A

QI{AM~1AR

OE'

•

Tll~

ENG LISI-I LANGUAGE.
/.

DY

, _/

"\VILL I AM f.KWS:Ml'l1H, A. M.,
PRLNClPAJ, OF AN

ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL SCJIOOJ,,

AN~~~

EDGAR Af' ~INGER,
l'H.lNCll'AL 01" :GA.NE STU.EEL' G HAl\lMAlt SCllOOL.

\

. I
•·

J

./
(

PJIILA DEJ,PIITA :

S 0 W E R, 13 A R N E S & P 0 T T S,

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37 NORTH THIRD S TREET •

1 8 6 6.

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I

O·-

PREF A OE.

Entered, acco rdi11 g to Act of Congress, in th o year 1Sti6, by

SOW EH, JJAR N ES & rOTT S,
in the Clerk's Office of th e Distri ct Court of tho ~n i tcd Sla tes for th o l~u.stcrn
Dis trict of Peuusy hama.

BTERf.OTYrr.n JI V t •. JO H NSON k. co.
1' 1111,A Jll:l , l' lllA.
PlllN TE D UY KlNU & llAlRD.

SINCE th ere are nlrcacly numerous. works on the "Grammar of the
Eng lisl1 Lan g 11agc," not one of whi ch iRen Li rely without meriL, the question may well be n.~ked why another should be added to the number.
P erhaps the best reply to th is inquiry will be to specify those characteri~tic,.9 which, th e auLhors hope, will recommend this book to the
fa voraule c011sideraLion of their fcllow-teachel'S and of all others interested in the cause of educatio n.
They trn st. that the work will be found, on examination, to be plain
and practical, to be simple in its outl ines and in its detai ls, and to be
adapted e11ually to the class-room and to the study. Sueh at least is it<i
d e.~ign; and, with this co nstanLly in view, the authors' a im has been to
pursue a course mid way between th e extremes of prolix ity and conciseness. Th ey have desired t-0 say j'Ust enou.gh to make the subject plain,forth er to explain I hat cnongh by exampl es and mod els,- and still further to enforce it by numerous exercises involvi11g the prin ciples which
th ose cxerclses are designed to illustrate.
They have desired, by simplicity of arrangement, by clearness of statement;, by t.he avoidance of unn ecessary words, and by the absence of .
th eories and sp cnlations, to create in the mind of the pupil a consciousness that the 11rinciplcs oT th e language are not beyond his comprehension, and tli:1.l h>i can mtL~ter each prin ciple and it<i application as it comes
before him.
The usual di vision of Grammar in"to fou r parts is followed; and each is
treated of before the introdu ction of th e su cceeding part, because it is
be.Iieved to be the experience of th e best teachers that the pupil can acquire a know ledge of the subj ect more easily and more thoroughly by
having his atten tion directed to but one thing at a time.
In order to r ender t he work thoroughly progressive, nothing is anticipated wh en anticipation can possibly be avoided; and no part, or division, or subdivision, is introduced, without explanation or some reference
by which Ihe mint! of the pupil is prepared for its reception, until the
porLion 1111dcr present considcraLio n has been tlwronghl y trcat<:<l. 'l.'hns
til e pupil i, 011:1.hle.t to :id rnn cc intclligc nt.ly ; allll t.hc tcacl1 cr enj oys the
saLitifacliou of knowing LhaL his p upils understand what they are lea.ming.

3

I'RKFAUE.

4

In Orthography nr" given a sin1plc ex phumtion of lh€ nature and of
the classes nf let.ten:, aml t.he most imJ?ortant rules fm spelling simpl e,
d e riv ative, :uH I comp<>t1 1H1 >rnrds.
111 Etym ology , the <lill e rcut pnrts of ,:pcech nre given; th ~ir nature i s
expl:ti.ne<l; au<l their va.rions uses an1l appli calio11s arc ilh1,;t r:d ed. Th e
1H>n1C'ncl nl11.rc and th e an:mgern ent of the ten ses now hcco111i11g g<'11 cral ,
]1 a,·e L>et' n adopt c11; arnl th e nan1 es of th e part icipl es g ivc11 hy Jllr. Guo l1l
J ~ro\\' n h:ive been nse<l, bcenusc they arc co11sid c rc<l lo be sul' h as th e
11at11re or th e participles r eqnires,-the m ust l og ica l, and therefore the
L~L
.
Sy nlnx is introduced with explanations of f:en lences a nt1 of t.h<'ir different kinds and forms, - i11 whi ch th e id ea$ of f' irnpl e, co mpl ex, arnl l'omI'u1111c.l arc kept prominent., a.s in the trcnt.ment of wunls. Adi v i>< ion of th is
pa.rt int o A 11alysis and f>y nt hes is is t hen mad e. Th e portion as,;igncd lo
An :ilysi><, i11dudiu g the mm leis a n<l exercise', occupies about twc11ty !'":.\"" ;
th e 1\csig n bei11 g to present :t l'racli cal outlin e uf all t.h:it is Ill , o.;s:1ry to
a co mpl ete 1111derRtamling of th e sL1l1jcct. U11 dcr Sy nth c;;i;;, th e Hules of
Sy11L:.tx, wit Ii aC('Olllpan_v ing notes arnl c.x:crcis~, a.re giYl'll in a. forin well
ad :1plctl lo didacti e instrn clion , A lthough the :u1aly><is uf sc11tc11 C'L'H i,;
r cganle1l as of param ount importnuce, it h as lieen Jci't to t he discretion
of th e teacher wh ether p:irsin g a.11d analysi s shall Le t:u1 g li t together, or
wh ether th L')' sha ll he lallg ht sepa rately ; each forni,; a di sti11 d subj cd, iillt.
Luth arc 80 arrnuge<l th:tt an y puint i11 either 111:ty be readi ly co1rnu lted.
l'unctuali on is g ivc11 und er Sy ntax , because it. is inti111:it1· ly eon11cclcd
with scntc11 cef', mudil'y iug th eir u1 ~a11in g tu a ,·c ry g rc:it ex tent. l"or the
;;ame rc:~«on, Figures h:we bcc11 introdu ced nnc lcr th e sa111P h c:irl.
Prosod y, as its delini tiun and nse reci11ire, trcaLs onl y of \'c rse :tllll of
the quantity o[ sylhl1l e", of acce11t, and of the Jaws of ycr; ilication,
'\ Vith this bri ef sun 1mary, and with tha11ks to thof'C t~a c h c rs arnl others
wh o ha ve oflcred suggestions, the alllhors send fort h th eir work, hopi11g
that it m:iy be favorably reccivcLl, where other books, murc ,·oluminolls
or of a less practical charact er, have proved un satisfactory.

CONTENTS.
PA.OB

GnAMMAit,

9

Definition and Division

l' AR'l' L-OP.'l'lIOGRAPHY.

LF.TT1ms, Definition s

10
12
13
13
16

ttu d Classes of

Words
Sp•!llin g
Rules of
General Exercises iu

PART II.-E'l'YMOLOGY.

Cr•.~s s i;; s

17
17

" ' on ns
•
Parts of Spcc•ch, D efi niti ons of
No u NS, Classes o f
l'rope rt.ics of
OP

19
20
20
21
26
26
30
31
32
32
34
34
34
34
36
3·7
39
40

l~ umbc r

:normalion of the Plum!
l ei·so n
Goih:lcr
Case •
Declension of
Pa.r::i in rr

An el emcntnry work, desig ned
\\

course of preparation,
PUILADEJ,PllTA,

July 3, 1806.

rui

an introduction to this, is now in

"

l~ xcrc i sCs

in

PRONOUNS

Prnp ertics of
Cla ·ses of •
Personal
Compound P ersonal
ltc l:tti vc .
Compound Relative
Inlcr rugalivc .
6

!J•

7

CONTENTS.

CONTE NTS.

G

PAr.r.
ARTICLES •
Av.JE C'l'IVES

Classes of
Pronomi nal
Compariso n of •
VEHBS .
Oln.sses of, accord ing to meaning
Properties of .
Voice
llfo1le
T en so
Nnmbcr and Person
Participl es
Classes of, according to fornmtion
l'ri m:i pal Parts
Li st of Irrcguln.r Verbs
Defective .
List of
Auxilia.ry .
Co11j 11gation of
Au xiliaries
'J.'o J1e
To L ore, Acti \' e Voice,
'l'o J:ore, I'a~s i vc Voice
ProgressiYe 1''orm, 'l'o Learn
Intcn ogatiYc Yorm , To S ee
N "g:it.i re 1''onn .
N cga.LiYe-lnterrogativ c Form
ADVERB S

•

Classes or
Conjuncti\·e
Cnmp:uiso u of
Pnr.P OS ! TJONS

Classes vf
CON.JUNCTIONS

Classes •if
I w rim .1 EC'l'JON S
Classes ri f
·w 0 r1ls 11 se1l n.s di!Tcrcnt P:trls of ~pccd1
( :on4.!ral .~xcn ~ i :;1 ; :~ in ·Parfi i ll~

~2

PART III.-SYNTAX.

