ENGLISH COMPOSITION 2
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AND RHETORIC /¥0<6

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ENLARGED EDITION

PART

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FIRST

INTELLECTUAL ELEMENTS OF STYLE

DY

ALEXANDER BAIN, LL. D.
EllERITUS PROFESSOR OJ.I'

w01c .J?f'TfE

UNJVERSJTY 01' ABERDEEN

NEW YORK
D. APPLETON AND OOMPANY

1887
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PREFACE .
. ...

...

IN re-modelling the Manual of Englisli Composition ancl
Rhetoric, after twenty years' experience of teaching, I

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have seen fit to narrow its scope, so o.s to do moro
ample justice to certain portions of the work chosen for
their general utility.
The subject as thus modified has been much enlarged both in exposition and ·in illustration, and is
made . to fall under two divisions ; a. separate volume
being .given to each. With certain reservations, it may
be said, that the first division is occupied with the
Elements of Style that concern the Understanding;
while the second division, without any reservation, i~
to comprise the Emotional Qualities . .
The topics of the present volume are the following :- Order of Words ; Number of Words ; the
Sentence ; the Paragraph ; Figures of Speech ; and
finally, the Qualities of Style named respectively Clearness, Simplicity, Impressiveness and Picturesqueness.
Every one of these topics is fully expounded, exemplified,
and applied to the arts of criticism and composition. ,
In further explanation of the mode of treatment, I
may refer to the department of Figures of Speech,
occupying nearly one.,.third of the volume. Never
before has that branch received so large a share of
attention. Under the designation of Figures, the
ancient authors of the Rhetorical art not only originated a. considerable part of our critical vocabulary, ·but
discussed many of the fundamentals of style and com-

....
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PREFACE.

position. Their enumeration of Figures in detail was
voluminous, while the classification of them was imperfect. Still, the place of these Figures in Rhetoric is
now established beyond recall. Under such circumstances, the best thing to do is to select and methodize
all such as disclose any capital or leading features of
style. This has been my first object. Next, in
expounding the kinds so selected, I have steadily
endeavoured to prescribe the conditions regulating the
efficiency of the several varieties of figure, and to apply
these conditions in particular testing examples. This
is necessarily a. hazardous proceeding ; but it cannot
be evaded by whoever aims at expounding the
Rhetorical art with any degree of thoroughness..
It is under the Figures, that the Intellectual and
Emotional Elements are unavoidably mingled; so that
special precautions have to be taken to obviate the
risk of confusing the learner. While the applications
to the Understanding are fully stated, the amount of
attention given to the aspects that relate to Feeling
is such, as to make it necessary to lay down briefly the
principles that regulate this department ; the complete
handling being reserved for the Second Part.
The rest of the volume bears almost exclusively
on the species of composition addressed to the
Understanding. As regards this particular aim, the
new work differs from the existing one in omitting to
handle, under express beadings, the so-called KINDS of
;f Composition-namely, Description, Narration, Exposition, Oratory. Much of what was included under thoso
designations is here reproduced in other connexions :
the laws of Description are exhaustively treated in the
discussion of Picturesqueness ; and a considerable part

PREFACE.

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f

vii

of what pertains to the Expository art will be found distributed throughout the several topics as now arranged.
Still, there is room for separate Manuals, giving an
exhaustive treatment of the Kinds of Composition,
under their own specific designations, as in the first
Rhetoric, where there remain a. number of suggestions,
as well as illustrations, that have not been transferred
to the present work.
As with the Figures, so with the other portions, the
laws governing the efficiency of the various devices of
style a.re sedulously applied to individual cases.
It appears to me to be a possible thing, to arrive at
a definite code of prescriptions for regulating the Intellectual Qualities of composition. Granting that a
certain progress has been made towards this consummation, the fact would seem to mark out the department as a fit subject for school discipline, at the proper
stage ; not to mention its direct bearing upon the
valuable accomplishment of writing well. 'I1he several
topics embraced are mostly on a level as regards ease of
comprehension; and the exposition is conducted with
the view of bringing the pupil's own judgment into play.
The concluding subject 9f the volume - the quality
named Picturesqueness, is., . properly an introduction to
Part Second, but does not very deeply involve the
peculiar niceties inseparable from the Emotional Qualities.
The exemplification is conducted partly by short
instances adduced under the principles, and partly by
the minute and critical analysis of passnges of some
length; both methods being essential to gootl teaching.
In most cases, the number of examples adduced for
illustration and criticism has been purposely made

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PREFACE.

large, in order that the principles may be seen. in the
widest range of their application ; and" for the same
reason, they have been chosen from a considerable
variety of English writers. In the discussion of indi·
vidual passages, there is frequent room for difference of
opinion as regards the judgments pronounced ; nevertheless, the object in view is attained, if the pupil is
exercised in comprehending the . principles, and in
discriminating their applications.
There is no attempt to provide additional exercises.
These are best obtained in the readings that accom·
pany instruction in literature. No one author, however
eminent, is enough for the purpose of reference ; and
our miscellaneous reading-books are not as yet on a
great enough scale. Fortunately, there is a valuable
resource in the cheap reprints of English Classics that
have lately become common. I may instance the Messrs.
Chambers, as having taken a lead in this enterprise.
In the Reprints, together with the Miscellany of Tracts,
published by them, a little library can be selected for
a very small sum, comprehensive enough to illustrate
all the matters of importance in the fullest Rhetoric
text-book.
The labour bestowed upon the present work, both
m its original form and in the revision, has been
incurred under the belief that, in any complete
course of instruction in Literature, there must be a
place for Rhetoric, as methodically expounded. What
that place should be, I have discussed at length in a
separate treatise, devoted to the entire question of
Teaching English.
ABERDEEN,

January, 1887.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

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ORDER OF 'VORD8.

;}
PAGE

1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
6.
7.
8.

9.
1O.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Ortler of Words, partly in Grammar, partly in Rhetoric,
Grammatical rule of Proximity, .. .
.. ·
Rule of Priority-explained under Rhetoric, .. .
.. ·
Qualifying circumstances to pre~ede what is qualifirJ, ...
Relative emphasis of the three positions in the sc11tc11cc,
Prominence confined to the Beginning and the End, .. ·
Beginning and Encl disti11guisl1ed,
...
Commencing with an energetic 1•rod il'alo,
Place of greatest emphasis-the End,
Various moli ves to inversion,
An Adjective predicate first,
Adverb and Verb first,
Inversion of Active Verb and Object,
Relative emphasis of Reginning nud En<l,
...
.. ·
.. ·
M1scELLANEOUR ExA:Ml'LE8 :-Usages of the Poets as regards
··~
inversion,

1

ib.
ib.

·~d

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2
3

ib.
4
i/1.

ib.
5
6
9
14
16

19

NUMBER OF \VORDS.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
6.

Brevity a virtue of language,
.. .
.. .
.. ·
.. ·
Proper occasions for Brevity and Diffuseuess rcspedivcly,
Different forms of vicious Diffuseness, ...
TAUTOLOGY defined. Examples, ...
Dilfnseness from needless shades of mea11ing,
Circumstances that justify Tautology :-I. Sense not brought
out by a single term, ...
7. IL In working on the Feelings, ...
8. REDUNDANCY, or Pleonasm,
P. Justifiable for the same reasons as Tautology,

27
ib.
ib.
ib.

29
30
32

35
37
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10,
11.
12.
13,
14.
15.
16.
1 i.

TABLE OP CONTENTS.
PAGF!

EmpJ1asis, Pass10n, and Poct,ie cmhcllishrncnt, ...
CIUCU:\ILOCUTION,

38

...

Its justifications,
Means of attaining Brevity :-1. The Choice of Words,
IL Grammatical forms and usages,
III. Rhetorical devices, strictly so called,
Brevity in referring to what is well kuown,
Distinction between }H"inci pal and sul.JorJinate in a sentence,
marked by length of statement,
EXEMl'LAltY P ASSAOES 1

ib.

41
43
44
46
48

49
ib.

PAflE

20. II. After an ath'erbial phrnse or clamm, •
21. III. For special reasons, at the End,
...
...
...
•..
22. The PREDICATE of the Sentence placed according· to its im·
portance,
23. When either Subject or Predicate contains numerous par·
ticulars, the positions of emphasis fall to tho most important,
Examples of tho effect of well·placed emphasis,

6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

. ..

THE BALANCED STRUCTURE.
When a seutence is said to be Balanced, ...
Balance makes a sentence easier to remcmlier, ...
The balanced form aids Clearness and Simplicity,
Also contl'ibutes to Energy,
Gives a shock of agreeable Surprise,
Employing the same words in an alteretl meani11g,
Uepetition of a statement in the obverse, ...
Play upon words amounting to Epigram,
l~alance pleases the ear,
Occasional reversal of the balanced order,
Cautions requisite in the use of Balance,
:MISCELLANEOUS EXAl\fPLES,

DISTRIBUTION OF EMPHASIS.
1i. Reference to principles of Order of Words,
18. The subject and tho predicate of a sentence not always erpmlly
em1lhatic,
19. The Principal SunJECT not to be displaced by accessory or
subordinate matters. It may be situated :-I. In the
Beginning,

77

78
79
81

24. Imlependcnt elfccts of Length,

84

UNII'Y.
I

THE PERIOD AND THE LOOSE . SENTENCE.
2. In a Period, the m~aning is suspended until the close, .. ,
.. ,
3. 'l'he periodic form secured by proper placing of qnalifiying
adj unets. Various other means of suspension, .. ,
...
4. Period favourable to Unity in Sentences,
5. The Period in the classical languages,
PROMISCU OUS EX Allll'LES 1

76
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LENGTH OF THE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.
1. Order of Words and Number of Words enter into Sentence Law

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TABLE. OF CONTENTS.

55

ib.
58
62
ib.
63

66
1'b

25. Unity defined,
26. Clauses admissible without violating Unity,
27. A sentence must often contain several distinct facts : closeness
of connection being the guide,
28. Punctuation determined by the sentence structure,

ib.
70
71
72
ib.
ib.

73

I. The Paragraph a collection of sentences, with unity of purpose,

91

DISTRIBUTION INTO SENTENCES.
2. The sentences to be properly parted off. Examination of a
Narrative paragraph from Helps,

ib.

EXPLICIT REFERENCE.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7,
8.
9.
JO.

11.
12.
18.

14.
ib.

75

87
89

THE P ARAGRAPII.

67
68
69

85
86

16.
16.
17.

Bearing of each sentence on the preceding,
I. Employment of suit.'lhle Conjunctions,
•...
Cu!ttUJ,A'l'tVE conjunctions, adverbs au<l phmses,
AIWERSATIVE conjunctions,
ILLATIVE conjunctions,
Words and phrases of reference,
SUDORDINA'l'INO conjunctions,
Demonstrative phrases,
II. Absence of connecting words significant,
Iteration and Explanation dispense with a conjunction,
Omission in cumulative statements,
Omission in stating a conse<1uence gives energy,
When omission succcctls best,
III. Reference by literal re.petition,
IV. Reference by inverted arrangement,...
Extract from De Quincey, illustrating Sentence Distribution
and Exrlidt Reference,

91
95
ib.
ib.
96
ib.
97
ib.
98
ib.
ib.
99
100
ib.
ib.
101

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

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TABLE OF CONTENTa
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PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION.
18. Consecutive sentences giving the same idea to be constructea
alike. Examples from Macaulay and Washington Irving,

105

INDICATION OF THE THEME.
19. The opening sentence to indicate the scope of the paragraph, ...

108

UNITY.
20. Forbids digressions and irrelevance,

112

...

CONSECUTIVE AimA.NGEMENT.
21. Related topics to be kept together,
22. The nature of the subject determines the plan of sequence.
Examples :-Macaulay, Channing, Hamlet's Soli1oquy,
Tennyson's Ode to the Duke of Wellington,
MARKING OF SUBORDINATION.
23. Principal and Subordinate statements marked, ...
24. Bulk and prominence shodd follow importance,
Sentence and Paragraph Laws in Poetry,
l\lISCl•:Ll,Al\EOUS EXAMPLES or the faragraph ::Froude's character of Henry VIII. ; Mill on Dis'luu.lifica·
tions for the franchise ; Conington on Po1)c; Paley's
Sermon on Contentment,

lH

FIGURES FOUNDED ON

Simplicity and Impressiveness,
8. Conditions of Figures in aid of the Intellectual qualities,
EXAMPLE.~,

9.
10.
11.
12.

13.
121
ib.
123

EMOTIONAL SIMILITUDES.
In Poetry and in Oratory, similitudes are intended to heighten
the emotional effect, ...
Also to impart a shock of agreeable Surprise,
Conditions requisite to intensify the Feelinits,
Requisites for agreeable Surprise. Special importnnce of Har·
mony. Intellectual similarity not essential,
EXAMPLES, ...
Compnrisons with a mixecl effoct-intelloctual n.nd omotional,

138
ib.
139

144
145

ib.
146
HS
151 .

SOURCES OF SIMILITUDES.
14. Similitudes illustrated by a survey of their SouRcES,

152

KINDS OF SIMILITUDES.:.-:METAPHOR.
ib.

135

1. Metapl10r a comparison implied in the USO of a term. Metaphors (1) for the Understanding, (2) for the Feelings,
and (3) for Surprise, ...
2. Metaphors add to our stock of names,
3. The brevity of the Metaphor leads to Mixing l\1ero11hors,
4. A Metaphor must not be strained,
...

158
162
165
168

ib.

SIMILE.

SIMILARITY.

SIMILITUDES IN GENERAL.
1. Similarity, or Feeling of Agreement, our chief instrument of
invention,
2. ·Generalizing phenomena falling under the same laws,
3. Comparisons that are literal,
4. Rhetorical value of such comparisons,
5. For a resemblance to be figurative, the things compared must
ditfer in kind, ...
6. Distinction in Figurative comparison according as it is intended
for the Understanding or for the Feelings, .. .

7. For the Understnncling, the demands are to impart Clenrncss,

115

FIGURES OF SPEECH.
1. A Figure defined, ...
2. Classification of important Figures according to the 11idsi11ns of
the Human Understan<liug, ...

PAGE
INTELLECTUAL SIMILITUDES.

136

1. ConsiSts in a formal or avowed comparison,
2. Tends to become complicated and prolonged.
the several heads,
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES, ...

170
Exampl e:! under
ib.

175

ib.

137
1"b.

138

ib.

ALI1EOOilY.
1. A comparison protractecl and sustained through numerous
details. The Parable and the Fable. Examples from
comparison of a River to Human History, ...
Detailed review of the Pilgrim's Progress,

176
179

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

PAGE

1. An artificial abbreviation, involving apparent incongruity,
2. Close alliance to Epigram, .. ,
3, 'l'he Pointet.l Style-how made up,

...

182
185
ib.

1. Implying, or suggesting, instead of stating plainly,

191
193

194

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The form of a question, \\·ithout expecting an answer, ...
Calling attention to something important,
Indicating doubt, difliculty and uncertainty,
Giving emphasis to an indisputable statement, ...
For venting intense emotion,

ib.

215
ib.
217
218

219

EXCLAMATION.

195

1. Under emotion, our langnngc becomes abrupt, inverted or

Different vadetics,

220

APOSTROPHE-VISION.
196
197

198
ib,
199
201

F.PIGRAM.
The Epigram an apparent contradiction to rouse ntteution,
The Itlentical Assertion,
Tlie Seeming Irrelevance, .. .
A familiar saying turned in an unexpected way,
Use of the Arrestive Conjunctions,
The Paronomasia, or Pun, . . .
Legitimate scope of the Epigram,

ib.

INTERROGATION.
186

FIGURES FOUNDED ON CONTRAST.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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213

1. The contrary of what is. meant, with means of indicating real
drift. A weapon of vituperation, ...
,..

elliptical.

The human mind affected only by cliange of impression,
Explicit statement of the implied opposite,
Contrast of terms generically opposed, . . .
Limitation of a term by some other term,
Contrasts to rouse the feelings, especially in Orntory,
In Poetry, contrasts must not be discordaut,

210
211
212

IRONY.

FIGURES FOUNDED ON CONTIGUITY.

1.
2.
8.
4.
5.
6.

1

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INNUENDO.
2. Extent of employment, and limitations, ...

1. The METONYMY-its varieties :-(1) The Sign, or Symbol ; (2)
The Instrument for the Agent; (3) The Container for the
thing Contained; (4) An Effect for the Cause; (5) The
:Maker for his works ; (6) 'fhe name of Passion for the
Object, ...
2. The SYNECDOCIIE, in its contiguous applications :-(1) Naming
a thing by some Part; (2) Giviug the Whole for tho Part;
(3) Name of Material for thing mat.le,
3. The TRANSFERRED EPITHET,
4. Enlarging the Vocabulary,
5. Providing rhetorical synonyms,
6. The keeping of the figure to be preserved,

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THn CONDENSED SENTENCE.

REMAINING SIMILITUDES.
1. SYNECDOCHE as applied to certain Figures of Similarity :(1) Species for Genus; (2) ludivitlnal for Species; (3)
Genus for Species; (4) Concrete for Abstract; (5) Abstract
for Concrete, ...
2, Employment of Numbers fol: things incapable of exact estimate,
8. Use of a name for its most eminent degree,

:XV

1. Addressing the absent, as if present,
2. V1s10N the more intense form of the_figure,

222
223

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HYPERBOLE.
1. Magnifying things beyond their natural bounds.
essential to the effect. Examples, ...

Conditions
224

CLIMAX.
202
205
206
207
208
ib.
209

1. Arrangement of particulars, so ns to rise in degree of intensity
to the last,

228

:MINOR FIGURES.
Select mention of some figmes that possess importance in a
smaller degree :-Palilogia, Epanaplwra, Antistrophe,
Asyntcdo11, Polysyntcclon, Litotes, Epa11c111hosis, Oxymoron,

231

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xvii

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
l'AOE

THE INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES OF
STYLE.
PAGE

L Epithets for the Qualities of Style in general,

2, Divided according as they relate to the UNoimsTANDINO, or to
FEELING,
3. Four-fold division of Qualities relatiug to the Understanding.
Principles already adduced in fm'thel'ing these,
4. Additional comlitions :-I. Proceeding on a basis of tho known,
5. 'l'he condition narrowed to the purposes of Rhetoric, ...
6. . A proper form of recall, or reference to past statements,
7. II. Matters bearing on the same topic to be kept together,
Example-Essay on Classilicntion, ...
8. III. Whatever is subordinate should be so placed all not to
interfere with the principnl, ,.,
9. IV, Unnecessary adjuncts to be avoided, as misleading,
10, V. Importance, in Exposition, of Example and Coutrast,
Application to the laws of Chemical ComLination,

233

ib.
ih.
234
236

ib.

239
240

ib.

2·12
U1.

243
245
246
247

ib.

SIMPLICITY.
1.
2.
3.
4.

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5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Opposed to abstrnsenes~, or dilliculty in being understood,
Simplic;ity in TERMS. Names of common or familiar things,
Terms for things that, in their own nature, are easily conceived,
Simplicity belonging to om familiar actions, sensations and
thoughts,
Difficulties due to complexity,
Brevity and compactness inimical,
Abstruseness of general reasoning,
Palliation by proper uso of Examples,
Generalities more conceivable when narrowed by limitations,...

252
253
ib.

25i
ib.
255

ib.
206

ib.
ib.

z'b.

CLEARNESS.
1. Opposed to obscurity, vagueness, or ill-defined boundaries,
2. Obstacle arising from Ambiguity of language, ...
3. Placing ambiguous words so as to exclude all meanings but the
one intended, .. .
4. Not to use the same word in two senses, within a short
interval,
5. Employing of Contrast to overcome ambiguity, ... ·
6. Prevention of ambiguity n11 occasion of permissible tautology,
7. Danger of varying words, merely for change of sound,

IO. Relative abstractness of the Parts of Speech, ...
11. l ucreased difficulty of abHtrnct terms in a. series,
12. Modified (1) when tho generalities arc easy,
.
13. (2) When they have some natural connection, or when their
grouping is familiar, .••
...
... . ...
"'
14. (3) When they are intended to act on the feelmgs,
15. Generalities compounded of others,
.
16. Simplicity as arising from STRUCTURE, or the anangemdenpt of
Clauses, Sentences and Po.rogrnphs. Balo.nee an
at··
a1lelis1n,
...
...
...
••·
...
•·•
...
17. Loss of simplicity from loading with conditions or qualifications,
18. Ambiguity unfavourable, .. .
.. •
.. ·
19. The clash of Negatives hostile to simplicity. Examples,

ib.
248
249

ib.
ib.
250

ib.
251
ib.

1. Shown in present consciousness, and in giving a hold of the
memory,
2. Means of Impressiveness :-1. Verbal emphasis,
3. II. Isolation in the statement,
'· III. Employment of Contrast,
5. IV. The shock of Similarity,
6. V. Influence of Emotion :-first, as Surprise,
7. Second, as Pleasure or Pain. Examples of Impressiveness :rom
the various causes. Sheridan's invective against Hastmgs,

I.
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IMPRESSIVENESS.
258

i

259

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ib.
ib.
2GO
ib.

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PICTURESQUENESS.
1. The connecting link of tho Ilitcllectual and the Emotional
1p1alilies. Aims of pictures11 uo description,
2. Subjects of the Descriptive art, ...
.. .
...
.. .
3. I. Still-Life, as set forth by tho appropriate vocabulnry,
'· II. Action involving extensive and complicated movements; a
scenic basis being supposed, ...
fi, III. Narrative of events, in a single thread, with i1icturcsque
epithets,
6. Arts contributing to other intellectual qualities, still more
necessary for picturesqueness,
7. Prime requisite of Description-the picturesque vocabulary.
Its several departments,
a. Chief law of Description-a comprehensive Plan, with orderly
Enumeration of contents,

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263
265

ib.
ib.
!266

267

ib.
268

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
l'AaE

9. Selection of nsperts as di~closed to the eye of the spectator,Traveller's Point of View. Example from description of
Perthshire,
. 269
10. Descriptive particulars to be mutually supporting,
270
11. Aid afforded by individualizing the picture,
ib.
12. ACTION, being more conceivahle than ohjects iti repose, is an
aid to the description of these, and is itself aiJed byo.ll
the arts now enumerated,
271
13. Asi!ociated circumstances influential in description,
2i2
H. Still more effective is the seizing of central and suggestive
features. Examples from Homer, Shakespeare, Browning,
Macaulay, Spenser, Keats. Suggestiveness of Personality,
273
15. Delineation of complex objects by the stages of their construction. Agassiz on the Geological srquence in the Valley
of the Amazon,
276
16, Difficulty of keeping in view tho respective tlcmn.u<ls of 111tclleet
and of Emotion,
...
277
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES.
Importance attached to the description of persons. Example
from Mary Queen of Scots, ...
Illustrative passage from W or<lsworth,
Campbell's 'Hohcnlinden' examined to show the conditions
of tlie picturesque,
Chaucer's cock-Chanticleer,
Tennyson's picture of the Tropical islancl, in 'Enoch Arden '.
Contrast of descriptive facility in Still-Lifo ancl in Action.
Tennyson's 'Palace of Art,'
Shakespeare's horse in 'Venus and Aclonis,'

Examples in cltronological arrangement.
Illustrations from HoMER :-Bivouac of the Trojans, in Eighth
Iliad; Harbour of the Lrostrygonians; Island-grotto of
Calypso ; the Shield of Achilles, note,
Choral Ode of SOPHOCLES, descriptive of Colonos,
The picturesque in VIRGIL :-I'alace of Latinus; :Mouth of the
Tiber; Muster of the Latin tribes, ...
Examples from Ho RACE, .. .
CBAUCER's success in graphic delineations of the human head
and countenance,
SPENSER'S picturesque style : scenic an1l personal descriptions,

278
279

ib.

281
283

284
286

ib.
287
288
ib.

xix

·~f

~.I;~

PAGR

SHAKESPEARE'S expressive epithets :-the 1 Seven Agr.s,
!dlLTON's clescriptivc survey from the Mount of Tt!lnl•tatinn,
Poetic usage as to tho origin of ri vorR,
Picturesqueness of Po PE, ...
Examination of the descriptive arts in DYER'S Grongar Hill, ...
Poetry of Battles. The Battle of Sheriff-Muir, as given in
Bu1rns. 'fhe two sides kept distinct, with the combined
effect of comprehensiveness and pictorial details in each,
Other examples from Burns, ...
THOMSON'S Seasons. In what sense he is the poet of nature.
Exemplary passages, ...
CowPER's genius for Description,
BYRON excels in the picturesque of Action,
COLERIDGE'S touches in the 'Aneient Mariner,•
WORDSWORTH successful in description, although his principle
waR not to aim at 11ictol'ial fulncRR, Example of a highly
complex delineation, ...
ScoT'r's descriptive genius embraced both still-life and action.
Pro!lpcct from Richmond Hill. View towards Edinburgh
in Marmion. The Trossachs,
Examples from KEATS, showing both excellence and defects in
his descriptive art,
MACAULAY pre-eminent in picturesqueness of details, while
wanting in aids to comprehensiveness of view. Instances
· from the Lays. Prose writings aboumling iu choice
epithets,
CARLYLE our greatest master of Description. Instance of
Llanblethian in Wales,
Picturesqueness in BLACK'S Novels. '.l'li·e Panorama of Ayrshire.
...
Success in scenes where Action predominates,

2811
290
291
292

'295

297
297
298
300
ib.

ib.

301
803

305

306
808

,,.'~
-J
.,,,
'~

~

~

1

RHETORIC.
ORDER OF WORDS.
1. The consideration of the Order of Words belongs
partly to Grammar, and partly to Rhetoric.
On this important subject there is no hard and fast line
between Grammar and Rhetoric. Nevertheless, there are
certain topics that may with propriety be allocated to
Grammar, and certain other topics to Rhetoric.

2. In GRAMMAR, under Syntax, direction is given so
to place qualifying adjuncts that they may be referred
to the words that they are meant to qualify. The
first rule for this purpose is the rule of Proxirnity,
or closeness.
One of the most valuable ~xercises in parsing for Syntax,
is to examine the position of ·every qualifying word, phrase,
and clause; and to make sure that the incidence is perfectly
plain, or free from ambiguity. (See Companion to the
Higher English Grammar, p. 328.)
.

· 3. The seconcl rule for the placing of qualifying
adjuncts is the rule of Priority.
This rule must be taken along with the other. The
tendency of qualifying words .is to look forward, rather than
backward. When an adverbial adjunct stands between two
other words, we refer it to the one following, not to the one
preceding.
To Rhetoric properly belongs the groundwork of this
rule, and also its more complete development.

ORDER OF WORDS.

RELATIVE EMPHASIS OF SENTENCE POSITIONS.

. 4. It is a law of economical thinking, that qualifying
circumstances should precede what they are meant
to qualify.
,
. This principle is otherwise expressed thus: 'No concrete
image should be suggestecl until the materials for it have
been presented'. The reason· is, that if the name of the
concrete thing is given first, 'horse,' for example, the image
fonne~ b~ the mind is likely to be wrong; probably a brown
horse IS pwtured as the most common. Hence, when the
word 'black' is added, the mental image must be unmade ;
the brown colour has to be suppressed and the black inserted, unless in so far as we have been accustomed to
suspend the act of conceiving, until all the expected qualifications are known. It is, therefore, better that the word
'black' should prepare the way for the mention of 'horse'.
The English usage of placing the adjective before the noun
is thus justified on principle. So with the adverb and th~
verb.
From the same consideration, a conditional clause should
precede the main clause. If the main clause is stated first
the hearer receives it unconditionally, and, afterwards o~
the mention of a condition, has to re-shape the meaning.
The following is an example of the conditional clause
placed first.
.
' JVere the honour given to wealth and to title bestowed excluslvely on high adtievements and intrfosic worth, how immense
would be the stimulus to progress I'
. The. next instance, which is from Bacon, supplies an
mstruct1ve contrast: 'A crowd is not company, and faces
are but a gal~ery of pic~ures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal,
where there is no love . Most readers will tn.ke the three
stn.tements in their broad generality, without suspecting the
serious limitation, till it comes in at the end · and so the
meaning of tho sentence has to be reconst;ucted in the
ii:iind. Thi~ awkward ~ff~ct would be entirely prevented by
sunply placmg the cond1t10n at the beginning.
.
As the .predicctte of a proposition is intended to modify the sub-

all~itio~, ~nd are !1?t unsettled. by it. 'The sun has spo~ in its
smface is a leg1tunate expository arrangement of subject and
In .sc.ience, in ~arrative, and in Description, scarcely
predicate.
any other order ism use. It is treated as the regular or grammatical
order of a sentence ; . whil~ th.e deviatio~1s ~r.e d~cmed e~ceptional,
and have to be specially JUsbfied, the JUstificat10n cotnmg under
the province of Rhetoric.
.
··
·

2

-

.1ect, or to give us a new way of looking at it in the future, there is
some reason for commencing with the predicate as in fact, is often
done : 'Great is the mystery of godliness'.
O~ tl~e other hand it
being the recognised l?urpose of a proposition to add to our previ~ue
knowledge of a su~1ect, or else to withdraw some circumstance
erroneously attributed to it, we prepare our minds to .receive the

5. In a comprehensive treatment of the Order of
\Vords in the sentence, we have to settle the relative
emphasis of the three positions-BEGINNING, MIDDLE,
o.nd END.
·
In a se~tence, we frequently find that a particular circumstance IS more suitably placed in one position than in
' another. We feel some loss of power, or other disadvantage, in making any uifferent arrangement. 'Strait is the
gate.' and narrow is tho way ' is preferrou to ' 'l'he gate is
strait, and the way narrow'. For 'John is immediately
before us,' we say more forcibly-' Immediately before us is
John'.
Every sentence, except the very briefest, has certain
words that have naturally a greater importance than others.
'l'he question then a.rises, in which position-beginning
middle, or end-is prominence best imparted.
. '
6. As .a rule, the least prominent position in the
sentence 1s the MIDDLE. Hence, for giving prominence, we must choose either the DEGINNING or the
END.

In listening to a sentence having more than two circumsta?ces, our attention naturally falls upon the first, because
of its being presented first, while the mind is fresh. There
is o. diminution of strain in attending to what follows, till
we come to the conclusion, which has the benefit of the
pause ; . the effect of this being to enhance the latest
unpress10n.
.
. The l~nger the s.entence, the more liable are we to flag
m the middle port10ns, while we remember the end, on
nccount of the pause before commencing the next sentence.
A par.t of the effect is due to. the stimulus of the completed
men.mug : any word that relieves the suspense and lightens
up the whole suddenly acquires importance.
. It is true, tl~ere are artificial me~i;is o~ giving emphasis, by which pro-·
mmenco may be imparted to any pos1t10n 111 the sentence. In writing, this

ORDER OF WORDS.

MOTIVES TO INVERSION.

is done by underlining the words, nnd iJ?- printing by. italics or capitals ;
but such devices are suited only to occ~s1011ul and ~pecrnl cases•. In spc~~­
ing, we have nt our commnntl Urn vaned motlulati~1~ .of the voice, wine I
can no doubt distribute emphasis with wonderful fac1h~y.
.Y.et ev~n tfe
speaker is not independent of the naturally emphatic pos1t10ns m tie
sentence,

in favour of the greater impressiveness of the closing circumstance, whatever that may be.
We can remark that, on introducing a new fact intended
to be emphatic, the disposition is to place it at the end; and
this confirms the conclusion that greater emphasis belongs
to this position. ' Add to your faith, vi1·tue / and to virtue,
k11owledue.' Compare this with-• Add virtue to your faith ;
and knowledge to virtue '. Only by the emphasis of a
special pronunciation could the same importance be given
to new mem hers.

4

7. There remains the question-'Vhat is the differ-

.j

'.

ence in emphasis, if any, between the BEGINNING
and the END?
The not unfrequent inversion of the order of _Pr~se, ~r of
exposition, would seem to show ·that the be~mmng is a
place of greater emphasis than the e~d. 'His resou~ces
were prodigious,' can be changed. with advantag? II?-to
•prodigious were his resources,' as if th? s~rong adJ~ct1ve
• prodigious ' affected us more in the begmnmg than m the
end. 'l'his, however, is not all that is ga.inc<l by the change.
8. In commencing a sentence with an energetic
predicate, greater stress is thereby thrown upon the
subject.
.
In a sentence opening with su~h 9: strong predicate
adjective as •prodigious,' our attent10n is aroused to le.am
what the subject can be that calls forth so strong a pred1~a­
tion. \Ve wait in anxious suspense for the conclusi.on
announcing the subject; and we are much more att?ntive
than if we had begun with it. Th~ only way .to attam the
same intensity of regard, in the ordmary or direct order' his resources were prodigious '-would be to go bac~ :UPO~
the subject 'resources,' a~ter hearin.g the word 'prod1g10us,
and heighten our impress10n accordmgly.
9. Both usage and reason agree in regarding the END
of the sentence as the place of greatest strength or
emphasis.
.
The usage will be made apparent m the series of
examples that are to follow.
. .
The reasons have been to some degree ant1c1pated.
They are these : .
(1.) 1'he predicate of a sentc1~ce. is of tho nature of a
qualifying circumstance; and it is the general law of
qualifying circumstan~es ~o prece~e. Now these are, from
their very nature, ordmarily less important than the things
.·
.
qualified, of which they are but a part.
(2.) 1'he mental law of the excitement duo to suspense 1s

· 10. There are various incidental motives to inversion,
besides the natural influences now stated.
(1.) When the predicate is a simple adjective, and the
subject loaded with qualifying circumstances, there is a folt
convenience in giving tho prmlicato first. 'l'his appears in
the Beatitudes, and is one, but not the only, reason for their
inverted order throughout.
(2.) The Adverbial qualifications in a sentence often
control the order, for the sake of getting their proper play.
' Mary thinks so too.' The crush · of the two adverbs
'so' and 'too' has a slightly embarrassing effect; and we
feel tl\at the play of both is freer thus:-• So thinks Mary

too'.

·

(3.) Inversion occasionally assists in connecting a sentence
with what precedes or follows. The complete elucidation of
this influence falls under the laws of the PARAGRAPH.
(4.) To all this it must be added that a certain power belong~ to the
inversion from the mere fact of its being the less ttsttal orJer.
When a
writer thinks it necessary to deviate from the ordinary arrangement, the
<leviation naturally excites our attention. It is this that makes the inverted
onler so natural a device when poetic and rhetorical effects are sought; even
when no other advantage is gained, the unusual form of sentence gives to the
etyle a certain strength and elevation. In this respect English, while much
less free in its order than such highly inflected languages as Latin an<l
Greek, has still some advantage in comparison with these tongues. It is
more restricted in its power of placing any word of the sentence in the emphatic positions ; but this very restriction gives the inversion, when it can be
used, so much more rhetorical power. In the classical lauguurres the
devices. o~ emphasis can be more freqncn~.Iy e111ploJ:cd, but nro wn~rally
leR~ Rtnk111g. Hence, when the emphas1~ of a Latm or Gn!ok s1~11tuncc is
"?ugl!t to be P.reserved in translation by giviu~ a conespouding order in
1'.:ughsh, there is often a danger of really prndncmg more emphasis than is
couveyed by the original translated ; besuJes that the sentence may take
on a rhetorical flavour not contained in the classical form. This con·
aid1-ration is sometimes overlooke<l by translators.• 'l'he inversions in
• Take tl1,. following example.

2

There i11 n formula ,,..,,.,.;,f oMyof; used in the

6

ORDER OF WORDS.

ADJECTIVE PREDICATE FIRST.

our translation of the Bible would often preve.nt it from being a C?rrect
representation of the simple prose that constitutes so l~rge a port10~ of
the Scriptures, if these inversions always produced. their full rhetoncal
effect. In point of fact, however, those introduced 1!1to prose of~eu go no
farther than to constitute one element among others m the archaic colouring of the whole• .

Such is a brief outline of the principles governing the
departures from the regular or grammatical. order of ~·ords
in the sentence. vVe shall now, by a cop10us select~~n of
examples, endeavour to illustrate their bearing and utihty.

11. I.-An Adjective Predicate first.
' Great is Diana of the Ephesians' ; ' Grea~ is. your
reward in heaven' ; 'Wide is the ga~e, ,and b~oad is the
way ' · ' Sweet are the uses of adversity ; ' Richer by far
is the' heart's adoration'; 'Vain are their hopes'; 'Few
are thy days'; 'Cold is Cadwall~'s tongue'.
.
Both our translation of the Bible and our English poets
have accustomed us to these inversions, in cases where some
thought is to be expressed with more tha.n ordinary emphasis. Prose writers also take the same hberty, although
more rarely.
.
Additional instances from the Bible:-' Many are the
wonderful works which Thou hast done ' ; ' Great and
marvellous are Thy works ' ; ' Just and true are Thy
ways'.
The following is particularly noted by. C~mpbell :' Babylon is fallen, is fallen, that great city . Altere.d
by him thus, with obvious advantage :-' Fallen, .£al.len is
Babylon that great city '. This is the emphasis m the
Greek, a~d has been followed in the Revised Ve.rsion; .
' It is good for me, that I have been afihcted might
have been ' Good is it for me '.
' It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a.
needle '-'Easier were it for a camel ',
Pastoral Epistles (1 itnd 2 Timothy nrnl Titus) to introduc~. some ~~µtili!';~ Chrlstlni"
maxim See 1Timothyi.16; iii. I; iv. o; 2Timothy 11. lli 11tus 11!.8·, ,It a
variou~ly rendered in the Authorised Version by 'This is a fa1th!ul saying,. Th\9
·
true sa in ,' and •It is a faithful saying'; while the Revised Version ~m ·
}~~II 'ves; •laithful is the saying'. Now there can be no doubt th.at ':'aTo~ Is
the pi.ei:licate, not a mere attribute of ~oyo~, an~ also th.at the em1;1has1s i;e~ j•poi!
But 1t may an'/
1· . and these are the reasons for the Ilensers correi:t!on.
1~' bted whether that emphasis is so 11trong in the famt)mr Grnek ph.mse IUI it Ill In
ou less usual En Jish order. 'This i~ a faithful saymg,' really gives thf;l same
the
to be .more in harmony
with the tone of the passages, winch are
mea ning , and. is
.
without poetical or rhctonca 1co1unrmg.

teft

•

7

Instead of ' Every beast of the forest is mine, and the
cattle upon a thousand hills,' we might say with greater
emphasis, 'Mine is every beast of the forest, and the cattle
upon a thousand hills '. 'The way of transgressors is hard '
- ' Hard is the way of transgressors'.
Compare also ' Stolen waters are sweet ' and ' Sweet
a.re stolen waters, and pleasant is bread eaten in secret '.
'Good were it for that man, if he had never been
born.'
.
' Sick is the whole head, faint is the whole heart,' would
be in perfect keeping with the other instances ; but we
should probably dislike any alteration in such a marked and
emphatic utterance.
The Reries of the Beatitudes may be quoted as illustrating more than
one principle of order. Our translators here followed their Greek original;
they could not have done better, had they been thinking solely of the
effect upon the mind of the render.
' Blessed ' is a strong word, and should either begin or end a sentence.
At the beginning, it possesses emphasis, and, by rousing our interest, it
adds to tho force of the su~ject at the end ; so that, on tho whole, we are
made more olive to the sentiment expressed than if the subject had been
first and the predicate last.
Again, it is convenient to adopt the inverted order, when the predicate
is one word and the subject loaded with circumstances.
We could say• The poor in spirit are blessed; for theirs is the kingdom or heaven' · but
tho pl'edicate word awkwardly divides the subject from the prono~inal
clause.
Lastly, in the cose of a sequence of propositions, with one predicate
the placing of the predicate at the beginning exhihits the parallelism. It
also reserves the place of emphasis at the end for the subject, as being
always the new circumstance.
. ·.,
1

Next as to the Poets : - Sharper than a serpent's tooth
is an ungrateful child '.
Hatf}fttl is the dark blue sky,
Vaulted o'er the dark-blue sea. (Tennyson.)
Dear is the memory of our wedded lives,
And dear the last embraces of our wives. (Id.)
0 sweet is the new violet that comes beneath the skies
And sweeter is the lamb's young voice to me that can~ot rise ;
And sweet is all the Jnnd about, and all tho flowers that blow
And sweeter far is death than life to me that long to go. (Id~)
Past was the flight, and welcome seemed the tower. (Campbell.)
Great is thy power, and great thy fame,
Far kenn'd and noted is thy name. (Burns.)

The. following instan?e from Grn.y shows a frequent
uen.go with tho poets:-' Large was his bounty', and his soul

J

.

l

1
,.'
j

1
J

J

8

OitDER OF WORDS.

ADVERB AND VERB FIRST.

sincere'. It could equally well have stood-• and sincere his
soul'; there being the same reason for bot}}.. SoSweet is the breath of vernal shower,
The bee's collected treasnrcs sweet,
Sweet music's melting fall, but sweeter yet
The still small voice of gratitude.

The second line is evidently made to deviate from the
inversion of the others for the mere sake of change. It
might have run-' Sweet are the treasures of the bee '.
Although Shakespeare exemplifies nearly every rhetorical
artifice known, this particular iuversiou is not very frequent
with him. For example :
-either death or life
Shall thereby be the sweet~r.

'Sweeter shall be thereby either death or life,' would be a
permissible inversion, and, perhaps, an improvement in force.
Now for Prose. Many of the instances from the translation of the Bible are in point here. Others we can cull
from general literature. 'l'rofliga.te that coalition was,' is
the utterance of an energetic writer on the coalition of Fox
and North. To make the inversion thorough, we should
say-• Profligate ·was that coalit;ion '. 'l'he same writer
(Goldwin Smith), speaking of the youthful Pitt, says, •His
command of rounded sentences was already fearful'. Try
inversion :--'Fearful already was his command - - ' .
Speaking of Greek style in the fifth century before Christ,
Jowett remarks,-' But not at once was language adequate to
receive or take up into itself the ideas which were asking
for expression '.
Arthur Helps has the following example: ' Rare almost
as great poets-rarer, perhaps, than veritable saints and
martyrs- are consummate men of business '.
' My yoke is easy and my burden is light.' This might
be more forcible in the inverted form, ' Easy is my yoke,
and light is my burden ' ; and if the words occurred in o.
passage of sustained poetical character, the inversion would
be preferable.
The inversion may be happily used when a long subject
has a single-worded predicate adjective:-' Small is the
chance of our agreeing on the minute <letails of the scheme'.
So, ' Cold is Cadwallo's tongue ' is not only an effective
arrangement in itself, but is the most suitable on account of
the clause that follows : -

Again-

Cold is Cn,hvallo's ton!!lle
·
'l'hat hushed the stormy main.
How wonderful is Death
Death awl his brother Sl~ep

' Short was his triumph ' If th.
.
most impressive arrangeme~t If . 1 ~ stan~s alone, it is the
longer statement it will al j 0 ti it Is the mtroductfon to a
statement is iute~i<led to 8~70 ' I. 10 L}8t fo~·m, provi<lod tlutt
If, on the other hand , sho ."': .ww t ie trmmph was short.
pr~dicated of the triu;uph It <l 1s tlon~y .one at~ribute to be
it I~ better to place 'triu~ltlh, o. ie1h m11ned1ately follow,
m t e foreground as the
subject of the whole. , H. tP.
little satisfaction whiie it ~~s;~~/~~. was short; it gave him
When the predicate is a noun
.
be, the inversion is not so common stan~mgh as complement to the verb to
we have cases like the following. 'I as 111 t e case of the adjective Yet
to. the lame•. This might be ~ore
eJ'.es to tho blind, and feet was I
~hnd, and feet l~m1 I to tho lnmo '. 'y ~n~erted : ' ~yes was I to tho
A frttl!er of tho fatherless and . J
~lrsrrnl~lo comforters nro vo nil '
halntation. •
'
a JtH go of tho wulows1 is God 1·n J' h ·
'Tl· ·
us o1y
.
us mversion is limited b th
.
it would produce am higuity. y e fact that m many cases of th~ kind
Po11e saya
ti 'Vhcn
·
• ,, • '1'1 10 proper st l
f
110 11ng but the sense to show the
. ti< r 0 n_iankind is man • there is
re Is an mvers1on
'

fuj1

12. IL-Adverb and Verb first

.

. A more frequent case
In
· . .
stituting a fe'.l'~ure of poetic style:oetry it is habitual, con. Our fam1har form f ·
.
verb ' B e , beI ongs to o thmvertmg
by ' There ' an d th e
b
'Now,' 'Then,' ''.l'hus' 'Ne so, ~rest. prose.
So with
COMPANION, p. 295.) 'But ~ver,
Ne1t~er,' 'Nor'. (See
Jn.nguage, the inversion was ::: the earlier periods of our
tf.10 ordinary prose style.
;ch more exte~sively used in
kmdre<l Teutonic language's an 1so wGe find it still in the
Tl
' sue 1 as erma
.
ic older tendency of our Ian ua
n.
mg q,t~otations fr?m .the translation ~f f~e1~l~1lbe. illustmte<l by the follown the bri:rmmng was the 'Vonl • ' ' . c ..
' In him was iifp ' \\ ithont lmn was not anything
Alter me com eth a man wl . ·I . ..
'80 persecuted the th
. ue l Is pr:cfcrred before me.'
1
: Therefore dispute~ Jieei~\1f~ =~s '~11ch we.re before
I II them is fulfilled th
I } naoog ue wi th the J ews '
'On these two command pro~ lh!Y of Esaias.'
.
'Ub1to every one that ha:he~~1!11 ~ng ~11 the law and the }Jrophets •
h:~h i, ut from him that l1ath not sl1fi1{e~1, ~nkd he shall J1avo ab~nd.
o a en oven that which he

mad~ th~t was made.'

you.•

j
~

j

I
..

' ; ;·

'j~

10

11

ORDER OF WORDS.

ADVANTAGES OF THE INVERSION.

'Unto the angels hath he not put in subjection the world to come.'
1
Into the second went the High Priest alone once every year.'
These are examples chosen from the ordinary prose style of the Bible,
nnd show that the language originally permitted such inversions much
more freely than at present.

The very unusual form here is felt less 11arsh, because the words are
introduced as a sudden interruption of the preceding sentence, and hence
not inappropriately appear as if broken and disjointed.

Before exemplifying at large, we may advert to the
different forms of sentence that admit of the inversion.
(1.) The verb must, as a rule, be preceded by an adverb,
in one of its varieties-single word, phrase, or clause. We
vel:'y rarely begin with a verb alone. The instances in the
COMPANION, p. 298, are all from Scott.
So are these:Vanish'd the Saxon's struggling spear,
Vanish'd the mountain sword.
The drawbridge fell-t1'ey hurry out,.
Clatters each plank and swinging chain.
This is from MiltonStood vast infinitude confined.
Tennyson uses it in the ' Charge of the Light B1igade' : Flash' d all their sabres bare,
Fl'lsh'd as they turn'd in afr.
A.lso twice in t11e song, 'Home they brought her wan-ior dead':Stole a maiden from her place,
Lightly to the warrior stept.
Rose a nurse of ninety years,
Set his chiltl upon her knee.
And in ' Loeksley Hall ' : Comes a vapour from the margin, blackening over heath and bolt.
Slides the bird o'er lustrous woodland, swings tl1e trailer from the crag,
Droops the heavy-bfossom'tl bower, hangs the heavy-fruited tree.
The following are from other poets : Resounds the living surface of the ground,
Nor undelightful is the ceaseless hum. (Thomson.)
Wide flush the field!'!, the softening air is balm,
Echo the mountains round. (Id.)
Cam~ a troop with broadswords swinging,
Bits and bridles sharply ringing. (Whittier.)
So to his lmt lie got l1im back agnin,
And/ell the unhappy king upon his knee.
(William Morris.)
The following, from Keats, iR even bohler than these : ' Thy venom'd goblet will we quaff until
We fill-we fill!
And by thy mother's lips-- '
Was heard no more
For clamour, when the golden 1ialace door
Open'd again.

(2.) The easiest case is with an intransitive verb: 'Then
burst his mighty heart'. When the verb is transitive, and
has both subject and object, the inversion may lead to
ambiguity, or other awkwardness.
.
(3.) Speaking generally, the effect of the inversion is best,
whe~ thorough-going.
Little is gained by a partial invers10n.
(4.) The efficacy or impressiveness of this inversion depends upon the same principles as the inversion in the case
of a predicate adjective. It throws the subject to the end,
thereby raising its importance. It also facilitates the expansion of the subject by appended circumstances. It,
moreover, gives to the sentence the air of poetry.
A few additional examples from the Bibl11 may first be adduced.
Those already given in this connection were confined to the prose style ;
we may now quote from the more poetical books, in order to illustrate the
effect of this 111version.
·
'Out of the depths have I cried unto thee.' Here the form is not
only effective in itself, but very happily strikes, in the opening words,
the keynote of the whole composition (Psalm 130).
•With joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation.'
'With the Lord there is mercy, and with him is plenteous redemption.' Here the parallelism, thus preserved, adds to the effect. So it is
also in the following examples.
J
'In death there is no remembrance of thee; in the grave who shall
give thee thanks 1'
·
'In thy presence is ,fulness of joy; at thy right hand there are
pleasures for evermore.'
- 'With thee is the fountain of life ; in thy light shnll we see light.'
' In thy name shall they rejoice all the day ; in thy righteousness
shall they be exalted.'
·
. ··.,,_

The promiscuous examples now to be adduced will serve
to elucidate the principles laid down, and determine the circumstances suitable for the employment of inversion.
l!,irst, let us quote a few of the simpler cases-such as
short sentences with an intransitive verb.
• In 1066, was fought the battle of Hastings.' This is
pure prose, with no attempt at rhetorical elevation beyond
We may compare it with the other
impressiveness.
arrangements-' The battle of Hastings was fought in
1066 ' ; ' In 1066, the battle of Hastings was fought '.
Leaving out of account the bearing of what may precede
or follow, these two last forms are much inferior to the
complete inversion.

12

ORDER OF WORDS.

• And thereby hangs a tale/
The best c~nceiva~le
ttrrangement. 'l1he s~bject 'ta~e . has f~ll emphasis, and is,
moreover, brought mto prox1m1ty with what naturally
follows-the particulars of the tale.
•In the background rose the. mist, lik~ i~cense.' In·
version is here turned to account 111 a descr1pt1ve sentence.
The order conforms to one of the laws of description,
namely, to give the scene or situa:tio~, previous. t<;> st~t~ng
the action that is to take place m it. The s1m1le, hke
incense' follows the subject .compared.
There is an
obvious' inferiority in the form-' The mist, like incense,
rose in the background '.
• There was a sound of revelry by night.' Not the best
possible disposition of the adverbs. ' By night was heard a
sound of revelry,' dispenses with' There,' and gives to the
subject the place of emphasis at the end.
•Duncan comes here to-night': otherwise, 'To-night
comes Duncan here'. Both time and place are emphatic
under the circumstances: the greater emphasis may be supposed to attach to ' here '.
Not wholly snnk he. O'er that mist of spray
Glittered his sword. There fell a silence strange:
Slowly that mist dispersed ; . and on ~he sands
That false Enchanter lay, with all lns sons,
Black, bleeding bulks of death.

In the foregoing lines, there are five sentences of t.he
character we are now discussing. 'l'hree have the full mversion· the fourth might equally well be inverted, without
disturbi~g the metre-' Slowly dispersed that mist'. 'l1he
fifth would want a little adjustment for the sake of metre-' Lay that fals~ enchanter~ ; and the ~nve;sion woul~ be an
improvement, if only to brmg the subject enchanter closer
to its adjuncts.
When the verb is made up with auxiliaries, or with 'can,'
•must,' &c., the inversion often goes no farther than placing
the subject after the auxiliary and before the verb.
•To this extremity were we driven.'
•Let her paint an inch thick, to this favour she must
corn.e,' might be 'must she ~ome'; b~t not 'must come she,;
or • come must she '. ' A greater nnstake was never made.
By inversion-' Never was a greater mistake made': or,
•Never was made a greater mistake,'-admissible but somewhat forced.

INVERSION SHOULD BE THOROUGH.

13

'On Monday will be shbwn the entire collection.' Here
the inversion is to the best effect.
For' I have often observed,' where the adverb is placed
between the auxiliary and the adverb, we may have the inverted form-• Often have I observed'; whereby an increased
emphasis is given to the 'often'.
In the following passage from Pope, tho inversion in this class of
cases is carried yet farther, tho auxiliary being placed after the principal
verb:'Go see Sir Robert - - ' 'See Sir Robert-humAnd never laugh- for nll my life to come 1
Seen him I have, but in his happier hour
Of socinl pleasure, ill exchanged for rower ;
Seen him, uncumber'd with the vena tribe,
Smile without art, and win without a bribe.'
rhe. i.ntentio~, of cou~se, is .to reiterate with e'!lphasil! the word see, and this
JUst11ies. the lo1p~. which might be felt harsh if standing alone. It is this
emphall? rep.etit10n of the. verb, alread~ expressed or implied, that is the
usual ob.Ject m cases of tlus sort, sometimes also with added force 011 the
auxil.iary. 'Go he must,' refers to a preceding statement or thought that
he will refuse to go, and also puts stress on the compulsion expressed in
the ' must ',
So here : • He might, perhaps, be taugh to do it better ·
but lot it alone he cannot',
·
'

.There is little or nothing gained, except through the
accident of metre or sound, in partially inverting sentences
of the class we are now considering:In bein~'s flood, in action's stonn
(We walk = ) walk we aud work.

' How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ' could
not be thoroughly inverted without destroying the e;quisite
metre and melody. We might go a. certain length without
loss :-• How sweet upon this bank the moonlight sleeps '.
In prose we could be thorough-• How sweet upon this
bank sleeps the moonlight '.
O'er all the drenry coastci,
So stretched out, huge in length, the archfiend lay.

To invert and say,' Lay the archfiend,' would impair the
metre. But the adjective phrase, 'huue in length ' might
go after the subject:ti
'
So stretched out, lay the archfiend, huge in length.
So glozed the tel1\pter.
So work the honey bees.

Wordsworth calls GrasmereTho loYeliest spot that mau hath ever fouud.

14

ORDER OF WORDS.
INVERSION OF ACTIVE VERB AND OBJECT,

The emphasis of order would assist the sui;>erlative meanin : • Never hath man found a lovelier spot .
,.
g •The foot of Adam Smith was on the steps of power ·
.
.
• On the steps of power was--.'
'Then ensued a scene of woe, the h~e of which no eye
had seen, no heart conceived, and _whic~ n~ tongue can
adequately tell.' (Burke.) Here the mvers1on is ~ot only a
clear gain in impressiveness, but eJ?-ables. the subJect ~o .be
brought into immediate connect10n with th~ quahfymg
clauses.
Moreover, these clauses also ~eceive ~ more
emphatic position than they would have, if followmg tho
subject in the body of the sentence.
The complement of an incomplete verb may be pl_ace?
first, in the same way as the adverb:-• Soft _blew the wrnd ·
This is the generalised case of. th~ first s~nes of examples
of inversion, those with an adJective predicate.
Pity, kind gentlefolks, friends of ~nm.anity,.
Keen blows the wind, and the mght s commg on.

13. III.-Inversion of Active Verb and

Obje~t.

In a sentence having an Active Verb, toget~er wi~h Subject and Object, emphasis is often soug~t by. rnv:rtmg t~e
rammatical order. The most comple.te mvers10n is to begm
g 'th the object and end with the subJect: •Ano~her parable
:~ake he unto them' ; •Salvation will God appomt for walls
and bulwarks'.
.
Not unfrequently the verb i~ last :-' ~hee, the voIC~,
the dance obey ', The thorough mvers10n, 1.n such cases, i,s
often an improvement: 'Thee obey the -yoICe, ~he dan~e .
The presence of one or more adverbial adJuncts gives
scope for still greater variations of or~er. ~he adve~b may
recede, as in the foregoing class of. mversi?~s: or I~ may
~emain in its more regular grammatical posit10n, while the
object is placed first.
.
,
h
'In this fool's paradise, he ?rank delight. Here t e
adverb emphatically precedes, while the r.est of the senten~e
is regular. The inversion could be earned fart~er, and. m
several ways. The most easy a?-d. natural way is to br~ng
the verb close to the adv~b, as if it wer~ a ~euter verb,.•In this fool's paradise, drank he delight . qther":1se,
' delight he drank,' not so go<;id. The complete 1~ver.s1on:
'delight ~lrank he,' is unsmtable.
The word delight

15

is more emphatic than either ' drank ' or ' he,' and is properly
'
placed at the end.
The present inversion is in practice restricted, from fear
?l ambiguity. 'The joy of !outh and health her eyes display'd,1
is not more than clear as it stands; by making it ' display' d
her eyes,' we should raise a doubt as to whether there was
an inversion or not.
'How solemn the thoughts that the future explore,' is
Bll.ved from ambiguity by the plural verb.
.
Tho inv.el'sion wo nro now dcnling with, like those preceding, may be
!llustrnted from tho usage of the English llible. Take the followiug
mstances : •.Mine head with oil thou didst not anoint.'
'This Jesus hath God raised up.'
'Sacrifice
and offering' thou wouldest not, but a body hast thou prepared me.'
' Marvellous things did he in the sight of their fathers.'
. . • his seed also
will I make to endure for ever, and his throne as the days of hea,•en.'
'Judgment also will I lay to the line, and
m~'
. righteousness to the lllum-

. 'My mercy will I keep for him for evermore ;

.
'My glory will I not give to another, neither my praise to graven
images.'
,'l'he a.hove specimen~ 1111.ve so~.etl1ing of tlrn poetic colouring, so that
tho mvcrs1011 adds to their effect. I here arc also ca.scs of tho usa"e in pure
prose, such as these: 'All these things spake Jesus unto the multitude in
~rnhl~~
·

The e~phasis of the following inversion has always been
felt:-• Silver a~d gol~ have I none '. The emphatic cir~umst~nces are l~ their best places. The • silver and gold '
is the important i<lea of the sentence; but the highest stress
is reserved for the negative 'none·~- Any one can see how
much less energetic would be the direct order-' I have no
silver or gold'. In pronunciation, the feebleness of the
?rde,r mig~t be ~emedied by putting special emphasis on
no . With the mverted arrangement, the emphasis comes
as a matter of course.
We might arrange the above so as to put the negative
first, and the ' silver and gold ' last ; yet the effect would
not be the same :-• Not mine is either silver or gold '.
Farther examples of the same form :Other refuge have I none,
Hangs my helpless soul on thee.
In the following from Pope, we have a pronominal object thrown into
great and significant prominence by inversion:.Ale let the tender office long cngnge
To rock tho cra1llo of reposing nt:o.

16

ORDER OF WORDS • .

•The atrocious crime of heing a yonng man, which the 11onourable
gentleman has with such spirit and decency chari;(ed upon me, I shall
1icither attempt to palliate nor deny.' (Pitt.) Herc n9t only docs the
object gain in emphasis, hut we ha\·e the farther ad vahtage that 'the .
atrocious crime' is fully described before we are told how it is to be dealt
with-neither palliated nor denied. The mock seriousness of the statement would be much lessened, if the direct order we1·e taken : we should
miss the h11mon1· of the declaration, 'I shall neither attempt to plllliato
nor deny,' if we did not already know wh1it is the crime ho thus solemnly
11leads guilty of haYing committed.
'Dissolvents of the ol<l European systems of dominant iJcns and facts
we must all be, all of us that have any power of working: what we have
to stmly is that we may not be acrid dissolveuts of it.' (111. Am old.)
' The sorrow for the dead is the only sorrow from wllich we refuse to be
divorced. Every other woitnd we se\lk to heal-e·very other a..fftiction to
forget ; but this wound we consider it a dnty to keep open-this aj/Uctioii
we cherish and brood over in solitude.' (W nshington Irving.)

14. IV.-Relative Emphasis of beginning and end.
\Ve have already given general reasons for the superior
emphasis of the close of the sentence. These reasons will
now be supported by examples.
If we compare the expressions, •liberal com;ervativo'
and 'conservative liberal,' we fin<l the interpretation to be,
that the first is a conservative with liberal leanings, but more
conservative than liberal; while the second is more liberal
than conservative. 'l'he inference is, that the last word,
from its position, acquires superior impressiveness.
It is stated in the Companion to the Higher Grammar
(p. 305) that the phrases 'first three,' •three first' are,
grammatically, contractions for •first, second, and third'.
When the question arises which of the forms is the more
proper, the answer depends upon where the emphasis is
supposed to lie. The ' first three ' would put stress on the
' three,' as if we were dealing with groups of three. The
'three first ' would indicate that we wanted three in all,
but that the three must be specially taken from the commencement of the row.
The postal letters E.C., W.C., mean that a certain district is laid out, called the Central District. 'l'his is subdivided into two portions, East and West, and the letter
prefixed to the C. shows which is intended. 'l.1he combinations C.E. and C.vV. would have a <lifferent rendering.
In the points of the compass intermediate between N.,
S., E., W., there is always one order of the letters, N.E.,
S.E., S.W., N. W. There is here a peculiar hypothesis as
to the winds, namely, that the primary currents are East

END OF SENTENCE SPECIALLY EMPHATIO.

17

and West, and that all ·the others are ·deviations from
thJse.
.
These last e~a~ples take us back to the grammatiCa I ·
ord.er ~£ the Adject1v~ ~nd the Noun in plain prose ; the
Adjective, as the spemfymg word, preceding the noun, which
expresses the genus: 'red rose,' 'tall man,' 'mighty nation',
In compounds of two words, both being nouns the rule is
the same, o~ the supposition that the first n~un qualifies
the second m the manner of an adjective : • roso-wator •
'steam-engine,' 'fly-leaf,' 'ring-finger'.
When the fir;t
n.oun expresses something as a whole, and the second
s~ngles QUt a part for special consideration, the order is
different, as 'rose-bud,' 'mountain-top '.
.
w.e have alre!l'dy quoted an example (p. 5) to show
that, m a success10~ of particulars, each new one receives
t~e place of emphasis-' Add to your faith, virtue; and to
virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance,' &c.
. The , ~I.osing ~vords of the Sermon on the Mount are a study in
point.
I he wuHls hlcw, nnrl bent upon that house • and it foll •
and went was tho fall of it.' Hero, in the firllt pince tiio last words'
'of it,' are felt to bo too 'imimportant for tho empha~is they receive'
nnd . they . detract from the stress laid on ' the fall '. Moreover'
~he mvers1on would have been more suitable if the clause had b '
Isolated. As .it is, .'the. fall,' l!a.ving been nlrcady mentioned, should rc~i~~
to a comparat~vely mfcnor po8ibon, and the new circumstance 'great' tnke
the pl~ce of h1gl!est emphasis. This is, in fact, the order and em basis in
the G1eek ,; :yet it has been neglccte1l by the translators, thou~h tfiey have
J•reser!ed it m the parallel passnge in Luke : ' Immediately 1t foll . and
~he rm~ of that house was great '. Nor has the Revised Version ti10u h
uuprovmg the rl~ythm by the substitution of 'thereof• for 'of it/restor~d
the true emphasis. Both as an English sentence and as an exact version
the '!'ords should run : ' It fell ; a!1d the fal~ thereof was great '.
'
Home the:y brought her warno1· d~ad,' is a study of emphasis. The
~wo strong particulars .are 'home' aud •dead'. 'l'he stronge1· of the two
is th.e sec?n~; for winch reason, nnd also to reserve the shock as Jong as
J1oss1ble, it .1s put to the end. If there be a question whether 'home•
should receive more emphasi!'I than 'warrior' try it thus-' Her wn ·
bron~ht they .to her d~nd '.. ~t!iern:iso-' H~nlO her warrior brought ;r.~;
d.ead . 11! tins form, warrior is still promineut, and the thorough invers10n contnbutes to the energy.

. A!though it is a. rule in our language, groundocl in
prmc1ple, that the adJective should precede the substantive
yet whm~ any great stress is put on tho adjective while th~
substantive is a familiar class, it is proper to' invert the
order. We sa!. 'the body politic/. because .the importance
attaches to politic. So, the 'part1c1ple restrictive,' • obliga.·

'

.j

:1
I
' I

i

l

18

ORDER OF WORDS.

tions general and particular'. A political maj?rity, in the
sense of a majority determined by party, nught be •a.
majority political'. •A mental difference' is a difference in
respect of mind, and is better, •a difference mentally'.
So •There are also celestial bodies and bodies terrestrial', 'Terrestrial' i~ the emphatic word, standing in contrallt to 'celestial'. The full
pa1 allelism would have required 'bodies celestial'. likewise, as, indeed, it is
m the Greek · but this would be awkward, and it would be better to keep
the usual order with both adjectives, and to substitute the Saxon wol'<ls
•earthly ' and 'heavenly' for the Latin term~.
·
.
The following sentence from Bunyan, put mto the mouth of Talkative
in the 'Pilgrim's Progress,' is an .excellent exam/i~c of this usage :-;-'I
will talk of things heavenly, or ~hrngs earthly : t.11ngs moral, or. thmgs
evangelical ; things sacred, or tlnugs profa1~e ; thmgs past, .or thmg~ to
come ; things foreign or things at home ; thmgs more essen~ial, or thmgs
circumstantial ; provided that all be done to our. pr.ofi~ . Here the
noun •things' is not only the same th~·on~hont, but is, m i~s own natur~,
of much less importance than the adjectives; and, accordmgly, by thia
arrangement, all the stress is thrown upon ~hcse.
.
.
The folio.wing case might, p~rhaps, be im.rroved by tlns construct~on:
1 If I have told you earthly thmgs (say, tlnngs earthly) an~ ye bel!eve
not }10w shall ye believe if I tell you of heavenly thmgs (things
hea~enly)
''
,
.
The combination 'life eternal,' frequently used m the B1hle, liy
throwing the e111phasis of the second word on the adjective, more strongly
sug.,csts a contrast with another life that is uot eterunl. The contrast
thu~ implied. is fully expressed in. the foll?wiug exnn~plc : 'He that hateth
bis life i1t this world shall keep 1t uuto life eternal .
'
• ' l1e1r-presump
.
t'ive, , 'h e1r-appa~e~
.
t',
Examples like 'States-Gcuern.l,
no doubt point to the influence of. the French or~m:, though the reta.mmg
of them in English may be explained by the 11rmc1ple now un.der discus·
sion. •Church militaut • implies a contrast to 'the Church triumphant,'
and is used only when that contrast is in view.
In such a case as 'the old. man eloquent,' there seems to be not11ing
gained but a smoother rhythm ; nnd this would often apply to the use of
this inversion by the poets.
In the next example we have the inverted. adjective. employe~, wit.h·
out even this advantage : 'A personal acqunmtance with American ~1fe
may }1ave offered to the author of Cultitre and Anarchy a confirmat!on
strong of his worst preconceptions '. The effect is only to call attention
to the unusual form, there being no gain in true emphasis.
'Greater love hath no man than this,' is a model of distribution of
emphasis. Not only are the first and last w~rds .su_ited to the emph~ia
they receive, but the last is so placed as to brmg it mto clo~e ~onnect10.n
with the clause expounding it: 'that a man lay down his hfe for h11
friend',

'Reading makes a full man.' The emphasis is here on
the adjective: it might be-' makes a man full'.
' See the conquering hero comes ' : otherwise, ' See,
comes the hero conquering'. Or, ' See, comes the hero
conqueror'.

ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE POETS.

19

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
. Orny deals lnq:~dy in invr.rAim~R; y1!t .Ro frr1pwnt.ly ndopt.A t.l.10
chrect form, on the most emphatic occas1011s, that we a.re left m
doubt as to his estimate of the force of inversion on its own account.
Thus:To brfak notes in cadence beating
Glance their many-twinkling feet,
is inversion to the full. Again : Dauntless on his native sands
1'he dragon-son of Mona stands;

In glittering arms ancl glory drest,
High he rears his ruby crest.
'l'here the thundering strokes begin,
There the press, and there the din :
shows several partial inversions. The second line could have been
fully inverted. The fourth might be-' High his ruby crest he rears';
the fifth- 1 There begin the thundering strokes'. Of course, there
would have to be changes of phrase to restore the metre.
Campbell's use of inversion is far more decisive. With him, we
can plainly see that the in\'erted forms have an intrinsic value, and
are not to be exchanged for the others merely to avoid monotony.
There ie no grander proof than this : Then shoolc the hills, with t.lnmder riven,
1'hen rushed the steeds to lmLLlc driven;
And louder than the bolts of heaven
Far faished the red artillery.
Here the inversion is boldly maintained throughout.
Of Nelson and the Nor·th
Sing the glorious day's renown, ·
When to battle fierce went forth
. All the might of Denmark's crown.
The inversion here also is as decided as the case admits of. The
~ond ~ine is in the direct, or grammatical order ; but, with an
tmperat~ve, inversion is not so readily admissible ; nor docs it
necessarily add to the force. 'l'he other inversions manifestly contribute to the effect of the stanza.
Ye mariners of England
That guard our native seaa,
Whose flag has braved a thousand years
The battle and the breeze.
Tho 11econd line might well enough be-' Our nnt.ivc sens that
guanl '. 'l'hc third mi<l fourth show a nearly pro~nic or<lcr ; 'Whose
~ hM braved the battle an<l the breeze a thousand years '-would
uve been pure prose. A greater inversion might be tried; either
•Whose flag a thtmsand years has braved,' or, 'Whose flag the battle
and the breeze a thousand years bas braved'. 'l'he use of the

.1

l

20

ORDER OF WORDS.

relative-' 1VlwstJ flag '-is prosaic and weakening. e. bolder form
would be' Your flag'.
And muse on Nature with a poet's eye:
By inversion.:And with a poet's eye on Nature muse.
The next selection is from Byron :And to his eye
There was hut one beloved face on earth,
And that was shining on him.
Hite wns l1is life,
The ocean to the river of his thoughts
Which terminated all.
The inversions might be still more thorough in lines 2, 3, and 4 :There was on earth but one beloved face,
And that on him u:cis shininqHis life she was.
The emphasis is improved in each sentence. Again : Far along
,
From peak to peak, the rattling crags among,
Leaps the live thunder.
Once more:And on thy happy f'hore a temple r;;till,
Of small and delicate proportions, keeps,
Upon a mild declivity of hill,
I ts memory of thee ; beneath it sweepi:i
Thv current's calmness ; oft from out it leaps
Th~ finny darter with the glittering scales.
The two last clauses exemplify complete inversion of subject and
predicate.
T~1e advant<tge is apparent.
'.l'hc. prev.ions port.ion,
making three Imes and a half, shows a partml mvers10n ; but the
grouping of circumstanc.es on th_e whole is unsuccessft~l. The third
line is out of place. D1sregartlmg metre, the order nught be : And on thy happy shore,
Upon a mild declivity of hill,
A temple still
Of small and delicate proportions
Its memory keeps of thee.
Keats contains numerous examples.
In his Sonnet on Chapman's Homer, the inversion is sustained with good effect and mre
consistency : /ffuch have I travelled in the realms of gold
And many goodly states and kingdoms seen;
Round many western islands have I been
Which bands in fealty to Apollo hold.
Oft of one wide expanse had f been told

COWPER.-THOMSON .-WORDSWORTH.

21

That deep-brow'd Homer ruled a.<i his demesne:
Y 0t. niwer did I breathe its pure imrene
'Till I 11eard Chapman speak out loud and bolU :
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
When a new planet swims into his ken :
Or like stout Cortez-when, with eagle eyes,
He starel at the Pacific-and all his men
Look'd at each other with a wild surmiseSilent, upon a peak in Darien.
The following lines are from Cowper : Here Ouse, slow winding through a level plain
Of spaciorn1 meads, with cattle sprinkle1l o'er,
Conducts the eye along his sinuous course
Delighted.
The first line might be 1 through a level plain slow winding,' hut
for interrupting the grammatical connection with the next liuc :
nn important consideration in :r,oetry, as well as in prose.
I.n the
third line, the transposition-' fhe eye con<lucts'-would be slightly
more poetical. The poet continues : There, fast-rooted in their bank,
Stand, never overlooked, our favourite elms
That screen the herdsman's solitary hut.
T11e inversion is here up to the mark.
The last line might ue
-·'The herdsman's solitary hut that screen' ; but there would be
the 11nme ohjection on grammatical grounds. If tl1is.were a typical
ini;fnncc, it woukl show that Cowper preferred a prosaic arrcmgcment
to the loss of easy perspicuity.
Take next these lines from Thomson's 'Castle of Indolence' :(Rome he will )Pml t.o r.onrt'\ =)
'l'o com-ts he some will lead, urnl some tu cnmps,
'l'o senates some, and public sage debates,
Where, by the solemn gleam of midnight lamps
(The world is poised = )
Poised is the world, and managed mighty states.
The first line is put on a par with tlie second, in point of emphasis,
l•y placing the ' some' in the heart of the line. The change in the
last line makes its own order consistent. .
The usage of "\Vordsworth is interesting to study, inasmuch as
he l1cltl a theory that ' poetic diction' should not differ from the
ottlinnry forms of prose. It was to be expected that the inversion,
di11ti11ctively lioetic in its effect, would not. be very much fovourecl
by him ; and, accordiugly, loug passages occur that are rigillly kept
to the prose order. But as has often been pointed out, he d1<l ·
not fully observe his own rule, and least of all in his best passages.
Anti so even in him there are examples to Ahow that, in spite •
his theorie~, he frlt the superior energy that conlrl often be

'°

or

- -·- - - -

.
ORDER OF WORDS.

INVERSION IN POPE.

obtained by this means. Take the following from the 'Ode on
Intimations of Immortality' : Turn whercsoc'er I may,
By night or day,
The things which I have seen I now can see no more.
The rainbow comes and goes,
And lovely is the rose.
To me alone there came a thought of grief,
The folness of your bliss I feel-I feel it all
Not in entire forgetfulness,
And not in utter nakedness,
But trailing clouds of glory do we come
From God, who is our home.
0 joy I that in our embers
Is something that doth live.

The same remark applies to this without the qualification.
Here sailing ships delight the wandering eyes
might be:·
The wan<lering eyes here sailing ships delight.
.Pa~sing ~ver a line, we have, in the t'vo that follow, examples of
pal'tlal mve1·s1on :Now a clear sun the shining scene 'displays,
The transient landscape now in clouds decays.
The fi~st ~ine transposes the object of the active verb, at the risk
of amb1gmty. The regular form would have been too palpably close
upon prose. The second line, if accommodated to metre, would
run more plain and more forcible, thus :And in clouds decays the transient landscape.
The two succeeding lines are also illustrative :O'er the wild prospect (M I gazed around)
-1\A around I gazctlSudden (I heard a wild promiscuous sound)
-a wild promiscuous sound I heard.
The following lines repeat Pope's favourite inversion of the
object of an active verb:Then gazing up a glorious pile bel1eld,
1Vhose towering summit ambient clouds conceal'd.
It is only the sense that saves the second from ambiguity.
High on a rock of ice (the structure lay)
-lo.y the structure.
The next line is the inversion of an adjective predicate : Steep its ascent, and slippery was the way.
The law of superior emphasis might here dictate the direct order :The ascent steep, the· way slippery.
He 9oes on:(The wondrous rock like Parian marble shone)
-Like Parian marble shone the wondrous rockAnd (seem'd, to distant sight, of solid stone) .
--to distant sight seemed of solid stone.
We should find, in going still farther back, that our poets are,
on occasion, fully sensible of the power of inversion, but not conaist~nt in the employment of it. Striking examples can be adduced
from Milton, Shakespeare, and Chaucer ; an<l cqnally st.riking cases
where the invcrtc<l or1lcr wonltl have tohl, nml was not employed.
It remains now to quote recent examples as showing how the
use of ~nver~ion sta~1ds at present. Generally speaking, our modem
poets, m this particular, may be said to be up to the point of
Campbell.

22

Referrinrr back to Pope, we find t11e employment of inversion
very unsteady. It is not wanting, and the poet i.s, at times, ~ell
aware of its force ; but takes no trouble to sustam the practice.
'l'he following lines are almost pure prose as regards order : 1n that soft season, when descending showers
Call forth the greens, and wake the risin!? flowers
When opening buds salute the welcome any,
And earth relenting feels the genial ray;
As balmy sleep had charm'd my cares to rest,
And love itself was banished from my breast
(What time the morn mysterious .visions bri~gs,
While purer slumbers spread their golden wmgs),
A train of phantoms in wild order rose,
And, join'd, this intellectual scene compose.
In the lines that follow, there are a few more inversions:I stood, methou$ht, betwixt earth, seas, and skies :
The whole creation open to my eyes.
There would be nothing but rhyme at fault if we inverted thus :Betwixt earth, seas, and skies, methought I stood:
To my eyes the whole creatfon open.
The next line shows a full inversion :In air self-balanced hung the globe below.
It would be an advantage if the adverb 'below' could be made
to commence ; as it gives the comprehensive situation.
Where mountains rise, and circling oceans flow.
There is no poetic form }~ere, beyond the .me~re, if ~e .except the
use of the adjec~ive 'circlmg' : the co-<;>rdmatmg adjective of con·
densation not bemg so usual m prose as m poetry.
Here naked rocks and empty wastes were seen.

';..

.1

~)

r mm stt rm · n = = = r'Wtht s um= wn

24

There is no want of inversion in Tennyson, yet he hri.s passages
like the following :But now the whole Round Table is dissohed,
Which was an image of the mighty world ;
Arnl I, the last, go forth cornpanion}e9s,
And the days da!'ken round me, and the year11,
Among new men, stmnge faces, other minds.
This is a pnrely prose order, excepting the ellipsis in the two
last lines. The Inst but one would seem to invite a small transposition-'·And round me dark en the days'.
In general, it may be said that Tennyson mostly keeps to
the direct onler when there is no special elevation in the passage.
This U\)plies, for example, to the reflection and reasoning of 'In
Memonam' and to the calm narrative of the 'Idylls,' in both of
which it is remarkable how seldom the inverted order is adopted.
On the other hand, we find it fre1uent in poems of passion, such as
' Locksley Hall ' and ' G:::noue '. fhe following is an instance :Of old sat freedorn on the l1eirrht.<i,
The ill\\111lers breaking at l1e1· feet,
Above her shook the starry lights,

She heard the torrents meet.
is different with Willinm l\forris. In his 'E1uthly
Pamdi!~e' inversion is ahnndant,ly c111ployCLI, even in the most unimpnssioue<l unrraLive. Take the fullowing examples : But on the cold sitle looking toward the north, .
A pilfored council-house may yo ti behold,
ca~e

Within whose porch cire images of gold.

Their arms were axe and spem·, and shield and bow,
But nought of iron did they scent to know;

•

•

•

..,

m

RECENT. POETB.-ENGLISH BIBLE.

ORDER OF WORDS.

T11e

~-

•

'Vi th cloths of cotton were their bodiea clad,
But other raiment for delight they lutd.
The following is in more elevated style:Then high rose up the gleaming deadly blade,
Bared of its flowers, and through the crowded place
1-Vas silence now, and midst of it the maid
Went by the poor wretch at a gentle pace,
And he to hers uptumed his sad white face ;
Nor did his eyes hcholil another sight
Ere on his soul there fell eternal night.
It would appear t11at Mr. Monis consciously uses the inverted
s mtence a.'l one of the regular poetic forms, and often prefers it when
the direct order would have Leen more suitable.
Browning uses the inverted sentence rarely, and when he does,
it is commonly in such forms as are permissible in ordinary prose.
In Matthew Arnolil'R 'River of Time,' inversions and the direct

25

forms are nearly equal. The following lines may be taken as representative :But what was before us we know not,
And we know not what shall succeed.
Compare this with Shakespeare's directness throughout : We know what we are, but know not what we may be.

If inversion, in itself, be a source of strength an<l a pa1-t of
poetic form, it should not be departed from merely to produce
val'iety. As well might we vary a poem by infringing on the metre.
No one would advocate the transposition of the order in one half of
the Beatitudes, to take away the unavoidable monotony. There will
always remain necessary instances of the direct order; and inversions may be used, wherever admissiLle, without the tedium. of
iteration. Monotony is more likely to Le produced by neglecting lo
consider the proper occasions for deviating from prose order.•
•From the Engll~h nihle wo hn.ve nlren.rlr, m1trlo numerous quotntlon11 In exempJI.

fylnR c1tch eo11n.mte form or Inversion; but 1t will still be useful to 1uhl here a com·

prehensive statement on the ~eneral subject of how far our translators avail them·
1ehes of the n.dvantages furmshed by this form of sentence.
Inversion Is not so largely user! In the English Bible as is sometimes supposed,
though It certah.ly occurs in cases where it wonld not be employed in the present
day. In pure prose, such RB the OospolR, the J•:pisUes Rml the hiRtoricRI hooks of
the Ol<t ToRtmnnntf tho h1vorHlon IR mom frnqnont tluu1 In mmlorn Jr.nl{llKh; l\t
kl\~t, It ls omployo1 In many sc11tll11cos that wuuhl uot 1ww he ""'"•·ally ~u written.
Examples have o.lready been a<ltluced. !Jut when we exo.mlno the poetlrnl books,
111ch as the Psalms, Job, and many of the Prophets, where we might expect to meet
•Ith it much more frequently, we actnn.lly flnrl that it is not so often .resorted to 1\8
It would be In p1tsAAgos of the s1tmo style in mo1lorn F.n~iish. Tho Inversions In
proRo are principally archaic; the style or the Authorise<l Vtirsionl as is well known,
ilatlng, not from the time of King James I., but from that of henry VIII., about
a century earlier, when the Versions it was based on first took shape. These Inver.
1lonsare merely a survival from a still older period of the language when, Inflections
being more numerous, such val"iations of order were more common. In poetry it
does not seem that the effect of the inversion was as yet. very fully rel\lised .
Probably to the ears of our translators the speci1tlly poetical effect was not so per·
~ptihle as to ours, seeing that its general d1sl18e in ordinary prose was necessary
to this result being fully reacher!.
An examinn.tion of n. few passiigee from the poetic.'l.l hooks will lllnatmte these
ltalements.
We very often find that the emphasis could be improved or a moru
poetic form of sentence gained by a very obvious inversion that is, nevertheless,
nt'j[lected. Here is a good example: 'This is my rest for ever; here will I dwell·
for I h1tve desired it. I will abundantly bless her provision ; I will satisfy her poo;
•dth brP1ul. I will also clothe her priests with snJvation ; and her saints shall
lhout aloud for joy.' Tlrn flrst sentence may stand; but the gain in emphn.sis nnd
1>netic form is clear in the following : ' Her provision will I n.bundantly Uless ; her
JIOOr will I satisfy with bread. Her priests will I clothe with snlvation; and her
•In~ shall shout aloud for joy'.
The change also fully preserves the parallelism.
('The heathen are sunk clown in the pit that they made'=) •In the pit that
th'y m1tde 1tre the heathen sunk down ; in the net which they hit! is their own foot
llllten.' C1tses like these threo aro very common, one memhor of the pn.mlleli11111
ha•lng the direct, tho other the inverted form . Variety seems to luwe been the
alw i but it le gained at the expense of poetic tone as well as comrlete pamlleli8111.
lie shall sp1tre the poor and needy, nnrl shall save the souls o the neerly. He
mall redeem their soul from deceit and violence ; and precious shall their blood be
Ill his sight. And he shn.11 live, aml to him shall be given of the gold of Shelin. •
prayer also shall be made for him continually ; and dally shall he be rrn.ised.' Th~
laYcrslons here used are very effective; but the passage very natural y suggests an
uten1lon of the device, the result being an obvious advantage. Thus:-• 1"1.t i><'<>•"

----------··---26

ORDER OF WORDS.

and nudy 1hall he •pare, and the 301tl3 of. the nt.Pd11 1ha.l! ,,be1'avde. L !hjt: ,,,~zhrali!d h~
oo '?e m ns s1g
shall live, and to him shall ~e gh•en of the gol!I of ~hebu. ; Jor lii>n ahall prayer a/10
be made continually: and daily shall he be praised.
.
hi
e Is eat
The following. is a curious instance: 'In Judadhh.~ Gdodlkl.nownl ; lsnn~~n ' ~'he
f I
I
J S J,
also Is his tabernacle, an
1s we mg·p ace
· .
n srae ·
~ J:r1~:~, at the be inning of the whole, deserves the emphasis It

d eein f rom cleait and violtnce ; and precwua shall their

0
0
~~=i~~f
~~l~.~~~
fi!~~!
~~~ ;;~~\J':;:(:~~~l:,~~ ~~~~ti~.~~ .~r it'.ht~~cf.0u~efij~~=;~~Y.~
t
I cm hasl11 . the rrlnclpnl strnss Mter the openmg p rase, rea y .

trer·

rhe ~~~icate~. ·n~ls wll he g1tl11edka11a )ll1.l'!lllell11111 P,res!lrv od, by &doptllg
alon throughout: •In Judah IH0 011 nown.; 111 IRmel 1s Ins name greu.t.
n
e1n
also Is his tabernacle, ancl in Ziou J1is tlwelhng:pdlnco.'
,_ ,Our griefs hath he
'Surely he hath b01·ne our griefs and carne our sorrows I- I r
transgres·
h
d iir sorrows hath he carried '. 'But he was wounc et or our
I

0~~ ~~~q 1~!~i:~.'theDc~if~!~~~%~n~e~~ ~~~r~fsc;le~~~alfi°i~
shi~':s~
~i :~hbhj~~et~i~~~
im, a .
h ·
well as in poetic form : • For our tmnsgress1011s was 1e

1

approprd1atefore~fr
iansi1:uf:1es
was hel bruiRed, ; upon him was the chastisement of our
wounde ,
it
1 1
peac~, 'hnedi:~~l~isr:a1p:~J-';;;~l;~l '{;e praised.' This Is flat compared with lht

ln~erJd order: 'Sreat'i R.th:,~·1~~1,::i~l 'fr?a~ri.~ot~! ~:;i~~ 'ira;~~~::'tki~~ fr~ci!:r1t1.:
1

~"! :1oric;l;.:i m:si~~~s ·~he

want of distinct aim in the translators' use of tht.

formp tial im•ersion IR cxemplifl ed in the ''t'r~e: •Unto us a child is born,~~~ The:!
Is an 0~rvious improvement in 11111kit1~ It. thoron!(h : ' Unto us i1 ,born a c 11 ; un
us is 11;iven a son; and on his Rh?ul<lers shall be th,e gotovertnlmen o' of the orl inal.
Th
cases are not expla,med by 11 ny atteut10n
10 or er
,
~
•
I d d ~S: principle can he found in them beyoml the desire for variety. fhe n•':(

1
1 1
0
b~tiJrn'::i~~!~~~
)
1~!
~~~!~v~ty~1~p1~
~i~."
l!~h;icp~~~ll~l~~
;fe~he
~1:ut::31: u
additional gain.

NUMBER OF WORDS.
1. On the principle of attaining ends at the
smallest cost, it is a virtue of language to be brief.
If a thought can be properly expressed in five words,
Lhere is a waste of strength in employing ten.
2. As, however, there are also important effects
brought about by Diffuseness, we must enquire minutely
into the proper occasions of Brevity.
For example, of synonymous words, the rule of Brevity
would be always to choose the shortest. Yet we often find
that a. long word answers our purpose better than a short.
Long words can impart a certain emphasis and dignity, as
may be seen in comparing such expressions as 'Telamonian
Ajax' and '1,om Tit '.
So it is also with phrases and
clauses.
3. Rhetoricians have specified three distinct forms

of Diffuseness-TAUTOLOGY, REDUNDANCY, and CrnCUHLOCUTION.
Under these heads, we may carry out the exemplificaLion of all the modes of Diffuseness.
·

4. TAUTOLOGY means employing, in the same
grammatical situation, two or more words or phrases
for one and the same meaning.
Swift says : •In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the
privilrge and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud
and fo public'. There are here three couples of terms where
single words would suffice for the sense : ' it was the priviltge of every citizen to rail in public '.
.
'l'his is the simplest of all forms of diffuse expression,
and is of very wide prevalence. The synonymous words
aro in the same grammatical position in the sentence-subjects, verbs, objects, adverbs, &c.
}'o.rther examples :-' The inaudible and noiseless foot
ol time': •bounty and beneficence': 'beg and petition':

__ --·--...····--··-

rr

,

28

NUMB.EH OF

·---~.~------------------:---------------------. i'

won.ns.
NEEDLESS SHADES OF MEANING.

' pure and simple ' ; 'free, gratis, for nothing' ; ' a figure,
type, symbol, or prefiguration'; ' plain and evident ' ; 'joy
and delight ' ; ' happiness and felicity' ; ' equally as much'.
In a Queen's speech we find this : ' In again recun·ing to
you for advi'.ce and assistance ', ' 'l1he difference appears to
be mdical and fundamental.'
' By this means their houses
continue and last very long with little labour a.nd small reparct·
tions.' ' They hold opinion that oxen will ablde and suffer
much more labour, pain, and hardness than horses will.
And they think that oxen be not in dangm· and subject unto
so many diseases, and that they be lmpt and maintained with
much less cost · and chame.' 'The learned man doth ever
intermix the correction and amendment of his mind with the
use and employment thereof.'
'The one provokes and inciie1
the most languid appetite, and the other turns and palls that
which is the sharpest and lcermest.' '"The furnace is kindling,"
cried Mahomet exultingly, "as he saw the glitter of arms and
the flash of weapons.'' '
In such cases as these, there ii> prar.tically no difference between the
two words or phrases in each couple ; though their meanings, iu genrml,
may not be altogether coincident, they really cover but the same ground
when thus used in the same context.
In the following, from the Scotch Metrical Version of the 1OOth
Psalm, we have three words used, though the whole meaning is given by
tho first : 'Praise, laud, and bless his name always'. In the correspond·
ing line of the prose form-' Be thankful unto him, and bless his name'there is a discernible differenre of menning.
In many of our ol<ler writers, Tautology, in common with the other
forms of difful:!eness, may be foun<l in the greatest abundance.
'l'hus in Hooker :-'An admirable facility which music hath to
express and represent to the mind the very standing, rising, aud falling,
the very stops and inflections every way, the iU1"11S and varieties of all
passions :-yea, so to imitate them, that we nre not more contentedly by
the one confirmed, thnn changed and led au:a.y by the other. In harmony
the very im.age and character even of virtue and vice is perceived. For
which cause there is nothing more contagious and pestUcnt than some kin<la
of harmony ; than some, nothing more strong and potent for good.'
For the habitual practice of Tautology, as well as Re•lundancy amt
Circumlocution, we may refer more particularly to Tillotson. 1'ake the
following passage:-' 1t is hard to personate and act a part long; for
where truth is not nt the bottom, nnture will always he endeavouring to
return, and will peep out and betray herself one time or otl1er. There·
fore, if any man think it convenient to seem good, let him be so indcc-1,
and then his goodness will appear to everybody's satisfaction ; so that,
upon all accounts, sincerity is trne wisdom. Particularly ns to the affain
of this world, integrity hath many advantages over all the tine and arll•
ticial ways of dissimulation and deceit ; it is much the plainer and easier,
much the safer and more secure way of dealing in the world ; it has )em
of trouble and<lifficnlty, of entanglcmttnt and prrplexity, of danger nud

