A

PRIMARY -GRAMMAR
OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

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DESIGNED FOR THE USE OJ'

t.

SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

;BY

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AN.QREW J!.URT'l', A.M.
PRINCIPAL OJ' BA.LSTON SCHOOL, PITTBBUROllj AUTHOR OF "BURTT18 J:LEMENT8 °0i' Ji:NGLIBB

G&.4.lf.MAB.," A.ND "BU&T'l'11 PB.4CTICA.L

aa..unu.a."

PITTSBURGH:

4

PUBLISHED BY A.H. ENGLISH & CO.
98 FOURTH A VENUE.

1873.

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PREFACE.
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IT has been the aim in the preparation of this work to present the learner · with a plain, concise, and well-arranged
treatise on the elementary principles of the English language;
care having been taken to use the simp~t expressions appropriate to the subject, and to avoid all difficult constructions
and unnecessary distinctions.
·
It is especially ~ten4ed to be use~ as an intr9~l1ctiQn to
t~e author's Practical Grammar; but inasmuch as _
it contains
the plainer and more practical parts of all the divisions of
the subject, it will b8 found to be well adapted to serve alone,
as the text-book on grammar, for such c~asses as . can spend
but a short time in the !j,tudy of that branch of knowledge,:
. for it will be better for such to complete this small work,
than to study a. part only of a larger one.
The ·attention of teachers is invited to some peculiarities of
the work, which the practical . operations of the school-room
have proved to be of prime importance.

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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by
A. H. ENGLISH & CO.

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

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D~BIPTIOJS

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A.ND DEFINITIONS.

The different subjects are introduced with brief descriptions,
each ending with the name of the thing described, followed
by examples and illustrations; then the same matter is ex·
pressed by definitions, each commencing with the term defined. This variety tends to give the pupils the very prop&
impression that understanding the thought is of much more
importance than learning thi:l form of words by which the
thought is expressed. It also gives them variety of expres3

4

PREFACE.

sion and faeility in the use of language, which should be the
principal object in the study of grammar.

OONTENTS.

MODELS F'Oll GIVING ANSWERS AND EXA.JllPLES.

The answers which follow some of the questions in the text
are intended as models, to suggest appropriate forms for expressing answers and giving examples. Answers in recitations
should always be given in sentences; a word or a phrase
should not be accepted as an answer. Careful attention to
this will rapidly increase the pupil's ability to use oorl'ect
language.
The following, from the Practical Grammar, being equally
applicable to this, is inserted here.
MODELS AND EXERCISES.

The models and exercises for recitation should receive
careful attention. They will be found to be useful in both
study and recitation. In most cases the pupil should be required to use them just as they are given, especially at first;
after he has become familiar with them, he should be e~cour­
aged to form models of his own. To enable the pupil . to
acquire the ability to do this is one of the main objects of this
method of recitation. The teacher should therefore impress
upon the mind of the learner that he will have fully mastered
the subject _only when he can dispense with the formulas of
the book to substitute others of his own framing.
MODELS FOR PARSING.

According to the models for parsing here given, the pupil
gives the classification and properties of each word, without
further explanation or definition. Experienced teachers are ·
well aware that the use of what is known as the long method
of parsing is a great waste of ti~, as the pupil repeats the
definitions.hundreds of times after they are perfectly learned.
These are better omitted in the forms, the pupil being required, during the parsing, to answer such questions as the
teacher :iµay ask to ascertain whether the meaning of each
term is understood or not.

INTRODUCTION.
PAGE.

LANGUAGE,

•Divisions of,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
SENTENOES,
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Classification and Definitions of
ELEMENTS OF WORDS,

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Oral Sounds,
Letters,
Syllables and Accent,

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WORDS,

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Classification of,
Rules for Spelling,
.
Parta of Speecp. Defined,
Subject ll:lld.Verb,
.

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
20
21
22

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PARTS OF SPEECH.
THE NOUN,

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Classification and Definitions of
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Properties of,
Gender,
Person,.
Number,
Relations and Case
Models and Exampies for P~rsin~,
THE PRONOUN, •

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Classifications and Definitions of
Personal, .
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Relative, ·.
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Interrogative and Definitive,'
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Declension of, .
Models'and Examples for Parsing,
THE ADJECTIVE,

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34
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35
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39
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49
. 61
52
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56
. 69
60
. 60
62
• 66

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Classification and Definitions of
Comparison of,
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Models and Examples for Parsing,
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CONTENTS.
PAGE..

THE. VERB, •

Classification of, .
Regular and Irregular,
Principal and Auxiliary,
Transitive and Intransitive,
Finite and Infinitive, •
Properties of, .
Mode,
T ense,
Pemon and Number,
Conjugation of,
Synopsis of,
Models and Examples for Parsing,
THE ADVERB, •
Definition and Classification of,
Models and Examples for Parsing,
THE PREPOSITION,

·Definition of,
Models ·a nd Examples for Parsing,
THE CONJUNCTION, .

Definition and .Classification of,
Models and Examples for Parsing,
THE INTERJECTION,
Definition and Classification of,
Models and Examples for Parsing,
THE EXPLETIVE,
WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH,
RULES OF SYNTAX, •

67
69
70
75
77
79
80
81
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87
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101
. 103
104
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106
. 106
107
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108
. 109
109
. 109
110
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112
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.A.N.A.LYSIS OF SENTENCES.
THE PROPOSITION DEFINED A.ND .A.N~Lyzru), .
SEN:TENCF.S, •

Elements of,
Diagrams and Models for Analysis,
SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES PARSED,
RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS,..
FALSE SYNTAX,

.Rules and Examples for Correcting,
PUNCTUAT~ON, •

ExAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS,

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122
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. 126,_;
• ~37
.• ·• 139
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140
• 155
160

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INTRODUCTION.
Article 1. Of Language.

think with their minds. What they think
is called thoughts.
They make their thoughts known . to each other.
That which is used to make thoughts .known is called
language.
.
That by or through which anything is done i~ called
a medium. The medium for making thoughts known
zanguage.
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To make known is to expess. The making known,
or that which makes known, is called expression.
PEOPLE

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2. Defillitlons.
Language is a medium for the expression of thought.
Medium is the w·a y by or through which anything
is done. .
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Expressl9n: ip ; the act of making known, ?r •that
which makes known. In grammar, expression. is used
a;> a general nam~ for word or a group of, wbrds ...

a

The pupils should be required ro answer with sentences.; a '!'ord ~r a 1ihrase
ahonld not be aeeepted as an answ~r• .

Questions.-What do people do ~th their minds? .A.Ns.-People
think with their minds . . What general naine is given t.o what th~y
think i .A.NS.-What they think is called thoughts. What do
people do wit:P. their ~houghts? .A.Ns.:--~eople ma.Jr~ ~e~ ~o~gh!8
known to each other. What is that with which they make theu
thoughts known called? .A.Ns.-That with which they° inli.ke their
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PRIMARY GRAMMAR;

LANGUAGE.

thoughts known is called language. What name is given to that
by or through which anything is done? To make known is what?
What is the making known, or·that which makes known called?
Define language. Define medium. Define expression. How is
it used in grammar? ANs.-In grammar, the term expreuion is
used to mean a word or a group of words.

3. Divisfons of Language.

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Language for the most part is of two kinds, called
s-poke:n language and written language.
Language uttered by the human voice is called
8J>Oke:n language.
Language written or printed . is called writte:n language.

Languages take their names from the countries
which use them. The language used in the United
States. is called the English language. It is so called,
because it was first used by the English people.
There are many languages in use in the world; as,
the French language, used by the people of France; the
German language, used by the people of Germany; the
Chirwse language, used by. the people of China; &c.
It is supposed that there are about two thousand
languages in use in the world.
A language which is now in use is called a living
language. A language which was used long ago, but
is not now used by any people, is called a dead language. The Latin, the Greek, and the Hebrew are
dead lan~ages.
...4. Definitions.

-

There are two principal divisions of language, called
8J>Oken language and written language.
Sp0ken language consists of oral sounds used to
express thought.

