SCHOOL

HIGH

GR A M M A R,

\

\

OR,

'i

AN

EXPOSITION
OF

THB

GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE
OF

THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

~I J

BY

W1 S. BARTON, A.M .
.AUTHOR OF "EASY L'ESSONS IN •;NGL18H GRA.:MlU.R,', "INTER.MEDIA.TB GJtA.}(1U.B,"'
"PRAOTIOAL :EXEROlBEB IN :ENGLISH OOllPOSITION,

-

?Y\, )
( \ [i"'

... TRUTH AND SillPLlOITY ..t..R•

I '' ('"'

.S:.econb

11

ETO., BTO.,

aj

TW'IN

8IST:&B8...

i!!~ousanb.

BOSTON:
GOULD
:MONTGOMERY, ALA.:

AND

ORLE.ANS: J.C. MORGAN&; 00 .

'{\

LINCOLN.

TEACHERS' EXCHANGE, W. S. BARTON.
BAVA-NN.AB~ GA . :

CHARLESTON, 8 . 0 . : MCCARTER & CO.
GRAVER, MARKS & CO.

BLAN CB A.RD.

NASHVILLE, TENN.:

CINCINNATI, O .: GEORGE B.

NEW YORK : SH:ELDON & CO• .

1 8 6 2.

NEW

J. IL COOPER & CO.

,I

PREF A.CE.

EntererJ, according to Act of Congrcsm1 tn the year 1·VCi9,

B Y W. S . BARTON,
In the Clerk' s Office of the Southern District of Alabama.

THE

favorable reception extended to the author's "Inter-

mediate Grammar," and the many solicitations of distinguished
teachers and professors have induced him to present it in a more
enlarged and complete form.

His object has been to furniSh

students in the higher institutions of learning, with a general
view of the leading features of English Philology, and to place
in their hands a work that may prove not only a useful auxiliary throughout their Academic and Collegiate· course, but a
hand-book of reference for after life.
Special attention has also been given to the wants of teachers. In the ordinary routine of instr~ction even in "commo~
schools," questions arise irr their own minds, 'or are proposed
by their pupils in regard to idiomatic forms, or some peculiarity
of structure, which have scarcely been noticed, or are entirely
STr.R!:OTT'PED llY

T. B. SMITII & S ON,
82 & 84 Beekman Street.

passed over in the text-book of the class.

Deficiencies of this

kind have been anticipated, and such assistance afforded as may
the more thoroughly qualify them"for the successful discharge
of the important duty in which they are engaged.

PREFACE.

iv

In the preparation of this work, the author, in addition to his

own practical investigations, has freely consulted the older grammarians, such as \Vanis, Harris, Lowth, Greenwood, &c., &c.,
as well as the best of the modern, such as Murray, Crombie,

GRAMMAR.

Latham, Webster, Brown, &c., &c. He would also acknowledge
his indebtedness to Bopp, Becker, Ktihner, and the valuable
grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, recently revised by E. A.
Andrews, for many hints in regard to the philosophy and method
of language. In a word, he has availed himself of all the materials within his reach, when they aided in the development
of his plans.

I'
§ 1. GRAMMAR is the science of Language.
§ 2. It is divided into two pads, Theoretical
and Practical.
§ 3. Theoretical Grammar treats of the principles common to all languages . Practical Grammar
treats of the principles of a particular language.
§ 4. Language is a medium for the communication of thought. It is divided into Spoken and
\Vritten.
§ 5. Spoken language is the utterance of significant sounds to express thought. ·written language is a syste:::n of characters or letters to represent spoken language.
regard to the origin of language there has been much
diversity of opinion. Ono class maintained that it was the pure gift of
God, the second that it was tbe invention of man, and others again that it
was neither the pure gift of God, nor the invention of man, but the result
of his organization.
Cicero, in alluding to the human race in primeval ages, says: "There
was a time when men wandered everywhere through the fl.olds after the
manner of beasts, and supported life by eating the food of beasts.." Diodorus, J,ucretius, Horace, Pliny, Juvenal, and other ancient writers, favored
REMARK.-In

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GRAMMAR.

the same opinion, and supposed that it was only after a long and gradu1\. '
improvement, that men attained their present enlightened state.
Whether language was the pure gift of God, convoyed in vocal sound~
to the listening car, as from tho teacher to tho pupil, or tho development
of some pre-existing typo iu man, are questions that have never beou
satisfactorily settled. The opinion expressed by Daron Humboldt, is consistent and certainly not far from the truth: "Speech must be regarded as
naturally inherent in man, for it is altogether inexplicable as a work of
his understanding iu its simple consciousness. We are none the better for
allowing thousands and thousands of years for the invention of language,
unless its type already existed in the humau understanding. Man is only
man by the means of speech ; but in order to invent speech he must be
already man."

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
§ 6. ENGLISH GRAMMAR teaches the principles
of the English Language.
These relate:
1. To its ..Written Characters;

2. To its Pronunciation ;

3. To the Classification and Derivation of its Words ;
4. To the Construction of Sentences;
5. To Versification.
REMARK.-The gra=ar of a particular language, is a system of general
principles derived from the natural distinction of words, and particular
rules deduced from the customary forms of speech in the nation using that
language. These usages are mostly arbitrary, or of accidental origin, bul
when they become common, they are to be comiidered as established, and
.received as rules of highest authority.

§ 7. The first part is cdled Orthography; the
second, Orthoepy ; · the third, Etymology ; the
fourth, Syntax ; and the fifth, Prosody.

ORTHOGRAPHY.
§ 8. Orthography treats of the letters and other
characters of a language, and the proper method
of spelling words.

8

LETTERS.

OBSERVATION~.

LETTERS.

§ 9.
sound.

A Letter is a character used to represent an articulata

§ 10. An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice
formed by the organs of speech.
§ 11. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power.
When any letter or word is not sounded, it is said to be silent
or mute.

§ 12. Th ere arc twenty-six letters in the English alphabet.
A knowledge of the alphabet consists in an acquaintance with
the forms, names, classes, and powers of the letters.
§ 13. The letters of the alphabet are of various shapes and
sizes, but are always the same, because their essential properties do not change. Their names, classes, and powers are
mostly permanent.
The following arc some of the different styles of letters :
1. The Roman: A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g;
H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K, k; L, I ; M, m ; N, n ; 0, o ; P, p ; .
Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, n; V, v; vV, w; X, x; Y, y;
z, z.

2. The Italic : A, a; B, b; C', c; D, d : E, & ; F, f;
G, g ; H, h ; I, i ; J, J; ]{, k; L, l; M, m ; N, n ,:
0, o; P, p; Q, q; R, r; S, s; T, t; U, u; V, v ;_
W, w ; X, x; Y, y; Z, z.
3. The Script: 121,

ry,.?

a,·

.!!lJ, / ,.

,,

CfJ c •

rf!2J,d)
· rff,.
, ,.

d7../·
,,

7C: /.,· ef, e j / , / ; ?C: tf; 2, eJ G/I, m j
e-16, " j CJ, o; !!L,', f ; ...f2, f j ..fYt, t j cf?, dj ef, I;
'll, u; ~, ··,· YI'","'; ..z-, "'; <JI, y; p, /·
j

...________________

----

9

4. The Old English: Q\, a; 13, b; Qt, c; iill, a; <!t, e;
:ff, f; ®', g; £), 11 ; 11, i ; 11', 1; tt, k : 1t, l; .£11, m ;
N, tt; ®, o; li), p; ®., q; 1\, r; fl, a; @:, t; ilt:, u;
b, n; bJ, w; X, x; t!!, D; J!!, 1·
OBSERVATIONS.
. REMARK 1.-Tlie inquiry concerning the origin ofletters has given rise to
n variety ofopinions, and many of them vague and unsatisfactory; for on this
point the learned are by no means agreed. Some writers have attributed their
invention to different people. Thoth, or Mercury, is said to have invented
and taught the Egyptians how to use them. Others again give the honor
of the invention to the Assyrians, Phoonicians, &c., &c. Some think they
were perfectly known •before the confusion of tongues, and imagine them
to _have been in com19on use in the antediluvian world, and that Noah
and his family brought them into the new world, in which they have been
continued through a great variety of successive changes, until the present
time. Some attribute the invention to Moses, others t-0 Abraham, others
to Abel, and some to Adam. The J ewish rabbis say, "The Almighty
formed them on the evening of the first Sabbath,'' and Pliny seems to
!Jave thought them eternal These different opinions seem to show the
uncertainty of the subject; there can be no limit to conjecture, when a.ll
direct evidence is wanting. That there were various symbols and figures
Ulled in all ages of the world to represent the objects of sense, even before
a regular written language was necessary, may be readily believed ; but
w~ have no certain account of the existence or use of alphabetical characters previous to the day of Moses, nor of any thing written in such characters prior to the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, 2512 years from the
foundation of the world, and 856 after the universal deluge. After the
dispe;;ion of.mankind in the time of Peleg, writing became necessary, not
only because of this dispersion, but because the life of man was so much
abridged; consequently traditions must become less certain, as the facts
had to be related to a multitude of persons ; hence alphabetical characters
became necessary. because without them tho records of the world mast
soon have been obliterated from the swiftly succeeding generation~ of
meu. There is no positive evidence that there was any writing before
the declaration of the law on Mount Sinai; and then the Almighty is said
~ have written the Decalogue with his own finger.
1•

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10

POWER OF LE'.t:T}l:RS.

The Greek alphabet had its origi n from tbe Phamician. Tbe Romans
derived th o most of their capitals from tbe Greeks, but tbe small letters,
if they had any, were made by themselves. The Italic letters were invent ed towards the close of the fifleenth century. The Saxon alphabet
was mostly Roman, nearly all their letters belonging to that class. U 11der William the Conqueror this was superseded by the Old English, which
in its turn gave place to tho Roman.

A TAB L E OF T HE ELEMENTARY SO U ND S
I N THE ENG L ISH L ANGUAGE.
VOCALS.

REMARK 2.- A. letter consists not only in figure or power, but in their
union. The name is necessary to distinguish it, and the power to determine the class to which it belongs.
REYARK 3.-The marks used for punctuation are not letters-they indicate silence, not sound. Numerals do not come under the class of letters, as they do not represent sounds, but entire words.

i

I
POWERS OF LETTER$.

§ 14. In the analysis of words it is necessary to distinguish
between the name and power of letters.
§ 15. The elementary powers or sounds of the English
language arc about fo rty. They are divided into Vocals, Subvocals, and Aspirates.

§ 16. A Vocal consists of pure voice only; e. g., A, e, o.
§ 17. A Subvocal consists of the voice and breath united ;
e.g., B, d, g.

§ 18. Aspirates consist of pure breath only; e. g., F, h, le.
§ 19. Vocals are subdivided into long and slwrt.
§ 20 . A long sound is one that can be protr:i cted at pleasure; e. g., M ay -

- ay; bee - - ee.

§ 21. A short sound is one formed by the same position of
the organs, but uttered with an explosive effort; e. g., Hat,
pen, pin.

11

ELEMENTARY sotrN'DS.

able.
A. ale,
A. art.
A. all.
A. at.
E. me.
E. m et.
I. He.
I. in.
0 . old.
0. more, ooze.
0 . odd.
u. tune, use.
U . up.
u. foll.
Ou. thou.

I

SUDVOCALS.

B.
D.

but,
do,
G. gone,
J. judge.
L. lee.
M. man.
N. no.
Ng. ring.
R. rope,
Th. this.
van.

orb.
ded.
dog.

I
F.
H.
K.

P.

s.

far.

T.
Th.
Sh.
Ch.
Wh.

ASPIRATES.

fix.
hat.
keep, book.
pen, top.
sun ..
but.
top,
faith.
show.
chide.
when.

v.

W. we.
yes.
z. zinc.
z. azure.

Y.

REMARK. -The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w
and y), l\nd if from the name of the consonant we take aif-,,.y the vowel
sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant (wand 11
excepted).

§ 22.' Certain letters in the English alphabet have the same
power as others ; such are styled Equivalents.
vocals and aspirates eight pairs are Correlatives.

Of the sub-

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LETTERS.-

DIVISION OF CONSONANTS.

DI PHTHONGS.-TRIPHTHONGS.

T.A.BLE OF EQUIV.A.LENTS .A.ND CORRELATIVES.
EQUI VALENTS.

CORRELATIVES,
Sub vocals.

w

=
-

11

cow, mew.

tyrant.
k cat.
- k liquor.
C (soft) - s cent.
G (soft) =
gin.
x
- ks fix.

ly

i C (hard)

/Q

v

vow.

.Aspirates.

F
K

G
B

p

z

s

gone.
bat.
zinc.
D do.
Th this.
z azure.
J
judge.

T
Th
Sh
Ch

fame.
keep.
pen.
sin.
top.
thick.
show.
child.

DIV I SION OF L ETTERS.

§ 23. Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants.
§ 24. A V owcl represents a sound perfect without the aid
of any .other sound.
§ 25. A Conso.nant represents a sound made in conjunction
with a vowel sound.

§ ~G. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y when not
before a vowel sounded in the same syllable.
§ 27. The Consonants are b, c, d, j, g, h, j, k, l , m, n, p, q,
r, s, t, v, z, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the same
syllable.

REMARK.- C is hard when it has the sound of k in cat, and soft when
it is sounded as s in city. G is hard when it is sounded M g in gun, and
soft when as in gentle.

§ 30. The Semivowels are j, h, Z, m, n, r, s, v, z, and c and
g soft.

§ 28. Consonants arc divided into Mutes and Semivowels.
REMA!l.K.- The Semi vowels have an imperfect sound by thernselveR,
but the Mutes cannot be sounded alone.

§ 29. The Mutes are

b, p, d, t, k, v, and c and g hard.

11

·l
to

§ 31. Xis a double consonant, and is equivalent to ks.
§ 32. Four of the semivowels, l, m, n, and r, are called
liquids on account of their smooth flowing sound.
D I PHTHONGS .

§ 33. T wo vowels in immediate succession in the same syl·
!able form a Diphthong; e. g., Ou in found.
§ 34-. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels
arc sounded ; e. g., Oi in oil.
§ 35. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of
.he vo,; els is sounded ; e. g., Ea in beat.
OBSERVAT I ONS .
I

1. - Tho Diphthongs in English aro twenty-nine: aa, ae, ai,
ao, au, aw, ay, -ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ia, ie, (i1) io, (iu, iw, iy)--oa, oe,
oi, oo, ou, ow, uy, - ua, ue, ui, uo, (uu, uw) uy. Ten of these are proper or
irnprnpcr, b ~iag variously sounded :- ay, - ie, oi, ou, ow, - ua, ue, ui, tw, uy.
nEMARK

R J-:\lAllK 2.-Tho Proper Diphthongs are tb.i.rtee.n : ay, - ia, ie, io, - oi,
ou, oy, ow, -.ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.