29

hn~nrJ in it ; it is the sl1ortcst n111l nc·m1st wa t
l
.
tlnt1.1er in a straight line, anti will hol1l ,, t ·~ Io, ottr ent' c1irrymg ns
deceit and cu11nin11 do continuall
. ou anL a:st longest. The arts of
serviceable to then~ that use tlwm ~ ~low we~kter, .and less effectual allfl
use·
ti ti
' '
1erras m C"nty gains stren th b
, ' n.n
to lllor? a1~1l lorrger any man practisnth it ti • .
g . .Y
does hun, by couhrrmnrt his reputation
ti
'. 10 ffiteatcr aorvwo 1t
he hath to do to repose "the greatest tru~~~ndncoftd1g111g .t os~ with ~vhol!1
an unspeo.ko.ble a1lvant11.ge in the business andco~ . enc;
~1m, which is
In Locke, tautolooies are frequent
'Id a airs .o le.
vanish quite out of the understantlir . I
. eas qmckly fade and often
rnaining characters of themselves ti ig, I edvmg do m?re foots!,eps or recom.' 'Pictures drawn in our mindan j •:i ?WS ? flymg over a field of
sometimes refreshed vanish and disa;re a1~ u~fa~1ng colours, and, unless
hf pear.. . gam : 'Man, tho' he have
great variety of tho~ahtii and
0
!night receive profit a~d tlelioh:~c ye~ J \\htch l~he~s, ~s w?ll as himself,
1
11wisiblf, and hiddcii from ~tlu;s, nor ~~ 1 ~r~t tli:~~::i hub own breast,
appear • ~ere there are threo expressions fo1· what is hu~e~no iu:~de to

