LESSONS ON OBJECTS,
AS GIVEN TO CHILDREN

EET\YEE~

THE AGES OF FIVE· A:\D EIGHT,

Di A PESTALOZZIAN SCHOOL,

r
" We daily call a great many things by their names, without ever
inquiring into their nature and properties; so that, in reality, it
is only their names, and not the things themselves, with which we
are acquainted."
/t.1E1>x.

THIRD EDITION.

TON GRE£X,

PUBLISHED BY R. B. SEELEY AND W. BURNSIDF. :
AND SOLD BY L. B. SEELEY AND SONS.
FLEET STREET, LONDON.
MDCCCXXXII.

,,,,... ,..

")

LESSONS ON OBJECTS,
AS GIVEN TO CHILDREN

BETWEEN

nm

AGES OF FIVE AND EIGJJT,

IN A PESTALOZZIAN SCHOOL,
?!tt <!C~enm, Surrcu.

-() i t?

,,

1 1 r \

·.l' '

/>-/,· . ,

L. ~ -

I,

• . .)• .

~

.

--

rc c1.':{,·

( .f

" \.Ve daily call a great many things by their names, \"."ithout ever
inqniring int.o their nature nnd properties; so that, in reality, it
is only their names, aJHI not the things thcmsehcs, with which w e
nrc acquai11t.cd."
J\11rn.\" .

. 1·
I

I

THIRD EDITION.

'I
l'ltfl\'Tfo;JJ

HY I., ll.

~Jo:P: l ,J.;\"

,\l\.'IJ .S OI\' .', WE S TON GHIH: .'1,

TllAl\o;s IJITTON.

PUflLISHED ny R. n. SEELEY AND w. llURNSJDE:
AND SOLD BY L. 13. SEELEY AND SONS .
FLEET STREET, LONDON.
MDCCCXXXII.

l'HEL\CE.

' .
'

i:

PESTAI.ozz1 was pecu lia rly so li cil""'' lkll the
ir/ea of h is rn e lho1l of l·: ducation ~dw uld nCJt li e
co ni'o1111d<"l \vith tlw ji1 r111. it 111iµ,ht :iss11n1c . I IP
fe lt, a nd strouµ,·ly folt., th.: Y:1l11 <' , th<' l"'"· pr , a111l
th e truth o f t.hatirlca; and hi µ, hl y as Ji, . was clisposPd to apprPciatc th e lahcmrs of hi s cli sc ipl <>s
in th.: pr:icti cal applicat ion of it lo 1111' m>r k
of <~ <I 11 ca t ion ; sli Il he s:nv t h:it. t h" y "PrcJ :1 t
best impe rfrd., inco mpl e te, cm h odyi11µ,·s of the
grand and profo11llll co nce ption s in whi c h he
might be sa ill intellect ua lly " to liv e aml moy e
and h ave hi s h cin g."
The co nt innal appeal
w hi c h lw made from th e i mp c rfoct ions of his
practi ce, 1.o t he h eanty and trnth of his principles ,
co ntributed pcrli a ps to attac h to him self the
c h aracter of a b enevo lent visionary, nnd tu his
system, th e c h arge of impracticability. M uch
h ad been writ.ten , much h ad been said, ye t little
seemed to hav e bee n done ; for even hi s own
sch ool , miserably condu c ted in m a uy :respects,
presented but a cloudy a nd distorted e xhibition
of hi s vi ews. H e nce th e m a n of lofty mind a nd
fee lin g h eart c1ui tted Yverdon with a sig h of

vi
rr!!;ret, while th e sh.-ill uw rraso11er nntl sclf-salisli ~~l roulier cast a s111il P of co11te111pt on pri11cipl es
which he eo uld 11ot. 1liscovf'l' to be I.me , in the
111idst of thP di sord t•r that impeded and tlcform ed
tlu•ir tll'\'l'iopt'ill<'nL
Prufo1111lll y eonvincl'd of th e truth of P estalozz i's views, and warned aµ:ai11st hi s errors by
long ac tu a l o h ~c r vat i o n of th eir co 11 ~cq 11 e n ces,
the " Triter of thf'S<' pn ·folory n ·1narks dl'l ermin ed
to atte mpt the intrn d11 cl io11 of hi s lll <' tl 10ll into
E11!\l a11tl, n~ li µ; i o 11 s l y prPSl' n· in ~ tlw Jtlrn, h11t
ad:1pli11~ the Form to t.hos" cil·e11nlsta11crs i11
which ht~ mi ght be 1•lacctl. .I Je eonsid ered that
the most effectual mode nf accom pli shing t hi s
end was to devote hi 111 sclf to the formation and
conduct of :t st·lwol, in whi<·h th1~ arr:111~r111rnt
and pra d.i<': d :1pp li .. :Jtio11 of those princ ipks 111i~ht
he 111adt'. T o <'xhihit. the syst<' lll i11 operation ,
to elaborate by means o f ex perim ents co11 t inua lly
repeated , a com se of i11~lru ction , a11<l abov e a ll ,
to prep<'lre materials for an ap peal to actual
res11l ts, sc'l' 111 cd t.o him a. fa.r 111orn 11sefo I :llld
e ffccl 11al th o 11~h lt•s,; rapid or hrilliallt prucf'ss,
than that of dr a:::-~ i11 g· it hefor1~ rel11<.:tant a mli ences
at public 111 ce ti11 ~" · or of a1h oca ti11 g its rn erits in
the periodical 1'11\ilicati nns of t.he d ay. He
was content I.hat it shu11 ld be h11ri ed in ob livi on
fo r a. whi le, :iss11n'd th at if it. rPall y pos~Psscil
th e life of tnrt h, it would i11 du e .t.i111 e sprin g
up with renu\'ated Yi µ;o ur.
That t ime seems
to ha ve ani\'ed . Allent iu11 to thi s snhj ect is

VII

· rev ived. Schools, pro f<'ssing t.o be co ndu cted
on 'P estalozzian pri ncipl es a re i11creas111g 111
11u111hcr ; and pnhli ca tion s iss 11 c fr om the press,
whi c h point. out', with 111<HC or l!'ss s11 ct'ess, t.he
111 :1111H'r of ap pl yi nµ; t.h Pn1 to diffnP11t branches
of i11st.rnetin11. IJ nd cr t.h cs<' !'ncoma ging circnmstanccs, it is proposed to publi sh , from time
to tim r, a nn111ber of littl e treatises of a stri ctly
practical nature, embody ing in a fa miliar ma11n cr
th e princip!Ps of Pestalo z,- i. Th ey will be the
rcs11l t. of many yPa rs' "X\H·ril'ne!'- th c eorr cet.l'd
and rc•corn:c tcd (•ditions uf ll'ssons nct11nlly giv en
by (liffcrcnt indi\'idua ls. They may want some
of that i(foal h1:a 11 t.y di scernible in works produ ced hy a n i11g!'11io 11 s i111a gi 11 :t.1 io11 in t.lu: closet,
h11t: th( 'Y will )' OSS('SS, Oil t.lrc oth('r hallll , the
so li1l adv:111tag( : of asec rtairH·d prn.eticability and
demonstr at.cd 11 se ful11 css.
It. ha s lwc n th ought 1lesirnbl e to cor11111 e11ce
tire seri rs "'ith a co 11rsc of LESSONS UN OBJECTS.
It. is a fi eld hith erto littk , if at all cnl tivat cd.
The di st in g 11i s hi11~ pri11 cipl<'S of t.h c P cstalo z zi a11
syste m are strikin gly exemp lifi ed in it. The
instruction giv en in Infants' Schools wonl1l be
improY ed by the introdu ction of a sim il ar plan;
a11 d th e earl y educatio11 of the nu rsery rccei1·e·a
new and interesting feature.
This moclc of instrnction wn s sugg·cstc1l to t he
mi11d of Pesta Iozz i by the pecnliar circum stances
in whi ch he was pla ced at Stn11z. The brutalized
state into which the poor children confided to

VIII

PREFACE.

his care had fallen, rendered it absolutely necessa.r y to find so~e new mode of interesting their
rnmds, and callmg· out their dormant faculties.
Nat11rn was the only book with which they
w ere conv ersant, and their first lessons were
conseq11ently drawn from its pag·cs. :Experience
and j11clgmcnt retained what 11cc!'ssity first imposcll. The suhj ects ordinarily presented to
the yo uthful miJHl a ppeared too remote from
that lrnowkllge whi ch the chilll acr p1ircs without
~- eg 11 hir inst.ruction, and generally to be ta 11 gh t
111 too abstract. a marrner.
It was proposed to
bring· education more into co11tact with the
child's own experience and observation, and to
find in him the first link in the chain of hi s instrndio11. ln t.lw l!Xl!C11t.ion of this plan a. sC'riPs
of . l'11µ;ra.vi1.1gs was providl!ll, represent.in:.; tlw~u
objects which arc familiar to children; a nd the
~ csso11 s.co 11 s isted in 11aming their parts , describrn g· th en- struet11rc arul use . One day, how ever,
the .Master having· presented to his c lass the
en~rnv in g· of a ladde r, a lively littl e boy excla1111ed, "but th ere is a real ladder in the
court-ya rt; why not talk about it rath er tha n
the picture ? " " Th e engTaving· is here," said
th e ma ster, "and it is more COll\'l'nil!ltt t.o t.alk
alio11t what is before yo ur ey1·s 1.111111 to µ;o i11t.o
the court-yanl to talk about the other." The
hoy's obscrva.t.ion, thus ul11rle1l, . was for that.
time di sn'g·ar'.l1:d. Soon after, t.he e111~raving·
of a wmdow formed the subject of examination,

PREFACE.

ix

"but why," exclaimed the same lit.tie ohjector,
"why talk of this picture of a window, when
there is a. real window in the room, and there is
no need to f!:O into the court-yarrl for it?"
Again the remark was silenced, but in the
evenin11· h oth circumstances were mentioned to
Pesta. Iozzi . "The hoy is rif!:ht," said he , "the
reality is better than the counterfeit; put away
the engravings, a nd let the class be instructed by
means of real obj ects." The plan was adopted;
but rna.n y inconveniences resulted from the
arrangement. The subjects which the room
itself, the building, the premises presented,
were soon exhausted, or thought to he so; the
pupils were tak en into the fi elds; the w eather
was a.n occasional hindrance, the variety of
ohjcct.s prescntc1l out of doors llistracted the
at.tent.ion of the pupils, and though much interest
was a.t first excited, still as there was no sensible
progress, no perceivable end, it diminished rather
than increased in force. It was thought too,
that exercises so miscellaneo us in th eir character,
so devoid of systematic arrangement, were essentiall y defective as means of intell ectna l developemcnt.. U pon th ese gro unds the Miscellan eous
Obj ect. I~essons were abandoned. and the Master
who had conducted the class , substituted a
course on the parts and fun ctions of t.he bodily
fra.nw. These arc contained in the :Manuel des
Meres, a work presenting valuahle hints for early
education, mixed with much that is insufferab ly,

.l' HEFJ\ C E.

t.Pdi ous. .At th e peri od wh en th e writ<~ r of thesr
obserrn.tions was in th e Jnstitulion a t Yvcrdon ,
iu slru c;tion 011 Ol~ jf't: l s had follt 'll i11to dis11 se :
h11t ha vi11;.:· l11 •arcl I hi s history fro 111 lht• i11di,·id11al
who had fornH •rl y ,i,; in ·11 it, IH· ft •lt slro11g ly co11v i11 cc<l tha t a mutlc rnig·ht he adop t()d , hy whil'h
its :idv:111tag·<'s wo11ld IH , S< 't'. lll't•d, a11d ils t•o11 ti11gt'11t. i11cm1n:11il':11c<·s avoid< ·d. I laving· <"0111 m1111i cated this i111pn ·ssio11 to his si ster, with a
ge neral notion of lhe pl a 11 , ht! ha s Ir-ft th1·
<·x ec11li on of the dclail s l.o her , a11d 111 <' n •s11ll'.
of her la bours is the :ExPrc isPs, 11o w fur t hP lirst
tim e pres1mted t.o 1111: public. Tiu: d<'s11ltory
c haractl!r attaching· tu t. IH"n in their orig·i11al fon11
is co rrec ted , hy rn a ki11 g n. pre vious s<dc:c tiou of
s1d ~ j< • l'fs , a11d pn "'< · 11tin~~· lh<·111 in I.ht· c h ss- roo111 .
,\.-.; il11 ·y ;m· i1 1l 1·11d , .. I lo ]". 11r1 ·11:11;il"''.I '"
i11sl ru cti o11 in 11 al11 rn l history, they gTad11 nll y
ass um e a more se i<'11tifi c e harnctc·r, a nd thus a
l(·di11g of progT< ·ss is s :1st:ii11< •d in tl1< : p11pik
rni11d . I t has hcc11 fo m1d , ind eed , hy long·
PXpcri l'll CP , tha t 110 l< ·~;so11s produ c<" 111on· co11 ti1111 l'd in l<·rc•s l., or ll H1 r1· <•11larg·e th e rni11ds of
c hildrcu, lhan th ose 011 OeJ ECT S.

C. l\J AY O .
C H EAM,

D i::c. 15, 182 9.

CONTENTS.

FIRST SERIES.
Page
INTROD UCTOR Y R E M A RKS • . •• • •• • ••••• • • ' • •• ' . '

I

LEssoN J, Glnss . .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. , . ...... ,

5

IJ. Indian Rubber .. . ........ , ••. . . , • • . . • •

G

Ill. Leather...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

IV. Lonf Sugar ... . . . ....•.......... ,....

Io

V . A Piece of Gum Arabic.......... . .....

II

VI. Sponge... .. .................... . ... .

12

VU. Wool... . . . . . • • • . . . . . . • . . . • • . • . . . . . .

13

Vl!I . Water •... : ........... .. ............

13

IX. APiecc ofWnx . • •• •.•....... . .. .. . ..

14

X. Camphor .••..••.. : , ........ ,..... . .. .

15

XI. Bread .................... . .. . .... . ..

16

b

:j

:
1:0NTENTS.

XII

Page

Page
35

I8

IX . A Thimble...... .. ........... . .....

3G

XIV. Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . •

19

X. A Penknife .. . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .

36

XV. Blotting Paper .................... .

19

XT. A Key ............ . ............. . .

37

XVI. A Piece of Willow ......• .........

20

XII. A Cup .. ........ .. ...... ........ ·

38

XVII. lVTilk ............. .. . .......•.•...

21

XIII . A Coffee Berry ..... . ......... ..... .

39

XIV. A Pair of Scissars

'10

17

XIII. \Vhalehonc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. ~

XVIII. Rice

21

XIX. Salt

:22

XX. Horn........................... .

23

XXL I vary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

XXII. Chalk

.. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

XXIII. A Piece of the nark of the Oak Tree . .

2;,

LRSSON

.,
I

THUtD
l NTHOOUCTORY

SECOND
'

i'

I I

;

SJ~RIES.

REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • . . .

26

I. A Pin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

27

II. A Cube of Wood ....•.•......... , • . • . .

28

III. An Uncut Lead Pencil. . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .

2!1

IV. A Pen.................... . .........

30

V. A Wax Candle... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

31

VI. A Chair ..•.. ... _. • . • . . . . . . . . . • . • • • . •

32

VII. A Book ....... , ....•.. •. ...•...••..••

33

INTRODUCTORY
LESSON

SElUE~.

. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .-.. . .

4t

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

i}~

II. A Halfpenny. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

44

Ill. Mu stard Seed... .. .. . ... .. . . . ........

4G

IV. An Apple ..................... .·. . . . . . .

47

V. Glass of a Watch .. ... ..... .. : ".... . . . . . .

49

VI. Brown Sugar ... ....... . .... ; . . . . . . . .

50

VII. An Acorn. ...... ... ..................

51

VIII. A Piece of Honey-Comb...... . . . . . . . . . .

52

IX. Refined Sugar... . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

!i3

X. A Cork..............................

54

XI. Glue................................ .

!l5

XII. Packthreatl ...•........ . ... . ... . .....
h 2

5G

l . E~ 50N

'l

XIII

VIII. An Egg .•................. · · · · · · · ·

LESSON XIJ. Sealing Wax ...... . .......... · · · ···

I~

l

CONTENTS.

I.

RF.MARKS

J\ (~t1ill

XIV

CONTENTS.
CONTENTS .

LESSON xnr. Honey...... • • . . . . . . .. . • • • . . . . . . . . •

xv

Page

5G

XIV. Butter-cup ....... . ..•.............

\7

XV. Lady-bird .........•.•.•...••.....•

58

XVI. An Oyster ........................ .

59

XVII. A Fir Cone .........•••.....•...•••

GO

ON LIQUIDS.
Page

LESSON VIII. \Vatcr

XVIIL Fur .•.......•......•....•....•.••

••....•.•.....••....•...

82

IX . Oil ••. •••.. ..•.•...•...... .....

84

X. Beer •.••..•..••••...•.........

85

XIX. A Laurel Leaf. ... . ...........•.•..•

G3

XI. Foreign White Wine ... ...•.. •....

XX. A Needle .......................... .

87

G4

XII. Vinegar ..........•....••.......

XXL A Stone ••......•.•.•........••...

88

6!l

XIII. Ink ............•.•...••••......

89

XIV. Milk •.•••... ..••••• .. .• •.•. .•.

!JO

JcOLJRTH SERLES.
F 1FTH SERIES .

I

ON SPICES.

INTRODl!CTORY REMARKS ......•.. · •...•... . ...
LESSON I. Camphor ..... . ................... .

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ....•.. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

G7

LESSON I. Pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .

68

III. Putty ........................... .

95

70

IV. Shell Lac ..••.•..• • •.....•...•. •...

96

72

V. Butter ..•...••...•••......•.•...•.

97

VI. Cheese ..... •....... .......•• . · · · · ·

97

II. Nutmeg ................... '.. '......
III. Mace

.... .. .. .. . . .. .. .. ...... .. ..

IV. Cinnamon

. . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . • . . . .

74

, V. Ginger • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • . . . . . .

7G

VI. Allspice.. . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. A Clove ................. .-.. .. .. . ..

II. \Vax Candle ••........•.....•...•..•

t.

VII, liorn

•••.•.•.. .. .•.. ..... . • . · .• · ·

98

77

VIII. Honey • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . • • . . . .

!J9

78

lX. Starch . . • • . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . .. . . . . .

9!)

X. Saffron . .. ..... •.. ....•.. , . . . . . • . . .

100

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

XVI

X \'II

Pagc:LES SON

XI. Court Plaistcr . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .

l Ol

XII. Glu e • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l 02

XIII. Tamarinds . . ....... .. .. . ... . .... ..

103

XIV. Indian Rubber, or Gur:aElastic. .....

104

XV. Foreign Currants.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 Ofi

XVI . Cork.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I or.

XVII. Leather.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .

l Oi

XVIII. Sponge... ....... . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .

10.8

X IX. Coffee • , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .

l 09

XX. Tea . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

110

XXL TI.ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111

Sa ~ o .. .. . .. . . ... . ... . . .. . .. . . . . .

11 :!

\.XI! .

ON METALS.
Page
INTRODUCTORY REMARRS........ . . . . . . .. . . . . . .

134

T. r,:ssoN XXXVII. Gold . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

1:-17

XX.XVIII. Si lver

\\'li al chon c . .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. ... . . .

XX \'ll. Glass . .... ... . . . .. .

XXXIX. Quicksil ve r, or Mercury.. .. .. ..

14.3

XL. Lead •. •• •..•..•.•..•. , ... ,..

147

XLI. Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 l

XLIT. Iron . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

l 5G

X LIT I. Tin .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . ..

I G2

X U V . C n m prrr is rm of i\lctals . ........ .

[(j'i

Q l ; f' s TJ O N S CN Tll E

XXIV. Dread

xxv r.

13'.I

X LV. On Metals

XXJTI. Tl1 c \(>C fl:t ?\u ! ... . .. .. . ........ . . .

XXV. Sugar

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

J(, (j

fllJ.: TA r. s

\G R

I lli

;l
I'

l l7

l

ON

1·'.,\ HTllS.

l~

l .FS •;r1 c.;

[ '.' i i

\!.\'!.

L i lllf' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I

...

~ -,

X\ l X . l'a'p 01·

121

\ I. VII. S i!IC'rr . . . . . ....... . ... . ... .. . . . .

I 7G

XX X . \Vool

124

X J.\' lll . Aluminc, or ,\ rg il. .... .... ... ...•

180

. ....... ................. .

18G

XX \l. Co tto n

XXXII. Flax

...... ....... . ........ .......

XXXIII. Hemp
XXXIV. Silk

l -"
"-

126
128
I '.~9

XXXV .. Felt

XXXVI. Porcelain

132

~

I

LEssoN XLIX. Coal

L . Granite .. .. .......... • .... . ....

189

... .. ..... ... .. .. ... ... ....

190

LIL Slate ............. • •..•... . ... .

194

........................

196

LI. Salt

Lill. Coral

CONTENTS.

XVIII

ON THE SENSES.
Page

LEssoN LIV. INTRonucToRY rdMARKs •••...•••.

198

LV. Feeling or Touch...... . . .. • . . . . • . .

200

LVI. Sight • . . . . . • • • • . . . • . • . . • • . . . . • •

203

LVII. Hearing . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . • • . .

204

LESSONS ON OBJECTS.

20G

LVllI. Smell
LIX. Taste ..•........ _.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
VocABULAR Y....

. . .. .. ... . .. . . . .

207

FIRST SERIES.

209

INTRODUCTORY

•

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1,

I
I

REMARKS.

To lea<l children to observe with attention the
o~jects which smround them, and then to
describe with accuracy the impressions they
convey, appears to be the ·first step in the
business of e<l1.cation.
The ceaseless activity of the perceptive
faculties, which characterizes the period of
childhood, shews that this is the point at which
instruction would most naturally commence.
It gives animation to the dull, and precision to
the lively; it promotes that clearness of apprehension, which is the solid basis of afterattainment,-without which, our judgments are
unsound, and our reasonings inconclusive. As
the sphere of observation is enlarged, and the
pages of history, or the fields of science, are
Il

2

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Fl RST SERIES.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

explored, the mind accustomed to accurate investigation will not rest content with less than
satisfactory evidence, either iu morals or in
science.
The present work cons~"ts of five seri es of
lessons, each of which increases in difficulty as
the pupil advances. The onhr observed in them
is the result of some experi ence, and of several
trials, which have produced a strong conviction
of the importance and value of a methodical
arrangement, and of a ver y gradual progression.
It is th erefor e recommenil eu that. no step in the
course shoulu be altogether omittcu, though th e
age and talents of the children must regulate the
time bestowed on eac h.
The first sene
resrnts a selection of miscellaneous o ~ e cts, every one possessing some
distinguishing quality, yet so arranged as to hav<'
an obvious connection ·w ith what has preceded.
The children shou ld be pia".tised in remarking
those ualities observn]Jl e b the sim le o 1era.ti u
of the ex.te ·nal senses. deferring ti ll a more advanced period, those requiring a hig·her exercise
of mind.
It is very important that in any course of instruction, some defiuite ohject should be proposed, and that every step should have a tendency
towards the end in view. Thus, in the series under
consi<l cration , t he developemc11t of the perceptiv e
faculties is aimed at, and each seuse is called
into action for the attainment of the object.

One lesson is drawn out fully as a specimen
of th e ma1111er in which the others sho11 hi be
given. It would have extended the vo lume to
an unnecessary length , and fill ed it with needl ess
repetitions, had each been made out with equal
minuteness . :M uch information mi ght hav e been
thrown into the preliminary set; but as the end
proposed was rather to excite the mental powers
to activity, than to provide them with knowledge, it has been purposely avoided.
It may perh aps be necessary to guard against
the error of ex pecting, in a work like the present,
anything more th an hints as to the mode of arran!l;ing an<l impartin g knowledge . The teacher
must be prev iously wcll-i11form ed, in order to
meet the inquiries which the active minds of
chiklrcn continu ally suggest. Their questions
w i II g-011era.ll y point 0 11 t the best mode of treatinµ:
a su l~j ec t, or of leading them to the discovery
of any trnt.h. "Pr0cise un vary ing- rules may lw
laid (low11 for mcch:rnicnl operat.ions, hu t mind
a lone can act upon mind , a nd bring it into
vigorous exercise ; and all instru ction must be
dry and u11i11tf' resti11 g, which has not undergone
sorn e modili cation from t.h e person by whom it.
is communicated. T
· - · v. r
which teachers are likely to fall;
or teM 111g· too much to t heir pupils.
1ey may
receive the information with pleasure, and appear
to profit by it; but a great evil arises from such
a mode of instruction ; their minds remain almost.

1

B 2

4

flRST SERIES.

passive, and they acquire a habit of receiving
impressions from others, at a time when they
ought .to be ~aini11g.me11tal ~er bJ the e~ertion
of their own faculties. <Al10t4er n stata 1s that
of g·iving a term, before the pupi: hciifelt his
want of it. " Then the idea of any quality has
been formed in his mind, without his being
able to express it, th e name given under such
circumstances, fixes it on the memory ; thus,
when a child observes that whalebone, after
having been b ent, return s to its original position,
h e may he told that this property which he has
discovered is called clastic.1
The following pages were written originally
with 110 vi ew to p11 Iii icatio11, b11 t nwrcl y for the
11~c of thn ~chool in which they were givcu;
and the information they contain was drawn
from various sources. No memorandum being
made at the time, it would now be impossible
to assign each passage to it:, respective author,
though it is probable that those acquainted with
the popular works on the subjects here treated
of, may detect, in some places, almost literal
q notations.
1 The writer designs particularly to enforce this remark,
having in one or two instances · seen the lessons altogether
misused.-Thus the qualities were told, and the explanatbn
of them given, instead of the object being presented to the
children, that they might make their own observation3
upon it, and require from the teacher terms for qualitic~
clearly discerned, though unknow,n by name.

GLASS.

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i)

L_ESSON I.
GLASS.
GLASS has been selected as the first substance
to he presented to the children, because the
qualities which characterize it are quite obvious
to th e senses . The pupils should be arranged
before a black board or slate, upon which the
result of their observation sho11ld be written.
The utility of haviu~ the lesson presented to
the eyes of each child, with the power of thus
recallirH.?; at.tent.ion to what has occurred, will
very soon be appreciated by the instructor.
The glass should be passed round the party
to he examined by each imlividual.l
TEACHER. " That is this which I hold in my
lurnd?
C1-uLnREN. A piece of glass.
TEACHER.
Can you spell the word
" glass" ?
(The teacher then writes the word " glass "
upon the slate, which is thus presented to the
whole class as the subject of the lesson.) You
1

By this means each individual in the class is called
upon to exercise his own powers on the object presented ; the subsequent questions of the teacher tend
only to draw out the ideas of the chiltlren, and to correct
them if wrong.

Ii

FIRST SEHIF.S.-LESSON

have all examined this glass; what do you
observe? " ' hat can you say that it is? 1
CHILDREN.
Jt. is hri (4)1t.
TEACHER.
(Teacher lmving written t11e
word "qualities," writes und er it.-It is brig;ht.)
Take it in your hand, a.ndjcd 2 it..
CHILDREN.
It is cold. (Written on the
hoard under tlw fnrnwr q11a.lit.y.)
TEACHER.
Feel it again, and compare it
with the piece of sponge that is tied to your
sht0 . :rnd th0n tPll 111<' wlrnt you JlPrf'f'iVP 111
I lw ~l:1s:-;.~
('.HJLDHEN.
TEACHER.

C:LASS.

I.

l 1 is s111oollt --i1 is h'1rd.
'Vhat other glass is there in the

room ?
C11n.nREN.

The windows.
Look out at the window, and tell
me what you sec .
CHILDREN.
'Ve see the garden.
TEACHER.

1 Thi x question is· pnt instcnll of asking, "What arc its
qualities? " because the children would not, at first, in
all probability, under$tand th e meaning of the term; its
fr equent application, however, to the answers to this
question, will short.ly familiarize them to it, and teach
them its meaning.
~ Th e art of th e teacher is to put such questions as may
lead successively to th e exe rcise of the different senses.
3 The object of the teacher here is to lead th e pupil to
the observation of the qu ality smooth, and he does so by
making him contrnst it with the opposite quality in another
substance; a mode of suggestion, of which frequent use
may be made.

7

(Closes the shutter.) Look out
again, and tell me what you observe.
CtHLDREN.
We cannot sec anything.
TEACH ER.
\V hy cannot yon see anything·"?
C 11 rLDREN. 'ye can11ot sec through the
TE,\CHER.

