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EN· ~rLI§1,Jl . LAN~U AGE
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EXPLAINED ·,ACCO'.!t•D

THE PRINCIPLES OF TRUTH

AND COMMON, SENSE, AND A;DAPTED T.0 THE
CAPACITIES

'mf ALL

W·HO THINK.

.J!~

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SC HOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATB:
LEARNERS .

BY WM.

//

s. BALCH.

,.

BOSTON:
B . B. M U S S 'E Y, 29 C 0 RN H I L L.

1839.

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PRKF AC-E~ ·
Wonxs on English Gra111mar .are so numerou{!, . that whoever increases

. ...
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Entered according to Act of C- ~

the list

,....
. .: .

ongr_e~s, ID

DY WILLIAM 8, DALOH.

the year 1839
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In the Clerk's Offi
f
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Court of, Rhod
I
e. I sand.
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.
. ce o the District

ow~'a

~ •

an

ap~logy; to ,the
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public. · 'i:he

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l

!'Polo~y. for
•'

the

·pres~nt

work will .be-found in th~ .\'!orl,\'i . elf. • It 1s belieyed to pos_se•s, at.least,
ooe :merit Y,hich will. se·'' ~; fi!hi.t . a . fav.oiable 'J.ie~ing,il<I agr<;e111ent
with truth. aqd c~~111on s~~Bll. ·_ .
·. • .· .;

I111provement iS-.the order of the ·d~y: · ~o:~t"branch_e~. ?f Jit~~~ure, J~
1Mcnce, and art, t:iave, ·~ithin . th\) last two'· cehtur. ~F;'b~ei) \VO~dei;fuily

.: <.i111proved: Geography, Arithmetic, Chemietiy, Botany, Geology, and
::· · the hi_gher branches of Mathematics, Natural and .Moral Ph_ilosophy,
·have been adapted to the · capacities o.f. cni_ldte;,, because: explained
j·

.·ii

:_j·:
the cloister.
We might stop here and inquire, Why · is. it so-1 .· Are teacbers of

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:,;~,1·-~-

.

B. Cra.naton & Co. Printer• 1
Providence.

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common schools, prece_p tors of academies,- professors· of colleges, and
men of science generally, satisfied' with this antiquati:d system o.f.
exposition 1 So far from ii, it.is believed very few t~ach.crs or -learners
approve it . . Hence the ·manifold attempts

to '" i~p~ov.'.e,' simplify,

and

explain", a system with wh\ch -nonc are satisfied. ·oral! thes.e)abors,

'

commenced ·in b.eneyolence··and pursued with faithfu)ne•~, what.b as been

'

~iliil;ill;Wii~~i.liiiliii!iiiiiililillllillillliiill~er
s no,

11

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not to remodel the old s stem but to

0

.11~.~!llil,Jl~liWliilJill.i.IW'iillc 1 t e s tudy of language is

t,,,

.

d 1
" eated as a sc ien ce
t ic whole subject so prosented t
o.s to become matter of th oJ
.
o the s tuden t
ouo lt nud rnvcs ti 0f'1alion '"rJ - .
connexion be tween word" . cl
d .
•
1C inseparable
.
-, 1 ens, an
thrngs, is c areful!
b
tne whole structu re of I
.
y o served, and
.
.
anguagc cxp!::uncd accordincr t
h
. .
b \\S will c/1 operate in m:ittcr an<l mind .
o o t e gu1d111g
instead of an "art ,.,
'

an

a1 • •
••

k

'

1 r

1c c c1crc11 cc ,·.-hi ch has been

'!J1~ ra ry u rul es" and their u excc otions" whi

the advnnc e mont of

paid to the innum erable

In A.rill
r
.
ch ha\'c been substituted
.
.
imc ic, no other rule than the . I f
lo tea ch the child t!Pt t
~imp e ~ct is requ ired
.. wo :lll(1 two make four .
1
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mutually e~uo l lo a tl . d
. ' or t iat ' t wo thin as
•
,
.1!1
are eq:ial to each o th er " \ VJ
o
nece ss:try to te.:ic h t l1· t " . b
.
1y th en are rules/
• •1 a
\ er must agree with its n ominative case ,·n
for reasons .

number and pcr:;on

r'

An essent ial defect in the old system of ex
.
.
.
of mere forms al!d rules upo ti
. . planat1on is th e impos ition
n ie memorv. rnstead of fa cts d
.
upon the un dP :standino- \1VJ I
•
•111
'
an evidence
o·
ien t ie se forms and rules ar c.
ha rdly a relic is left b l . d
~ , orgotten,
e 11 11 • As so on as t he s h l . fi
t~xt book closed th e I l .
c oo Is rn ished, and the
: , w 10 e is evaporated lik e a morning mist. The
amount of time and money expended. in th e stud
method . to little o r no
d
y of l anguage on this
L
.
.
goo purpose, is incalculable, and the t ask has
ecn any thrng but pleasant.

<

:i.

Another cause of th e diflicu ltv of which all c
. .
ompla111 is that ou r Jan.
guage, which is pu re ly Teutoni~ . "° t h '
th r
1
Ill 1 s c aracter; th at is, formed from
, c JJ lects spo.<en in the north of Furn e
nu::aning for an explanation' but I. ,b p ; cI_epends upon its manner of
'
ias een studied by th ·d f
:rnd L atin, a1id lancrua O'eS in ti
h
e a1 o the Greek
o
~
.
ie so 11t of Europe whi c h
I
the man ne r offormati on.
are earned by
• 1

!

"_ 1
•
,. Certain
.
. we a.c,
ti1;:it \\·h:lte
,·e r has bcc!l the cause

oifhc 11!t1es har e hithe rto attc11ded tl
~

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I

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ie ... tu

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i.
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g e.
c:i n not ue gamed wjtho t
u a
dead languages ;" languao-es as

I

trd1ous s tm1y of the ': le.
- l''
. u
. ~ rk
.
.
.:i.rnec o1
c .ours lll th e n· prin c i1>l C c::~ o f cons .,. . ruc t10n
.
.
as were the hab i::its a J

Ul1 I

·.

1:1$fttllt! 0fl~

( If

the

(:r~,...,
.. c: \.. J..\ s ..~ nc]

entered the head 9~an Englisrujan, that his language could not be learned
without fo llowing' the dark windings · of subtle ac.hoolmen,- ih ro the
labyrinths of feudal times, to natio.ns whose very langu1.ge wa.s driven

from speaking lips by a race of men who gave him substantially the
character of his own tongue.

T he success which has attended this co urse of exposition is too well

P..om 1ns compared with tl:e Go tl:s,.