i·1

.5. Diffuseness may arise from a needless multipli·

cation_ of. shades of meaning.
J TJus Is tho <lifTusoness of Addison n.ncl J l

o1mson says-• Kindness is preserved b
o mso1?-.
~~~~~t;~no~~ benefits or interchange of plfas~r~~~stb~: ::~~
receive andy s~cl: be bestowed as. others are capable to
qualifi~d to enjoy ·:1'le~~~~~fi~~~y a~~p~rted as 0 thers are
synonyms, but ' benefits ' might be h fJeatsures are not
'pleasures'.
e . o comprehend
1

.

'It is tho fate of those wl10 t 'I t ti l
oo rnther driven by the fear of evil o1 a ie ower employments of life to
to h? exposed to CellSlll:e without h::,1:11 rt'.·n~tc~ by the p~·ospect of gooll j
rarrtnge or punished for nertl t
I
o i11 a1sc' to be d1sgracetl by mis-

applnuse and diligence witJ~~ut '~.;~::r 1r:ccc(sJ ~vonld have been without
0
clauses are not identical thorn hcin"
mson,) Here the three
•
the more speci/ic statcm~nt of ti ·<l an atl\'anclc from the more general to
nothing is gained by tlri~ cliffus ro l ~11; yet t_icro. ill Lut ouo idon, au<l
Tl i ll .
cues~ m expressrng it
ie o owmg examples are from A 1Id'
;Tl
tlhcr wns exceedin l hct~ lite
. ison.
10 blueness of the
'A thought t·osc ingi!e wfuch I~ Tid enli~cned by the sen son of the year.,
mru of scrio1ts and contemplat~v~c~e ~e1.y ?ftm! pr.rplcxcs and disturbs
utilrgui.~ltcd and annihilated.• ' One•~,.;:' i·~· 1 Were the sun utterly
Mrt and superintendency '
'B •
o. Jae so great a work uncler Ins
am so used and accustom~d to tl1e1!sng1·s of Jf.nitt? an,d lirnited natur·cs. • ' We
_,,.II' 'c d an d spread ahroad to infinitmper1cc
ion
' Tl1at
I. h .
"'.f'"·
• 'G 1'
,·
' space w llC ls
«•re and hww everything in which b'e r . l 'Al;.~ghty cannot but pe1·(ro111 the same composition anti
. cs~c es.
icsc examples arc all
r- , alrort pnmgmph11.
Som; ex l _occur w1tl11n. the ~nnge of some half-dozen
i,
otho111 thcro is a difference in t1ii'ee~j1 ilmo;\jdnntlrcal meanings, whilo in
•lght he given more forc1·b· ly by a !1< el o
iloug it ; but in all the itloa
' •• A · • ,
.
smg c won .
,
•
g:1111 •
Bnt there HI nothin" that
k .
.
" t '"!IOU) thttn beauty, whid1 imm(l(fiate.ly l'·~r es its way mor.o cltrectly to
8
. ( ' uses a secret satisfaction a111l

?1

j

t

';

NUMBER OF WORDS.

30

JUSTIFIABLE TAUTOLOGY.

arc the multitude less excessive in their love thfln in tl~'jir
hatred, in their attachments than in their aversions.' fi Here,·t~ltl!ot~g~he~
second clause is somewhat more general tlian the rst, Cl 101 o
folly exprl!sses the meaning intended. d , l 1 1 . tl is k incl of clilfuso•
Burke's eloquent eulogy of Howur me tt ges n 1
f
ness • ' He has visited all Europe, -not to survey the sum11tuousness ~
paladcs, or the stateliness of temples; not tfo make aclur~:~~~e:~~f:ill~ 0~
of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to orm a sea e.
d'
modern art, nor to collect me~als,1 or cova:: ili~ni~~!~fi~n:-;?i~~:;itai:~
into the depths of dungeons; 0 l' dge. n t t ke the gnge an<l dimen·
to survey the mansions of sorrow an pam ; o o.
he for otten to
0

!\~~~d~:;~~r~,e:l~~~;d,i~~· v~~i~ ~;~t~~~iat~n~ a:e:::;;~r! and c~llate 'tho
di!!tresses of all men m all eountnes •

We find in good style such couples as these:.- g?o
·d
11 ' • • one and the same ' ; ' the same ident1ca1
an we '
.
.
f t'
' . ' poor and
measure ' ; ' the fulness and ma~urity o. nne • , . , £
needy• ; •means and substance ; ' s.ubJe?t-i;i~tt~r d ea~
and trembling' ; 'college and. umv~rs1~y .' . en . a:n,
design • : • the very purpose and mtent10~ ; . vi et a1 mis ·
The doubling of names for one meamng is helpful for
bringing out the sense in various ways.
(1.) In the first place, a single term !flay want some P?r·
tion of the full meaning, and t.hat ~or~1on may ~e s_u~phcd
b a second term, also insufficient m itself. . This d1~culty
· y hiefly exemplified in the more general notions of science.
~acch word separately may contain either a defect or an
excess of meaning, and the ·concurrence of two .or m?re
may bring out more exactly what is intended. In .d1scusht:
Sensation, we speak of something left i~ the ~md, w c ·
may be called a trace, image, picture, or impression.

r

'It is chemical l~nion tliat constitutes what we call burning coi;:;
bu~tion' • Buruin"' is a wonl familiar to nil, nnd, ther?fo1:e, in~ t
10 ~ver ~fat once calling up the ii\ca ; but, being also loose lll. its 1nppllrali011 it needs to be limite1l hy the mo.re ex~ct. ter~n " cfombu1~~t •tl Rt It

'Farther examples :- 'The peculiar d1strncb~n o o.. so 1 ls 1
·
· ·.
k
· not only a certain space or size for itself,, hut alllO I -;
msu;~s upon eep~ng ' ( l'n lfonr Stewart.) 'Everything which fonnt •
certain fignrll or s1wpe .
'"
. .
. ·
t
IOraf
p:ut of wealth must be u.~cful or hnre nt1lity; that 1s, it mus serve
~'

31

purpose, or be ag1•c1Ja.ble and desirable
some \vay or other.' (Jevons.)
'Money acts as n medium of exchangr,; it is a go-between, or third term. '
(Id.) ' 'l'he imagination of Plato created a new worlU of Forms, Ideas,
Concepts, or objects corresponding to gencml terms. In the Euthyplu·on,
however, · we have not yet passed into this Platonic world, of self-existent
Porms-objccts of conception-concepts detached from sen-~ible partwulars.
(Grote.) In this last example, the various names and expressions used to
dcsi~nate the Platonic l<lcas are all useful for the purpose, since the con·
ccptlon has been the subject of much mi:mmlcrsturnlin~; besides that
some of tlie ancient terms themselves,..such ns Ideas or Forms, naturally
suggest to us misleading associations.

facul~~s~:

·

_)

in

the imagination, and gives a fini~h to .nknyt1t1 ing t~ia~
Co mt11acency throtwh
0
1
is reat or uncommon. ,I' he very 1·us. t c}'iscov., 1·y of it. stn es 1e 111111u
·
,~. j[i1 an inward joy, and spreads a cheerfulness and dehght through a11 its

6. The circumstances that justify the use of Tauto.f
·1 b
ht ut
logies are : I.-When the sense is not satis acton y roug o
by a single term.
, d

_

f
),

(2.) ':rhe second reason for coupling synonyms is more
wide-ranging. Many of the terms of our language, when
standing alone, admit of different significations. '1.'he word
1
subject ' has a variety of renderings, and we are thrown
upon the context to say which is specially meant. The sub·
ject of a verb is one thing, the subject of a book is another;
a. subject of the realm is a third signification. . So the
word 'matter' has many meanings, and without some added
circumstance .we cannot fix upon any one in particular.
Now it often happens that two such words joined together
limit each other to a single meaning ; this is the case with
the combination 'subject-matter,' which is limited to one
signification. The practice of coupling synonyms is one, although not the only, remedy for the equivocations of terms.
Among examples of combinations such as these may be
mentioned-' sum and substance,' 'separate and distinct,'
1
trade and commerce,' 'impulse and stimulus,' 'privation
and want,' 'common and vulgar,' 'final and unalterable',
In such phrases, the two words are mutually helpful, the
one making clear what might be ..obscure with the other
alone. When a sacrament is defined as ' the outward and
ri1rible sign of an inward and spiritual grace,' the tautologies
are not useless expansion, though the words paired together
are largely coincident in meaning.
.
Wordsworth has this example : Nor should I · have marle mention of this Dell
But for one object which you might pass by,
Might see and notice not.
.
llrrc tho second phrase brings out fully the thou~ht implied in the firt:it.
\\'hen l'ope writes,
Oh happiness! our being's end and aim! .
Good, pleasure, ease, content I whate'e1· thy ·name,
the phras11, 'end and aim,' is needed to express the full meaning that
ba1~11ineMs is both the object attained and the object aimetl at in our being;
win " 'gootl, pleasure, ease, conten t' nl'c all furms of co11ccivi11g tho eliil{

1l

TAUTOLOGIES FOR STRONG FEELING.

32

33

NUMBER OF WORDS.

good among different philosophical schools. So when Thomson says of the
bees that they
Cling to t1111 bud, and, with inverted tube,
Suck its pure essence, its ethereal soul, ·
the seconrl form, though expressing the same thing, adds a pleasing com·
parisou that justifies the repetition.
The followin~, from Browning, is an extreme instance of a manner
very common with him:Thero were witnesses, coluwts about me, to loft 11ml to right,
Angels, powers, the unuttered, 1mseen, the alive, the awnre :
I repressed, I got thrmtr1h them, as hardly, as strugglingly there,
As a runner beset by the populace famished for news.
A word is used for a certain meaning, and then, as if this were felt to be
insufficiently expressive, another is added without any conjunction. In
the above example we have three such couples of expressions ; while In
the second line the idea of spiritual beings surrounding a man is put
in six different ways. Add the following: 'unduly dwelt on, prolixly
set forth ' ; 'he wants little, hungers, aches not much ' ; ' here's the pl3'·
form, here's the proper place' ; 'she was active, stining, all fire' ;
This could but liave happened once,
And we missed it, lost it for ever.

7. II.-In matters of Feeling, Tautology may be
an aid to the effect.
Under strong feeling, the mind dwells upon an object,
and is not tired of repeating it under various names. Even
the same word may be repeated. Thus in one of Chatham'a
speeches on America, he exclaims-'!£ I were an American,
as I am an Englishman, I never would lay down my arms,
never-never-never ! '

More usually the effect is produced by accumulation of
different words-' I am astonished, I am shocked to hear
such principles confessed '.
' How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all
the uses of this world'; •A poor, infirm, weak, and despis'd
old man'; 'cabin'd, cribb'd, confin'd'; 'a matter of the
greatest weight and solemnity ' ; ' the very purpose and
intention ' ; ' may leave you sorely perplexed and puzzled' i
' give ample room and verge enough '.
In the following example, effect is sought both by ro·
petition of the same word and by iterating the thoughL
in different terms : Slowly, slowly, slowly the clays succeeded each other,
Days, and 1i:eek.q, and rnonths. (Longfellow.)

William Morris shows the iteration natural to stron~ .-~­
emotion, when he thus represents the thoughts of a bride '
led forth ·by her bridegroom :-

Bnt she th~ while was mnrmnring low,
If he coztld know, if he could know,
What love, what love, his love should be.

So in the well-known lines of the 'Ancient Mariner
Alone, alone, all, all alone,
Alone on a wt'.de, wide sea.

And in Byron :The islr.s ef Greece, the isle.9 of Greece,
W hero bmning Sappho lovo<l 111111 snng.

Scarcely to be distinguished from this class of cases is
the production of strong emphasis. No doubt, emphasis has
also to do with the correct expression of the thought ; but
most frequently there is likewise some strength of feeling in
cases of this sort. Emphasis may be considered as what
is sought in such expressions as 'a delusion, a mockery,
and a snare ' ; ' many a time .a nd oft ' ; ' let it be read and
re-read and read again '. So also in the following : ' The
very scheme and plan of his life differed from that of other
men'. 'Here is the sum and substance, the pith and
marrow, the life and soul of the Gospel.'•
The following instances of Tautology, used for the more effective
of intense feeling, are from Shelley : It must be so*
*
*
*
it must, it willIt mn.y not bo restrained.

uprc~sion

Ah me I alas, pain, pain ever, for ever.
Nailed to this wall of eagle-baffling mountain,
Black, wintry, dead, itnmetisnrcd.
.
'fhe reluctant mind
Flags wearily in its unending flight,
'fill it sink dizzy, blind, lost, shelterlcss.
Cloudless skies and windl(iss streams
Silent, liquid, and serene.
•There is a small group of instances of justifiable Tautology that 1lo not
tome 11111\cr either of the two great classes now specilte<l. 'l'hcy are such
u 'tear nmt wear,' 'use amt .wont,' 'without let or hindrance,' •null am\ void,'
•bribery n.nd corrnr.tion,' 'a fit amt proper person to represent a constituency in
l'arllnmcnt '. In t 1eso cnses tho wor1ts havo become w0Me1t together throt1!(h Ion~
lllll\ge, so that we do not think of them as expressing distinct meanings. 111 thi!!
rombined form, tl!ey have become part of the English vocab11lary; and it wonltl be
mere pedantry to Jndge them by the principles that apply to ordinary timtolo1des.
Tbe combination must be regarded as one compound rxpres~ion, and the occasions
flll' It~ 11se must be .compa!ed witl_i sin~le words. ~ome of them ari: the terms
reit11larly employe1t m part1culn.r s1t11at1ons, as, for mst.'\nce, the political phrases
11uoted above. The pleasing effect of alliteration or rhyme seems to account for
IOme examples • as •watch and ward,' ' might and main,' • ten.r and wear•. We !lee
Ihle effect sought after in similar combinations that do not depend on long usage.
II ill this example: 'The glare and glitttr of public life bad for him no attraction•• .

.J

'

34

NUMLIEU. OF wonDB.

REDUNDANCY,

35
. J

In this last ('ase tho repetition of the thought gires time to realise the full
conception of perfect calm ; while a single epithet would fail to produce
an adequate impression.
And we sail on, au:ay, afar,
JV i tlwut rJ, conrse, wi llwut a star,
But by the instinct of sweet music driven.
'fhns the thought of long-continued sailing with no special coursA or
direction is dwelt on and emphasised.
How art thou sunk, witltdrawn, covered, drunk up
By thirsty nothi11g I
The four exprP.ssions reiterate what is really but one thought, only they
serve to give utterance to strong emotion.
Thomson describes jealousy as
Agony unmix'd, incessant gall,
Corroding every thought, and blasting all
Love's paradise ;
where the Rame thought is reiterated four times ; the last two forms being
a sli~ht n1l11ition to the i1foa.
·
Thn hnt.nln"ics in the following lines of Milton arc hanlly redeemed
by the poetry : 1;11 t cloud instead, nrnl ever-during dark
SmTotmtls me, from the cheerful ways of men
Cut off, and, for the book of knowledge fair,
Preseuted with a universal blank
Of nature's works, to me expunged and rnsed,
Aud wisdom at one entrance quite 8hut out.
Hebrew poetry a1lopts, ns a system, the repetition of the same or A
similar meaning in difforent words. The rhythm of Hebrew poetry con·
sist«, not in measured accmt or quantity, but in a correspondence fl/
thouglzt between successive lines, which is known as ParallcUsrn.
'l'ho
correspondence may be antithetic, in which there is some kind of oppo~i·
tion between the members of the couplet or triplet ; or syntlictic, when
the second, and perhaps a third, contirms, explains, or adds to the stale·
ment in the first. But the most common form is the synonymous l'ara).
lclism, in which the one liuc expresses an idea the same, or nearly the
same, as thi:i other, but in different language. It is on the principle
just expressed that this system mainly depends for its effect ; the emotion,
to which the poetry gives utterance, not only tolerates the reiteration,
but delights in it as its natural expression. Moreover, a certain corre·
spondence of form generally goes along with lhe parallelism of thought,.
and this gives a pleasure similar to what we receive from the Balanced
sentence. Thus Tautology, carried out on a system, is one of the most
prominent elements of this primitive poetic form.
Take the following as examples of pure synonymous rarallclism,
running in couplets : Arise, shine I
For thy ligl1t is come,
And the glory of the I,ord is risen upon thee.
For, behold, the darkness shall cover the earth, ·
And gross darkness the 1>eo1lle ;

But tl1e Lord sliall arise upon thee,
·
And his glory shall be seen upon thee ;
And the Gentiles shall come to thy light,
And kings to the brightness of thy risin~.
Whrn I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers,
The moon and the stars, whid1 thou ha«t ordained,
What is man, that thou art mindful of him 1
And the son of man, that thou visitest him 1
For thou hast made him a little lowel' than the angels,
And hast crowned him with glory ancl honour.
Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands,
'l'hon hast put all things under his feet.
For farther examples of pure synonymo~1s Parallelism .. ~ustained
through passages of some length, see Psalm cx1v. ; Proverbs 111. ~ 3-17.;
Isaiah liii. 1-5. In combination with the other forms of Parallelism, it
is of constant occurrence in the Jloetical books.

8. IL-REDUNDANCY, or Pleonasm, consists of
superfluous words that are not in the same grammatical place.
Thus-' I rrjvfred at the glad sight,' is not tautological,
but redundant or pleonastic ; the idea of the verb is repeated in the adjective to 'sight'. Under Redundancy
the forms of diffuseness take a much wider range.
The following is an extreme illustration : - ' They
returned back again to the same city fmm whence they came
forth', The five words in italics are redundant.•
So :-' An original discovery of his own ' ; ' all without
exception'; 'all constitutional writers unanimously admit';
'I drink to the general joy of the whole table' ; 'the
middle of humanity thou never knewest, but the extremity
of both ends ' ; ' after the accident happened ' ; ' ask the
reason why ' ; 'tho course of true love never did 1·un smooth ' ;
'it will be time to speak when the events arrive ' ; the ephemerous tale that does its business and dies in a day'; 'a
business too deep for (the line of) the understanding to
fathom'; 'some circumstances which modify (the action of)
chemical attraction'; 'he declined (to accept) the post';
'directions for the guidance of voters (in voting) ';
Taught by the 11eavenly muse to venture down
The dark descent, and up to re-ascend.

• I do not doubt that the remote consequence may be
that men may be ultimately led into crime.'
• Quintilian 'lt11Jte11 Crom Livy an example almost as hacl as this:-• ugoti, non
impetratrt pact, reln• donmm, unde 11e11erant, abicru11t,' where retro, donium, and uncle
w.,e,·ant arl' all i;u perll.uous.

ti
·j
j

j
<1

'

.J'

.i
I

I

I
l

l
;

36

NUMBER OF WORDS.

PUHPOSES SERVED BY UEDUNDANCY.

The following are the terms of Pitt's motion on tho

R~form of Parliament; 'That an additinn. of knights of the
shire and of rf'presentafwes of the metropolis should be added
to the state of the rt7Jrescidafion '.*
Ji'o~ 'objection O!Jainst,' wo shoul<l sny 'objection to'.

It is superfluous to add the wonl •wine' to •sherry,'
port'.
A 'gale of wind' is a sailor's redundancy,
'Therefore we will disperse (ourselves).'
1
Umbrageous shade,' ' sylvan forest,' •well-spring'
' prison-.
.
h ouse, 'aII persons ' (f or person.c; simply), are re-,
dundancies. 'Thou art not born for death, £mmortal bird.'
So : ' a missile thrown,' ' his name is called John ' ' a new
1

I

discovery '.

.

'

Tho form used in legal indictmeuts, 'yet true it is and oj verily ' likt!
n1any other legal 1·xprcssio11s, is redundant.
'
'·what is reqnircd in the first commandment 1' may nppear n rNlnn.
dancy ; but the explanation is that ench commandme11t in the Decalorr11 o
fa viewed as implying both something 'required' and something •fur·
bidden'.
The. foll~wing exam pl rs illustrate a very common plPonasm : -'Clrnrlcs
arn~ 1' r~nc1;:; I. mutually encourngi:<l each other to extirpate the lieretics' ;
'Ill tl 11s dialect they could render themselves 11mtually intelligible to each
1
other ; 'the parts do not mutual'y exclu<le each othe1· '. 'Each otllf'r'
~xpresses every~hing that is in~pl!e<l in ' mutually'.
The following
11~stance exemphfies a somPwhat s11111lar redundancy:-' The speech of the
v1e!ors and the speed~ of tl~e vanqui s!ic<l were l~a ppily blended togcl/i,er '.
It IS true, the blcndrng n11ght be _with sometl11ng else, so that thPr() ill
more excuse for 'together' than for the 'mutually ' of the preceding
ex~mples; yet blend alone, when spoken of two subjects, fully implies
this.
There is a. case of R~dundancy in naming t11e place whore we happen
~o .he. Thus, m rcg~1lat10ns posted up for a town, park, or establishment,
1t IS surerfluous to g1ve the name of tho town, &c.
Bt>ing in Manchester,
wo should not need to be told that wo are there, by means of regulations ·
for 'l\lancl1ester strePtR, s11uar1·s, lmil1li11gs, or l)arks '.
'l'he hea1ling, 'Rules f<~r visitors to 'tl1is Establishment,' is a clonhlo
pleonasm : both the estaLhshment and the visitors may be taken fur
granted.
·
. 'Trcspassin~ on tl1esr, grrnwrls will he prosecuted' is rc1lmHlant arul
The implication is that these grounds are sj,ecial
n11ght be misleading.
and exce11tio11al, anti t~iat on other gm1~wls trespassers would not bo pro·
secuted. <?ver-expres1'10n has always tlus danger of wrong suggestion.
There 1s 110 uee1l to pnt up at a mil way station 'railway j1assengers' ·
uor to sny 'passengers going north keep this side'; say, '11asscngers t~

V:·

. In the ftri1t !lt'ntonce of en-~nr'!I Onul. thrr<> fit'(\ three ~nperf111011!I won\~ :Oalhl\ est 011111is dii.-irn in pa.rt~., tres '. When Gaul is mentioned the whole nf
Gaul must he understood; 'divided' anrl 'parts' aml 'three,' rej1cat the 111\l'lle
idea. Compare Shakespeare in Lear. 'We have 11ivitlc1l into three our ki111:do111 '. ,
,

37

the north take t11is side'. Evcu 'passcugers' is unuoccssary: 'this siuo
.
.
for the north ' is enongh.
'The club 1vill meet on the 7th ' contams a double ox1wess10n of
futurity. 'fho date alone giv1~s the future time; and the pre8ent tense, he·
iit" really universal, accom111odatcs it1<clf to the futmity ns Rlwwn by the
date: 'Tho club meets on the 7th ' luu1 the elega111:c of parsimony.
No doubt our grammar abounds in doul1le expression, lll11l Latin nllfl
Greek still more ; the conconls of Syntax are pleonastic-' man is,' 'men
<r.rc '. These forms wo cannot abolish ; anrl there aro oceaaions when they
assist the sense. (See Companion to the Higher Grammar, p. 283.)
A good many provincialisms are pleonastic; which gives them their
taint of ineleuanco and vulgarity.
The following are Scotticisms of this
clnss : - 1 We ~hall go both together' ; 'he is gone away home' ; ' I. am
i:oing to my breakfast, to my bed' ; 'down this way to the park gate' ;
'I did not finish i_'t al_l' . 'butter the eggs all over'; 'you are forced to
1un to keep up aWr.c wit 11 me',
Examples such a!'! these are common :-'Leaning to some mega·
Jithie circles are rlantcd, in a few instances, Jong double rows of mega·
lithic i;to11es '.
l'he effect is confusing ; tho rcn(ler natnrally seeks a
111caning for tho second expression different from tho first, and not
finding it, is perplexed.
So it is nlso in this sentence from Boli11g·
broke : 'How many are there by whom tlwso tirlinqs of goo<l neirs wore
never heard'.
The idea suggcstt~ 1l is, 'tidings about good news'; the
meaning intended is merely 'glad tidings'.
The next two examples are of a different kind :-'Sinecure places
wltidi have no duty aUa.chetl to theni' ; '110 credence i~ given to the truth of
tho report'. The second expression in both cases is not merely superil nous, but weakens tho impression of the first.
If, in the first instance, 'easy ' had been used for 'sinecure,' and in the second 'dt>pcnd1:11 cc
is placed on' had stood for 'credenco is given to,' then tho cxpre:ssio11s
that follow would be fully appropriate. Another iwitanco of the samu
kind is the following :-'I desire to express my most gratefnl tli.anks for
tho favour'. 'Sincere thanks' or 'grateful acknowledwnents' il'I all that
is meant ; and, probably, it is all that would be said, if peorle fully
realised the meaning of tho words.
Farther examples of this sort occur in these quotations:-' Tho
thing has no intrinsic value in itself'; 'Noah was directed to construct
an ark, a liugr, vessel of e1wrmo1"8 dimensions ' ; ··the king was forced unwillingly to yield'. All these are no doubt the result of the writer realising but faintly tho force of tho first expreHsiun, nnd in each tho scconu
form is quite superfluous.

!J. Redundancy is justifiable on the grounds already
nssigned for Tautology.
'To express in language' is reclundant, but permissiblG
in order to make sure that the vehicle of the expression is
language, and not any other class of signs. The barring of
ambiguity, already mentioned under Tautology, is also
gained by what seems redundancy. In giving important
directions,
we cannot be too explicit, provided we do · nob
1
~•....""" · incur the evil, already hinted at, of wrong suggestion.

~

~: ~

~:_,i.. -~

39

NUMBER OF WORDS.

CIRCUMLOCUTION. --

As with Tautology, so with Redundancy, we may find
expression for new meanings. To say 'I am not displeased,
or not disinclined,' shoul<l be the same as ' I am pleased, or
inclined'; the two negatives neutralising each other. But
there is a distinct shade of meaning given by the doublo
negatives, so that it applies in circumstances where tho
other is not applicnble.

words, but requiring the whole to be recast m terser
language.
Phrases may be used where single words would suffice;
and long clauses may be employed where a few words would
convey all the necessary meaning. We may include under
this head every form of the widespread tendency to intro~
cluce phrases, clauses, and even sentences containing matter
that is irrelevant or unnecessary for the subject in hand.
'~riters that indulge in Tautology and Redundancy, like
T1llotson and Hooker, are liable to the still more varying
diffuseness of Circumlocution.

38

10. In giving Emphasis, in expressing Passion, aud
in Poetic embellishment, we may resort to Redundancy.
'He wrote a letter with his own hand' is redundant, yet
it may be proper for an occasi 011 of special emphasis.. . .
' Indispensably necessary may be reduudant, yet it is
a very emphatic expression, implying a necessity that no·
thing else will meet.
1

I expose no ships
To threatenings of the funow-facc<l sea,

is highly pleonastic, being an emphatic and adorned declara.·
tion of the simple fact-I am not a trader.
That undiscorcrcd country, from whose bottrne
]\~o traveller returns,

is redundant, but serves to emphasise the special idea that is
in point.
What though tJ1e radiance which was once so bright
:Be now for ever taken from my sight,
Though nothing can bring back the hour
Of splendour in the grass, of glory in the flower.

The third and fourth lines here are but a bringing out of
what is already in the first and second; yet the diffuseness
is justified by the additional impressiveness.
The epithets and amplifications of poetry belong to tho
poetic art ; they may add nothing to the meaning, but they
fulfil the end of the art, which is to give pleasure.
The breezy call of incense-breathing morn-

is an accumulation of picturesque circumstances exempted
from the rules of brevity.
Nevertheless, as the loading of style with epithets lcnils
to the vice called Turgidity, it must be kept under the
restrictions to be afterwards stated with reference to the
quality of Strength in composition.

11. III.-CrncuMLOCUTION is a mode of diffusenesa
not to be remedied by simrle omission of superfluolll

Hero is an example from Hooker : 'For seeing tho!!o things which
are ei1ual must needs all have one measure ; if I cannot but wish to
receive. all good, even as mnch at every man's haml as any man can wish
un~o !us own soul, how should I look to have _
any part of my <lesiro herein
,
aat1sficd, unless myself be careful to satisfy tho like desire, which is in
',· other men i' 'l'his is the same thought that is tersely exprcsse1l in tho
couplet of Pope : His [each man's] safety must liifl liberty restmin:
All join to guard what each desiros to gaiu ;
aud Mark Pattison here contrasts 'tho diffuseness of the early sty lo with
the condensation of the later '.
Again, Hooker says of tho belief that the soul is a l1armony, that
it is an idea 'as decent, being added unto actions of greatest weight an<l
eolenrnity, as being used when men must sequester themselr!'s from
action' ; which simply means, 'as comforting in business ns in solitudo '.
•I have been told that, if a man that was born blind, couM ohtain
IA> have his sight for but only one hour, during his whole life, and should,
at the first openin~ of his eyes, fix his sight upon the sun when it was in
lta foll glory, eitl1er at the rising or setting of it, he would be so trans·
WJrt1-~l and amazed, and so admire tho glory of it, that he would not willngly turn his eyes from that first ravishing object, to behold all the other
Ylrions beauties this world could present to hfm.' (Izaak 'Valton.)
• Hrre we have both tho diffuse expression of appropriate ideas and tho
1teumulation of particulars that are really unnecessary. Such a sentrnco
II the following contains all the relevant matter, an<l gives tho idea with
lloro directness niul forco :-•It i11 Rai1l that, if a man born hliml couhl
~: oht11l11 hi11 Right fo1· but ono hour, tho glory of tho s11n1mt or tho s1111rhm,
· 1houl1l he lmppcn to hehohl. it, woukl cntrnuce him beyond all the othe1·
bc:iutics of tho world'.
'lfoavcn and earth are much unlike; those heavenly bodies, indcetl,
are frec~y carrie~ in their orbs with.out any impediment or interrnptio11,
lo c~ntmue their course through mnumerable ages, and make their con·
tmrons; but men are urged with many difficulties, and have divers
•indrances, oppositions, still crossing, interrupting their endeavours and
Mires, and no mortal man is free from this law of nature. 'Ve must not,
IJ.erefore, hope to have all things answer our own expectation, to l1ave a
toatiouance of good success and fortunes.' (Burton's Anatomy of Melandloly.) This may be recast into shorter form, retaining all the sense and

I

CIRCUMLOCUTION SOMETIMES JUSTinABLE.

presenting it freed from the 1·nl·umhrances tnat here hang upon it :'Heaven and earth are much u11like ; for while the motions of tho
heavenly bodies go on without change or intcnuption for innumerable
a(J'es all men are subject to difficulties and hinJrances, which tend to
t~w~rt t11cir desires allll etforts. We must 11cve1· hope, thernfore, that all
things will continue ace~1·di11g t? our cx.l'~dalions or 1lc8!rcs.' ..
•Thus men extelllhng their enq111ncs beyond thcu· capnc1be!'!, and
letting their thoughts wander into those depths where they cun find no
sure footing ; 'tis no wonder that they miso questions and multiply dis·
1rntes, which, never coming to any clear resolution, are prope_r only to
continue and increase their doubts, anJ to confirm them at last m perfect
scepticiRm.' That is to say :- 'When men push their enquiries beyond tho
natural limits of the human faculties, it is no wonder that the insolublo
questions thus raised shoulJ foster doubts, and lead in the end to complete
scepticism '.
These examples will indicate the general nature of t11is much-varying
form of diffuseness.
The only principle that can be laid down in reg:ml
to it is to keep constantly in view the great leading point in each sen·
tence, and to exclude everything t11at does not clearly assist in explaining
or enforcing it.

the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Now, God cannot be the God of ·
JICI'Sons who do not exist, and, therefore, the patriarchs, though their
. bodies were dead, must themselves Jmve been still living-living, I mean,
in the separate state, and awaiting the rcsnrrection.
'fhus God regards ·
nil the 1lead as still Jivin,g, n11<l how easy, if this be the ease, for him to
rnise them herenftm·.'
'l'hern iR rc11\ ohscnrity in thn pnsHage, n111l tho
paraphrnso throws light 011 it by bri11gi11g out tho u11cxprt!HHC1l co1111ccti11g
thoughts. Yet even hero tho weakness that seems almost insepamblo
from the paraphrase, is felt ; we cannot help contrasting it with the con·
ciso vigour of the original words. It is this, 110 donbt, that has led to the
general disuse of the paraphrase as a means of exposition in modern com·
mentaries.
·
·

The most notable examples of Circumlocution are seen
in the Paraphrase, when use<l by way of Commentary on
writings supposed to be difficult or obscure. Excess of
brevity or other causes may render a composition hard to Lo
understood. ·when the importance of the case requires it,
as with the Bible, or with the great authors of pagan
antiquity, explanations or commentaries are supplied; and
these sometimes take the form of paraphrasing the original.
'l'he abuse of the practice is shown in expanding all passages
equally, thus destroying the force of such as are self·
explaining. ·
I

I

I
I'

41

NUMDER OF WORDS.

40

:Macaulay gives the following example from Bishop Patrick. As a pnr:l·
phrase on the verse in the twenty-third Psalm, 'He maketh mo to lie
down in green pastures, he leadeth me besiJe the stilJ waters,' Patrick gin'S
this diluted form :-'For as a good shepherd lends his sheep in the violr11l
lwat to shady places, where they may lie down ancl feed (not in parched,
but) in green and fresh 1iastures, aud in the evening leads them (not to
muddy and troubled waters, but) to pure and quiet streams ; so hath he
already made a fair aud pleutiful provision for me, which I enjoy in
peace without any di:iturlxtuce '. Paraphrase is most at fault in 1lt-ali11g
with a simple vassage like this. An example from Geikie's 'Life n11J
Words of Christ' may show its legitimate use.
The words of Jesus in
reply to the question of the Sadducees about the resurrection (Luke :u.
37, 38) run thus :-'Now that the dead are raised, even Moses showed al
the bush, when lie calJeth the Lord the God of Abraham, and tho God of
Isaac, and the God of Jacob. Fur he is not a God of the dead, but of the
living; fo1· alJ live uuto him.' Dr. Geikie thus paraphrases :-'As to th•
rcsmrection of the dead. you have referred to Moses. But let me alao
refer to him. Even he shows, in the passage in which we are told of tht
\'ision at the bnruiug bush, that the dead are raised. For he calJs Jehovab

12. Circumlocution is justifiable in the circumstances already stated for Tautology and Redundancy.
There are lengthened forms for giving emphasis expressing importance. ' That is one of the very last things I should
think of doing ' ; for ' I will not do that '. 'It would take
a. good deal of argument to make me believe such a thing' ;
for 'I doubt it '. ' If one 1cere called to.fix the perfod in the
ltistory l~f the icorld <luring which the condition of the human
race was most happy and prosperous, one would, toithout
luwifaU011, 11amc that which elapsed from tho death of
Domitian to the accession of Commodus.' 'l'he periphrasis
here is justified by the momentous nature of the fact to be
introduced.
Here are some farther examp1cs of emphatic circumloc11tion.
'l'romwell left behind him a name not to be extinguished but with the
"'hole workl' : 'an imperishahle name' is the exact meaning, but would
be much less impressive. ''Twas a rough night,' says Macbeth, aml
Lennox replies, '.My young remembrance cannot p:ualJel a felJow to it'& strong way of saying, 'I do not remember the like of it'.
'He
n11resscd his resolution to spend the remaining years of his pilgrimage on
nrth in that part of the country where he hau for the first time seen the
lii.:ht ' ; the lcngthenc<l form bringH out tho nature of tl11i attachment to
the 11lare better than wuulJ be Jone by the shorter ex11ression, ' in the
place of 11is birth '.
'1'he following, from Drowning, is a roundabout description of a
woman's activity, justilied by the force and vividness it gains:She was active, stirring, all fire,
Could not rest, could not tire,
To a stone she migh\ have given life.
Take another instance from the same writer : Thoughts hardly to be packed
Into a narrow act,
:l<'ancies that broke through language and escaped :
}, ll I could never be,
AIJ, men ignored in me,
This, I was worth to God, whose wheel tho pitcher shaped.

43

NU.l\IIlER OF WORDS.

MEANS OF .AT'l1AINING BREVITY.

The meaning is : 'God took account in me of thoughts inexpressible l1y
word or deed, anrl of aspiratious that co11l1l never reach attainment'.
Circumlocution is also employed, like the other forms of <liffnscncs.11,.
for t~1P; utterance of stro11g fi:eliug.
The foll<lwing lines of 8pcnsn,
dl'sl'nbrng the death of Lt·kester, show lww ellcctivcly it may lie thu~
used:I saw him die, I sa\V l1im die, as one
Of the mean people, and brought forth .on bier;
I saw him <lie, awl no one left to moan
His doleful fate, that late him loved dear:
S1~arce any left to clo~ c his eyelids near ;
Scarce auy left upon his lips to lay
The sacred sod, or requiem to say.
Iteration is Jiero very happily combined with circumlocution, in tho
expression of deep emotion. \Ve find the same combination in tho well·
known verso of Hurns, though the feeling is of a different character :Should auld acquP.intance he forgot,
And never brought to min' 1
Should auhl ac1p1ainta11ee be forgot,
And days o' laug sync 1

The idea is simply that it seems sweeter to he bnried in the field or tho
churchyanl than to be sunk in the sea ; but 'the clover sod ' 'tho sunAhi11e aml the rains,' and the hamlet receh·ing the Cornmunio~ all su"gest
associations that tend to explain the feeling.
'
~
'l'l~o follo~ving is n ]ioet.ic tlrscription of rnrlr 1111t11m11, in which not
mrrcly 1s the time statet , bnt tho circumstances vividly su•mested by tho
points that are specified : on
Early in autumn, at first winter-warning,
Whe!1·t~e stag had to break with his foot, of a morning,
A drmkmg hole out of the fresh tender ice,
That covered the pond till the sun, in a trkc
Loosening it, let out a. ripple of goltl.-(Hob~rt Browning.)
9irc.umlocuti?n is one ?f the forms of cn1ihemis111, the snl\ject being
thn.s md1cated without be.mg expressly named.
For example :-'Au
ughcr phrase was now commg on the stnge : I mPan what is now tho
1111tion11l oath of England'. 'I fear that Sir 'l'ristrem nrnl Sir Lancelot
•ero no better than they should be.' . It is also a form of humour : a
mock dignity or importance is given to tho matter by the extended de·
.,.ription, the circumstances chosen being also fittc1l for this purpose
1'h11R :-'The drunken surveyor had a sort of fits that always toward~
Rnsct inclined him to assume tho horizontal posture'.

In Poetry, Circumlocution is one of the ways of adorn·
ing a subject ; like the elaboration of dress for the hwua.u
figure.

13.-We come now to consider the means of attaining
Brevity. These have been partly indicated in the discusaio~ ?f its violatio~s ; Brevity will be so far reached by
avoiding these special forms of diffuseness. But this is not
all; t~ere are _direct means of attaining Dtevity by the help
of various devices of style.

42

Nine times the space that m,cri.m rcs day and ni,ght
·To rnortal men, he with his horrid crew
Lay van11uished rolling in the fiery gulf.
In every land
I saw, wherever light illumincth.

In such . examples_, it is no.t emp~a~is or ~orce, nor. is it the expres.,ion
of strong feclmg, that is the ob.iect ; it is poetic embellishment for its owa
aake. l::iueh also is the rase with the following instances :.Nine changes of the u;at'ry star luive been
J'he shcphe1·d's note, since we have left our throne
Without a bmthcn.
The familiar observation that even the sun has his spots is thus pocU·
cally rendered by Tennyson :·
The very imurce an<l fount of day
Is dashed with wandering isles of night.
In the next example, also from Tennyson, the circumlocution is nol
only poetically pleasing, but also seize.;i on points appropriate to the
thought expressed : 0 to mi,
The fools of habit, sweeter seems
To rest beneath the clover sod,
That takes the sunshine and the rains,
Or where the kneeling hamlet drains
The chalice of the grapes of God.

I. The choice of words.
. Wit~n the compass of our language are words and
COnJunct1ons of words that express meanings with the
utmost terseness. To master these is to master the language, and is an attainment that cannot be given by any short
method.
. '!'he extension of our vocabulary by classical and other
foreign words has greatly enhanced the power of brief and
yet a<l?quate expression. Many of the words thus acquired
have m themse~ves !l' great fulnes~ of meaning, the conaequence of thei~ bemg empl~yed m the higher kinds of
knowledge, and m the comphc~ted ?perations of society.
Such are-strategy, census, cod1ficat10n, autonomy altru. iam, hedonism, correlation.
'
Tako R few quotations to illustrate this point:Mau is described by Pope asThe glory, jest, and riddle of tho world ;
lhe words summing up very happily tho substimco of a preceding para-

i

'

,; j

45

NUMDEU OF WOHDB.

GRAMMATICAL DEVICES FOR DUEVITY.

grnph, which expatiates on the grcatnes~ of man's powers, the. frcqueut
nbsunlity of his cotHlud, aml the mystcncs of Ins nature. Agarn :Ami he, who now to sense, now nonsense lea11i11g,
Means not, but blw1ders rowtd about a nieaning.
Thomson has the following, in reference to birds teaching their
young to fly : The .m rging n.ir receives
It" plnmy btmlon ; nrul tl;uir self-taught wings
1.Y.imww the wtiving elem ent.
The expressions here nsed bring before us in few. words t.ho fan-like .str~ko
or the wings on the one hand aml the conuspondrng motion of the air, hke
that of waves, on the other.
Bnt as along the river's e<lge
'l'h ey went, and brown birds in the sedge
1'wittered their sweet and/ormless.tnue. (William Morris.)
Herc twittered describes the short, tremulous notes characteristic of the
song~ of tho bi1:ds ; . sweet conveys t!tc mental imprcssi?n of the listener i
whilc/ormfrss gives m one wol'fl t.he 11foa that the song 1s not shaped after
any fix ed standard but is poured forth in endless variety.
' Governments are not mrule, bnt (!row.'
' The progress of civilisation hns been from sta.tus to contrnrl.'
(Maine.) A large amount of meaning is at once conveyed by each of the
two contrasted words.

Ciirlyle's 1 Edict-of-Nantes female' is intelligible, ant.
yet compressed.
Analogous is the artificial Adjective-Colonial office,
Imperial policy, paternal government, rural dean.
(3.) 'l'he Adjective and Adverbial phrases often condense
much meaning. They usually presuppose the conversion of
a verb into a noun :-In the long run, to the point, of course,
to the rescue, on demand, master of the situation, equal to
the occasion, a case for the authorities, apple of discord, a
word in season, survival of the fittest, waiting on events,
pressure from without.
(4.) The use of the Co-ordinating Adjective, which is
properly the substitute for a clause :-' The jit~al gift of
beauty ' ; ' the growfog labours of the le11gth.e11Prl way ' ; ' the
/dzy gossips of the port ' ; ' you could not drive into his
11upirl head '.

44

14. II. Grammatical forms and usages.
It is enough to indicate these; they are fully elucidated
under GRAMMAR.
(1.) The use of the Abstract Noun, whether Adjective or
Verbal, whereby we may dispense with a phrase or clause.
'His refu~al justified my adherence to my plan': an ahbrevia·
tion for-' The fact that he refused, justified me when I adhered
to my plan'. (See COMPANION, p. 121.)
stran' !.~e strangeness of his habits'-' the fact that his habits are

IO

ft

is brevity and the consequent energy that is the motive for such
coinages as Bentham's 'forthco111ingness '.
'Mr. Un.sa.ubon's words hacl been quite rcasonnhle, yet thry ha•I
brought a vague im1tanta11eous scnso of aloofness on his part.' (<:1•orge
Eliot.) l\lorn forcible than 'a sense that he stood aloof from her thougl1t.1
and feelings'.
Compare the following, from the same writer : 'A
wheezy performance, into which he threw much ambition anJ. an incprC$·
sible lwpcfulness '.
'The passionate confidence of interested falsehood' (Adam Smith)
is a highly condensed expression.

(2.) The use of the Noun as an Adjective is a regullLl'
process of condensation (COMPANION, p. 89) :-Sunday ques·
tion, bosom friend, table talk, water-proof, mill-stone grit,
earth worm, sky blue, storm warning, eye-service.

Tho epithet as n means of condensation is ci:>pecially frequont in
Thomson. Thus : Now meets the bendi ng sky; th o rh·cr now
Dimpling along, tho breczy-r1tjfled lake,
'l'he forest darkening ronnd, the glitt· ring spire,
The ethereal mountain, and tho distant main.
The various epithets, with the two participial clanscs, contribute distinct
rlrmcnts to tho picture ; and each is the con<lensalion of a clause. So
the following :Goodness an<l wit
In seldmn-mcetiny harmony combined.
'l'he mazy-running soul of mclOlly.
Endeavouring by a thousand tricks to catch
The cunning, conscfottS, half-averted glance
Of the regardless charmer.
'l'he aston1'.shed mother finds n -~ilcant nest.
Wonlsworth speaks of the coast of France viewed from England 011
a dc11r <lay iu the y<>ar 1802 as
JJrnwn almost into f1·iyltlfnl noiglthomhoocl.
or course, in such cases there must be a l1appy choice of the cpill1ct
In or1ler to real condensation; but the form of the Co-ordinating Adj ective
1irovide!! a convenient way of throwing into a single word what would
otherwise be spread out into a clause.
Adverbs may also be nscd as effective forms of condensation. :Mr.
OIR1lstone has describeu Sir Robert Peel as 'the most labori01tSly con·
ttitntious man' he had ever known. 'l'he following couplet from Johnson
urmplifies condensation in this form, as well as by the Co-ordinating
~djective and the Abstract Noun :.
.
See nations slowly wise and meanly j11$t
To buried .merit raise the tardy bust.

~i

;~

j

·.l. • 'l

.

•~.

1'
,. ,1

!~l

~~ 11
·-·

1

46

NUMBER OF WORDS.

ltHETORICAL DEVICES FOR DP.EVITY.

( fj.) The 'Participial phrase for a clause. ' Enraged ancl
mortified, he soon returned to his mansion' : a condensed
expression for-' he was enraged and mortified, arid, there.fore,
soon returned to his mansion'. 'Minqled with them were
to be found naval commanders of a ve~·y different descrip·
tion ' : in full form, ' naval commanders of a very different
description were to be found, and they wei·e. mingled with
these'. '~rhe Romans, having nnw .~et foot in Sicily, deter·
mined to declare war against Carthage,' is equivalent to,
' The Romans had now set foot in Sicily, and so determined,'
&c. · In all such cases, we have the advantage that is gained
by throwing two separate propositions into one energetic
declaration.
The following example shows the capacities of condensa.~
tion possessed by this form:-

the Condens~d Sentence, and the use of Figures 0£ Speech,
many of which lend themselves to brevity. To enter into
a_full statement of such effects would be to anticipate, at a
<l1sadvantage, tho handling of these subjects. A few
examples will suffice.
Condensed Sentence :--

Vanished every fear, and evPry power
Roused into life nnd action, light in nir
The acquitted parents sec tlu·ir sonri11g rncc,
AnJ once rejoidng never know them more.

(6.) By Prefixes and Suflixes, and, in general, by tho
process of compouncling words.
It is the chief function of the composition of words by
short particles, to give a grand extension of meanings at a
very small cost. Take as one exa1}1ple the prefix ' re '
applied to verbs :-return, replace, reunite, recapture, restore, refund. In each case a much longer expression would
be needed to give the sense otherwise.
So with suffixes. There is an immense compression o(
meaning in such compounds as absenteeism, admissibility,
infinitesimal.
• Forcible-feeble ' is used to describe such writers as fail
in their efforts to be forcible.
The union of highly composite words with · verbnl
abstracts is often terse to a degree. As, for example :-a
foregone conclusion, unaccountable presumption, pre-indesig·
nate propositions, 'unreadable semi-popish jargon' (Carlyle).
Burke says of Hyder Ali :-'He decreed to make the
country possessed by these incorr/g£ble and p1·edestinai<.'fl
criminals, a memorable example to mankind '.
• The idea of God has been degraded by childish and
little-minded teaching.' (Seeley.)

15. III. Rhetorical devices, strictly so called.
Among devices coming under the head of Rhetoric, are ·'

I

47

l

~

t

~

]

~

He lives to build, not boast, a generous race,

~

. Contrasting the supposed primitive 'state of nature'
with man's present condition, Pope says:-

~

:j·,,
~

Ah I how unlike the man of times to come I
Of half that live the butcher and the tomb ·
"Who, foe to.natur~, hears the general gro~n,
J.furders their species and betmys his own.

t

Condensing Figures :-The spiuer's touch, how mrquisitcly fine,
Feels at each thread, and lives aloiu.J the lin8.

Anil rcn1l thoir J1iiitory in a nation'., cyr,,,
The winding sheet of EJwarJ's race.
l'lacc<l on tltis isOimtts of n. mhhllo stalo.

Wordsworth thus addresses the lark in tho sky~
Leave to the nightingale lier woods ;
.A privacy of glorious Zig/it is thine.

Johnson has the following :
The unconquered _lord of pleasure and of 1iain.

Leslie Stephen says of Pope that he was always •a
.
'There was no telling what might turn up in the slowly
dwrning chances of his mind.' (George Eliot.)
. ' Paradoxes are the burrs of literature-they stick to the
nund.'
' ~nstitutions are not II?-ere macldncs, they are · also
"r{lmusms ,· they have a certam power of gradual moclificat10n analogous to growth.'
Among the Figurative arts we are to inclucle the
omiss.ion of al~ t~1ose par~s ~fa phrase that the mind readily
supplies. Tlus is the prmc1ple of the putting of the Noun
in the place of t!ie Adjective. There are many other forms
of the same device. -We say-' Murder will out' the need. f~l verb being e~sily supplied. After coining tI{e combina,;, rdion! 'Johnsomana,' &c., for the collection of sayings
: .~ 1Ur1buted to Johnson, and so for others, wo cut off tho
haml-to-mouth liar '.

~) I

48

NUMBER OF WORDS.

termination, and make a word 'ana ' for any collection of
anecdotes.
In Expository style, condensation is gained by means
of general notions, whose very nature it is to compress a
host of particulars into a single statement. 1'he use of a
general term transfers at once all its meanings to a new
case. When we have generalised the idea of Munici~ality,
the employment of the word brings up all its meamng at
a stroke : ' The Roman system broke down, as being a
municipal system, and unfit for Empire '.
The following sentence, by means of a. comprehensive
generalisation, puts before us the prevailing tenor of Asiatic
history. • The birth of Timur, or Tamerlane, was cast at
one of those recurring periods, in the history of Asiatic
sovereignties, when the enjoyment of power for several
generations, having extinguished all manly virtues in the
degenerate descendants of some active usurper, prepares tho
governors of the provinces for revolt, dissolves the power of
the state, and opens the way for the elevation of some new
and daring adventurer.'

16.-According as a thing is well known, the reference to it may be brief.
This has been already involveJ in tho previous illustration. Nevertheless, it deserves specific mention. It is a
form of the self-evident principle, that the style should bo
accommodated to the hearers-diffuse on points where thoy
are little informed, short and allusive in the contrary case.
It has been objecte<l to the style of Browning, that allusions to Bil
sorts of little known subj ects aro constantly occurring, allusions that mu•t
be quite unintelligible to many rca1lers, and intelligible to others ouly
after mature reflection or research. Such a style is possibly a reaction from
the opposite extreme of explaining everything, and so leaving 11othing to
the reader's intelligence-a characteristic to be observed in much of our
earlier literature.
Speaking moro generally, condensation may bo gained by alluRion1 ·
instead of expamlcd statements ; if inappropriately chosen, they n11y
bring ur. to the reader's mind but a portion of what is before tho writer;
if happily selected, they will point to something that implies the whole.
This is the secret of what is called a sztggestive style. Tako for exa1u11le
Wordsworth's lines:llut sl10 is in her grave, and, oh,
The difference to me I
Here very little is actually expressetl ; but a great deal is snggett.d.
So in ' In Memo1fam ' : -

SUBORDINATION MARKED BY BREVITY.

49

Thou wilt not leave us in the dust •
Thou madest man, he knows not' why•
He thinks he was not made to di11,
'
And thou hast made liim: thou art just.
-!'- brirf .hut suggcstfrc pr<'s1•11tatio11 of tho well-known nrgnmnnt for
unmort:'lhtr based 011 man 8 natural expcct11tion of it: aml tho unexpressed
eoncl~s10n i,s clenched by the mere statement of God's justice. Or take tho
followmg, m reference to the vanity of man's lifo apart from such a
hopo:,
0 life M futile, then, as frail I ·
0 for thy voice to soothe and bless I
What hope of answer or redress t
Behind tlie veil, behind the veil.

. 17.-.The distinction between principal and subordmat~ m a sent~nce, paragraph, &c., is marked by comparative length m the statement.
As in .a state l?ro?ess.ion, the greatest space is accorded
to the h~ghe~t. digi:utaries, so the principal matter of a.
sentence is d1stm_gmshed by the length of the expression.
Hence th~ necessity of the condensing arts in tho wor<ling
of subordmate clauses.
.
. '~ven tho At~nnto:m shonltlors of Jonson (fit to l1enr tho weight of
nnghttest monarclucs) have been hardly tasked to stipport and transmit
(to our own day) the fa!ne of h~s great genius, overburdened (as it was) with
tho (twofol~) !oad of h~s tl~cone~ (on art) a111l l.1iR prda11tricR (of practice).'
lle~c the k.~1h11~ nHi<er~lll!I tH wcr~hml tlow11 with 111!1:11loH11 n1l1litiorrs euhordmate to it =. ~he 01111~s1?n of ah that we have enclosed in brackets would
~~nve .the sense mt~ct, wlule lightening the main proposition. So agnin :
fhcir savonrle.ss rnterlndos of false aml force1l hn11iom· may iudccil bo
mnteh.cd evcn .m the greatest of Jonson 's works; there is hero hardly
Bnythmg heavier t~ian the voluminous foolery of Scoto of Mantua and
the dolorous long-wmdcd doggei:eI drivelled forth by that dreary trinity of
drmrf, citn'L!cli, an~ herma1~hro~1.tc, wlio11t any patron of less patience tlta~i
Volpone, with a tithe of his wit and gcnitts, would sztrcly have scour rd
m1t ~(door~ long before th~y were tumedforlh to play by .Jfosca'. Herc
lithng pomt set. forth Ill tho first part of tho sentence is altogether
o 1scnr:u by .tho d1sp.rop?1tional and involved expansion given to a mero
au 00 r1hnate 1llustrat10n m the second half.
Contrast these examples with this sentence of Gibbon . •Tl ·
fnDRlior~ was received with a very faint murmur by the e~y na~is prof
('olytheism '.
itre o

fho

EXEMPLARY PASSAGES.
For rcmar~able strokes of Brevity, we may dwell at an Jen th
0
llJ> j• 1 1 as~ages m Slmkcspcm·e. It is cvidc11tly OHO of his yaimsg to
)ll'Ul nee Rtrength by extreme condensation as well as by energy in
l 1e " ·onls employed. His methods are e~sily assianed as may he
lll'Cll 1>y n few examples.
t>
'
·

ILLUSTRATIONS FROM POPE AND SHELLEY.

[j{)

51

NUMBER OF WORDS.

If the assassination
Could trammel up t11e consequence, anc~ catch,
'Vith his surcease, success ; that but this blow
:Might lie the be-all and the end-all, lier~,
But here, upon this bank and shoal of tune,
We'd jump the life to come.
Here we renuu·k, first, the plent.iful employment of the al)stmct
noun-assassination, consequence, surcca.'!e 1 succes~. Next we have
a bold metaphor, 'jump,' applied to futurity. . Thtrd;ly, we have expressive innovations in phraseology, contrived for shor·~n~ss­
' trammel up''
be-all and end-all'. The verb 'trammel-up ts an
1
inv,ention as far as reaards this peculiar meaning. In 'hank and
shoal of iime,' we luw~ o. tautol.ogy, justified by the st1·?ngt.h of ~he
feeling, and also by what oftc.n re<leems tautology m our great
writers-originality in the couplmg.
Again:.
My thought, whose murther yet is but fantas~ical,
Shakes so my single state of man, that fuuct10n
Is smothered in surmise.
There is here a series of daring misapplications of terms; but in
conecting them, we should destroy the condem~ed ~i:iergy .of the
passage. For' whose mlll'ther,' we should h aYe to say, !1:1 w.h1ch.the
Hlca of murther '. 'l'he word 'fantastical 1 stands for m 1magmn·
tion '. The adjective 'single,' in 'single state of man,' cannot be con·
strued into meaning, without a rounda.bout pa~·ap}ir~se. The concluding phrase-' fonction is smothered m sumuse -1s another cnse
of abstract nouns coupled by a strong met~phor. In. a prose ren·
dering, none of the three words would be strictly apposite.
·
Another instance : I do here perceive o. divided duty.
The word 'divided' saves a much longer statement ; but it i11
suggestive rather than appropriate. W_e can readily unders.ta~d \vl111t
it means ; but the adjective cann~t be m~erpr~t~d as quahfy11.1g the
word 'duty'. Duty does not adnnt of bemg dn:idcd ; though it may
carry us in opposite directions at tl1e same tune.
A word more
a\lposite would be ' conflicting' ; it is common to speak of 'conlhcting ohligations '.
. .
.
Pope fnmishe.s ahnnd~nt examples o~ energeti? Brevity, dcprncl- .
.
ing on all the var10us devices of style smted to tlns puryose. Of the
following four lines on the origin of Society, Mark Pn:tt1s?n obflet·n'll
that they are 'expressed with a condensed energy wlnch it would be
difficult to improve upon' : '
Heaven formin" each on other to depend,
A master, or a ~ervant, or a friend,
Bids each on other for assistance call,
Till one man's weakness grows the strength of all.
Tl1e wor(ls are appropriate, and none are sn1)edluom1. The !leconc1

line is the only part that could possibly be omitted ; and the
omission would produce obscurity. The three examples make plain
the nature of the dependence ; 'master and servant' exemplify compulsory relaticnships, while 'friend' comprehends various forms of
Yolnntary dependence. The pal'ticipial form is turned to good
account in the first line. The figure of epigram is happily used in
the last line, both brevity and force being gained by it.
'l'ake another instance, where the thc1iie is the beneficial operation of self-love.
How shall he keep what, sleeping or awake,
A weaker may smprise, a stronger take 1
His safety must his liberty restrain :
All join to guard what each desires to gain.

lt

There is nothing very notable in the first two lines. The clause
'sleeping or awake' expresses the thought intended with brevity ;
hut, o.q is not unusual in Pope's condensed forms, it is ungrammatical,
since it really applies to 'he,' not to 'a weaker,' as the construction
would suggest. There was not much need for the double expression
of the idea in the second line: one word would have sufficiently
brought out the meaning of both 'surprising' and 'taking'. On
the other hand, the last two lines are compact and forcible. There
nre no unnecessary words, and those employed are well chosen ; the
nhlltmct nouns, 'safety' and 'liberty,' are used to condense what
would have otherwise taken distinct clauses to express ; and in both
lines there is an epigrammatic point in their form, which also
.
becomes a means of brevity.
As nn illustrative contrast, we can compare tlie diffuseness of
Chaucer's House of Fame with the condensation of Pope's treatment
in his 1'emple of Fame.
Shelley has been already quoted in illm1trat.ion of diffuseness
for the expression of intense feeling ; and with him such cases are
auun<lant. 'fake the following as a lcnger passage : The joy, tlie triumph, t110 delight, the madness,
The boundless, overflowing, bursting gladness,
The vaporous exaltation, not to be confined I
Ha ! ha ! the animation of delight
Which wraps me, like an atmrn1phere of light,
And 1Je1u·s me as a cloud is Lome Ly its own wind.
· The idea of intense delight is all that is expressed in the words · yet
lhe intensity is such that this profusion of utterance for it is both
1uil11ml and pleasing.
Or:I ask the Earth, have not the mountains felt 1
I ask the heaven, yon all-beholding Sun,
Has it not seen 1 The Sea, in storm or calm,
Heaven's ever-changing Rhadow, spread below,
Have its deaf waves not heard my ngony 1

EXEMPLARY PASSAGE FUOM PALEY.
NUMI\ER OF

52

worms.

Not only is this the utterance of strong feeling ; the_ r?iterati?n,
a ro riate on that ground, is also made the means of giv1~1g vanec~
p~~tilembellishment to each utterance : 'yon ~11-beholdmg Su~
• the Sea, in storm or calm, Heaven's ever-changmg sha<low, spre
below,' •its deaf waves'.
Once more:Who shall save 1
The boat fled on -the boiling torrent drove,The crags closed' roun~ with black and .jagged arms,
The shattered mountam overhung the sea,
And faster still, beyond all human speed,
Suspended on the swe~p of the smooth wave,
'l'he little boat was <lriven.
In Keats we have striking instances of diffus~ness em~oyerl for
imrely poetic purposes. This is notably the case m ' The ve of St.

Agngit:~

early prose writers-Hooker,. Barrow, Tillo~son, Lockenre often diffuse and paraphrastic, without redeenun.g arts. In
Cowley and Addison, we find a diffuse style coupled. with elegance,
and at worst only a needless fuh1ess of relevant particulars.
An ext;.act to be quoted afterwards from Cow~er (SENTENCB,
I'eriod) may be viewed as a fine example of elegant d1fluseness.
Pale is, generally speaking, a terse and compact writ~r? yet lie
fre uentfy falls into one or other of the for~1s of n~edless d.1flnsc~1e11&
Thfs is no doubt from aiming at the expository virtu~s of cl~arncte
and emphasis. 'fhe followinrr sentences will ~erve as illustrht1011s.
1
' In the conduct of life, tlie great mat~er is, to know beforehnn•_,
wlrnt will please us, and whatylc:i~nres will hold 0:1t. So far a.s 1111
know this our choice will be JUstihed by the event.
1
Thes~ sentences are as terse as need be; t? comp~css t_1em
farther would be hypercritical We merely select illustr~tive
Strictly speaking, the futures are unne.cessar;r ; the umversa ~ty '~
the present being equal to the occus10n- what pleases us, IUI
•which i1leasnres hold out'.
.
flnl
'And this knowled"e is more scarce and d1fiicn!t than nt
siuht it may seem to be~ for sometimes pleasures wh.1ch are wo~ul~r­
fialy alluring and 11attering in the prospect, turn out 1~1 the pusscN<IOll
extremely insipid or do not hold out as we expected.
._,
· The couple ,'scarce' and 'diilicult' is not exactly ta~1tol~~··~
et one of the words might cover all the groun~; ~)int HI 1hlhc11IL
i:iav be resumed to be scarce or uncommon. F _or , it may_ F<Pl'nl
be; we J6uld substitute 'appears'. After 'allurmg, w~ might ~ito
pe;ise with 'flattering'. The phrase 'in the pro1spect ex,l'~llJ'.h~
our condensing phrase.s. Tl~e ~dye~b. '~xtremely bcfor~ .1~111111
might be dispensed with ; 'ms1p1d is itself a very exp1ess1\c wtd
(negatives are generally emphatic). A bet~r or<le\ of the rla~
would be-' turn out insipid in the i1ossess10n '. 'I he co11clu1l1JIC

rmta.

.'°

oa

phra.se-' or do not hold out as we expected '-might also be dismiRsctl ; the author's intention evidently is, to make his conclusion
tally with his first sentence, where he puts the question under two
forms-what pleases, and what pleasure holds out.
'At other times, pleasures start up which never entered into our
calculation, and which we might have missed by not foreseeing ;
whence we have reason to believe, that we actually do miss of many
lllcasures from the same cause.'
.
There is a slight excess of wordiness here likewise; or at all
e\·1mts, the meaning can be given shorter :-'pleasures start up that
we di1l not count on, and consequently might have missed'. The phrase
'hy not foreseeing' is pleonnstic. The second memlm1· may likcwiRe
be shol'tened: 'and, in point of fact, we do miss pleasures in this
way'. If it be true that pleasures start up that we never took into
nccount, it follows directly, and need not be stated in rotmd-about
11hmse, that we miss pleasures we could have had.
'I say, to know beforehand, for, after the experiment (is tried),
IL is commonly impracticable to retreat or change ; besides that
ahifting and changing is apt to generate a hahit of restlessness, which
ia destructive of the happiness of every condition.'
The verb 'is tried is useless; 'retreat or cl1ange' ifl an a<lmiRRiblc tautology, as the fact is deserving of emphasiR. The wor<l
1
Bhifting' (coupled with 'changing') is unnecess:u-y ; if two words are
lo he uscil, they shouhl repeat the two ahe:vly given, 'rett'eating awl
clm11~i11g,' instead of dropping one and giving an exact synonym of
the other. 'There is no objection to ' is apt to generate ' ; · neverthe)e.,q, n single word, 'generates' or 'causes,' would answer the purpose.
111e concluding clause-' which is destructive '-laas no superfluous
wo1~ts.
If we were to study the utmost pitch of condensation, we
might exchange it for an adjective containing the snhsLautial meaning,
although not <J_Uite so explicit. Say-' shifting and chaugiug causcl:! a
ptr11icious halnt of restlessness'.
• lly the reason of the original diversity of taste, capacity, and
ron~titntion, observaule in the human species, and the still greater
Y.iticty which hauit and fashion have introduced in theRe particularn
It iR imllOAAihle to prol>oRc nny plan of happitH~AA which will Hllccee1i
with nl , or any mcL w<l of lifo which ii,i universally eligible or
pto.ct ica ble.'
With a sentence of this length, it is desirable to prune away
"'/~l'tluons words, ju ortler to make the main Jlroposition more
. • ll'1tt.. No charge can be laid against it on the po mt of luci11it.y in
lho nr1·nnge111eut, or complete i)erspicuity ia the languarre. Bnt the
•l111lc might be considerably abridged. 'fhus :-'Dy re~on of men's
oti~innl diversity of cornititution, and the still greater diversity
h11,..~l11C"e•I by their education [one woril for 'habit arnl fashion'], it
l• impo!'sible to propose any plan of happiness, or any metho<l of
bfe, universally eligible or practicable'.
•All that can be said hi, that there remains n preimmption in
Cawour of those conditions of life in which men appear most cheetfnl
4

64

NUMBER OF wo1ms.

and contented.' A well-expressed sentence. The coupling of' cheerful' and 'contented' scarcely amounts to tautology; either worcl by
itself would hardly give the desirable fulnessof meaning. We might
recluce the circumlocution of the first hnlf thus :-'We may, however, pr01ionncc in favour of nny conditions of life wherein men arc,
in appearance [this is a desirable expansion of 'appear'], cheerful
and contented'. The reason of the suggested expansion is found in
the scnt~nce following.
1 For though the ·apparent Jrnppine!>S of mankind be not nlwa~·s
a trne measure of their real harpiness, it is the be:;t measure we
have.'
The whole i;tress of this sentence turns on the word 'apparent,'
made u;;e of in the prenou:> :o-entence. The l;-('ntence is 1mlficiently
effective for its rmrr•(•:>e; and th e only variation that would illulltrate breYit> would be t-0 convert the relatiYe clause 'we hM·e' into
some equivalent adjective prefixed to 'measure'. " re might sa.v
'the best available llleasure,' or Rl1mfor still, 'the only memmrc '. It
is desirable t-0 end a Rcntence with an impol'tant noun preceded by all
essential qualifications, and not with a dangling relative clause.•
*The nncient rlwt{lrkinnR clirl not ~h· e mnch n.ttention to Number of Wordt
ns an element of RtYle. Brevitv is imleecl comrnendetl, but inci<lentally rather than
directly. Quintilian, for example, devotes but a few sentences to faults of thl'
nnture. He speakH of trrntn l nr1,11 , but the word was usecl by him, as hy the ancient4
gf'n ern.lly, to mean th e n •petitinu of tl1e smne word ; wl~ich might be t~e re~nlt of
earnl e,.i-n e~" or intended for effect. Il e names p.a.KpoAoy<n anrl rrA•ovacrp.o~ (usmg the
Greek " ·ords) as separnte ways of employin~ more words thnn nre necessary, bul
draws no clear distinction between them. Quintilian also recognises diffuseness u
a means of givin~ elegance or force on suitable occnsions; but In Lon¢nus thlt
receives more notice. J,onj:"inus eompares periphrnsis, when it is not a Jumberinr
expression of a simple idea, but the foreible utterance of a wei~hty thought, to the
n.ccompanying of a note in music by the notes of the scale that are in hannon1
with it. . As the musical note thus gains in sweetness ancl force, so the peripl11111!11
is a large and harnumwua reprnductian of the main itlen. We might adapt the com·
parison to modem music with still more appropriateness, and say that llll the
musical idea expressed in a melrn.ty gains in breadth aml imfresHiveness when It II
hu.rmoni.!ed, so by n forcible periphrasis does the bare form o a thought gain in rich·
ness and power, while still remaining essentially the same.

THE SENTENCE.
1. The rules of Syntax apply to the Concord, the
•Government, and the Order of words in Sentences.
Under the head of Order, it is laid down that qualifying
words should be placed near the words they qualify, a
rule having expressly in ·view perspicuity or clearness.
A sentence in any way ungrammatical incurs the risk of
being,. obsc1;1re, if not a. perversion of the meaning; more
eApecially m cases where tho rules of syntax are vio·
lated, where the pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions
are not correctly introduced, and where the different parts of
the verb are misapplied.
In the present work, under ORDER OF WoRi>s, and ac:rain
under NUMBER OF WoRDS, principles were brouc:rht fon;ard
having reference to the structure of the Sentenc:.
\Ve have now to complete the consideration of the
various Rhetorical devices for rendering sentences as perfect
o.s they can be made by the help of arrangement alone.
THE PERIOD AND THE LOOSE SENTENCE.

2. In a Period, the meaning is suspended until the
close. Sentences where this is not the case are termed
loose.
. .,
The advantages of the Peri~d, as well as the ways of
forming it, will be made apparent by the examples.
The first sentence of Paradise Lost, if stopped at
'Heavenly mu~e,' ~o~ld be a peri?d; shor~ o~ that point no
complete meanmg IS given. Contmued as It IS to 1 in prose
or rhyme,' in line 16, it is loose; there being several places
where the reader might pause without incompleteness.
Tne follo~ing is ~nother exan;iple :-' Shaftesbury's
strength lay m roasomhg and sontunent, more than in
description; however much his descriptions have boon
~mired'. In this sentence we might stop (1) at 'reasoning,' (2) at 'sentiment,' (3) at 'description,' where, at all
events, we should expect a final conclusion; to our surprise,

56

THE SENTENCE.

a conditional clause is still to be added. On the general
principle of placing qualifying statements before the parts
qualified, the sentence shoukl be inverted thus:-' However
much Shaftesbury's descriptions have been admired, his
strength lay not in description, but in reasoning and in
sentiment '.
'It cannot be too deeply impressed on the mind, that
application is the price to be paid for mental acquisitions,
and that it is as absurd to expect them without it as to hope.
for a harvest where we have not sown the seed.' A
sentence of this character is rendered periodic by reserving
the predicate-' cannot be too deeply impressed on the mind'
-to the last ; but there is often an advantage in availing
ourselves of the apposition form 'it is,' to commence with
the predicate. If the clause ' that application ·. • • .
acquisitions' were omitted, the sentence would be a goocl
specimen of a period ; the succeeding clause being kept in
suspense by the use of the comparative adverb 'as-as,'
and by the relative 'where'.
The next example brings into view other connectives
whereby the meaning is suspended.
' But on this topic they are either silent, or speak with
such uncertain utterance that they might have as well been
dumb.' A few slight changes would cast it loose: 'they
are silent I , or else speak with uncertain utterance I , so
that they might have been dumb I as well'. Compare also,
•He speaks so clearly as to be always understood,' with,
' He speaks clearly I , so as to be always understood '.
To take another instance. 'On the whole, wiiiln tho
F:.~say on Criticism (Pope's) may be readily allowed to Lo
imperior in execution, as it certainly is in compass, to any
work of a similar nature in English poetry, it can hardly Lo
said "either" to redeem the class of didactic poetns on rosthctics from the neglect into which they have fallen, or to mako
us regret that the critical ability of our own day should
prefer to follow the path marked out by Dryden when lfo
chose to discourse of poetry in his own vigorous and flexible
prose.' This is a masterly period.
The loose sentence must be of frequent occurrence; our
language not permitting the inversions requisite for the con·
stant practice of suspending the sense. But even when a
meaning is grammatically complete, we are often awaro tha~

57

THE LOOSE SENTENCE EXEMPLIFIED.

something has yet to be _added to explain ~r to qualify what
has been said, and we still keep up the attitu.de of ex~ecta.­
tion In the sentence-' The mature man, m the desire to
get ~uit of an early habit, a~tempts an imit~tion I , in which
he is prevented from succeedmg I by the lastmg conseque~ces
of the unintentional imitation I into which he had gh.ded
when a child/-there are several places where we m1flht
close with an intelligible sense, bu~ v:e fee~ that the wri~er
will still add something to make his mtent10n more defimte
and clear. We could coerce the sentence into a period, but
without necessarily improving it in oth~r .wars. . ' The
mature man, . . . although attempting an mutat~on, is. prevented, by the lasting conseq':1ences of the, unmtent10nal
imitation of childhood, from bemg successful.
In the following, the stoppage might occu:r at a great
many points, yet the sentence is not vic~ously loos~, beca.use
the additions, although they could be dispensed with, _chime
in to advantage with what went before:-' The only l~ght of
every truth is its contrasting error I ; and, therefore, m the
contemplation and exhibition of_ truth, a phil~sopher should
take especial care not to keep hnnself too loftily aloof from
the contemplation and exhibition of error I , as these proud
spirits Plato, Spinoza, Leibnitz,_ and Hegel? most undoubtedly did I , much to the detrnnent of ~heir own profound disquisitions I , and to the loss of mankmd I , who, had
their method been different, might have profited more largel_y
Ly their wisdom '. 'l'he last clause but one, ' had their
method been different,' could have been placed at the end,
which would have added to the looseness. On the other
hand, by introducing the cl_~use . ' most undoubtedly ?id'
nfter 'profound disquisitions,' a step would hav~ been gamed
towards the periodic structure. As an exercise, we !flay
bring to bear a sufficient number of suspensory connectives,
to rmiolve the sentence into a period. 'Inasmuch as the
only light of every tr?t~. is its contrasting c~Tor, in the contemplation and exhibition of t~uth a plulo~opher should
take especial care not to keep himself so loftily aloof from
U10 contemplatio~ and exhibi.tioi: of .e~·~or, as these proud
spirits, to the detriment of their d1sqmsit10ns, and to the lo~s
o( mankind, who otherwise might have pr~fite?
their
wisdom most undoubtedly did.' 'l'he suspens10n 111 this case
is too p;otracted ; and the sentence is more Latin or Greek
_lh&n English.

hr

58

59

THE SENTENCE.

EFFECT OF QUALIFYING ADJUNCTS ON THE PERIOD.

'With ~he general. literature !l'nd philosophy of tho
~reeks, their nat~ral lustory, physws, mathematics, medi-

consolidating ahd crowning strength, which alone can establish works of fiction in the favour of all readers and of all
ages'. Here we have the suspensory power of the ·i f twice
resorted to; together with the pairs of connectives, •so much
-that' awl 'that-which,' presently to bo illustrn.to<l. ':I1ho
only possible break in the period is at the very end, after
' readers ' ; yet practically this is not a real break.
The next sentence exemplifies the conditional clause
introduced by 'though'. ''l.'lwugh increasing knowledge of
the properties and relations of things has not only enabled
wandering tribes to grow into populous nations, but has given
to the countless members of these populous nations comforts
and pleasures which their few naked ancestors never even
conceived or could have believed, yet is this kind of know·
ledge only now receiving, in our highest educational institutions, a grudging recognition.' In sentences like this, containing a long conditional clause, the conjunction ' yet'
serves to indicate that the conclition is completed, and that
we now enter on the statement of what is dependent on the
comlition (apodosis). Thus it is that we can tolerate tho
suspension of a long conditional clause without confusion
or fatigue.
(2) Subordinate clauses introduced by-' When,' 'Where,'
•While,'' Wherever,' 'Whether,' &c.
' When in doubt, win the trick.'
• Where you know nothing, place terrors.'
• ·where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.'
The following sentence is better, for emphasis and
meaning, in its loose form. ' In the last generation, also,
the neighbouring gentry had been almost uniformly J acobites,
while the proprietors of Monkbarns, like the burghers of the
town near which they were settled, were steady assertors of
the Protestant succession'. As a period, it would run thus:
• While the proprietors of Monkbarns .
were steady
asscrtors of the Protestant succession, the neighbouring
~entry had been almost uniformly J acobites ' ; but the subordinate clause is thus rendered too unimportant, appearing
as a mere preliminary statement to the other.
The same may be said of the following :- ' Every man
is a. missionary, now and for ever, for good or for evil,
• whether he intends or designs it or not'. (Chalmers.)
Tho loose form gives an appropriate emphasis to the qualifying phrases, which would be lessened by inverting the order.

cme, and other smences, were revived.' This is a periodic
form b,~?ug.ht about by t?~ prepositional clause, placed at
~he bct:>m11111g as. u. con<l1t10n. A loose form (not bad in
itself) could be given thus:-' The natural history, physics
of the Greeks were revived at the same time as their
~eneral literature'.
Taking the .present order, we can
nnprove the sentence, alt~ough casting it loose, by making
tl~e verb prec-:ede the subJect-' were revived their natural
lustory, physics,' &c.

3. The periodic form is in a great measure secured
by the rule for the placing of qualifying adjuncts.
·
']_.'ha~ qualifying adjuncts. should precede what they
9.uahfy is a rule of ~ll .but universal application. When it
is ob~erved, th~ per10d1c suspe~1sion is a consequence.
. 'lh_e followmg are the leadmg examples of such qualify·
mg adJuncts : ·
·
(1) Conditional clauses introduced by the conjnnctions'~rhoug,h~' and eqt~i~alents, s,uch as 'However,' •Supposmg that, On cond1t10n that, ' On the understanding
that'.
. ' If the wide spread of his fame and the deep impression produced by his poems is to be taken as the test of
~;c~el!ence, Campbel~ is the greatest lyric poet of England.'
lh1s is greatly super10r to the loose form, which would havo
resulted from throwing the condition to the eiid.
~If, whi~st ~hey profess only to please, they secretly
adV1se and give mstruction, they may now perhaps as well
as formerly, be esteemed with justice the best and most
~onourable among a';lthors.' Here, not only is the condit10nal clause placed m the foreground, but the clause in tho
second, r.ank of subordination, ' wl~il_st they profess only to
please,. is also put before the cond1t10nal clause itself, which
it qualifies. The ~esult is a fully suspended period.
. In the follo~mg sentence, if is conjoined with other
lunges of the period. .'Upon the whole, if I may presume to
measure the 1D?perfect10ns of so great and venerable a genius
(Spense:), I thmk we may say that, if his popularity be less
than umversal and complete, it is not so much owing to his
o?solet~ language, nor to degeneracy of modern taste, nor to
his choice of allegory as a subject, as to the want of tlial

'If,:

60

SUSPENSIVE PHRASES.

THE SENTENCE.

If the weakening tautology in the last clause be correctellsay 'whether he intends it or not '-no farther change will
be neccssarv.
The nmZt example is an instance of a long period, well
sustained by means of this form:.......:...' When they (the ancient
philosophers) viewed with complacency the extent of their
own mental powers; when they exercised the various
faculties of memory, of fancy, and of judgment, in the most
profound speculations or the most important labours ; nll<l
when they reflected on the desire of fame, which transported
them into future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and. of
the grave ; they were unwilling to confound themselves with
the beasts of the field, or to suppose that a being for whoso
dignity they entertained the most sincere admiration, c.ould
be limited to a spot of earth, and to a few years of dmat10u ',
(Gibbon.) The emphasis is here rightly thrown on tho
principal proposition, whose force is increased by the clauses
that are thus put in the foreground.
(3) A reason preceding, instead of following.
Clauses of reason are commonly introduced by tho
conjunctions, 'Because,' 'For'; and such phrases as, 'On
account of,' ' By reason of '. When they are made to precede, the more usual forms of introduction n.re-• As,'
• Since,' • Seeing that,' 'Inasmuch as,' • Considering that'.
' The voice of reason is more to bo regarded thn.11 tho
bent of any present inclination ; since inclination will Rt
length come over to reason, though we can never force
reason to comply with inclination'. This might with adnm·
tage be rendered periodic, thus :-'Since inclination will at
length yield to reason, while reason can never be forcccl to
comply with inclination, the voice of reason is more to be
regarded than the bent of any present inclination'.
,
The following shows a combination of both arrn.ngnments, one clause of reason being placed before and anothl'r
after the main clause :-' Since a true knowledge of nnturo
gives us pleasure, a lively imitation of it, either in poetry or
painting, must produce a much greater; for both thcso artt
are not only true imitations of nature, bu~ of tho l~l
nature'. (Dryden.) \Vo may easily by a little r<'c1u1tmg
place Loth cl11uses in the front: ' Since a truo lmowlcdg~'
nature gives us pleasure, and since both poetry and pn.1~i.
ing, as imitations of it, are not merely true but are copied
from the best in nature, the pleasure produced by these ant

of :

61

must be greater than is received from natu.re itself'. The
arrangement is farther recomm~rnlcd_ b~ the c~rcumstance that
tho umin tM:IHorLion h:1 Jmrdly rnLoll1g1blo, Lill wo know Lho
explanation furnished by the second clause of reason.
(4) The participial phrase, among other advantages, has
a suspensive effect.
.
'Accustomed to a land at home where every height, seen
dimly in the distance, might prove a cathedral ~ower, a
church spire, a pilgrim's oratory, or at least a way-.s1de cros~,
those religious explorers must have of.ten stramed. t~e1r
eight in order to recognise . s.~:nne 0?1ect of a similar
character'. But for the participle, this would be a very
loose sentence.
'Doomed to incessant labour, they are rather to be
commended when they evince an anxiety for extraneous
knowledge, than blamed for betraY:ing indifference.'
. ,
' GranUng all that you say, I still doubt your c?nclus10n .
The following shows a very full . use of th1~ for~ : •Standing within a cathedral, and l_ookmg through its stamed
and figured windows .towards the. light, w_e behold the _forms
an<l colours by the light ; stand1!1g outside, and gazmg. at
the same windows, we see nothmg but a blurred and mdistinct enamelling'.
. ..
.
(5) Adverbial phrases have great flexibility of quahficalion; and, according to their placing, render a sentenee
oiLho1· perioJic or loose.
. .
' With all thy getting, get understan~ing.'
'For all the practical purposes of life, tact carries it
apinst talent': obviously superior to the loose arra1~g~i;ien~.
'Next to acquiring gooJ. frioncls, the best acqms1t10n is
. . good books.'
.
.
.
' ·
' Beauty gains little, and homelmess ai:id deformity lose
· much, by gaudy a:ttire,' woul~ b~ mu~h improved by the
periodic form attamed by begmnmg with the phrase, 1 by
pudy attire'.
We can contribute to the periodic structure by the
· nnsposition of qualifying adjuncts in. any part ?f a .sentence;
aiul, in many cases, the sentence is ?therwise 1ml?roved.
• Va.guo tra1litions of tho times beyond lustory nfford httlo or
DO outortn.inmont to mmt born ·in a cullh1afrd age' : 'afford, to
IQlll born in a cultivated age, little or no entertainment·.
, •Every man, however humble his station or feeble ~is
wers, exercises some influence on those who are about lmn

62

THE SENTENCE.

PERIOD AND LOOSE SENTENCE CONTRASTED.

63

for good or for evil': better, 1 exercises s~m~ influence, for
good or for evil, on those who are about hun .

is shown by their favourite device for working up a period,
namely, postponing the verb till the last.*

The examples have already shown the suspensive power
of the following couples : both-and;
either-or; neither-nor; not-but; not only-but i
that-which;
it-that;
the-that, which;
so-as; as-as ;
so-that, but ;
such-as;
more-than; rather-than;
sufficient-to, for.
Other examples will occur presently.

In t110 above illnstrntion of the snhjcct, we have mainly insi11ted on
the merits of tho Period, becanse the natural tendency of our language is
towards looseness. Hut a complete view of the subject requires us to point
out that distinct advantages belong to each of these two forms of Sentence..
In addition to what has just been said with reference to Sentence-structure and sustaining attention, it may be remarked thu.t the J.leriod, at lo{)Jlt
in its more highly elaborated forms, is most suitable to occasions of dignity;
and, by gathering up all the }mrticulars aml putting them forth as it werf!
in one great effort, it may a so contribute towards tho higher forms of
Strength. On the other hand, the Loose Sentence has the advantage on
the side of simplicity and naturalness. It needs an effort on the part of
tho renders or hearers to retain in tho min1l all tho particulars up to tho
close of n. long period ; antl thns a sustained periodic sty lo cnn never hll n.
simple one. :For this reason the loose sentence must be more common in
1poken than it need be in written style. As to naturalness, tho loose .
eentcnce best avoids the appearance of stiffness or artificiality, because it
is the least removCll from the ordinary forms of colloquial speech. The
sentences of Carlyle illustrate these remarks. 'l'hey 11.re loose, even to
fragmentariness; but this looseness keeps his style more simple than it
ll"ould otherwise be, notwitl1standing other elements that tend to make it
1lillie11lt; while it also contributes to tho familiarity aud directness of his
manner.
As Latin and Greek show the fullest development of tl1e periodic
dylc, so the Old Testament well exemplifies the loose style ; and on this
its simplicity aud directness partly depend.
A primitive language
like Hebrew has not the means of producing the elaborate involutions aud
111~pcnsions of a Greek period ; and, instead, the clauses are often thrown
alongsiile of each other, with but vagne marking of thefr exnet relations.
•A111l' alono serves tho pur1>oscs of many of om co11jnnctions.

4. Besides the incidental advantage of being a
collateral security for the right placing of qualifyini:;
words, the periodic form is favourable to Unity iu
Sentences.
When, at a later stage, Unity, as a merit of tho sen·
tence, is fully treated of, the examples already cited will
prove a help to the explanation. The Period presents tho
Sentence in the form of a single main proposition, with sub·
ordinate phrases and clauses; arnl Unity implies tho subordination of the sentence to one leading idea.

5. The Period was first contrived in the development of prose style in Greece. Its purpose seems to
have been to keep up attention.
In a period, the sense being incomplete till tho end, tho
listener was bound to hold in mind all the particulars through·
out, under pain of losing the thread of discourse. Thi•_
advantage also belongs to it in English, when it can ho used:
but we have not the elaborate apparatus of cases, tcnRM.
moods, and particles, that enabled the Greek and Latia
writers to sustain it so fully.
The classical writers, both Greek arnl Latin, scom to
have been content with this one effect; they not only did
not aim at anything besides, but sacrificed other meritA to · ; ·
securing the consecutive attention of those addressed. Thil

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF THE PERIOD.
•With many Englishmen, perhaps tlrn majority, it is a maxim that
the cxccutivo powl'r 11honJ.l ho 1111tn1st.n1l wit.h '"" fow means of net.ion ,.,_,
possible.' Otherwise-' .Ma11y Eugli:ihmeu hold the maxim tltat '. 'l'ho
• Tho cliRtinctlon hetween the periodic an11 the looRe Rtyle had alrearly been
ohw-rTed amt defined by Aristotle ; and to his observations not much was a1lded by
~i-e11ing rhetoricians among the ancients. The loose style he speaks of under
lbe name of continuou~ (ME<~ <ipoµiv11), and describes it as having no natural ter•ln~llnn, except what is produced by the subject itself. The periodic style he
call• rr_llu: or introverted (ME<~ "":rnnpaµµiv11, ;, €v n•p<ooo<~), and defines a. period as
•a fnnn of words having in its own nature a. beginning nnd a.n end and a length
....11,. taken in at a. glance'. These definitions remind us of the fact that punctuaUoci was then unknown. Aristotle considers the periodic stl.le superior to the
~. and speaks of tho latter as mostly confined to older writers. lie discusses
lb4! proper number and length of the members in a period, with reference to the
lfecllo of curtneRs and prolixity.
TlmHo 1liMtinetin11R 1tre mostly rr.poatecl by 11ncccc11i11g writers, together with
"""8rkM on tho propcr OC(~tHinm1 for 10011unci1H mul periodicity. Horodotus wns
M111l1•rc1I nM tho best example of the loose style.
1 hi~ wns the only pomt of sentence-structure that the ancient rhetoricians
W ttl\lly studied. The effects of Balance they had observed · hnt had not clearly
...UnitnlHhcrl It from Antithc11is. Other point.~, such 11.8 EJiphasis Unity and
a..atb of sentences, are mentioned, but only Incidentally.
'
'

i.:

r.

64

THE SENTENCE.

1irospective 'it' is by nature suspensive ; we expect to follow • that' or
the prepositions-to, for.
'As tho German Drama is th e glory, so the French is tlrn disgrace of
our coutemporar:v European Lit1•mt11re.' Compnro with th o loose extreme
- 'The German Drama i11 the glory of our contemporary Eurnpcau Litcra·
turc; while the French is itfl disgrace ',
The following is from Cowley :' I ha\•e often observed (with all submission and resignation of spirit
to the inscrntable myst eries of Eternal Provklcnco), that, when the ful·
uoss and maturity of time is come, that produces the great confusions
nnd changes in the world, it usually pleases God to make it appear, by the
manner of them, that they arc uot the effects of human force or policy,
but of the divine justice and predestination ; and, though we see ll man,
like .that which we call J ack of the clock-house, striking as it were, tho hour
of that fulness of time, yet our reason must needs be convinced, that his
hand is moved by some secret, and, to us who stand withont, invisiblo
direction.' The concluding clause is marked by a form of 1mspensio11 not
uncommon, yet liable to be stiff.
'The stream [of the current] is then so violent, that the strongest man
in the worlcl cannot draw ll}l against it' ; •while none are so weak, liul
they may sail down with it.'
The next sentence in tho passage exemplifies a kiml of looseness that
should be allowed to staml :-'These nre the spring-tides of pnblic affair;i,
which we see often happen, but seek in vain to discover any certain cnusu
(of them)',
The emph asis of the first clause should be loft untonchc1l;
the next clauses might be bound into a periodic couJ?lo ;-'Yet, often as
we see them happen, we seek in vain for their causes ,
Burke's passage on th e invasion of H yder Ali has some grand perio<l!,
and also sentences rendered effective by <lisconnection.
' 1Vhen at length Hyder Ali fouml that he had to do with men lfhll
either would sign no convention, or whom no treaty aml no sirr natme r,oulJ
biml, and who were tho determined enemies of human inte~:ourse itself,
ho decrcP.d to make th e country possessed by these incorri 0rriblo a111l l•rc·
destinnt etl criminals a m emorabl e cx:implc to mankind.' Th e onh•r of
particulars in the Inst clause- ' ho decreed , • • ' is both periodic and
also suitable for au emphatic close.
'Ho r esolved, in the gl oomy rcc<'sscs of a mi111l cnpnciorn1 of such
things, to leave tho whole Carna til' k an everlasti11" 11101tu111ent of nn·
gcance, and to put perpetual 1lesolation as a barrier b~twec n him 111111 lllll' 'against w hom the faith 1chich holtls the moral elements of tho worl<l
t ogether wns 110 protection.' 'l'he 011ly looscn<'ss hern consists in 1·0111ph·t·
iug the sense at •vengeance' : to make a change woulu not be an im pro\·e·
ment.
'He became nt length so confident of his force, so collectrd in hiJ
might, that he made no secret whatsoever of his tlreat!ful resolu tion.'
- 'H_aving ~e rminntcd h~s di ~p.nte~ wit!~ every enemy, and every rivnl,
who bnr~ed their mutnal a111mos1ties m their common detestati on ngaiu~t
the crerhtors of the N aboh of A rcot, he drew from every cp1art11r whnte\'tf
n Ravage ferocity conlcl ndcl to hiR tww rnclim o11tR in the 1ut.11 of 1lt·Hlrt1c•
tion ; nml comprnt11dinr1 1111 tho matcdnls of fury, havoc, nnd dcsolntlun,
into one black cloml, he hung for a while on the cleclivities of the moun·
tain~.:
These two clauses are separately pc1 iodic, by the force of U.t
partlClple.

EXAMPLES OF THE PERIOD.

65

1 Whilst the authors or all these evils were idly and stupiuly gazing
on this menacing meteor, which blackened all their horizon, it suduenly
burst nnd poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of
the c'.·m1ati1:k.' A Hlight chn.nge won lei 111akH t11n pcriocl co~nplc~o: after
•their hol'izo11,' let tho scutcHL:U ru11 th11t1- • 1mchlc11ly Lu1·11trng, it pournd
down--'.
'Then ensued a scene or woe, tho like· of which no eye had seen, no
heart conceived, and which no tongue can a1leqnately tell.' H ere a change
to the period might be admisdhle :-'Then ensued such a scone of woe, as
neither eye hacJ. seen, nor heart conceived, nor tongue could aflequately
tell',
The short sentence tlint follows is emphatic in its looseness:-' A
storm of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, destroyed
every t emple',
The followin<l', from Robert Hall, is 1tn ox1tmplo of a period well ens·
fain ed:-' .Freedo~n of thought, being intimately connected with the
hnppincss aml diguit.y of man in ev~ry s~nge of hi~ bc~ug, is of B? u~uch
more importance than the prescrvat10.11 of nny cons~ituhon, t!1.at to mfnnge
the former under pretence of ~upportmg the latter is .to sacn~ce the menus
to the cud'. 'fho links crnployml are tho correlative particles nnd the
pnrtid.1ial construction, togotho1· with tho ylnciug or tlw inlinilivo clan~o
before its predicate. 'l'hc latter might easily have been loose-' we eacn·
lice the means to the end when we infringe,' &c. The form used is prefer·
able.
. 11
• d'
The next instance shows how a sentence may be practica y per10 ic,
even while it might be theoretically possible to stop before the e~1tl.
'~a
daily experience makes it evident that misfortunes are unavoidablr. m·
cicleut to human life, that calamity will neither be repelled by fortl~ude
nor escaped by flight, neither awed by grc~tness nor eluded by. ?bscunt.Y ;
11hilosophers have endeavoured to rcconc1le us to that cond1t10n .which
they cannot tea.ch us to merit, by persuadi11g us that most of our evils are
mncle nfllictivo only by ignorance or perverseness I , and that nature has
annexed to every vicissit111lo of external circnmstnnccs some advantage I
Hllllicient to overbalance all its inconveniences.' (Johus?n.) 'l'l~cJiossible
endings arn not really felt as such, and the sentence is a peno to all
.
intents and purposes.
Tautological wrilerfl, like TillotR~n, u~ually foll mto looso C?neti-nctions:-' Jn 1Lwor(I, whal~ou vcr cu11ve111chcc 111'. ty he ~hought ~o bum fi.11!1?·
hootl and dissimulation, it is soo11 over ; lmt tho 1!1co1~vc111cnce of it 18
perpetual, because it brings a man under an everlasting Jealousy and sus•
tiicion, so that ho is not believcu when ho speaks trnth, 1101' trus.tcd perhnps when ho 11wans honestly. When a man Jias o.nce forfeited tl~e
tPputation of his integrity, he is set fast, ~nd notlnng will the~ serve his
tum neither truth nor fal sehood.' Agam : 'Truth anu reahty have all
the ~dvantagcs of appearance 1.' anu man~ i~ol'O '. The last phrase feels
like a mere afterthought. So ~n Bacon:- 'I he m~lcarn cd man kn~weth
not what it is to dcsccud into hun sclf I , nncl call lumsclf to account ·
Iu some cases, apparent looscn~ss is merely the.result of bad 11.nn ctnallon, ThiH iH fri\Cptout.ly t.hn cnHo with our old or wntors; who, win! ~ often
filllinft into really exct•ssive lnoHllllC!!A 1 nl~o 1Hill t~ l:ho ltl!Pl'lll'llllCO ol it
l"1i11t111g as one scutonce wlmt would now ho thvidcd rnto two or moie
11·ithout any alteration of the language. Take th~ following example from

.-

h!

·t

· :11

66

'l'HE SBNTENCE.

Tillotson:-' In matters of great concern, and which mnst be done, there
is no surer argument of a weak min<l than irresolution ; to be undcter·
mined, where the case is so plain and the necessity se> urgent; to be always
intending to live a new life, but never to set about it: this is as if a lllHll
should JIUt olf eating, ond drinking, and sleeping, from one day and uight
to another, till he is starved and destroyed'. A modem writer would 11ut
a full stop here in the place of tho first semicolon ; and then the first sen•
ttince would be periodic, while tho second would not be excessively loose.
THE BALANCED STRUCTURE.

6. When the different parts of a complex sentence
are made similar in form, they are said to be Balanced.
The style of Johnson abounds in this arrangement :'Contempt is the proper punishment of affectation, and
detestation the just consequence of hypocrisy.' 'He remits
his splendour, but retains his magnitude; and pleases more,
though he dazzles less.'
Junius affords numerous instances. 'But, my lord, you
may quit the field of business, though not the field of danger;
and though you cannot be safe, you may cease to be ridiculous.' •They are still base enough to encourage the follies
of your age, as they once did the vices of your youth.'
• Even now they tell you, that as you lived without vfrtuo
you should die without repentance.'
It will be seen that the sameness in these balanced cln.usct
lies partly in the grammatical structure, and partly in tho
sound or alternation of emphasis. The meaning is different,
and the words are more or less varied.
The following are additional examples :-' The notice which ,on hue
been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been k1111l; bu&
it has been delayed till I am indiflerent, and cannot enjoy it ; till I aa
solitary, and cannot impart it ; till I am known, and do not want it',
' 'l'ho first edition of the " Seasons" dillera mntcl'ially from the
second, and tho second still more from the third.'
' She must weep, or she will die.'
'If a man receives a wrong that no law can remedy, yet let him •
that his resentment be such as no law can punish.'
•Where there is life, there is hope ' ; ' where life is, 110pc is.'
'Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their li\·cs, and l1
death they were not divided.' Perfect the balance thus :-' Snnl and
Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and were not divided la
their death '.
'The Government prosecuted W ntson for High Trnn.son a111l wm ·
defeated ; had they indicted him for aggravated assault, they would batt .
obtained a conviction (would have succeeded).'

7. When a succession of clauses is formed upon one
plan, the memory is assisted.

BALANCE AIDING CLEARNESS AND SIMPLICITY. ·

67

The more nearly a. second clause resembles the first,
there is less of new matter to remember. Compare 'He
remits his splendour, but retains hill ma(Jnitude,' with an
unlmlancod 1uTangomeut in tho second clause-' while, in
point of magnitude, he is the same as before '.
' Of the western provinces which obeyed . the Crosars,
Dritain was the la.st that was conquered, and the first that
was flung away': this pointed expression of two cont~asted
ideas under one form will be remembered better than if the
second clause had taken such a form as this : ' while the
emperors also allowed it to drop off from their dominions
before any other province '.
The effect of the Balance, as an aid to memory, is illustrated by its frequent use in proverbs and in memorable
sayings of great authors.•
8. The balanced form is conducive to the Intellectual
qualities of Clearness and Simplicity.
'rl1is is by facilitating the comparison of th~~gs tha~ are
to be compared. If we wish to compare two v1s1ble objects,
&s the two harnfa, wo pln.co them toge~lwr, palm to palm o.!1-d
fingers to fingers. In liko mauncr, with tho vc~Lu.l doscnptions of things that have both agreement and difference, we
put the corresponding terms in corresponding places.
'In short Sir as I could at first see no reason for sending our troop~ to Flanders, ~nless it wa~ to furnish ministers
with a pretext to load us with the mamtenance. ~f 16,000
Ho.noverians so I now see no reason for our retammg them
there, unless' it be to afford a. pretext for continuing that

loatl.'

--_~

'It may be said that t~10 southern, western, ~nil n?rth·\vestern
of Europe are mountarnous ; the central }lorti~us lully o.nd un·
aoll\hng · o.nd tho eastern and south-eastern parts level. Here the three
1tatcnll'11ts are exactly balancecl ; and we can readily jmlge how much less
lntelligihlo the sentence would. be i~ t!1c. ba!an~o were dc1~artcd from,
whether hy inversion of order, or by d1ss1m1lanty m the wor<lrng.
.
•When brandy is exposed to intense cold, many degrees below wlmt is
ll«'t'll.Y-ty to freeze water, tho spirituous .portio1_l ;etaius ~ts ,liquid form,
anJ M'pnrrites from the aqueous part, winch ~ohd1fies as ice.
Clearness
wouhl ho f.1nine1l by introtluci11g a balance. mto tho latttir part :-'the
•1olrlt remnms li11uid, tho water becomes sohd (freezes); o.nd the two are
Uaua ecpnratcd '.
rorti~ns

•
• TI1e fine hnlnnr.e In Ute opening" of tho F.plRUe ~ thr llohrews-• Gml,illwho
I& 111n1try times '-i!I broken 11p in tho Revised Vors1011. Tile new form w be
· ...... much moro !litficult to rtimcmber.

68

BALANCE GIVING AGREEABLE SURPRISE.

THE SENTENCE.

1 The person best fitted by na~u~·e for acquiring tl~e P!uden~ial virt~1cs
ts not necessarily unfitted for acqmrmg the sympathetic virtues. Nothmg
could be better for intelligibility.
.
• . ,
• 'fhe usurpation which, in orclcr to subvert ancten~ ~nstitut10ns, hRS
destroyed ancient princivles, will hold power by .arts srnnlar to those hy
which it has acquired it.' The first half contnrns a terse balance ; !ho
second half might be improved :-'will use the same arts for holdmg
power, as for acquiring it',
• Monkeys are liable to the sa~e disea~es as we are : thus. Rc~tggcr~
who carefully observeJ for a long tune the [;clnts Amrm, found it hablc,
&c. Here the observer occupies the position where we ~houhl look for the
exemplary monkey:-' thus, the Cebus .Azarce, winch was carefully
. .
ol.iserved by Rcugger, was found --'.
• In America several hundreds of thousands of tl1e people w1t111n tlmo
years fell in mutual slan&hter; an~ ~orty ~h~usand within three day.s in
the end of last year fell m Bohemia. Tlns is so armngecl as to req111rc a
distinct ~!fort to follow each of the members; if their forms had been mnile
similar by means of Balance, the sccon~l would have lleen much more c.a~i~y
grasped. Thn.s : ' In A!nerica there tell several hnnilrc~l t~10usaml w1t~11!1
three years ; m Bohenua there fell for~y tl~?usand w1thm three da) S:
The specification of the three d~ys ns be~n& 111 the end of last year, 11
better omitted as interfering with the d1strnctness of the contrast. So
' 'in mutual slaughter '•
also the phrase,
0

9. The Balanced Structure may also contribute to
the Energy of the Sentence.
1 They think too little ancl they talk too much.'
This is
not clearer than would be the form, ' 'l'hey think too little,
while they are a great deal given to talking ' ; in so simplo
a case, the two forms of statement are equally clear. · llut
the first is more forcible.

This superior impressiveness or t~10 Balanced form can b.e ncco~rntcJ
for. When a secoml statemeut runs 111 the same form as one 1111meil1at"ly
preceding, the mind is partly relieved from the l'ffort uecded to follow tlie
new statement, and thus is better prepared to feel the power of the thought
itself.
In the following examples, the object aimed at by the Bnlnnro la
greater energy, though in some of them other effects are also secured;She's beautiful, and therefore to be wooed ;
She is a woman, therefore to be won.
God made the country, arnl man made the town.
c The king must be brave in the field, wise in the council, and
eloquent in the agora.'
'A man's first care should be to a.void the reproaches of his own heart;
his next, to escape the censures of the world.'
Tennyson has the following instance of a double balance, which add.
force to the thought : Oh what to her sl1all be the end 1
And what to me remains or good 1
To her, perpetual maidenhood:
And unto me, no second friend.

69

'In the common run of maukintl, for one that is wise ·and good, you
find ten of a contrary character.' This is clear enotwh : but there is
distinct gain of energy, when we put it in the balanced"'form 'you find
ten that are foolish and bad'.
'
'Wit should be used as a shield for defence, rather than as n sword to
wonnd others.' Perfect the balance thus : 'as a shield for defendiug ourselves, rather than as a sword to wound oth ers'.
' Every man calleth that which pleaseth, and is delightful to himself
good, and that evil which displeaseth him.' A weak sc.a ttered sentence'
obviously suggesting. bal~nce, a~d gai11i~1g from the change : ' Every ma~
calleth that ~ood which is pleasrng to hunself, and that evil which is dis·
pleasing to hun '.
'The blessings of fortune ore the lowest, the next are the bodily
nil vantages of stre~1gth and health ; but the superlative blessin[,~, in tine,
are those of the mmd.' Meant for a climax ; and the increase of force in
the successive clauses is better felt, when the balanced form is adopte1l :
'The lowest blessiugs are those of fortune ; the next are bodilv health and
strength ; but the superlative blessings are those of the mind l,

10. The Balanced Structure is employed to give a
shock of agreeable surprise.
When in spite of difference of matter, we find sameness
in form, there is an agreeable surprise, with admiration of
the ingenuity displaJ:ed. The subject being changed, we
count upo!l a change m the expre~sion ; and to fin<l it nearly
the same is to be roused to a certam degree of astonishment·
while deriving the other advantages of balance.
'
For short examples, we may cite :-• Might is right ' ;
'meddle and muddle' ; the Pope's blessing-• urbem et
orbem '. The sameness here is in the soun<l of the words ·
Uie ideas being wholly different.
'

11. .There is a species of this effect caused by
employmg the same words to an .altered meaning.
Pope's line-' And not a vanity is given in vain '-successfully plays upon the word ' vain,' so as to make it answer
for two meanings. So :- 1 repentance not to be repented
of'; 'numbers without number' ; 'more sinned aaainst
lhn.n sinning ' ; 1 the art of arts, and science of scien~es ' ·
•a fair day's wage for a fair day's work ' ; •unity in trinity'
&ncl trinity in unity ' ; ' here a little, and there a little
•Like likes like, and unlike likes unlike.'
' Such a condemnation will, indeed, extinguish these
men's voices for ever; but it cannot extinguish the voice of
truth.'
' What is Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba? '
'When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that we

<

\.~

--....·

.,. : w:

70

71

THE SENTENCE.

BALANCE AND EPIGRAM.

leave them.' There is pungent satire, in giving this turn to
the thought.
' Kings exist for the good of the people, not the people
for the good of kings.'
' He says what he means, and means what he says.'
'All that was not Persia was Greece : all that was not
Greece was Persia.' This balance has a logical bearing.

obverse iteration ; in. many instances, accompanied with
balance. (Chaps. 12, 13.)
'If you wish to enrich a person, study not to inc1·ease !tis
1fores, but to diminish his desires.'
' Words are the counters of wise men, and the money of
fools.'
'The laugher will be for those that have most wit, the
serious for those that have most reason.'
• Not that I loved Cmsar less, but that I loved Rome

A good example, containing a profound principle, is furnished by Cole·
rirlge :-' When we meet an apparent error in a good author, we are to
presume ourselves ignorant of !tis understanding, until we are certain that
we unfkrstand !tis ignorance '.
Senior says : 'Charity creates much of the misery it relieves, but Joos
not relieve all the misery it creates'.
Napoleon described the tactics of war as 'the art of being strongest
on a given point at a given time'.
' lllessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.'
An<l. Rome may bear the pride of him
Of whom hcrsdf is pro1ul.
Ilentlmm's celcbrate<l. expression of the en<l. of politir.s antl of morality
1
the greatest happiness of the greatest numb1!r 1-is balanced in sound, iu
grammar, an<l. in the recurren ce of the word 'greatest'.
'The right man in the right place.'
The poet is 'Dowered with the hate of hate, the scorn of scom, the
love of love.' (Tennyson.)
'Mau desires not only to be loved, bnt to be lovely.'
' ?ifau proposes, God disposes,' is a balance in the termination of the
l1alancc<l. wonls. A so, ' Cll'anliness is next to godliness',
'Chronic diseases must have chronic cures.'
'When you cannot <lo what you like, the next best thing is to like
what you do.'
'His (Burke's) declamations against declaimers, his sophistical attarb
upon sophistors, the contempt which he, tho cco110111ical reformer, nffccll
fur economists and calculators, would move a smile if we did not know
how terrible their effects had been.'
' Morality is religion in i•ractice, as religion is morality in principlr.'
(Wardlaw.)

12. When one statement is the repetition of another
in the obt'erse, the balanced form has all the advantngca
already described.
In an obverse decln.rntion, the equivalent fact is stntccl
from the opposite side: • heat relaxes the system ; cold
braces it'. •Light cheers; darkness depresses.' 'l'ho follow·
ing from Bacon combines this mode of antithesis with tho .
balance : ' Prosperity doth best discover vice, but aclversity
doth best discover virtue '. So, •To buy in the cheapen
market, and sell in the dearest '.
The style of the Proverbs of Solomon makes use of .

more.'

13. The effect of surprise is increased when there
is a. play upon words amounting to Epigram.
Epigram is a figure of speech to be afterwards fully
explained. It works by an apparent contradiction, which
arouses our attention until we are able to see through it.
The balance is frequently made to co-operate with the
effect.
•What's everybody's business is nobody's' : a seeming
contradiction, which, by a little thought, we are able to
explain; while the form renders it impressive.
'Justice's justice' is a biting epigram, enhanced by the iteration of

\he word.

'Diamonds cut diamonds.'
Set a thief to catch a thief.'
'Little things are great to little men.'
'lie did not mean to sacrifice himself, in order to save himsclf'-iR an
·;:. Ingenious saying npplic<l to Lonl Shel11ornc by lloraco Walpole. There ifl
1 contradiction that needs to bo rc11olvcd in the words 'sncrificod • aud
'aved '.
Mnny epigrams turn upon the use of contrndictory words in apparent
•mencss of circumstance. 'Good interest is bad security.' 'l'he 011posi·
&Ion of ' good ' and ' bad' makes the epigram.
.
'The right divine of kings to govern wrong '-is a play upon tho
tpposition of 'right' and 'wrong'.
'We agree to differ '-is a terse combination of balance and epigram.
1
Art is long, life is short' (ars longa, vita brevis).
llurko's well-known palliation of the old French reqim.e-that under
II. 'vice lost half its evil, by losing all its grossness'-is bllance pointed by
....mm.
'A new wny to pny ohl dchts' ; 'tho hrgi11ni11g of tho Nlll' ; 'small
Lttin 111ul less lln·ck '.
:il'
'Whon reason is against a mnn, he will be ngainst reason,' is a
. '-lanrc<l epigram turning on the identical proposition.
. .~
' Ile should consider often, who can choose but once,' makes a point
.~ ·et &he opposition of 'often' and 'once'.
. .
'Frequently we are undcr::1too<l. least by those that have known us
1

f. , ..lffL'

.

.
,.

72

EXAMPLES OF BALANCE.

THE SENTENCE.

properly employed, are very great, it is one of those
devices of Style that require to be used with caution.

' High life below stairs.'
'He can buy, but he cannot gain ; he can bribe, but he caunol
seduce ; lie can lie, hut he ca1111ot deceive.'
JI Pl ps quotes from Son they the balanced an<l sarcastic iunucmlo, 1 llll ii
a nuni b~r of worldlings made a world',

'l'he chief cautions that need to be observed are two. In
the first place, it should be used only when there is a call
for it in the nature of the thought ; that is, when there is a
real correspondence between the meanings of the clauses.
The piquancy of its effect and the pleasure it gives to the
ear are apt to lead writers to use it when there is no real
similarity or contrast to be brought out; an<l then the effect
is to give the sentences an artificial appearance, to weaken
their impression, and it may be to obscure tho sense. This
is often the case with Johnson ; with whom the Balanced
Structure appears as a mannerism or habit rather than as a
means towards the better expression of the thought. (See
au instance under !JJiscellaneous Examples.)
In the second place, it must not in any circumstances be
nsctl to excess. 'l'his is sometimes the case with Macaulay's
employment of Balance, even though his sentences in themsclves are usually forcible. It is a rule that all strong effects
ahould be used with moderation.

. When the end in view is a pointed expression of
Difference, balance is turned to good account ; as in Pope's
comparison of Homer and Virgil, and in the analogous contrast of Dryden and Pope by Johnson :-' Homer was tho
greater genius, Virgil the better artist; in the one, we mos'
admire the man; in the other, the work'.
Though rlccp Y"'l clear, though gentle yet not dull ;
Strong without rage, without o'erflowiug full.

14. To the above specified effects of Balance, wo
must add that it pleases the ear.
The sound of a sentence, apart from its meaning, may
also be improved by Balance. The mind feels pleasure in
the perception of symmetry in any object; and so the ear it
pleased by the sound of successive clauses corresponding to
each other in form and in length. This effect of Bain.nee i1
widely felt, and often loads to the adoption of the Conn
when it serves no other pmpose. It was remarked under
NUMBER OF WORDS (p. 34) that Hebrew parallelism often
uses Balance in form along with contrast or similarity in
thought ; and the pleasing effect of the parallelism is aiJcJ
by this appeal to the ear.

15. In very brief utterances, an effect 1s gained b1
reversing the balanced order.
The need for the balance is less, as the expressions IN
short; and a deviation may be made to advantaae.
.' Bad in it~elf, but represented wm·se ' ; ' Pn~yer all his
busmess, all his pleasure praise ' ; ' The bad affright, nOlid
the best ' ; ' Come Jike shadows, so depart ' ; 1 Pmisc<l iD
extremes, and in extremes decried.'
The following would not be improved by pushing tht
balanc~ farther:-' Objects shocking in the reality, nru bt
dramatw, representatio!l the. source of a high specie• ol
pleasure . Other cons1derat10ns enter into the case ns will
be illustrated afterwards.
'

16. While the advantages of the Balancell Stn1cturt.·.;,_ ~.

73

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
A few miscellaneous i11stanccs will i1111strntc the nature and <>ffrcts of
Mlftn1>c more genernlly, and, at the same time, slww how a slight chonge
aay often cousidcrnbly aid the sense by pcrfrcti11f? the hnlnn cetl strncturt>.
'Superstition is the disease of nations, cnthmnasrn tl111t of i1Hlivid11alR;
the former grows inveterate by time, the latter is cmc1l by it.' (Rohcrt
It.II.) In the second part, 'by time' is corn111on to both members, while
lu «'mphnt.ic pince at the end of the clause su!!gests a contrast. Say : 1 by
.. ('le of time the former grows inveterate, while the latter is cured'.
'The si1lcs of the monntain were covered-with trees ; the banks of the
\irook were diversified with flowers ; every blast shook spices from the
rod;s; and every month dropped fruits upon the ground.' Herc there are
•
In l'nirs, <>nch fully balanced in itself.
llut their effect is weakened by
. llitir ro111Lination into one sentence ; 'every blast' and • every month '
. 6Jling the pince where we expect some new portion of the scene to he
•m"l. These two clauses might be brought into balance with the first

'"'

'Trh·inl circumstances, wl1icl1 show the mnnners of tlie age, are oftC'n
h1Rtrndivc, ns well as entertaining, than the great trnmactions of
an1l nrgotintio11s, which are uearly similar in all conn tries niul nil
1'"i0olM of the world.' Here we have a contrast gn'ntly improvc1l hy
~m·o : '1'/ic trittial circumstances of social l~/'c, u·ldch show the m.C1n11crs
fl•"' ngt and country, nre often more instrncti\'c allll eutertai11i11g tlrnn the
lr1111sactions of governments, which are nearly tlte same in all ages and
llOl'e

•va

"'
0
••

•

,,...,

' fffUllrit.t '

"

'1'h;re nre two distinct sorts of wl1nt wo cnll unsl1fnlness : tliil',

11111

·--. ~--

74:

THE SENTENCE,

awkwardness of a booby, which a few steps into the worltl will convert into
the p ertness of a coxcomb; that, a consciousne~s, wl1ich the most delicate
feelings produce, nnd the most extensive knowledge cannot always remove.'
Tho second membe1· invites a full balance with the first; instead ofwhieh,
the writer is content with one of less consequence within the clause itself.
Better: 'the one, the awkwardneRs of a booby, which a few steps into the
world will convert into the llf'rtness of a coxcomb ; the other, the 1JClr.
consciousness of delicnte feeling, which tho most extensive knowlc<lge
cannot always remove',
'fhe next example ls different.
'A beautiful eye mnkes silenre
eloquent ; n kind oyo makes co11trn11irlion nu m•sc11t. ; nu 1•11rngctl eye
makes beauty deformed.' (A1hlison.) H ore the balance, in the form or
the sentence, is complete; but the gain is doubtful.
Jn point of fact, it
needs nn effort to grasp the three separate ideas thus brought into corn·
parison ; there is no natural correspondence among the thoughts el·
111·essed. The meaning would be clearer without the comparison. It ii a
case of balance acting as a hindrance rather than a help.
' I<indness is preserved by a constimt reciprocation of benefits or inftt·
change of pleasmes ; hut such benefits only can be bestowe<l ns othen1 an
capable to receive, arnl such pl easures only imparted ns others are quRlifi,.I
to enjoy.' (J oh11 son.) A perfect ualnn ce ; but here again tho (111rstion
comes up as to what good there is in it bcyoud pleasing the car by th•
sameness of the rhythm. Bc11cfils and pleasures arc closely allic1l ; whNru
they are here treated in such a way as to !mggest some important 11i~tinc·
tion. In such a form as the following, the diguilied rhythm i11 lo~t, but
the meaning inten1lccl is better conveycll: 'Kindness is preserved b1 a
constant interchange of benefi ts and pleasures ;-but for this end only 1ud1
favours must be bestowed ns others arn able to appreciatti ••

DISTRIDUTION OF EMPHASIS.

17.' Under

Wonns, it is pointed out that
the emphatic positions of a sentence are (1) tho end,
and (2) the beginning.
The proper arrangement of a sentence is dotcnnined
accordingly.
In order to make out the emphatic portions of a MD•
tonce, we must first scan its meaning and purpose.
0RDBR OF

18. The subject and the predicate of 11 sentcn~
being equally essential, have the same intri11sic iru·
portance; but occasions arise for giving a greater attention to one or the other.
Thus, when a subject has already been the grnuml of
several affirmations, and is renewed for the sn.ko or oat
more, the stress lies exclusively on the predicate ; and &ht
position of emphasis is awarded accordingly.

75

BEGINNING OF THE SENTENCE EMPHATIC.

In like manner, if the predicate has been made familiar,
while the subject is novel, the stress of attention falls on
the subject.
Moreover, a difference in respect of simplicity or intelligibility would have to be considered; the place of greatest
emphasis being given to whichever part needs the most
o.ttention,

19. The Principnl Run.mcT of a Fmntcnce shonld
have a certain degree of J_H'OH1i11011ee; thnt iH, it H110ul<l
not be displaced by accessory or subordinate circum·
stances.
It should, therefore, be either at the beginning, or
at the end.
I. The Beginning:-' Learning taketh away the wildness, barbarism, and fierceness of men's minds'.
' The ju.dgment.<1 which we pass internally upon the rectitude or pravity of actions are immediate and involuntary.'
Although the height of emplmsis is renchcd at the close
of the sentence, many circumstances concur in placing the
subject first and the predicate last. In imparting information, as in science, this always appears the most natural
order; so that to depart from it is accounted an inversion,
and needs to be specially justified.
'l'he rule of giving the main subject the preference in
position to its accessories has few exceptions.
This sentence occurs in Gol1lsmith. 'Nature, with most b<>neficent
Intention, conciliates and forms the mi11d of man to his condition.' Here
the iirincipal sul1jcct (as the context shO\vs) is not naturr, but 'the mind
of mRn'; accordingly, the preforable arrangement is:-' The mind of man
h, bf Nature's beneficent mtention, conciliated and fol'med to its condi·

Uoo.

·::::

•

·

'fo quote onot11er example:-' Homer's hcnutiful description of t110
lwucns, ns they appear in a cnlm evening by the light of the moon and
sta111, concl111les with this circumstance-" and the heart of the shepherd
.. f?ln1l ". ltfndame Dncfor, from the tum Rhe givci1 to tho passage in her
1"t11ion, SC'ems to think, and l'opc, in onler to make out his couplet,
lntinunt~s, that the gladness of tl1e shepherd is owing to his sense of the
llilily of those luminaries.' Now, in the second sentence, the prominence
• JCin11, not to the main theme of the sentcnr.r., which is 'the gladness
el the shephenl,' but to l\fadame Dacier nnd Pope. The desirable order
lrOUh! be : 'The gla1lncss of the shepherd seems to be attributed by
Ma.lame Dacier, from the turn she gives to the passage, and by Pope, in
•Irr 1wrh11ps to make out his couplet, to the sense of the utility of these
a.111i11nries '.

,
1
.
'

76

THE SENTENCE.

' The Sfftk wns made, uniler the prrtence of serving it, in reality, the
prize of their contention, to eac'h of those upposite parties, who professed
m specious terms, the one, a preference for moderate Aristocracy, the
other, a llesire of admitting the people at large to an equality of civil
pri\•ileges.' As amendecl by Whately, the sentence runs thus : 'The two
opposite parties, who professed, in specious terms, the one a preference for
moderate Aristocracy, the other a desire of admitting the people at large
to an e')uality of civil privileges, made the State, which they pretended to
serve, m reality the pl'ize of their contention'. 'fhe improvement la
manifest. The principal su~jl'ct, 'the two opposite parties,' is brought
to the beginning ; the principal prcclicatc (made the State the prize of
their contl'ntion) is l)laced at the end, and the structure is rendered
petiodic.
Again : 1 It is not without a degree of patient attention, greater than
the generality are willing to bestow, though uot weater than the object
deserves, that the habit can be acquired of examimng and judging of our
own conduct with the same accuracy and impartiality as that of another'.
Altered thus (by Whately) :-' The habit of examining our own conduct
98 accurately as that of e.nothf'r, and juclging of it with the same impar·
tiality, cannot be acquired without a degree of patient attention, not
greater in<lecd than the ohject deserves, but greater than the generality
are willing to bestow'. 'fhe change consists in beginning with the prin·
cipal subject. The sentence is unavoidably loose ; any attempt to sn11o
pend it by t11rowing the verb 'ac9uircd ' to the end would probabl1
cause, in the shape of artificial invers10n, a worse evil than the looseness.
'No great painters trouble themselves about perspective, and very
few of them know its loss ; they try everything by the eye, and natnrnlly
enough dh1dain in the easy parts of their work rules which cannot help
them in difficult cases' (Ruskin). The subject of the whole is 'perspec·
tive,' not 'great painters,' as the render might imagine; hence the M'D·
tence would be better thus: 'Perspective is not much attended to by any
of the great painters, and very few of them feel its loss'. So also in the
second part, the emphnsis is really on 'the eye,' which might hn\'e Ix-to
brought out thus: 'It is by the eye that they try everything, dis1lni11ing
the aid in easy parts of rules that cannot help them in 1liflicult cases'.
'Criticism goes bar.k for nrun!'s worthy to be put in competition with
hi~ to the first great masters of dramatic invention.' Here 'names worthy .
of being put in competition' is the main subject of thought, but it n~
not be made the gramnrntiral subject in order to give it prominence. Tbt
purpose will be suffi, iently served by inversion : 'For Ill\mes worthy to be
put in competition with his, criticism goes back,' &c.

EMPHASIS AT THE END.

million,' is equally effective thus:-' For illustration, a
dozen will do as well as a million '.
A passage already quoted as an example of the period
('Accustomed to a land-') shows also that the principal
subject may follow a participial clause.
On the maxim of introducing qualifying adjuncts before
the thing qualified, such an arrangement would be justifiable
and regular.
An adverbial phrase put in the beginning acquires importance as a qualifying adjunct; its function being to affect
Lho ontire sentence.
Not unfrequently, the important part of tho subject is
couched in an adverbial phrase, or other qualification.
See the opening of Paradise Lost:-' Of man's first disobeuience '. 'l'his is the really prominent circumstance
in the sentence, and is placed first, without being the grammatical subject.*
'l'he following may be amended on this principle :
• Fo.thors in old time, among the noble Persians, might not
do with their children as they thought good, but as the
jmlgment of the commonwealth always thought best'.
Say: • Of old time, among the noble Persians, fathers
might not,' . &c.

21. III.-For special reasons, at the End.
'On whatever side we contcmpln.to Homer, whn.t principally strikes us is his wvnrlmfut i uvcutivn.' 'l'his is an
arrangement for suspending the interest, by not disclosing
&ho mn.in idea till the very end.
-,,
,
• '!'here is not, and there never was, on this earth, a
·. work of human policy so well deserving of examination as

IM lloman

Catlwlfr Church.'

•On seeking for some clue to the law underlying these
carrcnt maxims, we may see shadowed forth in many of

20. II.-After an adverbial phrase or clause, or
some statement evidently subsidiary.
The prominence of the principal suhjcct is not nffoctod
by qualifying phrases or clauses that are ma11ifostly such.
' In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and
Ethiopia, the Araln'an pen£mm1a may be conceiverl as a
triangle of spacious but irregular dimensions.' 'l'ho BCD•_,."'1: •
tence- 1 A dozen will do, for illustration, as well as I -f.

77

ll~m, Ilic importance of economising the render's atte11ti1111.'

~

Hero, ns often happens, the principal subject is not tlie
p•.mmn.ticn.J subject of the verb. 'l'he writer intornls to put
i& lut, and he accordi11gly mn.kes it a gmll111mLic1tl ohjocL,
ud so, without an inversion, secures for it that position.
•A. ~of thl!< kind Is furnished by the followin~ example from Cicero: ~ Aarn
~,., ,,., polc&t cue nccnon 11/leri-ua nee specie ornali-us •. The real subject is conla I.he cln.use agro btru: cullo.
[j

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,

.,
78

THE SENTENCE.

' The wages of sin is death.'
'Whereby are given unto us exceeding great and precious pro1nises.'
' Profligate was that coalition.'
' Still more perplexing is the account of the socond
battle.'
'The soul of wit is brem'l!J.'
'A little knowledge is a do.ngerous thing.'. The emphn11i1
of position is better in Lo.tin-' Periculosa est scientia
parva' :-' Dangerous is knowledge in small amounts'.
Take the following longer example : ' In our senrrh
after God and contemplation of Him our wisdom doth con·
sist; in our worship and obedience to Him, our rolii.tion
doth consist ; in both of them our happiness doth consiHt '.
Obviously there is much too great emphasis on 'com1isL'
in all three clauses ; the important words aro ' wisdom,'
'religion,' and 'happiness,' and their importance is increasl'd
by their being brought into comparison with each other. 1'
is a case for throwing the subject to the end : ' In our
search after God and contemplation of Him consists our
happiness,' &c.
22. The

PREDICATE

of the Sentence is necessarily a

principal ; nnd receives a, pln.ce corresponding to ill
importance in the special case.
The usual position of the Predicate, at least in proee,
being at the end , its emphasis is thereby secured. Inversion does not necessarily deprive it of this advantage, provided due attention is given to the circumstance next to bt
dwelt upon.
' I can hinder sorrow from becoming despair and mad·
ness; and laughter is one of the very privileges of reM<>n,
being confined to the human species.' The proper emphuia
of the predicate is here <li>erted to a mere explanatory
clause. Say: 'laughter, "Which is confined to the huUWI
specie~, is one of the •ery prfrileges of reason '.
'Of all the amusements "hich can possibly be imaginoo
for a hard-working man, after his daily toil, or in its inter·
vals, there is nothing like reading an entertaining ·book,
suppMing him to ham a taste for it, n.nd supposing him to
•ha vo tho book to read.' Tho force of the predicate is largely · '."'.
weakened by two heavy clauses, coming in at the end. 1'ho ·it:

EMPHASIS ACCORDING TO IMPOHTANCE.

79

best cure would be to finish the sentence at 'book,' and

carry the matter of these clauses into a separate sentence.*

23. As both Subject and Predicate often contain
numerous particulars, the positions of emphasis ought
to be occupied by the most important.
A subordinate, · accessory, or insignificant phrase or
clause should not occupy the places where our attention is
at its greatest.
' Every attempt to dispense with axioms has proved un·
1uccessful; somewhere or other in the process assumed
lheorems have been found.' In the latter clause, the unimportant word ' found ' has usurped the place of prominence
that was wanted to 'assumed,' on which the real force of
the remark hinges. Either the adverbial phrase ' somewhere or other in the process' should have been delayed,
IO as to begin with 'assumed'-' assumed theorems have
been found in the process somewhere or other,'-or the sentence should run,-' somewhere or other in the process
lhere are found theorems that are assumed'.
''l'hat our elder writers to Jeremy 'l'aylor inclusive
f{UOtcd to excess, it would be the very blindness of parla&lity to deny.' 'l'ranspose the clauses: 'It would be the
ftl')' blindness of partiality to deny that our elder w1·iters
poietl to excess'.

'Nor is the reason which has led to the establishment
ol this moral law d~ffecult to be discerned.' 'l'he words ' difficult to be discerned ' arc not the emphatic words of the
1entence. Better-' nor is it difficult to discern the reason
Uiat has led to the establishment of this moral law '.
' And the convertibility of the ordinary mode of descrip·
lion with this new one may be easily shown in any ca:;e.'
•And it is easy to show in any case the convertibility of the
ordinary mode of description with tMs new one.'

'The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with
him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled.' More em·
pht~tic thus:-' Virgil has justly contested with him tho
• The following instance will show how inversion of the Pre<licate or a part of
ff l1110mctimes the best way to bring out the emphasis. 'They hehl their peace,
and glorified God, ea.yin~, Then lrn.tli Uod also to the GentileR grnnte1l repentance
anto life.' The empha1ns lies on 'to the Uentiles ' and such alRo ie the c1111e in tho
Oreek; hence the llevised Ve1·sion has restored the correct emphasis thus: 'Th: n
lo Lhe Oeutiles also hath God grnnttld repentance unto life'. (Acts xi. 18.}

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80

TITE SENTENCE.

praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled his inven·
tion '.
·
'He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he
undertakes; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to
maintain one.' Amended:-• For, to maintain one, he must
invent twenty 11w1·e ',
' Both Greeks and Romans drew prognostics from prodigies: that is to say, from rare natural appearances;
among which comets, meteors, and eclipses held an important vlace ';-'among which an important place was hel<l
by comets, meteors, and eclipses '.
·
In the following sentence, as the emphasis rests on tho
conditional clauses, these are with obvious good effect given
last :-• Of what consequence are all the qualities of a
doctrine, if that doctrine be not communicated ; and com·
municated it is not, if it be not understood?'
The next is from Paley :-•Amongst the causes assigned
for the continuance and diffusion of the same moral sentiments among mankind, we have mentioned imitation'. This
· is as it ought to be. He continues, • The efficacy o~ this
principle is most observable in children '; here too an im·
portant word occupies the close.
' Which of you, with taking thought, can add to his
stature one cubit?' The emphasis here is on •one cubit,'
as making the strong point of the interrogation.*
'The author of this essay has reason for believing
himself to be the first person who brought the word
utilitarian into use': 'who brought into use the word
utilitarian '.
' E~menes, a young man of great abilities, inherited a
large estate from a father long eminent in conspicuous em·
ployments ' : place ' a large estate ' at the end, as the mos'
emphatic circumstance.
'That there is some remaining vigour in the old mn.n'e
system is clear.' Better-' Clearly, there is, in the olJ
man's system, some remaining vigour'.
'Richard's himself again,' is well arranged for tho
sound ; the most emphatic order would be 'Richard's ngaiu
himself',
*This Is the form of the sentence in the authorised version or J,nko xii . ts:
In lllatthew vi. 27, it is rendered differently : • Which of you, by taking tlwu~ht, nut
add one cubit unto his st!ltnre ?' The emphasis of the Greek is in hoth ln~ll\11<'81
wh!lt is 11t.'tted 1tbove. In the Revised Version, tho1111h the two pas~n~es nre broqht
Into the snme form, it is not the form that agrees with the true emplm11is,

EMPHATIC ENDINGS.

81

A similar criticism might be applied to 1 So much for
Buckingham'. Buckingham mighh properly be put first as
o. subject already known, and his fate would then make the
proper circumstance for the close: 'For Buckingham, so
much'. The original order has the advantage of bringing
'so much' into closer connection with the antecedent fact.
Richard's command •off with his head,' might have
been, for a similar reason, • head off'. We are accustomed
to the expression 'ham.ls off,' which is the form of highest
emphasis.
HatHlsome is, tlrnt hnmlsome does.

• Wait here for First Class ' : ' For First Class, wait
hcl'e '.
• Chaos umpire sits': ' sits Chaos umpire'.
As what ho secs is, so have his thoughts been.

The rhythm is excellent, but neither balance nor emphasis is at its best: 'As is what he has seen, so is what
he has thought,' would realise both qualities, although, in
the circumstances, not necessarily to be preferred.
Here will I lie to-night,
But where to-mo:Tow 1

There is both emphasis and balance in this terse utterance ;
probably, however, the 'here' and 'where,' have an emphasis slightly higher than the words of time-' to-night,'
1
to-morrow'. The 'but ' is uncalled for; and the arrangement might beTo-m"gltt my rest is lwrc,
To-morrow-wlw·e 1

• Confi<lcnce is a pln.nt of slow growtJ.1, in agml bosoms':
loose, as well as wanting in emphasis. ' In aged bosoms,
confidence is a plant that grows slowly': 'the growth of
confidence is slow '. ,
-Cassio, I love thee,
But never more be officer of mine.

This is highly effective.
cise of comparison-

We may try a change, as a11 exer-

- I lovo thee, Cassio,
Ilut officer of mine be never more.

'The making of England,' as a title, is very impressive;
still more so would be-• England in the making'.
Tho following are additional examples .to show how attention to em·
pbasis improves a sentence, both in clearness ancl in force.

82

EMPHATIC PLACING IN LATIN.

THE SENTENCE.

. 'The c.~mquest of Royalists ~as no! his (Cromwell's) only service, m
Ins.only claun to supreme }lO\~· er. 'Nmther his only service, nor his onl1
da1m to supreme power, co11s1stcd in the conquest of Ro!Jalists.'
1
•
What else could induce the sensualist to squander his all in di11sip:i
I!on and debauchery ? to. rush on min certain and foreseen 1' The invcr.
s10.n of the usual adj ective order is he~e npfroprin.to, since it is in these
a<IJechves that the force of the question 1s rea ly expressed.
' When once enthusiasm has been turned into ridicule, everything u
undone, except money and power.' This is the best order, if wo go on to
speak mor~ fully of the exception thus mado ; but, if the exception be
?nly a pas~mg remark, we should. say, 'everything but money and power
Is undone .
'There is no talent so useful towards rising in the world, or whirb
puts men more, out £?f the reach of fortune, t~1an discretion, a 11pr.cil'8 of
lower prudnnco (Swift). Hero the sentence is oxccllcutly 111T111irrc1l for
throwing nil tl!e str~ss on 'discretion' as the subject at· the end; and
then the effect 1s spoiled by a loose phrase of ex{llanation tagged on. Sa71
'than the species of lower prudence that we ea l discretion '.
'That is the best part of beauty which a picture cannot expl't'a'
(Bacon). Amend: 'winch cannot be expressed by a picture ' the emph..
i;is being on 'picture' as opposed to reality.
'
'l'age 12 contains an exercise whieh shoulcl ]1ere be done.' Tho true
emphash1 lies on 'here,' as indicating the special tiruu for doing it 1
'which should be done hero'.
. ' In all ages'. and all co111.1tries, man, through tho disposition hn in·
bents from. ~ur hrst parents, ts more desirous of a quiet and appro,·inK.
than o~ a v!g1la.nt and t.cm~er ?onscience.' '!'he. emphasis is on '1pliot and
approvrng, as 1s el11ms1ly 1111hcatcd hy the 1tahes. Try a better armngprn ent : ' is not so dPsirous of having a conscience vigilant and tender, al
that it should be quiet and approvi11g '.
·w hen two things are put into comparison, tho more important d..
serves the pl.ace of emphasis:-' Mechanical arrangement appmus to han
even more rnfluence upon diathennnucy than chemical composition•:
'chemical composition has less influence than mechanical arranpment '.
'Disapprobation or ridicu1o, from our sensitiveness on this heed.
causes .shyness and blushing much more readily than approbation' : 'Al:"
probat10!1 does not cause shyness so readily as disapprobation or riilicul1 •
'Science opposes to God Nature' (Seeley). 'l'he two emphatic •otdl
are 'God' and 'Nature,' scion co being the general subject of discoura
Say therefore, 'to God science opposes Nature'.
''Vithout sneering, teach the rest to sneer.' The second 'snfff'
should !'ot be in the place of emphasis. In a vrose rendering, we l"OllW
exemplify the proper empliasis thus:-' Without sneering him&C:.Jr, M
could teach sneering to the rest '.
In such simple sentences as 'There you are ' ''Vhat can the matllf
he,' it depends on the sense whether th!J verb ~r the complement 11hoU&
be last. When it is a question of existence or non-existence, the nrb •
tho emphatic wo1·d-,.' Who wonhl not laugh, if such a man thrfll "'I'
When the stress lies on the complcmcut, it is difl'crcut-' Who would Mt
weep if Atticus were h.e '.
There is a si!nil~r difference between 'there you are,' nnd 'thtf9 IN "
vou 1 : the one s1gmfies the fact of existence, the other puts 11trtt1 a. .
\

83

the party namecl by •you ' : it is you that are there and not any one else.
The same with ' so you are ' an d. so are yo1 t' •
, •
•Dust thou art, and unto dust. shalt thou retttrn, IS a per~ect and
proper balance. But if the first clause stood. alone, the emphasis would
pro11crly fall upon 'dust'.
Reneilth the starry threshold of Jove's court
My mansion is•
}
.1
I •
'
t
The sense probably would reqmre t 10 oru~r- ,•s ~1,y mansion :
•Let thei·e be light and there was hght • lhe emphasis here is on
the creative energy ex1;rossed by the verb of existence-' be'. Amended
by Sir W. Hamilto~-' Be there light, and light.there was'. ~he changll
does not 0 far enough-' Light let there be, hght there was: ~hort~r
ltill-Anl God said-' Light DE' ; Light IS. ~he first c~ause is given m
quotation l\!I the Deity's commnml ; the seco111l 1s .a 1~arratlvo of tho result,
uing the historic present, fut· tho sake of cmph11.s1s, mstead of the past-

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Examples from Latin.-The elassi?al languages have. an nlmos.t ttn·
limilctl power of arranging the words 111 a sentence. Tins power is fro·
quently used for the periodic construction.; not so often f~r emphatic
placing of important words. The suspension of the. verb till the last,
which is tho usual way of making tho period, clashes with the other effect.
A few examples may be quoted in illustration. ·
Cresar's opening senten?e ~as alread;r been. remarked ~~on, uud~r
Brevity ; we now adduce 1t m connect10n with emphas1s ·-:- Gal.ha
f.1t omnis di visa in partes tres '.
~'ho sentence l?rope~ly begms w1th
Oallia as the subject. The empha~1s of, the vred~eate 1s .on the words
• partes tres,' and more especially on tres ; and tins al.so. 1s s~eured hy
tile arrnngement adoptetl. Compar~ Lear, 1 Wo lrnve. <~1v11l~d mto t~rcc
ecar kingtfom' : still better-' Our kmg1lom l1av~ wo d1v1tled i nto three .
The opening sentences in. the Annals of Tacitus are-' Urbe~ H?m~~
a rrincipio regcs habuero. L1bertatem et consulatum L. Il!ut.11~ mshtmt.
The order for emphasis would be-;-' l!rb.em Romam, ,a pr111c1p10, habucrc
rrgu. Libcrtatem et .eonsulatum ms.titmt L. Bmtus.
.
.
The classical wnters are not without examples of effective placmg,
11 in this from 'l'acitus on the death of Vitellius :--: 'nee q~1is,qu1lm a<leo
nrum humanarum immemor, quern no~ commoveret illa.facics •
Virgil abounds in effective collocations: The allusion to Leander in
IM third book of the Georgics is introduced thus : Quid juvenis, magnum cui versat in ossibus ignem
Duras amor 1

T1tt empltntic words t.'lke the place of emphasis, and tho very subsidiary
nrb ' vcrsat ' is kept in the ~iddlo.

.
. .
Agnin, we have, in Statius, a famous Imo, g1vmg a theory of tho
.-fgin of religion : Primus in orbe Dcos fccit timor.
1'1te emphatic word ~s t!'.nw~, nnd tho pl~cing of. Dcos first, would still
lu\hor improve tho d1stn~ut~on of ~mplms1s.
. . •
In .Mr. Arthur Sidgw1ck s eclt.t10n o~ t.ho first l~ook of tlw. A?nci1, it ts
w.atketl that the first sentence gives with emphasis tho leadmg p~mts of
IM poom. 1'he first line, however, is too over-crowded for emphasIS : Arma. virnmque cano, Troire qui primus ab oris.

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82

THE SENTENCE.

'The conrp1est of Royali~ts was not his (Cromwell's) only service, m
l1is only claim to supreme power.' 'Neither hiii 011ly setTice, nor his onl1
rlaim to supreme poll"cr, consisted in tl1 c co111111cst ef Royalists.'
'What ebe could induce the sensualist to squander liis all in dissiJl3
tion and debau chery ; to rush on ruin certain and foreseen .I' The inver.
siou of the usual adjective order is 11ere appropriate, since it is in these
adjectives that the force of the question is really expressed.
' \\"hen Oll<'C enthu~bsm 11as Leen tunwtl iuto ridicule, everything is
uni lone, except money and power.' This is the best ort!cr, if we-go on to
speak more fulJy of the exception thus made ; but, if the exception be
only
a passing remark, we should say, 'e\•erythi11g but money aud power
iii
undone',

'you ' • it is yon that are there and not any one else.
·, and • so arc yn11 ',
,
The same with so you lre
dnst. sh·dt thou 1·ct11-tn,' ts a perfect nrnl
'Dust
thou art,
nn fi~st ~l~~s~ stood alone, tho emphasis would
rropcr
balanee.
But ~~\1
t
ie
properly fall upon 'dust'.
,
n
. th tl1e starn•
threshold of Jove s court
pCTIC,\
v
.My mansion is.
, •
Id 10
. nire the onfor-' is my manA1on :
The sense probably wou
'1
r It' 'l'he empha.s1s here is on
'Let there be light, and there! was l1g if 'xistcnce-' Le ', AmetJdt•tl
'I'I
l
·
ex11rcsscd by t 1e VAr 1 0 e. ·
the creative e1rn:gy,
, U ti
l'ght nnd lirrltt there was'.
ie L' rnngc
Ly Sir W. Hanulton- o, \cr~t \et there b~, light there was '.- ~hort?r
<l()('R not go far enough-:- Lg '
I . } t 1a The first cb1rnn is g1vrm m
. 1
IL
l (-, l . I 'I 1ght BF: • .1g l ,,,
1till-Anc ,oc A~lH .- , '
.
,] iH fl uarrnfivo o f lI 1e r< 'H llt ,
•
tl J) •tlv S f'O lll ! JJ:lll• t '· ti.,
IL Sf COil
q11()l11twn il~ - JC~. c ; __
.' l· f emphasis iustcad of tic IJas U->ill.ll: the histunc l're~ent, 1ut t 1lC sa ~c o
'

the party

'There is no talent Ro useful towards rising in tl1e worlt!, or whirh
puts men more ont of the reach of fortuue, tl1a11 di.~crctinn, a AjH·deM u(
lower p1wJ"11ce' (Swift). Herc thn sonte1wc is cxrnllrmtJ.r arr:rn~cd for
throwing nJI th e s!n•ss 011 'disere(in11' as tJic Slti•_j"ct :it t/Je r•11.); 1\tJ U
t lien the rffr'l't .i s qioiJ.,rf by a louse 1_>lirase of e_i.:/•l;i~fltinr: t;il]gcd .-,11. Sfly :
'thn n 1lH· ·'l-":Clcs uf lower pntdt>rtr ·p thrit wr c.·i t rf1'n"t 1r_>n .
'Tha t is tl1t> l,t>~t part nf ).,•a11t.r wliir'h a pid11rn cnunnt cxprl's~'
(Daron). Anwnd: 'whkh c:innot he CXJ>!t•s,-:,.,I l>y a picturc,' the crnpha.
sis being on 'J• idure ' as opposed tn rr·ality
'l'a!._'.e J :2 contaiJJs an excrcisi; 11 lii<'l1 should hrrc hr donr.' The trne
enij1hasi-l_ li1·s 011 'Ji ere,' a.Q indicating thP sprci:il tinll' for dui11g it :
'w 1ich ~1 1 011!.J he dnuc licrc '.

Thero is a similar difference between •there you are,' and 'there are
·ou': the one signifies the fact of existc11ce, the other puts stress upon

'

n~me d, b Y

t

~-- ~ ~

:~
-~

--

las~ical

'In all ilges, ~nd all countrie.Q, llliln, thrnngh the dispo.,itin11 he in.
hcrits fro m our Jirst parent,;;, is more dr-irn11s of n q11irt and approving,
than of a. vigilaHt Hll<l tender consci.,nre.' ThP f'lll)'h .1,ds is on ' •1uict a1iJ
apprndug,' as is cl11111;:ily iudieatr1l hy the ihlks. Try a better arrnug<'·
l!J('llt: ' is not so dt·sirous of ha Ying a conscience vigilant auJ tcuJcr, as
that it shoulJ Le •1uiet and approving'.
'rl1e11 two things nre put i11to compari~on, thr morp imporlaJJt rip .
srrl'es tl1c place of emphasis: - ' Mechanical arrnng•·mcnt app<:ar.-; to lulVo
~\'Cll more influence upon <liathermaucy than cl1emfral coml'ositiou':
'ch
cm', ieal composition has less influence th:rn mechanical arrange·
i1ent
'Disapprobation or ridicule, from onr SNisitivrn(•ss on this hcaJ,
·nnscs shyness auJ Llu.~hing much moro n•adily tha11 nJ>proh:tlinu ' : 'ApJrobation docs not cause shyness so readily as disapprolmtion or ridicule',
'Science opposes to God N atnre ' (Sce!Py). 'l'he two emphatic words
1ro 'Got!' an<l 'Na tu re, ' science being the general subject of discourse.
fay therefore, 'to God science opposes Nature',
'\Vithont sneering, teach the rest to sneer.'
The ;;econd 'sneer'
1hould not be in the place of emphasis. In a prose rctH!eriug, we coulil
:xcmplify the proper emJ1hasis thus:-' Without succriug 11imsclf, ho
ould teach sneering to t 10 rest'.
Jn su ch simple sentences as 'There yon nrr, ' ',~n1!lt cau the matter
•e,' it <le1ien<ls on the sense whether the verb or the complerneut should
•e last. "\Vlien it is a question of eidstcnre or non-r~xi;;te11ce, the vcrh is
he emphatic word-.' Who wonltl not laugh, if s11d1 n man tlH•ro be 1'
~hen
the stress lies on the complement, it is differeut-' Who wouIJ uol
:eep if Atticus were he'.

83

EMPHATIC PLACING IN LATIN.

J

' waii ',
,
.
Tl
bnf"nagcs have an almost un l:'xam
__ plcs ;ram Lat:n. - 1 ic c _1 · 1• 11 a SP~tPllCC This puwcr is fro·
.
.
I
.
f
l\IT'lll rrrng t 10 WOl' s
'
· · · ' oftl'n f or ernp l lit t tc
·
!11mtc< pu'l1·c1 o , · ,.,
.
t'
.· ·IH>t
l f
tl neriorltc rons 1rue 1011 '
,80
.
I 1 t
qnrntly US<'.' or ie "- Tltr, sus Jcnsion of the Yt'rb till tie .as -,
placingis of
theirnportaut
usual way "ro'd\·
o ma 11'.g tl
_1c' JlL~riod
,. • clashes with the other died .
which
·
.
, b, inote•l m 111nstrn .101 1.
l
A few cx11111l'lcs m:iy e'
- 1
1 _, ly been remarkc11 upon lllH rr
Cresar'g openmg scuten~~ . rns, ~ :~.~\ion with euq 1! 1asi.~ :- 'Gallia
Brevity; we now addui;o 1. 11~ co rl·1 ~ se ntence properly hrgins with
est ornnis divisa in partrs 1 ,res . I . l f tlie 1•1·,-.·l1'catc is on the 'rnrd .~
1· t
Tl e cm]> ias1s o
,
-' '
Galhrt as
. ll
· , t·i·cs' . n ll<l this also is secnre<l hy
t the 1Sil 'Jee ··
Y on L
•'\\'e Jiavo d1\!l1
- · Ict l JI!
· t o t'm ·a·
'partes res, • l\lll more rs11ec1a
t arlo11ted
Com pare car,
' . .
.
t~
•
the arrnngcm;n .·
·
, Onr kinndom have we <liv1d1•d rnto 1r1·c .
our kingdom : still better-;- l A
"1 8 0 f Tfleitus arc- ' Urhrm Homnm
' ·
,
· -f 't 't '
'l' I
· ,., ·cntcn ces mt ie 1uw
s
L l' lJCJ·t·a t'en1 ct
L. J,rntns
· ic
· ·openlll,,
s habucro
, conslllat11m
·
· · rnsl I 111.
1 pnnc1p10 regc.
. · II b
, Urhcm Honrnm a pri11c1p10, w 0 ucrc
The order for em phasts WOil '
e--:- . .t L Il - tus' •
L .l t t
t co11snlatum mstitm
· 111 · •
•
l .
rcgcs.' l icr ~ cm e__ . . . nrc not witlwnt rxnmpl es of df('d1vo p nr,rng,
, ti 1 of VitnllillH :--. • llec
".'1tcis
a d eo
· 'Ihe
ti is cbss1cal,
fro1n 'Jar1t11s
on ti 10 11in
Ji 'fllis•plalll
- ,
RS Ill
l •
•
. f
'1 11 IJOll COl!tlll<IL'l'l'Ct 1/ 1ri <lCIC8 •
rcrum hu11m11arn1n 1~nllll'lno~ • Jllcll
t'
The allusion to Leander in
Virgil abounds m eflcctive . c~ oca wns.
.
the third book of tho Gcorgics IS rntroclucc<l thu.s . - .
.
Q,lll'd JUV
. e111·s , ma"num
cui versut m oss1bus ignem
o
Dnras amo-r .1
• •
. wor ds. take
the place
of emphasis, nnd tho very s11Ls1d1n.ry
The omp1ia t ic
'.
.

Jdl

verb Ag!lm,
'v~rsat'wo isl 1avc,
kept ~n
in tShteu~\\~s • '.~·famous line, giving a theory of the
origin of rcligio11 : . .
Primus in orhe Dros fcc1t timnr.
.

lrntic wonl is timnr, nrnl tlw pl~cing of. Dcos firnt, woult! still
p
1 1· t ., r I f em pllll818
farther i1_u provo t IC S< !fll l'l ~uk~o 1 ol.t1· n of th~ first hook of t)w A?ncid, it is
I l\f Arthur H gw1c s e< I o
.
. t
f
l
t the first sentc>nce gives with ernpliasis tho lrn.<hng
s o
rohmar
e(
first line • howevtir, is too over-crowded for . cmphasui : t e poem,
Arma virumque cano, Troim qui primus ab ons.

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84

TIIE SENTENCE.

The distinct subjects 'Arma' and 'virum' are too close for their im1•ortancc ; a Lreak would en ha nee the force of 'virnm '. 'J'here would bo
something gaiu eJ Ly ana11g i11g thus, if otherwise allowable,Arma cano atque virurn.
J~oth the fliad a1ml farad{se .f:ost ~rnve the nllvanta~c .of stmting nn
und1v1<led theme. lopes version 1s faithful to tho liuc1:1 of tho lli!l\l :Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring
Of woos unnumber'J, heavenly goddess sing.
Returning to Virgil, tho lino'
Suut lacrimrc rerum, et mentcm mortalia tangunt,
is ex1p1isitcly constructed, but had the metre perruitted the ending mighL
have been 'tangunt n10rtalia ', *
'

As, in an army on the march, the fighting columns aro
placed f.ront and rear, and the baggage in the centre, so tho ·
emphatic parts of a sentence should be found either in tho
beginning or in the encl, subordinate and matter-of-courso
expressions in the middle.
It may sometimes be the nature of the clause to rcfui;o
emphasis to itself; so that, though placed at the end i~
does not interfere w~t~ the. importance of a preceding cla~so.
In the sentence, 'D1ss1pat1on wastes health, as well as time,'
the loose addition, 'as well as time,' cannot deprive 'health'
of the stress that woul<l naturally ho put upon it.
LENGTH OF THE SENTENCE.

. 24. T~e Length of the S~ntence, though lnrgcly
mvolved m the other properties, has certain independent effects.
Short sentences are simple and direct; they also lend
them~elves readil¥ to wit and epigram. Long sentences
permit the expansion of a thought, and give room for indispensable qualifying circumstances. 1'hoy also servo to
group relatocl facts, and thus establish a moclium hctwccn
the paragraph, ancl the inclividual statement · this will
be brought out in the subsequent discussion' of Unity . .
Farther, while shortness in a succession of sentences renders
the~ abrupt and jerky: greater length gives scope for tho .
maJesty of rhythm and cadence. A style that alteruatea
"In general, It mny he observed thnt the J,ntin nml Greek writers Arem lo •
have felt more the emphasis gnined at the beginning of the sentence than wba& It
produced at the end,

INSUF1"1CIENCY OF llLAm's RULES.

85

the two kinds is, on the whole, most agreeable, and probably nlso the best as r?gar~ls th? <li str~bution of tho matter.
Examples of every varwty m tl11s partwular are so ready to
hand, that they need not be quoted.
UNITY.

25. By Unity is understood, that every part of a.
Scnten.ce should be subservient to one principal affirruation.
This short sentence is a perfect example of unity:•Approaching Paria-the earthly Paradise of Columbushowever careful a look-out was kept, no idol and no temple
would be seen '.
Blair's rules on this point, together with his examples, have been
copied by succeeding writers. 'l'hoy are these : (1.) In the course of the same sen truce not to shift the scene. 'After
wo came to anchor they put me ou shorn, where I was welcomed by all
my friends, who r~ceivecl mo with tho greatest kindness.' Here the
1•11tti11g on slioro completes one act, aucl what follows changes tho scene,
auu should have made a new scutcucc.
(2. ) 'l'o avoicl crowcling tho se11t.~11co with. h et~ rogm.1com1 snhjccts, is
tho Sl\lllO ntlo clilforc11tly statml. ''1'1llotHon dwcl 111 tl11H year. Jiu \\'!Lfl
excceditirrly beloved. both by King William nucl by Queen .Mary, wlio
1101ninat%'d Dr. T ennison, Bishop of Lincoln, to succeed him I' The last
cl1111Ho, being a transition to a new subject, ought not to have been
lnclmlrnl in tho same scutcnco.
•Tho usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different
things ; nud not only calls the follo.wc.rs o~ votnrios of thc.rn by th? several
names of busy and. id.le men ; bu~ <l1strngmshcs ~he facnlttes of mm~ that
1ro conversant about them, callmg tho operations of the first, wisdom,
1nu of the other, wit : which is n Saxon· word used to ~xpress what the
Spnni:mls and ltali~ns cn~l ingenio, an~ tho Frc.nc~ .csp1·1t, both from the
l~'ltin · thourrh I tlunk wit more J>arttcularly s1gmhes that of poetry, as
· 1angungc. ' 'fhere is
. h ere crow d ecl
'
n1Ry occur
in'"' remarks on the Rurnc
luto 0110 sentcnco ahunclnnt matter for three.
(:l.) 'J'o avoicl excess of parenthetical clauses.
( 4.) Not to mlcl members after a full anJ perfect close. Temple says
or Fontenelle, 'He falls so grossly into the ccu~ure o~ the ?Id poc~ry'. anJ
preference of the new, that I could. not read Ins str~ms without m~hgn~·
lion ; 1rhich no quality arnong rnen ~s. so opt to raise as scif·.~11JJU;ieru:1; ·
Tlii11 Inst clause is an extraneous add1t1011 to the sentence, wluch ts natu·
rally closed at ' indignation'.

These disjointed rules are totally in~ufficient for bring·
ing out the points connected with the Unity of. the ~entence .
We have often a choice of <litliculties. Oortam thmgs have

~)
.

'

~· ·
·...i..
_;

• I

86

THE SENTENCE,

to be stated somewhere; and it may be the smaller evil to
append them to a sentence with only a ·very slight bond of
connection. ~l'ake the following example:'Dr. Crombie, an alumnus of Aberdeen, well known ns
the author of the 11 Gymnasium," and, among other works
of an excell~nt treatise 01!, the 11 Etymology and Syntn;
of the English Language,
was the man who, by tho
publication of the Gymnasium in 1812, and his distin·
guish P-d success as a teacher at Greenwich, gave the gren.t
impulse, which was then so much needed, to the moro
careful cultivation of Latin Prose Composition in England,
where it h acl been comparatively neglected for the writing
of sen.~e and nonsense verses, as if the ready knowledgo
of long and short syllables were the chief object, an<l
therefore aITonle<l the best prnof of superior classical culture .'
'l'liis sentence becomes loose nftcr 'Englarn1 ' ; "'·ere it
to end there, it would be an unexceptionable sentenco.
\Vlwther the rcnrni11in14 part should be~ a<1<1cr1 on , depends
(1) upon whether or not the explanatory circmrn;tance needs
to be stated, and (2) upon whether or not a bettnr position
can be found for it, in some preceding or following sen·
touce, or else in a re-arrn,11gornu1L of the present se11Leuce.
In fact , the question of Unity -often carries us into Lho
consideration of several contiguous sentences and brings
the quality into relation with the laws of the Paragraph.
The same remarks would npply to Urn following ~entence:-'Nor ia
he altogether unlike Mirabeau in the style of his eloqnenco, our bt!tltr
appreciation of which, as well as our better knowledge of Pym and of thit
the heroic age of our history in general, we owe to the patriotic and tnaly
noble diligence of Mr. John F orster, from whose researches no small portion of my materials for this lecture is derived.'

26. Clauses of Consequence, of Expla,nation or Reason, of Iteration, of Exemplification, of Qualification,
and Obverse Clauses, are often separated by a semicolon or colon from the main statement, without necessarily marring the Unity of the Sentence.
' Now surely this ought not to be asserted, unless it rnn
be proved ; we should speak with cautious reverence vpon such a
81.tb}ect.' Here the second clause is a reason or justification
of the main statement, and is properly included in the l'CD•
tence. 1 Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; th•

A SENTENCE OFTEN CONTAINS SEVEHAL FACTS.

87

Jlroductions of ruiiure are the material;; r~l art.' This ~ast
clause may be viewed either as E~pl:~n t1on or !tS Iteration.
Examples under all the heads md1cated are of frequent

occurrence.

27. In all styles of composition, it i~ o.ften requisi~e
to ~ive in the same sentence several d1stmct facts ; rn
whrnh case, the only guiding consideru.tion is compara-

tive closeness of rela,tio11ship.
If every distinct statement ~ere alwn.ys followed ~y a
full stop, the style would be drnagreca,bly broken up mto
curt sentences. l'vforeover, we should lose the a.l1va,ntage of
having a division intermediate between 11 sillgle 111lirmati_o n
and a pn.mgrftph . Bvcwy se11t01.rne llHty cont<tm a plurnhty
of stn.tcmontR, more closely allied tlrnn the JJmtter of two
successive Rcnt c11ces .
'l'hc following is fl,11 example of \Yha t is mrant. 'By
night sweet odmm1, varying with every hon~ of the watch,
wore wnJtcd from tho shore to tho vessd ly ing n en.r; j ltll<l
the forest trees, brought together by the serpent t.mcery of
myrin.ds of strnnge p;crn,Riticn.~ pln.nts , 1:1if?ht well seem_to
the fancy like sorno grca,t design of bmlL1mg, I over w l11ch
the lofty palms, a forest upoH ci, forest, appc<treJ to present
a new onler of arcl1itccture.' Here three sepaxate facts arc
expressed, and the including of the~1 i1~ one s~ntence is
justified by their being more closely allied m meanmg to one
another than to the sentence following-' In the back-ground
rose the mist, like incense '.
A narrator may often have to include in a sentence as
mn.ny particulars as are co.nta~ned in the follo~ing_ from
Johnson's Life of Prior, which is adduced as a violation of
unity:' He is supposed to lmve fallen_, by llis father's deatl~, into the ha~1ds
of his uncle a. vintner, nenr Channg Cross, who sent )nm for some tune
to Dr. Busby, at Westminster; but, not intending to give him any educ?-·
tfon beyond that of the school, took him, when he was well advanced m
literature to his own house, where the earl of Dorset, celebrated for
patronag~ of genius, found him by chance, as Burnet relates, reading
Horace, and was so well pleased with his proficiency that he undP.rtook
tho care and cost of bis academical education.'

The following description of the heart will illustrate
farther the limitations of the rule : 'The 11eart is a. l1ollow muscle, its cavity hcing complctoly divi1led
iuternally, by a longitudiual se11tum, into a right and a left lateral

··~

88

THE SENTENCE.

PUNCTUATION NOT RULED SOLELY DY GRAl\11\lAR.

ch:m1hc~.' As the gc n~ral plan of the description that follows, this it
appropnately emLraced l1l one sentence, thoucrh
i11cludiu"
particulars tlial
0
0
ure quite distinct.
'Each c!1a111hcr com;if;~!-1. of two caviti c~, 0110 C'allc1l an aurid~, th•
ot h.cr n 1•c1tlrt1:lt:, 1u:irk1 ~~1 oil I l'olll cad1 otlier hy a lra 11 sv1•r:-;e co11st ti..tiou,
winch. forllls on the surface the nnricu.lo-·v enlricular groove.' Uuity wuuhl
he sati~fi eJ he~·c , even on the moHt rigid principles.
''lhc 11m1clc und t_he v.c11triclc of the same. side open into each othrr,
lmt those of tho op11os1te wlcs tlo not conuuumcato.' .All oceu1iiod with
the communications of tho cl1am hers.
. 'The two amicles arc p~accJ ut the hasc of tlie 1icart ; their wallR are
thm.; they arn separated from each other by the m edian septlim, au.I
l'CcL·Ive Llood from large vcius.' Coutains four <listiuct facts no 01111 o(
which can be calle1l principal or subonlinatc. Yr.t their indu~ion in out
Sl'utencc is jnstificd by tlie considerations that they are very short stat..
meuts 1111d together sum up all that is to Le said about the auriclt•s.
. ''l'he two veutrieles lie below the auricles, have walls of coushl~rat.1•
tl. ~1 ck11 cRs, allll form 1 the .m?st soli1l part of the organ ; each is co11111·1·t"I
"1th ~ lnrgc artery.
S11111l:tr remarks would have to be rc11calc1l hen.• u
liavc .Jnst been made of the last scntencA.
'Two 10Hgit111li11~I furrnws, one a11tcrior, tl1e othc1· posterior n111l I,....
<~1·finc1l, correspo111l ,~· 1!h th~ l'?si~io!1. of tl1c median partition which ~~I" "
iatcs. the two ventnclcs w1tl11n.
lwo facts, though closely cun11rl'l"'I.
a!·e given l1erc : the u~me of the 'longitudinal septum,' aml the. <l1'!!rrirhon of the corrcc;pond111g external furrows.
• 'Tito right vcntriclH oceupiPs more of the aut cdor, aml tho l1•ft
tnclc more of th~ posterior, surface of the heart; the left veutriel•! l'l'I\• 11••
low~r than the nght, aull so forms alone the apex of the heart, tho Ion~
tu<lmnl ~unows and septum terminating a little to the right of till' :11>f'L•
There nnght be a <prnstion raised whether the laRt clause shouhl IJCO lo•
eluded ; Lut it is closely conn£:cted with the prcccdinrr statements and ii
better given along with them.
b
'
. 'l'he following expository passage illustrates yet more forcilily tbt
11omt under consideration.
. 'The vague expectati?n of gaining advantages without rml'lofllt(
p1 oper means may be seen m those who arc p erpetually in scar1·h .. f •l1r;ft
and easy road~ to knowl edge ; flattering themselves, that l1y the in•lol•••· .
r el'USa\ Of almtlgm cn t s and COl11JlClldi1t1t1R, or the sacrifice of an OCr<uir.ii.al
!Olli' at a yn111il:H. lceture, tJ11,y will, without mtlt'lt apl'lii-11tio11, i111Lc~
~!int lcan1111g, wlu ch they seo eo11fors so mu ch tlisti11 ctio11 on otti.ft.
1 hc,r furgc.t that, from th e very 11atnre of the ca:-;r:, seic111:0 <·n111111t .. ·,,
ob.tarnc1l w1tho11t lalwm; that iilea8 must b1: fr1·rpw11t.lv pr<'~l'lll1.•1l to , ...
lllllHl Lefo~·c, they licco rnc familia.r .to it; tlmt tl11; f:~c nlt i1:11 11111~t 1... Tl,..
rously exe1 tu! .to yossess. much ell1crnncy ; that skill 1s the efft·d of l1•"*t & •
and ~ha~ ha.Int 18 ac1p11red by the frequent repetition of th o K.'llllt wt.
ApphC'al10u is the 011ly m ean~ of securing the eml at wltil'h tlu·y al• t
·~llll they may rest assm?d, that nil schrn1es to put t.111:111 in J'O!N'"-•1(.-"'
rntdlcctual tr?as1ncs\ ":1thout a11y rr·gnlar or strc1111ous 1·11'nr!!I on t._..
1•art, all J?ro.1111scs to rns11111ate karning into their mi1111H at NO 11mall ..
exp.ens~ of ti_me ~ml .laLom: t.~rnt tlu·y ;;hal~ scar~cly Le ~1·11sihle 1•! tht f'."9'
ccss, aie mete .d clu~10ns, '\l11ch can tcnumate 111 11oth111g but <l1~•r1....
ment and. mo_rtifi~atlon . . It C'annot ~e too d eeply impre~s<'tl 011 th11 Iii*-'.·
that apphcahon is the imce to be l'llll! for mcntol nc1J uisitiuus, 11111 lW il

n•·

89

1~ l\s absurd to expect

tliem without it as to hope for a harvest where wo
lu1vo not sown the seed.'
Herc every sentence contains a numher of distinct statements; yet
none of the sentnnccs can be r:o11Hi1lcn:1l to violate a true conception of
l 1nily. The j11stilientio11. hi that I.lie stal.ellll!lltH or. rn1d1 1!1Jllto11co IU'O lllUl'O
closely connected. than with thoHe that precede 01· lullow.

.

28. Inasmuch as it is by stops, or punctuation, that
acntences are visibly separated, and their constituent
parts marked off, punctuation should follow the struciure of the sentences.
The commit, semicolon, colon, and full stop, are the
points that indicate gradation in the breaks of meaning; ·
au<l the propriety of each is governeu by that circumstance.
'l'o profess to give complete rules for punctuation, under
Gramurnr, is to mistake the uses of the principal stops.
'l'hus, within the sentence, the respective places of the
to111111a auu of the sernicolon, clo not uopernl upon Grammar,
but upon rnen.ning. The full stop is useu to mark the end
of the sentence; but whether or uot the sentence is close<l
ai the proper place, depends on the meaning.
. The followi11g passages c:rnrnplify t110 more ordinary violations of
Unity.
'Luther wns cnUed to tl1c Diet of Worms. He held fast to his stair·
~nh, a111l caused his name to be publi shed abroad to th e world, 1111d
4itJ Rt his birthplace on February 16, 1546_' The last clause is much too
pat I\ !r ap from the {>receding one, espednlly considering the closeness of
Cl(IClllcdion with the former se11te11 ce. If the first sentence and the first
clause of the second be unitcJ, the last two clauses might then be allowed
•one Sl'lltPnce.
'I will suppose tliat you have no fri ends to s11are or rejoice in your
llttf!'., in lifc,-that you cannot look back to those to whom yuu Oll'P
f"litllllr, or fonrnnl to those to whom you ouf?ht to afford protection ;
kt it is no l1•s11 i11i:11mJu,11t on yon to move 11lnntl1ly in tho path of 1l11ty :
lw your ndive excrtiorni are 1l11e nut only to soci..t.y, hut in hu1nhlu grnli '' lllde to the Being who made you a member of it, with powers to serve
· , ~nelf a111l otlwrs.' The s1mtcnco shouhl certainly be compfoted at
: •· f"Ott'<·tion ' ; tho bn~a k iK too gr1•at for a rn ern sPpa rat ion of cluuses, tho
'"4 being a case Sll]'posc1l, and the second the discussion of it. Ahout
... nut ltrrak there may be some doubt ; but a full stop would lc111l
pl~r cm/•ha~iR to the importnnt statement l1 cre contained m the second
d.a.!. 'I' 111 'for' wo11!tl then Le clro11p ~<l, aud a third sentence would
'-cin, 'Your active exertions,' &c.
'OnP. man p11rsnes power in onlcr to wraith, nrnl nnothPr '"calth in
....., lo power, which last is a safer way, a111l gpuerally followetl' (Swift).
tl.ucling a1011e, this sentence may Le consi1lered to violate Unity; the
llNlld llRlf seems too far apart in meaning from the first, while it also
. . .fttn>!I with the force of the antithetical statement. Yet the decision
·-.& tt"ally d1•pcrnl on '"hat follows.

-....

..-·
J •

. ·~.

'
i;-•
·· ~I
, I

.-

~

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,, 1
.

l

11

90

THE SENTENCE.

'Imagination is that faculty which arouses the passions by the im·
Jlression of exterior objects ; it is influenced by these objects, and consequently it is in affinity with them ; it is contagious ; its fear or courage
flies from imagination to imagination; the same in love, l1ate, joy, or
grief ; hence I conclude it to be a most subtle atmosphere.' There is too
much here for one sentence, and it illustrates a common result of such
overcrowding ; all the particulars are made to appear co-ordinate, while
really holding different relations to each other. The second clause is
closely connected with the first, being a farther explanation of it. Thc.~o
two should stand as one sentence. 'l'he third clause, 'it is contngiouR,'
is a new and independent assertion, not at all im11lic<l in the definition
just given. It shoulcl begin a distinct sentence ; and as the following
clauses are all intended to expand or confirm it, they also shouhl lie
inclmlcil along with it.
Contrast this with the following : ' I found it to be true, thnt a true.
bred merchant is the best gentleman in the nation; that in knowledge,
in manners, in judgment of things, the merchant outdid many of the
nobility ; that 11aving once mastered the world, and being above tho
demand of business, though having no real estate, 110 was then superior to
most gentlemen, even in estate ; that a merchant in flush business a11tl a
capital stock is able to spend more money than a gentleman of £5000
a-year estate ; that when a merchant spent, he only spent what he got,
and not that ; and that he laid up great snms every year. That an cstato
is a pond ; that a trade is a spriug ; that if the first is onco mortgaged, it
seldom gets clear, but embarrnsscd the 1wrson for ever; but the merchant
had his estate continually flowing' (Defoe). Though there are · a great
number of separate particulars given li·~ rc, the sentence cannot be objcctl'tl
to on grounds of Unity ; they arc all in the same position as things thRt
were ' found '. The chief consideration in a case of this kind is the
danger of weariness by prolonging the sentence without a pause ; aud
accordingly, though the construction is not interrupted, a pcrio1l is U!!t-d
before the end. 'l'he place chosen is a sufficient pause, and the effect
would be aided by repeating • I found '.
The next case violates Unity, though very much shorter: 'It is j11Mt
a year and a half since the foundation stone was laid, and the cost of the
building is £10,000 '. The two things are so distinct that they should
stand in independent sentences.
The following is from Barrow: 'There are extant numberless booh,
wl1 ercin the wisest and most ingenious of men have laid open their hcnrtA,
and exposed their most secret cogitations unto us ; in pursuing them we
may sufficiently busy ourselves, n.nd let our idle hours pass gratefully; w11
may meddle with ourselves, studying our own dispositions, examining
our own lll'inciplr.s and purposes, reflecting on our thoughts, words, 111•1
actions, striving thoro11gf1ly to mu.lcrstand ourselves; to do this wo h:ne
an unqucstionaLlc right, and by it wo shall obtain vast ben efit.' 'fh•·tc It
matter for several sentences. The first and second members might h.
included in one sentence, while the third should make a sentence by it~lf.
As to the last member, the first clause of it would require the scpnration
of a distinct sentence, though the second clause, if standing alone, migbl
have united with the preceding sentence.

THE PARAGRAPH.
1. The division of discourse next above the Sentence
is the Paragraph. It is a collection, or series, of sentences; with unity of purpose.
Between one paragraph and another, there is a greater
" break in the subject than between one sentence and another. The internal arrangement comes under laws that are
essentially the same as in the sentence, but on a greater
scale.
The Paragraph Laws are importan_t, not onlr. for th,cir own sake,
but nlso for thcll' bearing 011 an entire compos1t1011.
;r'hey are t~10
general priuciplc.s that mui'!t rt'gulato the str~1d11re of. sc<" t101!~• chaptc1 !!,
and books. The special lawi'! applying ~o. thffercnt lnmls of. prose com·
position-Description, Narrative, Expos1t10n, and l'.ersuas1011-cann?t
aupcrscde those general principles ; they only deal with_ th? matter m
hand from a higher point of view. Apart fro~ the apphcat10n of these
higher laws, we may adapt an o.lrl homely max~m, a!1d say, 'Look to the
l'll'llgraphs, and the discourse will take care of itself .

~ )

.... '

I

,

.....

·-.

l

•

"'•.z

I

:J.' .

---.
-. ...
....
..
...;_. ..
~

~

1.

DISTRIBUTION INTO SENTENCES.

2. The.consideration of the Unity of the individual
Sentence leads up to the structure of. the Paragraph, as
composed of sentences properly parted off.
We have seen that, in adjusting se~tences, the comparative breaks of meaning in the successive statements must
be n.ttcndcd to; whence the unity of the sentence enters
into tho domain of paragraph law.
'l'he following example, from Helps's Spanish Conquest in An~eric~,
~aragraph. The snb.1 e~t is
an expedition of Oj eda along the Am~ncan coast near_the River
Darien. He captured a number o~ Indrnn~ and_ a quantity of gold
, in the course of his voyage, and, d1sembarkmg, founded San Sebas-

la a l!huly of distribution in a Narrative

:', '· Uao.11 Ojccln sent his stolen nold and. Indians home to Sn.int Domingo,
•in or<lcr that more men a~d supplies might be despatched to him ;

·

)

···~ I
" ; '

·, J ::1
~'

-·

... :

:

.

: ::.-._

\~..bi
,, I

j

~-

I

J.

92

EXAMPLE OF SENTENCE DlSTHIDUTION.

THE PARAGRAPH.

:: and he ~nat~gnra.ted tl.ie hnil(~ing of ~lis ne:v town hy a fnrn.y into
the terntones of a ne1ghhourrng lmlum chief, wlw was reported lo
"possess mnch gol( l." Here two separate facts 11re stated in one
sentence~ the. author jrnlging it inexpedient to devote u sentence lo
each.. 'l he 1.acts are closely relatell in time, and the separation of
n senucolon is thought enough fur them. 'l'he concludiug clause is
explanatory, but it is an explanation that also saves a narmlivc
l:lause. It suggests the purpose of the expedition namely the search
fur golil, nnd ut the same time accounts for it.
'
'
"This foray, however, prodncetl nothing for Ojeda, and his men
".w~re s~ou driven back by clouds of ]Joisoned arrows.'' Again two
1hstmct facts are brought together, mamly to avoid the multiplication
of .short sentences. ~n re~iting the four statements now given, the
wnter has thought ht to rntrotlnce the sentence break between the
second and. tl~e third. But; a mi~rnte attention to the coml>nmti,·c
degrees of mtmrn.cy of the fonr facts, might suggest the em of tho
first as the greater break ; the second, third, and fourth Leing 1111
related to the one matter of the foray against the Indians.
. The author ll~>w co111111ences a new paragraph, to suit the trnn11i·
tion to a new snhJect.
" How their people Rhnn l<l he fed, seems al ways to lrnve hcen a
" sccorn I ary coni;1t
. l eratwn
.
. I 1 t I1c;;e mmtu11 1Ill"
·
"·it
1•uve1·11u1·s · a111I
" ~lll
. 1ee<1, on l i'k·e occa!'nomi,
.
. all penods
.
m
of the wol'ld, it appear'!! ru
"if gold were snpposetl to be meat, tll'ink, and clothiiw.
the know·
0
:: ~edge £?f What it is in civiliS?tl COlllllltlilities Cl'eati11g a fixe1l idl'a or
its m11venml }Jower, of wl11ch pcuple ai·e not able to divc~t them·
"s~lveE>." The second member of this sentence is a sort of ge11t>mli·
zat10n o~ the remark contained in the first, which is itself a ge11t•1ul
ob~ervatwn prefutoi·y to the next part of the uarmtive. Long na
tlus second member is-lJeing a. general maxim bnnfonctl with a
clause of reason or explanation,-the writer cli<l well to place it u
~n appen~age. to tl~~ ~Jrcv~ous clause, t? which it ougl1t to be krpt
m subordrnatwn. llus will be seen still better from the uext ecu•
tence.
"Famine now began to make itself felt at St. Sebastian." '11111
sentence joins on naturally ti the first part. of the foregoin". a111l
would not have joined on so well to the seconcl part, if that luul IM't'n
made a separate sentence. The author has thought fit to confine
this sentence to a single fact. The brevity of it makes a not \IJIAC'o
ceptable contrast. to t.he kngt.h of the preceding.
"Just at thi!'l point of time, however, a supply from a JllO!<l 11p"propriate quarter came smltlenly to the aid of the hu11g1y inhRht·
"tants of the new town." A single staterncJtt occupies thiR flC'lllt·n~
also. It might have been conplecl with the foregoing, although, Oii ·
the whole, the present arrangement is preferable.
"'!'here came in sight -a vessel, which had been stol<>n f.,...
"some Genoese by its commander Beman lino de 'l'alavcm, wlao ,
"was bringing it to the new settlement, as being n. place wheN " ~ ·
" the title to any possessions would not be too curiously lookeil '
t')

"

'

'

93

into." The first clansc-' T1iere came in sight a vess~l '-cont~ins
the only fact essential to the ~ar.rath:e, but t.lie ant.hot· mdulges m a
little digl'ession or by-plot, mlor.mmg the rea~ler how t~e vessel
came. 8uch dirrressions are lmavo1tlable, a11tl o1ten proper m narm·
tive; and one ~10dc of keepin17 them from trenching on the main
story is to make them subordmate 11ie111licr? of °: s~mtc11co whose
- principal is the main story. 'l'o ei·ect. them mto <11stm~t ~eutcnccs,
ou tl1e ~)lea. of unity, woul<l be to 1mlist1tute n gr·eo.ter evil for a less.
11 'lhe supplies whi cl~ this vessel urnught, wer~ P.urchase<l hr,
"Ojeda, und served to relieve for a moment the ft~mislnug c~lo1~y.
'l'he principal subject connects the se1.1ten~e with the1 prmc1pal
member of the foregoing-:-' There came m s1~ht ~ vessel, -an~ the
<ligressional explanation is no ~nore heard of. ~he sentence ~~elf
contains two facts, so nearly alhe<l that a comma is enough to divide
ilim~
.
.
" But their necessities eoon recommenced ; and, with theu
"necessities 1 their murmurings." 'l'he break between this an<l tlie
fore.,oin" is enouuh to make a distinct sentence. Also its two compon~nt f~cts are, ~s in the former ca~e, nearly related, and proper to
Le joined in the same sentence. It is probaLle that there would not
have been oven a semicolon panse, but for the occurrence of the two
commas encloRing the pl1mse 'with thefr neceRsitics '.
" The Indians also harassed them by perpetual attack.s, for the
u fame of Ojeda's deeds was l'ife in the laud, nnd the natives were
"nnturn.lly very unwilling to have such a neighbour n~ar them:"
The chancre of subject re<t uires o. new scu tence ; the rnam cltiuse is
followetl by two clauses of reason or explanation, so necessary as to
be n(lclcrl on with me1·ely a comma break.
.
"The Spauish Co11111uu11kr ,]j,[ what. lrn cm~l1l ~.o F.Ooot.1'.o . l11R
"people by tell in<
• them that Enciso the p1u'Lncr m l11s exped1t1011,
0
"and hls alcalde was coming ; ai{d, n.s for the Intlians, Ojeda
ec rcpclle(l their ai.t.aeks with his usual i11t.1·t'piclit.,r-'.' Here ngai~1
are two distiJtct unt connectctl facts. The co11nl'l'l.10JJ, l10wcve1·, IS
not of the closest kind ; and two sentences would not ho.ve been
lw1>roper.
·. "His Indian enemies, however, began to umlersta~cl the c11au rnclcr of the man they ha<l t? deal witl1, and, resolv11?g to play
"upon his personal bro.very, wluch arnon11teil to fool-l1anlmesR, they
"11\i:I an ambusca1le for him." This has three statements, but the
ro11tains tl1c action, and the two others are merely preparatory.
A lt'>111l example of a narrat~ve .sentence.
.
.
"The Indians then fe1gmng nu at.tack, 0,1eda rushed out with
"hi!! wontccl impetuosity, until he came wit,hin reach of their am., Ln~c:Hle which concealed four bowmen." The circumstances here
~\·en nil ~on cur in describing a single action. The unity is perfect.
The l'nrticipial form of the comme~cing clause is s~ilf.nlly cho.sen,
.., u not to interfere with the prommeucc of t.he prmc111al subject,
11

wl

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·

., 'fhese discharging their poisoned arrows, one of them passed

...
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94

THE PAIUGRAPH.

CONJUNCTIONS FOR EXPLICIT REFEUENCE.

95

"tl~rough l1is thigh ; ancl this was the first time i::trrmrr t0
•
" hrn ad venturous a.nd l'iskful life th·tt he h~d
.,e
flay!' 1
Again we have a unity in the acti~n ,The pa;tici ~~111 ~rouru...,.1
mences for tl
·
'
l •• 10r111 corn.
1c same reason as before; the seconcl member iA u
ex planatory clause of the veriodic form, J'i<rhtly included in tl1e
sentence.
o
.,..._

On the supposition that a paragraph is not a string of
random or detached utterances, but a connected whole, the
nature of the connections must be made apparent.
4.-I. One mode of explicit reference is the employment
of suitable Conjunctions.
" '.' N.o veteran, however, conkl have shown more indifference lo
pam 111 the remedy which he insisted upon adopting 11 'l'I · ·
Conjunctions connect sentences and clauses. Those of
troperly lll~<le a new sentence l its structure, however is 110 t'1(,.::
&be co-ordinating class are used to connect sentences and
r~n ~~ccptwn. 'l'he place of the principal subject is o~cupiccl br
eo-orilinate clauses ; those of the sub-ordinating class, to
su or 1!rnte won1-•veteran' ; and there is an awkwardness in ihe1
relate a. sub-ordinate clause to a. principal in the same
~hn~hti~n .o~ ~he padrts. . Better thus: •Nevertheless the rcmcc.17
1entence.
. <la· /r e rns1s e ~n a optmg, showed him to surpass ai;y veteran ia
111 luerence to pain'.
5. CUMULATIVE Conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs
"ti ~He ~rc\hed tvoh plates of. iron brought to a white heat to be
and
J?hrases, a sub-division of the Co-ordinating con" ~ ~m o . e t 11g , threatenmg the reluctant surgeon to )um
junctions, frequently connect sentences. They add a
111m if he did not apply the l'emcdy" '!'his also C( 1.a·
· 1'act.ion, arnl .therefore is in accordandc with the mo~~ r~1:s n 14111~ •
new statement having the same bearing as those that
maJHls of unity.
1gorous uoprecede.
" '.'It was so severe that it not only burnt up the le nnil the
t1ngh, but the heat penetrated his w'lwlc body so th"tgi't be
The head and representative of the list is AND. Others
" necessary
· of vmegar
·
'
..
. . · • to exp
: en<l a pipe
in moistening
th•• b rnr11t1
I
are-Also, Yea, Likewise, So, Similarly, In like manner, First,
"111ch were afterwards a1)11lied " Otl1er\"1'se . c S
c a111 RJ."'-1
Secondly, &c., Again, Besides, Then, Too (following another
r t'
}
.
' · · - 0 Severe Wll.~ I It
npp 1ca wn, t 1at not ~mly were the leg and the thi rh burnt 1 I
word), Purther, Moreover, Furthermore, Add to this (which).
the heat penetrated Ins wh ole body and in mo' t g.
.
UJ' mt
These are all quite common. The phrases • Yet another,'
that were afterwards applied they irncl t~ ex1Je111csl eam~g. thfe b~ncl~"~
Tl
t
·
'
· '
pipe o vrnc1{nr
•Once more,' for adding to a cumulation already very
1e sen ence Is a!1 e~planatory addition to the foregoing and . · •It
1iav1{1mde one with it, but fur the length and the prolixity ~}11f,.'.
much extended, are familiar to the readers of Mr. Herbert
Spencer.
resu m\ compound. It was al so, perhaps, desirable not to accuwu
ate ,~he orr.ors of the tr~nsaction in one unbroken string.
•
6. Certain of the ADVERSATIVE conjunctions are
.
AJI tlus torture <?.1eda enclnrecl witl1out being hound." Th
applied to indicate the mutual bearing of consecutive
Jbll~pfreSSl Veness of the fact stated justifies the BeJ1arateness of th't
ne sentence.
"
. 1entences.
.. b "W~uld that this terrible energy and power of endurance hNI
Some of the members of this subdivision are termed
een given to a career more worthy of them 1" A
· I
Erclttsive, because they indicate the ·exclusion of a circloses the paragraph. 'l'hc last few sentences dicrr~s;J·rJ~!~r~pnn!eJ
cumstance that would otherwise be allowable. •Else,'
story, to. reco~nt ~he. inc itle11fA~ personal to the cl1ief. and u~1n . '
such a d]1gress10n, it ls desirable to resume the narrati;e in a a rr "'· ~·
'Otherwise,' are the chief examples ; they occasionally
paragrap 1.
new
,
introduce sentences, but owing to the intimacy of union that
lhoy express, their chief application is to unite clauses.
The passages to be given under the next and followin
Those termed Alternative sometimes form a link between
P~ra~rap~ L_aws, will continue the exempiification of ti~
'wo sentences; for example, Or and Nor. When •nor' is
1str1but1on m Sentences.
, ased without 'neither' preceding, it is commonly in the
aonse of • And not' : 'Nor would he have been mistaken' ;
•And
he would not have been mistaken' .
.EXPLICIT REFERENCE.
We may have one sentence commencing with 'Either'
8. The bearing o~ each sentence of a Para a )h on
and the next with •Or'; and so with Neither and Nor.
the sentences precedmg needs to be explicit. gr 1
.
Dut, in general, these indicate a. closeness of connection,

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96

OTHER MEANS OF EXPLICIT REFERENCE.

THE PAilAGRAPH.

such as requires tho members to be kept within the snmo
sentence.
The group of ~<lversative conjunctions representctl hy
DuT (cal.led Arrest.we) very often fulfil the office of relati11i;
consecutive sentences. They are-But then, Still, Yet,
Only, ~evertheless, Notwithstanding, However, At tho
same time, .For all that. 'l'hese may operate on a grML
scale, ~overmg not '?nly the sentence, but the paragrn~1h.
An entire P?'ragraph is ~lot u.nfrequently devoted to arrestmg
or preventmg a seernmg mference from one preceding.
and is therefore appropriately opened by But, Still, Never·
theless, &c.
. 0.wing to the looseness in employing these strong COD•
)Unctions, a sentence merely cumulative in its bearing upon ·
what precedes, is not unfrequently introduced by 'But',

7.

~fany

of the conjunctions indicating Effect or
Co_nseqnen?e, cn,ll?d lLLATI~E, often connect sente11ccs,
bemg apphcn,blo m Hea.sonrng and Argument. 'l'hcy
are-'rherefore, vVherefore, Hence, Whence, Consequently, Accordingly, rrirns, So, Then, So then, 8o
that, How much more.
A!l .effect or consequence may be given in the sentence
contammg the cause or reason. It is also common to
employ a separate sentence; whence the forerroing aro
reckoned Paragraph conjunctions.
t)
~·

Besides the regular Conjunctions, there are
var10us words and phrases serving for reference.
T~':1s the expr?ssi<;>ns for the very important end of stating
opposition or negation, mvolve a reference to what went bcforo:
On the contrary, Contrariwise, On the other hn,rnl, Con•
ve.rsely, Ob_vers?ly. Of these, tho only one properly sih'lli· •
fymg negation is ~he first (On the contrary). 'J.'ho othcn ·
11re frequently m1susecl for that signification. ' On the
?ther. hand: properly 1!1eans alternative. 'Conversely' is, .
m st1:ict logic, .transposmg .the terms of a proposition (801111 .
English are ~vise; some w~se men are Englishmen). 'Ob- .
versely' demes the ?ppos1te of a proposition (All men an
mortal; no men are unrnortal), which is to re-ailirm it froua
.
the other side.
'Nay' is an old-fashionecl word for intro<lucing

.

·97

opposite statement 'with some e~pha.sis ; btit . !low chiefly
used to extend or intensify somethmg JUSt mentioned.
For returning after a dig1·ession, wo employ the phrasesTo return, To proceed, To resume.
In summ1'.ng up, we have-In short, In a. word, .In on,e
BCntence, On 'the whole, To conclucle, In conclusion, 'Io
1um up, To recapitulate .
·
. . .
Trnnsiiion to a new line of remark is introduced byIlitherto, Up to this point, Formerly, So far, Thus far.
9. The SunoRDINATJNG Conjunctions (Because, If,
Tlrat In order that Provided, When, &c.) most usually
join ~ subordinate' clause to a priucipn,l i1~ the same
sentence. Occasionally, however, a subordmate s~ate­
ment rises to such importance as to be placed m a
sentence apart.
This happens with 'For,' when i1~tr0<lncing a rca.son.
n also happens with the phrase 'Pr?VlUC~ thu.t,' ospecm~ly
in Acts of Parliament. The conJunct10ns of negative
.
condition, 'Unless,' &c., are sometimes employed.
Scarcely any others of the class a1:e found con!1ectmg
1entences. We may be satisfied of tlns by observm~. the
employment of-Because, If, Though, In.order that, Smee,
So as, When, While. These often begin a sentenc~, but
usually to indicate subordination t~ a ~lause followmg ..
Campbell remarks on the .arb1t~·arnrnss of u~age m
making ' For' a paragraph conJunct10n, and ref usmg the
1a1110 latitude to ' Because '.

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10. There are Demonstrative . phrases for making .a
special reference to a prec~ding sentence :-1?. tlns
case In that case That bemg so, In these cncumatl\n~es In the m~nuer now describml, By such P!'O- .
c:ccdings as have been detailed, Uncler the foregomg
arrangement, After what bas now been said, Not that
all men are so affected.
A Relative pronoun refers one clause to anoth?r in the
l&DlO sentence ; but rarely connects two s:iccesslVe sen\enccs. The old English usage of commencmg a sontei~ce
: ·, with 1 who' for ' and he,' is now obsolete; the reason bemg
• ,·

98

that the relative expresses a close connection between tho
members joined.
'!'he demonstrative phrase of reference does not always
commence the sentence. It may be the object of a verb, 11
• Even althongh he lmd foreseen fkis co11sr que11ce '. Or iii
may stand in other positions : • The general, in this mwvency, trusted to his ca,valry '. The article and a. general
word is enough for a reference. ' The event deceivec.l him•; • the case was not so bad'.

11.-II. In many instances, no connecting words a.re
used between consecutive sentences, their absence
having a distinct meaning.
Connectives generally-pronouns and conjnnctionthn.ving a tendency to load and encumber the composition.
they are dispensed with as far as possible. But their . "
omission has its own signification, and is suited to certain
definite cases.
·

12. When a sentence either iterates or explains wha&
goes before, a conjunction is unnecessary.
These are perhaps the cases where the connection it
oftenest a blank. '1.'he same omission characterizes the
sentence ; a member that iterates, or one that explains, ii
without a conjunction. In these instances, the nature ol
the reference is supposed to be shown by the meaning.
When there is any doubt, specific phrases may be omployccL
Thus, for iteration we say-In other words, It comes to the
same thing, This is equal to saying, To vary the stn.temenL
For eJ.11lanatio11 :-Jn point of fact, The explanation is, We
may account for the fact, &c.
The omission extends to obverse iteration likewise:' They shall build houses, and inhabit them; and they shall
plant vineyards, and eat the fruit thereof. '!'hey shall nol
build, and another inhabit; they shall not plant, and
another eat.'

13. In cumulative statements, the omission of conjunctions prevails extensively.
·
When a number of particulars are given in successiondescriptive, narrative, or expository-they a.re presumed, m the absence of any contrary indication, to h"vo a
cm om on bearing.
whethe~

OMISSION OF CONNECTIVES.

THE P ARAGRAPII.

99

As the omission of connectives is not re.strictc~ t~ thf~
the cumulative conjunctions must be m~erte '· s ou
~!~~ be any danger of some <;>ther interpretation bern1· R~!
o n their absence ; as, for mstance, "".hen any ~en e
!sht bo supposcJ to itorato, or to oxphtm a p·r·olcd111~tl or
What is done in a sentence, "".hen severa wor . s .
mombcr~ in _successio1b1 afre ctulm11:a:~ve is ~r~:r;e t~o~~ei1~
\he conjunction only c ore ie a
\he parncrraph.
·
t'
·
l · tl1e
Sove:'al of the cumulative con1unc ions mvo. 'o .
additional meaning of comparison, as T_hus,_ So, L1kew.1se'.
A a· l
This renders them less easily dispensed with,
atifi0 ~~n~Ja them occasionally omitted. 'Be'':are of th~
.
f M h said the Roman augur to J uh us Cresar .
~s 0 0 f ~h~ :Uonth of May, says the British .Spectat<;>r. to
bisw;;i~ countrywomen.' The mere fact of 1uxtaposition
shows tlmt the two sentences are to be thought. of t?g~ther,
and if the mind can readily perceive the relation, it is left
uusignified.

14. Iu the statement of a consequ_ence, the co_nnective
is sometimes omitted, when special energy is to be
expressed.
When something is stated as a_ cause, w~ are prepared
f the statement of tho effect; anu if the fee hugs are rouse~,
~: abrupt transition is more suitable. ' 'l'he result of this
week must convince you of tho hopclcss1~css of farther
resistance. I ask the surrender of your army.
•I have been bullied,' said the Countess of Dorset to
Cho.rles the Second's Secretary of Stn.te, who su~gested a
member for her pocket burgh; ' I have been bulb.eel by an
usurper, I have been neglected by a co~r~, but I ,will not be
dictated to by a subject. Your man slw n t stand.
Belinda smiled : (and all) the world wa.~ gay.

.

c If the king gets this veto, what i~ the ~se of the
National Assembly? We are slav~s ;. all is done. .
See, as an example of total om~ssion of_ connectives, t~e
Bon of Moses:-' 'fhe enem¥ said, I will pursue, I_ will
ovo~n.ke, I will divide the spoil; my lust shtdl bo satis~ed
upon them; I will draw mY: sword, m_y hand shall destroy
• &hem Thou didst blow with thy wmd, the sea covered
'hom they Rank n.s lead in the mighty waters.'
0

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100

THE rAUAGilArH.

15. It is remarked by Campbell that the omission of
connectives succeeds best, when the connection of tho
thoughts is either very distant or very close.
• When the connection in thought is very distant, tho
copulative appears absunl, ancl, when very close, superfluous.
:F or the first of these reasons, it is seldom that we mccL
with it, except in the Bible; and for the second, it is fro·
quently dropt in familiar narmtive, whero the connection i1
so obvious as to render it useless.'

16.-III. The reference may be made by repenting
either literally or in substance, the matter referred to.
The repetition is prefaced by such expressions ns, Wo
have now seen, We have already stated, As has just been
said, It was formerly laid down, It was remarked abovo.
This mode becomes more necessary, w hon we rofor somo
way back.

17.-IV. The reference may also be indicated by tho
mode of arrangement of the sentence. Iuversiolll
often have this end in view.
'Entering the gulf, he endeavoured to find the Rh·cr
Darien. This rive1· he could not discover, but he clisom·
barked on the eastern side of the gulf.'
The following passage could be improved on the sruno
principle.
I Early in the morning, the nobles and gentlemen who
attended on the king, assemblecl in the great hn.ll of tho
castle, and here they began to talk of what a dreaclful stonn
it had been the night before. But Macbeth coul<l scnrcoly
understand what tlwy said, for he was thinking of something
worse I ' ' What they said, Macbeth could scai:cely un<lcr·
stand.'
' To a mind thus dispose<l, no part of creation i1
indifferent.'
Compare 'These aro the cases that make clifficulty,'
with 'The cases that make difficulty are these'.
'As to the murderer, he was \Valking rapidly backwnnls
and forwards in the parlour, amlible but not visible at firsL,
being engaged with something or other in that part of tho
room which the door still concealed. What the somell1in(J
might be, the sound soon explained.'

EXrLICIT REFEHENCE IN DE QUINCEY.

I

101

On the point of explicit reference, the writings of De
Quincey deserve especial mention.
The followin11 sentence will fnrnish a short example. Words serving
''function of r;fcrence to what precedes, are marked in italics.
• lf we do submit to this narrow ·valwition of style, f owided on the
pftrrst Of the Sltbject to which it is rninisterial (repetitio n in substanc~ or
tbat is referred to], still, evc1t on that basis,. we Engli!!h commit a capt~l
Wan1lcr1 which tho :F ronch earnestly ancl smcerely escape; for, assmning
taal tlit tltolt{thls involve the primary interest, still it must make nil tho
~ll'··renco in the world to the success of those tlwityltts, whether they nre
lftatc<l in the way best fitted to expel the doubts 01· <l:u·knes~ that may
~ue settled on them ; and, secou<lly, in cases where tho business is, t~ ot
tust11blish new convictions, uut to carry ohl convictions into operative
We amt power whether they nrc treatell in the way Lest titted to rnkiudlo
ii tho mind a 'practical sense of their value.' It will ue noticeJ that the
..mcology of reference makes a consi<lerablo part of the sentence. Such
fllllusoness is characteristic of the author.

Th<! explicit roferenco of ench sentmco to what precedes is importnut.,
Mt only becnnse in itself it contributes to Clcarncs~, but also on accou11t
el its Ul'aring on the Unity an1l the Consecutlveness o~ tl.io Paragraph. ~t
~a Rimilar effect in the Paragraph to what the pcnod1c strl!cture has 111
11.e Sentence. VVl1cn the rnntu:i l n·lnlion of th e Re11tc11 Cl'S ui thuR 1111111"
llP{'4lrcnt, n writer iR les!! lik ely lo he Id iuto in:clov.aut 1ligrei1sio11s iull'r·
lrring with the Unity of the whule, or to permit Ins sentences to succcc1l
.II other in an mmatural order.

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The passage now to be adduced will refer both to Sentence Distribution and to Explicit Reference. It is from
De Quincey's Incident on the English Mail. In or<lor to
1&udy the grouping of sentences, we shall occasionally have
lo quote several together : " (1) Suddenly, from thoughts like these, I WM awakened to t\
••ullcn soun<l as of some moLion on the <listimt roilAl. (2) It. st.ole
•upon the ai; for a moment : I listened in awe ; but then it 1lie1l
•umy. (3) Once roused, h owever, I could not but observe wit~\
. •aL1.rm the quickened motion of ~nr horse!l.. (4) Ten y~n.rs' exper1- • mcc had ma<lc my eye lea med m the val n mg of mot1011 ; 1\1111 I
" •aw that we were now running thirteen miles an hour."
'
A~ to Grouping, if we stn<ly tl~e breaks in .these four sentence~,
· ft fin(\ them n1w1prnl. More eRpccrnlly 110 t.hr. f!l 'Rt arnl >iecon~l come
.io,..r in mr,m1i11g than either the second and tlnnl, or the thml a111l
'1utth. We miirht include in the same sentence all tlmt relates to
~ 111mnd. Instead of a full stop after ' distant road,' a colon ln eak
•Hit be substituted, and the two sentences made into one. The
·i ~ngc of subject in (3)., reqnir~s a new sentence-'. Once ~ou~e<l '.
Alto, the fourth is sufficiently different from tlie tlnrd to Jt!stify a
~ ..,.. sentence. The hlen,s are I)O doubt cloRcly rclate<l-v1z., oh. .-ring wit,h nfarm the motinn. of the ho_ri::e>i, m~d intimatin~. ~he
1 •lhor's experience in the valumg of motion; still, the trans1t10n

~­

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'

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Ill:

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102

THE PARAGUAPH.

amounts to something, and a new sentence is not improper. 'fl.•
fourth sentence gives two statements, so close as to be both propNIT
inelu<lcd, with a semi colon break. The connection, exprel'lsing rnuM'
uml conse(1uence, conhl have heen still closer:-" Ten years' experie11to:
having made my eye learned in the valuing of motion, I saw tliaL ••
were-".
"\Ve may remark, next, as illustrnting Reference, the demomtni·
tive phrase • lilce these' (sentence (1) refeni1.1g back ~o th~ p1·~ vi11u.
11arngraph. In sentences (1) ancl (2), there 1s no co11.1n11ct10n till n
come to •but then,' the continuity of the meaning Lcing Riwwn t1
the absence of a conjunction, and the use of the l)fonoun 'it,' i1
beainning the second sentence. In the third sentence, 'l10wcnr 1
is ~ word of r eference. The connection of the fomth sentence'Ten years' experience '-with the thinl is ctmmlative, the niir•roJJriate conjunction ' And' being dispensed with ; its absence dc.d
not lead to any misapprehension of the intended bearing.
"(5) I pretend to no presence of mind. (6) On the coulrnry,
"my fear is tlrnt I am misernlily and shamefully deficient in tl1., l
"quality as regards act.ion. (7) The palsy of doubt and distrncti ..a
"hangs like some guilty "·cigl1t of dm·k unfathomed remc111l;rn11<U
" upon mv energies, " ·l1 e1l the signal is flying for action. (8) llul,
" Oil the other hand, t.J1 is 1\CClll'l"'ed gift, 1 Ji ave, as regards tho11ylil,
" that in the first step towanls the pnssiliility of a misfortune, 1 ._..
" its total evolution ; in the m<lix of the series I sec too cerl11i11l1
