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A

SYSTEM .OF OB.TECT·T~ACHING,
l'ltlll'A llRD

~'OR

TEAOHERS AND P .A.RENTS.

WILLU.M N. HAILM.L'\f, A... M.,
l"atlf'()J~Al.

(\l" THA MNGL1$.H "-.Nl> Ql:UU.N A 0 4DK.M:Y, LOUlttVJLLIC, SUTtJOltl".

WITH .AN INTRODUCTION

.,

BY

J~JfES N. lf o ELLIGOTT, . LL- D .

Co.,

CONTENTS.
HARVARD UNIVEl\SIT'I'
WAAOUATE SCHOOL Of fDU·..:tiriON

f!\ONROf C. GUTMAN LIBRAR Y

CHAPTER I.
PAOB

How Ideas are gailled-Attention-Obj eats of EducationSchool Education,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ent.ered a.ecordlng to Aot or Congr ..s, In the ye

17

1886, b7

IVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKEMAN & Co.,

CHAPTER II.

In tho Clerk's Office of the Distriot Court of the Unitod States for tho

Principles of Object-Teaching-Order in which the Faculti es
are developed-Orner, of Meth od-Synthesis and Analysi,,__
Independent Activity,.................... . . . .... ....... 24

Southern District of New Yorlr.. ·

CHAPTER ID.
Scope of Object-teaching-Object Lessons-Scope of thi ~
Work-Requisites in the Teacher,.... . .. . . .. ... ..... .. . .

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CHAPTER IV.

GRAll!MAtt-Division of th!" Snhject-Rntranc" nf t h<' Pupil-

Names of qungs-Reading and Writing Method,..... . . . .
CHATTEI~

44

V.

CHAPTEP. ,y r.
8t.rootyped by

SMITH

& MoDouGAL, 82 & 84 Beokman St., N. Y.

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GRAMMAR, continued-Second Year-Parts of Objects-Lessone on 8inr:1e OhjPcts- Rt'view"-"'""' 1,1.-·0R-81nir· E ·u·r-

f11

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

iv

CHAPTER VII.

v

CHAPTER XIV.
PAGB

continued-Second Period (third year)-Infonnation about Obj ects-Descriptions--Method-DefinitionsAllied Qualities-Opposite Qualities- Enigmas, :.. .. . . .. ..

GRAMMAR,

71

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PAGE

NATU'RAL Hrs'l:QRY-Reasons for choosing it-First PeriodDescriptions - Technical Terms - Separate Exercises Physiology,. . • . . . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

CHAPTER ·VIII.

CHAPTER XV.

Second Period, continued - Slate Exercises - Definition&Descriptions--Special ]!'onns of Expression-Objective Case
-:-Possessive Case- Pronouns-Adjectives--Adverbs,. . • • • • 80

· NATURAL H!sTORY, continued~Comparison and Classification,. ... . .. .. .. ......... . .... ........ .. . . ... ...... ..... 148

CHAPTER IX.

CHAPTER XVI.

Second Period, continued-Telling-Definitions-Uses of Objects-Types for connected Descriptions,................. 87

CHAPTER X.
GRAMMA.R, continued-Third Period-Comparisons--Special
Forms of Expression- Comparison of Adjectives-Passive
Voice - Tenses - Relative Proxio.u ns -Interrogative Prri
nouns, ... . .. ........... ... ..... .. ... . . • · . • · · · · · · · · : · · 1 !l6

CHAPTER XI.
·G:UAM.MAR, concluded- Sentence- Subject e.nd PredicateTransition, .. .. .............. . .................... ... •. 105

CHAPTER XII.
GEOMETRY- First P eriod-Separate Exercises-Artificial Sys.tems- 1\foasuring-Selecting Shapes-Drawing,.: ...... .. 110

CHAPTER XIII.
GEOMETRY, concluded- Second P eriod- Definitions-Special
Exercises--Third Period-Generic Definitions-Measuring
- Cutting of Shapes- Transition, .... . .. .. ..... . ....... . . 120

NATURAL HISTORY, concluded-Catalogues of Classifications
-Extended to other Subjects-Technical Terms--Transition-Effect on Morals-Conclusion, . . . . . . . . . . • • . • • • . • • • 154

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INTRODUCTION.

,.
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WmT is 0BJEOT-TEACHIN11? It is important to have a
defini.te o.p.swer to this question ; for somethi11g, under
that nar,ne', is at work in the schools, differing much in .
phase, ·in aim, and results, according to circumstance&,
and yet i.ilway8 inviting comparison ·with other meth- .
ods, and complacently putting on the air of admitte~
$Uperioi:ity.
Sometimes it seems to hold the office of a mere play.,.
t~ng.
At all events, any tinge of training or instruction it may have, is exceedingly faint. Attention it attracts by an imposing array of heterogeneous objects,
·any one of which, from a flower to a fiddle-string, is .
made .the ground of a set of questions more miscellir
neous far than the motley group of articles, whence the
selection has been made.
The questions being, as a · general .t hing, the extemporaneous effusions of a brain bent on no higher pu;rpose th'an that of carrying out some vague idea of making knowledge attractive, take, of course, the widest
range and the loosest shape. No principle appears to
be involved ; and hence a curious assemblage of incongruous facts, or fancies, as the case may be, soon gather
round the object in question, all of which, probably,

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INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

and most of which, certainly, the children, if left to themselves, would better collect from observation and experience.
What child, for example, old enough to attend school,
requires to be told that air is good to l;>reathe, water, to
drink, that sugar is sweet and vinegar sour, that a calf,'
by. the process of eating, grows to be a cow, that nails
are made out of iron, and that our feet are used in walking and running, climbing and kicking? Yet, such is
the superfluous work not seldom done, in schools and
school books, under the specious name of object teaching. Shall it go hard with us then, if, in spite of the
pains taken to 'invest this process with a show of superior a:daptation to the wants of the school, we rank
it,' as an appliance in teaching, little above the commonplace c~ntrivances of the nursery?
,
·
It is :vain, in defense of a thing so fruitless, .to app!)al,
as some have done, to the authority of Pestalozzi, affirming that "ooservation is 'µle begimµng 0 -a.u knowledge.~·
" Pestalozzi's . System," as one . i~htly em11Xks, "wm~
greatly better than his own exemplification of it." But
the poorest exhibition of its powers and purposes ever
made by himself, or by anybody else, able even dimly to
perceive them, never left out the grand central ideathe attainment of clear notions through modes of observation, derivable from a just .application of the. laws
of nature.
We say not that teaching answering to that we haye
instanced above, c~nstitutes the_entirety of what is delivered, for instruction, under this name. What we have
cited, by way of illustration, comes, on the contrary, from
the midst of a multitude of other things, far enough
from being too obvious to need explanation, and. rightly

enough put among matters proper t9 be taught in
schools, if only put·in their proper places.
· We say not, moreover, that many of .these things
might not, at times, be brought up with good effect,
e:ven out of their proper places, as incidents, in a course
of iristruction otherwise perfectly regular. In fact, they
are so brought up, and not seldom, too, in the practice
of every skillful · and judicious_ teacher. But, in such
cases, they serve the merely momentary purpose of
arousing curiosity, awakening attention, relaxing effort,
9r, perhaps, giving vent to e}:uberant spirits !n the form
of a. good, hearty laugh. All this is well: But, when
these things_pass certain limits, and, from being merely
incidental and collateral, come to be made part. of the
main design, they are liable, we think, to the gravest
objection.
Sometimes, however, the process .takes a more rl!-ti~mal
shape. The aim. of the examiner clearly is t-o enlA.rge
the circle of the pupil's knowledge respecting the objects
broughf under inquiry, and not to .amuse him merely ·
with a. recapitulation of _h is own ideas.
··-"''. :But, ~1',all, ·he deals, and intends to deal, only with
~l~dJ.act.1". ' His hearers learn, doubtless, from day tO
h
.,
.. ~y. ·~hat they knew not before ; and, if · the process be
.~. long enough continued, they come at last to have a large
But what is it?
1 ~m;ount of misce}.laneous information.
' : lludis indigestaque moles. A shapeless mass, confused;
"'. conglomerate, discordant, the necessary product of such
. a method.
If we look into the books on which, for the most pa.rt, ·
this method relies for nutriment and guidance, we find
them answerable exactly to the expectations they had
raised. A world of facts lying half way between order

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and confnsiou ; y cl 1Jetle r !':tr than not. Ling :i t all. Sl'eing
Urn\ they are, en.'11 t he pvvn;st of them , fr uu l"n>ru tlio
bl 1mdc rs ti mt o ft., 11 a n d s;tdl~' d<' forlll 1It" 1n·1H·l'. ud i11,..;,
\\'lie u lLiJ.·llc a 1Ju1·c:ly L' ~\. t1..:1111Juruneu LL;:; c\ c·r1 · 1~t.' . 111 U1i~
rP spr rt. iTI <lr r d~ t hr~ c tnld r<·n h:tY f' .!-; <Hir i l'(':tsuu lo b( •
;..:raLduJ.; for. li.v tilu tiruely iul>:nuutiuu ul U1 ,~· L>uu k,;,
tLey are uuL :;elJ.vrn fmveJ, wl1ile being· flooclod filth a
mnl~.Jpiir.1~.:-

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nt f)'.v'.\t::. fr0m h ~ing , ar. r.hfi i::n.rn~ t1mn.
iiutidt'.d \\'!t.!t ~ t ntu_!_:.i11 li.t:1 t,_y u f c1Tu1'~Sii·~·l thi:::; c1uc;-j ncd. l't_·F( ·Yt.: ilt c l )1)u?~s frout the f:lta 1 c,biechu11. ly ing- n~· ai1 1 ~t t ht: !ll t'll1ud to \\"1 1 1( · ~1 t l11 ·y Jt t lri.i~it. :1·.
'l hey m1smke completely, in our view, tile ;,rue end of
~t·hr1'.:1.sr1 c· e lh 1(':tt1n:i.
Th0y F1 ·'.::-;s , in f:u· ' , ~ \i1 ' Y1'ry n1:1 rk
Luey uiw uL, ii Lhey uiw Lu llulJM' ~ 1.lluwl.,J.ge iighLI.r ;
fur

fl1 (' .V t tci ~ iJJU c.-.,~ 1 ' lt l i al c1~ J l ! l l' Ld.

Yet rcn oth cr kintl of ohj1·cl-tt-a,.lt;111_; , i~ tlrnt ,,-],ich
looks up on the obj ects, om ploy ec1 in UH · p r » cCNH, JW·rdy
or mainly ns rnn:rnH of illt tHI r :il i<>1 1. :\~ 1l1i11g .'i l<> ]i,,
s t nuiu J f ur i ltcir u 11·u s:.iLc~ . a wl :t."id1_' fr ·ni 1lw •'t: •I
i1n1ni"·,·Ii:1t (· J:v in Yic·w, t h0: S (' ~ lr( '" !.': c•ii( ·i t a I r:tn~11 ·n ~·,
tl tnni.;h L Huiu g· JJt L·r el y 11wdw. l11 .:v ttrt'. fc1r l!ml 1e·l·y
r o:tRon, m1ppORM(l to be Huilil:ie11tly know n.
\'or do r·,.; th f· rn intl, ll ~ ~nmN.h in g t0 h p hron g11t nnr],.r
regular di:ociplille , ITc•.•i vn u :i y :;r1,,tl.1:r :t!.teu l.iou. It
w:t)', uml uflen due., , gel ti·:1iu ·.·•l i11,.ic11·ntal\, as thr• ,-,],_
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tile pt1.rtu1io\1ltt pnrposfl iFl neither of these thin gs, buL t u
lirin.~ 111H11'r

Yi-v id i~ln~tr;diti11 snrn1·th11 1~~

J..,,-1n~ • 0 nhrc~y

beyond both.
I t i.ttl; c ~ , for i11sL1111 ·<'.

uf u l"1l1T.

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l11m·ll 1· ,,f roil~, a" in 11 10 f:1],fo

r. ·11rr•· 11t 111 '.'-\(1n1n

of tlir· 1l:ying f:i1 h "r :rn.J l11H ,,,11s . n11d ~li''"" l1 •>W 1·:1sy

quarters, and entitled to higlier rank us au eliucutionul

it is to sn ap them asunder when taken ReparnLely, lww
rrnri1. tn Q(l t11is '\\'l1 il1· flw .v a r .. 1n ,11rt<l t o;:_:-f·tl wr. It bffn q

.-\ n n th1·r pl1:1.;.;e <,f {)\ 1.! t't· t -! c·: u · l1in:...

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fo r(" .-., i'l that wl•kh (li;;ti11ctJy reco.Qnizf-9 nwnt:> ! devel-

opment as an essential, though subordinate part of the
work it has to do. Its aim is, accordingly, two-fold.
But its predominant purpose is to ·impart knowledge.
All its lessons,, whatever the objects, lean decidedly in
that direction. So much is this the case, that intellectual training, as such, seems sometimes quite out of
· sight. Yet it re-appears at intervals, calling out, it may
be, the mental forces, to mark the presence of sugar in
m aple-trees, and then affording exercise, in the way of
classification, by leading them to the discovery of the
same article in other things, differing as widely from each
other as beets from grapes, or as milk from molasses.
'\Ve accept this method for what it is worth; but we
count its worth, edu cationally, as not very great; seeing1
that it wants unity of aim and steadiness of direction.

:with
admiration to the teachings of our Lord, and
I
,
.thence learns to r e-echo t.he call for attention to the
lilies of the :field,
far outvying in vesture the glory of
Solomon,
and
so
evincing
the ever-watchful providence
1
\of Goel Nay, in something of the spirit always inspired by the contemplf\tion of that glorious example, it
; lirects ,the wondering eye to the whole assemblage of
;things in visible nature, and, by skillful interrogation,
realizes for us the truth intended by Job, when he exclaimed,- '' Speak to the earth and it wul teach thee!"
Obj ect-teaching such as this, however, is far from being the handmaid of scb_ools and colleges only. All
venture its use ; but genius alone is equal to its highest
• llld happiest exercise~ In competent hands, humanity
·everywhere owns its magical influence. The untutored
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TNTTIODUCTION.

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sav:lge ;<,nd the well-taught sage, allmecl alike by the
s11e1l of its power, receive with double delight the thougl1t
conveyR, because of the beauty that ushers its corning.
For its objects, like sunbeams, reveal :w ith unmist:lkable
t1i 8 t.inctncRS whn.tever they are conunissioned to 1llustrllJ.e, ii,ncl Ruch is their multitude, such the variety of
their formR, thn,t Nature herself yields not more diverRit.v. The tiniest flower n,nd the sturdiest on,k, the mur·
1 rn~ring brook and the dashing torrent, the desert wild,
the m-o nntain Rtcep, the cryRtal clc:Lr, the diamond
brio·ht-n.11 , all come quick at its bidding, as at the
t. 011~,h of a magici:m's wand, and humbly offer the boundless res01m:eR ~f simile and metaphor -at the o;hrine of :111creative imagination. But this style ?f teaching, gre~t
as is its povver to attract and enlighten the mind, to stir
the emotionrrl nature, and give to beauty, ~;ublimity, and
grnnrlcur tho benefit of clear and elegant e:xprmision,
wnnlr1 nnt. he tho most effective, were it even· always
n,Haina1Jlo, for the patient, persevering work of the
'tchool-room.
The last kind of· object-teaching here to be speoified,
is that which differs from all the rest, in having for its
exclusive aim the training of the powers of .the pupil.
Tl1is is its dignity ; this its peculiar distinction.
vVhn.t.ever, in any of the rest, occupies the first place,
t,,, ke 8 h i:ire a position more or less suLorJiuate, as a
mrtUer of course. For the mrrin (lesign 11ere is develornwnt~development of the whole being; or, ii con·
fined in its operation to the narrower circle of scholastic
education, development of the intellectual powers. On
this it exhausts the teaching art, an.d, especially, the art
of questioning.
Re, therefore, that engages in object-teaching, unde1

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I:KTDODUCTIOX.

(ri fr _this view of its pn11rnso, becnme,c; :it once, if :tt ~n fit for
LiJ the place he assumes, \Yhat Socrates, in oue of tl LC Din-

~'. ;c~ lo:.,'llf'S* of l )lato, not unwittily styleti himself '•an ac~\ ~_ couclu>u,r <:f the rnind." ri his is prcci8cly his oDleo; antl
;1
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C
1t. prl'supposcs a skillful pr:tditiurwr. It implies :t pro\,- fo1mJ study of tltat system on which he is commissionnd
L to opcr11tc. He mnst know something of mind , in n.
\
sense far hi g her th:i.n that in :which the strrtuary is re1

~~-

quirccl to kno\v so1ncthing- of marble. To spoil a statuu
is rr thing of less consequence tl1an to spuil :1 mi11d.
:'
He lL11s, in this underbking, to tt<fapt himself ·wisely
to the nuture of his rn:ttcri:i.ls:-the Yarying blunts, disp ositions, and wants of his -rmpils. H e must h:we
~nn eye to what is most tit to cnsm·e full hn.rmon ions
~· development.
He must ma:d.:; ;.. w ::. ~aoh _,,i.p,d.ividu:tl,
""- the condit.iorn; of growth, whic~t nn.tnre has imposel1,
t:__: nncl bo wise to detect those subtle sour ces of hin<1' . rnnce, which so often effectually nentr:1lizo all his best

'L _

latfld.--µarliGllltl.t.ll. To mak e tlrnm proper instnnnei, Ls-

of trainin g, th ey mus t com e <l irect.ly un c1c r tlnt stron;:;
:::_ nncl Htt'atly li::;ht., wl1ich n "vc:ils the secret of sc: cntilic
IT rein.tionship.
The laws thrrt hind them !.n;.;·etlier in
·- ·tlw fllrnn;~ cmbr:wc of di:-;co\'t'r"tl t n d.1L, the anini ti,•s
·~- tlrnt OJll'n the w:Ly of n.sce11 t to g·t•11er:tl pri m·iples, rn.'lk ing- clit<is liieatiou possible awl reiialik•, m ust be lirougl Lt

·~:;;;-

tlistinctly under the eye of the observer, if we would

:~ make the facts observed minister r ightly to true edu-

::, wtkin.

xiv

•

INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Such observation of facts and laws cannot but result
.think"· that if this be object-teaching, all t eaching that
in admirable discipline. The searching tests which it
folio~~ th~ indications of nature, and the ascertained
habitually applies to things, it no less h abitually applies,
laws of mind, must equally b e such. We can hardly
though all unconsciously, to the mind itself. Begetting
carry on any course of instru.ction, it is ~dded, under
caution, as a constant characteristic, it saves us often
"light of these two guides, without forcing the faculfrom the ever-active tendency to deceive ourselves ;
ties into vio-orous exercise.
while, from the very nature of the case, it gradually forms
Even th: author of the work to which these remarks
in us the habit of patient, laborious thinking. . In this way,
are introductory, feels so forcibly the unfitness of. the
it becomes to us the medium of that which, more than·
name, that he h esitates about using it, and mentions
anything else, marks indelibly and manifestly a well- "
others in his view, more appropriate.
·
·
disciplined mind-the power of forming clear ideas, and '
But,the name is notbi~g, so long as we make no misgiving them prec'ise e:tpression.
talre ~bout the thing. And the thing is sufficiently disThe teacher endowed with the genuine spirit, will not
tinguished ,by its purpose, which is EDUCA'rION-education
be slow to take advantage of means so important.
bound fast to its primitive import ; no mere accumulaThere is something here exactly suited to his hand.
tion of facts, which is informalion ; nor yet a mere furIn the very secrecy of nature, he discerns the most effi:- , ;,
nishing of the mind with knowledge, which is i~stru_ctio~.
cient aids to his art. For Nature locks up, in synthetic . ,
Sclentific attainment, indeed, though not its aim, is
forms, the manifold productions of her power, and loves ,· ·
one •of its necessary r esults. But attainment such as
to hide from vulgar view the elements engaged in th~ir : ·¥' "Wxn'~y· fit' one. only for the exercise of a particular trade,
composition. To find a key to these mysterious combicalling, or profession, .aside from the fitness that alwa?'s
nations, and guide the opening faculties in the effort to
comes of disciplined mind, is no necessary part of .its
take them apart, according to the ascertained law of
· ~bjoot ; for it comes to educate man, as man, to bnng
their being, is the office of the t eacher. In like spirit,
to\JUs use resources not to be reached through. ~be
and for like purpose, h e .employs the pupil in the work
training that merely bnngs bread, though often gi~g
of reconstruction. That which is separated according
' e~ ·to th.a i its best efficiency. It comes to c~ee~ hrm
1
to law, may again be united according to law; that is,
with.a ' sense of his real dignity, o.nd to help him m the
analysis and synthesis must go hand in h and, the one '·- - effort to climb a. lofty eminence, "laborious indeed,'' ao
illustrating the other, and both silently, but surely, com, . Milton has beautifully said, "at the first ascent,_ but eh;e
:.
,11. wu o"Teen' 8,)- f 11 l1 nf nr,·on clh
pro~rrf't n.nfl mP1nbining thr:ir inf.nr:nr.r for t.11 r' hr:ndit. of tho minr1 en- --· - - • ,.;n filll.VU
gaged in applying them.
_,,,. dlous 8~~ds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus
It hrts been doubted whBther rt meLhod, aiming at such ·-~!IB liot more charming."
.
Tne scht:iwe of e0ucatiouinJ.ica.teJ iu tho fo\J ,m rng
re:mlLs, through sud.i wuuu:::i, ought tu uuar suuh tt uame. r:_____
.For it is urged, and not altogether without r~ason, we
~ and cru:ried 0nt 110 far us the limits would allow,

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INTRODUCTION.

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aims at a result no less elevated than this. We bes1;eak
for it, therefore, an attentive, respectful hearing. It is 1
a willing contribution to our present stock of educational
forces, and we, accordingly, greet the w ntributor with a
cordial welcome.
He comes, indeed, with the confidence that belongs
to settled conviction, but with no pretentious air. His
performance, therefore, is marked by no ambit;.us attempt to dazzle with a show of great originality. He is,
content seemingly to be useful rather than brilliant.
For, having taken a wide survey of the field of education, and found there many willing workers, cheered by
no adequate result, because unguided, or misguided in
the use of means well-known to the few, h e has brought
for their benefit a convenient chart, engraven by ex- .
perience on the clear ground of philosophy, and .put it
within the reach of every one. And, if there be merit
in him who sets up a beacon to guide the helmsman in )/ ,
the darkness of night, what pra~se shall be accorded ~o ':
him who, under like impulse, labors to throw light upoµ ' 1 ' the path of those entrusted, ~ot with the steerage of a .
ship, but with the education of immortal mind?·
Let us, at least, give him the full assurance of a fair·, ,
trial, so that he may safely turn over all unreasonable
critics to the words of Pope : "Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see,
Th inks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be.
In every work regard the writer's en,d;
Since none can compass more than they intend;
And, if the means be just, the conduct true, ·
Applause, in spite of trivial faults, is due."

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TEACHING.
CHAPTER I.
lDEA8 ARE GAINED-A'ITENTION -

OBJECT OF

EDUCATION-SCHOOL EDUCATION.

;..::-i•+ti.,,

18

OB_'.';J]:CT TEACHING.

0 BJEC T.-TEA CH ING.

19

upon it by external .:objeCts .and phenomena through
.-diatinct,perceptions, and which, on this account, may
the various inlets of .th-e soul-the senses; and forms
be q0nsidered of a higher order.
them into clear and distinct ideas--it observes facts; '. , : '..,In both· cases, observation is impossible without
it then compares these ideas, and classifies them,
attenti01t, and the ideas obtained through observation
and unites them into more general, simpler ideas- ·
will be complete 'i;i,nd accurate in proportion to the
it observes the previously formed ideas. , Tpe former
intensity Jlnd analytical power of attention in the rnprocess is generally termed perceptio~, the latter,
spe~tive individuals. Without attention, the mind
reflection; and, accordingly, we sometimes speak of .
will ~main unconscious of surrounding objects; inperceptive and reflective faculties. There is evidently ..
- ~d attention :willi circumstances b~ing the same,
'·
.
no intrinsic, subjective difference between the two '
~Qase..the nmnber, dearness, and accuracy of perfaculties or sets of faculties, the difference is entirely
ieptio:n.s! Without attention, memory and imagination wilfremain inactive and will never unfold their
an objective
one: perceptive and reflective faculties ...
.
inestimable treasures to the mind ; increased attenexcluding memory ti.nd imagination, are the ·same
tion will always increase the variety, distinctness,
faculties exerc.i sed upon different objects; dealing,
and. truth of the reminiscences and images offered
in the one case, with externa;lfacts, and, in the other, .
jhe~ two untiring a~xiliaries of reflection. Perw~th ide~s-~he resllits of :previous ope~at~ons o~ t~~~
,
'
.
P'.a.tt.ention· and.activity of the .mind are cbnvertmmd-with internalfacts. In the one case the 1 nia~',
'
'
"1.~ l~ - tertp.s :.for we observe that the mind is never
terial upon which the mind works is offered by surJ:~
iitkDtive: ~ess it .ls aroused to action, either by
rounding objects; in the other, this material is fur; .
' . eli~x.tern'al cause (such as a wonderful •object, an
nishcd by memory and imagination. It is obvious,
mtihg scene, a thrilling narrative, a deep sorrow),
then, that perception must always precede reflec- ~
an internal cause-the will But, however
tion ; that simple perception, not needing the pro..
that may be; attention is certainly that state of tb.e
ductive exercise of memory and imagination, is.
easier than reflection; and that the perceptive pow· ? d in which the latter attends to its work, and the
ers (holding. fast the objective difference) c.an be ..
gua Mn of all observation, of aU' acquisition of.
educated with much less difticuJty than the reflective
ideM. .:
. UpQ~ these considerations the system of Objectpowers, the exercise of which is based on clear and

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20

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT- TEACHING.

