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CONTENTS.
Page.

5
ntroductlon ................................................................................................................. .
Cbn pter I.-F:n rl y Ins t ruction In the Yernnculnr preceding English gram- .
mnr ............... ......... ................................ :..... ................................... .......................... .
11
12
1. Chnrncter of Yernnculnr Instruction In English, 1596-1622................
2. Reasons for early emphasis on Yernacular In America ......:............... :.
15
17
3 . . Character of Yernacular instruction in America, 1620-1720............... .
21
Chapter IL-Ea rly ilppearances of English gr:111?mar in America ............... .
21
1. Schools nnd schoolmasters teaching English grammar before 1775....
2. English grnrnmnr5! in America before 1784 ....................................:...... .
33
3. Early instruction in English grammar In American colleges........... .
36
, Chapter III.- Inflnences adding grammars to the curriculum ...., .................. .
43
1. Franklin's EJngllsh school ........................................................... ~---·--·· ········
43
2. The lnfluf>nce of the Philndelphia English school... ............................ .
49
3. Educational theories supporting grammnr in America up to -1775 ....
55
Chapter IV. -The rapid rise of grammar after 17';5 .............. :.......................... .
70
1. The legislative recognition of grammar..................................................
70
2. The flood of textbooks after 1784............ :................................................ .
77
3. The extent of instruction in grammar ln representatlYe States,
1800-1850 ............................................... ...........................................................
82
92
4. The status of grammar, 1850 to 1870...................................... ~---··············
Chapter V.-Traditlonal methods of teaching Latin grammar transferred
103
to English grammar................................ ·--·········-·····································-···········
1. Grammar as an art ... .....................................................................................
105
2. Methods used in studying Lily, ·and Latin grammar in general;
seYenteenth century ........................ ....................... :....1..••..••.... •• .........•...•.•
107
ill .
3. Latin methods carried directly to English grammar imentorizatlon ....
120
4. Parsing············································································ ····~·-··························
122
5. Fa !Sf> syntax ............................................·-·····················································
6. Subordinate methods ..... ..................·................................................. ............. ' 124 . \.
7. Methods u sed by ' Hughes and Byerley.......................... .:'. ...................... .
128·,'
132
,Chapter VI.- Gradual changes in method before 1850.....•.... :........................ ,..
· · 1.. The nature of the dominating textbooks, 1823-50 ../ ...,.:...................... .
134 .. ._1
2. Other agents and agencies in the inductive approach ........................., ' 140
3. Chief feat ures of the inductlYe moYement applled to gramma r ......... . 144 Appendix A. Chronological catalogue of English grammars in America
.' before 1800 ..................... - ......................................................................................... . 155
Appendix B. A comparison of the English programs of Turnbull and ,
Franklin .................................................................................:..........'. ....................... - 158
,List of authorities cited in this dis8ertatlon:
I. Primary sources.................................. ,................................................ ,.......... 161
II. Secondary authorities..... :............................................................................ · 165
' ,I~dex ........................................................................... ;·······························-................. _
169

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS ·,

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BEFORE 1850. .·

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. "A history of English grammur In tlie United States would afford some
:unusemeut if a ratlonul mind cou ld deri ve any amusement from perusing a
reco rd of abortive attempts to .t each the correc t use of language by 'every means
but actual pra ctice in the art of speaking and writing it."-WALLIS (W. B.
FOWLE) (1850).

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INTRODUCTION.
PRIMARY PURPOSES OF THE. STUDY• .

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Engli sh grammar , as a formal subject, distinct from other branches
of instruction in the vernac.u lar, made but sporadic appearances in the
American schools before 1775. After. the Revolution . its rise was
extremely rapid. · English gramma~ gained momentum as 'the .hold of
Latin grammar weakened, and by the end of the first quarter of the
nineteenth century it became so generally taught that the common
· term grammar school, :formerly applied to the secondary school of
I the Latin-grammar type, was now. by common consent used to designate an intermediate school with English grammar as its central
study. After 1825 the prominence of English ·grammar . became
gradually more marked, until it reached its h(;light ·about ,1850-1875.'
Then began a period of decline, continuing until the time.of ,the .Com.mittee of Fifteen, which made its report in 189p. 1 .'· •.
., "
.1 :
The past 25 years have seen a revival of attention to grammar, but
of a very mu ch saner type than before. No other study in the cur/
riculum has had a more spectacular rise anq a more dramatic' falt•
Moreover, concerning no other study to-day are educators more in
do11bt. 2
·
The first purpose of this study is to trace the·course of this rise and
fa ll, with the changing educational ideals and theories .accon;i.panying
it; to analyze the causes of the varied changes of the· subject, and to
· determine when, where, w,hy, and by whom the successive modifications were inaugurated and caiTied out prioJ: to 1850. '.
'
1 Rept. Com. Fifteen . .Tour. Proc., N . E , A., 1895, p. 232.
For recommendations concerning gramm ar see Rept. Com. Fifteen, F.ducatlonal Review, IX, 234-41,
•T he National Cou nc il of T eac hers of English on Nov. 27, 1915, in Chicago, appoin ted a
committee to cons ider and r ecommend a suitable treatment In th e schools ot forma l
grammar.

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The second purpose of this dissertation is to arrange systematically
these varying methods used from 1750 to 1850 and to show how they
are interrelated both with the shifting conceptions of the nature
and purpose of grammar and with the place given the study in the
curriculum.
No effort seems to have been made to develop these two important
aspects of English grammar with historical accuracy. Indeed, treatises on the general curriculum, in their infrequent refei'ences to this

·o 'a·
- ook
learning in the eighteenth century had an even more literal signi cance
than it has to-day ill many an ill-conducted classroom. "As the text-'
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book, so the st~dy" is a C?mparatively safe assumption.
So, too, for primary evidence as to the changes in methods of
instruction, beginning about 1823, the writer has turned to the leading texts of the. various eriods. For
'this dissertation ·;

particular bra11ch of Lite vernnc11l :u" 1trn fillrnl with i1uu:c11ra!o state-

na 1s o
as l
enc s
'·.
e ices breaking away from the ol.der concep- /
tions and the forerunner of numerous other textbooks of the next 25
, years. Likewise Swinton's Language Lessons, of 1873, came as the
result of scattered agitation and e
the
quarter
omitur and iri their wide ado tion
n

ments of fact and with misleading generalizations, particularly 'in
regard to the early periods. 3 Only one who has had to deal with such
inaccuracies can realize how difficult it is to ascertain the truth concerning English grammar. It is therefore with due reservations
that the writer states, as his third purpose, an effort to establish with
concrete data a basis of reliable facts, especially in the vague period
of English grammar before the American Revolution.
A fourth purpose which this study has been compelled to consider
incidentally is to show how grammar was interrelated with declamation, oratory, composition, and literature, as these five branches of
instruction in the mother tongue of a higher order than reading,
writing, and spelling gradually made their way into the program of
American schools.
SOURCES.

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ENGLISH GltAMMAR 1N AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

This investigation rests pr·
of early English grammars,
date 1
~--'17 to- mark--ffie- beginnings of
grammar in America. 4

•Three exnmpl~s of such errors will s uffi ce to l lln strnte. One writer nffirms: "En g-llsh
Grnmmnr was there (In Caleb Illnghnm's school,' 1700) taught for the first time In
Boston ." W. B. Fow le, English Grammar, C. S . .l., XII (18()0), 72. Here Is an error of
nt Jenst 23 years (see Ch. JI, p. 21l, which hn" bPcn widely ncceptrd ns stnt lng the truth.
Agnin , Noall 'Ve!Jster affirmed that no English grnmmnr wns genera ll y tnugllt fn com. mon schools when I was young." (1770. Am. ,J. of Ed., XIII, 124. Letter to Henry
Barnard, dnted 1840.) This, coming from the nnthor of at least th e llfth American grammar (see Chap . II) (no t the first; as common ly believed), bas been largely Influential
In mi s informing later writers u pon the curricu lum . Again, so careful a writer ns Reeder
asserts, concerning Noah Webster's "Grammatical JnRtitutes of the Engli sh Language,"
"these books [n spe ller, grammar, and l'eadcr , 1783- 1785] were the first works of the kind
puhlished in the United States . ..:t'hey were grnuually introduced 1nto most of the schools
of the country." Reeder, Hist. Dev. of Sch. Readers, etc., 30. On the contrar y, Webster's
grnmmar wns not the first American grammar, and it enjoyed neither n long nor an extensive use as a textbook. W . n. Fowle, op. cit., 74 and 203. Reedcr's statement Is accurate
concerning the speller and the reader, but It Is quite erroneous concerning Part. II of
Webster's s eries.
• See Chap. II, p. 33.
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And, of a more recent period, Sweft's ramfuar, with its imitators, has given the still newer turn of incidental
study to the subject of formal grammar. · 1
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In addition to thetextbooks themselves the educational writings of
authors contemporary with the various periods have thrown ' considerable li ght upon various advances rriade in classroom methods. To
be sure, a commentator like Comenius, Hoole, Brinsley, Locke; Franklin, or Mann is usually, in his theory, more or less in advance of his
time, and the reforms he advocates are indicative of methods which
do not become general for a considerable period after his advocacy of
·them. 61
·
lclition~
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co on1a newspa
us m,
en
invaluable aid, especially in indicating many of ' the private schools .
of the eighteenth century ·whose schoolmasters ' were p10neers m
adding English grammar to their curricula.
•See Chap. VI, p . 133.
1786 Benjnmln Rn•h, or Pennsylvnnln, advocated, concerning the
grammar, principles which even In. · 1920· are very far from being

"Between his fourteenth and
etc. Ibid., 255.

ornto1~y,,·'

be Instructed In grammar.

8

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 18W.

.

-

Throug10ut this study the author has endeavored to keep strictly to
the former point of view-that is, to keep a fi ·n1_ hold upon the actual
b ·
classroom practices of success· v eriods.
sale
-t
co
More reliable, however, than textbooks or educational writing-s for
det.cnni11in I.he cxac ·
a.r at n.ny dcfitlitc
period are
__ .
. ·wherever it has
been possib e, ese sources haYe been utilized to determine how far
school practices in any period conformed to the theories of the best
educational writers and embodi ed the innovations of the most progressive t extbooks. Incidental to these, information has been derived
from town histories, reports of ed uca tional commissions, mirly journals of education, and such other information as may be found in
mi scellaneous sources, like newspaper advertisements, reminiscences,
lives of schoolmasters, and histories of individual institutions.
THE BEGINNINGS OF

OF THE VERNACULAR

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INTRODUqTION. ::

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. unrivaled in our school annals..7 Fifty years after the dominance of
spelling English g!·ummar rose to its height, occupying, from 1850
to 1875, three to seven years of the secondary schools and, in addition,
a prominent place in the :µigh schools.. . After 1875\ 1with the . subsidence of gra~nmar to its correct place as :an incide.ntal study, composition gained in strength, and, together: with literature carefully
prescribed by college entrance ·requirements, to-day monopolizes o,ne.fourth of the high-school curriculum, while foi;mal language les50ns
prcdo1ni1111tc in the elementary school..
.
.· ,
The history of spelling and of .grammar suggests that 50 years
hence educators will be SHing that in the two decades · from 1900 fo
. 1920 the school had not yet discovered that ,language ;habits .are not
most advantageously acquired in formal comppsition ;. Viat literature
is a present reality, with living poets and prose writers, rather than a
dusty contribution from masters who lived centuries ago. The historian of the future may smile at the excess of oral composition when
carried into elaborate State declamatory contests. Indeed, in the light
of the past one argument for increasing the time given to formal classes
in the vernacular is at least questionable. If children can not spell,
we are urged, give them more classes in spelling; if they are grammatically inacc urate, give them more grammar; if they can not write
.
'
give them more classes in composition; if they can not appreciate the
pale heroes of King Arthur's court, give them Milton's minor poems
and Carlyle's Essay on Burns. The very questionable logic of this
argument led to excess in the time devoted to spelling and to grammar, and it has been a powerful factor in advancing composition and
literature to their present status.
Tlwre can be little doubt that the period 1900 to 1920 is the heyday
of formal composition and of the classics in the En lis~..lii.1-:~~.µ.l_JWJ.,
s the
. And still the cry is f
ng IS
are
es an
ieir product .exceedingly imperfect, and English
teachers are demanding ever larger appropriations. English is more
· fortunate than its sister studies in being able to have the value of its
product weighed every day in the practical life ' of its graduates.
English welcomes criticism of its deficiency. English is ex
· n tin with co
- a literatur
Ii
, 'nglish is endeavoring to putor'aJ. compos
n
a sensible basis. Here and there a daring reformer is advocating less
time for formal classes in English, their place to be taken by more
general and uniform guidance in language habits .• Here and there
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rnre ·ore cen ers upon t rn eighteenth an
Indeed, the year 1750, the date of the first
important vernacular school in America to center its instruction
around English grammar, is about 200 years too late at which to
begin the study of the development of this branch of teaching. But
the important fact to bear in mind is that this is a study of English ·
grammar, not of the vernacular: Moreover, it is a study of English
grammar in America, not in England. Therefore its treatment .
plm1ges in medias res and touches upon the vernacular before the
eighteenth century anq upon grammar in England only as demanded
by the course of the subject in America nnd as directly inherited from
England in theories, textbooks, and schoolroom practices.
BEARING ON MODERN PROBLEMS.

It has apparently been the fate of new branches in vernacular
instruction, once introduced into American schools, to be carried
excess. P erhaps tl · ·

uction was supplemented
matches.

by-e-ven1
'Webster's blue-backed speller

a'

'" It Is computed that more than 80,000,000 copies of this spelling book were sold before
1880." Evans Am . Bibi., 6, 263.

10

school officials are even rejecting for other departments teachers whose
English is slovenly, just as they reject candidates whose appearance is
careless and uncleanly.
History in the teaching of the mother tongue is being made to-day.
Therefore the writer feels that any light which may be thrown upon
the history of any one branch of English instruction from its very
beginning in America may assist modern reformers in securing a
better perspective as they advance to more important innovations.
The heart of the newer movements in the verrrncu lar is well expressed
by Sir. Oliver Lodge: "Language should be learned in a pupil's
stride-not by years of painful application." This sentiment, moreover, is the direct opposite of the spirit and aims of instruction in
formal grammar in America up to 1850.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

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Chapter I.

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EARLY INSTRUCTION IN THE ·VERNACULAR ·PRECEDING
ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " ,,1" ..
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The history of the educational changes by which instruction in the
English vernacular has been grafted upon the ciassical instruction of
the sixteenth century involves two distinct movements. ':. The first
, · occurred after the Reformation; it .was led by Comenil,ls; Brii:isley,
Hoole, and others; it resulted in the addition .of reading, writing, and
spelling in the mother tongue to the curriculum of elementary schools
and to the lower classes of grammar schools. 8 The second movement
may be said to have begun in 1693 with John Locke and .his immediate
followers; it resulted in the. addition of English . grammar, composition, both oral and written,' and' literature to the curriculum of inter' mediate schools and colleges. 9
'.
· • ':
"
"
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,
'While it is true that these two ' movements, corresponding roughly
' to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, respectively, were closely
related, they were also quite distinct and ir~volve 'two different con,,. ceptions of education. The seventeenth-century reform demanded the
vernacular for two reasons: First, as a necessary preliminary for
J, boys who were to continue their education in the classics; second, as
' suitable instruction for the masses, not destined .for higher schools,
· but needing to read the Bible in the vernacular, ·according · to the
spirit of the Reformation.
·
.. The important consid~ration,is that the seventeenth-century reform
.still regarded education in the. classics as of highest wort.h. ' On the '
contrary, the eighteenth-century reform begl)-n where the former le~t
off. It found the elementary branche!:J of the vernacular establishe_d
'. as the preliminaries of classical instructio~:
e
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. itself is better suited than Latin to .serve at once as the end and the
; .
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, vehicle of secondary education. They placed English in the· cur. riculum not as preliminary to but as a substitute for the Latin tongue. 10
,It was through this eighteenth-centur . .move:11ient that English gram'

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for excellent discussion of this earlier
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•° Full ' dlsc~sslon i'n

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Chap. III, p. 55.

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12

ENGLISH GRAMMAlt IN AMERICAN SCHOO~S BEFORE 1850.

EARLY INSTRUCTIOJ:< IN.' THE ' VERNACULAR.

·'

mar, composition, and literature entered the curri culum and began
the course which has brought them to the dignified place they occupy
·
to-day.
It is obvious that a study which seeks
English
into American pedag
with th

ilillfiil~~. ~fi~rs~t~rn~o=vemcnt

for the verii::i.c u ar, w1 1 1 ·s causes 11.11 ~~·es;1lls, is postuln.ted ns havi11g Lenn co mpleted, and the later reform of the eighteenth century begun, by that
date.
This thesis shows that English grammar WtlS introducctl primarily
as the core study of a secondary school curriculum of the English · ..
rathei; than of the Latin type; that the traditions of Latin gmm~ar as the heart of grammar-school instruction pointed at first posi- 1
tively and directly to English grammar as the core of an English
program of equal rank with the Latin grammar program. In other
words this dissertation is the story of the process by which the
dreary' grind of Latin grammar was supplanted, for the gr~at
majority of American school children, by the almost equally futile
grind of English grammar.
.
.
.
Although we have selected 1G93 as the startrng pornt of our d1sc11ssion l et us now examine briefly the character of the vernacular
inst;uction in En()'land and America from 1620 to the end of the
seventeenth centu~y. This is done merely to establish a suitable
background for the entrance of English grammar. It is a glance ~t
·what vernacular instruction was just before grammar appeared m
America.
1. CHARACTER OF VERNACULAR INSTRUCTION IN ENGLAND,
1596-1622.

In 159G Edmund Coote published in London his famous vernacular
textbook for "pett.ie" schools. The title indi cates its nature : "The
English School Master, T eaching all his Scholar~, _of what _age
soever, th e most easy, short, and perfect order of d1stmct Readrng,
and true Writing our English-tongue. * * * " 11 Brinsley and
Hoole, leading school writers of their day-1600- 1650-both speak of
Coote's School Master, 1596, as a popular text for elem~n.tary
schools.12 Before 1656 the book had passed through 26 ed1t10ns,
proof enough of its popnlarity.13
.
An examination of the contents of this text enables one to see early
sev.enteenth-century vernacular instruction in England. Thirty-two

,,l
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u Barnard, Am .T. o f Ed .. I (1 8~
12 Brinsl ey, Ludus Lite rarl s , 18.
"WatRon, Grammar Schools, 177.

IJii;i;;~iliiiarpaiiiiQi;...:t.t~pk.&wa popular whe
ooks were
scarce. Coote's composite book \vas an early prototy-pe ·of such . texts, 'of which Dilworth
was th e most widely used In America. (See Ch . Il 1 p. 33.) ,
,.
·
"Brlnsley, 14-18. The title of this book Is "The Schools of Vertue and booke of good
Nourture for cbyldren and youth to learne theyr dutle by," by Francis Seager (earliest
edition 1557; one as late as 1677) . Reprinted, Early . English. Text s.oclety, The Babees
1
. Book. 332-55.
.
.
·
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••Reprinted In Am. J. of Ed., XVII (1864), 195, 225 , 293; more recently by C. W.
Bardeen.
""The P etty Scboole •· was printed In P~ul's Church Yard In 165.9 . Bardeen's reprint,
27 (title page).

14

5. Teaching him to read any English book perfectly.
The ordinary way to teach children to read is, after they h:ne got some knowledge of their letters and a smattering of some syllables and words in the hornbook, to turn them into the A B C or Primar, and therein to ma ke them name
the letters, and spell the words, till by often use they can pronounce (at least)
the shortest words at first sight.

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EARLY INSTRUCTION IN THE .V:ERNACULAR. ·

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

For th~se books Hoole substitutes the Lord's Praye1;, the Creed,
and the Ten Commandments printed in Roman capitals. He would
have the child pronounce the words he can at first sight and "·what
he can not, to spell them, and to go them often over, till he can tell
any tittle in them either in or without the book."
Then Hoole adds reading over "Psalms, Thankesgivings, and
Prayers . . . till he have them pretty well by heart." Textbooks
are "The Psalter, The Psalms in Meeter, The Schoole of good manners, . . . or such like easy books "; then the Bible, beginning with
Genesis. Finally have him " take liberty to exercise himself in any
English book." -when "he can perfectly read in any place of a book
that is offered him . . . I adjudge him fit to enter into a Grammar
Schoole, but not before . . . . . For thus learning to read English perfectly I allow two or three years time, so that at seven or eight years
of age a child may begin Latine." 18
·what the curriculum of the average charity school of England was
about 1700 may be seen in an account of the Charity Schools of
Great Britain and Ireland. Orders which were in effect in many
schools were as follows :
Pronunciation: '.I.'he l\faster Shall make it his chief Business to Instruct the
Children . . . in the Church Catechism; which he shall first teach them to
pronounce distinctly and plainly.
Spelling: The Master shall teach them the true spelling of Words and Distinction of Syllables, with the Points and Stops, which is necessa ry to true and
good Reading.
Reading: As soon as the Roys can Read completely well, the Master shall
Writing:
teach them to Write a fair legible Hand.

There is presented an account of 100 such schools (1710), with
2,480 boys and 1,381 girls, which had been set up during the preceding
14 years. A common stipulation in many gifts for these schools runs
"for teaching them to R ead, ·w rite, Cast Account, and \Vork, and
for instructing them to the knowledge of the Christian Religion." 19
On the basis of this examination of Coote, Brinsley, and Hoole we
are able to see the nature of vernacular instruction in England in the
better" petty" schools from 1569 and continuing until the eighteenth
'"Bardeen, op. cit. , 31-53.
Hoole adds a chapter to hls "Petty Schoole" Jn which he points out how children for
whom Latin is thought unnecessary may be employed after they have learned English.
Ibid ., 54.
.
11An account of the Charity Schools of Great Britain and Ireland, 9th ed., 1710, 3-15.

1· •

15

"century. l£ Hoole is correct, "the A. B. C. being now (I may say)
generally thrown aside, and the ordinary Primar not printed," 20 the
use of these two famous educational instruments was diminishing,
together with the hornbook. 21
We may sum up the English practice at the time the first American
J colonies were established by saying that vernacular instruction consisted of elementary reading, spelling, and writing; that it retained
an intensely religious purpose, involving ability to read the Bible;
that it was regarded as preliminary to .t he study of Latin. 1Ve shall ·
see that these characteristics were ·transferred bodily to the first
• elementary schools of America.
2. JlEASONS FOR EARLY EMPHASIS ON VERNACULAR IN AMERICA.

t
is cus omary, our consideration '
begins with tlie Purl a co ony of Massachusetts, the .character of the
first setriers, their purpose in coming to America, and their major
interests in the new land. Only eight years after the set.t lement of
stablished a college in · Cambridge.
This highly sl.gnificant' act was due .
0
e act t a a arge proportion of the first settlers were thoroughly
acquainted with the higher education and educational institutions of
' the mother country. 23 By 1650, within New England, there had settled at least 90 men, ministers, the· leaders of Massach.!lsetts Bay, most
of whom were graduates of Oxford and Cambridge. Three-fourths
of these were from Cambridge, the hotbed of revolt against Laud and
established religious authority. They had been students there between
, the years 1600 and 1650, contemporaries of Robinson, Cro~well, and
Milton. Of this number were John Cotton, John Ward, Johri Har- '
· vard, John Winthrop, Henry Dunster, and many others, not' all
clergym.en. · By 1650 the immigration into New England had reached
20,000 of pure English stock, and it is estimated that there' was one
person of highet educa~ion for every 40 fa~ilies. The proportion
for Massachusetts Bay was even larger than the general average for
New E11gland. This unusually large proportion of educated men ,
were leaders of groups of immigrants, some of whom had themselves
been landed proprietors in England and had enjoyed at least an elementary education in the grammar schools of the mother .country. 2 '
It was among such a people, whose actions were directed by such .
leaders, that an earl
education might be expected . .

i

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"'Barcleen, op. cit., 50'.
21 '.rhe stnnclard work Is Tuer, History of the Horn Book.
Rec. Co. Mass. Bay, i, 183.
,
.
aa F. B . Dexter. Influences of the English Universities In the Development of New
Englnnd. Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc., 1879-1880, 340 et seq.
2 i See M. W. Jernegan, The Beginnings of Pub. Eel . In N. E., Sch. Rev., XXlll, 326.
22

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17

EARLY INSTRUCTION IN THE VERNACULAR.

16

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERI CAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850 • .

true sence ~ meani~g · of y• originall might be clouded by false
~losses of samt seemmg deceivers." 29 Here is the

hey were iri r esponse to the ideal of the leaders -that the
a e was responsible for th e education of the most Jromi sing youth
in order to p erpetuate an educated leaclershi p.
1
lonists of Massachusetts were actuated by another ideal
which grew out of their intensely religious nature and was the very
heart of the Protestant movement the world over. ·T his idea, ardent
champions of which were Luther and Erasmus, was that the ni.ass of
the people should be able to go directly to the fountain head of all
religious authority-the Bible itself. 25 To this encl the Holy Word
was brou ght out of the Latin into the vernacular and the p eople
taught to read. Not all the people wore to be edu cated in grnmmar
school and college; that was reserved for the few destined to become
leaders. But the rank and file of the people themselves must be abie
at leaet to rnad the Bible. In Gennany, JCngland, and Amedca thie
ideal was the primary moving force which led to the introduction of
universal instruction in the mother tongue.

We have, then, in the desirn for educated kaderehip and in the
desire for universai acquaintance with the Scriptures two impelling
forces which actuated Puritan New England in her first educational
ndeavo.rs.2•
.
e Evidence on this point may be found in the first two general laws

I

AMERICA,

3.

.

~~lonial 1""'. of the .eeve~teenth centm-y indicate that v~maculu

ts ;ctwn consisted pnmarily of reading and secondarily of writing .
· n assachusetts Bay the law. of 1642 prescribed "ability t
cl &,

~:":rite

' undestand the
principles of religion;"" the law of )647 ..
1

~nd ~ea~" ; ~ ftha~ ?f l683
32 "to wrignting schooles ~

. . in towns of
ve un re
amihes." ' · Reading and writing were similarly the ·
i N
content
education
in Connecticut' as in New H a ven, Bi.m
y ofl vernacular
35 •
N
.
39
7
'. ew_ or{' ~n ew Hampshire, in Pennsylvanl.a,3 in Maryland 3 8
· and m South Carolina. 39
·
'
.
· ·
concernini:r
education
passed
by
the
General
Court
of
Massachusetts
Th
t
1
~
.
·
a r eac mg d
"t"
Bay. The act of 1642 ordered selectmen to take account of children,' . t fi t t
d _an wri. mg were the two branches of the vernacular
111
"especiallity of their ability to read & undestand the prin ciples of
~h rs s ~·esse
c_olomal schools is further borne out by examining
religion and the capital lawes of the country." 27 Even more strongly 1' • e pr~ct~e of_ various towns. In 1693, Dorchester, Mass., ordered .
0
suggestive is the language of the law of 1647, which made compulsory " a s~~t
~~aid to Th?m~s '\Vaterhouse, who "is bound to teach to .
11
both elementary and secondary edu cation: "It being one chiefe piect
real ti ds a h left to his hberty in that poynt0 of teaching. to write
.
on y o oe w t h
· 1
· '
'
(point) of yt ould deluder , Satan, to keepe men from the knowledge ,
d d
fa e can. convem~nt Y therem. '' Governor Winthrop .
0
5
of y' Sccipturos, as in form' time., by keeping y" in an unknowne · :• er ate
t.64 , wr.tes: "Divecs free schools wern erected in
tongue."
This is the expression of the second ideal-that the '. · .utrhy · · · and i:i Bosto~ · · . · teach to read and write and cipher
_
28 ·
·
b
"bl
ll , S · ' 0 er towns did the like" 41 M
f
... · · ·
Scnptures, m the known tongue, are to e accessi e to a . ' o m
· ·
oreover, a ter .the general colony
1650 nl so
these lattr times, by pswading from y• use of tongues,
yt-so
last y• · of "Ibid.
'!'bet ench
enrl In
y gcolony
Jaw toofr end
conn~~tlcut,
---- at
- - -education.
children
the Sc lpt
•
Indicates ns a primary purpose ..

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Rox~

"Luther translated the T estamen t In 1522 ; the entlre Bible In 1534,

Monroe, .Cyc . of ·

.'°Rec. Co. Mass. Bay, II, 9 .

r

11

(

.

ures.

Col. Rec. Conn ., I, 555.

Ed., 4 , 94 .
Ibid ., 203.
Probably n on e of the oth er causes designa ted by Wa tson for th e sevcutccntb·century
"Ibid.,
V, 414 .
11
20
movem ent for the vernacular In England were opera ti ve In A merlca. Watson assigns. fi rst,
Col. Rec. Conn., I. 521.
the growth Of a ·n a tion a l s pirit after th e Armada ; seco nd , th e fact th at En gland took more
"New H aven Col . R ec. (1653), 65 , 583 .
pride In b er n a tional independen ce of thought, and especially sought to give all people tb'e
: Ann. of Albany, IV, 15, 16 .
ability to r en d the Scriptures; third, the feeling th at, as the French ton gue now contained
Bouton, Prov. Papers of N. H., III ( 1692 _ 1722 ) 718
the subj ect matter which bad formerly been confined to the I,atln. En gli sh mll'(ht also be . , " "Clews, op. cit., 281 a nd P a . Col R ec I 91
'.
·
so utilized; fourth, the newly acquired literar y p ossession In Spencer, Shakes peare, a nd
. "Stein er, Hist . of Ed. In Marylan·d 19''.
Clews
It . 4 6
Milton; and, finnliy, the In crease of t extbooks In English, beg inning with tbe authorized
n Ibid., 457.
·
'
'.
• op. c .., 1 • .
prints of 1545 , until
the second h a lf of the seventeenth century every Important
: Orcott, Nar. Hi st. Good Old . Dorchester, 292•
departm ent of knowledge h a d been expounded In nn En glish textbook." Watson , op. cit,, I
Winthrop, Hist. of :r;;, E., Savage, II, 264 •

~nd

~·by

531-5.
11 Rec.

co.

Mass. B&J'. JI, 9.

18

Ibid., 203.

60258°-22--2

18

\
r

laws of Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut prescribed reading and
;,vriting, in 1647 and 1650, respectively, towns brgan to co111ply. For
example, in Watertown, 1650," Norcroffe was Chosen Schoole Master,
for the teaching of Children to R eed to write & soe much of Lattin
as .... allso yt teace such as desire to Cast accompt." 42 Records
indicate that other towns employed ten,chcrs to teach rcn,ding and
writing. 43 It appears, therefore, that the English teaching of this
period w~s exceedingly elementary. Reading was common in all
schools; writing was considered worthy of more n,<l vn,11ccd teaching in
some towns, but usually accompanied reading, taught by the same
master; casting accounts and arithmetic began to appen,r toward the
end of the century and were usually classed with the English branches.
In addition to the public schools so far considered, there were many
private school , in one order of which-the "dame" schools- 44
primary instruction in the mother tongue was Lit e aclmowlcdgcd
purpose. For example, in Malden, Mass., Rebecca Parker kept such
a school for several years. 45 Salem voted £15 to " ·w idow Catherine
Dealland," in 1712, for teaching school among them.40 One other
typical example will suffice. In Hartford, Conn.,
there were in those times privnte sclrnols of a· lower grade. At least one such
school was kept in Hartford, that of Widow Betts, " Goody Betts. the School
Dame," who died in 1647. Her pupils were young children, whom she ta ught the
simple lessons of the hornbook."

I .

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"

EARLY INSTRUCTION · IN THE VERNACULAR • . : ·1: • /

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

In _short,~n his history of Hadley, sums up the general
practice wh~s:
·
'.rhere were many chenp private schools .•. in the seventeenth arnl e ighteent h
centuries, kept by "dnrucs" .. . where girls were instr.ucted to rea<l and sew,
and in some small boys wer e taught to read .. .. ·writing was con sidered fa r
less important . . . . Probably not one woman in a dozen could write h er
name 150 years ago."

The instruction in these dame schools, which persisted well down
into the nineteenth century,4 9 c;nsisted of the simplest elements of
the vernacular. The textbooks have been described so often that a
mere mention h ere will suffice. Books chiefly employed were the .
A B C, 50 the Horn Book,51 the New England Primer, 52 the Bible,53
"Watertown Rec .• I, 21.
"Rec. Town of Ded ilnm , Ill, 213; !hid., JV , 3; Rec. 'J'own Plymouth , I, 116; Currier,
Hist. Newbury, 3!)6 (quotes town r ecord); Nosh, Hi st . Sk etcil Weymouth, 126; Co1·ey, His t:
Malden, G03; Felt , op. cit., 43(); Balley, !Iist. Andover, !)l!J; Hi ckn ell, Hist. Barrington, ii24 .
"See discussion 111 Upd egraff. Orig. Mov. Sch. In Mass., 1 3 6-49.
"Cor ey, op. cit., 439.
"Felt, op. cit., 1, 442; see also ibid., 445, 9, 50.
"Love, Col. Hist. Hnrtford, 254.
"Judd, Hist. of llad! ey. 56.
••They coutl uu ed In Doslon at least until 1Sl9, when free primary schools were estab·
l!shecl. W. B. Fowle, Bnrnarcl, Eel. Blog., 129.
oo See Eggleston, 'l'ranslt of Civilizati on, 211.
"Tuer, History of Horn Book.
02 Ford, The New England Primer.
"Felt, Annals o~ Salem, I, 437.

'

19

vve· find, then, that before · the '
appearance of the higher branches of the mother tongue the colonies
had provided instruction generally in reading and writing. At first
there was little spelling as such, what there was being incidental to ·
reading. ' Spelling ·is the logical outcome of ·the: A ' B O method of
learni ng to read, proceeding from the individual 'letters to" syllables
of two letters, then to easy words, and so forward. Littlefield refers ·
to spelling books pi:inted by Stephen Day, ·in Cambridge; Mass., as
early as 1641'i, 56 and asserts that Coote's School Mast
used in New England. 57 " Otl
1
and
pu
Catechisms;~• and the Psalters. 55

lltil.1bd'i~:P·ill'i nted in America which attained wide popularity .
was the New England Primer, which 'was first published in the
decade 1680-1690. 59 Ford ~stimates the total sale of this book ' at ·
3,000,000 copies between 1690 and 1840. One firm, · Franklin & Hall,,
of Philadelphia, sold 37,000 copies between 1749 and 1766. 60 But the
wide sale of the New England Primer did ·n ot begin until after 1690;
before that time the colony· schools had to depend very largely upon
books imported from England. · Bibles 61 were the · universal reading
books in the early American schools, convenient textbooks because
they were found in almost every ·home,· logical ·textbooks' because
knowl edge of religion was legally prescribed. For the very. earliest·
instruction in the dame schools, A B C books, horn books, and psalters,
preceded the Testament and Bible. · Iri short, the procedure described'
by John_Locke-" the ordinary road · of the Horp. Book, Primer,,
I

"Lltt.lefleld , Sch. a nd Sch. Books, .105.
.
·
.
. .,
"An excell ent description of the Primer, the Horn Book. and the Psnlter as used In the
schools of Sa lem before 1791 ls found In Felt, op. cit., I, 436-7. Isaac Parker, who was one .
· or Dame Rcileccn Parker's pupils In MalClen, 1786, said that the only book he had was a
Psnlter, and that he hnd only n little r ead ing and spe11lng. Corey, op. cit., 648.,.
"Littlefield, op. clt., 118.
, ·.
.., Ibid., 119.
" See Chap. II, p. 34.
"f'nul J.,e lccs ter Ford. the ltistor!nn o! the New England Primer, nttrlbnted the first
edit ion to Ilcnjnmln Jlnrrl•, printer, between the y en rs 1687-16!!0,, the exact date unknown . .
Ford , op. cit., Hl. Worthington C. Ford has r ecently found evidence of an earlier New
England Pr!me1· printed by John Galne, London, enter ed In the Stationers Register, under
date Oct. 5, 1683. The Nation ; Jan. 11, l!l17, 46.
00 P. L. Ford . op. cit., 19.
""The Bible and psalter and the · New Englnnd Primer were the only reading books"
(before 1770). Burton, Hist. of Ed. In N. · H., 1 842, 585. The Bible was u sed for the
senior class, John Th elw e!rs school, Wilmington. Del.. before 1775. Powell ,. I:Ilst. or Ed. 1
in Del., 42. "Rlble and Catechism for more tbnn a ·century after settlement of Newbury
' were the only reading books used In school." . (1634-1734.) Carrier, Hist. Newbury, 408,
I/

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Psalter, Testament, and Bible "-was the common practice 02 in
America, as in England. Many towns prescribed for their schools
Latin masters and either ushers or English masters, together with
writi1ig masters or scribes. 68 The town school r eceived pupils after
they had learned the first elenients in dame schools, and, in the
absence of the latter, themselves gave elementary instruction in reading, writing, and casting accounts. Such a school, for example, was
set up in Hartford, Corin., in 1755. "This society judrre necessary

Chapter II. ·
EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN
AMERICA.
'

Urnt Exclusive o{ the Orn.mmnr S chool thorn ho . . . two otlH'I' sd1onh;

sett up and supported for an English Education only . . . for H,eading, ·writing and Arithmetic." 64
Naturally we should not expect to find grammar and co mposition
as di stin ct studies in this en,rly period, when instruction in the vernacular had for its primary purpose preparing children for the
grammar .schools and for its secondary purpose teachin g them to
r ead the Scriptures, with ability to write even more subordinated,
and spelling largely, if not entirely, incidental. How Engli sh gram mar was grafted upon these more elementary branches is the main
snbj·ect of the succeeding chapter. \Vhen the L atin-gramm ar school
was p roved to be ill suited tO the majority of pupils and when the
dema nd increased for a type of secondary ed ucation to supplant the
Latin , English grammar came naturall y to the fore. Instruction in
vernacular grammar could be imparted by exactly the same methods
used in the t eaching of Latin grammar. The passing of L atin grammar is contemporaneous with the rise of vernacular grammar. The
older order-rertding, writin g, spelling, and L atin grammar-now
became reading, writing, spelling, English grammar, all in the
mother tongu e. Such a procedure would bear out Eggleston's unsupported assertion that" by slow degrees it came to pass that the English studies at last drove the sacred Latin from the free school founded
at first for it alone." 6 ~
••Locke, ThoughtA Con e. Ed u cat ion, Quick. 134. See excell ent a ccou nt of such books
u sed lo Coo oectlcnt schools. "Th e enrly schoolbooks of New England w er e t h e same as
those of Old England. The s ame book s .. . wer e used In H a dley and oth er towns. Such
books w ere sold by .Toh n Py nch on , or Springfield, from 1656 to 1672 and after, nod by
.Toseph H owley , or Northnmpton , to hi • scholnrR, except horobooks. from 1674 to 1680, nod
both sold mnn y Catechl s ms: . . . n eith er sold spelllng hooks. . . . They were bnt
littl e u sed In t h e se,·entecnth ce ntury. Snmucl Porter. of Hadley, who died lo 1722,
sold Prlmcrn, Psalters, Testaments, a nd B ibles; also Catechisms, Psalm Ilooks, nod Spelling
books, chiefly Dllworth's, were not co mmon on t h e Connecticut R iver until after 1750 ."
.Judd, op. cit., GI.
In 1805 H . K. Oliv er wris placed a t 5 yea r s of nge In the Bos ton sch ool of Mr . Hayslop.
" .BY him T was t a u ght my A Il C D E I<', my nb, nlrn, and my eb , ehs ." Later yo ung Oliver
learn ed elcmcntnry reading and spe llln g in the school of Dame Tlleson. Barnard's Am .•I.
of Ed .. XXVT, 210 .
"Ush er pr ov ided for J ohn Douglas (l7i0), mn s t er of the grammnr Rc hool In Chnrl rsto n,
to teach rending, writing-, nud arithme tic. Clews, op. cit., 457 .
Thomas l\Inkln (Men klu s) 11ppears to hn ve kep t n "free school lo t he town of Phll Rdelpbla" (1693). Makin was afterwards th e u sher or nss ist nn t of George I<r lth, the fir s t
teacher of the William Penn Ch a rter Rchool , 1687 . Wickersham, Hist. of 1'il. In Pa .. 41-4il.
04 Co l. Rec .. IL
J.,ove. Col. Hist. Hartford. J. 153.
"'Egg leston, op. cit., 2:lG.

'

In Chapter I has been discussed the background of vernacular
teaching in the American colonies, to which was added during the
eighteenth century the formal study of English grammar. The present chapter will seek to establish the facts that a few schools attempted
English grammar as such before 1750; that between 1750 and 1760;
in the middle colonies at least, considerable headway in the subject
was made in private schools; that after 1760 private schools of both
the northern and southern colonies fell into line; that by 1775 English
grammar was taught with some frequency in many private schools
throughout the country. ·
1. SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLMASTERS TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR
BEFORE 1775.
.
I•

1•

!•'

I

In thi s section is gathered from various sources, especially from

s ng1 m saying that few common schools gave instruction in English grammar before 1775, but the inference usually drawn .
from his statement that grammar was not taught at all is misleading.
The number of private schools which taught the subject increased
·r apidly after 1750. Webster evidently was acquainted with the school
practices of the New England colonies, which are shown
this chapter apparently to have lagged .behind the middle colonies, and somewhat behind the southern, in bringing to the fore instruction in all
r;:econdary branches of English, especially grammar.
' ' In the New J ersey series the newspapers cited begin with 1704 and
end with 1779. Not all schools which were giving instruction in grammar before the Revolution are here indicated. Colonial newspapers

in

'.

'"Mu ch of the data from colonlnl n ewspaper s on private schools cited In this section was
made a>allnule through th e tourtesy of P rof. Marcus W . .Jern egnn , of tb c Un l>ers lly of
Ch icago. His extracts have hl'cn suppl e men ted from the series of excer pt• from colon lnl
newspapers re latin g to New .l ersey , ns p ub li shed in the New Jersey Archives. and from
su ndr y other sou r ces, to w hi ch rcfprc n ce Is mndr. In the c>ourse of th e cliscu ~~lon. How·
ever, n o p r etrn~e 1 ~ mnd r thnt" n il of the dntn extnnt in such sou rc ef! bas been u s ed .
· .,Arn .•1. of Ed., XXVI, HHJ.

21

"
22

1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

are preserved in fragmentary form at best. Moreover, the data relate
almost exclusively to private schools, many of which may not have
advertised; they offer little or no bearing
i the
rricula of free ·
public schools of the eirrhteenth centur '·
ery
.
amqmr
r
rn i oo
ey \V~
fflie ett~'bnl n:&:rloof
has come to the writer's attention. No English grammar
was offered in the p11blic schools of Boston before 1775." 0
In footnotes arc prese nted data fro111 vario11s colonies. l11fonnation is distributed as follows: Date of the school advertisement, name
of the schoolmaster, extracts (quoted verbatim from the advertisements) indicating instruction in grammar and, finally, the reference
to the newspaper in which the advertisement was published. It was
customary for a successful Rchoolmastm·, like I-I11gh I-Inghcs, 17G7,
and Thomas Byerley, con tern porary, Loth of New York, to advertise
in various papers in succeeding years. ·with a few exceptions a
schoolmaster's name appears but once in the lists below. In some
cases, like that of David Dove, the same schooli11aster taught in sev-.
era] different schools in successive periods of service.
One caution should be borne in mind. There is no positive ev1- .
dence that ma,ny of the schools advertised actually convened. Frequently a· schoolmaster" prepares to open a school if given sufficient
encouragement," meaning if he secured enough pupils to make the
project pay. Moreover, .it is quite likely that, as with some schools
to-day, the prospectus of a curriculum for advertising purposes was
somewhat more pretentious than the actual school practices warranted.
The schools here cited are, with ve ry few exceptions, located in
cities of importance, and schoolmasters in smaller places, in pbntation schools, and in villages throughout each colony could not, or did
·not, advertise. Hence, schools of smaller communities may have been
teaching grammar of which there is no record. This may he true,
although a number of the schools cited in the list below were in small
communities. Effort here is merely to cite available data upon which
to base a reasonably sound inference as to when English grammar
made its first appearances. Uncloubtcdly it w:ts a new subject, presented in very few textbooks, as 110 American texts in grn111111ar were
published in the colonies before Samuel Johnson, of New York, in
1765, 70 and none of th~ grammars from England were reprinted in
America until Dilworth's, in 1747. That few English grammars
were imported before 1750 is likewise almost certain. 71 Now the
"'Bxcept In free school In l\forylnnd. See Chap. I I, p. 30.
"See di scussion of .Toseph Ward's school, Chap. II, p. 34.
"See Chnp. IT , p. 35.
" See Chap. 11, p. 33.

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ·

newness of the subject, the abject ignorance of the village schoolmasters, and the general absence of textbooks 72 ~ake it appear likely
that Engiish grammar did not generally make its ·way into the public schools until some time after it was taught in the more prosperous
private schools of the cities. ' Upon this basis,: then, coupled with the ·
fact that private schools capable of undertakin'g grammar established themselves usually in cities, credence ; may be placed :in the
conclusions reached in the following discussion. ' '" ~ · ·· ' · '
It may be pointed out a.lso that scrupulous care has been' taken to
select from the advertisements of more than 500 schools only those
in which it is reasonably certain that a deliberate attempt was made
to "teach the English language grammatically." A large number of
schools which may have taught grammar were rejected. 73
Moreover, if the term " grammar" appears in the advertisement,
with no certain indication that it signifies English', the assumption
has been made that it means Latin grammar. · Where English
· branches are announced as the core of the· curriculum, with no specific mention of grammar, they have also been rejecte,d.
, J.

1 \

NEW ENGLAND.

.

I

'1

!I

.~ : !

"See Chap. II, p. 33.
,;1
13
A t yp ical rejected cnse I~ William Cheatam's school In Burlington, N. J., where, In
17t13. he taught •· Latia. French, English, Writing and Arithmetic." Maryland Gazette,
.July 11, 1763. Jf Cheatam had meant rending, writing, and spelling la the English part
of his curriculum, h e probably would have said so. Large nambers of advertisements use
th ese term s for English br11nches.
·
Reliable c'' ltkn ce that the term "!Cngllsh" In some · adv~rtlsements, at least, lnciaded
· · grammatical treatment Is found In the fa ct that Franklin's ' Academy, Iii which It ls certain that grnmmatlcnl Instruction wns given (sec Chap. III, p. 44), announces only
"Wh er e in youth shall IJe taught the Laun; Greek, English; French, and German
lnn1:rnages." Pt. G .. Dec. 11, 1750.
:
·
'
Furthermore, schools and schoolmasters' advertising ·as · " capable of teaching gram1
. mar," "giving ln~tru ct ion In grammar." " giving Instruction In the English language,"
and th e like, have hec n rejected. Jlld . G., Aug. 20, 1752; Ibid., Dec. 13, 1764.
"17()(1, .lohn Grlmth, Hoston, •·Continues to tench English Grammar." Boston ·Gazette
Sept. 20, nlAo Hoston l'ost Uoy, Sept. 22.
'·
·
'
1760, Itlchnrd Pnteshall, Boston, " English with propriety · according to the Rates of
Grnmmur ." B. G., Sept. 15; !hid., Sept. 28.
·
1769. Joseph Ward, Boston, "Understanding the English Gi;nmmar." Boston Cliroalcle,
Apr. 20. "The last two · years of my school life (between 1765 and 1770), nobody taught
English grummar (In Boston) but Col. Ward, who was self-taught, and set up a school In
Boston; our class stadled Lowth In college." Memorandum .of an Eminent Clergyman,
c. s..J. (1850). 311.
..
1771, Th eodore Foster, Providence, R. I., . " English .Grammar by Rule." Providence
Gazette, .Tune 8.
· ·
,
1772, .To~ cp h Ward, Boston, "English Grammar School Is now Open.", "Those who
Incline to lenrn the English Grammar.". B. G., Oct. 25.
·
1773, Wm. Payne, Boston, "English Grammar." Ibid., Nov. 14.
Felt, writing In 1842 of education In Salem, Mass., gives e list of textbooks whose "use
appears to have commenced here and In other to'."ns of Massachusetts ••• a.boat the

24

'"

.,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '

in grammar in Boston. There may have been other schools teaching
grammar during this period, but the internal evidence of the state- ·
ments of Pateshall and Ward leads to the belief that few, if any, were
doing so.
Three successive advertisements show tha.t Pateshall was transforming his school so as to provide a new curri culum in English. In
1754 he taught " ·writing, Arithmetic and the English and L atin
Tongues." 75 This is a typical private gra.mmar school of the period,
acco rJing to t ho i11Lcqwetatio11 wu ha ve followed, nnJ in<li catcs that
no grammar was t:w ght. In 17Gl Patesha ll gives "Public Notice"
of a school "teaching r eading and spellin g English with propriety,
and the Rudiments of the Latin T ongue." 7 6 This indicates that his
school was turning more extensively to English; " with propriety" is
a phrase commonly used in association with teaching grammar. And
in 1766 Pateshall's school is announced" where he will teach Writing
and Arithmetic, the L atin Tongue, Reading and Spelling English
with Propriety, according to the Rules of Grammar." 77 Therefore
during the 12 years covered by these advertisements (1754-1766) this
private school was transformed by laying emph asis upon English.
The third advertisement, in 1766, clearly indi cates that the school'
offered instruction in grammar.
'\Vard's announcements throw light on the absence of grammatical .
instruction in English. In 1769 he announces anEnglish Grammar Sch ool . . . where h e t eaches R end ing, Spelling, Writing,
Arithmetic, '1.'he E ngllsh G rnrnmar. . . . '!'hose who go t o the F r e'il Schools and
Incline to lea m the J~ n gli s h Gr a mmar h e will teach from 11 to 12 o'clock . . . .
'1.'he Understanding the English Grnmmar is so necessary for tho se who ha ve not
a liberal educa tion. . . . Such a school Is said by the Literati to be very much
wanted in this town."

The foregoing is one of the earliest uses of the name "English
grammar school," and the rest of '\Vard's statement indi cates that the ·
term is used because of the emphasis on English gnunmar, the title
being derived in an exactly analogous way to the term "Lntin grammar school." Here, too, is evidence that the free schools of Boston did
not include English grammar in their curri cula and evidence, though
somc\vlrnt less positive, thnt private schools did not generally teach ·
the subject. \Varel ev idently does not think that Richard Pateshall
particular years which a cc.o mpany the m. The refere nce of th em ns to f·ltn e nnd place Is
more vague th a n d esi r ed. Il nt wnnt of data . .. forbid It to be oth erw ise. Spelling
books, Dllwortb's 17GO; Engli s h grnmm nr, Salmon's, Lil y's, 17 61. llrltlsh grammar,
printed In Iloston 1784, L owth 's, Ash's, Webster's, 1785." Ann. of Snl e m, 385-6.
This Is th e type of r e fe r en ce so vague as to be of no value ·for our pmposes. Th e writer
h as seen n o other r efe r en ce to a n E n gli s h grnmmar by Snlmon. Lily's was not an English
gra mmar. T hi s and man y s lmllat· r e fer en ces are disca rded as worthless.
10 Boston News Le tter, Dec. 26, 17114.
70 Ibid .. l\ln y .14 , 1761.
"B. G .. Sept. 15, 1766.
•• B. Chron., Apr. 20, 1769.

· 25

(1766) was conducting a school of which the "Literati" approved.
Private-school men appear to have often been skeptical of the pretensions of rival schoolmasters.
·
:'
·
The announcement of John Griffith, the first evidence available of
the tim e when grammar was introduced in Boston, is highly sugges- . •
tive of the conclusion we must reach. He affirms, in 1766, that ·he
"continues to teach English Grammar." How long before that date
he had carried out this part of his program is uncertain. However,
from the di scussion of successive advertisements of Pateshall and
. Ward, considered above, it is concluded that they beg~n their wor}{ in
grammar soon after 17G6.
'
The condusion r eached, then, is somewhat qualified. , In New
England a few private schools began to emphasize English grammar
,in their curricula about the year 1765, one decade before the Revolution. J ohn Griffith, Richard Pateshall, and Joseph Ward were lead·
1ers in this movement among the schoolmen of Boston.
•

1

NEW YORK.

A ccording to the evidence available upon the numerous attempts
.to teach declamation, oratory, and grammar, the middle colonies show
a much more marked tendency to ' stress English than did New
England. New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania seem to have
been at least a decade in advance of tl1eir sister colonies to the north.
The evidence of schools " teaching English Grammatically" i'u these
,three colonies includes 39. In New York at. least. 12 schools, the first
'somewhat doubtful, were teaching grammar before 1775. 79

I'

.

1751 , Garrett Noel, New York, "R eadin g, writing, arithmetic, grammar." New ' Y~rk
Gazette revived In the Weekly Post Boy , Sept . 2.
175~ .John Lewis, New York, "Speaking, r ending, spelling and writing English according to Englis h Grammar." Ibid., .Tun e 4.
1761, E lizabeth Wllcocks, New York, " With the Whole English Grammar." New
York Mer cury, Aug. 3 1.
· 1761, W. Rudge, Newtown, "Writing, Arlth ., Grammar, Bookkeeping." Ibid., June 15.
1763, Wm . Jon rs. Kew York," Eni:llsh Language by Grammatical Rul es." Ibid ., Apr. 25.
1763, Sam. Giles, New York, "Desire to L earn the . English Grammar and write their
Mother Tongue." N. Y. M. and W. P . B., .Apr. 21.
1766, - - , New York, "'rile English Grammar.Rationally taught." Ibid., June 5.
1771, 'l'h omns Ul rich, New York, "English Language qrammatlcal ly." N. Y. G. and
W. M., JJcc. 31.
1771, llugh Hughes, New York, "English . Language Grammatically ." ' Ibid., Dec. 30.
1773, 'l'h omas Byerley, New York, " Scholars Interested In the grammatical Institutes."
Ibid. , Ang. 23.
' 1774, John Cobb, New· York, "English Grammar." N. Y. J ,' or Gen. Ad., June 1.
1 1775, ,John Cohb, Flatbus h, "Principles · of English. Grammar," N. Y. G . and w. Iii.,
July 4.
Kemp, speaking of Engli s h grammar In the charity schools of the ctty of New York,
snys: "M r. Bnll added English grammar to the program . . when h e succeeded Mr.
Hildreth . . .. It Is t he only Instance of It .to be !onnd save the special Instruction In It ·
' which Forster Introduced for a whil e. " Sup. Sch . In Col. N. Y., by S . P. G., 265.
Hildreth r etired In 1777. Ibid., 115. Forster was master In we·s t Chester Parish from
1717 t o 1745. Ibid. , 153. If It Is true that the latter was giving special Instruction In
English gram mar before 17 45, he deserves to be classed as one of the very earliest In
America.
.

•0

J
,,

26

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Noel's case is cited as doubtful because it does not specifically indicate instruction in grammar. The remainder of his announcement
indicates an elementary program with no mention of Latin; this
seems to suggest that the "grammar" of his advertisement means
English grammar. The first undoubted case is Lewis's school, opened
in 1753 for" speaking, reading, spelling and writing English according to English Grammar." 80

=--:::--.
.
-··-~

.,,.; ....
..
' :1.11d 1750 there appear to be
In the New Jersey series
only six references to schools, all of which are advertisements for
teachers. Three of these indicate that the subject matter the master
is desired to teach is the elementary curriculum of the ordinary town
school, namely; reading, writing, arithmetic, ciphering, spelling, and
good behavior. References to 12 schools teaching grammar appear
after 1850. 81
Two schools, 1751 and 1753, while they do not specify English
grammar, point strongly in that direction. Bartholemew Rowley, of
Burlington," Professes to teach the Latin and English Grammar." 82 •
Probably this ref~rs to a Latin grammar, with accidence explained in
English, after the order of Lily's or Adam's grarnmar. 53 Nevertheless, the very fact that Latin is so ad vert.ised indicates a tendency
toward the grammar of the vernacu lar.
In 1753 a lottery for an "English and Grammar-school" is prorooted in Trenton " for rai sing 225 pieces of eight toward building a
house to accommodate an English and grammar-school and paying a
master." 8 4 To Le noted here is the slight distinction between an
English curriculum and a grammar curriculum in the same school.
~'

~~

~

;,

•• N. Y. G. R e''· in w. P. B., .l une 4 , 1753 .
•
" 11r.1 , n:irt holemrw Howl ey, Burlington, "Lntln nod English Grnmm[\r." Pa. G.,
26
Sept. l9; nlso Sept.
·
175:-l, - - , Trenton , "En gli s h and Grammar-school." Ibid., Apr. 26.
1762, Cather Robert. Elizabeth '!.'own, "English Tongue Taught as a Lnngnnge. " Pa.
18
1 10
" N. Y. llf., Jan.
J., 176:-i,
Apr. S.• "Fin
·
ley; Princeton, "English
Language Grammatically." Ibid., Nov. 10.
1764, Johu Hel d, Trenton, "English Grammar, Heading, Grammatically." Pa . G.,

Se~;·6!~·---, U oores Town, "Wanted a schoolmaster to t each the English language
grummatlcnlly." Ibid., Aug . 3.
1764, .Joseph Pcrlam. Prin ce town, "Engli sh Language grammatically." Pa. J., May 111.
1769, J. With erspoon , Princeton, "Uemarks on the grammar and spellin g of the Eng·
Jlsh Ton g u e. " Ibid ., J\Jnr. 2.
1769, Princeton Co ll ege, Princeton, "Scholars des iring admission should Ile well
acquainted with n endln g English with propriety. spelling the English lan guage, and
writing It wlth.rnt grnmrnntl cu l crrorn." N. Y . .l. and W. M., May 1.
.
1771, Grammar School, Qn e<' n's Coll ege. "Mr. Frederick Frcllnghousen . . . ten ch
the English Lnng1111gc i;rnmmntlcu ll y." N. Y. ,J. or Gen. Ad., Oct. 24 .
1771 , James Conn, E lizabeth Town, "'J'cuch English Grammar." N. Y. G. or W. P. B.,
Oct. 21.
1775. Newark Aca d emy, Kewnrk, "English Language." N. Y. G. und W. M., Ma r. 27.
,. Pa. G., Sept. rn. 1751; N . .J. Arc., xrx. 99.
"See Appendix B.
"Pa. G., Apr. 26, 1753; N. J . Arc., XIX, 245.

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH ·GRAMMAR.

. 27

11 The step to an English-grammar school is easy" and natural and
throws light upon the shifting of emphasis from the Latin grammar
.,· to English grammar in the last quarter of the •century. i '
"
Not until 1762, . when Robert Cather, of . Elizabeth Town, East
., New Jersey, opened a boarding school, do we have an undoubted case
1
l inpoint. Catherspeaksinnodoubtfulterms: · ' 1 • ,, , ,.. ~.
•
, . ' As also, Boys to be instructed in · the Benuty and Propriety of the · English
!Tongue, which sha ll be taught us n Language; the best English Authors shall
be read & exvlnln'd; the Art Jlhetoric •or. Orafory;, shall be taught with Care
and Elxuctness; Specimens of the Boys' Proficiency therein shall be given every .
· Quarter. . . . It's hoped. the ' uncl~rtaking" wm ' meet with clue encourll.ge{iient
' especially from such who k~ow the lmpoi"taflc~ of a Proper English Education ...

. :" Significant is the fact .that S. Finley~ pre.s ideilt. of the college in
Princeton, is second on the list, announcing that in the English school
• connectetl with the college " is proposed to be taught the English
' Language grammatically, · and that Boys, when found capable; be
. exercised in Co~positions, as well as.,in pronouncing Orations pub.' lically." 86 The teacher in this. academy was Joseph Periam, a young
- ~ graduate of the college, who, at the commencement of 1762, "to relax
· the attention of the audience," delivered "an . English Oration on
.:Politeness, which gave universal satisfaction for the justness of the
, , sentiments, the elegance of ·the ,composition, and the· propriety with
'.· 1.which it was delivered." 87 · "
!.
,: ; ; "'
. " " , "'
. ; , Here is an eighteenth-century college; whose curriculum was ,very
. largely. classical, announcing. an English school with English gratn: mar as its central study. The aca.demy is "An Appendage" of New
., ,Tersey College, according to the· announcement. ·This fact makes it
"tmlikely that the academy was a private venture. "\Ve are led to conelude that the president, for .popularity in advertising, 88 stresses Eng· ., lish. The Philadelphia Academy, after.w ard the University of Penn· sylvania, a near rival, was doing so very successfully in this decade. 89
.- ·The Moores Town advertisement, in 1764, throws an amusing light
i upon the. relative place of the vei·nacular and the classics. The advertisement reads: "wanted, a schoolmaster; to teach the English lan'
guage grammatically, write a genteel hand, Arithmetic,.and the useful
' branches of Mathematics"; then it adds, "and if he could teach the
. L atin, it would be mor~ agreeable to' some of his Employers .. ' .. " 90
••Pu. J., Apr . 1, 1762; N . J. Arc., XXIV, 21; a lso N. Y. llf., Jan. 18, 1762.
'" This much r esembles the plan of Franklin's English Academy, 1750, und Is cited In a
Inter chapter as evidence ot the supre me Influence of Franklin's • experiment with the
1 English curricu lum . See Chap. Ill, p. 44.
· " •
, ' " . , . ',..
80
'""
Ibid., Nov. 10, 17G3, N. J . Arc., XXIV, 266.
, 1 • 1 Pn. G., Oct. 21, 1762. · Quoted, llfucLean, Hist. of Col. of N. J., I , 154. · ..
1 ,, es In 1762 the profits from the grammar school connected with the coll ege were added to
.· Presid ent li'Jul ey's sn lnr y. This, and the presence of young Perlnm, mny have · been the
. cause of the new emphusls on English. , MncLcan, op. cit., 355.
1 " See Chap. II I , p. 46.
r •
· • '°Pa. G., Aug. 2, 1764.

l

1}.

28

29

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENGLIStI GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Evidently a minority-of this Moores Town committee still clung to
· Pennsylhnia appears o stan . a ead of all her sister colonies in ·
the Latin, but the majority, making courteous allusions to their colthorough instruction in the mother tongue~ ' The reasons
'
championing
leagues, insist upon the primary importance of the mother tongue,.
under
Franklin's . leadership, are discussed ~lsewhere. 93 In
'
for
this,
with English grammar as the basis.
.
1743, at lenst 20 years earlier than any record found of English gramDifferences of opinion in regard to the new subject did not trouble
mar in Massachusetts ' and 10 years before any in New Jersey, one
the school committees alone. That the school officers often reflected
Charles
~ortesque anno'unced:
·
·
'
: ·
· the conflicting opinions of school constituents is evidenced by resolu- .
tions of the Germantown (Pa.) Union (English) School, March 3, • To be taught by Charles Fortesque, late Free-School Master of Chester, at
his borne, In the alley commonly called Mr. Taylor; the latln Tongue,' English
1764. Dove, formerly of Philadelphia Academy, was master.
Whether the Mode of Instruction generally should be taught Grammatically,
attended with lectures. . . . The Board having deliberated . . . Resolved, That
the Instructions of the youth in the Languages Grammatically, and with Suitable
lectures at the same time . . . will undoubtedly tend to the most effectual
Advancement of the Knowledge o:t' the Scholars. . . . But the Board Is nevertheless of the opinion, thnt every parPnt 1111<1 gunrdlun should have In his election
to direct whether his chilu or ward shall be taught In the above ma nner, or In
the usual mod e taught in common schools. . . . Many parents a nd guardians
may not Incline to have their children or wards taught In any other manner
than what has been hitherto practiced In this schoo l. The . . . English Master
. . . shall be obliged himself to hear each scholar three times a week, who ls
taught reading, w1·itlng and arithmetic, in the said common mode. 01

.1+

-!

-i ..