"and too instantly its entire cx1n·c·ssion ; in the first syllable of the
''dreadful sentence, I rea<l already 'the last."
After a very short statement, like sentence (5), it is to be seen i(
what follows has a sufficiently close connection to be includ ed in the
same sentence. Now sentence (6) is simply tl1e obverse of (5), wlikla
is one of the closest of relationships. The two may be containetl ia
one senten ce with the greatest 11ropriety. Still, we have to look
ahead, aml see the connection with what is to follow. Well,(7) is really
an iteration and expansion of (6), and should not, in pl'inciJ'll', lit
separated from that by a full stop. The only question is as to O\'tfloading, if all the three were fused into one. }'rom tl1is point of \'i,·•,
there appears no serious objection ; the resulting sentence ia neitlift' 11
very long nor very in vol \'ed. It closes at a sufficient break as l~brnf1t.
(8), which is such as to reqnirc the start of a new sentence. 11trnnsition of meaning ii:; mu ch greater, than in either of the two pr.
vious cases; that is from (5) to (G), allll from (6) to (7). The nutl .. ., ·
changes the sul1jcct from action to thought, which is a novel point ol - ·
view. That point of view he takes up and di8poses of in n lone
sentence of three members, with semicolon breaks ; the second and
third members, being figurative illustrations of the first, are properly
coupled with it in the sentence. Tints, the four sentences ..,. "
resolvable into a symmetrical couple. The explict reference it
shown in the phrn.c;e 'On the contmry' in (fJ), and in the n11nlogoa1 . ·.
phrase, •on the other hancl,' i11trrnl11ci11g (8). The members of lltt:
two resulting sentwces are of a kind that rn1phatically dis1Jelllllt "

DISTRIDUTION AND REFEHENOE EXEMPLIFIED.

103

wit.h conjunctions: the scconcl and t11ird bei11~ merely dilfcrcnt ex·
rressions of the first, to insert an ' and ' wonl<l be wrong.
"(9) It was not that I feared for ourselves. (10) Us, our bulk
"nnd impetus charmed agiiinst nny peril in any cvllision. (11) And
"I had ridden through too many hundreds of perils tliat were
"frightful to approach, that were matter of la11gl1ter to look back
"upon-the first face of which was horror, the pa1·ting face a jest"for nny anxiety to rest upon onr interests. (12) The mail was not
IJ11ilt, I felt assured, nor bespoke, that conltl l)ctrny me who trusted
"to it for protection. (13) llut any caningc that we could meet
"would he frail and ligl1t in comparison to om·scl ves."
The first of these five sentences announces the idea that is sustained and expnwled in the three followi11g. They might well he
~rouped in a smglc sentence, so for as concel'ns closeness of meaui11g.
1'he length, however, would be exceesive and unusual; and the end
of (11) mi~ht be a convenient break; while (12) a11d (13), would go
nat.urn.lly mto one, as a contrasting couple divided by a semicolon.
The c01ipling of these two is farther justified by the break at the
end of (13).
As regar(ls reference, there is no need for a conjunction at the
bf.11inning of ( 10)-a semi r.ncc purely explanatory. For that matter,
th~ same may be said of (11); hut with this (lifh·rcncc, that it couples
or nd<ls a second distinct explanation, and for that a cumulative
wnjunction iR proper to (li;;tingnish it from a different wor1li11g of
the same explanat.ion. 'l'hc n ew ci1·cn111sla11ce is so (li~tind from the
previous one, that a more emphatic conjunction of the cumulati\'e
clnss might have been chosen, us 'moreover'. 'l'here is no conjunction commencing (12). 'The mail was not built-'; the ahruptncss
lending emphasis to the thought, without 1loi ng anything to mif;lend. The •But 1 at the commencement of (13) is necessary to shew
the relation between it and (12). With our suggested coupling of
the two, it becomes simply a sentence conjunction.
"(14) And I remarked this ominous incident of our situation.
"(15) We were on the wrong side of the road. (Hi) But then, it
"may be said, the other party, if other there was, might also be on
"the wrong side: and two wrongs (might) 'woul1l' make a right.
"(17) That was not likely. (18) The same motive which had draw11
"m to the right-hand side of the road, viz., the luxury of the soft
11 bent.en sarnl, us contrasted with the paved centre-would prove
11
11 eUrnctive to ot.hers.
We have still nn excessive mnlt.iplicat.ion of sho1t s1~11t.e11ces, ti•
tl1c detriment of the pnmgmph. 'l'he break of meaning nt the commencement just.in es a new sentence: not so the transition to (15) and
(Hi). If we do not chno~c to group the t.hr1•c- (H), (l•i), (I~),_ we
~hnuhl nt lem;t group the two-(14), (l•i). Out of those re11m1111~ig,
we coulcl make two. There is something to be said for kecpmg
(HJ) and (17) diRtinct: (IG) is l\lren(ly m~1le up o!' two mem~ir.r~ wit.h
a semicolon break; wlnle the anihnr ev1dcnt.Iy rntcmls to mirmluce
(17) with special emphasis, in 'yhich he is aided by 1:1tarti11g a new
1

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104

THE PARAGRAPH.

MACAULAY'S PARALLELISllI.

Aentence. 'l'J1e .R~ope of (18), however, is suc11 as to make it nn
explanatory aclcht10n to the foregoing sent.ence. It gives the ju~li·
fymg reaso_n of the strong declaration- ' That wns not likely 1 : n111l
a fact anc1 its r cnsun should always be closely connected.
• 'l'he r?fot·ences _in th<:'se 8e11le11ces arn piain. Between (14) nn•I
(lo) th.ere is 110 co11.111.11ctiou l'eq 11 ired. After ' I r ernarkcu so nnd p..11'
the tlung r emarked is usually given at once without a conncctinR
word. Sonietimes 'namely' intervenes in such a case. The intro.
ductory ~vords '13ut then,' in (16), are essential to point out tlir
a~lversative cl1;iracter _of !·he sentence, in relation to the forcgoin)t.
'Ih~ referen.ce m (17) is given by an emplrntic demonstrative' J'llflt';
while (18) is a p_nre ca~c of explan:ltion or reason, and is appendt'I)
to the fact explamed without a conJlmction.
"(19) The two adverse carriaaes woulcl therefore to a cc1fai11tr
"be travelling on the same side and fr~m this side as not 1J.. 1·1·1
"
. I
I
.
' .
~ "
"ours
Ill a\~' t Je cros;;mg over to the other would, of courRe, ),..
"~ookecl ~or from. 1~s. (20) Our lamps, still lighted, would gi\'c the
impress10n of vigilance on our part. (21) Aud every creature that
"met us would rely upon 1ts for quarterincr. (22) All this anil if
;; the separate links ~)f th~ anticipations lmd been a thomm;d ti1;1e1
"more, I saw, not.d1 s?urs1vcly, or ~l.Y effort, or by succeEsion, but L7
one flash of hornd sunultaneous mtuit.ion."
After the remarks already 111ade, little nec<ls to be fiai1] n.~ to
these f~ur sentences, .with which tlie author ?oncludcs the paragr·n)'h.
The fit st (I~) contains t\~o m embers, and is a good self-containl.. l
~entence. '1 he next. (20) IS, no d?u~it, n early r?lated in 111caninl{ to
t~s predecessor, but it starts a d1stmct fact, viz., the lamps hcini:
hghtcd,:--whi.ch .i ustifies a new sentence. So close, however, iM the
~onne~t10n w1tl~ (21), that the junction of two such short sentenrtt
rn _1les1rable. 'Ihe conclusion (22) rigl1tly nrnkes a se11te11ce n)'nrt;
b~111g a sort of summary or retrospect of the prcdomiuaiiug thoui;~L
ol the paragraph.
" In, the matter of reference, we may re.mnr)r the c~nnection of (Ill)
'~1th, "11at went before, as shown by the illative co11.1unction • tl1t•rt'fo!'? • Betwe~u (19) ancl (20) there is no conjunction ; the cu111ulat tve conn?ctiou ts left 1mrxp1·rf:f't•.d. The omission does not extt'n•l
!0 (21), wlu ch c~111m?11ccs with' ~\.~111 '. The circumstance expl'l'11'11ft!
m the sentence .rn ne1th_m· a repetition of t11e preceding sentence, Mr
yet an exp~ai!at.10n o,r m_ference ; but is suppo~c<l to mlil so1111~thinir
new an<l d1fltt1_1ct. 'l he hnal R(~nf-.ence hcgins with the <lc111011slnitir•
words 'All tins,' hrnnght to the bcginniug, by the invcrRion of ol~N"t
aud verb ; one of the common occasions for that in version in }'l'\Jlle.

f

We now see that, by i:"P_Plying the principle of ~ro11pinic
related facts, so as to d1v1<le the sentences at tho poiutt
where the bren:ks or transitions are greatest, tho two11l7•
two· sentences m the foregoing paragraph, may Le a<l\'UJ.
tageously reduced to seven or eight.

l:

105

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION.

18. When several consecutive sentences iterate or
illustrate the same idea, they should, as far as possible,
ho formed alike. 'I.1his urny be called the rule of Parallel
Construction.
The principal subject and the principal predicate
1hould retain their positions throughout. We ought not
to seek variety by throwing a principal into a subordinate
place.
'l'he disposition of corresponding expressions in corresponding places, already recognised for the Sentence, is no
less important, as a means of intelligibility, in the array of
lhe Paragraph.
Macaulay's Milton contains the following paragraph;
where the principal subject (variously worded) is retained
in the place of prominence throughout.
' The most strildng characteristic of the poetry of .Millon, is
tho extreme remoteness of the aRsociations by means of
\\'hich it acts on the reader.' 'l'his, in accordance with
l110 next law, is also the theme of the paragraph.
'Its effect
is produced, not so much by what it expresses, as by what it
suggests; not so much by the ideas which it directly conTcys, as by other ideas which are connected with them.'
A sentence of iteration in varied phrase. ' Ile electrifies
lho mind through conductors.' Under the Expository art,
lhis would be called an Illustration. ' 'l'he most unimaginatirn man must understand the Iliad ; Homer gives him
no choice, but takes the whole on himself, and sets his
imnges in so clear a light that it is impossible to be blind to
lhem.' A contrastiug sentence, not quite so well mann.god;
&bo Iliad or Homer should have had the place of prominence, instead of 'the unimaginative man'. Out of the
preRont connection, this clause would have gn.ined emphasis
Ly closing with the Iliad; but here it is preferable to say 'The
/li11il must be understood by the least imaginative of men';
with which the second clause correspomls. ' 1lf£lton does
not paint n. finished picture, or play for a 11rnre passive
" _ listener. Ile sketches, and leaves others to fill up the out~ line; lte strikes the key-note, and expects his hearer to
-·,. ~ make out the melody.'
·
To take another example.

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:

106

who mn,y be placed in the line or
the Ionic Philosophers, is stated to have flourished about
504 n.c. 'l'he active part of his life probably belonged to
the last part of the fifth and the first part of the sixth ccn·
tnry. He may be considered as nearly contempon1ry with
.lEschylus. '.l'he <_>bscuri~y of tl~e, written style in which h~
expressed his plulosopluoal opnuons, became proverbio.1.'
'l'he parallelism is preserved in all those sentences but tho
last. Say rather, ' He became proverbial for having written
his philosophicitl opinions in an obscu1·e sfylfj ', Besides
restoring the subject to its place, this arrangement improves
the predicate; the emphatic expression being put last.
c lleracleifus o.f E11lwsus,

It does not violate tlie parallel cornitruction to place tl1e mnin snhjHt.

..

PARALLELISM IN WASHINGTON IRVING.

THE PARAGRAPII.

for the sake of e1111•hasiH, at tltc c1ul ol' the first seutcuce. Snch scntcn«'I
a!'! this-' There is not a work of human policy so well dcscrvin" of cu·
mination as the Roman Catholic Clmrcli, '-arc to be held ns m c~·cly t•rnpounding tho tl1 rme for consi<leration ; they do not as yet affirm nny ol
its important prcLlicatcs. Allor the subject is thus propon11<lc1l it 111u1t
take its proper position, allll be maintnin ed in that position thr~nghoaL
• .T~~ h~sto ry of that church joins together the two great nges of hnmSD
c1v1hsat10n. No other institution is left stnnding which cnrrics the rnin·I
back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose from the Panl11ro11, a!'llf
when cnmclopanls and tigers bouncled in the Flavian arnphithPatre. TA.I
proudest ro71al houses are but of yesterday, when comprtrcd with the linf' el
the Supreme Pontiffs. That line we trace back in an nnbrohn &eritlto
from the Pope who crowned Napoleon in the nineteenth c.c ntmy, ta lM
Pope who cl'Owncd Pepin in the eighth, &c.' The second and thirJ .,...
tences arc contrasHng or obverse sentences, a11d their subject tnkrt lM
place corrrsponding to the main subject; by which means the 111ralleU..
IS maintninc<l.

In the Lord's Prayer, the balance would Le completed b)'
the inversion-' Thy name be hallowed '.
'l'he Beatitudes, in the Sermon on the :Mount, offer
a. familiar example of balance extended to the parngraph. ~
The sentences are all inverted alike; the ernphasiH in eeit~ ~­
resides in the subject, which is accor<lingly pln.ce<l Inst.
. In the same chapter, there are other instances of J'ft,.a..
lehsm: 'Ye are the salt of the earth'; 'ye are tho lighl ol ,. ·
the world'. The form-• Ye have heard that it wns &aid- ·
but I say unto you,' is five times repeated in substnut.i&Dt
the same form.
The following is an example of sustained pnrnlleliam: -I
"With such feelings, both parties lvoked into the chro11i.-IM el lk"
"middle ages. Both rcatlily fouuil what they sought; nn1l both ul"U .......
" refused to see anything hut what they sought. Tlw chnm('io11• J ""Stuarts could easily point out instnnccs of opprcs;;io11 l'Xcrd.,.,.J • ....

107

"suhjcct. The defenders of tho Roumlhends coulrl as easily produi.·e
"Instances of determin ed and successful resistance offered to the Crown.
Tho Tories quoteu, from ancient writings, expressions almost us servile as
wore hcnrd from the pulpit of Mninwming. The Whigs discovered ex·
pressions as bold and severe as nny that resounded from thejudgment-sro.t
or Bmdshaw. Ono set of writers adduced nnnrnrous instances in which
kings hail extorted money withont the authority of parliament. Another
~ct citoil cases in which the parliament had nsstuncd to itself the power of
lntllctlng pu1iish1nont on kiugii. Those who eo.w only one-half of the
evidence would have concluded that tho Plantugcnets wore ns ubsolute as
"the Snltnns of Turkey : those who saw only the other half wonld have
"concluded that the Plantagcncts had as little real power as the Doges of
"Venice; and both conclusions would have been c1111ally remote from tho
"truth."
Referring hnr~k to the principle of distrihntion (p. 91), we can iice
pl rcnson for grouping the contrasting cotq..1lcs, in si11glc sr:ntcncrs,
•·ith semicolon stops :-•The chnml1ions of the Stuarts coukl easily point
eut l11Kta111·cs of Ol'presgion ex11rdsc( on thu 811 hjcct ; tho (lefollllors of tho
Rot1111lhcads could as easily produce instances of succcssrul rl'sistnnce to tho
Crown',

The parallelism is well maintained in the following extract from Washington Irving, being a description of a
conchman:
"Ho hns commonly a broad full face, curiously mottled with red, as if
"Ilic hlood hnJ lieCH forceJ by hard fce1li11g into t>very vessel of the skin ;
• ~e is swclkd into jolly dimensions by frequent potations of malt
.. U1p1or~, nnJ his bulk is still farther iucrcnsed by a multiplicity of coats,
"In "·hich he fo buried like a cauliflower, the upper one reacl1ing to his
•t.ttls. li e wears a broad-brimmed, low -crownP1l hat, a huge roll or
- •colon ml hnn1lk erchief about his neck, knowi11gly knotted and tucked in
•al llic bosom ; and has, in s11m11111r time, a large Lomptet of flowers in
•lilt butto11lwlc, the present, most probably, of some c1rnmonrctl co11nt1y
•a...1. lib waistcoat is commonly of some Lright colour, striped, and his
•tt11all·l'iut.h cs extellll far below the knees, to nieet a pair of jockey boots,
• •blrh rPaeh half-way up the legs."
·.
In this last sentence, the parallelism is still kept up, even though the
· .r,'-'lpal suhjcct ceases to be the grammatical subject. In the possessive
'· · W..' It 11till keeps the foreground.
·
· "'!'' . "All thi8 costume is maintained with much precision ; lie has a pride
... ha,·ing his clothes of excellent materinls, antl uotwithstnnding t11e
••cuing grossness of l1is appcar:mce, tlierc is still discernible that
. . . . hC!IS anu propriety of i1erson which is almost inherent in an Eng·

•1tbm1m."
' The \11\rnllelism is here departed from in the first clause ; but tho
..... I~ 1anlly felt, a~ the clause is obviously preliminary, and the cliicf
~, t l11mll'<liately appears again. In the next four sentences i1arallelism
nll\illlnillC(I.
I
- '>.
., llo «>njoys great consc'JUC11ce and con~id erntion along the road ; has
,} ~ ""'101>11t co11fcrcnccs with the village hon~e win~s, who look upon him as
,: ,, 11111 '"'" or Rreat trnst nm! dependence ; and he seems to have a good
,,;.. !l! ......ntamli11~ with every bright-eyed country lass. The moment when

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.

108
.. h

THE PARAGRAPH.

OPENING SENTENCE GIVING THE 'J'IIEME •

1
" .~ arnves w 1_cre the hor~cs arc to ho cltangccl, he throws down tlic fl'in•

109

.

"\Htl~ so111.ctl1111g or _an air, aml aba1!tluns the cattle to the care of tht
"ostler ; lns duty bcu~g merely to dnve them from oue stage to nnothrr.
When off the box, Ins lmnds arc thrust in the pockets of his grcat·coot
:: and ho rolls ab~ut the inn-yard with an air of the 1nost ahsolut~ Jonlli:
"nes:i. Herc he is generally snrrouuded by an admiring throng of ostfrl"I,
"stable-boys, shoe-blacks, nud those nameless 11angers-on that infc~t iuD1
and taverns, nnd run errands."
lu the ne.xt sentence, there is a departure from the parallel structun
beyond what is necess11ry:
"
"'l'h~se nl_l ~ook up to him as an oracle, treasure up his cant hrru
"echo 111s op11~10!1 abo1!t l.10rses mill. other topics of jockey Joi~ ;
endeavour t_o mutate !11s air and carnage."
Th? rno~1ve for tins c~iauge is uo doubt to bring • these ' into clMt
c~nncctior~ with the prceedmg se11tc1wc ; !mt this is secured at the exprn•
ot obscuring rather too much the chief subject, hitherto so promincnL
B~: ttcr to. take such a form as this : "He is looked up to by these as ••
OJ acle, h1~ cnnt \ihrascs arc trcasurecl up, his opinions about horsra and
other topics ?f _Jockey lore are echoed ; and l1is air aud ca.rriago tbeJ
endeavour to imitate."
The above passage will sc!·ve to illustrate the qnality of CoNSF.Cl'Tl1'1NEss, to be nftcrwanls cxplamcd.
The 111Ta11rrc111cn t followctl-llllllltlf
~'crs?n, Clotl1cH, N ?:1t11css, Esteem, Ila.bits at Ii7us aud cstimatiou tlui,._:
18 swted to the subJect.

::J

INDICATION OF THE THEME.

1~. The opening. sentence, unless obviously prf'pnratory, is expected to mdicate the scope of the parngrnpb.
A paragraph describing the constituents of the Bdti.Ji
Government? may begin thus :-' 1'/te Government of Jlrilm'•·
called a n:nxed government, and sometimes a Jimitt'd
mon~chy, is formed by a combination of the threo regular
species of government.'
·
This rule . is mos~ ~irectly applicable to expo!!itory
style, wl~ere, m<leed, it is almost essential. In N arratire,
the ope~1mg sentenc~ o~ a paragraph may lrn.ve no fartlw
pecul~a:rity than to mchcate a new departuro, or n. Lro6il
trans1t101~ from wh'.it wont before. Still, thero iH rm atl•
va!1tage m so shapmg the sentence as to foreshadow tbe
clnft of the whole parngraph. Thus, when Burnet bc~in.1 a
pa_ragraph-• I have seen the nation thrice on the Lrink ol ·
rum 1?Y men thus tainted '-we expect a detail of tho sc\'triJ
occas10ns when the alleged effect occurrecl. Defoo iulroduces. the car~er of Ro~inson Crusoe in a parn.grnph cout-mencmg- 1 Bemg the third son of the family, antl not hr.a ._,:;'
to any trade, my head began to be filled very early wi ..., -. :~;:.

ra111'1li11g llwuyhts ', This is the key to the subsequent
oarrntion.
In Descriptive style, there is a near approach to the
characteristic of exposition. Each new paragraph introduces and finishes a definite topic. 'l'hus, in Geography, a
paragraph on the Alpine Glaciers opens with a sentence
announcing the subject: not to begin so would be a medley.
•Tho glaciers, or vast fields of ice and frozen snow,
which occur in the higher valleys of the Alps, are among
lheir most remarkable and interesting features.'
As an example in Science, we may refer to the opening
1entences of Graham's celebrated p11pcr on Dialysis. '1'/i.c
property of volatility, possessed in various degrees Ly so many
nbstances, affords invaluable means of separation, as is
teen in the ever-recurring processes of ovaporntion and
distillation. So similar in charact~r to volatility is the
IJiffusive power possessed by all liquid substances, that we
may fairly reckon upon a class of analogous analytical
" resources arising from it.' Now, the first sentence is preparatory to the introducLion of the main subject (Diffusion)
au tho second; but, as it stands, it seems to propound
rul11filil!f as the subject of the paragraph.
'l'he author
aiight have said:-' It has been found with regard to the
property of volatility, possessed, &c.' This would have
gi\·cn to the sentence its true character of a preparatory
. , illustration. Then, the next sentence would have Loon : f~ · •Now, so similar in character to volatility is the Diffusive
.;, power possessed by all liquid substances,' &c. ; thus propounding the main subject of the paragraph and of the

paper.

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Frequently the opening sentence is so constructed as to
ah.row the subject of the paragraph to the end. Several purposes may be served by this arrangement. The first part of
ihe sentence may often be fittingly occupieu with matter ina.ndetl to intlicate tho connection with the preceding parapplt 'l'hus, in the following example :-' Wlwtev1Jr may

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IA. /'J(trf!/ opposed to Sir Robert lValpolc, his support infused
':i. lato many members of that party a courage n,11<l an 011orgy
',. · fll which they stood greatly in neml.' Or the intention
' Ila)' bo to suspend the interest of the reader-an aim th,~t
a most suitaLle when the subject to be introduced is uot
,.• ecteJ with the foregoing matter, but is mentionctl [,~

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110

THE PARAGRAPH.

EXAMPLES FilOM MACAULAY AND HELPS.

something new. Hence, this is most common in the opening
:paragraph of a chapter or a whole discourse. The following
mstanc~, from Sar/or R esartus, is an appropriate introuuction
to a senos of pn,rn,grn,phs on the subject it announces:' Perhaps the most remarkable inci<lent in modem
history, says Teufelsurockh, is not the Diet of Worms
still less the battle of Austerlitz, Waterloo, Peterloo,
any ot~er b~ttle ; but an incident passed carelessly over by
most h1stonans, and treated with some degree of ridicule
by others: namely, George Fox's rnaJcing to himself a suit of

o:

leather.'
~his method of reserving the subject is sometimes
apphed on a larger scale. When the opening paragraph
announces the theme of a whole composition, the announcemen~ may be reserved to the last sentence. The preceding
portions of the ~aragrap.h wi~l then be occupied with general
statements and illustrat10ns mtended to excite curiosity and
lead up gradually to the point.
. The intro<luction to Macaulay's History may be referred to in illus·
trahon of the Paragraph Law now mHkr discussion.
. The fir~t sentence of the Hist~ry is th!s: 'I purpose to write the
h1stor_y of E1~gla1.1d f~·o~ the accession of Krng James the Second down
to a tinrn which IS w1thm the memory of men still living'. The para·
~raph .that follows, gives a general view of the political events to be pnsscd
m rev~ew,_ but concentra~es attention cl:iefly on the steps that le<l to the
consoh~at1on and exte11s10n of England s power. The other side is prescnte<l ~n t!ic scco~d parngrapl~. While, therefore, the sentence Jttst
quoted IS highly smtal>le as an mtroduction to tho whole work 1 it is too
comprehensive for its own }larngraph. Its importance would be best i111li·
cated by placing it as a paragraph by itself. The next would thcu be
opened by a sentence in1licating its purport as already stated.
Of the seco1!<l paragraph, the first sentence runs thus: 'Nor will it be
less my ~uty fa1~hlully to re?or<l disasters mingle<l with triumphs, nnd
great nat1011al cnmes and folhes far more humilint.ing than any disaster'
This s~ntence is the introduction to a imrngraph that broadly sketche~
these disasters and crimes, and is therefore a very fitting indication of the
theme.
So, al~o, in th~ next case : 'Yet,. unle~s I greatly deceive myself, the
general eflect of tins chequered narrative will be to excite thankfulness in
all religious. minds, and hope in the breasts of all 1mtriots '. 'l'he par&·
graph thus mtroducc<l enforces the idea that the nation has made great
progress on the whole.
. We pass on to the ncx.t.: 'I should very imperfectly execute tho tn~k
wlucl~ I have un1lcrtakm1, _it. I wcr:c merely. to ~reat of battles nud si<'g11R, of
the rise .an1l fall o~ ad11111!1stra,h?11s, of mtngucs in tho palace, and or
debates m the parhnme11t • 'llns leads on to the declaration that his
task will be !o give the history of the people-of the changes in their
thought and hfe-as well as the political story.

111

The opening sentence of the last paragraph in the introduction, is
lhis: 'The events which I propose to relate, form only a single act of a
great and eventful drurna extending through agPs, and must be very im·
J"'rfectly nnderstood unless the plot of the precc1li11g nets be well known',
l'his is followrnl l1y two sc11tc11cc~ i11<lic11ti11g his 111dho1l of dealing with
this early period.
.
'l'hus, with the excopti<m pointed out in the first case, we find the
rule very fairly observed in these five parngraphs of the introduction.
An examination of tho whole of the first cl11q1ter would show that, in
general, Macaulay's pmctice is remarkably in harmony with this principle.
~:xceptions do now and then occur; but, in tho great majority of cases,
tho paragraphs open with some broad statement tliat indicates the ~cneml
nature of what is to follow. It is true, we should not find the prmciple
llO fully carried out in the body of the History as in tho introductory
chapter, which is more a general summary of events than a consecutive
story. Yet, even in the strictly narrative portions of the history, we find
him frequently using such general statem<"nts to iutrodn<!o his pnrngrnphs
as, 'The funeral called forth much censme'; 'Tho great olliccs of' stute
11ad become vacant by the demise of the crown, and it was necessary for
James to determine how they should be filled'; 'he was a man of vigorous
parts, but constitutionally prone to insolence and to the angry passions',
The paragraphs thus introduced are the expan ~ions of these general statements.
It is clear that Macaulay distinctly recognized the importance of the
111inciple now before us.

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A farther illustration may be selected from a different species of composition. 'l'ake the Essay on Conformity in Helps's Friends in Council.
The Essay opens by comparing the conformity of man with the
imitativeness of the lower animals; and we have a fitting introductory
sentence, runniug thus: 'The conformity of men is often a far poorer
thing than that which resembles it amongst tho lower animals'. 'l'ho
accoml pnrngrnph begins: 'It will over be 0110 of tho nicest prouloms for
&man to solve, how far he shall profit by tho thoughts of other 11w11, n111l
not be enslaved by th em' ; and, accordingly, the theme of it is, the diflicul·
tics there are in settling the limits of conformity. Next we have a paragraph beginning with the sentence : 'Few, however, are those who
venture, even for the shortest time, into that busy world of independent
thought, where a man is not upheld by a crowd of other men's opinions,
but where he must find a footing of his own'; and the subject it <liscusses
is the wide prevalence of Conformity. The opening sentence of the next
is short: 'It is hard to say in which dcpal'tment of human thought and
endeavour conformity has triumphed most'; but it clearly points to the theme
of tho paragraph-the spheres of thought and life that exhibit the opera·
tion of the tendency, such as religion, art, science, dress, architecture, &c.
The three closing paragraphs chiefly nim at a practical application of
tho foregoing thoughts. A short paragraph begins: ' When we have
once come to a right estimate of the conformity, we shall, I think, be
more kindly disposed to eccentricity than wo usually nre'; and the
objoct is to show that there is some a1lva11tago ovun in what soom11 to
be only eccentric, i;inco it rcsists too great conformity. Next wo have a
paragraph opening thus: 'It is worth while to analyse that influence of
the world which is the right arm of conformity' ; and the purport of it,

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112

THE PARAGRAPH.

accordingly, is to consider the nrious sources of the tenclency to conform.
'l'ho Essay closes with a ixi.ragrnph com111cncinrt with this sentence: 'A
reasonable watchfulness a:rainst conformity will not lead a man to S('lltu
the aid of other men, still less to n-ject the accnmnlate<l mcnt~tl capitill of
:i.gr,s' j a111l so the object is to make some practical observations ngai111l
extreme i<lca8 011 either side.
'l'hns, all the 8evcn paragraphs aro introuucetl in 11armony with the
rule. Hclp8, like :Macaulay, 111anifcstly felt the im1)ortnnco of imch n 11r..
I i111innry inuication of the theme.

UNITY.

20. Unity in a Paragraph implies a sustained purpose,
and forbids digressions and irrelevant matter.
The Rule just expounded is unmeaning, except on tho
supposition that a paragraph has a set purpose, an<l a<lhorca
to that throughout.
Unity is violate<l in several ways. A common mis·
take, of the simpl~s~ kin~, is to run on in one pa1:a.gra\1b
what should be d1v1ded mto two or more. As with t 10
sentence, so with the Pa.mgraph, the only general principlo
that can be lai<l down, is to make the divisions at the larger
breaks; and so there may sometimes be doubt in the appli·
cation of the rule. But, when a Paragraph is allowed lo
become much protracted, the reader loses the sense of any
unity of purpose in it, and the brea.k, when it comes, is of
little use. More rarely, the opposite extreme is met with
the custom of writing in short paragraphs-of one, two, aml
three sentences. 'l'he object in this case is to give a look
of greater importance to each individual remark; the effect,
however, is to produce a disjointed style, and largely to
nullify the paragraph division by reducing it nearly to tho
level of the sentence.
A more serious breach of the Unity of the Paragraph is
caused by the introduction of unnecessary digressions nnd
irrelevant matter. 'l'ake, as an example, the following
paragraph from Dryden, on 'l'ranslation : (1) Translntion i8 a kinrl of drawing after the life ; where e\•cry one
rill acknowledge tht!re is a double sort of likeness, a good ono anll n h:ul.
2) It is one thing to tlrnw the outlines trne, the featumi like, the propor.
cinns exact, the coloming itself perlrnps tolerable; aml another thing to
make all theso grn<:d'ul, by the posture, the shadowings, and chiefly h7
the spirit which animates the whole. (3) I cannot, without some intliit·
nation, look on an ill copy of an excellent original i much less can I behold
with paticnco Virgil, Homer, and some others, whose beauties I havo beta

DIGRESSIONS AND IRRELEVANCE.

113

rnrlcnvol\l'inrr all my Jife to imitate, so abnserl, as I may say, to thrit
Cac1•s hy a h;tchi.n~ interpreter. (4) What English readers, u1uic1prni11te1l
•·ith Greek or Lntm will bclie\'O me or any other man, when we co111nie111l
thrso authors, and ~01&ss, we tlerivo all that is pardonable in us fr~m
their fountains, if they take those to be the same poets whom our Oglcv1es
have translntr.d T (5) But I dare assure them that a good poet is !10 ~n?re
like himself in a dull translation, than his carcase would bo to Ins hvmg
body. (6) There are many who understand Greek an<!. Latin, nml yet arc
licnorilllt of their mothe1·.tongue, (7) The properties and delicacies of tho
t:nglish are known to few; it is impossible even for a good wit ~o undertla111l nn<l practise them without the help of a liberal education, long
1r:uling, nnd digesting of those few good authors we have amongst us i the
knowlctl"e of men and manners, the freedom of haliitndr.s and conversa·
lion witl~ the best company of hoth s1:1xcs ; and, in short, without wearing
olT the rust which he co11traet.cd whilo hu was laying in a stnck of learning. (8) Thus diflicult it is to umlcrstnnd the purity of E11glhih, and
mticnlly to discern, not only g.oo~l w1:itr.rs from b~tl, ~nd a vr?per style
from a conupt, but also to d1sting111sh that wh1eh is puro Ill n. good
author, from that which is vicious and corrupt in him. (9) And. for ":nut
of nil these requisites, or the greatest part of them, most of our mgemous
young men take up some cried-up English poet for their model ; adore
him, and imitate him, as they think, without knowing wherein he is
drfective, where he is boyish and trilling, wherein either his thoughts aro
lniproper to his subject, or his expressions unworthy of his thoughts, or
lho tum of both is unharmonious.

·- ·-·•

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Here, the object of the first two sentences is to give a
~cneral statement of the nature and the difl1culties of
Translation. From this we pass off, in the third, to an
expression of the writer's person al feelings towar<ls bad
translations; and this is farther expanded in sentences (4)
and (5). There is no indication of what is the connection
with the preceding sentences ; and, in point of fact, the
ronnection is but slight. The matter might either be
omitted altogether or reduced to a sl10rt passing reference.
A third alternative would be to place these sentences in a
1eparate paragraph, prefaced by some such statement as
&his: 'A good original must not be judged by an ill copy'.
'l'ho harm done by the digression would thus be reduced;
but it would still prevent the first two sentences from being
M> closely connected as they should be with the matter that
is now to follow.
The remainder of the paragraph is much better connected; the chief defect is, that the leading idea is not
indicated. Whatever course may be taken with the digressive matter just referred to, these sentences should
have a paragraph to themselves. If the digression were

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114

THE PARAGRAPH.

o~itted, this paragraph might be brought into connection
with t~e first para:graph, thus :-•For a good translation
two thmgs are required: a knowledge of Engljsh as well as
a .know ledge of the original '. If the digression were reta.med as a separate pai:agraph, then the point here discussed might be brought into relation with it by another
sentence preceding the one just given:~• That good translations are few is not to be wondered at, li'or a good
translation two things,' &c.
Thus the passage illustrates more than one of the
a?ove ~emarks on tl~e Viol~tio1?"s of Unity. It contains a.
d1gress10n whose chrnf motive is, not the exposition of the
~ubject,. but merely tl:~ expressi?n of thoughts and feelings
mterestmg to the writer. It mcludes matter sufficiently
distin?t to require the paragraph to be broken up. :Moreover, it ~as ~lso shown how the laws of Explieit Reference
and Ind1cat10n of the Theme tend to secure the Unity of
the Paragraph.

The Unity of th~ Paragrai1h-or what may corrcsponil
to th.e Paragraph--;-1s 11ot strwtl~ enjoinell in Poetry. j)j.
gress10ns are permitted that do little towards enforcing tho
leading ideas, if only they serve the general ends of l'octn·
and are not so distant or prolonged as to interfere with th~
~min ~deas. The simil~s of Milton are constantly developccl
mto pictures that have mterest and beauty quite apart from
the apparent purpose of their introduction. As an examplo
reference may be made to the famous comparison of Satan's
shield to the moon (Puradise Lost, Book I., 287).
CONSECUTIVE ARRANGEMENT.

21. The first thing involved in Consecutive Arrange.
ment is,_ that related topics should be kept close together : m other words, Proximity has to be governed
by Affinity.
. W~en an ~clea is put f?rward, the way to stamp it on tho
mmd is, to give everythmg connected with it-iterationl!,
exa~ples, illustrations, and proofs-before passing to another .
sub1ect.
This is like attacking in a phalanx, instead of in looso
order.

PROXIMITY OF RELATED PARTICULARS.

115

22. The nature of the subject, and the style of the
composition, usually dictate a plan in the bringing forward of successive particulars.
This is most completely exemplified in Natural History.
In describing a plant, there is a regular order that is never
departed from. The effect is both to aid the memory, and
to facilitate the comparison of the different species.
In popular composition, the usage is not so strict, but,
when complied with, has the same advantages. In giving
the character of a man, physical qualities have usually the
precedence of mental ; the intellectual and tho moral aro
separated; natural gifts precede acquisitions. 'l'he following might have been intended as a caricature of mal-arrangement : •My mother was passionate, with a strong mind and
memory, of a low stature, fat, and pious' I Three classes of
quality-physical, intellectual, and emotional, are given in
utter disorder.
The following paragraph, by Macauln.y, is intended to
.. ., bring Hyder Ali on the scene; It is well arranged, with
aomo slight dislocations:" (1) About thirty years before this timo, a M:nhommoclan
11
soldier had begun to distinguish himself in the wars of
11
Southern India. (2) His education had been neglected;
11
his extraction was humble. (3) His father had been a petty
11
officer of revenue; his gmn<lfather a wandering clerviso."
The second and third sentences should have run thus:
11
His extraction was humble; his father had been a petty
officer of revenue; his grandfather a wandering dervise. His
education had been neglected." The propriety of this
change will be seen when the next sentence is quoted.
"(4) But though thus meanly descended, though ignorant
"even of the alphabet, the adventurer had no sooner been
11
placed at the head of a body of troops than he approved
11
himself a man born for conquest and command. (5) Among
11
the crowd of chiefs who were struggling for !1 share of India,
"none could compare with him in the qualities of the captain
11
and the statesman." These sentences are in every respect
admirable.
"(6) He became a general; he became a sovereign."
. , Emphatic iteration with balance. Though short, the sentence
,i< !•properly complete~, on the view of what follows, to which
;, ·~ •' 18 the comprehensive prelude, or theme. "(7) Out of the
1
' • fragments of old principalities, which had gone to pieces in

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DISLOCATION-ITS CAUSES.

THE PARAGRAPH.

117

as well as inscrutable. (6) We know and discern them
"with unhesitating and invincible assurance."
Sentences (1) arnl (2) might be combined into one, from
the closeness of the rela.tionship; the second merely iterates,
in another form, the substance of the first. The passage is
arcrumentative, and the third sentence begins the refutation
of ;,hat is alleged in the two previous; the remainder of the
paragraph being occupied with the argument. The substance
of (3) is that ultimate feelings must be both indisputable and
<listinct. The fourth sentence repea.ts and expands those
two criteria, and adduces the specific examples of hunger
and thirst. Here the paragraph might end, inasmuch as the
argument is now concluded. But the author adds two more
sentences, which do nothing but iterate (3). If such iteration were necessary, which may be the case, it should have
been without a break; that is (3), (5) and (6) should have
come together, and been followed by (4), which gives the
clenching illustration from hunger and thirst.
'rhe chief cause of dislocation is a very obvious one. As
a writer pursues his exposition, ho hits out improved statements and enforcements of what he has already said; he
does not care to put these in their proper place, so as either
to supersede or support the previous statements, but sots
lhem down at the points where they occur to him.

"the general wreck, he formed for himself a great, compact,
"and vigorous empire. (8) 'l'hat empire he ruled wiLh the
"ability, severity, and vigilance of Louis the Eleventh. (\J)
"Licentious in his plmisurcs, implacable in his revenge, he
" had yet enla1·gement of mi1~d enough to perceive how much
" the prosperity of subjects adds to the strength of govern·
"ments. (10) He was an oppressor, but he had at least tho
'' merit of protecting his people against all oppression except
"his own." There is no call here for uniting two sentences
into one; each contains a weighty and independent grouping
of facts, enough for a distinct sentence.
The two last sentences of the paragraph show slight
dislocation.
" (11) He was now in extreme old age; but his intelled
"was as clear and his spirit as high, as in the prime of rnnn" hood. (12) Such was the great Hyder Ali, the founder
"of the Mahommedan Kingdom of Mysore, and the most
"formiclo.ble enemy with whom the English conquerors of
"India have ever had to contend."
The last sentence might follow at once on tho ronclusion of (10). It was time to announce the name of tho
great hero, without condescending to such minute circumstances as his age, and the state of his faculties. Still,
the author felt that (12) is the climax, and that to a<l<l (11)
after it would spoil tho effect.

11

Tho next pamgrn.ph is from Channing :
The following is a short example from a. cum pact writ('r:
" (1) According to the hypothesis of a moral sense, we aro
"conscious of the feelings which indicate God's con11nn111l1J,
" as we are conscious of hunger or thirst. (2) In other
" words, the feelings which indicate God's com11m11ds MO
" ultimate facts. (3) Dut, since they are ultimate fact.1,
" these feelings or sentiments must be indisputable, n11d
"must also <liffcr obviously from tho other clements of our
''nature. (4) If I were really gifted with feelings or s1•11li·
" ments of the sort, I could no more seriously quc!ltion
"whether I had them or not, and could no more blend nnd
" confound them with my other feelings or scntimentR, than
" I can seriously question the existence of hunger or tltinil,
"or can mistake the feeling which affects me when I am
"hungry for the different feeling which affects mo when I
"am thirsty. (5) All the parts of our nature which an
" ultimate, or incapable of analysis, are certain and distinn

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"(1) It is chiefly throngh hooks that we enjoy intrrcomsc with superior
"minds; and these invaluaLlc mean:; of corn1111111icatio11 arc in the reach
•of all. (2) In the best books great men talk t.o us, gi\'0 us their most
"t•tl'ciom1 thoughts, nud pour their souls into oms. (3) God be thanked
"fur bPoks. (4) They are the voices of the · distant and the dead, and
"ni11ke us heirs of the spiritnu 1 life of }mst ages. (5) Hooks nro the .truo
"lt\·elll'l'S. (6) They give to all who wi I faithfully use them, the society,
11
tho ~piritunl iircscnce, of the best and greatest of our race. (7) No
.. matll•r how poor I am ; no matter though tho prosperous of my own
"timu will not enter my obscuro dwelling; if tho sacred writers will enter
., and take up their abode under my roof; if Milton will cross my thrcshohl
.. to ~i11g to mo of Paradise, and Shakespeare to open to me the worl.<ls of
'"hnni:ination and the workings of the human heart, an<l Franklin to
•• r11ri"11 me with his 1n·aetical wis1lom, I shall not pi no for want of
.. lnl•·ll.-1'l1111l co111pn.nio11ship, 111111 I muy becomn a 1~ult.ivatud man thoni;(h
•ll..t11.!1•1l from what is called the best society in the place where I live."
II ere, ~rntcnce (1) embraces two distinct ideas not very clo~cly conlldffl · nu<l the second clause is most nearly related to th~ thoughts
•pt'e:!l,~d in (5) and (7). Sentence (3) is a very gc11er~l ob~ervntion
•11rjeclc1l in the midst of more definite statements; besides, it comes
'-•~n two sentences that a.,.e close!~' eonnecled.

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118

THE PAltAGRArH.

EXAMPLE OF DISLOCATION.

The paragraph admits of being re-arranged as follows :-(3) mi~l1t st:ind
at the begin11ing as an introductory exclamation. .After this would follow
(1), first clause, (2), (6), (4). All these bear on the same idea, that booh
l1ring us into contact with the gl'catcst mi1ul,; ; a1Hl ( 4) would serve rrry
well as the last 3entence on this point, being a kiml of general an•I
emphatic summing up of the thought. Then (1), seeond clause, might lie
united into one sentence with (5), thus: 'Books are the true levellers, fur
these ill\·aluahle means of commnnicntion with the gr_entest minds nre
within the reach of all.' (7) would the11 1:1erve very well as an expnnsioo
of this special idea, and as an appro11riate close of the whole paragrn11h.

11 stmncc

The following extract will yet farther illustrate the advantages of Consecutive Arrangement.
"(1) These sufferings are really felt. (2) The beasts of tlie fi1·l1l 1re
"not so many automata without sPnsation, and just so constrncte.J. n~ to
"give forth all the natural signs an cl expressions of it. (3) N atmo hath
" 11ot pmctised this u11ivcrsnl deception upon our species. (4) These poor
"animals just look, and trcm ble, nnd give forth the vny indicatio11~ or
"suffering that we do. (fl) Theirs is the 1listi11ct ery of pain. (6) Th·~in
"is the uucquivocal physiognomy of i1aiu. {7) They put on tho ;;:une
"aspect of terror on the de111onstratio11s of n menaced blow. (8) Tlwy
"exhibit the same distortions of agony after the infliction of it. (9) The
"bruise, or the burn, or the fractme, or the deep incision, or the lirll-e
" encouuter wit.h one of eqnnl or superior strength, just allcct!I th1•ru
"similarly to ourselves. (10) Their blood eirculates as ours. (11) They
"havo pul1'ations . in various parts of the body like ours. (12) They
''sicken, allll they grow feeble with age; and, finally, they die just n~ we
"do. (13) They possess the same feelings; a1Hl, what exposes thrm to
" like sulli·ring from another quarter, they pos~ess the same i11stinrll
"with our own sp!!cies. (14) The lioness robbed of her whelps cansl'H the
"wilderness to ring aloud with the proclamation of her wrongs; or the
"bird whose little household Jias br)en stolen, fills and sad1lcns nil the
"grove with melouios of deepest pathos. (15) All this is palpnhle cvrn
"to the general ancl unlearned eye ; aml when the physiologist lays 01~0
"the recesses of their system Ly mea11s of tlmt scalpnl, under wh0te
"operation they just shriuk a.ml nre convulsed as any living subjrct
"our own species, there stands forth to view the same sentient nppnrnta._
" and fnrnished with the same conductors for the transmission of f1·11lin1
"to ev<'ry minutest pore upon the surface. (16) Theirs is 1111miin•1I 1n1)
"unmitigated :'ain- the ago11ies of martyrdom, without tho 11ll1•\·intloa
"of the hopes !!llll sentimc.nts, whereof they arc incapal1lc. (1 i) \\'hr•
"they lay them down to die, their only fellowship is with sulfotinit; fOf
"in the prison-house of their b<>set and bounded faculties, there can no
"relief be afforded by communion with other interests or otl11·r thin~
"(18) The attention docs not lighten their distress as it does that of 11111n,
"by carrying off his spirit from that existing pnngrncy allll 1•ri·~•llf9
"which might else be overwhelming. (19) There is but room 111 th ..ir
" mysterious eco1101Hy for one inmate ; and that is, the absorbing 11cn!le ol
" their own single and conccntrntetl nngnisl1. (20) And SQ in that btJ "
"torment, whereon the wo11111le1l animal lingers aml cxpir1·H, thorn ii aa
"unexplored depth aud intensity of suffering which tho poor dumh
"animal itst·lf cannot tell, and against which it can olfcr no remOll•

119

7

or

'~
"·!;

·~

• an untold and unknown amount of wretchedness, of wl1ich 110
"articulate voice gives uttcmn~o.. (21) B!1t t~tere is an eloquence in it.s
"~ilence; and the very shroud wlnch d1sgmses it, only serves to aggmvato
''its horrors."
The arrangement of this parngraph may be shortly st~tcJ as follow!!.
Animal sufferings are ~eal, not merely apparent (1-3~. An!ma~s show the
!Piile expressions of patn as ourselves (4-9); their circulation ts the same
(lO, 11) ; so is their decay and death (12) ; thoy have also. the samo
lnatincts, exposing them to pains (13, 14) ; and .the ~a~e scntie1~t appn•
ratus is revcalecl by science (15). :Moreover, then·. pam is unallev1at~tl by
the eentim<'nts and hopes that help men to ~Par pam (16) ; ~llll e!lp~crnlly,
they cannot enjoy the sympathy of other b.crngs (~7-19). 1~hu~ the!r pam
la a vnst unknown quantity, all the more impressive from its marhculato
ulurn (20, 21).
•
Hovicwin.,. this arran.,.nment, we mrty ohsorve that it is neither the
11ost nntural ~or the most "etrccti ve for its purpose. The broad outlines of
the arrangement are quite appropriate : first, the reality of th? suffering
(1·3) ; then the proofs of the reahty (4-15) ; next, the aggravations of. tho
suffe1ing (16-19) · m.d lastly, a general enforcement of these aggravations
(20, 21). Ilut u~dcr the second nnd longest .of the.so divisions, se':eral
-, eh~nges might he made. 'l'he rcforcucc.to tho c11·cula~1011 (1?, 11) hm1 htt.lo
ftlevancy, unleRs it were ma~o much w~dcr-that t!1~1r Lo~ily strncturc. m
iencl'al is tho same as ours; m any case it has no al!Hnty with the last pomt
1oticed here, the sentient apparatus. Then, their decay and death (12)
lw not much connection with their circulation (10, 11), though it might
hue relation to a more general statement of bodily resemblanc? to men.
Farther the mention of the sentient apparatus revealed by se1ence (15)
ahould ~ta.ml immecliately after the enumeration of their ordinary expre.-1lions of pain, instead of heiug separated from it by half-a-dozen sentences
dt&li11g with other subjects.
.
.
Cal'rying out these changes, we should have the followmg arrangl'·
llfnt. W c may drop altogether the mention of the circulation (10, 11).
Tbrn the reality of animal sufferings may be shown, fil'st, fr?m .tho
lintilarity of their expressions of pain to ou1· own (4·9); next, their SIC~­
Mtll, tfoeny, a.nil death, arc like ours (12) ; nnd fo.l'ther, heyoml what is
tttn by the ordinary eye, science rcvPals the same sonhcnt appa1:atn~ for
the transmission of feeling (15). :Moreover, they havo tho samo mstmcts
.. ourselves from which much of their pain is derived (13, 14). 'l'hus
••prove th~ fact of a!1imnl sufferi?g, in a na.tnr:1;l, and impress~ve. order,
. from common observation of tho pnm, from sc1cnhho knowledge of 1t, and
from thci1· wider community of nature with us.

It constantly happens that a topic is related to several
others; and, as composition can move only in one line, it
.• ·.may be impossible to bring a paragraph into entire accordance with the law. In such cases, we must be content to
~ a&udy the greateEt proximity of relatccl topics on the whole.

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Consi<lcred n,s a piece of poetry, the soliloquy of Hamlet
bears examination for paragraph arrangement. The theme
-• 1'o be or not to be,' -is put at the commencement, and

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THE PARAGRAPH.

is followed out on a consecutive plan. First is a concreto
expansion or iteration of the alternative, namely-' whether
to suiier the ills of fortune or to take arms and' end them'
Next is .th.e real point-Wh~t is death? Is it a perfect
sleep, or ts it a sleep ruffled with dreams? Here is the rub
of uncertainty. This it is that makes us endure the 'whips
and scorns of time,' and all the rest of the evils, so power·
f~lly worded.
'l'he poet then repeats the uncertainty in
d~fferent terms-'. the a.read of something after death' ; and
gryes the paralyzmg ef!ect of this on the will. He finally
widens the theme, to illustrate the unfavourable influence
of ove~-refiection ~nd f~a.r upon action generally,-so far
departmg from his ongmal 'quef:'tion '-'to be or not
to be'.
In Tennyson's Duke oj TVcllinglon, thrre is an occasionnl dislocation
of topics, that impairs the iullncnce of the Ode as a whole.
, Stanzas I., IL, and III. deserilie in highly-adomed phraseology the
rncmnstnnc~s of the mournful pageant, the imposing martial procession.
Stan:i:.a IV. HI t~cvoted t.o ctil<!gy of tl1e Duke, as sohlier and statesmnn;
especially tlwellt.ng ?II Ins pnnty of 111otivc au<l integrity of purpose. The
sequence of topics. 18 not 01~ any principle, hut the relationship is cloMo
enough for a poetical l.1andh.11g. St~nza y. furnishes an example of dis.
located array. It begi.n~ with an 1t~ratlon of the particulars of the
pageant and make.s add1t10ns to those Ill the first stanzas: the tolling or
the bell'. the t?wermg cnr, the sa blo steeds, and finally the volleying ra11no11
thundenng 1us loss. .The roet is betrayed by this last particular into a
m.ost unw~rrantal~le .d1gres.s10n from the topic of the stanza. Not satisfied
with a brief admissible hmt that these were familiar voices to the dca1l
hero! he goes on to renew the panegyric upon the Duke's great deeds in
puttmg down tyrants and guarding realms and kings from shame.
. Stanz~ VI. n~akes use of the company of Nelson, whom he was to lie
bes1do. 'I he 'l\l1ghty Seaman' asks the cause of this invasion of his
peaceful slumbers,. and is answered with the third eulogy of the Dnkc'a
career: a consec1;1tlve sur~er of. his military doings from Assnye to Waterloo. .Take!~ ~~ itself, t~1!s is lnghly })Oetical, an~ not open to the charge
of be!~g disa11angcd. I he address to Nelson is finely wordc<l, arnl the
~epe~ition of t~1e call to render etcrual honour to the name of his compeer
Is a ht conclusion to the stanza.
The ne~t Stanza, VII,., renew~ the panegyric, chiefly adverting to his
~tates1:'1anslnp, together with the lngh u~oral purpose of his lifo; regard·
111g lnm as one of the men that contnbuted to make onr 11nt1011 free
Uulike the previous stanzas, it adheres to no definite line so as to ~
marked off from the topics dwelt upon in IV. and V.
Stanza VIII: is an attef!•pt to show that the great Duke's devotiou
to duty found its reward 111 honours and alllucnce ; an1l uses the
example as an encouragement to our imitation. 'l'he order is not specially
notable for good or bad.
The concluding stanza is thc. long~st, and. i? very mixril in it11 topir.R;
fresh language of eulogy altematmg with additional allusions to the cere-

CONSECUTIVENESS IN POETRY.

121

moninl of tl10 day. The chief novelty Hrs in ant.ieipating the future of
tho Duke's reputation in this world 11111l of his i>taudiug in tho next.
'l'his rapid review shows the pmpose of' the poet to be twofold ; to
give a poetic rendering of the gorgeous ceremony of the funeral, and to
portray the virtues of the departed hero. Now, these two objects are
pl'rfcctly distinct ; and their separation in the treatment would have
n1ltled to the impressiveness of both. Supposing the ceremonial given to
begin with, the i11tenogatory of Nelson would make, as at present, an ap·
1•ropriate tmnsition to the eulogy, which would then be consecutive 011 a
ilclinite plan: giving tho soldier first, and next the stntPsman and the
mnn. Under the actual intermingling of two different lines of thought,
the reader's memory takes in nothing but such detached expressions as are
more than ordinarily brilliant,

MARKING OF SUBORDINATION.

23. As in the Sentence, so in the Paragraph, Principal and Subordinate statements should have their
relative importance clearly indicated.
A subject may be misapprehended as a whole, even
though the individual statements about it are clearly understood, if subordinate things are regarded as principal, or
mind elements in it conceived as of first-rate importance.

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24. It is a maxim of style universally, that everything should have bulk and prominence according to its
importance.
Relative bulk is the chief means of indicating relative
importance. We have formerly seen (p. 49) that the arts
of condensation are especially required for this end .
'l'hus Gibbon says : ' The forms of the old administration
were maintained by those faithful · counsellors to whom
Marcus recommended his son, and for whose wisdom and
integrity Commodus still entertained a reluctant esteem',
'l'he following sentence occurs in De Quincey's remarks
on Style : ' Darkness gathers upon many a theme, sometimes
from previous mistreatment, but oftener from original per71lexi'ties
investing its very nature. Upon the style it is, if we take that
word in its largest sense-upon the skill and art of the
developer-that these perplexities greatly depend for their
illumination.' The main subject here is the ' Darkness
gn.thering upon a theme' ; the causes of the da~·kness are
of minor importance, and should have been given more
shortly,-' whether from natural pe11Jlexity, or from previowi
mistreatment '.

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THE PARAGRAPH.

METHODS OF MARKING SUBORDINATION.

For an example on a larger scale, we may refer to the paragraph r.,,.
Dryden, quoted under UNITY (p. 112). There we saw that the fout
sentences, 2 -5, in the rnitldl1~ of the paragrnpl1, if allowed to remain, muit
be made a paragraph apart in onlcr to pre:-;erve Uuity. But their bulk ii
also out of p1·oportion to their importance ; and they micrht with 1uhq.
0
tage be reduced to the com1mss of a single sentence.
.Again, take the following passage from Swinburne : '' With tho exception of a couple of passages in his two best come1l1.-.,
the wide field of Chapman's writings will be fon111l wdl-uicrh bnm•n ol
fl any tender or noble trace of passion or emotion kindled betn~en nrnn 1n4
"woman. 'l'hese two pussages stand out in beautiful and brilliant conlrut
"to the gcnernl tone of the poet's mood ; the praise of love lrns seldom litt•
"uttered with loftier and sweeter elo11uence than in the well-kuowu Vl'......,
"which celebrate it as 'nature's second sun,' informing and educing tht
"latent virtues in man ' as the sun doth colours' ; the strncturc ant!
''cadence of the verse, the choice aml fulucss of the words, arc alih
"memorable for the perfect power and pmit,·, the strono simplicity an.J
"luminous completeness of workmanship which may be (foo rarely) fou.,.j
"and enjoyed in the poetry of Chapman. The Jlassage in 1'/ie Gc11tln,.q
" Usher (Act iv., Sc. 3) which sets forth the excelle11cc of perfect mnrria~
"has less of poetic illustration and imaginative colour, but is a 110 ltM
"admirable model or clear and vigorous lnncruarrc applie1l to the lit an.I
"full expression of high thought and noUlc ~m~tion. But as a rnll! ••
"find the genius of Uhapman at its best when furthest rcmov1:tl fru•
" ferualc influence ; as in the two plays of Biron and those nobler pnrts ol
"tho 'noman tragedy' of Gresar ancl 1'0111peu in which Cato discourses oe
"life and death.''
The aim of the passage is indicated in the first sentence, bcin~ l:lkt11
np in the last sentence given, and farther euforcetl in the sentence~ folio•·
iug those extracted. 'l'he second an1l thirJ sentences of the extract .,,
a description of the "two exceptions" ; and the lenoth and fuhll's..'1 of u..
?cscription are such as to interfere with the maiu tho~ght. Whatcwr tbt
mterest of the two passages in themselves, it would be better to co11Jf'll•
the account of them into one short sentence, in order that thu lcaJ1DC
idea may be more easily impressed on the r'.lader.
fl

25. In indicating degrees of subordination, we may
also employ mechanical methods and distinct verbal
statements.
Difference of bulk is the most obvious and c!Tccti~
method of attaining the end ; but subsidiary means nro alto
used. In printing we cm1 employ numerals and diffcroncee
of type, and relegate to footnotes matters that are of I •
consequence or likely to interfere with the flow of tho toil.
'.l'he importance of these may be seen by observing how t.bt ''
style of the Latin and Greek writers might often hiivo boq ·
relieved, had they known such mechanical means of iutlic:aa.ing the relative importance of the sentences.

•

123

Sometimes also it may be necessary to indicate by
clistinct sttLtcments tho comparative importance of the
thoughts expressed. \Vn oft.cu 111oet wit,h such forms ltR tho
following: ' 13ut this is nJter all a matter of. secondary .
importance' ; ' we neeJ not dwell 0~1 tl~e po~nt .f?r, our
Jlrcsent purpose ' ; ' to return from tlus d1gress.1011 , tl~e
C'hicf point is this ' ; ' let us fix all our atten.t1011 on t1~1s
central idea '. Such forms are most appropriate for di~·
tinrruishing the importance of the longer statements; m
dc;iing with short pass~~es, comparative bulk ough.t g~neral.ly
to be sufficient. Explicit statements of comparative m~port­
ance are especially common with .Carlyle, when tr~atmg of
complicated subjects. In speakmg, they are still more
useful than in writing.
JIOTF: ON Al'l'J.TCATION OF SENTJ<~NCE AND PARAGRAPH LAWS rn POETRY.
'l'he foregoin" illustration of Sentence a11<l Paragrnph Laws has been
niostly confined t~ prose. In poetry, from the circ~1mstances of the ras.ti,
their application is considerably m~><~ificd, though still they bave a certam
karing on the effect of the compos1t10n.
. . .
f L
d
As regards the Sentence, we :still have the ~1s(mct10n o
oose nn.
reriot!ic, of Long and Short Sentenl'es, and the ],a]ancrr~ S!rncture'. their
tffi.cts hciiw the same as in prose. 011 ly, the pmrnr of 11s111g _I hcse fo1 ms ts
occasion s~ggcsts, is more li111itctl
the i:h~t.hm, the Imes, ~nd t ~o
atanzns of poetry. 'J'h o prinripl<-s of hmphasis 111 the sc_ntence still ha~.o
their force, and Inversion cspccinlly iR a ~·1~cog11ized 1.•oche forn~ ; but tl11~
natural emphasis is now complicated w1~h emphasis <lcpenclm~ on the
ttsura, on the ending of the lines, and particularl.y on rhyme. Un.1ty has to
be considered, but is not enforced when the S})ecial ends of poet1y may be
attained by its violation.
.
r ·I d · t
The Parngraph laws are yet farther mod1fic<l. In poetry t n·.1c e . m o
stan7.as, thefonn of the parngraph cannot appear.; nn.d th e apph:·at~on of
the laws is inllucncc<l hy the fact that poetry 1s pnmanly the cxp1ess10~1 of
fttling rather than of thought. Ex 1•l kit Reference and_Paralld Co1.1~truc.tmn,
for cxnmple are still important for the dear· expression of tho 1dc~s , hut
any jiromin~nt appearauce of attention to such points must ?o av~1d1~d, as
ttntlino to become ccld and prosaic. This would ap1•ly with still more
force t~ the Imlication of the Theme, except when can:ied out on .the. forge
nlc n111l with appropriate poetic embellishment, as m ~he OPf(llllllllg of
f'nradi~e J.ost. The licence as to Unity has been nwnt1on c1l m councc·
lion with the subject itself. Consecutive Annngc1.11rnt, 011 th~ oth~r hawl,
111ay be considered as still fully applical1Jc, if only it be bome m rnnHl_tJiat
whnt is the proper arrangement for prose m?y .not be the best fo~ !he
ltUrposes of poetry. 'I'he same thing 111ay be smd m regard to. the Mmkrng
of Subordination, at least so far as that is songht by comparative bu!~; the
thought most i111portant for tlie Cillis of i•octry, must always receive tho
flallcst ox prcssion.

Lr

MTSCELLAN .EOUS EXAMPLES.

The following pn.ragraph from Froudo well exemplifies

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ORDER OF FROUDE 8 CHARACTER OF HENRY VIII.

THE PARAGRAPH.

both Parallel Construction ancl Consecutive ArrangemenL
It is the character of Henry VIII.

125

uniclst the easy freedom of his address, his manner ~·emaincd majestic".
Or-" In heating, he was princely". 'l'he 'an<~' t~ not wanted.
>"(6) No knight in En.gland conkl rnat?h lum m the tournament,
• txrept t.he Duke of Suflolk; he drew w1t.h ease ns strong n bow ns
• wn~ IJOme by nny yeoman of his guartl ; n111~ these i1owers he
• m:taine<l in unfailing vigour by a tem1ierate lialnt uud hy constant
,

"{l) If Henry VIII. lrn.d died previous to the first nJ:{itntion ol
" his divorce, his loss would have been deplored as one of the hca\'il"ll&
" misfortunes which hatl ever befallen our country ; and he woulJ
"m~~
.
11
This is the thh<l an<l Inst item in the group of borh ly powers.
have left a name (which would hrwe taken its place) in hi6lotr
I& is 80 far distinct ns to need a selmrate. sl:nt.cnce. . Tl1e nut-hor
" by the side of (that of) the Blnck Prince or (of) the conqueror .it
ronrts a little variety by displacing t 1c prmcipal. subject from .tl1e
" Agincourt."
.: ' t.,..~nning of the sentence ; the im provcment. hemg very qnest.1011As a sentence, tl1is is an elegantly constructed peri0<l <lown lo
ilile. Sutlicicut val'id.y conhl be i111pn1'11•1l w1tl1011~ t.h~ ch~111gt' : 'country'. The secowl part is a sort of itei·atiun, which is 110 far
.. In the tournament, he was mnnatchetl hy any kmght m hnglarnl,
differen~ in .th_e idea as tu allow the use of 'aml '. In the pamgrn1•"
ruq1t t.hc Duke of Suffolk." The sccornl melllher restol'CS the snhconnectwn 1t i~ the key-note (better say 'the overtnre') to a dt!lnil ...l
jttt to its place, and is otlH'l'wii:;e right_: it cunlcl h.ave been red~1eecl
account of Henry's character. The words in parentheses mi,.ht
liar.
0
lo 8 more complete balance thus-" m archery (111 the lrne of the
been omitted.
kw), he could erptal nny yeoman of his gnanl " .. 'f~1c thil'd member
"(2) Left at tl1e mm~t trying age, witl~ his character unforml'<I.
iun acl11itiun in a llilkrcnt. !inc;, and, although it is ]'l'Opt•rly kcTt
'' with the means at his disposal of gratifying eve1·v inclination, and
within the sentence, the co11Jtll1ct10n anangem?1~t ueel~S to be mo1~ 1" mnrrie<l by his ministers when a buy to an unatti·active woman fat
lf.tl. Between first and second members, 'a_n<l is reqmre~l ; and for
"his senior, he hail lived for tl1irty-six years almost without hlnm•,
the third, we might have 'while' : "wlule (~hese) 'h_is' i~owers
" and bore through Englancl the reputation of an upriaht
and
0
Wl.'f(', by temperate habit and by constant exercise, sustamed m un,,,. ''
" virtuous kinrr
The relation of tl1is to the preceding is one of explanation,
&ailing vigour".
The statement of hodily qualities is now complete.. C?ukl they
amplification, or reason ; dispensing with a paragraph conj nrn:tiota.
M\'e been all embraced in a single sentence, the co-onhnat10n of the
At the same time, the change of idea and the lenuth
beinrr0 butla coa0
~mph would have been improv~d. The author then passes to
siderable, this properly forms a sentence apart.
ibe mental qualities. And first, of lus Intellect.
.
"(3) Nature had been prouigal to him of her rarest giftA. (I) la
. .. (7) or his intellectual ability we are not left to Jmlge from the
';person he is saitl to l1ave rescmbl~d hiR grandfather, ~·:ch~·anl }\' 1
'"111~p1cions panegyrics of hi~ contemp?m1:ies.'_' · .
.
' (who was) the lm111lsomest man m Europe. (Ii) 11 ni lonn ahll
'l he place of prominence rn ~he beg1!111111g 1s i:::till given to Henry ;
"bearing were princely; ancl amidst the easy freedom of hi111uhlr~
" his manner remained majestic."
alll1ough he is not the grammatical snh,1ect.
.
"(8) HiA f<lat.c papPl'A n11Cl ll'l.IC'J'A may 11~~ pl:~.c·ccl hy tlin HH~P of
ln(3)tl1 ere i;;aslight dc>pa1-t11rc from thewell-snf<taincrl jinmllt•linn.
·. '" Wnl~cy ur of U1'0111Well, a11CI tl1~y lose 110U1rng lll t.l~e co!llJl:U'l~o11.
wl1ich retains lfo11ry in the p11>< itio11 of the main subject t 11·011gho11l:
.. (9) Though they are hroaclly different, the perccpt10n n1 c1p1.11ly
-"He was prodigally endowecl with Nature's rarest gifts". The
• rlenr, the cx\H'eAf<ion equally powerful, nntl they breathe t-11ro11ghont
break of meaning required a new sentence ; and notwithRlanclini: ll.t
~hortness, it properly 1:1tamls a se11tm1cc apart; tl1c reason bein~ 1la.1l
.. an iI'l'esistib e vigour of purpose."
.
.
This is the i::pecillcation of the particulars of Henrts mtelled~ml
it makes a Sllllllllary statement of all that is to follow, aml, if fu-l
r.>wers. The two sentences might have been fused rnto one w~th
with the sentence next following, would be deprived of its co111111nnol·
,..; IM 1-(l'<'ntest propriety. They might even hn:ve been coupled with
ing sw~ep. This is one of the ways of distinguishing a principal froc.
'. (i~ so n!I to complete in one sentence the top_ic there started. The
su ho rd 1nates.
coorhuling circumstance-vigour of purpose-is w_holly out of yla?c,
From (4) onwards, we have the detaifa of Henry's charn<'l1•r la
IOl being in any sense, au intellectual fact. Yet, m the comphcac1es
orderly array ; beginning prnperly with the bodily enclnwnll'nla:
ti armng~ment, such digresi::ions may have to l~e allowe<l as the smaller
these occupy three sentences, two being now quoted. The paralldi• ..
ti two evils. The author did not choose to give a iilace apal't for the
is sustained in (4) and (5). There is not a very preciHe di11ti11rtioa
\Ulity of Will, or energy, in his ~ccm~11t of 11.enry; lint., m~.l!cr
between the two sentences in mcani11g. alt.hough the author 11111l11ulA
1Jian omit it altogether, he slumps it with the mtelleclual nlnhty
meant them to be distinct; 'pcn;u11' in the first ah11ur;t comprU.. ,,,
'form' in the second ; if ' form' had hecn omitted, the one i;<>11leDC11
••n in the state papers.
·
.
"(10) In acl<lition to this, he had a. fine mmncal taHtc, cnrC'fully
would have referred to figure and appearance, the other to manatr ~­
"cultivated ; he spoke ancl wrote in four languages; and his knowand carriage ; the transition being suHicient to justify a new seute~ • "'
We might construct (5) thus:-'' His bearing was princely; (and)

,t

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..... ill

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126

I '

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.: :

THE PARAGRAPH.

"ledge of a multitude of other subjects, with which his VN'MliS.
" ability made him co1ffersaut, would have formed the reputation ol
" an ordinary man."
The sentence begins with an emplmtic phrase, expressing nil·li·
lion or cumulation. Th ere is a bread1 of consecutive arra11;.:1•111"..
in the introduction of the musical taste ; seeing that the n111l111t,
after mentioning it, resnmes the detail of Henry's intellectual e111low•
ments-his knowledge of languages, and his general reading. 1llll
dislocation is still greater in what follows.
·"
(11) "Ile w~s amo!1g tl_ie best pl1yF<icin:ns of ~1i s age; he WIL4 lait ; ·~
''own e11gineer, invent111g 11nprove111ents in al'ttll<~ry, a111l new o>ia• , . '
"structioris in ship-1.milding; awl this, not with the cowll'~l'l·n•linf
"incapacity of a royal amateur, but with thorough work111n11lik.
"understanding."
This sentence has a cert..1.in unity, although there is a con.•i•lt"f•
able break in passing from physic to engineering. 8till, to uub
two sentences would be even more objectionnlJle ; and t.l1l·re i11 dw
common bond of pradical or prnl'essional accomplishmcut. Tbt
worst feature in the sentence is its positicm, between the furt>j,'Oio;
and the succeeding : as will be seen.
(12) "His reading was vm;t, especially in theology, which Ii»
"been ridiculously ascribed by Lonl Herbert to his fath c1"s i11IP11li<,.
"of educating him for tl1c ArchlJislwpric of Canterbury: n~ if It..
"scientific mastery of such a snhjcct could have been acrp1ir1·1l l1y •
"boy of twel rn years of age, for he was no man when he 111.'l"AllM
"Prince of 'Vales. (13) He must have studied theology with lbt
"full maturity of his understanding; an~l he had a fixell, n111l pcrl1119
"unfortnnatc, interest in the subject itself."
The author returns once more to Henry's intellectual powr"
a111l takes him up on the point of his reading, ahea<ly refcrn.. J lo LI
( 10). He devotes the two sentences to the single topic of thcol•'t(Y S
these it would have been well to comprise in one. The one grtlll
defect in arrangement is now apparent. The matter of intclll'du..J
ability should, when once entered on, have been continuously hn111l~
til.l it was complete. What th~ precise armn~ei:i1cnt of ~he pnrlicu~ ..
unght be, need not here be chscussed ; nor is it essential to cunJ>iJ(f ,
wliat places should luwe been given to the quality of mw•iral ,....._ '
and to the practical aptitudes for medicine and enginel·ring. I& iii ·
enough. to po~nt o_ut that tl1es.c .should not ha".'e iut.•mu11too ,.. .
exhaustive clelmeation of Heury·s mtellectual attamme11ts.

The next extract, taken from Mill on Rrprem1lalitt·;
Government, will illustrate Unity and Indicn.tiou of ThemG.
together with some minor points:
(1) "However this may be, I rcgm·<l it as required ly llf"t prt..
"ciples, that the receipt of parish relief shouh.l be o. l'Cttl\1
"disqualification for thP. franchise.'' As a sentence, tltc ,..,IWlll_
ment would be impron·1l by throwing 'the receipt of parid1 a

EXAMPLE OF UNITY AND INDIOATION OF THEME.

127

· ID the eJHl, as being the emyhatic circumsk.nce. In its place in tlw
. ~rnf1h, we are to !ake it as the key-note, and observe how the
. ltillllllll er a11swc1·s to 1t..
(2) "He who carrnot by his labour suffice for his own suppo1-t,
•b.'IJI no claim to the privilege of helping himself to the money of
•otlwrs.'' To keep up the parallelism, and to throw the emphatic
:~ Wt& to the place of emphasis, we might turn the sentence thus:c"> f!A rnnn ]ms no claim to the privilege of helping himself to the
} • 191>111'~· of others, if he cannot by his la.lJOurs supi!ol't himself".
"~·· · (3) "By hecomi11g dcpen.tlent on the re1.wu11111g. 11w1~11Jcrs of the
;• · •n11111111111it.y for actual subsistence, he alJ1hc:ttcs ]ns claun to equal
•ri~hts with them in other respects." A sentence of pure iteration,
•hirh might have been coupled with the precclling ; the arrangement
, ' kin~ irl\'erted to maintain the balance or parallelism.
..
(4) "Those to whom 11e is indebted for the continuance of his
, •n.ry existence, may justly claim the excln~ive management uf
'"' •tboro common concerns, to which he now 1.n·ings nothing, or less
·: •than he takes away." Another iteration of the reason':! for refusing
·~r.r .. franchise to a pauper. No conjunction necessary. 'fhe order of
, 1Dpict1 is in keeping with the previous sentences as remodelled ; that
~ It, the place of emphasis at the close is given to the pauper's con-

. - .......

'":r '
·• ·" 't

. '1ion.

(J) As a condition of tlrn francliise, a term should he fixed,
live years previous to the registry, during which the appli• cant's name has not been on the parish books as 11 recipient of
• Nlicf." This passes from the reasoning of the point to the prac' lbl working, aud is something beyond the scope of the key-note
ldlcnre. Still, so closely is it allied to the main topic, and so brief
.. the handling of it, that it properly receives a place in the same
fUt.i;mph.
·
."(Ci) To l1e an uncertified bankrupt, or to have taken the benefit
·:- •o( ll.1e Insolve~t ~ct, should disqualify for the franchi.se until the
-· •pemin has pmd lus debts, or at leastJ1roved that he 1s not now,
.. · ·•anti has not for some period been, ependent on eleemosynary
'-'_,•mppmt.." Herc the author passes out.of his original subject into
':·M adiltcrent one, although one closely alhed. '\Ve should not know
•· · hot his opening sentence, that he meant to include this case.
· •. Pncticallr, there is little harm done by the transition; but, we are
;~ Me considering the theoretically best arrangement of the paragraph,
· al must point out the circumstance as a defect, and advert to the
1t1aedics. One remedy would have been to have foreseen all the
Mt contemplated to be covered by the paragraph, nnd to have
widened the scope of the opening sentence acconliugly. Failing
..,, it wonhl have been desirable to mark the transition to the new
CIW, nnd to use some phrases by way of justifying its inclusion, as
tiring accordant in spirit, if not in letter, with the primary ca~e
us, we may say: ·• The principle of excluding paupers would
ally apply to an uncertified bankrui;>t, or one that lrns taken the
fit of the Insulvcut Act". '\ViLh Uns <pmlilication, the case may

: -·~:11

11

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.

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11,

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128

..
'

,.

,.

be admitted into the same paragraph ; t11e more. rcnclily tl1nt it it
dispos<·1l of in a single sentence. The renuu·k ll}lphes to the sentence
following.
.
.
.
.
"(7) Non-pay111cnt ot taxes, when so lon~ p<'~R1Rt.cc~ .m t.11.nt !'
"cannot. IHLYC arisen from inallvertencc, shoulLl '118<111alily wl11le 11
"lasts." This case is likewise cp1ite admissible, but with the Mmt
pl'Oviso ns to a. more. 111!ecili.c intro<luct:on. "The like rea~onihl(
would lcntl to dtsr1tmhfymg for noncpn.yment of ttixes, so lung lld't
sisted in as not to lrn.Ye arisen from inadvertence."
"(8) These exclusions are not in their nature permanent. (9)
"They exact 1mch conclitions only n..'l all .ar~ able, or ?'!ght to lit
" able to fulfil if they chooRe." There 1s .1ust a snlhcwnt Lttak
hetwc~n these two to justify their separation ; ~vhile to in~lml<' th•
in one would not be a fault. Al though r.dtlrng somell1111g t~l &Jw
i11ca of the paragmph, the meaning is so. cl~sely wov~n tltc•n!l\'.1th 1; 1,eing, as it were, the limit.in~ of the prmc1ple consrntcntly watla u.e
nature,-thnt we cannot c011s1clcr the sent~nces out of place. .
"(10) They leave the suffrage accessible to all who nre an IN
"normal condition of a human 1.ieing: and if any one lrn.q to fof'fi'*
"it he either docs not care s1111icie11tly for it, to 110 for its t:nk1• wW
"h~ is already bound to do, or he is in a general cornliLion of clrJ•fftlo
"sion ancl degradation in which this slight adclition, nc('(:~"''lf'! M
"the security of others, wou l<l be unfelt., nnd on emPrg111;{ (r\>9
cc which, this mark of inforinrity wo111tl «liRnppPar with tho n-.t. •
Still witl1i11 the gcncml i>copc uf the paragmpli, tli111~gh not (·X1•nwl1
provitlecl fur in ~he key-note sentence. ~~ re.111a111s 0111.r, "' , ..
sake of tl1e exercise, to attempt such a mod1hcat10n of that ''"nt..-.
as woulil holil in summary all that is to f~11low. "I n·g:u~I It •
required by first principles, that the frai~clnse :<ilio~1l,«l he w1tlit1ot'4
from all classes labonrmcr mulcr pecunrnry d1sab1ht.y; the clud
example being those in r~ccipt of pai·ish relief." This l11·i11;: rr- .
mised. on anivinn at sentence (6), we could say-" Anntlwr ~ It
uncertified bankr~1ptcy-": while (7) would he introclucc•I th•" Lastly, disqualification should attach tc non-payment ol tnxc-.-•.

The following passage from Conington on Popo ~
examination for tho proprieties of paragra.ph construclic*it·',...
and is highly illustrative.
.
"(1) Pope appears to have been thdl.rst English. w~·iter I"........ "of high poetical power (l\lilton I h::wc .n.lrea1~y 111t1111alc•I I~ l .
"8honld wish to except) who adrlrcsscd l11msell to the co111po•4... ,
"of poetry with the full dcter!ni~iation to do 11is hcst." .~••k.f..;
note or overture sentence, tins is open to m1ly 01w rr1t1d... if.~,.
rei::pcct of what is to follow.. There is no n~fere1~ce ~ftenrn.t•l• ..
point of P?pe's being the. f~rst ~f ~ur con~·ct ]~11gl1~h w11kn I
whole stram of the cxpos1t1on hes m sl1ow111g tli<~t he Wll4 •
writer. In this view, the i::cntcnce is emphat1cnlly run.ti~,
the close being rescrYccl for the main circu111!;tancc-' the •
nation to 110 his best'.
11

PARAGRAPII CONSTRUCTION GENERALLY.

THE PARAGRAPH.

129

"(2) He occasionally publisl1ell poe~1s which he. nfterwarrls

"found himself alilc to improve; thnt, so far from provmg that 11e
"nrc1nicsced in impc1foc.:ti1111, is really an ni1lence to. the con.tra!'Y;
"(hut) 'while' we may he sure t.hat. he. nc,~er pubh~hed h1~ .Inst
"1lrnl't." This is a sentence complete m 1t~l'll, nnd smtably d1v1lled
from t.hc next.
.
"(:3) Even in his most finished pieces there may be oc~ns1onal1,y
•.,omeUaing thnt more study might have mended-an ill-turned
•thought, an inaccurate expression, a l!a<l rhym?· (4) So muc~t may
"be 1·eadily conccllcd to those who, hke Hnzhtt an<l De Qumcey,
•think the praise of his correctness exa~gcratcd." There is 110
t1'ni:on why these two sentences may 11ot be joined, with a semi-colon
"°l'·u(5) But are there no L~e m1. s1•cs o f n s1m1
. ·1 ar k'm<;l m
. Wl'l't.ers
••·ho are commonly allowed, m these respects, to come little .short of
•(ll'rfcction-in Virgil or Horace, for example 1" Even t111s could
~\'I! lieen taken with the preccclin~, in. one long scntc~1cc. 'fhe
ronjnnction 'but' is a sentence co11.1tmctlon, more c>1pecrnlly, and
bn11lies o. very close connect.i~n wi~h wliat went before.. 0!11y, to
l'ft\'l'llt making a sentence of monlmate lc1.1gth or comphc°:hon., or
iuol\'ing some great i11co11V<'lli<'nce, docs it Lecome n COllJllllcllllll
Cllllnt•ctiug sentences in a paragraph.
.
u (6) The point is, not that PoJ?e was universally correct, b~1t
•that concctness in the scnRc in wl11ch I have attempted to cxplnm
•it, wu..~ nt any mk 0111: of l1iH l1·acli11g «'linrnC'f"·ri~t . i1'.H, n.1111 t.l111t tl11!
•wtnnecs of «'al'el1 ~i'il'lH'Kfl wliicl1 can IH~ c1110!.t:cl horn h1H workH 1\l'c!
~ •tot i:ntlicicntly nmnerons or impo~tant ~o disturb· the g~neml
•ln1l'l'<'~sio11." A well-arranged penod, with only m~e p01~1t. of
.. 'J'l•ngl'. The three previous sentences ":ere cml)loycd m ounntmg
.a.,("l'tiow1, nnd in making admissions, ~vath a view to present the
~inn! proposition in a rigorously qn~hfic.d and guarded form:
.
"(7) Nor do I think it can be ma1 ntamccl ~hat s1~ch ?- p~mse is
•eJji:J1t or llll"ll.tOry. (8) lt is 1 indeed 1 the pratSe w)11ch is $1Ven to
, •a .._:hoolhoy f'ur a good exercise ; b~1t it goe~ ~long also '".1th th~t
· , ••l11M11i11g to which a wise mr.n will" be w11lmg to subnnt nll Ins
(!I) If we ig11ore it, we must ignore ~~al'ly the whole of what
•mtiri~m has done for Jiterary compos1t10n from the days of
•Uo1ni·1• clownwanli;." This might all be given in one sentence, as
'-'nit romplctcly detacl1ell nlikc from wlaat pr~ce<les and wliat
· W~··u. 1t is an idea not irnlicated in the open mg sentence, hut
,llill rnd1 n.ci may ]Jc inclndecl, wi~hout. improp1:icty, in the para~., paph. 1t is not pmsned,-except m a form so different as to make
. •••~tatt.
'.
" (Ill) It. must.. p<'rhnp~, be admitted t.h at this zeal for co~rect­
"ll('li.1t~·i; nu the l1ighc1· funct.io.n~ of th~\ po~'t rather negahrely
, · ••n l"'~1t1vely, rnther by restm111111~ lum from an untrue .or
· ..t:U+.t,'l'l111P1l concept.ion tha~1 by .s11ggcsl1~1g other~ of greater reality
• • l.:1111ty." 'fhe author 1s F.<till i·1111n111g on m the. ~ame para'~~ ~ iii..J.
r:r,• Lut there is obviously here a very great traus1t10n, an<l a

· •tar...

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130

THE PARAGRAPH.

131

PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION GENEltALLY.

new start seems dcsiralJle; the more so that 0. long <lisc11~~i1111 r..11.,.....
, pl"e('r11ing : t11e . conne?tion. being specifically marked by the comin keeping with th~ new theme. 'Ve shall, thel'efore, n~~1t111 L' tl1:1I •
11cncin" nd\•erlnal co111unctions.
•
.
distinct paragraph lS COllllllellced, O.lld obserre the mutual UC:lnll!:•
"(20) To expect that the faste of such a man will be mfalhble,
of this scnteuce arnl th e following.
"lt'nehi1w liim always or even rrenerallv, what to take and what to
"(11) Such is doubtless the tentlency of all endeavour~ to nrt t.~
"'
' more "'1
· au
' tl. wr1sel.
· lb y ou r . knowledne
"lrun, would
be to expect
t mn ts
.
"'
"rn.lc, though th ere l!lllY ~eem no sullici~nt reason why tJ.ie friU' .i4
human
nature."
A
sentence
by
way
of
guarding
ngmn~t ~xpect·
"failure should not 'hkewrne' act as a st11nulus to the atta111111t·11l .i4
lrii: loo much, to be followed by a rent;wetl statement w1tl1111 the
"success." The author is still ns in the }ll'evious port inn ( 1·6)
J-'f llricter limits.
This is a common device of style, and does not
feeling his way, by concessions aud assumptions, to o. <lcfcuaiW.
lltrauoe Urn natuml order of a parogrnph.
position.
.
"~21) It is enourrh that he acquires himself, and leads others to
"(12) But if the patient pursuit of excellence is not 1111i(onnl1
.,; llerqmre, the habit ;f jmlgi~g according to fixed rule~-that he p1~ts
"rewarded in the wider circles of prnctical activity, it nieet!I witb la..
'· •an 1•1ul to an nnal'c11y wlnch, though harmless while the nn.tm~l
"l'ecompense in the nal'mwer. (I :J) In avoiding 111i11or fa11l1J1 1 ,,._.
.'· •niit11l is inn. stn.te of comparntive 1111co11Rcio11~11e~s, be~omes pen~t­
"poet is led 01~ to i)erceive mul appropriate minor .Lcautil'~.". So
. · •dous ns soon as it is felt and recognised." St1ll 1teratmg t.lie rnam
need for separatmg these two sentences ; the second is n men.i 1ttr.·
idta, with some novelty in the working out, or in the inferences
tion of the first. The balance is satisfactory, and the e11111la£hc
1· 1 •
, , V.wn from it.
circumstance is reserved for the close in both memhl•1·11. 11w
·
'' {22) Such, at any ra~e. is. one of tl10 stage.s through "'.11c '.· 1t
ndjectiYe 'minor, being lllOl'e important than the substantin., IM ~
• woultl seem that the poet1cal literntnre of a nat10n must or1l111a11ly
enlphasis woul1l he still better thus-' appropriate bcautie!I
tlw '
.. ~""· (23) It may be only the fi_na~ prclt!tle to a. final llecay of
rninor kinds'. The author has now struck his key-note, to •bidi
11
•
trenth·e power ; but even then 1t 1s enti~led. to the reflf)ectful
the remainder of his paragraph fairly answers.
11
•
ron~iderati on of the ct'it.ic or the literary lustorrnn, not on y ~s a
"(14) There, at all e\·cnts, the result of an exacting iwlf-nitid,.
"legitimate
development of previous conditions of the natural mmd,
"is not barrenness, bnt increased fertility." Explicit n.f.. re11 rc l1'
••hut for the sake of its own intrinsic worth." Here the author's
t.11e adYerb 'There'. The connection is so close with the 1m·,·ic•
a-ragraph closes.
sentence, that we might almost have included the present with lM
lly the division above sngl{esteil a~ sentence (~O), there are two
hvo foregoing in one sentence. The nl'rangernent is emphatic.
·
dittinct paragraphs, each keepmg to its own. snbJeCt ; the second,
"(15) The mind rejects many thoughts, but only I hut il IDIJ
,.· · J.owcver, in l1oint of. matt~r, being. the ~nore n!1porta~1t ~f th.e tw~,
"produce others of o. higher and rarer 'lnality." Iteration of &Ji.
· u11l most va nable as an 1llnstrat10n. There 1s a proper m e.rtme
main thought, with an ad1litional circumstance.
· ." arntcuce, and the marcl1 of the paragraph is consecut~ v.e. for ordmary
"(19) The conception may be inadequate, but it is nrlr<piar~11
.~. purposes, oml according to a fair standanl of c~mpos1t10n.
.work
•• represented ; and, as it has to be represented hy the aid uf t:.it..
' lhe pnragrap~l as an ex'.1-mple,. we have to consaler the ro~s1b1hty ~f
"ordinate aIHl auxiliary conceptions, there is still room fur ••
mno11l1linu it on o. still stricter pattern. The openm.,, sentence
"presence CJf that seeing and shaping power, without which J'""'7
lodicatrs a"double line of remark, na111ely, tliat corrcctnes11 works m!t
"con scarcely be said to exist." The meaning here is nut 1p1ih1 •
· Ila entl by restraint rather than by creatio!1. Now, to follo~v tlus
clear ; hut what follows makes it plain enough for the 1111rJ1W11 ttl
.,. OGt in petfoct order there are two ways : either the double c1rcumour illustration.
,
I
'
.
•
'
, · eCartce
may be sustaineil
in each sentence ( as 1t
is
in
severa1) , or •[\
"(17) It is quite possilile that a poet of this clas!!, in rdinl-.c
,
division
111ay
be
made,
taking
first
the
one
aspect
and
then
the other.
" his country's lauguage nnd versification, may cast away 11111d1 IW
. The nuthor vacillates between the two courses. Sentences (12), (13),
"is at least of e<111al value with wliat he preser\•es, Fi111ply 1~~11t11 ,,..,
(14), (If>), respond to t11e opening sentence .bY. putting the emphasis
"he has not the insight to pe1·ceive its latent capalJilitie~. {HI) 114t ~., ,.
on the negative, which is indeetl the prmc1pal effect. The ~.wo
"rna.v close his eyes to the complex graces of Sliakespeal'ian 1lic1tc._ !.
following (17), (18), take .the ot.her .aspect, and illustrate tl1e pos~1!1le
"aIHl regard the varieties of Miltonic rhythm as tl1111gs fu1'hi.11lctL"' ; ,,
abiience of a creative efficiency m amung at correctness by ~ule. I he
These two ma.v easily be made one : the first is a pl'inei)'lc, &W ,; ~
aut, (lD), repeats the '.)riginal tl1esis, alleging tha~ the gmn exceeds
second a repetition of it in specific examples ; an<l both l1lQ ... ·,; ·
; the loss. Sentence (20) is almost unnecess~ry a~ter so st!·ong nn
included in the same sentence.
. , ~ avmrnl, and is so very commonplace, that 1t nngl1t 1:m d1spen~ed
"(19) Even then, however, it may be doubted whetli('r lie Jc.
·!'.
. ..:1b or stated in a sinule clause of the n ext, (21) :-"Without claim"not gain far more than he loses by t.l1ese self-imposed restminlt "•• '
.
n
.~' !Jag
infnllihility,
the adherence
to rule put~ an ?n.1l to t h e a~arc11y "•
"whether, by these sclf-imposetl restraints, his losses arc not da
, la (15), the author goes distinctly beyond hrn. ong1.nal nllcgat10n, and
ceeded by his gains". A seutence in the closest connection Willa
' Ii~
, .. the opening sentence shoultl be co-extensive with the subsequent

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132

SNARES OF PAUAOUAPH COMPOSITION.

THE PARAGRAPH.

of proof would be still two-fold, nn~e]y, by positive arnl hy !'cgative
in~tanccs ; each of the classes bemg scpa.mtcly and co11twuonsly

development of the paragraph, either this shouhl. hnse been the ke1·
note, or it should have Leen somehow couplell with the olher.

The difficulties and the snares of paragraph composition
may be furthei: shown in t~rn following exan~ple ~roll~ Paley.
The complicat10n of workmg a double subject 1s st1ll moro
forcibly shown than in the foregoing exampl.e. The passngo
is from a Sermon on Contentment. The object of the pnmgraph ~s to set forth one of the_ advant°:ges o~ the ~~t of tho
labourmg poor, as comparecl with the idle rich. lho substance of the argument is clrn,wn from a law of ~ho hunuw
mincl, which the author encleavours to elucidate.
"(l) And, firRt, it is nn inestimable blessing of such

sih1~tiont

or

" (lahour for 1mh$iStcncc], tliat they surp)y a constant. tram
" employment both to hotly anti to rnim. (2) A ln1s~awh11~11, or
" manufacturer, or a tnvlcsman, never goes to uccl at 111ght w1tl1011l
" having his buRincss to rise up to in the morning." 'l'hrilc Lwo
sentences go well togctlwr, as general principle a111l 11pcdtic ..,.
amplcs, nn<l might have been indndc(I in one; with this p1~1vi•o,
that if there arc more examples to follow, the first sentence i-hout.I
be confined to the generality. As an ovc!'t11rc se11tencc, the ddl.-cl ol
the start will appear when we quote the third.
"(3) He would umlersland the value of tl1is advantage, ilitl ti.
" know that the want of it comprises one of the greatest pl11g111'll ...t
" the lnmrnn soul ; o. plague by "·hich the rich, espcciall)· tlau•
" who iuherit ricl1cs, arc cxccc<lingly oppressed." This is 11IJ\'io11.tly
a new arnl different cp1cstion,-11a111cly, whether or not
lien ._.....i
thin" to have a regular employment for body and 111111tl. lf lM
antl{~r hall ha<l l1cforc l1i111 the lngi cal cornlit.ion of an nrg11111l'nl.
that is to Ray, the l'C(ptircrnent of two prP111i se~. he wonl«l lmn! l''ovidcd for hoth in a more r egular wav. He would have O}ll'lll-41, "1
stating both together, and have follo~~·ccl them in sclmratio11, in~t.•-*l
of jun1ping from one to the other· 111 the course ol tl1c l'X1'""11toa.
The rigi<l separation is tl1c more 1.kRimblc, l1crm1 se 1111tl1·1· t·ad1 tl1",.
ie a.n altcmativc cxcmplilieatioJL; from the si(le of the l'id1 111111 hu•
tl1c sitlc of the poor. A I though in every argument there at·c two 1•r ..
mises, it is not al ways necessary to dwell upon both ; the stn·AA of C"9•
forccmcnt chicllv turns upon one. Thus, in the lH'e$cnt en~. whaa
would be called° the major premise, that regular cmplo,ri111·11l ie a
cornlition of lwppi11ess, is much more in want of l'l'11of, th1111 &t.e
other, or minor, premise, t.liat the lalionri11g poor arn r1·g11l'1rl1
employerl · to a1hlncc examples in frnpport oft he last. iH 11!11111~111111,...,.
fl nous. The author's strcngl h is wanlecl for the major lll't•111i11C,
the paracrraph should have been framed for p11tti11g it forwnt'l M .die :
overture~ The plan of tl1c paragraph woul(l then he simpli&.L '
The principle to be stated :tlHl established wonhl lJC, that con~pu::J:
regular, employment. is ca.kulatc<l to promote happiness. '1 he
·

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133

gm~n.

'·

" (4) Imlcc(l it is to get rid of it, that is to say, it is to lrn.vc
"110111cthin" to do, tlrnt they are driven upon those stmngc and un11 ncconutablc ways of passing their time, in which we sometimes sec
" them, to our st\rprise, engaged." This is in close c?1rn~ction w!th
the preceding sentence and so far completes the negutlve illustration
from the rich idle man's case.
"(J) A poor man's condition sn/1plies him with that which n.o
"man can clo without, and with w 1ich a rich man, with all Ins
"opportunities, a.ntl all his contrivance, can hardly supply himself:
"n·gnlar engagement, business to look forward to, sure employment
• ptt•pared for every rno1·11.i11g." A mcl'c itcmt.ion of the superllnous
l't'mm·k in the first arnl secornl scutcnccs-thc minor premise of au
1~11111c11t, whose stress lies on the major.
"(G) A few of better jllflguu·nt call sr.r.1{ ont for t,l1c111flr.lvcs con·• ~taut and re,,u lar 01:e11 pat.iu11." Ou Iv the drift of t.hc ims1;agc can
ntnkc Ufl awar~ that the rich arc hcl'c intended ; the reference is
wnnting in explicitness, a11<l we nat.nmlly suppose that. 'a few' points
to the principal suhjc~d of t.lte pre\"io118 scutence, which is t.he poot·
mnn; the contrary allusion to the rich fa quite sub0r1linate. 'l'he
author now converts their case into a principal, a.ml pursues it in
the ll('Xt sentence.
"(7) There is not one ~f yon takes the p_ains in hi~ calling,
"wl1ich some of the most mdepemlent 111cn m the uat10n h~vc
"tiihn, nnd are takin~. to promote what they deem to be a J?m1~t
"of great concern to the intcl'csts of lnnuanity, by which m·1tlwr
.. tlu·y nor theirs cnn ever gain a shilling, aml in which, shonl«l
"thc•v succcccl, those who arc to be hcnetitc«l hy t.hcir· sen ice, wi 11
"neiihcr know nor thank them for it." 'l'hiR i~ a case in point,
from tlw negative Ri1fo; awl is nw:lllt to sl1ow t.liat tlH~ll c:rnnot. li\'e
•itlwnt a large amou11t of. c111pluy111ent; the a.uthur, howc\·cr,
..
lllmitfl that there a.re excc~1t10ns.
"(8) I onlv mention thrn to show, in conjnnction with what has
"h!!cn ohsen~cl aboYe, that, of those who arc at liberty to act as
.. till'~· please, the wi11c proYe, nnd the foolish confess, by their con"dnl't, that a life of employment is the 011ly life worth leading;
"1111! that the chief difference between their manner of life and
"yours, is, that they can choose the ol~jects of their a.cti vity, which
"ron cnnnot." This still iterates and drives home the case of the
ri;h, i111licati11g, however, an important difference, which is the text
b Allflf hl'I' long R!'ltl l'llCC.
"
"(!l) This pri\'ilt•gc 111ny he an n(h·aiitnge to Ronic, lint for nine
"ont of l«'n it. is fort.1111aLe that oec11l1at.ion is prori1led t.o t.lwir
.. hn111l11, that they have it not to seek, t mt it; is imposed upon them
1 .. by their necessities a.nd occasions ; or the consequence of liberty
< · .. in this respect would be, tlia.t, lost in the perplexity of choosing.
.. "they woultl sink into irrecoverable i11dolcncc, inaction, and uncou-

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THE PARAGRAPH.

"ccrn; into t11at Yacancy and tiresomeness of thot~ght which nre
" insepamblc from such a situation." This is a general aflirmntion
of a fact in human nature applicable alike to rich and poor, mul, if
self-evident, would <lispernie with what has gone before. It nee.It
to be proved itself; and the conduct of the idle rich was mluuctd
in order to substantiate it. The author's thoughts, however, ans
now led into a new channel; instead of quoting the broad cXl)ericnCt'
of mankind, he brings before us the inlwrent attributes of t 1e mi11tl
itself, and dwells upon these in a succession of short emphatic sen·
tences.
"(10) A man's t110ughts must be going. (11) Whilst he b
" awake, the working of his min<l is as constant as the heatin~ of
"his pulse. (12) He can no more stop the one than the other. (13)
" Hence, if our thoughts have n othing to act upon, they net 111••Q
"oursehes. (14) They acquire a corrosive qualitr.. (15) 'l'hry 1....
" come in the last degree irksome and tormenting:' 'This is, in tho
first place, a needless multiplication of short sentences. The •is
might have been ma1le into two, if uot into one. Bnt, what is more
important for us at present to remark upon, is the place a.~sigru>tl in
the paragraph to this new aspect of the argument in favour uf lllfl
authol"s clnef position. ·wc must concede to l1im the merit
keeping at the I)Oint without a Lrcak till it is finished. The onlr
que otion is, whether it should prer.c1lc or follow the other branch uf
his argument already gi vcn. Gcnemlly speaki11g, a reo.son grow in;:
out of the nature of the mind is taken hefore an appeal to fadii "'
experience. This, however, i;; not an absolute rule to be insis!t~l " q
in the structure of aJ)aragmph. All that we can say, in a1ltliti1111 lu
the criticisms alrea y offered, is, tliat the preparatory i:enh'n~
should give an indication of the llifferent lines of arnurnent tn I.comprised in the paragraph ; while each of these sh<~111<1 he k1·1.o(
separate, as our author lias in some meas ure succeeded in doinJ{.
" ( 16) ·w herefore, that sort of e11nitable engagement, which tAkfll
"up the thonght.s sufliciently, yet so M to leave them capahlo ul
"turning to a:riything more impotfant, as occasions offer or rc1p1i,..
"is a most invaluable Messing. (17) And, if the in1.lustl'iou11 lie n-.C
"i::en~ible of the blessing. it is for 110 other reason than Lceall!IC 1J1,.f
"have ne\·er experience1.l, or rather suffered the want of it." 'fL.to
former of these two se11tences is an inference from the strnin c;l
remark in those imrnc1liatel,Y foregoing ; but, proped_v, it l'houJ.l
repose on the entire body of the argument!'l. The last i;enlence it a
mere appendage, by the way, and might han been curtaile1l awl i;i,,..
as a sec(jnd member to (16) :-"although from never experiewi11~ lbe
want of it., the indui>trious arc not full 1· Fenc;ible of it.~ 111ag11it111le •.
Such is the paragraph as dHel<h1e<l IJ.\" the authfJr. Ju IL.
am en<l ed form, the opening ::entence W(JUld lJc-" J~r1tl1 from I.Lt
cnmtitnti<Jn of the mind, and from our experience of life, we .,.
able to show that~ co~stant train of empl oyment to Lo<ly an•I ruiod.
enforceJ by necessity, ts essential to happiness''. The two cl.aaretof
proofs would then be ad<luce<l iu order.

,.r

FIGURES OF SPEECH.
1. A Figure of Speech is a deviation from the plain
nnd ordinary way of speaking, for the sake of greater
effect.
Instead of saying 'That is very strange,' we may, on a
particular occasion, say 'How strange I' 'The sunshine of
tho breast ' is a departure from the ordinary meanings of
both the words 'sunshine' and 'breast'. Tho 'Board of
Green Cloth' is highly figurative. ' Oh that a man should
lo.kc an enemy into his mouth, to steal away his brains.' ~·

2. A classification of the more important Figures
mn.y be based on the three leading divisions of the
Human Understanding. t
The powers of the U nderstanrling are as follows : (1.) DISCRIMINATION, or Feeling of Difference, Contrast,
Relativity. This means that the mind is affected by change,
ns in passing from rest to motion, from cold to heat, from
light to dark ; and that the greater and the more sudden tho
change, the stronger is the effect. 'l'he figure denominated
A11tithesi'.s, or Contrast, derives its force from this fact.
(2.) 'l'he second power is called SIMILARITY, or tho Feeling
of Agreement. This signifies that, when like objects come
un<ler our notice, we am impressed by tho circumstance-as
•Tho !Ilea. of 'Figure' hn.s nothing to do "n"ith Arithmetic; it signifies a.n
of speech. Both the Latin jlgurn aml the Greek <TX>iP.a properly
drnoted any 'form• of speech, so that, accordinF to this usage, all language.is in
""'1e figure; and Quintilian mentions that this wider meaning was still occasionally
nnploycd. It was !Jut a natural limitation of tho idea whenjlgttra and <T)(,"jµ.a were
~dally applie1l to those more striking 'forms ' that consiHt in a deviation from tho
«•linary way of speech. With the wi<ler meaning compare Urn application of tho
ame i.,nns to the •figures• of the Syllogism-that iH, the various 'forms• it assume!!.
t All the ancient rhetoricians recognized a <listinction hetween Figures anil
TmJK~ft, though the exact nature of the distinction wa.' much rlisp11te1I. In general,
a Tr"lit 11·a., considered to consiHt in the u11e of one word for another, a11 in the
N~taphor, Jlletonymy, Synecdoche; while a.Fipure implicfl a change in the relations
flt the wonls or the :tf>plimtion of a whole scnten<"e, such ns Antithe1'is, Excln.ma.l.lon, Apostrophe. The distinction is artilkial, aml turns on a point that has lit·tlO
9tlotancc to the leading uses of the .Fi~ures in style.
1nn~ual form

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136

FIGURES OF SPF.ECH-SIMILARITY.

when we see the rcsembbnce of a child to its parent. Tho
Figures nameJ &mile, l.Ietaplwr, Allegory, are · moJes of
Similarity.
1
(3.) '1 he third power of the Intellect is RETENTIVENF.SK,
or Acquisition. The ability to retain successive imprcssiou1
without confusion, and to bring them up afterwarJs, distin·
guishes Mind; it is a power familiarly known by the no.me
Memory.
Now, the chief way that retentiveness or
memory works is this : impressiot1s occm'l'in!l logf!fhcr be·
come associated together, as sunrise with daylight; anti,
when we are made to think of one, we are reminded of itt
accompaniments. We cannot think of the sun's rising
without thinking of daylight, and of the other circumstancos
that go along with it. H ence the mental n.ssociation of
things contirnwusly placed, is a prominent fact ; a.ud 0110 of
its many consequences is to cause us often to name a thing
by some of its adjuncts, as the sovereign by 'the throne,'
weal th by ' gold '. Such is the nature of 11Ictm1ymy.
Of the three powers of Intellect now named, the secon<l,
Similarity, is most abundant in :figures, and these may Lo
taken first in order,

IrIG UHES l"OUNDED ON Si l\IlLARI'l1Y.
SIMILITUDES IN GENEfiAIJ.

1. 'l,he intellectual power named Similarity, or
Feeling of Agreement, . there being also Diversity, is
our chief instrument of inve11tion.
In the world at large, things repeat themselves in new
aspects an<l connections. 'l'he diversity is 1111 ohstaclo to
the sense of agreement; when we are able to overcomu thia
obstacle, we are rewar<le<l with important discoveries mad
aids to knowledge. It was a great stretch of idcntificntion,
under disguises, to find out tlrnt our earth resembles a hall
in shape, and revolves about the sun, like Jupiter nnJ
Venus.
2. The most important identifications of nil 1ant
those that extend knowledge by generalizing such phonomena as fall under the same laws.
.
The referring of the heaYenly motions to the forco of

COMPARISONS NOT FIGURATIVE.

137

.,,ravity was a vast stretch of discovery, pregnant with new
information as to the heavens.
There must Le resemblance in order to the. P.rocesH call~<l
reasoning and inference. We reason that hvmg men. will
die, because they are like the men of former generut10ns,
who have all died.

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3. Comparisons of the foregoing .classes ltre .called
scientific. It if~ their nn,ture to be lilr:?'nl: that 1s, the
subjects comparn<l arc tho same iu kiud.

,.

Afailing mass is the same

fact ia science, whe~her it be

a stone, a moon or a planet. The general prop01ty called
Life is the same in a man, an elephaut, au oak.

.a rl10torica~ vah~e! iu
this respect, that they often aid m makmg mtelhgible
wha.t is obscure or difficult.

4. Literal cmnparisons

ha~e

The processes of nature operate in a ~reat v!-"riet.y
of situations : in some, the manner of their workrng is
concealed; in others, it is open . vVe make up for our
wn.nt of insi~ ht in the one class, ~1y rneflns of the ot her.
The mo veu wuLs of Ll10 heart a m illu ~LrnLeJ lJy a fo.n.:cpump; the breathing actio~1 is un<lerstoo<l by comparison
with a bellows. The warmmg of the boJy by the b~ o o.d has
been IikeneJ to a system of hot-wn,tor pipos in IL ln11!<1m g.
Events in past history, and the characters of men long
departed, can be elucidated by parallel events and resembling charnctrrR in timcR hctter know n .
. .
It is highly illustrative to compare H .omer and V1~gil;
Demosthenes ancl Cicero ; Dante and M1l~on ; Hanmbal,
Aloxan<lcr and Napoleon ; tho Ro.man Emp1~·0 arnl our
Indian Empire. All such c~mp?'nsons are litera.l : tho
things compared are tho same m km<l.
So, to compare the Hepu~lics .of ancient an<l of moc~ern
times is a means of throwmg hght upon the republican
syste;n in general. When ·Aristotle compares. lmnrnn
., societies to the societies of ants and bees, the d1ff~ren?es
are, indeed, so considerable that the mt~tnn.l eh:1mc~at1on
is very slight ; but the likeness, so far. as it goes, is hte1:aI.
In the sciences called Comparative-as Compar~t1ve
• Anatomy, Comparative Gramnrnr-v~ry .many ob1ects
are assimilated, notwithstanding great diversity. The close

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138

INTELLECTUAL SIMILITUDES.

FIGUltES OF SPEECH-SBHLARITY.

comparison leads to mutual elucidation ; forms and pro.
cesses that are obscured in the mass of individuals bcin~
openly ?isplaycd in a few. All this is scientific or liteml
companson.
5. In order that Resembbnces may be Figurative,
the things compared must differ in kind.
The instances above citen, being plain or literal, aro
given here by way of contrast to figurative resemblance.
'l'he comparison of Napoleon to Cmsar is literal and no'
a ficrure ; the subjects are the same in kind. ':rhe compnri·
son°of a great conqueror to a destructive conflagration or a
tempest, is a figure. The things compared are different in
kind, although possessing an amount of similarity rendering
the one illustrative of the other.
6. The conditions of Figurative comparison arc
entirely different, according as it is intended for tho
Understanding or for the Feelings.
This distinction runs through tho whole of Rhetoric. h
will appear in a marked way under the Qualitiea of Htylo.
Doth effects may happen to be combined in the same figure,
but tho difference of the two is not thereby effaced.
IN'l'ELLECTU AL SIMILITUDE s.

7. In n.11 the departments of composition addrcssctl
to the UNDERSTANDING-as Description, Narration aud
Exposition,-similitudes are employed to impart Clclll'•
ness, Simplicity and Impressiveness.
These arc the Intellectual qualities of style, to be afterwards cxponn•lol
in detail. Here it is sufiicicut to state in general that Clearness in sty lei '6
opposed to obscurity or haziness, implying the separation of eaeh i•kA ,.,,.
all others ; that Intelligibility or Simplicity is opposed to ahstrUM'n~
or dilliculty of apprehension, meaning that the thought is cnsily. 1111tltt•
stootl; and that Impressiveness is the power of arresting attcnt10u u.1
keeping hold of the memory.

8. When Figures of Similarity are employo<l in aid
of the Intellectual qualities, they must satisfy tbcao
three conditions : (1.) They should be more effective with the persona
'i\ddressed than the original idea.

139

(2.) The resemblance should turn on the relevant
circumstance.
(3.) There should be n.n n,hsence of accompaniments
that would distract or mislead.
These conditions, when thus stated, justify themselves.
In
exemplifying in detail the Figures of Similarity addressed
to the Understanding, we shall have to value them by these
criteria; whilo having regarcl to tho several qualities of
Cloar~ess, Simplicity aucl Impressiveness.

To fail in any one is to miss the very end in view.

EXAMPLES.

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1. Let us commence with Pope's conplctOn life's vast ocean diversely we sail,
Hen.son the cal'd, but passion is the gale.

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This is one of the nrnny simil itn1les for ~et.tfoa forth the course
of human life. The comparison to a voyage at s~a has various rec:u111111e11datio11s. In the fil'st place, it is intelligible tot.he generality
of people ; and, being a material fact, it is more easily conceivabie
lh~n mental facts.
In the second place, the resemblance turns on the
)llllllt~ of relev:ince.
These are-(1) the po~sibilities or perils of
lhc human ~lestmy and a v?yagc ; (2) the existence of a propelling
~~1we1:1 lw;s10n and the . ~vmd ; arnl (3) the 11ee1l of a guide or
.'re.e!ton, the reason, typ1tied. by th.e compass: In .the last l'lace, ~he
111111htmle does not necessarily bnng up mislead Ill'' or d1stractuw
circumstancmi. The success uf tl1c figure is attested hy widespread
usage ; the merit of Pope consistiug in the terseness of the language.
The same great theme has tlcl'i rnd assistance from many other
Mmparisons. The course of each day, in i"ts phases of morning,
noon, evening, has various points of relevant comparison to the
cour~e of an individual life.
Again, a road or way, as contrasted with the pathless wi1tlcrness
al"° !'crvcs to indicate the difference between the two alternat.ive posi:
'!~ms .of, tlilliculty and ~acility in th~ c?nd~1ct uf life. In Bunyan's
l 1lgru11 s ProgresR, the life of the Christian 1s represented as a narrow
•ay markell off for the pilgrim to the 'Celestial City'.
2. A 11111111.>er of effective comparisons have been hroncrht to hear
tl,w. Edncat.ion <~r 'l'rni11i11g ~>f 111a!1 nwl I.he dod~ n11i11rnls.
• cnch 1s the must literal, or unhgumttve name; the ei111ilitwlm1
aro Yal'ions. 'To tame,' 'break in,' 'real',' 'build up' (edify)
'gr!ml,' 'cram/ 'd~ill?' .' 1:1-nrse,' 'coach,' 'shape,' 'form' (st.amp:
or 1111pre$s), 'mnre, 'imtiate,' 'open the eyes,' 'enlarge the mind '
~lo sow seell,' 'to drink in' (imbibe), 'take up,' 'maskr '.
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140

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SillULAilITY.

·INTELLECTUAL SIMILITUDES.

Among illustrative similitudes, we may qnote from Pope'Tis e(l11cation fomrn the common minit.:
Jnst as the twig is Lent, the tree's inclined.

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,!

The point here is the need of commencing the work of' education
early. For the pmpo;;c, it is well chosen; it <loes not err on am·
side. 'l'he likeness i;; snflicicu l.ly close : tl1e allusion is to a Wl'liknown snhjcct, mol'e intelligible than the matter to be illustrnte<I,
mul not in any wn..v mif!lealling. What we should desiderate ill
n still more special and searching similittHle-one that shouhl
accommodate it.self to minute circumstances in the process of train in~,
nJHl yet ha\'e all the virtues of a goml compal'ison. In the ahselll'O
of such a similitude, advantage h taken of the numerous partial
resemblances iu the group of tm·ms <ptole<l ahove.
'fhe special department of education named 'Learning,' has ht>cn
mrvle the s11 hjcct of extew;i ve ligurati ve treatment Ly llacon. (~-e
E;;says.) He dwells, however, rnorc upon the consequences of Ll'atn·
ing than npon its own natnrc ; these being in<l icated by such ph111"4'1I
as 'amenrlmcnt and correction of the mind,' man's 'whetting l1i11
scythe,' 'daily feeling onrsclves better,' Lein~ capable of 'rcfunna·
tion' : all which are feeble as illustrations of the sn~ject.
Tlrn particular a!'lpect of learning or scholarship inrlicate«l 11~· flit!
stndy of Looks, has been the theme of various comparison;; poi11ti11;:
out the evils of excessive or disproportionate devotion. Herr, loo,
Pope gi vcs the lead.
The bookfnl l1lockl1ca(l, ignorantly rend,
·w ith loads of lcamed lu111her in his head.
This <locs not give the iclea of mere excess: it supposes thnt th"
matt.er of study has been in great pal't useless. Hohcrt 1lall t11t111.. I
the figme to its proper poi11t., when saying of Kippil', 'he laiol ..,
many books on his head, that his brain couhl not lllove' ; nu inld·
ligihle allnsiun, but only pattially relevant. :Macaulay gin•11 anoth"r
figure, to the same purpose, from the stifling of a firn hy too uumy
faggots: this has almost tl1 c same mcl'its arnl defects. The nclion ol
the brain is only very rougl1ly typified by all the three attempt.a.
Pope's famous lincsA little learning is a <langerons tl1i11g:
Drink deep, or taste not the Piel'ian spring;
There shallow <ll'anghts intoxicate the brain,
And drinking largely sobers us again--

an

furnish an interesting example of the impct'fect.ion of nrnrly
attempts at re11rcsenting wl<·r11iat.cly our 11w11tal worki11g1-111,\' lllal.-ri.J ..
comparisons. 'l'o acrp1ire kuowlcdge ill 11ot i111p1·111'1't'ly tii.:1m"I t.,.
'drinking,' just n.s it is also Rf.ill lictter lJy 'forul'; but, in the ftr't&
place, Pope's assertion is itself a gross error, having ouly n rnl.:llf .
JJrcjudiee in its favour ; and, in the next place, the meutnl t.&. ,
alleged is an exception, arnl not the rnle.
·
The comparison to Food is ma<le use of in Dacon's lliscrimirutit.•

141

of the valne of Books. 'Some books are to be ~nsterl, others to be
swallowe<l, and some few to be chewed and digested.'
The emJlloyml:nt. of u.wse 1'.l11·ascii ~fl ii~apt. ~v c tai-;~,(~ 1\11 tu-1.idn of fo<nl to
Jntlgc its quality: 1f we like 1t, we fo1·Lhw1th che~v, 1>wallow 1~rnl
1ligest it. Equally unsuitable is Bacon's comparison of re!11lmg
l10oks hy deputy to 'distilltltion,' which would express the lugl.est
@kill of a reader, namely, to reali se the essentials of a book.
A more successful employment of the similitude of digestion is
11('<'11 in the following from Whately :-'It is remarked by Anatomi~t~, that t11e nutritive f!Hality is not the only requisite iu food;tl111t a certain der•ree of distrntion of the stomach is req uircd, to enable
it to act with it~ full powers ; and that it is for this reason hay or
11tr.1w must he given to horses, as well as corn, in order to supply the
necP~8a1·y hnlk. Sonwtl1i11g analoqous to this takes place with respect
to the genemlit.y of minds; w1iich arc incapable of thoroughly
digPsliug nml n.ssimilatiug what is presented to them, however
clearly, in n small compns;;.'
'l;hc emotional 11rocei::scs of tl1e miml nrc more easily illnstmted ;
being in themselves simpler than the in tel lcct.ual. Here the forces of
111atc1fal nature are often nppl'opl'iate. ~11 the prime n:iovers of the
outer world can be emploved to symbolize the opcrat10n of moral
forces. Hence we lmvc 'tl;e fires of passion,' 'the explosion of rage,'
1
lhe tumult of the fcelin.,s,'
'the white heat of enthusiasm,' 'the
0
breeze of po~nlal'ity,' 'tl1C 1loml-gatcs of iniquity,' 'the ~l'Ou~led s~a
of lhe min<l 'tl1e s1mr to exertion,' 'tlie warmth of affect10n, 'loves
fin;t Hash,' ~nu ntmoF<plie1·e of serenity'. 'l'lwf'e nre all more or less
tnluaLle as ahls to the uwlcl'sta1u.1i11g, while many of them also could
Lo classed as operative on the feelings.
3. l'ed1nps the most pregnant employml'nt of figures of similarity
h w elucidate human relationships arnl society. Ilurnhe1ls of
6i;11rt'11, good nud bad, have hee!t inve11krl fo1· this special se~vic~. .
Afl. a society is an orgamzed whole, rna<le np of umts, it is
antnr~lly compared with a livi~g bein~.. H~nce the similitude from
the Luth, growth 11.1111 1lecay of the h \•111g framework : an nt.t.~rly
lnnpprop1-i:itc compari,,011, excc·pt for tlwHll eases where ua_t1011s
' ha1•t•"n to have rise!' slowly, an.ri. finally .stmk lllH~er .the .cns~rnlt1c..<i of
co111p11•i;t or revolution. A uat.1<n1 may 1111pro\'c 1t.s mst.1t11ho11s, arnl
nh-1111 01· contract its territory, hnt it <lees not nccessanly grow ol<l,
bl the ~ense of becoming decrepit.
There has often been remarked, in tl1c life of society, a tendency
lo JPCcinl outbursts of zeal in partic~1lar d.ir.ections, followed hy
lt<l\'<'lllcnts to the other extreme : as m rehg10n, love of freedom,
~1t·iic11 1~nkrpl'isc. Por the expression of tl1is fact, the titles come
"°'lilv to ha11tl hut the swin~ of the ]'l'lltl11l11m is I\ morn exact
IOOll.fil'i11on '· "'.hile hi<rl1ly
intelfo!iLle,
it is relevant, without
n .
'j
41Mltnction. 'Ve have abo the storm and the calm.
·~i• '.
A happy comparison "·as ma~le br_ Burki-, bctw~~n !evolutionary
..ib11rsl11 nnd the inking of physic. 1 he l•ody politic JS supposed to
.. in a diseascll condition, iu ol'der to justify sud1 a remedy.

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142

FIGUltES OF SI'EECH-SIMILARITY.

INTELLECTUAL SIMILITUDES.

All the term;; (krived from n1echanical forces are adopted in t lu!
tlescription of social forces : impulse, propulsion, momentum, re~i .•l·
ance, inertia, cohesion, attraction, repulsion, explosion, streams n1J1l
current~, storms, Cl'nvulsim!s, volcanoes, conflagr,ttions, sti11111l11\
re-act.ion, la11guor, exaltation, tlcpression. Again, societies nl't! 1h-•·
cl"ibe<l as rmle, refi11ed, polishell, advanced, complicated. All lhl·i<
coml)arisons have a certain amount of propriety.
l'he similitmlc of storms urging the air is a favourite justifini·
tion of the excitement cause• hy newly-acquired libe1·ty: it Li to
employed in Erskine's defence of Stockdale.

'lnnlifieil for the work. It ntlds nothing to the camlitlate's knowl11lge, but simrly attests it. As applied to Rank, in the sense of
nohilit.y and titles, it has scarcely any relevance what~ver.. ~.auk,
in this sense, is not a st.amp merely ; it is a snbst:mtml pnv1legc,
fflllfcnetl, in the first instance, as a reward of services ; although,
when l1ereditary it is disconnected from these. The difference
. l
Let.ween bullion 'gold and coined sovereigns is in no _way ~mtec
to express the difference between untitled merit, nnd title, with or
without merit. The figure is still farther deficient, in respect that
i:uhl is a uniform t]ting, while the untested abilities of men are
ucce1li11gl,V 11111•q 1ml.
.
.
.
'fhe comparison invented l1y l'nley to illustrate tho nntnre of Proprrtr
A
mOllilication
of
Lhe
figure,
by
Tennyson,
1s
a
shght
11uproveis defective ; being both irrelevant an<l misleading.* It is ohjccti1111al1w
1atnt. .Attlna"s knights are good or bud, lllul likc to coinsat the very outset, from assigniug to the pigeons an operation wholly •I
variance with their nature; a liberty that shoul<l not be taken, 11111,.,.
Some trne, some light, but eyery one of them
the suf'posed action were highly intelligible and highly relevant. )h1l
Stamped with the image of the king.
opart from this, it is a ca.ricature of property to describe it as nccumnlatibl
Tbc 'some true' implies that some arc spurious or batl-a very strong
in a single hand all the products of a nation's industry, and len\'illl( 1•A
lgure, applicable only to traitors. Light money, on the other hand, ·
workers in possession of merely a bare subsistence ; it woul<l be n11 exl~IDI'
6uc111'cely adequate to signify great disparity of merit.
,
statement of the building of the Egyptian pyramids by m111tih1tlrs al
slaves. 'l'here are great inequalities of wealth even in modern 1111tioo-.
More successful, in drawing the line between true ment and pl'cbut neither the unnatural pigeons of l'aley, nor the colllluct of the btt. la
ltnce, is t.he class of comparisons included in Pope's linessetting apart their queen, can be of tho smallest use in helping ue ..
'Vorth makes the man, and want of it the fellow;
conceive nml understand the causes of these inequalities.
'l.'he rest 1·s all but leather or prunclla.
So inapt is the passnge as an aid to dearness or iutelligihilih·, it.al
we must suppose some other iutcution present to the author's mituf. W•
Tbi~ hlca is carried out in many forms of language: ' fine exterior,
can view it us o. figure of imprcssfrcncss. It is a l1ighly wrought 1•klllft
· •aurfacc show,' 'varnish'.
of the extraordinary and marvellous, intended to startle us n111l !o ,,_
Fur aptness to the subject, nothing could exceed the very fow
our attention. It makes property seem something monstrous a111l rc""h ia.t..
f;:uratiYC c?mparisons found i.n Demosthenes. A. complete cessaand we are thereby induced to give the more earnest heed to the 1ulLGc"t
bon of public embarrassments is compared to the d1~appearance of a
account of the true reasons for the inequalities.
dou•I. 'fhe 'i:;yeophantif<h' politician is happily 1ikc11ctl to 1~n olcl
The famous similitude, w11osc currency is due to Burns-· ~in lhe brnly, which hecou!cs acute whm~evcr the system IS out
· ti ht·alt h. The resemblance m those cases is as close as the nature
The rank is hut the guinea stamp,
· ti a figure 11ermit.s.
·
.
.
The man's the gowtl for a' that.
The scales of Justice in tl1e hands of the bhml goddess will bear
is intelligible enough, but <loes not altogether fulfil t11e con•lili<'Q ..
' ' la'llliny ns a similitude to aid the umlerstandi11g.
relevancy. The ' stamp' is a good figure for a ti i plomn 11r '116c-W
The Greeks ure 1mid to be the people Uint set the first spark to
certificate, to show that a candiJate for a profession lm11 liccn fWlll
t~ Ille 1lor111a11t capacity of the human intellect. This has all the
':. •ita thnt can belong to a fignrc.
*' If you should see a flock of pigeons in a field or corn ; amt if (ln~ll'l\•I e4 _..
.·· .' 'Ahstra.cts abridgments snmrnarics, &c., ]10.vo the same use with
picking where amt what it likccl, taking just as much as it wantc•I, ""''Dr> - •
' kniin~·glasscs'---to coll~ct th~ <liffuse<l r~ys of wit and learning !n.auth_?rs,
yon should see ninety-nine of them gathering all they got into n. ht'fll'; ,_.._,
, ..a make them point with warmth ai~d qmckness upon the r~a<ler ~ 1rnag1~1a­
nothing for themselves but the chaff and the refuse; kccpin~ lhiM lu·ap r.. r .._ Mii
that the weakest, r.erhaps worst pigeon or the flock; sittmg rcu111I, nntl I••""'-~
.. .... (Swift.). A very good compo.nson to ~he understan<l1!1g. Tho eflcct
nil the winter, wl11le this one was devouring, throwing about, :iml ,.· a~lln.c K : ....
.
~ ti lh" ll'ns in concentrating the rays of hght and heat is well known ;
if a pigeon moro hardy or hungry than the rest, touched a 11rain 111 th" I =
. -'the resemblance turns on the relevant circumstance.
the others instantly flying upon it, and tearing it to 1•icccs; 1f you ~hout.I · . ~ · ~·-,
' ' Co11trnst this with the following from Drowning, intcn<lml to dcscriLe
you would see nothing more than what is e\·cry 1 ay practi~c•I n.1•11 r•ti. .
·
among men. Among men, you sec the nincty-aml-nine, t011ing aml "crnplna ,,.......,
&WJ'ahaira heap of superfluities for one (iwd this one, too, oftentimes tho fcl'11lnl •"" .......
}fair in hcapR lay heavily
of the whole set, a chilcl, a woman, a madman, or a fool), gcttlrrl( nnthln• '"" " - ' -.,
selves all the while but a little of the cnar~cst of the pruviMinn whld1 ,...., . -"
Over a pale brow spirit-purcindustry pro1luces ; looking quietly on, while they see the fnrltH of nil tbrit ..._., ~
Cnrvcd like the !tciirt of the coal-black tre6,
epent or spoile1l; and if one of the nunrbcr take or t.111clr a particlu uf

f

others joining against him, and lmnging him for the theft.'

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144

FIGURES OF SPEECil-Sll\IILARITY.

EMOTIONAL SIMILITUDES.

The allusion in the first figure is obscure ; and the word that the corn·
11arison turns upon in the second, must be unintelligible to the greAt
majority of readers.
A very different criticism applies to the next quota.lion, which is abo
from lfrowning1 T What I answered ~ As I live,
I never fancie1l such a thing
As nuswer possiLle to give.
What says the body when they spring
Some monstrous torture-engine's whole
Strength on it 1 No more says the soul.

Sidney, in order to express the rousing effect of the
ballad of Chevy Chase, declares that 'l never heard the olde
song of Percy and Duglas, that I found not my heart moved
more than with a trumpet '.
We shall, however, encounter exceptional cases, where
lhe comparison is really less strong than the original subject.
For this there are various reasons. · One reason is that an
approach may be made to the higher effect by means of the
inferior.
Another reason is that the aim may be to protluco
Ilarmony, the essence of the poetic art. A harmonizing
1imilitude is agreeable, even if not on a par, in point of
intensity, with the subject : what is aimed at does not.
involve the consideration of mere force. (See Harmony,
under EMOTIONAL QUALITIES OF STYLE.)
The following example is illustrative of both excep-

The mental state referrecl to, is sufficiently subtle to nee1l consi1lcrnhlc altl
for its comprehension-the paralyzing power, on a sensitive nntmn, of aa

accusation of gross wickedness, entirely un expecte<l and entirely u111\P~cn·nl.
'l'he effect of the torture-engine is easily grasped, and tho resemlihrnco to
the mental state in f}Uestion is close rnough to aid our conception of that
state, while it has the advantage of objectivity to make it more intclligihlr.
'fhe similitude in the following stanza of Wordsworth, <lcscriliiug 1 a
host of gohleu daffodils,' has considcraLle lmpressivenessCo11tinuous as the stars tltat shine
And ill"inklc on the milky icay,
They stretched in never-endiug line
Along the margin of a bay ;
J'cn thousan(l smo I at a glance
Tos~ing their heads in sprightly dnnce.
Tho itlea. to ho impressc1l is that of vnst nmuher 11roifoci11g ttnil!I fl
c,(!i,ct; nnd 110 example of this is better known or morn irnprcssive thllD tlae
Milky Way.
EMOTIONAL SIMILITUDES.•

9. In compositions addressed to the Fcclings,Poetry and Oratory,-similitudes are employed to
heighten the emotional effect.
This is an end totally different from the e11<l of I ntcl•
lectual Similitudes, and works by different means. lf ao
object, in itself, does not affect the feelings so stro11gly 1\.11 we
wish, we can adduce a comparison to something BtrollJ,'ff,. _.
Aristotle, wishing to evoke a sentiment of profound rc111*'
and veneration for the virtue of Justice, calls it • llWN
glorious than the Eastern Star, or tho Wes tern Star·.

tions:0, my luve's like a red, red rose
That's newly sprung in June ;
0, my luve'R liko the llll'lmlio

That's sweetly played in tune.
··.I

Now love far transcends both flowers and music in emotional
. intensity. What tho poet must bo supposo<l to mon.n is,
thnt a person cutiroly inexperienced in lovo, while yot susceptible to flowers and music, may be slightly aide<l in conreh·ing the love passion. 'l'his is one view. 'l'he other view
is to regard these comparisons as chiming in harmoniously
with the subject, from being of a congenial emotional quality.
Additional considerations will occur af terwanls.

10. Besides for augmenting the intensity of an
emotion, comparisons are sought to impart a shock of
Agrcc11ble Surprise.

In tho assimilating operation of the intellect, whereby
'.,. comparisons are brought from very remote sources, there
· oltcn results a feeling of unexpectedness, which is in itself
an agreeable effect.

·

11. To

intmH~ify

tlw FeelingR, tho cornpn.riRon must

lalfil tho cow1itions followi11g : -

* To enumerate nnil cla11stry the feelini:s that riro stimnlalctl hy flll"'n'llll,. ... ·

other rhetorical arts, belongs to the di scussion of the .Emotional Qualilll• of,..,._.
The most familiar comprehensive names for these are-Sublimity, )•athO!l, lla--.:A general notion of these qualities i.'! assumed in the rletailed l\ccount o( Uw ._.
tiomLl Similitudes, and is expected to become more precise as the excwpU..._
proceeds.

145

(1.) It must yield an emotion corresponding to the

·..-.Grigina.1, but in higher degree.
·

(2.) It should not be obvious or trite.

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Ell.IOTIONAL SIMILITUDES.

146

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

(3.) The degree cf elevation must not pass certain
limits.

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The first condition grows out of the necessity of tho
case. To rouse a different emotion would be away from tho
purpose: and to adduce a comparison equal merely, or
inferior, in point of emotional force, would not hn.vo an
intensifying effect. The exceptions have been indica.tcJ,
tLIHl will appear in the examples.
The second condition forms a point of contrast between
intellectual and emotional similitudes. Repetition docs nol
detract from the value of the one, while it goes far to
destroy the efficacy of the other. To awaken any powerful
emotion, some degree of novelty, or freshn ess, is all bul
indispensable. The circumstances wherein the same imn~e
can continue to produce its full emotional effect, are moro
or less exceptional.
According to the third condition, limits arc placed to
the elevation aimed at by means of similitudes. The consi·
deration of those limits opens up another large departmc11l
of Rhetorical theory ; as will be seen under tho fihruro
HYPERBOLE, and again in connexion with the IDEAL, unJ~r
Emotional Qualities of Style.

12. To impart a. shock of agreeable Surpriso, tho
comparison must possess Novelty and Bcmotmwss.
A thing cannot be unexpected, and at the so.mo time
obvious and near. There is no great surprise in tho coan•
parison of a king to a father, or in pointing out the likcnt"M
Letween human beings and the animals, in regard to food,
procreation, parentage or the common emotions, as angw
and fear.
In the following similitude from Helps, tho cfT<'d ii
agreeable surprise rather than emotional intensity~
''l'he actions of princes are like those great ri rcrs, whCMll
course every one beholds, but their springs ha.\'o ~
seen by but few'. As far as concerns the intcll<'ct, the
similitude has no bearing: it is not either rnoro i11tcllif.,rih&e .
or more impressive than a pla.in statement of the fad ..
be illustrated. But the matters compared being so tliffo,.,._
we are startled by the ingenuity displayed ih Lrins:Hic ·
them together ; arnl the effect is a.n agreeable fillip to &Ill
min<l.

147

As any discord is fo.tal to emotional effects, which are
expected to be pleasurable, comparisons of Surprise as well
as those of Intensity should be harmonious, and the more so
Lhe better.
The following well-known passage from Lucretius contnins a fine harmony, and also a circumstance that jars on
the mind.
·
.'Sweet it 111, when t.lJO wimls nre ngitnti'ng tho wnkrs on n witlo sen.,
tho land the SJ'CCtacle of u11otl1er's distress ; not because
1t is agreeable .to us that nny oue shoultl rnfl'cr, but l>ecause it is pleasant
lo heh.old the ills ourselves are frl'e from. Swett nlso is it to look upon
tho 1111ghty eucoun.ters. of wnr sprrnd over the plnini::, without sl111.ri11g the
da.ngcr. Bnt 11oth~11g is swecte.r than to occ11py the \\' ell-girt i;en•uc temple,
n1sc1l by the lcnrnmg of the wise, when ce we may look down upon others
and .see the1!1 ~ trny!ng aJHl wnntl cring, riv11;Is in iutellect, and in th e pride
tf lnrth, stnnng mght nud clay by surpassmg Jabour to rise to \yenlth and
lo 'i'' in dominion.'
. The two comparis~ns quoted are in full hnrmony with the situation to
lf 1l!nstrnted; .t1.1cre 19 oue pervading c111otio.11-the grateful feeling or
9K'lmty from v1 s1ble woes. Nevertheles~, it Jnrs on our sympathies to
ttti ~escnt the miser)'. of others as our ddight ; and the clause of explaullon, so awk\rnnl m a poem, docs not redeem the discord. Better to
1-no simply compared the three situations, without givin" any name to
IM feclin~. ' Like a man w.itnessing from the land the rrtru1[glcs of the
.. nncr with the storm, 01' like one \•iewin CJ the i;J10ck or \\'fl)' from a safe
.. lance, is he tl111t occupies the tem11lc rnis~d by wisdom, aud looks clown
~n the erring crowd bc11e11th.'

!o .witness from

While a mere intellectual similn.rity shonl<l 110t ho tonderc1l for an emotional one, tho nbso11co of iutelloctnn.l
limilarity is consistent with emotional effect. Hence may
.. allowed such as the followingThe noble sister of Poplicola,
The 11w01i of Rome, ehaste. _as the icicle
That's curdled hy the frost from purest snow,
And hangs on Dian's temple.
The Rnmo remnrk applies to the followin,.,.0 similitudes from Shelley's
'Ode to the West Wind',
Thou on whose stream, 'mid t11e steep sky's commotion
Loose clomls, like earth's dccayfog lcm;cs, are shetl,
'
Shook from tltc tangled boughs of H cai:cn and Ocean.

•1\e lntdlectu~l resem lilance is. Yery slight, but is sufficient f11r tl1e pur-

the r111ot1011~l liarrnony li c 111~ nppnrc11t nm\ tl1e eo111pnri~o11 frl'~l1 ntHI
: ...tuivo. So, 111 tho nu11e 1·oe111, tho Wes t Wiiul h1 thus :uldrcs~:cd.
f ,..,

.
Thou 1lirgo
or the dymg year, to which this closing night
Will be th~ dome of a 1.'ast sq.ulcltrc,
V11nltcd w 1tlt all thy conyrcyult:d miyltt
Of vnroms.

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, I

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148

EMOTIONAL SIMILITUDES.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

1 l t iaht of a season in relation to th•
The r~semblance bct,w ccln tic r :~er~1lchrc is not very close, but is cnoui;b
preceding y~ar arnl ~ ie t omc o
,
for the poets purpusr.
f . t Hcctuul similitudes without emotional
The employment o ~n e t .
lt was the peculiarity of l~
kce1)ing is not um:ommon m poc,1y.t l ' . l'
Sec Johnson'R f,1/1
dass of rocts na111 c,l Ly ol11~~n ifn~~i~}~:{ s(~aol.' I., P· 441); Minto'•
of Cowley; also Masson s
iJe o .
f L 1 '
,r-:nglish Pro.~c Literature,-' Euphmsm o y y •

f

EXA.MPLltB.

·
f 8 .. t 'S took him nwav m hit1 f~ll
• The condemnat.1on ° ' ou I\ e.
· l
• 'l'hc snn in 1u
irmndeur and glor)'., likelthe setti·nlg a1!:~cfti~ tl~i;ia.hysical wdrltl, lit
....various
.
esf wonder
o J
..
•
t ow.aid•
aspcc ts._, bem".... t ie gram
·.
and a. n11ral10n
adduced to elevate om· elmot10~l1sl o Few of us have seen n tru11Ktl
l
b' t of the morn wor (.
1·
1
effort of
nnd !fi~~f~~·~ ~e~~~g~~~ted and inadmissible ; but usage has d

otif

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1imt1t:a~~~~~~is~! j~a~~~o~~l~rtlfs~~~porti:!J

149

T11is is one of the numerous figures obtained from the vegetable
1rnrl<l. It is ingenious rather than elevating. It may be taken
pnl'tly as an illustration to the understanding, but still more as
a figure of agreeable surprise-a far-fetched, and therefore unexpected, resemblance.
Compare this of ColeridgeLove is flower-like,
Friendship is a sheltering tree.
To say' Love is flower-like' cannot be held M elevating the snhject. ·
11JOve' is the Rtrongrnit feeling of thci 111i11d, fn.r aliovP 1\11,Y dmnu of
lowcl's, mul therefore incapalile of liei11g heighte11ed liy such a cumpuison. The .intention of the poet appears in the contrast of the
lower to the sheltering tree ; it is to express the idea that love is
GOly n source of pleasure, while fricrnlship gives comfort uncl protection. Thus, both expressions have the advantage of using vivid
~< 11awrinl images to represent mental qualities. We may know that
: lrientli;hip is comforting and helpful, aud yet be a~reca\Jly assisted in
~r. conception by the familiar aud impressive image of a shelter.. Strang tree.

the opposite.
.
. h · lt
l by the similr, in lM
'l'he feeling of veneration. rs e1g I enec
d' '!'he tli\'i9'Byron gives this image of his wandering life01lyssey, 'I follo>~ behind, as in th~t;::bti;:~ ti~1f:r tl1an mere ~
I am as a weed,
ti cs of ull ages, bemg regarded as [s levated"'lan~nane ap\llirtl to~
Flung from the rock, on ocean's foam, to sail
'mve been the standing sobr~e o eThe diRtanc~ \.J~t.wceu humaaitr
Where'er the surge may sweep, the tempest's breath prevail.
.11ore illustrious of hum~n emtgi. t was ~~t rennrJcJ n.s too pill
and divinity, in pagan tunes a eas .,
o
1\e augmenting effect of the compnriRon is very apparent ; it
lf'l>ronches even to the hyperbolical. 'l'he imagery derived from
for the comparison:
h d. t i"to her college, m~•
Tennyson's Prmcess, nfter t e rsa.s e
Uie inci1le11ts of the ocean is copious and often impressive.
her window, and remains there
._
Shakespeare makes Timon sny of Alcibindes that he, ' like o. boar
Fix'<l like n bencon-tower above t11~ wav~
:., ._. •rnge, doth root up his country's peace'. This is one of the
Of tempest when the crimson-rolling ?el i
- lnamem\Jle comparisons of human beings to animals. The aptness
Glares ruit~, and the wild Linls on the ig I
· . . int.he fa.ct that, in certain qualities, especially passion, animals
lilt ahovc men as regards intensity of manifestation.
Dash themselves dead.
1
There was silence deep as death' (Campbell). A very powerful
.
l
· con11l scarcely he more po...nf..,
. . apposite figure ; being the highgst attainable for silence. It
Calmness nm1d trouble anc. rm~ tl1 e li"hthonse amidst th<' l~
..
, -..ltl be excessive on any occasion but the eve of a grcnt battle.
impressed than lJy. com pal nso~ '
iliet the frc1pll'11tly USt.J 'A soul as white as ierwtn ar1 ·
•
, laraliles the most perfect type of an emotiopal similitutle.
exceeding purity aitrilmtc<l to the heavenly state. . ' .
•The hell of waters, where they howl and hiss' (Byron). A
i . d l'k t all ' is G o1<1~1111 I Ii ~ ,.,.... . ·'-ilituJe derivecl from one of the best known sources of terrible
'Nature,~ riwthe:r ci1~ ~ i.'e o Th~' mother' rl'lation ii•.....~
.,Uon. It is necessarily heightening in its effect ; but repetition
happiness attamah~c ~~ tlns "or ld.
ideas of affection,
... ttry much reduced its power in stimulating emotion: it is not
drawn upon for smnhtudes to convey
__ .
1116dfntly reserved for the l1ighest emergencies.
sacrifice.
k
. arison of Pope•Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve' (Colcriclgc). A
'Iuke next the well- nown comp. .
.
"'7
lmpressive comparison to heighten the sense of fruitless en·1 tl
cnerous vine, snpportrll hn11: .
r.
. . f,
the c111\1race he ~l\·te.
l\fon, 11 rn ic g
'fhc 8trength he garns lS rum
· Me the following from Wordsworth.
It is a beauteous Evening, ca.lm and free ;
'l'hc holy time is quiet as a Nmi
Breathless with adoration.

"*'

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150

MIXTURE OF EFFECTS.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

The fignre expresses very ~Pr.ropriately the com~ined ide~ of sacre_itn..
and calm while furth er h111trncr
at \Vonlsworth s favourite conception el
0
nature a~ expressing religious thoughts. 'l'h? comparison is frc~h
strikin" and is well fitted to elevate our feeling towards nature m t.bil
relatio;~'; and that imlee1l is the primary object.. Such .~ easo. Rhon •
that, while intellectual similarity is not the mam conchtton with el•.nl•
ino fiall!'es it is an advantage that should not be ovedookcd, l'rofl•i.I
th~ ott1er c~mlitlons are not sacrilieoJ to it. So the eamo poet A('l'k• ..
elevate our reverence for Duty, when lie addresses it as 'Stem tla1111laW '"
of the voice of God,' while at the same time expressing his own coucel'U.
of tho origin of man's sense of Duty.
The next case is from Pope.
Eternal smiles his emptiness betray,
As shallow st reams run dimpling all the way.
The figure is justified by the interest of tho comparison i, we n~o plr:\....t'f
the flash of likeness tmce1l lietween remote ob.1ects. 'I here l~ lurthl'f ..
intention of exciting our contempt by the resemblance being to that wlaWt
is shallow.
A similar instance is the coupletAuth ors, like coins, grow dear as t110y grow old :
It is the m st we value, not the gold.
There is harmon y -of f1•cling here in the extension of tho figure la lM ,
secoml line, that feeling being lmlicrous depreciation.
Take now an instance of a 1lill'ereut kiml:
I who still saw tho universal snn
H eave his broad shouhler o'er the edge of the world. (K<'At~ l
Th e similitucle of" heavi nrr t he sh oulllcr" i~ not littc1l to rlcrnte th!! 111~
nor is it suited to give the!1lca~11rc of fo.1wil'11l co111pal'isou. It i;i "·a~tiic•
dignity as applied to the sun, and m ay even suggest huhcrous a.<180CUU.-

an:'

.,

.
'.' :: .

Take now a few instances that illustrate tho limits that an •l ..... •}
feeling sought to be rnisetl.
She seemed n splcn1lid angel, n ewly <lrcst,
Save wings, for heaven.
The similitmle is n ot ouly overdrawn, but is va'.(ne ; it rr 1\ly
help to conception, as it professes t o <lo. .Moreover tho awkw.ud a...
tion, "save wing;:," is out of harmony.
Here again we have a 1lc·eri1·tio11 of thunder in a
which the figure goos beyon1l li111itEarth h1rnc1l in hor sleep with pain,
8ullril y susl'ircJ. for proof.
AgaioBut to her h eart, h er heart was voluble,
Paining with el0<ptenco h er balmy side ;
As though n tongueless 11il.(hti11gale shonltl ~w!'ll
.,
Iler throat in vain, aml 1lic, hcart-stillc1l, iu her tlrll.
. Tho whole conception of the last two lines is u1111nt11rnl l\ll<l o"dbl....l
aud fails therefore to elevate our feeling of tho situation it i,a eo1a,..& -

«ii.-_•

'Ve may a<ld here n few miscellaneous example!! of 11lmltltod.9 ti.
surprise, the object gaine1\ hcing the ple:m1rc of tho compariaoo&.

151

· '.'When th~u forgivest, the man who has pierced thy heart stands to
Iii~ tn the relatton of the sea-worm, thnt perforates the shell of the mussel

•laich strnightway closes the wound with 1i pearl".

(Richter.)
'
".Many a man has a kind of a knleiJ.oscope, when the bits of broken
II.us arn his own merits and fortun es, and they fall into ltarmoniom1
emngcments, and delight 11im, often most miscliievously and to his own
'9lrimcnt; but they are a present pleasure.'' (Helps.)
" Long shall Comnl1t look before she can heltold Fingal in tlrn mitl!lt
illtl1 host ; bright as the coming forth of tho m»rnin"
in-the cloud of au
0
· wly shower ". (Ossian.)
.
'
The following is addressed to an infant : Thou art a de w-drop, which the morn brings forth,
Ill fitted t o sustain unkindly shock s,
·
Or to be trailed alon).( the soiling earth ;
A gem that glitters while it lives,
1\ ml no forewarning gives ;
But, at the touch of wrong, without a stdfo
Slips in a moment out of life. (Wordsworth.)

1\t IJra of freshness and feebleness is tl111s c]ahorate1l, without assisting

. . ~n1! e rs~anding or elevating fooling in relation to the object, yet the
I"'• n1111 1s socuretl by the pleasure of tlrn cn111 parison itself.
"llumnn experience, like the stcrn-liuhts of a ship at sea illumines
tll1 t.hc pnth w_hich we )~11.Ve pas~etl over"~ (Coleridge.)
'
Kut:! dcscnbcs a 111a1don, gomg to sleep in bc1l, nsBlissfully haven'd both from joy nnd pain ;
Cl~sp'1l lik.11 a 1.nissal whc~·e swl\rt Pay nirns pray;
Bl1111l"'l nltku lro111 H1111sl1111c 1rn1l from r1tin
As though a rose should sluu, anti be a bnil again.
Browning, in speaking of the sudden cessation of animated expression
1. . . . this comparison'
In short the soul in its body sunk,
Like a blade sent horne to its scabbard.

13. Many comparisons are both intellectual and
: motional, having a mixed effect.
To portray the rupture of a friendship, Coleridge has
lollowing image. '.l'he two friends
Stood aloof, the scars remaining,
Like cliffs which hail been rcut asuntler;
A dreary sea now flows bctwce11,
Bnt ncithel' heat, nor frost, nor thunder,
Shall wholly 1lo away, I wren,
Tho marks of that which once hath bPe11.

111 ~ vivi1~ picture t? the understancling, while calcu&o mtens1f y our feelmg of the situation .

.' •Tho universe at large would suffer as little in its

~our o.nd variety by the destruction of our planet, as

'·
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152

c:

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,
... ' ·
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~ ~: ~
I. 1 ?
~ · .:

SOURCES OF SIMILITUDES.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

the verdure and sublime magnitude of a forest would suffer
by the fall of a single leaf.' ('l'homas Chalmers.)
' Under the green foliage and blossoming fruit-trees of
To-day, there lie, rotting slower or faster, forests of Rll
other Years and Days' (Carlyle). This expresses vividly
for the understanding the relation of the past to the present,
as the means of growth through decay, while at the samo
time appealing to emotion.
Keats speaks of 'the music, yearnfog like a god bz prri11 ';
thus not only elevating the subject but also vivi<lly setting
forth the massive, yet indefinite, emotion stirred up by muAio
in its h~gher forms, which seems to strive after more <lefiuiLo
express10n.
SOURCES OF SIMILITUDES.

14. The illustration of Similtitudes may be extended
ana varied by a survey of the SOURCES •
The sources of similit111les are co-extensive with the worlil ol
knowledge ; while ditrel'ent departments have different capa!.ilit«w
and applications. A survey of these Sources may give UH a 1111"9
adequate conception of the vast area covered by this one <lcpartme.al
of Hhetoric.
To begin with the HEAVENS. The celestial vault, with it11 t'aJ'1•
ing movementl'1, has affected many minds in all agrf'. 'J'lic emotioM
inspired arn, first of all, Gmw.lcnr, Vastness, 8ulilimity, n111l hf'\t.
Awe or Terror. In a less degree, and by an indirect agem·y, &ltff
have become associated with gentle, benign or loving emotion. 1W
simplicity or intelligibility of the chief movements has enabfotl llH9
to be largely used as figures to the mulerstanding.
Mythoiogy has added to the employment of 'the heavenly
sometimes at the cost of their degradation.
In poetry the heavenly bodies are made use of to elcvo.te our r.&.
ings towards great men, asThat mighty orb of song
The divine :Milton.
The Sun is necessarily the most powerful of all l1 eightening ~
parisons, in respect of might; while owing to his pammount ar-1
m nature, he is also looked up to with a certain feeling of alf•~l...._ -.
regard, such as is possible towards vast power exercise1l on th~ ...... ..
for our good.
.
.
., ,
The Stars are still a gran<l resort of poew, not\\:1th11t:rn1lini dilll '
the astrolooy of the middle ages reduced them to an ignoble runct•
The Elizabethan poctf'l, living under the belief in 1L'ltrnlogy, ll"' fall( ·· ,
this employment, IL'l may he seen in ShakeRpearc, nearly a half If : ·
allusions to them being in this meaning.
·d!

bod.._

153

The Ape~ialit.h~s of I.lie Atars fnrniFlh nnmerous mixe<l comparisons
-affecting both the feelings aud the uu<letsta11tli11g.
Like a star, unhasting, unresting.
Chaucer says, with his usual felicity and compactnessHis eyghen twynkled in his heed aright,
As don the sterres in the frosty night.
And ShelleyKings are like stars-they rise anrl set-they have
'l'he worship of the world, hut no repose.
The ingenuity of the comparison makes it rank as o. figure of surprise
lllol'e than of elevation or of intellectual i1rnight.
The same may be said of Wordsworth's fignl'e for solitary beautyFair Clfl a star when only one
IR shiniug in tl1e 8ky ;
or the same poet's description of MiltonThy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart.
Again-' A poem rounrl and perfect as a star'.
The more subdued maj c>ity of th e Moon lmR led to its feminine
per~onification, and to its being wi<lcly ernploye<l. for evoking ten<lerllCSS an<l. pathos, still accompanied with gmudeur or might.
The Planct.s shine as st.'1.rs, and emotionally arc classed with
tbem. As revolving about the Sun in <listant orbits, they are figures
- lo the u11d erntanding also.
1'he Comets ha,·e affectctl the human mind very variously.
When l'Pg1mled with R11pcl'stitious alal'111, tlwy were olljects of power;
11<1•·, they are used cl11elly for the untleri;laniling, the ccceutricity
ol their orbits and their uncertainty being the chief points of
interest.
:Meteors are t.Jrn type of the liigl1eRt uncert.'linty of all, from
&heir suddenness of appearance an<l. rapidity of extinction.
The Constellations, the Milky W Q.Y and the N ehulre possess an
tlement of grandeur, which, however, is developed chiefly by means
ol utronomical knowletlge.
Eclipses, like Comets, have pru>se<l through a stage of superttitious awe; they arc now convenient comp'.:l.risons for purely
batellectunl uses. Occultations are a minor form of eclipse.
The general idea expressed by the word Satellite is now
lftilable, and very useful ; the word was unknown in the time of
, , 8hak!'~p~arP, and even in Pope appears still with its Latin
,.- ponuncmtionOr ask of yornler argent fichls above
..
Why Jove's satelli-tes are less than Jove.
~
The EARTH, taken on the great scalr, is n copious source of
, lbnilit111lc11, n.fl'Pcli11g Olli' fr1·li11gR ill '"" flrfll. lllKl.n11r.1~.
'l'hc
Jr·~J1Mnoruenn of the Sky-Winds, titorms, Uloud8, Hain, 'l'huu<ler nu<l
,.

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' -1,
:c•.
.... ,

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

Lightning-inspire the emotion of Power, Force, Grandenr, anrl 11,.
largely employed to h eighten that emotion in connection will.
animated l.Jeings,-as Men, Societies, AnimalR. The drea1l1'11l tttrl•
dents of war al'c fre1p1ently clothed with these allusions. On tht
ot.her haml, images of gmtefnl repose and gentle pathos can be
obtained from the calmer manifestations of the sky.
The Oecan-with its extent, its tempestuous nphea\'in~ i"
waves, its ti<les-is suggestive of might, nnd is largely emplc1yl.J ia
imagery to excite our emotion of the sublime. It.s serene 1110111tnU
arc al1:<0 tm·11etl to aeeou11t. The waves aml tides arc furthct
available in intellectual imagery.
The flow of water in Hiver·s, Streams, Cataracts, may attain le
grandeur.
The irregular antl often terrific action of Earthquakes uJ
Volcanoes take!'! the side of sublimity,
The Monntains and monntain ranges are permancnt.ly the mo.I
imposing of earth's gmn<leurs, ancl play a great part in JIUt'Uc
allusions.
'l'he Chnsms ancl Depths laid open by nature and hy nrt, ...&
the Stmlitication of the globe, as explained Ly geology, with it• i•·
numeralilc fossil remains, are capable alike of rousing the fl-di115'
and of aiding the umlerstanding.
The Ya8t expanses of Plain, Forest, Desert, provide n11p<•cl1 al
sublimity ; the ocean sl1ari11g in the same attribnt.e. As )14.'<•t·l--1
with lifo, these aggt·egates are rendered still more i111p1·e1<>'in: -- 1I.
forest-wilds, the ocean, the rivers, the air. A new cla.~s ur clf«t.t
arises with human societies and civilized centres.
The MINERAL world is a rich source of comparisons: Mtne ..
the feelings, as the precious stones and metals that lH•~!'C~" i:lilld_
and 11eauty ; others to the unclerstancling, from more u~·ful J'"'
perties, as transparency, hardness, tenacity, roughness anrl 1111~
ness, rarity an<l money-value.
LIFE opens up a new and exl1austless field of complll'i.The Vegetable in every part, and in every stagi~, is drnwn UJ-*.
The beauty of the flower is a permanent oh,i C:ct or 11lli1•..The other pn1·ts make figures to the u111lcrslamliug-ruut, Lr.....
leaf, bud, fruit, growth, sap, ripeness, decay.
There are upwards of a hun<lte<l t1101rnarnl ngeta!.lc 111...d.!t&"
many are characterized l1y marked features, aml arc at th., . - ,
time widely and popularly known. l<'rom these arc ol1taibeWI
figures of each kitHI. The grnmleur of the largct· trees arotl- lW
corresponding sentiment; the delicacy aml brilliancy of tlac •hr•
and flowers give the interest of beauty.
.
Animal Life has supenul<lecl processes, all hrou~ht into the,.,..,, ·',
of comparisons. Health and disease, as well a.~ t.lre 11u11ier1111~ ur~ '.
of disease; the c11ief bodily organs-bone, si11ew, 11111~ch·, lwllll, l ..... ·'' ·
stomach, liver, spleen, head, face, hrni11, tongue, arm~ luuttl-. •
'
feet-can all be tracecl in their fignrntivc ap{1lif'ati1111 lo ,.... ~
subjects. The 'head' is one of the most tlifl'uset cu111p1ni110RI ill ...

155

SOURCES OF SIMILITUDES.

language ; the applications of t11e others .reaclily suggest themsclvc8.
The effects are mostly on the urnler:>tandmg.
'l'he number of Individual Animals that have come to be
employed as similitrnlcs is very great. S~.rength ancl ~e!·ocity are
t~pilied by the lion, tiger, bear, shark ; patience an<l docthty by the
llil-ep, ox and others.
. .
.
.
Use is made of what is deemed charnctensttc of the ~ion! tiger,
wolf fox ass mule, cat, mouse, rat, eagle, bat, lark, mghtrngale,
dof;, ow'], c1:ekoo, scr11c11t., viper, hoa, hcl', 1uit;, Api«lcr, l111ttel'fly,
worm, grub, oyster.
In the Purgatorio, Dante describes the attitude of. Sord.ello b_y
•\he 11c111hlance of a lion when he con<·.l1t•s'. Sat~m, m Milt.on, ls
eeen 'squat like a toacl'; Junius stn.ng 'Ii.kc": s<;orpi~m '. ~11 the~c
rouse our feelings. The spider <lrawmg Ins vtctuns rnto Ins web ls
lie(} to excite revulsion and dread, as well as to help the underltanding · beina applied to the arts of sophistry. Nothing could be
110re ex1~ressiv~ tlian Dekker's comr,arison-' untameable as flies' ;
I& lll'"'estg a vivid iclea of total incloc1lity.•
rl'l1c various INDUSTRIES of man are largely employed in the
lgurntive sense. Their most prevailing use is .to help .the ~n?er­
lt&nding. A process of industry must be clefimte and mtell1gtble.
All tl1e standing industries arc shftlc!ently well kn.own to be drawn
iron for clearing u~ less known .subjects. I~ ~gncnltnre, we have
I.be familiar operat10ns of kcepmg flocks, t1llmg the ground and
aanipnlating the 11ro1l 11ce. l~rom Mining, we have derived a variety
al 11imilitudes. Builcling gives perpetn~l references to foun<l!llions, walls, roofs, cement., floors, doors, '~mclows, &c. s.eamansh1p
.. a sonrce of many well-known co.mpansons. _Trade gtves. ns all
aM opcmt.ions connected witl~ buyu!g .and selln!g. l\la~1ulactures
8" 111 endless resort, from then multiplied forms ·m our tune.
The occasions for awakening emotion by the various industries
, m chicOy their displays of energy atHl. iugenuity.
A. large
alaip under full sail, a palace or a pyranud, a steam engme of
•un1lrc<le of horse power, are objec,t? of imposing 1_11ight, and are
91rtl ns comparisons of strength.
I he ma!1nfactunng and other
eptrntions that overcome ~he stnbbor_n~rnss of mat~er,-by t!·a:nsport~ hll\.~['lcS, breaking, crush mg, pnl venzmg, re-~hapmg, combunn~ raw
Mtttinl,-inspire us with the emotion of mamfested power or nught.
• Thi. poets have actually employed but a smnll part of the material at their
.-m•nrl In tho animal world. "Taking the bird-world alone," says Mr. Phil
: ..,.nt10n "It is extraordinary with what direct loss of power ancl beauty the poets
. . . to n~,lllect. the opportunities which Nature offers them for simile and illustra·
..... omnmental epithet or moral analogy. There are known to science more
~ ... lhree thouRancl species of birds. But f'oetry takes ken of a bare hundred, nnd
el lhf'NI " thin! are so casually mentione< that, vhtually, they are nsolcss to the
lllll, ancl ""far as they contrihute nny Rpecial significance, fol'ce or beauty, alnwst
""1 otho; hlrclH might have t:tken their places." (7'/tc 1'01•ts' JJircl.,, 4.) It should
.. Nml!mherocl, ho\vever, that a poet's material for similitudes anc illustrations Is
...._, by his reactors' knowledge as well as by hill own. llenco also the
. tll"'uhe u~e of conventional or traditional ideas of nnimals in poetry, on which :Mr.
· -= n lik.cw!Aocomments. If an animal is introclucecl for pmposes of Illustration,
~
••\be nAc•l In ways that rca<lers can feel; to 110 otherwise would often involve
cr ·
n01l a111l weak description Instead of brief and forcible allusion.

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156

SOURCES OF Sll\ULITUDES.

FIGURES OF SPEECH - SIMILARITY.

. The arts and mec11ani~m of S?cial lnt_ercourse-roads, carriages,
1~11le-stones, har·boms, st~hons, bridges, rails-can be applied fignrati~ely, to render conceivable the more abstract operations of the

Of a11 the vccatiomi tlrnt man hns ever enaarrecl in, the one
that most impresses us is War. The attitnde t> of finhtin11 iR
thor~ugh ly congenial ; the feelings aroused arti the most"'puw~1fol
emu~1~ms of the hum an In-er.st : on the one 'hand, power, rivall'y,
host1hty, hatred; and, on the othe1·, the sociable and amicable scnti·
~nent tu~vards those that we fight witl1 and for. Hence onr pcrcnuinl
mterest n! battles and cout~r-;ts ; hence also the emotional heightcniug
of all subjects that can be illustrated by compar·ison with war.
The organized military profession, with ull its machinerv
arrangen~ents and te?hnic~lities, is the completed embodiment ;,r
L~e. fightmg art. It is _referred to by way of allusion, in onler to
Vl\'1fy all the less matenal forms of COlllUat j the strife of WOl'l)fi1 of
dehat~, of co~petitiun in b~tsin.ess ancl worltlly a<lvanceme1:t.. It
both imparts its more powerful mterest, and gives a clearer emooli·
rnent tu the understanding. Hence the abundance of finurative U!l<'I
of. the. terms of war--army, battl~, skirmish, gun, s~ord, "Pl'ar,
h~oads1de, ranks, plrnlanx, gencralslnp. · In the New Testament the
1!1fficulties of the Christian life are frccpiently represented 1m1le; th11
h;:u~e ~,fa warfare. In the EpiHtl~ to the Ephesians, the weaporni or tho
Clm;.tmn are elaborately descnhed-' the breast-plate of 1·ightco11111ess,' 'the shield of faith,' 'the helmet of salvation' 'the sword of tho
~pfrit, "'.hic~1 is the word of God'. Bunyan has ~ade use of the itlea
m tlie P1lgnm1s ~->~·ogref::~, and still 1!1ore _fully in the Holy Wnr.
. . A rece11t rehg10us ~cct has 1;1Vatle!l i.tsel~ of our strong military
111!.1:rest to the exte11t o! tmnslatmg all its ntual nn<l doctrines into
1111htary language, down to the most technical expressions of our
army system. The pom~ 1:1nd circ111~1stance. of war is thereby tnrneJ
to the account of the rehg10us emotion, wlnle the actual horrors aie
kept out of view.
·
. The machinery of Civil government supplies illustrative com·
par1s~ms ; so.me to t11e feelings, in co111;<equence of tlie Rense of Po"·tr
associated with govennnent., and otlrnrs to the tmderstandincr fro111
our familiarit;r with tl.1e ord~nary operat~ons of civil rule. A kinic
or monarch is an oh1ect of awe, and, m rare caseii', of nffoctiuia.
Byron, by a common aJaptation of the para1>hcmalia of royalty, sayt-

mmd. A person committing blunuers is 'off the mils'. Euclid is
credited with the saying, 'There is no royal road to geometry'.
The Healing Art is a source of endless figurative allusions: a
few come home to the feelings, but most appeal to the unile1·standing.
1'he derangements in the mental constitution of the individual man
ns well as those in. the ~btte of society, being compared to diseases:
the modes of dealrn~ with them are expressed by terms of medical
n1-t. 'fhe relevance, however, is often very slight. A wound to the
body, and a hurt to the mincl, such as a bereavement, bave too little
in common to give mutual enlightenment.
.
Science is, ~n one respect,. our be~t source of comparisons to aid
the understandmg. The notwi:is bemg carefu~ly ?elined, they are
usually clear ; tl~e drawback hemg that the scient.1fic knowlerlge of
the general multitude goes only a very little way, while many of the
educated are no better.
E\'en t~1e simple;.t_n.otions of ~ri.t.hn~etic a;e valuable ns Figures
or. comparison : Addition, Multiphcat10n, 1' ractions, Proportion,
Direct a~1cl Inverse, are all b~ottght into play. The phraseology of
Algebra is less employed; wlnle the terms of Geometry, containing
the fundamentals of Demonstrative science, are wi<lelv malle use of.
,'l'he l~gical di~tin~tions of Matter and Form; Essence and
Acculent, find npphcat10n everywhere. In the Mechanical and
Physical ~ciences uc.cnr'. the notiot~s of Inertia, Mo111eut11111, Vdocity,
~ccelemt10~, Gmv1t;..'ttion, Cohes10n, Adl1esion, :Repulsion, Ecp1ilihr111m, R;eact1011, Resistance, Tension, Pendulum, Clockwork, Centre
or Gravity, Lever, Balance, Waves, Billows, Flotation Solidity Liquidity, ya pour, D.istilla~ion, Electricity, Magnetism, Com pas.~, Heat.•
Fme Art gives birth to a numerous host of similitmles. The
technicalities of every one of the Arts rLre cxte111led into figurative
uses. They are mostly addressed to the understanding · but
occasionally they have an emotional tinge, as in the employm~nt of
111ch wor1ls as melocly aml harmony., the terms for the great works
of Architecture, arnl the language of poetical criticism. t

Mont Blanc is tlie monarch of mountains •
They crowned J1im long ago
,
On a tluone of rockf::, in a l:obc of clouds
'
Wit.h a diadem of snow.

• As a valuable comparison to the understanding, may be mentioned the con
of the f!-SY.mptote of the hyperbola to the curve, without the
l•o ever comcuhng; bnt tins 1s only understood by those that have studiecl the
Ueometry of Uon~c. Sections: :rhe following\ from Lord Rayleigh's Presidential
Aclclress to the British Assocmtum, was especmlly suitable as used for a scientific
audicnc~: •The neglected 1?orcl~rlanrl between two branches of knowlerlge is often
lhat winch best rep!tys cultivation; or, to use a metaphor of Maxwell's the greatest
btoncflts may he cl~r1ve~ from t.hc ~rou fertilisation of the sciencts •. Geol~gy is tnrned
to happy 1tccount m th.is descr1pt1on of the themes of Hurns's poetry: •No time can
ltlJ!llr:mnuate the subJect~ winch Burns sang; they are rooted in the prima 1-y atmta
11l11(h art steadfast'. ($hatrp.)
'
t ' The .comparison of life to a play is one of those figures at once obvious and
.triking, wh.1ch "'.ere adopted hy the moderns from the cla~sical poets, and employed
. ., e•ery writer till taste revolted at the repetition.' (!\lark Pattison)
i' "·' lt is ~markable that, notwithstanding the frequent allusions ~ Music among
, _~ .., poets, 1~ is, of a.II the arts, the one t.hat they seem to understand least. . The
..,/.. chief exception Is Miiton ; th.e references m other poets rue mostly so vague as to
~r' Miiiea~ no knowledge of music beyond mere melody.
llnu~I appr~xil!"";tion

The forms and mn.cl1inery of the administration of Ln"' find
of. the fignmtive sort. We speak of the 'court vi
conscience, bemg a 'law to ourselves,' 'witnesses to a creed,'
'appealing to a higher power'.
The Fan~ily relations ~re largely invoked for figure~. Being
boun~l up 'yith th~ affect10rn::, they are used for wakening up
affectionate mterest m other objects ; as when the kina is called the
'father of his people,' and when members of the sm7ie eociet7 ...
appli~ation~

~W'~ili~~

157

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158

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

The great i<leas of Religion, from their nature, affect the huml\n
suscei1tibility, and thei1' transfer to other subjects is usually int.ewl~I
to h eighten some emotion. The de~ignations Goel, Heaven, Hell~re abundantly employed in connection with secular things, and are
mstances of the loss of power caused by excessive use.
The Recreative Arts yield many of our most familiar similitudH;
~oth t~e svorts of the field and the indoor games. Every situation
lll Whist is made use of as a figure of similarity.

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A vast numher of Historicn.1 facts and incidents have come into
standing figurative employment: Alcxnmlct's cutting the Gordian
knot, the battle of 'l'hermopyhc, Diogenes' ln.ntern, the swor~I o(
Damocles, Rome saved by the geese in the capitol, Ua~sar's crn~~ing
the Rubicon, the crusades, magna c11arta, the lines of Torres Vcdraii,
the whiff of grape, the Quadrilateral.
Mythology is eqna11y prodnctive. Jupiter, Apollo, Venn!', Mn.,..
Mercury, are s~nding allnsions; while Circe, 'l'untalns, SisyplniA, ·
Protens, the SHens, Argus, Hercules, Prometheus Phiietou ani
centres of illnstmtive incidents.
'
'
C?njuring anrl 1~rngic are drawn upon for effective compnriMn-.
Literature furm shes not a few comparisons. 'To exact lhe
pound of flesh,' 'Lilliputian,' 'Quixotic,' 'a Pandemonium' coutaiia
allusions to literary works.
'
The ~ibl~, as bci11g the f!lOSt wicl~ly circulated literatut'C', i11 tbt
most fertile m such cnmpn.r1sn11s. 'I he scapc-gon.t., Esau's 111r11..- u(
pott:ige, the plagues of Egypt, Aaron's serpent:, the cave of A1l1111Am1
the JUdgmeut of Solomon, th e Shibboleth of a pmtv, the 11la11ghl<'r u(
the mnoceuts, Herod nnd Pilate's friendsl1ip the treachery of J uJM,are examples of a large class.
'
National customs and institutions have heen often fonrnl ilh..trative : The taboo, tlrn palaver, the salaam, the onleal J uggcmaua_
Vestal purity, the white elephant.
'
. The applic~tion of terms of Mind to express physicn.1 fact.1 •
widely spread m our language. The human form and foelinb'I art
transferred tO things devoid of life.
On a rock whose hattghty brow.
:r'hese nre the ~gures of Pe~sonification ; they piny a gr<'nt J'4lf'
m Poetry, and m the evokmg of emotion generally. 'flll'ir full
discussion falls m:1<ler. the Emotion.al Qnalit~cs of Style, nlthougla
they have somethmg m common with the Figures of ItcsemLliwa1t
strictly so called.

KINDS OF SIMILITUDES-THE METAPHOR.
We next con11ider Similitudes under the various forms
modify their peculiarities.
Rhetoricians have always distinouished between the Simik
and the Metap11or. The difference.'i ~£ the two have coll8itlerable
rhetorical importance.

METAPHOR.

159

1. The metaphor is a. comparison implied in the
mere use of a term.
When we say 'his victory was brilliant,' 'he bridles his
nngcr,' we employ figures of comparison without saying so.
The likeness is em bodied in a single word, and that word is put
forward as if it were the plain and literal name for the fact.
It is in the circumstance of being confined to a word, or
at most to a phrase, that we are to look for the peculiarities
of the metaphor-its advantages on the ono hand, and its
dangers and abuses on tho other. It lends its force to the
composition, without a change of grammatical structure.
Like all similitudes, Metaphors may (1) aid the Understanding, (2) intensify or work up a Feeling or Emotion, (3)
· ·give an agreeable Surprise. Ii'or the second and third
effects, and also as a distinct aim, they are required to be
in full Harmony with the subject. (See p. 145.)
(1) For aiding the Understanding.
'The light of Nature' is a similitude to express sh.ortly
the indications that Nature can afford as to its own origin ;
it implies a contrast with the light of Revelation.
'Coming events cast their shadows before' is a highly
expressive employment of one of the most familiar phenomena. It combines all the requisites of a similitude for
aiding tho understanding.
'Introducing tlte thin end of the weduc' is also highly
effective, from the same combination of merits.
'The Geological rec01·d ' is the expression for the stratification and fossil remains of the globe, taken as the means
of reading its past history.
'He is master of the situatiOn' is a suggestive employment of a relationship understood by everyone.
Bentham called the moralist 'a scout for consequences'.
•A word in season ' is highly expressive.
• Stamping out ' is the name of a familiar operation
employed to designate the means of arresting the spread
of contagion. It implies at once the serious nature of the
evil and the vigorous method of dealing with it.
• 1'11.e sinews of war,' as applied to monoy, is intended to
convey the idea that on it all the power of armies depends.
.The expression goes back to Beaumont and Fletcher.
Victuals and ammunition,
And money, too, tlie sinl'ws of the war,
Are stored np.

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161

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

METAPHORS OF SURPRISE.

' Levelb'.111 11p' was expressively applied, during the
Irish Church debates, to the proposal for endowing all ·
churches, as opposed to discstaLlislunent of the one that
occupied the privileged position.
' More sail than /)()lla st.'
'Athens, the eye of Greece' is recommended by the
familiarity of the thing compared, but the relevance is only
vague. ' The m.fod or intellect of Greece' would have been
more suitable. Plato calle<l Aristotle the ' intellect ' of llis
school.
' The wish is .father to the thought' is scarcely an n.id to
the understanding. There is only the advantage of stat.ing
in a few words that a man's thoughts upon a subject grow
out of what he wishes, not out of the real state of tho en.RO.
To use 'father' or 'mother' each by itself, as the origin or
source of anything, is questionable. The concurrence of
Loth to progeny is of the essence of the parental relationship;
and when this is the relevant circumstance, the comparison
attains its full force.
Excellent examples of metaphors for the unclerstarnling
may be founcl in Pope. 'l'he following quotation describes
the advantages of mental activity as opposed to Stoic apathy.

'.llletaphors, as long as they keep up their present position
and use.
•My voice is not a bellows unto ire' (Keats).
The divinity that hedges a king is one of t~e over-clone
applications of the divine na:t~re t? humai: bemgs. I~ had
more force in days when the d1vme right of k~ngs was be.heved
in. 'The human face dim'.ne ' · is another mstance; it has
but a slightly elevating effect.
.
.
There is a heightening power m the Imes-

The rising tempm~t pnts in act t]ie sot11,
Parts it may ravage, Lut preserves the whole.

(2) For intensifying the Feelings.
' The news was a darHJer to his heart ' is a powcrf ul
met11phor, from the vividness of the idea, and the intensity
of the feeling aroused.
The virtuous poor are spoken of as 'God's nobility '-an
elevating, but over-strained comparison.
'To break,' for to disobey, the law, is an energetic figure,
and yet moderate.
•The town was stormed' is an attempt at giving intc1111ity
to the feeling, but is inadequate. The won] is n,cccptcd
as a literal name for the action intended ; other language
being needed to suggest the horrors of the reality.
For images of strength ancl endurance, we go to oar
tenacious metals and minerals,-iron, steel, bntRS, adn111a11L.
The Stoics were said by Adam Smith to clothe tho obtlura.&e
heart with triple steel.
The precious metals, gold, silver, are standing metnphoa
for value or worth : they can never lose their powor u

At 1ongth F.msmns
Stcuim'tl the wiltl torrent of n lmrl11mms ngo
And drove those holy Vandals off tho slngc.

. For a metaphor apt and also harm01~ious, we may
quote Plato's expression for tho elaboration of style' combing and curliny it '.
.
·
.
(3) For giving an agreeable Surpn.se. .
Chatham says-' The power of directmg. the local disposition of the army is the royal prerogative, the master
.feather in the eaale's wing'. This is an agreeable figur~, but
scarcely assists the understanding, or add.s ~o the. sentiment
of royal grandeur. It is ingenious an~ ori.gmal ; it re.fers us
to a conventional object of our admiration-the flight of
the eagle. A king could not derive elevation from an eagle;
nil he could get would be the maintenance of our respect by
nn allusion that is in itself somewhat elevated.
J un.ius improves on the figure of. Chatl~am, and r~nders
it a. still better example of the mgenmty that gives a
pleasurable surprise. ' The f ea.ther tha:t adm·ns the royal
bird supports his flight. Strip h1~ of his plumage, ~n.d you
fix him to the earth.' Not much is to be made of this m the
wo.y of explaining the sources of royal power, and the effect
upon the feelings is the same as before.
.
Again, 'In the shipwreck. of th~ state, trifles flo~t and
are preserved; while everythmg sohd and valuable smks to
Lhe bottom, ancl is lost for ever'.
•Assuredly, if the tree which Socrates planted a~d ~lato
watered is to be judged by its flowers and leaves, it is the
noblest of trees. But if we take the homely test of Bacon,
if we judge of the tree by its fruits, our opi~1i?n. of it !Bay
perlmps be less favourable.' . (Macaula~.) 'llns is entirely
fanciful. There is no standmg contrariety between flowers
and leaves on the one hand, and fruit on the other; as a

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162

~~1::er!~e

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

METAPHORS GIVING NAMES.

fruit follows on the abundance of leaves and

Of the same fanciful, though agreeable kind, is the often
repeated figure from Aaron's serpent-

t?kle hence
?ne master-passion in the breast,
Aarons serpent, swallows up the rest,
1

It is true, genera.Uy, that the sa.m . h
•
1
deyelop itse!f strongly in .many differe~1:adir: ~! :~nL~:
this comparison only serves to distort the f t B t 'ti
Pope 's view
·
· d'istorted already and the c ac · . u . 1011
is
suits him.
'
ornparison JUB~
'Earth is our mother, and bears us in he
. . .
foster-mother, a perennial fount of hope , r ¥ms' .m r is oudr
nothing more.
·
ngemous an
So Shelley-

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•
The dmdnl earth
That i~lai:id in the ocean of the w~rld,
Hung m its cloud of all-sustaining air.

Agreeable surprise is the justificaton of the following
metaphor from Pope.
T!iis light B!J~ darknc~s in our cliaos join'd
"ha t can d1v1dc 1 The God within the mi~d.

:r'he allusion is to the Mosaic account f
.
.
mtended to express the confusion of goo~ cr3at1~n! and II
nature, which can be separated onl b an ey1 m ma11'1
comparison of this faculty to 'the 0 / ~~h~ciet~ce. .r3~
sets forth also Pope's view of it as entitled t m l e mmall
others. There is little or no Ii ht add d
o ru e .over
we are pleased with the ingenu1ty of th to the ~UbJect, ~u'
bears application so fully.
e comparison, which
~he metaphor is of the same class, when
the tide-

b

the eternal flood
Slave to the motlier uf tlte montl,;,,

. .Many metaphors fail to serve any f tl
mdicated. . But an important oflico in oh 10 purpoeN
language still remains to be described.
t e ccouomy ol

2. The coining of Metaphors is a m .
f dd'
.
to our stock of names.
eans o a aog .
To procure names for the vast number of

163

lmman knowledge, many modes are resorted to: one is the
detection of resemblances.
. We have seen how extensively the names of parts of the
body are transferred to quite different subjects, and become
habitual designations: as the head of a family, of a state, of
a party, of a table. *
.
In order to express the feelings that we derive from a
work of Art, and at the same time our judgment of its
merits, the word ' taste ' is adopted from one of our five
sense~, and is the regularly understood name for that special
meamng.
So the words 'pulisli,' 'false notes,' 'ioann colours,' are
as valuable in their metaphorical applications as in their
original use. In such cases, we cease to consider the
relevancy or propriety of the transfer ; the meaning is
checked by the examples. We should not consider the
word ' false ' suitable to a note of music ; but, being
o.dopted for that use, it is understood accordingly .
All the simple prepositions-of, to, for, in, at, with- ·
originally referred to place and motion ; but they have been
extended by metaphor to other relations:-' honour to the
brave'.
The technical language of Anatomy is in great ·part
metaphorical :-pons varolii, hippocampus major, true skin,
laf1yrinth of the ear. It is the same with the language of
the common arts.
Metaphor is largely employed in expressing the more
. hidden operations of the mind. Thus, knowledge is light,
passion is fire, depression of spirits gloom; the thought struck
him. So we speak of a ray of hope, a shade of doubt, a flight
of fancy, a.fl.a.sh of wit, ebullitions of anger. All the names
• The following Is from Professor Whltney'e Life mul G1·oirth <>! Langungt, p. 86 :'Thus, not only a.n a.nimal has a. head , but also a pin, a cabbage. A bed ha.s one,
•here the head of itR occnpa.nt uRnally lies-1tnd it has a .foot for the same rel\Son,
~Id es the four fer.t It stands on hy a.nothor llgnro, n.1111 the Aix f eet it mon.A1trc11 by
Jct l\nother. More rema.rk1ihle still, a river has n. head : its highest point, nn.mcly,
where it head& among the highlands-am! so it has arm.& ; or, br, another flltllrei
fornnrh,~ • or, hy another, (ec<lers : or, by another, h ·ibuttUita: aml it has a ri11:ht a111
lcift 1(,1, '. n.1111 it hn.s a bf..t, in which, hy an nnfortnnato mixture of mQtltj1hors, It
rwn1 lnslm1l of lying Atlll; n.1111 thun, nt tho fl\rthu11t nxtn•rnlty from tho ll•1i1l, wo
llncl, not ltRfnot, bnt Its mouth. Fmthor, n.n army, a school, n. 1mct, hM its heml. A
tlM!! hae its head amt its tail; n.1111 so lm11 a coin, though in quite a different wn.y.
A 11ennon hn.s its hemla, ae divided hy their different hcmHng.• : and we can beg to
be 1parecl anything more "on tlm.t head". A sore comes to a head; amt so, by one
.Up further 11.way from literalness, a i;onspiracy or other disorder in the state, tl~e
' Wr polltlc doos the same. We give a horse his head1 which he had before our dona1
·, tlon; 11.nd then
we treat In the Aame way our pn.ss1ons-that ls to Ill\)', U by their
-' OTtrmasterlng violence we lose our heada.'

164

MIXED METAPHORS.

FIGURES OF srEECH-SIMILAmTY.

of mental operations were originally nppliccl to something
sensible : as perception, apprehension, eonception, rccollcc·
tion, deliberation, im~pirntion, imagination, sagacity (origin·
ally qu~ckness of smell), acuteness, penetration, emotion,
exprcss10n.
Many of these clerived terms have acquired a gren.tcr
prevalence in their transferrecl use than in their first nppli·
cn.tion : in which cn.se they cen.se to be thought of as fig111~
tive, and become, as it were, the literal names for the thini,'I
that they now chiefly represent. Such are melancholy
(black bile), edify (build), acuteness (sharpness), anlo11r
(heat), express (to press out), crush (bend), enhance (lift~
provide (see beforehand), detect (unroof), cynosure.
In these instances, the original meaning is no longrr
suggested to the mind. In other cases, the words are still
used in the primitive as well as in a figurative smHm, l\n•l
hence they continue to have a certain illustrntivo force of
similarity : as point, line, soli<l, height, breadth, <l<'pth.
smooth, rough, ha.rel, soft, dry, bitter, sweet, hot, coltl.
fire, light, dt1.rk, colour, clear, dim, harmony, <lisconl,
rest, motion, balance, stability, support, fountain, strenm.
ocean, root, s ~P-m , fruit, mountain, forest, :field, desert, lif~.
death, star, planet, comet, meteor, cloud, thunder, lead,
follow.
Examples of metaphors whose only merit is to fumi11b
terms. A<lam Smith's word Division, applied to labour, wa.e
wholly unsuited to his meaning: an actual case of division ol
labour woulu be for two persons to work at the same job, and
relieve each other. 'l'he grammatical designationR, ~n1'f!/
and w~ak verbs, are false metaphors, though furni11hinc
convement na1~ies. ' Idols,' as applied to fallacies, hns linS.
relevance, but is really an anglicised form of Bacon's i./o/"which was taken from Plato's use of d:ow>..ov for a 'phl\nloua•
of the mind. Bacon's designation of his classes of fallad~
as idola .tribt'is, 1'dvla spec·us, idola .fori, and iJola tlteatri, 8C"91
to furmsh names, but has little appropriateness iu &he
figures.
The following musical terms furnish ex1t111pleR of 1netan
phors without much fitness in themselve::i, but scn·iug eo ,
originate names; many of them have now prnctiC.UJ
dropped the figurative idea. Scale (properly a ladder), du•
matic (colouring), key, key-note; staff, stave; sharp. WJ ·. ·
movement (for a complete portion of a long compoaiLioa~ ,

165

In some' instances words are cmployccl n:s me.tn:phors in
meanings completely at variance with their onrmal use,
thereby causing conflict aml loss of power. 'Iho wor<ls
•Alloy,' 'Amalgam,' ' Fusion,' are notable exa!nples. An
Alloy, in chemistry and in the .arts, mea~s the m1xmg o.f two
or more metals, generally with the view of produc~ng a
compound superior in quality and _in usefulness to a s1myte
· metal. It is altogether a1~ cx~opt10n ~o malrn rtn alloy o . a
precious metal with some mfenor one m ord~r to palm off a
debased article. Yet this is the only meanmg attached to
the word in its metaphorical use. A~ain, an Amalgam
means solely the union of m~rcury ·with a~other metal.
The attraction of mercury for silver and gold is so powerful
r.s to be the principal means of separating t?os~ metals from
the ores. But the metaphorical Am~lga1~1 is simply a vague
name for intimate union or combmation, ~s when tw.o
separate societies are united into one. In this fact thero IS
no implication of any characteristic feature of the ~m~lga1;i,
as understood in science. Lastly, the. word Fusion m
physics means melting and no more. In its transference as
a metaphor, it signifies miJ:i11!J solely.
3. The brevity of the 1\fotaphor renders it liable
to the vice called Mixing 1\Iotaphors.
This arises when metaphors from different sources are
combined in the same subject : as 'to ki111!,le ~ seed'. \V.e
may sow a seed or kin~le a flame;. but kmdhng a seed lS
incon·gruous and confusmg to the mi~d. .
..
The following example from Addison lS familiar! bridle in my strngg1ing.mnse with pa~n
That longs to launch into o. bolder strain.

Thrco different figures are conjoined in o~e action,

.,
very ldnoe and centre of an immense system.
,.. •hinge' is out of place.
.
, .
. .
•All my pretty chickens and their dmn lS the m1xmg of
'wo metaphors.
.
A common inconoruity is to Rpeak of 'sr.enc.<1 bemg
' ,,., rtr.<l': a play or dr~ma is enactecl, and in the course of
1
.
.
' tho plity the scenes a~e slafte~l. .
•Mackintosh's philosophic mrncl th~·e~ n. lum.mou: ra~t­
ate over that intricate suuject, tho ornnmal co<lo : with
' •luminous radiance,' we should have 'dark' or 'obscure'
.. - applied to tho subject.
c 'l.'he

167

FIGURES OF SPEECil-SIMILARITY.

MIXED METAPHORS.

' Their reputation was not bounded by the .'lltallow waters
of the historic Tweed, or even by the then far greater width
of the Channel.' Here the obstruction is presented in two
different and inconsistent aspects.
• Physiology and psychology thus become uniLed, ancl
the study of man passes from the uncertain light of mere
opinion to the 1•egion of science.'
• The very recognition of these by the jurisprudence of I\
nation is a mortal wound to the very keci;slone upon which tho
whole vast arch of morality reposes.'

lions wl1at is n'cwc£l through a fog' (2). (Whately.) The harmony of
eaeh figure applied to the subject, is a feature in such finished writers as
Gray and Campbell. Compare, for examvle, the figures in the two
stanzas of the ' Elegy' beginning-

166

Thomson has this remarkable mixture of fignresStraight the fierce storrn involves his mind anew,
Flames through the nerves, and boils along the veins.
Shelley has this example in the Ode to the West Wind0, thou,
Who chariotest to their dark wintry bed
The winged seeds, where they lie cold and low,
Each like a corpse within its grave.
The following are from Keats, illustrating further the temlcncy lo
incongruity in writers that indulge in great profusion of similitudes.
With beaded bubblrs winking at the brimwith nfereuce to a "beaker " full of win~.
Into her dream he melted, as the rose
Blmdeth it,s odonr with the violet,Solution sweet.
. Here the figure of nwltin~ is intcrrnptcd hy a simile changing tho CODCf'f"
tion, and is resumc,l ngaiu in "solution sweet",
Slowly they sail, slowly as icy isle
Upon a calm sea drifting.
If an iceberg is described as an 'icy isle,' it should not be when It ..
conceived as ' drifting'.
Even Pope, usually correct in such points, ]ms the following renwk•
able mixture·
J,ove, hope arnl joy, fair pleasure's smiling train,
Hate, fear and grief, the fam ily of pain,
'These mixt with art, and to dne bounds confined,
l\lake and maintain the bnla.nce of tho mind ;
The b'ghts and shadr.s, whose well arconleil strife
Gives all the strength and colour of our life.
Each clause introduces a new conception, though the suhject i!I thei ....
throughout.
There is no ohjection to different metaphors being RuCCf'tl"inlt
ap111icd to the same subject, providl'd they arc kept distinct. Th• & ,
'They admire the profundity of what is mystical n111l oh!lcuro, ml•l•kblc ,: ·
the nntddiness of the water for depth (1 ), awl maanffyina in their h~

But knowlc•lge to their eyes her ample page-

or the six lines bcginningForbade to wade through slaughter to a throneor the lines Evon from the tomh the voice of nntmc11 cries,
Evon in om ashes Ii ve theil· wonted liro>i.

When words do not readily suggest. their metaphorical
ha.sis, the incongruity is not felt. In the line of YoungHer voice is but the sluulow of a sound,

the mixture is not objectionable.
SoA touch of shame upon her check.

In these instances, the metaphorical usage is so habitual
as to prevent the original meaning from asserting itself.
Somewhat similar is the case with the lines in Tennyson,
describing death asThc shadow cloaked from 11cnd to foot,
Who keeps tlie keys of all the creeds.

Ilere . lill1J term shadow. is employed to designate a. being
conceivecl as unsubstantml, yot dark ; and, with this application, there is nothing inharmonious in ascribing to the
'shadow ' the personal attributes of being cloaked and
keeping keys.
'!'here are, however, many wdrds that have ceased to be
met~phors, but still so far suggest their original meaning as
to give the sense of harmony when the figure is attended to.
1'hus, to say. • t~e imp1:ession was con11eye<l' is not in keeping,
although qmte mtelhg1ble. •Upon the style it is that these
ptr11fr•xi:tics depend for their illumination.'
. •Fetter' properly me~ns a cha.in or bond for the feet.
It IS often used for bonds m general; but has not so lost its
primary signification that we may speak, without inconsistency, of ' beneficial legislation that has struck the fetters
from the hands of industry '.
Bo in this instance: 'The decUne of the material comforts of the working classes had been incessant, and had

168

169

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILAilITY.

STRAINING OF METAPHORS.

now reached an alarming lim'ght.' 1 Decline' is often used
with little feeling of its metaphorical nature ; but its con·
junction with 'height' is realized as a discord.
'I1he metaphorical word ' point' cannot always be used
in harmony with its original sense. One of its meanings
is the same as subject-matter, or subject of discourse; a.11tl

Here we have both impropriety and straining. The tides
rise and fall twice every twenty-five hours; it is, therefore, a.
contradiction to speak of a man's experiencing only one
high tide in his life. Used for a. lucky or favourable conjuncture, the figure is wholly inappropriate. Then as to
the bearing on the voyage of life : to miss a tide is merely
half a day's delay in starting; while it can have nothi?S to
do with sailing in shallows, a mishap that wou_ld simply
imply the want of a. good. chart or othe~ eqmp~ent. o~
navigation. Lastly, the muon of 'shallows and •nusenes
is an example of mixing the metaphorical and the literal.
In the following instance from Pope, the first application
or the figure is appropriate, but the fitness is wanting in the
ia.st two lines.

we must often use such combinations as •embracing, enlo.rg•

ing upon, contesting, opening up, a point •-expressions
highly incongruous with the literal meaning. But tho
phrase 1 point of view' retains enough of its literal meaning
to render the following incongruous: ' Nothing coul<l bo
more one-sided than the point of view adopted by the writers';
' a more extended point of view'. So, ' to approach from a
standpoint' does not give the sense of harmony that is fel~
in the expression, ' to view from a standpoint',
The mixture of the metaphorical and the plain or litC>ml
is also objectionable. Dryden, speaking of the aids ho hncl
in his translations, says, ' I was sailing in a vast occnn
without other help than the pole-star of the ancients, an<l l/1e
rules of the French stage among the moderns '.

Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ;
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face,
We first endure, then pity, then embrace.

.. To a 'monster' we should certainly not be tempted to act
in this manner ; to express this aspect of vice we should
require some other comparison, such as the siren. The
figure of the 'monster' is unfitting after the second li~e.
So, in this other example from the same poet. HaVIng
11poken of man as 'a wild where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot,' he proceeds-

4. A Metaphor must not be strained.
By this is meant pursuing the figure into irrelovauL
details.
Young, speaking of old age, saysIt shoulil
Walk thoughtful on the silent, solemn shore
Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon :
And znit good works on board: and wait tlie wind
'l'ltat shortly blows its into worlds unknown.

In the two last lines, the feelings suggested are out of
keeping with what goes before. At first, an emotion or dl'<'p
solemnity is awakened; then the figure changes to lbe
prosaic and calculating operations of a sea-faring cutcrpriae.•
Take now the famous passageThere is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune•
Omitted, all the voya~e of their lifo
ls bounu in shallows auu in miseries.
""Lord Shaftesbury is sometimes guilty of p1mminl( Jiis ml't11phnni lne lw ' .,·
fond to nn uncommon degree of every 1lecomt10n of style, when he Im.~ on.-.. ata.W "
a figure which pleases him, he always Reems unwilling to di~t· ontlnuo tl11• ,.._,
Thus having represented soliloquy under the metaphor of a proper uwth•HI uf....,..
tion for an author, he pursues the figure through several page~. urult•r Rll thto ...._
of discharging crudities, throwing off froth am! scum, ho11ily opt•mtlun, .......
physic, curing indigestion, giving vent to choler, bile, llatulcncics anti tum~ . ..
at last the idea becomes nauseous anti disgusting." (ln:iny.)
.

Together let us bcn.t thi!! ample field,
Try what the open, what the covert yield I
The latent tracts, the giddy heights, explore
Of all who blindly creep, or sightless soar ;
Eye nature's walks, shqot folly as it flies,
And catch the manners living as they rise.

.

The Metaphor, in its simplest and most characteristic

"' fonn, begins and ends with a single word or phrase, as in
ml\ny of the instances abovo quoted. In many casm1, however, as has been seen, the idea is developed or expanded into
circumstantial details. It is only in such instances that the
fault of strni11ing the metaphor can be committed. It is,
however, in the Simile that the expansion of a figure into
numerous circumstances most naturally occurs, and, coneequently, where the special rules and precautions for
maintaining consistency are most applicable.

170

SIMILE.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

SIMILE.

1. The Simile consists in the forrn..i.l or avowcJ
comparison of one thing to another.
. 'As the stars, so shall thy seed be; ' 'he stoocl lilcl' a
giant.'
What _is only. ir!1plied in the Metaphor, is distinctly
expressed m the Sunile_. In general, this is done by mcl\ns
of a word of comparison, such as 'so,' •as,' 'like,' • rnsembles '. 13ut _su~h formal wo_rds are not necessary to tho
nature of the Snmle ; all that is essential is that both sides
of th~ cornparis~n. be distinctly expressed. Hence, the
followmg from Ch11Ue Harold is not a. metaphor but a
Simile.
·C> '·

.

--~·
<' )

·:)

·:._-~ ··,· !

·L+::
·•
t:•

!!e wl10 _a~cends to mountain-tops shall find
1 he loltie~t peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow i
He who surpasses or subdues mankind
Must look down on the hate of those belO\V,

Wha_tel_y observes that the Metaphor is to be prefomid
to the Snmle when the comparison is sufficiently easy to ho
under~tood. We should not express the comparison more
than is necessary, because people like to find out the
resemblance for themselves.
2. It is the nature of the Simile either to become

compli~ated in st_atement, or to be prolonged into

a -.

success10n _of pa1:twulars. Hence, as already remnrked. .
more cons1derat10n is necessary in order not to viola&e ·
the laws of Figures of Hesemblance generally.
, ~,
- The laws of Figures of Resemblance in genera.I haTI ,
been already fully exemplified. Many of the im•tn.uces WM9 ,
of the nature of the Simile, although not specially viewed ia ·
~hat ~h~racter. \Vhat. we have more particularly to exnrniot .
m S1m1les, as such, is the construction of the ln.ngu~
whe~her in on~ complicated comparison, or in n. succcu1oa
of different pomts of resemblance. In the briefer fonnt al
the figure, such criticism is dispensed with; in noticing th~ ,:
only the general principles of all Figures of Resemblance IMli&.
to be brought to bear.
·
The protracted Simile was fully developed in Ho
and has ever since entered into literary compoRiti
poetry and prose. In imitation of Homer, Virgil contin

171

the art. The greatest poets of modern times have been
composers of similes; among these, Dante, Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton are conspicuous.
The following are examples under the different heads.
(1) To the Understanding.
Uentham says:-' As in a fleet, the pace of the slowest
vessel, so in a class, the pace of the dullest scholar, is necessarily the pace of the whole'. A very apt Simile, but for the
circumstance that teachers are often compelled to leave the
dullest pupils behind. This is not a case of structural complexity.
''l'he advance of the public mind resembles the rising of
,
· the tide. B!tch Fmcccssivo w11vo rushes forw11r1l, hrc1tks,
and rolls back ; but the great flood is steadily coming up.'
'l'his is a relevant employment of the tide; all the particulars
,' • are apposite to the subject.
.,,..
''.l'he illusion that great men and great events came
o(tcner in early times than now, is partly due to historical
perspective. As, in a range of equidistant columns, the
f&rthest off look the.closest; so, the conspicuous objects of
'; the past seem more thickly clustered the more remote they
· are.' The comparison here is close throughout the details.
·
Again-' Good nature is the most precious gift of Heaven,
spreading itself like oil over the troubled sea of thought,
and keeping the mind smooth and equable in the roughest
•~ather'. (Washington Irving.) In the points specified,
a.be resemblance fully holds.
. :For illustrating the effects of iteration in spoken or
' written address, Whately gives the following :-' If a
IDltcrial is too stubborn to be speedily cleft, we may
patiently continue our efforts for a long time, in order to
' ICCOmplish it ; but this is to be done, not by making the
aacccssive blows fall more slowly, which would only enfeeble
&hem, but by often repeated blows',
· (2) To the Feelings.
for intensifying or heightening an emotional effect, as
lkronf!;th, Pathos, Humour, the simile is all the more
erful that it can be expanded by accumulation of
·is; while the metaphor must work by one stroke.
The brevity of the metaphor is seen in 'life's fitful/ever';
accumulated power of the simile is illustrated thus-'
J,i fc is as tedious as a twice-told tale,
Vc·xi11g tl10 dull Cltr of a drou'S1J 111an.

172

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

The circumstn.nccs of the second line 11ggrnvate ~rnl
heighten the sense of te<lium suggested by the twice·
tol<l talc.
.
h
·
vVith the multiplication of particulars, t e~e IS an
incren.se of the difficulties of arljustment. Sornctnncs tho
effect is overdone ; sometimes it rnis~es the mark; at other
times it confuses and distracts the mmd.
.
.
1 He stan<ls immovable, like a dead tree, wluch. neither
north nor south win<l shakes.' The 'dead tree' IS ~.very
suggestive picture of immovability, and tho a<l<liL1011al
circumstance adds to the efiect.
.
. .
Milton's similes applied to the hell-hounds m his picture
of Sin fail to produce loathing. While the linesNor uglier fo1low the night-ha~, when, call'd
In secret riding through the air she comes,
J,ur'd with tho smell of infant blood, to dance
With Lapla111l witches, while the laboul'iug moon
Eclipses at their charms-

are fine in composition, the circumstances do not Wt'O
conspire to his supposed purpose. rrhe. s~crecy of tho call
is suggestive: the riding through the air is a mere coll\:l'n•
tion : ' lur'd by the smell of infant blood' is the one homblt
circumstance, but it is not followed or suppor~ed by conesponding actio!l : t~e dancing with Lapland witches IK.'CIUI
an irrelevant d1vers1011.
Compare the powerful simile in Macbeth-pity, like a unkcll new-born babo,
Striding the Llast.

Here, the supera<lded circumstan~e is too grnnd . for tbt
subject of the simile : the pathetic anu the sublnuo pall
opposite ways.
.
lie
The simile, composed into an elabo~·ato. picture. ·
frequent in Tennyson. Guinevere's supphcat.10us, bn>Ua
by tears, are compared to a stream that-

SIMILES OF SURJ'nISFJ.

173

when, storm-ricldcn, it thunders in against you with foam
n.n<l fury like a wild beast, thttn is the smiling, prosperous,

civilized man, restrained by a thousand invisible fetters,
who has not known real hunger for years, from the same
man when he has starved and fought and bled, been alternately frozen and burnt up, arnl when his life, in fact, has
become one mad, blin<liug contest with all aroun<l him.'
1'he resemblance between the two situations figured goes
I certain way, but is not entirely sittisfactory; a stormy
.en. nnd a man rendered desperate by misory <lo not suHi, cicntly harmonize.
(3) Agreeable surpris~.
'l'his is an exceedingly numerous cln.ss. ' Princes,' says
Pacon, 'are like to heavenly bodies, which cause good or evil
. limes, and which have much veneration but no rest.' This
ooi11g said in the days of Astrology, the resemblance holds
•ell throughout. Yet it scarcely contributes anything to our
knowledge of princes; it might be said to heighten our
eentiment town.rJs them by a lofty comparison, but this is
prernnted by the consciousness of exaggeration. Still, it is
"" ; agreeable, from the ingenuity and unexpectedness of the
comparison ; and this particular effect is not diminished,
buL rnther increased, by the loftiness of the subject adduced.
'l'he Miltonic similes rarely affect eibhor the understanding or the feelings simply. To appreciate their worth, we
lnust exami110 tlinm uncfor tlio third form, which 1t<l111itR
&hat ngrecablo piny of tho inmgi11aLi0n rnoro m~pccially
• , + ~ntified with Poetry, subject however to the poetic con.· '1io11s of concreteness and harmony.
· So.tan, in his indignation at being menaced by Death-

-spouting from B cliff,
Falh in mid-air; but, gathcriu~ at tho lm110,
Re-makes itself, nml llashcs tlowu tho vulo.

We have here picturesqueness, in tho first iustnnc", &Dill
certain illustrative resemblance next.
The following is from Helps.
ii · ·
'Not more different the sea, when some mulimm.., ·
morning it comes, with its crisp, delicate, little WI\\'~,.._ ·.
ling up to your feet, like your own clog-n.1111 tho wne

-like a comet bum'd,
That fires the length of Ophiuchus hngc
In .the arctic sky, and from his horriu hair
Shakes pestilence anu war.

We rnn call this nothing but a grouping of grnnd and
t.niblo imagery, its hon.ring on tho stn.to of Sn.t:tn's rnincl
' _ 'ng q11ito u11thi11lmblo. So with tho comparison thnt
Wlow~, when tho two mighty personations were on the eve
;eh hostile encounter, and frowned at each other-as when two black clomls,
With heaven's artillery frnught, come rntt.ling on
Over I.he Caspian,-thcn stand front to front
Ilm·crin~ u spaco, till wimls tho signl\l Llow
'fu joii• their uark encounter in mitl-air.
9

SIMILE.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

174

The splendid Shakespeare passage-the Seven Agesprofesses to be set in the. similitude of. the Stage, but tl~erc
is little attempt to sustam the comparison; the n~ost sah?nt
points of a dramatic performance, such as the mteract10n
of characters and the showy display, not b~ing ma<~e
prominent. A grander use of the resemblance is fouu<l m
Cowper's lines, though more of the nature of metaphor.
While God perfo1·ms upon the trembling stage
Of his own works his dreadful part alone.

Yet a sinctle actor does not make a play.
'

0

These Sin1iles of fancy are abundant in Keats. For cxamploA'f! when, upon a tranced summer night,
Those green-robed senators of mighty woo1ls,
Tall oaks branch-charmed by the earnest stars,
Dream, a~ul so dream all night without a stir,
Save from one gradual s~litary gust .
'Which comes upon the silence, and dies off,
As if the ebbing air had but one wave;
So came thcso words and went.
The i11ca to be c:xprcsse<l is merely that a long deep Rilenr.e '~'M h~oha
only by one ntternuce; but occasion is ta~en to pre~eut a ~.1.-t111d p1duf9
intemled to be pleasing in itself. So, agam, the deleated btans are tl11&1
tleseril.iedScarce i11;n"es of lifo, one here, one there,
Lay vast a~d edgeways ; like a dismal cin1ue
Of Druid stones, upon a forlorn moor,
·when th e chill rain be,,ins at shut of eYe,
In 1lnll N ovemher aml°their chancel vault,
The heaven itself,' is blinded thronghout night.
There is 'here no help to the understall'ling; ~ml, while there jq •Ml-mony of feeling between the simile and the t~1111gd compa~c<l, th" mala .