Notwithstanding the seventy eight atte mpts

which have hec n made, in our own country, since the days of Lindley
Murray , to "explain , improve, and simplify" the system so "carefully
compi led" by him, the t
dry uninteres ting, an . profitless as ever .

·

dull,
oever would ha\'e a thoro

UkMJ:eage 61 ii &lb .1lfi Juected to } he dusty parchmen ts of G reek and
L atin .
Can it be possibl e that the study of our language, if rightly explained,
is dull or useless '! Our language is the essential instrument of a great
share of o ur happiness, knowledge, and improvement, and is e mployed

from the cnd le t o th e gra\'e by milli ons or th inking beings who h ave attain ed as high a degree of human excellence as any of the nati o ns on
earth , in the arts, sciences, philosophy,gove rnment, and relig ion; and yet

we are told , its principles ca n ·not be explained o r unders tood without a
kno\vledge of the" dead languages ·!"

Th e idea is preposterous .

\¥h en lan guage shall be studied on philosophic princ iples , and learned
according to reas on and fact, it will be found that what exists in tru th can
be as correctly expressed in our language as in any o ther; a nd that what
is opposed to fact in plain English can not be pro\'ed correct by the best
Greek and L at in quotations . It is very proper t o study the · " learned
langunges" as a means for revealing th e truths con tained in them .

But

whe n they are s tudied t o acquire a knowledge of the struc ture of ou r
own , th ey injure rather tha~ benefit. The idioms of the l anguages are

u1

iconquerabl e
y of our ''e rn acular ton u

0me .:ave 1rn a.s1ned that n knowledcre o f .t
.

and Vandals, or eve n out own: · It was the strangest idea -that.. ever

known t o n_:ecl commen t .

Onc g-reo.t obstacle w!1ich has hitherto prevented
tlns "Cicncc is tl

v·

PREFACE. ·

!'REFACE.

n

Hu n~,

rad ically different, and can not be made to har monize .
The object in stud ying English Grammar is not m erely to acquire a
knowledge of mechanical pars ing according to a system of arbitruy rules.

VI

PREFACE.

eggbJjebed if

0

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Bngltsli l&Bg&&gc. llt&ssns 1

sf

·1
•hc;wJ,rl be taught to scholars, that they mgx rely more upon thern;;eJi ~•,
Pl

1

th e convictions of their own minds, and the facts in the case, for the
correctness of their positions, than upon a mere rule or rt·1aark of some

celebrated aullior.
Human testimony is valuable as evidence in a case of truth and e rror,

plainly within the reach of common minds; but it is poor authority where
,I

first principles ure concerned.

An essential foult h eretofore has been,

that human authority has been too obsequiously obeyed; and scholars
hwe been taugh t to think the end of grammar attain ed when they could
construe a sentence according to a given author. This deference for
great names and antiquated theories may not attach excl usively to the
s tudy of lan guage. Every improvement has encountered it. Gallileo did
not explode the Alexandrian theory, and establish a tru er one, without
the denun ciation of kinclrcd philosophers.

Even Eccles iastics, forgetting

that a kn owl edge of nature's laws would bring the en li ghte ned so ul into
c lose r comm uni on with the all-pervading spirit of the great Author of

matter and mine!, chastis ed the heretic for hi s presumption in daring to
depart from s tandard the ories, and doub t the decisions of the Church in
ques tions of as tronomy!

The auth or of this work believes that th ere is not only a willingness,
but a strong desi re pe rvading the community, to introduce a reform in

the meth od and sys tem of studying the English language,

In many

minds there seems to be a conviction that there must be a radical change,
or that th e stucly mus t be abandoned altogethe r.
Fourtee n ye~rs experie nce in the study and application of the principles
involved in thi s work, and the testimon y of every individual who has ex -

amined tl1 em with candor and reason, h as confirmed in the mind of the
author their tru th and importance. T hey have been approved and adopted
by some of the greatest scholars, and introduced into some of the best
schools in our cou ntry, where they have proved triumphantly successful.
By the urgen t request of many fri ends of education, and after delibe rate r efl ecti on , the author ventures before the public with tlie present
work.

And tho he sincerely regrets that it had not fall e n into abler

\mnds, he fee ls e nconragecl by the man y l<ind promises of aid from the

PREFACE.

vii

·
who have urged . him
. . to
distinguished teachers and· friends of l earmng;
undertake its publication, and from a firm conviction that the principles
h ere exp1a1·nee! are true and of vital importance to the rising generation
· . .
The author has no titles nor public character to foster his product10n
or recommen d .t t to the favorable attention of the community. . He sends

. . a poor man ' a c h"lcl
upon its own merits
for sue·
it forth, like
I
' dependant
'
.
.
cess. H e asks for lt a candld examination, a frank adoption ofwhnt is
proved to be co~rect, and as ready rejection of what is found to be false .
If this is done, whether bis book is generally circulated and adopted,

or is left to slumber upon the shelf, he will be• content, and feel that
satisfaction which is the boon of well-meant tho unsuccessful labors.
April, 1839.

, ;

A D V E R T I S E JI! E N T .
Mr. Dani el H. Run es. th e fi1 st Principal of the :\cw-York High
Scho ol, a g cntlc 1n .~n o f t hr lii g·h<'::;t

1

INTRODUC1. ION.

lite rary a cq uireme nt s, answe red

certai n i1it c rr11~a1o rie s prnpO!'Cd t o hi m in re l:it io 11 t 0 the sy s te m of
e:-:po$ltlon \11 .qJ\·c ll in t his w o r k ~ a~ it had bee n prc \'i o us ly c.xhihitc <l t o
the public by i•c bbors nf .I\Ir. GarJcll, in t;ic fo ll o wi11 g exp ressi ve

