~

\..
-- · .--

' ~·

--

8?0?.01:
(

·rHE llIS'?ORY OF COMPOSITION TEACHING

IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

.., '

A THESIS

Presented to the .Faculty of the Graduate School

of Cornell University for the degree of
DOCTOR OF ?HILOSO?HY

by

Emma

M.

I~_haca ,

s.

Beaig

-N. Y.

4J!_f
_ - '· 1
~hruaa~i;!L~ "i

5 f /? I

j

l

- s<-:i

.

Vita
i The writer was born
on

Dec e~2 ber

4, 1 902 .

i~

New

Yor~

City

She received h er e lenentar y and

secondary school edu cation in Wes t Hoboken, New Jersey.
In 1913 she entered. Corne l!..

Oniversit~?

fror1 wrtic h she

was graduated with the A.B. de gr s c in 19 23.
teaching English in various high

~chools

Af ter

of :New Yor ;,,

State, she returned to Cornell for further study in
English and edu cation, receiving the M.A.
,_

I

1929.

tor

1.!egr~e

Tha t year she went to the Neri YoTk 8ta.te

J: ~~achers

.in
Co l l ~~ge

'lt Albany as in!ltructor- in £ng2-iah.

In 1930 she caoe t o Ithaca ag supervisor of practice
teaching in English at the Ithaca High school snd
instructor in education at Cornell, t h e ;>osition she
:n.ow hold s.

ii

INTRODUCTIOit
?ur?ose and scope
I

!

Written composition is not a po pular subject.
r

i

When the students in a

Calif,~: rnia

high school a few year"s

-.,

,;:igo

.,

preference, com-position was at the 'bottor!l of the list.l

were asked to :-ank their studies in the order

It would seem that in spite of t i1e
I

~/~~ ';if.of'
··•.

l t~borato.r/,

o~

;>roJ ect,

contract, and other methods, there is still much to
be leamed about the teaching of composition.

The

purpose

ot this study, however, is not to make any specific con·i

tribution t o the

:'letr~ods

of composition teaching, but

rather, by adding a page to the history o.f Aeerican education, to ,furnish a broad background so that the experi-

menter in methods of cornpcsi tion teaching ca-,,; see tbe

problem in perspective.
~ore

.i

sµecifieally, t his investigation seeks to

anaw.r the following questions:
1. When and where was English com;;>osit1on first
What influences

it into the curriculum?

Teaching Composition in B'tgh

I .'

2. How rapidly was

t :·~ e

tea ch ing of English composi-

t.ion intro:.-:uced into America.J. seco.ndar: 3chools?
3. When did Englist1 c :::mposition ·beco::ie a recognized

µ art o i' t he curricu l um?

Wh,_,t infl uences led to its

i nc l usi on in the eourse Gf st;..: dy ?
4. What were t he meth ods used in t eaching Eng l ish

composition from 1750 to 1900?
Partial answers t ·) these que stions have been

given i n studies in all ied f ields, but no one, to the
writer's itoowledge, has traced the history of the subject
from its beginnings in America and ;>resented .t he results
in organized form.

Professor Rollo L. Lyman, in his

dissertation, gingli sh Gra."nmar L'"1 American Schools Before
1850, makes many references to composition teaching.
More rr.icent devel.o pmenta in one section of the country

a.re 9resented in John E. Stout's t l: esi s, The

~evelopment

of High-School Curricula in the !forth Central States

from 1860 t a 1918.

Since these studies do not deal

solely and s pecifically with composition teaching, they
do not give the comprehensive and t horough treatment t he

subJeet should receive.
Definition of' terms

This study is concerned with the, aubJect or
Bngliah composition, "instruction and practice in the

art or

•xpret1ion, • aa distiDCt trom rhetoric, •·tormal or

.___..

iv

· systematic inst:ruction in th e theory o f' ex;:>resaion,
1

parall el tc i nst:ruction in f ormal or systematic grammar."Training i.:1 expression as manifested in the wr i ting of

essay s and other exercises is t h e subJeet of investigation.

I

Some i ncidental discussion o f grammar, rhe toric,

a nd l i t erature is necessary because c,f t he clos e
associa tion. of t hose subjects Wit'::. c"mpos1 tion teaching.

Dp

The teaching of composition today is so
.~

;,

inextricably interwoven lfi th other llhases of Englis.:1

work that one might question whether instruction in
Engl ish composition can be sufficiently isolated to permit
' he preparation of a. history of its teaching.

Fortun-

ately for the investigator, before 1890 the allinclusive ter:n Engl ish was not commonly found in courses
or study.

The vari ous phases of English, - grammar,

rhetoric, composition, and literature, - were usually

0

listed aeparately.
A real

dirficul~y

is encountered, howeTer, 1n

:the taet that ' the term grammar was frequently more compre. '-I

. I

~ t

'.: 1

heD.sive in its meaning than it is t oday, being used, at

.times, to inc l ude composition.
way as late as 1842.

Barnard used it 1n that

(See Chap t er II, p. 25

)

Such

reference• have been excl uded from this study

v

unless supported by add.1 tional evidence.

Courses

entitled Element•· of Composition have also been eyed

with suspicion, for frequently they

t~e

.

their name

i

fr om IrTing's

popular rhetoric.

Such ~ cours e s

a re not

considered in this study Wlless it is clear that
practice in written composition was incluced.
Sources

Infor.!lation relating to the introduction and
spread of

compoa1t~on

teaching was found mainly in state

arc.hi:vea, documentary histories, and state education
reports, 1upplet:iented by material found in education

periodicals.

Reminiscences of school days in the early

nineteenth century, such as t :-:.ose published . by Barnard
in his Am~rican. .Jo~rnal of ~aucation, 1 were an inva:ua.ble·

a.id.

Grizz.ell 1 s 2 and. Hertzler 1 s 3 histories of the high

school movement in Bew England were particularly
helpful because or the courses of study presented in them.

Evidence as to :?'lethod was gathered partially
from the foregoing sources, but mainly from composition

texts in use be:fore 1900.

Many of these are in the Cornell

i
·J
l

. . .j

vi

Oniversity Library.

A large number, however, were made

available throug.h the generosity of the libraries of

Harvard Coll ege, Teachers Coll 0ge at Columbia, and the
Oniversity of Pennsylvania, as well as t he Librar-1 of
Cong:-ess, wr.ich kindly loaned t he necessary texts.

'-

l

i

---~~

~---- -

--

J
__ _J

vii

I wish to thank Professor R.H.Jordan,

under whose guidance this study was made, for criticisms
and suggestions.

To Professor E.N.Ferriss I am grat eful

for helpful advice and encnurage:r,ent; and to ?ro ressor

F.ll.Smith for critical comment on the style.

Viii

CONTENTS

Page

Chapter
Lack of Composition Teaching before 1'750

I

The Introduction of Composition ••

II

1820-1900

i .

I

IV

•

•

• • • • • • • •

• •

•

The Influence of College Entrance

I

Requi.rements on Composition Teaching

. :~~.
'
~-·

;

15

The Extension of Composition Teaching,

III

'

...

l

v

•

•

65

. •.

193

..

229

The Development of Method in Composition T,e aching • •

• • •

•

• • • • •

...............

Conclusion

VI

•

326

Appendices

....

Specimens of ttTranslation English"

B..

• • •

336

English, 1894 .. • • • • • • • • • • • • •

336

Recoumendations or t he Conference on
Onif'orm Entrance Requirements in

c.

Specimen.sExamination ?apers in

English (Harvard) • • • • • • • • • • • •
D.

340

Cor.n ell Oniversity Entrance Exami.nations
English • • • • • • • • .. .• • • • • • • •

344

E.

Three Compositions of about 1770

• • • •

347

r.

A Simple, Didactic Theme

• • •

•

349

. ------

'•

··--'-

~-

-~ -- -~

"·~

~

- ---

-

• • • •

_____ ... ________
._

ix

G.

A Contemporary Account of Composition
Instruction about 1840 • •

H.

. . . . . . .• . .
~

Essays from the Journal of Caroline
Chester, Student at the Litchfield School

I.

3 50

3 53

An Illustration of a Discussion of Objects
as a Preliminary to Composition

• •

•

• • •

Bibliography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

355

357

..

~

J.

r·

.

1

CHAPTER I

LACK OF COMPOSITION TEACHING BEFORE 1750
The Colonial schoolboy may have lain awake

nights rehears:.ng As in .oraesenti or Prqoria quae maribus,
but he at l east escaped the agony of filling

three pag13s

with his thou ghts on Virtue, Pride, or '!he Results of

a Misspent Youth.

It was not until more than a hundred

years after the first settlers came to the shores

or

New England that English composition writing found a
place in the course of study of the secoudary school,

fo:r education was still in the griJ of the classical
tradition.

The Renaissance i deal of education as a

thorough training in the Greek and Roaan languages had
to America along with the Cottons, Davenports,

~grated

Eatons, Dunsters, and Harvards.
At first thought, it might seem more likely
that these Puritans who were turn:iri..g thei1.. backs on the

mother e·oQnt:ry would spurn the customs and inst1 tution.s
of that land.

But it was not ao.

A.fter all, the prin-

cipal quarrel they had with England was an ecclesiastical
one.

Religion aside, they were prepared t o set up a

little England on this side of the Atlantic, patterned
as closely as po1sible after the old home

w-ere

ltill bound by

,-

10

many ties.

'° .which

they

That devotion is

~·

-

-r·.:::--·--

,

2

manifested in many .says.

When Harvard Coll e ge was

establiahed in 1606, t he to'R!'! was cal.led Newetowne, but

its naru.e was soon changed t

1

:1

of so many of' the :;tettlers.::..
.l

Cambridge, the a L1a mat er

The .ieco:rds of the Town of

Boston in 1709 show· t h at provision was made for the
appointment of' school inspectors "Agreeably to the Osage
in Englanct.n2

Equally loyal were the neighboring New

York colonists.

Schoolmaster

~alcolm

of New York City

advertised that pupils might enter tha school at stated
f

timea only, which "is the !lethcd of the best Schools in

our Motper Country (whom we will not sure, be
.for a Pattern). ni5

asha.~ed

cf

One schoolmaster also advertised

(aa:rch 5, 1743-4) that he was •late from Old Engl ana.n 4
England in the early part o f the 17th centur/
was in a per·i od o f educational ex?ansion.

"The tide

wave of zeal. for founding new Latin schools

r~ach ed

its

flood about t he t iriie that e:oigration to America began,
and the impul3e was i"elt in all the early colonies. "5

Educational i)rogresa in the colonies, howeTer, would
not have been so great if it had ·n ot been for t he large

1.

Sketchas of the Pbilli2s Exeter

I
I
·I
I

or C1Y111zatiog.,
~~----~........__.._·-~~-

·:

..

.........___

2ll..

..._._ _____

. __...... _____

..

~-·------·· ---

..

·

J,

number of educate4 leaders among the early settlers. l

By 1647, at least ninety graduates of Oxford and Ca.nbridge
.h ad immigrated to New Engla..11d, where they were found

mostly in the pulpit.

Of ·t he 20,000 9ersons (4,0 1)0

families) who came t o New England down to 164.3, one in

every group of forty families is estimated to have had
'•

a university education. 2

Cambridge f'urnished about three-

.fourths of the leaders, Oxford the rest. 3 John Winthrop
the elder, John Harvard,.. Henry Dunster, and Roger

Williams were all Cambridge graduate•, while Davenport
and &ather attended Oxford, leaVir.,g, however, without
degrees. 4

1. The intluence or educated leaders is very forcibly
illustrated by a co~par13cn of educational beginnings
in the coloniea of Plymouth and !lassachusetts. In
the former, Elder Brewster was the only university
man from 1620 to 1629, when Ralph Smith arrived

t i')

act as minister. No mora educated men arrived f'or
eight years, and pastorates ..ere often vacant as
long as ten years, or were tilled With laymen. Ro
public schools were established for fi.tty years.
In Zassachusetts, on the other hand, where at
least 60 university •en came between 1630 and 1639,
schools were established almost immediately, the
Boston Latin Grammar School in 1635, Harvard College
one year later. See Dexter, "Influence of the
English Oniversities in the Development of Bew
England." Prog. Kass. Hist. Soc., 1879-1880,
XVII, 340-352.

2. Dexter says the reason the colonies drew so heavily
on Ca.abridge rather t.han Oxford is that ~here was
1omething 1ncom.pat1ble between the apirit which
roetered Laud and the spirit which rounded lew
. England.• n!,g. , 343.
3. Ibid., 343.

4. DaYenport rdurned later to take his·,

.22•A1.S·,

343.

.

See Dexter,
" ..

4

The schools established in the colonil:'!s
unc!.er the influence of these r1en would naturally
be simil2.r to ttose L'1 which they had recei V"ed their

education, schools ttclassi.cal in aim.

The

curri culu~

&L.nd text-books dealt w1. th classica::. authors, Latir1 a.nd
Greek speech, Latin and Gree~-c composition. "'l

Charles

Hoole, 2 in A New D!scover:r of the Old Art of Teaching
School, published in London in 1660, outlines the course
of study commonly found in the Englisl1 schools. 3
How to teach Children in the first Forme,

the Grounds or Rudiments of Gr8Jr.mar contained

in the Accidents, and to prepare them for the
Latine tongue with ease and delight.
How to make children of the second Form
perfect in the Rules of the Genders of
Nouns, and of the ?reter-perfect tenses,

and Supine• of Verba, contained in Propria
quae mari bus, Quae genus, and As in

Praesenti; and how to enter them in writing,
.r

and speaking familiar and congruous Latine •

or the third Forme
perfect in the L&•ine Syntaxis commonly
called Verbum -~-Personale; a:s also to acquaint
them with Prosod1a; and how to help them
to construe and parse, and to write, and
speai{ true and elegant Latine.

How to make Children

How to make the Scholars of the fourth
Form very perfect in the Art of Gram1'!lar,

and Elements of Rhetoriek; and how tD

5

enter them upon Greek in an easy way ..
Row to practise them (as they read Terence,

and Ovid de Tri~tibus, and · his lletamorpt.:.osis,
and .ranua Latinae lin~ae, . a:ld Sturmius,

!.

rJ

and Textor's Epistles; in getting Copy
of words, and learning their =:erivations
and Differences, and in va17ing Jhrases.

a

How to shew them the right wa:· of double

~~

J

..
~

J

:!.

'

!

'~

'•

translating, and writing a ~ost pure Latine
style. How to acquaint them with all
sorts of English and Latine verses, and. tr:i
enable them to -write familiar and elegant
Epistles either in Englis~ or Latine, uµon
all occasions •
How to teach Scholars in the fifth farm to
keep and improve t.."ie La tine and Greek Grammars,
and Rhetorick. How to acquaint t .hem wi t~1 .
an~ oratory , Stile and pronunciation •
.!Iow to
help them to translate Latine into Greek, and
to :iake GreeL: verses, as they read Isocrates

and Theognis. Sow they may profit well in
reading VL · gil~ and easily learn to make
good Thoams and elegant Verses W1 th de 1-ight
and certainty. And what Catechismes they

may learn 1.n Greek.

Sow to enter the Scholars of the sixth
Forne into Hebrew; How to employ them in
reading the best and ~ost difficult .luthours
in La tine and Greeke,. and how to acquaint
them with all manner of Schoole-Exercises,
Latine, Greek, or Hebrew.
Entrance into the grammar school was open to
t t'.ose who could "readily read English, and wr1 te a

legible hand, or at least be willing to learn to write,
and to proceed in learning Latine.n 1 But once 1n the
grammar school, the boy left behind him the

. language.

Englis : ~

To such an extent was tJ1is true, that "many

'

i
;j

scholars .trom. · early neglect in the grar.imar schools were

- ~1

~

I

.
Boole, lg 1>1;9ov1rx, 147.
,

...
.-,
]

".:

. ·- '

-""'

.:

~-

,,j

6

'to-o backwards to their dying day' in the a rt of
writing the vernacular.n 1 The negl ~ct of the native
tongue is seen in Brinslsy's compl aint about the

~arents

ot his pupils;
. i

Other,, being more ignorant or malicious,
upo:J. every light occasion are ready to rage and rail
at me, for that their children, as thay say, do get no
good under me, but are worse and worse. For whereas
they could have read English perfectly (it may be) wheS
they came to me, now they have forgotten how t o do it.

The teaching of the vernacular was not
wit..~out

its champions, although at this time instruction

in the native tongue had not gotten f'ar beyond th,e

elementary grades~

Comenius had mapped out a course

of study for children from six to twelve, in which he

prescribed learning to read and write well the native
tongue and cor.aposing grammatically.

Unfortunately,

Comenius, because of his Orbis Pictus, Vestibulum, and
Janua, became more celebrated for his method of teaching
Latin than !or his ideas on the vernacular.

80 it waa

I.!1any years before sehoolmastera apprec1ated fU11y his

recommendations. 3
Kulcaster, too, thought the mother-tongue the
natural language of childhood. · In f'..is peroration to the

7

Elementar1e (1582) occurs that much-quoted defen.s e. of the
I

Eng3i i
i .

'

I

language:

: Our own language bears the joyful ti.tle of our
liberty a,."":d freedom, the Latin rer::ieI:ibera us r) f our
thraldo::!l and bondage. I love Rome, but London better;
I favour Italy, but England t'.lore. I honour the Latin,
but I worship the W.nglish ••• I honour foreign tongues,
but wish rny own to be partaker of thair honour.
Knowing them, I wish my own tongue to resemble their
grace. I confess their furniture, a:~d -wish it were ours.
Why not [write"] al.l in English, a tongue ,of itself both
deep in eoncei t and frank 1n deli very? • ... I do not think
that any language, be it whatsoever, is better able to
utter all arguments either with more pith or greater
1
plainness than our ,.English tongue ••• not any whit behind
either the subtle Greek for croucting close, or the
stately Latin for spreading fair.

0

:c

s t1

t

'J

t J ;J

iC/ "''}

;9 t
1

;1J __ J

;tlw

A little later Joh."'1 3rinsley in the Ludua

Literarius (1612) deplored the neglect of the national
idiom in the higher schools:

~·

I

But to tell you what I think, seems unto me,
to be a ver; main want in all our Grammar schools
generally, or in the most of them; whereof I have
heard some great learned men to com.plain; That there
is no care had in respeet, to train up scholars so,

as they may be able to expresa their minds purely a.nd

l"eadil.y ~n oar own tongue, and to increase in the
practice or it, a$ well as in the Latin or Greek;· whereaa our c.h ief endeavour should be for it, and that for
these reasons: l. Because that language which all
sorts and conditions or men amongst us are to have most
use of, both in speech and writing. is our own native
tongue. 2., The purity and ~lei&.."lcy o!' our own language
is to be esteemed a chief part of the honour of our
Nation: whic.h we all ought to ·advance as much as in us
lieth. As when Greece and Rome·and other nations have

most tlour1$hed, their languages also have been most
·pure: and from those time• or Greece and Rome, we

.,

ii!·,a.

•

~

~·

'•

-~---~

~~>.

~~- -

8

fetch our chie:fest patterns, for the learning of
t h eir tongues. 3. Because of those which are for a ti:;:;.e
trained up in schools, there are ver-; few ;wl:1ich proceed
in. learning, in comparison of them. th.at follow other
callings.,l
i
..
To meet the need he suggested t hat .)upils
construe Lilley' s rules from. the Latin, "Nl"i te a
!

I

f riendly letter daily,

~tudy

Bibls history, and ta:-:e

notes on sermons and deliver them. again •. Furthermore,

he recommended

11

the reporting of a fable 1n English, or

l.J

.c

the like matter, trying Who can ma.k.e . the best report .. "

L

And finally, he proposed constant practice in translation :from Latin into Eng.l ish with s p ecial regard for

J

propriety and purity. 2
Charles :S:oole in 1660

sugg~sted

a method of

teach L."lg English, but only in the elementary school as

preparation for future classical instruction. 3

He did

pay some att-ention to English letter writing i.n the .fo urth

form of his grammar school, but since all letters were

I

!
-1

I

eventua1ly translated inio La'tin1 the EDgllsh versions

were apparently merely to provide a Latin exercise and

II

.

I

i
i

were unimportant in themselves.

i

i

In spi'l';e of all the agitation in favor of

I
!

the vernacular ~ 1 t made no great headway in the English

grammar schools of the 16th and 17th centuries.

Latin

l. See latson, Be11nnipgp of lodern Sgb.teets, 16-17.
t. lli,;.
'
&.
mssv!!Ut Pan I, "!he Pe,ty School.•

I••

j

J

9

c

,) :~

-Il:

:_eso

l:;:

and

Gree~

were still the learned languages, still

the

~arks

of the educated person.

education :ii grated to Am E;rica,

th~

So it was that when
classical pattern

was still followed.
Exanination of the curricula of earl y colonial
schools s t ows a close simila rity to their English model s.
On June 26, 1660, in
;

• • 1

·.·:.

accordanc~

with

~"l

order of the

General Court of Connecticut, t 'l'.1e school committee,

consisting of the Governor, the Deputy Governor, Mr.

Treat, Mr. Davenport and Mr. Street, nmagistrates and
settled elders" 1 met and ttagreed that :Jr. Peet·: , now at
Guilford, should be schoolmaster [at New Haven] , and that

it should begin in October next, when his half year

expires there;

he is to kee9 the school, to teach the

scholars Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and fit them ror the
college [Yale]. nl

'!'he l aw of 1630 prescribing the

studies for the P'ree Grammar Seh,ools of New Haven and
91

frJ !

r

~

Hartford omits mention of Hebrew but adds reading,
writing, and arithmetic. 2 In Plymouth so great was the
sehoolmaster's devotion to Gree k and Latin that the

---

of COnnecticut fro
• Hoadley. Press of

"

___ _

...____.,_~---~~-~··,w' .,·~·~··_· }{_

..

-~

~ <:l-. ~'i!. (t.:. . ~~:w:
. i ·~~
0·i

4'1 ---:I.:
:r-:.u
• · ..........
d.. ....
Q

10

people objected a...'1.d voted in 1674 that t he chilC. ren

"be tau ght to wri'.te and cypher besL ies t h at wh; c ~1 the
country exp ects irom t11e said sch :-:··~,l. n1 The · : ~meral
As ::; embly of New York on October 14, 1732 , passed a bill

entitled: rrAn Aet t o encourage a ?ublic School in the
City o f New Yor i< for teaching Latin, Gree~:: and Mathe-

:n.atick:.s. 112

The school was established and according t o

a newspaper announcement

or

1734 1 there were taught "all

the branches of the Mathematicks, Geometry, .Algebra,
Geography, Navigation, and
the :n.ost Per"faet Manner.n 3

M e~ha.~ts

his son to learn to

even i f he could not

vernacular

figu ~ e

with propriety.

Bookkeeping after

The astute New Yorker want ed

use t he

The private schools,

although offering a mach broader curriculum, failed
to include instruction in English, a s is evidenced by
a.~

adTertisement of t he Kent Co. School in Chestertown,

Md., aay 5 1 1745a

At Kent County School, in Chestertown, Md., young
gentlemen are l:x>a:rded ar1d tau ght t h e Greek and Latin
tongues, writing, arithmetic, merchants• accounts,
surveying. navigation, the use of t h e g }.obes, by the
largest and !J10St accurate pail" in !merica; also any other
part of t.he mathematics, by Charles Peale.
N.B. - Young gentlemen may be.dinstructed in fencing and
dancing h'J Tery good masters. ·-

l. Small• "The Bew England Grammar School, l635-l7oon.
The S£hool Review, X (Sept. li102), 521. From the
. cour~ records .or Plymouth, 16?2.

•· =i!r~Btcii· !bi2gr~~- oirtii:c~g)e~ ~
3. Pr•"~ .ll•~·, l!O, quot•• trom . \he Bew Iork Qa~ette

8iif;?81

2

lab. 4SOl.Tolqnm. 4, Dec. 30 to Jan. 7 1 1734.
·~,
4. Steiner, Ht•SOa or Id· ip Id., · 33. An una•signed

retei-ence.

·

_

_; iL

p <fiM.· ;\<rl"'" ,

;

'

''

l
1

'

~

11

The utter absence of any composition textbooks also attests t c the n f:: glect >::.. composition

teaching in the 17th a.."'1.d 18th centuries.

Barnard's

lists of textbooks in the American Journal of Education l
...

~

contain no such ;1 t;le for tl"..at ;Jeri.ad.

Neither is a

composition text included in Charl es Evans' Am erican
Bibliography, Which lists all books .;Jrinted in the United

States bet-wem 1539 and 1799.

Several

sec~etary•s

guides appeared in the late 17th and early 18th
centuries, but they can scarcely be considered textbooks.
William Bra/'. ford2 published the first of t h ese in 1698.

It was entitled The Secratary's Guide, or, Young Ma n 's
Com~anion,

in 1.\'gur iarts.

Part one gave "The Grounds

of Spelling, Heading and 'f!riting True English"; part two,
~ethod

ttThe

of Writing- Letters upon Most $ubjects.n

The other two parts were devoted to arithmetic and

business

for~s.

The book was eYidently popular,

reaching its fifth edition in 1729 1 when it appeared

nareatly enlarged and carefully corrected."

Even more

popular, to judge by the number of editions, was Hillf s

!be ygung Secretary's Guide: or.

a

Speedy ffelp to Learning,

the first part of which contained •the True Method o .:
Writing Letters Upon any SubJ ect," and the second "an
exact Coll ection of .lcquitt-.nees, B,_lls, Bondi, tills ••• •

,

.. '

is.
·t ,Dan,1 !ll•J.U•, I,
,.n, u11. -

)~_ · Yol1. 13, i4,

.... ..

~I -.

·

•

- ···

-

•

;;, .>;:. ~.

618, 1688, 2997. 3i39;
..·
··"' .:,. ...
.

~.

,-

..:~ '"

12

First published in 1708, this book went through

seven editions i :n ten years, and 7tas repr inted in 1727. 1
Al though these are not textbooks, they .:;ire

because t heir Ter"J popularity is eVidence

~entione d

or

t he neglect

l v0

0

r oomposi tion in the schools.

H )

College entrance requirements, too, a re

frequently a good
schools.

index of what is taught in secondary

Especially was this so in colonial times, for

the grammar schools of those days did not pretend to be

r r

anything but college preparatory schools.

In New

Ejpgland' s Fir:st Fr111t; (1643), the Boston Latin School

is

'
lj

~

:r.jtf
i

:

desa~ibed

thus:

And by the si j e of the Colledge a faire Grammar
Schoole, tor t he training up of young Schollars, and
r1 tting of them for Academicall Learning, that still as
they are Judged ripe, theJ may be tecei ved into the
Colle dge of this Scb:>ole.£

The "Old Deluder• law, passed by the Kassachusetta Bay

Colony in 1647 and later copied and elU!.cted by Connecticut,
frankly states that grammar school.s shall be set up for

the instruction of youth "so farr as they shall be r1 ted

for ye university." 3

ln 1684 a committee of trustees

· or t-.he Hopkins Grae.mar Scho r:il of Bew Haven maintained:

The Erection of ye ad Schoole being princi?ally
for ye Institucion or hopeful youth 1n ye Latin tongue,
and other learned Languages soe far as to prepare such

tbe Jla9saehu1ett1
,f. ·. .

·;"'~

13

youths for ye eolledge & p~bliqe service of ye Country
in Church, & Commonwealth. .

Since the coll eg' curriculum was entirely
cla3sical, it is only to be' expected t hat the prescr i ption would be limited to those studies t hat would be
.

'

continued in college.

This is what Harvard demanded of

the entrant for about t he

firs~

hundred years:

When any Schollar is able ta understand I_ullz,. or
such like elassicall Latine Author extempore, and make
and speake true Latine in Verse and Prose, suo ut aiunt
Ha.r)e; And decline perfectly the Paradigm's of Nounes

and Terbet in the Greek tongue: Let him then and iot
before be capable of admission into t he Colledge.

In 1734 Virgil and a Greek text were added.
some

....
....~

Yale for

years after 1 ts rounding had the same entrance

t;

'

requirements as Harvard, adding ari tr.i.meti c in 1745.

t(~ "" .

:.

The College of New Jersey and Pr i nceton demanded no

!'Jn J
L o~

additional subjects. 3

~L_'

ht. d done its duty when it gave the po-pll a. t horough ground-

'

~.

: ~.~

The secondary school, therefore,

ing in the classics, and a bit later added arithmetic.

tc

; ~~
't1;
,_. ~}

Summary

1d
--·

Composition teaching in secondar-1 schools

.o"'
-t
:J.

before 1750 was unknown. One can scarcely e:x:j)ect it in

'1, _
'
~ -~·
'I

the curriculum, since the colonists were heirs to the

-~llS

classical tradition, as a result

or

which, schools were

~t..u

...
~i.-

·,l

·t

~ ·.

.'
:

.,_

14

patterned directly a fter those of England in wh t ch
colonial leaders had recei viad t i1eir trai ning . The
colleges, too, prepa ration i'ar which was t .he main bu .siness of the secondary school> p:i"escrii)ed almost >,:othing

for entrance excetJt a t h orough foundation in t hose
rL

studies forming the backbone of' the college course, the

classical languages.

The abaolute l ack of composition

textbooks attests further to the neglect of instruction

in -::v ri tten expression.

....~;WI

.......
.,
~

'

.~

rt
....'1

~

:i:..w.••

L

...

:

15

CHAPfER II
)

THE DL.'RODUC?ION OF COMPOSITION
1750-1820

At t l:e close of the eighteenth century the

convention.al pattfll'n of cl assical education was broken.
The reason for the change is to be found in the new

social and economic 11 re of the country.

As an ai'terma th

of the Revolution, a i:ziore del!locratic society developed,
which demanded a less restricted form or' education.

.A

new and important group_. t hat of the merchants and shopkeepers, was begi:nn.ing to make itself heard.

goal

or

The main

the '1 Jucated was no longer the ministry.

.Educa-

tion was forced to respond to the new influences, for that

which

had been a. necessity in the pulpit was an anomaly

in the counting house.

But the grammar schools, now old and set 1n
their ways, were unable
changed conditions.

to adapt themselves to the

Losing t he patronage they had once

enJoyed, they began t o decline, their demise being ha..s-

,

tened in some instances by adverse state legislation.•

1. This was the case in Kassachusetta, where,. according .
to the law of 1647, a grammar school was to be set
. up in any town or one hUndred faa!.liea. By the law
or 1789, this number was rat3ed t~ two hundred
. · families; and in 1824, no grammar achools were
'. '\' iaequired 1A towns ha.tnc a po-pala\1011 or less \han

·>·51 000.
......._

See Brown..,
.

......... "" ...

sm.•sil•
•·es, · 21s.
... . .· ·.:"' . ·.. " -,. . ..

·.:.

....:

...

. ., .. ·

~· ·~·

_:..:. ..: . .~.- ~

.~ ... ,...

. .

.

.

'

:~

16

"'

.

In

-~heir

stead grew up the academies dedicated to the

task of preparing youth for the busin ess qf living.
Such was tha

''

avowed aim of the Phillips 4cadeny

established in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1778, thrnugh
the generosity of the Phillips family.
:r

)

.. .
• 1 • ...,

According to the

constitution, the school was founded "for the purpose of
instructing Youth, not only in EngI.ish and Latin Grammar,
Writing, Arithmetic, and those sciences wherein they

·~

are commonly taught, but more especially to learn

riw ·

them the great end and real bu§iness

·~

or

11ving.nl

When

John Phillips; in 1732, founded the academy at Exeter,
New Hampshire, he had

the same end in view.

The

practical Franklin, too, when he drew up his proposals
for the education of the youth

iw
..,.....

or

?enns-'.tlvania, declared:

As to their Studies, it would be well if they could
be taught everv Thing that is useful, and even Thing
that is ornamental: But Art is long, and their !ia.1e is
short. It is therefore propoa•d that they learn those
Things that 2are likely to be most us&ful and most
QFru&mental;.

In such a utilitarian scheme of education the
.1

I

Yernacular could not . fail to find a place.

Fortunately,

what was being so urgently demanded by the layman, was

-

also sanctioned by the educational theorist.

During the

latter hal.f' of the eighteenth century there were circulated

17

in America trea.ti.ses by Milton, Locke, Turnbull,
Sheridan, A,jdison and Steele.l

ftWho that reads at all,

ha.s not read U.il tont s t I'rac tate on Edu ca ti.on '; and also
Locke's: and w1'1o having read them, does not speak of t h em
1')

in terms of the h .'..g hest coilllllen'l ation? "..:;

1'I rote Boucher,

in 1773, in his disccurse "On America:r rMucation".

But,

he added pessimistically, "how little has either the
f'J[le or the other contributed to improve the national
syatan

or

edueationl"

Certainly Franklin was profoundly

influenced b'r both of them, for

in his Prcoosals he

constantly cites as authorities both Milton and Locke,
and his plan of English education follows almost .step by

step Turnbul1's as described in his
Liberal Education.

upon

Obs~rvations

3

Instruction in the vernacular had been brought
into the elementary schools in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries through the efforts of Comenius,
Kulcaster, ·aool.e, :Brinalay• and others.

It was the

task of the eighteenth century to establish it in
the seccndary schools.
such

ins~ruction

The most powerful advocate of

was without doubt John Locka.

A!'ter his

l. Lyman h e.s found advertisement• ot these treatises
1Zl colonial newspapers. See his English Grammar
in American 8@091! Be!O£! 1850, 55.
2, ·4 fiew of the Cagses and Conseguenget of the @erican
R1Yolntion, 155.

3. See Lymaa1 SU?·ill•) 5&; also .tppendix B, l~-169,
in which by parallel· exuaeta he •hows Pr&Dklin•s
1Bdeb•edne1a
!urnbal.1• '
·

'°

18

Thoughts Concerning Education a.p :· ea~ed, searcel:,r a
writer on the .subject failed ta quo t e :)ages f'rom this
;

auti1ority.

So g ~eat was ~us voe: ue, that even mothers

reared their children accordir!g tc the principles
laid down by bL"!l. l

Although far in

adve.~ce

of his

conte~poraries

1 n many of his i d eas, Locke is still the child or his own

times in his advocacy of Latin.

But he wrote that the

education of the gentleman is to go
classics.

tongue.

rar

beyond the

lie i!tUst be tb.oroughly schooled in his own

Ir his business 1n the world is to be done with

tongue or pen, he should be taught grammar, but it must
be t he grammar of r.J.s own language, for

~here

can

scarce be a greater Defect in a Gentleman, than not

to
express himself well either in Writing or Speaking. " 2

l. Young Josiah Quincy, about the, time of the ReYolution,
was brought up according

~o Locke's precepts, or a.t
least, flrs. Quincy's interpretation or them • .As his
son Edmund Quincy later wroter "Locke was the great
authority at ·that time on all subJect which he touched,

and in conformity with some suggestion of his, a s
my father supposed; Mrs,. Quincy caused her son,

when not more than three years old, to be taken from
his warm bed, in winter as well as summer, and
carried down to a cellar-kitchen, and there dipped
three times in a tub or water cold from the pump.
She also brought him up in utter indifference to
wet feet ••• This practice, also, he conceiTed

to have been in obedience tb some suggestion of the
bachelor philosopher." See Quincy, Life of Jos1al}
.Quincy, 19-20..
_
.
2. Lo
. .· eke~ Some Thought• Concerning Education
Quick; , 163.
. _
-_
.
.

.

-~

.

19

r~. ~ ·· 1"'.-{'1'
~

In

'.SJ 1'!"'7''

his early years be g1 ven practice in telliJ1g and wrtting

01.. der

tales.

to atitain perfection of speech he should in

Later,

When they understand how t o write English wit h due

Connexion, Propriety, and Order, and are pretty well
Masters of a tolerable narrative Style, they may be
advanced to wri ting of Letters; wherein th~/ should not
be put upon any Strains of Wit or Compliment, but
taught to express their own µlain easy Sense, without
any Incoherence, Confusion or Rou ghness. And when
they are perfect, in this, they may, to raise their
Thoughts, have set before them .the Example of Voitures,
ror the Ett.tertainment of their Friends at a Distance,
with Letters of Compliment,_ Mirth, Rail·l ery or
Diversion; and TullY's Epistles, as t he best Pattern
whether tor Business or Conversation.. The writing of Letter• has 10 :aw.c ~: to do in all the Occurrences· of human
Life, that no Gentleman can avoid shewing himself in
this kind of \lriting. Occasions will daily force hifil
to make this Ose of r.J.s Pen, which, besi des the Con-

I:C

9

sequences that, 1n his Af'fiars, his wel l or ill managing
of it often draws after it, always lays him open to a
-.severer Examination of his .areeding, Sense, and Abilities,
t han oral Discourses; whose transient Faults dying
tor the most Part with the Sound that gives them Life,
and so not subject to a strict review_, inora easily
eseape Observation and Censure.
Even earlier than Locke, 'Milton had in his

t:ractate "0.f Educationit (1644) urged a proper attent i on

to the writing and speaking of English..

Arter a foll

course in Latin and Greek• mathematics, hi.story, and
science_, young gentlemen should be trained •to be able

niters and composers in every excellent matter." 2

The editor• of the_T.a tler in 1710 championed

cause ot the vernacularl
~r·~·

..

•

)~

i·~~,'.

_A;"'~-·-···--------·--··~---·--··..____-~.~--:._._------~-- . . --.. . !- - ------·--

·-· - -· ---~~· - - - -.. . . . . ~~....,"""t-· - · ,;

20

:1

To spea< and write w1 t l:out absurdity t he language
of one• s countr; is corJUnendable in -oersons of _tll
stations, and to so~e indispensibly necessary.

J.;:!. J.
'

B. l ri

1'

;; •

Addi son and. Steele r ecommended the study o f Eng J. ish

,:;:. ....s:t

gram!'.'l ar, con•idering it a bsurd that young chi l dren should
)~

.n

be ?Ut to the study of La.tin gram.mar whet:\ t hey were not

.12.sl:c-'.
:J3- ')J3

:q HI

ever.. familiar

' ~...s.C .t
~- : ~na

countries set a better exai:tple:

wit!'~

that of their own langua ge.

Othe r

!j

·~

It ·has beer- t he oractice of t h e wisest nation s to
learn their own language by stated rules, to avoid the
conf~sion that wocld follow from leaving it to vul gar

fT

lJ

"101.
ft ... !fr

a

9'

use ..

manw

A later essay 1n the Spectator urged that only Slch
instruction as is practical should be given: 3

8 "1"9 j'

~u:

G~

e_.J.j
~., Q.:t
~l

·a

.t

~

While I am U?On this subJect, I cannot forbear
mentioning a particular which is of use in every station
of life, . and which methinks every master should teach

avsa

.

!l1' .J'j

his scholars; ! mean the writing of

; .Qu.s
Sft29

,,. .'

)ll
~

1

o:t

rs

)

,.J:!'>e

E."'lglis : ~

Letters.

To this end, instead or perplexing them with Lati n
~pistles, themea, and verses, there might be a punctual
correapondenee eatabli shed between two boys; who
might act in any imaginary parts of business, or be

...

~

. allowed sometir!!es to give a range to t heir own fancies,
and communicate to each other whatever trifles they
thought tit. provided neither of t h em e11er .failed at the
. appointed time . to answer his correspondent•s letter.
;~: .
I believe I may venture to affirm, that the gen, eraJ.ity of boys would find themselves !!lo:re a(1vantaged
)V by this custom, when they come to be men, than by all the
;:. Greek and Latin their masters can teac h them in seven
:; or eight years.
.

·.;

...••

r

,~;·- l.. tatler, IV, . #234, in Wynne,

Essa~ . on Ed11cation
.. London, 1761) I' 177-78. Wynne' s o k was adTertised
' -'\. · 1n various coJ.onial newspapers from 1761 to 1769 •

~ ·:

.~. ~ ~ee Lyman,

.2Jl•ill•,

.~fWynne, ~·ill•, 177..

55..

· .
·. "i:12actator, Y, 353X, 1n Wynne, Jm•ill•i .1 54.

---- -~---~-~--~

·

21

The ~ant of' it is v ery visible in ll.any l .:.~arned
!) ersons, who, while they are 3.cb.iring the styles o~
Demosth enes o :t Cicero, want pprases t o expres s t b e':11s el v ,2!S
on the most common occasions. I hc. ve seen a l G ttt~r
:'rom. one 01... t hese Lati n orators, wl;.ic!: woul d, h<:!. V(~ been
d eservedly laughed at by a co~on attorney .
In 1742 George Turnbull published his

Observations upo.n Li beral Education in which he recommend ed
following t he practice o f t h e Greet-<:s and Romans, who
LJO~

considered it of prime importance that their youth
learn the:f.r own language first.

!!U

'

'

.

He said,

What man of sense, if he thinks of the matter
ser ~~ ously, and baJ.ances impartially the values of things
in his mind~ would not rather have his son at f ourteen

t olerably skilled in geography and history. acquainted

with the true method of UIU•avel1ng nature, and discovering her laws and final ends, and with the duties whic h
Justice, public love, and generosity and fortitude
req_u ire at his hands, and able-t ·J express truths o!"'
these classes with propriety and taste, in his own
languai:e. t ho' he should y et h.~ve made but small
proficiency in any learned or foreign language, rather
than utterly ignorant of all these sciences, but quite
master of the Greek and .Latir;. g rar~ars, whic ~:. is all
that can be l~arned, where nothing else is taug!:lt.l

...
•ti!

Thomas Sheridan. in 1756 wrote .British Education:

Or, The Source of the p1ao;rde:rs of Great Eritain.
cause of England's

The

troubles, he decides, lies in her

outmoded system of education.

It may have been wise

for preYious generations to study Greek and Latin, for
then all knowledge was recorded in those ton;;ues.
.J
'

.

Now,

·:he argues, times haTe changed, and we must do not as our

~

:,. ~!":ancestors did, but as we think they might do if they
in these days.

He deplores the fact

~that

aeo.

boys

,
-

..

.c~

------·····----·----·-........::~

22

are often able to write axereises i n

)U re

and correct

Latin who; at t he same time can not ·ex;;ress t heir thoughts
vTith the leaat grace or · ;>ropriety in their own languag es.111

He admits that t h e English language is not as polished
as the Greet{ or l.ati n , but bel i e ves t ha·t it ca..'1. be

perfected.

It can become the t h ir-d great classical

l anguage..

To that end, as well as th,. salvation of

England, he propoae• the study of oratory, since it was
through it th.a t the Roman language arrived at its state

of perfection.
About 1750 composition entered the curriculum

l

of the American sec<r..>Jary school, the same ti:ne that

grammar was intraduced.

ilthoug ~

the latter study made

rapid progress, especially in the years immediately
after the "Revolution when, accord.in ; to Lyman, 2 1 t was

almost universally adopted into the curriculum of
American schools, composition lagged.
may be assigned for the neglect/

Several reasons

Probably the most

important was the idea that a 1mo111.edge of grammar is

the royal road to perfection in speaking and writing.
The idea was cmstantly reiterated by writers o :· gram.'!lar

textbooka.

Lindley Murray, author, in 1795, of an

!ngl1sh grat?.UDar which waa one of the moat popu1ar down

--- .

23

to 1850, stated in his p.rel'ace that "Eng2.is '.1 Grammar is
t}p.e U't of speaking and writing the F.ngl.ish langua ge

.
.

~

w1 tt-4 propriety, n...i. a definition which, Lyman say s, ha

copied exactly froa Greenwood's t hird edition in 1747.2

In accordance With t his belief the child was taught the
elements of grammar, progressing fr0m a .study of' the word

to more complex forms.

There waa no place for composition

early in the course because the child was still concerned
with elementary forms.

Bo even when the importance

correct writing had come to be recognized,

or

compositi :~n

was robbed of its legitimate .?lace by its handmaiden
grammar.
Another reaS)n why the teaching of com.position

.

did not progress as rap1dl7 as that o t" grammar is t ,, 'b e

.......

l-;

found in the prevailing methods of teaching.

Pupils

s'

memorized their lessons, and the teacher spent the

L

recitation period "hearing" the leesons.

That was

!f

"•'

the way the Latin schoola taught, Latin grammar, 3 and so

l. English Grammar Ada:gted to !;he D1f.fereng Classes of
Itiarnars, l3.
,,..,
.:.:,,
B sa T •rds a ?ract.ieal En 11 h Gr mar, etc.

.

ee Lyman, sm,.cit., 106.

r.

He gives almost a full

page ot. similar definitions on ~P· 105-6.
llliphalet Pearson, headmaster at Phillips' Andover
Acad8!J17 in 1780 reported to his trusteea: 11 School
begins at eight o'clock with devotional exercises; a
psalm is read and •ung• Then a class oon1 i 1ting of
tour scholarsrepeata memoriter two pages in Greek
. pammar, aner which a class of thirty persons repeat•
. a page and a. hal.f ot Lalin Grammer; . then- tollows the
· tA.ccid.ence t~ibe,t whQ repea• no, tilree, tour, t1ve 1
1J.. and ten pagaa e-.ch .. •
lee Adams, i)mggs A;ericy.
. ·,; l&ho91•,

s.

I

!

·1

(

•9.

I

i

I

l
'

i

l
j

·I

J

24

when

Englisn grarnm.ar came into t l1e curric;.1lum, t he

method was transferred to it.l
l/''' t

But that could not be

done so easily ·;d. th compo si ti on.

' .,,.ef

had to be avolved, and that
'I

requlr~d

tiLle.-

Co n sequer~t ly

I

the teac.liing of c omposition lagged.
And finally, cornpos1tion was handicap Jed :ln

the race with grammar, by the additiona: burden it ;>laced
upon the teacher.

Schoolmasters or an earlier day

. were called upon t o teach a large number of subj €:!cts.
Fol" example, in 1762, · Ephrail'l1 Avery notified the ;mb-:_ 1c
:o:J

-,,
·~

·l

..I

·;

that in his newly opened school at Second-:river, in EastNew-Jersey, he proposed to teach
..•

writing and reading English, the Latin and Greek
languages, arithm.etick, both vulgar and decimal;

likewise, Algebra, trigonometry, surveying, guaging,

plain, traverse, and mercator•a sailing, by several
dirferent inethods, according to Atkinson's and Wilson 's
epitomea.2
When the· te&ching of so many subJ ects fell upon one

1nd1Vidual, it is no wonder that schoolmasters preferred

hearing rules of gram.mar to correcting themes.
In the following sections the gradual introduc-

'ion

or

composition into the curriculum between 1750 and

1820 is traced by colonies and states.

· documentary histories

or

State archives,

education, and personal reminis-

are among the souroea con1ulted. The presence

,'. ,_::i~
2'.. ' '

~~--~~~· . '~~
:':.J,..it~

25

of composition in the curriculum is f requently diffieult
t_a .Jetect, even when it was tau ght, bee au se down to

13 ~'.3 0

it was ::nainly an incidental study, and as such was given
"''

...

-~,

....

no specific mention.

In the nineteenth century it

was commonly listed i n a footnote to the course of
study, ncompositicn and declamation throu ghout the term."
Sometimes, too, it was in.eluded under grammar, wh icl1 was

a more comprerrensive term than it is now. l

.r+.

Pennsylvania
It was in Franklin's academy, established

\f

i n .Phila delphia in January, 1751, that composition was

r

first recognized as an important part of the curriculum.

.r

.

Conceived primarily to provide English tra.tning, the
achool would have reTolutioni.zed education if it r.Jid

continued as originally planned by Franklin.

Onf or-

ti;anately, however, it was so tar ahead of the times that

it was finally beaten down by the force of tradition_.

Barnard, as late as 1842, employs the term ver1 broadly.
In a list or topic1: to be used at teachers' meetings,
he mentions ttGra.';!Imar - including conversation, com- ·

position, analysis ot: sentences, parsing,,, etc.• See
Bamard 1 1 @erica,n Jogrtp\l ot EdieatioJ! I, 710.
In 1864 the Normal School for ~emale~eachers in
Philadelphia required the· study or gl"ammar, which was
. defined as "H.eView of English grammar, and inst.r uction
1n etymology, rhetoric, and elements of composition."

. J.W. ,. XIV,

730.

·
ii'

,-

'

•

26

and the English department of the acadeoy ceased t G exist.

As the eminent forerunner of much that is today accepted
practice, it deserVf3S more than

;;:>assi ~g

attention ..

In 174:3! Franklin becarne concerned over t h e
I

1.aci;;: of an academy i n '.vhic h the youth o r the province
•might receive t he .Accomµlisbments of a regul a r Education. !T.._

To remedy the condition,

h~

drew up his ?roeosals Rel at i ng

to the Education gf Youth 1n Pennsyl vanJ.a, but, t he tir'le

not being opportune for

developing the

project, since

the colonies had become involved in wars, he laid the
proposals aside.

He revived the i dea again in 1749

when he printed and circulated the ;>roposals.

IUs

suggestion was evidently well received, f or within a f ew
month• the necessary runda had been secured.

The ori gi nal

plan, howeTer, was somewhat reYised in order to satisfy
the more conservative subscribers.

As originally

planned by Fran..1.tlin, the academy was t:o go
·. no .t"&nher than to procure the Keans of a good English
.l Number of my .Fttiend•, t.o whom I communicated
the Proposal, concurrtd with me in these Ideas; but Mr.
Allen, Kr. F~anci•• Hr. ?eter•~ and some other Persons
at lealth and Learning, whoae Subscriptions and Countenance we should need, being of Opinion tha.t 1 t ought
,• - ~ illclude the learned Languages, I submitted my
-., -Judgment to theirs, retaining however. a strong Prepossession

't · ldtJ.cation.

1n favour of my first Plan, and resolving to preserve
. as much or it as I could, and to p~urish tbe English
i, Jchool
b y evecy !leans in my .Po•er.
. '
~ ~;

~

4-- - --- A-••--··----· • .-. . . . .. - -,---

27

3

A board of trustees was formed from
subscribers ., and

~·rankl1n

the

and Attorney-General Francis

were appointed to draw up a constitution.

..'

a.r~ong

i

A building ,wa.s

fortunately ready at hand, the hall built in 1740 to
accommodate the evangelist, George Whitefield, and to
house a charity school.

On February l, 1750, the building

was conveyed to the trustees of the academy, and on

J'anuary 7 1 1751, formal opening exercises -aere held at
q

which the Reverend Richard Peters deliverad an address.

How many scholars entered at that tim.e is not known, but

that the school was )opular is eiVidenced by its ra.;:>id

By the following September the teaching staff 1

growth.

consisting originally of' !'our members, had been augmented
by two ushers in the English school,

for the enrollment

had grown to over a hundred ttnotwithstanding the prevalence
f

or

the hall Pox in !own.nl

Onder the mastership of Kr. ])ave, who had for
A

, 11.xtaen years conducted a school in CW.Chester, England,
the English school !'lourished.

His scholars soon numbered

•upwards of tilnetyn2, nor did that number diminish during

-

a

l. From Dr. ?eter's preface to his .opening sermon, which
waa published by Franklin and Hall late 1n 1751.
S•e Kontgomery, History of Sbe Oni ver1ttvI g! Pennt1Ylvan1a, 141. On September 12 l7Sl,. ~ank in wrote to
Jared lllot, •our Academy -nourishes beyond expectation.
le haTe now above one hmld~ed scholars, ·and the
'1 ·
.nwaber 1.t dally iureea:tng.• ·. llli• "123. "
..... Franklin• QbJ1:c:UJ10.zi1• lee' Sllyth, ll•ill•1 X, l~.

.

-~- ~--·-·

. •• -

-

'

_ -··

-·-·-· -

---~-'-·:.:.._,_~.._'-

·.

•• • v·.

·a; _.._·_>-:.:_
· _

·

--·~- ~--

. .

,.,_ ""---··

,

. ,j
. ... ._

.."lj

"·"-~-~ -~-L~

28

the two years of his teaching..

Mr. Dove, however,

C·'J n-

sidering hiJ.: iself underpaid, resigned r..is position in

July, 1753, to devote his entire time t c a school for
girls whic::-1 he had establ i sh ed so on a i'ter taking over his

duties at t he academy.

Onder his successor,

a

good Man, yet not possessing the Tal ents of an English
Schoolmaster in the same ?erfection ~~ith Mr. Dove, t he
school di:U.nish'd dail.y, and !!oon was found to have

about forty Scholars lef t.I

The !nglish school#

Fran..~11n

tell3 us, never recovered

its original reputation, and had degenerated so much by
1763 that ita work was not su perior t ::: that given in

dame schools.2

It was so little patronized that on

July 23, 1789, there waa introduced and passed at a
meeting of the truatees a re.solution abolishing the
English school, :since it was no longer defraying expenses •.

A week later the resolution was reconsider :2d, and "1 t
waa voted to stand as it 1.s, :provided it ahould not be

found in any way repugnant to the :!"irst Charter granted
to the Academy. n3

So the English school was not immediately

l. Smyth, sm.cit., 15.
2. In the Ddnutes of the trustees, Feb. a, 1763, is :f'ound
this recor d: ttfhe State of the Engl ish School was
taken into Consideration, and it was observed that
·Kr. Kinnersley• 1 Time was entirely taken up 1n
tea0h1ng ~1t~le Boys the Elements or the English
Language (that is it wa:J dwindled into a School similar
to those kept by old lomen, who tea.ch Children their
letters).n Quoted by Franklin in his Qb1ervation1.
See ~h, .92•.2!1•• %1 17. .
,
3. Ibid., 25-26.

.~

.l
I

,..._

.

·:--~- -

- - -

~~-·-~~- .......•

• •________.s_,.,..._______ -' ___

~~-----'--

,4

- -

- ...

-

·- ----

- -- -

~-- ...~~
~j

·:f/
L;.";'.i~

_.,.-:~

29

discontinued, but subJects were gradually dropp ed until

in 1770 all that re!r!ained of the original English
p:rog.ra.m was Engl ish grammar.l

That was a i'ar cry from the compl et e coul"'se
which Franklin h.ad worked out in his Proposals.

rb

~s

instruction

recommends ~

As far

1n the Eng:!.. ish la..'l"lgu ag e is conc erned, h e

first of all, that grazr..m ar be tau ght.

.Further,

To for-A their Stile, they should be put on Writing

Letter• to each other, ~aking Abstracts of what th~; read;
or writing the same Things in their own Words; telling

or writing Storie.a lately read, 1n their own Expressions.
Al.l t o be revis•d and corrected by the Tutor, who ehoold
give his Heasons, explain the Force and Import of Words,

1

!

&c.2

A more

detailed account of the offering in Eng l ish com-

l. Franklin, in his ObstJrvations Relative ta t he Intentions
of the QrigiMl Founders or the Academy in Philadel:)hia,
written in 1789, attributes the decli ne of t he Engl ish
school to tbe partiality or the trustees toward t he
Latin school. He searched diligently t hr ough their
minutes and found many eYidences of discr1m.1nat1on.
In the Ye~ beginning the r.atin master wa.s to receive
twice as much as the English master, although the
latter had twice as much work as the ror.ner. Appro-

.-

'

priations were made for su;>plies for the Latin school,
but none for the English. More teachers were added
to the Latin school, 8nd .s alaries were increased,

when the enrolment did not warrant that action.

So,

gradually, the .L,atinists on the board "starved out"
the English school. ~ee Smyth! .QR•.£:!!•, I, 9-31.
Prgpo!al§. Facsimile tleprint, 6-18.

30

position is given in the Idea of the English Schogl,
which Franklin prepared at the request of the trustees.1
English grammar is to attended to in the first and
second years, followed by a study of rhetoric in the third.

Composition is given special attention in t he fourth and
fifth classes:

e-

-xo

'I

l

·13
0

ft

: A

..

1. The complete curriculum is of interest. The following
outline is based on his Idea. Smyth, .QQ•..-£1!•, III,
21-29.

1st Class
English Gram.mar
Orthography
Reading of Fables and Stories
2nd Class
Reading with expression
Study of papers like the Soectator
3rd Class.
Speaking
Rhetoric
History
Natural and Mechanie History

4th Class
Composition: letters
E1th1CI

H13tory

Geography
Reading
Speaking
5th Class

Letters and essay1
Logic
History

Reading

Speaking

6th Class
History
Rhetoric
Logic
loral and latur•l Ph1.lotopby
~llah author•
traa..lationa trom '11• claasica

31

'?he Fourth Cl.ass

to be taught Composition.

Wr:!.ting

or.e•s

0\7n

Lan;;u o.ge

wel,l, is t i::.e next necessary Ac.complishm.r:mt afte.19 good
Speaking. 'Tis the Writing-Uaster's Business to take
Cal!e that the Boys n1ake fair Characters, and place t hem
stM:ight anc even i n t:i.e Lines: But t o i'or-::1 thei:::St:f!le, and aven to tal{e Cue that the Stops and Capitalsare properly disposed, is the ?art of the Englisl~ M.:~star.
The Boys should be put on Writir...g Letters to each other

on any oo!:lmon Occurrences, ar.d on various Subjects,
imaginary Business, &c., containing little Stories,

Accounts of t heir late i~ eadir;.g, wr1at Parts o:· Aut hors
please them, and llh.y; Letters of' Congratulation, of'

Compliment, of Request, of

~hanks,

of Recomz:iendation,

of Ad!D.oni tion, of Consolation, of Ex9ostulation, E::tcuse,

&c. In these they should be taught to ex~ress themselves
elearly, concisely, and naturally, without affected
Wor ds or h1gh-nown Phrases. ill their Letters to
pass thriJagh the Diaster' s H~'t"ld, 11t:o 13 t a ooint out the
Faults, advise the Corrections, and commend what he
finds right. Some or the best Letters published in
our own Language, as Sir Willia~ Tangle 's, those of
Pop.e, and his Friends, and some other, might be set
before the Youth as Models, t '1e i r .Jj ea uties pointed out
and explai ned by the Master, the Letters ther:iselves
transcrib'd by the Scholar.
Firth Class

·'

To i !!!:p.rove the Youth in compos:i,tion, they may
now, besides continuing to write Letters, begin to
write li t tle Essays. in Prose, and sometimes in Verse,
not to make them Poets, but for this Heason, that nothing
acquaints a Lad so S? eedily with Variety or Expression,
aa the Necels1ty of finding aueh Words and Phraaes a.s

will suit with the Measure, Sound. and Bhi:::ne

or

Ve:r-se 1

and at tbe same time well express the Sentiment.
.
These Easays should all pass under the master's Eye, who
will point. out their Faults, and put the Writer on
correcting them. Where t ha Judgment is not ripe enough
.. tor forming new Essay~·,l et tlle Sentiments or a Spectatot
·be given, and requirid to be eloath'd in a Scholar's
own Wordst or the Circumstances of some good Story, the
Scholar to find Expression. Let then be out sometimes
·. on. abridging a Paragraph of a dit'fuse Author, sometimes
.:- on dilating or amplifying what is wrote more alosely.l

"::

• . Ibi<f.u III, 26-28.

,'#-

-

32

To insure adequate t raining
was

s~1e cif i cally

stated in

....

Er,.gl ish, it

the cons ti tu;tion, whic h Fran1.t..

l in help ed to draw up, that the R~ctor

"great Regard

i?
~

be

c hosen wit h

to his ? 0 lite Speaking , Writi ng, and

Ond erstandir:g t he En glish Tongue. nl

Alt hough Franklin accords com9ositi0n a

res pectable ?lace in his course of study, one cannot help
0 • .!'~

but feel as one reads his Obser vations that he had a far
greater interest in declanation.

.6

J.S"!
r.l ~

ll

~

.ac:f
£.l

ne gleat or the English school, he ccnstantly draws
attention to ·the deterioration of the work in public

speaking.

Mr. Dove had paid a great deal of attention

to that branch of
on
"tW
0.

•Oi .i5

.l

iY

o_
NO

.rt1

-

·-

When he deplores the

lear ~ 1 in g :

He had a good Voice, read ~erfectly well, with
~ roper Accent and Just P ro~.unciation, and his Method
of communi c ati~g gapits of the same kind to his Pupils

was this.. when he gave a Lesson to one of them, he
always first read it to him aloud, with all the different

Mod11lations of' Voice t hat the Subject and Sense required.

These the scholars, in studying and rep eating the Lesson,
na turally endeavoor•d to imitate; and it was really
·surprizing to see how soon they caught his Kanner • • •

In a few Weeks a.fter opening his School, the Trustees
were inVited to hear the Seholars read and recite. The
Parents and Relations . of the Boys also attended. The
Performance! were surprizingly good, and of course were
admired and ,.plauded ••• 2
.
Onder his successor the ttPer!'orm.ances of the· Boys in
Rea.ding and Speaking, · were no longer so brilliant·. ,. 3 -

l. 'the Constitutions of the Publick Academy in the City
· ·of Philadelphia." • See 1.!ontgomory,. .2! •ill'•, 48.
2. Ob1enatio11•. Sayth, Jm•.s.U•, 1,. 14-lo.

a.

nw.,

15.

3 :5

By 1763,
'

Speaking and Rehearsing in PubJ.icA: were totally disused,
to the great Pj:ejudice of t h e other Scholars and Students,
and contra.r; t~ the 5!r.i ginat design of the Trustees in
t h e forming

or· that

~cnool.

That Franklin should have been so greatly interested in
public speaking is not surprising, for he lived at a
time when eloquence was highly prized. The written word
.

-

~. !
.• .