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Oral sounds are sounds made by the human voice.
Written language cpnsists of a system of letters

used to represent spoken language.
·
Letters are marks or characters used to form written
language. They are generally made with a pen or
with types.
Questions.-Whe.t division is made of language? ANs.-Language is divided into spo_ken language and written language. Of
what does spoken language consist? ANs.-Spoken language consists of oral sounds used to express thought. Of what does written
language consist? To which division does printed matter belong?
What language is used in our country? Why is it called the English language? Name some other languages and tell what nation8
use·them. How many languages are there supposed to be in the
world? What is a language n,ow in use called? What is a language not now in use called?
What are the principal divisions of language? Define spoken
language. Oral sounds. Written language. Letters. How are
letters generally made?

ENGLfSH GRAMMAR.
6. Definitions.
That study which teaches the correct use of the
English language is called English Grammar.
Educated persons use the language correctly. · We
learn by the study of grammar to use the language as
good scholars use it.
English Grammar is that branch of science which
teaches the correct use of the English language.
We use t~e language when we speak or write.
Science is knowledge properly arranged.
' of language is the custom of good
The standard
speakers and writers.

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PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

10

' SENTENCES. '

Qnestlo~.-What study teaches the correct use o~ t)1e Ei;i,glj.sh
language ? Who use the language correctly? What do we learn
by the study of grammar? What is English grammar? What is
science? What is the standard of language 'l .

A declarative 'sentence is a · sentence ·which ·e:x:presses a declaration.
An interrogative sentence- is a sentence ·which
expresses an interrogation.
An imperative sentence
a sentence which expresses a command.

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6. Of Sentiences.
In expressing our thoughts, we tell something, ask
something, or command something to be done. A
group of words which does one of these makes sensi:l, ,,
and is called a sentence.
,
.
To tell something is to express a declamtion.
To ask something is to express an interrogation.
To command something·is to express a command.
A sentence which expresses a declaration is called a
declarative sentence.
A sentence which expresses a:n interrogation is called
an interrogative sentence.
A sentence which expresses a command is called an
imperative sentence.
Declaration, interrogation, and command are senten~
tial properties; and a sentence must contain one of
them, but it may contain more than one.

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.QnestiOD.8.~We do w}lat in ~p.r~ing our thoughtS 'l ANs.-In
expressing our thoughU we fell srnndhf,ng, as~ something, or command
something w be done. What is a group of words which contains·one
?f the,se called? To tell s~mething is what? To M~ S01':1ething
ts what? To command something is what? What name is given
tO' a sen:ten~ which expresses.a declaration? What name is given
to a s~n~nc!} which expr~ a.n jnterrogation? What name is
given to a sentence which expresses a command? Define a sentence. When · do words· make 'complete sense? What is 8. declaration? What is an interrogation? What is a comm~d? What
are the sentential · properties 'I Define a declarative sentence.
D~fine

an interrogative sentence. Define an imperative sentence.

8. Models for describing Sent.ences. ·
, IJ.eauty Boon.fadea.
This is a sentence, because it makes complete senae·; it is a
a declaration.

declar~tive .sentence, because it expresses

7. Definitions.

A sentence is a group of words which makes complete sense.
Complete sense is made when the words express a
d!3claration, an interrogation, or a command.
A declaration is an expression which tells something.
·
An interrogation is an expression which asks
something.
A eommand is an expression which 'order.s something to be done.

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QUF..'3TION.-Why do th:eae,words,make complete sense 'l
ANswER.-They make complete sense, because they contain a
declaration.
Qu.-,-What is a ~laration? ANs.~A declaration is something
told. .
.
·. · Qu.-What do these words tell? ANs.-They tell that /Jeauty
3()<m

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Jada.

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What did you Bay 1
This is'U sentence, because it makes complete sense; it is
a.n _interro&3-tive 'sentence, because it expresses .an interrogatl<?Il·
•·
· Q.p._:What 'is '·an interrogation:? · ANs.-An ·mterrogation is
something asked.

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PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

SOUNDS AND LETTERS.

Qu.-What do these works ask? A.Ns.-They aak what you did
say.

Written words are composed of letters, and are perceived by the sense of seeing.

Speak the truth.
This is a sentence, because it makes complete sense; it is
an imperative sentence, because it expresses a com~an,d.

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10. Definitions.
A word is an expression used as the sign of an idea.
An idea is an image of something in the mind.
A spoken word is a word uttered by the human
voice.
A written word is a word expressed by written
characters, called letters.

Qu.-Why do these words express a command? A.Ns.-They
express a command, because they order us to do something.
Qu.-What do they command or order us to do? A.Ns.-They,,
.
·. .
command or order us to spook the truth.
Describe the following Sentences according to the Models.

John is coming. Flowers are pretty. Stars shine.
They study grammar. Will he go? Come with me.
I found your book. Obey your parents. The night is
dark. Are you afraid? Which way will we go? Mary
is very late. They are singing. Respect your teacher.
These apples are sweet. The sun has risen. Flowers
bloom and die. Ellen and her sister study together.
We saw pretty fields. Be obedient to-day. Is it time
to go home? The leaves are falling. Which boy
spoke aloud? My father means to sell his farm. Sing
your sweetest song.

9.

Questions.-Of what are sentence8 composed 1 What are words?
Repeat the illustrations. How are words classified.? What is said
of spoken words? What is said of written words? Define a word.
, Define an idea. Define a spoken word. Define a written word.

~ ·

V 0ice consists of tone and whisper. The tones used .
in spoken language are of two kinds; those made
with the organs of speech opep., and those made with
the organs of speech partly closed. Tones made with
the organs of speech open are called pure tones; and
tones made with the organs of speech partly closed
are called obstructed tones. Whispers are sounds, but
not tones.
A single oral sound is called an dementary sound.

or Words.

Sentences are composed of words.
Words are expressions used as the sign~ of ideas.
I have an idea of the color of grass; the word green
expresses that idea. I have an idea of the object that
gives light and heat to the earth; the word sun expresses that idea. I have an idea of the appearance
of the sun; the word bright expresses that idea.
Words may be either S'[!Oken or written.
Spoken words are composed of sounds, and are perceived by the sense of hearing.

11. Of Oral Sounds.

(

12. Definitions.
The sounds used in spoken language are divided
into thxee kinds, called vocals, su,bvocals, and aSJYirates.
A vocal is an oral sound which consists of a pure
tone.
· A subvocal is an oral sound which consists of an
obstructed tone.
2

14

· P.RiliARY GRAMMAR.

S0um'>s' iAND •L ETI'ERS.

An 88pirate is an oral sound which consists of a
whisper.
An elementary sound is a simple oral sound.
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13. Of Letters.
The elementary sounds of the language ·are repre- •
sen~.d by letters. There are twenty-six letters; these
taken together are· called the Alphahet.
There
are three kinds of letters in common use, called
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Roman, Italfo; aiid Script.
·
Roman letters are the kind most commonly used
1
in prillted mat4Jr. · Italic letters are sometimes 'useq,.

/?~ . iJ · ,u oal l.c; i~e4en& ~rNjit.
Each kind of letters has two forms, called capual and
mnall.

The small letteril are those mostly used. Capttal letletters, and are generally
ters are larger thh.n the
of a different form; as A, a; B, b,· 0, c; D, d,· &c.
They
are
used. for ornament and varj~ty
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· Letters which generally represept ·vocal sounds are
called vowels.
:v. · ~·:. ·
Letters which generally represent subvocafa or aspirates are called consonants.
When letters are used in words without representing
any sound, they are called mutes.

small

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14:. Defudti()ns.