:-;huttcrs.
TEACHER.
\\' hat difference do you observe
IH'twcc11 the shutters and the glass?
CttJLDREN.
\Ve cannot sec! t.hroug·h the
sh u U.crs, h11 t we can through the gfass.
TEACHER.
Can ynu tp(\ tnP anv wnnl that
\\ill <·x111·css this c111;1lity \\·hich yo;t ohscnrp in

I Ill_: gbss

!

CtllLDJlEN.

No.

I will tell you then; pay atte11tion, that. you may reco llect it. It is transparen t.1 ·" ' hat shall yo11 now 1111dersta.nd when
I tPll yon tlrnt a. s11hsta11c0 is transparent?
CHILDREN.
That you can sec through it.
TEACl!Ell.
You a.re right.. 2 Try and recollect something that is t.ransparent.
TEACIIEIL

1

The fact of the glass bei ng tran sparent is so familiar to
the children, that they will probably not observe it till its
great use in consequence of t i·at quality brings it forcibly
before their minds. They then feel the want of a term to
express the idea thus furmcd, and the teacher gives them
the name, as a sign for it, and in order to impress it upon
their minds. To ascertain whether they have rightly comprehended the meaning of the word they are called upon to
give examples of its application.
2
It is but too common a practice to call a child good
because he gives a right answer, thus confounding intellectual truth and moral virtue.

',

INDIAN RUBBER.-LEATHER.

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON I.

CHILDREN. 1Vater.
TEACHER. If I were to let tris glass fall,
or you were to throw a ball at the window,
what would be the consequence~
CHILDREN. The glass woul<l be broken. It
is brittle.
TEACHER. If I used the shutter i11 the same
manner, what would be the consequence?
CHILDREN. It ·would not break.
TEACHER. If I gave it a heavy blow, with
a very hard substance, what would happen?
CHILDREN. It would then break.
TEACHER. 1Vould you therefore call the
wood brittle?
Cnn.nREN. No.
TEACHER. What substances then <lo you
call brittle.
CHILDREN. Those which are easily broken.

\

LESSON JI.
INDIAN RUBBER.
This substance has been chosen that the class
may observe the qualities opaque, elastic, i1if?,ammable. The first would be made clear to th em
hy contrasting the Indian rubber with the glass
of the preceding lesson; the second by stretching it, and allowing it to resume its former
shape; the third, by setting it on fire.
Qualities

of Indian

Rubber.

It is opaque.
· elastic.
inflammable.
black.
tough.
smooth.

These are probably as ma:-y qualities as would
occur to children at their first attempt, which
being arranged on the slate, form an exercise in
spelling·. They should then be effaced; and if
the pupils are able to write, they may endeavour
to remember the lesson, and put it down on
their slates.

Uses-To rub out pencil-marks; to make balls.

LESSON III.
LEATHER.
Ideas to be developed by the examination of
this substance,flexible, odorous, durable:

.

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10

FIHST SERIES .-LESSON IV.

Qualities

A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC:.

11

It is brittle.
hanL
sweet.
white.

of Leather.

I t is fl ex ibl e.
odorous.
watl'r-1Jroof.

sparkling.
solid .

tough.

opa<[llP .

smootl1.

duraole.

Usc. -To sweeten our food.

opa1111P.

Uses - }\ir slmcs; glm-ps; rt>im' ; saddh·s ;
portmanteaus; for binding hook:-< .

LESSON l V.

L E~ :-\O N

Y.

A PIECE OF GUl\l ARAIHC .

lJ(;as to be J eyd opc<l by this lcssoll,
LOAF S lJC ; ,;i:.

ir1111s7w1ntl, w l/1csice.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, soln&le,

Qualities uf Gum Arabic.

fusible, sparkling.

It is hard.
bright.
ye llow.
semi-transparent.
soluble in water.
adhesive when melted.
solid.

Qualities of L orif Sugar.

It is soluble.
fu si ble. 1
1
Th e difference between fu sibility and solubility may be
r endered obvious to the children by dissolving one piece of
suga r in water and holding another over t he candle. If un y
experiment be n ecessary to ex hiuit the quality of an obj ect,
the operation shoul d be performed before the children, that.
they may th emselves observe it.

u:~e -To

unite light and thin substances.

scn11 -

12

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON VI.

WOOL.-WATtm.

LESSON VI .

LESSON VII.

SPONGE.

WOOL •

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, porous,
absorbent.

Qualities of Wool.

. i.

13

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Qualities of Sponge.

'

It is porous.
absorbent. 1
soft.
tough.
opaque.
elastic.
dulJ.
fl ex ible.
light brown.

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Use.-For washing.

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The quality of absorbing will be made obvious to th e
class, by shewing th at the sponge sucks up any liquid. It
possesses this quality in consequence of its being full of
pores. The use to which an object is applied, often leads
to the observation of the quality upon which the use is
dependent.

It is soft.
absorbent.
white.
flexible.
elastic.
tough.
durable.
opaque.
dry.
light.
Uses.-For making cloth; flannels; blankets;
carpets ; stockings ; &c.

LESSON VIII.
WATER.

ldeas to be developed by this lesson, liquicl,
r~f/ective, glassy, tasteless, inodorous.

FIHST SEH 1FS.- LESSO N

TX .

\\' ;\ X . -CA"'.\f PHO IL

Qualities of Water.

Qualities of tVax.

l t is soli<l.

It is liquid.
rcfl cc ti ve.
glassy.
colourless .
inodorous. 1

tasteless. \
transpareu t.
heavy.
bright.
wholes< 11nc.

purifyi11g.

/'

op:i que.
dull.
tough.
fusible.
sticky.
yellowish.
hard .
odorous.
smooth.

Vse,-To make candles and tapers.

".:tj.. ..

.:r
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Uses.-To cleanse; to fertilize ; to drink ;
for culinary purposes.

!!,,
:;

L:ESSON X.
LESSON IX.
t

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A PIECE OF WAX.

This substance is here introduced , heca11~1, it
111a11 y oft lw q 11a 1i l jp:-; a.lread y r<:>11rnrk'""'d.

CAMPI-J".:;.i~.

Ideas to he developed by this lesson, aromatic,
ji·iable, volatile.
Q1Nli.ties

ef Camphor.

possesses

In order t o di rect th e att enti on of t h e class t u th e 1<nc •·
of the syllables /!' SS and ·in, t he t e3cher woul d ask,-\Vh nt
is meant by tasteless ? Having no taste. What is meant by
inodorous? Having no odour. Jn what are th ese words
alike? They both t ell us what th e s ubstance is not. T l1ey
1

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It is a rorn a tic.
eas ily cru mb ling· , or fr iable .
tnatk then the absenr.r. of a 'lnality. \Vhat syllables of th e
words mark this absence of the quality? less and in. Give
exampl es of words in which less and in are so used.

..

lG

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON XI.

SEALING WAX.

It is white.
semi-transparent.
bright.
soluble in spirits.
hard.
solid.
very inflammable.
medicinal.
light.
volatile.

17

It is edible.
The crum is yellowish white.
soft when new.
moist.
The crust is hard.
brittle.
brown.
Use.-To nourish.

Uses.-For medicine; to prevent infection;
to preserve cabinets from small insects.

LESSON XII.
)/

SEALING .. WAX.

Idea to be developed by this lesson, impressible.

LESSON XI.

Qualities

BREAD.
'

~'

Wax.

It is hard.
brig·ht.
brittle.
fusible.
opaque.
soluble in spirits.
lig·ht.
solid.
smooth.
coloured.t

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, edible,
wholesome, nutritious.
Qualities of Bread.

It is porous.
absorbent.
opaque.
solid.
wholesome.
nutritious.

of Sealing

1

The colour may be determined by the specimen presented.

c

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON Xlll.
GINGER. -

It is inflammable.

BLOTTING PAPE IL

odorous.

"\Vhcn fused, it is soft.

LESSON XlV.

impressible.
adhesive.

GINGER.

Usi:.-To seal letters .

J1fra to oe d eveloped by this lesson, p1mgent.
Qualities of Ginger.

Jt is p11ng;ent.

LESSON XII J.
WHALEBONE.

'

Idea to be developed,.fibrous.
(jua lilics of TV!ia lcbull(:.

dull.

h:ml.
dry.
fi !nous.
aromatic.
t o11 gh .
o p;1 <{ ll C.

It is clastic.1
d mah le.
hard.

tibrous.
opaque.

bright.
stiff.

wh nlrsn rn c.
stiff.
lll l'di c in a l.
jag·g·t d.
light brown.

•

1

Uses .-To flavour food; for medicine.

Uses.-As a stiffner; for whips; bludgeons; &c.

LESSON XV.
1

The class should be led to compare the elasticity of
whalebone, with that of Indian Rubber, and to obsene
the difference.

BLOTTING PAPER.

l<lea to be developed by this lesson, pinkish.

c

2

I!)

20

F.IRST SERIES.- LESSON XVI.
MILK.-RICE.

!sh added to words expressive of quality, ge11Prally denotes the presence of the quality, but ill
a moderate (lf~gree.

21

It is flexible.
white.
odorous.

Qualities of Blotting Paper.

lt is absorbent.

LESSON XVJT.

porous.

soft.
thin.
pinkish.
pliable.
dull. ·
i nfi amma.b le.
easily torn.

MILK.

Qualities of Mille.

It is white.
fluid.
li1p1id .

r

oparptC' .

Use.-To suck ltp superfluous ink .

soft.

L

\\' Jio]('SOlll!' .

\

.r

grca"Y·

nutritious.

LESSON XVI.

SWCC't.
I 'sf's .--To 111ak1~ clH'!'"<' ; li11Ucr; p11ddings ;

.'\ P IECI•: OF WJLl.O\\'.
i 'l

Quu{ilics of lf'illu 1c

lt is hard.
in ti :1111rnab le,

ti hr()ll" .
d1ill.
opaque.

so lid.
elastic.

!''''f'

.J 1i 11 k .

"

LESSO.N XVI n.
HIC E .

Qualities of Rice.

l t is white.

hard.

J

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON XIX .

It is opaque.
smooth.
stiff.

HORN .-IVORY.

LESSON XX.

brig-ht.
solid.
porous.
absorb r nt.

Qualities of a I-lur;1.

wholesome.

It is hard.

A HORN.

nutritious.

U:.e.- To nourish.

;

L:ESSON XIX.
SALT.

ldeas to be developed by this lesson,granulou;;-,
wline, sapid.

Qualities of Salt.
It is white.

•
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dull.
uneven.
hollow.
odorous when burnt.
tapering.
opaque.
stiff.
yellowish brown.
fibrous.
Uscs.-To make combs ;

gl ue ;

f

\.
[

Ii
I

lanterns ;

li :111 .J k -; to kniv1 ·s anil forks .

sp:1rkl in(.!. .
~1<111u lous.

c- :iJ I .

or :-<OI Ji111·.

lia rd.
o p:1q11f'.
:-<ul 11 Iii P.
fosi 11IL· .

sapid, or has taste.

Uses.-To flavour food ; to preserve from
putrefaction; to manure land.

'!

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;

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IVORY .

l

J

Qualities qf Ivory.

It is hard.
white.
i

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24

FJRST SERIES.-LESSON XXlT.

IlARK.

25

It is smooth.
bri ght.
opaque.
solid.
durable.

LESSON XXIII.
PIECE OF THE IlARK OF THE OAK TREE.

Qualities of Bark.

It is brown.

LESSON XX CI.
f
CHALK.

ldPa. t.o he 1kvdope1l hy this lesson, ":f!er vescenf.l

Qualities of Chalk.

It is white.
friabl e.
effervesce11t in acids.
opaque.
dull.
hanl.
solid.
dry .

ru gged.
opaque.
dry.
inflammable.
stiff.
solid.
durable.
fibrous.
<lull.
astringent.t
inside smooth.

Uscs.-To guard the tree from InJUry; for
tannin g .
I The children may be made to understand the quality
of astringency, by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced by eating a sloe.

,I

1

This quality may be made apparent to the chiklrc11 l)y
putting the chalk in vinegar.

\,

SECOND 8ETtlE~.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IN this series the children should be much
exercised upon the qualities already remarked,
but these should now be pm.tmted to them in
other objects. This repetition combines with
the advantag·e of fixing the lrnowledg;e acquired,
that of enabling them to form the abstract idea
of the quality.
Having had all their senses broug-ht into
action, they may be led to determine the sense
by the exercise of which any particui!ar property
was observed : thus, ' How did you find out
that p;lass was transparent?' ' By my eyes.'
' )\That can you do with your eyes ? ' ' See.'
' Seeincr
is called a sense.' ' Can vou
obtain
0
•
an idea of a quality except by the sense of
sight ? ' ' Will your sight discover to you that
a rose is odorous ? ' ' How would you ascertain
this quality?' ' By what sense?' . ' By smelling.' ' By the sense of smell.' By similar
questions the class will gain a clear conception
of the several senses, and their operations. They
may next proceed to the observation of the

-

oraans of sense.
Thus, ' By what natural
e
instrument
are you able to see, hear ?'
. &'C. 'B Y
eyes, ears,' &c. Any natur.al instrument by
which somethi1w is performed, 1s called an organ.
' 'Vhat arc theb eyes ? ' ' Orp;ans. ' ' 0 rgans
of what sense? ' ' Organs of sight,' &c.
It will be a useful exercise for the children
to classify the various qualities, which they ha~e
o serve m o ~ec s, un -~e heads of the different senses by which they are discerned. They
will soon per~eive that some may be discover~d
by either of two senses; for example, fluid,
s~lirl, rough and the varieties of form, which may
be ascertained either by sight or feeling : these
should constitute another division. Thus trained
to arran[];e their ideas, children will acquire a
great rc~~<line~s in making use of their knowl-e dge, and a facility in producing· new combinations.
Jn this series, they may also be practised in
distinguishing and naming the parts of objects.

'

, I

' 'I

'

LESSON I.
A PIN.

A pin has been chosen for the first lesson,
because the parts are few, clearly marked, and
~imp le.

28

AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL.

SECOND SERIES.-LESSON II.

Parts.

Qualities.

The head.
shank .
point.

It is hard.
opaque.
white.
bright.
solid.
useful.
smooth.
cold.
the head is round.
the point is 1harp.
the shank is straight.
taper.

2!)

Qualitie.~.

Parts.

It is hard.
light.
solid.
brown.
smooth.
<lull.
inflammable.
opaque.
the surfaces arc flat.
s<piare.
the edges are straight.
the corners are sharp.

The surfaces.
e<l g·es.
corners.

\,

'

Uscs.-To keep together for a time parts
of dress, &c.

LESSON III.
AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL.

LESSON II.

.•.

A CUBE OF WOOD.

~

!

'

I

. The cube will convey to the children a good
idea of a surface; they will observe that tlw
outside is divillcd into several parts, mHI may
learn that the boundaries of a solid are calle~I
swjaces.

Vrom this ohject the chil<lren may become
:tcquainted with the cylinder, for they will not
fail to observe that the two ends are flat, and
that the other surface is curved.
Parts.

Qua.lilies.

The surfaces.
It is har<l.
ends.
odorous.
exterior or outside.
·long.

SECOND SF.IUES.-LESSON VT.

Qualities.

Parts.
The wick.
wax.
surfaces.
cuds.
edges.
top.
bottom.
milldle.
inside.
outside.

It is cylindrical.
hard.
opaque.
yellowish white.
the wax is sticky.
fusible.
the wick is inflammable.
tough.
white.
fibt~US.

flexible.
Use.-To give light.

LESSON VI.
A CHAIR.

'l'his, and several of the succeeding lessons,
are chosen on account of the great variety of the
zwrts of the objects.
Parts.

The back.
front.
seat.
top.

A CHAIR.-A llOOK.

The bottom.
frame.
legs.
straw.
edges.
upper part of the seat.
under part of the seat.
bars.
surfaces.
.corners.
It is obvious that the qualities are not named ,
because they would depend upon the kind of
chair chosen for the lesson.
It is a useful exercise to compare the relative
proportions and situations of the different part~
of an objec~. Thus, in the chair, the depth
of th e seat Is about one-half the height of the
chair; th e legs are rather shorter than the back ·
the seat is narrower at the back than the front'
&c. The legs are perpendicular, the seat hori-'
zontal, the back slanting, the bars horizontal
and parallel.

LESSON VII.
A BOOK.

Parts.
The outside.
D

SECOND

SEJUES.~LESSON

Vil.

-~
-·

AN EGG.

The insi<k
edges.

. ifi·

corners.

binding.
paper.
back.
:si<le~.

top.
bottom.
titlt>-pn g f'.

preface.
introduction. f
contents.
end.
leaves.
pages.
mar gm.
beginning.
type.
letters.
number~.

slo ps.

wonls.
sentences.
syllables.
title.
lettering.
stitching·.
lines.

Jn

LESSON VJlJ.

.1

~i,,.
kt,f! I •
'. "t i'

AN EGG.

I

1

Parts.

Qualitics.

The shell.
It is oval.
skin.
white.
white.
hard.
yolk.
eatable.
interior.
nutritious.
exterior.
opaque.
surface.
dull.
embryo, or
The shell is brittle.
future chicken.
smooth.
thin.
translucent.
The white is liquid when raw.
solid when boiled.
semi-transparent.
adhesive.
sticky.
insipid.
The yolk is yellow.
liquid.
soft.
opaque.
odorous.
sapid.
D 2

mi!

IJ.

' 1 \
.

~

Jf

iii ..

r;!

!i:
~

:l''i.' .
1

'

i .

!. ,•
\ ,

I

SECOND SERlES.-LESSON IX.
A PENKNIFE.-A KEY.

L:ESSON IX.
A THIMllLE.

Parts.

Qualities.

The i11side.
outside.
t.op.
hot.tom.

It is hollow.
silver.
punctured.
white.
bright.
opaque.

nm .

horder.

Usc.-To c ut.

l1ard.
curved.

j>Ull<:llll"l:'S.

The other qualities d epend upon the kind of
knife shown.

the inside is smooth.
the outside is rough.

Use.-To preserve the middle finger from bei11g
pricked in working.

LESSON XI.
A

LESSON X.

KEY.

Parts.

Qualities.

A PENKNIFE.

Parts,

The handlP.

37

The blade.
The blade is bright.
plat.es.
cold.
!!;moves.
hard.
f>ac k of the handle.
rl'llectiv1•.
back of the blade.
opaque.
point.
brittle.
edg·e.
the frout edg·e is thin.
notch.
sharp.
sprmg.
the back edge is blunt.
rivets.
thick.
pivot.
the handle is hollow.
heel.
ftat.

Qualities.

The blade is steel.

I
i

'f'he ring.
barrel.
wards.
grooves.
e<lges.

It is hard.
steel.
brig· ht.
cold.
opaque.
D 3

:m

SECOND SERIES.-LESSON XII.

A COFFEE BERRY.

The surfaces.
corners.

It is smooth.
stiff.
liable to rn s 1.
part of the barrel is hollow.
the barrel is cylindrica I.
th e rin g; is curved.

LESSON XIII.
''

I

A COFFEE BERRY.

Parts.

If ruastetl, it is LrO\Yll.
curved surfaces.
hard.
flat surface.
cnsp.
~IUOV C .
sapid.

Tiu , surfaces.

LESSON X II.
A CUP .

-

uh:.t"

Parts .

Tlw howl .
handle.
upper nm .
lm·v er rim
uuttorn .
inside.
outside.
edges.
s urfaces.

Qualities.

Qualities.

;

It is hollow.
hard .
curved .
glo-.-.y.
smuulli.
glazed.
cold.
brittle.
thin.

llSPfuJ .
semitransparent.
the ri111 is circular.

,.
I

<ll'(l!ll<lfic .

stimulating.
a µ;rcf'a l )I 0 Io
the taste.
dull.
solid.

if 1111roasl.ed , dingy ye llow.
inodor011 s .

disagreeable
to the taste.

Use.-To make a beverage .

40

SECOND SERIES.-LESSON XIV.

LESSON XIV.
A PAIR OF SCISSARS.

THIRD SERIES.
Parts.

The limbs.
bows.
blades.
shanks.
rivets.
pivot.
points.
surfaces.

Qualities.

It is steel.
bright.
reflective.
har<l.
opaque.
cold .
useful.
solid.
the blades are pointed.
one surface is flat:
the other curved.
the front ed~c sharp.
the back bluut.
the bo\>YS are curved.

Uses.-Tlie children should name the kind
of materi~ls which scissars will cut, and point
out the different manner in which knives and
scissars cut.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IN this series the children may be led to the
observation of q1J!.llities which cannot be di;k!cerned merelLJiy the ontwanl senses. Thus hy
sTiowmg them at the same time wool and woollen
cloth, and questioning them as to the difference
of the two, they will readily form the ideas
of natural and artificial. In this manner they
may be led to remark the distinction between
foreign and native, exotic and indigenous, animal,
vegetable. mineral, &c.
They may 11uw be called upon to give an
explanation of the terms they use, and assisted
by the teacher, to trace their derivations. A few
explanations, adapted to the capacities of chil<lren, are g·iven at the end of the Volume.

42

Tllrn n SERIES.- LESSON I.

A QUILL.

The pith.
skin.

LESSON I.
A QUILL.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson.:_
natural, arti:ficial, animal, vegetable, animate,
inrinimate. A pe11 should he ;;l 10wn at t.lie same
time with the quill. The11 the children being
q 11estio11ed as to what constitutes the essential
difference between the two, will understand the
terms natural and arti:ficid. If some fruits or
flowers be placed by the quill, their attention
may be directed to t.llf~ distinction lwt.wPPn
animal and vegetab le s11hsta.11cPs. The comparison of the qnill with an insect, will elicit
the ideas of animate and inanimate.

Qualities.

Parts.

Th,, (111ill .
shaft.
(-'fl cl s.
feather.
lamina:.
inside.
ouhi1l1'.
edg:es .
groove.
surfaces.

It.

i:.;

long.
stiff.
llSPfo

J.

natural.
in:.wimatc.
:.1.1 1i111al pn1dm:l.i1111.
1111• han(·l is 1ra11sp:1rv11t.
hard.

elastic.
bright.

43

the barrel is yellowish.
cylindrical.
hollow.
light.
the shaft is feathered.
white.
stiff.
hard. '
opaque.
solid.
angular.
grooved.

Children may be led to remark the difference
which lire produ ces on animal and ycgeta.blc
substances both i11 a.ppeara.1H.:e am! smell.
The Teacher 11ow requires the class to gino
an explanation in their ow1f words, of the terms
th ey have used: and also helps them to trace
the 1ler ivatio11s of words, and to mark the force
of partic1ilar syilal>l•·s . 1
TEACHER. Give me cxampkis of wor<ls of the
s:tl!H' f(•rrni11atio11, as lls<·f11l .
CtllLDREN.
Careful, &c.
TEACHER.
"'hat is the force of that tcrmi11aJio11 ?
C111LJJl~E,'\.
It expresses t.l 1c q11ality i11 :1
gTcat <lcgrcc.
1 The radical or invariable part of the word is printed in
Roman characters, the termination in Italics. ·

: :

'

'

~·!

'

i

'-

Ii

' .'

I·'

44

A HALFPENNY.

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON II.

1''hat is the c pposite of use Jul ?
CHILDREN.
Use lPss.
TEACHER. Give examples of this termination.
TEACHER.
l<'rom what is mifmal dPrivf'd?
CHJLDREN.
Nature.
TEACHER.
From what is " i11:rnimnt1·"
<lcrived?
CHILDREN.
·From in which has tlw sense of
not, and animate.
TEACHER. Animate is derived from amrn a,
a latin wor<l, which sig:nifies life. Transparent.
is derived from tra.ns, tl1rn;1.gh., and par ens,
appearing. Give other words derived from parTEACHER.

cns, appcarin:;.
C IIILDirnN. Apparent, Apparition .
TEACHER. From what is cylindrical derived?
CHILDREN.
h·om cvlind~r.
TEACHER. Cylinder i~ derived from the Greek
Kvluvdw (lcylindo) I roll.

The milling·.
.
.
1mpress1011.
image.
Sll j HTscri ptio11.
rcv<·rsc.
date.

It is rn i ncral.
metallic.
opaque.
bright.
copper.
,,,,,
cold.
reddish brown.
fusible.
hard.
orlorous.

artificial. J
heavy.
tlurable.
lllH'Vl''ll ,

. l\J~dP fr~im copper ore, which contains sulphur
m 11111011 with cnppf'r; thP :"11ipl111r forcPd off hy
smelti11~ . Starn pl liy a die which is caused t~
fall upon the eu i11 with great viulerrce.

Remarks on 1'Vords.

LESSON II.

Mineral, is derived from
•..•.•.••••
Fusible, ..••...••.•• ,
Artific ial, ••••.••••• ,

Metal lie,

A HALFPENNY.

Ideas to be d eveloped in this lesson, mineral,
metallic.

Dur able, •• , • , ..... , • ,

Parts.
The surfaces.
edges.

Mine.
Metal.
To fuse.
Art e, by art.
fac ere, to make.
Dura re, to last.

Qualities.

It is round.
flat.

1

The class should be led to remark, that thou<>h
the
0
workmanship is artificial, the substance is natural.

4G

47

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON III.

AN AP PLE.

T EACHER.
D o you know any other word s
derived from dmare?
C H ILDREN.
D11 rat irn1, dm;ng, 1·ndml'.

Remarks on FVords.

P un µ; ent, is derived from, Pung· ere, to prick.
Pulv er aide, .....•..... Pnlv is, dust.
I 11dig·p11 uus, ..........•• lndigcn a, nativ(', or
produced i11 a country.
LE~SON

1 II.

!llUSTAlW SEED.

LESSON IV.

lcleas to be clev clopctl in t.hi::; lesson, uuligu17u1li'cral1lc.

AN APPLE.

011s ,

(21w!itics .

It is ':(dH·rical.

(}_llafilifS.

con·.
pips.

lt is pungent.
dnll.
yellow .
u µa1p1c .

hard.

dry.
pulverable.
Hatural.
ind ig·enous.
veg·etable.
s pheri cal.
solid.
stimulating.

I

j

pcd.
pulp.
J lllCC .
stalk .
surface.
inside.
outsi<le.

lniL!.l1t.
odorous .
coloitr('ll.
O(l<U[llP.

natural.
vegetable .
JUICJ.

hanl .
m ce.
solid .

pl easant.
the eye is dry.
brown.
shrivelled.

48

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON

GLASS

IV.

the pips are brown on the outside
when ripe.
white in the inside.
pointed oval.
ha.rd.
bright.
the core is membranaceous.
stiff.
yellow.
hard.
semi-transparent.

Sphcr ical., is dcrive«l from ~plu ~ rc.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar terminations ?
CHILDREN. Cylindr ical, critical, con ical.
Odorous, is derived from, odor, scent.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar terminations ?
CHILDREN. Indigen ous, nutritious.
Vegetable, is derived from veget. are, to grow
as a plant.
TEACHER. Name other words derived from
this.
CHILDREN. To vegetate, vegetation.
Juicy, is derived from Juice.
TEACHER. Give some other instances irt
which the names of qualities are derived from
those of substances in a similar manner?

WATCH.

CHILDREN.
Stone, stony; milk, milk y;
water, water y.
Semi-transparent, is derived from Semi, trans.
through, and 7wrens, appearing.
TEACHER. 1Vhat is the meaning of semi ;>
CHILDREN. Half.

LESSON V.
GLASS

Remarlcs on Words.

OF A

OF

A WATCH.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, concave,
and convex.
Parts. 1

Qualities.

It is artificial.
transparent.
brittle.
bright.
thin.
hard.
clear.
cold.
curved.
useful.
1

The children should be asked whether there are any
parts to this object peculiar to it; anrl as there are not,
the consideration of the parts had better be omitted.
E

THIRD SERTES.-I.ESSON \ "J.

the upper surface is convex.
the under surface concave.
the edg·e circular.
Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch
from being injured, and to keep the works
from dust.

LESSON VI.
BROWN SUGAR.

Ideas to be developed, foreign, imported.

AN ACORN.

51
Use.-To sweeten our food.
Obtained from the Sugar Cane, which 1s
cultivated in the East and West Indies.

'

Remarks on 1-Vords.

Granul ous, is derived from, Granul um, a small
grain .
Imported, ••..•••••.•••• port are, to carry,
in, into.
]~xport ed, •.•••••••••••• Ex, out, and port are.
Solu ble, ...•.•••.•••.•• Solv ere, to loosen,
because the particles may be loosened
from each other by liquids.

Qualities.
LESSON VII.