21

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teaching is founded. The name, Object-teaching,
indicates this but poorly, and it wouM be better for
the success of the system in English schools if its
German name, Anscltauungsunterricht (intuitio11 teaching), had been literally translated. On account of
the simple, rational, and almost axiomatic natme of
its principles, other names have been proposed,
such as the Natii1·al Method and the Rational Method
q/ T eaching, both of which are more significant and '
comprehensive than the much almsecl and misunJerstoocl name of Object-teaching. Yet a change of
nam e;0; wun111 pr01lrn:e confusion anc1 would therefuru prove iue.xpeilient. Henc(), ancl lrnrn:e alone,
we sl1a 11 atlhere to the name alrcacl.v so generally
a11('! de11 .

:uoation may then be said to have a two-fold
!i_ect: the devel0pment and cidtivation of pie focn1_euabfuig the pupil to form ideas and purposes;
d the direction of these facultit'S, enahling tl1l' J>ll . to apply them for the purpo::;es of usotuhws:i n.rnl
Both these objects should consbntly li o
~d in view in all teaching and should neve1· lie
.pn.rnted. Man must bo taught not only to tlrin k,
and form plans; but also to speak, act, arnl exclircctncss, energy, ancl
t'nfortmrntcly, hciwc10r, llw rrro:0nt ('(Jllllilinu uf
110cidy docs not permit tlw S('liool to carry this ont
~

fu.!1:· ; foh1e tiocial principles h:cYl' rul 1be11 tl1c te;1('licr

& ,,f n· ·arlv all con trol o\'1'r tl1c pl 1Ysi('al ;\JJ 1l 1•11-r a
duties. Its ob-'~--fL.~r,r,ii;.t N-:rtion of -the rnnn11 nntiirc. of his p11pils, nml

Edueat;ion prepares man for his
ject i .~ 1,, cua!,lc1 1na11 tu lie usefu l a111l l1app.\· to tho
.-,,;;;p, ! hi nt to 1lin•ct 11i ,.; • ff,,r!--; :i~1:1<>,;t r•\r ·1 ::·- i\r 1y (,,
fn1lcst. extent_ F,:i<"f11lilf'ss :rn rl h1 ppin c·ss rc·quirc 1 a ~ ~<~•r+-v1 e1for atirm. \Ve ;ire_ tlwn_ jwdi!i1 ·i l in
li;1 nr1 1•1 1i 11 11 s. l1c·: tl!l1_1-, :1 1111 1i:;<>rr>11'-' i ·x p1 -. ·i~,, o f all tlie ~' t-'.:itinLtJ 1r.t t!w ]'ri 1H'i[>:1l :1 i1 11 "r s1·l1 "' 'l ,.,J11 .-a l;"11 is
fa.culties--,men.t:1J , mornl, nn c1 phy·si e:tl: hc·nen (•dn- : : . '°,:' -~ -. !~r~h fht1' r 1ipi1s h orr~ fr. ,f.r;rm irlrrrg rinrl l:n11~ fn 11:r (":iti (lfl, i11 its 1·011qildu SL'l!S< '. i11 ·1·1·1o ,,.,, (' lllti,-;ite ,.;,
;;
; ,.,_,_, '/,e 111. Tl 11, <11 11(111J1 t :11111 t i1 111 "f L111111·],.,],__ci·
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and directs all the faculties h arm oniously. equnll_v, : ~ic-.ur.;...'l- are only secondr..rv consfrle.•::ttioi:is, important
I1at11r:r
:111•! (11,, tc:1d1cr' s main Li.l;<ir e<JJ rsist.s in '
.um-'s~ ;___:::_JceJ, but cousitlcr~1 l[u11C' th 1I 11 i ll L :; ,. "'ll'' '
so guiding the pupil's activity, that all hi>< power><
-~lvea, if the power to form and express ideas
1
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rn:iy · ,;r !-. c'•·:"J.i:1l't' 11 itl1 <' ;ll' lr (li f1cr i n U: cir ;;rowih c:;•·
L:G.'.. iirn111 ·r iy i1 11r: nf,.,!_
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and that each may reach its full size without dwarf- ,,__._.~-~._.o.uble nower~who knows how to observe and
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O~JECT-TEACHI NG .

OBJECT-TEACHING .

· 's attention to such sources of posifrrn informa-

derive so much pleasure and profit from it, that h
will not be satisfied unless he is constantly increas
in g his stock of information; and, in all r~lations of
life, h e will soon know everythin g th at it is neccssa
and possible for him to know, nncl, at the same time

£imi as ma_y prove most useful to him ftm1 t!l sociot,r
induce him to practice the al'qnire\1 power
U1e material that may yiel<l tho r iclwst l1 a n cst
&vailable ideas; . its first duty is to find the lJest
od; its second, to determine the most expeL1ient.
of study. Now, while courses of study may
.. indefinitely there can be but one best method
.'
fotuming the form ation and expression of ideas,
· M there can be but 0110 rnollc of forming- arnl

be able to make it useful to himself and others
This is the "knowledge which is most worth;" this,
and this alone, the "knowledge which is power."
Without this knowledge, learning is uselesS---:a ro
ting carcass, conspicuous only by the ill odor of its
decomposition; without this knowledge, skill is un- .
availing-an engine without a movinoand d.irectincr
0
'
0
power. We would not be understood to mean tha ·
the systema tic "hying up" of positive information
is not a duty of the school, a duty, too, in the dis .
charge of which much care and discrimination ar
neede<l ; but simply that it is of 8econda1·y import
ance .• T11e form er is the abilitv to work, the Jatterq~g_;i0 .;-!=.m:m~

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rewardR; the former is an essential, tJ10 latter a con.~§~·~~~~~­
'"''"P''llce: UJe furruer .i.~ cuu~ L.mt, the ;:;aille at al
times and uncler all cir<1nm ;:it~.ncPs , th~ htt0r m 1i.st "'= -·""".,........
cilaugc witL L.i.mt:i a.uJ c.U·cUill;:;hLllve:::i.
Tlw fin:t. rlnty 0f th' s"hool, t!1Cn , m11c:t be· to·~':li_~:·_~.==:=.:::::
t1 1 · v 1 _· li_)~-1 ~L.:. .:. Ll. cL:.2.~:.. 1.-;1:0 Ll.10 1J0;.·.:u1· ul lvr1u..i11~1 auJ '
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expressing ideas; its second duty, to make a judicious select.ion of subjec t::; of study- to direct the

23

25

· OBJECT-TEACHING.

then Cultivate the f acultie8 in their natural

4~.

Nature places before.the child
flimm,era.ble variety of o0'ects, diffe~g inde:fiin their qualities and undergoing countless
These make impressions on the child's
CHAPTER II.
~ugh the various senses, vague at first, but
.~~~~~nally increasing in distinctness and clearness,
PRINCIPLES OF OBJECT TEACHING - ORDER IN
-;...d is 'more and more aroused to attention by
THE FACULTIES ARE DEVELOPED-ORDER OF METHOD~·-~""-,,.;.=~~::..'
...---~~ yariety, u,u~l hecowes wore UJ1l1 more• '
-SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS-INDEPENDE:NT ACTIVI'I
in"' .diaerimination (analytical power) .. rrhe
~~i:.s.-i(~
~~:.,. formR percepl·ions, notions of external

~!]~--~~-~i,~~ oh~~g~s
~oug~a~~~~s~c:s"; :.:.~t1th:::
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.;;;;~;;:::~~=ri!i·&- ~ proportion to thi: nu·i<:iy ·i i111pn~c;sious 11wd1.:
. 'I'1·r,r(rr!fr1·1m f!w 7.·11111rn {11 !Tu· 1111Z.11u1c11-f/'l!/I/ ll1e ~
.. ~~Y•
Sl'nses. Pu r ihi;-; yaridy is the rrineirfll
simple to the compfec-frO'iri the concrete,to .the ' abstrrfijJ, r--- .
."''":'~ arousing and maintaining the child's atten---frnm fl;,, 1c111},; (1; tl1f' parfs--/!'1)1/l fhe purfir·ular lo f:.__ _ 1 -;:;:;;~ ;i t1iont wh ich 'i 11· rl' (' J>t inn l)rcomcs imriossi1ile.
the gcncrcil.
=o.=~
..:~~rCfDl bestoweJ upon tills fundn.mental function
---8-;---c,1rrn~ fnm the child f n
----;~-, ,,, . miud eaunot lw ho grc:1t-inCTN'CT , nntnr0
child what it can DISCOVER ;
·tetues it, even with the matured mind-for it
TT 1·11·11 rl11.
Yl i} \18 that n11 other mmi!:t1 :-t11d, we adrt, moral
·._· ~pus-the whole vigor anJ tieope .of .u.Uucl J.llU
Although thes!) principles must
~..'-~npen<l upon thr rlcnrness, accuracy, and
selves as axioms to tho mind of every intelligent o .
:server ui lmman uature, it lll<.tJ l ie well to im1is
r mimt!Cl' of our perceptiuu::>.
npon th eir imrorbnco n.nr1 eomprch r n sivrncss in. a ·.,;
... \. ,f. mun wr of prre .~rti nns inerNtses, man:v of
ll'J '
somewhat more impressive manner than their sinpl presented repeatedly. 'rhe child greet::>
statement.
old 1tcquaint.n.nces and, looking upon nil

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26

OBJEOT-TE.A.OHING.

with cheerful attention, begins to find a pleasure
engraving .them all upon the memory, so that
l~isure h~urs it may muse upon th~m and imagi
that those same objects and phenomena are &ga'
present. And thus, with the assistance ·of memo

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OBJ'E O T-T E.A.0 HING.

27

28

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

swwl;y, never allowing the child to be surfeitedgradually, never trnining a higher function until the
development of the preceding one admits it-and
constantly, .never permitting any of the faculties to
remain stationary, or even to lose power and skill
by disuse.

'lttl.esis or analysis should precede. Some, perhaps
the majority, maintain that synthesis ahould come
first; others argue, at least very plausibly, that analysis should take the lead. In ~ttempting to find the
truth concerning this important point, it is necessary,
in the first place, to have a clear idea of the nature
of the two methods. In analysis we decompose, separate an object of observation into its component
parts. We start with the object as a whole and r:~
solve it into its constituent elements. Tu synthesis
we work in the opposite dircctiou; from a numh cr of
given objects we form a n ew one, more co11:1r.lex than
the former . Thus, if we shoulrl see a knife, for the
fust . time., we would first examine it as .a whole, in
order to form some gPnm al i1ka. of its app car anee ;
/\,\'~, ~ould then successively pass to the handle, the
bl~des, the springs, the rivetR, :m d at last to ttie
p~rts of the handle, the blade, &c., until we . should
in fmm .. 11 R11()11l all t11 n tle b 1h'I thnt
.. ti·"·f,tct.oiil>"
l) 0 ,,,,l
" ' .
may interest us in the knife. 'l'hi s would be analysis.
,. \Y\.' mi « ltt t1wn ]mY•' gi\ en to ll"l the Yari u us pn.r t ;:i of
- anothe~ knife, simila1· to the one observed , a nd, with
Urn n 8 ,~ 0 ;:isnry t oolH >trnl skill, we might go to work
' to put them together and for m ~ n ew knif~ ; or we

The second principle : Proceed·from the known to
the unlcnown-from the simple, to the comple,x-from the
concrete to the abstract-/rom the whole to the partsfrom the partWiilar to the general,. needs little comment. It is necessary, however, to remove an apparent contradiction in the principle, where it
requires the t eacher to proceed from the whole to
the p arts, o.n the ·one hand, and from the particular
to the general, on the other. Th,e former has reference to objects ana phenomena, the latter to ideas .
the former is b ased upon the fact that the observa~
tion of an object or phenomena as a whole, attending
only to its most prominent char:lcteristics, is less difficult than the minute observation of its parts-the
latter i::; b ased upon tho fact tlrnt compnrison a~d
gen eralization, the highest functions of the mind, are
founded upon a know ledge of pa r t ienlarR. In this conn ection, we would Jirect attention to a question conc erning which th ere exists little clearness nml ('(Jrtainty, and, consequently, much difference of opnion
in t ho mim1s uf teadiers; the question, whether syn•

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rn~h t g n 8t i11 fo rtlwr, :inrl , tnbn g RtP<'l , 11'~~ · >tnd
wood, manufacture the pnrts of another km~e and
. nrr t.h:1.t tho lm1fo obpn t tlwrn tn~d 1wr; or , sn111 1o ;;m

·;;-

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30

OBJECT-TEACHING.

served had been a table-knife, we might combine the
information gained by its observation with previous
observations upon other objects, an<l ,invent a pocketknife , Tlti:-i wonl1l he syntliesifl.I\ It i:-i ol1vions, then,
that aualysifl fun1isltes tLe material whi('h syHtltesis
applies. Analysis discovers, synthesis imitates,
cre:tt1 ·s, arn1 invents; the former sows, the latter
reaps. Tl1rongh analysis the world impresses ns,
tlmmgh ;;yntlie;;iR W(e impress the worlll. Analysis
without subsequent synthesis is n selcss; synthesis
without previous analysis is impossi1le. Syuthesis
is the way of the lll<mufacturer, the artist, the instructor (not synonymous with t each er) ; annJysis
that of the purchaser, the connoisseur, the student.
Analysis perc13ives, conceives, compares; synthesis
generalizes. From these considerations, it appears
that the two methods are mutually dependent upon
each other ; that, inste ~td of being opposed to each
other as two di(!erent methods to accomplish the
same end, "they are only the necessary parts of the
same method"-the method qf intel/.ectual life.
Let us now observe the manner in which Nature
reveals herself to her children-the manner in which
she teaches h er pupils. We find that she surrounds
them with an apparently arbitrary collection of Illf>tley objects and phenomena-a promiscuous pile of
matter in various states of rest and motion-endless,

OBJECT-TEA CH ING.

indeed, but equally endless in extent and confusio~.
We notice also that the thingR which Rhe offPrs at
any one time to the RenReA of t11e leitruer, are "1i xc cl
fact;;," ?'('s11lts of lier adivi.ty; tl1:Lt' :,;\in s• ~•· 111s tn
make •lilig0nt dforis, ns it Wl'l"P, to l" l:>l1<'l'~1l frn111 tlic
obsc1'vcr her mam1cr of prot11wing th.·su r<'s11 lb-her srntl1c:-;is. ()] ,,.;eni11g tl1n inti·l1Pctu:tl •l•'\'<'l•)pment. of a child from its l>irtli, we 1im1 that it j,; fir,;t
aronset1 to a <'OllS<'iousncss of tlw exist1·n cn of s11rroum1inr' thinb"S l>Y tlteir 111 oti011s anrl s1mn1b. A fow
clays aftnr hirth, it lwgio;; alrcn1ly to follow >1ith nYi de~t pleasure olijcct;; in tl1cir mot icms, to no lice l irother and sister pbying aliont the room, to >Y:tfrh U1P
motion of the mother" ::; lmsy lum11 plying tlH· JJcv.dle,
of the father's f~nt,, s11·in~ri11g C(l11tenh'<11y "'hiJr. lie
sits reading in t1in c:i.sy chair; or to listeu 11itl1 <1eligbt to the striking of tho clock, tlto tiel;i11g of the
watch, or tho crnrn r:/s j1 iyouH song. Tho r u11i11u ball,
the Ulazi111 fire, tlie l!arhnr; dog , the 110/,,11 rnttle
have fettered tlrn chil<1's attention long before it
deigns to look upon tl1e lieautifnl paintings tliat embellish the wal!K, or the hrigl tt carpet that mlon.1s
the floor of the room. Thus it will Hoon l1 :isn snrronnded itself with a liUlo worll1 of 11wi:imi '""ml
soimdin1 ohjects which it delights to obser ve. In
the mean while, brother has SO often rollCLl foe bail
for it and sister has so often shalrnn the r:ittl c in itR
t)

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32

0 DJECT-TEACHING.

OBJEOT-TEACHING.

face, that it begins to stretch out its little hands for
these playthings and attempts to roll and sh ake them
itself. Notice the delight with which it greets success : it has succeeded in its .first synthesis-1.t lw.s
µruvw t!.e cuu ectne.ss y/ its jiJ8l u1ta/,y 1>·is. T h e thiug
and its motion, the b all and its rolling were at first
lmt one imrircssin;c on tl10 11ttk min <1 : TrT10::tTcil 011servations, then, en abled it (having noticed the ball
altenrntely al l'te HL arn1 in r:in t iflli t lo 1liH l i11 ;_,'1 tiHl1 tJ1 e
object at rest from th e same object in motion-to
analyze, as it 1rnrc, tlw 7111.U away fnm1 tl 1e rnlltn.a
ball. These two impressions n eeded only a third,
the pushing of tho hall by the brother's h and, to enaule the child to apply the lmowl~dge gained-to
take the ball at rest, push it with its own hancl, and
r011v.-·rt it i1Jtn :1 h: 1!l ill 111n!i<ll1. ·\11,1, 11111,.;, if we
follow the child as it goc,.; on miri<·liing its store of
e\pe rie11cei--;_ ·w e Jiud Lhat the ~ arrtt ' 1neUJt tc1 i8 invariably \!c;l'll, Yiz., C11W/f/.'ilS is S/ICl'U d , 1/ Ui/ (liJ'i'C.o'jil!lldl!l<f
synti1csis, discovery is s11cceccled by immediate applica111111, 1:.J:;1c r icnccs ji:i:crl U!/ in1111cdiutc wul npeutcd 11ral'f i,·, '.
\\ ·c uo~j,.,. tl"• c'.1il11 hlll'l'<'h"i\'cly :rn:1lyzi1 10
rrwRy from tlw CJbje«t. irn pre8,.;iuns of eolor, weigh t,
'f j~~:--: ~

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l 1ar<l1w,;,.;, r<•11 gl1 1ws'-' . c;h:q•<'. 11rn1 1lie r , ,\-c., nm1 tixing

Lill'111 iu L! w 111i1nl " " ,;,·:•a!';Llt:

~d, ·a,.;,

11y 11H·:11ic; (l f

n.:pi::tlc,l :1.)'pE(':1 Lu11 , t'l')"':,Le,1 ,.;y1dlH'"is.
hq~i1111ing,

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only tlw synt.hcsis nf irnitatinn, itA

. 33

results resemble the. objects observed ; but m the
course of time, the child will I.earn to combine and
apply experiences, so as to obtain entirely new and
complex results--will learn to practice the synthesis
of inveu tiou. Auu llii::; we ::;l.mll timl lo Lu th e
method of all independent intellectual activity, even
in mature age'. · T,, t11i,.; rndhorl w0 mY0 a11 nnr
knowledge, and all our beautiful applications of the
1aws of n atn.re, of thE' re1 Rt iorn; of nnm b ,:.ri=;-itll , indeed, that we know and can do. 'l'he teacher, then,
· wh o would teach 11<.1.lmully, r:.mst ~ollow tLis rudLoJ,
and guide his pupils, ffrst in dear, rapid analysis ,
the11 in repeated, ·inlucsli11:; -"!Jnl/1 cs ls---:first !lie 8if1il /1esis
q/ imi./ulicm , tlu:n I/tat y/ 'invention.
It appearH, tlwn. tl1:tt t.l1osc ol1j1•d-tonl'hers who
h ave given us t.li" lll"i1 1f'i1>k., " !•'ir,.;t ,.;y1i1 !1,.si .'"', 11Jl'u
analysis," with tho r1LiJ1'-'r pl:i u,.;iblo ncl<1 ition, "not
the un1er <>f t.lie :-<i1!.j1,•d, l1ut tho on1cr of natnre,' '
l1ic1 not appreciate V l'T,Y ,.J..:uly the rne:rnillg of tlin
t erms th ey u sed. In this infer ence we arc con£rmrn1 Ly tlw fact tl1at tlic: pr11di"al <lin•dim 1H arn1
illust ra t1011s whi<'h tl 1< •y t;i,-,. i11 1lwir wm·b', l'l'' wl·,·1 l
•
upon an entirely d~fft · rcnt principl••, yjz., Hie ono inlli cntc<1 alJm·e. '\Vt• are],., [ to J ,,.jj,.,., . tl1at thcY 111 istook the krrns s.71;1il1 1·sis :111,l 1111111!1·' /.,·, r•'"JH'<'l i\'C•ly,
for imlucl/1111 aml d"d1ll'f/1111, terms wliicl1 apply 011ly
to jmlgm ent. If so, l!w mran il'ff of the p1i1wi1 1],• i .~

~:~

;;;~~

'!

. ---·-·~·.----.-~·
~:.::-:.:::~.~z:~.
~ .cc:; •.,.-~

- - --~~~- . :;i

r:r1r~F

O B J E C T - T E AC fl IN G •

34

OBJEOT-TE :\ CIIING.

85

A

to satiate mor e than to exC1:te fn 1Jreater od i·v it !f·
These faults Objnct-terwhin;:; wouhl try to :woitl, RO
that it may sond pupils from - sdwul hnugry for
more and with sufli<"ient power, e1wrgy, am1 t•m1urance to ohtain rnor0-pupils who frel tlt<tt their c Llncation can never h o fiuish od n.m1 who lune the
ahilitv to continue it independently, not pupils wllo
are ,:1ac1 to lrnve esc:11wd tho o<1ions Rchool-h onse

tendency

correct, as far as it goes, ancl it coincides with that
portion of our second principle which requires the
teacher to go from the particular to the general.
Every one, ho wever, will perceive that the basis of
all induction is a series of careful analysi8 ; that Jeduction is not truly analysis, but a mere singling
out of an ohj ect of o1):;;ervrttion from a nnmlwr of
similar ones, proved similar Ly irnluction ; and that,
cou:-;equently, the staieJ1tent of the principle is faulty
0

awl iusuilicieut.
'l Ii._, third fWinripl1•-ACC:l"STmr
TIVITY: NEV.EH
('OVF,1\;

TELL

'l' HE

'NEVF.TI DO F n !t THE

TTTE C'HLLD 'l'O AC-

CHILD WlL\T
t

l'.)

lT

CA:\

DIS-

:JIIL!l WHAT l'l' CA.'\ DO-

seems, if possible, 8till plainer thau the two preceiting <m1'H, lm t, nnforhmatdy, is thf' most generally n eglected. Yet the teacher lrns only to fvllow
nature, to eneourage the n atural disposition of the
pupil, in orLler to fullow thi::! p1i11eiplo. TL.e d1ilJ,
11rnn inrl.=11111, is natura11:r adi \'O in t:n;ry respect,
anxiom; to m.:mei::;e, auLl tll0rel>y strengtllc:11 all .h is
rowprs ; :-tnrl this desirfl for activity increases with
the iuci:ea,,;rng }lower, until a certain ::>t::.L~Ja.rJ _o!
maturity is rea9hed. There are no persons natura'fky
lazy or indolent-they are only -made so b-y false
ed1teation. Natural education never produces such
results-and every system ef education is so Jar faulty
as it saves the pupil whoksome labor, and as it has a

-.. -*=+=
'
'X;::.

,.,.

and to have '.'finished their education. "
H the fast two priul'ipll'H r eff'r priueip:illy tn nrn
receptive, internnJ pow.,rs of tlw cltiltl, tlw tl1inl , ,'k r·1rstn111 the clu7d lo 11diril 11 . has spncial rf'fPr0111't: to
the expressive powPr,.; of t11e chilcL If tlit; fir::;t tlrn
.J princip10s
giiitln u s iD tP:1"11i11g t!in ('11ild liow !o
think, feel, and form pur1)oscs, the tlunl guitle,.; u,.; i11
,kaehing it }1n\V to ,.;:ty, t1•1, arnl l'XL'cnt." If tlw first
two principles teach us how tu 1lt'vdup a111 l cultivufe
the fal'nltif: ...;, tlie thin1 t1 ·:1t·111 ·,.; ns liow to r1;recl tl1os 1•
faculties, so as to enalJle the pupil to enj oy u::;efulncss am1 happiness.

"

•

•

OBJE OT-TEAO HING.

CHA.PT ER III.
SCOPE OF OBJECT-TEACHING-OBJECT LESSONS -

SOOPE

OF THIS WORK-REQDJSITES IN THE TEAOHRR.
FROM these considerations, it appears that Objectteaching is not a mere subject of instruction:_is not,
as some would make it, synonymous with Object
Lessons, or Lessons on Common 'rhings, but that its
scope is as extensive as education. It embraces all
subjects of study: teaching in all l.ts phases, to become efficient, must adapt itseli to the requirements
of this system. Its material i~ the universe in 'all
its extent and variety. .Its application leads the
pupil gradually but surely from a consideration of
form and size to the science of geometry-from
number to arithmetic and algebra-fro:m m.i nerals
plants, and animals to mineralogy, botany, and .zoology-from physical, chemical, and physiological
phenomena to physics, chemistry, and physiolo.gyfrom language to grammar, and so on through all
the arts and sciences. Object Lessons,' which the
Germans call more appropriately D enk und SprechUeb1mgen (exercises in thinking and speaking), re-

•

.

37

main within the pale of the system and form a part
of it, so long as they do not degenerate into Lessons
on Common Things. But these Lessons on Com~
mon Things, far from being synonymous even with
Object Lessons, are entirely opposed and foreign to
the System-the result of that miserable hankering
for the double-quick, cramming process, so peculiar
to our English schools.
The introduction .of the system of Object-teaching
does not introduce new courses of study, but only a new
method· of teaching the established courses-a method ·
claiming to follow more logical principles. The
purpose of its discoverers and' expounders, from
Socrat~s down to Pestalozzi and his followers, was
1~~1/~{pot and · i~ n~t to . innovate, but to improve-not to
I,· .1 \';/_confuse, . but to regulate, to simplify. ' Teachers, in
i ','.:·; .all times, as far. a~ they wer~ truly su6cessful, have
followed the prrnc1ples of this system ; but, not fol. i :'.lowing them consistently and thoroug~y, t)ley were
j'
only partially successful.
1~t·t'
Tb show how the system will. enable them ' to be
j . wholJ.y successful, is the aim for which this little

.