. A letter is. · fJ. · character . uaed to n:pre~nt oi;te or
:mo:re of the sminds of spoken language~

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Questions....4)f what does voice consist? How ma.lly kinds of
tones?. How are they made?
Ho~ are ' pure tones made? How are .obst~~cted tOnea made?
What·is~ said of whispers?
· '. • · :· , ·' 1' '",
Name the three kinds of sounds used in spoken languaget'
Define a voqal. Define a, subvocal. Define, .aµ asp~a1'6 .. . Define
an elementary sound.
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- With ·respect to the sounds they represent, letters
are of two ld.~ds,. vo:w~ls 11-nd consonants.
. Avq:wel is a letter whi~h i~ generally llS!'ld ~ . i:epr~­
S(lllt a vo~l- sOUI\d.
A conaqn...,..t i~ a letter which. is generally useq. to
ri:wre&e;i;it i;i. sl+PVoelll or aµ ~pi:r,:a.te sound.
A mute is a letter used in a word without· representing any sound.
Questions.-By what are the elementary sounds of the language
represented?: How many letters are there?· ::wihat ·are·thej'-called
when take1.1 wgether.? How many kinds of le~ in· c.o~on
use?. What are they Cjl).led? · What are the letters commonly
used in printed Slatter cli.lled? 0What are those;.' sbmetirlles used
called? · What' a.re those used to imitate manuscript called? ' What
is manuscript?
·
·
·
How many forms h~.. eii.cP: ~4 of l~tte~? Which form is
mostly used? · What is said of capital .letters? What are letters
which represent vocal so1lnds called? What are letters which repi:~el).t sub.vo~ c;>r ~pi,rateit,~ed? What ar&l~ni· w.hich\l'epre­
sent no sound called? Defin~ ~· l~, Ji:>~ a. vowel, .,4, C(jWSOnant. A mute,

15. Of Sounds and Letters. ·

:•.:.

. The iet~rs a, ~. i, o,· ~~d u ~re vowels. All the other
let.ters are cop.sonants. ·
·
·
· · .T he ·number of elementary sounds in the language
is forty-one.
· Each sound is generally represented-by a m"'rigle letter;
hut in some cases two letters are used .to repreS:e,P,.~,c ~)ne
_souo,d ; as, th. ,in th~; . and, sometj,J;nes. a,. . sj.n gle..' l~t~er
represents two sounds .; .as, o in one.

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PRIMARY GRAMM.AR.
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The same letter taken twice to represent a sound is
called a double letter; as, ll in sell; oo in Jood.
Letters frequently represent the sounds of other letters; as, e has the sound of a in there; ph has the sound
of f in phrase.
A vowel and a consonant, taken together to represent
one sound, are called a combination; as, ti in natio"!'. }•
Two different vowels, taken together to represent one
sound, are called a diphthong; as, ou in our. The sounds
represented by diphthongs are double sounds, and are
called compound vocals.

Define a .double letter. ANs.-A double letter is the same letter
taken twice to represent one sound. Give examples. Define a.
combination. Give examples. Define a dipht:11ong. Give examples.

17. Sounds.
The principal sounds of the vowels are as follows:A has four sounds; as in fate, far, fall, fat.
E has two sounds; as in me, met.
.
I has two sounds; as in ice, it.
0 has three sounds; as in no, do, not.
U has three sounds; as in use, full, up.

:

The consonants have each one sound except c, q, x,
and z.
.
C, q a:rod x, have no sounds of their own; they are
used to represent the sounds of other letters; in some
words c has the ,sound of s, as in city; in others the
sound of k; as .in can. . Q is alwJtys· followed .by u, and
qu has the sound 9f kw, as in queen. X has th~ squ_n d
of ks; as in vex. z has two sounds; as in zeal, azure.

16. Definitions.

I

A double letter is the same letter, taken twice to
represent one sound; as, ff in puff; ee in tree.
A oombinatio.n is a vowel and a consonant, taken
together to represent one sound; as, ti in portion;· si in
mission.

The principal combinations are ti, si, and ci ,: they
have the sound of sh; as in nation, mansion, gracious.
A diphthong is two different vowels, taken together
to represent a compound vocal.
The principal diphthongs are ou, ow, oi, and oy; as
in hour, now, coil, bo~:
Questions.-Name the vowels. What are all the other ~etters?
How many elementary sounds in our language? How is each
sound generally represented? What exceptions to this? ~t _is
a letter taken twice to represent one sound called? What 18 said
of letters representing the sounds of other letters? What. are a
vowel and consonant r.epresenting one sound called? Give an
example. Ex.-In the word nation, ti a vowel and a consonant
represent one sound, and hence are a combination. What a~e two
different vowels representing one sound called? What kmd of
sounds are represented by diphthongs, and what are they called?

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Questions.-How ~any s0unds has af ~ive ~xampl~. How
many sounds h~ ef Give examples. How many sounds has i!
Give examples. Howmanysounds haso! Give examples. How
many sounds has uf Give examples. What is said of the consonantB? What is ~d of c ! Of q f Ofx'! Of z f "

18. Table of Sounds and Letters.
Simple Vocals. ··

long; as in fate.
grave; as in far.
b~oad; as in fall.
short; as in fat.
5. e long; as in me.
6. e short; as in met.
7. i long; as in ice.
1. a
~- a
3. a
4. a

B

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8. i short; as in it.
9. o long; as in no~'" '
10. o close; as in do.
11. o short; as in not.· .-,
12. u long; as ill use.
13. u close; as in full.
· 14. u short; as in up:

rs

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

SYLLABL'.ES AND ACCENT.

Green is a word containing four elements,. which are g-r-e-n.
is a consonant with a subvocal seiimd.
r is a consonant with a subvocal soun.d .
ee is a double vowel with first or long sound of e.
n is a consonant with a subvocal; sound.

Con1pound Vocals.

g

1. oi or oy; as in voice, boy. .
2. ou or ow; as in our, now.

Hung is a word contailling three elements, which are h-u-ng.
h is a consonant with an aspirate sound.
u is a vowel with its third or short sound.
ntr is a double consonant with a subvocal sound.

Subvocals.

1. b;asinrob.
2. d 1 as in do.
3. g; as in go.
4. j ; as in joy.
5. I; as in lay.
6. ni; as in man.
7. n; as in no.
8. r; as in run.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

v; as in van.
w; as in we.
y; as in ye,s.

,.

z; as in zone.

z ; as in azure.
th; as in the.
ng; as in song.

2.
3.
4.
5.

h; as in he.
k; as in kid.
p; as in pen.

s; as in so.

Quote is,a word containing four elements, which are k-w-o-t.
is a collilonant with the aspirate sound of k.
u is a consonant with the subvocal sound of w.
o is a vowel with its first or long sound.
t is a consonant with an aspirate sound.
eisa mute.
q

Joyful is a word containing five elements, which are}-ay-j-u-l.
Aspirates.

1. f'; as in fair.

19

6. t; as in tin.
7. ch; as in chin.
8. th; as in thin.
9. sh; as in shun.
10. wh; a compound aspirate; as in when.

19. Models for describing Letters and Sounds.
It la Intended In thla exercliie that the pupils shall utter distinctly the elementary
sounds In·each word.

Fan is a word containing three elements, which arej-a-n.
t: is a consonant with an aspirate sound. .
a is a vowel with its fourth or short sound.
n is a consonant with a subvocal sound.
Vice is a word containing three elements, which are v·i-s.
v is a consonant with a subvocal sound.
1 is a vowel with its first or long sound.
o is a consonant with the aspirate sound of s.
eis a mute.

J is a consonant with a subvocal sound.
o~· is a diphthong _with ~ p:oper sound.
t: is a consonant with an aspirate sound.

u is a vowel with its second or close sound.
is a consonant with. a sub vocal. sound.

I

There is a word containing three.elements, which are th-a,-r.
th is a double consonant with a subvocal sound.
e is a vowel with first sound of a.
r is a consonant with a subvocal sound.
eis a mute.
Describe the following words, according to the m9dels.
Fame, good, gem, wise, sing, roar, thin, quite, hymn, rough,
ocean, youth, zero,• bury, prove, would, where, lock, charms,
that, law, town, busy, seize, reign, cube, toiler, cent1 carry,
queenly, phrase, eight, convey, text, boyhood, thinking,
woolen, measure, careful, seizure, convey, employ, onion,
chiming, surely, kitten, laughed, ·examine, quotient, giant,
damsel, hectic, jocund, jargon, inquire, annex, aspirate,
hyena, jewsharp, knapsack, victuals, merchant, women,
bureau, machine, special, musician, pleasure, nati6nal,
mechanic.

I

.I

21

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

WORDS . CLASSIFIED;

20~ ·or Syllables and Accent.

A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables;
as, correspondent, recognizing. .

