.-!t may be observed that the author has _used the
ierm definite i_nstead of demonslratnc, uehe\>ng It to be a
piore appropriate term. He has ~lso classed the words
ny, t/l.y, hi~, her, our, yoi1r, thqr, wll~ the pe:sonal
1
pronouns, because they appea r to have vanat1ons ol genper, number, and case, which uelong to per~911~! 11nd not
~o adjective pronouns.
,. Th• pronouns this and these are used to relate to
things which are near, and that and those are used to
relate to things more dist~nt. That and tl~ose are u;ed to
relate to the former or first mentioned objects; this and
these the latter ·· or last meutioned: as-Both riches and
poverty are ter:iptation s; th at (ends to excite pride, this
discontent.
!l FarAwcll my friends; farewell my foes,
tJ:y 'peace with these, my love with those."

and clothes, wash themselves and learn their les;ons
bifure brea'ifast-,. But if the ~ent.ence is so lengthy as t~
render tho mcamng obscure, or 1f the mode or tense is
changed, the agent or sunjcct should 0irencrally he repeated: as-The stage has jast gone by1 and it wilt
return to~m. orrow.
The following are exceptions to th~ nbovc rule :
"What nothing earthly gives or ca1l-<Jestroy."
" Thy brother wao Jea J and is a livP. a"ain.''
" So1J1c arc nnJ must be greater than tl~e rest:"
3. (">. verb in_ tbP. infinit!vc mo:le, expresses an action
or,ex1etence which is the Object or some other word: as.1 inten~ed to visit yo IL . T v •'·isit cxpreesesan action which
1s the obJ 'Cl of the vero intended.
Alt.hough lite i;ifil)itive mode is ge nerally conjuga~ed by
prcfixmg the auxtliar.l'. !o to the verli, yet the verb may be
used without tile auxtl1ary, when it sound,; better to omit
it : ns-:--1 sa'!' hi"' kill the snake, sounds better than I
saw bun to kill the snake.
· ·
·
·
'

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~

OF PARTiCIPLES.
as well as verbs, express the nction or existence ot some agen t or subject, though in an indirect, and
sometimes o_bscure .manner, and when they are parsed, the
agcn; or subj ect should always ~e mentioned by the learner.
( See llltLstra.tions ef Partic-iples, page 94)
Participlco becom~ nouns when they are used to express
the name of an action : as- Spelling is Loa much neglected by some teach ers. They also become adjectives
when th ey are used to describe nouns: as-The 7nedicine
was valucdfur its healing.properties.
Part~ci plcs,

OF VERBS.

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115

ENOLI Sll GRAMMAR.

ENGLISH GRA M~AR ,

~· Every verb, cxcrpt in the infinitive lll?<lc, cxp~rsse_s_
the action or exi~tence of an agcri\ pr subject, which, if
pot expressed, should he supplied by the imaginatio_n: q~­
StudyyoU1: lessons ca1·efully. ln this exa1!iple, ~ \magme

OF ADVERB S.
Adverbs, which add to the meaning of adjectives, should
generally be placed before them ; ~ut adverbs which add
to the mcanmg of verbs and participles may be placed
before. or after then\ as vest sui\s the ta~ic of tho s.pcaker
or wntcr.

the person or persons 10 whom I am speak mg, to be the
acrent of the verb study.
~ 0 2 . When several verbs of tho same mode and tense aro
connected together, the agent or subject, ancl also the
auxiliarie• are omitteu, except before the first: as- The
·boy~ must rise tarly ii} the mqr11i71g, brush their shoe•

g2

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! ~ ·.
I ,

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1!6

ENGl.ISH GP..AMMARi

OF PREPOSITIONS.
In the use of prepositions great care should be taken to
oliserve the exact meaning of tho won]; used , so as not to
substitute one for the other improperly ; for exampleJohn has gone in the c01tntry. The preposition in is
improperly s ub, titutcd for into.
The preposition is often inelcgan lly sepnrated from the
pronoun to which it rclat1'S: as- This ·is the horse which
I rode on. It shoul<l be, Th i• is the horse on which I
rode.
Prepositions are frequently omitted in s1.eaking an<l
writing, but they should be supplie.d by the imagination:
as-Give me a. book, (i.e.) to me.