~

bowed to the spoken word, for the press was not yet so

-~p~_'

·J -

......

d

prolific, nor were there large numbers- of educated readers.
The road to power lay through the tongue rather than the

~~~~~

pen. 2

•.1
.. ~~·.. . "

impressed by the eloquent Whitefield, whose magi.cal -.w.ords

:

... ~- ~ ·.....

.

~ ~

I~ ~-

-

"' },,'

Franklin had, also, in his ti~e, been greatly

were able t o draw froc the pockets of t he

thrifty

Franklin not only the coppers, but aLm the silver and
gold coins. 3

How greatly the cause of English education was

influenced by the brief experiment in Philadelphia, it is
difficult to say.

imitators,

~r.

W1tl1in the city itself there were

Dove, even before he left the Academy,

l. I:QlS._, 17. Frain the minutes of the trustees.
2. Franklin him.self 13 t h e outstanding exception

t ~:; this
statement, tor he employed the written rather than
the spoken rird.
3. Franklin himself relates the incident in his Autcb1og:rap}iy. Vihitefield was speaking in .favor of an
orahanage 1n Georgia, a proJect opposed by Franklin
. because of the expense o! sending materials and
.workmen to great a distance. The fiery preacher,
howe1"er, made him change his aind. See, lemo1r1 or tpe
,Lite and '1ri.t 1ng! or .Bea.taain Prapkl.in, I, 85-66.
'

.

\ ~':..._,.,,.:

i

- ...
~.

__ ·- .... . .....~

-~

-----~---'-·-. ': ... _·- --

-

~- .... - - - -~·--·--- -____ - - - · - -

- ___ :...:.~ _ ___._,.i

:4

having set up a .female school rlth a similar program,
~

!;

.qa

which he advertised in the Pennaylvar.J.a Gazette, AQgust

o:s

f

) l:.!'.L3

t

29, 1751, as follows:

c~jj j

As the Scheme formed by the Gentlemen of Phi ladelphia, for the regular Education of their Sons,. has

been happily carried into Execution; the Ladies excited
by the laudabla example, are solicitous ·:that t heir

,

Daughters too might be instructed in some Parts of
Learning, as they are taught in the Academy. t{r . Dove
\\ proposes to open a school at said Acad~y for young
- ~ Ladies,. on Monday next, 1n wliich will be . ~arefully
.~_taught the English Grammar; the true Way of Spelling,
r-) and Pronouncing properly;
together with fair Writing,

.:lr1thmet1ck, and Accounts:

•

..

;q

Bo that the Plan recom-

~. liended

~{ Price

by the Oniversal Spectator may be exactly ~mrsued.
Ten Shillings Entrance arid Twenty Shillings per

.r Q'uarter. l.

·'

~~

.

itqml

Here we find no mention of composition teac i"ling, and it
·~~. may well be that Mr. Dove, whose chief.
w;,

:.i,

~- have

.

renown seems to

been based on his oral work, did not plan to teach

~:. composition
.

to young ladies.

On Franklin• s testimony

;:··we learn that several private schools had sprung up
i.•profeasing to teach what r...ad been pro.mis• d to be

~;taught tn the Academy. "2 A brief description of the
'

or

of one

.

composition.

·~-/

h.
'

those schools, howe?er,

s.~1 ows

no

John Jones, "late assistant t o

.

Dove in the academy", in 1754

pened his new School-House where ••• the English Tongue
.. 11 be taught ••• to those, whose Parents request 1t 1
. a Language, and delivery 1n the method pursued by
~- worthy Professor, Ir. Dove when in the Academy,
. . •hieh his Scholars made such a wonderful Proficiency,

t" .

""\

· 1:

.

,,.,.

.

... .,

.~l'i ' '·.

. ,.,

35

and he ga:L."'1,~d so great a i'avo .r· des ervedly.l

OutsLle of the colony, the academy was al.so
known.

In the neighboring µ rovinca of New

James Van

H~rne

J -= rs~y,

of Dover, in his will dated October 29,

1760, left directions for bis s.cn
Jaraes to be given the best education the ?rovj_nce of
Pennsylvania affords, either at the Academy or ~r.
Dove's Englis ~ school, then to· stµdy physic or law and
complete his studies in Scotland.2

[
(

[

!far; lar..d, too, was sending its sons out of the

state to be educated.

In such numbers did they leave

that one patriotic ci·t izen signing himself Philo

s,

Marilandic:ms was moved to w;z:-itea protest (March

1754) t o the editor of the Ma.r;rland Gazette.

At least

one hllndred Mar;lariders, he complained, attended
annually at the Philadelphia academy.
of a student averaged about

year the

1u111

i 50,

of 15 1 000 sterling.

Since the expenses

the state lost each

He recommended

one or two academies in order that
the money be kept at home. 3

the establishment of

Some forty years after the establishment

of Franklin's school, we .find a schoolmaster in Connec-

tieut imitating the general plan of the Philad elphia
~ ·. academy.
"
{ "

Dr.,. Dwight's school at Greenfield Hill.,

1

tl• Pepn1ylv1aj.a Gaaette, Oct. 24, 1754. Quoted
· · · , t.yman, .22. ell. , 51.
..-

I~

J•aliAzch•'- lit

~er. 1

.~, :Jte1n_!lr .. _H 1$n
f.!,~

. '

:

.l '

,

ot fduea\1,qp ip Jmlpg, 29 • .
.

..

...

U, 541, .footnote.

by

'

• .

"

A~

.

., i
.

Fai~field,

Connecticut, is described in a

one who had visited t he school.

,

letter~

by

The wri"t;er wa s greatly

i mpressed by the progressive met hod s he found.

The

proc edure was most infor!llal, a few of the boys reciting
while the rest studied under the trees.

He commented

favorably on the att ention given ta l etter wr i ting.
Finally,
Before I parted with my kind host, I asked him
whether he had adopted t h e i d ea o .f Dr. Franklin, Dr ..

Rush, and others, respecting the inuti ~ ity of the dead
l anguages. He told me that he had adopted it in part,
but that the prejudices or his countrymen forbade his
banishing those languages entirely from his school.
Ile said that he had discovered a new way of' teaching
them, and that none of his boys ever s pent more than
two years in l earning them. He added, t hat he t ~ought
the time was coming when it would be as absurd to teach
the Latin and Greek languages indiscriminately in our
schools, as it •ould now be to navigate a vessel by
coasting instead of a mag...~et.
So, in s pite

or

the failure of the Engl:1,sh

school in Philadeldhia, there is· s ome 9Vidence that t he
pro~ h st

,. honor.

of the new education wa.s not entirely without
He had at lo&3t been accorded the compliment of

· envy and imitation.

Ju .st how strong an influence he

exert ed toward the establishment of English instruction,

< it. is impossible to sa.y.
we have already seen:

The i d ea was not a new one,

Locke, Turnbull, and Sheridan

apostles or the new creed.
being

apread

t.lir~oughout

Their doctrines

the colonies, and sooner or

• Barnard's A. J. ot F.d., XVII (Sept. 1867), 185-86. As
.,. . explained in a footnote, the letter was written to a
P..~ triend 1n W1lm1ng~on1 Delaware, and later published
~ in the oy;ver1al. AtylPP! and Colgsb1an lya;ine
·",(Ph11ade phia}, Sept. 1790.
·
r .

37

later action ·nas bound to :·esult.

So we can scar8 sl y

say that F'ranklin' s aca:·! emy was the )owerful force which

spread the teaching

of composition in America.

Never-

t heless, t hat does not detract from the credit due hi:?t
for the earliest introduction of composition
into the curriculum

or

teac ~ ing

a secondary 3chool.

New Jersey

In point or tL:e, New J er say stands second to

Pennsylvania in the introduction of

composition.

Professor Lymanl suggests that New Jersey might have
established an academy modeled on ?raliclin' s in selfdefense, experiencing,_ as Maryland did, an exodus or

students into Philadelphia.,

Certainly the establish-

ment of a school in Prince-town in 1763, offering a

curriculum alrnost identical with that of Franklin's
academy wouiI.a support that ideai

'?he Publiclt is hereby notif'ied, th&t as soon aa a
competent Rwaber of Scholars, offer themaelvea, an
English Schooi will be opened, under the Inapection of'
the Preaident of New-Jeraey Col1ege, and as an Appendage
to the same; in which is proposed to be taught the
English Language grammatically, and that the Boys,
when found eapable, be exercised in Compositions, as

38

well

~s

in pronouncing 0-rations publickly:

Writi:tig,

Arithm ~ tic~,

the Mathematicks •••

Also,

and the p.r.·actical Branc he s of'

s.

Finlay, President of t he College

Evidently a sufticient number of scholars a [Jpeared, f or

a later notice tells us that the school was 09ened by

!fr.· Joseph ?eriam, "a son of this coll eg e."

2

Other schools offered Similar work, perhaps

1n imitation of the Prince-town academy.

The academy at

Elizabeth-town, which in 1769 elected Mr. Periam to

replace iilr. Reeves, advertised that some pupil3 will be
employed
in transcribing fairly, from approved authors .... letters
to acquire a taste tor the epistolary style ••• Those .
ot riper J.udgments will be required t c write their own

thou.ghta in the form of letters, descriptions, &c.
These transcript• and eompoa1t1ons Will be carefully

rev1e11S!fi, and errors :pointed out in such manner as will
be moat l3kely to make them accurate 111 writing and

apelling.

That oompos1t1on work was eonaidered

:1.mportant

18 further

eY1denced by an announcement in l772s:

At the quarterly Visitations, besides an :gxamination
1n the ~anguages, the Boys exhibit Specimens of their
Illprovement in Writing; and also in Epistolary Composition, in which they are duly i~structed, particular as
to Orthography, Punctuation, &c. Acquirements 1n which
t oo many grown Scholars are notoriously deficient. And
..to e:xc1te an Emulation ·or excelling in these useful

>· !ccomplishmenta,

small ~~emiuma are d1suibuted quarterly
. to the best Per!'ormera.

~

:
·- !')
_·};

.

39

At Raritan, in Somerset County, a

~ ram:nar

school was opened in 1778 under the su pervis~bn of t h e
f aculty of

Qu ~ en's

Col lege.

The announcement that

particular attention will he given t::> instruct t he
youth i n writing and reading the Engl i3h language
with proprietyl
suggests composi t!o:n teachL'"lg, though it may mean merely

grammar, as defined by Lindley riurray.

However, the

comon practice in the newspaper announcements of designating grammar

&8

such leads one

to expect some thing

more in this instance.
It is sign:lficant that two of the New Jersey

academies to introduce composition were sponsored by
colleges, a..11d a third was taught by a graduate of one
of t hese colleges.

Apparently the hi gher institutions

of learning were be&iru.: ing to see the neceasity f or
some preparati.on beyond that in the classics and a.r i th-

mettc.

Princeton, wt1ich in the latter part of t he 19th

century was to be the first coll.ege to make composition
an entrance requirement was in 1778 using its influence

to bring about better training in English:
For several years past great paina have been
taken a\ Princeton to recommend and introduce an accurate
knowledge or the English language. An attention t n thi•

also 11 requested of the teachers or Grammar schools,
who, 1! they possess such knowledae themselves, may
easily communicate it by occasional extemporary remarks
on the idiom

. .,

or

the language 1n translating

........

:· 1. lJWl~, aer•.- e, II, ..~ .

rro~,

Greek

·J

.

·~

40

and Latin , and by periodical exercises in reading,
3pelling, writing, and pronouncing orations, but above
all by competition in such exercises on .i)Ublic days.l
An interestin.::; example of the varied practic e

which obtained in regard to composition teaching is
afforded b:' an account of two New Jersey schools in the
first decade of t..h.e nineteenth century.

Nathan Hedges,

the writer, was the president o! the convention which
!or.m.ed the New lerse.y State ?eacherst Association.

In 1807 I became a pupil in the 11 New Warren
Academy" in Morristown, then under the direction of
J amea Steveruson,. a Scotchman.. He was a sc11olar a."1d a
kind and Christian gentleman. The school was both
English and classical, and may be Justly regarded as a
favorable type of the best schools of that day .
In the English department, the simplest

elem.2nta.r~r

branches received but little attention.
Writing was well taught by an acoomplished master.
Arithmetic was 'taught from Dilworth, a book ma;..cing
no allusion to a decimal currency, and hav.i ng little or
no adaptation to the ordinary requireraents or business.
If we reae~ed the "Rule of ThreeR we were quite gratified
with our attainments •••
Reading was taught mechanically.
English Grammar could hardly be said to be taught
in this adlool. I doubt whe,her the teacher in the
English Department knew anything about it. I procured
ttKurrayts Abridgment" and committed it several ti!:les
·over, but was not taught any of the mystery of parsing •••
Geography was not taught. I think there was neither
book, map, nor globe in the school.
Book-keeping. ~- This was a branch taught at the
academy by a master who was a good book-keeper, but had
no proper ideas of teaching •••

l

1. ,!!ll.S., ser. 21 II,437.
S:ept. -1a·, 1778.

From the lew...Te:rs.t y Gazette,

L...._..., ~---""-·----~- _.._ ............... _~----·------

4l

Such l bel*eve is a just view of the best English
school existing at that tiffi e in t hat part of New J' er s ey .
H1-story, Geom.et~' , Hi gh er iiath emat:!..cs, and num t~rous
other branches tlow successfully tall gh t, had no pl ace in

our scanty curriculum.l

Nor was t he situation impro-ved when he wa s promot ed to t he
clas sical

d e p art~ ent

where he committed. t a c emory the

Latin i nstead of t he English grammar.

In 1810 he entered

another academy in Morri.stown., conducted by Wm. il.

Whelpley, a graduate of Yale.
t he same, w1 t h one

Here the course was much

notable exception, "Composition

and declamation were well taught.n2

Rew York
New York State, too, can cl aim the introduction of composition be.fore the Rev0lution.

Thomas

Byerl ey 0 in a newspaper advertisement (1773) of his
English Grammar School in New
f'ive year oourse or study.

, . f'orm a Just 9ronunciation."

Y 0 r~c

Ci.ty outli nes a

He begins

wit ~1

reading, "to

In the seconm_year he

initiates the student into grammar, seaso-ning the course
'•

'~

liberally with parsing.

Syntax and ellipsis, together

l
f·

Barnard's .American Journal of Educationt XVI (Dec.
1866), 739.
Ibid., 741.

.

Byerley wa.s the author G!: A Pl n and Eas
)ion to §nglish Grammar (17 3 , the second grammar
written by an American and published in this country •.
·
See Lym.an, 9.2 •.s.ll., 129.

----~·-~~--

42

with the reaC.ing of books having a "moral Tendency",
engage the students' attention in the t l"} ird year.
The fourth and fifth years are given over respectively

to a 1proper a.nd elegant !J ·ctLod c.r reading" prose and

poetry.

Almo st as an afterthought comes the ar.JiOuncement,

"The Scholars of the fourth and fifth classes will be
occasionally instructed in the Art of fami l ic;;.r Letter

Again, 1n 1774, tihere appeared an announce-

writing.nl

ment of the same school over the signatures of Thomas
Byerley and Josiah Day.

This time the subject of composi-

tion received more attention:

THE ELEMENTS OF COliPOSITION, as far as they
regard the ordinary ~urposes of life, including the

use of the Ellipsis a.r.d Tran~position; instructions to
avoid Tautology, and a mean or improper diction;

with some general instructions for the attaining of
a. pure and elegant ~YLE. 2

Later in the same year, J. and M. Tanner
advertised letter-writing as part of the work in penmanship:

Writing_ •• ~ in which branch, epistolary eorres..;

pondence {that very essential, tho' much neglected part
of female education) nl~ be introduced, as an established
part of thei:r exercises.

l. Byerleyts advertisement in N.Y.G. ar1d W.M., Aug.
23, 1775.

Ibig. 1 130.

2. Seybolt, Source IStudie• in Am,erican Colonial Education.
Th! 'fi1Tate School, 97. Notice trom Rivington•s New
York azetteer t or Collll. 1 Hudson Riv., N.J., and
· Quebec Weekly •dvertiaer, Peb. 24, Mar. 3, lO, 1774.
.& • .IW•, 7~. - Jto,14·e f;itOa B1Tington' s lew York Gazetteer
\, • •• , Peb. 14~ •ar• 3, I.pr. 7• 14, 1774.

' i.

43

P~rhaps

· composition niay be

an even ea.!'ligr i:itroduction of
cl~i~ed

if '!'!e gi ~..re a 11 ~eral

;n·etat:: on t o Hugh :'..!u;;.hes' advertisement (1771)

i~t e~-

or

his

English Grammar a.nd General School, a i1rooinent sch Y:l
i n :i ew York.

According tJ llu ghcs'

9l~u1,

the student is

to be "taught to parse disjuncti vel:r, then mo:lally'1 , and

to

co~rect

false orthography and syntax.

A G1.a1eral Knowledge of all whic~, joined t o
Practice, will enable Youth to avoid the many orthographical Errors, Barbaris~s, inelegant Repetitions,
and manifest Solecisms, whic2": they are otherwise
lia ble to run into, and in. Time, w.hic h render them
Ka.stars of a:J easy, illegant Style, b'-; whic h they will

become capable of conveying their SentLn.ents with Clearness and Precision, in a concise and agreeable Manner,
a s well with 8!p wtation to themselves as Delight to
t heir Friends.

The "Practice" he has in mind :nay be mer-e::!.y in Sj'ntax,
of which he describes various ez:er-cises, though it is
eVident that his aim is proficiency in composition.

Some idea of the extent cf composition
teaching in the early years of the 19th century is
afforded by statistics gathered by the Board of Regents
during the years 1804 to 1807.
number of

acade~ies

Table I s hows the

offering composition and the

number of studen~s studying it during the given years.2

l. Advertisement in the N.Y .G. and w.. r.B 1 , Dec. !O, 1771,
... . See Lyman, . ll• . cit., l29. ·
l. 2 . .. Based on . a . -Uble given~ llough, Bis\. yq Stat1st1sa1
~

. Beeorgs or 'he bat• o+
•

·.1
!'

,,

1'j'

~

•• XoO•, 421 • . . · ·

i:..

•

•

'j'

.·.
•

I~ '

~

..

•

44

Table I
Number of academies in New York ·State Offering Composition from 1304 - Il807
No. of acad.
reporting

1804
1805

1606
1807

No. offering

No. o f

Logic, Rhs t.,
Comµosition, ~tc.

Students

11

101

6
4
4
7

10
20
19

48

38
97

At least two of the four schools offering

composition in 1805 were on Long Island.

The Clinton

Aoadem.y reported a charge of five dollars for "Logic,
Rhetoric, and Composit1on.n 1

The Oyster .aay Academy was

a bit mora reasonable, off ering the same 3ubjects

f~r

a dollar less.2
From 1818 on it is likely that

~ore

schools

made an effort to include composition, for in that y ear
an ordinance was passed defining more exactly the studies

to be ?Qrsued in the claa5ical and hJ.gher English courses

it the academy wished to share in the money distributed
from. the income of the literary fUnd.

3

The Regents

declared that recipients of such aid must ofter a course

of •at least four months ••• with exercises in composition
. and declamation at convenient and ordinary intervals." 4

.1

•. i

(

'' 1

·.~''

-:;··

45

Connecticut
To Connecticut goes the honor of passing,

.,

in 1798, the first legislation mentioning coEt posltion.-'-

Not until 1818, when the Regents of New York State
passed t h eir ordinance did t."'lat subject again fig ure in

state l egislation.

It was apparently 'the general

polley ror the states to content themselves with laying

down the broad outlines of the program, leavi.ng the
determinaUon of the specific content to the schools.
The l aw

or

1798 is as .tollowst

Be it further enacted~ That any School Society
shall have liberty by a vote of two thirds of the
Inhabitants present in any legal Meet~ng warned for
t hat :purpose, to institute a School of a higher order,
for the common benef1 t of all the Inhabitants, the
object of which shall be to perfect the Youth ad'ld.tted
therein in Heading and jenmanship, to instruct them in
the Rudiments of English Grammar, in Co!!iposition, in
J.ritbmetio and Ge0graphy .. or on particular desire,
in the Latin and Greek languages, also in the first
principles of R9ligion and Morality~ and in general to

rorm them for usefulness and happiness in the various
relations of social life ••• 2

Ante-dating this legislation by two years is
the regulation of the Farmir:gt.an School Society, which

l. Connecticut until early in the 19th century prided
'itself on its educated citizenry. · Winterbotham, in
1796, gave the state high commendation when he wrote
wxn no part of the world is the education or all
ranks of people more attended. to than in Connecticut.~
See
or
S~aJ:: ~rrft;rica~ II, 271.
Bert - er, fh
ae :r th
X c h SCnool in
CON1fCt19gt, 22th

Hew :nhom.!ed

,

'

-

46

makes provision for a central school to accommo date
~hose

who have passBd tJu.•ough the co.IIlI!lon school course.

t

fhe object of the school
shall be to perfect the youth admitted therein in
-readi ng and in the grammar of the English tongue, and
to instruct t ~ em in geography, arithmetic, co~position,
and s peaking • ..1.
That all schools obeyed the law of 1798 to
the letter is doubtful.

Since 1t applied only to public

high schools and not to academies, the latter could do
as they pleased.

The course

or

study of the Episcopal

Academy of Cheshire in 1801 makes no mention of

com.position, but the "En.glish Language" is tau gnt. 2
Again, the Bacon Academy, Colchester, in 1803 taught

E:ngli'h grammar but failed to include com(J-osition.3

may have been taught

~throughout

It

the coursen in the

incidental fashion typical of the early years of composi-

tion teaching, but since it is not mentioned, we can only
conclude that it was neglected, or, at most, occupied a
· Tery insignificant place in the course of study.

That s01:1e of the schoolmasters were l aw abiding
proved by the following "Reminiscences of Female

:lducation" by the Reverend William loodbridges
In 1779, two students of Yale College, during
a long Tacation, after the Bri~ish troops invaded New
_

----,,

46 a

Haven, had each a class of young ladi~s, who w€re tau ght
arithmetic, geography, com?osition, ~~, :'or t he term of
one quarter.
:
One of these students (Rev. William Woodbricge),
during his senior year in college~ in the severe wint er
of 1779-80, kept a young ladies' school in New Haven,
consisting of about twenty-five scholars, i n whic h he
taught g ramm~r, geography, composition, and t h e ele~ents
or r hetoric.

The teaching of composition in

~r.

Dwight''

achool at Fairf!eld, Connecticut, in 1790, has already
been mentioned in connection with Franklin's in:t2.uence.
At the Litchfield Academy, the first school
1n the country for the higher education of women,2
composition occupied a prominent place.

Lucy Sheldon's

3ournal for 1803 furnishes evidence of the attention
accorded it:

Thursday [JanJ 6th, Studied and recited a
geography lesson a.Jld began a composition •••
Friday 7th, Attended school, finished my composition and heard the history aumm.ed up •••
Tuesday 11th, Rea.rd the young Ladies read history
and copied. my composition •••
Saturday 22nd. Wrote a composition upon Vanity,
and heard our faults told •••
Saturday [Mar~ 26t.h. The preceding has been
s pent as usual in studying geography, hearing the history

Barnard'• AgJeriq!Jl Journal of Educat! on, XVI (Mar.
1866), 138. Reprinted :from the American Journal or
Education !or Sept. 1830 and the Ame rican Annals of

lfuoation tor lov. 1831.
.
as . Sarah Pierce-ts school, es"bl1ahed in 1792 1
was tor JIUUl1' years the leading girls• school in the
country. Girls came to it trom ,aU i)afts of ~he
.United . State•, from Canada, ~ ,!tttxi ttoa the ·,
'les\

I"ndi••• . See 1'anderpoel

onee ' , .

l '

0

'

9

8

1' · ·

•

of a

ct'{''l•
,,',~"',·'.··:·_ :_
'

. ,,

.,<

47

·&

painting, have w:r1 tten one com9osi tion

one evening •••
Saturday Apr.

:..s
:o

&; cipher~d

9th, Have written a composition •••

BVidently a weekly composition w&s 9rescribed.

In 1816

the requirement was still the same as the following

:o
1!'J

entries in Ca.roline Chester's journal testify:

I

Saturday June lat, 1816. .Attended school Mr. Brace
read the Dissertations on the advantages and disadvantages of war ~ All or them were written particularly
well but I am sure those Young Ladies who composed

0

them must have felt unplea.s antly to have them read

aloud __ 2

Sunday June 9th, 1816. · Saturday attended school
and heard the Dissertations read. "On good humour"
., They were as usual written ver:y well, it is I will own
Tery gratif"Jing to ~ Dissertations read but
I will own that it is not a ?l easur~ to write them
etpecial.ly when you cannot

I

'?HI~H<

--

0

That composition writing was no insignificant part of
the curriculum is seen in Mary Cheater's letter (May 29,

1819) to her brother:
I haTe had the unspeakable Joy of hearing my
composition read 1n school this morning. It being
_-·Uong tqe first that had been read since I have been
:~ here, you Wili doubtless think I was all tiptoe about
; it ••. Uy ti.me is wholly taken up. .I have to keep
· a Journa.l and write compoaltior..s which w1 th other
.:,_ studies occupy all the time of a moderate genius.
1: Thursdays we have a rare tu1s parsing ••• I
have to
.-.~·"write a dissertation next week on the advantages of
· commerce
I wish you would send me your sentiments
upon it. 4
~

Vanderpoel, Chl'onicles ot a Pioneer School from
4792 to 1§3~, 50-51, 53. _
Vanderpoel, Kora Chronicle§, 169.
Ihid., 173.
.
.
.
.
·•• Vanderpoel, Cbroniclet or a fiopee,r ·school from

, -~;

' 179~

,0

1833, 190.

,

.i.

48

MiSS Sarah Pierce's school was a pioneer not only in

female education, but also in composition teaching, for
the place accorded the subject was certainly not the
i ncidental one it held in the majority of schools.

~assachusetts

An early introduction of composition in

Massachusetts, which had from the ver1 beginning

prided itsel.r on its classical education is scarcely
to be expected.

Leas~

of all will we hope to find it

in Boston, dominated as it was by the Latin School.

A

clergyman writing of his studies in the Boston Latin

School just before the Revolution says, "In the .sixth
year I began Greek, and for the first time attempted
Englis~1

composition, by translating Caesar• s Commen-

taries. nl

l.

Com. Sch. J 0 ur., XII (Oct. 1, 1850) 311-12. Also
in Barnard's aeriean Journal of Education, llII
(Dec. 1863), 745-746. The entire article is
interesting as a first-hand account of the course
of study just before the Revolution: 8 At the age
of six and half years, I was sent to Master John
Lovell's Latin school. Tht!t only requirement
was reading wellJ but, though flllly qualified,
I was sent away to liast.e r Griffith, a private
teacher, to learn to read, write and spell. I
learned the English Grammar in Dilworth•s Spelling
Book by heart. Griffith traced letters with a
pencil .. and t:he

·

p~p1ls

inked. them.

·-,

b.tered. LoTtll•s School at se'f'en 7ears ••• le
(lote oonti~~ oa page 49) · .

I
··- ' ..

_

r
-

'

'

'

49

j

After the Revolution there was a reorga;::ization
of the Boston schools (1789), the Latin Grammar. School
remaining the center cf the system.

however, three reading

a...~d

There

were~added,

three writing scbools, in

w ~.ich

'bcrtb boys and girls were tc be taught to "s1-,ell, accent,

l. (Note continued from page 48)
studied Latin from 8 o'clock till 11, and from 1
till dark. After one or two years, I went to the
town school, to Master Holbrook, at the corner of
West Street, to learn to write; and to Master
Proctor, on Pembertonts 11111 1 in the S.E. part
of Scollay•s Building. My second, t ird, and
fourth year; I wrote there, and did nothing else •••
The course of s.tudy was, grammar; Esop, '«ith a
translation; Clarke's Introductio n to writing

La.tin ; Eutropius, with a translation; Corderius;
Ovid's ~etamorphoses; Virgil's Georg1cs; Aeneid;
Caesar; Cicero. In the sixth year I began Greek, and
for the first time attempted English composition, by
translating Caesar• 1 Commentaries. The master
allowed us to read poetical translations, such as
Trappets and Dyrden's Virgil. I was half way through
Vi:r·gil when I began Greel~ with Ward's Greek Grammar.
Arte+ CheeYer•s Latin Accidence~ we took Ward's
Lily's ~atin Grammar. After the Greek Grammar, we
read , ~e Greek testament, and were allowed to use
Be%ats Latin Translation. Then came Bomer•s Iliad,
five or six books, using Clark e's translation with

notes, and this was all my Greek education at school.
Then we took Horace, and composed Latin verses, using
the Gradus ad Parnasaum •••

The last two years or my school life, nobody taught
English Grammar or Geouraphy, but Col . Joseph Ward,
(son of Deacon Joseph Ward, of Newton, West Parish,
Blacksmith,) who was self-taught, and set up a
school in Boston. He became Aid to General Ward when
the war c·ommenced . and did not teach after the war.
••. At .last.e r Proctor's -s chool reading and •ri ting
wars. taught in . the same room, to girls and boys, rrom
7 to 14 years or .age; and the Bible was the only read1ni
.book. Dilworth•• Spelling 'Book waa used 1 and l!lew
·
England Primer. -'-' fhe ma.ate?' se' SWlla in our MSS. · but

did

tio' go tar\he.r .'1lan_the Jtole or three•••"

{ c

"~

,.

..

50

anc

both prose and poetry, and also be instructed
in English Gramr:iar a..'1d Composit1on.n 1 Furthe~rrora, it
~ ead

was ordered that "the upper class in the Heading
Schools be instru cted in Epistolary Writing and other
Composition. " 2

Winterbotham in that record of his Am srican

observations, View of the Onited States of America
(1796), reported seven schools in operation in Bo3ton.
The 1atin Grammar School, 11::::1ted to boys, had the

usual classical curriculum.

But

I D the three English grammar schools, the chil.dren
of both sexes, from seven to fourteerl years of age, are
1n.s tructed in spelling, accenting a".ld l--eading the
English language, both l)rose and verse, with propriety,
also in English grammar and co2positicn, together with
the rudiments of geography •••
These are eVidently the three reading schools referred

to above.
The town of Salem in 1801 prescribed the
of e-0mposi tion:
h

Hotice is published, that writing, arithmetic,
·Inglish grammar, composition, and geography are to be
:taught in the grar.mnar school, besides Lat in and Greek. 4

·.~;

In 1815 the head of Woburn Academy advertised

,l.. -J enks, Catalogue

of the Bo$ton Latin S£hool, 286.
288.
.~~-' 22 • ·ill· , II 1 177.
"
•,~·. Feltt ;nals- or SaJ.g.. Quoted by Swett,, Aller1;can
.fubl1c ghoolf, i4. .

l . ...

'

!BY·'

I
'

I
;

. 'i..
. . 'f .;_:~

-·

- ''

51

as follows:

It is his humQle anu pleasing obje ct to instruct
young Lads i n a regular a nd genteel behaviour, and in
various branches of literature, viz: Reading,
, -writing , Ari tl'i. .!!let1c, Geo gra ·"1 hy, Bookkeeping, Englis h

'
.J

t;.he

·- Grammar, Rhetoric, Composition , and the Latin and
Greek Languages. Likewise -- ~'\stronomy, !~avigation
or Surveying, to such as may wi sh to acquire a
knowledge in either of t h ese bra..11che:s ••• 1
These few scattered reference& show t hat
id O

':~,Composition was making its way into the curriculum.

·; -·

'1

But

.

_the teaching of the subject was ce:-· tainly not uni•rersal,

·.-t

schools where it was required, it was
.

\,~-·

. '. often neglected.

William B. Fowle, editor of the

:;, ·Common Sghool Journal of '.'!assachusetts from 1839 to 1852,
t~

called attention to the l ack of composition
,

•

I

Speaking of his own educatior. about 1800,

H1J'

,,.
"

t.

,, . We were ~ducated at o::e of the best schools in
:one or the mos; celebrated towns in Massachusetts; but •••
~thou gh we studied English Grammar seven years, and
eceived a silver medal for our proficiency, we never
·. ote a sentence· of English at school, and never did
any thing Which 1 ~..plied a sus-picion on our part
that gran:tmar eact anything to do with writing or
nveraation.~
·
·, '
.......

school regulation of 1789 requiring masters

i: ·The
..

Columbian Ceniinel, Karch 11, 1815.

See Gri.zzellt

· •.: Ori in and De•e .o ment o t e Hi h Schoo , 33.
• .. Common · chool gurnar, XI · ~ept. 1849 258. The school
~(, lie refers to is probably one or the grammat schools
"· ot . Bos:ton, for in a later editorial signed Wallis
.
~. ( eT1dently · lpwle) he . tella Of ttUdying English grammar

· ,t or seTen year~ in . a grumar 1cbool in Boaton. 4tter
.. 'ho. or three Yf&r• . 1pen' ••or1.a1ng, he ·~· . e~omoted
~~t\o ·p.ara1ng. "!~
. · :ring
:r
'the •f..x (?) yeara \hat. we 1tudi9d
(lo'•
oonlinUtll
on
page
62). •
:.
.
.
. :\..,,.. ,·

52

to teach "spelling, accent, and t he reading of prose

~d

verse, ar.C. to instruct t he children in E:ng2.is.h c;rar2.l!lar ,;
t

epistolary Yiri tir-g and com 90 si tion " was entirely

:.io·i;

a ;

neglec~ed.l

l ~
S"! ::,

not a n ewspaper was rea d in any ::; cl:ool, nor a
writ t en. n 2

1

3

tl'fce probabi lity · i s t hat, f or twe;.ty ye a rs,

o.cnf

~m rd

New Ramp :Jr.ii.re

An English Tisitor 3 to Exeter during
Washington's second presidential term

composition wa.s bei ng taught t here.

t '!O

re ~)orted

t hat

The course of study

for 1818 acco·rcts it a .?lace not only in the En gl is h , but
also i n t he classical de,artment.

f -•

Th e l atter

~ r a ctice

is ra ther unusual, for even after composition

teac ~ ing

_ became more firmly established, the subj ect was
-~, f'requ entl y

omitted from the classical curriculum.

:t

it to students of Latin and Greek in
t hird year only. but to English students in both t he

(Note continued from page 51)

.J

.

.].)

gr ammar 1n t h i s way , we were never required t~
write a $entenoe of English, and we never did write
~ -. -~P~h as a school exercise, though our grammar masters
·'. ' W'~re all educated at college."
~.. 1850)' s.
. .

Ibid., XII (Jan. l,

.

~~- -"?lemoir or Caleb ~ingham.• 1 l3arnard' s American lournal

. 7~... fhEauga"on, V (Sept. ·1 858
. ) , 333 •
. ...

id ..

i: 11~terbolham; .QR.•
){'~ I
~1"'

..

.,

,,
·1

all• 1- lI, 120.
"

.- ..

~ '

!
;·
~

...

·il

...
'

.jJ

second and t hird years.l

Schoouasters f elt t hat t he

clas si cal course was too crowded to ;;>er.nit t he i ntroduction of any subjects not requi r ed f or coll ege

ent~ance.

They maintained, too, that translation off ered ao11pl e

training in Engl ish composition.

Rhode Island

The first

~ention

of

co~position

is found

1n an announcement 2 of Kent (la.tar East Greenwich)

Aoademy in 1808.

No formal cour•e of study is given,

but tuition rates a.re listed as follows:
Reading and spelling
Reading, wrt ting and

$2.00

spelling
Arithmetic with bookkeeping

2.25
2.50

English Grammar
Composition and speaking
Latin and Greek languages

Principles of astronomy

.o.oo
3.00

3.00

and geography with the

3,50

.use of globes

Kaine
In MairB composition teaching was avidently
established until a late date.

One teacher encoun-

considerable opposition when he· sought to introduce
~ )t in a common school in 1815.

Be met "a storm or

54

protests fro m parents and pup11s.n1

Delaware
In 1786 the trustees of the Wilmington
Academy adopted -regulations which i nc l tlc ed provision
for Latin and Engli5h essays.

I

'? he prescription

that the "higher English Classics must be frequently

,,

employed in exercises and composition," ... although a
common practice a century

later~

wa$ unusual at that

ti~ e.

Virginia
The early introduction of composition into

Virginia is highly improbable.

The curriculum of t he

Liberty Hall J.cademy (established 1n 17'76), out of which
grew Wa.shington and Lee Oniversity,, no doubt mirrors
the situation in most o! the acadeaies or the tiuet
The scale of stud1.e• 1n the grammar scbJol began

at 'the end of the .four fUndamental rules or arithmetic
and ended with Virgil.
little attention was bestowed

Bu!

upon the lnglilh language.

·

a pioneer
school for
in 1823.

55

When the subject was not en t i. :-ely orui t ted it
app eared lil"..ked witl1 sp eech training as in She pherdsto wn

Acad emy where, according

to the announc ement of the

new academy 1n 181Z, "composition and elocutionrt1 were
to be taugh t.

North Carolina ·
There is no evidence to ·show that composition
teaching waa very popular in North Caralina before 1800.

The autobiography ot Dr. Charles Caldwell, founder of
the

~edical.

School at Louisville, however, proves that

at least ons teacher included it in his course
early as 1784. 2

~s

The documents collect ed by C.L.Coon in his

North C1i9l1na Sehools and Acaq§Plie! contain no reference

l •

.w.g.'

125.

2. "Early in my twelfth year- I commenced the study ot
the ancient languages. Here again I led, in part,
the life of a forester. . The school-house, to which
I daily repaired, was a log cabin (the logs of it
unhewnJ situated in a densely wooded ;iain, upward of
two miles distant from my father • s dwelling .

And

· my Dominie (so eveey ttaeher of Greek and Latin
was then denominated) was, in some respects, of a
piece with the building in which he pre-sided •••
'?o me he we.a extremely· kind and attentive, took
boundless pain• in my U>.struc•1on, and, in no· great

length ot time~ taught me a• much or La.tin and Greek,
English ee>l!lpoaition,, and the art or speaking (alias

declamation) aa he knew him•el.r. • See Barnard's
Jou~ ot· ldugatioa. 1 Kar. 1861, XVI, 111-12.

.&aer-tcan

.. i

56

to 90.m position prior to 1807.

During the decade

;

'
1800-1809,
approximately twenty iler cent of the courses

ot study mention composition;

while between l810 and

1819, about twenty-five per cent include it .. l

As early as 1801, the boys of the Fayetteville Academy were examined in letter viri ting, the only
for.;n of composition mentioned.

2

In 1803 two classes of

boys were examined, 3 and in 1804 a class of girls was

tested 1n letter writiDg. 4

The boys were evidently too

busy that year with Vergil, Horace, Sallust, and
Caesar to pay attention to ep13tolary writing.

In 1807 a correspondent of the Raleigh llinerva,
signing himael.:f" Philomathes, championed the teaching

of the English language•

Ile wrote,

But a:fter all, too much

at~ention

cannot be

...

paid to our own language; to 1tW.ppronunciation and
grammatical construction •.•• I would also recommend

'

a knowledge of' history, and particularly the deliTery

that the practice or composition and letter-writing,

1. that does not necessarily mean th.at 20 or 25;{ of all
the schools taught it. Many schools mentioned
gave no list of courses and, therefore, could
not be included 1n the reckoning. It is significant,
however, that there is a gradual~ increase in the

number of schools mentioning composition. In the·
decade 1820-1829, the nW1ber had risen to
appronmately 3~; lS30-l839, to about 40%.
2. Coon, b• c1R*' 61 • ..;Ral;. ~. 1 ~J'uly 28 1 1801.
, a. bid., . sa. .RM· IU•i ,1.ug-;-i, 1ao3.

f

, ~ • . bid,, 64.

.fi!l• !d•i

.July 26 1 lS04.

i

'I

·l

-.

..J

5?

or s~eeches, should be interwoven
who l e course of study.l

t i~0u ghou t

the

The announcement of t he ~al.isbury Academy
CCfH.

for 1807 makes no :mention of coo position, but in the

~

re ~ ort

le

of the examination he2.d December 10, 1807, we

read,

In w-r:..t1ng and Composition:

ill the young gentle-

men exr..J.bited scw.ples of their perfonance. In mo s t
of t hem, the trustees ~erceiving gertis of opening

genius and eloquence, which, they fondly hope, Will
in due time adorn and enrich our land with the noblest
fruits of virtue and l earning.2

rr._d
Similarly, the Raleigh Academy announcements for the
years 1800 1 1804, 1808, and 1807, omit mention of
"

composition, yet i n the examination of November 1807,

'1-

•

~)

1.fi

seTeral pupils in both tha male and female

. .J ::

exhibi t ed com-positions.3

d e p art~ents

However, notice was given t hat

in l808
t

0

Particular attention will be paid to the Morals
of Students sent to this Academy, and no pains s pared
to make them exc.11 in Oratory, a knowledge of History,
Composition, &c.

In the same year a class of girls was examined

l .

oomposition.5

i~

Mordecai's ?emal e Seminary in Warrenton

•

·!

Ibid.,
.
Ibid.,
' ._ z. ibid.,
. ' 4 • .!Jll.g ••
5 • .ill!!·'
~

• I

'

759. Dec. 10 1 1807.
M7. Ral. YinerTa, Dec. 24, 1807.
406 • Ra1· Reg., Nov. 26, 1807.
407. Ral, Min., NoT. 26, 1807.

414. The Minerva, Raleigh, Nov. 3, 1808.

l'

i

58

adverti.sed in 1808 that composition 'i'fouL: be tau ght,

1

and a t t h e examination i n July 1809, were ~isplayed "cocrpo .si tions of four Young Ladies Who had written upon subjects

(

o·:

adapted to the occasi on.n 2

5

"Compositions of three Young Ladie.s ••• v1ere read. n'-'

Again in December 1809, t he
·~

In the next decade only one other school had
. ~~ined the ranks of those mentioned above. 4
That was

8

,,.

.

:a ~

r.

the W1111amsborough Academy, which, under t he principal-

1-i

..
~ j-1..l

ship of Professor Andrew Rhea, professor o! language s
in the University of North Carolina, pledged itself that

l:ir '(.

..

"Particular attention will be

paid to Composition,

}(

Reading and Elocution."5

rse

From these data it is apparent that North
f::R

..

:r

_;

...

' "'

il( -

-·

_, .~

;

-

:!~~ --

•
•s
•

:t'

• , 596. ~· 11il·, July 6, 1609.
1 ., 597. li!J:.· ~I Dec . re, 1809.
·-:; 4. he tollowing announc.a men ta mentioning com.po si ti on
<: ...
appeared in the second · decade of the 19th century.
lee Coon., .9.R. .21! ..
Raleigh Jt.eademyt
P• 420. . "It was particularly pleasing to the

~·.;.. ~·
~;.- 1•

'lo

:ll

'}:··1. mi
· 1 · ., 595. Ral • .ll.!£., Aug . 25, 1808 .
.b

Truatees to observe, that a defect which they had
noticed .at the last Examination, in relation to the
cultivation, amongst the higher Students especially,
of a correct and perfect acquaintance with the
American Language, had, in a great degree been
removed, as was cleuly evinced in theG.rammar
Exercises, Compositions and Public Speaking of the
Joung Men. Be•eral or these Compositions and Orations were au oh as did honor to the Institution."
Report of the examination, Nov. 1810. .B!!l• Reg.,
Nov. 22, 1810.

·

P• 421. •E.ngl1ah.Compos1t1on 1n the four last•
(lote con,inued. o~ page 68).

59

Car0lirta was rather slow t o introduce composition.
'.::C

In the !fi::st two decades of the nineteenth century,

ol

ho wever, 1 t did

b e co I!l~'.)

few o f t he

)regressive schools o.f ·t he 3ta t e.l

110:-e

(Notes continued

·'

t~irmly

rro ~

establish ed in a

page 59)

4. classes of' the six year course !or girls.
Jan. 24, 1811.

'{~
l'y

Ral. Reg.,

Mordecai's Female Seminary at Warrenton:
p. 598. "The Compositions or the young Ladies •••
were r~aJ , and ver<J generally a Jp roved.~
Report of examination, Dec. 1810. The Star, Jan. 3, 1811.
p. 600. Compositions of students nwere r i.:;ad to the
audience by Judge Taylor.n The Star, July 19, 181!.
;> . 601. The young ladies "manifested an extensive
knowledge of ••• the useful branches of Astronomy
and Composition." Ral. Star, ~ an. 10, 1812.
~. 60 2- 3 .
Comoosition inc:uced in the examination
of July and December, 1812. The Star, July and Cec.,

1e
t!
I"

1B

181 2 .
_! ). 803.
Composition anncunced in t he course of
study. Ral . Star, J an. 6, 1815.
5 • .1.£1g., 124. Ral. Star, Jan. s, 1815.

t-. -

(Note to page 59)
1. linterbotham gives very f avorable mention of two
of t h e academies which are listed above a s teaching

'

.. '

contpositiont

"There is a very good acadeniy at

War renton; ••• another at Williamsborough in
Granville ••• of conside r able not e ." Op. cit.,
III, 214 •
.

.,

I .0

'

....
...

"

~

"

....

60

Textbooks
The American

Annals of Education and ;

t

Instructi on .for July, 18:52, 1 contain the statement that

according to a catalog professing to list all the school
books ?Ublished in the United States before 1304,
·. there was only one

com.position book extant, Caleb

Bingham's Juvenile Letters. In Barnard's 11.st of .
textbooks 2 it appears under the date 1799,

'f

probably the date of the first edition.

~-~>·.

edition ap peared in 1803.

The second

The book is scarcely a

composi.t ion text in the usual sense, for it contains

a series of letters· designed to help children with

t.i ,. .

·~

their correspondence.

children as

*r·aamuel

The letters, written by such

Ti~othy

Think.well, Jal!le9 Meanwell,

?hought·! ul, and Rebecca Learner, .fairly shriek

morals at the reader.
Bingham's book may have been the only American

composition text in use;

howeTer, there •ere

-two books published in England that were known 1n the
'

;~

Ordted States berore 1820.

John Walker, editor of a

··,widely used dictionary, was also the aut hor of The Teacher• s
.
:A1a1stant in EngliSh Composition, the r1rst edition o.r

• Vol. II,

37~ •

• Barnard' a gerictn J·gU£Pal qf Education, XIII (:Uar.
1863), sect,1on tollowing p. 208..
·
'·

61

which appeared in 1801, followed by a second edition
in 1802.

The book was evidently popular, for i::i. 1808 1

an edition printed in Carlisle appeared.

Whether there

were other editions between those of 180 2 and 1808
the writer has been unable to discover.

There is no

_ conclusi va evidence to s how that tha book was used in
L

American schools before 1832 when Woodbridge,

q

L
j

)' -

9

.. ;'. lxercises in Eng2.ish Composition (1832), acknowledged""

that he had found some hints .for his book in The

!eacher•s Assistant!
The second En.gli.:sh publication to find favor
in connection with composition t ·e aching in .American schools
t-·-.~'·
'1'''"

~:~aa The

.
I

~-

Elems:mts of Compoaition by David Ir:d.ng.

It was
.

.

·-!4Tertiaed by Joaeph Gales, bookseller, in the Raleigh
f "': J. '

.

as early as

J

iaoa. 3

The f1fth edition appeared

Despite its titlej it is not a composition

r.

least not from the practical standpoint.

It

rhetoric or the most formal type given

· ' "Aller1can Annals gf Educatton and Inst., II (July, 1832),
.:.:· 177.

~

'

:'. See iarl<e:r, .211•.!ll• (edi\ioa ot 1840), preface, IV.
.the preface is ftPl"in\ed trom the edition ot 1832.
;:Coon, ti• J!l•; 775.
·

i

l

I
1

l

.. . -. . . . . . .'.. . d. . _(/"

62

over to a discussion of the. elements of

with illustrations

and

criticisms.

~rose

style

Iri many of the

i

schools which included Elements of Com.9osition in their
course of study, the com.posi t1on

wor k~

probably never

progressed beyond memorization of the principlES set
forth in Irving.
Aids to the teacher of composition before
1820, therefore, were very meag:re.

Only three books

have been .found,, one of wh ich is doubtfully assigned to
that period.

The other two furnished ve?"'J little aid,

since one was given over entirely to lectures on

rhetoric, the other to model letters exceedingly didactic
1n tone.

Summary
The introduetion of composition was coincident

with the establishment': or the academy in America.

At

exactly the midpoint of the 18th century, Franklin,
influenced by the t heories of Locke, Turnbull, il1lton1

and others, dedicated his Philadelphia Academy to an
F.nglish education for youth.

Unfortunately, his dream

was never completely realized, for the English school

·i
j

;rapidly overshadowed by the classical department or
academy.

However, the idea was not completely lost,

I

i

.·-~..j·~

···

.

·..·
(

.)_."~

, ,-

.'

63

and we find schools in the nei ghboring state of New

s vo

Jersey, as early as 1763, inc.:..uding composition in the .

curriculum, in imitation, )erhaps, of
of study .

course

Fra ~-~lin's

!en yeru-s later t here is evidence of

composition being taught i'.n New York State.

i

It was not until after

to t

t ~1 e

Revolution that

the more conservative New England States recognized t h e
· new subject.

:e.L

Boston took the l e ad in 17.99 with its

reorganization.,

r. :I

But

~ver..

then corn.positi on f ai le d

into that classical stronghold, the

Lati~

School,

· where students were too busy being '.,)reps.red for coll eg e

1

L to

find time for the English language.

So com;>osition

relegated to the reading and writing schools.
~~- .Except in Connecticut, t he teaching of com9osi tion

..

progress in the other New
to 1820.

~TI.gl and

In North Carolina t he

~--·:''

'

l

•·;;;

_··~~ubject made little headway until 1800, when it was
.P'adually introduced into the private schools.

By 18 20

quarter of' t hem reported attention to composition.
~

In two states before 1820

. .

com~os1t1on

was

subject of legislation, Connecti cut taking the
~

., .

'

i.lead 1n 1789 by reqairing instruction in composition 1n

. ~ •chools "or a higher order•.
if'>-

Bew York State in 1818

' laced a premium. on the teaching of composition, for it

..

64

denied school3 a share in the li t e rary fUnd unl e ss

that subject

~a s

included.

Ano ther force, later to become a powerful

influenee in the de!'elopment of

composition teaching,

made itself felt very early in New Jersey.

The coll ege s

t here assumed the.leadership in the encouragement of

composition teaching by

L.~c l uding

it in the curricula

of schools they sponsored and by openly urging attention
to it in the grammar 3Chools of the state.
By 1820, composition had gained a foothold,
but it was not a very secure one.

In the few schools

Which did include .!lention oi" it, the teac hing was

likely to be incidental, and in many places the study
was entirely neglected because of t he pressure of
college entrance subjects.

FurthermoE, actual pr:ictice

in composition was not considered so importa.."'lt, since

it was thought that ?roficiency 1n writing could be
attained t :r..rough memoriiation

or

the rules of grUh"'!lar.

The dearth. of textbooks in compost t1on before 1820
: ts significant of the small rega!'d in whic h that subject

held.

..,...

~~

....

65

CHAPTER III
THE EXTENSION OF COl1tPOSITION TEAC H.ING

1820-1900

Composition, ori ginally brou ght into t he

curriculum because it was llllllil'n, was assured a p~r­
manent place in . the course of study by the $rowing
'

utilitarianism of the American nation after the Revolu-

tion. ·The economic revolution consequent upon the War of
1812 began the transformation of a nation of far mers

into a nation

or

shopkeepers who demanded for

t ~1eir

children an education that woald function in the practical

affairs of life.

The Latin grammar schools were too

narxowly propaedeutic;

the academies although offering

a broader education were too far away from

ho~e.

The

new middle class demanded for its children t he opportunity of preparation for the activities of li:"e without
the inconvenience and expense oi' leaving home.

And so

the high school was established •
.An examination of the aims of the early high

schools shows the practical purposes of their founders.

In 1820, the Boston School Committee considered tne
adrtsability of establishing a seminary ta provide

<.· young

men Who are not intended for a collegiate course
, of studies and 11ho have enJoyed the usual advantages
; of the publlc schools, with the means of complet:tng a

66

good Etlgli:sh education. and of fitting ,themselves for
all the departments of comm ercial life ....

As a result of t h eir de.liberations, the l'irst :-iJ.gh
school, originally called t he Engli s h Classical School,
was opened in 1821.

Squally utili tarian were t he

ai~s

of tlle high schools whic h sprang up in illlitation of t he
Boston institution.
York

City,

whic ~:

The High School Society of New

...
in 1825 had o:Jened a high school,

reported at the end of the first year,
It should neve:r be forgotten, t~at the grand ob,j ect
Of the irustitution iS to ~repare the bolS for SUCh
adva."lcement and such pursuits in l ife, :i.s they are
dest i ned t o after leaVing it • • •
many who leave it

expect to enter 1Jimediately upon the active business
of life.2
Some of the schools were even more ambitious,
in addition ~reparation f or college.

offer~ng

Plymouth 3 ·

l_.; Edmantia, Ep.glis ~1 H1m School. Semi-Centennial
/ Anniversaa, 1871, 76 . Quoted by Grizzell, Origin
: and Develo ment of th H h Se oo in New
land
before
65 1 42.

Brown, The Makin..r. of Our Middle Schools, 306-7.
The aim of the Kedford, Mass., school was •to qualify
scholar who desires, for the active duties of
See Grizzell, Origin and Development of the
High SQbool in New En.gland before 1865, 82-83.
The high school at .dridgeport, Conn., founded i n
1827 on the general plan of the New Y0 r Lc High School,
&Uled nto prepare youth for the active pursuit& of
tuture life.n See Hertzler, The Rtse of the Public
eve~i

llfe.~

High School in

Connectieu~, 22.
•
The school committee of Danvera,'[Jlassachusetts, 1n
1851, expected "the high schools tif take the lead in

~.

the practical education or ,the town." From the
Pourteenth ~al :a ort ot e Kassachusetts Board
t
. le , &pp., 70.
oWJ)] Recor4f"'(IS . , IV, 521 (Apr,! 29 1 . 1826) •

;~. bf Gr1a.se11,, ~u.

R.11•, 278.

. ·. ·

QUoted
'

~

- '.

....

67

pre~ic~ted

such a dual ai:.!l i n the establishment o:f

its hi~h school (1826 or 1327).

t

Likewise the schJol

committee of Lowell in 18 40 reported that t he object ,: if

its high school was to provide classical training a s
well as to give "instruction f or any branch of active

business.l'f-1
The

teae..~in.g

or

composition received a fresh

stimulus with the establishment of the high school.
In the course of study for t he Bostor. Rtgh School,
composition instead of' merely being mentioned in a footnote headed the list of' studies far eac h of' t he three

y ears. 2

The E1gh School for Boys i n New Yor!-: included

composition as one of the subJects "common to all." 3
The older subjects were so firmly intrenched
in the curriculum that it was difficult for a newcomer

like composition to .receive its just due.

But it was

not without its championa who continued unceasingly

to urge the 1m9ortance of the mother tongue.

Like

Locke, Sheridan, and Turnbull of an earlier day, they
decried the· attention gi van to . classical training at the

expense of the more i mmedi ately useful study of the

1- ·1 irtzaell, .22• cit., 78.
· 2.

Br~wn,

ga. ill·, 300-301.

;" 3. First .Apnual Report or the :W,gh-School Societ;z, 6-7.
See Brown, .2.2. .ill.. , 307.
·
. c. j
. r

...

" -•

-~
.===-, -~ ;.] :

.~~ ~~.,......___

/

.•...

68

native tor.gue.

One advocate of t h e English

lan';Suag~ ,.

commenting on ?rize Book, No. V'I, of the Bq :::; ton Lat i n
Seh ·J ol, expressed hi :nself as follows:

The_ English _;>art of the Prize Book

s :~ ows

much

judgement and taste, and a good deal of ?ractical skill
and we trust that whatever influence 01:~
other school3 t he Latin d.epart!!9nt may exert -- this
will not fail t o turn the attention of instructers
[sia] more forcibly than heretofore to the important
branch of English composition. The writing and speaking
or our own language, we are glad to see attended to at
all hazards, ar..d to find them so successfUlly cultivated
in a school where the ancient languages are the chief
objects of attention. But if there is any beneficial
improvement practicable and urgent in the a r ra..'1.gements
of this ancient and respectable institution, as well as
of preparatory schools generally,· throu ghout the
country, - it is that of drawing out the cultivation
in. composing;

o.f English rhetoric into a distinct depart~ent of instruction, instead or merely leaving it the scraps of time and

atte:r:tion which can be afforded to it at intervals.
If the literature or t he eloquence of Arn2rica,
is ever to be what it ought to be -- what 1t · can be -the English language, if not pla.c ed, (as it should be, )
above Greek and Latin, must at least be raised so as not
to be comparatively on a footing of charity, or perha~s
of contempt and neglect. 1
In England, too, sL'lilar protests were being
voieed, and because they were deemed a ppli cable in

this country, round their way into American journals.
-,:. •What avails a 9roficiency in writing Lati n prose and
·j~.

Greek: verse,, 1.f accompanied, (and accompanied it often

'1.

_,. · is and has been,) with the want of co r rectness, per-

'

. -~-~ ~ American Jgurnal of Education (Russell's), I (Nov.
.. 'J • 1826),
70:5-4.
,.

- -----

---

69

spicui ty, e ase, and fluency i n E'ngli! h comp osi t.:!.. :~ n?" l

is the _pl.:aL'lt o 'i: one graduate of English ins.ti tut io ns.
be li ;~ Ve

He doe s . :1ot

that a knowled:! e 07: the

c l assica ~

language will enable one t 0 wr ite good Engl ish .
Thorou gh study and constant practice are needed .f or
mas t er; o f

....>;;rle
,
mo t h:.. er t ongue.

&~ t
aac

l • s:i.
. wri
-" t e r ~
1' 1er -~i:.:ng_J.
·~

inveighs against t he domination o f' the curriculum by t he

subJects or the

mo~ast1c

ages, which fail to prepare

the child for the life he must l ead.

He is kept busy

enough in school, but later on when he gets out into

li.fe, he finds he must first aia!ter those things that he
should have l earned while he was acquiring La.tin and
G.reek.

The growing practicality of the Amr r i can
mind is reflected in the argument• of another opponent
of the

Gree ~

and Latin monopoly.

He is unwillin g to

wait tor gradual reformation, but demands immediate and
di.reet- actiona
If -we are indeed eonvinced that our standard or
ingtruction is 1u · adapted to actual use, there should
be no reserve about th~ introducing of reformation.
Osage~ how venerable soever by antiquity, should ~t
once . give place to the demands of presentutility.

1. ~., I (Dec. 1826)!. 717.
~~ ric!n

Journa.l of

827}, 74-89 ..

~aucation

(Russell's), II (Jan.

IMA·, 7.

.

~

--

- -··~-

-- . _.. - .
· ~·

70

Fro m. Europe there came re ports o f educat io nal

;irocedures which ind i cated t hat the new demands for the

mother tongue in ::America were :.natters
in the countri es :acros s t h e Atl antic.

or

act ual :;:iractice

Ame rica..'1.

educators, sent abro ad t o observe, brought bac;.: t i dings
o:f t h e i :::lportance attached to the teaching •:'.}f t be

vernacular in foreig,n lands.

One of these visitors,

Calvin E. St01ve, in 1836 went to Euro pe to examine for
t he state of Ohio the p ubl i c school ·system of' Ger :-1a ny .

He reported,
The knowledge of the na tl ve tongue; the abi l ity t .:J

ase it with correctness, faci l ity, and power ••• is
justly regarded as one or the most 1mpor-tant branches
of common school i nz truction.l

The J tudy of the vernacular he found to be constant and
r

gradual, composition

wor r~

being introduced in the last

two years of the eight year elementary course.

At that

ti.me the students were not plunged suddenly into
-,,

c.o mposition writing .. but were given
s1,2ch 11.:nple question.a as --

t

1

exerc1sea on

Why ought children to love

and obey their parents?'", or they were asked to
describe "Visible objects, such as a house, a room, a

garden, &c.n
........

Practice was given in expressing the same

ideas 1n various ways and in the use or metaphors and
l. "Report on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe,"
in lnight, Reports on 19r9nean Education, 288.

'71
......

other figu:r'3s of speech.

'1 'he writing o I' friendly

letters and "short essays on theo.es such as m.ay be
followed ~

furnished by texts from the book of .?roverbsn

ttand thus gradual advance::1 ent ••• [ ·:ras] mad e to 3.1.l

the ~gher and graYer modes

or

composition. !11

Alexander Dalla s Bache, elected ";:>resident of

Girard College, went abroad for two y ears

educational s;rstems of

Euro~e.

~o

study t he

He visited the countries

of' western Europe, surveying all classes of education .rrom
the kindergarten t o t he university.

The results of his

observations were published in 1839 in his Reoort on
Education in Europe.

In the

schools

he found only scant attention given to the vern.acular.

One exce?tion to this practice was the St. Domingo-House
School at Everton, near Liverpool. 2 F
.t;

~

-----

::.

Composition was begun in the second
year of a six year cour1e.

:;i;

In Scotland<;.) he reported

composition being taught in the Edinburgh Academy, the
High School

or

Glascow, and the Edinburgh Institution

tor Languages, 1athematics, etc.

l. Ibid., 303.,
!. Bache, Report on Education in Europe, 402 ff.

3. ;t>-td .. ,

oaa rr.

,.

•

-

--

·-- --------~~-----·__._..· ··-·-----·

-

¥

___

_....~

.j

_

...

. ...... . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . _ . __

·---'"~"""~

72

i?ro bably the· most comple te course of i;istruc-

tion in the native tor.gue was found in Ger:::'.lany. 1
the

a~vmnasia,

In

preµaring for the universities' Qer:Ian

was studi ed throughout the six years of t he course,
w'i'l;h constant attention t o c om.position.

In the

Realschulen, preparing for higher occupationa and for
professions not ranking among the learned, the study of
composition was not begun as early, nor were as many
hours spent on it e.ach week as in 'the gymnasia.
Horace Mann, in his Seventh Annual

ae~ ort

to the Boa.rd o f }~ducation in r!assachU9etts (1843), dealt

mainly with his observations of pr::.mary education in
Germany, but what he said of language teaching wa s
equally perti...""lent to secondary schools.

His plea was

for less formal grammar and more practice.

In Gernan

schools he heard little of the
ding-dong and recitative of gender, number and case, of
government and agreement, which malte up so great a
portion of the grammatical exercises in our schools
••• If the obJect of grammar is to teach children to
speak and write their native language with propriety,
then they should be practiced upon expressing thei.r
' own ideas with elegance, distinctness, and force.~

The re; orts on language teac hi ng in Germany
agreement on the following.points:

the study

l • . Ib1d., 477-91.

2 • . Barnard's A@er1ean Journal of Educati on, VIII (1860),
387-8.
·1
•j

'

"'" ": ~<: ~--' bj
.; .

73

was introduced early and was fairly constant

thr~u g hcut

the course; the exercises were si:lple and infor'::.al,

suited to the development of

~he
;

child,

an c~

growing

inc r easingly difficult as the ~chil d grew old.er .
Thi3 system was in direct contrast wi tr.. t he American

meth od according to wr..ich the chil d was suddenl:r a t the

beginning of l'lis high school career catapulted into
composition writing..

Although the

~ur-o p ean

methods were

not directly i!!lltated by American schoolmasters, "the
stimulus of German excellence began to prick the

American spirit of emulation .. ~ 1
The growth of educational periodicals in the

first half of the nineteenth century is i:nportant, for
t hey not only gave publicity to the re?orts on foreign
education, but constantly championed the teaching of
composition.

They ?rovided opportunity for t he exchange

o! ideas and a comparison of methods used.

Russell's

@ e:rican Journal of E-Oucat1on, first published in 1826,

is one of the earliest of these.

During its brief

five years of life, there were not many articles on
composition, but mention of it never failed to show the

..

editor's conviction of the i mportance of t h e subject •

.'•·In a veey favorable renew of Bh.erida.n' s British Educa:"' ,.." .
·_, ·. .;lion,
he' c.a lled attention to the neglect of the English
.
~

.

:'...

,'

.ij
-· --·-· ·- ·-- . ··--·

-

- -.

___ ______
.......,._

·I
-·- -

- ·--------·----- - _________ _j

74
r

lari..guage in Ame rican schools.

Coll · ~ ges, he said,

included composition in the prospectus, bat were you to
inquire of the student, you woulc f i nd he was required

In the issue for ~ay, 1330 ,

to do but little writing.l

the editor again urged the L :portance of comnosition
.
on the ground t h at "the occasions w.h.ich all

t~a ve

~

to

exp:oass them.selves in writing, and in a perspicuous, if

not

a..~

elegant ::tanner, are

or

evettt; day recurrence."

He could see few natural obstacles ta the attainment of
excellence in writing if the practice were begun early.
The painter's rule, "to pass no d ay without a l.ine,"
might in a di f ferent 3ense be profitable in schools.
Even a daily task in composition, would hardly interfere
with more impo1--tant lessons, but it sae:ns an un:;;:iardP, nable
neglect that the task should not occur even weelcly.~
I

The .American Journal of Education in 1830

comoined with the American .Annals or Sducation and
Instruction .under the editorship of William C. Woodbridge.

!he new editor, who had S;Jent con.:iiderable time in

Europe studying educational institutions there, devoted
much space to a description of foreign practices.
~

· Occasional discussions of m·.:thod in composition also
a~p~ared

in the journal.

The Connecticut Common School Journal,

American Journal of Education (Russell's), !I (Apr.
1827), 245-50.

,~.~ •. Ibid.,
ti

.~

Y (May 1830), 235.

75

established by Henry Barnard L.'l. 1838 as the official

organ of the depart;nent of education of the .state :Jf
Con!feCticut,
Ger~any

conta~n e d

r-.:equent accounts oi' education in

and Switzerlarld.
) ubl~s h ed

The Coml!lon School Journal, first
in

Boston in 1839 under Horace :!ann 's editorsl::i.tJ, dea:t

p ri;narily, as its name suggests, ·,vi t i: common-school
problet.1"..s.

The ed:i, tor neTer neglected an opportunity

to champion the cause of composition.

issue, he gave his hearty

endorser:~ent

In the June, 1845,
tD the

expressed by 11r. J .R.Boyd, i)rincit)al of the

Literary and ? e.ligious Institute,

Ne~T

o~inion

Ble.c ~~

River

York, tl:at too

great prominence was given to the acquisition of ideas
and too little to the expression of them.

The chi Gf

reason for that was the fact that colleges required
only examinations in Latin, Greek, and . mathematics.
As a remedy, he suggested giving to composition Hequal
prominence with other branches of study.nl
In 1865 Barnard began the ?Ublication of his

American Journal of Education, which is more of an
encyclopedia of

Am~ rican

education t han a Journal.

Frequent articles on foreign education came fro:tl
Ba!'nard•s pen, based both on his own observations and
on his read.tng.

These articles he later collected and

Common School Jou:rpal, VII : (lune 1845) 1 191-2.

'

i

---~J

76

published in book form, German Schools and Teac hers
and

~ational

Education in Euroue.

A few ·di3cussion s of

com.positior: ap ) eared_, usually lamenting ; he inadequacy
of the teaching.

"English Grarrmi.ar ls al.most totally

neglected, and co:iposition is an art which one s hould
.,
suppose was entirely useless, itk is the complai nt

,J f

Dr.

Grimshaw, superintendent of schools of New Castle Co.,
.,

Delawars.

.

~~

who as editor of his own

magazine had often emphasized the importance of composi-

tion, was a contributor to uarnard•s periodical.

Even as late s..s

found it necessar-1 to call

attention to the negl ect of composition.

He wrote,

Ample ti.me, com;Jaratively 1s usually allowed for the
study of the ancient languages, and even ror t..'IJ.at of
some of the !!lodern; but little is expressly assigned
for the thorough acquisition of our own, which,
to ensure to the student a perfect col21Itland or it, sho
be the groundword of daily exercises, thoughtfully
planned an.: ca.ret"u.l ly executed, from the first steps
in education onward to the last day of ?rofessional

preparation for the busl.ness of lii"e.2

It !!light be expected that composition

teaching with the new i mpulse given it by the establish
ment of the high scoool would progress very rapidly,
especially since it was sanctioned by foreign educational

practice and championed in the pedagogical j-0urnals.

In spite of these favorable factors, its development

1. Barnard's American Jou:rnal of Education, II (Dec.
2•

1856), 475.
III (lune~ 1857) 1 327.

.ill!!•,

I
...

__

·--·---- -

-1
-· ~ - ~ ·~--

-·· ------··----- ·--------·~~~---'----'-'- ___,,..,_"-'._,.·. ..J.

r

f

was exceedingly slow.

I
.

......

_

•.

_ _:._.c..~

,

----

- ---

... .....
. -'

.. r"".1.i,

. ..

. .

.

.

.. •

.

Fro r:~

~~

--=----- ;__.: - -

.

,.,·:;~

.

-.

,',

'~*'

·,,;,it

t h.at ti::1e

to the end of the century there was considerable a gitati on

in its favor, anC. by 1900 it was con sidered a.n es ::: entia.1

part of the English work.

Why should it have taken al:nost one
and fifty years from its introduction into
academy t o find its place?

._

Fran.~11n's

Some of the reasons _have

alread] been touched upon in Chapter II.
.,4

A knowledge

of the rules of grammar was deemed adequate
for correct writing

a.~d

hundred

pre~aration

As late ns 1851

speaking.

Goold Brown affirmed that the only way to acquire skill
in the art

or

language is

b~-

thoroughly cammi tting

definitions and rules to .:uemory,, "that they uiay ever

' a!'ter

be readily applied. "l

As long as language study

was dom1.nated by that i dea, composition could have no

very iaportant place in the curriculum.

"

'-·

.
me

..

il:;

'>

~he

...'

Goold,

Zbe In1titgtpf or
,.

Reverend Henry N.

Epgli sh Oramur,

v.

78

pro ~o .l. ;a~r~ :

How si1oufJ. co!"!lposi tion be tau gnt in o ur schools
ar1d seminaries;, our a.~a ,! e::.:L·'. S ;: .r..d. colleges? It is
sai'e to say t liat i~ no other .~ epc. rt~ent of instructior::.
1.s ther-e ~: qual' deficiency .an~: failure; in no other
dapartrlent is t ~er e equal ig::.~~rance of 'lihat a µroper
mode of tea.c;:-!ing and. learning is; i:i no oth er, i3
there equal dissatisfaction wit r~ results on t h e ;_)a.rt
o.f bot:1 teacher and ;m;dl .l

century when ?rank A. Hill, Secretary of the
setts Boa.rd of Education

re ~K> l'ted,

:.ra ~ sachu-

"Met':ods o f te e.c : 1 ing

the classics and mathematics ••• have been per· fect ed

through long experience;
teaeh ir~g

English,
hig~

in our best

:::ot so with the ;r:e t h'l ds of

r. ..L;tory anJ the sci enc es • • • a: t hough
schools excellent progre$3 is

..,

:nakir.. g .~~

The problem of r.J.ethod was left for t h e 20th century t o

solve-.
Another obstacle to the wid espread intro du ction

of composition instruction was the overcrowded curriculum.
Ma..l'ly schools were attem,?ting so much that com;>a si tion

with its added burden o:f correction was bound t o be

crowded out.

The situation was

~articularly

the smaller CO.!ll!?lunities where t here
pl'e~aratory

~as

acute in

a demand

f~r

both

and non-preparatory studies, and where

Harr1s, Wm. T.,

"~ducation

Reoort of the United 8
93-94 ' I I 1385.

es

in the
n

79

the facilities at best were ver;,1 limited.
inspector in

Mas~achusetts

A !u gh

sc~ool

report ed in 1870,

I have not unfrequently f'ound from. fort y to si:~tj and
even more pL1pils pursuing the study of Greek, La~in,
a.'1d ~rench and all the 'ologies' and 'oso ~h i e s' ·
usually embraced in a High School co1J rse of s tudy, ~nd
;>•:<.L.t)1
to t""aC
l' ( ?) 1- ;..-e"'
but a S .!n b·~le "'~r"'"''l
,t.1 . . ...
...... O'""d
J :....&. al..,
. -...l • · ..i.
.

..;Jt_.,_

...!..

_ . ..

0

.1

'

•..14J.

Usually the best work was done in the class i cal studies,

and "it was very dif: icult to secure results in the non pre::>aratory oranches." 2 Even in the larger schools where
there wa.s an adequate staff' , com.position was f:-equently
made secondary to the older established subjects.
graduate of an acadeny in eastern New York
as late as the l890t s that L"l his school
seemed on the wi1ole to be •Do your

~atin

11

The.

r~ 9 o:rted

t h e sentLnent

and

Gree~{,

your

.Algebra. and GeometI"/, your French and German well, and

then, i.f you have any time left, it might be well t o
write a little English.tn3

Before 1870 it was :perfectly safe to omit
compos1tion from the preparatory course because the
colleges did no t require it.

::

But even after it was

prescribed, schools did not hesitate to neglect it.

Was

(

no rt of the
87.
•PP•
2. Lull, I herited Tendencies
in the u teg ta.tea, 169.
5. Harvard Oniversity, Reoort
ti on and Rhe~or~ca (1897,,
ual

l.

'

I

l
.~

~~

.Masa.

Board

o .L.;,•

Edu cation

of Sec ndar·... I s .hl.c ti,0.n::
of the Committee on
448.

Compos~-

•.-~J
·~·

60

not English the mother tongue and should

;

~ot

every one

be a ble to write what he h ::·td practiced S'.,) eaking s .Lnce
childhood?

As one graduate C>f a :;.Jrivate sc :::.ool in Easton
i dea

of his scholars being gentlemen,
1
e King's English. n

The most i mportant reason,

1.2

for ita neglect in the classical course was t he convi cti

I

that composition

'N&S

adequatel y taught throu gh transla tion.

· The classicists argued that it afforded even better

training than original com?osition since it enabled
youth t ·.J co nc en t rate solely on the expression

!

without t he additional task of
translation
on training in

part of

r

course.

i(

as
~he coll ~? ge

;>reparatory

The Round Hill School a.t Northampton, 1!'.assa-

chuse t ts _, explained tha t training in

wr::. ting

was given

.[; __ through "e1 ther transl a tions or Original Compositions. n2
~

·~~ !he Utica J.caclemy ( rlew York) required ori ginal c-om;>o si-

0

all.

one day in each week, translate a chapter of

'.l ....

..
.

"In addition to t his, the classical

or Gree'.-.: reader into English.

Latin compositions

'

.(

,

<

• t1_

,:,, '~

. l.

Ibid., 459 •

~.Am

rican Journa . of Educa ion (Russell's), I {July

1826

1

438.

Quoted from the

!!!mR• ill•

81

eTery :1orning. nl

Oc: caaionally a sc h.colmaster rai:3ed

his voice in opposition, contending t hat

j

t~ansl ation

was more injurious than n elpf'ul, si nce it tended to
f

Latin1ze t he

for

j

of the transla tion method.""""'

Not until late in the nineteenth
realization become universal that neither transl.ation nor sporadic efforts· at original compo s1 ti on were
affordL~g

j

effective

trainL.~g

in the writing of English.

fhat conviction was crystallized in the report of t he

...
t.

Committee of Ten which gave composition an assur ec

I N P..EPH.ESENTATIVE STATES, 18 20-1900

New England
Coru::i~ ct1cut

Conditions were more favorable to t he develop· • ment or composition teaching in Connecticut than in most

other states.

First of all, not every state had a law

the

r

5:.\st Annual Report of the Regents (1838), 96See Appendix A for specimens of •tra..~slation
English".
·I

I

!

·~]
.. - -

~·--·

. . ---- - . ~--;::-----·.'.f.,..· . . ---

----~J

.......1

82

ad

We can rightly expect

that · und~r

these two influences

composition teaching would ha'le a rapid g:rowth.

Although the academies were not subject to
the law of 1798, some of them did teach composition,
and at least one of them gave it more than passing
The Litchfield Academy had, as early as 1803, 1

attention.
required it.

A record of the rules for 1821 indicates

that one of the requirements for graduation was a nthree
months Journal or eight dissertations.n

2

In 1825,

according to a copy of the rulea made by a pupil,

You must write a letter to be corrected

arid

home to your friends once in four weeks -- exce9t

sent

excused.

You must not · ~ite a careless note, or any
writing. You must write a composition once in
a .fortnight~ of 200 words. Yoiii must write at least
30 good lines in a week.3
carele~s

1. See · Chapter II, 46

2. Vanderpoel, ~C~hr;;,...;::;o-=~c~l-e_s~~~.--;~;;;.;M.;~...;;..~~=-;:.;:..==.~~~
to la3a •• ~, 234. From
rules or the school.
3. !]M., 256.

From a copy made by Charlotte Phelps.

The various announcements of the school also include
mention of composition. The notice of 1826 is as
follows:

Writing, H1stor-1, Geography, Grammar, Arithmetic,
Rhe·torie, and Composition, with plain NeedleworR:,
per Quarter • • • • • • • • ·• • • • • • • .. • • • $5
'the above, with Natural and Koral Philosophy,

Logic, Chemistry, Kathematics, the Pr·ncipals of
(Note continued on page 83)
'

-

--· - .... -------

.

'

-·- ---·--- - --

_J

83

In 1824 the

~ew

Haven Seminary in its First

(or regular) Course, offered "Rhetoric and Composition",
i

studies which were not continued in the Second (supplementary) Course.-

The prospectus of Mr. Emerson's

F'emale Seminary at Wethersfield (1826) :('.)ro1r:.ised

composition in all three years of the course. .The

t hird year class was to "receiv-e special instruction in
com-position. n 2

In 1827 Sereno E. Dwight and Henry E•.

Dwight planned to establish the New-Haven Gymnasium,

"a school _for the E.;iucation of Boys", in which all
students, whether _planning to go to college or not,
~

were to be instructed in composition.-

The Hartford

Female Seminary, according to notices in 18284 and 1832, 5

" . 3. (Note continued from page 82}
Taste and Criticism, with the Latin and Greek
Languages, per Quarter • • • • • • • • • • • • $6
_l_hig_. , 259 •

.

-

-Yhe trustees in their advertisement -ot 1828
list composition as o-ne of the studies. _Ibid., 264.
In 1853 the studies or the second depart.ant were
advertised as "em.bracing History, Grai"':!'.mar, .Arith-

metic, and Composition • • • • $8.75."

Ibid., 510.

l. Grizzell, ~· ill•, 290-291.
, 2., American Journal of Edu cation (Russell' S), I (A~g.

18.26), 507.

3. Ibid., III (Feb. 1828) , . 115-116.
4. Ibid., III (Aug. 18~), 484-465.
5. gerican Annals of .l.ik!ucation, II (Jan. 1832), 6511

I

I

' :1I
j

l

.' , J

. - --~

·"i'.t