'

.-

'

_I

This school of Fortesque's, with one other, 95 are the only undoubted
cases the writer h ~s seen of attempts formally to teach English gram. mar in America befor
. Next on the list is
. For reasons elaborated in the succeeding chapter the e.vidence seems
to show that Franklin's Academy, becau~e of its prominence, may be
said to mark the beginning of formal instruction in English grammar .
• in American schools. Due appreciation of the .Priority of ,Waterland
- and Fortesque in obscure schools is here acknqwledged.
Of great significance is the fact that at least eight schools in PhilaThe suggestion is that Dove's new " English Language Grammatidelphia were teaching, or had been teaching, grammar before 17,60, 97
cally" methods were not entirely popular. This resolution is also
and 13 schools before 1766, when we are positive that (}riffith and
indicative of what " the usual mode in the school " was. The school
Pateshall were teaching in Boston. · Philadelphia. had at least 12
r.ommittee orders that the English master shall "hear" the scholar;
that is, hear him recite the lessons which he has memorized from the
' ..
· "See Chap. III, p. 43.
"'Pn. G., Dec. I , 1743.
textbook.
,. Wllllnm Wate rland, Wassamacaw, S . C., 1734, see p. 31.
In many of these eighteenth-century communities with their highly
, "Pn. G., Dec. 2, 1750, quoted In Montgomery, Hist. of U. of P., 139 . .
"1743, Chnrles Fortesque, Phllnde lphla, ' 'English In p. Grammatical Manne~.'' Pa. G.,
emphasized democracy this dual struggle among school pat,·ons may
Dec. 1.
, '
have taken place. In Moores Town part of the public clung tena· 1750, Franklin Academy, Phlladelphla, "English Language." .Ibid ., Dec. 2 .
1751, Gabriel Nesmnn, Philadelphia, " English by dally practice, after the .choicest and
ciously to the Latin nn<l th e old cnrricnlnm; in Germantown part of
' correct grammars." Ibid., Jan. 1.
"'
the school patrons fought innovations in methods of teaching. Thus
· 1751, David Dove, Phllaclelphla, '.'English Grammar." Ibid., Aug. 29.
, 1754, John Jones, Phlladelphla, "English as a Language." Ibid., Oct. 24.
did " the road their fathers trod " diverge from the path of progress.
i 1755, Robert Coe, Philadelphia , " Teach es r ending grammiltlcally." Ibid., Apr. 24.
Against just such traditionalism, in practically every colony, did
1758, Messrs. Dove and Riley, Philadelphia. "English Language, according to the most
exact Rul es of Grnmmar.'' Ibid., Jan. 12.
instruction in the mother tongue have to fight its w!Ly. 02
'1

Trnvls, Gcrmnntown Acnd emy, 24- 25.
"An advertisem ent ot nu Ellznbeth Tow n sc hool, In 170!), shows thnt 11 writing master
u sed whnt Is almos t the modern method of teaching composlllon. To be sure, the emphasis
Is still on writing nnd spelling. However, the orlglnal compositions of the upper class
nre t o be r ev iewed nnd errors pointed out. Ia many of th e ad ver tisements cited In this
th es is som e form of composition Is add ed to th e t eaching of grammar.
The teacher Is the snme J osep h P erlnm whom we snw above ns the firs t t each er In the
English school ot Princeton coll ege. li e Is now resigning to take this school.
"A s this gentl eman Is skill ed In pcnmnnshlp, a particular nttentlon w ill be paid, It
desired by th e pare nts . .. pupils according to their ca paciti es. . . . So me In writing
the us ual copies; others In trnnscrlblng .. . from approved nuthors, eithe r letters to
ncqulre n t as te for the ep istolary style or select pieces to be committed to memory, which
they will be taught to pronounce with grace and propri e ty. '!'hose of riper judgments
will be req uired to write th eir own thoughts In th e f orm of letters, d escription s, &c. Th ese
tr nn scrlpts noel lette rs will be cnrefu lly reviewed and e rror s poin ted out In st1 ch a mann er
ns will be most lik ely to make them accurate In writing nnd spelling." N. Y. G. nnd
W. l\f., July 24, 1769; N . .J. Arc., XXV I, 474. It will be noted thnt Franklin also Insists
upon careful criticism of the pupils by the English master. See Chap. III, p. 44.
11

I .

In a grammatical manner, navigation, surveying, mensuration, geography," etc..,

I,

'

1759, Dove nnd Wllllnms, Philad elphia, "Grnmmntlcal knowl edge of their mother tongue
"' as It Is Inld clow n In Greenwoods English Grammar." Ibid., Aug, 9.
1761, Joseph Garner, Phlladelphln, "English Grammatically, according to the most
modern and familiar Method." Ibid., .Tuly 3.
1764, Subscriber, Philadelphia, " the Reading, Speaking, etc., will he taught grammatically." Ibid., Sept. 1.
. 1761, David Dove, Germantown, "English as a Language.'" Ibid :, Nov. 19.
. 1765, Al exander Power, Philadelphia, "English Grammatically ," Ibid .; June 13.
1766, John Downey, Phllaclelphla, "English Tongue grammatically," Ibid., June 5.
. 1767; l\fary l\f'Alllster, Phlladelphla, "English · Language with proper Accent and
Emphasis ." IIJld., June 4.
.· 1767, !\fr. Dove, Philadelphia, "Own Language according to the exact Rules of grammar." Ibid., Oct. 29.
~ 1769, H enry Moore, Potts Town, " English Language grammatically."
Ibid., Sept. 28.
1767, Lazarus Pine, Phlladelphla, "English ·Language Grammatically." Ibid ., Jan. 29.
1772, John H efferman, Philadelphia, "Grammatical English ." Ibid., Sept. 14.

~

~ 11

32

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

33

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

~ho wrote a grammar in 1724, after he had severed· his relations with'
William and Mary, some atten.t ion maJ:' ~ave been paid to' grammatical
instruction in Virginia.
'.
'. I.
I
As soon as they begin to read and write, he proposes to Initiate them into the
' ·The decade 1750-1760 ' in the middle .colonies' m~rks · foi; Americ~
principles of English Grammar, In a manner much more easy than thnt which
Is generally practiced, and without much Interfering with the work of the
the serious beginnings of instruction iri English grammar: · The north-'
school. 1
I em and SOUthern COlOnieS Seem to have Commenced 0ll0 t0 tWO decades
The obvious interpretation is that grammar is frequently taught in
·later. After 1750 th'e middl~ colonies, under the"leadership of Ben~
a difficult manner, which interferes with the work of the school. But ·
Jamin Franklin in Pennsylvania, began' to emphasize the 'E nglish
the first part of Johnson's statement is evidently not intended to concurriculu;n, with grammar as the basic study. It ·received steadily
vey that impression. He prefaces it with these remarks:
increasing attention from persons 'starting private schools. Therefoi·e the year 1750 is taken as the most fitting date to mark the beginIt is a common, but too well grounded a complaint that a grammatical study
of our own language seldom makes any part of the ordinary method of instructning of formal English-grammar teaching in America,' especially as
ing youth In our school.'
it coincides exactly with the establishment of Franklin's English
Johnson's first statement, as interpreted in the foregoing, would be
School, itself the progenitor of a long line of schools of the middle
grossly inconsistent with the plain assertion of his prefa.tory remarks.
colonies which based vernacular instruction upon English grammar.
In short, Johnson's testimony bears out the conclusion reached in this
'[ .
section, that grammatical instruction in English before 1750 was
t' '
taught only in an occasional school.
, The first English gram~
.
·
·of which the writer·
. has learned was written i
, professor of mathe11
1 .matics in William and Mary Co ege.
This
book
was published in' .
We ha>e "en recorded two- Goorgia as teaching grammar
.
London.
So
far
as
'
is
known
only
one
copy
is
extant,
that in the
9
before 1775.
' Br· i
.
,.
. .
o li ht.'
One especially clear-cut statement-that of William Johnson,
Charlestown, 1767-announces:

I r''

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,

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A number of privaOO scho:•ruction in English grammor
I

~· !'.

before the Revolution. The three-score schools which we have named
include not more than one-tenth of the advertisements of schools
available for examination; a.b out one private school in 10 for the
entire 50 years (1725-1775) seems to have been turning in the direct.ion of grammar. However, the showing :for the subject is better than
at first appears, for the advertisements cover many schools which
would not have been found teaching grammar even a half century
later, when English grammar had come into its own in the curriculum:·
Only a~ occasional private school of the secondary grade taught English grammar in the American colonies between 1750 and 177 5. .
There is evidence of only two schools- Waterland's in South Carolina in 1734 and Fortesque's in Philadelphia in 1743-which were
without question teaching the subject before 1750. No further infor- ·
mation is available concerning the masters of these schools. This
excludes the possibility that, under the influence of Hugh Jones,

'

.. ·,

,,
_,'
I•

I

,. •

I

• Ibid., June 15, 1767.
8 Ibid.
'1763. John Portrees, Sa,•nnnnh , "Writing and English Grammar." Ga. G., .Tun e 30.
1774, Stephen Blddurpb, Savannah, "Latin, .English, French, nod Celtic Languages
grammatica ll y." Ibid., Mar. 2.

ic rnrs 1am; speaking for Pennsylvania, represents a con- ·
was prevalent in regard to the i~portations of grammars:
, Whether any more tha n a few straggling copies of 'the old English grammars '
. . . ever found their way from England to Pennsylvania Is unknown; several
. of them, however, were r eprinted ' In ' Philadelphia ·. .. ilnd may hav·e been used '
, to some extent. but t he first works generally tau ght in . the schools were the
Philadelphia editions of Webster, Harrison, Murray, and Comly, mainly the last
two."
·
·

these,
ongue," London,
,1740, appears to have been the most widely used. Dilworth's book
' was primarily a speller, and probably introduced as such; but it contained also . a "Brief but Comprehensive English Grammar" and a
10
1784 Is th e dnte of Noah W"cbst:er's Grnrnmur, Part II or bis Grnmmatlcal In st itutes or
, the English Languages, usually co ns id er ed the first grammar by an American author. '
11 Full description lu :Meriwet her. Colonial Currl~ulum, 151-3.
•
·
12 Wl cker s hnm, Hist. of Ed. In Po ., 202.
"Appendix A, p. 155.

60258 °-22- -3

ia

36

,.

J. Holt, near Exchange, in Broad Street, New York. 35 Johnson was1
followed ; in 1773, by Thomas Byerley, also a schoolmaster of New
York, who published "A Plain and E asy Introduction to English
Grammar." 86 Byerley h as an elaborate descrip tion of the methods
37
used in his school, a disc ussion of which appears in a later clrnpter.
In 1779 Abel Curti s, of Dartmouth College, published "A Compend
0£ English Grammar: Being an Attempt to point out the Funda~ ~
1
meiital Principl es of th e English Langunge." 38
1
vVe Im vc, then, the 1t llllot1l)t Cll cases of .loncs, 172 1 ; .Tohnson, 1765 ;
Byerley, 1773; and Curtis, 1779, to cite as American writers publishing.
grammars before Noah vVebster in 1784. w ·e conclude that Hugh'
Jones was the first Amer ican author to write a textbook in English
grammar; that Samuel John son was the first to write a grammar
published in America; thnt the books of these two men, together with
those of Byerley and Curti s, precede ·Webster's book in point of time.:
The latter was, then , th e author of at least the fifth , not the first , Eng-'
lish grammar by an American. To be sure, the writer has seen no evi''
dence that any of the earlier books were widely used in the schools or'
were influenti al in directing the new t endency in America to stress '
grammatical instruction. In one sense vVebster retains the place
usun.lly assigned him as the first American grammarian. He yields to
the others only in the matter of chronological priority.
,,
1

Qollege .. o .b vi?usl:y, t,h,e l b~ok ,;was not of college grade. , I ,H is . ~.ady .
is cited here to mdj cate ,the, g~nesis .<;if the ,Colµrµbia plar
of eclucati,on promulgated .by l~iii\ ,son .W illiam Samuel Johnson
president of Columbia in 1785
, .' · .
~
f
;
, , In. this ?Ian e1~phasis was laid. upon English: . th~t .~as. qu jte., i~
J~eprng with . the. ideal set, forth at the founding ,by the father and
with the b rher mterests of the ,son. Th~ plan has several features
. .rvhjch, taken all in all, make it an.: innovation i~ c:olleg~ ·~urrjcula. '. We
..~oncern ou rselvcs here only with the strikip.g emplmsis on .instruction
~µ , the vernacular.48 .
. ,
• ' ,
•
. · · ••
1
A fe~ years lat~!·, 1792, a pamphlet" ~resent State,of Learning in
Columbia College sh?ws that the English part of the 1785 program
was th?rou gh~y earned out. 44 In fine, the King's College and
,~olumbia curricula show a steady growth in popularity of instruction
~.n, the mot.her tongu.e. , Th.is is ~n startling contrast to ,the ",starving,"
as .~rankhn called it, _of En~hsh i1:1 t~e acad,emy in ,w:P,i~h .the ,Vn~, ,:
, •
;y!'l rsity of P~1rnsylvama had its begmnwgs..4 5
". , .•
1
1
.. The expenence. of both Pennsylvania and Harvard shows that as
:, 1~ th.e case of Columbia, the first impetus, .in. college~ .toward instruc.~
,' J10n m the mother tongue came through the desire for better elocution
.an\i oratory. In Harvard, , dispµtations, , her~tofqre c~rried 01~ in
~atin, after the middle .of the e~ghteenth century came to be 'given
1!1 the vernacular. Presiden~ Qumcy, after saying th!).t, ,f or ,n early .a
, !1,uthors h11~

1

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J:. "Th e Pinn of

Edu~ntion,

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,
a;t of ~~adln~ ' and speaking En llsh w ith propri ety und elegance. Obce a week . . . ·tran s lation out of Latin Into Engllshg'
When IGng's College was founded, President S
t " It · tl
11 • • thi s t o be considered as E n gli s h rather than a Latin ·exer cise.
.
.
,
, . .1'
· . ·fl
1
Yale graduate, ma d e t 1\I S s1gni cant announcemen :
· JS e ·ur-,
So11ho11101·e C la ss. On ce a week deliver to the President an Engllsl\ ~ompositton · upo~ a
1
ther Design of thi s college, to instruct and perfect the Youth in the' subjec t to be assigned.
·
'
" · .,
.
",
.. Junio>' C lass. Once a week, to the Presid ent, an English or Latin
Learned Languages, and in the nrts of ?'Casonin,q exactly, of 1oriting 1 subj
upon a
ec t to be ngslgned,: whlc!1 con,ipos.I~Ions are expected 1to be longer and more correct as
: ·
:
correctly, and spealcing eloquentlyY 30 This was stated inthe first ; thes tuden t sndvnnce.
·
·• · ·
11 , ,, ,, · 1 .. ,, ... ,
ll
l 40
·. " • !)• ,1Jeriio1· Cla.ss: To d eliv er. once a w eek, ·an English ·or Latin Composition to the President
public prospectus 0 f tie
f upon a subject or th eir own choosing. ,
'
'
'
1 CO e~ wor L
; H The written exer cises of each class 'a re to be subsc~lbed with the autho~'s riame, and
~ a.f ter having und ergone the President's criticism _ a~e , to, be filed and produced at the
,. ~ontbl y visitations , for the Inspection of the R ege~ts and Professors. .So many of each
> of th e three seni or classes as wlll bring It to each stud ent's turn In a month are once a
week to r epent In the llull , . ·, som e proper piece of English or Latin, which th e President
, ls to direct, nn<l which, nt th e monthly visitation, may be such of their weekly exercises ns
, the Presid ent may think have most merit.
;
Plan c ited In full, Snow, Col. Cur. In U. S., 93-6 .
. ' ""Th e President, William Samuel Johnson, LLD., ls ' Lecturing In Rhetoric and Belles
. Lettres, a nd Instructs tl1e students In the Grammar and · proper pronunciation of the Eng. llsh La nguage, on the plan of Webster's and Lowth's Grammars, and . Sheridan's Rhetorical
Grnmma r. In Rhe toric, on the pla,n .o f Ilolme's a nd Stirling's Rh etoric . . . a complete
course .o r Instruction In , ,. , the EngUsb Language In particular; In the art of writing and
" Ibid.
.speakln g It with propriety, el eg11n9e and force."
·
ao Eva ns. op. cit., 4, R53.
1
..,, .( ,.. , "Each stud ent ls oblige d, every Saturday, to deliver him (President Johnson) a coin·
"See Chnp. V , p. 129.
position, In which be corrects the, errors either In o.r thography, grammar, , style or sent!·
"P rinted by Spoo n e r, Di·esd cn (Dartmouth College), Evnns, 6, 10,
ment. a nd mnl<c• the necessary observatlonR on th em when be returns the composltlon t0'
., P in e, Colnmhln rol. rhnrtcrs nnd Acts, 70.
: the writers.'.' . Ibid., 98-102.
·
••N. Y. G. or W. P. B., .J uly 3, 17M.
"Smyth, Life and Writings, B. Franklln, X, 16. See Chap, UI;p. i8.
"See Ch np . II, p. 35.
•2 Evans, Am. B ibi., 4, 18.
"

1

1785:

""

' 1 I

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•

0

3. EARLY INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN
COLLEGES.

I

.37 ·

EARLY APPJ?ARANCES OF. ENGLIS~ GRA11;1M;AR;'. l;.;.· 1

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

F1·esllma.11. Cla.ss. En gli s h Grnmmnr, toge ther with

th~

,composltlo~,

/

.
38

-·
-

I '

~

.'
.

j r:

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

39

century (1650-1750) · the Harvard cu rriculum had resisted innovations, points out that in 1754 the overseers raised a committee " to
project some new method to promote oratory." The result was a system of disputations in English, a Jarently a radical innovation.4°

The Publick Is hereby notified, that as soon as a competent Number ot
Scholars, offer themselves, an English School will be opened, under the Inspection of the President of the New-Jersey College, as an Appendage to the same:
In which Is proposed to be t.aught the English Language grammatically, and
that the Boys, wh en found capable, be exercised In Compositions, as well as In
pronouncing Orations publlckly...
'
·

me rnt t l is new t11 rn tow a rJ vcrn:ictt I ar i nstr nction
·w as coming in Harvanl ( 17 5'1 -l 7GG) t he U 11 i vcrs i Ly of Pc11nsyl va11ia
was being started in the Academy and C harity School of Philadelphia
(1750-1756). Chapter III of this study is devoted to an examination
of the character of this school a nd its influence in sp read ing venrncu lar
education )n secornlury schools. The point to be anticipated here from
that discu ssion is that good speaking and good w1·iting in Engli sh
were the primary motiv es lying back of the English program, with
grammar as the central study.48
h
l;~tii~iil&~Ui~e<juire- g ·am1n l" as an
•'ll~tfi1e~~~tei""~~Ca~rwi:;.;"~9~
· h1rray,
.
P.~m~~~~~t oned texts in the College of New Jersey
(Princeton), based upon catalogues of the institution, finds Lowth's
Grammar first in 1793, and adds that not until 1840 does grammar
appear in the catalogues as an admission requirement.~ 0 The statements of Broome and Murray do not tally by 21 years; the differen ce is
entirely consistent with the extreme difficulty of assigning definite
dates for the first appearance of any subject. It is not at all certain
that statutory provisions indicate the earliest date. As a matter of
fact, both Broome and Murray are incorrect in assigning to Princeton
the fir~t admission requirements in grammar.51
If it were true that Princeton was the first, that fact would be consistent with others which can be positively stated. That th e year
assigned for grammar should be so la.te is, how ever ~ a matter of some
wonder. From the year 1763 forward the Co llege of New Jersey was
intimately associated with a preparatory school called by Pres ident
Finley" an Appendage" of the college. Announcement of the academy appeared in 1763. 02 In 17G1 the school was opened.

In 17G9 another extremely suggestive advertisement of Princeton
11.ppears. President Witherspoon not only advertises that the college
course gives "Remarks in the Grammar and spelling of the English
Tongue" Of uut he also adds, speaking of candidates for admission,
" Scho~ars should also be well acquainted with . ' . . spelling in Epglish Language and writing it without' grammatical errors." 55 While,
of course, this is not a definite entrance requirement, with examination, it is an indication that the president of Princeton as early as 1769
was pointing the way to such a requirement. Parenthetically it may
be remarked that 'W itherspoon states almost exactly the proper test
of grammatical accuracy, the test to which colleges did not officially
arrive until one hundred years later, when, in 1873, Harvard's new
admission requirements were formulated. - For all the intervening
time the entrance test consisted of examinations in formal English
grammar, which, for a large part of that century, meant the slavish
. repetition of pages and pages of rt~les. 56 The .point of present interest., however, is that in this statement of President Witherspoon, in
1769, we see in embryo, at least, the college-entrance requirement of
' 1819; indeed, that of the present-day requirements; Princeton, like
Columbia and Pennsylvania, had been- in touch with English as a
language study for nearly 25 years before the Revolution.
The diary of Solomon Droune, of the class of 1773 in Rhode I sland
College (Brown), testifies that he began the stu_dy of English grammar in 1771: " Commenced Hammond 's Algebra and British Grammar in December," 57 his sophomore year. '.The. inference is strong
.that his class was studying " The British Grammar," but., unfortunately, we have discovered no corroborating testimony. .The college
laws of 1783 show that in the sophomore year were studied Lowth's
Vernacular Grammar, Rhetoric, Ward's Oratory, and Sheridan's Lectures on Elocuti on ,58 and rrn extract from a letter of the president the
,following yerrr advises a Mr. Wood , if he desires to enter thr sophomore class." to study with great attention Lowth'i:; En glii:;h Grammar,

"Quincy, Hist. Har. Univ., ll:MU, II, l :H- 5.
n

...'

EARLY APPEARANCES OF ENGLISH . GRAMMAR,' · .

Tbld.,

4~R. RP~ o h1ttnnc:i

in f1111.

t;ee ClrnJJ. 111, JJ. 4:> .
"Broom e gives the dates at which various n ew subjects at the beg inning ot the nin e·
teent h century w ere definitely placed In the college entrance require ments as follows: Up
to 1800 th e requirem ents were Latin , Greek, and arithmetic. Geography was added In
1807: Engli s h grammar, 1819 ; algebra, 1820 ; geometry 1844; ancient history, 1 847.
Broome affirms thnt all of th ese were first required by Harvard , except English grammar,
In which Princeton took the lead, and adds thnt the ambiguous term " grammar" app ears
In the W!Illnms College catalogue for 1795. A Hist. and Crlt. discussion ot Col. Adm,
·Req., Columbln Univ. Cont., XI, 30-62.
,.Murray: Hist. of Ed. In N. J., 57, Murray's s tatement Is "!'!outh English Grammar."
"See discussion (p. 40) ot the requirements ot tbe University ot North Carolina.
.. Pa. J., Nov. 10, 1768; N. J . Arc., XXIV, 260.
~'

. .!l!lfil'flli!i!~ll7m
64~;~N~.~J~.~A~rc~.,~
X~X~I~
V-,~37~0~.~~'!J·
"
~ ad been es •ao1l •hcd und er Presiden t Burr, but not untll 1764 was" It judged proper _that an English school should be also
established for the sole lntentlono f- enc ln i: -:vaung-~lnds t o write w ell , t o ciph er . nn d to ,
pronounce nnd rend the English tongu e with nccuraey and preci s ion." Order or tru s tees,
quoted, McLean, op. cit., 529.
"'Pn. J .. Mnr. 2, 1769.
"N. Y. J , or W. M., May 1, 1769.
" See Ch np. V ,
"Quot ed by Bronson. His t. Brown Univ., 102 .
"Lawe In full, Ib lu-. r.o8-1S.

t
I~.'.

40

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

& Sterling's, or Turner's Rhetori c as preparatory to vVarcl 's Oratory
& accustom himself to compose in English." 00

'

...

In the charter of Queen's College (which becft111 c Rutgers in 1823),
first drafted by Dutch R eform ed minislers in 17Gn aml finally granted
in 1770, we find positive indi cations of tlie trellll of the tinw toward
grammatical inst.rn ction in English. It is especiaJ\y signifi cant as
coming from a body of men ·who might have been supposed to favor
a language other than English. The charter providesTher e shnll nlwn ys he. resi<lillg nt or 11Pn1· lhe co llPg c. nt lf' 11 St n11e professo r,
or teacher well ve rsetl in the English la nguage, elected .. . from tim e to tim e,
and nt nil ti111 es h e.r eafter grammatica lly to instruct the stud ents of th e said
college in the knowledge of the English lnnguage ; . .. provided also that all
r eco rds shall be in the English lan guage and no other: 60

EARLY APPEARANCES · OF · ENGLISH; GRAMMAR.

Here is a 'college' which in 1795 dares to proclaim that :English is
"the pi·imary object," that" other languages are auxiliaries," and that
" any language, except English, m·ay be otnitted." :The college 1 did
not gi·ant the A. B. degree, however; ·except!for 'Datin and, Greek/ and
' the historian tells us that afterwards tlie university!f' degenerated .into
the purely classical type.":' But the important point is yet to be noted.
In 1795, -vvhen the English program f~r the academy was inaugurated,
a statute of admission to the college seemed to prescribe :English; it is
thus cited by Battle:
,, " ·
, .. ·1., " '' ' '.' .' '.• .. ii ; " :'I ,, ; ., , .
,,

H ere is an institution starting up in a sparsely se.t tled and largely
unlettered frontier district. 'As the historian says, half of those who
presented themselves were unprepared for college classes. 63 Therefore after the first year the institution was divid ed into the preparatory school and the university proper.
In 1795, according to th e statutes, the course of stuJy in th e preparatory school was as follows:
(a) 'l'he En glish Langua ge, to be taugh t grammatically on the bas is of
·webster's and South 's Grammar." ( b) " ' riting in a n eat and correct mann er.
(c) Arithm eti c. with th e four first rules, with the Uul e of Three. (d) R ea ding
and Pronouncing select passages from the Purest J•i nglish a u thors. ( e ) Copying
In a fnlr nnd correct 111n11ner select pages from U1 c purest g11gl lsh nnlhors. (f)
'l'he lGngllsh Langunge shall be r eg ularl y co ntinu ed. It be ing considered t he
primary object, and the other languages but a ux iliaries. Any lan g ua ge except
English mny be omitted a t the r equ est of the Parents.
·

Under the professorships in the university, English was continued.
" Rhetoric on the plan of Sheridan, . . . The English Language,
Ex tracLs i 11 l'rose and Verse. Scott 's Cullectio11s."
r.o Ibid., 103.
oo Clews. op . cit .. 343.

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Engli sh gr~mmar, on the basis of Lowth and Webster, '~as the ' fir~t

S~Udy Of the, preparatory' SCho,ol. . ''.A. ' iiniv~rsity ' St~tute' pr~SCribing
I

entrance examinations iri the· preparatory"subjects wa~ pa5sed' iri 1795.
This appears to be clear ·case of ai'i entr~rice examina'tio1\.'in ' En'gli~h
grammar 24 years before 1819, ~ the . date ' wh~ch ' Br6 om~ assi.gn's 'to
Princeton. An error of a quarter of a cep.b.iry shows
dangerous
it is to generalize on ' data' derived ' only ' fro~ a" few ' well-krio\vn
institutions.
". · , " 11 ':!'! '1 ,,.,, . ·'
One further point as to . the. relations of
1

a

How,

1

book was called "A Short English Grammar, An Accidence o the
English Tongue." The description of the contents of the book 66
seems to indicate th at it was deficient in syntax and was devoted .
largely to preparation for oral work. This, too, would certainly be
' in keeping with the early date at which it was published. The entire
discussion of this chapter and of the following chapter indicates that
grammar, as well as written composition and literature, grew up with
and possibly out of declamation, oratory, disputations, and the various branches of oral composition. Hugh Jones's "English Gram': 1par" is in strict accord with this hypothesis.
Students of the history of education know that the colleges of
America have usually been compelled to emphasize curricula of a more
elementary grade in their early years. It was not true of Harvard,·
perhaps, because the fo11nd crs of Ha rvar d were the men who di ctated
the hms of 1G-t'2 aml lG-±7 req11iri11g a fi.Lting scliool in ('\ery town of
100 families . .Moreover, these schools existed before the law of 1647.
We have just seen Princeton under the necessity of establishing a

1 7i 1 .

"'Dattlc. lli s t ory of th e UuiL of N . C., Yo!. I, SO d seq.
"'Ibid., 6G.
"MenB8 Lo wtb's Grammar.

'"'

The Students who passed approved examinations on the ·studies 'o f the ' preparatory sch ool were admitted upo n the generlil establlsl~iilent of the; Unl ~erslty.
There was also an enti'ance examination In Latin, but the .candidates were :not
required to transla.te English into Latin.'" .
,.! •. ·, .,.'1 •I · :,
·, j,/ ! ' , ' '1
.,
1

The grammar school of Qu een's, in th e first announcement in 1771,
advertised that" Mr. Frederick Frelinghousen . . . teaches the English L angua ge grammatically." 61
·
In all the precedin g discussion th ere is one State which has not
been mentioned-North Carolina. In 1794 the University of North
Carolina was opened with a program of English stndies very for in
advance of any college in the country before · 1800. 62 In 1794 the
charges for tuition were as follows:
For Ueacling, Writin g, Arithm eti c, Book-keeping, $8.00 per nnnum . Fo r Latin,
Gr eek . French, English Grammar, Geog raphy, Hi sto ry and Delles Lettres, $12.50
per annum . . . .

~1

1.

"'Uatllc. lllslor)' of the i; u i\". of N. C., \'ol. I, !Hl.
,. Mer i wether, Co l. Cur ., 151-3 .

I

JI

r
f

...
42

school of lower grade than the college itself and that the new University of North Carolina felt compelled to do so. In the following "
chapter we shall see the University of Pennsylvania grow from an
academy and maintain that academy as a fitting school until well
into the nineteenth century. Western colleges growing up amid fronconditions in the past 75 years also labored under this necessity. '
e fact that between 1775 and 1825 the older colleges of the East
alled upon to give instrriction in the freshman or sophomore
in English grammn.r 01 ci.irries with it se veral .inferences : First,
here was a gr·owing interest in the mother tongue, which comcolleges established under the exclusive classical regime to
ge their curricula, and, further, induced colleges founded in the uarter of the eighteenth century to incorporate English as a
age from the very beginning; second, that, as college students
entering ·w ithout the ability to speak and write grammatical
lish, that subj ect was not adequately taught in the lower schools.
hort, the attitude of colleges toward grammar before 1800 shows
there was need for the new subject; that the call for it was posi; that this must have been in order that the subject might be
duced into the older institutions; and that the lower schools were '
meeting the need.
rlnceton used Lowth In 1 793. Snow , op. cit., 109. Ynle used Lowth , 1774 - 1784,
Webster, 1792, nnd Murrny In succe8slon before 1800. Ibid., 79, 91 , 128. The College of
Rhode Islnnd used the snwe texts In tbe same orde r. Ibid., 109, 111, 113.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

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Chapter III.

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INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR
.T·O '!'.HE ·.CURRICULUM.
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So custom.ary is i.t to lo~k to Mas~achusetts,' and ~ ew Englan~ generally, for p10neer movements in American colonial education that it
is refreshing to find other colonies taking lead in giving to the vernacular a prominent place in the curiiculum. We have seen that the
first A meri can writer of a textbook in grammar was the Virginian
Hu g h Jones, who published his book in London in 1724; that Noa!;
Webster was also anteda~ed by Johnson, 1765, and by Byerley, 1773,
both of New York, and by Curtis, 1778, of New Hampshire: The first
~chool of authentic record we have found teaching the mother tongue
"grammatically " was in · W assarp.acaw, S . C., taught by William
W aterland. Moreover, the middle colonies, headed by Pennsylvania
were apparently two· decades in advance of New England in having
.,respectable number of private schools placing grammar on , a · secondary-school footing . .. To New York (King's College and Colum- ·
bia) belongs credit for the first ' thorough devotion to the mother
tongue before 1800, and to North Carolina for the first entrance
examination in the subject. . .;
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· · ·1 · :
New England, finally, can not claim the first secondary-school using
English curricula to exert the widest influence in advancing vernacular. instruction throughout the colonies. To ·Pennsylvania, to the
Philadelphia Academy, and to Benjamin Franklin, belong this honor,
the greatest of all. The present chapter gives an 'account of this institution, with special reference to what it taught, the influence it
exerted, and the motives "\"hi ch prom ted it. ' ", ' ·. :· , "' , , . .
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The story of this institution begins with the yeM44'-rhe evangelist, George Whitefield, , preached , in Philadelpftrn EO enormous
crowds but was excluded from most of the churches of the city. 88
. Opposition of religious sects met him on every side. The hostility
naturally drew to his support inhabitants who , were free from narrower religious prejudice, among them Benjamin Franklin. White,6.eld's avowed missi<;m- the
founding of .an' orphanag~tinctured his
.

+

"Be did preach In Cbrlst Church, but wne opposed by other cburcbea,

• U. of P. (1834J. In Mem. Blat. So. of Pa., 111, 178,

Wood, Hist. ot

44

To form their Pronunciation, they may be put on Declamations/ repeating
. Spee<'!hes, delivering Orations &c.; the Tutor assisting at 'the ·Rehelirsals, :teaching, advising, correcting their Accertt; .-&c.'" · · ., ,, •! ··., ... ' _,.... , I : 1 ·~ " ' "1 ; · 1: 1

fervid discussions and turned the attention of his listeners to the unsat- ·
' unfortunates of

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THE CONSTITUTIONS.

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PROPOSAJ,S."

·a man of good Understanding, good :Morals, diligent and patient, learn'rl in the
Languages and Sciences, and a correct pure Speaker and ·writer of the English"
Tongue .. ..
All should be. ta.u ght to write a fair Hand, and swift, as that is useful to
All . . . .
The English Language n1ight be . taught by Grammar; in which some of our
best · Writers, as Ti/.lotson, Addison. Pove. Algehion Sidne11, Cato's Letters , &c,
should be Classicks: the Stiles principally to be cultivated, being the clear and
concise. Reading should also be taught, and pronouncing, properly, distinctly,
emphatically; not with an even Tone, which 11nder-does, nor a theatrical, which
over-does Nature."
. To .forin their Stile they should oe put to writing L etters to each other, making
Abstracts of what they rea d; or writing th e same Things in their own 'Vor<ls:
t elling or n-ritin.~ Stories lately reacl. in the ir own F:xpressions. All to I.Jc r e vised
nrnl correde<l hy the 'l'utor, who shoul<l give his Hen sous, and explain t-Jw Force
and Import of 'Vords, &c.
"'In April , J 740, Franklin a tte nd ed a meeting in which Whitefield preached of the
orphnnnge he Intend ed to found . Frnnkllri 11dvised the founding of the Institutio n In Phl la·
cl elphia. urging that materials nnd workmen would he lacking In the wlldR of Georgia.
This wns th e occn~fon on which . Franklin tell s tlf;, nftrr tnklng out vnrfo11~ smnll c r ~nms ,
"J nnnlly r.mpty'tl my pocket wholly Into the colkctor's bowl, g-oltl ntHl nll."

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An ACADEMY for teaching the Latin and Gree_k Languages, the .English
Tongue grammatically, and as a Language, the most useful Uving foreign Lan-,
guages, French, German and Spanish; As matters !Jf Eruditlop. naturall;y:. fl.o:wing
from the Languages . . . (The subjects named in the Proposals,.), :
The Enf]lish. Master shall be obliged, without. the Assistance of any Tutor, to
teach Forty Scholars the English Tongue grammatically, .and as :i. Language.''
\

The proposals state that the rector should be-

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These were drawn up by a commit'tee 'bf' two,' con~istihg 'bf. 1,'~~c~
Francis, attorney genera~, and .Fnn1.l~lin. ·. ';l'h11 co.nstitut~9ns stipulate
for instruction " in the dead and living , Languages, ·.particularly
their Mother Tongue, and all useful Branches of liberal Arts · and
Science " 76 and provide:
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le . !;ng IS I Cll)TIC\l

posed by the author nnd i111111g11ratc<l by the I r11stees. Extracts from
the proposals, together with the constitutions and the program of the
English school, furnish evidence as to what really was the curriculum
which dared to lift its head among the Latin-grammar schools of the
period.
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45

INFLUENCES ADDING ·aitAM'M:AR'. TO . dt:tRRIOUDUM'1 -. ·'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

(Ant:ohlog-

rnphy, Griffin ed., 17H.)
To the prea c hing of Wblteflcld mny be ascribed part of th e e mphasis In earlle r Pennsylvania legislation upon charity s chools. This, together with the wide divergence of
religious be)lets, caused Pennsylvania to be one of the.last States to establish a free syRtem
of schools, In l 833. '
·
10 1743 wns the year that Charles Fostesque advertised bis private school In Philadelphia,
teaching" English In a grammatical manner ... Pa .. G., Dec. 1, 1743.
·
"Autobiography, op. cit, l78- 8!l .
"Prdposnls given In Smyth, Life and Writ. of Ben.Jamin Franklin, II , 386 et seq.
,. All words ltallclzed are so written In the pfoposnls as printed In Smyth .
Tl This snvors so strongly of Hamlet's speech to the players that we are surprised not to
find Shapes peare in the list of " Classicks."

Concerning this plan, remarkable.. for its. empha~.is upon the English, Franklin states that his desires." went no £n1:ther than to procure
- ·a good English education." 78 But his friends insiste<;l u'pon a :classical school. In both the documents just cited the sections dealing with
.the classics are distinctly subordinated and.have the appearance of ·an,
.afterthought, inserted after the original draft ·to appease Franklin's'
·coworkers. For himself, ·the founder was •resolved; "..to ·nourish tJ:i.e
English school by every. means in my power." ,79 · ' • , i 1 . , · · • , • • i : ,: ! ' ·i •.
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PROGRAM OF THE ENGLISH SCHOOL. . · ·
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·:. The Academy and Charity Schopl, with l.i'+aJJ.kiin ap ,thefirs,t pr;~.sh
dent of the trustees, was established . in _17~0, 8 ~. ~ ~it,h. . ~h~.. f?ll?~i1,1,g 1
vernacular program, in .~he. Eng~i~h ~chool, :1 , ·" . ,, .
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First Class:
English Grammar_, rules. , :•' ; ::
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" Orthography.
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Short Pieces, such as Craxal1's Fables.

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• ·, "To this vernacular Instruction Ii.re" added ~c'ogrnphy ; : cbrono\o~y: ' 'nn~l~nt . cu~totns,'
morality, history , natural hlsto1'y,· history of c9mmeree, ma~hemntlce, -Also1 "All Intended
..· for Divinity should be taught the Latin and Greek; for Phy.s ick,
the Latin, Greek and.
1
French; for Law, the Lat in "and French; ~!erchatlts; the Fr~ncll, Gerlniin and ·:sli anlsll ; ' arid"
rt though all should not be compel.I'd to learn Latin;_Greek, br the mode-rn: foreign · Languages;
- . yet none that have an ardent _Desir~ t\>., learn t_he~ . s.hou.l,d ~.e 1 re~~~ed; .,t~elr_ , E,nf,11~11 1
Arithmetlck, and other studies absolutely necessary. being at the same time not negleeted.' 1
·" Smyth, ,op. cit., 394.
''· "Montgomery, Hist. of U. of P ., 46.
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. veyanee of1 ' The New Building" was Feb. 1, 1750. Advertisement of the Academy In· Pa;
·· G.,Dec . . il,1750,
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INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

pupils. 84 In 1752. there were above 90 scholars in the English school
alone, according to a minute of the trustees. 88 ;. The first English
mast~r was David James Dove, who had taught grammar in Chichester, England, for 16 years and who was in Franklin's .estimation
· "a clean, pure Speaker and Writer of English." 86 ; Commenting on
the early success of the English program, Franklin. &ays:
· ;. .

Second Class:
Expressive Reading.
Grammar, parts of speech and sentence structure.
The Spectator.
Third Class:
Grammatical errors corrected.
tter writing, little stories, accounts of reading.
fo und Pope.
1111d

Ornl ltcndlng.

n , Essays in Prose and Verse.
- eading and Speaking.
Sixth Class :
English Authors, Tillotson, Milton, Locke, Addison, Pope, Swift, Spectator
nnd Gnnnllun .
So111e classes nlwnys to !Jc with the writing mnstcr nnd with the Aritluuetick master, while the rest are in the English school."
THE CAREER OF THE ENGLISH PROGRAM.

Study of the proposals, the constitutions, and the program indicates
a secondary school, with the vernaculn.r as its central study, as pretentious as any of the Latin schools of the periocl. 82 The phrases " English Tongue grammatically" and "as a Lancrn
,
cated, are eloquent with mt purpose.
ill
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nst'f ue
- e a Tirmec " the
eac 11 b
and Greek languages
. in no other light than as the cliavea.u brns
of modern literature." 83 Indeed, the English program -contains
almost every element of the best modern secondary-school practice in
the vernacular : Grammar; composition, both oral and written; declamation; and literature in the form of the classics of the mother tongue.
Other studies are grouped around the English. It seems safe to
believe that never before in America, and not for quite half a century later, was any such complete English procrram projected. It was
almost 100
· advance of its time.
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eer in education as he was in science.·
_first the English school prospered. In the opening year the
English and the Latin schools together numbered more than 100
The Eng li sh program Is complied from Frnnklln ' s Works, Spnrks, op. cit.. TI. 125- :J2_
It may be safer to sny thnt the English schoo l was Intended to be on nu equa l footing
with the Latin . In reality, It never was. In the very beginning the Latin m:l"ter r ece ived
n snlnry of £200, the English mnstcr £100. The former had more ass istance than the latter.
TheUme of the English master was often employed In the Latin school. Smyth, op. cit.,
x, 12.
''Smyth, op. cit., II, 159,
81

82

47

He (Mr. Dove) had a good Voice, read perfectly well, with proper Accent and
just Pronunciation, and his Method of communicating Habits of the same kind
to hlR PnpllR wnR thlR. When he gnvc n LeRson to one of them, ho nlwnya first
read It to him nloud, with all the different Modulations of the Voice that the Subject and the Sense required. These the Scholars,- In studying and repeating the
Lesson, naturally endeavour'd to Imitate;" nnd it was really surprlzing to see
how soon they caught his Manner. . . . In a few . Weeks after opening his
School, the Trustees were invited to hear the Scholars read and recite. . . . The .
.Performa~ces were surprlzingly good .. . and the English School thereby
acquired snch Ileputatlon, that the Number of Mr. Dove's pupils soon mounted
" to upwards of Ninety, which Number did not diminish · as long as· he continued
Master, viz., upwards of two years.••
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Unfortunately the high-water mark of the English school's prosperity was reached only ' two years after its founding. In 1753 Ebe- .
nezer Kinnersley was elected successor to Dove, who devoted himself
to a private school in Philadelphia which h~ had begun while still
active in the Academy. 89 Kinnersley, who had collaborated with
Fra!1klin in experimenting with electricity,00 was eviden~ly more proficient in science than in teaching English, for under him the English
school began a rapid decline. In the words of Franklin," the Trustees
provided another Master . . . not possessing the Talents of a,n Eng-·
lish School Master in the same Perfection with Mr. Dove," whereupon
"the school diminished daily and soon was found to have about forty
scholars left. 91 The Performances . • . in Reading and Speaking
"Quoted from sermon on education by Rev. Richard Peters, 1750, preached at the open·
Ing of the Academy, Montgomery, op. cit .. 141.
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""There being above ninety Scholars In the English School, and Mr. Dove having
declared he found It Impossible duly to Instruct so great a number without another assist- ·
ant." . . . Quoted from the minutes, Dec. 10, 1751, Ibid., 144.
"Letter to Samuel Johnson, Dec. 4, 175i. Ibid., 513.
· '
! -It Is slgniBcant that Franklin ·endeavored by every means In hie power to secure Samnel •
-Johnson to becom e the English master. Ibid., 508. .
;
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- "This Is to-dny considered extremely bad practice In teaching oral ' Engilsh. "Imlt~te
me," "this Is the way to speak the passage," Is Indeed 'the quickest way to secure results
and doubtless enabled Dove to give public exhibitions within a few weeks after beginning
his work. But direct Imitation Is bad pedagogy.
'''
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"Smyth, op. cit., X, 14. lfi.
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"Pa. G., Aug. 20, 1751.
,,
' '° Klnnersley Is said by Provost Smith to have been ,,· the chief Inventor of the electrical
appnratus, as well ns the nutlv>r of a considerable part of those discoveries In electricity·:
published by Mr. Franklin , to whom he ' commnnlcated them." Amer. Mag .. Oct., 1758;
cited, Wood, Mem. Hist. Soc. Pn .. III, 191. Klnnersley published "Experiments In Elec:) trlclty,"
In Philadelphia. Cnt. of Public. · Prlo~ to 1775, In Trans . . ?f Am. Antlq.
Soc., II, 5 l(J) Evans, op. cit., 3, 1!90.
·
"The trustees' minutes, l\fnr , r.. 1757, give the number of students: Philosophy school,
12; Latin, 60; l\iatbematlcal, 22; English, 31. Montgomery, op. cit., 282-4,

l:'f14,

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discontinued and the English S chool has rwver since recov ere<l
its original Reputation." 92
•
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The retrorrression of the English school md t he prospen ty of the
Latin school receives Franklin's bitter condemnation. He himself
was absent from Philadelphia mu ch of the time for nearly 30 years,
and, as he says," in the course of 14 years several .of the original Trustees, who had been disposed to favour the English Schoo l, deceased,
and others not so favorable " ·ere chosen to supply their plncf's." 93
The ·w hole story of fh c process by which, to use>, hi s wonls, E r'.gli ~ h
"was starved out of the Scheme of Education "is set forth by lrnn rn
" Observations Relative to the Intentions of the Uriginal l<'o umlen; of
the Academy in Philadelphia," published n ear the end of his life, in
the year 1789. 9 ~
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•
Almost pathetically he bemoans the fa tlme of the Engli sh school:

H.e cites numerous instances of prejudice on the part of the" Latinists" to kill the English curriculum, running it clown until in 1763
"Mr. Kinnersley's time was entirely taken up in teaching little boys
the elements of the English Language (that is, it was d wi udled into
a School similar to those kept by old 'Vomen, who teach Children
Letters)." 00 In another connection Franklin asserts:

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I am the only one of the original Trustees now living. and I am ju st stepping
Into the grave myself. . . . I seem h ere to be surrounded by th e Ghosts of my
dear depar ted Friends, beckoning and urgin g me to use the on ly Tongue now
left us , in demanding That Ju s tice to our Grandcllildren that our Children has
[Franklln's defect ive grammar] been denied."

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EXGLIC::IT r.nA l\f1\1AJ1. TN A::\IEr.IC c\~

.

IJ:H LUh?-i(.;ES ADDING GilAl\L\IAR TO CUilr..JCULUl\L

'l'be T.nl"lni><t.>< were comb!n'd to deny the Euglish School as u. eless. It was
without Example, they said, as indeed tbey still say (178\l), that a :->choo! for
teaching the Vulgar Tongue, :rnd the Sciences in that To11gue. wa s ever formed
with n College, and that the Latin Maste rs were fully competent to tench
English." . . . Thus by our lnjmllci o11sly st:irv ln g the Ji:11glish £':irt out of our
RchP.me of Education, we only s:JYed £50 a y!'nr. . . . 'V" lost Fifty Scholnrs
whi ch would have been £200 a year, and defeated, besides, one great J•;nct of Urn
Institution."

In spite of "Neglect, Sli ghts, Discouragements, ~ncl !~justice"
(Franklin's words) 99 the English pro~ram nevf'r P.nhrPly rlier~ On
.Tulv 23. 1769. a resolution passe<l the board that "after tl1 e 11 lh of

Oclober nexl, Mr. Kinncr:-;lcy's vre:>e11l Salary Llo cease, arnl 1liat fnl111
that Lime the said S choo l . . . shall be on the follo\\'iug Fooling, 1·iz
. . . " (the fees of t he pupils to go directly to the English master, who
is guarnnteecl no salnry.1 B ut on Augu st 1, 1769, this action was
reconsidered, and on July 21, 1771," the Provost was desired to advertise for a l\Iasler able to teach Engli sh Grammatically, which seems
was all tli e Engli sh l\faster wa s no1Y required to teach , the other
Branches origina ll y promised being drnpt entirely." 2 So the hard
~ slrnggl n for English \\·0.11t on. Frankli11 's profcst of 1780 L
lid very
li ttle good, and in 1810 Dr. John Andrew s, provost of fhe Uni1· ersity
of Pennsylvania, affirmed that the princip:1l master of English was
not ca ll ed professor, bnt rnaster; that this work was considered below
college grade and suuorclinate to it. Th e provost thought that on the
death of lhe Hien in cu111bent at the head of the English school it
would be aboli sh ed altogeth er. 3
In the preceding drnpter has been described the course of the English program in King's Col lege and Columbia, under the leadership
of Sam uel Johnson and of "William Samuel Johnson. In strange contrast to the " starving" process which well-nigh killed English
instruction in the Coll ege ancl Acaderny of Philadelphia we find the
admirable courses offered in 1792 by the president of the New York
institution. The writer fee ls that the main cause of this startling
contrast wa s du e to the influen ce of Provost Smith, a Latinist, in
Pennsy lv an ia, as contrasted with the influence of the John sons, mod. ern.::, in Kiiig's Coll0ge. D11t nn e,·en rnnre irnporbnt <:':rnse rnny haTc
been the cliffere nee in the internal organization of the two institutions.
In Col111nhia fhe ('olJpge e11ni cnl11m Wfls orgnni7:erl by dP.part.rnPnb:;
on an equal footing. In P ennsylvania there was a philosophical,
an Engli sh classical , and a, mathematical school, each with its almost
distinct progrnm, attempting to grow up side by side. The Columbia organization seems to give each department a better opportunity to demonstrate its worth, being essentially a college, rather than
, a university, organization. Obviously, English had a better chance to
raise itself to independent dignity in Columbia. It would be interest. ing to spec11lalc as to the co urse in the YCrnncular in Pcnnsyhan ia had
. .Frauklin ueeu alJlc lo C011tiuue his pcn;o1Jal Sll!Jcrvisiou. .

" Smyth, op. cit., X, 15.
"Ibid., 16.
" Ibid., 9-31.

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•• smvth State
op. cit.,
x, 29.
""The
of the
English Sch ool was tnken Into conslderntion Rnd It wns observed
tbat Mr. Klnners ley's Time was entirely tnk en up wlt.b Tench Ing little Boys the !lements
of the Engllsb Lnngustge." Min. trustees, Feb. 3, 1763. Montgomery, op. cit., 24 "
11 Smyth, op cit., X, 16, 19.
"Frnnklin appears to overstate the opposition. About th e on ly pnrt of the English
program actually starved 011t wn~ the puhli c ex hibition s. of .which Mr. Dove hnd m~d c so
popular n showing. It Is Interesting to note that LI.le branch which hung on most te trn clous l.y
was Engli~ h gr:lm mar.
·
" Sm y lll, o p. cit., 27 .

4D

2. THE INFLUENCE OF THE PHILADELPHIA ENGLISH SCHOOL.

'
_

Such, then, was the precarious and inglorious career of English in
Franklin's school, a career which belied the purpose of the founder and
was entirely inconsistent with the snccess of the first few years. To
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - , . - - - - - 1 Ibid., 23.
'Ibid .. 27.
I nattle, Ulst. univ. N. Car., 1. 50.

G0258° -22--4

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

affirm that this institution, prematurely attempting to rai se vernacu- establish ed by Da~id Jame~ Dove, the first English · master of the
Jar instruction t.o the di g nity of the Latin, was an influential leader of ' acad emy. The first was a girl's school, in 1751, in which English
that movem ent may seem foolhardy.
. grammar was taught. For devotion to this school and neglect of hi~
At the outset we face the fact that the Philadelphia Academy duties in the academy Dove was dismissed in 1753. 8 The second was
stands in point of time, at the h ead of a list of private schools which, in 1758, when Dove and Riley professed to teach" English Language
betwe~n 1750 and 1765 in Pennsylvania and adjoining colonies, pro- according to the most exact rules of grammar." 9 The third may have
posed to teach the English language. This fact, tak~n. alon~, may been a continuation of the second, when in 1759 Dove and Williams
have been merely a coincidence. Indeed, from the v1ewpo111t of announced "Grammatical Knowledge of their (the pupils') mother
chro11ologica l priority, Forl.csquc's school in Phihdelpl1i1t (1743) tongue, as is laid down in Greenwood's Grnmmar." 10 Two years
itself precedes Franklin's. Only in connection with facts cited below ' later Dove became master in Germantown Academy, where he taught/
is the Philadelphia Academy to be acco rded the position of letidership. , "English as a Language." 11 Dove had taught English grammar 16
Next may be cited the striking fact that the distinctive phrases ,'years in England; it might therefore be fairer to attribute the credit
describing the central p11rpose of the new venture- " En glish Tongue for the teaching of English to direct influence from the mother
.
g rammatically" a nd " English as a language " - many tunes
repea t ~ d country. There can be little doubt that Dove in these schools was
in the published announcements and documents of tl~e Fra_nk1m endeavoring to make capital of the popularity he had enjoyed at the
school, were used verbatim, or nearly so, by ma.ny schools nnmediately academy.
succeeding it in the colonies. This also, considered alone, may not be di In 1754 another Philadelphia school was projected by one John
f'ignificant of leadership. It may be said with justice that i_n 1743 ,Tones," late assistant to Mr. Dove in the Academy."
Fortesque, in n enjamin Franklin's own paper, used the eqmvalent ' '[He] has opened his new School-House where ... the ~nglish Tongue ~Ill be
phrase-" Eng li sh in a g rammati cal manner" 4-a~d that vVater- taught ... to those, whose Parents request It, as a ~anguage, and delivery in
land in S outh Ca rolina, in 1734, used almost th e equivalent phrase-- the method pursued by that worthy Professor, Mr. Dove when in the Academy,
"Eng·lish beinbo.· tau g ht grammati cally." r. _There is no attemp_ t to by whicb his Scholars made such a wonderful Proficiency,- and he gained so
l 1cl eas great a favor deservedly."
ascribe to Franklin the authorship of these phrases or o f tie
·
back of them ; 6 but both schools were ob scure a n d private ven t ures, , R eferrin g to schools like .Jones's and Dove's, we have also Franklin's
without the direct advocacy of a powc rfnl publicati on like Frank- pwn testimony that the very failure of his plans in the academy
lin 's Philadelphi a Gazette. Moreov er , the a uspices of the Franklin pread the instruction of English as a language. He says:
school warmly supp orted as it was by such m en as Attorney General , Parents, indeed, despairing of auy reformation, withdrew their chlldren, and
'
f
f placed them in private schools, of which several now appeared iu the city, proFI·anci"s and various colony officials, with a board 6 24 trustees o · fessing to tench what had been promised to be taught In the' Academy; and they
leading men of the city, were likely to sec ure all publi city possible in ~have . since flourished nnd lncrensed by the · scholars the Academy might have
1750-1760.
·had, ll it had performed Its engagements."
'
The place to look first. for the academy's direct influ ence on other / Evidence is -not lacking that the neighborl.ng colonies were aware
schools is in Philadelphia, its immedi at e environs, and in _towns. of
the success of Franklin's school. For example; in 1754, while the
close proximity . Within 10 years several other schools Ill Phila· English school was still flourishing, an interesting communication
delphia were teaching English grammatically. 7 Three of these were appear ed in the Maryland Gazette, written by one who signed himself
------------------------------~·<~Philo M erilandicus," to this effect : " On inquiry it has been :£ound
~~:;. 1 ~~· :J:~i/' 1 ~~~~· may have been the in ventor of th e phrn•e. He snys: "He th~t that there are (at least) 100 Marylanders in the academy in Philawould be rnrther tnstrncted how by teaching F.n glis h more Grammattcn tl y, to prepar.e h'.' delphia. . . . " u The writer laments the loss to Maryland of £5,000
Scholars for Lnttne, Jct him consult: Mr. Poole's English 1~.ccidents , ~ nd Mr. Whniton 1 sterling a year. He says also: "Vast sums are every year trans1Iiitted
English Grammar ; ns the best books that I know at present. Bardeen s reprint, 80 .
•s. car. G.. r>ov. 10, 1734.
' t0 France, etc., for the Education of Young Gentlemen . . • . "
He
''l'h c comment might nlso be made that th e phrases cited arc lhc na tural expressions o!.,- ,,,.
'------------------------------•ny scl1oolmnn des ir ing t o e mphaRlze English grnmmar in 'h' ts c11 .r .ri:u lum. ·rhls commen,t . 'p G A 2n 1751
"
n. ··Jan.ug.12, "•1758. •
hus a ccrtuln vnlidil y; but" F,ugllsh tongue grammat I en JI Y nnd I <.". ngti sI1 ns a language •· •Ibid.,
phrases. The New Euglnnd schoolmusters ,e,- m,,ployed mn c~1 mor
"I !d A
0 1750
are truly distinctive
understaudmg th
b " ug. •
·
. slons such as "according to the Rnles or Grammar,
prosu I c expres.
·,
Ilk
S Cl
11 Ibid., Nov. 19, 1761.
11
English Grammar," lea rn the English Grammar," and the e. ee 1RP'. .
u Pa. G., Oct. 24, _1 754.
'I 17~9 tl1e number of dw elling houses in Philadelphia wns 4,474, indicating a popnla· . "Sparks, Franklin's Works, II, 149.
tion ~r u.:i:wcen 20,000 and 3 0,000. R. Proud, Ilist. Pa. in N. A., 1"7 7 0. 279 ·
' "In 1755 the academy had 300 students. Wickersham, Illst. or Ed. In Pn., 62.

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INFLUEN CES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRiqULUM.

expresses a wi sh t o est a bli sh a collrgc on th e East Shore, and con cei ves
wnys and m eun s for kreping within Mnr.v lnnd the mon ey a<l vance<l as
aforesaid for th e use of P ennsylvania.15 H er e is positive eviden ce that
th e academ y in Philadelphia, which hacl th e distinction of an English
prog ram, wa s nttrn ctin g atJe ntion.
;
Suggestion to the same effect is found in th e will of on e .Ta mes V rm
Horn, of Dover , East Ne w J ersey , in 1761. H e gi ves all hi s estate to
hi s sons John an<l .Tam es, " .T:n11cs to be given the best ed11 c:ition the
Provin ce of J'ti1111s.v h ·:111i:1 all'ortl s, eitliel' nt the A e a<letn .Y , or Mr,
Dove's English S chool." 10
If the Philadelphi a College and Acade my was attracting numerous
students from other roloni es, 11 th ere may be found in this fa ct a
motive for th e action taken in 1763 by the College of N ew J ersey, a
near rival. President S. Fi1d ey in that year announ ced th e openin
of an Engli sh school as an appenda ge of the college, with an Englis
program almost id enti cal with th e acaclemy's. 18
The College of New ,Jersey, which thu s seems to have followed th
lead of the Philadelphia. A cademy in establi shing an En g lish school
was itself inf! uential in spreading gnunrnati cal ins truction in t.h
mother tongu e. It, tao, was a cosmopolitan institution , drawing stu
dents from the South, from Mary land and Virginia especi:dl y .
The influen ce of Princeton men who b ecame teach e rs may be illus
trated by the experi en ce of Philip Fithian (Princeton, 1770- 1772)
who became tutor in the famil y (plantation school) of the famou
Col. Carter, of Vi!estmoreland County, Va. In his Jonrnal and Le
ters we find four entri es relatin g to in stru ction in gramm a r. " Th
Second Son is reading Engli sh Grammar ; "" Mr. Carter pnt into m
hands for the use of the School The Briti sh Gnimmar." 19 · Fithia
evid ently folt th e need of r enewing thi s subject , for we find th.
entry a f ew days late r in hi s jo11rnal: "I read Pi ctete, The S pectator
Lambert, Hi story of England, Engli sh Grammar, Arillunetic an
.Magazines by turns ." 20 Th e fina1 en try p erh a p s i11di rn Les wh
Fithian wa s so industriou s in teaching Carter's children grammar
"Mr. Carter is a remarkable man in English Grammar." 21
J

- Robert C ather's S chool of Elizabeth Town, East New Jersey," in
1762, was modeled on exactly the same English plan as the Philadelphia Academy. He opened a boarding · school with a varied
curriculum:

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERI CAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

52

as ·al so, Boys to be instructed in the Beauty und Propriety of the English Tongue.
,·which shall be tau ght as a Language; the best English Authors shall be read
• and expl a ined; the Art of Rhetoric, or Ora tory, shall be taught with Care and
' Exactness, Specimens of the Boys' Proficiency therein shall be given eve ry
Quarter."

This is the exact Philadelphia scheme.
In 1767 a school called the Somerset Academy was founded in
·Somerset County, Md., whose curriculum also bears a striking resem. blance to the Franklin institution. The following reference is found
. in a letter written by a" Gentleman on his Travels" CWm. Rind),
' ;vho had visited the Philadelphia Academy in 17G9:
, ,
1

· ·1 Erected about two yea r s ago, .. . in the county of Somerset, Maryland, . . . a
·house sixty-two f eet in length and tw enty fe et in breadth; .. . employs two
Masters of Liberal E <lucation [who teach] . .. the rudiments of English
Grarnm::i r , .. . Spellin g, . : . writin g, .. . Latin a nd Greek, . . . nnd ntri ous
branches of f·he Arts :rncl Sciences. . . . Great pa ins are taken to cultivate the
Art of Speakiu.r;, whi ch is necessa ry In order to shine in the Senate, at the bar,
and in the pulpit."

> The last sentence of the foregoing q1iotation, with

its stress upon
·speaking, is highly suggestive of the Franklin curri culum. That
· 'seems t o have been the most p opular part of Dove's work, Franklin
~especially commending the excellence of the public programs given '
by Dove's pupils.
-t;· Similar ::;tress is placeJ upon sp eakiug iu se l'ernl noLit;es of schools
1 included in this section.
It may not be out of plac~ to note again that
'. the original" scheme" was drawn up in Philadelphia in 1743, while
, the city was still under the spell of vVhitefield's eloquence. Franklin,
himself a. modest speaker, rnay have had in mind the power of vVhite. field wh en h e prcscriLcd in h:s fi r:ot pa r agraph t.liat tlic r ecto r of his
school must be a " correct pure Speaker and vVriter of the English
-Tongu e," a,nd directed " making D eclamations, repeating Speeches
---------l~·· ancl clelinrinrr O rati ons." Inrl cccl, in r egard t o g ram rn:1r, hi s scli r me
"
Letter
to
.Tonos
Greene,
Md.
G.,
Mnr.
21 , 17M. Reprinted, Steiner, Hi st. or 1!1d.
sa·.vs Inerelv.
"TltP, Eno-lish
L •'rn
o-1rno-e rni ,....o-ht' 1•L> t·atl
Mtl .. ZD .
·
. •
, ,... ·
· ,.... • ,.... ·
.,
g l 1t; I)y r<
\ ~ ra n1" N. Y. M., Mnr. 9, 1761 ; N. J. Arc., xx. 541.
. mar." P e rhaps at that tim e h e w as not conYince<l t hat E ngl islt co n Id
n G eo r ge B. '\YQ tuJ, writin g 111 1 8~ 4 : attrsts to the cckiJr i ty of the :1t: a d . .: rn ,Y .
Frum lli'
be tang J1t ·., as a l nng1rng<> .." : ]ie cr rtnrn
· ]1.' \\" as so r onvrncc
·
•l IlL' [ure t.lte
period , 175 7, th e luslilulluu rose rapidly In Im portan ce. The cx frnt and lllH·r'111 ty of I: .='
.
,
pl an, conjoined with the excellence of Its mnnn gcmrnt. secured It the patronage of t . proposals and the constitutions appeared in 1749.
neighboring popul ation; nnd It soon ncqulrc<I n celebrity which uUrncted numerous st •. Tl d.
t . fl
f tl
cl
cl t
I cl d
dents from distnnt colonies. From Mnryl nnd, Virginia, nnd the Cnrolinns It received mu
· .le irec in u ence O. · IC aca e1ny sprea
O a Illar rn
egree
support .. . mnny planters preferred It, for the educntlon or their children, to the scho
~hrough the e fforts .of students who b ecame t eachers in oth er coloni es.
of England." Wood, Hist. of Univ. of Pa., Pa. Ills t. Soc., III , 185 ·
Thi~ is indicated by the evidencf'. of Philo 1\1erilandicus cited aboYe.
"Pa. J., Nov. 10, 1763; N. .J. Arc., XXIV, 266. See Chnp. Tl , p. 27.
n Fitblnn, Jour. nnd Let., 55, 56.
> "Pa. J ., Apr. 1 , 17 6 2; N..J. Arc., XXIV , 21.
""Ibid., 66.
•'• n Vn. G., Feb. 2 3, 17 6\J.
11 Ibid., 97.
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

INFLUEN CES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

Influence spread in this way certainly in the case of Andrew D 'Ellicent and Alexander Alexander, who in 1766 announced a school in
Charleston, S. C., as follows:

tion, in point of time, in publicity, in prestige of foundation, was
most suited for suoh leadership was Franklin's English school of
1750. We believe that Robert Proud, in his History of Pennsylvania
in North America, written between 1770 and 1780, was right in at
least one respect when hes.a id: "The College and Academy of Philadelphia . . . is likely . . . to become the most considerable of its
- ~ind, perhaps in British America." 28
':

Andrew D'Ellicent nnd Alexander Alexander, late from the College of I'hlla·
d elphla, beg leave to Inform the Publick that they intend to open a School . ..
where will be taught the English, Il'r ench, Latin and Greek Languages grammatically, likewise writing, etc. . . . Young ladies may be instructed in the
English Grammar as to be enabled to speak und write their native tongue
with . .. Propriety. Boys who have a ta ste and tal ents for Orntory may be
tnught rhetoric, :md to pronounce Orations with due nc tl on :111ll diction ."