OF CONJUNGTIONS .
.

Conjunctions are used to connect single wor<ls of the
same part of speech, for the purpose of showing their
common relation lo some other part of the scntn1ce; an<l
when several word• or sentences arc connected together in
common, the conjunction is generally omitted, except
between the two last: as - Mystudies are reading,writing,
grammar, arithmetic, geography, philosophy and history.
~
Some conjunctions belonging to a fornicr wor<l or senLenee, requITe particular conjunctions in the latter to
¥ correspond with thmn.

t
t

. EXAMPLES.
requires yet or nevertheless: as- Though he
1~· wasThough
frequently reproved, yet he <lid not reform.
,
Wh.ethc1· requires or: as-" 1 have not concluded
tohether to go or stay.
~

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117

EIWLISll OUAMMAR.

Adverbs are not only useful in a<l<ling to the meaning of
other words, b~t. also in rendering the style more concise,
by expressing the meaning of sc.-cral wor<l• in one ; for
' example-The teacher showed me ho1c to hold my pen,
instead of, The teacher showed m.e the posit-ion in whv:h
I should hold my pen; but as they do not express the
meaning as fully, they are sparingly used in forcible style.

Eil!irr rei1u ireJ or: as-I will Gither h~ar your lesson
.
Lefore Jinr1.ir, or immediately ufler.
Neither requires nor: as-He w<>uld neither pay the
debt, nor gi "c sec urity.
As requires as or so: as-The weather is as warm tocby as it was yesterday.
So requires as or that: as-Pompey w9s not so great a
gcnercd as Cresar. The knife is so dull that I cannot
U .litC

it ,

Grammarians lli,;agrc~ in npi11ion respC'cting the .worc.Js

but, c.rcept, anti saxc, as they are used in the followiJJg
sentences.
I. They all returnr<l, but he.
\,!, I invited them all, e:i:cc]Jt h11n.
:~ . They were a ll i;lain hy the n1t•t11y, save one man.
·J
Some are of opinion that theee words perform the office of .j
prrpositious ; some think they ha,•e the force uf verb•, and
are equiva'cut lo be out , which i>the meaning of'the Saxon
word, frum which but is derivcJ; others class them with
the disjunctive conjunction•.
_
. .
The last of lhese opinions is deemr<l most rational, WI •·~
may be seen fro~ the k>l!owing explanation.
."
In Lhe first scutence, but is a conjunction, because it
connects the precttlin" and subsequent sentence". The
su~ocqu.e1.: t sc~t~nce beFr1g:;in elipsis of, [h e rlidnot return_]
It is a dts_Junctn·c conJunc l10n, bccauEe it ex presses oppos1tio11of111caning. The principal obj• ct in scttlin" this que<ti1..1n is to <let<'rtnine the ca~c of ti e noun or pron~'un which
follow•; for, if they a re prcpo>iti•m• or verbs, the s ubsequent nonn or pronoun n1ust always be in the ohjcct!ve
case, hut if they are conju11cti1me, the uoun or pronoun is
sometimes in the nom inat.ive 1 nn<l somciimr.s in the ob·
jectivc case, which may uc known by its relation tu the
verb.
·
·
The pronoun he, in the first sPnlcnce, is in the nominative case, hrcause it is the Ulrcut of the ueeoative meaning
of the verb returned.
n
°
The prononu hfrn, in the ;.ccc,nJ seutcncc, is in. the

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118

ENGLISH GltAMMAR.