~~~

84

offered composition in all three years of the c ourse.
It was also included in the curriculum of the Ellington
i

Scho:;l for boys, in Ellington, 1833 • . .:. :The ? :ree Acada£:Jy
: -~ t Norwich2 required during the first two y ears one

recitation a week from a textbook,

accompanL~ d

by s hort

composition exercises in which the p:"inciples studi ed

were applied.,
composition~

During the last two years more foraal

were Vll'ittan every two weeks.

These data

indicate a wide diversity in the treatment of composit1on in the private :schools, though, in general, the

study received some attention throughout the course.
When Barnard became secretary of the Board

o.r

COmmissioners of Common Scho :Jls in 1838, he found

very few graded schools in existence, although the law
of 1798 had opened the way for the establishement of l1igh

schools.

The district schools attempted to teach a

large variety of subjects to pupils of all ages.

In

some of the larger districts composition was inc

·~. uded,

but many schools refused to teach it because the law
required it only in schools of a higher order.

Barnard

was not at all i n sympathy with this vi ew and in his

first report to the Board said,
Hertzler, .2.2• .ill•, 20.
Barnard's American Journal of Education, XIX (1870),
508.
I

'
,

~_ ___ _._ .......,_.___ __ - ~ ·... _..~..- · ----.lot"-~~-.:~~~-~--'--~·

-·- ·- - -__ __j d~

85

Composition, the expression o i' one' 3 t l1ougl1ts
in clear and correct language, es;;ecially in its application to wri t .i ng o!' f ,~iliar or business lette:-s, ou ght
not to be omitted. 1

he believed tha t
The mastery o f' the English language , c~:r·'.' b.ining
elling, reading, spealcing, grammar and com;ositi on,
sh ld be the leading object (Jf the district school, a
far
intell ectual education is c
~rned.2

In his
((

v

instruction in the English language was not neglected.
In his Fourth Annual Report (1842), which contained a

recommendation .f or a three-fold division, prbar:; ,
intermediate, and high school, composition was

s~ecificall y

mentioned in the list of 3tudies for the secondary school . 3
Constant encouragement to the teaching of composition
~ as

•
,.lO
[..r.
,L ,

given by the questiomiaire covering the subjects

taught in the common schools, sent out by Barnard as
part of . the Board's ;>lan "to collect and disseminate

information, to discover, devise, and recommend plans
IW

.or improvement. n4

Although ostensibly de signed to fur-

nish information, the questions were in reality suggestions of method$ which teachers might employ.

The

section on composition is as follows:

-.
"

"

l. Connectieut Common School Journal, I (May 1839), 169~
2. From his Third .Annual Report as Secretary to the
Board or COmmissione?'I of Common Schools in Connecticut (1841). See Brubacher, Henry Barnard on Education, 156.
3. Barnard's tterican Journal of ldusmt1op1 Supplement
to Vol. I 1855-56) 703.
' ••

~.,

673.

I

I

·l.
' '.·. 1

_id

l. Do you classify your )upils in reference

to teaching composition?

2 . Do you accustoe your youngest pupils to

write or print wcrds and s>ort sentences

on t !f,e sl~te, from. your d i c tation'?
3 . Do Jl'ou ask tl1em t ;:J i)!'int or write soseth.ing
about what thev " e seen in comin . to
sghoo .......,_. or read in the reading lesson?
4 .. As a preliminruJ' exercise in composition,
do you engage them in familiar talk abcut
scmet ': 1 ing they ·r.ave seen in their wall<:: , or

has ha,pened in or about the school?

and

when they have got ideas, a..l'ld can clothe

them orally in words, do you allow t hem as a
privilege to write or print the sar1e on

the slate or paper?
5. Do you give out a number of words, and
then ask your pupils to frame sentences
in which t hose words are used?
6. Do you require your older pupils t~ keep
a journal or give an accawit of the occ~
rences of the day, as a.n exercise in compositiGn?
7. Do you instruct your pupils as to the most
approved for!!l of dating, commencing, and
closing a letter?
a. Do you require your ?Upils to write a
letter in nn:swer to some supposed inquiries
about some matter of fact?
9. Do you request your older )Upil! to write
out what they can recollect of a sermon or
lecture they have heard, or of a book
they have been reading?
10. At what age do your pupils usually commrnce
writing easy sentences or compositions?-

Later, as superintendent or schools he required
all members of the Teachers' Institute to fill out a

blank giving information

~elat1ve

to their teaching.2

One question concerned t h e number of cl as ses in composi-

t1on.

He also f'Urnished lists of suggested topics for

From Barnard's Fourth Annual ·R eport. · Ibid., 692.

Connecticut· Cgmmon School Journal, V (Sept. 1851), 28.

87

discussion at teacherst meetings, including a.'Tiong his
subjects composition. 1

This constant emphasis on 'cor.i posi -

tion in the elementary schools not anly encouraged its
teaching in the secondary ;Jchools, but also simplified
t he tash: oi' the high school teachers, sinc e t lrn ;mpils

who ca.me to them already grounded in the fundamentals of
writing would not have that dread of composition which
haunted

~any

pupils upon their entrance i•'lto t h e high

school.
Although
lished to

ere estabaccordance

with that

o f'fered instruction in composition, the smaller ones
frequently had a ver; limited curriculum.

The Wethers-

field High School, established in 1840, offer·e d only

spelling, reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography,

history, and Latin, -- a curriculum which Hertzler 2
says is typical of the smaller high school in the years
immediately following 1840.

The first permanent high school in the state,

f
)

t he Middletown Ci·t y High. School, established in 1840,

included composition in the course of study, as shown

~.,

:31 •

.2.Q• Cit., 56-57 •
J

' '· jl
,_,_
- _ .iw,._ ,,&

88

by a weekly report card of October 13, 1840. 1

The

Ma.nuscri9t Mlnu .-: es of the Board of !Jd:1catio n for

Novem ber 25, 1848, recorded composition for that y ear
i n bot h the :nale and female depart ments. 2 '! he Annual
'

Catalogue of 1851 stated th at "Spellinf , Reading, Defining ,
Sub-Lectures, Compositi on, a n d. Declarr;,ation are req uired

through each

term.~

In the

second~

or Middle Year,

. composition was specifically mentioned, Quackenbos

being used as a te::i'.:t.

In the t r:ird, or Senior Year,

»Composition, Course of Essays", was offered.3
the course had become a five

Y '~ar

By 1865

one, and "com.position

v:as at.tend ed to thr:)ugh the school."

All courses, the

General, Classical, and English had, in the first year,

two recitations a week on Quackenbos' First Lessons in
Composition. 4

However, a report5 submitted to the State

Department of Bc.tucation in 1868, giving enrollment of
students by subJ.ects, failed to show any pupils in
compositian.

.,

It may have been that since it was a

subject common t::; aJ.l and not taught in a sepa:ate course,
the school did not consider 1 t necessary to list the

number of students.

r.,.'·
. ;.

· 1

89

The importance of compc si tic::: hs.d

in·~reased

.so considerably by 1847 that

wh~n

high school in that

entra.-ice examir.L.<:i ti or. wa s

.
year, ~ ar..

pl'esc:ribed in that subJ ·: =ct. 1

H2rt.f".Jrd op<:Jned a

By 1848, however, United

States hi.story had ';;een substi tu t 8d r."or it.

The Rules

~:!?ld .Regulations of t :1e Public IUg:1 School 2 included

composition as a subject or instruction, but it was
undoubtedly lioi ted to the English depart>11ent, for,

whereas, Tower's Exercises and Parker's Composition
{abridged) were listed as texts for that Jepart~ent,
only Gree1': and Latin books appeared on the li ~:; t tar the
classical students.3

The pro ~ra:n ~or 18514 ind i c ated

composition in all t hree years of the English Department,
Park i~ r'

~

s

being the 9rescribed te1:t.

A footnote to

the p:-ogram of the C:.assical Department stated that

"If Classical studies are 3mrsued, of course some

English branches must be
be left out were not

om1tted." 5 The subjects to

designated, but composition was

probably one of them, for the work in translation was

usually considered an adequate substitute.
.

6

.

' 1 •. Ibid.,
. 2. Ibid.,
3. Ibid.,
·4. Ibii. 1
I. Ibi ·-

52 •
58.
75.
78.
79 ..

The course

of study for 1858 failed to mention ccm?csition, but

6 .. Grizzell, .sll!•.!i.ll• 1 312-314.

30

rhetoric was included, wi t l: a lessened prescription for
classical students, In 1859 the course was practically
the same. 1 Botll tb.e Eng:':.ish and t he Classical :::epartments in 1865 had

Declamation,

~S iH:!Cia.1

Com~osition,

Moral Science. 112

E,.."'{ercises at stated t i:ne s in

Reading, Drawing, Writing, and

In 1872 there were still special exer-

c!sea in aamposition in the Eng2:.ish department, but no
~

mention was made of them in the classical.""

Although the New Britain course of study in
the first year of t h e establishment of the high school
(1850), did not !'!lenticn composition, 4 it was inc.l uded in
the program for 1853. 5

"Co~position once in three weeks

1n all classesn was the pr escription in 1858. 0

The

acting school visitor in 1865 reported "neading,
Speil.11E.g 1 Writing, Drawing, Composition,. and Declanation
throughout each course.n 7 The report for 1866 was the
aame in respect to composition.a

In 1872 both the English

·,,,. and classical departments had "composition exercises

.1wl
-~ once in three weeks. n9

Hertzl er, .£2•

ill•,

83-84.

.s.

Grizzell, .Q.l• Qi:S,., 318-019 •
Hertzler, .212· £!!., 101 •

. 5..

'Ibid., 59 •

.,l:i. Ibid., 58 •

•. 11:..

~· .,

·de I Sl.
89 •
_bi • , 92-93 •
. $ • .· d., 104.

•·

·f •

. e.

r
I

-____j

."

'
.••
. .t • ..,-,:c
~~ ~
'

.

91

Waterbury, like Hartford, also had an entrance
examinatio n ln composition, but it we.s limit 2d to r...ote
"r-1
. - t"' "' ~ l

1e.tter
and .....

..l... ..t. ~ !::, .

In the hi gh school com9o s ition was

studi ed by all students in 1857, 2

subject

~1as

~ •1

in 180.l. 3 t 'rie

wni~e

a

.

,-...,

restrict.ed to the first four yea:rs of

five year c::m rse, weekly exercises being

t he

~)rescribed.

The program for 1863 omitted it also from the first ~rear. 4
In 1866-67 it was a weekly study in the second, t i-J.rd,
and fourth years of a five Jr~ ar· course. 5
Although Nau gatuc.k e stablished a so-call -::d

. htgh school in 1852, it had a ver;

ele~1entary

curriculum

even as late a. s 1864, of fe ring only reading, s pelling,
arithmetic, grami"!lar, and geo graphy.

In 1866 · more

advanced subjects were added, but composition was not

one of them" 6
In 1859 composition was taught to all students

t hroughout the year in New London's two high schools, the
· Young Ladies High School (established in 1855) and the

2- Bartlett

High School, for boys, (~stablished ebout 18 56). 7

;-. ,~he program for the girls' school in 1872 mentions

compos1 tion in the first tr...ree years.

! !1 the fourth

52-53.
59-60.
86-87.

of Edu ation

or

the State .

-

- ~ - -., .

92

year it is replaced by rhetoric.l
The two grammar schools of New Haven,

t ~e

Bator:.. and ths Webster Schools, in 18$8 taught c m~) osi-

tion.

When in 1859 the high school was established !

it was not

9

By l86lv7. it had found a )lace

inc~uded.~

L'1 the curri culum, but in 1863 it was not listed in t h e

course of studies.4 In 1867, however, "During each term
of the year, at stated

exercises in

tir~es,

all the pupils will have

.... composition".$

"English Language &

Composition" was added in 1869 as a separate course for
the first year. 0 No change was recorded in 1870. 7
The Annual Reoort of the Board of Education8 in 1890

. shows that there were "Regular weekly exercises in composition or declamation" throughout the four years of the
English department.

Likewise, in t he two year commGrcial

course, composition was listed as one of the general

exercises, but in the other two courses, the classical

1. Ibid., 104.
2. Ibid., 60.
3. Ibid., s1.

4. Stout, The Develo

-School Curricula in

the North

entral tates from 1860 to 1918, 8.
Hertzler, .!m• cit., 60-61, probably inadvertently

omitted composition from the course of study for
1863, for Stout, quoting from the same source,
included i.t.
Hertzler,· .22• cit., 96.
~., 97.

Ill·,

98.

Pp. 241-243.

·.j
.
,_

......
~\

__...·...._.t.a.-;_____,

J'.

.·
----~

'

.,

95

and the scientific, it

was omitted.

In th e cour se of study f ·J r 1371 tb.e Na tc haug

School, established in 1865, made no r:iention of com;::o sition in either
c:~l t

t~e

Eng l isl: or classicaJ_ de)a rt.' !lent s ,

hough r hetoric ',· :as taugh t i r: t he t hird and fourt!:

Norwalk organized a high school in 1852 ,
but wa.a unable consistently t •J offer hi gh school \York·. 2
'7

In 1865 instruction in com?osition was given·. 0

In 1858,

it was required in the English departr.1ent, b ut not in t he

class ~ cal. 4
The occasional character of composition
t eachL"'lg persisted in Connecticut schools t o t he end of
the century.

The Re '.'.lo rt of t he State Board o .f EC.u c ati on 5

in 1897 s hows there was no uniformity of pr actice .

In

1. Hertzler, .QJ;?..cit., 99-100.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ibid., 217.
.
fbid., :)9.
Ibid., e1-a 2 .
In accordance wt t h a resolution passed by t he

General Assembly of 1895, the State Board of Education made a study of existing high school conditions
so that it might make recommendations for t he extension of the high school system. 1'he subj ec·t of
English, eomprising composition, rhetoric, grami.: lar,

and "English", was one of the stutiies investigated.

See the Report of the Board of Education of t he State

or

Connecticut (1897), 144, 162.

6. Ibid., l62.

.

~

•

,...._ ..

,I

- a ...- -

•·

_ ...

94

fact, the Board f<End it impossible to
on composition

~ive

statistics

since crany schools re;;orting

teac~ ing ,

i

the subjec~ meant by t ~1e ter:J. ~· composi tion 11 only
o c casional essay s.l

In f'ort~!-one of the fift y-ei ght

high schools of Connecticut, however, the subj e ct

reported in the curricu l um in some
re~aining

fo~m.

;.v t:~ s

Of the

seventeen school3? certainly some tau ght it,

for earlier records (for example, those of Hartford)
show its introduction.

Then, too, the blanket term

WEnglish" no doubt included composition.

One school,

Danbury, frar..kly admitted no special ins tructicx: in

English, believing rather that by emphasizing good
English in written and oral

wort~

in all studies, as

good results could be obtained as throu gh a formal composition co~rse.2
In spite of the diversity of the re , orts,

certain tendencies are evident.

of the work

1'&3

In the main, the nature

.much as 1t had been earlier in the cent ur .y ,

--"throughout the course•, -- the requi.rementa ranging
all the way from daily to bi-monthly exercises.3

Very

l. Ibid. 1 162.
2.
163.
3. The following references to the frequency or composition occur in the
rt of th Board of

mu

Education of the

tate

or

nnecticut

1897 :

Beth : nonce a week or oftener during the first
year, short compositions. Essays every two weeks
daring second year ••• During third year, more
.(Iota continued on page 95)

------ - - --------- -

,_

-

J

95

mc.r !.r nd is the tendency to place the study of some text-

book, such as Locl{vtoodt s, in the early year 's o:· the cours G,

either the first or the first and s ec Jnd ,

sb

t ha t t he

student might r eceive a t the beginning of his course
t he fundamentals or.. w.'."lich to base his lat er compositio n
Th is textbook study \va s follo wed by coo.posi -

tions written at interYals, which, in some schools,

.z.

(Note continued from page 94)

extended esa~y work." p. 163.
Derby: "A feature of the composition wor ~·: is daily
five-minute exercises in the first year. In t he
second year more formal work is requ i red, and t his
increases in difficulty to t he end of the cou:rse."
P• 163.
Farmington: "An effort is made to have one
composition a month." p. 164.
Jlaugatuck: "When Lockwood's book is finished in
second y ear, . the class becomes an essay cla ss, whic h
.f urnishes

~1

essay onee in about eight week s. tt p. 165 .

Orange: "Formal composition about three time s a

year; .l esser composition consta.n.tly. tt p. 166 •
. Salisbury (LakeVille): "Composition based on

collateral studies almost daily.n p. 166.

l. Eleveu. schools reported a composition text studied
1n the first year: Ansonia, Bridgeport, Huntington,

New Britain, New Milford, Orange , Plymouth (Terryville),
South Windsor, Stafford, Vernon, and ?'Jindsor • .llifl.,
163-167.
Ten schools reported a textbook studied in the
first and second years: Derby, Farmington (Center),
Greenwich,. Nau gatucl-t, Nevt Haven, Portland {Gilder-

sleeve) ill, Portland #2, Seymour, Southington,

Stamford.

Ibid., 163-167.

Three schools reported textbook study in the second
year: Guilford, Milford, and Windsor Locks; two in
the third year: New Hartford and Saybrook; and two
in the second and third .y ears: Old Saybrook and
Stonington. l.l2.!!!•• l54-l67,
j

1

-·----~- ,_.J
'

'

.

96

culminated in a supreme effort, the graduction essay.l

Grarn:nar, when it was studied, was usually ?laced in the
f irst year, either pr eceding the composition course or
•_:ancurrent with it.. 2

A practice already noted

i~ ear l i ~ r

years still persisted, that of omitting composition
when Latin was studied.

We thersfi.eld and Windsor
~

subscribed to that ;:>olic:1. v

Stratford reported no

Eng2.ish except what was gotten from Latin, 'N hich was
studied by all pupils.4

In schools offering a commer-

cial course, composition was included as part of the

work.

Southington required one half year's instruction

in that subJect in i~s two year business course.5

A new

trend manifest in this report is the close association

of composition and literature.

Typical of the new

practice is the statement of Greenwich,

11

Composi t~.ons

1. Bethel: "During t hird [last] year, more extended
~ssay work, some of which are written several times
over; one element in this essay work is preparation
for graduation.~ Ibid., 163.
2. See 'I able IV. k,bid., 163"'."167.
3. Ibid .• , 167. l'ether9field reported: "Those wbo
take Latin. do not take English • . The aim of the
English course is to give cs good English expression
as would be gain,.:d by the study of Latin with

careful translation."

4. Ibid., 167 •.
5. I"bid., 166.

97

on subjects derived :'"':rom English l i tera ture.n1

Another

departure is the assignment of resp onsibility l"or t he
i

English to one teacher, as a t ¥1a ter 1:)1Jry , whi ch
"A single

'.: eac h

repo 1~t ecl ,

:r gives her entire t ime to teaching

English language and l iterature.:s 2

Massachusetts

law of 1827, which established
the two gracl es of schools, elementary and s econdary, was

sil ent on the subject, nor did any of t he subsequent
revisions provide for it.
the

teac ~:ing

The law did, however, require

of orthography t reading, and

r~ ram:m ar.

That

requir ement, according to the interpretation of the

secr eta:ry o.f the Board of Education did not exc l ude
eo~p ositiont

but rather included it by implication.

His comment is as follows:

or

It is competent for teachers, with the sanction
the committee, to require ;iupils who are prepared

1. !bid., 164. Killingly repor ted, "En.g~ ish in so~e form,
chiefly compositions on books read throughout the
course." Ibid., 164.
New Canaan: "Essays on authors are written.~ Ibid.,
165.

Wind.ham: "No Attempt is here made to separate the
language from the literature." Ibid., 167.
Ibig., 167.

-·

,. .

.

.

~·--·~...t..-----~··-- -....--.
•. ~

98

for the exercise, to engage in writi!lg compositi'.Jn as
a. fit and effective means of teaching ort ::o i~ raphy,
~eadi ng~ and grammar.l

.

He ci ted as a precedent the de. ision of t he su :)re~e coijrt

of Ver:nont in a case in vol v.i ng compulsory compo si ti on.·
The courts: of Massachusetts, h e assumed, woul C. probabl y

sup 9ort t he same doctrine s inc e t he dec i sion wa s "in
harmony with reason and not repugnant ta ?Ublic ,J olicy

or individual ri ghts.n
The private schools, on the whole, attended
to composition.

An advertise.'1len t in the Sun, April 10,

1822, announced that the Pittsfield Academy had been
organized and would give instruction in a variety o ~
~ubjects, including compos1t1on. 2 The Leice3ter Academy,
on the other hand, made no mention of com position in
13 84, but did teach J3la1r's Rhetoric in the upp er sc.hool. 3
At the Round Hill School, Northampton, the study o f
·the Er:J.g_llsh language -,;as considered ttof the first
impo r tance ••• Exercises in

1. Twent p-Fourth .Annual R

~1riting

Engli.sh are ear.ly

ort of the

Kass

Board

o~

Education

1861 , 90. This interpretation 1s given
in connection with the common school law, but since
the three subJects mentioned were also ~e quired in
the high school, the same interpretation would

undoubtedly apply there.
2. Ingl is, Rise of the High Seh.ool in Massachusetts, 13 .
3.

~.,

1 2.

I

i

-·---- - - -~-

.:.

------·----

...

- ----

.j

i..

99

,

comm:.3nc ed and :!.'lever relinc_ut.3hed. 11 ..._

In Russell's

American. J ou rnal o f Education fo r Se ·:.1 t ember, 1826,
~l!r s.
h
e
t ..

G. '? .. Thayer' s SchGol in
'It

. al
prac +... ic
~

-4
8.i."lt,

3oston wa s co;nrilsnded fo:r

_,
• .,
. +.. r u e t ior..
.
m_nu
1-e.1.y
exac t . ins
,-:; :... ven. It 2

Spelling i.3 a daily lesson, e.xcept f:i r ~fond ays, when
cos:1;;>0si tion, tal.ces t he 9lace of it, ever:r wee.~;: wi t :"
the first class, and '"very other week with the second

class. Boys prove their r:iost _;>alpabl e errors in
composition by ?arsing the sentence.n3
The Mt. - Pleasant Classical Institution, at
considered translation as

?~rt

Amh ~ rst,

of the training in com-

position:
Original the:nes and tra.."lsla tions a r e read weekl y
a t the desk, b:: the senior boys. The younger are
exercised early in writing letters, and in translating
from the languages with whicl: they are occupi ed.4

At the Chauncey-Hall School in Boston (1840)
Russell did "e:c.cellent

wor ~~

Williar~

in elocution, r hetoric, and

the sy stematic teacbing of English literatu re and composition. n5

In the Phillips Academy at Andover, English

instruction, as far as classical students were concerned,
1
·-

developed late.

In 1820, only English grammar was

1. American Journal of ;&ducation (Russell's), II (Aug •
. l827) ., 459.
2. ~., I (Sept. 1826), 503 .
3. Ibid., 563.

4. Ibid., III (Kay 1828), 299.
5. Barna.rd'$ American Journal of E;ducation, XXIV (.May
1884), 190.

- .j

....d

lOO

tau ght in the prepara tor:/ course.

nwr i tten t rans l ati onl'f

f urnish ed pr a ctice i n compositio n according t o the
As l at e a~ 1876 compo s:t tic!.l ha.d

c a t a lo gu e o f 18•10 .1

n o d e f initely assigned :;>la ce Ll'l t he c la ssic aJ_ d epart;nent 1
:~o r

one hour a ·;, eek was set a.sid e f or ei t her elocut ion,

compo s ition, or translation.

In the English de:ya.rtment,

however, written translation drop ped out, and composition
and elocution were tau ght it tnrou gh the cours(:. 1t2

In the girls' schools, composition was
regularly included.
acaden1y

The High School

fo~

Girls, a priYate

e.t Greenfield, announced,

In our Judgment the ~ost important of all acquisitions for a young lady, is a corl"ect, unaf fected and
graceful use of our own language, both in c-:m versation
>

· and comoosi tion. To t h is end the attention o.f our
pupils will not be liI?lited to ~rammatical and
r h etorical rules. The accurate and precise use of

words will be constantly inculcated; the standard
authors in English literature will be cri t ically read
. and analyzed; a library embracing the best mo dels ~f
~.;,tyle shall be alway s accessible, and frequent exercise s in composition will be required.3
-. Bonfil 1 s Female Seminary (Boston) likewi se offered
position, teaching it in the last three

com~

y ears of a foor

- 1 • .carpenter, Baker, and Scott, r he Teaching of English,
44, footnote.
Fortieth
ual Re oort of the Mass. Board of
Education 187~76 , app., 227-8.
American Journal of Ed.ugatiop {Russell's}, III (Aug.

l828) I 489.

/

l,.

101

year course, Irving's El.f:gents of Composition b eing

the textbook used in the second 'year .l
The Annual !:1e .1ort of the 3o ard o::"' Education

fo r the school year 1875-6 s '.:lows t hat composition in the
ac ac'. emi e s of the stats was

co~onl y

regar ded as a

gen-~ral

exercise extending throughout the C8urse. 2 an occasional
school placed the composition
first year.

wor ~

definitely in the

Th::i.t was the practice at the Wesleyan

Academy at w1ibraham in both the academic and college
preparatory dep artments.

The two one-year courses, the

Common English and the Business, also included wor'.-: in

composition. 3

In some schools, for· example the iioxbury

l. Ibid., III (Dec. 182.8), 739.
2. Phi!lips Academy a t Andover: "Engl ish composition •••
taught throughout the course." Fortieth Annual

Re ort or the Massachusett

Board o!." Education

75-6 , Appendix, 228.

Bradford Academy:

"Lessons throughout the course

in English composition. elocution, and vocal music."

Ibid., App., 263. In addition "F.nglish prosewriting" was listed for each of the four years.
~.

1 App., 262.

Uaplenod Institute, Pittsfield: "essay writing"
throughout the higher course. Ibid., App., 311.
Lasell Seminary for Young Women, Auburndale: composition was taught "In the seminary proper, and in
the college preparatory department .n Ibid., App ., Zl3 .

English and Classical School, West Newton& "Instruction in language and grammar is given largely by the
oral 'm ethod, which is followed up by careful class
drill and copious written exercises." !.]llS., App.,
317.

~., App.

273.

Warren Academy at Woburn also had

"exercises in ••• compositionn the first year.

.ll?151·,

.&.pp • J 288 •

..

~
-~-

.·--- -

-

- ---· - -----·-

-

.

I

I

·!

- - - --- -

- -·- ---·
102

1

~

Latin School- and the St. Mar:-{ ts School,;:',; t he co:mpo si ti on

' work -was rHserved for the last three years.
As f or t he 1ublic sc hool:3, the Boston

En g :~ i sh

Classical School, the ::no•lel for succeedt ng hi gh scho : ls,
had set a precedent in 1821 b:,.·

l .. equi:ring

com;osi ti on

;

in each of t !rn

ther e had been, however, a modification of t he curriculum, the re?ort of the school committee4 for that

year showing that it was taught only in the second and
t i.;ird years.. Ten yea.rs later it wa J again found in the

first year.5

In 1852 1 when a four year cours e ~a s

introduced, it was ruled t hat nThe S!3Vera.:.. cl.ass es s hall

also have exercises in English Composition and

tion. w6

f.ecla~a­

Barnard's survey of 1867 revealed the 3ame

practice in that year.7
When a high school for girls was considered

in Boston in 1825, the committee in making its recommendations emphasized composition, suggesting .frequent

l.
2..

Ibid.,
App.,
bid •., App.,

212.. Essays were required monthly.
326 ..3 •. ~d's American Journal or ldu c at ~ on, XIX (1870),

485.

4. Ibid. • .

5. nil•·, 486.
6. Stout·,. Tht D!velopment of' the High School Curriculu;n,
3-4.
';· . Barnard'• American Jgurnal of Ed.uc1t1on,. XIX (1870)
486.

•·

J

j

103

.exercises in connect.ion with gramm<:.U' as 'Well as its
s ~i

stematic tea c bing ,
1

classes. !'f-

ra regular

1

ex~rcise

in all t:1e

Several :nonths l ater w:.ien t .(1e cou:-"Se o.f study

was p resented to the Board , com,Jcsition was inc ".uJ ed :Ln
all

Discontinu ed ln 1326, the : c hool was

re-established in

~854~

The regulations o f

~he

school

co!Dl?littee for 1857 call for exercises in composition in
all three years. 3 Barnard's survey ten years later st owed
the requirement stil l t o be the

,4

sat.~e.~

In 1873 there

was a reorganization of the pro gr&J resul ting in
increased attention to composition.

The school committee

conmented on t he c hange as follows:
It will be.observed, frot:1 a study of the pr?gra:::me,
t hat .g.reat prominence 1 s now given to ,ractice in
Eng .:. ish Composition, a new and t hnrougb system having
been arranged t hroughout t11e various classes, and t h is
is regarded by the commi t tee as of the greatest ?ractical

i ;n;iortance.. In addition to the regular class-work in
cot!1posit1on, an hour is deToted, every two weeks, to
t he reading of two or mo5e compositions from each class
before the whole school ..

It is evident that composition was beginning to lose its

l. Ame. Jour. of Ed. (Russell's) ) I ( Feb. 1826), 99.
2. Ibid., Ims-105. The advertisement of the school,
Nov . 5 1 1825, in the Columbian C0n tinel (p. 3) - - ~- :
also mentioned com;>osition: "it is expected that the

master will be prepared to· teach, on this system
(the monl torialJ , so far as 1 t shall be found
practicable, Heading, Sµelling, Writing, words and
sentences f'rom ·dictat1on, Inglish Grammar , rlth exer- ·
cises in the same, Composition," etc. See Grizzell~

~. c;it., 45.
3 .. Annutl Rept. of' the Sch. Com . of the C!1(x -of Bost(:in
{l857J' 298-9.
.
.

: 4. Barnard'• per •• Jour. o.f'

I

11

Jd.., XIX . (1870), 483 •

.,~~~-ffg1J:16-!~~~°::1~ .~~~.· . ~~:~~-. ~1'.=-:.:~~~~~=o~---~--~--- ~. .~

·~

104

incidental charac tar and. was assuming a l'.)Osi ti on of

) r orainence in the curriculum.
Even that staunch
t he Boston Latin School,

spirit in education.

~uar dian

~ade

oC t he c:assics,

concessio ns to the new

It was during t he

of Gould (1814-18 28) that refor.JS were

head~-nastershi?

~ade.

At fi=st

arithmetic, P;eometry, trigonometry, algebra, and

geography were added, but by 1628 declamation, reading,
Engli sh grammar, English ooruposition, forensic

discussion~

i1.istory and chronolo gy, and the consti-tutior...s of t he

United States and }.f assachusetts had found their way into

t he curriculum.. 1

ilowever, composition was not taught

th roughout the six years.

Mr. Thomas Cushing,

w '10

entered the Latin School in 18 24, in a letter to Dr.
Barna.rd al:nost sixty years later, i' e9orted ttEnglis h

Composition by the highest elass.n 2

Its introduction in

the f i f·th year is indicated by the Regulations of the

School
Co--~tte•
•
W1IU.
... for l826.3

Head mas t er Go uld , .however,

cansidering translation a form of English composition,
4
reported its introduction in the t hird year.
According
to the report of the School Committee of the City of
Boston in 1857, Parker's Aids to Er>,glish Com:>o§ition \Tas

183.

105

specifically, named as one of the ;;tudies in the
t hird, !our~h and t~ifth years.l

The course of study2

for 1860 .sho"wed English c0Cl9osition still listed for
t hose years, while in 1883 it was requl:r ed ·: n all but

the first two years.3
When

,o:.. ·1·
'••

, .. ~ ":l.M:

A footnote to the "Order o ~ Studies in

the Worcester High School" (1882) explained ftThere will
be exercises in Orthography, Penmanship, Com.position,

and Declamation throughout the course.1'7
In ?lymouth, 8 the next pioneer of the high
school movement in Massachusetta, the Committee on
Schools recommended the teaching of composition in 1826 1
was not opened until 1828.

The

auperintendent of schools in 1857 prescribed "for all.
members

or

the school, through the whole course,

t. of the Sch. Comm
1857

302.
jl. Jenks, Cat. ot the Boston Pub.

1•

.ills!·,

I

79.

4• Gr1.zzell 1 op, cit., 290.
;·· ·· ~., 51.
~.·. !fil., 290-291.
·1-. !.Rli·' 316-317.
. . ~., 55.

Lat. Sch., 65.

'

~

. .. ' 1'

__ ....

106

exercises in ••• Composition,nl
,
S a J. e'.'.l ,

. . ,,

w t: ~c n

::a

d

,
s no-wn its
'

in 18 01 by a utl:.o ri zin:; the teC1.c hing of compo s ition :in t~g
grartll;l2ar school l!J. a d C.i ti ..J .c1 t c.> Latin and Greek, :2 i nclu ·:: ed

oom;; ositicn in its curr iculu m.' · a t t he establish:nent o f
the high school in 18 27. 4

The sc hool :- ecords of L 3~36

show composition -:.n the co urse of study.:,;

three high sc hools show a variety of
to the subject, the t"'is i.c

Sch o- ~ l

In 1854 , the

~ ractice

i n regard

( Lati n Granm.lar School)

not mentioning it, the howditch Schoel (Engl ish High
Sc hool fo r ;Joys) teaching it "thro u ghout t he course",
and t h e Salstons tall School ( Girl s' Hig r1 School) ir..c.:..u d -~ ng

1 t only in the f'irst ; ear of a t h r oe-y ea r course. 6
Composition wae taught in the Spri:ngfield

High Se}k)ol in 1852;7 likewise i n Lowell f rqm 1843
to 1851. 8 In t.he l atter school, 90% of the bo ys and

all of the girls received ins t ruction in composition
during.those years.

!he course of stu dy fer 1852,

ho ;·; ever, made no mention o.f it in either the Engl ish or

1. Inglis, Rise o f the H>: gh -Scb.ool in Mas5.,

l~).

2. See Chapter II, 50 .
.
3. Amer. Jour, of Ed .. (Russell's), 'III (~g. 1828),
492-3.

M:enti-one d in an address by

Ste~fr, en

C.

Phillips, Cb.a.irman or the School Committee, at the
end of the first year.
4. Grizzell, oo. ~1t., 64.
5. ·~·; S92.
6. Ibid.;. 310-311.
7. ·.l.la.i .. , -294.

8. Inglis, 1\1•! of tbe li1gh-8chool 1n Bas1., 91.

'.

,
'

i

', <.

l

:

'

. :,,;\

\,,...,.

--s,
''

'l

-

l

·l

...

'.!'

t..;i'

107

classi ca1. d epartments • 1

"Eng li s h langu a'"';e anc li tera-

ture" were tau ght in the New Bedford "t- iigh School,
in 1870, thr : ;e t :l..mes a y:eel(:_ fQr f o ur ye a:·s.

Ths c ·'t.ll' s e

L"'lcluded "progressively reading, syntax , ana.l.y sis ,
synonomy, derivations, 9:.refixes and ai'fixes,

co:i. ~; osi­

tion and rhetoric.n2
'7,

The Cambridge course of study for 1849'-'
included rhetoric but was silent on the subject of

L, 18524 gram:na.r was required for three

compos1ti~n.

years, and decla.:1ation "fr':!m. the ?!la.le !llembers

of the

sch::-ol once in three weeks," but no co:rqosition.
:Barnard's survey of 1867 also omitted cention of com;>osition. 5

Perhaps the reason for the omission is to

be found in the fact th.at the Cambridge high school
1'\lnctioned p.ri::lclpally as a preparatory school

Harvard;a

~or

hence the English subjects might safely be

neglected.

The school committee reporta from about . 1857

to the close of the century show but little change i n
the status

or

composition, which continued in the main

.!

l. Stout, .22• .£.!!., 6.
2. Lull, .2.2• .£11., 259.
3. Grizzell, oo. cit., 293.

I
1·

4. .IMr,g., 328-9.

5. Barnard's Arp.er. Jour. of Ed., XIX (1870), 463.
6. Grizzell• .2.U• .£!1., 66.

!
,t

.'

108

.
· ~
t a.J..., s t u.d y. l
as an :i.ncia.en

That s t andards were not ver"",;r

high is eViJent in ~edford, whers the committee (1 364)

t

_? rided itsel:!:" on the "large ;:irovisionn 2 :nade f or
ccrn1posi t i on, -- once a .:nonth i:::: t h e ±:':L:-st t wo yea.rs

£.ind once a f ortnigi.:t in t he t ' ;ird a...11d fcurth. 3

Othe r

l. The following referencia s are from abstracts of
School Colll!llittee Reports in the Annual ReDort.s of
th~ (14assachu3Jetts] Eoard of Edu ,~ation:
Brighton High: School: "There will oe gonera-1
exercisBS in Composition and Declauation, and a
weekly lesson in A!0 ra.l Science dur ~ n6 the whole
course." 20th Ann. Rept. (18 57 , AP?• 184.
Watertown: Composition throu ghout the course l n

5

both the En,g l.ish and classical

d e ~Jart:!!.ents.

Ibid • .

A;>p., 211-1 2.
Quincy: "Written compositions shall be r-equi.red
of all the pupils in the fFgh and Gra.':lurn.r Schools."
i2Jth Arm.. Rapt. (1866), Apg. 259. .
Newburyport: Monthly ·;;xx:?:rcises in c omposition
throu zhout the course in both t he Eng lish and
cla:isical :1e?artments of t h e Brown Y.Tig:h. School. In
the Female H1gh 3Chool ~uackenbos' English eomposi t .i on
was prescribed for the first and second ~·e ars.
"Composition dur:ng t~e course." 30th Ann. Rep t.
(1867) ~ .l9µ. 52. Three yea~s later com:)o:si tion
exercises in both t he English a.nd classical depa.rtments were weekly l nste;...d of monthly. 3~rd Ann. Rept.
(1870), .A.pp. 75.
North Bridgewater: ttCompositions a.nd Declamati ons
through the entire course." Ibid., App. ~so.
Woburn: "Declar:.iations and Compositions t h rough the
course." 31st An..Tl, Hegt. (1868) ~ Ap .~.• 1 28 .
Brad.ford: "General .t!ixeroises ••• Declamations and
Compositions, weei!£:ly, t hrou gh t h t~ CQUrse.ti 32nd A..'1.!l.
Reot. (1869), App. 52.
tawrenc~:
Composition during the first three
years, along with drawing, writing~ read::. ng, .J eclain.ation,and bota.--iy. 37th Ann• Rept. \1872-3), Ap. p. 48.

2. Twenty-seventh Ann. Re pt. of the [Mass~ Board of
jg. (1ae4), App.· 87.

3.

lli£!.,

App., 90

)

~,

109

i
'

re ports of the s&1c per : od, a: t ho u gh at t r.:: st:;.ng an
a ~p reciati ·or:

of t he

:b19ortance ot com position, i r.d ica.te

co nfusion a.s to the best :!l eans o.f a ttahli.!1 g t he t<:;nd

suggested a historical

t he

~ritical

stud:~

of t he

English lan1-; uage and

study of literature t o provide that "<;xact

and elaborate training '.'equ13i te t o prepare •••

[ the students•] minds for a mo:: ·e c~mprehensi·1e grasp 11
of the "great art" of CO'-lposition.l

The Lowell School

Committee five years later, noting a reVision ot'
c '.;urse with greater emphasis

~n

t ~1e

i:::n.g l ish, reco ·21ended

that students keep a commonplace bi: :ok o.: :· t h eir composi-

The Dartmouth school committe~ went directly

tions.2

to the h art of the m;)tter in its observation:
Insist upon your scholr.rs writing compositions
o.ften; exa.""!Line them careft.illy, correct them, a."'l.d make

such observations as are necessary ••• Scholars
should begin to write compositicns at an early age,
and continue the practice as lon as·they attend

school. 0

-

But in spite of
ln a few of' the schools, in the state a.s

a whole composition did not make great progress.

In

the com;Josi ti on requirel!lent was probably

one, placed in the curriculum to

!
110

public, but never enf'orced.

B.S.Burlbut of the Har.,rard
~raini:r:g

Thirteen years ago I was ready to
high school. In grammar, I had ?arsed my way
the fifth to the first grad e of the school. In
ae
five years I had \"lrit t en per.haps five compositions.
'1' h9se were done outside t:1e :regul.1.r work to )lea~1e
one or two teachers wnose oonsciencea h .:1d occ a sim:ally
;tricked t:hem on the subject of English composition.
; spent. four yeara in the high school, without writing,
as far as I can remember, a single ~omposition. Once
a week for three yea.r3 I read Shakespere, Scott, or
Longi'ellow,_ and once a mont:i I d eclai:i~ d. Suc!:'t was
my ~::nglish education when I entered Harvard, and I
came from the public schools of a large Massachuset
city.I

to imagine what the situation was
in the small er.
Official

testi.:.:lony.

statement~

George H. Martin,

reporting in 1886 '

on

confirm Mr. Hurlbu,t' s

~gent

of the Board,

the high schools, does not incl u de

composition in the list of subjects studied.

it as one of the subJecta

Re mentions.

inc l ud ed in a general way

under "English", which "In t he best schools ••• ia
studied in some .form throughout the eourse. "2

It is

significant that the discussion of his observations in
the classroom, although dealing with grammar, rhetoric,,
l. Harvard 0., Twenty Years of Scb.ool and Coll ege
Etlg:u.sl':.
2.

so. .

.

, .

190.

.

fortx-•ysr,'b Aml~B,.· Rept. or th! [ llass.]

. 1883-:4 ,

A~P·

Bd, -or Ed •

i

·-

---,

111

and literature, omits
tion.

enti.rsly any

The same incidental

treat:~ ent

:~er.tion

·J f cor1posi-

of composition :!.s

'
seen in a course of studies fqr
high schools, pre;.1 a.red

by

i''ra.~

H. Hill o.t

t..~e

Chelsea Hig h School ar..d

i ncluded in the secretary's re9or t for the year 1884-5.
Composition, whic h is not on-$ of' the regul r:..r studies,

is to :receive attention thr-Jugho ut t he c::: urse.

3e doe s

not recommend ra.g ularly prepared com))ositions read before

t he school and. criticised.by the teacher, but rather '-'It
is a better plan, doubtless, if it be systematically
followed up, to rely on t:1e regul .:::.r work of the school

for composition practice .. .,l

He suggests note-taking

and abstract making as well as. p r eparation of' reports
3.nd tr&ru1lations.

ifhr. . t conditions were not greatly

improved as late as 1894 is indicated by a statement
.,Df

Mr. John T.

Prince, Agent of the- Massachusetts Board

o! Educationi

.l :recent inapection of the high schoola o:r two
countie• of U:a.ssac.husetts showed that great differences
exist in the amount or time given to English. the number of recitations of a four years' preparatory course
varying rrom 120 to 880. The amount of written work
required was found to be lamentably small, being

lim.i ted in some schools t .: one exercise a month. 2

In general, 1n the nineteenth century

or the rli(t.sa.1 Bd, of Ed. (1884-5),
121. .
.
.lour. of Proceedings and Addrea1ee of th! N.E•A•
{1894). 290.
.

1. 49th Angyal Reot.

s•

l

. •. _j.:
. ;,

I

--·---.--

- · - - -- -

--'-......._....._'°:-

...

- · ----· - · ~.._..:.__. ..-~ "''"

.

"';..,.,.

..

.
.,•_., .-, ~-~'

.-'>"""'-----

~·-- .......- - _ _ , . ~

I

112

.

composition in Massachusetts was listed1 a s Jne of the

studies in a class with declamation, music, and spelling.
Abo ut the 60' s .it made some gains, a s is evident f rom
the favorable reports made °h'J the school committees. 2
The practics, on the whole, was to

om~t

it from the

classical department, but to include it i n the commercial

1. Tht.ft aomposi ti on was actually taught in a l l of t ile
schools that listed it in the course o! study is
doubtful. Fowle,. in aJ1 editorial in the Common
Sehool Journal (1552), p. 375, wrote, "even now,
a large number of our schools have n;) composition
taught in them. No wonder, for not one teac her in
10 can write with tolerable ease and correctness ..
In an institute in !iassachusetts {1850) we required
117 teachers t o write what. they c.o uld in fifteen
mir..utes on ;1hap;Jiness. '1 At the end of fifteen
minutes, but seven teachers had done anything, and
four of these had requested to be excused from
writing. Then three more per t ods of fifteen
minutes were given, and only twenty teachers had
been able to write anything in the end." .
(See Lyman, SQ•..£!!., 149) ..
r~ . In the lower schools composition a pparently
ma.de considerable headway in the 30's and 40's. Hora.ce
Kann in r:.1s Thi rd Annual ReC?ort as Secretary of the
Board or Education (1839) said: "The ability to
express ideas in writing, with vigor and perspicuity,
is now deem.ed so valuable, that, in many places,
composition ha$ been added to the list of Common

School studies." (See AJier. Jour. of ES. (Rus:sell's),
II (May, 1840), 15.l). Further proof of its introduc-

tion is :round 1n the report of the committee of
Carver which noted that scholars from. the age of
ten to fifteen "can compose, write and fold a

letter, in a handsome form, tt a skill mastered by
very few a generation earlier. (Mass. Sch. Ret., 1839,
413. See Lyman, .2J!·C~, 150.). The school committee
of Sterling in 1840 reported the successful introduc-

tion or composition into some schools.
(Note continued. on page ll.3)

"'fh1s impor-

I

I

. . ·. ""-··-

J

113

It was an important part of t he work in schools .for

,

girls.-

When it was l i sted as a regular study, it was

trequently found :!.n the fi r s t year, and som et imes continued! in the second .. 2

R..tiode .Island
Al though Cor1.nectieut' s neighbor had no

legislation favorabl e to composition, it did have for

a time the services

o~

Connecticut's energetic educa-

2 . (Note continued from page 112)

tant branch has been too much neglected in former
years ••• English Composition should come next
in order ••• to grammar.n (Mass. Sch. Ret., 1840,
123.

Sea Lyman, .ill!• cit., 150).

The next year the

Rockport committee ~urged upon more advanced
scholara 1 who are acquainted with grammar, the

importance of writing co!!Lposi tion ••• This should be

a standing exercise in our schools ••• This exercise is too much regarded a.s a matter of form."
(Mass. Sch. ~et., l841, 27. See Lyman, ..Q.Q• cit.,
150.)

1. (~ates tic page ll3)

The superintendent of public schools in Lawrence,
speaking or the education of girls, said, "Particularly
would I insist upon the art ot compo:Jition, that they
may be enabled to do, what very many women, and men
too, are unable tl io, commit to writing their own
thoughts readily, correctly, gracefully, yet vigorously.•
See the 22nd Ann. Rept. of the tMass~ Bd. of Ed.

(1859)' 53.
.
.- .
.
2. In the iatertown High 9chool, Quackenbos.' leglish
Composition was a pa~ or the first year work in the
English course. See 20th j.nn, Rept. or the (Kass.]
Bd. or Ed •. (1857), App. 211-12. In the Newburyport

Female High Sc!r:>olt Quackenbos was prescribed !or the
first and 1econd years. See the 30th Mm• Rept. or the
[Kass~

Bd• or Id· (1867), App., 52.

,

-

;:.

· ~- - -~ - ···--- - ..--~-·

--~·

-- ................ - ..--- ·-- ·-

. ...,,,,

114

tional leader, Henry Barnard, who in 1843 became
Commissioner o f Education in Rho d e Island..
t

As part

!

o f the activities of t he .Rhode Island Inst1.tute of

Instruction, whic h he had formed to disseminate
li:1formation about education and t o awaken the interest

of teac hers, parents,

sc~ool

commissioners, and t he

public in general in educatL; n, he· published nAids to

English Composition."

This tract was one of a series

of nine pamphlets on· methods of teaching.

The subject

of composition was also included in the list of to?ics,
similar to the one he had used i n Connecticut, to guide
discussion at teachers' meetings.
Barnard's efforts,

~music,

As a result of

linear drawing, composition,

and mathematics as ap !)lied to practical lL:·e ••• [were]

introduced i nt o many school3.n1

Although Barnard's

chief concern ifa1' with the common schools, his l a bors

were bound to encourage composition in general.
When Providence established the first high
school in Rhode Island in 1843,2 composition was taught. 3

Records for the years 1855-68 also show its presence
in the curriculum. 4 Since the Providence High School
Barnard's per. Jour. or Ed., nv (Sep·t . 18G4), 574.
2. Although the bf-laws and regulattons were published
by the School Committee in 1840, the school was not
ready to tunction until 1843. Grizzell, .22• cit., 257-260.

I.

3.
4.

~.,
~.,

293.
235.

. . ;ti
"~

115

served as a model for the ·six high schools established
before 1865, 1 it is probable that composition teac hing
was extended to them.

Later school re ports indicate

1 ts ~Jresence in Wo ~-.nsocket (1872)

2

and in Warren (1872) 3 ,

where Friday afternoons were devoted to "Deelamati:J ns,
Compositions, and d1.usic."

Toward t h e close of the

century (18'38) Warren was given "Ever increasing attention to the study and use of the mother to ngue."

In

the lowest classes t hr ee periods a week were devoted t o
the principles of English composition, including a study

of ~ he best authors. 4
A decidedly progressive attitude was shown
by the Rogers High Sctx>ol in Newport which L~ 1880 5

suggested the adV1sab111ty of devoting to composition part

or

the

spent on grammar.

ti~e

A unified ?rogra.m in

English composition extending through the four years
had been worked out. The next year the status of the
subject was strengthe.n ed b-..:r .the requirement of an examina-

l . !bid., 262.
Annua

R ·
f the Bd. f Ed ••• • of R.I
1873 , App., 144. In the 12th Ann. Reot. 1882 ,
.App., 95, "very .exacting and t horough drills in
compositi -~:m" were indicated.
:5. Third Ann. Rept. or the Bd. of Ed . . . . of R.I. (1873),
J.pp., 278.
4. 29"1; AqA, Rept. of the Bd, of Ed •• , pr a.I. (1899),
. I.pp., 114
5. ;LlSh.lmlr HUSr Of th! ¥s1• or 84 ... ot 1.1'1 (1881),
2. Th r

. I

'

1

App., 69-90.

'

'f

>» '

" M

4

-'b e

.

tte! rt d"rl8 C ?

»

'tr

.

cz...ii.tA..k

c N

df(d'JM • •

c

-..- <mt

a

ff

> d , • o'1Jt5

Ktf'xriu~ "*''

re · r

x

.,.,,,,..,. . p; .. .

)

'

·•\.

Mhs~""' :,;.,/i
ru

116

tion.l

English composition had been elevated to a

position level with such subjects as mathematics and

.'

science as a pter e q ·_i isite far a diploma.
I n Barr i. ngton in 1886 2 composition and
declamation exercises began with the second year and
continued through the course.

In 1891 an attenpt was

mCJde to make that ruling something _more than a dead

letter, for it was reported: "The high school is no w
doing the best work it has ever dcne ••• All the scholars
are required (and the requirement is

en~orced)

to prepare

a composition, or d ~claT!lation, or recitation, every
3
f'ortnight. n
Again in 18934 the school ~eported
improvement "e:specially 1:::;. the study of

English coraposi tion."

At the time essays were indicated in the course of study
for the t..~ ird and fourth years.5

l. 12th Ann. Reot. of the Bg. of Ed ... of R.I. (1882)
App., 64. It may be that the pr i ~cipal or the
Rogers 111gh School was following the e.xamp·le of New

York State which in 1877 required an examination in
rhetoric and composition of candidates for the intermediate certificate in. the general three year course,
but not of those in the classical department. It
was not until 1890, however, that New

~orl:

State

gave a separate composition examiriation, and not until
1894 that the ability to write good English became a
prerequisite to the Reg~nta di~oma.., See p .133 rr.
2. 17th J.nn. Rept, of the Bd, of~··· of R,I. {1887),
.lpp., 85.
3, · 22nd •nn • .H.ept. Qf the Bd. of Eg. •• of R,I ... '{1892),

App., 78.
4 .. 24th Ann. Reot. of the Bd, or Ed ••• of R.I. (1894),
. App., 111.
5. ~-,. App., 127.

117

Westerly also showed concern about the

.
I

English work, the school committee .;;· ecommend1ng in

tha t i.n

~B87

all the schools composition and decl a::iation
1

should not be optional but required.

Bri stol at t he

sa."lle time decreed t hat 11£.a c h week there s hall be
general exercises i n reading, or declamati 0n, spel:ing

and compositi::in, t .h.r oughout al.l the courses. n2

Principal G. H.Currier of the Johnston
High School in 1891 was arranging the composi tio r~ work

·1

to meet t he needs of the i ndividual, and wa s successful,

at least to the point of

the president of

satisfyi~g

Brown University, who "Judging .from the sample •••
under his observation, ••• expressed
pleased with the

wor ~

hi~self

as well
~

do ne in that department."""'

