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'A

GUAMMAR OF CQM:,POSITION:
I

lNCLUDil!fG

A PRACTICAL .REVIEW
OF THE

PRINCIPLES , OF "RHETORIC,
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. A SERIES OF EXERCISES
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llHETORlCAL . ANALX,S_IE?, '
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'S IX INTRODUCTOHY COURSES

OF

COMPOSITION.: -'

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.JI/ that regards the study of composition. merita the higheat al· '.
tention on thi1 account, that _it . is intimately connected 'With ·
DR. ' BIJ.lll.
·
tlie imjn·ovenzent of our intellectual po1JJer1.

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EW-HAVEN:
A, H : MALTBY AND OQ, PRINT.

1823.

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PUE FACE.

UQM!'_Q~_I!_ON, it is often r em:irked, too seldom receivee
that place in education, ·which i~s importance 'requires: 1The
. practical value of thi s branch,. s ~ems · to ·-entitle ' i_t to ra_n k
. high among useful, as ,vell ·as•-elegant acquirements.' ·, A re·
. fleeting mind; '_ c_~nnot but 'obse~~e ; _th ~t the art of ex p1·essing
·our thoughts, is an .att:.inment, which literature; and science,
and business, render highly important; and -that it is, in itself, a source· of much improvement, and of much-refined
• ··
'
.· ' ··
· .. · '
gratification .
In this view of the subject, the question natUJ'ally arisesWhy is it, that science •ah_d the languag es are thought to ' re·
qnire years of l_aborious app\icali11i;; · whilst·· ~mnposition; ·to
which science· is indebtkd for ·the'< diffusion •of'all its· u:uths;
and from which ancient literature derives almost all its r eal
use, is in a great measure' abandoned to ' unassisted 01· ill-di· ·
rected efforts, and occasional· practice ? ·
:. ·• ; '
~) .:;'
: It is not 1 ass~rting too much, to ·say, that in· most prepa:ra:
tory courses of instr· ction 0 this usefi department•of litera ·
acco1nplishment,!• is· almost entjr,ely overlook'~d/ The eon·
sequence ·of this -negl ect _is,'th.a t most yoimg men, ev~~ -~n
,
entering colleg~, ·are verj'"' defi~i i•nt both in' the' principles · ,,. '
and the practice ·of composition; ·and begin the study ofrhet: .:
E>ric, •with minds bardy . capable 'of embracing the rudimeliwJ

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DISTRICT O.E' CONNECTICUT, ss.
Be it r emembe r ed, That on th e tw e nly-ni1.1th <hy
April, in the forly-secmtd year of the lntlcp c ndcnc e of
United Slate s of America, Wlll. HUSS ELL of said Di slr
hath deposited in tl1is Office th e title of n Book, th e ri
whereof he claims ns Author, in the words following~to '
"A Grammar of Composition: in cluding a Pmclical Hev'
of th e Principles of Hh ct oric, a se ri es of Ex ercise s in Tlhe
ical Analysis, and six lntrod11cto1·y Cour•cs of Composilio
In conformity to the Act of the Congrcs• of the UNIT
ST ATES, c ntitl ecl "An Act for th e e ncourage mc nl ofl c:
i11g, by securing the copi e s of JII:tps, C11'1rts, n11 tl Hooks
the Authors and Propri etors of such copie s, during th e ti1
therein mention ed."
CHAS. A. INGERSOLL,
.
Cleric ~f the D istri ct of Co11 11 ectirn

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l'HEI<'A CE.

alid well-d irected 'enel'gy of 111ind'. He 1nii:rhtt\ 1ltimately att ~in to a fullc1• inaturity of his 1nc11tal IH)\\'l~l'.4, a ...g·1•cat1·r vig~
01·

:

r

and ckarncss i n l1is in tc lk ctu:d

cxcrcis l · s~

:-tnd

8.

super io r

eornrn:uHi of expression .

r

The splici'c of p1 1bi i c nscfulncss
m ig·h t tlins lH" better filled; the r!i:1r:ic\ cl' of ti"' liter:iry i11 ~t it.1Ltion s of t.lic U nited States n1ig-ilt be still !1ig·licr ra'.scd;
:.1TH1 th e 11;1tio11:-tl lit cr:tturc more ::pcccli ly r.thin t hat cmiw
nenc e to which it' ~eems rising·.

A . more g-cneral :ittcntion has, within
l'l' ctcd

to t'Oj]]jlOSitio11;

bul

!l

fr"· ycal's, been di-

tlO S\IC Cl' Ss f\ il l:Xt.:r(

;(l ] 1;_-)

Sl.'C tll to

have· beet1 u s e d t.6 make it" more pl'ominent lir:t 11 ch of •·d11 c:ttion.

011c olJs i aclc tu ~ ! H.: Ji :11\ :ttlc Jl tpt, Ji :lc; !J l' l 11 t)1,;

want of a <lefi 11ite, Hyst<.; m«t:lc,,J' pbl! o f instruct ion .

Several'

ll~cful w ork s, p:1rt ly or \rliully r e latin g to comp us itio11 , l1rtYC

bc('n produc(·{ l ; l)\Jt t lic pbn of som e is too th~:orct i c d for
the u ... c of Lcg- iH11 crs . :11Hl th :lt cit· others c xch1dt;s man y
thing-s cssc1Fiol to th r l ro rn e r's · pror;TdS. lllo>l books on
this sul.ijn·t, Jia,·c Jl"SSC<l l1ul verv s lig-h tly o\·cr the \\'itle
ffcl rl J:·ing bc t \1·e en the rnle s and ' principles of rh e toric, an <!
the exercise of c_o mposing. i\o\v this i~ tlie n .: ry gruuwl on

which a · beginne1• fintls that his difficulties lye .

Hi s. mint! is

familiar 11"ith directions, hut' he: ne eds :issisfancc· in applying

them.
A practical volume is tlierefore'~1;equi rcd, which
shall conduct th e pupi l in a systematica l, but eaHy and
intelligible way, from principles to practice.
:ro attain. this point is the obj ect o.f th e present work.
Th:~'\utll or has th er~fore· · ~voided every thing like excur;
s1ve sp etufatfon' oir·th e philosophy:- of th e subject''. He has
exhiDii:'ed ev~ry· principle' in its siiji plest for m; cb'n~lenscd ev~ '
ery remark; and' confined; hini§elf t o ' the· in ere' sk'etch of. a
plan which is to derive its chi ef value from the exertions of
the t eacher . The system is th at which th e author· has pur. sued in instructing the yquth who have bcen .under hi s OWi)
care ; he has found it serviceabl e to th em ; and he hop es
.that publication will make it more extensi vely useful.
1 *

' Yiii

........

PftEPACE.

of that :1rt, instead of its higher d epartm ents. 'Fl1 e I)J
sor, instead of being employed on the superstructure, i
liged to labor rtt the foundation. The stude nt is often
barrasscd or discoumged by th e difficulti es of his proE
and, rtfter all, proceeds under c' •e ry <li sadvantage at
from the want of an early and practical knowl edge of
principles.
Neith er the size nor the 1lcsig· 11 of an elementary vol
will ndmit a full state ment of the reasons wliy thi s b rrt 11c
education should be more di stinctly a nd closely atte nclc
than it has gene rally been; for th e me ntal ad\"antage:
suiting from the study and pmctice of co mp os ition, ar<
confined to the single subj ect whi ch it professes to
brace'. Ti;e m ethodical exercises of intell ect, which ar
quisite in composing, produce a clearne ss, a precision, :u
energy of thought, in every departm e nt of study and ofl
ness. The mind which is train ed to pe rspi cuous and f
hie expression, r eceives the power of earn est, nndivi<lc
te ntion, and me thodical arrangeme nt. Th e intcll ec
habits which are thus form ed, nrc such as are useful in
1y profession and pursuit.
This d epartme nt of literature, were a more correct
form ed of its Yalue, would certainly b e thou g ht cleservin
a separate and fixed assignm e nt in th e estim at e of edu cat
and it is greatly to be de sired, that such a result should
come g eneral. Individuals who have influ e nce in the rt
lation of academies, might <lo much for the promotion of
branch of study, by adding it to the course of English lit
ture: coll eges might do more, by raising th e standard of 1
paratory qualifica tion• in this and its collateral branc
W e re such nn arrangement made, we mi g ht exp ect to
more practical good flowing from a liberal eclncation.
youth who is now so much negl ected or c ramp ccl in his
fat·ts, might obtain the ~onsci o ns satisfacti on of cxpa1u

ied
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ADVERTISEMENT.

de~-·

vho

.de:ly;
ithme

b.e,
the

CoPY of a note from the Reverend Chauncey A•.
Goodrich, professor of rhetoric and omfory in YaleCollege, respecting the M,S. outlin~ of a course of inwork. ·
structions,
on the
plan of the .f?l.lowlng
.
. .
...
"Yale College; ·oct: ·1a21.

ar- ··
ing
the

1 !l t1.1e

l\fR. RussELL, _

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I -have read with interest yo.u r sketch of a. pla111
for.the instruction of you th in composition. It is; in
my -view, . highly judicious,-excellently . adapted to
remov~ those obstacles which embarra.ss and retard the ,
young pupil in his first advanc~~. I concur likewise
in the e_xpediency of ·mak~ng this a distinct branch of
educatioµ; and f!incerely. hop~ :that the : succe~s of
your sys_teni _may .'eq?al-the felicity its conception;:
and prove no less advantageous to yourself than .to the
public. · -. 1
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- I am, ~i~, you1· obedient. servant,

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:c. A. GOODRICH." '
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PHEFACE.

'I'he subjects selected for exercises, are such as 1
likely to improv e the mind; and it is hop ed that tlH
whilst writing· his compositions, will thus b e at once :
ing us_cful knowlc<lge, . and acq11iring a facility it~ co
eating it.
The course of instruction s contained in this worJ
signed to be of service to four c lasses of youth : the
arc engaged in th e higher br:u1ches of edu cation, at
· mies; those who arc prq~ a ring ~or coll ege , hy priv ate
and those who have entered on their . coll ege studic
out having previously d evoted to thi s· bra11ch as mw
as they afterwards .find it requires. Th e plan may
found useful in completing the English d e partment
.education. of young ladies.
·
The Introduction contains some observations on
rnngement of the subjects comprehend ed in th e fol
pages, togeth er with directions d esignecl to facilit
progress of the stndcnt. In th e Appe nd.ix will be f
few practical instructions, regarding the formation :
i:o1rection of style.
WM. RUSSJ
New-Townshij1 .11.cademy, New-Haven, (
.llpril, 1823.
.

S

*+* This work wi.11 be accompanied by one on DE
tion; and the two volumes will, it is hoped, do sorr
towards supplying a vacancy which has hith erto exi
the Englis~ department of preparatory education.

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cent impressions, ·
prinfilplcs~ofr.hetoric"'which have a mwe': imnigdiate ·

relation to _composition .. . F~r this reasq1~ , the, review ·
which forins Part I. contatns 01~ly the more impo~tant
rul\?S and de~nitions, expressed as briefly !!-§, po§l'ibl~:.
Young pupi,1)> may, .in ~ fe'Y , of. t~eir :fiq1t,, e~er~ises,
1·eciu_ire1the assistance. o(the ~eacher, t·o· clin~c( th~m i1!
applying the rule~ of punctuati~n: ,, .J3ut .,the soo11~1·
the learner is left. c_lept;ncl .~n his, _o..yn di~ig~p<'.e, ,tl\e .
I~1or~ accurate will ,~e. h~a kpowledg~ of t,his ' l.Jrancl~;~,'.~..
•, 1 ,, Wl~en ~h!l.'· Pli P
!! ~a.s rl(vie"".e~ the·pi:il'!ciP;lS,§ !!(,RP.'nii ·.
po~ition, c:;on~ine51.i,n_ the ·r1;1l,es of' ~het~r}.c, he)s, vre~­
pared to apply .them ;11 ut not, in th.~ _,f irst . }n~~a°'ce, t~ ,
exercises of his own. , Suen a transition· is ;tq,o.;tbrupt, ·
a_n_d too difficul~ tpr the ;n.1i1.1ds .ofj,outh, ·~.n.d Q.as, gea_~

to

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lNTllODGC T IO:t-..

<Jccuracy in t/w u~ht, and accuracy in ·expression.
laUcr of thc~e departments, is nal urally dividc tl
o accural c choice, modification, and a rrangement. of
rds; and these three po ints are merely s ubdi Yided in
~ rule s ofs.n1lax, the rul es for purity, precision , a11d
Jpr iety in th e choice of \rnrds, a11d for nnity, dear~s. a11d stren~th in th e 8lructure of SPntences.
\Vhil,;t lh e p11pil takPs this Yiew of the sul~ject, he
1st gwnd against co11fo undi11;r accuracy \1ilh prl';ion, corrcchwss, or perspicuiiy.
P rccisio11 signifie~ 111ere f.templion from supczjl11is. .dccuracy is the t:cact adaptation nf tlw11g/1! to
l~jrcl , und <U' lu11g11ap:r tu tlwuc;·/,/.
On a little reel ion, the refore, it may be obs erv ed t hat lhc one
nu J oe" not i111ply as much a~ the oliil'r. Thl' !c>r'~r expre~~es a negatiYe : the latter a posit ive q11 :il'· . Precision · i ~, in reality, nothing more ·thau a
eparatory step tuv..·ards .accu racy. :
The meaning <>f the fE';rm ·correctness <lfles,.' at firQt
~ht~ . appea:r fo b·e ar a very. close rresembia nce to that
· accuracy•' , In correct usage, however, there ·is .. a
arke<l ·distinction in ' the_application of th ese terms.
orrectneSI! - designates:r that . negative q~aJity- -which
insists infreedom-Jrotn·'defects. ,, .llccuracy implies·
1mething mure :.. it.expresses· not merely the iabsence
· defect, but a positive and' comp!~te cpnformity·be"
~cen the objects on wMcli our t!toug!tts are employed,
:e ideas 'U{hich we form of those o'bjects, and the eiressions in which
convey these ideas. Correct-'
ess, therefore, is also but a negative preparation .for
:curacy.
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INTRODUCTION.

erally the effect of emba rrassing or of disgustin
them. The learner should be permitted firs t to trac
the application of the rules of ';·hetoric in th e writing
of others. This s tage of practice he li~1ds easy an1
interesting. It also serves to pre pare him for trans
ferring to his own composition s th e rules which !ie ha
been applying to those of other writers. Such · .
course of preparatory training, is the object of th e ex
ercises contained in Part IL-Analysis and cr:ticisn
may, at first, be performed on the extracts for com po
sition, contained in ~art Ill.
The learner has now acquired a considerable famil
iarity with the application of rhetoric; a11<l hi s mirn
is prepared for the practice of composition. But hi:
progress must not h.· hurried . He should not be re .
quired to make an elfort beyond hi s ability . His firs·
exercises should be perfoctly easy. Greater exerliorn
may be graduall y required as he advances, until ht
· is left entirely to hi s own powers; and the pupil may.
in tl1is way, ascero <I with ea se and j>leasure, from Himpie exe1:cises in variety of ex pres1;ion, to the unassis t, e<l 'cqmposition ·of a whole piece. On this principle
are arranged the exercises in Part 11 l.
·
The pupil's progress in writing, will be g reatly facilitated, if he is cu nst1111tly re minded that thel'e is one
simple; but comp1'ehensive principle, which contains
every requisite to good composition, and which comprises the s ubstance of every rule in 'Murray •. and in
Blair.-':l'his principle is .!J,ccuroc,y. ·
' Excellence in composition, arises from two things,

UONTENTS.

fl ART I.
Ptl c~.

' :.15

Ucrn ;1.r!" 011 th e use of th e hyphen rn compo1111d
words

27

Pl!'\lf'TlJ .\TION .

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STYT .T"..-P ,rs1•i ct1 i ty
A cc11 r1cy ·wtth r espect to sing-le words and phr:lses
l'•rritv .
·
Prc.::crsion

3.3
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34

Propri ety

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36

FrnunE• 011 SPEECH

rrkluny1ny
Sym:c< luch;o
Irony . . . .,.
~fct;p hor

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37
ib.
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Rules on metaphor
.,
· Allegory · . . . .
.. . "\ .
· Hyperbole .
Proso popeia
.'. Apostropl~~ •1
Simile . .
._.. :
Rllles on simile .
.,.. , .
''Antith esis ·· .
. .
". Interrogation
.".: . . . , .. '< . ~·, .... .....-;;; ·~ ·}

' · Exclamation

.

· Amplification

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AccunACY IN THE STRUCTURE 01' SENTENCES •

Unity .
Clearness
Strength
Harmony

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ib.
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ib.
ib.

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. ib.

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43
.44

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~vi

l~TRODUCTION .

P~rspicuity literally signifies transparency, at
usctl to denote that quality in style which is S4
times called clearness. A little attention will !
that the idea contained in this ex pression, is nof
same that i" implied in accuracy. .Clearness is
deed, onQ of th e effects of accuracy. Accurate it
·accurately expressed, must pro4luce a clear style.
Accuracy seems thus to be at once the fundat
ta.I, and the highest principle of composition;
such a view of the subj ect, is sure to excl ud e ex
sive attention to beauty anrl ornament. ·It is of g
importance to hav e it deeply impressed on the m
of youth, that their co mposition s must display ni
tempts at embellishment; that there is no true b
ty in writi11g but that which is contained in the
j ect and the thou ghts; and that, whilst every a1
eial grace is a positive blem ish, accuracy in ex p
sion will always admit and always ensure every
beauty of ~tyle.
··
\ .When the pupil begins to write the excrcis€
c.om position, he should make uslOl of two books su
to the purpose. The .exercises sho uld be written E
to leave every other page of the first book for tlu
8ertion of corrections. "\Vhen the corrections
made, the exercise. shou Id be transcribed in the
cond book.

ri1

liONTBNT8 .

PAHT Ill.

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OF TllE
~ I. CoPRc;Jo;

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.EXERCl~&S

t.: O~POSlTION

IN

-6G
ib.
ib .

c L.\59

ExTILU'TS ~·on co .,1ro.-;1TtO:"{

(;I)

1. Ol'igin of the arts and sciences
J. . U1·i g·i n of id ob.lrou~ wor!:'hip .
'.l . State nf the arts and sciences among the Bgyptl:ins .
'4c. The g-oYernment and laws of Eg-ypt
:J . HL·th.:ct!on-:1 un·the rudc~t cr:c~ of t~ri:.:ci :l! l history
ti. The naltll'e and the efl<.·dg of \lte lcg-isla\iyc ai·-

ib.
z'b .

6!!

70
71

T':lnge:ment of 8olun .

7. Go\'crnmcal and
sir~ns

lll'1ll!lcrs

of the ancient ' Pei·-_

.

!'. The invasion of Greec,e by Darius
9 . Tlie iHvasiun of Gr(:ct:c hy X·~:rxcs
10. Ph ilip of ~b.culu11
11 . .:\Lx:u Hk r tl1c (;n.: :l t
l .? . \ -ir:trJri'c s 1 co11d1wt , and dl :t1h 11f Alc_'\_:l.!ldcr
lJ. P o litic:d rcllcctio11 ..; on ~u1cient <_;n:' ccc .
j .J ThL· Sr1cr:1.tic :ind f~y11 '1c srlw\ds of pliilusopl1y
15. Tliv ..\ c:ukmic. at1d Pt·rqJaktic sects
l(i . Tltt· Stoics and t lic Epic11rc:u1s
H. rr.,~~

,.
H

75
70

18
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I. The form of the Mole adapted to its mode of
litl'>
· ~. Tl1·~ f,q,m of insert~ ad:1rHul to

.; . Anin1 :.tl Happill.ej::i

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Un

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th1:i1·

11ioth.'

life

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th e surface of the earth .

5. Ohj·ccts. fonn<l nnrl c:rth\.- su rfa.cc oft.he earth

G. :Mountains . . .' . · . ~
· • ·. .
7. Ascent of the Andes ·
8. ' The Ocean

ib.
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91

93
94
', 95

,_ 97
9. htaJinificence of the Universe .
10. The earth a scene of pleasure and im~;~ve:
m cnt . · . .
·
;
98
lf. Refl ections on a view of the heavens · ..:..
99
12 Architecture .
,
· ·
·
101
13 . The seven wonders of the world .
102
14. The Orcus of the ancients •
104
Ill. CLASS
.. • 10s

CONTENTS.

xviii

IlIFFERBNT KINDS OF ST~LE

Concise
Diffuse
Loose
Feeble
N ervous
Harsh
Frigid
Dry .
Plain
Neat. .
Beautiful
El egant
Splendid
Sublime
Lively .
Vehement
Simple.
}'lorid .
·Bombastic .
ELOQ.UENCN

•

IDEAS •
CL.A.SSIFICA.TION OF PIECES

PART II .
.AN ALYS TS
CntTICJSM

. Subject exemplifying analysis and criticism
'

ANALYSIS EXE>IJ?LIFIED

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Parsing.
Punctuation .
Transposition
Sy nonymcs
Definition, distinction, and illustration of synonymes .
·
Variety of expression .
Figures of sp eech .
Subject, scope, topics, method
Classification .
Cn1T'1c 1sM EXEMl'LlFtED

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En-ors .
· General character of a pi ece
Peculiarities of an author .
Beauties of thought and expression
Advantages of analysis and criticism

GRAM~iAlL ()]~'
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COMPOSITION .

PART I. -

A REVIEW OF THE 1PRJNCIPLES OF ORTHOGRA·
PHY, PUNCTUATION, AND IUlETOTilC,- AS AP1
f'LIED TO THE PUAcTICE. O:F COMPOSlTlON.

I!

TllE following recapitulation will enable tlie p upil

to bri1w0 under one Yic11· ' allllost. en~rv thi1w0 of in1t port ancc iu the elements of Composition, (except
~ Synta x ,) and will admit of hi,; easily referring to \Yhal
• may kn·c cscapeJ his memo ry .
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OilTllOGHA l'IIY.

Rc111arks on some 71rinciplcs 1:f' Orthn1rmph,7J, olnUl'l'd
in f/11: iflllSi riccurnle ;·rrr11 t [J11hiirnl im1s.

1. 1"1 111a11y' 11·1ir1ls where :l' anrl rr \\'l' re fo rmerly
usc1! , r is " ""' ;;\>1terally prcf'crrl'd . T li e .follm1·ing
.and ;.imilar wor<l s, are, therefore, spelled in th is man-

f

n~r i prefect, prctor, ether,

,Cesar,_Eneas, Phebe. ·, ·.

r_' 2 . .,i\T ords en'ding•':with' silenl e, ·on 38SUming an ad-

! diiional ~yllablc, beginnin~ with a wnsonm1t, rrt;i_in
.)

xx

CONTENTS.

1
1. Two uses for which the air seems to have been

•,

dt: signed .
2 . On Light . .
3. Appearnnces of design in the arrangement of
the he:tvenly bodies .
4. Subliniity in objects of vnt·ious kinds
5. Order in the distribution of time
6. On the government of our t hou ghts ·
7. On th e immortality of the soul .
8. On the true honor of man
9. Motives to the practice of gentleness .
10. On Candor
_11. Contrivance leads the mind to an intelligent
author . .
·
12. The unity of the Deity .
13. Modern discovery exh ibits our need of revelation .
14. A false impression regarding the historical .evidence of Christianity .
15. The power of the internal evidences of Reve lation
. . . . . . . . . . .. .
~1
Explanatory i·emarks on the subjects for exercises
Remarks on the mode of composing suggested in the
· , first course
fl. COURSE •
111. CounsE .
IV. CounsE.
Definition of a simple theme
Definition ofa complex theme . ·
I Rules for the composition ofa simple theme .
Use of the topics contained in the rules for simple
\ ' themes.
· Th e three principal topics of a simple theme
'. Example of a simple th e me .
· Topics of a c'o mplex theme
Example ofa complex theme
Subjects for themes
·
V. Cou11AE.
Subjects for themes
·VI. Coungll
:Remarks on the courses of exercises

.:_,l\PPENDIX

27

by an apostrophe; as, pow'r for.power, giv'n for given; heav'n for he~ven,.fiatt'ring forflattering, av'rice
for avaric11, &c.
·
11 : Compound ~ords retain, in the last syllable, all
the· letters o'f which the simple .words are composed;
a.s,foretcll, downfall, enroll.
The. word full is .e xcepted from this rule; a11,

JiandfuL

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12. In counseler, and many other sim ilar w o rd~, a
preference is now justly shown to the orthography: of
er instead of or.
13. T he inte1j ections 0 and Oh! are fre quen tl y
misused fur each other. 0 shoulu be prefixe u to a
noun or pronoun in a d irect add ress ; as, "0 vir tue,
how amiabl e tbou art '" Oh ! imply ing an emot ion
of the mind, ~hould he follo wecl by n point of exclarnn!ion', clelaching it fro m . the words which it 'precedes;
as, "Oh! what shall I du?"

{?cma.r{<s O!< the use of_thc hyphen in compound words.
l. vV hen each of two contiguou s nou ns retains its
original accent, a . hyphen is not used ; as Jliaste r
buildu .
.. vVhcn the latter loses its accent, a hy phen is use,<l;
as, ~'hip - buihler.
2. · When two nouns are in apposition, and each is
separately applicable to the person or thing designated,
a hyphen is not used; as, The Lord ()hancelor;.who is
_both a lord a..ud a chancelor,
.,
,, . ·
~. 3. When tlie fint no1:111 is u~ed as an adjective, ancl
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1111,li\1·
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111'1111•

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' '11

REVIEW.

PAllT

the e. The words abridgement, acknowledgemen
judgement, are not now considered as exceptions. i
this rule.
S. Polysyllables ending in l and t, when the la1
ter syllable is not accentell, should not double thes
letters, on assuming an additional Ryllablc. The fol
lowing wonls are therefore spelled thus: travele1
traveling, bigoted, worshiper, riveted, counseled, quai
i·eled. ·
·
4. 'Vords end:ng with a doubl e letter, on assumi~
an additional syllable, keep the letter double; thui
stijfiy,fullness, skillful.
5. Nouns ending in ey in the singular number, rE
tain ey)n the plural. Valleys , chimneys, volleys, an
therefore, incorrectly spelled with ies.
~6. Many words formerly ending in our, are 1101
spelled withuu t the letter u; and 'consi~tency requirE
that this improved orthography be ex tended to al
words, with the exception of monosyllables. Th
words lwnor, humor,' labor, · &c., with their deriva
lives, are examples.
· f; Sis _now generally used instead of z, in civilis1
moralise, modernise, methodise, and similar verbi
with their derivatives.
· 8. T Is used improperly for Cfl, in the imper
feet tense and 11erfect participle of regular ver!Js; ai
s.tept and blest, for stepped and blessed. ·
·
,9. Choose, s!tow, strow, jail, &c., are now used i1
preference to chuse, shew, sfrew, gaol, &c.
10. In poetry, a vowel is often improperly cut ol

TI,

HEVIEW.

29

la noun, no hyphen is used; as, High Sheriff, Chief
.g{strate; P~ime Minister.'
' .
.
When the a<ljecti~e and its noun 11re used 'together,
l kind of compound adjective to anotherno,un, a
ihen is inserted bet(veen th~ two former ; thus, The
rrh-Church Doctrine,- ~ - .
i. When an adjective or an adverb, and a 1mrticiple
ne<liately following, are used ' tog~theras a kin<l of
11pound adjective, merely · expressing a quality,
:hout -reference to immediate action,- an<l precede
i10un to which they are joined, a hyphen is f:l'sed;
A quiclc-sctiling vessel I The above-mentioned cirnstanccs.
Wh,en thej imply immediate actio.n;' a1{d follow the
111, the hypht:p is not u's ed; as,, ," The ship quicl.:
ling o'er the · deep,"' (or quick sailing o'er the
~p, . the ship) " pursues her cou rse:" The circumnces above mentioned.
· ·'
PUNCTUATION.

l'he f'ullowiu;:; brief revi ew or the rules for puuctumay he or _es~ential service to the ;ou11g slu11 1.,-ill a Liramh wh ich, tlwugh. often ue::;lectcd, is of
011;

'. highc~t prndic:d \aluc.

Rules for inserting or omitting the cunp 1w.
}. Tu;o or more nouns, adjeclives;pronoims, verbs,
rticiples, or adverb.~, _in the 'same coristru,ctio1i,. are
1ar11ted'by ~onunas. . '
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ltEVIEW.

l'All'l• I.

expresses the matter or substance of which the second
consists, and may )le placed after it with of denoting ,
possession, a hyphen is not used ; as, A silk gown, a
cork jacket, that is, a gown of silk, a jacket of cork. _
When the first noun is not used as an adjective, .
does not express, the matter or substance of the second,
and may be placed a.fter it, with of not denoting possession, or withfo_r, belonging to, &c. ·a hyphen is used ·;
as, A silk-mill, a mill for silk; a cork-screw, a screw
for col·ks; alwrse-.dealer, ~dealer in horses; a kitchengrate, a grate for a _kitchen.
.
.
Often, howe~er; when the words rcadilp coalesce, ,
are easily pronounced as one, have long been associated together, and are in frequent use, the hyphen
is omitted, aml both nou11s are printed or written as
one; ·thus, Boolcseller, schoolmaster, Yorkshire.
_:,;The necessity of attending to the hyphen, will Lie
•ev~dent from the following examples: A glass house, a
tin man, an iron mould, a negro merchant, pronounced as separate wonls, and each with its natural accent,
,wil~ .mean a house rnrule of glass, a man made of tin,
a mould made of iron, a merchant who is a negro ; but
a glass-house, a tin-man, ~ an iron-mould, a negro-. ·
merchant, taken as compound nouns, with the accent
on the first syllal.Jle, will mean a house for the man~t­
facture of glass, a man who works or deals in tin, a
~ould for casting iron, or a mould ot: stain caused
the rust of iron, a merchant who buys and sells negroes.
4. 'Vhen a compounrl noun co ns ist ~ of an arlj cctive

by

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REVIEW. ·

IS. TV/ten the relative, used restrictively, immedi·
tely follows the antecedent, the comma is sel<lom use<l .
14, IF/ten a p1:eposi(ion pi'e~edes the relative, a com·
aa is i1;sertccl, lftfie preposition and the words which
'ol(ow it are - used) o. explain the antecedent; but no
.on~ma takes place;· when the · preposition and its de1 ~ndent words form but one idea ' with the relative.
' 15. No comma is inserted between the nominative
md the verb, ·when the nominative is either simple or
hart, or ·accomp~n_ie~ . by ·ins eparable adjuncts.
16. .flny clause; intervening between the nominative
ind the verb, or between the ·active verb and its reginen, i~•!tich 1iwy be ~milted without injuring the con:lructio;.,,~ ' should _be separated from the context.
r;ptien the ~lcfu_se is .v_ery short, no con~ma is required .
17. fVh~n a:Vcrb' or a conjunction is u n derstood, a
iomma may be inserted.
18. · Tr71en a.ilvcrbs or co1~junctio11s begin clauses,
md rrj'ff to so 111l'lhi11g a11leetdrnt, t!tey arc generally
HTCetkd by a l'Ulllllla.
l~) . IVhcn the adverbs, a}!ain, nay , first, scco11illy,
. \
.
71' the phrnsrs, in short, on U1c contrary, &c. begin
:1 0e11lrnrr or a 71rira,!!,·rnph, they are follu11 ed b_y a
cUllllll:t or a semiculo n.
QO. /1 ·hrn a sc11lrnce consists of t1co mc111lwrs, cit her
rf 1.chirh m11y be 71luccd .firs!, without i 11jur!J to t!tc
~rnu, a co111111a i,; inorrted lie111 eeu 11tcm.
Ql. Ji rr111arka/;lc c.r1n·1·s0ion or s!wi'l o!Jscruatio11, in
(r;jj'on'.i of.a yuotuli_on, if ~lwrl, wulclosd!f co1 u1cctcd,
1s__seP.~rated from _
t he context, by a coin ma.
. , · ; · ':
; "22. TF!ien the c~ncluding part of~ sentence i'efcrs
......~.