It is brown.
granulous.
sweet.
solubl e.
fusible.
opaque.
useful.
vege table substance.
arti ticial.
foreign.
sticky.
imported.
moist.

AN ACORN.

Parts.

Qualities.

The cup.
It is vegetable.
berry.
inanimate.
stalk.
natural.
point of the n:ut.
hard.
scar.
green.
scales.
opaque.
inside.
the nut is oval.
outside.
bright.
surfaces.
solid.
E 2

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON VIII.

The odg·es.

REFINED SUGAR.

{!_1e cup is dull.
the inside is concave.
smooth.
the outside is rough.
brownish.
scaly.
the edge is circular.

I,I~SSON

IX.

REFINED SUGAR.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson an·
rryRtalline, amorphous.

LESSON V111.
A PIECE OF HONEYCOMB

Parts.

The surfaces.

Parts.

Qualities.

The cells.
divisions.
edges.
base of cell::;.
corners.

It is natural.
animal production.
light.
fusible.
sticky.
dull.
semitransparent.
yellowish.
thin.
compressible.
brittle.
the cells are hexagonal.
regular.
hollow.

edges.

middl e.
crystals.
gTams.
pores.

Qualities.

It is white.
sweet.
sparkling·.
crystalline.
solid.
fosihl f'.
soluble.
shapeless or amorplwus.
hard.
refined.
nutritious.
useful.
friable.
opaque.
artificial.
vegetable.
brittle.

54

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON X.

GLUE.

Brought from the .E ast and 'Yest Indies in its
raw state. Refined by ~Jgar bakers, and sold
by grocers in loave~ of a conical form.

55

It is cylindrical.
dull.
inflammable.
vegetable.
the form is artificial.
the substance is natural.

Remarks onWurds.

Crystal l i11e, is derived from, Crystal.
Amorphous, .............. (a) 11ot, a /Mfri '1J·
( morphe) shape.
N utri tious, •...........•.• . nutri re, to nourish.

LESSON XI.
GLUE.

LESSON X.
Qualities of Glue.
A CORK .

Ideas to be developed, compressible, meagre
to the touch.
Parts.

The ends.
surfaces.
edg·es.
middle.

Qualities.

It is lig·ht.
elastic.
compressible.
opaque.
dry .
meagre to the touch.
liµ;ht brown.
solid.
porous.
smooth.

,,
I

It is translucent.
mahogany brown.
hard.
bright.
so lid.
animal substance.
artificial.
when melted it is tough.
adhesive.
sticky.
elastic.
tenacious.
Rernarlcs on 1¥ords.
'fen acious, is derived from, Ten ax, holdi11g.

Tll IRll SERIES.- LESSON Xll. :X 111.

f>7

BUTTER-CUP.

It is fluid.
thick.
liquid.
yellow.
bright.
sticky.
animal substance.
natural.
nourishing.
healing.
opaque.

LESSON XII.
PACKTJ-IREAD.

Qualities of Paclcthread.

It is dry.
dull.
twisted.
flexible.
tough.
opaq11e.
fibrous.
artiticial.
d11rahl c.
light browu.
vegetable.
inflammable.
soft.
slender.
so lid.
rough.

LT~SSON

XIV.

IHJTTE'l-C UP.

Parts.

Qualities.

It is vegetable.
The petals.
inanimate.
margins or edges.
concave.
cup.
natural.
lea.fits of cup.
stamens.
odorous.
pistils. The petals are yellow.
stalk.
glossy in the inside.
d11ll on the outside.
place of insertion.
circular.
inside.
pointed at the place
out.side.
of insertion.
surfaces.

LESSON XIII.
HONEY.

Qualities <!f 11011C!J.

It is sweet.
j

J.
'

'.

' ,.

~

~

:· 8 ..

THIRD SEHIES.-LESSON XV.

AN OYSTER.

The petals are striped.
opaque.
pliabl e .
the leati ts are g·i·eenish.
thin.
111e111 lira11ac10011s.
semi transparent.
pointed.
the staf k is g-reen.

'I'l1e spo t s.
s u rfi.H.: es.
marg 111 .
claws.

fi,TOOved.
:trl ,!.!,' 11

f;.1r.

s1iff.
li Grous.

[>!)

the outside is convex.
t he insid e is concave.
on e margin straight.
the other curved .
the win gs arc rnembrnnac co11s.
pliabl e.
thin.
transparent.
frag·il e.
the body is o val.
hlack.

1lin !t"'g·s an' .ioin tPd .
short.
bla c k.

LADY - BIRD.

l'nrts .

r
;

-

---·
~

~J t

AN OYSTElL

<Juulitil's .

Tli(' l11·:1d.
It. i~ :111i r11:rft '.
c y 1·;:;.
11;1,lural.
feelers or palpi.
hcrnisplwrical.
horns or a11te1111a~ . Th e elytraare red.
w rng·s .
spotte<l.
bright.
wing· cases or e lytra.
thorax.
har<l.
brittle.
legs.
bo<ly.
opaque.
Lack.
stiff.

/'11rts.

Q11n/i/il'S.

Tlic va.f VI 'S .
hin g-<"

It is a11illlal.

outside.
inside .

I

opaqnf'.
marme.
natural.

rn arg·m. The valves are circular.

.

.

1111 presswns.

hard.
mollusca.
stiff.
scales or lamin~.
pulverable.
Tlw outsi1les are rough.

()0

THIRD SERIES .-LESSON XV I.

The outsides are scaly or laminated.
i rreg·ular.
d11ll.
dingy brown.
1111 even .
the inside is pearly.
Luight.
smooth.
slig·htly concavL
iridesce11t.
cold.
the mollusca is soft.
eatable.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
lubricious.
Remarks on TYords.
Marine, is derived from, Mare, sea.
Laminated, . . . . . . . . . La.min a, a plate.
Iridescent, . .
. .. lrid escere, to become
like a rainho"v.
Lubricious, . . . . . . . . . Lub ricus, slippery.

61

A FIR CONE.

LESSON XVII.
A FIR CONE.

Qualities.

Parts.

It is brown.
The scales.
opaque.
seeds.
hard.
top.
place of insertion. vegetable.
fibres.
natural.
outside.
conical.
inside.
tiled or imbricated.
surfaces.
inflammable.
stalk.
odorous.
the scales are rigid.
dull.
the outside is light brown.
pointed at the top.
rough.
·
irregularly pyramidical.
the inside of scales is chesnut-colour.
shadc<l.
keeled.
Remarks on Words.

Imbric ated, is derive<l from, Imbric are, to
coverwith tiles.
- :-:: [

I!

()2

THIRD SERIES.-LESS')N XVIII.

A LAUREL LEAF.

LESSON XVIII.

LESSON XIX.

63

A LAUREL LEAF.
I

l

.~

~

f

Parts.
The ski n.
hair.
surface.
points of hair.

Qualities.
It is animal.
hairy.
inanimate.
The hairs are fl exible.
slender.
soft.
tubular.
straight.
pointed.
The skin is stiff.

The colour, and other peculiarities, to be
<lecidf><l hy the specimen pres<"nted.

__
,

-

Parts.

Qualities.

The upper surface. The upper surface is bright.
under surface.
The under surface dull.
edge or margin.
.oval.
poi11t or termination.
smooth.
vems.
pointed.
middle rib.
veg·etable.
base.
odorous.
stalk.
opaque.
Litter.
stiff.
slightly toothed.
long-.
the marp;in is cunctl.
The rib is straii.;ht~
raised, or keel ell, on the under
side.
,,
.
grooved on the upper sitlc.
I he vcms arc curved.

.

U4

A STONE.

Tl-lIRD SERIES.- I .ESSON XX.

L.ESSON XXL

LESSON XX.

A STONE.

A NEEDLE .

Parts.
The eye .

shank.
poi11t.
111i<ldlc.
top.

--

Qualities.
lL is rni11cral.
metallic .
artiiicial.
op:uptl'.
bright.

coi<l.
taprr.
poi11t<·d.
slender.

Us\·foJ.
_____j_

j
l

65

fosilill'.
!.!_Tl'Y or s\(•( ·l <·ul(lm.
Ii a rd.

urilllc.
so lid.
st1·cl.
.Ma<lc of steel, 'rhich is a prcparatiou of iro11,
having been subject to great extremes of heat
an<l cold.

Idea to be <leveloped-illorganizccl.
To ii:ive the class a11 i<l< a. of organized ~ind
inurganizcd, a plant rnit~ht be shmvn with tlH~
1

stone; and questions givC'11, such as the follm11ng.
TEACHER.

If I put these two into the earth,
and visit tlw111 i11 a mont.h , what great diffrrf'll<'f'
should I prrcr·in in them 1
C'1111.1>!{ I·: :\. Tlw pL111t \1·ill han~ grown; the
sto111· \I ill '1:111· n •111:1i11(·d t.ltc sa1111· sizP.
T1·:\c111rn.
I l llw did tl1\' pl:i11t. i11cr\'as1~ 1
('l!l l.l ll{ l'.\.
It. :1lisorhl'd lllll istm\'.
'l\:,i<ll u:.
l h \\ l1:t1 llll':lll~ I
C11ILJlltJ::\.
Tltrn11!..!,l1 its rlll1h :rnd por1·,;.
T1·:1c111rn .
Did this 111111ri,;li 011ly tlil· roois
;111d jl()f"l'S I
C1111.u1tL".
No .
Ti:ACllEJt.
Yo11 arc riµht; the sap was pro d111..:eLl which circulated tlirou!.!;h the pla11t. hy
111cm1s of vcsstds.
You remember why we call
tlw eyes, ears, &c. organs?
Cn11.nmrn. They arc natural i11stru111euts by
which somethi11g is effected.
F

.,.

( h)

I
THIRD SERIES.- Ll<:SSON XXL

" ' hat woulu you therefore ca ll
the pores, vessels, &c. of vege t<tbles?
CHJ LDREN. They are urgwis .
.
TEACHER. A body possessing organs is called
urr;anizerl : name som e: or~aniz ed bodies.
·~CH lLllHF.N . A 1n'P , an insect.
T E ACH ER.
\Yl1at sy lLthl1 ·, pl<iccd h1 ·forc a
wnnl. <'xpn •c;scs t Ii«' ali;('llC<' of a <[11ality 'I
CHILDRE N .
ln.
TE/\CH 1·:1:. \V hat wo 11 ld you call a h<1<ly
1
which is destitute uf organ:>
CI-IILDREN.
JnurgwnzHi.
TEACHE R.
:Mention some inorganize«l substances.
TEACHER.

CHILDREN.

1~arth, water.

1t is lrnrd.
cold .
in org;i n i 7:« ·1 l.

opaq U\'.
rni 11t·raL
c;cilid .
natural.
Lt is sl 1<1pd«·c;,; or arnorplrnus.
inanimate.

FOURTH
(

JN TIWDU CTORY

REMARKS.

T11 E chief aim proposed in this series is, to
exerc ise the children in arra11gi11g and classifyin~
obj ects ; thus developing a higher faculty than

that of simply observing their qualities. The
complex nperation of connecting thin gs by their
points of resemblance , and at the same time
of disti11:.:11ic<hi11:.:· tl1L'rrt irHliYi<111:1ll:' lJ)' their
points of dissimilarity, is mw of thC' highf'st
t'XPrcisrs of or1r rrason : yr t it may hr carried
0 11 i11 children at a much earlier period than is
11s11al!y i11wµ.i1w <l. if tl 1ey :rn' tr:1i1wd ttl arrall,!.!(~
tlirir ide<ic<. \\'ith this Yicw tl1P spices ha\'c
be~·11 chosc11 as fonni11~: a. co1111ected seriPs nf
ol~jcct.s.
The 111dals, liquids, ditl'!'rcnt kind,; of
wood, gTai11s, &c. arc good sulljccts for similar

lessons.

Remar!cs un TVords.

In organized is derived from Greek or;av ~v,
(organon) an instrument.

SERIE~.

I

F 2

l'OURTIL SERIES.-LESSON J.
PEPPER.

I

SPICES.
LESSON l.
PEPPER.

Qualities of P epper.

sphPr ica l.
rough.
black.
conservative.

dry.
dull.
T EAC IIER.

If it comes from a foreign country, how

do we get it ?
It comes in a ship.
This is callctl importing; and sending out
of our own country is called exporting. What do we call
this exchange of produ ctio11s ?
CHILDREN.
Trade or com merce.
T EACf!ER .
Arnl what arc the people called who carry
it on?
CHILDREN .
Merchants.

Itissapid.
pungent.
odorous.
aromatic.
medicinal.
wholesome.
useful.
stimulating.
The pepper plant is a cr~eping shrub, much
rPsemhlin g the vine, and is often called tlw
pepver vine.
It is generally planted near
some thorny bush, a mong the branches of whi ch
it entwines it.self lik e ivy. 1t produces berries
in cl11 strcs : if the fruit b e intended for black
pepper, it is not allowed to ripen, but is collec ted whilst gTeen, and rubbed by the hands
or feet., till the seeds, several of which are
contained in each berry, are separated. These are
cx pos1~d on mats to the. rays of the sun durinµ;
th e 1lay, aml a.re collede<l at night in jars tu
preserve th em fr om the <lcw. " 'hen t he berries
arc intended to he converted into white pepper ,
they arc allowed to ripen, and they then becomP
red. They are rubbed in a basket-the pulp
is removed by washing-and the seeds, which
nre white, are dried.

It is hard.
vegetable.
foreign.1
It. is a tropical production.
wrink 1011.

1

69

CHILDR E N.

TEA CHER.

I

I

70

l'OURTJ-l

SERIES.-LESSON

II.

LESSON II.
NUTMEG.

Qualities.

It is sapid.
hard.
oval.
dingy brown .
dull.
opaque.
dry.
Surface uneven.
It is vegetable.
natural.
inanimate.
foreign.
tropical production.
pungent.
conservative.
pulverable.
agreeable to the taste.
aromatic.
odorous.
The Nutmeg is the kernel of a fruit, thP
produce of a tree rcscmblin~ our c herry-trc1~,
both in size and growth. It is found in the

..

NUTMEG.

71

East Indies. The external covering of the
fruit is a hpsk: this opens when ripe, and
displays a tlun scarlet membrane, called mace :
this being carefully removed, there still remains
a woody shell which surrounds the nutmeg.
The nuts are first <lrie<l in the sun, and then
placed on a frame of bamboos over a slow fire,
until the kernels, on being shaken, rattle in
their shells.
Remarks on Words.

" Odorous," " aromatic."
TEACHER. '~rhy is nutmeg said to be
odorous?
C1HLDREN. Because it has a smell.
TEACHER. 'Yhy aromatic ?
CHILDREN. Because it has that pungent
smell distinguished by the name aromatic.
TEACHER. ·Are all things that are aromatic
also odorous ?
CHILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Are all things that are odorous
also aromatic ?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHER. Is an onion odorous ?
CHILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Is a rose odorous ?
CHILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Are these smells alike ?

72

MACE.

FOURTH . SERIES.-LESSON Ill.
CHILDREN.

No.

73

It is opaque.
thin.
fibrous.
brittle.
foreign.
tropical.
natural.
inflammable.
medicinal.

TEACHER. Does the term odorous include
every kind of smell ?
CHILDREN.
Yes.
TEACHER. _A term which i11cludes all the
vari eties of one kind of quality or substance, is
call~ <l a generic term, whilst that which marks
one of the species is called a specific term.
Odorous is a g·eneric term, because it includes
every kind of smell; aromatic is a specific term,
b ecause it applies onl y to one particular smell.
Give examples of ge11eric terms, and of a
specific term applicable to each of them.
CHILDREN.
Odorous, fraµ;rant; coloured ,
rc<l; foreign, Chinese productions.
The class shou ld determine in succe8di 11g lessons, what terms are generic, and what specific .

dry.
pulverable.
memb1'anaceous.
conservative.
imported.
sap id.
stimulating.
Mace is the covering between the shell of the
nutmeg and its external husk.
Remarks on fVords .

L£SSON III.
MACE.

Q11 a lilies.
It is pungent.

CHILDREN.

CHILDREN.

aro11iaJi1'.

TEAC:l-IER.

d 11 II .

No.

TEACHER. Should you call it pungent and
aromati c, if yo11 Wf'rc there?

;1~n·1 · ald1· to 1111~ tast.<>.

or:111gl'. r1:d .

,J

TEACHER.
" Foreig·n."
Should you call
mace a foreign production, if you were in the
plat:c where it gTows '?

fon·ig·11

YPs.

Can it be mace without bei11g-

?

C111LDTIEN.

Yes.

74

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON IV.
CINNAMON.

··' .t

TEACHER. Can it be inace without being·
pungent and aromatic?
CHILDREN. No.
Those qualities which tletermine any thin~·
to be, what it is, are called essential, from the
Latin essc, to be.
Qualities which are not essential are called
accidental, from the Latin accirlens; happening-.
'Vhat q11alities of mace are essential ?
1'rhat qualities of mace arc accidental?

LESSON IV.
CINNAMON.

Quali.ties.

I

i

l
I

It is light brown, and gives name to a colour.
1

thin.
brittle.
conservative.
aromatic.
pung;ent.
agreeable to the taste.
opaque.
hard.
sweet.
inflammable.
dry.

75

It is vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
inanimate.
light.
pulverable.
medi~al.

stimulating.
flaky.
Cinnamon is the ·inner bark of the branches
of a kind of laurel tree, growing in Ceylon and
Malabar. The branches of three years old are
selected as furnishing the best cinnamon : the
outside bnrk is scraped off; th ~ branches arc
then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the
inner bark is gradually loosened, till it can be
entire I y taken off. Expos me to the sun causes
it to curl up. The pieces of bark so curled are
called quills, and the smaller ones are inserted
into the larg·er.

Remarks on Words.
lnHam mable, is derived from, flam ma, a flame.
Medicinal, -. . • . . • . . . . . Medicine.

7G

LESSON V.
GINGER.

Qualit ics.

Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a
reed, which grows both in the East and West
Indies. The root does not strike to a considerable depth in the earth, but spreads wide.
" ' he11 first dug up it is soft, and eaten by the
l11dia11s as a salad. If internled for exportation,
it. is placed in bundles, aud dried in the sun.

-

H is fibrou s.
knotty.
sapid.
rough.
jagged.
inanimate.
vegetable.
tropical.
foreign.
aromatic.
pungent.
dry.
dull.
solid.
hard.
conservative.
lig·ht.
yellowish brown.
pulverable.
rnedici11al.
stimulating.
wholeso me.
opaque.
inflammable.

77

ALLSPICE.

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON V.

J,ESSON VI.
ALLSPICE.

Parts.

Qualities.

The inside.
It is aromatic.
outside.
odorous.
ski11.
pungent.
seeds.
spherical.
partition of seed-vessel.
brown.
point of insertion.
speckled.
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
inanimate.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.

78

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON VII.

. H is stimulating.
hard.
inflammable.
friable.
sapicl.
wrinkled.
conservative.

'·

Allspice or Pimento is the dried berry of a
species of a myrtle, indigenous in the 'yest
Indies; it is a most beautiful aml fragrant tree,
producing numerous bunches of white tlowPrs ,
to which succeed the berries ; these are gathered
by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry.
ln this operation they lose their former colom,
and become brown. \VIH·11 tli\' s1·1'ds rattl1· i1t
the shell, they are known to be sufliciently dry,
and are packed in lia~s for <'''Jlorl:i1in11. Tli1·
flavour of pimento is co11si1l crc<l t.o unite that
of the other spices: l1cnce the 1nu111! of A llspict'.

LESSON VIL
A CLOVE.

Parts.
The calyx or cup.
tube.
leafits of cup.

Qualities.

[ t. is aromatic.
oclorous.
pung·ent.

A CLOVE.

7D

The points of lea.fits.
bud.
surfaces.
edges.

It is brown .
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
inanimate.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imp6rted.
dull.
stimulating.
hard .
inflammable.
couservati VP ..
the bml is spherical.
the tube is Ion!:!_·.
the lmtits arc pointed.

Clo\·cs arc the unexpanded flowerbuds and
calyx of a. spcci1·s of la11r<'l whiC'h ~!Tows in the
"est l 11diPs. j\t a. certain season of the year,
I he clove trPe protlucf's a profu;;ion of flowers in
clusters ; they are gathered l>cfore the flower
opens, when the four points of the calyx project,
and the petals are folded one over the other,
forming a bud about the size of a pea. After
they are gathered, they are exposed for some
time to the smoke of a wood fire , and then to
the rays of the sun.
At the conclusion of the lesson on Spices, the

..·•
.,

'"'i

.

80

FOURTH SERIES.-1.ESSON VII.

children should be called npon to mention those
qualities which they had found common to all ;
as aromatic, pu11gent, dry, tropical, stimulating,
vegetable.
Then let some other similar substance be presented tu them, as mustard.
TEACHER. Is this a spice?
CHILDREN. Nu.
TEACHER. 'Vhy not '?
CHILDREN. It has not the qualities of a spice.
TEACHER. If I showed you a substance with
which you were not previously acquainted, and
you fouml that it possessed the essential qualities
of the spices you have examined, what would
yon consid(-r it to h< ~ '!
CHlLDREN. A spice.
TEACHER. 'J'o what then do you apply the
term spice?
CHILDREN. To a set of natural production»
possessing certain qualities.
TEACHEIL \Yh en a 1111mher of thi11gs are
arranged together, each having similar llualitics,
what wo11ld yo n call the collection ? 'Yhat
would yo11 call a 11mnber of boys who a.re
placed together because they are nearly equal
in know ledg·e ?
C1-11LDREN. A class.
TEA CH ER. 'Vlm.t then may yon call a collection of substances that possess the same qualities 't
CHILDREN. A cl ass .
TEACHER. \Vhat may you call all substances
which are aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. '?

CLOVE.

A

81 .
CHILDH.EN. A class.
TEACHEIL A ml what 1s the name of ti, 1a t,
class?
CHILDREN. Spice.
TEACHER. \\TJmt then does the te1·n1 spice
ex press?

., .

C1-11L~J_tEN. A class of substances, possessin!!:

' .I

the qualiti es aromatic, pungent, &c.
'
. TEACHER. Tell me all the substances belo1wmg· to that class ?
•
:::,

:, j'
·~

Cin~DREN. Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cmnamon, g·111ger, allspice, cloves.
TEACHER. Are all the substariZes of this
class alike in all res pects?
Cmt.DREN. No.
TEACHER. ."E"
-Low can you t e II one spice frolll
another ?

,' '
·r

C1~ILDH.EN. B;,;;'luse eac h has some gualities
1cc11lmr to itself.
·· n
s
·
· =

'!

EACHER. Name the particular circumstance
winch distinguishes each.
CHILDREN . . Ging·er is a root; pepper is a
:s<'ed ; 1111t.111cg is a kernel; mace is the membra11aceo us covering of that kernel ; cinnamon is a
bark; pimento is a seed vessel ; the clove is a
cup and flower bud.

.:_-· ·1
f•

'

.

1

.,,_,.

l

~

l

G
'"'·r

WATER.

ON LIQUIDS.

It is cooling.
fertilizing.
heavy.
some waters are medicinal.

L:ESSON VUL
Different !rinds of Water.
\\' ATER.

Qualities

ef 1Vatcr.

Jt is fluid.
transparent.
clear.
colourless.
liquid.
useful.
bright.
incompressible.
reflective.
drinkable.
wholesome.
tasteless.
cold.
inodorous.
natural.
solvent.
refreshing.
inanimate.
penetrating.
purifying.

Rain.
spnng.
sea or salt.
nver.
medicinal.
hot spring.
stagnant.

'

Dijj'erent states of Water.
Ice.
snow.
hail.
ram.
mist.
fog-.
cloud.
vapour.
dew.
steam.
Natural Collections of Water.
Oceans.
seas.
G 2

ll4

FOURTH SERIES.- LESSON IX.

lakes.
nvers.
ponds.
sprrngs.
Opf;'rafiu11s <
!f TFalcr.-lt. purilics, evaporal<'s ,
frpczes, quenches thirst, cools, linds its o-w11
level, penetrates, fertilizes, is a sol vent, ex tin;
guishPs lire, separates easily into purti011s whi c h
ass111111 · a spherical form.
-

LESSON IX.
OIL.

Qualities of Oil.

BEER.

It is oleaginous.
some oils are vegetable.
some are animal.
when had, it. is rancid.
odorous.
The vegetable oil is expressed from olives,
and is imported chiefly from Italy and the Soutlt
of' l'rance. It is also obtained from nuts and
some other fruits, and from seeds.
The animal oil is procured from the-<>lubher
or fat of the whale and seal.
'
Birds are furnished with little bag-s co11ta.i11irw
oil ; with this they plume thei r fe~thers, a.1111 i~.
causes rain and moisture to trickle off. l\Tit.h011t. this provision, th e feathers of water-fowl
would imbibe so much moisture, as t.o n•111h·r
them too heavy for floating on the water.

It is fluid.

!,

yellowish.
semi-transparent.
soft.
liquid.
penetrating.
e molli ent.
?;reasy.
useful.
lig'ht.
thick.
inflammable.

L:ESSON X.
BEER.

Qualities.

It is liquid.
fluid.
orange-colour.
wholesome.

136

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON X.

FOREIGN WHITE WINE.

H7

It is fermented.
artificial.
11sefu I.
odorous.
sem i- transparent.
slightly intoxicating.
:;tre11gthening.

LESSON XI.
f"O REIGN WHITE WINE.

Qualities.
Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water
boiled together. Hops are the blossoms of a
creeping pla11t, very much cultivated in Kent:
the place where they grow is called a hop-yard.
The tub in which the malt is first steeped is
called a mashing-tub; that which holds the beer
when made, a vat.
Malt is made of barley, by the following
process. A quantity of barley is soaked in
water for two or three days; the water being
aftenvards drained off, tlw grain heats spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes sweet, and
ferm e11t.s. V eg·etab les, in the process of decom position, und ergo several degrees of fermentatio11 ; the first, ( tl~at above d escribed) is
called t.lw saccharine fen11e11taliun, from t.lw
sweet11ess it produces; sacdiar um, bei11g the
latin word for sugar. In consequence of this
decomposition, which is similar to that which
takes place in seed in the u_To 1111d, the barley
h egins to sprout, but this vcgdalion is stopped
by putting it into a kiln, where it is well dri ed
by a g;entle heat.

It is yellowish.
bri!:!;ht.
fluid.
--liquid.
fermented.
spirit11011s:
intoxicating.
heating.
vegetable.
artificial.
semi- trnnsparen L
sap id.
medicinal.
stimulating.
clear.
strengthening.
yielding to the touch.
\Vine is made from the grape, the fruit of the
vine, which is cultivated in vineyards.
Tlw
seaso11 of its gathering is called the vintage.
Th e grapes, when gathered, are placed in a

B8

89

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON X ll.

INK.

wine-press, by which the juice is ex pressed:
this juice undergoes a fer111 e11tation, a11d becomes
wme. This is the sccowl fermentation which
,·egetable matter undergoes: it is called thP
t:inous fermentation, from its producing wme;
i·immi being th e la.tin word for wine.

It is called Vinegar, from the French Vinaigre.
Vin, i,,vine, -aigre, sour; because it is fr equently
procurell from wine. The ferm entation by which
I.his acidity is produced, is called the acetous
.fimnenlation, from Lat. acetum, vinegar.

LESSON

X~I.

LESSON XIII.

,.

INK.
VlNEGAR.

Qualities.

.lt is acid.

.

.

orangP-bro wn colour.
liquid.
fluid.
yielding· to the touch .
penetrating.
stimulating.
vegetable.
artificial.
rn ed ic in a I.
odorous.
i1 seful.
conscrvat.i vc .
se111i-transpare11 t.
Uses .-To flavour food ; for pickling· ; for
medicin e.

Qualities.

It is black .
hrig·ht.
useful.
opaque.
artificial.
liquid.
astring·ent.
fluid.
yielding· to the touch.
poisonous.
Ink is made of galls, gum, sulphate of iron,
a.nd water. Galls are found upon the oak:
t.hcy arc occasioned hy a little insec t, which
pierces the bark of the tree, and lays its eggs
in the hole which it has formed. The torn
vessels of the tree discharge a portion of their

91

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON XIV.

MILK.

contents,. which hardening-, forms at first a
defence for the eggs, nrnl subsequently foo<l for
the caterpillars they pro1luce. These latter eat
their way out of their confinement, before they
change into the perfect i11sect. Iron dissolved
in sulphuric acid, is called sulphate of iron, when
this is applied to the acid of the galls, it becomes
black, upon which q11ality the utility of ink
depends. A little g 11111 is added, to cause the
ink to adhere to the paper.

