.A PRIMARY

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
~./_; ?(?

-IN- .

FAMILIAR CONVERSATIONS,
INTERSPERSED 'VITH

OBJ"EOT TEAO:::H::ING- 7

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I:z.fflUCTIVE '.A.ND SYNTHETIC j PRESENTING TO THE
LE.ARNER .A.N E.A.SY MODE OF

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GRADUAL COMBINATIONJ

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.A.ND/ .A.T EVERY STEP, REDUCING THEORY TO PR.AC·
TICE : CONTAINING ALSO

COPIOJTS AN AL YTIC EXERCISES.
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BY JONATHAN BADGLEY.
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UTICA.
ROBERTS, BOOK AND JOB PRINTER,-60 GENESEE STREET,
186~.

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PREFACE.

,find readers, I would gladly avoid the task of writing a
_ace; for there is n~thing that I more dislike than egotism.
y should I say any thing about my book? Can I correctly
ge its merits or its faults? Does any body publish what he
ks is wrong, though all of us are liable to err? WJ,;a~ inauthor's estiqio,tion of· his
nce on discerning readers has
productions ? But this ceremony is reqµired lty cu.atom,
ug~ really amounts to nothing; and it oq.n not.be o.vqide<l. .
I must come out from ·my obscure retreat, whose· quiet
.des protect me from the J!Crutiny of public observation, and
end to you the hand
fe}low.s)lip, lay ip.od.esty n,si_de, and
e a confidential talk witli you aboitt th!l blµ9QiP.g m11ri~s of
book.
In preparing this little primary work for the use of sch.ools,
it is my object to present the grq.p:!)llar of our language in a
plea.sing'and attractive form, and make it interesting and agreeable to learners, by giving them instruction drawn from nature,
simple, unsophisticated, clear and sparkling, animated, sprightly,
fresh and pure. With this in view, I use what every child can.
understand, tamUier conxersetione ivtsxrsnaa w;+h Wet
teaching, and adopt the inductive and the synthetic method ;
rising gradually from particular facts and things to general
truths, and putting words together into. sentences before I
teach analysis. If children know how things are put together,
they co.n easily take them apart.
As ideas and thoughts precede expression, they must be im•
pressed upon. the. mind before the words and sentences that
represent them can be understood. In accordance with this
fundamental principle of intellectual philosophy, I show the

an

l!!ntered according to Act or Congress; in the year 18"9, by · •

JON.A.TH.AN BADGLEY,
In the Clerk's O!llce of the District Court for tho Northern District o!
New York.

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• necessity of each part of speech and every variation of it b:l'
induction, and illustrate, it by various examples, before the
definition or the name of it is given. Then the children can
define it understandingly themselves, because they have a clear
idea of it. Ideas are intellectual wheat; and words, the chaff,
which is good for nothing without the wheat. Why then do
teachers cram their pupils with the chaff of knowledge; mak- •
ing them commit to memory words . and sentences before they
know their meaning? What intelligent farmer feeds his cattle
chaff instead of grain; expecting to make them fat by puffing
them up?

CONVERSATION FIRST.
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.A GENERAL VIEW OF GRAMMAR AND THE PARTS
OF SPEECH.

!lfiOf
f51~ifn®r PPS n deu mm Wsnd' r 91d be
gy
en a your labors, and relieve you AP your

troubles and perplexities; to cheer you in your studies with the
clear sunshine of science, and regale you with the sweet wild
flowers and singing birds of literature; to scatter roses in your
paths of learning, and make all your tasks delightful; to help
you gather the bright gems of genius and the precious jewels
of celestial thought, as we together range the ample · fields of
knowledge, "rich with the spoils of time," and lead you upward
to -that happy land where flowers immortal bloom, and pure
unsullied light forever shines, "where the beauty and glory of
God illumine the heavenly plain." I would be glad to take
away the veil that hides the face of scientific truth, and let you
look upon her beaming countenance till you, as well as I, can
truly say, How beautiful is science ! not dry and hard, as dull
fools suppose, but sweeter than the harp of Orpheus ! If I
fa.ii in my endeavors to instruct and entertain you, pardon me
for undertaking what.I am not able to perform.
J. B.

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Ruth. Shall we recite in. Grammar now?
.Mr. Smith. We shall have no recitations here
to-day. It generally takes the greater part of
the first. day to organize a school. We did almost a day~ work this forenoon: we organized
all our classes but the grammar class. I say, we
did it, because you helped me by your good behavior and attention. . JS"ow, I'll talk with you
a little _while abo_u t grammar, and endeavor to
find out how many of you are prepared to study
it. You that have studied grammar, take your
seats together on that bench; and all the rest of
the first class in reading, take your seats right
here in front. Here is a goodly number; six
beginners and half a dozen old grammarians.
Let us see which will be the best grammarians
at the close of this term.
Horace. . Of course, the old grammarians will.
.Mr. 8. They may be, and they may ,not: it
often takes more time to unlearn old errors than
to learn new truths.
Thomas. James has studied gramm,ar five or
six years.
.Mr. 8. Why don't you take your seat with -.
the class?
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P A..B~'S OF SPEECH.

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.B.

James. Because I want to study physiology,
arithmetic, and algebra, this term. I'm sick of
grammar. It is of no use. I have committed
it to memory every term since I was eight'years
old. I can repeat the definitions, rules, and notes,
the conjugations of verbs, and the declensions of
nouns and pronouns, as easily as the letters of
the alphabet. But I can speak and write no better
than the other boys who never studied it at all.
Mr. 8. What would you know about arithmetic or algebra, if you should commit it to
memory without ciphering or solving any problems? You must practice what you learn.
J. I've practiced diagraming and analyzing
sentences. But how does that help any body
speak and write correctly?
Mr. 8. To be a good practical grammarian,
you must understand the spelling and pronounci·
ation, the meaning, application, and construction
of all our words in common use. With this in
view consult your dictionary, hear good disc9urses, read good books, and keep good company; and thus become acquainted with the style
of our best speakers and writers, which is the
common law of language from which grammatical rules are drawn. Compare it with your
grammar and your conversation, then observe
how theory agrees with practice. This will lead
you to the right construction and pronounciation
of words and sentences.

Grammar is the art of constructing and
pronouncing words and sentences correctly.

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It is divided into four parts; orthography, etymology,. syntax, and prosody. '··
Orthogr..aphy is the proper combination
of letters into words.
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Etymology is the .proper classific~t~oii
of words into parts of speech; explammg
all therr variations and their derivation.
Syntax is the proper combination of
words into sentences.
. Prosody is the proper pronounciation of
words and sentences; comprising elocution,
punctuatfon, and versification. ·
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I shall Si1Y but little about orthography and
prosody; for spelling and pronounciation must
be learned from the spelling-book an.d dictionary,
and by careful observation and assiduous. practice in reading, writing, and speaking. When
you are doubtful of the spelling or pronounciation of a word, consult your dictionary, and while
so doing, learn its definition also. Never use a
word that you don't understand. This afternoon
we'll take a general view of all the parts of
speech.
Martha. What are the parts of speech?
Mr. 8. The different sorts of words that we
use in speaking.
J. Why don.'t you ~all them the parts of
language? . Have not speech and language the
same meaning?
Mr. 8. Not exactly: language is more com.prehensive in its meaning. We can properly

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ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

say, all speech is language, but all language is
not speech; just as we say, all horses are ani·
mals, but all animi:ils are not horses. Speech
is spoken language. . It consists . of vocal and
articulate sounds put together into words, which
are used to communicate our ideas, thoughts,
and feelings. Language is the communication
of ideas, thoughts, or feelings, by means of words
or any other signs. It includes all means of_
communication. · None but those who are able
to speak can, with s~rict propriety, be said to
have the faculty of speech. The deaf and dumb
can not speak; and yet they have a language,
though they are speechless. They can talk with
their fingers, and by means of gestures.
There is a language more expressive than .
speech, which nature teaches all mankind and
all the brute creation. It consists of such instinctive cries, tones, looks, and actions, as are '
understood by all sentient creatures of the same
species, and, in some degree, by those of different
species. Dogs and horses understand from our
"tones of voice, looks, and actions, whether we
are pleased or .angry ; and, in like manner, they
communicate their feelings to us. Our benevolent
Oreator has endowed every kind of animals with
a natural language to express their feelings. But
_the faculty of speech was bestowed on man alone
for great and excellent;ises. ·
Even inanimate things have a natural language,
written in significant expressive characters, by
the Author of their being, which would give us
sweet instruction, if we could but understand

P .A.RTS OF SPEECH. "'

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it. Little children, the Book of Nature is everywhere open · before you. Read it, and be wise.
• To those who learn to read aright its living,
glowing, thought-inspiring pages, there are beautiful poems in the blooming landscape, in the
morning and the evening sky, the murmuring
brooks, the whispering breezes, and the waving
grain; th&e are sermons in flowers, plants, and
trees; and eloquent discourses about Creation in
the craggy mountains and the granite rocks.
"The heavens declare the glory of God. The
earth is full of his praise."
The spacious fil'mament on high,
With all the blue ethereal sky,
And s~ngled heavens, a shining frame,
Their great Original proclaim :
The unwearied sun, from day to day,
Does his Creator's power display,
And publishes to every land,
The work of an Almighty hand.
Soon as the evening shades prevail,
The moon takes up the wondrous tale ;
And, nightly, to the listening earth,
Repeats the story of her birth :
Whilst all the stars that round her burn,
And all the planets in their turn,
Confirm the tidings as they roll,
And spread the truth from pole to pole.
What though in solemn silence, all
Move round the dark terrestrial ball !
What though no real voice nor soundj
.A.mid their radiant orbs be found !
In reason's ear they_ all rejoice,
And utter forth a glorious voice;
For ever signing as they shine, .
"The hand that made us is Divine."

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PABTS OF l!PEEOH.

. J; Excuse me, Mr. Smith, for criticising you.
Though very beautiful, your style is not adapted
to your audience. You soar too high, and take
too .wide a range for our capacity. Consider
".Vho yoµ are addressing, and use such language
as we all can understand.
Mr. S. I thank you, Jam es, for this suggestion. Who am I addressing? _ An audience of
graduates? Whv, no: I am addressing chil·
dren who have never studied grammar. I must
therefore come right down to common conversation.
Gilbert. Are you addressing us on th_e front
seat?
Mr. S. Yes: you may consider my discourse
addressed to you. If you can understand it, of
course, the old grammarians can.
Emma. Have little children a language be·
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fure they begin to talk?
Mr. S. Certainly: they commumcate then·
feelings by natural signs ; by their looks and
gestures, by inarticulate cries and simple vocal
sounds, such as 0 l and eh l before they have
any clear distinct ideas or thoughts to communi·
cate. Such cries and vocal sounds we call exclamations.

ing age. They. ar~ a sort o~ natural langwi.ge
which we have rn common with the brute crea·
tion. Even inarticulate cries, groans, shrieks,
screams, shouts and yells, a?d vocal ~mit~tions
of the sounds made by ammals and iriammate
things, are exclamations. Now, as I repeat a
few sentences, pick out the exclamations.

An exclamation is a word abruptly ut·
tered to express a strong oi· sudden impulse of feeling.
Exclamations are th'e germs of speech, the
first crude words we utter in our childhood, and
the last that tremble on the lips of weak. decay-

Oh I leave this barren spot to me I

M.

Ohl

It'is, alas I the truth we tell.

Stephen.

Alas l

Ah I why all abandoned to darkness e.nd woe?

Ahl

Lucy.

Alack 1. alack I Ed ward, I like not this unnatural dealing.

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al~k l

Zounds I what a peer of the realm!

.Albert.

Zounds I

Chickadee-dee I Poor little bird, hbw cold he must be I

T.

Chickadee-dee !

Coo I ·coo I cried the dove. Twang I went the bow-string ;
and whiz I whiz-z-z I went the arrow; ·

M.

Coo f coo!

Twang l Whiz! whiz-z~z l

J. ·Are chickadee-dee, coo, twang and whiz ex·
clamations?
Mr. S. Yes: they are vocal imitations of the
sounds made by a.nimals and inanimate things ;
and, like other e~clamations, they are uttered
abruptly with some degree of ~eeling. Sele~t theexcfamations in these examples at your leisure.

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ENGLISH GRAMJr{.A.R.

;p.A.RTS . OF SPE.ECH.

O, pshaw I I don't believe it.
·Poh I poh I that's one of our Tim's large storie!.
Hurrah for the bonnets of blue ! .
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Fie! fie! unknit that threatening unkind brow.
We're close on the' breakers-the breakers·! halloo !
Tush, man! abodements must not now affright us.
Whew! what a horseman! he goes cluck! cluck I cluck I
like a setting hen.
Ha ! ha! ha! ha! ha I Oh I I shall die a laughing I
Must he needs trouble me in't? Hum!
How! have they denied him? Indeed I is it true?
Excellent! Your lordship's a goodly villain.
.A.mazing ! what do I see? Is it Pithius?
Hail, Cresar ! Read this schedule.
What I is the fellow mad ?
False.wizzard, avaunt! I have marshalled my clan.
Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn?
Hush! hark! did you not hear it ? ·
Farewell, my friends; farewell, my foes.
Adieu ! adieu ! my native shore
Fades o'er the waters blue.
Cuckoo I cuckoo.I 0 word of fear!
Unpleasing to the married ear. .
To who! to who! to who! who ! who !
Exclaims the owl concealed from view.
The bloated blear-eyed croakers of the bog
Cry, Crout! crout I jug o' rum I quick I quick I grog !_grog!

facts and things to general truths. This is the
course pursued by children in acquiring knowledge, from their early infancy till they are sent
to school, where nature's method is reversed,
especially, in grammar. Beginning with mere
nothing, it is really astonishing how much they
learn from ·natur~ teachings in three or four
years. It is generally conceded that the human
understanding comes into this ·breathing world
a perfect blank, as pure and spotless as a piece
of clean white paper, destitute of'all impressions,
having no ideas or thoughts; but not devoid of.
feeling,_ It is keenly sensitive before the dawning of intellf'gence. Sensation, which is manifested by instinctive cries and exclamations,
must precede perception: we perceive external
objects, and receive ideas through the medium
of the senses. Here begins all human knowledge. We must learn to see, hear, feel, taste,
and smell, before we can begin to think, or have
ideas, the materials for thinking. 0 how beautiful is nature's teaching! hers is genuine object
teaching. . See how soon she . fills each infant
mind with bright ideas, living pictures of surrounding objects, when but just arrived, a
stranger in this .world of wonders, with an accuracy, beauty, and dispatch, which human skill
can never equal. .
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J. Why do .you begin with exclamations?
They are the last part of speech in all the grammars I have ever seen.
Mr. S. Because this is the natural order:
exclamations are the first words used. in every
language. I observe the course marked out by
nature, and pursue the inductive and the object
method, rising from the observation of particular

Take N at~re's path, and mad Opinion's leave:
All states' can reach it, -li.nd all hearts conceive.

As little children's minds expand and brighten,
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ENGLISH GR.A.IDJ'.A..R.

feelings and sensations as we have in c?mmon
with irrational animals, to clear perceptions 9f
surrounding objects, and begin to _hav~ d~stinct
ideas and thoughts, they then require s1gi;iificant
words, altogether different from exclamat10ns, to
communicate them.
Delia. How do ~cbildren first begin to com·
municate their ideas and thoughts ?
Mr. S. By pointing out the things the:y: want
and making earnest gestures. So do fore1g:r:iers
before they know our language.
Francis. What if the things they want are
out of sight and can't be pointed out?
Nancy. Ir they had pictures of t?-em, th~y
could tell us what they want by showrng us its
picture.
Mr. S. They have bright mental pic~ure;i C?f
familiar objects, called ideas, treasured m their
memories, and a curious contrivance to present
them. To communicate their ideas of person~
and things, they learn to spe:;i.k their names, and,
(wonderful to tell!) present the~ throu_g h the
sense of hearing to our mental s1g}J.t, ai;i if they
held their ' pictures right before 0~1· eyes. By
saying rose or·pink, I cai;i c.ommumcate to Y?U
my idea of a rose or £ID~, as _clea~ly :J,nd _dis·
tinctly, as I can by holding up it_s picture right
before your eyes, because the na~e calls up t~e
same idea in your mind th,31t. it repres~nts m
mine. · The names of wh:;i.t w.e &€le .Qr· thmk of,
used as signs of our ide.as1 we, call· pqun~: .: . _1,

_A noun is the name of sop;t~t4Pis:.t~-~k
we can see or think of.
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G.. Is the name of any thing that we can see
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or think of a noun?
Mr. S. Of course it is. Tell us the names of
what you see in this room.
·. . G. Boys, girls, books, desks, pens, paper,
inkstands.
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Mr. S. What did you see on your way to
school?
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F. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, apples, pears,
and peaches.
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Mr. S. All these names are nouns, and ·hundreds more that might be mentioned. Tell us
the names of a few things that you can think of
but can not see.
E. Let me consider. What can I think of
that can't be seen? Truth, love, mercy, justice,
righteousness, sobriety, bravery, politeness, civility, soberly, bravely, polite, civil.
T. · Why, Emma I can you think of such · a
thing as a soberly, a bravely, a polite, or a civil?
Where can it be found? Who has it? Some
of us have a little sobriety, bravery, politeness,
and civility. But who has any soberly, bravely,
polite, or civil?
Mr. S. A noun will generally make sense
with my before it; as, My sobriety, · my bravery;
· my politeness, my civility. ·
E. My soberly, my bravely, my polite, my
civil. . 0 I I see.I . Soberly, bravely, polite, and
civil are not nouns.
Mr~ . S. · Are mind, ideas, thoughts, think, care,
careless; he, she, the-y, beauty, and beautifully, noui:w 7
· S. My mind, my ideas, my thought-9, my. ·

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think, my care, my careless, my he, my she, my.
they, my beauty, my beautifully. _.Mind, i"deas,
thoughts, care, and beauty are nouns ; but thinlc,
careless, he, she, they, and beautifully are not nouns.
Mr. S. Now, select the nouns in what I say.
Henry, what are you doing with Lucy's slate? M. H enry, what, Lucy 's, and slate, are nouns.
R . Is what a noun? My what. Does that
make sense?
M. No: I can't think of such a thing as a
what.
James holds his pen between his thumb and finger.
G. James, pen, thumb, finger.
Nor yet for the ravage of winter I mourn:
.A. Ravage, winter.

Kind nature the embryo-blossom will save.

F. Nature, blossom.
But when shall spring visit the mouldering urn?
'l. Spring, urn.

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casion to mention the same persons or things
frequently repeat their names in this fashion
over and ~ver: ''John started for school with
John's books in John's hand; hut John stopped
to play with John's dog, and lost John's books."
l;s this good language'? ·
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R. No, sir: the frequent repetit10n of the
same noun makes it very disagreeable indeed.
It should be "John started for school with his
books in his'hand; but he stopped to play with
his dog, and lost them:."
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Mr. S. You have made a great impronment
in this sentence, by using he and his for John,
· and them for books. What shall . we call such
little words as he, hw, and them?
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R. Pronouns because they stand for nouns,
- and fully repres~nt them oy performing all their
offices.

A pronoun is a word tha't represents .a.
noun.

0 ! when shall day dawn on the night of the grave?
R. Day, night, grave.

Mr. S. _ Select the pronouns in what I read,
and tell us what they stand for.

Exercise and temperance are the best preservatives of health.
Illtemperance destreys more lives than war, pestilence, and
famine. .
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Hypocrisy is the price that vice pays to virtue.
See truth, love, and mercy in triumph descending;
.Ai:id nature all glowing in Eden's first bloom I
On the cold cheek of death smiles and roses are blending,
.A.nd beauty immortal awakes from the tomb.*

Joseph's brethren came, and bowed do'lfll themselves before
him with their faces to the earth.

Mr. S. . Some children, when they ha~· oc-

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ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

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•When Yon have •elected all the nonna In these e;umplea, select t~em
In ;i:our r~adln~ lesson.
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G. ·. Themselves and their stand for brethren,'.
• and him, for Joseph.
Joseph remembered the dreams which be dreamed of them,
nnd sai4 unto them, ye are spies.
.

A. Which stands for dreams; he, for Joseph; ·
and the..m and ye, for brethren.

W.e ar~ true men, thy servants are· no s~es.
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ENGLISH GRAMMA..R.

L. We stands for brethren; and thy, for Joseph.
Then Abner looked behind him and said, Art thou Asahel ?
.A.lid h~ answered, I am.

M. Him stands for .Abner; and thou, he, and
I, for .Asahel.
The men that held Jesus mocked him and smote him.

N.

That stands for men; and him, for Jesus.

.A.nd when they had blindfolded him, they struck him on the
face, and asked him, saying, Prophecy who is it that smote
thee?

D. They stands for men; and him and thee,
for Jesus.
J. What do who, it, and that stand for?
Mr. 8.' Who and it have no definite antecedents : they represent any one indefinitely. It is
the antecedent of that.
T. What is the antecedent of a pronoun?
Mr. S. The antecedent of a pronoun is what
it ..stands for.
As soon as it was day, the elders of the people and the chief
priests and the scribes came together, and led ·him into their
council, saying, Art thou the Christ? Tell us. And he said
unto them, If I t~ll you, ye will not believe.

H. Him, thou, he, and I stand for Jesus; and
their, us, them, you, and ye, for elders, pri'ests, and
scribes.
F. Why do you omit it? Is it not a pronoun?
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H. What does it stand for? why is it a pronoun?
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Mr. S. It has no definite antecedent. But it
is used as the subject of was, and the:i;:efore re-

PARTS OF SPEECH.

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presents a noun by performing its office, .though
it · don't directly stand for. any particular one..
Therefore, according to our definition, .it is a
pronoun. This and that, as well as it, sometimes
stand for phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, and
ye~ perf?rm the offices of noun~, as subjects or
object~ m the sentences to which they belong.
In this sense, they may be said to represent
nouns, though they do not stand directly for
them.* Several of our pronouns, like algebraic
letters representing unknown quantities occasionally stand for something indefinitely, and,
consequently, have no definite antecedents.
Read the whole of this chapter, select the pronouns, and tell what they stand for.
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J. This is a good exercise, to make us understand what we read, and give us a practical
. knowledge of the_ use ?f pronouns. In selecting
all the pronouns m this chapter, and tellin<Ywhat
they stand for, I've learned more about° them
than in all the grammars I have ever studied. I
never understood this chapter half so well before.
. . Mr. S. I'm glad you like my mode of teachmg. If you study grammar in the Book of
Nature, it will always be agreeable. Describe
what you qbserv~d t~is morning on your way
to school; and this will naturally lead you to
another part of speech in the inductive and the
object method.
M. The dear, 'blue sky; r~cb~ fertile valleys;
rough, rocky, barren mountams; cool, delight- ,
ful, shady groves.
•See my larger Grammar, page 112.

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PA.RTS OF SPEECH;

Mr. 8. Select the nouns, and tell what words
are added to them.
D. . S ky, valleys, m ountains, and groves . are
nouns. The, clear, and blue are added to slcy;
rich and fertile to valleys; rough, rocky, and bar;
ren,' to mo1mtai~s; and cool, delightful, and shady,
to groves.. What .do you call such words?
Mr. 8. Adjectives, because they are added
to nouns.

An adjective is a restrictive or emphatic
term added to a noun or pronoun to ex·
press a concrete idea.
DescribinD' adj ectives are the most numerous.
There are s~me adj ectives, however, like a, an,

any, several, many, one, two, three, ~he, this,. that,
yon and yonder which specify, orpomt out, smgle

out: or parcel ~ut per~o~s. or thing;s ~itho'.lt describing them; thus hm.1tmg the. s1gmficat10n of
nouns, but not expressmg quality: as, a man;
one man any man, some men, a dozen men, a
thousani men, a hundred thousand men, the man,
this man that man, &c. "Yon flowery arbors, yonder alle;s green." . You can know an adjective
by its dependence on a noun or pronoun. · It
expresses a concrete idea that can not stand alone,
and i:nust be added to a substantive idea as a basis
or support. As J ames describes what he has
seen, select the adjectives, and tell us to what
'
.
.
they are added.
J. I have seen a great many curious thmgs :
an old bald eaale; four beautiful peacocks; and ·
fifteen or twenty noisy, gabbling geese; a white

I

'•

I
.1

"

blackbira; a poor rich man, and a rich poor
man.
E. A great many . and. curious are added to
things; an, old, and bald, to eagle; four and beautiful, to peacocks ; fifteen, twenty, noisy, and gabbling, to geese; a and white to blackbird; and a,
poor, and rich, to man.
. .
J. As I was coming to school, I saw six fine
large elegant bay horses, before a splendid brandnew gilt coach, full offashioniJ,ble, richly dressed
young gentlemen and ladies, riding through. a
'beautiful flower garden, toward a grand, magmficent, :five-story marble palace, sipping rosy wine
from golden cups, and singing,
" Bid her not abed one tear of sorrow,
·To sully a heart s.o brilliant and light ;
But balmy drops from the red grape borrow,
To bathe the relic from mora till night."

On the opposite side of the street, but a few
rods from this luxurious palace, what a contrast
met my eyes I There at a low, dilapidated g:og:
shop, I beheld a motley crowd of lazy; idle,
good-for-nothing boys and young men, pouring
down blue ruin; and about a dozen, brokendown, cast-off, discarded politicians, with a little
sprinkling of respectable, decently dressed, conservative, wine-drinking, rosy:gilled old tipplers,
lecturing on moderate drinking to a desperate
gang of dirty, ragged, drunken, noisy, swearing,
screaming, yelling, raving, roaring ruffian~, who
disturbed their quiet; making the bar-room
hideous with their bold, beating oaths, and singing at short intervals,·
11

•
'\

\

21

Keep YQur spirits up by pouring spirits down."

22

PARTS OF SPEECH. .

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

R. Why, James, you spout your adjectives
so fast that none of us can pick them out.
J. Select them at your leisure then.
·
Mr. S. Your style is rather florid: it abounds
with adjectives. You paint what you describe
in gaudy colors. What colors are to painting
adjectives are to language: they require a delicate ' taste, observant eye, and skillful hand.
They can't be used with good effect by a mere
· dauber. Let us have a trial of your skill in
using adjectives. Write on your slates the
names of what you think 0£ Now writE'l appropriate adjectives before or after them. Read
what you have written.
L . The blue-eyed, modest, unassuming violets.
D. Yonder full-blown, beautiful white roses.
A. Bright sunny days, delightful moonlight
ci~~

E. Sweet singing birds, the little busy bees.
M. The lazy idle good.for-nothing drones.
R. Those venerable, majestic, wide-spreading
elms.
T. That crooked, leaning, dead, decaying
beech.
· N. These three tall straight slim saplings.
G .A good sound horse, unblemished, gentle,
kind and true.
F. Several large ri_pe mellow juicy apples.
H. .Active studious mtelligent obedient boys.
S. Honest prudent economical industrious ·
men;
J; .A cold inhospitable country, barren, desolate, and uninhabitable.
·.

.

ii

·~
I

23

Mr. S. See how the adjectives in_ these examples hang upon their nouns, and eluster round
them like grapes upon their vines. .As adjectives express concrete ideas that inseparably adhere to our ideas of substances which are expressed by nouns, and properly called substan"
tive ideas, they must depend on nouns, and atick
to them as close as qualities do · to. substances:
they can not stand alone without a noun or pronoun as a basis or support to hold them up.
T. Is there a thought expressed in: any of
these examples?
Mr. S. .No: a thought can't be expressed
with nouns and adjectives, or any of the parts of
speech that we have yet considered. Thought is ·
to mind what action is to matter; and as every
action necessarily requires an actor, so every
thought must have a subject. We. can not
think without thinking of something, nor express
a thought without a subject. .Any persons or
things that we think of are the su·bjects . of our
thoughts; and what we think of them are the
thoughts themselves. Now I will write on the
blackboard the names of what I think of; and
you may write thei:n on your slates: then write
what you think of them with one word after each
name. Boys, dogs, and horses are our subjects.
What do. you think of them ? ·
·
J. . We think what we have seen or heard
them do.
S. That's right. ~ead what you have
written.
·
M. Boys speak, dogs bark, horses neigh.

¥r.

24

D. Boys read, dogs watch, horses run.
F. Boys wrestle, dogs fight, horses kick. ·
E. Boys milk, dogs churn, horses plo"".!
H. Boys study, dogs hunt, horses trot.
L. Boys quarrel, dGgs growl, horses leer.
G. Boys sing, dogs whine, horses paw.
R. Boys skate, dogs jump, horses canter.
A. Boys think, dogs remember, horses drink.
J. Boys work, dogs play, horses prance.
8. Boys laugh, clogs yelp, horses gallop.
N. Boys ride, dogs walk, horses draw.
Mr. 8. Why don't you tell us your thoughts
on these subjects, Thomas?
·
T. Because I can't think any thing about .
them that has not been :i.lready told.
.
Mr. 8. Think what is done to them.
T. ' Boys are whipped, dogs are kicked, horses
are fed.
Mr. 8. You use two words, Thomas, to ex·
press one thought. It sometimes takes three or
four words to express a thought: as, "The horses
should have been fed." Such words as these we
call verbs.
·· A verb is a, term* that expresses what

we think of a subject.

-

.

You have written several complete sentences
consisting of nouns and verbs only, eacl;i having
but two words, and containing but one thought
and but one subject: No sentence can be made
without a verb either ~xpressed or understood ;
for every sentence must contain a thought. The
•A term may consist of one word or more thnn one.

•

25

PARTS OF SPEEcm. •

ENdLISH GRAMMAR.

:

Ir
I

1ubject of a. thought is generally expressed by a
noun or pronoun, which, for the sake of brevity,
is called the subject of the verb that expresses
the thought. ·
G. · Can a sentence be made without a noun?
·Mr. 8. Yes : p'ronouns c~ be used as sub. jects. .A~y word that makes sense with I, thou,
he, she, or it; we, you, or they, before it as a subject, is a verb._ Are am, art, is, are, and lightens,
verbs?
·
G. I am, thou art, he is, we are, it lightens.
yes, sir. .Are come, go, stand; fall, rise, speak,
speech?
.
N. Speech is not·a· verb: it don't make sense
to say, I speech, thou speech, he speech, we
speech, you speech, or they speech. ·
Mr. 8 .As I make a few· sentences select the
verbs.
I take this book and open it; I shut it, and return it to the
boy who handed it to me.
.

8.

Take, open, shut, return, handed.

The sun shines ; the birds sing ; the treeij blossom ; the men
are plowing; and the lambs skip and play.
·

H. Shines, sing, blossom, are plowing, skip,

~~

.

.

Select the verbs in what you wrote on your
slates ; and then select them in your reading
lesson .and in these sentences.. When you have
selected all the verbs, select the exclamations,
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.
The. rain de.s<;ended, and..th.e floods: crune, and the winds blew,
· and beat upon that lio.us.e ; and it fell not: for it was founded
upon a rock. .
·

26

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.
If chance awaked, inexorable power!
This frail and feverish being of an hour,
Doomed o'er the world's precarious scene to sweep,
Swift as the tempest travels on the deep,
To know delight but by her parting smile,
And.toil, and wish and weep, a little while,
Then melt, ye elements, that formed in vain
This troubled pulse, and visionary brain!
Fade, ye wild flowers, memorials of my doom I
And sink, ye stars, that light me to the tomb!
Truth, ever lovely since the world began,
The foe of tyrants, and the friend of man,How can thy words from balmy slumber start
Reposing virtue, pillowed on the heart !
Yet, if thy voice the note of thunder rolled,
And that were true which Nature never told,
Let wisdom smile not on her conquered field:
No rapture dawns, no treasure is revealed I
Oh I let her read, nor loudly, nor elate,
The doom that bars us from a better fate :
But, sad as angels for the good man's sin,
Weep to record, and blush to give it in.

J. Is your definition of a verb ~orrect?
Don't it take a whole sentence to express a
thought?
·
Mr. S. Of course, it does ; and every sentence
must contain a subject, as well as a thought,
either expresse<l. or implied: the thought and
subject are inseparably connected in conception
;i.nd expression. None of us can think without
a subject, or express a thought without one.
J. If it takes a whole sentence to express a
a thought, and if the subject is a part of the
sentence, is it not a part of the thought? and
wh.Y is the thought expressed by the verb any
more than by its subject? Don't a verb express
an action or a motion, rather than a thought?
J£r. S. Can there be an action without an

•

PARTS OF SPEECH.

f

l

'

27

actor? or a motion without something moving?
Is the actor · then a part of the action ? or the
thing that moves a part of the motion? Look!
Can any of you see my action, as I strike the
desk, Without seeing me? or see the motion of
my hand without seeing my hand?
M. Why, no: the action and the motion are
invisible, and can't be seen a~all. . But we can
see you strike, and see your hand move.
Mr. S. Is not the actor, then, as. intimately
connected with the action as the subject with
the thought, and just as much a part of it 't and
can a verb alone express an action any more
than it can express a thought? Are not the
actor and the action mirrored in the mind inseparably, and treasured in the memory as the
subject and the thought?
. ·
J. Verbs do express act10ns : when you
struck the desk, you performed an action ; and
the verb strike expresses it.
Mr. 8. Where is that action? Is it in existence now?
J. No, sir: it is past and gone.
Mr. S. How do you know it ever did exist ?
J. I have a clear impression of it in my
memory: I remember what you did, and how
you acted.
Mr. S. Is this impression in your memory
an action or a thought?
J. I suppose it is a thought; for it is what
I think of you : I think you struck the ~esk.
Mr. S. Then it has ceased to be an act10n, and
become a thought; and the actor ii the 1ubject

28

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

of the thought. You think of me ; and, there·
fore, I am the i;;ubject. You think I struck: so
struck expresses what you think of a subject.
When I say, "My horse · ran i.way and broke
my carriage," do I communicate to you the
·
actions of my horse?
8. No, sir; no more than you communicate
to us the horse and carriage: if you did, we all
would have his actions. You communicate to
usJour thoughts about your horse.
. I give it up. Your definition is correct:
a verb expresses what we . think of a subject.
What we think is a thought; and what we think
of is a subject. We don't think the horse: we
think of him; and ran and broke express what
we think of him.
· ·
· G. We think thoughts, and think of subjects.
We think of persons and things, and make them
subjects of our thoughts: we think what we
have seen or heard .them do, and thus convert
their actions into thoughts.
Mr. 8. See Charles and Henry in that little
skiff. What do you think they ·are doing?
G. I think they are playing. · ,
A. I think they are fighting. · There goes
Charles into the river. Henry struck him, and
knocked him down.
H. I think he kicked him i.J;J.to the river. .
E. I think Charles fell in himself; and Henry
_reached out his hand to catch him a!ld hold him

upT. No: Henry .f~~~~d him into the river.
J. I think he ~into the water. There

•

P).R'.rS 'OF S.PEEOH.

29

he comes, swimming beautifully towards the
skiff.
·
.
8. Henry tries to shove him under water
·
.
with his oar.
D, Why, no: he is trying to help him into
the skiff.
Mr. 8. Do you express the actions of th.ese .
boys with the verbs you use, or what you thmk
of them?
.
.J. . We express our thoughts: if we expressed
their actiOns we should all agree ; for facts are
never contr;dictory. But different persons s~e
the same things in different lights, and have dif·
ferent thoughts o.n the same subjects.
R. That's true. Some think the sun and
moon, the stars. and planets, all revolve ar.~·mnd
the earth every twenty-four hours;. but philo~o­
.phers· think the earth revolves on its own axis,
and thereby makes them seem to moye around
it. Apparent actions ~requently deceive us, and
impress upon our .mmds erroneous thoughts,
which sound philosophy C?rrects. . When we a~e
riding in a boat, we ·sometu:n:es thmk ~he boa~ IS
standing still, and every thmg else is movmg
past us. Such illusions we correct by reason
.
. .
and reflection.
J. Just so the earth's diurnal revolut10n
makes us think the sun and moon, the stars
and planets, rise and set, by making them appear ·
to move around the earth.
Mr.' 8. When we fix our attention on any
persons or things, and make them subject~, what
they do and what is done to them .are mirrored

30

•

31

ENGLISH GIU.lUilR.