30

REVIEW°.

l'All'I' I

2. Two of the above-mentioned parl3 of speech, im
mrdiately succeeding each other, and connected by th1
conjunction .9.nd, are not separated.
, · S. Two nouns,wfJ"ectives, <$·c. or short phrases, con·
nected by . Or, and conveying different ideas, shouk
have no comma between them.
4. When the nouns, adjectives, <S-c. signify the sami
' thing, a ·comma is used.
'
5. Nouns in appositiOn, when accompanied by ad·
juncts, a.re separatetl from the rest of She sen_tence by
commas.
6. Nouns in apposition, not attended by culj"uncts
are not separated.
7. Expressions in a direct address, (corresponding
to what, in Latin; is called the vocati~e case,) are SC·
parated from .the rest of the sentence by commas •
.~!,··,s. T!w case absolute, and the infinitive absolute, .ar~
!_e parated from lhe rest of the sentence by commas.
9• .!ln arlj"ectii•e or a participle on which of her word3
arc dependent, is separated ,from the other _parts of a
sei:itence by the. comma.
1.0. .9. noun followed by two or more adjectives
q,~a~ijy·ing it, is .separated from them by a comma. · ·
· 1 l. '.Jl comparntfoe word, acc()mpanied by aiQ'uncts
of considerable length, should be preceded by a comma ; when the aclj"uncts are very few, the comma is.
not us~d.
·
·
· · ~2. f17hen the relative is explanatory, or· when tht
antecedent is acco111panicd by wQ'uncts, a comma maj
be placed before the relative .

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REVIEW.

i -P,AUT J ,

J J

Lre Ii_. No examples are annexed to the ruJes of punctuahe · · tion ; because it is preferable;' that thei pupil • should
, . [s~arch_fo~ and_furnish,the examples himseff. _"!'his ex erC)Se w1ll 1m~ress the rules more deeply_on h1s t~emor~,

,itl

cit. I and mak~ !um more.thoroughly a.u1uarntcd with thetr
ay application. Any miscellaneous authot' will afford
· · the subjects on which this exercise may be performed.
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STYLE . . ,
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re .f. Of the various l]U~lities of style,'perspi'.cuity ranks
i·

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to ·.amu11g the most important. This is a quality . essen>y' ~ tial to every kind of. writing-; fo1· iLought to be the
'first object of every w'riter, : tu m:ite: his ·meaning

f

~ · ciearly, folly, and '~asily, uuderslood.
·
:••-PersP,iwitp ..,~~ws from·; accuracy of expression in
~.
single w~rds and phrases, a~1d in t(ie construction. of

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spiiences.
1. .flccuracy wifl1: respect to ·single u!Ords · and
phrases, requires the8C three · followi11,; properties:
Puri_ty, PrccisionTand Propriety. ~· . . ~:
r • :; ,.; • .,.J' .·. ... ~ '"'" • - .'!. ~-~" Y_~· : u •~·,;-~~~..!
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1.' PURITY
.
" "'
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, i· " Style is sai<l

to Le pure, Jvl;en ·it ·contains only
. '-: ' .such ·Words and constructions,'~::belong-· to_the idiom
- · ·of the lang~age, w~itten' o'.r- s'pok~-~ --:P~rity of style ,is.
'·1~;;_:ll'<>ii~i\~i ;. b.-l
·v_~olatecl in three: ways:•:
: . :;List. Bi; using iwoi·ds ···t .
isli';-- ~s, :politess~
i]t as:··quoth he ' for
1 ' 'for 'p~li~~niss ; or . ob~iiz~te'. 'IJ)_
· said he: '·' This erroi-' is ·ten~e1.f a'barbarism. ~; .,,;;'· ·' · ..
"•4 . .~ ,.;.
• ,:
£d. By using a construction ryot ~onsistent with the
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HEVlEW.
m~mbers, these mcmb€
detached from one another, ancl, somc~imcs, fro
concluding member, by commas.
23. Every member of a compound sentence, u

to two or moi·e pi·eceding

consists ef several words, wherever inserted,
can be omitted without injuring the constructio11
be 1110lu<le<l within commas.

Rufe on the use

ef lite

Semicolon.

When a sentence can be divided 'into two or
;nembers,- w!iich memb'e1'6 are again divisiblt
others more simple, the former should be separat
a semicolon.

Rules on the Colon.
1. When a sentence can be divided into two J
either ef whicli parts is again div£sible by a semic1

the former are to be separated by a colon. ·
·
2. This point is used afte1· a· membu of a sent

whether simple or complex, which forms com
sense, but does not excite e.-cpectation of what Joli
\·s. When a conjunction is understood.
4. Before an example, a quotation, 'or a speec

•.

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introduced.

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5. .llfter a membe~· which is complete in its canst
tion, but followed by an additional remark or ii
tration.
6. When seueral semicolons have preceded, m
still grealerpause is necessary to marlc the conneci
. or concluding sentiment.

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lT 1.

ItEVIEW.

3d. PROPRIETY.

-P~opriety oflanguag~ is the selection of such words .
.d phrases, as the best usage has appropriated to the'
~ ideas which we mean to express by them ; . in op-'.
1sition to vulgarisms or low expressions, and to words
1d phrases which would be less significant of our ideas.
:yle may be pure, ·and; at the same time, be d_eficient
·:proprietJ; the word~ maj be ill -chosen, not' adapted.
i the subject, nor ' fully expressive of the ~uthor's:
eaning.
The.follo.wing rules on propriety of expression, must
~ carefollv observed.
1. Use no vulgarisms or low c.rprcssions ; such a5,
1cka hole in u11c ' s coat; tu be iu fur it; to feather one's
est. ,
· 2: .B.void technical terms, when plain language can
e found. " Reef your foresail, " tu a person ignumt. of sca'phrases, conveys, no meaning. ,;y onls and
h~·ase s confined to a r 'a rticular artorprofessi.(m, ought
eYer to be· used, bu l \1h e 11 \\ c a rc su re tha t !bey will
e u ndcrstood .
3. Supply words that arc u·anti'ng ; as , " I le not onl y
ientioned the year, but rlay and hour:" the article
hyul<l be expressed ;- "the day and the hour."
4 . .B.void using th~ same word tooji·equently, m· fo
tijferent senses~· especially in the same sentence, as
n;the following example: "The laws of nature are
ruly wha! my Lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws

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REVIEW.

JIART

Engliih idiom; as, You was for you were. Such
construction is called a solecism.
Sd. By u~ing words in a sense different from t11G
in which they are generally understood, or from tha
which their etymology plainly indicates: as, His ch.a
racter is undeni:able. This expression doeK not deter
mine whether the character is good or bad. Thi
error is termed an impropriety.
2d. PRECISION.

~· ·

J

·Precision, as the word imports, means retrenchin~
all superfluities;and using such expressions as exhibit neither mo"re nor less than exact copies of OU !
id ens.
The words used to express our ideas, may be faulty in three respects. 1. They may not express the
idea intended, uut some other resembling it. Q. They
may express the idea, but not fully and completely.
S. They may express it, and something addition1tl.
Precision is opposed to all these faults, but chiefly to
the last. Thll chief source of a loose style, in opposition to_
precision, is the injudicious use of those words which
are u ~ually termed synonymous. · They are so called
because they agree in expressiug one principal idea,
bn t generally- with some diversity of · circumstance'.
Hardly in any language are there two words which
convey exactly the same idea.

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:·11~Aa:r 1: '

_ , I~EYW''l·>

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· '. . ... ., .'

tc }l1~, iJ!~trup.1ent; e1i1pl~j~~)n>m~k,~ng; ·. fo~ .. - tl~e. t!1ing
m, .' made; l).S, "I h~e)11ilton ;! \ tha~: is, -,t he,!w.ntmga of
1
•SL 1f1ilton. :' 4.. The matter fo.r. .theform, or ~ath,erJor th~ ~ t'
~~. form and matter ~nitetl; .·as,'," I ha~e. no
~)h~t .
.vii is, silver coin. 5. T1ie form for tiie matter, or ·the
. , ~liing signifie~ for th~ sign ; a~, 'Yl\eri'. we sa.Y:. _point~
nat fog·to a. p~c.tuj._ .." ·That is Sir. ~ sa.ac J'IT ewt~n:' ~'•'·'"? .;·.
.,, , ,,
er· . II. SYNEODO~HE· f ThiS: figur,e puts· t~e nan:i_e of'~·, . .: · .· ,~
~f\ ··,vhoie'for that·of a part,~r that ofa .parf fo~ tb.e.wh9le; : .;,'.; -'/~.
l1f..
·.
. . . ·'. . . ' . ' . .
' ~··
,. .. ' . -~·•\;:'·~...J·~ .1"''
. . !l genus ~or a species; or , a . specu~~ f?r a gen~~; ,as; : '':!• -~~~- • ·
1
[~ 'when 'w ecall a dull mari·a ,sfupid animal..,,'!,Th~,.fl,ee~ ·•:.''"'. : S~·:

sitve_r:;!.

>e~ .•cpnsi~ted ..~f. _thirty sfZil,;U t}11;t)s, .sl~i~s'. .'· ';il,!1~ .g~p:i"~ :. -~· .. ry=.., ~on wa~ put to: t~e. sword;" ~ thaJ1s, kllled .~y~,w.11.t."' ::- ,,,;i<-_ ·:"

~ss like weapons · in O:eneratt ::b'·.' .,.',~; t,'·

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...,.,,,,;'··"'·. ·:~., ,... :-ii":-.-

.. ~ ,... •• ~. ·. • ; .

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., ~"Ill. IR;omc. \ ~n this figure, tl.1e words, ar~:us.~d in .a · ~

,.
•. .. .•
· · se11s.e directly contrary to the_Ir,common aeceptat1on..
~{~ Th~s, . ''. He. Js a' w_i~ e l~~n. . ~~~ ee.d :'' ..n~efln~11f?.a ve,r~
·xi · foohsh man. . ·. · , . . , . ". 7· ·:·' · · : ; .••; ·~ : 0 ., ;..· ,,::
e.nti~ely'on
d ._:~
. IV. METAPHOR. Thisfigu_rej.sJounded
.
"l . tlie .resembfa1_1_c~ V<hlch . one q~j'el'.Ll?ears.: ~o-,an9th~1j .. . .
.•
, :t ,.}_tis' a <;omparl~on ·~xpressed iQ... an.:- abridge.d,:,fo.rrn.
,J
•.. l .. Wh~n i~, is said:. of. a gre~t minister; '_ thatjie·.,l)pholds . · · 7 .,: •
~he state,' .zi{ce' a pillar which µp!:ol~s ,the w~ight;·or:a · :: : ·. "
~! wJ1ole ec~ifi~e,_-. the~~ ,is evid,entl~f;~c~!tlPar.ison:-:.~f ~1,e ~ ..
c;· · mini~t~r to a p~l~ar; :but when ~tis sai~l_,.!J~a~ ~c· i~ /he . :, .
r-. , p~llar ,'. ,of.the·state;:) he , ph_
r ase .9.e~o111~~ .JJ.."n.ieiapho_r. . . ,,
i~~ ,Iyhe _use of.~th!s fi~te; ,.!!-. ~~~p_:ir\f!o~ i~;1,m;pl~ed ~ in · - ~
~~. , ·h~ piind, ( though 'nqt e?'pfoss~d)n wpr~s. : :., · .·,. ·'';,'; .; ·
~ule 1.' ·Metaphors · sho,u ld · be suited . the. nature '
:X-

t

•

...

,

• -

•

'

·,

.(

•

~

•

I

~\t'

1

f . ..,, . .

'

~.~Si_•.~·

•

.

;

_·:

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to

'·.··
"

4, •

'.:'. . -

:"
'"' •

, '... : :'
-

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·.;

~ _,. .'.~~

:

REVIEW.

of laws. Civil laws are always imperfect, an(
false deductions from them, .or applications of
nay, they stand i.n many instances in direct ·c
tion to them.'' Here it is not quite obvio~:
them refers ·to the laws of nature, and they ti
laws.
5• .11void equivocal or ambiguous cxpre.
They are both much more ancient among t!H
sians, than Zoroaster or Zenlusht; H !'.re, it i
uncertain whether Zoroaster and Zerclusht a1
ferent names for the same person, o/ the n~mes .
ferent persons.
·
6. .flvoid unintelligible exzn·c.m'. ons. " This 't
of soul,'', says the Guardian, spea.king of met
anil humility," keeps our understanding tight
us." "Vhether the author had any meaning in tl
pression, or what it was, would .be difiicult to '
mine; but hardly coultl any ihiug lnore incong~·~
the way of metaphor, be imagined. .
·
Pr9priety of expression also embraces a c1
and judicious. use of figurative language.
FIGURES OF S,PEECH.

L METONYMY. This figure changes the narn
things in vai·ious ways. 1. The noun for the . i
tive; as, "Clothed in purple;'.' meaning purple
ments. · 2. The effect for the cause; as, "I-le
by the swcai of his brow ;"-by his ~al.ior, ·of,
·sweat is the effect. S. The cause for the, _ejfei

REVIEW.

torm ."

2. When ir;ianimate objects are introducecl

1cting like those that have life. ·
--"Winter rising pale fr.om norther11 seas, '·
. Shake1 from hi. ~ hoary locks the drizzling 1fo'!um."

3. Inanimate objects are now ;introlluced, .not only

l~ feeling and acting, but as speaking. to us; or hearing and listening; when we address ourselves ·to them.
~

'u MuBt I thua leave thee, Pa1·adise .'2"

VIII.

This figure is nearly allied to the
preceuing. It consists i1~ bestowing an iueal presence
on real. persons, e.i ther' <lead 'or absent; as, "0 murdered brother!" .
·
·
·
·
: IX. SnuLE, or Con:ipar~son. The- <litferen c$ between this figure and ~etaphor; \vas form~rly' mentionell. In a comparison; the resemblance is not left
to be implied•: it is expressed in form; th us, "The
actions of princes' arc like those of grcat rin~r,;, the
cou rse of which el' cry one 1.Jelwld!', I.Jut their ,_priug~
APPSTROPHE.

have be en seen by few."

Rules f ur the lntroductivn of Cu1111wri.,011s.
1. Thfy sho11ld not be dra11mfrm11 thin i;s that Ii ave
too 1u·ar an d ohl'ious a re9e111u!w1cc lo t!w ul1jcLls i.cith
which we compare them.
2. Comparisons sliou!rl not De juwulcd on rcsrn1u/m1ces too j(1i; 1! and rrnwle.
S. · C1Jmparisons founded on philo.wphiwl di~cove­
rie3, or on a11y fhi 11g pcwliar_to 11 1·rrlai11 /r({th ur p 1oJession, lose,.t!tcir ejfed,from not being tmfrcrsally in-

1Jclligibl e.

REVIEW.

38

PA.RT :

of the subject ;-they should neither be too numerou1
too gay', nor too elevated. ·
2. The resemblance on which a metaphor is Joun
ded, must be clear and obvious; not far-fetched, no
difficult to discover.
S • .Metaj1horical and plain language must never b
jumbled together. This mixture always pro<luces
most disagreeable confusion.
-. 4. Never let two' different metaphors m eet on ~n
subject. This is what is call ed mixed metaphor, am
is 01ie of the grossest abuses of this figure. . ·
5. N ever crowd loo many metaphors on the sam
wbJect.
G. Fig ures of this !.:ind .~hould not be pursued toi
far. This rule is intended io prevent what is callee
straining a metaphor, L>y \1·hich the re:Hl cr always L>e
co1~1es tired, an<l the lang uage is rend ered ol>scure.
V. Au.EG OllY. This figure is a metaphor continued
till it becomes a description, carried on agreeably tc
the literal as well as the figurative sense of the words
The 80th Psalm is a beautiful example of this figure!·
., Y,~· . H YPERIJOJ.E, or E xaggeration. This figure consists in magnifying or diminishing an ~bject beyond
its natural bounds: thus, "Swift as the w:ind ;"
·"white as s_now ."
· ' VIL ·PnosoPOPmrA, or Personification. · By this fig.· ure, life and action are attributed to inanimate objects. · There are · three degrees of -this · figure . . 1.
That which consists in ascribing to inauimate objects
the qualities .of living creatures ; as, "A raging

·'

...
REVIEW.'

BT I .
r

w

,

41

/

-

, _,.,/

'-.

come to treat o[ th~ righ(at·r~~gement~of these in
ntences. . -'Yith regahl to sentences in •general; i_t
lJ .pe _ob~e.r ved,", that ~hey ShO\tld beSO c,onS'fructed
11ot to p'roduce ' a .monotonous correspondence of
emper·to membe~, ·- or 'too many.short/ or . too many .
11g se1~ten~~s; i.n succes~ion: ; 'Mol~otony tires, but
.riety reliev_es ·and pfoases the' ear. Here it may.- be.
i1per to ' observe that ·,the 'first sentenc~ of a piece,
·
apte:r, :or paragraph, should never:be lung.
Tlie _q ualities ' most essential to an accurate : and
rfect sentence~ are ·Unity, p tearness, 'S~rength, an.d

armony.:

.

._,

.

''·

.' .

·'.,.

,;

.

.

{_

.

1.-. UNITY,

is

IN a s in~l e sehtence, th e strict~ st ul1i ty required.
he vcry ·nature of a se ntence implies that only one
oposition is expressed. It. may; indeed, cons is t or
rts; but these parts must be su closely bound
~et~e r as tu make on th e mind, the impression of
1e object, not of many. Tu preserve this uni1y , the
!l owing ru les mu st be observed.
1. During the course of the sen trnc c, the scene
01:1ld be_ changed as littlt as possible. "re shou Id
it be hurried by sudden trai1 sitions from person to
:rsvn, nor from s:ubj cct to su bject. In every senncc, there i~ surn c Je ad ing or governing word , which
oul_d be continued so, if possibl t\ fro 1i1 the-beginning
the end of the sentence. ·The followin g exa111ple
ola fes thi 9. 1·1il e: ...
·we' c·anie '' to 'a ifrl1 0~/thry

- Arter

lt' me ori 'shore,' \vherc I \ vas ·~vch'. uwci.! bJ all: ni.' ·

'"

·"'.

40

ltEVIEW".

PAR'!'/,

X. ANTITHEs1s,ol' oppositiori. This figure, by contrasting objects, makes theni appear · in .a stronger
light: · White, for instance; never appears s~ brigh\
as when it is opposed ,to black; and when both are
. ' 'iewed 'togethel'. '
· ·
,
XI. INTERROGATION. This figure is the native Ian-·
· guage of passion. its literal use is to ask _a question~
b~t whe!l w~ woul<l affirm or ueny with great vehc-.
. mence, we, naturally use this figure to express the:
strongest confiuence ' in the truth of our sentiments,
and to make -an appeal to our hearers for the impossibility of the contrary.
- ·
XII. ExcLAMATION. This figure belongs only to the
stronger e11Jotions of the mine! ; to surprise, admiration, anger,joy, grief, &c.
XI l I. AMPLIFICATION. This figure consi sts in a skilful exaggeration, of all the circumstances oLrn ob <
ject which we wish to place i11 a strong light Thc1
prir:1cipal instru mcnt by which it works, is a climax;_
or a gradua l rise of one circum stance above another;
till our idea is raise<l to the utmost. The following _
exampl e affords a fine illustration of this figure.
· "vVh:i.t a piece of work is. man! how ,noble in reason!
how- iJ1fi11ite in faculties! in form and moving, how _'
express and admirable! In action, how like au angel !
in apprehension, how like a God!"
I

JI. ACCURACY IN THE STIWCTURE OF SEI\TENCES.

HITmmTo notice has been tak en only of words
and phrases, t h!~ cons 1ituent rarh of s er!l<'llC ' '. '>. ·n' ~ ':

~

.

REVIEW:

I ..

.

43

er~llj symp.toms,~'of conf~sed;. and : embarrassed

1ght. .

.

..

.. >.l:',~--~

.

.

'

2. CLEARNESS.

~HE opposite of dearness is ~~1big1J,ily, 1\•hi_ch·n1ay
e from a bad choice_.~r a bad arrangement of words.
the former we ha~e't already .treated .; the latter at
~
sent requires .our .il-ttenhon.
.
['he relations of words and members to one another.
: i~
Engli~_h, ascel'.tained~~ly
by their position . . A
• , •.., -l; • •.• .
.
1c5pal jyJ~ in the arrangement of septences, there;;:. 1s::t,liat~ the words .or in~mbers musfiiearly re;d_:~l~~~ld 'stand • .th~ 'sentence as ' near. to / each
e1:· as possible~ s°7;'"as to inake their 1~utual relatioR
11.rly appear. This rule must be observed,,
l. !n, the position . ef adverbs. " The Ron~ans
lerstood. liberty, at l~ast, as well as we." T his
,tence i~ cap~ble of t\v? _dilfe;·ent senses,"'accordi1;g
the emphasis is.Jaid. If liberty is the emphatic
rd,' the meaning!' _i~; ~ whatevez: other . thi~gs we
Jerstand better than the Romans, liberty,_ least,
S_ ~ne.. thing \\•hich they UIHJe rstootl as \Veil as we.
at least . is emphatic, the meaning is, that liberty
s under~tood, ··at least as well, .if ~ot . better, by •
~m than by_ us. ·. As it is_ probabl~ the I_
a ttcr was the
lhor' s meaning, the a mli.iguity _would lie avoided uy
·an~ng the words ·iii th_~ s~nten~e- thtis_: · ''5he Rou~derstood liberty as w'cll, at least, as we>'
.
2.' lrJ, . the positioriof.. circumsl!Jnces and members. ·
1vedet 'these ha~glo~se in_the 1~icldle_ !Jfa_p~rlo,ct; . _
•

'

i .

.

•

c •

-

'

"

.'

in

at

ms

• "? .

~

~-

'

.

REVIBW.
friend~,

l'J.nT I.

who re~eived me with the greatel!t kindness."

In this sentence, though the objects it contains have a _.'.
sufficient connection with one another, yet by this
' manner of representing them, which shifts so ofte1
both the place and the person; so disunited a view o
them is given, that the bond of connection seen~e
greatly impaired. The following arrangel_Ilent resto~~f.th~ sentence to its proper unity: · " After
coming to anchor,- I was put on shore, where I ·was
wel~omed by all my friends, and received with the
gre<1:test' kindness.':'
· 2,.. _Never crowd into one sentence things which
have 's~ little connection, that they could bear to be
· divided in(o several sentences.
So bad is the effect of the violation of this rule,. that
it is safe1· to err rather by 'too many short sentences,
. than by__ pne which is ov~rloaded and embarrassed.
T}le following example violates the preceding rule:
"Archbishop Tillotson died in this year. He was ex~ ce~dingly beloved by king William and queen Mary,
. ~ · who ~ominatecl Dr. Tennison, Bishop of Lincoln; to
· " ~uccee,d him.'' Could any one expect the latter part
this sentence to follow from the former? . Tiie
~onclusio~ of the sentence carries' ~s off to a proposition, entirely different fro!n the one contained in the
. first part.
,
· S• . K,eep clear of all unnecessaMJ parentheses, When
th~ se~se is riot too long suspended, · and the paren.ihe~is is properly introduced, the energy and vivacitJ
(}fa s~ntence are increased; but long parentheses art

of

:01 NUOBU

•

,•,.
·'·,
,:
"
.
:

' 45

HEVIEW ..

'T J,

1i1bers. · It is a general n~le that those words.which

not add ·something to the me'aning of a ~ente,nce,
ure ' it. The following exalllple will' illustrate this
i;. ·:.J went home full of great many serious reciions ;" for ·" full of serious reflections."
!2." .flttcnd particularly. to ·the use of copulatives,

a

atives, and all the i}articles' employed fol· transition
d connection. _Su~h \1~~nls as but, and, whiclt,
rose, thcr0forc, because, !lre frequently of great imr!ance: they are the joints or hinge:. on which all
rrtences tµrn; and, of course, much of the strength
every sentence; must depeud on these particles.
:ith rega;:d to the _use of the words that have been
~ntioned, no particular - rule can be given. \Ve
ty however ob,crvc, that these particles should
it her be omit.fed nor inserted, but when the ornis lll or insertion will serre to 1.Jriug out the idea with
eater force .
.3. Dispose . C!f the capital word or words, wlier~
~y

will make lite grrntest impression.

The 11100,;t i11qwrta11t words in a se ntence ar c i;cm·11:• place1l tirst; as, "The plPasures of the ima gin ion are 110( so g rnss as those o-f sense. nor so re fi ne d
those of the understanding." :-iowdi111cs the mea11 g is ·suspcntled, and brought m1t fully at the dose;
,.-"Un whatever siue we contemplate lfomer, what
·incipally strikes ue, is his won<lerfui i_n vcntion . " ,
4:·/l. weaker ass'ertion ·or proposif'ion 8lwuld never ·

:ni}

~eftc1: a stronger. one; and, w.hen a sent en.~~- :. •.· }?>
of two rrie'f!l[lers, '. the;Zf!'l'Jgcr. ,should. generally''."~:-:::~':';:·'

'nsist~

>;

~

.

,

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. '-it
'~'"'.'

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.... '•"' ,., ,,,
-..

OT

': .';~;'ft~-~'.

''.
~.

.'!.
..•

·'

::. 44

REVIEW.

rART I.

but let them be determined by their place; .as .belonging to a particular member. 1
A certain author says, " Are these designs which
· · any man who is born a Briton, in any f ircumstances,
in:·any _situation, ought'· to be ashalil ed or afraid to
av_ow P'' '--The phrases,' in any circumstances, in any.
situatio~, a;~ improperly placed. The ~enience would_
- be freed 'from its ambiguity by the following arrange;
ment.'--: " Are· these design~ which any' man~ \~ho is'
born a Briton;· ought to be ashamed or· afraid, in any
-circumstances;-in any situation: to ·avow." · '
._
· . :' S. _In : tlie position; of the 1·elative pronoun~. A
small error in this respect, may darken the meaning
· ;of a whole sentence. ·The following is an insta1i-ce of
this kind of -inaccuracy. · ." Many persons, from . a ·
habit of saving · time and paper, which they acquired
at ·.the u11iversity, . write in so diminutive a manner,
that they can hardly read what they' have written.'.' '.
The antecedent
to wliiC!i , is habit;:
.
. which -sh~ul<l have.
, been placed nearer to it, thus: "l\fany, from a habit ;,
. which they acquired at the university of sa\ ing time _,
. and ~.aper:" ~c.- - ·
·
·
1: ~" .: ., .- . .
(
,

.

i •• •.

1..

!

\-

.'

•

-

'·

~

'

" . 3. STRENGTH.

:\ Bv ~trength is meant such an: arrangement of the
..;,. · words and member~, as . brings out the sense' to the
'~r- .; bes( advantage, a~d gives _e_v ery word and 1n~rnher its <
· :-- ~ ~l~__due weight and force.
· -.~" ;,;' !:--.:: _Tile .first rule for promoting the strength of a sen <
. • . , tence,
is, 'To free .it from _all redundant wdrds and .,
~·~·
·:, •. t

·~; ·~
RT I. . .

t~:;

L(J::·.· .

.' .

REVIEW:.:

47

;' 0;\-~i/:2.~}t:;:·;.

·•

. ·- 4. ,HARMONY/1

~V HILE · accuracy is ',obs~r_ved in the choice and arLng~rne.nt of words;· care · must be taken . that no
u·shness in the sound of our 'expressions give offence ·
>theear. ';
·: ··:··_
·:.:
.
f-.
..
. .
n~1;1le, 1. .!lvoid ~itch words as have too many harsh
?risonants jarring against one ·another; such, 'also,
~~ontain too .many open vowels in succession. Thi~ ... "
~1e 1 is violated by tl~e use of such - ~vords as· urnmcce~s1J.lness, pr.i marily, holily, &c• .· ,''
·
~:~ . .flvoid such .~n Mra~gement of words .[lS causes

1jqrring sound. · .
. •
iS: JHake no disproportioned or ill-sounding .arangement of clauses. '
_:.4. :- Be carr:ful to avoid closing a sentence with
°(arsfi~.9oundi11[i expressions. '
ii . •avoid a succession uf sentences i11 ichich there is
i

sameness of structure.
Ill. DffFEltENT EIJ.'IDS OF STYLE.

TnE classifi cation of style i,; fou11ded on an au lhor's manner _o f expre~ sion, viewed not in relation to
sinii;le sentences, but to a whole piece.
The following are the distinctions of. style, w hich
are foundell on an author's manner· of ~hihk_i1;·g;. = ·· -~
'· 1. Concise. A writer wl:io employs . this slyle,_'
coin presses his ideas into the fewest -words: he: em.- ....
,'"''

.,•

:<-~·

.,,.

·~·

..

·:I
REVIEW. -

46

.i

f •

.I-.

r·

PJ.•1

be the concluding one. ".'Ve flatter ourselves wi
the be!ief that we have fo~saken our passiomi, wh
they have f?r.saken us," is not as_forcible an arrang
ment as, " When our. passions have forsaken us,'· '
flatter ourselves with th~ belief that we have forsak

· them:" ·-· ·

.:

5. /l.void concluding a sentence with 1tn adverb
~- preposition, or any inconsidtrable word. Agreeal
,~:: to this rule; the. following and similar phraseulogi
;..
.
.
·~· are very properly shunned by al\ correct. wntc1
"Avarice is · a crime which wise men are sc~metin:
guilty of." To have inserted the preposition uef1
the relative, W!mld have mu ch improved the sentenc
thus, "Avarice is a crime of which wise men !
sometimes guilty."
. ~
6. fVhen two things are compared or contrasi
with each other, a resemblance in the language a
·.·
· construction should be preserved; for 'vheri thir
tl!emselves correspond ·- to each other, we 'nattna
expect
to find a similar correspondence in the won
1
\ Thus: " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; ·
"enemy inflames hi s crimes," <lues nut form so stro
~ ~onh'~st_ as, ·~A friend exaggerates a man's. virtu
-~~,t an enemy, his crimes.''
··
•.· t
1
... ~--~·; - : The following wor<ls and phrases, when used at 1
.• \
,.
>. •
•
I'
· ~- ··:. :;,•:.begminng ofa long sentence, have a feeble effect.
:I i , '..~·;·:_ ;1 £._Such,~ This kind, f!f this nature. It is an inva
1
:: ~ ;1i/ · :-:~7,J '.,·~,able 'rule; that_a __
Iong __senten ce shuultl co mmence w
,~1" :, :.-··. -; • : a clear propos1tton.
1 ;
.'.,~_'.
+ i!luch not immediatey followed by a noun.

.

...

1

II ·.,\ t:-£., ·.

' '11 '·' ... 1 ,
I

.

;1 1 .....

•

~=- .. :~

.~,,~ . ~ . ,. ~:
'i1 ~?·.,:
' ·-

l ':

-""-; ~ ...

:';r~~~ ~~;,~~:-. :-.:~ '_.

,;/

49

.REVIEW. •·

1e obje~t itself, and sometimes another thing that is
onnected with it_; and by.obliging us to look on sevtl .objects at once, makes U!1, lose_sight ·of the princia\. J 01.1 rnals .. and . extempor~neous <liscourses, are
wst liable· to this faulty kind_of ~tyle.
4. The feeble style al ways characterises an author
·ho has not a clear mind, and a clear view of his sub:ct. · Unnece~sary ·,vords and loose epithets are contantly · escaping ' such a writer; his_expressions:._are
ague and general; his arrangement is indistinct, and
H conception of his ~eaning faint and confused.
5. The .nervous style.belongs to' the writer -_ whose
1ind is full of his subject. An aµthor of this class al·ays gives. us a strong idea of his meaning: his words
·e always expressive: every phrase and ~very figre renders thd picture which he would set Lief~re us,
1ore 'striking and more complete.
The difforence between the two last-mentioned
.ylcs, arises from a writer's haliits of thought. A
ear conception of a sulij ect as necessarily leads to
iergy of expression, as confused ideas lead to fcelile~SS.

The followin ,!; distinctions of style have respect to
1c ueglect or the use of ornament.
I . ./1 harsh stvlc is that which proceeds from the
;e of inelegant words, and aw kwanl or obscure plira:s, and from too much inditforcnce to smoothness aud
1se. Numerous instances .may !Je found in the ea r~r -E n;;l ish

wri ters .
5

.:

REVIEW.