pmpose is evidently the pleasure of the companson antl the mtcrcst of &iii
picture.
• • ·1 · - - ' - •..,
'1.'o the same class must be referred Wordswort1ls s1m1 o m nll..,._ ""
to the skylarkIfappy, happy lh·er,
. .
'W ith a soul as strong as a mountam nver.
'fake the following series of similes in "Tam o' Shanter "But pleasures are like. poppies srread,
You seize the flower, its bloom is shed I
Or like the snowfall in the river,
A moment white-then melts for ever;
Or like the borcalis race,
That tlit ere you can point their place;
Or like the rainbow's lovely form,
Evanishing amid the stor;n.
Clearly so many similes were not needed either to cxprcs!l or lo
the idea that pleasure is transitory; yet they serve their pnq>O.'le 11
in affecting the fancy.

175

PRO.MISCUOUS EXAMPLES.
.•/>'

The followinM occurs in a seventeenth century writer:-' Man is like
a book; his birth is the Title-Page of the book; his baptism is the Epistle
Dedicatory ; his groans and crying are the Epi,tle to the Reader ; his
infancy and chiltlhood are the Argument or Coutents _of the whole ensuinu
treatise; his life aml actions are the subject or matter of the book; hi~
sins a?cl errors of h~s life are the .Errata, or faults escaped in the printing;
and his r~pentance is the C?r~ect10n of them,• &c., &c. 'l'his may be taken
u & typical example of smules that are utterly useless. It throws no
lii<ht _on the subject ; it rouses no appropriate emotion ; and, as the
rC11emblances traced are forced and artificial, it does not afford the pleasure
or agreeable surprise. W c may compare it with the following from Dr.
Channing:-' Every man is a volume, if you know how 'to read him'.
Here the metaphor, being .confine~ to 01!e suital.lle aspect of the compari·
aon, expresses the thought m question with brevity and force,
Consider now this simile from Shelley·
There was a woman, beautiful as morning,
Sitting beneath the rocks, upon the sand
Of the waste sea ;
•
•
•
•
.
•
•
•
on the bare strand
Upon the sea-mark a small boat <li1l wait,
}'air as herself, like Love by Hope left desolcite.
Obviously t~is is a sim~le either of. ele".ation ~r of agreeable surprise. On
the former mterpretat1011, the ohJect ts to raise our sense of the desolate
state of t_he wo:11nn by comparing. her to Love_, when Hope has entirely
forsaken it. J,ut, 1111 tlw co11qutnso11 stiuulH, 1t docH not work up thiH
impression. We _have first a concrete pictm:e o~ the "'.0!1111n-h~nutiful
and desolate ; and here we have added to it, for add1t10nal eflect an
1L8.tract conception, lVhic~1, moreove1·, is not sufficiently expanded t~ be
ra~1ly .grasped.
As a sinnle of agreeable surprise, it is liable to the same
obJccbon ; the comparison, though fitting and fresh is not readily felt
The simile in the Agamemnon of .Mschylus, to s~t forth the disastr~us
.earcer of Helen of Troy, may be examined as an effective instance of the
lawa of the Simile in particular.*
'
.
In the Ion of Plato, there is a famous simile drawn from the magnet.
'!h~n. a magnet suspends a succession of rings, the attractive force
· d1n11.msl.1es at each remove.. Plato uses this to illustrate the divine
lupu·ation of the poet, who imparts what he has received to his auditors.

* Whoso nurseth the cub of n. lion
Weaned from the dugs of its dam 1 where the draught
Of its mountain-milk Wl\8 free
Finds it gentle at first and tame. '
It frisks with the children in innocent game
And the old man smiles to see ·
'
It I~ dnndlml ahont like a babe in the nnn,
It hcketh the lmml thn.t fears no h:trm,
And when lnmitor pinches its fretful waw
It fawns with an eager glee.
'
But I~ grows with the yen.rs; and soon reveals
1 he fount of fierceness whence it en.me·
And, loathing the food of the ta.me
·
It roams abroad, and feasts in the fold'
On feasts forbidden, and stains tho llo~r.

)

176

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILAIUTY.
ALLEGORY.

By each successive comnrnnication of sp:ritnal or intellectual stimulu-,
the original inspiration becomes weaker at.d weaker.
Thet·e is a well-sustaiiHotl a111l elfodive parallelism for heightening tho
feelings in the following fro111 A(lam Smith:.
'As, in the aueic1\t hcathc11 religion, that holy ground wl1ich l1n•I
been consecrated to some gotl was not to be trod upon but npon solP11111
and n eces~ary occasions, and the lllan who hall even ignorantly violated iL
became p11tc11lnr from that moment, aml, until }ll'Oper atonement shoulol
bo matle, incnrrcJ the ve11gca11 co of tlmt 11oworl11l 111111 i11visihl11 l1cing lo
whom it hacl been set apart ; so by the wisdom of Na tu re, the happi111·~
of every innocent man is in the same manner rendered holy, consccmt01I,
and h edged ronml against the approach of every other man; not to be
wantonly trod npon, not even to Le, in any respect, ignomntly 111111
involuntarily violated, without requiring some expiation, some aton~
ment in proportion to the grnatness of such undesigned violation.'

the Pharisee and the Publican, and the Rich Man and
IJa7.ar~1s. '.l'hese ?'re fictitious examples, intended for instruction or warnmg, and do not contain the two distinct
meanings-the literal and the figurative--that characterise
~he Allegory. The only definition applica.ble to all parables
ts that they consist of a fictitious story intended to enforce
Bomo morn.l or religious lesson.
. . '.l'he li'able also contains a short story with a moral; but
, it. 1~ no~ so often. allegorical as the Parable. It is further
· d1s~mgms.hed by its frequent use of the lower animals and
then· habits, a:nd by its application to lower subjects ; while
the Parable is mostly confined to the higher lessons of
lllorality ancl religion.

ALLEGORY.

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In tlie Allegory, there is great variety in the extent of the resemhlance
to11ght between the story and the subject it illnstl'atcs. At the one
txtrc•:rn•, we have such as .Buny~n's works1 th~ Vision of '.Mirza, and many
of the Gospel parables, m winch the aun ts to rnako the two veins of
lbon7ht .run parallel throughout; at the other, such as the Faery Queen
• Uulhver, wh ere the conespondcnce is but general and minute
"9emh.l1mccs a!·c only occ~sionaJ. I!1 the first class, the sul~ect to be illuslratc(l ts the prnnary cons1tlcrat10n; m the sccon<l, the interest of the story.

1. When a comparison is protracted and sustained
through numerous details, it is named an Allegory. ·
Allegories on the great sicale are exemplified by 8peni;er'1
Faery Queen, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, and Swift's 'l'1uo
of a Tub and Gulliver. In these a whole series of advcnturca
is sust~ined with a double meaning.
Spenser's Faery Queen is allegorical throughout: tho
virtues and vices being personified; and made to act ou&
their nature, in a series of supposed adventures. In tho
Pilgrim's Progress the spiritual life or progress of the ,;
Christian is represented at length by the story of a pilwim .ilJ.
in search of a distant country, which he reaches n.fter many .
struggles and difficulties. Swift's Tale of a Tnh i1t an
Allegory, wherein the divisions of Christianity (Catholitt, ,o
Lutheran and Calvinistic) are satirized un1ll'r W.
adventures of three brothers. So, in tho Trn.vd1 of
Gulliver, the vices of politicians are ridiculed by being ttl•
emplified in communities made up of imaginary heinp '
(Lilliputians or dwarfs, Brobdignagians or gin.uts, Jlouybohmns, Yahoos).
'l'he short Allegory is frequent in literaturn.
,
Spectator, we bave the Vision of Mirza, No. 15U; Lu1U1J "
and Avarice, 55; Truth, Falsehood and :Fiction, '11.)0.
The Parable is mostly a short Allegory. Sueh n"' l!lia
Sower, the Lost Sheep, the Prodigal Son, the 'l'en Vi~
the Two Debtors, &c. But there are also Parn.hlcs tha& . .
not come under this description, such as the good Samari

177

'l'he symbolizing of the courAe of hmnan history by
means of a river is 0. simile protracted to the point of

&llc~ory.

Helps conducts the figure as follows. , , ''l'he course '?f history is like that of a great river wander'. mg through va:r10u.s countries ; now, in the infancy of its
' turrc11t, collectmg its waters from obscure small springs in
~. plashy meadows, and from unconsidered rivulets which the
· neighbouring rustics do not know the names of · now in its
'
' now,
· bo'l8t~rous ~outh, f'?rcing. its way through mountains;
ia m1th~le life, flowmg with equable current busily by great
'. '&own~, it~ waters sullied, yet enriched, with commerce; and
., IOw, 1~ its burdene~ old age, making its slow and difficult
.way w1t!1 .an ever-widening expanse of waters, over which
1 ~0:
1~eclmm~ sun looms grandly, to the sea.'
· ~ 'lho ments of s~ch ~ ~omparison have to be judged in
.•:'. ~ sn.mo way as with smules. If it is to be viewed as an
~".-i· .to the understanding, the question is how far it
· ~1lttn.tes our comprehension of the progress of human
~orr. In otl.wr words, is .there a distinct phase of
- ~~cal .evolut10n correspondrng to every one of these
l1?1~s m the course of a river, and rendered more
lhg1blo by tho comparison ? J>ropcrly Rpon.kiug, this is
. .

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178

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179

FIGURES OF SPEECH--SIMILARITY.

THE PILGRBt'S PUOGRESS.

a que~tion for .an h~storia~1 to answer ; yet a very slight
acquamtance with 111story is sufficient to show the absence
of any such illustrative force as a simile to the understand·
ing requires.
·
~'here is the ~ame ~eficiency of influence on the feelinwi,
considered as he1ghtenmg our impression of the grandeur of
the stream of human history. We must, therefore fall
b~ck on th~ third effect o~ ~imilit!-1des-agreeable sur{)rise,
with or without harmo~1;z~ng. circumstances, felicitously
c~osen and expressed. llus 1s perhaps what the author
aimed at, and has succeeded in realizing.
In Mr. M. Arnold's 'River of Time' the same theme pnssl't
~eyond the bounds of the si1~1ile to become an Allegory. h
impresses a moral lesson ~n the manner of the typical
examples of th.e figure. It 1s open to the same question u
~efore :. What 1s the value of the allegory, with reference to
1t.s subject, namely, the portraying of the mind of nurn AL
d1ffere_n t stages of historic~! development? vVe may look
up~n it as the repre~ei?~at10n of an. ideal man, having a
!a1.ge na.tural suscept1b1hty to the picture of his surround·
1~gs, as if a Wordsworth had been present at every stngo ol
lustory. The earliest man is given thus-

' Order is a lovely nymph, the child of Beauty and
Wisdom ; her ~ attendant:'! are Comfort, Neatness and
Activity ; her abode is the Valley of Happiness; she is
always to be found when sought for, and never appears so
lovely as when contrasted with her opponent-Disorder.'
It cannot be affirmed that any aid is given to the understanding by this mode of expression, nor is there enough of
independent interest to rouse our feeling. The resemblance
is artificial, requiring more effort to follow it than a simple
description would do, while no compensating advantage is
offered.
Take another instance, from Swift.
The malignant deity Criticism 'dwelt on the top of a
enowy mountain in Nova Zembla: there Momus found her
extended in her den upon the spoils of numberless volumes
half-devoured. At her right hand sat Ignorance, her father
and husband, blind with age; at her left, Pride, her mother,
dressing her up in the scraps of paper herself had torn.
1'here was Opinion, her sister, light of foot, hoodwinked,
and headstrong, yet giddy and perpetually turning. About
her played her children, Noise and Impudence, Dulness
and Vanity, Positiveness, Pedantry, and Ill Manners.'
Here the resemblance is sufficiently close to be easily
grasped in all its particulars. 'l'he picture drawn is such as
to rouse our feelings; while it is often an advantage to have
1uch emotions as anger and scorn applied to their objects

Ilrimming with '".on<lcr and joy,
He spreads out lns arms to the ligl1t
Rivets his gaze on the bank of the stream.

This would not be the state of any n.ctual rnnn, liviui
iu~rectly.
near the commencement of the human race. ~lorcov£'r i&
is difficult to sa.y what literal fact or situation is inlemied
A more detailed review of the l'il(Jrim's I'rn(Jrcs.~, as the most famous
to be bodied fo~·th. Ther~ is throughout the piece a wanl
or allrgories, will illustrate on the larger scale both the advantages and
of clear separat~on of the literal scenery of a ri vcr from lbt
&be disadvantages of this literary device.
The Pilgrim's Progress is based on the conception of the Christian's
actual facts of h1~tory .. The second stanza is a vivid pirtnN
life &-'I a ,iourney to the promisc<l 1111111, like Israel's journey to Canaan.
of how a susceptible mmd would be affected at three diffflflo
The goal in view here is 'the Celestial City' ; and the aim is to represent,
ent points of the course of an actual river· but thcro i• no
by the changing fortunes of the pilgrims on the journey thither, the
indication of par~llel yosition.s in the hist~ry of tho ~orW
Yarying phases of the Chl'istian life. Thus, the setting out is represented
by the Wicket Gato : the helps and encouragements aro given nuder such
suc~1 as to. receive illustrat10n from the picturn. ')'be
• lomis aii tho Interpreter's House, tho Honse Beautiful, the Delectable
feelmgs a~s1gned to 'Hebekah, as comparc<l with n. f,.rirl bl
Mountnins, the Land Beulah, the Christian's armour, the guillance of
our o'\n tune, have scarcely enough of plausibility to RIJ«i .
(;,·r11thcnrt, the pilgrim's Holl: the difficulties and trials appear in the
u1s. The case of . ~[oses, an inspired man, iR dilTl•ttat..
lllouJth of Despond, the Hill Dilliculty, the fight ·with Apollyon, the
\'11l1•y of the Sha<low of Death, Vanity Fair, and the River of Death:
'Ihrot~gh the. rem.ammg stanzas, there iH a prc<lo111i11n11~ G( · ·"•
the hte~al s~tuat10n of cro,~<le<l cities by the bnnk11 ol a ''." _1'. S.n1('tntions ancl the comcqncnces of yielding to them arc pictured in the
lmci1lcnts of Worldly Wiseman, Christian's sleep in the Arbour and loss of
strea~, it bemg a fact that cities are usually foun<l on ri• .
"9 Roll, the pilgrims walking in Bypath M.eaclow and their consequent
margms.
' llarri110nment in Doubting Castle. 1\loroover, these various circumstances
'l'ake now the following example from .T olmson.
lh f('prescutcd in thcil' influence over various characters-as Christian,

180

FIGUltES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

THE PILGRIM'S

J<'aithful n.nrl Hoj1efnl,-nn<l still more in Pait Second of tl1e Allr~orr;
while opportunity i~ also taken to portray a grnat variety of rai~
J•ilgrims mulct· such tlc1>ig11atiow1 a..ci Pliable, Fonualbt a111l liypoeri~y,
JJy- emls, Demas, Jg11om11cc :t!Hl Talkative.
We may now iw1uirc what are the advantages of this form of rc11ntscntation.
r (1) Thero is the indirectness of tlrn communication. The instrnctioll
docs no~ ,lie on tho smf'nco ; .tho story works by way ol'.s1tgycslfrc11~ss.J
(2) l ho conc1•oto 1t11d ol•Joctlve turu of the nari·ntivo mrikee 1t mu,.h
more impressive. CAhstrnct doctrines are set forth under concrete form•
of ll:tITati ve that m·e easily grasped.\ 'l'he theological doctrine of conn1'llion
is put mulcr the guise of a man, wl{o, after many ditricultics, cutt>rs on the
J•ilgrim's way through a ua.rrow gate; and the JJivi11c Spirit's r11liglil«'ni11~
inllnenco is 11icturcd by tho instruction received . in tho 111t1·q•n·IC>t•
House. So the inward cxpcricuce of the Christian is rcprcsrnt•·•I 117
familiar comparisons; snch as t emptations by the fight with Apollyon,
rnlax:itiou of watchfuhrnss hy sl ecpi11g on the Hill Dillicnlty, trausgn.,,•ioa
and its consc11uenccs hy st.•ppiug off the way iuto the s111ootl1t•r ~rouDJ
of Bypath Mctulow, wl1idt leads to imprisonnient in Doubti11g C11~tl1'.
(3) By means of the protracted narrative, scope is a.11'onlP1l for H
independent human intnrest in tho characters, and for a plot intl'rrst in ti..
l'ltory. Bunya.n's charncters, though typical, arc not mere p1•rsu11iti ..I
virtue!'! a.ml \·ices, lrnt genuine llcsh-aud-ulootl men allll wo111c11 ; so tl1al
the reader follows their fates with an interest apart from the lesson~ tl1•7
suggest. At the sa.111e time, the whole story is knit togctht•r l>y the
of a pilgrimage, and there is an interest in tracing its lin~~1 issue.
,- We may say, then, that the ohjcct of th1: All egory is not so mnrh to
aid tho Understanding, although it may have that effect, as to h.-iglit••
the Feelings antl impart l'lcasuraLlc Surprise. J
Since, then, it appears that, when this lignre is canic1l out on '.l l•f'l':'I
scale, there arc two distinct e11ds kept in view-tho iuturest of tlu• 1t11tf
in itself, and it'I use a8 a. 111ca11A of co11veyi11g trnth, t.l1es11 two l'llfJ._•
may often ho antn.go11isti c. If the story is so shape•! as to corrr•t~
closely with the tlocti-ines to be expressed, it is in da11ger of lo i111( ii.
intlepcndcut interest ; while, if its form is chielly <lctcr111iiH"•I l•y •w
lower interest of the story, it tcntls to lose its power as a n·hio·lr fur ,.,.
pressing truth. Tho same dangt!rs appear more or less in nil ~i111ilitia.t..._,
as may have liccn seen ; but the le11gth of the Allegory vastly inl1~
the dillicnlty of h1ila.11cing these opposite aims.
Bunyan has, in the Pilgrim's Progress, rcconcile<l these purr•nn almui;t uuparalld c<l success. Tho interest of the story i~ fully sru:.
tainctl hoth in the itH'i1lt>11ts a111l in the characters, so much sn tlut ,.,.
great multitmle mail it for this i11tercst a.lone." S1ll'h s1·1·111·11 a.• I~
deseribi11g tlw fate of I.h e pilgri111s i11 Va11ity Fair, tl111 Fight wit 11 A1••111-..i. • ·
th e Land of Beulah, tlu! )':tssago ovc:r thn ltivc:r, :uul tl11! tlt>s1·ril'ti1111 ol , ..
Celestial City, may bn taken as exa111plcs. On the othrr hn11•I, lh1•7'tllll ..,,
never loses sight of his primary cud ; aml the a.l lego1ry is 1m t ·o11•tr~ ~
that the tho11ght ran g1!1wrally he com111·1!hl'11dc1l wil.li1111t <lillit:ulty,
the relevance of the co111l'ari su11 i~ rc111a1 kaLly s11slai11c11.

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*Among its literary cl1am.r.tcri!ltic!I, l\rr. Rrown !lpcrillc!t 1111 f~
!!pontaneity, itH dramatic unity (in this contmstin~ it with 7'/,,
the rapidity aiul power with· which itg characters am 1lmwn, nml It•
·
..
humaneness without coarsc1u>s8. 8co Julm 1Ju11yct11: /Ji• LiJl', l"i11u1, a~ r ..... .
John Brown, ll.A., pp. 2!!:.!-2\l!l.

rnommss.

181

The sncccss of Rnnyn.n in reconciling these largely contradictory aims,

my be seen hy co111pari11g tho Pilgrim's l'roym~.q with Spc_nscl''s Fricr11
Qv1,cn or Tennyson's Idylls of the K i nq. Speuscr's deeper ideas appear

ealy occasionally ; and Tennyson's und erlying pnrpo~e was not. J•~rceh•cd
1ntil specially pointed out. In both these ca~es, it is the poetic mterest
lhat rules the whole. On the other hand, we may find nn example of an
allrgory closely fitte(l to tlie doctrines to be expressed, but devoid of
iltcre8t and naturalness, in Bunyan's own Holy 1-Var.
.
Tho diffict\ltioe may bo illustrated by tho fact that even Bunyan l1aa
~overcome them all.
·
Thus, (1) there are inconsistencies in the allegorical representation.
for example it is often laitl down that every i1ilgrim is required to enter
'f the \V iekct Gate ; yet II opdul start.s from Va.uity :Fair, in comp~ny
'1th Christian, without doing so. Rleep is used in two scnsrs; hemg
ltlllrtimcs forbidden, as on the Hill J>ifiiculty and in the :Enclmn~c<l
Crou111l, at other times pcrmittctl, as in the M cad ow hy tho Water of Life.
""9o1:s appl:!o.r on tho way that, accor1li11g to the gnuernl itl.ca of the story,
ikultl be pi Iirri ms, yet arc uut so ; such as thoso Ill tho II 01180
lltaulifnl a11tt'"'the Shepherds on the Deledn1'lo 1'lo1111tains. Tho e11<l of
die pilw.-\mn~c is repl'csrntetl as leading through a River, which, it is
6.tinctly said, none can escape ; yet :Faithful, when martyred, goes
Drongh the air 'the nearest way to the Celestial City' -a way not otherrecognized.
(2) 'l'he allegorical form is sometimes dropped altogetl10r.
This
emirs chiefly in the converRation of the pilgrims, either among thcmel,ra or with others, which often includes discussions on doctrines or
•lirs that are literally expressed.
Probably Bunyan felt tl1at to
Mintain the form of allegory in these cases would be too artificial, as
..,. he seen in the Holy 1-Var; yet the introduction of these theological
.,«'rsations involves a certain mca.snro of incongrnity.
Tho narrative sometimes coutaiw1 mnmtnml or improhahlo
'-" 1•11Lq nrnl irnpcrfoct rcscrnhla.nccs. Christ.ian's 111ml1·11, for ex11111plr.,
"l'fl'tcsc11tctl as coming from the l'Catling of a book; which is intclligililo
iuhc interpretation, but unnatural iu tho story. 'l'he Hot~sc Beautiful is
..,.nt for t.ho church, but appears only as a place that gives temporary
.w ,;ng to the pilgrims.
.
\j) Thrro arc comparisons of little use in themselves, or cn.n·10d out
..... IJN••lll'ss dnta.ils: as for cx1i111plc, the story of tho 'lrtattcn•r,'
1W..-k 111an in white raiment, who met with tho pilgrims whore tho path
~I to branch into two, and led them tho wrong way ; until, when
""1 fnl'rs were turnc<l awav from tho Celestial City, arnl they were
.W.gl1·•l in a. net, his raiment foll off him, allll they saw whm:<>. tlwy
....._ Tho 111ca.11i11« i11tr.11dcd is ohscmo; a1ul the effcct.s of followrng tho
b.ltrl"f'r nro not s'IH)('ially ap)'ropriatc to any form of flnttrry. So, in
".. kontl l'nrt, the attack of' Uiant .Mani,' who camo out of tho t'~Wll
··wr ro1~ n111l l'ngan, seems wanting in dcliniteness of mr1mi11g, or at h•nst
c&r.r indication of its purpose. N ee1llcss detail is occasionally illnstra.tcd
U.t &•co111l l'art of tho Pilgrim's Proyrcss, Lnt most fully in tho Holy

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'Tbl'!IO examples will sl10w the difficulty, or rather impossibility, of
-.i.ining tho two sides of the Allegory through a long cornpositit•ll.
' Ille othrr ha1111, it woultl ho easy to dtc n11y 11u111hcr of co111pariso11s
. II& are both interesting as a part of the story anti at the same ti1110

182

SYNECDOCHE.

FIGUHES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

lmppily express or suggest the meaning intcml ccl ; t11c failures l1~i11r, ,..,
exception, not the r11l 11. It will be enough to mention the 8l1111l(h el
Despond with its different effects on Christian aml Pliahle ; tl1t II.ii
Dillicnlty, with the Chrif>tian's way leading straight over it, thr !1·1111>tt'C
false 11aths that Rf'lHll 0 11 ly to go ro11111l its base but really )Pad n~tr11~· .....
it8 arhom i11 tC'1Hlcd for rest lint tcmvting to sleep; the Hous<' .lltaull~
ilhrntrati11g the nature atHl mlvantages of church fcllowsl11p ~o aW
Christian (though liable to the unavoidable objection 11lrcudy llll'llh<>.,... li .
Vanity Fair, showing the attitmle of tho worldly aud frivo~ous to..,... .·
the \iilgrims ; and the whole story of Bypath Mca1low and Gu\llt 1~·
In t 1csc and such lik e ca~cs, the signifieanec extends into minute dt~ ,
without interfering with the interest of the story.

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The All<'gori es of Swift rank among the first in the pow<'r of inYP~I...
applie1l to sustain the consi:;tcncy of Resemblance through the 111uh1~
d etails of a lcngthc11cd story.

On the whole, the Allegorv mn.y be looked upon RI ta.
extreme development of the Simile in its co11trnst with lbt
typical Metaphor. 'l'he criticism in both cases co11siHt!!, noU•
much in examining the propriety of one grand rcscmhl..,.
according to the laws of Similitudes in general, althou~h ~ .
also is requisite, as in estimating the amount o( kce~ '
and consistency in numerous details.

183

(2) The opemtion of specifying finds its extreme
form in namiug an exemplary Individual.
As a Solmnon (wisdom); a Ormsus (wealth); a Jezebel
an Abigail; Tom, Dick and Harry (for people taken promis~
cuously) ; 'some vilhige Hampden' ; ' doubting Thomases or
careless Gallios' ; ' a Daniel come to judgment '.
1.'he same principle is applied to actions as well as to
: persons, a single conspicuous instance being named as
·.. &ypical. Thus : ' to cross the Rubicon' ; ' to roll the stone
' of Sisyphus ' ; ' incidit in Scyllam qui vnlt vitare Cltarybdin' ,·
'ho will never set the Thames on fire '; ' Othello's
occupation's gone'; 'a Judas' kiss'.
If plagues or earthquakes break not heaven's design,
Why then a Borgia or a Catiline 1 (Pope.)
Smooth Jacob still robs homely Esau. (13rowning.)
H e's Judas to a tittle, that man is. (Id.)
!~1 referen?e to the comparative antiquity of the three
English relatives, lVho, Which and That, Prof. Masson
•ys: "That was the real Saturn of the genealogy" .

(3) .The Synecdoche comprises the opposite process

-puttmg the Genus for the 8pccics : a 'Vessel for a ship .
This is an· exceptional form, and owes its effect to inciREMAINING SIMILITUDES.
cltntl\l ~ircumst~nces. The general name nrny happen to be
1U~ost1v~ o~ p1ctu.resque; .as a measure for a da.uce, liquor
1. The name ' Synecdoche' is applicc1 to tli«••Alll ·
lor mtox1catmg drmk, soldier for general, the working-man
:Figures. Some of these come under 8i111ilarity.
lor the artizan class, action for battle, company for co-part(1) Putting the Species for the Genus; ns l1rtrtJ k ·: .~ lerBhip, a good figure for a handsome person.
the uecessaries of life generally ; cut-throat fur Ill~
:Frequently the purpose is to attain the effect called
or assassin ; snms for Arithmetic.
~ Euphemism ; that is, the suggestion of what, for reasons of
, tlehcncy, we avoiu expressing more distinctly. This is
The force of this figure depends on the snpC'rior
CIO!nmo11ly best secured hy naming only the class, tho context
as regards both the Understanding and the Fcelinb""·-of ... .
'., ""ng n.llowed to suggest the special idea intended. Thus
Special and the Concrete over the General arnl tho Ab.and..
Food is general ; bread is particular, arnl u10ro ,...... • ' lor dead we say 'deceased,' 'departed' 'removed'
I.IIen as l ecp, I 'gone to ~est,' 'if
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anythrng
should
happen'.I
·calls up a distinct object to the mind.
.· So. 'the e~1emy of mankm<l ' for Satan ; ' to stop payment'
A lady's allowance for dress is pin money. 'Jn.:
_ b becommg bankrupt ; ' elevated' for drunk; 'plain ' for
here a slight touch of Irony.
; llgty; 1 stout' for fat; 'deranged ' for insane.
For the general name kill, it iR mrnal to flpccify
mode of putting to death-shoot, knock on tliu h~
,
{-1) 'ro pnt the Concrete for the Abstract is in
to the sword, behead.
· ~~d~nce with ~he general principle : ' kept the fool
Swift, to throw contempt and opprohrimn upon W
,Wllhm, for restramed his folly.
Irish coinage, calls his copper money l111~l-prurl',
Fierce in hii:i eye the fire of valour burns,
The epoch of perfection of Greek Sculpturo
Ami as the slave departs, the man returns.
called the moment of Phiuias.

t""'-·

l.
t

184

185

FIGURES OF SPEECH-SIMILARITY.

UNDESIGNATED FIGURES.

And all that raised the hero sunk t110 man.
Anrl while the llcrce brirbarian he sub1lueJ,
To more exalt.eel soul he raiHetl the man.
Who wept the brothc1·, while the tyrant bled.
Raleigh the scomge of Spain, whose breast with all
The sage, the hero, aml the patriot burned.
And next tdl
How n. restoring clrnnce came down to quell
One half of the v1itch in me. ·
A healthy lad, ancl carried in hfa cl1eek
Two stc:uly roses that were live years olJ-

2. Under Similarity, we may include an undesignn.tecl Figure, namely, the use of Numbers for things
incapable of strict numerical estimate.
'Nine-tenth.~ of every man's happiness depends on the
reception he meets with in the world.' This is not capable
, . o( being stated with exactness, but it is an expressive way
'if. o( designating a very large proportion.
' I am ten times undone.'
'Not one hi a hundred can he counted on.'
1
I say not unto thee, Until seven times,· but, Until
itt'Cllf!I

roses being usecl for rose colour.

1

(5) 'I1he Abstract is often put for the Concrete.
This is opposed to the general principle ; but tho
abstract name isolates the point of importance, aml IO
gives it emphasis. 'Youth' means the young, coui;itlorcd
as young.
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil.

This means 'am Lit ions men,' working nllller the
of their alllbitious quality.

Full twenty times was Peter feared,
:For once that Peter was respected.
1
A great man,' says Sydney Smith, 'is eight times. a
man.'
~
The power of the figure depends on the superior irnpres~; ai\"encss of a definite iclea over an indefinite. It is like the
individual and the concrete, compared with the general and
lbo abstract.

3. Another figure hitherto undesignatecl is the use
of a name to express the meaning in a high or eminent
degree.

Blest be that nbOllo whcro want a11J pain repair.

'There

were

gathered

together,

grace

and ft:mnlf

loveliness, wit and learning.'
Not then claimed soi-crcignfy his dno.

'The leap was iu~possiLle to anything but uwd11eu

a"4

de11pair.'
Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildncs.~, romf',
l•'air star of the evening, splendour of the west.

'l'he object may be to isolate the relevant circu11u1laoai, ~·
as in this <lescription of a horse gallopingAnd one eye's black intdlignicc,-enr that glance
O'er its white edge at me, hi.-i own master, aska11cc.

(nrownln'-)

In other cases the chief aim is merely rnricty or ,,..,
1
ness of language. li'or exampleFol<l
A rose-leaf roun1l thy finger's lapcrncss.

The ordinary meaning of the word ' age ' is the time of
life of any inclivitlun.1, whether young or oltl. In poetry,
ancl often in common S)Jeech, it is used for advanced age :
. in 011sia11 we read, 'age is dark ancl unlovely'.
:
•A \\Titer of repute' is intended to convey the idea of
if, ~h repute. So, ' having got a 1iame '.
~f
•A person of quality' is a person of rank ; so with family

-1 l1irfh.

' Queen' meant originally a woman.
•A man of taste;' 1 a workman-like style;' 'his commg
• WU nn event'-something more than ordinary. 'He was a
' . .Anlar '-·-a man of unusual erudition. 'He made money'~ · • lari.to fortune.
Prose' is properly the contrast to verse, or poetry: it
. ii also applied to composition at tho furthest remove from
· killiancy or the poetical merits .
•Whisky,' the Gaelic for water, is a pre-eminent species
watery liquid.

, ."

1

·',

(l\rnl~. )

.Here als? rnu~t be i~cludeJ. titles such ns 'lier MajtillJw
. •·
'His Grace, 'His Holmess,' 'Your Excellency'. So,• \!,I
goes my gravo Impuclence to tho imtitl '.
'

tinws seven.'

Fierce as ten furies : ' ' glad as ten thousand swine ',

186

FIGUims OF srEECH-CONTIGUITY.

'Perfume,' from meaning any odour, has becomo
restricted to sweet odours.
A man and rnanly are used for the qualities of a superior
or distinguished man. So with a king.
' He had a kind of success,' means very small success.
' A hand' and 'handy '-a skilful hand.
'A number' usually stands for many.
A 'character,' a person with very marked peculiaritieR.
'l'his is one of the ways of giving a plurality of meaningil
to the same word ; hence, it is a frequent occasion of tho
play upon words in Epigrmn.
In regard to these minor Figures of Similarity, tho
principles previously applied to Similitudes in general shoulil
be brought to bear. This has been implied in the statement
of their several effects, which also is the measure of their
sufficiency as figures.

FIGURES FOUNDED ON CONTIGUITY.
In the Figures of Contiguity, a thing is nnmcd
either by some acc01npa'H-iment (Metonymy), or by somo
part (Synecdoche).
The prime intention of the figure is to make tho oxproa.
sion more forcible or suggestive. Frequently, howovn,
there is no other effect than is given by mere variety. Al!IO,
as with figures of Similarity, the device becomes a mea.us of
adding to our stock of names.
1. The METONYMY has several varieties detennincd
by the character of the accompaniment made use of.
(1.) The Sign, or Symbol, or any significant adjunct.
Of this class, are the crown, the sceptre, the tltrmu1 for
royalty; the mitre, the baton, the lawn, the silk-gown, tht
purple, the coronet, the strawberry leaf, the altar, the pul1>i&1
the hearth.
Red tape is the routine of office.
The bench, the bar, the jury-box, the witncss-boi.
counsel, the woolsack, are examples from legal usngo. 8o
the 'chair' for the president.
'Letting the curtain fall ' is an impressive circumstance
for ending a play.
The ' fiery cross' was a call to war.
'. :

METONYMY.

187

These symbols usually appeal to the senses, and help to
make the subject more impressive. When Tennyson saysBlnff Harry broke into the spence,
And turned tho cowls adrift-

he uses an expression for the monks that brings up t~e
image vividly to the imagination. The same may be said
of such a phrase as 'backstairs influence'. Dut often,
through use, this impression passes aw_ay; and then the
words are accepted simply as an add1t10n to language.
'Suhscrihor' poi11ts to o. sig11ificn.11t act, but now froqnontly
means no more than a giver to any public purpose.
'Ostracism' was a form of Athenian banishment, named
from the shell employed by the citizens to r~corcl the_ir
votes · but it is now often employecl for bamshment .m
gener~l. 'Tabling a. motion ' means giving formal notice
of it.
Such expressions as 'the England of C~atham,' 'the
Rome of Tiberius,' may be ranged und~r this cl~ss._ The
age is named from its leading man as its most sigmficant
aujunct or accompaniment.
To this class of Metonymies may be referred a la~ge
number of current expressions, the significant adjunct bemg
un<lerstood in a wide sense. We have ' the faggot,' 1 the
block' 'the stake'· and we speak of 'putting to the blush,'
1
bringing to. the ha1!1me~,' ' doi~ning the so~k' or '~h~
buskin,' 'plymg the birch, 'waggmg the head ma pulp~t .
•After hours ' men.ns after the fixed hours of the working
time; the time being thus named from a significant circum. stn.nce. 'In the twinkling of an eye;' may be taken as an
exn.mple of the principle, a moment of time be~ng named by
an n.ct that very vividly expresse~ it. ' Get~mg ?Y heart'
expresses the importance of engaging the fe~lmgs ma. task.
''l'aking pains ' is a phrase for unusual exertion.
n10 designation of the feelings by some outward characteristic feature is a special case under the same general
hen.cl Proud is ' supercilious' from the name for the eyebrow which lends itself to the expression of prido. Auger
is 'fr~wning' ; pleasure and benignity are signified by the
'smile'; high spirits and jollity by a 'roar'.
(2.) The Instrument for the Agent.
,
Cowley says of Cromwell,' he set u~ Parliaments by th~
, llroke of his pen, and scattered them with the breath of Im

··~I

188

189

FIGURES OF SI'EECff----CONTIGUITY.

METONYMY,

mouth' ; the intention being to substitute, for the hid11cn
operations of the mind, some outward aQd expressive action.
' 'l'o carry fire and sword ' is the phr~se for a desolating
war ; the two chief instruments being chosen to express the
entire action.
' To associate to our arms the tomahawk and the scrtlpillf/
knife of the savage,' was Chatham's energetic denunciation
of our leaguing ourselves, in the American war, with tho
red Indians.
' Style' is the ancient instrument of writing, now
employed to signify the quality of the composition ; as a
good or a bad style.
' A smooth tongue wins favour: ' the tongue is tho
instrument that produces the effect.
'Give every man
thine ear, but few thy 'voice.'

'Oxford' and 'Cambridge' express the universities
located in the towns so named.
A common designation for the Deity is ' Hen.ven' : it is
frequently used by Shakespeare; it may be employed on
familiar occasions without the sense of profaneness. ·
' }from the cradle to the grave ' is a terse and graphic
expression for the beginning and tho end of human life.
•He keeps a goou table' is a figure for good vian<ls.
Yorick's ' setting the table on a roar' means the company.
The ' churchyard' is doubly figurative.
It originates
· in the usage of burying in the ground adjoining tho church,
and it names the collective remains of those interred in it.
The 'gallery,' 'pit,' 'boxes,' are made to express their
, occupants.
'l'he name ' house' is used as container for contained, in
. a wide variety of acceptations. ' Ye devour widows' houses;'
'a public house'; 'a mercantile house'; 'a royal house'
or dynasty. Our two branches of the legislature are houses
by pre-eminence. Hence 'the house' meets, resolves, is
ai:lurossed, electrified, persuaded, counted out, dissolved.
·. The figure has passed by usage into a literal designation.
·. The word 'field' is a figure for different objects that it
11ay contain: as a farmer's fields, a battle field, a field of
enterprise, 'a fair field aud no favour'. In these last cases,
contiguity and similarity are both involved.
1.'he container for the contained is exemplified in periods
·of time. We put a particular century for its prominent
ttents. 'The fifth century saw the foundation of the Frank
dominion in Gaul:' here the century is even personified,
and so identified with the people living in it. A 'good
· f/ltJl'>ll' is put for the productions of the season: so 'a bad
ptor'. A 'day' is emphatic for a great occurrence, as a
llattle. The 'eleventh hour' is a strong expression for the
· lapsing of an opportunity ; it is derived from the parable of
.aae Labourers in the Vineyard. 'Sprigs of summer' is used
: .,. 'l'c1111yson for summer flowers.
: By a sirhilrtr process, 'history,' the record of events, is
-1 for the actual events.

l\fay some choice patron bless each grey goose quill.

• Placed on the throne of Samarcand, the eye of Timur
perceived the situation of the neighbouring countries.'
Taliessin is our fullest throat of song.

Throat is here used for a singer,

(Tennyson.)

A minstrel is a wa111lt•riu1

'Voice.

(3.) The Container for the thing Contained.
. This is a frequent mode of gaining picturesque exprctsiveness.
The ' city' is used for the inhabitants; it being an
easier object for the mind to grasp.
' Wardrobe' is the name for a person's collection of
garments.
•
'The power of the purse' is the command of money.
The 'bottle' is intoxicating drink. A 'carpet-Lag' ii•
familiar name for luggage.
The palace and the collage are used for the extremes of
worldly conditions. So, ' I woukl rather be rulc1l bv SI.
James's (the residence of the Court) than by St. Ui1t:;•, (•
locality once tenanted by a degraded population)'.
We use the name of a country for its government, or ii•
people in collective action. 'Englund arnl Fnwl'e went IO
war with Russia; Germany, &c., remained neutral'. 'l'l1i1 la
a convenient abbreviation, rather than a rhetorical ndrnnt-...
' Going over to Rome ' regards Rome as tho motropolil
of the Roman Catholic Church.
•

(t) An Effect is given for the Ca.use.
The shade is put for trees.
When fl""!! hairs is used for age, wo may consider it
, .,Uy o. significant adjunct or sign.
.

190

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CONTIGUITY.

BYNECDOCHE.

Tho bri(Jht cluith quivered at the victim's throat-

Dy this figure the Deity is styled a 'refn(le for tho
. · oppressed '. Again, 'the Loru is my strength and song, and
He is become my ,<:alvation '. Dryden introduces the Duke
of Monmouth as-

a picturesque and vigorous condensation for tho knife.
He desperate takes the dca,t}J,,

With sudden plunge-

a description of the fish seizing the means of death, tho

The people's prayer, t11e glntl 11iviner's theme,
'l'he young men's vision, and the old men's dream.

angler's hook.

(5.) The Maker is put for his wot}rs;
author's name is used for bis writings.

. ..

~ =J 1:

,"'J

.?..

:::>'
- I I

:l• :

Cw

n

Thus, nu

Song, salvation, prayer, vision, dream, are usecl iniiton.d
of their several objects.

' They have Jlfo.<:r>..<: ancl the prn7Jhct.<:.'
For Geometry, we use the name Hacliil.
An inventor is put for his invention: the miner's safety
lamp is his Daiiy.
As we have ' Wellingtons' and ' Illuchers ' for tho b?OI•
introduced by the great generals so named, the .Athe111n1!1
gave the name of their general lphikrates to leggmgs of b11
invention.
The carriage named a ' brougham ' is another example ,
of personal naming.
'Bradshaw' designates the Time-tables issued by lhe
publisher of that name.
.
'l'he usage was anciently extcrnlod t~ mytl~oloi,:1cal
inventors· as Ceres for bread, JJitaJws for wme. So .1/••n.
N eptune, Pallas, Venus, are put for war, the ocean, wisdom,
the amorous affection .
. On a similar principle, the names of plac().<: arc n~od
designate productions. 'l'hus,. 'Russia,' n:ml '!l~orocco
designate species of leather m book-bmclmg. Com(>&N
Arras, Calico, Nankeen, China, ·worcester (Sauce), Coguao.
Bordeaux, &c.
. .
A ' Strathspey' is the dance music supposed to or1g11~
in the locality.
This is carrieu yet further in poetry-

J,ycidns your sorrow is not dead.

Mn1ul, tho clcliyht of tho villagll, tho ri11gi11g joy of tho J1nll.

'The sigh of her secret soul,' in Ossian, means him that
ahe sighs for in secret.
.
.
.
'!'he name of a person is occas10nally put for lus fame or
renown.
' Kant, the greatest name in the philosophy of
Germany.' ' 'l'he dreaded name of Demogorgon.' 'The reign
· of James was rich in poetical names.'
This class of figures, besides being a means of supplying
names, has a certain tinge of the interest of personality.

'

SYNECDOCHE.*

(1.) One form of the Figure consists in namrng a
· lhing by some Part.

For example, a sail for a ship. One advn:ntage of the
figure. is that it seizes the part that ~no~t strikes the eye,
antl is easiest to recall. When a slup is under way, the
1prcn.d sails constitute the prominent feature. So, the redtools, the oreen-back.'?, the black ltorse, the blue (for tho sky),
lhe yrren (for the grassy sward).
Asecond effect of tho figure is to bring forward the most
eharn.cteristic portion.of the object, the portion that makes
iLe efliciency. Thus, we say 'all ltauds at work,' 'a
thousand horse ' or 'foot,' 'a hundred lances'. 'He unfurled
his standard,' 'the man at the wheel' for the steersman,

0 for a. beaker full of the warm snulh-

the south being used to clesig1iate its production, tho wino. :
All Arabia breathes from yonder box.

Arabia is employed for its spices.

We say-my love, my joy, my delight, 1~1y a 1 lmir?l··~b:
aversion, my horror-for the persons or tl1111gs causing . .
.
•,,.,,.
f ee1mgs.

2. Another group of Figures of Contiguity was expressed by the uame

"!

(6.) The name of a Passion is given for tho nnmo of
the object.

191

• .'lyiucdnche (<Tvv<Koox~), properly the unda~tanding n.f one tliing !nith annthe~, .and

'

ftlf•"~"'Y (µ•Twvvµia), properly_ change qfname, wore used hy. the:tncrnnt rhetoricians
r.\Jll•.-1 of deHignating one th mg by the namo of another (1t being understood thnt

, , t.

.. romparison iH involved). Synecdocho was chiefly limited to the various ways of

llliaa the part for the whole, and vice versa; Metonymy being cmployctl when the

....,_Interchanged were not so conn~cted. Under th~ rel.a ti on of whol~ "''!d P,art, was
, lld11eled pr.1w3 aml apecie~" a relat10n. not of Con.~1g!11t)'., but of S1m1 lanty, ,and
· ..,_,,,. itlvcn nmlt'r the head of Figures of R11111Jnr1ty.
Tims, 0 breao to
; , tlplfy nl>eOHMries of life is species for genus ; 's.'\il' to designate a. ship is part for

,

"f .W..

·1i
•.'

"I:•

I'

192

TRANSFERRED EPITHET.

193

FIGURES OF SPEECH--CONTIGUITY,

Arrayc1l
In all the colours of t!1c flushing year (Thomson),

' l/IJclve · knots an hour ' from the mode of measuring the

vessel's speed. '11he designation ' quarters ' points to the
laying out of a camp into four parts. The 'blood' is a
standing figure for the life. 'How beautiful upon the
mouutains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings.'
'I abjure all roofs.' A passenger in a cab is a fare. 'Sho
gave her hand.' 'Safe from the vulgar eye.'
All states can reach it, and all heads conceive.

(Pope.)

An auld wife's tongue's a feckless matter
To gie ane fash. (llurns.)

for spring;
The lavish moisture of the melting year (Id.),

for summer;
Thine the full harvest of the golden year (Pope),

for autumn.
(3.) The name of the Material is put for the thing
made. ·
The ' steel ' designates a sword or other steel weapon.
'Gold' is a poeticn.l name for money, and 'Silver' (siller)
is used by the Scotch as a homely equivalent. A ' copper '
is a penny. 'Linen' is a name for linen garments. So-1the nutrhfo sponlrn '. 1'l'ho wi110 lut1:1 Leen tou years iu tho
toad.' ' Sheepskin' is used for diploma.
'l'he effect here, as in the first case, is to suggest tho
Tisible aspect of a thing, and thereby to assist us in
imagining it. It is one of the devices of concrete presenta&ion, with a view to the picturesque.

It is by this figure that a person's age is often namecl by
tho season corresponding to it: a maiden of sixteen s1n11111er~,
a man of seventy winten1. rl'he poets carry this further, and
designate the seasons themselves by their most clmn:icteristio
month: 'a babe a double April old,' 'his one and twentieth
1lfoy' ('l'ennyson).
'
On the same principle a person is named by the part of
his character suited to the occasion. 'Thus spoke the
tempter.' ''11he avenger nf blood was on his track.' When
3. Among figures of Contiguity is to be ranked the
the Deity is mentioned by one of his attributes, the proper
TRANSFERRED EPITHET.
suiting has to be observed. 'Shall not the Judge of all tho
This means the shifting of an epithet from its proper
earth do r/ght?' ''11he Lord of Hosts is on om· side.' IL
would be an impropriety to say, 'The Almighty knows our .; subject to some allied circumstance, the result often being
an apparent incongruity.
thoughts'.
.
'A rr,stlrs.~ pillow ' is an expression for tho restleRBnoAs
''l'his subject reminds me of what I waR told nt Calrus
of
the
person lying on tho pillow. 1t is effective partly by
from a very good hand.' It is not the hand that tells.
being short, and partly from suggesting at once the exact
(2.) The reverse operation of using the Whole for tho
aituation.
·

Part is a species of 8ynecdoche: as the smiliug wnr,
for the spring ; ' cursed be the day when a man-child
was born'.

As in the case alreaoy mentioned of putting the gcr.u1
for the species, this niust be a rare figure, since it runt
contrary to the general principle regulating vividness of .
impression. It may sometimes happen that there iR somothing in the aspect of a whole that arrests the mind more : ,
forcibly than the part would do. The phrase 'the Homan .
world' is intended to impress the vastness of the UomaaJ: :;
emp~~
.. ~
The poets sometimes use 'the year' with an epithet for: '
special seasons ; thus·-·~·

I*

'll
'1'
I

Who sl1all tempt with wandcri11g.fcr,t
The dark, unfathomed, bottomless abyss t

'The cheapest market,' 'the open air,' 'a liberal hand,' 'a
lark lantern,' 'an inattentive station,' 1 a counting house,' 'a
criminal court,' ' a fat living,' ' eas1J circumstances.'
The little fields made green
ny hushamlry of many tl1T1fty yca.r.~.
'l'hc numerous worthies of the maiden reign.
Struck the deep sorrows of his lyre.

this is one of the most usual and efficient ways of
llta.ining brevity. It has the further effect of hitting tho
· nlevant circumstance. 'A drowsy ear' is the ear of a.

.

~

i

i

194

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CONTIGUITY.

ENLARGING TIIE VOCAllULAUY.

drowsy man; the fitness is due to the circums~ance ~hal
the man's ear is the sense addressed, and made impen·1001
by his drowsiness. The relevance may, however, co11~ist ia
the suggestion of a contrast; for example, ' to wrap lumseJf
in lunwst rags '.
The poets carry the figure still further:Melissa shook her do1dJfful curlR. (Tennyson.)
'l'his new-miule lord, whose splendour plucks
'l'he slavish hat from tho villager's head. (Id.)
His blasts obey, and 'lllit the howling hill. ('l'hom~on . )

So Carlyle says:
of coffee',

1

A lackey presented an

uf,i;r•1111i1111A

.. ~ .,
~,

~

...=,...
::, I

,..,·
~
.

-::1
""

,.. ...

2~

- 1

QI
-1

. ~j
:

I

Tools-Davy, Jemmy.
.
·
.
.
Rubric-from red letters m church services, used m tha
. directions to the priest or reader.
The 'forty-five',
Farewell.

5. While some of the names obtained from contiguity
cuter into the staple of our vocabulary, others are

cap

4. The process of designating things by contiguo.- ~·
circumstances is a means of enlarging the vocalJUIUJ, ·t,

"

195

The necessity of providing, somehow, names for i111~
tant meanings throws us upon a variety of expedient~. o...
of these has been already adverted to (the Metaphor). Tbe
operation now explained is answerable for a nm1il1er of '*'
most familiar aJHl useful names. The exmnplefl A.Liot.
given are sufficient to imlicate the fact; n111ny of ~h~m ha..
lost all the eflicacy that they may have had oni.;rnally M
figures of speech, and rank as part of our regular rncl\bulA11,
The following are adclitional instances. 'l'ho 11R111H W
money-crown, sovereign, guinea, napoleon-nm li~11rot fll .
contiguity; while others, as note, circulating. 11~"'1t.urn, .,. ,;,
general names specialized, and come under sm~ill\nty. la
business, the word itself, and the names sccunty, 1~ ­
ship, assets, firm, goods, are of contiguity origi11, tho
being easily assignable.
.
"'·
In military language, the same process prcrnilA-....,_ .:,;
navy, force, service, regiment, foot, horse, c1:giuccrs, rull ,w_
and file, the line, uniform.
In law, we hu.ve-court, case, solicitor, Lricf, coetlM\
hearing, aflidavit, sentence, judgment.
_,
In government, we have-a LoarL1, a <liflpntch, A
.
voters, pot - wallopers, presidency (houso of prete;I C .,~.
Council of 'l'en (Venice).
. , . ·~
The names for good and bad manners have thmr I~ ,
source in associations of contiguity-civil, urLnno_ cul · · ·
breeding, polish, rustic, boorish.
·
Stump orator, stringed and winL1 i11strumc11ts.

Ill°""' '

merely rhetorical synonyms.
'J~ho ' turf' is not essential for designating the meaning,
but it is an agreeable variation.
.
.
A ' roll' is much tho same as a ' list'. A watormg-place,
a summer resort, a place of worship,--merely vary the
expression of the things designate<l The ' Son of David '
has a. certain advantage in respect of the importance of tho

parent.
G. As with metaphors, so with words obtainecl under

the present figure: the keeping of the figure needs to
, be preserved, so long as the origin is borne in mind. .
The wor<.1 'rnnks' <lmiignn.tcs the. common soldio~·y. as
actually forme<l into rank. To apply it ~o the m.on s1tt~11g
in their barracks would be felt as an mcongrmty, seemg
&bat the primary meaning is still prominent .
'Hye service ' has still the originnJ force of the fi.gur~.
. When Tennyson speaks of Earl Doorm as .callmg for
lesh· and wine to feed Id.CJ speors,' there is ~pparenl
· iaoongruity; but the incongruity help.s the effect mtended
-to suggest a. fierce band of retamers used only for.
tghting.
·
. .
. .
In innumerable cases, however, the or1gmal me~nmg is
". IO little felt, that there is scarcely any need for takmg the
'IUDe precaution. A ' roll' has ceased to suggest a rolled
·. tp parchment or sheet of paper. The 'bar ' has still a.
.·.r.,;ht figurative relevance as regat·ds a. court of law, ~r a.
'._. l.oe1so of Parliament, but none as regards the legal profess1011.
woocl' 1111s lost the signification of green as a colour.
Tho final remark to ho made upon the wi<lo range of
'llait figure, as now set forth, is the occasion given to
'9altiply the meanings of words, and produce the effect so
laimical to clearness-namely, ambiguity. The same holds
·i ti lho <lcrivation of names by metaphor.

•u,.,.,.,.

196

FUNDAMENTAL ANTITHESIS.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CONTRAST.

FIGURES FOUNDED ON CONTRAST.
1. It is a first principle of the human mind, tlint
we are affected only by chauge of impression. Amo11J!
the many consequences of this law is the efiicacy of
contrast in verbal composition.
According to the greatness of the change is the intem1ity
of the feeling. Hence in computing the impression duo to
a present cause, we need to state what was the prcn·ious
condition of the mind. Sunshine is agreeable, acconliug u
we have been previously in darkness or shade.
In knowledge likewise, there is a shock of transition.
Light is known by passing out of the Dark. High is
contrasted with Low; Straight with Crooked; Hard with
Soft; Male with :Female. Red is contrasted with all lho
other colours of the spectrum.*
It is the prevailing habit of language to express only
one term of these couples and to leave the other to Lo
implied or understoocl. \Ve say a man is free, withou'
adding that he is not bouucl or constrainecl in any way,
although this is equally necessary to the full mca11i11tt.
When we call a line 'straight,' we might also say it is no&
crooked, but generally leave this to be mentally supplied.
There are occasions, however, when the full statcml!nt
of the opposite, or olnierse, side of a feeling or a fact, is of
value in making a thing either more impressive or else moro
intelligible. Now, as this is, so to Rpeak, a 1foparturo from
the habitun,l or common form of la11g11ngu, which is content
with naming one side alone, we call it a figurative UAAf:",
and hence look upon Contrast as a :Figure of Speech. Mont4 A remltrknble lllnstmtion of tho principle of correlation In Jnn~8p ..
fumishecl hy the earli est known Corms of hmnan speech, especially !lit• Ei)l'4...
hieroglyphics. In this language there is a consillcrn.hle nnmbcr of 11ri111itlrn .,,..
designating simple ideal!, which hear two opposite signiflmtions. J<:x11111plt·• uw ta.
words signifying yood-bml, lii9/i-lmo, oh'c-t<tk c, hring-send, lii/1-dalP, ''{,.,1"""• .-..
tcithout, &:c. Such worcls are n.ccountetl for on the assumption tli:tt pmnltiu• ,......_,
In expressing to themselves any conception, neetled to have t.he two "Jli"'"llf' J'ha.present to their minds, and not merely implied , as in the later form~ of lnnr....Both sides of the contrast were th erefore recalletl hy the won) ; tl11• •i•lt1 IW
was intenrled on any particulnr occasion appears to have been i11tlirnt1•1I h1· ,,..,.._
(which still forms a gre:it part of the Jani.:na,ge of 1111civilizc1I ran·~), "'hilc- le .._
hieroglyphic writings · it is shown by arlrlitional symhols or i;implo pidm~• .,._,
panying the words. The phenomenon has been called 'countcrscn8c.' 1u11l ••• ..._
conflnecl to Egyptia.n, thou~h most fully preserved to us in its primltln1 for91 •
that language. Relics of it c:1.n still be tracetl even in lanirnairc~ of the I_. <
European family: for example, La.tin alt us (high anti low), crdae (to go anti to ~I ~ ..
Greek ux,,>->i (leisure anr.l inclustry); F.nirlish let (to permit nml to pro,cnt): <""- , .
bo,.uen (to lent\ anrl to borrow), &c. Seo a.n article cntitle1l 'CounWJ'll(llUle1' • . , . · 1
Contemporary Revie10 for April, 1884, hy Dr C:trl Auel.
-

197

~ver, it is a portion of the rhetorical and critical art to

. Ju<l7~ of the prop~r oc?a~ions for employing the figure. '
lhe term A_nt1thes1s 1s also made use of as a designation
of the same artifice.

~· . The. An.tithesis, in its fullest sense, consists in
exphc.1tly statmg the contrast implied in the very
meanmg of a term or a fact.
This would be shown in such forms as-Motion not-Rest·
llot: not-Cold; P~easure, not-Pain; Industrious, ~ot-Idle. '
To be a blessmg, and not a citrse.' 1 I love the country
I l1~ie, the tow1~.' ' The one slrnll be taken, and tlte othm~
It/I.
Man WlShes to be happy, antl dreads to be miserable '
. 'Two.n_ien. I honour, and no tltird.' ''1.1he letter killeth but
• tM spirit giveth lije.'
'
.In ~11 these caseR! .the se.con~ member might be
omitted · .the first contammg, by unphcation the whole fact
~n bo~h s1~es. But there are instances wh~re the obverse
1temt10n gives .great.er. clearness or greater emphasis; while,
Oil other occas10~s, it I~ useless, and therefore enfeebling.
Rea~s says, A thmg of beauty is a joy for ever,' and
tt~ards it as unnecessary to introduce a contrast with other
&hmgs that are o~ ~erely temporary duration. In Tennyson's
Brook, the refram isJfen rnay r-0me and men rnay go

But I go on for cver-

the pcrpetun,l bci1~g ma<lo moro ornphn.tic by a fuJJy ex-

JlfCS!\c<l ·c o~1tnu1t w1Lh A<>1110Lhi11g trn11HiLu1·y.

Drownmg has the following'l'hat low man Reeks a littlo thing to <lo
SPes it n111l does it :
'
This high n~an, with a great thing to pursue,
Dws ere he knows it.

·- 1.ach mem~er of the contrast is rendered impressive through
lhe comparison to the other, the effect being also helped by
&be bn.In.nce of the sentence.
· There is a well sustained emotional antithesis in
. Macbe.th (bet v. Scene 3), the contra.st of honourable old
Ip "''.th Macbeth's outlook. The.two sides of the picture
•P,Pot t each ot~ier, ~nd double the impression; although, in
·.
- . tness, one implies all that the other explicitly .states.
. . also the co_ntrast of peace and w~r (Henry V. iii. 1).
v. , Ihe followmg example of effective antithesis is from
,j

•

10

198

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CONTRAST.

Froude's Henry VIII. 'The petitio~ claims especial notice. ,
not only because it was the first activ~ m<?v~mcnt town~ls
a separation from Rome, but because.it ongmated, not tr.'IA
the King, not with the parlimnent, not witli the people, but w1Lb
a section of the clergy themselves ',

,.

.

LIMITING ANTITHESIS.

199

~Let us bo sacriji.crJr.~, but not butcher.<:, Caius.'
, Be thou fa~nitil!r, but .by no means vulrim·.'
. R~p1·esentatwn (m Parliament) is not delegation.' 'Oscillation: ,w.ithout p1·ogression.'
Il~1s form of Antithesis is four times employed in the
followmg passage from Pope-

3. Another form of expository Antithesis is the con.All nature is but art unknown to thee •
trast of terms not generically, but specifically opposed.
.All c~ance, directioi;, which thou dost ~ot see :
Light and Darkness, Motion and Rest, Wisdom and
.All discord, harmony not understood ·
Folly Liberty and Slavery, may be called generic con.
.All partial evil, universal good.
'
trast~. Their opposition is total. Light and Heat aro
•b '~ollasto.n saw them (the dark lines of the spectrum)
different species under the genus Sensation, or tho gonut
ut did not discover them.' (Sir Wm. Thomson.)
'
Natural Agent. Liberty and Plenty are members of tho
A maiden of our century, yet most meek :
class Worldly advantage.
A da;nghter of ou~ meadows, yet not coarse;
Straight, but as lissome as a hazel wand.
It is common to contrast points of character thnt aro
different modes of excellence or defect, as Sense and 8<'nl'i·
T~ese contrasts have an abbreviating effect. The second
bility, Genius and Judgment, the Irascible and the Pusillnni·
Word .1s suppos~d to subtract from the first the part of the ·
mous; these are not fundamentally opposed, as are senso and
mea.nmg that Is too much for the occasion. A 'servant'
folly, which are merely the two sides of the same property.
may ~e pushed to the extreme limit of servitude . this is
Such secondary, or specific, contrasts are used in cotn·
'
negatived by the addition, ' not a slave '.
paring different kinds of merit in great men ; as in tho .
. . The ab?se of the artifice may be seen in Johnson, and
contrast of Homer and Virgil by Dryden, and of Dryt1t'n < atle11l more m S~1!1uel Parr, whose style, in this particular
and Pope by J olmson. 'l'he elaborate antithesis of the
• 11 under the ridicule of Sydney Smith.
'
sycophant and the counsellor in Demosthenes (Oration for
the Crown) is a more thoroughgoing contrast, as pliiyinc «·
5. The figure of Antithesis may be made to comoff merit against demerit.
prehend a c~ass of em.otional contrasts, intended to
To compare two poets of first-class excellence is RJ>N'i6o
rouse the feelmgs, especially in Oratory.
comparison, with the smallest difference; to compnro •
, ~s in .c~'.1-tham ; ' Who is the man that has dared to
poetic genius with a. scientific genius involves a. wiJ.
eall mto civilized alliance the wild and inhuman inhabitant
difference still, with smaller generic agreement; to comp&N
, of the wood~ ?-to ~elegate to _the merciless Indian the
a man of genius with a common-place man, not to sa7 a
~f~nce of disputed riglds, and to wage the horrors of his
fool, may be called (although not in strict Logic) a. gcon
uarbn.rous war against our bretll1·en 7 '
opposition, or toml contrast.
Bo in the speech of Brutus over the body of Lucretfo.4. A further variety of Antithesis is the limiting ol .~
N ow Jook ye where she Jics,
That beauteous flower, that imwccnt su:cct rose,
a term by some other term, as a help to definition.
"
Torn vp by rutlilcss 1,iolence.
'The parrot lrns tho wnrd, but not tho t1ig11,' iR I\ mode of .·.
expressing more precisely the parrot's powers of 11\n~ 'fo ' ' 'le d11.~t anu a8hes prouu? I Want of intellect ' makes 0.
, "1la!7t! n.n Edm, a collf'[!fl a sty '.
'The cup that dwmw, hut not iueln·iflfr,~.'
i ''
' The lord and not the tyrant of tho worlJ.' • Y• ..:· \'1cu' God hath chose11 the foolish things of tho world to conul the wise; and God h~th cho~en the weak things of the
servant, not your slave.'
,, ,
~d to conf~mnd the thmgs which are mighty; and base ' Spenser's antiquated figures were his choice o.ncl not w.~
gs,,and thi?gs which are despised, hath God chosen, yea,
necessity.'
·
~ Uungs wluch are not, to bring to nought things that are.'

200

FIGURES OF SPEECH--CONTRAST.

ORATORICAL CONTRAST.

' A small leak will sink a great ship.'
'Who prefer poverty with liberty to gilded c!tain1 and
sol'did aj}l1wnce.'
·

language and true pathos, to atone for the painful shock of
oontrnst.
·
The following from Shelley is a case in pointHow wonderful is Death
Death, and his brother Sleep I
One, ·pale as yornler waning moon
With lips of l11ri1l Linc :
'
The other, rosy as the morn,
When, throned on ocean's wave
It blushes o'er the worhl :
'
Yet both so passing wonderful I

Will the aspiring blood of Lancaster
Sink in the ground 1

'There's a lean fellow (Death) beats all conqueror.~.'
1 Your noble and majestic lion, your soaring eagle, your
sweeping peacock, are the slaves of their stomach; in whVlll
interests they are meanness itself.'
lJyron aboun<ls in this effect-' Ilorn'.hly b1!mdijul ',
Butchere!l to make a Roman lioli!lay.
The struck eagle
Viewed his ou:n featlier in the fatal dart.

The immediate operation of these contrasts i~ pRinfQ~
and their introduction into poetry is a dcparturo from &hit
purest poetical type, an<l an approximation to ornlOfJ',
which does not scruple to use pain as an instru111r11l :•
The same effect is frequent in Macaulay: thu, ia .
speaking of the beauties of Glencoe, as they would •J'l~ .
to an Englishman of the beginning of last century·
• A traveller must be freed from all apprchcn11ion el
being murdered or starved before he can be channctl hy U.
bold outlines and rich tints of the hills. He is not likt>ly IO
be thrown into ecstasies by the abruptness of a prN'i~
from which he is in imminent danger of falling two thou• ·
feet perpendicular; by the boiling waves of a torrcni whki ·
suddenly whirls away his baggage and forces him to l'1lD . .
his life; by the gloomy grandeur of a pass whcro ho 6...ita:
corpse which marauders have just strippe<l n111l 111&1,.W I
or by the screams of those eagles whose ncxL moal..,
probably be on his own eyes.'
·
Man is thus described by PopeA being darkly wis11, 1tn<l rnrlcly grrnt,

\\Ti th too much k 11ow I•~• Igo for tl11~ 1wt>pl ir ~1, I",
With too much weakness for the Stoic's pride.

The most usual subject of oratorical contrn~t iA JJfe .
Death. By way of moral and religious rcmimw,
contrast has been worked in every couccimLlo foma.
the most part, the aim is to rouse nJHl Rtl\rtlo; •
occasionally, as in Gray's Elegy, it is pocticnlly pl._
acceptable. The stanza • Can storietl um' hu bteii

201

.

·~~
"
;
."

Donth is here intr?duced to heighten tho impression of

Bleep~ a~ t~e suc.cee.dmg passage shows. In the next example,

lhe picture. of hfe 1s employed to deepen the impression of
cleath. It 1s from Wordsworth on Burns-

:;•
'~ •

~hc picrein~ eye, the thoughtful brow,
'I,J1c strugghng heart, where be thry uow I
F nll soon the ARpirn11t of the 11!011gh
The prompt, the brave
'
Slept, with the obscurest i~ the low
Aud silent grnvc.
'

.'' U~un.~ly, as in these cases, ono si(lo of tho contrast is the
.~ pru~c1pal, and the other is used only as subordinate to it.
> lo m Johnson's coupletl'!e le~t the name at which the world grew pale,
'Io pomt a moral or adorn a tale.

c·,·-:'l':f

~:"":

8. In poet~y, co.ntrasts must not be pushed to the

•:Jeogth of causmg discord.
~',,. Harmony of feeling ess.ential to poetry, although not

is

~ lo orn.to~y. H?wever effectn~e a contrast may be, in the
~1~1'17 of 1llustrn:t1on for expository or persuasive effect as
:>•hen the glories of peace are heightened by depicting' the
dt.orro!'8 of war; yet, m poetry, contrast must not be carried
:' lo pBmful extremes.
The main feeling to be raised must
}~ti*efore, be c_hiefly insisted on ; the contrasted feeling
~~t l~o moro lightly tonchocl.
~; Tl11s effect is aJmirably gained in the following quotn.::i tion from Wordsworth.
T,lierc t~as a roaring fo the wind all night;
1 lte rain came lief!vt~Y. and fell in jl•.ods;
Unt n?w the s~n I? r1s.mg calm and bright ;
The b1~ds arc smgmg 1.n the distant woods;
Over. Ins own sweet voice the stock-dove hromls ;
Tho Jny mnke.s ~ns~ver as .tho mngpie chatters ;
And all tho air IS hllcd with 11lcasa11t noise of waters.

202

FIGURES OF SPEECH-EPIGRAM,

EPIGRAM GENERALLY.

So in Homer-

our attention to some important meaning underneath.*

Olympns, the reputed scat
Etcrnrtl of the Gods, wlrieh never slurms
D1:sturb, rains drench, or snuw invades, but calm
The expanse and cloudless shines with purest day.
The f~llowing lines, in P.ryant, arc meant to give the bright sidl' of the
prospect of death ; but the contrast made use of is painful and discordant.

'The child is father of the man,' is an epigram. The
language contradicts itself ; yet the meaning is discernible,
and is impressed by tho momentary shock of contradiction.
The plurality of meanings attaching to a great number
of our words is the groundwork of this figure. Hence the
description of it as a 'play upon words'.

Then go not, like the quarry slave, at night,
Scourged to his dungeon, but sustained and soothed
an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave,
Like one that draws the drapery of his conch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.

Br

. Milton's. Ode on the Nativity celebrates more especially the nrlvrnt o(
a reign of umversal peace. Contrasts arc introduced to heighten tho elft.cL
Thus we have the stanza (iv.) beginningN o war, or battle's sound,
Was heard the world around-

wher~ the revolting detail~ of war are covcrc~ by expressions that gin
the side that has always unpo~ed upon mankmd. So the contrnstA in
xvii., xviii., xix., arc so far redeemed by the language of grandeur and
sublimity as not to he r<'pn lsive.
. In the conn ected coupl e of Odes, 'L' Allegro' and 'II l'Pn~l'rMO,'
Milton undertook the po'.:tieal '~·orkiug out of an extrem.cly diflicult ron·
tr~st, namely,, the gay, hvcly, hght, exuberant type of mnoccnt hnmaa
en.1oyment, with what he calls 'divinest Melancholy,' of whose lllPllltinir,
l1owever, he has no steady conception. In tho introduction to• L'Allr,_rro,'
lrn devotes, ,by w~y of contrast, ten. lines to a description of 'l111111i ...1
melancholy, that is almost pu~e, unrn1?rlcd horror and misery, pocti..ally
exaggerated to the utmost 1•1tch.
1 hough the terms aro in nowitit
loathsome or re,·olting, the contrast is quite unnecessary 11.9 an aiil
to the effect of the. delineation of n.irth and joy. The 'II Pcn!!<'l"OllO,'
on t~e oth~r hand, mstead of giving the opposite of pleasure, in tho M'h.W
of misery, is merely anoth er type of enjoyment-the solemn ll1•1lnto ancl
tranquil mml~s of happiness. 'l'o this, 'the poet supplies an intro•lurtory
contrast, settmg forth the vain and dclusi ve side of the ' VAI!cgro' lJI'

'

In addition .to the three foregoing classes of Figuros
and correspondmg ~o the three great powers of tho
Intellect, we may smgle out, as involving principlcA of
importance, the Epigram, Condensed Sentence, In11uc111lo.
Ir~my, Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe, Hypcrboltt,
Climax.

!

EPIGRAM.
·'

1. The Epigram is an apparent contracliction in
language, which, by causing a temporary shock, roUMI

203

When it is Raid 'every man wishes to live long, bnt no one
wishes to be old,' there is a manifest self-contradiction under the
ordinary meaning of 'old,' which is simply length of life. But the
word has also acquired, hy contiguous association, the meaning
'infirm,' 'feeble,' 'decrepit,' and this is what the saying points to, in
which sense it exprei::ses a fact.
There is a long-standing play upon the word 'ancients,' wliereby
it is made seemingly to coutmdict itself, in indicating the moderns.
We, who live now, are ancients in the sense of being furthest
removed from the infancy of society, and so possessing the longest
range of historical experience.
There arc numerous ways of playing upon the word 'notl1ing '.
Besides meaning 'nothing ' in the ahsol nte sense, it is often used to
exp1·eRs a real something of such worthless character, or of such small
quantity, as to be no better than nothing. Thus, it was said by
Bentham, 'when you aim at nothing, you hit it': a way of reproving
an aimless style. It was remarked Ly an Oxford Head of a college,
regarding the old days when the curriculum " '. as very narrow, 'when
we had nothing to do, we did it well'. In like manner-'When you
have 110U1i11g to 1my, say it'.
1
The king is dead, long live the king.'
'Life would be tolero.Lle, but for its amusements.'
'Our antagonist is our helper.'
Grote says of the legendary age-' it was a past that never was
present'.
·
'"\Ye cannot see the wood for trees : ' immersed among the trees,
we cannot survey the wood as a whole.
':Failures are the pillars of success.'
Men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves, to higher things. (Tennron.)
'The weakest reasons are the most dangerous (Burke), the
• Epigram, properly meaning an inscription, was used hy the Greeks for a.
1hort piece of verse placed on a public monument, a.nd was afterwards extemlecl lo
any short poem expressing precisely and forcibly a single intereRting thought..
Amon,:: the Romans, J<~pigrams assumed a sn.tirical character and n. pointecl form ;
&1111 in modern times, the mune is still uRecl for short poems of s:itirical ancl poi11ted
nature. Uut the name, Rpigram, aml still more the a<ljective, Epigrammn.t1c, have
become further extencle<l to ·any ingenious and pointed sayings in prose or venm. In
the nboYe application of it, the name clesiguates the play u11on words that is the
mo~t clist.incthe feature of these sayings not inchtdcd umler ot ier designations, such
u Dain.nee and Antithesis.

204

IDENTICAL ASSERTION.
FIGURES OF SPEECH-EPIGRAM.

impli cation hcincr tliat th e l1carers are in such a prej nrliced co111liti11e
as to Le safo•ticJ with weak reasons; to move them in nuy otbd
direction is then lwpcl ess.
' Lm1g11age is th e art of concealing thought ; ' applied to the
mystifimt.io! lS of ,1 i ]'lo111acy.
'A man of plcasnrn is a man of pain.' 'Ve are nccn~t.o me1l, i•
d escript ion s of love, to the phrnse 'sweet pain'. The thought is th111
put by Thomson These nre the clwrming agonies of love,
Whose rnisery delights.
It is a doctrine maintained by Mr H erbert Spencer l.11nt 1 Ilt-toration preceLles. dref:'s,' which, is an impossibility in the o"li11A17
sense of d ecorntwn- namel.r, hne clotl1 es.
'Defornl me from m y fri c wl ~,'-that is, from unwise or ill-aesiderc1l assistance on I.heir ptwt.
'What's everybody's bnsiness, is nobody's.'
1
Littl e t11ings are great to little men.'
1
Private vices are public benefits.'
Many epigrams are fonrnlr'l on tlie peculiar fig11rn of u11in,a
word for its meaning in t he high est degree of excellence. AA la
Chark·s Lamb's- ' holllrn, whi ch are no books'.
'Everything was hcttcr than another.'

,. ..
g.

·-1

r\I
..... .
fl) '

utl

He that complies ngaimt his will
Is of hi.~ own opim'.on still.
Swift wnR 'too pr·owl to he vain'.
'To tell the wh ole iR not to tell evcryt l1ing.'
'More hon oured in the bi'each tha11 t he ouser,·anc<'.'
L eslie Stephen says of Johnson tha t he,' w;1~ trouhl~I .;Q
rather an excessi vc allowance of h umaa natnre . 1 he 111l 11,.1uft • ..
the American saying, •There is a great deal of h11111a11 !1:ih1N •
m an' ; 'human nature ' bein g used in the sense of hu111illlllf 09 lM
weak and erring asl'ccts.
'Verbosity is curc'l by a witlc vocahular,Y.' 'flii!I intin"w t
truth untlcr the gui se of a sci f-contratlictiou. By the l'o111111An.I !flf •
wide vocabulary, we can make so happy a selection u..'! lo &i'•...,
meaning in few wonl R.
Ilcsir.d, illnF<trnti11g tlic d cRirahlc1wRs of 1<i1111'li.-it1 ol
remarks, 'How 111nch ii:i th e half greater than t.hc whole '.
'I am con ten t, arnl l Llon' t lik e my sitnat ion' i11 nn «'l•l._-naa
Goethe, in sinnating that a ce rtain rc111ai11i11g wa11t1 to i111l11111.. .,11t ·
anJ inspire l101>e, is better tlmn having every crnving t;raUW
once.
'By indignities men come to dignities,' is a clmrnckri.tic "'I of Bacon.
1
Some p eople are too fool i~h to commit follies.'
'A soul of gootlncss in thi11g~ evil.'
'The better is the e11e111y of the gn11,l,' is n Ot· rm~n

205

internlcd to r eprove nl'lpirations after tl;e impracticable. It is a
vnrious rendering of the homely saying, 'more haste, worse speed'.
'One secret in education is to know how wisely to lose time'
(Herbert Spencer).
'Irresistible logic of fact."!.' Logi c iR the form of ren1mning, and
is the contrast of the facts. 1 Nothing 1:10 fallacious o.s facts, except
figures ' (Cannin$)·
Pope revels m epigrams.
'Tis all your business, business how to shun.
And most contemptible to shun contempt.
Bacon originated the epigram, 1 Nature is to be comuum<led by
"beying '. Porc's version isNat.nre, like liher'l.y, iA hPAt reRt.rai11"'l
Dy t.hc eame laws which first hernclf or1lained
AgninAnd now the chapel's silver bell you hear,
'!'hat summons you to all the pride of prayer.
S ee Cromwell damn'd to everlasting/ame.
With 'Tennyson the figure is frequent.
He is all fault who hath no fault at all.
He makes no friend who never made a foe.
Dead for two years before his d eath was he.
IT is l1011our rooted in tli!1l1011nur At.oo,J,
And faith unfaithful kept him fi.Llsely true.
Kentl'I, in addressing sleep, calls it 'unconfin'd r estraint, impriIOll'J liberty'.
-Shelley expresses the consciousness of Btrength exlmusted and
llmMtion beginning to pass away, by the phrase, 'a sense of senseless1t11 '.

2. Another mode of giving a shock of surprise by
-word play, is the Identical Assertion.
'What I have written, I have written.'
To say that a thing is wlrnt it is, conveys no additional
lnlonnation, and we are surprised that any one should per.lorm such an unmeaning act. vVe then cast about, and find
· &hat there are two senses in the words, and that the subject
'. takes one, and the predicate another. 'What I have
written ' means simply the inscription as set up by Pilate ;
&he second clause, 'I have written,' is intended to insinuate
Uae further meaning, not necessarily conveyed, that the
Aiucription is written finally, and is not to be amended or

206

SEEMING IRRELEVANCE.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-EPIGRAM.

reconsidered. So ' fact is fact '; 'sensation is sensation';
' argument is argument'.
'What are you reading? Words.'
'Fresh and fresh'.
The employment of a wor<l in its eminent sense enters lnrgrly
tl is kind of epinram. ' His coming was an eve1!t'; not an
"
tn .o 1
b
d
ceptlonal e\'ent.
event in the ordinary sense, nt a rnr~ .o.n ex
' .
r
'Wl ' wlw' is the title of a book contammg th~ enumerat10n
nll '~~:sons of consequence. 'Nothing succ~eds like suc~ec:;1\n'::
u.ttafnment of one success is the means of Rt1ll greater.
•
S.:
1
fl n.'1e I\ 8 mile'; giving thiugR tlieir plain names,. how~v~r m1sav m~y i
1
, lll c ca11 fll 11,.,. 111 ca
•,; e IJ·t•l wuucs.
'The cxcee1l111g
,.,, •.• , <
<
•
b <lsmlul11c!!il
l . f tof
l •Ill.
rur
' His fa.ther was born befol'e him ; ' lie was rnde te to uf }· icr lbt
unnsn~l advantages. '1 am older than I was;' I am ce mg
· f 11 · .
weight of years.
.
• 'fht
'Ricliard's himself ngain ; ' hM regn.mc<l 1ns u vig~nr. .
y to do a thin" is jrn~t to <lo it;' col'n~spo111ls to a Lalin pro\t•r1\
~.~ etti~a0 out of~i diillcnlty-' soll:ittir ambnla!ido '. ''1')1~~c th;1t 1ue
g
l' 'Six arnl }mlf a-dozen' ''I weuty slnlhn~~ 111 the
·
' '
··
• l uts · tht> foll
0noo<l are goQ( ·
om;<l . ' an cmplin.tic Rln.tement of pay mg ones le
m
An Hebrew of the HeUl'CWS; I one :pre-eminent in the Helm~•
characteristics.
.
.
.
n· 'n the
'There are llistories and histories;' great mequa 1 tee I
merits of histories : a very common form of speecll.
1 . l 111 ot
An emphatic statement of the princi1•.le of t 1e
rig '
'
men is giYen in Bent.ham's irlcntical assertion-;' every o Y lo cuusa
for one and nobrnly to connt for more than one ·
' A man's a man for a' that' is the oct's strong nsse1-tion of the worth of en.ch ~nan ns rnnn, apart
from the ad ve.ntitions circumstances of rank or fo1 tune.
· t

i°

r

eiu:J

..

3. A shock of surpnse is given by seeming
levance.

When Emerson say~, •where snow falls thcro is f~
, he puts together two things that have no obnOUI
c~:ection · the proposition appears, not so much c;nu.
dictor , as irrelevant and nonsensical.. When _wo re cd •
little, ywe see that he means to descnb_e tho rnfluoncl't ol
tropical heat in dcbil~t?'ting the energies of mon, nutl 10
preparing them for poht1cal slavery.
.
.
' The gentleman wi~h t!ie foo_lish teeth,' is an urclo\·~
but the author's intention is plam.
. . to .
A man shipwrecked on _an un~no~n con.Rt, commg •
dead body hanging on a g1b~>0t, is. ~a.id to hn.vo oxpro..l
his thankfulness that he was 111 a c1v11tzc<l country.

d

207

Carlyle, speaking of tho Salzburg country, says-' an
extensive Crypto-Protostn.ntism lodging, under the simple
slouch-hats, in the remote valleys there. Protestantism
peaceably kept concealed, hurting nobody; wholesomely
forwarding the wooden-clock manufacture, and arable or
gra.zier husbandries, of those poor people.' The insinuation
is that their simple and industrious ways grew out of their
attachment to the Protestant creed.

4. Allied to the epigrnm in effect is the turning of a
(1uniliar sayiug into some co11truuictory or unexpected
shape.
We suffer a momentary surprise from the saying of
Ilorace Walpole-' Summer has set in with its usual
1evority' ; tho fact being thn.t tho early so-callou swmner
months contain much cold weather.
' Do unto others as ye would not that they should do
unto you '-a surprise, intended for irony.
'The survivn.l of tho unfittcst.'
'He has returned to his first hale.'
'All men are born unequal;' a parody and contradiction
of the American declaration of the rights of man.
There are many modes of turning the passage-' Con1Cicnce does make cowards of us all ': ' custom doth make
dotards of us all ' ; ' sickness makes scoundrels of us all'.
To set forth the requisites of a good librarian, it was
aid-' The librarian who reads is lost'; an epigrammatic
adl\ptation of the old adage-' The woman who hesitates is

lost'.
One of Gibbon's characteristic forms of epigram is shown
in his saying-' The choice of the enemies of Rome was
decided by the legislative authority !-to signify the power
ol declaring war.
In Kinglake's History we have this passage-' In the
' eyes of the Czar, Lord Stratford's way of keeping himself
:,. 'lltrnally in the right and eternally modern.to was the mere
.1 eontrivance, the inverted J esuitisrn, of a man resolved to do
fOO<l that evil rnigltt come-resolved to be forbearing and just
lor the sake of doing a harm to the church'.
,
We might invert Spenser's designation of tho old
Inglish, and call it ' the well of English u111m1·1'jied '.
· It was romarkod sarcn.stically of somoouo, remarkable
. lor propriety-' He has not a redeeming vice'.

208

PROPER SCOPE OF EPIGRAM,

FIGUltES OF SPEECH-EPIGRAM.

George III. said to one that came late and quotc<l tho
sitying • J1etter late than never,' that he would have the
proverb, ' Better never than late'.

5. A mild form of the shock of Epigram is seen in
the use of the Arrestive conjunctions.
1

1 We hate the sin, but pity the sinner.'
The worlcl
will tolerate many vices, but not their diminutives.'

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull.

...

:i
1

·'·,
•
..
•

I

(i. The play upon words is carried to an extreme in
the Paronouwsia, or Pun .
The pun is not a gen uine form of Epigram, itlthough
base<l upon the sn,me foundation of verbal ambiguity. :\11y
one, in a burst of enjoyment, shouting, 'This is /1/1',' CX·
emplifies the epigram of intensity. But when , i1l. answer to
the question, 'Is life worth living?' the r eply is, 'ThnL
depends on the liver,' there is a pun upon the t·wo \\·holly
unconnected meanings of the word-the verbal noun from
'live,' and the nn,me of an organ of the human body .
Punning upon proper names is common. 1Eschyh1"
plays upon the name of H clPn, as signifying to take n\~' RY
or destroy. l'etcr is the RtL111c as rock; h ence the s11y111g.
•Thou art I'eter ; and on this rnck will I build my church'.
'J/mne-keeping youth have ever homely wits,' is Romo.
thing between an epigram arnl a pun. Thero is a ccrt~in
connection in the two uses of home, which woukl be wa.ntmg
in the typical pun.
The pun illustrates nothing, conveys no truth in more
impressive form; it belongs simply to the exertion of
ingenuity to cause admiration and surprise. Hence, npan
from conversatiou, it is nowadays mostly confined to coauio
writing. For example, in Hood--

Ben Ra ttle wmi a soldier bold,
And used to war's alarms,
Bnt a can non-ball shot off his legs,
So h e laid down his arms.

OrThc parson tolil the sexton, antl the sr.xton lollr.rl the hell.

But in our older liternture it was quite common.
Shakespeare it is abundant, in tragic as well as in comio
writing ; and even Milton occasionally uses it.

o(

209

The Conundrum carries out, to the utmost limits, the play
cross-purposes with words.

7. The legitimate scope of the Epigram
composition follows from its characteristics.

.

lll

Like all strong effects, the figure is liable to abuse. Its
vo.lue consists in calling attention to important meanings,
and in helping to fix these in the memory.
The figure also furnishes the pleasure derived from
&uggcstion, seeing that the hidden meaning is left for the
hearer or reader to detect. And in addition, it is often a
powerful means of condensation.
.
On the other hand, the stimulus is attended with fatigue
and loss of power on the whole; while the emphasis placed
on some one circumstance may violate proportion.
All this is on the most favourable suppositions; namely,
that the word-play is needed for the occasion,. and that the
double meaning is readily got at, and serves to bring out
the intended truth.
Milton's epigram on the leader of tlic Satanic host-' by m.erit raisctl
lo that brtd eminence '-takes an 111Hl11c liberty with the word 'merit,'
•hich should siguify powers cmploye1l so as to command approbation.
\\' e 11111st rr~an[ sueh an epi~rnm as 11. poetic licence ; its J11stilicution
dep<•n1l11 on it.<1 liniu~ v1·ry poi11t.1 ·1l 1Uttl illnst.ml.ivn.
Tho Socmtic 'ig11om11ec,' 011 itR first c111111citLt,io11 by the )'hilosophcr,
WL~ a power over men's minds, and in tho direction then most nec1lcd.
All mo<lcm imitations aml repetitions of tho thought aro of value only as
rrrso1111\ sarcasms.
'At1other such victory, arnl we arc undone,' is both cpigrnmmo.tic and
ltfllC. The intention readily di scloses itself, and the regular meaning of
the wonl 'victory' is not sacrificed to licence.
' Beware the fury of a patient man,' sriy!l Dryden ; an unexceptionable
rmployment of the form of epigram. It serves its purpose in awakening
attention; and the true meaning is within reach of a moment's reflection.
'A favourite has no fri end' (Gray) is a delicate reproof of the weakness
and insuflicicncy of favouritism.
The moral epigrams of the same aut11or lmve the exaggeration permitted to the moralizing strain, and are not open to cavil.
How low, how little, are the proud,
How indigent the great.
'The right divinr. of kings to govern wrong' is an effective pun upon
&be wonl 'right' ; the sentiment could not be more tersely given.
'Not less alone than when alone' is uot remarkably illnstrn.tivo.
'l>ark with excess of bright' l11is been fonntl a serviceable saying; thcro" an occasional literality in its application ; and it can be turned to a
n.ricty of uses.
'Like, but oh ! hmv different' may strike us when first said. As with

210

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CONDENSED SENTENCE.

the naying 'A nothcr a1Hl the same,• it fails to give }Joint for the rca.wn
that ngl'cemcnt in difl'cl'cncc is the rule in nature.
'
'He never wrote bccanRc he had to say something, bnt hr.rallRC 110 h~·I
something to sny.' A very forcible epigrammatic c.011trast brincring
out an
important principle.
' . 0
Shelley has thisThc bright chains
Eat with their burning cold into my bones.
'Piercing cohl ' would servo as well.
Horace thus expresses the intellectual influence of Grecco over R!JmeGraccia crrpta fernm victormn cepit et artcs
In tu lit agrcsti Latio.
This is imitated by Pope, very imperfectly, in the lines\l{e concprnr'd France, but felt our captive's charms•
Her arts victorious triumph'd o'er our arms.
'
Horace has. all the f?rce of brevity and snggestivoncss; whcrca~ rop•
rather cxplams the epigram, awl so destroy8 its effect.
The power of the Epigram for siwgcstinrr very forcibly wliat woulil 1..
weakened by fuller cx11rcssio11, is seen h1 such ~n instance as this fro1111'01ie:
One from all Grnb·strect will my fame defend,
Aml more ab1t1>ive, calls himself my frieml.
To sit thus, stsmd tl11rn, sec and be seen,
At th cyropcr place. in the proper minute,
And die away the life between. (Browning.)
A forcible expression of the lifelessness of mere convcutioual 11ropritt7,
arresting attention and expressing contempt.
W ?rdsworth closes a poem on Burns, after spcakino of his frailtiea ...
confessing the common weaknesses of mankind, with tl1c wortlsThe best of what w~ do and are,
Just God, forgive.
Compare Tennyson's expression of the same thoughtForgive what sccm'd my sin in me·
IVhat seem'd my worth since I bc;an:
For merit li1'es from man to man,
Aud not from man, 0 Loni, to thee.
These.e;ramples show that the epigram may be used with effect ha a.a.
gravest wntwg.

THE CONDENSED SENTENCE.
1. The Condensed Sentence is an artificial nlJbrcriati?n of the. structure, apparently involving irnpropriot7
or mcongrmty.
'Bru t~s i~1stitu~ed lib.erty and the consul.~ldp.' ProJlMlr,
t.he verb 1 mst1tuted. applies only to 'the consulship,' and . .
should say, ' won liberty for the State and institu&od 1111

LIJUITAT:ONB OF THE FIGURE.

211

consulship·~ But by bringing the two objects under one
verb we indicate an important connexion, and call special
attention to it by the seeming impropriety.

'Smelling of musk and of insolence' (Tennyson) is a conjunc·
lion of words at first sight incongruous, and demanding separate
1tatements-' smelling of musk and exhibiting insolence' ; but. the
apparent incongruity calls attention to a connexion in the thmgs
•J!Okcn of.
Gibbon has such examples n.~ these-Spain was 'exhausted by
the abuse of her strength, hy America nml by supcrstitio1~ '. 1 'l'l~e
aystem of Auaustns was adopted by the f ears and the vices of his
aucce~sors.' 1 1.'he Caledonians were indebted for their independence
lo their poverty no less than to their valour.' ' Of the nineteen
lymnts who started up under the reign of Gallienus, there was not
one who enjoyed a life of peace or a natural death.'
.
In these exo.mpleA, one verb is connected with two or more
auhjects, objects or a<Jvetbial 11hrases, whereas a tliffer.~mt verb .sho~ld
properly be supplied to each. In other cases, the mcongrmty hes
only in bringing together, in one enumeration, things so different that
they would naturally receive distinct statement. 'l'hns: 'Proselytes and gold mines were songht with equal ardour' (Macaul~y).
1
Son~ht' is perfectly o.pproptiate to bot~1; yet to speak. of s~ekm~
_ pr011Clytes and gold nnues involves an. rnc<:mgruous co~•J 1mct~o~ o
· idl'N!; these being such as would ordmanly be pnt mto d1stmct
· tlauscs or sentences. 'The pious youth sought in the palace of
O>nsumtinople an orthodox baptism, B noble wife and the alliance
ol the Emperor Justin' (Gibbon).
1
There used to Le in l 1 aris, u111lcr the ancient regime, a few
women of brilliant talents, who violatecl all tlw c01n11wn duties of life,
Hd gare very pleasant little suppers. Among these supped and sinned
llatlni.nc D'Epinay.'
.
.
1
Inflamed with bad passions and worse whisky.'

2. The Condensed Sentence, being closely allied to
&ho Epigram, is subject to the same limitations.
J,ike the Erigram, the Con~cnsed Scn.tencc is largely used fo~

,

eomio rffcct. l'hns: 'Some lulled part.nclgcs, othert1 tune only.
•She ili<l 11ot return t.o l1crsclf or her needle for I\ montl1 l\ftcrwl\rtls.'
'

1'hnckeray uses the construction ~bumlantly ,for tl!is pmyose.

1lie 11i(•1l fu 11 of 11ononrs and of nn nsp1c of plovers eggR. ' I tmmd
J1MI hn1l gone to cultivate matrimony arnl your cst~ttc in ~he co~mti·J'.·'
Dickens employs it in ways still more broadly conuc, as m tlus
IMtance : ' She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief'.
l'ope Ima examples like thisHere thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, ·
JJost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes tea.
But the Condensed Sentence is also frequently used, with good
lllct, in serious composition; only, as with all pungent effects, it

~·

212

FIGURES OF SPEECH-INNUENDO.
VARIETIES OF INNUENDO.

mmit not be overclone. Gibbon, as we have seen, often mnploya il:
and so does .Macaulay. Tennyson occasionally uses itHeal'd thy hurt and heart with unguent and caress.
Behind him rose a shadow and a shriek,
The moment and the vessel passed.

3. The profuse employment of such effects as the
Epi~ram

and the Condensed Sentence, together with

Antithesis and Balance, constitutes what is called tho
Pointed Style.
It is also called ' epigrammatic '. The French excel in
it. It is seen in Dryden, Pope, Junius, Emerson. The
excess of the quality in Tacitus, Lucan and Seneca ia
usually identified with the decline of Latin literature.

INNUENDO.
1. Implying, or suggesting, instead of stating plainly.
often increases the effect of what is intended to givo ·
either pain or pleasure. This is Innuendo, or Insiuua.tion.
Sydney Smith said of a book he was reading-' I sinccrnlJ
hope it will improve'. The suggested meaning was that tbt
book, so far as he had read it, was bad or indifferent. '.l'hit
is not actually said.
Sir William Temple, when in ill healtl1, 1mi1l 'he ditt not ~
sult physicians, for he hoped to die without thcm'-a severe innu~
on medical men.
Mark Twain relates how, wlien travelling in the company cl
German people, he began to talk private matters to his Am('rln.
companion, who became nervous anrl sai<l : 'Speak iii Ger..,.j
these Germans may understand English'.
,
1
Gnar<l us from the evil one, an<l from metapliors,' is lleine'•'"lf
of expressing the mischief of using metaphors in rea.'!onillK· 1\11 '
innuendo is here an application of the Condensed Sentl'nce.
It was said of Brougham by a great lawyer-' If he knew a llttlt
law, he would know somewhat of everything'. To mw1111e hi1 ~
ranee of his own profession, insinuatetl donut of his other acc1•
tions, even while seeming to a<lmit them.
Some one has 1·cmal'lwd apropos of I\ writer dPPrnr.1 "
though eloquent-'! prefer a doctrine that I can only uuJt
to one that I can only admire '.
Innuendo is what is termed Suggestiveness carr!e1l to the
of Figure. Wh!i.t it does is merely to keep the main purro- Olll

view, so as to attain it better.
of the figure.

Euphemism is a special application

The other devices employed are very various. An idea mny be
granted; as when A1lllison asks every man that complained of the increased price of the Spectritor to conshler ' whether
1t is not better for him to be half a year behindhaml with the
(Mhionahle and polite part of the world' (when he could have the
completed volume at the old price) 'than strain himself beyond
bis circumstances' -an assumption that the complaints nrose from
the innhility of people of fashion and consequence to pay the price.
There may be an implied comparison or contrast. 'It is curious,'
M)'S Heine, 'that the three greatest adversaries of Napoleon l1ave all
of thern ended miserably. Castlereagh cut his own throat ; LouiH
the Eighteenth rotted Hpon his throne ; and Professor Saalfel<l is
~ llill a Professor at Gotti11gni '-that University being regarded as n
· eeat of pedantry. So, in Pope's reference to a literary oppolientyet then did Dennis rave in furious fret ;
I never answered-I was not in debt.
Sometimes an effect is stated, while the cause if' left for the
rtwler to infer. When a lady is called 'venerable' or 'experienced,'
iL is implied that these are effects of age.
Again, a remark may apparently be irrelevant, yet express an
important meaning. The Condensed Sentence is often turned to
act~ount in this way. Fuller said of Camden the antiquarian : 'He
h111l a number of coins of the Roman Emperors, and a good many
.wre of the later English kings'.
~imply taken for

2. Innuendo is largely used for effects of ludicrous
but may be employed in any case where
open declaration of the main purpose is to be avoided.
It is subject to the same limitations as Epigram.
d~prcciation,

In vituperation, Innnellflo is of advantage as giving no direct
. grouncl of reply. It is often used for effect'! of pure humour. In
" Jlllying a compliment, also, it avoids the more offensive forms of
i'::# aircct flattery. Besides, as in Epigram, the exercise of the hearer's
?); or ren1ler's ingenuity, if not overdone, is pleasing in itself.
<ii'

ii;:
~.

~·

'

IRONY.

.) ,. 1. Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is
' ~-men.nt, there being something in the tone or the
"'~~ manner to show the speaker's ronJ tlrift.
, ? .'

Job's address to his friends is ironical : ' No doubt but

..'q_:J'I are the people, and wisdom shall die with you'. So, also,
..·are the words of Elijah to the prophets of Baal: 'Cry aloud,

214

IRONY IN GULLIVER.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-IRONY.

for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or ho
is in a journey, or peraclventure he sleepeth, and must be
awaked '.
The ironical address is a powerlul weapon of vitnpe,..
tion : like Innuendo, it embarrasses an opponent by gi,·itag
no opening for reply.
Bentham, in his attacks upon the English Law, constantlydelll!rild
it as our 'matchless constitution'.
Locke, in arguing against innate ideas, indulges in i;trokH "
Ir0ny, such as this: 'If ideas were innate, it would eave wuda
trouble to many worthy persons'.
The Mark Antony oration is full of ironical effects. Such i• 11.t
reiteration of •honourable men,' applied to the murdercr11 of ( '11....r.
There is a delicate strnke of irony in Sir G. C. Lewis's n'1111uk 14
the pretended antiquity of the Babylonian Astronomy. 'The 11tot1
of the Astronomical observations, extending over 31,000 yen~••'
from Babylon to Aristotle, would be a conclusive proof of t/v, 1111t11li•IJ .
of the Chaldrean Astronomy, if it were true.' The il'ony co11Hi~I• i•
seeming to accept the enormous allegation, with merely the """"'
reservation, 'if it were tme '.
As with Allegory, the difficnlty of making Irony effect he i.1 nty
much increasetl, when the attem\1t is miule to sustain it thN•ni:h 11
long passage. It is then especial y that freshness in the matter ..,&
o.pprop1fateness in the application are calle1l for.
In the Spectator, No. 23!), there is 1m example of su~taine•l lroe1
on the subject of various kinds of Argument. There is tlll'
illf
confuting an antagonist by knocking ·him down ; the 1t/tirn11 Nltd
regum-convincing by dint of sword ; the most 11otnhhi way J
managing a controversy-arguing Ly torture ; arnl 111111llli'r
ti
reasoning, which seldom fails-convincing a man by l't'll'ly
These are expounded with consistent seriousness, and with ,_,..,
of applications.
There is snstainecl irony in Swift's maf'ter-picccs of All~
Gulliver, the Tale of a Tnb arnl the Battle of the llooks.
·
Take the following example from Gulliver:-

215

': ling, when I happened to say there were severnl thonsand Looks among
·_ u written 1111on the art of government, it gave him (directly contrary to

•1 intention) a very mean opinion of our underst11ndings.
Both Innuendo and Irony are happily combined in this passage;
: 11111 the Gulliver contains much more to the same effect. The vitu,' pernlive pmpose is apparent., while no direct accusation is made,
·~-. . It is ~ust~ined ~1:ony that constitutes a great p~rt o~ t11~ more
·, 41rect satire m Swift's other works ; such 118 Ius Directions to
~- MtY111ts nnd An Argurnent to prove that the Abolishing of Christianity
ii 1':11gland rnay, as Things now stand, be attended with sorne !neon-

,·

~, W!litrrcr.91 and perhaps not produce those many good Effects proposed

The latter title is ironical.
'l:hc Socratic Irony consisted in an affectation of ignornnce and
a d<'11ire to be infonned ; but it was generally meant to be taken
eeriously by the hearer, at least at the beginning of a discussion.

llimliy.

t

From the effectiveness of the instrument, we are ac-

~ natomed to the habitual employment of numerous common-; .;c Dlaccs of Irony : ' It never entered into his wise head,'

~.,_

''if.'

leo great a master,' • a superior person,' 'how very kind'.

·'

""•1

••1
n.,....,..

A strango effect of narrow principles and short 1'il'1r.~! thAt 1 ~ ·
possessed of every quality whidt procures vcucratio11, Joni n11•l r•t"'• .."
great parts aud profound lcaruing, e111lowe1l with ncl111irnl1le ,....._
,
fur government, anti almost a1lorctl by his subjects, shout.I from I ...,, · •
unnecessary scruple whereof in Europe we can havo no ron...,.1.ci... M .'~ .
slip an opportunity put into his hands that wonlcl have mn•lt' him
master of the lives, the lihertics, a111l the fort1111es of hi>1 IH'Oj•I···
~
do I say this with the least intention to cldrnd frou1 t.lw 1111111,· •lrt. . rttl
that excellent king, whose character I 11111 se11siblo will 011 t)1l• .,........, ,
be very much lessened in the opinion of an English rc:11l1•r: but I ....
this defect among them to have risen from their ig11ornnro, 1'1 DOt ~
hitherto reduced politics into a science, ns the moro al'Utc wit. ol
. ·
have done. For I remember very well in a discourse CJno da7 •i..

.1-a.. , '
s... ,. ..

INTERROGATION.
1. '\Vith 11 view to impressiveness, we often employ
·. &be form of Interrogation, without meaning to put an
~~· ectunl

question.

When we are asked a question, we are under the
J' llCCS'sity of attending, in order to give an answer; and
:: lienco the interrogatory form is often made use of, although
." ID answer is not expected.
_
Interrogation is a figure widely employed, and for
... parJ>Oses quite distinct from each other. In classifying
ibe kinds, we may begin with those that assist the undertf llanding chiefly.

I-

;rX

-~ ·_

2. The form of a question may be employed to call
;r/lltentiou to an important statement.

-_ ·

One cnsc is where the qncstion is e1nivalent to a conditional
1 ls any n111011g yon alllictccl 1 let iim pray.
Is any merry 1
;; .. him sin~ psal111s.' '!'his is only a more forcible way of saying,
' ~-•U lhrre is any afllicted '. So again: 'Seest thou a man wise in
' W. own conceit 1 there is more hope of a fool than of him'. Bun\ JU'• rhyming introduction to the Pilgrim's Progress ends with a.
!'-*of such questions, beginning-

~ ~

216

THE CATECHETICAL FORM.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-INTERROGATION,

Wouldst thou divest thyself from melancholy 1
Wouldst thou be pleasant, yet be far from folly 1
the answer being fiually given thus0 then come hither
And lay my book, thy head and heart together.
So again-Is any sick 1 the Man of Ross relieves,
Prescribes, attends, the med'cine makes and givc11.
Or, the question may rouse interest in the statement tl1nt i• lo
he given in reJ;ly. 'What shall one then answer the mei<!>e11g<'re ol
the nation 1 l'hat the Lol'd l1ath founded Zion, arnl the INIOf ol
His people shall trust in it.' So, in the following from PupcWhat makes all physical or moral ill 1
'!'here deviates Nature, and here wanders Will.

,,

With every pleasing, every prudent part,
Say, what can Chloe want 1 She wants a heart.
•What is the world in the l1igh scale of the Almighty'11 work·
manship 1 A mere shred, which, though scattered i11to nntliin~ '
would leave the universe of God one entire scene of grcatncAA a11•l -I
ruajesty '. (Uhalmers.)
In such cases, the power of t1rn Interrogation depend~ on t lu! ,Jdll
displayed in so shaping t.hequestion as to awaken interest in I hca11J1 ..~.
Again, it is a well-k11own device in Exposition to put a Jia.
culty in the form of a question, to arouse attention, before shilc
the solution.
'Vhy 11.as no.t man a microscopic eye 1
For tlus plum reason, man is not a. fly.
'The island of Delos was the accrctlite<l birt.h-plare of Ar-'""'
and is also the place in which he chiefly delights, wlll'1-e tlic ~
and brilliant Ionic festival is periodically convenc<l in his liobio.r.
Yet it is a rock, narrow, barren and uninvitiug : how came"' gt--..
a priv_ilege to be awarded to it? 'This the poet takes Up<m hirrvdJ It

explain.'
Paley starts t.he chief enquiry in 1\Iorals, with the int"~'
-Why_ am I ohlige1l to keep my word 1 'J'hifl hM tlio f1an)i11t
emphasis of embodying a general truth in a specific exa111l'le.
The cateclrntical form of instruction is conceived with th11 n..r ti
awakening attention. Its value hns been very much weahn<'ll t.,. ...
practice of expounding a whole system of <loctrinnl trnths 11111lrr th. ....
of question an<l answer. The proper plnu, in most cnsc!I, i~ to
y,.
the leading truths in the direct form, nml to employ intcrl'l>f,'lllit• ll!i - ;;;'
~asten attenti~n upon important points that might c!lcnpe noti(.... 1'-'
m the teachmg of the Commarnlments, it is ncc<llcss to I'""'~
successively with a question-What is tire First Commnndmrnl 1 I& it
the attempt to analyze each into its component pnrts, that th11 fona ..
use,-What is required-What is forbidden-in the Jfiret Com11111--11

Bentham exemplifies the power of the catechetical metnod in his
rarliamentury Reform Catechism. His first question isWhat are the ends of our Parliamentary syi;tem'
.Answer-Many might be mentioned ; but they come under one or
other of three expressions, but chiefly (1) securing the greatest amount of
111dow111ents or elements of aptitude on the part of the members.
Then follows Question 2-What are these endowments or elements of
•rtitude t Tho answer turns on the word 'appropriate,' applied to the
- firtucs of probity, intellect and activity.
Quest10n 3 is a. demand for the meaning of this all-important term
'appropriate,' to which an answer is given.
Question 4 pursues tho enquiry by asking whnt tho word means ns
1pplicd to probity.
.
Question 5 asks the snme witJi reference to intellcctu.nl n11t-1tu.de; and
Question 6 makes a similar denuu!1l with reforeuco to ar!ive tnlcnt.
If tho Westminster Catcclusm had followed t1ns plan, tho first
qn~stiou-' Whnt is tho chief end of man 1-Man's chief entl is to g~orify
Go.I, nnd to enjoy Hirn for ever,' would have he~n followed bJ: the tlmd• What is God 1' and then by a further quest1011-' What is meant hy
flqrifying God 1'
In the present class of interrogations, it is expected that
IMwer will be returned. In those that follow, the answer
of'lenest dispensed with, and is never essential to the effect.

0~1
I~

3. Doubt, difficulty and uncertainty that cannot be
-easily removed, may be given by means of an lnterrogation.
The writer may mean that a point is insoluble, while
himself having some obvious leaning.
This supernatural soliciting
Cannot be ill ; caunot be gornl :-If ill,
Why hath it gi \'CU me eamcst of A11cces~!
Conmiencing in a truth 1 I ;un thane <;f Cawuor:
If goou, whr <~o I yield to tlu~t suggcs~wn
Whose horr1tl image doth unhx my hmr,
And make my seated heart knock at my ribs,
Against t.he use of nature 1

So, in In MemoriamWhen Lazarus left his charnel-cave,
And home to Mary's house returned,
1Vas this demanded,-if he yearned
To hear her weeping by his gmve 1

tn•.,.._

"-

217

';~

Wonder may also be thus expressed: 'But will God indeed dwell

,. •the earth 1 Behold, the heaven and heaven of heavens cannot
r."' •&&in thee ; how much less this house that I have builded 1'

218

INDISPUTABLE STATEMENTS.

FIGURES OF SPEECH-INTERROGATION.

And is this Yarrow 1-this the stream
Of whi ch rny fancy cherished,
So foitl1folly, a waking dream 1
An image tliat hath pel'ished I
Hast thou then survivedMild ofl'sprfog of infirm humanity,
l\leek iufan t 1
A11_ied to these cases is the way of suggesting !l frrncif111 i1lN bJ
a quest10n.
.
0 cnckoo, slrnll I call t.hee bird,
Or but a wandering voice t

. i{

4. An indisputable statement may receive emphnsia
by the form of a question.
1
Where is the evidence to support so monstrous a proposition ? ' It is taken for granted that the answer mlllt
be 'Nowhere,' and the question is accordingly left withou&
an answe~ being so much as attempted. 'l'he effod ol
Interrogation so used is to suggest that the speaker'•
position is unassailable. Hence it must be rescl'\'cJ for
cases where the arguments are of the strongest kind.
There is needed a certain elevation, or at least vivaci&y,
in the subject to justify this form of Interrogation. Moroov~r, the point so expressed must not be absolutely seU.
evident or a mere commonplace, else it tends to make the
question ridiculous.
~eplying to tl1e ohjection against Political Economy, tl11\t la
~ontams. errors,

Bailey puts. the following interrogations : ' \\'l1rN
is the science concerned with events, material or mental, that h.M
not h:i<l to struggle through errors of tlte grossest character 1 I• il
chenustry 1 look to the doctrine of absolule levity. Is it natural
philosophy 1 look to nature's horror of a vacuum. 'Is it Mlronomy I
look to the immense blunder of placing the ea1th in the centre ot 11.
solar system, o.nd even of the universe.'
An argument is often presse1l home with such formR RA, 1 How
can he say 1' 'Do you mean to allirm 1' 'Is this true or no 11
1
The bo<ly is not one member, but many. If the foot 11l1all
.
Because I am not the hand, I am not of the bO!ly ; i11 it the~m
not of the body 1 And if the ear shall say, Because I nm not IM
eye, I am not of the body ; is it therefore not of the bcMly 1 111..
whole body were an eye, where were the hea1·ing 1 If tho wbc.ale
were hearing, where were the smelling 1'
Often such an argumentative interrogation is employc1l to hri•
out some important fact that an opponent's arguments or conJ.a. .
are assumed to deny. Thus Shylock, defending his <lc11iro for,..
venge, a.sks : ' Hath not a Jew eyes 1 hath not a Jew haml&, ~

•1, _

219

11imensions, senses, affections, passions 1 • • • If you prick us, do we
not bleed 1 if yon tickle us, do we not laugh 1 if yon poison us, do
we not die 1 and if y9u wrong us, shall we not revenge 1'
One of the most frequent applications of the form is to express
Tcry strongly what is impossible or incredible. 'But who can turn
tltc stream of destiny 1' is more powerful than the strongeRt expres1ion put as an assertion. The 38th chapter of Job contains a series
or interrogations, many of them of this nature.
Breathes tlrnrn the man, with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath sai<l,
This is my own, my native land 1
'If liberty,' says Hall in 11is peroration on the Threatened Inva·
eion, 'after being extinguished on the Continent, is suffered to expire
hl're, whence is it ever to emer~e in the midst of that thick night
thnt will invest it 1' This, as it were, throws on the hearers the
b1mlen of answering a question that he knows they cannot answer.
While in this class of Interrogations the question is generally
left unanswe1·c1l, occaHionally an 1mswe1· is f-:iveu co1Tespo111li11g to
the strength of the 1piestion. 'Who can hnng n clean t11ing out of
an unclean 1 Not one.' The answer may be so shaped as to add to
lhe effect :
·what can ennoble sots, or slaves, or cowards 1
Alas ! not all the blood of all the Howards.
In gencrnJ, t11e answer is better omitted, uu]ess some additional
tfl'ect can be given by it.

5. In venting intense emotion, the figure is often
found efficacious.
It is so employed with effect in Chathn.m's famous
passage on the Indians.
'IR not tltiR great Bahylon, tl1at I liaYe hnilt for tlic l1011Ac of
the kingdom Ly the might of my power, all<l for the honour of my
majesty 1'-a strong utterance of pdde or self-complacency. 'What
ahall we then say to these things 'I '
It is as an utterance of strong foeling, clrnmatically rcpresentetl,
' lhnt the following is to be understood : ' Who is she that looket.h
forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible
11 on army with banners 1'
The sense of desolation may take the interrogative form'Vherc, Corinth, nre thy glories now,
'l'hy ancient wealth, thy castled brow,
'l'hy solemn fones, thy halls of state,
'l'hy high-born <lames, thy crowded gate 1
Indignation or scorn is thus expressedClara, Clara Vere de Vere,
If Time be heavy on yom hands,

/

220

FIGURES OF BPEECH-EXOLAMATION.
APPLICATIONS OF THE FIGURE.

Are there no beggars at your gate,
Nol' any poor about your lan<ls 1
So in the familiar fol'm : ' Where arc your manners 1'

The fitness of the interrogatory form to express deep
feeling may be seen in the tendency of persons under strong
excitement to fall into a series of questions addressed to no
person in particular, and hardly expected to be answered.
The force of the figure is attested by ite effect in Comic
writing. Peter Pindar, in giving Boswell's imitation of
animals at the theatre, and noting his failure, when, from
the cow, he passed to the jack-ass and the calf, asksBut who, alas, in all things co.n be grco.t t

From the examples it will be seen how largely the figuro
is employed in the Old and New Testaments for elevation.
It was also fully developed in the Greek classics, especially
in Oratory. Thus in Demosthenes: 'But what is the condition of Thessaly? Has he (Philip) not taken away her
constitution and her cities, and established tetrarchies, t-0
parcel her out, not only by cities, but by provinces, for subjection? Does he not expressly write in his epistles-I am
at peace wit.h those that are willing to obey me ? '

EXCLAMA'I1ION.
1. Under sudden or intense emotion, our ln.ngnngo
becomes abrupt, inverted or elliptical. This is called
Exclamation.
As the full compliance with the usual forms of spPc<'h
needs a certain degree of coolness or composure, tho foiling
to do so becomes a token of passion or excitement.
The principal varieties of the Exclamation may be grouped thm1:
beginning with those that involve the greatest deviations from orJi·
nary language.
(1.) The interjection is a word havingfor it8 eml to gin~ utlrrunce to some strong feeling-Oh, bah, hurrah, alaR, zomuls. 'J'he
cheers, hisRes and groans called forth hy a public spcahr nrc of n like
nature. This is tl1c extreme expresRion of the ternlr~ u cy lo 1lt•J•r1
from the ordinary forms of the language, unuer the iullucm:o "
strong feeling.
(2.) Words with meaning may be employed in the manner of tJ..
interjection; that is, a word or pl1rase expressing the idea tha&

221

canscs tl1e feeling may be 11ttcrc1l wit.11n11t any R<mtencc F.itrnctnrc.
Such wordfl are ulkn acc11111pa11i1~d by i11t.u1j1~d. io11K.
'Deml, long 1.leatl, long dca1l ! ' '.l\lc mi serable ! ' 'O insupportahle! 0 hcav.v hour l' ' How do yon, Ca!:t->io 1 0, a chair! a chair I'
'That it shoulrl come to this l' '0 the <lepth of the riches both of
the wis<lom anJ knowledge of God ! '
0, my cousin, shallo\v-hearte<l l 0 my Amy, mine no more I
0 the dreary, dreary moorland ! 0 the barren, barren shore l
Ungenerous, dishonourable, base,
Prcsu111pt11011s ! 1'rustc1l as he was with lier,
The sole succeeder to their wealth, their lamls I

(3.) A feeling mny he better <ll'fiuc«l by unmiug the ohjcct1
together with an interjection charactc1·izin..,
the feeling. :For' ex.0
a111ple, strong desire- .
Oh for a lodge in some vru1t wil<lcrnes!'I I
0 that this too, too solitl flesh wouhl melt J
And ah for a man to arise in me,
1'hat the man I am may cease to be l
So with griefAlas for h er that met me,
That hear<l me softly call !
And rejoicingHurrah ! hurrah I for Ivry, and Henry of Navarre I
lll\Y

(4.) An ellipgis in a sentence otherwiRe gmmnmtically complete
have the tdl'cet of exclamation. 'l'his appl ic::1 ei;pccially to the

tlli11sis of a verb-

0 not for thee the glow, the bloom,
Who changcst not in any gale I
I to cl'y out on pri1le
Who have won her favour I
Wl1en the ellipsis is carried further, it approaches the scco111l clai1s
above spccific<l. 'A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse:'
• 1>eacc, ho I no outrage : peace ! '
Late, late, so late I aml dark the night ancl chill.
Off weight-nor press on weiw1t !-away
Dark thougl1ts !-they ca.me, but not to stav.

(o.) Expressions of wonder and aclmiration Jmve a. special inmll-11 form of Rcntcnce, wit.h how, what, &c.
'How beautiful upon t!tc 111011111.ains are tl1e foct of him tliat
Lringcth good tidings ! ' 'Oh what a fall wa.'l there I'
·
How weary, staie, flat arnl nnpmfil.1.hlc,
Seem to me all the uses of thiA wol'ltl. I
•How are the migl1ty fallen, and th.e weapons of war perished J'
11

222

223

FIGURES OF SPEECII-APOSTROPHE,

VISION.

How pure at h enrt anrl sound in l1ead,
With what divine affections bold,
Should be the man whose thought would hold
An hom's communion with the dead I
In the most of these instances, tlie omission of the verb 'voulrl1
ndd to the expressiveness of the figure : ' The mighty, how fallen !
An extreme or incredible statement may be disposed of hy l\O
Exclamation as well as by an Interrogation. A writer, refnt.i111: •
)'Ce nliar d?ctrine as to th~ ju<l~ment of distance ~n birds, exclu111us' Think of the eagle leanuug lhstance by touch I

How instinct varies in the grovelling swine,
Compared, half reas'ning elephant, with thine I
Jn another instance, from the same poet, the feeling is strong
enough, bnt a jar is iutl'O<lttce<l by the familiar ml<lress with 'you,'
instead of the more elevated ' thou'.
0 Death, all-eloquent I you only prove
What dust we dote· on, when 'tis man we Joye.
The use of the Figure is mostly confined to poetry and poetical
proi:e, including the highest flights of oratory. Appropriate exnmples, expressing deep feeling and Rllstuiiw<l hy clcvatctl nm\
harmonious language, occur in 'In :Memoriam'. In Campbell's
'Pleasures of Hope,' there is n series of very effective Aposll'o\1hes
on the suhject of Poland, mhhcs~cd to Truth, the Polish wa1·1·1or~,
Heaven, Vengeance, the Spirits of dead heroes, Poland herself, her
oppressors, and tyrants in general.
In the poetry of the Bible, the figure is abundant. For example-'Awake, awake; put on thy strength, 0 Zion ; put on
thy beautiful garments, 0 J ernsalem, the holy city'. The address
to the King of Babylon in !Raiah 14th is a sustained apostrophe.
In oratory, the figure is more rarely used, since only very strong
feeling can justify it. Robert Hall thus closes a passage on the
misel'ies of the wounded in war: 'Unhappy man I o.nd must you be
awept into tlie grave, unnoticed and unnumbered, and no friendly
tear be shed for your sufferings, or mingled with your <lust 1'

As the figure thus varies according to the intens.ity o(
the feeling, the law of its employment !flUSt be to smt tho
degree to the occasion. In general, it should bo usoJ
sparingly, as being a figure of intensity.

APOSTROPHE-VISION.
1. Under great intensity of emotion, we may a<ltlr<'st
the absent as if present. 'l1lie effect depends on a ll\W
of the mind, that emotion gives greater vividness to our
conceptions. This is the figure named Apostrophe.
Here is Ben Jonson's apostrophe to Shakespeare dcoo-

The frequent employment of the Apostrophe for comic
effects is connected with the production of the ludicrous by
degrading what is lofty. See '.l.'HE EMOTIONAL QUALITIES OF
STYLE-limnour.

Sonl of the age !
T11e applause, delight, the wonder of our stage I
My Shakespeare rise I

2. VrsrnN is allied to Apostrophe, and consists in the

Lady Macbeth, on the eve of Duncan's murder, burst.a
out-

vivid representation of the absent as if present to the

senses.

Come, yon spirits
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here.

The degrees of this Figure vary.

Gray ('Progress of Poesy'), in the transition
Dryden to himself, thus apostrophizesOh Lyre divine, what daring Spirit

'Vakes thee now 1
Byron snys (of Greece)-

Shrine of the mighty ! can it be
That this is all remains of thee 1
What is arhlresse<l may lJe either a person, an innmmnto o1·1«' or an abstraction. To justify the use of the figure, there
liie ,
not only emotion, but also elevation of thouf?ht and lnngullboe. la
the following instance from Pope, neither tile strength or fcel.ilc
nor the elevation of language is adequate.

111.-

~

The historical present

ia an example of it in its lowest gradation. Such an instance
as Byron's 'Gladiator' exemplifies the highest forms, for

which a strong emotion is required.
Hamlet's 'Look on this picture, and on this,' is a case
' of Vision.
Campbell's 'Last Man' furnishes an example, beginningI saw I\ vision in my siecp,
'l'hnt gave my spil'it strength to sweep
Adown the gulf of time I
I saw tho last of human mould
'.J.'hnt shall Creation's death behold,
As Adam saw her prime.

224

225

FIGURES OF SPEECH-·HYPERBOLE.

CONDITIONS OF HYI'ERDOLE.

In Tennyson's Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wei·
lii;i~ton, the m?de of introducing Nelson is of the nature of
V1s10n. So with the dramatic dialogue in Isaiah 63rd.
A magnificent use of Vision, combined with an Apostrophe to departed heroes, is contained in the peroration of
Robert Hrtll's Sermon on 'The Sentiments proper to tho
present Crisis,' 1803.

tn11y oxcrt all his powers of invention and expression, ho nce1ls a snbjeet

IIYPEHBOLE.
1. Hyp~rbole is an effect gained by magnifying things
beyond then· natural bounds.
. Whe~ !"n object pleases greatly, in consequonce of ccrtam qualities, we are willing to purchase an addition to the
pleasure, by .raisin~ ~r i!1tensifying the verbal description of
those qua:hties. 'llus 1s Hyperbole, or exaggeration u~
for effect m style. '.l'he essential conditions are-(1) thnt tho
pleasure be marked and decided; (2) that the <lPpruturo
from truth does not shock our sense of the truthful ; (3)
that the language used be able to sustain the emotionnl in·
terest.
(l:) Under any ~trong passion-M Love, Hatrcrl, Fcnr·-WI! m11~1r,
the obJcct or the P?·ss10n. Love and admiration extol their ol\iPl'I .~ t..·yoei.C
tho bo?ncls of r~ahty. . Hence, to exaggerate is n ecessary to the 1lnunalw
portraiture of ht~h passions. Without strong feeling of some ki111l, it ii DOC
tru~ hyperb~le, ~ub meaningless exaggeration. But tho stre11i.:th or,..
feehng t~at Jnst.ifies tho hyperbole will differ with 1lifl'erc11t i111li1·i1lu•k.
The feol_mgs of Wordsworth might bear him out in tho following i...
guage with reference to a spring <lay-

One moment now mar give us more
Than fifty years of reason.
Or this. One implllso from a vernal wood
May teach yon more of man,
Of moral evil and of good,
Than all tho sages can.
average mind is unable to cope with such oxtravng:rnro.
(2.) ~n regard to the second condition, tlw cin : 11111ht11111'"~ nry. 1"
exnggr:ri1t1on may Ii? 1ltct11f:n1[ soldy hy tlrn fo,,Ji11g~, 1111.t 111n~· 1•,lr•WJ
awl pn~posely 011t.qtr1p tho facts. 8nch arc tJ11, fo111·i,.~ of ln\'I', th" Int..,..
express10n of hatred, and tho wiltlcr outbursts of tho l111li..r11111t. O. ,._
other hand, there are instances where tho scmhlanc" or truth ,nltn ....
tho effect. Roth cases will recrive illustration in what followJt.
·.. ~
(3.) One of the most notable circmnstances co1111ed1·1l with),,......,. '"T_
is the scope given for lofty and original diction. In onl..r tl1~l • ,.._· ~--~

to mil them forth. 'l'his is not often supplied liy the matter-of-fact wol'ld,
11111 has to bo sought in high passions and elevated ideals. Originality of
language ennhlns us to l1enr with hyperboles, as well n!l wit.h other itnnginative effects. This is the distinction of 8lmkcspcaro and the greatest poets
of all ages. It is then properly a feast of language.

In examining hyperboles, we are to test them by the fulfilment
eApecially the last. 'to begin With B
Shakespearean exampleN ot in the legions
Of horrid hell can come a devil more damned
In evils, to top MacLeth.
'Tho cleparhtre from truth is here· conAhleralilc, hut Btill atlowahle
in poetry, if the other cornlit.ions hohl. Now the pa88ion appealed to,
·-namely, iJHlignation and hatrc<l,-is one of our 111aster passio1111, aml
b here l'epl'cscntc1l at its t1t.most 11itch. Although the reference to
hell is not very original, it is so powerfully worded, arnl RO gmnd in
ita iluw of melody, that the passage is pcmmncutly uffccting.
I was all ear
And took in strai1rn that might create a soul
Undel' the l'iLs of Death.

or those three conditions, and

'111i~,

from Comus, is also a great departure from litcrality, but not too

i:reat, provilled it can be rellecmed by feeling and by language. Now,
the e1110tion is the pleasure of music, a great pleasure to a few, but not

a finit-class emotion in men generally, like Anger and Love.

The
lfelccming circumstance is the ol'igi11ality and grandeur of the comJ•l'isun, which survives among the literary treasures of our language.
A day in thy courts is better than a thousand.
Without pretending to weigh the literal accuracy of this expression,
we consider it to be justified by the character and intensity of the
rtligious emotion.
Lady Macbeth's agonies of remorse at last inspire our pity ; and
we nre touched with the pathos, as well as the language of her exclatnation-' All the perfumes of Ara.Lia will not sweeten this little
~<I'.
John 'Vcsley f')loke of ' tlmt exccrahlc sum of all villanics,
nin1111011ly called, 'l'he Slave Trade'. Our feelings go along with
dais 11tro11g l:mgna.gc.
The next cxalll ples will show tl1e limit.q to cxnggemtion ndsi11g
out of l'rganl to the facts.
'l'akP thiR from Rhdlt~y'J'wo hot11·fl, whoflc nright.y cil'l'lc 1fol t't1il11·111·c
More time than might make gl'ey the i11fant world.

· Tbi11 rnormonR exaggeration <lescribes the slownesi1 of time's pnsi111ge,
' It It occasionally appears in a dream, and is not more than is atoned
;. M by the originality of the expression. In the following, on the

226

FIGURES OF SPEECH-HYPERBOLE.

EXAMPLES AND SCOPE OF THE FIGURE.

effect that battl!ng for lih~rty ]~as on those that have died in the cnuM',
the gran<lelll' of the emotion drnpenses wilh cloi:;eness to fact'rheir bones in the grav·e will start and move
'Vhen theY, hear the voices of those they lov~,
Most loud lit the holy combat above.
All. t11at. "'.e look for her; is a pleasing fancy harmoniously exprc!l.tll'CI.
Som tlu s mstance from Campbell, rcfening to Sir William WaJluccTl1e swonl that seemed fit for archangel to wickl
Wns light in his tenible hantl.
'
'l'be same must be said of fancies like the followincr from Tenny·
sont:>
.
Her fresh ood innocent eyes
ad such a star of morning in their blue,
1 hat all neglected places of the field
Broke into nature's music when they saw her.
~~e idea. is liarmonious and pleasing ; and we do not tl1i11k of
it m relation to actual facts.
Compare Sjienscr's passage on Una resting-

There is nothing in the language or in the thought to redeem the
extravagance of the two last lines.
.
.
The love hyperboles of Tennyson may be seen 111 ab~nHlanc~ m
Alnnd. They are often strong ; bnt they generally retam a slight
bol<l on actual facts, as in this example-

! know the \vay she went
Home with her maiden posy,
For her feet have touch'd the meadows,
Aml lcft the duifiics rosy.

A common form of hyperbole is to use. ex~ra~'agant num~ers.
The most remarkable illustration of this device is 111 the suffcnngs
of P1·ometheus, during the three thousand years that he was chained
to his rock.
A powerful hyperbole, partly using numbers, was empl?yed by
Thiers1 with reference to Austria-' !father than the Austrian fin~
al1oukl float in Milan, I woul«l destroy a hundred constitutions and
a hundred relicrions '. We admire the boldness and ~randcur of the
conception, autl accept it as a proof of the intensity of his hatred ancl
dctemii uation.
.
'l'ennyson's In ~Memoriam is a s,nf:lt.'tincd hyperbole ~f comlimed
Affection and Sorrow. As friendship, at its utmost pitch, cannot
in~pire the same abundance of feeling .as t.he love of tl~e .sexes, a
n111ch ~rr~af.cr effort fo necesflary to mamt.:un the reatlct s mtcrest.
l 1ort of 8lmkeHJH'arn'1-1 HonndH iH 1~IH0 0111·11 f.o l.lw n~1111~l'k. · •
Grief in itself is 11 stroncr fcchrw, anti wlwn co111l1111c1l with love,
ttives occasion for hypetbole~ Hcw~c the justification of the follow10g from Burns-

If

Her angel's face,
As the great eye o~ he~ven, sl1yne<l bright,
And matle a sunsluue m the shatly phce.
Reviewing now t.he occa~ions of the ])resent figure, W<' rP1111Uk
tbat the 11ypcrbolefi of love am among the lllOHt frcq1wntaml tlll' m•••
extrayagant. Shakcs1~earc's tl'catmci1t of the passion is 1111~tni11tJ
by lus usunl force of language, but often degenerates into 111rnt
unredeemed exaggeration, as in Romeo and J ulid. It j,. ''"'
strength of t11e fol' I i11g that enalJles us to bear wit.h the linl1itW1I
extravagance of lovers ; but tl'iviality or commouplacc iu &Ji.
language is <lisenchauting.
.
A 'l'r?ubaclonr poet .s[iys .of his love-' Pnrn<lise, without tl1l'f', b
im:perfect . Another tl1111ks It unnec~ssm-y ~n take his lady to Iwar'1l,
seeing that heaven woul<l Le not.lung witlwut her cu111·te11y .W
gent.lcness.
.More powerful is Pope'sBelintla smilc<l, ant! all the world was gay.
OrFair tre8scs man's i:111)erial race cn8narc,
And beauty draws us with a siuglc hair.
'l'herc is even an approach to truth in the couplet., nntl
of the language su::;laius tl1e hyper·bole.
. ~n tlJe Songs of limns, the ll'eatment of }OYC is PO (nr •'f"
Wit.lnn bounds, that the power of the larwua"c
sulliccs to rt:Jl"\'lU M.
0
; The following is an exceptiont:>
To sec her is to love her,
And love but her for ever :
For Nature ma<le her what si1e is,
An<l never ma<le anither.

227

Eternit.y will not efface
'!'hose records dear of transports past ;
Thy image at our last em brace ;
Ah ! little thought we 'twas our last I
Chief, patriotic love and religionA feeling are combined. in tl1e
bype1·bole of J eremiah-·'Oh that my head were w~tcrs, .and mme .eyes

~~':\:~~:~111\~; ~~r~~y t;~~ptI;1!ght we.cp <la~
Exaggemtion plays a part.
'

and n 1ght for.

t~ie slam of

VItnperatwi:i, Rid1cul~ and
0

111

Humour. The emotion underlymg these effects Is our malignant
}'IL~ion, .nnd is Rt.nmg c1!ough to . cn<l ure 11 high .<lcgrt~e of tl~n

hpcrbuhcal. All hnmounsts arc given ~o ~xaggerat10n; b.ut.the.1r
efforts miscarry, if they do not keep w1thm reasonable l.mnts m
dl'preciation ; our enjoyment being enhanced
knowmg that
&Jm ridicule and raillery are deserved. ·we readily pardon some
ucr11.q, if there be originality and power of illui'tration, as in Sydney
Smith.
'l'he· snst.'tined hyperboles of Ossian exemplify the ahnse of the
.. tft"ed. Equally tiresome, to us at least, is the straining of the figure
la }A.stem Poetry.

hr

228

F IG UHE B OF SPEECH-CLIMAX.

Th ere nre two r ema rkal,fo forms of allowable h y perlwle, whic·h
a 1·c jn:-;ti fi e1l hy th cit· 1rn pposc1l ben efi cial consequences. The 011e ia
t.l1 c te111lency to cxcP><;.; of cm11pli111e11t in t.l1 c i11t .1~ 1 ·co nrse of soc il'f~··
To Le cor11111 end ed is RO ag1·cpal>le to th e ol•jcct of i t, and the oppo.~ ite
ifl so painful, that ., fo t th e 8ak n of 111<1.intainiug general good fcclmg,
we h:ibitually overstat e each other's merits. ·
'l'h e oth er cnse is still more p eculiar. In prescribing mrn'•
clut.ies, tho 111ornli:;.ts of nil ages Jmve set np an ideal ihr bey ornl wl111t
can b e attainell ; th e su pposition being tha t this is neceS$:1l'J' in
onl er to secure th e ntmo:;t amount of actual p erforman ce. llcnct>,
th e Jm1gnage of Eth i<:s if! perva<lc<l by the m;c of hyperbole, C:\'cn
without 1iuctical ol'igina li ty.
.
.
Our pleasure in ovct·sta.tin g what.ever concerns our foelrng~, 11
80 w cat th a t our or.11i11a ry l :~n g m~ge con tains hu~l<~reds of h y pet·lm!l'J\
winch we empl oy with ou t, l1e1ng t1re1l or t he r epet1t10n:-' not knnwm~
the right hand from t h e foft' ; ' spliLt.ing h a irs '; 'c11 cese-1>a1fo:.,.,.,
for economy; ' over h <'n.11 and earn' ; '<lriving a coach a111l 11i1
t.hrough ·an A ct of l >:.u founent' ; ' a sea of faces ' ; 'l'}waking
Yolumes '.
The puffery of wareR, arnl the extravagant en cominms on new
inventiom, as W l' II nfl th e g<'neml <l isposi ti on to ta k e ])J'et en1l1•nc nl
their wont, arc all i 11 nstrat.i ve of Ute cairne of sncccsR m exaggl'l"al i1111.
It is the n a tural h opefuln ess of the human mind, th e wi f<h to !incl
tl1ings better than th ey are, that lays us open to th e iuflucucc uC
optimistic views on all subjects.

CLIMAX.

.
'

1. In a ilisconrso adclressod to tho feelings, the pnrticulars n eou to ue so arranged as to rise in emphasis
or intensity to th e last.
Whatever tho passion appealeJ to, this rule applies. IL
grows out of the laws of our sensibility. A smn.ll stimuli\·
tion rouses us when we are fresh ; this palls a11<l must bo
succeeJecl by a greater, and that again hy a still grcnl<>r.
In arra nging the prognunme of amusements, the principle
has to be considered.
No matter whether the composition Lo limite<l to •
sentence, or extend to an entire poem or discourse, tho roquirome11t is equall y applicable.
TJ1c fi gure was wcll nuil en;to(l1l J,y th e m1 eic11ts; an•l thN-.~ I• a

celebrated exa mple cp1otr.1l from th e omticm of C ice ro agaiu ~t Ye~
'It is an outrage to b,ind a Roman citizen; to sco1mr him i11 ao
atrocious crime ; to p nt l1i 1n to dm th is almost a panici1le ; liul lo
CRUCIFY him-wha t :::hall I call it 1'
When the Emotiu11a l <Jnalities are fully cxplaine1l, the tnoile o(

APPLICATION OF THE FlGURE.

229

eRtimating their d egree will be bette~ understood. .'l' he present
illustra tion will proceed on th e m or e obv10ns cases. The m~ t.'l.nce now
iptote<l from Cice ro is .in poin.t ; '~e :ill 111111,erst:md tl~~ <l1fference of
iutcnsi ty in tl1e.tl1rec fon~1 s of s1~fl e rrn~. h1ually plam wu~l<l ue n.
rnccessi ve rise m the ordmary km<ls of pl casttr'~ nml good fortune.
We know the comparative .strength. of ~h~ ~p1th ets--great, ~rand,
magnificent, vast, overpowermg, snulune, mhtute. We are nw~1.e that
terseness as o. rt1le, gives strength, o.ncl tltut to repent o. ~net d1tlnsely,
ofter it Jms been stated shortly, is a loss of power. 'I he exam~les
will show the difliculties that sometimes arise na to the comparative
iutcn~i t,y in pal't.icn lar instances..
.
.
. .
•
Hub be~ gave a very e mpliatt c tld mcat 1011 of the ~01uht.ron of the
Mvr.ge: 'The life of man solitary, p oor, nasty, ~ru.t~sh and sh?tt '.
Now as t h ese epithers refer t o different peculrnnt1es, there is no
· str engt 11 : ' so l'itary ' an d '. poo r' a re,
ready' m eans of compa rfo cr t heir
'"' not two clecrrees of one quali ty, like 'penury and st~rvatl~n '· W c
mu~t find sZme oth er m enu s of m easuring the relative mtemuty ?f t11c
epith ets. Now, 'poor' is a compreh ensive word, and, properly mterJireted, n~eans a great mn:ny evil s ; but it doe~ not at .once suggest the
concrete m stances. 'Solita ry' expr~sses a fo1 mo~ m1se~y, thou?h not
always felt as such; there nre occas10ns when soh~t!de is preferre.d to
8ociety. But the three concluding epithets a1·~ sp.ec1fic an<l sugg~st1ve i
'nast.y' an<l 'urutish' arc very s tron~, each m i~s own way ; short
is nlso an expressive summary of mrnery, and .1s probably the be.'3~
word to end on . We m ay, for the sake of exercise, try another order.
-'Poor, soli t.' lry, bmtish, nasty and sh or t '. ,
.
.
The succession 'thought, wur<l and <lec1l has n i1roprt r ty m one
''iew namely bcinc• th e order of even ts ; the th ought l?rcccdes the
wor<l' a!Hl th~ word the d eed. But, applie<l all expressrng the co~·­
rnpli:ess of man's n a ture, which e xtend s tu all th e three facts, it
1rnul<l ue morn of a clim ax if it sto01l 'deed, wonl nn<l tl1011gl1t '.
' Stal e, Ha t and nnprofit~tl,l e ' wo11l1l n ot he a climax, but for the
eonoro11 R1wsf! of !li e long word 'unprofitaliln'..
. ,
Cal'lyle's title-' H eroes, Hcro-worsl11p and the Heroic m
Jfoman H -istory,' would be m ore ernplmtic thus :. 'Heroe~, the
Heroic and H er~-worship. '. His ~oncllll.linr phrase l~ enfeeblmg.
The express10n of lt1chard- the kmg s .name is a . tow~r of
1tre1wth ' is in itself energetic from t.l1e brevity and the cl101ce of
~·ord~ ; 'but to follow it up with ' which is wantin€l to the enemy,'
is nu obvi ous descent ; it 1s both unnecessary and feeble.
'fhe splendid climax of Chatham on the sacredness of the poor
nm11'11 cot tage is impaired by the ad1lition of a weak clause::-' The
•·in1l may Ll ow t.h ro ugh it; the storms may enter, t~1e mm mny
e, 1tcr uut the Kiwr of Etwl:.m d ca11not enter ! All l11s fol'CCS dal'C
'
'"'
'"' rume<l
·
.
not cross
the thrcshol1l
of the
tenement ' • T I1e c1·mrnx is
completed at 'ca nnot enter'.
Pope's line in the At.Lieus passage' Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike'-

EXAMPLES OF CLIMAX.

rr_iay be studied for climax. The point is, wl1ich of t l1 e two exprcM·
swns lias the more c11 ergy ; whether t he cr11vc11 fear nf st.rikinJ.( or
the malignant wi1Ji11gne81> to womHl deserves the place of crnplm.~ia.
It is probably a case of n early even balance.
'To suckle fools and chronicle small beer' is a clirnnx of
degradation and contempt. Yet, although the chronicling of Rmall
beer has the crowning insignificance, the suckling of fools is eo
despicable, that it might claim to be the more powerful.
That strength may al'ise from Concrdc11ess or I ndiviclunlit~·, luu
been already illustmtetl (.Figures of Similarity). H en ce, ns poinh-tl
ont by Campbell, this circumstance may operate in making n di1111u.
'No man can serve two masters: , ,
ye cannot serve Uutl nml

. 1:he consi1le~ation of Climax. hri11gs into view tlie very important
prmc1ple of set.tmg forth what rn grnml hy a graclual approach, that
1~, IJy an i .11l< ~r posc~il fwrics.
H iR i111\10HHi hlc to do j11st.i1:1! to the
i;reatest ol1.iects of human emotion, u11 eF;s by compari11g tlwm with
inferior things, in a graduated succession. '\Ve reach the highest
111011ntains, by toiling through a number of successive heights, each
topping the preceding. 'l'he Ocean and the Starry Firmament do
not imrress us with an adequate sen se of their grandeur, from the
want o · succesKive Rtcps of approach. We 11<> not nppreciat.e the )oft,y
rositioll OCCUpie<l by the COllllll:tlH)er of all l\l'lll.Y, or by the JienJ of
the government, until we learn tlie oflicia.l grades that have to be
pas:>~·1l through before that is r ead ied.
'!'his is illustrated by 'l'en11yso11, in Oninevcre's wor<lsThe days will ~row to weeks, the weeks to months,
The months will add thc1m1elvCE1, nnd make the yea.rs,
'l'he years will roll into the centuries,
Au<l mine will ever be a name of scorn.

111mmnon.'

..

,.
· ~

;
l

'

••

231

FIGURES OF SPEECH-CLIMAX.

230

Campbell's example is from the Song of Snlomon :-'for, lo, the
winter is past, the rain is over and goue; the tlowers appear oil thct
ea.1th, th e time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of th11
tmtle is h eard in our land ; the fig-tree putteth forth her green Ii;......,
and the vines with the ternler grape give a good smell'. Tlit!
d cscri\1tion co1nmences with the generalities, 'winter,' the sca11011 (l
' rain ; proceedi! to specialize tl1e '11owers,' the 'birds ' ; awl ('ttlll<W
at lust to imlividuuhi, 'the turtle,' 'the fig-tree,' an<l 'the vine'.
The foJlowing passage from Robert Hall is a study of climnx :'Though it is confessccl great and splendid actions arc not tl1•
ordinary employment of life, but must, from their nature, be reserrr<l for
high and eminent occasious ; yet that system is essentially defective 11·1iirl1
leaves no room for their production. They are important, both from tl1rir
immediate advantage and their remoter influence. They often sa\·e, 111<1
always illustrate, the age aml nation in which they appear. They rai•
the standard of morals ; they arrest the progress of <lcgenera('y ; tl1rJ
dilluse a lustre over the path of life ; monuments of the grcnt111·i1~ 11( the
human soul, they present to the world the august image of virtue in bff
sublime!lt form, from which streams of light and glory issnc to rtmote
times and ages ; while their co111111cmorntion, by the pens of hi~tNUllil
and rocts, awakens in 1lista11t liosoms the sparks of kimlre1l excclknct'.'
!'here is h ere a rivalry of two circumst..·utces-ut.ility, coml'ri~ina:
solid a<lvantages, and ornament or splendour. The last. scnknre tJua
one places them in naked juxtaposition : 'They nlways 1<1rt, ancl
often illustrate, the age and nation in which they appear'. In tho
concluding sentence, the contrasting ideas arc expurnled. The lW'O
first members of the sentence are devoted to the ui;eful fnurtion;
while the remaining members expand, with Hall's luxuriant ph~
ology, the ornamental function; as in the phrases - 'clitTu!lt! a
fostre 11 'monuments of the greatness,' I a1l!JllSt i11t<1!fe Of \•irtiw,'
'streams of light and glory'. It is cvi1lent that., in tltc nutltnr'•
judgment, the ornamental siclc was most liticcl for the climax j Mii.
on such a p oint, we cannot quote a greater authority.
Even when the interest of composition is snstainccl l1r \'arMc.f
of language and of emotional effects, as in altemat.i11g 11ulilfmit1 ... ," .
pathos, the principle of the clirimx is not dispensed with, in n,;.& ·
to each separate strain.
.

Tinrkc's pcrorn.tion, in the impeachment of Wnrren Hastings, seems
a clinrnx, b1~t tho grn.dation is scarcely nppn.rent. 'I im111•ach hun m the name ot the Commons of Great Britam in Parliament
assembled, whose parliamentary trust he has abused (1). I imfcach him
in the name of our holy religion, which he has disgraced (2).
impeach
him in the name of the English constitution, whic h lte has violated 11nd
brnken (3), I impeach him in the name of the Indian millions whom ho
h11s sacrificed to iujustico (4). I impeach him by thr. name a:1<l by the
h<-st ri1?l1ts of human nature, which he has stahhetl to the heart' (!i).
Tho tlurd sentence should have been second ; lictwcen the thinl and
fourth there wou.ltl then have been a natural counexion. The fourth deri\'es
its strength from speciality; while the fifth can merit the hirrheiot place only
by tho width of its comprehension, " ·hich redeems tho austractn ess of tho
aubjcct, 'the rights of human nature ',
intendc~ t~r

As Impressiveness is a quality in compositions addressed
the U n<lerstan<ling, the law of Climax finds a place in
these, no less than in such · as aim at strictly emotional
effects.
'l'he terms ' anti-climax ' and 'bathos' are employed to
designate bhe opposite of the climax.
to

MINOR FIGURES.
Nearly all the Figures above enumerated were known to
tho ancient Rhetoricians ; but in their list wn.s included a
lar~e number besiues. Of that number, many n.re wholly
inR1gnificant ; others are mere repetitions. A fow are of
1ullicient consequence to deserve a brief mention.
. Reiteration of words 11a.s often a certain figurative force. It wns
Timously named, according to the nature of the repetition. For

232

FIGURES OF SPEECH-MINOR FIGURES.

ex ampl e, simple reite rat io n of tlie sam e word was callerl Palilngia or
Anadiplosis: '0 earth, ear th, earth, h ear the w 01·<l of tlie Loni!'
R ei te ration at the b egi11ni11 g of s uccessive clauses or sente n ce~ wu
named Epcm aphora: m; wh en Bnrke introduces each n e w di:u-gu ill
hi s lmpcachmc ut of "\Vanen lia,;ti11gs with th e word 8, 'I i11111t·nch
)ii 111 '.
At the e nd of clauses, th e r eiteration is callctl A11t-i.~tm1"'4 :
'"\Vit is dm1gcr o u t1, e loque n ce is dangerous, u tal ent for obserrntioa
i8 dangProus, evet,rthiug is d a n gerous that has etlicacy and vi.,uur
fut
0
its chamctc ri stics .
In all the form s, t11 e ohject gain ed is an increase of Empha ~ i"­
Ahscn ce of conn ect ing cuujnnctions where tli ey 111ight be tl•
p cctecl, con fititnt cs A syndeton ; ns in Oresar's 'Veni, vidi, vid '. h
condtwes to e n e rgy a nd viv idu ess.t See P salm civ., 28-:JO. TIM
op1:osi t.e o f th is F ig m e is l'u l?f·~ !Jndcton, or excess of co1111t•t·I i \'I'll, in
wl11ch rncreased e mpli ar;is is gaiued by scemincr to irnli\' iduahzc t•.xb
1mrticnlar. It is so c ha racte ri st ic of 'l'ennyso1~n11 t.o b e a 11rn1111f·ti•ra.
A good exampl e OCC lll'S in Ho111 a ns viii., 38, 39. Milton says of oota.ra.
in his course th1·o ngh Uhaos, that h epursu cs hi 8 wnv,
Ancl swims, or s inks, or w ml es, or creep s, or fl it:~.

*

THE INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES OF STYLE.
1. The Qualities of Style are expressed by a great
11umber of epithets, making up our critical vocabulary
of praise and dispraise.
In what has been said under Order of Words, Number
of Words, Sentence and Paragraph, Figures of Speech,
explanations have been afforded of many of the qualities of
style. Under Order of Words, we have the distinction
between the grammatical, or Direct, and the Inverted style.
The reference to the Number of Words determines, on the
one hand, the Diffuse or Verbose, and, on the other,
the Concise or Terse. The attention paid to the laws of the
Sentence and the Paragraph contr ibutes, with other arts,
to numorouA oxcoll e ncmi o[ Rtyle, ospnci1dly ns rogn.nlR tho
u11dcrsLa 11t.1i11g.
U 11dur l •'iguros, n. co111poHiLio1t aliou11di11g
in any one individual figure takes its designation from
tltnt figme; a s l\fo tn.phorical, Antithoticn,I, Epigrammatic,
llypcruolimtl, Climactic, Irouical, f:farcasLic, ~lliptical. A
profusion of figurative language generally gives a composition the names-Figurative, li'lowcry, Ornate, Imaginalirc, Illustrative; ~o which are opposed the Plain, Prosaic,
Unfigurative, Dry, lJald.

Litotes, or J.Icio.~is, fa a fi g ure of suggestivcn csfl , J,,. whid1 a
w eake r ex prcs,,io n is Uf'cd, " ·hi le i11tcllllctt' tu Ell""c:>L
a :;!ru11i;1:r lilt
0 0
th e mirnl. 'A citizen of 1w menn city.'
0

Nar<'i ;osa 'l'I 11af.11n•, lnl1•ml1ly 111ild,
'l'o make a was h, mJ1tltl lwnlly i;tcw a child.

Epanortlwsis is the correction of nn inn.<l<'qnate rxprr •.• ion by
one more exact or p o we rful.
''\Tar is t.l1 c wmk, I ht• 1•l1·1111·11l,.,
rather the sp ort awl t.J'in111ph of tl eaLh.' 'Th e dd1 ~ 11t ·c wa~ 11l ... 1 i "·• ~•
an<l brave. Brave, did I say ? It was worL11 v of h c1·oc><.' Tiii' l'ffcvt
is to give a vivid r e p rese n tation of tl1 e woi·ki 11gH of t lit• "l"'l\ktO
own mint!, while at the same Lime a ffunlin g scop e fut· a climax.:
* Thi~

i~ n.

favourite form with Cicero ; for cx:implu : 'i;;col 1·r1·1loml Im""""

creclunt turbul enth.i, c1·et1unt s ui s".
Volkmann, p . 3\J!J,
I
!

lJie JO<et ori J.: tit i· U riedn i•

"'"' /luuur. l•J Ur &.

t An effective exnmpln oecnrn in ' Tntn o' Shnnter' :
Th e pipu r 1111111 fLllli l111ul " r hl c w,
1111k.k :uul qui ck e r He w .
Th ey r 0t· l'1i, t ill' )' sot, !hoy cr11ss'd, t hey l'l cckit,
Till ilka ea rl in 'w:tt a nd rcc kit .

The d :i:we rs

•I

t 0.rumflrn n WA.A o mpl o~·ert to 1i <'~ i :,: 11at e th e writing' of n ~11h}'rt with a~
fn con tra di ction to it ; o r wh e n used nw ro 11111,ely, tlw 1·1111j11111't i.,11 or woo r•l• .,.,......,....
inconsiRtcnt with ell.ch oth er. T his e ffect haa alrea 1iy li cc 11 fully 1liocu.-.I - El'IG ltAM.
For :i

;i
"...!

Ii
11!,,
·I!

I

11!
1
1.!.1

comJ•leto ennm r rn.t.inn of th e TrnpcR :i..rnl Fi:,:11rc>•, n ~ fl'<'•>trnl,... .., . .
nn c lc nt Jth c t11r1cian s , 1·e foro 111·0 may ho 111a1le to tho work .. r fir. \' .. lkm~ n• • ...._..
H 4;., ·Ii , 4 ~ . 4'. •. ,, .. 1 11~111 ........
Ohhj oct ion to tho nRefCR8 mnllipli t•:ttion o ( Fi.!!lll'CS uy W:Lll)' o( hill pf>fli . "
t oug 11 ove n 11e g 1ves n. list uf cousidcrahl e length•

m c nti o 11 etl - lli~ Rll el nri'.J.: drr r; rirrh 1•11 IW•l u ;i ma ,

'

2. 'J.1hese qualities fall under the two great divisions
alrcndy indicated. (See FIGURE S OF SPEECH.)
'r11ey relate, first, to the u NDERSTANDING, or
• 'l'hought, and second, to FE ELING, or the Emotions.
'l'he two kinds need to be considered separately.
The proper course of dealiug with both sets of
qunlities, is (1) to define them with precision, and (2)
w indicn.te the arts of produciug th em.
3. The Qualities relating to the communication of
Thought, are those that govern the three forms of Literary Art, named Description, N arrntion and Exposition.

234

A BASIS IN THE ITNOWN.

Each of the forms has laws peculiar to itself.
Nevertheless, there are merits common to all, aw.l
produced by the same means in all, narµely : -

reference to its land boundaries-America on the one side,
Europe an<l Africa on the other, which are supposed to be
previously known. If, on the other hand, the geographer
gives -the oceans before the continents, the Atlantic becomes
one of the defining boundaries of Europe.
This is
Description.
It is the same with N a.rration. The historian must
proceed upon some assumed knowledge of his reader. Even
when the beginnings of o. nation's history aro lost, like our
own, the country itself is known, the supposed original races
can be indicated, and man is always the same, with assignable and intelligible variations. Hence, a competent historian of Britain, like Hume, takes care to present us with
the earliest known condition of the country and its inhabitants.
'l'he method of Science so far compels attention to the
principle. In a demonstrative science, like geometry, each
proposition reposes upon what went before; and, as a rule>,
the order of demonstration is the best order of expo~ition.
In the inductive and natural history sciences, the cnsc is
more complicated, and the order from known to m·lmo .vn is
often inadvertently departed from. 'l'hus, it is not in 11ccordance with sound method to introduce the chemic11l account
of a. substance, as follows : ' SuLrHumc Acm. This substance, which constitutes one
of the most important products of chemical manufacture, is
mo.de in enormous quantities. In Great Britain alone upmirds of 100,000 tons are annually consumed. The acid
is occasionally met with, uncombined with bases, in thermal
springs, particularly in volcanic regions.'
This information shoul<l be postponed until the reader
knows what the substance is that is spoken about. There
aro two better ways of approaching the topic. One is the
popular. It refers to the common experience of the subBlt\nce, under the name 'oil of vitriol'; a transparent,
hcn.vy liquid, with biting fumes, and with a tendency to
corrode metals, to discharge colours and to destroy cloth
rahrics. '11 he other way is the strictly scientific. It proceeds f:-om a previous knowledge of three simple bodies,
Sulphur, Oxygen and Hydrogen, whose combination in
. certain proportions gives birth to the acid. The popular
account would be not unsuitable as a prelude to the scientific
delineation.

CLEARNESS.
SIMPLrcrrY, or Intelligibility.
IMPRESSIVENESS.
PICTURESQUENESS.

".

~

I

I

I

The intellectual property of style, by pre-eminence, iR
Clearness. Unless a meaning be given clearly, it is not
given at all. There may be a certain amount of effort in
grasping the meaning, but, when understood, it ought to Lo
unambiguous and unmistakable. The greater or less cn!IO
of comprehension depends upon other causes ; as will ho
shown under the hea<l of Simplicity. A quality distinct
from either Clearness or Simplicity is designated by Impressiveness, which trenches on the Emotional Qunlitil'!\
but is here viewed as an aid to the understa.mliug.
Picturesqueness comes even nearer the Emotions.
Much has already been advanced to olucidnto thf'lle
qualities and to point out the means of attni11i11g them.
Under Order of vVords, Number of Words, the Sentence
and the Paragraph, and Figures of Speech, havo lx.'CD
in<licatod numerous <levices for securing all three efft>ctR.
At various points of the exposition, importn.11t principles have been brought into view, in their bearing on th<t
whole art of intellectual communication. A sumrnnry of
these principles, and of others not previously adverte<l to, will
be a convenient approach to expounding tho Intellectual
properties in separation.

4. I. In all communication of knowledge, we muti
proceed on a basis of the known.
In teaching any subject, we have to take monsuro or the

I

(

pupil's present advancement, and must not assume rmythinat
beyond. A composition with a number of unkuown lt•nu•
fails to accomplish the end of instruction. 'l'ho nl1 ol
education consists in proceeding step by step from wha& iii
already known to what is to be learnt.
In directing anyone to a place, v.;e must strut from llOme
known locality, and give the course from thn.t. Thu• ia
Geography, every new object is given by reference to othenl
already pointed out. The Atlantic Ocean is localized bJ

Il '!
I

I

235

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES GENERALLY.

...1
i!
i

236

PROXIMITY OF KINDRED STATEMENTS.

5. 'rlie principle has a narrower application in
Rhetoric than in teaching generally, but it still occupies
an important position.
·
In the first place, whatever is to be made a basis of
future reference should be sufficiently indicateu with
that view.

"n111for tlrn 1lm~ig1n1.tion 'mnn,' ,inst ns 'man' itself must )'id1l in
"sig11ilication to 'wlliilc man,' all(l 'white man' to some special 'family' or
"'clan'. At the same time, be it observed, the )!'SS the information
"gi ven us hy a gronp, the wider that group itself 01· the greater the nttm·
"Lcr of ohjccts it inclwlcs; whereas the greater the meani11g conveyed, the
"narrower the group and the fewer the number of objects included. 'l'his
"iH what is called i11 Logic the in verso relation of connotation to
"de11otatio11, and holds in all classification whatsoever.
"(3) This being so, Jct us apply the principles to Naturnl History.
"The object here is threefold :-to help tho memory, to aid the under,
"standing, and, so far as possible, to rc11l'odnco N atmc. This threefold
"object is cffocted by what is known as t. 10 Natural i;;yste111. The 11nl1trnl
"spitcm has to be distinguished from tho nrlijidnl sys lem. Both alike
"nun at helping the m emory an1l ail ling tire understan<linrr ; but
"tire first alone succeeds in presenting grnups in the ~nutual
''relations tlrnt they bear in nature. Now, liow is this aceomplishcd Y
:: It is nc~:o11111lishml 11.v laying strcRs, llf>t 011 tlin 11101'~1 ohviouH arul 1•11Hily
asccrf.:urm\1 o l'l!1·m111hla11ccfl 1t111ong plauts 111111 1t11111111IH, but 011 tho
"rccouJitc arnl really importn ut alliuitics; nllll (his is tho samo thinrr as
11
snying, by cmplmsiziug the 11u111ber null Jixity of clrnrnctcrs. Doing so,
"the natural system exemplifies the law of counotation and denotation in
"a very marked and peculiar fashion. It proceeds upon what has been
"called the principle of Grades ; and, as this prin ciple of Grades is of the
"very esscnee of the process, we must try to explain it clearly.
" ( 4) Both in botanical a11cl iu zoological classing, we commence with
"~very wide sweep, and then proceed to nanow by dt·grees; narrow, that
"is to say, in so far as the number of incluJcJ ohiects is coucerncd but
. I en m
. so 11ir
r
J
,
· " Wll
as concerns the number or quantity
of resemblances-in
"so far, therefore, as concerns meaning. :Each snccessfro narrowing is
"a 1listinct resting-place or gra1le, and to each distinet grade a distinct
"111\lllC is attached.
Thus, in botany, wo divide the kinrrdom of plants
"into two sub-kingdoms-floweri11g plants a11<l flowcrlc~s, technically
"r~lled phancrngams and cryptogams ; and these sub-king1loms are our
"l11ghcst gra1lrs. The first of them (theHowcrincr plants ) consists of all
11
plants of high orga nization-such as garden-ll~wers and forest-trees.
"The second comprises 11la11ts of a lower organization-such as fems
""J~o~s es<l, .l ic
' 11ens, f nng1.'
'I'l1es e su b · k'mgtl oms, agam,
· are themselves'
,. iv~l e mto .c1:isscs i so t 1mt c1asses c01~1~ nox~ in generality. Classes,
ftglllll, aro d1v1dcd mto orders or fonnhes, families into genera nllll
"gcnna into species ; each of these being further <livitlctl and subdi,vitlc1l
:: aeconlir!g as there is nee~ . Spc~ics, ag~in, are composed of indivi1luals;
but, as it would be mamfestly 1mpractieablo to work with individuals
11
species is rcgar<lcd as the classifying unit, having varieties under it a11J
::1~wer tha~ that ~ve do not go. So with zo~lo~y: H erc, too, the' s1~b·
k111gilo111 JS thn l11glwst grn1lo ; a111l onlnrs, la1111liPR, g• ~ nf'm n1ul sptwws
"f11ll111v in pr11pPr snq11cn1·11: 011ly it is t.o 111~ oltH1'rVl'd t.1111.t lrPro t.lwrn nrn
11
morn 1mb-ki11gd0111~ than two, n111l I.hat order a111l family aro 11ot
11
1y11011y111011s, as in botany, but constitute distinct grades.
11
(5) That, then, is what is understood by the «mde1l system · arnl the
" eys t cm 1'tsc If.is sol1enommatcd
.
• and' or1lr.rlr,
becanRo it procnc1ls" in dC'liuite
.. gratlalions, like the roumhi of a ladder or the links of a suspended chn.iu. '

We need to be aware, at the outset of a discourse, whn~
statements we shall have to put stress upon, and to sco
that these are made sutliciently apparent. 'l'he geo111ntriC'nl
science, as seen in Buclid's ~lements, is a thorough
example of this.

G. In the next place, there must be a proper form
of recall, so as to Lri11g to mind each part at the pluco
of its application.
.
This is a widening or enlargement of the Pn.ragrnph lnw
of Explicit H.eference (p. 94). An exposition often requim~
us to recur to previous statements. Moreover, if tlte recol·
lection of an important fact has faJed, the reference mny
have to be accompanieJ with a certain amount of frcshcni11~.

7. II. All statements bearing upon the same topic
should be kept together.
.i

237

INTELI,ECTUAL QUALITIES GENERALLY.

'l'his has already been given as a law of the Parngrn11h
(p. 114). Its application is still wider. It is violat1·1l 1y
the very natural tendency to digress from a point Lefore tho
matter is finished, and to come bn.ck when perhap~ tho
first explanations have partially faded from the memory.
The law is so important as to deserve further exemplification.
Let us tak e, for tliis purpose, the followi11g short E:;say on N ATCllAI.
JI1sT0JtY Cr.ASHIFICATJON.

"(I) So numerous an(l so complicatc(l arc the ohjcd8 of t.111~ ""''"''-I
"worhl that, if we wish t o bri11g them within the corn pas~ of onr ku•' • ·
"lc1lge, we must first put th em into an ord rl'ly ana11gl'llll'lll. Th•
"putting of them into an ord erly armngc111c11t is what i~ 11~1111lly l<11D'll•
"by the name of 'cla~s ifh:ation'; tha t is, ont of the se1·11ii11g ..J1ant ol
"olojedR in nature, groups or 1 ~ lasscs arn forn11 ~d 11.1111 J.ro11ghl log1·ll1l'r &.
"consc•1ucncc of agrt!Clll•.~ 111,~ Umt 111ay IHl dis1 :0Vf'n•tl 111111111g 1111•111.
"(2) Now theslJ dii:;c:ov1:rnl1le agrcc111c11t~ 111ay he fow or tl1f'\' 1111y t...
"many ; and, according as they arc one or the otl11·r, WC' oht11i11 !1111 1111 ..
"information from a particular gronpi11g, or we nlitain a gn•al 11 .. nl or lnfoOf'o
"mation. 'l'hus, the class 'a11i111al' l1as a dist ind 111111 ddiuitc 111ranlP41.
" a ml a certain amount of knowl .. dgn is c011vC'ye1 l to 11s w! ... 111•nr
.,~
"told of a particular ol 1j cct that it is an 'animal'; lint l\ 1·i111•i.ltnMJ
"greater amount of knowledge is conveyed if the particular a11i111al COIMt

•e

1

Now, in this short Essay, three main subjects are treated of,-viz.,

238

INTELLECTUAL QUf-LITIES GENERALLY.

the meaning of clasRifiration, the natnre of the rlas,ifyin:r prnrl'R~, ""''
. tho J.istinct charactel'istiCS of 11nturnl history cJassifyi11g j alHl tlll'M' tlll ...
follow in the just aml proper order, and arc ket•t, thru11gl11111t, la
isolation. Nothi11g \\'ould be easier tlmn to jumble tho three togdlll'r, Of
to over-emphasize suhonli11ate points that each of tl11·m. sufmcst~ .. ~l·· nre
it rnn.y be well to tako \•arng~·aph by pamgra)'h, aud 1111!watc 1~1~lt11t'l)J
how each handles the topic 11ss1guetl to 1t, aud where the pitfalls lie for the
UJIW:U'y,

Para.graph (1) gives briefly a general idea of classification. This I~ the
proper commcnccmcut, on the principle that a gnncrnl view of a Hnlijr<t
should be presented Lefore descending to particulars. Another i1l1·11, ho•·
ever is startetl,-viz., the necessity for classifyiug at all. 'l'hiR iR tonrh.J
on, but only touched on, in the opeuiug scuteucc, when it n•f1n to ti.. .
enormous variety aml complication of natural ol\jects. Und1•r l'Nta11t
circumstances, it might be well to expand this as a prcpamtory l•I....
For various pmposcs-as, for example, a popular lectme-nothing could
be more effective than a well-<lrawn vivid picture of the c hanti•~ l'h11f1U'tf1'
of a mass of u11onlercd ohjccts. The itlea would Jin i111pn·~~irn in it•lf
because of its vast11csR, a11d it would have Uic furt111~r lirt.n1• or IH·h11t •
striking contrast. No two things are further apart than onkr 111111 d11t••,
and a telling presentation of the opposition would ai1l the ro111pr .. hr11•lvt1
of classification itself. At the same time, once given, it shonhl 11ot t.
repeated. 'l'hc i•l ea is ded1lc1lly one for the i11tro<l11ctio11 of th11 ~ul~rrt,
allll woulJ both lose in effect and be a cause of distraction if rccurn:il to i•
the se<p101.
Paragraph (2) carries forward tl1c exposition. It is concrrnr1l with tlMo
classifying prncess as a logical operation, and with the mP:111ini,: or rdatnl
groups. Now one of two ways is open to U8, in hanulini,: tloiA 1~~­
.Either we may begin with the objects anti pass from that to th1• •i;:111lw•·
tion of the grouping of them, or we may take the reverse n11·tl••"I a•..t
work from the signification to the objects. Each motle hn11 it11 r~ ·
me11<lations ; hut the second is the more appropriate hl're, a111l i~ 1111• OM
adopted, as ari si11g in1111euiately out of the mcution of " 11gn•1•m1·11IA" la
the conclmliug sentence of the previous paragraph. The Mtnrt, th,.a. ..
made with agreements among objects; au<l, naturally cuough, tl1r e1111•hat"
i!! placed on nwnber of agreements, for according to the 111111111.. r of·~..
ments is the meaning of the group. An example follows; am! thrr~loy lltfwt
is thrown upon the general statement about number of 111,•Tt>1•1111•11t•, __. .
thereby also an easy but effective means is found of transition to th• fW•
sentences following. The order of these two sentences ls corrt·rt; all~
it would have been quite possible to bring in the second cnrli..r. lh•l"""we might have begun the paragraph with it. We might ha\"!! •"-l :"Now there is a logical law known as the inverse n·lr.tion of co1111,..lal,,..
to denotation. Of this law, classificatiou affonlR a Rtriking 1•:ocr111pliflra1•
:For tho discovcrahlc ngrecmcnts among ohje'!ts may l1n fow or thrf . .,
110 many"; and so on. llnt the dislocation here, nit hough not loy .....
means greater than we often fiud in zoological treatises, is oln·iu111; ...,
the effect of it won Id be to jmnble the whole paragraph.
l'amgraJ1h (3) is the a}'plication of the forcguing prinriplr11 to tta.,...
in hand. T 1e itleas it contaiHs arc mai11ly four in 1111111l~·r :-tit" <A+.t•
of Nntnral History clnssi11g, tl10 rnrans wlu~rnhy t.l111t. oloj ....t 111 •lf•I ......
tho 1listinctio11 hetw1•rn tho nal.11rnl 1111•! Urn nrt ilidal ~)'Hll'f11, ahd ti•
doctrine of grades. The only point of seeming tlislocaliou h!!1'11 .. "-

PLACING OF SUBORDINATES.

239

ln~rrtion of It reference to tho artificial sy!ltem in tho mit!Rt of a conai1lrration of the natural system. Awl thorn is 11<1 1lo11bt, if t.ho Es~n,Y
wrro longer, that the proper way would lie to work up to tho natnrnl
thro1115h the a1tilicial system ; arnl that would best he done by a little
hit ol historical reference to pre-Cuvicrian attempts at classification-to
AriRtotlo aml 'l'hcophmstus and Pliny the Elder, nntl, above all, to Linnreus.
Here is just one of tho comparatively few caHe11 where a touch of historical
narrative distinctly aids tho exposition. As it st:intls, however, with
nothing but a sentence or two at one's comma1ul to express it in, the brief
account of the artificial syst.cm could not be better placed than where it is.
It nffords an opportunity of bringing out its agreements with the natural,
1n1l also of pointing the contrast between the two ; and in this way it
actually furthers the exposition, instead of retarding it.
The graded system has now been brouf]ht distinctly forwar1l. But so
lmportaut is it, that there would be impropnety in dismissing it with a mere
«'nerd statemeut. Something like fulness is required ; ttnd this fuller
handling is undertaken by the next section. In paragraph 4, tho meaning
o( f(fl11le11 fa clearly shown lty a consitlerat.iou, in as plain language l\!I
po~~ilile, of tho ti·cl111ienl 1101111!1wl11tmc tin1t of bol.iiny anti unxt of :t.oology.
Noto here the order in which the sciences occur. Botany precetlcs
IOOlogy, on the principle that the simpler should be considered before the
more complex; although, as matter of fact, people in general know even more
about the common animals than they tlo nhout tho common plants. Note,
~xt, the clear ortler wherein the topieR occur, ns 1let11r111i11e1l by tho hc1t11tif11l
•l'wnce of the grades themselves. Note, lastly, the ahscuce of technical
detail. Nothing is easier than to lose oneself in technicalities an<l detail,
•hen treating of biological classiticntiou ; but here this is avoided Ly
tdhering strictly to the point in hand, and by adducing only the amount
of natnml history knowledge that is requisite for the <luc explication of
the subject. Under certain circumstances, however ,-in the case, for
Instance, of a popular lccture,-an occasioual parenthetic digression might
11ot be inadmissible. Considering people's avidity for l1istorical infonnalion, a lecturer might feel himself at liberty to make a few l1istorical
l't'fercnccs,-altho11gh, even then, t)1e thing must be tlono very sparingly.
Thus, when mentioning tho division of plants into phancrngams and
rryptogams, he might permit himself the parenthetic remark that this is
I d1rision first introduced by Ray ; or he might expand the statement that
"in zoology there are more sub-kingdoms than two" into the historical
l't'm1uk that, according to Cuvier and the older naturalists, they aro four,1ttOr1ling to some later uaturalists, six,-accordiug to others, soven,-nn1l
,, •l'<..'Ording to Huxley, eight.
llut, under no circumstances are such
iligrC"ssions lawful when they would seriously interfere with the march or
lucidity of the exposition.
Tho subject of grades is finished off in paragraph (5) ;. whicl1,
appropriately enough, imlicatcs the reason for tho particular phraseology.

8. III. What is subordinate, or incidental, should

be put in a place of subordination, so as not to interfere with the prominence of what is principal.
· A principal or essential circumstance must always be
put in tho forn~ro111111, m· in Ro1110 o[ tho positions of no.turn.I
emphasis ; collateral fu.cts awl passiug n.llusious boiug kept

240

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES GENERALLY.

from engaging undeserved attention. See the Paragrnpli
Law on this point, p. 121.
. It belongs to the art of Exposition, to describe a com·
phc?'ted machine, by <listinguishing l>etween the ccntrnl
cle~1ce and the .acces~ories. 'l'h~s, in the steam e11gine, tho
cylmd~r ai:d piston is .the portion ·where the power is tin1t
embodied m a mechamcal form; whence it is imparted to
the other machinery.

9: IV. Unnecessary adjuncts are to be avoided, o.s
tendmg to misl~ad.
It is not simply that such statements occupy spnco
Thi11
is owmg to our natural disposition to seek a purposo for
everything that happens to be told us.
In the machinery of government, it is said that whntever is useless, is pernicious. So it would be in any other
departn_ient: a top coat in Africa, and a drag upon a carrini.:o
wheel m Hollan<l, woul<l be mere embarrassment. Tho
principle applies equally in Style.
In Geography, the introduction of historicnl incitlent!l
may or n:ay not bo illnstrntivc. lf they uro 11ot, they 111ny
very readily obstruct the geographical meaning, irrcspccti\·o
altogether of overburdening the exposition.
The temptation to irrelevance grows out of ncci1ll'11ll\I
and passing interest 11rni11ly, ns when a geogntphicnl writer
comes upon a place celebnttc<l for remarkable cvcuts, nuJ
stops to narrate them.
~eedl~ssly ; they have a positively injurious effect.

10. V: In ev~rything ~f .the nature of Exposition,
the standmg devices, for aidmg the uudersta11di11g, aro
Example and Contrast.
In th~ discussion of Figures of Speech, thmm two 111•\'iMt
have partially come into view: See 11'1auit.E!:!
p. 136, and CoN'l'RAST, p. 196.

OF i:;rn11.A1un,

The ~ollowing .sh ort passage ~hows. the cn~ploynwnt of ltnth Eurn1.&.
m11l Couhast. It IS tlt c cx pla11at1011 of one ol the "!'cat fun:c.'I of 11al1U911amely, Chemical Comliinntiun.
b
"Chemical Union or C0111lti11atio11 i11 a form of 1111i1111 tl111t «f•..
"Li.rth to new substa11 c1•H with properti es wi1ldy cliffNi11g fro111 '"" ~·
"s~1tucnt clements.," 'l'ltis is tltc only way of popnlarly i11l n><l11d11,c , ...
su.bJe~t. upoi:i ~ . basis of. the k11011'11. It prepares the way for the rfc'ol
s~1cnti.fic detimt10n ~hat is to follow. Even as a popular 11111l J•l't'fllll....,
view, It needs the aid of example a111l contrast.
"
"It is contntslal witlt 11~cr:lta11ical mixture; n~, for f'J'flrnpJt, • " ' several dry powders are 111rngbl ; aml with sul11lio11, n.'I \\ li•·li -11 ff/ii

EXAMPLE AND CONTRAST.

241

11

sugar is dissolved in water. In these last-namrd forms of union, the
clements are stilt ,recognizable." Two con trasti11g unions are here provitled : each of these is furnish ed with familiar examples ; and the point
of contrast is stated at the end, namely, the recognizing of the clements
in the compou1111. 1'his closes the introductory paragraph.
" When water is iiomcd upon lmrnt limo, in a certain fixcll
11
quantity, there is an effervescence with heat. The water entirely
11
disappears and ceases to be known as water ; and the lime undergoes a
"11ot:ahle change; tho compound is known rtR slaked lime." 'fhis is an
exnmplo ol' cllll111ieal 1111io11 in ils own d1 1u·ad.t,1·: it iH t.nlrn11 from
111bstu11ces gcnomlly known. The incidcn ts arc so cxp1·cssetl ns to fureahntlow the scientific delineation. Next follows a contrnsting example.
"If the water were pomcd into a vessel of common salt, it wonhl take
11
up (dissolve) a quantity of the Palt: there would be no cllervcscence or
. "heat ; the water and the salt would each be known as such. 'l'hc
"first example represents elrnmieal combination, tho sccoll(l represents a
"union that is not chemical, being call ed solution." Herc cx11111plo nwl
tontrast are brought to a point. Tho reference to meclianical mixture is
dropped ; and chemical union is given in contrast to the kind of union
that most nearly approaches it, and is most likely to be confused with it,
Now follows the rigid scientific account of the process.
"Chemical ComLiuation, stated generally, contains these three
11
properties : " flrst : There are fixed or Definite I'roportiorni of the clements ..
"Whatever may be the relative <prnntitics supplied, only certain
11 dtoliuito n.11m1111t.R will 110 us,,tl.
Whr.n wat.Pr co111lti11cs wit.It r111ick" li111c, tl1 crc iH 18 of wat."r to CiG of burnt linw.
111 iml11t.io11H, 011
"the other hand, there is 110 fixed proportion o\Jscrvccl : water will
"diRsolve either a small or a. large quantity of salt, within a certain limit
11
callPtl saturation.
"Second: 'l'hcrc is a manifestation or onthmst of Heat. The
"lime Lccom cs Ycry hot as the water iH poure•l upon it ; wh crnmi, ii!
"mixing salt and water, there is no h eat given out. The principal
"menus of artificial heat is chemical union.
'Vhat is termed com11
•
bnstion is the chemical combinatiou. of oxygen gas with carbon and
11
other substances.
"Third : Tho Characters of tl1e efonH'nts arc not usually trace" ahlo in tho componrnl. In tho slaking of limo, tho Wt\t01· diSl\ppcai·s;
11
··,:
ancl the limo lrns contrncletl ucw properties."
It will he ohscrvcll that this is merely a moro explicit st.ntcmcnt of
•h11t appeared in the preliminary example, from water aml quicklime,
•ith its contrasting example from water and salt. The tri]'lc property
. or chemical union is unfold ed in detail ; exa.mplc an<l contrast hcing
brnu~ht to bear on each scpa.rntc circ11mstn11cc. The seeon1l fad-originating
~ or llcnt-is one of immense importance : and there is 110 ilTclevancc in
ll1owi11g tl1is, hy councctiug it with tho proclnctiou of .artificial heat,
lhrou~h comhnstion.
Tho statement is now complete, but uot so as to
di•JM'HSc with further elucidations, in the shape of additio1ml examples,
11

. thus:.·
"

"Powdered sulphur and copper filings may ho mixed together
•• mt'Chnnieally.
If, in that state of loose mixtme, heat is applied,
11 tho two clements will combine chemically.
In so doing, 32 of
11 autvlmr will unite with 63~ of copper ; the mixture will become very

'"

"',... ~

---- ~
-.·.

242

243

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-CLEARNESS.

AMBIGUITY OF LANGUAGE.

"110t (independently of t11e heat used to stimulate the combination); 11nd
"in the resulting compound, neither of the clements will be recoguizetl."
Again : "The two gases called oxygen and hydrogen may be
"made to combine ch emically [this assumes previous instl'nction as to
"those gases]. The 1wion takes place in the proportion of 8 or
"oxygen to 1 of h~·drogen (by weight). There is a great q11n11ti11
"of heat o,·olved. fhe compound, which is water, shows 110110 of the
"characteristic properties of either element."
These additional examples are cast so as to repeat the three factl
Chemical Union in the order they were formerly st.ated in.

The best illustration of the plural senses of words is seen
in Epigrams, ancl especially ' puns '. (See EPIGRAM.)

or

CLEARNESS.
1. Clcaniess is opposed to obscurity, vagueness,
ambiguity, or ill-defined boundaries.
A statement is clear when there is no possibility of
confounding it with anything else. Clearness is, by pre· ,
eminence, the intellectual merit of style. Another no.mo for
the quality is Precision.

As contributing to Clearness, we may cite1. The Lavvs of the Sentence and the Pa.re.graph
generally.
II. 'l'he Figures of Similarity and of Contrast.
III. The laws above enumerated as referring to the
Intellectual Qualities at large.
It is not necessary, and would be confusing, to enter into
a renewed exemplification of these various points. Thero
remains, however, a specific device, which can be illustrated
best in the present connexion.

2. One chief obstacle to Clearness is the ambiguity
of language.
The number of names in the language that posses!! more
than one distinct meaning, is very great ; they nmy bo
counted by hundreds. Take the words •box,' 'post,'• c1u·o, 1
'heart,' 'right,' 'fellow,' 'nature,' ' taste,' ' sense,' 'lii.;ht.'
' touch,' ' will,' ' finish '. vVords formed from tho same
stem, but having different terminations, usually cxprota
different shades of meaning, and such terms are specially •P'
to be confounded. For example, 'sensual' ancl ' sonsuou,•
'repulsion ' an.d 'repellent,' 'proposal ' ancl •proposition,'
' confournl ' and 'confuse'.

Bentham's directions for clearness assume the tiossibility of fin<ling an
apposite 1tml unambiguous word for every occ.asion, which is what Rhetoric
cannot teach. His first rule is:"When the language affords a word appropriated exclusively to the
<'xprcssion of the import which alone it is your intention to express, avoid
employing any word which is alike applicable to the expre~sing of that
im('ort, and to a different one which may require to be distinguished from
it".
This supposes further that a writer knows the precise meaning of
l'Very word in the language. Such knowlec.lge is not easy of~attainmeut.
The helps to it are still in great measure wanting. One valuable aid has
lately been afforded in a little work entitled "Leading and Important
English words, explained and exemplified, by William L. Davidson"•
Bentham's stcond rule is :"Unless for special reason, hy w}rntsocver n:i.me an object has once
been dosignatc1l, by that same name m11l no other continue to dcsiguato
it ; or if, 011 any account, you find it matter of necessity or convenience to
employ for that purpose this or that other name, take care to give notice
of tho change".
The c.le8ire for variety is the most frequent cause of changing t110
name for a given meaning.

The rule following treats as unavoidable the use of words
with double meanings, and exemplifies the known modes of
obviating the evil.
3. When a word has a plurality of meanings, it

should be placed in such a connexion as to exclude all
but the one intended.
It is not uncommon to find words so plncecl in their context, ns

to suggest most rea<lily the meaning ·-riot intended. For example :-1 A man who lrnR loflt his eye-sight has, in one sense, less conscionsness
than he had before'. The word 'sense,' being used after the mention
of eye-sight, is naturally snpposed to mean one of our five senses,
which is not the case. Again: 'And seeing dreams are caused by
the distemper of the inwanl parts of the body' ; here the word 'seeing' followed by 'dreams ' is apt to suggeat the act of vision,
instead of the use of the wortl as a conjnuction for 'ina.'Jmnch as'.
1
There is something unnatural in painting, which a skilful eye will
easily discern from native beauty a1Hl complexion.' Here the first
8nggestion that wonld ariRe from the mention of ' pnintiug' is the
. art of painting ; what we find to be the meaning is a 'painted face'.
In other instances, there is pure ambiguity from two meanings
being equally suggested. 1 His presence was against him' means
. - either 'the fact of his being present and not absent,' or 11is 'demean,_ our and appearance'. 'I rernarked the circumstance' might be either,
. • I made a remark to some one,' or 1 I was myself struck with the

244

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-CLEARNESS.

MEANS OF OVERCOMING AMBIGUITY.

circnnrnt.ance '. The worn 'common,' from its two signification11,
'usual' arnl 'widely Rpre:ul,' is a frequent en.use of ambiguity.
Bro11µham's famo11s saying, 'The schoolmaster is abroad,' hM.
two Rcnscs, awl <loes 1wt, at once suggest his sense.
Amoni.r words with plural meanings, we may instance 'nir'.
'The nir of an nssem bly of the gods' is an uncertain cx1n·essio11 ;
it might be 'air' in the sense of atmosphere, or 'air' as character,
demeanour.
·
' Gomplcmenf.nry colours' is a technical phrase in optics; but it
most readily brings to mind the idea of wearing colours hy way
compliment to some pai·ty or person. This ambiguity, however, is
only in sound.
.
The wonl 'last' often makes ambiguity from standing either for
what is immediately preceding, or for the latest and concluding term
of a series.
'l\Iany good example!! and many jmlicious observations' is open
to a double rendering. There would be no equivocation, if we were
to say' many good cxperimentfl, anJ many jwlicious remarb '.
A 'question' may he either something asked, or a subject fur
discni::sion; hence, while 'to ask a question' is plain, 'to 9fre a
question' is n111higno11R; it may mean to propo11111l a topic.
'The apziearrmce of gout can never 1Je looketl npuu fli'I I\ g001l
omen : a statement contrary to a once i1opular opinion.' 'l'he wonl
'appearance' is nm big11ons ; 'nppearrng,' or 'the fact of gout's
appearing,' would be free from ambiguity. Obscnrit,y iA nhio cnu~l'«l
hy the difficulty of construing the application of 'contrary' ; lout
this is owing to t11e clash of negations, which will be fully consi·
derecl under Simplicity.
1
•The school was plnced in its preRent position a centnr~· n1-•n.
T11is means_ either locality, or constitution and rank with rcfcn·uce
to other corporate bodies in the neigh l>0urhom1.
'And even though the insurrection was at once put 1lnw11, it
might be well to have the nwans of 8llmniary aml i1111111·1lialr )'""'
iRhment at l1arnl, luwg1'. 11g, aR it were, owr I.lie l1mds ol' t lw P."1"""'
ti.on, to 1>tl'ike terror into tlwir mi11ils in t111~ event. of 1111~· l_1111h~r
disposition to <lisorder manifesting _itscl~.' The ''.ord ' _h1111g1111!.' 111
especially unfortun:ite l1ere. Co1111_ng . m. co1111ex1_1111 . w~t h lllllll~h·
ment, it is at once mterpreted as s1gmfy111g the rnfhct10n of tlcnth
by lianging.
'Oi1t of mathemati cs, nearly all tl1e writing is Rpcnt in lnntli"g
the syllogism, and very little in firing it.' The wonl 'l11a1li11g' 1111r.:·
gr.sts its principal mea11ing-lay111g on a loail. So.me otl11•r 1 ·1111~trur·
tion woul<l he nccrlc<l to sl1ow at once tl111.I, the figlll'e llHctl w1111 1111•
loading a111l tlif~chaq.~e of fire-arn1~.
.
.
.
'But even if there shoulcl be room for tl1c rr;f7ecl10n, l1yld, 111111~1,
would t11at reflection be.' The confusion of 'ligl1t' ns 111min011ily,
with 'light' all opposed to hPavy, is excce1li11g!y co1~1mon; nml wllb
the word 'reflection' preceding, we neccssanly tl1111k of the fint.named meaning.

or

245

As motnphors give worcls new significations, they arc
chargenhlo wiLlt 1111t11y of tho n,1nhig11itioR of )n,11g1rngo. 'A
half truth' is a literal impossibility; its meaning can only

be metaphorical, and the metaphor does not explain itself.
Metonymy is also a source of new meanings of words,
and consequently gives openings for ambiguity. 'He has
taken to the tUJj',' ' he has a good table,' admit of both the
literal and the figurative renderings ; and the ambiguity
needs to be obviated by the context.
The mixing of adjectives and verbs in the following
sentence is confusing:-' The fierce conqueror, untutored
and unrefined, half grudged and half despised the diplomatic
·powers of his patrician lieutenant'.

4. It is desirable to avoid using the same word in
iwo different senses, within a short interval.
S1.1ch c~nstructi?nA as the following tend to ohscnrit.y, n.nd, when
not 111.rnlcat~mg, .arc y1eh·gan~. 'If .the show ?f anyth1:11g he gootl for
anything, smcenLy 1s Lettet'. 'It is many tunes ns troulilesume to
mnke good the pretence of a good quality, as to have it.' 'He turned
lo the left of the Honse, o.11d then left abruptly.' 'The trnth is tl1at
trror nml trnth ore hh~ude~l i~t tl1eir 111i1t11s.' ' I look upon it as my
illl!f, so long as I keep w1tlun the bounds of trnth, of duty and of
decency.'
' 'fo say that these are immutable essences, is all one na if one
ahonlc.l say-'
'Afl good kill a man as a good book.' ·
'Hunting he loved, hnt love he lau!.!hcd to scorn.'
'Whatever i.~, is right.' The first 'is' mcanfl existence. Tlie
, eecond is the copula ve1·b : 'Whatever exists is i·i.,ht' 1· • whntcvcr
WSt.q, <'X iRf.A rig Ii tJ y 1,
o
'Having two ciustern of iclcn..q, n.nil knowing t.liem to 1Je twl) iR
tot tu;o things but oue an<l the same thiug.' l!'or the i;ccon<l two ~y

"ffmnt.
' Ile means to take ad vice a.s to the best means of trying the
41uest.ion.' Ineleg:mt.
'Tl.ie proud city, ornam!'ntr.<l with shttely hnil1lingR, fl.fl l1ccamr.
; the ropit~l of t.he world, showed a succession of glitlcri11g llpires m11l
• ortlc1·s of arclntecture, Rome of them chaste arnl sirnl1le, like thm:elho mJlila.ls of whid1 were honowed fr11111 ha~kt•f.K-fo of acn11t.h1rn'
" (&·colt.). vVe ~iatnml ly fa.lw 'cnpif.a)H' i11 I he 11a111e l'ense IL.'3 'capital'
Just ui::e1], until the words following show the mistake.
.
·
' Hnm~'s views on cm1se were anticipated bv ms11a,l remnl'ks of
_,&her writers.' Say 'chance,' 'ecattered' or 'i11d~lc11t~il' rcmnrks.
, -' 'Knowledge, in one of its senses, is synonymous with sen.sa.tion ·'
, me of its meanings.
'
12

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-CLEARNESS.

VARYING OF WORDS FOR SOUND.

'We confine onrsclvei:; within what we believe to be not only dt'sirable, hut w·i thin uo hmg period attainable in England.' Bail sen·
tence altogether :-'We con line onrsel ves within not only what we
believe to be desirable, but what may, in no long period, be attain·
able in England '.
But all be tliat lie was a philosophre,
Yet lia<l<le he but litel golil in cofre,
But all that he might of his frendes hente.
•The fallacy we conceive to be this, that the visible body can lie
contained within the eye, without the eye of the visible Lo<ly nl:!O
being containc<l therein.'
·
'We may know that it is no common oge.' The recnrrrnce uC
the same sound for different words and meanings is mm<lvisablt~.
The two senses of the pronoun 'we,' called the editorial nncl the
representative, ate apt to be confused in this way. ' ive (the writ..r)
will now proceed to enquire how we (men generally) first nnin! I\&
such notions.' It is in discussing human nature that this cl:u1h nl'i,.....,,
and the mode of avoiding it is to use the singular pronoun for the
speaker's self, or else to mak e the construction impen;;onal.
When a recurring wor'Cl has one meaning prernili11g tlrro11gl1 tlie
same discourse, it is wrong to bl'ing it in unexpectedly in ouc u( ill
other menniugs.
,
The won! 'wit,' iR 1:1nitl to be used, in Pope's Essay on Critici!1u,
in seven different acceptations.

6. The prevention of ambiguity is an occasion of
permissible tautology.
' Sense' is rendered precise by 'sense and acceptation,'
and by ' sense or susceptibility '. (See NUMBER OF 'N onos, p.
51.)
7. When terms are varied for the sake of sound,
care should be taken that they are not so placed as to
suggest a difference of meaning.
Synonymous words are very seldom exactly coincident
in meaning, though a great deal may be common to both.
If therefore we suggest a difference, the reader will naturally
think of the points of difference rather than agreement.
'Scarlet rhododendrons sixty feet in height are surrounded
by trees two hundred feet in elevation.' The balanced forn~
suggests that elevation is not the same thing as height. ' That
reach two hundred feet,' would avoid the objection.
'Mr. Gladstone has issued invitations for a full-dress
pn.rliamentary dinner, and Lord Granville has issued invitations for a full-dress parliamentary banquet.' The two
clauses being identical, except the one word, we naturally
think of the 'banquet' as different from the ' dinner'.
·
' Mr. Ayrton has accepted Dr. Hooker's explanation of
the letter at which the First Commissioner al JVorks took umbrage.' Here the full description of the office seems to point
to a person different from the subject of the sentence, for
whom a pronoun is the natural reference.

246

Ambiguity frequently a~ises in a sentence from tho bad
arrangement of words.
The laws for the right placing of qualifying acljunclt•,
given partly under SYN'l'AX in Grammar and partly uncler
ORDER OI<' WoRDS in Rhetoric, have in view mainly tho 1>rovention of ambiguity.

5. The best known device for overcoming amhiguity
is to employ Contrast ; that is, to state the opposite ol
what is meant.
When we say 'light,' as opposed to 'darkncs"i' wo
effectually prevent the confusion of this meaning with
'light' as opposed to 'heavy'.
The important word ' moral ' has several siHnificntion1;
it is opposed to 'physical,' to ' intellectual,' to 'immoral'.
' Civil ' is opposed to 'rudeness,' in one of its senses; iA
other senses, to ' ecclesiastical,' to ' military '.
'Earth' is contrasted, accorcling to tho occnRion, willa
heaven, the sun, the moon, another planet, sen., air, wawr,
rock, sn.nd.

247

The clearness arising from the management of ambiguous words has been a progressing virtue of English writers.
It was little attended to in the Elizabethan and immediately
aubsequent epochs. Perhaps the most remarkable exception to the general rule was Hobbes ; yet no good writer in
the present day would allow to pass the number of ambiguities found in him.
It may be doubted if the ancient Greek and Roman
nuthors attended much to this peculiar merit of style.
Many of them certainly overlooked it.

SIMPLICITY.
1. Simplicity means being easily understood.
· opposed to abstruseness or difficulty.

It is

248

. I

SIMl'LICITY OF COMMON THINGS.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-SIMPLICITY.

To be intelligible is a quality distinct from clearness. Tho
perfecpion of style implies both qualities, and hence many o{
the terms for excellence in composition unite the two; as,
for example, plainness, lucidity and perspicuity. Tho
'obscure. arising from excessive brevity (according t.o
Horace's maxim) means the undecipherable; too much IA
left to the reader's powers of guessing or divination. Tacitus
is often obscure from leaving gaps in the language. Tho
P1·inci'pia of Newton is difficult from the same cause.
A failure in intelligibility may also be due to unsuitnblo
or ill-chosen terms, whose effect is to give a wrong suggestion to the mind.
Both these evils are beyond the power of Rhetoric to
remove.
The possibility of being simple must depend, in tho first
instance, on the subject as compared with the capacity o(
the persons addressed. Nevertheless, there are certain
prevailing arts that render style more or less easy auJ
intelligible.

2. Simplicity may apply to the TERMS, or to tho
STRUCTURE.
Terms are simple, as opposed to the abstruse .and
the unintelligible, on various grounds. They may bo
the names of common and familiar objects, instead
such as are rare and remote.

or

In the sentence, .'Whosoever heareth these sayings of
mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto a wiso mnn,
which built his house upon a rock,' every one of the t<'nn•
has the simplicity belonging to things common and familiar.
Compare the operations for erecting a cottage with tho
building of a military fort, a palace or a cathc<lral, or wilb
the construction of a ship of war.
The most intelligible terms of all are our own nntiTO
English words, and those foreign words that, like the N 011nnn·
French, have come into use among the people generally.
Our more Latinized vocabula:ry is little understood by the
uneducated. (See COMPANION TO THE HIGHER G1u1u1.ua.
p. 205.)
When a subject can be treated in the langungo or com·
rnon things, it is pre-eminently popular au<l intolli~hkt..
Johnson's remarks on Swift are in point here. 'Tho }l<'nlMI'
of Swift wants little previous knowledge; it will bo suilicieo1

249

that he is acquainted with common words and common
things ; he has neither to mount elevations nor to explore
profundities.'

3..Term~ are simple when
th~t, m their own nature, are

they relate to things
palpable or easily con-

ceived.
.. The more elementary shapes of material objects-lines,
circle~, balls, cubes, · spirals, levers, wheels,-are easily
conce1ved, and the names expressing them are therefore
intelligible.
,, ·. 9omplex forms, arrangements and machinery-as the
.. r1ggmg of a first-class ship-are not conceived without
special ~tudy, and are abstruse to the mass of people.
· While our own modes of dress, as well as our familiar
tools, arms and impl~ments, are simple from familiarity,
the. dress, arms and implements of savages are simple in
thm.r ow~ nature. The clepsydra or water-clock of the
a.ncicnts is ma<lo moro. intelligible to us by an easy description than our own tune-pieces could be although these
are constantly in our view.
'
~
\Ve may point to such terms as house door room
.· table, chair, heel, fire, grass, le1wes, water,' well, 'stream:
:. tree, plant, roacl, drag, somid li«ht dark men women
· child, sun, moon, star, clou<l, r~in,bst~rm, a~d im;umerabl~
9thers.

· ~" Simp~icity attaches, in an eminent degree, to our
familiar act10ns, sensations, emotions and thoughts.
- ., . ·

To look, . to listen, to taste, to speak, to eat, to stand,
dig, to carry, to command, to fight, to resist, to
· fall, to rise, to ask, to give, to answer, to beg, to borrow, to
buy, to sell, to be pleasc<l, to be pained to like to dislike
l, lo ~ee, to feel, to reme1~1ber, to for~~t,-:-'are both simple i~
• their nature, and engramed by famihanty. Hence personal
• tt,' narratives are among the simplest forms of composition as
~ in the familiar tales of all lanc~nages.
'
. 'J
The .explan~tion of the :01:Ju by personal ~gency has
"' a~wn.Y.s .Leen ag1ccable to mankm<l, partly from its extreme
~ 11111phc~ty, partly from the superior interest belonging to
~ ~, &~e domgs of pers~:ms. In like manner, the imagery de" .nved from persons is the most suitable for poetry.

>to walk,. to

' '

5. Simplicity is naturally opposed to Complexity,

250

INTELLECTUAL QUAL:TIES-SlMPLICITY.

GENERALITIES ABSTRUSE.

which is a strain npon our faculties. The mind is RO
fonu ecl as to lrnvo difficulty in conceiving more thnu
one subj ect at a time.

. '

l

We cannot easily attend to two things together; n!I, for
example, listening to two speakers. . We h~ve usu~illy to
overtake complicated subjects, by noting their cow.;t1t111•nl•
in rapid succession.
No arts can make this situn.tion
absolutely easy, but there are ways of alleviating it•
difficulties.
A stree t is a simple object, easy at once in description
and in conception. A large town is difficult both in lbo
one and in the other. (See PICTURESQUENESS.)
A succession of descents from father to son is simplo:
a genealogy spreading wide, and occasionally intersectiug,
is complica.ted.
.
A single thread of narrative is simple; a concurrcnco of
numerous streams of action, as in a campaign, or a nation'•
history, cannot be simple.
A proposition with double or triple predicatci:i, or nnm&o
rous qualifications and reservations, is unavoidably o.l>struao.

6. Brevity and compactness, which are sought aa a
means of energy or strength, are unfavouru.blo &o
simplicity.
This was well understood by the ancients. Tho <'OD·
densed style of Thucydides and of Tacitus, while a<l111iml for
compactness, often fails both in Clearness and in 8implicity.
At the same time, even diffuseness may operntn ni,:1unt&
simplicity; that is, by involvement, and by too grcnt sepuation of connected matters. The style of Cicero, so much
extolled in all ages, is a study in this respect.

7. Complication is the reason of the uh8truRo ch ..
racter attaching to general reasouiug aml gt'ncral
notions.
A general notion is the point of agreement nmong in·

dividuals, and we cannot understand aud conceive it, c1~(4
by having in the mind a certain number of theso.
·
A single known inrlivi1lual (if not a l1ighly compli1·ntc-I ol•Jwt ..
itself) is what comes easiest to the mint!: a known 11101111tni11, tr,..., I--.
fieltl, man. For the corrcspomling_ generality, we must bring 1~rut• U..
mind several diverse imlividuals of the cl11Hs, 111111 k c• ~ P com\.. r1111( t'-9'·
till we can separate th eir points of agreement from thl'ir s_1wdl\ 1lilff'f,,.,<l!ii.
We may then realize the agrec111ent upon perhaps a very lcw ft'l•fl'!ll'•tAln•

".

'

251

examples; hut never upon a single one, withont being aware that t110
chosen specimen must be strippe1l of several of its veculiarities to enable
it to Rt1u11l for t.lm clmm. I 11 t.11ld11g 11 tlin.grn111 i11 E1wlitl IL~ 1.lin l:ypn of n.
triaugle 01· a cirelc, we mu Ht l1car in 111i111l tli11t tho size 1u11l colo11r ILl'O not
to be heltl as entering into the type. In fact, we shoultl 11ee1l to have at
lrast three i11stanees, one of them mueh larger thnn t.he Euclid tlia.gmm,
and a third smaller aml of a tlilforcut colom· from oithm·.

8. From the nature of the generalizing process, we
can deduce the means of palliating the difficulty in
irnpn,rting general notions. 'I1he principal means is the
proper introduction of examples.
·
The examples should be in close connexion with the
generality.
When speaking of ' force ' in general, we
become more intelligible by quoting some examples of
forces-as water-power, wind, muscular strength. A 'living
being' is so general as to be difficult to grasp : the difficulty
is alleviated by naming a few particulars-a man, a quadruped, an insect, an oak tree. To the idea of a. great
warrior, we add a Hannibal, a Cresar, a Wellington.
The great law of Proximity of the Like operates with
advantage here. If . we adduce a plurality of examples in
order to simplify a generality, we should allow them to
operate as a compact, unbroken mass. To interpolate
extraneous matters in the enumeration is to mar the effect.

9. Generalities are more conceivable when narrowed
by limitations. A 'high mountain ' is simpler in the
·conception than 11 mountain.
A qualifying adjective nar~ows the class, and brings it
a stage nearer to the individual, which is the most conceivable of all. By a succession of qualifications we can
reduce the generality to an inuividual absolutely.
' Religion ' is so general as to be difficult for the common
mind to conceive : Christ's, the Christian or the Jewish
religion, our religion, your religion, are more readily conceivable.
'Curve' is very general, 'circle' less so· 'wheel' comes
near the particular; ' sun,' 'full moon ' ar~ individual, and
in the highest degree simple or concei~able.
_"'
One o~ the Figur~s.of Similarity (seep. _182) consis~s. in
· ,. rcpresentmg g~n~rahbe~ by means of then· more stnkmg
,._ , a111l charactenst1? species. Con~pa~·e the two following
· modes of expressmg the same prmc1plo of human nature.

· -- - - - - - - 252

ABSTRACT TERMS IN A SERIES.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-SIMPLICITY.

' In proportion as the mn.nners, customs and amnsomC'nl!I
of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regnla,tion of their
penal coclos will Lo severe .' 'According as men clolight in
lmttles, Lull-lights i111Ll combats of glauiators, so will they
punish by hanging, burning and crucifying.'
For ' poison,' the general term, we substitute a representative particuln.r-' hemlock '. To obtain a subsistence is to
en.rn one's 'bren.d '. 'So long n.s I live' is rendered 'whilo I
have breath in my body,' 'while my heart continues to Lent'.
So also the Individual for the Species. Scott says of
Otway-' His talents, in scenes of passionate affection, riml,
n,t least, and sometimes excel those of Shakespeare. Moro
tears have been shrnl prolmlJly for tho so1TOW8 of Hdviclora
and Minirnia tlmn for those of Juliet and Des<1erno1111.. '
The m etaphor is an aid to simplicity. 'l'hn~, to inrur
tile risks of future retribution is, in Ifarulet's phraseology,
'to jump the life to come'. ':'
·
10. The Abstract noun is the form that carries nh·
stract naming furth est ; as motion, whiteuess, colour,
virtue, compreh e11sion.
'I'he Class noun, Adjcctin~ ,
Verb and Adverb t end more to suggest the co11cl'Clc.
A Class noun, as river, tree, city, denotes concrclo
objects, although requiring a whole class to be taken i11to
the account, which class the mind typifies by one or two
selected insta.nces. An Adj ective, as large, wise, fruitful,
supposes a class name which it limits and re11dPrH woro
concrete, as 'a large house,' 'a fruitful field'. '!'ho \'crb
requires the mention of a subject and an action, n.n<l ,·cry
often an object n.lso; n.s 'ho c111111n·ch1 !1Ul,-; tho mca11i11g,' whid1
is more concrete arnl suggoHtivo than the abstrn.ct noun
'comprehension'. The Aclverb, for the prm;e11t pur1>050,
resembles the adjective.
'Rulers differ very much in tho lc11yth to whieh llif'y
carry the control of the free auenG!J of their suhjcl'lH, or tho
superscssirm of it by managing their busincsH for thl'm.'
The following sentence is constructed upon tho uw of
abstract nouns: 'The understanding of this tmth will pn·clu1lo
that great source of human misery, groundless 1·.··1wd 1li11,.•',
To convert these nouns into verbs au<l a<ljcctivcH, thu IMlH•
1

* Plct11rrRfJllO mct.nnyrnif'R :uo nl~o Himplifyinl! :- ' Timo nncl rlt11llf'" h• .. eoften corrnpil'ccl to involrn, in one cu111111011 destruction, tho 1111111/t 111111 t:.ct ,, .. ,....,
tho st<•tu c ancl the 1•irtw·c'.
'The /Jowl and the dagger are among the stnple mnterials of Drytlen'1 &,...a,.

253

tencc would .have to be change<l thus: 'If ·we clearly understand that this is true, we shall be saved from what often
makes us 111,iga1d!lr., m111wly, r!:r.JH~1·linr1 whrtt i.s ~rou.nrlloss '.
'l'his form is more easy to n.mliY.o ilm11 the strmg of abstract
nouns.
Compare 'Christianity' and ' Christians' : 'the
creation of humanity' and 'men were created'.
·
It will readily be seen, from the above and other instances, what u.re the compensating gains from using the
abstract noun. In the first place, it is often more concise,
which gives it a claim of preference when brevity is an
object; as in subordinate clauses, which must not by their
length overwhelm the principal.
In tho noxt plnco, it n.llowA n. prtRRivo n.rnl imporsonn.1
form to be employed, which is often a convenience: ' Unless
care be taken '. ' Let your discretion be your tutor.'
'l'he attempt to resolve the following sentence into verb
equivalents will show the auvantage of tho al>stract noun :
' Such results are among the possible glfts of style'. So, in the
arranging of sentences. 'The wish for a more deliberate and
systematically reasoned action on the part of the state in
dealing with education in this country, . is more than once
expressed or implied in the following pages.'

11. When abstract terms occur in a series, the
difficulty of apprehending them is increa,sed.
A general word needs more time for its n.pprehension
than one that is particular or iHJivi1lun,l. 'Planet,' 'mountain,' ' quadruped,' are not so rapidly conceived as 'Jupiter,'
'Mont Blanc,'' lion'. The abstractions,-whiteness, motion,
plcasm·o,-n.ro loRS on.Rily re1tli¥-e1l Lo tho mind tlmn snow,
ponclulum, wiuuiug a gmne.

. 12. In certain circumstances, the operation of this
principle is modified : .
(1) When the generalities are easy in themselves.
Many general notions, through natural simplicity and familiarity, are sufliciently easy to apprehend as fast as they
can be named. Such are-weight, motion, length, warmth,
sweetness, hardness, sound, darkness, love, fear, hatred.
There is little difficulty in n.pprehending such n. series n.s
this in De Quincey: 'And as to tho profession of robber in
' '!10se days ex.ercised on the roa.us of England, it was a
liberal profess10n; from the boginning it presumed a most,

254:

bountiful endowment of heroic qualifications-strength, ltcnllh,
agility arnl exquisite hol'seman11/1ip, inil'<'pirlit!l-of th~ first ?rder,
n·eseuce of m£nrl, conrtcsy and a general am_lnrle:cieniy of
1
powers for facing all accide~ts, a1~d ~or turmng to a good
account all unlooked-for contmgencies .
So, in this stanza from Byronrass we the calm, the gale, the change, the ~ack,
And each well-known caprice of wave and wmu;
Pass we the joys a11d sorrows.sail~rs findi
Cooped in their wiuged sea-girt citadel;
The foul, the fair, the contrary, the kind.

13. (2) 'Vhen they have some natural connexion;
or when they have been often grouped.
.
For example :-light and he.at; time and space; qua.n~1t~
and quality ; virtue and happmess ; poml?s and varntles,
.
learning arnl talents; law, order and morn.hty.
Opposed or contrasted couples are more readily apprehended than the single terms. The .couples-' goo.d an~
evil ' • virtue and vice ' 'debt and credit,' are more mtelhgibl'e than the individ~al terms-' good,' 'virtue,' 'debt'.

14. (3) When the intention is to rouse the feelings.

An enumeration of the virtues may have no furthe~ end
than to excite a glow of emotion: 'faith, hope, chanty ';
• truth1 justice, benevolence '.
For with stronu speech I tore tlie veil tl1at hid
Nature, and T~uth, and Liberty, and Love.

,

The combination-' a delusion, a mockery and a snare,
gives cumulative energy to the same idea.
'Age, ache, penury'-are species of the. same general
notion ; yet the intention is not so much mtellectua.l as
emotional.
,
See the seventh stanza of Gray's Ode on Eton Collr!Jtl'l'hese shall the fury passions tear.

II

255

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-BIMP.LICITY.

.

The following from Byron, is not an easy series o(
abstractions :-' Some seek devotio~, toil, war, good, or
·
• The ideas are not difficult m themselves, but t 110
~~~~~tions are abrupt, and the serie~ wants to b~ 1111\(~~
consecutive. With 'devotion' we m1gl;t couplo good.•
'th• war' 'crime'· the two couples might be arranged m
wi
'
· 0 f th. em. 'l'here
the appreh ens1~n
a contrast,' so as to ease
1
would then be left the transition to 'toil, which docs no'
join with the others, either by alliance or by contrast.
.