P .ARTS OF SPEECH.

in the mind, and treasured in the memory as
thoughts, if we receive correct impressions.
When they are perfectly quiescent, we observe
their attributes, and, by the power of thought,
we link each attribute to its appropriate subject
as a predicate; and then this linking process
constitutes the thought, which is expressed
gramatically by the verb to be, in logic, called
the copula; as, Truth is eternal. Ye are spies.
Dust thou art. I am Joseph. I have been y-0ung,
and now I am old. Men would be angels. Thou art
the man. If he had been good, he might have been
happy. Logically and metaphysically speaking,
thoughts are predications: they are mental operati.ons in perceiving and reviewing actions and
ascribing attributes to subjects. As I said before, thought is to mind what action is to matter.
As, in the material creation, all the works of art
and nature are produced by action; so, in ' the
mental world, all intellectual productions spring
from thought; and, as the sun is the center and
the source of action in the solar system; whirling all the planets rapidly around him, quickening and enlivening .inert lifeless inorganic matter, and imparting animal and vegetable life, till
all the rolling orbs revoling round him swarm
with living creatures; . so the S~n of Righteousness is the center and the source of ~bought, diffusing intellectual light and life through all the
mental world. From him the power of thought
proceeds.
J. Mr. Smith, you dive too deep and soar
too high for our capacity. .Let us have an e:x:·
ercise in writing sentences •

Mr. 8. Each of you may write a sentence
without using any words but nouns ·and pro·
nouns, adj~ctives and verbs. Read what you
have written.
J. Good children obey their parents.
A . Obedience is the first lesson that a child should learn.
S. Yirtull alone makes us happy.
E. Vice renders its possessor miserable.
R. The sluggard, who expects Providence to help him, will
be disappointed: Providence helps those that"help themselves.
N. A wise head keeps a close mouth : still water is deepest.
D. "Honesty is the best policy," says the crafty knave.
T. Our laws resemble spiders' webs, which entangle feeble
·
insects: the stronger ones escape.
G. " He who allows his son to be an idler," says the old
proverb, "makes him a thief."
'Tis education forms the common mind.
Grim-visaged war hath smoothed his wrinkled front.
·He that betrays a friend deserves a foe.
My friend must hate the man who injures me.
un'easy lies the head that wears a crown.
Happy the man whose cautious feet .
Shun the broad way which sinners go.

Mr. 8. With the ideas impressed upon our
minds by what we see around us, we receive
impressions. of the relations of different objects
to each other. We observe that one thing is .
above another, or below it, on it, or under it,
before it, or behind it, or is going towards it, or
from it around it, or through it, with it, or w.ith:
out it, &c. To express these relations another
part of speech is necessary. Now select the
words that express relation in the sentences I
make, and tell us what relation they express.
I hold this pencil in my hand over the desk.

82

•
S3

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AB.

R. . In expresses the relation of pencil to
hald, and over, the relation of pencil to desk

The leveled towns with weeds lie covered o'er ;
The hollow winds through 'naked temples roar;
Round broken columns clasping ivy twined ;
·O'er heaps of ruin stal]j:e'd :the stately hind;
The fox obscene to gnping tombs r!Jtircs ; ••
And savage howlings fill the sacred choirs.

h look throU:gh the window at that flock of
s jl. on the hill under that tree.
.
. . Through expresses the relation oP look to
wln~ow; at, the relation of look to flock . of, the
;e ~~~?n oftock to sheep; .on, the relatio~ of flock
o i ; an . under, the relation of .flock to tree
I. walk with. a cane across the room from the
ch air to the door.
G. Wi"tli expresses the relation of wal!t t
cane; ac:oss, the relation of walk to room . fr~mo
the relation of wallc to chafr . and to th ' l f '
of walk to door.
'
' e re a ion
Such words as in, over through at of,
un~er_, wi'th, across, from, a~d to, are' called 'p~~~
positions.
,

T. Covered with weeds, roar through temples,
twined round columns, stalked o'e r heaps of
ruin retires to ~nbs. With expresses the relatio1n of co vered to weeds ; through, the relation
of roar to temples; round, the reJatiOJ\Of twi'ned lo
columns; over. th e relation of stalked to heapsr of
the r~ation of heaps to ru.i n t .a.n<l lo, the relation
of retires to tombs. A prepos1t10n exp:esses t~ie
relation of its antecedent term of relation to its
object.

tion expresses the relation between?
P
Mr. 8. To ascertain the terms Of relation as
we call them, find the words that make the b t .
sense ~poken imme~iately ~efore and after thse
preposition. . The O~Ject of a preposition usuall
comes after it, and JS therefore called th
sequent term of relation; and the other ~n~ui;
called the antecedent term beause it
ll
o b fi th
.. '
genera y
g es e ore . e preposition. But in poetry th
usual or~er is occasionally inverted, as vou' will
observe m these examples:
~

?

When eve her dewy star beneath
Thy balmy spirit loves to breathe.

t

A preposition is a word placed before
another to express relation.
. A. How can we tell what words a pre osi-·

•

.M. . To breathe beneath her dewy star.

'

Be-

neath expresses the ;relation of to breathe to star.
S. 'l'he antecedtrnt term of relation may

M;.

. . or
be any part of speech except a pre po~1t1on
connective ; but the subsequent term JS generally a noun or pr?~oun, wbi~h is called the o_b:
ject of t~e prepos1t10~ t~nt is placed before .1t.
Prepositions are as rnt1ma.tely c~1rnect~d with
their objects as verbs are with their subJec.ts: a
verb makes sense with I, titan, he, she.. or it, we,
you, or they, before it ~s a subj ect; ~nd a pre-_
position makes sense wit~ me, thee,. him, her, or
it us you or them after 1t as an object; thus, by
~e, dbove thee, w£tl;out him, about her, o/it, Qetween
us, under you, behind them.
0

.

.

].
j

34

P.ARTS OF SPEECH.

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

Select the prepositions in what I say, and
write them on your slates.
I walk about the house, and hold this book
above my head; I go across the room after my
ball; I throw . it against the ·door. It rolls
along the floor amid the seats among the children~ I tie this string around it. Look at it,
and see it whirl athwart the desk. Now it is
before me, now, behind me, now, below the desk,
and now, beneath my feet. It is now beside the
slate, and now, between those boys, and now,
beyond my reach: the string by which it was
held is broken. I have a ball besides that. Can
I catch it betwixt my thumb and finger? See·
it roll down stairs. During this exercise you .
have all been very attentive. It costs you nothii;ig but attention for tuition. . When we have
finished our tasks, you will go from the schoolroom in good order into the grove; behaving
like young gentlemen and ladies: and if any
rude boys come · near you, be polite notwithstanding their rudeness. Of all ill habits, incivility is most apt to find us off our guard.
There we will sit on the flowery banks of the
river, and enjoy the charming scene; the bright
blue sky, the beauti(ul foliage of the trees, and
their waving branches over our heads, the new
suspension bridge overthwart the stream, the
splendid steamboats sailing past us, and nature's
sweetest minstrels singing round us.
M. Let us go now : we have not been there
since last week.
Mr. S. When we get through our lessoniil

35

yo~

may go, and stay till night. I go to the
window, and look towards the river; I carry this ·
book under my arm, and put it underneath the
other books. I have lived in all good conscience
before God until . this day. What I say unto
you I say unto all. We clambered up the mountain, and stood upon the highest peak. With
thee we smile within cold !!'ison walls. Without thee, I am poor; and with thee, rich, taR'e
what thou wilt away. · .A.re riches worth the toil
and trouble that they cost'?
Read what you have written.
R. .A.bout, above, across, after, against, along,
amid, among, at, athwart, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, besides, betwixt,. beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in,
into, like; near, notwithstanding, of, off, on, over,
overthwart, past, round, since, through, till, to,
towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without, worth.
Mr. S. You've written quite a list of pre-·
positions, all arranged in alphabetical order, and
. containing more than half the prepositions in
our language, nearly all that are in common use.
But . don't depend upon this list; .for many of
these words are often used as other parts of
speech. In fact you do not need it ; for you can
distinguish all these prepositions now . by their
construction: you have made this list yourselves
by doing so. Like other_ parts of speech, they
are best known by their construction. Now com•
pose a few sentences containing prepositions.

F. My slate lies on the desk under my books,

M

"'·

N. The bird is in her nest upon that tree.
A. See those horses trqt along the road be·
fore th e carriage.
G. Bring me some peaches from the tree be. bind tb e barn.
R. Rivers rise among mountains, and run
through valleys to the sea.
M. The tops of high mountains are covered
with snow.
D. John came into the house. in haste with·
out knocking at the door, or asking for admis·
sion. E They came out from behind the curtain.
H I have bought a watch worth thirty dollars for twenty.
'
T. I drop t"his pencil from between my fingers.
L. They took up the cable from under the
sea.
S. There is no living with you nor without
you.
J. A good man never envies those that are
above him, nor despises them tb at are below
him; but with charity towards all , and malice to
non e, lik e his divine Master, he goes about doing
good.
·
Mr. .S. When we think what has been done
by any person or thing, the manner, time, and
place of doing it is generally associated with the
thought: and, to ex press these ideas, other words
are added to the verb which modi~y its meaning:
as "He spoke earnestly and eloquently;" "He
preached here yesterday." Sometimes our ideas
of qualities, and even of +elation, are so modified

falirs' oi si>iieH.:

Bi

as to require additional words attending adjec·
tives and prepositions to expFs them; as,
"This apple is rather sour, and tllat is very sour."
The nadir is the point directly under our feet."
G. We don't exactly understand the drift of
your remarks. ·will you be a little more ex- •
plicit?
.
},fr. S. Shall•we have a little object teaching?
Can you see or hear me do any thing without
thinking how I do it, when I do it, or where I
do it? and when you express your thoughts so
modified as to tell how, when, or where it is
done, don't you add to the verb some word de- ·
noting manner, time, or place? How do I 'walk?
when? and where?
·
·
M. You walked slowly, first; then, swiftly.
Now you walk lightly and gracefully; now,
heavily, clumsily, and awkwardly; now, carefull.y; and now, carelessly; now, forwa.rd; now,
backward; and now, sideways. You walk here
and there, northward and southward, eastward
and westward. You walk often, daily, and
hourly.
},fr. S. What a multitude of words you've
added to the verb walk to tell how, when, and
where, I walk. We call such words as these
adverbs, because they are added to verbs. But
the use of adverbs is more general than their
name implies; for they are frequently added to
prepositions, adjectives, and other adverbs: as,
"He is a truly good man." "I am heartily glad."
' ~ The Zenith, is the point exactly over our heads:"
"Don't:read toO' fast." .

88

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.R.

An adverb is a word added to a verb
an adjective, a preposition, or another ad~
verb.
'.

As I make a few familiar sentences, select the
adverbs and tell us to what words they are added.
Listen attentively, study diligently; and think
closely.
R. . .Attentively is added to listen,: diligently, to
study; and ·closely, to thinlc.
·
Speak fearlessly and openly, but kindly and
respectfully; arid you will seldom give offense.
· S. Fearlessly, openly, kindly, and respectfully
are added to speak; and seldom, to will give.
.
They that ar~ too lazy to work are generally
too lazy .to study-.
H. · Too is added to lazy; and generally, to are.
I came here very early yesterday, and went
home rather late.
·
M. He-re, early, and yesterday, are added to
came; hr;me, and late, to went; very, to early; and
rathe-r, to late.
.
Now the birds sing sweetly, and hop about
· merrily.
·
J>
.
·How beautifully they fly through the air! up- ·
ward and downward, hither and thither!
How does he read? Not very well : he reads
too fast.
They admired her the most who knew her

.

b~l

The more I examine your book, the better I
·
like it.
I ani going away to-day; but I shall be here
to-morrow.
·
· · ·

'.

P.A.RTS OF .SPEECH.

39

When shall we all meet again? Never, here
below.
So live that you can always look back joyfully
on a life usefully and virtu6usly employed.
Happier hours than those which we have
spent together I never expect to see any more. .
Very pleasantly did they pass: the wheels of
time moved swiftly and smoothly along. .
There is always something painful in parting
with our friends, especially, if we have no pros·
pe?t of seeing them again.
So live that you each year may b.e,
While tinie.glides softly by,
A little farther from the earth,
'And nearer to the sky.

E. Have you not explained !).11 the parts of
speech?
.
.
.
Mr. 8: · Can you talk a mmute without usmg
any part of speech except what we have now ·
explained? Try it and see. Are you coming
to school to· morrow?
E. I shall come, if I can : but I suppose I
shall have to st11y at home; for father and mother
are going a.way.
.
.
Mr. S. What office do if, and, but a:nd for
perform in .what you have just said? Omit
them, and see what a lack of connection there
will be.
E. I shall come-I can-I suppose I shall
have to stay at home-father-mother are going
away. 0 I I :;;ee I lJ connects " I can" to " I
shall come;" but connects "I suppose I shall
have to 'stay at homi" to "I ahall comi if I Qan;"

40

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

/or connects "father and mother are going avvay" '

to "I suppose I shall have to stay at home;"
and and connects motlier to father. Do you call
such words connecters?
Mr. S. I call them connectives; but they
are generally called conjunctions: -

A connective ts a word that connects
words, phrases; clauses, sentences, or paragraphs.
·
Without connectives, we should be obliged to
speak in separate sentences, and not be able to
express a regular train of reasoning. Th ey are
the joints and hinges of discourse, that hold together different words ·and sent~nces. . How
beautifully the thoughts expressed m argumentative discourses hang and tur:n upon ear::h other,
·held together by connectives. As I repeat a
few sentences, select the connectives and tell us
· what they connect, then wi·ite them on your
slates.
. H e came to school after his dass had read.
G. After connects "his class had read" to
"he came to school."
Charl es and Henry are good boys; they do as
they are bid. ·
R. And counects H enry to Charles; and · as
connects "they a1;e bi<l" to "they do."
· Beca use I live, ye shall live also.
H. B ecause connects "I live" to "ye shall·
live also."
I called him before he went away, but he did
not answer me.

PAiiTs oi si>:E:Ecii.

41

. E. . Before connects "he. went aw~J!' to "I
called him," and but connects '' he did not· answer me" to "I called him before he went away." -I will not let thee go, except thou bless me.
},f. Except connects "thou bless me" to "!will not let thee go. "
.
Be not dismayed; for I am thy God.
L For connect;; " I am thy God" to " be not
dismay ed."
We can not tell how the suri warms the earth.
A. How connects "the sun warms the earth"
'
to " we can not tell."
. True merit, however it may be neglected · for
a time, willultimately be acknowledged and respected;
T. H owever coi:niects " if may be' neglected
for a time" to "true merit will ultimately be
ackriowlegged arid respected';" and and ccinriec'ts
reijiectid to acknowledged.
. ... _,
_ ..
If you love me, keep my commandments. '
D . . If counects "you love me" to "keep my commandments."
With a furious man thou shal~ not go; lest
thou learn his ways.
S. L est · connects "thou learn his ways" to
"with a furious man thou shalt not goY
.
· L et not your heart be troubled, neithei· let it
be afraid.
F. Neither connects "let it be ~f1;aid" to "let
not. your heart be troubled."
' '
.
I am crucified with Christ: nevertbe1ess I live.
\ E. ' Nevertheless connects " I live" to " I am
crucified with Christ."

42

ENGLISH GR.ilrli.A.R.

Despise no deformity of body nor any infirm·
ity of mind, lest it b~ your own lot.
·
.J. Nor connects " any infirmity of mind" to
"no deformity of body;" and lest connects " it
be your own lot" to " despise no deformity of
body nor any infirmity of mind."
·
Were you in the cabin, or on the deck?
G. Or connects· "on the deck" to " in the
cabin."
He is my guest: otherwise I would deliver
him up. .
·
R. Otherwise connects " I would deliver him
up" to "he is my guest."
Since the universe could. not create itself, it
must have been created: so there is a wise,
benevolent, omnipotent Creator.
H. Since connects "the universe could not
create itself" to "it must have been created;"
and so connects "there is a wise, benevolent,
omnipotent Creator" to " since the universe
could not create itself, it must have been created."
I have more money than I know what to do
with.
.
E. Than connects "I know what to do with"
. ·
to "I have more money."
Judge not, that ye be not judged.
M. That connects "ye be not judged" to
"judge not."
Then say not man's imperfect, heaven in fault.
J. Then connects "say not man's imperfect,
heaven in fault" to the preceding paragraph.*
Therefore did my heart rejoice, and my tongue
was glad.
• See Pope's Essay on

M~.

l'.ARTS ;OF · SPEECH.

\.

M. Therefore connects thi.s verse to the preceding. ·
.
. .
She is not proud, though she is rich.
L. Though connects "she is rich" to "she is
not proud."
I will stay here till they return.
.
· A.. . Till connects " they return" to " I will
stay here."
· ·
·
· The scepter shall not depart from Judah-until Shiloh come.
· T. - Until connects " Shiloh come" ·to " the
scepter shall not depart from Judah."
You can not learn, un1ess you study.
D. Unless connects . '' you . study" to "you
can not learn."
'.- ·: :/ ··'.' -It" inoves when he .,.IP.oy~$/anq'
it goes where
l ..,.. •..)
- ..(~-..

• '

•

.1.·

§. ewhen connec~W-;;~·~· !nJ~~~·to "it moves;"
ani connects. "it · goes· whe:foI ~~: goes" to "it

he

0

moves when he moves;" ·{l.P.P,:,?&ih~e connects " he
goes" to "it goes." - . :---·,... :·-_
.
Therefore whether it were I or they, so we
preach, and so ye believed.
F. Therefore connects this verse to the preceding ; whether connects " it were I or they" to " so
we 'preach, and so ye believed," and connects
"so ·ye believed" to "so· we preach;" and or
connects they to L
·
While I was musir_g the fire bur.11;ed.,,
"
N. .While connects " I was musmg to the
fire burned."
But I ·am poor and needy; yet the Lord
t~inketh upon me~

· e
n

e
lj,
Ve$

ost

' .... - · ·

. ,.

~·

·

I

45

."·· f ·· · · ' ·

ENGLISH GRAMMAR;·

G. But connects this sentence to the preceding; and connects needy to poor; and yet eonnect_s
"the Lord thinketh upon me" to "I am poor
and needy."
.
Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor.
_
J. Yet with its· correlative though connects
" for your sakes he became poor" to " he was
· rich."
T. What I are though and yet both used as
corinectives to connect the same sentences?
Mr. S. Yes·: we have a few connectives that
are used in pairs to connect th-e same words or
sentences; as "He is both ·a poet and an orator."
" He is either a kilave or a fool." " They can
neither read rioi' write." ".As three is to nine
so is four to twelve.;, The connectives in each
of these pairs have a; mutual relation; each depending on the other, and · both connecting the
same words or sentences. They are, therefore,
properly called correlative c?nnectives:
Martha, read the connectives that you have
written.
.
M. After, arid; as, because,' before, but, ex-.
cept, for, now, however, if, lest, neither; never·
theless, nor, cir, otherW'ise, since, so, than, that;·
then, therefore, though, till, until; unless, when,
'Jt"'
where, whether, while, yet.
·
Mr. S. You have· a pretty good list of coil.nee·
tives, almost all there are iri commoµ use~ But
many of these words are very often used as·
other parts of speech. So, you ·see; this 1isf can't
be depended on. Connectives are, like oth'ei

'.

'. f

\

words, distinguished qy the o~c.e- th~y perform
in sentences, as you haveju;;~.cl~~~rngt1Jsh~d th,ese
without the aid of any list.
··
Vve .have now considered !111 the parts of
speech. How many •are ·there? .aepeat . them
and see.
.
J.'. Exclamations, nouns, pronouns, adject~ves,
verbs, prepositiou13, . ad v;erl;>13, ,~µ,d ·.. 9onn.~ct1 ves.
There are eight.
. .
.
M: Let us have an .exercise m ·:makmg .sen· •
tences.
Mr. S. Very well. ]3egin ,~itli ~hqrt sentences
c;:ontaining nothing but .nouns and .v:erbs,. or .pro·
nouns and verbs; and le11gtben ~hem tdl they
contain all the parts of .sp.ee~h , ~;<_:J~pt . exclama·
tions.
J. Boys study. _Goo~ boy~ .s tudy diligently
at school and learn their · le,s~ons . ~horqughly i
remembering that perseverii:nc.e .Ponq11ers all
~TI~

•

Bees gather honey.
13.~!;lil ,sometimes
gather honey .from 11n13ightly, 91~ter :weeds, as
persevering students gather knowledge from un·
pleasant studies. Bees gather honey, n_ot by
flitting carelessly from flower to flowe~, but by
abiding on each flower till tliey ef>,trfl.ct i~~ sw:eet·
ness.

R.

·'

, How doth the little.QlJ.SY ~~e
Improve .each s~nlng J:iour,
And gllther honey all the day
.. From every opening flower I
In works of lab.or or 9( sp;i}l
I would be busy too:
~ For Satan finds some mischief still

· ;For idk h~nds

to di;. ,,,

· · ··

e
n

se

46 ·

47

ENGLISH GRAMMAR_.

N.OUNS AND PRONOUNS.

· N. . · Roses bloom. Roses bloom most sweetly
after gentle summer showers, like Beauty bathed
in tears with sunshine in her countenance. Some
of the sweetest roses, like unpretending merit,
bloom along the wayside among neglected thorns.

T. It would be a good one, if it were original.
But more than half of it is borrowed.
Mr. 8. Appropriate quotations have a $O?d
effect. But they i;hould never supersed~ ongmality, or have undue preponderance. It 1s better
for us all to wear our own . clothes, however
. plain and coarse they may be, than to shine
and dazzle in gay clothing that belongs to others.
Express your own thoughts in your own lan- .
guaae. This exercise in grammar may be made a
plea~ant exercise.in composition, if it be properly
conducted.

Oft have I seen, on yon neglected thorn,
A blooming rose, bright as the blushing morn.
The rose had been washed, lately wnshed in a shower,
Which Mary to .Anna conveyed :
The plentiful moisture encumbered the flower,
.And weighed down its beautiful head.
The cup was all filled, and the leaves were all wet;
.Aiid it seemed, to a fanciful view,
To weep for the buds it had left with regret
On the flourishing bush where it grew.
· I hastily seized it, unfit as it was
For a nosegay, so dripping and drowned;
.And, swinging it rudely, too rudely, alas I
I snapped it-it fell to the ground.
And such, I exclaimed, is the pitiless part
Some act by the delicate mind ;
.
Regardless of wringing and breaking a heart
. Already to sorrow resigned.
This beautiful rose, had I shaken it less,
Might have bloomed with its owner a while:
.And the tear that is wiped with a little address,
May be followed, perhaps, by a smile.

G. Are there any exclamations in these
sentences?
Mr. 8. Only .one. Look carefully, and see
if you can find it. Then select the nouns, the
pronouns, the adjectives, and every other part
of speech, in regular order; keeping your attention fixed on but one part of speech at a time.
By doing so you will prevent confusion. 'rhis
will be an analytical ex·ercise. You have had a
· good s1nthetic exercise in putting · wordij to•

gether into sentences,

·

·I

I

I

CONVERSATION SECOND.
CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATION OF NOUNS AND .
PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

.\

F. Good morning, Mr. Smith.
Mr. 8. Good morning, sir. ' Young gentle·
men and ladies, and my little friends, excuse
me for this distant mode of address. I have not
yet become familiar with your names:. so I ad·
dress you all in general terms. I was so busy
yesterday in organizing classes, that I could not
learn your proper names. I therefore use your
common names ; and call you children, scholars,
gentlemen arid ladies, friends, &c. These names
do not distinguish one individual s?holar from
the rest; but they are equally applicable to all

~'

r
st

NOUNS .AND PRO~OUNS.

ENGT,ISH
GRAMMAR.
... ' ... .
- ' : ..:
·., ..

~

~

~ · ·..

\

of you. To-day I must become familiar with
your proper names; ,and then I can address yo,u
individua!IY' so .as to disting_ui~h every one of ·
you from all the rest. _
·
R. Here are the names of all the scholars in
the grammar class written on this piece of paper.
Mr. S. I thank you; Ruth, for your assist·
ance. As I read yo ur names, you will respond
by taking yo,u r seats in front .i ust where you sat
yesterday. Albert. Dean, Delia Bliss, Emma
Bloomfield, Frnncis Smith, Gilbert Brown, Horace
Gray, Jam~s Kelly, Lucy White, Martha Jones,
Nancy Burns, Ruth Willi~ms, Stephen Aimwell,
Thomas Merry. Every one of these proper
names distinguishes an individual scholar in this •
class, whom it si1~les out from all the rest, as
you have just onserved in taking your seats.
How could I call you out individually with com·
mon names; such · as friend, sir, mister, ·miss,
gentleman, lady, boy, girl, &c. Grammarians
call proper names proper nouns, and common
names common nouns.

A propElr noun is the name of an individual.
A common notm is the name of a species
or class.
.G. Are :i.ll proper names proper nouns?. and
all common names common noun s ?
Mr. S. Certainly : all the propei· names 9f
men, women, and children, that you. can find in
your Bihle or hi story, and all the pi·oper nn,mes

of countriea, states, 'towns,

citie~,

villages, ~·ivera,

•

.;.
49

lakes, seas, islands, mountains, &c., that you can
find in your geography or atlas, are proper
nouns : and all the common names that are deiined in your dictionary are common nouns.
Domestic animals are generally dist~nguished by
proper names, as well as persons and · places..
What do you .call yo'Ur Canary birds, your cats
and dogs, your horses, cows and oxen to distinguish them from others ?
'
E. We call our Canary bird Jennie, our cat
Tom, '11.nd our dog Carlo. We have proper names
for all our horses, cows, and oxen.
·
L. I can easily distinguish proper and common nouns ; but I can't distinguish all the different sorts of pronouns.
M_r. S. The person speaking uses I instead
of his owp. name, and thou (or you) for the name
of tihe person spoken to, and -he, she, or i"t, for
the name of the person or thing spoken of. These
pronouns, with their plurals we ye or you, and they
are called personal pronouns; because they de·
signate the three persons in grammar; the first
the second, and the third : distinguishing th~
speaker, the person spoken po, and the person
spoken of.
·

A personal pronoun is a pronoun whose
,form designates its person .
The co::npound persoz::al pronouns are myself,.
thyself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves
and themselves.
.
J. What is that in this sentence? "I have lost
the book that you gave me."
D

.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

ENGLISH GRAM;MAR.

Mr. S. That stands for book and connects
you gave me" to "I have lost the bo~k." It
is, therefore, properly called a connective pro· ·
noun.

A distributive pronoun• is .a pronoun
that represents the persons or things that
make up a number as t\tken separately and
singly.
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun
that precisely points out what it repFesents.
An indefinite prorioun is a pronoun used
indefinitely.

11

A connective pronoun is a pronoun that
connects different parts of ·a sentence.
The connective pronouns are who, which, that,
what, as, whoever, whoso, whosoever, whatever, what·
soever, whichever, and whichsoever.
When the pronoun wlto, whi'ch or what is used

•

to ask a question it is properly called an interrogative pronoun; as " Who are you? What
are you doing? Which do you prefer."
.

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun
that is used to ask a question.
J. There are several words in very common
use called adjective pronouns by some grammarians, and pronominal adjectives by others;
because they are sometimes used as pronouns,
and sometimes as adjectives. Which shall we
call them?
· Mr. S. When such WQrds are used as pronouns, call them pronouns; and adjectives when
they are used as adjectives.
·
·
.J. What shall we call such words as Murray
and' Bullions call distributive, demonstrative,
and ind.efinite adjective pronouns?
.
Mr. S. Distributive, demonstrative, and mdefinite pronouns, when they stand for nouns;
as " John and Charles worked yesterday for Mr.
Gray; and each received a dollar," ii The$e are
they." " &m.r; ar!;l ta4:en 1 trn4 pth~rq l!'Jft, ''

.

,

5i

•

f.

t

.i
1
\

'

'

'

J

!

The distributives are each, either and neither.
This that, these, those, both, same, former, and
latter a~e often used as demonstrative pronouns.
The words most commonly wsed as indefinite
pronouns are,_some, other, another, any, one, all1
such and none.*
•
,
Every animal is either male or female ; and
inanimate things are neither. To distinguish
males and females and things without sex, nouns
and pronouns have thatkind of variations which
grammarians call gender.
·

Gender is the distinction of objects witb
regard to sex.
. There are three genders ; the masculine, the
feminine, and the neuter.

The masculine gender denotes the male
·sex.
The feminine ·gender denotes the female
sex.
The neuter gender denotes neither sex.
iit See my larger Grammar, page 111.

52

/

NOUNS :-.AND PRONOUNS.

ENGLISH GR.A.MMA.B.

The names of males and the pronouns standing for them are in the masculine gender; the
names of females and the pronouns standing for
them are in the feminine gender; and the names
ofthings that are neither male nor femal~, when
used literally, and the pronouns star_idmg fqr
them are in the neuter gender. Ment10n some
,
· nouns in each gender.
H Boy, brother, poet, horse, and tiger, are in
the masculine gender; girl, sister, poet~ss, mare,
and tigress, are in the feminine gender ; and tree,
book and poem are in the neuter gender.
,
Mr. S. Tell me the gender of the pronouns,
he, she, and it.
.
.
. .
. .
G. He is masculme, she is femmme, and it is
neuter.
Mr. S. Have we any other pronouns that are
varied on account of gender'?
R. None that are varied in form: but all of
them are varied in sense; for every pronoun r~­
presents,the noun it stands for in gen~er, as well
as in number, and of course must. be m the same
gender that its antecedent is.
Mr. S. Now, as I write on the blackboard
some nouns in the masculine gender, write on
your slates .t he corresponding terms in the femi·
nine.
Bachelor, beau, buck, drake, friar, gentleman.
E Maid, belle, doe, duck, nun, lady.
Gander, hart, husband, lad, lord, man, mast~r.
N. Goose, roe, wife, lass, lady, woman, mistress.
Nephew, ram, steer, uncle, wizard, abbot,

L.

.

~

•

53

Niece, ewe, heifer, aunt, witch, abbess.
Count, duke, executor, governor, -heir, hero,
mayor,, peer, priest, prince, songster, sorcerer,
sultan.
.
A. _Countess, duchess, e~ecut;ess, go:rernor·
ess, heiress, heroess, mayoress, peeress, priestess,
princess, songstress, sorcereress, sultaness.
Mr. S.. If you di~cover any error, raise your
hands. There's one hand up. Correct the error,
Martha. ·
_
M. I discover severa,l errors. Executress,
governoress, heroess, and sorcereress, should be ex·
.
ecutrix, governess, heroine and sorceress.
Mr. S. Reader,~peaker, writer, parent, child,
orphan.
S. These nouns have the same form in each
gender.
·
Sailor, pirate, captain, general, admiral.
_
· F. For these nouns we have no corresponding terms in the feminine gender.
Mr. S. As I write a few nouns in the masculine gender, write the corresponding terms in the
neuter gender.
King, earl, abbot, aqtor, emperor, peer, poet,
priest, sorcerer.
·
T. Kingdom, earldom, aboey, action, empire,
peerage, poem, priesthood, sorcery.
Mr. S. Write some nouns so as to express
but one person or thing with each noun~
D. Boy, girl, child, knife, box, peach.
Mr. S. · Now write these nouns so as to express more than· one with each of them.
G. Boys, girls, children, knives, boxei, peachei.

.. -·
64

•

65

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

NOUNS .AND PRONOUNS.

Mr. 8. Compare these nouns~ and see how
they are varied, and wherein they differ. This
kind of variation we call number.

somethi.ng spoken qf. lI~~c~ ~u~ses that ".'ariation of nouns l,l.ll\i pxon,oµui:i w4ich grammarians
c.all person.

Number is the distinction of unity and
plurality.
·

· Person is th1:1 distinction of the person
speaking, the person spoken to, and th'e
person or thing spoken of.
.·
·

There are two numbers; the singular and the
plural.

•

The singular nu~ber denotes but on~.
The plural number denotes more than.
one.
Write boolc, class, church, flash, tax, and torpedo,
in the plural number. Read what you have
written.
E . Books, classes, churches, flashes, ta:x:es;
torpedoes.
·
J:fr. S. What is added to these nouns to make
them plural?
E To book s is added, and es to all the others.
Is the plural number always formed by adding
s or es to the singular?
Mr. 8. Generally, but not · always. ·Write
man, woman, ox, goose and mouse, in the plural;
and you'll see.
L. Men, women, oxen, geese; mice. 0 1 I
see 1 These are deviations from the usual mode
offorming the plural, which is therefore said · to
be irregularly formed.*
¥r. 8. In every discourse there must. be a
person speaking and somebody spoken to au,\i

The :fh·st person denotes the speaker.
The second person denotes the person
or thing spok~11 to.
The thfrd per$oll' denotes the person or
thing spoken of.

·~.,
\

,

: .'

• See my larger Gramm11.r, p. 11~.

/

. .

Select the nouns and pronouns in these examples, and tell us what person each of them is
in.
King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?
I know that thou believest.
J. King Agrippa and thou are in the se_cond
person, because they denote the person spoken
to; prophets is in the third person, beca~s~ it denotes the persons spoken of; and I 1s m the
first person, because it denotes the speaker. ·

J

Men and brethren, I have lived in all g\>od consci.enc~ beforo
God until this day.
.
Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Thou art permitted to speak
for thyself. Then Paul stretched forth the hand and answered
f<>• hiwself: I think myself happy, kjng Agrippa, because ,I
~)lall answer for myself this day before thee tou.ching all the
. things whereof I o.m accused of the Jews.*
•Read the rest
pronoun ii.II!•

: .

.

There are three persons; the first, the second,
. and the third.
·

or th!i chapter and
_

tell what peraon each nou.n &Dd
'
·

al
et
tn·

,!

,56

57

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.1t

NOUNS .A.?fD PRONOUNS.

D11ar Lord I and shall we ever Un·
l.t this poor dying rate?
Our love so faint, so cold to thee,
.And thine to us so great? .
Come, Holy Spirit, heavenly Dove,
With all thy quickening powers;
Come, shed abroad a_Savior's love,
.A.nd that shall kindle ours.

in form, and how the nouns and pro?ouns b?th
are varied in position, to show their construct10n
in the sentence. Such variations of our nouns
and pronouns we call case.