objective case, because it is the 0:1ject of the negative ll1L·nning of th e verb Invited .
The case of the nou n man, in the third sentence, may
:1c consi<lerctl amliiguo11:-::, as it may be pn1pcr to make it
ithcr t he su bject or object of tho verb. F'or J<::rarnplet m ay be writtc 11 , T h ey wcrn ni l slain by th o enemy, save

one man, (wns nut s Loin :) or it ' may stand Illus, They
were nil slain by the en e:ny, save one man ( t hey tl1J not
slay.)
It should be ohsel'\·cd hv the learner, th at when the for:11
of the verb is changeJ ti:\H1l the passive to the tn::ln~itive,
the case of the noun or prm10un ls chan~f·<l al:m, for the
subject in the formrr U<'cc>111cs Lhc ohjrct in the latt er, or
vice versa. For axarnple.
'/'ran sili1'efurm.
I'assive form.
1 inst ructed the chi!J
The ch ild was in, trncted by me.

OF 1::-iTERJECT l ON S.
Interjections ha ve very litt le or no connex ion wi th the
rest of the. sc nkncc, and ns it i• natnr.11 lo speak thc.111, it
is consitlercJ proper to write thr1u, immediately preceding
t he subject which excites the emolwn .
An elipsis , or 0111isaion of wfird~ 1 is frequcnt~y an<l
properly mauc when .it cnn b°: done wJ1 l10ut obscuring the
meaning or wt·n kc111ng the 11Ht:e of the se ntence: as- A

friend exaggerates a. man 's r 1r!11cs 1 an enemy his crimes.
' Vllenever elii;tical ;;wntcncC;5 nrc par;5e:I, the won.ls
ornittctl s h ~ u l < l L>e s11 ppli l'd hy t!:c imn ginntion.
A s the cnn slruc1i 11 11of0 :1n part of u ~rn t e nce frequently
<l eprr: d ~ upon the ci1n:-0 lr 11ttinn of' th n other, carc~h 0 uld be
t aken to have all the pa.rt;:; L'.Ot n ·~·w ond wi th each other.
PROi\I ISCUOUS EXAMPLE S OF FALSE SYNTAX.

He was hlcst i.vith a. cxccl!cnt memory.
The busi nrss was fini shed previous to my arrival.
You sl1oulu aI wa vs «n ·lrnvour to speu k correct.
/\ •circumstances ailcrs, thillgs themselves should alter.
The case i; n uw Yrry rl:!tTcrently.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

119

The Occt were commanded by Commoo.oi'e P erry:
JQ: narancc or negligence havt;. causod thi s rnit)takC!
If I was to advise ui m he would not rega rd it.
M ust thee return to-morrow?
I had rathe r do the work myself. ·
My brother and me were walking together:
s,,,ne person ha.s tore my book. . .
I do not observe n o impropriety in this sentence;
The book belongs to my cousin and / .
Temperance and exercise serves to preserve health;
Each soldier returned to their own fireside.
Moses rod was turned intci a serpent.
Every house in the village were burned.
I wish yo n an happy New Year.
T hey tha t honor me I will honor.
11' ham did he say it was.
We trave lled at the rate of ten mile an hour.
And thou also was with J esus of Nazareth.
,
A nd them that were with me saw indeed the light, and
were afraid.
The int e lli~ence was communicated to me and they
th at were with me•
.
T !1is is an heal t hy situation.
Sorn~ chiklrcn are ea•ier governed than others.
r neve r have found no exceptions to this rule.
I s your tea agreeably.

. I
' I

.'II

EXERC ISES FOR T HE ADDITIONAL N OTES ANU
OBSERVATION S .

0 F

A Il T ! C L E S.

The boys have been a playing in the fielJ,
A north a nd a south line points to eacb pole.
You may read the first and the second verse.

OF NOUNS.

·" '

Him being hones t, I did not hei;itate to trust him. : ·
The coachman driving carelessly was the cause of the
disaster.

1

120

ENGLISII GRAJ\":i\'IAR.