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In 1757 a list of a.JI the pupils enrolled in the Philadelphia Academy the preceding year includes the name of one Lindley Murray in
the English school. 25 Wood, a University of Pennsylvania professor,
in his history of that institution, written in 1834, asserts that he has
no doubt that this is the Murray who wrote the fa111011s M11rrny grammars.29 .Murray, who wrote in Engla11<l, we know to have been an
Ameri~an. If Wood is correct and Lindley Murray did actually
receive his first instru ction in g rammar at the academy, thi s in itself
would be a strong argument for the direct influence of the institution
on later schools and school practices.
There is no in tention of exaggeratin g the influence of Franklin's
academy. Probably the schools and schoolmasters did not deliberately follow the acad emy as a mod el. It is mu ch more likely that
many of them were influenced by the numerous educational writers
, wh_ose works were wid ely circul ated in America, the very men who
moved Franklin to hi s innovation. R espo nsive a lso, as was Franklin,
to the growing feeli11 g of r estl essness under the Latin curriculum as
unsuited to the intensely practical li fe of the Nation, many -0f the
schoolm en turned instinctively to th e moth er tongue. A discussion
of these broader agencies, which spread the vernacnl ar instruction far
more powerfully than ditl th e exampl e of Franklin or of :rny institution, constitutes the following section.
The hi story of ed ucational reforms shows that obser vation and
imitation of actual school practices, even more than the study of
educational theories, is the unrivaled moving force. To Melanchthon's school , to Rt. Pn11l'.c:: tn YVf•nlnn . to f-li p Hoston Latin , to
Rugby, to Gary, schoolrnen make pilgrimages, either literal or figurative; th en they go home to in:i11 g 11rate th ese innovations for t hem selves. There is reason to suppose that thi s was a common procednre
in 1750to1775; 2 7 and the one school, above all others, which in loca,. S. C. G. , M ay 20, 17UG.
" Li st printed in Montgo m e r y. H ist. of U . or P., 284.
" Wood, Hi st. or U . P., 18G.
21
An Inte r esti ng exnmp le o f thi s . of th e date we n re n ow con s ideri n g, nnd esta!Jl!s bing
further the influ e n ce of the Phlladelp hi n In s titution is th e fo ll ow lug: Rev ..l a mes Madi son
wns grad unted from Wllllnm nnd Mary In 1771, an d nin e yea r s l ater bccnm e Presiden t or
that co ll ege. He Is said to have introdu ced into \Y llllnm a nd Ma r y tbe c111Ti c nlum of tbe
Phlladelphla Coll ege a n d A cad e my. In J785 h e r ccei\' ed t h e rl cg r ce o f doctor of div ini ty
f rom the U ni versity of P e nn sy lvania. Montgomery , op. cit., 2G3.

3. EDUCATIONAL ,' THEORIES SUPPORTING GRAMMAR IN AMERICA
UP TO 1775.
.

/
Preceding sections presented schools and colleges teaching English
grammatically and the Franklin academy as having the right to be
considered the first leading secondary school with the English program. Consideration now turns to an analysis of the educational
ideas which induced American schools to enlarge upon the few scattered beginnings of grammar in the eighteenth century and to adopt
very widely at its close an English program with grammar as its
central study.
EDUCATIONAL TREATISES IN THE COLONIES.

Several educational treatises widely known in England made their
·way into the American colonies before 1775. Prominent among these
"were " Some Thoughts concerning Education," 1639, by John
Locke; 29 " British Education," by Thomas Sheridan, 1756; 80 " Observations for Liberal Education," London, 1742, by George Turnbull; 81
. "Dialog ues Concerning Education," published anonymously, 1745,
by James Fordyce; 82 and " Essays on Education, by Milton, Locke,
and the Authors of the Spectator," London, 1761 edition, by R.
Wynne. 88
In 1747 Franklin advertised the works of Locke, Turnbull , and
Fordyce, and showing that he was himself interested in these books
· " Proud, op. cit.; II, 281.
tt Adve rtl sc rl, P11. G., Dec. 8 , 1747, by B . ll'r"nklln; R . N. f,. , Sept. 4. 17RO: !\. Y. M. ,
Sept. 24, 1752; Conn . G., Apr . 12, l 7G5 ; Ga. G. , Apr . 14, 17GH; ll. Cb ., l\lay l 7G 8, etc.
"Advertised, S. C. G. and C . .J., Mar, 1, 1763 ; N . Y. M., Nov . 7, 17 63: B. Cb ., May 2,
1768; Vn. G .• Jun e 10, 177:1, etc.
The full ti t le of Sheridan 's book ls "Britis h Education; or, th e Sou r ce or the D isord e rs
or Gre nt ll rltaln. be in g nn Essn:v t owards pro ving-. 1h nt th e Jmm o rnlll y, Tgnornnce, nnd
fal se Taste, which so g enerally p rcvall are the n at u ra l nnd n ecessa r y ('o n scqn cnces or the
present d efec tive Sys tem of Educntlon , with An Attempt to s h ow thnt a llev lval of the
Art of Spen kln g, an d the Study of our ow n L n n gnngc, mi g ht co ntribute, In n great Mea su re
to the Cu r e o f those Evils ." By Thomes Sb e ri<lnn , A . M., L ond on , 17 Rfl editi on.
"Adv e r t ised, Pn. G., Dec., 3, 1747, by B. Franklin; N. Y. G ., Dec . 11, 1753; K. Y. JI!.,
June, 1775, etc.
n Advertised , Pa. G., Se pt. 22, 17 47, by B . Franklin ; N. Y. G., Nov. TR. 175:1, e t c.
IS AdvertlsP.d, N. Y. llf.. Sept. 3 0 , 17 G5; N. Y. G. or W. P. B ., Oct. l !l, 17Gl; ibid., Feb. 11,
1771; Ibid., Sept. 10, 1769, etc.

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I NFL UENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

57 :

might be learned otherwise easily and delightful~y in one year.••.
These are not m atters to be wrung from poor striplings like blood
out of the nose or the plucking of untimely fruit." He refers to the
· prevalen t instru ction as" those grammatical flats and shallows,' where
· they stuck unreasonably to learn a few words with lamentable constn1ction" and as "that assinine f east of sow-thistles and brambles,
. which is commonly set before them as all the food and entertainment
·, of their tenderest and most docible age." 40
·
" The goa ls to which these early reformers strove were, first, knowledge to be written in the vernacular; second, instruction in reading
and writing for the masses, :in order that this secular knowledge, like
· religious knowledge in the Bible, might be made accessible to all.
THE BURDEN OF LEARNING LATI N.
Before the eighteenth-century agitators began work English was
Four mo re contenti ons are discern ibl e in th e educ:itional treatises
established in its elementary branches in the schools and books in
which came t·o America in the eig hteenth century." 0 The first of th ese
English teaching were widely printed; that is, the two goals of
is the burden of lea rnin g Latin. Th e revolt against the extreme hold
Comenius, Mulcaster, and Milton were attained. Now began the work
o:f Latin is a very old one, hav ing as its earli est conspicuous cham' of a seco nd g roup of educational reformers, headed by the greatest
pions Comenius, Muleaster, and Milton. A n idea of the unspeakable · master of them all , J ohn Locke. They led the attack upon the secondgrind transferred from .Tobn 8t11rn1 's Gymn asium to t he sixteenthline t renches of Latin 'and established the principle that for the masses
century gram mu~· sch ools of England may be seen by a g lance at '. a vernacular ed ucation of a secondary grade is equivalent to a L atin
Sturm's curricululll . He req uired seven yea rs to be spent on the
education of the same g rade for a privileged few. To-day's fi ght is
acqu irement of a " pure Latin style," two to be gi rnn to " elegance," .· for the thi rd-line trench and over the question , shall the classics
and five coll eg.iate years to be passed in learn ing the art of Latin
· remain as an important part of the cu rriculum because of the few
speech, 14 yea rs, with t he ul ti mate goal of proficiency in writin g and , privileged to a,ttain the highest culture?
speaking the Latin tong11 e.37
. The newer leaders, h eaded by Locke, sound the same note, lamentCornenius, th e Bohemian educational refornier, 1592-1G71, voiced
in g the heavy burden of the Latin-grammar program. Locke, in
one of the earli est protests aga inst Latin inst ru ction like tlrnt of
1G93, says :
Stu rm. Comeniu s, to be sure, retained Latin as t he most valuable . l When I con s ider whnt ndo is made about learning a little, Latin :rnd Greek, how
many yenrs nre spent iu it, I cnn hnnlly forbenr th inking that the parents of
study, but he '"oul d first have t he vernacul ar tau g ht , tb en a n eig hboring modern tongu e, t hen Latin, G reek, etc. IJ e advocated as well , ., . chiluren ;;ti ll lh·e in fenr of the sch oolmaste r' s rod . .. . How else is it possible
: that n child cnn he cha ined to the onr seven, eight, or ten of the l>est years of
objective study of the natural world. 38
his life, to get a language or two?"
Mulcaster, 1582, also raised his protest: "Is it not a marvelous
. The Tatler of 1710 urges th at masters should teach pupils to use
bondage to become servants to one tongue, fo r learnin g's sake, th.e .
.
English
instead of perplexing them with Latin epistles, theines, and
most part of ou r time . .. whereas we may have .the very same ,
versestreasure in our own tongu e, with th e gain of most time. . . . I lo ve ,
. For cnn anything be mo re absurd than 011r way of prn<'Pe<ling; . . . to pul
Rome, but L ondon better; I favor Italy, b11t England more; . . . I
tend er Wits into the intricate maze of Urnmrnar, a n d a Latin Gramm:tt'; . .. tu
30
honor the Latin, but I worship the Engli sh. "
learn a n unknown art l>y an unknown tongue; . . . to ca rry thew a u urk rounuMilton, in 1650, urges : " '~Te do um iss to spend seven or eight years . about way to let them in a t the back uoo r ?"
merely in scraping together as much mi serab le Latin and Greek as
Dr. Joh1l son, Franklin's friend, in the preface of hi s di ctionary, said:
he quotes Locke ext ensi n ly. 34 vVhat is more signi fi ca nt he <lrew up
his plan of Engli sh ed ucation in exceedingly close conformity to one
striking passage in Turnuull. No attempt is made to use t he" dead ly
parallel"; 85 but t he conc lu sion is inevita ble that Franklin was thoroughly familiar with Turnlrnll. At any rnte, every one of the ma in
parts of the acad emy's English p rogram is advocated in the same
order as in T11rnbull's discussion. Doth writers believe that gram- ·
mar, composition, dech11nat.io11, oratory, and the stud y of English
classics :ire pri111n1·il y for- Ili c c1iltirnlio11 of" st il<\," nil(] to <'np it all
the principal llloti ve of eac h is r ega nl for the vrtrious professions in ·
which the mother tongue is to be used .

"Frnnklln lllustrnt ed hi s "prop osal s " by cxtrnclR fr om MIHon , Loc ke, Sheridan, •
Walker , Rollin, 'l'urnbull, "wi th some other.." In Smyth , Life nn d Writings of B. Frank·
lin , II , 387, Fra nklin's quotations nre giYcn.
••See Appendix B. The writer hns see n n o other suggestion thut Fra nklin follow ed
Turnbull closely,
M Nenrly n11 t he ot hrr w r H P r~ cit r d fo Jl ow Loc ke vr ry elosPly.
8'l Sutnrnary of S tttrm' R curri culum.
Monroe. Hi st. of J~ d .. 3D l.
38 Comeni ns, Grf'a t D lcl nctic. Ln ur ie. 11 5 .
,. El ern entn rie, pt. 1; Qu ic k. Ed. Ref.. :J00- 2.

"A whole life can not be spent upon syntax and etymology, and even
. a whole lifetime would not be sufli cient." 43
Wynn e. op. cit., 5 - 8.
\Vyuue, op . c it., 20; Locke , Tllougllls Couccrn iu g Education.
"'l'atl cr. IV., No. 234.
".Johnson, D iet. of Eug. Language, I, preface, 13.

!,

j

40

4l

'·,•
ii

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58
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INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFOR]} 1850.

· seldom . . . judged of by their handsome or awkward way of expressing themselves In It." . . . And since 'tis Engllioh that an Englishman will have constant
use of, that Is the language he should chi efly cultivate; . . . to mind what English his pupil speaks or writes Is below the dignity of one bred up among Greek
and Latin, tho' he have but little of them himself. These are the learned languages, fit only for learned men to meddle with and teach; English Is the
language of the illiterate vulgar."

It may be ·w orth while to dwell upon the influence of the Spectator
nnd Tatler,H oocause Addison and Steele speak out boldly for English .
grammar."
Addison and Steele enjoyed popularity on both sides of the Atlantic.
Says Steele:
I found . . . the princlpal defect of our English discipline to lie In the Initiatory port, which, although it needs the greatest care and skill, Is usually left to
the conduct of those blind guides, Cha nce and Ignorance. . . . I could furnish
you with n cntnlogne of Englil'lh books . . . whcr<'i11 you co nl<l not Orul ten lines
together of "common Grnmmnr," wl1kh Is n neccs8ary consequence of our mismanagement In that province. . . . 'l'he liberal Arts and Sciences nre all beautiful as the Graces; nor has Grammar, the severe mother of all, so frightful a
, fHce of her own; It is the vizard put upon it, that scares children. She is made
to speak bard words that. to them, sound like conjuring. Let her talk intelli gibly and they will listen to her.
In this, I think . . . we show ourselves trn e Britons, al\vnys overlooking our
natural advnntnges. It h as been the practice of the wisest nations to learn
thei r own language by sta tell rules to avoid the confusion that woulcl follow
from leaving It to vul ga r use. Our English Tong ue . . . is the most determined
in its construction, an<l redu cible to th e few est rul es.
'.ro speak and write wit!Jout absurdity the la11 gua ge of one's country is comrnendnbte in persons in nil stations, and to some in rlispe usably necessary. 'l'o
this purpose, I would r ecOBJIJWnd above all things the havi11g a Grammar of our
mother tongue first taught in ou r sd10ols. . . . Where is such grammar to be
h a d? .. . It is our goorl fortune to have such a Grammnr with notes now in
tile press, to be published nex t T erm.

In a footnote V\Tynne adds: "This, I suppose, 'vas the English
Grammar published by John Br:ghtland, 45 with the approbation of
I saac Bicherstaff, the edition of which was published 46 in 1726."
This reference to the Brightland grammar leads to the supposition
that Steele was the author.
ENGLISH THE LANGUAGE OF DAILY USE.

The second note, frequently found in the treatises on e<lucation of
the eighteenth century, is that English is the language of daily use.
This was' the burden of the Tatler just cited. Locke also would have
grammar learned by those whose main business is with the tongue or
pen, but~

A student "ought to study grammar, .among the other helps of
speaking well; but it must be the grammar of his own tongue . . .
that he mny understand his own country speech nicely and speak it
properly; and to this purpose grammar is necessary but it is the gram.mar only of their own proper tongues." 49
I
In 1769, in the Boston Chronicle, Joseph Ward strikes the note of
English as of daily value to the masses as follows:
'l'he subscriber has opened an English Grammar School in King Street. •••
The understanding the Engilsh Grammar Is so necessary for those who have not
o Liberal Education, and as It will greatly facilitate the learning any other
Language, such a school is said by the Literati to be very much wanted in this
town . . . ."

In 1769 Richard Carew asserts:
·whatsoev er grace any other language carrieth in verse or prose, in tropes or
metnphors, in echoes or agonomi nations, they may all be lively and exactly
repr esented in ours. ·wm you have Pla to's ve1~se? Read Sir 'l'hornas Smith;
The Ionic? Sir Thomas More; Cicero's? Ascham; Varro? . Chaucer; Demosthenes? Sir J ohn Cheke . . . 'Will yo u r ead Virgil? Tnke the Earl of
Surrey; Catullu s? Shakespeare and Marlowe's fragment; Ovid? Daniel;
Lucian? Spencer; Martial? Sir John Davies and others. Will you have
all in all for prose and verse? Take the miracle of our age, Sir Philip Sidney."'

We h ave seen above that Franklin in his " proposals " stressed the
idea of " Regard being had for the several Prof~ions for which they
(the students) are intended." English is the instrument of trade, of
. law, pulpit, and Senate Chamber. Locke pointed out that a man is
' often judged by his skillful or awkward use of his native language.
Wynne's books spread the teaching of Locke, Milton, and Steele in
America, and Turnbull follows Milton and Locke with almost the
identical argument.
:
Milton said :
·
'l'ho a linguist should pride himself to have all the tongues Babel cleft the
world iuto: yet if he had not studied the solid things in them as well as words
and lexicons, he were nothing so much to be estimated a learned man, as any
· yeoman or tradesman competently wise in his own dialect only."

it must be the grammar of his own tongue; of the lan g uage he uses; . . . it will
be a matter of wonder, why young gentl emen are forc ed to learn the grammar of
foreign and dead lnnguages, and are never once told of the g rnmrnar of their
own tongue. . . . Nor is their own language ever proposed to them as worthy
their care and cultivating; though they have daily use of it, and are not
"Frnnl!Jln undoubtedl y drew hi s fir st intere s t in th e t eaching of English from his close
and Imitation o( th ese, ns narrated In his autol>lograp!Jy.
"'l'a t.Jer, IV, No. 2:14 .
"Wynne, op. cit .. 177- 9.

59

" Wynne, op. cit., 60-2.
"Spnrks, op cit., II, 137-138. Cited by Frnnklln In bis "proposals."
"Footnote In Franklin's " Observations," Sparks, op. cit.; also Wynne, 252.
to B. G .• Apr. 20, 1769.
"Quoted, Wntson, Beginnings, 11, from " Elizabethan Critical Essays," Gregory Smith,

~tudy

~

2, 21lH.

"Wynne, op. cit., 4, 5.

i

the acquisition of skill in those languages and a.t the same time the ,
pupil's own was totally neglected and no longer of any force.
The learned languages are uo longer the sole reposltarie~ of knowled;e ~
ti 1 e Flnglisb Is become an universal magazine . . . of all w isdom .. · ·
d
~ · ~his u:at we have many excellent writers of our own, besides, the langun~e
·~self {1as been so much enlarged and improved.. .. 'fo state the account m
short between our forefathers and us, they shewed great wi sdom u'.1d good sense
in mnkini:; the learned languages the ch ief stu<ly in th ei r dnys (tune of lleformulion) h<•cause, h owever rouml nh011t. the wn .v. lrnnwle(li:;e wns then to he
acquired in none other; and beca use our own, lhPn poor 111Hl uncult l vated, could
be in no other why enriched or refined . . . . "
. English is the language most universally rend by Englishmen ...

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INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

62

The second postulate is that as yet, say in 1750, English h~d ~o
fixed standard. Sheridan complains of general "bad taste which IS
allowed to prevail," Loth in writing and spetiking, on the par~ of pubof
1.tc me n , of " the amazing number of wretched pamphlets, l and
· t1
"those heaps of trash, which ~re con~tantly ~xposed t~ sa e u~ ie
windows of booksellers, like unnpe frui_t, gre~d 1ly dev.o~ie~ by gre~n­
sickness apetites, and which fill the mmcl with ~rudities .. Qnotrng
Steele Sheridan says: "I would engage to furnish you with a cat:tlogue 'of English books .. .. within seven years past..... whe~·em
you could not find ten Imes together of common grammar oi of
corn1non sense." 64
•
Upon these two postulates Sheridan constructs 111s plea that ora_tory fixed the standards of the ancient languages and perpetuated
them· that the other nations of Europe-

'
the French, Italia ns, Spaniards, etc. , . . . a ft er ]J av Ing e nriched
· nnd illu strnte<i
. l 1t s borrow ed from the Greek
nnd
their severnl la n g uages by lhe aids and I1g
.
Itonrnn, employed the utmost industry to re fine , correct, a nd 1.1scert1.1111 (make
certnin) them by fix ed and stated rules. . . . '.rhe Eng lish alone left theirs to the
ower of chance or capr lce; insomuch that it is within a few months thnt eYen
~ dictionary has been produced h ere." vVhiist in all _the o~hers many excellent
grammars and dictionaries have long since been publtsbed.
.
.
Both the ancients and all moderns but the English_studied the_u
own languages with respect to what is pure and correct m style and m
pronunciation.
II , say to our practice so contrary to that of polish ed 11ations .
Wh at s 1ia VI e
.
.
- ? Who are
(w e) who take great pains in studying all lnnguages but our. own
·
· .· s 111
· ou r choice of preceptors
for the nn ru• nt and modern
very nice
and c ur10u
·
f
.
et suffer our children to be vitiated In the very fir st principles o their ·
tongues, Y •
i
lly acquired
r ·t beca use that the knowledge of our lan guage s so ens
.'
own.
s i
b missed? This surely can not be said when it is universally .
that it can scarce e
·
Ibid., 217- 9.
Ii>ld ., 228.
.. Ibid 227 Tntler IV, No. 230.
,
ltl
., Thl~·refer~ to Johnso n's Dictionary and fixes the date for Sheridan s first ed on.

02

63

"' Ibid., 212-3.

63

allowed t hat there nre hnrdly any who speak or write 1t correctly. Is it because
we hn ve less use for it than for any other? "
' · ·
When we consider that after Greek nnd noman languages were brought to a .
standard . of perfection, when their youth had the advantage of established
Inv a riable rul es upon which to found their knowl edge; of able preceptors to
• Instruct and guide them; of the noblest examples nnd most perfect patterns
for their instruction; . .. shall we who have none of their advantages, without
any pains or applicn ti on expect to have a competent knowledge of one, which
in Its present state is far more difficult to be learned than theirs? '£his omls. ; slon In our education . . . ls wonderful."

And the supreme means of establishing this uniformity of fixing
and ascertaining the tongue is, according tO Sheridan, the foste~ing
of the " ancient art of oratory "; by this means" our Shakespeare and
' our Milton" will not be suffered " to become two or three centuries
- hence what Chaucer is at present, the study of only a few poring
. ;. antequarians, and in an age or two more victims of bookworms."
~ ." Sheridan co mpletes his argument with the curious fallacy that' the
· ·orators of a nation are its sound philosophers; that they perpetuate a
~ language; that upon them and their art depends the safety of their
69
i nations.
·
t It is highly significant that Sheridan dedicated his work to Ches, : terfield, an eloquent orator of his day. Moreover, Chesterfield had
': "made a public proposal to the provost and fellows of the University
I' ,of Dublin, while he was viceroy of Ireland, "for the endowment of
proper lectures and exercises in the Art of Reading and Speaking." 10
· · The project failed. In his preface Sheridan comments upon an
innovation recently made in Eaton by Barnard and af Rugby by
Markham, by which, " amo~gst many other good customs . . . pro·nunciation and the art of speaking are now made effectual points." 71
'·;This appears to indicate that the English schools' were not many years
in advance of the American.
·
J • Only one of Sheridan's arguments is likely to have had n st.rong
· ·', f ppeal in America. Americans had no literature of their own; they
;· ~vere not primarily interested in the establishment of a standard
~tyle of literature; the appeal for the preservation of the language
•. of Shakespeare and Milton was remole from the interests of the new
. land. The main interest of Americans .would lie. in the substance of
~.,- Sheridan 's appeal, not in the reasons for it. He wished to teach orn·tory; he eulogized public speech; he lauded correct pronunciation and
,•. fluent oral address. This would appeal especially to Americans, with
' their democratic town meetings, their traditions of pulpit leadership,
·and their necessity of oral communication in general. Moreover,

.

"Sheridan, op. clt ., 195-196.
• Ibid., 190-7.
"Ibid., XXIX •

90

Ibid., preface, XV II .
••Ibid., XIV,

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INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

statesmn.nship in the . local g0Yern111ents and provincial counc il s
the goal of parents for their chi ldren. The profess ion of the law was
increasing in popularity, and in any and all lines of activity effective
speech was looked upon as a prime requisite.
Private schoolmasters were not slow to realize the populn.rity of
this appeal. Adverti sements of the llay are replete with it. For
example, "The boys learni ng· oratory make orntions every fortnight"; 72 "I i11tend teaching the English language wiU1 pro1wr
accc11t and e111ph11 s is "; 70 " p:ire_nf·s . . . lll:1y <l<'f><»r11l 011 li11vi11g Ll1nir·
children . . . diligently ir1 sfructe<l in grarnmat.ical English, with dne
attention to em phas.is, pa11se, cadence, and puerile declamation"; 74
"weekly exerci se of reading the English authors with propriety and ·
grace"; 75 " the Boys, as soon as they are capable to be exercised in
pronouncing Omtions "; 70 " nor will the true pronounciation, the
proper stops, emphasis, accent and quantity be neglected"; 77 "Pains .
will be taken to form them ea rl y for Public Speaking"; 78 "Great
pains are tnkcn to cultivate the Art of Public Speaking, which is
necessary in order to shi11e in the Senate, at the bar, or in the pul-·.
pit"; 79 boys who ha \'e" a tnste and talents for Oratory may be taught
rh etori c and to p ·
·
ion and diction." 80 . The first
ad verti sernent of
171>4, '.ld<lecl to the
learned languages " reaso n mg, writing, nnt · spen king eloqu ently." 81
An exact express ion of this idea, that neglect of ,·erna cular grnmmar cansed incorrect speech , which had been taken verbatim from
Sheridan ur J:.mnt1Jl1n1::1e1..1 frua1 l1i111, i::; fuli11...1 i11 L11e a1u1uu11ce111e11L u[
\\.,..1lii :1n1 .Tnhn.:-: i"·:n; ~.-1 -1 Hi :-'.1'f :i r :i n F. r i ~ l i< L ~1 · :1111111:1 r ~:' i lf;(·, 1 <Jll T"T 11 i<1n
SfrPPt., C harlPstnn , S. C., in i/117. lfo s:iys:

Lhe co rruption of th~m all, and especially of the dominant 011e~ the .
, English. It is certain that this feeling was _present in the minds of·
"the authorities in the College and Academy of Philadelphia, inas, much ns Pennsylvania had an exceedingly composite population. In
1758 Provost Smith, the chief Latinist against whom Franklin.
inveighs, wrote an article, which appeared in the American Magazine
' in October of that year, entitled "Accou nt of the College and Academy of Philn.delphia." He says :

Hit> a cuu1rnu11 , l1ul Luu well-g ruuuL1eL1 curnµJailll L11al a g rnH1111ali cal

~luL1.Y

our own language seldom makes any part of the onli11ary me thod of i11st ru cting ·
yonth . . . . 'l'o this m' 1.dect mny j11:::t1~· he ntt:rihnte!l the grent lnco rrec l·11css of
speed1, olJservnl>le arno11gst al111o st all n111ks ot people . . . to r em edy which <

. . . is the point the proposer has i11 view."

i iii

65.

ENGLISH GHJ\J\IU\1Art IN AMETI!CAN SCHOOLS 13EFOHE 18f.i0.

OrntorJ!, co rrect Spralcing nnd 1.Yrit·i11r1 th e Mother 'l'onvu.c is n brnuch 01' education too run ch neglected In all onr 11nglish Seminaries, as is often visible In
the pub! ic performance of some of our most learned men. But in th e circumstances of this province, such a neglect would have been still more inexc usable
than in nuy other part of the British dominions, For we are so great a mixture
, of people, from a lmost all corners of the world; necessarily speaking a variety of
, languages and dialects, that true pronuncintion and writing of our own langua ge
, might soon be lost nmong us without such a previous care to preserve in tlJe
· i;ising generations.••
I

r A schoolmaster of New York, advertising an . English grammar
school in the consistory room of the French church, says: " The English Grammar, . . . the learning of it being indispensably necessary
" in an English country, I intend to teach to all my scholars." 84
• 1'

Benjamin Franklin himself voices this appeal:

" WIJy s hou lcl you . .. leave it (Americn) to be t:1kcn by f•.>rcigncrs of nil

'nations nnd Ji111g unges, who by their numbers may drown and stifle the English
which otherwise would vroba bly become in the course of two . centuries the most
extensive langu ngc in the world . . . .••

.. It npprnrs t·hnt. WP. have now rrflclwd dw lwnrr. oft.he primary cfl nse
- whfrh fnnY:irrirri tlw ~t11dy nf i'~ngli"h gr:1rn111:1 r. :\ 111ovr111rnt , in

the words of Sheridan cited above, "to r efine, correct, and ascertain
(make ce rh1in) tlrn Eng lish language by fixed ~nd stated rules" is
e:;:;e11Lially grn;11111a li..:al. Stw1l1e.l J vlw.,u11 '.:; Ji0Liv11d.l'J', anJ otl10r;;,
standnrdized English diction. Sheridan spoke the truth when he
snirl j] 1:d lJ 1<0 f':n c· f jc, fi ll i' l'l l C' d " t he :1lh :rnt:l!.."C of cc [ fl bl i ~ l 1c<l fl 11 <1
invariable rules" upon which to establish and perpetuate the

There was f1 gl'owing rr-11li~n(ion tl111i il1•' ':'\nii •11 1 1111 glil
common language: that the best national life could not obtain if Engln.ngnng0.
li sh . German. French. Dntch. S candinaYin.n languages- not to mention others-should each remai11 lhe speedi of a purtion of the peuple .. _•: The Ycry p i·e,·a! cncc of illiterac:y i11 lite p1ilJl1c and priv:tte speec!t
MorPOVPr. tlw min!."ling nf sn iwrnv 1-nng11 ps rn11st ('€"rtninl? 1w:11l t in ' - of tfo'l ei1.!'11tPenLh ce11turv demam1e<l ll1e sl 11dv of gTa11111mr. Gnwl1~<l
· thn.t tlw 1111iil1 rr tonu; 1w IY:1 s 111orc 11sef11! :ind ll •ss l:il1oriu11s tl 1:111 L:iL in,
~., .lw,; q_1h r.aru. r. r:i. c:.: ."T u l y :~. 1:-c;-; ,
· grrintPrl t.hrit. it. wris dPsi n1 hip to speak and w ri i.1\ w1el i, gr·ardp.d diat
'~ ·~.r:-ir~ :\fr.\lli '.~ t'"'r . P~L C: ., .lnn0 ·1. 17fii.
".l ohn llclfermnn , J•n. u., ::>ept. 14, 1'1"74.
Dilworth, Greenwood, Lowth, and the British Grammar had reduced
n; \Vith cr~ JlOOn , J'rin ce ton , N ..T., l'a .T .. ~lar. 2, 17G!l.
English
to "established and invariable rules," it see111 s to have fol,. Jncoll Giles , Mount I'leasnnt, M<l., Md. G., July HJ, 1765.
11 Grammntl cnst er , Pn. G .. Oct. 29, 17G7.
lowed with irresistible logic that the schools must teach English
,. ,lnmes Thompson, Chnr leston, S. C., S. C. G .. nee . 10. 1772.
"Some rse t Acnclemy. Mnrylnnd, Va . G., F eb. 2:.!, 17G!J.
• 0 Andrew D' Ellicent, Chnrl estown. S. C., S. C. G., Mny 20, 176G.
in N, Y. G. nnd W. P. Fl.. Mny 31, 17i:i4.
.. S. C. G., Jun e 15, 17G7.

Pl·., Montgomery ,
"f

op. cit., 520-9.

"N . Y . G . an<l W. P. n, .Tune 5, 1766.
II Lett.er to Wm. Strahan, Pas,y, Aug. 19, 178G.

60258°-22--5

Sparks, op, cit., II, 131 .

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

INFLUENCES ADDING GRAMMAR TO CURRICULUM.

grammar. Hence we find that every one of the schoolmasters cited .
in a previous paragraph as teachin g oratory n.lso tnught grammar.
Are we not safe, then, i11 say in g that English gnunmar cn me in to
the curriculum primarily as a result of the popularity of t he teaching
of public speakin g and secondarily as the result of a desire to make .
rising generations familiar with" fixed and stated rules "1
As a corollary, the study of English as a language came as an anti-·
dote for the var.icty of lang uages spoken by early settlers, especially
in the middle colonies. It is perhaps rnorn nccnrat.e to sny thnt it was
an attempt to keep English the dominant language of the new
continent.

Massachusetts and h er s ister colonies inherited the idea of educa-'
tion for leadership. The grammar schools of England, prototypes of
the higher schools set up in New England by the laws of 1647 and
1650, were planned distinctly for an intellectual, educational, and
political aristocracy. The society from whi ch the first settlers came'
was distinctly a class society. Many of the Pilgrim Fathers and their
immediate successors from England
d
Moreo

iven a gramrnar sc 1001, so111 e mea ns mu st be provided for the
preliminary educat ion co nsidered necessary for entrance. This was
provided either by cla1ne schoo ls or by the rcadi ng school s or by grammar schools. Along with thi s iclea of hip:IH'l" ed 11 cn t·ion for leadership_
there existed a sern nd idea. Thi s wn s t hat all citize11s mu st be ta11ght
to read the Seri ptu res and to llnd erstand 1 li e cap ital Jn ws of the
country. The idea of 11nin•rsa l edu ca tion g rew ont o f a co mbination
of these two purposes. Bri efl y, un· ' ·
a.nt
universal ability to read, possibly town
ead
opportunity to train leaders.
.. .
middle of the .next century
.J
i - ,.
g. v . . •
ea ers. Th e rough life of the new co ntinent'
1""111

67

had brought out native qualities of leadership, undeveloped by education. The ancient classics did not hew the forests, blaze pathways
into the wilderness, nor fight back Indians. A B enjamin Franklin,
forced at 13 to forego the higher schools of Boston, by sheer native
merit had made himself an influential man. Many lesser Franklins
had raised themselves in various settlements. Just as on the American frontiers of the early nineteenth century a vigorous and robust
democra cy seemed to produce and develop Jacksons and Lincolns, so
100 ·years earlier kindred causes were at work in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the rest. No longer did it count primarily
what a man knew. ·what he could do was far more important. · In
short, after 1650, 100 years of frontier life had demonstrated that
suitable leaders were forthcoming in all aspects of life, e;xcept possibly
the ministry, irrest)ect,ive of a classical education.
1 ·If this be true, when the frontiersmen of the eighteenth century
found themselves victors in the first severe struggle with privations
and established in somewhat settled communities, they began again
to think of education. 86 Their uncouth manners and dress were like
heir intellectual life and their speech- strong, but coarse. A desire
for refinement grew apace, if not for themselves, at least for their
~hildren. In addition, new professions and occupations came into
prominence as the communities became more stable. All these newer
professions were the outgrowth of the new country itself, and, like
the needs which ca ll ed them forth, they were practical, everyday
man-to-man occupations. StiJil further, as always in a new land,
statesmanship offered an attractive field.
All of these causes had gro,Yn ollt of the soil. Unschooled men
controlled pnblic opinion. This type of society,,living intensely in
the prese nt., lioth ignorant and scornfu,l of the past, craved an education that would furnish tlired h elp in every llay li fe. A vernat.:u lar
education of a higher order than r eading and writing, including the
"practi cal brn,11ches of mathemn,tics," the modern languages, history,
geography, and, above all, a mastery of the English tongue, was the
outcome. In sl
·
·
in 1750

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERI CAN SCHOOLS DEFORE lSGO.

Several l in cs of in vesti gat1011
:rn swer the qu estions : , ,
a!EE!lli~iii•~'-1~
not seem to have been
imported until about 1750. Dilworth's wa s published in England in
17,10 and lmd its first Am eri can r eprint in 1747. 8 7
,
Dilworth's was intro<lnce<l primarily as a s peller. After 1750 there
is considerable evidence that Greenwood's and several other British
grammars made their way into the colonies.
2. There wete aL ]eai:;L two g rammars written and pu blished in
America before the R evolution- Johnson's and Byerl cy's. Considering the ru sh of American text s in graummr after 1784-,88 thi s ea.rly
scarcity is strong n egative evidence to the effect that attention to
grammar was relatively insignificant before the appearance of \Vebster's first book in 1784. In addition, seven grammars by English
authors ·w ere reprinted in Ameri ca before l781L Our estimate places
th e number of texts before \Vebster's, both native and imported, at 10.
Of these Dilworth's was the only one avai lable for the schools in
large numbers. Dilworth's "New Guide," although primarily a
speller, deserves th e nam e of th e first American textbook in English
grammar.
3. A r espectable number of private school s, of whi ch we have mentioned GO, some nf them called E ngli sh gran11nar sd 1ools, were offering courses in" English , as a lan g uage" by 1775. These sch ools begrtn
to appear before 17!)0; thry ' rnre most nnmerons in the middle colonies,
in th e r egions ncighhoring to I'hil:i<klphia .Acaclc111y, where Frank.
lin's program of th e YCrnacu la r str11 ck a pl:i nc never r cachml before.
The New En gland colonies, with the classics more firmly intrenched,
resisted the innovation for two decades after the middle coloni es had
adopted it.
4. A careful consideration of FranHin's plan ]cads to the conclu·
sion thnt this English school , prrccding nny genernl imp ort at ion or
publi cat ion in America o f t<'xtliook s in grn mn1:tr, dese rves t-h c honor
of setting a p ositive exampl e of a full vern:tc11l ar program of secon·
dary grade and of being imitated by rn astcrs tired of the olll t y pe of
schools. Ther efore th e year 1750 is selected as the date when the
hi gher branches of the vernacular, in clu ding g rammar, entered seri·
ously in to American education. To B enjamin Franklin , in this, as in
many other respects, America owes a debt of grati tucle. As hi s experi·
ments in science antedated by decades general school instruction
'ti8
88

See Cbap. IV, p. 80.

I NFLUENCES ADDI:::\G GilA~U.IAR TO CURRltJULUM.

09

them, so hi s experiment in vernacular education was more serviceable
us an example and a model than as an actual accomplishment.
5. R eprnsentative curricula of colleges and secondary schools show. ing the earli est appear<
. . .·
· ·
·
·
· erenccs rertchccl above.
·
ow lliID ar.
~fter 1750 to 1790 first, private schools; second, colleges; third, public. schools, seem ~o have followed Franklin's lead. In fact, the colomes ~ffectecl the rnd ep end~n ce of their schools and colleges from the
?xclus1ve hold of the classics contemporn.neously with their political
mdep.cn:len ce.89 The latter separation was itself not a sharp breaking
off; smnlarly the struggle for the supremacy of the vernacular as the
::::uprcn1r: ~tnrly in t.l1c·. b:..:.11uu l~ \\ a;:i lu ng pruLru.Ctt;J.. The t r udiLions of
Latinized instruction, which almost routed Franklin's English program, although they could no longer keep the vernacular in the b:tckground throughout the Nation at large, now did the next best thin<Yt~ey Latinized the methods of te aching English grammar. T~ a
discuss ion of this Latinizing process in methods we now turn. If the
entr:ance of grammar was an arduous struggle, its emancipation from
Latm methods was little short of a titanic one.
·
6. In answer, then, to the question, When? the answer is 1750 with
due reservation for a few obscure earlier efforts. \Vh ere ? In the
middle co l~ni es, headed by P ennsy 1vania. vVhy? A s the core study
of an English prog rnm to supplant the classical program for students
fitting for practi cal life. By whom? By Hugh Jones the first
· , Amer i ca~ gra mm arian; Ly \Yaterl anJ, who first Laught g 1'.ammar in
an Amencan scl~ o~l ; by Franklin, who proj ected the model English
program; by Vhllrnm Samuel Johnson, first president of Columbia
the first American t() write a grammar published in A merica and th~
first college official to put English on a par with the classics in a
. college curriculum.
This is a ·far cry from the cr ed it which h as hitherto been awarded
to Noah vV ebster and New England.
·
,. Brown In ~I s" Making of Our Middl e SchoolR" Rtntcs th a t th e growth of oa t lon nll Rm
and n ation a l litera ture bad little effect on th e sch oo ls; tlrnt "It too k th e n omantlc MO\·e ment nnd the Am crlcnn nnd l'' r en ch n cvolutl ons to give th e moth er to n gue nn nss urPd
pos ition In th e program of ln • tru ctl on." Mid. Sch., 1 88. To the prese nt writer this
appears to be only n part of the truth ; It ls poss ibly n post ll oc ergo propter hoc. It
seem s more flccurntc to say that In America nil r evolutions, polltlcn l, educat lon nl, and
possibl y r_cll gtou s, were largely du e to th~ sn mc fundam ental causes. In ~nc b th ere ls
revol t against ou ts id e nut:h ority, r evolt against es t nb llsh ed traditions, nod n dete rmination tbat th e Individua l and the nnti on bave a right to live, not in tbe past uut in the
future, a vital, active, aggress ive life.

I

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RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1'775.

II I .

71

. to in the election sermon of 1762 by Rev. Thomas Shephard, in which
he laments especially the decay of the Latin schools preparatory for
Harvard. 02 While it is true that ~ome of these laws fined towns for
failing to support English schools, the main inference is that the
Latin schools, set up under the early laws by a university g~neration,
were too advanced for primitive communities successfully to maintain
in operation.

Chapter IV.

~~~~~~~~~~==:~i~~t? This being the case, many towns found that the best way to com- .

b

!if

Earlier sections have indicated that the time was ripe. Many successful experiments had been made in private schools; the Latin curriculum, with its apparent unfitness for the intensely practical life of
the new continent, ·was becoming more and more unpopular; for a
considerable number of years colleges had been teaching grammar,
composition, and oratory. In fine, irrespective of the Revolution; the
time had arrived when a rn pid spread of the subject was to be
expected. And just as the new national life of En gland in the sixteenth century, with the accompanying pride in its self-sufficiency,
brought forth a vigoro us demand for the vernacular, so the national
independence of America cooperated powerfully with other causes in
transferring generally to the public schools the hi gher branches of
the vernacular. The fact is that increased attention to the English
language is the most significant change that occurred in the curri cula
of the schools after the States began to recover from t he turmoil and
disruption of war.
1. THE LEGISLATIVE RECOGNITION OF GRAMMAR.

The entire history of education in New England up to the end of
the eighteenth century seems t.o have been preparing the wny for the
laws which, shortly after the Revolution, placed English in the curriculum and almost, if not quite, on a par with Latin. The Latin
curriculum especiall y was increasingly unpopular. Massachusetts,
Connecticut, and New Hampshire each passed a series of laws with
increasi ng fines for failure to keep open th e p rescribed schools, 90 indicati ng a failure of school spirit in New E ngland. 91 Thi s ''va s referred
I
1.

••In 1647 MassRchuseHs le1;ied a fine of £5 (rtcc. Co. Mass. Ba y, TT , 20:'!); in 1!171 the
On e wns iucrenserl to £ 10 (ibl<l. , lV, • econrl vo l. , 4RfiJ; in Hi8~ town s of 2UO famili es w ere
fin ed £20 (ibid .. V. 414): in

1 6 !)~

th e

fit1f~

for failur e t o ker.p nn f' l rm fl nfnry

~ · · llord

wfH•

in cr eased to £10, but the penalty for a grnmmnr ~ c hoo l was not n l te r cd (Acts n od rtes.
rro. Mass. Ila~" 1, 63) ; In 1701 t he fine was imp osed on towns proportionnlly for the t ime
th Py w ere d elinquent (Ibid., 470) ; nud in 171S the fin e was lncrcnsNl to £20 for towns ot
lGO famili es, £40 for towns of 200 famili es nod £50 for towns of 2GO fam ilies (ibid., II, .
100).
'!'he se ri es of !n crensing flues in Connecticut beg ins In 1650 (rtec. Col. Co nn., 1, !)21) ·
end continu es in 1677 (Ibid., II , 307 - 8) , In 1678 ( ibi d., JIJ, !lt, nnd 1700 (lhl <l ., lV, 331 ).
For New Unmps hlre see L11"·s o( Kew Il:i mps hire, Prov. P eriod, I , GUl, 3il7, ilG8.
"Martin, Evolution of Mnfls. Sch . Sys., 85.

70

ply with the requirements for both Latin and elementnry schools was
to combine them; that is, to provide a schoolmaster qualified to give
instruction in both the classics and the elementary branches of the
vernacular. Records of so-called grammar schools in many towns
. indicate that this combination was effected. For example, Salem in
1677 " agreed with Mr. Eppes to teach all such scholars . . . in y•
English, Latin and Greek Tongue"; 03 Nearly 100 years later, in
1752, the same town found it necessary to vote that each of the boys
"who go to the grammar school must study Latin as well as read and
write and cypher." 9 ' In 1691 Cambridge voted to engage a schoolmaster" to teach both latten and english and to write and sipher," 95
and in 1679 Watertown agreed with Richard Norcros to teach for
three months only " lattin schollurs and writturs . . . and the other
8 mt\nths .. , both lattin and inglish schollurs." 00 Other towns
showing the combination of Latin and English schools were Dedham,
1667; 01 Plymouth, 1725; 98 and Braintree, 1690, which provided
"Felt, Alln. ot Salem, 4 33.
"Relation between the Latin nnd th e E n gli sh program Is Inte r estingl y shown to the
history of the school s of Snlcm. In lR67 r eco rd s ot the town s ho w one sch ool tor both
brnn ches (Felt, op. cit., 434); In 1713 there were sepnrnte schools call ed the Engllsb and
the Latin s chools (Ibid., 442); In 1743 th e town voted to combin e the two under e master
and an ush er (ibid., 447) ;. this net wns r evoked three years later, 1746 (ibid . ). In 1752
th e town wns compe ll ed to justify the existence ot n Latin-grammar school by e special
act r equiring tbnt every boy, e pupil there, must study L nt ln as well ns r endi n g, writing,
end arithmetic (ibid., 448) . Jn 1706, as a nahHnl conseq uence of th e unpop ularity of
Latin mnntfcstcd In the preceding order, for the first time th e recorcl" s how t:h c English
ma ste r mndc n ' pcer of the Lntln master bolh in title and sn lary . '!'he town voted that
each Eni:.:ll s h master h ave n salnry of £150 and " . find Ink" a nd that the Lnt:ln master
ha ve £1 3 0 (Ibid .. 456). In 1801 notice Is publish ed thnt wr iting, a r ltbro ct!c, English
grammar, compos iti on , nnd geography arc to he tnught in the grnmmn r schoo l bcAidee
Latin and Gree k (Ibid ., 15 8) . In othe r \rnnl•, th e Lntln ·grnmrn nr scho ol Is now mndo
over Iu lo nn E nglish s c hool, with the clas s ics secondary. It Is curious to find that In
Snlem Engli sh grnm mnr wn• not ndded to the curricu la of f"11 e English sch oo ls, nlt"hongh,
·as we hn"V~ i:;ccn , tt w:u;; nr1<1Nl to the g rn mmn 1· R.rhoo l In 1~01 .
In 1R1r. 1111~ provhdon
· was wa<l e nl s o ror l11e En g lish Hchools to su ppl y 11 11 g ram rn nlii'Hl neq11:iirdnr11· e with their
nntl.- c t on gue " ( ibid. , 1 1J l ), and finally, In J S ~7, t he Lnlln nn d t he L11gli s ll hl;;li sc hoo ls
of the town appear to be on a par (Ibid., 47 ·! ). '!'his s tru ggle of the two programs In

Sni em Is s uggestive of wbnt roey beve taken place In many oth er towns In the course
150 years.
·
, "Ibid., 448.
"Itec. 'l 'own Ca mbridge, 1630-1703, II, 2V6.
&G '\\'at ertow n Rec., J, 1 37.
"Rec. Town Dedham, 1659-7R, 133.
"Rec. Town Plymouth, II, 232.

ot

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RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AF T E R 1775.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMBIU CAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1860.

"Master to be agreed with us will be willing to T each eng li sh as well
as LttUen, and also to T each wrighting alld Cyph ering." 00
Both the legislative effo rts to com per tow us to maintain Latin
sch ools and the efforts of th e towns themsel ves to stlll:lss t he vernacui ar
rather thari the L atin imli ca te a leanin g to ward the State laws whicl1,
in the decad es immedialely following the Hevol11tion , g ave English
an equal lega l sta nding with tlw classics. These linrn ma y be said to
fru ctify the tendencies of lh e previou s l!JO years. The nin.kers of the
l"1assach11 setts h w of 178!) a 11d correspo nding l:tw s of oLlter S I:i.tes,
which will be cited, realized that a r enewal of edu cational enth11 siasm
must center a round t he n ation al tongue, eloqu ent t estirnony to the
fact th at the study of English " as a language " had adv anced very
rapidly since its first feeble beginnings.
In 1789 Ma ssachu setts req uirell th at" eve ry town . . . containing
two hundred families . . . shall be provided with a grammar schoolmast er . . . well instru clcd in the Latin, Greek and English Languages." Thi s school was to be kept for 12 months. Ev ery town of
150 families was to keep a similar school six month s; every town of
100 families, an En g lish school for 12 months; every town of 50
famili es, a n English sch ool for six months; that is," every town . . .
containing fifty families . .. shall be pro vided with a scli oolmaster
. .. to tench children to rea d and wri te and to instrn ct them in the
English lang uage, as well ns in arithm etic, orthography, and decent ·
behavior." 1 Moreover , the statute allows selectmen to ma intain
mixed sch ools if th ey prefer. Thi s, for example, is what Braintree
di<l in 1790. 2
M artin points out that by this act 120 towns out of 270 in Massachusetts were relieved of the n ecessity of keep ing a Latin school. 3 In ,
1825 Massachnsctts r eli eved all t ow ns of less than 5,000 inhabitants of
the Latin school.• In short, between 1789 ancl 1825 comp ul sory Latingrammar edu cation may be said t o have passed; English schools, with '
the En glish cnrricu lum, inclu cling English grammar; had bee n
subst itu ted.
Boston, pu rsuant to th e law of 1789, completely r eorganized h er
school s. A ma nu sc ript copy of" Th e System of Publ ic Education,"
bearing the s ignature of John Scollay, ch airman of the board of
selectmen, under date D ecember 1, 1789, was in the possession of
J enks when h e wrote his" Sketch of the B oston Latin School." This
manu script indica tes how promin ent a place was assigned to the various branches of the vernacular in the Boston schools. The center of .
th e system was a classical grammar school, for entrance to which two ,
., Ilrnintree Town nee., 1640-1G9R, 598.
1 Perpet. r,aws of Com. Mass., 17 99, II, 39.
1 Ilralntree Town n ee., 1640-1793, 598.
•Martin, Ev. of Mass . Scb . S ys., 85.
• Lnws of Com. of Mass ., X, G58.

73

pl:erequi s ites are indicated. The boy must have reached the age of 10
years and must have been "previously •well instructed . in English .
· Grammar." In addition, there were three .writing schools and three
· · reading schools, in which children of both sexes were to be taught to
"spell, accent, and read both prose and poetry, and also be instructed
in En gli sh Grammar and Composition." In the reading schools
textbooks include- the Holy Bible, Webster's Spelling Book, The.
Young tadies Accidence (Caleb Bingham's elementary grammar),
and , ,y c\,stcr's Am erican Selections. It is also oi·dered that " tho
.upper Class in the R eading Schools 'be instructed m Epistolary
/
·
Writing and other Composition." 5
It is not asserted here that the Massachusetts law of 1789 made
.. Englis h g rammar compulsory, 0 but tha t this law, as those of several
other States, was enacted in r esponse to a demand for increased atten, tion to vernacular instruction. In Massachusetts English grammar
was specified in the law of 1835.7
The Vermont laws of 17!)7 and 1810, while they do not mention
grammar, do nevertheless stress the vernacular. 8 Virginia in 1796
enacted a simi.lar statute, 9 and D elaware, in 1796, defines a "good
Eng lish Edu cation," prescribing " the English langu age, arithmetic,
. and other such branches of know ledge as are most useful and neces' sary in completing a good English edu cation." 10 The regents of the
University of the State of New York, in 1793, in a report to the legislature say : "'Ve can not help suggesting . . . the numerous advantages that would accrue . . . from the institution of schools . . . for
' reading their n ative tongue with propriety . . . writing . . . arithmeti c. . . . 11 The ultimate effect of these laws was, of course, to stress
grammar together with the other " senior bra11ches" 12 of English.
Howev er, the effect of the universal turning to the vernacular, as it
· bore particularly upon gr:unmar, m ay be seen better in certain Stflte
."' laws contemporary with the Massachusetts · law which specifically
meuLion the subject.
The fin;t Slate legislation to speak definitely of grammar appears
to h::tvf\ bef\n the New York law of 1797, which provided" for ma intaining one or more free schools in the city of New York, in which
Scholars shn 11 be instructed in the English Langu age, or be taught
reading, writing, the English grammar, arithmetic, mat hematics, and

•

•Jenks , Cat. and His . Sketch Boston Latin Scbool, 286 ;_ original docum ent printed
In full.
· •Corey makes th is mistake. Hist. Malden, 631.
• n ev . Stat. Mass., chap. 23, sec. 1.
•Laws State Vt., Wright, 1808, I , 181 ; Ibid., Fa y Dav idson and Burt, 1817, III, 236.
•Stat. at L a rge of Va ., Shepard, 1835, III, 5 .
10 Laws State Delaware, S. and J. Adams, 1797, II, 1298.
11 His t. a nd Sta. Rec. of tbe U n iv. of N. Y., Hough, 66.
"Tbis suggestive pbrase Is used in tbe charter for Poto si Academy, lllo., 1817. Laws
Diet. Louisiana, e tc., 1804-1824, Lusb & Son, I, 519.

\,

74

;,
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

such other branches as are most useful and necessary to complete a
good English ed ucation.'' 13 •
By 1827 the legislature, acting on repeated recommendations of the
regents, was r eady to pass the law making academies training schools ·
for teachers. The law of that year iricludes this declaration:
No student sha ll be deemed to have pursued the highe r branches of an English
Education unl ess he shall h:n e nclvanced beyond such Knowle,lge of common.
vnlgnr and decimal nrith1110t·ir', 1111tl !"llCh proficiency in Engli sh grn rnniar nnd
geol-(1·aphy us an~ wrnnlly obtal11('<I !11 co11111w11 sclwols."

The first State-wide act definitely prescribing grammar seems to
have been the 1798 law of Connecticut:
E nacted, That any School Society shall have liberty . . . to institute a School
of highe r orde r .. . to p e rfec t the Youth .. . in Ilenuing and. P e nmanship, to
in s truct the111 in t he Umlimen ts of English Grnmrnar, In Composif"lon, in Arithmetic anu Geography, or, on 11nrticular desire, in the Lntln and Greek Languages, a lso in the first principles of Heligion ancl Morality, and Jn genern l to
form them for usefuln ess anu h app iness i11 the variou s relations of social life."

11";;~~~~:==:!:::::~::~;::.::~::~~ate

Jaw
of 1790 16 had retained the compulsory grammar schools in county
towns; but the law of 1798 abolished this obligation and gave any
school society the right to substitute, on a vote of two-thirds of the
inhabitants, English schools of a "higher order." Noteworthy, too,
is the suggestive phrase at the encl of the law of 1798-" in general to
form them (the pupils) for usefulness and happiness in the various
relations of social life." All these considerations indicate that in the
lawmakers' minds must have been a conviction that the traditional
curriculum must go, that schools of higher order must be retained, but
that in the nature of English school s grammar and compos ition were
the vernacular branches of the" senior" order, nll<l, finally, I.lint t1sf'.fulness a11<l happiness in everyday life for all and not for a few ·
hi ghly educated individuals was the supreme purpose of the new .
English edu cation. Drown very fittingly characterizes this revolution
in the curriculum at the end of the century as coming in res ponse" to
the chaotic desire to study the vernacular " a,nd prefaces th:it expressive characterizntion by affirming that" in the study of Engli sh grammar a means was found for g iviJJ g vent" to this fles irn. 11
The legislation of New Hampshire is especially enlightening concerning the status of grammar. The first educational law after the
Revolution, repealing all previous acts, provided funds, in 1789, :
which11 Laws State N. Y., 1797 to 1 800. Inclu s ive, IV, 42-3.
"Laws Stnte N. Y., Croswe ll, 1827, 237.
"Acfs nncl Laws Conn .. Hudson nnd Goodwin, 17!JG, 180:J edition, 483.
'"Ibid., 3 73.
11 Brown, Ma k. of Mid. Sch., 234.

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1'7'75.

75

shall be :ipplled for the sole purpose of keeping an English Grammar School
. .. for teaching reauing, writing and arithmetic, except in shire and half shire
towns, in which the school by them kept shall be a Grammar School for the
purpose of teaching the .Latin and Greek." _ ·

This statute uses the term English grammar school, meaning merely
an English secondary school, not a school based on English grammar.
But it implied an effort to raise the English school to a higher dignity
than before, placing it in title at least on the same footing with the
Latin-grammar school. Obviously the real difliculty here is that the
lower branches of the vernacular do not possess the substanGe to
present" the same drill in an English-grammar school as in a Latin .
In order to make the curriculum somewhat analogous and to justify
the claim of equal dignity, the higher branches of the vernaculargrammar and composition-would be the next logical advance for the
English-grammar schools.
This step was taken by New Hampshire several years later, in the
law of 1808, ordering an extension of the curriculum of the English
school, and, what is even more significant, dropping the provision for
. Latin schools in shire and half shi.re towns " for the sole purpose of
keeping an English school . . . for teaching the various sounds and
powers of the letters of the English Language, reading, writing,
English Grammar, arithmetic, geography, and such other branches
of education as it may be necessary to teach in an English School." 19
To be noted here is the fact that most of the English grammars of
the clay, of which by 1808 there were at least 49 20 published or used
in America, had orthography as their first section, usually defined as
" the various sounds and powers of the letters." This phrase in the
law, then, with the tern1 English grammar, is certain proof of the
legal sanction of this branch in a secondary school which was clearly
intended to snpplant the Lat.in school.
The law of 1808 goes still further. · It provides that "no pers6n is
qualified to teach unless he or she procure a certificate from some able
and reputabl e English Grammar' school-master." 21 For. schoolmistresses it is demanded that '' the literary qualifications of schoolmistresses be required to extend no further than that th ey arc able to ·
teach the various sounds an<l powers of the letters in the English
Language, malling, writing ::u id English G11arnmar." 22 Tt, is clearly
!'hown by the specifications concerning schoolmistresses that English
grammar was prescribed for elementary schools. Ultimately gram' . · ,mar wa.s placed in schools in almost all parts of the country which
were neither elementary nor secondary, but distinguished by the name
. "Laws Stnte of N. H., Melcher, 1792, 276.
1• Laws State of N. H., Norris, 1815, 368.
• 0 A ll st of grammars was compil ed but bas been omitted In this publication.
" Ibid., 368.
"'Ibid., 369.

d

76

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E N GL JSH GHAMMAlt IN AMERI CAN S UHOOLS BEFOltE 1850.

77

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775.

"grammar school."
A s indicatecl :ibo ve, it is quit e often impossibl e
to d et ermin e whether a legal e11nct.n1ent foll o ws or precedes the gcnend adoption of a subject into th e curriculum. Howev er , the ge neral
absen ce of textbooks before 1790 2 4 makes it appear that th e publi c
school s at least could not have attempted grammar very generally
before that date. Dut the private school s, as we hav e seen, were turning more and more to the En gli sh cuni culum, followin g the tendency
seen in its beginnings betw een 1750 micl 1775. Not infre<i11 entl y <lnring- th e two decad es bcforn 1800 rd1•re11ces arc 111:1d c in v:u·io11 s nc:ul emies to "Professors of English." 2 0
23

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RISE OF THE ENGLISH SCHOOLS.

In the laws of two centuries there is di scernible a marked tend ency
toward the gradual elimin ation of a classical edu cation. Geography
and history, with the feeble beginnin gs of science, were r eceiving a
little attention; but around the English branch es, especially grammar
and oral composition in the form of oratory, the new curriculum was
in formation . 'Vith the p assing of Latill, seeming to man y unrelated
to " usefuln ess and happin ess in th e various relations of social life,"
ther e was left little langua ge study suitable for any but the most elementary instruction. ln the Latin school t he back bone of the co urse
23

It d ocs not appea r thnt man y Stntes s pec ifi cally m ention th e in co rpo rnt.l on of i;r'1m~ t n. t e l a w tn th ~ ir ('1JITit·11la .
T iu• T, 011i~iHll:I ln w o f 1.i;;;·? ll pl !lf'l'f1 in jJtp p1 · i111;1ry

mnr b .Y

sch oo ls o f Ne w Orl C'nn s "n professor" to t each "th e cl ements of th e Eu g ll s h nnd F re nch
1C::~f

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to P, n~ lf ~h r l:i~ ~ i ,.~ h r f Ar 0 1~flfl ~ t·r- <"'l'." fr "n"!f' l ~· r~r r

""'

~.

.

·-

:;,,..,_~ . ,-~~.-r.--

1! li •\ f i 1 1 1 1 ! \~ \'. ) 1] 1·i \ 11• ~ : Ii ! ( 1) 1 ' 11: )! ' f !'(1 ! 1\ fi1 1

E\'P 11 linfn n ' llH' S i :d r•

.for

:t l 1 1 .~ .:! 1vl"

1:11\'c-:

:it l!w

(' ! 1d

\ t r l 1 J' i , 1 ) 1 l l il' - -,

"f 111< · " ' ·1 il11n· 11:11·1 ·d 111<· '.l'; tV

urder •.Jf in:::ll'Ul.'.l~~l.l l 1.. 11ulj-.;l1 tL 1_'-.. i..'. lc:\ tl q_Hi1\.s i u !! nlllllt is si ~-.:.: ::~ ~: · ;""'"' - -~-T- - , - - ..
-

~nHl

nn nn j f t l• o hf!!h"r
J:1'f1'1"\'TH "PS lil.; 1· t i1i c.:
l'""' " ' '- Tfi ~t . n f F~rl. i n " "' ' ·· 1 r;.

J•i tH!" ii s h clas s i cs fr l' q u c nt ly t• rn ph•_yi •d i11 1_•x( r vi:--:1• s :111d

In H hol·A•'l ". "

.

In the preceding chapter the number of textbooks available for
instruction in grammar before 1784 was shown to have been very
insignilicn.nt. Wi th th e exception of 1J1lwo rth 's, pri mn r ily a sp eller,
certainly no single book was available in a large number of copies.
Tli crdo n~ a othill g i:::: m ore eHecLi 1'e iu c::::L:tLli::::li1u;; Uu.: r a11 idly ri::::i11g
popu]ar ity of t he nc,;. subject af ter the R cYol ut1 o'n t h an th e fl ood of

' "' r 11:1p . TY, ['. 7 i
2 5 ...:\ case in p o i n t i s t h e lJcl a w ar c ..'\c :Hl ·~lllY Qf \Yilmi n g l <
_in , prirua r i1 .r a cla ~~ k t il ~ f_'li1Jo l ,
which ns early ns 178 6 h a d a "Professor o( En g li s h ." An exfntct fr om the curri culum
J:: hri ~· ~

. ·-

·_ ... :: . ;TJ~':.:::·\~~\~iJ'vh

f·, ·,

t'!mplo,ved ns n. sch oolnrn s t r r . . . unles s .. . w ell flll:tllfled to in s tru c t y outh fn rr.ndlngtn Hl '\Vl"iliHg Il a• T:'.n:·Ji .~ !1 T .;:: : _; ~ :• :1 !_'. 1 ' :: r: : nil n: d i1 :1! !~; ., r:l' \" . ~ h i . S! :1:. ' o f ~ft• ::::.ni!i h .r. Co .,
1 8 4 1 . 1 r. n

had been g rnrrnnnr; the t erm gra mmar, the methods of t eaching gramwere ingrained. Latin grammar had stood for the next st"P
above r eading and writing the vernacul ar. When, ther efore, the
advocates of a practical English training found English grammar in
Dilworth and other texts, what was more natural than that they
should sei ze upon it as a suit able substitute for the next step abov~
reading and writing and spelling? English they found reduced to the
same accidence .n,s Latin; English rules ·w ere to be lenrned as the
Latin; textbooks informed them on title pages that grammar was the
art of speaking and writing the English language correctly, and this
was their laudable desire for their children; here is a suitable setting
in the vernacular program for grammar as the basic study. This
conviction made its way into legal sanction for English and English
grammar in the last decade of the eighteenth century.

rna l',

t" • '1 1 q 1 n~i! i ,,11c.: .··

Th e grnmm a r school of Brown ll nive r Rity, In 17811, nd vp1·f:lsed "Gree k, Latin anu EngA p p nrc ntiy th e I.Je st wn.v to int r rpre t an e xpress ion li ke 1hh:; ls to be li1·ve tha t g rammutkal iu :sl ru c i.iun in Ut t: E11 g l bi 1 la u g uugc s l a uJ ::; iu extil..! U ,y Ui e ::;awe re laU.v u Hti g r a wm n f i ,· :i l

;.

..

~ '.1
~

. ..-

ffii(
,JI
ii·

'. -~I'i
.

\['

1, .

l !I .

f[S ! I

~;;

:

i n-.: fr11 (• fi n n

In

ll 11' r·l :1c.: t.: l1·:1 l

! :111~~·1 1 .'l C~J' C.:

Th e Trc nl u u. N . J .. ;..:: r: u nrn n r st· li~)v l, 111 l 7 S0 , g :J\" t' n c t•r lin 1' :1l c trnrl( •J' lh 0 .c.;(' :1! nf Ilic
co r po r n.t l o n "to s u r h sc h 1_1l a rs :i. s ~!!al l h aYe ~ludk•I th1• l <n gl i '-' h l:t11g1 1:t g 1 • gr; 11t1T11:11k:1ll .Y ''
Tn 17!'~ t h<' rw!r0 n f tnifi nn W !"'!C:: I' ' lt nt ~ ~ n '!ll :'l l'h"'r u f f"'l!' th n F n~~ ll ~ h ~ (· h ••f"'l\ nn d Ftt !! ll ~h
G r amm a r." :111 tl Jn 1 8 17 t he t r u s t1 ·1,: R r 0c0 m111 c n 1l e d Ili c 11 c.:e of " L inr1ky l\f ur r:i. y ' R ~ysfc m
of 11·:1 \"li ing till> l'~t 1 glish L:1n g 11a g1_•."
,\I11r1 ;1.L llh1. ,.f· r·ii. i 11 ;\ . .1., !~ i : .
.\. .su ;..:.;.,;; •_·::: tivi..: il1_•w jwJ i( : t li11 g 11 1•_' \\·:1y 111 \\l 1if'h b l": t1 111! 1:ir :'-: !11' • :1il i ~ f ! •l lll •l i n lh·· ~l r •ry nf
John H o wlanll. fa ll1cr or th e JU O\" Cllll'Ut f u r p ubl ic :- c h n u l s in n11( )(lc I s la n \1. .\ p p rJ ! ll l('d IJy

the ci ty or l'rovlde nce to drnw up rul es !or the fir s t s chool s es ta bli s h ed u.ndcr th e new
Jnw, 1789, h e we nt to Bos ton a nd there procured n copy of th e rul es es tabli , hin g the
n ew . school s ystem of 17 89 and secured al so a li s t of the t e xtbooks used unde r that
act. Howland s ays : " Up to thi s time I had n e v er seen a grnrnmnr . . . bu t obser v ing
Th e Yo ung L '1dics Acc id e n ce ( Cnl cb l~in ;:: hnm's elcm r nfnr y gramm'1r, n os fon, 17 8S) wa s
u sed in the Bos t on s c hools . I s ent to th e prinelpnl bnnkso ller In tlrnt town, anrl procured
on e hundred co pi es for o urs . Th e introdu ct ion of nrammnr wns q11itP. nn nrlvance in th e
s yste m o f edu ca ti o n '18 It wa s n o t lau ;::ht at nil ox copt in th e be tte r class of pri>rrte
achools." Pow e ll, Hi s t. of Pub. Sell. Sys . iu R. I.. 17.

~ guage . "

· a rt

.,, 111 1-l arLi urd

al~ u

sprC' ifi r ~ ]]y rnrntio ni n~

wa::; 1 r cu1H~d, iu 1 ltt tt, tl1 e 1i r ~L CLale- wide
in strn d ion in "thr rnrli m0 nt " o'f l•~ n .'.!li " h

II is ;.;iµ11i fi " :t1 1t il1 :d ! his 11:1s 111 0 (':\:tel 11·rH'( l in2 "r I lie
subliil e u( \\' elJ;; lt'l' .::i se cu 11 d grn11 11 11 :1r, 1>11iili ~ IH' •l i11 l l!Hl, "T l1t ' L ittle
·- -; R r·: 1rl,·r's ,\ssisl:rnL TI1 1rli nHrn 1·s of E 11 ~ li ~ h Grn11 1111 :n . nr i11 g :111 introd11din11 I" 111< • :-;1't't1!1d I ':1rl rd' '!'lit• (; 1':1111111:1( i<' :t I I 11~1 i t11IP . " T l1i" . (o" ,
'"' as p ulili . .;J 11· tl i n iT :1ri fonl. 0 7 Of cour~L·, th ere is ll t> ccriai11t ..1· ()[

causal relation between Webster's instruction and his books and the
of 1798.
~ 1¥- -

270.

jj

78

ENGLISH GRAMMAR I N AMEnICAN SCHOOLS

niworrn

ii ttl@@lfbufat10n.9 'i.1eforc 17!)2 it h rHl passed throu gh at least 10 edition s."" By 1807 '" thi s book , together with his three oll1e.r treati ses
on gran1ma1·, altho11gh by far less popuhr than his "Grammatical
I11stitute," enjoyed a wide circulation before Murrny appeared in 1795.
Webster's success appears to have attracted other American writers
into th e fi eld at once, since at least 17 other works on grammar
ppeared before 1795. 80
Eleven of these 17 textbooks were unsuccessful, apparently none of
iem enjoying 111ore than two or three editions, including Kenrick's,
84; Mennye's, 1785; Anonymous, 1'789 (3d ed.) ; Ussher's, 1790;
.utchins's, 1791; Humphries's, 1792; Tichnor's, 1792; Miller's, 1795;
rroH's, 1795; and D earborn's, 1795. Of the 17, two were 'Webster's
oks mentioned above-" The Rudiments," 1790, and "The Young
ent.leman and Ladies 'Accidence," 1792. Harrison's, 1787, was an
nglish text reprinted in Philadelphia 81 and in its ninth American
edition before 1812; Ussher's, 1790, was also an American edition of
a London book of 1787 32 and had its third American edition in
E
. - n · menca

l

lil!!!!~~Qj:&!,m~ th e less important

was Caleb Alexander's "A Grarnmatical System of the English Lan- -.
guage," Boston, 1792. It passed through at least 10 editions before

181.i!i

34

£!!.,,, ....... _Lid! 0lf\mcntary book of 45 pages appeared in Boston

in 1785 and in a Yery few years leaped into popularity in that city
and elsewhere. It was printed in at least 20 editions before 1815; 3 ~
100,000 copies were sold. .
2<1 \VC'hr.::t er snyR: "I p11hl1 Rh r (l n g-rnmmnr on flu~ m od el of. L O\V lh'R; . . . thlR ~v o rk paRsed throu g: h mnuy editi on s befor e l\f11l'ra,v' s hook npp,.ared. . . . I def Prmfn ed to sup- ·
press my g rammnr: . .
n. new wo rk nppe nrc d hl l ~ Oi. ''
\V ohRtnt" R Dl ctl onnry , 1828,

pre face , :!. Of thi s boo k lc va ns list s 10 editi ons ue fo r c l7!l2. th e fir s t in 178 ·1 (F. v nn s . G, .
8 37 ) , tho last in 1702 ( Ibid ., 8 , :JR2 ). The numhc r of editi ons w as la r ge. Th e write r, for
example. Is u s in g th e s ix t h Co nn ect icu t editl o11 , JROO, nnrl the hook wa s publi s h ed IJ .v firms
In both Bos t on nnd l'hiladc lphla, 17!JO nnrl 1787 , res pec tiv ely . F.vau·s , 8 , 104, nnd !hid.,
7, 183. In hoth plncrs th e re were APVPl'nl ediltonA l>c forf' 1800.
29 'Vcbsl cr' s st' con<l g rnmm n 1·, u 'J.'h 0 lltulinwnl !'l," 17!l0, pa r-:sr d th1·nugh Rix editions in <
tllc fir Rt t w o ye a r s, In ITnrUord , Albnuy , B os ton, nnll 'Korth nmpton.
RvanR , op. cit., 8,
10!3 ; 8 , 2 33. His third book nppenred in 1792, pu1Jli8h ed anon y m ou sly und er th e title

"Th e Young Ge ntl e man nnd Lndies Acc ide nce, a Compre h e ntl o us Grammar of the Engli sh
•rongn c ," In Ilos ton. Th e 1 8 07 text w ns "A P hlloso phicnl and l'racllen l Grnmmnt'." His
In s t grammnticnl tTentl se appeared as late ns the year 1831, "An Improved Grammar of
th e u;uglish Tongu e," Barnard, Am. J. of Ed., XV, 56!!.
"" See A ppc nd Ix A.
:a Evnn s, op. cit. , 7 , 121.

"I!Jld., 8, 98.
~1 Am ..To ur. of Ed., XV, 565.
' ' I!Jld., XIII, 212; F.v nn •, o p. cit. , 8 , 242.
••Ibid., 218. 'rite write r uses th e nine teenth edition, Boston, 1813; the name Martha
St e bbins appears on the flyl eaf.

79

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775.

l BGO.

Bingham, a graduate of Dartmouth, 1782, had opened a. private
school for girls in Doston in 1784 and had there begun what has Leen
' called th e first pretentious effort to teach English grammar in that
city.no Thi.s slatement ignores the earlier efforts to teach grammar,
some of wh_1ch , ~s we saw above, antedated 1775, either through ignorance of their existence or because they were insignificant as compared
with Bingham's. At any rate, "The Young Ladies Accidence" was
the result of Bingham's work in this school. It is interesting to
remernber that Noah vVebster published anonymously in Boston in
1790, an elementary book of approximately the same size as Bi,ng. ham's Hll(ler the name, " The Young Gentleman and Ladies Accidence." Bingham, in 1789, accepted a position in the reorganization of
. the Doston schools,37 and his grammar was adopted by vote of the
· board as the official text in the writing schools. 38
-:- Of Welmter and Bingham, William B. Fowle, editor of the Com.. mon School Journal, says:
· . No two men ever exercised more intlueuce over the schools of this country.
· · · . ·weuster's Grammar was but little used compared with Bingham's· uut his
spelling hook was far more extensively used. . . . The two authors dlv,ided the
Held uetween them.•

;i Neglecting now the reproduction of grammars which we have
' mentioned as preceding 1784, we find 17 entirely new books in the
field appearing in America before Murray's was introduced. Of these
.li certainly no fewer than 50 editions had been published within the
decade before 1795. vYe may conclude, first, that the impending flood
of grammars had begun to appear, and, second, that Brow~ is in
.error in maintaining that "Lindley Murray's Grammar, published

y
md,
,
as a oy
English school of
-the A caclemy and Charity School of Philadelphia in 1754.41 Oi 1
, both sides of the Atlantic this man's productions were reprinted liter. ally_ hundreds of times and were copied and abridged at least a score
..of t11n es by other anthors. His most famous text was" English Grnm.mar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners," York, .Rng lanrl ,
-'{795. 42 He also prepared an "Abridgement of English Grammar,"
US JS

' 18

Wm. B. Fowl e, Bnrnnrd's Am . Teachers and Ed., 70.
"Ibid., 57.
'".Teaks, op. cit., 228.
.. c. s. J., 1850, 74 .
. ~; '°Brown, op. cit., 234.
,. "See Chap. III , p . 54.
--:· '"Barnard. op . cit., XV, 775.

le

•

i'\

80

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1'775.· •

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS B EFOTI E 1850.

'

{'

81

1797; " A n E nglish Gramma r, in T wo Volumes," 1814, 2cl edi tion ; and u lution, began very rapidly to ripen into a harvest. The number · of
new textbooks alone for the entire period averaged more than four a .
" E ngli sh E xercises," p ublished first before 1802.43
A n 1812 edition of the first book asserts t hat 35,000 copies of hi s year, and in the decade between 1821 and 1830 more than seven a year.
·
larger book and 50,000 of hi s "Abrid gement " were being sold _ Only a rough estimate of the total number of editma
.
ched
large
circulation.
annu ally in A meri ca. In 11 years the " E nglish Gr ammar " passed
e its teent ·
Comly 's, 1804, w'I1ich re
through 21 editions in E ngland and twice that number in America,
49
e
I
10n
m
1838
;
Green
eaf's
"
Grammar
Simplified,"
1819, its twenwhil e the "Abricl bo·ement " ha d h ad 20 edi tions in E ngland ::m<l 30 in '
tieth
edition
in
1837
;
Samuel
Kirkham's
"An
English
Grammar in
Am eri ca. Murray's "English Exercises " were published frequentl y,
and his larger g r:t111111nr had it s Ii ft-h e<lit.io11 in' No w Y ork in 18',rn. 44 ;Familiar L ectures," 1823, its thirty-sixth edition in 1834, its fiftyThe larger books were a<lopted by many of the colleges in both third edition in 1841; 50 Parker's" Progressive Exercises" 1823 °pri"
'
'
'
countrie~. It is asserted t h at his g rammatical texts total ed over 120 marily a composition ·book, attained its forty-fifth . edition in 18415.
editions of 10 000 copies each on th e a verage; th at more th an 1,000,000 Bullion's " Practical Lessons in English Grammar," 1844, reached its .
'
.
- thirteenth edition by 1851; William H. Well~'s " School . Grammar"
copies of hi s books wrre sold in Ameri ca before 18!'\0.4 5
•
nut Mu r ra y's inflncnce can not be estimn tecl by hi s own books 'Was in its t wentieth edition in 1854; and in five years P eter Bullion's
Analytical and Practical Grammar," of 1849, attained its thirty-fifth
al one. At least 12 men p rcp:uw l and publi shed e<li tions or abridg. , !
.,
•
ments of his varion s works. A mong t hem may be menti one<l Bullard, ' edition.
1797, tenth editi on , by 1817; Flint, 1807, six t h edition, by 182G; L yon, ~ A modes t estimate, then, of the total number of ed,tions attained
1811, fourteenth editi on , by 1821 ; ro11d , 1829, eighth edition, by 1836; by rthe leading grammarians, including Murray and his followers, is
Al ger , 1824, fou r th ed ition, by 1846; Fisk, 1821, t hird edition , by 1824 . ._ 400•.· Ot hers were frequently r ep rinted; for example, Alexander's, 10;
In this list are included also R ussell, 1819; Booth , 1819; Cooper, 1828 ; iandon's, 18; Brown's, 10; Hull's, 7, etc. E ven estimating that many
d only one edition, the total number of American editions of gramPutnam , 1825; Miller , 1823; Blair, 1831 ; B acon , 1818; and Cheesman,
1 .
1821, third edition. 40 In other wo rds, a Yery conservn.ti ve estimate of · inars befo re 1850 was in the neighborhood of 1,000.5 1 . .
StiU more difficult is it to estimate the number of copies turned out in
th e total nu mber of Murray's g rammar s, including his ow n and his
follo wers' before 1850, is 200 editi ons, totalin g between 1,500,000 and these 1,000 editions. The number .of volumes printed in a few editions
,known. As early as 1772 and 1787 editions of 10,000 copie~ of Dil2,000,000 copi es.
'
Some idea of th e r apid rise of g rn.mmar n.fter 1784 may be gained worth's " New Guide " were issued. This is hardly a fair criterion, ·
by examining the distribution of the 301 grnmmars written by Ameri- owever, becau se D ilworth's included thtee textbooks in one and was ,
i.thout serious competitors. In 1766 the firm of Franklin · & Hall .
cans and printed in America befo re 1850.47 D istri buted by decades
as rpreparing an edition of Dilworth's consisting of 2,000 , copies. 5 2 :
th ey n.re: 17G0-17i0, 1 ; 1771- 1780, 5; 1781- 1700, ·9 ; 17\J l - 1800, 18;
One of the most used early texts was Bingham's ·" Young Ladies'..
1801- 1810, 14; rnn- 1820, 41; rn21- 1sno, s,l ; 18:n-rn-to, u3; 1841t
ccidence." Of this the 1792 edition included 4,000 copi es. ~ ~ It .has
18f>O, l>G; to tal , HO l. 48
n asserted that this book passed throu gh 20 editions of 5,000 copies
It is to be rcrn e111 bc rcll tha t each uni t in the fo rego in g rcpresP nts a
new auth or or an enti re ly new book by an earlier author. As in the n·the average, aggregating 100,000 copies, before 1820. 5 ' Kirkham
. ! med, ~n 1837, that h_is book was selling at the rate of 60,000 a
case of th e :M11rr ay g rn111111ars, we have seen t he very large number
edi li ons iss11 ml. In other wonl s, d 11ri11µ: th e decade 1821- 1830, in ~r. 5 5 In 1829, after being only six years off the press, Kirkham's
k was selling at the r ate of 20,000 a year. 56
addition to t he 84- new IJoo ks, man y of whi ch were printed se vera,l
times, there were al so p ubli shed at t he same time a· ve ry large number'•~---------------------------. t1· 011S of' boo]{S ~1
J·1 ose fi1· st eel iti ons Ji ad 1)receded 1821.
•,f
~The ,evid ence ns to th e number of ·editions . Is taken from Barnard's ' list
of American
"
,oooks In Am .•T. of Ed ., XIII, XIV, XV.
· '
.
.
of ecll
The above indicates th at the desnl tory a,ncl scrtttered beginnings of r. Barn nrd r efer s t o a on e hundred and tenth edition . Op. cit ., XIV, 73 6 ; nisei Goold
l R
wn, Gram. of Gra m., 28.
·
·
. l f
English g ram1nar before 1775 sowed the secd W l1J C 1, a·ter t le evo- ~The : a ctua l count of known editions of books mention ed In th e catalogue prev louslf

o!

"This cat~ log.ue 1~' om itted from thi s volum e; Appen x A hn s list of gram mar s to 1802.
"Incl udes E nglish books r eprin ted In Ameri ca up to 1800.
0

"erred to Is 961. The evid en ce Is acknowl edged to be ver y Incomplet e.
II, Am . J . of Ed., XIII . XIV , XV.
.
•Eva ns, op . ci t:, 4, 5 2, 314, and 7, III.
,.,Evans, op. cit .. 8, 257.
"Small , E nrl :v N. E. Sch., 107 ; nl so Barnard , op. cit., XIV, 212.
•Knickerbocker Mag., Oct., 1837.
"Brown, op. cit., 28,

60258° - 22- 6

See Barnard's
'

I
I

I
1l.t

I'

I

84

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775. ·'

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN .AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

85

i

I

advantage over Daboll's Arithmetic. ,i By 1839 Kirkham alone surTurning now to the common schools of New York, as distinguished
passed all other textbooks except "Webster's Speller, .which· for some
from the academies, we find that ·the reign of th_e Murrn,y books
66
" 1 ,. " • • 1 " ':.i ... ·r
:reasonshowsanunusuala,dvancethatyear>
reached its height about 1833.
•
•
The second book, reaching its height of populanty by 1839,. is
: ' · · '· ·
'Towns
Towns
Towns
Kirkham's" English Grammar by Familiar Lectures," ~825, o~ wluch
Books.
, <,
(1827 !· ' (1830);
(18,'j~).
,.
Barnard lists editions up to the forty-ninth, all published .m New
- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- -· - -- - -!- - - - - - -- .
' .,, I. 434
584 'I ' I 647
York before 1840.a1 Then follows Goold Brown's" The In.st1tutes of
. \ 469
349
473
• 389
472
466
English Grammar," New York, 1823. The fourt\ ~n~J.1~.r is ~foswel~
400
317
I
302
200
'' 168
216
~~~~~~~:~t~~~1_1~~:: ~::::::::::: :: :::~:; ::: ::: ::::: :::· ::::::: I ~: ~ :::: !:: :::
Smith whose two works were" l11tcllcct11al and I 1ad1t.d G1an11nar
. 110
309
120 /; · m
117
on the' Inductive System," Providence, 1829, and" English Gramn:ar
QR
JOR
72
91
96
102
on the Productive System," Boston, 1831. NexL comes ,Jeremrnh
Pike's Arithmetic ...... . ............. . .......... _....................... .
80
46
61
240
209
' 59
Cobb's Geography ..... .... ...... .. ...... : : .: ...... : ..................... .
Greenleaf, whose "Grammar Simplified," New York, 1829, reached
Greenleaf s Grammar .. . ... _.. ~ .... ___.• . •.. .•...... .. .. ·................. .
35
76
88
08
"! 6
. 52
33
its twentieth edition in 1851.
•
•
1
4
9
6
. I 26
1
8
Detailed discussion of the significance of the clommat10n of the
0
72
Kirk.ham's Grammar .. .. .......... ~ .. . ... ~ .. . ....... . ... ...•. ... ···' .... .
. 28
Murray books apparently reaching their height in New York about
1833 and of the almost meteoric rise of Kirkham contemporaneous ' •
· An idea of the proportion of pupils studying grammar . may be
69
on
with' the passing of Mnrray, is reserved for another c~apter
obtained fron1 facts a few years later~ · In 1842; out of 173,384 pupils,
methods of teaching. Of interest here is the companson of the
:i'eported from 43 counties, 28,ll9 '\V~re studying English 'grammar.71
·amount of grammar being taught during this pe~iod. County o~- ,Jt
In 1846, of 227,760 pupils in . wii1ter' schools, 51,484 were rep~rted as.
cers almost without exception report that four subjects are taught m '
•;; ··studying grammar, and · of 211,747 "iri' summ'er schobls 32,289 'were
1
all towns-reading, spelling, arithmetic, and gramm~r. The ta~le
studying the subject.72 In '1847, of 47,833 pupils in summer sessions
· 39,846 were studying gram1nar. 78 In round numbers, between 15 :and
on I) aoO'e 85 s!1 ows the three most widely used textbooks
.
. m the 10counties
of New York of these three subjects, in addition to grammar.
20 per cent of the total number of pupils were studying grammar in
In each subject there seems to be one book which go~s far tow.ard
the common schools ·of New · York as the middle of the century
monopolizing the fi eld. In grammar, honors for the penod are .fa~rly ' .
approached.
"b
t
d
between
two
and
the
two
together
have
a
distmct
·
.
t
we11 cl 1s n u e
·
, .
'. 1
I ,