·'
tt

,

It would require volumes to accomplish this fully and in detail with every subjec~
of study ; a full expose of even one subject would
lead us int~ many tedious mi.ri.utiro, and would lay
the book open to the clanger of being used as a text-

··1· . book was written.

38

I

r

39

OBJECT-TEACHING.

qBJE 0 T-TEAO HING.

book by incompetent or indolent teachers. We are
content, therefore, to merely indicate the application
of its principles in a fow typical subject::> of .1::>tuJy:
Grammar, Goometry, and Natural History. Of
course, we do not me~n to give full information concerning these subjects ; we (Lo not intend to write
an exhaustive didactic treatise on gram.mar, geometry, and natural history, but we would merely show,
by means of a few practict1l illu.strations .and hints,
how these subjects may be handled in obedience to
the principles of the system. Also wo do not mean
to imply that the system of Object-teaching is applicaLle to theBo Lrnnches alone, but we }i,,,-e selected
them merely because its principles can be most
clearly and completely illustrated with them. At
the same time, we shall limit ourselves in the :first
subjeet, principally to the coustruction 0£ langiJage;
in the second, to elementary geometry ; in the
third, to botany anJ :wology.
Before we proceed to these illustrations, it may be
useful to indicate, in a general ·way, a fuw requisites
on the part of the teacher, without which he could
never have success in this method. These remarks
may be trite; but the little attention p11iJ Ly a number of t eachers t o the requisites discusseJ in them,

preciate the whole ;nature, importa:dce, and scope of
the responsibility which his profesS'ion imposes on
h.iru. The schooJmn;;t.•"r wLo it:i not fully impressed
with the vast influence which he exerts by example
and word upon his pupils; the youngster who merely
uses this professioft as a stepping-stone to some
other cn.lling, which he, in his selfish narrowm:indedness, consi~ers higher, because more lucrative; the person wl10 embraces the trade of ·8dwolkeeper for the want of capital to become a shopkeeper ; tho stripling who by sol.fish an<l unpriucipled friends is put on the rostrum for the purpose
of "finishing" hiR own "ell w:atiun" tLt Uw expens t ~
of the young, budding minds of a wh ole villagA; tlVJ
veteran "dealer in hoys nml birch, wl1n considPrR
the boys, from whom he gathers his harvest, as so
much corn which mu:-it 1)(\ lhrcRhcc1 aml knockctl
·about the ears" J:>efore a grain 0£ sense can be extracted; the p edant who comiiclers himself a vast
show-house of knowledge, where the astonished
and delight.eel urchins c-0me to stare and wondernever can deserve the name of teacher.

justifies us in repeating them here.
In the first place, the teacher must feel and ap-

· In the next pJace, the teacher must be patient, al lowing no obstacle to cause him to recede, no failure
to discourage l1in1. Espccia11y should he r0jcet the
idea that " there must be 80rne uloclcherufa in every
class." For no child, that is not an idiot, is a 1Jock-

0 BJ E 0 '!'-TEA OH ING.

They may sleep in his mind and snul; all
those. sublime faculties, and· they may sleep a deep,
nay? death-like sleep ; but it is _the teacher's duty to
awake them and to cultivate them with fostering
care and linremitting patience, like tender, precious
plants just sprung from their seeds-not to neglect
them and set those blockheads aside as incorrigible ;
for by this he loads upon himself a heavy sin against
the person whom he has left to ignorance and con.:.
tempt, and bereaved of mental and moral enjoyment,
against society.whom he has robbed of a valuable
.coadjutor in .th.~ . ·cause of civilization. The true
teacher must know the state of advancement <;>f
each of his pupils, and, although arranged in
· classes, each pupil must receive instruction adapted to him, perhaps to him alone. In no case
must he allow his impatience to lead him to advance only with the "bright" h&lf of his class
and to let the rest "catch up.': He must carefully
avoid . that sauve qui pe,ut system, so common in
English, and especially in American schools, a system that has caused American superficiality to pass
into a proverb ; he must not be qwte so anxious to
impart a great number of facts, but rather to have
those he imparts well understood. ·one great cause,
perhaps the greatest, of failure in education, is that
impatience to "go over much ·ground," the fact that
hewl.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

41

parents and teachers cannot wait. Yet the mental as
well as the physical growth of the child is, in its
early stages, very slow, almost insensible ; and this
must be constantly kept in view if we would form
substantial, thorough minds, ca~able of rapid acquisition and powerful, correct application of knowledge. The teacher's principal duty is to constantly
probe the child's mind, in regard to its capacity and
power, and not to allow it to try itself upon subjects
beyond its full and easy grasp. The teacher must
neither overcharge the child's mind nor force its development ; he must simply encourage, with unvarying kindness, its natural growth : for young mi.Ilds
will bear no forcing; and minds that have been
forced in their development are like hot-house
plants-insipid, bloated, feeble.
' Let the teacher also beware of irritability, the result of ~patience and want of self-control. The
irritable teacher will never be able to command
either the love or respect of his pupils ; he will be
ridiculed by them, or at best feared. In either case
he cannot be successful, because, in the absence of
respect, the pupil will not attach sufficient importance to the teacher's word and advice; and the
child who is afraid will not venture to utter and defend • childish views and opinions, and will never
dare · to observe independently for . fear of making

43

OBJEOT-TEAOHING.

OBJ EOT-TEAOHING.

mistakes. The teacher must be a kind friend and
patient guide, to whom the child looks for advice
and protection ; his intercourse with the pupils must
be marked by an unvarying· kindness and cordial
sympathy with all the child's notions ·and with all
the child's efforts at progress or exercise. Somebody has said that it is "next to impossible to govern
children, but extrem:ly easy to marwge them. Let
the teacher then, by all means, marwge the children
with kindness and sympathy.
In this connection we would warn the teacher
against self-conceit and false dignity. The teacher
who looks down upon his pupils· not only as inferiors, but as inferiors who can never reach his exalted position; who considers himseli a storehouse
. of all knowledge, past, present, and future; who
looks upon contradi~tion as a crime, and upon
dissension from his opinions as a heresy, will never
do as a teacher, at JP.a.Rt not in a rnpublic; for, being
himself a petty tyrant, he will turn out in his pupils
a race of petty tyrants, the very class 0£ people that
are injlµ'ious and ruinous to free institutions. False
dignity, that mock gravity which is put on by some
men as a mask to cover disgrncing blemishes and
faults, is, if possible, still more dangerous than its
twin sister, self-conceit. A person who neverfimiles
can never be a successful teacher, since, in the pres-

ence of such a person, the pupil can never feel that
ease, that want of r estraint, that sell-confidence so
essential to success.
Besides, the teacher must never fail to enter tho
school-room well prepared, not only in regard to thu
object on which he intends to exercise his class, but
npo~ the order in which the exercises ai·e to be conducted, and upon the manner in which the individual pupils are to be int!=Jrrogated. He must himself have clear and distinct ideas, must himself observe accurately and think carefully, must himself
·express concisely and correctly.
Without these requisites the teacher will foil in
Object-teaching, as well as in all other teaching ;
with them he will accomplish results for which generations will thank him.

.

I

45

OBJE OT-TEAO HING.

equal, will the pupils be successful in their studies.
It is equally obvious, as has been shown before, that

CHAPTER IV.
GRAMMAR -

f>msION

OF THE PUPIL -

OF

THE

SUBJECT -

NAMES OF THINGS -

~OE

READING AND

WRITING METHOD.

is the art 0£ conveying ideas correctly by
means .0£ language and 0£ understan<ling ideas so
conveyed by others: it is the art of using language correctly. This definition of the terms will suit our purposes fully. 'It is sufficiently .comprehensive : for it
. _includes, not ·oruy all modes of expressing ideas by
language-reading, speaking, and writing ; but ~lso
the power of interpreting ideas so expr~ssed. It is
sufficiently concise, for it does not admit anything
not properly belonging to the art.
is obvious,
then, that grammar must be one 0£ the first subjects
to engage the attention 0£ schools ; since l~nguage
is the principal, if not the only means 0£ communication in the school, an indispensable handmaid
needed in the study and application 0£ every science.
The school must, from the beginning, giye the pupil
the art of using language correctly; and in the.pro-.
· portion in ~hich it does this, other· things being
GRAMMAR

!t

.

ideas .must be formed before they can be expressed :
hence · th~ well-known aphorism 0£ object-teachers,
" Ideas beforc words."
. Elementary teaching in language implies then the ·
development, cultivation, and direction 0£ a general
power 0£ forming and expressing ideas correctly :
and this is to be accomplished by the so-called object-lessons. We would not be understood to mean
that this is the 'only aim ·0£ these lessons. Other
iinportant aims may and should be connected with
it, such as the introduction into special subjects of
study-into arithmetic, geometry, geography, etc.,
or 't he mutual application 0£ principles taught in.
these sciences. But we would be understood .to. ·
mean that it is the principal aim. This has been
sadly disregarded in the introduction of object~les­
sons into English .schools, and acquisition of knowledge about cer tain objects has gen~rally been made
the main aim 0£ these lessons to such an extent that
they have degenerated iilto lessons on common
things, and that ~anuals upon the subject. haYe as- .
sumed the form of young compendia of sciences and
arts, tending to produce that miserable scatter brain
wisdom that seems so much and is so little.
For the sake of convenience, we shall divide our
0

•

OBJECT-TEACHING .

OB JECT-TE ACHING.

{

47

J<•.

~-

illustrations into three periods; the tirst dealing
principally with tho development of perception, tho
second with conception, and the third with comparison and generalization.
In the first exercises, the teacher's chief aim should
be to gain the pupil's affection and confidence, so as
to make the transition from home to school discipliiie as easy as possible ; indeed, the child should
be taught to look upon the transition as rather a
pleasant one. Still the teacher should not go to.o .
far in this and make school duties all play. The
children i:nust feel that there is a transition, an actual change-a change, too, from mere amusement
to a·real duty, but that duty agreeable ; they 'must
f~el that they have begun to work, but tl,t~ work
must be made interesting-thej must be taught to
like.their work. It must be clothed attractively, so
that they will approach it with cheerful hearts and
willing minds.
At first the teacher gains the affection of the children, by making their acquaintance in a kind,
friendlj manner. L et him rise and approach the
children with a smiling, open fac~ ; let all his words
and gestur.es tell them that he is a kind ~en~. He
asks their names, perhaps; then repeats · them to·
find if he remembers and, intentionally, makes some
mistake---0alls !l. girl by a boy's name, and lets the

'·

±'

ammied pupils, wlio feel nearer to him for the pleasnre tlrny lin<l in r!isrm•rrin;J the mistrtko, C'Orrcct it

t

and give the r eason for the correction.
He then asks the pupils to name the things they
see in the room. They mention everything in the ·
wildest confusion. The teacher listens patiently for
a few seconds, then kindly bids them stop, and tells
them to begin at a certain part of the room and to
speak one at a time~ and, when all tho objects have
been mentioned, each child naming two or three in
turn, the teacher pointing at the objects, he lets the
whole class name in chorus the objects at which one
of the brighter pupils points. He will find that if
the.first exercise has gained him the pupils' affection, this second one has established him in theirconfidence fully and permanently, since the children ~eadily appreciate the better success they have
had. under his guidance ; and he is now fully prepared to keep in view, in the subsequent exercises,
1 the principal ends to be attained-the trafining of the ·
senses, the c;ultivation of habits o/ observation, the development o/ the perceptive f ac;ulti,es, and the use o/ cor- ·
rect language.*
The children are now called upon to mention a
certain number ..of objects (six, ten, twelve) in th'.e
parlor, bedroom, kitchen, attic, cellar, wood-house,

.

•

*

W. H. Wells, Graded &hools..

48

49

i"IB.TECT-TEACHING .

OBJECT-TEACHING .

in the shed, rin:r, wooLls, field,
i e, b urn, "tc.,
".
s t a ·11
rne:alow, g <1 nl\'ll, 11mHl, creek, on·lianl, l'ity, village,
etc. Again, they am askccl to mention objects m:tdo
of leatlwr, wuol, cotton, silk, liu011, Yehct, wood,
paper, iron, tin , brass, steel, lead, stone, glaHH, chi1rn,
bricks, etc. , or a certain number of animals, of fourfooted animals, of birds, insects, fishes, ete. In the
auswers, con,.;tant attcntiuu must bo paid to tlie pronnnciation of words- distinct aml correct articulation being one of the iirst n:qui:-;it.es of correc t
language. Yet this ;;houhl not lJe canied on to ;;uch
an extent as to umke it U:ksome to the pupils. T he
child can attain perfection only gTadmtlly. It
should, thoroforn, be taught to make a constant and
conscious, but gradual effort to articulate correctly ;
and the teacher should encourage, but not drirc.
Indeed, the child needs no chiving: it wili. work
cheerfu1h and zealously with the teacher who has

conlingly : "We ;:;ee, fiml, cnn dieicover, can name
in this room such objects."
The aliove ::;ketch L:ontains work for rnany weeks
to he clone in connection with t()a ding n.lHl writing
lessonfl, aml lessons 011 nmnber, forrn, aJlll uat1nal
objects. For r eading and writing we shall append
a sketch corresponding in extent ·w ith those objectlessons.
For this purpose, we shall suppmie that
the children have learned to speak distinctly, in different object-lessons, tho words mt, cat, hat, mat.*
The teaclter may now sin~lo thoeie words out, and
write them in various arrangement;; upon the blackboard, until the pupils have learne(l to recognize
them readily. He may then teach them to pronounco the same wonls successively r-at,' c-at, h-at,
m- at, and lead them to discover that the sound at
has in every case the sign at. This sign they should
at once learn to imitate upon their sfates. Successive lessons will then cluster around this nucleus th~
iliscovery &:1f the signs m, r, f, s, c, h, and others
for corresponding sounds. 'l'he children should
learn to irnit:Lte these in conuodion with the first,
and to write mat, rat, fat, sat, cal, lwl, etc. In the
same way, the words pi.n, fin, tin, chin, will furnish
the nndeus in; lot, pot, dot, tho nucleus at; pen, hen,
!kn, men, the nucleus en; sun, gun, nun, tun, the

the

learned
art of working with the chiltl
'fne child slt011ld also be taught to always answer
in full simple sentoncos and to ex.press the same
idea in variou8 wa}'s. This may be ~o8t renclily
ttccomplisheJ by kaching tlrn child to frame the
answers according to the questions. 'fhe teacher
asks, "\Vhat clo you see in t1iis room? ' ·what do
we find? What can you discover? What can you
·name in this roo~ ?" And the children answer ac-

• Barmud's Obje{)t-teacliing, p. 280.

50

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJEOT-TEAOHING.

nucleus im, etc. The1;1e may be treated in the same
way-combined with single consonants, read and
written by the children, until they are familiar with
the principal single consonants. The teacher may
.t hen separate at into 0r-t, in into i--n, ot into o-t, etc. ; ·
and thus lead the pupils into the study and applicaHaving found
tion of the short vowel sounds.
a short, he may form ab, a<l, ag, am, an, ap, as,
etc. ; and from these, by prefixing single, or sometimes, by way of introduction, double consonants,
he may form a number of words with which tho
child is familiar. Then he may continue with double
consonants and with the leading long vowel 13ounds
a.nd signs.
. The reaCling and writing of simple sentences may
begin long before all this is completed. Thus we
shall suppose the pupils to be familiar with the
sounds and signs at, in, ot, r, c,f, h. It will then be
Ii.ecessary to teach them the sounds and signs of
only the two little words the and is, iIJ. order to
enable them to read and write : the cat is fat, the rat
is fat, the pin is hot, the fat is in the.cat, the fat is in the
rat, the pin is in the cat, the pin is in the rat, the cat is
in the hot fat, the hot pin is ~n the fat rat, and a number
of other similar sentences.
We do not insist on the necessity of l~arnin,g the
letters in the order mentioned-single consonants,
!

51

· short vowels, double consonants, long vowels ; we
. only prefer this order, because the consonants are
the most uniform in their signs and the long vowels
the · most varied, and we have inserted the short
vowels between single and double consonants, in
order to obtain clear nuclei for interesting practical
work on the part of the pupils. But we do insist on
the neoossity of combining reading and writing'from
the beginning ; of leading the child from the sound
to the si;n, and from this to the name of the letter;
of having the first exercises in reading and writing
only in the written forms of letters ; and of not ·
introducihg · the printed forms ·of letters, until the
child is thoroughly familiar with the former.

. ,

..

OBJECT-TEACH ING.

53

fixing, in each case, the disposition of the . subject
upon which the teacher is suppose~ to have deter.mined.

1. A

· CHAPTER V.
GRAMMAR CONTrnuED- LESSONS ON SlNGLE OBJECTSPRIMARY OBJECT OF THESE LESSONS.

As soon as the exercises, suggested in: the first
sketch ·on . object-lessons, threaten to become too
irksome to the pupils or the material insufficient for
· the corresponding read:ing and writing exercises, the
teacher may begin with. lessons on some single objects. These lessons shoUld, at first, alternate with
the former : for no class of ex~rcises should be commenced or discontinued abruptly, but one class
should gradually merge into another. Before beginning the lessons, the teacher should have carefully determined what ideas he wants to develop
and impress, what he wants the children to learn ·
. '
else the lesson will be, at best, imperfect. He
'·should, therefore, keep a blank ·book in which he
writes down an outline of each lesson befote giving
it. We append a few sketches of lessons on single
objects by way of illustration and suggestion, pre·

StIEET OF PAPER.

The teacher has determined upon the following
disposition :
A sheet of paper: 1. White; 2. Fa£.e (surface); 3.
Edge ; 4. Corner.
He then exhibits the sheet of paper to .. his pupils
and, as expediency may require, asks them in turn
separately or colle<ltively as a glass. Perhaps the
· · following conversation, in which the teacher's words
are quoted, will ensue :
"What do you see in my hand?" I see a sheet
(piece) of paper in your hand. "What is the color
of this sheet of ;paper?" It is white. "What kind
of paper is this, then?" It is white paper. "Can
you name any other things in this room that are
white?" Sally's apron is white. The ceiling and the
walls are white. Your collar is white. "Name some
white things at your house, on the street, etc."
"What white things do we sometimes spread over
the table ?" "On what white thing do we sleep at
night?" "What white thing does winter bring us?"
and other similar questions to fix the impression
"white."

54

0 BJ EC T - TE A C,H IN G.

"What do you call .this part of the sheet of
paper ?" (presenting a face and passing a hand over
it). We call it a side. "How many sides has this
sheet of paper?" It has two sides. "Very good;
but you must use another word for side and call
this a face. What should you call it?" · A face.
"Then, how many faces has this sheet of paper?"
It has two /aces. " Show me something else that
has two/aces-something that has six/aces." "How
many fa<.:e!i hati this book? this mmitard~box? this
marble ? this cork ?"
"What do the two faces do here?" (passing a finger of each hand ~long the respective faces until
they meet at the edge). They come together-they
meet. "And what do they form (make) where they
meet?" They form (make) a line. "Yes~ and we
call this line an edge. Now, what is .an edge, Sally?"
It is a line formed where two faces meet. (Sally
will need some assistance in this answer.) "How
many edges do you see on this sheet of paper?"
"Count them." "Show me the edges on this book."
"Count the edges on this box." "How many edges
has this marble ?" etc. ·
In a similar manner the idea "corner" is.imparted
an4 fixed, and the children may be requested to
bring for .t he next lesson some small object· that has
four edges or corners, twelve edges and eight cor,

OBJECT-TEACHING.

55

· • ners, no edges and no corners, two edges and two
corners, etc.
In the disposition at the head of the lesson, the .
words white and /ace are printed in italics; because
the teacher is supposed to have underscored them,
having selected them for blackboard and slate exercises. These may be made at the close of the lesson. Havillg by s~me question again called out the
answer, It is white, the teacher may write the word
white on the blackbon.rd and let the pupils sound it,
spell it, read it, and at last write it on their slates.
He may then assist them in writing the sentence, the
paper is white ; and, according to circumstances, let
them write other similar sentences, either independently, with his assistance, or by dictation, e.g.: milk
is white ; ·snow is white ; the wall is white ; linen is
white; the sheet is white ; the shirt is white.
In a similar way he may practice with the word
"face," succeeding perhaps in eliciting sentences
similar to the following : the paper has two faces;
the face is white ; the face is red ; the face is clean ;
the face shines.

2. A TIN CUP. .
A tin cup.: 1. Curved; 2. Straight; 3. . On;
4. Over; 5. Uruler; 6. Above; 7. Below; 8. Between.

·-

OBJEOT-TEACHING.

57

OB JEO .T-TEA C HIN .G.

"Here is a tin cup; can any one of you tell me what
kind of a line this edge· makes?" It makes a round.
line. "Very good; but round is not the right word.
dan you tell me anotber word for round ?" It
makes a crooked line. " That is better; but I can
tell you a still better wqrd; we call this a curved
line." "Name .some thingEI in th~ room that show
c~trved lines." "Are there any curved lines about
this inkstand ?" . " Show me the curved lines·on this
hat, this box, etc." "What kind 0£ a line does the
edge 0£ this rule make?" It makes a straight line.
" What kind of a line does the edge make now ?"
(bending the rule). It makes a curved line.
The teacher then causes the pupils to point out
and oount the straight and cill-ved lines 0£ various
objects; to point out the straight and curved lines
in some letters; to name letters that show a certain
number of straight· and curved lines, no stmight ,
lines, etc. H e draws straight and curved lines on
the blackboard, and causes some children to do the
same and all to draw similar lines on their slates,
etc.
"Where is the tin cup now, Mary?" It is on your
hand. "Put it on the table; and now tell me where
the table is," etc. In a similar manner the remaining ideas may be called forth and fixed; the tin cup
and other objects placed into different positions

with regard to one another, both by the teacher and
l;>y the p{ipils; the relative positionr;i of various objects in the room determined, etc.
The blackboard and sla\e exercises with the words
on and over would elicit sentences like the following : The table is on the floor ; the slate ~s on the
desk ; the pencil is on the slate ; the man 1s on the
fence ; the cat is ori the rug ; the roof is over the
house ; the sky is over us ; the tree is over th~
bench ; the dog jumps over the creek ; the ·duck
swUi.s over the river.

3. A

RIBBON.

A ribbon : 1. Wavy; 2. Spiral; 3. Broad; 4.
Narrow; 5. Heavy; 6. Light; 7. Long; 8. Short:
The ideas wavy and spiral may be called forth by
so arranging the ribbon as to cause one of its edges
to exhibit these lines. The ideas lrroad and narrow
may be pre.sented by means of two ribb~ns of tl~e.
same length, color, etc., but differing considerably ID
breadth. Heavy and light may be introduced by
causing some of the children to £eel the difference in
weight between the ribbon and a piece 0£ le~d;
and short by means 0£ ribbons of the same piece, differing only in length. In each case exorcises 1:1ust
be made to impress these ideas firmly on the mmd :
the children point out long and short objects, name

im:g

•.

58

O.UJ l;J0'1'-'l'.1£AUHI.NU.

hca.i:y and lfr1ht things, bring for t he next lesson a
broad leaf and a. no..rrow lcaJ, arrange the edges of
flexible objects ·in wavy and sp:ral lines, etc.
•The blackboard and slate e:xer dfles, with the
\rnn1s lum/ am1 8fi1Ht, will yiulll suntl'H"''" like the
fo llowing· TJw Ji1w is loll.o..:;; tl H• d()t is sltort; t1to
pen is long; ll1e pencil is s1urt ; tho ::;late is lung;

the l>ook is sl1ort. I ham a long slate; 110 lws a
::;hurt pe11; yon l1aYe a lollg rililJon : \\tJ luLve a ,,;]1ort

cup. Thu lu11g i-'1ato l.S Ll:tL·k; il1" sl1(Jrt cup IS
green ; the long pen is lma; tho ::;hort pone.ii is
good.

It is nut c•;puolod, m1tl, i111leo1l, it cnnl1l Rc::ncel.r
be deeme1l j11di('iuns, that tho tca('her shonlcl pre-

J,,

'·

sent at each cxcrci::;o new i11eas or as groat n irnmber of now ideas as the foregoing lessons indicate.
On the contrary, frc,quont revic\YS are necessary, aho
lessons which arc partly review::; antl which present
only one or two new illeas, acconlinf..\ to dispositions
like the following:
1. Review : 1, face ; 2, edge ; 3, corner ; 4, angle ;
5 , line.
2. A Jfrd: (reviow); 1, straight; 2, curved ; 3, wavy;

~._..:

... :.

4, spiral.
3. A H1dP: 1, long (review) ; 2, short (review) ; 3,
thir-fc (new idea) ; 4, thh1 (new idoa) ; 5, 'broad (re·
view); G, narrow (roviow.)

ORJEOT -T E AU 11 l.Nu.