We p;onounce the word man with one effort or impulse of the voice ; hence, we call man a word of ?ne
syllabl~. Mardy requires two impulses of the vo.1?e;
hence, manly is a word of two ~yllables . . Mard~ness
requires three impulses of the vQice; hence, manliness
is a word of three syllables.
·
·
i · ,.
No English words contain more than eight syllable&.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable.
A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable.
A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable.
In pronouncing the word thankful, the first syllable
is pronounced with more force than the second. I~
pronouncing the word rejoice, the second syllable is
pronounced with more force· than the first.
The pronouncing one or more syllables of a word
with more force than the others is accent. In wurds of
three or more than .three syllables, there are frequently
two accents, one stronger than the other. The stronger
accent is called the primary accent, and the weaker
accent is called the secondary accent.

· .Accent is stress of voice place,d· on certain syllables
of a word.

20

21. Definitions.
A syllable is a 'Yord or.a part of .a word pronounced.
with on.e impulse of the voice.
.
. A monosyllable is .a word of one syllable; as come,
..
care. n
.
•
· K dis~yllable is a word .of two syllables; as co~ing,
· ccir~j,,J,l. ' · . ·
. · .·
·
.
.
· '. A ,...;lsyi.iable is a :word of three, syllables; as r_rpre- 1
. ..... . ,,....
sent,:carefully.
;

Primary Accent is the -stronger of two accents occurring in the same W()rd.
Secondary Accent is the weaker of two accents occurring in the same.:wprd.
,
Questions.-Why do we ·call. man a word of one syllable? Why
do we call manly a word of. two syllables? Why do we call manliness a word of three syllables? What is said of English words?
What is a word of one syllable called? What is a word of two
i;yllables called? What is a word of three syllables called? What
is a word of four or
,, more syllables called?
How do we pronounce the syllables in the word thankful! How
do we pronounce the .syllables in the word re:joicef What is the
pronouncing of c~ ~ylla,bles~th more force .than otQ,ers caUed?
How manY; ac.ceµts : frequently occur in words of three or more
syllables? What is the stronger accent called? What is the weaker
accent called? . . " ' ,..
. '.
" " .
Define a syllable. A monosyllable. A dissyllable. A trisyllable.
A polysyllable. Define accent. Primary accent. Secondary accent.
22. Models for Exercise.
l.t.larch is a monosyllable. .. . ,
Consent' is a dissylla,ble, aqceD;ted .on the second syllable.
A.d'ver tise' is a trisyllable, accented on the first and the
third syll~bles; the primary or stronger accent is on the third
syllable, and the secondary or weaker accent on the first:
' ' ~. .
.
Con'flrma'tion is a polysyllable,' accented on the first and
the third syllables; the primary or stronger accent' is
the
third syllable, and the· secondary or weaker accent is on the
first .

ori

22
Descdbe the following words .according to. Uie models.

Mindful, redess, custom, slaves, class, ability, primary,
weaker, divisions, common, peculiar, brave, spelling,
arithmeti~, addition, syllable, word, accent, secondary,
believe, fraction, recite, sirrwle, multiplier, travel, machine, popularity, separate, suggest, apply, clearness,
educator, complex.
,.

23. Words Classified.
. I

23

WORDS CLASSIFIED.

A word expressed by the voice is a spoken word.
A word expressed in written characters is .a written
word.
Words are frequently formed from other words by
adding letters or syllables; as from walk we form walking by adding the syllable ing; from pound we form
compound by adding the syllable com. Words so formed
are called derivative words. Words to which no syllables have been added are called primitive words.
The word used as the base of a derivative word is
called the root or radical.
That letter or syllable which is placed before the
radical is called a prefix.
That which is placed after the radical is called a
suffix.
/
24:. Definitions.
A root or radical is a simple word from which derivative words are formed.
A prefix is one or more syllables placed before tP.e
radical ; as, pre in prefix; super in superfine.
·
A suffix is one or more letters or syllables placed
after the radical ; as, s in books; ing in building; able in
lovable.

A prbnitive ·word is a simple word without prefix
or suffix ; as, .mari, come, scholar..
A derivative word is a word formed from a radical
by adding a prefix, a suffix, or both; as, vmtrue, truthful, untruthful.
Derivation is forming derivative words from radi~
c~ls by the addition of prefixes and suffixes.
Questions.-What is a word expressed by the voice cal.led?
What is a word expressed in written characters .called ? How are
words frequently formed from other words? Form a word from
think. Form a word from pound. What are words so formed called?
What are words called to which no letters or syllables are added?
What is the word called which is used as the base of the derivative
word? What is that which is placed before the radical called ?
What is that which is pl11Ced after the radical called ? What is the
prooess of forming words from roots called ?
Define a radical. Give an example. Ex.-In the word spelling,
spell is the radical, because it is the part from which the word is
formed. Define a prefix. Give an example. Ex.-In the word
unclean, dean is the root,' and un is..the part placed before the root,
hence un is a prefix. Define a suffix. Define a primitive word.
Define a derivative word. What is derivation?

25.

Models for Exercise.

Kind is a primitive word; i,t has neither prefix nor suffix.
Unkind is a derivative word; kind is the root, and un is

the prefix.
quickly is a derivative word; quick is the root, and ly is

the suffix.
Overspreading is a derivative word; spread is the root,

over is the prefix, and ing is the suffix.
Describe the following words.

,

Walk, fearful, manly, robbing, book, judges, called,
upright, cheaper, handsome, unrig}1teous, drawing,
asleep, consign, measurement, enlighten, lightly, re-

•

24

PRIMARY GRAMM.AR.

·called? ' 'How are some compouridwordS formed? Give examplea-.
}{ow are others formed? Give examples. ·
· ·~!!fine 11 siJllple.·word. ,, Give.·examples. Define a compound
word. Give examples. Define a consolidated compound. , Give, ·
examples. Define a separable compound. Give. example:1.

build, selling, antidote, diligently, impudent;' usefulness immortal, happiness, mournfully; profanity, referenc~,- thoughtful, respectable,. prefixes; recitation, dis~
honest, compound, composed, ch,ildren, unkind, spe~l­
ing, goodness, misspend, stronger, bondage, dust~, .misconduct, beside, boyish, kingdom, asleep, unkmdly,
imprinting, beggar, irregular, forefathers, dishon,~s~y,
clerkship, maker, paganism, removal, exchange, aganist,
indecision, transplant.
·
1

28. Rules for Spelling Derivative. Words.
Rule

When the radical ends w~th .silent. e, · th~ e js generally
omitted before a suffix commencing with a vowel; as, curable
from cure; loving from love; slavish from slave; smiled from

26. Words, Simple and Compound.

~ile.

Many words are formed by uniting two or ·more
words; as, mankind is formed by uniting man and
kind · whatso&'Ver is formed by uniting what, so, and &'Ver.
Words so formed are called compound words. Words
not so formed are cailed simple words.
Some compound words have tJ:ie simple words of
which they are composed, joined by a hyphen; .as,
book-keeping; others have the ~iniple words of which
they are composed, joined without a hyphen; as,
something.
·. ·
Z"I. Definitions.
A simple word is a single word, or one which is
not formed by uniting words; as, man, tree, ear, noble.
A compound word is one formed by uniting two
or more simple words; as, ear-ring, pear-tree, nobleman.
A consolidated compound is one which has its
r>arts joined without a hyphen; as, gentleman, mankind.
A separable compound is one which has its parts
joined by a hyphen; as, barn-door, pine-apple.
Questions.~ How

are many words formed? How is manldnd
.forined? How is what.soever formed? What are words so formed

~irst.

.

.

from change; peaceable from

EXCEPTIONS.- Changeable

peace.

Rule Second.

·.,

(.,
(.

Monosyllables, ending with a consonant preceded by a;
single vowel, double the consonant before a suffix comm&!ci,ng
with a vowel; as; stopping fr?m stop; robber from rob.
'
·. But when' a diphthong or a double vowel precedes the'final
consonant, it is not doubled; as; woolen from wool;' boiling
from. boil
·
Rule Third.

l

:..