The

report for 1895 show.,ed .that of twenty-three and a half
aonths of the high school course given to Engl ish, ten

were given to composition, an equal number to literature,
i

and the remainder . to rh et~)ric. 4

.l
i

When high school wor:c was introduced into

l
I

I

I
I

l. 18th Ann. Rimt. of the Bd. of :&a. ••• of R·l· (1888),
App., 110 • .
2. ~bid.t App.-, 93.
3 • .d2nd .ann. Hept. of the Bd. Of Ed ••• of R.I. (1892), '
App., 77 • .
4. 2sth Ann._'i\.ept. of the Bd. of Ed •• t of R.I. (1896),

App.* 112.

,.,

-·

. .

'~~ -... ~ .I

&f ·

lJJ3

the gra."Timar schcol of North Kingstown in 1891, "::.Xer-

ci.ses in composition and d.ecl.amationn were
t >.r0 ug:2aut the two

~1 ea r

,

course......

Vii

~equireci

t::. the s.dopt ion of a
ad va.:.~ced

new course of study for grad es 10-12 of the

gra::imar schaol in 1895, Eng.lish composition in the 10th
and 11th grades was followed by rhetoric in t~1e 12tb.. 2

"Declamations and essays average one every
two weeks rcr·each pupil" was the requi rement throughout
t •:::> roY·..id
(1.... oc g~'
~a;:;
.J.. ence
0; • 3
t ..,. ~ e course 1 n .,.,.

The

dent at inarwick req_ui:red that at stated

~ntervals

su]er ~nten-

"scholars

of tr:e :nest advanced class " submit to him compositions
on assigned subjects .. 4
co~posi tion

taught its

CentraJ_ Falls, on t :1e ether hand,
"in con...ricctiou with Hhsto::;:ic

and kn'~rican and English Li teratu.re. n 5

The status of composition in the public

high schools of Rhode Island in 189J is summarized in
a

stud~:

of t he h1 gh school curriculum made

b~~

the R11ode

Island Brar:ch of the .Association of Collegiate Alumni. 0

l . 23r4
App.;.

2. 26th

~·

9.

Rept. of the bd. of Id ••• of R.I. (1833),

Ann. rl rot. o f the Bd.

App., 115.

3. 24th Ann. ~~Rt• of the Bd.

4.

lpp., 116.
27th Ann. Beet.
lpp., 135.

5. I id.
th

s.

"Rept.

qf the Bd.

of Ed ••• of R.I. (18J6)t

or
or

Ed ••• of R,I. (1894),

Ed,., of R.I. (1897),

App., 116.
• R t. Of the Bd. Of Ed ••• ot R.I. (1100),
otl

H•• Cur.", 30-31.

;/

119

Of t he seventeen high schools in the state, six

~equired

.:o me ty?e of composi t1o~ in ei:ic '.-: o f th 2 four years;
~

one required it in the last t wo years
course; one in the f our y ears

o~

t hf~

o.~~

a tti..ree

y·aar

classical c ourse

and i n the fi rst year of t he EngJ. ish, 3..eter which, i.. n
the second and t hi rd y ears, it was elective;

one

required it the first three years, t o be re placed by

college entrance Eng.2. ish in the fourth;
the first year only.

one required it

Seven schools made no specific

naention of i t , two of thelll reqLiri:1g " Engl ish" for four
and one for five years.

The remaining four schools pre-

scribed varying combinations of Engl ish,
literature, in

connection

safe ccnc l.usion to be
from tha t re;: ;;ort is that t h ere was no

in the composition

requ ir~:! ent

in the State

Island in the year
va.r"jing degrees
were placed on the subject.

or

The SmithTille

Seminary at North Scituate, according t o a catalogue
of 1845, ':?lade no provision for composition exce9t

in the weekly rhetorical exercises consisting
composition and declamation.I

or

The University Grammar

•

l. Tolman,

w.mr:

ot Higher Ed, in R,1,.,

67-ea.

1 20

,

School,- situated at fl r:st in Warren and later
remov ed t o rrovidence, progressed f :-oin "reading and

speaking t he Eng l is h language wi t h propriety" (17 76)
a.nd nEn.glis '.:. lai.--iguages tau ght gra.w!na tically" (1786 )

to weekly exercises in ,j eclamati ·:;r: and c ompositi on

in the Englis h de part ment (1851).

In 1871 these exer-

cises were requil"ed in the clas s ical
In the Friends' Scb.001

2

de ~.> artment

also.

in Providence in 1894 English

com) osition was listed in the curriculum ror ever · year
o f t he literary and s cienti fic Cuurse, but ·J nly- in

the second ye ar of t h e classica.l course.

The Warren

Ladies' Seminary in 1894 limit ed the exercises t o
the first and second ;;rears of t he t bree year course. 3
Although t he i(ent Academy in the same y c:.ar list ed
rhetoric ror a term i n ea.ch of

composition wa s not mentioned.

t ~1 e

f ive courses of study ,

4

It may be concluded that in the period
18 20 to 1900, composition made no great progress in
Rhode Island until the last two decades.

Then, a t least

one school was more progressive even than New Yor i{ State,
designating composition as a prerequisite for a high

school diploma ror all pupils as early as 1881.

1. }bid., 35-37.

;g:
4. ~., 63-66.
~: ~:;

t

·i'
c

;..JI..,'.

•

_.,;

-·-- ·----~- -----···---------_____jl

121

Maine

Social developments in Maine .followed

in general the lines of development in Massachusetts,
for until 1820 ?.tassa.ohusetts controlled that northeastern
territory.

Therefore we can expect to find Maine

following the lead of' h '": r guardian state in education.
AccordL'"lg to the c!1arte:r o f the Gardiner

Lyceum, in Gardiner, the school was established to
enable mechanics and farmers to become skilful in

their occupations..

The work was not so narrowly voe a-

tional, however, as to axc2..ude composition, which

was taught in the la.st two years of the three year course. 1
Although Portland's first English High School,
modeled a.fter those

or

Massachusetts, included composition in i~s course of study, 2 there were no enrollments

reported in that subject in 1837-38.

In the Fec:iale

Graamar Schools, however, which were offering advanced

studies with a view to becoming high schools, it was
studied.2i

In 1867, the high school offered "Grammar

or

Compositionn in the first year of the general course

1.

·ftar.
&.

Jour. of Ed., {Russell's), II (April, 1827),

2. Grizzell, .2.2•

3. Jb~~·.
112.
. .
.~

ill•,

292.

.
I

.

122

and opportunity for "0ceas i ·"'nal Exercises in
Declar:iation, Composition, a nc!

Sel~t

Reading b:; t h e

whole School. nl

In 1848, the Hallowell High School reported
that "Reading, spellin ..~ , d efining , writing, compos:i-

1867, offered no

century we find the state
department of

edueat~on

urging attention to composition.

In a suggested course of study for t he high

of

sc~ools

t he state, a composition course is definitely placed
in the first year 0f both the English and college
prepa :- ato~J

courses.

The suggestion is made that the

work in rhetoric, grar.unar, and literature in the other
three years contribute to the teaching or composition.
Particularly is the close association of composition
with literature urged:

No matter whether a ·boy is going to college
or not, he needs careful and c0nstant drill in English
composition -- not for one or two ter~s only, but for

1 • . fbid., 324-5.
2.

~ ••

190.

3. Barnard's Amer. Jour.
-

.

of

Id., XIX (1870), 463.

,,

~·'!

1'"'

,-

123

every term of the high school cou.rse. And the study
of 11 te.r ature should occupy some ~art of a.::..:CTost ever;r
term of the course, because t he student wt-:.o is trying
to learn to write, !'1eeds to ha ve goc d ::.odels al ·Nays
before hi::n .l
With particular ref are.nee to t h e coll ege ;Jr epara t :)ry

course it is

reco~ended

t hat "throughout t he ccurse )

t h e strongest emphasi s s.h oul d be laid on t he wor -: :t n
English Com;JOSi tion. n 2

That this proposed cou .:: se of study is

a reflection of the ?rocedure of some of the larger and
better

sc!'-~ools

of the state is evident from a pap f.::r read

at the Cumberland County Teachers• A.s soci at:ion at the

annual meeting in 1895 by Miss C. Potter, teacher i n the
Brunswick H1gh School.
2 ~1owed

The course of study she out l ined

attention to .Lockwood's Lessons in English dur i ng

the first year with supplementary reading and
written work.

freq~ent

Throughout the course there was much
'Z

work ln 11 terature wit h written expression of opinion ......

?Jew Hampshire
Although ?ortsmouth established a high
school as early as 1827 , the other New Hampshire cities

,

124

did not follow its example very rapidly.

The ' e

were only _to ur more orga.:·1i zed before 1850, and it was
not until the d oca(:. e 1850-1660 that the movement r :?ally
'
. 1
became established.
Consequently, corn.positi on ·was

There ware several testimonials
the subject.

Swett, in his

At d~rican

?ublic

of his district school education

omposition-writing was unknown to us. We
pposed to acquire the 'art of writing the
language with 9ropriety' b;/ a t Gxtbook study

graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, without
ven a sentence.2

Nor was

itua.tion greatly improved in the acaderay

when pursuing
a Latin grammar

and .Re

course, which included
I

Vi r gil., we were neve3 once. required t o render
written translation.

That the situation was not completely remedied even
with the establishment of the high schools is evident
from the First Annual

1. Grizzell,
2•
3.

.2.2• .cit.,
~.,

.2.Q.•

122.
151.

~eport

cit., 181.

(1868) of Amos Hadley,

- ·- · · .!:.J, .

125

Superintendent of Public Instruction.

Ho

call ~d

attention iito a great negl ,3ct of certain i :n.portant

branches o:r study, n one of which was Er~lish composi6'•ra~..\,., ......,""r
£.U..l.U

tion,

subj 8cts

The regl.llations of lll36,

the PortS!llOU th

1

e

~"ligh sc ~1ools

ma;:;e

co:nposition, although English grammar
1 cluded.2

In 1853, howe ver, composition was ofl'er i~d

boys school, but not in the girls. 3

"Declamations

tions

... rst term, and co

inued

the ccurse.n4

Manchester, in 1845, had fourteen schools,
two

or

which offered, in addition to the ccmmon

elementary branches, natural :;;>hilo;sophy, al gehra,
bookkeeping, and composition. 5

In one of the low.:=r

I

schools, also, instruction in composition was given •.
It followed, therefore, t hat when· the high school was

opened in 1846 1 composition was included in the course
of study.
.

Concord organized a high school in 1847,

8

l. Bush, History of Education in New Hampshire.) 27.
2.

3.

Grizsell, il•

_ill., 99.

.

101.
. '
.
4 • .A.rm. B,tpt. of the Sunt. or Pub. !nst;r. (1876), 174.
5. Grizzell, SW.• .s,ll., 151.

6o

~.,

l~i: :59-::
t

o

r n

-

- - - - - - - - -

· -

•.• .

- - -

· -·

··

•

)

• •j

j

:L_c_] . :~

!,l~

1 26

but did not teac h composit:?..on.

severa:::. districts ccmbi ned

In 1835, when

for::: a reorga ni zed

t ~·")

high schoo l _, the new regulations }rescribed that the

students were to

11 gi

ve faithful attention to the

writing of Compositions, .Jeclamati1)n, Drawi:'lg ," etc. 1

In none of the thr ee cc urses o.f study outlined fer
l8f352 was composition mentioned, but probably t h e usual

attention "throughout the oourse" was gl.ve:i it.
Claremont, which 1n· l856 did not have a
high school, reported that there was a d. emand for
in ~ truction

in such high school subjects as nAl!! e bra,

Natural Philosophy, Co.:npo.sition, Physics,. and others of
the higher English branches."

3

Two of the schools re porting in 1876

gave particular attention to composition in the first
Rocha ster4 required it in the s pring and fall

year.

terms of the first year in all departll'lents.

A footnote

to the course of study explains that there were compositions by all, three times each term. Dover 5 required
compositions t hroughout the

co 1~rse,

in addition to a

special study of the subject one-third of the first

m·,

1.
162.
2.
·~ 320-22.
3. _.L. _, 174-5.
~·. ~ tte£t~ or the Supt.
_,,
• J
5 ....

--

·-

-

·-

or

Pub. Instr. (1876),

105.

·-------~~ .
;::i.·.

127

y ear L'1 beth the .Englisl: and cl a s sica2. cours e s.
A

~ew

o :- t h e

a s off ering couipo si tion .

~ r:!. v ate

set.cols are .)n !."'ecord

I n l 6 5C , t he tO'-'tTI of

Was hi ng ton, ins t ead of buildi ng a hi gh sc hool, paid
tuition f or its children a t t h e academy, in whic:"1
instruct i on was offered in t hirteen subjects, one o f' t hem
1
::eing composi tion. 1 The Pinkerton J.cad emy, in Derr-; ,

announced in 1898, ftone constant aim is t o teach t he
vigorous and graceful use of the English l a nguage.n2
Therefore muc h attention was paid to composition.
At Phillips

Ex e ter~

composition was tau ght cons i s tent ::y,

bu t a t vari ous t i mes was p l <:ic ed i n di ff erent ye a.rs of
the course.

~

For instance, a catalo gue'-> o f Pr :l.nc i. pal

.

Abbo t 's time (1788-1838), shows composition ir- t he
second and thi r d years of t he Eng l ish cour se, and i n
. the t h ird ye ar o1' t he cl assical,

limited t o three years.

bot r~

cours e s being

In 1850, Qua cken'b oa' Composi-

t i on was studied in the first term of t he first year
four year course.

In the middle,

or

or t llird, yea r,

"Themes [ were1 begun and continu ":'d throughout the

. course.n4

According to the catalogue of 1882, theme s

l. Grizzell, .Q.2~ .£11., 175-6.
2. Bush, .22.• cit., 82.

:;. Cun.i.nngham, Familiar Sketches of the Phill1"'.l!

x ter

4.

A~ad e

, 299.

bid., 801-4.

- -·- - -

----- ...

~-

____.______________

_:. .:,~

128

we re writ ten t :=irou ghout t h e seni or

~:t e ar

i n t ha cl as s:l c al

co urse, wherea s in t he Eng:..is h depa rtment, letter~ri t::!.r..g

,

and el emen tary r .:1etoric w,e re i ntrod uc ed i n t he !

f irst y r:·a r, follo wed by a s t udy of Hill's Rhe t oric
a nd .J.bbott ts ~!ow t c Wr i te Cl ::a rly in the t l1ird. 1

Th e course of study in 1898 i n

Engl ish de part::-1e.'1ts

cal l ~ d

bot ~ :

t he c l ass i cal and

fer El ements o:r Eng"I..ish

Composition, lettel'" wri ting and composition i n t he
first year.

It is evident that in a ew Hamp.s hi re
was not very extensively t augh t o utsL : e

schools until 1850.

Even then, to Ju dge

repor t, it was

Vermont
A ! ew courses of study of. Vermont hi gh

schools s how that about t he middle o f the centur¥,

composition was

~aught

in t he same incidental f ashion

a s in other New England hi gh schools.

The Burl i n gton

High Scbool, in 1850,. required . compositions "fortnightly".3

In 1859,"exercises in composition and

I

.. .:.J

129

High School
'!he list of subjects stu
tpelier OnL:m .High School :·rom

iw..: lude composition. 2

Similarly, t.he c uurses of

o t.. twenty-one acad emies reported t o t..Yie board of

education for the year 18?3-74 do not list composition,
"Z

although grammar and rhetoric are named.'-"

same

The pro-

ncidental. manner as in the other schools, for

mention of it is frequently omitted even in the

curricula of schools where it was tau ght.
Uni que in the aunal.s of composition t eaching

is a situation which j eveloped in a district school
in ifashington County.

When the teacher prescribed a

composition as part of the work in grammar, an eighteen

year old boy refused to write one.

The teacher

suggested that the boy bring an excuse from his father,
but the parent sent word that he had no business with
the teacher.

Thereui)on the trustee advised the teacher

not to treat the boy as a pupil, and he finally with-

draw.

When the matter was taken to cou rt, Chief

Justice Redfield upheld the school, affirming that
com.pos1 ti on is

1.
' 2.

·

~ ••

!fil.,

3. l§th

L"l

allowable mode of instruction in the

234.

24~4.

5ept. or. the Jt, !<}. ot Id. (1873-4) 1 291 • .
,.

;najori ty of subjects consti tut:'...ng a comcion school

educa.tion.l
,,
'.

·:rr-m

MIDDLE ATLA?i'rIC ST.ATES

Com.position, f avored by the Regents' ordinanc e
of 1818, 2 soon became an accepted part of a:..m.ost every
course of study in Mew Yer~~ State high schools and

academies.

When John Griscom, ins pired by his visit to

the schools of 8cotland, returned to New Yor k and founded
the High School for boy s in. 1825, one d.ay a week

devoted to composition. 3

Wii~3

The prospectus of the High

School of Eutfalo (1828) also announced the subject. 4
In the .New-York Free Academy in 1852 it was

taught

throu ghout the first three years, half of the f o1Jrth
but omitted in t h e fifth. 0

George B. Guernsey v. Daniel W. Pitkin, Supreme
Court of Vermont, Washington Co., August Term, 1859.

See 32 Vt. 224. Trusler, in his Essentials of
School Law (pp. 90-91) cites this case in support
of compulsory composition 1n common schools.
See Chapter II, p •. 44.
·
First annual report of the High-School Society,
6-7. See Brown, ~ cit._, 306-7.
a er Jour. of Ed. \.nuss~ll's),III (Apr. 1826), 235.
66th Anr1. rlgpt. of the fl eg. (1852), 226-28.

I

... J

1 31

In 1806 when the

began collecting statistics of

=~ egen ts

stud ~ es

Jursued

1:1 the academies, six of t he eleven schools

reporting offered "Logic, rhetoric, compo sition, etc. 11 1

By 1836 all schools except

the New York Institute for Deaf and Dumb
reported composition.2

Down to the y ~ar

1868, when the Regents discontinued t he _9Ubllcation of statistics relative to composition, the re ) 0rt is practically the same.
Occasional scho,11 returns make no mention

or the subJect, but the omission is in all
probability due to negligence in re porting

rather than to exclusion of composition
from the course.

Undoubtedly the desire t o

share in the state lit.erary fund was largely

responsible for the almost universal teaching

1 . See Table I, p. 44.
2. 50th Anp., Rept. of the

Regts. (1836), 51.

132

of com;Josi tion :.n t~e state.l

The frequency of the exereises varied from once in seven to once in
twenty-eight days, but most o:.. . the schools

requi?ed it once in two weeks.

Girls,

being excused from. declamation, were i n some
~chools

required to submit compositions more

1. Efforts tor the extension of composition
teaching were not limited t r- the .hig h
schools. The state departm.ent of' educatial
made atte.-:ipts in the 4C' s t o introduce ·
that subject into the common schools.
County Sur> er .;.:ntendent Stephen Moul ton
(Oneida Co.) urged the teaching of com9osition 1n the common !Chools, admitting,
however, that its inclusion was unusual
in schools nso elemental in t heir instruction", since Juvenile minds were usually
considered incompetent for the task and
teachers were not :prepared to t each the
subject. (See Ann .. Rapt. or the Supt. of
Co • Schoo
of he Stat
f N. Y., 1344,
436-4 •
When County Superintendent
Albert Wright sought to introduce the
subject in the no rthe~1 section of
Washington Co., he found but few
schools that objected to it. (Ibid.,
635.)

1 33

fr equently.

l

Althoug h occasional

r e p o ~ ts

of

individual schools show a genuine interest in
composition teaching, the

~~ egents

evidently

were not entirely S3 tis.fied with t h e

for in 1877 there came a change.

in ~~ tructi on ,

In order to

raise the standards of academic instruction,
the Regents provided for axa:ninations2 in certain
subjects among which was the co."!lposite subj ect
n:ahetoric and Cor!!po si ti,: m n •

TheJ,. were on

the list of "indispensable subJects", the

successful completion of which was a prerequisite for the i ntermediate certificate in the

English, or general course, designed f or t hose

1. 65th Ann• Rept. of the Re gts. (1851), 17677.
2. Regents examinations, devised in 1866 to
furnish a basis fo:r t he. distribution or· funds
devoted to the encouragement of academic
education, were until 1877 limited to
ar1 tr..met1c, geography, English grammar, and
spelling. In 1880 a law was passed making
the distribution of the Literary Fund

contingent upon the number or pupils µassiing
the adTanced subjects established by the
law of 1877. (See the 94th Ann. fiept. of
the Regt1. (1881), 467.

. . .,.

l /54

whose sduc-3 .tion termi nated ::.ft<:!r t hre:s years !l t t h e
academy.

In the c::.. assical, o:> coll t: r;e entrane 0 course,

however, no such exa':l.ina ti on ?'i as ne cessary t o secure

the ~eg ents' diplo~a. 1

A :nore ·!etailed statement of t he requ i rement
s :-: ows that t h e emphasis. is still o::. work of a f or::ial

character.

The c hi e f' concern of

the Regents is t ha t

the student be a ble to "name , def'!..ne,, and class i fyff,

the sole test of his

ability being a "s hort
essay upon a subject ass.'!.gned by ••• [the] Bo a rd. n 2
In

t~e

com~osition

s;llabus revision af 1890 inc reased

· atte11tion ·,vas gi v :~n to t h e :ioth er t on gue!.

One of the

most not.able Changes was t !1e int roduction of English

composition nss a pr actical advanced course in langua ge

tor t hose not

havin~

ti~e

or inclination t a study

technical gram~ar and rhetoric."~

Composition, now

<11vorced t:rom r hetoric,, emerged as a subject in its own

right, although the requirement still emphasized tech-

nical! ties and matters of form.

Literature now usurped

the place or rhetoric as a corn.pan.ion study to composition.

The close relationship of the two studies was

furthered by the examination, which included "an essay •••

94th fuln• Rept.

.llli•,
l04!h

478.

or the

Regts. (1881), 468-69 •

yn. · !ept, ot the Regt1. (1890), I, 233. -

135

on a topil.c ••• tal{el1 from the wor:.: o.f some autho r )rev ~ ously ~'"'lnounced. n

Eowevr.~ r , in t r1

9Valuation o f t he

_;:i ap ::rs, t he i deas appare::.:t.ly wf.!ra of l ittle 1'.!lpcrtance,

since credit was based on 11;:-.::xcell ence in ca;Ji tali::ation,

punctuation, s p elling , general neatness, ).recision,
clearness, proper use of wards and logical sequences
of ideas."1
The new requirements met with in1mediate
a £) proval, :'or at the next meet.1.ng of the .Associated

Academic Principals, December 1880, the following resolution was adopted:
R.esol ved, tr..at in the -: )pinion of the associated
a cadenic princi9als of the state of New York• the
subject of English composition is deserving of more
attention in the schools of the state, and that we
heartily a :.,c1rove or its introduction into the lists
of' regents' subJects.2

In the annual report for 1891-2, the Regents
expressed t hemselves as well pleased with the rasul t.s

or

the new examinati ons.

English grammar and rhetoric

had been largely replaced by Elsmentary English and
English eompositlon.

Students did a great deal of

reading and writing and less scientific study of graomar
and rhetoric.

"this was exactly the result aimed at

the university in planning the English courses in the

lj05th Ann •. Rcpt. or the Regts. (1891), 14-15.
lb1d,, 306-9.

l

l

J

136

present edition of the a.cadern.ic sy llabus.n 1
'.!'he next few years saw t he "Regents continuing
I

~

vi go rously their campai gn :or improvement in &lgli:Jh.

In 1893 a resolution was passed desi gned to encourage
the use of good English not only

wt

in a l l classes. 2

~n

the composit ion cla3s,

They proµosed t hat papers deficient

in English be ao marked, ,:)l'!d that no certificates be

11sued to students without such limitation plainly
indicated, until the condition had been :removed eith er
by passing satisfactorily another examination in the

same subJect or in English composition.

The :resolution

was submitted to the Associated Academic Princ"i;> als

\ogether with an alternative plan providing for the
deduction of ten credits for poor English in any.

exam.ination.

After a heated discussion, the principals

• adopted a :reaolution expressing their disapproval of

marking down $tudents n1n the subject matter in mathemat.iea and sciences for deficiency in English. n 3 The
f1rs't plan was adopted by the Regents in

Februar.1 ,

1894. 4

l.
2. ~~+--~~'""""'oliiiG..;:;-:;o...o:;.~~--~~~

25.

4.

(1892), r 68.
1893~, II, 1:560-63.

!

1894 , 591-2.
1893 , II, 1362, foot-

137

An even mo.re drastic step talcen by t he .Regents

in 1893 was a resolution requiring t he
satis :~a.ctor y

teaching of the Englis h language, e s pecia1.ly

ill compositi on, f or at

r .

l ~ ast

three hours eac h weel'\:
dur i ng the academic course, a s a co ndition of
admission to t he University or of r etention on the
list of in5titutions in good standing and entitled
to recei V·e a pportionments tram the academic fund. J.

The Laws, Ordi nances and .3y-Laws in the Regents Bulletin
tor June, 1895) give the law in a sl i ghtly modified form.

Instead of t h ree hours each week, the requirement is
•not less t han two and a half 40-minute periods (or t he ir
equivalent) each week o! satisfactory instructi::m in
the use of English, Sp f?cially compo3ition.n 2

In the

bull e t i:n f or 1897 the lle gents called attention

fa.ct that the def'1ni te

English

w~s

~rescri?tion

t .~

t he

in regard to

a departure f rom. their usual pr actic e

or

leaving t h e ourr1.c ulum entirely to the local boards.

They felt justified in their actions because of the

or

. importance of composition and the marked neglect

t r1e

some schools. 0

Ibid., 1360.
iOO'th Ann. Rept .. of the Regts~. (1894) , 1433 .
There is a discrepancy in the various publications <)f

the Regents in regard to the requirement in English.
!he handbook of 1895 calls for at least three hours
each week, as did the original resolution (See u.s.N.Y.,
2nd ~· Rep~. 2 r the Efl' oepi., ;(1894, 439). The
,.,
aecrearyf I report for ~ 1. however, mentions two and
·: · · one-half forty llinUte periods as the minimum. (See
/ , lllth ~· Re~t, gf th; i\~~~=·~ l89"f, rl49.)
. ,.
· lfith
RE(j. or ine li: ; ·\1897), r 149-oo.
'
'

=·

I
_..__

..

'•

~

--····- ~--~....____

...

138

All this agitation in raver of Engl ish had

the desired resu} t, for evel:"'J ;;enr :::.o:re students
were found in En.g lish course s.

In 1894, the examinat l on

department re()orted that t he work in Eng.2.ish h a d increased
86% in three years,

five years.

107;~

in £'our years, and

184~1~

in

Not a small part of this increa3e was in

the composition c our,es.

Whereaa in 1869 , 3, 337 answer

papers were accepted in composition and .rhetoric, in 1892
•

6,365 were aceep·t ed in composition,

and

1692 ir! rhetoric.

In 1895 the figures were 6 1 099 and 21 987 respectively;
in 1894, s,101 and 3,896.1
At every opportunity teachers were reminded
of' the L ·.portance of composition.

In 1894 the e.xa:.n.iners

called attention to the fact that many Engl.1st- papers

s howed deficiency in sentences, co.nneet1on or ideas,
•~ell1ng,

and paragraphing.

They urged constant

attention to composition in all English study, since

t hey held one

or

the most important aims of the work to

be the development in the pupil of power of expression. 2
The syllabus revision of 1895 1 although
retaining English composition on the 113t of English

l. 2nd Ann. Rept~ ~!the E.xftm• D!mt• (1894), 15.
2. l67tt[Allli, ~et gf the Rjgt3!• (1693), II, 1347.

I

.,. .,._ , :,. . . ~. , . ~J

139

studies, made full provision tor C:JP.lposition througn.out

th e new courses designated as

?i~st,

Second,

~nd

.No t h eoretical stud:,- was

Third Year En gli s h .

i
l n~en·:! .c: d_,

for i t was s pecifically stated t hat s pecial emphasi 3
would be ,?laced "on practice i n w:riting Eng .:'. ish."

Further:1ore, in these

c ~:m:rs e s

t he examinati on paper as

a whole was subJect to criticism as an exercise in
composition.

A distinct advance over the syllabus of

1890 is seen in the statement that essays be criticised

"for subJact matter as ·well as .!'or form; and a

collection or sentences h.aVing little or no connection
cannot be called a satisfactoriJ essay s L1ply because

the individual sentences hnve no serious grammatic

errors.n1

One reason for t his new emphasis on

content is to be found in the desire to test t he
papil's knowledge of the prescribed books.

Whatever

the motive, it is evident that the Regents were getting

away rrom mere technical considerations.
As a result of the activities of the Regents
in the 90 rs, more a."ld moi· e schools orga:iized composition

courses, which, as a rule, w.:;re Jl.s.ced i n the early years

of the high school work.

An examination

or

t hirty

eoursea of study reported to the Regents in 1895 shows

l. 2nd Ann, Rept. or the Exam, Dept. (1894), 291

-

I·

"•

...........~:~---.-:..

-----~~......,..,.;...._

.........,;...-.-~

....... ..___.

tr.

140

Table II. -- ,uloca.tion of composition courses in the
curricula o.t t }·J.irt~r hig!.-1 scho91s of'
New York State in 1895-

Schools

Throu ghout the
course

1st
yr..

Academy of Sacred Heart,
Syracus.e
Albany Academy
Albany Female Academy

Albany High School
Buffalo

Butfalo Seminary
D'Youville Academy

x
x

x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x

x

. Newburg ~,ree Academy

Palatine Bridge Onion School

Poughkeepsie ntgh School
Rhinebeck Onion School
Rochester Free Academy

x

x
x
x

St • .A.gne• Female Seminary

Brooklyn
St. Bernard's Academy, Cohoes
"': Schoharie Onion School
:.,: . Stamford Seminar/ and Onion
' ,
School

West Hebron Onion School
Whitesboro Onion Schoel

4t h
y r.

x
x

Gowanda Onion School

Lock?ort Onion 3chool
Harcellus Onion School
Uarshall Saa1nary of Easton

yr.

x

Dryden Onion School
Elmira Free Academy
Fonda Onion School

Ithaca High School
Kingston Free Academy
Knowlesville Onion Sc!iocl
Limestone Onion School
L1ttlefalls Onion School

2nd
yr.

x

x
x
x
x
x

l. Compiled ,from data in the lg09th Ann. Rept.
Regta. (1895}, 796-1299.

or

the

141

that only six clung to the earl i er requirement of
"composition throughout the cou:rse. 11

One school placed

two in the t ~:ird year.

1 t in the last year;

In six

it was prescribed for the seccnd year, while the

remaining fifteen

~laced

it in the f irst year. (See Table II.)

A study of the subj ect ?lacement reported in
1898 reaches a similar conclusion.

the favorite position of

Ta ble III reveals

co~position

to be the second

term of the first year.
Table III. -- Al.location of co·m posi ti on courses in the
curricula of a number of ~gh schools of
New York State in 1895

Year and Term
Course

l

4

3

2

a

b

a

b

a

b

Latin Scientific

16

25

9

5

2

3

Classical

16

19

6

4

l

English

17

29

7

8

2

2

a

b

l

l

2

When Henry L. Taylor, assistant to the director

of the High School Department reported on wcourses and

Working Programs• in 1899 1 he assigned English composition t o the first year.

This placement was based on

1. 6th Ann, Rept. of the H. S. Dept. (1898).
from tablea on pp. 408-13.

Compiled

~.J

142

current practice as revealed b~' a study ~f 213 courses • 1
an~

When by the sy llabus revision of 1895, First, Second,
Third Year Eng.l.ish 'iiere offered a s substitutes for all

other courses except t he ref.I.ding c ourses, special

em phasis on composition was required in the first y:.;ar,
to be fol J.owed by practice in
years .. 2

,. -·

cor.no ~A~~
--

. .

":

in the succBed i !lg
.

It is eVident tl°'..at composi_tion was recognized

a:s a fundamental study to receive attention as early
as possible in the course.

A summary of the :b.J.stor,· of composition
teaching in liew York shows its vigorous

gr~nrth

to be

due primarily to the constant stimulus given by the

Regents.

The initial impulse to its development was

given by the law or 1818.

From 1877 on, when it was

designated as a required subject for the intermediate

certificate. it made particularly rapid progress.

In

1891 the first composition examination was given, in 1893

co:mposi tion wa..s made a .requirement for the academic
diploma, and in 1894 the ability to write good English

was :nade a prerequisite to the attainment of a Regents*
diploma.

No other state even remotely approached New

Yorit State in the encouragement given to composition

e•

7th Ann. Hept. or the s.s, ·Dent· ·(la9e), r:3a.
jijd
rlep'\. o! \be Exy, · D10;\. (l894J, Exam. Bul.
. ( une, 1895), 273.
...
=--"---- - - '

,.

-~--.....,.,...~~~..,....._...__._,,.........

/

_____

.....____.__,,,_ ..:::u._ ._,_J" ' -........ ..,_..,...., _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ ._

- ·-

143

New Jersey
The New Jersey school re ) orts gi va scant
1

n1en t i on of co;nposi t i on until late in the century.....

'l'he

course of study in Paterson illustrates t h e gradually
Lnc1· aai.ng i:'.llportance of t l10 subject.

An early report

(186 2) 2 shows "cocrposi tions and l e ssons on morals"
t hroughout the three- year cou r se.

compositions are semi-monthly.

In 18€39 3 ~ne l <'?arn th.at

In 18:32, ho never, cace

no longer was composition regarded as merely

a change;

an incidental study, but a subject on a level wit h ot hers
in the curriculum.
.zation as

The superintendent re ported t he r eol"gani-

foll~w s:

A decided innovation has be·en made in our Higt1
School 'itOrk . The matter of theme-writing and Englis h
composition has been made a full department of the
High School work, and a teacher w1 th no other ·
re-s.p onsibillties has been assigned to this wor~{•

At the same time, an attempt has been made, and with
excellent succ.eas so far, t n insure to the students
the possession of ideas, i ;~pres .•ions and t houghts
before asking for their wr.1 tten expression. We are
attempting to solve f or secondary education that which
Harvard co11ege has settled for higher edu <!ation --

how to teach agreeably, i hortly and effectively t he
writing of good English.
1. Westfield reported composition 1n 1864. (See Ann.
t. or th Su t. of" P b Sc oo s ••• of N.J. (1864),
74.
Per th Amboy, ten year$ later r equired
•Declamation and composition in each of the classes
every week." (See Aim. Hept. of the St. Bd. of Ed.
and the Supt. of P11 b. Insq. of N.J., 1874, App. 12-13.)
2. Ann. Rept. of the Su ot. of Pub. Sc.hools of the St.

or N.J. (1se2), 160.

t. of he St. S
eP • of the M·

3. Ann. R

' 4. Ann.

~l
•

l: ::-

t

144

A si!llilar. deve.lopment too.I:;: place
in the .?hillipsbur~ Co !i:ose of study .

In 187&1
q

no mention of the subj ect was made, but in 1880...,

it was

s~ecifica.lly

named i n s ach of the four

years of the h1g11 school.

Pr nceton in 1895

reco::unended school publications as an aid to
.

composition.

3

~

realization of the 1mpor-

tance of English. is

eVid~nt

in

th~

curriculum

revision reported by .Bayr:irme in 1897, one of

t i'1e

~a.in

features of whlch was "much '.!'lo:•e

thorough wo.r.k in English. n

The a..:;::i of the

board '1'as e:Qressed as follows:

When our children leave school we

wish them t-:i be able ••• t o ex'.)re~s t nems el ',·es
clearly and gramr:atieally in ordinary conversa.ti•Jn, and t o write a let t er without mistakes in spe~ling, punctuation anc! the use
of capitals.

l.
2.
3.
4.

Rent. of the St. Bd .. of Ed ••• (1875), App .,
Ibid., (1880), Apµ., 18
Ann . Rett. o.r t he Bd . of Ed .. , (1395), 276.
Ibid., 1897), 203.

·.

~

..,...

Although ?assaic reported that its
coursa v1as based or. the reco:n:-:1encati.Jr..s
of the Committee of Ten, t.b.e time allotment
co~position

far .S nglish

that.

One

~eriod

does not indicate

a week was devoted to it

throughout the course except in the last
ters when three periods a wee!{ were giver. ·J ver

t o the "preparation of

"~ati~n
v....
,,., • '

~r m~Asi•o
"l
4,.

'..J

-

t

.

~ •

School in El·ize.beth

'I'he Eat tin

~Ii g h

re :~orted,

Snglish c0mposi ti c n.

~xter:C..s

t'r.rr:ughcut

the entire course. The third class
is so divided tha t each , u911 prepares a
co!.11posi tion on aom.e subject assigned, once
a month. BesLles this, exere13en .J .re r ·~q u~red,
usi.r.i.~ Cf.littenden's Composition as a guide.2

Flamington (1895) 3 a:id ~~ew Brunwsick (l8Jd) 4

l. ~.,
.., ..I.bid.,
""•
3. Ibid.,
4. Ibiq.,

~

1895)

1

264-5.

1895), 240.
1895), 242.
1898), 228-9.

.·

146

taught com;:>osition throughout the f8ur y•->ar s.
In the one-year co.,ifilcrcial

co1J:r- Se

at Nort h

Plainfield, l com;iositicn ~vas a d efiri ~ t,c: r<:'qu:.re-

;nent, but t here wa s no ;ncnti:m of t he subj e c t

in t he scientific cour se.

Eloomti eld2 offered

"English with E;:;isays a.nu Declar.:ation."

Penn s yl ~rar:ia
The lra.ntcli.n High School o f Ph"..la-

·i elphla, establ i shec in 1326, had vieekly exercis e s

in composition except in the first half of : :. he
fi.r st y "lai· when the

pieces" in

~he

wor~c

was oral.

nnescri) ti ve

t :lrd quarter of the first year

were followed by "narrative ;:>iecesn for the
remainder ot the year.

In the second quarter

of the intermediate year a course in the
elementary pr.inciples of co.mposi tion was gi ,Ten, the

appendix to lurray•s Ora.mar being used as a text.

l.

£9id., (1898),

~30.

2. !J2!g., (1899), 241.

147

The next ter=n the compositions were "or.. ther::es
sel~;cted. n

l

The school at tacr1e<i c 0n siC.erabl e iDpo:-ta.nc r::
!

to language study, listi!1,.:: " a hi zr~ dezr:::e o r f ac L _i ty

oo th

in oral· ar.d written composi ti «; nt: as one (>.f t '.1 e

skills

11

to b e acquired by ever'jr youth who alms a.t
.

..,

success and usefu lness in his future ;iursuits.n--.
The early courses of study of the Phil adel .Jhia
. Central High School, established in 1837, fail to

mention compositi on, although the nEng2.ish Lar:gua ge"
3
was taught.
The re port of 1845, l1owe:ver, s ~1o•r.s a

hdlf year deyoted to "Composition and rlh~torical
Analysia.n 4 In 1852 one hour a week was 3et aside for
!:':

the study of composition in each of the f our y <)ars. 0

In 1880° it ·was st111 lis t ed for each y:::ar. :

As usual,

composition r eceived

Comm ~~re 1al

s ~H~ci al

attention in the

Course, the report for 1898 recoll!i!lending ttParticular
·atress ••• upon composition work" in the first year.

(Rus sell's), III (Oct. 1328),

.

,'

.l

'·.~.J

(

"

148

In the second year the study was continued, and in
the

rhetorical ;;> r inci pl :'; S and Bssa:r s were

t ~ : ird,

1 nc:...1 u,....... e d • 1

The course of study for 1300 sho ws a con-

siderable reduction in the amount o:t' tiae spent on compositi<m.

Student:s in the Modern Language Course

studi ed the subject one hour a wee.K in the t hird

· ~md

f:Jurth y r. :ars, whereas those in the Classical and Latin

Scientific Courses were allotted only one period a week
during the third year.

Likewise, in the Commercial

Course only one :Jeriod a week during the first year was
devot.e d to composition. 2

It is very likely, however,

that essay work,in accordance lfith prevailing practice,.
wa!t continued .in connection with the literature study
which found a
Pe~naps,

~lace

in every y ear ot each course.

too, the work in the languages, Latin, Greek,

French, and German, of which each course had a share,

was ex;>eated to fUrniah training in writing.

The High School for Girls, in 1867 1 offered
"analysis and composition." 3
The school reports of the 1880's show no

particular emphasis on composition, f,or many of the schools

l.

tn:· .

of. the Supt. ·of Pub. Inst. of ••• Pi• (1898),

I. Edmonds, SU?• ill•, .A.ppend1x G, III.
.
3. Barnardta Amer, Jour, ot ~., XIX (1870), 550.

~---.....!----<.:..-~~~---.._,,._:._........~'------~~~ ...-

--- ----·-~-~~
:r.1...,

149

fail to mention it in the cotlrse ot study.

Only

tour name it ,at all, Al lGnto·!Vr. l i s ting it for all
i

three years,~ William.sport :requi.ri::ig declamation and
composition once a month

t h.r~u zr:out

,,

the f''.)ur years,$;,

and Shamokin placing it in the ti.rst year. 3 Corry in
18894 ~eported increasing attention to Eng l ish (including
composition, rhato:ric!" a..."ld :..1terature) Which was tau ght

throughout the f1rs.t year and one-third oi the second
year.
From about 1890 on, 11 terature figures large.l y
1n the .re;x:>rts, azi..d school comm.1 ttees pr1de themselves

on the growth of their libraries.

but scant attention.

Composition receives

When it is taught, 5

practi.ce

varies, Pottsville (1890) 6 offering 1 t in the .s enior

class, Pottstown (1891) 7 in the freshaan, and Lancaster

(1891)8 requiring 11 Composit1on and Declamation every
alternate week," :presumably throughout the course in
both the boy!# and girls high schools.

Prizes are

l. Rapt. of the Suot. of Pub. Instr ••• (1882), 192-3.
~.,

2.

i

264.

.

i. !bld., 253.
4.
14., (1689), 122.

s. he !ollowing references to

composition also occur in
the school reports:
Bradford: !our years of Eµ.glish, including daily
. co!lposi tions. Ibid•, (1894), 137.
·
Norristowns compo.s1t1on "required throughout the
. course along with orthography. Ib1a., (1894), 180.
Foster· !o1'I1Ship,, Lucerne County: in the new high

.

school at Woodside eompo1ition and orthographf are in
(Bote• continued on page 150)

150

awarded in Ashland to stimulate composition wo r k ,

~nd

Miss VerGie Groff receives a Webster's Oniv ersal Dictionary "for having writtan the best i:.npromptu esday on
'The Soliloquy of a School .Desk.'"l

Titusville , i r:_ 1895 1

makes no mention of composition, but has "Rhe tori cals
throughout the coarse. " 2

Choster (1896) plans t o taac.h

composition in its new commercial course, 3 while DuBois
(1898) requires summaries or the clas.sics read. 4

At the very close of the century

1~r e ased

importance begins to be attached to composition, and
several schools make a det ermined effort to improve
the work.

Williamsport encourag.e s composition by daily

rhetorical exercises, twenty-five minu t es being S'..: ent
on essays and orations at the openL"lg of' the session.

5

•
5. (Notes continued from page 149)

the course or study.
(1890), 152.

a.~.,

Ibid., (1898), 199.
to the re 0ort of 1896

Acco~ding

{µ.-195) • English composit.ion and rhetoric are still

offered in the last year. In 1899, however, composition has been moved down to the second year, where
it is required in all courses, General, Classical,
and Teachers• • . ~., (1899), 226-7.
fJ. Ibid., (1891), iar:a. Ibid., (1891), 147.
1. (Notes to pa e 150)
1892
133.
'
1895
215.
!ill·,

fm·'
_.,.,
tit''

1896

1896
1898

,' 151.
',

193.
286-7.

151

West Chester, too, has daiiy exercis es in compositi on
for t h ree month s of every ye ar.

The schoo l

rc ~ cr t

reads in part ,

Composition is of suffi cient i~portance to have it
caraf'ully and t horou ghly tau ght by t eachers who prepare
themselves s ;i ecially for the work . If our ;:n.::pils expres s
t hemselves badly in wri t i ~- - a tter :1.0W well t h ey
have been tau

,. ~

subjects,
nor wi ~

not get credit for
r beacher r Bceive meri t f or he

· - ta..l'ld the

ey

kno!
rs.

In the period under consideration it
be

c ~ aimed

t hat composition

~ade

very

i n the larger schools, until

It was frequent:.!..y f ound as a general
xercise along rt t.h s pelling, and sornetimes,

a..i.: er 1890 1 in connection with l it Hra.ture.

Delaware

The Wilmington Conference Academy, of Dover,
in 1894 definitely scheduled a course in composition

tor the first year of t he three year classical and
scientific course s.

ttExercisea ••• in declamation,

composi t i on, and elocut1ontt 2 wer e r equired of all pupils

1. Ibid; (1898), 261-2.
2. Poweil, R1stor_y of f£g. in peJ.., 68.

/.

I

i

152

in addition to the other prescribed subjectB.

NOi:tTH CENTRAL STATES

The status of compoaition teaching in the
second half o :!' the nineteenth century in tha North

Central States seems in general to have been similar to
that in the New England and Middle States.

In 1921 when

Stout made a study of the development of the high school

curricula in schools of the North Central section, he
roundl that in the period 1880 to 1890 composition, as
a rule, was not included in the course

or

study, but

was r.aent.ioned in a footnote along with such studies
as declamation, spelling, and music.
weekly to a monthly

e~ercise.

It varied from a

Often it was taught in

connection w1.th another subject, first with grammar, t hen
With rhetoric, and finally with literature.

When it

was not thus associated, he found that it wa.s rarely

})laced in any year except t he first, rhetoric being
reserved for the second and third years, mainly the
second.

A.fter 1880, rhetoric was more frequently

round in the first year in conJunction with composition.

ln the early yeart or this peri od instruction in written

expression was rarely provided in the cl assical cours,~.l
In the later yeur:s co.mposi t:!.on lost its occasi ,:mal

character a."'ld 'Has gi van a place in t he curricu:um,
definite per :. ods per week be::.ng assigned t o 1 t.
The extent of compo.'.li ti on teac hing 2 .'.~: ro~ 1860

1. IQ1r;l., 89.
2. ~ followi.."'..g excerpts are from twenty-seven courses
, of study selected by Stout as t ~; pical of the years
1859 to 1900. Only three or thel:l fail to mention

composition. Note that from apµrorlmately 1880 on,
th~re is a tendency to assign composition to a specific
year. It most be borne in mind, however, that these
courses are re,? resentative of the larger city schools
rather t4an of the smaller, which were probably not

able to o f fer so wide a range of work. ~ . ~
Ann Arbor, Mich., 1859: "Declamation and Com9osition
aemi-monthly. 11 Stout, ~· cit., ro.
Madisnn, lisconain, 1863& •Exercises in Deelamation
and composition weekly throughout the course.n 1.121.ft.,
21.
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1862: "English Classics and
Composition~ for one hour a week during the second
year and one half of the t hird. During the first
half of the third year, the student is offered a
choice of classics or composition. A footnote
explains 1

8

Beg1.nning with t ,h e t hird year original

addre$ses and essays will be required once in three

we.eks to the end

or

the courae. •

l.l?!£1 .. ,.

21-22.

Leavenworth, Kansas, 1867: "Composition and
Declamation weekly throughout the entire eourse."
~.,

23.

Jacksonville, Illinois, 1869: "Reading, spelling,
declamation, a.n.d composition continued throughout"
both the English and Classical. courses. Ibid., 23.
Vlaterloo, Iowa, 1870: "Pe!l.!Ilansr.1-;>, Dec lama.tion,

and composition throughout the course.~ Ibid., 24.
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1872: Composition definitely
assigned one hour a week every year except the first
term of the. third year. ll'?.Ml· !. 24-5.

I
I

Madison, Wis consin, 1S~"t.iompos1tions, Declamations,
Uus1e, Drawing, and Reading throughout the course."

I
I

Also given a definite place in the studies or the t liird
term

or

the f17at and second years.

(Note c·ontiJ:med on page 154).

D.!sl·,

25-6.

l

. j'

- ......

-....-~--

~

I

1 54

on is s.hown by Stout's figures.
.... 5 ,
o.

5"''
.... %·,',

o J..·~

In the peri od 1860-

..,.,,r.e
,, schools investigated :nentioned compost-

(Nate continued from page 15Z)
Chicago, Illinois, 1872: "Composition, drawing,
and reading throu ghout t he co urses." .ill_1., 26.
Columbus, Ohio, 1578: "Rh e torical E~ercises once
.o:ach week." Ibid., 27.
Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1876: &lgl ish composition onet hird of the fi:rst year. It was also probably part
of the monthly "Literary exercises." l:Q.19.., 27.
Springfield, Illinois, 1880: Sched~led for the
first year of both the English and classical courses ..
Also "Declamation and Comi)OSi tion thr'.')ughoat the
course• in the English department. Ibid., 27-26.
Auburn, Indiana, 1882: No mention of composition.

J; bici •., 28.
St. Lou13, ~1ss-0uri, 1831: ttTheroe writing
t brou ghoat the last three years" of the Engl ishS.cience Course. nGra:.'llllar and Compositiontt two-

t hirda of the first year in both the 2ng l ish-Science
ttE.nglish Composition"

and German-English courses.

one-third. of the first year in the Latin-English

course.

~.,

29-30.

Sandusky, Ohio, 1889: "Blocut1a>n, . Composition,
and Kusie throughout the course." Ibid., 31.
Columbus, Ohio. 1889: No composition in the

General Literature Course, but 11.Englishrt mentioned
in each or the four years. Composition in the first
and third years of the .English Course. The Business
Course offers no composition, but. lists "English•
one term in each of the first three years..
32-33.

~.,

Springfield, Illinois, 18901 "Industrial Drawing,
Composition,, and Rhetorical Exercises through the
cou~se."
Ibid., 33.
Morrison, Illinois, 1888: No composition mentioned.
Ibi>t •• 34.

Attica, Indiana, 1895: Twice a week every year
except the secand, when only one day a weelt was
deTOted to 1 t. · !l?ll·, 34-5.

E'Yanston Township High School~ 1894: No mention ot
but WEngl1Shft in the first term Of the
:f'1rst year. In the secorJ.d year "'English alternating

CO~pOSition,

with drawin&+"

!.lll£! . ,

35.

(Note continued on page 155) .

I

_J

1 55

tion in the ccurse of study; , 1866-70,

40~~ ;

1871-7 5,

60;'.~ ; 1876-80, GO%; 1881-85, 3p%; 1856-90, 42/'.;

l8'7rl-

These perc entage s are not
e:xactl;r comparable because the same schools do rLot

enter into all the computations, but they do indicate
a tendency.

The sudden dl"o p of 24% from 1880 to 1885 may

be partly accounted for b:; the increased use of the term

"English", which included composition.

In f act,

the

decrease of 10% in composition fro.::: 1895 to 1900 is

exactly compensated.by the increase in the use of t he

(Note continued from page 154)
Chicago, Illinois, 1894:

No mention of comµosi-

tion, but Eng 11 ;sh given. I bid., 36.

Chicago, Illinois, 1895: English High and Manual
Training Semol: "'Rhetoric and Composition" f cu r
ti: ~ es a week duri ng the . firat year.
A choice a:f
Engl ish or French in the second and t hird yea.rs.

12!.£!. ,

37 •

Wilmette, Illinois, 1898: Lockwood's Rhetoric

the first year.

l'big., 37.

Columbus, Ohio1 1897: nEnglishtt four recitations
a week the first three years of the General Literary
Course. "English Essaysn one hour a week in the
senior year. In the English and Commercial
Course four recitations a week in Engl ish in each
year. 1:Q!s1., 38-39.
Jamestown, Ohio, 1896: "Eng... ish" two recitation.s
a week du.ring the first three years, except in the
second term o! the first year when there were t hree.
Ibid., 39.
Appleton, WiscoD$1n, 1900; English Composition two
periods a week in all four courses, the Modern
Classical, English, Commercial, and Manual Training.
The English Course substituted "Rhetoric and
Composition" for La.tin in the second year; ._the
Commercial Course, "English# for science. Ibid., 40-41.
.;

1 56

ter:nnEnglish" for fi rst-y ear worl.{ .l

Stout attanpted al so tc discover t h e amount
of ti..":'l.e devoted to com?osit i on in t he per iod 18601 90 0 , al t h ou gh he r eco gni z ed t e at h is

r ~.=su l t

s co uld

be ·::mly ap proximately corre ct because indi cation s
o f time, esp eciall y i :;_ t h e ear l i e r years, we re very

vague.

He reported:

Average time ap;JroxiI:tately one year at the
beginning a.l'ld one year at _the close. The latter
was t he hi ghest average, the lowest being a trifle
a bove .::lna-third, 1866-70. The lowest maximum was
one- half and the hi ghest t wo y ears. The ml nimum
was one-third t ;--: rou ;1; hout. The lowest and most
f requent mode waa one-third and the hi ghest twot hirds. On the whole th ere its an increase i n t he
time devoted to the subject. --

l.

I bid., 77.

Stout, op. eit.., 102. The !oJ.J.wing table, summari zed t r om 'tables XX-XXVII, pp . 92~ 99 , 3ho•• t he
va:riat1ons i n time devoted to conipo3i tion f rom 1860
to l 90Ci
:?..

Tabl e IV. -- Shning time in years devoted t o composition rrom 1860 to 1900

Number
Years

:,· 1860-65

1866-70
:· 1871-75
f~ 1876-80

·:- l8a1-as

( 1888-90

"1891-95
1896-1900

of schools Maximum ML""limum
11
8

12
12

2/3

1/2
2

l

8

1 2/3

20

1 1/2
2

lo
17

l

1/:3

1/3
l/3

l/o

l/3
l/3
l/3
1/3

Mode

Average

1/ 0
l/3
1/3
1/2

7/18

l/3-l/2
1/3
2/3
1/3-2

3/7

5/9
2/3

3/5
5/9

7/12
l

157

SOOTB"'E..~i

STATES

North Carolina
The number of µ::i vate schools in
te c-. chir..g composi ti:::::r:. increased

steadil~7

.

Carolina

after 1320, both

.,.

the boys' anC. girls' schools incl udir-g it.
.

N~rth

Apparently

it was not limited to a particular y~ar of the cm;rse, t•or

the announcements i:Lention it in every class.

The Warren-

. ton Female Academy (1826) taught it throughout the
course, "weekly" in the senior and second classes, and
"once a fortr1.ight" in the Junior class.
studied "Elements of Composition" .1

The freshmen

'!his ar~anget?.lent

would suggest that in t.11.e first year there was

course

wo~A

regular

1n composition, probably involving the

st.udy of a textbook such as Irving's Elements of Composi-

\ion. 2

The Hillsborough :Female Seminary in 1825 also
'.?;

amiounced "Elements of Composi.tion" iri the first year • . . ,
A similar pracctice evident.ly prevailed in the Salisbury

.J.cademy where in 1819 the girls o.f the first.class
examined on the rules of perspicuity and precision

~.

Coon, .2.i• £,!!., 6S2. !!l· ·!I&·• Apr. 13, 1826.
the only composition book mentioned in the advertiseme-nts collected b/ Coon, .22• cftt., 775. Advertised by Jo.aeph Gales in the !!.!1• !!!&• various
times in 1808. ·
~., 300. !1!1• Iteg.~ · July 15, 1825. A.,notice of
!839 mentions eomp~s1t1Gn in _both the fira~~and
second clasaea. IW•i 309.; ll!l.• !t&•t Feb. 2f>,. 1839.

-,.

156

in composition,

,

the~.n~

a~d

the exercises corresponding wit h

The Raleigh Female Acaaemy

.

~n

1832 pl aced

letter writing in the second or middle class, and ccmposition 1~ t he t hi rd (last) year .-~

"Compo sition in

t h e English La.nguagen wa.s a study prescribed for the

senior class of"' Berkeley's Li t erary and Scientific
I ns titute. 3 In her school at Raleigh, firs. Bowen taught

composition in the "fourth class." 4

1rs. Saffery, also,

who had adopted as the model for i1er female seminary in
Greenville ttthe Justly esteemed and much celebrated
system of Mrs. Will ard, the Su perior of a.--i establishment

for education at Troyn, inclu ded. it in the .:. our1.h year. 5
.f]o

...

!tTo those far enough advanced, exercises in composition"
were assi gn ed in the Episco9al Schoo-1 of Nor th Carolina. 6
The

11

Plan of Education" of the. New Bern Jicademy s hows

that in the female department compositions were :required
in the second, third, and fourth classes.7

mo regular

l. Ibid., 051. :ghe Star, Feb. 18, 1820.
2. Ibia., 556. Ral. Reg., Dec. 14, 1832. A report
of an examination at an

3.

4.
5 ..
6.
7.

-.e~lier

date, 1824, shows

that compositions were sui:!uiitted 1n every year of the
seven year course ex:cept t he first anc t hird. ~.,
423-76. l!!J.•
June ll, 1824. ·
Ibid., 563. lL_. !!.l.g., Jan. rn, l83l.
I.bid., 566. The Star, Dec. 9, 1831.
Ibid., 335. 1!!!• lieg., Apr. 28, 1835.
Ibid., 542 • .Bil• .fu!g., Dec. 9, 1834.
!bi~., 58.

R:f.,.

I

i

l
-- .. ,·...~-·- _.., - - - ,.., __ --- ·-- - - - -

·--~·--, -~-·n~..__,
- r.-·-·-~~-"' ~·

159

.:.! nur se wa :J f'ollow ',' d in Willial!is borou gh, where
11

0 cca s:Lmal exercises, in the inter·vals of study, in

co:npo s :i. t :'..on, in reading a.."'1.d comm2rlting on t h e Eng ::.ish

Clas s ics!' ivere "resorted to, calculat.ed to ins pi::-e a
tast•l .tor ) Ol.i. te Literature. nl
as s ·Lgnment
11

More regul a r was the

the He pi ton School, where ther e was

:! t

,..,
C1:nnposi t ion once in two wee~ns. ~~
A

growing realization of t he i .-porta.""lca of

co mpos::. t i on is indicated in 1 tems ap1H:aring in North
Carolil:a n ewspapers.

'then in 1822 the Littleton Select

School e:nployed a young man f'rom New York to conduct the

m.al>9 Jeµ a:rbent, he undertook "to teach all the studies
requ i.si t e for admission into any Colle ge in the United

Stat es , with the important additions, of Geography,
Elocut io n, ar.d Compos! tion. n 3
tru s tees

or

So "important did the

the Lincolnton Female Academy consider

co?:ipositl.on that they ruled that failure to write and
submit compositions as required be penalized by
e·x c.lus ion 1'1from any marks of distinction or honor at

the exami nation unless satisfactory excu3esn 4 were given
for t 1ie d elin(luency.

l. J:bi d .. , 127.

"?"he much neglected studies of

.Ral. ~·, May 261., 1828.

2. I bid . , 274. Wilmington Weekly \,;hronicle, Sept. 16,
1840 .
3. I; bid . , 631. Ral. Reg., Nov. 15, 1822.
4. !bid. , 211.

/;'

160

compositicn and declamation" were to "receive more
than an ordinary degree of attent io n" in the proposed
Leasburg Claisical School. l

in 1833 was one ct the l

The Halsig!1. Aca.c~e;:iy, 'iit1:!.c~1

~ding

schools o :~ the state,

was co:e:meri..d.ed in the local. nei.v spaper for the attention
"besto'i'led u·p on those indispensable req.ui 31 tes, Ari tr.me-

tic, Writing

&:

Composition -- branches, which, in

01.Jr

higher schools, are toe often entirely neglected." 2

It is evident, therefore, that although berore 1850

composition may have been slighted in some of the
schools, there was a growing consci,Jusness or its value,

and that in the better schools of the state it was
always included. 3

Virginia
Since pub.l ie. schools in VJ.rginia. devaloped

very late, Yhat composition teaching there was must be
sought in the prtvate se':1ools, which offered mainly a

1. Ibid., 32. I,he St!fi' Jan. 15, 1835.

2. Ibid., 500. Ral. ·:eg., June 4, 1833.
3. In a;>ite of the growing l~n portance of composition
in the early part of the 19th century, that subject

is ra)-:-ely mentioned in the advertisements for teachers
or positions in North Carolina. In the sixty-nine
advertisements gathered by Coon for the years 180118401 only one makes mention of composition. Hr.
A. ?!art of Windsor .. North Carolina, advertised in
(Note continued on page 16~)

l.

161

classical course in preparation for college.
quently 1 compost tion is usually omitted.

Conse-·

An except:llon

is round in the Hampton-Sidney .acadei.:.uy (established in

l 775), which, in 1324, r-equired its students "to p erform
such exercises in elocution anG. coo.position as the

?receptor may direct.nl

This interest in composition

1 s undoubtedly the result of Princeton influence, for

many of the men concerned with the early history of the
academy were graduates of the Coll ege of New Jersey.
The encourage-llent given to the writing of t h e mother

tongue by Princeton and the work done by one of its
graduates has already been noted. 2 Samuel S. Smith,
a graduate of the College oi' ?~ew Jersey, of wrdch he

was later president, and the first president of the

Hampton-Sidney Academy, stated in l776,
The 1ystem of education will resemble that which
is adopted in the college of New Jersey, save that a
more particular attention 1hall be paid to the cultivation of the Inglish language than is usually done
in places ot public education. 3

3. (Note continued from page 160)
The Standard, March -1 3, 1835 1 -that he was "qualified
to teach ill the ,usetul branches of the Mathematics,
English Composition, Geography, &c . &c.n (See Coon,
.2.2• ..£!!.., a1e .•) Epglish grammar, however, is
frequently mentioned.

1. Korl'ison,. Bel!nnings gt' ,Pgbl;to
er. Chapter Il, 37-40.
lforr1son1

B52&!nniDSI o!! f ybl:!2

;g. in V!•1 1776- 1880_,
gs. ln ·Va., 17:Z6•l8SC,

'

105.

105.

: .

162

Other references to composition in V:.rginia
confir~

t endencies already noted, namely, to oait com-

nosi tion f rom the classical curr i culam and to inclw..: e
it 1n the· course of study f o r girls.

~he

Latin school

attenC.ed by Professor .f:;dward. s. Joynes about 1850 is

reminiscent of the schools of the Colonial period.

La tin

and Greek, the major studies of the .school, were taught
by the usual drill and memoriter methods.

11

0£' written

exercises," he writes, "I never so much as heard.rr 1
The Female acad emy at Sturgeonville, as early as 1828

was

~re

p.rogressive, for letter-writing was taught in
<:;

the f.1.rst. year, and composi t.ion in the second arid t hird . ....

li1s.sissipp1
The girls w':-:o attended the Elizabeth Female
Academy of Was£:;.1ngton, .M1:ssissipp1, in 1826, studied

composition and at the coi.Jmencament exhibition read

essays.. 3 In 1851 eomposi tion and declamation w·ere
taught in the preparatory department o f t he .Madison
College at Sharon. 4

Jefferson Coll '"ge (1899) in its

high school department req_uired, according to the announce-

1. Heatwole, A H1story of Ed. in Va., 133-135.
2. ger. Jour. of &i. (Russell's), III (Oct. 1828),
618-19'•

3. Uayes, Htst. of Ed, tn ?li11., 39-40.
4•

.lliisl •I 61.

'

..."

..

'

16 3

:rnnt, daily s x ercises in

c om~osit:!.on

:.n bo t h t he

1

~

scientific anj classi cal oourses. -

Maryland
According to the school re)a rt o f 1851,
Dal t L:ior e gave

attenti~n

third, and fourth years. 2

t ·:) compo s ition in the second,

A l ater report (1860)

i ndicates that tw-0 perl ods a week were devoted to composition and declanation .:luring the t hird and fourth
::,r ears in the Central High School of Baltimore. 3

Louisiana
In the high school department of Sout hern
Oniversity, New Orleans, in 1869, composition was in the
course of study for each of the three years.4

GENEIW.

Evidence of the increased Ln.portance of
composition after 1885 is ieen in the ract that two
teachers' associations made studies of the nature and

extent of composition instruction Just before the opening

164

0 1.. t he la s t j ecade of the nineteenth century,.

At tl1e

annual !Ileeting of the Mass;::.c husetts Te achers• Association

in 1387, a coni.lll:!.ttee was a ppointed "to consider t he
teaching of English in sec :n1dar y sc hools, and t.:J :-e:_J or t

upon the c:b...aractar and results

t) f

the work now done,

its ;>roper ai::n and sco pe ,. ani.: the be st r:J.etho d o t'

dealing with the subject."