I mproper Diphthongs are twenty-six: aa, ae, ai, ao,
aw, - e,a, e.e, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,-ie,-<Ja, oe, oi, oo, o~ ow,- ua, UP. 1 .

l!i.:;! An K ~. -The
( . 't. 1PJ ,

CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.

13

n: aJ, u y.

TR I PH T HONGS.
~ 30. Three vowels.in the same syllable in immediate succession form a Triphthong; e. g., Eau in beauty.

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WORDS.-.A.CCENT.

COMB IN ATIONS.-SYLLABLES.

§ 37. A Proper Triphthong is one in which all the vowels
are sounded; e. g., Uoy in buo!J.
§ 38. An Improper Triphthong is one in which all the
vowels are not sounded ; e. g., Eau in beauty.
OBSERVATIONS.
. -Th e on IY p roper Triphthong in English is uoy, as in
buoy, buoyant, buoyancy; unless uoi in quoit may be conlici.ered a parallel.
REl!ARK l

2.- The I mproper Triphthongs are sixteen: awe aye - eau
eou' ewe ' -.,
M1e ,-1eu,
·
·
'
,
iou,---oeu,
owe,- uaii uaw, uay, uea, uee. '
REMARK

15

REit:ARK.-Every word contains as many syllables as it has distinct
sounds; e.g., A-e-ri-al, gram-ma-ri-an.

§ 45. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable; e. g.,
Boy, man, house.
§ 46. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable; e. g.,
A-far, con-nect.
§ 4 7. A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable ; e. g.,
Con-nect-ed, con-so-nant.
§ 48. A word of more than three syllables is called a Poly·

syllable; e. g., Un-con-nect-ed-ly.

COMBINA TIONS.

WORDS.

§ 39. A Combination is the union of a consonant and
vowel in one sound ; e. g., Ci in social.
§ 40. The Combinations arc ee, ei, si, ti, and zi, when they
sound like ch, sli, or zh.

§ 49. Words are articulate sounds used by common co11sent as the signs of our ideas. In respect to origin, they are
either Primitive, D erivative, Simple, or Compound.
§ 50. A Primitive ·vv ord is one that is not derived from
any other word ; e. g., B oston, man, good.
§ 51. A Derivative Word is one derived from some other
woi·d ; e. g., B ostonian, manful, goodness.
§ 52. A Simple Word is one not compounded with any

DOUBLE CONSONANTS • .

. § 41. A Double Consonant is the union of two consonants
m one sound ; c. g., Ch in churcli.
§ 42. The Double Consonants arc ch, gh, ph, sh, th, uh,
and ng. Nk is equivalent to ngk; e. g., Think, tharik.

other word ; e. g., H orse, man.
§ 53. A Compound vVord is one compounded of two or
more words; e. g., Horse-man.

APHTHONGS.
A n A Ph th ong is a letter or union of letters not
sound ed ; e. g., Ugh in though.
R
;:s 43.

SYLLABLES.

§ 44. A Syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered together ; e. g., A, a-far, con-nect-ed.

ACCENT.

§ 54. ' Accent is a stress of voice placed upon a particular
syllable to distinguish i.t from others. Every word of more
th an one syllable, bas one of its syllables ac<.;ented.
§ 55. Accent is of two kinds: Primary and Secondary.
§ 56. The Primary accent is a full stress of the voice; e. g.,
Al'-so, de-ny'.

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16

WORDS.-DERIVATION.-PREFIXES.

WORDS.-PREFIXES.

§ 5 7. The Secondary accent is a weaker stress of the voice;
e. g., 0 ''-ver. see', lu'ini-na"ry.
OBSERV .A.T ION S.
REMARK 1.-If th e full accent falls on a vowel, the sound is prolonged;
o. g., Vo'·cal. \\" hcu it falls on a consonant the preceding vowel is
shortened ; c. g., JJab'-it.
llElld.RK 2.-In separating a word into its syllables, care should be
taken to diviu e it as it is pronounced.
llEMARK 3. -In writing a syllable, never divide it at the end of a line.

DERIVATION OF WORDS.

§ 58. D erivation is formi ng words from th eir roots.
is done by the aid of prefixes and suffixes.

This

REl!ARK.-Tho Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English language.
contains, however, many words from other languages.

It

§ 59. The Root is the essential part of a word. A prefix is
a part of the derivation before the root.
RnunK.-.A. prefix often loses a letter, or changes it for the sake of
euphony.

§ GO. Prefixes arc mostly of Saxon, Latin, and Greek

17

Before ; in front.
Beyond ; excess.
Excess ; above.
Rising; sustaining.
Below; beneath.
Opposing; retaining.

Fore.
Out.
Over.
Up.
Under.
With.

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PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN.
From; away from. ·
A, ab, abs.
. Ad, ac, at~ ag, al, an l
·
' l To; towards; closeness or umon.
ap, ar, as, at.
Both.
Arn bi.
Around, or t-0.
Amb, amphi.
Before.
Ante.
Opposite ; against.
Ant, anti.
Good, or well.
Bene.
Two.
Bi, bis.
Cis.
On this side.
Center, centi, cent.
A hundred.
Contra, contro, counter. Against, opposition to.

origin.

Con, co, cog, com, col, } With; joined with, or together.

RElL\RK.-The roots to which they are prefixed are not always used
as distinct words in the English language; the meaning of such may be
determined by applying different prefixes. Thus in impel, propel, dispe~
expel, it is easily seen that the word pel means to drive.

Circum.
D e.
u.
D 1,. d"1s, d",,
D uo, du.
E, ex, e1,,, ec.
En, em.
Equi.
Extra.

COi".

PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN.
All.
After.
Be.

By.

Most; wholly; in the highest degree.
Later; latter; following.
Nearness; adding intensity.
Near; aside.

In, im, ig, ii, ar.

Around, about.
From; depriving of; down.
Separating; out of; from.
Two, double.
Ont, out of, from, beyond.
In, or upon.
Equal.
Beyond ; more than; excess.
j Not ; with adj. and adv.
1 In; into ; on; with verbs.

•

18
Inter.
Intro.
Infra.
Jnris.
Jnx ta.
Mis.
Mal e, ma!.
Mnlti.
Manu,
Non, nc, un.
Noct.
Ob, oc, of, op.

WOltDS.-PREFIZ:E3.

WORDS.-PREFIXES.

Between; among.
Within ; into ; unto.
Under; below.
Legal; lawful; right.
Near by ; nearness.
vVrong ; erroneous.
Ill, evil, bad.
Many.
A hand.
Not; with adj. and adv,
{
Undoing; with verbs.
Night.
J In front; against ; towar<i ; in, or .
1 on.
All.
Full.
B eyond ; past ; more than.
After.
Before; forward ; to surpass.
Through; by; very; over.
First; original.
Four.
Again, back, return.
Backward, back.
Separation, withdrawal.
Over and above ; beyond.
Six.
One; alone.
Half.

Omni, panto, pan.
Pleni.
Prctcr.
Post.
Pro.
P er.
Primo, prim.
Quad, tetra.
Re.
Retro.
Se.
Super, supra, sur.
Sex.
Soli, moni.
Semi, demi, hemi.
Sub, subtcr, sul, suf, t
1
ft
) Under, be ow, a er.
sug, sup, sns.
Sine.
Without.

Trans, ultra.
Tri.
Uni.

19

Across! beyond, change.
Three.
One. ·

PREFIXES OF GREEK ORIGIN.

A.
Ana.
Arch (arche).
Astro (astron).
Auto (autos).
Apo, apb.
Aris to ( aristos).
Bio (bios).
Biblio (biblion).
Cata.
Choro (choros).
Chiro (cbeir).
Chrono (cbronos).
Cosmo (cosmos).
Dia.
Dys.
Deca, dee (deka).
Eu.
Epi.
Entomo (entoma).
Geo (ge).
Homo (homos).
Hetero (heteros) .
. Hepta (Latin septem).
Helio (helios).
Hydro (hudor).
Hyper (huper).

Privation, destitute of, without,
Again, against, back.
Chief; beginning.
A star.
One's self.
From.
The best, viz., nolile, or nobles.
Life.
A book.
Against ; down.
A place, or country.
A hand.
Time.
The world.
Through.
Bad ; difficult.
Ten.
Good ; well; praise.
In ; on ; upon.
An insect.
The earth.
Like; similar.
Unlike; dissimilar.
Seven.
The sun.
vVater.
Over, excess, beyond.

20

WORDS.-SUFFIXES.

WORDS.-SUFFIXES.

H ypo (lrnpo) .
I chtliys (i chtlrns).
Lcxico (kxikon).
Litho (lithos).
III eta.
Mytho (mu thos).
l\liso ; mis (mi sos).
Ostco ( ostcon ).
Ortho (orthos).
Ornith o (ornitlios).
Octo, octa, oct (okto ).
Para.
Proto (protos).
Penta (pcntc).
Physico, pl1ysis (phusis).
Pyro (pm).
P oly (polas).
Phil o, phi! (philos).
P eri.
Syn, syl, sym, sy (sun).
Steno (stenos).
Stereo (ste reos).
Topo (topos).
Th eo (th eos) .
Typo (tnpos).
Zoo (z6on).

21

RULE I. Verbs. of one syllable, ending with a single con·
sonant preceded by a single vowel, and verbs of more than ono
syllable ending in the same manner, and accented on the last
i;yllable, double the final consonant on receiving an additional
·syllable; e. g., Regret, regrett~d; dig, d·igging.

Under.
A fish.
A dictionary.
A stone.
Cbngc, beyond.
A fable.
H atred.
A bone.
Right; con ect.
A bird; a fowl.
Eight.
Contrary, beyond.
First, chief.
Fire.
N atnre ; natural.
Fire.
Many.
Friend ; love, lover.
Around; near.
With; together with.
Narrow; brief; short.
Solid ; firm.
A place.
God.
Type.
An animal ; a beast.

REMARK.-Most words ending in I, though not accented on the syl·
lablu, double the I on receiving au additional syllable ; o. g., Travel,

travelled ;

mode~

modelled.

RuLE II. In words ending in y, preceded by a single consonant, the y is changed into i before an additional syllable;
e. g., Merry, rnerrier; i:iity, pitied.
ExcEPTioNs.-Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i;
e. g ., Marry, rnwrrying. Words in ie drop e and take y ; e. g., Die,
dying To prevent ambiguity, the verb to dye, and some others, retain e
beforo ing.

RuLE III.

Words ending in silent e before an additional
e; e, g.,
Force, forcible; rave, rai1ing.
~yllable beginning with a vowel, generally omit the

ExcEPTION 1.-Words ending in a or ge retain the a before able, ous;
e. g., P eace, peaceable; outrage, outrageous.
EXCEPTION 2.-Words ending in oe retain the final e; e.g., Shoe,

shoeing.
EXCEPTION 3.-Words ending in ee drop the final e on receiving an
ndditional syllable beginning with e; e. g., See, seest; agree, agreed.

RuLE IV.

Double l generally becomes single before an ad-

di~onal consonant; e. g., Skill, skilful.
REMARK.-Words iu any other double letter preserve it double before

the terminations ful, ly, ness, less.

SUFFIXES.

§ 61. A Suffix is the part of a derivative after the root.
In adding suffixes, the final letter of the root is often donbled
dropped, or changed. Such changes are made according to thf:'
following rules:
)

RuLE V. Compound words formed by prefixing a word or
syllable to a monosyllable ending in all, retain the ll; e. g.,
E e/all, bethrall.
RE.lf.A.RK.- Withal,

rule.

therewith<il, and wherewithal are exceptions to this

22

WORDS.-SYNOPSIS OF SUFFIXES.

WORDS.-GRAMMATICAL SUFFIXES.

23

SYNOPSIS OF THE SUFFIXES.
Able, ible.

GRAMMATICAL SUFFIXES.

J That

may · be; can be; capable of
( heing.

~

The property, or quality capable of beAbility, ibili ty.
ing; the state, or susceptibility of
Abl encss, ibl eness.
being.
Ant, ent.
Th e person who, or thing which.
An ce, an cy, 1011, ence, { The act of; the state ; the state of
ency, ment. .
being, or the thing.
I
Pertaining to ; belonging to ; relating
Ac, ic, al, ary.
1 to ; consisting of.
Dom, ric.
J nrisdiction ; possession.
En.
Made of; consisting of.
Ful, ose.
Full of ; abounding with.
Hood, ship.
State, office, quality.
Ize, fy, fit, fi e, fcrous.
To make or become.
Ity, cy.
The state of being; quality; power.
Ish, ly.
Like; similar to; somewh at.
Ive.
Tending to; relating to; power of.
Ics, ism.
Th e science ; art of; doctrine ; state.
Il e.
Pertaining to; easi ly.
Less.
\Vithont; destitute of.
Ness.
The abstract quality or state.
Ons.
Containing; partaking of; full of.
Ory.
Containing; t ending to ; place.
Ast, er, ess, ee, err, }
ian, ist, ite, ix, or Commonly imply the person or thing.
r css, s::rn, zcn.
Some.
Possessing a degree of; causing.
Ar, arcl, atlo, stcr, oso, l
. l
.
\ Sometuncs c enote a person.
at 1.
Kin, ct, ling, let, nlc.
Little or young.

------------·----

- -- -

-

S, es.
Er.
E st.
S, es.
Est.
Ed.
Ing.

More than one ; e. g., Boys, foxes.
More ; e. g., Wiser.
Most; e. g., Wisest.
Does ; e. g., Kills.
Dost ; e. g., Wisliest.
Did ; e. g., K illed.
Coi1tinuing to ; e. g., Act·ing.

REMARKS.-The prefixes and suffixes of our language are less than
200, and nearly uniform in their signification. These being thoroughly
learned, our vocabulary, consisting of over 100,000 words, is compressed
within the limits of about 10, 000 roots or primitives. These include the
Sa:xon, Gothic, Celtic, Latin, Greek, and other radicals of the language.
:More than 30,000 English words derived from Latiu and Greek are
formed or built up, by means of these prefixes and suffixes, from less
than 2000 radical words; 13,000 of them from about 200; and 2,400
from only 12 roots. The root facio (to make or do) enters into more than
500 English words, upon which it impresses literally its own signification.
These facts, and the ease with which the prefixes and suffixes can be mas·
tered, are sufficient to induce the pupil to conunit them thoroughly. ThL~
being done, and knowing that tract, from the Latin traho, means to draw,
the pnpil at once knows the meaning of 210, as they occur, formed from
this root. Thus abstract, to d!raw from; extract, to draw out; attract, to
draw to; contract, to ,draw together; retract, to draw back; subtract, to
draw under or from ; distract, to draw as1inder, &c., &c.