J. Is person really a variation of nouns .and
pronouns?
Mr. 8. Yes: it is a variation in their application; not in their form. Nouns a~d so;ne coi;i.nective pronouns, though not vaned m ~heir
form on account of person, are varied in their
application; being variously applied so as to be
in different persons. But some pronouns are
always in the same person. · Each of the personal
pronouns designates one of the three persons and
no others: I and we are always in the first per?On ; thou, ye and you, in the second ; and he, she,
it, and they, in the third. T~ere are se.veral other
pronouns that are always m · the third pe!}>on.
Nouns are never in the first person.*
H. Have nouns and pronouns any other variations?
.Mr. S. In speaking and writing we vary the
form of pronouns to express the subjects and the
objects of our thoughts, and frequently c_hange
the position of our nonns and pronouns m th~ I
sentence ; as, "Charles kicked the horse, and th~
horse kicked him." "I knocked off H enry's hat;
then he struck me, and I struck him." See how
these pronouns, as we use them to express !he
subject and the object of a thought, are vaned
.. See my

lar~er

Grammar, pages 95, 96, and

Case is that form or position of a noun
or pronoun which shows what construction .it has in the sentence~ · ·
i

·~!I

I

.1
v

I
·
\1
1

Ii
i'

Our nouns and pronouns.have but thre~ ca~es;
the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

The nominat:We case simply denotes the
name of a person or thing or the subject
of a thought.
.
.
The possessive case denotes possession
or ownership.
The obj'ective case denotes the object of
a thought or of a relation.

r

In every sentence, the verb is the key to .its
construction. Find the verb, and you can easily
ascertain the cases. Inquire with who or what
before it, and the answer will be in the nominative .case, expressing the subject of ~he thought
expressed by the verb. Inquire with whom or
what after it, or after a preposition; and ~he
. answer will be in the objective case, expressmg
the object of the thought expressed by the .v:erb
or of the relation expressed by the prepos1t10_n.
Inquire with whose before a noun and you will
find the possessive case. Try this sentence; and
you'll see: "I dron Albert'a horiie before my
carria~e." .

a\
.er
Ill-

9~ .
, ·

58

.· ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

E. Here drove is the verb. Who drove ? I.
Then I is in the nominative case the subject of
drov~. I drove what? Horse. Then horse is in
the obj ective case, the object of drove. Whose
hoi:se. Albert's. Then Alb~rt's is in the possessive case. Before what'? Carriage. Whose
carriage? Mj; carriage. Then carriage is in th~
objective case; and my, in the pos~essive.
· Select the nouns and pronouns m these sen·
tences, and tell what case each of them is in.
Laziness traveli slowly: Poverty soon overtakes J;iiw.
I care for nobody, and nobody cares for me.
·
If you neglect your friends, they will neglect you.
\Vhen our paRsions have forsaken us, we flatter ourse!ves
that we have forsaken thew.
·
Charity, like the sun, brightens every object 01,1 which it
shines.
Forgive us our debts; as we forgive our debtors.
I opened not my mouth, because thou didst it.
In my father's house are many mansions.
· Ye shall know the truth ; and the truth shall ma.kc you free,
Whe1,1 we shut the gate of ·m_crcy on others, we sh\lt it Q\l
ourselves.
If you do not overcome bad habits, they will overcome !oµ,
Time conquers all, and we must time ob e:l'..
When science from Creation's face
Enchantment's veil withdraws,
What lovely visions yield their ·place
To cold materi!ll l<iws l

The declension of a noun or pronoun is
a reg. tular. presentation of its vari1;ttion3 in

· nµmQer and case.

Nouns are thus declined:

. 1)9

NQD'N,6 AND rao.NO.U.NS.
Singular.
\

I

Nom.
Poss.
~ Ooj.

Child,
Child's,
Child,

1,u~11l'.

Plural.

Children. ·
Children's.
Children.

Norn.
Pou,
Obj.

· · rlural,

Boy,
Boy's,
Boy,

Boys.
Boys'.
Boys.

If you examine this declension, you will see
that nouns. have no variations in form on accoirn~
of case except in the possessive, wh_ich is marked
with an apostrophe ands. But m the J?lur~l
number, when it ends in s, the apo.stroph1c s is
omitted.
'
.
The personal pronouns are thus declined :
·

j

Singular.

Noni . . I,
First person any gender.
Puu. My,
{ Obj. Me.
·
{ Nom. Thou,
Second person any gender. Pou. Thy,
.
.
Obj. Thee.He,
Third person masculine {Norn.
Pou. His,
gender.
. Obj. Him.
rhird person feminine.

Thirg person neutei.\

{Nom.
Pou.
Obj.
Nom.
Pou.
{ Obj.

She,
Her,
Her.
It,
It!!,
It.

Plural.

Nom.
Pos,,
Obj.
Nol'fl.
Pou.
Obj.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Nom.
Pou.
Obj. ·

We,
Our,
Us.
Ye or .You,
Your,
You.
They,
Their,
Them.
They,
Their,
Thell!.

Nom.

They,

Obj.

Thell1.

!'ou. Their,

When you have committ~d this declension
thoroughly. to meniory you wrll l,cnow the number, person, an'd case of every persopal prono_nn
by its form, and also the ger;iqer of the third
person singular.
.
. .
· .
J. There are three ex:cept10ns., Mr. Smith :
her has the same form in the posses!!i ve a~d the
objectiv~ case; and yo'!' a~d it, the :aame lP. . the
nominative and the obJect1ve.

..
ENGLISH GRA.MM.A.R.

ADJEOTIVES · A.ND .ADVERBS.

Mr. S. How many kinds of variations have
nouns and pronouns?
N. Four; gender, number, person, and case.
L. Are adjectives declined?
Mr. S. They are in Latin, but not in English.
Our adjectives have no variations but compari·
son.
E. Have adverbs any variations?
Mr. S. A few of them are varied by compari·
son.

.M. Fast is .in the positive degree; faster is in
the comparative; an~fastest is.in the superlative.
Mr. S. Take notice of these words, and see
how they are compared.
H. They are compared by adding er and est
t.o the positive.
.
.
Mr. S. When the posi#ve ends in e nothing
but r and st is added; as, noble, nobl,er, noblest.
We generally use more and most before adjectives
and adverbs of more than one syllable; · varying
them in sense, but not in form: as, pkasant, more
pkasant, most pleasant,: pleasantly, more pkasantly,
·
most pkasantly. *
We have some words in common use that are
il'regularly compared: as, good, . better, best; bad,
worse, worst; little, less, kast; much, more, most.
E. How many kinds of adjectives are there?
Mr. S. Different grammarians. .classify them
very differently; some making half a dozen
classes; ~nd some, a dozen, all of which embar·
rass ·more t4an they instruct the learner. To
avoid perplexity we will divide them into three
classes; proper, common, and compound.
. A proper adjective is an adjective derived
from a proper noun ; as, Italian, Spanish, Chinese.
A common adjective is a simple adjective not
derived from a proper noun, with a common
signification established by general use; .a11, good,
. sweet, foreign, different, s~eral, one, two, three, anv,
some, a, an, the, this, that, own. ·
A compound adjective is one that is composed
of two or more words united by a hyphen; as

60·

Compari.son is a variation of an adjective
o~ adverb to express its signification in
different degrees.
·
.
.
There are three degrees of comparison; the
positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

The positive simply expresses the . signification of an adjective or adverb; the
comparative expresses it in a higher degree; and the superlative expresses it in
the highest degree.
Select the adjectives and adverbs in these
and tell what degree each of them is
m.
· Here is a sour apple ; that is sourer; and this
is the sourest apple that I ever tasted. James'
reads too fast; Charles reads faster than James;
and Gilbert reads the fastest of the three.
•: ·R. · Sour is in the positive degree; sourer is
in~the comparative; and sourut i2 in thi 2uper·
lativ;i.

~entences,

J
.1
l

•See my

lar~er

Grammar, page 132.

,-

•

i\

62·

..,

· NOUNS .AND PRONOUNS.

ENGLISit GR.A.MM.AR.

grim-visaged, leanfaced, hollow-eyed, sharp-looking,
goodjor-nothing. •
·

•

·Common adjectives may be subdivided into
several different classes; numeral, descriptive, .'
definitive, ind_efinite, distributive, intensive,
participial, interrogative, connective, &c. But
this classification is more curious than useful.
D. How many sorts of ad verbs have we?
Mr. S. Some grammarians divide altd subI ,
divide them into fii;een or twenty different
classes. But these nice distinctions are of little'
use in analyzing or correcting sentences. They
~
perplex and puzzle more than they instruct.
\
I
You may now review your lesson, so that I
can see if you remember what I have told you
\,
.. ··
''
about the classification and the variations of
nouns and pronouns, adjectives and adverbs,
and bow well you understand the practical ap.plication of the ~beory that you have ~earned.
You that have JUSt begun: to study gramma,.
answer all the questions, if you ca\.. What kind
of nouns are Peter, Mary, and Jerusalem.
· ·
H. Proper nouns, because they are prop~_.1
names, the names of individuals: Peter is tltQ -.
·'
name of an individual man, Mary the name of
an individual woman, and Jerusalem the name
of an individual city.
Mr. S. Are vz,an, woman, and city, proper or
common nouns?
. ·
G. They are common nouns, because each of
t·
them is the name of a species or class: there are
a great many men, women, and cities. .
Mr. S. In what gender are these nouns?

•• •

•

. .:. A. Man is in the mascµlirie gender, because
it denotes the male sex: it is the name of a male.
So is Peter. Woman is in the feminine gender,
because it denotes the female sex: .it is the name
of a female. So is Mary. Jerusalem is in the
neuter gender, because it denotes neither sex: it
- is the !tame of a city, which is neither male nor
female. ·
· ' Mr. S. Pick out the 'nouns in what I say, and
then tell whether they are . proper or common,
16nd what gender each of them is in..: "See John
~ · and Ida gathering flowers."

\ ·1

I: •
·~

•

68

. D. John is a proper noun, in the masculine gender; lda is
3 proper noun, in the feminine gender; and jlou;p1 is a' common noun, in the neuter gender.
•
· Now there stood by the cross of ,Jesus his mother, and his
mother's sister, Mary · the wife .of Cleophas, and Mary Mag.
dalene.
· N. Oroas is a common noun, in the neuter gender; ·Jesus is
a proper noun, in the masculine gE:nder; mother and ai&ter ¥IJ
common nouns, in the feminine gender ; Mary is a proper notM,
. in the feminine gender; wife is a common noun, in the feminille
gender; Oleophas is a proper noun i:Ji the ·masculine gender; and
Mary MG.f!,dalene is a proper noun, in, the feminine gender;

· Mr. S.

In what number is John?
E. In .the singular number, because it denotes
but one.
Mr. S. In what number isftowers?
H. In the plural number, because it denotes
more than one.
Mr. S. Distinguish the different kinds of
nouns and pronouns in what I read, and tell what
gender and number each of the:m is in. ;
·'
. I am not mad, most noble Festus; but speak forth the words
of truth and soberness.
·

-

-

NOUNS .A.ND PRONOUNS.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

•

G. I is a personal pronoun, -i.!l the masculine gender and_

singular number; Ji'~tus is a proper noun, in the masculine
gender and singular number; word& is a common noun, in the
neuter gender and plural number; truth and soberness are common nouns, in the neuter gender 11nd singul11r number. ·

D. Why is Iin the masculine gender?
.
Mr. 8. Because Paul, the noun for which it
stands, is : a pronoun must be in the same gender •
and number that its antecedent is. In what per- ·
son is I?
N. . In the :first person, because it denotes the
speaker.
_
·
.
Mr. 8. In what person is Festus 'I
A. In the second person, because it denotes
the person spoken to. Words is in the third
person, because it denotes the things spoken of;
.and so are truth and so'berness.
Mr. 8. Distinguish the different sorts of nouns
:and pronouns in what I read, and tell what
gender, number, and person, each of them is in.
And Naomi said, Turn again, my daughters: why will ye go
with me?
·
H. Naomi is a proper noun, in the feminine gender, singular
number, and third person; my is· a personal pronoun standing
for Naomi, in the feminine gender, singular number, and first person; daugMers is a common noun, in the feminine gender,
plural number, and second person; ye is a personal pronoun
standing for daughters, in the femmine gender, plural number,
and second person ; and me is a personal pronoun standing for
Naomi, in the feminine gender, singular number, and first person.

•

t

gend~r

J

H.

Because its ·antecedent, daughters, k

Why is we ·i n the masculine gender?
Because its antecedent~ disciples, is.
G. Why do you omit the gender of fishes 1 ·
J. Because I don't know whether the fiihlill
~ were male or fem~le.
·~

J.

R.

Why are my and me in the feminine
and singular number?
.
Mr. 8. Because their antecedent, Naomi, i!.
T. Why is ye in the feminine gender and
plural number?
·

Hr., 8.

Men; brethren, and fathers; hear ye my defense which I make
now unto you.
~
J.,. .Men, breth1·en, and fathers, are common µouns, in the
m!'sculine gander, plural Itumber, and second person; ye is a
personal pronoun standing for men, brethren, and f atliers, in the
miJ,Sculinc gender, plural number, and second person; niy is a
peraonal pronoun standing for Paul, in the mascullne gender,
singular numJ>er; and first p3rson; defense is a common noun, in
the neuter gender, singular number, and third person; which
is a coJinecti ve pr.onoun standing for defense, and connecting " I
make-now unto you" to "men, brethren, and fathers, hear ye
my defense," in the neuter gender, singular number, and third
pwaon. I is a personal pronoun standing for Paul, in · the
masculine gender, singular number, and first person; and you
- is a per~onal pronoun standing for· men, brethren, andfatliers, in
4'fe masculine gender, plural numbe!J.. and second person.
Who is this that cometh from E<liiml?
E. · Wlw is an interrogative pronoun, in the masculine
gender, singular number, and third person; this i . demOnf\trative pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular number, and
third pe.rson; that_is a connective pronoun stan.ding '.or tl1!8, and
connectu:ig "cometh from Edom" to "who is this," m the
masculine gender, singular number, .and third. person ; and Edom
is ·a proper noun, in the neuter gender, singular number, .and
·•
third person.
I looked and there was none to help.
'
'
R, ·I is a peraonal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, and first person ; and none is an indefinite pronoun, in
the singular number, and third person.
We have here but five .loaves and two fishes.
.[. We is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, plural
number, and first person; loave.iis a common noun, in the neuter
gender, plural number, and third person ; and jishes is a common no_un, in the plural number, and third. person.

•

lil

•
,E NGLISH GRAID!A:R.

•
t

,-

'

01 ·

Mr. 8. That's riglJ.t: when the gender is un:
determinedomit it, and then your omission of
gender will be significant.
I will now write on the black board tbe names of what I think of as subject. Men, women
children, ?ats and lions, are the subjects. Som~
of you write on your slates what you ' think of
them. ·Read what you have written.
•
E. Men build houses. Women love their
children.
~M. Children sometimes disobey their parents.
A. qats catch rats and mice, and eat them.
T. L10ns are brought from Africa and As.ia.
Mr. S. Now tell us the cases of tl!e nouns
and pronouns in these sentences.
R. Men denot~s the subject of the thought
expressed by ?m!d; and houses, the object:
therefore men 1s m the nominative case ·1. and
houses, in the objective.
Mr. S. For the sake of brevity, a noun or
pronoun that de_notes the subject of a thought,
. is called. the subject of the verb with which we
express it; and .one ~hat denotes the object of a
thought or re1a~1~m, is. called the objeet of the
verb. or prepos1t10n with which the thought or
rela~10n is expressed. Do you remember what ',
I said you must do to find all of the cases?
M. I rem.ember very well. You told us to
find the verlJs and prepositions in each sentence
then to ask a questio_n with wlw or what before~,
verb to find the nomrnative case, and with whom
or ,:wli?t after a :rerb or preposition to find the
objective, ~nd with whose before a noun to £nd
the ,Possessive. In the seoJe,nce I , have written,,

\

disobey is the verb. Who disobey? Childrep~
Then children is in the nominative case. Children
disobeywhom? Parents. Who~e parents? 1'lzeir
parents:. .Then parents .is in the objective ca~e;
and their m the possessive.
·
·
A. In my sentence catch and eat are the verbs.
What catch ? Cats. Then cats is in the nomin-

ative case. · Cats eatch what? Rats and mice
and eat what? Them. Then rats and mice ar~
in the objective case; and so is them.
.
T. Iu my sentence are brought is the verb an~
from a preposition. What are brought? Lions.
• Then.Zions is in the nominative case. From what?
Africa and Asia. -·'l,hen Africa and Asia are in
the objective case. ·
·
.
Mr . .· S. Distinguish the different kinds of
nouns and pronouns ·in these sent¥tces, and tell
what gender, numb~r, person, and case each ·of
them is in.
Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him. •
Joseph is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, third person, and nominative case.
Hi& is a personal pronoun, standing for Joseph, in the mas.
culine gender, singular number, third person, and possessive
case.
Bretliren is· a common noun, in the masculine gender plural
number, third person, and objective case.
' ·
Tliey is a personal pronoun standing for hretliren in the masculine gender, plural number, third pers9n, and 'nominative
case.
.
Him is a personal pronoun standing for Joseph, in the masculine gender, singular number, third person, and objective case.
Nom. be, Poss. his, Obj. him. Nom. they, Poss. their, Obj.
them ..
If you help others, they will help you.
E. You is a I?ers?Oal pronoUD, 41 tl;l~ plural v,uml>er, secov,d
person, and nommative case.
.
· '
~· .

. "\'

,

68

-

·ENGLISH .GR.A.MY.AR.

· 0th~& is an indefinite pronoun, in the plural number, third
person, and objective case.
·
Tliey is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third person, an'.l nominative case.
.. .
You is n personal.pronoun, in the plural number, second person, nnd objective case.
\
· We love him, because he first loved us. ·
. .
H. We is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first
person, and nominative case. .
· ~
.
.
II'= is a personal pronoun, m the masculine gender, smgullr
number, third person, and objective case.
He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, third person, and nominative case.
Ua is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, first person,
and objective case.
Johu's horse threw him and broke his arm while he: was
whipping him"severely with a rawhide. If we abuse our horses,
they will abuse us. Nature herself, in some degree, rewards us
for what we do. If you till your land, it will supply you with
food. If you neglect your gardens, they will yield you a crop
of weeds. If we violate the Jaws of honor, health, and wealth,
disgrace disease, and poverty, will soon overtake us. If we
cultivat~ bad habits, they will make us miserable.
Solomon my son, know thou the God of thy father, and serve
him with a perfect heart and with a willing mind: for the Lord
searcheth all hearts, and understandeth all the imaginations of
the thoughts: if thou seek him, he will be found of thee: but
_if thou forsake him, he will cast thee oil' for ever. .

When the proud steed shall know why man restrains
His fiery course, or. drives him o'er the plains;
When the dull ox why now he breaks the clod,
Is now a victim, and now Egypt's god;
Then shall man's pride 11nd dulness comprehend
His actions', passions', being's, use and end.

· Mr. 8. You have now learned to parse nouns
and pronouns etymologically.
G. What! have we been parsing all this .
time?
Mr. 8. Yes: you h_ave learned to classi~y our
nouns and pronouns and distinguish all their

.lDJECTIVES .A.ND'

I:

)

~VERBI!!.

69

variations; This is etymological parsing.. De-:i·
vation is a part of etymology to be ~pphed m
parsing derivatives, but not in parsing primitivS.
words like the nouns and pronouns that you parsed just .now. · ·
·
·
L. 'rell us how.to parse adjectives and adverbs.
Mr. 8. In parsing such as are varied by com·
parison, tell whether they are in the positive, the
comparative, or the superlative degree; and compare them. ·· You may also mention the derivation of derivatives, and tell what prefixes and
suffixes are used:* Parse etymologically the
adjectives and adverbs in these sentences.
You r~ad too fast to be a good reader.
M. Too is an adverb, not varied by comparison.
Fast is _an adverb, in the positive degree. Pos. fast, Com.
faster, Super. fastest. .
Good is an adjective in the positive degree, Pos.4'ood, Com.
better, Super. best.
.
These goods· are unsalable.
R. Tltelie is an adjective, not varied by comparison. ._ _
Umalable is an adjective, not varied in form by compa1'!ltln,
derived from ~ale by adding the suffix able and the prefix un.
· What beautiful birds! they sing most beautifully.
H. What is an adjective, not varied by comparison.
Beaut~ful ~s an adjective, not varied in form by comparison,
~
derived from beaut,'I/ by adding the suftix/ul.
Most is an advei·b, in the superlative degree, Pos. much, Com.
more, Super. most.
·
BeautVully is an adverb, not varied in form by compa1ison,
derived from beautiful by adding the suffix ly• .
Of all the affections that attend human life, the love of glory
is the most ardent. Let us consider what is truly glorious, and
distinguish that which is empty, perishing, and frivolous, from
what is solid, lasting, and important. How carefully ought the
true notion of it to be preserved, and hoiv industrious · should
•See my larger Grammar; ·page 1116;

~t,.

70

NOUNS

ENGLIS:S: GRA.MM:A.R.

•See W~b11ter'a

Diotion~ry

v,nd

Sr.n!le;'~

J.n&lyaia.

fRO~OJiN!.

J. Wherein does syntactical· parsing differ
from etymological parsing.'? . ~
Mr. s.· _To show you the dtfference, I wiU
parse syntactically the nouns and pronouns, ad·
jectives and adverbs, in a fow sentences.

we be j;o encourage any impulses towards it! Truth.will eTer
keep its station ; ana as glory is nothing else than the shadow
of virtue, i~ will certainly disappear at her departure. Shall
then the base arts of the Frenchman be held polite, and the
~onest labors of the Russian barbarous? No: barbarity is ·the
ignorance of true honor. The unjust prince is ignoble and
barbarous, the good prince only renowned and ~lorious.
.

D. What is the meaning of derivation, and
of primitive and deriyative?
·
. Mr. 8. . Derivation is' the drawing or tracing
of a word from its root or original.
A primitive word is one that is not derived
/
from any '.l'V'ord in our language.
A derivative word is one that is derived from
some other word in our language.
~ derivative word is generally formed by
addmg a suffi_x or prefix to a primitive; as, kind,
kindly, kindness, unlcind; do, doer, doings, outdo,
overdo, undo.
·.
J. Are not some English words derived from
words in other languages?
Mr. 8. Certainly. But in studying English
grammar we are not required to trace the derivation of our words beyond the English Ian- •
guage. A great many words that are primitive as
far as our language is concerned are derivative,
if we trace their derivation into other languages;
which is the province of the lexicographer: contradict, predict, convene, intervene, conclude, ex·
elude, include, and preclude, though primiti.ve
words in English, if we trace them into Latin,
are derived from dico, venio, and -cludo, by prefixing contra, pre, con, inter, ex and in.*

.A.NP

t -."

,

1

·Joseph's ten brethren went down to buy corn in Egypt.
Joseph's is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, third person, anrl possessive case; .dep.oting the possesslon of brethren, according to Rule 3 : " A noun or pron·Jun
that denotes possession or ownership must.be in the possessive
case."
Ten is an )adjective; belonging to b1·etlmm-1,'!._ule 8: "An
adjective belong• to a nouu or pronoun." Brethren is a common noun, in the masculine gender, plural
number, third person, and nominative case; the subject of the
verb went-Rule l.*
Down ia an adverb; belonging to went-Rule 12.
Oorn is a common noun, in the _neuter gender, singular number, third person, and objective case; the object of the· verb to
buy-Rule _2.
.
,
Egypt is a proper noun, in the neuter gender, singul11r num·
ber, thili!l person, and Objective ciise; the object of the proposition in-Rule 2. ·
Joseph remembered t)le dreams._which he dreamed of tllem.
Joseph is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, 5iµgular _
number, third person, and nomiuative case; the s~ect of the
verb remembered-Rule 1. ·
..
The is an adjective; belonging t.o (i'reaim-Rule 8.
·
Dreams is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, thirJ person, and obj_ectivti case; the object of ruaembered
-Rule 2.
Wliich is a connective pronoun, connecting "he dreamed of
them" to "Joseph remembered the dreams," in the neuter
gender, plural number, and third person; agreeing with its
antecedent dreams-Note 8 to Rule 7: and in the objective
·case; the object of the verb dreamed-Rule 2.
He is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and singular
number; agreeing with its antecedent Joseplt-Rule 7 : in the
thii·J person, and nominative case; the subject of dreamed-Rule 1.
.
·
ti~:~¥~ (i:'i~:~~e 0 }n,~~~;¥ ~.!'ti'.~t!.~l!Y:! ~l 7'?.11 learn tile appllca-

-.

A

1~_'

\~

NOUNS .A.ND PRONOUNS.

:Jj:NGLISH GRAMMAR.

Them is a personal pronoun, in the masculine gender, and.-plurnl number; agt,eeing with 'its antecedent brethren-Rule 7:
in the third person, and objective case; the object of the pro·
position of-Rule 2.
•
•
· The sweetest flowers soon Jose their fragrance.
The is an adjective; belonging to flowers-Rule 8.
Sweetest is an adjective, in the superlative degree; belonging
to fiowei·s-Rule 8.
Flowers is a common noun, in the neuter gender, plural number, third person, and nomi,p.ative case; the subject of lose-.
Rule 1. ·
Soon is an adverb, in the positive degree; belonging to loso
-Rule 12.
Their is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender, and plural ·
number; agreeing with its antecedent flowers-Rule 7 :_ in the
third person, and possessive case; denoting the possession of
fragrance-Rule 3.
Fragrance is a common noun, in the neuter gender, singular
number, third person, ru+d objective case; the object of loseRule 2.
Cicero, the orator, was a Roman citizen.
Cicero is a proper noun, in the masculine gender, singular number, third person, and nominative case; the subject of was-Rule 1.
J lie is an adjective ; belonging to orator-Rule 8.
Orator is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, third person, and nominative case; in apposition with
Cicero-Rule 4.
- A and Roman are adjectives; belonging to citizen-Rule 8.
Cit·izen is a common noun, in the masculine gender, singular
number, third person, and nominative case; predicated of Oicero
the subject of was, and agreeing with it in case-Rule 5;*
But Jesus said, suffer little children, and forbid them not, to
come unto me; for of such is the kingdom of heaven.
I am the good shepherd : the good shepherd giveth his life
for the sheep.
Our journey is a thorny maze,
But we march upward still;
Forget these troubles of the waJ8,
.And reach at Zion's hill. _
See the kind angels at the gate5,
Inviting us to come!
There Jesus, the forerunner, waits
To· welcome travelers home.
•See my lar11er Grammar, paga US-1::0.

Happy the man, whose c_autious feet
Shun· the broad way which sinn.e~o,
Who hates the place where atheists· meet,
.And fears to tnlk as scoffers do.
He loves to employ his morriing light
.Amongst the .s tatutes of the .Lord,
.And spends the wakeful hours of night,
- With pleasure, pond'ring .o'er his word.

•

J. In etymological parsing, we distinguish
the parts of speech, and tell the variations of declinable words and the derivation of derivatives:
in syntactical parsing, after telling all their variations, we show what construction they have in
the sentence '\ve are parsing, and apply the rules
of syntax.
Mr. S. ·Exclamations, prepositions, and con·
nectives, have no variations; and most of them
are primitive words. So we . will not trylt
parse them ety:mologically.
R. Don't it require a little knowledg · !
syntax to distinguish the parts o_f speech? · an
we tell what part of speech a word belongs to
·
without observing its construction?
Mr. S. - No: the same word may be used in
different parts of speech according to the office
it performs in sentences. we know what part
of speech a word belongs to by observing how
it is applied in making sentences; and we must
parse each word accm;ding to its application in
the sentence we are parsing. EtymologJ, in this
respect, is very near allied to syntax. Now and
then we find a word that may.be used in three
or four different parts of speech ; as, ·"We iron
carriages with the best kind of iron, and put in
good iron axletrees." "This round stiek is the

·,

6

.

•'74
.

,_

EN'GLISlI GRAMMAB. ·
.

round of a chair. It was rounded with a chisel,
cutting round it as it turned round in the lathe."
" The cuckoo sings cuckoo I cuckoo!"
·.
He that a watch would wear two things must do·
Pocket his wawh; and watch his pocket too. ·
'

• you see that we depen,d on syntax more
· So,
than etymology in distinguishing the parts of
speech.
J. How can we parse exclamations syntactic:ill y, when they have no dependent construction?
Mr. S. Call them exclamations, and let them
go without a rule of svntax; for a ne()"ative rule
in parsing is absurd : "it i::-; the end ~nd aim of
syntactical parsing to tell what construction each
word has, and not what it bas not.
T.. H.ow shall we parse prepositions, and connectives?
Mr. S. Tell the relations that the prepositions
express, and what the connectives connect as
.you have already learned to do, and then at~ply .
the rules of syntax. This any of you can do~
Some of Y?~l thn.t never stu~ied grammar parse
the prepos1ttons and connect! ves in this sentence:
"The boys and girls in this school learn, because
they attend to tlieir studies."
· ·
· -·
H. .An.a is~ conn.e?tive; connecting girls to boys-Rule 13.
. E. ln 1s a. prepos1t1on; expressing the relation of boys a,_nd
9irls to school-Rt1le 1 I.
G. Because is a connective; eonnectin" "they ·attend to
their stutlies" to "the boys and girls in this school learn"Rule 13.
'
·
· M; 1h is a preposition i expressing tbe relation, 9f at~n4 .~o
•l!'dief..,..,Rµle 11. .
·
· •
: ·' "

vARLlTION'S OF

VE.RBS•

Mr: S. Well done I you've parsed these words
as well as any old granimarians can parse t)lem.
Can you parse all the parts of speech 7
H . All of them except the verbs.
- Mr. S. Verbs require more study than all th'e
other parts of speech. I will explain them
thoroughly next week.
·

•a

CONVERSATION THIRD.
CLASSIFICATION AND V.A.RIATIONS OF VERBS

Mr. 8. See that little child·observing nil the
,act:obs of the larger children, who are pla_ying
round him. See him try to imit~te them. What
is he learning to do?
T. · He is learning to act like other children.
. J. He is learning ,to think: what they arf
doi~g; ~or, unl.ess he ~as cc:rrec~ impressions
their aet10ns mirrored m his mmd as though
to guide him, he· can never imitate them: he
must think correctly what he is about to do before he can do it.
· Mr. 8. J i.rtnes, you are right. We all must
think correctly before we can act correctly, and
receive correct impressions· before we can think
correctly. Thought and action are reciprocal:
what we do depends on wh.a t we think, and
what we think depends oa what .is dOlle a.rouud

,.

,.

15

E?illLISH GRAMMAR.

us. Thoughts are first impressed upon our
minds by outward actions, as ideas are by out"
ward objects. Children learn to think by carefully observing what is done around them; and
they "make their thoughts manifest by actions
long. before they can express them in words.
We frequently see children and foreigners use
gestures instead of ·verbs to communicate their
thoughts, and imitate sounds witji their voices.
Nothing is more easy and natural than to express
th~ thoughts w~i~h ~ounds impress upon our
mmds by vocal im1tat10ns of them. Hence arise
such verbs as buzz, hiss, hum, coo, caw, mew1 whiz
&c., which, like exclamations, are the ger ms of
speech, the voice of nature. Children use such
words, at first abruptly, as exclamations to express the feelings that the sounds excite; as,
buzz I hum I coo! But when they learn to trace
effects to theii; causes, and as0ribe attributes to
subjects, they begin to think from what the
sounds proceed, and use these words deliberately
as verbs united with subjects to express their
thoughts; as, "Flies buzz; bees hum; doves coo."
.M. I've heard some children say, dogs bow .
wow.
Mi·. 8. _T hat is a closer vocal imitation of
soµnd than to say, dogs barlc, y_t;lp, whine, or
·growl.
·
G. Don't these verbs express actions instead
~~oo~ts?
·
Mr. §. All the actions we observe · must be
impressed upon the mind, and there converted
into thoughts, before they are expressed in

.-'

. .
language; See if any of you 'can express my
actions without thinking what I do.
.
A. y OU rise from your seat, _and walk across
the room; you pick up that book, and ,give it to
Ruth; you bow to her, and wave your hand.
Mr. .S. Select the verbs in what Albert has
just said.
JJ. Rise, walk, pick, give, bow, wave. '
S. Do these verbs express thoughts, or
act10ns?
R. They express thoughts : with them Albert
told what he thought of you. .
·
N. They express actions: with them he told
what you di<l.
·
·
Mr. 8. He told wJiat he thought I C:id. Do
·
you observe these actions now?
· NI '\Vby, no: they have entirely ceased, and
have nd" more existence now than if they had
never been.
·
Mr. 8. How do you know. they ever did
exist?
N. I have clear impressions of them in my
memory: I remember every action.
·
Mr. S. These impressions in your memory
are thoughts, already modified by reflection,
wJiich has superadded the idea of past time to
· tha~ o_f action. Now these thoughts · require a
var1at10n of the verbs to express them.
· J. I see! l see l We must express them so
as to denote past time ; · th us, you rose from your
seat, and wallced across the r9om, you picked up
-that book, and gave it to Ruth; you bowed to her,
and waved your hand,
.

-¥r.

78

ENGLISH GIU:M'M.llt.

Mr. S. Now write "these sentences, ai;id take
particular :iotice ho"\ the verbs are varied to de·
note past time.
H. All of them but rise and give are varied
in a regular manner: they have d or ed added.
Therefore, they are regular verbs. These two
verbs are not varied according to any regular
method. So they are called irregu,lar ver'es. ·

79

Mr. S. . Select the verbs.in the sente~ces t.hat
I ;epeat, and tell me whether j;hey are regular
or irregular.
· . It is spring: the sun shines, the flowers bloom, the birds
sing, the lambs skip and play.

G. Is, shines, and sing, are irregular verbs ;
.
.and bloom, skip, and play, are regular.

A regular verb is a verb whose past
tense and perfect participle are formed by
adding ed to its present tense, _or d only
when it ends in e.
.An irregular verb is a verb whose .past
tense and perfect participle are not formed
by adding ed to its present tense, or d
only when it ends in e.
·
Mr. S. Is talk a regular or an irregular verb?
J. Let me see l I talk, I talked, I have talked.
Regular, because its past tense and perfect par·
ticiple are formed .by adding ed to its present
tense.
Mr. S. Is smile regular or irregular?
R. I smile, I smiled, I have smiled. Regular,
because its past tense and perfect participle are
formed by adding d to its present tense which
ends in e.
.
Mr. S. Is speak regular or irregular?
E. I speak, I spoke, I have spoken. Ir·
regular, because its past tense and perfect par·
ticiple are not formed by adding ed to it~ presept
tense, or d only.
·

v.A.Rr.A.TroNs -·o:r nRns.

. \

·

By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat d.own, yea, we wept,
.
.when we remembered Zion.
He meets us in the gloomy vale,
Supports us when we die;
He speaks when flesh and spirit fail,
"Fear not, for it is I."

J. How can we always tell whether a verb
is regular or irregular?
Mr. S. By committing to memor_y the list of
irregul.if verbs. Can any ofy ou write them on
the bla'Ck-board? Ruth, you may write them in
the present tense .; and Emma, in the past; and
Nancy, in the perfect participle.
Pr.eaent.
(

II

\
~

...

I

..

Abide,
Am,
Arise,
Awake,
Bear,•
Bear,f
Beat,
Begin,
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind,

Past.

abode,
was,

arose,
awoke, R.
bare,
bore,
beat,
began,
bent,
bereft, R.
besought,
bid, bade,
bound,

•Bear to b~ forth.

.,

.

Pert. Part.

abode.
been.
arisen.
a waked.
born;
borne.
beaten, beat.
begun.
bent.
bereft, R.
besought.
· bidden, bid.
·bound.
· tBeartocarry.