44

SENTENCES, Definiti on of .
102
Classes of, accord in g to use .
102
Classes of, according to form
103
Dh·isions of tlyntax
107
Analys i ~
107
Distinctions of Subj ec t and Predicate
109
Simple Snltiect an d Simple P redi cate
109
Compl ex Subject and Co mplex Pred icate
109, 110
Compound Subj ect and Compound P redicate
110
Exorcises on Subjects and Prod ica tes
111, 113
In dopendent Parts
114
QnrLlificati ons of Simple Subject
115
Qualifications of Qualifying Words
llG
Qu alifi cations of Si m.ple Pretli cato
11 8
Qualifi cations of Qualifying Words
119
Classification of P hrases
120
Cln ssifi cation of Dependent Clauses
121
Anal ys is of Sentences .
122
Ge neral Exercises in Analysis
12G
Sy nth esis
120

PAGE

44
45
47
50
51
52
52

53
55
5S
5S

Gl
Gl
61

GG
GG
G7
GS
GS
70
75
78
81

83
84

85
88
8\)

!JO
<JO
\l2
\l3
\l5

\l5
~l7

97
()8
liJO

"-

HCJ,ES OF SYNTA X

Rule I.-Suld cct of F inite Verb
H.u le TJ.-Nomina tiYe Case Ind ependent
Rn le'II L-Posscssi vc Case .
.
•
Rnlc I l .-Ohj cc ti vc Case .
R nl c Y.-~pp os iti o n .
•·
Rule VI.-Samc Case after Verbs
Rul e VII.-Pcrsoual Pronoun s
Rule VIII.-llclativc Pronouns
ll111c IX.-Ar tic lcs
R ui c X.-Acljcctives .
Ru ic XL-Pronominal Adj ectives
Ru ic XII.-Agrecme nt of l?iuitc Verbs
Rul e XIII.-Jnfini ti \·cs
lltilc X IV.-Par ticiplcs
llul c XV._.:._Adrnrb s
Rule XV L-Prcpos itions
Rui c XVII.-Conjunctions
l ~o il c XV HI.- Iutc1jcctions
Gcnernl Uulc

..

130
131
134
137
141
145
148
150
154
15!)
1G3
1G7
170
175
178
182
185

mo

1D5
195

CONTENTS.

8

J'A GY.

Cc nernl Exercises in F alse Syu tmi:
P UNCTUA TION

Period
•
In terrogation P oi!1t, Ex chnmtion P oint
Co lon, Semicolon
Comma .
Dash, Cun-es
Brnokets
Oth er l\Iarks u sed in Writing
Cn.p ihils
FIG URES

Cl:tsrns of
Fi p; nres of
l"i i;m es of
l' ip;ureR of
Fi g ures of

Orthogrnph y
Et y lll ology
Sy ntax
1U1etoric

HJ ~ )

208
208
20\l

210
211

A

21..i

GRAMM11-R

215
215

OF THE

21G
2l7
217
217

218
218
219

ENGLISI-I LANGUAGE.
GRAU.!IIAR

is the science which treats of the correct mie

of language.
PART IV.-PROSODY.

222

VER ' ll

i.

Kind s of
Vers ificati on
F ee t
Kinrl s of F eet
])e11omina.t ions of Verse
Sca.nuin g .
I:un biu V erse .
'J'rocha iu V e1·se
Ann.pestic Verse
]hct_y li c Verse •
Amphibrnic Verse
l\Ii xcd V crse
r ,1l'[ ie I' a uses

•

222
223
223
223
224
224

225
22G
22G
227

228
228
228

Science meuns the principles of so me brnnch of knowledge arranged
according to a regular syste m or ord er.
Language is t he meuus by whi ch human bein gs express their
thoug hts. La ng uage is either spoken or written.
E NGLISH GRA].L\IAR is the science which treats of the
correct u(~ of the Eugl ish laugnuge, both iu speakiug auJ
in writing.

En gliJ1 Grammar may be divided into four parts;and PROSODY.
Orthography treats of L etters, anJ teaches how to spell
corrccLly.
OnTHOG RAPHY, ETYM OLOGY, SYN'l'AX,

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify
them, aml shows their changes of form and meaning .
Syntax treats of S entences, and teaches how to construct
th em from words.
Prosody treats of Y erse, und tcacl1cs how to arrange
wonls ncconli ng to the princi plcs of V ersificatiou.
9

11

DIPll'l'lION GS AND TRlPlITIIONGS.

CLASSES OF L E'l "l'EltS-VO\VELS.

10

A.11 the other letters are consonants.
Ex Ii!

Jt

c l s E.-1\f onlion the vo wclB and tho conso11f't11hr in tho foll owing

wor<ls, au<l g i\'c the rca.sons:-Animn.l, muslin, gru.mmn.r, th ousand, m uu11ta.iu,

PAR'l1

Frnsrr.

Oltrl'HOG RAP HY.
I

1.

ORTJIOGUAPIIY

treats of L etters, and teaches how to

spell correctly.
Letters are particular marks or sig ns used to r epresent ce rtain
sound s uf the hunrnu voi ce.
Th e sou11dR of all word s in the En glish lan g un ge ctm he r cp~c­
scntcd l.Jy different curu\JimLtiou s of LJ.1C tw enty-six letters iu J(.S
al pha\Jct.

CLASSES or LETTERS.
Letters are divided into two classes ; Vow els anJ Consonants.

A Vowel is a letter which r epresents a simple, perfect
sound; as, a, c, o.

A Consonant is a letter whi ch rr.prcscnts a sonml whi ch
ca n be perfectly rn:ule onl y with the aiJ of a vowel; as, f,
k, j.
VOWELS.
A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect
son uJ.
Th e vowels are a, c, i, o, u, and sometimes w ~.ntl y.
w a nd y n.rc vowels wh en th ey cud a wor.d o~· 1t syll al.Jlc, or . n.rc
foll owed in t.l io ~ :i.rn o sy ll a.liln 11.v :.L \'O we! \l'ht ch JS m>t sounllctl, as
in s now, lowly, d!J e. In all oth er puR itiuns U1 ey arc cu11so n:tuts.

happin ess,

board,

sch ool,

bcw:trc, clw cll, yo u t h, d es tiny,

ari thmetic,
myrtle,

D ecember,

sympathy,

broa.<l, wonder,

kno.wlcclge,

lawye r,

strcngt.b, j ourney , phl egm, plague, weigh .

DIPH'l'JIONGS AND TltIPUTJIONGS.

\ Vhcn tw"'o vowels are usccl to represent one sound, they
form what is called a Diphthong; as oa in load; oi in voice.
Th ere are two kinds of diphthongs; Prope r and Im proper.
A l'roper Diphthong is qne in whi ch both vowels arc sounded ; as,
ou. i u mouse ; oy in joyjiil. There arc four proper diphthongs ; oi,
oii, oy , and ow.
An Improper Diphthong is on o in whi ch but one of th o vowe ls is
sound ed; :Ls, ea iu Lieat; eii in neuter .

\ Vh en three vowels arc useJ to represent 011c sound,
they form what is called a Tr.i phtlio11g; as, ecm iu beaitly;
. . .
iew rn view.
Th ere arc two kinds of triphthongs; Proper nnd I mproper.
A l'rop'. r Triphthong is ono in which all three vowels are sounded;
ns, ll Ofj it: unoy.
An Il!' j;roper Triphthong is one i n whi ch but one or two of tho
vowels a rc co\mdctl; as eye, antl iw in liell. The principal improper
triphthongs are, ien, eau, iew.

The consonant q is always followed by u; when so
pl acc<l, u is never considered as part of a diphthong or
a tri phtho11g.
E x E n c 1s E.-Mcnti on th e JJ>'op cr nncl th o i mp,.oper dip hthong• n1Hl
tho foll owin g wonls, n.ud givo tbo reaso ns :-1\fon.nin g .
empl oy, outset, Ucn.ut.y, th oug h, ploug h,' revie w, ch11ir, growlin g,

trlp ht!t o11ys in
liru,

slau g lit c r,

~ra c i o u s,

n ows,

hcrbace•Jus,

lc:l.rn,
oullic,

coast,
broad,

Lhicf,
heroes,

lo ud,
receiv e,

buoy ,

quoit,

ucca.u,

cy o,

Lcaus.

lJl VlSlON OE' \ \IOHDS-

CONSONANTS-Sy LLA 13LES -WUlWS.

12

SPELLING-RULES, E TC.

13

call ed a Dissyllable; as, truilifiil: one which eo11 ta i11 s
three sy ll au lcs is call ed a Trisyllable; as, untr-utliful: one
whi ch co nt ai ns m ore than three sylJables is called a Polysyllable; as, untrnilifulncss, incomrprehcnsiblc.

CONSONANTS.

A Consonant is a letter d1i eh represents a souml which
can be perfectly maLle o11ly w ith Llic aiLl of a vowel.
The conso nants arc divillcd into lwo classes; Scmi-vo1rcls and

,

.
l
I

Mutc8.

DIV ISION OF WORDS .

. Semi-vowels a rc l etters which c:in be imperfectly somH.lcd " ·ilhout
_

W onl s a rc diYirl cd accord in g to th eir fo rm ation into Simpl o, or
Coml'ound ; l'riri1itivc, or Der ivative.

_ th e a.id of a vo"·.cl ; as, c, .f, v, ?I·
l
7
l., 111 ' 1•"' r ' s' .v ' w' x ' .?J '. am , z..
:
They a1·c c so l·t, j', [/ so ['t·, tl·, J,
.
C has its so ft so u11u (the sonml of s) \Jcluru e, i , .wd y, Lcf01c

A Si~ple Word is one which is not form ed by uniting two or m ore
words u1· p:u-ts of word s ; as, hand, paper, fathe r.

oth er Jct.tcrs it ki s th e so und of k.
.
G lms its soft s11 uud (I he su uud of j) before c, i , a nd y; th ere arc,
b owC\·c r , so me cxccpl il•llS.
Four of the semi -vowels, l, in, n, and 1·, are calkd Liquids, on
account of thei r s mooth a ud !.lowin g so und.
Mutes nre letters whi ch can not Le so unded wiU10ut th e aid of a
vowel ; :i8, p, y, I, le.
'l'hey :1rc b, c \mnl, cl, g 11n.nl, k, p, q, aml t.

SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is

a

1ctter or

a m1111 lJet·

of letters, .which,
,

when u ttercll, form one so u 1nl; as, fm" a-Jar, com-mcnce.
of 'a word·, it a hYays
:i par t
·
.
s
"
,.
1
or
when
'
l'okcn,
a
vuwcl
Eu
um\.
,,.
oou t :. u n "' 0 0 · '
'

.A sy \bL\c nmy \Jc either n m •n \ or

A Written Word is a letter, or a number of letters properly cornuineLl, uscll as the sig n of some iLlc:t ; as, I, cla.y,

army.
A Spoken Word is a souml, or a combinati on of sounds,
u sed to express some idea.

/1. Primitive Word is one "·hich is fo rm ed from no other word, aml
is iu ils tfr ~t or simpl est form; as, sin, wincl, lady.

A Derivative Word is one " ·hi ch is fo rm ed from a primitive word
hy so111 e clrn11 p;c, or hy prefixing or suffi xin g a11oth er sy llau lc or
word ; as , si11J'1tl, wi11d!J , lady-like.
Ex

1•:

n c 1 s E.-T cll to whi ch of the nbove di vision s cnch of th e fo ll ow ing

word s belo ngs, and g ive th o reaso n :-Ilrcakfast, fl eetness, sp ice, lorcr,
wi thin, unc;u;t· , sclf- lnu g: h t, teach, statcsmn.n, write, movable, prcs itl c ut,
circl e,
~c r tnin,

pri ~o n

ship, cnpy i11 g,

u ~c ful,

store-h ouse, citizen, ch ief,

h arwcd,

prl.!t, pcnma.n, outl aw, evergreen, star-gazer.
/

WORDS.
I

..,

A Compound Word is one whi ch is formCLl by th e uni on of tw o or
more ·i111pl c words; as, hancl-ina.cltine, newspaper. The words furmiug a co m pound are sometim es connected by the hyphen ( - ) ; as,
j l1tlter-i n.-law.

.

'Vords a r c n:uncd acconliu:; t.o tl1c number of Ey lhtblcll wh ich th!ly
contain.

A wo rd whi ch contain s one i:;yll able is ca ll e<l a Monosyllable; a~, /nt,lh: one \1· !i ·1c I ' con t :t 1' 11s. Lw o S) · lbules is

SPELLING.

Spelling is tl1 c art of' comuining lcLters properly, to fo rm
sylla b ics and wor<ls. This art is Lest learn ed from spellingLoo ks, L1iL:tiouari cs, and from habits of observation in
reading.
RULES OF SPE LLING.
J\I oNO SY L r-AnLEs.- 1. The final letter of a mon osyllable cn,]ing
wi Lh f, l, or s, preceded by a sin gle vowel, is uou bled; as, nmj) ; bill,
moss.
2

ca

HULES OF SPELLING.

HULES OF SPELLlNG.

14

2. 'fhc fin al letter of a. mon osy llabi c ending with any other con·
sonant is n ot doublcJ.; as, bar, rag, rod.
ExcEP'l' I ON s. - Clej; if, of, nil, sol; as, gas, ha s, was , yes, his,
i:s, us, pns, thus; ebb; add, odd; egg; inn, bmm; burr, err ; blltt;

bllzz, }tizz.
correct all fa lse ortl10gra phy :-1\lil,
fil,

nd,

2. In worLle ending with s ilent e, e is g enerally ret11ined on receivin g
n s ulli x beg innin g with a consonant; a s, dire, d£r<ifiil; care, careless.
'l'hc fol lowing words a.re exceptions :-Abn:dgment, acknowled!]-

ment, argument, jiidginent, duly, truly, awful, nursling, wisdom,
wholly.
Ex

Ex Enc 1 8 E.-A pply tho rul e for spellin g each of tho foll owin g worcl s, antl
n odd,

pas,

fu z,

pur,

uss,

mis,

cg,

b ass,

clef,

cnr r,

was,

robb,

hill,

wa.r.

tel,

fi z,

15

1-: It

c 1 s E.-Apply th o rul o in forming onch of th e following words :-

Sufli x h 1y

or ed to

1

.ge, un tie, h oe, die, dye, si ng, singe, budge ; ab le

to se rvice, nrn.nagc, pcaee, charge, notice, chan ge ; ib ltS to force, · sense, ro'terf'o ; mc 11 t

to refin e, commence, n.d v:n ce, induce; ly to wi<lo, snfc, ru de,

sa go, c:igo r.

i

DounLING 'l'Hll FINAL CoNSONANl'.-1. 'fbefinal conson:int
of a rn ono8y ll:ible, or or a w ord acccHlcd ?n the l:ts t "Y_ll:ih l,. cHd 1n:.;
,vith :i sin gle cmiRo nant prccmlcd by a Rtn glc vowel , i s doubl ed on
r cecivin fl' a. su!Tix. 1 rn~ inni11 g w ith u. vowel; a s, hot, hotter; occ ur,

,.,

..

oc('lirring · triw.'ifa, trw1.~/ c 1T111y.
2. 'fh~ ' fiua l couso nant is not doubled, if it is not preceded_ ~>Ya
sin g le vowel, if it is lJl'CCeLIC<l by l>HO or n1 ur ? _con su11a11 t~, or if Ui ~
acc<' n t is Hot 0 11 th u h ot sy llabl u; as, lu il, tu1l111g; su u nd, so 1in1ltd,
d iOi.,. 1li Ocrent.
· Fii:al ~ i s n ever doublet!, heing; cqui\'al c nt to th e t 1rn co11 somint H
k s or gz ; a s, fi x , fi xed; tax, loxiug.
.
.
.
.
The spellin g of derirn.tirns from words et1tl1n g with s111 g;lc l •H
. . .· oble
Su mo writers doubl e th o l C\' Cll in word s uot acce11l e 1l on
' ,t 1 1'"
. '
.
I'
th e last sy llable ; while others stri ctl y fol lmv tho rnle. 1t is pre ern.iJl c lo fulluw the general rule ; as, tra vel, traveler.

\Y oRDS ENDING WI'l'II Y.-1. In words end ing with JI prceednd by a con son1111t, JI is changed into ion receiving one or m ore
suflixeJ. let ters or sy llabi cs; as, try, tries ; lii•ely, liveliest.
Y is not changed into i before t he tenni1rntion ing; as, dry, d rying; iely, relying.
2. In words e'nding wi th ?I preceded by n vowel, y is r et.ained on
r ece iv ing one or more sufli xcd lutturs or sy I laLlcH; as, money, mon eys ;
j oy, jo.1lfiil ; pa JI, p ayable.
P a.id Crom 7>aJ1, la id from lay , said and saith from say, staid fr om
slay, aud daily from day, arc excepti ons.
F.x1>. n c r SE.-Apply tho rul e in fo rmin g en.ch of tho foll owing worcls :Suflix cd Lo pry, deny; c• lo la.<l y, dry, fan cy, try; ly ~o greedy, ln.zy, day,

hun g ry, s teady ; iny to roly, a ll y, cry, defy, 011j oy, pay, obey; ish to buy,
grny; cd lo convey, employ, m•ylny, p rcpo.y.

Ex g nc 1 s E.-Apply the rule in formin g each of Lhc following words:Suffix eel to tnp,
't

qu1

. •t

1

t COllll ,

i s t to novel,

ta.x,

sh ed

•

tut,

t

in cur,

drip

J

algoUra.,

inter,

shoo t·
'

hum or;

rclrca.t.,

er to cool,

e nter ;
loud,

e nt to excel,

iug to so und, ncmix , Iulw r;

w ork,

dcpcud,

concur.

endinn- with silent e, e is gcner11ll y omitted
o
F I N' Al• EJ . -1 • Ill Wor(]s•
receivin g 11 suffix beg inning with a vowel; a.s, move, mo vable;

011

.
.
love, loved; able, abler.
In words ending with ce or ge, e is retained b efor e termmat1on s
b egiunin g with a, 0 , or u, in ord er to preserve the soft sounds of c
and g; as, trace, traceable; courage, co 11rageo1_ts.
.
In words endin g ,\·ith ie, e is omitted and i chan ~ecl 11~t? JI bcfo~o
tho terniinati ou in!], in order to prevent the doub)lll g of i; as, tw,
t!J 1:11y; belie, belying .
.E is r ctai noel in dye, sin(Je, sp1 inge, swi11_qe, tinge, hoe'. shoe, and
toe, bel'ure tlic Le rn1iuttliou io.y; 118, d!Je,dyein!] ; shoe, slioewg.

\V o R]) s END IN Gr WI'!' n A Dou n I.E LET TE R.-In w ord s endin g wi th a ny uuubl c letter except l , the double letter is rcta.iued on
rece ivin g a suffix which docs not commence with the same le tter;
as, p1!ff. puffing; careless, carelessly.
Ex

P.

n c 1 s E.-Apply the rule in formin g each of the following word s:-

Suffi x 111y Lo witness, purr, buzz; ly t o full, stiff; es to pass, dross, m oss ;

est to Lall , dull, gross.