ENGLISH GR A:\HL\ R.

OF ADJl;:CTIVE8.
That the sentence is improper, is evidently.
And the foolishly said un to the wise, give us of your oil.

OF PRONOUNS.
My people they <lo not conoi<lcr .
Them boys are not studying.
This is thr d o~ u:lw ca u!!ht the thief:
You are tho person whi·;h I dcsircJ to see.
I wa nt that knifo what f !cm to you.
I have. been reading and I !ta i•e been writ.ing lett ers ail
the evcmng.
The boy had frequently been reproved for his iii conduct, but would not ueoist.
I lieard him to say he wrote it.
He is not industrious more than I am.

iu orthography,) we vary the pronunciation of
words. We should, therefore, learn from standard dictionaries the proper place for the accent.
.

.

Obs.-J\ s the pronunciation of won.ls has lonu- Ucen
sulij cct to th e variations of fasbion , it has, in many ~\'on l ~ 1
Uecunw quite nrl)itrar_y, awl w e have to lear n by ol'serYativn; the 1 ! le~ t 1 ~:; hiona!J ! e l iW d e ot' i:ron ouncing.

OF EMPHASIS .
E;nphasis is pronouncing one word in a sentence louder tJ1a n the others, on account of its
importance.
EXAMPLES.
(Tl1e emphatic wonl. are in italic. )
:CiJ he sell the knilt~? 1 thought he gave it U \\'Uy.

OF PREPOSITIONS.
The boy was accusedfor tell ing ::t fal sehood.
This is the book which you have hearJ so rnuch

ef.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.
He was honest, and iuJustrious, and

pr~~ ..;ent.

PROSODY.
Prosody is that part of grammar which t~aches ,
th e proper pronunciation of words, the punctuation of ~entences, and the laws of versification.
OF PRONUNCIATION.
As a general rule, the proper pronunciation of
words is the natural comb ination of the sounds
of the le tters used in spelliLg them. They are
varied, however, by accent, emphasis, pause
and tone.
By changing the accent, (which is explained

121

OF PAUSE.
Pause is a suspension of the voice for the
purpose of taking breath, ar:d a lso of expressing
our ideas more dist inctly .
The characters which denote pauses are the
comma,(,) semicolon,(;) colon,(:) period,(.)
interrogalion, (?)exclamation,(!) a nd the dash,

(-)

'Ve pause at 01. comma while we can pronounce one; at a semicolon while we can pronounce 01ie two; at a colon while we can
pronounce one, t1co, three.four; at a period while
we can pronounce on e, two, three, four, five , six.
The pauses of the interrogation, exclamation
point, and dash, vary according to the construe ~ · ·
tion of the sentence, but they are generally as
long or lon ger than that of a period.

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122

EliGLISH GRAM1\1AR.

ENGLISH GRHlMAJ?.

OF TONES.
Tones are th e various modulations of the
voice used to express th e fee lings of Urn speaker.

123

Rules for Punctuation.
OF THE

QUESTION S.

'Vhat i5 prosody?
" ' hat is pronunciati on ?
·what effect does it hav e to ch ange the accent
from one syllable to another? •
How are w e to learn th e proper place for the
accent of words?
\Vh at has varied the pronunciation of many
words, and rendered th e ir pronunciation arbi ·
trary?
I-low are w e to learn the fashionable pronunciation of words?
What is emphasis?
Which words a re e mph atic in the examples?
w·hat is pause?
What are the characters th a t deno te pause?
How long do we pause at. a comma?
H ow long do we pause at a sem icolon ?
How long llo we pause at a co lon?
How long Jo w e panse at a peri od ?
How long do we pa use at an interrogation
p oint, exclamation point, a nd dash ?
What arc tones?

i

(
\

OF THJ•; SF.nIICOLON ,

The semicolon is placed betw ee n th e members of a com pound sentence, wh ere a pause is
req uired which varies the inflection ot'the voice,
without destroy in g the connection between them
OF TH E

\

CO~IMA.