GS

W "' won I• I also warn the tear.her :i.g:ti.nst :ulhering

~

. i i"
.,..
~

f

i.

t
,·.

tou strktly to the limits of instruct.ion, ::ts well as to
the form of instruction, pointed out in th.is period.
Circ11mMancAR mav and. no doubt. will arisfl in the
ex111•ri1•1wt' of "very te:w11or. il.'q uiriuc; material rnoclifi ,·di" ns in h 1t1i. T" \;,' I' u 11 tlw intcr l'st in tlw
:-:nl.j,,. ·.t, t.,,,1,·.]1.,rs will lle culli pcllL'ct to use rn:rny
Yar ia ti o11s arnl nrtifi ,,es wlii"lt n11l.\' tltoir own i1Jgem1ity arnl i11tcrest iu tlie \\'()rk can sugg-nst an 1l
i11n·nt.
On the other lirm11,

Wt)

w"nl1l i111pross upon th e

rnintls of fr·achers the nec• ·s:;iiy of krn •ping iu Yiow,

i11 1111 t•:xen:isL•s, tho fad t l1at th1· ;iri 11111!'!J a illl of
thesn e.rl'rl'iscs frum olu·,c1s i,;, lJ()L i11[on11:diun al 1out
Uw ohjPct, ])l1t I/ii'

1lr,1:cluju1w11f 1.i/dnrr J'f'i'l'(cplion U!i(l

Thus, tho :;;]wot uf lJU[JCl' wat:1 not
tab ·n np \1·ith a Yiow of gi,·i11g ilrn pupils infon11 :ttion al)out the paper, but to to<ech the icleat:1, whito,
surface, edgo, comer alltl tlw clear expression of
these ideas, whenever practical >le. Heuce the pains
takPn to impresR these i1leas firrnly, by means of
various and copious exercises, ns soon as they have
l>ecn 1len,loped. lteferriHg to a previous chapter,

cle111· e.rpr"c;sinn.

we wonhl say, hence that liYoly, iutoresting appli1·a-

tion- that immediate, e:xt.onsive synthesis-as soon
as

L\10

teache r lrns assured liimsc U that tho pupils

have succeeded in grasping the icfoa, lwve snece!'11cll

GO
iu sc' tJar:tti11g it -m 111wf!J;:/1u1 it al'.'ay frolll t1H ) ob"

J., ; .

jed in 111tt.>c-d i1>J1. U f ct>tirse tlu• Plll'ils \rill iu tl ws u
lessons gain a groat deal of i11fon11atioH al1ont tlio

objects Wit'tl, all(l this infornrntitJu i:o ,,;ufricil'ntly
valuable to rcmler its acqui:oition a dcsfruble seconda,.y

CHAPTEH VI.

arm.
GHA~DL\l:

CO 'i'Il'\TED -

SD 1l';!)

n :.\H -

I'AT:TS

OF

on-

n:urs -- - LESSU"fS UN 8L\U LE (IJlJEl :TS-HEVI EWS-~EW

11 >E.\S-

SLATE

E:\_El:cic-;T:s.

Wni-:N tho chilllren havo re;tclH'11 tl1 0 second year

of U1eir ,;c1!ool-lifo, tl10y 111 ay lJU taught to nanw the
po rls o/ ul!jccts iu the :-mi 1w 111 <l lllH 'I" iu 11 hi1·h, 11nring
tJi,, firs t year, tl1cy \H:ru trrngh t to name ol>jL:ct>ci
thc1usc·hes. Thuy n :u nu t lw p:uh-; of a book (uwer,
back, leaves), of a pi11 (hP: ul, :ol1:tft, point), of a
cl1air il<'gs, ronmls, suat, hc1:k ); th e parts of a t1uor,
a window, a ho11su, a cart, a carriage, a knifo , an
inkst.md, etc. Iu these cxcn:ises , the kaehor should
bA carefnl not to let tl w children call p a rts that
wliich is merely a proper ty or an a ccident. A part
of a 1uakrial ol>j ect is n porti on nf it; if th e part is
removt~ c1, the ohjoct will 1)(-) lliminished in size and
weight: the part q/ an ul_ijcct m us!, therefore, ulwnys
lwi:r thiw', di111cnsiu11s a/Ill fir l//Ofcriu l. It is improper,
tl1 en, to consiLl er as parts the points, linefl, and surfaces of objects; to enumernte inside, outside, faces,

62

OBJEOT-TEAOHING.

OBJE OT-TE AO HING.

edges, angles, pores, etc. , among the parts. To c1o
so will give tho pupils a very misty idea, of what
par ts really are. The t eacher,* who has euumerate1l
as the parts of refin ed sugar "snrfacr, 0dgos, rnidt'lle, crystals, grains, pores, would certainly bo sorely
troubled, i£ he should be called upon to produce the
surface, the edges, the middle, and the pores, after
the removal of the " crystals and grains ;" and the
same teacher, who informs us th~t the parts of a cork
are "the ends, the surface, the /aces, and the edge,
would :find it difficult to compute the loss of weight
wLich the removal of these parts would . occasion in
the cork.
The exercises upon the parts of objects should be
varied in many ways, so as to i:rouse and maintain a
lively interest in the pupils. The teacher points out
the parts of objects, and the pupils name them; or
the pupils point out the parts which the teacher
names ; or they indicate the position of parts in
words, e. g. : " Where is the head of the pin ?" It is
above the shaft. "Where is the shaft?" It is between the head m:d the point. Again, the pupils
are asked to name a certain number (two, three, four)
of parts of a carriage, of a house, of a window of a
'
door, etc:; to name objects in which they can distinguish only two, three, or four parts; to bring to-

.

* Sheldon on Object Le1sons.

63

morrow some snrnll object that shows two, three, or
four pa d s. (Thi:-; last exercise "·ill ho foun d peculiarly fertile .) Agai n, we ask the p 11 pils to name the

part;.; of a ·win dow that :un rn adH of wood, tho parts
of a door that are made of iron, etc. ; to name that
part of a knife which is used for cutting, to point
out on a chair the part on which we sit, etc. ; or we
ask, what is the use of the head of the pin, of the
slate_-:framo, the book-cover, etc.-without, however,
entering :further into a consideration of the materials
and uses of objects than is. necessary to excite and
keep up the interest in the le::;::iou.
In connection with these lessons, we have lessons
on single objects, with the Je;,;ign of reviewing the
ideas gained during the first year and of developing
and fixing new and kindred ideas. We shall here
again, in a few examples, indicate how this may be
carried out, without, ho.wever, presenting the examples in the form of conversations, since the inexperienced teacher is too prone to follow the type so
. closely as to lose sight altogether of circumstances
requiring important modifications in the manner of
presenting the subject to the pupils. We shall,
therefore, merely give some models of dispositions
to be made by the teacher before the lessons, ·and
indicate in a general way how the lessons should be
conducted.

65

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

1. A R ule. - Surfaoo, edge, corner (review) ;
smooth, rough, oblong (new ideas).
2. A Wo,tch. -Curved, straight (review); hard,
soft, circular (new ideas).
3. A Oorlc.-Relations of position (review); velvety, porous (new ideas).
4. Vinegar.-Wet, clry, sour, tasteless, dark red,
light red.
5. P iece of Glass.-Line, angle (review); right,
acute, obtuse angles, colorless (new ideas). ·
6. A Hat.-Curved, wavy (review); circle, ring
(new ideas).
7. A 111arblc.-Smooth, rough, hard, soft, tasteless
(review); sphere (new idea).
The objects of the reviews in these lessons are, in
. the first place, to. assure the teacher that the pupil
has a clear conception of the ideas taught during the
previous year, which are necessary for the development of the new ideas to be illustrated in the respective lessons ; and, in the next place, to fix more
firmly in the pupil's mind the valuable knowledge

to the face by preliminary questions. If the questioned pupil cannot give an answer, we do not stop
to explain or cI.:aw out, but p ass to the n ext, or call
upon the class to answer ; since the answer given by
the class usually serves all the purposes of repeated
instruction for those who have forgotten. Should
the class however fail (a rare case), it becomes
necessary to ask the question in a different ~orm, or
to put additional questions. Of course, we also
omit the questions and exercises, employed previously for fixing the newly formed ideas, such as
(in the above instance) pointing out and counting
the faces on different objects, mentioning and bring. ing objects with a certain number of faces, etc.
In developing the new ideas, we are guided by the
same principles. and considerations that were indicated in the sketch for the first year. Yet we should
constantly keep in mind what the child has already
acquired and frame our questions accordingly. This
has a double advantage : it saves time and it teaches
the child to n.pply wh at it has learned. The latter
eRpncially, although so sadly neglected in the majority of t-teh ools, is one of the most important objects of ellncation ; since, ·without it, education is
reall y all hut useless.
While durin g the first year we exercise chieflJI the
sense of sight, we call into act ion now the other

64

p r eviously acCJ nire<l.
Thfl rev iew q_u cstiuns aro
theri·forc llin·ct, to the poi nt , witli(J nL any attempt

'Lt Sll'"'"Csti.11
" unillincr
or .tlrawill :.'•.'. on L•
tlt°"'I ·
- ·'"l ' h
·
O'

t

•

\\'c ask,

foi.· instn.ncc, simply: "What is a face 'I' ' or "How
many faces lrni:i Lliii:i object? '' or "Why <lo you call
thi; a face ?" without directing the child's atteution

66

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

~enses,

particularly those of touch and taste. Until
the child has learned to use both these senses independently, it is well, perhaps necessary, that the impressions upon them be made in the lessons while
the child closes his eyes. A pupil is called out and
told to dose hi;-; eye;,, the teaeh er t1wn S<;izL::-: hi:-.i
·wrist, guides tho ends of his fingers along some
objeC't, say a piece of vclYct, which he l1as uot previously seen in U1e L1-1acl1er's hm1ds, and ;mks him:
"\Vlrnt are )'OU tuud1ing ?" '' Huw du you know it
to be a piece of velvet," etc. Another pnpil may
then step out, touch the velvet to get the impression
of Hllluotlrness, arnl tlifm clo<iA hi<i 0_Y0", while tho
teacher gcntl.r passes tho onds of his fingers over
some rough snrL1.1'<e (a pie<'C of sand paper, Uie cross
section of a piece of wood) and asks him similar
questions to develop the idea and term rough. Doth
these ideas, smooth and rough., may then be fixed by
the means already indicated.
Again, we shall suppose that we had some conversations about vinegar, and that it remains to teach
the impressions sour and sweet. A little girl is
called and told to close her eyes and to open her
mouth, the teacher implying that be intends, to pll.t
some vinegar on her tongue ; but instead of vinegar
he places a drop of sugared water on it. The little
girl will startle and t ell him that it is not vinegar.

'

!I

t--:

~~~

Jt
t=
·.~··

.:

--

'£
~
--r---

- '~:-

67

She is then led- to tell bow sho knows it not to
be vinegar, what she thinks it to be, why she thinks
so, etc. In a similar manner all other impressions
upon the senses should be introduced. They may
then be fixed as above.
'T'l t•' :;n·:i tost difficn1ty in rc~:1.nl Ln tho scm;e of
taste will lie fourn1 in irnp:uling th e· idea, tastel"ss.
Am- u1 '.i" d, 1ltn11gh · t.nstekss, p1:1!' nc1 upnn tho
tong11(,, will create a scnsatio11 <•l tirneli wli id1 the
cLilLl c:1111iot well scp:nate from tl1u sc·1isn\iou of
taste. Thu chihl will say sn('11 :rn ol>j1K;t bsb ·s cold
or warm, smooth or rough, f'k. J{, •W to overcome
this ''"" nrn<.:t lcavu cmtir.,Jy to 1.l1n ti 'n<'l1 er\; ill\lividtt:tl iug1·111uLy. ~<'YL'l: in tl1n :1nth or's cxpnricnel',
h:t'< tl1i'<

llPOll

overc.01w '

i11

<>111:

L ssnn or in two

lessons, lrnt only ai'Ler repeated, patie'n t exorcises,
culU11arlliO'
the sensations s\veet, sour, etc., on the
0
.
one h n,nd, with the sensations cold, warm, rough,
smooth, etc., on the other. Yet every earnest teacher will ultimately succeed in enabling the children to
fully distinguish these impressions, and to arrive at
a clear conception of tasteless.
By far easier it will be to teach the idea, co"lor"less.
The child readily perceives that pieces of colored
glass impart their respective hues to c;bjects seen
through ·t hem ; that colored liquids lend their tinges
to objects im;;;_ersed in them, while colorless ·glass

. I

cs

0 Il J EC T - T L I C TT TX Ci .

U ll J.EC'l'-TJ::ACH i c;G.

aw1 colo rk :-;,; 11·a t .·r lmve no m ore e(fod upon ihe

color of o1jod::; <ieen through theill, thau the opening in a ring or tLe spaces Let ween the fingers.
In the sbto exercises the pupils m ay continue to
he drilled, as previously, in wri ting sentences, acquainting them practicolly with the principal uses of
nouns in t11e Hnl•ject and in conncdion with tlie
leading prepositions; of adjectives in the positive
degree ; of prepositions, where they in1licate relations of position, direction, and, perhaps, time and
possession ; and of verbs, chiefly intransitive verbs
and, if transitive, in the active voice.
For exercises in verbs, the material is best obtained in the first lessons on natural objects, introductory to natural history. The child has had a
lesson on the dog 'and is then induced to write, by
dictation, with the aid of the teacher, or independently, sentences like the following: The dog barks,
the dog runs, the dog snaps, the dog bites, the dog
sits, the dog eats, the dog drinks, the dog hunts.
Or, starting with the verb lYites, as a basis, he writes:
The dog bites, the cat bites, the rat bites, the fox
bites, the snake bites, _the fish bites. Or, extending
the exercise to inanimate objects, the teacher requires
sentences with a number (3. 6.) of objects that stand
or lie, or brealc, eliciting perhaps: the table stands,
the tree stands, John stands,-the book lies, the

i10

UJ

F::hh: l ie:-;, tlw <1og lics,-- L1H' g Li s s l 1r1::1l:-;, Uiu sbtu

breaks, tlie cup lm~aks.
F:x.· rc ises m :ty also l ie 1t1:ul 0 to practi1·c 1lifforent

fonmi of p rellic1t tion ' with t lt e s:un c su bj ed . 'I'h e
t eacher may write npou tlw ],]:1ck-bo:crJ the following outline for the guiJance uI tho pupils:
·whn t i s

'Yhat thing is
Vi"hat has
What docs

I

T l10 rlng is brge.

l'
I

l the .? I Tho

j

J og

dog is an animal.
ru10 (1og 1rn.s a ta1.1.
'l'he dog barks.

He may then, having assured himself .that the
pupils understand what they are about to do, require them to write four similar sentences about a
certain number of objects, the names 0£ which may
be given or not. ·
Again, exercises on the form ation of the plural are
in order, and the teacher need not avoid the irregular
forms in ordinary words. . The children write sentences according to the following formulas :
1. The dog bites. Two dogs bite. (All) dogs bite.
The cat me1vs. Two cats mow. (All) cats mew.
The goose fliei:;. Two geese i1y. (All) geese fly.
D ogs arc animals.
2. The dog is an animal.
C[tts
are animals.
The cat is an animal.
Geese are birds.
The goose is a bird.

.
n.

T lw

"'\'~ h :1 ,.;

T l1e

l':tl

:L SJ]()llt.

l1as a t ail.

'l'he gooso has a liill.
4. The <log is larg~ .
The <log is a quadrn pccl.

'l 'he dog barks.

DCJr;s l 1:t Y <' suon Li.
C .1 t.; li:n(' t:tib.
Geese }mve hills.

Dugs arc large.
Dogs are quadrupeds.
Dugs bark.

Exercises on person, if made at all, should as yet
be made very cautiously and sparingly. On the
other hand, constant and strict attention must be
paid to the spelling, to capitalization, and punctuation, as far as they are needed in these sentences.

~~~

,·,re~

(l

o ll .J Er · T -TI' A(' lf l 'i 0 .

70

~· ::-l-;
:;~

CHAPTER VII.
GP.A1IMAR

CON~D-SECOND

I'EfilOD

(nmm

YEAR)-

INFORMATION ABOUT OBJECTS-DESCRIPTIONS-METHOD
--DEFINITIONS-ALLIED QUALI'TIES--OPPOSITE QUALITlES--ENIGMA.8.

THE pupils have now arrived at the second period,
when special prominence is to be given to the cultivation of conception. From the sketches in the previous chapter, it appears that we do not wish to
convey the idea that the pupils are not to exercise
the conceptive powers, until they reach this period
(perhaps the third school year). By means of the '
frequent reviews, and the abundant slate exercises,
a great deal has been done during the first period to
· train memory and imagination ; and the majority of
•perceptions have been made so often that the child
has already formed conceptions of them. These may
be vague and the child may be unable to render
them in words, but they are sufficientiy clear to enable the child to use them and to enable us to con.sider him fully introduced into the use of the power

.
0

OBJECT - 'f EA.CHING.

72

· of conception. During this period, however, special
care is bestowed upon this power, and upon its auxiliaries, memory and imagination, while at the same
tini.e the perceptiye power is by no means neglected
and material for new and various perceptions is constantly offered.
Information about objects is now no longer merely a
dcsirab1e RPf'nnil:ny end; but becomes essential,
being needed for the formation of accurate and complete conceptions. Hence, iJ1 prepari11g dispositions
for the lessons, as well as in the lessons themselves,
we pursue a different course from that pursued in
the previous period. We exhaust the subject as far
as the powers of observation in the pupils permit.
And this we do rnelhodically, so as to teach the pupils
the power of rapid, complete, and accurate observation, am1 t.o pn=,pare them for concise, complete, and
accurate clrsnipti ou . A:-1 t~1ws, -wo wo11ld propose
to teachern i-.111' f, 1llowi11g dispositions oI le::i::ions :
1. A

P L ATE

(J

l' GLASS.

BJ E. c T - T EA. c H ING •

73

IL Impressions on the' sense of touch.
5. Hard.
6. Smooth.
7. ()old.

ID. Impressions on the sense of ta8te.
8. Tasteless.

IV. Impressions on the sense of smell.
9. Otlorlel':>i:l.
'

·17.

I m.pn~sion.~ on tlte sense
lU. ltesonant (? ).

if hooring.

VI. Mixed impressions · (obtained by more or lesa
complicated experiments).
11. Stiff.
12. Brittle.
13. Slightly elastic.
2. A Ruum:r: 13,u.:L.

I. /3iuM.-l, spherical; 2, lead-colored ; 3, opaque,
4, l1nl1.
II. T11 il1i.-G, vch"!,.Y ; G, soft.
Ill. Tu-~l.:. - 7, ta::i Lele:::;s.
IV. ( Jrlnr.-8, o<lorlrss.
1

I.

Tn1p;·1°8'irn1s ur1 lhc

s1!1t,o"

t;/ ..,iyld.

1 . n, •,:hrngular.
2.

(~l'U( '. ]I.

3. Tn1u<:>11<n ent.
4. J3right (reflective).

V. Suuml.-'.J, rcsomm t (? ).
VI. Jfixcd imprcssions.- 10, elastic; 11, comprcsl:liblo (? ) ; 12, expansible ( ? ) ; 13, tough.

74

OBJECT-TEACHING.

3. A TIN

TUBE.

Oylliidrical, hollow, opaque, bright ; smooth, hard,
cold ; tasteless ; odorless ; flexible, slightly elastic ;
tenacious, ( ? ) metallic ( ? ).

4. A

NEEDLE.

Cylindrical, conical towa1;ds the point, flattened
and perforated by · an oval hole at the other end,
steel gray, opaque, bright ; smooth, hard; tasteless;
odorless ; elastic, brittle, slightly flexible.

5. A

ROPE.

Cylindrical, white, opaque, dull ; smooth, not very
soft; tasteless; odorless; flexible, slightly elastic,
fibrous, tough, vegetable (? ).

6. A

SPONGE.

Irregular in shape, light brown, opaque, dull; velvety, soft, light ; tasteless; odorless ; compressible,
elastic, porous, absorbent (? ).

In determining upon the propriety of including in
these dispositions certain less obvious qualities, the
presence of which is to be determined by subjectillg
the object to more or less complicated experiments,
the teac)ler must be guided by the capacity and the
advancement of his pupils, by the relation which

,9BJE

OT~TEAO

HING.

75

that quality holds to the uses of that object, by the
necessity of that quality for a sufficiently clear conception of the object; and by other circumstances.
The names of some of these qualities, e.g., compressible; flexible, and others have been distinguished,
in the above types, by an interrogation mark to indicate that they may or may not be taught according
to circumstances. Indeed we do not insist .upon
. *lnything in these types except, first, that the facts
must be. so arranged that all the impressions upon
the same sense may be presented as a connected
series, not interrupted by the impressions upQP. .the
other senses-the impressions upon the sense of
sight must be finished before we proceed to the
sense. of touch, etc. ; and, second, that, in the . exercise upon various objei:ts, the respective senses be
called into action in the same order. In .this way
alone can the pupil acquire method in his .observations .and in his descriptions; and both his obse~a­
tions and descriptions will increase in accuracy and
compl1'lteness arid, consequently, in value, as they
increase in method.
We should also bestow special attention during
this period upon the definitions of the terms, whether
they represent H new ideas" or ideas taught in the
previous period. It is evident that this should be
the case, since the expression of the definition is the

76

7.7

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT - TEACHING.

only test the teacher can have of the scope and correctn'ess of the respective conceptions in the pupil's
mind. If the pupils have been well taught, this formation of definitions will be found a very pleasant
and fertile exercise. Sometimes, though not too frequently, during the first half of this period, we call
for definitions of the same idea in different
terms; generally, however, we are satisfied with
developing in terms, intelligible to the· pupils,
one good definition which the class will adopt
as a standard. The following definitions will serve
as tnes:
Anything, through which we can see objects (dis-

ID.antler as to teach at the same time qualities allied .
or opposed to each other.• Thus, after discovering:
that glass is transP!krent, the child may be guided to
discover that paper is translucent, tin opaque, etc. At
any rate, ·whenever a new quality has been discovered, the pupils should mention several objects
possessing this quality, and several that do not
possess it, or we should ask (in the case of transparent) : "Is this book transparent?" "Why do
you say that glass is transparent?" "Why do you
say that iron is not transparent?" and other similar
questions, as has been partially indicated in the. previous chapter.

tiudly), is callml frnn.~pal'c1d.
Things arc npa71te, when they do not let light

pass.
We say it rope i".flc.ciUlc, bec ause wo cau licud it.
We call · tJiings lm'lfl(', when thr:y aro easily
broken.
We say steel is hard, because it resists pres1mre (? ).
When a term is applied in different senses, it will
not do to confuse the pupils by giving the different
meanings at once. Thus, while studying the hardness ef steel, we should avoid all allusions.. to hard

"' we ask occasiuu:1l1}', iu separate exercises,
· Again,
for th o opposites of <JUalities. · Tho teacher will mention eurtain qualities rapiuly, arnl tho pupils, in turn
or culled i n·l;-, will n:mrn tlwil' 01•posites- -ihus :
1;,;i,·her.

Soft,

Light....
Brittle,
Flox.ible,

Opaque,
Bright,

P11l'il.

Hard.
Heavy.
Tough.
Stiff.
Transparent.
Dull.

T eacher.

Pupil.

Smooth,
Elastic,
O<lorous,
Sapid,
Cold,
White,

Rough.
Inelastic.
Odorless.
Insipid.
Warm.
Black.

water.:

Occasionally the lessons may be varied in such a

Again, we cause the children to name a certain

78

U BJJ:CT-Tl: .cl.Clil.::\U.

0 D J Jc C T - T I<

If th0

~mc:n,0r

.~ 1.

JI l :; U •

has been fnnrnl, tho fra('hcr shnull!

l'Omd.i11ws rc•1nirn a pro11f f"r iL>< corrt•t-.tnesR, which
l'11pii8.

Suft "!
J,ight'!

DrilLle '?
Fk \i1ik ?
Opaqu•' '?
Bright"!

"'

Cloth, f,.,d_lwr,.;, 1·0Uon.
F1 ·:1!l11•1-,c;, cork, paper.
OhsR, c.hina, fmgar.
Hup1;, paper, ril>lJon.
Slatn, iron, >Yood.
SilY1~r,

1Jrass, l'hina.

Another very useful exerci,;e, anu one in which
the ]lll]'i b will he particularly intores t1•c1, is to describe an nhject without naming it, and to Jet the
pupils gnPSR tlie name, or to let some of the brighter
pupils form such riddles for solution by tho class.·
This exercise has the double adva~tage of arousing
or maintaining-the pupil's interest and of furnishing
them good models for imitation. Thus the teacher
or a pupil, says: "I am thinking of a cylindricai
object; its color is light brown; it is opaque and
dull; it feels soft, velvety, and is very light ; it has
neither taste nor smell ; and it is elastic, porous, and
quite tough." Probably the pupils will find it easy
to guess the name of the object. Should they hesitate, some of the uses of the object m~y be added, .
or some other fact connected with it that may facilitate the solution.

wonlrl, of ('Ourse, rcsnlt. in a. <Inscription 0f thn olijcct
011 the part of tlw pnpil. lf !IH: :msw<T is iu<'orrcct,
tl1u pn1iil is skillfuily lc11 io t!iscoyer l1is rnistako
l1i1u;-;l'lf :uul to conect it ltims<'lf. An ingeniou;;i
tca..J1cr placed a 1rnmlicr of olijeds on a tablo before
hur, 1lcscrihc1l sorno OJW uf U1em, asked a pupil

to pick out from tho collcdiou tho one clescribec1,
aml tl1c11 causecl the p11pil to '1c><,Tiliu tl10 olijud
seludecl., Sometimes she sl 1nnl1l 11cscribe an oliject,

not on °t11 c table, an artifi1·0 wlti< ·h pnzzle<l hor pnpils
011ly tho first time : the ·Jrnli<-r011;.; errors which they
corn mitt eel in their eagcnH';;s to fin cl the ol iject clescribccl on the tablo, rnallo them remarkably careful
and circumspect for the future - ever after they
looked before . they leaped. Sometimes again she
would t ake up an object and describe it with occasional mistakes, the eager pupils rarely ·allowing
these mistakes to PP-SS uncorrected. No do11bt the
g-~nus of self-reliance, which that teacher planted in
the souls of her pupils, will bring forth delightful
fruit.

81

ODJECT-TEACHI:N'G.

Or, like ~ho followiug:
Chss iN eas ily 1irob·ll, tlwrdlll'«

\In

call it. 1irittfo.