C oir POUN DS.-In comprmnd word s, th e simple words from whi ch
th ey nro fo rm ed arc gc nernlly spelled in the same mann er as wh en
nlone ; a.s. scaop·net, blne-ey ed, payinasler.
In wMrl R cnt!iu g with ll, one l is often dropped wh en forming part
of a co mpoullll or d erivative word; a s, all, also ; till, unti l; exc:e pt
allspice, :i1ul [' few others.

I
't

'f

l

I

RUL~;s OF Sl'J<;l.LING-E.X.Elt<.CJ SES.

1G

Ex Enc 1 s E.-Apply the rule in forming eneh of Lh o following wonls : Suffix full t o Ein, cnp, pla.y; prefix all to might.y, so, wa.y s, spice.

'Vrito

r

compounds from 7>c1t an<l k111j'ej heart and felt; CJ.IC and s·i ght; snlt auU

cellai-.

I

I

l<'orm rtnd write Len other compou nds.

J:~ n .u , Ex E It c 1 s E I.-Apply tho rules in the corrcctiori of the

GEN

following words:-

cxprcs in g, staf, stifnc~B,

8pil,
n ovcllist,
ting,

drumcr, payccl,

di c ing,

sprigy,

mixxing,

coun sell o r,

joiful, od,

l1 olyncss, arriveu.1, cry cd,

thin er, bcn.tling, 1Tholcly,

p onn<ldcd, . ch argn.hlo,

biass ing,

shn.morull,

ca.rpct-

h oin g, eying,

bcl-ringcr,

acquiti11g, rcc ruitting , boi llcll,

infcrrcn cc,

P AR'r

I
\l

SECOND.

E T Y J\1: 0 L 0 G Y.

I

m outhful\, p eacable, h otcst, jud gement, impel cd, <l efyed, allso, stca1\y ly,
until\ , notie:ible, inducment, stmlys, va\lics, eensless, witt.y ly,
brntc ish,
GENE

m ovca.blc,
n

A 1,

army s,

rcas onncr,

scnsciblc,

wellfarc,

bcnofitlcd.

Ex 1' itC 1 s g I I.-Corrcct tho spelling in the following sen-

tences, nm! npply th e rul e for each cor rection:Artfull prnctices sh ould be a vo ide d. Ne,·cr expect t o obtrtin true hnppyn css wi t h ou t Yirt11e.

The 1·n.lli cs nmo n g those cbccrlcs m ount a in s are 11 ot

ufLt·n vi sit.led by the r nics of th e su n.
s h a ll ha.vo arr ivc11.

I cnn n ot go un t ill tho cx prcs-train

Th e surl y fellow answered grufly to m y pla yful! rcma.rk.

The s oldi e r 1l isplnid grcn.t conra.ge on lh c b:dLlc-li cld .
s11pplycd wilh

whol ~omo food.

Tho a rm JS were wt.:l l

Th o :ugnemcnt of tho ln.wycr proved tho

sha.mrfull con<l11cl of the pri soner.

Bn.d hcginings somtimcs e nd in succcs .
1

'l'h c n•gn c ish boics wr rc caugh t s tc:tlling th e n eigbbor s a.pplcs.
" 1c ca 11 n ol injur~ oth ers without injurein g oursch ·es. Tho comm itco refu sed to f' ig n the bill which wa.H rcfcred to th em.
quiled the soldier of the charge of de•crtiou.

The rccrui.lt in g officer a cAlthough h o wrts th e hum-

])\ccst of tho unhn.ppy r1u ccn's foll owers, ye t h e rem:i.iun e<l f:iilhfu l until!
the lasl moment

Our chim11ics n.rc vory smolrny in winrl.Jy wcathl'r.

pa yed n o n.lfcntion lo his
1.

~pclin g he wass unn.blo t o

As ho

ri <=c in his clns.

ne

cn.rcf111 to Ehunn the co mpnny of th e si ll y nncl vicciou s. A spent U:d wonndcd

tw o olllcers of bi.s slf!.f whi le i::ta 111ldin g n c:i.r him.

'!'he baltlo which fol-

l owed wn.s one of the blooclycst of the w:i.rr.
Truthfullnes is better than mere rcfinment of mn.nncrs.

.

.t

llis p~ln css wns
altributcn,blo to hi s exccsive fright. Da.yly ucw"papc rs were a grc:tt rnrity
n hundred years ngo. D elaies n,rc usualy dangerous. 'J'h c culprit w ns relieved of hi s b auclcufs.

l"locks of wild turh:ics are now sclcl om seen.

"mai er ot' Lho two h ook s is Lo t,c prd<·ro<I.
m ountn.in s.

ETYMOLOGY treats of TVords, teaches how to classify
them, aucl shows their changes of form ancl meaning.

'l'hi s

g l o r)' Oll S IH' WS

You n.ro

j11 cxcnsc:i.h1 e for mii.kein g sueh mistak es a.s these. Carlcsncss is nllways doscrviug of censure.

To Inflect words is to change their forms, so as to show their relations to other words. (See pages 31, etc.)
To Derive words is to trace them from their primitive forms and
111eaninn-s.

" is at prese nt necessary to be known of the ori gin and of
All that
the dilfere11t forms of words,, bas been given und er "Divisions of
·words." (See pa ge 13.) Fu!;.her information must be gained from.
Looks ou this subject, as it can not be fully treated of in grammar.
CLASSES _()F WORDS.
vVor<ls are <liviclccl into uine classes, called Parts of
Speech.

The Parts of Speech are the NouN, the PnoNouN, the
tli e ADJECTIVE, the VEirn, the ADvmm, the
PHE POSITION, the CONJUNCTION, and the INTERJECTION.

Au'l'ICLE,

The

Clouds envcloppc<l th e to]JS of the

h as fullfilc1l our hi g hcs.t. b opC's.

·words are Classified, Inflected, and Derived.
To Classify words is to arrange them in .cbsses according to their
mettning and use. (See below.)

DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing;
ns, Jl -asliinylvn, connlry, bcciuly, soul.
2'' '

17

.. '

,,,.------

18

DJ':FlNI'fIO NS OF THE !'ARTS OF SPEECH .

CLASS J<;S OF K OU NS-DIVISIONS OF CO!lf!IION N OUN S.

19

A Pronoun is :i. w0nl ·used in place of a 1101111; as,
"llcury loves his boo ks ; he studies his lessons well."

·1

.1

An Article is th e worJ the, or a or an, which is placed
before a noun to limit its meaning ; as, 'l'he sl.'tr; ci house ;
an insect.

NOUNS.

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun
or a prononn; as, A sweet apple ; many books; "He is
good."

A Noun is a word used as· the name of any thing;
as, J ames, Anna, boy, girl, river, truth.

A Verb is n, word used to assert action, bein g, or state;
as, "James runs."-" He does nothing."-" H e is a good
Loy."-" 1-Ic sleeps."
An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an adj ective, or another ad verb; as, "He is very industrious:
a 11<l ad vances rapidly in his studies."
A Preposition is a word placeJ before a noun or a pronoun to show its relat ion to so me precedin g word; as,
" The boy went with his father to the library."
A Conjunction is a word used to connect the word::;, the
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is
placed; as, "He is patient cind lmppy, because he is a
Christian."
An Interjection is a word used in excl amation, to ex press some emotion of the mind; as, I-Ia ! p shaw! alas !
'l'wo or mor e of these par ts of speech :ire al ways userl. in cornbinat.ion to form a sentence ; one of th ese must be a (finit e) verb.
A Sentence, then, is two or more won.ls 80 combin ed as to make
co mpl ete se nse.
Sentences constitute di stinct and se parate portions of spoken or
,rri ttc n lan gu:i.gc.
Largr r portions of written language composed of two or more
Re ntc n cc~ arc call ocl paragraph..~, cha11ters, etc. Ono sentence, however, nrny some time~ coustitute a p:iragraph.

·w ords used ns the n n.ru es of letters, words, fi gures, signs, etc., are
noun s ; aR, " E is a V'1="Ji."-" 'l'he tis not crossed."-"+ indicates
adui tion.''-" G?od is an adj ective."

CLASSES OF NOUNS.
N vuns are dividecl into two general classes; Proper
and Common.

A Proper Noun is a word used as the name of a particuhi: o l~j eet or collection of o~j cct.s, to di stin gui sh it from
oLlicrs of the same class ; as, J ohn, Troy, Ohio, the Alps.
A Common .Noun is a wortl used as the name of any
obj ect or col lcction of obj ects of the same class; as, man,
city, r iver, mountains.
A noun is call ed Corr.plex, when it is forn'.·ed of two or more words
not unit ed, used toge th er ns a name ; as, Dead Sea, Ckief Justice
Jllarsli.all, Dnke nf )JTcllin,'}ton.
A noun is called Compound, wh en it is form ed of two or more words
uni ted, used as a name ; as, statesman, landlord, man-of-war.
Ex F. n c 1 s F. .-Tcll to which cla•• en.ch of tho foll owin g 110""' belon gs,
1tn•l g ive t ho r eason :-Willi:un Sb akspcare, isln.nds, word, North A"mo-,
ricn, .Jul y, sen.son , y ear, l.., rin co · Albert, S ir J ohn Franklin, m 1Ln4
enter, army, Poto mac, bnll oon, soldi er, n.d\·crb, Pres ident
nnim al, .Jo w, pathw ay, tho Bahamas, tho Jew s, foeman .

l\I onroc,

CLA SS E S OF COM MO N NO UNS .