..

ploys non e but the most expressive: he lops off all
those, which are not a material addition to the sense.
Whatever ornament he adn?its, is adopted fur the sake
Of force rather than of grace. The same thought is never repeated. · The utmost precision is studied in his
. sentences; and they are generally designed to suggest
more to the 'reader's imagination, than they .ex1ire~s .
.,Thucydides auµ Salluf>t are examples of this kind of
, styl~; , · ·
·
· 2. ·Diffuse. '· An author who writes in this style,
unfolds .his idea fully. He places it in a variety of
lights, and gives the reader every possible assistance
for understanding it completely . . Ile is not very anx·
· .. ious to express it, at first, in its full strength, becau se
he intends repeating the impression; and what he
wants in strength, he endeavours to supply uy copi·
..
ousness. His periods naturally flow into so me
· \ length; and, having room for ornament of every kind,
· he gives it free admittance. · Of this style, Livy and
.Herodotus are favourable examples.
·
'
.._, From the rel!iarks on these two kinds of style, it
may be perceived, that the difference between them is .
to be traced to an author's expanding his thoughts
more or less. Eac.hof these styles has its a<l'!;lntages,
when it is used with moderation; and its <lisadvanta.'
'ges, when it is carried to excess. ·
: S.' Loose style conveys more than the ' meaning of
the wi·iter; joins foreign circum stances to the prin'.
e1ipal object, by u nnccessaril y varying the ·ex press ion.;
·"' . shifts the point of vie'v ; and makes us see, so1netin1ei

...

,·
'

. '.

. .. . . . .
-

J•AttT I.

1.,;.,;-

-.; ....

51

REVIE W .

~TI.

7, Jl.n elegant style im plies a high er degree of or.ment. It .includes all the pro per em belli shm eu ts of
ncy a n d of fi gurativ e la ng uage. An elegant \niter
one who d eligh ts th e fa ucy and the ea1·, as well as
forms the un<lers ta n<li ng. "\Y)1ile he d oes not overad his ideas with misplaced fi_n"ery , he cl othes them

;

' ev e ry t r ue grace of expre;;sion.
8• .fl. splendid sty le aims a t ;;ometh ing still h igh er.
: is t he style of an au thor wh o exp resses himself with
1aguifice n ce and po mp. ' It re qu i re~ g;rea t judgment
J keep this ma nn er from fall ing in to ihe fl orid or th e
om \.Jastic, on whi ch a n a ffect ed wri te r makes it. allaJ "' see m to bon ie r. l usta nces of this style occ u r
l

the Sea,;ons of T homson.

The full ow in~ division of sty le is found ed on t he
lcv ati nn,'th c rnr rgy and fhc /lnw nf ideas.
1. The sub!i111J' style exrl udcs all obj ects rnerc l y
1ea11tiful , gay , or clt•gan t : the •Jbject mu., t in it se !f be
1uhli n1c, and he de sc r ilwd wi th s t rcn;.;lh , cor: ci,;en es ~,
u1d simplicity . The beginni ng uf the book of Gene ' is is highly 'ublime.
S. j} l ivrfy style is th at wh ich d oes nu t dw ell on
every particular of a s u\.Jj ect, bu t has te ns on to the
a10re imprcs~i v e points, am\ ex.hi\.J its t hem i n a s t riking_light. ·. If is oppos.e d to monotony .and ilalness of
expression; " and produc~s :its · etfect :~y ex.c~ting' ou1·

attention and · interestit,tg iou~: feel~!)g!l;r . S(~rne : is . ~
favorable ·ex·a~ple' ;-4.:r~···l
• ·· .:t
:. '·• --- ~,.;,,.~.
'""" ' . ;;~ · .1~"k··'. '
." ~ . :·- . ~.'•- ··. •;·..";:· '".· .,,
:· !.;:'
•

f

f

•

3,'' Ve'he1nence of ,style ·alwayS:implies·strengtl) au,l . '·'-

ilmplicity.

., .

lt is ·.distingui~hed by ,a.peculiiu:"ardor·:· .~'i';t;·~

.· .c·, . .

"

,..
;;A>,

..

'J.·

:.· .,~~;'.

50

' ........

llEVIEW.

PART f ,

2. The frigid style is that which degrades a sub. lime object by a mean conception of it, or by weak,
low, and childish descriptio1~.
·
S• .IJ.. dry mamier. excludes every kind of ornament.
Content with bt;ing.,understood, it aims not to please
the fancy or the ear.
4 • .IJ. plain style rises one degree al.Juve a dry one. ·.
An author who writes in this style, employs very little ornament; and rests iilmost entirely upon his ideas.
Ilut thou!$h he does not engage us by the arts of composition, he 'avoiLls disgusting us like a harsh or a dry ,
writer.
·
.
The difference between a dry and a pl ain writer is
_this: thi; former is iucapable .oforu.amenl; the latter
goes not in pursuit of it.
5. .IJ. neat style ·is next in order: it implies ornalnent, but not of the most sparkling kind. In this ;
style, the se1ilences are always free from the incumbrance of superfluous words; are of a moderate
length; incline to brevity rather than to a swelling
structure; and closa with propriety. The cadence
. is varied; and the figures are short and accurate, rather than bold an<l glowing. This manner of writing
'·is suited t,o every subject.
'
6; .IJ. beautiful style is characterised by a certain
grace ·or amenity in sentiment' and expression. It .
· ·' denotes a manner neither remarkably sublime, nor ve.. hemently passionate, ,nor uncommonly sparkling, but ,'
such as i·aises, in the reader, an emotion of the gentle, ,' ·
placid kind. Adclision is a conspicuous exampl~.

PAil.T

I ..

. - II • .!l. jloi·id style'impljes -~~ess of orriament. It
:· cha,racterises. the language of an: au thor·\vho~sacrifices . . ·' ,, ..
· a manly correctness bf):!~O.t1gh_t, ,_to a n;ere,: ~hildisl1
.· glitter of expressioni It l{ii:;i'the'same effect "(riting _':as an excessive gla-re of ccilo'r)11 7paii~ ting; . . · . - .
lit Bombast is a ridiculi!~ ~1ff.~s.t.ll-tio\i- of the spl en, -cljd; or the sul>lime' style. 1t ' 'exagg~ rate.i ever.Y. t hing - '
· t~'caricature; and is; read ·with t,le'r ision 01: disg~st~~_,:,:: ·_

in

t ' '•.·"" •

•·

,I

, ";.

~·:,~· T1-11s · ~ei·m

,J. .; .

~~· ~ :_ ~:,-.:;: 0.~-f:,:,;; .~:-~~~-::
IV. ELOQUE~CE ..:
. ,,.".-'.- '
I

.,. _.'.

is -appliet!'

•

..

to•lan'.,g-uag~ ~; adapt~d to

!~- thin.tgii0· ·It regarM nqthing in · our expressions out
j_ ·their· mere · fi tnes~ ·,' ttir be~om~ 'ilie 1 :vehide~ . of-;; the

?·thoughts'which we ~~~u Id in; part =··'it may, oe:'c·~frfe'ctty :

~fegard~d/as: noth\i:ig-more· tl-la;}'."'Uie re~ult''J C::a~pfoper: "-· _·.
W'(ltt~Qtion 't~ !ityie; - . The__tr~tl(of tl)is remark will be ' f ,

·

m~re fully 'p.e rceived,' if we att~rid ' to tlie coinmon dis- .
i ,t inctions ·oL·eloquence. { ---"~'·"··-- ~·, "'"'_... ,. ..., . _-:- .

eriP_icu~us . . , ~ .•. Each of. the.se·~q~al.i!~e.s·;~~a!l<. , , , . ,
.. , . ~ ~ .. Sublime. : · - _been.already explawed~ ..m ;the .. -Vehement. . , · r~tnarks made 'irn'styii/:' · > -. · An .author
is. said to attainc'lhc elo. 4. Patheti~..
.

>. '-L.:_
.P

;:...s. ·

quence of pathos, when his expressions a re s_o· ~app~Iy­
~ adapted to. the passion \vhiclrhe .wishes to :excite; that ··
:_~heydo~th the hea1·t, and :melt it .into'·-teililer~es§. _Thi~ _'is justly -reckoneil.-on~~ ()f the ·:higl;est -~ffQ.1:ts i of ; ' ·.
'el,o que.n'<'. e. . · It lmpll.e~-a. correct ·arilfdisc~rning mirtd, - "·'··
'~arm feelings, a de~p ~no\vledge ' 9(the human 'he~rt/ •
and ,a thorough _·a~quaintance with ~)1e. power of'l.!1!1-~ ' /
, ,:..

I

·.

'

• .,

,

.j ,

·~

.~ 5

*

I

-

.

'

.:

•

• ' . .:,

i~' ·.':~~:...

"

'•

RBVIEW.

52

PA.R1'

it. is the .language of a man whose imagination and pa
sions are glowing and impetuous; who, neglecting i1
ferior g·races, 'pou.rs hims~lf forth with the force an
rapidity of a torrent. - Demosthenes is the best exarr
pie of this kind of style.
- From what. has been said of the last mentione•
quality of st,vle, it may be perceived, that it consist
_in a combination of the two that precede it.

...

'

Style_may also be considered in relation to a natw·al or u:i_inatural manne1· of expressioi:. In thi>
view, it ·admits of the following division.
I. Simplicity, which may be_taken in four different
acceptations. 1. Simplicity of composition, as opposed to too great a variety of parts. - Simplicity, in this
sense, is the same with unity. 2. Simplicity of thought,
in opposition to refinement. Simple thoughts flow
naturally from the subject, and are easily understood. Refinement in writing means a less obvious ·and natural tt:ain of thought, which seems intricate and- far
sought.
3. Simplicity, as opposed to too much
, ornament and pomp of language. 4. Simplicity, as
denoting the easy and natural manner in which- our
language ~xpresses ow· thoughts. "-This simplicity is -opposed not to ornament, but to affectation of orna- ment;- A simple writer has no marks of art in his ex- ·pression; it appears the very language of nature. He
may be rich in exprQSliion ; he may be fu II of figures
and of fancy; but these flow from him without elf(Jrt, and seem to be the mode of expression which is most
ntural to him.

'

.

',

....'.•

•.

PART II.

·~

1

'!

AN ALY SIS AND . CRlTICIS M.

'.\V HILST attendirlg to lhe foregoing review, pupils
houl<l receive instruction s; and perf!;rm exercises on
he following particulars regar<li11g written cornpos1• t
••
ion
I. A~ AL Ys1s7co1:i1Jrising,

.:.·.

'

l. · Parsing, etymological and syntactical ;

2. P1inctuatirni-;
' 3.-. Transposition ;
· 4. Synonymes; . 5. Variety of expressi_on ;
6. Figures of speech ;
7. The su liject, scope, topics, method ;
8. Classification of the piece.

·.

II. CIUTICJSM-Cornprisi ng,

1. Errors in syntax, in punctuation, in th~ choice

f words, in the structu l·e of the sentences,-Ll efects
style, eloqueni;;~, :ideas ; . :
· 2. The ge1~eral character. of the choice. of. words, of

1

"<' ..

le structure, style~ ·~loq'ii~~ce: id~·~sj< /~:i:~':' . . .

.:s.:The peculiarities .or°the"a~thQr f :~,:::;~~- ,7· ··- .
.,; - .,-_·

:·

•

-~·'l·.-:,1 ~-~ ~'._ ~ - --.,~-

.. . . __....

. '

.:.

1,:

· -.;,':~.·.:, -. · __~--"."

54

REVJBW.

P.1RT I.

guage. Sterne's captive is a fine example of pathe- ·
tic, eloquence.
'

-~~ ·

V. IDEAS.

. CoMPOSITION regards the strain of our ideas, as
. possessed of one .o r all of the following qualities.: · , ··
~,· 1. · Vivacity. · · ~ The use made of these termH i11 '
'. 9.." Beayty. ·:
the remarks on style, will be suf. j
~ 3. ".f:Jublirnity.
ficient to show lrnw they are to be 'I
. applied here.
~·

....

4. · Novelty. In. composition; this term is synon- 11
ymous . with originality of thought, and i1nplies
· either a selection of objects entirely new, or the
exhibition of familiar subjects in a new light. Chal .
iners and Brown are good instances of novelty in idea .
. VI. CLASSIFICATION OF PIECES.

COMPOSITIONS are generally classified in the following manner:
' i;\ Narrative.
2. \ Descriptive.
I
· ,3, • fJ.idactic.

~- ,' Th~ D eclamatory, the Pathetic, anrl

the lfurnorous, .
are merely modifications of the Didactic or of th~
Descriptive. .

.

)

,.

..

~-

\.

'.II ..

ANALYSIS AND CillTICISM.

57

e reflections on that particulac ~rt,',' (beginning
age .56,linell.)
·
•
'he phrases in this - clause may be transposed in
~r of the following ways : 1. -I n this paper I 8hall
w together, &c. · 2. I shall throw together in this

er, &c.

v.

,!::,ynonymes. T he sy uon y mes tu th e veru show,
compuu ml perfect participle uf which occurs in
~ · 56, l_
iu e 7,) are, display, exhibit, manifest,
·e, e vince, elucidate, point ()lit, discu\'cr, betray,
lose, reveal, bring to light, unveil, unfold, deve T o show, when it signifies (as it dues in the
ent instance,) lo .make known, ha s the following
my1 ncs : expre:is, intimate, state, announce, tell ,
te, narrate, acquaint, infonu, teach, instruct, Jc:, publish , proclaim, promulgate.

)istinclions and applications of lite .C..'ynonymrs.

'o display signifi es to show openly; thus, "He
laye<l his bounty, in a public e11tertai11 nwut prod for the puor. "
To c.rhi/J;'t ~ig11ifies lo show
piwously .~ thu s, " The cri111inal \\'aS exhibited to
public gaz.c ."
To 111a111frst s i~11ilics to ,lww .1u
1produce co11Pictiu11; as "llc 111a11ifr ;; kd a good
osition." To proc•c anJ to evince sig:nil~;· to show
·cason·ing what , in part, al least , was previously
'fted ·or called in question;" thus; ...The ' preacher
iecfor evii}ced the authel)tidtyofthe Scripfore.;.:'
~lucidate signifies to sho_w distinctiy,~·bi reasd'ni~g• .'
.t:previously was parUJ'understood or· adm~tte4 ~ '
.., ,

. ·I

;;..

.;.

J .I.

.

'

~

-

•

-

-

·.....

-

-.

-~

r

-

(

-

-

-

)

-

"

-

ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM.

56

·.i.

.PART II

prominent beauties of tlrnught_}lnd ex pres·
. 4. The
. ....
.
. s1on.
·
(

The follow\ng specimen will illustrate the applica·
tion of each of the foregoing particulars~
SunJE~T.-Part of a paper by Addison, in tl11

Spectator. .

.

·

'' .'

'!Having already shown how the fancy is affected
by the works. of nature, and afterwards considered in
gene~al both the works of nature an<l of art, how they
mutually a.ssist aud complete each other in.· forming
such seen~~ an<l prospects as a~e most apt 'to delight
the mind of ~he beht1hle1'; I shall in this paper throw
together some reflections on that particular art which
has a more immediate tendency than ahy other ,
produce those primary pleasures of the imagination
which ha~e hitherto been the subj~ct of this discourse."

to

I. ANALYSIS :

I. Parsing, etymological and syntacticat, in the
common form, but selc;cte<l so as to illustrate the dis:
. tinguishing points of English idiom.
• . 11'." )~uncluation. A comma' occurs after the word
'.'nature,'' . (line 2d,) according t~ rule . 1st. (Se~
page 2.9.) .
:'
·
. · .
· ·~
The rules for the remaining pauses should be giy~~
i~ the ,same manner; the pupil reciting, !n every
stan ce, the rule to. which he refers. , '
.;
ill.' Transposition. For .a specimen of this exercis·~
·take the clause;... I shall in this paper throw together:

.in1

'

'

)
, ,
lRT II.

~

511

ANALYSIS A~ ~RITIC.ISM.

'!

'~~'...

'j

~-

,_Lef two of the syll(;mymes- which ..are most nearly
fo~d, be defined, "distinguished, and illustrated, as in
1e 'subjoined example : :
.
' ..
.
.
1' ~

.

'

.~])ejinili~n. Co~r~ge,..,:.....f.lctive vigou~ of mind in enountering opposition. . J<'ortitude,..:_Passive vigor
fmind in withstanding opposition . .
;Dis(inction-founded·
on . the difference between
'
~c-tion aU:d passion,
!. Jlhtstration. A person manifests courage, when he
afraid t~ encounter difficulties; aml he mani- .
.
'estsfortitude, when ·he has firmness to withstand the
;l·essure of difficulties i~ 'which he is involved. '
•:':V: Variety of expressfon. The first clause of the
!lece may b~ vati~<l in the following ways: 1. For the
iassive verb"' is affected,''. substitute the active voice,
~nd the clause will run thus :-Having already shown
io~ the works of. nature affect the fancy. 2. Throw
lhe clause iuto the foni:i ti.f the case absolute :-The
,.
'
inanner in which the fan.cy is affected . by the works of
nature, having. been already shown. '3. Ex'pand the
phraseology :;--Ha,ving,_in 5ome of my former essays,
attempted to delineate the manner in wliicl1 the fan CJ
re~fves its. impressions from · the works o(natnre .. 4. ·
wse _a more co,ndens~d form of ,e:xpressi<~? .:-;-l-1:a,~inµ;
traced th~ e~otions.excited,-by- the wprks pf. n.ature,
: }'he ·ph~·ase~logy; .. of.l.the .:a~ovll~~e.rttiotjed:: .clause
may be varied in seV.~r~h)~~er~wiir,s j'- bu.t the.. speci~1eri given ·,m,ay .su~~e1 Jo,. i!lust~a.t.~}l~e~ .nat~re~ an~ ,
1pbjed of the _exerc~s~.pri~sc,ti~!!~'../ "" .. · ' J,':.:..'./ ,..;
~

j

~

_;:.'•

l

'r·

l

:[.~

COUR.JJ.GE; FORTITUDE.

;·not

J

~

:;

$1..

~

j
1

.

\

'

~) :~·-:·, ~~:':_1~

:/"

,,•

.

1

·-.....

>· -. ;: '

:-·~~~')'(:A'

.

'. ·~~- J;~_{v"

;!.

<:>ii);;. -.

~~~

.. "ti'~·-1/<:{/ .
·., v .\

i

;: '

'·" .

-"·":
..
~
~-··-:;_:_~9

3~·

~J

58

,,., ....·

ANALYSIS ANT> CRITICISM.

PAR'

. as, " The preacher elucidated several texts."
point out signifies to show decidedly and empha{ica
as," That single circumstance pointed out the i
vidual." To discover au<l to bell'ay, when syn1
mous with the verl> to show, sig1~ifj_ to show w~in
ti<)nally: as, " His conduct <liscovc re(I, or l>etra;
great meanness." · To disclo~e, lo reve~tl, to brin
light, lo unveil, to unfold, to develope,-all signifJ
show what was previou sly concealed; thus, " To
close, rel'.eal, l>ring to light, unv eil, unfold, or dev ~
a secret transaction."-To unfold and to dcvelope
signify to show several points in succession; as, '
unfohle<l the secret hi story of hi s life." " He _<l,
· Jope<l every step of the proceedings."
· To·. pursue the remaining sy nonymes in the s
manner, would occupy too mud1 space, am! ·w,
ped1aps lie . superlluous, as a nu inlier su llicien
s·erve the purpose of illustration has been already
·cussed.
·
·
As many synonymes ag are prescribed, shot;!(
d~stinguished and applie(I as above. · With yu
shiden ts, this exercise must be restricted to the , 1
pier synonymes. · The synonymous .tenm1 may
· ,ffrst, be furnished from the dictionary; and if the
tionary is an abri(lge<l one, reference may l>e mad
the definitions of those words which are given · a~
delinit_ions of the primary word. Students wh~
more advanced, will find a11 exercise on the folio~
plan, very cond11cive ti clear .a ud c11rroct expre~

,L~ALYSIS

61

AND CRITICISM.

Q~U~tio~· was that which occurred first- in the·: other

!~ay~ 6n the san\_e: _subject.; ~~d - the .se~ond, . that
bich occ~rrecl next in those essays. ·,. The tramiitiun

Ol!1 tl,\e . one principal', tOpic to the Qther is a\so ac,~or­
~fa to !i~TJ.e; the fo1:n~ei". 1:elati11JS to _the past, and, the
:n.e r to the p~eseh\; -~,The _order of the, topics in the
part of the sente~ce, is that · of cause and. effect:
, The art of architecture, the cause of certain en10~~s ; _ ~ml ,2 • . These emotions, the effect of the art of
~~hitecture; . ...
· ·
· .,.
·.

;ter

y'hi. 'ctassi~cation ,ofthepiece. ~fhis sentence is part
~an essay belonging t~ the didactic class of w1:itings.

r

r

~·

•

"\

...
•

•

,,;.

. I~. GRfTICIS!lf . .:

. 1. ERRons in syntax--·- none . .

;, Punctuation. The adverbial phrase', ".in general,"
?!lge !.i6, line 8,) should have been detached, by comlas,' from the other words in the sen tence. See rule
~d, .~nthe co!1rnm.,. Th e phr~se, "ii/this paper,"
fuige. 5.6, line. 1$,)
is liable. to tlte same· correction. · . .
·.
. .C,hoice'oj. u.;ords. .The phrase, '"throw together,''
.~g~ ::'i6, li\1~· 12,) seep1s s91newl1at harsh. · The subg~;- being one of the departmer~trs of taste, required a
~~~t~ r form : or ex pression. The phra se used bythe .
~~l.1or; does not c~mport with that bea~ty of thought
;~H l~nguage, wl.uch. we naturally con s11le1: as appro~rja,te to such a subject. · The word arrange would
1erhaps have
better expressed
idea.
.
'
. the author'~
. .
j' Stru9ture. See Murr3 y' s Exercises for a correction
1f. this sentence in regard to Clearne~s. The word
..,. ,
. 6
~

/].-

, ·'

.- ,_~

60

ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM.

PAR1

VI. Figures of Speech. · None occur in this· pie
·when a figure is •fouml,' the source from which it
. drawn, should be pointed out, the relation of the f
urative to the plain idea should .be shown, and the f
ure it~elf should be named, after the following mannt
"That miii.ister was the pillar of the state." ·
The word pillar,.is a ·figure .
.The·figure is drawn 'from architecture.
As;·in architedure, a pillar supports. an edifice { ;i
in politics, a minister of a vigorous and firm mi1
·supports the state. The relation, therefore, of the fi
· urative to the plain i<lea is support.
·
'.
' The figure is metaphor.
. VII. The subject; the scope or design , th e topics
heads principal and subor<linate, the method or lllarm
in which the topics are arranged._ Th e subject is ti
introduction to an essay on the art of architectur
The scope is a simple announcement of the subject J
the.essay to which thi s introduction is prefixed. Ti
topics are, I. A brief recapitulation of former topit
· . containing, 1. The emotions excited by the work~ 1
nature: £, The assistance which the works (if natul.
';., '' ami' of art receive from each other, .in the impressio~
-which ihey ' makeon the human mind.· IL An au
.· nouncement of the subject of the essay wliich follo1~
this intro<luction. ·S ubortlinate topic :-the connec
tion . bet,ivcen the subject of the present essay, ah1
subjects formerly discussed. Af'Plhod.-Thc arrange
lment .of the topics in the recapitulation, is acconli~!
to the orde1· of time: thuB, the first topic of this in

=01 NHOHH

ANALYSIS AND QRITICISM.

I.

\

0

•

'l

M.

..

~.. ~ ~ ' !

i

~

y and Precision, and, (one instance excepted,) .
in ii'othing incon"sist_e nt with .Propriety. · .. The
:ure of this -sentence is not ~haracterisecl by ClearU nity, or Strength;' · The styl~ p()ssessesSim'Y· · The eloquence approaches to Perspicuity.. ·
ideas are distinguished .by Vivacity: and a de:
<?f Beauty.
_ _
,
- ·
The pecu~iarities ··of the author• · This_ writer
s to bedistinguished by the Simplicity and the
tness of his Style~_ _
~---.-· ~-~-------Be~utfos :)qhu\igl1bn<i expression.' ~ 'l;'h~shorf- _
of the piee:e'selected, cloes _not "admit' of ~1iy con-'
IOUS heau_ty b_ein.g pointed out. ''When' a pas~age
sig1:ate<l: ~s beautiful, the allusio~ on 'which- the
ty of thought o( expression is f~unded, should b~
:tl to its object in nature or in art; antl the partitaste, to which it is addressed,
. principle
Id be mentioned.*

of

,.

,

. 1~,

..

Then airnly sis and criticism arc pcrformetl on a pot! piece, the dqHtrtme11t of poetry, to which it lie;;, ought to lie specified ; aHd the verses should be
ncd according to the rules of prosody.
particulari8ing th~ lienefit of analysis it is unneary_. tu_ e1,1tcr on parsing, punctuation, and classifim. The exercises in transposition, synunymes,

1

longer extract for a sllbjcct, m ight have given a
Jsin g effect to some of the exercises which have
1plif1ctl 1 but brevity, as far as consistent with a
; illustr:ttion of the pbn, being''. principal obj eel, a
I.

e seemed preferable.

more
been
snffi short

62

. ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM.

1'.l 'll'J' 11

. "both" (page 56, line 9,) is superfluous, an<l contia Cl
_ry to rule 1st, on the Strength of a sentence. As th '81
.wor<ls "each other" (pau:e
5G, line 10,) follow the vcr ~.1
~
" _c omplete," the word " mu tu ally" is unnecessary, an ~forms an ins,t ance of that species of redundancy, which
is calle<l. tautology. This instance violates the sam r•
rule as the precelling. The word "prospects,; ·~
(page 56, line 11 ,) _is anoth er instance of tautology· ,':
for the.1n:ece.ding woi·d, "scenes" signifies exactly, the 1
same ~thing. An instan ce of ve1-y awkward stru ctu;·t -~
occurs In the secon<l and ti1il'd cla~ses :.:__"and after· .·
wards consi<lerc<l in general both the works of na tu r; '.ii
an<l of art-how · they mutually assist anti comp l ete r~

.

_,
' , . ,'

~-

each oth~r." The word "they" ought to be ex pun- '.
· ged; and the word "how" shoul<l be placed before the ;
1
word" ip". The words "both" an<l "mutually" Le'_ ing, according to former corrections, left out, th e clau- 'I
ses woul<l. run thus : -and afterwards con.sidered, in 1 ~
general, how, in forming such scenes as are most apl ·':
1

:1til'.1

to ddight the mind of the beholder, the works nf na- 1;
·lure and o.f art as sist and complete each other.
·· 1:
Defects in style. The phrase "throw together", .:.
which has been ol~jectc<l to under the Choice of \VorJ:r, .·'.
is tl1c 011lJ i11sbncc in which the sly le ;;pe111s to fall Le·low itR proper level; and. sink into the. harsh manne
In thl'. cluquwce antl ideas of this piece there is Ii ..-·:

'1

•!!!!!!< .~~

-y..-·-~

~lr.~:<!

~-:_-~::_..,

!~

...--;-:ii

-~~-~

~ !ilk'.-.' ~

thing defect iv e.
-~
.
~
Z. General characfn· of the cho1cc of wonls, of the
._.I(
,
structure, style, eloquence, idcas.-Thc c.?.pressiom :>
are geuerally sclect.cd so as not to violate th e ru lc~ of
'

1-

~ n.

,·

ANALYS!S ,AND .CRITICIS!ll.

·.

65

•'

1e ~rrors .: and 'to th~· ~x.ce~lencies of othe'.s, it aids
in correcting and refining his ow~ produ~tions.
~he instructions and e!ercises o~. tl}e •foregoing
its, gradually ascend from.whath simple and 'easy,'
·hat is complex· and difficult. The arrangement is
gned to be such as ~ill ~ak~ · everj stage of the
il's progress intelligible 'an~ interesting, and insen·
y prepar~ his mind for the busin~ss '_of composing.
~se exercises"are also suggested as a 'useful ·a nd
Ls,ing'relaxation from se.vere~ . study; to' those who
e le(t the 'bu siness' of.'an ele1nel}tatf cour-~ e. and
~ - .•comm~n£ed the
higher.departm.e!lt~ ~f literature.
. "
. .
..
..
'

,

,.. ~

I

'; "

..

\

64

ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM.

PART II.

and variety of expression, are the bes t 111eans of ac- ·quiring a ready command of language, an<l an easy
harlflonious style.. The pi·actice of tracing the
figures of speech, is adapted to produce a correct and "
happy- use of .figurative language,-a d epartment .of '
writi11g in which Leginner s are su liaLle tu err. The ,'
statement of the subject, scope, topics, and method, . ~
of a composition, has also a great tendency to improve
· the mind of the 1111pil. It impresses the lead ing id\aS .•"
more ueeplj' _::::: h!_~ memory; it is <l usefol exercise i
of the understanding, and habituates him to c:eiil :::-:'.! ,
. vigorous thinking. lly suggesti ng the invention of .'
topics, and the mcthodi sing of a subj ect, it supplie s him ·"
with a fund of material s for composition, and strength·
ens and increases the resources of hi s 01\· 11 mind.
Minute ' and careful criticism is the most ell'ectual
of all aids to t!1e formation of a good sty le. Besid~i
guarding the learner against inaccuracies, it halii(u.
ates him to acuteness of thought, qui ck oLserv&tion,
and close attention, which are all indispensably requi·
site_to clear and forcible ex1iression.
'Ana,Iysis enables the student to reduce a pi ece of
writing to ils component parts, and thus to become ;'
acquainted with the nature an<l the use · of each, an<l '
prepares him to arrange an<l combine, wit It effect, the
correspon<li11g parts of his own subsequent labors.
Criticisiln guides him in formin g his judgeme nt of the
individual correctne!?S of every part, and of its iulapt·
~lion to the wl!ole; an<l IJy pointing him alternately

67

eOMPO$lTION.

Ill.

1tion of th~. ~eaclier will prev~nt ~riy expressions
; purposely borrowed.~ ·A . c.ourse of narrative·
lng may be complet~d in from twelve to twenty
cises; the number being limited ~r exte~de<l.
nling to th~ capaCi.~ ~f th~. pu pi!.* .
·.·
the first .exercises,-'many ill ~ chosen expression!>.
J.iecess~rily occur; since nothing 't.mt practice
skill, can insure perfect propri~ty of langua'g e.
pupil's first atte mpts in this course, ought,
ed, to .be regarded as ext~:nded exercises .in .varier expression',, rather than .as regular comp~s\.tions~
teacher, howev.e r,'.sbould ·en\brace · tlie opi;>ortu' which ~ny"'improp riety affords, of endeav'ou1:ing
!1part greater .accuracy to. the . mind · and the lan;e of the p.upil .• E~ery error ought, to be carefully
distinctly shown, :and '. mTP.utel,{discusscd: and
pupil ·should be required " to r~cite' the rule of
tax,'. Pu ncttiation, Structure, · or Style; which, in
'instance, h~s . been violated. · Pupiis may afterds be permitted t~ criticise one anotl1er's composi~. submitting the corrections to a review by the
:her.

..

~-

:ii__

•.' '

'he following subjects for exercises have been set
'11, with the view ljf saving time and troubl e to the
;her, and of enabling the pupil to proceed, , uueu 1bered by a variety of refe1:ences different. book-1;.

to

1.'he second and th.i;~ da~2es are to . be written on; d~e.
e plan as the first. ·
0

-

:·

~

•f

\.

PART .III.

. 1

COMPOSITION.

. 1

PLA N OF THE EXEHCISES.

ht. Class, Narrative.-2d. flescriptivc,_;_Scl . .Dicfo,ctic.

·l
j

· TH1s · arrangement is preferr ed, because it leads
the pupil on by degrees, fron1 \vhat is n1orc easily. "~
understood an<l practised, to what is more dif!icult.
;;·:,

CJ.ClLA~NARl~ATIVE

·'

•

'' I
PIECES.

tet the pupH t~ke an historical work, and, at the
pla ce selected by the teacher, rea d the first senkn\:.e
once or twice, according to its length, till the idea it
contains is fixed in .his memory. Having shut the
book; let him revolve the id ea in his mind, clothe it
, in hi s own words, and comm it it to paper. Ile may . :·
proceed in ' the sa;ne way with as man y sentences as ,
are thou ght sufficient for an exercise. The practice of
"-riticism, as laid down in Part I!. and of that branch, · i .,
es11eclally, which reganl s the pecu liarities of an au-.. " .
thor; \viii preve nt the pupil from inadve rt e111Jy i1nita~ · '1 ·
ting' the sty le of the work which he reads ; and the
1

.l
69

CO)f POSITtON . .

n, ex.t ending his be1~eficial influence over all natu7·e,
therefore among t\;e ear\i~st obj~cts ~f worship.
he. other celestial bodies natur~lly attracted their
a.re of venera.tion'. . Fire . was. a'lso worshiped<as a.
mboloCthe .sun.
'
·
,Idolfitry owes_many of its peculiarit.i~s to the sym1lical mode {/f writing, which prevail~d among the
1cient nations . . Animals, which, at first, were re "
1nlell as .~ymbols of divine attributes, were afler~rds . co.11~ounded with the gods themselves. The
tine god; represented by different animals, was
lpposed. t:J hilve ~hanged himself into dilferenlful'ms.
'he qeification of heroes aro~c fr~;;: ::! !J~Eef ;,. th;::
rnl's -i111mr11·taliiy, accompanied by feelings of grati1de and veneration for-(rlen whose lives were etnh ;;)
enlly useful.
iS

~.~~

.. State of the arts and sciqic,f~f!JnWng the Egyptians.
.