J

~·

Words of more than one' ~yllabfo, ending with a consonan1:'
preceded 'by a single vowel, double the 'final consonaJ:lt when
the acc~nt of the radical is upon the last syllable; as, com,.
pelling from compel~ conferring from confer. .
If the accent is not upon the last syllable of the radical,
the final consonant is not doubled; as, visited from visit;
capitalist from c"apital.
X and Hare never doubled.
Rule Fourth.

The final y of a radical, when preceded by a consonant, is
changed into i before a suffix not beginning with i; as, po.n_ies
· from pony; happiness from happy.
3

- --- 26

---- ~---- - -=--------

WORDS (J:i;.ASfilFIED.

PRIMA.RY GRAMMAR.

Rule Fifth.
Radicals ending inf or f e drop this ending, and take v before
a suffix commencing with a vowel; as, loaves from loaf; lives
from life.
Correct the errors in the following.

Feelling, beefs, lazyness, permited, turkies, saleable,
rogueish, magnettize, ponys, monies, moveing, smileing,
peacable, lodgeings, boilling, healling, pealling, toilling,
foollish, visitting, travelling, impeling, readding1 speling, liveing, happyness, wealthyer.

27

!:!-Te called ve:rbs; as in the sentence, Trees grow. GrCYJ.JJ
expresses action of trees; hence it is a verb. In the
sentence, The sun is bright, is expresses being of its
subject sun,- hence it is a verb.
Questions.-How are words diviqed with respect to their meaning and use? What are words used as names called? Give
examples.
·
What are words used instead of nouns called? Give examples.
What are words which are added to nouns or pronouns to qualify
their meaning called? Give examples.
What are words which express action or being of a subject called?
Give examples. "

29. Of the Parts of Speech.
Words with respect to their meaning and use are
divided into classes, called parts of speech.
Words which are used as names are called nouns;
as in the sentence, John studies grammar. John and
grammar are nouns, because they are names.
Words used instead of nouns are called pronouns;
as in the sentence, John has a sister, and he loves her.
The word he is used instead of the noun John, and the
word he:r instead of the noun siste:r; hence they are
pronouns.
Words added to nouns or pronouns to qualify or
limit their meaning are called adjectives; as in the sentence, Studious boys learn many long lessons. Studious
qualifies the meaning of the noun boys, and many and
long qualify the meaning of the noun lessons,· hence
they are adjectives.
Words which express action or being of a subject

Words which are used to modify the meaning or
sense of a verb, an 'adjective, or another adverb are
called adve:rbs; as in the sentences, She sings sweetly;
The apple is ve:ry good; He writes tole:rably well. Sweetly modifies the meaning of the verb sings; ve:ry modifies the meaning of the adjective good; tolerably modifies _the meaning of the adverb well; and well modifies
the meaning of the verb writes; hence they are adverbs.
Words which are used to connect words and to show
'
.
fh~ relation between them are called prepositions;
as m the sentence,. John lives in Pittsburgh. In shows
the relation between lives and Pittsburgh; hence it is a
preposition: · and the word Pittsburgh is called the
object of the preposition in.
·
The object of a preposition is a noun or a pronoun ·
as . t h e sentence, Walk in virtue's path, in is a pre-'
pos1t10n, and the noun path is its object.

i;n.

Words which are used to connect words, phrases, or

...

REMA.R~ :

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

clauses are called conjunctions,: as in the sentence,· A
great ·and good man has fallen, and connects " the
words great and good; hence .it is a conjunction. In
the sentence, He has lived. in- the city and .in .the
country, and connects the phrases in the city and in the
country; hence it is a conjunction. In the sentence,
Jane studies grammar, but John studies arithmeti9, lmt
connects the clauses Jane studies grammar and John
studies arithmetic,· hence ·it is a conjunction.
Words used to cry out, or to express some sudden
feeling or emotion are called interjections; as, oh, alas,
pshaw.
Interjections are called independent word_s, because
they .do not form part of a sentence.
Some words are used to make the expression agreeable to the ear, without changing the sense; such
words are called expletiveB.
Vvords used for agreeableness of sound are said to
be words of euphony.
Most expletives are used for euphony; as in the sentence, The:re is a strange man here, there is a word used
for euphony only, hence it is ·an ~xpletive.
Questions.-'\That are words called which modify the meaning or
sense of a ·verb? Which modify the sense of an adjective? ' Which
modify the sense of an adverb? Give examples which modify verbs.
Ex.-In the sentence, John reads well, well modifies the meaning of
the verb reads, hence it is an adverb. Give examples which modify
adjectives. Giv!'l examples which modify adverbs.
What are words which connect other words, and show the relation between them called? Give examples. What part of speech
is the object of the preposition? Give an example in which the
object is a noun. Is a pronoun.

O?t

}>ARTS , OF ..SPEECH• .

29 ;

· .~t;ye. ~p.rdsif~c;h,~o~ect 'YC!r?:s, phrases, or cl~uses ~led?
G1ve,.an . exam:ele C!>nnecting wordS. Connecting ph~ases: ' Connecting clauses.
, -. '
· :·What·.a re w1;rrds ~which express feeling or emotion called? Give ·
examples. Why: are interjections called.independent words?
For. what purpose are some words 'Q.Sed? Wh~t are such 'wor~
called? Fo~ what purpose are most expletives used? Give examples.
30~

Remarks on Parts of Speech.

1. A part of speech may be a ·word . or a group of words;
.as,Nouns.-..John, George Washington, William Henry Harmon.
. _V erbs.- Walk, having walked, having been walking.
Adjectives.-..i'xcellent, more excellent, nwst excellent.

2. I~ is bommon in defining to say, a verb is a word, and, a
noun lS a word, &c. This certainly tends to confuse the
learner, since a verb in many cases consists of two or more
~ords; and the noun and other parts of speech frequently consist of more than one word. It will be better to call each of
these class~s by the approved and long-used title of part of
speech; as m the following definitions.

31. Definitions.
A_ part ~f. e,eech ·is a word or a group of words
havmg 11 dlStmct use in the sentence.
. The:e ~re nine parts of speech; the. noun, the pronown,
the ad;ective, the verb,·the adve:rb, the preposition the conjunction, the interjection, ·and the expletive.
'
A noun is a part of speech used as the name of an
object,
Ex.--0ons and ostriches' are found in Africa. Pinks and
the garden. . Goodne~s and wisdom al:e better than
riches. ·
·· ·
r~~es ai;e u~

s•

30

SUBJECT AND VERB.

PRIMA.RY GRAMMAR.

A pronou,n is a part of speech used instead of a
noun.
Ex.-I saw you. Mary promised to lend Joseph her book,
that he might read it. Who is it that yow mean?
An adjective is a part of speech used to qualify or
limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoup..
Ex.-This is a bright day. · James is happy, because
good. Thia little twig bore that large, red apple.

h~·is

A verb is a part of speech used to express action or
being of a subject.
Ex.-John went into the city. The trees are in blossom.
The pupils have studied their lessons.

An adverb is a part of speech used to modify the
meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Ex.-You should speak correctly. He lives _in an extremely
warm climate. The pupils listened very attentively.

A preposition is a part of speech used to connect
words, and to show the relation between them.
Ex.-We live,in the city. My brother spoke to him.
hat is under his arm.

His

A conjunction is ·a part of speech used to .connect
words, phrases, or clauses.
Ex.-The pen and the pencil are fo~nd. Your book mus_t
be in· that room or in the hall. I will read you a story, if
you listen.

An interjection is a part of speech used to cry out,
or to express unusual emotion' or feeling.
Ex.-Alas / that great city! · Oh I my hand ia hurU What!
must you go?

31

An expletive is a par~ of.speech used for euphony.
Ex.-Tliere is a good spring by that tree. Work, work in
the dull December Iight. They make even toil to please.
Questions.-Define a noun. Give examples. lllodel.-ln the sentence, Lions and ostriches are found in Africa, lions, ostriches, and
Africa are nouns, because they are parts of speech used as names.
Give other examples of nouns. Define a pronoun. Give examples. lllodel.-In the sentence, I saw you, I and you are pronouns,
because they are parts of speech used instead of nouns. Define
an adjective. Give ·examples. Define a verb. Give examples.
Define an adverb. Give examples. Define a preposition. Give
examples. Define a conjunction. Give examples. Define an
interjection. Give examples. Define an expletive. Give examples.
in

·Tl1e pupils shoul<I,.be required to give examples not found In the text; and
nil Cll8cs they should be gben nndorstandlngly. ·

32.