·R~.~~~f~.~Jrf~~~~~:::: ::: :: :::::: :::: :::::,:::::::::: ;:: ;;::(:; :·~~~·~:: ~

I 1J

.¥Ii~~{~1Mh~~~:~rc: ~ ~::: :: : ~:: :~:::::: ::~: ~::: : ~ : ·:~:~:: : :

1

I

I

.

I

1

I

~\ l
I' I

r,

I

. I

lii ~~~~rr~~tr::~:: ~;~;~;::::: ~::::::::::::::::::: ~::::::::::::::::::::

·
y or,c
• p. u.bl".ic S c1i o oi~·, 18'26-1839-Number of towns
"Textbooks in grammar, New
using various texts.
[Compiled from Allllual Rcpt. Supt. Common Schls., N. Y., 18.10-1840 .]
1826 . 1820.

18.1 1.

1832. 1833 .

1835 .

1836.

1837.

1838.

- - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Gran1mars:

Murray . - ........................... 389
Kirkham.-· ................ -· . ...... . . ....
Drown ..... . ........ - · - - · ·· · · · ·- · ·· · ······
Smith ......... . ........ .... . . . ... ....
3.5
nreen1eaf. . ........ - ... - -- -.. . · · · · · ·
14

~t~~~~~ ~~:cl:::::::::::::::::::::: ······

Other books:
English R eader ..... . . ... .. ...... ·. ·
Daboll's Arithmetic...... . ... .... · ..
Webster's Speller ........ . . ... . . . . ..

434
319
302

472
28
3

······
76
20

4
584
473
417

466
72

462
Ill
17

88
17

96
12

····-· ······
547
469
400

543
472
433

Ji9
18
7
03
7
13

373
331
21
20
61
6
0

294
371
31
31
46

267
382
43

563
455
418

516
500
332

486
360
265

431
457
227

459

63
2.5
3
10

209
427
60
102
28

4

"''"23
......
......
414
455
470 t

"Barnard, op. cit., XIV, 763.
., Ibid., XIII, 6ll!l.
.. See Chap. VI, P· 13 4 .
from Heports of Supt. Com. Sch ..
"'rextbooks Used ln Kew York, 1827-31. Summnry
N . Y., r eprinted A. J. of Ed, and Ins., 1832, 378,

,

The Massachusetts law of 1826, amended in 1837 and 1839, required
, '. "in every town containing fifty families [extended in 1839 to ' every
". ·town in this commonwealth '] 74 • • • one school for the instruction
,, ·:bf children in orthography, reading, writing, English grammn.r,
'- : geog~·aphy, arithmetic, and good behavior." Horace Mann, secretary
. of the board of education, in 1838 interpreted this law to prescribe
:. ;., what he calls " minimum literary qualifications of teachers"·, that is
.
'
1they" must be competent to teach the various subjects named." 75
. .. Moreover, the law of 1835 required the school committee of every
; ...town to submit annual school returns containing repiies to 1i definite
'

"Ibid., 1843, 7.
n "Ibid., 1847, 18.
\. Tl Ibid., 1848, 81.
j ', . 1 • "Acts and R esolves, l\Inss., 1839, 22.
, .. , " l\Inss. Sch. Rept., 1838, 59 .
, "'" Mann Is very careful to emphnslze the point that It Is strictly lawful for districts to
, employ teachers more blgbly qunl!fied, "who are · nble to tench the required brnnches
. ·better, because they are masters of higher ones- who, for Instance . . . can teach English
' grammnr better, because famlllar, from the study of other ·languages, wl•h the principles
ot universal grammnr."

\".:11

1<! I

'i
,lI
'ir· :

; I·:

, I

l

11!

I'

1'

' j '
: '

86

ENGLISH GRAM MAR IN AMERI CAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER

1775.'

''·

87

inquiries, of which the seventh was," ·what are the Books in gene.ral
.,textbooks in parsing and composition. Mann says that only two
use specifvinO' Spellinrr Books, Arithmetics, Gramnmrs, Gcogrnplnes,
~schools liatl separate instru ction in composition. Nevertheless, we see ,
'
.J
b
b
•
'l
R eading and other Books~ " 76 This provision was in force unti
that increasing use of Parker's " Progressive Exercises in Composition " indicated that the latter subject was encroaching upon the field
1841. 77
of formal grammar. 81 •
1; · . .1
.'
.. 1
• • ,
Pursuant then to this series of acts the first four annual reports of
'
'
Mann 1837 to 1840 inclusive, contain these data, as reported by the
.1· The overwhelming preponderance of Smith's books, only six years
' town school' committecs. 78
separate
·
·
off the press, denoted a rapid departure from the Murray· type. · To
ConcerninO'
the
status
of
grammar
in
Massachusetts
between
1837
·
be
sure, Pond's, Putnam's, and Alger's were nothing but modifications
0
••
and 1841, several conclusions may be reached. The law regu1png
,.of Murray's; but even adding the towns using the three to the towns
grammar was obeyed in letter at least. Only four towns did not
using Murray 's a total of 159 towns in 1837 is still far short of the
r eport the subject in their curricula; in addition, only six towns failed
popularity of Smith's. "Productive Lessons.'' , Out of 298 ' towns
to make any report. Almost all the towns reported at least one textreporting, 208 used Smith's book, 82 many of them in the grades immebook in grammar. Roswell Smith's " Inclucti ve :' and "Progressive"
~liately above the p~·imary, , u.sually call~d gramm,~1; g.i:ades. Pdv,ate
grammars were by far the most popular, with gradually increasing
schools and academies also used it.
numbers; Murray's followed in decreftsing p op11larity. In vVorces'. This was the period of the extreme popularity of Kirkham's book
t:er County, Pond's Murray monopolized the fi eld, showing the comin New York, but naturally we do not . find the grammars of New
paratively local popularity of the ·w orcester author. Of the 35 towns
York very widely adopted by the schools of Massachusetts.
reporting Pond's as in use in 1837, 23 were in Worcester County and
''The records of 1840 show a remarkable increase of
. schools breaking
8 in the neighboring county of Franklin. About one-fifth of the
away from the Murray type of instruction. 83 Only 54 towns, as comtowns reported more than two grammars; some towns-Pittsfield, for
pared with 104 in 1837, still kept the l\1urray, while the Putnam and
example-reported as many as fi ve textbooks in use. 79
, Pond merely held their own. Very many towns which in 1837 had
The larger towns only, like Boston "0 an<l Dorches ter, used separU;te
reported the use of both Smith's and Murray's, in 1840 reported the
"Laws Com. Mass., XIII , 5 09 .
n Acts and Resolves, M ass ., 18 41, 345.
former alone.
: While on the whole the hw requiring the teaching ~f gra1~mar was
" 'l 'owns nami n g Eng l-i.sh g1·ammm· in Jlfass aclm setts.
[Compiled from School Returns, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841.]
g~nerally obeyed, there is frequent testimony that it was studied with
Juctance and even open 'o pposition. · For example, the Pr~vincetown
1838
1839
1840
Year......................... . .. . ........ . . .. . . ..... .. .. .......
l S.37
.committee reported: " Grammar has been attended to very indiffer224
307
295
' Number of towns . . ..... .. ... .. .. . .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .......... .
298
ently, in our town schools, ,f or · all past time. 'There ar1e but :few
- - - -- - - ----- - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- ''liolars who study it at all, and few indeed who have made much
224
237
203
215
Sn1ith's ... . ................ . ..... .. ..... .. . ... .. ... ..... ... ... .
10,1
54
84
00
ptoficiency
in it." 84 In the same year the Westport school officials
Murray 's . ...... . .... . . . ... - . - - - - . - - . - . - · - · - · - - - · - - · - - · - - - - - · · · 15
17
18
10
........... . ... .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . . . . - . .. .. - - - .. - - .
Put11am 's
asserted
:
.'
.
.. '
. ..
'
.
'
ar,
30
41
3G
Pond 's .. .. . . ... . . .. - - - - - - - . - - - - - - -· - - - · · - - - -· · · · · · · · · · · · · · -· · -·
g
15
17
rn
Grep11l ea.r s .. . . . ..... . .. . . . . . .•. .. .. ... . . ... . .. .. ... • .. . . - - · · · · ·
t1 • I
1

.,.

r

Al ~c r.

1

Dro\vn 's .. _. . .... . __ ~ . . . . _...... ... .. . . ... . _. .. _... .. . . . ...... .
}"'rost's .... _........ .. .. .. _. .. . . . . _. .. ... .. . .... . .. . . _... .
Ingersoll's ......... .... .. .. ...... . .. . .... ...... ... . . . .... .. .... .

1Cirkhn.1n's ..... . . . .. .. . . .. ............ . .. . .. . .. . .. .. .. .. - - .. . . Parker's ... . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . ... . . .. . .... .. .. . . . .. .. .. . _..
'V cbstcr's . . .... . .... . ... . .. .. - . .. - - . . . . . -.... - . · · - · -- · · · · · · · · · ·

Scattering ............ .. .. .. . ........ : . . ............. .... ..... .

11
J:I
9
7
13
1
10

12
13
JO

II
12
11

7

7
26

17

1
12

2
1!i

13
12
9

As th ere are some schools in whi ch grnmmar has never been taught .

4
20
3
14

"Concerning the grea t vn ri c t y of t extbook s In ail s ubjec t s, J\l a nn r e ported th a t in 1837
th ere w ere in use in Mass achu se tts 110 d!ll'cr eut r ead ers a nd s peller s, 24 grnmmo.r s, 22
arithmetics, 20 geogra phi es, 9 books of dicti on, 3 chemistries , 5 geom et ries, 2 compos itions.
A. A . of Ed. a nd I.. VII, I 01.
eo In 1840- 41 the Boston s chool sy s tem embraced 1 Latin p:rammnr s chool, 1 English
hi gh school , 13 gra mm a r and writing schools, and !l5 primary schools. Bos t. Sch. Rept.,
1 841, 3. Regulati on s presc ribed for the grammar sc hoo ls (four -ye ar course ). in Cl ass III ,
?t-Iurrny's "Eng lish Gra mmar, '' abridged by Alger, or Parke r and Fox's "Progr ess in~ Exercises"~ Class II, the same continu ed and Foot's " Exercises in Pursing" ; Class I, the
same continued, together with compos i t ion and declamation. Ibid., 16. For admission
to the English high s chool an examination in grammar was n ~ c ess nry; for the first year
of high school a r evi ew of grnmmatlcal t exts of the low er schools was prescribed, while
"the several classes s hall be instructed In grammar." Ibid ., 20.

and

there are few or none who wish to pursue it . .. for these reasons the committee has be en urged to grant

1

Vermont and New Hampshire present much the same relative
emphasis on grammar between 1840 and 1850. Especially frequent is
the complaint against the multiplicity of textbooks. The St,a te superintendent of Vermont reports, m 1848, that several conventions of
' '.

" Mass. Sch. Ret., 1843, 271,
Jbld., 252.

11

..,
I

''

88

county superintendents had recommended uniform textbooks.
grammar chosen was vVilliam IL vVells's. 8 " Engl ish grnmmar w
included, according to the State official," among the usual branches." 11
Superintendents of various counties report " ·wells' grammars in
most schools," 88 while the State snperintendent thinks that th
acquaintance with grammar a~quired is " very slight." 89 "Teache
are very poorly prepared." 00

--

'

1847, "a substantial English education ought to be given every citizen of the State." 9.5 In the '~union ,schools," .Ohio's term .for. common schools, divided into primary 1 secondary, an~:i' se~ior ~r g~ammarschool departments- ... · ....
· ,. · ,,, .. . · . .. , ., " '"' .. · 1 · ,
'
,
.
'. ' )
a thorough course of instruction in all the common English branches ls pursued,
and to this is ad<led, when practicable, a high school, in., which· th\! ,higher
English branches, mathematics,· and· the ln n guages are . taugh~." . .: ·, ,,; ..

Asl1taL111a County reported that 'Smith 1s Gfomniar ~as used . in 99
schools, Kirkham's in 49, Brown's in 25,·Noell's in 16; 'Bullion's in 13. 97
The following tabular' statement from the same county gives indication of the number of pupils studying .the subject as compared with
theotherE~gl ish branches:
,,
.1: 1.. 11 , ;i \,,!.'· 1
" :" ! ' ·1 ,

---~...#-'-~·"

--gf:,

In his section on schoolbooks the school superintendent
Hampshire, in 184G, makes a typical comment:
In the days of Pike's Arithmetic, and Murray's Grnmmnr, and ·webster'
Spell ing Book, there was no trouble in choosiug books; there . were none t
choose from. Our dilliculty consists mainly in determining which is best amoni
so many that are good .01

~

_

Townships.

"Rept.
Ibid .,
88 Ibid.,
"Ibid.,
.. Ibid .,
11 Rept.
"Ibid.,
"Rept.
"Ibid.,
IT

Supt. Com. Sch ., Vt., 1848, 21.
24 .
1849, 52.
17.
47.
Supt. Com. Sch. N. H., 1846-7, 18.
1848, Appendix. XXXIX.
of Supt. Com . Sch., 1 839, 52.
53.

Number
, of
schools
visited.

i

1

1

1f

I '

'

<' !

I

•

I t'

!·l

j

,

~~~:!~
ance.

'_,.:\.0 ; _.

28

131

•

1

157

!

'

4, 190

I'

: i •:

,.,

:

\

873

37i

560

WINTER SCHOOLS. 1 .... ,.

" ,. I
I

:

------- , --

3,550

2,869

' '

--'-.-'_:.'---,---'-,...:.._-~··

·:
.!
':
''.1·
Number Number Number Number Number
in arith- In gram- In geog- In comin
spelling . . metic.
raphy. position.
mar(.

'
- - - - - - -- - --

I

Only an occasional reference concerning grammar fu1ds pl ace in
the records of the State superintendent of Ohio during this early
period. In 1838 one county official reported : " Reading, writing,
arithmetic, geography, and grammar are taught in most schools. '~ 1
Clerks of the county examiners complain of the almost utter incom·
petency of teachers, one saying that of 156 examined 53 were very
poorly qualified ~ncl but 51 understo~d "either wholly or in pa~,;
geography, English grammar, and history. The county was comi
peLled to accept them, else many schools would have Leen left without
teachers." 94
·
Ten years later (1846-47) the status of grammar had
considerably in Ohio. Reports of the State superintendent indicate
that the subject was now regarded as an essential part of the common·
school program. In the words of the State Teachers' Association,of •

'

Sum~r schools, 1841.

r-- -:--.-----.-- -'-' -' .'----'

One county official strikes even a new note when he recommend!
that " a portion of the time now devoted to grammar and arithmeti
1
ought to be spent in the proper study of mankind." 92
,
"1
'l
.

89

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTBR.• 177~.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

cent:
IPer cJ35nt. 1P~· f'c19~-. 1 Per· "23~.~.
19
1.

, I•

I

~:

r· ' ' '

I •

.

163

!'. • . ., ''.: •

"

Per.

. • Ibid: r 34~

I

1

Per
!

, /'

cent.
8

f1

. Seneca County also furnishes data oti 'this' point. . T he number of
pupils studying spelling was 3,200; arithrrietic,' 3,540; g~a~!P-ar, 42q.;
geography, 500. 99 ·
·
•
.
·
·
~evertheless, complaint was frequently made that teachers were
.incompetent to tea<::h th~ subject.1 , ~icking ,Cou,n,t y so rep~rts. 1 In
.Fairfield County, of 110 licensed aU .w ere, found. compe~nt to 'teach
,reading, writing, and a~·ithme~ic, only 64 were proficient in grammar,
,62 in geography, and 101n algebra. 2 , Jn Knox Coun,ty somewh11t'more
.than 50 per cent of the teachers we.r e competent in gramrµar,~ and
some districts refrn;;ed to allo,w ,grammar and geograpl,iy to be taught,
the examiner addfog: " If geography and grammar were added as
legal qualifications of teachers, they would be required to understand
them." Ashtabula County reported :fully all the examinations given
pupils in the various classes. Eighteen minutes were allowed candidates to answer the following
examination in
grf!,mmar:
'
.
.
'
"
! I
1

•• Rept.
'"Ibid.,
"Ibid.,
"Ibid.,

of Sec. of State, Com . Sch., 1848, 62.
66.
32.

47.

Ibid.,.
Ibid.,
I I bid.,
•Ibid.,

· ,. , ,. 1

! I

42.
40.
41.
20,

•
jl

90

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 18W.
It ls the mlnd that Jives.

1.
· 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

'

I
1.11'

.J

~I

r'

I.~

RAPID msE oF GRAMMAR'

Ho w ma11y cnpltal leUers should be used in writing th e nbove sentence?
Is the se ntence simple or co mpound?
How mu ch may be regarded as a simple sentence?
In this sentence what a re the principal parts?
" Thnt Is gove rnment in grnmmar?
What is meant by case?
What is mea nt by the conjugation o! verb?
Give the principal parts of the verb "to go."

a

These <piestions were given to 455 children of average nge of 15;
42 per cent of the an swers were correct. The high est average was 72
per cent for · Morgan Township. 5 The same ttttitml e toward the cnrricnlum was found in the State reports of Ohio in the decrule 18471857 as in the preceding 10 years; the referen ces, howev er, arc scattering and unsati sfactory. Nevertheless, the fact that we inv a riably find
grammar named whenever a complete curriculum is mentioned imlicates that the subject was fully established. In Ashtabula County, in
1850, the distribution of pupils by studies was : Orthography , 2,174;
r eading, 6,005; mental arithmetic, 1,684; written arithmetic, 2,214;
geography, 1,248; English grammar, 934; composition, 759.° Coshocton County reported 255 pupils in spelling, 181 in arithmetic, 180
in g rammar, 13 in geometry. 7 Holmes, Meigs, Preble, Rockland,
and Scioto Counties reported grammar taught in all the districts, 8
while '.Pike County affirn1 cJthe pro vision of th e ln w r equiring teach ers to und e rstaml Geog raphy am! Eng. lish Grnmmnr sho uld by no menus be repealed. It is found th a t in this co unty
tea ch ers are as defec tiYe in Arithmetic as in Grammar; . . . the ma jority, yea,
four -fifths of th e applica nts, are unqualifled to teach anyth in g more than the
first principles.•

- - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -- -- - - --

- - - - - ---

- ----~---

•Ibid., 21.
•Ann. R ept. Sec. State, Com . Sell., 185 1, 55.
' Ibi<l. , G3.
I Ibid., 79, 96, 104, 107, 112.
•Ibid. , 103.
"Data In this s ection are comp iled fr om North Carolina Schools and Academ ies, 17901840 . A Documentary History, by Charles L. Coon.
" Coon (op . cit., 75) cites Carr's Dixon Letters, 34, 35.
u Ibid., 50. New B ern Gaz., Jan. 4, 1794.

:·91

! :-

'. Fayetteville A ca.demy announces that ' pupils exc~i m Ep~lish'gram­
mar in 1800. 13 in 1794 Wayne Academy began · witli.' ·emphasis 'ill
, English, and a few years later the" fifth class· 1• • ' .' 'were ~xamined in
'.English Grammat frohl the verb' t<? have'' ' tO syntax '''; the" sixth
,class" ftS far US the substanti V~ "i the seventh .,, 1as fa~ 'as the ' arhde,' " ·
'nnd the eighth cJass "to the verb' to be.' " 14 ' 1: l · qi; ·" '''" ' " 1 ·1:., i
:· '. The decade between 1~01-1810 shows l8 s~ho~lS spe~ifically' 'ria~~ng
. grammar. The followirig are . 'typiCal . Sta't~ments !, ·. W a'desb~rough
1
. 'Academy, "Englisl~ Grammar, . Geogr~phy ,' ' .. : . twelve 'DoHahL" 1a
:Caswell Academy employed an in~tru ctcir " to teach the .E nglish Language gmn1111a.1ic:illy." 1 c The Halifax Classical School .was ~pcncd
~ in 1807 " where he (th e princi pal) t~ught the ·.L atin L~ English gra~­
matica.lly . . . . " 1 1 Th e succeeding d e'c ade ' shows 25 academies and
scl_10ols t~ e finitel}: ,f!lc:1tio1.1ipg the sub~~c.t. .. In .the Sy.1isbpry Academy
Miss Elizabeth I. Harns was exammed ' 1 on the 'vho1e of English
1,G~an~ma;r, parsing, cor.r ecting false syn ta~ , rules of,pur;ctu~~.ion, per1sp1cmty, etc. . . . and she exJYibited sev,e ml specimens 6£ Composij1~ion."18 . In 1819.John Hausam, c,af!le t? Ral,~ ig~· " a~ .a;trav~fin,g .~e~ch~r
' . lq£ Engh~h Gr~~mai'." .I-~~s ~~~ouncem.ep~ ,~egins :, ".' ,r~.~: Ac~pi~~t.io,n
of English Grammar Rendered pleasmg,, exped1t10us and .perma. nent." 19 The decade of 1821- 1830 sho~s 39 defi~·it~ ·a~~~l.i'nce~~~ts
of
grammar;
that of 1831-1840 shows 31 schools which bo-ive the sub•
.
Jert n prommPnt plnrP.

,,.,
•;

!f
,!

On P Eflwnrfl FowlkP~ . in 1 R~J , ::innmmcPrl of

a certain school: "It is an institution in whicl{ th e EngliSh Gramiuar
' lis tau g ht upon a completely new and successful plan in .seven 'Weeks,
! ·: l ·
· ! ., 1" 1 ::>.; ... :
i
at seven dollars per schoJa.r." 20
v' In all, 118 schools, of about 300 private in stitutioi1s of whi ch
J.Coon has reprinted · docum ents, were definitely teaching English
lSJhlfl.

The private schools of North Crtrolina generally inclnd ed En glish
grammar in their curricula after 1800. 1° Five sd 1uuls Lefore 1800
report grammar. Grove A cademy, the earliest , in 1787 r eported
"twenty-five students under a master who teaches only the Latin and
English grammar." 11 The tru slces of New Bern Academy report Lhe
examination of pupils in th e English language in 179'1; 12 likew ise,

AFTER n7s. ·: ·

1

HO.

RnlPi g-h

· "'fl \ "

R1•g- .• An g. 19 , 1ROO,

·- "' ·

' ·"

"·•'

l• "I!Jicl., G3 ,J. Raleigh R eg., Ocl. !J, 1s1s: TLc t e xtbooks 'm culioneti in :tl.Jcsc rccorcls
arc Murl'O Y''\ Grammar and Murrny's Exercises. Among th e ' books ndver t i"e<l in , North
·'Cnrollu n <l urlirg th e pcl'lod before 1 810 a ppea r nl so W"lJSfcr's, Ashe'R. Dilworth•s. :Priestl cv:s.
·Lowth ' s, .1ker' s, Hnrr! so n' s " E:rerctses 1n .Bnd E ngit sh," · 1\·I u r rny 's ''E xe rcises,'' ~I.ur·
. ray's. " lulruU11cUu11,' ' F~8 her·s. ILi~. 1 . 7 G9 1 7 Ri 74 , 7ft 7.7 80, RG. . Afh:•r IH10 lh Pre n p pen r
1
fn ndrll _tfnn .o\ l "x~u rl "r ' ~. t'Jr11·r" t ~on ' s "Exercfses 1n Bnd English," Grccnlc3.'r•s: , IngC'r s ol; s,
Comley 's, Bro\vn's , Honrtlmnn'8. ' Jbtfl., 789, HG. ·1n 18:~8 T11n1 e 1· nnd HnghP~, of RnlP!gh,
; ndverf:lsc<I ":wo Smlf:h '.s l'racf lcnl l'rod uc t!ve Grn mmar, 700 Murray'~ Englis h Grammnr
\h!! bo und
leather an t'! otl'erell at a reduced pri ce.' 1 ' Ibid. , ' 7 tJS, Ral eigh ' Reg .. · Mar.
1

) 2..

1 R~8 .

In

.

·

·

1•

0

.

.

.

, Sch ool om clols .were cngcr to secure good English t eachers . Such ncfrer tls r me nf s
'" . nppea r e<l iu ll w Halei g h He giste!· !Jetween l800_:1810 : ab u 4;1~liiie<l "t~ . t eac h Engltsh
Grawrnur." Iuitl., S00- 4. From 1811- 1820 there a r e cited seven 'similar ndverllsemeub.
' Thirty of the 40 ndvfrf:iscments .and announcements cited between 1821
nnd 1840 concern
1
teilch ers - ror English s chool s . ' Ibid ., 813-820. '
: · · 1 •• '
;·. I . -: ... !
'· ' ·
. "Ibld.,2. RalelghReg., May9,1803. .
·;·'• :,1 .. !:···<' 11:1
,. .. ,. ,
"Ibid. , 19. Rnl elgb R eg. , De c. 9 , 1803.
, : ,''Ibid., 175 ... Halifax .Tour., Jan . , 12, 1807.
; 11 Ibid., 363.
Western Cnrolinlan, D ec. 19, 1820. ·
-, . r 1' , ,
, i•·1
, ' u Ibid., 521 : R a le igh R eg., A ug. 27, 1819. '
•Ibid., 558; The Star, June 30, 1831.
' , l '· · ·
• 1 ~

. . i •· .;\

11 • '·

:

. •

I·

~I
92

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775• .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

grammar before 1840. No direct evidence appears with respect ~
instruction in· English grammar in the 172 other schools, and we can
not therefore assert positively that instruction in this branch w115
.given in any one of them. Yet it seems likely that some of the~
schools gave such instruction, becai.1se many of them do not annou11~
their curricula, and almost without exception those schools w hie~
do include grammar in the documents studied. I-Iowever, among the
schools not listed very many annonnced "the English School," "t~e
branches us111tlly t:wglit in English Schools," "the lower an<l higl,~r
branches of English," "all branches of English," "the ordinar1
branches of English," or used similar phrases. " Te may conclude th~
the private schools of North Carolina were very generally layiW
stress upon grammar before 1840.
tr
.,

!/i
.

.. 1

In spite of the fact that an enormotlS number of grammars w~~
sold every year in the middle of the nineteenth century, they '~'W
used mostly in the intermediate and high schools of the larger and
more prosperous towns, and at best only in a perfunctory way. in t~e
'
schools of smaller communities.
~i

1

'. •

l.'. ·

93

one-fourth fell below the standard r equired by law." 24 Center
County was compelled to issue many certificates from 'Yhiqh English
grammar and geography were stricken ,out. 25 , ~specially .. ~ugges,tiy~
i~1 thestatement from Clearfield County: ".,, ... · ,, ,. 1; · •• :~ ·i ·
: "' ;" '
find
many
who
can
go
through
the
grammar
'
and
repeat
evety··
tule
and
11
conjugate every verb correctly and can not analyze 1 and ·parse the most simple ,
sentence.'~ .
.. . , , . ·· ;1 . ,. 1 '. n. : J .. 1 ,, 'I,,.,, . 1
.The foregoing are fairly typical replies .. · 1 " "1 ! . ·:· ,, , • .. ., .· • !
· '..1The superintendent of Adams County found that , general opposi- ·
lion to the new school law hiy in the requirement that .English gram~
mar and geography should be taught. He affirmed .t hat ,". none of!the i
piirents wish their children to study. English Grammar · and Geog.; ,
raphy." 21 He allayed the opposition by . explaining .that :the law ..
required grammar in every county but not .in every .school. This is
typical of many references to hostility toward the subject; very few 1
counties report favorable instruction in the subject, 11and .that ·in the ;
academies and larger schools . . All these facts lead to the., inference !
that English grammar .as such had lit.t ie place in the .large majority l
of the common schools of Pennsylvania .. To be sure, the law was new.
The relative emphasis upon grammar and , other., l).ighet, branches .irt . .
New y ork at this period indicates the effects of. 25 years of legal. ,
requ.irement of the branches in the latter State as compared with the
absence of such requirement in Pennsylvania. ··In the latter the report
of1 Indiana County states .what seems to have been near the general
tr)lth:
.... '
· .1:·;r'· :;" ' '

A body of data concerning the status of the common schools of Penn·
sylvania seems to bear out this conclusion for that State. In 1854
the legislature passed a la.w requiring instruction in grammar 21 and ' A rough knowledge of spelling, reading, writing, an'd ciphering' is' deem:m 'an i
obliged each county superintendent to submit an annual report to· the 1ufficient, whilst a knowledge of grammar, geography, etc., is most heartily
pudlated."'
·
superintendent of common schools.2 2 In the following year all but~
few counties complied.
In short, the Pennsylvania reports show that the schools were by
Examination of these reports shows that there is almost universal no means fitted to give good instruction in grammar. Thirty-nine
evidence of scarcity of good teachers; that many who applied to ta.~ counties report grossly inadequate instruction; .29 say they have.· to
the examinations were rejected; that many times teachers who wen aci~ept whoever applies; 20 complain of hopeless variety of textbooks . .
deficient in grammar and geography had to be accepted. Out of Jlo ahd incompetent grading; 18 speak of decided opposition to gram-.'
counties 28 county superintendents comment on the difficulty of secur· m.ar; 1.4 sa;Y that local inspectors, being unpaid, are unsatisfactory; U '.
ing competent tea chers of any subjects, 39 upon the incompetency''gf niention wretched buildings; only 3 reports are really commenda~
teachers applying for examination in grammar. For example, ·ii t~h, although many are optimistic concerning the ultimate effect o~ ;
Bucks County 270 teachers were examined; certi~cates were gran~ S~ate aid, certification of teachers, and other new features of the law.
to 20 who were deficient in English grammar on their promise" that......,,~..---------------~-.--~,.~--,--;-.-,----'~they ~ould make themselves acquainted with this subject during ,~
:~~:~:: ~~: .
·, 1
:: .. · ...
,.::·" 1. , .
year." 23 In Bradford County "out of 500 teachers examined . "' . cr,Ibld., 47.
' .. i
! . I r 1 l· '; :• I,
_ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..;._

""It shall be the duty of each county superintenden t to see that in every district then
shall be taught orthography, reading, wrltln&, English irrnmmar, geography, and ~rli.
metlc . . . . " Laws Com. Pa., 185•, 6211,
'
,. Ibid., 627.
n Pa. Com. Sch. Rept., 1854, 25.

ibid., 4.

'
..
'
.
.
'
Tbe .~perlnt endent of Bucks County, tn 'one scllool,'sa~'il cl ltfises r ecite In '!
the following ord er : One scholnr In Swain's Render; 12 In Frost's History; 1 In Emerion's First Class Render; l In Comley's Render; 1 In Emerson's Third Class Rea der t 2
In Emerson's Rhe torlcnl Render; 1 In Comley's Spelling Book; 2 In The Prlmei•.; 2 In The
AB C's. The same program was repeated In the nfternoon. Ibid., 28,
· · .. 1•:1· 1 '
' I' Ibid., 15.

:ll

I

I
11·

!!1·
l~

94

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER ,17~5. ,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

I"·

!!, 1
H1
1

' 1·1
1'

I

I,'
~·

fli

' ,,
I

I

·1'1,

.

')

The status of grnmmar m the common schools of New Jersey during the decade 1850 to 1860 may be seen by an examination of the!
reports of the State board of education for three representative '
years-1850, 1854, and 1860. The total number of r eferences in these
reports concerning the curriculum include statements from 12 of the :
21 counties and fro~ 19 different townships which specifically men~·1.
tion grammar. In 1850 Bergen County reports " grammar, history, ·
n.rithmetic tat1ght orally to Young pupils" in Hackensack Town~ .
ship; 29 of 154 boys and 152 girls in Northampton Township, Burling-'
ton County, 66 were studying grammar, 30 and of 150 pupils, 50 were f
studying grainmar in Southampton Township. 81 The superintendentt
of Hunterdon County r eports that a few pupils only study grammar. 81 1
An interesti ng sidelight, indicftti ng that in ce rtain CJllartcrs the sub-,
ject was regarded as the capstone of the comrnon-school curriculum, is l
found in the following statement of the superintendent of vVoodJi
bridge Township, Middlesex County: " There are taught , all the subiB
jects usually taught in the schools, from the alphabet to · English
grammar." 33 Of reports from 175 townships, in 1851: only five citedi
above speak of grammai'. However, the subject is mentioned by every!
officer who mentions the curriculum at all.
!,
The following table giving the distribution of pupils by snbjects'1
in seven districts of \Vall Township, Monmouth Co unty, is enlighten~!
ing as showing the relatively small number of pupils studying gram~n
mar, which, as we have seen, was regarded as one of the higlietj
branches in the comrnon schools. 3 "
1 •
District.
1- - - , . - - - - - - , . -- - . , . - -- - , . - - -,-----1 Total.
3
_ __ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ ___ _•_ _ _ _ _
1

Number of pupils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A verago attendance...... . ...........
Alphabet. ....... .......... .. ... . . . . . .
Spelllng. . . .. . ............ . . ... . . . . ...
Reading.. . ... ........ . . .. . . .. . ...... .

40
20
1
27
25

81
42
9
70
55

50
30
4
25
20

~«m:::etic:::::::::::::::: ::::::: :: : :

61
36
6
~o

,

0

68
40
5
60
60

40
25
1
25
20

1_..___
,
11fi
92
42
5
37
32

g
~~
~~
rn 3820 i~7 i~6
10
4
6
10
g~~~~?'::·::::::::::::::::::::::::
i
~
i ~
g
i g
~gll~~~11';-~~~-s::::: : ::::::: ::: ::::::: :::::::: :::::::: :::::::: ······ i. :::::::: ...... '. ........ .
Beyond d1vis1on......... . ..... ... ...

In 1860, 205 townships in 21 counties show meager evidence as to
grammar being a part of the curriculum, only eight town ships refer~
ring definitely to it. Roswell Smith's grammars predominate, and
there is constant indication that the subject is taught as a· higher
"Re pt. State Supt., 1851, 32.
Ibid .. 41.
11 I bid., 45.

·80

82

Ibid., 63.

"Ibid., 85.
"Ibid., 1854, 127.

95 •

;1 ·· !,'"1·.':1

branch, only very few pupils pursuing it. The conclusion which must
be reached is that grammar was but indi:fferently ·taugnt in1NE\w. Jer-1
sey, only in the better common schools, ·with less than one-tenth 0:£. the·
pupils studying it. This is entirely .consistent with ..the' status .of the ,
subject in Pennsylvania during the same ,periqd. , i ; '"" ; , i ', 1 '<•'1·1 •
.! ' .
~.ti j i . r '. ' ; 't ' 1·11:. i r
f'

1 '\

,

·r , . ;

1, · •

·

1·, i

· 1r• 1 ! "

q·f · • i.

1, t\ t

.

The showing of New York for thE\ decade Iin
question
is moi;e • favor ••'
r • ., ' • •
able. The
State
was
evidently
far
in
advance.
of
Pennsyl
vania and
1 1': 1 · 1 1 1• 1 , 1• 1 ! 1· ,, 1 _·. • 1 ' 1 . • • r: 11 11 , .... • 11 1.• 1• •
..
srs
·,, 1 1
·
1 •

•

11

'

1

•

•

1·1

N~~ ~;~~;:~·ing.with the adjoi,ning. St:~~~~M,; ~J~.d~.·~~, . ~~)·~;ri.~-~~r~<l.·'.

that the academies of New York are higher schools than the common
schools considered in Pennsylvanif\- ,a nd New Jersey. Data concerning the status of grammar in the common schools of New York are
not availnble after 1839; but even as ~arl,Y 3;~ 1 1826.-::~899 the ~~oi""~~g
for grammar in common schools in New York far surpasses
that of
l :1d \
J f ' j '1 ;'
86
the two other States named even for 20 years later.
.
,
, ,
f,
f
Regents' reports of New York, covering the condition of. grammar
for the period, 1865 to 1874, in the academies, show the complete
passing of the grammar8 ' of 't he 'old guard : (with the! exception '
··t
Goold Brown's, Murray's, Kirkham'~, . ~mith's; and , ~Vebst~r's)i . The,i
newer grnmmars of the mid~le of the ,centurY, have taken their pla?.e,
as will be seen from the following table! 'sr ·· · ·· ·' " ·" '•' ·' 1 ' 1 ' • 1 '
'

'

'

•

'

'

'

'

, I

'

,

',

I \ .

T • !

'

! I

'

•

1

·

.

Brown.. . . ..... . ...... .......
Smith......... .. .... . .......

72
3
24
55
17
13
25
13

••

·

·

,

aa·
a .i

·

1 ;•

,· ( / '

I •_

•

1

: , ! ~ ' ' ' '' •

. .

' 1

'

'

, ,

1

'

of

' '

•

.. · r_ _.r

~

--.-- ~,. , ,,

75
61
62
58
1 ---·-3·0·· Jl. .. ~o:. ___ , , _.3~·
26
58
53
45
., 34
14
10
10
6
7
13
12
12
29
26
17 '
20
30
28
28
32

;

'

•

'

· ; · 11

"

52

54

::. ;-.ao·· ·· '·'35·

-.,- .. -, .

51
.· .~ ---3~ ~

Bullion......... . ...... . . ... .
20
Clark . ... . ...... . ... . . ... ....
. 56
.: 36 .. ,, 34
Weld....... . . . ..... .. ...... .
13
7
6
Greene ...... .. ..............
9
i,.", 17
21 , .. j,
Quackenbos ....... . ........ '.
25
17
16
Kerl.. . _. __ . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
34
31
Swinton . . ........ . . . ... . ... . .. . ... . .... . .... . .. . .... . .... . .. . ... ..... . .. . .. . ..• . ·. ... . , , 5,
Scattering.. . ... . . . . .. . . .....
4
4
4
5
3
4
· 7
'6
1, •. · , ,

l

34 1
5
25 • ,

11

50

12
7

••The following table continues the table on pnge .83 through the years · 1850 ' t& 18ti6,
inclusive.
.. · ,. :
.· '
Year ... . ..... , ..... . . .. . .... . . ... ...... .. .
Academies reporting . ..... .. . .... . . . ..... .
Number of students . ........... .. .... . . . . .

1851
168
19,552

- - -- -- - -- - - --1· -- - -- Oram1nars:

~fl~k:1~l,U".~: ::: :: ::::: :::::::::::::::::

Brown........................... . ....
Smith.. . ............... . . . . ...........

l~

66
21

1853

1852
170
20, 920

·

169

22, 670

Grecue .. . .. . .. . ........ . .. . ....... . . . . '

21

7

1

1856
176
' 20, 860

·l
l

- -- - - - - -- -,,.- -

~

68
22

~~~i~I~r.·.~: ::: ::::::::·::::: :: :: ::: ::: : ....... ~~- ...... :~~-

~lff~::
:: :: :::::::::::::: ::::::: :::: ' , , I~
Weld.. . . .. . . .. .. . ...... . .. ... ... . . . . ..

10

: ' ' l ' lsS4 .':
1M5 .
173 ' ' 165 ·
22, 778
18, p51

"-.· lg "·
19

4

§';,~~!e~fiig::::::::: :: ::: :::::::::::: ::: ······· iii. ··~··· · ii . .

1
3
77

18 '
52
1
6
14
.. · 9
·' ' 19
3
5
.,10

0
3
75
16

53
5
7
10
12
21
4
2

12

I"

1
2
' 75
13
54
1
5
5
' 11'

18
' '2
2
15

"

1
0
80
21
54
4

,, ' 156 '
' 14
7
2
12

Compiled from Regent 's Reports, 1852-1857, Inclusive. The 1855 figures represent two-thirds Of the y~r.
.. See p. 84.
' .
'' ' "neg. Rep., 1876, ~30,
I :: ' '. ' I '.

l

r

I

96

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

The new grammars of Quackenbos and Kerl have attained prominence, and Swinton's "Language Lessons," of 1873, which wn,s to
revolutionize the teaching of the subject, is seen just entering the
academies; The fact is significant that the total number of grammars
reported is considerably diminished, even though the number of
academies is increased. This means that the place of the sub ject in
the curriculum has become more stable.
Some light can be thrown on the status of grammar in the academies during this period by reports of regents' exnrninations. The
percentage of those passing in grammar is noticeably lower than in
arithmetic, geography, and spelling, the three other subjects usecl. 38

In Ohio, 1852, the 26 townships of Licking County taught English
grammar. 39 That the instruction was largely perfunctory in some of
the rural counties, at }east, is evidenced by the superintendent of Pike
County, who reported :
That our children should learn to read and write, and occnsionally, in la rge
towns and cities, to the highly favoured, may be added, by way of lux ury , a
little spri nkling of Geography and Gra mmar, answers almos t uni\·ersal custom."
1rni.n

somewhat.

\ln(len~s timaLecl

JSM.

Ger111an ___ __ __ ________ __ ______ ___ _· - - - - ----- ----------- ---- - -- ---- ~ -------- - - --

675
113
!J03 .

I!'rench ............................................ ............................. .
Zoology ........................ ... .... ·····-······· ···--· ················· ·--·

180
675

Ln tl n ................. .......................................................... .
Greek ...... :.................... ............. ~ --- · -· ····· ···· ·· ···-···-··-·· · ·· ··

Number examined .... ----·- - · . .
Number passed . ... . _. __ . __ . __..
Per cent passed .. - . _. __ .. ___ - _..

1866

1867

1868

1869

1870

1871

12, 939
5,306
4. 1

12, 266
5,354
8. 65

11 , 780
4, 86l
30. 97

11, 322
3,251
28. 71

12, 286
3,276
26. 66

13,063
4, 161
3l. 85

Ann . Rept. Regt. Univ. N. Y., 89, 172.
" ,Ilept. Sec. State, Com . Scb., 18u2, 40.
.. lbld., 51,

"Rept. of Scb. Comni., 1857, 86.
.. lbld., 89.

1872
15, 442

6, 118

1857.

!)29

{

I

1 , 31!)

159
1,320

250
688

": This table, indicating that approximately one-fifth of the pupils
were studying grammar, seems to warrant the assertion .that the ·subject was almost universal, including quite as large a percentage of
pupils as in New York and Massachusetts. This conclusion must be
qualified by two facts: First, undeveloped counties, like Pike 43 and
Gallia, 44 report that, with very few exceptions, reading, writing, and
arithmetic are" all the pupils are expected to acquire"; second, there
is fre<Jnent complaint that teachers are inrompd.e nt , !'SpPria11y in
grarnmar and geography. In 1858 the State .commissioner said: "As
the chief of all causes of poor schools, poor teachers stands out. That
one-half, or one-tenth (sic), even of the thousands of teachers in
Ohio are in all respects what theiF profes.sion demands no one can
'justly claim." 45
The status of English branches in academies of Ohio ii~ this decade
(1850--lSGO) mav be seen in the renorts of tvnical academies made to
State ofncials :· 4 ~
I

ol

.A..

o.I

A.

j

Ancient
LlE-

I Modern
:

lauI guages. I guages.

'

] Higl1er
' LrFU::L
J

brancl;es.

- -,- - 1 - -1 - -

· ~~~~~~~~{1~~~~~;.;::: ::: ::::: :::::::: :::::: ::::::::: :::::::: :':: :: :::::::::!

~~ 1
··--····s·I

. 1Pomeroy .. ······ ' ···· ·· -······ ··'· ··························· ···········- 1

~~

. l ~i~~~~}Il'.·.: :,::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: ::::: :::::~::

1857.