Common nouns n.rc so metim es divided into four classes; Collective,
VcrlJaJ, AlJ ~ trnct, nm! Diminutive.

FUIU!ATION O.F TUE PLUUAL.

A Collective Noun is n word used as the nam e of :t coll ecti on o f
beiugs or of thin gs, regrtrded a s a unit; as, family, herd, class.

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

A Verbal Noun is a form of the verb which is trned as th e name of
an action or of a state of bein g . It always ends with ing ; as, read-

N ouns generally become plural by the suffixing of s
to the s ing ular; ns, sing . hoinc, plur. homes ; lccy, lccys ,·
1·ose, roses ; clock, clock.s ; carnco, cameos.

i11g, writin,r/, sleepin!J·
A Ve rbal noun is frequently called a Partici pial noun.

An Abstract Noun is a word u sed as the n:tme of a qnalit,_y belonging to an obj ect ; a s, reclness, heat, wisdom. 'l.'his quality is
always cousitl er cd apart from the objcd which po ssesses it.
I·

21

PHOPE.R'rrns OF NOUNS-NUMBER.

20

A Diminutive Noun is rt word used as the name of rm obj ect which
is s nrnlle r thau its primi ti ve; as, flower, jlowerct ; hill, hillock.
ExEnc ISE.-Toll to which class of common''°""' c:ich of tho fallowing
belong s, nnll give the rcu.son :-Tca.ching, circlet, grcn.lncss, fl ock, l ca.flct'7
grou p,

happin ess,

ma.uikin,

du cklin g,

purity,

water,

strcamkt,

co11g:rcss,

school,

sr1un.d rou,

meeti ng,

coro net,

swimming,

truth,

g lobul e,

ig n oran ce,

hon-csty,

n :il ion,

l yi ug,

swn.rm,
ri vulet,

honor.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

Property, in Grammar, means a peculiar quality belongin g to a ny part of speech.
Nouns have four properties ; Number, Person, Geuder,
a11<l Case.

NUMBER.

Number is tl1at property of a noun which denotes whether
one m· .m ore than one object or collection of oLj eds are
111 c:111L
Nu 1111s have two numbers ; t.l1e Singular and tl1 c l'lural.
The Singular Number denotes one object, or. a collection
of obj ects considered as a unit; as, desk, bench, nation,

jlrck.
Th e Plural Number denotes more than one ohjcct or collection of object<;;; as, desks, benches, nation.~, flocks.

This rnl e a lways rtpplies to n oun s ending with o, u, or y, imm e<l in.tc ly pre ceded by a vowel; as, bay, ba11s; trio, trios; purlien,

p111·lieus.
No un s Mdil)g with ch (not so und ed rts le), s, sh, x, or z, become
plnrnl by the s uffi x ing of es to 'th e sin gu lar; rts, bunch, bunches; gas,

ga ses ; sash , sashes ; fox, fox es ; waltz, waltzes.
No un s end in p; with y i111m cdir1tc ly preceded h y n con sonant, hec11111e pl11rnl by the c h:t np;e of .y in to i and t he sullixing of es.; ns,

s/1.:ly, studies; arm!f, armies.
Some nouns cu <liu g with sinp;l e f or .fe, become plu ral h y tho
ch:tn p;c off into v arttl t he suffixing of es; a s, lije, lives ; thfrj;
tldel'es.
These n ouns :ire beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf,
tld\ {, 1colj, knife, li;fe, wije.
Other n ouus end in g w ith si n g le for fe, become plurnl by the
general rule; but whaif lrns two form s of the plurnl, wharfs a nd
whan:cs.
Nouns enrlin g with .ff. become plum\ by th e general rul e; ns, m1~f!;
:i cn.n e, h u.s staccs for the plural; its cu m
pound s, how ever, hcume plurnl by the s utli x iu$ of s only; us, jlag-

nii!fls; hut st«f!; moanin g
sll!/fs, rUslf1:f!s.

I~

No un s emlin g with o preceded by a con so nrtnt, ·differ in the formnti on of the plum!.
Some become plural by the sullixittg of cs;
others by th e s uffi xi ng of sonly: the former m ode is preferable.
'l'h e following beco me plurnl lJy tho su!Tix ing of es: barricado,

bravado , b1!flcilo, calico , cargo, despercido, echo, .fianii.Jlgo, hero, mango,
ma111fcsto, 111.olto, umlcitto, ncgro, potato, stiletto, tomato, tornado,
viror10, :in1l :t few others.
'.L'li e foll ow in p; commo nly become plnrnl b y the s uffi x in g of sonly:

arm.adillo, crmto , cenfo, d11.odccinw, grotto, halo, junta, memento, octavo,
piano, 7i0dico, quarto, rotu.ndo, sal,vo, sirocco, solo, tyro,_zcro, aud a
few other s.
Wh en proper noun R become plurnl th ey follow t he analogy of
cnm1non ll O tlll R: n.R, n rilliam. 1Yilliwns; Adams. Adamses; Carolina ,

Carulinas; Ca.to , Catos .

,,....

,,
I

~

i

'
i 1'

I

'I

H
It
·I

FOHJIIATION OP THE PLURAL.

'l'he formation of the plural of proper n oun s ending wilh y prec eded by :i consonant, is not ~ettlcd. Some writers suflix s to ((1rm
th e plural; others follow the rul e for common noun s ; :is, lle nry~ or
IIw ries ; 1llarys or Maries: the btter moue is preferable.

In.st, h:ivo th e Ii rn t p:irt made plural; 11s, commander-in-chief, com1nanders-i11-cltief; luolcer-on , lookers-on; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp.
Compounds which ha ve n.11 their parts of equal importance, or
whi ch 11re tak en fr om for eig n l:mp:uugcs, become plum\ lik e simpl o
words ; as, pianoforte, pianojortes; sine-qmi-non, sine-qua-nons.
Some compound nouu s h:ive both parts plural; as, man-ckild,
men-ch-ildren; woman-singer, women-singers.
All nouns ending with t.hc syllable man are not compounds of tho
word" mau ;" as, J.'u rcoman, German, talisman, Ottoman, etc. 'l'hcsc
become plural bf the sulli xiug of s.

E x

E

n c 1 s B.-Spcll tho plural of eaoh of tho following nouns, a nd g ive

tho rulo:-

l\I on E L.-Lady.-Tho plum.I of lady is lad ie s; according to tho rule,
" No uns ending with y preceded by" consonan t, become plural lly tho change
of y into i rwd LLio suffi x ing of cs."

:Folio, crutch, clnss, p ia no, brush, sex, topaz, sentry, monarch,
Jo,.f, chief, s t.r ifo, tipst:ilf, puff, cali co, fife, r oof, tom :Lto, 1111iz, tax,
stutlio, chiu1n cy, echo, essay, c~uto, factory, grief, tlisticli, w ife, shelf,
s urf, scratch, st:iff (a body of •!Oiccrs), colloq uy, buoy, Virginia, Venu s,
I'·

23

FORM.ATlON OF THE PLURAL.

22

Noro, Allcghuuy , Jlbry, W olsey, Charles, Sicily.

Ex E It c r s E.-Fo rm the plural of each of t ho f ollowing compound " """"'
ruHl a.p ply the rule:- Coo.chful, l andlady, mnjor-gonoral, ox-chain,
maid -o f-a.ll-w ork,
g oosc-fcnthcr,
step-son,
sister-in-ln.w,
ha.ager-on,

ntLurncy-gcncrnl, do-little, tooth-brush, so.Jes-woman, statesman, knighterr:int,

J

cnny-:t-lin er,

man -of-war,

' i''

va.c.le-mccmo,

chimney -sweep,

a.ltlen11nu, boo t-mn.ker. club -foo t,
hair- dresser, orrn.nd-boy.

fac-totuw,

IIlllE GULAlt FOP.MATION OF THE PLURAL.

The following nouns have irregular plurals : Siua.

I'lur.

m en.
l\Ian,
child ren.
Child,
'\Voman, " 'Olll Cn .

Sin!J.

l' llir.

Fuot,
'l'ootb,
Ox,

fe et.
t eet h.
oxen.

Sing.

Goose,
L ouse,
l\Ionsc,

'fIIE PLURAL OF COlllPLEX PROPER NOUNS.
Plur.

geese.
li ce.
mi ce.

The following nouns have both regular and irregular
plurals, but with diilcrent meanings :Sing.

B rother,
Di e,
Genitrn,
Ind ex,
P enny,
P ea,
Cow,
Sow,

R rgnlar· l 'lura l.

brothers (<!/a family),
di es (stamJIS for coi11ing),
p;c niu scs (711,en of gmius),
ind exes (tables of reference),
penni es (co ins),
p eas (see<ls ),
cows ( indioidual animals )'·
sows ( ind'ividu al animals),

] rJ'f'!]lllar I'lurul.

brethren (of a society).
dice (11locks fo r gam-iuy) .
gen ii (spirits) .
iudi cc~ (cx11u11e11!s ).
pence ( am.onnl o.f value) .
pcasc (lite species) .
kin e (the kiml).
swine (the kiiid).

PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOU NS .