C l1i11:t is t:a,.;ily 1>n>1'cn, tl11-refure \IC c·:tll it l>riU.k,
etr-., ,:tc..

CHAJ>TER VIII.
SECOND PETIIOD co;:rrINUED-SLATE

EXEI~ClSES-DEFTh'J~
f

'l'IONS -DESCHIPTIONS-SPECHL FOR2\fS OF EXI'RESSTON
- --01:.rLCTl YJ:

C.\ Sl~-rossr:s sIYE

Tlt0 ing0nnity of tlw 10:11·l1n \\ill rPrulily rno rlify
thcso t,n_ics, acconliug tu ,·ircmm;Lmccs. 1-'or ,lescriptions of olijccts \\'O oil'u· the following typos:

CASE -I'HO\:Ol'\:S-

A_l)JD_'fl \'LS- .\1 >ILEB::l.

1. A
Tm: sl:tto cxl·r,·iscs, dnrillg tho iir,.;t lrnlf of this
period, arn ng:iin of two kin,l;;, l'itlicr in Llin.:ct connection wi1h ilH' exercises skctcho<1 al iovo, or m ore
imlqienrlcutl.> practiciug some special forms of cx1>J'CSSIUll.

Tia• lump of sugar is 1·11!.i«al; it is \Yl1itc; it is
opa1111n; it jc; sparkling; it i;-; ltan1; it is rollglt; it

i.:-; ;-;\11.,·t ; it i:-; udurlcss; it
fri:1 hit:.

Tlic excrcis,•s of the first cbsci eonsist prineip[llly
iu tlie

ith u view of li\iug
tl1em iirrnl.'" ill t Ito rn'i]](b of tl11: pnpilN, and in tho
WTiting of clcscri ptions of ol •jcd" exalllined. 1-:\npl >Osin g, for in:~tanec, that an acc1, ~p tnJ_1 l n t-lnfi11iUon o:f
lite lcrm /n·i/i/1· l1as be<•n dev<'lr»ped, wo let tho cliilllrcn >Hit,• tl1i.s <lclinitioil. :mil i licit fix i t liy means
of os:E'n·is"" liL<' tho fol1(l\1 ing:
11-ri1i11g

of defiuitilll1'1

LU.\ll' OF ~l'O.\lt.

j,.;

suluJ.le

\.u1

\\°aler); it i.-.

2. A Cn1·rrn CL\T.

\I

c<l 1, c,paqne, a111l liright. It

j,.;

!t:ml nrn1 s1wJUth.

is ta.slelcss. ] t is o<lorle:-;:-;, lt is rc::itmaut.
iu:-;0!111>1<' \ill water), fusil 11" :111d indallic.

H

1L is

GLts::i is liriltl<', b,:e:m;-;1: it i" c.tsil_v llrokC!n.
f''

C lii_u:t i:-< l1rittlo, h~causo it is easi]_y li,roken.
Co:tl is l1rit 11<', liE'<·ansc it is casil.1- lirnb•n.
Sngar is lirittl1', lwcanse it is t:ilsily lJroken.

A ('ork 1ouks cylirnlric:t!, light l1rnwn, opa<1uo, vrnl
<11111. It t« .. ·lc; ,.;uft a111l Y('h1 ·t 1· . Lt is L1si1 •l ,.ss :mil
uclu r ll'ss. Jt is porous, liglit, el:1;-;tic, i11JJ:u111nul.1k,
1111d

1·,.,'-'.dal ilc .

82

onn:cT-TEACIII:\G .

0

Or we may kt the JJUpil occasionally 1nite skeleton dc:ocri ptions:

4.

!

5.

compmmd objects, aml it will he prefcr:iblo to defer
thc·rn fnr the sccnm1 half of tl1 is period.

Tasteless,
Otlorlcss,
Liqnid,
\V110lesorne.

Wet,

Frequently, exercises, similar to thoso suggested
for Uw first peri0<l, on sukd('tl wonb are mallo, ~with
t!J,, <liil'ercnco tl1at t,'Tratcr Y:nidy in the forms of
tltu

Parts.

f' 1·:w1ies arc sphc ric :t!. I ha Ye' a spherical pi<·ce of
glass. Spherical tl1ings roll. :-lplwri('nl thiugs li:ive
no eorners. \\'c "ai1nut Jl111l :rny (•11g('S 011 this splwrical ()lljPd. That picn' of wout1 is splwric:1l. Velvet is soft. I lib; to s J. ·cp on n. soft I1etl. ,Jul Ill l1as

Qu,rfitic.<.

The tallow is cylindrical.
white .
opa1Jlrn (trnnsparent).

smooth, greasy, etc., etc.

The wick is

cyl~rnlri cal.

'Ilms, a teacher

jlll]'il:-< f()J'lll('(l :

TALLOW CAXDU:.

dull.
not very hrmi

is crn:om ·ngc<l.

&'-/I, du.:;lic, luugh, from a lesson on the rubber ball
T!1" tullowing are some of tJi,. ,;,·11te11cc:o \vhiclt lwr

Infl1imnrn,l >le, combu::ilible.
IIanl, rough, ta;;teles:i, J'oruus, af1surbcnt,
Yl'gdali1e.
Otlurlc;:;s, ln'ittle,

Tallow.
Wick.

~;1:11tenc1 "s

scl.·<·ie!l for such an excr('isu tlw won18 spl1l'l'i1·al,

CIIAHC OAL.

Black, opaquo, dull,

G. A

83

T E .\ (c JI ING.

In mo8t. cnxes, hownver, it wiH be found too ilifficn!t a farnk for tho pupil8 tn gin' tho descriptions of

WATEn.

Cul urlesR,
'l 1 rm1 sparent,
Brigltt,

nJ E c T -

-i

-,-~

wl1ite.

-~
-, --

oprrqnc.

-

!

~:

a suft cap. Sally has a soft l1:rn<l. A soft p cnch is
goUt1 to ea,t. Steel j,.. cla:oti." El:tstic lrn lls jump.
This dust.le steel is brittk Arn you fond of tough

iuc:lt'?

Leather is tough.

Glass is not tough, dt.:.

.For sµocial forms uf <:xpre:::;ioll we make,

1:11-

addi-

tion to tl1c exercises s11g~;t• st1 '1l for tho first pnirnl,
CX l'rc iscs on tho u se of nonns as ohjccts of transifrrn

dull.
soft.

vel'bs, anJ as posses:oives; on personal pronouns (at
least in tho nominative c:u;n); on the different forms

smooth, etc., etc.

of verbs in the different persons; on the use of seve-

8J

0

n

J E

cT

- T 1: A ( ' lI

r '{

OBJECT-TE AC HI~G .

G '

ral adj l'('tin's prer1icating of or llH)l1if1i11g tho sitrno
noun ; atJ\1 oll alhcrbs of m:urncr. l •'or tho:oe new
exercises we offer tho follrrning fo rmulas.
The
teach er ma.Y "Tito t hese or similar formnhs on
the board, assure himself that the pupils unclc:rsbml
the fonnula, ltnd then require them to wTite a given
number of similar sentences, either with words
selected by himself or ·wit h words of their own selection. We would here caution the teacher again
to be always on the alert in these writing exer cises ;
to move constantly from pupil to pupil, examining
their work ; and to coITect, assist, suggest, wherever
it may be needed. The teacher who enthrones her~
self in easy and sullen dignity upon her rostrum or
upon a chair in front of the class, will accomplish
very little in these exercises.

P osscss i 1;r· Cnsc.
6. ·whose dog is large?
'l'he hoy's clog is large.
7. ·whose clog harks?
The lioy's dog liarks.
lv110se dogs liark?
Tho l>oys' dogs bark.
8. \\110se clog bites the rat? ,John's clog bites the cat.
Whose dogs bite the cats? J olm's dogs bite the cats.
9. The dog bites whoso(?)cat. Tho dog bites the girl's
cat.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Objective Case.

1. The dog sees-whom? The dog sees the man.
2. The dog sees-what? The dog sees a cat?
. {whom? The dog sees the girl.
·
3 . The d og seeswhat? The dog sees the meat.
4. The boy sees the dog. . The boy whips the dog.
The dog· bites the boy.
5. The dog sees the boy. The clogs see the boys. ·

85

15.

16.

Pronouns.
John whips the dog. H e is a bad boy.
I whip the dog. John whips the dog. He whips
the dog.
I whip the dog. John and I whip the dog. We
whip the dog.
I whip tho dog. H e whips the dog. He and I
whip the dog. We whip the dog.
John whips the dog. H enry whips the dog.
John o.nd Henry whip the dog. 'l'hey whip
the dog.
I whip the dog. H e whips the dog. We whip
the dog. They whip the dog. You whip the
dog.

~: 1

whip the dog.

J

They
He whips the dog.

J
-

OBJECT- 'J' EACHI.\G

SG

-7

-

===t==
7
-f

·i

IT

t7 . .T(Jl111 11l1i ps the clng. ]!1· whirs the dog.
~1. ary whips tho tloµ: .
l~.

Jul111 !':d!,.;.

!:::lhe whip::; lhe

Llog.

Ho faU,.;.

!

l\fan fall'-' . ~ho folk
'rho ;;bt.-:: falls. It falls .

CHAP'J'EH IX.
SECO'\D l'F!UOD

10. Tlw 1l"i~

j,.;

hrgo aml lwantifol.

The large :mil

-'ITJ'I-""

'l'J: l .U.\n -D!TI.\TJ'ln;-.;s-

FUH CIJYYECTED llEtiC'lrIP-

TJu:-;s.

lH·:111I if11\ 1l"K l1arks.

20. 'J'l 1u 1k1:~ i,.; yoml(-\, l:ug1:, a111l l1ca11tifol.

('i1.\Tl.\llf~l1

1·,.;r:s O.F OBJECTS

The

yom1g, larg<', arnl 1wa1diful tl"g l1arh:.

J >l ·i:1:-;(; fol, soco1Hl half uf !\ii,.; peri0tl (about the
s,. 1.,11111 l1:1lf of tlrn tliinl sd1,,,1] ye:u\ tli1 · oxc ri·i.,;ps

in il(''-'(Tiptio11 are cnnt inu1·1l, "" HS tn L'ml1ra1·n Je,_,s
"111 iuus •1n :tlitiP'-', snch :1'4 '411\iil. tl11 id. liqni1l, g:1s1·11u",

21.

'l'l1c ,],1g rn11s-h1rn· 9

22.

S:1lly i" llin: .

Jol111 is hu1.

Tho 1lug nrns s1Yiftly.
SaUy rc:11l" 11in·ly.
John 1nit"" l1a11ly.

These fnrmnbs may b e multiplied and varied
irnlnfin itf'lv to snit circumst:rnccs. As gnitling prin<·ipl1 •,.; in 1l11•ir formation, 11·0 11·011lil sbto: 1, '!'!toy
rnnst 1;r:uln:1ll.1· progress frorn the ki10wll to Urn
11nlrnmn1: 2. they must, as mnch as possilJlo, re-

vir:w an1l comlJino knmrledgo aull skill, prcviou::;ly
acquirccl.

Jil:i"ti<'. 1"lntil•', (•dili\,._ mliriti1111,;, <"<1111l1nstibk lllalH 11·ill l"· J>•'r<'ein•11 that tlin
gn-:d('I ' portioll of t lie i11qm·s,;i.,11s rq1rcs ..·n.1c:1l 11_1·
1l11·su b•rms, nre ohtai1]('il 11.r n1orn nr ]<,ss conq1lnx:
(•xporirncnts, for which, in mu11,11 <'ascs, the tcaclicr
rn:t.\· Ycry appropriately, awl witl1ont ll:rngcr to

l1•:1li\,., 1l11dilP, ch- .

lh11rn11 .c>:l1ness on tlw p:1rt "f !lie pupils, sul1stit11te

din•d in"!rndi<lll or /1'//i"ii~/. Yd. lll' shoul1l ho cnrefol i11 tltc new of tl1i" i1ri1 il1•g1'. :1rnl lJcware of !'Ollh:1ding tlin bahit of le1·l111 i11:1 :111•1 1.1pl11i11i11r1, 1rl1 cr•'
111is 11nn!11 s:tYf' the p11J 1i\c; 11li11]1 ·s1!l11c blior. T,1 '('tun··s. cs11cci;i\\y h_v

11

k111·d :1]\(l n•.spcdcll tcaclier,

ll1:1y ,-lwrn1 cl1ildn·11 uf !lws1· :q.-'.t 'S for n, tim <', liul

88

89

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

they rarely leave fertile impressions; and, as for explaining, it is only lifting the pupil over an obstacle.
Should the same obstacl'e present itself again, the
pupil will be as helpless as he was at first, and the
teacher will have to explain-to lift again. L et the
pupils set their minds to work-let them l,abor with
their faculties - let th.em take difficult questions
home again and again, until, by independent effort,
they have explained them. Of com·se, the gu·iding
and helping hand of the teacher will always be u.s eful, nay necessary; but while he guides and helps,
he must not take the pupi1.' s worlc upon himself.
The method pursued is the same as that indicated
in the previous sketch, although the descriptions are
more complete, and the details more rigidly carried ·
out. We need not, therefore, offer new types of dispositions for lessons, since they would resemble
those of the previous sketch, with the exception of
being more extended. Thus we should, porl1aps,
add to the disposition on the plate of glass the ideas
solid, fusible, insoluble.
Increased attention is paid to definitions, and the
pupils are now often required to give definitions of
the same idea in different terms. Thus, opaque may
be defined as follows:
We call an object opaque, if we cannot see
tlu:ough it.

Things, that .do not let light pass through them,
are said to be opaque.
l£ bodies are opaque, we cannot see anything
through them.
Opaque means not letting any light pass, etc.
Very often conneoted qualities are contrasted.
Thus the teacher asks rapidly the definitions of:
Transparent,
semi - transparent;
translucent,
opaque;
Smooth, velvety, polished, rough ;
Brittle, friable, pulverable, tough, tenacious ;
Elastic, flexible, pliable, stiff;
Fragrant, aromatic, odorous, pungent, fetid ;
Inflammable, combustible, incombustible.
The forms of the definitions given by the pupils
should, in this case, be as nearly as possible the
same in each serie~ respectively, e. g. :
Through a traru;parent object, we can see other
objects ilistinctly.
'l'hrough a serni-transparenf object, we can see
eve"ything about other objects, except the color.
Through a translucent object, we can only see light
(the light coming from other objects).
Through an opaque object we cannot see at all.
But here again the teacher must often be satisfied
with imperfect definitions, and patiently (not pas-

91

OBJE OT-TEA CH ING,

OBJECT-TEACHING.

sively) foster and await the development of complete
and accurate ones.
'rhus, the idea elastic, in a class of girls, went
through the following stages of development in the
course of two weeks.
. lilly thing that can be bent is elastic.
AJ.iy thing that will become straight, after it has
been bent, is elastic.
lilly thing that will become straight, after it has
been bent, and any _thing that will become shorter
again, after it has been stretched, is elastic. ·
lillything that will become straight again, after it
has been bent, or shorter again, after it has been
stretched, or will expand again, after it has been
com pressed, is elastic.
Anything that will return to its fust s!iape, after
it has been bent, stretched, or pressed, is elastic.
lillything that will return to its former shape,
after it has been forced out of it, is elastic._
In the conversational lessons of this grade, the
uses of objects are frequently taken into consideration, although this is an exercise properly belonging
to the next period. It is not suffi.~ient, however, for
the pupils to tell us simply the uses of certain materials or objects ; but, from the very bEJginning,
they should learn to discover the relations between
the qualities of the materials or objects.in question,

and their uses. The children can easily understand
that loather is used for shoes; but it will be a more
diilicult and, consequently, a more interesting ta::;k
for them to dii:!cover why leather is used for that
pmpose. Until the pupils have some practice, it is
advisable to let them take questions concerning the
uses of objects or materials home and to bring their
answers the next day.
We shall suppose that the pupils were asked to
think about the reasons why leather is used for
shoes. The next morning very few will have brought
a complete -answer. One, perhaps, will say that we
use it. because it is tough anrl sr!ft ; another, becrnrne
it iB wolrr-71rorf and light; still another, because it is
durable and thin. In order to convince the pupils of
the incompleteness of their ans\vers, we name other
substances not suitable for shoes, but having the
qualities which they mentioned. Thus, in this case,
we tell the first that linen is tough and soft, the second that tin is water-proof and light, the third that
crlas"iis durable and thin ; and ask therq., if these
0
'
substances could be used as well as leather in making shoes. They will readily see that they have not
given a complete answer-that they must increase
the number of 'qualities in their list, and they will at
once at· least put together the qualities which they
have given separately, arriving at the answer, that

90

.

92

IJ3

OBJ EO'l' - TE A OH I i'i G.

O ll J EC 'l' - 'l ' EA CD l NG.

leather is used in making shoeR, hecause it is tough,
sift, th1'.n, z,ight, water-proqJ; and durable. According to
cireumr;t11nccs, the teacher may be satisfied wiilt this
answer, or 1o m;_iy leacl tli crn to (li,;coYor tlrnt 1c'1tl1cr
is used also 011 account of .ilti bei11g da<>tL{', al•sorbcni,
and porou.~. A few lessons of this kind will dev..,1op
in the chil1l1·1~ n a high degree of quickness in discovcriu" the rdtttio1rn l1ot-wuon the qualities of ob-

ing, not lllCrcly the skeleton description, suggested
in the previous sketch, but rnore or less complete
Je::Juriptions, in which ;.Jegance nnd bc:auty of cx-

r>

jeds and Uit•ir mK•S.
'J'o insure succes8, thu teud1er ohoulJ, ill a scpa~
mto part of tho "clisposition bool;:," pnt r1own the
nftme::i 0f mat+->rials am1 ohjed.,; with tho lJUalitics on

-

-

:

-~

~­

____;;;.__

===1::

- _JI

~~+·

_j__

which gradually bring the pupil to a consciousness
tl1at la11guage may serYe him n ot. only tho purpose
of expressing his ideas dearly, liut also of pre::;cul.il1g thcl1l in a plcasiug g ar1J, in nn impressive
maimer.
AR types, we offer the following descriptions :

1.

which their applications depend, e. g. :
LINEN, used for towebi, because it is seft, plial.Jlc, al;-

W:\T!-:H.

'\Vater is a colorless, transparent liquid ; it mirrors the images of objects very clearly ; it gives way
to prcsi-mre very easily, like all other liquids, and has
nei ther List.o nor smell. A_ll men and animals must
(1it) \ritl1unt tliiR wliolcsorne at\\1 rdn•shing drink, Jt
is uset1 in was1 1ing, dyeing, and in many other v;ays.

sorbcnt.
=,- i1sRc-l for thread, because it is so.fr, jlexibl{',
I ; TN"''''

.fil)/'U71S,

lJre,.;,;_i1_;n form an i111portanL dt•rnm1t; tlescriplions

__,:.;__

d .a£; ,

/('/l(l(' l U//,\',

Com:r, u:wrl for sto71prrs, licc::rnse it i8 sqft, smnotli ,
, co111711'1·s,il1/e, ,,/,i sl 1>, and fu1u1f, ,

Comi:, n8e(l for l!fe-prcw·1T!'I'-' , 1iuC«tli8n
and Hufi!.
Ch. \SS, nsed for v ·i11d1111•
i·11.solul1!c,
G r.A ss,

it is i11-s(Jlubfo

7i111lf'", lie<'~nrne

A writing i'ilate i"l rna<1e of two i1arts- the slate and
Tlw slatt', rn:ul•• of a rcctan1-orular plate

it is luud,

iis frnnH >.

<lll<l ncarly l'lilorlcss.
,.;ed for lu111J1l1•1's, l1m:ausu it is s11wolh, hard,

uI sb t e stone, io oI a Llark grny culor, opn<Jllt', ;m<l
s1 iglitly r dlcdiYe; hanl, s111ooih, an,l colLl tu the
toudt. lt makes no i1,1 p n:ssio1 1 Oll tast0 nm1 smell,

li'wtS/JLU 'C!il,
11

insol uUlr.
The µupils are also froqucntly c•xercised :in giving
connectorl rlesnipt-ions
uf o l ijecb, orally and
,
. in writ-

-~

_-- -:

---~-

.L

-- - *-, -

hut is quito resonant. On account of its brittleness
atH1 tb e ronghnrss of its cr1gP::i, it is endosed in a

94:

OBJECT-TEA.CHING .

95

0 BJ E 0 T-TEA.C HING.

frame, made of four fiat, oblong pieces of wood.
'rhose are grooved on the inner edge to hold the
slate, and fastened t ogether by means of mortices
and t enons, and small wooden pegs.

3. A CumcAL

BLOCK OF

\irOOD.

The piece of wood before me is called a cube, on
account of its shape, having six equal square sides.
The wood is of a yellow color, opat1ue, and polished,
so as to m ake it r eflective; it feels very smooth,
quite h ard, and is light enough to float on water. It
is fibrous, porous, absorbent, and quite elastic. It
is one of tho most useful sulJsta1wcs to man ; becau se it is combustible, tough, durable, chmtp, and
ertsily ;rorkctl.

4. A Tai,rnw

CANDLE.

A tallow candle is a long, slernler, nearly cylinclriC' :< l pioro of bllnw, with a cutlon 11iek thronglt its

midcUe (in its axis). It ta1 •ers a l itLlo fron1 the liottnm tn the top, and alJOut one i11 el 1 from the top, it
b ecomes conical. The clingy wliite, translucent, and
sl iglitly odorous tallow is u,,;cd to gin:i light, liecau so
it i;:i a rlwap. fnsil•h'. and i11H;t1u111al1l o sul1stance,
hnmi ng ";ith a clear. l1rigl1t Jl:t11H' . T lw cntton wick
i;:i u sml, lic:crtuse it is fibron,.;, pol'OU>', an(l ;t11,.:orl1ent,
to rnisc tlic rnC'll eL1 tall<Jll' ]Ji;,;h ninn,gh lo keep np

the flame , and to prevent the too rapid melting of
the candle.
Patience and jml g rnent on the p :ut of tho tl':u:11er
will accomplish a great <leal in these exercises. The
author h:-.s h ear<l impromptu <lescriptions of ol •jL'ds
from chilllren nine or t en years old, far excelling ill

completenesR, conciseness, and grace the imperfect
types h ere presented,
All other written exercises resemble those skddtc,1
for the first half of thiB p eriod, r1(ling only morn extensive, to suit th e ft(l vancomcnt of the pupils. It is,
therefore, unnecessary to offer ad(litional types.

-~

OBJECT-TEACHING.

CHAPTER X.
GRAMMAR CONTINUED-THIRD

PERIOD-

COMPARISONS--

SPECIAL FORMS OF EXPRESSION-COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES-PASSIVE VOICE --TENSES NOUNS-INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

RELATIVE PRO-

THE remarks that were made ~ introducing the
second period will also apply respectively to the
third period. While the pupils, during the two preceding periods, have had frequent opportunities to
use their growing powers of comparison and generalization, particularly in the exercises on definition,
it is during the third period that we begin to attend
spe<ially to the development and practice of these
powers. At the same time the faculties of perception and conception are not neglected, but continue
to be developed and vigorously exercised. While,
therefore, we continue the exercises in definitions
and descriptions, we begin . to pay special and
·methodical attention to the comparison and classification 0£ objects.
We first guide the pupils m simply discovering

97

·the resemblances and dffferences between objects. It
matters little whether we begin with the resemblances
or di1ferences; although, as a general rule, it is better to begin with the latter, since they are 'more
prominent, more conspicuous to the pupil, than the
resemblances. Thus, selecting the door and the window £qr an example, we may develop the following
answers:

.

c

·•
\

j

Dftferences.-The door is in a division-wall, the
window is in an outside wall. The door reaches the
floor ; the window reaches nearer the ceiling than
the door. The greater part 0£ the door is made of
wood ; the greater part of th e window i8 made of
glass. The door is made to let persons into and out
of the room ; the window to let light into the room,
to air the room, etc.
Resernblances.-The door is a part of the hou8e,
and the wnadow is a part 0£ the house. Each is in
a wall and in a wooden frame. Both are of a rectangular shape. Both are ma.de partly of wood.
Both are painted. Both can be opened and closed, ·
etc.
- In the same manner, the table and the desk, the
slate pencil al).d tlie lead pencil, the stool and the
chair, the ceiling and the floor, and many other objects may be compared.
5

\ l

99

OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJECT-TEACHING .

The slate exercises may consist of detailed, as well
as outline comparisons, according to the type just
presented (the window and the door), or according
to the following :

therefore, in many of their qualities, steel l>eing
harder, more elastic, more brittle, and less flexiblo
than brass or iron, and of a different color. \re abo
find in one end of the needle a small oval hole to receiYe the thread, but the upper end of the pin Las a
small :flattened head, against which the finger can be
pressed without lhnger.

98

1.

THE SLATE PENCIL AND TIIE LEAD PENCIL.

The slate pencil and the lead pencil are used for
writing and drawing. They are fit for this on account of their softness, leaving marks on slate, stone
or paper over which they may be drawn. 'rhe lead
pencil is made of two materials, plumbago and wood.
The wood is needed to protect the plumbago, which
is much softer and more brittle than soap-stone, the
only material of which slate pencils are made. Both
are long and slender cylinders, and ior use, are cut
or ground to a sharp point at one encl. The marks
left by lead pencils are black, while those made by
slate pencils are white.

2.

THE SEWING NEEDLE AND THE PIN.

The needle and the pin 1·esemLle each other m
shape, both being conical, tapering to a sharp point.
Both are smooth and hard to the touch, and both
are metallic; but pins are made of;brass or iron,
whereas· needles 11re made of steel. '.rhey lliffer,

3.

WINE AND WATER.