Uses.-For animals to feed their young: for
making cheese, butter; to drink.
The milk of cows is that most generally used
hy man. Invalids drink the milk of asses.
In Tartary the milk of mares is used ; in Switzerland that of goats; in the northern countries
that of rein-deer; in Arabia that of carnets.

DO

'\

LESSON XIV.
Ml.LK.

Qualities.

l
.1

d

It is white.
fluid.
lir111i<l.
wholesome.
mce.
an a11imal substance.
natural.
opaque .
soft.
smooth.
yiel<li11g; to the touch.
emollient.
when fresh, it is warm.
ll U tri tious.

J

The Teacher would find it a very improving
and interesting exercise, to take two substances
and compare them together,-as water and milk,
requiring· the class to find out in what respects
they are both alike. They are both fluid, liquid,
cold, incompressible, penetrating, natural, &_c.
The qualities by which they are distinguished
from each other should then be mentioned. The
water is transparent, the milk is opaque ; the
water is colourless, the milk is white; the water
is tasteless, the milk is sweet; &c.
Liquids possess qualities by which they are
very clearly distinguished from other substances.
They may all become solid, they are all fluid,
and incompressible: their parts easily separate,
forming into spheres or drops; they penetrate
into the pores of substances; and they find their
own level. This last circumstance can easily
he proved to the pupils by means of a syphon.
Having named the properties common to ult
liquids, the class should also be required to
mention the qualities peculiar to each, as in the
lesson on spices.

,\••

(•

I
l
I

iJ
1

!J2

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON XIV.

Water is transparent, colourless, tasteless,
inodorous, bright.
Oil is yellowish, thick, emollient, semitransparent, greasy, inftarn ma.hie.
B eer is ora11~1~ -colourcd, hitt1!r, spirituous,
artificial, fermented.
1Yhite \Vine is brig·ht, yellowish, intoxicating,
stimulating·, fermented.
Vinegar 1s acid, orange-coloured, sem1transparen t.
Ink is black, bright, opaque, artificial.
Milk is white, opaque, S\Yeet, 11ourishin g·,
natural.

J.'IFTH SURLES.

I

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

~·

history, an
urther part1cu a.rs s 1ou
a erwan s >e communicated by the teacher, to
rend er. their information more complete. After
havirw re-arra1wed
and rc1)eated the materials
0
so obtainell, the teacher should examine the
class, a111l req11in! a ·w ritten account. Children,
from e i~ht to ten years of age, have derived
gTeat improvement from this exercise in composition. It stimulates their attention, furnishes
a test of their having well understood the
lesson, ancl eads them to arran e _am
e ~
their ideas with clearness an - acilit . Artificial
s11 Jstances shou l
)e exhibited both in their raw
arrd manufactured state. Thus, in t11e lesson 011
flax, the plant itself, the fibres when separated
from the stem, the threa<l when spun, and tlw
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FIFTH SElUES.-LE.SSO:'>i I.

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various articles into wl1ich it. is man11fadureJ,

may be broug·ht before the class, and likewise
pictures of the machinery ewployed in the

LESSON II.
1

Many of the lessons in the followi11g series
will contain too m11t.:h matter to be presented
at one tinw lo the pupils, and must. therefore he
rlivictPO .

LESSOX I.
CAMPHOR.

WAX. CANDLE.

1Yax is the produ<'.e of hees : it is a substance
whi c h is !"f' crel t:'il in their bodi es , and of which

i·

~he _y c onstrue ~

their cells. \Yhcn the honpy
ts taken oul ol th e co111b, the latter is rnt>ltt>tl
.
. '
and afterwards bleached by exposure to the air.
The wax in a liquid state is poured into leaden
moulds, in the centre of which the wick has
been prf'Yi\l11sl y fi xcd . Th e wi ck is 111<1 de of
cotton or flax, and when lighted, the melted wax
rises up its fibres and feeds the tlame.

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Camphor is the peculiar juice of a species of
laurel called the camphor tree, which is abundant
in China, Borneo, and Ceylon·. :Exposure to
the air hardens it. lt. is remarkably inflammable
antl is 11se«l by the I11dia11 priru..: <~s to illuminate
their rooms. It is pung·ent, volatile, acrid, and
strongly aromatic. These qualities have rendered
it useful as a medicine, and in sick rooms to
prevent contagion. It is also placed in cabinets
of natural history to destroy the small insects
that prey upon the specimens.

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LJ-:SSON III.
PUTTY.

Putty is a soft unctuous substance which
l~~rd~ns by exposure to the air, and is used by

G.laziers to fasten the panes of glass to the
wmdow frames. It is composed of linseed oil
and whiting, sometimes with the addition of
white lead.
The whiting· is prepared from
c~1alk ground into a fine powder ; and the
ml and white lead are worked into it, till all

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Fl FTll SEIUES.-Ll,:SSON

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the s11bstanccs are thoroug-hly mixed together.
Linseed oil is ex traded from the st=~ ed uf the
tiax ; in latin, lin um.

llUTTER.-CHEESE.

97

LESSON V.
BUTTER.

LESSON IV.
Butter is prepared from the milk of the cow.

~'hen milk has bee11 allowed to stand a few

SHELL LAC.

Shell lac is a substance produced by a little
11 (·{ l (.' t 1··l ( ' \l.~ I •(' \t'("\
- • :; · 111<1 i:-; d1·i10,.;il1·11 Ul l
the small branches of the Indiaa fif!· tre e. for
the protecti on of its cp;p;s. ~t. di s.ch_ar;;;es th.c
ll"lllll frnm it-: o·wn hndv . nnd lnrmo..: ii 111tn <'1 •ll " .
'in eae I1 ui . \\ ·I 1w
. I1 .' '' I•·I· .11 .u' l .i. II ( '",.,,.," . \'i 111·11 111 1.
eg·gs are hatch ed, t.he young grub pi cr~es thro11?li
the viscid substan ces which enclosed I~, and Hi t~
away. The lac is first so ~d ~n t.he stic ks, ~l.1e11
. . I::s
·., ca lied stick lac , but after it has been JH ll .Ih ed
It
.
and formed into t.l1in lay ers or calws, J~ Is
cllt.
ca ll ctI sIic lt. l ac · ·It l·s· the 1irinc ir)al
. iu;i;rcd1
·
in sealing-wax and va.n~ish, and. IS e1.1~ ploy : l~
· J· aprumrng.
· .
ftom Its
m
.1·t_,
· ~ use tul11
· ess a.nses
.
bei1w
fusiule, soluble, and adhesive.
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hours, a thick rich substance, called cream,
rises to the surface. This is skimm ed off, and
by being briskly agitated, is converted into
hnttf'l'. Th e in-: frn11H ·11t l1y " ·hi1 ·l1 this opcr;itiun
is performed is callPd n rfn1rn. Th0 r1• i." a11o!hcr
substance found in the churn besides the butt.Pr :
it is c..:alle<l the butler-milk , mid wlwn fresh, i~
drn11k l1y th1· p1·:1:-;;11if1y. Tlw lllltt1T prqiarcd
i;ll' winter .sto re is salted, a ud packed in barrels
a11d tubs. The person who tends the cattle is
called a. cou; herd; and the place where the milk
is k ept is a dairy .

LESSON VI.
l'

CHEESE.

Cheese is prepared from milk which is coagulated or curdled, by mixing it with a liquor
called rennet; the curds thus formed are a
white solid substance; they are separated from
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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON Vll.

!J8

the whey or watery particles, and then pressed
and dried. Rennet is made by steeping the
inner membrane of a young calf's stomach i11
water. A colour is usually giveri to cheese
by saffron, or by a substa11ce called annatto,
which is the seed-vessel of a shrub growing i11
the '1' est Indies.

LESSON Vll.
HORN.

i

Horn is the hard substance that forms the
frontal pndcct.ions of hornc<l a.nima.1:-;, all or
which are grami11ivoro11s. t
This substance,
when boiled, becomes a soft j elly, and can be
moulded into any shape. By a peculiar process
it is rendered semitransparent, and when formed
into thin laminre or plates, is employed instead
of glass for lanterns. lt was the first transparent
substance used for windows. It is now chiefly
employed for cornhs, handles to knives and
forks, occasionally for drinking· utensils and
inkhorns. ~It was form erly in much greater
request than now, glass having· been substituted
in its place.

HONEY-STARCH.

LESSON VIII.
HONEY.

Honey is a sweet vegetable juice, collected
bees from the nectaries of flowers. These
msects are furnished with a long hollow trunk
or. proboscis, which they insert into the tubes
ot flowers and suck up the honey they contain ;
~vhen well laden with their treasure, they carry
it home and deposit it in their cells for a winter
store.
The <h~seription gi vcn of J udca as a " land
tiowjng with milk and honey," was literally
tru e. The. richn ess of the vegetation supplie~L
the bees with ample stores ; their combs were
11 s1mlly placed in clefts of rocks or the hollows
of trees, and bei ng continually melted by the
h ~at of ~he sun, the honey actually flowed out
of them 111 streams. See 1 Sam. xiv . 2.J, 26.

?Y

LESSON IX.
STARCH.

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From Lat. gram en , grass: vor are, to cat.

. Starch is a substance which may be obtained
from several farinaceous vegetables; it is generally prepared from wheat, by the followiug
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F.II'TH SERI ES.-T.ESSON X.

process. The wheat is put iuto tubs of wat<'r,
and exposed for some days to the heat of the
~un, which brings on a degree of fermentation;
the water is changed twice a day. Having thus
become sullicic11tly sot'tc1wd, it is po11rPd into
laq.re canvas hau:s. which am work<·d or h!'atP11 ,
in ordf'r 1"o sPp<natP f h<> husks from th<> farinac(•nus particks; tlH ·s1· l;1st :tr1 • r1·1Ti11·d i1ito an
r·mpty n,;:-1 ·!.
F11.,, J1 \1:ikr i.-; tlH11 111i:-.1·d \1itli
!

them, and the whole is left to settle; th e water
is poured off, and the sediment which remains at.
the bottom of the vessel is starch : this is form ed
into small pieces, and dried. Starch, with the
addition of smalt or stone blue, is used to stiffen
linen : it is also formed into a powder for the
hair.
Starch or rcc1ila j.,; the 1111Lrili Ylo par t
of most !!,rains a11d roots; it 111ay lw ('X(1;1cl\•d
in considerable quantiti es from potatoes.

COURT PLASTER.

101

every morning just hefore they exp::u11l; and as
they continmi to open in succession for several
weeks, the saffron harvest lasts a consid erable
ti1111·.
\\ ' 111·11 tlw flowers arc gatlHT1·d, tlif'y art'
spn'ad 011 a ta.hie: t.hP llj>jll ' l' p :irt of' tlil' i>istil
only i,.; of any val11P . \VhPn a s11fli('i0nt. q11a11titv
llf tlw,.;(• an· coll1·d1·d, tlH' .Y :m· drit·d ll[H lll .:t
ki11d of' porLtlil( • kiln; 11\1·r tlii.-.: ;1. li:1ir clotlt is
stretched, and upon it a few sheets of white
paper ; the saffron is placed 11 pon these to tht~
thickness of two or three inches ; the whole is
then covered with white paper, over which is
placed a coarse blanket or canvas bag· till ed
with straw. " Then the fire has heated th e kiln
a 1Jo:m1, O il \1hich i:; a weight, i:; pl<Lced upui:
tl1e bla11k<·t :rnd pn's,; (•,; tl11' saffroll 1.ou_<'llii ·r.
11
is used as a medicine, to flav our cakes, and to
form a yellow dye.

LESSON X.
LESSON XI.
SAFFRON.
COURT PLASTER.

Saffron is the orange-coloured pistil of a
purple species of crocus, the leaves of which
appear in spring and t.h e blosso ms in autumn.
lt abounds in the 11 eighbourhood of Saffron
alden, in Essex, which takes its nam e from
that circumstance. The flowers are gathered

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Court Plaster is a black, adhesive, thin substance, applied to wounds on the skin, to protec t
th em from the injurious effects of the air. The
following is the manner of preparing it: a thin
black sarcenet is stretched on a frame ; a warm
solution of Isinglass is applied with a brush

102

TAMARINDS.

FIFTH SF.RIES.-LESSON XII.

equally over the surface; when dry, this operation is repeated a second or third time. It jg
next washed over with some Benzoin dissolved
ln spirits of'' im'. Tit'nzoin is a rrsinon::; !::nm,
which exudes from a tree growing in Sumatra.
1t possesses an aru11ml.it.: pl!rfo1m~ , u!lll acts as a
styptic. It is the chief ingredient in _Friar's
Balsam, and giYt:::s il lln: healing virlttt:· it
possesses .

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103

Isinglass is a kind of glue, prepared from the
air bladders or sounds of all the species of the
sturgeon ; it is used for culinary purposes, and
for rPtinin~· wine .

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LESSON XIII.
TAMARINDS.

LESSON XII.
GLUE.

Gluc is a viscid tenacious substance, used as
a cement. The best is obtained from the skin
of animals, generall y the shavings, parings, and
strips, which have been rejected _by the currier.
An inferior kind is procured from the hoofS,
sinews, &c. of anim als. Jt is prepared by
steeping the skin for two or three days in water,
then boiling it till it becomes a thick jelly;
whilst hot it is strained through osier baskets,
the pure glue passes through the interstices,
leaving the impurities in the baskets. It is then
melted a second time, poured into s<1uare frames
or moulds, and placed in the air to cool gradually
and congeal. Glue is used by carpenters, joiners,
hatters, bookbinders, &c .

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The fruit of the Tamarind is a roundish,
somewhat compresse<l pod, about four or five
inches long, the external part of which is very
hrittlP. F.ach pod contains three or four hard
seeds enclosed in tough skins, surrounded by a
dark colonre1l acid pulp, and connected together
by numerous tough woody fibres. Before the
tamarinds are exported, th e pulp with the seeds
and fibres, are taken out of the pod, an<l those
which are the produce of the 1'1 est Indies are
preserved in a syrup. The :East ·Jndian Tamarinds are usually sent without miy such admixture.
In hot countries the tamarind is valued as a
refreshing fruit ; and steeped in water it fom1s
a cooling beverage.

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105

FIFTH SERlES.-L ESSON :XIV.

FOHEI GN Cl l RRANTS.

LESSON SIV.

LESSON XV.

INDIAN IWllllER, OH GlJ?lf ELASTIC.

FOHEH;N cunn.t.NTS.

Indian Uubber is the han.lenetl .iuicc of a tree
which grows iu ~out h A mcrica. The lmlia.ns
make incisions through the bark of the tree ,
chiefly in wet weath er; a milky juice oozes out,
which is s pread over moulds of clay; wh e11 the
first layer is dry. a second is put. over it; this
op('r:ttio11 is l'l'lll':ttc ·d till the I ndi an Huhlwr is
of the thickness required.
1\i'trr tliis it. is
Jlacl'<l
over
1lic
s111ok1·
of
h11r11inn·
Y<'"<'1ah
l('S '
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which hardens and darkens it. The natives

The fnreig-11, or dried currants. arc a spr•ci('s
uf small raisins or grapes, which chiefly grow
i11 th e Grecian hlm1ds. They were fnrnwrly
very a h11lHlant in the Jsthrn11s of Corinth - and
were cnlle1l from th011ce Corinths ; 1his tlTlll
has hr1'11 corr11pte1l into currnnts, prohahl;.' from
11H·ir n·s<·11\hl:11wc 1.o tlw i".t1e!_lisli fr11it. of 1lin1
na11w . Tl)('sC little e!_T:qwc-: h:l\ <' 110 stn11<'"· :l!ld
an• of a r< ·dd i,d 1 Jil ;1('k <'()lnm ; 1lw;.· :rn: (':'\tremely delieiuu:s when fre:slt ~athered.
The
li:u \('Sf ( ' !lllllll! 11\'(' S i11 ,\ 11:c,11 sf. ;111d ;1:' S()()!I as
the gTap cs are g:atltered, they are spread to dry
on a lluor, prepared fur the purpo::;e by ::;lawpi11g
t.lic cartl1 <ptile lt01nl. Tlii.s tlo1•r is forrncd wit lt
a c:• 111 11· 1i .--i11:c, i11 111<' J11 i<l<ll •·. th:t1 1h<' rni11 , in
case a11y :slwul<l fall, rn ay flow off a11<l not
injmP ll1P fru it.
W lwn s111licie111ly dry , Jlie
currants are cleaned and laid up in magazines ,
where they are so closely pressed together, that
when a supply is needed, it is dug out with an
iron instrument.
They are packed in large casks for ex portation, and trodden down by the slaves.

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apply it. to various pmp(>S( 'S ;

for \\ ;11n-prnof

uout:s, for Gutties, and al:so for tiambeaux, which
give a very Lrillia11t light, and Lurn for a great
lc11µ.th of time . Tli e princi p~tl use:s tu which
l1H1i :111 'H11hlH'r is ;q1J> li<(l ll('n'. ;m ·. 11H· d r; H·in'.2.
uf black lea<l marks, for water-proof :shoes, for
La.II,;, llexihle 11111..-,.. , ".Vring.,s , and o llwr insll'llm ents used by surg·eous and chemists.
Cloth
of all kinds may be mad e impe netrabl e to water,
if impregnated with the fr esh juice of the l11dian
Rubber tree .
Ship bottoms are sometimes
sheathed with Indian Rubber , cut very thin ;
it is said to b e an effectual preservativ e from
the injuries of shell fish.

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SI,:TI TFS. -

l. F: A T!lE H.

1. lcSSO N '\ \ l .

LESS OX XVI.

LESSOX XVII.

( 'O IU\. .

LEATJ ! lrn .

"'

Cork is the bark of a kind of oak, growing;
chiefly in :Spain.
When it is to be removed
from the tree, a long;itudinal slit is cut, at the
extremities of which incisions are made round
the trunk; it can th en be stripped off with great
ease by means of a curved knife with a handl e
'Yh 0n t h0 h:.rk i~ l :tld' ll fro m tli('
tree, it is piled up in a ditch or pond, and heavy
stones are placed upon it, in order to flatten it.
After being dried. it is sli!!;htly burnt or dm1wd ,
and th en packed for exportation. One principal
a t. h oth 01Hls .

use of cork is to stop bottles, for which purpose
it is fitted by its elasticity; a piece rather larger
than th e neck of th e bottle being inserted, the
tendency it has to resume its former shape causes
it completely to fill up the aperture, au<l exclude
the air. Its buoyant effect in water, arising· from
its lightness, renders it useful to those who are
learning to swim ; for the sam e reason it is
employed in the co11struction of life boats, and
for th e ,floats of fi shi11g·-11ets. The Spaniards
make lamp-black of it. The men employed in
cutting and preparing it for sale, are called cork.cutters.

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Lt~ at.l wr is lit e

prepared skin of a nilll al s : t ha t
of cows, oxen, and horses , i;; chiefl y used for
shoes; that of kids, goats, and dog·s, for gloves,
and also shoes; and that of calves for bookbinding, saddles, harness, &c.
The unprepared skin is called a hidr-: : the
fi rs t npcrnt imt it. mHl r,rg:oc" i,.; :-:<1aL inC!, i11 li ll !< '
water to cleanse it fron~ grease and other impuriti es; the hairs are then removed by a kind of
knife, th e oil and e.rease a.re aftenvards more
cumpl t-~ te ly e xlractetl by an alkali, or diluted
s11lphmic acid. After this, it is taken to the
tan-y ard , stretched over a pit, and covered with
tan; in this state it remains about two months.
But if the leather be intended for the upper part
of shoes, seats of saddles, and such purposes as
do not require gTeat strength or impermeability
to water, it is first sent to the currier: his work
is to scrape it, reducing it all to an equal degree
of thickness, and also to render it supple by oil
or grease. The skins are then tanned. Tan is
th e bark of the oak, possessing a remarkable
degree of astringency; it consequently contracts
th e pores of the leather, and renders it impervious to wet. The quality which the leather

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J!JFTll s1rn11 ,: s.--l.ESS()i'<

thus obtains from Ute tau11i11g-, culllbi11cu with
its durability aud su ppleness, particularly mlapts
it fur shoes, buul.s, &c .

LJ~~~ON

rnn

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XV 111.

SPONGE.

Sponge is a marine production; it was formerly supposed to be a vegetable, but the opinion
now generally entertained, is, that it is a habitation constructed by a little ·worm, one of the
species considered to occupy the lowest rank in
the animal kinp;dom. It is fo111Hl adheri ng to
various marine ::mbst.a11ces at the bottom of the
sea, especiall y in the Medit.erra.nc1m, and is procured Ly divers, who are early trained to this
employment.
Sponge absorbs fluids rapidly,
and y ields them ag·ain when compressed. It.
was frequently saturated with myrrh aml wine,
and g·iven to persons suffering the punishment
·of crucifixion, in order tu deaden the sense of
pain, and subdue the intol erable thirst which
is the consequence of their ag·ony. To this
custom the sacred historian refers in the account
of our Lord's death ; but his unrelenting persecutors, instead of offering him t he myrrh and
wine, " tilled a sponge with vinegar, and put it
upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth." The

off0r of vi1wgar was considen:d, arnong the .Jews,
as an intolcrahlc 011trngc to their feelings. It is
all11ded to in the foll~wi11~ passa~e. which al.
the same tim e foretold the future s 1dforin .~;:s of
tlw ll. 1~d!'1'11H~r of 111ankind. " Heproach hath

brok en mine heart, and l am full of heaviness;
and l looked for some to take pity ,)mt there
was none; and for comforters, hut I found nonr;.
ThPy gave me also gall for my meat, and in my
thirst they gave me vinegar to drink." Psalm
I xix. 20, 21.

LESSON XIX.
COFFEE.

Coffee is the seed of a plant growing principally in Arabia and the 1¥est Indies; the
flower resembles jasmine, and the leaves are
evergreen; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry;
it contains two cells, and each cell has a single
hemispherical seed. When ripe, it is either g·athered by the hand, or shaken from the trees, and
placed on mats for the sun to dry the pulpy
substance which sunounds the seed. · The husk
is broken by heavy rollers, and afterwards
removed by winnowing. In order to prepare
the coffee for a beverage, it must be roasted till
it becomes of a dark brown colour, and ex-

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XX.

RICE.

tremely odorous , after ·which it is ground, and
either infused or boiled in water. It is remarkable for its very stimulating property.
Its
discovery is sa id to have been occasioned by
the following circumstance. Some g·oats, who
browsed upon this plant, were ohscrved by th<:
p;oatherd to be exccedi11gly \vakcful, and often
to caper abo11t in the ni~ht ; the prior of a
neighbourin g monastery, wishing to k eep his
monks awake at their matins, tried if the coffee
would produce the same effect upon them as it
was observed to do upon the goats: his success led to the appreciation of its value.

and curl up, being exposed to considerable heat.
Green tea is the produce of the same plant as
black : the difference of its qualities arises from
the leaves being· gathered in a different stage
of their growth, and from their being dried upon
plates of copper.

110

LESSON XX.
TEA.

The beverage ca.Bed T ea, is an infusion of
leaves ; the plant which produces tlwm is a.
native of .Japan arnl Chi1m; it licars a Hower
resemblin g the wild rose, and the leaves an:
11arrow , pointell, and serrated. It .~; rows only
in a stony soil, and at the foot of mountains
and rocks, 'exposed to a southern aspect. Then:
is great art exercised in gathering and drying
the leaves, which a.re afterwards s11bjected tu
the vapours of boiling water to moisten them.
In this state they are laid upon plates of metal,

LESSON XXL
RICE.

Rice is the grain of a kind of corn, and
grows in a spike similar to oats; it is very
abundant in China, the \Vest Indies, an~!
America ; it is also produced in the south
of Europe : Switzerland draws its supplies
from Piedmont. It will not thrive without
much moisture, and therefore comes to the
gTeatest perfection in marshy lands. The cultivators of rice always
. inundate their gT011nds
~
'
a11d the higher the water rises, the higher the
plant grows, the ear always appearing above
the water. It requires as much heat to mature
the seed, as it does moisture to nourish the
plant in its g·rowth. In India the women thrash
an<l prepare the rice, which is a very laborious
employment. The Brahmins live almost entirely upon it, their religion forbidding them
th e use of animal food. Rice serves not only

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112

--_ ,-z::

l'!Yl'l-1. ::iERlES.-LESSUN

XXlL.

for food, but is also manufactured into a paper,
anfl into vessels which rese mble china or alah::-istrr.

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Sago is the pith of the sago palm , a tree
imlig·cnous t o' Japan ::incl th0 flry rrwky rnnnnt;iin«
of :Malabar.
It is h a r<lly possible to imagine a plant more
graceful in its foliage, or mun: beautiful when
in fruit than this spPcies of palm. 'l'h e foliation,
which slightly resembles that of the fern , is
placed on the stem in the manner of the foatlwrs
of a shuttlecock, forming a g·igantic basket of
the most graceful form ; at the bottom of this is
the salmo;1-coloured flower, resembling, both in
shape and texture, the flower of th e cock's-comb,
but of a pale huff colour inclining to brown.
The fruit is a drupa, that is, a nut surrounded
by a pulpy substance, as a. plum. The growth
of this plant at first is slow, it appears for some
time a shrub thi ckly set with prickles ; as it
increases in h eight, it looses its thorns. 'Vhen
the tree has reac hed its mat urity, a whiti sh
powder transpires 1hro11gh tlw pores of tlw
leaves, and adheres to their e xtremities. On

THE COCOA NUT .

113

this _intimation of the trees being filled with
pith, the J\Ialavs cut them down near their roots,
a nd divid(• 11i1'.1n in1o sCY(-:ral sr>c1ions , which
arc split. into cinartcrs. The hark is woody and
about an inch in thickness; in the centre of the
sf<·nr is a fat or g-11mmy pith, which forms the
sago . This pithy s11bstance lwi11 .~· scooped out,
is dilntr·d ill pnre 'Ya ter, a nd stra in er! th ro ugh
a bag· of line cloth, which separates the glutinous
from tlte farinaceous matter. This latter h::tYing·
lost part of its moisture, by evaporation, is
]KtssP<l throug·h sicYcs, by which process it
becomes gTanulated, and being received into
earthen vessels, it dries and hardens into little
gloLules.
S ago is extremely nutritious antl
wholesome, and forms an excell ent light diet
for invalids.

L:ESSON XXIII.
THE COCOA NUT.

The tree which produces this fruit is a kind of
Palm, its trunk resembles a stately column,
crowned at the summit with narrow leaves fourteen or fifteen feet in length, and only three in
breadth; amidst these hangs the fruit. The external ri11tl of the cocoa nut is brown, smooth, and
approaches a triangular form. This covering·
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FIFTH SERIES.-J,ESSON XXIIJ.

encloses an extremely fibrous substance of considerable thickness which immediately surrounds
the nut-the latter has a thick and hard shell
with three holes at the base, each closed by a
black membrane. The kernel is about an inch
in thickness, it lines the shell and encloses a
sweet refreshing liquid. The Cocoa nut tree
affords the Indians food, clothing, and means
of shelter. Before the kernel comes to maturity
it is soft and pulpy, may be scraped out with a
spoon, and affords the natives an agr~e~ble. and
nutritious food; when pressed in a 111111 tt ytelds
an oil. By making incisions in the tree in .the
spring, a cool r~freshing liquor flows out, wluch,
if allowed to stand any time, ferments, becomes
spirituous, :uHl is Pxceedinµ;ly into.xicat:ing--it
is called Toddy. By soaking the fibrous trunk
in water it becomes soft. and can be manufactured
into sailcloth or twisted into corclag·e of any
description, which surpasses in durability that
formed of hemp. The woody shel!s are u~ed
for cups, ladles, or other domestic utensils.
The trunk of the tree furn~shes either beams or
rafters for their habitations, or is made into boats.
The leaves platted together form an excellent
thatch, they are also used for umbrellas, mats,
and various other useful articles.

BREAD.

115

L.ESSON XXIV.
BREAD.

Bread is made of flour, yeast, and a little
salt, kneaded together with water into a soft
paste called dough. Flour is most frequently
made of wheat. It is first thrashed, either
with a flail, or a thrashing machine; the grain
is next separated from the chaff by winnowing,
it is then ground in a mill and converted into
.fluur; the skin of the g1'ain when separated is
called bran, when left. with the Hour it makes
the Hour browner and coarser. Yeast is the
frothy substance which rises to the top of new
beer; it penetrates the dough, • disunites the
particles, causes them to rise, and thus makes
the bread light. It is similar in its effects to
the leaven mentioned in Scripture, which is sour
<loug·h penetrating and changing· the state of the
whole mass with which it is mixed. Leaven is
used to represent that evil disposition we inherit
from Adam, and which pervades and corrupts
our whole nature. Our Saviour calls himself
the bread of life ; intimating', that as bread by
its nutritious properties supports our bodies, so
He, by the influences of his Spirit, maintains
the life of our souls. Bread is termed the staff
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FIFTH

s1mrns.-LESSON

XX \ .