.

.;; :.< '....A ~

.

-:..

: TuE Egyptians prece(l~U; ~1'ftist' ot' the ancient na- ·
ions in the kn(Jivle,Jge 0 f the u~eful arts, and in the
.ultivation ~f the ' sciences: Architectu1:e, ·· amo11g
l;~m, was early brought to great perfection. Their
>yr.amids arnl .obelis.ks haYe,.. owing to the rnildnes.s
>f the' climate, ,suffere~l littJ~ injury,frorn time..· The

~

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~ho,le co~iitry ~bo~.~~is"'~).t,h ' '.th~)e·n;~in~ ~f·:~11~iel}t - ' ..~.
~agnificence.' ·· T~ep~s;!i.~:'TI1,>P~f.;Ji:gypt;'l'r~ii~on~ ?f. ,:' ; ,....
the' inost sple_ndid·;dties in:;thepwoi:ld:·~~~~'fi;i;~~f;·· . ' : '.·; ";''- =-!
r·T~e· pyramids ';'~~e~!siipp.~s~~;' ~?)iav.e. J>.e~n . ~rJ~J~~ : ·. ;•.'::, ,>·
'bouf .g60 '."yeit1·s :B : CW'lfhey!\.'w~r~ '-probab~J..fth,e .'·· .t' ...=.:·
•

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COMPOSITION .

61!'

. EXTRACTS l•'OH COMPOSITIONS.
'

.

'

t. Origin of the arts and scicnce8.

.
~
' THE useful arts are the offspring of necessity: ti{
.sciences are · the fruit of ea~ · and ~eisure. The con' j
· struction of huts, of weapons of war and of hunting, '
are the earliest arts. Agriculture. is not practised till
ll tribe becom.es stationary, and property .is defined
·an<l secured.
· · .The sciences arise in a ·cultivated society, whe1:e.
individuals enjoy that leisure which invites ~o stud
' and speculation. •The priests, maintained in that ·
· cond.ition by the monarch, were the earliest cultiva:
tors of ·science. The science of the Egyptians w~s
· confined to their priests. Astronomy, ,which is among
the ,earliest of the sciences, owed its origin probably
to superstition. Medicine was also among the early
sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of their
,own, equal, in general, to their wants. lt is not'
·~ntil luxury has created new and more complex di; eases~- that a pi·ofouuder kno\~ledge of m~<licine and·:
of the animal 'economy, is required. ·
~

•I •

' . · 2. Origin of idolatrous

•

wo~ship.

, ·.-.:BEFORE conceiving the idea of a Being utterly
imperceptiule to his senses, 'a savage would · naturally,"
~ · seek that Being in the most striking obj ects· of._sense,
1
, to which he owed his most apparent _uenefits. ·The

'l'1

· COMPOS\TION.,

IT III •

.the .J>e,ople._'· ~he : penal la_~s ..of ~gyp,t w.er~ unrnm.<;>nly. sev"re. .Funeral. rites were not conferred,
I.after scrutiny into th~ life (;f tlle .deceasell 1 and
udicial <lecree appro~ing his 'character:~_ The cl1a-'
~ters even of the sovereigns were subject to jt~is
0

a

1~iry~
,;

. 1lejlections., on the rudest eras of Grecian history.
r.'.

: . . - .,, -

'

.

."

'. -,

,. .

-

-

.Presents to the eyt? a large irregular pen.~.ula, · intersected. by many _cl~ains . of ·rnountains,
para ting its different distric\s, ·ai1d opposi,ng ·natural ~
il)ediments _to generaUntercoui·se, and;'t herefore, to
pid ci~iiization: ·:-' The' extren1e barbai·ily .o f the Pesgi,'• ~ho iu:e said to h~ve · been · ca~nibals, and to
LY~ . been ignorast of the use -of fire, has its parallel
.~10<lern barliat:~us nations. · There were many cir1:mslances that retarded .the progress of the.Greeks
,' ·refinement. The: introduction .-of a national reli- .
on was best fitted to remove these obstacl c_s. · Rc;iving this new. sy8tem of theology from- strangers,
1J entertaiuiug,. at first,' ve ry confused ideas of it,
1ey w~ul!l naturally lilen<l its rlo~ lrin e~ and worship.
·ith the notions of religion, whi ch they formerly pos~ssed; anct'lience we µb serve only partial, coincidenes of thc-·Grecian \~i.th the Egyptia1i and , Phrenician
.G1ui.ECE

iyth9logies;: : .

,,

.

'/ A·preuominal1t charaeteristk .ofthe ·~reeks; in. the:.
~rly. ~st;i.g~!(o_f·
their:'historf1
;wa!t
superstition,_.: To· •."v;.-.·
•
f ~·
If\
• ·l' •·. .,.., . .., ' •• "' , ,..,. .• •.. ~ ..
l~~se ages, ~ an_d, tu lh~s ;_¢J1a~aftcr, "w.~: refet. the_ o1~gbi ".'-~ '!:· ~

·• .

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i.

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l,

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.,.·.

·· ~ ~:<~ - ~;.,;-·. \~ii~)~.::~. · ~~~:~ . i·· . ~

_.,..,

..

..,
COMPOSITION:.

P.All'l' 1111

eepulchral monuments of the sovereigns. The Egyp-.
tiat1s did not believe that death separated the so~t .
. fro.m the body; and hence their extreme care to pre•;
serve_the body entire _by embalming, concealiug it i~r
caves and catacombs, and guarding it by . such _st~,,
pendous structures.
. ' ..
The ;.emai11s' of art in Egypt, though venerable fo_t:~
. thei~ great anticiuity, · are extremely · deficient : .in
: ; .'
. b!la~1.ty. aiuf elegance, The E gy ptians posses~ed c~'l!·
· siderable knowledge ofgeometry, mechanics, an!f as·
troriorr;y: . In painting and sculpture, their proficie4··
. cy seems .to ha_ve been but slender.
----·-------- . --. -. .
4. The, go vcmment and laws of Egypt.
~, " -~>l.

'

••

.

•

.!

gµvernment of Eg~ms an heredifary mo.
..
uarchy. The pow ers of the monarch were regulate
. ·
bf constitutional laws; vet, ·in many respects, his
.•
authority was extre
. ·.
• ~spotical. The 'function~.
i~,,;.,J
~f
the sovereign were )a · ~l"jvil anrl P\ll'tly religious.
ii
~ :.a: ..
•
·' ~
.''44
" • ~· The kin g .ha<l the chief;(~gqlationrf.all that re~arcJiru~
the worshn1 of the gods; and t he pncsts, cons1J e1ffli
as his. deputies, filled '!lll the offices of state . . T~I
.i
· latter were both the legislators and th ~ ci vil judge~,
they imposed and levietl : the taxes, and regul at'e-~l' ,
weights and measures. 'The grrat nirtio nal trihuna!. ·
-w~s composed of thirty ju1lges, chosen from the th re~ ·"
principal 1lepart me11ts of the empire. The adminis.-._
· tration of justice was defrayed by the sovereign, a nd;."' . !Ill -pa'r tieinvere their own · advocate~, wail no bu rd el!,
- . .
.
. . . .. THE

.·

0

~.

~

/

'

A.ll'l' III.

COMPOSITION. ·

73

all

,iJorer class, more numero~s than" the other three,
ad an equal right ofsuffrage:witl.i them, in the· pub!c assemuly, whe;·e all laws .were framed, and meaurcs of state decreed. Conseque11tly, th~ weight of
he latter decidecf every question. .
·
·The popular assemblies receive~, iu<lccd, a check
rom the authority of the senate and the areopagus.'
But, as the ultimate 1·ight of decision lay · with the
>eople, it was always in the power of amuitious dema;~gues to sway the public mea~ures , to the worst of
>urposes. Continual factions ·. divided the people;
:~d corruption pervaded eyery departm~nt .· of the ·
1.tate. 1'he public ' measl!res were-·often equally ab' ; and Athens not ' unfrequentl_v saw
1u_rdas profligate
i~r best patriots,' the wisesf and most virtuous of her
:itizens, shamefully sacrificed to thenwst • depraved
most abamlone<l. " .

mu

r:

Govemmpnt and manners of the ancient Persians.

: The government of Persia was an absolute rnon~r­
chy. The ~vill Of the sovereign was s.ubject to no
c'ontrol ; ~ml his person ~1• as rev ered as sa_cred. The
education, however, which was bestowed by those
~10nar~hs op their children, was calculated to inspire
\!yery-valuable quality. of a · sovereign. · Indeed, the
ancient Persians, i1~ general, bestowed the utmost at,\ ention 011 "flie education of youth. Children were at
the ';lge of fiv e years, committed to the care of the
Magi, for the improvement of their minds and moralF.

7

,·

.· '.1

j

..
.j
~

i".

·~ .

';.

(
.1:-· ,.. .

'·

_ COMPOSITION.

of the Grecian oracles:· an<l the institution ·of th~
· puplic-ganies -in . honoti~· ~f _the go<ls.-The llesi~·~ oJ
penPtratiug · iuto futurity; ·anct' the 8upe1:stitio n con:i;
mon jo.- rude natiim:;, gave rise to the oracles nf' Delphi,
· Dotlona: &c. · ·-The -resort of' strangers t~ these <ir~cles
: on partic,ular occasions, led to the celel.iration of a
festival, and of public games.
~
.... ~ . .
' .
. .
. '
...
.
..
.
-. 6: 'f'_h_
e n,ature _and the ~ffects of the legislative ar· ·
· ·, :.:;, 7 '. · -- : . .. __ 1:an.geinenls of Solc~i. ' ·. · . ·· . : .
/

•

•

-,.

J ,

•

•

SoLoN: ~n illust'rious Athenian, of the race of Co~:
' drus, attain.ed the <lignity. of Archon 56<-i' B . C., an4·
·was entru~ted with _the care of framii1g for hi s coun:·
- try ~ 11ew form -of govem ment, and a new syst_em ~f
laws,,- .: I-le wa; a man posses8cd of exten~ive . know!-_
~edg~'- Li_ut wanting in that intrcpi,diry of miild, wiii\:h;
. "is necessary 't o the character of a grl'at statesman;
· His _(lisjiusition was too mild, anti it not unfre~1ue1'1t1y
betrayed him int/ temporising conduct. . ' Ve find;:
accordingly, that, without attempting to refon;J th~
mann.e rs or'his CO;ll~trymen, he llC<:;Ollllllodate<l his SJS'
tem
-,to_-their
preyailing hauits and. passions.
·
•..
I , .
'
' · _ '.~h~ people cla_im ed the s~vercigu po,~er; an<I they
' receive.<l it. The rich deman(led .offi<;:es and <ligni ties:
-_ th~ system of Solon accommodated th cni-tu the u tn;~1st:
-of their wishes. · · He divided the cifrz.e ns into fo4r:
_classes, according to the mea_su re \If their , weal th. , To . tl~e first three, containing the ri cl;ercitize~is, lie'luug.cd _
- ' al_l the'. ~~~~~-of tl~e commonwealth. _The fourth, thf
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75

eoMPOSlTION.

.·

..

·After an insolent' demand of submis;;ion, which the

~reeks scornfully refused, Dai:ius began. a . hostile at-

t\'!!-/ . ...

u~k, both by sea and land. The fir~t P~rsian fleet

~,

~

ras lost in doubling the.promontory of Athos; a se on~, of six hundred sail, ravaged the Greci.an islands;
vhile. an immense anny, landing . in Eubca, poured
lown 0\1 Attica. · The Athenians met the . Persian
i,lrces on the plain of Marathon, am\, headed by Mi li.ades, defeated ' them with prodigious slaughter. The
_oss of the Persians, in this battle, was 6300, . that of
he A.th~nians, 190. .
·
The merit' of Miltiades,' so signally displayed in
chis ..great battle, was repaid by his country ·with the
most ;;hocking ingratitude. Accused of treason, for
m u ns11<.. tessfn l attack on the isle of Purus, his sen tence of d eath' wa;; commuted into a fine of fifty
t.alents,-a sum which he was unaule to pay. Being,
on this account, thrown into prison, he there died of
the wounds which he had received in the attack on

I".' • • . .

0.

L

Paros. '
~. The invasion of Greece

by Xcr.rcs.
-~

ON the death of Darius, his son Xe rxes succee<letl

to the throne of P~rsia. This prince proved himself
the heir of .his fath~r's ambition, but not of hi;, virtueo
and abilities . . He arme<l, as· is said,. five, millions of
·inen, ·for , the conquest 'of Greece, .!twelv.e .hundretl
! ~~ips of war, and three thousand ships of ~urden.
;Lan_d ing.in Thesialy, he proceed.ed by rapid n~a~shli_s.
•

,

-

•

L

·'

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·,s:5,,-~·_,.·

--

COMPOSITION,

'T4

·They were traine<l, at the same time, to every manly,
exercise. · The sacred books of the Zendavelila pro:
mised to every ._worthy parent the imputed. merit and
reward of all the good actions of his children.
Luxurious as they were in after times, the Per·
sinns were, in their early history, distinguished for
temperance, bravery, and virtuou s simpli city of ma?· '.
,- ners. , . They were all trained to the use of arm8, and.
displayed great intrepidity in ';Var, The custom of
women· follow_ing their armies into the field, a custom'
·which has been erroneously attributed to effeminacy,i
was, in fact, a remnant of barbarou s manners.
· The kingdom of Persia was di vided int~ · several.
provinces, each under a governor or satrap, who \vas
a ccountable to the sovereign for the wlwle of hi s con':
tluct; The prince, at stated time8, visited his provin· '
ces in pers011, cor recting all abu ses, casing the burd ens
· of the opifressed, and encouraging agriculture and the
pra_c tice of the useful arts.
· · 8. The invasion of Greece by D arius.
.J

•

J

•

J

·' THE ambitiOn of Dariu s, the son of Ilystaspes, .,
1
heigh tened by the passion of revenge, gave rise to the '
'A
· ·project of thaf monarch fur the invasion of Greece,
•. The 'Athenians had aided the people _of Ionia in an j
attempt to throw off the yoke of Persia, and had burn·
~d and ravaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia.· Dariui
speedily reduced the loni ans to submission, an.<l. then
tµrned his arms against th e Greeks, their allies; the.
exile Hippias eagerl y prompting the expedi tion.

r

ILI.

COMPOSITION.

most consummute artifice and address, he had his
.sionaries in all .the states of Greece, wl}O directed.
,is advantage every public measure. The misera.policy of these states, which emliroiled them in
petual quarrel s, co-operated with his des igns. A
rilegious attempt of the Phocians to plunder the
1ple of De lphi, excited the 8acred war, in\vhich al;t all the 'r;epublics. to~k a part ~Jhilip's aid lieing
.rted by the Thebans and Thessalians, he _b egan
1tilities by invading l?hucis, the key to the territurJ
Attica.
,
~schines the orator, bribe.cl to the · interest .of .the
:1.cedonian monarch, attempted to. quiet .the alarms
the Atheuians,' uy ascribing to, £hilip .nothing but
! design of puhishing sacrilege, a nd vindicating the
uour or Apollo . . llut De111osthe11es, iu the spirit of
1e patriotis m, . exposetl the artful designs of the
\'ader, and , with the most animated eloquence·,
used his cou.ntrymen to a vigorous effort. for tht;!
eservation of I.heir liberties. · The liattle ··of C her1ea, fought JJ7 .B. C., deci<l ed the fate of Greece,
1d s11bjec tec1 all the ~tate s to the do111i11io11 of the
11g of i\lacedon . J3ut it 11·a6 not hi s policy to treat
1~ 111 as a conque red people.
They retained their
!pa rate and irulepe11dc'11t governments; while he
Jflt rnlled and directed ;di t.lie natiuual m e a~u res.
At a general council of the s tates, Philip wa,.; apointed com111a11dl'r i11 l' hief of tl1e h1r,:es of th e
ation; a1HI he laid before them l1is pr·~ie ct fur th e
7

',

76

COMPOSITION.

FAllT IJ,.( ,

to Thermopyle, a narrow defile on the Sinus Maliacus. , The Athenians amL Spartans, ai<le<l only by .
the Thespians, P lateaus, and E gi11etcs, determined
to withstand the invader. Leonidas, ki11g of Sparta,
was chosen to '. defend this important pass , with six
thousancl men. Xerxes, after a weak altempt to cor·
rupt him, in;periously sum111011ecl him to lay <luwu ·
·his arms; " Let him come," said Leonidas, " an<l
take them.'.' Fur two days, the Persians strove, in
' vain, to force their way, ancl were frequently repulsed with great slaughter. An unguarcle<l track Leing
at length discuverecl, til e defence of the path bcciune
fruitless. Leonidas, foresee ing certain .d est ruction,
co1i11nanded all, but three hundred. of hi s countrymen,
to retire. Ilis motive was to give the Persians a ·
just idea of the spirit of that foe whom they had to
c11counter. H e and his brave Spart;rns were cut off ·
to a · 111an. A monument, erected on the spot, bore
thi~ . n'obl e inscription, . written uy Simonicles: "O;
stdnger, tell it a( Laccd emo n, that we died here in
obedience to her laws."

..

'

'\ .

10. Philip

oJ..Macedon.

Tu IS .prince asr.endecl ihe throne of M acc<lonia by .
p np!iLr rhoire, in violafion of the llatural rights c.if the
iw:rn:.r hein; lo ihc c rown ; and he secured his power .
by the su~cess. of his arms against fhe Illyrian s, Peoni·ans, a.nd A fhenians, who l1ad e ~µou ~c d I.he inf crest of.
his , cofnpetito~·s. · · Uniti11g tu g reat · military talents. . .

·1
I

1

.tt·r III.

. CO~fPOSlTWN.

79

te town of Issus. The Persian host ai11ounted t~
~0,000; but their situation \Vas such, that only a
nail part could . come into action; arul they were
efeated with prodigious slaughter. The loss of.the
ersians in this battle, is said to have l.Jeen 1 L0,000:
iat of the Greeks, acconlit:1g to some historians,
nly 450.
The generosity of Alexander was displayed afte1·
le battle of Issus, 1 in hi s attention to his noble prisners, .the mother, the wifo, and the whole family of
)arius. To the credit of Alexander, it must l.Je
wned, that humane feeling, though often overpowered
nd sometimes extinguished by his passions, was cerainly a part of .his natural character.
12. Subsequent v-ictories, conduct, and death oj .

.lilexander.
AFTER · the fall of Tyre, and the taking of Gaza,
Uexamler directed hi~ course towards Egypt; and
he who_le country submitted wiU111ut opposition.
leturning from Egypt, he tt~av~rsed Assyria. and
vas met at Arbela by Darius, with a force of 700,0UO
nen. The Persian monarch had proffered peace,
:onsenting to yield the whole country from the Euihrates tu the Hellespont, ·aml to give _Alexander his
laughter in marriage, with the in1111ensc sum · uf
l0,000 talents. But these terms were haughtily
·ejected; and peace was otlerctl on ito other cuudi;ion, than the unqualified submission of his enemy.

.,

·:

.,
;;'

78

COMPOSlTION.

conquest of Persia, appointing each republic to fur·
nish its proportion of subsidies. ' On th e e ve of this
grea t enterpris e, Philip was assassinated L>y Pausanias, a captain of hi s guard s.

11. .!llcxandcr lite Great.
AL E XA N D E H, th e so11 of Philip, succee1le1l, at the
age of tw enty , to the throne of Macedon, and, a fter a ·
few successful battles against the rev olted sta tes,
the command of Greece. A ssembling at C•)rinth ,
the deputies of the nation, he communicated to th em
his resolution of prosecutin g the d esig ns of his fa ther .
for the conqu est of Persia.
·with an army of S0,000 foot, and 5000 horse, ihE\_
sum of 70 talents, and provi gions for a single month,he crossed the llell cs po11t, aud, in trav e rsing Phr.vg ia/
visited the tomb of Achilles. Da1i us Cod omannus,
resolving to cru sh, at once, this in con sid e rat e y ou th;
met him on the banks of th e Grani cus with 100,000
foot, and 10,000 horse. The Gree ks, precede .I by
th eir king, swam th e riv er, and attackin g the as tonished Persians, put their whol e army to Hight, and left :,
£0,000 <lead on the fi eld. Drawing from hi s first
victory , a presage of contiuu ed success, Al exand er ..
now sent home hi s fl ee t, leaving tu hi s army the sule 1
altern ati ve that th ey mu st s\itrJ ue A sia, or pe rish. ·
The Gree ks, fur a whil e, prosec uted their course '
without. re ~ istan c.e , !Jut we re afterward s a tt ac ked by
the Persians in a narrow valley of Cilicia, neai· the

to;

.u.

COMPOSITION .

81

lS. Political reflections on ancient . Gt'eece,
E oppression which the states o(Greece suffered
· their 'ancierit <le~pots, was a ;nost ju~tifiablc
e for their establishing a new' form of govern, which promised them a greater political free-·
It is .believed too, .that these '' new forms of
nment were formed by'vi1'tuous lesgislators, in
·ue spirit of patriotism. But as to the realme,f these political · fabrics, it is !:ertain / hat they
very far from . correspon<ling ir{ pra~tice with ,'
was expected from them in theory. · 'Ve seek .
in, either in the history of Athens or of.Lacedefo.r the. be~utiful · idea of a welhJ;·<lered cummonh. The revolutions of govern ment, which they
eyer ex perien ~ ing, the factions with which they
constantl y embroilctl, plaiuly dcmunst\·ate that
was a radical defect in .the structure of their
cal machine, which l~reclude<l the possibi lity of
ar 111otion. The condition ~>f the people, under
forms ofgovernment, partook more of servitude ·
1ppression, than that of the subjects of the most
1tic monarchs. In all 'the states of Greece, the
;; formed the actual majority of the inhabitants.
is class of the people the free citiz_eri~ were rigobon<l-masters. As freemen were liable to bonwhPn \ they hail contracted d~bts which they
unable to pay, many citizens of this class were
·anked arnong the unhappy victirns of tyranniral
ol. Nor were the richer cla~s~·s iu the actual

eOMPOSI1"ION.

...

r .Ul 1' U:I '·

,,

The P ersians were d efea ted at Arbela, with th e loss
of 300,000 men. Dariu s fl ed from provin ce to pro·
vince. At length, bet rny ed by B ess us, one of his own. u
satraps, he was cruelly murd ered ; and th e P ersian n
empire, whi ch had subsis ted for tw o hund red all!l six n
years from th e time of Cyru s th e great, submitted to· d
the conqu eror, 3 30 B. C.
g
.Alexaml er no w projected th e conqu est of India, ~
firmly persuaded that th e god s had d ecreed him t he ·r.
sovereig nty of th e wh ole habitabl e globe. He pene- ,\I
trated to th e Ganges, an d would have proceeded to · ·1
the eastern ocea n, if th e s pi r it of hi s ar my had kept · ·j1
pace with his ambi tion. llut his troops, seeing no end
to th eir toils, 1·efo sed to proceed. H e re f urn ed to the .
Indu s, whence, scn<li11g hi s fl eet und er Nea rchu s to
the Persi1m gulf, he marched hi s army across th e de·
sert to P erse polis.
·~
Indignant that he ha<l found a limit to his conqu ests; . 11
he abandoned himself to every .e xcess of lu xury and '
debau chery. Th e arroga n ce of hi s nature, and the ·a
ardor of his passion s, heighte ned by continual intemperance, · broke out into the most ou trageou s excesses.•
of cruelty , for which, in th e few intervals of soher
reflection, hi s ingenu ous mind suffered the kee 1J est re- ·1
morse. From Perse polis he retun 1ecl to Bauy lo11, aud.
't h ere died in a fit of debau ch, i11 th e 1hirty- third year 'I
flf his ~ge, and the thi rteenth of his reign.

.r

I

a
-~

83

ao:P.ll'OSITION•

The moral agency of man, the immortality of
, ·and a future state o~ reward and pun~S.h?1ent,
.so inculcated by this enlightened philosopher. .
!oded the polytheistic superstitions ofhis,coun- :
i thence became the victim of an .accusation or
r.

,_

~·- .! 1, ~.J.t'';·::·,_:'"

morality of .' Socrates,' though su~~~~sfully
ted .by some,. was ·pushed .to extravaga.nce by
nics. -· Virtue, in their. opinion; consisted in reng ·all the conveniencies of life; ... They clothed
:Ives in . rags, slept ·and . ate in the deserts,- cir
red a~out. ~he c~uniry with no ~ther. equip'm~nt
stick and a 'yallet. They condem.ned alrknow·as useless. They . associated .impu<lcnce with .
.nee, and -imlulged in . scurrility nnd inveciive
11t restraint.

· 15. The .!Jcademic and Reripatetic

~ects.

i E 'foui1d~r of the academic sect was Pl~to~ The
ines of this philosopher have _had a most extenempire ·~ver the ininiis of.: 1~1e;1. This circum~ ,is, in part, owing to their intrinsic 1nerit, and, in
to~ the eloquence with wl\ich they have been proded. .Plato had 1the most sublime irleas of the
nity and his attributes. · 'He taught that tli'c ·huSo)ll. was .a portio"U ~of the Divinity; and that this
nee wi th the eternal mind, might be improved in
;tnal intercourse w~th ·the Supreme Being, by ab~ting the' soul from.. all .the corruptions which it
ves from the.J.1ody: a doctrine highly tlatterir;g tt>

1
'l

82

C:;0111POSIT10N.

PJ.R'~

W•
1.lRT

enjoyment of independence. They were perpetually · ·, ·
divided into factions, which servilely ranked them· ;~rs
selves under the banners of the contending chiefs o! !l·e.i
~
"·wer•
the republic. These parties were kept together sol~: '.n
_ly by corruption. The whole SJStem was servile a~ - t e. .
debasing in its tendency : it left nothing independent .,/Y•
in the condition ~f imlividual s, am! nothi.ng ennoblin.g ,~~
to human nature m the character of puulic and poll!!· ·
1
cal life.

14. The .Socratic and Cynic school~ of philvsoph( ': ~~
Tim reasonings of Socrates were chiefiy directe~ ":wa
the sophists. Th e logi c of these philosophert thi
was display ed in a set of general arguments, applira:' :lei
.ble to all manner of qu es tions; so that th ey co ul~, · .·igt
with an appeara11ce of 1·lau Qi hility, maiutain eithe~ wi
.eide of any proposition. Socrates all\'ays uruu gltt his ~'-.
antagonist to particulars, uegin11i11g with a simple and ~:
und eniabl e po ~it ion, whi ch bein g gra111ed, another ......
c<1ually undeniable li11luwed; till the di sputant was f
grauually conducted, uy his own cunces~ious, tu thal1 "'} .'
81
· side of the qucstiou un \\hich lay the truth. Ilis ri: -"
·
· · nl
Y<il~ lu ~ t a ll n<'dit as 1 · hil o~o ph c r s ; altho ugh they still · ;,
had influeuce to procure the desln1ction of 1l1 e man- 1t
who had exposed them. The doctrines of Socrates :;P
/]
lwvc bcP.ll handed down tn us by Plato and X c11opho11 ;_~;
1
a11d from
tl ese writers we learn I.hat he taught di e be. j
. .
.
lief of a First Lau~e, 11\Ii., ~c IJenelicencc is equal t.•il1i.1
power, auu who is the Creator and H.ul er of th e UJti,
agaiu ~ t

1

.:,~

..

.,,,.

-

,.;·-·

:~. ::".··.· ':;. t

:.+··j :.:-.~~,~~:'.·~ - ' .'·.

',

fm. ·

~.

COMP,QSl'I'.IO:N°· ' . ..

. . . '·}. . ... -~ . ._.•_,

.

.

. . ~'·.

-·~ .-:·~~ :>::: ~~; :;:::~~~ -·~~ ·,.·.

~

.. . 8?

' -.

~~ -

•

y the :laws-__,vhich'"B.etermirie'his existehce;•>:- Vir"- ·
?on ~is~s- in acf~?:miri?dating _the)l}~n~·~Jh~~Jriµlii :..·
•

i"Ia,\'.(

. . • • . ,..·.~·

,

•

•• ·

••

'; . . . ·

......... ::-,..

. .. ...-; _.•:-..

l

.of .nat_µr~ ; :~-yice~ :, iii':;'~pp~si rii:- these~ji~v~.'

.· •

::, tl~~.for~,: ~s·: f()l,1Y>ij.n~;7r~i~~6 ~~~ tl~e :~~1y: f1ii.~ :: _
)~_. ,\\_~~-·~·- <~ 1 ·,~J·.Jf.•!f~;;.f.~:::f~-~~·:;.~:.:·-~. . _:d-:·~¥: &~'.~;{~r,~
~~- ru s~taii ght tli11:_t mari_
's·8upr~~e. ~~ppil}~~s. ~on~.-..1.':~ •; .,,_A_""'·_r~,
.';!.~-'' . -.!.'.
··

•

·

._,

•

.•·.

·

·

1·

,

•

••

._!.,.

1· pleasur.e·~ :i.. .He•limited:the.'te:rm,·so''as
• · •.-!!°"'r."

·.:_~- ..

,

..--:":<\· ..

';·:~

,,_..,.~;·

.,

_-. •

,

...

fo )nake
<-..>·

• )'.-.-.,.-~-

_

~«

. ,. .:e?-:;;

:--:..;;'J,;.~·,_,.

..•~Rti.J

1: on!y;t~e._·ppfotice,'.!>f:virt.ue:~:~:.:B~ f; t!f~pft~~u·re (.-i: .~Ji':f:f;· ·

•ed\to he~thl- means~1iLhlippl.ness~1everV:"'iiian'<_ <'lf.·· ·. ·· :J,·;
<;

·-_...

, . ~•

. ·~J -. ~-

'J-:: . .,._~ .. ---

~- . . . ·:--·~" ..... .., ~;..- •• : ...... • ..~.

• .

w;~~, fro_n_1~tbo_se_'~ s,oi).~c,e(~~~jcl_(~e~-a:~4s~;,c1!1'-';·

1IJ,~it>:',l(inigh,t: 1~,ay~~bfiJl'".Jhe~pleii~ur~'. 9f/. ·

~,t"'6,.'be
: chast~ artchtiii,hp~1~i~}~
W:J~f~;l&1a:::
·:'°· • ... ·
~ \,o • • • ~• ~......''":' ' ; ·~~~· "-·~~AJc"_,, rC-~_I_;..,
I

is~ so ••! But

j

•

..

otliers fifld;theif.'ple"asti're;Sn"iri ,;:e

i-,._ ;)·
·_'.

~

0

~ a~d iu_~!IIY';.;l\ri~~~l~~~-ri!~tl;~*i;fa;~·fJ~~~- ,'.

'ollo:vers: .t-Epicuru ~ ~heJi;l \' t~at2,!~e: ' J}!?:it'y' -~ ·
rent<to'
all .the:' actions•;of-me~ \1fo{ fol- .·, .· '
-- · ).
. ·-1 ... .-·-;,} . ---~---- • . '.;.i·~t- ;-, •· ef?re::_l).ad . no ; othe_i:i'~?u,n~~I~r>tlw~Jlfei~-; , .. · ""\*·nee, ~~~tno· 9th_ei~:gii.i~~Jha,ift~e)i\~~~~~~! ...:~ - _;;·:if~

heitowii -happjnesii.~~ ..;·1-'

.~~- ;::.::'/,~·:.~+~~

.':'·:·:_:.~-~~-~~.:~~~:::-:_. t;,¥;~t~:j;;:j:i·;_
.•,
,.>· ,.-... '

1L.\iJl ~D.E,S'<i)u~lVE'. P.i-E 9 Es( -:-~

:?.