CAPITALS.

§ 62. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both
in writing and printing. At present only the following words
begi n with capitals.
1.-The first word of every distinct sentence; e.g., "Falsehood is a most odious vice."

24

2.-Propcr names and titles of honor or office should begin
with a capital; c. g., .flliss J. W. Nixon; Gen. G. W. Gunn;
D oct. F. M. P eterson.
3.-Adjoctivos derived from proper names; c. g., .American;
Washingtonian.
4.-All names of D eity; e. g., God; Jehovah; the .Almighty; the Supreme.
5.-The name of an object personified, when it conveys an
idea strictly individual ; c. g., "Come, g entle Spring."
6.-The first word of every line of poetry should begin with
a capital; e. g.,
"A mother is a mother still,
The holiest thing alivc."-Coleridge.
7.-The first word of a direct quotation, when it forms a
complete sentence; e. g., Virgil says, "Labor conquers all
things."
8.-Thc pronoun I and exclamation 0; e.g., "I wish to
go ;" " 0, blissful <lays !"
9.-Evcry noun and principal word in the title of books;
e.g., "Pope's Essay on Man."
10.-0thcr principal words, when they are of particular importance, may begin with capitals.
.

ORTHOEPY.
§ 63.

Orthoepy treats of the right pronunciation of words.
REY,rnK.-Pronun ciation is best tau;:ht by means of a good spollingbook wbcro tho words aro arranged according to th eir analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies Dictionaries and
Glossaries are serviceable only to the more adva1:ccd.' Walker's ~ules
for Pronunciation aro probably tho clearest and best guide before the

25

QUESTIONS.

CAPITALS.-ORTHOEPY.

public. Mulky's System may be consulted in connection with Walker
Other writers might be named, but of all, Walker is th.a best.
•

•

QUESTIONS.
What is Grammar?
How is it divided 1
vl~ hat is PracticaL Grammar? Theoretical 1
What is Language~ How divided~
What is spoken language 1 W~·itten 1
\Vhat does English Grammar teach 1
To 'v hat do they relate 1
What is the First Part called 1
The Second~ The Third 1 Fourth 1 Fifth 1
Wliat docs Orthography treat of?
What is a letter? ---an articulate sound 1
What is the sound of a letter called ?
When a letter is not sounded, what is it called 1
Ilow many letters in the Alphabet?
vYhat is said of the shapes and sizes?
Mention some of the different styles.
vVhat is necessary in th e analysis of words 1
How many elementary sounds or powers 7
How are they divided ?
What is a Vocal? , · Subvocal.· 7 . Aspirate f
H ow arc Vocals subdivided r
What is a long sound? Short 1
H ow arc letters divided?
vVhat docs a Vowel represent 7
A Consonant 1
How arc the Consonants divided?
\Vhat i_s a Mute 1 8P:--ivc"o'.?
What arc the Liquids l
2

~

26

ETYMOLOGY.-FORM OF WORDS.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

What is a Diphthong 1 ·
A Piopcr Diphthong 1 !~roper 1
'What is a Triphthong 1 Proper 1 Improper 1
'What is a Combination 1
What arc they 1
\Vhat is a Doublo-Consonant 1 Aphthong 1
"\Vhat is a Syllabic 1
What arc words of one Syllable called 1
'i'wo Syllaulcs 1 Three 1 .More than three 1
What arc "\Vords?
How divided 1 What is a Primitive word 1
D erivative 1 Simple 1 Compound l
What is Accent 1
How many kinds are there 1
Explain the Primary. Secondary.
'What is meant by Derivation of Words 1
·what is the Root 1 Prefix 1
What is said of their origin 1
Wliat is Huie I. I II. 1 &c.
What is said of the use of Capitals 1
'W hat docs Orthoepy treat of 1

27

§ GG. A Declinable word is one that undergoes
certain changes of form or termination to express
its various relations; e. g., ]lfan, rnen; love, loves,
loved.
§ 6i. An Indeclinable word undergoes no
changes of form.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
§ 68. 'Vords are dividetl according to their
use, into eight different classes; Yiz.: Noun, Verb,
Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Conjunction, and
Exclamation.
REMARK.- Words are divided naturally into two classes ; Primary and
Secondary.- Primary words consist of such as are essential to languag(?,
on which others depend as auxiliaries. This class includes the Noun and
Verb. Secondary words are such as are dependent on others in construe
tion. This class includes Adjectives, Pronouns, Adverbs, Prepositions,
and Conjunctions. Exclamations have no grammatical relation to other
words.

§ 69.

ETYMOLOGY.

§ 64. Etymology treats of the different classes
of words, and their various modifications.

FORM OF WORDS.

§ 65. In respect to form, words are either De·
clinable or Indeclinable.

From words are formed Propositions;
e. g., "Girls sing;'"' "boys play."
RE:l!ARK.- Any combination of words cxpreosing an assertion, question,
commaud, &c.,--or in general, any combination that expresses complete
seuse is called a proposition.

§ 70. In the construction of propositions, the
Noun and Verb are indispensable. All other words,
with the exception of the Exclamation, are either
appendages or connectives.
§ 71. Every proposition, however simple, consists of two parts; the Subject, or thing spoken

l

28

EXERCISES.

of; and the Predicate, or that which is affirmed of
the subject; e. g., "Jolm reads;" " William recited."

§ 72. The analysis of a proposition consists m
separating it into its elements.

NOUNS.-OBSERVATIONS.-CLASSES,

81

Of what must every proposition consist 1
What is the analysis of a proposition 1
What is a Noun 1 VerM Adjective 1
rronoun 1 Preposition 1 Conjunction 1
Exclamation 1

NOUNS.
EXERCISES.
Point out the Subject and Predicate in tbe following propositions;tell how you know them.
MODEL.-" J ohn reads," is a proposition, because it contains a subject
and predicate. "John" is the subject, because it is that of which the
proposition speaks. " Studies" is tl10 predicate, because it expresses what
is affirmed of tho subject "John."

Horses run. Animals live. Thomas sleeps. Rain falls.
Men work. D eath comes. Cows low. Dogs bark. Horses
neigh. William walks. Susan dances. Stars shine. Birds
sing. Lambs skip. Edward bas fall en. Lucy will play.
'William will write. Robert has come. The gi1:ls have recited.
The ocean roars. Difficulties vanish. Marion conquered.
Mother reproves. The bell has rung. Beauty fades. The
ball bounds. Powder explodes.
Birds :fly.
Fish swim.
Memory decays. The da.y dawns. Cotton grows. The teacher calls. The slate is broken. Jane is an indolent girl. Martha is meddlesome. The fox is cunning. The lion is bold.
~ These exercises should be continued until the learner clearly
comprehends what constitutes a proposition, and is able to distinguish the
terms that form its essential parts. Impress it on tho pupil that nothing
is more conducive to a correct kuo1dedge af grammar than analysis. Thia
understood, he will be able to pursue his course with pleasure and profit.

§ 81. A Noun is the name of an object; e. g.,
Alfred; Charleston, pencil.
OBS ERV .A.TIONS ..
1.-.A. noun is the name of an object. This definition is
equally true, whether the object has a real existence; e. g., ~lfred,
Charleston, pencil, or is the name of an object that has no real ex1Stence
independent of it, as whiteness, virtue, wisdom.
REMARK

REMARK 2.-.All words and signs taken technically are nouns, for in
such cases they assume the character of nouns, and must be regarded as
such; e. g., I and J were formerly expressed by the same chara~ter, ~
. were U and V. Us is a personal pronoun. There are eight ands m this
is the sign of addition.
sentence. Good is an adjective.

+

3.-The worcfobject in the definition of a noun, must be carefully distinguished from the same term used in Syntax to denote the
.
crimplement of a transiti;e verb.
REUARK

REUARK 4.-When a phrase or clause of a sentence is used to denote
an object, it becomes a noun; e. g., To see the sun is pleasant.
REMARK 5.-The noun is frequently called a substantive.
or clauses used as nouns, are called substantive clauses.

.A.11 phrases

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

§ 82.

Nouns are divided into two clas,1 rni),
Proper and Common.
f'

32

NOUNS.-EXERCISES.

NOUNS.-OBSERV .A.TIO NS.

§ 83. A Proper Noun is the name of an indivitlual object; e. g., George, Marion, Vesuvius.
§ 84. A Common Noun is a name applied to all
objects of the same class; e.g., Boy, hand, mountain.

·I'

§ 91.

To Nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and Case.

j

:

§ 85. A Collective Noun, or Noun of Multitude, is the·
name of many individuals together; e. g., Army, school, committee.
§ 86. An Abstract Noun is the name of a particular quality considered apart from its substance; e. g., Piety, vir.tue,
goodness.
§ 87. A Verbal Noun is the name of some action, or state
of being; e. g., R eading, writing, sleeping.
§ 88. A Diminutive Noun is a name derived from another
expressing some diminution of the original; e. g., Stream,
.,I
streamlet; leaf, leaflet.
§ 89. A Proper Noun with the definition a or the before it, ,;..;;!
I
is used as a common noun ; e. g., He was the Washington of
his age.
§ 90. A Common Noun when personified becomes proper;
e. g., Hail, Liberty.
OBSER'V ATIONS.
1.-Whiteness, goodness, haste, confosion, action, exis~ence,
&c., are called abstract nouns, because they are the names of qualities
abstracted, or considered apart from the obj ects to which thoy belong.
Thus, honesty docs not really exist without being Cilnnected with SOU\e
individual, but the mirnl abstracts it from individuals and considers it as
an object existing by itself; e. g., Honesty is the best policy.
RE:lLl.RK

2.-The names of metals, grain, &c., as iron, gold, wheat, • i
snow, fire, do not denote classes of objects, but the substance of which
thoy are cornposeu. Like abstract nouns they have no plural, and do not
admit of a, an, or one before them.
REMARK

33

EXERCISES.
Point out the Nouns in the following exercises; tell why they are
nouns ;-Proper, or C.ommon, and why.
M:onEL.-" The horse ruus swiftly." "Horse" is a noun because it is a
name ;-Common, because it is a name applied to all objects of the same
class.
"Henry.hurt.his hand." "Henry" is a noun, because it is a name;Proper, because it is the name of an individual object.

,j

I
I

I
"II

I

I

• ·washington was the first president. Montgomery is the
capital of Alabama. Wisdom is more precious than jewels.
Alfred has a little dog called Fido. The battle of W atcrloo
occurred in June. Proper names should begin with capitals.
vValnuts have hard shells, but sweet kernels. The fixed stars
are suprnsed to be suns in other planetary systems. Abridgements of history in most respects arc useless. To reason with
the angry, is like whispering to the deep. Father went to
Mobile in a steamboat. The words commonly called articles
are classed with adjectives. Whiteness js the name of a qual·
ity. Etymology treats of the classification of words. Neglect
' good. In the winter water freezes.
no opportunity to do
Hardness is natural to rocks. The hurricane destroyed the
building. Coffee is spelled with two fs and two es.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Write five sentences, each containing an example of a Prof,er
Noun. Five containing a Common Noun. Five containin~ a
Collective Noun or Noun of Multitude. Five containing an
Abstract Noun. Five containing a Verbal Noun. Fivf; con.
2'*

85

NOUNS.-OBSERV.A.TIONS.
NOUNS.-GENDER.

taining a DiminutiYc Noun. Five containing a Proper Noun
used as a Common Noun. Five containing an example of an
object personified.

GENDER.

§ 92.

Gender is the distinction of Nouns with
regard to sex.
§ 93. There are three Genders; the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter.
§ 94. The Masculine Gender denotes the male
sex; e. g., Man, boy, son.
§ 95. The Feminine Gender denotes the female
sex; e. g., Woman, girl, daughter.
§ 96. The Neuter Gender denotes objects that
are neither male nor female ; e. g., Ohair, house,
garden.
§ 97. Animals whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be
disti nguished , arc spoken of generally as Neuter; e. g., "James
shot at the deer, and missed it."
§ 98. On the same principle we say of the child, it is sick.
§ 90. Some nonns, naturally Neuter, by figure of speech
become Masculine or Feminine; e. g., The Sun, he is setting;
the Moon, she is eclipsed .

§ 100. Things that arc strong and controlling, are commonly spoken of as Masculine ;-beautiful and dependent,
Femi nine.
§ 101. A collective noun implying unity, or having tho
plural form, is Neuter ; but if it refers to the individuals oorued,

its gender corresponds; e.g.; "The jury could not agree upon
their verdict."
OBSERV.A.TIONS.
REllARK 1.-Nouns in English, according to the universal rule, have
three genders; but unlike most other languages, ancient or modern, the
larger part of the words of this description belong to the neuter gender;
for none are considered as masculine or femi,niue without an actual dis·
tir:ction of sex, unless in poetry, or in a very few instances of technical
phrases. Even a ship, which is constantly spoken of by seamen as fem•
inine, is neuter in common parlance. From this general rule, however,
we must except the Deity, God, and other terms of the same signification,
which are constantly masculine. Other nouns, as those of the planets,
admit of being made masculine or feminine, because they are named after
heathen divinities, as Jwpiter, Jurw; or after distinguished men, Herschet
In the case of the sun and moon, the English differs from its parent Ian·
guage; for the sun is feminine, and the moon masculine in the German
dialects in general, wbere!lB the English in this follows the Greek and
Latin, and reverses the gender. In more ornate composition the virtues
urnl tho vices are also mado masculine and feminine. In some cases
noWls may be considered as of either gender; as fox, goat, &c.; but animals more commonly spoken of, have different terms for the se:x:es; as
lion, lioness; stag, hind.

2.- The term" Common Gender," applied to such words as
Whon the gender of such words can not be determined by the context, in parsing, say
gender unknown. This is better than an unphilosophical distinction.
REMARK

parent, cousin, friend, &c., is incorrect and unnecessary".

There are three ways of distinguishing sex.
1. By the different words; e. g.,
Male.

Bachelor,
Beau,
Boar,
Boy,

Female.

Maid.
Belle.
Sow.
Girl.

Male.

Brother,
Husband,
King,
Lad,

Female.

Sister.
Wife.
Queen.

l-asa.

•
36

NOUN5.-GENDER.
Mnle.

Buck,
Bullock,
Steer,
Dog,
Drake,
Earl,
Father,
Friar,
Gander,
Hart,
H orse,
Cock,
Stag,

Female.

Doe.

l
f

H eifer.
B itch.
Duck.
Countess.
Mother.
Nun.
Goose.
Roe.
Mare.
lien.
llind.

Mnle.

Female.

Male.

F emale.

Lord,
Man,
Milter,
Nephew,
Ram,
Master,

Lady.
vVoman.
Spawner.
Niece.
Ewe.
Mistress.
5Singer, or
( Songstress.
Madam.
Daughter.
Slut.
Aunt.
Witch.