A comma may be placed ·in any part of a sentence. whe:e the ease of the speaker, or the
m~anrng ol U~e senter:ice requires a short pause,
w 1thout vary mg the 111f!ect10n of the voice .

CO LON.

The colon is placed be tween the members of
a compound sentence, when a pa)lse is required
with a falling inflection whi ch renders them
nearly independent of each other.
OF THE PEP.IOD.

The period is placed after a sentence where
the fina l pause is req uired, which rend ers it independent of any subsequent sentence.
OF THE I NTERHOGAT I ON POINT.

The inter rogation point is placed at th e e nd
of a question, or a set of questions, which are
connected together by conjunctions .
OF THE EXC LA MA TIO N POINT.

i

I

The exclamation point is placed after an ex·
pression, which indicates sudden emotion.

PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation is the art of dividing a written
composition into sentences, or parts of a sen·
tencc, by making the proper pause~.

OF THE DAS H .

The dash is used to denote a parllie which is
occasioned by reflecting or hesitating; consequently its length is various.

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,...::)ENGLISH GRAlliiuAR

124

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR.

OTli ER CllA!tACTERS USED IN WRITTEN

THE

COMPOSITION.

are used to enclose something
which is to be noticed hy itself.
(') Th e /Jpostrophe is used to d!stinguish the
possessive case of nouns; as-tl13 man's hone,
Charles's s/a'te. It is also used to show when a
won! or expression is contracted by the omission of some of the letters : as'-' Tis ctlucaiion forms the common mind.
() Parenthesis

Just as the twi~ i~ licnt, the tree's inclin'J."

(-) The H yphen is placed between the parts of
a word 1vhich is divided; as, lea-cup, mono.
syllaule .

(A) The Carel is placed under the line where
an omission is accidentally· macle, and interlined:

as-/h·i.., -is

m.v

book.

A

•

(" ") The Qttolation is placed before and after
a passage taken from some other author: asi:

Know thou t;,y:.:.:< f, prc;;u me not God to scau ;
mankinJ, is man. ''

'I'hc proper stud.Y

l,

1 J

(--) or ('*"") The Elipsis is used in the
place of words or letters intentionally omitted:
as, K-g, for King.
( ~ ) The Ind ex is placed before a passage
which is to be noticed particularly.
(~) The P aragraph is placed at the beginning
of a new subject.
\""-") The Brace is used to unite several terms
which have some common relation.

125

(*) ct) ctl (I/) The Asterisk, Obeliak; double
Obelisk, and Paralltl•, are used to refer to some
note at the bottom of the page.
(', ) Th~ B_revc is placed over a vowel or syl.
]able which 1s sounded short: as-unti't.
(-) The Macron is placed over a vowel or
syllable which is sounded long: as-defy.
QUESTIONS.

What is punc tuation 1
What is the place of a comma?
What is the pl ace of n semicolon?
·what is the place of a colon ?
What is the place of a period 1
.
What fhe place of an interrogatjon point 1
What ~s the place of an exclamati'on point ?
What IS the place of a dash ?
.
What is the use of the parenthesis 1
What is the use of the apostrophe?
What is the use of the hyphen ?
What is the use of the caret?
What is th e use of the quotation ?
What is the use of the elipsis?
·what is the use of the index?
What is th e use of the paragraph ?
What is the use of the brace?
'
Wha t is the use of the asterisk obelisk,
'
double obelisk, and parallels?
What is the use of the breve ?
What is the use bf the macron 7

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126

VERSIFICATION.
V ersification, or Poetry, is the harmonious ar-

rangement of 'Yo~ds and S_Yllables into cert~in
Jines or sets of Imes, wl11ch correspond with
each other in measure.
'
There are two kinds of poetry, viz: Rhyme,
and Blaak Verse.
Rh.~me is the correspondence of sound between
th e last syllabl es of different lines: as" N o knave \mt 1.io\Jly will pretend,

The requisites 1.bal form a.friend."
Blank Vrrsc is the correspondence of measure

b etwee n different Jines which do not correspond
in rhyme : as" J 11 llllmrrn hearts what bohlcr thoughts can ri;;e,
'rhn.n m1n=s pre:;ump!ion on to-morrow's Uawn ."