"

"

8()

"V

-·

J

ENGLISH GR.A.VYAR.

bitten, bit.
bit,
Bite,
bled.
bled,
Bleed,
blown.
blew,
Blow,
broken.
broke,
Break,
bred.
bred,
Breed,
brought.
brought,
Bring,.
built, R.
built, R.
Build,
burst.
burst,
Burst,
bought.
bought,
Buy,
cast.
cast,
Cast,
caught, R. ·
caught, R.
Catch,
cilidden,
chid.
ch id,
Chide,
chosen.
chose,
Choose,
cleft, cloven.
clove, cleft,
Cleave,"
clung.
clung,
Cling,
clothed, clad.
clothed,
Clothe,
come.
came,
Come,
cost.
cost,
Cost,
. crept.
crept,
Creep,
crowed.
Crow, ·
crew, R.
cut.
cut,
Cut,
dared.
durst, R.
Dare,f
dealt, R.
dealt, R.
Deal,
dug, R.
dug, R.
Dig,
done.
did,
Do, .
drawn.
drew,
Draw,
dreamt, R.
dreamt, R.
Dream,
drunk, drank.
drank,
Drink,
driven.
drove,
Drive,
dwelt, R.
dwelt, R.
Dwell,
eaten.
eat, ate,
Eat,
fallen:·
fell,
Fall,
felt.
Feel,
, felt,
fought.
fought,
Fight,
found.
found,
Find,
fled.
fled
,
Flee,
flung.
flung,
Fling,
flown.
Fly,
flew,
forsaken.
forsook,
Forsake,
frozen.
Freeze,
froze,
goq
got,
Get,
~are to venture.
·•Cleave to spilt.
l Qott111 l1 nearly obsolete. 111derlvntlve'Jorgolt111II1tlll 1l:I ~ood.taa.

81

VARlATIONS or·VER'.BS.

0

~

•

j

·l

.
,.
l

Gird,
Give, ·
Gild,
Go,
~ave,
rind,
Grow,
Rang,
ave,
Hear,
Hew,
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,
Keep,
Kneel,
Knit,
Know,
Lade,
Lay,
Lead,·
Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie,*
Light, ·
Lose,
Make,
Mean,
Meet,
Mow,
Pay,
Put,
Quit,
Read,
Rend,
Rid.
Ride,
Ring,
Rise,
Rive,

,

•uuor111t,

-

girt, R.
gave,
gilt, R.
went,
graved,
ground,
grew,
· hung, R. •
had, ·
heard,
hewed,
hid,
hit,
held,
hurt,
kept,
knelt, R. .
knit, R.
knew,
laded,
laid,
led,
left,
~ent,

let,
lay,_
lit, R.
lost,
made,
meant, R.
met,
mowed,
paid,
put,
quit, R.
read,
rent,
rid,
rode,
rung, rang,
rose,
rived,

,

1.,

. girt,R.
given.
gilt, R.
gone.
graven, R. ·
ground.
grown.
hung, R.
had;
heard.
hewu; R.
hidden, hid.
hit.
held.
hurt.
kept.
knelt, R.
knit, R.
known.
laden, R.
laid.
· led •
left.
lent.·
let.
lain.
lit, R.
lost.
made.
meant, R.
met.
mown, R.
paid.
put.
quit, R.
read.
rent.
rid.
rode.f
rung.
risen.
riven, R,

),

l
!

I!

tlUUtll lt 1ie1rlf ol110IHf

-'
•,

82
Run,
Saw,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Shake,
Shape,
-- Shave,
Shear,
Shine,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Show,
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Slit,
Smite,
Sow,
Speak,
Speed,
Spend,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stink,

.

V.ARI.A.TIONS
OF VERBS;
-

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.
ran,
_ sawed,
said,
saw,

sought,
sold;
sent,
set,
shook,
shaped,
shaved,
sheared,
shone, R.
shod,
shot,
showed,
shred.
shrunk.
shut,
sung, sang,
sunk; sank,
sat, ,
slew,
slept,
slid,
slung,
slunk,
slit, R.
smote,
sowed,
spoke,
sped,
spent,
spilt, R.
spun,
spit, spat,
split, spread,
spr:mg, sprung,
stood,
stole,
stuck,
stung,
11tunk,

run.
sawn, R.
said.
seen.
sought.
sold.
sent.
set.
shaken.
shapen, R.
shaven, R.
shorn, R.
shone, R.
shod.
shot.
shown, R.
shred.
-shrunk.
shut.
sung.
sunk
sat.
slain.
slept.
sliddcn, slid.
'slung.
slunk.
slit, R. ·
smitten.
sown, R.
spoken
sped.
spent.
·spilt,"'R. · spun.
spit.
split.
spread.
sprung.
stood.
stolen.
stuck.
stung.
11tunk.

~tride,

strode, strid, struck, -·
strung, R.
strove, R.
strawed,
jWOre,
swet, R.
swlmed,
swum, swam,

Strike,
String,
Strive,
~trow,

t

-

(

f

.-

wear,
· Sweat,
Swell,
Swim,
Swing,
Take;
Teach,
Tear,
Tell,
Think,
Thrive,
Throw,
Thrust,
Tread,
Wake,
Wear,
Weave,
. · Weep,
Win, .
Wind,
Work,
Wring,
Write,

.

'

swung,

'

took,
taught,
tore,
told,
thought,
throve, R.
threw,
thrust,
trod,
woke, R.
wore,_
wove,
wept, '
won,
wound,
worked, wrought,
wrung,
wrote,

sa

stridden.
st;;k. st g, R. striven, R.
strown, R.
sworn.
swet, R.
swollen, R.
swum.
swung.
-taken.
_taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thriven, R.
thrown.
thrust.
trodden, trod.
waked.
worn.
_woven.
wept. _
won.
wound.
_worked, wrought.
wrung.
written.

Mr. 8. Wh.y do yo~ :write R after the past
, .. tense and perfect participle of so~e of these
irregular verbs?
E Because• some of them· are occasionally
used as regular verbs; .R stands for regular.
:When the re~ular form -1s preferable, we write
it before the irregular f?rm at full length ; and
when a verb has two irregular forms we write
that first whic4_ is sanctioned by th~ best au·
thority.

Mr, S. This olauilloation of verbs ha11 respect

i

,
$4

V.AltIATION'S OP' VERES.

.T. Yes: there is a transition of the actions.
But where is 11tie transition of thought?
Mr. S. In the mind of each ob..server of the
actions~ for these actions, though they have entirely. ceased and left no trace of their existence
any where except in memory, are mirrored there
as thoughts ;which last for ever, passing from
tbe_ir subject to their object whenever recollection presents them to view.
·
.
S. Do you call this a transition of thought?
lifr. S. Of course I do; for transitive thoughts
are but the impress of transitive actions. When
the actor is the subject,' the transition of thought
is f.rom the subject to an object; but when the
object of action is the subject of thought, the
transition of thought is to the subject from an
agent, following the actions·' as t}iey pass from
the subject or to the subject. ·
T. 0 I I see I When I fix my thoughts on
you as a subject, and think you raised your cane
and shook it over my head, they pass from you
to your cane just as the actions did. But, when
I fix them on your cane as a subject, and think
your .cane was raised .and shaken over. Infl head,
they pass to the subject cane from you the agent;
for the object of action is the subject of thought.
. Mr. S. Here, you see, the same thoughts are
expressed actively and passively. This variation of verbs grammarians call voice.

to their form only. But the classification which
we are about to consider depends upon the very
essence of sentences, our thoughts themselves,
and consequently has respect to the construction
of our verbs in sentences. As thoughts .are
first impressed upon our minds by actions, so
transition of action necessarily produces a corresponding fransition of thought.
T. We don't exactly understand you, Mr.
Smith. What is the meaning of transition of
action?
-'
Mr. S. Look at me, and learn from object
teachincr. When I strike the desk the action
passes to the desk f:~m me. This is ~ransition
of action · for transition means a passmg from
.one thing' to another. So the passing of a thought
from one thing to a~ther is transition ofthou~ht.
An action that passt!s from the actor to an <?bJe~t
is a transitive action; and the thought which it
. impresses on the ~ind is transiti ~~'and the verb
that expresses it 1s ca11ed a trans1t1ve verb. An
action that is confined to the actor, and does not
pass to any thing else, is intransitive; so is a
thoucrht
that is confined to its subject, and a verb
0
that expresses an intransitive thought is intran·
sitive: as, "I stand, I fall, I risei I wallc, I run."

A transitive verb is a verb that ex- ·
.presses a transition of thought.
An intransitive verb is a verb that does
not express a transition of thought.
. T. . Give us a little clearer illustration.
Mr, S. As I raise this cane and shake ·it, don't

the aotions paes from me to the cane?

S5

{' I

Voice is a particular form of the verb
which shows the relation of the subject ·
, to the thought express.ed by the verb, :

)

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ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

Transitive verbs have two voices; the active
and the passive.
· .

V.A.RllTIONS OF . VERBS.

,

The active voice is that form which expresses a transition -0f thought from the
subject to an object. The passive voice
is that form which expresses a transition
of thought to the subject from an agent.
Now as I express a few thoughts in the active
voice you may express them in the passive voice.
I take this book; I open it and read it.
E. This book is taken by me. It is opened and read by me.
John whipped the horse; and the horse kicked John.
.A. The horse was whipped by John; and John was kicked
by the horse.
The sun warms the air and melts the snow.
G. The air is warmed and the snow is melted by the sun.
We should honor and respect 9ur teachers.
R. Our teachers should be honored and respected by us . .
'Ve should emulate their virtues and shun their vices.
T. Their virtues should be emulated and their vices shunned
by us.
I remember all the scenes of my childhood: I shall never for.
get my nntive land.
M. All the scenes of my childhood are remembered by me:
my native land will never .be forgottiif.
Time conquers all, and we must time obey.
.
E. .All 11re conquered by time, and time must be obeyed by
us.
They disobey their teachers, and neglect their studies.
J. Their teachers are disobeyed by them, and their .studies
are neglected.
I know him well: I see him every clay.
.]), · He is well known by me: he is seen by me every day.

N. Doe~ each of these verbs_express an actual .
transition of action?
'
Mr~ S. No, not half of them; but every one

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of t~m expres~es a transition of thought.*
Sele?14,the Yerbs m these sentences, and in your
readmg lesson; tell whether they ace transitive
or intransitive, and which voice the ti:ansitive
verbs are in, and change them from the active
to ~he passive voice.i. and from the passive to the
active.
'
The ~un rises: the earth. rejoices; the sky, the clouds, and
mountams,_glow.with' living. light, which art can never equal.
All nature 1~ ~nhvened ?Y h~s bea;ns : the birds sing; · the bees
~um; the mr 1s filled .with gilded msects, fluttering and buzzing
m ~he breath of ~ornmg . . All out m:m awake, and offer up
their hymn of praise. Arise, ye sons of sloth. Why will you
waste in needless slumber this delicious hour?
'Tis the voice of the sluggard; I heard him complain:
"You hav~ waked me too soon; I must slumber again."
Here bees from blossqms sip the rosy dew;
But your Alexis knows no sweets but you.
Oh deign to visit our forsaken seats,
The mossy fountains, and the green retreats !
Where'er you walk, cool gales shall fan the glade
Trees, where you sit, shall crowd .into a shade: '
Where' er :you tread! the blushing flowers shall rise,
·And all thmgs flourish where you turn your eyes.
Oh! how I long with you to pass my days,
Invoke the muses, and resound your praise!
Your ~raise the birds .sha.11 chant in every grove,
·
And wmds shall waft it to the powers above.·
But would. you sing, and rival Orpheus' strain
The wondering forests soon would dance agau;,
The moving mountains hear the powerful call,
And headlong streams hang listening in their fall.

.J. How can there be a transition of thought
without a corresponding transition of_ action to
impress it on the mind?
·
M~. S. .Action ~s but the starting point, im·
pressmg on the mmd a scanty stock of sim:ple
• S~c Tfl! lar9er Grammar, · pa~e 144-156,
·

·ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

primitive thoughts. Our complex thoughts and
all their combinations and modifications are
prnd uced by reason and reflection. Though
every action is unconditional and real, yet our
thnughts extend beyond the limits of the aCtual,
and explore the vast domains of possibility, de·
sire, necessity, contingency, hypothesis, and supposition. Many of our thoughts spring from
imagination : we imagine many actions and
events that never did exist and never will. As
we consider the conditions and tfie circumstances
that the actions and events depend on, our
thoughts are modified and verbs are varied acconl i ngly in their form or application to express
them: as, "He recids carefully. If be read care·
fully, he will improve. Read, and be wise. To ·.
read well, we must. read naturally." Now take
notice how the verb read is varied to express
the different modifications of thought. This kind
of variation we call mood.

Mood is a pa1'ticular variation of a verb
to express a certain modification of thought.
There are five moods; the indicative, the
potential, the subjunctive, tP.e imperll,tive, and
the infinitive.
·
.
.

The indicative mood indicates the actual occurrence of an action or event, or
the real existence of a fa~
The potential mood denotes the . possibility or necessity of a fact, or of an
action or event, or the liberty, power,

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vARIATioNS or·· VERBS.
will, or obligatfon ·Of·the subject with re.
spect to it.
The subjunctive mood denotes the subjoining of one thought to another; representing. the action or event as conditional,
doubtful, or contingent. ·
The imperative ,mood · denotes a C(}m·
mand or request.
·
·
The infinitive mood denotes the ex:pres·
sion of a thought in a general . and unlimited manner."·
•
lYir. S. Select the .verbs in what I say, and

•

tell what mood each one of them is in.

.

Boys play, birds fly, and horses run.
G. Play, jly, and run, are in the indicative mQod.
If you scare .the birds, they willfly away.
R . Scare is in the subjunctive mood;, and will fly, in the
in dicati ve.
Can these little birds fly?
J. Oan fly is in the potential mood,
Get your books, and attend to your studies.
. A. · Get and aUend are in the imperative wood.
_
You can not learn, unless you study.
N. Oan learn is in tho potential I!lOOd ; and 1ludy, in the
subjunctive.
.
If you have learned your lessons, you may recite.
D. Have learned is in the subjunctive mood; and mayrecitd,
in the potential.
. I told you to get your books and learn your lessons.
· E. Told is in the indicative mood; and to get and learn are
in tho infinitive.

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Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.
-Oh I that I knew where I might find him I

•See my larger Grammar, page llS'T.-160.

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VARIATIONS ·OF VERBS.

Hear instruction, and be wise, and refuse it not.
If thou be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself.
Thoµgh hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished.
Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones.
tt is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to
dogs.

Tense is a certain variation of a verb
to denote .time.

How vain are all these glories, all our pains,
Unless good sense preserve what beauty gains;
That men may say, when we the front-box grace, .
Behold the first in virtue as in face !
Oh ! if to· dance all ri.ight and dress all day,
Charmed the small-pox, or chased old age away,
'Vho would not scorn what housewife's cares produce,
Or who would learn one ear.thly thing of use?
To patch, nay ogle, might become a salnt;
Nor could it sure be such a sin to paint.
B_u t since, alas I frail beauty must decay;
Curled or uncurled, since locks will turn to gray;
Since painted or not painted, all must fade,
And she who scorns a man must die a maid!
What then remains, but well our power to use,
.And keep good humor still whate'er we lose?
And trust me, dear! good humor can prevail,
When airs, and flights, and screams, and scolding fail
Beauties in vain their pretty eyes may roll;
Charms strike the sight, but m(lj:it wins the soul.

Though everraction and event that comes to
pass is present to the observer, yet the thought
originating from it glances back to its occurrence
after it is past. Just so our· thoughts anticipate
~ what will occur hereafter. Consequently verbs
are varied to denote the different periods of
time: as, " I write now, I wrote yesterday, I
will write to-morrow, I have written to day, I
had written when he arrived, I shall ~ve written
my letter to-morrow morning at nin.o'clock"
Grammari!J.lll> c;i,ll this ~inq · of variatic;m tell;'3e, ·

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

There are six tenses: the present, the past,
and the future; the perfect, the past-perfect,
and the future-perfect.
•

The present tense denotes present time.
The past tense denotes past time.
The future tense denotes future time.
. The perfe~t tense. denote~. th~ ,completion of a period of time termmatmg at the
present ·moment.
· The past-perfect. tense denotes·the completion of a period of time terminating at
a certain point o( past time.
.
The future-perfect tense denotes the
completion of a period of time terminating
at a certain point of future time.

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Select the verbs in what I say, and tell what
tense each of them is in.
'

It rains. It rained yesterday. It has rained eight hollrs today. It had rained three hours, when I came to school. It
.will probably rain to.morrow; and then it will have rained
every day for ten days.
H. Rains is in the present tense, because it .denotes present
time ; rained and came, are in the past tense, because they denote past time; ha8 rained is in the perfect tense, because it
denotes the completion of a period of time terminating at the
present moment; had rained is in the past-perfect tense, because it denotes the completion of a period of time terminating
. at a certain point of past time, the time when you came to
school; will rain . is in the future tense, because it d.enotes
future time; and will havd rained is in the future-perfect tense,
~ecause it denotes the compleU9n of a period of tiD,l~ terni.i,na.~
~~ ~o-mQWJW.
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ENGLI~R G?tAMM.A.?L
Re that loveth silver shall not be satisfied with sliver.
The ~Jeep of a la-boring man is ~weet, whether be eat little or
much.
All .this have I proved by wiadom: I said, I will be wise; but
it was far. from me.
·
How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land P
When the ear beard me, then it blessed me.
When he bad thus spoken, be dismissed the assembly.
Then cometh the end, when be shall have delivered up the
kingdom to God.

F. Have vcwbs an.Yother variatio::is?
.
Mr. S. Yes: they have another kmd ot v~n­
ati?n to. express collateral thouqh~s that rea~1ly
umte with those expressed b.Y fimte verbs with-out connectives, which are ver,y near allied to
infinitives: as, "I saw her walking in the garden."
"She weeps like an April shower, smiling through
her tears." ."_Having lived a ,vi.r tuous life, }
wish to die a natural death." " Tis the last rose
of summer, left blooming alone." ~uch variations
we call participles.
·

A participle is a variation of a verb to
express a concurrent or collateral thought.
'I' here are three participles; the present, the.
perfect, and the past-perfect.

The present participle denotes an unfinished action or event.
The perfect participle denotes a finished
action or event.
.
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The past-perfect participle denotes '1ie
completion of an action or :e vent before a
specified point of time.

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What is a finite verb? .
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Mr. ~~ A verb that is ~aried b.Y number and
person to agree with its s~bject. Infinitives and
participles have no vanat1ons on account of
number and person. Mention all the -fariations
of verbs.
J. Voices, moods, terises, participles, numbers and persor1s.
T. Does every verb have a11 these variati~ns?
Mr: S. Intransitive verbs have no voices.
· Infinitives and participleif have no numbers nOj
persons. This you >yill ~nderstand ~hen you
have learned the conJugat10n of verbs.
'
A. ·what does conjugation mean?
J.fr. s. rrhe conjugation of a verb is a regular
arranaement of all its variations. ·
J. ° Can all our verbs be conjugated?
Mr. S. All but a. very few, which are calle~
defective verbs and·1mpersonal verbs.
·
J. I have never seen half a dozen verbs con. juaated in any of the grammars !have studied.
S. The conj ugatiop of Ejll.Ch verb in your
grammars is presented ~s '.1' model for the conjugation qf any other s1m1lar ve~·b. N qw find
the conjugation of the verb love m your g~~m­
mars, and I'll conjugate any regular trans1t1ve
verb accordina0 to that modeL
E. Conjugate the regula~· tra~sitiv.e verb rule.
Mr. S. While I am conJugatmg ·Jt compare
it with the conjugation of the verb love and see
how it agrees with the model.

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

V.A.RIATIONS OF VERB5.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Tense.

Past Tense.

Rule.

Ruled.

PRESENT TENSE.

Perfect Partlclpl~.
Singular.

Ruled

ACTIVE VOICE.

Plural.

.(

l. pei·a. ·we rule,
2. pers. You rule,
3. pers, They rule.

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PAST TENSE.
Singular.

J

flnral.

I. I ruled,
2. Thou ruledst,
8. He ruled.

l. We ruled,
2. You ruled,
3. They ruled.

1. We shall or will rule,
2. You shall or will rule,
3. They shall or will rule.

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

l. I have ruled,
2. Thou hnst ruled,
8. He has ruled.

1. We have ruled,
2. ·You hav~ ruled,
3. They have ruled.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

1. I had ruled,
2. Thou hadst ruled,
S. He had ruled.

Plural.

1. We had ruled,

2. You .had ruled,
3. They had ruled.

FUTURE-PERFECT 'l'ENSE.
Singular.

1. I shall have ruled,
2. Thou wilt have ruled,

8. He will have ruled.

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Plural.

l.

wc shall nave ruled,

2. You will have ruled,

8, The7 will have niled, .

2. Thou mightst rule,
8. He might rule.

l. We might rule,
2. You might rule,
3. They might rule.

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

I. I may have ruled;

2. Thou mayst have ruled,

I. We m~y have ruled,
2. You may' have ruled,
8. They may have ruled.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.
Plural.

!!lngular.

Plural.

l. I shall or will rule,
2. Thou shalt or wilt rule,
8. He shall or will rule.

Plural .

1. I might rule,

S. He may have ruled.

FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.

1. We may rule,
2. You may rule,
3. They may rule.
PAST TENSE.

\
Singular.

PRESENT TENSE.
l. per.,, I rule,
2. pers. Thou rulest,
8. pers. He rules.

Plural.

l. I may* rule,
2. Thou mayest rule,
3. He may rule.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.

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I. I might have ruled,
2, Thou mightst have ruled,
8. He might have ruled .

l. We .m ight have ruled,
2. You might have ruled,
8. They might have ruled.

SUB JUN CT IVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

l. If I rule,
1. If we rule,
2. If thou rule,
2. If you rule,
8. If he rule'.
3. If they rule.
.A.s this tense denotes future time with s!1all or sl1ould under·
stood, it· may, with strict propriety, be called the elliptical
future. The other tenses have the same form as in the indica..
tive mood, except the future-perfect.

IMPE-RATIVE MO OD.
Singular.

2. Rule thou or do thou rule.

Plural.

2. Rule ye or you or do ye rule.

. • Can and must may be used as anxlilarles In the present and the per·
tect tens11; anll ,QVl<i1 WQ\ild, and 1/igvld, In tile past t1111o&11 and th~ po.atpert••'· ·
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ENGLISII GR.A.mt.A.Ii.

97

INFINITIVE ¥00D.
Present Teme, To rule.

Perfect Tense, To have ruled.

PARTICIPLES . .
Pcut-~rfect.

Perfect.
Ruled.

Present.
:Ruling.

FUTUEE·PERFECT 'TENSE.
elngular.

1. I shall have been ruled,
2. Thou wilt have been ruled,
S, He will have been ruled,

Having ruled.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PASS IVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.

' Plural.

1. I am ruled,
2. Thou art ruled,
3. He is ruled.

1. We are ruled,
2. You are ruled,
3. They are ruled.

P AS'r TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I was ruled·,
2. Thou wast ruled,

1. We were r~led,
2. You were ruled,
3. They were ruled.

s.

He was ruled.

FUTURE TENSE.
Plural.

Singular.

1. I sh11.ll or will be ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled.

s.

He shall or will be ruled.

1. We shall or will be ruled,
2. You sh11.ll or will be ruled,
3. They shall or will be ruled.

PERFECT TENSE.
Plural.

Singular.

1. I have been ruled,
· 2. Thou bast been ruled,
8. He bas been ruled.

1. We have been ruled,
2. You have been ruled,
3. They have been ruled.

PRESENT

1. I bad been ruled,
2. Thou hadst been ruled,
Ile ha.cl been rilled,

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Plural,

I. We bad been ruled,
2. You had been ruled, ·

ll, Tbey be.cl been ruled.

TENSE.

Singular.

I. I may be ruled,
2. Thou mayst ·be ruled,
3. He may be ruled.
Singular.

Plural.

I. We may be rulqd,
2. You may be rufed,
3. '.l'hey may be ruled.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might be ruled,
2. Thou mighst be ruled,
3. He might be ruled.

Plural.

I. W c might be ruled,
2. You might be ruled,
3. They might be ruled.

PERFEC'l' TENSE.
Singular.

1. I may have been ruled,
mayst . have been
ruled,
. 3. He may have been ruled ..
ll. Thou

Pforal.

1. We may have been ruled,
2. You may have been ruled,
3. They may have been ruled .

PAST· PERFECT TENSE.
Singular,

P lnrnl.

I. I might have been ruled,
I. We might have been ruled,
2. Thou mightst have been 2. Youmigbthavebeenruled,
ruled,
3. They might have been
S, He might have been ruled.
ruled.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. We shall have been ruled,
2. You will have been ruled,
3. They ·wm have been ruled.

PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. · If I be ruled,
1. If we be ruled,
2. If thou be ruled,
·2. If you be ruled,
.3. If he bjl ruled.
3. If they be ruleil,
This may be properly .called the elliptical future tense.
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98

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.It.

V.!RUTIONS 01' VERBS.

When a verb in the suJ:ijunctive mood denotes present time
it has the same form as in the present tense of the indicative:
as, "If r am ruled, if thou a1·t ruled, if he is ruled, if we are

help conjugate rule through all the moods and
ten ;;es in th~ :passive voice. Just take away the
perfect partimple ruled, and see what we shall
have left.
~· 0 ! I see! There's nothing left but be,
conjugated as a principal verb through all the
moods and teuses.

ruled, &c."

-,

"If I am right, thy grace impart,
Still in the right to stay;
If I am wrong, 0 trach my heart
To find that better way."

. 99

PAST TEKSE.
1. If we were ruled,
1. If I were ruled,
2. If you were ruled,
2. If thou wert ruled,
3. If they were ruled.
3. If he were ruled. .
This is the form of the past tense indefinite; which is so
called, because, like the Greek aorist, it denotes present, past, ·
or future time. The form of the past tense definite is the same
in the subjunctive mood as in the indicative. The at.h er tenses
of the subjunctive mood are similar in form, t<l,..the corresponding tenses of the indicative, except the future.perfect, which re
quires ~hall instead of wi/{ in the second and third persons.
Now repeat these tenses of the indicative mood with if prefixed;
and you will put them into the subjunctive. If you use lest,
except, un!ess, or whether, it will have the same effect.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular.

Plural.

2. Be thou ruled, or do thou
b~ rulecl.

2. Be ye or ·you ruled, or d11
ye be ruled.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present 1-ense, To be ruled. Perfect 1 ense, To ha.vc been ruled.

PARTICIPLES.
Present.
Being ruled.

Perfect.
Ruled.

Past-perfect.
Having been ruled.

R. Conjugate the irregular intransitive verb
to be.
J!fr. S. We have used it as an auxiliary to

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INDICATIVE. MOOD.

Plural.

Singular.

PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I am,
2. Thou art,
3. He is.

1. We a1'l,
2. You are,
3. They ari

PAST TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I was,

1. ·we were,
2. You were,
3. T_hey were.

2. Thou wast,
3. He was. ·

FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I shall or will be,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be,
3. !Je shall or will be.

1. We shall or will be,

2. You shall or will be
3. They shall or wiil b~

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I have been,
2. Thou hast been,
3. He has been.

1. We have been,
2. You have been,
3. They have been.

Mr. S. That will do, Ruth. Any of yon can
conjugate this verb through all the moods and
tenses, if you follow my directions. As a transiti ~ e v~rb is conjugat~~ in the passive voice by
addmg its perfect part1c1ple to the irreaular
in0
transitive verb be, when you take away the per-

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V..A.RI.A.TIONS OF .VERBS.

.ENGL1SH GR.A.VY.Alt.

or should have drive~. Subjunctive. If I drive if· I drove if
I shall o: will drive, if I have driven, if I had dri~en if I shall
have d;.iven. Imperative. Drive. Infinitive. T~ drive to
have driven. Participles. Driving, driven, having driven. '

feet particip1e of a transitive verb from the passive voice, of course, you will huve nothing left
but the conjugation of this verl;i.
H. . Conjugate the regulur intransitive verb

I .

PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative. I am driven, I was driven I shall or will be driven
. I have_ been driven, I had been driven: I shall have been driven'.
Potential. I ma!; can, or must be driven, I might, could, would,
or. should be driven, I may, can, or must have been driven I
might, co~ld, w:ould, or should have been driven. Subjunctive:
If I be dnven,_ if I \~ere driven, if I shall or will be driven, if I
ha_ve been driven, if I had been driven if I shall have been
driven. Impe_rative. 'Be driven. Infinitive. To be driven to
have b~cn dnven. Participles. Being driven driven ha;iD"'
been dnven.
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walk.

}I.fr. S. I will give you a synopsis of its moods
and tenses.

Indicative mood. I walk, I walked, I shall or will walk, I
have walked I had walked, I shall have walked. Potenl:ial
mood. I may, can, or must walk, I might, could, would, or
should walk I may, can, or must have walked, I might, could,
would or should have walked. Subjunctive mood. If I walk,
if I w~lked if I shall or will walk, it I have walked, if I had
walked if '1 s!Jall have walked. Imperative mood. Walk.
Infiniti~e mood. _To walk, to have walked. Parifoiples. Walking, walked, havmg walked.

E Why don't you conjugate it in the passive
voice?
Mr. S. Because it is intransitive: intransitive
verbs have no voices. They generally have the .
form of transitive verbs in the active voice; but
some of them occasionally assum e the passive
form: as, " rrhey are gone." " H ow are the
mighty fallen!" · Such verb~, though ~hey h~ve
the pussive form, are ne-:er m the_pass1ve voice.
J{. Give us a synopsis of the irregular tran·
siti ve verb drive.
H. What does synopsis meun '?
.
Mr. S. A general view of all. the n~oods und
tenses in the active and the passive voice.
A C1'1VE VOICE.
Indicative mood. I drive, I drove, I shall or will drive, I
have driven 1 had driven, I shall have driven. Potential. I
may, can, ~r _must drive, I might, could,_ would, or should
drive, I may, can, or must have driven, I might, could, would,

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If you tuke particular notice of the conjugation

?f this -:erb, you'll see that drive, drove or driven,

'!'

is us_ed m every mood and tense. These- words
are, therefore, cal !~d the principal parts of tbe
ve_rb.. They are indeed but variations of the
pnnc1pal verb. • Drive is the root of the verb
found in the_ imper~tive mood, and in the present
tense. of the mdicative and the subjunctive, and
al~o in the future . tense of both these moods
with shall or _wi'll ?efore it, in the present tens~
of th_e potential with m~y, can, or must before it,
and rn the past tense with might, could would or
~hou~d. befo~e it, and in the present te~se of the
i~fimt1ve with to before it. ..As it denotes present
time when u~ed al~ne, it is called the present
tense. .Dr?ve the simp~e form of the past tens~
o.f the md1cat1ve and sunJunctive, which is sometm_1es c~lled the_ preterit. The perfect participle
driven is used m the perfect,_ the past-perfect,
an_d the fu~ure-perfect tense, with have, had, shall
have, or will have before it, in the indicative and ·

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102

the subjunctive mood; with may, can, or must
have, or might, could; would, or should have .b~fo~e
it in the potential; and with to have before it .m
the infinitive. Such little words as shall, wilt;
may, can, must and have, are ca1le~ auxilia.rie~,
because they are used to help conjugate prmc1pal verbs. To conjugate a verb you must know
its principal parts, which are the present tense,
the past tense, and tbe perfect participle; and
you must kn.ow what aux iliaries are used in all
the moods and tenses. This you can learn by
carefully examining the conjugation of any verb.
The principal parts of any · irregi.:lar verb can
be found in the list, and the past tense and. perfect participle of a regular verb are formed by
adding d ·or ed to its present tense. Rememb~r
what I tell you, and you'll find no d~fficulty m
conjugating any verb that can be co~Jugated ..
J. Huve we any verbs that· cant be conJU·
gated?
Mr. S. Conjugate shall, may, can, ?riust, _ought,
and qu0th.
J. I shall, I should, I may, I might, I can,
I could- I can go no further. These are defective verbs: t.bev can't be conjugated, becrrnse
they lack some"of the principal parts.
J.fr. S. Some of them are always used_ as
auxiliaries, and can not make complete sense
without a principal verb expressed. ~r _understood. The greater part of our aux1h~nes _are
defective verbs. With respect to conjugation,
verbs are divided into three classes; principal,
auxiliary, and defective.

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vARIATIONS or VERBS.

ENGLIS:S: GRAMMAR.

lOS

A. principal verb is on_e that can be conjugated through all .the moods and tenses.
An auxiliary verb is one that is used to
help conjugate principal verbs.
A defective verb is one that can not be
conjugated through all the moods and
tenses.

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R. Let us have an ·exercise in conjugating
verbs.
Jfr. S. Find tb~ conjugation of the irregular
transitive verb lcnow* and conjugate blow, choose,
draw, give, hide, lceep, leave, make, pay, see, swing,
take, throw, and tell, according to that model. As
you have not time to do it now; conjugate them
at your leisure. \Vrite the conjugation of every
one of them, and bring it to me in the co1:1rse of
next week. 'l'ben each of yon may write the
synopsis of bind, brealc, catch, fall, find, go, grow,
have, hear, hold, lose, show, teach, and write, according to tbe model I have given you in conjugating the irregular transitive ~erb driv~. You
may conjugate some. of them m the s1~gul~r
number, and others m the plural; and m different persons. Look sharp and see what auxiliaries are used in different moods and tenses till
you know the mood and tense of every verb at
siaht. We have had a long talk about verbs.
N~w let us have a brief review, and see if you
remember what I have told you. Select the
verbs in what I say, and tell me whether they
•See my larger Grammar, p:igo

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10;!

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.it.

are regular or irregul~r. "Look at those birds
and .see them fly."E. . I look, I looked, I have looked; I see, I .
saw, I have seen. They fly, they flew, they have
flown. Look is a regular verb, because its past
tense and perfect participle are formed by adding
ed to its present tense. See andfly are irregular
verbs, because their past tense and p~rfect participle nre not formed by adding ed to their
present tense, or d only.
1J£r. S. Tell me whether the verbs in these
sentences are transitive or intransitive: "The
sun warms the earth. The sun shines."
R. Warms is a transitive verb, because it
expresses a transition of thought: the thought
that it expresses passes from the sun to the earth.
Shines is au intransitive verb, because it does
not express a transition of thought: the thought
that it expresses is confined to its subject the
sun.
Mr. S. In which voice is warms?
. · ]Jf. It is in the active voice, because it ex·
presses a transition of thought from its subject
sun to its object earth: the thought passes from
the sun to the earth.
·
Mr. S. Express this thought in the passive.
v01ce.
M. The earth is warmed by the sun.
Mr. S. In which voice is shines?
N. In neither; for intransitive verbs are not
varied on account of voice: they have no voices.
Mr. S. In what mood are warms and shines 1
S. In the indicative mood, because each of
them indicates the real e:ristence of a fact.

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105.
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Y4.Rt.A:r!ONS QF Vli1RBS;

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Mr. S. In wha~se are they ?
In the present tense,-because they denote

A.

pre~ent

time.
lJIIr. S. In what number and person are they?
J. In the singular number and third person,
because their subject sun is;· Let me give a
syno~sis of their moods and tenses.

.

ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative ·mood. The sun warms the earth, it warmed, it
shall or will warm, it has warmed, it had warmed, it will have
warmed. Potential. It may, can, or must "arm, it might,
could, would, or should warm, it.may, can, or must have warmed,
it might, could, would, or should have warmed. Subjunctive.
If it warm, if it warmed; if it shall or will warm, ifit has warmed,
if it had WllJ'med, if it shall have warmed. Imperative. Warm.
I'f!finiUve. To warm, to have warmed. Participles. Warming,
warmed, having warmed.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative mood. The earth is warmed by the sun, it was
warmed, it shall or will be warmed, it has been warmed, it had
been warmed, it will have heen ..,_rmed. Potential. It may, ,
can, or must be warmed, it migh~could, would, or should be
warmed, it may, can, or must have been warmed, it might,
could, would, or should have been warmed. Subju1.ctive. If it
be warmed, if it were warm ed, if it shall or will be warmed, if
it has been warmed, if it had qeen warmed, if it shall have been
warmed. Imperative. Be warmed. Infinitive. To be. warmed,
to have been warmed. Partioiples. Being warmed, . w:.rmed,
having been warmed;
indicative mood. The sun shines, it shone, it shall or will
shine, it has shone, it had shone, it will have shone. Potential. ·.
It m:iy, can, or must shine, it might, could, would, or should
shine, it may, can, or must have shon,e, it might, could, would,
or should have shone. Subjunctive. If it shine, ~fit shone, if
it shall or will shine, if it has shone, if it had shone, if it shall
have shone. Imperative . .Shine. . Infinitive. To shine, to have
shone. Participles. Shl'lting, shone, having. shone.
· ·

Mr. S.

Ga.n

That is very well don~, James. We
a.ny regµlar trani1tive. verb, and

c9njugat~

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107

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

T ARIATIONS OF VERl3S.

any irregular intransitive verb according to the
models you have given us ju c~·ugating these
two verbs. Select the verbs in
se sentences,
and tell whether they are regula · or irregular,
transitive or intransitive, and men on all their
variations; the voice of each transitive verb, the
mood and tense or participle of every verb, and
the number and person of every verb except in~nitives and participles: "He appeared' wulk:rng with countenance erect, and received his
Creator's benediction." "He speaks, and his
mandate is obeyed." "If you love me, keep
my commandments." "I have not seen the
righteous for3aken, nor his seed begging bread."
"To buy food are thy servants come." "We
speak what we do know."

M. Have seen is· an irreooular transitive verb, hi the active
voice, indicative mood, perf;ct tense, singular number, and first
person.
·
.
.
.
Forsaken is an irregular transitive verb, lll the passive voice
and perfeet participle.
..
.
.
.
Begging is a regular tramutivc verb, m the active voice and
present participle. · •
.
..
.
.
.
.
. N. To buy is an irregular. transitive verb,lll. the active voice,
~
. . .
infinitive mood, and present tense.
• Are come is an irre"ular intransitive verb, m the mdu;aiive
mood, present tense, plural number, and thi~d person._ . · .
E. Speak is a.n irregular transitive verb, m the active voice,
indicat.i,.ve mood, present tense, pl.uyal numb~r, and fir~t pers.on.
Do •now is an irregular trans1t1ve verb, m the active voice,
indicative mood, present tense, plural number, ~i;id flr~t J?ers?n.
Ji'. Will ripen is a regular intransitive verb m the mdicative
mood future tense plural number, and third person.
.
U;,folrling is a r~gular intransitive verb, in the present partl·ciple.
..
. .
.
.
.
May li2ve is an irregular trans1t1ve verb, m the activ.e voice,
potential mood, present tense, singular number, and third per. SOD.
·
•
h • d" f
Wilt be is an irregular ·intransitive verb,_ m t e m ica ive
mood, future tense, singiJlar number, .o.nd third person.

~

His purposes will ripen fast,
Unfolding every hour ;
The bud may have a bitter taste,
But sweet will be the flower.

J.

I suppose you call this etymological parsLet each of us parse the verbs in a sentence.

Appeared is a regular in transitive verb, in the indicative mood,
past tense, singular number, and third person.
Walking is a regular intransitive verb, in the present participle.
Received is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood,. past tense, singular number, and third person.
R. Spealc8 i> an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative
mood, present tense, singular number, and third person.
Is obeyed is a regular transitive verb, in the passive voice,
ind.icative mood, present tense, singular number, and third
person.
S. Love is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, subjunctive mood, present tense, plural number, and second person.
Keep is o.n irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, imperative mood, pre:m1t tense, plural number o.nd second perlion.

·.

Mr. S. Why are app~ared and received in the
. singular number and third person?
.
J. Because their subject he is :tivery fimte
verb must be in the same number and person
that its subject is.
· .
·
. Mr. S. Why don't you mention tlrn number
and person of w?-lhn_g.?
..
J. Because mfimt1 ves and participles hav~
no number nor person: they are not fimte v:erbs.
Mr. S. Why are speak and do lcnow m the
phual number "and first person 'l
E Because their subject we is.
·Mr. S. 'l.1 hat will do. ,r will not drill you any
more to-day. You- all have learned extremely
•Sea my lar1:er Gra=ar, pa!l;i ig4,

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ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

AN.ALYSIS OF SENTENCE!.

well. That you may not forget the moods
and tens~s, you may write synopses of the verbs
that you 'have parsed, and bring them here to mo~row. At your leisure, you may parse and
COnJUgate the verbs in these sentences and in
your reading lessons.
'
.
Which> of.you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his
Consider
· the lilie.s of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do
t~ey spm: and· yet I say unto you, that even Solomon in all
his glory was not 11.rrayed like one of these. Wherefore, if God
~o clot~e the grass of the field, which to day is, and to-morrow
is cast mto the oven, shall he not much more clothe you O ye
of little faith?
'
statu_~~? · :And why take ye thought for raiment?

CONVERSATION FOURTH.
.ANALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES AN:!)
PARSING.

\ ·

SYNTACTICAL

J. Let us have an exercise in building and
· analyzing sentences.
S. What! a synthetic and analytic exercise at once? Very well. "Came saw con'
quere d. " " H erbs and. plants clothe." ' "Farmers
cultivate." .Are these expressions sentences?
J. Not exactly; for the sense is incomplete.
Mr. 8. Don'i came, saw, and conquered express
thoughts?
J. Can a thought be expressed without · a.
subject? Who came, saw, and conquered?

·¥r.

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Mr. S. "I came, I saw, I conquered." The
subject is an essential part of a se,,tence; for we
can not think_wiShout a subject: every sentence
must contain a subject and a thought, either expressed or clearly understood.
J. "What! a synthetic and analytic exer·
cise at once?" Here is no subject no1.rnght
expressed. Is this a sentence ?
. · · ' ..
Mr. S. It is a fragment of a sentence; for the
subject and the, thought· are understood: the
meaning is, Whi].t ! shall we have a synthetic
and analytic exe11cise at once? ·
F. . Is "not exactly " a sentence?
Mr. S. This is also a fragment of a sentence,
with the Wlrb, the subject, and predicate noun,
understoo~: the meaning is, "These expressions
are not exactly sentences.'' ·
·
R. Don't clothe ex:wess. a thought about herbs
and plants ; . and cultivate · express a thoug'1t
.
.
about farmers?
J. Yes: but. they are transitive thoughts,
and require objects to limit their extension and
complete the sense. Herbs and plants clothe
'what'? Farmers cultivat.e what?
G. Herbs and plants clothe~he ground.
Farmers cultivate their land.
J. These expressions make complete sense,
and therefore t.hey are sentences. Each of them
contains a single thought: so they are simple
sentences.
Clothe expresses a thought that
passes from its subject herbs and plants to its
object ground, which limits its extension, and is
restricted in sense by the adjective the. Cult~-

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. ENGLISH GRAMM.AB.

vate expresses ·a thoucrht that passes from it!
subject farmers to its ~bject land, which limits
its extension, and is restricted jn sense by the
•
possessive their.
Mr. S. Farmers cultivate their land and sow
their wheat.
M. This is a compound sentence. It contains two thoughts expressed by cultivate and
sow, with one subject and two objects.
Mr. S. Good farmers cultivate their land
thoroughly during the summer, and sow their
winter wheat after harvest.
H - Cultivate expresses a thought that is
modified by the adverb thoroughly and the
phrase "during the su,mmer," anc~ pass:s from
its subject farmers, which is restricted m se?se
by the adjecti\re good, to its object land, whwh
limits its extension, and is restricted in sense by
the possessive their. Sow expresses a thought
that is modified by the phrase "after harvest,''
and passes from its subject farmers to its object
wheat, which limits its extension, and is restricted in sense by their and winter.
Mr. !S'. The wheat • that lives through the
winter .grows luxuriantly in the spring, when
the weather becomes warm and showery, and
ripens before midsummer.
.
J. Lives expresses a thought that is modified
by the phrase "through the winter" and confined to its subject that, which represents wheat.
Grows expresses a thought that is modified by
the ad verb luxuriantly, the phrase "in th~
spring," and the subordinate clause and con-

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ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

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111

nective "when the weather becomes warm n.nd
showe(y,'' and is confined to its subject wheat,_
which is.restricted in sense by the adjective the
and the subordinate clause "that li ves through
the winter." Becomes expresses a thought that
is confined to its subject weather, ascribing to it
the attributes expressed by the predicate adjec-·
tives warm and showery. Ripens expresses a
thought modified by the phrase "befor~id­
summer," and confined to its subject wheat,'and
is connected b,y and to grows.
• Mr. /::-,~ James has analyzed this sentence
very well. If you have listened attentively,
. you understand that it is a compound sentence,
containing four thoughts expressed by the verbs .
lives, grows, becomes, and ripens, with three subjects and no objects, and that it consists of one
compound principal clause, and two simple subordinate ones conneled to it by that and when.
When it is ripe, they harvest it .and put it I
into barns, or thra~h it with machines in the
fields where it grew.
· ·
R. Is expresse~ a thought that is confined to
its subject it, ascribing .to it the attribute expressed by the predicate adjective ripe. Harvest expresses a thought that passes from ,.js
subject they, which represents farmers, to its
object i't, which represents wheat. Put expresses a thought modified by the phrase "into
barns," and passing from its subject they to its
object it, and is connected by and to harvest.
Thrash expresses a thought modified by . the
phrases "with machines,'' and "in the fields,"

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ENG-LI~ll GR.A.Mlfil

and pMsing §·~m its subject they to its object it,
and is connec~d by or to put. Grew expresses
.·
a thought that is confined to its subject it.
Mr. S. Ftom Ruth's anal,ysis of this sentence,
· you can see that it is a compound sentence containing five thoughts expressed by the verbs is,
harvest, put, thrash, and grew, with two subjects
and one object, (the same subject and object
being repeated,) and that it consists of one compound principal clause, and two simple subordinate ones connected to it by when and where.
Mr. S. Now let us put these sentence to-·
gether, and see what they will make. Good farmers cultivate their land thoroughly
during the summer, and sow their winter wheat
after harvest. The wheat that lives through the
winter ·grows luxuriantly in the spring, · when
the weather becomes warm and showery, and
When it is ripe,
ripens before midsummer.
they harvest it and put it into barns, or .t hrash
it-\vith machines in the fields where it grew.
J. This is a paragraph expressing an unbroken train of thought.
Mr. S. You're exactly right. Now we will
break the thre:td of our discourse, and have a
different train of thought on the same subject.
Let us see if we can not have a ·. new paragraph
without a new subject.
Vast quantities of wheat are raised in the
temperate zones, where the soil and climate are
congenial, What are all om precious metals
worth, compared with this production of the
soil? It is more valuable than gold: It is indispensible to the welfare and subsistence of

AN:A:LYSIS OF SENTENCES
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mankind. · It s·upplies enlightened Christian nations with the staff of life. Without it famine
would ensue ; ~nillions of men, women, and
children would be starved to death; . and many
of our cities, towns, and villages depopulated.
Have yoa ever thanked our bountiful Heavenly ~
Father, who gives us each day·our daily bread,
. for . causing the earth to yield such an abundance of wheat? .
. D. 0 ! I see! You have a different train of
thoL1ght in quite a different vein, more elevated
~nd extensive than 'you had in your other paragraph: you take a higher flig~t and wider range.
S. Why don't you put these sentences into
your first paracrraph: "I came, I saw, I conquered.;" "Herbs and plants clothe the ground?"
J.fr. 8. Because the thoughts that they express have no connection with . th.e trai.n .of
thoucrht in that paragraph. · From this prehmmarY, e~ercise we may deduce the following theory:

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A lntence is · such an expression of
thought as makes complete sense.
Sentences ar«_ divided, with respect to the
number of thougnts expressed, into two classes ;
simple and compound.

A simple sentence is one that contains a single thought.
.
· ·fi. compound sentence is one that con·
taiiis two or more thoughts.
.A. clause is a sentence used as a part of
a'compound sentence.
lil

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.A.N.A.LYSI$

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.:?.

il5

Sentences · are divided with respect to the
manner of expressing thoughts, into four classes;
decla'rati ve, imperative, interrogative and exclamatory: and clauses are divided into two
general classes ; principal and subordinate.

Clauses, as well as sentences, are eith~r s~µip1e
or compound. · •

A simple clause is one th~t contains. a
single thought.
A compound clause is one that 9ontains
two or more thoughts.
A phrase is an expression that consists .
of two or more parts of speech, but does
not contain a finite verb and a subject. · .
· A paragra1't is the expression of an
unbroken train of thought.

·.

or Sl!;NT:Jl:NCES.

A declarative sentence is the expression
of a declaration, either affirmative or neg. ative.
·
An imperative sentence is the ~xpres­
sion of a command or request. ,
An interrogative sentence is th'? expres. sion of a question.
An exclamatory sentefice is the expression of a thought with emotion.
A principal clause is an independent or
leading clause.
· A suboPdinate clause is a clause that .
depends upon another.

R. Can a' sentence that contains more subjects than one be simple'? and can a sentence
that contains but one subject be compound? ·
Mr. S. Certainly: <ve frequently have the
same thought on several different subjects, and
several different thoughts on the same subject,
and express them accordingly; making, whenever we please, a simple sentence with several
subjects, and a compound sentence with but one
subject.
·
J. Are there not three kin,P.s of sentences;
simple, compound and complex?
Mr. S. Complex sentences are only species of
compound sentences: all complex sentence~ are
compound, but all compound sentences are not
.complex. A compound sentence may be plain
or complex, close, compact, or loose.* . But I
will not trouble you w:ith this suqdivisiqn 11ow.

· N.

How many kinds of phrases are there?.
Mr. S. With respect to the leading words,
there are three kinds; prepositional, infinitive,
and participial: and three with respect to their
construction in sentences; substantive, adjective,
and adverbial. But you need not mention these
in analyzing sentences. Subordinate clauses also,
frequently modify the sense of nouns and vet'bS';
and yet in analyzing sentences we do not call ·
them adjecfozes and adverbs, but clauses. As
we sometimes meet with compound' phrases like
these, ".He breathes the fragr~riye of the groves of
Java, and .!:!leeps_UJ!,QR the dpw71- of the cygnets of ·

•See Prof. Mnndeville's Elements of Renqing ~nd Oratory,
.•. · ,., :
,. , :
page 60-70.
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.ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

ENGLISH GR.A.IDLA.R.

ple and compound. But I will not trouble you
with needless niceties.
·The grand essentials of every sentence are the
subject and the thought; for without a thought
there can be no sentence, and without a subject
there can be no thought. So every sentence
must have two principal parts; the subject and
the verb. Now and then a thought extends beyond its subject to an object. A sentence that
expresses such a thought contains three principal parts; the verb, its subject, and its object.
All the other parts of any sentence are but adjuncts or appendages of these principal parts.
The appendages of verbs are adverbs and adjunctive phrases; of their subjects, and their
objects, adjectives and phrases joined to them
by prepositions, hence called adjuncts to nouns
· and pronouns. +:·
Mr. S. We will now redu ce our theory to
practice: Analyze the sentences I give you
according to the principles which I have just
explained, then parse them syntactically.
J. It is easier to form theories than to reduce ·
them to practice. Will you exemplify your
theorv by analyzing sentences yourself?
M;, S. Certainly. I will begin with easy
sentences, and advance gradually to harder
ones. When I have analyzed a. sentence, if you
don't understand me, I will answer any ques·
ti()ns that you ask.
lien work. Boys play.
• ~e ay la.r(lar Grammar, paaa 'ti-'TS.

-·

. .These . o.re simple declo.rative sentences; each of them con.
tams a. smgle thought, and expresses declaration.
Men work, and boys play.
This is n. compound declarative sentence·: it contn.ins two
t~oughts, and expresses n. d.ecln.ration. It consists of two prin·
cipn.l clauses connected by and.
Work expresses a thought that is confined to its subject men.
Play ~xpresse~ n. thought that is confined to its subject b0,1/S•
...,
Men is '.l. comm.on noun, in the m11sculine gender, plural
number, third person, n.ncl nominatiYe clfle · the subject of
woi·k-Ru!e 1.
'
Work is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative mo~d
presen~ tense, plural number, and third person; agreeing with
its subject men-Rule 9.
:A.nd is a connective; col!Ilecting "boys pln.y '! to "men
work "-Rule 13.
··
Boys is ~ common noun; in t?e ?lasculiue .gender, plural
number, third person, and nomlllat1.ve case ; the subject of
pla,y-Rule 1.
•
1:_lay is a regular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood,
pre,en~ tense, plural numb_
er, and third person; a.greeing with
its subject boys-Rule 9.
Th~ b.ooks lie on the desk where.you left them.
This is 11 compound declarative sentence : it contains two
t?oughts, and expresses a declaration. It consists .of a principal clause, and a subordinate one cti.ilnected to it bv· u:liere
· Lie expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase ..·on
the desk," and by the subordinate clause and connective
""'.her? you !~ft tl,m," and is confined to its subject booka,
which 1s restricted m sense by the adjectiYe the.
. Leff expresses a .thou.g~t t?at passes from its. subject !/OU to
its Object them, which hm1ts its extension.
J'lte is _an adjective; belonging to booka-Rule 8.
Booklf is a common noun, ~n t?e neuter gender, plural number, third person, n.nd nommative case; the subject of lie-Rule 1.
Li.e is an irregular intransitive verb, in the indicative mood
presen~ tense, plural number, ·and third person; agreeing with
its subject books-Rule 9.
·
On is a preposition; expressing the relation of lie to .dukRule 11.
·
'
The~ an adjective, belonging to desk-Rule 8~ ·
.
JJes~ is a common noun, in the neuter gender1 sin.,.ular number, third person, and objective case; .the object of o~Rule 2.

a:

the Ganges,'' phrases might be divided into sim-

'·

'\

117

118

AN.A.LYSIS OF SENTENCES.

ENGLISH GRA.MM.A.R.

Where is a connective; connectin.,.
" you left them" to "the
0
books lie on the desk "-Rule 13.
•
·
You is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, second
person, and nominative case ; the subject of left-Rule 1.
. L eft is .an irregular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood, past t.ense, plural number, and second person,
agreeing with its subject yo1~Rule 9.
Them is a personal pronoun, in the neuter gender and plural
nu.mber, agreeing with. its antecedent books-Rule 7: in the
third person _and objective case, the object of left-Ruic 2.*
Charles was kind and generous to all his schoolmates.
This is a simple declarative sentence: it contains 11 sin"le
0
thought, and expresses a declaration. ·
.
Waa expresses a thought that is confined to its subject
Charles_, ascribing to it the nttributes expressed by the predicate adJectives kind and generous, which are restricted in sense
by the phrase "to· au his schoolmates."
The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul.
This is a compound declarative sentence: it contains two
thougW.S, and expresses a declaration.
e~presse.s a t~ought that is confined to its subj ect law,
which is restricted m sense by the adj ective the and the phrase
"of the Lord," ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the
predicate adjective perfect.
.
Converting expresses a collateral thought united without a
connec~ive to that expressed by ia, and passing from its subject
law to its object soul, which limits its extension and is restricted
iri sense by the.
How many bright eyes grow dim!
·
.This is a simple exclamatory sentence: it cont11ins a single
thought expressed with emotion.
Grow expresses a tliought that is confined to its subject eyeB,
_which ia restricted in sense by the adjectives bright, and many
modified by the adverb how, ascribing to it the 11ttribute expressed by the predicate adjective dim.
My dear young friends, be honest, faithful , kind and true.
. This is a simple imperative sentence: it contains a single
thought, and exprcssss a request.
Be expresses a thought that is confined to its subject you
understood, ascribing to it the attributes expressed by the
predicate adjectives honest, faitlifu!, !rind and true.

I'.'

.M. · Is not friends the subject of be ?
•You should thus parse all the eeutencee that you analyze; applying
and repeating the rules of syntax till they become perfectly famlllar.

Mr. 8.

119

No: it is in the nominative case inde-

pendent.
Did. you shoot these pigeons, Ol' catch them in a net?
This is o. compound interrogative .sentence : it contains two
thoughts expressed inte.rrogatively.
Did shoot expresses a thought that passes from its subject
you t(\,its object pigeons, which limits its extension, and is restricted irr'sense by the adjective th1!8e.
,
Oatch expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"in a net," and passes from its subj ect you to its object them,
which limits its extension.
·

1:

E. How can we tell how many thoughts
there are expressed in a sen.tence ?
Mr. 8. By counting .the v~rbs: for every
vero expresses a thought. . Of course you will
not count the auxiliaries; for they and the principal verb are taken together as one verb.
J. Shall we count infinitives and participles?
·
Mr. 8. Certainly; for they ~xpress collateral
or concurrent thoughts united without connectives to those expremsed by finite verbs; Now
take particular notice how I analyze each sentence, and, when I have anal,yzed one, tell what
kind of a sentence i~ is, and if it have any
clauses tell us all you kno.w aoout them.
·.Are you the boys that stole my peaches?
.Are expresses a thought that is confined to its subject you,
ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun
boya, which is restricted in sense by the adjective the and the
~ubordinate clause "that stole my peaches."
&ole expresses a thought that passes from its subject lhat,
which represents boys, to its object peach~s, \vhich limits its extension, and is restricted in sense by the possessive my.
J. This is a compound interrogative sentEnce. It consists
of a principal clause and a sub.Qrdinat~ one connected by tliat.
. Who shall decide when doctors disagree?

120

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

S!iall decide expresses a thought that is modified by the aub.
or linate clause and connective " when doctors disagree," and
is confined to its subject who.
D~agree expresses a thought that is confined to its subject

its object beauty, which limits \ts extension, and is restricted in
s~nse by the adjective t!te and the phrase "of a whole life of
virtue."
G. This is a simple declarative sentence.
A wake, arise, or be for ever fall en.
Awake and ari.8e expre.>s thou.,hts
that are confined to their
0
subject ye or you understood. ·
·
B-, jallen expresses a thought that is modified by for ever,
and confi~ed. to its subject ye 01· you understood.
A. · This 13 a compJund imperative sentence.
His letters are wei.~htj cind powerful.
4re ewresses a thought that is confineJ to its iubject leUer$,
:Which is restricted in sense by the possessive Ma, ascribing to
it the attributes expre, sJd by the predicate adjectives w~ighty
nnd powerful, which are connected by-and.
• if. Thi:1 is a ~imple declarative SJ)ntence.
Seek, and ye shall find.
Baek exp~esscs a thought that passes from its subject ye un.
<ter:itood, but is not limited in extension by apy definite object. ·
'<§!ta!l find expresses a thought that passes from its subject
·ye, at is not limited in extension by any definite object.
J. ,'.f his is a compound sentence, consisting of an imperative
clause~ a declarative clau·e connec~d by and.
The moon is attracte1 by the earth.
·
h al.tractcd expresses a thought that is limited in e.xtension
by .the phrase " by the earth," and passes to its subject moon,
which i:i restricted in sense by the.
M. This is a simple declarative sentence.
.
All the h eavenly bodi~ attr.ac t and are attract~.
.Attract expresses a thought unlimited in extension, passing
from ita subject bo.lies; which is restricted in sense by the and
heavenly, a nd emphasized by all.
.
Are attracted expre:1ses a thou"ht unlimited in extension,
"
passing to its subject bodil8.
N. · This is a compound declarative sentence.

rlo Jtors.
R ; This is a compound interrogative sentence.

-

It consists
of a principal clause and subordinate one connected by when.
Ah!. few shall part where many meet!
Shall part expresses a thought that is modified by " where
manv meet," an:l confined to its subject few.
Meet expresses a thought that is confined to its subject many.
H. This is a compound exclamatory sentence. It consists
of a principal clause and subordiuatc one connected by where.
In the beginning God created the henen and the earth.
Created expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"in the beginning," and pass~s from its subject God to its ob·
jectg lieaven and earth, which limit its extension, and are reetricted in sense by the, and conn1·cted by and.
N. This is a simple declarative sentence.
The evening and the morning were the first day.
Were expresses a t!:.ou3ht that is confinel to its subjects
evming :md m·7rning, which are restricted in sense by tlie, and
connected by and, aAcribing to them the attribute expressed by
the predicate uoun day, which is restricted in sense by the adjectives the and first.
IJ. This is a simple declarative sentence.
The apostle Paul was a brave and virtuous mfUl.
Was e.xpresaes 11 thought that is confined to its subject
apoGIJ,e, which is restricted in sense by the adjective the and the
apposition noun Paul, asc~ibing to it the attribute expressed
by the predicate nouu man, which is re3tricted in sense by the
adjectives a, brave and virtuoU8.
E. This is a si•nple declarative sentence.
Sincerity and truth form th 9 basis of every virtue.
Form expresses a thought that pas3es from its subjects sincerity and truth, which are connected by and, to its object ba8iz,
which limits its extension, and is re3tricted in sense by the adjective the and the phrase "of every virtue:"
8. Thi~ is a simple declarative sentence. ·
One act of indiscretion, one mom ent' of weakness, may mar
the beauty of a whole lif'e of virtue.
'
May mar expresses a thought that passes from its subjects
act and moment, which are restricted in sense by the adjective
one and the phrases "of indiscretion " and " of weakness,·~ to

•

.As by the light of opening day
The stats are µII concealed,
So earthly pleasures fade away
When J esus is revealed.

Are concealed expresses a thought that 'is limited in exten •
sion by the phrase "by the light of opening day," and passes
to its subject stars which is restricted in sense by the, and em·
phasized by all.
· ·
·

122

.ANALYSIS ·oF SENTENCES.

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

Fade expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb
away and by the subordinate clause and connective "when·
Jesus is revealed,'' and is confined to its subject pleaaura,
whit•h is restricted in sense by the adjective earthly.
Is revei,led expresses a thought unlimited in extension pass-.
ing to its subject Jesus.
J. This is a compound declarative sentence. It consists of

Bring forth the royal diadem,
And crown him Lord of all.
Bring expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb
fortli, and passes from its subject ye or you understood to its
object diadem, which limits its extension, and is restricted In
sense by the adjectives the and royal.
Orown expresses a thought that passes from its subject ye
or you underatood to its object him, which limits its extension,
and is re3tricted in sense by the apposition noun Lord, which is
modified by the phrase " of all."
E . This is a compound imperative sentence consisting of
two principal clauses c<Jnnected by and.
It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body.
Is sown expresses a thought unlimit_ed in extE!llsion, passing
to its subject it, and ascribing to it the attribute expressed by
the predicate noun body, which is restricted in sense by the ad. jectives a and nalztral.
Is raised expresses a thought unlimited in extension, passing
to its subject it, and ascribing to it the attribute expressed by
the predicate noun body, which is restricted in sense by a and

spiritual.
R . · This is a compound declarative sentence consisting of
two principal clauses.
Is it Pythius, just arrived?
Is expresses a thought that is confined to its subject it, nscribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun P_ytliius.
Arrived expresses a collateral thought united without n
connective to that expressed by is, modified by the adverb
just, and confined to its subj ect Pytl!ius.
S. This is a compound interrogative sentence.
He has come to die and to redeem his friend.
Has come express es a thought that is confined to its subject

he.

·

To die expresses a concurrent thought that ~s u?ited without
connective to that expressed by has come, and 18 confined to
its subject he.
.. .
.
.To redeem expresses · a conc_u rrent thought that 18 uruted
without a connective to that expressed by has come, and passes
from its subject. he to its object friend, whic~ lim~ts its exten,,
sion, and is restricted in sense by the possessive lus.
L. This is a compound. declarative sentence.
.
· Even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of
these.
.
· lVas arrilyed expresses a thought unlimited in extension,
modified by the adverb not and by the phrase." li~e one of
these" and . passin"' to . its subject Solomon, which is emphasized1by the adjective even and the phrase" in. all his glory."
. D . This is a simple declarative sentence.
I robbed other· churches, taking.wages of them, to do you
service.
•
·
Robbed expresses a thought that passes _from its ~ubject. Ito.
its object churches, which limits its extension, and lS restricted
4
in sense by the adjective other.
•
•
.
Taking expresses a collateral thou"'ht
umted without a con0
nective to that expressed by robbed, m odified by the phrase ''.of
them," and passing from its subject I to its object wages, whic~
limits its extension.
<6
To do expresses a concurrent thought unit~d withou~ a connective to that expressed by _robbed, ai;id p~smg_ f~om its s~b­
ject I to its indirect object you, and its direct obJeCt service,
which li!iits its extension.
.
R . Tliis is a compound declarative sen~encc.
'Tis the last rose of summer, left bloommg alo~e.
.
.
Is expresses a thought that is confined to its. subject ii,
ascribing to it the attribute expressed by _the. predicate noun
ro8e, which is restricted in sense by the adJectives tlie and last,
and by the phrase "of summer."
. ·
Lejt expresses a collateral thought unlimited i°: exten~ion,
united without a connective to that expressed by is, modified
by the phrase "blooming alone,'' and passing to its subject
rosi.
.
.
. Blooming expresses a . collateral thought umted :withou.t a
connective to that expressed by is, and confined to its su~Ject ·
rose, ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate
adjective alone.
M. This is a compound declarative sentence.

11

the principal clause " earthly pleasures fade away,'' and two
subordinate clauses connected to it by wlien, and by the correlative connectives as and so.

j

I

)
I
•

.,J
r

I

123

124

.ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

He feeds yon al h
Where Age and~a~~s\nea!u'·but void of state,
Ft
si sm mg at the gate
,
. eeds expresses a thou ht h
.
.
.·
its. object a'linslwuse whfl h \.at.pas.ses from its subject lid to
Btr1c~ed in sense by the a~~ /m1ts its extension, aud is remod.1fied by the phrase " ~~~~::~. yon and neat, also by void
S it expresse3 a thought that . .
.
the gate,,, and confined to it is ~od1fied by the phrase "~t
are c~~nected by and. . s subjects Age and Want, which
Smvmg expresse3 a II
nective to that exprcsse~o b at~~al ~ought united without a conand ~Vant. ·
. Y&i • an confined to it subj Acts Age

0

J. This is a compound d I
.
.princ!p~I clause and a subor~fn~~:t1ve sentence, consisting of a
Th1S 1s th e do"' that kill d
one connected by where
eat the malt th1tlay in the ht1ie cat that caught the rat. that
h. ~xpressus a thouc.ht et ous.e that Jack bui!t.
as ~r1b10g to it the at ttb t hat is confined to its subject tiii~
dog, which is restricted! .u e expressed by the predicate nou~
!ubordinate clause "tharki~~nds~hby ,th~ adjective the and the
lftlied expressci a thouaht th e cat.
.
"'.h1ch represents dog to it b. at passes from its subject tliat
s10n, aud is restrict~d . 3 o ~ect cat, which limits its exten'
clause "that cau,,.ht the ~~t ~,ense by ilie, and the ,subordinat~
?~u:;ltt exwes~es a thou;ht th
..
.
wh1c:1 represents cat, to itsoob. at pnsse~ fro.m .its subject t71at .
~nd is restricted in sense b ~~t rat, which lumts its extension'
Y ic, au~ the subordiriate clans~
. 't~at eat the malt."
Eat expresses a thou"'ht th
'~hich represents rat to lts b. at passes fr_om its subject that
~,1011; and ia restricted in sen~e~~ct;:att, which limits' its exten~·
that lay in the house."
Y e, and the subordinate clause
L 7 y expresses a thouaht th ·
.
the house,'' and confined t . :t is ~od1fied by the phrase "in
malt. .
o I s subject that, which represents

l}utlt expresses a thouaht h
. .
to its object that which li~it t ·tt pass~s from its subject Jack
E. .Th.is is a' compound ~~c~:rxt~ns10n and represents house.
the prmc1pal clause "Th. . h at1ve sentence, consisting of
ones connected by that. is is t e dog,,, and five subordinate
Am I your eoemy be
I
Am expresses 11 thoui;,a~se t~ll you the truth?
ascribing to it the attrib oth that i,s confined to its subject L
enemy, which is
the p;edicate
·•
e Y. t e possessive
your.

restricted~ ::::e~edhby

nou~

I

-

125

Tell expresses a thought that passes from its subject I, to
its indirect object you, and its direct object truth, which limits,
its extension, and is restricted in sense by the.
G. Thi~ is a compound interrogative sentence; consisting of
a principal clause and a subordinate one connected by becau6e.
Oh stranger l in such hour of fear,
What evil hap has brought thee here?
Has brought expresses a thought that is modified by ·the
phrase '"in .such hour of fear" and by the· ad verb . herf, and
passes from its subject hap, which is restricted in sense by the
adjectives what ·and evil, to its object thee, whichlirilitsitsexten·
sion.
,
A . This is a·simple interrogative sentence.

J. · Is not stranger in t):lis sentence? Why
does yoLU analysis leave it out?
Mr. S. · ·Stranger bas no grammatical dependence on any part of this sentence,· being outside ()f the circle of ideas that are pervaded by
the thought which the verb expresses. It ~
therefore in the nominative case independe,nt.
· An· evil hap how can it be,
That bids me look again on thee ?
Oan be expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb
how; and is confined to its subject. it, ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun hap, which is restricted
in sense. by the adjectives an and evil.
.
Bidafexpresses a thought that passes from its subject that to
its object me. ·.
·
Look expresses a concurrent thought united without a connective to that expressed by bids, modified by the adverb again
and by the phrase "on thee," and confined to its subject me.
N. This is a compound interrogative sentence, consisting of
a principal clause and a subordinate one connected by that.
Sweet Ellen, dear my life must be,
Since it is worthy care fro.m thee.
Jfust be expresses ·a thought that is confined to its subject
life, which is restricted in sense by my, ascribing io it \b.~
attribute expreised by the predioa.te a.djectiv~ dear• .

..

-

126

Al:l°ALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

Ia expresses a thought that is confined to its subject it, ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate adjective
wort11y, which is modified by the phrase "qf care from thee."
D . This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of a
principal clause and a subordinate one comiccted by since.
The spot an angel deigned to grace,
Is blessed, thought robbers haunt the place.
Dei!Jned expresses a thought that is confined to its subject
angel, which is restricted in sense by an.
To grace _expr_xsses a concurrent thought united without a
connective to that expressed by deigned, and passing from its
subject angel to its object which understood.
-!s blessed expresses a thought unlimited in extension, passing
to its subject spot, which is restricted in sense by the, and by
the subordinate clause "an angel deigned to gmee."
Haunt expresses a thought that passes from its subject
robber.~ to its object place, which limits ils extension, and is retricted in sense by the.
E. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting
of the principal clause, "the spot is blessed," and two subordiriate ones connected to it by wliich understood and though.

i.

On his bold visage middle age
Had slightly pressed its signet sage,
Yet had not quenched the open truth
And fiery vehemence of youth.
·
Had pres,sed expresses a thought that is modified by the
adverb sligldly and by the phrase "on biA bold visage;" ·and·
passes from its subject age, which is restricted in sense by the
adjective middle, to its object signet, which limits its extension,
and is restricted in sense by the possessive its and the adjective
sage.
Had quenched expresses a thought that is modified by the
adverb not, and passes from its subject age, to its objects truth
and vehemence, which limit its extension, and are restricted in
sense by the adjectives the, open and fiery, . and by the phrase
"of youth."
·
H. -This is a compound declarative sentence.