P atro n,
P eer,
P oet,
Priest,
Prince,
Proph.et,
Sh eph erd,
Songster,
Sorcerer,

Patroness.
P eere!s,
Poetess.
Priestess.
Princess.
Proph etess.
Shepherdess.
Songstress.
Sorceress.
5Sultana or
( Sultaness.

Singer,
Sir,
Son,...
Sloven,
Uncle,
"Wizard,

2. By the different termination ; e. g.,
Mnle.

Abbot,
Actor,
Administrator,
Adulterer,
Author,
Baron,
Canon,
Cater,
Chanter,
Conductor,
Count,
Czar,
D eacon,
D etractor,
Duke,

Femnle.

Abbess.
Actress.
Administratrix.
Adulteress.
Authoress.
Baron ess.
Canoness.
Cateress.
Chan tress.
Conductress.
Countess.
Czarina.
Deaconess.
D etractress.
Duchess.

Male.

Elector,
Emperor,
God,
Governor
H eir,
H ero,
Host,
Hunter,
Inheritor,
.Jew,
Landgrave,
Lion,
Marquis,
Mayor,

37

NOUl'l'S.-GENDEl't.

F emale.

Electress.
Empress.
Goddess.
Governess.
H eiress.
H eroine.
Hostess.
Huntress.

5Inh eritrix, or
( Inh eritress.
J ewess.
Landgravine.
Lioness.
Marchioness.
Mayoress. .

Sultan,

Male.

Suitor,
Tiger,
Testator,
Traitor,
Tyrant,
Tutor,
Victor,
Viscount,
Votary,
W idower,

Fema.1e.

Sui tress.
Tigress.
Testatrix.
Traitrcss.
Tyranness.
Tutoress.
Victress.
Viscountess.
V otress.
Widow.

3. By a Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective, prefix ed to the Noun; e. g.,
Mascul ine.

A cock sparrow.
A he bear.
A li e goat.
A male child.
A male sen·ant.
Male descendants.
Man-servant.

F eminine.

A hen sparrow.
A sh e bear.
A she goat.
A female child.
A fema.le servant.
Female descendants.
Maid-servant.
EXERCISES.

Tell the Masculine of the Feminine N ouus, and the Feminine of the
Masculine.
MODEL.-Man, Woman; Belle, Beau.

Man, bachelor, host, man servant, beau, abbot, baron, drake,
hoy, deacon, doe, conductor, father, emperor, sister, duke,
embassador, countess, mother, friar, goose, girl, husband,
queen, lass, lady, dam, master, spawner, ram, wizard, hind,
nephew, songster, votary, traitress, madam, poetess, uncle,
daughter, abbess, bride, earl, enchautress, Czarina., lio11t em

38

NOUNS.-EXERCISES.-PERSON.
NOUNS. --OB3ERV ATIONS.-EXERCISES.

press, executor, tcgtator, goddess, governess, heroine, hunt
rC$$ 7 J cwcss, traitor, hen spanow, inheritrix, lioness, instrnctor, marchioness, songster, Sultana, landgravine, shepherdess, proph etcs~, princP-, testatrix, tigress, traitor, tyranness,
victor, votary, viscountess, gnnder, widower, she-bear, deaconess, male child, man servant.
EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
vVrite fh e sentences containing an example of a noun of the
Masculine Gender. Fi1·e <oontaining an example of a noun of
the Feminine Gend er. Five containing an example of a noun
of the N cuter Gender. Ffrc containing a neuter noun changed
to the Masculine or Feminine by personification.

PERSON.

§ 102. P erson is that property of the noun (or
pronoun) which distinguishes the speaker, hearer,
and person or thing spoken of.
§ 103. There are three Persons; the First, the
Second, antl the Third.
§ 104. The First Person denotes the speaker;
e. g., "I, George Washington, &c."
§ 105. The Second Person denotes the individual addressed; e. g., "Tlzeodore, give me my
knife."
§ 106. The Third Person denotes the individ ual or thing spoken of; e. g., "Mary left her
book at lzome."

39

OBSERV .A. 'I'IONS.
REMARK 1.-Nouns in the first or second person aro never used as tho
subjoct, or object of a vcrh, but may be put in apposition witll others for
the purpose of explanation; e. g., "I, Paul, beseech you."
RE:IIARK 2.-Tho names of inanimate obj ects aro in the soco:id person,
wh en the objects to which they apply arc spoken to. Objects. thus addressed are personified, and treated as though t!Jey were actual !Jearcrs ·
e. g., " .A.nd I have loved thee, Ocean."

EXERCISES.
Tell the person of the nouns in the following exercises ;-give the
reason.
MODEL.- " I, George Washington," &c.
" George Washington" is or
the First Person, because the speaker and W ashingtou are one.
"Thomas, bring me your book."- " Thomas" is of the Second Person,
because it denotes the individual a d d re~scd .
"William is an attentive pupil." " W ;l/iam" is of the Th ird Person,
because it denotes, &c.

Americans should love their country. I, Paul, an apostle of
J esus Christ. John, I want your attention. Susan can write
better than her sister. That man is so illiterate, he cannot
read. Father, I must have a new book. Henry liad many
opportunities to learn, but did not improve them. \Ve, the
citizens of Montgomery. Matilda, docs Alfred study at hom e?
Doctor Murray is an interesting speaker. Mason, the swind ler,
is at large. Miss M. Eddings was chosen qn ecn of May. The
prize essay was written by Thomas. I, Victoria, Queen of
England. James, bring me your Virgil. The officer was
wound ed at Charl eston. Men often differ in opinion, cvc11
about small things. Ilop, you arc dismissed. Sister is fond
Jf drawing and painting. Thomas conducted himsc)t very
properly.

40

. NOUNS.-FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

NOUNS.-NUMBER.-EXERCISES.

academy, institute,· curls, day, lamp, window, blinds, brother,
cousin, pitcher, carpet, rug, mat, books, watch, pen<:il, friends,
infant, chairs, lady, song, mountain, goblet, floor, telescope, andirons, stand, keys.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
Write five sentences containing an example of a noun of the
First P erson. Five of the Second. Five of the Third.

NUMBER.

§ 107. Number is the distinction of one from
more than one.
R E~!ARK.-Th e distinction of Numbers serves only to show whether we
speak of one object or more than one. In some languages, as the Greek
and Arabic, there is a dual number which denotes two or a pair; bnt in
ours this property of wo rds, or class of modifications, extends no farther
than to distinguish unity from plurality, anc' plurality from unity. It belo ngs to nouns and pronouns and finite verbs, nnd is always applied to
them, either by some pecul:arity of form, or inference from tile principles
of concord.

§ 108. Nouns have two numbers; the Singular and the Plural.
§ 109. The Singular Number denotes but one
object; e. g., J11an, boy, girl.
§ llO. The Plural Number denotes more objects than one; e. g., .JJfen, boys, girls.
EXERCISES.
Tell th e Number of the following nouns.
:MODEL.-" IJ,1t" is of the Singular Number, because it denotes but on~
object.
" Brute~" i., of the Pluru.l Number, because it denotes more objects
than o,1c.

Books, h orse, nose, hat, inkstand, boy, map, pencil, paper,
mother, table, hand, _geography, men, boys, cap, mouth, ship,

41

'
!

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

§ 111. The Plural Number of Nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the Singular; e. g.,
Boy, boys; girl, girls.
§ 112. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form
the Plural by adding es; e. g., Miss, misses;
brush, brushes; match, matches; topaz, topazes ;
fox, foxes; hero, lteroes.
ExCEPTIONS.-Nouns in eo, io, and yo have s only; e. g., Cameo, ca·
meos; folio, folios; embryo, embryos. So also canto, grotto, portico, solo,
ha.lo, quarto, formerly had s only in the plural, but now more commonly
es. Nouns in ch sounding k, add only s; e. g., Monarch, monarchs.

§ 113. Nouns ending inf or_je form the Plural
by changing f or fe into ves; e. g., Loaf, leaves ;
wife, wives.
ExcEPTIONS.-Dwarf, scarf, reef, brief, chief, grief, handkerchief, mis·
chief, gulf, turf, surf, safe, fife, ~trife, proof hoof, reproof, follow the general
rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s; e. g., muff, m uff" ; except
staff, plural staves; but its compounds are regular; e. g., flagstaff, fu.g·
staffs; wharf has either wharfs or wharves.

§ 114. Nouns ending in y after a consonant
form the Plural by changing y into ies; e. g .,
Beauty, beauties. Nouns in y after a vowel, follow
the general rule; e. g., Day, days; toy, tops.

42

NOUNS.-FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

.NOUNS.--.,.FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

NOU NS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL.

the sense of an Adjective, or a Noun and an Adj ecti1·e. In
~ uch words, the sign of the Plural i~ added to that part of the
ompound which constitutes the Noun, whether at the end of
;he word or not; e. g.,

§ 115. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their
plural;

su~h

as-

Singular.

Plurnl.

Ma n,
\Voman,
Child,
Foot,
Ox,

men.
wom en.
children,.
feet.
oxen.

I Slngulnr.

Plural.

Tooth,
Goose,
Mouse,
Louse,
form erly
Cow,
but now regular,

teeth.
geese.
mice.

Singulo.r.

'

§ 113. Words adopted without change from foreign lan-

form of the plural, but with different significations ; asPlurnl.

Brother
Brother
D ie
Die
Genius
Genius
Index
Index
P ea
P ea
Sow
Sow Cir' swine
P enny
P enny

(one of the same famil y)
(one of the same society)
(a stamp for coi ning)
(a small cube for gaming)
(m en of genius)
(a kind of sµirit)
(a table of refcrcr..c)
(a sign in algebra)
(as a distinct seed)
(as a species <;>f grain)
(an individual animal)
(the species)
(a coi n---)
(a sum or value)

brothers.
brethren.
dies.
dice.
geniuses.
genii.
indexes.
indices.
peas.
pease.
sows.
swine.
pennies.
pence.

RE)[AllK.-Though pence is pl~ral, yet such exprcs.~ions as four-pence ,
name of a sum, are rcg:.1rded singular, and have n. plural;
e. g., "Two six·p•nces make a sh illing."

six-pence, as the

§ 117. Compounds, consisting of two or more words con
nccted by a hyphen, are composed, either of two Nouns, one in

aids-de-camp.
fathers-in-law.
commanders-in-chief.

K OTE.-Compounds ending in Jul or full form the plural regularly; e. g.,
spoou-ful, spoon fuls; cup-ful~ cupjulls.

§ 116. Some nouns h ave both a regular and an irregular
Singulnr.

P lural.

Aid-de-camp,
Father-in-law,
Commander-in-chief,

lice.
kine,
cows.

43

I

i'
f..

guages, generally retain their original plural. As a general
rule, nouns in um or on, have a in the plural. Latin nouns in
is, in th e plural change is into es ; Greek nouns in is, change
i s into ides; Latin nouns,in a, change a into CJJ; but Greek
nouns change a into ata in the plural. Th e following are the
most common, some of which, however, from common use, have
become so much a part of the language as to have also the
regular English form of the plural. In the following table
these are indicated by the letter R.
Si ng ulnr.

Pluml.

Singular.

Plural.

Alumnus,
Alumna,
Amanuensis,
Analysis,
Animalculum,

alumni.
alumnro.
amanuenses.
analyses.
animalcula, R.
antitheses.
apices, R.
appendices, R.
arcana.
automata, R.
axes.

Bandit,
Basis,

banditti.
bases.
beaux, R.
calces, R.
cherubim, R.
ch rysalides.
crises.
criteria.
data.
desiderata.
dire res es.

Antithesis,
Apex,
Appendix,
Arcanum,
Anton.aton,
Axis,

B~au,

Calx,
Cherub,
Chrysalis,
Crisis,
Criterion,
Datum,
Desideratum,
Direresis,

C'

44
Singubr.

NOUNS.-FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
Plural.

Singular.

NOUNS,--,PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES.

Plural.

Eiliuvium,
cfl:luvia.
i\l~ta111orphosis, m~tamorphoses.
Ellipsis,
ellipses.
Miasma,
miasmata.
Emphasis,
Momentum,
momenta, R.
emphases.
Encomium,
cncomia, R.
Monsieur,
messieurs.
Eph emeris,
ephemerides.
Mr. (master), messrs.(masters)
Erratum,
errata.
nebulre.
Nebula,
Focus,
foci.
Oasis,
oases.
Formula,
formulre, R.
Parenthesis,
parentheses.
Fungus,
fungi, funguses. Phenomenon, phenomena.
Genius,
genii.
radii.
Radius,
Genus,
genera.
Scholium,
scholia, R.
Gymnasium,
gymnasia, R.
Seraph,
seraphim, R.
Hypothesis,
hypoth eses.
Speculum,
speeula.
Ignis fatuus,
ignes fatui.
Stamen,
stamina, R.
Index( a pointer) indexes.
Stimulus,
stimuli.
Index(in algcb.) indices.
strata.
Stratum,
Lamina,
laminre.
Th esis,
theses.
Larva,
lan'ro.
vertebrre.
Vertebra,
Magus,
magi.
Vertex,
vertices, R.
Medium,
media, R.
Virtuoso,
virtuosi.
Memorandum memoranda, R. Vortex,
vortices, R.
§ 110. The names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences,
abstract qualiti es, and things that arc either weighed or measured, are used only in the Singula1·; e. g., Gold, industry,
sculpture.
§ 120. The nam es of things weighed or measured, admit
of a Plural, when several kinds of the same sort are referred to;
e. g., Wheats, teas.
§ 121. Some nouns are used only in the Plural; e.g., Antipodes, annals, adies, archives, assets, clothes, measles, oats,
wages, tidings, billows, tongs, &c.

I

r

45

§ 122. Some nouns arc alike in both numbers; e.g., D eer,
sheep, swine, trout, apparatus, salmon, cannon, series, means,
species, &c.
§ 123. Some nouns are P lural in form, but either Singular
or Plural in meaning; c. g., Amends, m eans, news, riches,
ethics , conics, optics, mathematics, &c.
REllARK.-Means and amends are Singular when they r efer to one
ouject, liut P lural when mor:: than one.

PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES.

t

§ 12-l. In adJressing letters to several of the same name,
the title is generally pluralized ; c. g., The Misses Bell ; the
]Jf;!ssrs. Kerr; or b:;fore different names; e. g., Messrs. Smith,
Son, & Uo. Dut in colloquial style, the name is usually pluralizl)d ; c. g., The Miss B ells ; the two Mr. Kings; unless
before different names; e.g., Misses Anna and Julia King;
Ai essrs. Snow & Rice; .Messrs. Pratt & Co.
~

The name and title both never take the plural form_:
EXERCISES.