WHALEBONE.

of lif<', and is frcq11('ntly 11s('d to signify foud 111
general. A man is thus saitl to earn his bread.
~nd we pray for our dail!J bread.
.
It ye, oats, and barley, are sometimes made
into bread.

117

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low wootlen vcssels. Jn thcse the sugar forms
into grains, separating itself from the molasses;
when dry, it is called raw sugar, and is barrelled
for exportation. The process of c0nverting it
into white or refined sugar, is the business of
the sugar refiner or baker; he boils it over again,
putting· bullocks' hlood and white of egg·s into
it to cleanse it from its impurities.
The planter is the cultivator of the sugarcanes. The merchant imports it. The sugarrefiner converts it into white sugar. The grocer
retails the sugar in small quantities.

LESSON XXY.
SUGAH.

Sugar is the produce of the sug·ar-cane, a
plant growing principally in the East and "\Vest
Indies. A field of canes in blossom presents a
beautiful sight; the stem is a jointed culnrns or
recd, of a briµ;ht golden hue when ripe, aml
growing amidst long narrow peiH.h~11t .leaves.
The flowers appear like a plume of wlute feathers
ting·ed with lilac. )Vhen ripe, the cane or stem
is gathered and conveyed to t~1e mill, wh~r~ it
is pressed between two iron cy l mders ; the J ~11~e
is received into a trough, and from thence it is
conveyed to a boiler, into which some quick
lime is thrown ; this uniting· with the ol eaginous
particles and the superabundant acid, rises with
them to the surface and is skimmed off. "'\Vhen the
sugar nearly boils, it is straineLl o1f into another
boiler, where it undergoes the same process as
before. This is repcatcd six or seven times,
when it is received into coolers, which are shal-

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LESSON XXVI.
WHALEBONE.

\\' halebone is taken from the jawbone of the
whale, the largest animal that now inhabits our
globe. The vessels employed in t.he whale
fishery are called whalers,, and the fish is c.aught
in the following manner. "Then, by the water
which it spouts up, it is ascertained to be near,
six boats are dispatched from the whaler, with
six rowers in each, and a man called an harpooner, from his being armed with a harpoon,
a kind of forked instrument; to this is affixed
a. rope, at the other end of which is a gourd :
the harpoon having been darted into the whale,

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXVII.

GLASS.

the gourd marks the spot where the wounded
animal disappears. When the whale is struck,
it dives with such velocity under the surface,
that it is necessary to wet the rope which he
drags over the side of the boat, to prevent. its
taking fir e ; arnl the fi shermen loose their hold
of it for a time, till the strength of the animal
is in some degree spent, or there would be
danger of his sinking the boat by his extreme
violence. The whale cannot remain long under
water; he soon re-appears spouting up blood,
and is again attacked by the harpooners, who
after repeated efforts dispatch him . .,\Then dead ,
he is cut up. The fat, which is called blubber,
is stowed into casks, and oil is afterwards procured from it. The bone is used as a stiffener,
for whips, bows, stays. &c. The whale fisheries ,
are carried on in the Polar Seas.

They had lighted a fire upon the sands to cook
the'.r foo'.I; the fire was made of the plant called
kali, which gTows on the sea shore; the sand
mixed n ith its ashes, oecame vitrified i by the
heat. This furnished the merchants with the
hi11t for the making of glass, which was first
reg·ul~rly manufactured at Sidon in Syria. :England is now much celebrated for its glass. The
qualities which render the substance so valuable,
are, that it is hard, transparent, incorrosive, not
being· affectpd by any substance but iiuoric acid,
and -that when fused it becomes so ductile and
plastic, that it may be moulded into any form,
which it will retain when cool. There are three
sorts of furnaces used i11 making it: one to prepare the frit, a second to work the glass, and a
third to anneal it. After having· properly mixed
the ashes and sand, they are put into the first
furnace, where they are burned or calcined for a
su~cient time, and become what is caJJed frit.
This being boiled afterwards in pots or crucibles
of pipe clay in the second furnace, is fit for the
operation of blowing; the annealing furnace is
~nt~nded to cool the glass very gradually, for
1f it be. exposed to the cold air immediately
after bemg blown, it will fall into a thousand
pieces, as if struck by a hammer.
Before glass was invented, thin folia of mica
were used for windows.

llB

tESSON XXVl l.
GLASS .

Glass is made of sand or flint, combined with
an alkali, by exposure to intense heat, which
causes these substances to unite and melt. This
mixture is said to have been discovered accidentally in Syria, by some merchants, who were
driven by stress of weather upon its shores.

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Derived from Lat. vitr um, glass; and fit, it becomes.

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120

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXVIII.

LESSON XXVIII.

PAPER. ·

121

LESSON XXIX.

PARCHMENT.
PAPER.

Parchment is the skin of sheep or goats, prepared in the following manner. The wool or
hair is stripped off the skin, which is then taken
to the lime-pit; after this it is stretched as ti ght
as a drum upon a frame, and the fl esh pared
off with a keen-edged instrument ; a kind of
white stone or chalk reduced to a fin e powder
is then spread upon the :;urface, and a large
pumice stone flat at bottom is rubbed over it,
which scoms off the remainder of the flesh. The
knife is once more applied to the skin, which
is moistened and rubbed a.gain with the pumice
stone, until the inner side is smooth. The outside then underg·oes a similar operation. It is
now left to dry, and afterwards is taken off the
frame and given to the parchment-maker. He
first puts it on an instrument called a summer,
(which is a calf's skin well stretched on a frame),
and scrapes it with a sharp iron tool, until one
half of the thickness of the skin is pared off;
the pumice stone is next passed over it on both
sides, till it is rendered quite smooth.
J>archmcnt was in nse lonp; before the invention
of paper. \<Vills, and other documents, internled
to be preserved for any length of time, are
written on it. It is also used for clrums.

Linen Paper was first introduced into England
in the fourteenth century. It is' made of linen
rags, first carefully picked and sorted, according
to their quality; they are then reduced to a
pulp by a machine, which consists of a solid
cylindrical piece of wood, into which are fastened
plates of steel, ground very sharp : this is fixed
in a trough into which the rags are put with a
sufficient quantity of water. At the bottom
of the trough is a plate with steel bars, also
~ro und sharp, the engine being turned round
with considerable velocity, and the rags passing
through the two sets of iron plates are torn to
pi eces , and in the course of four hours are
reduced to a pulp. The motion of the engine
causes the water in the trough to circulate, and
by that means constantly returns the stuff to
the engine. The trough is fed with clear water
at one end, while the dirty water is carried off
at the other through a hole defended with wire
grating· to prevent the escape of the pulp also.
From this, which is called the washing engine,
the pulp passes in a state of purity and whiteness
to another engine similarly constructed, and
called the beating engine. The only difference

122

123

FIFTH SERIES.-1.ESSON XXIX.

PAPER.

of this operation from the former is, that the
velocity is increased, and that it is no longer
necessary to introduce fresh wnter, the pulp
having been alreatly cleansed from its impurities.
From hence it passes into a large vat connected
with boilers, and the heat produces a degree
of consistency: it is afterwards conveyed into
smaller vessels, in each of which is a wheel
called an agitator, which prevents the pulp from
sinking to the bottom. Into these vessels a
workman clips a mould, a kind of sieve the size
of the paper to be made, and about an inch
deep ; the bottom is formed of fine brass wires
through which the superfluous water passes.
The skill of the workman consists in taking up
just so much pulp as is ucccssary to form the
paper of a proper thickness. Another workman
is stationed to receive from the first the mould,
out of which he turns the sheet upon a felt or
woollen cloth ; another woollen cloth is placed
upon it ready to receive the next sheet. Thus
they proceed, placing alternately paper and felt,
till they have made six quires of paper. This
is then wheeled to the press, where great force
is applied, and the water is squeezed from it.
After this the paper is separated from the felt,
one sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes
a second pressure. This operation is repeated
five or six times before it is sized, a111l the sheets
are separated from one another between each
application of the screw press. They are after-

wards hung up to dry in rooms where there is a
fresh current of air. In this state the paper is
absorbent like blotting paper ; to fit it for
writing·, it is sized. Size is made of vellum t
shavings boiled in water, with sulphate of zinc
and alum finely pounded. After the paper is
sized, it is again pressed four or five times, and
hung up to dry as before. It is then told into
quires, and sent to the stationer, who prepares
it for sale.
The most ancient kind of paper was made
from the Papyrus, a species of reed growing on
the banks of the Nile, from whence our name
paper.
Leaves also were employed at a very early
period for the purpose of preserving and transmitting the opinions and experiences of mankind;
hence originated the word folio, (foli11m being
the latin for leaf) and also the meaning of lea
as applied to a book. The use of Lark succeeded that of leaves, g·enerally the inner bark
of the lime tree : it was called by the Romans
lilJer, and they gave the name of liber to a book,
and we have adopted the term library for a
number of books. For the convenience of carrying, this substance was rolled up, and in this
form was denominated volumen, from which is
clearly derived our volume. Our Saxon ancestors
employed the bark of the beech, which they

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COTTON.

124

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXIX.

termed boc, and which we have transferred to
our book. It is probable that skins of animals
were the first substances upon which characters
were written.

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twiste<l of which are called worsted, an<l the less
twisted yarn. It is then employed in the manufacture of every description of hosiery, stuffs,
carpets, flannels, blankets, and cloths. £ngland
manufactures so much woollen clothing, that it
was formerly considered the staple commodity
of the country; and to mark its importance, the
Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack.

LESSON XXX.
WOOL.

LESSON XXXI.
The clothing manufactured from wool, is particularly adapted to cold countries; it does not
indeed communicate warmth, but., being a nonconductor of heat, it prevents that of our bodies
from escaping. 'Vool is the hairy covering of
sheep; it is taken from the livi11g animal in the
summer season, by an operation called sheepshearing, and in that state is called the .fleece.
The wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly
fine ; in that country a flock often contains a.
thousand sheep.
The first operation performed on the raw wool
is to pick and sort it; this is particularly needful, as the same sheep produces wool of various
qualities. It is next cleansed from its impurities,
and commit.t1~d to the u:uol-coniber, who, by
means of iron-spiked combs of different degrees
of fineness, draws out the fibres, ~mouths, and
straightens them. It is then prepared for the
spinner, who forms it into threads, the more

COTTON.

The Cotton plant is cultivated in the £ast anti
" rest Indies; it produces a beautiful yellow
tlower; and the seed vessel is a pod containing
a. white downy substance which surrounds Hie
seed. This is picked by the hand and separated
from the seeds by a machine which at the same
time loosens its fibres; afterwards it is packed
in large bags, and sent by the planter to the
manufacturer. It is then carded; that is, wound
upon cylindrical cards, worked by machinery ;
afterwards it is roved, by which process the loo~e
tibres are removed with an instrument resembling
a comb; it is then twisted and drawn out into
threads or yarn, and sent. to the weaver. It is
made into muslins, calicoes, stockings, quilts,
corduroys, &c. The machinery employed in

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FLAX.

England in carding, roving, and spinning, is
quite uneqnall ed, and occasiollS our cotton goods
to be much sought after. In India a11<l China
some of th e plants produce a buff cotton, of
which nankeens are ma11ufactured.

then drawn through a comb with coarse iron
teeth, and afterward through one with finer teeth.
The refuse is called tow, and is the substance
used to make packing-cloths, and for the caulking of ships. The operation of spin11ing which
next succeeds, is drawing out several of the
fibres and twisting them; this was formerly
done by means of a distaff, but now it is performed in a more expeditious manner by machinery.
eaving is the final operation; it may
be regarded as a. finer kind of matting. To
perform it, the threads which compose the length
of a piece of cloth are first disposed in order,
and strained by weights to a proper tightness ;
this is called the warp. These threads are sepa.rnted by a11 instrument called a reed, into two
sets, each composed of every other thread; and
while by the working of a treadle, each set of
threads is thrown alternately up and down, the
cross threads called the woof or w~ft are inserted
between them, by means of a little instrument
sharp at both ends, called a shuttle, which the
weaver briskly throws from one hand to the
other, and which carries the thread with it.
This is the most simple kind of weaving. The
quality of the flax depends upon the soil iu
which it is cultivated; but the fineness of the
tJi~ead in some degree upon the dexterity of the
spurner.
Egypt was celebrated at a very early period
for the manufacture of linen.

LESSON XX:XII.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXTI.

FLAX.

Flax is a slender annual plant with a hollow
fibrous stern, bearing a delicate blue flower.
Linen, lace, and canvas are made of its fibrous
bark.
'" hi:n the flax is µ;athercd, it. is ex posed
for some time to the influence of the sun to
ripen the seeds; which are afterwards thrash ed
out, and an oil called linseed 1 is expressed from
them.
The stalks are then loosely tied in
bundles, fastened to poles, and.placed in stag;nant
pools, where they are left to steep for about
fifteen days. J3y the fermentation which ensues,
the bark or flaxy substance becomes separated,
whe11 the stalks are thinly spread 011 the grass,
in which state they exhale a very disagTeeabl1~
and pernicious odour. After this operation they
are beaten with a mallet, which removes the
pu I py substance and loose us the fibres, these are
1

From Jin um, the Latin name of the plant.

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FIFTH SERLES.-LESSON XXXIll.

SILK.

LESSON XXXUI.

12!)

LESSON XXXIV.

HE'.\lP.
SILK.

.f

llPmp is ol11<1in1·d from :rn :rn1111al plant which
thriv<'s in :i rich moist soil i11 tPr np< ·ratr: clirnat<·~.
1 t is miwh e11ltivlltf'd in Norfolk mul ~ulfolk ;
arnl i11 H11ssi:t it t'or111s nil<' of tlw chi1·f ar til'l1•s
() f (' () !1111 )('IT (.. T ' "' "t;" k (' () 11 Sis ts (·Iii ('fl)' () f ;J
tiss11« of 1i 1m•s .ioi11c1l to~1·tli1T hy a ,.;1il't ,.;11listance, which <:asily rots. At the proper scasoll
it is gathered an<l steeped in water ; th en beaten
in order to loosen the bark from the fibre s.
This is completed Ly all uperaliun called wnli11 a>
'r
l'''r!'on111•d wi!l1 an in,;111111w11L n·scrnhli11 ::r a
com h . It is next spun, ;-incl thC'n p:is<:c<: into
the hands of tlie rape maker or ic carcr, accortlini:;
to the use for which it. is Jesil!,uctl.
Tlw 1·xtn·1111· to11C!,lilJ1'o;s, pliability. :ind d11rability of lwmp. 1it it peculiarly for 1111rpos1 ·s
wh ere gT1·!at strength is rccp1ircd, as tlw conlaµ;c
arnl tackle of our vessels and fi shing nets . .It is
computed that tlw sails and co nLtgc of a iir~t ­
rat.e man of war , req uire as much h emp for th eir
construction, as would be the yearly produce
of four lnmclretl aml twenty-four acres of land.
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~ i lk is the: production of a. c:ih·rpill:ir, and
const.it.11t.0s t.lw 1·ov0ring in which it rnvclop0s
il-.;1•lf' \\ IH'll it. 1·.li:rn.gl''< from tlii: larva stall' to
t l1:Jf ()!' t liP chr.Y:"ali:-;.
From t IH· latter ina11in 1at (•
('()!Jditio11 it. cml'1g1·-.; a-; a rnot Ii, arHl liavin'.2,· laid
i I.-; Cl!.f.;S, it soon diPs.
11ie cocoon, or web of the silk-worm, is an
oval ball of silk, which it has s pun out of a
s11 LsL1.11ce 6t:cretl:tl in its uw n budy . The shades
of the' ,.;ilk Yary frolll fl(( · p:ilt·"t :-;fraw colo11r fl)
d<'<'P YC'llnw .
Tn :i st:1tC' nf n:11mr tlic :"il k wur111 :: f'<_ir111 their cucuo11:; upun tile mull.Jerry
111·(· ihl'IL wl1t·n: tl 11· ~ ,.;l1i11c like gol1k1t fr11its
<1ll1id,.;I lill• ll':t\"<'S; 11111. thP coldt·r clirn:d.1 •s of
l:11rop1· will not allow of tlH·ir lwi11~~; rnis1!d i11
t.hc 01w11 air. They arc i11 co11scq11e11c(~ kept i11
warm hut airy rooms, and foil with mulberry
lcct\Cs till they an; fully gro wn . They change
thei r skin several times while they a.re in the
caterpillar state; at leni:?;th they become so fnll
oft.he silky matter , tliat it 14i-ve~ them a ydlmYisli
tinge : they also cease to cat.
At this imlicatio11 of their approaching change, twigs are
placed over them upon little stages of wickerK

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work, on which they immediately begin to forlll
their webs. " rhe11 these are finished, the downy
matter on the outside called .Jlos, is taken off,
and the cocoons are thrown into warm water to
llissolvc the gl11tino11s particl<'s which had caused
the silk to adhere : the entls of the threads
being found, several are joined together and
wound upon a reel; this is called raw silk.
It next underg·oes an operation to cl eanse it, and
render it more supple, after which it is twisted
into threads of different degrees of fineness, as
required by the weaver; in this state it is called
thrown silk. The excellence of silk as a material
consists in its strength, lightness, lustre, and its
being capable of taking the finest dyes. Silk
may be made into substances varying; in thickness, from t.he finest. transparent g;a.uzc, t.o t.lw
riches tvelvets antl brocades. Our manufacturers
are supplied with silk chiefly from China, Persia,
and Italy. France is the most northern climate
is which silk is produced in any quantity.

FELT .

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LESSON XXXV.
FELT.

Felt is the suhstance of which hats are mad P.
It is compose<! of hairs ; those of the L>1~av1:r an :
chief! y used by hatters. The operation of felting

depends upon a peculiar construction in all hairs,
which, however smooth and even they may
appear, have in reality a tiled or scaly texture
011 the surface.
The scales are so placed, that
they yield to the finger if drawn along the hair
from the root to the point, but present a resistance when moved in a contrary direction. In
consequence of this peculiarity, if a hair be
seized in the middle between two fingers and
rubbed, the root will gradually recede and the
point will approach the fingers, exhibiting a
progTessive motion towards the root; the imbricated surface preventing all motion in the opposite way.
From this property, hairs when
beaten or pressed together, begin to move in the
direction of tlle root, and are disposed to catch
hold and twist round each other, and thus to
cohere into a continuous mass, which is called
f elt.
Curled hairs entwine themselves more
closely into one another than those which are
straight, though flexible, as these latter recede
from the root in a direct line. The hatter spreads
them over the surface of his coarser cloth, and
when pressed, these fine straight hairs moving in
the direction of their roots, form a coating ;
their base being inserted in the felt, while their
extremities remain free. It is in consequence
of this tendency to felt, that woollen cloths
increase in density, and contract in dimension,
by being washed; and that they do not ravel
out when cut. The Z etlanders, availing themK 2

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FIFfH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVI.

PORCELAIN.

selves of this peculiar construction of hairs, felt
their wool by putting it into narrow inlets of the
sea, where it is expose<l to th e continual motions
of the tides.

practice only can give. V essels of a circular
shape are forme<l in this manner, as bowls,
plates, cups and saucers; utensils of other forms
are made in moulds of gypsum, the pores of
which absorbing the moisture of the clay, the
vessels are contracte<l in size, and in consequence
may be easily loosened from the mould. Each
vessel thus formed is placed in a separate clay
case. The furnace is filled with these, and then
bricked closely up, and they are subjected to a
re<l heat for sixty hours. The temperature is
then gradually lowered, and the porcelain is
withdrawn ; in this state , it is called biscuit, and
is white' , <l nll , :rnrl p or011s . This procPs~ grm tly
diminishes the size of the vessels; and fits them
to receive the blue colour, called cobalt, 1 which
l 1as till' ;q1p<·a r:111 c 1• ()f :1 di rty f',l TY till ,12, L1z 1·1!.
Tl w 11,laz i11 g c rnhis ts of lca<l :u1<l glass, c;round to
an i11,~palpalilc powf'l', mix e<l in water w it h some
other ingre<lients which are k ept secret. The
hi~ c uit is men ·ly dipp e<l into t he ~ l azin e;, an<l is
thPn hakP<l again for forty 110ms. It is now
readv to rec eive the other colours and the gildirw;. ;vhich the pattern may iequire. It is then
lmkeu a thinl time for ten hours or more.
Lastly, the gilding is burnished with bloodstone
or agate , and the china is rea<l y for the w ar e-r oom .
The colours are change<l by baking, a ppear i11g
very different when first laid on.

LESSON XXXVI.
PORCELAIN.

Clay and flint are the chief ingredients of porcelain. The first gives the plasticity and tenacity
requi site for the mouldin g it into a ~hap <>, thP
latter renders it hard, and allows of a slight
dea;rce of vitrification.
The followin~ is the
llSll:tl jll'<J C ( ' S,; c;1nicd lll l i 11 ()I l l' l '.11 ;c_ li:-lt 11 1: \tlll factories of China. 1'li11ts arc 1irst calci11 cd ,
then mixed in certain proportions with Cornish
granite, i and ground to a very fine powder ;
water is poured upon this rnixt.11rn, a.111l it. is
twice strained through silken sieves.
It is then
boiled till it is of the consistency of cream, and
the watery particles b eing evaporated, it b ecomes
a tough paste. ..<\_ pmtioa o l' ll1i s s uu::;ta11ce is
then placed upon a t11rni11g wh eel ; arnl moulded
by the hand with a precision aml rapidity, that
1 It is to the large proportion of Felspar in a state of
decomposition that Cornish granite owes the preference
which is given to it.

1

Cobalt is an oxide of the metal of that name.

133

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134

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVII.

INTRODUCTORY ll:E:l\L\RKS ON
METALS.
In these lessons on the common metals, it is
advisable to present the specimens to the class
in their several natural and artifi cial states, that
is to say, the native, the ores, and the manufactured metals. The plan of writing down the
list of qualities has been again adopted with the
metals, as they lead to a new range of ideas,
and form so decidedly the characteristic distinctions of the substances.

LESSON XXXVII.
1.

I

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GOLD.

Qualities.
It is perfect as a metal.
malleable.1 I.

)•

)

~.l

1 A solid piece of gold and some leaf gold should be
presented to the class, and the extreme lightness and
thinness of the leaf may be felt.
TEACHER. How was the gold made so thin?
CHILDREN. It was beaten out.
TEACHER. With what?

GOLD.

13£>

It is ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4:
indestructible.
fusible.
incombustible, except hy electricity.
soft, compared with other metals.
pliable.
compact.
yellow.
solid .
opaque.
bri Iii ant.
reflective.
sonorous.
Not affected Ly any acid but aqua regia. 1
CH ILDREN. vVith a hammer.
All things that can thus he extended by beatins, are
call ed malleable from Lat. Mall eus, a hammer.
TEACHER. Could glass be thus beaten out? Could
chalk? Camphor r What quality prevents them from
being malleable ?
CHILDREN. Glass is brittle. Chalk is friable.
TEACHER. ·what quality in gold then renders it malleable?
CHILDREN. Its being tenacious .
TEACHER. What other quality in gold arises from its
being tenacious ?
CHILDREN. It is ductile.
TEACHER. Ductile is derived from Lat. Due Wis, capable
of being drawn out.
1 Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid
and nitric acid.

136

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVII.

It is a perfect metal, because it does not lose
any of its weig·ht when fused.
'Vhen the children understand fully the different qualities, the teacher may mention to
them the facts that illustrate the extraordinary
degree in which the peculiar <p1alitics exist.
1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a
pin's head, may be beaten out to cover a space
of fifty square inches.
2. Ductile. A grnin of gold can be drawn
out to cover a wire of 352 feet in length; a
guinea can be drawn out to reach nine miles and
a half.
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch
in diameter will support 500 pounds without
breaking·.
4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than
water of the same bulk.
Uses of Gold.

\Vhen alloyed 1 with copper, g·okl is used as
coin, and for ornamental purposes; for the latter
it is fitted by its brilliancy and beauty, and also
because it is not liable to tarnish.
The g·olcl used in coinage, called standard
gold, consists of a combination of about twenty1 The combination of metals with each other arc en.lied
in chemistry, alloys; but this term is commonly employed
to designate those substances which lessen the value of any
with which they are united.

GOLD.

137

two parts gold, and two copper. Gold of the
new ~tandard, which is stamped at Goldsmith's
Hall, consists of only eighteen parts gold, and
six copper.
Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver
with µ;old beaten very thin.
Gil~ling is the art of covering the surface of a
substance with gold, this is effected by applying
it either in the state of a leaf, or liquid gold, to
a surface covered by a cement.
Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating
a portion of its own fluidity; it has from this
circumstance been used in gilding buttons, an
effect which is produced very rapidly by the
following process. The metals are mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the compound. They are then exposed to gTeat heat,
by which the quicksilver is evaporated, and the
gold is left upon the buttons.
The purple colour used in painting porcelain
is ohtained from gold.
Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth
block of marble fitted into a wooden frame
about two feet square ; on tlm~e sides there is a
high ledge, and the front has a flap of leather
attached to it, which the workman uses as an
apron to preserve the fragments that fall off.
There are three kinds of animal membrane used
in the operation. J•'or intcrlaying with the gold
at first, the smoothest and closest vellum is
procured; and when the gold becomes thin,

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17JFTH SERIES. -LESSON XXXVll.

this is exchang·ed for much finer skin, made of
the entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose,
and hence called gol1l-bcater's slcin; the whole
is covered with parch111en t to prevent the hammer
from injuring it. After the gold has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is
put between paper which has been well smoothed
and rubb ed with red bole i11 order to prevent. it.
adhering· to the g·old.

Geographical and Geological situation of Gold.
Gold is found principally in hot climates,
either native or as an ore. A metal is called
native when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore
when mixed with other substances. Gold is
found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, and Mexico.
Part of the ,,-estern coast of Africa is called
the Gold Coast, from the gold dust brought
down by the natives to trade with. A gTeat
riuautity of gold is obtained in the form of fine
sand, from American and African rivers; and
in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine,
and the Rhone : it is supposed to be washed
down by the mountain torrents. The wandering
tribes of gipsies employ themselves in washing
it from the beds of the .European riv ers. The
Hirnlaya mo11nlains in .Asia arc rich i11 g·old.
It sometimes occurs in the veins which run
throug·h mountains and sometimes in rounded

SILVER.

13!>

masses in soils that are evidently the ruins of
rocks. The mines which formerly yielded the
larg;cst q11antities of gold were those of Peru
and Lima; the principal of Europe arc those
of Hungary and Saltzburg. The mode of extracting· g·old from the ore, is by reducing the
whole to fine powder, and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter unites with every particle
of the gold, but being incapable of forming a
combination with any but metallic substances,
it separates the gold from the earth with which
it is intermixed. The quicksilver which has
absorbed the gold is then evaporated by means
of heat, leaving the pure metal in the vessel.

LESSON XXXVIII.
SILVER.

Qualities.
It is malleable. I.
ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4.
indestructible.
fusible.
soft.
flexible.

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FIFTH SF.RlES.-J,ESSON XXXVJll.

It is perfect metal.
opaque.
white.
:solid.
compact.
natural.
brilliant.
reflective.
sweetlv so11oro11s.
not affected by t.:0111111011 acid::;.
1. Malleable. ~ilver can be reduced to a
<lc~gree of thi1111ess, nearly eq11al to that of \Yhieh

gold is capable.
2. Ductile. It can also Le drawu out to tlw
finest wire.
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of a11 inch
in thickness will support 377 pounds without
breaking.
4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier
than water.

SILVER.

141

or to render them more pleasing to the siµ;ht.
The most permanent plating is effected by taking
two thin plates of silver and copper, the former
in the proportion of one to twelve of the latter,
a little powdered borax is placed between the
two metals, to promote their fusion, and then
tifter heing f'Xposed to a white heat, th ey will
be found firmly united ; the substance is passed
hetwePn rollers , till the whole is of the proper
thickuess for the intended manufacture.
Silvf'r tlissolvccl in aqna-fortis, (nitric acid)
yields crystals, which being afterwards melted
in crncibles, form what is C'allc<l lnnrtr caustic .
This preparation is of considerable value in
::;urgical operntious, licing; employed to burn
away diseased flesh; and also for consuming
warts, wens, arnl other excrescencPs on the skin .
Indelible or permarnmt ink, used for marking
linen, is made by dissolving nitrate of silver
(lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The
yellow colour employed in painting porcelain is
obtained from silver.