Such purpose dread could Malcolm spy

In Ellen's quivering lip and .eye.
· Gauld spy expressiis a thought that is modified by the plirase

"in Ellen's quivering lip and eye,'' and passes from its subjeot

.·

~

. :j

}
_..

127

Malcolm to its object purpose, which limits its exten~ion, and
.
is restricted in sense by the adjectiv~ such and dread.
-His flaxen hair, of sunny hue,
Curled closely round bis bonnet blue,
Ourled expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb
closely and the phrase "round his bonnet blue," and is confii;ed
to its subject hair, which is restrictedfo sense by the possessive
his, the adjective flaxen, and the phrase "of sunny hue."
IJ. This is a simple declarative sentence.
Trained to 1he chase, bis "eagle eye
The ptarmigan in snow could spy;
Each pass, by mountain, lake, a heath,
He knew, through Lennox and \ientietb.
Trained expresses a collateral thought united without a con·
nective to that expressed by could spy, modified by the phrase
"to the chase," and passing to its subject eye, which is restricted in sense by tbE! possessive his and the adjective eagle.
Oould spy expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"in snow," and passes from its suJ;>ject eye to its object ptarmigan which limits its extension and is restricted by the.
Knew expresses a thought that passes from its subject he to
its object pass, which limits its extension, and is restricted in
sense by the adjective eacli and the phrases "by mountain, lake,
and heath" and "through Lennox and Mentieth."
'l. This a compound d~clarative sentence consisting of two
principal clauses.
Angus, the heir of Duncan's line, .
Sprang forth and seized the fatal sign.
Sprang expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb
fortli and is confined to its subject Angus, which is restricted
in se~se by the opposition noun heir, which is restricted by the
.
adjective ihe and the phrase "of Duncan'~ line.-"
Seized expresses a thought that passes trom its snbJect Angus,
to its object si.qn, which limits its extension, ang is restricted in
tsense by the adjectives the and fatal.
·
··
G. This is a compound declarative sentence.
I am be that liveth, and was dead; and, behold, I am alive ·
for evermore.
·
Am expresses a thought that is confined to its subject I,
ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the -predicate pronoun he, which is restricted in sense by th9 subordinate clause
"that liveth, and was dead." ·
· ·

.-~

128

.!~.ALYSIS OF SENTENCJ:S.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. .

Liveth expresses a thought that is confined to its subject
that.
· ~~ expri;sscs a th~ugbt that ia confined to its subject that,
ascrtblllg to ib the attribute expressed by the predicate adj ective
dead.
A?1 expresses a .thougl~t 't hat modified by "forever more,"
and 1s confined to its subject I, ascribinoto it the attribute ex0
pressed by the predicate adjectivn alive.
J. ~'o~s is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two prmmpal clauses connected by and, and one subordinate
clause connected to the first by the connective pronoun that
'
which is ·also the subject of liveth and was.

ls

Mt·s. S. Connective pronouns perform a twofold office: they are used as subjects or objects,
and connectives at the same time.
R. Why do you omit behQld? Is it not a
verb?
. Mr. S. Some call i.t a verb in the imperative
~<;>od; ·but when it is equivalent in sense to lo,
it ls generally called an exclamation.
.·
Your fathers, where are they? .And the prophets, do they live
.
.Are ·expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb where
anrl confined to its subject they.
'
Do live expresses a thought that is modified by for ever and
confined to its subject they.
·
'
G. This is a compound interrogative sentence consistin~
of two principal clauses connected by and.
'

for ever?

But he, the chieftain of them all,
His sword hangs rusting on the wall.
Hang$ expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"on the wall,'' and is confined to its subject sword which is restricted pi sense by his.
'
Rusting expresses a collateral thoun-ht united without a. con·
nective to that expressed by h~mgs, a~d confined to its aubjeci

1word.

· R. This is a compound. declarati vo sent~nce.
Sweet lady l · shll no more inspires
· .· ·
Qre.en Erin'» hiarJ; witll be:i.uty'a power.

·

'

As in the palace of her sires
She bloomed It' peerless flower.
IMpires expresses a thought that is modified by l'no more"
and "with beauty'"s power," and passes froin its subject she to
its object haart, which limits its extension, and is restricted in
sense by the possessive Erin's, which is modified by the adjective gi·een.
B!oonierl expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"in the pa.lace of her sires," and is confined to its subject . she,
ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun
flower; which .is restricted in sense by the adjectives a and

p:er'eRs.
. "
.· ,
L'lly is emphasized by the arljectiv.e aweet, and is in the nom~­
n~ti ve

ea8e independent by exclamation.

E. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of'a
principal clause and a subordinate one connected by iu.
"A hero's bride ! this desert bower,
It iH befits thy gentle breeding."
B~fi18 expresses a thought that is modified by the adverb ill,
and passes from its subject it to its object breeding, which limits
its extension, and is restricted in sense by the possessive thy
and the adjective gentle.
Bride is restricted in sense by the possessive hero'a (which is
restricted by a,) and is in the nominative case independent by
exclamation.
·
·
Bo10er is restricted in sense by the adjectives thia and desert,
and is in the nominative case independent by pleonasm.
A. This is a simple declarative senten.ce.
· J. What construction have fathers, prophet~,

lte, and chieftain iu the sentences you analyzed
just now?
.
.
}.fr. S. Fathers, prophets, and he, are m the
nominative case independent by pleonasm, and
chi~(tain is in opposition with he.*
R. How can we tJll when we come to the end
of a sentence? ·
··
Mr. S. The ef1d of a declarative, and of an
imperative sentence, is denoted.by a period; the
•See my larger ~rammar, page 226:..229.

I

lSO

181

ENGLISH GR.!MM.A.B.

pY

end of an interrogative sentence, by an interroga•
tion point; and t\iat of an exclamat?ry senten_ce,
by an exclama_tion point. But an rnterrogat10n
point is somet1m_es use~ at the end of a clause,
and an ex clamat10n pomt, very often.
J. How then can we distinguish the end of
an interrogative, or exclamatory sentence from
the end of a elause?
.
)fr. S. By observing the next wonl_;
~e
first word of every sentence must begm w1tli a
capital letter. Observe these sentences.

fo:

Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season? or cans.t
thou guide Arcturus with his sons ? Knowest thou the ordinances of heaven ~ canst thou set the dominion thereof in the
earth? Cansc tb,ou lift up thy voice to the clouds, that abund·
ance of waters may cover thee? Canst thou send lightnings
_that they may go, and say unto thee, Here we a;e·? Who liath
put ,\·isdom iu th e inward parts? or "'.ho h!1-th giv~n Ul;lde;stn.nding to the heart ? Wilt thou play with him as w~th a bird? or
wilt thou bind him for thy maidens? Hast thou given the horse
strength? hast thou clothed his neck with 1hunder! CaJJst.tho_u
make-him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of bis nostrils .1s
terribie? . Where \Vast thou when I laid the foundations -Of the
earth ? declare, if thou hast understanding.

E. How can we distinguish principal clauses
from subordi nate ones?
.Mr. S. By observing what connectives are
used. Principal clauses are generally connected
by and, or, nor, nei"ther, out, yet, or nevertneless; an4
subordinate clauses by other connectives.
. Sir, an academical education has given you an unlimited command over the most beautiful figures of speech.
Has given expresses .a .thought that passes from its subject
ducati~n., which iB restricted in sense by the adjectives an a.nd
academical, to its indirect object yo1J, and its direct object com- ·
mand, which limits its extension, and_is_restricted in sen!le_by

,.

the aqjecti-res an and un!imitecl, and
the phrase "over tho
most beautiful figures of speech."
H. · This is a simple declarative sentence.
Maiks, h1tchets, racks, and vipers, dance through your letters,
in all the mazes of metaphorical coafasiou.
Dance expresses a thought that is modified by . the phrases
"through your letters" and" in all the . mazes .of metaphorioal
confusion," and i~ corifined to its subj ects masl.:1, hatcheu, rack8,
and vipers, which are connected by and.
·N. This is a simple declarative sentence.
These are the gloomy companions oi a disturbed 'imagination;
the melancholy madness of poetry without the inspiration.
· .Are expresses a thought that is confined to its subject thue,
Ii.scribing to it the attribute expressed by the predic11te noun
companions, which is restricted fa sense by the adjectives t"M
and gloomy, and by the phrase "of a disturbed imagination;"
and .also the attribute expressed by the predicate noun madnus,
which is -1·estricted by the adj ectives the and meianclioly, and
by the phrases, "of poetry" and "without the inspiration."
.Measures and not men, is the common cant of affected moderation : a base counterfeit language, fabricated _by knaves and
made current among fools.
Ia expresses a thought that is confined to its subject "m1asuru
arul not men," ascribing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun cant, ·which is restricted in_sense by the adjectives
the.and comm-0n, and by the phrase "of affected moderation,"
J!,ndalso by the apposition noun language, which is re3tricted by
the adjectives a, base, and eounterfeii, and by the phrases
.
"fal>ricated by knaves" and "made current among fools."
To attack vices in the abstract without touching persons, may
be safe fighting, indeed; but it is fighting with shadows.
.May be expresses a though that is modified by the abverb in"
deed and confined to its subject "to attack vices in the abstract,
without touching persons," ascribing to it th~ attribute expresaed
by the predicate noun .fa.Jktin:J, which is restricted in sense
by the adjective 8afe.
·
Ia expresses a thought that is confined to its ·subject it, ·a.~crib­
. ing to it the attribute expressed by the predicate noun fighting,
. ·which is restricted in sense·by the phrase "with, shadows."
G. This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
two principal clauses connected by but.
·
Behold the fowls of the air: for they sow .not, neither.do they
reap, nor i;ather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feedeth
them, ·

133

EN'GLISII GRAID!.A.?t.

AN.A.LYS!S·OF SENTENCES.

JlelioZd expresses a tho~ht that passes from its subject ye,
understood to its object fow~, which limits its extension, and is
restricted in sense by the adjective th~ and by the phrase ·" of
the air."
· ·
Sow expresses a thought unlimited in extension, modified by
the ad verb not; and passing from its subject they without a definite object.
Do 1·eap expresses a thought unlimited in extension, ·passing
·
.
from its su\Jject tl.eij.
Gather expresses a thought that is modified by the phrase
"into barns," and passes from its subject iliey, but bas no definite object to limit its extension.
·.
Feedeih expresse3 a thought th;tt passes from its subject
Jialii.er which is restric"ted in sense by the possessive your and
the adj~cti\'e heavenly, to its object them which limits its e:tten·
sion.
. .
. ·
J. This is a compoun<l sentence, cons1stmg of a prmcipa1
imperative clause and two subordinate declarative ones connccte<l _
to it by for an<l to each ·other by yet; one of which is a com- .
pound clau;c whose members are connected by neither nnd nor.
A re ye not much better than they?
.Are expresses a thought that is modified by not and confined
to its sllbject ye, ascribing .to it the attribute expressed by the
' predicate adjective better, .which is n;odified by mucli.
·
This is a fragmentary compound mtcrrogatlve sentence con·
si~tino- of an entire prinripal clause, and the fragment of n subordin~te one connccte\l to it l>y tlvJ.n with the verb understood,
thus; "Are ye ·not much better than they arc?"
He shall fly nway as a dream , .and shall not be found: yea,
he shall be chased away as a vision of the night.
.
Siiall fly e:tpresses a thought that is modified by .the adver~
all)ay 1111d by the s~bordi1:ate ~lause "as a dream [flies away,] .
and is confined to its sul>1ect M.
Sh.all be found expresses a thought unlimited in extension,
modified by no!, and passing to its subject i~.
Shalt be cluued expresses a thought unlimited in extension,
modified by yea and away, and by the subordina~e claus.e "as a
vision of the night [is chnsed away,]" and passmg to its subject lie.
.
·
. ·
.A. This is a fragmentary compound declarntive sentence,
consisting of two compound clauses .separated by a colon; each ·
of which consists of a principal clause and the fragment of a
subordinate one connected to it by as.

of sentences and clauses. Now I'll read a few
sentences and' see jJ you cat tell what kind <?f
sentences they .are, and distiuguish all ~he11·
clauses.

132

Mr. S. In this exercise I've analyzed all sorts

For brass I will bri~ gold, and for iron I will bring eilver,
and for wood brass, and for .stones iron: I will also make thy
officers peace, and thinc _exactors righteousness. . .
.
J. This is a fragmentary compound declarative eentence
consisting of two compound principal clau~es ~eparate~ ~y a
colon; the first of which consists of two entire simple principal
clauses, and two fragment3 of cl;i.uses connecte<l by and, with
the verb will bring and its subject I understood; and the second
consists of one entire simple principal clause and the fragment
of one connected by and, with the verb will makund its subject
I understood.
.
Violence sbnll no more be heard in thy lnnd, w11sting nor
destruction within thy borders; but thou shalt call thy w11l11
Sn! vation, and thy gates Praise.
.
R. This is a fragmentary compound declarntive sentence
consistin""
of two compound principal clauses connected by
0
but; tbe first of which consists of one entire principal clause
· am! the fra""tnent of one, with the verb shalt be lieartl understood· and the second consists of one entire principal clause
and the fragment of oue connected by and, with the verb sl,aU
call, and its subj ect ·tliou understood.
The sun shall. be " nci more thy light by day; neither for
brio-btness shall the moon give light unto thee: but the Lord
shall be unto thee an everlasting light, and thy God, thy glory.
!if. This is ·a compound deClarative sentence, consi;1ting of
two compond principal clauses connected by~but; the first of
which consi3ts of two principal clauses connected by neitlier ,'
:ind the second consists of one entire principal clau.s e and the
fragment of one connected by and, with the, verb s/,4ll be un,
destood.
Thy sun shall no more go down ; nei.ther sba1.l ~by_ n;ioon
withdraw itself: for the Lord shall be thmc everlastrng light,
and the days of thy mourning shall be ended.
.
E. This is a compound declarative sentence,· con·s isting of a
compound principal clrnse and : a compound subor1linate on!l
connected by for. The princip:i.l clause consists of two princi·
pal clauses ·connected by neither,' and the subordinate clauae
conaistli of two principal clauses connected by and. ·

. _ .A.N.A.LYSIS OF

ENGLISH G.R'AMMAR;

"

. ne· from thick films shall purge the visual ra..y,,,
.A.nd on. thi . si~tleas oye·b.all pour the:d_a11~ .

135

'Tis he th'· obst~cted paths of sound shall cwr,
And bid new music charm the unfolding c:i.4
The dumb shall sing, the lame bill crutca foreg.o,
· And leap exulting like the bounding· foe.
L . This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of ·
three compound principn.1 clauses separate!\ by colons.
No sigh, no: murmur, the wide world shal1 hear,
Er.om every f~he wipes off every-tear.
fi. This is IL COrif.d declarative i!eiJ.t~)lCej COnsjsUng_ of
t)r,o. p_rincipal clause~.
_ ·
· •
No more shall nation. against nation rise, .
"'
Nor ardent warriors meet with h;lteful. eyes,
Nor fields with gleaming steel. be covereu ·o'er, •
The 'Qrazen trumpets kindle rag!) rio -more;
But useless lances into scythes shall bend,
And th11 broau falchion in a ploughshare end.
.A. • This is a comp3und. declarative sentence; consisting of
two compound principal clauses connected by but; the first of'
which consists of four principal clauses; and the second COil•
sil!ts of two.
Then palaces· shall rise; the joyful son
Shall finish what his short-lived sire begun ;
Their vines a shadow to their race shall yield, .
And the same hand that sowed shall reap the field.

LMt noon beheld them full of lusty life ;
Last eve, in beauty's circle, proudly gay :
The midnight brought the signal sound of strife; .
The morn, the marshalling in amid th.e day,
Battle's magnificently stern array I
J.. ~his is a fragmentary compound excl;matory sentence,
consisting of two compound principal clauses separated by a
colon ; the first of which consists of. an entire principal clause,
and .the fragment of one with the verb belitld and its object
tl_iem understood; and the second consists of one entire prin-.
c1pal clause, and two fragments of clauses with the verb brouglit
understood.
·
Ye nymphs of'~olyma ! begin the song:
To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong.
· G. This is a compQjlnd sentenc~, consisting of two principal
ol~uses; the .first of which ill imperative; and the other declar·
"t1ve.
. .
The mossy fountains, 11.nd the sylvan shades,
The dreams of Pindus, and the· Aonian maids,
Delight no more.
F. This is a simple declarative sentence.
0 thou my voice inspire,
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire I
D_. _This is a compound exclamatory sentenc.e, consisting of
a. prmc1pal clause, and a subordinate one connected to it by
tDlio.
.All crimes shall cease, and ancient fraucl !\hall fail;
Returning Justice lift aloft her scale;
Peace o'er the world her olive wand extend,
·
And white-robed ~nnocence from 'heaven descend.
· 'J!· . This ·is n co~pound declarative sentence, consistin~ ot
.five principal chluoes connected by and.
.
·
'
. .
Tlie Saviour comes! bv ancient bards foretold:
Hear him, ye deaf, and all ye blind, behold !
N. This is a compound exclamatory sentence, consisting of
Uiree principal clauses.
.
· ·

fiNTE~CES.

J
'~

•

J. This is a.· compound declaratiye sentence, consisting of. ·
four principal clauses and two sub.ordinate ones.
In these deep solitudes and awful cells, ·
Where heavenly-pensive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-musing Melancholy reigns,
What means this tumult in a vestal's veins?
Why rove my thoughts beyond this la~t retreat?
Why feels my heart its long forgotten heat?:
R. This is a compound interrogative s.entence, copsisting of
three principal clauses, and one compound· subordinate clause
connected to them by where.
Oh may we never love as these have loved ! ·
M. This. a compound exclamatory sentence, consisting of a
principal cla.use &nd a subordinate one conn~cted bY, a#.

lU

-

ENGLISH GRA1.Bf-AR.

No radiant pearl which crested .fortune wear!,
No gem that twinkling bangs from beauty's car!,
Nor the bright stars which night's blue arch adorn,
Nor rising suns that gild the vernal morn, ·
Shine with such luster as the tear that breaks
For others' wo, down virtue's manly cheeks.

E. Thia is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of
one principal clause; "no radiant pearl, no gem, nor the bright
stars, nor rising suns, shine with such luster," and five subordinate ones connected to it by which, that and aa; the last of
which ia compound being composed of an entire subordinate
clause connected by that, to the fragment of one h;i.vin~ 1hinc1
understood after tear..
·
The man who hails you Tom or Jack,
· And proves by thumps upon your back,
Ilow he esteem.a your merit, ·
Is such a friend that one had need ·
Be very much bis friend indeed,
To pardon or to bear it.
.

.G.. This a co1;°pound de.clarativc sentence consigting of one
prmcip.al clause, 'the man 1s such a friend," and two compound
aubordinate ones connected to it by. u:lio and ti.at.

J

I
1.

,1
SYNTAX.

Will you let us see your rules of syntax?
Mr. K Yes; here they are. Stud v them till
they become as familiar a·s household ~vords.
RuLE r. NollHNATIVES.

The subject of a finite verb must be m.
the nominative case.c

137

·,

P;rrnmc.A.TES.

A ·predicate noun or pronoun must
agree in case with the subject.
. RULE VI.

N OM. INDEPENDENT.

A nou_n or pronoun whose case depends
on no other word, is in the nominative
case independent.
RULE VII.

CONVERSATION FIFTH.

•

RULE Ir. OBJECTIVES.
The object of a verb or prepositiofrinust
be in the objective case.
.
.
RULE III. p OSSESSfVES.
A noun or pronoun that denotes possess~on or ownership, must be in the possessive case.
.
. . ~UL• • . ~PPO~I~ON. . .
.
A word m appos1t10n with another must
agree with it in case.
'
RuLE v.

•

J,f.

'

SYNTAX.

PRONOUNS.

A pronoun must agree with its antece·
dent in gender and number. '
.
RuLE VIII.

ADJECTIVES.

An adjective belongs to a noun or pronoun.
RULE IX.

FINITE

v ERBS.

A finite verb must agree · with its sub·
ject in number and person.

•

138

139'.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

p ARTICIPLES.
Infinitives and. participles depend on
nouns or pronouns as subjects.
RULE X.

NOTES TO RO:LE L.

INFINITIVES AND

RULE XI.

PREPOSITIONS.

. A preposition expresses the relation of
Its antecedent term to its object.
·

RuLE XII.

AnvERBs.

An adverb belono-s to a verb, an ad.
jective, a preposition~ or another adverb: ..
.

RULE XIII.

CONNECTIVES.

· A connective conn~cts wor(l.s or phrases,
claus~s, sentences or paragraphs.
.
RULE XIV.

ELLIPSES.

Such words as weaken or encumber a
sentence should be omitted· but . none
t}la.t are es~en~ial to its harm~ny, · correct-. .
ness, persp1cmty, or strength.
· ... ·
RULE xv.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
. Every word should have the applica-.
t10n, . form, and construction, that are
sanctioned by the best authority;: and all
the parts of a sentence should correspond
to each other.
J. Are these all the rules of syntax that ,
you have?
Mr. S. These are all the leading rules. I
have some special rules subordinate to some . of
these, which I will now 'present as notes.

. -~

l

..t

·

,.

.

; 1. · Every nominatiye not in appos~on, or independent, or a predicate nominative, . must l:?e
the subject of a ve.rb, as ".My _rriends are gone,"
instead of "My friends they are gone."
': 2. .. Whe:n .a verb in the active voice is followed by two objects, the direc~- object should be
made the subject of the verb in the passive
voice: as, "He offered me ten dollars; ten
dollars .were. f'ered .me" ,...,-not "I was pffered
ten dollars." ·
.. ·
• .

•

:N'OTES. TO RULE II•

1. Every transitive verb in the active voice
and every proposition requires an object: as, ''I
went .to him, and offered to help him." It would:_
be improper to say, "I went to, and offered to
.. help him," or, " I went to him, .and offered to
help."
2. An intransitive verb does not admit an
object; unless it·is used transitiv~ly: as, "I sa.t:·
me down." "Flee thee away." This construe•.
. tion is not sanctioned by good authority.
3. The object of a verb or preposition should
not be so far separated from it as to produce am~
biguity or · inelegance: as, "He ruined, bv his
profligacy, his reputation and e!tate." " Wlzom
do you offer such language to1" · We shoul~
say, "He ruined his reputation and est(l.le by hls
· profligacy," or, "By his profligacy he mined,
his reputation and estate." " To whom do you offer.
such language."
NOTES TO RULE m;
, 1. Every, n'01.1u an4 ptonouI); ill the .possessiv:~·

•

•,

140

E~GLISJI

GRAMMAR.

case should have its proper form: :is, "Tho
poor man's wisdom is despised, and his words
are not .heard."
·
2. The sign of possession should be used i~­
Il_lediately btifore the name of the thing possessed
either expressed or understood, and nowhere
else : as, "This is not Henry's horse, it is
Albert's."
3. When of w~th its object is equivalent in
sen~e . to a possessive, that forni should be used
which the perspicuity and arrangement of the
sen~ence, as well as variety and euphony require:
a disagreeable repetition of either should be
avoi.ded by a proper intermixture of both, or_by
a different construction of the sentence: as,
"The father of my friend's wife," or "m v friend's
father-in-law," instead of "My friend's wife's
father," or "the father of the wife of my friend."
4. Fo~ the sake ~f euphony, we omit the
apostroph1c s, but retain tbe apostrophe, in
plural n•Juns ending ~ith .s, and in some sinaular
nouns ending with the sound of s, especially in
poetry_, but not very often in prose; unless the
following
word
beams
with s I as ' "She meekly
T
I
0
sat at uesus feet. " "For conscience' .sake." "For
rigliteousness' sake."
NOTES TO RULE VII.

1. When a collective noun used :is an ante. ced~nt expresses many as one whole, it reqi1ires
a sm&ular pronoun in the neuter gender; but
when it expres~es many as individuals, the pronoun must be m the plu'ml number, and in the
&ame gender as the indi:v-iduals that compose th@

'

!YNTAX.

I'!

collection: "as, "When .tbe nation• complains
its voice must be heeded." · "The committee
were divi'Jeci in their sentiments."
.
_
2. 'l\vo or more antecedents taken together
reqnire a plural pronoun: as,''- Ri_:ith and Emr_n~
learn, because- t!tey study all theo· lessons diligently."
1
3. Two or more singular antecedents taken
separately require a sinaular pronoun: as,.
"Henry,. James, or Charles ha~ lost _his· pencil."
"Every mn.n l&d .~very b9y lS known by ,the
companv he kc • .
· 4. When antecedents or subjects that are
taken together are in different p~rsons, i~ makir;g the pronoun or verb agi:ee with them m ~he
plural, we prefer the second person to the third, •
and the third to either or both of the other persons; for thou and he are equivalent to you, and
thou and I, or he UJld I, or thou, he, and · I,, are
eqttivalent to we: as, "Charles and thou have
learned your lessons." "Charles and I have
learned our lessons."
"Charles and you and I
have done the best we could."
5. ·w hen antecedents that are, taken separ- ,
ately are in 1lifferentgenders,.numbcrs, or persons,
strict prnpriety requires the pronoun. to agree
with each antecedent separately: as, "Charles
has lost his book, or Ellen has lost _hers." "I
have neglected my duty, or you have neglected
yours."*
- ·
.
6. Who is_applied to persons, and to t~mgs
personified; and which, to things not personified
•See my larger Gran:mar, P.llge 211.
0

}
I

141

,,
j

I

I
I
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142

143
·-

ENGLISH GRAlIMAlt.

a:s; "The king, who may command 1 entreats.~'

"The bird which you gave me is dea d."
. 7. -'l.'hat is applied to perso~s and things. It
1s prefe:able to w_ho or w/n"ch when it is preceded
by t!1e 111terrogat1ve who! by antecedents repre·
sentrng persons aT_ld th rngs, by the adjective
same,_ by a superlative, by an unlimiteu antP.ce:
dent before a restrictive clause and in 0<reneral
whenever the propri ety of who ~r whfrh is dou bt·
fol: as, " Who that has any sense of propriety
wo_u ld use such language?" "The boy and the
~og that were here yest~rday have come again."
Are these the same birds that were here last
year?" "It is the fairest -flower that blows."
"'I'rees that retain their leaves durinrr
winter are
0
called evergreens."
·
8. The connective pronouns who, wln"ch, that,
~nd as, must always agree with their antecedents
m person, as well as in gender and number and
~erbs must agree with \hem accordingly: as;·
I who speak, and you that hear me and the
things which are spok.en of, must pass ~way." ;
. 9.. When the subj ect and the predicate :ire
~n different nutnbe:s or_persons, _and a pronoun
is made to agree with either of them as its ante·
cedent, that agreement must be preserved
throughout the sentence: as, "I am he that
breathes upon the earth with the breath of sr,rinoand that covers it with verdure and beauty.'
would be improper to say, "I am he thaibreatl1es
upon the earth with the breath of spring and
that cover it with verdure nnd beaut;y.'
'
10. The same antecedent should be_repre·

It

•I

./

...

sented :by the same ·pronoun in the different
parts of a ·sentence.: as, "Our tutors are our ·
·benefactors to whom we owe obedien\!.e, and .
quhom we o~rrbt to love." · . '' DQ to others as you
"would have them do to you,." 01', "Do to otLers
as thou wouldst have them do'to thee." ~t would
be improper say1 "Our. tutors are our benefactor~,
to wlwm \Ve owe obedience, and t/"l!Qt we ought
. to love." "Do to others as you would have them
do ·to thee.""
It. . .
·
·
1 l. Such p1~ouns as the sense require.:i
sbould be used, and be so placed as to prevent
ambi<Yuity
and inelerrn.nce:
as, "I will
give
o
o
.,
I each
h
of you a book"-not "all of you.' " t at ·.
speak unto th ee, am ~e." " I ~m he, tha~ speak
unto thee," would be m elegant, 1fnot am1?1guous.
12, When the structure of the sentence will
not allow a pronoun to be so placed as to show
clearly what it represents, the ~ntecedeT_lt should
be repeated, or the sentence sho_uld be drfferently
constructed: as, "Many are. charmed by . th_e
beauty of poetry; but few can tell w}1erem it
consists." It should be," Ma!lY. are c}larmed by _
the beanty of poetry; but few can tell wherein
its beauty consists."
NOTES TO RULE VIII•

1. . A.n adjective denoting unity or plurality,
and the noun to which it belongs, m11st agree m
number: · as, "One foot, tenfeet."
.
2. Such adjectives as the sense reqmres
should be used , and none that are not. essential
to the perspicuity, strength, or harmony, of the
sentence.

,

1

I

\
.

144

145

ENGLISH GR.A.l!Mil

·. sYNTAX; ,

3. Every adjective should be so placed as to
show clearly to what it belongs, and best pro·
mote the perspicuity, strength, and elegance of
the sentence: as, "A class nf excellent scholars,"
"A pair of new gloves," instead of "An excellent
class of scholars,"." A new pair of gloves."
4. Defore a word beginning with a vowel
sound euphony requires an, and a before a word
beginning with a consonant sound: as, an eel, a
fish.
5. An adjective should not be used for an
adverb, · nor an adverb for an adjective: as,
"Speak: plain." "'rliine often infirmities." 1.lfe
should say, ''.Speak plainly." "'l'hy frequent in·
firmities."
.
6. vVhen the latter term of comparison excl Ulles the former, the com para ti ve degree should
be used: as, "Iron is more useful than an.y other
metal."- But when the latter term of comparison
includes the former, the superlative degree should
be used: as, "Iron ii the most useful of ali
metals."
7. Double comparatives and superlatives
should be avoided: as, "On lesser hopes." "'l'he
most straitest sect." Say "On l<1ss hopes." "The
·straitest sect."
· 8. Adjectives whose signification is not capable of increase or diminution, such as squm·e,
circular parallel, right, true, fnll, pe1fect, &c., do
not admit comparative terminations, nor ad verbs
of degree.

expresses many as one whole, it re.quii-es a
singular verb; but when it expresses many as
individuals, the verb.must
ph1ral: as, ".\Vhen
. the nation boils the SGum must rise." . "My
people do not ·consider." '
2.. A sentential subject or antecedent taken as
one whole requires a singulai· WJrb or pronoun:
as, "What signifies wishing and hopiug for
better times?" - "Always - taking out or the
meal-tub,
never pntting in, soon comes to the
bottom." . lri'o speak and write correctly, requires a knowledge of rhetoric antl logic, as wel,l
as grammar.."

NOTES TO RULE IX.

1.

When a collectiv~noun used as a subject·

/

uc

an

"To know thyself, and tliy God to .know,
Thi& is true wisdom's sum below:
With it, the weakest child is wise;
The sage without it in darkness dies."

\

.1

3. Two or more subjects taken together re·
quire a plural verb: as, "Exercise and. temperance preserve health." . "John an<l Qhnrles hai.;e
torn rny'book."
4. ;l'wo or more singular suhjects taken
sepat·ately require a singular verb:. as, "J obn
or Charles has torn my book." "He, -as well as
she, is to blame. ''
5. When subjects that are take1; separately
are in different numbers or persons, the verb
must agree with that which is placed nearest to
it: as, "He or they are to blame." "You or I
am misinformed." But it i~ generally better to
use the verb or its auxiliar.v with each subject:
as, "He is to blame, or they are." 11 You are
misinformed, or I am."
K

•

-146

147

ENGLISII GRAMMAR.

·6. Two or more nouns that signify the same
person or thing can hardly be considered ~istinct
subjects or antecedents: they are only different
names, titles, or epithets for the smne subj ect or
antecedent; and therefore th ey require singul ar
verbs and pronouns: as, "'l'his famous orator
and poet was overtaken by his enemies, and murdered." "My g uide, my stay, my friend, is lost."
7. E verv finite verb must have a subject: as,
"He is th e 'man whom we visited yesterday, and
who entertained us so freely. " It would be improper to say, "He is the man whom' w~ visited
yesterday and entertained us so freely."
NOTES TO RULE

a

x.

1. To, the sicrn of the infinitive, is omitted
after bi'd, let, make, see, hear, and feel, in the active
voice, and sometimes after behold, observe, percei've, dare, need, have, and help: as, ·" Let me go." " Vv e ma<le them run." " See th em jlj;."
2. After stor, leave a.ff, _commence, contim1e,
keep, ' abhor, avoid, fo~bear, and h~lp, p~ 1ti ciples ·
are generally used m ~teal! of rnfimtives :. a~i
· "Stop chewing tobacco. 1 " Leave off smolcing.
"I have·comroenced studying law." "The terrible clock keeps ti'clcing and str£lcing."
3. A participle should not have the.con.struction of a verb and tbat of a noun or adjective at
the same time : as, " Is such language becoming
a Christian?" "True worship consists not in the
utterinO"
or the hearing certain words." \Ve
0
should say "Is such language becoming to a
Christian ?11 ' "True worship consists not in the
uUering or the hearing of certain words," or "in
uttiring or hearing certain words." .

. 4. Every i_nfinitive and every participle that
is i;iot used abstractly should have its proper
subjec·t : as, "Do you expect to learn without
, studying?" " By reading good books we im-.
'
. 1s. " If we say,, "Is it your
pr.ove .our mml
expect~t10n to learn without studying?°"
"By
readrng ~ood books, our minds are improved i"
we ~eprive to 'learn and reading '>f their proper
subjects, ::wd obscure the sense.
• 5. ]fver.y ~nfinitive and every p;rticiple
should l., e its proper .form and appJi·cation:
o?e shou not b_e used for the other; nor should
e1th,er. o~ th em be used where finite verb or a
~oun will b~tter e~press the meaning: as, "I
rnte.nd studying Latin," for "I intend to study
:i;,atm." "I believe him to be a liar," for "I bel~eve that be is a liar."
"I doubt him to be
smcere" for "I doubt his sincerity."
·
6. We slwuld be extremely careful to give
the past tense and the perfect participle the
· forrris _that are sanctioned by the best authority,
and never .t o use one of them for the other.

,I.

NOTES TO RULE XI.

~·

~vcr.y preposition should express the re-lation.mtended: as, "Ile w~s taken by strataCYem
0

and k1lle~ witfi, a sword." If we say, "-He wa~
ta~e n with stratagem, and killed by a sword "
ne~the~ of these prepositions will express the r~lation intended.
·
· 2. No unnecessary preposition should be
used! nor should any preposition that tbe sense
requires be omitted: as, "I teach grammal" to
ya~" "He. was ban~hQd - Engl~µ,d." , "$ay,

•

148
'
-_.,

ENGLISH GR.A.MY.A.R.

"I teach you grammar."

· STNT.A.%.

"He -was banishe~

than, other-'-than, and .rather-than: . The latter

from .l!;ngland."
3. A preposition should be placed so near
the ~erms of relation as to prevent ambiguity
and inelegance: as, "You can see, with half an
eye, how the world goes." "You can see how
the world goes, with half an eye," would be in·
·
elegant, if not ambigu0us.

Non:s ro

RULE XII.

. 1. Ad verbs should be so placed as to express
the meaning clear!y, and be most conducive to the
harmony, strength, and beauty of the sentence,;
- as, " These things should never be separated . .·
'l'his is ~tte r than "These things should be
never separated," or, "These things never should
be separutcll." ·
2. Double negatives should be avoiJecl, un·
less we mean to express an affirmation ; for two
negatives in the same clause destroy eaeh other: ·
as, "I can not, by no means, excuse yon." :Say,
"I can, by no means, excuse you," or, "I can not,·
by any means, excuse you."
.
··
3. We should be careful to use such adverbs
ns the sense requires and such ns are sanctioned
by the best authority: as, "Ask me ei·er so
much dowery," instead of "Ask me never so .
much."
NOTES TO R -ULE XIII.