Write the Plural of the following Nouns:
Girl, pen, table, tax, fish, chain, king, man, ring, body, leaf,
mi ll, fox, ox, garden, fly, knife, city, fork, play, day, calf, lamp,
cherry, woe, army, coach, child, hero, berry, peach wolf, volcano, lash, thief, branch, hill, sister, duty, penny, foot, inch,
queen, dish, witch, buffalo, wisl1, copy, brush, glass, cargo,
sheaf, sky, river, miss, witness, thrush, boy, monarch, toy,
sheep, sex, beauty, potato, lass, echo, chimney, journey, book,
valley, mouse, arcanum, court-martial, eclipse, automaton, axis,
l>:1sis, crisis, criterion, effiuvinm, datum, direresis, hypothesis,
locus, erratum, genius, medium, lamina, parenthesis, radius,

46

NOUNS.-CASE.

NOUNS.-QUESTIONS,

phenomenon, stamen, sloth, stimulus, stratum, virtuoso, means,
npparatns, species, series, gold, foot, tooth, pride, ambition,
trout, mathematics, cannon.
Write th e Singulm of the fbllowing P lurals :

Brothers, children, wives, reproofs, tongs, criteria, crises, errata, sh eep, ethics, courts-martial, cherubim, effluvia, ri ches,
desiderata, species, scissors, lungs, ashes, optics, mathematics,
teeth, thrushes, animalcula, apiccs, dice, boys, rijce, vortices,
theses, strata, stamina, seraphim, parentheses, memoranda,
antipodes, arcana, alumni, foci, laminre, encomia.

I

T
I

The Second ? The Third ?
vVhat is meant by Number?
How many numbers are there 1
·what does the Singular denote ?
Th e Plural?
What Nouns are Plural in form and Singular or Plural in
construction?
vVhen do Proper Names take the Plural form?
What is said of the title Miss?

CASE.

§ 125. Case is the relation of the noun (or pro-

QUESTIONS.
vVhat is a Noun?
H ow are they divided?
What is a Proper Noun? Common 1
Collective? Abstract ? Verbal?
Diminutive?
·what is Gender?
How many Gend ers are there ?
\Vhat docs the Masculine denote?
Th e Feminine? Neuter?
vVhat is said of t he gender of animals whose sex is unknown!
vVhat is the gender of Child frequently?
"What is said of N cuter Nouns?
vVhat of the gender of some Nouns?
Of Common Gender?
H ow many ways arc there of di stinguishi ng sex?
vVhat is the First? The Second? Third?
vVhat is Person ?
How many persons arc th ere?
\Vhat does the First Person denote 1

47

I

r

noun) to other words in a sentence.
EXPLANATION.-A Sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as
to constitute a distinct proposition; e. g., "Horses run."

§ 126. There are three Cases; the Nominative,
the Possessive, and the Objective.
OBSERVATIONS.

..
I

I

I
...

RE~fARK 1.-Casc, in grammar, is founded on the different relations
under which things aro represented in discourse, and from which words
acqu:r0 connexions and dependencies according to the sense. In Latin
there are six cases, in Greek fiv e; the nouns and pronouns of these l:mq;uagcs, and also adjectives and participles, are varied by terminations unnown in our language. In English, cases belong to nouns and pronouns,
_nd are never more than three.
R1mARK 2.-It -was a subject oflong dispute among grammarians what
number of cases belonged properly to our language. Some, t aking the
L;itin for their model, contended for six cases, others again denied that
there were more than two. Public opinion is now clear in the decision
that no11ns in English have three cases.

48

NOUNS.-NOMINATIVE CASE.

REMARK 3.- The Objective Case of Nouns is of tho same form as tlie
nominative, and is distinguished from it only by the sense and po~ition.
The one cannot be mistaken for tile other, without a total misconception
of the author's meaning.

NOMINATIVE CASE.

§ 127. The Nominative Case indicates the relation of the subject; e. g., " .Horses run."
EXPLAN'ATION'.-Tho snbject of a proposition is that of which something
is affirmed. In the sentence " Horses run," " horses" is in the Nominative
Case, because it indicates the relation of the subject.
OBSERVATIONS.

NOUNS.-POSSESSIVE C.\SE.

mas bc.'li eves John. The general COTI\man<l ccl the army. Father
received the information to-day. J arn es is doing the work.
The wood111 an is cutting down the tree. Th e men are receiving thoir wages. John is going to Florida. Robert owns
the boat. Mary has finished her task. Do you know all the
particul ars 1 vVe depend on your assistance. The ball went
over the house. Mary has written to her sister. The lion is
in the cage. Arnold was a traitor to his country. Lucy is an
excellent instructrcss. !IIilton was a distinguished poet. Anna
is an affectionate daughter. Mary Smith bas an amiable disposition. William is older than John. H enry studies grammar and arithmetic. Alexan der writes neatl y. John is endeavoring to obtain the highest honor in Lis class. Minnie
excels in composition. Ilas your uncle sold his farm 1

R ElU.RK 1.-The Nominative Case generally precedes the Verb.
REMARK 2.-Tbis Case is sometimes used as the attribute of a proposi·
tion ;-to identify the subject ;-and in independent expressions.

EXERCISES.
Point out the Nouns that are in the Nominative Case ;-tell how you
know they are in that case.
MODEL.-" Dogs bark. " "Dogs" is in the Nominative Case, because
it indicates the relation of the subject.

Mary sings. Girls play. Thomas pumps. Children cry.
William reads. Soldiers fight. The cat scratches. The lamp
smokes. The hero conquered. Serpents hiss. Owls hoot.
Fish swim in the river. Girls play in the yard. Matilda
paints. P eople vote. Mirrors refl ect. Animals live. Trees
fall. Parrots talk. Elizabeth can sing. The tyrant is base.
George can wri te. Thomas has spoken. Mary em broiclers.
Fran cis and Robert arc in the garden. The boys obey the
teacher. Time flies swiftly. Henry submits patiently. Tho

49

POSSESSIVE CASE.

§ 128. The Possessive Case indicates the relation of ownership, source, or kind; e. g., "Aljred'. tJ
knife; Sun's rays; Webster's Dictionary."
ExPLA:\'ATIO:\'.-" Alfred's knife ; Sun's rays ; Websler's Dictionary."
"Alfred's" denotes ownership, " Sun's" source, and "'Vebster's" kind.
OBSERVATIONS.
R rnrARK · 1.-" In respect to all matters of syntax: considered ex·
clu ,ively, it is so thorou:;·bly a matt0r of indifference whether a word be
nu adjective or a genitive case, tlut 7V'alli> consiclers the \Vorcls in 's, like
fatl1cr 8, not as genitive cases, but nclj ectivcs. Looking to the logic of the
q11 e,·t:Dn, he is rigl1t; an.I !Doki11g to the pra ctical sy ntax of the question,
he !s ri ~ht ulso. H e is wrong on ly on thJ etym~l ~gical sicle. "-LATllAM.
0

REMARK 2.-Thc Pos:;essive Case alwnys precedes its limiting word;

e. g., .Alfred's kuife.
3

50

NOUNS.-EXERCISES.

NOUNS.-FORMATION OF TIIE POS3E3SIVE.

R U L E S F O !l F 0 Tl

EXERCISES.

N G T II E P 0 S S E S S I VE.

§ l 2D. A N onn ia f1c Si !1g:1lar Number forms tlie Possess·
i1·e reg:1larly by auding the apos:rophe aud the letter s to the
Nominative; e.g., Alfred, Alfred's.

I'oint out the Nouns that are in tho Possessi ve Case ;-tell how you
know th ey are in that case.
MO !)EL.- " Ircmy's C3p." "Hmry"s" is in the Possessive Cas~, because
it li :n its th o owner;hip to " IImry."

"Sun'; rays. "

~IT

61

§ 130.
trophe.

" S un'i;" is in the Porncssive Case, because it limits

source to ''sun.''

The comma that precedes the s is called an apos-

~ 131. 'When the Nominative Plural ends ins, the Possess·
ive is formed by adding the apostrophe only; c. g., Doy, boys'.

"hlitcl1e:rs Geo3raphy." "Mitchelfs" is in tho Po3sessive Caso, because
it limits kind to " .MilchelL"

§ 132. \Vhen the Plm·al docs not end in s, the Possessive
is formed by taking the apostrophe and the lctt2r s ; e. g.,
Men, men's.

~1Villiam h:1s lost Alfred's knife.

l\forehants have boy's hats.
The dog has bitten J oh n's finger. Robert's brother has pnrcliascd land in Tcxns. Vi'illis rode A lfred's pony. Mary's
diligence clcscrrcs praise. H enry uses Davies' Arithmetic.
Samuel's fath er ]ires in town. Edwnrd's industry will gain
fri ends. \Va<hington's army encl n!ed nrnny hardships. Stephen's
courage failed . \Vildreclgc sold Alfred's ball. H ave you exnmincu Nnrdheimcr's Grammar 1 S:trah's kitten is very playfol. Tiob ~ rt has found his moth er's fan. Jan e's sister culti vates flowers in her yard. Rob ert's teacher prefers Day's
Al gebra. W ill ia 111's clog caught the thict: Alger's Arithmetic
i' liiglil y rcco1 11rnend ed. S:trali's penci l is on the table.
"\rchi :uud'"s' screw was the topic of conversation . The
sen·::rnt li as Ella's coral. Gertrnde's Dream is a beautiful
wa '. tz. Father's spectat:lcs arc on his nose. The king's com 111:incl must b e obeyed. Have you seen \Vill iam's cap? vVhat
do yon th i1~ k of Coms'.ock's Philosophy? Hobert's tutor is
~: ck. Ilis th eme was "The Soldier's Prowess." Napoleon's
army wns Lkf,:a teJ, llanu me brotli ; r's slate. My knife is on
Uobcrt's <lcsk.

§ 133. ·when the Singular ends with the sound of s,
or z, to avoid harshness of sonml, the s after the apostrophe
is sometimes omitted ; c. g., Goodness' sah; Archimcde~'
screw.
§ 134. In regard to the omission of the s, no definite rule
can be given; the car alone must decide.
NOTE.-There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on this
point. Some fe"· insist on retaining s after the apostrophe iu every posi·
tion; a~, "Xanthus's stock ofpaticnce."-L'Eo-lrange. Others drop tho 3
only before a word beginning with an s, or nn s·souud, as above; while
oth ~rs drop the s wherever the use of it wou:d produce harshneEs, or diffi·
culty of pronunciation. 'l.'hongh in this last, tho usage which om:ts tho 3
is l.ss prevalent and kss accurate than that which retains it, yet, from
the s:i.nct'on iL has obtained-from the stiffness and harshucs> which
rct,1ioing the s cfLcn occasions- and from the tendency in ull spoken langnagcs to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against
all arguments to th e contrary.

,.
I

§ 13.J. In co:npou!1d wods the sign of the Pm<sessive is
placed at the end of the word; e. g., Robert rode Lis fat/icr.
iu-law's horse.

52

NOUNS.-ODSERVATION3.-F.:S:ERCISE3.

NOUNS.-ODJECTIVE CASE.•

O BS ER V ATIO NS .

53

EXPLANAT!ON.-In the sentence "Fulton applied stca!n to navigation,"
stearn limits tho action expressed by the verb applied; navigation com-

REl!AilK J .-This sign ('s) used after cbaracters merely denotes plu·
rali ty ; e. g., "The y's, th e x's, and the z's."

pletes the relation of the preposition to.

IlElIAilK 2.- This sign ('>) is a con trn ct:on of is or es ; e. g., "Johll's
and Ki ng's" au oicutl/ were \\Titteu Ju/mis, K in;is ; and sometimes
J oh ncs, K inges.

OBSERVATIONS.
IlEl!ARK 1.-This case may be known by its ans1Yering to whom, or

Il EJIA RK 3.-Tii e mean ing of t:1e Possessive may, in gencml, be expressJd by the n·ord rj n·ith the Objec tive ; thus 10r "m an's wisdom,"
" virtue's reward," we may say the wis:lo:n of man, the reward of virtue.
This mode shou ld be adopted, wh en the use of the Possessive would appear sliff or awkward ; e. g., "The length of tile day, " in place of tile
day's length.

EXERCISES .
Write the Possessive of the following words.
MODEL.-Dog, dog's.

Girl, book, man , wi tn ess, Alice, Charles, master, prince,
pupil, autl10r, Creato r, clock, Adam, Aristides, Knox, mischief, beauty, sister, goodn ess, righteousness, Munay, conscience, brother, mot11cr-in-la w, knig ht-errant, cobbler, carpenter, uncl e, cousin, aunt, soldi er, duty, Mary, Alfred, scholar,
Socrates, Moses, teacher, doctor, Jam es, philosopher, Kepler,
Cass, grammarian, vVilliam, Fox, alclcnnan, Melcher, Beech,
countess, obj ector, husband, Fulton, J ohnson, astronomer,
Puritan.

OBJECTIVE CASE.

§ 136. Th e Objective Case expresses the relation of th e object. It is used to limit the action
of a Transitive Verb, or complete the r elation of Pre.
position; e.g.," Fulton applied steam to naz•z;qation."

what, after the Verb or Preposition; e. g., "Fulton nppli ed steam 1o
na v ig~ti on . "

"AppliJd 11·1l:1t ?"

"Ap?lied st )am." "To wh at '? "

"To

navigation."

RE)!ATIK 2.-The Objective Caso with tho preposition of is freq•1ently
used instead of the Po>scs.iive; e. g., "Tho power of tho Almighty."

EXERCISES.
Point out the Nouns in the Objective ;-tell llow you know they arc in
that case.
MODEL.-" Merchants soil goods to custo!nors." " Goods" is in the Objective Case, beeat:so iJ; li11 it;; th ~ action expres5cd by tho transitil·o verb
sell. " Sc'. l what ?" "Sell goods. "
•• Customer;" is in the O\Jjective Case, because it cc1mplctes tho relation
expressed by the prepusition to. "To what?" " To customers ."

Idl eness produces poverty. James lon.s play. Perseverance
overcomes difficnlties. I3ces collect honey from fioll'ers. Kittens love mischief. Soldiers fight for glory. The lawyer was
engagetl by the man. I3irds bc1ild nests in tall trees. History
relates facts of the ancients. Preparations were maJe for the
party. Thomas writes exercises at school. Drother is stndying
astronomy with father. Alfred computed the interest on the
note. Robert killed game for his aunt. Planets revoh'e in the
firmament.
Planters own slaves. Father blamed Thomas for h is nnkindn ess to Jam cs. The presi<le1;t pro:n-0tc<l the of:.i ~c r. f ire
consumes wood. Teachers praise diligent pupils. Charles has

54

NOUNS.-DELCENSION.

read the book. Am8rica has prnrlnc8d many distinguished
men. Th e j11ry nftcr nrn ch consideration returned the verdict.
Th e frost has dcstrvyd the prosp ~ "t for fr c1it this year. \Vashrngton I!"l'i ng has written a hi:lto ry of ColLtm bns, the great
navigator. All e,;teem l\fa:·y fo r her nobl e qualities. Uncle
has just returned from \Vashington, the capital of the United
States.