15. The most difficult genemlities of n.11 n.re those
that do not at once grow out of particulars, but n.re
compom1clml of other generalities.
A mountain, a star, a tree, a bird, a government, are the
general names for known and palpable objects. A gas, a molecule, polarity, an ethereal medium, vital force, development,
are highly composite abstractions, and must be preceded by
a thorough grasp of the elements that make them up. The
Abstract Sciences, as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Psychology, are made abstruse by the complication of
their ideas. The Natural History Sciences, which merely
generalize and classify the palpable objects of natureMinerals, Plants, Animals-are in comparison simple. By
an adequate presentation of known examples, their generalities may all be comprehended with moderate effort.
lG. The structure or arrangement of Clauses,
Sentences and Paragraphs has to be in part regulated
for easy comprehension.
Many of the principles laid down respecting the Order
of Words, and the structure of Sentences and Paragraphs,
have in view the attainment of Simplicity.
The Periodic sentence, on account of tho suspension of meaning
involved, is less simple than the Loose Strnctnre, though serving other
important ends. The practice, sometimes followed, of using a personal
pronoun before the word it refers to, leaves the meaning uncertain for a
time, without any compensating advantage. For example: 'Though his
sons, five sons-in-law, an<l a nephew were among tho leaders of the host,
tho project had been, as nsunl, carefully eoucealed from tlie Srottish king',
.Ambiguity may also result from tho usage.