1. Correlative connectives should be properly
adapted to the words with which they are
coupled: as, Both-and, either-or, neither- .
nor; whether-or, though-yet, as-as, as-so, ·
. JiO-::-as, so-that1 suoh-as, such-that, else- .

\'

word i_n each -of these · pairs is the proper cor·
relative of the former: as, ; " She is both deafancl
l;l;nd,'. ' "If.you wiU not work, you m~st either.
• .or steal.
.·
- 2. We should be careful to lilile such con·
nectives as the sense requires; and such . as at'e
·
· sanctione:! by tbe best.authority.
These rules and notes comprise the main
principles of syri.tax, which we will now reduce
to practice. As I select ex:ir,nples of their
violation; parse them and correct them. '!'his
exercise should be continued till you can con'struct c9rrcctly every sentence that you speak Ol'
write, and cl earl v understand what you read.
. M. How does parsing make us understand
. what we read?
Mr. S. qan you parse a sentence that you
don't un<lerstand?
M. No, sir; none of use can parse or
analyze a i:;entence, - without ascertainiug . its
meaning and ob:>erving its conRtruction.
.
J.fr. S. Then parsing makes us. cu 1ti vate a.
habit of finding out the meaning and observing
the construction of sentenceH, and thus we are
prepared for understandi?g what we read, detectrng errors, ·and constructing sentences correctly.
R.. When a s!lntence is improper can we fiml
it out by parsing?
~fr. S.
Try a rew sentences and see. Parse
them in th is sentence: "Them that you can not
govern rn11st be expelled."
-J. Them. is a personal pronoun, in the plural number, third
person, and objective case. Noun they, Possessive their, Ob-

•

150

. .He ehould be in the objective case, becauae it is in apposition

iective them. But them is the subject of the finite verb mtl.!C
6 npdted, and should tqerefore be in the nominative case·
thus " Th.ey that you can not govern must be expelled .• :
.
'
according to .Rule 1.
"The.>: that will not obey you expel." Parse they.
.
Tli.ey is a pers?na~ pronoun, in the plural number, third
. person, and nommative case. But they is the .object of the
!erb expel, and. should therefore be in the objective case; thus,
Tliem that will not obey you expel"-Rule 2.
·
"Who_ did you receive. tha,t present from P" Parse w!io.
_Wlw is an interroi:ative pronouu in the sinaular
number
0
t~1rd person, an~ n?minative case. 'Nominative who, Posses'.
.sive "'.h.ose, . Objective whom. But who i11 the object of the .
preposition from, and should therefore be in the objective case·
thus, " Jl'."ltom did you receive that present from P"-Rule 2'.
R. , It is more elegant to say, "From whom did you receive
··
· that present;" acco.rding to Note 3 to Rule 2. .

•

..

_J. Can't we correct false syntax just as well
without parsing?
·
· .Mr. S. If you are good grammarians, you
will observe the structure of each sentence at a
glance, and _parse it mentally so as to see as quick
as thought if any rule or note is violated. Now
~ook out for errors i_n the sente_nces that I repeat,
and correct them without parsing. '
Them that he invited refused to come.
. · 1:!U11T1 should ~e in the nominative case, because it is the
subject of the fimte verb rifmed; ·thus, " They that he invited
refused to come."-Rule 1.
' Tis green, ' tis green, I can assure· ye.
should be in the objective case, because it ·is the object
of the verb can assure; thus, "'Tis green, 'tis green, I can
assure you."-Rule 2.

n

Virtue is it's own reward.
IPs is in the po~sessive case, and should therefore have the
proper form; thus, "Virtue is ill own reward."-Note l to
Rule 3.
~ left it with the goldsmit4. he that agl4 i:a~ 'thia wat.~

151

SYNTAX. .

ENGLfSII: G-RA.lU.r.A.B.

J

with gotdamitli, the obj ect of the preposition with thus "I left
it with the goldsmith, him that sold me this .w11.tch."_:.Rule 4. ,
.
.
Did you think .it wa~~~?
The predicate pro~o!M"'me 1hould be in the nominative case,
because it, the .subject of was, is; thus, "Did you think it was
Il"-Rule 5.
1·
.And thee tool Brutus, my son!
. . Tliee sh~ be in the nominl!!tive case independent, bec11.u.se
its case •enda on no other · word; thus, "And t/1tu tool.
·Brutus; my son!-Rule 6.
·
·, · . ·
· Why did you rpe the poor bird of its young P
.
- ·Its should be in the feminine gender, because its antecedent
bird is; thus, Why did you rob the poor bird of '1Ar young?Rule '7.
,
When was you there?
Was should be plural, because its subject .you is; thu~
"When w_ere you there p•i-Rule 9. •
.

J. Is it proper to say, the books . are being·
_sold?
Mr. 8. I think not. ·· 4.re being sold should be
:are selling, because this is the · form that is
sanctioned by the best authority; thus, "The
books are selling."-Rule 15.
·
·
. J. 'l1he other form is sanctioned by the authority _of polite and fas}iionaole people .in the
best society. What better authority can we have?
Mr. S. 'rhe idiom of our language, reason '
ancl analogy, the uniform practice of our best
speakers, and writers,. from time immemorabie,
.and ,the ·common sense of the common people.
"The books are being sold!". What does this
expression mean?.
_
J. The continuance of the action
the
passive voice: it means that the sale of the books
~still progressing. '
.
.
. .

in

.-

• Boo lll1 laricr Gr&mmar, p~o ~

•

•

152·
... .,., <. '

~

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!TNT.AX...

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

. Mr. 8. "The books being sold." What does
thiR mean ?
.
R. It means that t1ie sale of the books is.
completed: "The books beidfsold, we published
another edition."
Mr. S. How can the doubling of the verb to
.be before the perfect participle represent an
•action as unfinished while the participle represents it as finished'( "The books are being .
sold'' is as absurd and gross a solecism as, "The
Looks_exist existing sold;" an cl as the latter ex.pression is equivalent in sense to "The books
ext~t sold," so is the former to "The books .are
sold." No oth er meaning can. be wrung out of
it without torturing ournati ve English. It is just
as proper to double one of these verb as the other;
aml nothing conceals the absurdity of such expressions but the irregularity of t.he verb to be, ·
which assumes such dissimilar forms as am, art,
i's. was, are, were, being anJ been, appearing like
different verbs; as you will see by using be instead
of are; th us, "If the books be being sold." "'rhe
books w£1l be being sold." "The books have beer;./
being wld." As "the books exist existing," ·ir .
such tautology can be tolerated,) meany ·more
than "the books exist," so "the books are being"
can not by any stretch of imagination be made
to signify any thing more than " the books are;'.'
consequently" the books are beinq sold" is eqiva·
lent in sense to the books are solu."
·
. J. 'rbe books don't sell: they are sold by the
boobellers. Why then should we express this . .
thought in the active voice?
.
.

·r
r

•

•

I'

.' 1
[

\J

JI

:I

1'j

I;\ ·
\.

: • I•

· Mr..8. We frequently observe effects without
\racing them to their causes, which !lre either
unknown or disregarded; fixing our .t houghts on
the objects of action, and1m~king them subjects.
In such cases, though there is an actual transition of action, there is no transition . of thought;
for 4iliil' thoughts are' confined to their subjects,•
and• not follow the actions from agentS' to ·ob·
jects. The verbs with which ·we express such
thoughts are neither in the active nor the passive
voice : they a1·e ~ihtransitive with a passive signification . ..A great many transitive verbs are thus
used intransitively, to express what might be ex·
pressed in the passive voice with less brevity and
elegance, as "The ice is melting." Who would
say; "The ice is being melted," ~ecause ice can
not ·melt itself, and must therefore be melted.
Put the verbs in these sentences into this newfangled passive voice, and see how they will appear: 'rhe bells are rin,q in,q. Our city is burning.
The gnns are firing. 'rhe drums are beating. 'rhe
fifes are playing. 'l'he bugles are blow1'.ng. ·Out·
banners are waving. The army is collecting. 'I'he
house is building. There is but little doing. The
grain is ripening. Ice feels cold. This fruit tastes
bitter. 'l'hese flowers smell sweet Maple splits
and burns better than beach. The sky looks hazy.
There is a storm a brewin,q. The tea is drawing.
The bread is baking. . Who wouldn't be crusty
with halfayear'sbalc£ng'! ·
J. . The hells are being rung. Our city is being
burned. The guns are being fired. The drums
are being beaten. The :fifes are being played. The

' •.
ENGL~SF!

1'55

GlU.MM.A.R. ·

bugles are being blown. Our banners are being ·
waved. The army is being collected. The house
is being built. There is but little being done. The
. grain is being ripened. Ice i's being felt cold. This
fruit is being tasted bitter. These flowers are being
smelled sweet. Maple i's being split and burned
better than beech. The sky i's · being looked at .
hazy. '!'here is a storm a being brewed. 'l'he tea
.is being di'a)Rn. The bread i's being balced. Who ·
wouldn't be crusty with half a ye~r's being baked?
Mr. S. "About fifty years ago" !'mys an eminent critic "this form of speech began, to affrorit .
the eye, torment the ear, and assault the common
sense of the speakers of plain and idiomatic ·
English."*
·

•·

\

I

,,

. j~

VIOL.A.TIONS OF RULE

:i

.j

1·

I

\ .

\

·~

•See ~e

~ala.xy,

. I

•,,.'
1'

vol. 7. No. S, page 332-340.

They that have injured me I forgive.
Who should· I meet but my old friend?
. lii,.that is idle and disobedient pu!lish or exp.el.
~- mo did he speak to? Who did he enqwre
after?
·
· .
Associate not with those whO"'none can speak .
well of.
·
By the character of those who you choose for
your friends, your own is li~ely to be formed.
.

VIOL.A.TIONS OF THE NOTES TO RtrLE
NOTE I.

2•.

He visited, and gave me good advice. .
I wrote to, and informed them of iny misfortune.
False accusations can not diminish from real
· merit.
·
NOTE

2.

He sat him down beneath our tree.
Flee thee away into the land of Judah.
Is it a fit and decen~ thing to vie charities ?

I.

. .Friendship, what is it but a name ?
My foes they are gone; and my friends-where
are they?
·

. ' NOTE 2.

. ' VIOLATIONS OF RULE' 2.

I.

VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE
NOTE I.

'

He was offe.red all the klngdoms of th~ earth..
· I was promised a book. He was demed admittance.
.
They were allowed their claims..

FALSE SYNTAX.
Charles and me have finished our tasks.
Thee can see what has been done.
Them that betray their friends should never be
trusted. ·
I can read as well as her; but she sings better
than me.

· This story, though it seems incredible, yet every
word of it is true.
·
It is remarkable, his continual •endeavors to
serv:e us, notwithstanding our ingratitude. ,

h

; '•\·
.i

'•

NOTE 3 •

He wasted, in riotous living, all his estate. ·
I could not find, for the want of a light, my way
out of the cavern.
Wholl:l did you buy thatbookof?

..
156

j

It is a book which I am much delighted with.
VIOLATIOXS OF THE NOTES TO RULE
NOTE 1.
'

Her mothers virtue is not her's.
We have met the enemy, and they are
Your fathers ~ory . is not yours'.

157

SYNTAX.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

3.
'I

·•

our'~.

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 5.

It is me. Jt was not him. Was it thee?
Whom -do you think it is? Was it them, or us ?
. Who do lou take me to be? These are them.
Whom did they saS they were? Is it her?
Is she ·t he person w horn she pretends to be ?
Who did they represent .themselves to be?

NOTE 2.

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 6.

Is this your father or uncle's house? .
It was my father's and mother's advice.
Who was Cain's and Abel's father?
They are John, as well as Mary's bookl11.
The cloth was left at Brown's, the t ailor's.
The cloth was left at Brown, the tailor's.
Do you prefer Clark and Smith's grammar to
Kerl.
.
.

· Unhapl1M)1em who know not . wisdom's ways,!
Ah luc~s m~ f who put my trust in fortune.
Us being yoinig, they l~d us astray. ·
·
Herbein"' dead, the children were neglected.
Ah! unh~ppy thee, who art deaf to the calls of
duty and honor.
·
But him the chieftain of them all,
Bis sword bangs rusting on th e wall.

NOTE 3.

VIOLATIONS o:ir RuLE

This is my wife's brother's house.
This is the house of the brother of my wife.
The world's government is .not left to chance.
That landscape is a picture of my ·father.
The severity of the distress of the son of the
king, touched the nation.
It was the men, women, and children's lot, to
suffer great calamities.

\
"l1
>

NOTE 4.

Festus came into Felix' room.
Moses' rod was turned into a serpent.
Ye should be subj ect for conscience's sake.

of

VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE
NOTE 1.

Achilles's wrath, to Greece the direful spring
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly Goddess sing I
VIOLATIONS QF RuLE 4.

Mr. Jones was there, him that bought your farm.
I saw Mr. Jones, he that teaches our school, .
We sent them. to ~he tailor, he tha); made · you; }·
· coat.

7.

The lion had escaped from its cage.
'· Every man should learn· to govern 0emselves:
One should not neglect our own quties to assist
others.
. h h.
.;, The mind of man must have food to nouns
is
thoughts. ·
·
·
.
·
The feathers that adorn .the royal bird support
its flight: strip it
its plumage, and you fi:x: it .
to the earth.
•

f'

7.

The little flock had lost their shepherd.
The council were divided in its sentiments.
.
I The nation was ruined by the profligacy of theli'
nobles.
_ .
. .
The aristocracy despised its fellow citizens.·
The congregation _was so great t~at no housG
eQuld be found ·large enoug_h to oontam them. . " "

,

158:

ENGLISH -GRAMMAR.
NOTE 2.

Si~cerity and truth can vindicate itself.
Avoid vanity and affectation: it renders · its
possessor ridiculous.
Pride and arrogance manifested itself in · his
deportment.

This is the same boy who was here yesterday.
He is the wisest king who ever reigned;
·.
..Animals which li~e on flesh are called carnivorous.

'f

I .

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NOTE 3.

John or Charles left their umbrella here.
' Neither Ann nor Ida learned their lessons.
Jobi~, as well as Charles, neglected their studies. ·
Every officer and private did their duty, ·

Just to ·thy word, iii every thought sincere ;
. Who knew no wish but wh:i.t the world might hear.

NOTE 4.

You and I, and they too, must do their duty.
Thou and Ann, as well as I, neglected our studies.
He and I, and you too, must answer for yourself.
.

NOTE 9.

· Thou art a friend that has oftE'Jl relieved me, and
that hast "not deserted me. now in the time of
peculiar need.
·
.
. .
. I am not a ·perl',lon who promotes useless severity,
or who object to mild and generous treatment.
NoTE io:
I ani the Lord that maketh all things; who
stratcheth forth the heavens alone.
He is the man that saved his country, and whom
· ·
we delight to honor.
If you do not respeot yourself,.who will .respect
thee?

NOTE 5.

Ruth or James has left their umbrella.
Emma, Ruth, or John, has lost their book. ·
Have you, or John, or Ida, lost your book?
Neither he, nor she, nor I, have lost our book.
Must I, or you, or they, relinquish our claim ?
I, and not' you nor they, must relinquish our
claim. ·
NOTE 6.

Our Father which art in heaven.
I am verily a man which am a Jew.
. The eagle, who is called the royal .bird, we have
chosen as the emblem of liberty. ·
The court, who gives currency to manners,
ought to be exemplary.
.
NOTE 7.
Who who ~nows his rights will not maint.afu
them?
- -The mel). ~n,q, the things wlµch he has stu,died
have not improved his morals.
· . .. .

NOTE 8.

' I am verily a man who am a Jew.
.
Are you the boy that were in my garden?
. ·
Our legislative, judicial, arid executive departments .ted are the best form of government that
were e • known. ·
.
·

NOTE 11.

Does either of these three orators equal Cicero ?
Neither of these three poets can rival Homer: .
N adab arid Abihu took either of them therr
censer.
He gave both of us a book; but none of us knew
him.
.
All of theri:f received their penny. .
. I am the king, who as.k your hospitality;

.(

I

160

~NGLISII

GRAMMAR.

Some think they have a clear conscience, who
are clear of conscience.
There are millions of people in the · em,pire of
China, whose support is derived almost entirely
from rice.
.
·
Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship with
thee, which frameth mischief by a law?
_
·The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry; who had never before committed so unjust
an action.

. On either side of the river was·there the ~ree of
life.
The king has conferred ori him th.e title of a duke.
1
.
'NoTE 3. .
,
Give me a good glass of water. .
,He wore an old pair of boots with his new suit
of clothes
They are good-for-nothing, lazy, shiftless, idle
fellows.
T~ey are . d, gen~rou~, faithful and honest.
Diana .oft e Ephesians is. great !
He is a very learned, .good,judicious, old man.
Thy ways arejust and truer thou king of saints !

I:

NOTE 12.

We instantly perceive.the beauty of a landscape
without considering the cause of it.
Errors in thinking lead to those in speakipg. .
A difference of opinion is not always one of
principle. ·
·
We are often pleased with the excellence of a
work of art when we c:i.n not tell wherein it consists.
.\

NOTE 1.

our.

··

NoTE4•.

V10L.A.TIONS OF THE NOTES To RuLE 8.

I sold fifty ton of hay and a thousand bushel of
wheat.
··
- This vermin are very troublesome to us.
He paid a hundred pound for his horse.
These sort of pleasures must be avoid.
Norn 2.
America is illustrious for tall mountains and high
trees, spacious prairies, sublirµe waterfalls, and
splendid lakes.
·
Every earthly happiness is short and evanescent.
A man is the noblest work of creation.
,
Some evils of life equally effect prince and peo-~ · .
He is a much better writer than a reader. '
We are placed here un~er a trial of
vfrt~e,.

· ·

An humble heart is a .acceptable offering.
.
A ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.
He is a honest man, such an .one as can be safely
trusted.
·
NOTE 5.

· :He· reasons accurate, and iipeaks eloquent.
The sun,, · shines •dimly, •and the }Veather is extreme cold.
.
.,
·
Such a bad tem:eer is seldom found.
Such seeds are likely to take ·soonest and deepest root.

I

,

Gold is heavier and more valuable than ahymetal.
· He is the stronger ofthe two; but pot the wiser.
The sun is the largest and brightest of all the ,
planets.
.
.
. . , Iron is moi'e useful than any metal.
• ~ Of all other metals iron is the most useful.
The sun is brighter arid la!ger than any 9ther
planet.
·
·
· '
L

.

.

1~3

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.A.It.

SYNTAX.

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters:
NOTE 7.
He is the most noblest Roman of them all
It is more easier to see the faults of others than
our own.
This was the most unkindest cut of all.
.The tongue, like a race-horse, runs the faster the
lesser weight it carries.

To fear God and keep~ his. commandments, are
the whole duty of man.
That · warm climates should accelerate the
growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, are very reasonable to believe.

\

NOTE 3 •

Albert, James, and Gilbert, has recited.
Sinqerity and truth forms the .basis of every
virtue.
·
Under his tongue is mischief and vanity.
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes moun-

NOTE 8.

This is truer than the other.
These lines are more parallel than those.
This tree is straighter than that.
Your picture is more perfect than mine.
He is a man of most unexceptionable character.
Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man,
and should be his chiefest desire.

~~

.

In, unity consists the welfare and security of
every society.
What signifies the counsel and care off receptors,
when youth think they have no need o assitance.

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 9.

NOTE

Was you invited ? When was they here ?
Thou should love thy neighbor as thou loves
thyself.
.
In piety and virtue consist the happiness ofinan.
A variety of blessings have been conferred on us.
The ship, with all her crew and passengers, were
~~

.
VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE 9.
NOTE

1.

A large army were soon collected.
The people was determined to support the government.
A large fleet were seen sailing up the channel.
The fleet has all arrived, and every ship ·is
moored.
NOTE 2 • .

How loved, how valued once, avail thee not. .'

4.

Albert, James, or Gilbert, have torn this book.
Neither Ida, Julia, Ann, nor Kate, were there.
The teacher, and not the child, are to blame.
Death or some worse misfortue soon divide them.
·· Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water,
,
teem with life.
A day, an hour, of virtuous liberty, are worth a
whole eternity of bondage.
•

-~

,

}{OTE

5.

. He or they is to blame. You or I are deceived.
Neither the sailors nor the captain was saved.
Both of the boys, or one of them at least, was
present.
The drunkard, and not his wife and children, are
to blame.
you, or John, or I, are entitled to the prefW.um.

164

ENGLISH GRA'MMAit.
NOTE

6.

The saint, the father, and the husband, pray.
Our Lord and Saviour were crucified between
two thieves.
This celebrated philosopher and poet were banished from their country-. ·
This prodigy of learmng, this scholar, critic, and
antiquarian, were entirely destitute of breeding and
civility.
·
NOTE 7.
If the storm in which he was born, and lasted
so long, had continued.
The positions were, as appears, mcontrovertible.
He was a man whose inclinations led him to be
conupt, and had great abilities to. manage the business.
Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind,
And never, never, be to heaven resjgned?
VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE 10.
NOTE 1.

I bid him to come in. I need not to mention it.
We made then to run. I felt the earth to shake.
The multitude wondered when they saw the
lame to walk, and the blind to see.
NOTE 2.

Stop to drink rum. Leave off to tipple.
Have you commenced to study Greek and Latin ?
We abhor to be drunkards. Who can help to
pity_ her.
·
Who can forbear to admire his fidelity?
NOTE 3.

By doing of our duty we generally secure success:
. By our doing our duty we·generally secure success; ·

S;YNT.A.X..

This was betraying of the trust reposed in him.
By his studying the Scriptures he became wise.
In forming of his s.w~ences he. was very .exact.
Is such language as this becoming a gentleman?
NOTE
.

4..

.

.

By living temperately our health is preserved.
Standing on this peak, the whole island. can be
seen.
.
It is my desire to live in peace with all mankind.
It is our expectation to secure universal liberty.
It is my intention to do my dµty.
-'
'

NOTE 5.

Taking another's property secretly is theft.
It is hard teaching old dogs new tricks.
Doing right is always expedient. I intend doing
my duty.
. Drinking moderately often leads to intemperance.
A good man asks no reward for to do his duty.
His disobeying orders was the cause of our being
defeated.
.
Our being rich does not make us happy, nor
does our being poor make us miserable. ·
The time of his leaving home, and seeking his
fortune in the wide world, had arrived.
What is the cause of your being so disconsolate ?
Do you doubt him to be good and merciful?
I do not believe them to be in earnest.
We should not be like many persons, to depreciate the virtues we do not possess.
NOTE 6.

The bread that has been eat is soon forgot.
They have chose the part of honor au.d virtue.
He was greatly heated, an<l drunk witl+ avidity.
He dared not commit so great an o:ffens~.,

166

167

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SYNTAX.

He bad mistook his true interest, and found himself forsook by his former adherents.
,

He was determined to invite back the king, and
to call togeth~ his friends.
·

A second deluge learning thus o'errun :
And the monks finished what the Goths begun.

NOTE

VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE 11.

No'l'E I.
He was eager of recommending it.
·
H~ was totally- dependent of the Papal crown.
It is founded m truth. He died with a fever.
He found the greatest difficulty of writincr.
Your prejudice to my cause is unreasonable.
He was accused with having acted unfairly.
He walks by a staff with moonlight.
She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct.
NOTE

NOTE

{
I

2.

More than a thousand of men were destroyed.
From whence come wars and fighting among
you?
I Ii-ire opposite the park. I write him frequently.
What went ye out for to see? Tell to me the truth.

VIOLATIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE 1 2.

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure.
He generally has been reckoned an honest man.
These rules will clearly be understood, after they
have diligently been studied.
,
~e. encouraged them to carry farther their op~
po1ut1on.

3

If I make my hands never so clean.
Whither have you been? Where did you come
from?
Know now whether it be thy son's coat or no.
I will pay you as q_uick as I receive my wa~es. ·
He darted out of sight as soon as a flash of lightning.
·
VIOLA.TIONS OF THE NOTES TO RULE 13.
NOTE 1.

NOTE 3 .

I came with, and went away without them.
They broke into, and drove my family from the
house.
I saw a man digging potatoes with a red nose.
He blew out his brams, after biddincr
his wife
0
farewell; with a shot gun.
Whom did he receive that intelligence from?

2.

I can not, by no means, recommend them.
.
I don't know nothing about it. Can't you see
·
' J:\Othing?
. No man has never been so affiicted.
Never no imitater grew up to his author.
.
These people do not judge wisely, nor take no
proper measures to effect their purpose.

.' 1

What else are you but a robber?
.
Such was his eloquence as it·made Felix tremble.
Let such that criticise others criticise themselves.
Germany ran the same risk as Italy had done.
The house is not -as .commodious as we expected
it would be.
·
As far as I can judge, the book is well written.
He is not either an orator nor a poet.
I neither admit or deny the justice of your
claims. ·
Those people seem to have no other element but
war.
He sent such sharp replies that cost him his life.
They are so uncertain · as . ~hat theyrequire much
examination.
·

168
'

169·

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR.

SXNTAX.

~e ready to help such persons who need assistance• .
There is no condition so s.ecure as can not admit
of change.
·

Th~ ~apta~n hacl several men ~ed.ofthe scurry.
· This m.telhgence not only excited our hopes, but
fears too.
.The people ?f !his cou~try possess a healt~ful
c~imate and s011. They enJOY also a free constitut10n and laws.
.
.H~s reputatioµ and his estate were both lost by .
gammg.
.
They who sow and real? will rejoice together.
. ?e is not only se;nsible and learned, but is rehg10us too.
The fear of death nor hope of life could make
him submit to a dishonest action.
A modest, civil, well-bred man will not insult me
-no other man can insult me.
. What re~ommends a book. inquire a few; the
. giddy multitude of readers mquire who recommends it.
.

NOTE 2.

I was afraid lest l should give offense.
•
I do not deny but I was to blame.
They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies.
. '
She could not believe but what he was innocent.
His character was not· sufficiently viO'orous
or
0
decisive. .
I will stay here while they retw·n.
.
The resolution was not the less fixed that the
secret was yet communicated to very fe;..
VIOLATIONS OF RuLE

14.

He speaks fluently, and he reads fluently.
Here are beautiful gardens, and beautiful orchards, and beautiful fields, and oeautiful groves.
I love not man the less, but I love nature more.
Cmotom is the law of one . sort of fools · and
'
fashion is the law of another sort of fools.
Can the Ethiopean change his skin, or can the
leopard change his spots ?
·
They confess his power, and they confess his
wisdom, and they confess his goodness and they
confess his love.
'
. The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but it
is much better expressed by Solomon than it is expressed by him.
The more I see of his conduct, I like him better.
He told us not only the year, but day and hour.
We must obey the laws of God and the laws of
man.
I gladly shunned who gladly fied from me.

'

'

L

l)
-11

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 15.

I set in this chair and learn you grammar.
Sit the chairs in their pla(les, and let us set dow-n.
The cat lays on the carpet where she laid yester~
day.
~
'fhe sun was sitting. The moon had rose. There
he sot.
Can you grow wheat on your farm? It cat;l't
be grown here.
. ·
It snew dreadful fast' and the wind blowed awful
-hard.
He was very wrathy, and he gave me a terrible
yank.
She readeth and writeth better than he doth.
It is sewn very neatly. The meadows are overflown.
·
.
·
·
He is mad at me. I am afeard of him.
If thou have· determined, we mu11t 11ubmit.

170 -- -

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

. SYNTAX.

Unless he have consented, the writing will be
void.
·
Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly.
If thou live virtuously, thou art happy.
Unless he mean what he says, he is doubly faithless.
_
I will go to-morrow, unless it rains.
Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down:
If I was hungry, I would not tell thee.
Though virtue appear severe, she is truly amiable.
Shall then this verse to future age pretend,
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend P

.~

t

t' _,

. I

He that was dead, sat up and began to speak.
The next new-year's day I shall be at school
three years.
I came where he was; but he wan't there.
He will earn his wages when his service-is completed.
·
The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken
away.
·
_
, I remember the family more than twenty yeai;s:·
I have compassion on the multitude, because
they continue with me now three days.
·
Ye will not come unto me that ye might have
·
life.
Be that as it will, he can not justify his conduct.
I intended to have written sooner.
_,
. I thought I should have lost it before I reached
home.
·
From a conversation I had with him, he appeared
to have been a man ofletters.
The doctor said that fever always produced thir~t.
I_expected to have seen him before he left hoine.
I will be drowned: nobody shall help me.
•'

'

171

They that shall n:ot w~rk should not eat.
Galileo discovered the telescope· Hervey invented the circulation ·of the blood. '
. A traveler observes the most striking objects he
sees; a general remarks all the motions of his
enemy.
- A hermit is rigorous in his life· a judge austere
in his sentences.
'
'
. We have enlarged our faTI?ily and expenses, and
mcreased our garden and or~hard.
·
A _candid man avows his mistakes and is forgiven;, ~ patriot ~?knowledges his opposition to a
bad mm1ster, and is applauded. ·
·
By proper reflection, we may be taught to mend what is erroneous and defective. ,
A goo_d man is not overcome by disappointment
wh~n t~at which is ~ortal, passes away; when tha~
which IS. mutable dies; and when that which he
knew to be transient, begins to change.
, He is as old, if not older than I am.
She is a better reader, but not so good a writer
as Ida
/ _Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable
.than knowledge.
The court .of France or England was to have
·
·
been the umpire.•
This edition is essentially different, and superior
to the first.
Several alterations and additions have been made
to the work.
_T he deaf man, whose ears were opened and his
t9~gue loosened, doubtless glorified the 'g~eat Physician.
· It was an -unsuccessful undertaking· which although it has failed, is no objection a't all td an
enterprilie liO well concerted.

•

ENGLISH;

GR~MMAR.

The court of chancery frequently mitigates and
breaks the teeth of the common law.
·
We speak that we do know, and testify that. we
have_ seen.
.
These are splendid peaches. How beautiful they
taste!
·
··
·
Do you love peaches? Mighty well, sir, mighty
well indeed.
·
,
I am so tuckered out that I can work no more.
He is a drinking man: he gets tight very of~en.
He is an old sucker: he has been drunk ten days
on a stretch.
The apples are down cellar. Give me a hunk,
of cheese.
I am hard up. Cari you loan me some money?
You are a great big boy. What is your heft ?
What for a man is he? He is a tip-top scholar ?
He was illy used: they sozzled him in the river.
Where do you room? I am going home. right-.
away.
You hadn't ought to raise such a racket.
I shall say no more in this connection.
Git me something to eat. Hurry up: I am t~r~'
rible hungry.
.·
Have you writ to-day. I hain.t got any iµk or paper.
·
.
·
See them boys. Fetch me that there book.
Is every thing worth what it will bring.
Take this 'ere book and keep it nice and clean.
Them there apples are better than these 'ere.
We grabbed the oars and paddled with all ou~·
force.
Have you did your work. I begun it yesterday._
Weraised up and cleared out. He come where:i
I .laid.
·
.
'·

178

'1(

I

t.

J

.· The Mohawk heads in Lewis ·c ounty, and empties
· ·
.
mto the Hudson
' Such trifles d;n't 'ought to be taken notice of.
Profane langua$e should never be made use of.
Much coui:teefe.it money is being circulated.
!he wood is bemg burned. The water is being .
boiled.
!he turkey is being ~oasted, the puddings are
.b~rng cooke.d, a~d the pies are being baked.
The coal is bemg consumed. The ore is being
melted.
!he streams are being dried up, and the lake is
berng frozen.
.
.E XAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY
COLLECTED,

. .They that befriend you remember, and they that
lilJure you forget.
:.Them that despi~e. me sh.all be lightly esteemed.
We adore the Divme Bemg, he who created and
redeemed us.
·
.On thes~ two ?auses depend all the happiness or
llilSery which exist ·among inen:
·
Though. ~reat. has.been his disobedience and his
folly, yet if he smcerely acknowledges his miscon·
duct, he will be forgiven.
By these attainments are the master h6nored
and the scholars encouraged.
.'
T~e property of James, (I mean his books and
furmtu~e,) were wholly destroyed, ·ln this place, th7~e were DDt only security, but
abundance of provis10ns.
· ·
. :Th~t writ~r ~as. given an ·account ·of the manner
m which Christial!ity has formerly been propagated
among the heathens.
·
The sea appeared>to · be more than usually ·a gi-

~~

'

'

174

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Thou, Lord, who hath permitte~ 3lffiictioi;i to
come upon us shall deliver us from it m due trme.
Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was
to come into the world, and hast been so long promised and desired.
·
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves
deists understand the nature of the religion they
reject.'
.
It was no exaggerated tale; for she was reallym .
that sad condition that her friend represented ;her.
· Thomas disposition is better. than his brothers;
and he appears to.be the happies~ man: but some
degree of trouble is all mens port10~··
.
Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of
friendship. Where ~hese :=:re wanting, disgust or..
hatred often follow little d1:ff~rences.
.
. ·
An army present a painful sight to a feelmg mmd.
Tiine and chance happeneth to all men; b~t
every person . do not con~ider who govern those
powerful causes.
.
.
.
Though remorse sleep so:netrmes _durmg p~OS"
perity, it will awake su~·ely m _adversity. · . · ·
· Habits must be hcqull'ed of temperi::nce and -of
self-denial, that we may be _able to resist J;>leasure,
and to endure pain, when either of them mterfere
with our duty.
·
·
The active mind of man never or seldom rests
satisfied with their present condition, howsoever
prosperous.
.
.. .
It is an invariable law to our present condit10n,
that every pleasi;tre tha~ are pursued to excess, convert themselves mto p01son.
.
To do good to them that hate us, and, on !10. occasion to seek revenge is the duty of a Christian:.
Ho; much is real virtue and merit exposed ~o
suffer the hardships of a stormy life I

SYNTAX.

17.5

·.· ~ can not yield to such dishonorable conduct,
.neither at the pr~sent moment of difficulty nor, I
trust, under no cacumstances whatever;
. ~fa man profess a _:i-egard for the duties of re_.
l~g~on,,and .nE:>glect that of morality, that man's relig10n is vam.
. The ~olite accomplished libertine is but miser- ·
able amidst all his pleasures: the rude inhabitant
·
. of Lapland is happier than him. ·
W~e_nce have there arose suoh a great variety
of op1mons and. tenets in religion ?
"
· · ~~ery chur~h and sect of people have a set of
. opm1ons peculiar to themselves.
' Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds
of the Athenians, that he mio·ht be said to attain a ·
monarchical pQwer in Athen~.
Who is that whom I saw you introduce and
present him to the duke?
'
They that honor me, them will I honor.
There were, in the metropolis, much to am'use
them, as well.as many things to excite disgust.
Its s~a;ture is less than a man; . but its strength
and agility much greater.
•
·
·
There is ~ot, nor ought not to _be, such a th.i ng
as constructive treason.
Hatred or revenge are things deserving_ of censure, wherever they are found to exist.
A too great variety of studies dissipate and
weaken the mind.
..!' :rr.i:a:r thou as well as me, be meek, patient, and
.LOrg1vmg.
.
I have lately been in Gibralter and have seen
the commander in chief.
'
.
~These m'en were under high obligation to have
adhered to their friend in every situation of life.

'

SYNTAX.

llf~

ENG::(JISH GRAMMAR.