..,..
~.~~~~:~w~ ~~·;_·f:~-:r;.\ -~ ·~:- . .
-~ '
f ~he''Mole adapted} <J'.its m~diJ._oj';Jifi. -·~ , .·
;·1:~· "',;· ~-

-~-~'.-:. ;.;f-.: ,.. ;>J~:f·i-c~:.~:~. ,~~;~k....-;·(~!'•~:--~ .

. .~

t,elation. ofpl!r.ts; !lris\ng froiji a-SUD; .''."" ':
?~,~~~ .,Pu_~POJ_~_,; ~~~,e.~f:<W~~rf,~J?.~ t~;:;/
'_strong,:short;Jegs, '.o'fthis anhnal,-the .: : -"' ~
-~ <l ·,~itli"sii~t'n~~if~:~rl{;·:1p;g:1ik~·~i:' ;._:.-· ' -.-;~A
.... ~!<>.'!.."··~ ~. :..·,.!'i- ~ ~ ..... ~~p,. ·....<..,.!-,1 '"'-..~ .. . - ~' '. }- ~- ••
.- •.; ~
~ velvet coat;\the, small e·i~JernaL~ar'-i ~- ·, . • Y'f
fi·-:::· ·"t.. .:--::-.\";"·~- ~~\.., tir:~·e' '!4J'".;.~ -:· . :~1;;.. . *:"J -;:-.-:.... - ·'.~ ·. ..;.... .'.
1,...-~:t.....-Ji.J.~'l~
e"sl.\nk··· nrotecte l(e V'e,~al~ c lin .:. '. .:...~- .. _ .- .. ;
~·.,.,~"'1f'--v-. . Y.-.';.:....,.....;..., .,~_;. ~"'1!V~"',w'f'~,,.~t- _· , <', - 't"~~
or,to ·the· safety of its under;groqnd . ~ .· . -,...;,-:..!::_;,..'18 :~~::·-'1_'~:.:'.·- ;·: -~,_-,: ~~~-":: "!·~- .-:--:'
·.-«;'.;;5'1
... ,-'1!._...._-.;_•

• "j'\o. ...

:

-··

-=-·

. •..,) .~ .. ~-

· ~;-· •. -

... .

....~ ..... --- ...... ,· . ..... ~~

•

•.

84.

COMPOSITION.

l'ART lll

the pl'iue of man, and generating that mystical enthu;
siasm which has a most powerful empire oYcr a war~
imagination.

·1: :
;ifi~.i

'

'
,,;.;......_:i!ri

. The founder of the Peripatetic sert was ,\ristotl~if:~.
the tutor of Alexaml rr tJ,., :;ri'; tt . I le est<liJ I1 s l1c~l luischuol in t.h .. Lyceu m at A tl 1v11 s, auJ ll1ere in culcated
those cloctri11""· which .ha \'(: ftH111d rn ma11y :1.ealou1
partisans, ancl so many ra11curo us opponC' nts. ]fo } ,ij
mda pliysics, from the sentC'ntious brev ity of his ex: ;~;·a'.
pression, arr extremely obscure, and th ey have given ~U.H
ri se to numlwrl es,; co rn111 P11laries. Hi s physi cal works '- ~~f.).
arc the result of ex tensive ob;; l' ITa tio n,and of dc r pac1/ ~pi£U
'luui11l<l11ce with 11ature: and hi s critical writin:rs,'as'
aHt
•r
hi s Poetics and hi s .Art of Rhetoric, dis play bo th last.: ~emP-ei
and judgement. The pccu liar passion of Ari stotle wa(: .~i,ri~dp
that of classi(ying, arranging, and combining the o?~ i~~'·.!1
jects of his knowledge; so as to reduce all to a fc.1t, ;~~v~'.s'.
principles : a propensity very dangero u~ in philoso::' "~\~~~·~
•
,
•
•
11'.i · d
pI1y, anu.I repressive
to nnprovement m science.
: ,f.- '·!:l:\e.~
.~
<...1

~

;,._,.,..-

I;:_.____._ ....

lG. The Stoics and t!te Epicureans.

. .,.·..-~h........

Tm-: stoics believed that m;tn';; chiPf lnppines1,. ·· f,,>-Tli
Gonsisted in trnnc 1uillity of mind. They endeavored; . ,.f~: E
therefore, to r:1iso themselves above all th e pass ions -..,1,\;'"·
" .
•
•
•
1· :·.s.e rvie
anJ teelrngs of humamty. fhcy beheYed all nature,_ ' _r-t;:-:"' ._
- · ue mo
and God him self, the ~oul of the universe, to be rcgula·i ·'£::1
-:r-"' t
"" ', !'.". ma
ted by fixed and inn utabl e laws. The human soul: ·:'!l""S°'''·th
bei11ga portion of the Divinity, man ca11not complain '. i·l'~a '
of being actuated by that necPss ity 'vhi ch arfl1 a tcs~ ."l'JJe"t~
God himself. His pains and pl eas ures are determin,·.,, • ".~c'q·
/ ~,..- ·
.

:01

NMOI,..

,!11\T

m.

~-. .

'

COMPPSITION.

.

87

. . 'j .. ' ' .. '

'

.

ruse to an animal _which ~-~s',to. seek ~ts ~ood ·in .the
da~k~ . The mole .did not war.( to·look,_
aQ9ut;) t; nor
0
·~io.uld '.a iarge: adran~e'~ eye.,h~ye b11~µ- e~s_i\y;;idefen~~ci froin. tpe annoyaµci to -~hi.i;h th~ I.if~ §f the:· ~~i­
f!ial ;~ust , constantly'.exp~s~J.t.,~q-Io\v:,)ndeed,' 'Yas
the mole, working its w~y "under ground; to guard its
,~yes. at_all? .:L~To inl.~e\. thi~· diftict)ity, th,e eye~~ ~re .
~µ:i.ade scarcely larger. thanJhe :head of ·a .corki1ig'pin;
~~rili,~~esJ~inute . gl_obul~s are ·stink ;_~o . de~ply' iri't}ie .
~k;'il!i ~nd lye :so she~ter~d in ~1.e ~e,l_v'et'. of its cover_1_1g, a~ that any contract10~ p f .what !11!1-Y be. ca,lled the
ye brows;.~ not ''only ., closes . up the·' ape.~tu_r~s -'~hich .
· ad to the_-eye~, bu~· p~~s~nts, ·as Jt .w~ere, ;:a:;:cusl;i~~·to .
'~y ~hat:p. .~~ p~otruding s~bst~nce -~yhich ,might piis.h
'ainst them~ .T~is. ap~;~tUJ;~, : even' i11 ; ~ts <!rdin~ry
_te, is., like a'. pin~holti in · a piece of velvet, scarcely
·
,rvious to loose parti~les of ~arth;
< .

. t.'""

.:-·· . .~". ': ......... ~····

l

.....: ..:'f,,..;

-- ,.·. -

. ·_ . .. .·

'_The form of. i'l}sect.s adaJ!l,~d to _their 1f!Olle of life.

in~ects, , !JlOri

:, JN
ili.lly

than ,iif

·.,:'

,.
'

.

a~y: ~th~~·.an~~ais: '-·~spe~

when. wetak~ intlie~ultitude.of species, \~hich

.
le mi.cr~s,cope discov~r~, ..y,e ar~ 's truck with the va; .
tety· of '.1iatu'fo> · There:ar: said t_o be six thousanJl
p~cies .or' flies ( _and ::;even h'unc,lr'eJ a1{d sixty.of but:terflies ;. each different' fro;n· all · the rest: .. St: .P.ierre
; • I _ ,<
,~ ·1 '/ ~°":'f'
~
tells
us from
·his -own
. observation~ that
in·the
course.of
,· .
,_·
-_;'
.... _- . - . ' / _ ,
)'-."
._- -~ . :_ _o;
',_•\ _. -·
~~;~hree we~ks, ·thitty~severi sp~cies of wipgecFin~ects, ..
.,~~it~ -, disti1~ctions' w~n_i·expr~s~edi· ' -yi11ited ; a: ,_ single
c :;;;~fra~berry:plant."'Ray observe}\; _
within _th~ compass
.·;,\ !f"a miie or two frotri :,hi8 own hoµse, two hundred
-J._ '_

·. ;fi.~-t--

•

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1',

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iI

i
I

II

{

I

I

I

•

COMPOSITION.

86

PART

life. The form·· of its feet fixes the character of
animal.' •' Its Ject are so many . sho'v~ls: they ' <le
mine its .action' to 'that · of rooting in the groun<l; ·,
every thi1;g-.i~ its bo<ly agrees with '. thi~ destii_1at:
~The ~ylindricaf, figure of the mole, as well as··
compactness of its fu~rn, arising from the terseneE
. ', ~ts . limbs, proportionally lessens its labor; . becaus1
· ·· pr~portio~ to. its bulk;it requires but a sn1all q;ian
of.earth to .ht: removed for its progress. . It has ~e:
'the same str~cture of the' face an<l jaw~, and th~ s:
:o.ffices for the~," as the hog. The nose is sharp, s;
. d<;r, ten<linous, strong; with a pair of nerves gc
· ; do~n to the 'end of it. The plush covering, whicli
, the s.moothness, 'closeness, and polish of .the · sl
pile~ that compose it, rejects the adhesion of ,aln
every' specieR of earth, defends the animal from i 1
and wet, and from' the ' impedimerit which it .·we
~xperie~·ce by the mould sticking t~' its body. F
·soils. of all kimls, the little lJioneer comes forth hr
and clean. , Jnhabiting dirt, it is of all animals
. neatest;
:~But what is most .to' be admired in the mole, i:
. ey~s. ' ·.This animal occasionaily vi.~iting tl,i~ su~·f
· . am! \vanting, for . its safety and direction tq be
.: ' med when it 'does so, . or when it approache~·.,
." 'surface, a perception of light was necessary: ·1 do_
., · · know' that the clearness of sight depends at all ti
• . · the size of t)1e 'organ. What is gained by the. la.i
;,, . . . ness or prominence of the globe of the eye, is wi<lt:
the field of vision. Such a capacity would be ol

in

....

;,,r ""°
·..; ~.

.

u

' 89

COMPOsrqoN.

~an intolerable fetor, · or of blackening . the water
. ~hr~ugh which they are pursued.

r:

S• .!J.nimal Happiness. '

' THE air, the earth; the water, teem with delighted
~existence. / In a spring noon or ·a sulniner evening,

01rwl1i~f~i.de s·~ever I turn my eyes, tnyriads of hap-

. p'y beings~rowd ' upon

my view.· "The insect youth
on the wing." Swarms of new-born flies are
.trying their pinions in the air. Their sportive mo' tions, their wanton :' mazes, the'ir gratuitous activity,
;.t
•
•· .• ,.,...
'
•
.; their continual · c_hange of place without use or pur,;p~se, te~tify t_hiir~'Joy, and the exultation which they
' 'feel in their " lately <liscovered faculties. A bee
· B,mongst th~ flowers in spring, is one of the mo~t
···~ji~erfut°obj ects that can be looked upon. It~ lif~ apP~~rs ,t o be'all.enjoyment: it is ·always bu sy, and ;i.1:'\yays
pleased;
· yet it is only a specimen of insect life,
:Jt.
.
\ ..
·!._with which, by reason oCthe animal being half' do~;~esti~af.£d, .~ we z, happen''"'t o . be better acquainted
,;than :w~• .are with· others . . The whole winged in·) ect tri.be, i.t is probable, are .equally intent upon their
. .proper einploy ments, ~ri d, ·u nder every variety of con_stitution, gratified; a~d, perhaps; equally gratified, by
7. 'the offices which t!io Au~hor of their nature has assigned
, them~ But the atmosphere is not .th e only scene of en -'Joyment for the insect race. ·Plants are i;overed with
r 'aphides greedily sucking their juices, and constantly,
.:, as it would .seem, in ,the act of sucking. It _
cannot be
1
: .doubted that this is a f;!tate of gratificati.on. , What
~:are

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8.

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3
- -----:-,
·=-----::-..

f - ~~

·~--=--=...--

:-

~..,. ~

COMPOSITION.

PART l

kinds of butterflies, nocturnal and diurnal. He lik
. wi(;e asserts, but, I think, without · any grounds
exact computation, that the number of species bf i
· sects, reckoning all sorts of them, may not fali .sho
of . ten thousand. --· Yet in this vast variety of anim
fo~ms, we cannot but take notice of'the different in
thQds, ~r rather the studiously diversified method
by which one and the same pu.rpose is attai.ned. l
the article of.breathing, for example, · which was tu I
pr~vi<led for in one way or other, b~sides the ordina~
varieties of lungs, gills, ' and breathing-holes, (~or ir
sects, in · ,general; respire not by . the mouth, b1
.through· holes on the sides) the nyrnpltte of gnats hav
an apparatus . by which they raise their backs to th
top .of the water, and so take breath. The hydrocm1
thari do the same thiug by thru sting their tails out .<
the water. The magg9t of the ·eruca labra has a 101i
· tail, one part sheathed within another, (uut which i
can draw out at pleasure,) . with a starry tuft at tit
end, by .which tuft, when .expanded upon the surface
. the .,insect . both . supports" itself in . the water,· am
draws in the .air .which it requires. In the article o
natu~l clothing, we have the skins ofanimal s investee
with;s~ales; hair, feathers, mucus; froth,'01'._the skin it,
. self turned into a shell, Ol,' crust. In 'the no less . ne·'.
4'.essary articles of offence and defence, we !;ave t~eth
talons, beaks, horns, stings, prickles, with (a mos1
· singtil'.11: expedient for. the s~me purpose,) the powe~
of giving the elecfric shock; and, as is credibly relat ~
c_c\ of some animals, of driving away their pursuers

.....

-

....

by

,.

.. <
'

I

.

COMPOSITION. -

9J_

· are never entirely tl;e same, but always offer
ing new, to entertain and_enliv~1.1 the im~ina.

'

~

. ·.

.~"

,,.

.

.

_.

.~;'

~

' . ·. .

crease the beauties of. the face of nature; , the
1e is greatly improved by--springs. an<l lakes,
·sected by rivulE)ts.' 'These lend a brightness
?Spect, give motion and _coolness to th~ air,
sh · the means _of subsistence to animated ·
jects have a tranquilising effect on _the ·
there are others of a m~re awful and magi: . the~mo_untains, rising above the_clouds,
th.'SllOW ;; the river, pouring ·down their
sing ~srH ru~s. an.d ,' at last, losing itself
the ·oce'an, spreading its immen'se sheet
·: more than half the globe, sweli'ing a1;d
well-known in_te~vals,' and forming 'a
1 between th~ mo~t distal}t parts of the .
,·

1. ' -

'

~ o~jects, we a~e presente? wij.h the
rities •. of nattue, the mountain, -the
ven< th~ cataract; and the whirlpool.
\--

,, '

-

.

:·

t

..

.

•

-

-

id ·under the ·suiface of the Earth.'·
~

,.

.

~

.

to · the'_ objects _immediately below
! . earth,' we firi<t wonders ·uo less .
; ~10st pa-~( tiie ;arth lies' in regu- ,
1f_.substances'; .~very .bed growii:ig
n as it. li,es'. deeper, and its coni;nse_and compact.
·
~

~

~

91

CO M PO ~ I T IO N .

I'AnT II,I .

•PJ

else shoul d fix them so close to the operation, and Sij .va,
long? Other species are rnnning about with an ala· : . son
crity which carries in it every mark of pleasure:i: ·tion
Large patr.hes of ground are sometimes half covered'. ·;-· 'I
with these brisk and sprightly creatures. ·when we . 'Jandt
look to what the waters produce, shoals of the fry .· «?f. '.and i
fish frequent the margins ofrivers, of lakes, and ofthesea itself. The attitudes, the vivacity, the leaps, and
sportive movements of these creatures all conduce tt.sho~v a happy. excess of spirits •
. 4. On tlte suiface of tlte Earth.

WHEN we take a curi~us survey of the surface.of ."
our globe, a thousand objects oiler themselves, which;,
though long known, still excite curiosity. The m~st'°
obvious beauty that strikes the eye, is the verdant
-G
aovering of the earth. This appearance of the surface,
is formed by a happy mixture of herbs and trees of
.various magnitudes, a~d diversified tints of colour:
It has been often remarked, thaf no colour refrcsh~s
the eye so ~u~h as green; and it may be ad1led, in '
proof of the assertion, that the inhabitants of tl~ose· .
places where the fields are co.ntinually white with ·
Ob
snow, generally become . blind long before the in·
i
habitants of more temperate regions.
~"':- I~ de
'.-.·~... The advantage which arises from the verdure ' o( · :·tlie surf
1he fields, is not a little improved by their agreeabl!l
, surprisi
· inequalities. · There are scarcely two natural land~. · 'Jar beds
~
!!capes which offer prospec1s entirely resembling each.
..thicker
nther; their risings and depre~~QD6, their hills an~ ..
tents be
.~,.

COl\IPO~I'tION, ·.

llT Ill,

;

w

:

~~ :~< ..:_-~~~::'.

6. · Mountai;,,3; ' _ . .. .

. . · ••·
• . , .... . ' ;:i--"' :._
1· :.ef.:1~ .. '~·
those' countries which consist~ of- -plains, the
.llest..elevations are ' apt - to excite won<ler.. . ·In .
land, which . i~ entirely'. flat, there is.. shown, .{i~ai:.
>ea-side, a little rjclg~ · 9f hills, which, lloerhaave ·
to tell his pupils', .were ·1nountains, of no s_mall " .
l~ra~ion. -:What would have been the seh~ations
'1';1,n auditory, could the,f .have been ; at . once ·
Jrted to the' heights and precjpices of the ~lps or .
ies ?·· People have ~o :'adequate idea, even · ii'! :· '
l, ·of a mountainous. 'prospect. , Th.eir·hill:f :a!·e " .
\T .sJop~ng.frqm the ''plain>~nd · clotqed-_ to'-,the ·
\~it~ v!frd§ r_e. · They. pan ~carcely, tl1erefo_re~ '. ·
·magina,tions 'to those iin!'lense piles, whose l and '. p1'ecipitate, ~-ise abo.ve the clouds, and :
~igl~t~ that hun!.an curio~ity has -neyer . been
in. ·:. ·.· · ~:. ··: - · ·
·. ·. . ·,,· _t
'::
··.

.N ·

-

'

·'

.

'

•

•

•

•

•

•

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J

eler; as . he' ascends a mountam, finds that:
•mes: colde~; a~d the earth "more -biu;ren •
.of J.1!.~_otl1e~~~iS~~drea;y as~·ent,· ~e is ~rt:eri .· ~­
vith'. i >Hltle valley ofsu1~prising- verdure; ~
.-;efle~ted .he.~t' of the sun; collected by
ng .l}~·igh!s· int~. a:Jiarrow" s.pot. . Bui it
1-y h~pp'ens;' that ,hC::se_es_ only frightfuf'
ea th,;'.: al}_d, ' lak.es ,.of. amaz.ing· :depths; .
~1r{~pi·!?.g s 1.i!-;:\~:theii: ~,rig\~'; :-~ea~': ·
eta.ti~n,can, !!carc~ly be _q~served : here
· pl~nt; of the'.. hai:<liest ~ind appear:IJ?lo~abl,i c?ld i. 't!1~ ~round wears,-aq
f ,; ~

.~·

-- • •

', • •' ~--·

,,

I

::

•

.

92

COMPOSITION.

PART I.

We shall find, in almost all our subterranean re
searches, an amazing number of shell s, that once
1
belonged to aquatic animals. Here ·a nd there, at a
distance from the sea, are beds of oyster shells seve·
,'
ral yards thick, and man.v miles in exte nt.
On examinin~ the earth, where it ha~ hccn opened u
to any depth, t he substanc e ll"hich is common ly found · ~S.
at the surface, is that light coat of blackish mould, . :_4
which, by some, is call ed garde n-earth. This kind'. ,\r~.
of soil has probably been formeJ from th e d ecay of.; ~th~
vegetable and animal substan ces ; and it forms :~~g
storehouse, from which animal and vegetable naturei i 'g~~e
are reneweJ. The blessings uf life are thus con ti nu·:' j ery
ed in unceasing circulation. It is this portion of the,: .Jifbth
.earth, that supp lies man with all the true ricl~e~:;
which he enjoys. Gold and jewels he may bring u~
,from greater depths; but these articles are merely t~~
.
toys of a capricious being,-things on which he has·'1' ~Th
placed an imaginary Yalue.
,.,C:. :t~.~ ·The earth, like a kind mother, says Pliny, receives '/' ' I!! th
us at our birth, and sustains us when born. It is thi1 X ~enter
.
of all the
men ts around us, that is neYer
the enemy of man. The l>ouy of waters deluges him~ . Zthe ·
with rains, oppresses him with hail, and drowns him ~ ~nt'Jr~
with inundations; the air rushes in storms, prepares:~' ~~ec
the tempest, or lights up the volcano; but the earth, .~ : w:~e
gentle and intlu Igent, ever sul>se'.'Yient to th~ wants and)~ ~~~..e- s
the comfort of man, spreads Ins walks with flowers, ,~· -~. and
antl his taule with plenty ; and returns, with inter.~sq:
every good committed to her c~.
:·~ ;i, .... ·

a

al~ne

~le

foun~~ ~(~~s

.:lh6

,;

,95

COMP<;>Sr~ION.

111.

still overlooked, by tremendou.s moun~ins, their
cov.er.ed with .;snow, and_tl\e.i r fops, fl~'!lil!g '~ith .
noes. ·· Thes_e U}ount~iris. ~e~ip. pile4 .~ne,uP.on th~ ·
and rise:.to, l_!.-mo_st . aston~sh\tig : h~ight. ·· :r:h~
·emarkable.moun~ains~ ~i;e. 'tjie Cotopaxi, ; Ch!~ ­
"' and Pachincha.i' Th,e .first.is more thaµ tliree
;_hi~al m'ii~s.:abov~' the_ ~urfa~~ Qf;..the.sea:
' .not . mu ~!{ inf~rior., :'On th~ top of th~ last;etl, , I ~·uJlered p~rti~ular. hardship~•. (ro~ the
and.....
the -·violence
ess ~f the cold, ......
,. . . .. of. . ,the
.'.fhe sky arqund, was,. in_.. genei:al~ ~nvµh:ed
ogs; which, when ~hey, cleared a·w.ay; ...anq the
· t~.e,ir gr~~ity, " ino.ve{~arer. t9. _the. s~.rface
h, app~nred at a ,vast distance below, _sur-.J1e lQw~r · part of _the ~ouutain, like a sea :
ng an island. "Vhen this appearance was
~mpests ' beneath were heard discharging .
with .a horrid · noise, ,on Quito al).d ·the · '
'.-country• . Light~ings is~ued · (1:~m 'the
th'e thunders i:oped. far below: ; Whil;t
;a.s; thu ~ raging benea!h m'e; th e . ~o~ n-_
re. t ·-was ·placed, ~njoyed' a ·.delightful
wine\ ·:was abated;, the sky was clear,
~ tlie.sun moderated the severity of .the

1

_the

.

~.

:

. ~ -.

'· '

.

·-

· s. ' The Ocean.
.

.

.

\•

·;,

.

,.

·!·- -

·

c.

.

~upon a-~ap of the '~vorld, w~ fin'd

occupy inorC: spa~~ .tha.n 'tlie la~d . .
~ah is 'but one· 'extensive sheet of

I

' ~

94

COMPOSITION.

PART Ill,

eternal covering of ice; and snow seems cons tan Uy
accumulating. On em ergi11g from this scene, he
ascen1ls into a purer aml se rener regio n, where vegetatio n has entirely ceased; where the precipi ces, com·
posed ent.irely of rocks, rise perpendi cularly above
him; while he views, beneath him, all the comuat ·or
the elements,-clouds at his feet, and lightning . dart~:
ing ·upward from their bosonis below. A thousand. '."g~o.
meteors whioh are never seen on the plains, now ' : f est
present themselves lo his view: circular rainbowst' ~ ~e.n
mock suns, the shadow of the mountain, projectea:~ :i~nteL.
. ..' .
upon the body of the air, and · the traveler's ·own"f•• ..pstorm
.
. a l oo k.mg-g lass, upon t h e oppo~;
-'· '" ':;:.m· th11
image
re fl ectetI, as m
·,.,~ :.cloud~
site clouds.

7. /lscent_ of the .!lndes.
, / '.1'l!<'-

AFTER having traveled upward for nine days;·w:e'
began to find the whole country covered with fi~?,~F
At length, after a journey of fifteen days, we arrive~·
''f.surrou
.
at a, plain, on the extremity of whi ch stands the city it.\'
J: cloud
. '. of Quito, the capitol of oue of the most chann~ng . i:e: ~
~·: the te
· gions on earth. Here, in the middle of th e tor;·id :
~ta.in-t
zone, the heat is not only very tolera!Jle, but,' in so~ti:
t ~ eren
places, the cold is painful. The inhabitants enjoy all. -"\f,and t
the advantages of temperate weather and · perpetu~f f
"cold .
.spring; their fields being always covered with verdu';e:
and ·enameled with flo\vers of the most briUiant c.<!;~, f.W·..
lors. Bllt although this beautiful region is higher r.. t$:;::;_w'
.
.
.
•
., - -4 ~.,,......
tha.n any other country m the world; and althoug\1 i.t, t<\' h·.
·
-·
·
.. ~ ·· ,., t at
wok SQ many days of painful journey in the ascent;1, .'"'•,A lt\
.
w
,,.,,.,,....•
·:.~

--~k·
}

.

. -eOMPOSITION.

97

' m'ountain has
vith bir<l's eggs, even when the
to the distance of several hundred miles from
fhese mountains are usually seen in spring, or
•iulent storm, whet} they drift out to sea, soon
1hed in pieces by the violent and continu al
of the waves; or driven into the 'varmer
'the.
away.
. south, to. be. melted
'"

9.

Magnijic~nce

of the unilierse.

verse · may be considered as ~_the_ palace i1t
'eitj res~.des" and this earth .as .one of its.
Th?~e great_outlines of nat~re, to .\\)1ich
ac!i,' and where our greatest efforts must
~ ffcctual, G!ld ~imself has finished ·with
leur and· beauty. . Our beneficent Fathese parts of nature as peculiarly his
.vhich no creature could have skill or
nd, and bas, therefore, made tJ1en: in•...
tion or improvement.
re, .we survey nature under this im~ · can ·be "more ·strikingly · 'correct,
· more amazing. \.Ye then behold
1g in the midst of a universe,
i_nd cheered by his presence. We
and shapeless mass of matter, for·
·.to worlds, and ·dispersed at inter•
. the imaginatio.~ cannot · travel.
uf his' glory, a .thousand 'suns liky
1d vanishing at the divine. com-

,r

96

COMPOSITION.

water, continued , wit!tout interruption, ove r every ne:
· part of the globe; yet geographers have distingui sheq, ft~a
it by- different names, as the Atlantic, the Northern,, lan·l
Southern, Pacific, and Indian oceans.
·' afte 1
In this nst receptacle,' almost all the rive1·s of the · .tobe
earth ultimately tel'minate; nor do so great supplies_ washi
· seem !o increase its stores. It is neither apparent!J.
swollen by .their tribute, nor diminished by their
· failure: it continues the same. What, indeed, is the
·quantity of water contained in all the lakes and rivers
on the globe, when compared to this prodigioµs mass·?
We find, on attempting a rude estimate, that alJ.th,e, , •.
·
· tie
I worId , fl owmg
· mto
·
I bed of t he sea,
· · apartme1.
rivers
m
tie
··
· present stores, wou 11l ta ke art canno
• Ii a contmuance
·
wit
of t11e1r

up, at least, 800 years in filling it to its present height;

.
•
·f
amazmoIn temperate cl11nates, the sea is never frozen; but •.th·
"'
. .
. h mountams
. or'.• . er,
are em barrasse d wit
· com
the po 1ar regwns
.
.
bl e : t he tremen d ous, . own,
ice,
wh'1ch rencIer tI1em 1mpassa
· as
' d es, sometimes
.
..
·•
·
strengtl
fl oats ofd 1'ffierent magmtu
nsmg more · · bl 1
.
.
eapa · e o
than a thousand feet above the surface of ~he· water;.
.
d'ft'
.1 •
l
·
f
I
I
d
:
t
some 1mes 1. useu mto p ams o some rnm re m1 1es ' ·-,:Vv 11en
~n extent. They are usually divided uy fissures, one'.
piece following another so closely, that a pers~n may .·
step from ·one to the other. · Sometimes · mountains
are seen rising amidst these plains an<l presenting the
appearance of a variegated landscape, with hjlls and
. valleys, houses, churches, ind towers.
~ ~~:;:;
' .. The 'mountain ice is often incorporated with eart6,,
stones,. and brushwood,
washed
from the shore. :'o'~.
.
.
'
the icy mass are sometime~ found,»at only earth, but.t'·
~

,;

. .

·-

j

c~}JPOSITION~

· 99

float along .the · surface»of the fields, to pro ~
alth and vegetation. Th<coolnes1 of the.eveites to rest; and the fresh~ess ofthe-moriiing
es for. labor.-Without ·these sources of enman must have ·bee~ wl'etched; fol' his.own
~ould neve1: have supplied them. · · · · ·
1ile there is, ·on~the one hand,' this kind prothe wants of man, there are, on the oth·
less exciteinents to 11is industry. · His hab1gh provided w\th all t.he ' conveniences· of
~e, and water, is, "With.~ut hunlan cuHiva~sert. The lowest ani;nal finds morn conthe wilds· of nature, 'than he who :boasts
ford. The whirlwind, the inundation,
licat asperities ~f·the atmosphere, have
·s to man, who knows theil' c'onsequenees and dreads their approach: 1'he
el'e human art has not been exerted, .
;htfoi -·or gloomy appearance. ; The
md 'tangled ;it-the rheado'\vs are cove'rn wholesome -~~eds; ·a:n<l the ·hl'ooks
'· determined channel . .'N atu'~e; which
every lower order of beings, has left
I ·a great measure, On his OWn exe·r·rangetnent has 'led the ''iVay to the
r 'and improvement.
· ., ·
... ·;

~ • ~

'

.- Iii~

.

,.

~s on a view:·of the heavens.
,

I

.>•

. ,·

-

~

of hight . h~v~ ...~prea<l' thei1: veiL
l'ma~ent displays our vi~w _its

to

!J ~

COMPOSITION.

I

rAnT 1u

Bre

bright luminary, fixed in the centre of its syste~ ~~ti
· is wheeling its planets, in times proportioned to the~ ~n?
distances, and at once dispersing light, heat, and ·mo. ~Vig•
tion. The earth, also, with its twofold , motion, 1i ~ym~
.
· of seasons; mrl~
seen producrng,
by the one, the change
n
• • • d eso f .Iuay an d •.
i ilUt,
and, by the other, t he grate Iiul v1c1ss1tu
night. With what silent maglificence is all this per· vision
formed ! with what seeming ease ! The works of irt. ~r, ~um
are exerte d wit
· Il an mterruptec
·
I fiorce; an d th e1r
· n01.' itation,
sy progress discovers the obstructions which they re.ceive; but the earth, with a silent, steady rotati~u;
successively presents every part of its bosom to ·~t e
sun, at once imbibing nourishment and light from tlia
parent of vegetation and felicity.
"and the pe
tpeculiar t
_10. T!te eai·tlt a scene ofpleasure and improvement.~ 'ces, and
NoT only are provisions of light and heat suppli~ .earth itsel
to man; but, for his convenience, the whole surface 0£ "'puts on
the ',ea1;th is covered with a transparent atmosphere, · forests are
the motion of which, is accommodated to that of the 'ed with r
earth. The rays of the sun are thus broken into - ' wander w
genial warmth; and a gentle heat is produced; in has been k
and under the surface of the earth, which c~ntributea • man depe
to cove.r it with verdure. \Vaters are also. suppli;~ ,tions ; • an

.

.,

in healthful abundance, to support life and assist·~e.
getation. Mountains arise, to diversify the prospect,
and give a current to the stream. From one conil: .
nent to the other, extencf vast seas, replenished-wi
.animals.for the support of man, and forming the greaf
source of those ,vapours which fertilize the earth;
/..P'

bl~ssings

-11

·.
'·
'.

HnT Ill.

.

'.

'. co~.~<?.S!!J.?N·.:.

' ..

. 1Q1

i ;up in the~a~1: bJ·an irritat;~?~~;~ ..;~;~"found to be a:'·
-

- J.

....

'

.