Questionnaires were ::;ent

not only to the princi ;ials of a large number o :'.:' t he
high schools and ;cademies of Massachusetts, but also ·

to the .prir:cipals of about fifty of t he :nore i 21.portant
high schools ln other states.l

Since the findings of

the Massachusetts committee relate )rim.arily
they will not be reported here.

t -.:i

'.ll ethod,

{See Chapter v, p.281-:3 )

One item 1n the report of tha committee of the Northern
Illinois Teachers' Association presented at a meeting
in Karch, 1889, is pertinent. Of the one hundred and

t hirty-five schools from various sections of the country,
responding to the Q1Jestionnaire, seventy-two reported
a composition elass.

Essays were probably :required in

the rest of the schools, for one hundred and twentyf1 ve schools answered the question relating to the
frequency of composition writing. 2
1. Parmenter, C.1.; Collar, Wm.

C.,

·an.d Groce, Byron,

· "English 1n Secondary Schools", The Academy, III
(Jan. 18-89) , 59'3 •
, . "''i?•
·
2. Rayi W.H., Smith, Chas.
-T ucker,·,,Carria
and
Les 1e, S
"Engli•h 1.n the Htgh School", The

A.,
.o.,
Acad!§Z, IV \Apr. 1889), 190-91.

E.,

i

. I

--- '--· - _____,,_ - - -------'----~----_jj

165

·:rH:s RE?OHT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN

English
'! he re)ort of the Committee of 'i' en, ap;Jc: .i nted
at the Saratoga meeting of the Nati.Jn.al Educ a ti;:n1al
As socia tion in July, 1592,

~or

the purpose of studying

the principal subJeets entering i nto secondary school

program.ate.s, is momentous in the history of English

teaching.

Probably none of the recommendations were

entirely new, hav1ng already been incorpor-ated into t he
practice of the best 3Chools.

Individuals had at

various times urged similar considerations; but t here
was needed some nationally representative body of
sufficient prestige to cor;;uuand attention and insure

compliance.

The prime importance ot tho report as far

as English 1s concerned is that 1 t set up an aut...>-iori ta-

ti ve standard.
The conferenoe on English recognized a twofold
aim in the teaching of English:

(1) to enable the pupil to understand the expressed
thoughts of other• and to give expression to thoughts
of his own; and (2) to cultivate a. taste for reading,
to give t h e ;.m pil some acquai ntance wi.th good li terature, and to rurnifh him with the means of extending
that acquaintance. ·

l. N.E.A.,Rept. or the Com,
(1893) ~

as.

9n

Sgc. Sch. Studie!,
.I
I

-

.

I
I

.j

166

Al t hough a.p p:J i nted to consider only the teachin g o f
English in t he 11.i gh school, th e; con f erer.c e c c: ose to
'

begin a. t a lower level, real::. zfng t:.-:at no

:n~ 0 z ram

'J u t-

lined f or the sec0ndal"; school would be effe ctive
without a suitable foundation.

Hence , t heir r eco!:'l.rnenda-

t1ons for 'written compo sition begin with the t i1ird year

of the elementary school.
j

?he Conference asked for English in the high
school as much time as was consumed by the study of
Latin, five hours a week for f ::iur years.
of this

ti~e

'? hree-fl!'ths

should be devoted to the study of litera-

ture, that is, three hours a wee·:.-c;: for four years.

Corn-

posi tion was accorded two ho urs a week du:ring t he fir3t
two years, ar..d one hour a week during the last two.
Grammar received one hour a week in t he senior
year, rhetoric a similar allotment in the junior year •.

The course in

rhe~oric

was not given more

ti ~ e,

since

all t hat was contemplated"V6s na kind of codification or

principles" deduced trom t he study of literature and
•already applied in
.-,

or

practi c e~

in the first two years

composition.l
In regard to composition as a college entrance

---- ·~

- - ---

-r
_.

-

167

I

l

I

requirement t he Con.:·erence be 2-i ev 2d t hat admission

should be based largely on the student 's "ability to
write Eng l.l s h

a.3 sl;.own

in his exa.':lination-books on

other subjects (such as hLitory). nl

The writi ng of set

essays on books assigned t hey did not consider wise,
since t he student wrote i:ot t o set forth i de as , but to

show his ability to write.

They recommended i n stead

questions on the literature read, requiring at least a
page of the examination book.

In addition t o showing

t h e knowledge of t he 9upil, such questions would test
his ability to organize his inf or:nation and to e;q ress

himself clearly and concisely.

Since t he correction

of s peeim,.::ns o f bad English might do more harm than good,

they recommended that such exercises form not more t han
one-fifth of the examination.
The publication of t h e report · earl y in 1894

occaaioned a great amount of discussion and criticism,

which, as :rar as the English Conference was concerned,
was mainly favorable.

t he English report as

Ntoholas Murray Butler, hailing
r~volutionary,

said,

it will put the mother-tongue where it ought to be, in

the curriculum, and displace
which, under existing arrangements,
u&ually divide 1t betw-ee,n them.2

t he c rief place
mathematics and

~n

~atin,

.-.c-.

l. l,W., 94.

2. Harper•s

!•UlY, 38 (Jan. 13, 1894), 42.
(

..

:

168

I n another article he wrote:

Al:\, t his.. advice is so sound that, being now given
a quas.io;official aut hority, 1 t should be followed
J e~arally

in the seccndar::,: schools, both

~ublic

and

private.I
The school reports of the later 90's show the
influence of the Com..'Uittee o!"' Ten.

Passaic, New J ,:rsesr,

based its course on reecxnm.en "J.ations of that body, although

it did not follow exactly the tii:ile allotments suggested.

English composition was

aver--; year f'or on3

inclu .~: ed

period a week except in the last term when three

periods each week we~e deovted to the ) reparation of a
"Graduate Essay,
Oration,. or Thesis. 1* 2 In R.."lod e Island,
too, the affect of the report i.s seen. The superintendent of the Woo.n socket scI-::ools recommended that the

cou:rse of study be revised and. that the req :1i:rement in
English composition be "ma terially raised·" to meet the

standard.t of the Committee of '.?en. 3

Although the Warren

report does not mention the Committee's recommendations,
1 t very alearly shows their influencei

Language 1s now a study; and from the entrance
upon school life until graduation from the high school
there should be daily drill in the art of properly

l. Butler, DThe Reform

or

Secondary Education in the

o.s.•, Atlantic liontbJrY, 73 (Mar., 1894), 375.
2. Ann. Rept, of the Bd, ot Ed. • .• s of N.J ! (1895) 1

5.-

iea-5.

25th '~•

(189~

I

Regt. of the StateBd. of Ed,., of R,I.

App.) 142.

.
.~.

~·

·~

....

•

-; -

..

•

1'

.• •

..

~

11'.C

~:.~ss.,.·, ~· ,, ;,~ ~:~: :3i.~·~~;. ~~·ti~~,:~~~Z~~~:·~~,~;~i~j~~/'.:~:.:.;~-

.

169

expressing t hought ••• The aim is cno :·e and .m ore to
make every 1 essont even mathematics and geo graphy,
incidentally a lesson iz~ the Engli sh language . •••
Language should recei Ye as muc h time, and atte-htion
each day as any o ths·r regular study.•
Again, in 1899, after a committee of the Association of

Coll egiate ..'1.lumnae had made a survey

curriculum in illlode

IsJ.a.~d,

01"

t he school

it re ; o r- ted t hat in the

seventeen high schools of the state, &lglish

~eceived

even lllOre time than presc:ibed by the Committee of Tan. 2

Although the sentiment of the ?rivata schools

was al.so 1n favor of the report, they did not feel
justified in making any changes until the colleges had
expressed their approbation of the new ?lan.

Cecil

?.?.Bancroft of the Phillipa Academy at Andover summ.arized the position of the endowed acaiiemies as
follows;

The entrance gate to coll ege is so straight, the
authority of the coll:'lge is so imposing, that no school
ca.11 undertake to send up candidates after some other

than the college standard, or gersuade its pupils that
there is a more excellent way.

The colJ.eges were not slow in signifying their attitude.
Two organizations, the Association of Colleges and
Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland4

Ed •• o!

.I

j

··'

Rev.,

,.

,

170

and tha New England Association of Col2ges and

P:-e~1ara­

to:ry Sehool.s, 1 late i::. 1834 in:.icated their acceptance of the recommendations by adopting entrance re-

quirements in
of the

effect of
composition teaching is demonstrated
"

Edwin Ci. Dexter, "Ten Yearst Influence

'

of

t~e

9

Com:nittee of Ten."-

or

In 1894, Dexter

tud1ed the English offering of eighty schools throughout
in 1"304 that

five.

01~

one hundred and t :,irt:r-

Be discovered that although in 1904 the schools
whole ware not following in detail the reeom-

mer.dations of. the committee, there was a genera.:!.
ncrease in tlle number of schools teac:11ng English

position under that name.

Whereas only 68% reported

h com,)>Oirition 1n 1894_, 84% :reported it in 1904.

total amount of time devoted to it
3. (Note continued from:-:p~a~g~e~·llft!~-----­
VIl (Uar., 1894) , 283.
4. See Proceeding! of the Second Annual Convention of

the Assoc. of Cols. and Prep. Schs. in the Yid.

St. ar4".l ltd. (1894) 1 61-94.

1. Set Addt!ll!I and i>rogeedlnga ot the Nintn;-,, Annual
liteeti~

ot the

New l'.tlg• Assoc'.

Schs. (1894), 71-.91.

or

Cols. · and Prep.

2. The Sch.- Rev., 14 (1906), 254-269"
·
· I Apr., .

..~

.. ,,_

t

. ·.

!

171

i ncreased greatly.

I n 1894, 16%

o~

schools gave more

than a year (but ~ot one ar..d one- i'i!'tli "Jf~ars a s recommend ed

o compo;:,..._ . ,....

1304,

·. ere clevot :'. ng more t han a y ea r

however,

W1 t :1 the report of the Committee of Ten
may be said to have come of age.

slow

~roeess

At last

of time had been achi eved

what Benjamin Franklin had tried arbitrarily to bring to
pass in his academy in 1750.

Composition had become a

respected member of the high school family..

It was

still taught "throughout the year", but t ha t phrase
now took on a new significance.

No longer di d it imply

occasional teaching as t h e moods of t he teacher dictat ed,
but rather regular, constant, and i ntensive applica t ion
f or f our years.

Composition was prescribed as an

integral part of the work in English, entitled to
three-tenths

or

the time devoted to that study..

It

gradually disappeared from the curriculum as a separa
subject, and by 1900 was generally included under
"Engli sh."

2.

~·,

258-59.

172

TEXTBOOKS

In 1832 'Noodbridge,
A.~nals

ti.~e

editor of the Am··rioan

of Ed,ucation and Instruction founi five composi-

tion texts extant. 1

Three of them, Bingham's Juvenile

Letters, Irving's Ble!!lents of Com1Josi tion, and Wa ::..:er' s

Teacr..er's
1820.

A~sistant ~e

have alreadv., noted in use before
.

The two newcomers were Russell's Grammar of

Compositi"" n (1823), and Parker's Proe:ressive Exercises
These are both corn.positi on

rimarily

wi ·• practice in written expression rather than with

the rules

of ref
ok, it is doubtful whether it achieved

great popularity.

Parker's

country by storm.

Shortly after the first edition

book~

however,

too~

the

appeared, the school committee of Boston authorized its
use in the schocls of the city. 2

~1thin six months, two

editions had appeared 3 and the ; ublishers determined to
stereotype it.

In 1844 it was in its fortieth stereo-

t ype edition.· There were new editions in 1855 and 56.

The book enJoyed great popularity in England where it

l. Amer • .Annals of Ed. and Instr.,_ II (July, 1832), 377,,
2. From an advertisement in the back of the edition
or 1840.
3. Parker, op. cit., iv. 1840 edition.

173

-

By 1840 nine lar r-"'e

was republi3hed a..-rid stereot:r9ed.

;;;:>

.,

t..><li tions had been sold t h ere • .J...

In 1844 ?a.ricer brou ght

out his Aids to English Co:nnosi tion,

a.s

ci

sequel to ?rogr3ssive

equall ed its ;Jredecessor in

w ~1 ic h

~xercis e s.

The

?O pul~ity,

t'la.s de si gned
Ai c~s

almost

f or it

~eached its twentieth edition in 1852. 2
f

-~

The New York State Hege.nts Reports show that
for a number

or

years after the appearance of Par!{ er' s

Progressive Exercteas, it had the fiald almost

enti~ely

to 1 tself'.

In 1836, thirteen 3Chools re'Jorted the use
3
of ?arker, one of Irving, and two of Walk er.
For the
next four years, only one school reported the use of the
two latter books, and by 1841 they were no longer
'.
'

mentioned.

Parker's book, however, had increased

steadily in popularity, and in 1856, the approximate year

l. Parker, Aids to Bpglish Comp. (1844) 1 on reverse of
title page.
2. See The American Catalogue of Books, 121.
3. Table IV -- Number of composition texts reported in use
in New York State academies from 1836 to 1839.

Parker

Irrtng
Walker

1836

1837

1838

1839

13

17

21
l
l

22
1

l
2

l
l

1

Table compiled from the Agmla.l Reuorts of the Hegenta or

the University

.,.r lo,,.;

••

or

the State of New York, 1836-1839 •

·,

~

'

174

when the iiegents temporarily discontinued t heir
.:·eports on the composition text~ in use in the scho;J ls

of Neff York State, was still in the l ead .

greeted does ::1.0f; mean that all schools i:I.1ecliately

introduced :=.t or any other textbook an the bas.'...s of the
£~ e~1

worli;: in composition,.

The situation in

York State

is probably typical.

!from 1336 to 1840 0nly 20 to 25%

of the academies re;;orted the use of a text. (See
'!able V, page 175)

Those percentages do not change

greatly until the 50's when there is a sudden increase.
Within the

s~ace

of twenty years the l)ercentage of

schools using composition texts is

~ore

than tripled.

Indications of an earlier lntroducti·J n of

composition into the school system are evident in

the ap ;i earance of books to meet the needs of younger
children..

Two such books, profusely illustrated with

pictures of animals and other familiar objects ar.d ·

scenes, .were publi$hed in the 30's.

Charles !lorley's

A Practical Guida to Comnosition, with Progressive
Exercises in Prose and ?o·etry, 18~8, 1 was followed in

1. Tlle book was copyrighted 1n 1838; there was a
Hartford edition in that year, followed bJ.• a New
York edition in 1839.

f' "

Ta ble V -- ? erc cnt a ge cf s choGl:::i :- e i;>c!"ting t h e use

of a coi:ioositi on t ext book in New York
~tA+e
v .,
~ .... -

Year

1--~
~?
~- .J.., ·-q v~ 6 ,. 1
._ lJ

Tot al number
of
scl1ools re ;:> orting

To t al nu::i:i"oer
of 3 C~1:) 0 l.S
re port ing a
composi t~o !l.

text
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840

16

23

l ''··l

25
21

1844

1 4'3
1 46

1847
1848
1849
18 50
1351
1852

1853
18 54

1855
1856

155
156
156
160
166
168

170
170
173
165
176

'JSin g

.. .

74
106
119

1841

1846

:3 C ~lO ·:> l3

<:1 co m~ o s iill.On text

69

128
1 31

1843 .

Per cent of

23
24

31
35
36
32

20
24
26
24
21-:

31

20

29

19

31
62
69
32

20
39

84

1.,.,
..:....!..

117
llS
128

42
5"-...;
49
65

61
71
72

...

1.

Com~il ad

from the Annual Reports of the Regents of

the Oniversity of the State of New York, 18:36-56.
Fi gures for the year-s. 1842 and 1845 are not given

because re ~ o rt s for t hose years were mi ssing from
t he set used.

t )

- __ __:_ -- -...- - -~ --- -

'

t '- .

176

7
'"'-· ~- ,J~
-"'

~"1
,....\....~r: -?,_,oc:tts
--7 J .,,,;u_
-

Des::.gned for

:;:-' "" 7
---=-

~~rerc
-'-- ._.• S'-'.'"S
-

{ .,,.

...,,. ~

C"om""'"l·t-~
_,. ;~ ·..1-.:> .,.i. ')Il
·. • .."

!..1Se
J... e SSO:!".i.5

a::1d

c :r"!l ~Jo

Ji ti on .

The 50; s brou ;;~1t i"ort.J. :i.ore bo o.::.:s

t or begL:..:l ers, the !llost po ;rnl ar of w.":1ich was
First ~its sons i:n Corrmosi tiou (1851).

~ u a c ~-:enbos'

Designed , according

to the preface, for pupils fro m nine to twelve,
booL: , !'lowever, ra)id.ly :;iade its way into t he acade::!li.as.
Within a :ew years after its l nt :odu ction into New York
State a cade:;,ies it was offering ser :Lous compet .i t i .::m t o

?ru.. k e :::- ' s

pro «:r ~ssi ve

Exercises.

No t .J.s ?Opular. as ·

Q.aackenbos were F • .Brookfielcl '6§s~n Co!!!position

(1855), the anonymous, My First Exercises in Comoosition
'f-f ri ting (1856), and t.l rs. Spencer Smith's First Lessons
in En.g :.ish Comnosition.

Brookfield ts book also found

its way 1nto some New York State
by the Regents Reports.

acade~ies

as is shown

(See Table VII).

The decade 1840-49 did not offer any text-

book for the academy to compete successfully wit h
Pa.rker's.l

A few minor texts did appear.

Especially

notable, however, is the fact that the new grammars

1. Table VI - See page 177.

.. . ~.!b. ·;.·~ ~ ''

1.. ~-

~

- -··1c

177

: 3.ble VI - Nu::l'.:er of coms osit i '.):'.: t3xts re;-; orted. ir..

~se

in New York State acal e:::i es fro:n 2.34\J to 1349.

1840

1841

1843

1844.

28
l

32

~4

30

I.rving
Wa~k er

1

?arkar

?'erk.ins

Connel

.aee'1
Boyd
Newr.lan

..

l84S

1847

1848

1849

27

23

25

51

•

6

5
l

7

1
1
l
";
.._

'i

31.:iir
?.!o:-gan

Table compiled from the 4nnual Re ,crts of the Regents
of the Or,.iversi t~, of t h e State of Ne7! Y0rl<, 1840-1849.
Several of the texts re ;·orted here, such as Blair
and Ne?!r:tan, should be classe ..l as rhetorics rather than

as compo31t1ons.

2
1

1

178

f requer:tly i:icluded t :1e

t~r: :;

cor.:.no si ti.21} in. th?.ir titles.

·rh": t is the case ir: .? e ter 3u:.:'.io:ns' :::ra cti ca::. Le3sons

which

1 ... er· ec1
01
..,,. .. ""
-4

<:: di.tion 1

-i t..., u
,,

•

r evi ~h:d

"'.;~.. ..-,..\.- -1:-c.· ~ ~....
.,_)
1

"''
_.; .L
.• t·i
...... U
•.) ' ·'"" ,...

\.,.t..:...

'··; e ne, +-v '.J'""
·~ 1~ '
<;.,:~ c,

~....· 1. ...

.:.. ..

--

and corrEc t ed , was co ;yrigh t ed in 18 53 .

The Rev :!r €nd Brndford Fro.zee

c ~rubi zrn s

"element.a::: and

pro gressive lessons in compos itiontt w.: t h An I mproved
Gra'm?l.ar of the English La.--igu c.g e,

OL

the Ir;.d ucti ve S;.rstem

<)

(1845).""'

Au.other gra!!:mar wi t h occasionc::.l exercis e·s in

compositi on is Allen :1 . Weld' s En [!l.ish

C ra~ar,

e.nd Parsing, a seccnd editio n o: wt.ich appeared in 1847.
An improved edition was

CQ

yriehted in 1349 .

it wa s revised by G.P. Quackenbos.
noted for the decade 1840-49 are

Three other books

o:

In 1859

The toolts t .hus far
f) r :'.. nc~pally

gra1i"mars.

t h is decade, to judge by the titles,

concer::. theo.selves only with composition.

Barnard
inclu::tes in his list of Am e rica.11 textbooks, 3 Elements

of English Composition (1846), by Eliphalet Nott.
Alphonse Roux, of tl:e .?ilt. ?l e asa:.:t Aca·:iecy (N e'.".' York)>

1. See Barnard's list of American textbooks in his A.J. of
!£•, XIII (~arch, 1863), section followi ng P• 208.
2. See The Com, Seh, Jour.,. VII (Sept. 15, 1845),. 288.
3. Barnard's A, J, of Ed., XIV ( Dec., 1864) 1 776.

---------.
-.

'-I.

. ~'

-

.

....

179

Table compiled from the Annual

of the Regents

Re~orts

of the University of the i;)tate of New Yorlc, 1850-56.

Here, as in the previous table, many of the books
listed are formal rhetorics rather than composi tirms.

--- ·- - ~ ·-·

--

........

~----.-

- ...

.

l &O

published in 1847 New Zetetic i:.i e t ~.:i.od f '.)r 0nf.:lish Com-

'po .oulari t

-~l'"" : lQ '"'i-ed ! l Yl

v., .

-

.... - ·

J..

---

~ ....... _

use by zno re than one acade:-:1y, 9ro oab ~. y ch.e one in v: :~iC ~'l

t he

aut ~1o r

·t augnt.

fu.J.ot. he r book in ]Jarna . . . d ' s li ::i t; is

Prac .ftice] .Book o:f Com oosition by 3dward .A • .'.dQ rgan,
whi c h a ppeared in 184'7. l
The 50' s w<;re apparently not ve-:y pr:::ili.f'ic ..

Howover, one book of that peri od practically had a
monopoly of the composition field for t he .next quarter
of a century. ·

Tha t was :ldvanced Course of Com'j;)osition

• ., ~)·· O~ "'... o ~ver
~ h t ori c b y u-.r., "' •.~u
n e. cz.anoos
.
. \' ....
, 0. •~-.;.g,') . 2 I s ~b
arrd rte
and Tweed copyrigh ted t ·neir Jrai"'.l!!lar o f Com-oosi tion,

wnic h a review in the Conr:ecticut Common School Journal
....
i.ti. ghly 'commended. :.:: Barnard l:i.sta ~4110toric and Com:oos~:.-

!iQ.u by A.S.Welch, New York, 1859.4
Since Quacke.nbos' book apparently met the
demar.ds of the academies so adequately, the next decade
brought fort h no books t h at
supremacy.

se~iously

challenged its

Boyd, the author of a fairly popular rhetoric,

l. Ibid., 773.
~. Qtl• cit., III (July, 1856), 224.
~. See Table VII, p. 179.

4. Barnard's A, J. or Ed. XV (Sept., 1865), 569.

'.

·:
:

I

,

i:

··- · ....

'.,.__

.

·::..j

181

entered the ccmpositi o:: field in l860 with Elements

of Eng.: .i sh
i

:~
;
I

Compositi~n,

t he cop71':right on which i.Tas r en ::-wed

Pinneo' s Guide t..,; Com:io si t i on ( cl864) was

in 1888.

planned for very young write rs.

teachers rather t han as
Davis' ComnosltLm

3.

Design ed as an aid t.-:i

textbooh: ·'or pupils is

W~i ti ng :

A Practical Guide, containing

Model Lessons and Hints to Teachers and Pupils.l
The opening .of the next decade

Lesson

publication of two texts by John S. Hart
in Comoos1tion
The former

an;~

A \,Aanual of Composition and Rhetoric.

s a book of

eleruentar:~

exercis es designed

to lead the c ri.ild graduall;l to the study of grammar a

rhetoric.

The latter, although it incl udes conpositior-

in the title, is mo.re concerned with rhetoric.

It gained

favor rapidly, and within ten years it was more widely
used in New Yorl{ State than

~uackenbos 1

Advanced Course.

Two more books of the rhetorical type appeared before
the end of the decade, The Principles

Adam

s.

or

Rhetoric 'by

Flill, professor at Harvard, and Elements of

Rhetoric and Composition by David J. Hill of the Univer-

sity of Lewisburg.

The former scarcely deserves mention

1. Barnard includes in his list of American textbooks
three books tor which no .dates are given, but which
belong to the period before 1865. They are as
tollows1 .A.R.Phippen, Illustrated m osit n Book
New York (ibid., XV, 544 ; Joseph I. Wright, flules
tor 1o~js1:;2f; (ibid., XV, 574); Bott, El.ipb.alet,
[!is
so
n !.pgl!ah Q?mposition (ibid •• XIV, 'l.76).

l fi2

in a list of

com~osition

texts, 3ince it csncsrns itself

enti:-ely with the 9rir...c.il:)les of

co ~:xmnicatioc.

at all with helping the: student tD

say.

r:.nd

an:.:\ not

s nr1 ething to

The book was,, how ever, a favo rite in :Jrivate

schools, particularly in t hese t;J repa .ring for Harvard.

D.J.Hill's book is in one respect in decided contrast
to t he Princiules of Rhetoric as well as to all the
preceding combi ned composi t1ons and r !1etor1cs.

It

begins where the student has t o begin in writing, with
the search for a subject and then goes on to s how t he
student how to develop his

to~ic.

Some indication of

its popularity is f::;und in the fact that it was reported
the :iiost widely used rhetoric in the schools of New

years 1893-98, supplanting Hart,

York State .f.'or

which had been the leader.

There are two more outstanding books that

belong to the 70's, different, however,
composition texts of

.fl"Olll

the other

period in that they relate

t~U.s

composition to grammar rather than to rhetoric.

In

1874 Swinton published the first of his popular s eries
or language lessons in which he

atte~p >; ed

to teach grammar

not by rule and definition but through .,ractice in
writing.

!he first

or

the series was Langu§ge Primer,

'I
,•

"

;;_:._At~~· · ~

.·. ;,..~-.

;..

'if_.

~

-.

._

._]

____

183

designed fer begi:nners.

Thi s was fo llowed by

Lang u ag~

Lessons: An I;i t ra du ctor""-' Gra~ar and Co::nposi ti on for
~ r_,.ra;·ri.::nar
Int er:iied :.. a •... e a..'1.....

GraA~
i':1_;.o:: s

( C lR
--~
~ 7M
~ ).

Sc!lool Com-

position, t he t z'.ird book o f t he s eri e s was plar.u.'1.ed as

an advanced taxtbook for grammar schools, but in .1877
was revised under t he titl e A

Sch~ o l

tion for Ad,vanced Gram.mar Grades,
Academie!, etc.

series.

Manual of Comoo si-

an~

fer 31gh Schools,

Progre1si ve Grar;unar compl e ted t he

Reed and Kellogg, following in the f ootsteps

of Swinton,

likewi~ e

in English; A.
(Cl877).

Worl~

stress practice in Higher Lessons

on Fing 'li.sh Grammar

.~nd

Com;;osi tion

It rapidly became the favorite grammar text,

retaining its , opularity well into the twentieth
century.

Revised editio ns a ?:Jeared in 1805 and 1896,

followed by a new large t ype edition in 1909.

The decade 1880-89 produced several texts.
Brainerd Kellogg, 1n 1880, published A Text-Book on

Rhetoric, supplementing the develoement of t he

with .Exhaustive pract1ce in composition.

Seienc~

The

"exhaustive practice" ·1s rat.."'ier disappointing, for the

exercises a.re limit ed to sentences illustrative of

princ1ple1,

There 1s no proVision for practice in

extend.ed composition.

Al though the book found so!!le

favor in the last two decades or the nineteenth
'

i

I.

1

-- ··~· - ·-

---·.
.....

-

-~ - ---

· -~

..