These two liquids, used for drinking, differ in
many qualities. Wine is semi-transparent, of different colors, usually red or yellow ; water is alwa.)'S
colorless and transparent. Wine has both flavor
. and odor, but water is tasteless and odorless. Wine
is a vegetable, but water is a mineral substance.
People may drink as much water as they please
without getti11g drunk; but if they drink too much
wine, they lose their senses and become intoxicated.

4.

WOOL AND COTTON.

Both arc white, fibrous , combustible.
Wool is Lea vier, tougher, more elastic, more durable than cotton. Cotton is more :fl.oxible, softer, and
has longer and thinner fibern than wool.

100

OBJECT-TEACHING.

5.

0

wOOD A...llffi STONE.

Both are npaque, They cliffor in color.
Stone is harder than wood ;
pornus,
ahsorbenf, Stone is heavier than wood ;
etc., etc. Stcn ~e is tasteless, wood has n

flavor;
Stone is inodoro us, wood is odor-

ous;
Stone is rnorc i"rso nont than wood;
Stone is granula r, wood is fibrous;
Stone is lm:Ule, wood ~s touqh;

,

Stone is less ela.~tic than wood ;
-~~
Stone is fu.c;ilil1', woo cl is not;
;
1
1
Stone is more durable than wood; •
Stone is mineral, wood vcgetaUe;
Wood is comlmst·iblR, stone is not.
The reader will fail t o find in these types the pro- ,-~.-~~ 1:c~7""'<
gressiveness which characterizes those given in pre- -~ r .. ,:· vious chapters. Miscellaneous arlificial obj ects and ~_.
the substances of which they are cornpose,1, do not
offer so fn.vor::tblo a material for exercises in comparison as nn.tural obj ects. H euce we have put
off the giving of progressive types for comparison
for the chapters tren.ting on natural obj ects. For
the sttme reaS'"on, the further discussion of excr-

I.:-;

c.

101

cises on classificati on and g0ncralizat.ion has heen
deferred.

Dij}ere1<.ces.

I'.esemblances.

n J E c T-T EA c n

;+
'1':'

1r

In addition to the wri tten exercises l1ern irnlicatcll,
we contiuue the exercises on special forms of u pression, comLining with those, sk0tclincl in pn·Yious
chapters, otlwrs on 1·omparison of ~H1jectives, 011 tl10
possessive and ohjeoti ve cases of personal pronouns,
on ·the passive voice of verLs, on the imperfect
tenses (present, past, and fotnrc) of tho imlicative
mood, on r elative ancl interrogative pronouns, anJ,
perhaps, on some of tho simple conjundious-according to the following and similar formulas :
CmllJ'lU isun.

1. Wood is

1--l tono is harder than woml.
Stone is hanl. Steel is lrnnler tLnn sto11c.
2. ·wood is hard. Stone is harder than wooLl.
Steel is hankr tL:cn stone. Steel is the lrnrdest.
3. Wood is hard. Stc>no is hnrdnr than wood.
vVood is less Lanl than stone.
4. Steel is hard. Stone is l1•ss lrnrd than steel.
Woo,l is less l1anl than sto ne.
Woocl is the least J1anl.
}iarcl.

5. Wood is hard; sto110 1s harder; steel 1s tho
lrnrdust.
6. Steel is bard; stone 1s less h ard ; wood is the

least banl.

'' ·1

OBJECT-TEACHING.

ODJE CT-TE AC HING.

102

103

-,

7. Steel is brittle. China is more brittle.
Glass is the most brittle.

·'

16. Tho dog sees the rnt.

For the objective and possessive cases 0£ personal
pronouns, we r efer to the formulas given for the objective and possessive· cases of nouns (pp. 84, 85) ; and
to exercises on prepositions (page 56). It will be well
to exercise the pupils, as yet, only upon the ttJjective
forms of the possessive case of personal pronouns.

by the dog.

It is unnecessary as yet, nay, it would confuse the
pupils, to practice the forms of the fntme, which
require the auxiliary shall in the second and third
persons, or the forms indicative of resolution instead of futurity; since the ehild has ntrely, ii ever,
an opportullity to use them or to hear them used.

8. The dog sees-what?
The dog sees the rat.
The rat is seen_:_by what? The rat is seen by
the dog.

10.
11.
12.
. 13.
14.

Tenses.
To-day I wTite. Yesterday I wTOte.
To-morrow I shall write.
Yesterday I wrote; to-day I write; to-morrow
I shall write again.
I write ; I wrote ; I shall prite.
He writes ; he wrote; he will write.
I shall write ; we shall write.
He will write ; you will write ; they will write.

~e

Relative Pronouns.
17. A man, who writes, is a WTiter.
A man, who makes shoes, is a shoemaker.
18. A thing, which breaks ef1.sily, is brittle.
A thing, which c::tn be lmrned, is combustible.
19. The man, who sees the Jog, runs.
The man, that sees the dog, nms.
20. The rat, which sees the dog, runs. ·
The rat, that sees the Jog, runs.
21. I see the man who runs from the dog.
I hear the llog that barks at the man.

} sh.all write.

H e, she, or it}
You
will write ..
They
15. Write, wrote, shall or will write.

The rat is seen by tho

dog.
The dog saw the rftt. 'l'he rat was seen by the
dog.
Tho d og will see the rat. The rat will be seen

Passive Voice.

9.

Passive Vaice and Tenses.

J:_
r:

~

'

.

....

------

.

'

OJJJEC T -TEACUIXG.

lnferrogal·i·uc Frmw1ms.

:i

~

22. The man whips the clog. W1-10 whip s the dog?
23. The dog bites the man. What bites the man?
:l±. The rnau whi 1'::; thu tlvg. \YLa t dous the rn;i,n
irhip?
25. The dog ' bites the man.
bite?

C H A l' T
GRAMMAR,

Whom does the dog

J~

It X I.

CONC:Ll ' Jlim-~·:J·: l\TENCE-SllIJJEC'l'

AND

l'HEDICATE - 'ritA!\SI'rION . '

-Dunrno this period (about the fourth school year),

26. The girl pets the cat. Who pets the cat? What
does the girl pet ?

the pupils may be :;radually inb·ocluced illto tho
conscious study of grammar ill its narrow Sl'llSl', as :t
science. But here " ·o should lJe ca.rofnl not tn 1rnrk
on the old routine plan o f s..:hool gra11mrn ria w; ; we
should still keep in view thP principles of nrttnral
teaching, inclic::ttctl a hove ; wo shnnlrl stiil proc eell.
from the knO"wn to the unk.uo,vn, from tho sirnnle to
the complex, from tho whole to tho parts, from tlin
concrete to the abstract; '\\·o should still follow tl1 e
method of combined n,nalysis nnc1 Hynthesis- of eonibinell. disco;-ory arnl applieatinn on tli e p:trt nf tl ie
pupil. \\Te should not, tbcroforo, pitch the pupils
headlong into the confusetl maze of strnnge and
terrible worc1"', irnlicativc 0£ strange am1 terribl e
scioncos, of parts of Rpccch, prnpcrti es of word s, l:irn1R
of n onns, ac1jectin•s, ctr . : 1mt "·e sl1onlc1 l't'.!..'.;1 ll t he
study of grammar whore Phto began it- 1t'ilh l/1r:
s£mplc senfcnr r, and its rcso/ufion 1"11tu s11fy'1,d uurl prerl i-

__;____

t"

..

...

f

It

..cz

1f!W . . . . .

f

..

j

p ••

•

-1'1· ....

:e~j7iilil -

....-

106

.

107

OBJECT-TE.A.CHING.

OBJECT-TEACHINQ..

cate. The objects 0£ this little book will permit us
only to indicate how this may be acco~plished.
The pupil is at first taught to recognize tl1e
expressi'.on (ff a thought as a sentence. Th e tea~he~· may
write upon the black-board the sentencesThe tree is beautiful.
'l'he tree grows.and leacl them to recognize these sentences as expressions of thoughts about the tree. He may then
let them express orally, and ·wTite upon their slates
other thoughts about a tree, as well as thought:-:;
about other objects; and he may, ultimately, icll them
that such an expression of thought is called a sentence. He may then practice them in the recognition
and formn.tion of sen tences, in tlwir Llistinctiun from
word s and phrases (parts of sentences or proprn,;itions), and in the defa1ition of the term-sentence.
The teacher may then again write upon tho bbcklioanl the st-~lltence;The tree is Leautiful.
'11he trco grows.and ask questi ons like the follo·wing, to lead the
chihl to the discoYery !'!. :it e::t('!t :-::enteneo consists of
two parts: ·what is beautiful? (The tree is_ beautiful.) \\"hat i,, nu.: lru:.· ') (If is 7i1(11!/i;'1tl.) ·what

tells what the tree doPs.) \Vhat <lo th e wonls ;, /,, •a :1tif11l tell? (Thuy tell what the tre e is.) \\' hat do tl1e
words the t ree tell, in the first sentence? (Tl1es tell
us what is l1CmntiEnl.) \Vhat do the wonh !hi' fn'
tell, jn tho second sentence? (They tell ns 11'/111/
· grows.) Very Emv snch exercises will enable tho
child to see clL·:irly tk1.t OV\'l'}' sentence lms two

(The lt'i:.e grow;-;.) Td1at dues the tree do r
(It grows.) \Vhat does the word tj!'uW!i tell '? (It

_grows?

1

-~

-,~-

'>•

:

parts-one part telling what the other is or does ;
to receive the terms sul1fed and predir·afr. for tl10so
parts reRpedively; and to form simple definitions of
these termc;, rcsem liliug pur11:1.ps tli(' following: Thr>.
sul!fed ·is that part ol o st>nlenc.c a/11)11/ ?Chid1. S1i1wlf1i1u1
1:8 told.
Thr p1·edi1·t1!1; is l/111f part 1.'f a 81'11/1 •111·c t11ai
le7ls sumrthi11q 11hi111/ tltr .w7t/id.

i

,.

J\Ini1y s1011tt·11cr"; ><l!i1 1tl <l. JJnw Lo

I

~"~·
L_ __ _!__

things.

:irnl

\Ve rn:ty , for inst:i.neP, L1kn the s ,·11t1•1t"'"

Thr' do:1 l111rks,

-~+i-

:111ahz1·.1l

pradit·•• tlicsl)

fornw11, orally aJ](l in writing, k1

an1l ask: \\'hat is the preilicatc

(lforl.'s is tl1e prr"1il':tt1•.)

\\'l1y ~

IB1·c·;\11><P it fr1h

something aliont the snl1jcct, /lie rl11:1.)
suhj('d 9 ( 'l'l1<' r!,,:r j,. t1w sn l >jcd.)

'J

\YliC1t j,., t.lie

\rl1 y? (Because

so111etl1iug i:::; tllhl aliout it.)

Or a nmnh'r of ><t'11 ton l'ns ma1· l1u writtcll on tl10
-- -=-p

·~-

-

hl:1ck-hoan1. :l!ld cal'li el 1il1l rnny, iu turn, si111p1y
wc1111' t lit' su 1'.j, ,..t, or 1'"'' '1;,.,d · ~ of

1 ' " " o f ! 111> Sl'llOr tlw tc:u·lrnr may pro1101mce a S<'titl'll<'u
for eaeh pnpil in tnrn , or fort.he da.ss cnllHdiYoly,

tnncus.

' !..:'!
·~·t

...

- -

.....-

...

...,..

...

"'

-

108

o"'n

J E

cT

- 1' E A

c rr r N

c.

OBJECT-TEACHJJ-;G.

ancl roqnirc them to name rapidly the su1>ject or
predicate. ThuR :
P11Jlil.

Tatcher.

Bites.
The dog bites. Predicate?
The man whips the dog, Predicate? Whips the dog.
The good 11oy WTitcs. Suhjoct?
The good boy.'
Does the lazy boy read? Subject? The bzj' boy.
The cat eats meat. Preclicate?
Eats meat.
The large cat caug11t a rat. Subject? The large cat.
Again, the teacher may cause each pupil, in turn,
to rapidly complet~ a sentence, himself giving only
the subject or predicate. Thus:
Teache-r.

Mews.
How~.

Birds.
The rose.

Pupil.

Predicate.
Predicate.
Subject.
Subject.

The cat mews.
The dogs howL
Birds sing.
The rose is red.

Again, we may dictate sentences to the pupils o:r
let them form sentences themselves or let them copy
n simple piece from the reader, ancl require them,
in Pach ('ase, to nnclerRcore the suhjects or the prerliei1tes or both-the prcrlicnJe with one and the
subject with hvo lines.
Ao.. s00n as the r11:rils lrnve thoronghly masterer1
the distinctinn hctwPen the snhject anrl prPdicat.e,
we may proccC'c1 to develop cldlnitions of nonns

--_-"'!r-~

::·;:

lOD

(names of thing,;), pronouns (wonh; starnliug for
nouns), aml verbs (wonls exprcssillg a \,ciug or t1oing). ~Vhen tlicse it leas am fixell, togdl 1er with
perhaps some notions on number, we nm y consiller
the principal modifiers of nonns-acljecti~·es ( ,,·(mls
telling what kind, how many , wltich one or wl1ich
ones), · nouns in the possessive case, adjuncts
(phrases) formed with the prepo8ition 1f, arnl relative clauses. 'fhen we may take the principal modifiers of verbs-adverbs (words telling how, when,
where, whitlier, etc.), adjuncts (phrases telling how,
\\·hen, where, wl1ither, etc.), nnmrn :rnd pronouns ill
the objective case, <lepcHt1i11g on tran:,itive verbs,
and conjunctive adverbs in connection with conespomling snl1ordi11:tb~ chnst:s. Tlien may follow
exercises upon the voices and tenses of verbs (confining ourselves, as much as possil•le, to the inclicativo
mood) with some general practice on conjugation.
With these ideas well pr:tetieetl, ancl clt·arly and
thoroughly fixed, the pupil will lio prcpnretl to
enter advantageously upon the syntl1etic study of
g;'.ammar with :my good text-book and with any
good teacher who, insto::t<l of following the textbook lJlirnlly or irnloleuth, is eYer t1timUul of tlte
.great pri1wiples of natnra 1 teaching arnl gi rn: full
scopo to his inventiYonc8s, that most importaut o[
all menta,l qualifications to the teacher.

'

0 TI J E C T - T E
~-

_.,g,_

,,..'
j

CHAI'TER XI I.
GEOllffiTl\Y-FIHST l'EHI<)l)-SEPAJL\'l'E EXEHC'ISES -ARTIFICIAL SYSTEllrn -

JllliASU!U.'W-

SELECTTKG SlJAl'ES -

nRAWNff.

THE sketch es on the subject of geometry we divide
_again, for the ::iake of convenience, into three periods,
corresponding with those adopted in presenting the
subject of language. By geometry we mean the
science of form, extent, and position ; but we·, shall
confine ourselves in our sketches to elementary
geometry.

In the beginning of the first period, no separate
exercises on this subject are n eeded, since general
p erceptions on form, extent, and poRition, n,re furnished in sufficient ·nmnber and clearness by the
exercises on miscellaneous objects, sket ch ed in the
first part of this work. Thus the i-heet of paper
(page 63) gave us an opportunity tn 11evelo p pe.reeptions of surface, fa ce, edge, corner ; the tin cup
(page 55) perceptions of line, curvetl , Rtrnight, and
of relations of position; the ribbon (page 57) percep-

;t

-

~~

t

,~

C II l N" G .

111

tions of \\'avy, :-<pira.l, liroad , mnTo\\·, long, short, etc.
In tl1l' S<ll'l• ' 111 ;rn11 er 0 !11<'1' 01 1.i•·ds will fornish opportunities f.,r dt·Ye ln11ing a,1iJiti o11: il J>•' n·q1tions of
large, srn:1ll. l<rn·, t:ill, tlii"k, tl ii 11, •1eqi, :-;liallow,
ronn,l, eorn•·n·(1; c11l1e, :-;plwru (lrnll ), cylimk l'.

square, eil'el•·, •'fr. '''" 11·oul 11 particularly i11sist oll
tlie f:u·t tliat l/u"'I' /1 /, " ·'' 11111sl !JI' ~;u/11('1l/ru111 1/11· 11 1~/if'/.,
dil'c,·tlu-that the coucrcte must p rece,le tl1c alistract, aml not (in tlw case of surf:ices and lines)
from imperfect a.ncl :d1solutdy iut'<Jrrect n 'lll'<'Scntat ions-w·[L \1·iugs ou the 1Jlaek-hoan1 or 011 carJs.
Such <lrawings \\'ill do very well, nay, they :ere llt't~ll ­
etl to fix , n •vit' 11", or <·u111par(' the i1npr• 'S-" ion s, but
they should never be used in d eveloping them.
T11us the impressions square, circle, tr·ian1;k ,
stJ:aight, cnrvecl, etc., mnst be cleYdopcd ,yj th the
assistance of olJjects p rcscuting respectii;·1,ly those
shapes in their surfaces or lines. Of course the
clearness of the impreRsiorn:i in the rniml of th0 p11pil
cannot h e t esteJ by his ahility to give cldlnitions,
althongh many tcnel1r•rs arc .'..ini lty of the :1lJsnnl
practice of tc:whi11:.:; him , from tlw \'(·ry lil'ginning, to
rq>eat, parrut-liLn, :-;ft'l'!'olypc·Ll pl1r:1ses, ,, ]1id1 an' tn
hirn n otltiu g bu t ;ionn•ls aud wl1icl1 lw rc('itl's S< 'llS:1t.io11ally, ns a "lon.n1._·d pig" •lo<'e1 iL,; tri1·k ,; _·:<- 'T'lrnt.

clearness ean ouly Le tesbl by tl10 p11pil's power to

112

OBJECT-TEACHI:.iG.

r ecuguize arn1 1wme the impressio lis· n•;t<lily arnl corredlv. w l 1 enev~'I" t1 1t'.V 111;1y lie liladc·; a1Hl, to sorne
oxtcnt (as far as ideas of sm·bwos, lines, :ind angles
are conccrncL1), l1y tlw n;,.;ults "f tlwir elfurts tu rcpr cs c ~ 11 t

il1c ·111 "11 t 11v

~'. : 1 lc ·

a ,,
"!'Cat

t"JT(l)'

umwlural.

lo l\Jl
l':-'11 1' :-'IJl 'll
'

krl hi

]l,f:l.n w:i s

:t

tl1('

c'<ll l l"SI',

lll'«:111,.;1•

it.

is

st11il.1' of fnnn, i>xh•11r,

awl l"'"iti"11. 1•.\. fill' ;..; n·:1t \;:ri1· +.\ r-.f f1 1nn,.;, 1•!« .. ill

or ldac· :,- L,,,1nl.

ril• j•·«l s ;rJ'lllll:•l 11:1 :1: :lllil 1110 cl1i!tl 11 111:-'t \ 10·
g ni1lc1._1 r)tl f-\h' ~:trn~ , rn ;1( -!- " fl11 '
r/ ' l1·n r11 1·/, ,1l;,11 / //,.
!!11·

As soon as s ome i(c'neral ide:ts a re ~'.:tiueL1, sepa-

rate ex:ercis0s ma.Y bn made, dirccti.J1g tho impil',:;
:tttention speciallv to the o1Jservation of form , extent,
And position . These Px:ercii:;es sh<Jn1c1 ('Onsis t principally in the nvcrsw ·i1if/ of ohjeds-cu111 p;uing tLem
jn t.hPiT 1.enQ'th. h rPHdt. h ~ R THl thil·-1.;.ne.ss: jft xv{.i ~<'f.1:u1f

ill" in dirirl1·1il 1"11,,/ j ;./ f1111· l/1r' "'''" " ··1111,·se ns 1/u·

·!/ k11o11·/, . ,f'.:1· /11 /./I(' ,·o.. ,,"·:(·- -the
the aldroel, tl1c L:n11 ·11 tlH·

c:1111T1 '/e

must prcc1·11o

1·11knn11"11.

This i-.; tho

·110!11ml sysh•111 liy wh id1 k1l ll\d1·cl,'-'.'' is :t<'<(llin·.l--

thiR

pieces of tin aml pasto-boarJ of various ::;hape:::> from
sitital ile eollt•c ti1 •ns : and in,/ ,·1111·/"'.i l i 1ws awl figurl'S
of Yarious sh:tpes. .As much scope as po;isihle
l:il.wu.lu freque11tly be gi ve11, ill all these oxorcismi, Lo
i.l1e farwy arll1 1ksir" for Yaridy ( i i i t!H · l':1rt of tlie
pupil, in order to arouse and maintain his inter est,

113

0 BJ 1: C' T - TE.\ (' II I:-; G .

i~

u

ohjP.rt-tPRrh1ng :" :n1 d nn ot.!H--'r , 110 ,, , . /;,/,~; ,,z

tl1l) :-;;1rni: l1:1pJ'Y n•,.;1il b .

S!fsl1111 \\ill prt>duc«'

Ex-

pPriPn<'P \viii ]'l'"Y"•t" .. \.• ·rv f1 ·[11· l11 ·r tl1 ;ti , :1s L1r :i.s

,_n

••

he l1as reemn:-'•'

t"

he will

eve11 1.lestroy

le::;i:;e11

or

;1

rt ilit·i:1 I :-;.1·sl.t·n1s or <'Xl"'11i1•1t!s,

Uw i11Lu1e::;L in U10 10-

11f tl 1•· 1i11pi ls : 111 <"·[111so
their minds cease to bo independently acti11e, and

KlJl'divt ' sfq,ly "11_ il 11· ii:1rl

:,! ,:, .·: l.' ·.

discovery of the important postula te that figures
may have any size or shape whatever.
The teacher should be very careful not to intro- .
it.nee the pupil too soon into a rigidly systematic
~tndy of geometrical facts- not to follow too soon
the artificial systems of text-Looks. l\fany teachers
~re in the habit of making s11eh exercises excluGively, before they begin with the so-called o~ject• 7<>.ssons, probably b ecause they imagine su ch an

'

cially during the earlier stages of the child's development, requires tbe t Racher to be "systomati. cally unsystomatical "- "artificially natural," as it
were, in a11 his methods. H ence, objects are presented to tho pupil for study, until the variety of
shape, extent, and position (and the same remark
applies to color, number, etc.) has created in his
rillnd a desire to study these separately. The pupil
* Spencer, on Education.
·.·,

114

OB J ECT-TEACHING .

may be but vaguely conscious of this desire, yet the
~eal which he manifests in drawing figures on his
slate and in measurillg olJjects tha t interest him,
i;hows plainly that his mind is receiving palataLle
food . Should the teacher b egin the separate exercises t oo soon, he will know it by the listlessness,
the >rant of zeal, on the part of the pupil; h e
should then discontinue them and await a more
favorable p eriod-rnrely later than the third month
of the pupil's attendance at school.
At all times, these separate exer cises should be
m ade very cautiously, the t eacher guarding constantly against rendering them too monotonous, too
formal, too abstract. Step by step the pupil should
be led to invent new expedients for determining extent, to <liscover new r elations of position, and new
forms ; and, in no case, should he be made a mere
imitator. 'l'he pupil should b e t aught to work alone,
with as little showing as possible. For the sake of
finggestion, we offer the following sketches :
Tho tirst exercises in mcwwrin;1 consist merely in
applying' certain objects to one another and determining which is longer, broader, thicker, etc. The
pupil finds successively by actual measurement that
th e slate is lonqcr than the sl::tte pencil, that the
reading card is twice as long as tlrn slate (o r twic1:0 t1ie
length of the slate), that the slate .is twi l~ O as iroad

OBJECT-TEACHING.