Every line of poetry is measured by a combination of syllables, called feet .
Poetical feet consist either of two or three
syllables, which may be so varied as to produce
eight different kinds-four of two syllables, and
four of three syllables, viz :DissyllableJ.

i

I

I

Ei'iGLISH GRAMMAR

ENGL ISH GRAMMAR.

Trisyllables.

A 'frochee - v
A Dactyl - " ·
An Iambus vAn Amphribacv -u
A Sponclee -An Anap rnst v v A Tribrach vv v
A Pyrrhic v v
The horizontal lin es represent the accented
syllables, and the curve, the unaccented. For
example-A Trochee has the former syllable
acc;.ented, and the latter unaccented : as snfrling j6y'ful.
The I iiinbus, T rochee, Dactyl, ai1d Anap<!lst, are
the most used, and consequently they are called
principal feet, and the others are called secondary.

QuESTliiNs.

What is versification,_or poetry 1 ~ ,· •
How many kmds of poetry are there, and
what ,a re they called 7 -<;)
·. ·
What .is Rhyme ?· Mention an example.
What is blank verse? Mention an example.
H?w are the tine§. of poetry measured?
Of how ma ny syllables do poetical feet consist'
How man.y different kinds of feet can be produced by varying them , and what are their names?
What do the horizontal and curved Jines"·
represent?
Which syllable is accented, and which is un~
accented, in a Trochee? &c.
·
'".'hich of the feet are called principal, and
which are called secondary?
·
VULGARISMS,
OR IMPROPER EXPRESSl_oNs.

Children should be taught to correct each
o.ther in the hab~t ?f using improper contractions and pronunciat10ns. The following c·a ta~ogue w~ll ~x~ibit the most prominent of these
1mpropneties m u se .
Improper Contractions.

Aint
H a inl
Taint
Maint
Wont
Cant
Sh ant
Darsent

~

. I

•

Corrections.

is not, or arc not
have not, or has not
it is not
·•
may not
will not
can not
shall not
dare not or durst,.not

Carrectiuns.

improper .cofftractiont

wns not, or were not

Waunt
Weam
Youm
Tlwym
Tuthcr
Conec..tions.

f1t1 /trt1pcr

PrnnunciaLions.

Hou se n
Ben
Youro
Theim
llizzen
Axt
Wun sl
Ort
Wesse l
Wery
Nary
Ary
W isht
Gel her
Kivcr
Hand iro ns
Jest
Hum
Stun
This ere

vve nro

vou a re
th ey arc
,...,. e oth e r
p

. .1p·1•71 1:•·
ions .

:; n 1 rnr.. 1 .~

he ~· -

: . fr :· · .i

~

IL::1;! 1
( J.: i1

•. 1,

( il1 ·· 5

' ':¥ ;

Gl 1<:c ;·

a!i <!.·\·r

' :d

" "ke d

T?:i ~

C"'"·CU

Iii·''

ougb ~

2i ~ "

vesse l
very
neither
either
wish
gather
cover
andirons
just
home
stone
this

Si,
Ji ;;I ~

Pin1.e
Fu si
Ruff
Huff
Sut
Ol.ilego
A gi n
Winder
Nigger
Th at arc

TO TEACHERS.