Of the Verb and Its Subject.

A noun or pronoun, denoting that of which a verb
expresses action or being, is called the subject of the verb;
as in the sentence, The horse runs; the object horse
is that of which the verb run.s expresses action; hence
the wprd horse is the subject of the verb runs.
Obs.-Although strictly speaking, the subject is the word,
yet the term subject is frequently used by figure of speech to
mean the thing which the word represents; as the sentence,
·"The verb expresses action of a subject," means .t hat the verb
expresses action of the tliing represented by the subject.

33. Models for Exercise.
Pupils read.
In this sentence the word 1·ead expresses action ·of pupils ;
hence the noun pupils is the subject of the verb read.

'

.. ·

32
'

PRIMf\.RY GRAMMAR.
'.

~ •

'

NOUNS.

l

John iB a farmer. . .
-,

':"

-.

t

I

,

.
,

•

'

,

In this sentence the verb iB expresses being qf John; hence
the noun John is the subject of the yerb is.
.
Describe the subjects and verbs.

John walks slowly. The grass is green. The boy
studies diligently. Mary loves study. The cars run
rapidly~ We live with our, brother. The Amazow is
the longest river in the world. Henry found a gold
dollar. The elephant's tusk is white. The Indians
pa1nt themselves. She is very beautiful. I will give
you .the pencil. Joseph has been sick. Did you see
the cars run? The soldier was carried to the hospital.
Write subjects to the following verbs.
--a~.
- - is coming.
- - break;:;.
- - are going.
- - smile.
- - may be broken.
- - will have recited. - - was sold.

--reads.
--writes.
--grows.
--bends.

Write verbs to the following subjects.
Farmers - - .
The men - - .
The wind - - .
Her head - - .

We-.-.
You - - .
Lofty trees - - .
The old bird - .
The night - - dark.
They - - .
The Queen Victoria - - . Good children--.

Write twelve expressions, each containing a verb and its subject.

34:. Of the Noun.
A part of speech used as the name of an object is a
noun.
A noun may be the name of a sensible object; as,
man, tree, river; or it may be the name of an ideal
objeqt; . a~, wisdom, truth,, .sin. . .
.. , ,, ,
Tiie word rioun means name.

33

An object which may be perceived by one or more
of .the senses is a seMible object. That which we can
think of~ but cannot perceive by the senses, is an ideal
object.
Names which may be applied to all things of a kind
are common nouns; as, man may be applied to all
men; town to all towns; and goodneBB to all good acts;
therefore, man, town, and goodness are common nouns.
Names which are applied to individuals are proper
. nouns; as George Washington means a particular man;
Pittsburgh is a particular town; and Amazon is a particular river; t~refore George Washington, Pittsburgh,
and Amazon are proper nouns.
Common nouns are general names, ·because they are
applioo to things of a kind in general.
·
Proper nouns are particular names, because they denote a particular one of a kind.
·
35. Models for Exercise.
The fire bµrns brightly.
Fire is the name of an object; and since the object can be

perceived, by the senses of sight and feeling, it is a sensible
object.
Time flies swiftly.
Time is the name of an obj~ct; and since the object can
not be perceived by any of.the .senses, it is an ideii.l object.
Describe the names of objects.

Mary has a new slate. The book is lost. He carried
his dinner. Ellen loves her parents. She always tells
the truth. The sun gives us light and heat. Spring
will soon begin. Winter is the coldest season. , The ·
boy told a falsehood. The pupils study long lessons.
c
.

~~------------------ -·-

- - - --

(,

34

35

PRIMARY GRAll!ll!AR.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

Where is my pencil? Give me an apple. He has
written a copy. Will your brother let us ride on his
sled?
36. Definitions.

float long, heavy rafts. The moon and the stars were
shining. George and his sister are coming to the
city. Wealth often produces misery.

A noun is a part of speech used as the name of an
object; as, boy, virtue, Mary.
Nouns are divided into two classes, called c9mmon
1
"
nouns and proper nouns.
A common noun is a general name; as, man, river,
kindness.
A proper noun is a particular name; as, Napoleon
Bonaparte, New York, Nile.

38. Properties of Parts of Speech.

Que~tions.-What is a word used as the nam~ of an ~bject called?
What is a sensible object? Name three sensible objects, and tell
by which of th.e senses they are distinguished. Name th~ee ideal
object.a. What kind of nouns are names that can be applied to .all
things of a kind? What kind of nouns are names that are applied
to individuals? Give examples of each class. Why are general
names called common nouns? Why are particular names called
proper nouns?
Define a noun. Into what classes are nouns divided? Define a
common noun. Define a proper noun.

37. Models for Exercise.
John has studied his lesson.
.John is the name of an object, hence it is a noun; since it
is the name of an individual, it is a proper noun.
Lesson is the name of an object, hence it is a noun; since
it is a general name, it is a common noun.
Describe the nouns in the following sentences.

Joseph knew his brethren. Most boys love to play.
My father bought the man's farm. He rode in the cars
to New York. The book lay before him on the t~ble.
Washington was a truly great man. Large, deep rivers

Some of the parts of speech have properties.
The property of a part of speech is a peculiar meaning which belongs to it; as, book denotes but one book;
and books denotes more than o'he book, therefore there
is a property of the noun to denote the number of objects which it rep140sents.
Working means present action; worked means past
action; therefore there is a property of the verb to denote the time of the action it represents.
Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs have
properties; the other parts of speech have no properties.
Questions.-Wha.t is said of some of the parts of speech? What
is meant by the property of a part of speech? Give the first example. Give the second example. Which parts of speech have
properties? Which parts of speech have no properties?

39. Gender.
John denotes an object of the male sex; Mary denotes
an object of the female sex; and river denotes an object
without sex; therefore there is a property of the noun
to denote the sex of the object or objects it .represents.
This property is called gender.
Nouns which are used to denote males are of the
masculine gender.
Nouns which are used to denote females are of the
feminine gender.
Nouns which are used to denote either a male, a
female, or both are of the common gender.

36

. PRIMA.RY GRA.MMA.R.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

Nouns which are used to denote things without sex
are of the neuter gender.

37

Where has the girl gone?
G.l rl is the name 9f an object of the .female sex, hence· it

is of the feminine gender.

40. Definitions.

She gave it to the chil,d.
Child is a name which may be applied to either sex,
hence it is of the common gender.

The property of a part of speech is a peculiar meaning which belongs to it.
Gender is a property of the noun which relates
to
;
sex.
There are four genders, the masculine, the jeminine,
the common, and the neuter.
}'

Have you seen my slate f •
Slate is the name of an object without sex, hence it is of

the neuter gender.

The masculine gender denotes males; as, boy, man,
John, uncle.
The CemJntne gender denotes females; as, girl, aunt,
Mary.
.

Describe the*'nouns in the following.

My father will, go with me. Give John the book.
He was sitting on the box. Where has your sister
lived? I saw Henry playing in the yard. The moon
was just rising. James has broken a chair. Love
your parents~ He was mayor of the city. The birds
are singing sweetly. The leaves are · changing their
color. His servant came with him. Is your 'uncle
improving? Attentive pupils do learn. This is my
landlady. She was a beautiful bride.

The common gender denotes males, females, or
both; as, cousin, pupil, children.
The neuter gender denotes things without sex; as,
clesk, time, ocean.
Questlons~-What is said of the nouns John, Mary, and rivert
What property, therefore, have nouns? What is this property
called? What nouns are of the masculine gender ? What nouns
are of the feminine gender? What nouns are of the common gender? What nouns are of the neuter gender?
Define the property of a part of speech. Define gender. How
many genders, and what are they called? Define the masculinegender. Define the feminine gender. Define the common gender.
Define the neuter gender. Name three nouns of the masculine
gender. Name three of the feminine. Nariie'threeofthe common.
Name three of the neuter.

41. Models for Exercise.
· Tell the boy to come.
Boy is the name of an object of the male sex, hence i.t is

of the masculine ,gender.