'

l '

I

: -f-

115

as the book, t1rn book twice as !hid· ns the slate, that
the shte pencil is lia!f us lun:r, tl1 0 book ha 1( us Z,nyu/
m; the slate, etc. He 11rny tlwn 1", hrngltf to lll<'asure tlimcnsions l>,v sprrns nml, ,,-]il'll he has f"u11<l
that the Rprm s arc not of ('q11al length :tllll 1111rdiable, he ma.v r occivc a ncrtt stick nf woo<l aliont si:-;.
inches long ::- as :L stait,lanl spau. \Yith iliis al'p:tratus, h e nrny HH'asnre the ,limcusions of obj,·clH, by
llictation or at will, in variou s ,1iredion:o. L:t rgl'r
dimensions, Ruch as those of the flonr an<l ~, (•:1 ter
distances, he may at tirst rne:tsut-e in iiu.,-c, anll nl timately in f eet. Spans ma,v tlwn he aban<loncd nrnl
:;he foot adopted as tlw nnit., t11" fractious c1rnl1ling
the teacher to guicle tho pnp il in the con'<trndioH of
a simple fool-ru/p_ rmd to intro,lnce him i1 1to tho
meai"nreme nt in ir/('7/('s.
The exercises in .11kclin:1 Yarions slrnpes fo 1rn suitable coUections are extremely u scfnl for fixiug i<l('fLS
on shnpo ancl position, gained in the ol1jcct ~c'sscms.
Each pupil sbouhl be provi11er1 with a hox co11t.aiuing
such a. collection. nn . l pai11s '<hon1t1 Le bh'! l 1n ti ·ach
him to handle thA cont0nt.s c~un fnll _;-. Tlte forms
shouhl consist of <1iffereutl)· coh>J'('tl pir·cc::s of carilboard, neatly cut wj th a knife. They need not all Le
regubr; irn1('C'1, t11crc slwnltl Lo 'lnite a nnnil>N of

* 'fbe stnndurd Fpun of nine
child.

in ~hcR

is, of 1'11ursr•. t oo luntz fnr tlrn

-r

;~~

.J.,,

. ---- -+L

!~

116

i'

n ,T

P, C '!' - T E AC H I ~ G .

irro;_,'1.tlar forms to lead the child to clear conceptions
of r cq1tlar and irreyular. With thi::i bo:s: Lefore him,
the pupil may be required to select and to arrange
by Jidation a GOrtain muuber of pieces that show
st,raight lines, curved lines; a given numlJer of
straight, a given number of curved lines; pieces
that are s·quare, circular (round), oval, trian;,rnbr;
pieces in the shape of a squarn, a circle, an oval,
a triangle; pieces that show a given number of
right, obtuse, and acute angles; pieces that show
parallel, perpendicular, slanting· lines, or a given
number of sets of parallel or pe111em1icu1ar lin es ;
and so on in numberless combinations and variations which the ingenuity of the teacher will not fail
to suggest.
The exercises m drawing will be foun<l the most
cliilicult to handle, b ut also the mm;t fertile in results.
Too much liberty should not be given to the pupil's
fancy, for fear of making the exorcises mere play,
unattended by systematic progress in d eveloping
fundamental iden.s on shape and extent; too much
rest.rnint sh oulc1 not be appli ed, for fear of supi:;rossing in the pupil that innate desire for invention and
im1epemlent a.pplication of acquire<l skill anll knowleLlge- a. desire which it is tho teacher\; duty to
foster and cultivate into a never-failing power.
While, therefore, it would not be n.dvisable to let the

:,~:

-

01\JECT-Tl:ACl! il\G.

pupil <lrnw notl1ing ln1t grntf's<pH' re1 •H'S<'11L1 tinns of
:;urrounding olijl•d:; :rn,1 rude <T<·a\i,111 s ,,f l1i,.; O\\ll
fancy, it would be eq11:1lly 1111\\'tso tu fnrc<' 11 i1JI from
the Leginning i11L11 rigi<l sys tcuJs. FrolJl 11 1., iir,.;t
<lay at school, tlw cl1ikl :-:li<>nl1l ol't<'u l•e e111·,r1u·::gi· cl
in <lrawing ou liis slatu :rnytl1i11g lu• ]>leases, with a
view, rnainl_y, of ac('nsL01niug liim to ilH' prnp,,r
handling of the ;;late-peucil. No matter 110w '\himsical the results may be, no rnatkr c n•n if ilw I•npil
sometimes only scratches np his slate in all directions: he learns to l1a.rnlle slate aml slak-p<·nciL
And, as Le improYo,.; u1:-:l;i]l, Ji., L0 !~ i11 s to 11:1\'<' l• dt.·r
sueee::;s in drawing l1i,.; caric:1tm·1•s uf Loy,;, ;,;i rb,
cats, pigR, horses, tro(,S, houses, pnrn ps, de" n rn1 to
delight in more careful efforts. The t0acl1N, too,
lrns smnetimos 111a<le corre,·t 1ha1Yings on tl1c· ] ,Jackboard and on the pupil'::; slate, or lt e l1as, L:· llH'nns
of a fow lines, illlprornJ or as,.;istc1l the pH piL>
attempts, until the bLkr has grnwn ca;:,1'r to ri\·:d
his teacher's Rnccess, nrnl anxions to follow his
teacher's dirocLious. In rlrawing the outliucs of objects that interest tho pnpil, lie will learn 1i1 ure nf
the art of drawing geometrical figmes, than be
could do if he were to hegi11 his cffnris with the rcpro'3entation of straigl1t allil enn·"'l li:i<'s, v:irious
bnd:o of angles, different snrfaccs, "k. : si1u 11ly liocnnse lrn um1 ersbrnls wlwt he is c1oing- anil 1':111liitu-

'

..
. ·~

.,

,.;:

.

..

~~·;

~:

118

0 DJECT-TEACHING .

119

0 BJ EC T- TE ACHING.

self judge the correctness 0£ his work. The interest;
which this ability naturally develops· in him, causes
him not only to apply lill:nself with more zeal, but
induces him also to o1Jserve obj ·ds more clearly and
carefully, aU<l to notice the shape, extent, and relative positions of their lines and surfaces more clearly.
In order to enable the pupil to derive adequate
profit from the systematic drawing of lines, angles,
and surfaces, in va:uious positions, it is n ecessary to
await a period, ·when he understands them sufficiently to feel an interest in them. The pupil ms;y
then b e required to draw straight, curved, wavy, and
spiral lines-from right to left, or vice versa; upwards or downwards, slanting to th e right or left; .;
parallel, spreading (diverging) lines-to the right,
to the left, u pwards, downwn,rcls, and (in the case of r
_-~
curved lines) cuned u pwards, downwards, to th~ _ w-=. ·~
right or left; right, obtuse, acute angles in variou.s -_:.;;;;;~=~~
positions ; triangles with one right <tugle, one obtuse
angle, two acute angles, three acnte angles; and, ·
ultimately, even r ectangles and squares, ovals and
circles. Again, th ey may be r equired to chaw lines
of different lengths an(l ang les of different <livergences : e. g., a given numLer of lines one inch long,
or as long as a given line, tlwn lineR twice as long,
half as long, etc. ; or an a<.mto angle similar to a
civen one, then one small er, greater, twice as great,
0

half as great, etc. Again, they may b e r eqnire<l to
draw, by dictation, simple outlines of objects-of a
cup, a tumbler, a slnte, n, book, a hmrne, a pnmp, n,
table-knife, a buekct, etc., <tcconling tu the following type :
Draw, near t.11R hottom of your slate, a straight
line from left to right; frorn the right ernl of th is
line, draw a straight line upwar<ls; make it a little
shorter than the line a t the bottom; from the left
end of th e bottom line, chaw another straight line
upwardR; make it a :-> lung as tl1 e 1i 1w n11 t!1 e ri ght;
draw a straight line across from tlie top of tl11~ li1w
on the left to the top of th o li11 e 011 t.Jw rigl1 t : fro111
the top of the line on the left, llnnv a short s traight
line upward R, shnting to tlrn right: frnm t.!i e top uf
the line on th0 rigl1t, drrtw a short Ftrai:;lit line, sL rn !ing to the left; make tl1is slaut.i11g liiw :is lo ng :1s Ll1<·
first; from t.he top of the slanting linc on the left.,
draw a strai ght line across to tho top of tl1n sl:mt:ing
line on the r iglit: 1ww put tlrn d our, the 11rirnlow :.;,
nnd the chi1t1D<'_)"S, wlHTL: yon tl1in k tl1cy l 1< ·l<>11;~.
During these exorcises, thu te:i.ch cr must cun strrn tl .1·
move about nmong tlw pu pils, to a:-;sm·c 11i1nsf'lf
that he is umlerntoo1l hy tlinu, to sec that LlH'}' p nl
the pencils in th e riglit plac es and that they (lra w
the line s n.s dircdccl.

. !

· 1

'l
'1

•.'"
ij

... l
·• 1

OllJECT-TEAC!TI);(;.

CHAI>TER XIII.
GEO~IBTRY. CONCLUDED-

SECOND l'J mlO D-ffEFThTJ'IONS--

8PEC1AL EX:EllC18Ei:l-'l'HJ lW PJ•: JU<)])T10N::l-

MEASUHIXG -

CU'lTL\;G

OJ?

GENlrnIC UKF1NI-

Sl !Al'E::l -

THANSI-

'l'lUK .

IN the second period, pew ideas on shape and position (e xcepting the forms of solit1s) m ay b e given the
pupils without reference to obj ects, the teacher using
as a means of illustration the black-board alone.
Thus, in order to develop with th e pupils the idea
rhombus, it is no~ necessary to start with an object
having rhombic .f aces: drawings on the black-board
will he fully sufficient. The teach er may call one of
the pupils to the black-board and ask him to draw
a straight lin e ; then, from the left end of this line, a
sRcond straight line, making a right angle with the
first; then , from the ri3ht end of the first line, a third
straight line, forming also a right angle with the
first ; then, to make the second and third lines equal
in length to the first; th en, to draw a fourth straight
line connecting the free ends of the second and
third lin es. The pupils will now tell the teacher that

121

the fi;,,rure of a sri u:ue has bef'n tlr:twn . A no tlwr
pupil may then lie '"a iled ont arn1, on ]ij,; i •:irL, i,., rcquiretl to t1raw :t >-<Lr:tig;l1t lillo; t! w11 , fro111 U1n rigl1t
end of this line a sceond line, ma1: iug all :Ll'Hk' anglfl
with the Jir>-<t allll cq1rnl to tl1 c fir>-<t; tl1t•11 , from tlw
right P1t1l of tl11· lirst line, a thirll st raiglit line paml lel to th .. ,;e<' rn1 1l :t n1l l111n:tl to the ffr,;t; L\11\n, :r.
fourth li1rn eo 1111 ec t-ii1g the free ornlH of tl w snc·o1H1
and third. 'l'lte pupils may thcu lJe as b·d, i[ this
second figure is also that of a square, in what respect it differn from th e scptare, in wl1at r espect it
resembles it, arnl, ultimately, they urny r eceive tlw
name r/11111il111s for th e fi;._'ltrn . Tito id ea nml its name
may then lie Jixetl iu various way8. liy tlrnwwg, l'.Y
selecting olijeds presenting rhombic fa ces, etc .
In this ·period, the pupils should also begin the
formation of clefinitions, the teacher proceeJ ing
a.gain with the same active patience on which the
author Las iusistetl Lefuro. The:-io definitions n eed
not be technical, Lut should always remain within
the d evelopin g power of the pupil. \Ve ob:er the
following as types :
A l·ine is the distance between two points.
A fac,e is a, part of a surface, bounded by lines
(edges.)
A s7uare is a face, bounded by four equal lines
which m0ike four right angles.

. ,,

122

OBJECT-TEACHING .

A rhombus is a surface (figure), bounded by four
equal sides which do not form .right angles, or
which form two acute and two obtuse angles.
A cu'be is a solid, bounded by six equal square
sides.
Difficult as-it may seem to attain the~e definitions,
they have been ·formed by pupil::; irr this perioJ,
slowly, gradually, but clearly. It is true they passed
through many transitions, before reaching even the above forms, but they reached 'them, nevertheless,
through the independent efforts of the pupils. . All
the teacher needs is tact and skill in presenting the
subject in an interesting and striking light and the
power of waiting. 'Thus, the definition of the square
passed through the following forms :
1. The square is a figure with four lines.
2. The square is a figure, bounded by four lines.
3. The square is a surface (figure), bounded by four
equal lines.
4. The square is a surface, bounded by four equal
lines and having four right angles.
5. The square is a surface, bounded by four equal
lines which form four right angles.
Qf these forms only 2 and 5 were uiven by the
teacher, for the sake of greater elegance, the others
were f oimd by the pupils-found, of course, with the
teacher's guidance. No. 3 was obtainell from No. 2,

.. .

- ....

-

OBJECT-TEACH ING .

123

by drawing rectangles and by exhibiting rectangles, the pupils being re(1nirecl to find aml state
the difference between them and the s(1uare. No.
4 was obtained from No. 3 in a similar way, by
drawing rhombic figures and by exhibiting rhombic
surfaces.
The definition of the cube was reached in a sorncwhat different manner. The first clear definition
stood as follows: The cube is a solid with six faces,
eight corners, twelve edges, and twenty-four angles.
Here the attributes c7ual and square had to Le aclllccl
to the d escription of .the sides ; and it had to be
proved.that all the r emainder (after the wonl sides) is
•:mperfluous. This was a severe exercise for the conceptive power of tho pn11ils, bnt they nltinrntely triumphed and clearly discovered that it is impossible
for a figure, bounded by six equal square sides, to
have more or less than eight corners, twelve eclgcs,
and twenty-four angles.
The definitions developed during this period need,
as yet, have no special reference to the classification
of the various shapes ; and little attention need be
paid to the placing of a given shape under the neare,st gemcs. Thus, we need not insist on defining the
rhombus as an oblique-angled parallelogram, all the
sides of which arc equal; but, wo may ho satisfied
with any clear and unequivocal definition, whether it

124

OBJECT-TEACH I.NG.
OBJECT-TEACifJNG.

call the rhombus a smfacc, a polygon, or n, fo nr-sided
figure. The chief concern in all definitions is, as

yet, the specific cl'(flerence.
The special exercises :in measuring should be con-

_.\i
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•u

tinued vigorously during the whole of this period,
with a view, chiefly, of givin g the pnpiJs the ~a1ua ­
ble power of measuring distances by the eye a1one.
The exer< . i ><Ps in sr,/pefiw1 R1rnpes nia~', however, he
Jiscnuti11 ncd ; ililLl Ll tH 1' 11/ I it1'./ of gi vcn slrn pcs from
card-board substituted :in their stead. D irections
fur these exercises may lJe given u,t school, and the
pupil may be required to practice at home and to
bring the results of his efforts to school for imipection.
Much time is bestowed on drawinq, on geo:r;netrical
drawing as well as on the representation of actual
oLjeds. Still the precautions given in the iwevions
chapter hold good : tho pupil sltoulLl n ever be forced
to dra w auytl1ing which he does not folly understand
and in which he does not feel a lively interest. In
the course of the periml, he rnav be allowf'cl to drnw
on paper, and in 0aeometrical draw:inrr
he may
b'
•
gradually be taught the use of the rule and of the
dividers;

. 11, '

Dmjng the third period, new ideas are g ained

essentially in the same way as in the previous
period with the difference, perhaps, that the d eveloping lessons become more and more abstracti

Ji

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~El

125

less and lern:1 connf'ctc d with artu;i,l ohjoch, nR the
pupils obtain dearer cou ceptimrn of slrnpe, position,
and extent. It is, therefore, useless to enlanre
further -0n UiiR pnrt of the sul1ject.
u

Much tirn1-1 Khonlcl be d<wotf'd to gcwri" defini tions, to tho dacisif-ii:ation of rehtea Blrnpes. Heretofore, the pupils an; supposo<l to have definei1 the
various sliap"" i11,fopt•rnk,nlly, withou t reference to
a llied figures : they formed only 8ji{'f'i,jic definitions.
Tlrny must now comp are tho various slrnpoA, arrange
them in groups or genera, and form definitions of
tliese genera. rn1is is not an nasy task, but it "pays
well," by its strengthe11ing iJLf!11011ce upon the powers
of conception :1rnl of "ornp:trison arnl gcn('raliz:1tion;
arn1, iu U1i~ l'•'SJ><'d, }11·rhnps 110 f'X<·1-ci,,;c eq1uds it in
educ:ition al Yalu('. 'l'lms the pupils shoul<l he led
to recognize 11,, 11 /,, am1 "fi!1 1s !' angles a8 uUi1J11r' ang]n 8 •
They slwuld be assisted iu cnltlparing the squ-are,
the rocbnglc, the rhomlmA, the rhnn 1hoicl, tlrn trapezium, and the trapezoid, and in cliscoYerinrr
th rit
0
they aro all fo ur-sidcrl figures, or q11wll'1'.l11/eruls; in
recognizing the square, the rec1Kmgle, the rhombu 8 ,
and the 'rhomboid as quadrihtera1s, of which the
opposite siclos are parnllel, as 7Jnrallelograms; and
again in classing the squ:tre and rectangle as riqldangled parcill,dograms, and the. rhombus and rhomboid as ~ oblique-angkd parallelograms. They are

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126

OBJECT-TE.ACHING,

OBJECT-Tl<:.ACHING.

guided m comparing the various p~·isms with each
o.t her .and in developing the fact that they are all
solids, ·with two equal parallel polygons for bases
and with as many pEtrallel parallelograms for their
sides as there are sides to the bases.
· As soon as a new generic definition has been developed, the reflective specific definitions should at
once be remodelled accordingly. Thus the definition of the square (page 121) would successively pass
through the following phases :
1. The square is a quadril,aternl (or foursided figure), of which all the sides are equal and all the
angels right, and of which the opposite sides are
parallel.
2. The square is a para"Udogram, of which all the
1
sides are equal and all the angels right.
3. The square is a right-angled parallelo']ro.m, of
which all the sides are equal.
After the nearest genus has been recognized and
defined, the pupil should be accustomed to define
the species always in that genus. Thus, after recognizing the square and rccbni:;le as ri~;i1l-an)lt·rl prr1·alldo 1J J'111n-' , tho 11upil should nev<'l' l,c pc·rmitted to
ddhw Uw111 ~impl.r :ts J><1r,1./ld,l<jrt1m.<, as q11adrila1 1·a].<, ''" J'<'\'. ,-..;.<. w ~s .•'f<'{Yc1<~'
In this "~Y ruone,
•'1\.11 l ''"'''i~i , \ll ,,f tl11•1t,~'l1t 1t111l cxpr11t:!Rion
oulti·

uo

'''~'""·

---=
- --,----+-

127

The special exercises in measllring are continued
and extended, so as to include tho measurement of
surfaces and solids. This shoukl, however, not be
introduced with the statement of general rnlcs and
their subsequent illustrations and explanations; but,
as heretofore, the pupil should find the rules l1imsdf.
For the measurement of surfaces, h e may bo provided with a number of small pieces of thin canlboard about half an inch square, and these he may
apply to larger right-angled parnllelogrnrns, fi nrl determine how many of those smaller ones arc necessary to cover the latter. Again, he rnn,y tlra,1· s11uares
an<l rectan gles on his slate, on the black-lioanl, or on
paper, sulJlLivitlo tll!'m i11Lo snwll sqn:cn·s, arnl cnnnt
the number h o obtaius. He will SC)OU dis1:u1·1·r tlwt,
in a rectangle whid1 is two incl 10s ]()]1g aJHl one iw·lt
broad, there aro two rmvs of four h:t1f-inl'h squares,
or four rows of bYo half-inch scii.rn rc;i, :1ml tha t, in
11 square of whieh t.110 si<
fo nwasnros two inr~)10s, there
:ire four r0 1Ys n f f,;nr hnlf-ineh sr11rnrcs, Ho rnny
then, hirnst-,lf, d cn·l<lp tl10 rnlr for the 1rw:1sn r<'111r11t
of riglit-aJJglr,l p:1r:illclogr:1111s :11111 m:l.1- l>n prac-

128

OBJECT-TEACHING.

find that the triangles and trapezoids obtained may
be arranged so as to form four squares ; and, on
counting, that the same law applies to oblique angled parallelograms, which he has previously discovered for right-angled parallelograms. In a similar way, he may be guided in the discovery of rules
for the measurement of triangles and other polygons.
According to the same principles, too, the pupil
should be introduced into the measurement of solids
witl; the assistance. of small cubical blocks with
which square and rectangular prisms may be built.
Some of these blocks may be cut obliquely in various
proportions, so as to enable the pupil to build also
other prisms and pyramids.
Drawing, too, is continued, and special attention
paid to geometrical drawing, applying the facts an~
r:
Principles · taught during this and previous perio d s. 111,,
No other instrument should, however, be used as
yet, except th~ rule and the clividfffS.·
The transition to the study of geometry as a
science is now made (about the sixth school year)
and the pupils are ready to take up the subject
"synthetically." But, even now, care should be
taken not to make the study too abstract and, particularly, to save the pupil the mind-killing labor of
learning theorems, problems, and their solutions by
heart.

CHAPTER XIV.
NATURAL HISTOHY PEHIOD -

HEASONS FOR CHOOSING rr-FIBsT

DESCRIPTIONS -TECHNICAL TERMS -

SEPA-

RATE EXEHCISES-PHYSIOLOGY.

•

THE claims of the subject of Natural History, as
an educational agent, are so little appreciated, that
w~ feel compel~ed t<;> apologize for choosing it -as a
type in our illustrations, and to state and substan.tiate the reasons which have induced us to choose it.
In the first place, no other subject offers to the
pupils so many interesti~g objects for observationinteresting, if we exclu4e mir~erals, on account of
their variety and life. The child observes with delight the dog, the horse; the chicken, the bug, the
worm, long before he deigns to look upon th~ articles of furniture in the house with any degree of
attention; he greets with shouts of joy the daubed
picture of an animal, while he turns away indifferently from the most beautiful landscape painting,
which can win his attention only through its representations of living things. Subsequently tree~ be-

! ,'

130

131

OBJECT-TE.A.CHING.

OBJE CT-TEACHING.

gin to attract his attention by their "motion an<l
music in the wind," and flowers by their brilliant
colors. Artificial objects (articles of furniture, playthings, tools, etc.) and minerals will enlist his active
attention only after he has commenced to perceive
how necessar.y they are to his own well-being or to
that of animals and plants, or when he has discovered how they can be moved or made to sound-how
they can be made to imitate livina thinas · and in
t:>
0
'
'
the direct proportion in which they are capable of
r eminding him of life, they are interesting to him.
Thus, the looking-gluss is dear to him, because it
r eflects his own life-like image ; he loves the rattle,
because he can shake it and make a noise with it ·
the whistle has no charm for him until he has'
heard it sound. This pnnciple, wh~ch is based upon
our instinctive love of life, holds good during the
whole existence of every man that has been fortunat.e enough to enjoy a natural education. The
same love of life that causes the little girl to prefer
the doll to the picture-book, and the pet kitt~n to
the doll; the same love of life that causes the little
boy to prefer the china animals to the building
blocks, and the favorite pup to the china animals :
that same love of life causes the adult to seek relief
from his toils in the contemplation of living nature.
It is among animals and plants, then, that we must

look for the objects that will most surely arouse anJ
fetter the pupil's attention and that will offer the
richest mnteria.l for the exercise and development of
the powers of oLservation.
Again, objects of nature are pre-eminently fitted
for exercises in comparison and classification, on
account of their infinite variety, as well as on account
of the clearness with which they exhibit, in well defined, unequivocal groups, common properties and
purposes; and certainly no other objects will be
delineated in their outlines by the pupili with more
pleasure and profit than plants and animals, so
varied and beautiful in form, and &o dear and suggestive to the pupil's fancy.
Another weighty reason for choosing Natural His- .
tory was the hope of assisting in its introduction
into our elementary and common schools. We are
aware of the many formidable obstacles that meet
the teacher on every side, not only in his efforts to
introduce the study of Natural History, but in all
his attempts to make use of more natural and rational ·methods. We have often felt, and we still
feel, the oppressive influence· of that popular nervous·
ness, which cries for lightning progress in the socalled "prnctical" subjects, which smiles incredulously at the " cant" about thoroughness, and
about development and cultivation of the mental

"i
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132

OB.TECT-TEACHING.

powers, and wh~ch considers as lost all the time
spent in walks or in the study of anything beyond
"the three R's" and, perh aps, history and geogri:tphy. W e have too often observed the bligi1ting and
retarding effects of ignorance and bigotry upon
schools that labor under the control of trustees
who
I
have no conception of the high destiny and of the
noble duties of man, and of the exalted office of the
school .and who, in the majority of cases, consider
money-making the chief purpose of life-a purpose,
the accomplishment of which, as we all know, requires yery little intelligence and virtue. "'\Ve are
aware that in large cities, the country is so far remov.ed from the majority of children as to be almost
inaccessible to theni and that, therefore, direct intercourse with nature is well nigh impossible. .Wb .
are aware that a very great number of silly mammas
do all in th<;iir power to cultivate in their children,
especially in their daughters, a kind of cowardice
that causes the little ones to shrink from all contact
with animals and a kind of fashionable horror
against long walks and against garden mud. Nay,
we are painfully conscious of the fact, that a considerable number of so-carted teachers do all in their
power to cater to these · prejudices against the study
of nature, to increase them, and to invent arguments
in their favor, either for the purpose of securing

T

OBJECT-TEACHING.

.;1

133

patronage, or for the purpose of concealing their
own ignorance and of avoiding work on their part.
Nevertheless, it is the duty of every teacher to com- _
bat these prejudices ; and the deep sense of this
duty is one of the main reasons that have induced
the author to choose Natural History as a means
of illustrating the application of the principles of
Object-teaching.
In our remarks, we shall confine ourselves to animals and plants, presenting the subject in the same
order in which language and geometry have been
presented. To avoid redundancy we shall, however,
pass over the fhst two periods very rapidly and pay
more special attention to the exercises in comparison and generalization, for which natural objects are
so eminently fitted. We cannot deny the fact that
the. school relations at these '. early ages are more or
less artifieial : hence the school finds it so difficult to
accomplish anything in the study of nature during
the first period. No special exercises can, therefore,
be made profitable until the pupil has acquired
some skill in drawing and in the description of objects, .o r about the middle of the second period.
For the developm'ent of general ideas on Efe and
growth, on motion and sensation, the teacher is unfortunately compelled to rely more upon the circumstances that surround the pupil out of school,

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134

OBJECT - TEACHING.•

particularly, at home, or upon subsequent instrnc~
tion. It is true, he may occasionally take a walk
with the little ones (provided his school is in thecountry and not too full), or he may direct their
attention to certain animals and plants by means of
stories or pictures, or even by direct. exhibition, or
by means of exercises similar to those indicated on
page 68 ; but all these things are as nothing, comp ared to the influence which the parents may exert
in arousing the child's interest by means of daily
walks and talks, by the rearing of domestic animals,
by the cultivation of garden plots, etc. Hence, lessons in the school on dogs, cats, chickens, ducks,
frogs, fishes, etc., on leaves, wood, bark, apples,
apple-trees, roses, rose-bushes; etc., will not differ in
their character from the lessons 'on miscellaneous
objects sketched on pages 47-71; and thus it would
be useless to offer additional types for their treatment.
In the descriptions of animals and plants, which
the child is taught to make during the second period,
the same principles apply that were given for the
description of miscellaneous objects. In order to
secure method and precision, it is again necessary
to accustom the pupils ·to observe and describe ,,_
objects in question in a certain order of detail to

OBJECT-TEACHING.

which they must adhere rigidly.
lowing types :
THE

135

We offer the fol-

Doo.