I
I

Currcrli1ms

c: ~.: l r
afraid

hou ses

r.ak .1

"br 1i'"'.
l.J'J .:-'
ju .st
sp oil
join t
po int
first
roof
h oof
wot
oblig e
again
window
ncgro
th a t

Th e Itl1ilcJs nphical n1 ode of t ~acl1ing may, nl first vie w, 3ppea r
com pl ic.11 i;d Lo i hosc wh o i\re :i.ccu~tu me d to the former pla n ; but
the Autlln , f!XJIH bi s owu e.\'.pe rience in te:-ichin ~, feels confid e nt in
sa yi11g , tit;'\!. a ve ry Jit1lc vractice will co nvin ce n11y te~1cl1er, tlmt the
plii\ o.;;u p~li1.: al plan L; !' ·)~ u:!ly 11 ••.re inte r~ sting, llut MlOre simpl~
lh::i.n tl ie fnn11 er.
.: ) :1::,!ructec \ V ill <•hserve, th:it in order to
preveu t co nfu sio11 :,:.' :1:.;,..ing the mind with too m :rny things at a
time, the pupit sh~11ld fo.:i~ ll!l tZl:g. ht to pilr!::e, ."Y di ~tin bu.is hing lj1e
pa;·ts uf sµ ecch withou t -:..::) reg,.i.n1 to th o va n atious; as 11lustra(ed
from page tw en lieth tr) pagt: twenty .third . Afte r he ha s learned to
cli 5fn ·~uhh the p·u ts e; f Epca ch iead:!y, l ie may procee; l tu leara the
variations, an<l to nulice them i11 p:;.sing .

128

ENGLISH

~All1MAR.

J"mproper¢ o:Lractiont .

Wnunt
· W ea m
Youm
Tlwym
Tuthcr
I m11ropcr
Pronuncialions .

Hou sen
Ben
Youro
Th eim
Hip en
Axt
Wun st
Ort
. Wessel
We ry
Nary
Ary
Wisht
G e lber
Kivc r
Hund irons
J est
Hum
Stun
Th is c.rc

Con ec.tions.

hou ses
her ...
\" Oil :·s

f.i. .. j --

; !':

Corrections. ·,

was l"\Ol, or wero not
we aro
· ~·
you a re
~.1.ey are
.•e other
Z·':1 p··o71 er
· Co rr ect ions
P '.l tnt ncia. i1m.s.

afr aid

IC c1 ~ ! 1

r. atd 1
u!J

Oei 1
wuwr

c. ~ kcd -

P.He

or·ce

H; ,·, ~

ough t
vessel
very
n either
either
wish
· gather
cover
andirons
just
home
stone
this

c!1~i r

Ch eer
· / .ft' i•r.J

Ji f'"

&t, .
Ji ;·1 1 ~

Pint.e
Fust
Ruff
Huff ;
Sut
Oblcge
Agin
Winder
Nigger
That are

~ t \\'

b11il
~ oisi

. joi)ll
spoi l
joint
point .
first
r oof
hoof
Mot
oblige
again
window
n eg ro
that

TD T EACHERS.

The t1li ilosophical mode of 1 eachin~ may, nt first view, :ippea r
complic.ne d 10 1hose wh o ~re accustomed to the fo rmer plan; but
th e Au lh1:r, f&i;m his own expe rience in tear.bin ~, feels confident in
sayin g, thllln ve ry lit1le practice wil l convince any te[ltl1e r, L:)mt the
philosop!lical p!an J3 !!Qt uJly 11.:.re inte re stin g, but 111ore•simple
than the Conne r. '1 ::·~ 'i i'1:itructer will <ibserve, thJt in order to.....
pre vent confuSion ;,y '.o.ttiing lhe mind with too many things nt &
tim e, the pupil shfluid. fiu;t bf3 taug h t to pt1.n:e , liy di stin guishing 11\e
pa r1 1 of speech withou t a r:y regard to tbo variation! ; ns l!lustrn(ed
from page tw entieth tn page twenty -third . Afier he-has learned to
dist"n1ui:h the puts of epcech iead !ly, he may proceed to learn the·
varjations J and to nvtic_e t bem in pn: sing: .
... ....

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