Uses of Silver.
Silver is used for coin, and is then combined
with copper, to render it harder and better
adapted to receive a fine and sharp impression
on being cast. The same alloy is employed for
ornamental purposes.
Silver is m11ch used as a casing· to copper
utensils, to prevent the injurious effects of acids,

Geological and Geographical Situation of Silver.
Silver is found both native and as an ore, in
mines and veins. America is the country richest
in silver mines. It is also found in Saxony,
Bohemia, Norway, Hungary, and :England ;
but the mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annu-

142

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVIIJ.

ally ten times more than all · those of Europe
together. So poisonous are the exhalations from
the mines of P eru, that many thousands of
Indians have perished in them, and the cattle
that graze 011 the outside are affected by their
rnalig·nant vapours.
The quantity fouu<l i11
England is not great; it is taken front the lead
mines of Cumberland, Cornwall, and Yorkshire.
A large block was found at T'reyberg in Saxony,
upon which Duk e Albert took his dinn er. vVhen
melted, it yielded 44000 po1111ds of pure silver.
The ores of silver are very numerous, and
various methods are employed in different countries to separate this metal from its ore. 111
Mexico and Peru the mineral is pounded,
roasted, washcll, and then mixed with mercury
in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed for the purpose of more perfectly agitating· the liquid. This causes the ~ilver to unite
with the mercury, and then being submitted to
heat, the latter is evaporated. The pure metal
is afterward~ melted and cast into bars or
ingots.

QUICKSILVER OR MERCURY.

LESSON XXXIX.
QUICKSILVER OR MERCURY.

Qualities.

It is heavy.

1

1.

fluid. 2.
cold. 3.
divisible. 4.
volatile when heated.
white.
brilliant. 5.
opaque.
least tenacious of all bodies.
dilatable by heat.
medicinal.
natural.
inanimate.
mineral.

l. Weight.
Nearly fourteen times heavier
than water. It is the heaviest known fluid.
2. Fl.uid. It always retains its fluidity in
our temperature, but near the poles it congeals,
and then is malleable, ductile, and tenacious.
:3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and
the hottest when boiling.
1

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143

Volatile, from Lat. Vol are, to fly.

144

FIFTH SERIES.-LESS9N XXXIX.

4. It is capable of division, by the slig;htest
effort, into an indefinite number of particles,
each of a spheri cal shape .
5. The peculiar brilliancy o f m etals has given
rise to the term m etallic lustre.

Uses

r!f Q//ick.~ilnr•r.

Qu ic k sil vcr penetrates and softc11s other meta.Is,
losing its own fluidity, and forming· a ki11tl of
past~ call ed w1w lgmn. · This aJli11ity or attraction
that it has for other metals, makes it excel~ U­
inglv usefu l in separatin~: them from s ubstances
wftl~ which they are found combined; they are
dra\\ll rro!IJ lhr·ir or('S anrf 1m it f' ,yjfh t.h (' Tnf'r('!Jfy ,
:ind flit• L1lt1·r lwiti.c; \1l\a(i!i1.t·d, flit p11:·t, i1 u·t;if
re main s. (~uicksilver is ea.si ly affected by the
atmosphere, and is on this account used in
Thermometers and Barometers .1
The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the
following mann er :-a tube of glass, termina ting·
in a hollow hall which contains mPrc 11ry, is
plunµ: ed into boiling water, which causes the
merc~ll'Y to ex pand and ri se to a certain heig·ht.
At this point, which is call ed hoilin g· heat, the
tube is broken off, and l1 erm etically sealed; 2
I Barometer fr om f3ap os (bar os) weight, and µnp ov
(rn etron) a measure . Thermometer fr om OE(!µ os (hot)
2 Jn order to seal any thing hermetically, t he neck of a
glass tube is heatet! till on th e point of melting, anti then
with a pair of hot pincers it is closely t wisted together, by

QUICKSILVER.

145

the free zing point is then ascertained and mark ed ,
and th e intervening space graduated.
The
Thf'rmomcter, by m arkin g the expansion a nd
contraeti on of the quicksilver, indicates the
increase and decrease of heat and cold m the
a t.111 os pIH' re'.
To form the Barometer, a g-fass tn be open n t
o ne end , and fill ed with 1p1icksilvcr, is im11wr,.,ed
in a bowl containi11g· some of the same fluid.
Part of the merc ury in th e tube flows into t.lw
t: np , leaving a spn.ce to which the air can11ot
g·a111 access, conseqmmtly there is a vnc1111m.
The atmosphere acts 11 po11 the mercury in tlw
bowl, when heavy, causing· it to ri se in the tuhe,
;rnd wfipn li g·ht, (fh(' pr<'s"11rr· hl'i 11g dent ast'd,)
:dlu11 i11 '.2. it tu d1'.~t·t·111!. Tiu• Harn1111•t1·r I>\' tli11s
shewi ng· th e Wl'ig·ht of the air, indicates th~ pro haliility of wet or dry ·w eather. !<'or \vh en tlw
at.nws ph ere is li g ht it 110 lonµ;er s upports the
n .po nr and clouds wliich fl oat in it, and they
co11se1p1e11tly d escC'rnl towanls the ea rth; hut
when th<~ air i.<; mon~ dense, th ey a re Lorne up,
and we have fiue weather. The e levation of
mountains is also ascertained by means of th e
Barometer, for as it is known that the rarity
of the atmosphere increases in proportion to the
ascent, the height is easily calculated.
which means the air is excludcrl. Hermetically, is derived
from Hermes, the deity of ancient mythology who was
thou ght to preside over the arts and sciences, particularly
c hemistry.
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FIFTH SERlES.-LESSON XXX.IX.

LEAD.

Quicksilv~r is also used for coating mirrors.
This process is effected in the following manner :
a sheet of tin-foil the size of the plate of glass
is placed evenly 011 a smooth block of stone,
over this is poured some quicksilver, which is
carefully spread upon it with a feat.her or rubber
of linen. Tin in amalgamatinµ; with mercury,
quickly forms an oxide of a black .a p~warance;
this being removed, more of the fhud 1s poured
upon it. The glass is then held horizontal!y,
and carefully slid over the amalgam, sweepmg·
before it the superfluous mercury, and any more
oxide that may have formed.
W eights are
then placed upon the glass, and after having·
remained several days, the mixture adheres
firmly aml form s the mirror.
Vermillion used in colouring sealing-wax, and
the medicine called calomel, are preparations
of this metal.

147

covered about three hundred years since. That
part of the country was then much inhabited by
coopers; one of the men, when retiring from
work in the evening, placed a new tub under a
dropping spring, to try if it would hold water,
and when he came in the morning he found it
~o heavy that he could scarcely move it.
Ou
examination, he perceived a shining ponderous
fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quicksilver.
When this circumstance was made
known, a society vrns formed to discover and
work the mine from whence the mercury had
issued. In some parts of the mine it flows in
small streams, so that in six hours as much as
thirty-six pounds have been collected. In other
parts of the mine it is found diffused in small
g· lobules.

I ,

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LESSON XL.

Geographical anrl Geological situation of
Quicksilver.

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LEAD.

Quicksilver is foun<l in the uative state, as
ofobules, in th e cavities of mines; but it is most
frequently combined with sulphur, forming the
mineral called Cinnabar, which is of a rell colour.
The quicksilv er mines of I<lria are said to
yicl<l a111111ally 100 tons; thos1~ of ~pain still
;nore; but the mines of Peru arc tlie richest ..
The mines of I.dria w ere accideutal ly dis-

Qualities.
I

It is heavy.

"•

1.

fusible. 2.
bright, wh en first melted or cut.
malleable.
ductile.
L 2
I.

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JllFTH SERIES.-LESSON" XL.

149

LEAD.

It is very soft. 3.
pliable.
livid, blueish g-rey.
easily calcined, that is, reduced by
heat to a friabl e substance.
solid.
som etim es amorphous.
sometimes crystallized .
opaque.
mineral.
liable to tarnish.
ine lastic.
natural.
lt makes a grey streak 011 paper.
It boils and evaporates at a great heat.

of heat.

Red lead and white lead, so much
used in paints, are the calces of lead. They
arc soluble in oil, are all very poisonous, and
occasion the ill health to which painters are
sul~j e ct.
Any acid will extract a poison from
lead, and therefore the use of it should be
avoided in culinary operations. It is employed
in glazing and pottery.
"\Vhen rolled between iron cylinders to a
requisite and uniform degree of thinness, lead is
employed to cover the roofs of houses and
churches ; but in case of fire, its melting is
attended with much danger. It is also used for
gutters and pipes of houses, and for cisterns and
re!'>crvoirs for water, because it does not rust.
The great softness of lead, and the ease with
which it is fused, are the properties which have
brought it so much into Ose. The persons who
work .it are called 7>lumf>ers. I The solder they
use as a cement, is an alloy of lead and tin, in
the proportion of iwo parts of the former to one
of the latter.
Great quantities of lead are consumed in
making shot. The metal for this purpose is
alloyed with arsenic, to render it more hard amt
h r ittl 0, aml ca pah!P of a c;smn inp; a fH' rfr ctly
s pherical shape. Shot arc formed by dropping
the melted alloy into water from a considerabl e
hci2:ht, throu!!:h an iron or copper fram e , per-

1. Heavy. It is eleven times heavier than
water ; rather heavier than silver.
2. It melts at a much lower temperature than
the other metals.
a. It is the softest of all metals.

Uses of Lead.
Th e calx 1 of lead i~ the basis ot' many colour,,, ,
which are obtained from it by tliffcrent d egree"
fn;::; c rL Th1; n~ntr i; ;-; r1r.:;n1 hy rh r rn i :; t ~ tn t h n ;r r~ nh­
stances which have hee n reduced hv burning t o a friabl e
state . The operati on b y w hich thi s c!Tcct is produced i ~:·
called calci:riation. Jt i s more general now to term metallic
~::; d:c s ~...: hen c :i~c i :--.cd , o.~· 2 1:-:s .

1

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Plumb er, fr om th e Latin plu mb

11 m ,

lead.

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151

FIFTH SERJES .-LE9SON XI,.

COP PEit.

forated with round holes, which are larger or
smaller according to the required size of th e
shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for
printing-types ; and with tin an<l copper, it
forms pewter.

the su lphur usually combined with it. The
next process is to mix it with a quantity of coke,
a nd snbmit it to the smelting furnace.
In
this th ere are tapholes, which, when the lead is
melted, are opened, to allow it to run in a fluid
state into an iron vessel. The dross which floats
011 its surface is skimmed off, and the metal is
tak en out by ladles, and poured into cast-iron
moulds with round ends. It is then called pig
INLd, and is fit for use.

Geological ancl Geographical situation of L ead.
Lead abounds in Englarul and " Tal es , particularly in the counties of Derby, Northumberland, Somerset, Cornwall, and Devon. Jt is
plentiful also in Scotlantl, Ireland, G ermany,
France, and A mcrica. It has lately been imported in such quantities from Spain, as gTeatly
to lower its price in Engla))(l. It is very much
doubted whet.her it is ever found native; it
occurs frequ ently combinPd with sulphur, when
it is called galena.
• It is supposed that some of our lead mmes ,
·which are perhaps the most important in the
world, were work ed by the Romans. When
the ore is Lrou ght out of the rniuc.s it is sorted
and wash ed, to fre e it from dirt and rubbish; it
is th 011 sp r 0:i d. :inrl th 0 lws t. pi0r0s s0 p:ir:itrfl .
!\ ftrr t hr nrr , hy pirking- :ind w:ishini::. h:is hr0n
s1:llic i1·11th cll·:11H ·d fr()11 1 1·:\t1:1111·111 1s rn;t111·r . it
i,., roa s ted 1 ill ;1 ],i111l of kil11 , 111 fr1· 1· it. fro111
is t lll' 11rt w1·ss bv wh icl1 ti11· \ rJ]atilt· J<arts ol"an
.\//lr'il111:.:· is tli:1 t l1y 11\Jicli t/1(' 1r11r1·
metal is separated from tlic eart hy particks cumhinc<l with
it in the ore. Th is is dr1nc by thrfl\\'i11 g tlie w l1illc into a
1

on~

/(()!fS!i11 ::

arc t:vap11r:t1. t•tl.

LESSON XLI.
COPP EH..

Qua lilies.

Lt is heavy. 1.
tenacious. 2.
very sonorous. 3.
fu sible. 4.
elastic. 5.
1·apahlP of extreme divisiGilil.y.
11 1a ll1·ali[,•.
d11c1..i le .

G.

Cillll[l:lcf .

furnCJcc, anrl mixin" with it sii11stCJ11t ·c s th:1t \\·ill crn niJ irn·
\\· 1til tlic earthy parts; tile me tal !icing till: hea viest, fa lls tr1
tlir bottom , nnrl rrms ont hy the proper opC'nini;s, in its
p11rc metallic state.

152

COPPER.

FIFTH SEIUES.-J,ESSON XLl.

It is opaque.
orange brown colour.
mineral.
sometimes crystallized.
sometimes amorphous.
brilliant.
reftecti vc.
sap id.
hard.
odorous.
solid.
medicinal.
easily corroded.
1. Heavy.
Copper is eight times heavier
than water.
2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch
in thickness, will support two hundred and
ninety-nine pounds and a half without breaking.
3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals.
4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less
::io than gold or si I vcr.
5. It is the most elastic metal, next to iron.
G. A grain dissolved in ammonia., will g·ive a
perceptible colour to more than 500,000 times
its weight of water.

The

11sr:s

of Copper.

153

cylinders, it is used to cover the roofa of houses,
especially arsenals and manufactories, where there
is liability to fire. The bottoms of ships are
coppered, in order to make them sail faster, and
to prevent shell fish from perforating the wood.
Plates of copper arc engraved with a sliarp
instrument called a burin; sometimes they are
corroded with aqua fortis.1
The copper is
covered with wax, on which the design is
sketched with a pointed instrument, the aqua
fortis reaches the copper just in those places
where the wax has been removed by the sketching, and eats into it. Copper is much used for
cooking utensils, but great care is necessary, for
should any acid or even water be allowed to
stand any time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but while boiling-, this evil does not
arise. It is customary, in order to prevent any
danger, to line copper vessels with tin. Verdigris
is a rust of copper, usually made from that
metal by corroding it with vinegar. There is
a large manufactory at Montpelier in France,
where verdigris is prepared in the following
manner :-copper-plates and husks of grapes
are placed alternately one upon another ; the
latter speedily corrode the surface of the metal.
The verdigris thus formed, is scraped off as it
collects on the copper ; it is after\vards dried,

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The uses of copper are numerous and important. "\Vhen rolled into sheets between irou

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Aqua fortis (strong water) is nitric acid diluted with
water.

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FIFTH SERIES.-:tE SSON XLI.

COPPER.

and packed in casks or bags. lt is chiefly
employed in dyin g; , and is a most virulent poison.
Copper is used in th e rna1111foctories of gunpowder, becau se it does not, like irol1, give out
sparks by colli sion. There are several alloys
of copp<~ r. lhass is tlw 111ost important.; it is
cornpo11ndc1l of zinc and copper, in th e proportion of three parts of the former to one of the
latter. This is a very beautiful and useful substance ; it does not rust so easily as copper; is
more ductile than eith er that metal or iron, and
is therefore used in the construction of musical
and mathematical instrum0nts, and in clockwork. Sieves and blinds are woven of brass
wire, of extreme fineness. Brass is used both
for purposes of ornament and use. Copper
alloyed with tin forms Bronze ; it is remarkable that wl11.~ 11 these two metals are melted
together, the compound so produced is heavier
than the weight of the two metals taken
separately. Uronze is very 11sr!l'11l from its
being· extreme! y hard, d ura.ble, and sonorous ;
it is fabricated into cannon-ba lls, statues, &c.
The metal of which cannon are made is also
an alloy of copper with tin. Bell-metal consists
of three parts copper and one tin.

earliest known : the Bible mentions workers in
brass before the flood.
lt, is found in a great variety of forms ; some1im es in masses of pure metal, but more frequ ently
combin ed with other substances, particularly
sulphur. The copper mines of A11µ;lcsca are
very productive; they are situated on the top
of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity
more than 500 yards long·, 100 broad, and 100
deep. The ore is obtained from the mine either
by pick-axes, or by blasting the rock with gunpowder. It is then broken ·with a hamm er into
small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs
women and children. After this it is pil ed on
a kiln, to th e upper parts of which flues arc
attached , that communicate with sulphur chambers. The kiln is covered, and the fires li ghted
in diffe rent par ts, that th e om way unde rgo the
proc<'ss of roasting. The whole mass gradually
kindl es, and the sulphur which is combined
with I.he ore beinp; expdlc<l in fum es by the heat,
is conveyed through the flues to the sulphur
chamber. This process occupies from three to
ten months, according to the size of the kilns.
When the operation is complete, or the ore is
freed from the sulphur, it is submitted to the
smelting houses, where by the intense heat it
undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a
fluid state.

Geographical and Geological situation of Copper.

Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, America,
and Great Britain. It was one of the metals

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IRON.

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XLil.

L.ESSON

1&7

3. Jt is the lightest of the common metals
· ·, between seven and eig·ht time:i
Pxcep t. t.111
heavier than water.
4. l\'l ost tenacious of the metals. A wire
ahn11t. one-tenth of an inch in diameter will
support iJf>O pounds without breaking·.

xr,u.

IRON.

Quu!itics.

' 1

Uses of Iron.

It is elastic. 1.
ductile. 2.
heavy. 3.
tenacious. 4.
malleable.
liable to rust. 5.
sonorous.
mineral.
fusible.
hard.
livid gn:y-colour.
bright.
reflective.
solid.
susceptible of a high polish.
cold.
sometimes amorphous.
sometimes crystallized.

Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man
,-ery early became acquainted with its value.
Moses speaks of furnaces of iron and of the
ores from which it was extracted. By means
of this metal the earth has been cultivated,
houses and cities built, and without it few arts
could be practised. . Iron is very abundant iu
nature, but it is always found mixed with some
other substance. It is then called iron -stone.
Sometimes it is combined with clay, at other
times with lime, or with flint. In order to
separate the iron from its ore, i11te11se heat i~
n'q11ired; either pure clay, lime, or silex remain
st11bhorn in the hot.test tires, hut when mixed in
proper proportions the one nssists in the fusion
of the other ; therefore there is always thrown
into the furnace with the iron-stone, some earth
that will combine with that in the iron-stone.
The intense heat of the furnace is kept up by
111eans of a continual supply of air, rushing
into it from immense bellows, worked hy machinery. The lime, clay, or flint, unite and form

1. In the state of steel it is the most elastic
of all metals.

2. I~on is m?re ductile than gold ; it may be
drawn mto a wire as fine as the human hair.
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VIFTII SERIES.-LESSON XLII.

IRON.

a. kind of slag· which floats on the surface . At
th e same ti 111 e th e carbon, or pure charcoal of
the fu el, aid ed hy the linwst.on e , melts the iro11,
whi c h being- heav i<•r than the other substances
falls to the bottom of the furnace, and re main~
th ere till th e workm en let it out by a hole mad e
at th e bottom of th e ftirnn ce a nd plu gge d with
sand. \lrhen the work rna.11 j utl ges that there is
a s uffici ent quantity of th e iron fu sed, h e displaces th e plu g with an iron rod, a nd the melted
iron run s o ut like a stream of liquid fire, and is
co11veyed in to furrow s made in sand, wh ere it
cools ; t he pieces form ed in th e prin c ipa l furrows arc called sows, those in the small er fur~·ows branc hi11 p.; from them, pi gs. In this state
it Lak< ·s t.11<! na.111 1! of' rnsl iron, and from th<~
pro cess it ha.s un derg;o ne it is bcconw extremely
ha rd, a11d havin g· lost its t enacity, it resis ts th e
h ammer an d the file, a nd is v ery brittle ; it is
of a dark gTey or bl ackish colour. It is used
fo~ th e h acks of c himni es, gTates, boil ers, pipes,
rad-road s , co mmon cannon balls, &c .
Cast iron is c011vcrtcd into wrought iron by a
pro cess c:i ll< ~ <l liloomi11g; it is thrown into a
fo'.·ria~e :u.rd ke pt me lted by fire, it remai ns in
tlu s s1tuat10!1 for abo ut two · hours, a workman
bein g con t in 11a.ll y rmp loye<l in stirrin µ; it, t ill bv
mea ns of tli e heat of a ir ill t he f~; rn ace , th~~
greater par t of tlw carlJ0 11 is burnt. out of it.
It tl~11s acl1 ui rcs hy dcgn.·rs consistency a 11<l
t enacity, aml congeals in to a mnss. lt is take11

out of the furnace whilst hot, and violently
beat en by a large hammer, worked by machinery; in this manner it is formed into bars
of iron. Th e value of wrought iron in machinery , and tools of all d escriptions, 1s 111caleulable.
Stee l is prep ared from wroug·ht iron in the
following manner ; the bars of iron are k ept in
co ntact with ignited charcoa l for several hours
in earthen crucibles , from which the air is
excluded.
Steel, if h eated to redness, and
th en suffered to cool slowly, becomes soft and
pliable, if plunged while hot into cold water,
it is rendered susceptible of a high polish, and
acquirrs such extreme hardness as even to
scratch ~lass, while at th e same ti1n e it lwcomes
elastic a nd brittle. Its softness and ductility
may how ever be restored by h eatin g it again
a nd cooling it s lowl y . Steel varies in co lour
under the influ ence of h eat; first it assum es a
s traw co lour, then a li g·ht yell ow ; purple, v iolet,
red, d ee p blue succeed, a nd last of all a bright
blue, These hues indicate t he different tcmpPrs
which steel acquires, from that proper for common fil es, to that req uisite for the finely elastic
s prin gs of watches. S teel is used for all kinds
of ed g·ed tools , in which k eenness is nec essary,
it is also much employed for ornam enta l purposes, on account of th e e legant polish which
it is capable of taki~g . l n m edicine, sted is
valuable as a tonic. \ Vaters which pass over

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FlFTII SEJUES.-LESSON XLIT.

IRON.

iron and b eco me i111preµ:natell with it, are called
cltalybeate 1 waters, those of Tunbridge and
Hampstead are of this na ture.
Steel is a
combination of iron, and a small portion of
carbon. Cast iron contains a greater portion
of carbon, and is probabl y sat11rri.tcd with it.
Cast iron is convcrlc'l into wro11~ l1t iron, by
burnin g· away the carbon, and "vholly d e privin g
it of its oxygen.
. Plumbago or black lead, which is employed
111 th e rnanufacture of p encils , is an ore of iron,
containing; nin e pa rts of carbon to one of the
meta l ; sufficient is found in Cumberland to
su pply th e trade of :England.
The bronze
colour used in Porcelain p ainting is an oxide
of iron. Meteoric stones, which have b een the
snl~j cc t of so 11111c h eo11jcd.11rn, and whi cit arc
now g·cncrall y be! icvcd to be cj ectcd from
volcanoes in t he moon, a re n ative iron; a fin e
s pecimen 011 th e stairs of th e British Museum
has h ee11 c nt to shew this.
lrou is very val11ablc from tlw 1nag11d.ical
propert ies it may acquire. By these it e11 a bl es
th e m a rin e r to steer across the occa11, the traveller to dirr~ ct lii s co urse with safely in the pathless
d esert , a nll I.li e miner to gu ide hi s researc h es
after s ubterra.11 cu us treasures. Th e load st.one or
md 11r<1 l 111:1.c:.rH't. i:" an oxid e of iron; it c:om11rn uicalc:s its p uwers to bars of iruu or sled,

wh r n place<l in contact with them. The artificial magnet is now always used; as it possesses
and ret a ins a ll the properti es of the loadston e .
'l'h e qualiti es which r ender it useful, are, its
attractin g iron; and its polarity, or the power
h y whi ch it points to the poles when freely
suspended.
One eud invariabl y turns to the
North , a nd the other to th e South, except
whe11 it approaches the pole ; there the directive power ceases altogether, which circumstance
co nstitutes one of the great difficulties in navigatin g the Arctic Seas.

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Geological and Geographical situation of Iron .
Iron is the most univ ersally diffu sed of the
meta Is, l t. is found every wh ere, in greate r or
less q11 a ntities ; but England, France, Sweden,
and H ussia, are ric h er in this m etal than the
othe r countries of Europe.
Tt is very rarely
met with in a uative state, but ge nerally as an
oxide, or in combination with Sulphuric or
Carbonic Acid.

Chalyb catc from xci;;\vi), (chal yb s) iron .

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XUJI.

LESSON Xl,III.
TIN.

Tt i::: l1ca1; .

L

::;uft. 2.
m::dl cablc.
ductile.
fusible.
white.
opaque.

3.

S'Jlid.
brilliant.
very little elastic.
pliable.
easily calcined.
natural.
mineral.
reflecti vc.
so11orn11s, makes a crackling· 11uise.
dilatabl e by heat.

1. It is se vc11 limes heavi er than ;vater : lh c
lightest of the lluct.ile 111etals.
2 . It is softer than silver, but harde rtha11kad.
:3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the IOOOtli
part of an inch in thickness.

TIN.

1G!3

Uses of Tin.
Tin is chiefly employed in the rnan11fact.me of
culinary utensils; they are not however mad<·
nf <:olid tin , h11t. nf what is c·nllPd ti11-p/11tr'. whic·h
is tl111" 1m·p;1rr·d . T lii11 iro11 pL1t1·-.; :11T fir:-; t
cl ean se d completely , by washin;.:: th em in watn
and sand; they are then dipped into melted tin,
afterwards steeped in water acitlulatc<l with s1rlphuric acid. This process causes the tin not
only to cover the surface of the iron plate , hut
' '' P' n1 f rnff' i f :-;o tliat the ,,·]wle rn:1ss Lc· (' Olll<~
of a whitish colour. Pins arc made of hrnss
wire tinned. \Vhcn tlie pin is formed. a Ycssl·I
is filled with strata or layers oft in plat('s lil'twc1·11
th e brass pins, the vessel is then tilled wilh
watC'r and some tartaric acid, by menus of whi('!1
tlw tin is (lissolvcd; aft.er live or six hours boiling, th e pins arc found uniformly tinned. Lt is
th~ zinc of th e brass which lms an affinity for
th e tin, and forms the union which takes plac1·.
The pins are afterwards polished, by throwing·
them into a tub co11tai11inµ; a quantity of bra11 ;
this is set in motion by turning· a shaft that runs
throu?:h its centre, and by means of friction thf·y
beco me p erfectly bright. The uses of tin i11
domesti c purposes are very various, particularly
when laid over other metals, as in st.irr11ps,
bu c kles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dying.
Tin forms alloys with several other metals.
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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XLJIT.

1G5

CO Ml'AlUSON OF METALS.

These compounds have b een mentioned before ;
as bell-metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves,
amal gamated with mercury, are used for silvering
and plating other metals.

LESSON XLIV.

Geographical and Geo logical situation (if Tin.
COMPARISON OF METALS.

Native Tin is never found, and its ore is of less
common occurrence than that of iron. It occurs
as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper.
:England, G ermany, Chili, and Mexico, produc~
the largest quantity of this metal. The tin mines
of Cornwall were well known to the ancients;
and the Phmnicians are said to have traded with
flH· Tirifo11:' for it l1>11:c,· lH.fm1· 111(• l1ir1l 1 of rn11
Saviou r. It occurs chiefly in \ ei11s n11111in)2;
through gTanite and other rocks. 'Yh en it is
taken from the min e , it is broken into small
pi eces , and streams of water are passed over it. to
fr1·1· it. lr1ll11 tl11· <':1rtl1y p:1r1i1· l1·s \\i111 \1l:icl1 i1 is
i11lcrrnixcd; it is tlicu rn<lslcd and smelted, \Vlwu
!lw metal i::; p uune(l oul iulo ljllill1r«11g11lar rn ouJJ,.,

or

;.;1011!', a111l l'l'('('in·,; j]l(• 11:11111· of' lil 11(']\ 1i11.
TIH' :urns of the D11kr• of Cmm\·;i]] nrc: s1<1ll1JH d
1q1u11 it \\ liilc irt this ,;1all', and a. Liq~< : port.ion
of tlic i1 1cor1 11: of 1h<' J 'rirH·<• of \\':des, \\ lro l1old,;

the title, is dcr iH·d fr om the ll11ly paitl 11pu11 it.