271.110
Peun 1uusl 1ip ............................................. ---·---·----····-·· 2JD, 002
112, 744
Mentnl arithmetic..... ................................................. 82, 640
187, 2DO
Written Jtrlthmetk. ................................................... lO<l. OO!i
10-'l. 2'70
Geography ................................................................. . !)0, 784
7fi.3fi3
o~. 414
English gra mmnr .... ........... ..... .
Compos! ti 011................................................................ 9!!tllll:==•!!!!!!!!!~
0, 7:i\)
fi , R2-I
History-·····--···-··-····-········-····-·········· ··-··-···-··················
7, 614
5, 7!)0
Algeb ra ............... .. ...................................................... .

1856 . .
'404

n hetoric ··· ·· ··············-·········-·-················· ·······-· ··-······-·-

\

the univel'sal cus~om is
f-'liown hy t.]w. rpport. of t.hP. Rt.n.t.P. commissioner for the year 1856.
su mmarizing the number of puµils iu::;lnided in lhe various branches.
The total number of" nnmnrriefl "children of school age (5 to 21) in
the State was 799,666; of these, 501,315 were enrolled in the schools; ·
the average attendance was 322,G43.H The Jistributiou of these by
· subjects is as follows: 42
That thi s

97

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775.

221···· ······1
~~

gg
27
l:g
HIM

i( "

The status of gnunmar in New Hampshire schools in 1850-1852 is
·indicated by the report of the county commissioner of lfockingham
. .County for the year 1851. . The commissioner hall been conllucti ng a
:__ ~ caJnpaign against the multiplicity of school books and ha(l s11ccrcdc(l
'in inducing his various town committees to recommend uniform
· books for the. u se. of ;tl] tlw schools in thr.ir tci\Y11s. 1fo n•cnrds, 1cl\n1
· b_v town, the grammars r epresented. Thirty to"·ns report. Of tlrnsc.
·2 do not mention books recommended; only 1 other does not
mention a grammar. Of the remaining 24 towns, preference is
shown in 14 for W. H. 'Vells's Grnmmar; in 7 towns for Roswell
111

39. 61

"Ibid.,
"Ibid.,
" Ibid.,
"Rept.

1852, 49.
1856.
1858, 61.
Stnte Com. F:d., 1858, 168, Gi, 66, 61, 59 •

60258°-22--7

II

I
.

.

,,."1;1

··~

=~,.;
; .. ,

\,'

,\

i

I'
ij

I ,

'

.

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTER 1775.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

98

Smith's "Producti ve ' LPssons," and in G t o" ·ns fo r Wcld 's "New
Gra.mmrtr. " .As sccoml choice (11se(l in a, fe w schools ) 3 t owns
repor ted ·wells's, 4 vVeld's, and G Sm it h's.4°a Th e total number of
towns in Hockin g h a m County, in 1852, wn.s 37, with 455 schools in
operntion.47 Scattered referen ces in reports from commi ssioners of
oth er counties indicate that Hockingham is typical. In Carroll
County th e commi ssioner especially examined grammar classes. 48 In
Cheshire County Institnte a teacher of gramm ar was provided. 40 Sullivan County nam ed a nnmber of towns in whi ch "grammar was
better taught than it was last year. " 50 In Grafton County the commi ssion er emplrns ized the" clements of gr:urnnar." 51 In Coos County
child ren of 12 were pass in g good examinations in g rnmmar.5 2
The report of the State commi ssioner of the following year (1 852 )
ilHlienJes that th e coun ty co11rn1ission crs, meeting at the capitnl, recommended a, uniform system of textbooks, among th em H . N. \Veld 's
New Grammar and Dyer H. Sanborn 's Grammar. 53 Several county "
com mi ssioners endeavored to have grammar "taught understanding ly," 54 and occasionally th ere crept in a vigorous achocacy of com- ,
position as supplementary to grammar. 55 Cheshire County reported ·
a farge variety of grammars. 50

99

departmen t, Clark's Gntmmar~ English rumlysis. original and selected
declamation s, and comp ositions weekly. 60 · · Coldwater reported ' the
·s'arno curri cu lum with different textbooks. 01 Ann Arbor High School
'showed English gramm ar in its first year, 62 while Adrian High School
required an entrance examination in 'grammar, analysis, and simple
1
·niles for composition. 63
'" '·· '" "' · ; 1 " · . 1';
·· Neither the academies nor the common schools so far considered are .
ill themsel ves sufficient to determine the status of instruction in gram'mar. \ Ve have seen that the corhmon schools give but very limited
and indiffPrent. inst.ruction in th e s11hject and that' the New Y ork
acarle_mies, looked upon
fitting schools for !teachers,· had special
interest in grarnmar. There is available in convenient form information from the printed school regulations as to the status of the 'sub"j ect obtaining in a considerable number of cities of representative
". distribution throughout the Union,. The regulations of New York
City; Springfield, Mass. ; New Haven, New Bedford, Boston, Chi'"eago, St. Louis, Louisville, Philadel phia, and Cincinnati are studied
particularly.64
'
'

as

LARGER CITIES.

In the primary school (common, elementary, or dist rict school in
some
cities), with from four to seven grades, the formal study of
MICHIGAN.
grammar was not begun. There is exception in the case of New
In 1857 the superintendent of instru ction of Michigan asked
.H aven, where grammar is prescribed for the sixth and seventh grades
officers of all the union schools 57 to furnish him inform ation upon 12
.of the common school. However , this city seems to have had no interpoints, on e of which was the co urse of study pursued in the school. '
;mediate or grammar school. By 1866 Chicago had also adopted the
Heplies from a number of schools, although very incomplete, enable
, ~wofold division-elementary and high schools-and grammar
us to determine the status of grammar in the curriculum. The normal
·~appears in the . eighth, ninth , and tenth grades. The latter city
grading appears to be reported in Dowagiac union school, divided ·.
;announces, however, that "grammar shall be 'taugh~ practically in
into p rimary, grammar (or intermediate), and high school depart,all the grades in connection with composit~on." In the regulations
ments. Rud iments of grammar were beg un in the grammar school , ·'of all th e other cities noted a similar provision iS made, either specifi( the fifth yea r of the pupil's school life) , together with composition
•:cally or by implication. Eastern cities seem to lay great stress on oraland declamation. The high-school department, beginning in the • • ~grammar work in all grades except the first two. New Y oi:k and Cinseven th yea r of sch ool life, included gramm ar , composition, analysis
.cinnati h ave unique courses in " punctuation,"' running through all
of English sentence, d eclamation, and cloc11tion." 8 The equi valent
.the primary grades. Cincinnati, insisting 11pon "practical " g ramcourse is reported in Grand Rapicls, J ones vi ll e, and Ontonagon.n
mar for the first five grades, a<llls "and pupils in grnde A (sixth)
Ypsilanti, in the grammar dep artmeul, used Clark '::; Primary Gram02 11.Jld., 440.
:r;. 00 Ibid ., 4 7!3.
i'"' " Ibid., 449.
,
"' Ibid., 4 34.
mar, with declanmtions and compositions weekl y; in the academic
• 2 Ibi d., 133.
"" He pt. Comm. Sch. N. H., 1852, 61- 7.
., Ibi d., 1853 , 29.
"Op , cit., 1853 , G4.
., Ibid. , V4.
' 8 I bid,, 1852, 82 .
• 5 Ibid,, VG- 7.
" Ibid ,. 105.
M Ibid .. 118.
'° Ibid ,, 110.
• 1 I b id ,, 121.
., A te r m e mbra c in g nil f'11 c pniJllc schoo ls in the various communities.
""Mich. Sch. Re pts,, 185 7, 457.

69

lhi<l. , 4GG, 7, 77.

'

~

, · .. Data In Bnr o ard 's Amer. J. o f Ed., 1870, 469-518. ,
; In, the Cincinnati schools, 1860, pupil s were di s tributed In the various branches of Eng·
· -llsh as foll ows: High schools-English grnmmar, 174, rhetoric, 294, r eadin g, 364 , comp o,:.Sttlon, ,3 63 , d eclamation. l!l9; Intermediate schools-reading and orthography, 1,179 .
~ Engli s h grnmmar, 1,174 , pe nman sh ip, 1,179, composition, 941 , elocution, 204; In the dls1trlct schools-alphabet, 4 ,6?,2, English grnmmar, 421, composition. 463, eloc uti on, 266.
•
, Common Sch. Cln cin,, 31st Ann . R e pt., 9. Tbe principal of the Woodward High School
1
.. )reported that "grnm mar is now well taught In th e !nte rmedinte schools," Ib id,, 5 7. The
, followin g yea r showed a total oC 2,682 pupils In grammar. 3,616 In composition. V54 In
_.'. elocution , 363 in rhetoric o ut of a totul of 22,749 children enrolled. Ibid., 1861, 9.

I
I

i

100

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

101

RAPID RISE OF GRAMMAR AFTim 1175.

"s
shall be familiar with t heir textbook (in ~nunmar) as far as mode." ; study 'of grammar or collateral study in connection with composition
vVith this exception t-lrn fact seems to be that no formal grammar was ~.~ either before or after the formal study. Philadelphia was the only
taught in the first fi ve years of school life, that it was rarely taught in
city on th e list requiring textbook study for five years. ·
the sixth year, and not often in the seventh. Provision for incidental ~
The position of grammar 111 the high schools was as follows: In
instruction during these years is universal.
some cities an entrance examination or certificate of proficiency ·from
In the intermediate grades, usually called grammar grades, the !}; the grammar school was r equired, as in New York and Boston; in some
subject reigned supreme. New York, after her six years in punctua- . :.:. citie,'3 review conrses were prescribed m the first year of the high
tion, apparently gave two years of reli ef , for formal grammar study ~~ school, as m Louisville, Philadelphia, and others; m still other cities
does not appear until the third year of the grammar school. Not till
grammar was designated as an incidental study in the high school-in·
the fifth year of the intermediate schools did textbook work in gramall three grades of the Boston high school and in the last three grad€s
mar begin, but it hail \wen ta-11glit orally for fhe t wo yea rs pref~e(ling. · ~ ill Nc\Y Htl\"en. 66
.
In the fifth year" English grammar commenced, with the use of text- ~
Further light upon the status of grammar in the high-school curbooks, to include th e analysis, parsing, and construction of simple
riculum of 18G7 is found in a study made from the official r egulations
sentences, and with sn<"h definitions only as pertain to I.he pn,rl:s of ~ of 29 citi es jJllblishetl in 1870. The original study i11cl11des all the
speech." This type of teaching was continued for the two following
subjects mentioned m the statutes as being taught in the high school.
07
years.
11 The following table
indicates only the subjects pertaining to the
To summarize~ New York began formal grammar in the ninth year
vernacular :
of school, New Haven in the seventh, Cincinnati in th e sixth, SpringEnglish English
c
field in the seventh, New Bedford in the eighth, Boston in the eighth:
DeclaGramCities.
Spelling. R eading. synolitcra- Rhetoric. s01f1Jt°" mation
.
mar . .
nyms.
ture.
l
·
Chicago in the eighth, St. Louis in the sixth , Louisville in the eighth,
Philadelphia in the eighth. The average for these representative ·~
- -- - - · - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - --·cities was about the eighth grade.
,,, ~~~~~or~::::: :::: : :: . ... x.... Q .. .. x.. .. Q
Q
Q
x
Q

As to the length of time given the study below the high school, New
York assigned fiv e years (two orally); New Haven, three years; New
Bedford, two yen rs; Cin cinnati, three yen.rs; Springfield, three years;
·
h
St L ·
Boston, three years; 0 ~ Cl n cago, t ree years;
. Ollis, two years;
Louisville, three years; Philadelphia, five years. The average time
g iven, apparently, was three years. This does not consider in f onnal .·
.. Boston shows the n o rmnl nrrnnl!'omrnt of thr~c school•, n• foll ow•:
i
Pr!mnry school. Six g m d es.. No trnces of formn! grnmmnr, but orn! Instruction In ail
p:rades . Grnmmar Incidental.
Grnmmar schools. Four grades. Gramm n r in the Inst three grades, clnss No. 3 u s ing
Keri's " Elementnry English Grammnr," class No. 2 u s ing Ke ri 's " El e me ntary " or K e ri's
"Comprehe nsive English Grnmm a r ," clnss No. 1, grammar. The Inst two classes hn".e
composition and, In the boys' school, d eclamation.
Girls' high school. Three grades. Entrance e xamination !u grammar. Lowest clnssgrammar reviewed, nn n lys is of lnnguage nnd structure of Re n tc n ces, compositi on .
Englis h high school. Three grades . Entrnncc cxnm lnnl! on in l!:mmmnr.
I
"The seve ral clnsses s hnll a lso have exercises in English compos i tion nnd d eclnmntion.
The Instructors shall pa y particu lar attention t'> the penmanship of the pupils and give
constantly such nttent!on to spelling. r eadin g , a nd Englieh grammnr as th ey may deem
necessary to mnke the pupils fam!l!nr with th ese fundam entnl brnnc hes of a good <
educution."
t
Th e r egul a tions of the E ngli s h b! g b sch oo ls for 1820, dnte o f founding. r equired gram· ,
mar In the lowest cl ass, with composition, criticis m , and declamation in nil the classes.
By 18:l G gramm a r as a formn! ~tudy hnd been dropped ; for the fir s t clnss, however, we~e ~
prescribed "review s of the prcpnratory s tudies In the textbooks authorized to be used in •
the grnmmnr and writing schools," nnd the provision wns thnt "th e seve rn l divisions shnll If
al so r ece ive instruction in Rpcll!n g, r eadl nir, writing, Engli s h grnmmar, declamation, com· ,
position, nnd th e Fre n c h lnngunge." Jn the successive r egulatio ns of 1820, 1836. and ,
4
1852 we see the process of for cing formal g rammnr Into the lower schoo l and retaining .;
tncldentnl study of It In the high school, with entrance exnmlnatlon r equired.

j1

~ gr~~~::~.:: :: :::::/:: ::: : :::

x

x

g

1c1cvc1a11d .. ....... , .. [... ... . . ..

· ~~.~cl1~\~,"L~c·(\vis.Y.: ::::::::::
Hurt ford ..... . .. ... .. . .. . . . .. ...
· Indianapolis ... . . . . ... .. .. ... ..
1
~, ~~/:;?1 ~~~~~·.l_·:::::: ::::::::::
Madison (Wis.). .. ... 1. .. .... . . .
Mnnchcstcr . ..........
New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I··········

i>"

~::a~~'.~~'.': : ::: : :: : :

r

~

Niles (Mich .).........