1·

- -"-

- -·- - - -;:

~~~l · r-:
•

-I.AI.

"'

. l

184

n ~: ve.r

century, it

Kellogg text.

b e came a s ) o pul<ll' as t lle 2e ed and

I n 1818 :'ifty-seven of 0ne :iundrec! ar..d

ei ghteen schoo l re '.)orti.ng a
~
..,. .= 1
uhan

i,

t~ . . e

co~po si ti ,:Jn

text na!:led

'"'")'\

..lO r.o..,t popular of t he seventeen boo k s used.

Althou gh the name o.f the book is not 6i ven, it ls i n all
probability Edward R. Shaw's Selectior-s for Written
Reproduction,j;j published 1!! 1886.

Another widely used

text of the last two decades is Lucy A. Chittenden's
The Elements of Engl i;sh Qomposit1on.

Appearing first

in 1884, it reached its sixth edition in 1865.

The title

of Sara E. Lockwood's Text, Le ssons in English (1886)

reflects the growing tendency to organize the work
in language and literature in one English course 11ather
than in separate :iepartnants of grammar, rhetoric, and
so :forth.

The sub-title, na.da.pted to the study of

American classics", is indicative o f the closa associat1on that was developing between the teaching
ture and composition.

or

litera-

The book was accorded a warlii

elcome in schools and academies in various parts of
the country.

In New York: State 1t was by far the most

popular composition text in the last decade
nineteenth century.

or

the

I

Table VIII -- Numb or of composition texts reported in use in New York
State academies from 1890 to 1899.

"

•. ;)

:

',

..
: '·

(
r
:~

~

.

90-1

91-2

9~-3

93-4

94-5

95-6

96-7

97-8

98-9

Lockwood
Hart
Chittenden
Williams

58

97

97

i ;.·d

lf"?l::I:
vu

28

148
19

1 36

24

161
19

164.

27
27

32
29

9

23
18

29

20
24

Kellogg

21

20

12
16
LG

8

9

27

34

4~

31
27

29
19
f'

28

. .. .
·~

. •'

~

..

Welch
Hill, D.J.

Reed and Kellogg
Srtnton

.Kee1er and Davis
I·

6

17

12

7

31

13
ll.
11
9

a
8
5

8

Waddy
Maxwell
Scott and Denney

26
...-; "':'~

lfW t...J

12
12

15

11
8
7

19
t1
B

6
?
6

2~

24
31
'l
8
9

Lewi a

i;·

d

21

21-,")

5

10

5

6
6

Shaw

Quackenboa

10

1 :.;
~ ?~

,- .

/. .,. r' ·~

7

..)

14
31

};8

10
14
28
6
11

g
8
8

10

5

5

. ····-5

Only textbooks mentioned five or more times are included in this list.
Between 1890 and 1894 nine other authors were report.ed by twenty-eight
schools; from 1894 to 1899, fifteen other textbooks by twenty-four
schools. Figure.a for the years 1890-94 are taken fro11l the Second
.Annual R :·.or · f the .b: . !nation D nartuien of th e Uni varsity of the
State of · ew York 1894 , 765; the reinainder are from the SevBnth
Annual

Re Dort o_f the

H5 gh

State of New YorK (1899 ,

S~ool Department of the Oni versi t y of t he

10 ~4.

f-J

m
CJ1

186

The number of composi ti o r:. texts

a ~)) ear in g

between lBHO and 1899 attests t '; the renewed interest
in the t f.laching of ivri tten

Non e o.::.·

expressio~1

at that time ..

t he new books, however, o.::' fered very ser:.ou s

competition to t he two l eaders, Lockwood and Ha:rt.
In 1890 ap:pe,: r ed Composi ti,. on Exercis -3's by Irena Hardy .
In the same yec:.r William. Williams published his

Composition and Rhetoric by pra ctice, with exercises
adaoted for use in high sgt.ools and colleges.

edition ap?eared tn 1896.

A new

Exercise$ in Rhetoric and

EngLish Co!!lnosition •. b:;· C,.R.Carpenter, was copJ righted
in 1391.

A si:xth, enlarged,

;n :; rket in 1896.

~~ di tion

was put on the

The year 18Gf2 brou gh t forth E.R. Shaw's

Imglish Com:oosition by tractice.

The New Yo r k S tate

Regents ReJlorts do not s how t J.lfi. t it was very popular
1
in that .state.
It is interesting to note that t!'le

books mentioned thus far for this decade stress the
element of practice in com.position by use of either
that word or the word

~ergises

in the title.

The same

tendency is evident in Newcomer's, A Practical Course in
Eng ~ish

Composition (1892)~ a book omitti ng rules and

aiding the student in. finding something t o say.

Hi$

later Elements of Rhetoric: A Course in Plain Prose

1. See table VIII.
.

-I

--___._ :. j_. _____ __ .______ i_j
'

'·ll.i

A

,,,,.~f.:

..

fL.

·-'=·ii"'~.......

.

.

... -:..... Ll:-"*'!illi"<!i.i'~:ir&~~..rt:;~<;,".~~»J.:~

._

187

Compositi on (1898), is designed for :.'l ore advanced

students.

Willia.I:l H. Maxwell's fi rst Boak in &lg ' ish

was co py:rlghted in 2.894 .

or

In New York State i t was one

the less f :·equently used books.

Near t h e clo s e

of t he decade a:1peared a bool:e whi ch was to '.)rove
popular well into the next century, Scott and DP.:r1::.ey' s
Coi:mosition-Rhet ,.,r ic ( 1897).

As is indi cated by t he

title, the aut hors sought to bring about a close

relationship between theory and practice.

The publica-

tion of a second edition ill 1898 indicates that the
schools were in sympathy with tha t L:ea.

CONCLUSIONS
1820-1900

I. About 1820 the status of composition in the secondary
schools was strengthened

b~'

the establishement of high

schools which had 1n view the preparation of pupils for
all the needs of l ife.

By 186'7 the larger schools

almo st i nvariably included the study of composition. 1

1. Barna.rd in his survey of city curricula in 1867
f'ound that composition was included in the official

regulations of twenty-tour out of thirty cities.
The tallowing cities required it: Balti:nore,
Boston,. Chicago, Cincinnati, Clevelar.d, Dubuque,
fond du Lao, Indianapolis, LouisV1lle 1 iladison,

Manchester, Kass., New York, New Haven, Newark,
Niles, Mich., Philadelphia, l!ortland, Providence,

San Fr·a ncisco, St. Louis, Terre Haute, Troy, N.Y.,
(Note continued on page 188)
-,

I

--~- ~--~--~J

158

Not until after 1875, however, when gramoar h::.:. d

,

subsi ded ir! i!!lportance, 1 was :io.r e attention accorded i t,
a s is shown by the s chool re;;>0rts..

l

Composition,. a s part o:,: the general

tl"emendous gains..
En glish question,.

I n th e 00 ' s i i t m.ade

1-1& s

a major subj ect of discussions

which eventuated in measures esta blishing it as a
regular study in the curriculum.

The Regents of New

Yor k in 1890 included compo sition on t he list of
Regents subjects.

The Harvard reports from 1892 on

call ed attention to the ina _·_equacy of t h e instruction
in composition in the preparator y schools. 2

E:a rly in

February of 1893 the Cornell f aculty voted t o dis con-

J. ..

(No te continued f rom page J..87)

Wa shington, D.c., and Worcest er. (See Barnard's
.fuaer. Jour. of Ed., XIX (1870), 463 .) Of t he six
th.at f ail ed to mention i t , -- Cambridg e, Hartford,
Lewiston, Rochester, N.Y., Sandusky, and Spr ingf ield,
Ill., -- two certainly taught it. Hartford had introduced it as early as 1847, and the records f or 1872
show that it was still being taught at that time.
~ .Y.,

In Rochester,

accordi ng to the Annual Report

of t he Regents, 1867, (p. 408) both the ?emale
Academy and the i''ree Academy reported exercises in
composition, the fo.rmer every two weeks, the latter
weekly.
1 •. Pro.fessor Lyman, i n his hi s torical study o f English
gral"-ll!lar (.Q]. . fil:!. , 9) concluded that "After· 1875,

with the subsidence of grammar t o its correct place
as an incidental study, composition gained in
strength."
2. See Chapter IV.

....

----- -·-- - - ___... _
:;.

"

,,,.

'

!

,

189

tinue certificates in EngJ.i.sh from ;;rivate sc::ools. 1
Close upon t h is came th a action of t h e Begents req uiring

t hree years of satis f actor y teac :U.!lg of E.ng:.ish ,

esp ecially com.po s iti 0n, in all high sci1ools and
academies of the Oni'lersity.

In July, a t the annual

of t l1e Regents, compo siti ::n was an 1:a:por-

~ , mvocation

.
2
tant· t opl.c.

The a ssocia tions of colleges and pre·9ara-

tory schools, both in New England 5 and in the Mi ddle

States

4

devoted a large share of their meetings to

t he subject.
of the

R epo~t

The cli!!lax was reached in the :;>ublicati:)n
of the Committee of Ten in January, 1894,

whert9upon more di <Jcussion followed.
outcome

'.)t"

One

i ~ portant

the c ::mference reports was the establishment
1

of uniform entrance requirements in English for the New

En .~ ;land and 1iddle States. 5

There is little· doubt t ·hat

the decade 1890-99 was an eventful and fruitful

one in the history of composition.
II.

.Although be.fore 1830 it was sometimes listed in

the course of study along with such subjects as algebra

1 . See Ch.apter IV.
a. l07th Ann • .rle2t. of the Regts. ( 893), 411-460.

3. Addresses a.91d Proceedings of the Eighth .innual Keeting
of the New Eng • .Assoc. of Cols. and 1-'rep. Schs.
(1893) , 38-83.

4. Assoc. of the Col. and

~rep.

Schs. in the Mid. States

and Md., froceedinga of the lst Ann. Conv. (1893),
84-108.

5. See Chapter IV.

l '.JO

and

l1.i3tor~·,

it was CTOSt likel:r to be f\'Jund in a foot-

note along
spelling.

In aith..e r case, t he teaching was u3ual2.y

of an occasional
on ~:;

to four

ti:!GS

na tur ~~,

e xercises being assigned from.

a month.

'l 'his rather casual treatr::!-ent

of tl1e subject .::ie:rsisted even to the close o f t he

century in some sc r10ols..

Long befora that tir.:1 e, 'however,

approximately 1850, the more progressive schools had
introdu ced composition into the curriculum as a ::-egu L\!'

subject of instruction.

Pl aced commonly in the first

or second year of t he hi gh set.col, it was intended to
?rovide the student with the fundamentals .f'o'!" t Le
occasional theme work of the remaining years.

Although

ver y few schools indicated the amount o f' t L:ie devoted

to the course, it would appear

thr~ t

the common practi c e

was to accord it one, or at most two, periods a week.
III. Ontil well into the 30's it was frequently omitted
from the studies of the classical department.

At that

time, as a res-.1 lt of pressure from the coll Bges,
preparatory schools began to take the subject more
seri ously.
IV.

In the girls schools it was usually a regular part

of the wod t, being taught instead of declamation.

LU

V. The oom...'!li:: rcial

cours ~~ s,

whic h were introduced
01~ly

in t he second hal r of t h .2 century, o J:"ten

one year's durati8n, as a rul n

requi~ed

VI. It was first sti;;ula ted

a

'.i S

of

compositi Jn.

re quiremer~t

for gracn -

at.ion in 1877, when New Yo r '.{, d esignated "Rh ~J tor i c 3.nd

CompositL;nrt as a
certificate.

for the three-ye ar

In l8t-)4 profici ency in composi ti,:in becartH:

necessary for the

VII.

~JI·e-requisite

rl(~g ents

diploma.

Toward the close of the century eompositicn lost

its identity as a separate subject, becoming merged vdth
the other English subjects.

The

2~epo: t

•) t

t he Co::n.ttl.ttee

o.f Ten ane the increased ::>:ressure or' t he co:.l 0ges >\"ers

largely responsible :'.'or the establishment of compositicn as an important
VIII.

~art

of the

1.<:ng ~. is l':

The surve-1 of composition texts

important efforts appeared until

18~2

published his Progressive Exercises.
adoptions of the book f rom

18~2

work.

s ~ows

that no

when Parker
The number of

on gives evidence c.f

renewed interest in composition teaching.

The assump-

tion of responsibility for training in written expressicn
bJ; the elementary schools is indicated by the publica-

tion

or

books for younger pupils, beginning about 1336 .

That composition instruction was still of a very
formal type is ntnessed by the popularity of Quackenbos'

1 '3 2

Advanced Corur.>osi ti ~ n and 211 ·,tor:.c frofil 1854 on.

A

reorganization of C'.J urses o:r study, especially in t he
-?.lementa:r:-· schools, is inJ icated b:;.- the po;mlarity o f
Swinton' s series of language books, the p ri .n.ci;_:)L? of

which was imitated by E:ed and Kellogg.

The increased

importance attached t o composi t!on durin g

t h<:~ l ~" st

ten ·

or fifteen years of the century is evident from the
DUmber of textbooks

w~-:.ich

appeared.

A tendency

toward a. less f'oMial t ype or instruction is manifest
in the em.phasis on practical work.

193

. !

CH.A.?fBR IV
The Influence of College pnt:rance Re<pi.r·ements
l

on Compo s.i ti ::m· 'T each ing

I

Althou gh occasionally before 1870 so.rrte

college may have exerted its influ ence in !"aver of
composition teaching, r..ot until tJ:'l..at y ear did :profici ency

i.n writing the mother tongue become a requirement for
entranc e.

Then it was that Princeton, which as early

as 1778 had urged upon teachers the i:nportanee of cultivating the

~other

tongue, presc:ribed a "Short and

Si;iple English Composition. nl

More important, however,

in the history of entrance requirements in English is
·.'.t

...

;

the action of Harvard three years later, for t he plan

.

,t

announced in the catalogue of 1873-4 became the :::iodel
.f or colleges throughout the Uni ·. ed States.

The subJect of English had been mentioned in
the Harvard catalogue as early as 1865, an inconspicuous note at the end of the list of prescribed subjects
calling attention to the fact that "Candidates will also
be examined in :reading English aloud. n 2

In 1869 the

l. Catalogue of the Col, of N. J., 1870-'71, 27.
2. •a1atory of the Hequirement in English for
Admission to Harv. Col." in Twenty Years of School
and College Epglis!l, Appendix, 55,

-

-

.
f

______
.... r

-.. •• <_~.r,.

_.___,,_,_

_~

___

.........,

__

~·.

_,___....

' :; ;"' . ' 1:""~'f~::·""~~-"

__...
•

__
';.;..,

194

subject had increased in irriportan·:.:e sufficiently to

receive t h e h ead:'. . ng !1 f:ng."'..i sh 11 ,.

un~l er

which followed

the ar>-"lOUncement:
Students are al3o

:requir~d

t •.: : be examined, as early

as possible aftar their adm.is3ion, in read1r..g English.
Prizes will be awarded for excellence. For 1870
students may prepare themselves in Craik's English of
Shakespeare (Juliua Caesar) -: r in Milton's Com.us.
Attention to Derivations and Critical Analysis is
rec oml!lended. 1

It was not until 1872 that the qual ity of the ca.."ldidate• s

written expression was considered.

To emphasize t he

notice, it was printed in italics with a little hand in
th~

l eft margin to insure attention to it:

Correct spelling, punctuation, and expression, a.s
well as l ~ gible handwriting, are exi)ected of all
applicants for admission; al1d failure in any or the se
particulars ~ill be ta.~en into account at the
eY~nation • .
In 1874

th ·~~

uiting of a composition became an

established pa.rt of the entrance requirement.

The

catalogue for 1873-74 announced:
English Composition. Each candidate Will be required
to write a short Rngl ish Composition, correct in spelling,
punctuation, grammar, a.nd ex;:>ression, the subject to be
taken from such works . of standard authors as shall be
annoW1ced from time to time. The subject for 1874
will be taken from one of the following works: Shakespear e 's Tempest , Julius Caesar, and ¥erchant of
Venice; Goldsmith•s Vicar of ~akefield; Scott's Ivanhoe,
and Lay or the Last Minstrel.

195

Ne change occu::-r •3d unti: 1875 when co r·rectness

Th e fo ll.owing year candidates were adt:10:::-_i3i:1sd
t «1

be

list.

f~ill ar

with all the beck s

A n ew fe ature, exceedL"'lgly ; cpular

in entranc e examina ti ons :;;.':)r 3om a
to come , was introduced in

188 ~~ ,

ten ,-ears
the

correction o f s :')ecLnens of bad S."lglish ,
fo r w!-1.ich ar. a ddi ti :)na: '1a::· hou r wns a.C.ded

I;:i t'> rder to in sure conttnui ty in the Eng i. i s h

worJ.: , candidates after 1827

"IV~l"e

tc take

t he exa.rrtination m:ly a s a f~. n ~l. 3

It had

previously been permitted a s a ;J relit:ii!'lar::,r ,

which many stlldents ?assed at t he end of the

Junior year.

Unu.3 r t h e new system 1t wa s

the hope or the college that t he student
~ould

have the benefit of an added year•s

training in the

l. Ibid., 55.
2. IQ15;1. , 56 •
3. !ill·, 16.

preo ~ratory

3chool.

An

. I

::.. 36

addi t .i o:i ::.n the catalo gue f 'Jr
s t r ~:~ ss ed

the i.Jlportance o f

109 1- 3 ~

.~ c c '~

:: ng:... is. i

~s sa.y s:

The English writ t en b:. a candida t e
in any of his examina tion-book s may be
rega...-ded as part of his axamination in
Engl ish, in case the evidence aff oruej by
t he examinati1;m-book in Engl i3h is
insuf fi cien t.·

·rwo years

lat~r

Ha.rvar d to ok

a derinite stand on the controvers ial s ubj ~ ct

of t he r e:atlve importance of langu a ge

and l 1teratur!'? :
The ca..~di d ate is ex?e cted t o r ead
intelligently a.11; the books pre scribed. He
should read th~m as he reads other books ;
he will be expected not to know thel!l
'
minutely, but to have fres hly in mind t heir

l.

ll1si·'

56.

1J7

:no s t i .'.po:rtant parts. '1\h;'.lt:.:Yer th0 st.:b j'3ct
ot ·t J::e compositi:Jn, t he B Y.:rutt ~n.:J r "Nil l..
.r9gard '. mo :.:l edge ·.J I' t L~ b .-: ·::~'i: as l ::;sr i2:J,.1r tant t .~!'~ abili tj" tr; · ~r... 1-ta :n~~li sh. -~)reli;:iin ar:;·

Atter 1896, when thi-:i

exa:.ina t i or~ .in

;:"'inal, the re qu!rements conf'c l"med to tho s ;;; s et
by the Joint Gonf erence on. Onifor:n Entra:nc e

The examination papers set before
1896 were of t he

sn~e

3eneral character, calling

f rorn the book s J1•escr:. bed

f ~, r

the year..

In

1332 zenter::::es for correction appeared.
In 1386 the

e:xami:nat:to•~

":as di ·r:i . :ed into t wc

parts, t l1d l"ir.3t c nns:.:3t i ng o f general

q,u1:-1stions on books iJres -.: ribed for reading, t !1e

second of' more searching questions :.:>n books
listed for ca ;•eful study.

Tha longer set essay

now gave place t -) questions {or top!cs) requiring

an answer of i:ine

~

01·

two pare.gra!Jhs ~ ...

Gradually other colleges followed Harvard's

1.

1J2!sl.,

56.

2. See Appendix C tor specimen examination papers
from 1674 to 1896.
,

198

example and introduced a com ;Jo si tion requirement.
Nightingale, who in

187 ~3

·com.pil ":;d the requirements cf

forty-tour i collegasl in the Dru t.ed States as a guide

t o candidate s fo r coll ege, s howed that sever.. coll eges,
Boston Oniversity2 ( beginni: .g 1881), Brown OnivBrsity3,

t[ic hi g ~'1 State U~i ,.1ersi ty, 4 Minnesota State Oni versi ty, 5
Si.mpson Center..ar;..- Coll <-~ ge, 6 Tufts Coll e ge, 7 and the

Illinois Industrial On.iversity,a pr escribed it.
others, Ca l iforn ia State

t he Iowa State

'l'wo

Oni versl t y •:.t Oa::~land'3 and.

Or..iversitylO required a study of a

specific textbook, Hart's ComJosit io n and Rhetoric.
Columbia and Co rnell aG.ded co m.1 021 ti on to

the list of required. subjects in 188 2, and Yale in 1834 .
The report of the Ur..i ted 6tates Comr:iissioner of
Edu ,:; ation for 1896-97 s hows tha t of the 475 colleges

investigated, representing 26 states, 87 conf:::>r!!led to

1. Although the requirements of Harvard are given,
composition 1s omitted, probably through an oversight.
2. nA D~ief essay on some thems to be announced at time
or examination. it Nightingale~ .d eguirements for
Admission to the Colleges of the o.s 0 10-11.
3 . "Exercises in English composition" as a prersquisite
for the Scientific course. ~. , 10-11.
4. "In English language, each candidate will be required

to write not less thari two pages (foolscap), correct
in spelling, punctuat i on, grammar, etc., on a subject
assigned at tim.e of examination." Ibid., 17.
5. "English Composition and Rhetoric." Ibid., 16-17.
a. "Composition and Rhetoric." Ibid., 20-21.
7. "A brief essay on some standard work in English literature, subJecis announced in each annual catalogue."
ll!i!• 1 20-21.
{Rotes continued on page 199)
_c,·•

.':_-

;._"'

·,,JI,.

,:,

~·~·"·....

199

the recomm(mdat.i .Jns of the Joint Conferenc e , and 232
m.ent:i oned co m:positic n as a requ i si ticn.

Some did net

s pecifically l i .st cc:.'l~o s i tio n, but r equire d t hti Jtudy

of sone boo k such a z Lockwood's Elements o f English. 1

Many of t he colleges that intro duced conposition imita t ed in its general features the ?lan evolved
by

Harvard.

The development of t h e r equ1r e!'!lent at

Cornell illustrates that conformity as well a s certain

deviations.
was linked

Whe.n first introduced in 1882, composition
wit::~

er8.!lll!lu, an essay being p re scribed "a:s

a test of the ca.."ldidate' s

~mowledge

of spelling,

~uµ.c-

tuation, the use of cap i tals, anc:: el ementary Englis:'l
construction."

Topics of a general nature were set,

or, if the candidate preferred, the examiner would
assign a subject from one of the books ;?rescri t: ed for
that year. 2

The character of the examination remained

8. (N 0 tes continued from page 198)
"Elements of English Composition."

Ibid., 14-15.

9. Ibid., 10-ll.
10 . Ibid., 14-15.

l. Harris, Wm. T., "Requirements f or Admission to

?'reshman Class in Colleges, Universities, and
'
Schools of Technology", Rept. of , the Coqis:sicner
of Education (1896-97) 1 457 ff.
2. The Cornell Univ• Register (1882-83), 27.

200

about t h e same until 18C.8 when t he announc ement W<:.s

made t hat a composition of not le ss t h an

~· o

w0rd s,

"correct i z.: ; rammar, and ,;Jro )er .ly ) unctu a ted and

paragra)hed", wo uld be "required on some subject

wa r e all to be based on t h e bo oks

readi ng.

;J!' ;?, SCri bed

.for

The practical natu re o: the requir e!!lent

was emphasized by the added statement:
It is the special aim of the examinati on to b~ st
the candidate's oracti cal rather than his theoretical
knowledge o,t: fngi ish , t hou gl1 the latter is taken due
account of.~

·Ehe ; rea.t

i~p or'ta...-1ce

t ha t Cornel l attached t •J a correct

use of the mother tor:gue was f'urther indicated by

t he announcement that 1YNo student markedly deficient
in English will be admitted to any of the courses in

the Oniversity.tt 3

In 1889 the correction of specimens

of bad 'E nglish became a part of the exa:min atL:m, 4

ccntinuing until 1892, \lhen it was dropped.

The next

change came in 1893 when a dual aim was announced:

The object of the examination is to test the
candidate's ability to · express himself clearly andcorrectly: also, ~o test his familiarity with the
work$ prescribed.u

l. Ibid., {1888-89) 1 137. See .Appendix D for specimens
of ex•ination ·~apers.
2. Ibid .. 1 (1888-89 , 138.
3. Ibid .. ; (1888-89 , 138.
4. Ibid.,(1889-90},143.
5. lR,W .. 1 (l893-94}, 31. See Ap pendix D for apecimen

eUlllination.

I

-~
·~

I

i

!
i
. I

- 1.

------

201

ConsequentJ,y the examinaticn was in two parts, tl1e

first a series of questions upon the srescribed books,
the second, three

~

~s~a:r s

o f 300 words each on to;;ics

taken from the remaining boo:.-cs on the list.

Composi-

tion was evidently still o t' greater i r!1portance to the
exan1iners than a kr..owledge of literature, for the

greater ;>art of the time was accorded it.

1wo hours

were to be devoted to composition, one to the
on the books.

In that

sa.~e

~uestions

year Cornell decreed that

school certificates would not be acceptr="d in

~Jlace

o.t'"

the entrance examination in English; neither vmuld

.Regents ' diplomas unles5 they covered six ac.?..dem.ic

English counts, including English com. position.

l

In

that way Cornell hoped to raise the standards of
instruction in the high schools and acader:1ies from. which

she drew her students.

From 1895 the examination

followed in general the recommendations of the Joint

Conference:
One hour of the e:xa:nination is assigned to
answering questions upon the books marked A. Two more
hours are occupied with writing three essays (250 words
each) upon subjects taken from the books marked B.2

Exemption from part one could be claimed by students

1. !l2!s!•1(l893-94}531.
;;l . !big., (1895-96 , 30.

..

-__

,.,__.

'•

.

-

,.

~~""'-

~02

rrc"_!i.

sc '.~; ools

having the certifica te ; ri vilege by

sub:!!i tt ing s 9 eci in ens of t :.1e sch:-.:v1l ~or ,_ on the bock s
studied.

The intere .':.> t of Cornell in ) ower o f e:xpr-:?ss Lon

rather than in mo wledge of .!.. i teratu:re is seen in the

retention of the long essays in part two, a ;,)ractice
which had been ccnd emned by both the Comm1 ttee of Ten
and the JoLrit Conference.

l-

The catalogue of 18:'.'.H3 l eft

no doubt as to Cornell's ; urpos-e:
The examinati on is not designed to test the
candidate's familiarity with the history of English
literature or with the -ziinutiae of the books prescribed,
bu t. to test his ability to express hi:::self readily and
easily i n accordance with the usages of ordinary ~rose
composition. To t..~ia end the can ::i1date is ur ~;ently

advised:

a. To train himself in writing concise paragraphs in
answer to questions upon the most striking narrative
and descri;>tive incidents in the books of the A-list.
b. To master more systematically the contents of the
books of the B~list, endeavoring t.~ retain a kno1vledge
of each as an o-r ganized whole. This will pe best
secured by writing numerous essays or composi tion.s of
c onsiderabl e length upon the general purport of each
book.
c. To cultiva~e in all his wri.t.ing the habits of eorrect
grammar and SiJelling (including pro per names charact eristic of the 'book read), of correct sentence-structure,
gunctuation, a.nli paragraphing.
d. To avoid most carefully the error of believing
that the mere oral memorizing of the contents of the
book prescribed is the kind of preparation desired.
The candidate is exf) ected t o learn - from t hese books
the a.rt of ex.pressing himself.
In every case the University examiner will treat
mere knowledge of the books as less important than the
ability to write good English. 1

1. !bid., {1898-99), S4.

203

Cornell, lik e Harvard, i nsisted

t ~at

~ t u d ents

a bove all

mastar t :1e 2 e c:1.a nics o i' t :-1e l a.::; ua ge be±'or e gaining
ad.:iission.

A knowledge of

-~ iteratu re

t hey r e l ,2gated

t o s e c 8n:i 9l a ce.

Not all entrance requi r ements were in a s clo s e
agreement as t hose of Harvard and Cor nell.
a

~erious

Cons equ ently,

problem was creat ed f or secc nciar:y s c hools

p-reparing candidates for a number of dif'f erent
institutions.

The first effo rt to deal with the

problem was .:ue.de at a conference of ;>rofessors of
Eng l ish, r e presenti ng several New Engl ar-.d coll eg es,

.h eld at Trini17;

Col.l i~ ge,

-:tartf:J rd, in

D~c er.i.b c.~r,

18 79.

1

The princi ;>le o f the Harvard requiren ents \'fas adop t ed
and the book s a.·-mounc ed in t he Harvard catalo gue for

1881, 188 2, and 188 3 accepted..

It was t his conference

which suggested as a further t e st the correction

or

specimens of bad Eng l ish, a practi c e rai) idly accepted

by other colleges and on e whi ch wa .s later ::iuch
criticised and finally abandoned.

The result of the

Hartford conference was practical unifor.:ii ty in the
Ne\v England colleges w1 t h tbe exception of Yale.

The question was next taken up by the Commission

1.

fra'886-87
• Repfs' 5.of the Pres. and Treas. or !;Ja.rvard College
J

204

New

I

~.n ~ land.

Sch c;~. ls

Association of Coll ·::;;e s . ::md ?re ;Ja::ator:r

1:1 1888.

No :i.a terial c!"l.a.ng;es occu:r:- ed at t h.is

time i n regard t o literature, but the

follo ~~ng

sugges-

·=.io n s we:r-e :n ade to t h e col.l oges in r egard t .:J t b e

language requ:i.rement:
cha t t he sub j ects of the short composition requi:ed
in the examin.t."ltion i n Englis h be a l ways si::lpl e; -- that
the bad English sentences given f or correction should

not include sentences the :neaning of which is obscul"e ; -and that a reconr:en:lation t o teac·h ers of secr,ndary
schools be made in each college catalo gue t G the effect
that the use of si.:nple and fdiomatic Eng l ish in

translation be insisted on.
It was fUrther r-ecom.-r1ended t hat tl1e subjacts

tions be drawn from two or three book s

o~

t~or

c o".lposi-

the list

instead of being limited to one as was often the cas e ,

J.

the time allowed for the examination was extended t , ·

two hours, and EngJ.ish·was placed on the list of final
subjects for admission to college.

At least three

consecutive years of study should precede the examinat1on.2

Sinc e all out five of the New England colleges

belonged to the Commission, the ac tion tal(en insured a

fair degree of uniformity for that section of' the

country.

l. The New n:ng . Assoc. of Col. and Prep. Schs., Addresses
and Prgceedipgs at the Third Ann. Meeting (18~'8), 54.
2. Ibid., 5fJ-56.

205

brn ught about by the Assoc.:..G.tior::. of

r~:::J. l ·;· :~ s

a nd

P:re pe. rato r y Schools o ': the :ML 1dle 2 ta te3 and Maryland,
wh :!.ch ir. 1893

a p~:JOinted

suggestions.

.4.t t he first mee t i ng of t ri c

in February, 1384 , the

a comm.i ttee to

recommen •.~ ation s

Zc.uco.t~. onal

the main endorsed.

.!.r:.ve~ti .;s ate

o:.:

the

C0i!lmi ttee

t h e Committee

Assoc in t ior. were in

In regard t c la....'1guage t hey favored

particularl:r the follow.i..n.g:
;

(

?ha t the cand idate's ;:i rofici ency in co::1:1osition
s l:ould be judged from his answers to the questions

set, which should De so f ramed a s to require, answers
of some lengt:'l anci. to test his power ':>f :!.[)plying t he
.p'l"inciples of composition.

That formal gra.ll".mar and exercises in the
correction of incorrect Englisl~ should i n no case be
more than a subordinate part 0 1 the exa!?tinntion • .L

To the next meeting, held in ?hiladel;Jhia in May 1ED4,
wi;re invited re9resentatives of t he Commission of
Colleges of New England and the Association of Colleges

and Pre9aratory Schools of New England.
Confer~nce

This Joint

had the task of reconciling the views of

two opposed groups, the .one stressing language, t he
ether literature.

The literature grou ;> , lC?d by .Yale,

1+ nsummary of the Proc. of the Meetings of the Conference
on Oniforo. Entrance Requirements in English. 1894-99."
See Oniv. of the State or New York, Sixth Annual
Repor$ of the High School Department (1898), I, 842 •

.,• -i.i.... , ~r~

,. '

\.

•

·~.

206

objected to

·t ~ e

a se of t he books

m~ rel ~

as sou=ces for

,

"""Y'
·=>d..
r_
.. _c.10-"i;;;
1 "'

;

'-

+

i..
..;U.,,

·;m s interest ed

~or

?roflciency in composi tion.

~ air...17

i n power o ~ exp!'ession.

A com-

? r oni9e was r eached by dividing t he l ist of books
i.::1to t wo : ra u_,., s, .: me fe r readlng, and t he o ther i or
careful study.

I n kee pi ng ·n t h the :f'i rst

recom..."'n~::d aticn

o:... t he Comr.iittee o:f' Ten c:_ uoted above , to 9ics dema:'.'l.di:ng
m~

answer of one or two 9aragraphs were t o be .s e t on

bot~

lists.

The answers to t he first )a.rt were t :J

be judged mainly for composition a bility, to the
second for knowledge of t he

boo~:s

studied.

Corre ction

of specimens of bad Engl ish was excluded from t he

exami :~tion. l
The Joint Conf erence i n Dec emb er,

iS97,

insteo.d of .s etting up addi tiou.a.l requirements came t J

t h e aid of the preparatory schools with suggestions
relating t o the amount of time to be devoted to
English and the general method t 0 be employed in meeting
t he

requirem~t s ..

It 1s interesting to note that,

follow i ng the lead of the Committee of Ten, t he conf

1. Ibid .. , 843.

See Appe.n dix B for the compl ete recom-

mendations and requiremaits.

207

ference urged attention to language
high school course".

A new

t he proposal t hat

t he

Th8 three suggestions le f egard

to me t llod indicate t he usual rathe r
of the subject.

"t ~·Lr0ug hout

t~end,

stu . , ~mts

for~al.

:•.owever, is

treatn ent
e ~1 1 dent

base their written

wo r 1 ~

in

not

solely on the books read, but also on t heir own t houghta
and experiences.

The recoaun oP. .daticns relating to

language are as follows:
That, where careful instruction in idiomatic
English translation is not g1 ven, sup9lementary wor}<
t o secure an equivalent training in diction and in
sentence-structure be offered thro ughout the high

school course.
That definite instruction be give!l ln the choi ce

o'f words, in the structure o'f: sentenees and o:f' paragraphs, and in the simple fol"!!l.s of narration, description, exposition and argument. Such instruction should

begin early in the high school course.
That systematic training in speaking and writing
English be given through.out the entire school coul"se.
That, in the high school, subjects for composition be
taken, partly f?ora the prescribed books, and Pfrtly
from the student's own thought and experience.

Meeting with general favor, the entrance

requirements set up by the canf'erence in 1895 within
three years were approved by 87 colleges in all parts
or the country. 2 Even Yale at last fGll into line.
The North Central Association, which st-m.t delegates t 0)

the second nieet.ing or the conference in May, 1895,

1. Ibid., a~o.
2. Harris, li•

ill•,

457.

208

ap;:r oved the req_uire1;ients il genBral.

When, in 1897,

t he Association of Coll ,:ges and ?re) aratory Scho.->ls

of t h e Sou the~: States also sent l"e.9resent.a ti Yes,
nation-wide unifo:ri!ll ty

seemz~d

within reach.

Th0re remained, however, one large grou? of
schools that had not been brought within ·t he fold
those of the West.

In r;enera1 they approved the requi:·e-

ments of the New England Association a.s f ar .: . s they went,
but

beli~ve<!

they were not stringent enough.

maintained that the preparat.ory schools should

They
acco~­

plish more in language training, and relegated to
t b=m. responsibility for the conter.:.t
known as Freshman English.

of

what was usuall!'

Indiana Oniversity in 1894

repol'ted such a practice:
The bugbear known generally in our colleges as
Freshman Eng11sh is now a p.art of ou:- entranc e requireme11ts-, and univer:sity instruction in composition begins
with t hose fortunat.e students who have some little
control of their nativr language when a pen is placed
between their fingers.

'!'he L11portance of composition was emphasized by the
:tact that all entering students took an examin.s tion in

English composition even if they had been admitted on

certificate in other subjects.2

Sam.µP.o:I Martin 1., "English at Indiana On1v.",
!he 1 , XVII (July, 1894), 5.
.
2. Jones, "College-Entrance Engli•h·" Ex&mint:!tion

1.

Bulletin #l3z June 1897, 1n Univ. of the S. of N.Y.,

Examination uept., [Qurth A.tlRHal Rept., (1896), 638.

------"~-

j• ~...::: •'·- '":...

"J':..

-- \\

209

~, hat

was ::Jot receiYt ng ;i ts due,

being - placed on

t: he~es

t oo

trorn bo,')ks.

.":luc ~~"

emphasis was

Co:qs e quently it

t hat essays would be r equ L "' ed on topics not

a..~ounced
prev~c. ausly

named..

Such. prac tical problems a s business

letters or na l.--ratives fro m personal experienc e woul d

be set.

There was no nominal increase in the require-

m.ent, but by increasing the ::.: everi ty of' the examination,

it was hoped to raise the sta:n .dard of instruction in the
pre~aratory

schools..

Like Indiana, Leland S taEfo:rd

turned over to the high school the

wor ~:

of.' t !'ai!ling
~

in the elementary pha3eS of

.

Co~position.~

The University of California declared that

its requirements were

50%

more severe than

the New England Association.

t~ose

of

Greek , Norse, and

Gen,an mythology, arguments and orations, and English
poetrf were added to the prescription in literature.

· ln 18-94 the university signified itself well pleased

with the work done in literature, but hoped to raise
the composition standards. 2 It stimulated better

1. See Lathrop, H.B., rrEnt. Exams. in Er..g. at Stanl"ord."
~. ll.a!•, VI (Oct. 189~), 289.

2. The relative emphasis placed on literature and
composition in. at least one California school is
evident in the following account: ttThe English
training whicl:l I received was given in California
(Note continued on page 210).

'

j

I

..·,/':

210

2. (Not ;=i cm1t:.Lnued :from b)age 209 )
school .s, and so was different fr cr:1 t:1a t in the
wastern States. The pri mary object in the instruction
\'T a!l to ~repare '.:)Upils ~..or t he entrance examination~
of the t110 universities t here, Sta..-:ford and the
:
Oniversity of Cal:Lforn.i J. . As these examinati ·J ::-:s
differ g-reatly from t b.ose o .::~ £as tern coll ~ ~;e s and
un.i rersities, the ille t ho d o:" teac·· ing L71 the
preparatory sc hools also is :.iilferent.
rtThe :'.nglish entrance exaoir.w.tions of t ~.rose
Western col~egcs call i'o r a t '. ·co rough study of t he
books and also cf mythology rather than for aa
1

ability to write English.

According:y, the object

with which we studied Engl ish was to be ab::. .a to

gi·1 ·:~

the meaning of all allusions, to explain all t he
figures of speech, and to parse any ;1hrase in the
books we hr;.d had. The writing we did was confined
almost exc:_usively to paraphrase.s wit ':.1 once

a great while a synopsis or so.;ne part of our
reading." See Ilarvard Universit7, Rent. of ::he
Comm1 "tee on Com· • and Hh £:.: t. t o t he ~30:1rd of Overseers of Harvard 1~01., 1897 1 , 51 5 , No. 1 56.
Far different was th e «;>erience of ax:oth·sr

California student who s ~ ent f~ur years studying
Eng..,_ish literature an j the way1 of writing English:
"Dur:Lng r11Y fil"st y ear, in nigh School, the
class 3tudied some of the mo1,e difficult points

of English gra:imar, with a little rhetoric.
C>ccasicnally, we h

.~ d

to write short corn;>ositions,

which. were corrected by th e teacher, but were not
r~written •••
"The second year, we were taught, w1 t l1 the
help of a very long outline, which we had to learn
by heart, the principles of perspicuity.

The

long outline we learned; the principles we learned
t ·J recite much as a child may learn to recite a
;>iece of Ger:nan, the mea. ~.i.ng of which he has not
the slightest idea ••• .Besirie the outline, we had
so~e wori:-: in books, learning whether the matter

therein contained was pErsyicuous, or not.
exercise in writing, that y~ar, wo.s ra.thc:r
"The work of the t hird antl f~urth years
the same plan. Our teacher, a. graduate of

Our
slight.
was on about
[a female]

college, was an enthusiast, a erank, on the subject

of outlines.

She gave us outlines on peespicuity,

outlines on force, outlines on elegance, versification,
argumentation, exposition, and narration, and
·
(Note continued on page 211).

211

p re p~r ator:~

wor ~ :

b:· its s y ste111 of

accredi t .t. ng whereby

s c h.eel s sent ·ri. t :i. t :: eir annual a ppli c a tio ns sa:.11 µ le
co~;.) o ci t i0 ns

::: ati sfactory,
s crutil;.i.z:e
p upils.

and oth er eJrnrcis e s.
ar~

~!lore

If t h (-?Se '- ere

i n s 9 ector wa s sent t o t :'le school t c
clo se1~~ the

'lcr ~ :

of t l1e tea c hers and

Can,-:.L i.at e s fro :u non- a ccredited

s c ~100J. s

wer e,

of cour3e, required to t a.le e t he regula r examina t :ons
in l i teratu.re, :rhetoric, and co r~posi tLm. 1 He.re again
it is evident that composi t ion wor:: was bein g pushed

down into the

:i1 i~h

school.

The we ster:.1 colleges openly .:wowed t \1eir

A s~ociation.

The situat:!..on was further co:npli :!at ed b y

the varying interpretations 't·thich the subscri bing
colleg es

~ l a ced

upon t!1e

recomm~n-.i a.t i ons.

Hich<lrd

Janos,_ "literature ins9e-ctor" of t :1e Oni versi t y of t h e
State of New

Yor ~r.: ,

presented t !le ;:>roblem forcefully

2 . (Note continu ed from page 210).
outlines on descr i ption. We got to calling h c·r,

after a while, 'the wal..~ing outline.' I do
remember that she once gave us an outline on
t he best ::net.:-.od of writ i ng a composition,
whic h we never wrote .. " .I.J&g., 435, No. ~~.4 .

1. Gayley, Charles Kills, •Engl ish in the On1versity
of' Cali fornia,"
29-30.

-·--.. ..
~,,

~--

·~

..

-

Th~

Dial , XVII (July 16, 1894) 1

in his pamphl et on

11

Co ~ l e g e- Ent r anc e

A s tu dy

Eng :.. ish . n

. e;ree s
of em pl'1.asis on l i ter a t ur e and .·ccnpos i -:icm.
Corne l l,

::md.

rh r ~r a r d ,

Dartmouth r a t ed a bi lity t -·; · ;·,;r ite co r r e c t

Engl ish a bove kno wledge of the prescri bed t exts. 1
Other colleges ap parent ly considered a minut e kno w l edge of the book s the great desideratum.
no mention o t" a theme requirement at all;

Scme made
~ e r ~1ap s

co n sidering the :Ju.p er as a whole a test o f -written
The much h eral de d uni r ormi ty "1f'h en

ex;rreasion.

subj 8Cted to close scrutiny proved to be so in name
only.

A number of colleges had agre ed t o limi t

examinations to certain books in given

Y f~ ar s

;~ he ir

---

that was t he extent of the uniformity.

One more attemp t was made in t he nl net eenth
c entury t o bring order o ut o f the chaos.

The Nation.al

Educational Associa tion appointed in 1895 a committee t o

investigate the general subject of college entrance

requirements.
r equirem~nts

1. Jone.s ,

In a pr eiiminarJ

r,

report ~

listing entrance

of sixty-seven colleges and universities

oo. cit.,

5Z35.

2. Published in the Sch. ReT., IV (June, 1896), 341 ff.

•'- "'" r

.

-·--~-..L..~

-----.....-. --·- ~~-

213

of the Ori..i t•?d States, r: ·:· attenti on :r1as giver:. t c En;5 ~ i sl:

since t he committee con sidered t. Le que st ion satissettl ·~d,

f' actorily

at least tetrlporar.il y , b:t t he
'.,Hum, :.1ov·Jever,

recommendations of the Joint Conference.
the f :Lna1 repo :-t was
_,,

. ;.t

m:~_de

much space, a detail ed

i n l..899,

Eng 2- ls '.:~

»as accord ed

of study for literature

cour~e

and co mposition being submitted. 1

The cc!llpositi ~m wor~c

was still orga11ized on rather formal pri ncipl e s with

er.iphasis on !!lechan1.c$, but enslavement o f composition
to literature was lessened by def erring literary
topics to the t '11rd y r.:;ar of the course.

Subsequ ent

discussion or the plan showed th <lt it was admired s s
'_;ei:J.g valuable and suggest1 ve, but educators did not
feel it would be generally accepted since it was too
h 3.rd to carry out in practice.

The National Educatio nal

Association report of 1899 is t '. 1e last important

attempt to bring about uniformity in entrance
reqdirements in English composition.

Sinc e its 1r..flu-

ence does not bec:;me manifest until the twentieth
century, further discussion of the report is

not within the scope of t his study.
We have followed the history of college
entrance requirements in composition from the simple

1. J.E.A.,
(1899) I

flpt.
of the Cos.
-19.
.

on Col,

··:_·.Jr_~·

Eai• Reg.,

214

prescri?tion o.f ?r .:.nceton

~': e

i;1

:a70 tc the r.L::ta:Lled !)ro-

ll:.ne wi tnesseC. t he strugglas a t t::i.e cal.lsges to

secure better ;>::.' eparatory

ti-a.:~i!'lg

i n co:.:::i.,LJcsition,

and the establishment cf a. un!..torni t :,T that was not
unii. . orraity.

li~h~l t

was the e.ffect of these new and con-

f.licting requi1·emants on t he teaching of coi;:iposi tion in

the secondary schools?
When, i .n tha last

,~u~ter

of t he nineteenth

century the secondary schools suddenly found themselves
confronted by an addi tiona:. .::i::quirament, they were

resentful.

Where in the al.read.y c rowde•.i curriculu:n

given over to intensi ·1e dril.: :in Latin, Greek, and

mathematics were they to
e:tercise-s?

r;~..d

time

~or

composition

'r ha.t this attitude persisted even down

to the last decade of the century becomes ap:;:iarent

when one reads the statements 0£ students in the
Harvard Heports. 1 Time all.ot.ted to English in the

1 •. Early in the 90' s Ha.rva.rd became concerned about

the very elementary nato~e of the work which it
was necessary to carry on in Freshman English.
Consequently a committee or three alumni was
appointed who investigated the methods employed
by the pr&paratory schools. In order to secure
the necessary information, students were required
to .write compositions about their preparatory
training in English. The results of the 1nvest1ga(Hote continued on page 215).

-

.

215

~

program woulG. be pre-empted by La tin and Gl" ee lc. _,__

Frequently En glish ;muld be n egl e cted unt i l t h e la s t

1. ( No t e cont:. nu ed from page 214)
tion ;ve.r e presented in three s e ·Jarate re ,Jo r. ts, w.'lich
ap;>eared in 1892, 189 5, &.J.J.d 1897. The f irst and
last dealt ;nainly •.vith conditL')n S of seccnda ry
school teac:iing as revealed by t he conposl tior..s;
the .o:.> econd was .:ievot ~ d tc specimens of' trans latio n s

from Latin and Greek written in Harvard entrance
examinations.
Their publication was follo wed by: a .flood of
comment in educational gatheri ngs, ne•vspapers,
and peri odicals, which served to put a spotlight on
the "illiteracy of -the A."lierican boy." Many schoolmasters objected to the method employed by Mr.
Adams~ ftdetactive agencyn in ~ athering !nrormation
about the prepar~tory schools. It wa s urged that
college students wno had fer a year or :::1 0re
heard their instructors fi~d faul t with their
preparatory school training were not depeThiable
sources of in~ormation. Furthe·r more, the reports
are occa~ionally highly c0ntradictory, students
from the same school re9ort l ng entirely different
amounts of' compos1 t i. on required. Hence, only t ho se
p ar~s o f the report will be quo~ here w~~ch are
confirmed either by t.Teqoent mention on the part

vf students or by evidence from other sources.

l.

·~'hen

I entered upon the work of the fourth year,·

I began to think of. the preliminary examinations

which were to be held the following June. The
teac hers seemed to have the same subject in mind,
and. the only hour which had been set apart for
the study of English was now devoted to Algebra and
Geometry.
nAt the beginning of t he l a s t year I thought

that English would be taken up more systematically
than before: but, to my surprise, Latin, Greek,

and Ge0metry occupied nearly all of the time."
(See Harvard University, Hept. of the Com on Comp.
(1892], 132.

'

(Note continued on page 216).

I

~: ------ ----_-- ' -ti::;. ,. .... ~ ' .. ~-:~..o1· ... ,t:·,_ - .

:,..,

.

·..

216

The t eac her i :-1 a large a::id Vt'ell-

be cralll!!H..:d int:i one.

equip!)ed city school

~-~rote,

rrour sc::.ool is unwil 2-ing

t o gi Ye me .::nor-e t han a. )'ear for .:_J reparing m.y
for coll eg e.

s c hoL~ rs

I n t h is one y ear I must rush the::i

,

th.rough all the books .. ".. _

Some schoolmasters refused t o take the nsw
requirements seriously.

'. lhy bother t o teach the

mother-tongue, which t he child had been practicing
ever since he had lis9ed his first sylla bles?
;;.t titude was furth ermo r e con.firmed b y the

This

~~ ep u ted

lax.i ty

of colleges in accepting students w!·:ose written
expression was far from satisfactory.

of the Newark Acai. i er'.ly,

L~ew

1/J ilson Fa:'rand

Jersey, i n a paper read

l. (:1ott:! continuGd from page 215 ';
A student at another scfr1ool had a similar

experience: ttQn the programme of the school '"· .
there was one recitation 9er1od a week, o f r orty
minutes' du ration, assi gn ed to English. This period ·
was generally stolen for Latin. n Ibid., Ap;J endix,
:#12, pp. 16-17.
Still a third reported: "At one time, Prof. ---·started t he practice of once a wee:: devoting fifteen
minutes or t he Latin hour to the writing of short
exercises; but owing t o the sca:.... ci t:; o:.' ti~e t his
was done only once." Ibid., 125.
1. Quoted by Professor J .M.Hart in a letter to Rieba.:.rd
Jones. See Jones, .2.2• .£.ll.•, 581.
The students

reported the ·same practice. A graduate of a ·
(Note continued on page 217)

217

before tile Association of Coll •:; ;;es and ?reparatory
Schools in the M'i d dla &ta tes 3.nd ~~Ls.r;/l and ia 1882 ,

descri bed the attitude as follo ws:

••• t here is a )reva.l;:.;nt; opinion ancng :: ur
;mpils tha t t lle entran,~: e exa.m:ina,tlons in Eng ~ :l.sh :ire
not very rigidly enforced at ::lost colleges. They have

a strong i~pression, based on the ex?erience of t bcse
who have gone before, t ha t if a boy can get t h r ough tbe
oth er subjects decent:y,

d ef ~:: cti ve

Engl ish will ) rove

but a slight barrier. This is t he impression, I
say, among t he b0ys, and t '.r1ose o: their teach ers wt:.o

have a high regard for strict veracity are carer~1
not to be too positive in their contradictions.

l. (Note contifl..U ed from page 217)
Kassaehusetts city school wrote:

"In the last
year's study all our energies were devcted towards
the gnglish required for Admission t c• C:o.l l2ge. n

Harvard Oniv., Rept. of t he Comm. on
Rhet. (1897) 1 483, #102.

Co~ n .

and

In a ~ ~otl.1.er high school

in Massachusetts the students :;rere trained in the
correction .o f false syntax during t bJ first year.
"The 'college section• of the class no w enjoyed a
well-earned respite of t1m years rrorn the study of
Englis ~1 -- a period or relaxation more agreeable

to the young student's b: issful ignorance than

profitable to his literary styl e ••• It is only
fair t o say at t :·ds point, however, that all the
rest o f t he class, the 'regulars,' h<ld provided
for them. excellent ,:'.ngli sh courses; 1n the. second
year, Rhetoric, and in the t ':l.ird am~ fourth years,
Engl ish Literature. The College section could
·
not be included in these courses because o ,, their
extensive preparation wor ,~ for coll ege.

"In our Senior year, we of the elect resumed

our acquaintance w1t t1 the Que en's English; and
sad to say, t his yea.rt s work, p:re sc ri ::)ed by the

colleges for admission was exactly the same as our
first year's work. We had to operate once a week on
monstrosities of composition -- artificial monstro.,ities, too - and to correct grotesque punctuation •.
Besides this, we read the prescribed bool'i:s ••• indeed,
we read so rast that we thought of no thing more

than remembering the narrative or plot long enough
to write a connected account." Ibid., 453-_54,. #56 • •

.';t-.•

l. (Note on page 218)

!

.--

I

I

J

---'

218

Cornell University

~ade

t he

fol.:.~ w i ng

con fe ssion:

At p:resant our inglish d.e;J~tnent c l os <=ES one eye ,
if not b8tl"l, to many short -co;:i.:_~s an:i s .:.ns. I t ' pas ses'
paper s wh ic h it wculd llk r3 to '~~ndi ti on t ; it 'ccn;f.i tions'
s0 ~ e the !Jri ters o :' ~ hi c h it w--:- U:.d li~ e t .::i re j ect :
outri;;llt • ..l

It i s not surprising, t her e fo r e, to f ir:d t r e master of
one fitting school a dmitt .'..ng t C:.'2. t he atternpt ed no
instruction i n Efl..g2.ish:

"I tel.:

t ~e

boys to r ead t l1e

books, and t hat is all."' 2
Even :IOre :l e'.':>.orali z.i!'lg than t he laxity of

t h e coll eges was the di versi ty in entrance requirements.

Some colleges insisted upon

~J ;~ cs

d.raml

fro~

books;

other s frowned upon such li t era....-y studies and ? referred

subjects based upon personal

~ e ri enc es.

Drill on

mere mecharrl.cal elements satisf'i.ed the .requirements of
this institution: t !1a t cne be..=..ieved that t he "final

test of a candidate's ability

~~

write adequately is •••

l. (Note continued from page 21.. 7)
Association of t he Col. and P!"ep . Schs. in t·ne
Mid. States and i!d., Proceedings of t h e 1st .·..:

Annual Convention (1893) , l Oc·.

1. Professor J.M.Hart i n a l etter t ~ Richard Jones.
See Jones, .22• cit., 584 • .
2. Quoted by Beers, nEntrance Requirements in Eng. at
Yale"; Jc1• Rev., III (May, 1892), 435, footnote.
The Report of thei:Hartard.lCom• on Comp. and Rhet.

igo, reveals a aim1.1a:r attitude on the part
hig!1 school graduate,
wrote, aThe opinion that scholars t.eld of English was:
'Oh, I can pass in that a1.1 zight without any study.••
1892

1

ot the student. One of them, a

£19

power to construct a we:l-proportioned essa:/, and in
1

r evi3i o:: t c: see his subject as a whole. !i•
:!lost of t h e

sc ho c ~ ls

Si~ce

fitted stu6.ents for ;: ;ore t h an ono

college , it became necessary to vary the ins tructi8n
in accordance

•~ith

the desti::::.a tion of t:1e .'.rn9il .

Wilson Fa rrand, in t h e paper

a 2.read~:

referr11d to,

presented vividly the distracting effect ot the variety

of requirements:
I am at f)resent directing the Eng ~_ is · war.!: of
a class !)reparing t o enter college next June. The class
is small enough t .::. be readily handled as a whole in
its La ti n, Gree :.~ and :nat:1cmatlcal work. When it cor:l es
to English, b.owever, I am compelled t o divide it into

four distinct sections, and to carry on four parallel
course s,
go-f ng t o
is still
the boys

SL"!lply because the boys in th <'i.t class are
five different colleges. Ther:. the confusion
furt f:er C:)nfounded by the fact that some of
must be prepared for an exa:nination in f':.:. mal

grammar, sot!le for au exercise in co:rrect2ng .false syntax, some fGr both ai'ld some for neither.

His vigorous plea was responsible for the Joint Confer-

ence on .Oniform. Entrance Requirements in English.

How

little real uniformity was achieved has already been
demonstrat€d •
.Another bad effect of the entrance
ment.s was the

requi~e­

.

pointing of the whole instruction in

l. Part of the requirement or the University of
Chica.go. See "The Preparatory course in English,"
!£!!. Rev., V (S,ept., 1897), 4~5-4 55.
2. Asso~ •. of . the c.;01. and Prep. Schs. in the ~ id.

and Md., Proceeding§ {1893}, 104-5.

s.

220

composition. toward the e:xami::.ation.

Boys

\"1lo:.; re

not

express t hemselves well, · but in order t e> ;>a ss a n

examination.

The fol 2. o rt'.i.ng st a t enen ts are t ypical of

t /: ose found in the Harvard. re~orts (1887):

I was often t old at the :·iew Hanpsilire Academy
I was prepared :- "Now, t his is sim;>ly to m.a~ce
you ready for the e:xaminafion, yo u 1 ll probably forget
all about it afterwards.
wh ~= re

Finally in the si xth year they tried to make up
.t or lost time in teac r:ing English. They seemed t 0 t r.'3ach
it to us for the s ole purpos e a .::· making us pass the
exami11atio n, because they c c ntinually used examina t :. on
papers as references anj t hey said all the time t h 0. t ·
we must d ~> t .qis or t hat if we expected to :) ass t he
exarri nat:i on. -

1. Harvard Univ., Re2t.

(1897), 441, #34.
2. Ibid .. , 443, f39.

or

t 11.e Com. on Coran . ar:.d Rh.et.,

.
The fol l owing references also

occur in the reports:

"All the instruc tor had on his mind was the

entrance examL·-iation.

He taL:ed of nothing else and

would inform us of this and that, that would
please or displ ~ ase the instructor." A f~ew Har.:~ shire

Academy. lQ.!.g., 441, #33.
•[Ber] main object is to teach [the student]
enou ;.:~h English to pass his examination, and then she

gracefully drops him.'-'

A private school in New

York City. Ibig., 443, #38.
"During my last yeu at school I p:: · epared for the
entrance exar.i1nation in English. The preparation

consisted in reading t he required books , and
writing a two to four page theme once a 11eek, on
some aubJect taken from the prescribed books. The
only purpose of t his composition work, was to

enable me to pass the examination in Entrance
]1:n.gllsh.n Private school in .Boston. Ibid., 457, #62.
(Note continued on page 221)
I

___J

221

Since the domina.."l.t aim of ;Jreparator;,," :l.:: structicn irl eo::nposi tion was t c fit

tr~.e

candidate 't or ti:"1e

f::'!X&n ination, it fol.::.o wed that t h e instructi on was

11mi ted to t lnse t :-- l ng s definitely r :;qair r;d
high er institutions.

~'

the

In the fi rst place, t h e colleges

:prescribed a li ,;it of books from which c om.position
subjects would be taken.

Hence,

~reparatory

was oommi tted to the close aasociation

and literature.

·Y f

i:nstru l: ticn

language

Secondly, the colleges emphasized

mechanical correctness of expression to t he exc ' _usion
of

al~ost

every

oth '.~ r

consi deration.

Conseq u ent2..y,

fitting school teachers expended red ink on

comcr~s,

2. (Note continued fro m page 220)
nprofessor -------'s object in teaching Eng: ish
is to pr~pare men for the entran,::!e examination t o
Harvard College; he told us the f act on the first
day and four y ears later ended his goodbys by
giving directions haw to pass the examination•
most suc cesa:fully."'

A New

Hampshi:i~e

Academy.

Ibid., 513, #153.

The public sChools were under the same spell,

as is s '::own by the s t atement of a student .from
a Massachusetts city Latin School: "It seems to
me that the all pervading i dea at the school was
not so mueb to give us a lasting knowledge of the
Engl ish language, but rather to force enough of the
rudiments or the l anguage i nto our head3 so that
we should be able to pass the examination$ for
Harvard. ihen we made a mistake in anyt.hing the
teacher. would say that they marked t his ver--; hard

a.t Harvard; instead of merely telling us that it
was bad English." Ibid., 443. #40.

222

capital s, cases, aGd tenses, but ver :; littl e on the
t ho u§h t a:-..d

stru '.~ ture

•J f t l:e

ccm.~os i tion

as a

w~:ol 2 .

Lan gua.ge an d :.1 terature mi gi1t h .::i.ve beer.

mutually helpful if they had beer. correctl y taught , bat
in the majorit y of schools i n s t ruction lapsed l nt0
a routine of reading f ollowed by the

,

tions on -.vhat h ad been read ......

wr ~ ting

-:i f' comqosi-

Li teratu:.·e came t o oe

regarded as a source of cour;::iosi t i on to pi cs.

?.eading,

instead of being a. pleasurable ex-9er ience became

drudgery.

When the

com~ositions

a ssigned were cri tical

or iai ta ti ve of the .sty le of t he aut::or, t h e r e sults

were still nore lamentabl e .

Yet t he colleges

themselves fostered t he critical bent by the

qu e st ior~ s

w!iich a ppeared on t he examinat :Lons; for example:
Wha t is
ces~io~ ~it h

~he dramatic purpose of Antonio's interbhylock after t he t ime of the bond has

ex ) ~rea?

l. The following statements typify the practice .tn
the schools:
"My preparation in English 9-0mposition at ----School consisted i.11. writing about seven cor11po si tions
during the year. These compositions were simply
outlines of the story i n eac h ona of the books
appointed as su!?Jects f or t he Ha=vard examination
in English." A ~ew Hamp. School. Harvard Oniv(. .,
Rept. of the Com. on Cogp •. and lihet. [1892], 147-8.
"Ever-; week, and sometimes oftener, we were
required to write a reaume of the book we were

reading, an account or the author•s . life, . to
describe some event in it, or give our i mpressi ons
of the •-ri ter• s style. n A Chicag·o school. Ibid.,
(1897), 473, 182.
2. (Note on page 223} .....

- .. -.:.....-.

.

__,._

------r--·- -

~.-- ~

.:s.

223

The literary m e t~". ods If Defo e as s hown in.
Hi s tory of t h e ~la gue.
.
''

Assi gr.:ment of co:mposi tions i n i mi tat ~on of a n aut or' :s

I

style resulted in an artificial, :rhetorical mann<:?r
tha t was usually hi .ghly rewarded by the

')

t e ac ~<.: r."'

Compositi ons wri tter.. ei t h er on l i terar:r or

ganeral subJects were a s a .ru.J..e critici:sed merely ror
mechanical errors. · Correct spelling, capitalization,

s.

Ii

,_

(Note continu5d from page 222)
Fro·-:• a 'reachers Coll ege, Columbia University,
examination. See Jones, Q.2• c i t .. , 603.. That
Teachers Coll ege s pecifically : .' eq_uired -rit1cal
treatl:lent is seen in t he follo wing statement: "In
addition to · the usual demand that the candidate

shall write clear and accurate Eng:lish 1 correct

in spelling, sentence-structure ar..d paragraphs,
I

it is required of him that he show some elenentary
power in crit.icism; that he be able to tell by what
means the aut!-:.or has made effective the presenta-

I

t1cm of his ideas ... "

1.

•~ •.

Ibig., 603.

Fro~

a Dartmouth College examination. Ibid., S20,.
In a high school near Bost-On t h e pupils were
requirsd to put their t houghts "into words in
the peculiar swing of . eac:1 autLor' s style,." Harv.

Oniv., Rept. of the Com. on Comp. and Hhet. (1897)
503, /l40.

Another student reported, "On looking over
t~ emes, I find those that got t he highest
marks, written in a stilted high-flown imitation
of Macaulay, who was revealed before our dazzled
eyes as the •Apothesis [aicJ of Style.• or the
other themes, one especially in which I managed
to get down a little nearer nature was scarlet
with its ahame.w I~., 503, #142.

my

824

rmnctuation., .s.nd grat:ll!l.ar became t :.i e ulti r:ia te eilds o f

t h e t eac hi n g .

An:/t hing .j evr,id o f' err:; r , n o :::iatt er

:_o'!i wooden and stil t ed wa s de emed s.J.t :'. . s fa ctor:r, if no t
r ated excell ent.

The na ture o i' t h e

on~

instructi on i n

Massachuse t ts hi gh school is described thus:

No attempt was made t o develop originality of

t hou ght ~"ld e xpression or to stimule. te t h e ; :uagi :nat i on
by the setting of good mode.ls. It ~las a dreary,
mechanicat drudgery, unli ght ed tr1 a s i ngl e gl eam of
inter 'O? St.
Simil a r evidence is offered by ar1other studGnt.

of t he compo sitions

writte~

Speaking

every four or five weeks,

he say s,
The c..11ara cter of these ) roductions de;?ends
entirely upon the writer's natural abi lity. There is
no discussion, no r e-writi:ig; the cri tic i sm consists

.

' '~

merely of reading the she et over and mar ~d ::.-ig a f ew of
t.he ;nost glaring errors. When this has been di: :m e , t he
stud&nt' s production is returned to him (sometimes)
marked a.."lywhere fro m 4 to 10, the grade de p endi ng

almost entirely upon bare mechanical correctness.
science of word-choice a..11d

a.rra..nge:~ ent

The

seems t c ba an

The chara~ter of t h e subject ls
usually left to " the stu J ent. ~.

u.n.1cno ~ui quantit~r.

)

The entrance exam1n.at1on papers written by
students reflected t l1i.s t ra.i...'1.ing.

Professor A. S.Hill 1

who from 1873 to J.884 read four to five t housand Eng l ish

ex&:i::i nati on books at Harvar d , fou nd no t !!lore than a.

1. Har-Yard Oniv • .f,_,Re-o t. of the Com on Comp. and Rhet.

(1897), 428,

~.

2. Ibid,., [1892], 137-8.

225

hundred which ·were cr ed i table t ;::; ei t he 1·
t he pupil.

~ ~1e

t e ach c-:r or

Commenting on the "tedious r!lediocrity"

l

repo rted by an e:rn.r1 U:a t io1i r eader in 1885, P:ro : esso r

Hil ::. said,
It is t hi s t edio us .aediocrity which has amazed
year after year~ In s;ielling, punctuation, and
gramma r some of the books a re a l i ttle wo rse than t he
ma ss, and some a grea t deal better; but. in other
respects t here is a dead level, unvari ed by a fresh
t hought or a n lndi vidual expression.....
~e

Sadly enough, the coll eg es by their constant
ea;::>hasi.s on "a short English

c~mposit ion ,

correct in

spelling, :.:iunctuation, di vision by ;;>~tragraph.s a.""ld
expressionn 2 encouraged the t eac hing that produced s uch
~ediocrity .

The warning of t he Jo int Conference t hat

"No ca..".ldidate will be accepted in

Englis ~1

whose wor'-: is

notably defective in point of spelling , punctuation,
idiom or division into paragraphs " 3 set no higher
standard.

Tha t inquisitorial body, t he Harvard

Committee on Composition and Rhetoric limited its
criticisms t o errors in spelling, grammar, and slovenliness in composition..

In f"act, it declared that t he

1. Hill, A.S.t "Engl ish in the Schools", Haroer•s, 71
(June 1885), 124.
2 . From the Harvard req.uirements for admission for 1878-80.
See Leighton, Harv. Exg. Papera, 399.
3. "Summary of' the Proceedings of the lleetings of the
Conr. on Uniform Entrance Req. in E:ng.~ 1n Oniv. of
the State of N. Y., High School Dept., Sixth Annual
..,
Rept. (1898) 1 ~ppendix, 843.
'
I '

226

high 3Cho0l had nc concern with anythinr:; beyond
the m<:; chanics of co::-;Josi tion.

The Jrovinca o~ t he preoara tor7 sc::.ools is ~ '~
train the- sc hola r, oc y ~1r g irl, a.:.d · t:;:-ain. him o ~ 21er
t horoughly, i2 what can only be d esc~ibe d a.s t l:e
elements and r~d~ents af ·,v ritten ex ~; ress i on, -- and t :ii ey
st oul.:i teach facile, clear penmanship, co-rrect spellir:g 1

si:i:ple gral1.llna tlca1 construction, and neut worltmanlike,
.mecha..:-.: .i cal execution • • • Its end is to so train the

child, m.u s cularly and me ntally, from its. ~ arli e st y e ars ,
that when it completes its sc.hool education h ~ or s he

may be able on occasion t o talk with tha pen a s well a s
with the tongue, -- in other words to ma::.: e a plain ,

clear, simple statement of a.n:y matter onder consideration, neat±y written, correctly spelled, gr~"tl.I!la tically
expreased.

The committee, forgetting t l:e closH associ a tion of form

and content, proposed tha t i f the high school suppli ed
the forme-t·, the coll e ge would take care of t h e latter.

Boys of secondary sc!lool a ge could not possibly have
anything interesting to say; so it devolved upon the

fitting schools to drive t hem through the sheer drudgery
of technical drill.
Added emphasis was given to the mechanical

side of expression L'l 1679 by requiring the . students
in the entrance examination to correct specimens o.f' bad

English.

Ten or more sentences, frequently culled .from

the preceding year' s e:xa.lllinut1on b ok s , were gi'Ten, in

l. Harv. Oniv., l,1ept. of the Com on Comp. and Rhet.
(1897)' 42l-2i. '

. ,~

. -;

.-

227

w~

Jtu ::!.ent was

·.i c h

correct all t ,1e errors }Je

t ;J

co ul ·:l ·1·; ~covc.r l
'

..... ;:J

._

•

tory schools devoted occasional rec:. tatio ns t •) the
correction of faulty sentences.

n·rne

l:.i ::; t y ear, Strang' s

ooolt of errors in English f or correction ·wa.s discussed

In

on perhaps eight :;fonday :frT ·,v-rote one

another school, dU7:ing the la.st two y ears PU:t>ils wers
required to correct "1m. 'ffri ting, ten bad English

sentences

'7.

ev~ry Monday."~

There was much criticism of

tho nbad English" requirement not alone becau5e it set

before students

exam~les

of poor English, but also be-

cau se the sentences were so confused an:i the meaning
so obscure th.at a fair test was not a.ftorded.
Com.mi ttee of Ten in :..893

ex~ressed

The

a mild d·isapproval

when it reco iillllended that such exercises .form not more

than one-fifth cf the examination.

The Joint Con..-

rerence in 1894 recommended their omission, conceding
at the same time that the exercise was useful in·

preparatory study.

Bungling as were the early efforts of the
col l eges to secu.re a !equate training i

;;ritten expression

1. S-e e Appendix C for specimen of examination.

2. Harv. Univ., Rep\. of th!j Com, on Comps and Rhet.
(1892], App., 23, #15.
3. Ibig., App., 27 1 #18.

in the seccniar:' schools, t hey were :iot wi t l1out
7a."'..ue .

thr~ir

They· helped along t h e movement f or good En gli sh
~'

whi ch ha d already been initiated by t~1e a cad e:mi.e s and

}:i gh schoo ls, by focussin g attention u-pon it.
t ~ue

that

coi:irpo si tL:J~

It is

teac t-, ing in the 90' s was in a very

chaotic state, that no val id met '.-;od haO. been evolved,
but the experi:nents, successful and unsuccessful,

of the coll eges and seeonJary schools, fu rnished the
foundation for. the development o f' sounder pri nciples

in the next century.

229

CHAPTER V

Th e Development o f 4 etl1od in

Conposition reaching
To atte;:.ipt a discussion of

met ~ ~od

in connection

with a :subject so incidental i n i ts nature as composition
is almost .:;>resumptuous.

Yet , since t r1e su b ject found a

place in the curriculum, it is obvious th at some sort
procedure was employed in teac hing it.

or

School re 0orts,

conter!l:,m rary accounts of indi victuals-, textbook s, CL."ld
treatise s on met:1ods h a ve furnished the material for
t 1li3 chapter.
1,

After a preliminnry discussion of the ob-

Jectives and the underlying theories, the
sel "les are examined.

met ~1 ods

them-

Because it is difficult to trace

any s ingle line of deTe1opment in composition teac;11ng,

since the subject was at

ti~es

associated with other

st .;dies, methods are discussed under several different
heads.

The teaching of English composition in

conn~ction

With the classical languages is considered in the section
on tra..'l'lslation.

Then the

procedures employed in

teaching composition as an ind ependent s-u bject are

examined.

Next its assoeiati9n with grammar, rhetoric,

and literature is studied through textbooks.

And, finally,

supplementary aids used to stimulate interest 1n composi-

.

.
--~----

230

tion are considered.

The ?icturm on the whole is a

chaotic one, but it must be
1f'ai thfl.lll y the me t ::od s

~f

30

if it is to mirror

composi t ion teaching be.fore

1900 .

Aim.a
When composition entered the curriculum,

first, of the academy,

and

l ater'

or

the high school,

education was dominat ed by the t heory Of formal mental
discipline.

The classical languages

~"1.d

mathematics,

because of their formal organization, were t he favorite
subjects for training the racult:!. es.

Any study that

was merely useful was scorned by the disciplinarians
and became established in the curriculum only with
great di.f.f'iculty.

When Franl..:lin, recognizing t he

practical value of composition, attempted to introduce
it l nto his academy, 1t was gradually crowded out by

the c.lassieista.

In 't he high schools, where 1 t was

grudgingly granted a part O! the time

;>reTiOUSly

allotted to the ancient languages and to mathematics,
it wa$ frequently neglected because of t.he pressure of

college entrance ?repara tion.

If, therefore, composition

was to survive in the secondary course of study, it

must prove itself as effective a disciplinarian as the

-·-·
,
" ·I

. •';. ~

0

'j

-

:,;

~~DW#-:;}~-~~-··;.:~~:. _,;r.~~t
. ......: ~....t:~::~._;-·-·~fl~:4t...-..:.&.-~•·"'-'-'<<"~..-;.;·

.... ', '>';~

-""""1li-

..;,,;
• .:...
- ....
• .;._,
' ................;;:;.:.........:;..-.....,.-......................"""""........

231

traditional subjects.

And so it came about that

compo$ition, introduced into

'

schq ~ ls

for utilitarian

:reasons, S,')ught to justify its }resence on the ground
that it offered opportunities -;."'er :nental gym.nasties
cmupa.rable to t hose ai"forded by :.atin, Greek, and

algebra.
Although the old faculty ?Sychology upon which

the principle of f'ormal discipline was based began to
be questioned early in the n:Lneteenth century,
educators were slow to accept the new t heories and
advanced at the close

of the century the very same

arguments brought forwal'd in an earlier decade in
support of composition.

In 1824 J • .M. 'K.eagy asserted

thr.3-t

all the powers of the mind are very much improved by the
1n.fluence or correct language. That the attention