Gold, a perfect metal, is the most precious.
most compact.
heaviest.
lt.s weight is between nineteen and twenty tim es
that of water.
S ilver, a perfect metal, is next in value to
"(lid :111 d 111 on' 11,;r·f1il ; ih W(·i,Jt1 lwf\1·1-l:ll 11·11
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and eleven times that of waler.
Quicksilver is fluid.
<':1"i lv Yoh1 ilizP<L
immalleable.
11,; \\'l'i~lit. j,; \)('l.\\'\Tll tliir1.cl·rt a1Hl fumtcc11 1i11w,.:

ul' 11 <1ll'r.
CoppPr is the most sonorous.

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(•las1ic l'XCl'pt 1ro11.
it,; Wl'i~h1 j,; lwh1cl:ll 1-iu;ht a111l 11inc 1rtllc-; tl1<1t

of watl·r.
lru11 is the most. daslic.
tenacious.

useful.
ductile.

I ts wei ght. is between seven
of water.

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Lead is the softPst.

alloy of silver with copper or tin, or one of silver
or oold ·w ith lea<l. is heavier t.ha.11 the same quan11t1~" of those m eta.ls 11ncombincd . Thrir
d1wtility :ind rnallcab ility arP chaw.;1 ' d :111d
!.!_\'ll Prnliy i111paired, the al,loy becomi11~ brittll'.
This is v(•ry rcmarkahly thc case wit.It ~;old and
IP:1d \\ lwn .1111itr:1l, the lattn of wliich ('\ 1·11 iii t lll'
tri\ i:il proportion of half a grai n to an 01111<·1· of
go ld, n'mlr'.rs the mass quite destitlltc of tenacity .
The hard11css of mctals is varied hy cornliinat i•11t.
(;old, by co!llhination with a s111all
q1ia11tit y of copper, aml silvcr , hy a lllillllf(' proportion of the sarn<' rndal. acqnirc s11ch an
increase of hanlness, th;{t tlH'S<'. <Hlll itions <in:
:dways 111a1l1· io gold or sih1·r \\·hi1·h is lo lw
r'xpo~cd to wcar. Hy a slllall additio11 of µ, old ,
iron is said to gain so much hardness, as to be
even su pcrior to steel for the fabrication of
cullint:: instrnmcnt.s.
Ch~.nge of colour is a common effect. of t.hP
11nion of metals with each other. Arsenic, for
<~ xample, which resembles steel, and copper,
which has a red colour, afford by their union a
compound, which has nearly the whiteness of
silver.

must ea.sil y fused.
lt:i \Veiµ:ht is 11etween eleven and LwPlvc ti11ws
1lial of wat~·r.

T in, next to lead, is the sulh:st of tlte metab;
it dilat.Ps most hy h eal : it is ihe li g·h t P~t , its
weiid1L Lein~· 011lv St'YPll tirnPs that of w<itt'r .

O:'{

METALS IN

(~ENEHAL.

.Metals are s implt ~ d1~111P111ary bodies , disti11-

guisht~d by J,cin!!, heavier t.h:u~ all other s11h-

oy

sta11ccs;
possess ing· a pec uliar lustre which
is calll'tl the m etallic lvstrc; by r eflecting light
and heat; by their being opaque, fusible, malleable, tenacious, ductile, and generally elastic.
Upon this last quality seems to depend their
fitness for exciting so11rnl, or so11oro11s11ess.
M etals are capable of uniting with one another
in a state of fu sion; this union is called an alloy.
It is remarkable that by these combinations,
m etals undergo a considerable change in their
properti es, an<l acquire new ones not belonging
to either of them when not united. Thus the
weight of the alloy, or the two m etals in cornbi11ation, is sometimes very different from the
weight of both the metals taken separately ; an

In order to ascertain how far the children have
retained the knowledge comm1rnicatetl to them
in these lessons, the following questiom; may he
g·iven to them to answer in writing: -

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.Fl JITH SERIES.

QUESTIONS ON THE METALS .

IGO

SIL\'E I ~ .

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·:-;:. 0:'\ Tii l : :H FT.\LS.
1. 'Yhat arc the ~hi e [ properties of sil ver?
GOLD .

1. \rli:it :1ff: tl11· cltivi' q11<tlilil's uf gulJ ·(
') '1 n 1a.t. is iis 111_:i2.h t.?

3. Gi ve a proof of its ductility.
4.
tenacity.
5.
mcilleability.
G. Upon what other quality llues its malleahil ity dq1c11<l?
7. \>Vhat. qualities are directly opposed to
malleability?
8 . " ' hat is an alloy?
9. '~' hy is gold alloyed for the purpose of
coinage ?
l 0. " ' hat meta l is usctl as its alloy ? and i11
what proportion ?
11. How are buttons g·ilt?
12. D escribe the mann er of formin g leaf gold.
13. In wh at states is gold found?
14. 'Yhat is an ore ?
15. ' Vhat is meant by a 11a.tive metal?
Hi. 111 wha.t countries is µ:old fo11111l 't
17. 'Vhat peo ple emplo y th emselves in separating it from the sand s of the European
rivers?

~ - \\hat is its wc·ie;ht?
:1. Wh at dP!.!,H'C ' o ff Pll :IC' ify d rn·s it. pos,.;c•ss !
cl. \Vli:d :m~ tliP ( hi1·f 11sP; of sil\'cr !

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ii. I ) pun wh at. q11 alitics du tltc USC'S or silver
d epend ;
fi. D Pscrilw tlw opPratio'l of platin!!:.
7 . 'Vhat is lunar caustic? and what are its
nses?
8. Give a geographical and geological account
of sil vcr.
!). 'Vhy arc gold and silver called perfect
metals?

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I. " ' hat a.re the uses anJ properties of quick-

silver?
2 . '~That is its weight ?
3 . In what respect is it remarkable as a liquid?
4. 'Yhat effect does heat produce upon it?
5. Under what circumstances does a change
in its qualities take place? and what is the
change ?
G. 'Vhat is an amalgam?
7. M ention the uses of quicksilver.

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FIFTH SERIES.

8. "'What are the properties that fit it for a
barometer?
D. "That for a thermometer?
10. How is a barometer made? and what is
its use?
11. 11 ow is a l lwrn10m<'h'r made? arnl whaJ
isitsuse 1
.
12. \\That colour is obtaim~d from '1uicksilvcr 'I
13. lYhere is quicksilver found?
14. "~hat c~rcm~1sta nce led to the dis~ov ery
of the rnmcs of ldna?

LEAD.

I. 1'That are the remarkable qualities of lead ?
2. lVhat is its wei1rht?.
'
3. \~That are the different effects which h eat
produces on lead ?
4. lYhat are the chief uses of lerul ?
5. 'Vhy is it 11s1:1l f'or rcscivoirs of ~·vatl~L ?
,

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7. \lThat is the USf! of th e oxides of l0ad?
H. \Vlrnt nrP its nlloys?
.
9. ln w hat staJr: is l ~arl fmnHl?
10. " That is lt>ad called when fouru1 1mit N1
with sulphm?
11. Wh erP is !Pad most abundant?
12. Describe the process of roasting and
smelting;.

<JUESTIONS ON THE METALS.

171

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COPPER.

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.1. " 7 hat are the chief qualities of copper?
~- What is its W(:iµ,ht, and what its llegre<'

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of t1 ·n;U'il,\' 'I

3. ltow is it proved to 1Je ca pab le of extreme
di\·isibiiity?
4. 'Yhat arc the uses of copper'!
5. \Vhat is verdigris? and h ow is it made?
G. 'y hat is the dauger incurred hy employing
copper in kitchen utensils'!
7. )Vhat are the alloys of copper ?
3. In " ·hat respect is brass preferable to
copper?
D. " ' here is copper found, and in what states?
10. Describe the copper mines in Anglesea ,
and the rnauner of extracting the metal from
the ore.

llWN.

I. \Vhat are the chief qualities of iron?
2. What quality does it possess in a higher
degTee than any otlwr metal?
:3. lYlmt is its wci ,~hl a11<1 tenacity?
·1. -"Vlmt are th e different slates in which iron
is used ?
5. How is cast iron prepared?

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XLVJ.

QUESTIONS ON THE METALS.

G. 1Vhat are it.s ri11aliti es and uses ?
\11uugl1t iro11 prPpar~·d !
U. \\' hat an·' it.s 11w1liti<'<.: and 11<.:<'s '?
!I. 1 IO \\' i.s sit Tl 1111·11:m·d I
10. \Vh:11 :rn· i t,; 1111:tlil i1·s :111d US!'S !
ll. \\ l1at. is 111.::rnt l1y tlt1, 11·rtl(HT of steels t
12. ~n1at , is plumbago? au<l what. rp1ality
nrnkes 1t. 11sdnJ 'I

173

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\\'lt :1t is

"Ital state is it

t'o1111d 1

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l. \Vhat. aw t.ltc: c·hi0f q11alit.ir,s of tin?
'.:l. \~1 hat arn the u~.-~s of ti 11 ?

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tlH· !.!'(•ogrn1.J1ical sii11:i1i!Jll ofi11J11?

TIN.

l

ON EARTHS.

3. How is it prepared for use ?
4. How are pins tinned ?
5. 1Vhat is block tin?
G. ·why is it stamped with the arms of the
Duke of Cornwall ?
7. 1Vhere is tin foun<l ?

T !lE s1il1.-.;tancc call(•d L illi(~ is ncn ·r found pure
in nat 1111· , o\\ ill!!, to ih gn·at :dlinity for carh"nic
acid 1 and for water. All the earths of which
linw t'or1ns tlt 0 basis, nn• c allP1 l cnfr11rrn11s. 2 lt
is the most universally diffused of all sulist.nnccs,
a111l unc uf t l11 ~ most ali1111d:111t.; it. is cornp11t.cd
that it const itutes Oii<' f'iC?.lith of tlw crnst of th e
( ~arth.
1n this distribution w e Jmyc great cause
to admire th e wise and goo<l providence of the
Creator, as the utility of lime in various arts, in
a~riculturc, in manufactures, and in Jn edicine, is
very gr eat. Lime 1111ited with carbonic acid,
forms con1nHm lim c-sto11 e, chalk, marble, &c. ;
with sulphuric acid, it constitutes gypsum or
alabaster; and with ftuoric acid, fluor or Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting com1 Carbon is charcoal in its purest and colourless state; it
is most abundant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly
obtained from wood. The diamond is the only pure carbon
1hat is known. United with oxygen, carbon forms carbonic
acid.
~ Calcareous, from Latin calx, lime.

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l'IFTil SERI ES.-1.l~SSON X LVI.

LIME.

bi11atio11s with min eral substances. lt enters
also into the composition of animal matter, as
shells, bones, and th e hard coverin gs of insects;
our bones co11tai11 B parts in 10 linrn; and th e
sh ells of birds' eggs, n part s in 10.
Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limesto ne, by means of burning. Alternate layers
of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged in a
kiln; a ti re b ein g kindl ed , t he carboni c acid and
water b ecome volatilized, and are driven off,
leaving· the lime pure. ln this state it is called
quick lime, and is white, ca ustic, acrid, pungent,
infusibl e ; corr(){liuµ; and destroying animal matter. 'Vhc11 water is poured upon it, it swells,
falls into a powder, and gives out grea.t h eat.
This last operation is calh~ 1l slacki11.~ tlu~ linw.
Tlw water eo111lti11in t; wit.Ii the lirlll: li1:co111<•s
s_olid, and.the lr eat is occas ioned by it:,: changing
from a fhud to a solid state, for in doinr.t this it
parts with some of its caloric. The use; of lime
are num erous and important. It is form ed into
mortar, tlu: c1·111c11t. 11s1 :1l in l)ilildi11~~- Tiu! lim 1·
~Je in ~· slacked, is mad e i11 to a paste uy te mpering;
it with water; to this is added sand, and sometimes c hoppcd hairs ; as it dri es, it become!'
soliJ, hard, antl 1lura.ble. Jc:xarnples have bee11
known of buil1li11gs a thousand y ears old, in
whic h the mortar is as Itani as th e stones which
it unites.
.As a nnu111n', linH! is 11scf11I in loos1~ ni11~ soils
oi' too tc11acio11s a 11ature, and re11derin!j· thenr

more friable and capable of receiving vegetable
fibr es; it also facilitates the dissolution and
putrefaction of animal and vegetable substances
of whi ch mould is chiefly composed, and gives
it a power of acquiring and r etaining moisture,
so necessary to the growth of vegetables. Lime
is also employed in the manufacture of sugar , to
1leprive it of a portion of its acid. Tanners use
it i11 removing hairs from the hides, and cleansi11g them from fat and grease.

174

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Carbonate of Lime.
Lime occurs most frequently combined with
carbonic acid in different proportions. The
generic term for these substances is Carbonate
of Lime. They vary much in appearn11ce, but
all agree in the following properties ; they r eadily yield to the knife; neutralize acids (the
c haracteristic properties of eac h being destroyed;)
and have a w eight two or three times greater .
than that. of watf)r.
The most common carbonate of lim e is lim e:"to11e, it occurs i11 almost every country, and
form s hills of some eminence; it is very abundant in England; it is used for making· mortar,
forming roads, &c. Different kinds of Limesto11e are used in building, as Portland stone,
Oolite. The former has been much employed
in several of the principal buihlin~s in London,
as St. Paul's, the Monument, and some of the

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flFTH SERIES-Ll\SSON XLVI.

bri1lµ,·1's. So111c limestones arc soft, wlwn first
taken from the quarry, but become har<l when
lon g· ex posed to the air.
Calcareous spar is the purest carbonate of
lime, it occurs both amorphous and crystallized,
is transparent, shews a do11blc refraction, an<l
takes 1.hc form or tlw rhomholwdron, occ11rring
in ci!.!,ht hundred varieties of this fi~ur e . Carbon ~te of lime is often found in stalactites :
these are lon g pendulous masses d eposited from
water loaded with particles of carbonate of
lime, which trickles through fissures in rocks, or
crevices in the roofs of caverns, &c. : the water
evaporates, arnl the part.ides of lime gradually
harden ; drop succeeds drop, till a long irregular
tube is suspemled of a most µ;rot.esquc appearan ce . \V hen carbonate of Ii 11w occ nrs ol' a. very
close-gTained t exture, it is called marhle: being
susceptible of a high polish, it is much used for
ornamental purposes, as chimney-pieces, pillars,
and statuary.
Cha .'le is another c a.rhona.tc of Ii me, not. so
generally occurring as lime-stone, b11t very abundant in the south-eastern counties of England,
along· which it stretch es iu a continued line. It
forms hills of a moderate elevation, characterize1l by their ~e11tle slopes and rounded summits,
arising from this substauce being of too soft a
nature to resist the action of the weather. There
a.re two beds of chalk; the upper ouc distinguished by containing parallel horizontal layers

LIME.

177

of flint, with many petrifactions; and the lower
by being destitute of both. Chalk is white,
dull, friabl e, meagre to the touch; adheres to
the tongue; is of an earthy fracture ; alwar
amorphous, and opaque. It is usually dug;
from pits; but in some parts of Kent the workmen 11mlcrminc the sides of the hill , th en dig a
trench which is filled with water; this soaking
in, loosens the masses, which consequently fall.
Most of the uses of chalk are nearly the same
as those ,of limestone ; when freed from its
coarser particles, it forms whiting.
~Yater impregnated with calcareous sub:-;tances, is occasionally deposited on vegetables,
c lothing them with a stony coat; this i11crustatio11 is called Tufa.

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Sulphate of Lime.

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Gypsum is a sulphate of lime : it is much
softer titan marhlc, a111l more easily worked; it.
is sometimes of a beautiful transparent whiteness,
when it is called alabaster, and is made into
vases and other ornaments. The gypsum, which
is very abundant in the neighbourhood of Paris,
is of a yellowish colour. When heated it pulverizes, and water poured , over it, is quickly
absorbed, forming a paste which dries aud
hardens very rapidly. This is the Plaster t)f
Paris so much used for casts, statues, &c .

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178

l"IFTH SERIES.-LESSON XI.VII,

When mixed with glutinous substance, it forms
stucco and plaster.
When gypsum occurs crystallized it is called
Selenite.
Fluate of Lime.

Lime comhined with fl11oric aci(l is called
Fluate of Lime, or Huor. It is very abun<lant.
in Derbyshire. It is formed into very beautiful
ornaments and is much used in the smelting
of the ores of copper.

LESSON XL VII.
SILICA.

A large number of the rocks with which the
earth abounds, and a great proportion of compound earthy substances and minerals, have
silex for their chief ingredient. It seems to
form the solid basis of the crust of the globe,
giving firmness and durability to the mountains,
by which they have resisted the various revoh1tious that the earth has undergone. It is found
in its greatest purity in rock-crystal and quartz.
It is the hasis of alrnost all the mineral :mlistances, which are suiliciently ha.rd to strike iirc
with steel. These substances are called silicious,

SII.ICA.

179

from the Iatin silex a flint, because flint is almost
en ti rely composed of silicious earth.
Silex
forms a large portion of granite, and enters in
considerable proportion into the composition of
slate ; it is also the substance which constitutes
sand, and generally the shingle of the sea shore.
h. is very hard, striking fire with steel, and
scratching glass; it has neither taste nor smell ;
when perfectly pure, (in which state it is, however, never found in nature) it is infusible, but
when heated with an alkali, it unites with it,
melts, and forms glass. In consequence of this
property, silica has also been called vitrifiable
earth, from 1;itrum, the latin for glass. It is not
affected by any of the acids except the fluoric.
Common sand is a granulated silex, generally
of a white, red, or yellow colour. In the torrid
reg·ions of Africa and Asia, there are immense
tracts of desert covered only with sand so fine
and dry as to be moveable with the wind, and
forming into waves like those of the sea. The
wind sweeping the sand from the surface continually, the successive waves form mountains
of sand. These are incessantly shifting-, and
often overwhelm the travelling caravans. Sand
is of great utility. It enters into the composition of mortar. It produces the vitrification of
~lass and porcelain. In agriculture, it is valued
as a manure; it gives lightness to clayish and
licavy soils, and assists in the work of filtration.
Sandstone is formed of grains of silex cemented
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Fl F'l'll Sl<:H !ES . - l ;ESSON XL\' Ill .

tog·ether, producing· a solid rock, thoug·h often
of a very friable nature.
Common .flint contains of silica 11inety-seven
parts in one hundred. It is generally of a greyish
colour, approaching· often to black; it is opaque,
but translucent at its edges. It stricks fire by
collision, and is on this account 11sed in gun
loc ks. From its being one of th e hard<:s t substances in nature, it is oft.e n taken as an embl em
of firmn ess or obduracy. It is found principall:v
iu Leds or strata, in chalk form ation s. .Lt is
used in the mauufoctnre of glass a.ml porcelain,
in the construction of building·s and walls, and
it also forms cxcelleut roa<ls.

LESSON XLVUI.
ALUMINE OR ARGlL.

'

This substauce obtained the name of Alumine,
from its forming· the base of common al11111, and
1
argi I, 011 ac co u11t of its being· the com: ti tu ent
of all clays , which are therefore term ed argillaceous earths. Th eir distinguishing qualities a re,
th a t they have an earthy texture, give out a
p ec uliar odour when breathed upon, which has
been thence called the argillaceous odour : they
1

ALUMINE OR ARGIL.

181
; .•

adh ere to th e tongue; are never found crystallized, hut sometimes slaty; are generally opaque,
and tht>ir weight is about twice _as great as that
of water. \Vh en t empered with w1tter, ~10st
a roilln ceo us substances become soft, tenac10us,
and plastic ; 1 but shrink ~nd l~arden by the
applic ati on of heat. A I 11 mm e 1s 11ever found
pure i11 nature, it is co.11si<lere<l to ue the most
plentiful earth nex t to sdex .
.
.
Cu 11wwn clay is a uearly equal ad1mxture of
nl11mine a nd silex : it is found in most coun tries, and is very valuable in various arts ; for
these it is peculiarly fitted, as it may be moulded
into any form, whic h it retains 1mchanged after
ex posu~·e to heat. The beL~S of la.kes , pon~ls,
a nd spri11g-s, nrc alnH'.st P 1~llr c l~ ot clay; mstead of allowing the fdtratwn of water, as sand
d ocs, it form s a n impenetrabl e b~ttom, and by
thi s means water is accumulated m the cave_rn s
of the earth , producing those na tural reservous,
whence sprin gs issue and spout out at. the surfa~e .
Clayey soils, in consequence of their abso~·bmg
and re taining moisture, are heavy and sticky.
Clay is often used
the poorest class~s of
society, in formin g thell" cott~~es . Loam Is an
aro·illaceous substance, contammg a great propo~tion of sand, and is generally found upo? a
bed of sand. It is the suh stance of wluch
bri cks and til es are con:'itructed; when well

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Plastic, from 71""acrcr

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(plass ein) to form.

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Argil, from Lat. Argil la, clay.

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Fl FTll SEfUES.-LESSON XI.VJ] I.

baked in a kiln, or in the sun, it becomes very
hard and durable. A proof of this is furnished
in the existence at the present day of those
mighty :Egyptian Pyramids, which many suppose to have been th e work of the Israelites in ·
thei r bondag·e.
Porcelain clay is that employed in our china
manufactories; it absorbs moisture rapidly, and
becomes very tenacious when kneaded. It is
distin g·uished from other clays by the fineness
of its texture, its friability and meagre touch.
A coarser kind called Potters' Clay, is used in
making common earthenware.
.
Another description of clay, of a plastic
nature, is called Pipe Clay from ·its being used
in the manufacture of pipes: it is c:1.st. into a
cylindrical 111011ld, a wire being· aft<·rwnnls run
through it to form the hollow through which the
fumes of the tobacco are inhaled ; when baked
it becomes hard and white. This clay is also
used in extracting grease out of different substances.
Fullers' -earth is another argillaceous
substance similarly employed.
The soil or mould which covers our fields
and gardens, contains more or less of these three
substances, alumine, silica, and lime. These
occur in very different proportions ; a mixture of all forms the best soil, each correcting· and keq>i11g· within their due pr<iportiou the qualities of the other ; thus m a

QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS.

183

dayey soil, filtration is carried on by m~ans
of sand, while clay on the other hand gives
consistency to a sandy soil, and lime loosens
tlw texture of heavy lands, and corrects the
coldne;;s , occasioned by their retaining water.
The fertilizing property of our soils, however,
gTeatly depen<ls upon the admixture of decayed
nnimal and vegetable matter.

QUESTIONS ON THE EATtTHS.
LIME.

I. 1Vhy is lime never found pure in nature ?

2. What name is given to the substances
containing lime, and from what is the name
derived?
3. Name the various minerals of which lime
forms a principal part.
4. From what substance is pure lime genera.II y procured ?
5. Describe the process.
(). What is the operation of slacking lime,
and tlrn effect produced ?

rn&

l'IFTH SERIES.-QUESTIONS.

QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS.

7. Name the different uses of lime, with
the properties that fit it for those uses.
B. 1Vhat is a carbonate of lime ?
9. M ention the different carbonates of lime.
10. 1~T hat qualities do they all possess?
11. D csl'.ri lie calcareous S)Hlr.
12. -\'Vhat are stalactites? describe their formation.
13. 1Vhat is marble, and how used?
14. D escribe chalk, its situation, qualities,
and appeara11ces.
15. \'Vhat is calcareous tufa?
lG. N amc the limestones used in building.
17. 'Vhat is gypsum, its qualities and uses?

misfortun e are those liable who travel in the
countries where it abounds ?
lJ. Describe common flint, and name its uses.
10. In what geological situation is it found?

SILICA.

1. In what minerals is silica found m the
gTeatest pmity ?
2. Why was it call ed silic;t?
:J. " ' hat are the earths called that contain
silica ?
4. 'Vhat other 11a111e is sometimes given to
them, and why?
5. 1\rhat arc the disti11guishi11g· qualities
of silicious earths ?
G. -W hat are their chief u.ses ?
7. ~That is sand?
8. Where does it abound, and to what

ALUMlNE OR ARGn.

1. 'Vhy is clay called argil ? why alurnin_e?
2. 'Vhat are the distinguishing qualities of

al11rni110 ?
a. 1'1 hat qualities render it so useful 111
the arts?
4. N amc the different argillaceous earths.
5. Name th eir various uses.
(j. 'Vhat is loam, its situation, and uses ?
7. How is porcelain clay distinguished ?
B. \'Vhat clay is used in the manufacture
of common earthenware, and how does it differ
from porcelain clay ?
n. \Vhat clay is used in the manufacture
of pipes , and how arc they made?
10. ·what clays are used for extracting
grease?
11. 'Vhy are clays used for the bottoms
of lakes, canals, &c. ?
12. 1Vhat kind of soil does clay form ?

lOG

FIFTH SEIUES.-1.RSSON XLJX.

LESSON LIX.
COAL.

Coal may be considered as a mineral, both
fro1:1 it~ subterraneous situation, and the qualities
which it possesses; many circumstances however
justify the now prevalent opinion that it is Of
vegetable origin ; the following are perhaps the
most convincing. Carbon, which is the chief
constituent of all vegetable ruatte1-, particularly
wood, composes three-fourths of this substance.
Coal is also found in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes if.·possl;sses a cumplctel y
fibrous texture arnl ligneous appearance, eve~1
the knots of wood being discernible, whilst the
same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral
coal. That which preserves most distinctly the
character of wood, is found at Bovey near
l~xeter. In Ireland a standing forest h:~s been
discovered, at the depth of one hundred feet
below the soil. To this we may add the inflammability of this substance; the numerous vege
~able remain~ and impressions that accompany
it; and that 1t has never been discovered above
the line to which vegetation reaches. It is of a
black colour, bright, and freq ue11tl y iridescent ;
the structure is slaty; it occurs always amor-

COAL.

187

phous; it is very combustible, a quality which
few minerals possess. The places from whence
it is taken, are called coal mines; they abo~md
in many parts of :Englancl, and have mamly
contributed to the wealth of our country. Both
the persons employed. in the mines, and the
vpsscls which transport the coals, are called
colliers; the place where the trade.is ca.rrie<l on
a colliery. The access to coal T?mes is general! y through a narrow, perpendicular tunnel,
call~ll a shaft, up which the workmen and coals
arc drawn l;y machinery. The mine~ at '~hite­
havcn am some of the most extraordmary m the
world. The principal entrance is by an open~ng
at the bottom of a hill through a long slopmg
passap;c, which is hewn in the rock, and leads
to the lowest vein or bed of coal : the descent
is chiefly through spacious galleries intersecting
each oti1er, formed by the excavation of the
coal, large pillars of which .are left to support
the pondrous roof. These mmes are very deep,
and are extended under the hc<l of the sea, even
to where the depth of the water is sufliciently
gTeat to admit ships of burden. In. thes~ mines
there are three strata of coal, wluch he considerably apart from one another, and are ma<le
to communicate by pits. Miners are frequently
impeded in their progress by veins of hard ro.cks
called dy!ces, and the coal is seldom found ma
direct line on the other side of them : to ascertain its prncise situation is often a work of con-

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GRANITE.

FIFTH SEJUES.-LESSON :XT,IX.

si<lerable labour and ex pense. Coal is ge11erally
situated at the foot of mountains, and iu hollows
which vary much in extent; it rarely lies much
above the level of th e sea.
Several dan!rers attend the labours of miners ·
the greatest is that arising from .fire damp;
which is occasio11 cd Ly the l1yJroge11
..-as or
•
b
inflammabl e air, produced iu the mine, and
which, when mix ed with atmospheric air, explodes with g-rca.t violence if brought into contact
with any lig·hted substa11ce.
To avoid this
d a nger , safety lamps are used, which w ere
invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. They me
of a very simple co nstruction, consisting of wire
gauze, so closely interwo ven as to prevent a
suffici ent quantity of tJw g·as from c• nt<~ri11g· to
cause ig111t.1011.
A11otlwr d:ur g <!I' aris1 ~s from
the formation of carbonic acid gas or fix ed
air, which bein g heavier than the common air,
occupies the lower par t of the mi nes, and occasions d eath Ly suffocation.
Coal is used to rai se the ternperatnrc of rooms ,
to cook fo otl, to supply the fu el for rnanufactori es, (partic ul arly where steam is required)
and in th e ·w orking of metals. It is one of the
subs taJ1c es fr o lll which gas is proc ured: when
this has b een ex tracted from the coal, the residue
is called coke, w hi ch is employed where intense
h eat is requisite.
u

LESSON L.
GRANITE.