Philadc~ihin... .. .. . .

~~~~~ncC::.~·!:: ::: : :

X
. ... ~ ... .
..........
· · · · ·· · · · ·
. .. .. . ....

Rochester...... . . . ...
Sandusky · ·· ··· ·· ·· · ·
• Ban Francisco...... . .
. Springfield . .. .. . . . .. .
St. Louis....... . .....
Terre Haute .. ... .. ·· · · · ········
· ~grccstc~::::::: ::: :: :::: : :::: :

x
X

x
X

Q

X
X

~

X

X

x

:::::::::: ....~ . ...

Q ····~···· :::::::::: · ···~·· ··
x
x
X
x

x·

x

x

Q

Q

Q

x

..........

x
x

X

X

X

..... 1. .: .

Q .. .. x........ x. ...

x
X

~

1

Q

x

x

... :..... .

Q

~

~

Q

Q

X

X

X

..........
X
X
X
X
x
...... . ...
X
X
X
X
X
::::::::::
~
~
.......... ..........
X
.. .... . ... . .. .. . ... .
· · · · · ·· · · ·
X
X
X
X
X
X
.... .. ...•
. . ... . . . ..
X
X
...... .. .. . ..... ..... .... .. .. .
X
......... .
x
x
x
x
x
· · ··· · · ··· ·· ·· · · · ···
X
X
..
....
....
x
x
....
~
x
x
x
X
X
:: :: ::::::
..........
··········
. ...... ...

x···· .... ... ,

Q

Q

Q

l

Spelling and English synonyms appear In the statutes of 5 cities,
· reading in 12, declamation in 17, English literature in 21, composi·'· tion in 23, grarrunar in 23, and rhetoric in 27. However, the data are
',~

.,..

,. In St. Louis grnmmnr was begun as a t e xtbook study In the sixth grnde of the district
achool; th e first (1unrter to page 27; second, 4G; third, 58; fourth, 75; continued in sevJ entb grnrle. first quarter to page 100; second , 122; third, 164 ; fourth, r ev iew. The subject
was th en dropped. until the firs t yenr of the high s c hool, In the first yenr of which English
.~: par sing and nnn!ys!s nre prescribed.
., · In Lou!sv!l)e no grammar wns s hown In the four years of the prlmnry d e partm ent; In
the lntermell!ate departm ent there was orn! instruction based on the r e nders, In which the

~~

!

I

""I
102

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERI CAN SCH OOLS BKPOT'.E 1850.

arnbi g11011s, brcause n. nnmher of the cities are listed in t.hP nbnve t.ahle
as giving grammar whose educational statutes, printed in the same
volume, do not require it. Among them are Boston, Chicago, and Cincinnati, which, according to the statutes, had grammar in the high
school only as an incidental study; yet these cities are listed in the
table as teaching grammar in the high school. This fact indicates the .
only inference that can safely be drawn from the table, namely, that
23 of the 29 cities prescribe grammar in some form, either (1) as a
regt1lar subject, supplementing a two or thre(\ year cot1rsc in the intermediate schools, as in New Haven, or (2) as a review course, lasting
one or two terms, as in New York, or (3) as incidental or supplementary work in connection with composition or rhetoric, as in Boston,
Chicago, and Cincinnati.
pupils "rep ent orull y nnd In writing, In th e ir own lun gunge, th e subs tnnce of ench lesson"; Jn the grammnr d epartm ent of three yen rs "they s hall be tnugl)t all the lessons
In Butler's Large Grummar to syntnx. They shall also he taught to purse words In ,
simple s entences not found In the grammur." This Is for the first yenr. In th e second
"the snme . . . to prosody; to compure adjectives and nclv erbs, to declin e nouns und
pronouns and to conjugute verbs, In writing. Th ey shnll ulso be tnught to parse nil the
pursing exercises In snld lessons and to purse words In sentences not found In the grnmmar." For tb e third year Butler's grammar wus prescribed complete. Th e girls' high
school had Englis h grammar nnd composition thronghout the fir s t yenr. The boys' high
school seems to have had no grnmmnr.
Philndelphln had no grammar in th e four ye ars of the prlmnry or five years of the
s econdary departments. In the grnmmnr-school departm ent of five yenrs the Instruction
was th e most elnbornte th e writer has found. In the first nnd s ccoud years Burt's " Introduction" or Purker's through th e nine parts of speech, inclndlni:: the simple rul es of
syntax; In the third yenr Hnll's or Pntker's introdu ctory w ork compl et ed and construction
ot simple s entences within th ~ same limits; In the fourth year H a ll"s or Park er ' s English
Grammar commenced nnd continued to the rul es of sy ntax; parsing and construction of
sentences and correction of fal se syntax; in th e fifth yenr II nil's or Park er's completed
and reviewed. Directions for t:eachcrn nre : •· 'l'h e dis puted points or mntfcrs fnr above 1
the pupils' cnpaclty should n ever be dwelt up on. The t each er's object must be rnther to
Impart such a knowledge of th e cons tru ction of th e lnngunge as will enable the pupil to
1
spenk nnd write wtth n rensonnble d('g-ree of correctness."
r·
11 Am. J . of Ed ., 1870, 643.

Chapter V.
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF TEACHING LATIN GRAMMAR
TRANSFERRED TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS.

_;·

From the very beginning it seems that English grammar .was
intended to perform for the mother tongue the same functions Latin
grammar performed ' for that language. The aim of grammar
schools-to make finished writers and speakers of .Latin-was paralleled by the aim of E
d , after
F·
my-t
--:.~
ach the grammatical study of the languages was unamental. ·As the requirements of practical life in America seemed
, to demand less Latin and more English, and as the English schools
more and more took on the dignity formerly held by the Latin schools,
English grammar advanced correspondingly to · a more prominent
place in the curriculum. This identity of function . is powerfully
supported by the striking similarity in content · and in· methods of
study as expounded by textbook makers. .
The present and the succeeding chapter trace the changes in methods of teaching which have marked the successive stages of English
grammar in American schools between 1750 p.nd" 1850. 68 Roughly,
. this aspect of the study may be outlined in two grand divisions; each
consisting of three_subdivisions of approximately 25 years:

· TsSJTrrs
mn1t ~
(a) r.ltm perffiJ, M
50 to 1784.
( b) Rote period, 1784 to 1823.

11;~,3 to

•'I

i

1847.

Analysis period, 1848 to 1873.
Rhetorical period, 1873 to 1891.
( c) Incidental study period, 1891 to 1920.
The two main divisions are based upon the fundamental conception
of grammar held by the leading grammarians. 69 About 1850 the idea
···.· "A later stndy wlll carry the Investigation down to 1920.
•The term "l ending grnmmnrlans" Is perhaps mi sleading. The connotation Intended
Is to designate authors lending In Influence upon school practices. Tn this sense Murrny
Is the lending grnmmnrlnn In this country np to 1850. The dnte of hi s textbook (1795°)
Is not selected as a dividing point In the outline, because the date of Webster's Grammar
I

103

104

ENGLISH GltAMMAR lN AMERI CAN SCHOOLS BBFOirn 1850.

that grarr11nar is an ait " ·as chnnged to the id ea that grammar is a
science. To the variou s subdivi sions names ha ve been given on the
basis of the one m ethod predominating clnring the p eriod involved.
The chronological limits of the periods have been marked by the
date of an inno vating textbook of w~des pread influence or by some
other important or culminating event explained in the course of the
discussion.
The year 1848 lloes not mark a sharp l>rcaking away from the
conception of g ra11111rnr as nn art, for prngrcss in m ethod s of teaching can not be marked by exact dates. Long before any important
chan ge becorn es previtle11L in all or in almost all S<.;hools, far-seeing
teachers are discarding the old and experimenting with the new. ~
For instance, before 1848 som e g ramrnarinn s had substituted the sen-:
t en ce for the word ns the unit o f in slrnc fion ; long nft cr 18-t8 many
textbook makers clung tenaciously to the word as the unit of study.
Grammarians earlier than Greene (1848) had made th eir point of
departure the analysis of sentences; but Greene seems to hav e come at
the opportune moment, when schoolmen "·ere arou setl, wh en disgu st
with old method s had r eached a crisis. His book became exceedingly
popular; he had many followers. The cla te of his grammar marks the
chief turning point in our discussion of methods. In a similar waJ'.
the significan ce of the major event " ·hich marks each step in the outline will be considered in detail through 1850. The point to be borne '
in mind is that g reat chan ges in methods are not instantaneously
inau g matccl; they are matters of slow an<l painful growth.
One further " ·onl of exp lanation. The names g iven to the six
periods are titl es of predo minating m ethods. A po;;sible criticism
of this nomen clat1fre is that parsing, for example, is as old as grammar itself and will cont.in11e in some form as long as grammar is
studied. Gra11tetl that this is true. The evidence presented for the
years 1823 -18'~8 seern s to in<li eate that amid the pass ing of the old
and the coming in of th e new methods parsi11g was the method par '
excell en ce. The sa m e comment is pertinent to all th e ot her periocls
excPpt thP. first.. The co nfo si nrr Pl<>.mPnt. lrnre is that Lai·inizetl methods exerted a strn11g i11f111 c\11 ee in a grPat majority of schools thro11gh
the entirP ni1wtPPnth <'Pntnry flnrl arp with ns to-dn.y, t.ho11 g h happily
in diminishing emphasis. Noah Vi'cbstcr was ri ght whrm he snid
that it re4uires th e cl ub of H ercules wi eld ed by I he Mm of a giant to
destroy the hydra of educational prejudice.
(1784) more closely npprox lmn t~ s t he close of th e Revoluti on . l\Ioreovcr. In Influence upon
the schools We bster nud l'rlurrny wer e very slm ll nr. Rc;.;nrd 0d In nno th er • ense. Murray
wns fur from n l endin g i:rrnmmnrlnn, for he wns n

conf<'~sC'fl

co mptl cr . f1'nnk1 y indP. btPd to

Lowth, Pri es tley , nnd th e Briti s h grammar. I-l e was n fo llowN. not n lendP t'. In constructive
grnmmatl cnl scho larship, be ing In this regard below Noa h Webster. Throughout this
chapter grnmmntlcn l t hinl1ers hn~ e 01u· attention on i)• in so fnr ns It cun be shown that
th ey exerte d a direct luflu cn ce upon t he sc hoo l prn cUccs of t heir dny .

~NGLiSH

GRAMMAR TAUGHT AF'J'ER LATIN METHODS.

105

The m othocls of the early Latinists 71 seem to have cast their baneful
influence over the entire four centuries during which the vernacular
has been building for itself a suitable grammatical study. At any
rate, the Latin and the Rote periods are really one and the same. The
writer has no particular pride in maintaining strict chronological
balance in his outline, except that h e thinks it h elpful to divide the
period 1750 to 1823 into two parts. The other five periods are useful
limitations both as to time and title. The following study of the
·i ntene lations of these pe~·iods may throw some light upon . what has
been h eretofore a confused and confusi 11g field .
·

!
i -

·. j
' Ben Jolmson : Granimar Is the nr
the
writing of It Is nn accident."
1 Lily : Grnmmutlcn est recte scribendl, atq ue loquendi ars.i•
Wharton: Grummar, is the Art of Writing, and Speaking, well."
Brightland :
Grammar do's all the Art and Knowledge teach,
According
to the Use of every Speech,
),
How our Thoughts most justly may express
In Words, together joln'd, in Sentences.'• · '
Greenwood : Grammar Is the Art of Speaking rightly. I have left out the Art
of Writing, because that is an Accident of Speech, and none but the essential or
chief Things ought to be put Into a definition."
· Dilworth: Grum mar is the Science of Letters, or the Art of Writing and
, Speaking properly and syntaotlcally."
·' Fishe r: Grn mrnnr Is th e Art of expressing the R elation of Things In Construction , with due Accent In Speaking. and Orthogrnphy In Writing, according
to the Custom, of those whose Langunge we lea rn .••
· " British: Grammar Is the Art of Expressing the R elations of ·wonl s in Construction. with due Quantity ln Srenkln g nnd Orthogrnphy In ·wrlt.ing.'0
' Lowth: Crnmm:ir Is the Art of rightl~· C'Xprcssing ou r Thoughts by "'ords. 111
' Priestley: 'l'he grnmmar of nny tongue Is a coll1-•ctla11 o f obse.n-alh111 s 0 11 the
structure of It, nnd a system of rul es for the pro11er use. of It."
. ;; "" Latl n ls t s " Is the term r epcatcd l:r use d b:r Fr ~u k!ln.
. "An att empt Is made here t o select f or co mpar! ~o n books which !mmodlately preceded
the beginnings of grammati cal lu slrudi uu Ju ,\w er k a: Firs t, uou ks upou which Engli s h
- grummnr wns found ed; s econd, books wtrl ch, prtnte<l !n England In the eighteenth century, w ere Imported or reprinted In Amcrlcn a nd used as textbook s; and, third, books
written by Am erlcnu authors which w er e most lnflu en t lal be fore 1825 . The t ext s elec ted
and the editions us ed are nam ed In the blbllogrn ph y.
·
18 Ullworth, op. cit., 85.
"Lily, op. cit., 1.
·
u Jolluson, op. cit., 3.
To Fish er , op. cit., 1.
80 British, op. c it., 1.
. "Wharton, op. cit., 1. ·
"Brl ghtlnnd, op. cit., 1.
"Lowth, op. cit., 1. ·
"Greenw ood, op. cit., 48.
,. Priestly, op. cit., 1.

.

1.
I.

':·

l.•
~i

,'•

l
106

ENGLISH GRAMMAR tN AM EnICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

, ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT ;AFTER LATI N. METHODS.

of

Alexa nd er : Gnu mun r tea ch es th e Art
exprt•ss in g fl!Hl CO llllllUll icati n g our
th ou ghts wi th v e rl.Hll propriety. 83
Murray: JD11gli sh Orn111111:1r is the a rt of spe:tk ing aud writing the English
lang ua ge with propriety."
'Vebstcr: Grurnmu r is t he ar t of <'01 11111un ica t ing th oughts by words with
propri ety n 11tl di s pa tc h.' 0
Brown: J•; ugli s h <;n1111111 u r is 1·h e art of spea kin g and writing the J<.: ngli s ll Lan-.

guuge conectly.'•

Brightla nd uses th e definition "Art and Kn owledge, according to
the u ;c of e very Speech, how we 011t· Tho11ghts express in Sentences";
that is, the iclea- lrn ow ledge of the 11sc of lan g ua ge in se nte.ncessee rns to i..J e pron1ine11t. Bu t our feel i11 g t h at the a uth or of Bright·
land 's textbook may ha,·e had an inkl ing in 17Uli of th e modern conception of grammar as a science is quickl y dispellccl. ·w e find him
explaining in a footno te: "The modf'rn ns wel I ns tl1r• nlfl ~rnm­
marians have given us various Defiuitions of this use:Cu l Art.~~
Greenwood, who is a close follower of J onson , in his edition of 1711,
calls writing an accident; but in his third edition (1747) h e changes
his clefini tion to " English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ·
ing the English langua ge with propriety." This definition Murray '
copies exactly.
.
Dilworth uses th e word "scien ce," bu t he sp eaks of th e science of
letters, which h e consid ers t he art of speaking and writing properly. ,
Priestley certainly stat es the modern conception in hi s definition, but
his apparnnt insight is m isleading, fo r, in Qpite of rP rtnin innnvntions
in method to be considerrcl ln.ter , he>. trc:d s gn11n 11 1:ir as a.11 nrt. The
tr11P. nature of g ram111ar had apparently not even rernotely suggested
itself to Webster when in 178± he wrote hi s fi rst grammar. At that
time his definition is: "Grannnar is the Art of communicating ·
thought." By 1790 the li ght seems to have dimly dawned upon him,
for in the preface to his "J{uclinwnts of (hammar '' h e affirms:
"Rules are drawn from the most gen eral and approved practice, and
serve to teach young stud ents h o 1v far their O \\'ll p rn d ice in sµe :tking ·
agrees with the general p ractice." 88 In a l a ter grnmmar (1831) he .
goes still further. His definition now is : "A system of general prin· ·
ciples, d erived from the nation al disti11 ctio11 of wonl s, decl11 ce<l from
t.h e r.ust.omary forms of speech in th e nati on us i11g t hat language." 89
H ere. certainly. ·w ebster has gone fa r toward Lhe 111odern conception
t hnt. grnmmar comes after a langu age has been in 11se; that it is a
statement of principles of usage as found in th e spoken and written
communication of the most expert. The principles of thi s science are
to be found by minute analysis of wholes into parts, with consequent ·,

s:

- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -- - -- -\
Alexnnder, op. cit., 3.
" M urray, op. cit .• 7.
11s

8 1>

'Vebs ter, op. cit., 5.

15.
B ri ghtlnn d. op. cit., 1. footnote.

M nrown , op. c it.,
87

88

" "el>8 f. er,

•• We l>ster, An Impro ved Gro.m . of the li:ng. 'l'ongue, 3.

Hu<limcnts, 2.

107

'i\T

generalizations to establish general principles. But
ebster at first
apparently had only a mere glimmer of the truth . . He treated gram~
mar as an art of building up wholes from smaller parts.
Finally, Goold Brown , whom we sh all see even as late as 1851 the
last prominent fighter of the old guard, still championed the conception of grammar as an art when nearly everyone else had abandoned
it. He said in 1823: "Grammar is ; the art of speaking and writing
the language correctly;" This was the common conception held by
grammnl'ians up to the middle of the nineteenth century.
The force whid1 fastened t his conception so firmly is 1mdo11bfedly
the force of tradition . Even t he wonl grannnar is from tli e Gr<'ek
gr amma, a letter. These charac ters arc the clements of 'ITitten language, as articulate sounds are the clements of spoken language.
H ence. from the Yer:v flr ri Ynti on of thr word, one seems honnrl t o
start with the simplest elements and build up the more complex forms.
, The natural and easy way to learn had al ways seemed to be to proceed from the element to the complex structure. . Letters, syllables,
words, sen tences-this makes a seemingly more logical sequence than
the reverse process. The child says " water " if he is thirsty. To-day
it is recognized that he means a sentence~" I want water." Consequently the process of learning in both reading and writing ( composition) to-clri.y proceeds from the whole to the part. But to attain this
new conception has been a matter of slow an d painful growth. In it
we have come to reali ze that grnmrnnr, the science of sentence~ , is a
·matter of late st11dy , if, inclrecl , it nrecl rver be tn ngh t. to chiklrrn
trnined. hy imitation to speak and write accurately.
The truth is that the t erm grammar- the nrt of letters - is a misnomer, considering our modern conception of trye subject. However ,
· our intfmt here is merely to state the apparent. cause of the earlier
misconception.
!''
R IN

·· "\Ve shall now consider how the methods of study pursued in L atin
grammars were carried ov er into Lhe study of Euglish. In " The
Epistle to the Reader," in all ec1itious of Lily, we fin<l specific recom·
incndatious as lo classroom p rocedu re.
First, Colet urges that progress be very slow ; 9 '' also thnt there be
liberal oral rehearsing of all parts until they be perfectly mastered
"mechanically. 91 Perfect "without. book" is an expression one meets

;c· to" Th e first and chi efest point Is , thnt the dltlge nt muster make not the sc llollar haste
· . too much ." L!ty, Epistle, 2.
•
11 Make him to r ehear se so, th at unt!t h e h ath perfectly that, which l s behlnd e, he
sufl'.er him n o t to go forwarde; . . . the l>es t ond chi efest point . . . Is, t ha t the scbollar
hnve In mlnd e so pe rfectly that, thnt h e hnth lea rn ed , and understood It so, that not only
It be not a etoppe for him, but also a light and helpe untO" the residue that tolloweth."
• Ibid.

I P'

108

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE l850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

again and again in ·pedagogical discussions of the time. 02 This was
to be accomplished by numerous repetitions, freqt1ellt rehearsals, and
periodical examinations by the teacher. 93
In this laborious fashion the pupil is to make him sel£ ma ster of
every declension of nouns aud conjugation of verus. He is to I.Jc able
to decline and con jugate .forward and uackward. 94 Until this is done
the pupils are not allowed to go forward.
From this mastery of paradigms the pnpil is to pass to an equally
difficult st t1tly of the "concordcs." These n,rc to lie Jen rnetl with
"plairte and sundrie examples, and continuall rehearsall of things
learned, and especial ly the daily declining of the verb, ancl t11rning it
into all fashions." 9 " Schoolmasters are advised that subsequent lessons will be easy if "the foregrounds be well and thoroughly beaten
in." 96 Probably no pun was intellrled, but the phrnsc pcrh:qjs gave
church authority for a common 111etholl of pcrsuadillg rel11cta11t p11pils
to their tasks.
'
After these studies of the concords the pupil is to" learn some petty
book containing . . . good plain lessons of honesty and gollliness." 91
Then is to follow the translation of English sentences from the bool{
into Latin and the learning of the rules of syntax which govern the
construction. The Latin sentences are to be repeated in the words of
the book. 9 s This sets another premium upon slavish memorizing. In
all this the pupil is never to be idle, but" alwaies occt1pied in a continual rehearsing, and looking back again to those things they had
learned." 99 Constant reviewing is the unbroken order of the day.
Every process is based upon knowledge of the rules. 100
"" Th~t they have dally some s pcclnll exercise of th e memor y , by repenting •omewhat
without booke; ns a part In their rulrs the foure tlrst dal es of the wee ke . . . ull the rules
or the weeke on the Snturclny." Brlnslcy, Ludus Llte rnrls, 51..
"In East Relford the flrnt part of the morning In the llrs t four clnys or the schoo l week
was devoted to saying ov er "one or the F.lght Parts of Speech like as the manner and
fashion or all grnmmar Schools, nnd urnn Trrl•lny Snm e• tnl, with his rnmpn11nrls, n~
shnll seem to the School -rnn s trr conv eni ent'." Cnrll s le, op. cit., JI. '.!82, Statutes, HiG2 .
"This Is all thnt I have used : To let th em rende It (The Accecl en ce ) over ev ery one by
hlmselfe by lessons. . . . Thus I mnke tlu'm rPnde ove r the ir Acciclrnce . . . before they
do g-e t it wtthont booke. Secondly , for get t Ing- tt witho ut hookP, T
Ji ns o ft n ~ th r _y <'ll ll." n 1·111q( ·y , (•p . (' lf. , :'i'. \

<'n n ~P

thrm .

to i:::ny

""Whe rein It Is protll11ble, not only lhn t he cnn ord erly declin e hi s nonnc, nnd his
verbe, lrnt everyway, forwnrd, backward , by cases, by pers ons: that nellh<'r cnsc or nouiie,.
no r pf'1·:;:;on of Yrrhc cnn he requlrrd. thnt hf'e <'flnnot wft"hont ~toppP OT' c::fndff"
uulo this time I count uol the s choll nr µet fc c t u or r caJ ic to go an y r ur t11cr.
op. ell., 3.

t ~ IJ.

"

.i\nd
L11r,

"Ibid.
" Ibid., 3.
11 Ibid., 4.
""Therefore (from the book) tnke some littl e sentence, ns It ll eth, nnd lenrne to make ,
the same out of Eng lish Into Lntlne , not s ee ing the booke. or cons tru ing It th er e upon
. . . which sentence w ell made, nod ns nigh ns may be with th e wordes or the booke.'i,
Lily, op. cit., 3.
.. Ibid ., 4.
100" If the rnnlster give him nn Engli sh booke nncl cause him ordl nnrll y to turne It every
day some part Into Latlne. 'l'hls exercise cannot be done without his rul es.'' Ibid., 4.

109

The final step is teaching pupils to speak -Latin. This is to be
accomplished by drill until" a man is clean past the use of this grammar booke," until he is as" readie as his booke." Then he is perfected
" in the tongue handsomely." 1
.•
In order to determine more certainly what the classroom practic~s
of the ~arly Latin study .were, we may supplement the summary of
suggcst10ns of Colet, in Lily, with the . ad vice of the schoolmaster
· ~rinsley. His book was written in 1612, when Lily was most popula~
m the grnmmar flchoo ls. · It may be taken as reliable evidence of the
practice of his day, perhaps in the most advanced practice. Inf' The
Grammar School " Brinsley devotefl a chapter to the topic " How to
make children perfect in the Accidence.", The following chapters discuss the other parts of instruction in Latin. Brinsley's exposition
appears to be entirely consistent with Colet's, given above. He has his
pupils (1) read over their lessons many times; (2) learn every rule
w~th title," without booke "; (3) recite, one by one; (4) get accidenc~
without book; ( 5) .r epeat the beginnings of rules in a connected title
":vitho11t. booke" (he i11sists that llic principal duty is to get rule~
• - ':ithout book) ; ( 6) ~o throtlgh weekly repetitions to prevent forgettmg; (7) learn very little at a time (the pupil is to be letter-perfect in
each part before proceeding); and (8) answer questions in the book.
He_ has the master (1) explain difficult parts, construe and show
meamngs ; (2) use the quesLioH-auJ-an::;wer method; (3) constantly
call for ex~mples of r~les-the examples given in the book; (4) hear
parts, n:akmg the pupil repea~ his rul~; ( 5) spend a month in making
the accidence ~erf~ct; (6) give contmual practice in parsing; (i)
keep .t~e rules i-? mmd (by making scholars learn perfectly, constant
repetit10n, contmual care for parts, repeating often the smnmes of
• r.ules, a~plyin¥ ex~mples); (8) endeavor to make the grammar.a dic:honary m their mmds; (9) apply a prescribed formula for construipg (construe the vocative first, the principal verb next, then the
adverb,_ th~n the case which the verb governs, and, last, the substantive
and ad] ect~ ve) ; ( 10) h~ar them parse every word as they construe,
accompanying thP parsmg with rule and example ; (11) follow hv
- theme w riLi11g aml verse. maki11g; nHJ ,( 12) give constant practice i~
· ,~he upper forms in speaking Latin. 2.
An tntf'rf'!'lti~g pedngogtca1 doctrine, ccrtnlnl~· F:ounrl. appf'R.n~ fHH'tHloxlrnllr 1n th('
·mlflAt of.thlH 1.r.1H1~t<'nrr npon m1nntr rnn.Rt (' r y of (l r tnil s . It if'l n cautl o n ngain fi t mere r o t e
. ·IDemorlzmi;.
'l'bls when he cnn perfrctly rloP, and hath learned onry p~lnl not by role

I!!

1

r
" but by r eason, and Is cun n inger In the understnndlng of the thing than In ;chearsln
the words . . :• Liiy, op. cit., 3. Thus as enrly as 1541, at least: wns uttered a pro~e~t
•.against what was to be for nearly three centuries the curse or all grammar teaching In
·the mother tongue .
<111r 1 Brlns ley, op., cit., 53-146,
,
1r·

i!~ ;

•i

1'

,·
I

•
E~GLTSH GTIA 1\f:\L\ n T~ ,\ 1\lFnTCA N sr·HnnLS T3F,VORF'. 18:) 0.

110

ENGLISH cmAMMAR TATTOHT AFTER LATIN l\1ETHOIJS .

Ill

3. The 111:1sicr is to tr:rnsl:ite Rrn ne cnsy Lalin into gnoll .English ,
Tn this li st thf' f'llflf':1 vo 1· hns been to sPkd, 20 of. thr, lending- prinLhe
pnpil to translate it into Latill again.
ciples of instruction advocated l.Jy Philopon11s, the chnrnder ill Brins3
·
·
4.
The master is to compare the pupil's wo.rk with the originn.l.
ley's dialogue, who represents the' better type of teaching. In some ,,,
(E)
Third kind of translation: 1. The master is to write some
'
cases 'th e suggestions h ave been taken from the mouth of ~poncleus,
letter
in
.English, as if from the boy's father, or copy some fable.
the representative in the clialog11e of the poornr tenchers of h1 s fhY:
2.
The
pupil is to translate it into Latin.~
'To the testimony of Colet an<l Drillslcy may be adllecl th e prad:1ces
of Roger Ascham in teaching Latin grammar, as set forth in "The
Schoolmaster," 1563.
(A) Preparatory: L e:-trn perfectly the. eight parts of s~eeeh and
the joining together of substantives with adjectives, verbs wiLh nouns,
"The book itself will make anyone a grammnrian." Thus spoke
relatives with antecedents.
Goold Brnwn 111 his grammar of _1823. 6 His st.ntcmcnt. fittingly char(B) Double translation: 1. The master is to construe the model
terizes the attitude of teachers and writers 7 throughout the entire
book for the child that he may understand.
course of English grarnmn.r down to 182il, and, 11nfort11natcly, the
2. Then the pupil is to parse and co11::;L1·uc, as Lite master has (lone
same attitude lias not entirely disappeared Lo-day. We have just seen
for him often enough for the pupil to understand.
a summary of methods used in teaching .,atin grammar. \Ve now
3. Tl;e lesson is to be translated into English in a paper book.
.
turn to the task of showing that they were carried over directly into
4. After an hour he is to translate his English back into the Latm
English in the spirit voiced by Goold Brown as late as 1823.
in another paper book.
.
.
MASTERING PARTS IN ORDER.
5. The master is to examine these transla.twns and lead the pupil _
f
until he is able " to fetch out of his grammar every Rule for every
, This principle is worthy of mention first because it underlies almost
example; so as the grammar book be ever in the scholar's hands, and
all of the methods to be considered later. vVe have seen that Colet, iri ,
. as a D'ict10nary
.
f or every
.· presen t· rr
. "
also used of him
use.
. .
.
)1is "Epistle," asserts that " t.he first. ancl chiefest point is, that the
6. The master is to compare the pupil's Latin with the ongmal m
diligent. J',L1ister 111ake noi tl1e "(·l1olnr haste too m11c.l\ '' nrn1 tlmt he
the model book.
make him .v.:et "perfectly that which is behind" before "he suffer
"vVilh this wny of goml TTnclerstamli11~ the matter, plain co11st'.r11him lo go forn anh.'' s Drinslcy su pporL.s this plan. The children
ing, Jiligent parsing, chcerfu l admonish~ng, and hecrl~ul runenclmg
nre first to get tlip,ir lf'tJprs, t]1p,n to spell , tl1en to join syllables
of Faults; never leaving behind just pnnse for well domg: I would
. ~ogether, then to go through the AB C's and primer, etc. 0 - To be sure,
have the Scholar brought up."
.
,,
.
,. 'Ibid., 92 .
(C) Analysis : 1. Give him ]ongPr fosso1~s to tra:islate. "Deg1.n
•· 'lJrown, op, c it., prefnce, Vil .
to teach him both in Nouns and Verbs, what is Propnum, and what is
'.' ''l'be eliorts of t he pnst century to brcnk awny from the Lntln methods arc reserved for
!he Collowiug clrnplcr.
In the prcceclini; secllon were s hown various suppkmenta'ry
Translabum' (figurative), what Synonym, what D.iversion~ which be
devices, parall el r ea ding, dictation, copy books. writing exercises, oral work, dating back
Contraria , and which be most notable Phi·ases, 111 all his Lecture
- to Brlnsley. Ascham. I-Ioole. and Colet. In both the IJatln Ins truction and the first
vernacular In st ru ction these d evices were strictly subordinated to the ;::rent trlumvlrntc of
( reaLling) ."
._
' methods- memoriu1t!on , pnrslng, and false sy n tax. 'They remained strictly subordi nate
2. Let him write four of these fore1rn111 eL1 six diligently marked · ·. Rnd lnc ldcntnl untll nhout 18[l{_l, Hut during thP <'rn.t11 ry prpcedlng \.'\!JO the ui:-e of
'. 1
1. petty boolrn" i;rnrl nnll y evolved lnl o th e sl11rl~· of Engll•h l!tcrn t11rc : dlctfltlon, the use
·
out of e·V cry lesson in n. third p:qwr hook. 4
or copy l.JOok s , 1tnd writing exercises by a slm llnr proceRs or evolution became composltlon
(D) Reading: 1. "I wou ld have him read now, a good deal at
as we now know H. nnd tlJc simple orn. l exercises of 1hc rnrllrr day lw('ntnc ornl composition of the present. The prncti ce of orntlons and disputations In Latln, common in both
ev~ry " Lecture, some book of CirPro, Cws~r , Pt.c."
.
~rammnr schoo l s n nd col\eg-es before I<
:ng li!'h ent er ed the curriculum, n· as very influ ential
2. "He shn.11 now use daily Translat10n, but only cousLrue agam
·in bringing these exercises Into English schools.
The process of evo luti on was but partlnlly completed by 1850, beca use llternture, com·
and parse. . . . Yet let him not omit in these Books his former,
position, nnd ornl work were nil subordlnn t e to grnmmnr. Beginning about 1850 evolu·
tlon has mnd e these brnnches of th e vernncu lnr more robust. 'l'he best scbool practice of
Exercise, in mastering diligently and writing orderly."
-·1
j

I

~ to-day

n lmlrnbl e Rtntemcnt of the m ethods used In the grammnr sc hoo ls In 1818 nppenl'I
nil '
.. Endowed Grnmmnr School," 1818, 828- RO. It begins: "When the Pup ll has
I n C ar R1e,
.
t
" 'Tb
nt
committed to m emory. The Accidence, Proprln quae marlbus, e c. - - .
e nccon
talll es In very many d etnils with I.h e met.hods lnid down by Colet nnd Brlnsley, and lndl·,_cntes I.hat Lnlln In structio n hnd r ema in ed In """P" nn<l method relatively stable for three
1

A

hundred years.
• Ascham, 'l'be Schoolmn•ter, Mnyor, 1-9.

mukes g-rnwumtkal study strktly ~ubordinnle lo tlwm . The point ts thnt since
1850 this comp lete reYersnl be tween grammnr. on the one hand, and vernacular branches,
on the otber. bns tnkcn place .
• ' This statement, nntlclpnling discussion not covered by th is thcsl•, hns hc~n mnde here
In order to pince the extremely Lnt!nlzccl methods of the Latin and rote periods In sharp
contrast with the !Jest methods of to·day.
•Lily, op. cit., 2.
'Brins..ley, op. cit.! 1t'i et seq.

I:

112

ENGLISH GRAM .MAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS .

he is in this instance speak in g of learning to r ea d; bnt it makes the
inference all the more inevitaLlc. In all studies the method was
from the part to the whole, each pnrt to be masten'\ d perfectly in
ord er. The pupil reads over and ornr t he SJTmlJ part of tl1e text
10
assigned, forwanl all<l Lackwanl, until mechani cally pcrfcct.
In the begin11ing of th e eighteenth century Hrightlall<l and Greenwood (1706 and 1712) mge foL' English grammar exiictly the same
procednre.11 The former <kscribes his methocl. "\Ve begin with
wliat is first lo ho 11•:1.rnt, 1.lt:1.L what follow s mn.y hP 11111lPrstoncl; 11.1111
proceed thu s step by step, till we come to the last aml most diflicult,
12
and which deµends on a 11 I haL goes Lefore iL."'
GreP.nwood also indicates the mastery of part uy part:

upon the schools. The ev idence presented shows little or no progress
from Lily (1510) to Brown (18'.?3).

1

And e v0r v norly m11"t rr>nclil~· ::rrint th;it tlw \Vny to Pnm c> to a tr11 c nnd clear
Knnw lctl ;.:c- u f :iny Art, i:< In Pxpl:iill Tldn::s 1111l;11C1\\"ll, hy Tl i111i.:s lhnt nre .
kno\vn. 13

•

In the middle of tlrn ce ntury~ also, the author of th e British Grammar explains the steps of a r ecitation:
Spell e1·ery wo1'd of th e lesson, by syllabl es ; give the signitica tion of each '
word; state the part of speech, with reasons, e tc." After the Scholars lmqw ·
their Letters grou nd them well in th eir Monosyllables with the soft and hard •
Sonuds of C ancl G. 'l'his they will soon learn from ' Vord of Mouth, !Jy frequent
Hepetition .. .."

Sewell towDrcl
the encl of the century, assigns " small portions to .
0
·1 contmu
· es ti~
l pra.cf1ce. "I
be got by' h ea rt,
" 1 6 and Brown, 1823 , stil
. n
etymology and sy ntax , he should be alter~rntely ex~rc1 sed ~n le[:rnrng
small portions of hi s book and then applyrng them in pRrsmg, till the
whole is rendered familinr." 17
·
The evidence thn s presented is in strict accord -with the textbook
matter of all grnmmars. So long as orthography, etymology, syntax,
and prosody were considered the four divisions of g rammar, so long
as it vi'aS thou ght of as an art, a whole to be built up "mosaic-l~ke out .
of )arndi ums n nfl svntax rules "; 18 so Jong as schoolmasters 111 gen•
1
"'
,
·
eral remained
woefully
ignorant
and were competent on 1y " t o. I1ear " ·
recitations, nrbatim, about mfltters they li ttle understood,19 JUSt so long this procedure, tedi ous and slow, from part to part, was fastened
10 Ibid.,
19.
..
tb
f ll
u This i$ in PXH<~ l accurcl w1th the education al t hic>nr y of 1-TP.rhart :, In
e case o a
essential el e m enta ry Jnformntion- knowl ed ge of gram mar , nrtthme t1c, and geom e lr y-lt
w ill be found e xpedi ent to beg in with th e s implest e le me n ts long IJcforc nnr practical
application ts mnd e.' H c rbnrt, Outlines, 129.
"Brlghtlnnd, preface, 7th page (pages unnumlJered In t ex t).
1s Gre~nwoocl, pre fa ce, 2.
i• Briti s h , prcfn ce, XIV.
,. Fishe r, pre fa ce, IX.
••Sewe ll, preface , VJ.
" Brown preface, VJ.
"w. D. 'wtdgery, quoted by Watson, Gram. Sch., 285 .
1• See Resolutions of G e rmantown School Committee, Chap. II, p , 28.

~11

11 3

ENGLISH GR.A MMAR I N AMERICAN S CHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Of course, this fundamental principle-mastering each part in
order-could give but one meaning for the term mastering; it was
slavish me1uorizing, nothing more nor less.
Colet n.wl Brinslcy i1fsist tlrnt r ules are to be learned and repeated ly
rnlwarse<l until pupils Cltll ,, say them without book." This, says
Brinsley, is one of the chief points aimed at.
To t e ach sc h1_il:1r s to say \\' i tl1f1nt hnnk :ill th(' n s nal nrc rss ary rul ('S; t o·
const ru e the Grammar rules; to give the rn en ning, use. nnct order of tlw rulPs:
to shew tb e e.x nrnples, nml to apjil J' them: \\'hich !Jeing \\'ell pc_rfur111 c ll, \\'ill
rn:1l\t ~ nil o lht>r l<':1rni11~ p;1~iP nnd 1d!':ts:111 t .~

0

I le i11sisls Lliat Lite 111as ler is lo hav e
daily 21 and that-

so11ie

exercise of the 111e1110rv

•

in hearing vart s, :iske them first the chicfc qu estio n or questions of each rule iu
order; th en make them every one say bis rule or rules, anllin all rules of con·
struction, to answere you in what words the force of the example lyetb, both
governour and governed. 22

Moreover, both Philoponus and Spoudeus agree that this perfect
memorizing is the principal method of procedure. Spondeus: " Oh,
but thi s is a matter, that is most accounted of with us; to. have them
very perfect in saying all their Grammar without booke, even every
· rule." Philoponus: " To this I answere you; that this indeede is
one principall thing." 23 This is to be a.ccomplished as follows.
Spoudeus : "I have onely used , to cause my Schollers to learne it ~ith­
c;rnt booke, and a little to construe it . . . by oft saying Parts." u
Greenwood, -though advanced somewhat, indicates also the memorizing method. He has a device which avoids the necessity of lear~ing
every word of the text. Passages most n ecessary to be learned at the
first going over are marked by an asterisk or star (*). "By' ~vhat is
to be learned, and what passed by, the discretion of the teacher will
better determine." 25
That the year 1750 had shown little progress is indi cated by Dilworth, who, speaking of learning to spell, holds against spelling by
ear. "There can be no true Method of Spelling >-rithoul ltuk." 2 0
The British Grammar advises that "it will redound to a Scholar's
Advantage to begin the Hepetition of the Grammar ns soon as he can
read it." 21 Lowth, too, agrees as to learning grammar.
Brlnsley, op. cit., 74,
21 Ibid., 51.
"lbld., 6!l.
13 Ibid., 85 .
20

60258°-22--8

"Ibid., 70.
2 5 Gree nwood, preface, 5.
"Diiworth, preface, VIII.
" British, preface, III.

i

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.a

1'.

i'

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115

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

'l11e principal design of a Grnmrnar of any Langua ge i~ to tP.neh us to expres~
oursches with propriety in J hn t LnngnagP. 'l'hP pin in way of doing this is t.o
Jny llow11 rnles, nml to illu strnte them b~· examples."

any princivle the pupil was as well quall!l.ed as the teacher to hear the words
repeated."
·

114

And Brown, in l 82H, ngain shows the close adherence to the method
of centuries Lefore:
The 011 ly successful metholl of teaching grammar is, to cause the principal
d efinitions nncl rnlc~ to Lie eornniltted thoroughly to memory, thnt they may ever
nftenv:i nls he readily n pplled."'

In 171.i"I B11cltana11 , in hi s" Regula.r English Syntax," sn.ys:
Let them first spell this exerci se (some good English dnssic) olI by giving
·the rules of spellillg; nex t· the various sigui!katious of the won.I; let them give
account of the lmrts of spPech one by one, applying the rule of syntax.'°

A con11ncntaf"o1· on thP rndhocls of sti1dyi11g grnm111nr in 1810 t.hus
dest:riLes a schoolroo111 :::ce11e:
'Ve learned the first six lines (Young Ladies' Aecidence) which contained the
names of the ten "sorts of wonls" and recited th em at least 20 times to our
nei g h hors; but, when ca lled to the master's des!' to recite them, our minds
became a perfect lJlank. 'Ve stood mute aml trcmlJling . . . and were condemned to stand on a box with our face to the wall , till we could recite the
lesson. Of course, we hated English grammar from that day forward."

The famous Asa Rand comments on methods of his boyhood about
1790:

William 1Van1, a schoolmaster of 30 years' standing, al1thor of "A
Practical Grammar," gives a minute description of the method nsed
in his school about 1780, the public grammar school at Beverley; in
the county of York, England i
Our >Vny of using the Book Is this: If a ehild has not learned any 'l'hlng of
the Lntln lkrlP11~!011R n1Hl Gon.111gntlo111;. we mnkc him g·pt th e F,ngllsh Forms
by hc:irt:; If otherwise, we make him r end the English Forms several times 01'c r,
till he reniernl>ers them in A good mensure ; then we hear him reacl the DPscrlptlons of the severnl parts of Rpeech: ttnd after he hnR <lone ~o. am! has some
notion of the Menning of each, we oblige him for some weeks to rend three or
four S•mtences twlre or thrice n Dny. In nn ensy TI:ngllsh nook. nnrl to tell the.
Purt of Speech to wlilch enc h won! ht>longA. Wlwn the Child Is pretty r"e ady
nt dlstin1rnif'lhlng the l'arts of Speech, we make him get L>y hrnrt tile Hules of
Conconl In Verse, and teach him how to apply them, l>y resol\'fng the Se11tences
in some English Boole ·when this is done, we make him write .oul several of
the other rules, and get tlwm by heart, and shew l!im how to apply them likewise, by parsing, or resolving what he reads by these Itules. And thus by
Degrees, child ren become Masters of all the material Parts of the Book without"
much Difllculty."
·;
· ·' ·

-~~i~pg this period (175~:
· miIIBt~d.

rersham quotes a master 0
In the pe riod of my boyhood we had strange notions of the science of gramway 1a goes beyond that of repeating, both in spelling, reading,,·
mar. \Ve did not dream of anything practical or applicable to the languge we
writing, and cyphering." 35 A school boy of 1765 records that "at.
were using e\·ery day till we hall "been through " the grammar several times
six : .. I learned the English grammar in Dilworth by heart." 86 In
aud parsed se\·eral mouths. vVhy? Because we were presentell nt once with a '
complete set of definitions and rules which mi ght perplex a Murrny or Webster
1780 Principal Pearson, of Phillips Andover, testifies that "a class
without any developm ent of principles, any illustrations we could understand,
of thirty repeats a page and a half of Latin Grammar; then follows
any application of the words to ol>.1ects which they r ep r esent. We supposed ,
the Accidence Tribe, wlrn repeat two, three, fou~, five, and ten pages
that the dogmns of our "gram !Jooks" were t he inYPntions of learned men,
37
each."
A Princeton college youth of 1799 wrote his brother, "comcurious contri 1·a11ccs to carry the words of n sc11 l:e nce t hrou gh a certa in opera:
mitted
to
memory
verbatim 50 pages of English Grammar." 38 Before
tion which we cn ll ed parsing, rat.her for the gratificntion of curiosity than for
any pra.ctical !J~m e flt. 'l'he rule in grammar wou ld parse the word, . . . as the
the Revolution what little gramma11 was taught in Boston was con-:.
rule in arithmetic woulrl "do the sum" and "gh·e the answer." And with such
fined almost entirely to committing and reciting rules. 39
exploits \Ye \Y ere satisfied . Grent was onr ntlmiration for t he i111·entive power
·, W. B. Fowle, a prominent schoolman of Boston, says of the schools
of those great men, who hall lJeen the lights of the grnmmnticul worlll."
of 17V5: "Pupils at our school were required to learn 'Bingham's·
Also one more ". itness as to the practice of rnc11wry work, after the
. · Young Ladies' Accidence by heart three. times. . . . vVe were two or
Lancastrian systern was in vogue:
t.hree years in grn mmar." 40 Murray, ·author of the grammar most
In tlw~e dn ys we studi<'d grnnmrnr by eo111rnitting a portion of a small book ·widely used, an.n ounced that in later editions he had been careful to
(Accidence) to memory a ml r eci ting it to the teaeh er. If h e was engaged, the
rephrase his definitions smoothly, that they might be memorized and
was recited to oue of t he hi~h es t class. . . . The rule was that the whole .
l.Jook shou ld !Je recited lit"erally, three ti1nps, before th e pupils were allowed to
np[JIY 11 won.1 of it in parsiug senteuces, and as no cx [Jl:rnntion wns ever made of ,,-

).C

] C'Sf'(l ll

"Lowth, preface, X.
29 Brown, VI.
"Quoted in Ed. Rev .. XII, 491.
31 C. S. J. (1850), 74.
v2 Sec j\m. Ann. of Ed. and In s. (1833), 162.

• "C. S. J. (1850), 337.
. "Wnrd , English Grammnr, preface, X .
• · ~Wickersham, op. cit., 214.
"C. S. J. (1850), 3.
- "QnotPd, Brown, Ml<!. Sch ., 21l2.
: ~Correspondence quoted In fu ll . Snow, Col. Cnr., 116.
,. Herman Humphrey, Am. J. of Ed., XIII, 127.
.. c. s. J. (1850), 5.

I

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116

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

retained more easil y .4 1 The minutes of the tru stees 0£ Oyster Bay
Academy, New Yotk, prescribe the memorizing method as follows:
"(1) The Monitor, to be rearl daily as the last lesson ; (2) \.Yeuster 's
Grammar, to be r ead or re pea ted from memory; (3) The Testament
or Bible, to be r ead . . . " 42
The evidence seem s to indicate that the slavish m emorization of
rul es, centuries ol<l in schoolroom practice, lrn.d made b11t. little progr ess from the time of Lily to Ooold Brown. Jt was cal'J'icd with all its
terrors directly into I he st.tidy of English grn1111nnr.• 0

exampl e, in "The Schoole of Vertue," 48 Brinsley, speaking of vers0,
says : '· To reacle them over in a kinde of singing voice after the run~
ning of the ver se. . . . " •9 Only two of t he grammars here intensively studi ed adopt the method of rhyming for rules-Brightland 's
and \Varel 's. The former asserts that he ' has " put all the Rules
into as smooth and sonorous Verse as the Nature of the Sul>~ct
won 'd bea r . . . to give t hem H1e greater Light·." Ile adds an ex plaiintion in prose followi11g t li e .J es 11 it. .Alvnrus in liis Latin grnmmnr" wlti ch is used in all the Schools of E u rop <~, except England."
Br ightbn<l maintains that" verse is more eas il y learnt; that Hhinies
help, one encl rccaJling the ot her." These lessc>n the burden to mem- ·
ory.° 0 ln ' \Tani 's Gra mmnr rulrs nre p11t in Yerses that rhy lll e, \Yitlt a
repetition in prose of -n·hat each rnl e contains. For t he 35 rules of
syntax 'Vnrd lrns 170 wrsc>s.
Th.e_JJ1ir1_l dn.icc to 11.§Sist mclll.U..Q'~ ·
goes so fa r as to -insist that in rccit l'fflS'
;c g 1\en
with " his " rule.01 He further makes t h em give examples:

As compl ete m emo r ization was the order of th1~ 1hy it is not surpri sing to find teachers en dcaYoring to find dcYiccs to aid the pupils in
this arduous tas k. So far we haYc fonnc1 rccnnls of fhe cli st inct
devices tending to acco1n plish this purpose.
The first is. con stant~Colet insists on daily defining
rules; 44 Brinsley stro ng~itions. 4 5 T eachers 0£ the eighteenth century continued the practice of st.rengthenin g memory by
constant r epetition. The British Grammar urges masters to have ~ ­
their pupils repeat the entire grammar in portions once a month, 40
and Sewell esp ecia lly requires of his pupils frequent r ep etitions of
paradigms. 47
'l'11~St; 'Lllld .lev it:e
r'1Q1Ve lune aln:atly refenetl lo BrillSley's plan of ha"in g p111 . n'nT tH' rnl t>s in rnt>tt>r. TinlPs of poli teness ii-t verse were old 111 Latin and were com mon in Engli sh ; for

Apply exa mpl es to rules; lea rn e\"ery rnl e perfeetly ns they go fonvanl; rend
them over their rule leisurely and distinctly; construe the rules and apply
/lXamples fo r them; learn all the rules until the pupil can " beate it out of
hlmselfe.""
·
·

This is a com mon practice in all the more elaborate grammars. Lowth
especially makes point of illustrative examples accompanying each
rule.''''
The fo11 ::!Jt_dc_:.·~.cr_:_ w
- The first tcxtboo 1c maker
.who d es ired- to i;-eli cYe -me1nory )}" - pr·opei: selec tion of parts t o )Jc
memorizell was Grcemroocl. 11 1 hi s grn11rniar he disti nguished t li e
more illlportan t. parts by pri11t.illg them in larger type . . Fisher did
.not desire his pupils to be troublell \vith learning the exceptions to
rules.'" I lercin \ YC find further cYidcncc that it had been the practice to 1·eq11in' the lcarni11g by heart of r11ks, examples, nnd except ions.
Murray uses the same device as Greenwooll, commenting on the value
,of selt><'tions aR follows :

ilffJi1f

n 1Hu1·rft.\'. 12.

"Fitzpnt r lck . E el. Vkws nnrl Inf . nf n . rllnfon, 22.
' 9 A n lnt e r PR tlng- pro0 f o f Tn f'mor iznt io n is fo lm fl fn t h e cop;v o r A lg .. t -'i::

Mnrra~·.

thP wrft Pr. th f' ~ f- P l'f' Of~'P<'rl r· illtlon of 1 ~~r.. ThP h ook hP lnn _g-Prl tn n n P. C! rn r gP A ~ PYP rlni:::
bis s h!nat-urc I ~ dnl c d Roxh111·.r. n(' Cl' milel', 1R2R. EYl!lrntl_v hl~ t r:ichcr h:1d not IH'<·n .sa tf 8·
fled wi t h i\111rrny'R dc flnltlnn of g rnrnm:ir :ind had d ic t n t Pd th r follow In g s uhs tit ntc:
11
G rnmmar t Pnches th e nrra11 ::nm• nt of wo nl~ fl C('O r<lin~ to lh<' l<liom or d!nJp1 •t- of nn.v

p n rtlcu lnr peopl e, nn<l thnt exce ll ency of pronun c intion w hi c h ena bl es u s fo speak and.
w rite rr lnugun ge ai;ret'aiJle to real'oll HJHl fOnM_: l us;1gf's.°'
Tliis ls ;111 111111 i-: 11al!y good
f'!rfl n itin n for 1!-o:~R n n{l indfrafP~ th~!f th i ~ f 1•adwr w :1 ~ tnn YiH!.". lnw fll''l '"" mnd1 · r n ronrep·

tion of th e Rc i cncc.

Uu l ;young ScYcri11s 11ns .,..·rittrn 1lils <ldln!t! (Jf! 011f In rutt (1Jl11" times

-

on tbc flJ" Ien\'t;~ null lh c Ulank pa;;cs at the end ftf th•: h(•ok. ('\'ldt·1dl,v m nk!ng f<Ure that ·
lH.. ls: lrtt0r J1f'rfrrt.
Sn1111w l G. fl no drlch, f <' llln g- o f h i:-: hn y hno <l sc ho o l f1 :1yR 111 HldgPn <' l1l , Co nn. , nho11t 1'i8ri, -

snys : "'l' he t; l'nrnmar wa s a cle \·r r book. . . .
f'VPr

·I"'

'llH'.

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117

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR I N AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

fn t homrd

ft~

tlf'pfh ~ .

Neit h er

!\ la ~tcr

Sl e lJIJi n ~

n o r hi s scholars -:::_

Tllf'y flo11111lPn'rl nllnut in II. nf.l If In n q11ng1nin'. rind n f1Pr

some time cn 1n c o ut of lt prrtt.r n cn rl.r n~ they ,,·0nt ln . t11n11gh fH'rhnps: n ltttl0 ohfnstknted
by th e dim and dusty atmosp h e re of those lnby rin ths." A m . .r. of Etl. , XI I I, l Hf•.
'
"' Lil y . preface, 3.
1
""No c \·e nln g I• t.o b e pn ssed w ithout some little c xc r c lec n.1rn ln st the morning." ·
Brlnsl ey, op. c it .• Hl-1 . "To hnprlnt It by r e p etitio n the n e xt morning. t ogeth e r with their .
eve ning exer cises." Jhhl .. Hi2 . A full e r e xplnnntlon Is given hy Ilrln s lPy of Insuring ease ',
In remembering rules: Mnke the scholnrs ]ram th e m perfectl y ; gi ve fr eq u e nt r e pe tition; ·
lnstlll continu a l cnre for parts; ex amine them dally; wh e n parsing, turn eve ry hard rule . .
t o use ; In hl i::h e r form s g ive r e pe titio n less often. Ibid., 85. Brln slcy nlso mentions two "
sub<levlces. H e would hove the pupils mnrk tlle lr books, copying f ro m the t eocb e r's book, '.
to nssis t m e m o ry (Ibid., 141) nn<l would h ave th em "ren.d t h e rul es over In a kind of '
sin g ing voice after the manner of ru n ning of th e verse." Jbld., 7n.
41 Sewell, preface, VIII.
"British, preface, III.

~

' The lll <Jl'e i111portn11t rules. clef1nitio11s, awl ol>ser Yalions, and wltkh nrP there.fore the lll<JSt proper to !Jc co 11111littetl to 111 cn1ory, nre printecl in larg er type;
_whllst rulr•f< lll1tl rcn1arks tlrnt n r c of !cs" llllportnn ce. that exleml or rll\"l~l'fllfy
the [(PllPl'H I !de11 . or that spn·e as ex pl>1Hatlo11s. nre contni Hecl In the Rlllnll
Jett Pr."
__.f'

llaz -

"Egg leston, op. cit., 214.
"Brlnsl ey , op. cit., 73.
'"Brlghtlnnd , pre fnce, VJ.
•.1 Brlnsle y, op. cit., 82.
II Ibid., 7()-1.

"Lowth, pre face. X.
G4 Ji~l s h e r, preface, X.
"Murrny, preface, 1.
.. H azlitt, Sch. Books and Sch. Musters. 28.

118

H

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN :MEH-lOUS .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

series of rules a,nrl exPrcises in the form of question and answer in a
textbook of 1509." 7 Brinsley advocates this method, but has Philoponus complain concerning- books of this character-that he has been
compellerl to leave off Pntirely; that non e are suitable: therefore he
has made one for himself "having all the (,Juestions and Answers
arising most directly out of the words of the H.ules. " 58
Of the 12 grammars here studied five retain th e q11estio11-andanswer method- Greenwood's, Dilworth's, Fisher's, tlil' British, and
Priestley's. About the end of the eightce11Lh cc11l11ry tlic devic.c seems
to have gone largely out of vogue. Priestley says: "I Im.Ye retained
the method of qnestion and answer . . . because I am still persuaded
it is both thr most ('onvrnim1t fort.hr mnst er and the most intelligible
to the scholar." so Howe~, the qllcstion -and -an swer methocl never
had wide vi:igue in AmeriGa-11 gnuwnuticn.l textbooli:s; none of the , .
important grammars which followed Murray seems to kivc used it. · ·
None of trn :Murray texts. nor Bingham's, nor Brown's, make use of
it. About. tlrn only signs of advance made by Arnrrican l!l'H.rnmarians
before 1800 nrr., firsf·. , f.he cliscarrling of the question and answer, and,
secornl, the silllplificalion of the elaLorale lexl::; iuLu the foirn of l~ingltam's 'i'onn_g La.dies' Accillencc, A lt'.Xandcr's U ra111111:lr, and
vVebster's l:{udiments.

-----

Q.uite in line with the devices Cllllrneraletl above is (ltP contrntion,
constantly repeated by the vario11s tcxt-\\Titrrs , tha t thry arc simplifying terms for fo e C:\S(> Of the p111)i]s. Driglifl:i1HJ :111tJ 1tis fuJ]o\\C1' 1
Fisher, h avP, il1d('('(l, soml' ri g id to lll:ti<e this r o11il'11i i<111. Tl1r_\· discarded the fo111· L:itin m:-iin djyjsions-o rtli ng r:1pliy , rfyrnn logy , syntax , and prnsocly- and substituted letters, wonl s. a nc1 se ntences
instead. J\f01·poVPr, they c:a.ll nouns. uam cs : pro11011nc;, pronamrs;
adjectives, qualities: \·crbs, actions. They attt·mpl to gi,·c <ldlnitions
arnl PXpl:;11at io11 s si1111ily. B1·igli1larnl 1raws q11it e i11<lig·11:rnt. Ire
claims "glnrions imprnvrmPnts." cornplnins :l!rn ins(. UreenwrHH[
others for not fplJrming him in hi s prr\·io11s 0<litio n." 0 "Littl0 Progr ess they m:ulc i11nDi sco \'!:ry1ltat l1ad so f:iirl y !Jl'<' tt l:ti1l lidnr<' 1ltrm
,__....,...,.,_ b. Dr. \o._Vallis and Oursel ves : l<'or C11sto111 ltas so sLrn 11g a Force on
the MinCf:' that l.tpasses with the bulk of M:wkiml for H.eason an~
Rn('red Trnth ." 61 Murray in«ists thnt hP plir:1srs his rules exactly
and comprehensively; al so that they may readi ly be comm itted to
memory and easily retained. 62 For this purpose he has selected terms
" Ibid., !JO.
"Brlusley 1 op . cit., 87 .
"Priestley, preface, VI.
"'llrlgbllaud's first etlltlon wns 1706, Greenwood's 1711.
m Brlghtland, preface, I.
""Murr~y, preface, 4.

lJ!)

that are" smooth and voluble; has proportioned the rnemLers of one
se ntence to another; has avoide<l protracted periods a11J gi1e11
han11011y to the ex press ion of the \Yliolc." 03
J'rit'st ley's argument for sin 1plicity is com·incing:
I haY e niso been so fur from depnrll11g from the simplicity of the pln11 o( t11nt
short grn111mar (his first edition) th:1t I lune mn1le It in so m e ri'~JlPCtf;, ~t ill
more simple; and I think, on that account. more s11italJ!e to the gcnitrn of thr
Rngllf<h lnngunge. I own I nm snrprif<Pr1 to see RO 1111wh of the dif<hib11tin11. 1111<1
tc,e!miclll terms of the Latin ghrn1111:ir. rrt·11h10(l 111 01e grn111111111· of onr to11g110:
where tl1ey nre exceedingly !11\'kw:inl. 11111! nbf<nlutely snpPr1l11n11R: heing Rtlf'h
as could not possibl~- have e ntrrerl into 1'11•' h 0nd of 1111y man , whn hnd not hPPn
pnw ion sly n cf]11ninted with Latin . l111h·erl this :ibsunlit~- has. in SOllH' 111e:1s11 rP ,
gone out of fashion with us: but sti ll so 11111ch of it is retained. in :ill ll1e
grnm111a r s I ha,·e seen, as gre:it:ly i11jurps the unifor mity of th e whnlp: :11111 th<'
very s n1uc r ea so n thnt bns indu ce(] ;;cyern l gr:111111 1ari:111s to go so f:1r :1s tlw\·
have done. should have i11dnce d fh1>111 to l1111·e gone farther. A littl<' rPtlf'dio;1
may, l think, suttice to convince nny person, thnt we bnve no more busin ess with
a future tense In our langunge. thnn we haYe for the whole s~·s te111 of Lnli11
moods nnd tenses; beca use w e ha\·<' no 111orlifi c:1t:ion of n11r H'rhs tn roncs po1 11 1
to it; nml if w e lrnd never henrrl of 11 f11t11rc t e nse in some otl1cr l:rngungr . 1Ye
sho11l1l no morr h•n·e given a p:1rti<'11lnr 11:11110 tn the 0rl!11hinnti 1111 of tlir "''rl1
with the a11xllinry shall or will. tlrnn fo t hn~c tlrnt :up m:ule wifh th•· :1 11,ili:1riPs
rlo. l1:i l'l'. c1111. lllll8f. or nn~· ol It Pr .
1t Hee111s Wl'•H1g to eo11fn11ml the :1•·•·11u11t of i11tlp1·tio11 s Pitltrr 11·i th tit•' .c:rn 111 .
111:1firnl 11s0s of tlir cornlii11atio11s of wnrr!s. nf th<' or<l<'i' in \\·l1i<-l1 il1<',1" :1r0
placc1l. or of the IYOt'lls \Yhich l'XJJl'l'SS rt•l:ili o11 s :111<1 '>Yl1iclt :1r0 r·•p 1ir:i1011t tn
i11flectlo11s i11 otl1er la11gu:1ges. 1 t·:111 1'int lwlp tla l tl'ri11c: 111.1·splf lli:1t fnturp
,:rrn1111n:1rin11~

\Vill

<.nVP

nhlh~atinn~

1ne 8nn1e

fnr

intrnd11 e ing-

tllic;

uni fnrrn

slrnplif'ify. so \Yell suited to the .gE'11i11s of our ln11g1rn .g es. into flip En g lislt
gr:1111111:1 r.

Priestly lia ses his re.-olt a.gai11st tli r Lat in µ:ramniar 1qwn :u1ofhC'r
argnm ent, which was decidedly new in his dny, contendi ng that tl1c
"onl_1· j11st st:in danl of nny lang11ng0" is the c11stom and 111odcs of
speaki11µ: it. 11<' reYolts :1gai11st l<'a11i11µ: too nlllch on analogies 111
lrtnµ:11ng0 . HP sa~'s:
I think it is C\'ld011t tltnf all other grn111111:1ri:i11R 1t:i1·e le:irn•<l tnn 1111wh 1-0 tlH'
of thnt lnngu:igP ( L:itin) cn11tr:1ry ln nur n1n(lPs of ~p0:1kin_g-.
rt
must !Jc allow ed thnt the c11storn of spe: 1ki11 g is the nrigi11nl nrnl 0111,· jusl stand nl'll of 1111y l1111g11nge. \Ve sec, 111 1111 grn11111111rs. fhat (ids is 8t1lli<- il•11t lo pst:il1ll s h a n11P , en'n contrary to thr stro 11 ,gr~ t n11nl11glC's of thr l:rngnac:c \\'ilh itself.
Must 11ot custom, tlwrefore , he n llO\\'f'll to li :1ve some weight i11 fn \'or of t hosP.
forms of speech to which o ur best writers and speakers seem edue11tly pron e?"'
n1iaJogi1~s

"

--

"Ji' .-..111 ,,. • ~""'

--c.""'· ..u · - -

~ a=o •

"'"' ~- ..

,,~

~~'9"_'"'4~_(~"'!°'

One final method, frequently urged by good teachers, was the
setting of a good example and the careful explanation by the teacher
of doubtful points. Colet urges that masters must set a good
"Ibid.
"'Priestley, preface, VII-IX.

120

121

ENGLISH GRAMMAR I N AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFOltE 1850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

example. 65 Drinsley lnis th e master r ead rrnd explain tli!li c11lt parts
67
of the lesson; 00 hn s the p11pils read parts nftcr the llla ster has read;
08
shows how the lect11rr nwthorl nrnsp hy lack of books : an cl ha s them
p arse in imi ta ti on of Lhe 111aster. 0 " G rPenwood g i \'CS as the reason
why yo uth have found g rnrnnrnr "irksome, obsc11re, and difficult,"
"partly through th e ·w ant of lrnvin g evPry Thin g ex plained and
cleared up to their Undcrstamling as they go al ong ." 70 The author of
th e Dritish Grammar ex plnins what wa s tlonbtless t·h e prncti ce of the
better masl .c rs alio11t 17fiO; h e i11die:1les :t di stinct, adrnn ec i11 m c Lhotl.
Tn this rrspP.ct th e nuthor is show n ns an innov ator.

An exampl e of" praxis" or" grnmmnti crtl resolution," the system
of to.rture call ed parsing, which lasted well toward th e e11d of the
nin eteenth century , may be t nken fro Ill Lindley Murra v'S books: .
The sentence : .
.
"
Ancl h e cn 11Je Into nil the co11111Ty nbont J ordan prenchin _g the hnptism of
repentnn ce for the r emission of s i1ui. Th e Hesolution: And, a Co nj nn ctlon
Co pulntil·e : h e, n Pronoun, thlr(l l'c1·so 11 Singular, l\Iasculin e Gernler, Nominative Cnse. stnrnll11g for John : cn111e. as before : i11to, a !'re position.: all, an
i\(lJ('<' l:iTr: f IH' Co1111t:ry. n R11bst1111tlvr: 11 lio11 t. a l'rrp,JR! t1011; .lortltt 11 , 11 l'ropcr
Nn 1110; prP11,.hl11g, th<> l'reseut l'nrt.klplc uf th e vt>t"h Adi ve to preaeh lul11 etl
like a n 11d.1ective to the Pronoun he : tl1 P IJ:qitisrn , :i Suhstnntive in th e OhJ.cetive
Case fo ll owing the ActlYe verb l'rC'nchi11g, am! gon:• rn ecl by it, etc."

'l'h E1 MPthod T t:ik<\ :irnl I fi11fl it su far eff<'d nnl fo fhP En<l proposed. is. ha\"lng
got whnt T jml!!ed to be the best Book of Letters . I make se1·ern l yo un g Ge ntlemen s t a nd up a ud rend a Letter gracef111Jy; a ft e r \\"hi ch I read it to th em
my self. rnnkinir obserrnt·io11s 011 t he Sentim en t nml the Styl(', arn1 n~klng their
Opi11io11s wilh H.espect to both.rt

It recp1ircs but a glance at the co nt en ts of t he gralllmars \Yh icli
began iHstruction of the s ubj ect in A me ri ca to see how t hifi for111nli sm
of parsing reigned s uprem e. T he Briti sh Grn111mar bclieres in pa rsing every word; 77 :M urray advertises a n ew system of parsing. 7 8
Gooltl Drown was perhaps the most ardent chnmpion of parsin g in
America. H e explains the philosophy of the exercise in this:

This admirable pradice 'ms found only in the better schoolrooms.
·vve shall see the movement for " oral explanation " as a part of the
educational r evival leJ by Horace Mann. 72

[It Is] n either wholly extempora n eo us, no r wholly by rote; It has more dignity
than a school boy's conversa tion, nnd more ense than a form a l r ecitation. The
exercise hi pnrsing commences Immediately after the first lesson of etymology,.
nml is carried. on progressively until it embraces a ll the doctrines that are
applicable to it. . . . It 'requires just enou gh of thou ght to keep the mind
att cutlY e to what tlie lips are utteriug; while it advances by such easy grnduat!o11 s :int1 co11~ta 11 t r epeti t ions as to leave th e pupil utterly withont excuse, lf he
lioes not know what to say."

4. PARSING.

vVe come n ow to the other two of the great tri um vi rate of methods
ca rri ed over from the Latin to the English g ramma r-pa rsing and
fal se syntax. Brinsley co111plains that." t.lwrP. is so mn ch t im e spent
in examining eve ry thing:• (parsing) ; nevertheless, he in sists that his
pupils parse ns they co nstrue.
Ask the child what wont he 111ust begin to pnrse (I'rincip:il word)." . . . In the
seYeral f orms and Authors to construe t rul y. and in propriety of words and
sense, to parse of thetn sel \"l~S nnd to gil·e n ri ght reason of e1·er.v word why It
must he so, and not ot·hprwi sP. . . . rnrse over eYe ry word; t ench wlrnt pnrt
of speech, how to decline it. give a true renson for eYer y word, wh y it must
be so."

Brinsley's elaborate m ethod of procedu re is as follows: The schola r
is to r ead the senten ce before he constr ues; mark a ll the points
(punctuation) in it; mnrk words beginning with g reat letters; understand th e m atter; 111:1 rk the voea ti ve ca se; seP k out the prin ci pal verb;
give every clause his ri g h t verb; supply wanting " 'ords; girn eYery
word hi s " proper sig nifi cation "; join the substantiv e and adjective;
mark if the sentence have an interrogation point.75
70
., Lily, op. cit., 2.
Grrcnwood . pre fnce. II.
11 Ilrlttsh, prefnce, XXVI II .
"" Ilrtn s ley, op. cit. , 74.
"IL>ld ., !)!).
"See Chnp. VI, p. 146.
12 nrlnRl<')', op. cit., 1 27.
"' Thld ., 53.
•• Il>ld., 41.
"lblcl., 125.
"Ibid., !)5. This Is n cn refnl exnmlnntto n of th e nnture of the senten ce which does not
come tnto t he pra c ti ce of Amcrl cnn sc hool• until _well down Into the nine teenth century.
Green ·s Analysis of 1848 did much to tbrow t he emph n•I• prev iously given to dry
formali s m In grammnr to th e unrt lysls of sentences. See Chnp. VII.

Brow n furth er insists that in th!3 _entire rnnge of school exercises,
while ther e is none of greater importance than pn,rsing, yet, perhap·s,
there is none which is, in general, more defectively con<luctetl.
Brown's
grnmmars are the culmination of the sel'ies of r)arsin<Y
<Yram.
bb
mnrs; m the Inst chapter we hnve see n th em in use quite extens!vely
in the academies of New York as la te ns 1870. 80 Brown chnmp ions
parsing on one ground which has an entirely mod ern ring. He .wishes
,, ; to haoYe the child given something to cl as ~ll as somethiug lo .lc; rn. 8 1
- , . Elaborate formulas of procedure r ecl nce all to a systc~so lfiat b}·
·, rote correcting nnd parsing the whole process may be macle easy.
. ,This nm kcs t he exercise free from all embarrassment, whi ch is con . - ' 1duci ve to proficiency in language. Says this master of parsing:
-. , Tlie pupil \Yh o can not perform these exrrcises hoth accurately mHl fl11p11tlv
,"., ... has no ri ght to ex pect fr om anybody a pa t! e ut hea riug. A slow a 11Ll falle r:. ·
ing rehearsal . .. is as foreign from parsing or correc tin g as it i s from elega 11ce
1
of di ction . DI vide :rnd conqu er ls tl1e rul e h ere, as in many cases. Begin "IYith
':what ls simple; practice It until It beco mes familiar nnrt th Pn proceed. No
.. ~child ever lenrned to s pea k by any other process. Ha rd things become easy by
1-use, and skill Is ga ined little by little."'
, ...

18

l\furray, 47.

British, preface, VI.
,. Murrny, preface, 6.
" Brown, preface, VI.

11

See Cbnp. IV.
Brow n , preface, V.
Bl B rown , Gram o f Grnm ., prefnce, V.

00
81

',·1
_ 1'.

~

...

~ :~
iijli

.,!~

P•

122

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEI>'ORE 1850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

This in a nutsh ell is the philosophy of grammar fr?1.n Lily cl~wn_ to
almost moo. Grun1mar is the art of s peaking and wntrng Hie bnglish
lan ~uarre : the chil<l learn s to speak by getting first the clements. A
co n~tai~t process of dividin g wholes into parts , c 1. en to the letters as. a
starting point, is the natural and logical rnetl 1od for teachers _who will
start their pupils rightly. A s written aml s poken l'.tngllagc is accomplished by the putting togeth er_ of parts, so the ta~ong of t1'.e1~1. a.p.art
· tl · 't' 1 tc.n o. · the Lennw1rr process. _Pars mg anll c o11edmg
•
1s ie in1 rn _s_ "-'=""' - - - - -=
l 'I
u
involve this extremely nn:ilyli!·iLl philosophy. ' . ien· 1ore icy nre
t.he best m ethods of learning. Moreover, parsing is loo ked upon as acriti c:il e xercise in thi> uUNnH cc as well 11s of e\•i!l<em·c of prcriousRt\HlY. · · .'

. ·
f or ,1
. JI t·\ie
P""·e
It is an exe1c18<'
.
- - rR nf th<> llliud. exce pt t il e 1111· 1~ 11tl\·e fa c ulty .

Perception judg ment, rensonin .~. 111 c 111 0 l":\', nnd m et holl arr indi sp!·•nsn\Jle .. · .
Nothing is •to \Je guessed ut, or tl e ri sed , or uttcrel1 n t· ran<10 11 1. "

123

to keep the pupils alert, and d e fends himself for putting his exercises
in fal se sy ntax in a separate part of hi s book instead of scattering
them "promiscuously" throughout the text.BB
Lowth believes in teaching "what is right, by showing what is
ll'rong." He thinks there is no En g lish grammar which s ufficiently
.perfo rm s tl1is duty, though it may prove "the more use ful and effectual method of instruction." 8 0 Two examples of Lowth's false syntax
follow :
Hui e: Til e a rticle, a, ca n only \Je joined to Su\Jstn ntil-es in th e Sl ngul nr
n111nber. A goo<l character sh ould not be re s te(l in as a n end, hut e lllploy e1l as a
lll C:tns of doin g still furth e r gooll. ( Atterh 111"y'i; Se rm ons.) Ought it not be a
me:in 'I I haY e r eacl an auth or of this tn s tc. t hat compares a raggetl co iu to a
tnttererl C'<>l n nr~. (A rlfli~nn on l\ f C'rl a l~ .) ..

The foregoing amusi11g exan1pl e of extreme elllphnsis pu t upon a
Here we haY e the sccoml steµ in the logical process of the parsing
perfectly trivial point is especiall y ludi crous, b ecause Lowth is wrong.
enthusia:sts. Th e first r est s on the natural aualyti cal procc::;s :~s the -.
Both th e sentences from Atterb ury aml Addi son arc co rrect; in the
basis of learning the parts of complicated wholes . The scrn n Ll is.the
first, menn s is a singular noun; in the second" colours," m ea ning flag,
logical result of the old facnlty psychology. The powers -~£ . the mmd, ._
.is also sing11lar.
in order to lie t.rninr.d in Lhe exlrellll'~t st•nse nf forn 1:1l !l1 :-;c_1pl1n 0, rrre .
The othr r rxrrrnpTc hns to do 1Yith clioosC', chosC', ch osen:
· 1 1-u.)' tl ie a 11 .' 1],·t·ir"i
parts.
excrc1scc
.i
• l l'l"!W(•d11n'
·
· of t e:nino·
,.._ 11linl
. r,s rnto
.
.
Tlnrn
lrnvin g chosf;(l each other. . . . (C l11rp11cl<>n. Hist.. Vo l. ITT. p . 707. Sm.)
'J' ] ·
l" · l ·ill or tl11· ]Hlll"rr~ nf thr rninrl rxrPpf· rnvcntrnn , w]nch ··
!IS npp l!'S fl •
'
.
'J'}
I 1111 •rnp"rl y ."
·
. 1·
. -·L · ·t· · - , i1ot. ·t11
·111:1
l'f w:1 I,. i1rne
1e
IS supposed to .Je a co11 " l u c .J 1 e,
,
, - I".
. .!' ~s . .
Lrmf Ii C()]11pl:ii11s that in '.200 yrnrs F: 11gli sh hncl mac]('" no adnmccs
r cJuctiuu of par:-ing fo stri ct rnu ck ls nrnkrs cr''.·t:1in tlw d1 1n1t1Htinn of
in
gran1111:d ica l a ccuracy." He c11w! cs S11- ift " On th e imp C'rfcct S fn. tc
·
t.wn
· on ti· 1e l )a 1·t. ci·"1 'lie
IJU]Jil
Then '·. is litt le doubt . t hat the
inven
l
.
·
of
onr L:rng11:igc "--:--that" in manv crrses it offrncl ec1 ng:ii11st. evrr.\·
,
l "w~
· t
e1 t o f G100
C"t
l e d ·.L
- ,_. , i··
" Llic ec:c:cnrr
-- - - of the ]JClla- ·
J<1- 1-,ru1'l'll,
st.a .em . 1
.
·
·
·
·
t d part of Gra 111m rll'. " HP asserts tl1af in hi s dn.v "Gra111mar is n~ ry
-· . 1 tl · hn rr \rhich r c<r·1rckd orrn1nmnr ns" t-11 c d1 sc1plmnry s ll Y g og1ca l 111 ' '-<>'
- b
,
.
·f f· ' lt
. ." much n cgl cctccl." a nd fills th e bo ttom of ncarl.Y c-rer~· page 1rith footnt
o
.1c1t ·Y
par exce11 en1.:c.•· IL i· :::-. '•1 1··.-·11lt·
~·~
· ·1 11 l·11·
· "'n-c r•art
-··
- thr n·1irn
~
notes of whn t h e terms proof" thnt. our best a n,th ors ha»e co mmitted
psycho1ugy and forrrnil di sciplinP.
gross 111i sfakPs for \Y:111t of l1ll l' lrn m1lc dge of E ngli sh Grn11 u11a r ."
Low !h ass11rcs ns tlrnt thrsc cxnlllplc•s "rrrc snch as occll!Tcd i11 re a d s. F1\LSE SYNTAX.
. 1ng, wiLh out an,v »er,v curious or rn etl1odirnl examination." It is a
. . f tli e Latin and the role perioJs aLlL1 Cll a.Hollier bane
· 'curious specu latio n , the11, as lo why Luw ll1 aLlvocates so vigorously
Th
. p p r::i ('. t H~PS 0
'
.
,
.
.
.
.
' '} '
.the hmd1i11g- "of what is rigid. h v fi howi11 g 11hat is wrong." It llla ,V
to srhoolhnv lifP . nnmPly . thP conect10n of fal::;c S}ntax . . l us .
.~ t o ]1 ny 0 lief'n up 11 prnllv intrudu ceLl a lio ut UH' 111 1ddl " of the
Le that li e 11 as cager to rn:1kl' 11 S!' ()f !l1L' copi ous 11o!rs which he had
rrpp<'n1,-,
"
·
,...
·
.
..
·] . f
douu!.lcss bee n acc nmulating in years of r cnding. 02 H e is i111 part inl in
eighteenth ccnt 11 ry , tlt C\ fi rst to us:· it b c111g _l' ishcr and .t he au L 101
his se lection of false grnmm::ir, ci ting ll olibs, the Bible . the Litmgy,
the British Granimar. Thr,se wnters arc followcll by .tll the utl~ers
lope,
S lwkespea r c, Prior, IIooh·r, Drydl·H , and A dc1iso11 . 0 ~
j ou r series , each seeming t.o be more conviuced uf the pcda go~1cal ~
11
·
.
·
tl
n
.
nv
of
hi"
IW!:'ilPc!'ssors
.
The
author
of
the
value 0 f tie
.
.
d ,,, .
1 exe1c1se 1a cl J
"Ibi d., X.
British Grammar asserts that his book is "lli iierently pla1~nc , .
, •• Lowth, preface, X.
both rn ver~ _. , 00 Lowtb, op. cit., 19.
because i't off· ers " 1)romi scnou s exercises in false syntax,
·
h.
·1 b
.
, d · prose" B5 He also urges the master to deceive 1s pup1 s Y. . _ ! 111" Ibid
Ibid .. preface, 1- X.
,tn JU
•
t "
d
f
1
1
"I!
.
the master o rea
a se y, ·.,.·1.
\;,. ~·" .You was . . . Is nn enormous SoleclRm; Rnll ye t authors of the front rank hnve
reu mg
wrong ly
. .so Fisher
·
•also urrres
b
0

?·.

d

••Ibid.
.. British, preface, I.
"Ibid., 111.

S6

11

lhicl ., xv.
Fisller, preface, X II.

• .Inadvertently fallen Into It. 'Knowing that you wns my old maste r' s friend.' Addison,
Spectator, No. til 7. ' Would t o God you was within her _r,e.ach.' Lord Bollngbroke to
Swift, letter 46, etc." In these footnotes Lowth's pracMce Is somewhat of a clevlntlon
!rom correc ting fnlse syntax. Op. cit., 35.

124

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

:ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

125

three ~ajo~· methods of teaching we have just been considering, viz:
Priestley npproves of Lowth's methods, ns :follows:
Memonzat10n of rules, parsing, and correcting false syntax. All
An nppemlix would ha Ye been made of exawp l.-s of bud English; for they are
three, except possibly the last, nre direct inheritnnces from the classrenlly useful; but they make so uncouth an nppearan ce in pri11t. And It can
rooms of Latin grammar, and if v..-e can believe Fisher, as cited above,
be no nrnnner of troub le to :111y te:wher to sup]lly the wornt of thP111. by a fnlse
reading of a i.;ood nnthor, :nul n·1111iri11g his pupils to point out, 111111 rectify his
the latter was inherited also. vVe have now to consider certain miJ.J.or
rni stn k es. . . .•• I think 1°11 e re will he 1111 ndvnntnge in rny hnvlng coll<~cte<l
methods. It must be borne in mind that grammar included in 1800
exam pl es from 111mlern writings. ndher thnn those from Swift, A1l11lson, und
far more than it does to-dny. It was instruction in the use of the
others, who wrote nl1out half a cPntury ngo , in whnt Is cn lled the cl:1ssicnl
mother tongue, embracing many of the purposes served to-day by
period of our tongue. Hy this 111 p:111s \H' S<'e what is the r ea l r hnrn cte r aml turn
compos ition, rhetoric, writing, reading, euphonies, declamation, and
of the lnng11ngc at Jll'<'S!'llt; 111111 h.v 1·on1pari11g H will! Ill e wrlt:i 11gs of' preceding
authors. we may better ]lerce h·e which way it Is temli11g , nml what extreme we
the rest.
should most ca r efu ll y gun rd against."
There is co nstn nt evidence as to the use of these additional func'William vVard also commends Lowth's method:
tions of ~Tammatirnl instruction. 'Ve may cite, for example, emphasis
Very lntely we ]Jay e hee n fnvored with one (g ra111111nr) hy the le:uned Dr.
• up ~n the parallel study of rna<ling ~rom authors in the mother tongue.
Lowth. . .. . This l'i<'ec IR exeellPnt 011 11ec•o1111t of hi s nol<'S. In whl!'h are shewn
'Ilus was to be the 111cnns of becon11ng familiar with good writers for
the grnn1111nllc l1111ccurnc les I hat hnYc csc:q1cll 1'11c JH'llR or 11111· 11111st. 1llstl11g11lshed
the sake of observing good grnm111atical construction, ns well as of
·writers. 'l'his wny of tlistl11ctio11. by showing what ls wrong In l~ngllsh in order
getting
lessons in morality, honesty, nnd goodness. Mrrny of the
to teach us to avoid it, ls necessary, because tile pupi ls will thc1usclves offend
grammars have appendices with fables, prayers, cntechisms; and the
against every rule: there will be plenty of opportunity to shew them what Is
like, which were prescribed as a regulnr part of the study called gramwrong.'°
Again, we have the testimony of that high p~·iest of pnrsing and
mar. It is by .n? means improbable that. in these parallel readings
false syntax, Goold Drown: " Scnrcely less use.ful . .. is tlte prn.cwe have the ongm of school prndiccs \Yltich have to-day cn~nttmtccl
tirP of rorrPr.ting fnlse syntax orally. by regular and logical form of
in the stlHl,V of the Eng-lish classics. Franklin. however, seems to
argument." 97 l\'lnrray also bclierns in the pradice, a:> will lie seen
h~Ye had in mind a larger purpose in his proposals, approflching in
1150. somewhat. nearer our mrnlern conception; tltnt is, the Eng li sh
from the following quotation:
class1es for tli<'1r content ns "<'II ns for litPrnn· excellence 2
From the ~eutlmf'nt gP11Pr:ill? nll111ittP•l. thnt a r11·opPr sP le••t io u of fn11lty
<'omposition Is more instrnct:l1·e to tlJP yo1111g gr:1mn1a!·inn. th:rn any rules or
Colet reco111rnemls the use of "])]'!'!tic i>n~krs" \Yith ;, lesso ns of
exn111ples of propriety tllnt cnn ue ginm. tlw COlll]liler h:is been i11d111·Pd to JIHY
. gocllinesse and honestie." In the edition of 1G27 he enjoins teachers
particular attcutiou to lhis parl of Ilic 'uhk..t: n111l 111"\H!h lh<' in,t:in1·e;;: of
_tu ''. be l<> ll1e111 your O\\'Il sch·l's also spea king \\·ith them the p ure
false grammar, wid e r the rul<'s of Syntax are 11u!l1rrn11s, it is ltnp NI th<'Y will.
Lat.In very present, find Ira Yet.he. r11lcs." •
,
not be founrl too mnn:-·, wlwn thrir variety nnrl 11sPfnln1•ss are c·nnsillered."
Dilworth frcls that this reading- will help make palntnble \vhnt he
The above e:-;arnpll's nn· to lie corr1·1·tl·d "1·:1lly.
calls" the pills of mcrnorir,atinn ." • The :lllthor of the British Gram Fisher thinks Umt he is Llic first Lu introduce English exerl~l~es in
~ _·mar gi,·es his pupils a taste of the poets; 5 Fisher has the master or
false syntax. He says that the prndire was ronsidPrr<l nxpedient in one of the scholars read to p11pils from the best authors. 6 'Vanl uscs
Latin and mentions two Lat.in t.rxts of hi s clay which have the device.
the Spectator as a suitable classic anrl selects from eflsv books
He says: "I never ol1snned this rnet.hod rcrommenrlc<l or prl'scribed
"examples
for resolving, " 7 wl1ile Priestley collects exa111ples from
bv others." 09 It will be remembered thnt Fi shrr nnte(latcs Lowth, • SPP Chnp. 111. r . 41.
tl1e British Grammar, and Prie!='t.ley. The l~ritish Ur:unnrn.r irnproves
1 " For r ending of good books, diligent lnfn1mntlon of tnnght nrnste1s. sturlin 11 s nihert on Fisher, the author of that book thinks, by scattering fal se syntax·l\nce aud lnklnl'.!' heetl of lenrnpr.;: lt f' fll In.I! 1 ' l o q11~ ·n l nF•n ~1wnk . nn<l nnnllv hn~v iinltaflnn
throughout the text and putting the errors in italics, not " lo distract - _ -· with ton;.:uc nncl pen. more nvalleth shortly to ;;c t the trnc eloqueut spe~ch, tiinn all the
• .•traditions. rules and precepts or masters." Lily, op. cit ., 3.
·
the learner too much." 1
~- •"As Practice, In all Arts nncl Sciences, Is the gr eat Medium ot Instruction !Jet.ween
i

6. SUBORDINATE METHODS.

There can be no doubt that the grammars which determined
earliest instruction in the subject in America put a premium upon th~'
.1
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"Priestley, prefrtce, XXII.
91 Ibid ., XI.
"Brown, preface, 4.

"Murray, preface 3 .
"Ward, op. cit., prefnce. IX.
1
"Fisher, preface, XXL
British, preface, IV.

Master and Scholnr. I would advise nil Teachers, wl1en they find their Learners relish the
~ules ot this Pnrt (grnmmnr) to enjo in them nt the same time to rend the best English
~ Authors, as the Spectntor, Tntler, Gunrdlnn, ete . . • . nnd bnnlsh from their eyes such
, o.~ubstreet l'npers, Idle Pamphlets, lewd Plays, filthy Songs, and unseem ly Jests which
, .. debauch the Principles." Dllworth, preface, VIII-IX.
•British, preface. XXII.
'Fisher, prefnce, X.
r 'Ward, preface, X.

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126

ENGLISH GHAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

the best authors :tnd indicates that he, too, believes i.n the device. 8
Later authors seem largely to h ave given up reco mm ending th e practi ce, perhaps because fonmd gramm ar is to an extent becoming more
co11fi11ed in its scope.
Four other rn etltods, or classroom lleYiccs, appear" quite fr equently:
Emitlation, preferments, copying, and dictation.
Brinsley is the champion of the first of these. He desires all to
haYe their adversnries nnrl to be so 111 ntehe<l and pbce!l that nil may
" be Jone by st.rift." 0 8c\Ye l I ha s It is p11 pi Is cc rti fy i 11acc11 rncies in
each other'~ expressions, consta ntly correcting each otlier. 10 Brown
passes the errors of one pupil on to th e next. 11 H ere we seem to find
indication of the pra.ctice "going to the head of the lin e," ,so often
d escribed by our fathers . Fisher was an especially ardent ad rncate
of emulation. 12
Similar in purpose, if not quite identical in practi ce, is the elaborate
system of preferments described by Brinsley. This has cuntiuue<l in
all teaching up to the present day. Brinsley describes hi s plans for
encouragement in this wise: Promotions to higher clns:ses; giving
higher places to those who do better; commending everytl1ing well
done; giving r ewards to victors in di sputation and applause to the
vidors; anrl <'ornparing exercises in writing l10ok s. 1 " Copying might
have been ·listed as a device for aiding memory. Howernr, it seems
to have been consid ered a rneans of stim11h1ti11g intrrrsL, a s:ttl commentary indeed upon the dry-as-dust processes w Ii iclt it coukl be
thought to relieve. Typical advice is founrl in Fisher ,11 in Dilworth, 16
and in the Briti sh GranHnar, 16 mging masters tu li:n e pupils copy
exercises in both prose and ver se for their" ernni11g copy ."
Dictation is closely akin to copying and is even more frer(uent iri
f·ht'. rprommP.11cl:t.tio11s of the i:rr:u1111mrinns. Brins lPy stro ngly rrcom- ~
8 P rif:.~dlPy, prl?f<H'P, XX ITT.
'nrin Rl Py, op. cit .. GO.

mended the pmctice. 17 Fisher also 18 would have pupils kee p alphabetica l lists in pocketbooks, the nse of which he constantly urges. The
Briti sh Grammar is likewise in favor of the device. 19 Sewell has
pupils take dictation on their s lates and then the teach er corrects it. 20
Dilworth also recommends the exercise. 21
There remains to be noted the use of copy books, writing exercises,
and oral work. Brinsley recom111e11cls "note books of daily nse with
inke," nncl rPq11ircs each pupil to possPss "n li.ttl e pnprr hooke to
• note all new aml lmnl wonls in." 22 Fisher gives extended directions
for the use of copy books. 23
'
The British Grammar, elaborating the di scussion of dictation , gi,·es
it the na Lure of a writing exercise. ·w hen a master dictates he rn:i v
mix the rul es, making the exercise as promiscuous as he chooses. L~t
a tyro" first co py the several Exercises, and then write thrm a seco11cl
time from Dictation," then correct it aml copy it again. The author
advances this as a rea son for making his book so short. He also commends the writing of an anonymous letter with the purpose that'
"One Exercise should be daily to write a Page of English, and after
~ that to exa mine every word by lh e Grn111111ar Rules; a rnl in evr1·y Sen tence they have composed, to oblige them to give an Account ~f the
Eng-1 ish :-.lynb x and Const ruction. " 24
- ' Sewell requires pupils to write on their slates. and has in the appendix a chapter for practice in leltrr writing." \Varel has the st 11clv of
grammar accompani ed by the compositio n of short letters. 20 ·Bro1Yn
gives fo11r chnpf·ers of exercises ac1:ipted to the fonr parts of the subject, which are to be written out Ly the learner. "The greatest
peculi:irity of the methocl is that it rrr]11irrs the pupil to speak or
write a grrat deal, and the le:icher very lit.lie." P
·' Fishrr's honk anc1 the British Grammar arr partic11larly Pmplrntic
_in recomrnending oral vvork , the former making pupils pronounce

•• S1•wel1. prcfnc e. Vil. VIII.

11" \Ylt en n bo y twl1_'0 :i n lmpr n pri1:ly in his schoolmatt· ·s E x pr 1·s<..:iPll, 11" \y1·it 1 ·~ rln,,·n th(l
Exprl'SSion ju st .'ls H w :1 ~ 11l11' rr(l; flir· 11 111· :iilfl1H'P~ th<' H11I (· nf f; r:irnm:ir fr"m \\-h irh thd
F.xpre~sion devinlP~, n11 fl 11nd1' 1'1l P: 1th lw i11s 0 rts tlw Exprr'.-'~-dn11 ('(l!"l"E'('(f•d .
F1 1 r this. Feat,

he r ccciYCS: n. Clnp of Applnusr nnd 1-nkPf'Z his I'lncf' ~1qwrlot· to tli P Hn>~ w llo ~r l ~x prf'ssion
he corrc('trr1."
The t eacher 8ho11lrl 11 rnrrfttlly suprr!n tf'nrl .
rf'l11•:-trs:1 ls: civ" th P word to tlw n ext. ,
when onv nnP <'ITS. nnrl nr<lPr tlH• ~XPrrlsf' in snrh n mnnner l hnt (' fl:h r.r hi 8 own voice. or :
the e~nm..p1C' o( tl1P h M:t Sr' holnrs. nrn:v grnd11nll.v rotTPf't thr. 111 hnhits of the awk\vard, ti11
nt1 lf'nr n to rPrit" with clf'nrnrss, unrlPrstnnflinl? well what l lt c.v say . and make Jt

Inte lligible to others."
""After they arc mn,ters of lette r s, sy llables, and words th ey wlll Lie nhle to rem e mb~ r
Rules. . . . After ren<llng they nrc to lcn rn the s top s and marlrn. . . . Employ time In
writing Words dow n , whi lst tho Mnster, or onr of the SclJol:ns. rend s n Pnrngrnph from i
the Spcctntor .
. anrl let nil thnt nrc appointed to write, copy from hi s n.rndlng, the,D
to crcntc nn Emulal Ion . co mpare the I'lrccs and place the Scholars according to the Defect •
of their P erfo rmun ces." l'rt'fn ce, IX-X .
·~'
"Brinsley, op . cit., 280 et seq.
"Fisher, prefa ce. X.
"Dilworth, preface , IX.
"Britis h, prefa ce, IV.

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prPrttN'. XTTf.
pr 0f n('". YTT.

J) ilwn rlh, prPfHcr, YI.

"U1·1usl c.L o p. ell. . 4G and 1'.!4.
·i 13 " Let tlrn I\lnRf"er wrltr- d ow n n il fhPfr ml ~ - r-- p 0 l t wonh~ rfght. fn tliPir ·~Yril\n g-"Rn o k~.
to be got hy I I rn rt brforP. t lwy kn ,.e t·h 0 m :rnd withri J. mn kP <'rich RchoJ[lr ''Til c h 1~ own
Into nn Alph nhctlcn l Pocket-book ke pt !or that r•!!r posr :· lie al so r·rcommrnrls that the
mns ter write mfssprllrd "·orcls into th r p11pll~' writing hnoks. Prrh .'1r~ w0 hn,·r 111 thf'RC
• books th e germ of co mposition work whlch flr s t c:ime nbont 17~0. Fisher . prcfncc, XI.
• 1 .~• British, JV, VI, XlX

.. ,, ""Now nnd th en as n Gene1•al Exercise, I mnke my pupils write rlown on their Slate•

. ft ·selrct Re ntrn cc, ns I dictate to them; each on e keeps his Performance close to hlnrnclt

On ' Exnmlnntlon tho"c whose P erform nnces nppenr correct'. nre ranked In n Snperlor
' Pince , nnd to prov e thnt th ey hn ve written correctly, by Dint of Judgm ent, nnd not as
the .E ffect of Chnncc, I make them r ecti fy the Error or Inferior Boys, by quoting the
Rule of Grnmmnr, fr om which each Enor Is n Dcvlat.lon.'' Sewell, preface, VII. The
appenclTx for let.to r writing Is on pnge 163 of Scwell's Grammar.
"Ward. prefa ce, X.
· "Brown, preface, VI.

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128

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

129

These Lessons will also be selected from different Authors in n 1rious SubjectH; nnd frequently, from the• "\Yorks of thosP \vho a re the most CPleilrnte<l
unwritten thoughts. 20
for the I~leg:111ce of their Bpistolnry "\Vritings; ns this Kincl of C01nposition l~
nck110\vledge<l to be ns cli!licul t ns nny, nncl of grenter Utility. The erronc•ons
7. METHODS USED BY HUGHES AND BYERLEY.
Part in ern ry Lcssm1 will lil;mvise be mn<lifiPcl. At 011e ti111e it wlll co nsist nf
falsf~ RpP! lln g nlo11e: .. . nt nnother nf fnlse Concnrcl: . . . the ne xt pPrhaps will
So far th e en deavor has been to show how the rnethods of teaching
consist of both; . . . th e four I h 111ay uni: be composcLl of either of them but ma v
grammar i11 the Latin and rote periods were, with bnt s light variacoutnin some Inaccuracies or Vulgarisms, etc.; the fifth may ret:ll;i all th~
foregoing Inprnpri eties. 11rnl the Inst, none of tlwrn, of whi ch the pupil need not
tion, the methods u sed in instruction in Latin grammar. This chap'
he apprnisPCI, for HenRonR, thnt nrc too evi<lf'nt to requin~ 11 Jlc•cHnl. 'J'o the
ter 111ay fit.tingly close with a clesniption of 111ctho<ls ll S('(l in two
prcceeCling cxereiscs \viii sm•ceeLl othPrs on tlw Nature arnl Use of Trnn><posiprominent English gra111111ar school s in New York in 17fi!) :rnd 1770,
tion; . .. the Elipses of all the Parts of Speech, us usecl by the best Writers
respectively. Fortunately, Hugh H11gl1es and Thomas Byerley have
together with the use of Synonymous Terms. ; . .
'
l eft careful explanation of their methods. The description of these
A General Knowleclge of all which, joined to Practice, will enable Youth
to avoid the mnny orthographicnl Errors. Barbarisms, inelegant Hepetitions.
masters is also strong evidence that English grammar was coming to
and mnnifest Solecfarns, which they are otherwise liable to run Into. nnd in
occupy in a few American schools a position very closely resembling
Time, whi ch renclrr t hem Mnstl•rs of :m easy, EiPg:111t Styl e, [Jy which they will
that held by Latin grammar in <'lnssica l schools, incleerl , that identical
. become capable of conn~ying their 8entirnpnts \vith C lenn~ess ancl l'rcdsion. in
methods were emplo,rell in Lhe teaching of Loth.
- a ccmcise _:incl agreeniJle i\l:11111e1", as well wit!J Hqrntntion to themselves ns
Delight tn !heir Fric•11ClR.
HUG II ES.
Lastly, tho' the f'oint-ing of a Discourse requires Juclgmcnt arnl a more intiIn 1771 Hughes modifi ed his program, at l east h e so claims, to lay
mate Acquaintance with the Ryntncticnl Order of "\Vords and Sentences, than
the Generality of Youth can be possessed of, to which may be added the unsetgreater stress upon English. His advertisement of that year reads: ~·
tled State that Punctuation it><elf Is renlly in; Rn that very f('w prccisc Hnlc•s
"Orthoepy, or .Just Pronunciation, which the Pnpil is taught, not -:
. can be given. without numerous Exceptions. wili<:l1 \YOU!ll rather ernbarass the
by Precept alone; but by Occular Example . . . with proper Stops;
Pupils by continually searching of their Dictionaries, In quest of Primitives ·
Emphasis, Cadence, Quantity, and a Deli very, varied and governed
and their DNin1tiveR, ns w01l ns the consti tu en t Pnrts of Compound Terms ·
besicic"' l1·:1nii11c: tl1c· ll<'j1C'I1tl1•111•p tli:it tl1Pir Nntin• J,:111g11Hgc hns ., 11 ilsL•if : "·ii;
hy sense." 32
In 1771 Hnghes had cha nged his program into that of a thorough·
also trp:i;;ure up i11 their l\IPmories a rnst Rt.wk of Word>:, from the pnrPRt
going English grammar school. On December RO lw. announces l
Writers; :incl what is of infinitely more Value, their just Definitions; as every
"The Subscriber proposes, if encouraged, to teach the English Lan- . · ?11e of this Class will hai·e Johnson's Didionary iu Oc.:tavo."

orally in prosody ,2 8 the latter requiring them to speak every day their

guage Grammatically." It is to b e noted here that tlw method pro; _.
BYERLEY.
posed is probably unfamiliar, or at least not common, in N cw York ,·
,
and that. " if enronrn.!!Pd" imlicatPs tlw clPpf>ndf>n Cf>. of private-school ·
Byerley is the author of the second grammar written bv :in Amerimcn upon the desires of patrons, of whicl1 conr0rning his new proposnl ·, :, can and published in this co11ntry, "A l'l..a in and Easy Int~ocluction to
he is somewhat in doubt. Hughes thus describes his methods:
· · English ~rammar," 1773. In .the same year we find him advertising
When the pupil cnn rend lluently nnd write 11 LPgihle Tlnnn he shnli be tuug:ht
an English grammar school m New York City, giving a detailed
the English Accidence." or the Properties of the Pnrts of Speech. as divided and ·
record of the methods of teaching used in his various classes.
Byerley, like Franklin and oth0r American champions of the
explninecl by the lntest nncl most eminen t English Grnmmarlans; that is Dr. '
I)owth. n1·. Pri PRtle:v. nnd others.
' ·
mother tongue, had been reading John Locke. 8 ~ In the advertisement
After which he will he tnught to parse dlsjuncth·ely, then mocfally, and '. .' of his school, h e sets forth th e necessity of givinu up the stud of
Instructed in the Rules of English Syntnx: an<l, when he is suflkiently skilled
Latin for the )lll' )O
f 1
·
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l' 1
°
·
y
Jn them, to nccount for the Construction of Sentence>< in Ut>ncrnl, he will reeelv~ ~, ;_~-- _ _
_ _!_. - ~-se 0 ___:ai~iuig ~-~!s_~ ~rammar, ~uotiug Locke
Lessons of False Spelling anrl Irregular Concord, etc .. tnken from some Ciflsslc
~,., 14 Advertl~Pm e nt In N. Y. G . and w. P . B., ncr. :io, 17 7 1.
Authors, but r endered ungrummaticnl for the Purpose of trying bis .Judgment. .:- · ~ ,. Byerley, after quoting Locke and Low th , continues : " Heretofore It wns thought R
" ' hen he has r educed tlwse as near the Original ns·hls Knowledge of Grnmnrnr '
competent knowledge of the English could not· be acquired without some previous ncqualntwil t perml t, he will be shown n ll such lrregula rities n s may have escaped bl.~
ance with th~ . Latin Tongue : which therefore became th e only Vehicle of grammatical
) nstructlon. l hi~ eJ'ror arose from A. too partial Fondn<'~~ for thnt Lnngungf', ln which
Notice. either

in

the Orthographical or Syntactical Part.

"Fisher, preface, XL
"British, preface, XXVTII.
"N. Y. G. and W. P . B.. Dre. 30, 1771.
" I t Is to he uotrd that the study of EngliRh grammar begins exactly where
Latin grnmmar began.

:'f ;

formerly tha Service of the Church, the Translation of tho Bible. and most other Books
Men, however, too often sacrifi ce thcir Understnndlng• at the shrine
. were printed. .
ot Ancient Custom: Thus the Practice o! sending Youths to learn English at a Latin

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130

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

nt le ngth on the unwi sdom of compelling a lad to learn " the Roman
~
. at t Iie same t'·1me Ll es1g
' 11el1 f 01· a " t ra
· d e. " 36
Lancruage"
wh en h e 1s
The~e can be little doubt that the seemin g practi cability of English
grammar and of the so-call ed English edu cati on in general-a conten,
ti on first advan ced uy Locke-was the most pow erful argument for the
vernacular.
After thus setting forth his r eason s Byerley s ketches his plan for
"Au English Gra111111ar Sd1oo l whic..:!1 will be open ed the first of next
mo11th.""' Thi s title, like JI11gh es's, whi ch was c:d le<l "An English
Grammar and General School, indicates that there were attempts to
establish Engli sh schools on the sam e order as th e secondary grammar
schools h er etofore known in the colonies.
In the lowest Cln ss will be nh·nnged th e Chiltlrcn who ha\·e been but imperfectly tnnght to read ; with whom the Utmof<t Ca re shall \Je taken to correct ill
Habits in lten tlin g; nml to for m a ju st l'romrnci nti o11 .
In the next Clnss the f;cholnr shnll \Je iuitiated in the grnrnmaticnl In~titutes; ·
nncl 1hPse stron gly fi xed on the Mind \Jy freq neut Parsing of the most approYed
Lessons.
The tllird will Introduce the Rcholnt· to an Acq uaintance with the Syntax and
J!:llipsis; each of whi ch shnll iJe inculc:ite1l in a Cours<e of re:1tli11g such booirn ..
as mny engnge the yo ung Attention, am! have a 1t1ornl Temlency; ns £11Jsop's
Fables, Tll e Moral Misceiinney, The British Plutarch. Gny's Fn bles, Ilenuties of
IIi"ltll'>'. or Pk! 11r<'s nf Yi r f n 0 n ml Vier'.
In this ClnRs the Scholar will be frequently exercisc(l in the Declension of
lrregulnr :111d !lefectiYe Ver\Js. nnd tl1 e F,xercises of l'nrsin g w ill be contln11ecl.
Tl1e fourth Cln ss \\'ill \Jc fon ued out of tho se Sdwla r s \1·1!0 being most JJro- _
ficient in their grn11nn:itirnl J1J xPl'<'i Res nrc rea <l y 1·0 be inst ru <:>ted in a proper and ·
elegant l\fathnrl nf l'PR <ling Prnse,
'J'lw hoolrn usetl in this Cour::;e, will be chiefly Histo ry of L11 e \\'orld , Hi story of ,
English, Introd uction to l'olite Lea rnin.g, Seneca's Mo rnl s, Andent History,
History of America, Derbam's Physics,_nncl Astro-Tbeology, Economy of Human
Lile.
In th e fifth Cla s;, L11c sclwinr will be in ili:il Pd i11 (11P l'ropril'ti1•R :111<1 Hcnut.ies
of r<>nding Pol't r~-. 1·xl·111plinerl in the \Vorks of Thomson, Grny, I'ope, and
Milt.on.
'
The Schola rs of the fou rth and !iftlJ Classes will \Je occasiunaliy instructed in
the Art of familiar Letter writing.
"What th en may uc co ncluded conccrniHg th e rn cUwds of the years
1750 to 1823 in A m erica?

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

131

Th e textbooks in most general use were modeled strictly after the
_,a 111 , and their auth or s ad vised methods of instruction which had
been used in tea ching Latin grammar for 300 years.
2. The common conception of gra111mar-as the art of writing and
speaking a ' language ,,·ith correctness and propriety-was one which
confused the i1ature of grammar with the laudable purpose of teachi11g it and obtained, with few except ions, throughout the two periods.
· 3. nstruction proceeded without exception from the wrong unit-th e word. This wns the n atural result of the seemingly log ical process
of beginning with the simplest elements and proceeding t o the complex. In reading a nd in grnmrnar, because of this procedure, the
A-B-C method was destined to r efnain fixed until the revival led by
Horace Mann. All the grammars began with the parts of speech.
· 4. h ere was but little connection between the parrotlike repetition
of-rt les .and a ny r eal underst a nding of them. 3 "
5. J lelntively little effort in writing or sp eaking was made to apply
th e rules of grammar. W illiam B. Fowl e, the editor of The Common
School Journal , writing of his own education about 1800, said:
vVe were educated at one of the best schoo ls .. . but, although we studied
Eng llsb gra mmar Se\'en yen rs nnd rccei n' d n f<ih·er medal for profi ciency, we
neve r wrote a sentence of Engli sh at school, and uc1·cr did anything tl!at ha d to
do with writing or cn111·0rsalio11.""
· The common procedure was in theory from r ul es to practice; but
it was prncti ce involved in the application of formidable exe r cises of
syutax, elym ology, aml parsiug :t11cl emll c\SS exercises in conectin g
false sy u lax. It is true that in clictatiou , 11Titing exercises, and speaking we hav e seen, in embryonic form, the ueginnings of our modern
composition a n d Jiterntme: hnt t11esc 'Yrre strictly suborcli n:decl to
the a ll -powerful lrilogy of nwthocls- 111e111o riza tion, pa rsi n g , and
fal~ c sy11la x.
I u short. fro m the viewpoint of lhe b est 111oclern practice, before
1823, English grammar was badly taught in every respect. The
nature of the textbooks themselves is eno11gh to warrant that concl usion: but when the evidence is added of the wretch ed incompetence
of ten chers ·10 nnd th!Cl corrobora ti n g testimony of every man who wns
a sti.1dent of grammar during Llrnt per iod assuraHce is rendered
- doubly sure. In almost the same terms Brinsley u ses for his own
- . school in 1620 h e mi g ht have d escribed the practices of H11ghes's a nd
,· ByerlP.y's schools a century and a half later.

Sch oo l continued , w llh on t nny in quiri es a bo ut th e f'ropr icty o f It. till Mr. Locke ventured
lo ce nsure the cond uct of a f'nthl'r w ho shou ld wa s te bls own Money and hl s Son's Time
iu Setti ng him to le nrn the Roman La ng uage. " . ..
B yer ley was a disc iple of L ocke In matters o[ disciplin e n ls o. At the end of hls adver, .I. An o bserver, speaking of 1820, snys : "Grnmmar has been extenslvdy Introduced.
ti semen t be gives "Ttulcs," "ou th e Model' of Mr. Locke, n New Mode of ft opreh enslon -.
• ·. . Chlldren are required to commit th e grammar to memory. This wn s the sti1dy of
for Irrcgulnritles nnd n loiterin g Study. will be adopted. Th e sevcrnl Methods at present
grammar . . . . It mas be said . . , that scarcely anyone u .~.d erstood anything h e passed
taken in most Schools . .. n rc oftener ntt:endcd with bnd than with good Consequences,
over.' '
It s hnll be my cnre t o r enso n or s hnm e them out of their F a ul ts \Jy nlicctlonute Argu.'
· "Editorial, C. S .•T. (1849 ) , 258. Fow le was the edi to r of two rather obscure grammars
meu ts with th em; or lu th e Extremlt·y, a public Disgrace amon g th eir 1rell ows.''
·., , · < ln. the per iod. which turned t h e study toward t?e science of s?ntences and the practice of
no The title Hn gh es's English Gramma r and Gene ral School appears In 1773 announce· · · .1 wrltlng.
'°See Chap. I V, pp . 92 et seq.
· ' ·"
·
· '
ment. N. Y. G. :rnd W. M , Kov . 8.
• 1 Byerl ey adve rti sP ment in N. Y. G. nod W. M., Aug. 2 8 . 1773 .

~I

I

I
T

CHANGES I N METHOD BEFORE 1850.

Chapter VI.
GRADUAL CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

I

·l

. In the preceding chn pter we have seen the methods used in teaching
Latin grammar t.ransforrcll with sJa,·is h iu1itat ion to English. In
brief, grammar was looked upon as the art of speaking and writing
correctly. This art was to be acquired by learning page after page of
rules by rote,• 1 of which no application whatever was made by the
pupils.• 2 Memorizing came to be s upplemented by parsing according
to strict Latin methods •3 and by correctin g r ndl ess examples of
false syntax. 44 :M oreover, the question-and-an s wer method, putting
a premium on verbatim r ecitation of memorized parts, prevalent
before 1800 had not entirely disappeared in 1830. 4 5 Grammar was
'
begun by very
young children and was accompanied by ~o oral d'1scussion and by no composi tion. Teach ers were very clefic1eut.• 0 The
res ult of these met hods was little more than a rn ystification of the
pupils, with no appreciable improvement in grammatical accnracy.47
In sh;rt, the early instruction in grammar in America up to the end
of the first quarter of t h e nineteenth century proceed ed on the wrong
basis-that of inflections; it. brgnn with the wrv11g 1111il- th P. wor(1,
and it follow ed entirely erron eous methods of study in proceeding
8
from theory and rules to practice inst ead of r e\'ersing the process.• ,
u J . T . Bucklngbnm, Am . .J. of Ed., 13, 132; Noah We lJsle r, ibid., 2G, lDG; '\'\'. K. Oiirer, .
lbid., 213.
"Wnllls, Com. Sch . .T. (ll'l!iO) , 5.
.
45

As Jndlcntlng the Lntln extrem e , 1\lunay's G-rnmmn r 11rnkN.-: p o~!' lhl r. f10 forms In the

pluperfect tense or the subj un ct ive mood.
"Thls seems to havo been introduced by Low th's Grnmmnr In 1758.
,
"Wnllis. op. cit .. 85 ; wlckorRhnm , Hi s t. of Ed . ln Pa ., 2011; Am. An. of 1<1d. and Ins.' ,
(1832), 268.
••See Chap. IV, p. !)'.? .
"Rcpt. Committee Common Schools, Con n., Am. An. nf P.<1. nn<l Tn R. ( 1R:l2), 24 7 .
or

llorace :Mn.nu sn td tn 1827: "T t I ~ not n perfect knowl N l gP. ot n fr<'nt l ~c on grnmmar ,
ft surprising flu e n cy in pnrRlng tbnt wi ll serve to proflncc . . . cor r<' ctnC'!=tS in <'-xpres- \
1

sion."

Am. An. of Ed. (J 82 7 ). 681 - 2.
"w. c. WoodlJrld .g e, n prominent schoolm nn of Boston. Rnys: "Nothing Is more com· ,
mon than for children to recite lt (the grammar), in co ur se. two or thr ee times . In ,
mnn y of our sch oo ls, a port.Ion of tbe day, through th e gr ea ter part of on e winter term
of three or four month s, ts devoted to committing to memory the rul es nnd definitions otJ.
e tymology." He makes the foll ow in g nmuslng cnlculntlon: "The nverage time spent ln
committing grammar, a.8 i.t 18 ca ll ed, to memory, Is at Jenst on e m onth to each pupil con·
cerned; nnd this time IR entlrcl y Jost. New England conta in s 1,!)ti4,G62 t.nhalJitants, , ·
obout one-fourth of whom nr e between 4 nnd 16 years of nge . One scholnr rn ten .. ·~ .
commences the s tud y or p;rnm m a r every yea r. Tb e amount of time lost nnnunliy is eq uiva· ,
J.e nt to 4,072 y ear~ . " '.l' hen , e~timnting the cost of scbooling ns $1.50 n week, be adds:
"'.l'he value of t he time would thus be $317,GlG . . . . Let th! • wnste be continu ed every ;
yenr for 3 0 years, and th e amount Is n early ten miilions of dollars." Am. J. and An. o~,
Ed. and In s . (1831), 170- 1.

132

133

The ensuing period betn·ee11 1823 and 1847, call ed above the parsing
period, was a time of confiict between the traditional ideals and
method s just mention ed and innovations fostered largely by the trend
toward inductive study which characterized some school practices of
that d ay. During this peri0d four grammatical textbooks dominated
the field. In 1823 Samuel \:irkham )Uuli shed in New York his" New
and Systematic Order of Parsing" and in 1825 his "English Gramrnar in Familiar Lectures." In th e snm e year and State GooJcl ·B rown
pnblishe<l his "Grammntica. nstit11tes." Peter Ilullion'S' G1·ammar
of 1834 was the third. Roswell Smith's two books-his grnm mars on
the inductive and on the proc uctive systems, r espectively-had
appeared in 1829 and 1831. Sniith was a Massachu se tts author;
Bullion lived in New York. Th ese four texts " ·e h ave see n " ·ere fairly
successful in ontdistnncing all rival s by 1830, almost entirely displacing MtnTay and "W ebste r 49 with their imitators.
At the end or' the period upon whi ch 'rn are entering " ' illiam H.
W'ells, ll1 ith his" School Grammar," of 184G, and Samuel S. Greene,
with " he Ana lysis of Sentences," of 1847, appeared upon the scene.
Th ese men produced the first of those texts which , after the mid(lle
of the century, were to brin g about still another re,iolution in principl es n.ml srh ool prnrticP.. TlH•v were the f'.nlminntiort of the i11n11ences which we shall see at " ·orlc dming the 25 years preceding th em,
ush ering in perrn:rnently th e concept·ion of grnmmar as a science of
sr n t.r n r.r.s."°