CHAPTER I.
·· '.l'lic rc 111:irk~Ul c di fi:Crcncc bet ween this new sys te m, an<l the
old 01~c, i1J(.h;ccd n10 to institute a very rigid sc rutiny, before any
dcl'. i:-: io11 wa s made . Not being able rny sc lf to Uctec t its fallacy, ancl
fi:JL~i 11;:: 11., nll!cr pc r ~o~1 wi1 0 c \·cn a ltcmptcd it on reasoning princip le :. ~ , J. Ili a.d e trial o; it w it h a c l::t:;s of \"cry active and intcl1igcn t
h oy·
"\ \ ' e di:-:cu::sc d c\·cry p o int, \\·c comb at ed every no\·e11.y, w e
fu lly rn1n·i 11ccd onrscl rcs; and th e stro ng co11,·iction of truth thus
obt a ined i:-: con fi rmed by eve ry hour's read ing and every day's cxpc .
r1 c1::-:c . T o 11s the de mons tration is irr csis ta.blc.
' · ;';11d1 alac ri ty iu lca.rnin g I lia.vc ncY e r be fore witnessed . Such a
habiL oi' th uughL a!lll cl earness of underslanding; such a detcrmina.
ti on to take 1101h iil g· !Or g ranted W::!s indu ced as convin ced nie that
th's sy,;lc.n is in prac tice all that it promi ses in theory, and as far
supen or to the ai d sys tem , as trutli is to fal schoocl . Th e subj ect of
lang ll:i;:u i <' corncs int elligi ble and delightful, th e multitude of phra.
ses whi c h are ine xplicable by forn1c r r ules be come plain, ben.n t.y
ari .:::....:s out of' ddorrnity, anU order out of co nfu sion.
" T h is "Y' tcn1, coi nciding with the immutabl e laws of nature, ap.
pca,·s lo be true nni1·c rsally in its applicat ion to languages, infall ible
in it s rcs1J !ts, an d indee d the on ly one whic h properly illustrates the
Ycry ill1portant s ubject of whi ch it treat s.
"'l'l1 c cconorn y of time and mon ey, which woul d result from the
g c n c r :-i. ~ a doption oft!J esc principl es , is incalc ulable; and it is 11 most
devoutly to be wished" that prejudice, bigotry and self interest may
not prevcn: the accomplishment of so great a public good."

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE.

1. LANGUAG E is the ex pression of ideas, the means by
which one person conveys his thoughts to the mind of an.
other.
L~nguage* n.pplies primarily to those sounds of the human voice
which n.re significant of ideas.
In its common acceptation it is applied to any system of sounds
or. signs by which the ideas of one person n.re made known to nnother . It is the vehicle of thought. If the signs have no meaning, the vehicle goes empty.

2. It employs sounds or signs, and may be spoken or
written. The written sign is intended to correspond with
. the spoken sound.
These sounds or signs are vn.ried according to the customs of the
people who use them ; and their meaning may be simple or compound, literal or figurative.

3. The English language was first spoken in England. It
is now· extensively used in America, in the south of Asia, in
some parts of Africa, and in many islands of the seas.
•Language, from the Latin lingua, French langue, (the tongue,) and
a;,-ir, (to do,) signifies, literally, tongue-work.

2

10
,:

INTRODUCTION.

Languages generally follow
the course of cmigrati'on , commerce.
.
and conquest. The . nat10n which exer
· fl uence·
· ts the "brea t es t 1n
over• another usually
111troduces its own language t W h l.Ch , Ill
· prOCCSfl
'
of time, becomes generally spoken.
In some
countries
one 1anrruagc
js employed in c onvc rsa twn,
·
.
.
. o
an other Ill bUSlllCSS transactIOJlS and another still .
!' ·
vices.
,
in re ig10us scr.
Th e English and Amc:iea1~ nations are at present the most powerful
and .commercial
n atwns 111 tho "·orld • an<l tli c E ng l.1s h l anguagc
.
.
Js becoming the most extensively spoken of any on th e earth.

4. It i~ not a simple la nguage, but is compounded uf many
of the European dialects, retaining an idiom peculiar to
itself.
RE)IARKS ON THE JJISTOllY OF THE ENGL ISH LANGUAGE.

The Anglo-Saxon, which was a branch of the ancient T ento ·
·
l
·
m e,
JS regar< cd as the parent stock of the English language.
The Angles and Saxons were two powerful tribes 01. naC
l · l b. d l
h
'
ions,
w 10 m ia 1tc t 1c nort west part of Germany, nea r th e mouth of
the river Elbe.
They wcr~. <lescendcd from the T eutons , the most a 11 cient in habitants of Germany, whose early history is unknown.
After t11: withdraw.al of the Roman forc es from Brilain, (A. D.
9
~-6,
) the Scots and P1ets, who inhabited the northern portion of the
island, mvadc<l the country.
The Britons applied to the Angles an<l Saxons for ass istance, to
r epel the mcurswns of the Scots and Picts; who, und er Hengisl
nn<l H orsa, havmg forced them to retire from the country, took, in
their. turn, possession of Britain and forced the inhabitallts to
submit to their authority.
Some of the Britons retired to Cambria, now Wales; others to
the northwest part of France, to which they gave the name Bretange ; but many submitted to the authority of the Angles and Saxons, and adopted, m the main, their language, now called the
Anglo.Saxon.
. Afterwards the Danes invaded England, and und er Canute and
his son s, l'.eld possession of it forty years. Th ey of course, introduced their language into the country, which, however, like th<-

INTRODUCTION.

11

Anglo-Saxon, ~as a dialect of the ancient T eutonic, the parent
stock of the cognate languages of northern Europe.
After the Danish authority was destroyed, Edward undertook to
frame a code of laws for the Saxons an<l Danes, written in the unsettled dialect of the country.
\.Yilli am, t he conqueror, again changc<l tha political condition
of the coun try, and gave a new aspect to the whole affairs an<l lan.
guagc of t!1e country.
It was probably in the t wclfth century, under the reign of Plantagenet , H enry II, that the English language assume<l its present
distinctive d 1aractcr, and became tho language of tbc court an<l
cmnnioa pe ople .

Since that time, it has been continually changjng; new or foreign
words have Leen a<lded; many old ones have been altered in form or
meanin ~ ; so ine ha.vo bccou w ob.solctc, an<l a. few rc1nain the sa1ne.

5. T he English language, tho peculiarly Teutonic in its
constructi on, has received copious additions from the Greek,
Latin, French, and other languages of Europe.
COK S TRUCT lO~ AND C HANGES OF 'rl-1£ ENGL.1511 LANGUAGE.

T~IC in troduction of christianity, the arts and sciences, and re-

finement, into England from Greece, Rome, and other parts of Europe, rcqnire<l also the introduction of a vocabulary suited to their
expression.
H ence, many words used in theology, the arts, sciences, and refinement, were borrowed from the Greek , Latin, Fren ch, and occa~ionall y .from the H ebrew, Italian and Spanish, while the plain
matter of fa ct was expressed in words purely Gothic.
ExAi\tPLE.