DE CLENS ION OF NOUNS .

§ 137.

The Declension of a Noun is its variation to denote Number and Case.
REllA!lK. - Thcro are a faw irregular Nouns that vary from these examples.

EXAMPLE I.-F RI END .
Singular.

Plurnl.

No m. Friend.
Poss. Friend's.
Obj. Fr:end.

iY om. Friends.
P oss. Friends'.
Obj. Friends.

EXAM PLE II.-FO X .
S!n ::nhr.

No m. Fox.
P oss. Fox's.
Obj. Fox.

Plurnl.

No m. Foxes.
P oss. Foxes'.
Obj. Foxes.

EXAMPL E III.-FLY.
Singular.

N om. Fly.
P oss. Fly's,
Obj. Fly.

Plural.

N om. Flies.
P oss. Flies'.
Obj. Flies.

EXAMP LE IV.-MA N.
Sin; nhl'.

No m. Man .
P oss. l\fan's.
Obj. l\fan.

Pl urnl.

Nom. Men.
Poss. Men's.
Obj. l\fen.

NOUNS. -

EXERCISES.

EXERCISES.
Tell the Gender, Number, P erson and Case, of the Nouns In the following exercises.
MODET,. - " Matilda excels Augusta in penm anship." "Natilda" is a
Noun , Proper, F eminine, of the Third Person; it is made in the Nomina·
tivc Singular, and is the subj ect of the proposition ",jfatilda. excels Augusta in penmanship."

" A ugustu" is a Noun, Proper, F eminine, of t he Third P erson: it i.<
made in the Objective Singular, and limits tho action expressed by the
trunsitive verb excels.
"Penmanship" is a Noun, Common, Neuter, of the Third P erson; it i"
made in tho Objective Singular, and completes the relation expressed l.1y
the preposition in.

Ilenry has lost vVilliam's book. Thomas borrowed Alfred's
gun for George. Matilda's slate is on Sarah's desk. Birds
h ave wings. Seamen navigate ships. Uncle has a large income from his plantation. Robert's diligence deserves th e
highest commendation. The sun's rays have dispersed the
clouds. Julia has soiled l\lary's gloves. Charles is making a
fortune by close application to his business. Did the dog bite
J oh n's fing er yesterday 1 Susan walked with Mary by moonlight. The frost may injure the crop.
Our teacher sh all decide the difficulty for us. Thomas saw
Charles. vVilliam told a pleasing anecdote about George.
Elizabeth fainted in church. Th e poor man died of hunger.
'William's horse ran with his brother. Matilda excels Sarah in
penmanship. God's goodness is great. Industry promotes
happiness. Albert's dog guards the house at night. Am ericans love to speak of \ Vashing ton. Seamen navigate ships.
Christ often spoke in parables. Robbers waylay travelers fo r
plunder. \Villiam's sister destroyed her book. Napoleo n
Bonaparte took the city of Moscow. The king's heart is in

56

NOUN8.-PARSING.

the hands of the Lord. Y'-lc have finished the task.
wishes to be exc used from recitation.

NOUNS.-PARSING.- -EXEllCISES.

John

PARSING.
Parsing consists :-

1. In telling the Part of Speech j
2. In naming its properties, or accidents;
3. In pointing out its relation to other words,
and giving the rule for its construction.
In parsing a Noun, say :1. It is a Noun; (why?)
2. It is Common or Proper; (why?)
3. It is of tbe Masculine, F eminine, or Neuter Gender;

(why ?)
4. It is of the Frist, Second, or Third P erson; (Why?)
5. It is made in the Nominative, Possessive, or Objective
Case; (why?)
6. Singular or Pluml Number; (why ?)
7. R ule for Construction.
RE~IARK.-The pupil who has been thorougi1ly drilled on the introduotory course, may parse without giving the reasons.

EXERCISES.
Parse th e Nouns in the following exercises.
1foDEL.-" John drove the horso frocn fathe r's barn." "John" is a
Noun , Pl'Opcr, :Mascu 1ine, of the Third PersJn. It is mad3 in the Nominative Sing-11Iar, and is the subject of the proposition, "John drove the
horse from father's barn," ancording to
RULE I.-The Subject of a proposition must be in the Nominative Case.

57

n Horse" is a Noun, Common, Masculine, of the Third Person.
It is
made in the O bje~liv e Singular, and li mits th o action expressed by thtl
verb drove, ac~ording to
Ri:LE IIL-A Noun or P ronoun used to limit the action of a trausi ti ;-~
verb must be in tlle Objective Case.

"Father's" is a Noun, Common, Masculine, of the Third Person. It i;
made in the Possessive Singular, and limits barn, according to
RUL8 V.-A. Noun or Pronoun used to limit the relation of own ers'.1 ip
so·11·ce or kind, is put in the Possessive.
"Earn" is a Noun, Common, Neuter, of the Third Person. It is matlo
in the Objective Si ugnlnr, and completes the relation expressed by tlw
preposition fi'om , according to
Rur.E X.-A Noun or Pronoun used to complete the relation of a
preposilion must be in the Objectivo Case.

Thomas hurt Jam es. '\Vcbstcr visited Europe. Robert
purchased toys for his brother. Quarrels make trouble. Wil
liam owns th e book. Mary gathered flow ers for Julia. Men
worship God.
Piety promotes happiness.
Anger causes
hatred. Jan e's un cle Stephen gave h er bad advice. The
arcJ1itect draws plans for buildings. Antony beheaded Cicern.
Diligence deserves praise. Willis called Alfred. The girls
ha ve gone to gather strmrbcni cs. Uncle's orchard produces
fin e fruit. Lucy may study music . . Labor disgraces no man .
George has read t he required course in Latin. '\Ve ascended
the mountain by a crooked path.
Dal e, the carpent er, has gone to New York. Edward b as
lost the point of his pencil. Samuel's brother li ves near the
city. '\Vashington endured many hardships in achieving the
independence of his country. Davies' Course of Mathematics
is very generally used in th is section. Nero has got mother's
fan in his 1i:10uth and is carrying it to her. Have you heard
our eloquent senator? Charles may yet find it to his advantage to listen to his father's advice. Edward's obliging dispo·
3*

58

59

NOUNS.-QUESTIONS. -VERB.

VERBS.-OBSERVA TIO NS. -EXERCISES.

sition will gain him many friends. "'What kind of a place do
yon li\·c in 1 Give me a description of your rid e home. Re~
late au an ecdote aLout the dog. I s it crnel to kill a11imals 1
Composition is the putLing together of thoughts under a subj ect.

is called thtl predicate. In the example, "Matilda reads,"
reads is a verb because it expresses what is affirmed of Matilda.

QUESTIONS.
·what is Case ?
How many Cases arc there 1
Upon what is the distinction of Case fonndcd 7
\Vhat does the Nominative Case express 1
\Vhat docs it usually precede 1
How is it distinguished 1
H ow is the Possessive Singular formed 1
"'What is the rul e when the Plural ends in s?
·when it does not end in s?
\Vhen th e Sinrrular
ends in ss or letters of a similar sound 1
0
"'What is said of Compound Words 1
\Vb at docs th e Objective Case express 1
How used?
Ilow disting uished 1
\Vh at is D eclension 1
Decline Man. Friend. Fox. Fly.

VERB
§ 138. A Verb is a word by which something
is affirmed of n. person or thing ; e. g., "Matilda
reads ;" " Virtu e is praised;'' " Thomrts sleeps."
ExPLA N ATIO~ .-Tb at

of whi ch anything is affirmed is called
the subj ect of the verb; that which is affirmed of the subject

NorE.-So various have been tho opinions of grammarians respecting
this part of speech, that no definition yet given is considered unobjectionable.
Tho greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition
is difficult, if not impossible to be formed. Horne Took, the distingu:shed
author of the Diversions of Purley, after citiug with contempt various
efforts at a definition, some in Latin, some in English, and some in
French, turns from them with disgust, leaving bis readers to imagine ;f
they·can, what he conceived a verb to be.

OBSERVATIONS.
REMARK 1.-A Verb expresses an action or state ; e. g.,
" Matilda reads;" "Thomas sleeps ;"-or it connects an attri-·
bute with the subject; e. g., "The earth is round."

2.-AIJ verbs belong to the former of these classes,
except the verb to be, the most common use of which is to con·
nect an attribute with a subject. ·when so used it is called
tbe copula.
REMARK

REMARK 3.-The word affirm, as used in the definition given
of the verb, includes an absolute declaration, a conditional statement, an interrogation, a petition, and a command; e. g.,
"Emma learns;" "If Emma learns;" "Does Emma learn?''
"1Way Emma learn;" "Emma, learn."
EXERCISES.
Point out the Verbs in the following exercises ;-tell how you know
them.
MODEL.-" John spoke."
what is aftl!'Dltd of John.

''Spoke" is a Verb, because it expresses

362

PROSODY. TH E

E.S:EUCISES.
DI!.Ull.

I hate that drum's discordant sound
Parading round and round and round ;
To thoughtl ess youth it pleasure yieldg,
Allures from cities and fro1;n fields,
To sell th eir liberty for charms
Of tawdry lace and glittering arms ;
AJJCl when ambition's \Oice commands,
To march, and fight, and fall in fo reig n lands.
I l1atc the drum's discordant sound,
Parading round and round and round,
To me it talks of ravag'd plains,
And burning towns, and ruined swains,
And mangled limbs and dy ing groans,
And widows' tears, and orphans' moans,
And all that misery's hand bestows,
To fill the catalogue of h uman woes.

-From Scott of Amwll.

APPENDIX NO. I.
GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
[Lat. accentus from accino, accentum, ad and cano, to sing to,]
stress of voice laid on a particular syllable.
AcCIDEl>IT, [Lat. accido, to fall to, to happen, ad i>nd cado,] something th a t
falls to, i. e. belongs to a word, but not essential to it ; as person, gen.\CCENT,

der, number, case, comparison, mood, tense, &c.
[Lllt. activus, active from ago, to act,] denotes a form of the verb,
the subj ect of which acts, or is active. In many grammars, a cbss o f
verbs which express action.
ADJ ECTIVE [Lat. ady'ectus, added, joiued to, from adjicio, i. e. ad, to, :ind
jacio, to lay, put, &c.] the designation of a class of words. See defi-

A.CTIVE,

nition, § 75.
[Latin from ad, to, and ver.bum, a word, the verb, L e. added or
joined to a verb,] a class of words. § 17.
ALLEGORY, [Gr. rlAl.11yopfo, from ,;;u .11 yopew, to interpret differently from
wbat the words seem to imply, from u:\:\or, nnd rl yopf:w, to speak in
public. Th. rlyopa, a forum or public place,] a figure of speech. § 379.
A :STITHES!S, [Gr. rlnWwir, opposition, contrast, from avn, opposite, and
Tifl11µ1 , to place; bence to place opposite or in contrast, ] a figure of

ADVERB,

speech .

§ 386.

[Gr. rlrrnarp o<P~, turning away, viz: from the subject of discourso to another objoct, rlrro, from, and arpe¢w, to turn, ] a figuro of

APOSTROPHE,

speech.

§ 390.

[Lat. appositus, placed near or together,] a noun placed near,
or by another, in the same construction, for the purpose of further defining it, is said to be in apposition; as" Cicero, the Orator." § 318.
AuxH.JAl1Y, [ Lat. auxiliaris, helping, from au:tilium, aid,] a designntion of

APl' OSITIOK,

certain verbs. § l SD.
CASE, [Lat. casus, from cado, - casum, to fall;] hence the part.icular circumstauces into which a person or thing falls, or happ~ns to be, is

APPEND I X. -

36§

GLOSSARY.

APPE NDIX.-GLOSSARY.
ELLIPSIR [Gr. CA/..rn/"'• omission, lcavin;;; ont, <v, and /..drrw, to leave,] a

cnlled his, or its case. So a r.oun in certain circumsL'lnces, is in one
case, in cUforcnt circum st,incos it is in another case. § 125.
C1.1~L\X, [ t;r. ";' i.'1 .1 ;, a s~a!c or ladclcr, ] a fl;;u re in rl.ietoric, by whlch the
s,.·n "' of tho expression rises gradually in strength, from step to step.

B a ~n.
C'1.0X,

[Cr. " ";i,nv , a member or limb; hence in grammar, a member or

p·u·t of •l scutcncc, ] a mnrk Oby which a member of a sentence i.! ind~cated.

§

3J5.

C· ' ~I l !A , [G r. "''/'."rr, a segment, from Korrn.1, to cut off,] a mark ~)

indi-

ca ting t\1 e sm:dlcst segment or di vision of a sentence. § 333.
Co 1<P ..\R A Tln:, [Lat. from comparo, to compare,] a form of the adj ective,
ex pressing n g-rcntcr or less dc.;,;reo than the positive. § 224.
Co~:con.n, [La t. cuncors, n~reciug; cuncordia, agrec1nent,] a term in syntax
c1c1Joti11g the ngreeme11 t of words in certain accidents. § 3 10.
Co:<.Juc:.1T1 0:<, [L:lt. confu~atio, from con, together, and jWJo, to yoke or
joi n,] :r rr.rngin,5· and joiaing t he different parts of a verb together ill
tlwir p1\1per orck r. § I iS.
Co,;Ju:-icT:o,;, [I.at. conjunctio, from con, together, and j ungo, to joiu,] a
worcl wh o;;c use i" b join togetlier. § 257.
Coxsox AX1', [Lat. cunsonan>, sounding together, con and 6ono,] a lett«
•sounded 11ot alone, but together with a vowel. § 25.
CoPt: L.x, [Lut. copula, a baud or tic,] that by which the subject and pre«1<:3 te of a proposi1io11 arc coupled together ; sometimes a separate
wore!, as ain, is, are, &c., and sometimes implied in the predicate Hseu;
a.'} I write, i.e. I crni writing. § 285 .
DEcr.:"sro,;, [I.at. cicc:m,wc, fru111 d<clino, to decline,] declining or changing- 1he t onnination of uouns, &c., so as to form t he obiique cases.

f; IJ7 .
Dr:,. :.1:-;Alll.E, [Lat. from the same,] that may be declined or changed in
lt:'nn ina t io n.