~

~4

•11· .-

.~

•

- • •

•

,,

·;'. species ~ pla1:etary ~~.dies, ~hose }?ng r~u~~~~.~r~ n.ow
:;~" calculated uy astron9mers. Many- of":\ the~e · bot)1es,
~·'·at .-p1:es~~t; , a~knc):;i~dge the empire ~ of ou't:."~~:ri;
~'. thou'gh)~e o~~.i,t~. ~i.~i;:!i they trace around hin<'are so
~.·. exten~iye,' that'i.n.an:t, ages are necessa:y .for the comi· · pletion, of a revolu_ti_on. · .., · · ;:
~- < .. T.h~-)dia'.neter"'o~ the great o'.·b~t which ?ur ~ earth
; .. :descnbes, 1s moro than 190 nulhons ·. of miles; yet
~:. · this ~}; ast extent becomes : a:'•mere point, ·:~r vanishes
into nothing, when the astronomer. wishes to use ·it as ... ._
. a mea~ure to ascert_ain the distance .of the fixed stars. ·"
··-,;..,,.
.
_..
.
:·:· How great, th_e.n, is th~.,.~~~ ! ,b~lk of the~e luminaries, ..
,;:.'. which are _perceptibl.e at"so enorn~ous a· di~tance . ! .
0

{~ ;·
0

r

· '

•

-

rn. JJ.;~iil~ciure.

.

:·~ .

THE Gr~eks were~ the: parents of, that , s.:istem .of· '
architecture, whicl1 '·t~ niversally ap~~e<f~ to ap~ '
~ proach n~arest .to p~_ffec.~ion. ··;.Their'_ -. archite~tu re
~~ consisted ' of three ·distinc.t ·orders:'• the Doric, ' the .
t,.'
lo11ic; and the Corinthian.
" " ' ·
.... .
"'°~· '
'
~· ...:.- The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and~a supe~,· 'rior' a!r of strength~._;, :Jt is therefore b~st ad~pted ,to :.::
t

i.;f. J

~- wor~s ?f g1:eat 111ag~.~ud~, .an. .d', o.~. a su. b~uue charader• . , (:: . t::ffiJ:
~~ · Sui)lmuty 1s essenhally . c~n.?ected with chasteness '! , .' :)o/.

.: ·. ·'':'.11f;.~ . • 1 - .• ~·,. •·
·
' •
''~,
:. ·.-, The ,lunic · order . is Jight" a!ldf elegant: it is also .
.' - ~ ~,
~(simpl~, fur , si.~~pli~jty is an''es~eritial requisitJ1~:ti~~r·
. ; ·~~:
!i' beduty. ·
~·
·' ·
., ii)\:~·
~· . · The Corinthian order n.i arks .an age of luxury and
. ~ . ~:~1 ~
~j
9~.
1,,~~

~<;. and simplicity. :

1

0

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~-

~

,:~;
·'"..

·:,;~t~i :

:";.,.'··~·f.~:
~

. i·.·;' :

~-!·~·

100

COMPOSITION.

grandeur and its riches. The sparkling points, "
which it is studded, are so many su ns, sus pern
by the Almighty,
the immensity of space, to she
benign influence on worlds which roll around them
The assemblage of these vast bodies is divided i1
different systems, the number of which probab ly s1
passes the grains of sand ·which the sea casts on
·shore;;. ·
Each system has, for its centre, a star or st!n, whi
·~ ,
shines by its native light. Around this central I
minary revolve several opaque globes, reflecting, wi
more or less hrilliancy , the light which they borro
• from it, and which ren<l ers them visibl e.
'·
,'"I,:'
'Vhat ·an exa lte<l, what a n amaziug con<.;eptio
does this view give us of the works of the Creato1
thousands of thousands of suns, multiplied wilho~
end, an<l ranged all around us, at immense <listance
from each other, attended by ten thousand times te.
thousand worlds, all in rapid motion; yet calm, regu
lar, and harmonious in their movements, invariabl~
keepi11g the path prescribed to them ; and thes1
worlds, doubtless, peopled with myriads of beiugs
formed for emlle~s progression in perfection aml fe.
l,icity ! .
·
' In the vast canopy, under which we seem to reside,
there is scarcely any object more striking . to the ey~
·· than the comets. These bodies, which, from thei.r
. fallaciou s appearance, their fi ery trains, th e di1·e rs it~~
\':'. of their directions, their su dd en appearance and dis·i
•~"'~ appearance, have been co11siclered as meteors, lighted
Ji~'!.' ·' ' '
.
/
.
l

in

..

l'ADT

.

·~

:01 NtlRlltl

.

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. . i--; ~ ,:'; :j~f1('
~- :·[. ~~:: 1::~:-.·~ ·i)·'~ ~ : :.... ' .
.<

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-COMp0$Itl'ION; _- . .' "·

.

'

103 ;-.·; '.;&

colos;u~~~t~i);~J~£'~fa·~~t~t~~· . ~~ '. Aj>~;;~; ~f;C";1: .

The
•
• " :\" .v , . . •
...
,. -.
; '. seventy, cubits high; striding:across:the mo~pi:.Q[:the :,~~- ·~ ·
harbor; s_o· that '.l, ~~rge shir~:::"u.rider . sai!'. ri1~g!~f pass ~~.~.: :t~
. ~: between its legs: ·'· A .man could _not grasp its·thumb ··, c-;' .
/ with his : two arma.·~~-~A(t~thaving '~t~od a long time, >·_.,..\
:·· it was ov,erthrnw:n by an·earthquake. ·~ - .
-r · ·
'f~ ~: _T~e templi ~f Di~na a( Ephe~us : a w~rk: of . .
<:_~ ast~n!shmg , magnificence. · Jt was · supported bra ·_. } "·
~t:h~_~ d:~~~~,aU:d twenty ' seve~. pill~~s,· six~y;;'. (~.~tf,high.·'. ... )~·~;
~~; .T'Yo. !lurn;lred ru1d twt?nty ,years, were ··.re9uu_:ed to . · ... - ., · ·
rJ.' tfnisl\:{t:tj·a man named Erostrat~s, !Vi.th •:t_~e .. mad"" ;~,, '·· .
f.,\~ desire o( re11dering his °'al!_l,!~~mUJ~~tal, destr~y~d this
·~
..;' stupendou~ fabl'ic, bj. ·set!ing'.ifqn fire •. ·,;:·,. ·".. . '· ·,. ;, ·' .
": S. The tnausoleum: a;ffios.r~be~utiful··aepulchre of ·:·': .,, ·:
f~:':'ma,rble,
r.[' . :built by .l\.rtemisia, ·queen. of Capa,· in honor .. ·' .
,~i..'of hec•deceased busband Mausolus. . . ,-, ·:· ·
h;:~:, . 4. A statue of Jll.piter, 'formed of ivory an,d gold, ·
(" and of prodigious size :~~bi~~:statuec was exe~11ted· by
. Phidias, . and was 'pla.ded•~n the te.mple, o( Jupiter, in
.
.
. . . ~1~~~~ -;:; :-~.- ·- - ~ ;",.~,!,
,
the city of Olympia., . · ·.,; ·~o""'::·~:,•~.::· ~~- '.
'
~. · The, walls of Babjlon,·,. built.~ by<~~~ira~is, the
circu mfe~ence of whi~h was. sixtj mile~; and their
~.: !w~a<.lth so. great, tha~. si;x _chariots could d l'ivt'. u'pon
··11:'

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It·"

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;;: 'hem a.h.reii.st..

.'t".... .. 6,.,

· · · · '··· ·.

Tb~.,.,. py;nimids.
of Egypt, .. thn:e of.which still
.
".'_,,~

.~; remain

to 'astonish mankind. · · T~i;, largest of these is
,, :· £on~tructed of enm·mou.s .stones_:. thirty' feet_ thick._
~~.'J;his •· p!iodigious · mass ef· building _occ?pies<'• eleven ·
~~· 'er.cs of ground.
·.
~1.r. 7~ The palace of Cyrus, king of Persia, built .by .
cl\
r.:.''

~~.
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f,

f···

··~.

~,,

v ., _ _ _ _,..
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~w,-.,,,..'•.,~;,_·_,, . .,.,-~-~•~"+'~'>._. _

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'*• •..:· '~"~ ....~ro~-'='~~~:o;:.~:r.:·~~~~~i:·~~~~i"~~~;.~ •
-,,,_"'.'.•,._•

,-;_~-.:..-~,~::...~;·~~~·~~,...:~....; - ~t"-~ ;t~;\:_;.,

-. 102

-~-t..

~·

COMPOSITION.

. .;:~: ··'.::·tnagnifipence, when pomp and splendor had -become
' :·.·.,. th~ predominant characteristics, but had not yet ex. . ' tinguished the taste for the sublime and the beautiful.
It attempts, !herefore, a union of all these characters,
.but s.atisfies not the' chastened judgment, and pleases ·
only a corrupted taste .
.· ··The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Italian .
origin. :~ The · E,truscan architecture appears to have
hel)n.· n~arly allied to the Grecian, but to have posses. sed an inferior. degree of elegance. The Trajan ·
''. ·.!.-:.':',•' column .at Rome, is of this order; less remarkable
~: '""'.
; ;>: "·
for the symn\etry of its proportions, than for the
·_. admirable sculpture with which it is decorated.
The Composite order is what its name implies: it'
shows that the Greeks had, in the three original , ,
orders, exhausted all the prmc1ples of grandeur and
beauty'; and tha~ it was not possible to form a fourth,
t)_nlesl! by Col\lb.iniug the J.i.rst three.
..
. . '.· , · :' .'l:~e Q-otl)ic ~rcbitectu re offers no contradiction to
\<><. ~.' thes~ Qb~erva.tions. '.{'he · effect which i~ produces;·
~~· ·::· : ca~~ot ; be ; altoge1her acco\lnted for by the rules of
· · sym!,l'l.etry' an~ h,1;1.rmony in the parts: it depends on·
•th~,'!El deep. impressions of vastness and gloom, which
_it. pn>d1.1ces as a whole.
,, .. ,

:-~ ~ ~·

i
.t,

lS. T!te seven wonders of the world.

THE following are the objects, which the anci ents
i·eganleclas unrivaled productions of human art, and
011 which they conferred the high-so;i,1ldi'i1g appellation
of wonders of the world.

..

· :01 NH!Ullf

....
..,~
~

-...

-

.

-·

.
'-

..

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. I

· C(OM~OS!TION..

.

10~.;

I

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1

Rhada!~~h~s: adminis~er ~tri~t-:,·>.,

1
ne irreversible
decree.
~
{M,
•
·' ... · ··,_r1,;., , r,
.
•
•
' ...
..
.. ,. .
discloses itself, the prison'. of des-·:".;~"
dful° ab~de is'-·su1;round~i:l ~bf< three _.: .: :'
th tliree gates o.f sqlid brass; round
. g~Phlegetlion 1·011~ its \~aves uf fi~e,' -~
tend~ itS stagnant marsh. ; H~r~; lik~- ~: ~-,.
·er Styx,. by which i( the gods swore,
inv.iolable ; a~d Lethe:·, who~e ~vaters
produ~ecr forgetfulness of past - ~~~nts . . "'
fields, · the abodes of the- virtuous,~ are . . " ~,;;.
I 'e ternal spring, and ~UitnOl'tal be~~.t.Y~1· .· .
-~

t

·t

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~

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•

. -

.. .

•

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...

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..~;

l

DIDAOT~~ P.IEOES~ -~· ·

"]'or whicli the air seems td have' been

designed. ·

. ·

ssentially

dilferent from earth. There ap- ·
no absolute f!_ecessity for ari atmosghere's :_: ·. ,·.
ur globe; ·yet i.t clqes invest ·it·; . ~n~:,,y,e :~~...
any, how variou·s•.~..and how)111porta11t·;\l~El·~' · .,
8. which it answe.t'8i.to e_,;ery ord~~_ of'ani: . •
.to say of organized, being;, 'which are ·
he terrestial ·surface. · I thi!1k that every ;·.~
e uses will be uuderstood, · ~pon. the first .\
th~m; unless it is that of reflecting light,
be thus expl~inell. ,/Had .1 the powe_r of • ~j;
po?ther means,_ than rays ~con:iing directly :·; .,.~-*"~
un; I should. find, whenever I turned my- '"
fthat lu~.in~ry, that I ~as irivolv~d in ·
.
...
-..,,:·~~1.:
-~

-

~

..

3..

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t

..

-: : ..4'

... .

.

~_ ,

.

,·
r

,

COMPOSITION.

·' Minos, Eacus
" . ."' Menon, with no less prodigality tl~au art; for he ,;; , justice, an<l pa
· N ext Tarw
; ··cemented the stones with gold.
This 1
14. The 01'cus of tlte ancients .
entrance of the infernal regions was
'Avernus. Here was stationed a host of dreadful
"'•., for.m s; .diseases;Jerror, old age, hunger, ~Jeep, death;~r~ .
and the furie.s,. the avengers of g uil t, with snaky hair, .':
,;. . an.d whip~ of scorpions; here, too, were placed war
aud d.iscord. Near this dismal cavern, is the road to
the river Acheron, whither resort the depar ted spirits,
in order to pass over. Charon, the surly old boat- : ~
man, receives into his bark those, whose bodies have ·
bee11 hon~ure~ with funeral rites, but inexorably . .'
•,
rejects those who have not received these marks of .•,"
respect; and . these unfortunate shades are condemnerl to , wander, for a whole century, on the dreary .
shores of the infernal river.
·
·• · On t~e other side of the river, is the gate leading
to the palace of Pluto, th~ sovereig n of these di smal
realms; \ This gate is guarded by Cerberus, an enormvus dog with tl~ree heads, one of which is al ways
upon the watch. . ' •Yithin this seat uf horror, are
seen, first, the 5uuls uf infants wh11 ex pired as soon as
they were born; then the souls of those who have
'-~--·
.:,r.'' · been put tu death unjustly, or who have killed themselves. Ileyo m.l theRe i11habita11ts uf this region are
5ee11, wa11dcri11g i11 groves of myrllP, the victi111 · of
love an d de~pair. Then suc<.:ccd the almdcs of her es.
'
.....
'Not far from them i ~ seen the drutfll triiJuual, ''line
. ) . · THE

(
Tu
Am

....

'·,-

~
'<. .. , .

'

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~ ....

I•-•'

'

.

:,...

COMPO!!~l'ION. ·

..
. ,,

'

107.

~ry substance; animate or inanimate, whicl) stands
' .....
its way! The force seems-to be· one '·"·hich might
Ltter to atoms the hardest bodies.
.:·_,· ;,
How then is this effect guarded against?- :By the
nuteness of the particles of which light is compol :-a ~inuteness -~dapted ' to their own velocity, ..
d to the delicate and : tender frame of 'many of the
bstances, through which they are~ coiistantly pass~· It is impossibl~ for the human.niipd tc;i imagine .
itself any thing so sman ·a.s a particle of,_light:;: But
e extreme axility..of tha,t s4bstance, though iCi§'. dif:ult . to con~eive, it is. ~asy· to.. prove. A _drop of
llow, on the wick'
of the. sm,allest
candle,
sends
.
•·. . . .
.
.. forth
ys sufficient to fill a hemisphe1'. e. of a, rnUe diamer; and to fill it so full of these, t.hat an aperture, no
rger th~~ the . pupil of the eye, placed any where
ithin the hemisph~re, is sure. .to receive som.e of
tern. w ·hat floods of light are contin~ally poured '
·om the sun ':< e cannot estimate; but the imipe~sit)'. .
f the sphere, which. is filled : v;,ith its particles;,' if it
a. ,"" '·.t·
··~ - . ··
!ached. no farther than evep,;~. the orbit· of the earth,
re can, though . imperfectly,. c'o mpute; . and. we have
eason to believe, that, throughout this. region, the '
1articles of light lie, in. latitude, at least, near to one
.nother. l'he spissitude of th,e sun's, rays. at ·the
:l!-dh . is such, that the numhe,r · which falls upon a ·
nu:- ning-glass of an inch diameter, is .s11flicient, when
:ppce~trated, to.set wooci Oil fire. .
·
The tenuity and the velocity of particles of light,
lscertaincd by sepl\rate observations, may be said to
'

~

·l·

106

·._ .'

l

COMPOSITION.

PART

ur . .

darkness. Had I the power of seeing by reflected ·
light, yet by no other means, .than of light reflected
from solid masses, these masses would shine, indeed,
and glisten, but in the dark. The hemisphere, the
sky, the world, could only be illuminate1I, as they are.·
illuminated, 'by the light of the sun being, from all
sides, ami' in every direction, reflected to the eye, by
particles as numerous, as thickly scattered, and as
\_Videly diffused, as are those of the air.
·Another ' general quality of the atmosphere is the
power of evaporating fluids. The adjustment of this
quality to our use, is seen in its action upon the sea.
In the sea, water and salt are most intimately mixed;
yet the atmosphere raises the water, a11<l leaves the ' ·
salt. Pure and fresh as drops of rain descend, they
are collected from brine. That evaporation is solu·
tion, seems probable from various circumstances; and
here we ouserve a striking fact, that the air llissolves
the water and not the salt. This distinction, upon
. whatever it is founded, is a critical one; so much so,
· th.it, when we attempt to imitate the process uy art, ,
·we mu~t regulate our distillation with great care ai\d
nicety, or, together with the ·water, we get the bitter·.
~ess, or, at least, the distastefulness of the marine
substance.
2. On Light.

.~

,.,

LIGHT travels from the sun at the rate of twelve
millions of miles in a minute. Urged by such a velocity, with wha~ force must its particle1t drive a._amst
.
,,~""'

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f~.,~
~~

.-y,.

t\.

.

~~RT m,

"

i ·~

-~·

•

COMPOSITION.
.

'

•

-

1

p

109

.~

~imple in its nature. --To preserve ·such bodies from
:being lost; ·from running together iri heaps,' fi:orn 'hin,
deringofani:l distracting one." another's · motions;· ·to a
degree inconsistent with any .. ~cintinuing order; -.to
'~use _them to form planetary systems,.......:systems; . too, ·
which as .we know to be the case on · our earth are
accommodated to 'the org~nized ~nd sensitive natures
\~hicl~. the planets sustain ;..:._to ma~e such an arrangement, requires an-intelligent interpositi().'?•h:;.The necessity or' such an arrangement will appear" evident,
~~hen we consider that an .itdjustrnent of fo~ce; dis- ·
'ranee, and velocity, was required, which i.t was out
of the reach of fhance to have produced. ·
. .
.

4. Sublimity, in ?bjects .o f various kiiids.• :

': · THE simpl~st'form 'of externalg~a~deur; is seen iu
the vast and boundless prospects, presented to us by
nature: ·such il.s widely extended plains; to ·which Jhe
,eye can 'find no limits; the firmament of heaven,; er
the unboumled ex.pause · of the ci'ceau.' ' All vastness
'produces·an impression 'o f s~blimlty; . Space, how~ver
extended ' in' length, '.makes not 'so strong a.·u impre!!r •,
.
'_~ion as height or depth. Though a boundless plain __
'° is a grand object; yet a lofty mountain,' to which we
' look up, or an awful precipice .or .tower, ·whence we
~look clown on, objects· below; is ,-still n{ore so. , The
ti
,
'
.
.. ..
: surpassing grandeur of the f1pnament 1 .arises fr9m its · ··•
;;height adde4 -to·its boundless extent; and that of the _, _
~ocean, not from ·its extent alone, but from the con- •:finuai motion, and the irresistible force of its mass of-·
I

'<C\,.

r

10

.

COUPOSITION.

'.iOB

l'AltT

nr

be proportionecl to each other; both surpassing oui
utmost stretch of comprehen sion; yet proportioned
It is this proportion alone, which converts a tremendous element into a welcome visiter.

3 . .flppearances of design in the arrangement of the ,
1
•
heavenly bodies.
~
. .

.

'

JN astronomy, the vastness of the subj ect requires

.~

a powerful effort of the imagination ,-an effort, too,
oftentimes in opposition to th e impression made upon
the senses. "\'Ve must, for example, get over an illu-.
sion, arising from the distance at which we vie\v the
heavenly bodies, ancl produ cing an apparent slowness of motion. The moon seems to ta ke an hour in
adva11cing a few inches from a star which it seemed
to ·touch. · A motion so deliberate we may think
·eas.ily guided. But what. is the fact? The moon is;
all this ·while, driving through the heavens, at the'
rate of considerably more ihan two thousand mil es an
h~ur, '.which is a velocity more than double that of a .
ball, shot off from the mouth of a cannon. Yet is this
prodigious rapi<lity as much und e r government, as if ·
the plai1et procee1led ever so slowly, or were led
its course inch b.v inch. It is also dilli cult
along
to bring the imagination to conceive how loose, if we
inay- su express it, the hea,·e nly bodies are. E11or~ :·
mous globes, co11fined by nothing, held by nothing,
are turned i11t.o fre e anti boundless space, each to $Cek-.
its own c1n1rse, IJ_v '"irtue uf an ~1~i s ible prini:iple; :
0
but a principle common to all, ft1c same in all, aud ·

in

.rART lJJ,

111

time for·. every purpose , ui1_de1~ heave1~~
-· )Yl~_en •we
.
tlelay ti!Lto-morrow, what ought-: t() be ·1 !.J.!Jl!~. t~--~ay,
r e overcharge --the morrow·..,w.ith~. a .qµrd_~n ,.1\'l~icl1
belongs not to it: ·. we· .load,- the wheels of',time,. a,nd
~ .
.. ·- .·" '
:prevent them from carrying . u~ .. along smoothly~. · . H.e
:ovho, every morttlng, , pl.ans .:the~ transactions of the
~?ay, and aCts upon .that, plan,~ carries. ·9_n ~Jhr~d
which ' wil~ guide him: through:, tlw Jabyrinth . ~! ..the .
.. most busy life. The onlerly arrangeme~~ 9f his, time,
;~is like a ray of light, which darts itself through ,al! h~s
·1affairs . . But," where no :· plan -. is lai<l •. ,where.. th.e · di.s~ posal of -time is surrender.e_d . me}'ely _to. .chance; .all
;_things lie huddled together in .a chaos whi~h admits
: neither of dist;ibution nor re".ie,~: · · ·... " · ·
.,. The firs t 1·equisite for intro.ducing onler'.. into : the
~ management of time,,is to .be' impi·essed · ,~ith .a · ju~t
• sense of its value.-.· Let us consider .well ;how much
'. · depends upon it, ;n~ h.ow fast it flies a~vay: .. '.l'hem ~:
-jority ~f men are in nothing mm:e capricious and ii:i-·
<consistent, than in their appr~ciation -0f time .... :When
:~ th~y think of it ~s ihe me~~~r_e, ~f .their ..i;.oµtir~ance
i on earth, t~ey highly .pri.ze.it, . ~nd, · with ·~h e greatest .
·· anxiety, seek to le11gthen it out. ·But 'fhen they _view
ijt in separate pl!fcels, they appear to)lQld)t in 'cop:·tellJpt, and _squander it ·w.ith inconsi.d erate profu sion ..
~ .' Covetous ~f every __ other_:. possession,_~of : time · alone
t11ey are prodiga).. . But,: . ~Y · tJ1,i~, f~~l ; c~reles~ness, .
;'..rhow many causes of severe !1-lld las.tipg,r~gret ~re they
.:,laying. up in store! Th.e .time which they pass away in
tr'. the .nu'd ~t .of con1us1on,_
" .
.
f .
I
':-.
bitter
..
. .
.
...... repentance
.
...,a terwarc s
I

f

i

'·'

f.~l

~ ..

COMPOSITION.

110

PART ll

waters. Wherever space is concerneJ, it is evide1
.that amplitude, or greatness of extent, in one dime1
sion or other, is necessary to grandeur. Reniove a
bounds from any object, and you immediately rend1
it sublime. · ·Hence, infinite space, endless numbeE
and eternal duration, fill the mind with great i1leas.
' · The most'copious source of sublime ideas, may l
found in t~e · exertion of great potver and forn
.H ence ' th~ ·grandeur of earthquakes ~nd volcanoe
'of great conflagrations, of the boisterous storm, of th
, tempestuous ocean, of thu1Hler and lightning, and .i
all the unusual violence of the ele1)1ents. A strean
which gently glides along within its IJan ks, is a beflU
tiful object; but when it rushes down with the impe
tuosity and noise of a torrent, it becomes sublinu
A race-horse is viewed with pleasui·e; but it is th
war-horse, "whose neck is clothed with thunder,'
that gives us an impression of grandeur. The en
gagement of two powerful armies, as it is the highes
'exertion of human strength, combines various ~ourc!!
of the sublime; and it has consequently: been eve
considered, as one of the most striking and magnifi
cent objects, which can be . either presented to tlu
eye, or exhibited to the imagination in description.
1

· 5. Order in the distribution of time.

"· · - Tum we ought

to consider as a sacred trust com·
mitted to us by God; of which we are now the depo,
sitaries, and of which we are to render an accou nl
at the last. To every thing there ·is a season, and a

,,.,,,..,..,.

'.

'co}..1?.osrrio:N. .
·u s
' ,,+ .: '.;:. . . f...: .~. ·~~
.
.ither ~oltintat:ily!·introd · c;;d;,}Q;:•rl~lib~rately ·indul;
;ed; 'we~ ar~' n'( (' ,~;~~1i6fro~;:t1f9le;f~l;t;;li$fi!ld.~dmit­
!.'RT"tll.

ance int~:ouv· he~rtSrfrobi~su'pine«ti'?glige'nce~roni' toa\. relaxation of a'tterition;:'fr6m' all~wing'o~Hn)·aiina '
ion to · rove uncohtrolll(~.'{ '.-~ HR~~thil.:= fool's eye11;to-

vari:l~ · the"ends o(t~e·.earth';'!·~~)\~ 'k~'- ~~:,: ,; ·

·Ji·

;,Even\ w,hen.we ima~ne.:thit~~ur.-:thoughts· are ·inn?·
~ently employed;<tbey . . are ·:too 'communly~ suffered ·.to .
·un ·out i,nt6 extra'V'8gartt 'imaginations;·'.. iuid~;chime1:i..
:al plans of.what we' would :wish-to~iittain; ·or choose.to
1e, ifwC: could f!~arne" 't~~ "squrs.e~o-t" ;~h·ing~ -. :iccording
:o o.µr des~re;:,.'..su~li ~ e1ppJ.i:iym(frits)of'.f~n.cyJ 1 though
:hey come:·not' u.nAe.r ._th~ s~hi_§·d.!!scryption\vith : th'use
:Ju1t.are plainly .cr~min_a1;:a'r1?,;s~ldom'. .wholly' free from
1fame.' ) le'si(les' the' \vasteiof!time:\v~ich:.they occa1ion;~:.apd ' 'foe;, mis1riJpl!cation( w.hiCl1' .they. indicate . of
the intellectual po\vers; .,that 'were given" us ..for·much
r.tobl~r, purpo_ses; ·~uch . ron'iantic ' sp~culations- •always
lead us ~'in.to 'the~ neighb?r~1ood ~of"fol'\:>idden· Tegio1ls.
Th.ey . p\a2e"u§ dn)!angerous .grourid.: · Th.e f.·are, fot
the most ~part;'corin'ected wltli a -l{urtfol passion ;'·and .

they.)h\'aysJ~nouri-sh;~ ~i:giddy· ia1id ;'fri~olous turi~·

of

thought: i They,u·nfit th~ mind for· applying with ~vigor ·
~o .ration~l ~ursuits, for!9r· acqtii~scingfa'sober plans .
of.~ conduet.·.: ·_From :fhat: :'id.eal_:'w.orld : in'..whith '.:the·~·
·~ind allows·itself ,to. d'well, .. it · ~ecei ves· su ch;.i1npres,
sions as unbend . a~d . r~lax it: sickly·'a:nd ·tainted; 'it
:t"l,!turns to the .commerce of men~··a:ver~e to di sc har~g­
ing 'the duties, ·a'nd sometimes ;disqualilied even fo1·
relishing the pleasun:s of orditiary ·life. · ; ~ · ; ..:.· '
•

.

10'-'

...

·~.

112

COMPOSITION.

PAR'r u;r.

seeks in vain to recall. 'Vhat was omitted to be
<lone at its proper moment, arises to be the torment of a· \
· future season. Manhood is disgraced by the conse-·:
quences of neglected youth. Old age, oppressed by
the cares that belonged to a former period, labors un -·
dcr a burden not its owtl. At the close oflifo; the <ly- '
ing man beholds with anguish, that his days are finishing, when his preparation for eternity is hardly
commenced.
6. On the government

of our thoughts.

MANY cases occur, in which we a re no less account~··
able for what we think, than for what we <lo. · We
are placed in this situation, when the introduction of
any train of thought depends upon ourselves, aml i~
our voluntary act: wh en we turn our attention to- ·
wai·ds such objects, awaken such passions, or engage
in such employments, as we know mu st give a peculiar_determination to our thoughts. 'V c expose our- ·
selves to equal danger, when thoughts, by whatever'
accident they may have been originally suggested, arc
indulged with deliberation, . and complacency. The
1
mind tn ay have been passive in their reccpliou, alllt ·.
therefore fr ee. from blame; yet if it be active in thei;·
confinuance, the guilt becomes its own. Forbid1Jen '
thoughts may have, at first, intruded 1.ike uninvited ..
gues_ts; but if, when ente red, they are ma1le welcome, .
anrl are kindly entertained, the case is the same as if
t~ey' had com e at our invitation.
:Whilst we are thus accountable to God for thoughts, .

,r,,...

_,
..

'i. fJfil L.

u.n-r ru.
:.;-

. CWMFOSIT10N;

-

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,,~~:--·

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.

...

.~

.

115

:/~/

~t has .all tl-i~ end~~~en_t~ o~ · ~h!~I~}~. i,~. 9-~p~b.le J~ ;nd

-~• .t:;.

w~re

it to h".e· ten: .thousand moret 1t•w9uld: b~ -the
~an~~thil!g t.hat it is a,t .~r~.~~-r h:::·~'!~Y-<~i\~JE!~~~~ul
thus to. come to a stand m its attamments; were it(!Ja.,,
·•-'
~~lties to reach_a
rn~tu :ity,__an4,:~oc;_ome)nc!l:p,~~Jlf
, •• .,

•~

,•

•··

ruu

'

·•·•.

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'3-.f farther,,~rlarge~ent,'

·.1·

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.

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Y;

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f..