The words ox , sw-ine, sheep, (.~·c. are native, while beef,

pork and mutton, are borrowed. So fath er, mother, boy, wood, grief,
thought, <';•c. are native; but paternal, maternal, boyish, sylvan, dolorous , an<l pensive, are foreign; and altho fatherly, motherly , boyish,
woody, grievous, ancl though~ful, are as correct and expressive, and far

more poe ti cal, they are not regarded by the fastidious quite so refi ned
and elegant.*

On e kind of music bas been brought to a high state of perfection by
tile Italians; and most other nati ons copy largely from them. I-Jenee,

many Italian words arc employed in mus ical expressions, as pia, fortis~
simo, m-teslqto, largo, pianofo-rtc.
·

*Turner's Hist. Anglo-Saxon; and Leet. on Language, p. 75.

..
12

INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION,

8om c w ri ters, to m1ke a s how of erudition , adop t extensively foreign
\v o nl s and exp ressions, th e meaning of whic h is, for a Jong time, perhaps
fur ever, unknown lo common readers.

Literary an<l com mercial men, and trav ellers, have introduced
other wore!$ froin more remote nation s, which th ey found i1ecessary,
or more eonYenient to conrny their ideas, than ally word already in
our language; as dit,an., sherbet, bastina.do , tattoo, souclwng.
w· or el s of Gothic or T eu ton ic origin, arc much. more bold, strong
n11d expressive, and arc better suited lo poetry and eloquence, than
th ose borrowed from the south of Europe; because more in keeping
wit h th e character, habits, and ideas of those who use them , tho
rrga rdcd by some less chaste and refined.
Th e 1nost perfect sa mpl es of the orig in al style o f our lang uage in comuse, rnay he found in tl ie au th orized Ycrsio n of the Bible , and in
1
Shak:>ipcarc· s works. But all work s Pl!bli shcd previous to the m, exhibit
th e pe cu liar :-; t.ru clurc of our lang uage , aud s ho uld be s tu<lied by those
wl1 0 would seek the true e tymolog-y of our words.
ru o ~1

T he most ancient specimen of English poetry extant is Ch aucer's
Co urt of Love," written in 134.G. The New T estament translated by
\.Yi cli f, i11 the same century, and hi s other wri tings, g ive a fair view of
the c.o nt.li1 ion or our l:111guagc in that age.
Our language 1u ay be considered rude and un settled in its orthography
and sy ntactical cons truction 1 till the sixteenth century , when learning
hcgan to tak e a hi g- li a.nd ind epe ndent staucl in England . It was the n
shorn of mr111 y of its excresce nc es and rece ived a pure r, s impler, a1!d
more cxpre ssirc !; lylc; which , with few changes, has continued to the.
pre se nt lime. Sec ex:i mplcs at the end of Chap. l!I.
.
H

By a know ledge of Latin, Greek. French and other languages, we can
ea• ily trace th e ety mology of word s derived from them ; but the parent
• lock of our language- th e Teutonic dialect-h as not be en studied as

6ig n-died. H e will thus become acquainted with realities instead
of shadows .
In teaching, the tutor should labor to mak,e his pupils comprehen:
dist inct ly every idea and fact r ep resented by words. Too muc
attention can not be given to thi s point.
The only course to le arn langu age correctly is lo follow from
signs or wo;·ds to ideas, and from ;<leas t o t hings.

8 . Language depends on tho two fundam ental principle~.
1st. On the unde viating laws of nature which operate in
the r egulation of matter and mind.
2d . On th e conv entional agreement of those who use it.
Under the first principle all languages arc alike, depending on a
common principle for their explan ation .
.
Under the secon d, lan guages diffe r, receiving slight or cx tcns1vo
modifications, according to their origin, and the condition of knowledrrc and the c ustoms of the people who use them .
Prev ious to th e dispersion fr om Babel and the confusion oftongu~s,
'' t he whole earth w as of one language , and one speech ;" that is,
· the descendants of Noo.h had one languase and one manner of
speaking it .
.
.
Since th at event, different signs have been adopted Ill dtffe rent
conn tries, to express the same ideas, clcrivcd from the same things.
\i'URTHE:R. fll!:)!ARKS

it ought ; and hence the true etymology of many important words ari:
unkn own.

6 . The desig n in st ud ying language, is to become acquainted with the best mea ns for learning th e ideas of oth ers, and for expressi ng our o wn.

7. Three things are to be observed in th e study of language.
1st. Things exist .
:lei . Thinking beings ha1·e ideas of things .
:1d . Language is employed to con vey it.leas to oth er minds.
111 the stu dy of language as well as in every thin g else , the learner
Hh ou ld go back to fir st principles, and look through signs to th ings

13

O~ THE

HI STO RY A ND MANNC:JL OF STU DYI NG 1'llE

EN GLI S H LANGU AGE..

Th e de scen dants of Noah, as we arc informed by the sacred his.
torian (Ge 1i. chap. 10) and posterior to the con fu sion of tongues,
Rcattc rctl abroad antl peopled the whol e earth. The names of many
Qf these dccen danls were given t o 1hei r tribes, and the places where
they dwe lt, some of which have continued t o the prese nt day.
A huge tri hc passed into the cast and adopted the 81mscrit, or
sacred language of India; others into the north of Asia; th cso
had t he la11guage of the Massagctm . Some went to t he south and
wes t, and hence came the Pcrsic, Arabic , Hebrew, ancl Chaldee.
The t wo last 'Pokcn nearest th e ancient land are, by some, consid.
ered the pures t languages.

2*

14

15

INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Some tribes went farther still and se ttled in Asia Minor nn d
from thence passed over the H ellespont and settled in Gree~e, or
pa ssed into I taly , Spain, and Fran ce (Ccltw.)
Oth er triucs passed farth er north, over the mount .ti ns of Arme nia, and se ttled on th o north and west of the Eux inc sea, in Dacia
anti lh storn rc ; from thence they subdivided into lesse r tribes, and
"l'rcad ,,,·cr th e whole extent of conn try bet ween the Danube, Rhine,
and Bal tic . A fk nrards they crossed over the Ilo.ltic o.nd settled in

\\Then these tribes became united for the purpose of self.defence ,
and consol idated into a nation, intelligent and fre e, a more general systc m of language was adopted from the. leading _dialects,
which, however, retain t o this day several of then· respec tive charac teristics, such as arc marked in the H igh, L ow , and Upper Ger-

S ean di 11as ia --NonY:i}\ Sweeden, and D e nrn::u k.