The principle at the foundation of Balance in the Sentence, and of Parallelism in the Paragraph, has still wider
bearings. Whouovor a connectcu series is repeatocl, the
or<ler should be unchanged.
1'he want of correspondence, in such examples as the
following, is opposed to ready conception of the meaning.
The courtier's, soldier's, scholar's eye, tongue, sword.
l

2

3

3

l

2

If one of these sltouhl fli11g hr.Im, swonl, 11.ml shiclc.l
1

2

3

To follow, shieldless, swonlless, helmless Iate3

2

Whose strings may turn to

l

ser~ents

or to

sw~rds

To maim his hand or cl1arm his eye to death,
I

1

-

·'
256

Tho same principle will be afterwards af>plieu to changing
the scene in concrete ftlHl pictorial Description.
17. Simplicity is dnp:trt<:<l fro~n, 1tcco r~l i.ng its fnc~s
or pri11cii>les are accurnpttmeu with cornht1011s, qu;Lh-

fications or restrictio11s.
'Virtue is sure of a reward' is in every way a simplo
stn.tement. rrhe genentlities 'virtue' and ' rewanl, n.re uot
accounte<.1 diflicnlt in themselves; nnu the fact of the two
being connected uncomlitionally is highly intelligible. Hut,
if the statement is not considered true absolutely, but
only conditionally, the conuitions need to b~ gi~en, . n.ncl,
if these nre numerous, the statement loses m s1111phc1ty.
•Very dillicnlt virtues sel<lom r?ceive a fullrcwm·d.'. 'ln
order to be properly rewarded, virtues must be apprec1atP1l
by those tlrnt are Lenefite<l Ly the1.n, and ~lrnst be ~·espo111ld
to Ly services or grn.ti tulle on th?ir part. ~ ~l tl11s n.111ou11t
of qualification renders the doctrme more d1l~1cult to grasp,
and imposes the necessity of further explanat10ns.
l'octry i8 re111lcred simple partly hy th e wiU1holcli11g of 1"11~1li • i 11 11~
in d octri1ml statc111c11ts. Se.ic 11 cc is rcJHlcred ahHtrnsc l1y the l'"'l111n·tn • nt
of trnthful accmacy, for which numerous qualitications arc ot'tt-11 i111li•·
pensab lc.
.
.
,
.
The same cons1dernh o11 s apply to J,aw, as 111 Acts of Parha111<·11t, ftll•l
to l\l c11id11c, whkh must accummodatc it::;elf to the co111plh:al'j' uf the
11unm11 co11 stit11tio11.
The arts of Simplicity in t11is connexion 1·cri11in~, among o!lll'r tlti11J.,... ,
the suppression or all needless tpmlilirnlious, auu ::;hortncss in thu slat<'llll'lll
of such as are n eccsstu·y.

. 18. Ambiguity, which is the enemy of clcarncsH, is
also injurious to Simplicity.
N othi11g is simple tlrnt puts tho mirnl on the rnrk o(
opposing meanings. 'l'he devices that shut out, for t lw. f;ako
of clearness all the meanings not intended, nlso co11tnbuto
to easy comprehension, which is another nawe fur simplicity.

19. Simplicity is often marred by a cb8h of 11cga·
tives.
An affirmative sn.ying Ly itself, and a negn.tivc hy it!'('lf,
are equally intelligiLle: 'Men are mortal,' ' a11g1.ils am no\
mortal-are in1111ortal,' are Loth pcrl'cctly pltLlll 1lPcltu·a·
tions.
l3ut when 11 cgativcs co111c togcLhcr, 1rn pffort it
requisite to fin<.1 their co111bi11e<l offed:-' No mon are
immortal' is less simple thau the equivalent form-• Moo
are mortal '.
·

257

OLASH OF NEGATIVES.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-SIMPLICITY.

rn1 e form, 'tf1 e

lo.~.~

of blood dr.stroys strength,' is le;;s easily com-

)ll'Che1Hl1~1l titan I.he po;;il.ive cxprc;;;;ion-' almn<lance of blumi i8 tho
l'.:\HRe ol' f'l.1·1·.11gtlt '.
l-'11, i1n-1l1·:vr11r 'tlt1·rn iH 1111 i11c1·enHP of Wl'alou·RH

tl1iH 11111rui1Jg,' or '.l.hl'1·1: iH .no f111'1.l11 ~ t· failure of 1:1Lre11gth,' we mighL
t>ay 'the sl!'cngt.h 18 11m111la111cd '.
.
For 'I111lill'cn·11ce to snll'cring is tmfavnnral1le to sympntl1y' wo
may use the obverse-' being alive to suffering favours sympathy'.
'If they do not acquiesce in hi8 judgment, which f think neve1·
happenetl
'1
. above once
. 01· twice at most.,' is 11u:1.:1.li1111
,., aud nmbi"nous.
,..,
1 1crn is an nucert.arnt.y as to the hearing of I.he rdat.i ve 'which' · in
strictness, the antecetlent shoul<l be the entire clause. Under that
~UPJ.l?Si~iun, the sentence shoula run thus: '1f they do not acquiesce
Ill. Ins JUdgment, and tl.1ey always have acquiesced except once or
twice at most'. Suppn;;mg the nntcce<lent be 'acfptir;;cc in hi;; jnd"111c11t' uwprnlifie1l hy the m~gal.iv1~, the 11eco1Hl 11ui111bm· wo11ltl be.:_
'nntl they never liave acquiesced abo\'e once or twice at most'.
'I prcte~1d to no }ll'~f'~llcc ~lf mind. <?n the ~ontrar11, my fear is,
lhnt I an~ 1111scralily d1 ~ h c1ent m that rpmlity.' ']his wuulcl Im mneh
clearer w1tlto11t. the 11ltmsc '011 the co11trnry,' which imlectl is quite
Wl'011g ; what the author aflirms is not the contmry, hut the same
fact., only subst.itut.ing for none at all, miserable <leficiency.
'This is 1wt t.he perva1li11g tone of the poem, whi;:h <loes not
1l11ec the rca.tler thrnughout in the n.ttitutlc of personal devotion.'
\ ll'rc, nl so, the donlJle negative is amrrn.vatcd by the uncertai11ty as
to the antecedent of 'which'.
no
N cgation is gi vcn Ly a great m:rny wortls besides 'not'. V cry
often tl1is makes the perplexit.y Rt.ill great.Pr.
.''Ve may now t:;ikc an example a lilt~e less plain and elementary:'
1
I\ httfo more comphcatctl' wn11hl ht\ !'a~tr.r.
1
The i.n1111bcr of imlivi1lual int.clleds, i111lepe11<1m1t., imptiRith·c
~1111 ncute, 1s alwnys rnre everywhere ; bnt was compamti vcly less rare
111 th ose ages of Greece.'
There wonltl be an atl va11t.a11c in sub•titnting for tlic forms in italics;· 'never aburnlu11t' ~nd 'more
0

ab1111da11t. '.
A still high er fonn of co111plicat.ion iR l""~srntctl in the clnRh of
a h'iplc negation, either by 'nots' or by wortls that have a ne.gative
bear~11g.

'l'wo n egatives usually destroy each other ; and if there be

a tl11nl, tlic result is a negative judgment. To discern this is not
al~rnys easy; and it is proper

to give a construction thut dispenses
•1th two out of three.
For 1 no less unlike' substitute 'equally'.
,
'No person can answer i1~ the negntive 1mle.s.~ he 1·fjuses credit,
nnt mcl'cly to all the uccnsat1011s brought against Charles by his
t11'po11c~1t.q, b1~t. to 1.11~ rnLrr:.itivrR. of the warmest. rnyali,.t1:1, arnl to the
· to11fl'Hs1011R ol t.lw km~ l11111RPll.' A morn po;;it,ive c011Ht.l'llction is
111.,.imlile linni. 'rite 11~c of the n cuat
ives is intcmlml lo give c1111Jlmsis
0
L..t
' n< I verse t o stmp
. I .te1ty.
'
uu t~
. '
. 'It is not to ~: denied ~hat a hig~1 (lcgrcc of bcn.nty tloes not lie in
.. IWIJ>lc forms. 1 lite two Jirst negat.wus tlcstroy each other, nnd tho

:r_ mzz;
258

AIDS TO IMPRESSIVENESS.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-IMPRESSIVENESS.

mean in" can be given by the surviving one: 'A l1igh. degree tJf
beanty does not lie in simple forms' .. Fur the comm~11c11.1g da\•"':•
with its two nccratives we may snbst1tute 'It may lie af111 mc1l! 1r
the simple a<l v~rb 'ce~fainly' : 'A high degree of beauty cc1farnly
does not lie--'.
,
'I do not mean to contend that active benevolence mny tiol
hinder a man's advancement in the world.'
Strike ~ut the t~·.,
'nots,' n.llll say-' I a1.lmit that active benevolence.m~y l11m1l~r--:
'There can he no doubt that no rewar<l was pa1<l :- It is certain
that 110 reward was pai•l '.
,
'I doubt whether the reverse be not the case.' Otherwise, muru
plainly-' I rather think not,'' I think the contrary'. .
'"\Ve lock the 1luor of csctt]lCfrom unendurable compassion.' Ilclkr
tlie simple form-' We arc shut in-or closc<l up-to nnemlural,lu
compassion '.
·
f 1 J>
8 waking of the antiqnity nnd possihle durat_101:1 o .t 1c. \O!nnn
Cath1tc Uhurch, as compared with the oldest cx~strng 111Rh!.11l1o11~
Macaulay eays-' We feel no aBsurance that she is not <le~tmeil to
sec the end of them all' :-'We have some reason to believe that.
she is destined--'.
.
1
'They nre not incornratihlc with the dcmal of the other t OC·
trinc' :-'They arc co111patiblc--'.
.
.
'If we ca.nnot recall at 11le:umrc a smglc Jflen, we nrc 1101. lrll'
unahle to recall a whole train.' Dcciphercu thus :-' If we cannot
recall -still less are we able to recall--'.
'·i'he operation of dispraise is similar to pr~vent the rerformnll<"~
of acts contrary to Justice, Bencficc~ce, ~orti.tu~le an< ~'r11 1 h:11t"t'.
Iustend of preventing the contrary of a th~ng, _it rn 1~10rc s1111pk m11l
direct to say, 'imnnotc 01· encourage tl1e tlnng 1ts~lf ·
.
'We regret to be ttnable to record any check m the fallrn~ off of
the tleman<l.' 'We regret to say that the falling off contu~lll'!!,
' It is proper to re11111,l'k that as the abs~nce of rc<lnc~s HI 110 proof
that there has not been inflammation, so its presence HI no 11rl)IJj ~· 1
the contrary.' A most <listractiug sc~tence.. 'l'l~e ;cmerl!, ~ in
other casm•, is to make a couple of ncgatn'.cs pair _oil. As the 1~lJ1<C11ce
of redness is com1)at.ible with inflammation, so its presence 18 COIU·
patible with there being no in!lammation.'

IMPRESSIVENESS.
1. Impressiveness consists in greater intensity of
present feeling, and in taking a strong and permRnc_nl
hold of the memory : an effect that is n.ot n~~cssanly
sought by the qualities of clearness and suuphc1ty.
Impressiven~ss i_s also desig!lated by the teri.ns-lnten·
sity, Energy, Vivacity,-all which, however, pomt,. not. IO
much to the quality itself, as to the means of pro<lucmg I~

''

259

A verbal intimation may be intended for a passing or
temp?rary purpose ; as in giving a direction for something
that is t? be ?one now, and not thought of afterwards. In
buch a E1tuation, clearness and intelligibility are still necessary, but the impression on the mind should be as faint as
is compatible with these other qualities; it being undesirable
to burden the memory with what may never again be
wanted.
The case is different with communictttions that are to
~ave a permanent us_e ; as the subjeets of our early education, and our professional or other accomplishments. It is
not enough t1111t such. cu111111t111ic1itio11s Lo clonr n11tl 01uo1ily
un<lersto.o<l, as _first given.; tho manner of impttrtiug them
should, if possible, contnbute to thoir being retained or
remembered.
Under this view, there are brou"ht
into requisition all
0
the arts for aiding the memory,
2. I. The words themselves should be given with
intensity or emphasis.
If th? mo<lium ho speech, tho expression shoul<l be not
only ~~d1ble an~ c!ear, but more or less loud and emphatic.
If w~iting or prmt_rng be the medium, intensity is given by
the size and prommence of the characters.
The arts of atlve1:t.iziwr, which are carriP.d to such p11rfeetion in tho
prcseu.t day, exemphly the round of devices for catching the public
~ttent10.n ; but. they do no~l~ing to te~ch the modes of graduating the
1111press1veness m a compos1t10n acconhug to the relative importance of
tho severnl topics.

3. ~I. A communication is more fully impressed
under circumstances that give it isolation.
. The. more free the attention, the greater will be the
impression. The remark applies not merely to freedom
from competing subjects, · but also to the absence of distracting emotions.
Other things being the sttme, the time occupied is n
measure of impressiveness. This is the general law of
sto~in~ t~e ~emory in education. Rhetoric supposes that
a distmction is drawn between the more or less important
parts of a discourse, and that the time of dwelling on each
is to be regulated accordingly.

4. III. One powerful aid to impressiveness 1s the
' '. employment of Contrast.

260

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-IMPltESSIVENESS.

INFLUENCE OF EMOTION.

This has been Brought out unclcr Figures of Contrnst
It appeals to a primary law of the mind, the law of Dis·
crimi1rntion as a conuition of consciousness. The sharper
the transition or contra.st, and the closer the things contrnste<l, the moro is the min<l irnpresso<l ; and this applies
to knowledge in every form. A fact or a principle is bottcr
remembered by being placed side by side with the opposite.
5. IV. An impression may be heightened by tho
shock of Similarity or Agreement.
When a. discovery of similarity is made among thin~
that differ, the mind experiences a characteristic shock,
which is favourable to permanence of recollection. Bven
when tho resemblance is no longer new, tho placing togctltl'r
of a number of diverse facts, so as to disclose features of
agreement, is an admirable mode of impressing both the
facts and their agreement ; in other words, a general idea
or truth. This is one of the means of stamping on tho
mind the discoveries of science. The law of gravity i11
driven home by the cumulation of all its representatirn
particulars. Evon Figures of Similarity have tho effect ol
engraving on the memory the subject that they illustrnto.
The Allegories of Bunyan and Swift are impressive !row
their sustained ingenuity and far-fetched similituues.
6. V. Account must be further taken of the influcnco
of Emotion :-and, first, of Surprise, or neutral emotion.
Emotion operates in several ways. One of its effects is
to heighten the mind's susceptibility to all sensible or
intellectual imagery, so that it becomes an aid to retention.
There is a kind of emotion, termed Excitement or
neutral emotion, where pleasure and pain are either
wanting, or present in a slight degree. Such is tho shock
of a surprise, as when we encounter anything unexpected:
the incidents tJrnt cause the surprise lLro stro11gly i111111·011K4j4l
on the mind. rl'his species of emotion <loes not witlulrnw
the attention from the facts that give birth to it.
Contradiction is a rousing incident ; hence the power o(
the Epigram, as a figure of attention or impressivcnc~!l.
Various other modes of engendering surprise are hn1l ro·
course to by teachers and expositors as devices for cnhan·
cing the recollection. Merely to disappoint expectntion in
bringing forward a subject, or in the rno<lo of lmn<lling il,
would give piquancy to the matters finally presouto<l. _

Intorrocration, ernployecl on the groat sen.le, n.s in catechetical ex~rcises, is a means of awakening attention. (See
lNTEltltOOATION, P· 216.)
Surprises, seeming contradictions, and piquant effects
generally, are liable to o.buse. It is an art of style to keep
them within Louwls ; that is, so to employ them as not to
give undue stress to a po.rticula.r topic, when men.sured. by
its relative importn.nce. From tho very nature of a surprise,
ns a smlden shock, it cannot bo sproivl over a groat surface,
nor be often ren ewed : an interval of calmness must be
alloweu between overy two sensational outbursts.

7. Second: Emotion 11s

~leasure

261

or Pain.

Pleasure ancl Pain, each in its own way, contribute to
impress thoughts upon the mind, and are largely employed
for the purpose.
Pleasure gains our attention to whatever brings it about.
Hence the desire to make knowledge alluring, by the help
of imagination and by all the arts of style. Plato took the
lead in connecting philosophy with poetic charms; and
oxcrnplificcl, onco for all, tho n.<lvtl.utagcs, and also the
dangers, of the un<lertaking. While it procures a hearing
for truths that mankind would turn away from in a homelier
garb, it does not necessarily induce attention beyond the
embellishrnen ts.
Safety in the use of ornament for impressing truth lies
in keeping to small quantities; that is to say, small as
compared with the poetic style, which has emotion, and not
information, for its end. A little emotion gives intellectual
vividness, and is therefore impressive ; a larger amount
' draws the forces of the mind away from intellectual activity.
It is well known that the two alternative modes of our
mental expenditure-intellec~ and feeling-cannot co-exist
in n. high <legreo. Whonovor emotion blunts <liRcrimination,
tho ground work of iutelligcnco, it is operati11g unfavourably.
The knowledge that is amassed for imaginative creations
needs to be touche<l with emotion, as a part of its essence.
Hence the evil above noted does not apply, until the
emotional pampering is carried to an extreme pitch. There
is a proper adjustment for this case also ; the poet may be
over-emotional for the purposes of the highest poetic art ;
~his may have been the case with Shelley, while a more

262

1

INTELLECTUAL QU ALITIES-IMPRESSIVENESB.

BIIERIDAN 8 ORATORICAL INVECTIVE.

suitable equipose in this respect probably constitnte<l one
of the many superiorities of Shn.kespenre.
'l'he influence of Pain in quickening memory is in<lirt'ci
or circuitous. Pain, in the first instance, drives us awny
from whatever occasions it; but, at the same time, leaves I\
strong impression behind. Much of the interest of tho
severer forms of truth, which we naturally shun, is connectcil
with their instrumentality in alleviating pain: in other
words, they indicate relief from inevitable evils, a.ml hn,·e
thus something of the etiicacy of pleasure. Pain, in its own
proper character, is a cause of excitement, like surprises;
and has, therefore, so far the influence of excitement in
impressing things on the mind.
'l'he extreme case of the influence of pain is a tediou11
harrangue that we are not allowed to escape from. Tho
memory is impressed not merely in spite of our rovulsiou
but as a consequence of it.
'l'he more usual form of emotional impressiveness i1
imaginative charm: it is this that we have chiefly to con·
sider. The advantages an<l the dangers have been no\Y
stated. The further exemplification will be given with tho
account of the Emotional Qualities themselves. '!'heir
double effect of supplying pleasure and of stimuln.tin~ in•
telligence will appear from the exposition. The following
examples will serve to elucidate the foregoing remarks in
the Quality of Impressiveness as a whole.
Chatham's denunciation of our employment or tho In·
dians in the American war may be simply referred to for
its unparalleled power of intense impressiveness.
'l'he intensity of Junius resolves itself into strength of
·
phraseology, the balanced form, brevity ant! powerful
denunciation.
We may refer back to Paley's Sinn'le of tho J>i!frn"• (p.
142), which was shown to be purely a device to gain nttcn·
tion.
The interest of Grecian History is enhn.ncc1l hy tt·o
following epigrammatic statement of its beari11g on our "" n
destiny. 'l'he passage is a marked example of tho cpigra1n
of seeming irrelevance, and is intended to startle : ' 'l'he true ancestors of the European nations nro
those from whose blood they sprung, but thoso from wtin111
they derive the richest portion of their inheritance. Thll

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263

battle of Marathon, even as an event of English History, is
rnore important than the battle of HR.stings. If the issue
of that day hrvl been different, the Britons and lite Saxons
mi11hl still h.rwr! 11f•r!11. wrmrlen:n[I fo flrn 111oods.'

For a spk-111lid example of stn.rtling orn.tory, we may
quote from Sheridan's invective against Hastings. Strength
of ln.nguage, the apt selection of particulars, an accumulation of horrors, ending in a tremendous and unexpected
stroke of irony,-are calculated to keep the attention at its
utmost pitch.
'Ha<l ~stranger, at this time, gone into the province of Oude, ignorant of. what had happe11ed since the death of Sujab Dow la, that man,
who, with a savage hcal't, had still great lines of character, and who, with
all his ferocity in war, had still, with a cultivating harnl, preservetl to his
country the riches which it derivctl from benignant skies and a prolific
suil-if this stran~er, igno1:ant of all that had ha\1penetl in the short in' terval, and observ111g the wide and general devastation, and. all the horrors
oft.he ~e .. 11e-of plni11!'I mwlothe1I a111l brown-of \·egctahles lmme•.1 up aml
ext111guisl11•1l-ol vill1igm1 dcpnp11latc1l, 1m1l in rnim1 - of te111pll'111111roofe1l
a11<l 1u·rishing-of resel'voirs broken down and. <lry,-he would un.tmally
i111p1i1·e wlmt war l1as thus lai1l waste the fortile fields of this once beautiful
a11tl op11lc11t country·-what cidl 1lisscnsions have hnppcnctl, thus to tear
1sumle1· aml separate the happy societies that once possessed. those villages-what <lh~pnted succession-what religious rage has, with unholy
violence, dernolishetl thoRe temples, anti disturbed fervent, but unobtrnding
piety, in the exercise of its duties ?-What merciless enemy has thus spread
the horrors of firo nnd swonl-what severe visitation of Provitlence has
dried up the fountain, nnd taken from the face of the earth every vestige
of verdure Y-Or, rather, what monsters have stalked over the country,
tainting and poisoning, with pestiferous breath, what the voracious appe·
tite could not devour? To such questions, what must be the answer Y
No wars have ravaged these lands, and tlepopulatc<l. these \•illages-no civil
discords l1ave been felt- no disputed·· succession-no n·ligious rage-no
.merciless enemy-110 aflliction of Providen ce, which, while it scourged for
the moment, cut off the somces ofresuscitation-no voracious anti poisonilll(
monsters-no, all this ltas been accom11lished by the friendship, generosity
and kindness of the EngUsh nation.'

After such an outburst, to obviate the risk of over~
etro.ining, there should be a. subsidence to u. less exciting

strain.

PICTURESQUENESS.

1. The connecting link of the Intellectual and the
Emotional Qualities is the picturing or describing of
scenes and objects, as they actually appear.
This is called tlrn 'pict11resq1rn,' hcranse it is nn attempt to rival, by the
Inferior instrnmentality of language, the effects of a painted picture.

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265

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

SUBJECTS OF DESCRIPTIVE ART.

The aims of picturesque Description are various, and aro
so for distinguishable.
(1) In a narnttive of tmm~actions or events, a writer
may wish to make us imagine these in their full actuality;
both the agents and the surroundings being more or le1's
fully represented. For this purpose, he must begin by picturing the p_rincipal scenes where the story is laid, so that wo
may reahze every turn of the narrative in its exact position.
. 1-'his demands the highest stretch of Description, as au
intellectual quality.
The wish to become acquainted with the wide world
beyond our own experience, including what has for e\'er
passed away, although it may ho partly conccivn.hlo by
means of remaining records, leads to a frequent exorciHo o(
the Descriptive art: as in Geography, Natural History,
Travels and the multifarious aspects that make up tho
History of humanity.
(2) A scene or obj ect may have a special charm or intc·
rest, which it is desired to impart by description to thoso
that cannot view the original.
. The arts of D escription are considerably rnoclified for
this purpose. Less than a full and elaborate picture mny
suffice; the stress being laicl upon the more intorcsting
points. This will be afterwards seen in full detail.
(3) It was an early intuition of the genius of Poetry, thnt
language could be so applied to the delineation of unturo
and life, as to give a mixed effect, partly by rcn.lizing nctul\l
scenes, and partly by illustrative references to ol>jectM fnr
removed in space and in time, but capable of Lcing
brought to view in verbal allusion.
'l~his effect of ~he picturesque has been inci<1ontnlly Cl•
emphfied under Figures of Speech. ' Squat like a toad,'
'sank like lead,' are picturesque Similitudes. So-

Also, under Figures of Contiguity, the name of the
Material put for the thing made has a picturesque effect
(p. 193).

264

The foaming flood seems motionless as ice.

Chaucer abounds m the felicities of the picturcsc1uo similo.
Thus, the SquireWith lokkcs crnllc a,s they were layde in prcsse.

An<l againEmhroW1li1l wn~ 111', rr.9 il w1:i-c n,

711N11'.

Al ful of frcshc flumes, whito aud rcl•tlc.

The shock of all the diverse influences that language
brings ·together, yields a spark of entirely new emotional
effect.