Compound noun s in which t he first p:irt d escr ibes the ln.st, h:ivc
th e In.st word rn:t<l c plural; as, .fiehl-ino use, .field-mice; f ellowserra.nt, fcllow -serranls; statesman, statesm en.
The compound uuuus in which the lirst p:irt is ucscri\Jcd by ll1 e

7
'\\ hcn :i complex proper nouu, with or without :i title prefix ed , is
uscLl in r eference to :i class of indi vidn:ils, it beco mes plural, :iucl the
sign of the plurnl is suflixcd to tho Ins t word only; :is," '!'he Sir Isaac
l{ewlo ns of every scicuee."-'"l'hc Oliver Croniwclls of history."
Wh e n a title is prefix ed to a proper noun used :is the n:im e of
mor e th:in one individual, the ti li e is made plura l; as, 'l'he
srs.
Smi t h; the 1lfisses Janvi er; the D octors Rush .
'\\Then :i title is comm on to 11evcrnl different 1rnmes, th e titl'l is
ni;td c plurnl; n.s, Messrs. Sower, Barnes a nd Potts; Senaivrs Cby
nml W ebstc r.
Wh en a d efinite uumbcr of indi1,idu:i.ls of the s:imo name ll:)ld
titl e is m entioned, the nam e only becomes plum!; as, 'l'he three
l\Iiss Brownings; t he two Docto r l'arrisltes; the eig hteen King
L onises of l!'rnnec.
Wh en the title is Mrs., the n:imc is always plural; n.s, 'l'hc l\lrn.
Joneses.
' Vhcu two titles com mon to scvernl names and of equal importa nce
arc prefixed, lioth titles beco me plural; as, 'l'he Lords Cominissionen;
Itnssdl n.nu Nurth.

it·

Ex E

nc 1 s

E.- G ivc the prnpc,. form of t ho pluml of tho following com.-

rfr.t: 21 rop er nouu s :-O cncral Scu~t autl 'l'uylor; Lor<l N or th and

'\

l tusscll;

Coun cilor

Hunt :ind llr:iily; tho Alc:rn.ndcr Jl:w1ill on of lho d:iy; lho

J\l rs. Thonrns ; lho Miss Slewarl.
"
G ivc Lhc proper form for the following 1·n co rr cct vlurals :-I he te n Popes
Leo;

Ih o lwo J(ings Ch:irl es of Jfoglnn <l ;

Misses llrowu;

l ho J\Irs. ll"ll;

Miss Jane and l\l ary J3rowu;

25

FOJUlATION OF TUE PLURAL.

FUUlllA'L'lON OF 'l'll.J<; l'J ,U I: ,\ L.

lho lh rco

tho l\li ss Jamcses.

Siugulm·.

Plu.ral.

Oasis,
Parenthesis,
P l1 enomenon,
R adiu s,
Stimulus,

Singular.

O!tRCS.
parentheses.
phcuurncna.
ra<lii.
stimuli.

Stratum,
'l'enninus,
Th esis,
Vertebra,

P lural.

strata.
t erm ini.
theses.
vcrtebrro.

'l'llE l'L URAL OF FO l\.EIGN NOUNS .

J3y foreig n noun s nrc meant th ose '.tdopt.cd ~1:o m foreign, 1.~n~n,~gcs :
Surnc foreign noun s, havin g come mto f111n1lmr use, h.11 c r e"'uli11
En g lish plurnl s a s well as their ori g i1rnl plurnls.
Th e fu ll o1~ in g aru th e wost co11111um : J>tu.ral.

Si11gula1·.

] la Hd it,
B eau,
Ca.ctns,
Chcruh,
Enco 111 i u111,
Fu11gttR,

Gy 111nasium ,
!llcLl i urn ,
l\lc1n orandmn,
Seraph,
Slam en,
Virtuoso,
I

•'

I

c nr.or11iu111 R1 cncu inia.

gy1nnnsi un1 ~ , gy 111na 8itt.

1ncd ium f-' , 111 cdia,,
1n c1n or a nJ u 1 11 ~, 111 c m oranda..

seraphs, se raphim.
struncns, st:1n1in a.
virtuosos, virtuosi.

Si11a11lar.

J'lnral.

alumu m.
nlumui.
amn nuen ses.
n.nalyRcS.
u n ti theses.
n.rcnnn..
nxes.
]J:1 ReS .
crises.
dab.
d1•Ri•lomta.
d ia:rcSP,S.

plurnl in id ea a nu fo rm, are r egarded as singular only.
'\ 1' hen different kinds of thin gs weigh ed or m easured arc meuti o11 e1l , the pln rnl form may be u Red; n.R, sugars, teas, wines.
'l'h e nouns alms, molasses, news, arc sin g ular only.
So me u oun s are u sed in the plum.I number only. The most
co111 mo11 n.re annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle,

clothes, drugs, goods, manners, measles, 11101·als, nuptials, oats, s]Jectacles, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages : al so the names of things
co nRisting of two part,s ; n.s, compasses, pincers, pantaloons, tongs,
tweezers, trowsers, scissors, scales.
NOUNS HAVING 'l'BE SAME FORM IN BOTH NUMBERS .

1\f""t foreign "·on i8 uRc<l as uJ"ng l'1s11 no.un s s t'1ll r etain th eir origi n:d plurnls ; a tll l•ng these :uc th e folluw111g:Alumna,
Alumnu s,
.A nw.1111onsis,
An:tly Ris,
Aulilh cs is,
Arcauum,
J\ xis,
lb s is,
CriR is,
D:tlurn,
D os illern I nm,
Dia:resis,

Some llOUl)S are u sed In the sin g ulnr number only. Such are 'abs trnct nouns; the names of metiils, virtues, vices, arts, and sciences,
and of things w eigh ed or m eas ured; as, goodness, gold, wisdom~ ~ ·

trn lh. idleness, s111·gery, geometry, su!Jar; fl our.
'
Names of scien ces enuing with ics, as conics, optics, etc., though

lmmlits, bamlilti.
beaus, bc:u1x.
c:u:tuses, cacti.
cl1 crubs, ch erubim .
focu ~es , loci.
fun gusos, fun1-?;i.

:Focus,

NOUNS NO'l' USED IN DO'l'H NUMBERS.

Sin!J1tlHr.

Etlluviu1u,
Ellipsis,
Emphasis,
Erratu1n,

Ge nu s,
U yput h e~ i s ,

La.rvn.,

l\I:ulnm,
l\la g u ~,

J'llfral.

clll n via.
ellipses.
emphases.
errata.
gc ncrn.
h y potheses.
J:i.n'CC.
mcsd:unos.
n1:lgi.

l\f etrtmorphusis, m c lamorp·h oses.
l\lonsicur,
m o"i enrs.
Ncbulri,
11cb nla:.

Somo nouns h ave th e same fon" in both numbers; as, deer, fish,
series, sheep, trout, vermin, etc. ; so also nouns denoting a. number or
coll cctifln; as, hnndrcd-weight, couple, dozen, gross, head, pair, score:
th ose "·or<ls may have a plum! form; :ts," Dozens of gloves were sold."
. Also su ch words as amends, means, riches, cannon, sail, etc.
'l' bese word s are sin gular if preceded by a word denoting but 0116';
plu ral if preceded by a word d enoting a number more than one.
·when other parts of s peech are used as n ouns, th ey become plural
like noun s 'Yi th similar endings; as, "'l'he ins and outs of office."
Letters aud sig ns u sed as noun s become plural by the suffixing of
the apostrophe (') and s ; as, 'l'he a' s and l/ s ; th e 6's and 7' s.
Ex 'Fl nots A.-N n.mo enoh

11011n

in the following sentences, and the clas•

to which it belongs; tell its 1111mbe,., and givo the reason :-A soft answer
3

PEI:SON-GENDER.

26
tnrn oth nwn.y wrnth.

GENDER.

N onns have three gen ders; the Mn.s~ulin e, the F eminine,
aJHl t he Neuter.

W e, th o peopl e or th o Un ilell S late ~, resolve . Goo r go

Wnshington comm a nd ed th o Americans 11.t tho b:illlcof 13rnndywinc, SepL 11 ,
li 77.

It is t ho du ly of c hildren to ohcy their pa.rents.

out education i.s Hko mn rhl o in tho qua.rry.

\ 'i

nro in a riYor of Urn so.mo name.

i,

"

Th e Feminine Gender is th at which denotes beings of the
fema le sex; as, molhel', queen, hind.

'

I"

I

Tl1c Masculine Gender is that whi ch denotes beings of the
mal e sex; as, fath er, king, slag.

Th o l+' all s of N iagara

'!'ho wherefores nre ve ry plain .

'~

·H

A hum a n so ul with-

S ir ]il;u ry Clin to n was C11m1u :tn -

tlor -in-Chicf of the British army in Ameri ca., in 1718.

PERSON.

The Neuter ~ender is that which denotes objects that
arc wi thout sex ; as, table, boolc, mountain, wisdom.

Person is that property of a noun which distin guishes
the speaker or writer, the person or thing aJJrcsseJ, auJ
the person or thing mentioned.
Nouns have three persons ; the First, the Seco ml, aml
the Third.
as,

The First Person distinguishes the speaker or writer ;
"I, J ames, will go."

The Second Person distiuguishes the person or thing
a<l<lresse<l; as, ".Jcunes, will you go ?"
Tli e Third Person di stin guishes Lhc person or thing mcntioncd; as, "James w1·11 go.'' - "Lcaves faII ."

-i

Nouns aro r ::irely useil in the fir st perso n : in th e 1m0ority of
sentences nouns 11re in the third person.
Ex Enc 1 8 .1>:.-T ell t o wh nt cla ss oocb n oun in th o fo ll owi n g son ton cos ho· tl. 10 r cn sons .· -I , C·cs'lr
.. · · , c·u
· n e'
l ongs ; t ell ils u1rni.bcr nutl p c r80 11 , an t1 g 1vo
s:i.w, nncl conque red.