This brau ch of the human family bore t he original nam e of 1'eu tuns, >upposc<l to be derived from their g reat ancestor, T cut ; accor d.
in g to ofl1 crs, 'i'11clll o r T huiscon, the god of the Northern My thology, fro l!l whom the a ncient Germans and Gauls believe themselves
desce nde d. Tliuiscon and Hertha (ear th) gave birth to m en wh o
were henc e cttlle1l T eutons. T hey were c:illed by the Roman 8
whc10 fi rs t known t.o them indigence ( natives.)
F rnm the same word comes T eutsclw, D eutsche or Dut ch , (s till
callo<l in ·weslphalia Dusk.) Germany was also called T eutscltland
or Dcu tf·c hland .
F rom the same word al so is derived our name for the third day
of the week, Th. cut's day , Tu et' s.day, or Tue sday.
Fron1 tlii ..: a! 1cicn t z.::tock, sp ran g the n ume rous tribes \Vho inha b.
itcd what is now called Germany , Pru ssia, Austria, Hungary, Nor.
way, D enma rk , Sweeden , Gaul or Ccltm, Britain, Scotland , I ce -

land , and fr clan d. Tliey n-crc at fir st divided into three branches
the fat:c roll cs, I ngtevoncs an d H crmioncs . The latt er in herited
central part of Germany, Letwccn the Elbe and Vistul a ; the Istrr: ..
vouc; crnigrale<l to the west, prob ably as far as Gau l ; and the
I n;;mYoncs sett led in the north.

t],:

Th ese were agai n di~·idcd into numeruu• tribes or nations; such
ns tlic S1 iari , Q 11adi, Cimuri , Frallci, ( who passed the Rhin e and
ga ve th c! r name to Ccltw or Gaul- Fran ce ,) Sygambi, Ca tti, S axon f:, A. n g l c~.:, (~ o th :-- , Vandals, &c.
As i he;i r ianguagc was oral, an cl no t wri tten , and n.s th ese tribci:I
h ad liltl c iat crco11:-sc with each other, except in I.h e wars an<l pe tty·
fcu<l~ ·;;li ich :"I.re comn1011 to barbarous and wandering people,
coul d not he expected to rem ain long entire. It would natur ally
bran ch out l 11to variou s dialects, l'i.1. Ch recei ve new tr. rms and idi .
oms, but all rct ai1J Honie lik eness t.o the parent H\oc k .

it

m= .
.
From the Angles and Saxons, t wo of these tribes, wh o. a! the call
of the Brit ~ n s , pnssod into England, as has been alrc:.dy rc1n:trh('<l,
the En gli sh lun guugo wa• more directly derived . . .
.
Such bein g the fo.cts,.b riefl y s tated, the whole d1fl1 cu l!y lutlw rto
attendin g the s tndy of cn r vernacular t ongue can be easily ex.
plained . I nstead of stu<ly in g and teaching it in its true character ,
in .relation to its T eutonic origin, attempts have been made t o explain it by the ru]es and idioms of the (h eel' and L at in ; language•
for whi ch it has as little affinity or affection 2. S had' the Goths and
Van dal s under Alar ic with the R omans whose country they ovur ran in the fifth centu ry.
The common method of study ing our language was devised in
t. h ~ monaotcri c>• in tb e dark ages, and comports very well with the
nul ious of these fe ud al t imes . The attempt was mat!c l•y a di>~ol ute
priesthood to rcto.in the con trol of learning in Eng laud, in order to
maintain the Papal supremacy. "Their system of mere scholastic
learnin g, comportin:,; wi th the'miscrabl e philosophy of that ag~ , has
come <lo 1..- 11 to us as the on ly correct method by wluch to exp lam the
prin c iple;: or obtain a correct kn ow ledge of om own language.
It is cvcu co nl cllllcd, and by m any behoved , that a complete , or
even a tol cr:;.ble knowledge of the En g lish language can not bo
gained without, a thoro a cqu aintance with the Greek and Latin,
which arc correc tly a nd emphatically dcnommat c<l the dea d languages. It wou lcl be anal ogous, and quite as consisten t, to take.a
j ourney from ]'\cw.York to Montreal and Qu ebec , and thence slup
to Gibrallcr, SoCJth-Amcriea, New.Orlean s and P1ttshurg, t.o get
to Pb ilat'clphia. 'l'h!s mc tl 1ocl is no t unl ike thi:> papal notion of
reachi nb heaY cn thro pmgatory .
· .
Scien ce has daw ned upon the world and shed a bright luste r on t htJ
E nglish nation, and c han ges and im.rrovc1ncnts h ave been inadc i.n

almost every dcp:ir tment of human learning. Bnt our language 1•
st udied by arbitrary, false , and exceptionable rules, as a mcru

"'ill

Iv

INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION.

;, art," * the same that it has been since the reign of ignorance and
error .

10. LOGIC treats of th e principles of th ought, and the
proper arrangement of ideas ; or, it is right reasoning.

It is no marvel that En glish Grammar is a " dry, uninteresting,'!
nn tl profi tl ess study, when conducted on this method (a~ it usually
is) liy a sys tem of arbritary signs without any kno wledge of tho
things f·dguificd.

Children begin to learn Logic from the moment they begin to
think, or to receive ideas from the observance of tlun i;s. and they
cease learning .only when the operation of thought ceases.
There is much natural logic; that is, the habit of thinking am! the
arrangement of ideas depend on the natural vigor and apparently
undircc tcJ exercises of the mind.
Logic, or right reasoning, receives an important bias from tho
inotruclions of childhood. The first impressions made upon the
mind ar e usually lasting as life .
The best logician (reasoner ) is he who studie• most closely_ the
qualities, conditions, relations, and tendencies of 1hings, as e'Xlnb:t ed in matter and mind.

Is our lan g uage a language ? or is it not? lfit is, it rnust of itself
be :t system of signs by which id eas arc commu nicated from one to
an o tl1 e i', and needs not the ass is tance of the " dead languages" t o
explain it; for the English lan guage Lorrowed nothing of its distinctive character from Greek or Latin , only some of their words.
If it is not, it is fo lly to attempt t o explain or teach it.
It is hut a few years, tim e within the memory of all of us, since it
was thou ght impossible lo s tudy Greek without a previous acquaintan ce \':ith tl1e Latin. And altho Grammars were afforded us in
l;;n g- li i< l1, the meaning of all words were sacredly expressed by Latin
tlcfinit ion, . But the spell has been broken, and old Schrevelius is
laid llf!ll lt the sl1 ell; or drifted off thro the auction room .
/low long will we consent to believe and teach that there· aro
,: ..;i.c fcu ..:: rs in English," bccarn~c this number " is confessedly appli.
caLi c lo I he learn ed la11gua ges ;"t when in fact, and in use, and in
fonn , th ere ca11 !Jc IJ11t threc distinct di 1· i ~ions of time? or that thcro
arc " 11.i1U~ n part:-; of spt:ecli , Occa.u ~ c tJ1crc arc tJJC 8a111e nmnbcr in
Lat in '/

11. GnAilrnIAR is an explanation of th e principles or l.un-

guage .
It is derived from a word which applies to the rudiments or first
principles of literature and science in general. H ence we have. a
grammar of botany, a grammar of astronomy, a grammar of music;
surgical grammar, &c.
Grammar as treat ed in the present work, regards the formation, sound.' meaning, and changes of words, and their proper arrangment into sentences, so as to express ideas.