The present chapter endea Yors to trace the most important influences which. proclucecl t he breaking a\rny from the concept ion of
grammar as an art and prepared the way for the concrption of it ns a
scien ce, a state finally attainc<l by 18fl0. It will .treat also th e a cm mpanyinir changes in mcth olls of !.ead1ing before that date. 51 The
second quarter of the last century " ·as by far the mos t interes ting
and important period in grammatical instruction, surpa ssed in interWoodlJrldge Is writing of the yenr

JR~O.

In n Ylr){inia ele mentary sc hoo l of 18·17 t. he

rul e In grnmnrnr ,-., a s: " ('o mmtt t he hi.:! print fll <' nr ~t llmr: o n til f' ~0cnn d rP\"lrw the
big- nnd Jlttl e print , vr. dwf i1n . So [ W<'nt thro 11 .!!h ~mHh'~ <: rnmmnr o n tl11• Produ c th·e

System. (Whnt. It proth1cNI In m e ll e11\' cn on ly knnws. \. Almo•t nil lc••on-gett lng wns by
henrt." F,, s. .l oy n es, Quoted, lfonthwolc, Jll s t. or Ed. in Vn. , 111. .
"Sec Chnp. IV, p. 86. Smith's Grammars we re used more than nil oth rrs combined in
Ma ssachu se tts during th ese decode•. R11lllon. Brown, Smith, nnd Kirkham divided the
grnmmntica l fi eld of New York nbout even ly nmong them.
'°Wells d efin es grammar ns " the science which trents of th e prlncit)Jes or grammnr .
English grnmmnr t eaches [not Is] the nrt of •peaking nnd writing the English Langunge
correc tly." Sch. Gram ., 25 . Greene snys: "Engli s h grammnr tenches the principles of
the English Lnngunge ." Annl ysi~. 20CI. By lSGO the conception of grnmmnr ns n science
wns firm ly fix ed ln school pra c tice. Even Goold Drown , who ln 1823 hnd d efined " English
Grammar ls the Art of Speaking and writing the En gli sh langunge correc tl y" ( In stit utes,
15) , modified his d eflnltlon to confo rm to the newe r conception ln 18til. Grnm. of
Grnm .. 45.
"The advance ln me th ods after 185 0. IJc:::inning wi th Well• nnd Greene, carried on
later by Swinton, Swett, and others, ls r eserv ed for another study,

.I

;j

.,

j

134

135

CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

I
!

I

Kirkham

est only by the mov em ent on foot at the present tilll e, uy which grammar is being relegated to its proper place as a purely in cidental study.

11
I

Sarnuel Kirkharn's two books, particularly hi s "Grammar on the
Productive System," re ~tched enormous popularity, e;;pecially in New
York and adjoining States.52 In several important respects Kirkham's textbooks differ from Murray's, which tlwy did so much to
displace. They made a decided advance in methoLls of teaching.
First, Kirkham illustrates in a series of familiar tn.lks the va rious
rul es and definitions in an endeavor to bring th em within the comprehension of the learners ; 5 " second, h e introd uces au irn posing new
system of parsing. 54 The chief innorntion in hi s par;;ing, as differing
from ]\furrn.y aml W"cbster, is that Kirkham introLl11 ces it v~ ry early
in his study, imme<liately after his treaL111ent of 1rouns and verbs,
while the older grammarians postpone the subject until the pupil had
mastered lGO pages (in Murray) of etymology and synt a x. 5 ~ Kirkham's third innovation is lii s 11sP. of a s<'riP.s of <l<'vi cP.s for rP.cognizing
the various parts of speech an<l their functions in a sentence.""
These three innovations are designed to accomplish two purposes
which seem to have bee n largel y 11nrecog 11i;i;e<l liy t.lrn grn111111ars of the
preceding periods, namel.\·, the intelligent unclerstnncling by the pupil
of the parts he wa s learning and immediate self-acti,·ity on th e pupil's
part in practicing Ll1 e new principle just as soon as he has acquired it.
Remembering now that " sti ck close to the book'' wa s the order of
the day, it is easy to infer \Yhat the influence of Kiddiam's 111etl10ds
must have been in school practice.
·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

See Chnp. IV. fl . ~4.
By 1835 the seco nd hoo k IR "" '" lo l111n• 1·r neh<'<l ltR nnc htt1Hlr01l ntHl Rcve nlh editi o n In
New York. Ilnrnnrd, Am .T . or P:cL . 14. 1n:1 .
Tho writer I• nRln l:' n book cnlh•<I "P:11c:ll Rh r.rnmntrlr hy Lect ure• ." Josep h ITnll lnrRt
•2

f ,C'~R), ~PVP rtfh N llti on. l\ f ayfif'l rl. Ky ., 1 ~:~ : ~.
J11 a nofp fllf~ :111fhnr ~nys
thn t Klrkhnm s fo)(> h i~ plan o f JJl 'O('C' dlll'" fro m h i m.
JT11ll ll ~<'S fh P ~l llll <' orcl Pr of pnr~lng

editi on. Hos ton.
n~

Kirkbnm. nnm r l.\· , hy

fr :l n s p o~ ili o n .

Tl e

~nys :

copi e d by so me w rH f' rS o n E11 ;! li ~ h G rnmmar and
th C' date of th (' nuth o r'i:i copy r lg- ht
. . tn th e

' 1 Thi s on1 f' r nnd

th r~:--

rul r:;:: hn vf' hePn

u s c rl,!d n n l. nu t n rr f PrP nee to
forf- ~· -f.:C ixlh yt>:ir o f f.h r ltH] f' Jw ncl Pn ce ot

pr r~e nt e 1l

the U11ltcu S tntPs ( 1 ~2 11 will prove It to hc n plo 1dn r h: 111 ." l ' rr fnf' e, X I V. W e 110 not
pre tenu to puss on th e merit " o f th e cln l111 . T h er e Is H itlt·11t fr ttfh that e Hher 111111 co pi ed
T<lrkhnm, or vice ve r sn: thr grn mnrntlcal tr entmrnt of lrn lh I ~ nn nn r ntlr r ly rlifTC' rPnt plnne
fr o111 that of en rl! Pr writ er s we hnve seen . H oweve r. nit ho ugh t l:r• '''"" l nolrn had for
Klrkhnm . It wn s cc rtnlul y h e. n ot Hull, w ho was lnflu e ntlnl h1 sp reading the n ew
mon~ m e nt .
.
"Fo r e:rn mpl e: 'rh e n o111 ln11tlve cnse ts th e a ct or. or s ubj ect of lllP ve rh: ns. John
writes. In thi s exampl e, whi ch Is th e 1'c1·b r You know it Is the word irrU c.• . b!'cn1rne this
word slgnifi<·R lo <In: thnt Is. It ex presses action; therefore ncco rdlng to th e tld lnltl on, It
ts nn a.ctic·c verb. Aud you kn o w. too. thnt t he noun ./ol1n Is th e OC'tot» th erefore .lobn Is
In th e 110111i.nntl vc case to t:hc verh w rHrR. Eng. Grnm. In Fnm. Leet: .. 4:i,
&• 'J'he Orde1' Of Pan1ina a Il el nlh- e rron oun is -n pronoun , nnd w h~1 ?- r<'lntl vP . and
why ?- gend er, nnd wit)· ?-- H11 lr.-Cnse, nnd why?- R11l r. - Dee lln e It." lhlcl ., 11 :{ .
•• It ls only fair to s n y thnt editi o ns of Mmrn y·s AbricJ J:'lllf'nt nft c r 1820 n.lso place
parsing Immediate ly aft er ea ch c x e r c l s~ but In a mu ch more rndlm entnry wny.
••Any word thnt will tnke th e sen se of "th e " befor e It Is a n oun. Any word which
will mnke sense when preceded by "to" Is a verb, etc. Jl>ld ., !ll, 44 .
11

i
j,

'i

r'

I
..,'
I

T he chi !cl shou ld be reg a rcl ed not as th e mer e recipient of the ideas of others,
but as au agent capable of collecting, nml originnting, and produ cing ruost of
the id eas which are necessa ry for its ed ucntlon , when presented with the objectf'
of fncts from which they may be d e l'ive tl. . . . Such is the productive system,
by which the powers of the pupil are called Into complete exerelse by requiring
him to attempt a task uualdecl, ancl then assisting him in his own errors.. ..
They ui s tinguislt ca refully between knowletlge nnd the means of pe rceidng
it. . . . " ••

'Ilic pretentious idea of the producti,·e system , \Yhen \rn rk etl out in
practice, is not at all impressi,·e. Throughout Lhe book tlic prod11ctive method amounts to putting in the text explanatio ns whi ch the
teacher might have made orally.cu The prnductive approach lo rule
•1

Ibid ., 9.

Th e s :rst c mntick order laid do·w n in thi R "ffork, if pur ~ t H• rl' hy thr pupil , ('omp r ls him
crr1·.r clcflnltton :ind C\'et·.r r11l c 1 h:1t· 11ppt•rt· a111 ~ to P\' Cl'.\' w o rcl I n~ par ~r~ wi thnnt
having n ques Uo n put to him by th e fl'ael1 l~ r.
. . Th e n 11th or I ~ nn x l o 11 ~ lo hnv<' Ill<'
nhsurd prnctlce . . . of cnusing Jcarn('r S to comm i t nnd r cc it.f' cl e fiulllon~ and r11ll' H w ith58 "

to

nppJ~·

out nay' sl mulluneo us appllcntl o u of th em to pra c tical cxnmp lcs lmrn l' tllnlcly nbo ll s hell."
Ibid., 1 t .
60

Pr c f:ll'I',

~ lPl' C Otypr

ed .. Ph lln<l <'lphi:t, 1 ~:~.s::. fl, n.

Smltll' s Productive Is r eally tbree grarn mn r s In on e .
tuin s th e pnrts of F= p f'ec h nnd trrnts 1 l rul PS uf sy11f nx.

Port I , covrrl n :::

·10 '"'!':"'•

:,
I

cu n ·

r11rt II, ini e111lPd for f hP Tl f"X t

high er clnss. co ve r s (pp. 41 - 9G ) exncny th e sn me 11 .mi es, goi n g Int o mn c h more detail,
with tn o re c lnb o rnt c pnr ~ ln g, nnd ucldlng- e xc r cl sc A In syntnx. t oge th e r with sP 11tc11cr.s to
be correc ted. It ndds more . rules, co111plet111g 22 rnles or s.v utax. Part Ill ' " 1•11tlt lecl
11
Syntax" and ts renlly a rearrangem ent of 1"1urray'8 larg-e grnmmnr. 1\-lurrny' s 22 rnles
arc given In o rde r, \\'Ith his treatment of enc ll. AboYc eac h of olurrn,r' s rul es Smith
places tll e number of his rule which co rreRpond s, nddlng nine to the list . This pnrt mi g ht
have bee n u sed by n pupil in bis third year of grammar. The fnct that It Incl ud ed three
grnmmnrs In one may hav e acco unted for the popularity or the book Jn part; und er one
cover ls mnterlnl for three consecutive yenrs of grnmmntlcnl study, the second and the
third cnc h being' on e luborntlon of th e preceding.
00 I. Of the
Noun.
Q. What Is your nnme?
Q. Whnt Is th e name of the town in whlcb you live?
Q. Wbnt does the word noun m ean?
AnR. Th e word uo un means nam e.
IJ. Whnt then may your nnm e be cn'l ed?

...
·.1

J

136

1(
t
'

.

CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

9-two negatives in the same sentence are equi rnlent to an affirmative-runs in this wise:

simpler. His grammar parses the sentence "I lean upon the Lord,"
us follows: " I, the first personal pronoun, masculine or feminine,
singular, the nominative; lean, a verb, neuter, first person singular,
present, indicative; upon, a preposition; the, an article; Lord, a noun,
masculine, singular, the objective, governed by upon." 04 In pursing,
the pupil is urged to state everything belonging to the etymology of
each word" in as few words as possible,'' always" in the same order"
an<l "in the same language."
Bullion's idea of simplifying nny part of
rammar
was certain to arouse the bitter opposition o
vho is at
once the most scholarly, the most interesting, and the most exasperatencountered in thi s study. He is exasperating
4iiw:i

Negative means denying; nnd affirming, asserting or declariug posltb·ely. A
!:'entence in whi ch something is denied is a u cgat"ive on e, and a sent1-mce In
which something Is nflirmcd . . . is au nflir111ati\•e one. . . . The phrase, "I
hove nothing," !ms on e n egative, and means, "l ha ve not anything." The
phrase "I have not nothing" . . . must mean . . . "I Jrnv e something."

ie p aces a sc er qn es
on the page. Pres11mauly many
teacher's readin<Y th ese f111est,ions an<l re.cP.iving co1TPs pmHling answers
by the pupils.
. The nry ne.cessity of framing a s u1 a c qu cs 1011 co 111 pc s 1c teacher to thmk,
provided of course th e recitation consists o[ a,n ything more than
memorizin()' work. S111ith scatters parsing nnLl fal se syntax t hroughout his boolrn, as do all th e important texts of the period with which
the writer is famil iar. All fo llow Kirkliam's examp le.
Bullion's Grammar of 1843 conbins nothing new; his one
at a vance in method seems to have been to nrnkc parsing shorter and

Ans. A noun.

. ·j
I"
I•

I

137

ENGLISH GRAM M AR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Then follows the rule. S 111ith's idea is good, but when the objects
dealt with arc word s which am mere s.v11 1bols of' 111en11i11gs, wl1 en the
objects dealt with are grarnmatical relationships arnl rn erely logical
concepts the method :for a textbook becomes extremely laborious. It
' stiff, and heavy. However, his effor ts at explana t .ion an d
is formal,
self-activity on the part of the pupil were pioneer attempts in a difficult field. At the close of this period mu ch of t he lauoriou s e ~: plnna­
tion placeLl in the Gooks of Kirkham and Slllilh is left to the teacher
in he form of" Oral Instru ·tion." 01
ns.
He has one set of exercises running throughout hi s text, wh! ch con·
stitutes a decided step in advan ce. This is a seri es entitled" Sentences
to be written." For example," Will you write one se ntence cliscribing the business of an instructed 0 2 On e, th e bnsines·; of a docLod
One, the business of a lawycd One of <t s1 1rgco 11. . . . One, of the
directors of a bank." 03 This pioneering in th -3 fi eld of sentence bnildin£r renders him worthy of a place of high honor. Of co11rse compositi;n was not unkno"·n, but the writer lws see n no se riou s attempts
earlier than S111ith to use it in close association '" ith <rramnmtical

• q

-

Q. What may nil nnm c• be en lied?
Ans. Nouns.
Q. Boston ls th e nam e o f n p l:i cr : is Boston n n oun. nn<l If so, why?
Ans. Boston is a noun hrc nu sc it is a na me. e tc. Tl>ld .. 7 .
01 See p. 146.
"H is spelling ls lnl'on cct.

""Ibid., lOG.

lltmm

JOH

1S

·orn, pointing out that Bullion omits
definitions of terms
applied; (2) distinction of nouns as common and proper; (3) the
person of nouns; (4) the words, number, gender, case; (5) the flivision of adjectives into classes; (6) the classification of words as
regular and irregular, redundant or defective; (7) the divi sion of
verbs as active, passive neuter; (8) the words , mode, and tense; (9)
the di stinction of adverbs. as to time, pla cP, degree. ancl mannC' r ; ( 10 )
the di stinctions of conjunctions as copula ti Ye or tli sjuncti ,.e ; and ( 11)
·th e di stinction of inter .iections us expression s of rnryin g crn ot ions.
The omission of these 11 points in parsing ''as hig hly irritating to
·Brown, who still remained in 1851 6 5 a woPshiper of formali sm. To
Ros·well C. Smitb and Pestalozzianism in general Bro"l'·n pays his
respects in no Rentle terms. Of "The Gramnrn,r on the Productive
Syste111 '' he affirrn s :
The book Is as destltute 'of tn ste. a s of method: of aufh orU-y , us of ori .r:in :1ilf.r.
t commences with the lnducth·e proces8. aml after f orty vag es . . . hccum es a
"productive system." by menm: of 11 ml ~ nn111Prl "HPcapitn latlon" n·hf r h .Jumbl es
ogether the etymology and th e syntax of the lani;nage through se \' e ut.r-six
pages mo re. It Is th en m nde "till 111ore -" pro<ln r th·e" h y · th e a pprnprint io n of
n like spa ce to 11 reprint of lllurrny's Syntax nml Exer cises, nn rl er th e iuapproprillte tit le, " genernl obsei·vntlons." ' Vlwt 11H' re ls in Germ nny or !"wltzr rlnrnl
that bears any resemblan ce to this mi s named system of En gll l'h grnmnrnr.
remains to be seen. . . . The lnflclel Neef, whose new method of edncntion hn~
been tried in this country, nnd with Its promulgator forgot, was an a ccredited
di sciple of this boasted "productive school," a zealous coadjutor with Pestalozzi
himself. from whose halls he emanated . . . to teach the nature of things
sensibl e. nnd n contempt for all the wisdom of books. And what similarity Is
there between his method of teaching and thnt of Roswell C. Smith, except their
pretense to a common parentage, and ti1at both are worthless? ..
•• Prln. ot Eng. Gram., 74.
.. Tbe date ot bis Grnmmnr ot Grammars.

.. Grum . of Grnm., 92-3.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAll IN AM ERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

, with its oral and objec·lto cgan to doubt "the
wisdom of books." Thu s does h e resent any e ffort to simplify or
render more exp editiou s the mastery o:f granuuar, whose p rin ciples
he regarded with almost worshipful reverence. Ilis own influence on
!Ochool practices wa s decidedly conservative; h e is the last of the old
g uard, the champion of trnJitional methods , believing that a knowleclgt~ of "the book itself will make anyone a grn 111rn a rian ."
He
declares:

In prefa ces nnd r eviews, and prejudi ces . .. ha l'e been excited agnln st that
me thod of t enching grammar, which afte r
wlll be found . . . th e ensles t, the
shortest, and the best. I menn; especia ll y, the ancient positive method, which
alms directly at the Inc ulcation of principles."

The ou ly s uccessful me thod of t eaching grn mma r is to ca use th e pr incipal
definitions nnd rul es to be committed thoroughly t o nwmo1",y, tlrnt th ey may ever
afte rward be readily appli ed. Orul instruction may s1uoo th t-11 e way and
fa cilitate th e labor of th e learner ; but the notion of co111m1111i cnting a competent
knowl ed ge of grnmma r without imposing this task is <lisproved by 11nh·ersal
experience. . . . It is th e pin in didactic rnelho<l of tle ri nit Ion 11 ntl e xn mple, rule.
and praxis; which no nmn who means to ten ch grn111ma r well will e 1·er desert.
. . . 'l'he book itself will 111nke anyone 11 grarnrnnrinn who w Ul ttike th e trouble
to observe and practice what it t eaches."

Thus, in an almost 111dicrons way the champ ion of what he calls the
"rrn<'.icnt positive m ethod, which aims directlv nt the in c111en.tion ofprinciples" 68 is blind to that fatal enor of the traditionalists who
thought that the book itself wou ld make anyon e a gnunmarian. They
were right: i:f the assumpti on upon -n·hi ch th e sf:tf cmcnt was made
-n·ere true. The cno1· of th e trnclitionali sts li Ps in thi s :1 ssn111ption.
The connection betw een knowledge of th e honk , esp ec in ll y 111Pre verbal
knowledge and skill in pra cti ce, is remote. Th a t thi s connection was
not made in early Am erican srl10ols, '":i s n01·pr m:iclc in :iny srhools,
and is not genendly rn :H'le 1o-clay is th e supreme cri f.i cism of the
methods and pr:i ctice of teaching grammar thro11ghout its entire
cum·se in Americn.
No better s ummary of lhe tide of prolcsL Lhat was s 1Y clling up
between 1825 and 1850 against this older con ception can be desired
than the following statement of Drown him self, n1nd e at the dose of
the period. His ·monumental " Grammar of Grammars " 1851 was
' Examin'
written frankly to stem innovations in teaching the s ubj ed.
ing the common a.rgu 111eut that the memorizing of J efi11iLio11s and ·
rul es, the know ledge of the arrangements and di visions of a highly
Latinized grammar, h as very little function in acquiring skill in the
art of language, Brown says:
It [this argument] has led some men . .. to douht the e xpediency of the ·
whole method, under any clrcnmstances, and either to di scountenance the whole
matter, or to invent othe r schemes by which they hoped to be more successful.
'l'he utter futility of the old accidence has bee n infe rred from it nnd nrged ... ·
with a ll the pin usibility of a fair and legitimate tl e<ln ction. 'l'he hard~hips of '
children, compel led to learn what they did not und e r s t:tud , have been bewailed ,
n Institutes, preface, VI .

08

Gram. of Gram., 86.

139

an,

Of the tour leading"grammarians of the period, then, we may say
at rown as Clistinctly a traditio~alist. H "s contributions lay in
a more accurate presentation of the subject matter of gramma~· in
general. Ho was the last of the grammarians who would foist upon a
co ncorJ less ·:t ongue n.11 the intricacies of inflected languages an<l iusist
that a mere knowledge of abstract grammatical principles is effective
in making good writers and speakers. He looked upon gramma1: as
formal discipline par excellence. Bullion's contributions to new
methods were very meager. Kirkham and Smith, forerunners of
radical changes, rrttempted to employ principles of inductive teaching.
Ftom alm ost the beginning of grammatical instruction in America
ther~ had been sporadic attempts to make grammar easy for young
pupils. No :fewer than 13 texts which were published before 1820
appear under the titles" Rudiments,"" Grammar Made Easy,"" Elements,"" Engli sh Grnmmar Abringed," "Epitome of En g li sh Grammar," and the like. But this en<leavor to make g rammar easy is to
be sh arply distinguished from the attempts o:f grammrrrians whom
Brown r efers to as sim p lifyin g g ran11narians-men '" h o, nft er 1823,
endea vor ecl to present by mean s of casi ly underst ood devices th eoretical intrica cies as found in Murray and ·W ebster.
'· Even before the period under consideration Greenleaf in 1819
publi shed "Grammar S im plifi ed, or Orncular Analysis of' the Eng~
li sh Ln g ua g c." Oth er titles imli cati\c o f thi s seco nc11in c of crnl earnr
are: Anonymous, 1820, "The D ecoy, . An English Grammar " ;
McCrad_y, 1820, "An English Grnmmrrr in Vcr'se "; Ingersoll, 1821,
"C 011 vcrsatw11
. s 111
. I~'.Jng l'1s1t G ra1111wu· ": IIurd, 1827, "G r ammatical
.
Chart, or Private Instructor"; Patter son ; 182-," Grammrrr without a
Ma ster ": anonymous, 1830, " P esta lozzihn Grammar": a non y mo ns,
1830, "English Grammar with Cuts "; anonymous, 1832, "Interrorrative Grammar," and the like. In short, after 1820 there 11·as 1na11if:st
·a distinct tendency, both among lending grammarians and humbler
workers, to modify what had hith erto been an occult and laborious ·
subject, to the encl that it might be understood as well as learned
verbatim. 70
· .~ "Ibid., 86.
"Goold Ilrown spenks cb arncterls t lcn ll y of this entire tPnd ency. "The vain preten, slons of several mod ern slmpllfyers, ~ontrlv e rs of machin es, charts, tnbl es, dlngrnms,
vlncula , p ictures, dialogu es, famlllar lectures, oraculnr nnnlysls, productive systems. tnbu·
lnr compendiums, Intellectual m ethod s, nn<l 1·nrlous new th eori es, for th e purpose of
,teaching grnmmnr, may serve to deceive the lgnornnt, to am use the vi s ionary, nnd to
excite the ndmlrntlon of the credul ous . . . but no contrivance cnn ever r elieve th e pupil
from th e necess ity of committing th em (rul es and definitions) thoroughly to memory.
. . . 'l' h e t eacher . . . will be cn utl.ous of r enouncing the practical lessons or bonry
experien ce for lhe fullle notions of a vnln proj ector." Ibid., 91,

140

CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850,

vVe have been speaking above of new t endencies and not of real izations in schoolroom practices. Abnndant evidence is present that
schools were very slow in conforming to the new methods. A few
examples of the conditions which prevailed between 1823 anc.l 1850
indicate that the larger part of grammatical instruction reniained a
slavish verbal repetition of rules and a desperate struggle with complicated parsing formulro. This is the reason why it. is appropriate to
call the period "parsing period." Throughout there was devotion to
whn.t a Boston school comm i!.tee of 184!> c:d leLl more suggcsti vcly t h:tn
elegantly "the osteology of language." 71

improvement over Roswell Smith's plan and in signal contrast to the
traditional procedure. Col bum's four series of lessons in reading
and grammar were not so widely used as his arithmetics. They did
not lend themselves to the scheme of making grammar a separate
study and were primarily for beginners. However, the prestige of his
nam e and success in arithmef
d attention to his grammatical labors. Hi
with emphasis on objective,
oral, visual, exp anatory, and simplified instruction, did much to lay
the fonnclation for the e<lncational revival which sprang up along
inductive lines before 1850.78
Colburn was influenced by one man whose importance is often
neglected, his most intimate friend, James G. Carter.74 Of him
Barnard declares " to him more than any one person belongs the
credit of having first arrested the attention of the leading minds in
Massachusetts to the necessity of immediate and thorough improvement of the public schools." 75 Carte r was instrumental in inducing
Colburn to adopt inductive methods. 76 His advanced position in the ·
philosophy of teaching grammar, as early as 1824, is remarkable.
After setting forth the faulty practices of his day he adds:

2. OTHER AGENTS AND AGENCIES IN THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH.

It is not generally known that vVarren Colbnrn, known chiefl y for
his work in the field of arithm etic , prepared also a se ri es of juvenile
readers consisting chiefly of excerpts from Maria Edgeworth's
stories. 72 To each of tl1e series Colburn attached a few of the principles of grammar, and as the ch i Id completed his reading books he
comp leted likewise :1 port ion of grammatical knowledge suitable for
young pupils. Colburn's principles of gramniar took the form of
instructions to teachers ; they in turn imparted them to pnpils. It
will be noted that this is in essence the inductive approach, a decided
" B os. Sch. Rept., 18 45, 16.
1822. Charlotte Acad emy, Korth Carolina: "Som e who bcgnn to memo rize Grnmmar
81nce tbe comm encement of th e s ession pnrscd blnnk ve rse with unco mm on cnse nnd
propriety." Coon, N. C., Sch . nud Acnd., 1790- 1840, 230; W estern Cnrollnlnn, July 9,
1822.
1827. A cl nss In Lin co ln ton Acnclemy wa s examined on "Mcmorlzlni:: Eni::ll s h Grnm·
mar." Ibid., 212. This Is but little In ndrnnce of th e practice o r \Y n.rn c ,\ cndcmy In the
same Stnte, where (In 1818) "the fifth cla s s was exnmincd on Eni::llsh Grnmmn r from
the verb• t o hnve' to Syntax; th e s ixth cla s s as fnr ns th e Suhs lnntlve ; th e s c,·cnth ns
fnr ns the Article, nnd lhe cli;hlh to til e Ye rb 'to be.'" Ibid ., G:\4, Itnl c li;h lt egl s ter, Oct.

Grammar nnd (~ P ogrnph y nr c co mmlft C' <.l to m emor y rnthrr thnn

tnugbt for nfter yen r s of study;
. . the pupils often hav e little or no prnctlcnl know!·
edge of eith er . esp ec lnll y the form er. This Is du e to th e fa ct thnt the books th emselves
nrl' not nsunll.r ndnpt<'rl to th e pu p il ~' cnpn c i1y, pnrt.ly to th e lgn o rnn t:l' of Inexpe rience ot
th e l encher." Am. An . of Ed . :111cl 111 ~ .• LR :·;~, 247- R
J.842. Fifth report or Jlora cc ~ J ann. " H the tc'l1clwr Is conversant wit h no hrttcr way
thun to put u common 1cxtbook of Grummnr Into the hnmls of bci;lnucrs nncl to h ear
les sons recited by them dny aft er dny concerning- definition s nnd rnlcs while ns yet they
nre totnlly Ignorant of thr cln sses of worcls defin ed .. . he s urely h as no nptn ess to
t ench grummur. The qu e• tlon Is o ft en :rnk cd. Wh en or at what nge ch ildren shou ld begin
to study grnmmar? If It Is to be studi ed In the way dcscr il>ecl nbovc, on e would nlmost be
t empted to r eply, n ever." C"om. Sch ..J., 1842, 3:17 .
1845. nos ton schoo l committ ee i;ave nn rxnmlnntlon to flncl grn<le o f work <lo ne. "It
wou ld s eem Impossible for n s cholar to pn r se n s tanza of f'hlld c. llarol<l correc tly nnd yet
full to see th e force of th e me taphors, etc., . . . ye t this is don e so nwtimcs. Su ch Is the
power of close nttcun on t·o th e osteolog)' of Inngnag-c, to the hon es ancl nrtlculntlons, In
forgetfuln ess of the subs tance thnt co,·ers. nnd th e spirit that anlmnt es them." Bos. Sch.
Rcpt., 1845, 16.
.
"These hooks were Firs t, Second, Third, und lco ur th Les s ons Ju Rending nncl Grnmmnr.
13oslon, 18:11, 38, 44.

"nnrnard, Ed . mog., 208.
"Attcr Colhnrn 'R deat h C"arter wrote to MrR. Co lburn: "No man ever drew out my
henrt aA did Warren Colburn. No one hns ever filled the nchlng void or his loss."
Ibid ., 217.
"Ibid., 182.
"Letters to Prescott, last three chapters. Carter nlso was Instrumental In establishing
tbe office to which Mann was elected In Massach usetts.
11 In " Letters to Prescott" (pp. 72-4) Carter argues that facts are to be learned flrst;
thnt rules a r e mereJy the verbal generalization ot facts. "They nre abstract principles,
the truth ot which cnn neither be perceived, understood, nor believed till some single
Instance . . . presents Itself to the learner. . . . The rule . . . le obtnlned by n patient
Induction of pnrtlcular Instances nnd Is put In words, not to tench us anything, but to class tty ·
what hns already been learned. . . . The abstract principles ot n language !live no more
ndequnte Iden of the pnrtlculars trom which they hnve been formed thnn the labels give
ot the n uture and obligation of n note . . . . The facts of u languni:c . . . are always
first learn ed. . . . The rules In the Ienrner's memory nre perfectly useless till be has
learned the particulars or facts of the language."
11 Ibid., 66,

1828. Ileport of a committee o n co mmon s chool, , Conn ec t lent.
" Chllclrcn mny be
found who have comm l l.fNl to nwm o ry ll1 0lr Grammar, tlH'ir G ro~ rnphy, nncl fh 0 I nlrodu ctl o n to th e Spel!lug Hoo k half n d ozr n tim es cnch ancl ye t no w lRor for pra r ll cnl pur·
poses than L> c forc . . . .

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The system proceeds upon t he supposition that the Jangunge was invented and
form ed by the rules of grnmmnr. Noth ing is more false. A grammar can never
be written ti ll fl good knowlecl gP. of th P. lnngunge Is nttnlnecl; nm\ th en, contrary
to what f·he Jlll!lil supposes, lhP grnmmnr is made to suit the ln11gnagP.. Now,
why negl ec t this naturnl method In teaching lan g uage to young learners ?"

Again, "The schoolbooks . . . are certainly not written on the
indu ctive method, and these are our instructors. . . . The essential
, principle, on which they are written, is the same through all changes.
This is wrong and should be corrected." 7 s The s ignificance of this
lan guage lies in the fact th at it was published in 1824, shortly Lefore
Roswell Smith, Colburn, and oth ers attempted to put into grammatical textbooks the changes wh ich Carter champions.
Reference has already been. made to the fact that Neef, a representative of
,_ 'to ' i, " ·ho was brought to America in 1806 and

9, HHS.

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ENGLISH GR.AMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BET!'ORE 1850.

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' 143

ENGLISH GR.Al\IJ\IAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 18.50.

CHANGES IN :METHOD BEFORE 185().

established a schoo l in Philadelphi a, wa s naturally outspoken in his
opposition to the prevailing methods of tc:1Ching gnu11 111ar. He
assertell that " grammar and incongruity are identical things," and
attempted to reach correct use of the vernacular by direct men,ns
associated with object teaching, rejecting practically all that had been
taught under the name of grammar. 79_ _ __
!Three oi;her men prominent in the educational revival, especially as
its changes affec eel f, e teaching of grammar, are Asa Rand, Henry
Barnnr<l, and ITorncc JVfn 1111 . Hnn<l wn.s the anthor of" The Tea chers'
Manual for Instructing in English Grammar." 80 Hand applies in
this pedagogical manual the fundamental fa ct abo ut grammar, stated
so effectively by Carter above: "In forming a system of rules for a
written and cultivated language, its principles were obtained Ly discovery, not by invention." It is significant that this pitssage is from
a lecture on methods of teaching grammar and composition before the
American Institute of Instruction in 1833. 81 The lessons published
by Rand are quite in keeping with the methods of inductive approach.
But to Henry Barnard and Horace :M ann are to be ascribed the
influences which most contrib uted to the reform that culminated in
the transfer of emphasis from the wonl to Lhe senlence as the unit uf
grammatical study, in th e growing co nccptioJl of g n1.mmar as a
science of sentences, not :i s the art of writing a.ml speaki ng. For five
successive years (1838- 1841) Barn:ircl, th en State snpcrintcn drnt of
schools of Cm 111eclic11L, sent a series of q11eslions to every t.eaC'her of
English grammar in the State. The qu eries involve all the essential
features of incluctiYe teaching, discussed in more detail in t h e following section. There is no way of estimating tlrn inflnence of Bnrnarcl's
constant emphasis on these new principles; the effects on school prnctices must haYe been great. Representative queries seut out liy
Barnard were as follows:

The eYll usnnlly to be guard ed against Is that of trusting too much to the
didactic exposition of grnmmar ns given wholly in school books, and not using
sutHcleut diligence to mnke the whole subject intelllgible nnd familiar by plain
conversion nnd constant practical exercise. ·w11nt Is needed In teaching grummnr is full om! explnnat'lon, to 11repnre the lParner; . . . next to this Is frequent
practice In writing (let, the composition be ever so humble J.'.' · ·

1. Do you nrnke yo nr rmnlls unde rstand that the rules of grnmma r are only
the recogni?.ed m<es of lnn .!!'nngf>?
~ . Do you gh·e e lementary Instruction ns to the parts of speech and rules of
construction in connection with reading- lessons?
3. Do you accustom yo ur pnplls to co nstru ct sentences o.f their ow n, nsing
difCcrPnt pnrts of speec h, on th e blnckbo:ml?
4. HnYe you formed the habit of correct speaking, so as to train, by your
own exnm ple, you r pupils to he good prnctlcal grnmmarinns?
5. At what age do yom· 11upils commence this study? 8 2

-------

27-William C. Woodbridge wrote in liis journal:

n ls not a perfect knowlec ge of a treatise on grnmmnr or a s nrr1rislng fluency
In parsing that will be snre to produce .. . correctness of expression . . ..
'l'o :l\Ionroe, P estnloz7.inn :Movement, 47.
•• l'ubllshecl In Boston, 181!2. A series or lessons In teaching grnmmnr were the sub·
stance of this mnnunl. The l essons nre also printed In Am. J . and An. of Eel. nncl Ins.,
I, 162, etc.
02 Barnard, Am. ;1. of Ed., I, 692.
11 Am. An . of Eel. and Ins. (1833), 160.

Barnard and Mann at the head of State school systems were in positions of ad vantage for pushing the reforms they advocated. But even
before Mann's influ ence was felt as a State officer in Mass:ichusetts
wn fillll l1 ern and there 11 progrossive school committee which had
caught the new spirit in r egard to grammar. Samuel Shattuck, of
the school committee of Concord, Mass., reported to the town meeting,
N ovem bcr 6, 1830, thatGrurnmar, taught according to the usunl system, is productive of little prncticn l goo<l. A mere knowledge of pnrning docs not give a person the nse of
lnngunge. The Inductive me thod, which commences with lea rning to exprPss
th e lllost simple nnd proceeds to the more comp\px 1<1Pa1', nrrlvlng nt Jnst rulps
for their construction at each stPp of its 11rogress, seems to be the most naturnl
In gaining a knowledge of la nguage. The scholar should be r equired to make
the aJlpllcation of eYery rule, in writing, not merely in the exa mpl es lulu down
In his textbook I.Jut in describing otllcr objects."

This statement is highly suggestive of both the method of parsing
prevalent in 1830 and the new processes '" hi ch >YC shall consider in
the following section.
After Mann ha<l aroused th e State we find Yery frequent slatcments
from the school committees of the various counties indicating the
pressure that was being brought to bear against the " big three" of
grammatical instruction. Charlestown committee, in 1840, says:
Young men go from school with skill in parsing, or analyzing sentences, that
would make the eyes of gr11mmarians glisten with rleiight, 11nd yet . . . prefer
. . . the bastiundo r:itilPr th:1n compose a piece of r easoning. . . . Yet the
object of learning grammar is to write and spenk the FJ11gli~h langu age with
propriety; . . . to make the minq rapnble of forming imlepPmlent opinions. . .•
Ca n not somctl1ing more be llon'e for thi s than now ls done? "

·with amusing errors in diction, the school ofllcials of Drncot, in
the same State and year, inveigh against formalism as follows:
Long lessons, correctly 1'eclted from memory, though they may sound well,
and may be listened to with much interest, do not necessa rily imply lrnowledge.
.T hey may show that a scholar has been industrious in getting his lessons. . , .
Against this hollow, deceptive practice . . . your committee have taken a
decided stand; . . have given teachers strict charge . .. to go, not over them
[lessons] but into them; not roun.d them but through them. . . . In doing this,
our object has been to learn .•. scholars to reason as well as to commit to
. .. memory."
••Am. An. of Eel. (1827), 61\1-2.
••Am. ;i . .nnd, An. of Eel. uncl Ins. (1831), 138• .
•• Mnss. Sch. Ret. (1840), 49.
••Ibid., 55, 6.

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3.

AMEHICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

HIEF FEATURES OF THE INDUCTIVE MOVEMENT APPLIED TO
GRAMM MAR.

The chief features of the inductive movement as they were applied
to grammar have been suggested in the preceding sections. They
were three in number: First, the attempt to make learners understand
thoroughly every step of their progress; second, the use of oral and
visual instrucdon as a means of removing the tedium of book learning; and, third, the a<lclition of the pupil's own activity in actually
applying principles as he JcarneJ them, not only by means of additional exercises for parsing and correcting false syntax but also of
exercises in sentence building and composition. All these were to be
taught in close association with grarrnnar.
REVOLT AGAINST MEANINGLESS INSTRUCTION.

The revolt against instruction meaningless to pupils was led by
Horace Mann, whose guiding principle was the zealous advocacy of
oral as against exclusive textbook instruction, of the word as against
the traditional a] phabet method, of the objective, illustrative, and
explanatory method of teaching as against the abstract and subjective.87 Mann's lendership is clearly seen in the thinking of school
committees of Massachu setts, in the decade between 1840 and 1850.
They frequently objected to tenching the signs of thought, rather
than the thought itself. 88 In 1840 the committee of the town of
Athol expressed the opinion: "Confessedly one of the most serious
defects existing in the system of etlucation . . . is the cummLmication, to the mind of the youth, of the signs of thought more than the
thought themselves." so This struck to the very heart of the error of
teaching in both reading and grammnr up to 1850. The word wns the
unit of approach, the idea signified of secondary importance. Favorable comment upon the results of normal training for teachers with ,
special reference to making the pupils nnclerstand is not uncommon.
For examp le, in the Lancaster report of 1840 we find:
Tile practice of calling the attention of clas ses to the wenning of what they
study is of tb e gr eatest n1lue, but it Is comparntiYely new In onr sr.hools anrl by
"Anderson, Hist. of Corn. Sch. led., 227.
.. A l etter from a t eac her who s ii;ns him self "Expertus sum." giving an Imaginary con·
versntion with a pupil in grammar, is indlcatlv~ of numerous lrleas fonnrl Jn erJur.ational
journals of the period .
"'You say that you r c:Hl in th e Engl i sh rtender; do you study grammar?'
1
"
Yes, sir; I hnvc l:ccn through It srYernl times, but I never pnrRr.<1 ~n~· yet.'

"'Whose s ys l em do you study?'
Oh, J study my ow n g-rammar; IJut It iR almost \vorn out. I sha ll bavP. to borrow
then. for father sa.rs b e cnn't affo rd to buy me a ny new books this summe1· ."
"• I meant who Is th e a11.tho1· of the grammar which you u se?'
"'Author? I don' t kuow what you meltll.' •· Am. J. and An. of Ed. and Ins., I, 476.
89 Sch. Ret. (1840), 87.
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145

no means yet fully used. We believe that if words nre good for anything It Is
for their meaning. . . . Let memory be joined with understandlng. 00

In close association with the agitation · against the teaching of
meaningless terms was the growing demand that children must understand the meaning of the grammatical principles they were called
· npon to acquire. This is in the mind of the committee of Carver,
Mass., in 1839, when they reported: " vVe can not say that there are
many who get a thor011gh knowledp;e of grammar in our schools at
the present <lay, but we think tlrnt there are many who derive a considerable understanding of it," whereupon they contrasted it with
the grammar teaching of the committee's youth. 91 Not so 'favorable
were the opinions of the committee of Cummington County :
Your committee wish to notice that .. . tbe method of Instruction Is too
forniril nrnl rn echanl cn l, nncl not suflle!Pntly <llrPcte<l to the understnnding.
' Tenchers do not sufllclently illu~. trnte the subject In which the scholar Is
engng-ed . 'l'he scholar commits to mPtnory n certn in number of words, without
atta ching th em to a single Idea, whereas id('as Instead of words ought to be
learned."

In a similar manner the school authorities of Amesbury demanded
in teachers "the ability of communicating in an understanding and
profitable manner what they are called upon to teach." 93 Those of
Essex suggested "the propriety of being cautious when engaging
teachers, to procure, if possible, . . . men who have some tad .for
awakening and bringing out the powers of youth." 9 • More forcefully than elegantly the Athol comm ittee expressed much the same
sentiment.
A teacher is not like a jug, which holds back its contents from n ecessity, or
llke n cow wl1i ch hold,-: up ]H'r milk from incli1rntion , tb0 ncnrN full th0y nre;
he should rather be like n min clornl. which sends down blessings in s ho,:·ers,
and. like a fountain eYer flowin g over."
"' I bld., l 03.
The school committee of WeRton, In 1841, lnVPlghoil ngnlnst verbal inRtrnctlon: " . ..
the unilrrs tnncllng of the scho lnr ls not· . .
prop erly exercised. A correct nrbn l recltn tlon seems tb e principal. If not t h e only . ohj ec t to he nttnlncd; . . . \\'bile the scholar
i:arners up a multitude of worcl s . hlR mind nclds nolhlng to his stock of Ideas. Let th e
younl! he tnnght to think." lh!ri., 1 R41, fHl.
The WcstcrOeld committee, In the same yenr, voiced the oft-repent ed complnlnt : "Tlie
erforts of too runny of our t cnch ers hnvc been conrtnr<l to 1mpnrt to t1 1r ~c hnlnr~ · 111rnirn-y
o ~f'rlPA of wot·ds, rather thnn to open their 11nd c1·8tand i11[} to th e reception of ideas."
Ibid .. 128 .
"Thiel. (1839). 413.
"Ibid., 4 .
"Ibid., 1840, 143.
The Springfield committee fe lt !he snme ne ed: " Let the mi es of grammar . . . be not
• 'only committed to memory; but l e t their principles he . understood, ... . let the s ubj ects
'' be so Incorporated Into .. '. the thought . . . thnt their contents mny be reproduced and
transmitted," Ibid .. 172. That of Ashby also reported: "Another point noticed wns the wnnt
'or familiar expl a n ation; . . . some teachers seemed to be content with receiving the answers
given In the book. . . . Such parrot-like r ecitations cnn be nnythlng but Interesting to the
teacher or pupil. Let tbe teacher, by famlllar Inquiries and explanations, know that the
subj ect . . . is fully und erstood." Ibid., 1841, 40.
"Ibid., 8.
"Ibid., 75.

60258 °- 2 2 -- 10

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

147

the example In the winter school of district No. 2, ' ~f much oral lnstructlbn
instead of the com mon prnctice 'of very rigid confinement to the ' lesson book;
.. . a good teacher can tallc Into a child, In the space of three or four months,
an amount . . . of practical knowledge . .. which the child could not read Into
himself in the space of as many years...
·

A glimpse into 01w of th e progressive schoolrooms of 1821) shows us
grammar being ta ug ht for in adrnncc of its time. ·W illiam A. Alcott,
afterwards associated with vVoodbridgc in the editorship of the American Journal of Education and the author of many articles on methods
of teaching, as a young man taught a district school of Southington,
Conn. H ere he made marked advances especially in the teaching of ·
etymology. The account of his method of teaching pupils the meaning of a Ycrb n·minds one of the actions o-ftpn seen to-dny in the class~
rooms of motlern -la ngungc teachers who p11rs11c w ha t is known as
"the direct method." 'Without any preliminary information in
regard to what h e was go ing to do, Alcott would ask the pupils to
take their slates and pen ci ls. Then stumpin g the floor or clapping
his hands he would require them to write down what they s:tw him do.
This process he wo111Ll have repeated with the actions of t-l1 c p11pils as
well as his own. "Now," he would say," what h ave you bee n doing?"
He would point out that the words they had written described actions.
''These words d escribing actions are verbs. Now, what is a verb?"
In this manner the children were said to acquire as much knowledge
in 10 lessons as in an entire term under the older methocls.M
The second feature of th e educational revival which affected instruction in grammar was the attention given to visual and ora l instruction.
In 1839 the school committee of Roxbury, Mass., strn ck a note not
frequ ently heard, nam ely, that the force of the teacher's example in
speaking and writing is the most important agency of in struction.
Their statement was that--

Horace Mann, reviewing Edward's " First Lessons in Grammar,"
1843, asserts:
If n chll<l ls made to feel thnt the subject [grnmmar] Is hard to understnnd
nll<l thn t ht~ Is f!Xpect:P<l to grope his wny in darkness . . . he wlll be very likely
to constrnct a prejuulce against it. . . . Many a t eacher has fe lt thnt there
must be n better wny of teaching grammar . . . . · Edward's "First Lessons"
Is not the old process of committing to memory and r epeating. . . . A method
is gh-en by which n tencher explains whntever Is difficult to the learner . . . .
'.l'he book is th1' substance of lessons In grammar given orally by the author in
school.~

This same note is struck by an editorial by William B. Fowle in
1850:
Grnmmar can be taught by oral instruction , by correcting the ungrammaticnl
langunge of the pupils, a nd by the example of the tencher much more easily and
more effectively thnn by committing to memory and reciting . . . . · An accomplished teacher may do more for a class of 20 in one hour, by exercises on the
blackboard, thnn he ca n do in a whole day for an individua l who studies and
pars0s from :i textbook.•

tench ers sho uld tak e care n ot to undo a ll their e fforts t o teach grnmmnr by the
b:q:l example of us ing fal se grammn r thernse!Yes. Tiley should ·watch over
their own . . . mod es of n(lclr<>ss, ns well ns those of the ch ildren. for example's
snkC'. . . . It is IH'CC'ss:iry 1"11nt te:i chcrs h0 . . . PXClllpl:iry In co nversation.
"
ATTENTION TO VISUAL AND OltAL INSTRUCTION.

Th e t eacher's example is not a direct phase of what is known as
oral instruction. The term mrans rat.her t.hnt. chilflrrn are t:wght
prin cipl es by word of mo11th; that is, the explanatory talks which
Kirkham had incl11tled in l1is text arc to be prese nted in simple explanations by the teachers them sel ves. T hi s practice was so unfamiliar
· in some towns that it attracted the notice of visiting committees, as •
that of Newbury, Mass., which wrote, in 1839: "Another improve- ·
me11t we noticed was the method of some teachers of communicating
knowledge . . . by familiar conversation and by questions on common subjects." ns The Egermont committee of 1843 found occasion
to praiseBarnard, Ed. Bl og., 2Gl; a lso Am ..J. or Ed. IV. G41.
or Sc h. Het. (18:39) , 365.
" Ibid., 1839. 33.
no

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°' I hin. (1 843) , 188.
Com. Sch. J., l 843, 167-8.

1

,

"After th e pnrt of speech . . . had been defin ed by the teacher nnd clearly comprehend ed by th e pupils, th ey went to their scat to write exnrnplcs In a book k ept for t.lrnt
purpose. It wns sometimes found thnt listening to nn cxplnnntlon . . and co n,·crslng
. . . were not sufiiclent . . . on which account a textbook wns required. This construe·
tlve exercise I• extremely Interesting; children are pleased with doing something." l!Jld .
•Com. Sch ..T. (1850), 146.
•Wells, Scb. Gram., preface, IV.
•A sample of Wells's arlvlce concerning Instruction In tile pnrts of speecl1 ·ma:v !Je
uoted: "The cla8sijicat.i.cm of words may be Introduced by referrlnii to the different kinds
' trees: to th e dlll'erent kinds of animals; or to any other collection of objects that
ilmlt of n r ei;ulnr dlvlslorl Into distinct classes. · Thus when we go Into a forest , we fincl
bat the num!Jer of trees about us Is greater than we can estimate. But we soon observe
bat a certain portion or them have certain resemblances, while they differ e8Rontlally
rom all the rest; . . . by extending our observation, we flnd . . . a ll trees . . . belong
~o a few very simple classes, .. . Oai' trees .. . . Pine trees. . . . .lust so It Is ·with the
'Ords of our language. . . . By some Introductory Illu s tration the curiosity of a class
f ueg inncrs may be excited. . . The teacher should lead his pupils to take an actlv~
part In these lessons from the beginning." Ibid ., II, 12.

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CHANGES IN METHOD BEFORE 1850.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

were scattered through various States. Wells himself later becam
It is prooab e tliat his influenee more than that of any other man really introduced oral instruction and explanation into classroom instruction in English gr~mmar.
~
.~
!llg:l1t into the field of teaching gram..._...._.;;:.;ma
$.
a e as 1835 the idea of using slates and blackboards was exceedingly novel; in only a few schools does it appear to
have been attempted before that time. vVilliam A. Alcott, whom we
have seen n.bovo dispP11si11g with grn11111rnr l;ook s its Jn.r ns possible,
testifies that in 1830 "the iden. of stllllying grammar with slates and
pencils was so novel that I found no difficulty in gaining general
attention." Children wrote names of different objects held before
hem; they read the lists aloud, classified them, and wfote new lists
of objects of which they could think. Thus was employed a combination method of visual instruction and pupils' activity.~ Uules and
regulations for the schools of Salem, Mass., require that. " every lesson
(in grammar) shall be 'accompanied by operations on the blackboard
,and slates (from the younger pupils), and exercises in parsing shall
be required from the older classes." 6 In an article on normal schools,
in 1843, the advice is given that.snp~rintenoent of scliools in Chicago.

the first principles should be taught orally am1 by the hlackhonrd nnd ~lnte. Ro
taught, they are easy and pleas:mt, and throw valtrnble light 11pon the arts of
rending and composition. The use of the blackbonn1 ls very lmportnnt. 'Vrite
on the board, "It ls she," not " It ls her!" Require the pupils to make for
themselves, and write on their slates, ten examples of similar mlstnkes, and
their corrections. The rule ls learnt better than by months of repeating the
rule In parsing, where the mind is little better than passive.'

mar. For instance, the Dighton committee said, in 1843: " The black-'
bo.ard has been introduced into several schools. . . ' . · By means of
' • this the study of Orthography and English Grammar has been
facilitated." 9
,
.
.
Samuel J. May gives a hint concerning the very earliest appearances of blackboards, when, describing a visit to the school of Rev.
F.ather Francis Brosius in Boston, in 1814, he said: " On entering
his room we were struck at the appearance of a Hlaclcboard suspended
011 tlw wall. . . . I hnd ~rnvcr seen such a thing before . " . and there
I first witnessed the process of analytical and inductive teaching." 10
It is quite certain, however, that not for two decades after 1814 did
the rank and file of Massachusetts schools adopt this device now
regarded as so indispensable for visual instruction. William C.
Woodbridge, in the report of a Boston school committee on improvements, in 1833, strongly recommended slates and cards in the primary
scho?ls. i:i:e added that means for visual instructio~ were positively
forbidden m Boston by the general committee. 11 ' · In the common
schools of Connecticut as late as 1832 "slates, blackboards, and apparatus are almost entirely unknown in the district schools," a comm j ttee on common schools testified. 12 Massachusetts counties in general
waited for the boards until after 1840.13

Again, Jam es Ray, a prominent teacher of this decade, in 1830
advises:
In the stu dy of Grammar the blackbonn1 may be used to exhibit the lnllec-'
tlons of the various parts of speech; it may also be used in syntax, to point out
the connection of the principal wonls to m ch ot11er. The methn11 of 1lolng this
is by writing on the board tbe sentence to be parsp1l, nml then connecting by
curved lines those words that haYe any grn mmaticnl cmrnec ti on with each
other. The instructor nt the surne time volnt ing out \Yhnt that relation ls. It,
ma:v be ohservecl thn t In teaching grammar the use of the blackboard Is confln~cl to the teaching the elementary principles of the science, [anti] ls nsed by
the tencher for the purpose of !llustratlng these principl es.'

The foregoing is the earliest reference the writer has seen pointing '.
to the use of diagrnms, which, after the middle of the century, came . ·
into great prominence in the analysis of sentences.
Massachusetts school committees often spo ke in commendation of
the new movement for blackboards facilitating instruction in
•Am. An. of Ed. and Ins. (1837), 165.
•Com. Sch ..T. (1842), 78.
'Ibid. (1843) , 331
•Ray, Trnnsactlons of College T eac hers, VT, 10·i.

149

The thir d prominent feature of innovating methods before 1850
wa~ the introduction of constructive work on the part of the pupils,

wluch gradually took the form of composition. Of course dictation
and copying exercises were very old,1~ and disputations elated for
· before the beginni1ws of instruction in the vetnacular. Moreover
writing of a sort had accompanied work in grammar in the days of
Murray's dominance in American schools. But- eomt>osition , s- an
' adhmct to the study of grammar did not become prominent Until
Bamard, Fowle, Mann, eaTter, Rand~ antl otlfors champiorieu . and~
advanced 1. F owle, in an editorial Of 1852, sa ys thal_.:. - · .. · ·
even now. n large number of our schools have no composition tn ught In them .
No wonder, for not one teacher in 10 can write with tolernble ease nncl correctness. In nn Institute In Massachusetts (lSGO) we required 117 teachers to
write what they could In fifteen minutes on "happiness." At the end of fifteen
·; minutes, but seven tenchers hncl done anything, and four of these ha<'l requested
to be excused from writing. The three more periods of fifteen minutes were
given, and only twenty tencl1ers had been able to write anything In the end.
·. , 'An. R ept. Supt. Ed. (1843), 234.
". 10 Burna rd, Ed. Blog., 38.
11 Am. An . of Ed. and Ins. (1833). 587.
"Ibid. (1832), 248.
11
Asbbunhnm comm en I·"· In 1 R41: ·•Schoolroom~ hnve bren more genernlty furnished
with blnckbonrds." Rcpt. Supt. Ed . (1841), 71. See also Ibid., 78; 1843, 234; 1841, 27.
·' "See Chap. V, p. 127.
·

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151

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

CHANGES IN · METHOD BEFORE 1850,

Fowle then pertinently asks: "How can such teachers give instruc:
tio_i in English Grammar 1 " 1 n
.
The Massachusetts school re ort · are es ecially clear in indicating
that composition as such was a product of th decade 1830 and 1840.
In MO Sterling reported that "the exercise of composition has been
introdu ced into some schools with encouraging success. This important branch has been too mn ::h nrglecte<l in former years. . . . Eng-·
lish Composil-io n slio11lc1 con ic next in order . . . to grn.nrnrnr." 10
The co11111 1iLlN~ of Ca.rvcr, i11 18:\!), exp l:1i11c·<l t lta t ~() ycnrs earlier
the art of composing an cl writing received no attention:

the school? and when they have got ideas," and can clothe them orally in word~;
do you allow them as a privilege to write or print the same on the slate or
paper?
G. Do you give out a number of words, and then ask your pupils to frame
sentences in which those words are used?
6. Do you require your older pupils to keep a journal or give an account of the
occurrences of the day, as an exercise in cow position?
'
7. Do you Instruct your pupils as to the most approved form of dating, commencing, and closing a letter?
8. Do you require your pupils to write a Jetter In unswe r to flOJlle supposed
inquiries ul.Jout some matter of fact?
9. Do you request your older pupils to write out what they can recolle<;t. of a
sermon or lecture they have heard, or of a book they have been reading?
10. At what age do your pupils usually commence writing easy. sentences or
compositions?

It is trne we were set to making marks, nml dashing arnl poi11ti11g them with

our pens (writing) . , . but . . . there are but few now, who were scholars
then. t"lrnt can compose. write nntl fol<l a letter. in a hamlsome form , ns large
numbers of our cl1ildre11 from ten to fiftpeu ~·en rs of ng-e can."

.,

The Rockport committee" 11rge<l 11pon !he more advanced scholars,
who are acquainted with grammar, the importance of writing composition. . . . This should be a standing exercise in onr schools. . . .
This exercise is too much regarded as a matter of fonn." 18 Here it
is to be noted that compositfon first came into the curriculum only.
after the pupil had some. acquaintance with grammar. La~er periods,
rev~ed tli~ ·or.de!', eortiposition p!'eeeding grnmmar. This constitutes a very important consideration. The committee of Dana, in •
1843, commen eel oral composition in the following language:
The pracHce was pnrticularly recommcncled by the co11m1il.tce. of urging the
classes, instead of giving arbitrary mies from the book, to explai11 their operation, aml to give the ir reasons in th eir own ln11gnage.
Exercises in composition have been attended to in some of the schools."

Only one Massachusetts committee, in 1843, found a satisfactory
condition:
Jn the juvenile department in thls school there wns a new thing exhil.Jited at ,
the examination. about fifteen letters, and pieces of original composition, writ- ~
ten by little children uncler ten years of age, and "rritten \Vith a silnplicity, t
correctness and beauty, which surprised as much as It rl eligl1tecl us.'°

The list of questions which Barnard sent to the Connecticut teach-.
ers ( 1838-1841, inclusive) are indicative o£the most advanced thought
of the day. 21
1. Do you classify your pupils in reference to teaching composition?
2. Do you accustom your youngest pupils to write or print words and short
sentences on the slate, from yonr dictation?
· ·· 1
3. Do you nsk them to print or write something about what they have seen In
com in" to school, or read in the rea<ling lesson?
4. ;s a preliminary exercise in composition. do you engage them in familiar
taUc about something they have seen in their walk, or has happened in Ol' about ·
"Com. Sch. J. (1852). 37fi.
10 Mass. Sch. Ret. (1840), 123.
11 Ibid. (1839). 413.
"Ibid. (1841), 27.

"Ibid. (1843). 83.
20 Ibhl. (184R) , 215.
21 Am . J. of Ed., I, 692.

The exceeding reluctance with which authors of treatises on grammar and teachers of this subject came to the realization that constructive written work on the part of pupils ought to accompany every
sFage of their progre$s is clearly Il}arked in America before 1850. ·
. :&riestlei .as early !IS 17,72 recommends the practice in his preface, 22
but neither his nor contemporary textbooks are constructed with this
purpose in mind. Even earlier. than Priestley we . have seen the
Philadelphia Academy and other schools of advanced ideas employing composition, but not primarily as an adjunct to grammar. 23 But
the fact is that the practice was not prevalent in American schools.
This is eYident not only from the complete absence of suggestion~
for composition in the earlier grammars but also from frequent
testimony. 2 '
·
22
" We must introduce into the schools English grnmmar, English composition, nn<l
frequent English translations from authors In other iangun,ges. The common oiJJectiori
to English Compositions, that It Is Ilke requiring brick to be made without straw (boys not
being supposed to be capable o! so much reflection. ns Is necessary to treat nny subject
with propriety) ls a very frivo lous one since It ls vPry easy to contrive a variety of exercises Introductory to themes upon moral and scientific subjects, in many of which the
whole attention may be employed upon Inn1nrnge only; nnd from thence youth mny be led
on In n regular series of compositions, In which the trnnsitlon from lanqttagc to sentiment
may be as grndnal ancl ensy !IS possible." Prleslley, 3cl ed., preface, XXL
., See Chap. III, p. 46.
H" We w~re two or three years in grammar; . . . we were never required to write a
sente nce of English. and w e never did write one as a school exercise." Wallis, spenklng
of Boston schools about 1800. Com . Sch. J . (1850), 5.
"We were educ!lted at one of the best schools . . . but, although we studied En~llsh
grammar seven years and received !I sliver medal for our proficiency. we never wr~ te "
entence of Engllsh at school !Ind never dld anything which Implied a suspicion on
our part that grammar had anything to do with writing or conversation." Ibid., editorial
(1849). 258.
"Composition was unknown to us. We were supposed to acquire 'the art of writing
the English Language with propriety' by a textbook rtudy of Orthography, Etymology.
Syntax and Prosody, without writing even a sentence." Swett, speaking o! the period,
1830- 1840, Am. Pub. Sch., 122.
" We think It would be but a counterpart to our grammars for children If some phllosoher were to publish a treatise as a mode for discovering the center of g.rnvity, an<l the
aws of motion, in order to teach the chtldren how to walk and run." Review of Everst's
ngllsh Grammar, 1835, Am. An. of Ed. and Ins. (1835), 429.
0

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152

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153

ENGLISH GHAMMAR IN AJ\IElUCAN SCHOOLS BEFOHE 1850.

CHANGES I N METHOD BEFOHE 1850.

It is significant, the11 , to fincl grarnmnrs after 1820 deliberately
planning exer cises in composition. Th ey tlo not attempt " themes
upon moral and scienti fic subj ects," as Priestl ey acl visecl; indeed, their
!'mggestions for written work m ay not properl y be call ed co mpos ition
at a ll. Roswell Smith's title, " Sentences to be written," is far more
exact. Kirkham hacl n othin g to contribute to this ad vance, contenting himself with elalwra tc parsin g aml false sy ntax. Goo l<l Brown
follows Murray in placing exe rcises after each of the four <li vis ions
of hi s grammar, urgi11g that the pupils" shouhl 101·itr· out" 2 • their
answers. Smith is enti tlccl to th e credit of makin g th e first di stinctive
step toward the practice of sentence buildin g. S cattered through his
text are numerou s headings entitled " Sentences to Le written." The
purpose is to -employ the cons tructi ve activities of p up ils as a means
of fixing the gra111matical prin cipl es they hn.ve just Leen studying.• 0
Remembering the clates of S mith 's books-1829 and 1831- we see
that he stands in point of tim e at th e head of the movement for composition in Massachusetts di scussed above. 27
Wells, in 1846, rgecl that teachers write models on the board, and
that they a so wnte list:S of words ana ave t rn pupils compose sentences em racing them. } e goes a stev · n advance, dvising: ''After
the pupils have in this 11rn1rner cxem plified the various modifi cations
of the parts of spcel'h , they should be required to write seYeral compositions of considerable length. " 28 Natura ll y we fiml Greene, in hi s
"Analysis of Sentences," tu ki 11g eYen more mhanced g rouml. In his
reface he affirms that " the only successfol me hod of obta.iuing a
knowledge of that art (writii1g an s12eaking CO.IIecUy) is by means
of co nslru ct1on and analysis.20 JJ1 the text proper co nstru ct ion exercises begin on page 13, a foo tn ote saying: " These exercises mn y be
"Titten or recited orally. It is reco111111end rcl tlrnt t he prnct ice of "Tit-

in g lessons should be adopted as a general rule." so Moreover, Greene
desires t hat "the exer cises, after being corrected, should be copied
into a writing book." 81
·
As may be expected , it is im possible to assign a date at which con- ·
structi ve work, closely associated with grammatical stu dy, entered
school practice. However, it appea rs safe to say that it was the outco me of th e influences we have seen at work in the period between
1825 and 1850. 82 The discussion may be fittingly closed by citing the
pra cti ce of tw
xcecdingly
progressive.
found profita e, recommends voluntary composition, the pup1 s to
continue their work on their own account by >keeping joumals. The
variety of exercises suggested incl udes writing absti;acts irom ' memory; taking notes on lectures ; abridgments; dialogues, real and
imaginary; stories for children; narratives of personal adventure;
di scuss ion of qu estions; and Lhe like. The voluntary r ead ing of
artic les at stated periods is also recommended. 33 Of course this procecl ure is exceedingly advan~ed; it is practi cally composition as we
understand t he term to-day. A more r epresentat ive progra m of the
period in qu estion is found in the following account of a fernale school
of Boston in 1832:

,l

..
(

!/
I

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'.
!'

Cnre hn s hPen tnk en to Im pr ove ni l occasional oppo rtunities of tlir ec tin .~ the
ntt ention of th e pnpils to the etymology, the sig-nification, nntl t he appropriate
use of words. ns they occur In connection, a nd while th e in ter es t f elt In the ir
111cn nin g is still fresh In th e mind . Exer cises in the defining of words ~ nd in the
di s tinguishing sy nonyms are occa sionall y prescribed. The practice of substituting ef]ulvnl ent wonl s. phrases, sentences, nml thou ghts is likewise employed.
Th e analysis of fi g urntive la ngua ge to the sa me encl, A prn ctlcal co urse In
g rnmm n r Is compreh cntl erl in t he dnil y exer cises in C'Ompositi on an d a systematic
vie w of tlie principles of the science !ms heen taken,"'
GENERAL

SUMMARY.

20

F.ni:llsh G rammar, 100.
'"Sent e nces fo be wrllf en :
11
' Q. Will yo11 co m pose l wt.l Rrnkucc~. ca eh
h n ,·ing n d lfl'r rrnt ndjr c tf vc pro n o 1111? On f' ,
h av in g n d e m on s trative pt·onoun? On e, bn v ln g nn Jnclcr-inil e p r o n o un u se d ns a n o un ?•"
E n i.:. G r n m. rrod . S.rs., 58 .
21

R lchnrd G. l'nrkcr's Uook.

11

Prog 1·rss lve

1 S:J2, c 11Joy 0 d n r<'m:tl"10 1h1 P f': l lP.

It n ·ae h r <l

F.x e r c l ~r~

In E n .c l ls h Co rnpos ltl on, "
rcl l fl n n In l ~ · tri . NPw

II ~ forf .\· ~ fifll1

n o~ t o n,
rcllflon~

w.-rc p11hll i::i h r d in 1 R!i !""1 1111d I R!""tfi.

I

'

,I

i,

l'nrk f'l' 1n1llll f' IH'cl n ·• RL'qn<'l" In 1R: tfi nnd , tn 1R·1 4.
"Aids to Engli s h Com posi ll on ," wh ich r cac h ecl ll s tw«nll c th rdl llon in 18!i0. T he sale of
th ese serJ e s is ind icative o f th e tre nd townr d co mpos iti on . J' nrk c r , co ll n li o rntln ~ with C.
Fox, In 18:J4, publi~hed :tl~o " l'1·ogress lve Excrci~<'S In Engli s h G rnmmnr.' · P:irt II , J 81U ,
l'nrt· Ill . 184 0, A fnvornblc r rv it' W of fh e fi rst bnok d rscrihcs It :rn he ln g "witho ut a
fo nu lda blc a r ray of lo ng defini tio ns and unin t e lli gib le rnl cs."' Am . An . of Ed, a n<l In s,
( 1 83 5), 4 7 _

Sch . G rnm ., 24 .
An :!l ys is. 4 . Contrn s t this with Goo ld Brown' s s l:>tem r nt: "Th e onl y s ucc«RSfu l
me th od of t ea ch ing grammar Is to ctrn sc th e p ri n c lpn l <l«llnitions nn d rul es to be com mit ted t ho rnu g hl y to m cmo r .r , that they may ove r nftenvnrd s be r endlly appl ied ." B row u,
prrfnce , V T. Th r co ntrn s trcl Rfaf Pm f' nts in<ll cn t C" fh r- h vo r aclf c n ll .v dirfc·rl·n t cnnc• p pfi o n~ o t
~rn mm at l ca l in s tructlou, one of w hicll was [Hiss ing, lhc o lll e r of w lJi c h was e u t c rlug, In
1 8G O.
28

29

Method s of teaching gra mmar have now been traced for about 100
years fr om its beginni11gs in America about 1750 to th e middl e of the
nineteenth century. For the first 75 years instruction centered almost
"A nnly• I• . 1::1.
" !hid ,. 18, l.
" 2 .l ohn Flint, who p ubll s h Pc1
F'lrs t L r~~o n~ fn E n .d i s h Grnmmnr up on n Pl n n Indu c ti ve
nnd Jnt ell ect11nl ," In 1 833, dese rves credit for pioneer wo rk lu sente nce buildin g. nnt t'dn t lng Green e 12 yea rs. An edltor lnl In the Am erlc n n Annals say s: "Dec idedly the host
lnfrodn ctory w ork we have seen . Th e pupil 's kn ow ledge Is given by exam pl es noel sent e nces In whi ch he find s words cor r espo nd ing t o definitions, nud th e pu pil write• se nt en ces
ns soon n s m ny be.' ' Am : An . of Ed , and In s , ( 18311) . RH4. Dyer H. Sa n born 's "Anal y ti cal
r.rnmmnr," 1 83G. r ece ives similar co mmendati on. Ibid . (l8:J 7l, 143 . F. W, F elch"s "A ·
Comprehen s ive Grnmmnr." 183 7. a ffirms on the tl1'li! page: "DeslgneA~~E ~~·_study
of grnmmnr a nd composition one and the same pr~." Ibid. (1837'Ji fi"26. m:~ll !Intl
Greene a commlftee on Boston free schools d ecl a r ed, In 851, thnt fll ey were ndopteil "a li
over th e lnnd " as n protes t a gn ln st teacblug MutTny ·s Latin grammar for English." Com.
11

;!'
,.

I·

154

ENGLISH GRAMl'l'tAR IN AMER.JOAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 18GO.

entirely around memorizing, correcting false syntax, nnd parsing. Of
these all three were tran sferred dirN:1ly i'rom practices c11stomnry in
studying Latin grammar. About" the year 1823 changes began to
'creep into class instruction. Although the three traditional methods
still predominated, especially parsing and memorizing, influences
were at >rnrk which made the need of remedies felt in the educational
revival of the second quarter of th e century. Most conspicuous among
the innovations were, first, earnest efforts to make the pupils understa nd; secoml, visual and ornl instrnction; and, third, the beginnings
of constru ctive work. Most conspicuou s among grammarians were
Kirkham and Smith, ·w eils and Greene; among edu cational leaders,
Carter, Hanel, Barnard, and Mann. The results of their labors were ·
indeed a veritable revolution, both in the conception of grammar and
in the methods of instruction, a revolution the nnture of which is
well illustrated by comparing Goold Brown's statement of 1823 with
the corresponding statement of Greene in 184'7:

APPENDIX A.
CHRONOLOGICAL CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS IN
AMERICA BEFORE 1800.

Henry Barnard, speaking of his list of early Americ,an textbooks, 86
indicates the viewpoint in which the present list is compiled. He
says : "This information in many cases is very imperfect ahd unsatisfactory, but it will at least serve as the clue to further inquiry; . . .
many errors . . . and omissions will doubtless be detected in regard
to those books which the compiler has not seen, and whose titles, dates,
and places of publication and authorship have been gleaned from
numerous sources not always reliable."
1706. Greenwood, James.

Essay Towtrrd a Practical English Grammar, 2d ed.,
London, 1711, 12°, 315 pp.
1724. Jones, Hugh. A Short English Grammar: An Accidence to the English
Tongue. London.

The only successful m ethod of teaching grnmmar ls to cause the principal
definitions and rul es to be comm ittP<l thoroughly to memory. (Brown. )
The only successful m ethod of obtaining a knowledge of the art is by mea ns
of construction and analysis." (Greene.)

See Chapter II for furth er description of th e first 10 gram.mars In this llst.

1740. Dilworth, Thomas.

A New Guide to the English To1igue, Containing a
Brief but Comprehensive English Gra rnmar. London.
1151 . Harris, James. Hermes, or a Philosophical Inquiry Concerniug Universal
Grammar. 6th ed., 1806, 468 pp., 8°.

"Consld erntlon of m ethods nHer 18!\0 is re se rved for nnolh~r study. Detwren 18~0 nnd
1920 we may distinguish three fairly marked periods: 'l'hnt of 1847- 1873, which may be
termed the Inductive period , chn ra c ie r I zed by the method s whose origin has just been ·
presented ; thn t of 187 3-18fll. which may be t erm ed the rhetorl cnl pe riod, mnrked by Swlnton's "Langunge Lessons, " White's gramm a rs (1 871), th e Harvard entrunce requirements of 187:{, and th e Co nn ecticut order dropping grnmmnr in l 8!ll; nnd t hnt of 18!ll 1920. which may be termed the elim lnn tlon per iod or tile lncldentnl stud y period, the chief
tendency of which Is the grndunl suhonllnntion of formal grammar to Its proper pince as
Incidental to the study of composition and literature.

Harrls's work was n ot a textbook , but was lnfluentlnl In sho'plng most of
the grammars earliest In America. · Murray acknowledges his Indebtedness.
( l 1?trod11ction, 5.)
Hnrrls wns un Innovator and slmplltler among grnmmarinn s, us ing- on ly four clnsse s of words, after Aristotle. Book r epr in ted
In Phllndclphla. WickP"'lrnm, Hist. of Ed. In Pa., 202. Reached 7th ed.,
182G. Com. Sch J., III, ZO!l.
115-. Wisemnn , - - - . F:ngliRh nrammnr.
Advertised, Boston Eveni ng Post, Oct. 27, 17\)0.

1153. Fisher. A.
12°.

A l'ractlcnl New Grammar.

28th ed., London, 1795. 176 pp.,

Follows Harris with four kinds of speecl1 ; no cases, no mood s, only three
t enses. Brown used · "A New Edition, Enlarged, · Improved and Corrected,
1800."
.

I

1158. Lowth. Hobert. A Short Introllm:tion to English Grammar.
ed., London, 1775, 132 pp. 12°.

1st Amer .

"Flarnnrd's li st, Am. J. of Ed., XII, XIII, XIV; nlso William H. Wel!R's list In the
preface of his "A Grnmmar of the English Lnnguagc." Doston , 18G2, edition . A writer
who s ign s hlmselt W. H. W. (probably Wiiiiam H. Wells) begnn n series of articles on
I~ ngllsh grammars In The Common School Journal
Illness compelling hi~ to cense his
labors, another writer who signs bis articles "Wallis" (probably W. M. Fowl~), con·
tlnu ed the series nmkr th e title "Grnmmars Published In America before 1804." c. s. J.,
IX, X, XI, XII. A fourth list, 11 Amertcnn Textbooks," anonymous, is found In Barnnrd's
American Journal of Education , 14, 600. For nil books published In America before 1792
Evans's "American Bibliography" Is th e standard source. Evans Is not Infallible, however; a few books befor e l 71l2 have uppnrently not come to his-attention. Goold Brown,
In Ills "Grammar of GrnmmaTs," 1851, presents a list of some 350 -authors or com I
grammatlc1tl textbooks.
'
The present writer has addecI several Items of Information, mostly fragm enta ry, from
announ cements of publishers , from book r ev iew s In the eady educntlonal journals. and
from stray r eferences In town histories. reports of school societies, addresses In educa'.
tlonal conventions, and pedagogical tracts.
·

155

156

1'/'60. [Anonymo11R.]
'I'IJe British Gra11mrnr. 1st Am ericnn etl. , 1784, 251
Jl[l. , 80.
J'/'60. Gough, James. F,11gli s h (-;r:immnr. 212 p[l., 18°.
Atlv e rti scd , l'rovid Pnco Gnzc tt c, Oct . 24 , 1767. 17GO is dnte of 2d ed. "A
pullllcatl on of littl e merit, n:111 ch of it llorrowed from earli er writers." W. H.
We lls, Com . Sch . .l., III, 21.0.
176'!!. Priestle,r. J ose11'1. 'l'hc ltmlirnents of English G ra 111111a1-. 311 et.l., Lont.lon,
Reprinted In Phlln<)olphln.
Pl~hcr.

11

Wlckors hnm, op. cit .. 202.

A pro1l11 c f"lo11 of Jltt:Jc merit."

'Vcll~.

Simp!IO er , like
op. cit., 22H.

1763. Ash, .Joh11.

Grn111111ali<'al J11f<lilMPR. or 1111 JiJnR,V I11trmluctlo11 tu Dr.
Lowth's l 1J111,.: li sh Urn111111ar. Lu11do11 , 1G3 pp. 24 °.
Firs t Am e rlc uu reprint, 1774 , by Ilugh Galn e, N e w York.

1765. Johnson, Snmuel.

Evnns, 5, U.

An l!J11glisli Grammar; the First IDasy Hu<llments of

Gramrnar Appli ecl to tile Eng li sh 'l'ongne By One Who is Extremely
D esirous to Promote Goot.l Liternture in Am eri ca, nml Especially a
Right English 11Jt.lucation for the Use of Sc!Jools. New York, 36 pp.,
12°.
This HPJWnrs to have bee n th e fir s t Eng-liRh g-rnmmnr prrpnrrd by nn
America n and publi s hed in Am erica. Evans, Am. Uibl., 4, 18, 1002G. See
C hnp. I I, p. H5 .

1766. Burn, John.

A Practical Grammar of the English Language.

18°.
1767. Buchanan, James.

A Hegu lar Engli sh Syntax.

Gla sgow,

10-1 pp., 12°.

First Am erican r eprint. 1780. Evnns, G, 68. "A mos t cgrce:lous plae:lnrl•m.
borrowed from the British Grnmmnr, half th e volum e copi ed verbatim."
Well s; op. cit., 3, 237.

177'2. Adam, Alexaud er.

Lntin nml English Grammar.

JDdinburgh.

11
An Eng1tsh Grnmmar thnt wn s conn ec ted with Ada ms 's Lntln Grammar
. . . fnr more English than Murray's." Wnllls, Com. Sch ..T., XII, 118.

1773. Byerley, 'I'homn s.

1787. Ifarrlson, Ilnlph.
pp., 18°.

Rudiments of English Grammar.

Philadelphia, 102

Mention ed by Wick ersham ns one of the first used In P ennsylvania.
of Ed. In Pn., 202 . An English book , 9th ed., Pbllndelpbln , 1812.

J"/'8-. [Anonymous.]

A ComprehensiYe Grammar.

1789 ls dnte of 3d ed .

1790. Webster. Noah.

Hist.

Philadelphia, 173 pp. ; 18°.

Evans, 7, 305.

The Hudirnents of English {:lrammar. · Hartford, 80 pp.,

16°.

202 pp., 18°.
Jlnrrls nncJ

157

APPENDIX.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN S CHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

A Plnin ant.l Ensy Introduction to English Grnmmar.

New York.
177-. Hall, .James. English Grammar.
Hall found ed a school (177 8 ) In Belhnn y, N. C. H e conducted cln sses In
En gli s h grammar; wrote and publis hed a book thnt hnd wide clrc11lation.
Rap er, Th e C hurch aud Private School s of l\orth Carolina, 55, citing Foote's
Ske tch es , 336.

1779. Curtis, Abel. A Compent.l of IDng!ish Gn1111mnr, Being an Attempt to
Point Out the Fundamental Principles of the En glish Language.
Dresel en ( J.:?artmouth College ). 4fl pp. , 16° ..
- - - Benezet, Anthony. An E ssny 'l'ownrtl th e Most Easy Introduction to the
Knowledge of tile English Grummar. 6 pp., 12°.
Compil e d for th<' PC' nnRylvnnln Sp rll In~ Book. Evans lis ts th e grnmmur
also ns n s eparate book . Evnns, 6, 4.
1784. Webster, Nonh, jr. A nrnmrnntical Institute of th e English Lnnguage.

In three pnrts. Part 2, Co11tai11in,g a I'lnin and Comprehensive
Grnmmar Grount.l et.l 011 the 'l'rue Principl es and Illiums of the
Langunge. Hartford. 13!) pp., 16°.
- - - Kenrick , 'Villi:im. A lt!Jetorical Grammar of the English Language.
Philaclelphia.
1785. Bingham , Caleb. The Young Ladies Accidence; or a Short and Easy
lntrot.luctlon to English Grammnr; Designed Principally for the
Use of Young Learners, More Especially Those of the Fair Sex,
though Suitable to Both. Bos ton , 4G p11., 16°.
1786. Mennye, J. An English Grammar. New York.
1787. Ussh et', George l\f. The Elements of Eng lish Grammar. London.
American etlltlon, 1790, Portsmouth, N. H. Evans, 8, !18. Printed for
.T. Melch e r, especin ily for young Indi es. ~ld Am. ed. In 1804, Exeter, N. H.

i

'·'

Th e nudiments wns first printed ns pnrt 2 of the Little Renders' Assistant;
then, 11t t h e r e ~m·s t of the llnrtford school nuthorltles, was twice printed
nR a sepnrnte book, In 1700. Evnns, 8, lOu .
'
'
11'!!1. Hutchlnf'. ,Joiwph . An A hstrnct of the ir1rst Principles of English Gram-

mar.

Hartford, 24°.

Mentioned by George A. Plimpton. Murrny, Hist. of Ed. In N.
"Compiled for the use of his own school." 'l'ltle page, Evnns, 8, 164 .

f,

51.

179'!!. Alexnn<ler, Cn leb.

A Grammatical System of the English Language.
Boston. !16 pp., 12°.

"Compreh en<llnl!' n Plnln nnd Fnmlllnr Scheme of Tench Ing Young Gentlemen nnd Lndl cR the Art of Spenklng and Wrltlni:; correctly their Nntlve
Tongu e. " Evnns, 8, 242. 10th ed. , Keene, N. FI ., 1814 .
·

.\

- - - [Anonymous.] The Young Gentlemen and Ladies' .Accidence, or a CompemliouR Grnumiar of th e !Dngllsh Tongue, Plain and Easy. Boston.

''i

Attributed to Noah Webster.

- - - Humphries, D:rnlel. 'I'he Compendiou s Amerlcnn Grammar. or Gramnmtlcnl Institutes in Verse. Portsmouth, N~ H., 71 pp., 12°.
---Tlchnor. Elisha. English Exercises. 2 pp., 18°.
1792 ls 3d ed. "All th e rules of Pnrslng . • . facilitates grammatical
knowl edge. " Evans, 8, 363.

17fl4. Knowles, John.
1795. Carroll, ·James.

Principles of English Grammar. 3d et.l.
Am erican Criterion of English Gramm a r.

Conn.
- - - Dearborn, Benjnmin.

'l'he Columbian Grammar.

George A. Plimpton nsslgns date, 17!12.
Used the qu estion -and-answ er method.

N11w London,

Boston, 12°.

llfurrny, Hist . of Ed. in N ..J., 51.

---1\Iiller. Alexander. Concise Grammar of the English Tongue. ll!J pp.;
12° .
- - - l\Imrny, Lin(lley. English Grammar, Adapted, to the Different Classes
of Learners. London.
1''f96. An English Grammnr.
Barnard lists, l>y printer; lnfonnntlon' very fragm entary.

D9- . Bullnnl, Asa. An Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar, by a
T each e r of Youth. Boston .
10th ed. in 1817.
ton schools.

1897. Burr, .J orrnthnn.
180.

Succeed ed Bingham 's Youn g Ladles' Accid ence In Bos-

A Compendium of EngliRl1 Grammar.

1797. Macintosh, Duncan. An IDssay on English Grammar.
179-. Marshall. English Grammar.

Boston, 72 pp.,

Boston, 239 pp., 8°.

Written by an American author, contemporary of Webster; date uncertain. Mentioned In Education in New Hampshire, Am. Ann. of Ed. and Ins.,
1833, 435.

1799. Stanforcl, Daniel.

A Shorf but Comprehensive !Dngllsh Grnmmar. 18°.

2d ed. in 1800, 4th In 1807. " Fe ll Into the traces of Murray." Wallls,
Com. Sch . .J., 12, 20:!. Brown says 1st ed. 1807, 96 pp., 120,

1800. Woodbridge, William.

P lnin and Concise Grammar.

George A. Plimpton, Hist. of Ed . In N . .J., 51.

1801. Gurney, David.

English Grammar.

2d ed .. 1808. Brown.

180'!!. Cochran, Peter.

Boston, 18°.

Barnard calls It "Co lumbian Acc id ence."

An English Grammar.

Boston, 71 pp., 18°.

..:!

APPEN:DIX.

159

DECLAMATION,

APPENDIX B.
A COMPARISON OF THE ENGLISH PROGRAMS OF TURNBULL AND
FRANRLIN.
'l'UJlNIHJLL.

( irro111 Ohi<erv1ttlo11s 1111 LI h<•rn 1 Md 11 eatlon (1742), 17G2, ed., 4- U.)

- - - - -FHANKLlN.
( Hmylh, 'Vrll l11i;<:R or HP11J. l•'rn 11kll11.
JI, O!ll et seq. )

GRAMMAR.

"One exercise s hould be tlail y to write
a pnge of English. nnd after that to
exa min e e very won.I by t he gru m111:1 r
rul es. an d every senten cE) they hav e
composed, to oblige the m to give nu
a ccount of the English sy ntax and
constru cti on."

"Th e E ngll;;h Language mi ght be
taught by Grammar."

C O~f POSlTION.

". • . who thinks it worth while learning to write this (mother tongue ) ?
Every one ls snfl'e r ed to form his own
stile by cha nce ; to imitate th e first
wretched mod el w hi ch falls in his wny.
befo re he knows what is fnnlt .v, or can
r elish the bea uties of a ju st simplicity.
. .. Ri ght edu cation woul d have . . .
t :rn ght them to ncquire h nhi ts of writing their. own la nguage ensily uncl er
right directi on ; nud this would ha ve
been usefu l to them as long as they
lived."

"The Stiles princlpnlly to be culti-

Abstracts of what they
rea cl ; ci r writing t he sa me Thin gs i11
t bek ow n ·words; tl?iling or writil1~
Stori es lately read , in th eir own r~x­
pregsious. .\II to be revis'd a nd correc ted by the Tutor ."

"Ma ke them read aloud gracefully,
an a ccomplishment that many men
cannot perform, because they are
either unexperienced or bashful."

"To form their P ronunci a tion they
ma y be put on Declamations. . . .
R eadin g should al so be taught and
pronouncing, properly, dlstincting, emphatically."

FOR PROFESSION S.
I

""' here ls B nglish tau ght at present ? Who. thinks of it of use to study
co rrectly the langua ge which he is to
use In dally life ? . . . It· ls In this
th a t nobili ty and gentry defend t heir
co untry; . .. It ls in thi s that la wyers
pl ead, the divin es instruct, and a ll
ranks of peopl e write their letters and
trn nsact all their affairs."

"It Is therefore propos'd thnt they
lea rn those Things that are likely to
be mos t usef u l:. . . R egard being had
to the se veral . Prof essions for which
.they are intended."

l

Between the pa ssages in Turn bull rmd in the proposa ls of Franklin the re i
one. striking dissimila rity. The former is outspoken in his condemnation 0;
Latm as a medium of universa l edu ca tion. Fra nklin, who In othe r places vo ices
th e same sentim en t, In his proposals contents himself merely with stro ng
e~11phas i s upon. Engli sh as the "most useful" and "most natura l." Smyth. op.
cit.. 38~U6. '.Ihe explanation ls sim ple: Turnbull was writin g a book fra nkly
t? sub ~t1tute the vernncular and the r ealities for cla ssicn l in stru ction while
]• rnnk lm was propounding the program for a school he wish ed to establl s;1. The
form
.
!J er co .uld afford to deno unce the 011positio11 , the latter could not . As a Iwa:i-s
t e practicn l ma n is cautious, concilinto r y, compro mising. The st ud ent of
Frnnklin's ea rly advocacy of th e mother tongue ls fr equently struck by the
ex t reme diplomacy with which he sought to bring it forward.

LIT E RA Tl'RE.

"I need no t nchl se ~· on to give th em
a taste of our best poets."

" Som<' o f onr hrs t ' VritNS. ns Till r f.
son , Ad cli Ro n. Pope. Al gPrnon Rldm•.1-.
Ca to's lette rs, etc .. should be clnssi ks."'

ST'EAK I NG .

1

Ill
I1

I Ji

" .. . obli ging th em to spenk e n~ ry d ay
their unwritten t hmt i:o;ht on nuy subject in English. Let th em rea rl an Orati on 0 11 Tnlly or Lh y . . . f"l1 e11 shut
th e hook. :rnd speak the sense of it ex
te mpo re."

158

"nepeating Speeches, deli vering Ora·
tions.'"

\

f'

!

l.

!,,i :6

•

., .
LIST OF AUTHORITIES CITED IN THIS DISSERTATION.
I. PRIMARY SOURCES.·
A. COLONY AND STATE LAWS, ARCHIVES, RECORDS, AND SCHOOL DOCUMENTS.

Connec ticut. Publlc Records of the1 Colony of Connecticut (1636-1776). Compiled by J. H. Trumbull and 0. J. Hoadley. 15 vols. Hartford, 1850-90.
---Acts and Laws of the State of Connecticut in America. Hartford, printed
by Hudson & Goodwin, 1796.
Delaware. Laws of the State of D elaware from the 14th day of October, 1700,
to the 18th day of August, 1797. In 2 vols. Vol. II, Samuel and John
Adams. New Castle, 1747.
Louisiana. A New Digest of the Statute Laws of the· State of Louisiana to 1841,
inclmiive. Compiled by Bullard and Curry. Vol. I. New Orleans, E. Johns
& Co., 1842.
Maine. The Revised Statutes of the State of Maine, Passed October 22, 1840.
Augusta, Wllliam R. Smith & Co., 1841.
Massachusetts. Acts and Resolves, Passed by the Legislature of Massachusetts in the Year 1839, 1841. Published by the Secretary of the Commonwealth. Dutton and Wentworth, Boston, 1839 and 1841.
- - - '!'be Perpetual Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts from the
Establishment of Its Constitution to the Second Session of the General
Court, in 1798. In 2 vols. Vol. II, Isaiah Thomas. Worcester, 1799.
- - - Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Dutton and Wentworth.
Vols. X and XIII. Boston, 1828 and 1836.
- - - Records of the 'l'own of Braintree, 1640 to 1793. Edited by Samuel A.
Bates. R a ndolph, Mass., 1886.
- - - T he Records of the 'l'own of Cambridge (formerly Newtowne), Massachusetts, 1630--1703. Cambridge, HlOl.
- - - ·watertown Records, prepared for publication by the Historical Society.
Vols. 1-4. Watertown, 1894.
I
- -- Collections of the l\fn ssachnsetts Historical Society. First series, 10 vols.
Boston, 1702-1.800. R eprinted, 1800, 1809.
- - - Annual Reports of the Board of I•Jducation, together with Annual Reports
of the Secretary of the Board. Boston, 1837-52.
- - - Boston. Rul es of the School Committee and Regulations of the Publlc
Schools, etc. City Documents, Nos. 22, 23, 28, 40. Boston, 1841, '46, '47.
- -- Springfield. R eports of the School Committee _for 1853-61. Springfield,
1854-62.
Massachusetts Bay. Records of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts
Bay in New England (1628-86). Edited by N. B. Shurtleff. 5 vols. Boston,
1853-4.
- - - Acts and Resolves, Public and Private, of the Province of Massachusetts
Bay (1692-1780). Vols. I , II. Boston, 1869-1910.
Michigan. System of Public· Instruction and Primary School Law. Prepared
by Francis W. Shearman. Lansing, 1852.
- - - Reports of the Superintendent of Publlc Instruction, 1855, '56, '57. Lansing, 1858.
·
60058°-22-11

161

.;

162

ENGLISH GRAMMAR I N AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

New Hampshire. Annual Ilepo rts upon the Common Schools of New Hampshire.
Vols. 1-9, 1847-51. Concord, 1852-6.
- - - Docum en ts and R eco rds Relating to the Province, T own , and State of
New Ham pshire (1623-1800) . Edited by N. Bouton and others. 31 vols.
Concord, 1867-1907.
---Laws of New Hampshire. Ed ited by Albert S. Ba tchel.o r. Vol. 1, Province Period. Man chester, N. H ., 1!)04.
- - - T he Laws of the State of New Hampshire, 'l'ogethe r with the Decla rntion
of Independ ence, etc. Portsmouth, printed by th e order of the Gene ral Court,
John Me lcher, 17!)2.
---The L aws of the State of New Hampshire, with the Cons titutions, etc.
Exeter, publi sh e1l by a uth ority, C. Norris & Co., 1815.
New Haven. Il eco rd s of the Colony anrl Plantation of New Haven from 1638 to
1649. By Charles I-londley. Hartford, 1857.
New Jersey. Archiv es of th e Stnte of New J e rsey. Ed ited by W. A. Whitehead and othe rs. 1st series, documents r elati ng to the coloninl history
(1081-1800). 27 vols.
New York. Annunl R e ports of the Regents of the University of New York.
Albany, 1837- 73.
- - - Annual R e110rts of the Superintendent of Common Schools. Albany,
1830--52.
- - - Columbia University. Charters, Acts, and Official D oc um ents, etc. Compiled by John B. P ine. New York, printed for th e college, 18!)5.
- - - Albany Co., N. Y. The Annal s of Alb nny. By J oel Munsell. Albany,
1850-59.
- - - Laws of t he State of New Yo rk, Pnssed at the Sessions of t he Leg islature, 1797, '98, '90, a n d 1800, inclusive. Republish ed by the Secretn ry of
State. 1885. Vol. IV. A lbany, W eed, Parsons & Co., 1887.
---Laws of the State of New York, Pa ssed at the 50th Session of the Leg islature (1827) . Al ba ny . printed by E . Croswell , 1827.
Ohio. Annua l Reports of the Secr etnry of S tate on th e Conditi on of Common
Schools, 1848. 1.8Ci1. '52. '53. '54. '55. '56, '57, 'GB. Columbus, 1840, 1852, '53,
'54, '55. '56. "57. '58. '50.
- -- C in c innati. Co111111011 School He port fo r Years 18GO- G2. Cincinnntl,
1860- 62.
Penu syll·a11in. Laws of th e flP 11 r r:il Asse mbl y of th e $tn te of Pcnnsy lv.ni1la
Hn rri s hmg, A. H. lTn 111i1 Ion, 185-1.
( 18G4).
1
- - - Hepo rts of t h e f:i up1?ri11 trmle11 t of Co mm on Sch ools. Ila rri sburg, 1851- 55.
___ Colonie l R eco rd s ( 1G8:J- 17!)0) . Philadelphia anti Harrisburg, p ublishetl
by the State, 1 8Gl-G~.
Plymouth. R eco rd s of th e Colony of New l'l .v 111o ulh i11 New J<: nglnml (1620--()0) .
Edited by N. B. S lrnrtl !? ff antl others. 12 m i s. Boston, 1855- 61.
Vermont. Annunl R e ports of til e Secretary of the Vermont J:\oard of Educntion,
1858. Burlington , 1.858.
· ___ Annu a l n e ports of th e Co m111 011 Schools, 1847, '48, '49, 'Gl. St. Albans,
1857, '58, '59. l\Ioutpelie r, 18Gl.
___ Laws of the Stnte of Vermont to th.e Close of th e Session of the Leg islature in t he Year l.816. Vols. I , Ill , Fay, Dav idso n & Bmt. ltutland , 1817.
Virginia. The Sta tut es ::it Large of Virginia, from October Session , 1702, to
Dece mbe r Ses!"ion , 1806, inclusive. In 3 vols. Vol. III by Samuel Sh eph a rd.
Richmond , 1886.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES . CITED.

163

B. CONTEHPORA.RY EDUCATIONAL TREATISES.

Ascham, R oger. The Schoolma ster: or a Plain and P erfect W a y of T eaching
Children t o Understand, Write, and Speak the Latin Tongue. (1591. )
Jam es Upton, A. M. ed. Lond on, 1711.
Ash, J ohn. Sentiments on Education, Collected from the Best Writers. 2 vols.
London, 1777.
Brin s l ~y , J ohn.
Ludus Literaris, or The Grammar Schoole; Shewing How To
Proceed from the First Entra nce into Learning, etc. ( 1612.) London,
Imprinted by Felix Kyngston for Richard Meii:;hen, 1627.
Carlisle, Nicholas. A Concise Description of the Endowed Grumma1· School!!
In England and Wales, etc. Vol. I. London, Bald\Vln, Craddock & Jaye
Curter, James G. Le tters t9 the Hon. Wllliam Prescott on the Schools ot' New
Englnnd, with Remarks on the Principles of Instrnctlon. Boston, 1824.
Comenius, John nu Amos. The Great Didactic of John Amos Comenius; now for
t he First Time Englished, etc., by l\I. W. Keating. Loudon, 1896.
Ford yce, David. Dialogues Concerning Elducntion. 2d ed. London, 1745.
Franklin, Ben jamin. The Works of Benjamin Franklin. By Jared Sparks. 10
vols. Boston, 1840.
- -- The Writin gs of B enj nmfn Frankl! n; Collected a nd Edited, with a Life
and Introduction, by Albert H. Smyth. Vol. II, X. New Y1o1·k, London,
1()05-7.
Herbart, Joh a nn F. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. Translated by Alexis
l!~. Lange . . . a nnota ted by Chnrl es DeGarmo. New York, London, 1901.
Hool e, Ch a rles. A New Discovery of t h e Old Art of Teaching School. Reprint.
Introduction and notes by T. Mark. Sy r ac use, 1912.
Locke, J o hn. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. (1693. ) 6th ed. en!.
London, 1709.
Mulcaster, Richard.
(The) Educational Wl'itings of . . . (1532-1611) , etc.
James Oliphant, ed. Glasgow, 1903.
Priestley, J oseph . Miscellaneo us Obser va tions rel ating to Education, etc. London, 17'78.
Senger, F. 'l'he Schoole of Vertue, and boo k of good Nourture for Chyldren,
and Yo u t h to Iearne theyr dutie by, etc. Londoi;i, 1557. Reprinted , '.rile
Babees Book, Frederick J. Furnlvllll , M. A., ed. London, 1868.
She ridnn, Thomns. British Education: or, The Source of the Disorders of
G r eat Britnin, being An Essay towards proving t hat the Immorality , Ignor11 111:P. a nti false Tastes, are the natural und necessary Consequences of the
pi-cse11t Defective System of Educa tion, etc. London, 1754.
'l' urnbull, Geo rge. Observations upon Liberal Education In all its Branches,
etc. London, 1742.
·walker, William . Some Improvements T o the Art of T eac hing, Especially in
t he JPlrst Grounding of a Young Scholar In Ornmmar-Learnlng. London,
1730.
Wynne , R. Essays on . Educa tion by Milton, Locke, and the Authors of the
Speeta tor, etc. London, 1761.
C. TEXTBOOKS IN GRAMMAR.•

Alexander , Ca le b. A Grammatical System of the English Lang uage : Compreh end ing a Plain ::ind Familiar Sch eme of Teaching Young Gentlemen nnd
Ladies the Art of Writin g anti Spea king Correctly their Native Tongue.
1792. 5th ed . Boston , 1799.
1

Various other minor texts consulted, nam ed In Appendix B.

:i

'I
·I

h
.1

,1
:1

.I
•I

1j
1

1
I

I
.!
·•i

"l

,;'

·~
't

1~

1
!

164

ENGLISH GRAMMAR I N AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

LIST OF AUTHORITIES CITED.

[Anonym ous. ] The British Grammar, or an Essay in Four Parts, Towards
Speak in g a nd ·writing the English Langua ge G ramma tica lly and Inditing
Jij Jega ntly. Lo nd on , 1760. JDdltlon 1762.
[Anonymo us.] A Grammar of t he English Tong ue, with the Arts of Logic,
Rheto ric, Poetry, etc., g ivin g the Grounds and Reasons of Grammar in
Genera l. London , published by John Brightland for the u se of schools of
~and Irelaml, 1706. 7th ed ., 1746.
_ _ . _he Institu tes of En~lish Grammar, M:th od!ca lly Al'ranged,
with Examples for Pnrsl ng, Questions for Examination. J! a lse Syntax for
Co rrec tion , Exercises for Writiug, etc. New Yori{, 1823. Stereotype ed.,
New York, 1833.
- - - Grammar of J~ n gli sb Grammars. New York: 18G(l.
___ 'l'he F irs t Lines of English Grammar; Being a Brief Abstract of the
Author's Larger ' Vork. · Designed for Young Learners. New York , 1826.
Bullion, Peter. Th e P rin ciples of E n glish Grammar, Co mpri si n g t he Sub'
st a n ce of the Most Approv ed English Grnm rna rs Jilxtant, with Copiou s Exercises in Parsing and Syntax. New Yo rk, 1834. 5th ed ., New York , 1843.
Dilworth, Thomas. A New Guicl e to t he Eng.lish Ton gue, Containin g a Short
but Compr eh e nsirn Grammar of the E119)-ish Tongue. )Lo ndon, 1740. Boston , printed for J. Perkins, 1771. ·
l ~
Fisher, A. A Practical New Grammar, with .E xercises of Bad E nglish, or, an
Easy Guide to Spea kin g and Writing the English Lan g unge Properly a nd
Correctly. Londo n , 1752. 10th e d., 1765.
Gr een e, Samuel s." A Treatise on the Structure of the English Lang un ge, or the
Analysis and Classifica tion of Sen tences a nd the ir Compone nt Parts. Boston, 1847. Ed iti on , H. Coopertbwaite & Co., Philade lphi a, 1857.
G reen wood, jarnes. An Essay T oward s a Practical English Grammar, etc.
L ondon , 1706. · 2d ed. , 1722.
John so u . Snm nel. A Dic tionary of the English Language . .. To which are
Pre fix ed a History of t he Lm1gurr ge, a nd a n E ngli s h G rnmm a r . L ondon,

165

clpl es nud Idi oms of the L a ngu age. Hartford, 1784. 6th Connecticut ed.,
Iln rtforcl, 1800.
.
Wells, vVllliam H . A Grammar of the English Language, for the Use of Schools.
Andove r, 18!6. Cle,,ela nd, Ohio, ed., 1852.
Wharton, J. A New Engllsh-G ramma ~ : Containing all Rules and Direc tions
Necessary to be Known for the Judicious Reading, Right Speaking and
Writing of Letters, Syllables, and Words in the English Tongue, etc.
London, 1655.
D. MISCELLANEOUS.

of Education and Instruction. Ed. by William C. Wood1-ViII. B o~ton , 1831-7.
Amencun onrna o
Barnard. Vols. 4, 5, 13, 14, 15,
24, 27. Hartford, Conn., 1857, '58, '63, '64, '65, '73, '77.
Ame rican Journal of Educa tion. Ed. by Horace Mann. Vols. 1-V. Boston,

18M::So.

An Account of the Charity Schools Lately Erected ln Great Brita in and Ireland
with the Benefactions The r eto, etc. 9th ed. (Joseph Downing), London,
1710.
. Common Sch ool J ourn a l. Ed. by Horace Mann. Vols. 1-;10; by Willia m B.
Fowle, Vols. 11 to 14, inclus ive. Boston, 1839-52.
Coon, .Charles L. North Carolina Schools and Academies, 1790-1840. A Documen tary History. R a lei gh , 1915.
Ev ans, Charles. American Bibliography, a Chronolog ical Dictiona ry of nll the
Books, Pnmphlets, nnd Periodical Publications Printed in the United States
of Amer ica, etc., 1639-1820. 8 vols. , 1639-1792. Chicago; printed privately
by the a u th or, 1903-14.
·
Franklin, Benjamin. The Autobiography, 1771. N a thaniel Griffin, ed. Chicago,
1915.
Glimpses of Colonia l Society and the Life at Princeton College, 1766-1773. By
one of the class of 1763 (William Pa tte r son). Ed. by W. J. Mllls. Phila1775.
Jonson, Ben. The E nglish Gr a mmar, made by 8 0 11 J on so n for the Benefi t of all
delphia nncl London, 1D03.
Strangers ou t of h is Obse rv ation of th e E ngli sh Ln11 guage n ow Spoken and .
Jones, Hugh. The Present State of Virginla. Ilonclon, 1724. New York,
in Use. Lon do n , 1640. Reprint, Alice V. i;vaite, ed., New York , 11)09.
_
i·eprinted f or J. Sabin, 1865.
Kirkha m , Samuel. E ng lish Grn mma r in Familiar Lec tures : Embracing a New · · .. Parsons, Mrs. Elsie W. (Cl e ws). Educational Legislation and Administration
and Systemnti c Onl er of Parsing, a New ~yste m of Puuctuation, Exercises ;
of the Colonial Governments. New York, 1899.
in J!'nlse Syntnx, etc. New York, 1828. 4Gth etl ., Ho ch este r , N. Y., 1880.
Winterboth a m, H.ev. W. American Schools and Education, Contemporaneous
Lily, William. A Sh or t Introduction of Gra mmar. London, 1542. 1726 ed.,
Account, 1796. Reprinted from Barnard's .Am. J . of Ed., 24 (1873), 136-57.
J oh n ·w a rd , eel. London, 1726.
Lowth, Robe rt. A Sh o r t Introducti on to JDnglish Gr a mmar, with Criticn l Notes. _.
II. SECONDARY AUTHORITIES.
London. 1762.
A. HISTORIES OF EDUCATION, BIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATORS, HISTORIES OF
Murray, Limll ey. E n gli sh Gr:rnrn1 a r Atlupt cd to lhe Diffe re u t Classes of LearnINSTITUTIONS.
e r s. Lond on , 17D5. From 28th English ed. , Utica, N. Y., 1822.
Pries tley, J oseph . The Rudi1ne11ts of English Gramma r . 3d ed., London, 1772.
School Education. New York,
Anderson, Lewis
ish G ramma r on the Produc ti ve System: a Method of
. .
.. .
1909.
Adopted
in
Germnl}f)
a
nd
Switze_rland.
~
Boston,
1832<_
.
.- ;~, ··; ~
, Barna r d, Henry. American • duca tlonal Biography. Memoirs of Teachers,
Stereotyp<~d e d ., Philadelphia, 1838.
if1~=v1(1..-·
Educators, e tc. First published in 1859; Bardeen reprint, Syracuse, N. Y.,
Staniford, Daniel. A S h ort bu t Co mpreh en sive Grammar, !~1\'d ered Simple and ·
1874.
Easy by Fam iliar Questious and An swers, Adapted to the Capacity of
Battle, Kemp P. History of the University of North Carolina. 2 vols. Raleigh,
Youth. B oston , 1707.
N. C., 1907.
We bste r , Noa h. A Grnm ma ti cn l In stitute of th e E ngli s h Lnngunge; compris- ,~
Beardsley, E. Edwards. Life a nd Correspondence o:f Samuel Johnson, D. D.
ing a n Ensy, Concise and Systematic Metl10Ll of l•Jd ncn tion. Part 2. Con-_,
New York, 1874.
taining a Plain a nd Compr ehen sive Grn 1m11nr, Grounded on the True Prin-

.

)

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J

~

'

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,,'t
!,
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~

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166

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Birch eno ugh , Clrnrles. Jiistory of E lemcntn ry Educntion in England and
'Va les from 1800 to th e Present Dr1y. Lornlon. 1014.
Boese, Thomas. Pul>lic Education in the City of New York; its Hi story, Condition, and Statistics. New York, 18()9.
Boone, Ri chard C. E ducation in the United States, its History from the ,/
Earliest Settlements. New York, 1890.
Bmnsun, ' ·V alter C. The History of Brown University, 1764-1914. 'I'lle UniYe rs ity, rrovide1ice, R. I., Hl14.
Brown, Elmer E. 'I'he Making of Our Middle Schools, etc. New York ( 1903).
2d ed., London nnd Bo111l>ny, l!lOG.
Bush, George C. A Ili sto r~ of _J ~catlo n in the United Rtatcs. New York nnd
I ,ondou, 1808.
{A.A'\
V
D exter, Euwln C. A History of Edu cation in tlle United States. New York
and Lonrlon, 1904.
Dull es, Chnrles >V. 'I'he Chnrity School of 1740; the Foundation of the University of P ennsylvania. From the U ui ve rsity of P enn sylvania Medical
Bulletin, PhilndPlphia. l!)Qcl.
Hazlitt, >V. Cnrew. Sc hools, Rchool Hooks, nlHI Rchooin1asters. L01Hlon. 1888.
Heathwoie, Corne lius J. A History of Education in Virginia. New York , 1016.
Hinsdale, Burke A. Hornce l\Innn and the Common School Revival in the
United States. New York, 18'.l8.
Hodgson, Geraldin e T . Rationalist JDnglish Ed ucators. Lond on [etc.], Society
for Promotin g Christian Knowledge. New York, 1912.
Hough, Franklin B. Historical irnd Statistical Record of the University of the
State of New York, 178!- 188!. New York, 1885.
J enk s, Henry F. Catalog ue and Historical Sketch of the Boston Publi c Latin t/'·
School. Boston, 188().
K emp, >Villia m W'. Tile Snpporl of Rchools in Colonia l New Yo rk by the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. New York, 1913.
Laurie, Simon S. John Amos Co men ius, Bishop of tlle Moravians; his Life and
Educational w ·o rks. Boston, 1885.
Leach , Arthur F. English Sc hools at tlle Reformation, 1546- 8. vVestminster,
1896.
Little fi eld , George ID. 1% rl y Schools nnd Scl1ool Books of New Englnnd. Boston, printed hy the Club of Otld VolulllPS. 1914.
McCracly, Edwnnl. Ellucution in South C:irollnn Prior to nrnl During the
Itevoluti on . Hi sto ri cal Society of Soun1 Carolinn, Cha rl eston, S. C., 1883.
Maclean, Joh11. Hi sto ry of t h e Coll Pgc of New Jersey, from il.s Origin in 1746
to the Colllrnenee ment of 1854. 2 Yuls. 1877.
Mark. Harry. An Outline of the Hi sto ry of F-dncational Theories in E nglaml.
Ryracuse, N. Y., 18DD.
111"rtin, Georg:c H . The J<)rolntio_1A.of tlw 1\!a ~~:w l111 st'l: ts P111J li c School System.
1\cw York, N. Y., 1804.
rJlt. ~
t.,<:_
Meriweth er, Colyer. Our Colonia l Curri culum. >Vn shington, D. C., Capital
Publishing Co., 1!)07.
Monroe, W"ill S. Comenius :md tll ~ Beginnin gs of Educational Hefonn. London,
1900.
Montgomery, Thomas H. A History of tllc Unh·ers ity of Pem1syl vnnia from its
Foundation to A. D. 1770. Philadelphia, lDOO.
Murray, David. History of Edncation in Ne"· .J er sey. >Vn shington, D . C.,
Government Printing Office, 18DD.
Powell, L y ma n P. The Hi sl·ory of }1)<1ucation in Delaware. 'Vashington , D. C.,
GoYernment Prin ting Oflice, l 8rl3.
Quick, Hollett H. Essays on Eclucntional Hefo rme rs, etc. Cincinnati, 1885.

A../:;- .k-

ef--

ENGLISH GRAMMAR TAUGHT AFTER LATIN METHODS.

167

Quincy, J osiah. History of H a rvard University. 2 vo ls. Cambridge. 1840.
Hice, J . 1\1. The Pul>lic School System of the United States. New York, 18:l3.
Slafter, Ca rlos. A R ecord of Educntion. The Schools and Teachers of Dedham,
l\fassachusetts, 1644-1904. D edham , Mass., privately printed, Dedham
Transcript Press, 1905.
Small, Walter H. Early New England Schools. · Ed. by W. H. Eddy. Boston
& London, 1914.
Steiner, Bernard G. Histo ry of Education in Maryland. Washington, D. C.,
Government Printing Office, 1894.
Swett, John. American Public Schools, History and Pedagogics. New York,
1900.
rp, Francis N. Benjamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania.
Washington, D. C., Govemment Printing Office, 1893.
'I'olman , William H. History of Higher Education In Rhode Island. Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1894. ·
Updegrn ff, Harlan. The Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. New

~-eginnings of the Teaching of Moder~ Subjects I~ Eng- - - The English Grammar Schools to 1660; their Cuniculum and Practice.