·

42. Person.

.··
"

A noun may be so used as to denote the speaker, the
object addressed, or the object spoken of.
This property of the noun is calleQ. person.
A noun denoti~g the- speaker is said to be of the
first person. .
.
A noun denoting the object addressed i1l saia to be
of the second person.
A noun denoting the object spoken of is said to be
of the third person.·
Since the noun may denote the speaker, the obj~ct
addressed by the speaker, or the object spoken of -by
4

38

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

the speaker; person is a property of the noun which
relates to the speaker.

39

You may speak to my father.
Father in this sentence is the name of the object spoken

of, hence it is of the third person.

43. Definitions.
Person is that property of the noun which shows

its relation to the speaker.
Nouns have three persons, the first, the second, and
the third.
...
The :first person denotes the speaker; as, I, John,
will go.
The second person denotes the object addressed;
as, John, you may go. Listen, 0 Earth.
The third person denotes the object spoken of; as,
We saw Mary. They went to the city.
Obs.-Strictly speaking, person is a property of the pronoun. It is a property of the noun in connection with other
words.

Describe the nouns in the following.

Ellen; you may have my basket. They are coming
to the city soon. I, your father, wish you to do it.
My son, where are you going? _D id William bring the
apples? Paul, thou art beside thyself:- These rivers
are deep. The minstrel wa.S infirm and old. Reading.
is pleasant. Children, you must make haste to school.
Soul of the just, where is thy home? I, Paul, beseech
you.
I

45. Number••
A noun may be used to denote one object; as, boy; or
it may be used to denote more than one object; as, boys.
This property of the noun is called number.
A noun which denotes but one is said to be of the
singular niimber.

Qnestlons.-rWhat may a noun be used to denote? What is this
property called? What is said of a noun <;lenoting the speaker?
What of a noun denoting the object addressed? What of a noun
denoting the object spoken of? To what does this property relate,
and why?
Define person. How many persons have nouns? What are they?
Define the first person. Give examples. Define the second person.
Give examples. Define the third person. Give examples.

· A noun which denotes more than one is said to be of .
the plural number.
A noun which denotes one is said to denote unuy.
A noun which denotes more than one is said to de. note plurality.

44:. Models for Exercise.

Number is a property of the rioun to distinguish
unity and plurality.
There are two numbers; the singular and th~ plural.

I, James, saw your brother.
.JaIDes in this sentence is the name of the speaker, hence

it is of the first person.
Boys, give attention to me. .
Boys in this sentence is the name of the objects addressed,
hence it is of the second person.

46. Definitions.

The singular number expresses but one; as, boy,
woman, knife.
The plural number expresses more than one; as,
boys, women, knives.

40

PRIM,ARY GRAMMAR.

PBOPERTIFS OF NOUNS.

47. Formation of Plurals.

represent, are-used.enly in the, smgula:r ;. as, gold, flour,
milk, molasses.
7. Some nouns are used only in. the plural; as, ashes,
oats, tongs.
_
.
8. Some nouns have the same forms in both numbers;.
as, sheep, deer, swine.

Nouns have different methods of forming their
plurals.
Plurals formed by adding sores to the singular are
called r~ul,ar plwrals.
Plurals otherwise formed are called irregular plurals.
Rules for Regular Plurals.

;•

1. Nouns ·whose last sound will unite with s takes
only; as, pins from pin; hopes from hope; charms from
charm.
2. Nouns whose singular ends in s, sh, or ch, take
es; as, passes from pass; bushes from bush; inches from
inch.
3. Some nouns ending in o take s; as, folios from
folio; grottos from grotto.
4. Other nouns ending in o, take es; as, heroes from
hero; potatoes ~rom potato.
Rules for Irregular Plurals.

1. Some nouns ending in f and fe, drop this ending,
and take ves; as, knives from knife; halves from half. ·
2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, drop
this ending take ies; as cities from city; cherries from
cherry.
3. Letters, figures, and signs take the apostrophe and
s; as, a's from a; S's from 8; +'s ~rom +.
4. Some nouns form their plurals very irregularly;
as, f eet from foot; oxen from ox; children from child;
mice from mouse.
5. Compound words gen ~rally change the basis or
principal part; as, bondmen from bondman; cupfuls from
cupful.
6. Some nouns from the nature of the things they

41

Spell the plural of the following words.

Door, face, slate,.box, pinch, play, window, leaf, pipe,
-fife, lady, tooth, watch, valley, wiSh, girl, man, sty,
goose, son-in-law, calf, m, tomato, fancy, scarf, chair,
7, piano; man-servant, chimney, blackboard, measles,
scissors, penny, brother...
Questions.-What may a noun be_used to denote? What is this
property called? What is said of a noun which denotes but one?
What of a noun which denotes more than one? What is said to
"
denote unity? What is said to denote plurality?
- Define number. How many numbers f What are they? Define
the singular number. Define the plural number. Give examples
of each kind.
What kind of plurals are called regular plurals? What kind are
called irregular ~lurals? What nouns form their plurals by the
addition of B to tlie singular? What nouns take es to the singular?
How do nouns ending in o form their plurals? ' Give examples of
those which take B only. Give examples of those which takes es.
Give examples of nouns which are used only in the singular. Give
examples of nouns used only in the plural. Give examples of nouns •
having the same form in both numbers.

48. Models for Exercise.
The boy has bo_u ght new books.Boy is the name of but one object, hence it is a noun of
. the singular number.
Books is the name of more than one object, hence it is a
noun of the plural number.

42

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

Describe the nouns in the following.

'

,·

These are sweet cherries. Where are the boys playing? I saw three mice. The wind has blown the tree
down. The man and his horse are out in the rain.
We found the birds' nest. Thomas saw the tree fall.
Stewart sells ladies' dresses. My brother's books are in
his desk. The earth .was refreshed by the showe~s.

4:9. Relations of Nouns.
In the formation of sentences, the noun may be used
for different purposes; and these purposes are called its
relations.
The principal relations of nouns arelst. The subject relation to a finite verb; as, Mary
studies.
2d. The possessive relation to another noun; as,
This is Mary's book.
3d. The objective relation to a verb or a preposition; as, He saw Mary. He spoke to Mary.
4th. The defining relation to a noun, or a pronoun; as, The apostle John was loved. He, John, was
there.
5th. The predicate relation, being used a\! the
complement of the verb; as, It was Mary.
6th. The adverbial reJation, when it expresses
time or quantity; as, He went last week. He walked
twenty miles.
7th. Nouns have sometimes no grammatical relations tO other word;'!; as, John, study your lessons. Oh,
-foolish ma:;,;!
•·

43

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

Questions.-What are the purposes for which nouns are used in
a sentence called? What is the first relation named? Give a
· sentence containing a noun in that relation. Name the second
relation, and give example. Name the third relation, and give
examples. Name the fourth relation, and give examples. Name
the fifth relation, and give example. Name the sixth relation, and
give examples. What is said of some other nouns?

50. Case.
Case is a property of the noun which shows its relation to other words.
Nouns have four cases; the nominative, the possessive,
the objecUve, and the absolute.
A noun is in the nominative case:1. When it is the subject of a finite verb; as, John
walks. John is wise.
2. When it has the predicate relation; as, John is a
scholar. He was called John.
3. When it h~s the defining relation to another noun
in the nominative case; as, John the carpffnkr arrived.
Paul the apostle preached.
A noun is in the possessive case:1. When it denotes possession, origin, or design; as,
John's book. The teacher uses Gillott's pens. James
sells children's shoes.
2. When it has the defining relation to another noun
in the possessive case; as, Victoria the queen's picture.
Byron the poet's works.
A noun is in the objective case:1. When it is the object of a verb; as, He saw John.
2. When it is the object of a preposition; as, He spoke
to John.
3. When it has the defining relation to another noun
in the objective case; as, He saw Napoleon the e1mperor.
He showed us platinum, the heaviest metal known.

'

44

PRQJ'Jm~IES

PRIMAI{Y GR.AMMAR.