Il is believed the time has come when a radical reform in this
matter is loudly demanded, and every philanthropist will hail with
joy the in trod net ion of a sys tem of explanation, suited lo the pcc u.
liar structure of our speech, based on truth, accordant with commou
•cnsc, and, of consequence, s uited to the capacity of learners.
\Vh c tli cr the sy stem here presented is such an one, is left to tho
dcei s i011 of t11osc \\"ho, having exam ine d it on reasoning principles,
an~ wilJj11 g to re nde r a

;c

17

12.

RHETORI C

relates to the style of composition.

It teaches the best method of clothing ideas to give elegance and
force, to pursuade, excite, and please the hearer or reader.
Various words and forms of expression may be employed to conYey the same ideas ; one may be hold and expressive ; another. s~ft
and beautiful ; a third fami liar and easy ; a fourth cold and ms1p1d;
a fi fth vulga1· and disgusting.

tru e verdict."

D. Th e stu dy of language is properly divided into three
brnnc l1 cs, Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric .

A knowledge of Logic, Grammar, and Rheto ric arc i.n di o pe n ~ib!c
in th e use of language. They should be carefully st.ud1cd and well
.
understood by all reasonable beings.
The s tudy of them begins with the first germs of r eason , the earliest observation of things by the infant mind, and maturer years
Bhould ripen them to perfection.

·:: E nulis h gr:unmar is tho ar t of s pe aking and writing with propriety."
tTh<'rC' wrrc 11int! in Crr:c k , and two in H chrcw and th e Roya l Aca<l·
•}my of' Spai11 have decided on .' >evenfu.lttre ten:-ies. '

1

18

INTRODUCTION .

All who have lhc care of chil dren should teach them to observe
and undc:·stand corr ectly thin gs as they are; they will th en reason
ri~ht- thi s is L ogic ; t o express th eir ideas intelligibly-this is
t :r;u: 1~ 11ar; to do it in the n1 os t appropriate an<l express ive man 1a·t·- t.lii:.; is Rhetori c.
L ogic, Gr ammar, and Rhetor ic, shou ld be studied in connex ion.
T hey Bhoulcl never be separated. They are par ts of th e interesting
science of human thought and speechA person without speech can say nothing . A person withou t
i riefls has nothin g to say .

ft has been th e fa ult in study ing grammar that mer e forms of
expression have been taught by arbitrary rules , ins tead of the essen.lial prin c iple" of human speech.
Roth teacher and learner arc exhorted to ontcr into the study of
I.he following treatise in the fr ee and fu ll exercise of r eason, and
never adopt a •entirnent or pass a remark they do not understan d.
T he study of language will thus become easy, delightful, and in.
l<' rcs ti11g, lJcca uee true an d useful.
Foe t! ;c conrcnic11 cc of t eachers and learn ers this work is <livi Th e definition s necessary t o
k corn111 ittcd to mem ory arc printed on large type, with leading
r1uest io11 s al the end of each chap ter to correspond with them.
Beginners should be r cq11ircd to learn only th e numbered sections.
O n a revie w they may be ques tioned upon the explan ations in smal l
ty pe.
<kd into short chapters and sec tions.

A dvanced scholars may commence with Chapter I. It is r ecommended to young scholars lo begin at Chapter II, and on a second
nr th ir d rev iew to canvass th e cont ents of C hapter I.
The author earnes tly solicits those teachers who may introd uce
t!10,; \\'ork into t heir schools, for a tex t book, to avoid a m echanical
a1,d pano t-l ikc style of learnin g , a nd endeavor to teach scholars to
hf' tlt in kers, to carefully sci'Utinizc not on ly the styl e of composi1ion, but th e sentim en t s advanced in all th e books th ey read. They
\Yi!l then bec ome! log ic ian s , ra the r than 1ogo:nachi sts .
T J1c exam ples and i!lu stra lions arc as ex tensive thr o out this
"'·ork a '; it \\·as proper to make th c111. T eachers will find no difli.

cu lty in add in g to th em s uch as m ay be necessary to make t heir
>rl1olars co mprehen d the p rinc iples of the English language.

19

INTROOUCT!ON.

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I.

1. What is language ?
To what does it apply primarily? In its common acceptation .,

2. What does it employ?
Are these sounds or signs ever variad ?

3. Where is the English language spoken?
\Vlrnt general course docs lan guage follow?
Is the same language always employed in the same country 1
· What is the prospect of the extension of the English L angua;:o

1

4. Is ours a simple language ?.
What is regardad as the parent stock of our language 7
[The teacher, on a second or third review, can qu estion his

sch ol:~ r ~

upon the history of our language as here stated or gathered from otJ,c r
authentic sources.]

5. From whence has our language received additions/
\V hat circumstances have produced great changes in our language 'I
Frain what nations have words been most frequently borrowed I
Can you g ive examples ?
What of literary men and travellers?
What is the characteristic of T eutonic words ?
What are the most perfect samples of :i.ncient English style ?

6. What is the design in studying language?
7. What three ·things are to be observed in the study of
language ?
Are signs to be studied without the things signified ?

8. On what fundamental principles does language depend?
How are languages con sidered under the fir st ?
How under the second ?
What oflanguage previous to the disper sion from Babel ?
What since that event ?
[Here let the history be examined, on a third review.]

INTRODUCTION.

9. How is the study of language divided?
10. What is Logic 7
Do children know any thing of logic?
On what docs it, in a measure, depend 1
What bias docs it receive ?
\Vho is the best logician ?

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

11. What is Grammar 7
To what uocs the t erm apply ?
\Vhat docs it regard as used in this work 1

CHAPTER II.

12. What is Rhetoric 7
What does it teach?
Can ideas be expressed· in different ways?
Are these things important?
When docs the study of them begin 1
Should they be studied together ?
What of a person without speech? without ideas?

GRAMMAR.

1.