. Size.-Varying.
He.ad.-Pyramidal; placed: horizontally.
SkuZZ.-Rounded; higher behind than before.
Snout.-Half the length of the head; narrow.
Ears.-Large, pendant (or, as the case may be,
small, erect.)
Nose.-Very long; nostrils, cold, ~oist, rounded.
Eyes.-Almond-shaped; pupil, round.
Mouth.- Large; upper lip, overlapping the lowei:;
lower lip, smaller, with a toothed margin.
Tongw~.-Smooth, long, flat.
Teeth.-Twenty above, twenty-two .below. (The
teeth may be described.)
Neck.-Round, about as long as the head.
Trunk.-Rounded, very broad, and stout about
the chest, thinner (contracted) just in front of the
hind-legs, covered with hair, like the rest of the
body.
Fore-legs.-Lower than the hind-legs; four toes.
Hind-legs.-Higher than the fore-legs; five toes.
Olaws.-Stout ; blunt ; always protuding.
Tail.--:-Ronnd; curved upwards and to the left.
Hair.- Generally coarse, stiff, and short.
I

136

OBJEOT-TEAC HING •.

Voice.~Barks,

growls, yelps, howls.
Habits,._(Under this head various peculiarities
may be enumerated, if possible, also in a certain
order.)

OBJECT-TEACHING.

rats, it is a necessary domestic animal. It is very
cleanly. Its skin is used as fur, and its guts are
used for musical strings.
THE

THE CAT.

The cat grows to be from ten to fourteen inc}ies
long and about five inches high.
The head is round and provided with a short
snout.
It has two short, erect ears, running into a point ;.
a nose, projecting .very little ; and two round eye,s, of
whic~ the pupil is oblong and placed vertically.
Its mouth is quite small, the ipper Jaw is longer.
than the lower and a little broade.r in front. The
tongue is rough. The teeth are very sharp, 16 ab?ve
and 14 below. On both sides of the mouth, there
are long, stiff hairs or bristles.
The trunk of the cat is long and flexible, cylindrical in shape. On the fore-jeet there are four toes,
and on the hind-feet there are five toes. The claws
are sharp, curved, 8.nd retractile. The tail is long
and tapering. The hair is smooth and soft, and
electrical. The cat mews, purs, cries, and spits.
The cat eats small animals, such as mice, rats,
small birds, and ev-en lizards. It dislikes water, but
is very fond of milk. Because it catches mice and

137

PIGEON.

The pigeon is about twelve inche:;; long and
a.bout six inches high. It is covered with feathers,
all except the bill and the feet, which are bare.
The color of the feathers is generally blue, except
those of the head and tail, which are white. The
back is dark blue and the wings are light blue. It has
two kinds of feathers :. the quill feathers, in the wings
and in the tail, and the downy feathers, c:overing the
rest of the body. The parts of its body are : 1, the
head j 2, the neck j 3, the trimlc j 4, the limbs (wings
and legs); and 5, the tail ..
The head is small and round and provided with a.
conical lJill, inside of which we can see . a small,
pointed tongue, but no teeth. The upper mandib7,e is
larger and more arched than the lower, and laps
over the lower mandibk. Near the base (root) of the
upper mandible there is a soft skin, in which there
are two oval nostrils. The ears cap.not be seen, because they are entirely in the head. Its two eyes
are small, round, and very gentle; they are also very
acute.
The neck 1s round, short, and very flexible.

The

)':
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138

OBJECT-TEACHING.

trunk is rn the shape of an e~g.

The sides ar.e
covered by the wings ; on the breast and belly there
is very soft down.
The limbs are of two kinds : wings and "legs. The
wings grow from the sides of the trunk and are very
long. ('ren of the feathers are very long.) They
reach nearly to the end of the tail. The "legs are
short, and covered with down, all except the je,et.
·These have four toes-three forward and one backward-furnished with small, thin claws.
. They eat grain, live in pairs, and are very
cleanly.
FLAX (an Herb).

Root.-Fibrous (many thread-shaped roots).
Stem.-Erect, thin, from two to three feet high;
the tough fibers of the bast (inner bark) are used as
flax, to make linen, etc.
Leave.s.-Small, alternate, lancet-shaped (lanceolate) pale green.
Flowers.-Numerous, blue, very small, regularblooms_in June and July.
Ccrlyx.-Divided into five parts (sepals).
Corolla.- Oonsists of five small blue petals.
Stamens.-Five, united below into a ring.
P istil.-One: ovary, containing a few (ten) seeds

139

OBJECT-TEACHING.

(ovules), in five apartments (cells); five styles, each
with a stigma.
S eeds.-Brown, small; used to obtain linseed-oil.
To this the pupil may add the maDJJer in which it is
planted, and various other facts, connected with the
practical application of flax.

THE

w HITE

LILY.

The root of this herb consists of a great number
of very short and thin fibers.
Besides the root, there is in the ground the bulh
(root stalk), which is yellow, covered with loose,
juicy scales, arranged like shingles.
The stem is from two to three feet high, round,
erect.
The 7.ea;es are very numerous, scattered along the
stem, and have parallel nerves.
It bears a few fl owers on short stalks (pedicels),
Its calyx consists of six white sepals, united below,
and bent back at the top.
It has no corolla.
In the calyx there are six stamen~, shorter than the
sepals, and uniteJ with them below.
The pistil consists of a rounded ov:iry, containing
three cells in which there are many flat ovnles. The
s!yle is long and slender, thickened above. The
stigma is three-lobed.

....

-

140

0 DJ EC T-TE AC HING.

The teacher will often be compelled to have recourse to technical terms, especially in the study of
plants. These should, however, never be given before the pupil has a clear idea of the meaning conveyed by the term, on the principle that ideas mw;t
precede names. This may be accomplished ,in the
manner previously indicate({, or by means of circumlocution, previous translation of th'e term into English words with which the child. is familiar. ·The
pupil will then easily retain the new technical term
as.a more convenient carrier of the idea in question.
Additional illustrations might be offered, but those
given are sufficient to show how the subject may
be h andled. The ingenuity of the teacher should,
however, b.e untiring in devising variations from
these types; laying successively more stress up<;>n the
structure, the habits, the uses of animals or plants,
the · parts of animals or plants, and their. respec- ·
tive uses, and upon the probable reasons for peculiarities of structure. As helps, more or less necessary in these studies, we would recommend frequent
wallrn with a view of observing animals and plants;
skeletonizing animals and collecting specimens of
plants; the keeping of pet animals and the cultivation of a small gatden; and, for the boys, hunting
and fishing. In the latter exercise, we should,
however, carefully guard against that bloodthirsty

.... -·-

OBJECT-TEACHING.

141

cruelty that characterizes untutored juvenile hunters and that induces them to kill whatever comes in
their ·way for the pleasure, simply, of killing. If a
bird or other animal has b~en killed, it should be
carefully examined, perhaps prepared for skeletonizing, and the boy should be taught to avoid shooting similar birds afterwards.
As .an exercise of great educational value, the collection and nursing of caterpillars and of other larvoo
should be encouraged. The caterpillars should be
' kept where they can obtain an abundant supply of
light and air, and, in some cases, moist earth. If
the plant, on the leaves of which the larva feeds, is
not within easy r each, common lettuce will prove an
acceptable substitute in the majority of cases. This
exercise is especially useful in the development of
ideas on growth. The child should, however, be
taught to let the butterfly once formed and examined, enjoy its freedom, and not to impale it on a pin
for the sake of iclie curiosity or silly vanity.
Frequently, too; the pupil should be led to study
the physiology of .the animal and vegetable systems.
The butcher's stall, the dissection of some smaller
animals, and especially the chalk and black-board,
will offer sufficient material to enable the pupil to
understand and appreciate the beauties of digestion,
circulation, respiration, etc. The teacher should,

142

OBJECT-TE AC H,ING.

however, guard against enteril:).g too deeply into intricate details, into hypothetical explanations, and
into diffuse lecturing. As heretofore, he should confine himself as much as possible to facts which the
pupil can develop and illustrate by his own powers
and acquirements. As much as practicable, the
study of the functions of the respective parts of the
animal or plant should be combined with the study
of the parts themselrns: so that the pupil may learn
to look upori every part of the living animal or plant
as something living in itself and as so:rri.ethfug essent1al to the life of the whole . . This will be found particularly easy in the study of plants which do not
conceal their organs of life in a protecting envelop
,,...
'
I;.
as animals do and which, at · the same time, do not !
resist obs~rvation or suffer by it.
f

CHAPTER XV.
NATURAL HISTORY, CONTINUED- COllll'ARISON AND OLA~
SIFICATION.

· As soon as the pupils have acquired some skill in
the clescriptio'n of animals and plants and have
formed somewhat complete conceptions of the more
familiar ones (about the fourth school year), they
may begin to compare and classify them. In the
beginning, the pupils may be required to simply
recite or write down the names of animals or plants
that . have or have not certain qualities. This is a
fundamental exercise in which the childr3n cannot
be drilled too thoroughly. It will be advisable, too,
to avoid, from the very start, classifications based
upon accidental properties, such as color, size, etc., so
that the pupils may be enabled to form cleai· and
correct conceptions of classes, based upon essential
prope~·ties afone.
'l'hus, they may recite or write
upon their slates the names of animals that are
!·

1-li

OBJECT-TEACHING.

carnivorous and of others that are not carn-ivorous, as

follows:
Carnivwoua.

The dog,
The cat,
The weasel,
The fox,
The lion,
The bear,
The shark,
The whale,
The snake,
etc., etc.

Not CarnivwctUS.

The horse,
The cow,
The sheep,
The rabbit,
The camel,
The giraffe,
The squirrel,
The bee,
The butterfly,
etc., etc.

;J;n a similar way they may be require,d ' .to give
th~ names 0£ herbivorous animals, of warm.:.blooded
animals, of animals that have skeletons of bone, of
animals that fly, etc., with their respective opposites. Two or more qualities may then be combined,
and the pupils asked to name animals that are carnivorous quadrupeds or carnivorous birdfl; rumihants, rodents, etc. The material offered by plants
may be similarly treated, furnishing lists of plants
that have a certain kind of leaves, flowers, fruits,
roots, or stems; of plants th at grow in certain ·
localities, that are used for certain purposes, etc.
The importance and educational value of these exer-

OBJECT-TEACHING .

145

cises cannot be overestimated. They form the
very basis of all classification, since to classify is
to determine whether -0, certain object or group
of objects has or has not certain qualities; and,
at the same time, they cause the pupil to review
carefully knowledge previously acquired, thus
,rendering that knowledge more and more his
property.
Alternating, more or less regularly, with these exercises, others may be made, in which the pupils
compare certain animals or plants in sets, according
to the. following types :

~:

!:

.,,

'!:

'i

I

I

'I

l

I
I

1. n ·oa

I

~

AND UAT.
I

I

Resemhlances.
Both are domestic animals.
Both are of a medium size.
Neck and body of both are cylindrical
Both have four feet-are quadrupeds.
They walk on their toes~are digitigra<le.
Both can wallr, run, leap, swim, etc.
The skins of both are covered with hair.
Both breathe by means of lungs.
Both feed on flesh-are carnivorous.
Both give birth to living young-are mar.imals.

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CAT.

DOG.

IJifferences.
DOG.

Size.-Varying considerably.
Head.-Pyramidal.
S 1wut.-Very long.
Ears.-Large, pendant.
P upil ef the Eye.-Round.
T eetlt.-Forty:.two, longer-than in the cat.
S enses.-Odor best developed.
Legs.-Legs longer than
in the cat (in proportion to the body.)
Olaws.-Always protruding, cannot be moved
without the toes, blunt,
nearly straight.
Tail.-Ct?.rved upwards.

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Voice. - Barks, growls,
yelps, howls.
Progre,ssion. - Cannot
climb.
Defense.-Uses the teeth.

CAT.

All grown, about
same.
Almost spherical.
Short.
'
Small, erect. .
A mere slit.
Thirty.

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the

2.

Mews, purs, cries, . and
spits.
Can climb.
Uses the claws.

THE GoosEBERRY AND THE CURRANT-BUSH..

Reseml:Jlances.

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Sight best developed.

Both are bushes or shrv-Os.
The leaves consist of 3-5 lobes.
Both have very small green flowers, with fivetoothed, bell-shaped calyx, five stamens, and one
pistil, bearing two styles.
Both produce eatable berries.

Stouter than in .the dog.

May be drawn in and
stretched forth (retrac- '
tile), sharp, muoh curved.
Not curved upwards.Longer in proportion
to the body.
Hair.-Yields no sparks, Softer than in the dog ;
yields sparks when rubwhen rubbed.
bed · forward in the
dark.

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Dijference.s.
GOOSEBERRY.

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Cun11A.NT.

Provided with Without prickles, proauoprickles,
producing
ing few branches.
many branches.
l',ea,vr.s.-Lobes not sub- Lobes subdivided, more
pointed.
divided.

St£m. -

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OBJECT-TEACHING,
GOOSEBERRY.

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CunRaNT.

Flower.-Peduncles, usually three - flowered.
(The difference in shape
of t!-ie various parts of
the flower may be added here.)

Peduncles usually manyflowered.

Fruit.-Sometimes prickly, larger and paler
than the currant.

Never prickly, small, ancl
in clusters.
)

3. · THE HoRsE AND THE Cow.

The horse and the co~ are domestw animcds, belonging to the class of quadrupeds. They resemble
each other very much in' general appearance; and
both are covered with a thick, hairy skin, which
used for leather. Both can walk, trot, run, and, if
necessary, swim. Both are lierbivorous.
On the other hand, the horse is generally l,arger
than the cow, and is used as a bea~t of burden
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whereas the cow furnishes us with milk, cheese, butwr
and meat. The horse is graceful and agi1e, whereas .
the cow is Clumsy and awlcward. Besides, the head
of the cow is shorter and thicker, furnished with
larger ears, and with two horns. The upper Jaw is
without teeth in front, and the tearing or canine

is

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teeth are wanting. The neck of the horse is gracefully arched, and furnished with a mane, whereas
the neck of the cow is almost straight and disfigured by a loose dew-lap. The whole body or
trunk of the horse is more compact and rounded
than that of the cow. There is also a marked difference between the tails of the t'tvo animals ; that o~
the horse being covered with long, elastic hairs in its
whole length, while that of the cow is covered with
short hair. The legs of the horse are com!Y,rative1y
longer, and also rounder and more graceful than
those of the cow. The horse has on each foot a round,
horny hoof; the hoof of the cow is divided in the.
middle, hence we say that the cow is cfoven-footed or
cloven-hoefed. The hair of the cow is longer, and
less smooth and shining than that of the horse.
The cow is a ruminating animal, and has a muqh
more complicated stomach than the horse. The
horsl7 moves much more rapidly than the cow. The
horse riei,glUJ, whereas the cow bellows.

4.

THE

Ox, THE

SHEEP, AND THE GoAT.

The principal points of resemblance in these animals are:
1. They are all herbivorous.
· 2. They ruminate-chew the cud. They have four
stoma~~hs. At first the food is chewed hastily, and

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OBJECT-TEACHING.

0 BJ EC T- TE AC H IN G.

swallowed into the first and largest stomach or
paunch. From this it passes to the second stomach, ·
the honey-comb, where it is softened and made into
little balls or pellets. These are forced back into the
mouth, w:Q.ere they are chewed a second time. The
food is then passed directly to the third stomach,
the manyplies, and fr6m this to the fourth, the true
stomach, where it is digested.
3. They have hollow horns for defense.
4. Their eyes are placed at the sid@ of the head
rather than in front, and the p upil~ are oval and
placed sidewise (horizontally), not up and down
(vertically), as in the cat.
5. They have no front teetli in the upper jaw; but,
in their place, a hard pad.
6. The ears are placed far back and are very
movable.
7. The legs and the neck are long.
8. The feet are furnished with two toes or claws,
forming together a cl,oven hoof ; and, b ehind the
hoof, a little higher up, there are two small toes or

2. In covering; the hair of tho ox is short and
straight, that of the goat long. and straight, whereas
the sheep is covered with wool.
3. In the honis ; those of the ox are curved outward and upward ; those of the sheep backward,
and then spirally forward; those of the goat upward and backward. Besides, the horns of sheep
and goats are "'Tinkled and angular, while those of

.

the ox are smooth and round.
. 4. In the muzzle ; that of the ox is broader and
~a.keel, whereas the narrower muzzles of the sheep
and of the goat are hairy. The goat also has a

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hind-claws.

9. They ar e very useful ·domestic animals.
10. They are ti·mid and quite stupid.
They differ from each other principally :
1. In size ; the ox 1S much larger than the sheep
and the goat.

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beard under the chin.
5. In the tail; that of the ox is long ond thin,
that of the sheep long and thi~k, and that of the
goat very short and erect. [
6. In the us~ made of them : the ox only is used
as a beast of burden and of draught; the sheep is
used principally for its wool, and the goat for its

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THE PIGEON FAMILY OF BIRDS.

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There are many kinds of pigeons. Among them
I can name the Domestic Pigeon, the Wild Pigeon
or Passenger Pigeon, the Carrier Pigeon, the Crown
PigeQn, the Tm:tle Dove, and the Carolina Dove.
They are all very timid and gentle birds. They

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have the bill shorter than the head; the upper half
of the bill (the upper mandible) overlaps the lower
on both sides, and its root (or base) is covered
with a soft skin in which the nostrihi are placed.
Their plumage is not very bright, but glossy-generally white, bluish, greenish, gray or brown. They
have from twelve to fourteen long tail-feathers.
Their feet are short and thin ; the toes are placed
on the same level, three before and one behind, and
armed with short, stout nails for scratching. They
have a double craw and a very strong gizzard. 'I'hey
feed principally on grains. They live in pairs, and
usually lay only two eggs for a brood.· They feed
the young with a sort of milk which they make in ·
their ow'n crops.

animals are mostly vegetable eaters, feeding principally on nuts, wood, and th.e bark of trees, though
some, like the rats, eat also flesh. The squirrels,
rats, and mice, the beavers, guinea-pigs, porcupines,
hares, and rabbits, belong to the rodents. The hares
and rabbits differ from all the other rodents in having
four front teeth in the upper jaw.

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6. THE GNAWING QUADRUPEDS, OR RODENTS.

These animals receive their name from the fact
that they are fitted for gnawing h ard substances, such
as wood, and nut-shells. They h ave in each jaw two
long, sharp front teeth, shaped like chisels. The
r ear portion of these teeth is much sharper than the
front portion, and wears away in gnawing, so as to
keep the teeth always sharp. These teeth grow as
fast as they wear away. Between thm;e front teeth
and the back teeth (or grinding t eeth) there is an
empty sp ace in the place of the t earing teeth. These

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CHAPTER XVI.
NATURAL HISTORY, CONCLUDED-CATALOGUES OF CLASSIFICATIONS-EXTENDED TO OTHER SUBJECTS-TECHNICAL TERMS-TRANSITION-EFFECTS ON MORALS-CONCLUSION.

To assist the pupil's memory, as well as to
strengthen his powers of classification, he should
also be taught to draw up suggestive catalogues of
the classifications, at which he may from time to
have arrived, according to the following types:
1. BIRDS

OF PREY.

feeding on living pr,ey,
Bmns

OF

PREY.

diurna'
1

FALCONS.

f din
.
{ ee g on carnon,
VULTURES.

OWLS.

nocturnal -

2.

VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.

Warm-blooded.
Viviparous, oviparous.
(MAMMALs). (BIRDS).

'-

. Cold-blooded.
with lungs,

with gills.

(REPTILES) .

(FISHES).

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They may then read these catalogues in various
ways. Thus, the first of these types may be read:
"There are three classes of birds of prey-falcons,
V1.tltures, and owls. The falcons are diurnal birds 0£
prey, feeding on living animals ; the vultures are
diurnal birds of prey, feeding on carrion ; and the
owls are nocturnal birds of prey." Or, "Birds of
prey are either diurnal ~octurnal. The diurnal
birds of prey either feed on living animals, and are
called falcons ; or they feed on carrion, and are
called vultures. The nocturnal birds of prey are
the owls."
Again, these catalogues will serve as guides in
framing terse definitions. Thus the pupil, if asked
t~ define mammals and birds, will readily answer,
from the second type : "Mammitls are viviparous,
warm-blooded verteb~ates. Birds are oviparous,
warm-blooded vertebrates."
LJ1,bor bestowed upon this formulizing of knowledge always "pays well." It practices the pupil in
the highest and most difficult functions of the mind
and peculiarly enhances his interest in the respective subjects of study. At every new success in
. thus reducing knowledge to a simpler and more tan. gible form, in thus cornpressing dlff'11scf ac'.8 inlo a nutshell, as it were, he feels that his memory has been
relieved of a heavy burden, and shows ;.,,is gratitude

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OBJECT-TEACH I NG.

OBJECT-TEACHING.

in redoubled efforts to achieve similar . triumphs.
Therefore, this formulizing of related facts or principles should be extended to all subjects capable of
classifications. We cannot refrain from offering, for
the sake of illustration, a few such formulas, that
have been used in our experience with much advantage in grammar and geometry.

i

First person

I.

4.

•

speaking.
.
denotes the person or
h.
addressed.
{
Third person J t mg
spoken of.

Persons, same.
f

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Pei:sons, different.

· The first three formulas explain themselves ; for
the better understanding of the last, we will give
the reading of the first part. " Shall and shoul,d are
used to express futurity, when the person or thing
expecting and the one to whom the expectation refers, are the same ; will and woulil, when the persons
or things are not the same. In the first person
shall or shOUld, are always used.

2. FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE IN NOUNS.

We add to the Nominative;
('s)
(')
I. in all singular nouns.
in all plural nouns
2. in plural nouns not
ending ins.
ending ins.
3. TENSES.

5.

QUADRILATERALS.

Nam e of Tense.

Symmetrical (PARALLELOGRAMS).
Imperfect,
{ Perfect,
. . . . { Imperfect,
Perfect,

Present,
<,-•/

Past,

Future, ...

~

Imperfect,
P erfect,

or Would.

2. Resolution. Persons, different. Persons, same,

PERSON.

Action.

Will

I First Person.

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S econd person .

Time.

UsE OF SHALL AND WILL.

Shall or Should.

1. Futurity.

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Present (Imperfect).
Present Perfect.
Past (Imperfect).
Past P erfect.
Future (Imperfect).
Future Perfect.

Right-angled.

Oblique-angled.

,----A-----,
equilateral. not eq 11ll11 teral.

8QuARx.

RitOTANOJ.~ .

Unsymmetrical.

Two parallels.

TRAPEZOID.
equilatera.l. not equilateral.
Rno11nus.

No parallels.
TRAPEZIUM.

RaOKBOID .

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would warn the teac~er once more against the in-

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OBJECT-TEACHING.

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cautious or too liberal use of technical names, since,
particularly in classification, there will be ·much
occasion to use them. Wherever it is practicable,
purely technical names should be 1tvoided : thus,
the terms. cuneate, cordate, hastate, dentate, and
similar ones may be exchanged for wedge-shaped,
heart-shaped, spear-shape.d, tootluxi, etc., without loss
of terseness, and with great gain of clearness on th~
part of the pupils. Again, the pupil will, for a long
f.ime, prefer the terms four-footed animals to qua.clrupeds, Dog family to Canidoo, Deer family to Cervidre, Rose family to Rosacere, Lily family to Liliacero, etc., because they are more significant to
him. In these cases, however, the technical n.a mes
have much practical value, on account of their
shortness. They should, therefore, be substituted
gradually and cautiously for their Eng?ish translations ; but this should never be done, until the
teacher is fully satisfied that the pupil has the idea
clearly.
· It is obvious that, after a course in Natural History-similar to the one sketched above, and ext ending through a period of two to three years,
during the most impressible age of the pupilbooks on zoology and botany will present a very
different face to the yonng student, thM thAy <lo,
when he is pitched headlong into a maze of un•

intelligible technicalities, arbitrary systems, and
mysterious · symbols ; and that these subjects will
cease to b_e " dry studies," rendering nature almost
repulsive to the pupil.
Unquestionably, too, the teacher may use these
exercises as one of the principal levers in the education of delicate, moral sensibilities. Let the teacher
in these lessons not forget that, as the immortal
Mjlton sings :

'

" By contemplation of created things,
We may by steps ascend to God."

And let the pupil gradually be brought to a consciousness that, in studying Nature, he studies the
work of the wisest and best of beings, the Living
Word of God; let him be taught to disdover, wherever he looks, His wisdom and goodness; that beautiful harmony, that wonderful adaptation of all
things to the surroundings, that all-embracing love,
that affection without bounds - placing into the
smallest thing an exhaustless source of happiness
and delight and life, even for the greatest, and
making the greatest serve the wants and wis~es of
the ieast; impartially and equally distributing joy
and sorrow, love and aversion ;-let him become
conscionR of t,his, so that he may himself become
wiser and better. Above all things, 11;rnid that un-

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OBJECT-TEACHING.

OBJEOT..:TEACHING.

fortunate and fatal error of looking upon Nature as
a. soulless object, as a collection of simply intere,sting facts, which daily arise and pass away, but
.guide the pupil to find the " golden kernel in the
silver shell"-the eternal truths revealed in Nature's
facts. To a child thus taught, Nature will indeed
be a "mother," a bountiful dispenser of the nchest
and purest blessings.

ness to which they are naturally entitled, and able
to dispense the. blessings which their fellows have
a right to claim from them ; in sh2rt, only if
such a course is pursued, will the .school be enabled to accomplish its purposes and ~ perform
its duties.

II

According to the principles, indicated in the foregoing sketches, all other subjects of instruction
should be treated. Thus, the · study of geography
should be introduced with " object lessons" on the
geographical facts peculiar to the country; in the
pupil's immediate vicinity; the study off, history
should be based upon familiar narrations of events
in the pupil's immediate experience at home, at
school, and during his rambles ; and the study of
arithmetic should be rendered intelligible and
attractive by ·being connected with concrete facts
withi~ the grasp of the pupil's mind, and within the
pale of his direct sensuous observation.
Only if such a system is followed consistently
c::i.n we expect to devefop in our schools wellbalanced human beings, capable of all the happi-

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