.··-.,·..,i.~11.'tt~·;t

~,~~-~'!u~d.;i,~~)agin_e )~~-~ " ~he

:!'light fall }~->Y.~Y- i~-~~~s~bly,_~·,an~}f.~P _i~!~. a, s\at~ ,. 9f
~~~mih~lati,o_i:i_. ., B.~t, ,<;,a# ..~e ~~Ji~".~-,t~!1! a th_i,n!,i~g-R~~ ·
~pg,'.'.~hich_ is in _ ~ p~rp~tu~\ pr9~res.s.;.2 ( iiyp:.ov.._eJ!w1t. ·.
, a(ter. ha.viµg j ust)ooked .abroa.cL into }he_· ww;ks_9f,its

.•. ,_ ~;~·'
,1 '·'

'·
. --~~--~
: ...

. -~1i1 .
:,_,J j-_!

(C~e~t91:,' and mad~ a'· f~~ .Ai.~~~;e~i~~: ··o t:l;!s~i_!ifi~ite

. l .,

··1·1,

fii.0?1~es~,:~i~~o1~j~~fn~~ p~'Y<e:<fu~~t ~~r\~::i(it:~.ifi-~t •
~.settmg

~i}~s r~

out, and

.:: ~-

m-Jl~e

!-~ .·:. ;;;r»~,

very

begu~nmg

:t-~-=l~_nce-.
'

.....

•'
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r r• .

I

_;:.. ~.,:~:,~~'-:,;J;'.(;,.~;:;~~(~:~:

~·:i·f:L·.;· '.:. ~:- .~ '. ~>
;;:;.

h_~,;

pf.,.1tS.ll!qUl-

'..,.,. There is not, in my opi!1ion;,.a:; m9re pleasi_ng am~ .
~}_!:iu niphant C(JUsi<l~.r.at~on il!- 0 ,r~l\gi_o.n, th~n ~thi ~. o~ the
~ perpet~al pro~ress whic!1 -~he ~9u l .,_m~.k~~ .t;Q_\v.arg~the
aper(~_ctJon ,of l!B. rn_
1ture, ~l_thoutJ;v~,r.. a~.\l,Y!.ng.,it.t. it pe~rfod. ·~o ,loo}~ upo,l! · th~s?u l a,~ :g9_i_9,g.?1~l1:~~.:~t~~~gth
..;to str_~ngth; Jo con~i~~~ t~-~\ s~~;is,[or1 e.,,!,e~>tg,,?r.igh_t­
\ en MT~th :°ew acc~ss1on,s pf_,_gl_~ry:.(_--,!_'l.a:t ,.~l_1~~,'!,",1l1.st1ll
~be ~<lding virtu~ ~o xirt_
% . an~ k?<;ny.ledgeJ<,1, ~now­
~ledge; _
carries in it something y~~J:;!!gr_e1eqle to that
~ ambition which is natural fo ~rn .T,.i.~~..~f;!~!l;ll;I· · Nay,
• it must be a, prospe<;t vieasing :~o V.?.~)i\r;self,,t_o _s_ee
)1i~ creation forever beal!tifying }~)~is_ eyes, _and
(. drawing nearer to him, by greater degree& of re~errt"'.-

..

,, ~:

'ti•

!·r:i1i·
.111.
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1r4<1
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f;;1 ·

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COMPOSITION.

I'J.l\'r nl

.. 7. On the immotlality of the soul.
THE immortality of the soul is the basis of virtue
and the source of the most exalted hopes/ and ·o r thi
purest joys; that: can· arise in the heart of a rationa·
creature. The proofs of this great point may bJ
drawn, First, from the nature of the soul itself, and
pa~·ticularly, from its immateriality; which, tl wugl
noi"absolutely· necessary to the eternity .of its«lur!i
tion, has, I think, been evinced to almost a · 1lemon
_s.tration.
,. ·
.
' ·
"

Secondly, from its passion8 ·and , scntiinents ;_ as
particularly, from its love of existence; its horror ·11.
annihilation; and its hopes of immortality; with tha1
secret satisfaction which it find s in the practice o.f vif:
' tue; and that uneasiness which follows . upon · tlu
commission of vice.
· ·Thirdly, from the nature of the Supreme Ilei11g,
whose justice, goodness, wisdom, and veracity, are all
con ~erned in thi» point.
.
Besitles these, aml other excellent arguments for
, the immortality of the Son i, there is one, perhaps a~
. po,~erful, <lra\y~_' frorn · the unceasing progress of _the
soul towards.'a·:state·of perfection. ' How can it enter
' into the th.ought~· ~ r man, that the sou l, which is capa... ble of immense perfections, and of receiving new im' provements to all eternity, shall fall away into nothing almost as soon as it is created? Are such abili·
:ties made for no· purpose? A brute arrives at a point
ef nerfection which it can never pass: in" few ye~r~,.
,,,; ~,,.,.

I

.

'r!llT nr:

111' '

'COMPOSI'l'ION.
'

.

~1e literary elforts of g~nius and. e!udition. · , These

~re things which bestow, and; 'w'i~hin ' certain limits,
ought to. bestow' .eminence and distinction on men.
·+hey discover talents whic.h in themselves are ·splen'Jld ~ · and which". when employed 'in advancing - the' '·
good of'mankind, .become highly. valuable . .. Hence it
is~ :~hat they frequ.e!ltly confer .fame. · A distinction,
I•.
.
,
~o\vever, is to be made between •fame and true honor.
The state~man, the •orator; or · the· poet, may be fa·_m9,u ;; while the :man himself is far froni being hon~
·~red . .. W_e a<lmire ..hi~ abilities; · ,we wish to : rival
them; but .we would _not choqse· to be" classed ,with·
him who possesses: them. ' Instances
'this 'sort are
{oo often found'in 'every rec()rd ancient or,.modern
history.. , . · ,, , :<.'-i,~
· ' , '.'.;!, •:; · '" :;, , - ._
~.From all' these reflections it follows, that in order
~-'.discover" wher~ · man.' s true honor lies, we must
~o~;not to any' ~dventitious circ11mstance of fortune;
J!Ot to any single sparkling quality ;"bµt to the whole.
.of.what forms a .man; fo what -ranks him high among ..
that class ,of beings, -.to which he belongs: in a wo1", ·
W.e :must look . to ~ the disposition and the :min<l~ A
mind superior to' fear, to self-int~rest, and corrup~
lion; a mind governed by the principles· of uniform
r.ectitude apd integrity; the... sa.me ,. in :prosp_e rity and ..
iu;jl.dVer,;it.r; 11 _mill,cl w}lich . no bribe ~ ,1<an seduce, no
' i~~1:or overcome;.. wl1ic\1 pleas_u.re, :cannot ,melt into
:~lfeminacy, n<>.r dis.tr~ss .sin~ il}to )eje.ction: 'such is
th.e mind which forms :the '._distinction and tlrn emi.

of

\

'I

.-':.

of.

,.

·,

,< . ..,

116

COMPOSITION.

PART;

8. On the true . honor of man.
.

'

THE proper honor of man arises 'n~t from the fra·i
cen<la.n t abilities · and · splendid actions which 'exc
high admiration: 'Distinguished courage an<l sigt
vidories ni~y. render the name of a man famous, wi1
out :rendering his . character tru Iy honorabl ~. ··~
many'heroes ' renowned iri story, we look ·up.'.wi
wofid~~:'.·: Their ·exploits ~re reco;ded: their'· prais
are' sung:.. They stand _as on an eminence, above 't
rest .of ,mankind. ' But their ·eminence may no~ be.
that · sort, before which we bow with inward estee
and · respect. ··To secure th~ sincere v~neration of 01
hearts, something more is wanted. tlian the conq4e
ing .arm~ · and the i1~frepid 'mind. The laurels of ti
warrior must ·af all times be dyed in blood, and b1
de\v~d with ' the tears o( the 'widow an'd' the ~rpha;
But if his'· trophies have been stained ·by rapine ;.i
· s~rdid avarice has marked his character, or low senst
ality has degraded his life'; the gre~t hero sinks ' in1
a lit tle man. · What,' at a ·distance, or on a su perfici1
vie,\., we admired, bec.omes, ' wh~n we exan;ine ' i
more' Closely;· mean and;• perh11ps; odious ..· It. is Iik
·the ' colossal ':statue, whose ··forn~ense size·.: struck th
spectator afar ~ff wit!\ astonishment; but whose ap
pearance, · when closely viewed, · is · unshapely an1
rnde.
·
Observations of the same kind may be applied ti
all the reputation derived from civil accomplish·
men ts; from the refined Jlolitics of the statesman,' .oi

:,..r '

-

.,,~} . ·

119

.ll'.l' II!.

ut after passion or :pridehas .' subsided, we - look ·aiund, in. vain, for the mighty mischiefs::which we
readed. . The fabric w~ich our 'imagina ti!JU: had
!ared,. total! y · disappear~. · . Sti.11,. though' : the='cau~e
f contention )las dwimlled aw!ly; .'its . consequenc~s
;main. . We have alienated .a friend j .We• have em- .
ttered a~ .~nemy; :,~;h~ve sow,~ the see.d s ~ffoture
1spicion, 131.alevolenc.e; m:Aisg~st:.' 'Vhen causes of
lsco1;d occµr, let us suspend our. v~olence £.or a mo1ent. ' Let us anticipate that period of coolness,
hich, of itself; will .soon arrive~ r ·.Let us reflect how
ttle wehave\ ~!JY pro.spect -~fgaining 'by .fierce '::con~ntion, but how much :or the true happiness of life we
re tikeiy to th'row: ~way. ; Easi1y, · a.nc(.fro~ ·the
nail est chink, tl,1e bitter-~vat~r·s of strife a~~ l~fto~th;
.1t their course cannot be foreseen ; ' and he seldom
i'capes suffei·ing most from their poisonous influence,
·ho first allowed them to flow. .
·
·
0

.1o. On Candor.
TnuE can_
d()r is alfogcther different fi'.om that guacd~
d, iQoffensive language, ~nd _that studietl oilenness of
ehavior, which we so frequently 1~eet '~ith among
1en ()f_the· worltl. Smiling, vei·y often, is ,tht: aspect,
[ld smooth are' t!1e words_of those, .who in)varclly .'are
ie · most ·ready to . think . eviL.oL:others._'._:_That can ~
or which 1.s. a . ch~istian. vi~tue, · ~onsj!'ts not ill ·. fairess of speech, bu ~ in ,fairness of heart. It ~1ay. want ·
he blandishment ofext~nial c~ti~tesy; but. it supilies its place with a htnn~ ne and generoushberality of

' --~

COMl'O!'!ITION.

118

l'AR'.l' Ill

9. Mo,tives to the pmctice of gentleness.

To

promote the, virtue of gentleness, we ought tc
view our character with an impartial eye ; ntHI tc
]earn, from our own failings, to give that indulgend
which, in our turn, we claim. It is pride which fill&
the world with harshness and severity. · In the full;
ness of self-estimation, we forget what we are ; .we
claim ' attentions to which we are not entitled ;
are rigorous to offences, as if 'we had never olfended l
unfeeling to' distress, as if we knew not what it was
to suffer. From those airy regions of pride and foll)'
Jet us descend to our proper level. Let us .surv.ey'.
the nntural equality on which Providence · has place.rl.
man with man, and reflect on the infirmities common
to
should reflection on natural equality and mu-.:
tual offences; be insufficient to prompt humanity,· Jetus at least remember what we are in the sight of our
Creator. Have we none of that. forbearance to giv.e'
one another, which we all so earnestly intreat from;
heaven? Can we look for clem ency or · gentleness;
from bur Judge, when we are so backward to show itl
·
·.
- --'~
· to 'our brethren? · ·
· .. - Let us also acci.1stom ourselves to reflect on the smal~
moment of those things which arc the usual incentives1
to contention and violence. In the rumeu and angryi
hour, we view every appearance through a false me ~
diU1n. , Tha most inconsitlerable point of interest ' od
of honor,~· swells into a momentous object ; and theJ
slightest · attack seems to threat~ immediate ruin.~,-

we

all. .

'

,#"

.

'l
j

!..••

·''

l':o'MPOSITION.

.
PillT IH.

\··

.

.

1·

,

.

•

121
.~

•

,

i~t~ ground ~01: <lou_b~, h.e, k~ep~ hisj ~?genuwt ~u<le,cid ­
~il,, and, durmg t~1e tune of S!,!Spcnse~}e~nsJo the mos;
tl\aritable construction . which an action~: can, bear.
lVh'en he must con(lemn, he 'condemns with regret,
ijici·without' those aggr~vations, which,the severity ~f
~ihers a<lds'·to the crime: ·, He iistens calmly to the
apolog.f of the offender, and readily ad~its every
l~nuatii;ig ci~cuinstan~e which equity ·cari sugges~.
"How mu ch s~ever he mity blame the prinCiples of
&.f.sect or party, h~ n_ever confounils.. under one gene- .
ral .' censure, . all who belong to that .Party or· sect.
From cine wro11g opinion, he does.not infer the subver·
;i6n of all sound 1:trinciples ; nor.from one bad action
l~'es he conclude that all, regard to conscience is overhrown ... In a·; word, . he' views men and actions in
~~ ~ Clear sunshine of'charity and good nature; and
;~tin that da~·k and ·sullen shade whichje3.lousy and
pa~ty~spirit throw over all characters.
·
·· ·..
;'~.,~11 ~ Contrivance leads the miiid , to an . intelligent ·
~;:,
author.
:;.r-, '
-

ex-

:;.W~IEREVER lVC see marks

of .contrivance,' w.e are
autiior. . This tran ~
foo1i of the understa'n<ling· is' foui1ded on uniform ex'
~rience; w~.. see · intelligence ~ constantlr contri- .·
~ng ~ that is, we see intellige~ce const~nt~y produc- ng:' effects, marked and distingui~hed by certain pro~rties ; _'not'certain particular properties, but a class
~. properties; such as relation, to' an end, r_elation of
~ -to one 'another, and to ·a ·common purpose. · We

t4for its c~use · to an intelligent

f

'

11
.

.

'

l~o

COMPOSITION.

sentiment. Its manners are unaffected, and its pi
.fess ions cordial. :Exempt, on one hand, from the d.a
jealousy of a suspicious mind, it is no less removed,
the other, from that easy credulity which is impos
on by every specious pretence. It is perfectly co
sist~nt with extensive knowledge of the world; a1
., with .due attention to our own safety. , In that va1
ous intercourse, which we are obliged to carry · .1
wi.th persons of every different character, suspicion,
a certain d~gree, is a necessary guard. It is on
when it exceeds the bounds of prudent caution, that
degenerates into vice. There is a proper mean b
hveen umlistinguishing credulity, and universaljea
ousy, which a sound undcrstuncling discerns, ar
which the man of candor studies to preserve •
. He makes allowance for the mixture of evil w11
good ,'which is tu be found in every human charade
He expects none to be faultleios; and he is unwilliu
to believe that there are any utterly destitute of 1
miable qualities. In the midst of many defects he ca
discover a virtue. Though under the influence 1
personal resentment, he can be just, to the merits of a
enemy. He never lends an open ear to those defa
. matory reports, and dark stiggestiom1, which, among th
'tribes of the ce.nsorlous, circulate with so much ~a
pidity, .and meet with so ready acceptance. He i
not hasty to judge; and he requires full e,·idence t;i~
fore he will condemn. As long as an ac.tion can, .b
ascribed to different motives, he holds it as no marl
-0f sagacity to impute it to the w~t. Where then ,i1

,,,

CO°l\'IPOSITION.
T··.\ .. ~.!-'.~·.~; ;.~.

!).tn. nx.
...

'

I

''>' -

1~.

.

·=·

lrgument, w.hich. wQuld : raise. )~. :question .as . to the
l1 •
.
..s .·.-·.
"·
~~fety of this. reason!ng,: ,:·we ··may,-: obse,rve.'·: that, ·: if
~i~tene<l to, it leads t<> the inference, n~t 'only( th~t:~he
P,resent order of natute .is insu~cicnt to '. im>x.e ;~he
,ex;istence of an intell~geD;t Creator, but that no lll\\lginable order would be sullic:ient to prove it; that no
~ontrivance, were - ' it ~ ever . so : mechanical, : ever ' $()
'preci~e, ever so . cle~t:, ' ~ver so. like .those ~hich 'Ve
ourselves employ;,~ould support this .conclusion. , ,
~ii.

. . ·,

~~ .•

H2.

.:°!

I

•

.

.... ,

.. •

' ; '

'I:lie. unity of tlte Deity•
,

'

•

'

•

'

~· · Tm: nnity of the Deity _is proyedby the ·unifqrmi·
ty plan o!Jsedable in. the· universe. : •The univ..erse
~tself is a 's ystein; each part 'eith~r _ depending ~pon
~th~r parts by a common . \aw ..of. motio_n, ' or by the
:presence ef. a common substance.-On~ P\inciple . of
[gravitation causes a st<m". to drop towar<l,s the -earth;
•.and the moon to wheel rountl i~. ·: One law of attrac;tion carries all the -different' pla~els about the· sun.
lThat this i~ the case; philosopl1~s h~ve demonstrated.
~There are als~. other points 'of agreement amon'gst the
~eavenly bodies, which ;may·b_e co.ns.id ered .as ma1~ks
~of the, identity of their origin, and,of their intelligent
~_,author. 1 ' In all 1 the planets ar·e fo~nd th.e con~eniency
f) md stability ' deriv~d-,- ·froh1 gravitation. : ;They all
~:experience' vic\s:;itudes' of days an<l ,nights, and chan;
~·ges of season. · They all, at _least Jupiter, Mai·s, ·and
~~Ven.u's, have the same adva~tage f1~01n an atinosphere
~7.as we have. , In~ aH the planets; , the axes of ro t\1 tion
:''are permanent. Nothing is more probable, than that

of

122

COMPOSITION.

PART

see, wherever we are witnesses to the actual forr
tion of things, nothing except intelligence, produ'c
elfects so marked and -- distinguished. Furnis'
with this el!pericnce, we view the productions of c
ture. ';ye observe them also marked and distingui
,ed in the same ,manner. We wish to account ·
their origin. Our experience suggests a cause J
fectly adequate to this account. No experience,
single instance or exarnph~, can be offered in favo1
, any' other. In this cause; therefore, we ought to r1
In this cause the common sense of mankind has,
fact, rested ; because it agree8 with that which, in
cases, is the foundation of knowlellge,-the undev
ting course of their experieuce. The reasoning is,
same as that by which we conclude any ancient , 1
pear;rnces to have been the effects of volcanoes
inundations; namely, because they resemble the
focts which , fire and water produce before our eye
and . because we have never known these effects
re~ult from any other operation. The' resemblan
too, which we observe, ,may subsist in so many c
,, , cumstances, , as not ' to leave us under the,'small1
doubt in forminl!; our opinion. In like manner; ' a
, , upon the same foundation, (which, in truth, is that
experience,) we conclude, that the works of natu
proceed from intelligence and design ; because, :
, the properties of relation to a purpose, subservien
to a use, they resemble lvhat intelligence and desij
are 'constantly producing, and what nothing exce
intelligence and design eve~<l"produce. Of eve

I:
.~
'.I.RT Ul.

COMPOSITION.

--

125

°I'··-

II'

13. · Modern discovery exhibits o~r nee~ of revelation.
·.· TH rs age, it is true; is an enligl;tened- one i .but 'it ·
s, 0!1 the field of ac!ual experiment that it · has acl~ir~d this nattering .distir:~,ction • . The human mind
1wes all its progress to · th~ confinement of its efforts
vithin the safe and certain limits Of observation, and :
:~ ·the severe· restraint whic_h it has imposed 'upon its .
:pectil~tive tendencies. ·
beyon.d those . limits, and
he human , mind , has not ·advanc'ed a single 'inch
1y its ~w 1\ independent exercises . . All the philosophy
vhich has been .reared by the labor of successive ages,.
s' the . philosopl\J ·of facts reduced to genei-Rl laws,
1r brought under a gene~al d~scription from observed
JOints. of rescmblanc_e. . A proud and wonderful ra1ric it is; but we throw away the very in strument by
.vhich it was builf; the moment that we cease to de·
?end on . observation, and prefer in trusting · ourselves
o theory; ·There is _nofa single discovery_ which has
:hrown a particle of light on the d~tails of the Divine
Lilmini~t_,:ation. ;fhe~e is not; in the whole ·. field of
:xperimental science, a ~ingle truth, which can bring
~s to the moral government of the .Almighty by any
~ther road than Jiis ,own · reve1a~iun .' Astronomy ha!!
taken millions of suns and · sy;items ·with.in ·. iti ample
lomai n ; but the WflJB of (iod to ·man stand at n dis~nc~ as ina ccessible.as ever_; nor has that science
shed .so mu.ch as a gl~mmering over the counsels of the ·
nighty invi:;iule Being, who sits ·in high authority
>ver all worlds. The boasted discoveries .of modern

f'

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IP'

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!

f ~·~·- ~-:-~-~~~
!

~t..:;.-.-~ -~-:..-i- -:-.·~~~....,-~ ~~
~~-~-=--oc===-~~;

124 -

COll'IPOSlTION.

l'AR1' Ill

the same attracting influence, acting according to th1
same rule, reaches to the fixed stars; but, if this b1
only probable, another thing is certain; that the sa1m
element of light extent!s -to these bodies. The ligh1
from a fixed sta-~ affects our eyes in the same manner,
is refracted and reflected according to the same law!
as the light of a camlle. The velocity of the light ot
the fixed stars, is also the same as the velocity of the
light of the sun, reflected from the satellites of Jupiter.
On our own globe, the case is cl earer. · New coun~
tries are continually discovered; but the old laws of
nature are always fou11<l in them; new plants, perhaps, or animals, may be seen in theiu, but always in
company with pla.nts and animal s which we alrea<ly,
kllO\Y; and nlwuys Jl08SPSSing many of the same
general propel'ties. \Ve never get amongst so ori ginal, ·or totally different, modes of existence, as to
indicate, that we are come into the province of a dif·
ferent Creator, or under the direction of a differe_nt ,
will. 1 In truth, the same order of things attends us
wherever we go. . The elements act upo11 one ano(h J
er; electricity operates; the tides rise an1! fall; the_
magnetic needle selects its position in one region ,of
the earth and sea, as well as in another. -One at mos- ·
phere i1~vests all parts of the globe, and connects all: ,
one sun illuminates: one moon exerts its ~pecifio at- traction upon all parts. · "\Vhere there is a variety iu
· natural effects, as, for example, in the tides of differ- .
ent' seas; that very variety is the result of the sanrn
cause acting· under different circumstauceij,

_,.,.-·

m.

. 12.7

·" ·

book, on · which ·the
has stamped
the.charaetei· of his au the~tic"communication. · ,· .. ·

.·t ::

PART

OOMP.OSITlON.

e~;~e~;;:~f,·hi~tory
0

1: J

14. .fl. false

impres~ip~· regarding. ti~e iii~torjcal_ ~~i~
, de~ce of Chri.sti.anity. .
: ~· ;:;· :

'
.'
"
.
.
' . ,
I~ inyestigating ' the historicil ·evidences to · the
.!ruth o( Christianity, ·it -is dilfic~lt . to . separate ' froin . ··.
'.,the 'subject, the inoral impres.sions 'ofpiety ; · and it is ..
f'.\'
'
'
'
. •
.
• '
-no
less
to .calcul~te
011
~
. difficult
' .
. '
. their.
. preci,
.•. . se.influence'
..,.
.
(~he ' exercises of · the understanding; ·· 1n _the'. ~omplex
1
.
,. .. •
!entiment of. attachment . arid :conviction, °(which : he
ah~exes · t~ ·the ~-eligio n · of ih~ N ew . T~st~fr1~ni;~:tlle
Christian finds it difficu!Ho say;· 110w 1~u~h· i~ · due to
~he tendencie;j>f the heart, add 1how rnuch to th~ r;,re
and unmingle'd. influenc< of :argument.' His very •
~mxiety for the truth dispos'es . him to overrate the
cin;umstances which give a bias his understanding;
atid throqgh th~ whole process of the inquiry,' he feels
a suspicion and an :embarrassment_which he would not
. have felt, had it been l.l ,questiou· of ordina1·y ~erudition.
There is ~omething iri · the v ery sacredness pf the
•. ~subject, . which ·intimidates the understa~ding, and
re.strai_ns it from .making the same firm and confident
\ application of its Ja~ulties, ~~hir;h it makes in othei·
..cases. · . Had the 'apostles · be~n .the qi~ciple~, of. some ':"· ·
c·,,. eminent philosopiier, .a n<lthe . father~ of .. the church,
·
" '.t heir immediate successors ·in the o,ffice ·or' presiding
~ · oyer th~ discipline ari~I iµstr~ction of the numerous
·' school~ which they ha<l established; this wo1,1ld have
I.• given a secular ·complexion to the argunient, which
~

~

0

to

_j

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126

<
-.;..

COMPOSITION.

science, arn all confined to that field within whicl
the senses of man can expati~te. · The moment \Vl
go beyond this field, discovery ceases; and the men
spec,ulations of. the fancy take its place. ' The disco:
' 'eries of modern science have, in fact, · imparted :i
new energy to all om· impressions of the greatness :01
the D,eity; but, they <lo not contribute a single iota t<
the ' explanatjon' of his purposes . . They make hirr
. greater·; but they do not make him more compreheri:
sible: He is more shrouded in mystery than ever
It is notHimself that we see, it is his ,workmanship :
and every new addition to the grandeur or the varie·
ty of his works, every new light which philosoph)
sheds upon · our contemplations, throws our Ulll!er:
· · standings to a greater distance than before, from thE
mind and conception of the sublime Architect. In·
stead of the God of a single world, we now see tl;e
God of the universe, presiding in all the majesty ol
his high attributes, over a mighty range of innumer·
able systems. To our little eye he is wrapped ~u
· more awful mysteriousness ; and every new glimpse
" which astronomy gives us of the universe, magnifies,
to the , apprehension of our mind, that impassable
. barrier, · which stands between the counsels of ite
Sovereign, and the fugitive beings who spen1l thei1
1
,
ev11.nescent hour in the hurnl>lest of its mansions.
·' Ev~ry ·new triumph which the mind pf man achiev!!S
in the field of discovery, binds us more firmly to the
:Bible; and by the very proportion in which philoso •
.r.hy multiplies .th_e wonders of God, do we prize that
,;~,,.,

.;,.~

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•

· !,'ABT r11 ._

~ ~'

-

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t

-

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q.'J)':.

129

•

. 'r. point th~ importance ,o f the;i;t~.fnaLe't!iqen~e .ofrev~~ '
· '. lation, . <lIJpears nio~t corispicuous:t•;. lf- nny:~int~lligent
.' i:nan has, from hasty' views of.the subject; receiv,ed ·the
: il\lpresslon that ChrisHanity)s ·.an ~bsµr<lity;· :-i;;;~cqn~ ·
. tains absurdities, he. in ' a . condition 'to examine' a
perfect chai~ o( ev~dence in its. support, ,,w~th a si.mple
' \feeling of·astonishrneqt :'at ithe.ingenu.i ty . or fallibility
, { of t~e huinan u_n.dersta,iiding. ,' ~:01i ~ "rna,1_1_in this state .
· _ of mind; all. arglirru~nts, drawn .from ex_ternal,evidence, .
· are- thro~n ·away., ::_.The~ thing~whi_ch. he,·w~µts; is to . .
. know: that-the ·subj~ct is worth a dernonstra~io~;: arid _
; ~ this can 'only be ~learned : fr~m . tqe013tudy ,of. tl~e Bible'
· ~- itself. Let hipi but giv.e: his unprejiidiced ::attenti~n: .
' :· to this book,'. and he will .discover, . that.there. is· con; ,.
· :_ fained in _it the · de~el.opmenf ·of aemighty1·scheme,.
., admirably fitted f0t: the acconiplishment of a mighty
· '. pu~~ose • . HewiU discover thatthi~ purpos': is :rio~
·: thing less
than
io impart to
man the happiness
of God,
I.
.
.
.
.
.
:
. -. by conforming him'to the ·cha,racter otGo_d ••~ Jie wioll .
delight:~nd
·astonishm~~t.
:thaf the
: observe
too with
1'
- .
. ·. •
;
' '
- ., . . · • . .
''grant! .and .simple- ~cheme~ by_whiph~ this 'p1;1rpos,e', is
:: acc~mplished_. exhibits _ii· sy~tem- oLm«miLmechanism,
; which, by the la\vs' of·our· mental: constitution, has a
f
' .
'
•,
' .
.
'
~ tentlency to produce that ' chai·actei, ' as ·.d_i_
rectly and
~ i1ecessarily as'. ~he : belief oCdanger . has , to ' produc~
' .~ al~rm, the belief of:kindne:ss tojmldu,c~ 'gratitude, :01' ,
l . - ' - . .. ,
..
. '_.
'.
.
: the belief of. worth 'to produce ' eiteem: '" He will ob, -~~~erve that tl1is syst~;n bears n~- ~1:ark,;f in;postu~e or .
" delusion, but consists simply in inanifestation of the . .
f
.
:' .
-···
. ._
·.
~- m.oral . c~aracter of God, ·accotnmodated to the u n<l11r ~

is

a

"

128

C"OMPOSITION.

l'AllT !

we think would have been more satisfying to t
mind, and have impressed upon it a closer an<l me
familiar convicfton of the truth. "Ve would ha
immediately brought it into comparison with the Ir
tory of other philosophers; and we cou ld i10t ha
failed to recognise, that, in minuteness of iufonnafo:
in weight and quantity of evidence, in the concu
1
rence of numerous an<l independent testimonies; ar
in the total absence of every suspicious circutnstanc
. it far surpassed any thing that has come <lown to 1
from antiquity. It so happens, however, that the Ne
Testament, instead of being the history of a philos
pher, is the history of a prophet. The venerati~
which we annex to the sacredness of such a characte
mingles with our belief in the truth ,. ?f his histor;
.From a ciuestion of simple truth it becomes a que~
t1on in which the heart is interested ; anti the subjec
from that moment, assumes a certain holiness !\Ill
mystery which veil the strength of the argurnent, and
preverit that plain and thorough conviction; wit
which we receive the far less autheuticatec! historie.
of profane authors.
J5. · T!ie'power of tlie internal ei'.idences

of revelation,

No one who knows what God i ~ . will refuse to 're·
ceive a system of-doctrines, which he really believes
was communicated by God; yet no flllC, in the right
exercise of his reason, can by any evide11ce, be brought
to. believe, that what appears to hi 1n an ·absol11fe absurdity, did ever, in truth, com~frtlm God. At this

-

.l:U

. COMPOSITION.
J

-

- <

.

I

' I

"A',":•, "~··4-:.~ . . ~

.... :-.
. .
.
T'· \1.,_;.. .:.,,.·, ,•• , , ..i .• ~ ...:.. ·
., . T11& !1 ~el?_.~ripti".e C?fct~c~s-~~· i~. - ~W ·M~~served,; yo_
' not ~on tain_any ~l~i_ng ex~ctly; r~~eip~l\l}g sty_fCt,!ogical '
·~ description ; :. nl?l' ;'~as !t!<~1e~e~~ary tha(tl~ey~)J10....~ ~tl.
-.be so restdcted, Indeed,'it .was not required that the
~;fr_ac!s _s,1ouW.~~-e.~.Pure\Y, -~~-s,c-~ip~i~_~;- S~~~r~t';x~~~ ·'

.,· c!se~, t-~~re(ore!','~?ic~ ~J'.~_tea~ly o[.11-: di~~c~iq n~ture, _

,. have been .ranked. with the .second class ; . because .in ·

- ~hei~_~e~bJe~ts th_~ ~~~~~{iptiye.'.~ h~r,:ic.\~r· p~epo1.1~~ia!~~·-

, : .· '~~~j-egar$-, t : t~~ s~bjt~~~, i;-e_l~~~~-~ :'fo!.;;~,i~,a~~ic
- e~er~i!?~S, ii m~y,..~~, ~~er~~1~Ytt4_ t~a(Jp~Y.
no~-~P~?.- ,cee_d on the ~y~~~a,~~Cll,l ,,a~~an_g~Je~~t;)a1tt• ,dor .n) n .
_. t?e plan Qf di~a._cfic c~m.eosi~~o~s;,-, an~ :~l~_st.r:i;~~-d -, in ··
·. simple and c9mplex -.them~s·>: Pieces -contammg all
... the topics ofthese the.mes, would be found too long for
. the exercises of beginners '; a'nd short e_xtracts, as
they necessarily CO!\tain 'on!;}' parCof a su_bject, c~n_ilot be ex1;eCted t_o shO\V the systein~on~ which whole
'- •piece_
is_co~1pose~.
ne'·l ~id~s;
801_1~~ .dida~~i6
piece~
" d~
'
' •
•
. . ... . ....
. ··,
•
.
.,.,
not naturally admit ·an the . topics of ar egular theme i
and, indeed; it i~ts'umde.iltYthat"· tiie · a 1ra'tige1~ent of
·· th~- topjc~ ,~!ii~~~~re-_~m~ra~i!1.!~~;~etho4i~~I. :, ... ·' .
.The practi~~ -_9Cc9mposing in the manner prescri.' J,ied; __ h~~ :tii~.'; 8a~.<itid~ 1 ".ptH1~.-~igi1r-~~ iH~rarY: 11;~w~s
WJ1en correctly and ;'lysten1atica_lly pu_rsued, this mode .
of composing h'a-~ none -of:those _defects, which 'su-perfic;it\I obse~r~rsJ1~v·e .~011}_~1~n.l,r.· i1~~gi~e~: Where~
ever it. fai~s, w~. may be sure: that_it has not been
cohducted_with care· and judgement."" At the same
~e.- it -must -be aU,mitted, th~t the s_uccess of this

.%..

a

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'•

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130

COMPOSITION.

l'.&n'r 1

standings and hearts of men. - Lastly, he will percei
that this manifestation gives life au<l palpability