GRAJ\IMAR

is an explanation of the principles of lan-

guage .
2. English grammar is the explanation of the principles
of the English language.
3. Its design is to teach the form, meaning, and correct
use of words and sentences.
4. It is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymolog!J,
Syntax, and Prosody.
5. Orthography teaches the sounds a nd use of letters, and
the proper method of arranging them into syllables and
words . It is right spell ing.
6. Etymology treats of words, their derivation, changes,
meaning, and classification .
7. Syntax teaches the proper arrangement of words into
sentences .
8 . Prnsody relates to the quantity of syllables, words, and
sentences, a nd the manner of thei r pronunciation. It applies
specia lly to poetry and elocution .
9. Parsing is the resolution of sentences into their elen:ents, phrases, words, or letters, according to the principles
ol" grnmmatical construction.
3

ENGLISH GRAn11\IAR.

23

ORTHOGRAPHY.

- TlJc s tudy of lan g uage is, in one sense, like. th e study of anatom v
mec.ha nics : the various parts arc di ssected t o 1ea1n
. h ow the·
\\' hplc JS put toge th er.

01

' Vords a rc to be obser ved in all their chan ges of fi .
·
· J
1·
·
01m,mcan1n g,
. .
an com Jrnallon, t 11at general pr1u c1ples may be le· a1nc,
. d bywuc
l · I1
l
. own 1·d cas ancl
.t JC stud ent can be direc ted in the exp
· ression of h is
Jn obta ining a knowledge of others.
'
It is a l•o im por tant to un derstand the ellipses which abound in
most .scn tonoo8, and. to be able t o supply the omission"• of spea lccrs
or writers, tha t then- ide as m ay be fu lly known.

c1."1:!:~oi~,~~l~fJ~s'~~i~rf,~e;~~s;v/;;"r~~f~~st ;~~~ t~J:h:::~~pl:s1J"hi~l;lareli;I iv .

tra twn ol'thc pri nc iples laid down.

'

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II.

l. \V li at is g rammar 7
2. V\1hat is Eng1ish grarnn1ar ?
:3. W bat is its d ~s ign 7
4. H ow is it divided?
5. YV hat does Orthogra phy teach r
fi. Of what does Etymology treat 7
7. What does Syntax teach?
8. T o wh at coes Prosody relate ?
9. IV hat is parsing ?
What is th e study of language like?
How arc words to be observed 1
What else is important 7

'

at

ie J us-

CHAPTER TII.
ORTHOGRAPHY.

l. O RTHOGR APH Y teaches th e sounds and use of letters,
:tnd th e proper method of arran ging th em into syllabl es and
words.
2. L etters are intended to represent the different sounds
of the human voice.
Letters orig inally represented simple articulate sounds uniformly
t he same ; but, by acciden tal variations, th e sounds of let ters ch ange
accordin g to their combinations and relations.

3. Twenty -six letters are employed in writing the English
language.
T he number of letters vary in different lan guages, from six.
teen to two hun dreJ and fifty.six, the present numbe r of which tho
Sanscrit or sacred la nguage of India is composed. But that is a
lan guage of syllables rather than letters.
Many lang uages use different charact9rs for letters ; others uso
t he same.

4. In th e English langu age, th e Roman characters are
commonly employed ; but for .distinction, the Italic is often
used, and sometimes th e <@[D ~n g (i ~~ D.
In writing, different characters are employed to represent the
• ame letters.
Printed letters arc of various s izes, but generally retain sim ilar
fo rms except in fan cy printin g. The regu lar dist inc tions arc

Pica,

Long Primer, Brevier, Minion ,

Nonpareil,

and Poad.

5. L etters have two forms, usually called CAPITALS.
a nd small letters.

l3(i

ERRORS IN PRACTICE.

PARSING.

graphs and
whole chapters · N 0 ma tl er Iiow s h ort their
. sentence~
.
arc, provid ed th ey arc correct · Tl iey wi.11 soon enough learn to
ma k c l.nng sentences.
attention
bestowed n1)on this subJ"ect , w1'll bC 0 f llTIIllell
.
~ Proper
,.
. .
SC
oen ice to t he ns11w
.
. " generation · Ch1"ld.i cn wi'JI be prepared t o begm
the "tudy of L ogic and Rh etoric; and will acquire at an earl a
n hnb1 t of cor rect thinking, speaking, and writing:.'
y ge,

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XII . ·
1. \V hat is Parsing ?
H ow is it employed in the s tudy of language?
~-

How may it be considered?

1l ow should words Le st udied '!
\<Vhat habit should schol ars acquire 1
Wl1at authority shou ld be relied on?
lu the fir st ex ample given, what is good ? WI
pa n son is it?
iat degree of com ..

What is r.hildrcn? What is the singular of it ? I
may it be ?
n what gender
Wl1at .is obey? What is its past tense '! 'Vhat would be the form
of th e l.lmd person sin gular ? The imperative mood 7 I fi "t· ?
WI t · 1 ? I .
. n m 1ve .
i:i is tile·
s it very definite?
\ Vliat is expressed ? Does it also define by
f
.
the unexpressed ?
way o con trast with
W isl11·s? What is the Slll<Tlllar? vVould the
·b b . I
fo rm ? I wish . I
·
"
.
vei
e in tie same

.
' le w1s1ies. Has it any gender?
.
thing, or a desire of the mind ?

I 't
.
s l a material

~( ? \Vhat does it mean'! How was it form erly spelled? I 1.t
eve r usecl
. as a vcrL?. I s '·t .ever compounded with other words as san
a<ljcc ti vc? O.ff.als, off-sprm g, ojj~ s ct.
T'heir?
H ow docs
it defin e?. By persona.
. z 'c
. zatwn
. to whom ?
,
.
·
Iy t. l ic name of a thing? or a character
·
v 'l Ntr
-. ricrs
. .? I s_ i.t proper

ocat10n, or cond1t1011 of em ployment ?

vVhat is the verb?

'

137

CHAPTER XIII.
ERRORS IN PRACTICE .

1. ERRORS frequently occur both in spoken and written
language, which mar its bea uty, and hinder a correct and
forcibl e expression.
2. These errors exist in fact. They are produced either
by a lack of correct ideas, or they originate in mistake, in
the sel ection of improper words to signify our thoughts, or
in not arranging such words according to the principles of

Grammar.
ous. It is like teaching
o
a 1 may earn o c
e ruth. Besides, most
of the ex amples given under the head of fal se grammar, never existed, save as intended mistakes. Why should it be thought necessary t o make imaginary mistakes and learn.children to know and
correct them, when there are so many real ones to · .be removed?
The errors offered for correc tion are not generally bad English, but
are bad grammar.

3. A very common error in practice is occasioned by a
disregard of the exceptionless rul e that an action expressed
by a verb "must agree with the person and nu mber of its
agent;" us, If thou would (wouldst) know th e truth : There
was (were) three or four present: Ifhe u·ere (was) here.
Such errors generally occur in one of three ways.
1. When t wo or more noun s, in the singular number, arc united
and stand a8 agents of a verb; as, John and James was [were] there
yesterday."