Du:l( E::'IS, [Gr. 1\uur rnii;, a di1·ision, cl1u and aipiw,] a mark( ..} over the
l:i st. of 1wo yo we ls, sh owin g that they are to be divided in pronunciation, as a('rial, a-crbl. § 3G5.
f, rr•:i !-: 10,;:J, [G r. 1\i )Oon11 r, n double sound, from ,;,,. t1vice, and

~Ooyy~;,

'">und,) th e union of two vo1Ycl sounds in one sy llablB. § 33.
O.ssHL .\BLE, [Gr. Ji ,1Gul.i.a&:/, Ji~-, twice, and au/./, a6i:,] a word of two
.c

sylbblcs.

§ ·16.

figure by which a word or words arc omitted, which belong to the i\111
grammatical constrnction of a sent·~ nce. 820 dd: § ?.70.
°ETYMOLOG Y, [Gr. {rvµo/..uyia, from i:rvµol.>1yi1J, t.o derive a word from
its ori " in ul, and tlrns to discover it~ trno 1net1.ning- cr uµov, t rnc, and
Myw, ~o t ell,] the dcrivatiot1 of words. "\.!so, that part or division in
grammar, which t reats of the different cb;;ocs of word3, and .their variou.• modifications. § GJ.
F EMIXIN E, [Lat. f em-ininus, from femina, a woman, ] the name of t he gender of words denoting females. § 95.
F UTURE, [Lat. fu turus, about t o bo, ] the name of a tense denoting t ime )"l't
to come.
GENDF:R, [Lat. genus, Fr. genre, kind, or class.] § 92.
GRAMM All, [Gr. ypaii1wriK1/, from ypcl,uµa, a letter, a writing, and tha~ from
ypii¢w, to write. Fr. grammaire, ] the science of bn;,;uage. § l.
H YPERBOLE, [ Gr. vrref16ol.~, throwing over or beyond, hence excess, exa noo-eration imip over, and 6ul.l.w, to throw,] a flgnre of speeci1, deco

•

'

.

fined§ 38"3.
.
I MPERFECT, [Lat. iinpeifectum, not completed,) a t ense properly denolmg
an act, &c., completed at a certain pa<it time. § 165.
I NDICATIVE, lLat. indico,- are, to (leclare, ] a mood or form of the verb
which simply declares. § 1 53.
I NFINITIVE, [Lat. in,_ negative, and finitus, lim ited or bonnded,] a mood of
tbe verb not limited by person or number. § 157.
I NTERJECTION, [L:1t. inte1jectio, from irder, between, or among, and jacio,
to throw, ] a word or phrase hrwing no grammatical connection with a
sentenee, b ut as it were thrown into it to express some sudden emotion of the mind. § 80.
I NTRANSITIVE, [Lat. in, negative, and transitivus, ] not passi ng over. § 141.
I RONY, [Gr. elpwveia, from ttrwv, a dis8embler,] a fignre of speech. ~ 384.
MASCULINE, [L;t. from ma.,, a male,] the gender of nonns and pronoum
which designate males. § 94.
METAPHOR, [Gr. µna 1wrt1, from µ era9t pw, to transfer, ] a word expressing
similitude without the signs of comparison, by which the property of
one object is, as it were, transforred to another; thns when we say,
"that man is a fox," the meaning is, "tln.t mln is like a fox ; " th e
figu re transfers th~ leading property oftlle fo:t to tile m an.

§ 3 7 7·

"}

866

APPEXDIX.-GLOSSARY.

[Gr. ;arnvvµia, a change of nrtmc; from µtrci, denoting
cban ;;e, mid 1i1·o;rn, ] a name, a figure by which ono word is put for au·
otl1H. S"e def. § 381.
M1·: 1'lu:, [Gr. from 11iTpo 1· 1 a measure,] a composition, the lines of which
contain a certain m easure of long and short syllables, arranged u.ccord-

1fETONTltY,

in g to rule.

[Gr. from µ rivor, only, or one, and av /../,a61i, a syllable,]
a word of one syllabic. § ,15.

1ln;o;osYLLA!lLE,

or M ODE, [Lat. modus, manner, ] a form of tho verb expressing it.a
meani ng in a certain manner. § 151.
NEU 'l'F.H, [Lat. neuter, neither,] an epithet given to nouns which are nei·
th cr masculin0 nor !cmini11c. Also, in some grammars, to verbs deM OO D

notin g being, or a state of being.

(ease,) [Lat. nominativus, from nomino, to name, ] the first
case of a noun or pronoun, or that used when a person or thing is
simply named.
Nou:-1 1 [Lat. nomen., a nam e ;] a word that is tho name of an object, is in
grammar ca lled a Noun. § 73.
0llJ EC TI VE (case,) [L!lt. obj ectivus, from ob and jacio, to throw to, against,
or in tho ".''Y of, ] the caso of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
object of a trnnsitiYe verb, or preposition. § 136.
OllrnocrrAr11y 1 [Gr. ,;peo;pa¢ia, from bpOui;, right, and ypatj>~, writing,]
w ri ti ng words correct ly, i. e. with tho proper Jotters. § 8.
P ,11lALEPSIS1 [Gr. r.a pal.rn!n i;, omission, from rrapr.i., and :1.ei;rw, to leave,]
fl :;ure of Rpcech. § 389.
P ,un;,nrEsrs, [Gr. rrapi1•0ea1r, from rrap<l and tv7'811,w, to in sert,] a word,
phra se, or sentence inserted in a sentence for explanation, but not eon·
nec·tccl with it in construction, and, therefore, usually distinguished bf
a mark at the beginning and end, thus ( ).
P" HSE, [Dcri rntion uncertain,] to resolve a sentence into its elements,.or
pa rt~ of speech.
PART!CIPLE, [Lat. participium, from pars, a part, and capio, to take,] _
a
part of th e rnrb which partakes of the verb and the adj ective, having
its sig·nii\eation and time from the former, and declension and construe·
tion from th e latter. § 1Gil".
PASSIVE (voi ce,) [Lat. passivus, from patior, to su:fer, or to be affected in
any way,] a form of tho verb which iudico.te• that its subject or nomi·
Nol!ll\ATIVE

APPENDIX.-GLOSSARY.

367

native receives, or is affected by the action expressed by the verb.

§

150.

[Lat. pe1fectum, from perficio, to perfect or complete, ] a tense of
verb, denoting that the action or state expressed by it is now com·
pioted. § 164.
P E LU OD [Gr. rrepiudoi;, a circuit, from rrepi, round, and odoi;, a way.] a com·
pleto sentence, one which has its construction completed, or brought
PETH'EUT,
tl ie

roun d.

[Lat. from persona, a person, antl/acio, to make,] a fig·
ure, by which inanimate objeets are regarded as per~ons, or, aa it were,
made so. § 380.
PL Ul'ErtFECT, [Lat. plus quam perfectum, more than perfected or complctetl,
i. e. completed before a certain timo now past,] the designation of a
tense defined § 166.
Por.YSYLLA!lLE, [Gr. from rro:liii; many, and av/,/,a61/ 1 a syllable,] a word
of many syllables. See Syllable.
Po1°EXl'!AL, [Lat. potentialis, belonging to power or ability, from p olens,
able,] the designation of a certain mood of the verb, defined § 155.
PR EDIC ATE, [Lat. prcedicatus, from prcedico, to assert or declare,] that. part
or a proposition which contains what is affirmed or asserted of its sub·
ject. § 285.
Prt EPOSITION, [Lat. prrepositio, from prrepositus, placetl before, ] a class of
words so called, because their position in a sentence is before the word
go verned by them. § 78.
PilONOUN, [Lat. pnmomen., from pro, for, i.e. instead of, and nomen, a name
or noun,] a word used for, or instead of a noun. § 76.
Prt(1 P'JSITION, [Lat. propositio, from pro, before, and positus, placed,] a sim·
pie sentence, in which a distinct idea is proposed, or set before the
mind. § 269.
PROSODY, [Gr. trpf111wdia 1 from :Irpoi;, with or belonging to, and wcJ~, an
ode,] anciently the doctrine of accents and quantity, &e. § 392.
PH030POPEIA 1 [Gr. rrpoawrrorrotia, from rrp6awrrov1 a person, and rrodw, to
make,] the Greek term for Personification.
Sc:mcor.oN, [Lat. semi, half, and Gr. colon,] a point (;), denoting a divi~ion
of a sentence less than a colon.
SntrLE, [Lat. simile, like,] a figure of speech, by which one thing is com·
pared or likened to another. § 3 78.

It

I

I

i

P 1-:r. so:-11 FICATION,

.I .

d.

368

APPENDIX.-GLOSSARY.

Sor.r:crslt, [Gr. ao/,nuuaµor, supposed to be derived fro:n Solii, the name
of n people in Cilit.:i:i., who spoko th e Greek langU:lJC very un3r;uum:1ticn lly,] a gross vir,lation of the idiom, or syntax of a lnnguaf;e.
SunJEOT, [Lat.. sulu'ecfos, from su 11jicio, to place before or under, (the Yi~w,)]
in :1 propo,i tio;i, the person or thing spoken of.
SuBJUl\CTffE (m ood ,) [Lat. subfunctivus, from subjun(Jo, to subjoin or annex
to,) a mood of the Yerb nover used independently, and by itself, b ut
subjoined or annexed to the main or leading verb in a santcncc. § 15-1.
SunS1'ANTIVE, [.Lat. substantivus, from su!1slantia, substance, ] tl1e same as
noun, viz. a cla;;s of wol'cls denoting things that have substance, or existence, mater ial or im ,naterial.
SuPERLATIYr~,

[Lat. superltitivus, from super, above, and lalu,s, carried, i.e.
carried above, viz . other things, ] a form of the adjective expressing a
degree of the quality carried above, or superior to that in any of sernr:tl
objects compared.
SYLLA IJLE, [Gr. av~.l.n61/, from rrvv, together, and Aa,u6uvCJ, to take,] a letter or num ber or letters taken lo(Jether, and forming one vocal sound.
Sr:rncooc im, [Gr. avn1;clo,y1/, from avv, and i:i<ui,roµai, to take,] a figure
of Rpeocl1, defi ned§ 385 .
SYXTAX, [Gr. aV1J r a;r~· 1 from aVv, together, nnd nl.m:rw, to put in order,]
th e proper arrangement or pntting lti(Jether of\\·or,Js in a sentence. § 2G8.
TENSP., [Lat.. tempus, time, Fr. temps, ] a form of the verb by which the time
of an act, c~c., is imli catec\. § 158.
Tn..1xs1T IY E, [L:it. /ra;1-<il ivus, frorn tran seo, to go or pass over,] tho namo
of a clnss of Ycrb.3, which express an act that passes over from au ngcnt
to an object.
T U!l'HTIIU'>G, [Gr. from •ptir, three, and ~86yyor, a sound,] the union of
three vowels in one sound,
TnrssYLLAB LE, [Gr. •p Eir, three, and tJVAAalJ~, a syllable, ] a word of threo
sylbbles.
VEnn, [Lat. verlmm, a word ,l the namo of a class of words which, b2ing
the chief or most important in a sentencP, were called 1·erbum, the
worm, vi z. by way of emine nce. § 138.
VERSE. [Lat. versus, from verto, to turn,] a species of composi tion i .
which every line is mea;~1red, so as to contain a certai11 nu :11bor of
feet, at the e nd of whic!1 t 110 writer tum~ to a new lin e.
VOWEL, [Lat, vocxlis, from vox, the voice,] a lotter 1vhich rn:ir:.3 a

und

mdepend~ut

so·.iµd, without th9 ail of other letters.

<listtuc~

APPENDIX NO. II.
ABBREVIATIONS.

·r:-r

following are the most common:

·L C.

,\. 13.
.\. D.

Before Christ,
Bachelor of Arts.

Ante Christum.
Artium Baccalaureus.

In the yc(l,r of our Lord .
~faster of Arts.
.\. u .
In the year of the world.
{
_n the forenoon.
Ba chelor of Divinity.
B. D.
Doctor of Divinity.
D. D.
lfor example.
c. g.
Th:it is.
i. c.
Doctor of Laws.
l .L.D.
Place of the seal.
L. s.
Gentlemen.
~f e:::srs.
Doctor of1fedicine.
\!. D.
:Manuscript.
'l'ake notice.
X . D.
j Atl:ernoon.
P. M.
( PoEt Master.

P. S.
S. 'r. D.

Postscript.
Doctor of Theology.

16*

.A.nno Domini.
.A.rtium lfagister.
.A.nno Jifundi,
.A.nte Meridiem.
Bae. Divinitatis.
Doctor Divinita.tia.
Ex:empli gratia.
Id est.
L egum Doctor.
Locus Sigilli.
Messienrs.
Medicinre Doctor.
Scriptum Manus.
Nots.B en~.

Post Meridiem,
Post Scriptum,
Sanctre Theologire Doctor.

•
IND:V:X.
PA.GK

Fou"' o~ Wouns ............ .... .. . : ... . .... .• . ... •.•. .. .. . . ... ... ... . .•. ~6
CJ.ASSIFIC ATlO:s'.. . .. .... . . . . . ... . .

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . •

27

'r IR~· ~F TU& CI,ASSEd • •• ,, , • ••• , •• •• •• •• , •••••• • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~
NO UNS .. .................. .. ....... . ................. . ..... .... .............. 31
CI.A SSJ:i1'

INDEX

or· NocNs ... . .......•..•..• . .... . . .......•. • ... .. ... ..... . .. .. .

Oiii:NilER. ... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .
PE!t$()N • . • • • • . • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Nu~ni:;n.. . ........ ..... ... .... ..... . , • . ••• .. . ... •• • •• . •..•........... . ..

CAse ....... . .... ..... . . .. .. ........ . .............. . . ....... ....... .......
NO :\IIX ATl VE CASE ••••••••• • • •• • •• •• • •• ••••• •••••••••••• • • ••••

PAO•

GRAMMAR, GENERAL DEFINITION... .. .. ... ... ....... . .... . .... . . ... .
THEORETICAL GRA.:lfll!.R.... •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••

6
6

PRACTICAL GR;L.YMAR... •• • . • • • • • • • • • • • •• •• • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • ••••••• • •• • • ••

5

LANGUAGE...... ............................................. . ..... .... . ..

6

SPOKKN LANGUAGE ••••••••• •• ••• •• •••••• •••••••••••• ••• • •••• • ••••• • •••• ••

15
15

WRITT~~ LANGUAG& .•• • • •• •••••.. •••••••••••••• •• ••• •••• , •• ••• • •••• ·• •• ••

ENG LIS II GRAMMAI\, DEFINITION . ........ .. ........... ... .. .... .. ..... .
DIV!SIO:\"B .•••..•• .. ••••• • ••••••••••• • • ••••••••• ••••••••••••••• • •••• ••••••••

1
1

ORTHOGRA PHY .. . ... . .. . .......... .. . .. . .. . .. ..... .... ................ .. .