~~~-story

of Education In Pennsylvan_ia.

Lancaster,

Wood, George B. The History of the University of Pennsylvania, from Its
Origin to the Year 1827. In Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Historical Society,
·
3, 169-280. Philadelphia, 1834.
· B. STA.TE AND LOCAL BIS'l'ORIES.

Atwater, Edward E. History of the Colony of New Haven to Its Absorption Into
Connecticut. New York, 1881.
Bailey, S. L. Historical Sketches of Andover, Massachusetts. Boston, 1880.
Bicknell, Thomas >V. A History of Barrington, Rhode Island. Providence,
1898.
Corey, Deloraine P. The History of Malden, Massachusetts, 1633-1785. Malden, published by the Author. 1899.
Currier, J ohn J. History of Newlrnry, Massnchusetts, 1625-1902. Boston, 1902.
Felt, Jo seph B. Annals of Salem. 2 vols., 2c1 ed. Boston, 1845.
Judd, Sylvester. History of Hadley, Massachusetts. North11mpton, 1863.
Love, Willlam D. The Colonial History of Hartford, Gathered from the
Original Records, etc. Hartford, 1914.
l\1n1m, II. Historical Annals of Dedllam, from Its Settlement, 1635, to 1847.
Dedham, 18'17.
Nash, Gilbert. Historical Sketch of the Town of Weymouth, Massachusetts,
from 1622 to 1884, etc. Boston, 1885.
Orcutt, William D. Good Old Dorchester, A Narrative History of the 'I'own,
1630- 1893. Cambridge, 1893.
Proud, Robert. The History of Pennsylvania, in North America, from the
OriginHl Institution and Settl ement, etc., Written Principally between th11
Years 1776-1780. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1797.
'I'emple, J. H., a.nd Sheldon, George. A History of the Town of Northfield,
Massachusetts, for 150 years, etc. Albany, N. Y., 1875.
Winthrop, John. 'l'he History of New England from 1630 to 1649. New ed. by
James Savage. 2 vols. Boston, 18!33. ·

•
168

ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN AMERICAN SCHOOLS BEFORE 1850.

Barbour, I!'. A. The 'l'eaching of English Grummar; Hi!!tory and Method.
Boston, 1902.
~
1-0 l\J
Barnard, Henry. First Public Schools of New England. American Journal
of Education, I; 27, 39, 97, 105, 121.
- - - History of the Common Schools of Connecticut. American Journal of
Education, IV; 657-70; and V; 114-54.
Broome, G. C. A Historical and Critical Discussion of College Admission
Requirements. New York, 1903. (Columbia University Contributions, V,
Nos. 3-4.)
Bush, Geor ge C. First Common Schools in New England. ·washington, D. C ..
Government Printing Ofilce, 1898. (U.S. Bureau of Education. Circular of
Information No. 3.J
Fitzpatrick, Edward A. The Educational Views and Influence of De Witt Clinton. New York, 1911.
Germantown Academy; Ccntcnnin l Anniversnry of the Foundation. Phlladelph ia, l860. (A pamphlet.)
Inglis. Alexander J. The Ilise of the High School in Massachusetts. New
York, 1911.
Jernegnu, Marcus ,V, The Beginnings of Public Education in New England.
School Review, XXIII; 319-30, 361- 80.
Snow, Louis F. The College Cur ricul um in the United States . New York. 1!107.
Updegrnff, Harlan. 'l'he Origin of the Moving School in Massachusetts. New
York, 1907.

FL.o us A

;,._o

D. MISCELLANEOUS.

Bigelow, John. The Life of Benjamin Franklin, etc. 3d ed. 3 vols. Philadelphia, 1893.
Dexter, F. B. Influences of the English Universities in the Development of
New Englnnd. Jn Proceedings Massnchusetts Historical Society, 1879- 80.
Eggleston, Edward . 'l'h e Transit of Civilization from England to America in
The Seventeenth Century. New York, 1901.
Fithian, Philip V. .Journal and letters, 1767- 1774; Student a t Princeton College, 1770- 72, etc. Ed. by John R. vVllliams, Princeton, for the University
Library, 1900.
Ford, Paul L. 'l'he New Englnnd Primer; a History of its Origin and Development, etc. New York, l8fl7.
Hinsdale, B. A. Foreign Influence on J~ clucntiou in the United States. In
Annual Report of the U . S. Commissioner of Education, 1807.
Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Ped:.igogy of Reading, etc. New York,
1908.
\ Tuer, Andrew W. History of the I-lorn-Book. London, 'l'he Lendenlmll Press,
1907.
Monroe, Paul, ed. A Cyclopedia of Education. Vols. 1-5. New York, 1911.
Reeder, Rudolph R. 'l'he Historical Development of School Readers nod
Method in Teaching Reading. New York, lDOO.

INDEX.
Academy and Charity School or Philadelphia,
history, 38, 43-49; Influence, 49-55.
Alcott, William A., on study or grammar, 148.
Ilnrnard, Henry, and reform In study or grammar,
142-143, 150-151.
.
Dearing of grammar on modern problems, 8-10.
Beginnings of grammar, 8.
Bible, emphasis on Instruction, New England
colonies, l&-17.
Bibliography, 15iH68.
Bingham, Caleb, school In Boston, 78-79; textbook,
79, 81.
Blackboard, use, 149.
Boston, Mass., introduction of grammar f_n schoo1s,
25.
Brinsley, John, on memorizing rules, 113, 117; parsing, 120; study of Latin, 109.
Brosius, Rev. Francis, school in Boston, 149.
Brown, Goold, on grammar as an art, 107, 111, 114;
memori1.ing rules, 138-139; parsing, 121; textbooks, 84 .
Brown University, Su Rhode Island College.
Buchanan, James, on study of grammar, 114.
Byerley, Tho.mas, methods of teaching grammar,
129-130.
Carew, Richard, on teaching English, 59.
Charity schools, Great Britain and Ireland, curriculum, 14.
Clajon, William, and instruction in English grammarat Annapolis, Md., 30.
Colburn , Warren , series of readers, 140-141.
Colet, on study of Latin, 107-109, 111.
College of New Jersey. See Princeton College.
Colleges. American, early instruction in grammar,
36-42. Seealsq Higher education.
Colonial schools, reading and writings tressed, 17-18.
Colonies, educationa 1 treatises, 55-56.
Columbia College, ear ly instructloningrammar,37.
See also King's Co11cge.
Connecticut, legislation r ega r dfog grammar , 74.
Constructive work, 149-153.
Coote, Ed_mttnd, vernacular textbook for "pettie 11
schools, 12-13.
Curriculum, Franklin 's academy, 45-46;lnfluence,
adding grammar to, 43--69.
Dame schools, New En gland, 18-19.
Educational theories supporting grammar In
America up to 1775, 55-69.
Educational treatises In the colonies, li~56 .
England, character of vernaculat instruction (15961622), 12-15.
English grammar, before 1775, 21-33; before 1784,
~3-36; before 1800, chronological catalogue, 155157; early appearance in America,_ 21-42; intensive study, tl-8.
"English grammar school,-' ea rliest uses of the
name, 24--25.

English schools, slgnlflcnnce or rise, 7&-77 .
English tongue, standardl7.ing and preserving, 6166.

English vernacula r , early instruction, 11-12.
False syntax, 122-124.
/
Formalism In grammar, protest, 143.
Fowle, William B., on influence of Webster and
Bingham, 79; study of English grammar, 131;
study of grammar, 147, 149.
Franklin, Benjamin, on Instruction In English, 65;
Influence of his school, 49-55; scheme for English
academy In Philadelphia, 49-55.
Franklin and Turnbull', comparison of English
programs, 158-159.
Georgia, instruction in grammar, 31-32.
Germantown Union School. Pa., IJJStruetion in
grammar, 28.
Gough, William, school in .South Carolina. considered doubtful, 31.
Grammar, definitions, 10.S-107. See aZ.o English
grammar.
Greenwood, James, on study of English grammar,
112.
Griffith, J ohn, announcement bl instruction in
English grammar, 25.
Harvard College, early instruction in grammar,
37-38.
High schools, status of grammar in 1867, IOI.
Higher education for tho masses in 1650 and in 1750,
66---07. See also Colleges.
Boole, Charles, description of vernacular Instruction at the end or the sixteenth century, 13-14.
Hughes, Hug\1, methods of teaching grammar,
123-129.
Inductive approach, agents and agencies, 140-143.
Inductive movement, applied to grammar, chief
features, 144-153.
Instruct.ion, absence of grammatical, in English, 24;
revolt against meaningle.ss, 144--146; visual and
oral, 14&-149.
John son, William, EngUsh grJ.mmar school, in
Charleston, S. C., 32, 64. ·
Jones, Hugh, first American author or a textbook
In English grammar, 33, 36--37.
King's College, first advertisement of English instruction, 64: instruction in grammar, 36-37. See
also Columbia College.
Kirkham, Samuel, popularity of textbooks, 134-135; textbooks, 84, 87.
Lancastrian system, 114--115.
Latin, burden of learning, 56-58; revolt against,
headed by John Locke, 11.
Latin and rote periods, summary of ljlethods,
13(}-131.
Latin grammar, methods of .study In seventeenth
century, 107-111; traditional methods of teaching
transferred to English grammar, 103-131.

169

il

i

,,

170

INDEX.
R ate periods and Latin , summary of methods,

Latin methods, cnrried <l'rcctly to English grammar, 111 - 120.
Legi ~ l f\tivc recog nition or gramma r, 70-77.
Lis t of authorities cited , l6l-t68.
L ocke, John , nnd revolt against the Latin curricu·
· lum, 11-12 .
Lowth, Rob ert, on fal se syntax, 123; learning gram·
mar, 11 3-114.
:Mam1 , H orace, and re forn1 in study of gram1nar,
142-1~.5.

130- 131.

Hnl es of grammar. Su Momori1.ation.
Rutgers Coll ege. See Q.uecn's Coll ege.
Schoolmasters teaching English grammar before
1775, 21-33.

Schools and schoolmasters, teaching grammar be·
lore 1775, 21-33.

Seventeenth centu ry, education in the classics, 11.
Sher idan, 1' homas, on revival of tho art of s peaking,
ctc., IH - 63.
Simplify ing t erms, 118- 119.
Smith , Provost, on 1 ;: n ~ li s h in ~t ru ct ion, G5.
Smit.h, lloswcl IC., textbook, 84, 87, 135.
Su also Posta.lozzianism.
Somerset Academy, Mar yland, 53.
South Carol ina, firs t school teaching tho mother
ton gnc ' 1 gra111nmticatl y, 11 ,1:.3 .
Standardi 7.ing anrl preserving the English tongue,

147 .

Mar yla nd, instruction in grnm mn.r, 30, 53.
MaSsachusetts, ed ucation in Colon ia l period, 15--17;
instru ction in gro.nuu ar, 7t-7:3; legislati on regard·
inggrammar,8!__)-87; t.r.xtbooks in gramm ar,S5-87.
May, Samuel J ., on ~t.rly use of blackboards, 149.
Jllcmori zation, mies, 11 3-1 IG; d evices to aid, ll&-118.
Jllctbocls before 18.SO, gr~dual changes, 132-154.
Methods used ln grammar schools, New York, 128130.

61-6(1.

Michjgan, ins truction in grammar, 98-99.
Milton, John , on teachi ng English, 59 .
Murray, LitH.11 cy, on fal ~ o syntax, 12 l; memori zing
rules, 117; lcxlbooks, 79-80, 83-lH.
New England, early 'education, l &-17; legislation
regarding grammar, 70-73; rapid rise of gra mmar
alter Revolution, 70-76; teaching gra mmar before

Status of grammar ( I Rfi0 - 1 ~70), 92- 102 .
Rtcel<', lti chard, 0 11 instru ction in grammnr, 58.
T extbooks, llootl l\fter 1784, 77- 152; in Colonies,
G8-G9; nal ure of dominating (11523 - 18.50), 134-140;
reprc3e ntat i\·e States (1800-1850), 82- 92.
Su also Uibliography.
Turnbull and F ranklin, comparison of English

1

1775, 23-2'i.
New E n gla nd Primer, fir s t book printed, 19.

progra m s, 1.53- 159.

New Hampshire, in stru ction in gram m a r, 88, 97-98;
legislation regarding gram1nar, 74-75.
New Jersey, instru ction in gramma r, 26-28, 94- 95.
New York, firs t legislation to de finitely speak ol
grnmmn.r, 73- T4; grammar a:. p~ut of curri culmn
of acade mics, ~ -85; instru cti on in gran1mar, 2526, 95- 9G; m et hods of te.ichi ng grammar, 128-130
textbooks in grammar, 83- 85.
North Carolina, ins truction in grammar, 90-92.
Ohio, instruction in gra mmar, 96- 97, 88-90.
Oratory, inslruction, Gl- 63, 65.
Pnrsiu~. 120-122. See also False syn tax.
J'em1sy lvauia 1 instruction in grammar, 29- 30, 92- 93 ;
Pestalozziaui s m, and H.oswell C. Smith, 135- 138;
criticisms by Goold Brown, 137-138.
"Pett ie schools," vernacular t extbook, 12- 13.
Philadelphia Acadomy . See Academy and Charity
School ol l'hilntl e lphi n.
]'rinccton Coll ege, instr11 ctio11 in grammar, 38- 39.
l'ric.stly, Joseph, argument for simplicity in teach·
ing grammar, 119; fal se s yntax, 124.
Purposes of the st udy, 5--0.
Quecn 1s College, instru ction in grnmmar 1 40.
Rand, Asa , on 111c morizi11 g rul es, 114.
Unpid ri se o f l ~ n g li s h grammar nftcr t775, 70- 102.
Ray, James, on st ud y of grammar, H S.
n evolution, rap id rise of gra n1m ar after, 70.
Hhodo ls la.ud College, instruction in grammar,
39- 40.

0

UniYersily o! North Carolina, early instruction in
gra mmar, 40- 41.
University of the State of New York, regents' report on English grnm mar, 73 .
Vermont, instruction in grammar, 87- 88; legis lation
re ganlin ~ grnmmnr, 73.
Vernacular ins truction, character in America. ( lG201720), 17- 20; character in England, (159G- IG22 ),
12-15; reasons for earl y emp has is in America,
15-17.

Ve rnacul a r school, first important, 8.
Virginiu, instruction in grammar, 31- 32.
Vi sua l and oral instruction, 14G- 119.
w·ard, Joseph, on absen ce or grammatical instruction in English, 24; value of English to masses, 59.
\\ro.fd, \Vi lliam, on memorizing rules, 115.
Wassa111acaw, S. C., first school teaching mother
ton gue "grammatlca.lly, 11 43.
\·Vn.lcrlnntl, 'William, teacher of grammar in South
Carolina, 31.
\Vatson, William, on sch ool In Charles ton, S. C., 60.
\Vcbstcr, Noah, rh etorical school in Hartford, Conn.,
77; textbooks, 77- 78.
\Ve il ~, \Villiom H. 1 on ornl instruction in gralillllar,
1-17- 148.

Woodbridge, William C., on study of grammar,
1'12- 143.

11

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