.':I
.'.l
~··1 t
,, '!,
~l

Ji

1

.;

'f ,

'·
.' J.!i;.
·i .

·:,J

' . I

138

ERRORS IN PRACTICE.

ERRORS IN PRACTICE.

2. ' Vh cn the agents come after the verb. as " Tl
I
'
•
iere was [were]
men 'rowned last week ·" • WJ t · ' " [
if ou r wo ·I· I
.. '
Ia szf!ni~ies y] our good words,
' , s ' o not co11 cspond tbcrcw1Lh7' " Tl
. [
111a.11y as.five or six of th em."
iere is are] a•
t ·

·" 0

:i. 'Vhcn
the verb is placed at some distance fi·om the a
t
' · Tl
/)
·
· gen · a•
. •e o .1cctw11s, on which ho in sisted so strong!
l
l
' .'
took t" .
I
. .
y w icn ic under.
c i cmovc t 1c dilheulty, was [wore] foun d to b
.
c unimportant."
4 . TVas and were a re often incor rectly used. as " we

wa.;
[ we re] m
the count rv"
" If lie ucre
.
[ was' J here."
'
" T. T
_
, •
VT ere [ was] I to write · " " vVas [ were ] yon t1iere ?"
Much Li1_nc ancl talen t have been wasted in the al tenl ]J' t
·
·
I
·
- .. o prove
.
·?I 0 u '" 111 t 1c srng ula r number. It is al
. I
·t
I I
ways p ura 1 111 form
a·• ·.cas
'
anc
s
iould
11
avc
a
verb
a
o-rcc
inrr
<tJ
't
.
_ .·
"
., " 1 l 1 1n t I10 plural. If'
1 to say yon was, why not to say you a1·t? l s t l1
' ' " "t ' '.'git
·
c num,ber
or l! C pronoun changed on ac count of the tense of th o verb 7
tliat

t I•

:::; _ \.Vrong ad jectives which define by personal relat'
arc. often used; as, "Th ere was no one of them who
their [lus or her] allowance granted."
I think any o1·'•e to bl ame fcor ta k.In"
d " I do not mea
. n that
.
uc ca re of their [h is or her] health . "- Addison .
"

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Ou r language
uc reg
" . 111
. wantin g some word
. may
.
. ar cl ed as dc1cct1vc
or wnrds
to s1gn ifr
. gu lar, wi thout dis tinction of'
• a th-11·d• person s111
d

gen er, tho sam e as in th e fir s t or second person, and in th ~ Jura!
nur:1bcr. \ Ve arc now compelled to use t wo word s he or she~ h i11
or \n,.r
'
'
'
'VI .' as ' " Th ey
. 8 Iia II grant to !,ti111 (or her ) his (or
her ) portion."

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.
icn 110 particular d1stmction is mad e he and!,.
mon'y used JlL . f
'
mn a1 e com.
' - . . . an is o Len u•cd in th e sam e \vay, including the hu man 1ace, male and femal e.
Th e \\·ant of \\·orcl s of th is charac ter is tho occasion of th
!lotcd :ibove. ' VI10 shall coi n a worcJ to make up this evide1~ te~~;,,:
cir: 11 cy?

G. Wh en defining adjectives arc used without nour;s exprcssr•d, crrnrs often occur in the use of the verb. ~s "E '
r ti
·
, u ,
acr1
o.' w witnesses have [has] tes ti fied ." " One of them ar
(1s]wrong. "
e

139

7. The same e rror sometimes occ urs when several nou ns
are mentioned in connexion ; as, "Peter, or Paul, or some
other apostle, have [has) said." In this instance, alt ho t he
verb agrees with each agen t, it affirms of each separately
or alternately, and not in connexion.
8 . Unnecessary words a re fr equently used, which ex ceedingly injme th e style of composition, and add nothin g
to its meaning or force; as, "I have got a new book; "
"She has got a beautiful dress;" "I have got it at last;"
"I have got to be there at noon;" "He has got ready."
It is altogether preferable to omit the superfluous got, P.nd
say," I have a new book." "I am to be there at noo n."
"He is ready."
The word going is often redundant, es pecially in conv ersat ion ;
as, " I am g oing to do it ;" " I an1 going to co1ne ;" " he is go in?
to en ter college n ex t Commencement." It is better to omit this cor:.
t inual goi11g, or change the form of the express ion, as, "I am t o do
it i'' "I intend to do it;" " I shall do it soon," or some othe r way
to avoid this bun gling fo rm .

Students ;hould be very careful to avoid all redundan cies. They
•hould choose the simples t and most expressive forms of ut terance.

9. The past tense and past pa rticiples are sometimes
erroneously used ; as, "He has went [gone)," or "he is
gone." "I don e [did ) it." " _Who done [did] this?"
10. The words have and had a re often unnecessarily
employed ; as, " I had rather not do it." "You had better
do it." "I would, if I had have known it ." Omit the
adjectives, rather, better, and known, and the error will appear obvious.
11. Pronouns are occasionally imprope rly used as ad jectiv es ; as," Giv e me them [those) books." "Hand her
them [those] pens." W e do not say " gi ve me him book. "
12. In poetry (or what is called poetry) pronouns are

140

ERRORS IN PRACTICE .

'/}};;~?::' '
· .;- /-~)/:,_~

G . . ..---------·--

sometimes unnecessarily used, to fill out the measure ; as, )
"John he was blithesome and gay."
"My dog lte is trusty and true."
"My banks t hey are furnish ed with bees."

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.

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The samA error sometimes occurs in conversation and
prose writing.
13. No direction can be given for the use of those nouns
which express a multitude ; as, an army, a jury, etc. which
may be considered either singular or plural. Judgement
must govern.
· 14. It. is not in keeping with a pure and elegant style,
nor consistent with the character and dignity of our Jan.
guage to employ foreign terms which are not understood,
and do not belong to our tongue.
It is better to say a day, a quarter, a hundred, which see, there •
fore, example , &c. than per diem, per quarter, per centum, quod
vi de, ergo, e.g. Abbreviations which are understood are allowable.

15. The contracted ph rases, "don't, can't, shan't, tain't,
twon't," &c. should never be tolerated in writing, except by
those who have" poetic licenses ." They should be a void.
ed in conv ersation.

j'

16. To conclude: a particula r error which the scholar
should study to avoid, is the habit of using language erro.
neously, whether oral or written. If he studiously avoids this
error, he may save himself from the commission of others,
and from the necessity of studying "false grammar."

·'

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