that vague though. sublime idea of the Supreme Bei1
which is suggested by enlightened reason and _ cc
science.
When we are convinced that, in the formation
the world, it was one of the objects of the Crea.t or'
impress' upon his intelligent creatures1 an idea of I
moral character, or, in other words, to te.a ch them I
"tural religion; and when w~ sec that. Hi~ gospel c<
tains a most vivid and impressive view of the Di vi
'character, harmonising with the revelation of natu
but far exceeding it in fullness and in power, 1
cease to be surprised that the generous hand, whi
s11read before man the open volume uf creative goc
ness and wisdom, should put forth a miracul~us etfo
to stamp "its own impress on the volume of reveal
truth. The object of the gospel, and its adaptation
that object, become the great arguments for its trut
. and those who have not studied it in this relation; ~
not competent judges of the q.uestion. ·ln_dee9, ·
must infer, if we take the truth of the gospel fur grn1
ed; that .thi~ distinct and. beautiful . adaptation . u~·
means to its end, was intended by its Divine AuH
as its chief evidence ; since. he ·must have furesei
. that not one out of a hundred who should ever he
, of it, could either have leisure or learning to we;i
.
. ''
· jts e,¥ternal evidence .
0

••

. ·;..~;
I

:l-

C.O}JPO~lTI~:tf.

.T Ill.
(

i'Il

"

to do it away is, aptto ,be. adopt~µ <-, '.fhe pi~ce,
refore, which is preseribed; ·rnul;ltn.~ t.be : at h11nd, '.
dj to be' referred t<>, and 'to b~.: minutel.y ~pei:u.se!l, .
lS to save the trouble of application.' _. Such a.m~­
d of performing the· se~~11d course of compositions; ·
uh.I reduce it .to.someihing not wuch different from .
first; and' as good writil!g . has, itsJo~ndatiqn in
lr aml vigorous· conc~ptions, little improvement
Id be rea~onably expected from a :course of'~xerci, iii which the mind came so slightly into actjou:<'.·
e boo,k, from. which: tli.e subjects of the secimd coursc':·. ':omposilioils are tak~n, should be in th:e p~SB!J~sii,Jr1 '.; ~.
he teacher' only:' it should not be. in the ·ha~~ls . ol . , .·
pupil longer than is suffiCient t~ admit of his r~ad ~ ·
n few times, the paragraph which is to be the su.bject
l1is · exercise. · When the·: paragraph is . read, th e;
.· ' ..'•' ~'
k should be returned to the teacher.

fHE teacher should, ~ead to tJ1e pupil
1

"

ii

J

apiece Si;il·

~ for i:he subject of an exercise, and dwell parti rn y on the subject,. scope, . topics, and method; n

. the pupil may be") ed to · compose from th' ~::
its, more thap from ~ reference to his recollecl' i: :1·
:hat the teacher has read. · ' ·
.
.

luch of the' etfect.·of; this course of,.compos;ti:::1..
1ends on the exertions of the teacher to rendcl' the;

-~

...

12
"·'

··:.

..

-

COMPOSITION.

PAl\T HI.

method of composing, depends almost entirely on the '
diligence of the pupil, and the vigilant attention of
the teacher. When the pupil is so averse to mental
exercise, that he does not give suftlcient latitude to ·
variety of expression; and when the teacher accepts . .
an exercise; in which the expressions are but slightly
· variecl, little benefit can be derive<l from a course of
compo~ition; · such as that which has been prescribed.
But when the pupil has a di_sposition to exert himself,
and the teacher stimulates the exertions of the pupil,
the preceding exercises will go far towards com mu ni- , .
eating a free con~mand of correct expressio~ 1.
'

. THE pupil shou ld . now rear!, instead of a single
sentence, one or two paragraphs, the nurnb1~r bei1w
'
0
regulated by their length, and, without referring to
"the hook, compose as l>efore; remembering that the
forms of expression should now he varied much more
wi~ely, t!rnn they were .in the first course.
• •

•••

J_

: •

;..

J

•

'

.-

:

_....

-

•

•

· -·No subjects are inserted as a· foundation for this
course; because it is essential to ·the progress of the
student, that he should now compose without reading
the given piece more than twice, or, at the most, three
faries. · Thinking is an exercise which the youthful
mind is too generally disposed to regar<l as laborious
and irksome; and every e:xpcdicnt which seems like-

, ..,,,-

. .;:31~S({_~~}

· CO:MPOSITI0~,·1i 1.'•fr;:., >-~ '~l.\ ,,13,S

p.BT m.

. •<

J •

·.~.

' . ,;. -

·(:-;':"'_·

;·:·; .-~~.~~~',. . "'·:\.t.:· · ~

ject, · scope, t~pic_s, '·and, . metl~pd, · being •;prescr.ibed.
These poin.t s may, at first; be '.slightly .. ex~e~1d,ed :by
the teacher; and if the assistance tl11is giv'en, 'is· grad~
.ually · diminished; the pupi( · wilhoo~ be~enabled , to
;fi_ll up sucll outlines and give them the_.form of regu·
'lar exercises. ·
·· ·; - · · · ·- · · :·.. , ·.;-: ' . .,, .
~

\i...

!

-~.

i"" ..:' .: .,..

. : ·:· ·~--· .':'. . , ·.: ..

\

•

~
"'

With the ,view ofsaving the 'te~chei:'s time, th4b
subjects for . the third cl~ss of this course are _jnserted.
The , subjects o( the first .and. s~cond •classes ar,e :neces-.
,,sari.lpimittedi, ··(i:i' pres<;_ribing the topi~- ~nclme.tho.d
n~rrative~-and desciiptiv.e pieces, it i,s implied
'that the pupils; as well as' the" tea.cher, <tre familiar .
with the event~ . fo · be related, -.arid -the sce~es . to be ~
described. Thehil'tory of ind_ividuals, of_in~titutio11s, · ,
1
of towns,_ and states; with which ,~he pupil is known to i . ·be familiar, and the description of well-known objects ..
:.or scenes, will furnish the teacher..with lnaterials suf- .
_;. i'.
ficient for'this course of ~omposition.

.of-

'. ..m . · CLASS:- .
.
REGULAR , ~idacti~- ~omp_g~itjonp. _
o'r, ·as ' they are
· sometimes called, !liemes, are divided into simpJe and
.. c6mple=
x·.'. · - · : ',
·
'. , - ·
_, .!J. ~irnple; t_hein~: generally contains a subject, ex~
'pressed
a·sin'gle· word; -a1>, Virtue, . Patriotism,
Honor. ·. .
· '
- .
.!J.j,omplex tli~;J~- ~co~tains a prop;sitirm, or complete':sentence;: as;· ·Virtue .is respected: Patriotism
·. i's admired. .
... -_.,. '
.
.

in

~ ··

..

...

134

6lOM:POSITION.

l'.UlT JU

'subjects familiar · an<l interesting. In this an<l th~
following course, whilst the teacher is explaining an~
illustrating, the pupil ·may be permitted to writE
down the method a1ul the subordinate topics of tlH
~ubject; or, if it scc111fl prcfcraulc, lo rccapitulat1
.orally· the remarks of the 1cachcr. This exercise
whilst it facilitates the pupil's progress in writing, ii
very serviceable in training his mind to regular . and
: ·connected thinking. ·
· Young persons \\·ho are studying this ,w ork, withou1
· the assistance of a teacher, will fi ncl it beneficial tc
commence this course by drawing up slight outlines ol
the subjects \vhich they reacl. In the first attem1)ts
a mere outline will be suflkient. As the student a<l.
vances, he may graclnally fill ·up his outlines, till he
acqu·ire such a facility in expandi11g topics, as will ~n·
able him to attempt a whole piece.
As the practical effect of this course is chiefly derived from the oral explanations and directions of the
' teache~, it is not necessary that the subj ects should be
inserted. · Besides, the same reasons which precluded
· the insertion of subjects for the ·seconcl course, are
applicab.le to this.
.

....

-, '

THE exercises should ·now be written without ,any
farther asiistance than what is derived from the su!J;.?'
.

:01 NIUUlll

FJ..BT

nr.

C0MPOSITION.

137

nificarice of the subject' is' display~J. by the p~cu liari.~ ·
. !ies of time ansl ci rc.Limsta!:ices~jn:~:w,hi,ch i,~ ; is repr!)sented a(> .existing. - The - last, tqpic. serves..t~create _
. a~.' attac/imento~ an aversi_or; 'to 'the'~ubj~~-t;' by)~~ul~ · : . _.~: ~ . 1
-eating its advantages 01-.di;;advai:itages. r. Jn .' a .,m ixed _- ·
subject, this topic leads
correct tife!V~, bJ. ~xhibit!ng .;. ·, · ~
·I.
~ bQth of the las.t-~euJ~qned points/\ , '. _",·-·"-~ ;:·;·-;,:\.-.: · ··' ~ ·_
,
1
: The topics \Vhich have been _ ~entioned; ~ay,, ~)1._ be :· ,. /.,.- .·~t
comprehended u!1d~r.th~ f9llowmg three_: .·- . ' . -"·
·
{1 ,
.. l .. Tli~ n~t~rer-:.-2: '.Tf<e i":1for~ance;-:--S· ~'!'heefj
1
.fects"JJf
a .sub1ect• . :. .. : • c • • -. ." · · . .: ·' , " . _. .• ·
i II
.
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1.. Definition.* . "Peace .is tl1e ultimate wish of all

111

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. '

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.

.

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- _•This term i.s here"e111ployed in an arbitrary sense .

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·' -- ·.
men.
2. Cause. · FQr, in wha_tever manner . we desire
. to exercise our. faculties, ' in ·the acquiring of know·1edge, riches, or hono~s;. we -~11 lQok f9rward to a· state
. ·~f peaC:e ·am! tr~ntjuHlity,'in :which alone we thi~k that
we can· enjoy 'thefI!. -~ In this h;tppy St-ate _. i.t is, that .. the merchant expects" to enjoy his riche's; the ·soldier
~ fo be secure .from toils and dangers, c~nd ,the states-,
-. ni~n to lay asi~e his.,anxioi1s· cares'. :
_ ·
. s. Jl.istory.' So agreeable to the mind _of nian is a
v

~~

.

--

'

~·i

:..; ,

The following example ~will ~erve be.tter_ tha~ any
:explanations, to_illustrate the . _meaning and ·applica,
tion of. the foregoing rules' fot: 'the· COIJlposition of. a
simple theme . .,' . _.
-. •.• :- .
..
,, . . .

I •: •

'

I.

136 .

COMPOSITION.

. PART I.

The topic!! and method of a simple.theme, are
taiued in the following rules : ,
·

COi

I. 'When the · s.u bject refJuircs explanation, defi.n
or explain it.,
, ·
.
2.-,S!iow in what the subject orig inates. ·
3. · State the subject as it existed in ancient, and a
it exists in modern times; or, in other words, give
'
'
Msto1;y of t!ie subject.
4. Show the extent of the subject; that is,' whethe
rit rel~tes to the whole world, .o r to a p,;.1rticular p11;r
of it.
5. State the effects of the subject, as good or bad.
'

Recapitulation :-Topic.v and . method of. a simp~~
·
. theme.
1. Definition. · 2. Cause.
4. to place. 5. Effects .

3: Relation to time : -

..

· Use

of the above-mentioned topics.

THE.first two are designed to give us a clearer view '
of t11e 'subject, uy bringing it more. fully and distinctly
before the mind. The next two are intend ed to pro- ·
duce an impression of the importan~e·of th e subject, ,
by ·exhibi ting it ·as receiving the attention of many ·
. 11.ges anti nati1ins; or to give us an id ea of its insigni- .
jlcance, by showing the slight estimation in which it
has beeri held, and the limi ted extent to \vhich it has
prevailed. Sometimes, also, the i111poda11 ce or insig-:.
_.,.,..,
'
,,,,..

COMPOSITI,ON. •

,

/ 139
-

'

Lt those feelings ar1f chefisbe.d, ~hich generate w~r;
:urity bege(~ · self-suffi~i~~cf.:; : seff~sufficj.~eC.Y~ in- .. ·~ , . ;;;.
ence; and msolence,I quarrels; _, / J;'hus · p~ace 1 : the .
.
,·
•
.
. . ,
·..
_.._...
' :
t .. •
•st desirabl.e thing 011 earlh, nia yr by-the dep "'! v1ty
those' who are not . vi.rtiJqt1s- · enough : to.' ~fkr:~t;'0 b~~.~~;-~", .
ne. productive of the' lnost dreadfµi scourge ~f h,~,~ ~4[!"~.
m nature,.i....a.state of: war.'! :_-' . ;:
.
· .'
·' · ,. ·

., ./ ·

. ,

~ } .·

· ~· .,

· -~. ;..:.r,.J.;,.:.. ; . iJ~"'~t\·,r".. ;· ~,:.;;-..: ..,:·~.. ·~;:. : ·.l'(_·\~

ra eqmplex-ti1~me :c9n~~j1is• tl;e' fo11Q~ving topics:

: ,~;

i..::-The propo'sitiori; 'tha(is,, the 'subject sfated! .ex~ alne<l; &'.n9 _illuStrated;
~
~- The ~·eason, o~ the t~uth of the' s~bject,' prov.eel
1•

· :

·'

•

, a;gument; · . . ' . · · · : · " : ..: . /::'.· · ~
3. The confi1·mation, sho~v ing the unreasonabl.encss ·
cohtrary opin ihns, a1id stating some"additional 'reii:
11sin· s.upp<!1:tofthe ~g ulJjectr , ·
.·
11. 1'/te s.iriiile;' in · whitl~ \ve c9mpare the. s~1bject
th something that may 1IJuAtrate it; _.
5. The exarnple_;-in · this part · o( the .. ~theme, ,
;tances arc uroui:;ht . (generally ' from his't'~ry~ j ' to
rrouoratethesubject; :_·: - · ~ :'.·. - : ·-"''<'~~- .
6. ·The testim '? ny, '. or . qu otatiori; · <'.ont&iniH!f a· re1rk of.a go(id.au thor,·9r1 ofa cd ebra(ed 'charncte~, fo
~'~ that othet~ th:~ri~ ~~1"views oqhe ,suhj e,c no be

p;:·· , :

rrect ; · ::. . . · ·.
" _ , " . .
. ·" . • '. ' . : . . ·.
1
7. Thc . concl~~q~~ in' \vh ich ~e su.m up . the pre1
ding topics,' show"tl;e ' praciital ' us~ of_ the: suuje~t;
mak~ some, app'roi;)riafe closing rctl~cti1\ns: . ' '. '
.

1

.

'

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I .

~

·

'

•,

'

,"

•

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The general sco~c' o:f.a1~ ex:rc;Ke .of this kind, is to
cukate 'truth. This e1id i~ ~tt~incd by, I. advan•

'

. I I•,

'

I'

.. '

. : ~.
.

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133

COMPOSITION.

P_.\ftT Ill . ·

state of peace and tranquillity, thatall the poets of anti- \
quity imagined such a state to have existed in the ages ,
imrnec~iately subseq11ent to the creation of man , and tq ·
'1ave'c:onti1~ued till human depravity gave ri se to dis- :
cord and strife .. ·,The Divine Being has shown us,
.~;~-.· that -he . himself regards peace as one of the greatest.
'' t
benefits that can Im conferred on · man. Peace '·Qn ,'
earth was the benediction announced by th e angel s
on · the birth of the Sa.v iuur; and, at his birtl\, under
· the. reign of the Roman .Emperor Augustus, the whole
world Wa8 in a state of peace.
4. Exten;.
In e'' ery well-ordered community,
peace is the aim and theenjoymeutofall ranks; and it
is 'only the prev~lence of sc!fi Hh feelings, fals e views .·
of honor, a1.1d r.orrupt p3ssions, whi ch prevents its be ing enjn,rctl
nil lhc nalio11 :; of the earth.
5. Rj[ecls. Peace gives the h1111ian foculties libeP
ty to expaud them sel' es; and it has hee n gencra\ly
styl.ed the Nurse of Arts; for, when . a ni>tion is at
pc~ce;, there are ruom, an d leisur"', an<l taste for imJl roverncn ls of every ki11d.
' lfot however d esirable p'ace may be, it is found,
whea nqt ac to mp;>.nied by virtue, to hi> producti\'e of ,'
· almu~t as rpan,y ,evils as war itsel f. . 1'hc ri('h cs ac quire<l in peace, are apt. lo give .a ta~te for luxu ry and
' prorligality; a\ui' th ese excesses generall.Y lead to
.Profligacy. · The '1'1iet 1rnd ease which men enjoy in ·~
: a state of pence, have n tend ency to H!ake (hem careless and irreligiou s ; and these di sp : •~ itio ns open the
way to every other vice. It is in a _state of pence •

by

..

.•.

. COMPOSI:r'IOl(.

Aft.'l' ID.

141

5. Example. Hi~tory i~ r~plete \vith .~xamples ~f .
1e danger of delay. Mark Anthony-', by d~laying his -~
et~rn to Rome, and <lissipatir1g 11is time. on_·!h~'isJapd. .
f • Samos,
with
Cleopatra,
suffered
Octavius- .Cesai-to
.
•
.
'
'
.}
!
'
upplaut him in the. favor ·o f the Ruman people, ·an<l,
t last, to ,deprive him ~f his share in .th e einpir.~ of

he.wo1:1J; .

'

··'

" ·

'

'

· ·

'

~
:

.! ' ;.

.I
I

I

·~
·,

'

6. Tesiimany. How ' admira4ly does Shakespeare
aint the danger of <lelay; a~d the ·advantage of seiz1g . a hap_py moment fo_r ~he execution of our pµrpoios!
.
.
.
..I
. There is a tide in the affairs of men,_
\Vhi.ch, taken• at the flood, lea< ls 011 tp fortune .;
Omitted, all the voyage of their· life
· · JS bound in shallows and in miscri~s.
.·
:

I

.I

c

7. ConclusiOn. There is nothing, theref?1:e, which
·e ouglit to l1ave more· constantly in mir1tl ,'. tha11 the _
anger iif committing any imporla~t enterprise to th e
tzn.rd occasioneLl by deJ ay.s.''· · · '
·
,.
~
.
;'· '
. Si1nP,le _t hen~e-8 to ·b~ _rn!Ji posed _on. the fo~ics :anti the
11ethod before mer.i l i.oned: . , .. ·
··
·
).

1. · tlisto;:y.-2. . Geogr;;phy.-3. 'A.st~onorny.---4:
ducation.- 5. ) _. iteratu1:e,.:__6. Reading,_:_7, Poetry.
-:-1'· Rescntinent.-9,. Contentn{ent.-10. -llencvo- ·.·
:nee.

Complex themes to .be coniposed as ahove. ·
· i. .Dil.igence insures · success.~2. Idleness ruins

.1

140

•

CO~fPOSITION .

PA.RT

ur,

cing, 2. confirming, and S. illustrating arguments,and 4: by drawing a practical cunclusion from them.
These four . points may' be considered as comprehend·.
ing all that have been stated ; for the simile, the e.'C- '
ample, and the testimony, are used either to illustrate '
or confirm.
The following 'subject will illu strate the topics am! .
the method of a complex theme.
'
- DELJ\YS AHE DANG_E ROUS.

· 1. Proposition. "Nothingcanbemoreunfavorable.
to the success of any undertaking, than frequent and
unnecessary delays.
·
2. Reason. So many and unexpected are the disappointments in life, so frequently do things happen
~ontrary to our expectations, that, by delaying our
·purposes, we often afford opportunity for the occu~·- ,
rence of inisfortune. The best security, therefore,
·, · against ! disappointment, is, to seize the present mom~nt.

..
•.
:if, . ..

· 3. Confirmation. 'Vere it not so, we shou Id not
hear so ·many . encomiums on a lacrity and watchful. ness in business, nor so many admonition~ to dissuade ·
. us from losing a favorable oppor1unit.y.
4. Sin,1ilc. The sagacity of the fox alfords us . a · ' .
us_efol lesson. The mor~ent he hears the h1;un<ls, he . ·
begins his flight, and, by 'a constant pace, often eludes
· thlll~I, or, at least, pres'crves his life much lonf!ei'; .
.while the hare, though a much swifter animal, by free quently stopping to li sten, and ,delaying her Hight, .
falls mu.ch sooner a sacrifice to her enemies.

,,.r""

~-·

,a-r

HI.

COMPOSITION. ·

}.(j '

._,
Ill.

GLASS, ·

'~

.,.

.

;.

•·

...·~:::

,.
~j

,•

;
~

Simple
. •'. themes:·
..
'

1. Ignorance.-2 . . Virtue.-3. Knowledge.-4. '
~shne~s.-5. Veracity.-G: Novelty~-7. ,P~inting .

. Rellectipn.-9. Envy.-10. · Ambition.-11. A
>rgiving dispositi1!.n.....:...12. Ardor .in virtuou-s pur11its-q. Careless_.Jiabits of mi.n<l.-:-14. Dissipa1on.

Coriiplex
the~es.
. I
.
- 1. Poverty is · not disgracefUl.:_2, Happiness r:eults from the government of the· miml.-3.- Knowedge sl~ou l<l not produce pride.-4. · Wea Ith does
1ot secure happiness. -5'. Youth is the pecu.liar sea- ,
on . of rliligen~e._:6, A superficial ·attention t~ a
;reat variety of pursuits,-is_prejudicial. ·

THE pupil will now be found _able to choo~e, me~
hodise, and-extend a subject; so as to \Hite a 'co.milete composition without assis.tance from the 1,eacKer.
But he ought not to -cori&,ider· his exerci ses as closing
iere. Correctness, ease, . and fluency _in composing,
:an never be attained without daily practice. · The
1tuden!, therefore, who is really desirous of improv-

'i

'I

--!

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!

!(

142

...

~

...

COMPOSITION.

P~llT

Iu, .·

the character.-S. Good society i!nproves the mind.4: Abilities, without constant exercise, caunotinsure
succ~ss.-!J. Life is shurt.

'l

i

Subjects in 'composing on which the mo.re impor'·
t _a nt topics only are to be selected.
,
' · 1. The beauties of nature.-2. The influence of
.
'
habit.-S . .Early impressions.-4. The power of re·
s9lutio!'1.-5. C~mposition ii!Jproves the mind.

I

'l'

Tnr:: subject alone is prescribed. . In the narrative ·I
and. th!! des criptiv e classes, the topics and the method
must be suggested by the pupil's o\vn mind. In the
didactic .class, which is the most difficult, the pupil
may, at first,' be allowe1l to deriv e assisfance from the
·plan ~f simple and complex themes, contained in the
. preced ing course. He ought, how ever, to be incited to
µ;iv.e as mu,ch variety as possible to his mode of com• '-· . _ posiug, by ~xerCising his own judgment in selecting· J
,.., topics arid method which vary from those that have !
- _ ~een. laid down, but suit the same purpose, by" giving ..
·· <;.lea~ and impressive views of his subject.
The subjects of the first und second classes of this .
coui·se, are omitted, for the reason mentioned under .. J
the fourth cour~e.

lI

i'
~PPENDIX: ,

.lj:
~'
! '

·.-·

't

'Obseruations designed to assist the pupil in forming
.·
·and correcting his style,.

I
·.I

I

'>.

I

No method .of forming' the mi rid for the-exe.rcis~' of
!'
composing, is more successful, than attentive reading,
accompanied by · refle.ctiim:· · ' · · . ·
.
·
"Rea<li.ng witho~t r~ftecfion 'rill h~ve no beneficial
· effect. It mdrel/ protl_~ces a transient excitement
of tho_ught, .and :leaves.no penna_n ent _.impression. It
· serves to dissipate ·rather thai1 to. improve the mind.
1
·
Reading which is intended to inform the umlerstan~ ding, and refine''the t3:_ste, '!lllSt receive the closest 11tteution: Every' sentence; every phrase, every word,
must be well con~i;lereJ:· ·The slightest error must be
detected: nothing should~escape notice . . ~ -- . :,,;· L·-~ ~"·
.~ . . . The subst.anc~
what is read must be oft~n -t·~-c~l=- , .
·ied ~nd' i·econsid~'i:e<l.~c~~fuin·~oursoftl1~;dny
...;s11ou1cl' £.; ,, ... .,_,"':.'l"l'I
) \.~
·· if '"'· ,~ O!t ••, . .., .. .... ~·· J ')r-~ ~ • • ' .
!
..... . ~ . . ':"<?> •
:.'. be ~x~d .on,_ for ~h~~p~rpo!!:. _?~o.!_e~C!l!ec.ti_ng -anft ·r~.,_._· , :: ~ ,~;,,,;::
"" ~:- viewing the s.u.IJJ~ts ..~hich;~h~v{ beeµ" ~ea,d ;<~_!ld th,~ ~-· - ~·-~!.:.:':'ill
progress of the.day should be rctraced..eve1fe\:c1ii11g. .
··
.. -' The k~owledge wb,ich is thus . accjui·~~d~ ·tiot :,c;tily re:'. ·

',-i

of

•

,

•.

l"•11 r

.. .

.1.1

·.

eoMPOSITION.

PAR'

ing, will consider the sixth course of composition,
:ts one which is to come fo close when he has fir
ed the last exercise contained i11 it, l.iut as one w
Hi to·ue continued t.hrough life,.

a

IN the courses of composition which have been
down in the preceding pages, the· pupil, at firnt,
eeives the· f'ulle st i1ssista11 ce that can be r~qui
This assistance is gradually withdrawn, every :
eessive course climinishing his dependence on
teacher, till he is left entirely to his ow11 resour
Composition is thu s n\ad e to d epclJ(l, not on the
tunate suggestion of a happy mood of mind, I.Ju ·
regularity and sys tem. S uccess is not left to be
result of superior ability, but ueco111es someU
attainable by all who studiously ll! ake it their aim
The time required for tlH\ <level opement · of
foregoing plan, is 110 doubt consi<l ~rahle. llut if i
true: that few exercises have so great a teudenc:
improve the mind, and if thi~ is uue of the most t
ilnd elegant accomplishments which education
furnish, the time devoted to its acquirement, will
seem disp,rujJortioucd to. its value. fii almost ev
situation of acti1e or of literary life, clear and c
rect , t\1inking, an ar:cui·ate style, and an easy cc
mand of languag", tend to facilitate bu siness (
11ecure respect.

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14-7

APPEN.D.IX.

"Phe young .co.mpm1er .w hoJorms. hi~ style after such
authors will never be- t>0tr~yed . iJ1tO all'.e!OJ.ation; , ' His
miud wilLhave f1~ee scope in a.nat~ral r.ll:nge p(thought;
and his , language, ..whilst :.Strictly. ~or~ect, ,;wil.l ,wear
t~e appea~an.ce _pf i}ignity.aµd .~ase; :
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,!f the _best,prep~~~i v~}~ fo.t·. goPlt wr}ti_ng,)!! a

OIJ.4?

elear,_c?nne_cted, a"!~ 'met/1iJ~ica( mamier, of t(fin~ir/-g: .
. ·Thou.ght,· exerc1s~ct'i1.t rantloiu·on any passing:topic?

m~y -~ccupy and: pl,ease ari idle mi1\d; but it cal; nev- .
' er' give the power. of clear and forcible expre~sioa. '
The youth wh;;- i~ - de sirou!) of compo,sin.g in · such.a
man.ne/a~ shall exhibit hi~ ide~s clearly, and i£!1p1:ove
his own mind, must endeavou1' to av oid those habits
of . abrupt• 'and
desultory
thinking
whi~h ,are
,so
natu.
\ ,J
•
• '·• ~ '
'
~~
ral to yo'ung pei·sons: and .which .are allnost ..the only
obstacles to the .acquisition of. a correct : a,n~ fluent
. style- ' n.e must labor t~ acq~ire the ,power !Jf sing- ",_,
lihg _o ut .the object which he wi~hes t? co,ntemplale,
of viewing it steadily,,and of .perceiving its relation to
other objecls; so that it m~y form the s~~ps .by ,which
his .mind ascends to_a _c mpmanding vie\y o(his_ _~vhole
subj ed. · He must pu~sue his; intelle.c t.ual . course,
without lagging or :deviatiµg, tiU he has reduced every
idea to a d~,,tinct shape,,a11~\ placed i t i11 Stich a light
that it shall make a clear am.l full jmpressio11, when
embm.lied in la11guage. Such_exercises ._ produce that
accuracy of thought' and .cxp1 essiou, which has been
already mentioned as the. perfection of compo~ition.
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146

APPENDIX.

mains in the mind, but becomes as it were incorporn-

ted with it, · and transfuses itself into our thoughts
and our langu a.ge.
The practice of reading for the pwpose of forming
a good phra11eology, is a thing which requires great
caution.
Reading with a view to acquire the forms of expres_sion; ·. which' are pecul~ar to any author, ii:! a· degrad a ·
tion of the mind; uut the reading of standard classical authors, for the sake of puriljing and correcting
. our style, is one of the best practical expedients that
we can adopt.
The amuitious, high-wrought manner of writing · ·
which is }Jupular at the 1iresent day, makes many liv- ·
ing authors unsuitable for such a purpose. 'fhe i1nitation of their sty le would insensiuly lead tu a
perpetual .affectation of suulimity or of beauty, and to
that e;travagant cast of expression, which is al ways
laboring to produce effect. The writers whom it is
safost t~, adopt as models, are such as ' A,ddison and
Frankli1l,-men who ditl. nut aim to attract attention
'
.
by 'their language, lmt expressed themselves w~th that
chaste siinplicity and plainness which are natural fo
a clear and correct mind. These authors never rise
abo~e or sink below the natural and .easiy sty le of
dignified conversation. They are entirely free fro~
the forced . conceptions and straiped expr,ession of modern fine writing; and they ttre strict observers. of
pure English idiom.
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APPENDlx.-·

14!1

lt is of great importance in training the mind . for
omposition, that every thing be.avoided which leads
J a languid ani~onfused mariner of thinking, 'and .to
onsequent feebleness and obsc~rity in style. ·•'
To become interesting in writing, we must express
Lil' thoughts with energy an<l 11pirit.
Yivacity of
1anner always gives a vigorous an<l pleasing impulse
J the imagination ; whilst a duil pi·oduction is read
•ith no feelings but those of languor or of disgust.
;nervating indulgence, therefore, and every thing
•hich.has a tendency to enfeeble the mental facul -·
es, should be carefully shunned .
Whatever interests and excites the mind, if not in
1 improper manner or to un excessive degree, is
orth cultivating. But reading -selected at t:andom,
· for the mere purpose of killing time, and a habit of
ingling with trifling society, or of indulging in .pro:
iscuous novel-reading, are as injurious to the -vigor
1d clearness of the mind, as a course of deleteriom;
gre<lients would be to the powers of the body~
.fl departurefrom tlwseforms of express.ion, which
rage has sanctioned, gives•an ·air of stiffness a11d pe-

mtry to our language~ .. No innovation on prevailing phraseology should be
tempted, where it is not absolutely required fodhe
moval of something inconsistent with logic or with
am mar. The best style 'is that w_hich i~ th~ . rilaint anti the most idiomatic.. It is impos11ible that lanL~~e can evef, ll~em to tlow without eifort, \vhil11t a.

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Al'PENDlX.

·Among faults which should be carefully shunned,
is an injudicious use of .topics.
A constant use of, the same topics and method ia
all subjects, creates a monotonous and artificial strain
of thought, as well as a formal and affected manner
of writing. · There are many suujects in which the
. writer should express only the leading ideas, an<l irt
which the mind derives more pleasure and more improvement from exerting itself in filling up an outline,
than from ' following the finest amplification. This i1
the case in all simple and familiar subjects, and in
those which are addressed . more to the imagination
than to' the understanding. ·
. A judicious writer does not feel' constrained to say
a certain numuer of things on every point. · He se." lects those topics which are the most striking and the .
~:· " mo~t ti sefuJ., and touch~s !Jut slightly on those which.
are more corp.mo!; or _less important than others ..
Topics, "Yhen used so as to exclude a natural train
ofthougl~t, cease to ue ofadvantagc. The arrangement
and the expression of oti1; thoughts must lie easy and
natural. Th~ 111ind has a strong attachment to nature ; because nature i:s regarded as inseparably conne~ted with truth; and truth always commands respect. The. <inly use of topics is to enable us to ex-.
press, with more effect, the ideas of which we are already in possession; and, when judiciously used,
their effect is to increase, rather than to di mi ni~h . the
l).atural flow of thou~ht and expres~ion.
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150

APPENDIX.

far-sought turn of expression is constantly obtruding
itself on the attention. Blemishes of this kind have
a great tendency to lessen the interest which we
should otherwise feel in the subject ; and they-consequently serve to weaken those impressions which it
wall the writer's object to produce.
Pupils who ha,·e entered on the practice of com po-'
sition, will :find the following exercise equally useful
and pleasing. Let them, every six or twelve months,
write a piece on the same subject,-compare the one
' compositio.n with the other, observe what improv •
ment has been made, and iri _what the improvement
.consists. The learner .is thus enabled to avoid for-·
mer errors, and is animated uy the consciou~ness of
advanc~ng in the refinement of his taste and . his .sty!

THE END.