..

t indulge himself. in
:James was resolved to no .
. ..
such a crue.l amuse1?1ent. e of the grossest and inHis speech cont.ams orch ever was uttered. .
famousest calumn_ies wh this rule is the source of a
The not attendmg to
very common error.
. t' .s the criving to every
Propriety of pronh~~~1~~~np1 olitest usage of t~e
word the sound w
.
language appror~t::a~~i~~ are sparks, which, if
Calumny an
e will 0 out themselves. .
g h of them their me_n t.
you do not blow, they
Those two authors have eac tance of a copy of
. I beer the favor of you~ acc~~he West Riding of
. "'of the manufactones o
.·
a view
the county of y ork. d at earl Moreton the goyerThis treaty was ma e
·
·
. ·
nor's castle.
t ·eachery and in' his words;
In his conduc~ was I
'
. ; ··
1
faithless p~ofesswn~. fthe ·g reat man be~ides·.~h~ ·
·He has httle more o
,
. ...
. themselves
t 1'tle.
·d'd ot forget to enl arge
·: . c_IJ [
The orators · 1 n.
.
on so popular a subJect.
:or's is a very exac_t t q",
That picture _of the emper
_'. '. :·'·
semblance of hun. f . di le aided by the desert10IL
All the power o_ filrci~ution of his estate, w~re
of friends, and the .
inci les
..
not able to shake his yr. t on~ from which nupGood as the cause is, 1
. .(
b~rs are deserted. h 11 t consent to a pr9p~s,al._
I have not, nor s a no
.
. ' .·
·e be mysterious, it isw.orl,~YJ.
so unjust.
·
Tho11gh the measur
.
..
..... ' ., _...._
of attent10n.
. . h . .0 s of sense ....
· Reason's whole plea~u~e:ii~~ ;:a~f and competence.

ii

) ~ ,i"'""".Pt.cl--

•

Lies in three words ' e

'

'

.

177

When· a string of such sentences succeed one
.
another; the ~ffect is disagreeable,
Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great.
He showed ·a spii-it of forgiveness and a magnanimity, that does honor to hunian nature.
The new set of curtains did not correspond to
the old pair of blinds.
Every member of the body, every bone, joint,
. and muscle, lie exposed to many disorders; and the
. greatest prudence, or precaution, or the deepest
skill of the physician, are not sufficient to prevent
them:
·
Steady application, as well as genius and abilities,
are necessary to produce eminence.
It is not the uttering or t~e hearing certain
·w9rds that constitute the worship of the Almighty.
It is the heart that praises, or prays. If the heart
accompany not the words that are spoken, we offer
a sacrifice of fools.
We should be careful not to follow the example
of many persons" to censure the opinions, manners,.
and customs of others, merely because they are
·
.
for!'lign to us.
The furniture was all purchased at Wentworth's
the joiner's. ·
.
They were solicito11s to ingratiate with those
who it was dishonorable to favor.
What can be the reason of the cominittee having
·
delayed this business?
This is the person who we are so much obliged
· to, and who we expected to have seen when the
favor was conferred.
Not a creature is there that move&, nor a vegetable that grows, but what, when minutely- ex·
amined, furnished materials of~ious ~dmirat10n.
M

178

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

They understand the practical pa!t bett~r than
him . but he is much better acquamted with the
.
'
theory than them.
.
.
ill
· His conduct was so pro"."okiJ?g, .t?at many w
condemn him and a few will pity hrm.
Temperanc~, more tha_n medicines, are the proper
means of curing many diseases.
.
.
While we are unoccupied in what is good, evi1 .
·
is at hand continually.
Every thing that we here enjoy, change, decay} .
and come to an end. All float on the surface o
the river, which is running to a boundless ocean,
with a swift current.

SYNTAX.

179

not diminish real merit. 2. He sat down. Flee thou away.
. To vie with charities? 3. He wasted all his estate· in riotous
living. For the want of a light, I could not find iny way. Of
whom. With which•
NOTES To RULE 3.
I. Her-motlier's virtue is not lurrs. They are ou1·s. Your
father's glory is not yours. 2. Your father's or uncle's house.
My father .and mother's advice. Cain and Abel's father.
They are . John's, as well as Mary's books. At Brown's the .
tailor. Do you prefer Clark's and Smith's grammar to Kerl's?
3. The house of my wife's brother, or my brother-inclaw's house.
The government of the world. My fatlter's picture. The severe
distress of the king's son. The lot of the men, women and
children. 4. Feli:r,'s room. Moses's rod. For conscience sake.
.Achilles' wrath.
·
RULE 4.
Mr. Jones was there, he that bought your farm. I saw Mr.
Jones, him that teaches our school. We sent .them to the
tailor, him that made your coat.

CORRECTIONS OFTALSE SYNTAX.

-

RULE1.
Charles and L . ~lwu cans.t see. They that betray~
I can read as well as 8he but she sings better than 1.
NOTES TO RULE 1.
Note 1. Wbat is ji·iendship? My foes '.1-re go~e; and _where
are my friends? Though this story seems mcred1bl~. Hi~ continual endeavors to serve us, notwithstanding our mgrat1tudd
are remarkable. 2. All the kingdoms of the earth wer~ offe~e
him. A book was promised me. .Admittance was demed hllll.
Their claims were allowed them.
RULE 2.
Them that have injured me .I forgive. Whom should I
meet? Him that is idle. To whom? After wlwm ?. Of
whom none can speak well. Wliom you choose for your friends ..
NOTES TO RULE 2.
· 1. He visited me and gav~ me good advice. I wrot~to them,
and mformed them of my misfortune. False accusa~ons can

RULE 5.
It is L It was not he. Was it thou? Who do you think
it is ? Was· it they, or we? W!Lom do you take me to be?
These are tliey. Wllo did they ·say they were? Is it she? Is
she the person wl10 she pretends to be ? .Wltom did they represent themselves to be?
RULE6.
Unhappy they I Ah luckless II · We being young. Sh~
being dead. Ah ! unhappy thou I But !Le, the chieftain.
RULE 7.
From Ms cage. To govern liimself. We should .not neo'lect
our own duties. To nourish its thoughts. Support his flight:
strip him of his plumage, and you fix him to the earth.
NOTES TO RULE 7.
_I. Its shepherd. In tlieir sentiments. Of · its nobles.
.Their fellow citizens. To conta_in it. 2. Can vindicate themselves. They render their possessor ridiculous. Pride and
arrogance manifested themselves. 3. HU; umbrella. · Hll'r lessons.
H''!B studies. H'LB duty. 4. Our duty. Your studies. ·For
ouraelves. t>. Ruth has left her umbrella,· or James. has left /iii,

180

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Emma or Ruth has lost her book, or John ha~ lost. his. Hav_e
you lost your book? or John, his? or I~a, hers? N eit~er ~as
he lost his book, nor she, hci·s, nor I, mine.. Must I relmqmsh
my claim.? or you, yours? or they, theirs? I must relinqui~h
my claim, aqd not you nor they. 6. Our Father wlw art m
heaven. Who am a Jew. Which is called the royal bird.
)Vhich gives currency to mannel'S. 'T. Who thal. knows .his
rights? That he has studied. That was here yesterday.
That ever reigned. That live on flesh. 8. Wlw is a Jew.
That was in my garden? That was ever known. Who knew&t .
or did3t know no wish. 9. Aud that has not deserted me.· -Or.
who objects to mild and generous treatment. 10. That stretcheth
forth the heavens alone. He is the man who saved his country,
and whom we delight to honor. Who will respect you/
11. .Any of the~e three orators? None of these three poets.
Each of them. He gave each of us a book; but neither of us . .
knew him. Each of them received his penny. I, who ask
your hospitality, am the king. Some who are clear of conscience
think they have a· clear conscience. In the empire of China,
there are millions" of people whose support is derived almost
entirely from rice. Shall the t!irone of iniquity, which frameth
mischief by a law, have fellowship with thee? The king, who
had never before committed so unjust an action, dismissed his
minister without any inquiry. 12. Without considering the cause
of its beaut!f. Errors in thinking lead to errors in .speaking. .A.
difference of opinionis not always a difference of principle. We
can not tell wherein its· excellence consists. .
.
.NOTES 'l'O RULE 8.
1. · Fifty . tons and a thousand bWiliels. 1hese vermin. .A.
hundred pouncLi. This sort of pleasures: 2. ~eric11; is f a_m01.1s.
for lliqh mountains and tall trees, extermve prames, magnificen~
water-falls, and beautiful lakes. Altearthly happiness is short
and transitory. Man is the noblest work of the creation. ' The
prince and the people. He is a much better writer than reader.
Under tlie trial of our virtue. On each side of the river. The
title of duke. 3 . .A. glass of good water. He wore a pair of
old boots with his suit ofnew clothes. They are lazy, iclle, shiftless, good-for--nollting ~ello~vs. They. are honest, faitlif.ul,, ~ind .
and generons. Great 1s Dmna. He 1s a very learned, Judicio1M1;
gooJ old man. Just and true are thy ways. 4. A humble hearl
is an acceptable offering. An ounce of prevention. .An honest' ·
man. Such a one. 5. He reasons accurately, and speaks e[o.,
quentlg. The sun shines dim, and the weather Is extremely cold,
'11<> bad a temper. To take earlmt p.nd deepest root, 6, Gold.

181

sY:NTAX.

is heavier and more valuable than an,. other metal, oi-the heaviest
and m<Jst valuable of all metals. He is th.e 8trong&I of the two,
.but not the wisest. The sun is larger and brigliter than any .of
the planets. Iron is more useful than any ·olh8'1· metal, or the
mo# useful of all metals. Of all metals, iron is the most useful.
Than O:ny pfanet. Eve was fairer than any of her daughters.
'T , The noblest ~man. It is easier. The unkindest cut.. The
less weight. 8. Nearer true. Nearer parallel. Nearer straight.
Nearer perfoct. Ofune_xceptionable character. Supreme dignity.
His cliief desire.
RULE 9.
Were you invited.? When were th_ey here? Thou ,h<J'ld<ht
love thy neighbor as thou lovest. thyself. Oor+&ists. Has been
conferred. . Was lost.

NDTE~ TO RU.LE

9.

I. Was soon collected. Were determined. Was seen. Have
all arrived.· 2. .Avails thee not. Is the whole duty of man; 18

very reaso
le. 3. Have recited. Form. Are mischief and
e mountains. Consist. What signify. 4. Has
vanity. R
torn. Was
e. Is to blame. Soon divides them. Teems
with life. Is
rth a whole e,t ernity of bondage. 5. He i; to
blame, or the
e. You are deceived, or I am. Neither were the
sailors saved, n
as the captain. · Both of the boys were present,
or one of them
east. The drunkard is t.o blame, and not his
wife and childre You are entitled to the premium, or John is, or
I am. 6. Prays. Was crucified. Was banished from his country.
Was entirely destitute. 'T. And which lasted so long. As it appears. And who had great abilities. · And wilt thou never be to
Heaven resigned?
NOTES TO RULE 10.
.
I. I bid him come in. I need not mention it. We made
them run. I felt the · earth shake. When they saw the 1aine
walk, and the blind se.e. 2. Stop drinking rum. Leave off
tippling. Have you coinmenced studying Greek and Latin?
We abhor being drunkards. Who can help pityiny her P Who
can· forbear admiring his fidelityP 3. By doing oti1· duty w.e
generally secure success . . This. was a betraying of tqe trust.
. By studying the Scriptures. In forming his. sentences. Is such
language as this becori:iing to a gentleman P 4 By living temper·
ately we preserve our health. Standing on this peak, we can
see the whole island. I d8'ire to live in peace. We expect to
secure _universal liberty. I intend to. do my duty. 5. 1'o take

18~

SYN'l'.A.X. ·

ENGLISH GR.A.MM.AR.

:~t~e_r'~ pro~rtdy se.cretl~ is theft. It is hard to teacli old dogs
o o right is always expedient I intend to d
ric s.
my duty. Moderate drinking often leads to intern erance
~ooddman asks no reward for doing his duty. Hispdisobedience
us~ ers was the cause of our defeat. Our riclies do not· make
fi J:PPY, nor does our poverty m~ke us miserable. The time
;I;co~':o{~t~e:veDhome and see~ his fortune. Why are you so
believe t7i t tl o y~u doubt his goodness and mercy ? I do not
wy ai·e m earnest. We should not be like many
p
.
b:~:~n:h w 0 depreciate t~e virtues tliey do not possess. 6. The
.And dra~t h:~t~~~~~~ten i~ 80Jn(orgotten. They h~ve chosen.
true interest and £oundY·h. elfjiui st nkot. He had mistaken his
1mse orsa en,
.A. second deluge learning thus o'erran:
.And the monks finished what the Goths bega1l.
NOTES, TO RULE 11.
cr~~nEa1:~r. i~ rec~~mending it. Dependent on the the. Papal
in writin is oun e .on .truth .. He died of a fever; Difficulty
of h . g. Your j)r~Jud1ce against my cause. He was accused
avmg acted unfairly. He walks willi a staff b ·
·
She has an abhorrence of all deceitful conduct 2 y ftohoonlightd.
·
·
·
usan
men
Whence
co
hi f
me wars·9 0 pposite to the park. I write to
~ r~quently.. 'Vhat went ye out to see? Tell me the truth .
my· fam~aym; with.;7iem · They broke i~to tlie liouse, and drov~
rom i · · 1 saw a man witli a red · nose di ofo ·
b~!~~~lth .Af~e~ biddin~liis wife farewell, he blew 0 Jl"'hi~
telligence? a 8 o gun.
·rom whom did he receive that in:

J..

h

NOTES TO RULE 12
ha:· We ~?o~ld always prefer our duty to our pleasure. He
genera y een reckoned an honest man. These rules will
~e clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied
de~e~~?nU:~g:~ 1~!~et~~:r~nt~e: okposidtionfarther., H; wa~
tonetlier 2 I
b
o
ac ' an to call his friends
"
·
· can not y any means or I can b
recoi;nmend th~m. I don't know any tliing about
:~s,
nothmg about it. Can't you see an" tliing'I No ' h
· w
affl'
ct
d
N
·
.
"
man
as
ever
been
so
N t k
I e .
o im1tater evm' grew up to his author
h or a e any proper meiisures. 3. Evm· 80 clean Wlier~
w~:th~~ ~e~n ~h Wli~nce (or from wliat place) did you come? .
:~~ fi~~~t ~rli~~;'mn:s soon as I receive my
wages. .A.a

l:f

;'uick

0

!

183

NOTES TO RULE 13.
1. What else are you tlian a robber? or What are you but
a robber? Tliat it made Felix tremble. Such a8 criticise others.
Tliat Italy had done. So commodious. So far ii.s I can judge.
He is neither an orator nor a poet. l neither admit nor deny.
No other element than war. As cost him his life. They are
so uncertain that they require much examination. To help
such persons as need assistance. There is no ·condition _ so ·
secure as not to admit •f change. 2. I was afraid that I should
give offense. I do not deny that I was to blame. They had no
sooner risen than they applied themselves to their studies. She
could not believe but tliat he was innocent. His character was
not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive. I will stay here till they
return. · Tliough the secret was yet communicated to very few .
RULE 14.
He speaks and reads fluently. Here are beautiful· gardens,
orchards, fields, and groves. I love not man the less, but nature
more. Custom is the law of one sort of fools; and fashion, of
another. Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his
spots? They confess his power, his wisdom, his goodness, and
his love. The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much
better by Solomon than hini. The more I see of his conduct,
tlie better I like hini. He told us not only the year, but the
day and the hour. We must obey the laws of God and man. I
gladly shunned liim who gladly fled from me. The captain had
several men . who died of the scurvy. But our fears too. A
healthful climate and f ertile soil. A free constitution and ea;...
cellent laws. His reputation and estate-were both lost by gaming.
T)ley who sow and they wlw reap will rejoice together. But lie
is religious too. Neither the fear of death nor tlie hope of life.
A modest, civil, well-bred man
Will not insult me-no other can.
What recommends a book,·inquire 0: few; ·
The giddy multitude ofreaders, who.
.
RULE 15.
Isit in this chair, and teacli you grammar. Set the chairs in
their places, and let us sit down. The cat' lies on the carpet,
where she lay yesterday. The sun was setting. The moon
had risen. There he sat. Can you raise wheat? It can't be
· raised here. It snowed very fast, and the wind blew very hard
He was very angry,· and he gave me a. terrible jerk. She reads

184

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR.

and writes better than he does. It is sewed very.neatly- The 1
meadows are overflowed. He is angry with me. I am afraid . '
of him. If thou hast determined. Unless he lias consented..
Though he is high. If thou livest virtuously. · Unless he
means what he says. Unless it rain. Though he faJL If I
were hungry. Though virtue appears severe. · ' · ·
.J
Shall then this verse to future age pretend,
· Thou wast my guide, philosopher, and frie.n d?
He thatliad been dead. I shalt liave been lit school three
years. I came where he had been; but he was not there. -He
.will have earned his wages. The Lord gave. I liave r emembered the family more than twenty years. They ha;ve continited • ·
with me now three days. That ye may lta;ve life. Be that ·as ·,,
it may. I intended to write sooner. · I thought I should lose '
it. He appeared to be a man of letters. Fever always produces , '.
thirst. I expected to see him.
·
"
I shall be drowned: nobody will help me. They that will
not work shall not eat. Galileo invented the telescope; Hervey
discovered the circula~ion of the blood: A traveler remarkaa general observes. A hermit is austere; a judge, rigorous.
We have inereased our family and expenses ; and enlarged
our garden and orchard. A candid man acknowledges his: mistakes ; a patriot avows his opposition to a bad minister. · We
may be taught to correct what is erroneous, and to.supply what
is defective. A good man is not overcome by disappointment1
when that which is mortal, dies; when that which is· m~tahle, ,
beg1'.ns to change; and when that which he knew to br ntrans- - ;r
ient, passes away. He is as old as I am, if not older. ., She is ·
a better reader than Ida, but not so good a writer. Sincerity·
is as valuable as knowledge, and even more valuable. · The
court of France or that of England. This edition is 1tup1wior ·
to the forst, and essentially different from it. The work hat1
received several alterations and additions. 'fhe deaf man, whose
ears were ope.ned, and wltose tongue was loosened, doubtless
glorified the great Physician. It was an unsuccessful undertaking; the failure of whicli is, however, no objection at all to
an enterprise so well concerted. Mitigates . the common law
and breaks its teeth. W.e speak wliat we do know, and testify
. that which we have s'een. These are excellent peaches. . How
delicious they taste ! Do you like peaches ?· V ery well, sir, ,
very well indeed. I am so fatigued that I can work no more.
He is an intemperate man : he gets drunk (or tipsy) very often. ·
He is an old toper: he has been drunk ten days in succea1ion.

SYNTAX.

185

=

. ce of cheese. I um hard presse~.
Do.wn in the cellar. A pie ? .A. very laxge boy. What lS
Can you lend me some money
. b. 9 He is an· excell1mt
your weig_ht? Wh~t sort o(
~uct·a bim ~ the river.
scholar. . He was il! u;ed · 0 Jg home immediately. You
am. g
shall say no more in co.nWhere do you lodge '
ou"'ht not to make such a noise. 1
ne~tion with this ~ubject.
Make haste: I am very hungry .
Get me somethmg to eat. l
no ink rwr paper. See tltose
Have .you 1'.'ritten to-day? k I t~~eevery thing worth what it will
it neat and clean. Those
boys. Bring me that boo · d k
f etch? Take this book, an Weep. dtheoars androwedwith
e aei:!e k 9 I betJan it yestetday .
apples are better than these.
all. our might. Have you do~: ~~u:,:~~ a'ud departed. He c'.lme
We got up and went away, . . . Lewis county and flows mto
where I lay. The Mo~awk ri:8J:tmnot to be not.iced. Prof~e
the Hudson. Such. trifles ouoed :Much counterfeit money ia.
language should never 'bb us.··
The water is boiling. The
circuliit~ng. T~e wood is d~::i~g~re cooking, and th~ pies are
turkey is roasting, ~he pu
P The ore is melting. The
.
The coal 1s consuming.
. .
bak mg.
.
d the lake is freezing.
streams are drying up, an
CORRECTED.
.. .
PlW1'IISCUOUS EXAMPLES
Them that befriend you rememb er, an d them that IDJUre you .
forget.-Rule 2. .
. r htl esteemed.-Rule 1. *
They that desp1~e. me s~all bhi~gwh; created and redee.med
w e adore the D1vme Bedg, ds 11 the happiness or misery
us. On thes.e two causes epen th a two causes depend all the
. .
which exisl8 among men, ?r on. e:!on men
happiness and misery whichi:x~~obedi!nce and folly, yet if he
Though great have b:en . s duct he will be forgiven . .
sllicerely acknowledge bis =scon t ~honored and the scholars
By these attainments, the mas er
'
.
are encouraged.·
(I ean his books and furruture,)
• The property. of James,
m.
.
was wholly destroyed.
t
ly security but an abundance
·
'
•
· In this place, there was no on
of provisions.
.
count of the .manner in which
That writer has given an ac"' ted among the heathens.
Christianity was formerly pr~pao~ more than usual. Or-u~
The sea appeared to be agitate .
usually agitated.
.
·
ihould men·
.
1 uous examples, the learner
•In correc tlng ~hi~toPt'i:'ii~\~cvlolated.
·
tlon each ru1e an
.

.

18!5

ENG LISH GR.A.MM.A.R.

Thou, Lord, who hast permitted affliction to come upon u~,
wilt deliver us from it in due time.
'
Thou art the Messiah, the Son of God, who was to come into
the world, and who luu been so Jong promised and desired.
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves ·d_eists, understand$ the nature of the religion wliich lie 1·ejects.
It was no exaggerated tale; for she was really in that sad .
condition in which her friend had represented her.
.
· ·
Thomas's disposition is better than his brother's; and lie ap-.
pears to be a happier man: but some degree of trouble is all ·
men's portion.
'Virtue and mutual confidence are the soul of friendship.
'Yhere these are wanting disgust or hatred often joltows little
diiferences.
.An army presents a painful sight to a feeling mind.
Time and chance happen to _all meri; but every person . does ,
not consider who governs those powerful causes,
·
.:
Though remorse sometimes sleeps du~ing prosperity, it will .
surely awake in adversity.
'
·
Habits of temperance and self-denial must be acquired, that
we may be able to resist pleasure, and to endure pain, when
either of them interferes with our duty,
·
The active mind of man seldom or never rests satisfied with
its presents condition, how prosperous soever it may be.
. ,·
It is an invariable law of our pr.esent condition, that every'.
pleasure whic/1 is pursued to excess, convm·ts itself into poison. · 1·
To do good to them t~at hate u~, ~nd, on no occasion, ;tq1
seek revenge, are the duties of a Christian.
.
·
··
How much are real virtue and merit exposed to suffer. tho
·
·; ..
hardships of a stormy life!
I can not yield to so dishonorable conduct,_eitlier _a t- the present moment of difficulty, or under any circumstances whatever. ·
If a man professes a regard for the duties of religion, and neglecfs tlwse of morality, that man's religion is vain.
The polite, accomplished libertine is miserable amidst all his .
pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than he is.
Whence has arisen so great a variety of opinions and tenets
in religion?
Every church and sect of people has a set of opinions peculiar
. ,
to itself.
Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the
.Ath_enians, that it may be said, he attained monarchical power'
in .Athens.

!YNT.A.:X. .

187

.
d
a,nd present to the
Who is that whom I saw you mtro uce,

du~l;em that honor me I wi~ honorh to amuse them, as well as

.
There was, in th~ met.ropo s, muc
many things t? excite disgust. an's or that of.a man; but its
Its stature is less than a m
t
_
strength an.d agi~ty are m~~~ E"~l' e~~ch a thing a.s_construcThere neither is, nor ou_o
'
tive treason,
d
es ·censure wherever it is found to
Hatred or revenge eserv
'
.·
exist. ·
·
d" dissipates and weakens the mmd.
Too great a variety of siu b1!~eek, patient, and fo.rgivi:'-g.
Mayest thou as ~ell as '
saw the commander m chief. .
I was lately at Gibralter, ahl~h obligation. to adhere to their
These men were under . o
friend in every situation of life. . dulge himself in so cruel. an
· James was resolved Mt to m
.
the grossest and most infamO'IU!
.amusement.
.
His speech contams one o
.
calumnies that were ~er ut~~ed.ule is the source of a very com. The warit of attention to is r
.
mon error.
. .
isl.! in giving to every word
Propriety o~ pronuncia~ion !~~sage of the language approthat sound which the mos po
priates to it. d d t ation are sparks, which, if you do not blow
· Calumny an e r
.
th
will go out themselves.
.
"t
E:U:h of those two auth~s ~Ul8 ~~ m:::ept a copy of "A. view
I hope you will do me t e av 'Ridin of ,Yorkshire."
of the manufactories in the es!atle o} earl Moreton the govThis treaty was made at e c
.
ernor.
h
and in his words were faithless
In his conduct was treac ery,
professions.
t an than the title.
He has little more of the grea
e on so populat a subject.
The orators did not forget to. e argery exact resemblance of
That picture of the emperor is a v
.
him
. d b the desertion of friends,
y
not able to shake his
. All the power of ridicu~e, aide
and the diminution of his estate, was
principles.
one from which numbers have
Good as the cause is, it is
deserted.

f

if:

0 0

cl

.,,.

188

SYNT.AX.

ENGLISH GRAMM.A.it.

" ' Every thing that· we _here -~njoy, ·c1iang~,_ <f,~c~y&., and 9pm¢s. t9
11,n end. · -l!Jljloats on the.surface of tltat.river, which, witli suift
" current, is running towarcl8 a boundless ocean.
·

I have not consented
h ll
•
-··
unjust.
' non s a Iconsent to a. proposal, 80

Thou:::~:,~;~~:e:i::~:!er~~1u:h it. is worthy of atte~,~~;~~"

Lie in three words . health
e Joys of sense,
· ~"When a strin 1
'
'peace, and competence.' '
able.
.
g o such sentences occurs, the effect is dLsagrcej

", :'1
Neither flatter nor contemn the rich th.
He showed a spirit of for .
or e gr:e\lt. . . • .
do honor to human nature. g1veness, and a magnanin:tity, · that
The set of new curtains d'd
.
blinds.
l not correspond to the pair of old.
_-Every memb!Jr of the bod
. .
· ..
".
lies exposed to many disord y,' every bone, JOmt, and muscle
precaution, or the deepest s~~'0 ;~hd the g;e:ites~ pruden'ce, ·o; '.
to. prevent them.
e physician, U1 not suf!icient ·
Steady application as well as
·
'" . . .
· · .' .,,
to pr?duce eminence'.
genms and abilities, is _ney,~SS!i-r.l':It is not the utterin"0 or the h .
.
con~titutes the worship 0 f the A.in'.:frmg of c~rtain wor~s, that
praises, or prays. If the heart ace ghty.. It is the heart that
are ·spoken, we offer the sacrifice of:~~mes not the 'i\'Or~s. ~hat,
We should be careful not to :fi II .
.
persons, wlw censure the o . . o ow the example of many
others, merely because they ~~~1~ns,_ manners, and _customs of .
.' . . . •,., .
.
The furniture was all purchase~r::gn to tltem_. '
·it

J~e~::~~;1~~~~t~~sf!~~~gratiate tlt!:~;~r~~tt t~~;i~h~m·:i

vy-hat can be tlte committee'
.
·'
busmess?
··
- s reasons for havmg delayed this •
.
.
This is the person to wliom w
we expected to see when the fav~:~ so _m;,h obliged, and whom ~Tltere is not a creature that
as co erred. .
. . . ·...
grows, but what, when minute! mov~s, nor a vegetable that ,
foi· pious admiration
·
Y exammed, furnwlteli materials .
They understand the practical ·t b
.
''
he i~ much better acquainted wit£~~ t~tter than lie does; but '
His conduct was 60 rovok' "
e eory than tltey ai·e. __ .
and few wil! pity him. p
m.,, that many wil! condem.n him,
Temperance more than
d' .
..
.
me icmes, is the proper means of . .
curing many dl.seases .
'Vhile we are uno · · d 0
·. ·
· " ;; '
at hand.
·
ccupie Y what is good, evil is con(iri~lly_·g

189.

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0 I don't exactly UIJ.del'stand· yo-ur last rule·
· Mr. S It is. very comprehensive; for it is
i:utended to corl'ect aU erroneous expressions
that are not vio!ations of any other rule, or some
of the notes. It is the connecting link between•
grammar and rhetoric, . embracing the i:naih
. . of
principles of~· and taking _a general ~w
literature.
· trict . observance of this rule
requires us to understand the meaning of all the
words we use, and, to be intimately acquired
with the writings of our bast authors, so that we
can know what is sa:ictioned b:y the best authority,
and speak and wnte accordmgly. We should
carefully avoid all valgarisms; and . call every
person and thing by the right name. We should
never nickname peop~ nor shJ:>cteJJ. - namas ;
using such terhis as Bi-,,Bob, DicJc, H~ry, Jack,
Jake, Jim, Jo, Josh, Sam, T i m·t , Jule, Nell,
bach, sis, mam, pa, pap oi· d
or William, ~
Robert, Richard, Henr!i Joh
acob, James,
Joseph, Joshua, Samuel, Tim.0th
homas, Juli·a,
Ellen, bachelor, sister, mother, and father : as,
"Bill is an old bach." Such expressions are
extremely impolite and vulgar. We should also
avoid all such puerilities as Johnie, Josie, Samie,
Matti'e, Minie, pussy, sissy, and birdy: as, " Take
care Josie: don't let your dogy hurt pussy."
Look, Mattie, and see Minie's little b.irdy on that
1'Rsy. Who can bear to see the beautiful Scripture names, Joseph; Martha, and Mary, .thus de·
graded to Josie, Mattie, and Minie 'I Such fiat,

mo

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

insipid expressions are worse than vulgarisms:
they might be properly called sillyisms, if such a
term were allowable.
Very near allied to vulgarisms are such exaggerated expressions as," He ran like lightning."
"He is as tall as a church spire, as big as an
elephant, as strong as a lion &c." "He has .a
thundering voice: you can hear him whisper
half a mile." "She is ,so emaciated, that she is
as thin as a wafer and as light as a feather: sne
is nothing but a shadow." "She is an everlast.ing talker. I .thought she would talk me to
death. She is enough to craze a nation." Though
hyperboles are sometimes allowable, such expressions as these are improper; for they sully .the
purity of truth, and lower the standard of in. tegrity. There is an uprightness in speech as
well as in action that we should endeavor to
attain. Let us follow truth in all our thoughts,
our words, and our deeds. There is no ornament
so .beautiful as truth: even fiction must assume
its semblance, or lose the pow_er t9 please.* , ct
~See prosody in my larger Gramma_r, page 259-272.

CONTENTS . . .
CONVERSATION !.-THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
•

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E RRA •.r A.

~

{ {,'.I•

•i

,!)

!,.:J,
•

- ~>.~

•

PAGE

A general view of grammar,. . • . • . . • • .. • . • . • • . . • . • • • • •
Exclamations, . • . ....•.. , •• , .••. , •••..••.• • • ~ . , • . • • •
Nouns, .• ·..........................................
Pronouns,. . .••: ..... , ...... , ... ,....... . .........
Adjectives, .................. ·... : . ... ~. . .. . . .. ..• .
V e~bs, ....•••..••-. . . . . •.• . • . • • . • . • . . . . . . • . • . • . • • • • •
Prepositions, . • . . . . • • . • . • • • . . . . . • • • .. . . • • • . . . • . • . . .
.Adverbs, . • •••..••..• ~ ••.• , • .•..• , • , , ••••• ~. • • • • • • .
Connectives, •.••.••.••.••.•••....••••• ·• •.••• , • .• '. , •
Exercise in making sentences,. ••• , , , •..· , • , . • • • • • . . • • • •

5
10
14
1'7
· 20
24
32
38
40
45

CONVERSATION II. - CLASSIFICATION AND VARIA:TIONS OF NOUNS AND PRON.OUNS, .JECTIVES
AND ADVERBS.
•.
• _
.•
•

>
28th page, 33d line, for dove read dived.
30th page, 27th line, for Son read Sun.
·
92d page, 13th line, for variati<m read variations.
109th page, 31st line; for aubject read subj~c'8.
134th page, 4th line, for arm read arm1.
160th paie, 32d line, for peo- readpeople,

.•

.Proper; ·and common nouns, ......... . '. ........... ·..•• ,
Personal pronoun\ ...... . .............. . ·:.,. .... , •••. ,
Connective, and interrogative pronouns,. , •••. • ••••.• , • •
Distributive, demonstrative, and-int!efinite pronouns,.....
Gender, . ............................... . .... . .....
Number,. .. .. ... . . .......... ................. ; . ...
1
, ....... , .... ... .. ... . ... ..
. Person, , . . ............
Case, ....•....•.. •••.•••...•.•• • •• , •• . ...• • ..•• , .
Declension of nouns and pronouns,............. . ......
Comparison of adjectives and adverbs, ••••••. • •......• :
Proper; common, and C()mpound adjectives,.... , •• , . . • •
Preparatory exercise for parsing nouns and pronouns,. • • •
Exercise in parsing nouns and pronouns etymologically, • •
E;erciie in piirsini adjectives and adverbs etymolo~callyj

e

0

..
·
1
51
54
155
ll7
59
60
61
62

6'1
eg

···;'

192

INDEX.

Derivation, •• , •....•..• ; •...•. ; .•.•.... , ...• , . . . • . • 'lO
Syntactical parsing,:. • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . . • • • • 'll

CONVERSATION III.-CLASSIFICATION AND V.A.RIATIONS OF VERBS.

,
f

Regular, and irregular verbs, . . • . . . • . . . . . .. . • .. . . .. . . . 'l8
Transitive, and intransitive verbs, ........ ; . .. ·.. . . . . • . . 84 ·
The active, and the passive voice,. . ................... 86
Moods, .......................................... ·. . 88
Tenses, . ~....... ... • • . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . • ..•........ · 91
Participles, . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Conjugation, ... .• . ; . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 93
Synopsis, ......................................... 100
Principal, auxiliary, and ·defective verbs,. . . . . . . . . . • • . . • 103 .
Preparatory exercise for parsing v~rbs, . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . 104
Exercise in parsing verbs etymologically, .••............ 106

CONVERSATION IV.-ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES AND .
·sYNT.ACTICAL PARSING.
Preparatory excrcise--synthetic and analytic, ..• , •...• , • 108
Phrases, clauses, sentences _;md paragraphs, • • • • • • • • . • • . 113
Analysis of sentences and syntactical parsing,. .. • • . . . . • • . 11 'l

CONVERSATION V.-SYNTAX.
The rules ·of syntax, ......••.••....•..•..••••••• , • • • 136
Notes to the rules of syntax, •.•• •..••... : .••..•••.••• .l.39
Application of parsing to the correction of false syntax, • • 149
False .syntax corrected without parsing,. • . • . . • . . • • . . • • • 15.0
Violations of the rules and notes, • . • . . •.. , • , • • . . .. • . . 154
Examples of false syntax promiscuously collected,. • • . . • • 173
.Corrections of false syntax, ........... ·, ... , . • • • • . . • • • 178
Remarks on rule 15, ••••.••..•. ; .•••••. , ••.•.••••••. 1B9
Vulgarisms and puerilities, ....... , ••• , .............. .189
Exaggerated expressions, • • • • • . • • :. • , • • • • • , •.• • , , •., .19_
0.-

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llllllllllllllllllllllllllll .

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0 003 238 192 3

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