A noun is in the absolute cas~ :1. When it denotes the object of direct address; as,
John, study your lesson. Go not, my son, in the way
of bad men.
2. When it is used as an exclamation, or the principal word in an exclamation; as, Oh, the folly of sini ,.:
ners I What surprising genius I
3. When used as the subject of a participle, and independently of other words; as, The sun having risen~
we departed.
4. When used as an elliptical expression, such as the
title of a book, subject, chapter, or other heading; as,
Webster's Dictionary. Human Dmy. Daily DiqJatch.
Section 4th.
5. When used in an adverbial ~ense, without a preposition; as, He lived two centuries ago. The street is
sixty feet wide.
6. When it follows the verbal noun being; ati, I
doubted his being a soldier.

The nominative, objective, and .absolute cases of
nouns are alike in form, and must be distinguished
· by their 'relations.
. .
The possessive case is formed from the nommative
by annexing an apostrophe and s, or an apostrophe
only~
.,
· •
'This addition is called the sign of the possessive case.

51. Rules for forffiing the Possessive Case. ·
1. Noun's not ending in the sound of s or z take the
apostrophe and s; as, man, man's; men, men's; John,

John's.

\

·

2. Plural nouns end'ing ins take the apostrophe only;
as, The boys' books. "re.lie girls' lessons.
·

45

OF NOUNS.

3. Singular nouns ~n:ding in the sound of s or z generally take the apostrophe and s; as, Collins's odes.
. Burris's poems. o James's writing.
Afew take the apostrophe only; as, Achilles' shield.
Conscience' sake.
·
In the .case of singular nouns ending in the sound
of s or z, the s after the apostrophe adds a syllable to
the pronunciation; as, James's is pronounced James-is.
When euphony does not permit such addition, the
apostrophe only should be used; as, Davies' Mathematics,-not Davies's (Davies-is) Mathematics.
'

52. Declension.
To decline a noun is to express its numbers and
cases.
Singular.
Nam. 1ady,
Poss. lady's,
Obj. lady,
Abs. lady,

Plural.
ladies,
ladies',
ladies,
ladies.

Si,ngu'lar.
man,
man's,
man,
man,

Plural.
men,
..
men's,
men,
men.

The apostrophe and s ('s) is a contraction of the old
possessive sign es or is; as, The kingis crown.
Spell the possessive case of the following nouns.
Teacher,
Mary,
wisdom,
woma~,

goodness,
consci!'lnce,
Phillips,
AugustU:S,

Burns,
Wells,
horses,
eagle,
eagles,
John,
oxen,

tutor,

James,
Thomas,
Charles,
children,
actress,
Willis,
girls,
mother-in-law,

passenger,
Moses,
ministers,
tutors,
mouse,
mice,
neighbors,
empress: ·

I
·1

I

•

......~----------~----- ·--- - 46

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

53. Motlels for Exercise.
The boy is playing.

PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

47

are thy beams, 0 Sun? Pittsburgh, December 4th
I I
1872. Oh, the folly of sin! We saw Grant, the president. The mist melted away in the morning.

Boy in this sentence has the subject relation to the finite

verb is playing, hence it is in the nominative case.

54. Parsing.

Jane's slate is lost.
in this sentence has the possessive relation to the
· ''
noun slate, hence it is in the possessive case.

Naming the parts of speech, and telling their classes,
properties, and relations according to a set form is called
· parsing.

I saw a bird in a cage.

Parsing is naming the parts of speech, and telling
their classes, properties, and relations according, to a
set form.

.Jane's

Bird in this sentence has the objective relation to the verb

saw, hence it is in the objective case.
CJage in this sentence has the objective relation to the preposition in, hence it is in the objective case.

Mary, the diligent pupil, stands first.
Pupil in this sentence has the defining relation to the
noun Mary, which is in the nominative case; hence pupil is
in the nominative case.
He is an honest boy.
Boy in this sentence has the predicate relation to the verb
is, being its complement, hence it is in the nominative case.
He walked many miles.
Miles in this sentence has the adverbial relation, since it

expresses quantity, hence it is in the absolute case.
Mary, where are your books?
Mary in this sentence has no grammatical relation to the
other words of the sentence, hence it is .in the absolute case.

Describe the nouns in the following.

The sun gives light by day. John owns a pretty
bird. My son, speak gently. Farmers mow the grass.
The queen Victoria is loved. Where were you last
night? Milton, the great English poet, was blind.
I gave it to Mary, the minister's daughter. ·Whence

5b. Models for parsing nouns.
The pupil,s recited well this morning.
Pupils is a noun, common; of the common gender, third

person, plural number, and in the nominative case, being the
subject of the verb recited, according to Rule !.-The subject
of a finite vedtis in the nominative case.
Questions.-Why is the ivord pupils a noun? Why of the common gender? Why of the third person? Why of the plural number? Why in the nominative case?

MOJ'.D~ng is a noun, common; of the neuter gender, third
~erson, smgu!ar number, and in the absolute case, being used

m an adverbial sense, according to Rule Vl-A noun or pronoun not ~therwise governed, is in the absolute case.
We have lost John's ball.
John'~ is a noun, proper; of the masculine gender, third
person, sm~ular number, and in the possessive case, having
the possessive relation to the noun father, according to Rule
l!I.-A noun or pronoun denoting possession, is in the possessive case.
Ba~I is a noun, common; of the neuter gender, third person, smgular number, and in the objective case, being the

48

PRIMARY GRAMMAR.

PRONOUNS.

object of the verb have lost, accordi~g to Rule rv.-The object
of a transitive verb i8 in the ofdective ca8e.
He works for James the carpenter.
.James is a noun, proper; of the masculine gender, third
person and singular number, aud -in the objective case, being
the ,object· of the preposition for; Rule V.-The ofdect of a

prep<>Bition is in the objective case.

l ..... ·

()arpe,nter is a noun, cqmmon; of the masc~line gender,
third person and singular number, and in the objective case,
being in opposition witP. the noun James; Rule II.-.A noun
or pronoun in oppolfition i8 .in the same case as the substantive

whwh it limits.
Parse the nouns in the following sentences.

Mary's bird sfogs. America was discovered. The
moon is 13)1ining. Her head aches. His daughter
Sarah sings. The pupils were reciting. Fishes swim
in the sea. The king of France fled. The river is
forty miles long. John, make haste to school. Osgood's
Speller. The cat caught a mouse. We saw an eagle's
nest. The pupils study and recite. L::i,bor brings
pleasure. Anger rests in the bosom of the wicked.
The patriot loves his oountry. We attended the funeral
of Meade, the general. Oh, happy people I Surely
goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of
my life. Thomas moved from the city to the country.
Chapter 40th. Hope, the balm of life, lightens every
misfortune. .· False delicacy is affectation.

56. Of the Pronoun.
Certain words are used instead of nouns; as :in the
sentence, Mary has a book, and she reads it; the ·word
she is used · instead of the noui:i Mary, and the word it

49

is used instead of the noun book. Such words :are
called pronouns. ,
,
Pro means for, hence pronoun means for a noun.
.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they have the same
propertieJJ as nouns; gender, person, number, and case.
, They must have the same gmder, person, and number
as the ;llOuns for which they stand; but their case may
be different.
Certain pronouns have a form to denote whether
· they are of the first, the second, .or the third per~n;
such pronouns are called personal pronouns.
The pronoun I always denotes the speaker hence it
is of the first person. . · .
'
The pronoun you always denotes the object addressed
'
hence it is of the second person.
The pronoun he always denotes the person spoken
of, hence it is of the third person.

.

57. Definitions.
.
A pronoun is a part of speech ~ed instead of a
noun; ,as, John studies Ms lessons. The boy who
studies will improve.
.
'
. Pronm.~ns are of four classes, called personal, relative,
interrogative, and definitive.
·
A personal pronoun is one which has a form to
denote its perso~. .
. The words generally µsed as personal pronouns are:Of the first person, I, my, mine, me; we, our, ours,
us,· myself, ourselves.
.
.of the second person, you, your, yours, ye,· thou, thy,
thine, thee; yourself, yourselves, thyself ·
·
. Of the third person, he, his, him; she, her:, hers,· it,
~~,· they, their, theirs, them,· hi1n!JelJ, hers~lj, #self, .them-

,.

~ves.

D

6

.