2. The subjects of Descriptive art are either Still-life
or Action ; there being all degrees of complicacy in
each separately, and in both together.
We may have, at the one extreme, a wide and varied
scene perfectly quiescent, in dealing with which the
powers of Description aro at tho vory highost · and at
tho other, action roclncOll to n. si11glo thron.ll of su'ccoAsion,
where Description gives place to pure Narration. 'l'here
is also an intermediate case. Hence the following threefold classification : '

3. I. Still-Life, as set forth by the vocabulary and
images adapted to stillness .
.

This

inclu~les

Nature scenery, considered as quiescent,

m all the vanety and fulness of the known universe : stars

above, tcrrestial expanse beneath ; all the accustomed
aspects o~ nature, in the different climates and physical
configurat10ns ; all the fixtures of human habitations and
arts-cities, buildings, ships, machinery ; the detail of veget~ble and animn.l bodio~; tho human persoun.lity, both individual and aggregated m collections.
Complication being at its very highest in these
~n.ses, the art. of picturesque <lcRcription is subjoctcd to
its severest tnal. There are two forms of descriptive
ph.rr.se?logy. applicable : the one is the pure vocabulary of
thmgs m qmescence ; the other is derived from associations
· of activity, real or imagined. Each has its advantages as
will be seen in the examples.
'

4. II. Action invo~ving extensive and complicated
moven.;ients; there bemg usually also a scenic basis of
operat10ns.
Nn.turo ~tAolf Jrns nurnormrn phn.soR o[ n.ctivity, on which
<lcp?n<l our mte~·ests and feelings towards it. . 'l'he heavenly
bo<hes have their movements and cycles; the earth is sub-

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INTELLECTUAL QUATJITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

ject to the great natural powers, as Heat and Gravity, n111l
exhibits phenomena of force and change. The more regular
phases of <.fay and Hight, of change of season, of fitful l\ltornations of the elements, shown in ordinary floods and tom.
pests ; and tho rarer phenomena of volcanoes and earth·
quakes : all these constitute a case for description distind
from still-life.
'l'he life of humanity, becoming collective and nationnt,
gives rise to grout and complicated movements, as in Wl\r1
in the migrations of peoples, and in the ceremonial n.11<1
usages of societies. 'l'hese being the most stirring suhjccts
of poetry and literature, their delineation is cultivated Ly
art and enlivened by genius.
As the expansive area of the operations is a condition or
their grandeur, some attempt must be made to set forth tho
entire array, as if seized at a single glance. The nrts or
still-life delineation are here applicable with modifications.
5. III. The last case is the most common of nny.
It is a narrative of events, in a single thread, or little
more, rendered picturesque by epithets and descriptive
touches.
Poets, and writers generally, avoid the laborious proc<'!ll
of maintaining in the view a wide-ranging group of contemporary actions. They may, indeed, overtake a plurality Ly
passing rapidly from one to the other. Usually, they sketch
a stirring succession, by individual strokes of brilliant illustration.
A ready example is supplied by Gray in the I'rv!Jreu n/
Poesy, i. 2, 3.
On Thrncia's hills the Lord of War
Has embed the fury of liis car,
Aud dropped liis thirsty lance at thy cornman<l.

If another is necessary at this stage, it may bo taken
from Virgil's 'Boat-Race'.
An<l now on rowing-hen ch they sit,
]Jeml to the oar their arms close k11it,
And straining watch the sign to start,
While generous trcmhli11g fills each heart,
Awl thirst for victory.
Then, at the trumpet's picrl'ing sonnrl,
A 11 from tlwir stations 011ward ho1111tl :
Up soars to heavr.11 the oar1<1111m's shout,
The 11pt11rne1l loilluws froth 1111tl spout.
.
Culli11,.'11

r;,.,a. '

DESCRIPTIVE VOCABULAHY.

267

6. The vn,rious arts contributing to the other intel·
lectual qnalities-Clearness, Simpli~ity and ~mpres·
siveness-are even more necessary 111 overcommg the
difficulties of the Picturesque.
Moreover, these arts
need to be supplemented by devices specially suited
to the case.
All the methods of obviating ambiguity, obscurity and
confusion are the more necessary, the more various and
t:omplicated the thing to be represented.
7. The prime requisite of Description, as well as
the limit to its range, is our Picturesque vocabulary.
There are two departments of thi~ vocabula~y-the
na.mes of Qualities, and the names of Objects or Tlungs.
(l) Names of Qualities. Form, S!z.e, Position, ~i~ht
and Colour are the picturesque qualities of ~he VlSlble
world; to which may be added Movement, Resistance (to
'l'ouch), Soun<l and Odour. Understood names for these ·
qualities, in all their distinguisha?le. shades, neeu to bo at
command for the purposes of descr1pt10n.
.
The attribute most essential to concrete representation,
and most difficult to realize fully by means of language, is
luminosity, or Light and ~olour. The strongly-marked
distinctions of colour,-wh1te, black, green, yellow, are
generally conceivable in being nameu; the varieti.es are
given most effectively by specific and well-known obJectsgold, orange, blood, grass, sky, lavender, steel.
Form, Size, and Position, besides having their set
names, round, square, oval, &c., are effectively suggested
by exemp!ary. objects-egg-shap~d, horse-shoe, T-shaped ..
Size is given both numerically and by comparative
instances-a span-long.
(2) Names of Objects in the concrete. Our experience
of the world stores our pictorial memory with inn~~erable
concrete things, which are recalled more or less v1v1dly by
their names-sun, moon, star, sky, cloud, field, wo?d,
river city street, house, castle, garden; names of specific
obje~ts of' the mineral, vegetable and animal world; names
of human beings in all their various stages and classes ; .
names of all the machinery and utilities of life.
(3) As description, especially .in poetry, aims chiotlr at
producing emotion, we need, besides, a vocabulary SUlted

.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

TRAVELLER'S POINT OF VIEW.

to this end. Such are the word.s that express our powerful
feelings-love, admiration, anger, iudignation, fear. Poetry
is half made up of names more or less tinged with emotion.
It falls under the El\IO'fIONAL QUALITIES oP STYLE to give a
full account of this part of the English vocabulary.

I
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11

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d
I

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8. The chief law of Description, confifrlorc<l

nR

exhaustive and complete, is to uuite a comprehensive
Plan with an orderly Enumeration of parts.
This self-evident principle is most fully carried out in
Geography and Natural History. Its application in
Poetry is occasional, yet effective ; to neglect it is to incur
failure. It will receive illustration along with those arts
of picturesqueness that are exclusively poetical.
The first of the two requisites is the Comprehensive
view, most usually given by a descriptive epithet of l•'orm
or Outline-square, circle, pyramid, cross, zig-zag.
This being secured, the next point is to give the Ar·
rangement of the parts in an orderly and coherent Bnumrm·
tion. Many thi11gs, as will be seen, contribute to tho effect.
Correlated parts, if properly describe<l, supFort each other;
as, in a landscape, hills, valleys and rivers.
Seeing that a certain amount of pains is requisite both
to construct and to conceive an adequate description, it is
a rule of economy, in picturesque composition, not to RhifL
the scene oftener than is necessary; alHl when it is shirted,
to make the fact apparent. Other allied con<litions arc-to
avoid distracting images, interruptions and mislcn<ling
emphasis (so apt to occur in verse); to beware of irrcle·
vance and unnecessary diffuseness ;-conditions the morn
necessary, the more complicated the thing described.
A poem is often a succession of concrete pictures. Tho
abruptness and tho frequency of the transitio11s necessnrily
increase the labour of attu11tion in onler to follow them;
and it becomes a compensating aim to make the best or
every one of the successive transformation scenes. Jn
the examples of Picturesqueness, this feature will <lcscn·o
special remark.

9. The complication of a scenic expanse is simplificcl
by selecting the aspects that would successively nppoar
to the eye of a spectator: which may be culled <lo-.
description from the rrravellcr's Point of Vic\v.
·

--

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269

No tiinglo glance can ov~~take fully. a wide scene;
the eye must observe the different portions separately:
accordingly, in description, tho mind is aided by retaining
the parts in the same order. This applies t? th~ panoramic
view, as when we follow an expn.nse by d1rectmg the eye
all round in one direction.
It is a common descriptive device to adopt the panoramic order, and to assume, for this purpose, an eleva.te<l.
point, whence the entire scene can appear as a prospect ..
The following introduction to an account of Perthslmo
combines the comprehensive sketch with the panoramic
survey.
"Could a person get sufficiently high, and look down on
11
the country, the first thing that would strike him would
"be the exceedingly varied and mountainous character of the
11
surface~ particularly to the south and west." This assumes
the bird's eye view, and answers for a general outline, to be
filled up and expanded in what follows.
"Along the north, the Grampians, an immense granite
"wall with many peaks, would be seen towering to tho
11 skie~."
Now we have the strictly panoramic view,
applicable to a mountain range. 'l'he position is so taken
as to commence the survey from the north. 'J'ho noxt
movement shoul<l be to the wmit, but tho actual view
includes both north and \Yest.
"Across tho centre of tho shiro thero woulll be seen
11 stretching another range of the same name, but more
11 slaty and jagged in appearance."
This deserts the panoramic survey, and recurs to the bircl's eye prospect, under
v.·hich the scene falls into three divisions-north, centre
&nd south.
"Southwards, are seen the round-backed Ochils, stretch11 ing from Stirling to tho Tn.y, n.ncl continued north of tho
11
Uarso of Gowrie, un<lcr tho nn.me of tho Si<llaws, into
11 :Forfarshire."
This- completes the general survey, by the
aouthern aspect.
The view from the Rhigi, in Swit:•mr1n.nd, is a case for
the full application of the panoramic survey, there being
no other method possible.
'l'he traveller's point of view includes, f nrther, a successive
ehn.ilge of positions on the part of the spectator, as in making
an actual journey through a locn.lity. 'l'his is adapted to
Mill greater complications of scenery. It has the advantago
13

270
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271

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

INDIVIDUALIZING ACCOMPANIMENTS.

of presenting at each step only what the eye can take in by
one glance. 'l'his form of description has been adopte<l in
fiction, as in D efoe's Voyage round the W orld.
The panoramic prospect of a town can be combbed with
the description by outline and details, provided the two
methods are not allowed to confuse each other.
It is a well-known simplifying art, in description, to
suppose a spectator actually surveying the scene, an<l die·
tating his successive impressions; it being assumed that ho
gives out only what another person can follow. Scott mnkl•B
use of this device. For a notable example we may refer to
the account of the siege in Ivanhoe.
'

to individualize the picture ; that is, to give it under all
the conditions of a particular moment.

10. Descriptive particulars should, as far as possible,
lend each ot~ier Mutual Support.
The b.est example o~ this, as regards natural scenery, is
the relat10n of mountmn, valley and river; each invoh-in"
the others,nnd all therefore, if properly introduced, mutually
helpful. We cannot have mountains without valleys, aucl
where there are valleys, there are almost always river'll.
The following is a geographical description of the basin of
the Po in Lombardy.
.
" "Be ~weei_i the AlJ?S and the northern portion ol tho
Apennmes Is the plam of Lombardy, which has a gcncml
" slope towards the head of the Adriatic Sea and is watered
"by the river Po and the numerous tributaries of tha'
"stream. The lower part of this plain is nearly a pcrfed
"level, of great natural fertility, and is the most richly·
"cultivated and populous portion of Italy. The mountain·
"chains by ·which it is bordered on the north and south
"rise from the plain with a steep acclivity and encl~
"among their offsets many fine valleys; thes~, on the siJo
"of the Alps, contn.in numerous lakes, some of which are ol
"considerable size."
A corr~lation is here established between the two rnngH
o.f mountams that boun_d the valley, its slope and inclina·
t10n towar~s the Adnatic ; the level and fertilo pla.in
through which the Po and its tributaries run · tho slC4!p
~cclivity of the mountain chains, with valleys ~orrcspond·
mg ; the enclosure of lakes in those valleys showing their
shape by the shutting in of the water.
'

11. It is an important aid in picturesque description

As when Scott bids us view Melrose ' by the pale moonlight'. In the actual experience of outward objects, we
realize not merely their permanent features, but the temporary adjuncts of a particular instant-the state of the light,
the air, the season, and the ongoings of the surrounding
life. Now, to adduce these accompaniments in the description, so far from burdening our conceiving faculty,
contributes to the ease and fulness of the picture.
· In the description of a man or a. woman, the attitude
and action of a. given moment may be cited with effectI see before mo the gladiator lid.

The sea by the coast is either calm, or in gentle waves,
or in breakers ; it is a.t either high or low water, or between.
Accidental circumstances, if recognized as actually
belonging to the time described, have more power of individualizing than those that are habitually present. The art
then consists in the selection of points that the reader will
at once feel to be characteristic of the special moment.
This is one of the favourite devices of Browning. Take
the following, describing the feelings of a lady whose
honour has just been vindicated by mortal combat.
Over my head his arm he flung
Against the worhl ; and scarce I f elt
His sword (t/wJ, dripped by me an~l swu11g)
A little shifted in its belt :
For he beg:m to say the while
How South our home lay many a mile.

12. ACTION, being in every way more conceivable
than quiescence, is a means of rendering vivid the
objects and scenes of still life ; whilo it is itself aided
by all the arts above enumerated, and by the lastnamed more especially.
Action is, by pre-eminence, suited to our faculty of conceiving through language ; and there is the widest scope for
a picturesque choice of the phases of activity. Moreover,
action is what rouses us; it is the great stimulant of our
pBssions and emotions. Hence, narrative is more exciting
than doscription : a story stirs tho blood beyond the power

272
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INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

ASSOCIATED CIRCUMSTANCES.

of a painting. A poet is never long content with dwelling
on the scenery of still life.
A huge massive gate is rendered moi:e conceivable, by
i,illusion to the slow opening and shutting of it, under tho
efforts of half a dozen men.

the summit ' mingling with the sky ' expresses distance.
1
Cliffs of shadowy tint' and ' the landscape smainr1 near'
bring out a similar contrast, also depending on association ;
and the same remark applies to the ' azure hue' of the
mountain.
'l'he associated human feelings play IL great part in
poetic descriptions.

13. Associated Circumstances, well chosen, nre of
use in enabling us to realize a pictorial description .
Thus, although Form and Colour are the pictorin,l hnsis
of the external world, the modifications of these suggest
many other properties. For example, we have an insepnr·
able association between certain visible appearances anti
the distances and the real magnitudes of things. Whereforo
it is possible to aid the visible representation by the mention of these allied facts-as 1 the distant hills '.
We may also use still more casual associations; rtR 'tho

There's joy in the mountains,
'!'here's life iu the fouutai111:1-

could be at

is a description by Wordsworth of the revived activi~ies of
spring, which dravi'S its meaning from the association of
exuberant life and joy with action.
To represent things relating to pers~nal comfort, we add
epithets reflecting the characteristic feelm~: a chee1fit~ home,
a. dainty repast, a toilsome ascent. So with the ob1ects of
nature, we have such epithets as grand, sublime, beautiful,
gay, uuiumLod, gloomy, torril.Jlo.

The following passage from Campbell's PlN1s111·1'.~ of llnp11
introduces many such associated circumstances,

14. It is a still higher and more effectual stroke of
art, in aiming at the picturesque, to get hold of Central
and Suggestive features.

solitary peaks,' 'a place wluni onl!J mmmlain
lwme,' ' the town stands high and wz'.ndy '.

8l11!f!) J

Let winter come ! fot polar spirits sweep
'l'he dark1>ning world, and tempest-troubled <lcep I
Though boumlless snows the withered heath defo rm,
And the dim sun scarce wa1ulers through the storm,
Y ct shall the smile of social love repay,
With mental light, the melancholy day I
1

Polar spirits' brings up the ideas we associate with tho
arctic regions, but the application is too vn.gue to givo much
help to our conception of the scene. 'The witlwred hcnth'
specifies a circumstance associated not only with winter,
but with a sense of desolation, and so far it aids in produc.
ing the general impression intended. In the fourth lino, wo
have more direct exmnples of the point in hand. ''l'hci dim
sun' not only brings out more vividly the idea nlrcn<ly ox·
pressed in 'the dnrkening world,' but fits in with nil tho
associations of gloom intended to be suggested. 'l'hc ox.
pression, 'scarce wanders through the storm,' is a picturesque stroke in itself, and from its calling up tho fcelin~"'
associated with a traveller's bewilderment, it contributes w
the intended effect.
In the opening lines of tho same poem, we hn.ve other
examples. ' The gWfrring hills' suggests nearness, whiJo

To select a circumstance in the very heart of the object- -itself, such as to revive the entire picture with the ut~ost
fulness and vividness, is one of the highest arts of poetical
description. A few well-selectccl points of this kind may
place before us a whole scene by the power of association,
just as the artist can produce a picture by a few skilful
strokes of the pencil. A characte_ristic, but not very strik~ng,
example is Homer's epithet 'hollow' applied to the ships.
He might have called them long, or broad, or deep, or
described them Ly some shape, or by their kind of timber ;
but none of these terms would have suited so well.*
'l'he 'round' earth is expressive of our globe, by virtue
of its cornprehensiveness. 'l'ho 'pcndout world ' is a circumstance well selectecl to show the aspect to an observer
at a distance.
'Dusty death' is one of Shakespeare's combinations for
picturesqueness. It takes hold of a very conceivable and
* Homer hl\!I n. most reflnecl u~e of epithets, even for llnimalii. Ile employs
nenrly eighty for the horse : :in nstoniHhiu~ uumber, many of which, as mi~ht be

expectecl, exP.ress lire or speed. But he dt8tdlmtes them with a. lluer discrunina·
lion than will bo readily observed elsewhere. lie uever applies to the horse an
epithet of rapidity, or fire, on occasions when the anitua.l is engaged otherwise than
ID rapid, energetic movement.-Ulatlstone's llo111cr.

274

I
1

275

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

CENTRAL AND SUGGESTIVE FEATURES.

impress~v? attri?nt~ of our bodi_ly_ decay. The disadvnntn.go
of the epithet hes 111 not cornh1J1mg well with tho aLstrnct
word; our '<h.1sty ewl' \voukl be a fitter union. Tho
n~stract term is to Le seen well embodied in Bryant's
'silent halls of death '.
Good selection of poi_nts for picturesque suggestion is a
stron~ .feature of ~rown~ng. Take the following instanco,
d.escnbmg a hor.se m furious gallop, as he appeared to ills
nder when the bght of morning revealed him.

have always availed themselves of the shouts of combatants,
tho claRh of weapons arnl tho tread of horse: to which, in
later ti111cs, are u.Jded tho boom of ca1111011 u.u<l tho ru.LLlo of
musketry.
The silence of night in a city is aptly suggested by the
sound of an occasional footfall on the street. So, in this
example from Keats-

I s_aw my stout galloper Roland at last,
'.V1th resolute shoulders, each butting away
1'he hll;ze, as some bluff river .headland its spray:
~ud Ins lo~ liead arnl crest, JUst one sharp cttr br:nt back
l• or my voice, aml th•i other pricke!l oitt ou his trnck •
A!1d ?ne ey.e's black intellig?nce,-ever that glance '
0 er its wh~te edge at me, Ins own master, askance I
A1_1d ~he th.1ck heavy spumc-jlnkcs which aye au<l anon
His fierce hJ•S shook upwards in galloving on.

The ~oints here chosen are eminently characteristic or a
g~llopmg horse, and so are fitted to suggest the wholo
picture-the shoulders pushing forwards the low head tho
bent ears, the intelligent glance at his m~ster and the Col\m
shaken u.pwards from the lips. The combined effect of thcso
s~lect pomts serves better than a still more detailed descript10n.
. M~ca~lay hits the stro_ng characteristics of the elephllnt,
m callmg it.' an earth-shakmg beast' (an imitation of !\Iii ton's
Satan n~a~mg hell. t~emble as he strode); so also in tho uso
of the simile-' a hvmg batterina-ram '.
In the. description of fights, tho flow of blood is a lcl\tnro
rarely o~utted. Thus, in Spenser (Book II., Canto VIII.),
when Prmce Arthur pierces the thigh of proud CymochlcsOut of the wound tho red blood flowed fresh
That underneath his feet soone made a purple plesh.

.In our search ~or the select circ1:1mstances that arc proemmently s?ggest1ve of a concrete pwture, we cannot fail to
n?te the aclJunct of ~ound or noise. An object of sight tlu&l
gives forth a sound, is powerfully recalled Ly tho mention of
the sou~d : so close is the incorporation of sightK Rml
sound~ m our mind. 1'he roar of the sea gives us o.t once
t~e .picture of the billows breaking on tho shore. 1.'he
smgm{'.{ of th~ sky.lark in the heavens inevitably recalls tht
fluttermg of its wmgs. Poets, in their renclcriug of Lattl0'4i,

All was gloom, o.ncl silent all,
Save now and thou tho still footfall
Of one returning homewards late,
Past the echoing minster-gate.

The fo:Iowing froni Spenser is an accumulo.tion of
suggestive sounds.
And more to 111110 him in liis slumber soft,
A trickling streamo from high rock tumbling dowue,
And ever-drizling rnine upon the loft,
Mixt with a mnrn1mi11g winde, much liko the sowne
Of swarming bees, <lid cast him in a swowno.
No other noise, nor peoples troublous cry es,
AR still are wont t' annoy the walled towne,
Might there be hf'ard : but carelcsse Quiet lyes
Wrapt in etemall silence farre from enimyos.

The circumstances that, from any cause, attract our
attention in the reality, are most suggestive when quoted in
the picture. In looking at a mechanical process, we may be
arrested by the particular way that it brings about its result-the more especially efficient element in the machinery.
Thus, in the firing at a target, we take note of the carefulness of the aim, and then watch the result.
The ease and fulness of our conception of Personality,
in all its fou.turcs, 11mkcA tho refore11ccA to human hoiugs
and animals especially suggestive. Hence tho number of
picturesque similitudes from personal attributes. Carlyle
says Austria without Bavaria is 'a human figure with its
belly belonging to somebody else'. Personal action mixing
with a scene is very largely made use of by both poets and
novelists.
In Milton, 'turning with easy eye, thou mayest behold'
is as good as a stroke of actual delineation.
A novelist frequently helps out a picture with tho
mental traits of some personality concerned in it. Ii'or
example, Dickens, in 'A 'I'ale of Two Cities,' has this
description of Doctor Manette's lodgings.
' Simple as the furniture was, it was set off by so many

276

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

little .ador.nments, of i:o value but for their taste and fancy,
~hat its effect was debghtful. 'l'he disposition of everything
111 the rooms, from the largest object to the least ; tho
arra1_1gement of _col~mrs, . the elegant variety and coutrnsL
obtamed by thrift m trifles, by delicate hands, clear eyes,
aud good sense,--were at once so pleasant in tholll·
selves'--,

. 15. To oyercome .the difficulties of pictorittl conception, resort is sometimes had to the delineation of au
object by the Stages of its Construction.
· Th~ en.rliest e~amp~o of thi~ device is the description of
the Shield of Aclulles, m the eighteenth Book of the Ilirul.
The .order of delineation is the order of the supposed artii;t'e
puttmg together the parts. (Seep. 285.)
The effect is repeated by Virgil in tho .lEneicl, in tho
construction of a shield for Mncn.s.
Milton's Palace of Satan is another example.
'l'he hand of tho mechanician at work has frequently the
character of a central suggestive circumstance.
Th~ vall~y of tho Amazon. is delineated by Agassiz,
accordmg to its supposed geological formation.
. 'TJ1e valley of tJ,ie Amazon was first sketcJ1cd out by tJie l'1crntion of two tracts ot land ; namely, the plateau of Guiana on th~
north, an1l tl~e central plateau of Brazil on tl!e south. It is proltalilo
that, at the tune these two tabJe-lamls were lifted above the sm·ll'n·I,
the Arnles d~d not exist, and the ocean flowed between t11em tlmmgh
an open strmt. It would seem (and this is a curious res nit of m111lern
gcol?gical. investigations) tliat the port.inns of the c:uth's sul'fal'o
earliest rmse1l above the ocean have trewled from east to west. The
first tract of land lifted above the waters in North Amel'il'n w1111 nJ ....,
a Jong continental islawl, ru1rni11g from Newfo1111dlarul ah11ost lo tlw
p1:ese11t La11e o~ the Hocky l\1o1111t:ai11s. This tellllency may 111! nttnbnted to vanous canses,-to the rotation of the earth the con•t'quent depression of its poles, and the breakinrr of it'! cru~t a]1111" Ilic
lines of gl'eatest tension thus produced. At a later })edU1~ the
upheaval of the Arnles took place, closing the western si1le of thi11
strait, m~d thus tmn~f'om_1i11g it into a gtilf, open 011ly toward thu
east. Little or nothmg rn k11own of I.lie eadicr stratifit>1l 1J .. po•il11
resting against the cryi:italli11e 11msscs firfit uplifted along tlw t.. 11·1ln-..
of th1; Amazoni~n V:allc.y. There _is here no sc1111P11cc, ns in };orlh
Amenca, of A~mc, S1l11nan, Devonian aml Uarhoniforons forn111tio11~
shored up against each other hy the gmtlnal llJihcaval of the continent ; altl10ngh, urn}nestionahly, older, palroozoic aml sccouuary 1"..J.e
underlie, here aml t 1ere, the later formations.'

INTELLECT AND EMOTION CONFLICTING.

277

· This method might be happily combined with what is still
the fun<lamental art of describing-plan aml enmncrntion ;
due care being taken that the two modes shall support, and
not confuse, each other.

16. One main difficulty in arriving at the picturesque
is to keep in view the respective demands of Intellect
and Emotion.
The most usual design of picturesque description is to
cater to our emotions. Incidentally, it is useful for adding to
our knowlcdge,-as· in Geographical and Historical delineations, and in tho graphic illustrn,tion of scientific truth.
'l'he conditions in the two cases are different. Perfect
clearness, coherence and accuracy are needed when the aim
is knowledge ; but, in order to secure those qualities in a
high dogroc, we must make some sacrifice of the emotional
interest.
As regards Emotion, it will come out afterwards, partly
by the examples, and partly in the fuller development of
principles, that feeling may be roused, on the one hand,
by a picture, the full conception of which is so necessary
to the case, that if the picture foil, the emotion miscarries;
or, on the other hand, by a copious use of the emotional
vocabulary, well piled up and ha.rmonized. But, in either
case, the inain point here is this: tlmt, when a picture is
intended to rouse emotion, its emotionn.l bearings must ho
made prominent; while the language and the sound must
be in keeping.
The following from Goldsmith's Dr•sr.rff1d Village is an
example of a passnge aiming at emotion, but dcpomliug for
its impression on the clearness of the picture.
Sweet was tho sound, whon oft, at evening's close,
Up youJ.er hill the village murmur rose;
'l'here, as I Jlassed with careless steps and slow,
The mingle notes came softeued from below ;
'fhe swain responsive as the milkmaid snug,
The sober herd that lowed to meet their young ;
'l'he noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool,
'l'ho playful children just let loose from school ;
'l'ho watchdog's voice that bayed the whispering wind,
And tho loud laugh that spoke tho vacant mind;
'l'hese all in sweet confusion sought the shade,
And filled each pause the nightingale had made.

The language here is not in itself emotional ; but the
collective impression is distinctly so.
The particulars

278

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

enum~rated all contribute to this impression; the points

are simply and clearly expressed ; and the effect is still
further aiued by tll'e picture that follows of the desolation
and silence now reigning.
Contrast this with Tennyson's picture of 'the islaudvalley of Avilion,' to which Arthur is carried.
Where falls not hail, or min, or n11y snow;
Nor ever win<l blows lowlly; bnt it lies
Dcep-mcadow'<l, happy, fair with orchard lawns
And bowery hollows crnwn'd with summer sea.

No very dis~inct impre~sion of the valley is conveyed ;
but the particulars specified are suitable to tho circmns~ances, and the language throughout is emotional either
d1rnctly or by association.
'
Another ex~mple is Keats's description of the cavo whcro
the defeated Titans are represented as lying.
It was a :ten where no. insulting light
Could ghmrner on tlic1r t ears ; where their own grnans
'l'hcy felt, but J1eanl not, for the solid roar
Of thunderous waterfalls and torrnnts hoarso
l'ouring a constant bulk, uncertain wh ere.
Crag jutting forth to crag, and rocks that sccm'd
:E ver as if just rising from a sleep,
Foreh ead to forehead held th eir monstrous horns;
Auel thus in thousantl hugest phantasieH
.l\lncle a fit rooti11g to this nest of woe.

The pictu~e is indistinct, which may be intended to ror.
respond with the darkness of the place ; but the effect i1
so~1ght by 1~ieans of language strongly charged with appropriate emotion.
PRO.l\IISCUOUS EXAMPLES.

A large mass of emotion attaches to the description of
Persons, whether in repose or in action, alone or in uuion
with local surroundings.
. T~e following is a minute and highly suggcstiYo doscnpt10n of the person of Mary Queen of Scots.
'She was corifesse<l by everyone to be the rno~t cl1ar·rning prinre.
of her time. Her large shal'p features might perlrnp~ 1111\'11 littn
thought handsome rather than beautiful, but for the wi1111ir11( yj.
vacity and high joyous spirit which beamed thl'ough tl1e111. lt bM
been questioned whether her eyes were lmzel or <lark gn~y, but thf'rt
is no question as to th eir star-like lll'ight11ess. Jfor coml'lud•-....
although fresh and clear, would seem to have been without lbe

PERSONAL DESCRIPTIONS-QUEEN MAHY.

279

brilliance so common among onr island lmrntieR. Her lrnir appears
to have cha11cred with lier years from a rrnl<l.v yellow to anhum, and
from aubnrn° tu dark Lrown or black, tu ming grey long before its
time. Her bust was full and finely slinpctl, and she carried her
large stately fiaure with maj esty and grace. She showed to nclrn11tage on hor~ebnck, and still more in the dance. 'fhe charm of
her soft, sweet voico is described as irresistible ; and she sang well,
accompanying herself. on the harp, tlie virginals, a!1d still oFtener on
the lute, which set ofI the beauty of her long, tlelicate, wlnte hanc~.
'l'he consciousness how that lrnu<l was ndmitcd may have made it
more diligent in knitting and in embrohlery, in both of which she
excel1 ed. Her manner was sprightly, affable, kindly, frank, per1rnps
to cxccs!'I, if judged hy the somewhat austcl'e rule already beginning
to prevail among her Scottish subjects.'

The order of the particulars might ho changed with
advantage : figure, hand, bust, features as a whole, eyes,
complexion, lmir, voice, manner. As it stands, it is n. good
example of a picture made up by literal description. In
poetry, the particulars are less exhaustively given, and
more made up by help of picturesque figures; stress being
laid on what has most emotional effect. The full account
of personal delineation for poetical ends will fall under the
EMOTIONAL QUALITIES.

The following lines from Wordsworth will illustrate
several pointsThe souudi11g rnt:imct
Haunted me liko a passion ; tho tall rock,
'fhe mo1111tain, nml the deep ancl gluomy wood,
Their coloms and their forms.

In connection with catarn.ct, tho ·poet llRes tho adjunct of
sound, which, of course, could have been more specific,' roaring,' or the like. rrl1e rock is aided by the simple, but
not ineffective, epithet ' tall '. The mountain he passes by
without an epithet. The wood is rendered picturesque by ·
the epithets 'deep' and ' gloomy,' each suggestive in its own
way.
Campbell's 'Hohenlinden' is highly illustrative of the
conditions of the picturesque.
In the first stanzaOn Linden, when the sun was low-

there is a good choice of suggestive circumstances-' the sun
was low,' 'the untrodden snow,' the Iser 'rolling rapidly'.

'

!

l

'i~

281

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTUUESQUENESB.

CAMPBELL'S HOHENLINDEN.

There is a pcculin;rity in the epithet 'bloodless' : n. pure
negative, not picturesque iu itself, anJ merely pointing lo
what will come in due course.

rivers of blood, or the blood-stairted ground. . See,, also,
l\laeauhLy's 110rno11mn in tho • L1Ly 0£ l.JtLko Hcg1llus -

280

But Linden saw another sight-

The action here is vividly set forth-• the drums beat.,'
the time-' <lead of night,' the powerful term. • commn.mling,' the ' fires of death,' • to light the darkness '. In thcso
ln,st there is an absence of coherence an<l appropri11te11ess ;
'fires of death ' has merely an emotional effect; it docs not
give a picture, such as we find later on.
Dy torch and trumpet fast arrayeu-

The torch would have answered here by itself, for although
the trumpet may have been sounding through the ranks, it
is not an habitual adjunct of the action meant. 'En.ch
horseman drew his battle blade' is concrete by individuality,
hut a collective image would have been more powcrf ul
'And furious every charger neighed' is an adjunct of sound;
but if it haJ been a reality, the multitudinous effect might
have been inJicated. 'l'he ' dread£ ul revelry' is emotion Ill
simply.
Then shook the hills, with thunder riren-

This is ono of the eminently picturesqt1e stn.117.n.s. Tho
'shaking of the hills' is a fine suggestive hyperbole ; 'then
rushed the steed to battle driven ' is the poorest line,
being common-place and not suited for a picture. Tho concluding lines are admintble for giving the play of tho
artillery-' the bolts of heaven,' 'far fl ash the re<l'; more
could not be said with the same number of words.
The fifth stanzaBut reuuer yet those fires shall glow-

hardly explains itself; but to us it is valuable as exemplify.
ing what is always cleemed an eminently central and sug·
gestive circumstance of a battle-the blood effusion. Highly
emotional as an acco.rnpm1irnent, it is also an csse11til\l
element in the war co111bat; mul in every way O.!!HiKlll
in evoking the picturesque. Its merits, however, hn\'O
subjected it to the drnwback of commonness, from perpetual usage. Examples are found in all descriptio11s of
battles. Thus, in the Old Testament, we have 'ganncnts
rolled in bloocl '-a circumstance closer to the actiou tluw

A11d many a curdling pool of hloou
Splashed him from heel to hcatl.

Horrible as well as picturesque I
Next stanza also affords illustrative points'Tis morn-but scarce yon level sun-

l'he point of ti~e comes in ~ith. n<'h:antag,e ; the ~ction in
the mterval bemg left to imagmat10n.
Can p~erce the
war-clouds rolling dun ' is a well-selected grouprng for a.
picture. c'where furious Frau~< and fiery lim.1' m.akes a
seeming distinction without a difference; and brmgs m on~y
at the end of the action the parties to the contest. ' Shout m
their sulphurous canopy ' gives the sugge.stive.ness..of sound
· and also of odour (sulphurous); othorw1se, ~t h~t repe!"ts
the idea of a cloud of smoke. The poet persists i~1 nammg
the individual when he should suggest the collective mass,
which the words Frank and Hun fail to do.
The seventh stanza'fhc com hat ucepens-

cm bodies the final charge, by somowhn.t obscure sug~cstion,
although with telling and powerful phra.seology, berng the
picturesque of action.
The poetry of battle scenes will be again fully ex·
emplifi.ed under the Quality of STUENGTH.
The union of active circumstances with a coi:icrete
picture is well shown in Clm\wcr' H cock-Cha11t1cleer.
Although the poet gives a minute and highly-w~ought
delineation of the figure and appearance of that magmficent
bird he cannot refrain from violating the natural order by
begi~ning with an account of J:is superb ~rowing. T~e
picturesque, in ~his instan?e, as is freqn~nt_ m . Chaucer, IS
attained by choice and tellmg figures of Smularity.
Tennyson'B picture of ~h? Tropic~l island, i!l • Enoc!i
Anlcn,' is an instance combmmg sL1ll-hfo and action. It 18
as follows:
The mountain wooded to the peak, the lawns
And wimli11g glades high up like \\ays to Heaven,
'l'h o slctulcr c0t:o's droopi11g crown of plumes,
The lightning !lash of insect a.ml of Luu,

.!1
282

INTELLECTUAL QU ALITIEB--PICTURESQUENESB.

Tho lustre of the lon~ convolvnlnses
That coiled around the stately stems, and ran
Ev'n to the limit of the Jami the glows
A1ul glories of the broad belt of the world.

This ~xl.1ibits what is necessarily the weak point of Rccnic
i namely, the difficulty of making a plurality or
views fall mto a grand and comprehensive whole, whilo
each one, taken separately, is perhaps wanting in emotio1ml
force. The first circumstance, 'the mountain wooded to
the peak,' is in itself suggestive and picturesque. 'l'ho
second is a new and isolated picture •the lawns and wi111ling glades high up like ways to Heaven' : this docs uoL
connect. i~self with the woo<led mountain; it supposes 801110
other nsm~ ground covere~ wit~ lawns and gla<les, nml
does not give a very defimte view. 'The slender coco's
drooping cro~n o~ ph~mes' would be found a highly picturesque conJunction, if wo ha<l ever known the originRI,
but. is .not eno_u gh for rep_resenting .what we never 81\W,
while its emot10nal force is very slight. • 'l'he lightnini;
flash of insect and of bird' is a. similitude of cloubtrul
application; the starting forth of insects may bo very
sudden, ~mt n_ot equal in ~udde!lness, still less in brillinncy,
to the bghtnmg flash. 'Ihe Imes following-' Tho lust.re
&c.,' do not cohere into a vivid picture; and the ono com:
prehensive phrase-' the Lroa<l belt of the world 1 ' is oln~curo
in itself (it probably m eans the tropical zone), a1 1d Joes noL
embrace the previous details.
In notable contrast to the heaviness of tho still-lifo
delineation, in spite of happy touches, is the vivacity of
the poet's rendering of the activities of the scene.
<l~script1on

The mvria<l shriek of wh eeling ocean-fowl

:1:110 l eag~1e-lo11g. roller thnntlcring on the ;ccf,

lhe movrng wl11s1:cr of huge trees that brauch\l
Ami hlosso111'1l in th e zenith, or the sweep
Of some i•redpitous rivulet to the wave.

Every line here is a study. Except 'blossom'J in the
zenith,' nothing is doubtful or obscure. The circumstn.nccs
are well selected for displays of energy, and their poetic
dress fits them. The suggestiveness of sound is well llll\llO
use of. Although the four selected activities aro •Jllita
detached and isolated, each is a power in itself, which can
but rarely be the caRe in still-life descriptions.
What follows is a fine sequence of effects, in the coune

TENNYSON'S TROPICAL ISLAND.

283

of a tropical day. The effect of m?:rement 'is !ery slight,
owing to the Rlowness of the tmni:;1tions; an~ it IS to all
intents a still-life picture, to which the succcss10n of phases
contributes orderly arrangement.
The sunrise broken into scarlet shafts
Among tho palms and ferns and pt~ccipicca
'fhe blaze upon the waters to the cast ;
'l'he blaze upon liis island overhea<l ;
The blaze upon the waters to tho west ;
Then the grcnt stars that globed thems.clvcs in Heaven,
The hollower-bellowing ocean, and agum
'l'ho scarlet shafts of sunrise.

In the • Palu.co of Art,' rrcnnyson provi1fos n. stmly of
picturesque description. At the outset, he pro.ceed~ by ~he
constructive sequence : then, he fills up ~he mter~or with
numerous scenic pictures, genera~ly .so brief a~d simple. as
not to strain tho power of descriptive art, while affording
scope for poetic touches.
The contrast between the heavine~s of. still-life deline~­
tion and the vivifying power of act10n, m able hands, .1s
well brought out by Shakespeare's passage on the hors~, m
• Venus and Adonis '. The points ?f a good ~1orse are given
with exhaustive minuteness, and m most <l1sorderly arr~y.
The stanzas both before and after the b:il? enumera~1on
represent tho animal in motion, ~ncl aro vivitlly suggestive.
It is sufficient to quote the followmgRound-hoord, short-jointed, fetlocks shn.g an~ lo_ng,
Broad breast, full eye, small head, and nostn~ w1tlc,
JI igh crest, short cnrs, Rtrnight J.,~R, aml pn.ssu~g 11trong,
Thin mtLue thick tail broatl buttock, tewlcr h1tlo:
Look ~hat a hor;o should have, ho clid not lack,
Save a proud rider on so proud a back.
Sometimes he scuds far off, and there he stares ;
Anon he starts at stirring of a feather ;
'l'o bid the wind a base he now prepares,
And whc'r he run, or fly, they .know ~ot wl~ethe~;
For thro' his ma.no and tail th? luflh wmd smf>rs•
Fanning the hairs, who wave like feathered wrngs.
He looks upon his love, and neigl1~ un!o her;
She answers him, as if she knew lns ~mnd ;
·
Being proud, as females are, to see hnn woo ~1er,
She puts on outward strangeness, seems unkmd;
Spurns at his love, and scorns the _heat he feels,
Beating his kind cmbracemcnts with her heels.

,1
I

I
I

I.

I:

284

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS,

The remaining examples of th
.
. .
ness will be given in the 1 .
~ qua1ity of P1cturoi:1q110referred to.
c uono1ogical order of the authors
. The oldest poetry was successful t
d f
.
p1cturesgueness: the poetic iustinct'ju~:i:~~t :~ ~! deg~·e~! 1J1
1
~~a~i~y a{~ :::a~~n1~~~~s P1~~s~r:tation .. HoM.ER ~xh~L~~~ ti~~
He is aware of the diIBculties esyeciall.y m . lus ~pithcts.
generally attempts only very simpol scemc .delmeat10n, o.uJ
Th b'
e groupmgs.
e ivouac of the Trojans at th 1
f
Dook of the Iliad h
d bl ' d
!3 ~ ose o t 1rn Eighth
simile and the sc'en:sit~elf u I e bescnpt1on-:-an illustrntiro
than is usual with h ·
· d n oth, there Is more fuhim1s
coherence. The f 11 u~i, ~n Yet. a ~emarkable }Jictoricul
o owmg rans1at10n is by TennysouAs when in. ~l eaven the stars ahont the moon
Look bcantill~l, whcu all the winds are laid
And every h eight comes out, and jutti11(1' ~ak
tud kallcy, ancl th e immeasurable heav~1fs '
r?a O}Mll to their highest, and nll t'lw stars
~l1111e, and t.he shepherd gladdens in hi::; iwart •
~an) a fire between th e ships and stream •
.
" ant ms blazed Lefore the Towers of Tro
A th?usa~1rl on the plain ; aud close L cac1['
Sat fifty m t_li o blaze of b11rni11"' fire : y
~~% ~hamp!ng gol.clon grain, the horses stood
I
y thcll' chanots, waiting for the <lawn.

ot

In his epithets, Ilomer is to u th f th
.
stroke picturesque. Ho occasion ~1 e a . er of tho smglcmore rarely three . seldom ab
~h Y. combmes .two touchc11,
of action.
'
ove ree, except ll1 narratives
The harbour of the Lmstr
·
.
Balaclava) has three : 1 . · . t~gonfians (supposed to rcsewLlo
uescrip ive eatures.
Vr'I
.
A rork-surrounde 11 hay
L '~!ice fro .nt111g hcadla111ls at the mouth o~ttrun
;a' rng a 1tttle 11anow cutrancc-way
'
1\ hcrcthruugh they drive the vcssc!s'o11e
'uy
· one.
·

It is not difficult to make these three .
circumstnncce
cohere into a picture Tl fi . t , .
the merit of co
h.
.10 is ' ioc 1<:-surrounded I.my , lrns
mpre ens1veness and tl10
d
·'
secon anl1 thin)
chime in readily with it 'l'h , ttl
is supported by the re1~ark ~ lh e narro.w entrn:n~e-wny'
vessels through one by one. m t e last lme-dnvmg tho

I.

DESCUIPTIONS IN HOMER.

285

The island-grotto of Calypso must have taskod tho attention of listeners to put it together in their imagination.
The descriptive points are doled out in the course of Mercury's movements of approach. We have (1) the cavern
mid the tall green rocks ; (2) the emanation of a smell of
cedar and of citron wood. Intervening between these and
the next descriptive touch, is the account of the goddess sitting inside, spinning and singing. 'l'hen (3) a sylvan nook,
grown round with trees-poplars, elm's and cypresses; (4)
nests of 'birds of ample wing'-owl, hawk, and broad-tongued
water-fowl; (5) in front, a green vine, with dark round
clusters; (6) four runni11g fountains, refreshing the pla.ce;
(7) a meadow, where 'violets mingled with the parsley green'.
The grouping and arrangement seem pretty much at random ; the particulars do not easily fall into their places in a
coherent whole.
Of shorter picturesque touches, we may quote, as a good
example, the description of Apollo going forth to shoot his
arrows at the Grecian host.
Along Olympus' heights he pnssctl, hi~ heart
Unrning with wrath ; behind his shoul\lers hung
His Low arnl ample 1p1ivcr ; at his back
Rattled his fateful anows as he mornd. *
*Ono famous Homeric description, hig-hly ()l:\homterl-t.110 Shlel<l of Achilles
m:vle hy Vulcnn-1leservcs further notice (lli11d, Hook X \ ' UL). J<'irst we aro tnhl
how the :.hiel<l w11s fashioned great mul strong, adomc<l nil over, nml with I\ triple
hrig-ht-shining rim. The Hhield itself co11Kh•t0<l of live fohlR. l\IHI Vnlcnn fashionecl
upon it 'mud1 cunning work from his wise hc:ut'. Th!' renmiluler of the description
1let:iils this 'cunning- work,' as it Wl\s nll\\le. There were wrought on it the earth, tho
lwavens, the Rea, :t111l :ill tho prominent hrnivenly b0tlics. There were two cities: one
fthowing I\ wetl<ling with loml brill:il Rong, 1iml 11 11i~puto hefore the jmlf,e~, with
tlet:tilK of tho dispute; the other II. siege tUid t\cfcnce, with nn lllllhUSCl\l e of the
dcfetHlors le:uling to 11. battle with tho hesicgurs. Then wore 111a1le representations
of ploughing, harvesting aml the vintage, with the various figures, movements and
Ron mis n.pprop1·ilite to each. Next were fashioned groups representing a henl of
ki111.> with herdsmen, attackecl by lions; a cleep glen with pn.sture·laml amt a. flock,
with folds a.ml huts; l\11Ct 11 festival tin.nee of youths and maidens, to the music of a
minst.rel. Finally, them was m:ide the Jtiver of Ocean arouml the outermost rim.
Now, this lengthened description suggel!ts several remarks.
In the first place, though it profcRRos to follow the onter of conRtruction, no
particular aid to our conception is therehy obtained ; an1l, intlced, a view of the com.
pl ctCfl Rhiehl woultl have help.id us morn than the description of the sccnel! a.'!
succc••ively wrong-ht.
H1'<:tll111ly, we g-r"atly mfRR any comprnl11•n11!Yn vfow of tho wl1nlo Rlil11l1l. Tho
form might intlec<I he :i•Humc1l a• k11ow11 to hi• rn:uh•rH, hut it w1i11 of great Import·
n11c11 to irnlicate the r elative poRit.ions of the tignres anti groups so elahomtely
t!PRcrihcd; yet the only irnlimtion given is in refcron!'e to tho lliver of Ocean ns
~hnwn l\rnlllul the rim. It ha• fwt>n n~•11me1I thnt the enrth, tho Hila, amt t.he heM·cnly
hntllos are in the centre ; that tho v1nirnl R<:ime• of life 1in1 pliicu1l l\romul tlw•e;
that these scenes l\rc divi1tcd into twelve co111p:1rtmont11, 1irmng-u1l ln groups of throe
corre.~ponding to a city in war, a city in peace, 011t-1loor country lifo, n.ml pn.stornl
groups. (See Homer- 1'he Jliru.l, in ' Ancient ClasRics for English Renders'.) But
not.Jung of this is in Hom er'• description, and these suggested arrangements only
Indicate the ro:ulor's sense of the want.

'
;·'

--.. . . . . . .. ....!!!!mlll~~--C'.e
~

286

VIRGlu-·HORACE.

287

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQVENESS.

Greek poetry, after Homer, was equally sparing in
elaborate scenic description, and equally copious in tho
1'ho famoutt
picturesque touches that enliven action.
choral ode of SoPHOCLES, descriptive of Cofonos, is full of
striking particulars poetically rendered, but there is uo
.attempt to make them hang together.
Stranger, thou art standing now
On Colonos' sparry brow :
All the haunts of Attic ground,
'Vhere the matchless coursers bound,
Boast not, through their realms of bliss,
Other spot as fair as this.
Frequent down this greenwoOll dale
Mourns the warbling nightingale,
Nestling 'mid the thickest screen
Of the ivy's darksome green.
Sophocles, by Collins.

And so on, with other particulars, to make up 1t splorulitl
eulogy of the place. Narcissus buds in clustering bc1iuty,
the golden Crocus gleams, unfailing streams and bubbling
fountains feed pure Cephisus, whose waters bid tho paatures blossom.
The Picturesque attained a high pitch in Virgil. Dut.,
as in the case of Homer, it is principally the picturcsquo of
action and movement, and not of repose or still life. If ho
gives a minute picture, it is mere enumeration, withou'
position in a plan. Thus the palace of LatinusThere too were spoils of bygone wars
Hung on the purtals,-capth·e cars,
Strong city-gates with massive bars,
And battle-axes keen,
And plumy cones from helmets sl1orn,
And beaks from vanquishe1l vessels torn,
And darts, aud bucklers sheen.
Thirdly, there i!l confusion throughout between the scenes AA tllt'y mh:ht he
ohserved in actual life and the same as t.l1ey might ho wrought lu nwhll. .h
pictures of life, they would be spirited and interesting, though i<ome of them "",.h ••
the city scenes, are not very cle:u, perhaps from our igm1rnnce of t111.1' acl•o••
described. But as representations of art, they introduce elements impo11.1ihl" 14.1 .,.
represented, or even suggested, in met.'tl ; such ns varying souncl!!, 11ru11r..-I••
actions aml the discourse and purpoMes of the actors. t<:ven if the ""J>enualllRI
power of Vulcan be appealed to, as overcoming the difficulties, it does not b.tp •
to conceive the picture.
The whole seems to show the strength of the poet in simple plclu,.. wlllle
bis art was not equal to so cowplicated a de~c riptio11.
•

When tho fleet af .2Enoas enters the moulh of the Tiber,
he seesA mighty grove of gla~cing trees.
fan bowered amid the silvan see no
Ohl Tiber winds his banks between,
And in · the lap of ocean pours
His gulfy 11tream, bis sandy stores.

To which the poet adds, like Ho_mer in t~e ~ave of Calypso,
the presence of the birds, fluttermg and smgmg. l lE ·a 1.
'l'he muster of the Latin tribes, in t~e sevent 1 nm , ~
the picturesque of action in its full swmg, the exemplar 0d
innumerable subsequent poets, among whom Scott an
Macaulay are not the least notable.
Ausonfa, all inert before,
Takes fire aml blazes to the core :
And some on foot their march essay,
Some mounted, storm along tho way ;
' 'l'o arms ! cry one aml all :
·with unctuous lard their shields they clean,
Aml make their javelins bright. and sheen,
'!'heir axes on the whetstone gnml i
Look how that banner tu.kes the wmd l
Hark to yon tri~mpet's. call !
Five micrhty towns, with anvils set,
In emnl~ns hllSte their weapons whet :
Crnstumium, Tibur the renowned,
Aml strong A tina there arc found,
And Anica, and Antcmnro crownc1l
With turrets round her wall.

Splendid touches could be found among the many po.etic
effects in Horace. How effectiye his Lali:ge, melodious
alike in her laugh and in her talk (dulce ndentem, dulce
loquentem) l
Short descriptions of ~onsiderablo pictu~esqucness aro frequent. For
example, tho following stanza in the sorenadrng Ode to LyccOnly hark how the doorway goes straining and creaking,
And the piercing wind pipes through t~o trees t.hat surround
The court of your villa, while bl~ck fr~>st is streakmg
With ice the crisp snow that hes tluck 011 the ground.
., t·'
-Theodore .1.uar in.

Or this description of a riverAll else which may l)y time ho bred
Is like a river of the plain,
Now gliding gently o'er it'I bed
Alon~ to the Etruscan main,
Now whirling ouwanlH, liurco nncl fast,
Uprooted trees and boulders vast,

•
288

SPENSER.-SHAKESPEARE.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

Longer rlescriptions may be found in the picture of the Islnmh of the
Blessed (Epodes XVI.), consisting of a series of featmes niming chiefly 11t
emotional harmony, or the journey to Brnmlusium (Satires, I. 6), de·
scribed with many touches of pictmesque humour.

A111l over him, not strh·in~ to com pair
\Vith natnrn, di1l 1111 ai-111'1' grl'nlle 1li:<prcd,
Fmm1~cl of w:111to11 vvin, llo11ri1w litirn,
Through whieh tho" fragl'ant 11gf:t11ti110 tlhl "l'reJ
II i.i pril'kling annes, entrayld with roses l'l'I ,
"Thich daiutie odours round about them threw
A1Hl all within with flowers were gamislu·d,
'rhat, when myhl Zephyrus emougst them blew,
Did breath out boundless smell, and paintcJ colors show.

CHAumm's nmstery of the picturesque has alreacly como
into view. His graphic similitudes are not his only art.
His selection of points is equally notable. Not often does nny
poet venture upon the full details of a human countmmnco:
Chaucer has elaborated two very different pictures of hernls
-the prioress and the miller. The miller's wart is nn
example of a suggestive feature : it carries with it to tho
mind a good deal besi<les. In the 'Wife of Bath,' tho
deafness is a well-chosen particular, among various others
in that wonderful personation.

There is no picturesque method observed in this instance.
'Ihe same poet is distinguished for his power of personal descriptions. They have the author's characteristic
of poetic force. See his ' Mammon ' in Book II., Canto
VII. 3.

The poetic inv~,mtion of SPENSER supplies innumcrnhlo
strokes of the picturesque ; any want of effectiveness lwing
referable to his diffuseness, exuberance and want of luci1lity.
It i~ nc;>t his purp?se to elaborate scenic pictures, eith~r
of st1ll-hfe or of action, further than as they servo to cxcito
emotion ; and he depends for ease of co111prehension ruoro
upon his poetic invention than upon mothoJ.
The first example is purely scenic-

The best order for pictorial effect would be tho folio"··
ing :-'Down in a dale, hard by a forest's si<le, far from
people, was a. little lowly hermitage; near which WILIJ a
holy chapel; and by it a fountain welled forth o. gentle
crystal stream'. It is better not to interrupt tho <lcscriptivo

289

particulars, by an action that gives no support to the
description. The hermit's morn and even prayers can be
recounted separately. The circumstance 'far from people'
is suggestive and supporting; but there is no necessity for
the addition-' that did pass in travel to and fro'.
The exuberance of Spenser's style is better typified by
the following-

And flocks, anrl houses, all in drear
Confusion tosse1l from shore to shore,
'Vhile mou11tai11s far, a11d forests near,
Reverbcrnte the rising roar,
·when lashing rains among the hills
To fury wake the quiet rills.

A Jittle lowly Hermitage it was,
Downe in a dale, hanl by a forest's side,
Far from resort of people that did pas
In travell to and frue; a little wyde
'J'hern was au holy chappcll cdifyde,
"Wherein the Hcmiite dcwly wont to say
His holy things each mornc and eventyde :
Thereby a christall strcame dill gentlv play,
·
'Vhich from a sacred fountaine wclletl forth nlway.

--

An uncouth, salvage, nnd nncivile wight
Of griesly hew nnd fowle ill-favonr'tl sight;
His face with smoke wns tautl, and eyes were blrard,
His head an(l beard with sout were ill-hc1light,
His cole-lilacke hands tlicl seeme to have been rcrml
In smithcs tire-s11itting forgo, and 1myles like clawcs o.pperml.

Deing short, this is more concoivahle than Sponsor's
pictures generally are.
The picturesqueness of SHAKESPEARE is on a level with
all his other arts. Epithets are in the highest profusion.
The 'Seven ages' is an example of what may be called
,· picturing by representative or typical circumstances. The
• first question for the critic is-Are these well chosen ?-the
next, Are they vividly rendered?
-'tho whiuing schoolhoy, with liis ~ntd1ol,
And shining morning face, creqiing like snail,
Unwillingly to school;'

is one view of the age of boyhood, supported by graphically
chosen circumstances; 'the shining morning face' being
_><: powerfully suggestive. Equally typical would have been
. the digressions and stoppages for play. The most powerful
~

290

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

passage, for pi~turesque and mutually supporting detail!:1, is
probably. the sixth age. Yet the poet's choice of circmnst~nces is really less suggestive than the commonplaco
epithets-' bo~ed' and ' tottering', The shrunk limb11
cannot be given as fully representative; obesity being
equally ~ttendan~ on decay of constitution. The 'Lig
manly vowe turnmg to treble ' is not an invariable characteristic, and would rather mark the extremity of weakness
pictured .in the seventh age.

MILTON'S MOUNT OF TEMPTATION.

291

twofold course along the plain is sufli~iently con?eivable ;
but an actual viflw wonl1l give a variety of eflects, n?t
merely more truthful, but 111oro poetical.. A 111~nmtn,m
prospect is not a bird's. eye view; the rivers might _,he
visible in very large portions, ~ut th~y. would. necessanly
become hidden at points; .the m.t~rvemmg, bemg cross to
the view, would be but partially v1s1ble.
"rith herds tho pastures throng'tl, with flock!! tho hills.

sustains the grandeur of his style by picturc!!quo
groupmg~, 1;1-S w~ll as splendid similes. His greatest effort
at qescnpt10n is th~ 'Mount of 'Temptation' ; whcro ho
realizes comprehensiveness, along with selected circumstances and supporting figures.

This is the filling in, aml is sufficiently. conco~vn.hlc, n.1.t.11ough
the inserting of hills, if. it is not 1!1cons1stent with the
spacious plain, at least mterferes with the prospect,. as
at first supposed. The mountain would neecl to be as lugh
a.s Mont Blanc. So with the remainder-

It wa'! a mountain, at whose vcrdnnt feet
A spacious plain, outstretched in circuit wide,
Lay 11lcasa11t,

Hugc citicR nnd liigh towcr'cl , that well migl1t seem
The seats of mightic~t monar.-l1s ; antl so large
The pro~pe c t was, that here antl there was room
For Lanen desert, fountainlcss and dry.

M!LTON

Here we ha":e c'?mp~·ehe~sive phrases-' spacious plnin,
outstretched m c1rcmt wide,' and the situation with a
p~cturesque eJ?ithet, .'at whose verdant feet'. 'J_Jay pleasant,'
gives ~n n:ssomate~ circumstance,(' pleasant,') but too general
to assist m the picture.
'l:h~

-from its side two rivers flow'd

one

win~ing, t.he other .strai~ht, and left between

Fan· champaign, with less nvers 111tervcin'd
Then meeting, joined their tribute to the se~.

. Poets are ap~ to make very free with the derivation of
rivers, and. describe. a n~ode of origin that, not having been
actually witnessed, is difficult to realize.* It would take a
good many mountains to furnish Milton's two rivers. 'l'hcir
*The true origin o! rivers Is OCC!\sionally, but rarely, given in poetry. ·The
emergence of a ful! -b.od1ed stream from a single source is what is most i:enemll7
assumed, although 1~ 1s only by an exception to the usual order that this can O<'t'nr,
The caverns of the h.mei:tone formation allow water to gather into a conRl11t!mltle
volume befo_re emerg1!1g m open RtreamR. Tho nHnal rise of rivorR, aR we h11•11 1111
ohserye.•I It m our or1l111ary experience, i~ hy innnmcmhle trickling rivnil!tH l(r:11h11\ll1
combmmg to form 11. main Htream. Gray has given expression to this view In bit
'Progress of Poesy'From H elicon's harmonious springs
A thou sand rills their mazy progress take.
So, In Scott's St. Mary's Lake,-though these steep hills
Send to the lake a thousand rills.
Tennyson's 'many-fountained Ida' fa to the same effect.

•

The expression is beautiful in the extreme : and the
addition of cities and deserts is in proper form ; the completion of the details of the comprehensive sketch. All that can
be said is that from an actual position so lofty as to command
the view 'here described, effects would be attained, in comparison with which Milton's particulars would appear tame.
In ' Paradise Lost,' description is foiled by the natu~o of
the subject ; hell being altogether indescribable : yet Milton
gives partial pictures of the sublime and terrible, making
large use of the suggestiveness of sound. 'l'he language is
necessarily more emotional than picture-giving.
PoPE has the power of picturesqueness, both by figures

and by choice of circumstance. Enough to cite the fatal
moment in the ' Rape of the Lock ' ·
The mceting·poinf.s thr. sacred hair dissever
From the f afr head, for ever and for ever.

In the singlo-stroko picturesqueness, Pope is equal to tho
greatest poets. Without this power, he could not have been
the translator of Homer. When he extends his compass to
complicated description, he takes care to be intelligible.
The examples in the ' Temple of Fame,' the 'Rape of the

I

'!

292

JHE1t's GUONGAU JllJ,fi.

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

N••ll', wliil•• l'l1.,·l111 ,:, rioling lii •:h
1:i1·,-,: 111 1.lr• · 111 tl11• 1:111111111d :•ky;
Cr"""''r JI ill i11\· il·"~ 111'' soil:!,
Jlr:11t1 h•• l:L11d ~"' ll'" ltri.gl1t. n.11.I slr1111g
(:rnll !'.'u·, in whoso! rnn"s~· o·o·lb,
f-;1rul'l.l.Y 11111s i11g, l.~11iuL 1lwcl!H.

Lock,' 'Windsor Forest,' and tho 'Epistle of Eloisa' aro of
themselves sufficient proof.•
One 0£ t~e ~ost noted 0£ our descriptive poems is Dnm'R
Gron~ar Hill ;, an elaborate. attempt at the picturesquo
rend~rmg of a rich and complicated scene, with a view to
1

I,.
I

!

293

A preliminary flomiKh of t,\iis ki111l, wlr~l<' co11\.ril~nLi1.1.~
11otlii11g to tl1n i11tu111le1l picLurn, (lcHJ~; 1101; n1torforo w1~h 111.
l\lurn uuLl>ur,.;Ls o[ ad111iri11g c111otio11 n,rn lH~s t plnceil, either
in n.dv1t11<·0, or ttL tho cwl, of Ll10 d<~snil't inll proper. In
lvlvn.1wo tlu~y may Lo n. preparation of 111i11d for the n.nlnous

emot10nal effects and moral lessons. The material is goou
but the treatment is confusing.
'
A poet may simply quote or adduce striking features of
the exter~al world; elevating them by emotional epithets,
and seekmg only to arouse agreeable or other feelings,
The plan does not re9.uire much attention to order, although,
even for pure emot10nal effect, certain juxtapositions are
always preferable to others.
·
It is a higher aim to place us in a scene where we realize
all the parts in their actual arrangement. The result is not
a purelr intellectual one. If it succeeds, each separate
~eature is n~ade more conceivable by collateral support, anu
if our emot10ns are at all dependent on realizing a picture,
they are so much the more powerfully stimulated.
There is scarcely a middle course between detached or
scattered allusions and the full picture. In order to tho
picture, however, method and continuity are requisite. To
separate the scenic parts by narrative circumstances reflections or moral applications, however interesting these
may be, is a mistake in every view.
Dyer comm~nces-

part; while, nt the close, they t,ako full advantage of what
)ms precc<le<l.
.
.
.
'J'hc poet supposes hinrnelf n.scrlHlmg tho lnll, n.ntl g1nis
tl10 i·mcc<•si;ion o[ 11pJH'arn1u·es in the course of tho ascent.
This, \veil i11n.1mged, is n. contribution tttHl Hnpport to tho
prospect from tlte top. Ile beginsA '11111! ltis dll'<\ll<'r'1l siokl'I I wi111I,
Anol lt-:1ve Iii" 1ro11k:~ a111l 1111 · :1d.~ J... hirul,
An•l gro\'l~H, aml groltuo•>i wlll're l l:ty,
Ami vist.a;i, shooting beams of day.

It ra,1mol; ho 1mi(l tl1 :tt tlwRo p:tr!.il'tilnrs foll into It \\'~'11delined whole; they arc rn.thcr trnl'c<l out n.t rn.wlom, with
111ernly tlw llifforenco tluo to tho su.cccssivo stages of tho
11,sccnt. \Ve pass on to tho prospect itself.
Now I gai11 the monnt.:iin °l'I hrow,
"'lmt a h11olsl':LJIC li1·s hi' low I

No 1·!111111.", 110 \'.1po111· ~ i11IPl'\'elle ;
11111. llw

Silent nymph, with !'.nrious eye,
Who, the pmple eve11i1JC1, lie
On the mountain's lonetY vau,
Bcyou!l the uoh;e of busy man ;
Painting fair the form of thi11gs,
While the yellow linnet siugs ;
Or the tuneful nighti11gale
Charms the forest with her tale ;
Come, with all thy various hues,
Come anti. ahl thy sister Muse ;

g:1.r,

thn

11111 •11 s1'l'll•',

]J,ws 1.hn liwn of i1:1l11n' sho11·,
)11 all tl11' 11111'-l of h1·an·11' s )1,,11· ;

A 1111, s11·,.Jli11g In c111hr:u·1• 1111• light,
:->1.•ro•:uh aro11111l ltc 11,.alh t.lw sight.

This is still tho lan~nngc of emotion, with only n. vn.gno
apprn:tch to Llw pictmcsqtrn ; yet the vn.~tteness is n. Rn.fcgu:tr( l :tg:tinst confusion. 'l'ho cuumcratiuu of tho oLjecLs
now

COllllllCllCOS-

011! r:i~t.lel'I ClTI the rlilfs nri!'lr,
J'ro11dly t.n\\·o·ring in tlu! ski,. ~ !
){11 s hi11g fr11111 tl1n 1rornls, fhl' ~l'in'.~
So·r111 from h1°IH'" a.so ·1•11di11g lirns !
lf:tlf hi ~ IH•: 1.111~ Apollo sho•ols
011 tho• ydl11w 11w1111lai11 h1·:11ls !
Uild>l t l;n 11,., , ,.\, ~ of I hn llowlrn,
Ami glitter<: 011 tho hrnkl'n nwb !

*In Campbell's Poet.~ (lntrodnction), a controvcrRy iR mrtintaine1l aR to whethrr
Pope ha<l an eye for external nature; WorolRworth aml Honthey being cilt?1l I\.~
authorities on.th!' negative .side. Pope certainly di\1.not ~voJ;;e from scmwry tho!IO
won<;lerful v!lriet1es of e.mot1011 that we are now fanuhar with m our poets; and l\C·
Cf!rdmgly, dtd not Jay bunself out to compose elaborate views of external nature In
p1ctnresque stillnesR. The labonr woultl not have repnicl either himRelf or hl11
rcader•. and, in his higheRt flights of inmgin:itioni he preserve<! a clear ~tmRo of the
lntelhgiule ancl the congrnonR. Honea wo ne111 not smirch in hiR 1um111H for tho
failures in description, from attempting too much, or from want of 111otho1l RIHI
lucidi~y of arr:mgement. In the <lopnrtnumt of action, RO much e:t.Sier than still llfo
Pope 1s never wanting in picturesque urilliancv of illustration.
'
!

.

11

...........

--------------~~

BATTLE OF SHERIFF-MUIR.

:1pp;trc•11 L i\11\, tl1 ·· p oi· ! d111 ";. JlPf. 1111 · \ II ~ · ·
1ir<w1·1··l l1 y gi\'i11;~ :t l'• •:111i11·l11·11." i\ c. pl:t11. \: J1 ;it
SO f:t.r \\1 •IJ; !t r• S<• lt 'l'i'. (11 )1 , ·;.'. lll ,\lfl1 , ~< 11111. pf tlt • l. 1 ·
·
:tll1I l1()lrl1• ;.;I; feat lll'l 'oi
Lill'. Sl' f'lll ;- - · tlt<' old (';t :-. l 1... :, till' "]1 1! '
(of c·lturc lw:; :u 1d r\"·1.Jli11g·; ), tlw 11 1e>u1itai11 ~: 11111111its 1 y1 ·ll 11 ·, \ • I
l1y llw s1111; \'\itlt wlti('11 ltu eo11111·1·t s tho l111l'b1 of ;;]11'1 ·p 1111 l
tli.~ ro('ks, --n. <·011j1111< :t.ion c~Ls 11< d ly fon1ll.:<l uul uf tl1u u• •ll ·
111011 }ittk nf ll11~ Still.
1 lo 11ow pass< ·:< to tho trees .
l\..Jr•ll' lllP In·· ·~ u1111111Jil"'r"l ri,o,

It. jc; at·.

flll(' ('

Jt,.' ·:·:· .. ::

(I r

The profusion of rivers is quite remarkable, and, if a fact,
should be differently managed. One river can be pictured,
or two, as in Milton's • rl'crnptation,' but an indefinite
plurality overpowers us; and we simply accept the vague
suggestions as isolated touches, each carrying a. certain
emotional association.
The author now makes a fresh commencement.
Ever charming, ever new,
When will the la111lscape tire t11C view f
'I'he fountain's fall, the river's flow,
'I'he woody valleys, we.rm and low ;
'I'he windy summit, wilcl nnd high,
Roughly rushing on the sky I
'I'he J>leasant seat, the ruin'd tower,
The naked rock, the shady bower ;
'I'he town o.nd villnge, dome nnu fa.rm,
Each give each a double chnrm,
As pearls upon an 1Ethiop's arm.

l:1·a11tiful in '"ri n:r ·: 11\1 · ~;
'1'111~ gl11t1111 \' l'i1,,., 11 11· .l'"l'L 1r l1ht,.,

Thu y1 ·llq 11· l11 •1.. ·lr, ti,..

."1 1,j,.

y,.,,.,

'.1'11" sk111lt-r lir 1li:tl. t1 i " 'l' .!'. lHll'.'.
'1'111 ~ 1--lt11'd\' oak, \l'illr l1r .. ad ·s l'l"a1l lt1111;:1t!!.
J\111l LP\Pi1d 11 11· 1111q•l1• gr.,,.,.,
Jla1111t. 111 l 'h\ llis, •itl•'"ll 111' lul'C I
Ca11dy al' I 1·11· "t••·lli111: da1' 11,
1.i"s ,; ln111'. a11•l l•'l" ·I l:iw11,
.
( 111 \I Iii•" l d :i 1k hill . ~ 1 .... ,. 1111•\ lr1 .. J1,

ll11l•L aid .- li:ir111 :: t li·· w:: 11 •k1 i11 ;; • Y" I

To sf: 1rt witlt : 1. d··t :1 il <•r i11.\i\id11 11 l J,i11d :: .. r frn1 i·1 , . , . ~
t 1 1 1 ~ '" :\.\' f 11 pii·t 11r1· t 111 ~ ~~<· 1 · 1.1 u a ·' ;L ': 111111• . '1'111! 111: ·1it d ti e.,

f1r :d si" li111• s Iii ·:..; i11 t Jiu <:lwl<.'f' ul ( ' jll 1. lll't '-' , p :tr l ly J11·· l 1i t" · ill ·· ,
p :irt ly <·111oti o 11 ;1.l, t«'r '.-:ol1H1 o[ 11111.' , li :;t i111'tivu f11r1 ·s t Ir·:•
I .1·a \· i11:~ f.IH·su, tl1<! 1'' '1:111 t11r1i:; tn .~~''.11<·nd ~:k<·klw ·: . .\ 111 "
l:t\\n c11<h; iu a <lark hill, a11<l lo Lli1 s ts devuled 1u1111t.-rn'.1 11i;

ddail.

nr ·r. p ar ., Iii:;'" d i11 T"" .1_.,, 11 ...... 1.
is s id1 ·,; :ti I' ,. J.. t 1i .. 1 \ I 11 !1 \1 ;11·111:: WP1•J,
And a1wi1 ·11t \1111-.·1 :' 1·1-.i1111 Iii ,; l1111w,
That. 1-;t:··l :111 :l\1f1rl I• 1•k l11 l11w

295

We have had most of these particulars already; and the
repetition, while confusing the picture, contributes little
to the feeling. The last line but one is an admirable expression of what may be gained by picturesque description,
when both full and intelligible; each part increasing the
charm of its neighbour : 11 ben.utiful valley heightens tho
' ' interest of the streams that flow in it, and is itself repaid
with increase.
The poet next turns to the southern side, and proceeds
in the same style.

]I

\Vo arc nPw r11rioll~; '" 1'1"''' "lll'tl11 :r t!t1·s1! arP tl 1" • ' " ~ "
ac; tlto old <':1,:-: t l1·!4 011 t 111~ 1·lilL :, '' l1i111 '\l'l'l ~ lirst s1· kd ···I vul
(1[ tho 1·011spi1·uous 0Lj1·d s 1ir tl1 " h11d s <':1]'<'.
•
J\fany 111nro litll' :; an ~ d1 :n•t1:.J l\l lli1· ~:<! l':t<.;tlo · q ; tli,.1r
ruins aro thn ]1arn1 t ·..; o[ till: r;1n :n. tit•! fo:-;. and flt <' 1vl·I f .
A ]011g.(lrfl,WI-1 moral un tl1u ·;: ~ 11ity of liu111a11 g1a11 1 J..11r t•
1m pu nul d ('d.

.

A new olart take'-! up thu n\·1·rs.
A 111\ :-;1·" t li•· ri \'1·r,: , Jr,. w f lt•-.r rn 11
'fh11i11•:h ll'\J:i d s a11d 111• ;1d , , in slra•l e BllU IUD,
f-:111111 ·l.i1111 :s mill, s•0111 .. ti1 11 1 ·~ sl•iw,
\\"a \' 1' 1: 111.·1 ·,. 1·di11g" 11·:•. 1" 1·, tli•·y g11
.A r :iri t111 sj .,11111· ·y 111tl11·1\( q•.

The poetry of battles has descended from Homer, and.
mn.y have flourished long before him. The picturesque is
'• aimed at by the usual arts-felicitous snatches, with more
or less of comprehensiveness. Campbell's 'Hohenlinden,'
M we saw, depends on broad effects, and gives little attenLion to the opposite sides and the changing phases of the
fight. When more closely viewed, a battle belongs to the class
of active ongoings that present a wide area to the eye at the
Mme moment; while the changing phases involve the narrative of succession. The ' Battle of Sheriff-Muir' (includAd
·among Bu1rns's poems, though only an improved version of
an older form), is illustrative of the successes and failures of
clescription in one of the most difficult of subjects.

;! ·

~

-296

INTELL~CTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

I saw the battle sair and tough,
And reekin' red ran mony a sheugh,
:My heart, for fear, gaed sough fo1· sough,
To hear the thuds, and see the eluds,
O' elans fratl woods, in tartan duds,
Wha glaum'd at kingtloms three, man.

The personality of the spectator, well .introduced, is R.
help to the picture, as well as to the emotion. The J?hraso,
'clans frae woods, in tartan duds,' helps us- to conceive tho
gathering and aspect of the highlanders ; the '. thuds ' a;nd
• cluds' (clouds) are suggestive aids to the picture. Iha
other side is given in the next stanza.
The red-coat lads, wi' black cockades,
'l'o meet them were na slaw, man ;
They rnsh'd and push'd, antl blude outgush'd,
Aml mony a bouk did fa', man ;
The great Argyle led on his files,.
I wat they glanced fo~ twen~y miles ;
,
They hack'd and hash d, wlnle broad swords clash d,
And thro' they dash'<l, an<l hew'd and smash'd,
'fill fey men died awa, man.

The Argyle force is given on the large scale by. the lino
•glanced twenty mile.s,' a~d the picturesque ~etail ,by the
first line.
The action is represented by rush d ~u~
push'd,' with the suggestive accessories, 'blude ou~gush d,
and ' mony a bouk (body) did fa''. The three last lmes are
merely a repetition of the fo~egoing ; the ~and~to-hand fight
being pretty well exhausted m a few l.eadmg c1rc~mstances.
The succeeding stanza re~urn.s to the ~i~e of the h1ghlande.rs,
and is still more effective m combmmg a comprehensive
view with energetic particulars.
In lines extended Jang and large,
When bayonets o'erpowered the targe,
A ml thousands hastened to the c11arge,
Wi' Highlaml wrath they frae the sheath
Drew blades o' deatl1, till, out o' breath,
They fled like frighted doos, man.

This does more to make us conceive the battle .thnn
either of the foregoing stanzas.. The poet ~eeps stea~1ly to
the pictorial representation, while the emotional deta1_ls a.re
aids and not hindrances to the effect. What follows 1s the
rout, and is not illustrative of the picturesque to the same
degree.

.,.

2

· z~

• );

297

THOMSON'S SEASONS.

Picturesque strokes of a more general character are
abundant in Burns. They are often combined with humour,
as in "l'am o' Shanter' and 'Death and Doctor Hornbook '.
The following is of a different natureAyr, gurgling, kiss'd liis pebhl'1l shore,
O'erhung with wild woods thickening green
The fra?rant birch, and hawthorn hoar,
'l'win <l amorous round the raptm'd scene ;
The flow'rs sprang wanton to be press'<l,
The bir<ls sang love on every sprayTill too, too soon the glowing west
Proclaim'tl the speed of winged day.

1

ThG scone of the lovers' parting is first set before us
comprehensively, by the pictures of the river and the overhanging woods ; and the spot on the river bank is more
specifically described as surrounded by birch and hawthorn.
Note, in the details, the variety of the aids offered to the
imagination, including suggestive points of sight-the
'pebbl'd shore,' the 'woods thickening g1·een,' the 'hawthorn
hoar' ; appropriate sounds-' Ayr gnrgling,' and the 'birds
singing'; and a characteristic odour-' the fragrant birch'.
Further, the object of the description is intensely.emotional,
as expressed in the immediately following lines.
Still o'er these scenes my memory wakes,
And fondly broods with miser care.

Accordingly, the language is strongly emotional, and the
features of the description are expressed with special reference to the emotion of love, which is in view : ' Ayr kiss'd
his shore,' the trees 'twin'd amorous round the raptur'd
scene,' 'the flowers sprang wanton to be 1Jrcss'd,' 'the birds
sang lo?Je '. '11hns, tho emotional harmony is complete,
while the intellectual conception is more vividly presented
than is usual in pictures so charged with emotion.
THOMSON is reckoned one of the foremost of our nature
poets, as regards both the date of his appearance and the
felicity of his style. He is not, however, an example of the
descriptive art, further than by his poetic touches. His
scenic views are generalized and representative ; he exemplifies the characteristics of each of the four seasons, as
realized in all places alike. This brings out a certain kind
of individuality, but seldom presents a concrete picture in

--- - -

____ ., . ------ - --- - - -----

298

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

all its circumstantials.

Ho is tho poet of nature in general,
and of no place in particular. 'l'he <legi'Oe of pictorial concreteness attained by him is easily seen. The following are
two brief examples. The first is on Winter.
And see where surly Winter passes off,
Far to the north, and calls his rullinn blast.a :
His blasts obey, and quit the howling 11ill,
'l'he shatternd forest, and the ravaged vale;
'Vhile softer gales succeed, at whose kind touch,
Dissolving snows in livid torrents lost,
'l'he mountains lift their green heads to the sky.

The individual touches are admirable, but there is no scenic
fulness; it is a narrative series of effects due to naturo.l
agency, and is simply the picturesque of single-threaded
action.
The next example is the influence of Spring on the
garden.
At length the finfohctl garden to the view
Its vistas opens, and its alleys green.
Snatched t11rou~h the vcnla11t maze, tl1c hurried eye
Distracted wauuers : now the bowery walk
Of covert close, where scarce o. speck of do.y
Falls on the lengthenrd gloom, protracted sweeps ;
Now meets the bemli11g sky, the river now
Dimpling along, the breczy-rnfll ed lake,
The forest darkening round, the glittering spire,
The ethereal mountain, and the distant mo.in.

This is more of a composed picture, but wants the art that
would give coherence to the particulars, and make it
easy to conceive the whole. The 'vistas' and the 'alleys
green,' are well put for a comprehensive view so far; but
the lines that follow pass to the ' verdant maze ' without
giving it a definite place. The same with the 'bowery
walk'; it has an independent place in the picture. So with
the river and the lake ; each has its characteristic touch' dimpling,' 'breezy-rufile<l ' ; but the aggregation of particulars into an imaginable whole is not aimed at. I>robably, the poet considered that such a result would uot
have repaid the labour.
COWPER is o{ten bracketed with Thomson, as nn.turo
poets of a kindred. Their merits are closely compared by
Campbell. The conclusion is that Cowper's ' landscapes
have less of the ideally beautiful than 'l,homson's,' but thoy

COWPER.

...

- --iii.P"~, ~
~;·, ~

·'

299

have 'an unrivalled charm of truth and reality'. The
generalizing of scenic cffoctR, un<ler tho influence of season,
was, however, no part of Cowper's plan. He described the
actual scenes where he was accustomed to ramble, and,
while he put forth the genius of description, which he
undoubtedly possessed, he intermingled his pictures _so
profusely with sentii;nent that they sel~om e~cemphfy
descriptive method at its utmost ; yet, allowmg for mterruptions, they often attain very high excell~n~e no less 1!1
method than in genius. In short descnpt10rts, there 18
seldom a want of comprehensive outline. ThusHere Ouse, slmv winding through n. level plain
Of spacious mends, with cattle spriukled o'er,
Conducts tho eye along his sinuous course
Delighted.

The test of descriptive power is the prospect from a.
height.
Now roYes the eye ;
· And, posted on this speculative heigl1t,
Exults in its cornma1ul. 'l'he sheepfold her15
Pours out its lll'ecy to11n.nt11 o'er tho gleho.
At first, Jwogl'l ·ssive as a stream, they seek
The mid le tield ; but, scattered by degrees,
Each to his choice, soon whiten all the land.
There from tho sunburnt ho.y-lh·ltl homcwanl creeps
'fhe loaded wain ; while lightened of its charge,
The wo.in that meets it passes swiftly by ;
'l'he boorish driver leaning o'er his team
Vociferous and impatient of delay.
Nor less attrncti ve is the wood laud scene,
Diversifier! by trees of every growth,
Alike, yet various. Here the gray smooth truuk.a
Of ash, or lime, or beech distinctly shine,
Within the twilight of their dh1tant shades;
There, lost behind a rising ground, the wood
Seems sunk, and shortened to its topmost boughs.
No tree in all the grove but has its charms,
Though each it.'! hue peculiar ; paler some,
And of o. wo.nnish gray ; tho willow such,
And poplar, that with silver lines his leaf,
Arnl nsh far stretching his umbrngeous nrm;
Of deeper green tho elm ; and doq1er still,
Lord of the woods, tho long-surviving oak.

This is a case where detail is everything. Still, he introduces the enumeration of the various kinds of trees, with a.
comprehensive view-' Not less attractive is the woodland
scene'.

n

301

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES--PICTURESQUENESS.

WORDSWORTH.

BYRON is rarely scenic in his descriptions. When he
has still objects to deal with, he makes o.bundant use of
active circumstances; while, in pure action, his genius revels.
Compare with Campbell's 'Hohenlinden' the stanza from
' Waterloo,' beginning-

contributes nothing to the scene. Still, as compared with
.Milton's fancy i:;ketch, it gives a sense of reality, and by that
circumstance n.lone is made more conceivable. An actual
river would, in most situations, show the various aspects
here given.
Wordsworth's more usual mode of den.ling with scenic
effects is brought out strikingly in a reported conversation,
in which he compared his method with Scott's •.

300

And t11ero was mounting in hot haste : tho steed,
The mustering squadron, and the clnttr.riug car
Went pouring forward with impetuous speed
Aud swiftly forming in the ranks of war.

COLERIDGE has exquisite touches of picturesqueness, n.s
may be seen by turning to the 'Ancient Mariner'. 'l'he
personal description of the mariner is familiar to us.
I fenr thee, and thy glittering eye,
Aml thy skinny hu111l, so brown.

WoRDSWORTH, on principle, abstained from picturesquo
description in the fulness requisite to reproduce the scene
in the mind of a reader. 'l'he following is, however, n.n
exception, and shows what he could <lo if he chose.
A point that sliow'd the valley, stretched
In length before us; au::!, not distant far,
Upon a rising ground a gray clrnrch tower,
·whose Lattlemeuts were screened hy tufted treea.
Aud towards a crystal llfore, that lay beyond ·
Among steep hills nnd wo0<ls embosomed, flowed
A copious stream with Loldly-winding course;
Here traceable, there hiddcn-:-thcre again
'l'o sight rcstorc1l, and glittering in the snn.
On the stream's hank, anll everywhere, a11pcared
}' air dwellings, single, or in social knots,
Some scattered o'er the level, others perched
On the hillsides, a cheerful quiet scene,
Now in its morning purity anayed.

The arrangement is here almost unexceptionable. The
valley is indicatea as the all-comprehending feature. A rising
ground, not far off, show8 a gray church tower among trees.
Next comes the chief fcaturc,-the valley, and its nn.turnl
accompaniment, the river, under which all the other details
are arranged. If there be any defect in delineation, it is the
reference to the far-off hidden Mere, which is its destination.
Better, perhaps, if he could have started at the commencement from a known point, as Milton begins his two rivers
from the mount of temptation. 1.'he ending in tho More

'Scott,' he says, 'went out with Ms pencil and note-book, and jotted
down whatever struck him most-a river rippling over the sands, a ruined
tower on a rock above it, a promontory, and a mountain-ash waving it'I
rctl berries. He went homo aud wove tho whole together into I\ poetical
description. He should have left his Jlencil and note-book at homo, fixed
l1is eye as he walked with a reverent attention on all that surrounded him,
and taken all into a heart that couM understand and enjoy. Then, after
several days hn1l passed hy, ho shonltl have iutenogated his memory as to
the scene. He wonM havo discovcre1l that while much of wlmt ho hail
ndmired was prei:;ervod to him, much wits nlso most wisely ol>litemtcd;
tl1at which remained-the picture survivin" in his mirnl-wonld have
presented the ideal and essential truth of tho"scene, and done so in a largo
part by dii:cnrding much which, though in itself striking, was not c11aracteristic. In every Rceno many of tho moRt hrilliant 1letnih1 nre hut acci1.lcntul; n tnte eyo for Nature docs not note thum, or ut leu.st docs not
dwell on them.'

There is truth in this from Wordsworth's point of view.
What it does not sufficiently take account of is, that the
omitted details may serve to recall and hold in the view the
others, and that to trust to emotional suggestions alone is
to impoverish the very picture that supports the feeling.
It is a weakness of Scott himself, and of poets generally,
to depend too exclusively on the emotional impression of a .
scene, as rendered by some fine poetical image. Wordsworth here deserts the laws of Descriptive art, as Rhetoric
can teach it, and revels in pure poetic fusion of effects of
language, so as to bring nature into the embrace of feeling.
See the illustrations of the foregoing extract, in Myers's
'Wordsworth,' p. 144.
·
SCOTT'S genius for d.escription comprises both still-life
and action, and is eminent in both, although more abundantly notable in the last. In a few instances, he gives a
landscape, or an aspect of external nature, by description
pure and simple, as a geographer that is also a poet would
depict it. 1.'he prospect from Richmond Hill, in the ' Heart
of Midlothian,' is a good example-

.'

-

..

a s

INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

SCOTT : THE TROSBAOHS.

' They paused for a moment on the brow of a hill to gazo
on the unrivalled landscape which it presented. A huge sen.
of verdure, with crossing and intersecting promontories of
massive and tufted groves, was tenanted by nu~berless
flocks and herds, which seemed to wander unrestramed and
unbounded thrnugh the rich pastures. ~he Thames, here
turreted with villas arid there garlanded with forests, moved
on slowly and placidly, like the mighty monarch of t~e scene,
to whom all its other beauties were but accessories, and
bore on its bosom a hundred barks and skiffs, whose white
sails and gaily fluttering pennons gave life to the whole.'
The ' huge sea of verdure' expresses happil~ the gene_ral
aspect and the massive and tufted groves, with the rich
pastur~s for flocks and herds, provide a su~cient filling up.
The second sentence gives the Tha~~s, with ~hll greater
minuteness of detail and equal felicity of epithets. To
persons familiar with the seen~, t~~re is. ~ut o~e omission,
the state of the light, an mdividuahzmg circumstance
.
.
.
peculiarly appropriate to it.
In his poetry, Scott was more spar~ng _of scemc d~scrip­
tion, and yet was not \~ant_ing in ~he md1s~ensable aids of
descriptive method. His picture, m Marmwn, of the prospect towards Edinburgh, from the t~p of Blackford, i~ a
series of poetic touche~, embedd~d m a comprehensive
sketch, with good order m the particulars.

For scenic descriptions of wild nature, we need ~ut
mention St. Mary's Lake, the Lady's Isle, Loch Katrme,
Morning, the Trossachs,-on all which we might repeat tho
illustrations already given of the conditions of success and
the causes of failure in picturesque delineation of scenery in
repose.
The Trossachs alone would e:lfemplify many of the points
of descriptive art. The poet must have despaired at outlining that vast labyrinth of rock and forest, and devotes
his genius to suggestive and figurative enumeratioIL

302

When sated with tlie martial show
That peopled all the pl:tiu below,
'l'he wandering eye could o'er it go,
Aud mark th e dh!lant city glow
With gl oomy spl e111lour red ;
For, on the smoke- wreaths, huge and slow,
That round her sable turrets flow,
The morning beams were shed,
And tinged th em with a lustre yiroud,
Like that which streaks a thunder-clou<l.
Such dusky grandeur clothed the height,
'Vhere the huge castle lwlds its state,
And all the steep slope down,
Whose ridgy back heaves to the s~y,
Piled deep and rnassy, close and lugh,
Mine own romantic town I

Without sacrificing poetic effects, little could be done to
amend the picture. The suggestive circumstances-' smokewreaths, huge and slow,' 'the ridgy back,' ' piled deep and
massy, close and high '-are apparent at a glance.

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Not a setting beam couhl glow
Within the dark ravines below-

strongly sets forth the gloomy depths of these rocky ravines.
His enumeration of the flowers and trees that made up
the verdure would no doubt expose him to Wordsworth's
criticism (seep. 301); but he is well aware that the whole
must be rendered poetically effective, and it cannot be said
that he fails.
Emerging from the rocky labyrinth, Scott shows his
genius and method in dealing with a prospect from a height.
Nothing of this kind could be better than the view of Loch
Katrine.
And thus an niry point ho won,
Where, gleaming with the setting sun, .
One burnished sheet of living gohl, .
Loch Katrine lay beneath him rolled.

But it is necessarily in action that a poet can appear to
most advantage. ·while Scott lrns splendid picturesque
touches of single-line narrative, he is equal to the still
greater effort of keeping in the view an action in multiplie_d
details spread over a wide scene, as in a battle. Flodden is
his admitted master-piece; but, in l'vlannion, while engaging
the reader's interest upon the tragic situation of his hero, he
pictures the array of both armies and the phases of the
general action with very nearly the elaborate fulness and
comprehensiveness of Carlyle or Kinglake. Nor is he often
guilty of the common fault of po~ts, hasty a_nd a.brupt
transitions ; when he takes possession of a scemc pomt of
view, he generally exhausts it, before passing to another.
The next series of examples is from KEATS.
The following complicated description is entirely

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••••••••····
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0

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INTELLEC'.l'UAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

MACAULAY S LAYS.

relieved by method, ancl, in consequence, makes the reader
dizzy with its abrupt transitions.

epithets, mostly personifying; but the designation ' proud '
is too far pursued. The surrounding fir-trees are easily conceived. The chapel is a picture in itself, but has no definite
position with respect to the turret. The white dove adds a
supporting and suggestive circumstance ; it would fall in
better, if the order were-' on the windows, the white dove'.
. Far better as a description is the well-known picture of
dethroned Saturn, in the opening of 'Hyperion'. The first
lines give a comprehensive grasp of the vale ; its overhanging
forests ancl its silent stremu nre easily pieced into the general
image. 'I'he mention of Saturn is premature; it breaks tho
description without contributing to it, farther than by the
harmonizing feature of his dumb sadness.

So, with ltnnsual gladness. on he Mes
'l'lirough caves, and palaces of mottled ore,
Gold dome, and crystal wall, and turquois floor,
lllack 1mlish'd porticoes of awful shado,
And, at the last, a diamond balustrade,
Loa1ling afar llast wild maguificonce,
Spfral throug 1 l'llggedost loop-holes, and thence
Stretching ncross a void, then guiding o'er
Enormous chasms, where, all foam and roar,
Streams subterran ea n t ense their granite beds;
'!'lieu heightcn 'd just above th e silver:y heads
Of a thousand fountains, so that he could dash
The waters with his spear ; but at the splash,
Done heedlessly, those spouting columns rose
Sudden a. poplar's height, and 'gun to iucloso
His dinmoutl path with fretwork streaming rouud
Alike, and. dazzling cool, and with a souud,
Haply, like dolphin tumults, when sweet shells
Welcome the float of The tis.

As an illustrative and refreshing contrast, take the lines
that almost immediately followFour maned lions hale
The sluggish wh eels ; solem n their toothed maws,
Th eir surl.v eyes ln·ow-hhltlen, l1 eavy 111.1ws
U 1'1if'te1l drowsil y, and nervy tails
Cowering their ta wuy brnshcs.

Hero, by dwelling on ono pictnro, n.ml by following a to1crab1y
natural order in the particulu.rs, the poet really paints his
object, so that we can imagine it. The epithets are at once
poetical and suggestive.
In the fragment, named Calidore, there is an extremely
elaborate attempt at still-life description, much too complicated to conceive as a whole; there being no assistance
in the way of either comprehensiveness, or order in details.
Small detached portions are more coherent and conceivable.
The lon ely turret, shatter'<l. and. outworn,
Stands verwmbly proud ; too proud to mourn
Its long-lost gmmlem : fir-trees grow 1uouml,
Aye clrnppiug their hanl fruit upon the grouu<l..
The little chapel, with the cross above,
U phol<ling wreaths of ivy ; the white dove,
That on the windows spreads his feathers· light,
And. seems from purple clouds to wing his flight.

The turret is picturesquely given by the succession of

MACAULAY nffords an admirnhJe study of tho Picturesque ..
He revels in it in his poetry (tho 'Lays'), nnd not unfrequently makes it tho ornament of his prose. His manner,
in this as in other qualities, is well-marked and illustrative.
The selection of circumstances is skilful and effective,
action predominating over still-life; the figurative aids, more
especially similarities, are often very powerful; the one
thing that he seldom aims at is comprehensiveness. Evidently, his purpose is to bring us into the real presence
of tho sccues and nctions described, that our emotions nrny
flow out of our conception of the actuality. As regards
individual details, he is successful, but not often as regards

the cnviromnent, taken its it whole.

A stanza from the 'lJa,ttle of Lako Hcgillus' will exem..,
plify his powers.
Now on the pince of slangl1tcr
Arc cots arnl sheepfokls seen,
Arnl rows of vines, rind li el<ls of wheat,
And 11.pple-orchanh green ;
The swine crush the bi~ acoms
That fall from Comes oaks.
Upon the turf by the Fair Fount
The reaper's pottage smokes.
The fisher baits his anglo ;
'l'hn hnntrr tw1rngs his how ;
Little they think on t.ho1;n stru11g limbs
That mouhlcr deep below.

The particulars are well selected and clearly pictured, so as
to represent the busy life on a rural scene ; and they each
impart a certain thrill of human interest, but do not cohere
into a whole, for want of the assistance of a general sketch.
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306

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INTELLECT UAL QUALITIES-PICTURESQUENESS.

The portion immediately succeeding give~ an outline o(
the dreadful fight, and is in a more exalted strain. Liko so
many of our poets, Macaul:ty reaches the highest flight of
his genius in war, blooclshed and horrors.
·
How in t110 slippery swamp of blood
\Varrior ancl war-horse reeled ;
How wolves came with fiel'ce gallop,
And crows on eager wings,
'.l'o tear the flesh of captains,
Ancl peck the eyes of kiugs ;
How thick the dead lny scattered
Under the Porcian height;
How through the gates of Tusculum
Raved the wild stream of flight ·
'
And how the Lake Rcgillus
Bubbled with crimson foam,
What time tho Thirty Cities
Ca.me forth to war with Rome.
Among ~xa.mplcs in his prose w_ritings, we may refer to the pasimgo
on t110 du~ation ?' the Roman Catholic chmch :-'No other iustitntion is
left ;Sta.ndmg winch carries the mind Lnck to the times when the smoke of
sacr~fce rose f~·om the Pantheon, and camclopards and tigers bounded in tho
Flav1a11 arnplutheatrc '.
Again:-' Wherever their (the Mahrattas') kettlP.-drums were hear•l
tl?e P?asant threw his .hag o! ric.e on his sh.oulder, hid his small savings it~
~1s ~mile, and fl~d with. lus wife nnd children to the mountains or tho
JHng es, to the milder ne1ghbourhootl of the hyama a.ud the tiger.'

The arts o.f Picturesqueness have reached their highest
development m CARLYLE. In the French Revolution his
genius ~a:ve ~irth to a profusion of select pictures, ot' the
most VIVId kmd.
In his later histories-Cromwell and
Friedrich,-he aclcle<l comprehensivensss in an eminent
deg.ree, .and realized. still-life delineation, while keeping
!l'ct1ve circumstances m abeyance. The Battle of Dunbar,
m <;Jro~iwell, may b~ r~ferred to as an example. Also, in the
Friedrich, the descnpt10ns of the country of Silesia, the town
of Prag, and of Saltzburg.
. . The following ~xample is from the Life of Sforling. It
Is mtended to depict Sterling's birth-place, Llanblethian, in
Wales.
·
'(1) Llanblet11ian hangs plr.asantly, with its white cottages, mul

orch~rd and oth~r trees, on the western slope of a gree. n J1ill ;
' ~ookmg far and w1d~ ove1· green meadows and little or bigger hills,
. m the. pleasant pl~m of Glamorgan ; a short mile to the south or
Cowbndge, to which smart little town it is properly a kind of

CARLYLE'S LLANBLETHIAN.

307

snhnrb. (2) Plain of Glamorgan, some ten miles wi1le and thirty or
fort.y loner which they call the Vale of Ol1mu1r~an ; - thonµh
properly ft is not quite a Vo.le, there being only one ~·a11,ge of 111ountuins to it, if even one : certainly the central Mountams of .Wales .do
gradually rise, in a miscellaneous manner, on the nor·th side of. it ;
hut on the south are no mountains, not even laud, only the B1·1stol
Channel and for ofT, the Hills of Devonshire, for boundary.,-the
'Englisl; Hills,' as the natives c~ll them, vi~ib~e from every emmen~e
in those parts. (3) On such wide terms is it called Va.le of 01.imorcran. ( 4) But called by whatever name, it is a mo~t. pleasant
fruitful recrion : kind to the native, interest.ing to the visitor. (5)
A waving grassy region ; cut with innumemb.le ragged lanes.; dotte.d
with sleepy unswept human hamlets, old ru.mous c'.lstl~s w1t.h their
ivy and their <laws, grey sleepy churches with their chtto ditto, for
ivy everywhere abounds ; and generally a rank fragrant vegetation
clothes all things ; hanging, in rude many-coloured festoons n~d
fringed odoriferous tapestries, on your ri:..(ht nml on your left, m
every lane. (G) A cou11t1·y kirnler to t.hc Rlngganl husbandman than
any I have ever seen. (7) l•'or it lies all on limestone, nee1ls.110
draining ; the soil, everywhere of handsome depth and fin~s~ quality,
will grow good crops for you with the most nnperfect tilh!1g. (8)
At 11 safe dii;tance of a da;Y's riding lie the 'l'artmean c.opperlorges of
Swansea, the 'l'artarean ironfoq~es of Mert.hyr ; their sooty battle
far away, and not, at such safe distance, a defilement to the face of
the earth and sky, but rather an encouragement to th.e earth at
least ; encouraging the husbandman to plough better, if he only
would.'

Minute criticism can point out only one considerable
defect in the order of the passage. Obviously, if the plain
of Glamorgan is to receive so minute a description, it should
precede the account of Llanblethian, for which it is intencled
to provide a local situation. The first sentence, therefore,
should be reserved until the end . of the seventh. 'l'he
eighth would properly follow, as eviclently assuming Llanblethian to be the starting-point wherefrom to measure the
distance of the Merthyr ironworks.
Having taken this exception, let us now rem.ark ~n the
salient merits of the passage. The comprehensive .v1e_w of
the Vale of Glamorgan is perfect; which cannot be said of
many of the attempts to portray a valley. The numbers
are a means of precision, as to the magnitude; and the two
sides are indicated unmistakeably. Having thus settled
the form and dimensions of the vale, Carlyle indulges in a
few suggestive phrases - pleasant, fruit£ ul, kind. to t~e
native, interesting to the visitor ; the least vague is ' fruitful ' ; ' pleasant ' is applicable to such a variety of scenes,

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INTE.L LECTU AI1 QUALITIES- PICTURESQUENESS.

BLACK-PANORAMA OF AYRSHIRE.

that it gives very little help to the imagination. Sentence
(5) is an enumeration without order, and, therefore, so fo1·
inadequate to its purpose ; still, the autho.r's fine sense of
descriptive method is apparent. He gives general touches
first-' waving grassy regions,' 1 cut into innumerable lanes,'
'dotted with sleepy unswept human hamlets,' and so on.
Sentence (6) re-introduces fertility, and ('7) gives a. reason in
the geology, which might have found a place in the general
view of the vale, as a suggestive circumstance.

"of Ails11. Then, nearer sl1ore, t.l1e white waves nml tl10 hlne sea ran into
11
two lo11g bays, bonlerml by a waste of ruddy s:mt! ; nnd above the largest
"of these great bays she saw a thin line of dark houses and gleaming slates,
.1 ' stretching from the old-world town of Saltcoats up to its more modern
11
suhnrb oi' Ardrossan, where a small fleet of coasting vessels rocked in
." the harbour. So near were tl1cse houses to the water that, from where
"Coquette etood, they seemed a black fringe or brel\Stwork to the land;
11 anc\ the 11pire of Saltcoata church, i·islng from above the slates, was
11 sharply defined against the wiudy plain of tumbling waves.''

. Mr. WILLIAM BLACK, in his novels, exemplifies many
forms and peculiarities of description. Occasionally ho
pictures a wide and complicated scene, as the Panorama of
Ayrshire, in A Daughter of Heth. The general conditions
of good description are well observed, and the effect is aided
by individualizing a select moment of unusual richness in
the play of light.
The heroine is looking out from a manse, supposed to be
in the parish of Stevenston; and the picture is panoramic.
"But far beyond tho precincts of tlie manse strotchcrl a great lancl·
scape, so spacious, so varied, that her eye .rm over it. with increasing
'' tlchght and wonder, und could not tell winch part of it were the moro
" beautiful."
11

For the purposes of description, it would have been
enough to say-" far beyond the precincts of the manse,
stretched a spacious and varied landscape ''. After tho
.description was completed, the emotional epithets woulu bo
more telling.
"First, the sea. Jn st over the mountni11s ·of the clistant island of
"Arran-a spectrnl blne mnss lying along the horizon-tl1erc was e. t'Oll·
11
fusion of clouds that let the sunlight fall down on the plain of water in
"misty, slanting lines. The see. was dark, except where those rays srnolo
"it sharp aml clear, glimmering in silver; while a hlack steamer crel't
.. slowly a.cross the lanes of ulincliug light, a mere speck."

Here the individualizing circumstances are the most
prominent feature, the lines of light on the dark sea, anil
the black steamer passing through them. The mode of
introducing the prospect is by a reference to the island of
Arran as the point of departure. This island is very distant,
and the sea has to be descried beyond it.
The point of view is now shifted.
"Down in the south t11ere was a small grey clond, the size of a mn11'11
"hand, resting on the water ; but she did not know that that was the rock

The expression ' she did not know' is an enlivening
t ) uch of personality. 'rlie order of parts is so far consecutive : first, the distant water with the rock of Ailsa ;
next, the approach to the shore, where white waves and· the
blue sea run into two bays; then, above the largest, the
line of houses forming Saltcoats ; after which follows the
fleet of coasting vessels rocking in the harbour; and finally,
the spire of Saltcoats church.
The expressions are all
clear and vivid : the main desideratum is a more precise
indication of relative positions; 'above the largest bays' is
not definite enough. Ardrossan is a suburb of Saltcoats, but
on which side is not stated. It would be impossible from
the description to lay down a plan, giving every object its
proper situation ; although there is scu.rcely any more difficulty in making the location precise than in leaving it vague.
Hitherto the view is seaward.
'l'he spectator now
wheels round"Thon, inland. Hor window lookml strnight south; 1mtl licforc l10r
stretched the fail' and fertile valleys a.ml hills of Ayrshirn-undulating
"squares e.nd patches of yellow, intersected by dark-green lines of copse
"running down to the sea. The rc(l flames of tho Stevcnston ironworks
"flickered in the 1faylight; n. mist of' hlue smoke hung over Irvine nml
"'l'roim ; and, hacl her eyes known where to look, she mi~ht have caught
"the }Jale-grcy glimmer of the houses of Ayr. As the white clouds sailed
IC across the sky, blue shadows crept across this variegated plain beneath,
"momentarily changing its hues and colours; e.nd while some dark woorl
"would suddenly deepen in gloom, lo ! beside it, some hitherto unperceive1l
"corn-field would as sn1ldenly burst out iu a gleam of yellow, burning like
"gold in the clear light."
IC

We have still to note the want of clearness in stating
direction. One portion of the sea prospect was south; and
now, it is a window looking south that shows the Ayrshire
country. The constituents of the view are well expressed,
very much like Carlyle's Vale of Glamorgan, but are not
preceded by any general plan. The ironworks flickering in
the daylight, and the blue smoke over Irvine and Troon,

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and the pale grey glimmer of the hotises of Ayr, are
picturesquely given, yet with the same undefined position
in the view. The concluding sentence is devoted to the
effects of the light, and is the more effective and intelligible
that the scene has been portrayed with tolerable fulness.
r.I.'he emotional epithets in the opening sentence-' increasing
delight and wonder,' 1 could not tell which part were the
more beautiful,' would be better appreciated if placed last
of all.
Scenes where activity is the leading feature are more
usually chosen by Mr. Black for descriptive effects. In the
same work (A Dauyhter of H eth) may be found a stormy sea,..
coast scene (I. 128); 'Dawn in the Highlands' (I. 286);
' Sunset in Scavaig ' (II. 108). Stormy vehemence, with
variegated effects of light, cause fewer difficulties to the
writer , and more ease as wall as interest to the reader i the
conditions of success being materially different.

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