1

LETTERS .• .•• • ••••••••.••••••.••. , ••••••••••••••••• •••• •••··• ••• •• ·•••••••

1

P oWY.R 01o~ LETTERS •• •• ••• • •• . •••• • • • •• •• •••••••••••••••• • •• ·• • • •••• ••• • •••

10

T AULE OF Et.RME:-1'.TARY &>UNDS .••••••• •••••••••••• ................. ···: • •

EQIJIVALF.NTS A~D ConnELATIVF.8 •• ... •• • •• • • •• • •• .. • •• • • •• •• ...... •• •• •• ••

11
12

DIVIS ION OF Lt::TTJ?RS . • • • . • • • • • • . .. . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

12

l:l
DIPHTl:lO:\OS... •• • . . • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • . • • • • • • . • • • • • . • • 18
TRIPHTHONGS. •••• . • . , , ••• • , ••••• , •• , • , , • • • • , • •• ••• , •• •• • , •••• •• , ••• • • • • , • 18
CO.\IHlNATI UXS ..•. .. .• · · •••·•• . ...... ·•••• .•.•..••• • ..•••.•••.• • • . ..•. .• • • 14
Douut.F. Co:sso:s A~Td . .... ,, . , . • : . . • . . . . . . •• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • •• •. . . . . . • • • 14
CLAssi-:s oF Co:ssox..t.J\ TS .... .... .. ........ .. ........ .. ..... . • • • • • • . .•• •• •

~

•• • • • • • • • •

M
06
VEP.B ............... ... .... .. .................. .. ... .... ... .. .. . .. ........... 08
<.JLASSil-' IOATION OF VERBS •••• • • · - .. . .......... ...... . ... . .. . . .. .... . .. ... .
60
DIVISIOS OF VERBS •••••••• • •• ••••• ,.,• • • ·•,, , • •••• • ,., • •• • , ,, • •• ,, •• ,,,... 62
INFLECTION ••• ••• , •••••• ••• , • ••• • • • • , , , . , . , •• , • • , ••• ,, •• , •• , ... .. , , • , • , • , • Q!J
V o 1cr.s .... .. ............... . .... . .. .. .......... .. ................... . .... 63
M ooos ..... . .• . . . . • • • • •• • • . .. •• . • . ... . ... • ....... ...... ... •• • • • • .. . • •• . .. . • 66
'J'ESSF.S .•. ..... , •..• , • , • , , , • , •••• , , , , ... , , .•• , , . , •••••••• ,,,,, . • , •. ,. .. •• 70
P .\P.TICIPI.F.S .• • •••• - ••••••• • •••• ••• • • •••••• •.•• • • •••• • ••• •• • ••• ••• • •••••• 76
01.AS.,ES •• ,, ••••.. ,. , .... , • , •••• , , •• ••• , •• , • , , • , , . . ...... , , , , • • ••• , • , , • • .. 16
DECLExs 10:-f 01,· NouNs ••••••••• •• •••••• • •••••••••••• .••• •• ••••• •• •••• ·••••••

Moun FOR p ARSISG... . .. • • • • • • • .. .. .. • .• • • • • ... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • •

Co:-o.1uC.AT t u~ ••••....•• •••.•••.• ••.•••..• . •..•. •• ••• • •••• • •• • ••• . •••••• •

so

l1'01:)Ii

$0
81

OF' Till': \ "Ell H .•. • ••• • ••• • • ••• •••••• •••• ··•••• • ••··•••• • • ••· ·•••••••

I >ar:-<CJPAL t•A.n:rt:1

• • •.•• • • ••• •• •• ••••• • •• . ••• •••••••• • •• •••••••••• ••• • ,, •
• • , ••• , •• , • ••• , •• , ••••••••••• ,

81

THE TENSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... , •••••

106
111
118
119
120
121

AUXILL\Ull-:8 , •• • ••• • ••• , . . • , ••••• • • , , , • , • ,
Fi;nMA'rION

or

MODEL FOR PARSING ......... ................ . .. ... , ....... . . . .... .........
Inrt1-:(;u 1.A 1t VEKBs•••••• ••• • •• ••••••• ••• ••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••

1-l

DF.rr:CTIYR Vx1tns • • •• .. .• • • . .. .•• ••••..••.. •• ••••• . ••••••.•••••• ••••• ••••

8YLJ.ABLES •••• , •••• ,, ••..••• , ••...• , • ...• . •• , •..•• • , • ••••• ••• , • • , . • • •• • • .

14
lll

l '.\11•F.n~os- .-\T, Vv.nns .. .... ... ........... . . . . .. ...... .. .. ... . .... .. ...... .. .
i\D.J '·:CTIVES ........ .......... ...... . ................ ........ ... ,, •• •••.• • •

ACCENT...................................................... ... .. ... . .... ];)
D~utVA.Ti os oF \Yo1:I'HS ........ .. .. . .... . .. .... ..... ... ...... .. ... . ........
PUEFIXT.S,

S.\ :S:: O:i

Oltl(i l:S.. . .. • • . • . • • • • . . . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

PREFIXE~·. LATI~ On101:s .•••.• ,. . . . . . . . . ... .. . .. ... . .... ... . . ... . . •• • • • • .

PR RFIXES, GREEK 0RIGlN............. .• . . • • . • • . • . . . . • . • . • • . • . . . •• . . • • . • • •
SUFFIX f. S .. .•.•••••••.•••• , ••• •• .•• • ••• , • , • •••••• , ••• , •• • . , ••• , • , •••• • •• • • •
SYN01•s 1s oi.· ..•. . •.•.•• • •• • •••••••• • , .••. • •••• , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •

GRA:\l~ATIC.t..L SUFF I XES...... ........ ... .... . .. ... . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
UAPITAI.S.......... .. . . • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • • • . • • • • • • •. • • • • • • • • • .. . • • • . • • • • • ••

lG
16
11
19
2('
22
28
23
24

ORTllOi~PY............... . •• .. .. .. . . .. .. . • .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . • ....
ETYMOL"OY ...... .. ... . ... . ............... . . ........... ............ . . ..... 26

4T
4S

l>ossp;ssrvK........ . .. ... ..... . . . •. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 49
0UJ?.CTI'VI~ •• , •••• ,. , •••• , , , •• , ••• , •.• , • .• •• •• ••• •• , , , , • , , , • , , , • •• , • , • , , • ,, :S2

A1•JITltONGS.... .. • . . • • . • . . • • • . • • • . . . . . . • . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . • . . • . • . • • . . • • • • • • • •

WORDS ........ .. ...... .... ...... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... .

81
84
38
40

CLA8S l-:8 Ofl' •••• ••••••• ••• ••••••••••••• • •••••• • •••••••••••••• ••••• • •• •••• •••

1~1

D F80RTl'TIVY. ADJECTIVES ••••••• • •••••••••••••••.•••••••••••• • •••• • •••• • ••

121

('(• MP .\ R IS ON OF ••••••• , • •• • ··• • •••· • •• ,·····••••••• ••• • •••••• ·•• ••••••••••

128

Dr. P' t ~ ITIVJI: ADJECTIVES ••• •• ••• •••• •• • .••• •• •• • •••••• ••••••••••• • •••••• • • 126

~' o nF.T.. f'i )n p ARSJNG ...•••.•••••• . ••••.• •. ••••••• .•••• •• ••••• • • ••.••••••• 128

P :iO' :Ol ;NS ...................... . .. ....... ............ . ...... . ............. 131
Ct,\" RS ............. . .. ........ . ......... . .. . ......... .. ......... ....... . 189
Pr. HsoxAL PaoN'OUNS •.•••••• • •• •• ••• .• ••••• • ••• • ••• •• •••••• • • ~- ··· ••• . •• 1~

D1~C T.J.: X~IU:i OF •• ••••• •• .••• ,, • • . , , ,,, • • , •• •••, •••,, • • , • • • ••••• • • •. • , • • •••• • 188
('O'.\l ~'Oli ND • ••••••••• , •• • , • , • , • • 'f•• • ••. ••• •••• , , •••. ,, •• , • ••• ,, • •••, ••• ••• 186
lt>:LATIV:& PllOliOU!f • •• ••• • • , ••• : ................... ; •• • •••• •••• ••••• . • •••

188

372

373

INDEX.

I NDEX.

l'AOB

i ·.,~n

1 :~ · 1

SL\ll'LE TIF.:t.ATir"r.R .•••.• • •.• • • • • • •• • •• • • • • •• • • •• • • • •• • ••••• • ••• • •••••..• •••

R tn.E Yl1. . . . . . . . . .. , . ................... . .... . .. . . .. .. . .. ...... . . .... ... ~f> 9

l:s T1-: u nOGAT1vi,: 1 1 1: o;oo u s~ ...•. . •• • .•••• •• •• ••.••• •••• • • •• • ••• • • ••• ••• . ••. I ' .:

1! 1: 1.1·: \ ' l 11.

CO .\il'O t: :-iU Hi:1... \Tl\"J-:)i .•••••

}{ \fLt:

}..f O JlE (, F O i! PA H:) l:\G ... . • • ... . . . . . • . . •••••• . •• . ••••• • . ••..•• • •••• . •••• . •.

A DYEl:ll . . . . ....... .. ..... . ....... .. . ........ .... .... .....

.... . ... .. ..

I :..

1.: ·

( : 1 .A~:-;1-:s o~· :\Dl,;t:KB S . • •••• . •• • •.• , • , , • • •••• , , •• • • , , . , . ,

1. ;

CoSJliS CT IYt: An,·1~1t n s . . •..... . ..• .. .. .. . . . .• , ... . .•• . ..••..••••.•••

~

Cl1:i.trAn1 so ~ 0 1-· AD\'EHns .••• • •••••• . •.•.• . .. • . .• . .. . •. •• . • .••• • •••

~l o v~:1. Fi\it

. I ;

••...

PAn s1so ..... .. ...• .• • ••.... .. . ..••••.. . •• • •......••...... ..

1·1 ·

P REPO~lTI O :\~ ....... . ... .. .. ..... .... . .. .. . . .... . .. . ...... . . . . . .. . ... . . ..

J.'·;

LIST Ot', ..•...•.••• . ..• •• , .... • ••• .••• • • • •• •• • ••• . • •• • •• • • • • • • • •• • • • • • .

l~i

~i o 1n·:L F'v1~

1;/ J

PAr.s1:\'G.. . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ••. . . .. . . • . . . . .. . . . . .

CONJ UXCTI OX S . ... .... ... . . ... ...... ............ ... . . .. .... . .. . . . .. . ..
Cr.A S.~IF! f;.\ TI O'.'i . , • . ..•. , . • ••• , •••• • , • 0

,

.

,

.

,

•

•• •

•

,

•

,

••

••• ,

:

•

••• •• •

,

•• •

icl
•

•

••

j

•"'.!

: • •;

EX CL .\ ~LI TlON S ......................... . .... ..... . . . ... .. .. . . . ... . .... . .. i.;.;
:'\1vnt:,, FOP. P.\RS I:'\G . • • • ••••.••••. . . ••.• .. . ••.••• . • . •••••.•.•... . • • • • .•••
W Ol!IJS IJELo:;c1xG TO D IFF lmE:>T CLASSE:OL . . .. . ........... . . ..... 1;1

ilY .\'TAX ... ... ........... .. . . .......................... .... ................. . 1; I
Ji I
A l'J'.1 \ l'QC) 1TI O'S ... . ••••·••· •.••• • • • ••.•••.•••• ••••• ••· . .. • •· •••• •••• •••• .
SUll.T f:CT. . •. ••• • .• .•

• •• •• ••• •.• • • • •• . ••• • . •• . ••••• •• • •• •••• .• •• . . . . . . • • .

li ii

Mo n11-"11-:o S i.; nJECT . . .... •. . .. • . .. . . .. . .. . ••• .•. ...•. . . .. .. ...• .. ..•• . ..... 1:a
Monffr c.,nos OF :'\IouIFYl :"G ' Vo irns . .. .. .. ....... . . ... . . . .... . .. . ..•.... 1.-.2
P itEllICATE .•••••••• ' ...•••.••••• •• .••• .. . .•• • . • . •• • ·• · ••• ••• . • . ••. . .. . .••

] ~ ;)

J\.I on1r1F.n Pitr.nt CA TF. .. .. . . . . . . . .. ........... . .. .......... . ..... . . .. . .. .. 1:· i)
STRUCT URE OF SENTENCES .... ..... ..... . ..... ... . .......... . .......... 1:1.:
C·LASSIF I CATI O:\', . • .• •••••••••••• • •• •• .• •• ..• • •••.•••••.••••...•.•.•.••.• . .

1 ~1: ;

CLAUSF.S . • •• .••••.•• • •••• . • • . • •• • •••••••• • •• • • ••••• . • • • . ••••.• • . . ••• •. . •. .

i!l 7

C O :S:"E C T I O ~ 0 1'' • •••.. ... . .. . ••.•• • ••• .. •••• . . . . ••••• •• •.••• .. . • • ••• • ••. .. . -:? ;"~ )
AH a i ncn~u 1')1~ 0 1 •os1 T1 o!'<s

. . .... ••. • ••. .••••. . . ....•• .. • • •. . ••. . • .. . . . .. .... <;: t";:;

J\ !<Al.Y S IS .••• •. •. . • •... .. . , •• . •• . . ••.• ••• ·· ··· · • ·• • ••• .. •• •. , • • •• •
GE'.'\J·: H.\ I, D11tt:CTl ('l "!'-"1; . ·• · ••••·•• . .••. .. •. .. . ..••.•..•••••. . • . ••.•. . . . . . . . . . 2 •1 i

Co'.'\ST1u ; c T 1nN ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . .. .. . . ... ... . . ... . ... . . .. . . . . . . . '2 ~~'
GE:'\El!AI. Plt l :SC IPL l~S 01" ••••• • •••••• •••• . • ... . •••••·•·•• . . ••• . • • .••.• •••

l>At:TS OF SY'."TAX .•• • ••••••••.••• ...••• • • ••• ...• •. .. •. . ••• • • •.• ••.. .. . .. .

R l: L ES OF S YNTAX ......... .. ... . . ..... . . ... , . .. . .... . ... .. . . . . . . ... .

Il c u: I ..... .. . ......................................... .
l! ur.. 1;: 1 I .. .. .. . .. .. . .. ... ... . ....... . ..... ... .......... .. ...... . . .. .. .
2::5
Ilu1.1< 111 . ... ........... .... .... . ... .. ... . ... .... ........... ... ........ ... '.?4·1
l~t·t . P. I V ..... .••.. . . ... .. • • ••.• • • . ... .• •• •. . . . ..• . . ..... . ••.. .. .•• . . .. . . . 2-1-i
H u1.1< Y .. .. .. .. .. . .. ... .... . .. .. ........ ... ... .................. . ........ 241

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369