N"'polcon B on:tp:trlo

W :it erl oo, Jun o 15, ] 815.

11

On, Sl:tnlcy. on!''

These a. re t h y work s, Parent of G ofl1l.

princo of tho A lmighty's crc:,t ion .

In nature, th ere 11.re only two sexes belongi ng to persons and
11ni mals ; th e male 11nd t he .female : in grammar, the names of ma.Jes
arc said to be of th e masculin e gend er, t he nmn es of females, to be
of the fom iuine gender, and tho names of things without life, to be
of tl1 e neuter ge nd er.
So me nouns, such as parent, clt1:ld, friend, seruant, denote beings
th at may be either nrnle or female: t heir gender is determin ed by
th e se nse in " -hi ch t hey 11re used; if fcnm les are not especially referr ed to, these 11oun s :ue reg11r<led as m:isculin e.
ll!ET H O DS OF Dl STIN GUISIIING SEX.

Tli c sexes arc Jistirlguishecl in three ways;
l. R y t he use of different term inations; as, heir, heiress.
2. Dy the U f:C of different words; as, boy, girl.
3. By forrniug co mpound words .· as, man-servant, maidscn ,ant.

1. JJy the Use of Drfferent Ten ninaHons.

d cfc:ttcd :tl th e ua ltl c of

"Cha.rgo, Chesler, eh:trgo!

we re th e l ast worcls of 1\[n. rrni on.
g ood m n.n is

W :LS

27

A

'l'h o u, n. rn:i.n in ful l ,-i.g- nr

o f m in<l, s h oul<lst bo nb lo to u tul crst.a nU th o m cn.uin g of tho cx prc ~~ 1nn .

A !' \so, coun t rymen, and let " Liberty " bo you r wn.tc h wonl.

Th ere is ono

tbin g tb o.t b a pponelh lo tho " isc m:in a nd to tho fool.

GENDER.

Gender is that property of nouns which distinguishes
Lhem in regard to sex.

Accord in g to t hi s method, fem inin e noun s are r egufarly formed'
from masculine uoun s, by th e suffi xin g of the ter min::itions ess , ine,
ix, :ind others, wit h or without ad di tion , omission, or change ot
I••' ters iu the mascu li ne.
0

;l fascu.1ine.

Abbot,
Acto r,
Administrator,
A mbass:1dor,
Arbi ter,
Autlitor,

Fcmi1iine.

abbess.
actress.
ad ministrntri x.
am hassad rcss.
rtrbitress.
aud itress.

Jfascu line.

Auth or,
Daron,
Benefactor,
C:1terer,
Conductor,
Couu t.,

Pem,i11im:.

authoress.
baro ness.
benefactr ess.
crttcress.
cor11l uctrcss.
eouutr·:~.

..

28

;i,,

Jfa .~culi'ne.

,\

Cz:u-,
Dauphin,
Deacon,
Director,

'i

'"
I'.
l- :i

L

D0ctor,
Idol:ttor,
Iu structor,
Jew,
Landgrnve,
Lion,
:Marrtuis,
J\fayor,
Monitor,
Mister (Mr.),
N egro,
Patron,
P eer,
P oet,
Priest,
Prince,
Prior,
Prophet,
Don,
Duke,
EU.itor,
E lecto r,

·• 11

i'.

1
\

•\ ,1

\l''.

1' I

,,'
I·

I'

r.

ii.'

I

,.

Feminine.

)fu.~cu l iut.

Fi.min i i.e.

czari na,.

R 1nporor,

<l:wphincss.
deaconess.
<lirectreHS, or
riircctrix.
cloctrcss.
i<lolatrcss.
in structrcss.
Jewess.
laml grnvine.
lioness.
marchion ess.
mayoress.
monitress.
l\Ii stress (i'IIrs.).
negress.
patroness.
peeress.
poe tess.
priestess.
princess.
prioress.
prophetess.
donna.
duchess.
cclitrcss.
elcctrcRs.

]~ n ch ant.e r ,

empress.
enchn.nl rcss.

Execu tor,

exce ut-ri x, or

Jloun<lcr,
God,
Giant,,
Governor,
Heir,
H ero,
H ost,
Hunter,
Protector,
Shepherd,
Snugster,
Sorcerer,
Sultan,
Tailor,
Testator,
Ti:.;cr,
Traitor,
Tu tor,
r1 yra.nt,
1

V iscount,
Vot:iry,
'\Vido"·or,

exccu tress.
foun<lrcss .
god<lcss.
giautcss.
g0vc rn css.
heiress.
h croinn.

hostess.
huntress.
protcctrcss.
shepherd ess.
songstress.
sorceress.
sultaness, or
sult(l.na.
tail orcss.
testatrix.
ti gress.
trnilr<'ss.
tutorcss.
tyranncss.
visco untess.
' 'Otare8S.
wi<low.

2. By the Use of .DfO'erent TVu1·cls.
)fa scu7ine.

Fi·minine.

],f<(SCUlinc.

Bachelor,

mni d.
Lell e.
gi rl.
sister.
doc.
cow.
h en.
du ck.
countess.
motli er.
nun.

Gunder,
II art,
H orse,
Husband,
K ing,
L ad,
Loni,
Male,
Master,
Milter,
N cplr ew,

]~ c au,

\'

,

Boy,
B mther,
]3uck,
Bull ,
Cock,
Drake,
Bari,
Fnther,
lfrin.r, Jll Ol\k ,

2!)

GENDER.

GENDER.

l •l!min i11e.

goose.
roe.
mnre.
wil'e.
qu een.
h ss.
lnrl .v.
folllal e.
J\li ss, mistresM.
spawner.
ni ece.

ltlrrsculine.

l'apa,
Ran1,

Ft'lniui11e.

Nasculi11e.

UlHUllUO..

Son,
Stng,
Uncle,
Wizard,

ewe.
rn atlam.
dam.

Sir,
Sire,

Fe m b1in.~.

daughter.
hincl.
aunt.
witch.

3. By F01·mi11g Compound TVoJ"ds.
Jfascull'.ne.

Brid eg roo m,
Cock-sp(l.tTow,
Gcntlelllan,
Grandfather,
Ile-goat,,

Femin i11e.

.Afasc uline.

brid e.
hen-sparrow.
ge ntl ewoman .
grandmother.
she-goat.

Lun<llord ,
l\Ian-scrvant,
P eacock,
Step-father,
Schoolmaster,

Feminine .

landlady.
maid-servant.
peahen.
step-mother.
schoolmistress.

REMARKS .

Many nrnsculine nouns have no corresponding feminine; as, butcher,
brewer; some fem inine nouns have no correspondiilg masculine ; as,
.~p ins te r, laundress.
Gc 11 \lcr is atl ri bu!crl to objects without sex wh en th ey arn addressed m· mention ed as persons; as, "The ship glides smoothly on
lier (fem. ) way."- " The sun shines in his (m asc. ) glory." These
o~ j ccts are said to be person'i"fied.
O~jccts tha,t sugges t au idea of firmness, powc1", vastness, snblhnit!J, etc., a re personified as males; and objects that suggest a n
iclca of gentleness, beauty, t'imid'ity , etc., ~.nd cities, countries, and
ships, nre pc rsonifiod 11.s fe males.
Young childr en a nd a nimals are often referred to as if wi thout
sex; as, " The d eer was ki lled as it (neut.) browsed on the hill-side." \
If the o~j ccts composin g the unit denoted by a collective noun are
considered collcctivciy, th e noun is said to be of th e neuter gender;
as, "The class is large; it (ne·ut. ) mu st be divided ."
If the objects composing th e unit den oted by a collective noun are
consillcrcd separately, the noun is said to be of the same gender as
the individuals that form the collection ; as, " Th e class said th at
they (m asc. or fem. ) wished to speak to each oth er."
Ex

P. Tl C

low in g

1s 1'--J\Icntion th o corre•ponding masculifle or fem·;, ,";,;~ of the fol-

nouu s :-Stepson,

Jn ss,

sult an,

bun tor, grnnd son,

sister-in-law,

widow, lord, mi ss, earl, witch, e mperor, ma.rqu is, schoolm as ter, excctit.rix,
duchess, editor, man -servan t, lcstn.to r, hero, nephew, lady, ewe, songster,
gotl, sorcerer, hero, donua, czari na, hind.
3;;;

"'

.

-----~

CASE.

Case is that property of nouns which distingui shes their
reln.tions to ol,her words.
No uns have three cases ; ihc Nominative, tlte Possessive,

'

· I

and the Obj ective.
Th e Nominative Case is that whioh usually deno tes the
s111\jcct of a verb; as, "The boy reads."
'J'h c wl>jcct of a verb is tlrnt of whi ch so 111 ethin g is either suid or
asserted.

Th e 'Possessive Case is tl1nt which usually denotes pos·
session or origin; as, The boy's book; Jllilton's poems.
The Objective Case is that which usually denotes th e object
of a vcru, or of a preposition ; as, "The uoy slniclv his

sister."-" The apple is sweet to the taste."
'l'hc olv'cct of a verb is th :tt npon ,,h ich t he action asserted hy
the verb is exerted. 'l'h c o/>jcct of a preposition is the obj ect of the
i·elution show n by the preposition.