'

G ra.11ilc is a compound rock, formeLl by an
. .
f the grains of quartz' felspar'
't"grcgat10n o
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Tl
IJroportions in w uc 1
rnse
and nu ca.
le
.
.
h
F elspar
.muc . 1
Co m [:JOnent. irnrts.. occur lvary
· . · the east con·s
the
l>rcdominatrng,
am
mica
is
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Th grams are
sidera.hlc of these in gre. ients.
e
.
are
. lifferent m agmtudes; when they .
t
l
a so o L
t ture ·
ex
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I gTanite is of a veryallcoarse
large, tie.
as almost to
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" 1 wse
p·ivc th1 ~ appearance of an 11111 onn rn~.ss . . t.1.
"circumstances occas10n
·
a great
, van ety 111 · ie.
.
.
.
.
te
'Vhen
hornblende occurs
c haracter o f g1 am ·
.
· ·
.
a
the
rock
is called s1e111te.
in the \I I ace o f m1c, '
. .
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, .
1· I . . . . liabl e to ilccompmat1on , am
~Olll C
C S pcl.l IS
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11. , ·1s the 1>revaili11g substance m tie
W \ C l\
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. -lJ. t th e cfh~cts of t te wea le i'
rocks , t icy y1 e
o
f
1 d form .
and b eco me more or less o a rounL e
.
.
~ut wh en the granite is hard and clos.e-g~a1~e~li
wl1ich is more usually the case, they nse mld o (
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k
r . O' andeur and bo ness
promment pea s, g1vmb gr .
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Granite is founc 111 mos
to tle
seen ery ·
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countries where there are mountains of any c~n.
It f rms the lofty Grampian
siilerahlc dcvat1011. · · · 0 •
kin
hills in ScotlanJ.; anJ. the Logan or roe
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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON I.I.

stones of Cornwall are immense blocks of this
material. Granite is valuable on account of its
gTeat hardness and durability ; it is used for
mill-stones, troughs, and steps, the streets of
Lon~on are paved with it, and it is employed in
arch1 lecture. Waterloo bridge and the new
London bridg·e, are constructed of granite.

LESSON LI.
SALT.

...

Salt is a mineral s11hstance, beantifolly white,
sparklinµ;, arnl crysta.llirw; it is snlulil<~, f'nsihl<',
gTanulous, allll of a pec uliar lhvour ca.lied utlini?.
There are several varieties of this use fu I mineral,
which are distinguished by the different situations
in which they are found. The principal are stasalt, called also ba!J-sa.lt, which is produced from
the ocean ; the best comes from :Portugal : salt.
drawn from brine springs: and rock-salt, which
the most
is dug out of the earth. AmonD"st
0
extensive salt mines, hitherto discovered, are
those at 1Vielizka, a picturesque little town
situated on the sides of a gentle valley, about
eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief city
of Poland. The traveller who visits these suhtcrraneous deposits of salt, being furnished with a
guide and two lamp-bearers, is let down a shaft

SALT.

191

of about 150 feet, by a rope. At the depth of
!lO feet he arrives at the rock of pure salt of a
clin gy soot colour, here and there g~iste~ing by
th e light of the lamps. The swmg ts now
abancloned, and the ear is assailed by the busy
sound of spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows,
in every direction. This is the first floor of a
111.rge cavern, containing in different parts a
stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt, some
in bare masses, some in casks, ready to be
hoisted to the surface, stores of implements for
the miners, &c. This excavation is about 100
feet long and 80 broad, (beside the stable) and
about 20 feet high. From hence a long gallery
12 feet high by 8 broad, leads toward the
interior of the mine, where lateral avenues branch
off in variom; directions, each named after some
Austrian prince or princess, and resembling more
in appearance the avenues of some. ~ubterran~ous
palace, than the l)assages of a nnne. A flight
of steps conducts down another 100 feet to t~e
second floor; in this descent the bed of salt ts
interrupted by a narrow stratum of pure clay,
sometimes by a mixture of salt and the. same
earth; these strata. are in places very cunously
curved, as though a rolling wave had. be~n
arrested in its course, and preserved 111 its
original form.
The miners are here found at
work, some hew ing pillars of salt from lhc rock,
some cutting them into masses for home consumption, and some stowing the masses in barrels

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FIFTH SERIES.- LF.SSON LI.

SALT.

193

bed of green salt, the most common sort and
easiest to be cut. That next to it is called spica
salt, which is harder and more close grained,
and next succeeds a white and fin er grained
variety. This part of the mine is 700 feet below
the surface of the earth ; 300 feet beneath this
lies the fin est crystal salt, which is reached by
long flights of steps and inclined planes. The
cavern i11 which it is found is sufliciently spacious for a regiment of soldiers to perform their
manceuvrcs in it. This is the deepest part of
the mine, the air it> quite pure, rather cooler
than that of the open day, but mu ch warmer
than it is about half way down. The return is
through a different series of corridors and caverns.
On the third floor is a simple tomb of salt, with
the nanw of the late Emperor of Austria inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On
the second floor is a large saloon with all the
implements of mining, and the mode of letting·
them down with men and horses exhibited in
transparency . On the first is a chapel, presenting an altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix,
and figures of Casimir I. and his wife, all cut
out of the solid salt; before the chapel is a
small pulpit in the gothic style. To visit the
whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine,
with all its galleries and caverns, no less a
distance than 300 miles must be traversed.
The salt used in England is chiefly obtained
from the sea, or salt brine spnngs. The saline

for exportation. The cavern 011 this floor is
rather smaller than the first, it consists of one
spacious hall, and has no pillar to support the
roof.
Proceeding on this subterraneous journey, the
travell er arrives at a wooden platform, from
whence he looks down 11po11 a11 abyss, which
the simpl e lights of the conductors fail t<i illu- .
minate, thoug·h the spars of the mineral refl ecting
the rays of light, produce a novel and beautiful
effect. -" rhen princes or other great personag·es
visit the mines, a chandelier of crystal salt,
which hangs in the centre, is furnish ed with
150 lights, and displays a st11pendous cavern,
having the appearance of a ca&t.le in ruins; at
the bottom are some rows of scat::; rising· like the
bcuchcs of a t.lu:at.n ~ , opf1osit.<: to which is an
orchestra; here, 011 such occasions, a s11iall bnrnl
play a few airs of slow and simple music, which
lrn.s a most singular effect in harmony with the
surrounding scene. Long· g·alleries and tl ights of
ste ps, all spacious enough to allow fn ~e comHe
to the fresh air, lead deeper and d eeper iu the
saline rock ; the scene now and' then varied bv
a cavern full of workmen, and some along th~
gall eries wheeling their little carts full of salt,
each with its lamp in front. On the fourth floor
there is a littl e subterraneo us lake, about 80
feet long and 40 broad, over which illustrious
personages are ferried on rafts of fir logs, lighted.
by numerous flamb eaux. flere terminates the

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105

FIFTH SERIES.-LE SSON LIL

SLATE.

water is admitted into open shallow trenches,
and b eing ex posed to the sun or artificial heat,
the water is evaporated, and the salt is left in a
crystallin e state.
The conserv ative properti es of salt render it
invaluable for household purposes ; and its stimulatinµ; llavom, for re 111ovi11 ~· th e i11sipi cl ity of
food. \Vhen fu sed, it is used in glazing pottery.
It is sometimes used as a mamtre.
It wa s employed in all the J ewish ceremonies,
being· emblematical of purity and incorruptibility.
Our blessed Lord calls his d isciples the salt of
the earth; thereby signifying to them, that having
by divine grace their own hearts purified, they
are to exercise by precept and example, a purifying influence on the hearts of others.

used for writing, for whetstones, and for roofing
houses. In order to ascertain its fitn ess for the
latter purpose , it is weighed as soon as it is
excavat0d; it is then put into water for some
days ; if after bein g well dried it is found to
have increased in weight, it is laid aside as m1suitahle for the purpose , the trial having proved
that it was porous. S uch slate would not 0111 y
allow water to pass throu gh it an<l so destroy
the wood-work of buildings, but it would also
be liable to be covered with lichens and moss,
i11 conseq uence of the moisture which it retain:;.
If its quality is ascertained to be good, it is split
into thin plates for roofing. The tiles are fastened to the rafters by pegs dri ven throu gh holes
which have been previously made in them; the
edge of one is laid over the other iu the salue
ma nner as the scales of fi shes. Slate which is
dark- coloured, compact and solid , is the best
adapted for writing upon. In order to prepare
the slate for this purpose, it is rendered smooth
with an iron instrument., arnl it is then ground
with sandstone, antl slightly polished. That
which is softer and more friabl e, is used for
pencils.

LESSON LIL
SLATE.

Slate is a mineral substance ; it is never found
crys tallized, but generally of a foliated structure ; it is either of a grey, blueish, or blackish
col our; and is opaque, dull, and brittle. It
consists chiefly of alumine, with a small quantity
of silex. I t is dug out of quarries; when first
taken from them, it is comparatively soft, but
becomes hard by ex posure to the air.
It -is

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON I.III.
CORAL.

LESSON LUI.
CORA.L.

. Coral~ are. ~he secretions made by polype
msects, rnhab1tmg the deep; they sometimes
assume the forms of branches of the most beautiful appearance ; sometimes they resemble beads
strung in a necklace, whilst others present a
m?re consolidated mass; but all are perforated
with pores more or less minute, which are the
habitations of the little architects.
Among the various phenomena of . the natural
world, there are perhaps none more calculated to
excite astonishment all(} admiration, than the
vast coral reefs that rise up from the deep, and
at times even constitute islands. They are produced from a calcareous matter which exudes
from the coral worm, and hardening, forms at ·
once their habitation and their mausoleum. This
creature is of th e class of zoophytes, the lowest
grade of animal life, the link between the animal
and the vegetable kingdom . . They work only
under ~vater, so that the coral reefs never rise
above the level of the sea ; and when the
tide retires the rock appears dry and compact,
rugge<l, and iwrforatc<l; hut. when the rcturni11g· waters wash its sides, a most interesting·
spectacle of active life is presented, countless

197

myriads of various shapes and colours protrude
themselves from the orifices, and the whole
edifice seems teeming with life and animation.
The coral ceases to grow in height when the
worm is no longer exposed to the washing· of the
sea; the work is then commenced at the sides,
and other parts rise in succession till they reach
the same height, and form a. level surface at
the top, with stee p precipitous sides. In this
manner, and by such insignificant agents, atom
deposited upon atom, the solid rock is at length
produced ; upon this the sea deposits sand,
mud , and decayed sea-weed ; these prepare for
mosses and lichens, which in their turn produce
a soil for more perfect vegetation; till at last
the island thus formed, becomes a fit residence
for man.
A s these rocks are constructed beneath the
surface of the sea, they present no beacon to
warn the mariner of their existence, and thus
rend er navigation in those seas in which they
abound, exceedingly dangerous.

I
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ON THE SENSES.

F'IFTI-! SERIES.-1,ESSON LIV.

LESSON LIV.
ON THE SENSJ~S.
. The c~i l_dren having already been exercised
~~::ermmrng by which of the senses they disco' er the ]~resence of any quality' may now be
!eel to, consider more fully the senses themselves.
fhe fust two lessons are drawn out for the use
?f the teacher ; the substance only of the others
1s given.
11
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_TEACHER. Do you understand how you
gamed the knowledge of various qualities?
CHILDREN· By our senses.
. TEACHER. How do you know when a thing
is red or blu e ?
~H1LDREN. By sight.
1 EACH ER. lf you were blind, could you
form a correct idea of colour ? Is there any
other means of g·aining· this knowleclg·e ?
C1-IILDREN. No.

T~ACHER. True ; and to ascertain this point,
a b~md person was once qu estioned as t0 what
'.1ot10n he hac.l of scnrld: he sa.itl he tl1oug-ht that.
it m.11st l..>e like the sound of a trumpet. Jt is
obv10us he had no correc t idea of a quality

I

discoveral..>le by the sight, and he could only
compare it with one that he had acquired through
t.h e medium of another sense. Can you tell me
th e reason why persons born deaf cannot speak ?
CHILDREN. They cannot imitate sounds,
because they ne ver hear<l any.
TEACHER. Since then deaf persons have no
correct id eas of soun<l, nor blind persons of
colour, how <lid w e acquire them?'
CHJLOHEN. By means of the senses of seeing
and hea ring.
TEACHER. How then do you suppose our
mi11ds become store<l with ideas ?
CHILDREN. By the exercise of our senses. 1
TEACH ER. Now if you have once had the
idea. of a \log form ed iu your mind, by seeing
such nn animal, when a tlog is mention ed you
can recal the itlea, and fancy one immediately,
as if it were present ; yo ur mind -\vill also perform th e same operation whe11 a quality is spoken
of which yon had previously seen in some object.
Again, if you see a dog· unlike any you have
observed before, you compare it with the species
with which you are acquainted, and mark the
difference between them. If I say that I have
some gTeen paper, cannot you immediately
imagine the colour of which I speak ?
CHILDREN. Yes.
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199

It i~ probable that children would not at once arrive at

the conclusion; the Teacher must in that case lead them
to it by easy questions.

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Jo'JFJ'H SERIES.-LESSON LV.

TEACHER. Did you then exercise your sight?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHER. How then could you have the
idea of green ?
CHILDREN. 'Ve remembered it.
TEACHER. By what means did you first
obtain the idea?
CHILDREN. By seeing something· green.
TEACHER. " That power of the mind do you
exercise in recalling an idea?
CHILDREN. Our memory.

LESSON LV.
FEEi.iNC OH,TOUCll.

TEACH ER. What part of your body is the
organ of touch ?
CHILDREN. It seems all over our body.
TEACHER. Do you not find some parts that
do not possess the se nse of feeling ?
Cm LDJtEN. Y cs : our hairs, nails, teeth.
TEACHER. And in other animals what parts
are found d estit11tr: of sensation?
CH I LDHEN. The hoofs, horn s, claws, feathers,
wool, hair, &c.
TEACHER. 'What word would you use to
express the absence of sensation ?
1i\' hat
syllable prefixed to a word gives it a negati vc
meaning?

FEELING

OR TOUCH.

201

CHILDREN. In.
TEACHER. Well, what word will express
th e absence of sensation ?
ClllLDREN. Insensibility.
TEACHER. The parts then that you have
named are insensible, and with the exception
of these, the sense of feeling exists every where
throughout the body: but what part of it is
particularly adapted by its form, to become the
organ of this sense ?
CHILDREN. The hand.
TEACHER. T ell me what qualities we can
discover in objects by this sense ?
CHILDREN. That they are hard, soft, rough,
smooth, long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square,
cylin<lrical, conical, heavy, light, fluid, liquid,
dry, wet, hot, cold, &c.
TEACHER. By what general term would you
· ex press such qualities as roun<l, squar"e, conical,
&c.?
CHILDREN. By shape.
TEACHER. By what g·eneral term would you
express such qualities as larg·e, small, &c.?
CHILDREN. By size.
TEACHER.
By what general term would
you ex press such qualities as rough, smooth,
&c.?
CHILDREN. By kind of surface.
TEACHER. By what general term would you
express such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tenacious, &c. ?

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LV.

CHILDREN.

By kind of substance.

TEACHER. By what general term would you
ex press such qu ali ties as heavy, light, &c.?
CHILDREN .

By weig ht .

TEACHER. N ow arran ge the qualities which
you discover hy y our l~' eelin g , under five general
heads, i. 1 ~ . sli11pc, size, kind of s1n:f1cc, lcin<l of
substm1cP, weig ht.

SIGHT.

203

The class should be required at the conclusion
of the lesson , to draw up some account of .tl~is
sense , mentionin g wh ere it resides, what q~ahties
fall within its cognizance , and to recapitulate
an y incidental information received during the
lesso n.

LESSON LVI.
The children havin g perfo rm ed this part, the
T eacher may mention the followin g facts.
TEACH ER. The quickn ess and acc'u racy of
th e sense of F eeliu g, is, we find, much increas~d
by exercise, as is exemplifi ed in blind persons,
the defec t of whose sight is fr equently compensated in a great meas ure, by an exquisite sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess
thi s sense in a remarkable degree . They have
been observed , even after the loss of sight, and
wi th their ears and nostrils stopped up, to fly
through intricate windin gs and p assa~es , without
strikin~.?; :t!!;ai11st 1.lw walls , and also to avoid li11cs
and cords plac1;<l in th eir w ay . The expanded
membran e that serv es them for win gs is proba bly
th e sea t of thi s dc~ li cate sense of feelin g, w hich
so admi rabl y fits them fo r their nocturnal and
dark abodes. The pa lpi or fee lers of insects
possess th e same quali ty very ac utely , and this
enables them to ex plore the surfaces of bodies
in search of food, and warns them also of the
approach of danger.

SIGHT.

The eyes are the organs of sight, and are
beautifull y adapted for the offi ce they have to
perform. They are so constru ~ted as to allow
us to sec thin gs near, or at a di stance ; to confin e ourselves to the inspection of one obj ect, or
to take in at once a large sphere of vision. The
part of the eye whi ch admits th~ light, may b e
ex panded or con tracted , acc?r~m g a~ the r~~s
arc more or less powerful. 1. lu s fact is rema1k-.
ably cx1~ 111plifi cll in the eyes of the cat a1'.d. of
th e owl. lmlee<l nothin g affords a more stnkmg
proof of the kind providence o~ God th~n the
pec uliar formation of the eyes of d1ff~rent ammals,
each exactly suited to their peculiar ~odes of
life ; those of moles, fi shes, and buds, are
remarkable illustrations of this fact. 1
1 The Teach er should here fully explain to the class the
circumstances referred to, and give other similar instances.

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JI EARING.

204

205

FIFTH SElllES.-1.ESSON LVII.

Of all the senses, that of sig·ht is in most
fr equent and co11ti1111al exercise. It fills the
mind with the greal.C'st vrufoty of id eas, which it
g-a.1.lu·rs hot.h from tlw works of 1mturc, am! the
writings oft.h e wise aml goo1l of a ll ages.
The qualities we 1liscovcr by this sense are,
- transparent, se111i-tra.nsparcnt, t.ra11sl11cent,
opaque, glimmerin g, bright, dark, sparkling,
dull ; and the various 11101lifications of colour,
size, and shape. :M:any may be ascertained
either by touch or sight; as those of size, form,
kind of surface, and substance.

LE:-180N LYI 1.
HEARING.

The ears are the organs of this sense. In
many ani111al s the ear ha s e xternally th e form
of a trumpet, aml is thns best adapted for
gathering th e sou11d , nml bri11g·ing it to a focus;
in 111a.11 it. contains 111 r111y con vo lutit111 s and channel s which receive the vihrations of air in every
direction, and co11v cy th e111 to . the part called
the dru111, which is th e actual scat oft.his sense.
The formation of the ea.rs of animal s is beautifully accommodated to their peculiar habit;;
of life. ln beasts of prey the trumpet part is
inclined forward s, eusily to catch the sounds

of those they are pursuing.
But animals
whose chi ef means of protection is flight,
have these or~ans turned backwards, that they
may he readily apprized of the approach of
tlwir l'1H"111ics.

The ears are the medium throu gh which all
sensations of soun1l reach the mind, without
them we should be deprived of the advantages
of verbal instruction , the pleasures of conversation , and the charms of music.
The motion of the parts of a body, or the
collision of one body against another, occasions
a vibratio11 i11 the air, which is similar to the
effect produced on water wl~ en a s~one is thrown
into it. Circl e su cceeds circle, till the power
of mot.inn is cxlm11st.c1l: an1l just as any light
s11hst.ancc~ within the inl111em:e of these umlulatiuns is agitated by them, so when our ear is
wit.hi11 reach of these vibrations of air, the
sensation of snnn<l is produce<l. 1 The chirping
noisr" of the cricket is occasioned simply by the
constant. fri c tion of a little membrane against its
wing·s. 1'' hen two bodies are rubbed or ¥n'.ck
together, we are in many cases able to determme
by the sounds emitted, the nature of th.e substances brought into contact. V ery different
sounds are occasioned by the collision of metals
1 This account may appear, at first sight, above the
comprehension uf children; n class, however, which had
gone through the preceding exercises, was fountl fully
capable of understanding it.

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FIFTll srmms .-Ll\SSON I.V III.

and lhat of wood; au<l lite sou nd produced from
h ol.low bodies is very unlike tha t resulting from
solid ones. There are various kinds of sounds :
as shri ll, deep, grati ng, harsh, loud, soft, harmonious, sw<'el..
A ninmls prod.uce different
sounds.
The cal mews, t.he d og barks, the
lion roars, th e ass bra.ys, the cow lows, the
horse neig hs, llu~ rook caws, t he goose cack les,
th e cock crows, the ii y buzzes , lhe bee hums.
Man spea ks, lau ghs , c ri es , shouts, groans,
whistl es, srn gs .

TASTE.

207

Odour is produced by exceedingly small
partic les called effluvia, which escape from
odorous bodies ; these diffuse themselves in the
atmosp here, and whenever they reach the olfactory nerves, they occasion the sensation of
smel l. Heat promotes the escape of these
particles, which are of a volatile natul'e; hence,
when the su n shines brightly, the flowers are
more fragrant.

LESSON LIX.
LESSON LVIII.
TASTE.
SMELL.

The nose is the organ of this sense; its
cavities are lined wi t h a thin membrane suppli!!«I with 1u·n•cs cn1111 c<:l.!!d wit.It a princ ipal Oil!!, wl1ich is cs:;v nti a l t.o <t.hc perce ption
of swell.
By means of this sense we d erive a ll 'our
ideas of odo ur. Though not so important to
m an as th e othPr sPnses, yet it adds much to
his pka s11r1:; a11d l.o many ;111i111a.ls it is <'sse nti al
direc ting them in the sear~h uf their food. Th~
scent of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on this
account tlwy arc employed i11 the chase.

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The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin
within the mouth is fine and more. d elicate than
that of the rest of the body, it is supplied with
a great numhcr of blood vesse ls, and covered
with in1111mernhlc papilla:. 8api<l hodie~, how ever, before th ey excite the seusation of taste,
require to be moistened by the saliva.
In
graminivorous animals, the papillre arc defended
from the action of the stiff bristles of grass and
com, by a stro ng skin, which being perforated,
a llows the dissolved juice to reach the seat of
taste. The principal qualities discoverable by
the taste are,-bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, acrid,

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s 1mms. ·-L ESSON LIX.

There are many ot hers which derive

th ~1r names from the substances in which they
ex 1 ~t .

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VOCABULARY .

. l\1any animals have some one of the senses
~11 great perfoctinn, but. i1111on c are they all fou11d
111 the same deg-ree as i11 ma 11.

Transparent, that which can be seen through.
Semitransparent, that which is seen throu gh imperfect! y.
Transluce11 t, that through which li ght only can
be SCCll.
Opaque, that thro ugh which nothing can be seen.
Re tl f~ ctive, refl ecting or giving back an image:
thi s qu ality depends upon brightness .
Sparkling, that which does not present a cont.inned brightness, but one interrnp ted , a~
1n sugn.r.

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Dull, that which absorbs the light, instead of
refl ecting it.
M.agnify in g;, that which ma kes things a ppea r
la rge r than they actua II y are.
Odorous, that which has a11y smell.
111odorous, that w hich has no smell.
J.'ragnwt, that w hich has au agreeable smell .
Aromatic, that which has a pungent spicy smell.
Edi bl e or Eatable, that which is fit for food.
N utritious, that which contains much nourishment.
P u11gent, t hat which is warm to the taste.
Efft'rv escent., that which bubbles up from internal commotion.
p

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VOCA B ULA RY.

VO CABULA RY.

~olid , that " ·hieh fills up a spac•~;

in I.his ~t·ns1·
ii. is np1H 1,;1·d lo !111//1111:.
Solid , that. which is (•.0111pnscd of p:irt.i cles adherin g close ly togeth er; in thi:; se nse it
is opposed to fluid.
f'luid , that whi c h has parts easily se parable,
whi ch fl ovvs about.
Li'l11i1l , prnp r rl y ·~ i[!nifi ns I.hat which i:-i m1•ll.f'd;
any t.hin~ whi1·h W<! can drink , or which
furn1,; into drops . J\ ir is a fluid. " ' at.1•r
is both flu i1l ;rnd li1111id ; wh en we speak
of it :1S n strPnm or c urrent , it: is properl y
1·;i lll'd a.flnirf; hu t. whf'n W C s1wa k of it as
pa ssin g fr o111 a con geal ed to a. di ssolved
sta te, it sho11ld propC'rly be call ed a lir7uid.
r\dhegil'c, that whi c h is composed of •particles
not on ly unitin g- firml y together, hut which
jo!n l. hcmseln' s t.o ot.lwr s uhst.an ccs . Thus
~ um , wh en pl :11'e1l h<'twl'Pn two pi(•cc::; of
p:i pcr , atta ches it;e lf to eac h , a nd ca 11s1•s
a n uni on bet.ween th e two.
'J'!'nacious, t hat whi c h is composed of particl es
1111i ti 11 ~ farnl y toµ-<' 1l11 ·r.
Thn s gwn lw i11µ;
tu1a ci011s, tlu ~ part.i1·.ks ca 1111ol. <!asil y h n
~qiarnt('(l, ni1d o n thi;: accou nt it acts as
a cl'111 c11t. Glue hcing more tenac ious,
acts as a. st i 11 stro11 (!,·f' r ce111 r nt.
Solubl e, th at which melts in a Huit! .
Fusible, t.lrnt which melts in llre.
rriabl c, that whi ch cru rnbk~ easily.
Porou s, tha.t which is full of small pores or holes.

,.

211

/\ hsorl >1·11I., that which s1wks np liquid, ns spo11~c.
A suhst.auce is never absorheut without
being at th e same tim e p oro us ; for if
th ere .were no pores, th e fluid could not
enter th e s ubstnu ce. All substances are
in a degree porous,. but w e only attribute
t.h e 'lun lity to those in which it is ob vious.
Flat., a snrfacc is flat. t.hn.t. lies evenly lwt.w P.en
its honnda.rics; as the ceili11g, flo or , &c.
(I val , th e form of an p,gg.
S pheri c;i 1, the form of a sphere or globe .
Cy lindrical, a form h av in g tw o Hat and one
c 11n'<' d surfacP.. ;is a ruler.
T11b11l ar , h av in ~ th e form of a hollow cylinder.
(;ra nul o ns , that which se parates into grains or
s ma ll pa rtic\ eg, as smul.
l mpressihl l', that which easil y receives and
rdains a.11 impression.
llrittlc that w hi c h is easi ly broken : hard substances onl y are bri ttle.
Elastic, that which, when bent or s tretched,
ret.nrns to its original position.
Tou~h, that. which is capabl e of hcing bent. or
s t.retc hed without breaki11g.
Malleable, that which is cap ab le· of great extension when beaten, without the part icles
b eing separated by the operation. Thus
a grain of gold can be beaten out to a
sheet of ex treme thinness .
Ductile, that. whi c h is capable of b eiug drawn
out into length.

212

VOCABULARY.

Indigenous, t.ltat whi ch is tlw 11 at11ral prod (lc ·
ti on of a co nn tr y : tli is term is app lied tc•
vcgclahles, as mtl:ive is app li ed to men.
]~ xotic, tlt at w hi ch is not proi\11 ced in our nw11
co 1111l.ry .
.Exported, I.hat "V hic h is ca rri ed 0111. of th(•
coun try.
I 111pori<·d , I h;d. wl1i d 1 is e1rri<~ d int.o t.h e co11nt.ry.
Co rl\' l'X, any p1>rl io11 or lh(• ('XtH·11al ~ urf : 1 c 1 • of a
splu·r.,.
Conca.n., " " .) purlillll ,.r th e i111 .. rn;il >11rL1tT or"
l1ullu11 ~ 1.!1cr t : .
C o11,c ·n·a111-.', I hat \\ hi"li pr• ·'•'ll" '' ·
J.111;0111p rcssiblc, I.hat. whi c h ca nnot Ge forced
i11to <1 ~m :1llrr <'nrnpr1ss .
Sapid, t hat w hi c h has a flavour.
L1.111i 11 at.cd , that whi ch is arrn.ng;e(l 111 thin coat«
or· lamin a~.
P 11herah le, t hat whi ch cn.11 be rell11ced to a
powd(•r.
r11rlir ica.t<"l, lh ;ll. whi ch is arr;11 wc•l in th e lll :l.llll<"r
o f t h(! t ile',,. o l.· a house. "'
J'I Pxilil(', that which can hu lu•11t easil y .
Plialile, that " ·hi ch can he fo l(lcd easi Iy in to
plaits. Thus a young twig is llex ihl e,
linen is pliable.

TllE END.

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