'

''

suITix in g the apostrop he only to the nomi11 t•
l
l
wl
ti
· .
a ive p ura
icn
i.e
nommat1vc
plural
ends
witl
d
b
ffi
.
l tl l
.
l s, an
y SU lXlllCJ'
JO t tic apostrophe ands when the nominative pl . 1 d o
not ' d ·ti
•
urn ocs
en w1 l s; as, nom. da.ys; poss. datis'.
poss. men'8.
.
~ , nom. men,
The possess ive case in tbe sin o-uln.r number of
h:w in g their parts conn ected by
h
( ) . compound words
in i; t ho 's to the encl of the b st '~~rd ~p e~, - ' is formed by suffixthc conrl·m.artial'.; sen tent:e.
' us, I he man-of-war's crew ;

tl h

In th e possessive euse of nouns huving the same form .
nulllLers,
the u.postro11hc precedes tl1 e s 1· n ti10 -srnguur
.
I
•t•
and mfillboth
1 111 the plurul. U" "'l'I1e .
·
' -·d fd
o ows,
• , • •,
leers
1 , It0rnwasLroken"-"Al
·
ou o _ eers
lt0:·:1 s \YU S ofTered fo r sale."
I .he r-oostrop
hc .... 0 tl s ur.e not a1wuy·s used us tl
·
f ti
1
SCSS I ve C'
'l'l
.
• . ie sign 0
ie post
I - ..ise.
iey are somct11n es used to form the pluroJ of l eters, c rnr:w Iters, etc., used us noun s .' us ' "ll'1s t' s were not crossed "
'l'l
·. '. e! arc a s~ used to fo rm t he sing ulur of some verbs. as
111 0 8 and con s, uud considers th e question carefully."
'
'
e

"H

DECLENSION or NOUNS.
The Inflection of nouns is c::alled D ec1ens10n.
..
Th e Declension of nouns is ti ie rcgu1a.r arrangement of
their numbers and cases.

FOMlS OF TIIE CASES.
Ii

The nominative aml the ol~j ective case are alike in for m.
Th ey arc d islinguishcd from each other by their relations
to other words.
The possessive case may always be known by its form.
Th e possessive case in the singular number is ns11al ly
fo rrn cll by sullixiil g the apost-rophc aud s ('s) to the 1t0 111i11ativc singular ; as, nom. day, poss. da.y's.
An apostrophe only is sometimes u sctl to distin guish the possas•ivc case, ''"h en the nomin ative singular ends with the so und of s nm!
th e nex t word ucgins- with the su111 0 so nn cl; us, F or conscience' sake;
.Jones' slor o. It is preferabl e lo use b oth au upos trophe und s in all
such in stances.

The

posscR~i Yc case in the plural number

31

DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

CASE.

30

IS

fonnc<l by

EXAMPLES vF DE CLENSION .

Singular.
]{om. Fri end,
Poss. fri end's,
fri end;
Obj.

Ox,
ox's,
OX j

Sky,
sky's,
sky;

N oin . fri end s,
Poss. fri ends',
Olv". fri ends.

oxen,
oxen's,
oxen .

ski es,
sk ies',
ski es.

Church,
church' s,
ch urch;

J ames,
J·ames's,
Jam es;

Box,
box's,
box;

Jumeses,
Jameses',
J ameses.

boxes,
boxes',
boxes.

Plu,.al.
churches,
churches',
churcbes.

n c I s E I.- Doclina th o f ull ow iug n oun s : -Torch

·--fox ,

colony,
money, g lass, f~ot- , wi fe, lash, cargo, trio, Jones,' page, study,
priu ccs8, brollicr-m -law, thi ef' spoonful' d wn.1·f, mouse, potato.
Fix

ii:

/

Ex E n c 1 ~ E I I.- Form tho 7wssessive s ingular n.nU ]Jlural of tho following noun s: -C himn ey,
salesman,

ID!Lrlia.l,

cupfu l,

wa.ltz,

Gcr111a.11 ,

ltobcrt 1iiorris,

co untry,

so n- in - la.w,

.1\. luss uhnan,

33

PAUSING.

PAUSIN G.

32

fln.g-sta.lf,

brush,

mu sk-ox,

George 'Vn.shington,

com111u.u<lcr-in-chicf,

co urt-

half, sheep.

~Io DP. t.

s.-lloy11.-Boya / 01utd.-" Doys" is n. common noun, "A Noun is a.

word, etc." ;-a co mmon noun, Lecause it is us ed as tho name of any collection

of objects of tho same cllLSS ;-in the plural number, because it denotes more
than one ;-in th e third person, bec1tuso it distinguishes the persons mentioned;
-of tho masculiuo gencl cr, because it clcnotcs beings of tho male scx;-in
the nom inntivo 01tse, becauso it is tho subject of the verb (found) .

SUilJECT AND OBJECT.

The snbject of a \CrL urny be known by asking the question
forlllcd by pbcing who or wlwt lJcfurc the verb; the answer to the
qu estion is tho sul\joot; ns, " ,John Atlllli cs hi s l c~so n. " TVho ~l,11di c:?
Th e an swe r is, John. Here John is the s ubj ec t of tho verb studies,
and therefore is in the nomiuatirn case.
The object of a \Crb, or of a preposition, may be kn ow n by
asking t he questi on formed lJy pl:tcing whom 01· what after the verb
or the preposition; the a nswer to the qu es t.ion will be the objcet; n~,
"Henry goes to sc lioo l." Tu what? Sclwol . "Ile learns i~rnlll­
nrn.r." L earn s what? Grammar. H ore school is the object of t\10
rc!:ttion Rhow n by the prcpo$ition to, nml gra11wwr is the ob,ieet
of the action asserted or expressed by the verb learns; th ey arc
th erefor e in the objective case.

Bircl's.-.Ilinl's 11cst.-" Bird's" is u. common noun, "A Noun is a. word, etc.";

-a common noun, because it is used as tho name of any object of the snmo
el:i ss ;-in tho s in g ulu.r number, boe1wso It denotes one object;-in the thir\I
perso n, becau se it distinguishes the being mentioned ;-of llie masc uline or

th e fcminino gender, because it denotes a. being of tho mnJo or tho femnlo
sex ;-in th e possessive case, because it denotes possession.
}lc&t.-Found nes t.-" Nest" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, ctc.";-a. com·

mon nou n, becau se it is used as the name of any object of the sa.me class;-

in the singulLr number, because it denotes ono object ;-in tho third p erson,
because it distinguishes the thing mentioned ; -of tho neuter gender, bccnuso
it denotes an object without sex ;-in the objective case, because it is the
object of tho notion :tsscrtocl or expressed by the verb (found.)
Grove.-ln grove.-" Grove" is a noun, "A Noun is a.word, etc." ;-a comm on

those in tho

noun, because it is used as tho name of nny obj ect of the same class ;-in tho
singular number, because it denotes one object ;-in tho third person, because

g ivo tho reu.sou s :-Tho

it distingu ishe s the thing mentioned ;-of the neuter gender, because it den otes

Arncric<in s defeated the Briti sh at th o bn,Lil e of New Orlc" ns. Th o st:us
t"..-iukl e brightly in tbe s ky. ln l'ln1 ssin., c hild re n arc co mpell ed tu allcn 1l

nn ohjcct. without sex ;-in tho objective case, bcciuiso it is tho object of tho

sch ool. W:cshin :;lon died on th o 14th diiy of Dece mb er, in the yc:ir 17119.
l\lnny n. Oo wor wa stes its fragra.nco on th o d1·!'-cr t. air. ]}y indu st ry (\11 ly

Pai-re the nouns in tho following sentences :-Trncl o incroase's the wealth

of a country.

can we ncquirc n. gooU cduca.tion.

mo,y be known by the books which he reads.

Ex Enc 1 s E.-Namo
objective

th e noun s in tho nominatfoc, and

caso in tl!o foll owing

senlonccs,

n.n-~l

Su:: picion haunt :; llrn guilty mind .

'l'h o

study of geo metry tl ovclops tho intellect.

rel atio n shown by tho preposition (in).

\

A ma,n's character
A good name should bo
E'' cry person's duty should bo performed faithfully.

Constant occupation prevents temptation.

prized abo\'C riches.

During the R evo lution the Americans fought for independence.

PARSING.
1 ••

To Parse means to tell to wlrnt parts of speech ·words bclo n~, to
name th eir properties and r elations, and to give the rnlcs which
apply to them.
.
As tho rul es_ a rc given in Syntax only, they may be onuttcu at
present in parsiug.
In parsin,g, it is well to name (l} the w.,rd to be parsed; (2) the
won! or "·or1ls w ith whi ch it is grrimmatically conucetcd; :mu (;J) its
properties, rnhiti ons, etc.
Ex Enc 1 s F..-I'nrse the

11 o w1s

found a bird's 11 cst in tho g ro,·c."

in the f oJlowin g scutcnco :-" 'l'h c boys

engle's nest is built among the crags of the mounta ins.

The

By too great eager-

ness in th o pursuit of our desires wo frequently grnsp at the shadow, and
lose the substance. A house without books resembles n r oom without
wind ows. Water -lilies blo omed along the borders of tho lake. Time spares
tho chi selecl beauty of stone nncl marble, but time makes sad havoc iu
plaster and stucco. General Braddock's death was caused, not by the
:li:u1 's tomahawk, but by a bullet sent by one of his own soldiers.

{n-

"Tho curfew t oll s the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er t he lea,
'l'he ploughman bomowa.rd plods his weary wa~•',
And leaves tho world to darkness and to me."

/