becomes more capable of fixing itself, that the
memory, as a .m at·ter of course, is rendered stronger
and ll10re retentive; that the Judgment and rational

faculty are all inVJ:gorated by the use or precise and
well defined terms.

He recommended particularly a study of the properties

or

object•, comparison, classifications, antonyms, synonyms,

·and word association, a practice which
1. K [eagyJ 1 1. 11., &i Easay on English Education Togethet
with Some Observations on the Present Mode or f eaching
the lpgli!h Language, 6.

will be of such great value in reference to the
.reasonings of com.man life, that we will venture to
olace it on a level wit h ~a thematlcal researches; and
though it does not arrive a t the sa1Ile certainty,, yet
it gives equal exe.rcise to the powers of memcry,
judgment and reasoning, with the ~ost accurate course
o f geol!letrical or algeb.:-aical ar..aly si.s • .1.
As late as 1892 the Committee of Ten felt

obligate~

·to

dBfend English (composition and l iterature) on the score

of disciplinary value.

Although the

Confer~nce

on

English had not predicated a disciplinary aim in the
English

re~ort,

the Committee discovered one:

The intelligent reader of the re9ort of the
Conference will find described in it the means by wr...ich
the study of English in secondary schools i3 to be aade

the equal or any ~ther study in disciplinary or
developing power.

The Committee on College Entra...'lce Hequirements of the
National Educational Association in 1899 :;>resented as its

first proposition "that the study of the Engl ish
language and its literature is inferior to no study
in the curriculum..

It offers all, or nearly all, the

opportunities for mental training afforded by the

study of any language ••• ;,3

On the title-page of 11ll1am Russell's
~liiiR~t...!'2!m9~W~1(±!
l8~23
~
} ,_ one

or

A

the earliest

composition texts in use in this country, occurs the

1. ~., 18.
.
2. N.E.A., Rept.
thg egg. on See. Sch. Studie§
(1893)' 21.
3. H.E •
fjtot. ot Qom, on Coj.. Int• Reg, (1699), 12-13.

or

.l.,

233

following significant statement:

All that :regards the study of' compos::.tion, i:1erits
the hi ghes.t attention on this account, that it is
in ti.:nateli connected with the L.:iprovement o:.' our
~~tellsctual pcwBrs.
Richard ihat
pop

i~T

in his Elements of Rhetgric, a textbook

lar in the first half of the ninetee11th

found the same va: ue in composition.
bod:y of his text is entirely devoted t

centur~,

Although the
a discussion

of rhetorical µrinciples, he does find occasion in his
introduction to say a word in favor of composition.

No topics are suggested, however, since tt.e subject,
he believes, is unimportant;

in

~act,

the topic

c haser ~

may even ba insigr..ificant, for tlthe benefit proposed
does not consist in the intrinsic value of the composi-

set© the pupil's mind.~l

tion, but in thee
As a result

or

the d1sciplir.ary

ai~, eultiv~-

tion of' the power · of expresslo!l became secondar<J to
developing reasoning abi.lity.

was confused wit h
association

or

logic~

Training in composition

as is indicated by the close

the two subjects in !ome courses of study.

The New York State Board of Regents in ma1cing its

report on subjects studied in academies from 1804-1807

234

did not

di sc!'imin~i te

between logic, rhetoric, and

comgo sition, but gr ou 9ed t he three in giving statist i cs. 1
In 1867, in. the Cincinnati Hi gh School, "Mental Scie:1ce

and Composition" were combined in the t hird and fourth

.

2
'"Aars
:;
.
·~

~,1ident

About l.880 a.n additional aim became

in s econdar; sch(vl compo sition.

Accuracy,

which had

long been the ideal of the study of gra:n:mar l wa s taken

over by composition t eaching.

The thought content

of essays was ne9lected, arid t hey beca!ile mers exercises
f'or drill in s _;>elling, 9unctuation, a..'1.(1 grammar.

new emphasis was undoubtedly a reaction to t he

This

for~ier

practice ct' requiring composi tior-;. of an abstract,

philosophical nature.
the absurdity of

Teachers, beginning t o reali ze

ex~ecting

adult reasoning from immature

high school students, turned to more sirnple,

familiar subJects.

They st.i ll felt, however,. t he

obligation o:f making composition a difficult subject.
Since the subject matter was no longer a source of
mental discipline, they turned to the form.
in accuracy now supplanted the

the faculties.

~ore

Training

general training of

new . aim in composition teaching is

~he

set rortb in the Woonsocket, Rhode Island, report tor

l. See Chapter II,
2. B'•· A.J,

~4.

or gg.,

XIX (1870), 532.
{::tt:e.gt _•·:_ ,,~.

1

«1,

,'.,-1,~·i#~~"'»•<C<

235

1879:
It has been t he ai:::i 0 :£' t h e teac h ers nc t to
accept any piece of composit ion, until each ·Nord h.c~s
beerc. s pelled corr ectly , and all the more 1.:npor tant
r ule s of punctuation caref ully obs erved. By t his
met>od of instruction, ;.:iractical work is obtained, and
attent i on is the !!lore r eadily given to co r rectness of

expression, which, i n a high school course, 13 cf
infinitely more impo rt~ce t han originality or
profundity of t z:;ought • .L

A simila r disregard or" content is fo und in the

New York State sylla bus (1891), which was eareful t o
list the kinds of composition required, narrative,
descriptive, persuasive, argumentative, but as for
c : :mte:::.t made no rec;ui:rer.ient beyond t he very formal
~

"logical sequence of i deas 1t, . . insisti ng at t h e sar.ie

time on correctness 1n punctuation, capitalization, and
The Report of the Committee of Ten (139 2)

spelling.

also contai ns no reference to the thou ght c ontent cf
coopositions.

The result

or

such training is reflected in

the mechanical writing of high school graduates.

One

or the Harvard examiners reported in 1891 that the boys
tried to write proper English at the expense of

sim.pl1c1ty, naturalness, and eas e. 3 The colleges,
ho\vever, were largely responsible for the state

or

1. 12th Ann. Rept. of the Bd. of Ed ••• of R,I. (1882),
App·., 95.
2. l05th Ann. Ret)t. gt the Ren!• (1891), 14. _"
3. Hurlbut,

·B.s •., "The Preparatory

Work in lo.gllsh as

Seen by a Har'rard Examiner• i n J!edY X!V! o t
Schoel and College ln!lifp, 45. ·

.

:~

af~air s,

since t hey encouraged t he emphasis on

cor:rectne ss by 1imi ting their req11 lreI'.!. en ts t:: technical
c ·'nsider.s ti or.s.

.

The critici.sms L: the Harv1rd re.perts,

already di3cussed in Cah r; ter IV, were l e vel l s d almost
entirely at errors i n f or.n.

This new empha s is did ne t go entirely
unc hallenged.

.At t he f'irst annual convention of the

Colle ge Associ ation of t he :addle States and Maryland

(1889), Professor Ch,·, rl e s E. Hart of Rutgers College,

scored the demand for t he sort of compositi 0n training
',vhic h "limits itself ••• to a negative excellence in the
mere .:.i. ·10idar.£e. of errors.

1
Tf......

Pr i.n cipal C. T. R. Smith ,

at a C':r nference o f the .Associated .Academic ·?ri~: ci ;ials
(1892), cri"ticised the New York State syllabus for setting

no definite standards in English composition.

He

re comm ended

that in the examination in English composition more

regard be paid to the t h ought th.an has hitherto

been the case; that we a~k them (the Regents1 to give
credit not merely i.'or punctuation and« spelling and

matters of mechanical work, but also 'to.. the thought of
the essay ••• 2

In spite of the occasional objections voiced,
the mania for accurac7

~er .s1sted

to the close of the

l. Hart, Charles E., "The Scope and Junction of Rhet. and
Comp." in Pmceedi ng§ of the 4th Ami. Conv. of the
Col. Assoc. o~ - the Mid.- State• and!ifd. {1892}, 35.
2. l06th Ann• Rept. of the Regts. (1892), f>42-43. The
Regents a pparently heeded. the suggestion, for the
&Jllabus ·or .1895 does take con'teJ?;'-.. soraewhat into
consldera,ioa. See Chapter III 1 P• · 139.
·
"
............~·

~--~

T'

-----/

.r

.:!J,..

~·

237

century, a .l though the character o f i nstruction did
c h a..-rige
t ,1

soinewhat.

Cor::~ctness

correctness of larger uni ts

of

J.etai.l was extended
t he sent12nce 1 the

..

,,-

~'aragraph,

the i'lew

and the co:-rtposition as a whole.

Yor ~<

For exar.:rple,

State syllabus of l8 J 5 stipulates s pecial

attention t o t he para.graph in first yn ar wor~:. i

The

Committee on College Ent rance Requirements of the
National Educational Associa tion (1099) reco :!il!lends
"a study of

th 1~

structure of the sentence and of t he

larger units of discourse.rt 2 . Attention to the larger
~ t,

hO'trever, did not, on the wl10l e, carry with 1 t

attention to the content, but the em9hasi s r·emained
11- ;hers it had prel'iously been, on the mecha..viical aspects

of the composition.
Not until t.he twentieth century did schools
i.71 general realize that the purpose of composition is

to enable pupils to communicate effectively thought and
\

feeling.

The art of expression was until the lB,st two

:.

'.'\

',
i

decades

o~

the nineteenth century slighted.

Ondue em-

~\

l~
•

I

\\
:·":jII
.

phasis was placed upon thought, not as a prel1L11nary to

, , .~

i\\~
\ -~
!

expression, but as a means of developing the mental

powers.

In other words, composition

i. Univ. of ~he

s. or

N.Y., 2nd .Ann•

was

;

considered a

-Reat•

of the Exar.i. ·

Dept. (1894}, 292-3.
2. N.E.A., Rt.Pt• or Com. on Col. Ent. 5e9 •. (1899), -13.
,,;!

f•

i

l
,
\

238

co nve~rance

tool subject, r..ot for t he
fo r ti1e

s h a.r peni~g

af t l-:e wits .

of ideas, but

When, c. bcut 1880 , it

I

:. .oegan t· '~

be r eccGnized as a

to~l

a fa.r:a t ic al devotion

cf express ion, there

t :. for ~

anC. an al::iost

total disregard of matter.

Principles versus Practice
Far into the nineteenth century the way t c:

.

l earn t" write Engli sh was t o memorize faith fully

the rules of grammar and rhetoric, and to sup plement
this study with formal essays vlritten a t irregular
i ntervals t .b.roughout the

~re ar.

School;:nasters consi dered

this the iogical way to achi eve skill in expression,
for they t1eld a

kno~vledge

practice of any art.

of t heory fUndamental to t he

When t hey :placed principles before

practice, they were merely placing first t hings first.
When Franklin planned the course of Engl ish
studies for his academy, he follo wed the same order.
After a two year study of grammar, followed. by a year
of rhetoric, the boy was to be put to letter writing, in
which he was to receive i nstruction in the various
social forms,

in addition to business letters.

Finally,

in the fifth year he was to be set to the writing of
es.says, .t he substance for which might be furnished by

239

t he

:na ;~ter

;_f the bo:l

7;a,s

:-lot mature enou gh to

.,

write origi;.1al com po .si tions ......

illiua
be

a2i.

rn::cell:)nt teacher of En glish , \'VTote his

G ra:~:.a r

nt have the rules of rhetoric
:Gresh in oind, he placed a summar-; of them direc ]y
fi

s course of

comk>osi tion

Iessoms,.

The lmr;>ose

of his book, as he explained in the preface, was to
bridge the gap betwee.::1 theory and pr::o..ctice. 2

Russell even. considered
ca.:.

That

he necessity of bridging the

hows him well in advance of his ti.:1e.

Qua.ckenbos

the auth or of Sor!le of tJ1e

widely

most

in the secOI'...d half of t h e nine-

ewise believed that the student

teentll

r.ar.r course in rhetoric be!ore
lJor is any general survey of

rhetorical principles sufficient, but rather a minute
study of "every important subject connected- with the

artn3 of rhetoric.

Hence it is that practical

exercises in c::;mposition are deferred until page 325

1. See Chapter II, p. 31.
2. QA• Cit., Vii •.

3. Quackenbos, Adv. Course of Comp. and P.het., 6.

------ ------- - - - - -

,._; ·' :~ .!:.l·..,~~--~'.4fL . . , >~ i.J.i\;f/_.,,.~~:.!.;~..l . . ~JJ;.:!:"··

·

;· 't'- ....

··:._.fr.' MJ. · ~\·· ~ "'s.__..~:.,.,..."""""""""''

of'

240

o f' h i s ..154- p a ge booi{.

Zar!..i ::;r t h a n. tha t he incl ud es

sentenc e drill, b ut gi ves
~

~10

ex erci se s in conn-:;ct ed

....

compo s..1. i..J. on •

.¥dherence t n t11e t h eor:· o f pr inciple s before

ce relieved t he elementary schools of any
... espons

of composl t 1cm:.

bu s iness was t o cra.J:!i. the c hi ld.

1i'fi t

rule s he would ne ed when
ness of writing.

fi ~al l y

h

th~

'1'h-ei. r

gr am..'!!a t i cal

h e came to the

bu s~ -

EYen state l e gi sla t ion, in t he f e·w

i ns tances i n whi ch cor.iposition was prescr-ibed by l aw ,
su pported t his attitude.
I n t h e first quarter o f t he nine te enth century ,

however, t here made itsel f f elt an infl uence which
gradually changed t he whol e approac h t u composition
t eac1::1n g .

In the l ittle

t ()?.11:

a humble schoolmaster v:as

of

verdun 1 in Switzer land,

ttempting to ap;>ly t

learning the laws that rovern t he development of the
human intell ect.

In 1115 school, abstract

never preceded practice.

Pestalozzi

pr~nciples

And so it was that when

aught expression, he did not begin wit h

r ules and definitions.

His i dea was that

pri nci~l ?. s

of language are a result of inner growth t o be

deTeloped through gradual practice on the part of the
student.

..

•

\.

..
1

~

-~

241

One effe ct of

t~·lis

philo:so?hY on .!\me rican

education was to introcuce 'Nr i tten expression into
schoGls

earli ':~ r

t han anyone had ever believed possi bl e .

nnegin early" was the burden o f every speec h -:>n composi-

tion teaching.

Educator9 urged that the child be

encouraged t o 7;- r i te hi s t hought as soon a s he could

9ut pencil to slate.

Barnard, Mann,t and Rand preac.ed

the importance of early fol'!!lation of habit.

The efforts

of Barnard in behalf" of the early introduction of composition into the schools of Conn0cticut ha•1e already

been noted (Cha;>ter III).

Rand, who had never

forgotten the terror inspired i n him when at the age
of eighteen he was required, without any 9reVious

l. In his Second Annual F.e.< ort as Secretary of the
Board of .Education (1838), Mann wrote as fol l ows:
"At the earliest practic.a ble period, let composition
or translation be eom.Ernneed. By composition I do not
mean an essay •on Friendship,' or •on Honor; t nor
that a young Miss of twelve years should. write a
homily t;O.n the duties of a Queen,• or a lad,
1.mpa·t ient of his nonage, 'On the shortness of
human life;t -- but that t he learner should &tJply,

on familiar subjects; the language he thinks
best, to the ideas and emotions he perceives clearest
and reels strongest, to see ·how well he can make
t hem !'it each other, -- fi rst in sentences, or short
paragraphs, then in more extended productions •••
•It is only in this way, -- by reading or translating good authors, aided by oral instructions and
by lexicographers, but, most of all, by early habit,
that any one can acquire easy mastery over the copiousnes:i and tlexibilit1 of the mother 'tongue ••• " See
Com. 89b, (our., ( (Nov. 15 1 1839), 342.

.242

p ~e ~a:a t:..::in,

tra:. ~~ ~

!. ~1

t -:) ;-;rite a c G:opo si ticn, urged t .dat

composi t icJ:·l begi.r! lon;_; bef ore t l1.e formal

cor:i;)c3:..t:...:m class.
::a.11 e~:. y

.

The child should be accustomed a t

4
t •':1oug .."'t
age t o gi ve u tt· erance t o 'ms
~ s.

i:

Mann's T::tird Annual ile;; o1·t as Secretary ().f t he Board of
Edu ca.ti.::>:--. showed t hat c ora:Jo si tior. was ra ;Jidly find ing
·~

a pl . .~ ce in t h e elementary .schools of i! assachusetts

·~

And so, approxima tely in the d ecade 1830-13 40,

the old theory of principles before practice was
5radua.l..ly reversed.
w ritt~

The necessity of ·begL"ln.ing with

ex?ression through which the principles of' com-

position c ould be develop ed was recognized.
responsibi.:ity of t:1e

elei~1 entar7

The

school was presented

by lr. George B. Emerson, who s poke a t a mee ting o f t he
New Yor!: Stat e Convention of County School Su perinten-

dents at Syracuse in April, 1845.

His speec:.-1 was reported

1. nyoo -may eventually induce that energy and
pol.i.sh of manne r~ t hat shall mal~e him an easy, flu ent,

forcible and elegant writer. His knowledge .of
gr•zear and rhetoric will not lie as useless
lunbe?, in the storehouse of hi!t l!le.mory; but will
be at his command, as oceasion.n From a lecture
on -Teaching Grammar and Composition" de.livered before
the J.:er1can Institute of Instruction by Asa Band.
ee a a r. Annals of Ed. and Instr., III (Apr. 183:3), 174.
- he ability to express ideas in writing, with vigor
and perspicuity, is now deem.ad so valuable, that,
1n aan7 places, composition has been added to the list

o! Common School stUdies.w
(Jla.y 15• 1840), 151.

See

eom,

Seb. Jour., II
r,

'

Jf' . .

..-

He would not teach grammar and !hfill composition,
he ·,muld reverse this order. If you confine t }1e
chil d tc\ orthography and gra:nmar, till he perfectly
unC.e:rstands both, befo1·e you enter upor: coin posi tion,
you will wait until the chil d is out of your hands.
He would learn the child to Nr i te, an(~ then set him
to writing compositions. Re would thus t€ac h ortho-

graphy, grammar, and C()r.npo~ition at one and the sa:ne
ti;:'lej a.nd. the instructiqn, Delng practical, would be
valuable and perma...riEmt ......

Similarly in the high schoo l , the for:::ial study of

rhetoric early in the course was discouraged.

Rand

recommended CO iJious writing without, at first, much
Throu gh critical discussion "nith
the pu·p il rhetorical rules could be discovered. 2

attention tc· to-rm.

Textbooks from the 30's on give evidence of
the changed attitude.

Books designed particularly

for beginners a;:.>µear on the market.

One of the earl.test

?rofessor of Bel:es Lettres in the high school of
Philadelphia.

The first seventy-eight pages of

his one hundred and twenty page book are devoted to

exercises in writing without any attention to rules.
To st.imulate thought and imagination, he presents
;;>ictures of animals and of common seenes.

Just as

children spea:c before they learn grammar, so must :,

244

before

t~1 ey

n.re burdened wi t i·i ru l es is h i 3 e ont enti on .
I

The second h~l;."' of the centi...r~/ 7fi tnessed t he
appearance of more boo::ts desig::ied especially to :neet
the needs of younger pup i ls.

Inc:.u-ded i.:i Barnarct•s

list of American t extbooks i s F. Brookfield's -~~~~~·

.;::.;;;;....,..~~~.-;:;.-=-(1855). 1

In April, 1856, · the Reviewers•

Table of the Massachusetts

Teach ~r-

gave .f'avo:r"able

a booic specially pre pared for t:.1e purpose of rendering
~~e o f t-dreaded exercise of composition not only easy

but pleasant to the ;1Upi l ••• It may be use!ully 9ut
into the ••• [ han~s1 of scholars, as soon as t hey :-iave
learned to write.
In the same year appeared .F1 s

Female Seminary ,

s·;.

Louis.

Lessons in

:Tish Com-

The book is intended fer

the use of children as soon .si s they can write.

Short

lists of words are given to be copied on the slate and
then to be inserted in their
l<=:ft in sentences.

pro~er

places in blanks

The sentences are to be written on

the slate with attention t o capitals, spelling, and
so forth.

Not until the second half of tJ1e book are

l. Barnardts A. J. of Ed., XIII (March 186Z), section
following p. 208. .

2. Kass. Teacher, IX (Apr. 1856), 187.

245

parts of spe ech introduced.

suggestions to ai d t he

te a c ~er ,

r 3.thar t ha..."1 a text t0 be placed in the hands of'

~Jupils.

He begins not with s i;;lple lesson.s in r i.1et:Jric, but
·nth a ctual pr a ctice.

Conversations on obJ ects he

recommends as a )re11minary t c writing, then the retelling of st()ries, followed by blackboard lessons in

which a joint composition is prepared h"; the class.

'.!'he

appi'"oach to writing is not t hrough a formidable array
o~

definitions and paradigrns but rather thl"ough actual

irrit1ng.

Another book designed to smooth the path of
the 'beginner in composition t s 'l?. S. Pinneo s Guide t c-

Composition.

It beings si:iply, 'With exercises in

spelling, capitals, punctuation, words and phrases.

An

unusual feature in the arrangement is the distribution
of rules throughout the book so tha t they can be mastered
gradually in cotmaction with the written exercises.
Pin.."'leo, however, presupposes some knowledge of grammar,

or,. i f the book is placed into the hands of very young
pupils, a course in grammar should be pursued at the
same time.

i

' l

.

'

246

on theory.

tr ~ ati se

He say s in his

,H' t~face..

"

The exerc .ises ••• l ead by natural and eas y steps
t o the study 01' Grac.l'.l&.r and .Hh etor i c, ar..d a re believed
to be the best oo sslble introduction to t l:ose im~ortan t
branches. '!'he s cholar who has been trained to write
wit h gra.'!lmatical and r hetor ical co r rectness will find
no diff iculty in study ing t he t t.eor :t of Grammar a.nd
Rhe t o ric; for here, as 11verywhere in the educ a tim1
,rocess, ~ r a ctice before t heory is t he d+ctate equally
of common sense and of sound p hilosophy.~

The increasing number of textbooks .for;

beg1;mlera

s indicative or tne re-organization

was go!ng on 1n composition teaching in
Language l e ssons, a s distinguished from a
gr~a r,

schools.

s tud~1

or

fcrmal

were finding t heir way i nto the elementary
This new m.ovement is embodied in Swinton's

Language Lessons, which rrom the time of' 1ts .?Ub1.1cation in 1874 was widely used.

a graramar

boo-~ ,

It is, in realit:,r,

but the grammar is so presented that

its practical value is not lost sight of.

Swinton

says in his preface,
This boo.k 1s an attetlpt to bring the subject
of' language home to children at the age when knowledge
1s acquired in an objective way, by practice and habit,
rather t han by s tudy of ru l es and definitions ....
In pursuance of this plan, the traditional

presentation of Grammar in a bristling array of classifications, nomenclatures, and paradigms, has been wholly
discarded. The pupil is brought in contact with the

1.

2.2• git., iv.

1
1 v-t.... n~
'.. Uar3e
itsel"'•
~
..... an
' ,f'j
b
J.,.

0
l1,,,.
1
.· ~ea'.!.. ,.,,,
.t .. . '~
.,,....,e
.._ ... s ...,a,.,' e + J
'ifJ...\,
;. l
~!! . ..... ch
;.4 ,
to turn it over in a variety of ways·, to ::andl e sen-

... i·

tences;

so that he is not '.iept

i.&1.

'-'"'

bac ~ '.'.,

..... .......... .,,

fro;:;i the exercise

-- so i'.)rolitable and i ~teresting -- pf using la.ngua::;e
till he has mastered the anatomy of :the grammarian.
Wb.ntever of technical. Gr&runa :c is hf~re gi v'n is evolved
f.':cF : wor:: )reviously done by the scholar. -

In 1878 Swi:iton )Ublished a t ext on the sar1e plan f ·? r

use in high schools and academies.

From 1884 to the close of the century a widely

the high school.

Her object, as stated in the preface,

is to furnish as little theory as possible.

She offers

mainly a set of directions and exercises for pupils
before they are mature enough for the formal study of

rhetoric.
Two m.anuals of method .of the latter half of

the nineteenth century stress practice before a study

ot theory.

Wickersham, in his Method! o!' Instruction

(1867), believes that the approach to the art

or

composition is through imitation of the speaking and

v.riting of o-thers.

Ontil the child is

twel~e

years

of age, t he teacher' a aim should be to develop
~. :

linguistic power.

Once that exists, pupils may be

248

acquainted with the niceties of grai-:imar a.nci rhetoric .1
Hi::isdale, about t llirty ye ai·s later, agr ee s that 1'J.uency

must precede correctness of wr.:. t1ng .

· ~ror :.~1al

gra.:m::1 ar

ru:d rhetoric should ?lay no part in the early stagas of
co:npos~tion

"
tea ching .";;:..

Those rules that must be

taught should be introduced through criticism of t hi!
com;>osi tion rather than in formal les,sons.

A co ur se in

rhetoric may be introduced in the last y ear to sum
up the

p:r:. nciples already preser.. ted thrrmgh composition. 3

Hinsdale's suggestions are in accord with
the reco:mnendations of the Com.mi ttee of Ten, which in
1892 summed up the best pra.cti L· as

o~

the ti ;ne and

9resented them as a standard for t11e schools of tba

nation.

Composition was recommenced to begin not later

1. On. cit., 268.
2. Hinsdale, Teaching the Language-Arts, 113.
3. Ibid., 123-125, 183-84. Samuel Thurber in an
article, "English in Secondary Schools: Some Considerations as to its AifilS and its Needs", in The
School Review, II (Oct. 1894), 477, presents a
simi.lar point of view: "Formal rhetoric I would
a.holisn entirely from the course; or at most give it
a.U.esson or two at the very end as a sort of resume
of the foregoing discipline.. Applied rhetoric,
remember, 11111 h a 1re been pursued during all the

learner's school years. What the seconda.ry echool
wants is the effects of rhetoric, not the science
er it. Rhetorical science belongs in a more
advanced stage or edu~ation.w

j

---- --··--·----

e;J,

--~

-~·--

..,__

~~*£,J

249

h""1
.......le
t 4..1..d
Ji
V.r.

f':'"°'
'V i .. l.. -":"'d C,/f (.!'"'
~ d""~

oP
J.,

0

W

c >ool
. ...
- • J anJ

t~e

study of

ch i ld reached t l1e age
:

~1hc to r i ~ al p:::."3..r:c tpl e ;J,

o f th irt ee!!.

be given

i

it wa s s u~g este d ~

-r1c identally in conne ction wi t h co::rJ.posi tiou

dur.i :n.g t h e f i rst t wo .: r2a.rs of hi g21 sch ool.

t hi rd year, one h r ur a

w ee~ m i gh~

I n t he

be given

systematic vi ew of r heto r i cal pr inciple s, !fa ki nd of
codification of l)rinciples already a pplied in
pr 2.ctice.nl
In the
:yf

tfie va.i.ue· o:t"

~ractica,

introduc ed

quarter of tne century, fir.ally triumphed.

in

Dr.
Charles Eliot in an article in t he Forum recommended
!!constant p:r-actice under judicious criticism. n2 '.l'he
Harvard Committee on Composition and Rhetoric in its
various reports

a~phasized

t hat it was only by daily

drill that the level of composition writing could be

raised.

True it is th at many of t hose who favored

practice did so with the narro w goal of accuracy in mind.

was likely to do more !or composition teaching

l. N.'.E.A., Rtpt, of the Com, gn Sec, Sch. Studlef

(1893), §1.

'

i

i

'

2. Eliot, Charle•, •Wherein Popular Ed. has Fa1led,w
Forum, 14 (Dee., 1892), 4l9.
~

~-.-;.~......._..~ ...... --~.._.it..;.
":. .I~

•

' '

.''

:t;,;.f'~·

;•...

' :i::...

~'

• -·
J

. l.

-- '~ .

250

Translation
I f Ezekiel Che ever had been ask ed

w!.1 ·.~ thcr

he taught English composition, he would very : 1ikel:1

have

re ~ lied

in t!le

affir~tive,

thoug h

h~

a.."1 3nglish gra"!'..mar orrhetoric in 'h is schoo l

required

a.."1

English e ssay .

n ever used
and n e ver

.3ut !:lis students did study

La.tin a.nd Greek grammar ,; t hey transla ted from t hose
languages into English; and t h ey composed sentenc19s

in the classical languages.

The linguisGic training t hus

given was expected to carry oYer into Snglish.

The

current i d.ea of the value of training .in the classical
l anguages is aoply ill ustra t ed in the follmting anecdote told by H•.zlitt.

When a

!.. ather

e~qressed

a wish

to the headmaster of an academy that his son learn
English rather

~h.an

Latin gram.E1ar, the teacher said,
1

"Sir, Grammar is Grammar all t he world over."

;

.'

Even after schools had begun to recognize
the need for some instructio'n in English composition,

practically the sole method employed in many was
lation.

tra~s­

Late into the nineteenth century the chief

authority cited for t his pr actice was the eminent head-

l. Hazlitt,

w.c.,

Schools, School Books. and School-

masters, 219.

.

..
'

.

·i

~-:d
·>
....

-··-....------........_ ~i; ~-:-

'

."

....

.~

--

.

·~

'
251

mas t er 0 :1." Ru gby, Thomas Arnold, who declar ed t ha t

Every l esson in Greek or Latin

~ay, or ought
t i~anslation o f

to

be llade a l e sson i n Eng.lish ; t he
ever y sentence in Demosthen e s or '!'a cltus 12 _;)ro p·""rly
an exercise i n extemporaneous Engl ish composition; a
problem how t o expr ess with equal brev.i ty, clearness ,
and force, in our own l ar~gu a g e, t he thought TNhic:}
.
t l~e ori ginal aut'-· or has s o a dmira bly expressed in his •.l

But what the school s usu al l y _fo rgo~:. _ :~i.r i nstructi on

was that Arnold had in m~d .not a~ lite;al, word f or word
rendering cf the original, but rather the expression
of the meaning of an entire sentence in idio!!latic
English.

He deplo r ed t h e me re construing of a passage,

inveighing agai nst a sy stem wh i ch instead of fostering
a correct use of Englis h is inJuri Gus to it by introduci ng a forei gn word order and unidiomatic expressions.
The language which results, he declared, "is neither
Greek nor English, stiff, obscure, and flat, exemplitying all the faults incident to l .a nguage and excluding

eYery excellence.1 2
The practice i n expression afforded by transl ation was r..ot the sole argument in its favor.

There

were many who contended t hat the average schoolboy has
r::.othing worth wr iting about and t h.a t t .j e:x·pect him to
compose when he has no ideas is lLlte asking him to make

1. Arnold, Thomas, Ji!cella.peous Works, 348.

-

2. Ibid.

I

252

Trans lati~n ,

bricks rt thout straw.
wit ~

I

t he materials of

t~~1 ou g ht

'!

b~r pr~ vid.ing

en .ab~_ e s

i.1 i.rl

him

t ;:, devote

•
hi3 entire attention to the for:.::i 0i' expression.

In tha t

res pect it is even su ·; ierlo r t ·· origi:ial com.posi t:!.on

should therefore

nfor~

a c hief feature even in a course

of English composi ti '.)n . nl

As l a t e ::i. s 1892, a i1rofesso r

a t Yale used t he same argument in defending Yale's
entrance requirement in 3:ngl ish, 11hich was limited to

"simple and idiooatic Snglish" in sight translations frol'!l
prose Latin, and from Xenophon. 2
Advocates of the translation method also cit ed

t he importance of associ ation with good model s.

If'

the young painter is sent to study the works of'
Raphael, why should not the young writer study the
models of style and eloquence t o be found in the Greek
an.d Roman classics.

They fUrnish that excitement

needed to develop the talents of the student. 3
Do-wn through the nineteenth century, even

after other methods had been introduced, translation
'Jl&S

expected to contribute to training in English ex-

1. Hinkel, Chas. J., "Influence of the Study of Latin upon
the Study of English in Schools", a paper read at the
Oniversity Convocation, July, 1873. See Oniv. of the
s. of l.Y., 87th Rept. of the Ed. or Reg, (1874), 591-2.
2. Beers, Henry A., nEnt. Req. in Eng, at Yale", ~d. Rev.,
III (May, 1892), 427-443.

. . ..

·

3. From ·a letter addressed by the Re•· Professor Stuart
ot Andover to the editor or the Quarteru Jour, qf' the
tier, fih!Ologi{al} Id. §oo. See @utr, lour. ot Ed.
Russe ), III Ro•. 1826), 665-6. ·

I
.. j

- - ---""~...--...--'-·--~~~-"-----.-- -·_ _._J

253

press::. on.

The writers o:-"' book. s on :.!le t >. ed s sanctioned

t h e ;ractice.

Wil:iam 3 . Fowle ,

a.ut ~1o r

of The Teac her's

I nstitute (1849), said that when pu;>il s began t he study
of a !'oreign language, he re quired t h erl to write out

their translatio1 ~s, which he corrected carefully. 1
The state sup erintend ent of public instruction of

Pennsylvania, Jam.es P. Wickersham, in his textbook on

metod, recommended translation a s "discipline in all
that relates to the use of language.ft 2 At th~ close of
the century, A. A. Hinsdale, professor of education at
the Oniversity of Michigan, decl ared the exercise
beneficial to students who ncarefu lly study a foreign

language."

He found it of val ue not only for the

practice afforded,. but also because of t he element of
unconscious imitation. 3

Cognizant of the danger iri-'ierent

in the method, he issued a word of warning to teachers

to insist upon the transference of the thought from t he
- ,

.)

.

foreign language into English.

The exercise should

not degenerate into a "mere matching of words ••• lest
the Latin or German lesson undoes the English
lesson. n4

22· eit._, .;l.78-184.
2. Wickersham..t l!thods of Inssr., 212.
3. Hinsdale, :teaghing the Language Art.a , so.
4. See Appendix! for samples of "translation English•.

1 ..

254

a.ow s eldom the teaching was of' t he sup er ior
t y p i3 demand ed ear.Ly i n the century by Arnold and l a ter
by

Hi~. sdale

is evident in the comp l aints of t h e college s

abcut "translation English."

Harvard brou ght t he matt er

to a head by the public a tion o.f the Jle-oort or the

ComipJ, ttee on Compgsi tion and Rh e toric (1892), which
included specimens of P.n.gli.sh translation fr~m entrance
examination papers i.u Latin and Greek. 1 The second
report of that commi t tee (1805} was- devoted entirely

to the subject. of. translation.

It 1vas pointed out that

although many preparatorj· schools stated in the ) rosp e ctu:

that a "free, original, and idiomatic rendering" 2 was
insisted. upon in translation, the examination
not give proof of such instruction.

~apers

did

Bel ieving the

main reason for the discrepancy t o be the mistaken idea
that students could learn to write English by oral
translation of Greek and Latin, the committee recommended frequent practice in written translation. 3
If the effects of the classical languages
upon composition ha.d been limited to the English used
in translation, it might legitimately have been argued ,

1. Ibid., 65.

2. Harvard College, Rept. of the Com, on Comp.
(1895)' 275.

.

a • .I.Q!J!., [1as2l, 152-156 ..

and

Rh~t.

255

as it often was, that a

lac~:

of co mprehension of th e

Latin or Greek was responsiblf. far the garbled .Gng:.lsh.
But even in writing Engl is l"l c'o nrposit i " ns, stuC.ents
fell into t he Latin word order and idiom.

?ro r essor

A.• S. Hill o f' Harvard culled t h e follo wi::-1g from

English compositions:
Orlando would marry Rosalind, she being willing.
Darcy being informed concerning t his trouble

interested himself in removing the difficulty.
The King of Lilliput applied to GuL. 1 ver, who
told hi~ to be of good cheer, not making knovn hi .s
design.l
.
Harvard's expose of "translation English" had its ~: ffect

upon the teaching of composition in the preparatory

schools.

A later investigation of the Harvard Committee

on Composition and Rhetoric (1897} revealed that some
secondary schools were insisting upon good

2nglis ~

all studies, not Just in the composition course.

in

Teachers

of Greek and Latin were refusing to accept literal
translations and demanding idiomatic renderings. 2

Founciation~ of' Rhetoric, 205.
2. The nature or the incidental wor ~: pursued in a small
number of schools can be gathered from the follo wing
excerpts from student compositions included in the
R!POij of the tHarvard] Com. on Comp. and Rh et.

1. Bill, A. 8.,

(l89

s

P. 478, #92.

An academy in Massachusetts. "The
mas.tera were always particular about any written work
which was handed in, regardless or the subject.
(Note continued on page 256)
.

258

2. (Note continued trom page 255)
Good English was required, and if wor\\: wa s
handed in badly written , it was mar ~ced a.ccording:.y .
Engli s h translations •rn r~ also r ,equired in cl.as~~. 11

P. 474, #84 . Chicago.

"Once a week we were

required b~T our instructor in Latin or Gre e ..c t o :rral~e
a :rri tten tr!insla ti on o.f so3le gi ven passage i'J."otn Hor!!. er
or lirgil. These, after t hey were examin 1~d by him>
wer~ taken to the English instructor, wl:.o went over
them wit ~. us pe rson..-Uly, and mar ked them as p ~ rt or

our English work ."
?. 468, -#75. An academy in New Hamps hire.. "I
was also greatly helped by Profs ------- and ----of the Latin and the Greek departments, respectively,
both of whom took great pains to give t heir clas ;e s
frequent exercises in writing translation with
es :)ecial attention to the Englis ~1. used."
P. 466, #71. A California boys' high school.
"Outside of English, written 'll!ork was r e quired in
Hi story.~. and in the classics, of
which I took only Latin. In translating t hi s, good
Hnglish was always insisted upon. In Government

Goverri...lllent, •••

ar..d in History, papers of considerable length were
frequentl:r called for.

They were, however never

revised as pieces of Engl1Sh Composition."
The following reports are representative of t he
practice in the maj ority of schools:.
P. 503, #149. "In the translation of . Latin
in this school we were required to be excessively
literal and were µo t a l lowed t o t.ra.11slate freely or
into the English idiom."
P. 440 1 #32. A Massachusett3 city high
school. "That year, past without any s;H: cific
pra ctice in the art of writing, w~s certainly a
detriment which was increased by daily encoanters with
un-English construct:f..on a in the Greek and Latin,
litteral csiCJ translations of which were so often
allowed, that I h .2ve !:"..Ot yet been able t o lose t hem

entirely."
P. 4o9, #30. A New England academy. •Classics
were carri ed on for t he classics, not ror English .
In Virgil, true, we sometimes were asked to write
out a translation into good Engl ish, and were marked
accordingly, but on the whole, we were .allowed t he
Latin or Greek, as the case might be. French and
German were carried on the same way, now and then,
our 1n.struotor took a stand on good English translation, but soon relented, and fell back again to t he
old way."

., ..-·-- - ·--- - -

-------·

'---------~·--..,..,..---------

· 257

Much c.'.lo.re written work was

req ~1 ired,

not only in

Latin and Greek but also in i:mch studies as

*1d sc ience.

The ef .J...: ect of

t~;. is

l

'.ii 3t or :~

i n cidenta2. t rair...ing,

t h e Committee re ;1orted;, was discernible in t h e

papers written by students coming fror.i sc hools which

,

emphasized writ ten rNork ......

Composition as an Independent Subject
The t ypical method of teacb;tng composition
in the academies is

~ell

set forth by a teacher who

''

1

recalled :1iS own childhood experience with t hat

j

subject as follo ws:
The teacher did not teach it at all; he only
gave out the subjects, and the pupils were req ~ i re d,
nolens volens, to bring i n their compositions. The
misspelled words and the greatest blunders ot"' grarlll1lar
were marked by the te 2.cher, and than they were given
bacl{ to be copied.

After t his was done, the friends

of the school ca.me in great numbers once in two weeks,
to hear them read. The pupils ~e~e assembled in
state for these occasions, and read their
compositions in a high~scunding school tone, for
the gratification of2their !r1endi, teachers, and
their fellow pupils.

1. Ibid.~ 416.
2. The Conn. Common Sch. Jour., XVI (llay, 1861),
-- 151-156. An article signed 'Daniel' • The met l1od
described was employed about 1840. A similar

method was in use at the Cayuga Academy (New York
State) 1 "The larger students ar·e . required to
produce at least 20 ·1Uiet on each' alternate Wedne1c187. 1&tternoon, at which time ' the composition
(Note continued on page 258)

-·. .,

I
~

258

If the compos1 tio r. \vork in the acader:iy had

been

~receded

by t 1·ain1ng in written expression in

1
t h e aementary scr~oo
..... ,

would not

at the age

ha~;e
o~

t.re
..._ ta w ':.r
...
0

"0 -·
" '1 !"r •~n~1~1a.....
._J_;.l.r ~ b

been so formidable.

.fol"
,,._..

1
e ;·1uro"
.........

But suddenly,

fifteen or aixteen he found

hi~self

. ...

required t o write an essay with no ;;Jreparaticn
.

.

-

-

.

beyond a formal knowledge of the rules of gran1vnar

and rhetoric.

The application of the technical

principles with which he had been storing his mind
he was now to make w.i thout any assistance from the

.,
teacher • ..L.

2. (Note continued from page 257)
is read before the students of both deuartments
assembled in the same room, after which it is pL1c2d
in the hands of' the instructor and corr ections are
made in orthography and style, which are pointed
out, 1.f' time permit, be.fore the whole school,
which serves not only as a stimulus to the production of a. more correct performance on the next
occasion, but imparts useful informat.ion to the
other scholars." On1v. of the s. of N. Y.,
54th Ann. Rept. of the Regts. (1841), 110.
The Utica A.cadera.y {1838) gave a little more
assistance: "A subject is given, for instance, the
adva..~tages attendant on a liberal educa:tion: t his
is divided into several heads, as many as may be
deemed necessary; the seholars note them down, and
bring them 1n two or three day3 afterwards. The
teacher or princip al reads the compositions; t he
pupil:. being all seated with their slates taking

down all the grammatical errors, or incorrect

spelling. In addition to this, the classical
students one day in each week, translate a chapter
ot Cicero or Greek reader into English.n Oniv. ot

the S. ot N. Y., 5lst
96.

Ann~ Rept~

(18~),

gr the Regts.

,,

"-._

1. See .Appendix E tor specimens ot composition• 1
written Without mach guidance.
-·
,,~
-

f

I

I

I
I
I

I
l

\I

259

?u:·t h er ~tore,

)Upils were ex;:iected t o write

embryo literary ma star:::iec es on abstr act, philosr.phi cal
subjects ranging fr om Adv ersity

to~·

It was not

unusual for a lad of sixteen t o wrestle with The Moral
Su}.?l:i.Ille or Man and Goven'lr.11ent, as found in t ha Savage.J

the Pastoral., the Agri cultural, anc t he Commerciaj.

1

'
Sta t~ .~

Harriet Beecher Stowe at t he age of nine wrote on
The Difference between t he Natural and the Koral Sµbli me ,

and two years later presented at the annual exhibit of
t he school a paper upholding the negative side of the
question Cap. the Immor tality of the Soul be Proved by the

Light of Nature?

In ?artial defense of her instructor

it must be said that a thorough discussion of t hese
subjects preceded t he -~ riting. 2

l

Such preparat: on was,

:'.: owever, the exception rather than the rule.
No s .f.. mple expression of opinion on t he

subject would suffice.

The pupil was rather to develop

his theme according to a vecy formal plan borrowed from

the Latin.

,I

Two types of themes were recognized, the
,.

simple, calling for a didactic treatment of such subJects

as Virtue, Pat:r;iotism, Honor; and complex themes containing propositions to be proved;

for exa."'tlple, Virtue

1. Quackenbos, Adv. Course or Comp. and Rbet. · (1879), ·
432-S.
2. Stowe, E. s. and L·. B., ~met Beecher Stowe,-, 27-28.

260

is res oected, ? atrio tism is a&uired.

l

There tfere five

head s under which a simple ther!!.e mi ght be di3cussed:

(1) definition, 02) cause ,

re l a tio n to tiBe ,

.
(4 ) t o pl a ce, \I ;:;,,~ ) er'°'..,r ec 'ts,
or nature, impo : tance, and

t s. 2
e.i.'-'"""
.i. ec

The plan for t he complex theme was even

mo ~ e

elaborate, ca:ling ror tl1e develop!.'lent of t he se to J?:Lc s:

proposition, reason, confirmation, simile, example,

testimony, or quotation, concl usion

(su~ary,

use, or appropriate closing reflections).

practical

3

The style encourage:d was one characterized
by long periods and florid, grandiloquent expression.

Simplicity was shunned, and practice was given in the
trans.p osition of simple statements into ornate euphuisms.

The exercise known as periphrasis called for such transi)OSition! as the following: nThe sun shinesn - "The source
or l1ght spreads abroad his rays. " 4

Elaborate

figures of speech al.so found favor.

The :net hod of teaching compos1 tion .na(:e that

subJect extremely unpopular.

Pupils dreaded t!J.e weekly

essay _day and resorted to all sorts of dishonest practices t o evade t he i mposed task.

The vari od types of

1. Russell, A Gram. of Com¥., 135.
2.

~.,

136.

See Appendix F for an example of a

simple theme.
3. Ibid., 139.

4. Parker, R., Prog, 3*• !n Eng. Coma., 2l.
'·

.rr
l.·.

,..

'
..

j

·'
!..1:

••

'"
"'

{!' ~

~&..

I

I'

- 1
I

261

preparation for t he disagreeable assignment are
grap hic ally described in an article in the Rho :'. e Is l.and

Schoolmaster:
Com·pos1 tiGn-wri ting is the occasion o f more l y ing
and deception than all t he other schoo l exerci : ·=s united.
The nsubject tT is ar...nounc ed., say 11 Ambitior. 11 , or something
equally stupid. The day is f'i xed for recei v::..ng t h e
essays. Every one pu ts of!" t he hateful tast;: t " the last
day or two, and then there i s an a gony and stru ggle. I n
a class of ~me hundred boys, . the result of thls agony and
struggle will generally be about as follows: -- ten will
honestly write their aompositions to the best of t heir
small a.bill ty; .tecnJ ~.li.- write the lines very far a part,
:'ll'!d use the longest words they can think of to 'fill',
writing August 24, 18o2, thus: 11 0n the second day of
August, 1n the ~· ear of our Lord o,ne thousand eight
hundred and flfty-twc;" another ten will write a f ew li!ies
of their own, make liberal quotations, and get help fr0~
other boys; ten more will present coa:.positions 'ffhich · t he:'/"
or their brothers ·;~rote at another sc hool; another ten
will get a sister or a friend t c help them out; and

the rest will "fish" outright, that is, copy or translate a passage from a boo~<: , and swear it is t ~1eir own,
throu gh thick and thin. I remember hearing six co ;. 11oositions read at a public exhibition o f a school I
~
attended in boyhood, every word of which I myself' had
".'i ri tten or dictated to distressed schoolfellows; aDd
what was more ridiculous, four of them had a more
honorable plac·e in the programme than the la.bored essay
which I had written for myself. It was only the other
day I overheard a boy, who was showing the neat arrar..gement of his desk to another, say, holding up a littJ.e
Spanish geography 1 "Th.i.s. is whe re I get my compositions."
-- "Won•t you lend it to me, next Friday?" said t he
other. "Can't lend it, 11 was the far-seeing reply;
"you might translate a piece that I huve already given

in, and old Simon (his venerable preceptor)
remember it." Nor are teachers innocent in
sale deception. When an "Exhibition" 1:a in
the compositions undergq a truly remar~able
called "correction".

::night
t his wholepreparation,
process

Need I say more?

l • .QR. cit., ·I (Sept, 1855) 204-206. See Appendix G
tor another 'descr1pt1on or a schoolboY'- ·preparation
tor oompoait1on day.
·

262

So obnoxious wa s t ne task t hat parer.ts of ten insist ed
t hat t hei r c h i l dren be excus ed f rom com. 1)o s i ti cm
1

wr iti ng .Oc c a sionally t !1er e :•;as a scho olma ster who

emplo yed a
tion.

~o .r- e

er.J.i g~ ten '-" d

Jiethod o :' teaching composi-

The Litchfi eld School in

Ccr~~ o ct i cut

was fortuna t e

enough t o have suah an in s truc t or, John Br ace , from 1814

to 1832 .

He was the nephew of Miss

of the Litchfield

Sch o ol~

Sarah Pi erce, .rounder

Very muc h interested in writi ng

himself, he knew how t 1; stimu.la te t he mi nds of his
~upils.

His su.ccess certainly cannot be attributed to

t he .topics,.;. he set, for they were t he abstract, philosophical
subjects that were popular at that time.

One week he

gave tha topic, What is the disposition?

Is it innate

or

"

acquired?~

That he could get a group of young girls

to write on sue,.li: subjects was due entirely t o his met:·1od
of preliminary discussions.

On Saturdays, the instructqr

1. "A g.e ntlen.an eminen t in 11 terature told us not long
ago t hat it had always been his custom t o stipul a te
wi'th the t eachers of schools to which he sent his
daughters, that the latter should not be obliged to

write "compositions"; for he . said that, as . usuall y
conducted, it seemed to him to be an exercise in
t he art of diluting the smallest amount of meaning
with the largest quantity of words; and he thought
no !)ract1ce was more prejudicial than that to the
attainment of good habits of mind, or real power or
expression." See W. P. Atkinson, ncompos1tion~,
The Mass. Teacher, XIX (Jone, 1868) 1 190-5.
2. Vanderpoel, More Chronicles of' a Pioneer §chool from
U9 2

to

1§33, 200.

26 3

read t h e com positions t o t h e c l a ss.

3rac e was kindly in his

cr iticism s~

mu ch a.;1preh ension a s i n i::iany o ther

;::vi dent:y J oh..-ri

?or compo .siti cn :..ay

sc~1ool s

o {' the pe r iod •

.Harriet .S.: echer St ov' e, who was f'.o r a ti!'!le a
pupil a t

the Litchfield School, c onsi d er-ad Jor.r1 Br a ce one

of t he no.st stimula ti ng and i n spiring instructors she
had ev er kr.:.mm.

She wrote of h i r:1 a s follo ws:

Mr. Brace exceed(;d all t he instructors t hat I
ever k.."l.ew in the faculty of teaching t h e art o f Engl ish
composition. The c onstant excitement in whic h he ~: ept t he
minds of his ;>upils -- t h e wide and varied r egion s of
t hought int ~) w 1-~ic h !:le l ed t '.-:em -- .formed a p reparati on
for teaching CG:n.positi::>n, the mai n requi s ite f or '.~ hi c h ,
whatever peopl e may t h in]:, is to have something t ha t :J ne

f eels interested to say.

·

Anothe.r pupil of' John Brace, Rose Terry

'~ ooke,

in a

letter to his daughter, also praised his ability a s a
teacher:
I owe to your father the greater share or whatever
to write I possess,. and I h.:::ve often wished I could
see the notes he used in hi9 composition class lectures.
I think they would make such a useful book.2
p{n~ er

The instruction in

c~mposition

i
1

l

l
I

at the Litch-

field Academy is not t ypical of the early part of the

I
1

ninet eent h century.

of hi$ time.

John Brace, like Franklin, was ahead

He had discovered that principle which

l. Stowe, K. s. and L. B., .QQ•
2. Vanderpoel, Chronicles of a

ill.•, 26.
Pionee~

School, 310.

I

j

264

h is fel l ow scl-:oolmast e rs did not l

'3aJ.""rl

unt il t he clo s e

o f t h e c entur..r -- that if pupil s a.re t o wr i te t hey mu s t
be i:::t er9sted i n t he s u b ject an< t heir nind s ;nu st be

He :;rovi:-led t~1ei t inter e3 t and s t 1.mulati on. 1

stimul a t ed .

Ano '.:her ) rogr e ssi -ve scl"lcolmas t e r was William

Russel-1 .

Re rea _,.J.zea the ne c e ssity -t o r indu cti n g pup ils

graduall y i nto the myster ie s of compo sition.

In

~ is

text-

book , A Gra..,"'lmar of Compo si t i on (1823), !1e 0ut::. ines t he

course of study which he f ollowed at t he New- Township
Academy in !lew Haven.
time,

Russel l

Lik e most of the teachers of his

b e ~ i e ved

t ha t a. t horough knowl ed ge of

gra.mHar and r he toric s houl d pr e cede compos i t i ,; n ; but,
ur.ilike t h em, he r eali zed that ;mpils need ass i sta nce i n
applying the

rul ~ s.

Con s e quently, h e 'began wi t h

ver:~

s l:ipl e exercises i n re pr o ductior.. of the i C.. eas in short
pa s sages.

The taacher criticised t :-ie written

requir ed the pupil t o rec i te

Gradually lon ger pa 3s a ges ror
duced.

t ~e

wor ~·~

and

rules vi olated.

re ~ roduction

wer e intro-

After a whlle, compositions. were ba!ed not so

much on the extracts read a s on the dincussion whi ch
f ollowed, in which t he subject, scope, topics, and met hod

were determined.

as

the clas s became more proficient, t he

assistance of the teacher was lessened, until finally

1. See Appendix H for s pecimens of compositions written

at the Litohf'ield School.

j

li

265

t he pupil :-eached the stag e 1t1h!9:re he c ::ose his o-wn

subj ect :aru.:

::n et~ ~ od

ol d evelo'.)ment.

Accordinr; to t h. is

l

;>lan ~f study

Composition is ••• made to ct aoend not on t he fo rtunate
su gges t >.:;r1 cf a happy n or; d of mind, but •°)n r·egulari t :1 a r..C.
s y stem. Success is not l e f t t o be t he ·[·esult of s u;J eri or
abi li t y, but bec:Yinie"Hs .srn11t? t hin.¥ attal.na.bl e by al l who
studiously make it t t;..-:: ir aii:I ....
Russell's

met ~:od,

however, seerns not t o have had a great

number of adherents, f or his book did no t becoma very
po pular.

We have been able t o t:!..nd no eVidence t hat

it went beyond t he first adition.
While a few of t h e

~ore

enlig!1tened school-

masters in the acadet:ies were developing f'Jr t hemsel ves
methods of teaching cm;.iposi ti on effe c tively, another

movement, mo-re wides;>read in its

inf~uence,

was under way .

Attention has already been call ed to t he yopularity of
Pestalozzian iceas,
of language

wor~

w~ic ~

r esulted in the introduction

into the elementary grades, thus

lightening considerably the task of teachers in academies
and high schools.

There were, too, other benefits whi c h

the secondary schools d eri Yed:

they learned from the

lower schools valuable lessons in regard to methods

and subject matter.

1. Russell, Gram. of Comp., 144.

266

One of the basic Jrinci?les i n ?estalozzi's
p:b.ilosc:1hy is l earnir..g t h rou gh observation..
of that pr i nciple is t hat al l t he chi l d

A corolla r y
.
'
l ecirns t :1.rGUgh

exper i ence and obs.ervaticn must be connected with lan-

guage.

Hence, muc h of t he instruction in Pestalozzi's

school took the form of di scussion a bout obj ects, t hi n gs
familiar to the chil d in tha li :.· e about him, closely

related to his feelings and interests.

Written ex:,J:ressi.:>n

wa s Just. one step farther, the child writing down the
ideas developed in the conversatlons about abjects.
Discussions such as the follo wing becam.e in the lower

schools the U:Jual preliminary:
The classes next prepared to write composition. At
this exercise tha teacher proposes soo e comm.on object
to be described, and by questions, coll ects all the
facts rel a ting to the subj ect. The subject proposed
for this aft ernoon was Fishes. The teacher asked,
In what element do Fishes live?
In the water.
Do any ever live out of the water?
They do.
What are such called?
Amphibious. (A laugh.)
Is t ~ i s right? -- There is a. kind cal.led the
'Flying .Fish,' which naturally remain a short time out
of water.
Have fishes any blood?
They have.
What 1s t he color or their blood? ·
Red.

No, 1t is white.

1

A multitude of such questions were asked and
answered, until a sufficient number of facts were collected

j
j

j
l

a-

•r

'

'

,·

·

267

to furnish employ in writin g for an hour. These
de scri ption are t o be written a t home al1d brou ght t he
n ext day , when each r ead s h s r own ~:ii ece.I
Taking t heir cue f ro;11 elamentar:,.· J c hool prac-

tice, educators began urgi ng t he value of discussion a s
a preparation f'cr wri ti!:g in the hi gh school.

The J1e re

setting of a su bj ect was considered insuffi cient,

and teachers were urged to see that pupils l eft the cla ssroom wit.t i deas on the assigned topic.

That some of t he

more eonscientious teach ers l)Ut the new method into

practice is eVident from contemporary accounts.

A writer

in t he Connecticut Com:ion School Jgurna.l (1661), signing
himself Daniel, tells of his experience with composition
about 1840 after he had transferred from a school in

which it was poorly taught.

His new instructor told the

pupils that they would be expected to write such cot..1positions as

boys, not men, would write, and that they

should never write until they had thought and feelings

of their own on the subject.

After seveTal months

spent on reproducing stories, -yup1ls discussed some
object, such as a plow or steamboat, the teacher asking
questions,

After the s bJect had been thoroughly covered,

the pupils wrote, being urged to produce compositions

1. Amer. Annals 0-f Ed. and Ins$. I (Julyt 1831) 1 325-6.
See Apl)endix I for further illustration of t his
method and a ·apecimen composition based on the
discaasion.

'·

:1 •

J

"t'

t

~I

268

as dif ferent as

)'.) SS ibl i:~:

fro;'.!1 the nc t es t hey had taken.
.~ s

Not all t 2ach ers were as c o:-::sci ent io us

I

h~wever ,

and

f or ~ the

struggle unaided .

mo s t part

~ u 9il s

t h is one,

C8ntinued t o

wca.ni t:·: l ' st1 eX ;) er ien ce w:. th a poor

tea cher of composition abou t J..840, which has already
been cit ed (see ) . 257) is t y pical o f the })ractice in
t he ma j ority of sc r1ools.
could not be allowed t ··:

Conversations

ai::r:m t o bj r~ cts

d etra ct from t he time devot .s d

to the languages and to mathematics.

The advance in :nethod v1as accompanied by
a n i mprov-ement i n the t y pe of cor:1 posi tion topic pre-

scribed.

Subjects were

ta~en

more f requen tly from

experiences of' boys and girls 1n and out

or

other studies were drawn upon for material. 1

the

~functional

sc hool;
The germ of

centers" curriculum is seen in the

practice of the Troy lf'emale Seminary:

1. One teacher voices his protest against the conventional
topics as follows: "We have walked in the churchyard, till we know every epitaph by h~art; we have
r ead disquisitions upon patience and virtue; we
have ;;>erused remarks U.,?-Cn tempera.nee, till it seems
that nothing more can possibly be said; and now we
ask that our pupils leave these toµics, of which
they know nothing, and write u~on subjects with which
they are or may be familiar. Let them write what
they \hir.k, and they will soon find {what is now new
to most of them) that they can think · with ease. Vi'e

may not make novelists and poets or all our pu~ils;
it is not desirable 11e should; the world needs them
for nobler ~urposes; we shall teach them to corres(Note continued on page 26e)
·/
' / '/ ,

,
'.:....~{

. .i

_._. '\,

26'9

for t'ac i2. i tati ng 1:::,tJ rovement i n co:nposi t i on,

wa uld

'H e

sug g e ~ t

.•• direct ing requests fro m the 0upils
t o t h e t e a c ~1e rs, t :; be ,)1 1t i n wr 2. ting, and t h is in C'.J nfon i t y t ,) a gen eral 9 ri ~1 ci;>le, th:it young CO'!lpo s ers
,,,.,. . t 4._._"'.!. t '" ·::. ·i .,.. "'u...,jo.cts .-, f' CO '."PO Q..: "'{ •"'n t "'
t..i. ,,.,e 1
S hou -l~
t :-dngs with i 1: t :-ie i r ~c no w le dgej 111att e rs :; f fa ct, :;:-at l;. ,: r
t han i dle dream o:~ imagLIBti·-: n. ·
!.

V

..,. \.;.....~

)

..\..l• .. - -

J

'U

.._

-'

' "" ·-

. ~~

;;;.)..!.

V..a.,-.J . ,

·~

Along with faini:iari t y of subject, the i m?o r t ance o:z.. .
i :-itere s t was stre·ssed .

"Inter e st is the main sprir:;:;;i; in

,.,

Com.po s ition!! .:.: . i s t h e dictum o ~· one writer who urges
daily discussion s as a means of arousing it.

Discussions

of Psychologz, and of ltoatr;, Pai nting, Arehi tecture, and

Sculpture, as

~ eans

of refining Taste were being

displaced by topics such a s the follow i ng , Ought t 11e

~oung

ladies of this scbo:!.l t a have an exercise in DAclan ati on

bffore the Scl)ool?

The teacher reported, in the sc ho,11

in which this topic was discussed, "better compositions

tha:;. ever before", becau ge of the strong competitive
spirit. 3

w.

H. Wells, Supt:1r1ntendent of Schools of

1. (Note continued from page 288)

pond with i)ropriety, and attend more acceptabl y

through all future life to the demands both of
busin.e ss and friendship." See The Mass. ~· eac'.'Jer,
IV (May 1851), 146-149.

1. Oniv. of the

s.

of N.Y., §lst Rept. of the Bd, of

Regts. (1837), 89.
2. Amer. Annals. ~f d. and
3.. be ilass. T eache-r., XVII

st.,- I (July, 1831), 313-320.

Jan. 1864) 1 72.

i

270

Chicago, in hi s annual r eport (18 61) , actu ally 11:- ; .2 d

t hat compo sit i on be made a

~ l e asm1 t

s c hool pa.i,) e r as a ;r,eans

. ~ r e s t • 1a r cn::s ir:.g in-.e

S ~ c e llent

·:J :f

S~gges t ion s

t~

t a s k,

a

s u gge st i~ g

tea c he r s

f~r C O~) C S i -

t ior- t o9ics a r e fou nd i n a contem.;Jc ra.:ry tr eatise

edaca ti on, The l eac he r

( 18~ 6 ),

by Jacob Abbott ,

~ t o~e

ti:ne pr i nc i;>al of t he '.;Tt. Verno n Female Sc i1o o l in .;;03t c n .

He 13 pro bably better Lcnown as

t ~1 e

aut '.!.or of t ha t <m c e

popul a r juve:n.ile s er ie s, t h e Rol .. o books.

practical subj ect s " is hi s a dvic e .

" Assign

If t he community

is d1scusslng t he locati on of a new school hou se,
l e t pupi ls gat h er t he a rgucsnts f'r ,;m their par ents and
t h en ;iresent t h em i .:;.

S i::!i~ l e

l a nguag e.

A bu i l d i.:1g struck

b y lightning an:.: burned fu rnis h es material for an exer-

c i se in

d escription.

So does the erecti on of a

buil di:·1g, the 9r ogress of which can be

even future scenes t herei.n

~"'lticipated.

re ~;orted

publi c
a nd

,_ fry. such

fami l iar and practical assigr..ments "empty, florid , verbose

declamation"', wh ich is encouraged by the setti ng of moral
essays, can be prevented. 2 Abbott inveighs. t."!onstantly
against '-'common t hou ghts expressed in pompous peri ods", 3

1. Conn• Comm, Sch. J our., XVI · (June, 1861), l 80-l8l.
2. Q:e. •. ei t., 86-87.
:3. Ibid., 251.

..,..

,

271

hold: ng that b _; giving assignments with.in the
ex;erien ce of children, s b 1plicit.y can
illustrates his ;Jo int

tis

LJ e

ClttQli ne.d .

He

~:;i ·ring two co ~nDosi.ticns

:,;:ri t ten by twelve-year-old ci2ildren, one on a topic

beyond tha experience of a child, the other on a fami liar
subje~t:

The Pai r; s of a Sailer's Li f e

The Joyful sailor embarks on board o.f i1i 3 sn ip,
the sails are spread to catch the playful gale ) swift
as an arrow he cuts the rol l i ng wave. A few days thus
s porting on the briny wave, when suddenly the sky is
overspread with clouds, the rain descends in torrents,
t he sails , are lowered, the gale begins, the vessel is
carri ed w1th great velocity, and th e shrouds unable to
support the totter I.ng mast, gives way to the fur.Lous
tempest; the vessel is drove among t .h e rock s, is sprung

aleak , the sailor works at the pumps, till,

~ain t

and wear y ,

1:! heard from. below, six feet of v•ater in tha ~1ol d , the
boats are got ready, but before they are into them,
the vessel dash ed against a reef of rocks , so me in

despair t hrow themselves into the sea, others get on

t h e roc:-!s with.out any clothes or provisions, and linger
a few da~~ s, perha"t:JS weeks or m.onths, l:!. ving on s hell
fish or perhaps ta.:t.e n up by SO:!le ship. Ot..'lers get on
pieces of the wreck, and perhaps be cast en some
foreign country, where perhaps he may be tal.:en by t he
natives, and sold into slavery where he never t!?ore returns.l

This composition, he explains, was the writer's first
attempt ar..d is given wi thollt acy al terationJ.

In writing

the following composition, t h e pupil .w as directed to

reproduce as nearly as possible the conversation of two

children lost in the woods:

1. Ibid., 251-252.

272

Two Chi. ld.ren Lost in the Woods
Emily.

Look harel

see how :nany "berri es I've got.

I don.' t be l.i 0ve you've got so 21any.

Charles.
full;

Yes, I' m sure I

h~ ve.
Hy basket•s ~o st
~ et ever s o ~any befo :'.' '3
.:lS f'ast a s y ou can, Em i l ~· .

and if we hur:r"IJ, vre 3hall

we go .home.

So pic.i'.C away
'!'h;::tre l!li:ie is full. No w \ve' l l g0 and f i.r:d s c r~te
flowers for mother. You ~<"no w sonebody told us t here
were some :ed ones, close to that rock .
Charles. Well, so we wili. We 'll l eave our baskets
here, and come back and get t hem.
Emily. But if we can't f ind our ~~:ay bac '« , wha t
· shall we do?
Charles. Pohl I can find the way back. I only want
a quarter to seven y ears old, a~d I shan't lose myself,
I know.
Emily. Wellt we•ve got !lowers enough, and now I' m
Emil y .

tired and want to go home.
Charles. I don't, but if you are tired we' ll go
and find our baskets.
Emily.

Where do y ou . thi n~~ they ar.e?

'fi(:_J '

ve been

looking a great while for them. I know we are lost, for
when we went aft3r the flowers we only turned oace,
aZld coming back, we have turned three ti~es.
Charles.

Rave we?

'Well never mind, I g11ess we s h all

find them.

Emily. I 1 m afraid we shan't. Do let's ri.:m.
Charles. 'H ell so do. Oh, FmilyL herets a brook,
a.."ld I am sure we did::.: t t pass any brook, go i ng.
Emily. Oh, deart we must be lost. Hark1 Charlest
didn't you h (::- ar that dr c.a dful r""°ise just !lowt Wa .sn 1 t

it a bear?
Charles. Pohl I should love to see a bear here. I
guess if he should come near me, I would give him one
good slap that would make him. feel pretty bad. I could
kill him at the first hit.
Emily. I should like t n see you tat<:ing hol(i of a bear.
Why didn't you know bears were stronger than men? But
only see how dark it grows; we shan't see Ma' to-night,
I'm afraid.
Charles. So am I : do letts ~~n soffie more.
Emily. 0 Charles, do you believe we sha: l ever find
the way out of this dreadful long wood?

Let's scream, and aee if somebody wont cof1e:
Well, · (screaming) lta' t Ka' I
Charles {sreaming also) Pa't Patt
. E:nily. Oh, deart· there's the su~ setting. It will be
dreadfully dark by and by, won't it.
Charles.
Emily.

.a,~,

. ..

' ,,.
~

-

s. ~;'!. ... ~

_....

, ~ ,.,

'::

.;;: , i t ..:

I
The new tend encies L-:
z~0ove

r!let !·~ od

and sub j ect ·.oted

do not il:dicate a sudden reform in coraposition

teac ~1 ir. :;

:L1 t.lle 30 ' s.

Couf)o::dtion was not ye t r f..' c ::; g-

nized a s of sufficient i!..lportance i :.·. tile curr icului;i t'.)
warrant much attention f r - m an.yone.

Ho wever, t !:1e seeds

o i' rei'ornation b.ad been smm, although t.::ie full h c.rvest
,;:as r1ot to

oe reaped fo r

i!lany

y ears.

Th (~

preliminary dis-

cussion and the choice of interesting and fan1il:iar sub-

j e cts have
of

beco~e

the nrevision and functional centers

toda~r .

As a result ':>f the emphasis on accuracy late

in tha nineteenth century, correction of sentences
gra.:nrnaticall y and rhetorically incorrect beca:!le for a
while an i!Ilportant part

or

the work in composition.

Correction of fal:rn syntax, a Jiethod boi'"ro wed from the
t-eachL"lg of :i:.atin, had at one time been a l .G ading

device in the teaching of gra...."ll?lar.
ground, however, in the second

It began t o lose

quarter of the nineteenth

century when new ways of teaching gr&mlar began to displace the traditional methods.

About 1885 exercises in

t..iie correction of "bad English" · were revived, but in
connection with composition instead of gramma1·.

One

hour a week seems to have been the usual time assigned

to this sort of d:rill.
.i

.f:

' JILUIAC
274

I
J

Critics of the ::ie t !:::od he ::.. d. t h at it f a...l'!'l i: iari zec
t ~1e

) U9ll

with more bad En glish ins t ead o f h ,::.J..pi::.g hi:n

t.o eradicate his own err0rs. 1
t h at e xaillples

I
[

of bad En.g l.is h by contrast develo ) s-C. a

sense f or good 2ngl ish.

to the

sup p o~t

excellent te st

Itsi su;i por-ters c c:: n !; en c.e d

Th e coll eges esp r.:.i ci a.l ly ralli

w

of exercis e s i n false syntax as an
~f

the student's knowl edge of gra!imar.

After 1894, when the Joint Conf'!rence, acting on a sug ge stion of the Committ ee of Ten (1892), reco1m:nond ed the

oadssion of the " bad English" question from coll ege

entrance examinations, correction of t aulty sentences
rece1Yed less a ·t tention in the CO!..>?.positi0 n course.

The demand for accuracy was responsible for
still another innovation in r::iethod, one that was, however,
more widely

')

discussed~

than practised.

On every hand

1. A reviewer,. prai.sing a new textbook for omission

or

exercises for correction, says: "Thls somewhat
crude system had bad effects both on tha impress1·) nable

student whose mind must struggle with the incorrect
images that the method. obtrudes into his consciousness, and on the ordinary learner wt.o soon comes t o
correct sentences by clock-viork, a.ssW!ling that with
each s omething must be the matter. 11 Tbe Sch~. Rev.
4 (~pr. 1896), 242.
·

2. President Eliot of Harvar d,

or

s ~ eaki ng

at a meeti ng

th.e New EDgland Association of Colleges and

Pre )aratory Schools, said, "I have an impression
that the only way to learn to write is by writing.
We all of us learn to talk, and aane of us learn
1

to write; and those of us who learn t o write,
I think, agree that we learn by writing and in no
(Not.e continued on page 275)

.~

275

there ;rnr e recommenC. ati on s t hat ,;JLlpils be gi ven opportuni t y fo r constant pract::.. c e ..i..r:.
se,~ool.s,

)atterni ~g

wr ~:. t

ing , and so :;:e o f

t he

t h er::ise2. ves 3f t e r Harvard . i n tro-

Lakeville, Connecticut, t he pupils s ) ent t lh : fi rst ten
:'!!inutes o !." ever; Engl:!.sh

~·ecitation

theme in their compo si ti on

i t. Hr i t i n ;:; a short

Th::: se wer e on

boo l~s.

subjects a ssigned by the teacner and usually ta.£en from.
They w·- re ne-ver :more than a

the sup lementa:ry reading.

1

p.:;;.ge long, often not z.ore than a half page.

The teacher
~

corrected the exercises and returned t her.'11 for revision. J..

Such intensive composition wcr:< was very ti.ne consuming
for t he teacher, a....viC. it
i n those scho ls that

wa~,
ha~~

of c:;urse, possible only

a specia:. teacher or En:f!..ish.

In the B:o tchkiss Scho '" l, for ex&!l.ple, the E'.nglish teacher

2 (Note conti nued fron. P<"L~· e 274)
other way .n See The S<rh. Rev., I (Dec., 1893) 667.

James H. Penniman o f the DeLancey School, Philadelphia, urged tha t npupils should have practice in
the art or" writing.n He cited in support of his beli ef
t he example ot Hawthorne, who at the age of twelve
received from his uncle a note-boo:.r: with this advice on
the first leaf, "Write out your thoughts, some every
day, in as good words as you can, upon any and all
subJ ects, as it Ls one of the best means of your
securing for maturer years command of thought and
language .. " See The Sch.
.I (Oct., 1893) 464.
The principal of the C assical High School, Worcester,

'e•••

Mass., J.G. Wight, headed hia list or suggestions for
ao·mposi tion teaching as follows: "Insist upon daily
work in composition. This is the all-important reature.w
See the Sch, BeT., I (Jan., 1893), 22. . ,"-.._

1. See Addref!ef and Prgge!dingf ot the 8th Ann. Keetinf
of _the Bew Eng. Assoc. or Co • and Prep. Sch., {1893 I
• ni'!!'p:f

•Ji:,. ... • • .....

'

'·

. .·

276

I
I

was given a

numo er

:r ~3d u c ed

o:.·

rec ~. t at i;_,n s

in orcer t hst

h e mi ght h a ve t i:ie fo r t l: ·2 i<'o r l-c of correction..
1111 0
;tt,._..

~

-

st t:'"',.,.;,, Sc."i..t.1 ,_
: ·1.....
'-':J. e s+-"' p-•.,.. :.:;,
~ ~ 0·'4.

(\ -;:>o
,·; •"' s vl.,"a
~, ..i a;'
''-" '"-~A•
.,,
v
J..!....L.

The

'"
e~~.; o .!...... +·=-d
J.
we

:'Fo r t hr ee ::.io.n t hs in ev e r y s c ho«:i l y e a r t b.e ; > ll pils in eac h

I
I

I

cla ss hav-e da i l y exer c.i. s<?. s i r:

ccm~ o si t i o n

wr -:'. t ing ,

..

wor l..:i n g '!.fi t h sentenc e, paragraph and t h eme su c cessively .".i..

I n svme sc.'::.ool s t he !lda i l y t heme" ca:ie t o .mean a bri ef"
.
t 'ni-ee ti mes a wee,._
,_. 2 Alt hough t he da ily
c 1a ss exercise

uitten exercise did not become a univ rsal pr actice,

I

I

t h e CGntinu ed agitation in f avor of it wa s sal utary

in reminding schools t hat one C;Jr:J.posi tion a month was

scarcely suffi ci ent.
Th,_~re

I

favo red co n 3tant

was another grou p which, al t h ou gh it
:.Jr a.c t i~ e,

he ld t hat such

s1:oul d be given whenever t he

o p ~J o r tuni t y

~Jr u ctice

presented

i t self, whether t he class was one in Latin, history, or

1. Re ort of . the Suot. of
of Pa.

· b. I st. o r the Com.monwealt

1.8 98 , 261-262.

2. "In addition t o reading ••• books, toe class wa s
req ~ ired to write three ten mi.n ute compositions a

week on subjects given out at the t ime. These
su bj ects were many of them outlandish, f or examp l e,
•He was a mean old mi ser, ' ' Ti me s when it is hard
to tal.lt , t 'Thanksgiving at tlie poorhouse' etc."
See Harvard Col., Rept. of' the Com. on ConuJ. and Rhet.
(1897), - 442, #36.
.
.
"But by tar the most valuable, in my opinion, o.f all
the t r aining in English, was that, in wha t was called
•daily themes• although in real ity they came only
three times a week, in the regnl ar English hours. The
first tif'teen or twenty minutes (if I remember rightly)
(Note continued on page 277)

_____
•t

.,

_:._

;

' j

i
I

i
I

;

277

English.

These propor-ents of the incidental mBt hod

believed that English composition should not be tau ght

as a thing apart, but as a component part df every subject.

As ?rofes so r

j.

M. Hart of Cor :::lell

express ~ d

it

a t the Binghamton Conference.,

ill scho ·l work should be English work, whe t h er
t h e study be Latin ~"1r g eo graphy. Wherever the subject
matter is well learned t h e lessons aff ord t h e ~est

foundation for practi ce in written ex?ression .....

The Harvard Reports of t.he early yea.rs of t he JO 's

particularly called

t o t he ne ed f0r i ncidental

attent~ on

instruction in -nri tten expr e ssion.
regard good Eng2.Lsh as a

English room.

held

skL~l

Students had come

t :)

to be paraded only in the

The Committee r e cotllllended t hat pupils be

~esponsible

for correct

ex ~ ress i on

in a::.1 classes,

and call ed attention especially to t he opportunity for

English training in the Latin class. 2 The English Conference of the Committee of Ten likewise suggested that
training in English go hand in hand with the gtudy of

every other subject, -- "every teacher, whatever his

2. (Note continued fro m page 276)
of ea.ch recitation were devoted t o the writing on
any subject which we might wish of a short theme, the
length of Which was never to exceed one page. These
were corrected, handed back, and revised or rewritten
by the student. n

Ibid., 450, #51.

1. The Sch. Rev. I (May, 1893), 297.
2. Harv. Col., Rept. of the Com. on Comp. and Rhet.,
cl892-:11 157.
1'I

"'

. ·-- -

-

---

----- ---- ----- - ---·fii.

- ___ ,.

· --- --~ ! -- ·

·-

j

.. d

--~~

278

·:lepartment, should feel :-esponsi b2.e f or

t he tl

;;ood Engl ish on the part o .r"' his _;Jupils. !'!l

Report of 1897 indicates
t he

t ~1.:it

:3e of

The Harra.:rd

other de partments 1:Jeside

.imglish we.re begiru:ing t o assu!:le r i: sponsibil.i t :; fo r

correct ex)ression. 2

However, t he number of schools

employing t he i ncidental sy stem at t he close of t h e
century was not large, f or, according t o t.be
report, "the great bull{ of

tion ;--, f time."

sa~e

the schools, raise the obj ec-

The Committee poir..ted out that those

schools that were adopting the incidental system wers
"al::..103t i nvariably t hose generally recognized as t t:e more

intelligent and progressive, and t >ose, al:so, the students
from which presented the most creditable snd observant
9e:rper !I. "

3

As long as

composition remained an incidental

subject studied "throughout the yl!3ar", there was no need
for a s pecial teacher in that field.

Almost anyone

could assign and c.o rrect the few ther::ies.

or

the subject grew, so did the

teachers of written express : on.

As recognition

d emand increa se for

The teaching

or

litera-

ture was also within t heir sphere, but a t this stag 7. 1t

l. N. E.A., Rept. or the Com. on Sec. Sch. Studies (1893), 93. ·
2. See footnote 2 1 p.255.
3. 2.2• cit., 416.
,..
; t ..

I

279

was con sidered :'.!la.inly a means of 9rovidin;:; ;;ractice in
composition.

The.re was no unan.i.:nity o f opinion, however,

in the .: natter o .f .employir:g s )e c ia.=.. t:?achers, and t he last

decade of t he

ni~eteenth

century witnessed a lively

battle betwee:r: the "co:r1·elati ·:J.nis t s" and t he "spe c i al ist s".
The for:n.er grou;J found an able champi on in

Samuel Thurber

of the Girl::f High School of Boston who contended that
the s pecial teacher of English, a s far as correct

spea~ring

a.nd writing o.f English are concerned, has no place in

the school.

Since every teacher, regardless of his sub-

ject,. can distinguish between g.:)od a."1.d bad Eng l ish,

every teacher should be responsible fo r correcting
the errors of pupils in his charge.

The appointment of a

s l_iecial teacher of composition, whose whole attention is

deToted t o rules, sets up a standard above the speech of

the mass of educated m.en.

The school ha$ no room for a

priggish, precise use of English.

1

Also, from the

point of view of the teacher himself, the specialist
should be abolished:
The r ·eading or a certain 11m1 ted amount of juvenile
writing for purposes of correction is a pleasing task,
l ;)ading to personal relations, to an a pp reciation of individual difficulties, to a possible giving of wise counsel.

1. Thu·r ber, Samuel,

11!:!•, II,

(Oc~,

Englisl:1 1n . Sec. · Schs.•, The Sch.
1894), 468-478.
11

280

But the reading of juveni le wr i ting in
is i:a c cnsistent wi t h

the tea c hers

o~

~n ental

g re~t quantiti es
h ~a l t h .
All
equally t his
~

a:."ld physical

a school should share

tas;: of su ) a-~1 i si ng t .h e t!:ng 2. ish wr ::. tin.g •• ,. I d o r:ot s ee
how any t eac h er car: su bmit to have t he drudgery a f
hav :'..ng sereral "t ~i.:?!eS h is s hare o f t h is wor :_: t ~ir u st
upon him.~

The "speci alists" did not object t a t he
incidental teaching of Engli s n ex;> Pessi on, but be : . ieved
t h <1t one person should be held I'espor..sibl e for the

English of the school.

It would be part of his task t c

enlist the co-operation of t he other members of' the

teaching force.2

The question "Shall there be a te2_cher

1. Thurber,• Samuel, "Fi '1e Axioms of Composition Teaching",

The Sch. Rev., V (Jan., 1897), 15-16.

::; . Professor F. N. Scott of the University of ~lic higan,
who was opposed to Thurbert3 view, at a meeting of
the Michigan Schoolmasters• Club, urged the need of' such
a t2ach ::.r:
"The solution of t h e English problem. is t o

be found in emphasizing, not i n minimizing, t he
importance of the s. ~ ecia l teac her of' English. His

status should be C.ef ined, the importance of his wor .-:
should be recognized, he should be held to a high
stancard of scholarship. In select~ng candidates for
thi3 position, sue ~:. questions should be askt?.d as,
Is the applicant first and for~illost a specialist in
Er...glish coaposition? Is it his desire to teac h
cor.i.positian? Does he wish to mal{e it his li f e wori\:?
Has he the special aptitude and the s pecial preparation
which will fit hi:il for his difficult and arduous

duties? That such a teacher s hould be able to write
res9ectable Engl ish and be well-read in literature,
may be ta.ken for granted; but these qualifications
should not be regarded as sufficient. The candidate
should have the ability to correct manuscripts
rapidly, accurately, and pleasurably. In order that
he may be delivered from the t~~ ranny of the t extbook,
he should be a master of the history and theory or
(Note continued _on page 281)
.,

- ·----

....

---~- -~.__.._.....

~,___

281

t::. t 2. 2.s.s t t ; th e extent that t l:e Eng :'.. is h

t ~a c 2er

oe

r- e s ·) o!1.si ble f or i :-: structior: i ::-1 wr ::. tten a lon; ··1 i t h ora::

i:; Jc: ressi on , gramma r and l i t 0ra ture .
!i. ~ eneral i . ; ea. o f t h e me t :1.ods employed in s ol:le

o f t he

~tl gh

sch ools

o ~: t~

c oun t r 7 i n the l .::. te 80' s

can be gai ned .f rom s t udies :iade by two· stat e t ea chers'
assoc iD. tions.

A wi d e variety o f' ; > r a.cti c es was reported

in regard to t he number of compositions requ i r ed.

The

Massachusetts co:aunitt e e found t ha t in one western
schc '."Jl the 9upils were ex-:;r ncted to · prepare a nine-page

es3ay f our times a yaar.
other hand,

~c eq:.Jired

A Massachusetts school, on the

forty compositions a y"Jar, about

2. (Note continu ed from page 280)
rhetoric. He should be rich in devices and exµedients
for ;naintaining interest in t.he work. If he can engage
in original research in the field o-:: rhetoric or
co~position and so make his work in the class room
or upon the essays contribute directly to breadth
of sc ~olarship, then so much the better f~r both
teacher and students. An instructor thus equipped
will lay stress upon supervision, correction, ~d
p erson.al eonsultatlon, . rather th.an upon recitation

work. He will ha ve a rhetorical laboratory and
consultation-room rather t han . a recitati~n-room.

He

will not be content until he has m.ade himself
responsible t or t he En glish o.f t h e sc hool in which

he is employed, and h as enlisted to his aid the services of his associates." ttRept. of the 22nd Meeting
of the ~Ueh. Schoolmasters• Club, at Ann Arbor,
Mar. 30-31, The Sch. Rev., II (June, 1894) 373-4.

282

on e

a~d

one-half pages i:: lengt h .

A:;;1Jroxi..;;:ic;_ tely hal.:' of
"1

t :-:e school3 re po rted t t:a t a , monthly e s .s a :-' 'vas :·eo_ui r ed • . :.

"'
~1.v e r :i.t;e r'=quire!rrent was eight sen.;;:,

The q1.H:Jstion "Who

c:-iooses t h e subjects for these com.posi ti ons?"
forth a variety of a.."1sw ers. · 'The

~tassac husetts

ca.ll~ri

r e?o r t

deprecated the fact that more t h.an half of the schools

per1'!1.ittec 9upils to caoose

th ~lr

own

~

topics. ~

The

findings of t h e Illinois committer.: were exactly the
opposit e : ei ghty-seven s c hools, :!lo r9 t t1an on a-half of

the grou p , reported t hat the teacher assigned t he t o)i cs.
In twenty scl1ool s t h e

~upils

c:1ose t hei r own, wh:.le

in t '.:1irty -one athers,. t h eir c!.1oice was subj ect to the

app roval of the teacher. 4

No ver>J specific i~for~ation

<:. bout the nature of the subj ects wa s obtained.

The

New fmgla.VJ.d committee, ho wever, discovered tha t in less

1. Parmenter, C. w., Collar, Wm. c., Groce, Byron,
"English in Seconcary Schools", The Academy, III
(Jan. 1889), 5:38-99. A re\)ort of a committee of the
Massachusetts Teachers' Associat:.on December 1, 1888.
~ .Ray, w.. H.·, Smith, Cha s. A., Tucl<eri, _Carri e E.,
Les:.1e, J .o., 1tEnglish 1n the Htgh bchool n, The Academy,
IV .{Apr. 1889), 190. A re9ort presented at the meeting
of the Northern Illinois High School Teachers'
~.

Association, at Kewanee, March 23, 1889.
Parmenter, et y., 599.

4. Ray,

.ll .li•, 181.

28:3

than 'Jn e- fa urth of t l: 8

s c ~o 0 ls

topics we-;:e drawn

ot her depa rtr.i ents of t he sc to · 1.

~ro ;;:

1' h8 re:::! a i n d er !'e '.)Ort ed
·1

to ~ iCS

Of a

mi ~ Ce llaTIGC ~ 5

C har ~ Ct A r. -

I~

t he

~ a Jo rity

o .f t h e sc '.:ool s .t a ccording t o t h e I l lino i s investigation,

the teachers correct ed t he compositions .
<)ne hundred an·:i t wen t y-thr ee

Al t hough

sc ~1ools ma:. ~·~ ta i:n ··: d

t ha t ·

tion o f papers, the committee doubted whet:12r t l1e so-

c alled individual wo'.4..:<. amounted to more t 'r:c.n w:rltten
c ont':l?:nts in the z:argLTl.

Re-writing of CoI!l:JO si ti ons

after correcti()n by the · teacher was ev:Ldeutly de:o.anded
only when t he or i ;;ina::. compo sitior: was very poor.

hundred and twenty-four schools reported t l"lZ. t

On~

co ~p osi-

tions were read before either t he class or the school.
However, it could scarce2.y be expected that all com. po si t1ons be gi vei: a

1:le~ring.

The larger schools in

particuls r fail ed to ra:)ort the reading ot compositions
before tha class. 2

Certainly these two surveys fail to show any
uniformity of practice in composition teaching in the
l ate 80's.

1. Parmenter, ~ ~1., 599.
2. Ray, .!l ..!l•, 190-91.

284

Compositi :·n

an Ad junc t to oth er Eng l:!.s l1 Studi e s

3. 3

i n t :.i.e a cade:ni • s and

~1i ,;h

con..~ G cti o::a

3·: lu :el y no

of the text book3 of

t ~1e

schools

<1 5

t :~oug h.

it

h~1d

a.b-

wi t 1: any o th. er subj c ct, a study
nb:e t eenth

associa tion of composition

·.:; i t ~1

centur~/

:rev.3al3 t be

oth er En6:i sh s t udies.

Until a p.i) roxbately 1350 composition was treated as an
ad junct to grammar.
composition

~ as

'?hen t he emphasis changed , and

more frequent ly found as a companion t o

which '.M as in turn supplanted by literature

rhetor i c~

about 1880.

The

ear~::. ~ r .

t ype of textbook did not suddenly

disaµ _) ear when the new one arrived on c..'1.e s cene.

example, at t he close of the

nine tee~th

l..,o.r

century the

three types of textbook al'e found together, t hough at
t11e time t he co:-relation of literature and composition

was receiving the major emphasis.

Composition as an Adjunct to Grammar

Two types of composition exercises are suggested in some of

America.

the earliest grammars in use in

The ·author of the Bri.tish Grammar (1760), one

of the most popular grammars imported and pr :.nted here,
recomrr~ ended dictation and letter writ.!$.

The .main

'

•.

----

~-~---

.

i

.i

285

and L1 .r;ve.r:· s entenc e

'J~ arcl,

')

"" lil\: BV>' is e ,

,~vou ~ Ll

l1a.1re

t:ie ::;tud ent acco tJ'jJany his study o f ,:srammar- w.i t r; t "'.-! e

composition of s· ort l etters.

Su ggestions

sue ~

lS

the s e, however, are llmitGd to t he pr efaco, and t he books
·'I

themsel ves do not

~ak e

!

.:;r-:>visicn for composition '3Xer-

Lyman, in his study of Eng l ish g ra:~ar, gives
3
Roswell Smith (13ZJ) credit f() r includi:ig the first
cises.

cor...structive

·.v o~k.

'l'h!:"l exercises a re

composition in the strictest sense.

not really

He does, however,

provide for ;iractice i n sentence building by the sec-

\J

tions on nsantences tc "tie wri tten 11 , in ·wr..ich h e gives
such direction s as t h e fol l owing :

w:;111 you com;io se two
.

sentences, eac h havin;;; a differer:~t adJ ec ti ve pr '~ noun? n 4

'

The close a3sociation or grammar and composition is also

seen in the title of a proposed book

by

6. Felch,

A.£2.m\

l. cAnonymous.1 The British Grammar, or an Essay · in
i
Foor Parts. Towards Speaking and Wr i ting the English ·~ \ . '.!
Language Grammaticall:;,: and Inditing Elegantly. ,
· ., \ ; ·_-- ·1
London,, 1760 1 IV! VI, XIV. See- Lyman,·~·~·, 127. l_J<,_, .>,:,···i~
2. Ward, ¥I m.... ' Englisn Gra!Dillar, x. See Lyman, .Q_
.n. cit., l;.;r\\, .t~:~
3. Lyman, .2E.• ..£ll., · 152.
. . ·.
i
s t \~ .~: i
~
Smithf
Roswell
c.,
Eng.
Gram.
on
the
Product
ve
vs em t ·,,,i
4
(1841; , 58.
:\ ·\ . ·.:d

. - ~ ~ .,
\\~l 'i;~

""

~k~-\~

'

I'

&\t:{~~,-n

;: r~ . ;t:r

~:'A"~~""'=:c·;-.~..,.._....,,...,r--__,I.,.;,:,.,..._ f.... .f

'o

clas s be e a:led U?On t r c ompo s e

s ent e::.-~ ce s

t h e compl e t ed wcr;{ -::v e r a pp ear ed is
r ~Jferences

1

......

Wh e t h e r

f or no

doub t :~u l,

t c it h2.ve be en f c und .

The ::..nter e 3t of ;: c hools i n general in constru ct i ve wor': is seen in t he war m welcome 2 gi ven Parker's
Progressive Sxercises i n Eng l is h Compo sition i n l 8i37.

The be ak is a n except i on t 0 t h e t ype i n us e dur i ng t his
per -la d , f or it is not a

.~: r ar:im t, r,

aJ. t t:.ough t l:e na ture of

m2.ny o f the exercis Bs wou ld suggest t hat t h e
supposes a knowl edge of gram:iar.

aut ~~ or

; re-

It pro v:. :les a s e t of

exer ci!les to t rai:: pupils in correct expressi on.

The

prera ce postulates an added ai m, to help pupi l s obtain
i G. eas;

however, littl e S?ace is devot ed to t h i3

tant phase of compo si tion.

L~: por-

The student is inducted

very gradual ly into the writing of long coopo s itions,
\ ··:"

beginning wi t .t: words such as lucubrations, r.onumcla-

~' a nd pane gyriclc t o be used in sen t ences. 3

Exercises

\J

'

.

,\

1. Q.Q.. ci t. t 24.
2. er. Chap. III, p. 172.
3. !m· ill·, 5-9.

>•

..

v

287

in variet:.1 ot t?Xpression and analy- si s ana synthesis

of compound

sent~nces

,

fo.llow.

After various other

bri ~ f

!

ty nas op
~I'"'

;-

~- '~:'.... ct:.i..·~~
~""
t...;i:;:J

•

filling in
s ~mrt

8..."1.

·t he
"" ....,

0 tu ~
~ ·.....,
~1~..i..V
~

Cf

atter:1pt s narration by

'.JUt line i_)r0Vidsd for h im and by amplii'y_'..ng

0

9as s a ges .

A study of descri p tion , f igur es af

speech, paraphrase and t he .rhet orical princ i ple s '.:If
clearness, unity, strength, and har&ony precedes the
writing of' silnple and

com:;>l ;:~x

themes.

gi Yen the student not on..ly by models

su ggestion of topics with sub-heads
amplit..ied, and

var ~. ously

expressed.

Assistance is

1

but also b:r the

t~

be paraphr ased,

The subjects

suggested are of t l::e usual abstract t y)e, al thoug:n a
few demanding imagination, suc t1 as History of a Pin
and H1stor7 of a Needle a.re i.ncluded. 2

The t hemes,

likewise, are on general topics, such as war, peace,

1. Model outlines such as the follow:.ng are given t ,..,
be expanded;

On the importance or a well spent youth.

1.

Al:~

d esire t :-; arrive at old age ; but few think
or acquiring t hose virtues which alon.,:; ea..'"l
mak e it happy.
2. The life of man a building; youth the foundation.
3. All the l a ter stages cf ltfe depend upon the
good use ?nade

0 1~

t he f or..!ler.

4. Age, therefore, requ i res a well s pent youth
t o render it happy.
Ibid., 76.
2. 1.Q!g., 93-97.
1

-~
'

\:

\.

'

283

provided by t he ccmpl .~x t r.efiles on such subjects as
t ~w

follow ' ng:

l.Jela:,' s ar e d ar:g er::.u s
Order ls ::>f universal imp o 1~tance .
Nip sin in the bud .
'l' :ru s t not t :o a .~rnea:r
a nces >
....,

Avoid

extremes. ~

For a pproximatel y twenty years

t h<~

course o.r study h t:: re

outlined wa 3 widely followed, to Judge by t he t r emendous
sale of t he book.
The inclusion of practice exercis e s now

became an e:stablished )art o.t the gra"ll!nar texts.

Greene,

whose Analysis in 1846 f).L"acti cally revolutionized the
teacl1ing of gra.rruuar by making the sentence rather t han
the word the i t:iportant unit,. doe s not beliave gramma r

car- be successfully taught ur.J.ess the pupil is r equir ed

"to construct repeatedly the various foru:s :J f sentenc es
a.."'1.d elements of sentences. n 3 In accordance with that

suggestion he provides written exercises as early

as page 13, 'Nhere he adti.s es in a footnote ttthat the

practice of writing lessons should be adopted as a general rule.n

William Wells in A

l. ~ •• 09.
2 • .fQ!.g., 75.

Gr~mm ar

of t he

F...n~lish

3. Greene, Samuel, A T~eatise on the Structure of. the
Inglish Language, 4·.

289

La...ri..;uag e (1846) sugge sts t h at t he t eac rrnr 1vri te '.'.m t .h a

boa r d =...i s t s o f words to j e u sed in sentenc es.

t ha t t his exercise be follo wed by

n se v e ra ~

He go s s

compositions

The later gr&rJjarians go beyond mere sentence
exercises anQ devote enti re sections t c composi ti J n.
Weld, ip. his Engl ish Grammar (improved edition, c. :8·19)
suggests eompositi:ms based

~n

sense perce ption, and

ill ustrates °b'J the use of models.

He does not devo t e

more t han seven ;;ages, however,

t he chapter on

t :;
')

composition.

Quack enbos (1851);

beginni~g

with sen-

tences of an elliptica.:. t ype in w:1ich the student

supplies t he missing word , defers construction of sentences t o the middle of t he

book~

E!e is, however, !!lore

g enerous in h!s assigmn.an..t of' space to composition,

devoting forty pages to models and plans to guide the
student.

Althou-gh he

his to ) ic.s on the
over Parker.
~ . have

begins with concrete objects,

w~ol0 ar~

scarcely an improvement

After Honesty,, ·Gaubling, and The Ruins of

been ex.. aust ed,

th ~~

twelve-year-old may

begin on Whatever is, is right and Heaven:· f'rol!l all

1 • .Q.2• cit., 24.

See Lyman, .2..2• cit., 152.

2. First Lessons in Composition.

1859 edition.

290

creatures hides the book of fate. l
The titles of

many o f t he l a ter textbooks
~

attest to t h e close a sso c iati on of grw.mar and compositi on.

Peter Bu.llion in 1853 published .? ractical Le ssons

in English Grammar and Comoosition for Youn g Beginnel"S
in which he devotes one brief chapter to compo sition,

explainin g that all the precedi ng lessons

'.)Il

grar.llllar

are introductory to written expression. 2 Tower and
Tweed (1855) call their textbook A Grammar of Composition .
They undertake to supply the student, not only t he

necessary gra;:miar, but also a me thod of arrangement.

In

the scant thirty-two pages devoted to compo s i tion, axercises such as the following are given to aid t he s tu dent
1..11 writing:
~

A. Journey from New Yor1c to Albany by Water • ..,

Direction 1. Write, in short sentences, the t Lne of
s,tarting, from What part of the city, name of steamboat,
prominent places pas.sed, 1n thei r order; oc.c urrences on

board the .boat in o:rder or time; time of arrival.
Direction 2,:; Group the sentttnces when written, so as to
torm a connected narrative.

D1.r ection -0. Describe the scenery on the river from time
to time. Describe Wast Point; make any historical allusion that is i~terestih&:• Give your impressions of the
. H1ghlanda. ·:oe:Jcribe ilbanyi and give any thing inter·-

esting tha

l • .22•
2 •. Qi•

you know of its .. is tory.

.lll·, 180-181.

cfJ·•.,, 130.
204.

3. 2.:2• c

.. r
~

'\ '

291

Direction 4.

Complete t h e c orzroc s± ti on b'/ int:-od uc i ng,

i n prop er place, eac h cf t he a bove descriptions and
~listorical

aJ.lusion s.

Th e ir list o.f mi scell aneou s s u bjects is not so l1e avi ly

we igtit ed with abstract t hemes as the earlier l ists are.
Such topics as Columbus :t Wash::.ngton, ?rar.klin,

~

Feudal System, The Art .Qi .?r j.nting, The Amazon, '!he
Ganges, ~ Pyra.mida1perm1t the stu dent t o draw on t he

subject matter

of other co urses.

The substitution of language study for
grammar drill is reflected in the series of books which
Swinton began to publish i n 1874 "with soecial reference

to the rational remodeling recently accomplished, in the
Courses of Study 1n our public schools -- a remodeling
in wh ich Language-training for the first time receives

the attention that is its due.n 2

In c Jntrast with earlier

textbook makers, Swinton does not use composition

exercises merely as a means of teaching grammar..
him, correct ex) resaions, as weJ.l
grammar, i s

t he end in Yiew.

a~

a knowl edge

With

or

Consequently, we find in

his Scho0l Composition (1874) that written exercises are
not d et erred until the end

of

t he

boo~r,

but begi n with

the very first division and utend throughout the book.

l. I.bid., 226-28.
2. SWinton, William, School Composition, ·P:reface, 13 .

'

'

.... ~l

292

:N otable

3.-~ s o

is his prescription o i.' extend ed com9os i tion

rather than isolatad sentences.

Pu?il cr:ticism is

enc i-T: aged , ana. guL: e qu es t ions such as t h e follo ;,.,ing

a re Set: nrs
the

ser.tence a sio iJl e s entence?

Do !::; s

contain any errors i n s p ellin g?

In

e.:a c ~ 1

compo~:d tion

ca pi tali zi ng? n.l

Anoth2r modern :note is the ; radual
E ar~ier t e~~ tbook

introduction of punctuation rules.

writers usuall y devote one c•1apter to p LID.ctuation and

S1rinton wisely

then consider the subJect set.tled.

presents one rule at a time and t hen summarizes at the
end of the book.

The chief lack of the book is its

failure to aid t ne student in developi. :g his ideas.

He

recognizes t he difficulty pupils have in finding material,
but instead of assisting them to find it for t hemselves,-in their own thought and expe!iences -- he )rovides
notes as a basis for compo:sition..

Ha confesses in t he

preface that his book is concerned with !!2:! to express
rather than with what, For it is his conviction "that

training in tile Art of Expression is as l!lllCh as can
be wi:ualy aimsd at in school composition.

Pupils must

first be taught how to- write at all, be:t'ore they can
be shown how to write ~·•, •.•"

l.

llli· .t

2

6.

2. Ibid •• Preface, 13.

------~':....·

_...._ - ~.

-

293

~is

composition t n9 ics are still l a rgely of

the conventional

ty'.)1~,

t heme s with t::ieir '.nethod ica:

arrangement according t o s et heads still !being inc l uded.

3owever, he do e s suggest in addition essay s, di scussions
according t -:i a plan but more informal in nature, on such

tof)ics as A Taste for Reading,, On Cruelty t o .A.ni".'l a.ls,
The Good ang the Evil of

On Foreign TraveJr.• l

still find a place

~iar_,

Rain -- its Oses, a."ld

?ride and The Uses of Adversity
L~

his list of miscellaneous subjects,

but it is refreshing t 'J fi nd Female Suffrage and
Advantages o.f Life

~

Insuranc~

supplanting F'e12a2.e Virtu e s
and The Advantages of a W ell·S~ent yguth. 2
Swinton'

s book set a new fashion ·in

gra~:lI!lar

tGxts, and the next important combined g:ra::umar and composition t o a)pear, Recd and Kellogg's High <;;r Lessons
in EngJ.ish,, professed to make t he "science of the lan-

guage ••.• tributary to the art of expression. nli · Even a

cursory examination of the book, however, leads one to
doubt that statement, for there is great attention paid

to

diagrammirig~

The authors say the diagrams may be

omitted and the l'ICrk

r e~ai n

intact, bu t

~ost

3Chools

seized eagerly upon the new device, thus making their
f.

l• ,Ibid.; 108-9. '
2.
111-112.

!Ji!!i.,

z.

From the sub-title of the book •

• ~ ... - ~... - _:~ ____ :. -~ _;i_

-...i---.. -

. . _ .... .t. ..1.1.. ..........

-~.....--..-

-·

'·

294

instruction more mechanical t h a.."l •')Ver.

pages at t he end of t l::.e

are devot ed t o ccr.ipo siti:Jn,

boo~

with Yery little at tention

Only t i:rt :-

t :')

t he cornpo siti-:n : a s a w:1ole .

The paragraph and outli.ne receive some considerat:..on.
Recog..'1.izing the need fo r assistance to t he pupil L'1

·,vriting a theme , the a uthors devote one lesson to tha t
subject.

Ver-J' briefly t h ey give C.irections fo-:- c hoo sing

a 3Ubject,, a ccumulat ing

~he

naterial, constructir.g a

f ramework , writing, and attending to the mechanics.
Consideration of pupil. interests is evident in the to;>ics
sugges t ed for t hemes:
.A!Jples a..."ld Nuts

A Bleasant Eveni.'lg

My . Vial!t tv School

Pluck
Native Town
A Day in the Woods

My

Winter Spo r ts

Our

~unda-i"

Ombrellas

School

In s pite of: the avowed intent of the authors, !Ugh3r
Lessons in $nglish, which rP-mained ,;>opular during the
ea-rly years of the next century, encouraged a formal
type of language work.
Composition instruction, when given in

connection with grammar, as r evealed by this survey cf

I

.

,

~I

~9 5

o i' gram.ma r -compo .5i tion texts, v;;as l :lmit ,..::d nailtly t o t h e
mec:1ar.1 c s.

Altho ugh :sor::ie a t tent i on 1'1 as gi Yen t c the
~

a rrang ement o r mat e:ri·al , t h e d ev112.. opmen t of' i d eas wa s
s l i ght e d..

This a dvanc e i s U1'.) ticeable :

~ he

whe l.'ea.s i :n

e arlier texts c om;iosi tion 0Xercis.::: s ar e gi van as a
:iean s of impl antin g t he ru les of gram..--nar, in t h e l a t er ,

corr ect expression is r ecogni zed
•Uso ther e is a cJ1ang e in

~s

an end in itself •

comp o s ~tion

subjects fro:-I.t t ho se

of an ab s tract, general natu r e to to r:i ics related mo re

.• $1,

closely to t he interests of t he JU?il.

Composition as an AdJunct to Rhetori c
Althou gh rhetoric •as taught in t he ea:-ly
.Am.ericar.:. school with the ai:.:i of develo ping power of

expression,. the ;:nanner in which it was taught develop ed
critical rather than CGnstructive abil ity.

Perhaps even

·...'\;i
t hat statement 1.s too 9pt1mistic, for 1 t can scarcely
....
.
.

t!~

" ~

-\:;, be expected that critical ability resulted fro m mere
.~~;,~

·:ff{~~memorization of rhetorical. rules.

As early as 1823

·,~~~/~!~

· ,~.1.:rone teacher, William Hus sell,, did reco gni ze t he need

"'.·:t'J
;;~~·

or bridging the gap between theory and pract1.ce.

i~:ethod he used is set forth in his

... ~""IS!
···::,..r~.:::r.~ ... f i

Grammar

of Composi,-

·

')·l::f 1on, which we have already discussed.
"" ..

The

His idea did not

~,

l upon very fertile soil, however, for emphasis

296

"'f

conti!Ul ed unt il the :nid.dle

on rhetoric of a

ve~r

I · 1854 a
c o~p osi tion

the cei:tury

t :-;

be pla.c ed

fo:r--,nal sort.
~e ared

and rht? t o ric

a textbook - a

-- 11hich f o :.·

sel~ -styled

t h e next t wenty-

f'i ve o:r t hirt:r years detel'1nir..2<: the nature of' compo si-

ti.on lnstructi:n1.

·'•

of his Fi::' st Lessons in Compo si ti on in whi ch grar::mar arid
composition are closely a ssoci a ted, published t.ifj;i!iiiv...,a;;;n;;;;;.c.;;ed
,;:;w

Cour

Believi ng that the

student should have a preliminary c0ur.se i n r h etoric

before beginning to write himself, he defers prose
co npo~ition t r.~

page 325, devot i ng

t ~)

it no t ziore t han

Punctuation receives exhausti ve

seventy-five pages.

treatment, every known rule, as well n. s the rarest of
ex.ce ptions, being discussed in a liite number of pages.
The treat":llent of r hetoric is not quite so exhaustive,

but the approach is far too scholarly to meet the
prnctical n eeds of the student, in spite of

exercises.

t ~e

numerous

he sect!on

r analysis and

am~lifieation.

the student,

materials are given in outline form to be developed
into easaya.

Literary models are included to illustrate

various types of

\

d1soou~1e.

There is eVident an earnest

.i

29 7

..., c. ac; t :, or
a tteopt oz;. t i"ce part ct."' t -•'-'
3tudent ."LI.:

~ Le

;er:n:Jr:m3Ilce

Ca.'lvin , FirpW.es s and

The Ruins of

Ti ~ e,

,... .$•
:_1 .;..

a

Obsti :~ ~ c y ,

t~

~·

~i v-e

1i~-- :t icu l

t

aid to t he
.... 'l:

l ..

lr

01~f)r -

1.,.v. ":.>•-*' •

The :!istorv :) f a Pi r.. ,

The Fickleness of For tune, Is truth

i !.1v i ncible. i f left t o gra;ple with falsehood on e qual
ter:i1s? are t 19ical of ~"le

,

subJ ects :'1e ;>r ".:lpos0s • ..L

A , anual

Jersey

quickly rl valed.

and eventually outstrip_p ed 1 t.

plan of his wor k is
f ar simpler.

~uch

or

Composition and

,~ uackenbos

i n po pul:iri ty

Al thc u g~1 the general

the same, t he presentation is

This simplification of a difficult subject

is especially evident in his sectio.n on Invention.
Instead of overwhelming the s tudent 1d t h rules for

writing he presents a series of )Upil-written models in
illus t ratio .. of the var ..'..ous types of

under consideration.

1. Q.2. ctt., 427-35.

co m~')o si tion

The to;:>ies su ggested, al though

·'
298

~ TI

~hole

the

an

i~pr~ve~ent

over

. An

In 11is

~ u ~c ~e nbos.

t

lis ~t

a.r 8 four1 d

t l1':~

foll o \vi.:.1 z :

Girls' Amuse!!len ts and

.30~1

~

~-:c~ :J nt~~r

·1

st Cont:::-as t ad . ~

still

J i a c ils si on~

. ni

t }.1 :1

Abstr a ct
~rges

t l1at

f3nili~r.

~~

illust~ates

sugges ti ng

'.i.S

ac'!d;_ ti onal to,-ics !'Ti ends.!:1ip, Hatred,

A~bition,
Pr~fa.~1 e

by a composition

~n ~ear,

The Danger of Bad Co:::i.-,any, ~d The rJse 2.f

....
La.11guage • .::;

.Another boo ;.': represer:tatl ve of t he
po:;H~lar

t~'?e

during the last two decades of t:ie n:ineteer:th

century is D. J. Hill's The Elements of PJiet9ric_and
Composition .

Eis )Urpose is not t o -fl'ite a treatise on

r hetoric but rathe::- "to furnish a coI!lperMum of' rules

for guiQance in the art of

he begins, ccntrary t ,) the practice
decessor~,

?\

writinc•"~

or

Co~sequeutly,

all cf his pre-

wi t l1 Invention ir..stead of St7le.

Step by

step he leads pupils through the entire process of

: ..;

·,

I

299

much thg,t is not ol' pr<ictica: val ue
uo l'; s t o

extent c0nsi cier

&. surprisi n~

just t h e subject.

t t)

Jll;:> ils, but :-ne

t ~1 0

For 8XB.Illple, in t h e

chL. d a.nG.

~"::.: e rci s as

invention he give s the follo wing direc ti 0ns:

~~ot

in

"Select

frotn t.he following lis t such subjects a. s a:re suited to
~01.11·:;elf

.

1

as a writer ••• l i ..._

are mixed, some of the
a place.

.Among

t t~.ose

'f he to:gics ha suggests

~uackenbos

type still .finding

t hat mar.K an advance •)Ver the

traditional sort are the

followin~ :

Who will be t ne

ne:Lt Pi' es1dent?, The Prosoects of Poreign War, !llil
Benefits o f t he
Go~i'mlent,

:~:1ectric

Telegrauh,

Wh u. t we owe to

The Duties of an Am .<; r:ican Citizen, Wlw and
9

How do we Pay Taxes?Belonging to the same per:.od is
Kollog.g' s A

Textboo l~

Bra.L?J..e.~:·d

of Rhetoric ••• with Exhaustive

Practice in Com12osition (1850).

ilthou gh Kellogg follows

Hart's arrangement in beginning with Invention, the

treat::nent is entirely different.

Instead of considering

the composition as a whole in his first section, he discu sses the c onstructioil.

o :~

ser..tences ar..d paragra)hs.

brief sect!.on is devoted t o the framework of

position.

l.

2•

~ ••

A

the com-

The "exhaustive practice• also proves to be

210.

.!l!!S•, 209-218.

I

J

.j

300

far llost o r' t l1e
one-senten.t;o t / ,Je rat h er

tr~ an

exe rcL:ir~s

in

.;,re of t he

i~xten c.ed

c o.::1posi tion .

t h us

al l

written by f;as tern teacr:ers, a r:.d

wi t ~ <:i

ti Qns, £"allow the trudi t ional ;;at t e rn.

a ,rn st eru -.::ri ter, .U.phonso

It

·:·ew e:1:cepJ." C::Tiw.. i

:1·.; d fo :r

G • Newco
.
.~e r :;
~

Eng.:..i s h i n t h e Leland Sta."'li'ord J unio:r University _, to

blaze a new trail in
befcn·e

hi~

.

comp~sition

textbooks.

had recognized t i1e i inportance o f t he sub ject

matter, discussing it at lengt h in the
b:'.)o~s .

Writ ers

~refa ce s

of

t he ~r

but their t eA:ts seldo:u l i ;re up to the p romise

of the preface.

Newcoiller

be~ie v es

t ha t t he a att er is

:.;. ore important th.an t he ::ianner, an ::i he devotes his
entire bcok, A ?rac tical Course in En glish Cmrroosi t i on

(1033), to assisting the student t o f i nd ma terial and
to

wor-~.;:

it int-:> interesting composi t1ons.

Rules of

graro;~ ar

and rhetoric find no place in it.

It is )ur e:y

a composition te:xt to be used t o supplem.ent a more
tec hnica~

grammatical and rhetorical treatise.

Re

suggests various t ;;; pes of cora.position, discu s ses t heir

possibiliti es, and cites riodels, frequently written b y

pupils .

A later book by NewcoJJ.er, Elements of Rhe toric,

A Course in ?lain ?rose Composit ion, although i t makes

a study of the elements of style, preserves the :$ame

..

-~---- __;_~-~------_J.

301

:;o i nt .J f view.

Not t he wo::.. d, but t he cot: p os :'.. t i.on as a

boo~ s ~e re

it is diff i cult t 0 say , for no refer-

~3ed

ences t ,) t h em have been f ound.

however, t hat

t he~/

It can rec.d.:.ly be seen ,

wc ul j not .c::.. nd i ..t:IL1ediat e a cc e9 tance

in a per :!.. od when tht'3 demand was fo r the ;.: 1 ore f o r Dial

texts, such as Hart's and Hill's.
Representative of t h e
ac ~: 1 e ve

t~.

pe of

te:~ tbook

to

popularlty i n the early. y€ars of t he twentieth

century i s Scott ru:. :i De.l'.Uley' s Comnosi tion- Rhe t oric
(lo97}.

The prefac e sets .f'orth t he pcL:1t o f vie 111

:J .:'

t he

a ut [1ors as follows:

First, it is desirable that a clos er union t han
has prevailed hitherto be brought ab:1ut between
secondary composition and sec .:ndary r i'.letoric.
!ha t r het ori c in the :u gh s c hool sh ould. be rega!"ded as
a thing apart from compos:'. t ion, that it should be
:::·egarded simply as a "cour sel't , to be pursued and pass ed
and ) Ut out of remembrance as quickly as possible, is
not iood either fo:r rhetoric or for composition. In
t his book 1 us t he naue s1gnif1es, no such apartness ha s
been recognized. The rhetoric wrdch is found in this
book is meant to be the t heory o f the pu.;>il•s p:ractice ,
nothing more, -- t h e explicit st~teoent of pr i nciples
wr:ich are implicit 1n all successful elementary com-

position. If here and there t he t~~ptation to put in
rhetorical !'Y:l!niture which no gentleman's mind should
be w::.thout , has not been wholly thrust a side, such
t emp tat i on has, at least, b een man.fully resisted.1

l • .Q.a • .Q.1!., iii.

.,

• I

302

as a study of fig ure s of

.:m::. dl visi ,.)n into

t~· _
.. cs

s p eec ~ ,

dls c u ss ~oTu

of

~ o e try ,

o !: di. sc 0l.n·se, h').S bee:.;. c eiL si grcsG.

of i :eas is likewise stre ssed :
t o be

A compo sition is regard ed not as a dead form,
ana~yzed into its c o~ponent ~arts , but as a

livi::~ g product of
g .:.~a)h is compared

an a ctive , creative mind. :'he parat c) a plant, s t) r :'...nging up in the so i l
o f t :ie ::iind f r r)m a ger:ninal i J ea, and i n the course of ~
its evelo p:nent assuming na t u .~'ally a vari et y a:~ fo:r!'.1 2 ••• L
I ::~

c .- .: ntrast t-:-, such cha,::>t er

Lu:::.d ] ar'Tiony ,

t :' ?ical of t he

as ? uri t y , ?r2cision ,

~ readin gs
ol :..~. er

t ~:::xts,

'i~ha t

Wh:::.t to Sa 7 , :ro;v to Sa·r It, I :!

2ow '.vtu c h t .·) Say, Wh11t No t to Sai.

vre f'.::.d

Order t o

Sa~;

t r~s se:

It ,,

The illustrative

mater:!.al used, althou gn from i.iterary snurces, is
lnterest~ng

positions

in nature.

mal" ~'.::

a

The

co mp l ·~te

tc ~ic s

breax

su gge st ed for

~ri th

tradl ti on.

co ~-

The

following show t hat t he aut i1ors have kep t in mind t he

range of

~upil

interests:

"How is t he tire of a bi cycle

repaired when it has beer. punctured?", "How does a
t ~ ma.~e

baseball pitcher t hrow a ball so as
',"iay I us ed to

.:zw.~ :2

r,

•~ 1 3
a .{'.11.oe

nA

1. P"id., iv.
2. Ibi~., ·4.
3. ---L•' 10.

r

•

c o1~ner

it

~

curve?n, ~

of the

--,

303

;

Old barn ,, , ....
_

.s ::o ul ::'~

be

ar.c:i
b_{ t-::~ •. ;:;.
.__

~au g ~-l t

.,. . ·_,"' ant..a~ n, ;:::
... .J

.

-

'1 CfJOK.l.nt
' . -g an(.l., sew i n g
1

•

".<

t he sch:; ols rt . '""'

i:,:1

Scott and Denney 's

text :nark s · t he triumph o :f t i,_,.:; <,_r t over t he s c ian ce of

r :l.etor 2. c.

On the

t he composi t ion-rhetorics

w~m l e ,

of t he nineteen t h century , l ike t he gr a.r-:.: iar-c ompo s itions,
emphasize r ule s rath er t han c0nstructi ve wo r k .

'1?her9 is

noticeable in the r het orios an advancefrom one-sentenc e

practic e exercis es t o extended composit i:::ms which ,

however, are of a ver..J f ormal t yp e.

As in t he gr a"'.!lmars,

the :najor emp hasis is ·::m t h e manner of expre ssion r athe r

t han on the t J.1 ought.

At the

ve r~:r

close of t he century

the i mportance of c ontent begi ns t ::; be recognized

a1d is :;: eflected in t he i ncr eased attention given t o

fi nding sui table i deas and t o their development.

Th e

later books are not sc much treatises on r hetoric as
they are practical manuals

t~

help the student with his

i .:t':;e diate problems.

Compositi on as an Adjunct to Literature
\ ..
'., ,

The last two decades of the nineteenth

1. 1£!.S., 361.
2 . Ibid., 363.
3. ~ ·., :367.

,,
.~

•

...

:;"

.~

f

"' . '

'•

century fo und com po si ti on
literature .

position

w~. . t

l1

Tiis a ssoc i a t ion

to 9ic ~ ~n

3.

nr.'.)w c o:.:J?a.11.ion

~ a ne

as a

r e s~lt

th e entrance exam ina t ions

;o r t he

1

we ~ a

ta~ en

fas hi ·:)n in l874 (s ee Cha;'.) ;: ;_:; r IV), anc:. gra dually othe r

colle ges followed suit.

t he·; were l a rgely

Th e s ec ondary sc hcols, since

prepa:rator ~·

in natur e , ·we:re : arced t o

fit t l1eir instruction t o the se requirements.

·r he dose relationship of

co~position

;ind

literature wa s es pecially characteristic o f t he last
y ear of the high school work , ·ahen the whole ins truc-

tion was pointed toward the entrance "'Xam.inatio n s.

Often t he instruction was of t he mo st perfunctory sort.
Pupils read t he prescr ibed books outsi de ot clas s and
t een wrote abstracts.. 1 When these were corrected, it

1 . nrn the choice o:f sub.j ects, althou gh g i"'eat freedom

was given to the students, all the t hemes were conf i ned to the <.,torks presc ribed for Harvard College.
If I remerllber correctly, the following were among

t he subjects last year: 'Silas Marner Re clai ~ ed,'
'The Character of Lord Cliva,t 'the Ancient
Mariner , '
'Th;:: religious element in the .Ancient
MarinfJr,' t A comparison between t ~ ·.e Portia in
Julius Caesar and the Portia in the Merchant of
Venice,' 'The Alh~bra and i ts surroundings,'
•ihe· Character or Durley,• etc. From this list it
.cci:n ,easil.y be seen that our p.reparation in composition aided to no slight degree in our English
examination.• 8Ge Harvard College, RePt. of thft
Com. · on Com

and _ e • cl&92J , 136.

Note continued on page 305) .

305

was

:nainl~;

the

'.nechani c a ~

~rror s

wLicr1

rec {~ i ved

at ten-

t i on .
Two textbooks of t he 20 1 3 refl 2ct t h e new
:ne t ;·od.

The fi =st, Lucy A. Chit t eDG. en' s , ....,T..;;.;~--e.......E._l....r.;=m....e=n....t.-s

ot fmgl isi: Composi tier: (1685), is a text de s igned for
t h e lov•,,r grad es o .r the high s choo l

rtbefo re t he IJU?il

h<.: s attained the maturit :,' of mind nec essar y for t he
:fo.r!!'lal study o f rhetoric. n1 The author has 1~ etained
or.ly those grammatical and r h etJrical pr inc ipl e s which
3he believes i:.:::ediately useful to the studer:t and ha s
f ollovrnd t heu with a bundant exercises.

An even ~ore

1 . (Note continued from page 304)
ttin the preparatory yea.r t he lh-T i tten wor.\-: consisted principally of paraphras i ng, as lai d down

i n Chi ttenden•s Elements of Bngl:.sb

Co:n~osition.

Durin.g the Juni-: ir and ?.fiddle years, t he1· e were a r.ew
writ t en exercises requi red, generally the .s arrre in
character as t : ~ose of the preparatory ye ar. During
t he Senior year we 'Rrote synopses and summaries.

For example, after reading Macaulay's Essay on Lo r d
Cl ive, we were asked t o write a brief summary of t he
. most important incidents. ~1hen we h.s.d read Bacon's
~ ssays, we were given several titles from t he essays,
and were expected t o write in our own language the
substance of t h e essay we selected. In the same
mam1er, after reading Hawt horne's House of t he Seven
Gables, we were permitted to choose from several
subjects, suc ~1 as Clifford and ?hoe be, The Old Puncf:eon
House, Hepzibah, etc ., and were t hen ex ~ ected to write
the stOl"Y as 1 t occuree(i in the House of the Seven

Gables. One young man, who ventured to make ·the
criti cism that he thought Hawthorne's depiction of
Hepzibah, as an old maid, was faulty .frofil the fact
that Hepzibah did not have . a cat, was ridiculed by
the instructor for mentioning something foreign t o
the character of the composition." Ibid., 144-45.

1 • .Q.e.. c1i., 111.
~

f

";....

.1

¥;.;

;

-;.·

ttrr

• .,.. -

.'

~~:·;,,.._c ~- l,J ·:f:'- .:_ "'=~·

... ~

306

sel cctL:ms .
tho ught o f a ;oem .

':':t·:3 :L:.:ct st ep i.s t ;-:_-=, ..• e velo 9m ent a t

·tive compositions .

I n the

ad ditio n a~

topics

su gg~s t ~ d

for conipo si tions, bii ss Chit ten.den do es not liml t t he
student to li terar; materials, t ho ugh sh e encou l"ages

t he use of books .
Wha tever you

She says,
a~e

i ~terest ed

in and wi 3h to ?Ur sue

fully, will ri.: rr.d.sh an exceL'.. ;.;nt t te!:le to r wr : :. ti n g. 1-~

Probably the mo s t popular conposi t ion tex t
dur L::.J.g t h e la s t decad e of the ni:leteentl:. centur y wa s
Lockwo od's Lessons in English, Ad apted t -:i t he Stu d;,r of

American

Classic~~

.Accordj.ng to a plan outlined in

the introduction (xii-xi .t i), a study of the t ext is to

critical study of some of the

go hand in haod with na
.

'?

best Ame rican authors. n""

For instance, after the pu;;lil

has !'llastered the first chapter, on the history of the
language, he studi es t he bi ography of Irving given in a
l a ter c ha pt.e r.

Then while he is l sarning about Angla-

Saxon words (Chapter II), he reads as

1.
2.

Illi•1

!!lllCh

as he _can

186.

QQ. cit., xi.

..
I

·1

·--- - - - - - - -' - - ~

·----~.J

.-

-;, 07

J
;

wo::ks .

Ztbout Trv:Ln g 1 s

;." 'or h i mself a bio ,'. ra) hy o 'l.' t l:e

Class dis c uss ion of t h e

a~t '.' :sr.

a.· ?articul a r essay is undertaken wi

r:: eac i ng , di ction, ar:.d allusions.

figures of .speech,

~ unctuatio n ,

t ~1

Cl o ss study of

reference t o

Cla.ssi c~ al

elements,

:J.ni::l c a p..i tals are studied

i n turn, and a s each new }rinciple is learned, t he

student is ex;.ected t .:-, a i)ply it to literature.

In

ke eping with the current em;,Jhas:!.s on ryract::.ce, sugges-

tions are given

f~r

five-mi4ute written exercises at the.

begir..ning of the class period.

The plan outlined

tions,

~as

h 1~re,

wit::. local modifica-

undoubtedly follo wed in a large number of

high sc..hools, :'or the book found wide a cceptance.
Lockwo od evolved the method in tha course of her

Miss
te~ching

in the Hillhouse High School i n New Haven, Connecticut,. 1

Supplementary Aids
A. favorite device to stimulate interest in

com;Josition was t he exhibition which, in the earli er

years, afforded almost the only opportunity, aside from

translation, ror practice in writing.

A regulation

1. Ibid.) vi.

:·

...,..__ ..

.'.

\.,

ov er s eer s to a;poi nt
~~ t ior. , f rou r;:.. ~ e t ~ t :_:t t:= ,
••• ) U'i:) 2.ic
ro r such. of t he ch ildr en i ri ~l1 .., Gcver a.: s c : ~G cls
,;, S ID~""~
h.''. . ,. ·• e '"aa" a t > ··' be~ t .~ "" 0 •"-l
CV ..., .: ·I-t. :.-'-'
he'•
~.,i..,....,
.,.., ~ ,,,_-:;
,'l;,.... .:.•t,
~ <:1 j
c.t.,.,
.l.. -. C~
.J.. '°"'
o-•
J..
·-tWO.....:..
S?e1l i :n ~; , S) e ak ing ,, r ehearsi n g ,. co:i;io s :1. t lon ·J r s ue [; 12.k t~
exercise s, eith er in the schools s e 0ur a t el v or in a
general me eting , and cc ~fer on su e ~~ as no st '. es e r v e i t
s o o.~ e ho nJ rary 121a r ~{ o :..~ di stinc t:.i.. on • .;.

a t t l113ir

1iis c!'

exel'cis ~2 s

\.; ~

'..,jJ.

I

- J. ..,,,.

• ..._

""

-;_ .J.J.

.l. J..

Far!ningto n J.id r..ct z.t t his t:..i:w

advanced wor : was

IP

h~J. ve

.J

a 1.1
. igh

ac ~:.o cl,

but

s chools.

r

exaoir.aticn , or

I

t r1e boys re c:d

so~et i :1 es

t ~-:. eir

::.l rI:!

of a r . orG...:..

s uµ i:;l emen t ing t L1e exal'!lin e.t.i.on,

,,

own compo s itions in the p r-esence of

\\

t h e trust ees and t:-ie a ssembl ed guests, bu t t he essa.rs
.:) f the girls were

I

1

usually o ff er ed int.h e district

An..11.u al. e::clTi. bi ti ons i n t:ie f

I

l.

<.:;' _.

fr".~ c; uentl y

Gi rls did, somet imes, present

::.>cad

b~'

tl~eir

.

\ "

~

so u e •;isi tor . ....

own papers.

At t he

Lincolnton F'emale Academy o f l~ o .r· th Caroli na, on the second'

aft er all t .he classes had been examined ,

I

11

\

v ery l n ter es t lng origina.:.. co!.!:posi tlcns wer e read b:' t he

young ladies, displaying a ver y correct t as t e .n 3

1. Hinsdale, B.A. "Document3 Illus t rative of Amer. Ed .
Hist.", In Rept. of the U.S. Corn . o f Ed., 1892·- 93 ,
II, 1254.

Judge T~lor." Coon, Charles, North Carolina Schools
and A<;ade.mies, 600.

3 . Coon, .21!•

c1se.,

- ··--..:---~

213.
_:._ _

_ __ _ _: _ _- .·.i... .

\
\

several

2. At t he examination of the Mordecai Female Seminary in
Warrenton, North Carolina, re ~ orted in The Star, July
19, 1811, compositions nwere read to .the audience by

\ '\
. .~, l

,·

in::.;tance,

Gradually thesa

co ur se .

The _)ro gr aI:iS

c o.::isisting of

~usic,

of' t !1ese closing

sx~!bitians d e velo~ 0 d

)res e nt ~1 d

were lengthy af:':lir3

e ssa:rs , and declan:at :tons .

exercis r~ s

into

I :i s ome

both t he juniors and the

seniors :; artici ~)ated, in others only the senio rs .1

The

anniversary 9 ro gra:t of t he !!art ford High Sc :n,col, April
20, l 86G , g iven enti=ely by members of the senior class,

included nineteen numbers.

A

Lati~

salutatory, t welve

e ssay s, five oration s, and a f lnal number, a co ,".l.bined

\

essay and valed:.ctory ad.d.ress were preser'. t ed . 2

. j:

'

Tl1e

Sher•tYood Se lect Schoo l ( Ne w York) sometimes had as a

feature of its ttLa .; t Day" exercises' the r eadi!lg of a

coll ectL:m of the best composl tions or the past term.

Three or f 0ur students Who had been selected as editors,
copied the

co~positions

on s heet s of foolscap.

They

usually gave t he collectiori some fanci.ful name, suc h as
nsnowflakes" , or ii.Autumn Leaves. !! 3

As a rule, the compositions read or shown at
l. Hestzler, The Rise of the Pub.
2 . Ibid., 113.
3. Jacobs, Lucy,. ·A Hist. Sketch of
9-10.

g. S. i n Conn., 108-10.
s. s. J!. (1871.:-1911),

310

examin o. t:!.ons
but
'

r e _.J o:·t ec a di:, :·eren t

~:': st ,~ o (l .

ga t hc:red in the lar g e l e ctur •::-

_public exercis e s

i :~

t i:.r ·:: e succGs:'.::. ire

bef o r e co!rlc1enceu 2r.t, stuC.ent s

wee~-:

even i r:.g s du ri:-.:.g the

:~o ~·

:::'O'Jm 0 £'

.ri. ti ng &nd

sc ~1col

t h e hi . . . h

S :)e akir~g.

1

dents wrote whil e t he spe ech es went on.-

~ e .fore

Ju st

the declar:iati ons b Egan, to)ics '::ere announc eC.

f or

c:.~: ·::!.

s tu-

At the clo se

of t he declaL"mtions, the co'.:l_;Josers rose in t h eir pL::. ces

and r ead t heir essa7s.
trollers re?orted,
trai ~ ing

11

"'.!'hes e exercisi:!s, 11 the con-

a r'3 a better t s st c!' t he intel2..2ctual

which the pupils

h~ ve

received, t han any

o t~e ~

wl'.icb. t h e school affords. 11 2

Listed
:nany achools were

i~
11

\

the regular course of study of

Rh,"? torical

~"'Cercises",

w~1ic "1

were

re quired ~1 eekly, :ortnightly, or monthly, and. were

usual "!.y open to visitors. 3

Friday afternoon w·:.:. s t he

favorite time for these, t hough some schools prefgrred
evening !'.lleetings, since t here

it is

somet h i n g ••• in a.n

1. A visitor was often asked to suggest the subject.

At

a p ubl ic exercise hel d July l, 1858 , Profes_s or Henry
Coppee of the Oniv0rsity of ?ennsylvania suggested

"Ma.."lllers are the Shadows of Virtues." See Edmonds,
Hi story of the Central High School, 234.
2. Fro~ the 37th Annual Report of the Controller of
Public Schools for 1855, Phil ,.:tdelphia.
A. J ·. of !$d. ,_ I (May, 1856), 467. .

::s. "Rhetorical exercises

See .Barnard'.s
~j

,

occur every Friday during the
(Note continued on page 311)
·
-,,

..

,.I'

3ll

e vening scene that is a dapted t: ··: z ive
to s uc!i. (~xerci se s. nl
s :: e:rsed wi t i1 i,nu:::; .. .
J. .... .

-

" " ' - '"" '

::.. 1 ~e

s.::-.d :::1t ere s t

Con:1o s i ti ':i n s and dec .:a:~c.ti on s, i!l.ter-

us·u·a1- -~...__r
·? .... _ ,,,.,,.L _~-::. ,-' t ::e pr r)grams.
..
..i..

••

... ....

Occ asi -:. nal2.y r ec:. t : .:i. ti:':ms, debate s, or p "' ays wer e

?r iday ,

~! ovember

is t :.rpical. ";::;

18 , 1859 , co r•1i:1encing a t t wo o'

There ·¥er e t l:i:rt:;-six

of which number

eig~t een

numb~ rs

wa s "Rece ss".

numbers were int ers persed wi t h t hirteen

F17e

~ re-

cloc ~c ,

:. is t ed ,
~usic a~

r e cit a t i~n s

or

poet:ry , t hi rt e en declamations, and four original compositi 0~ s,

the boy s decla tcing , the gi rls providing t he
I f one :nay judge by the

re s t of t he entertainment.

titles, t h e composi ti:') ns afforded c·1 nsiderabl ·2 variety:
The Lost i?ound, Vficldiffe,

Srtnset.

P'." ~~ ts

and Po etr.r, .A Surime r

Her e girls were al!o wsd to

,artic i~ ate.

.Bl e. c~ River Li terar:' and Reli~iou s Institute (New

I n the
Io rk),

3 . (Continued from page 310 )

fall and winter ·terms." Fro!n the Annual Catalo~e
of t he Public Schools, Appl 8ton , Wisc onsin, l 88S- 87 1
19 . See Stout, Devel. of t he H. S. Cur., 143.
.
At t he Bls.ck River Literary and Religious Insti"'.'
Uute (N. y . S. ) one evening a week was reserved ·
fo r t he p~esentation of t he best speeches and compositions. See Univ. S. N. Y., 54th An.~. Re pt. of
the Regts. (1840), 98.
·

1. Ibid. ·

2. Gri'Zzell, Origin and Devel. of the H.
339-41.

f.

l

'

s.

in New Eng.;

31 2

.howeT.er :1 although the best c omposition s o.r t he fem.al a
d eoart :nent wer -a ) r e sented, t he gi rls were net perr::i : t e d
'

to - ead t h er:1 t c t ::;.9 a.u -:: lance • . :.
? ro bab..'._y many o f t he r h etorical progrm'ls wer e
carried.

t hr ~)ugh

in a perf unctor y manner by bot::1 teac hers

and ? Upils, es1)ecially when . the exercise s wer e

:~ot

:mbl i c ..

?articipants were chosen usually in one o f two ways:
ei ther the be st writers and

~L:ea :i:: ers

were

on the

~u t

program, or the school was divided into grou p s so
tha t each one was accorded an op9ortuni ty
a ))·~arance.

o.r

a pu blic

The Jo hnston H',gh School ( Rho de Islan d)

reported in 1895 that the school had been divided into
r~ ur

clas ses, each class in t ur n

assu~i ng

sibility for a ?ricay afternoon ? rogram.

t h e responPupils wrote

essay s on subjects connected with the regular cl a ss
work, and after these had been corrected by the teacher

and rewritten by the student, they were rehearsed.
ai~

was to secure improvement in

bot ~

The

written and oral

expr ession. 2
Tha t students did not always take kindly t o

t hese exerci ses may r eadily be surmised,.

One stu dent

expresses bis feelings toward them as follows:

!'

1. O.S.N.Y., 54th Ann. Rept. of the Regts. (1840) , ·'' 98.
!. 25th Ann. Reot. of \he l}d. of E9· ••• 2.r R. I. (1895),

App., 119.

313

Inc::. d.ental . . . y 'iH~ received a ;'.lodicum of ;>rac tice L:
the co . :i :) CSi tion of good i ng.'..ish in these .':!u b:Lous exerci s ·:}S c ommonly call e d rh e tori cals.. The se OJns peakabl e
t i:ing s ~ ccu r-re d during the lsst term ;) f '.)Ur Junior
-.;sar, t he clas s ~eetii1g onc e a wee~<: t o 2.i .:>ten to s s s a:1 s
fr--:;::1 t he girls :.md n.c r at ion s" i'roo t h e boy s. At st;;a.t ed
int ervals during t he last year o ~ t he cour se also, t h e
boy 2 a ~ pear ed befor e t l:e whol,':! school t o ·:. eli wJr t hei:r
slumber-inviting !:las s a ges. I n com;..>o siug t hes e doubtful
pi e ces of English we recei V t~ d some traini n g, but we
were criticised merely on our "t . 1ou gh t" and itde2. iver;;",

while nothing was ever said aocu t t he Eng ::.:..sh

or

our

LJ r oductio:ns, the pr :'...mary obj ·~ct of t l:is exercis e a;ipar·m tly be : ng to :nake speakers and t h inkers rather t han
writers .. 1
1

.!L~

additional

m c t~o d

or

stimulat ing interest

in composition was the awarding of prizes for the best
essay s.

Sometime s a a8dal, ?ri ze

or other award

~oney,

was mad e for the best essay .?reduced during t he year.
That was t h e practice at the

Li t~ hfield

School in Connec-

('•

ticut. k In other schools special prize .contests were
h eld .

I n Asl°'..land, Pennsylvania (189 2), a prize was

given for the best impromptu essay on The Solilo•my of
a School Desk .

3

awarded a medal
topic. 4

Providence, Rhode Island, srt<"1ually
£01~

the · best composition on a. prescribed

Frequently the alumni or frien.ds

or

the

school established a prize .t o encourage exercis e s in
co fil ~osition .

Th~ t

was the case in Woonso cket, Rhode

1. Harv. Col., Rept. of the Com. on Comp. and Rhet. (1897)
516, #157.
2 • . Vanderpoel, Chronicles of a Pioneer School, 210.
3. Re t. of the Su t. of :P b. Instr. of he Commonwea h
of Pa., 1892 , 133.
4. #5th Ann• R9pt, of the Bd. of Ed. ••• of R.I.~ (1895),
149-50.

t hree

doll ~1r s

for the best

c ::im.~ osi

'
,
~ em bers of t he junior elas s • .L

t 2..on s 1.1ri tt en b:T

At ?hil::.i ;:; s ::.. xe t er

Academy, Dr. Abn e r iierri ll e stabl is!:ed,
of t h ree

t ~-, ousand

1896, a f'und

dolL:irs for ;irizes in the English de-

It was his 9ur 90 :3e "to 2nC>):lrage earnes t and

part."1.ent.

intelligent attention
the art of public

hundred

i n

an~

ar t of writi ng Eng :.i

t :.:; t ~1e

S ~)eak in g .

11

fifty dollars wa s divided equally between
2

At times the rhetoricals were in t he
~ rize

arLd

The y ::?arly inco rae of ·'.)ne

the co!npo sition and declamation cont ests.

of

s ~;

con tests.

The ?rize

Rh~ t 0 rical

f .'.)l"'.;:

Exaioition of

the .dartlett f:Ifgh School, New-London, Conr..ecticut, on
M a~'

l, 1856, was a program of twenty-six num iJers, mainly

selections fro m well known speeches.

Thr:r e wer e five

original compositions on topics not very closely connected
with school-boy intere.sts:

Self i!:ducati on,. Love o f

Nati onal Character, Triumphs of Christianity, Benefits
of Edu cation, National Monuments.
to t he three best performers. 3

Prizes were awarded

1. 26th Ann. Rept. of the Bd, o f Ed •••• of R. I. (1896) ~.5-2. Adams, o. ?., Some Fruqous American Schools, 97. ~PP· lll'.
3. Hertzler, .2.12• cit., 109.

cl5

Literar~

skill

societi es for t he

de velo ~ ment

of

composition and declamation wer e also f o ·.cCT2C. .

The New b r it ai n 3igh School (Cor :necticu t) !1ad, i n 13 54 ,

two suer.: societies, Alp.ha anc Del ta , :::iemi.Jership in one or
the other of which was compulsor:1 .fer a.2.l 1."Jupils.
held weekly private meetings for

various kinds were prepared.

wh~c h

The:r

e;.{erci .:m s of

Once in three 'iVeeks t h e

tYro soci eties held a eompeti ti ve :neeting before t he

whole school.

Judges were present to
soci ~ ty had done the better work. 1

de ter~n ine

w:!:lic h.

The l1igh school in li'iaterbury, Connecticut,
in 1871 had a debating club for boys, the purpose of

which,

to the constitution was "to ?romote t he

accord~ng

ar t s of orator-1, declamation, and co:npo si tion, ar..d t o
,..,

secure a t horough acquainta."lce with parliar.ientary rules. ,..c

The character of the meetings was undoubtedly similar
to that of the 11 terary societies, a number of prl vate

sessions in preparation for a public program . 3

1 . Hertzler,

.£..!!., 114-16 .

.Q.Q.•

2 • Ibid • , 117 •

;;,. Probably not many essays v1ere written b"''" any one
student for these societies, but they did Sf:rve t.o

stimulate interest.. One studa:i t reported that ·
he never wrote more than six essays during the

three years that he was a member. He did, however,
do much extemporaneous speaking. See Harv • . Col. 1
Reot. of the Com . on Comn. and Rhet. rl89 2J 1 123.

•A

_,,.;·-....

, ,-'

•.. ··-~l"'il:.a'I.'-.. ' ...

When :5choo l pe.p e rs wer e first intro C.uced t o

encoJ].rage c omposi tio:a wo r k it is di.f :.' i c ul t t o say .
';;h i tesboro

:~ c a. .

? he

emy (~· 1 e"'H 'for
''")
re Jorted, i n 1876, a
\..
;.,J..'i

semi-monthly ;>aper "sustained b: t he
·r

butions of t he pupils.n-

~.ro luntary

ccntri -

The earlie st papers wer e , of

course, in manuscript form, and wer e read. before t he
school at interval s.

Hertzler r e[Jorts two suc h papers

in the Hartford High School . (Conn ::cticut) previous t o
May, 1848, The Riizulet edited .by the girls, and The

Excel s :.or by the boys.2

At t he Girls' Hi gh School of

Portland, Maine, from 1851 to 1863, t here were likewise
two pap :;rs, The Cons tella t :.. on an.d The Aspirant, which

were acknowledged rivals.

The usual poetry, essays,

j okes and school news, besides ex;>ression of stu dent
opinion were fo und in them. 3

Worcester, Ma ssachusetts, _

also had, about the middle of the century, a manuscript

paper reaa before the school once a week.

The infl uence

of t :lis _paper on the students is described in ar.. ed1 torial
which a i)peared in a later printed paper:

.Ambition t ~ have one's composition nublished
served as a stimulant, ever urging to continual efforts
~:, t

'·

i mprovement , and t he regu lar reading of the paper

\

~ '·

··c

1. Oniv. of the s. or B.Y., 50th Ann.
(1836), 97~
.
2. Hertzl er, ~· cit.~ 121.
3. Grizzell, .QR• cit., 346.

'I

\)

Rept~

of the Regts. \
\i

\'

\
I

'

_,..•

~

317

waa alwa y s looked for·-;;ard to with l. nt erest 'J:' all , and
wi t .1 So!!!e tear .'J.n d tremblin i>S by t ho se ~ ·,;;::o s e re;m ta t:..cn
a s co,.,,position writers were - at stP.t:.:.::e' • ...L
In t he larger city sch .) ols t he se !narlu s cr:.. ,J t -;J ap ers so2n

gave ·.vay t o ;Jrinted journals.

humorous in nature, the

Al t houg h

~ajorit y

SO f!Je

were

were ser i o us.

The

Scholar• s ExJ>erime:qt, a paper be gun a ::i ea r ly a s 13 50,

at the M11dletown (Connecticut) High Sch'Jol, de c::..ared

its pur)ose t o be to interest the students "in writing
original essays, and by seeing t heir productions

i~

print, to correct their errors, and to

t hem to

stL~ul ~ t e

more care in preparing their com.positions, than they
otherwise would best.:>w upon them."
The~aurus

2

The Hi gh School

of' Worcester, .Massachusetts, establi-shed i n

1859, had as one of its major i)urpo se s to "i:-.l prove

the ~haracter of the compos1tions.n 3
Although these Journals frequently had a very
. s ho:rt-li ved existence, while they flourished they afforded
valuable traL"ling, sometimes t he only training in eom-

posi tion.
v~ua.

Teac hers and pupils were agreed on their

In 1895 the Princeton High School, designating

c.• scho ,.l paper as a stimulus to composition writing•

1. Ibid. 1 351.
2. Hertzier, .9.2• .91:t., 121.
3. Gr_tzzell,. ·l l • ill·, 352.

318

recommended it to teachers as a va ~u a ble ,: lid i!"l
teaching a difficult

1

subject.~

I'he ed:.!.to.r of a s chool

-yaper in ',ve stern New Yor '.: evaluated his

jou!'~ali.stic

experience as follows:
I a.'!l incli11ed to thirJ: th.at t he :~ os t 1ra 1l.l 2,ble
training of all was my experience as edito r ~f our
hie!'.1 schoo!. ?eriodical, which always 1\Vas "hard up
for copy" and accordingly pro~ided me with much ex~)er­
ience in careful composition.

The difficulty in seeurir..,g

sati ~'..lfa.c tory

composi-

tion work is attested by other de vices developed by
ingenious schoolmasters to stimulate interest.

Whitehall

Academy (New York), in 1848, tried the following plan:
We have prepared an "anonymous boxn a : :v~nded
to a side light, after the manner of a "letter box"
in our ~ost offices, into which scholars, at all ti~es,
unobserved, car. drop t11elr communications. These are

l. Ann. Rept. of' the Bd. of Ed •••• or N. J. (1895), 276.
r~ . :Iarv. O:r..J. v., .ctept. of t he Com . on Coiny. and Rhet.

(1897), 452, #54. Other students speak as follows of
the valu e of the training received from school :,?apers:
"In addition to this required school work• I did
consid e-rable voluntary work, as I was elected into

a literary society and was a1so made an editor of the
school paper.

In t hese positions I aimed at being a

universal genius, writing, or trying to write,
poetry, essays, and stories. .Although I f eel somewhat
short of my ideal, I think that I was helped by this
volun t -'.!r y wo:r': ;no r e tha.'1. by my prescr ibed work. n
Ibid., cl892 1, 147-8.

"I was fortunate enough to pass my examination in

English for Harvard.

But. I attribute this as much

to my experience as associate editor on the literary
monthly, during the latter half of my Senior year, as
to my instruction in English received while there."
Ibid.

rl892J, 145.

"

019

taken out weei<:J..y , examined., anu si~l a ctions r ead r'rou
t h ea t G the school by one :Jr ,~10 ::'.'e 9 upils. ~"t' e h 3.Ye

fo und it

~

ver y ::>rofitable and ;;l easing =xercise.

ThLs, it v~i..!.l be understo oc , is not a substitute .t or
our regu.l.. e;:r co 1lp o~i -cions b:..i c a volun t ar y ex e rcise i n
a dd.:.tion t 0 t h em.l..

In Johnston, a::o ie Island, t !1 e pr .:. nc i _;ial co piad a plan
used in the

~rt'or ;; est0r

Hi gh School (Massachuse tts) fo r

encouz-aging merit in essay r10rk.

The bes t essays -.1ere

pasted in an indexed scrap-book which was ;,.1lac ed in t he
9

library."'

Summary
Although methods
Jf

I

I

clo~e

o~

coJlpositi<)!! tea.c hi:-.g .s. t the

of t he nineteentil century were still

it is not t c be denied that t here was real

1
•

1r

I

in tne per iod 1750 to 1900.

One major

from i ci eal,

f~r

~regress

i~ prov~~ent

the substitution, in the later decades, of the
accu~acy fo~

ai~

made
was

of

the earlier objective of aental discipline.

Inadequate as tha later aim was, it at least directed
attention to erfect1ve expression, which prevlousl:r had

I

been a lmost

entire~y

overlooked in the zeal to develop

t he mind.

l . Oniv, of

the

(1848), 169.

s.

of N•.

Y..,

62nd Ann. ReJt. of the Regts.

2 . 22nd An.n. Rept. of the Bd. of

App., 78.

Eg.· •••

of R.I. (1892),

;

-

_____ ....

'

' .

i.

I
I

·--- - -~ ---..._~

An i :::µorta..ri t change o c c urred al.so L:1 che

a vyroa c h

C;.)mposi tion.

t ;J

?l"iOl' to !:;he deca;..:. e 13 30-40 1

grammar c.u:.d r :1etoric

were

wri tter: ex;lression.

:.et the child. l 0arn t he

m d. t h en he will be able to wri te wa s

t ::::. ~;

r ~11 e s

be:.i ef.

fir s t ,
The

intro duction of 2 P.stalo zzian i d eas duri n5 t he .?i1·st

quarter of the nineteenth century, however, effected a
refor!!l.

Consequently, t here was a coi.npl e te reversal

of procedure, the .inductive supplanting t he -.i educti ve

method.

Practice in composition was no longer deferred

until the child had
rhetoric, but was
could write.

co mp l ~ tely

intro ~ uced

The study cf

mastered p,rammar and

aLnost a s scan a s t he )Upil

gra.~mar

was postponed until

the child was :more mature and better able t c coJ.n;irehend

the rules.

At the close of the century r hetoric was

fast disappearing as a separate study, the Co:nmittee of
Ten recommending for the last year of the high achool
merely a summary of principles already learned thr0ugh
actu·al practice.

The earliest method of teaching composition was
t hr ough transla tion.

Even after othe r

:'.:ie t t-~ods

were

introduced, students in the classical course were not
required to have additional training in composition
·~

021

bey ond that a:""fcrded in translation
Greel:.

~1""'.J!ll

La t .i n or

It was considered sati s f actor:· training until

L"1 the 1890 ' s Harvard r e7eal -:,d t h e i nad equuci GS of
the system.

Accordi ilg to

tr~..=~

:re"Jort

o:;:~

the Committee

on Composition and Rhe toric, it not o:::.-,ly :'oster ec a
barbaric "'transla t i on" English,

~7ut

fail \?d t r;, give

much actual practice in written ex:;.iression 3ince in
the majority of schools translations were oral rather
than written.

When English composition as such first

cru~e

in to the curri culum, v.: o special training -.1as needed_ to

teach it.

The ins tructor a ssigned a to 9ic,

t h e pupil

struggled with it as best he could, and then on· the

appointed day the results were read to
school.

Since the

ai~

t~ e

assembled

was to develop the faculties of

the mind, no sir:1pl e , everyday topics would suffice, but
abstr a~ t,

philoso ·hical subjects were the rule.

Neither

11a.s an in.formal discuss.i on o:f the subject sufficient,

but a ver; formal development according t o set heads
was required.

The result was t hat essay writing, except

_for the

few, was an abhorred task in the

1~1uent

~er­

formance of which students resorted to many dishonest

practices.

There were a few exceptional teachers like

322

Jorn:

5raee :ind WillL-un Russell wh o r0a.::.:.zed t :--l;::;. t it

not only J evelop 8d i J ea.s,
but also a roused :.nt0rest.
A d e.finite ad'l7'ance ir: the

tion was

~ade w~en

tioa borrowed

.~!'on

lessor~s

coc)o si-

c~

the ?e s taloz.z ians the tec:!:'..nil:lue
18~·0'

Frou the 1830' s to tl1e

illustrating c cnv ersations a.bc11t

:f'our.d a ?lace in the educational

:~:rnriodicals.

same time, attention was directe-d t c tho
arousi~g

of c0mpo si-

s econdsr :· schccl ,t 0achors

of the obj.ect lessor..
::iodel

·~ea ching

the interest of t he child.

s

t ~1. in ~!. S

At the

im:;o ~:t .3.nce

3i ~pl e r

of

su bjec ts,

closer to the everyday experiences of cl:.ildren were

During t i.1c lr.s:t tlvo decades of the

nineteenth

century t extbooks a?pe[-'. red. clesign•JC to aid t he pupil
wit ~ l

the subJect matter of his composition.

The .;-upil

bega.--: s:l.mpl1· wi t i~ re;roductions cf stor:!.es and was .led

gradually to original composition.

When, during the

same per:.od, the study of literature became popular in
t he high 3chools, conposi tion: to _; ics were drawn largely

from the books read.

In fact, composition writing

became a matter of mere

l""ej1~oduction •.

Accuracy, the watchword of the last two

decades

f

on the

::ie c ::2i.r~ ics

of wri t i ::Ls to t h::: ::::i·?glect

o:·

c onter:t .

rJuch t ·_ me 11as gi •;en t :1 exerc'!.. SdS in t h::? co rrection of

i:t~

the student is to be ac c m:·ate , he

qractice in v."r iting .

mu ~~ t

Hence, fr J?. quent

have 2 b11ndant
co:::posi-

ti ons were recommended.
The increased attention to com9c siti )n, 9a rtic•llar l y after 1890, bro;,ight · up the que sti on

s _; ecial te2c her or com.position.

1) f

a

If t h e s'Jbj ect ':<as so

i mpo;:-ta."'!.t, certainly there was need ol' a t e :1c '.:er
es:;'.)ecially trained to handle writ ten

ex;i:~ession.

t_;n

t:ie other hand, it was argued that training in En glish
s hould n ot be lir:i.i ted just to the

Englis ~1

classroom,

but s houl.:i be gi-ven incid entally in :.L. l subjects.

The specialists carri ed
Examination of

tb~

day.

tGxtboo~s

indica tes th.:.t

tl"2i:ning in written expression was a t various times

linked with other English subjects.
exerc ises :f'.'.)r

t~e

Constru .::tiv.J

illu.itration of grammatical rules

were provided in gra::?mar texts as early as 1S29. The
emphasis, however, is on sentence exerci3eS rather than
on the composition as a whole.

~ • • ~o> . .-.

•. . . . . ~ :Z.· . .ii.:!% •. ~.:U· ~ ... 11'

-··

Later 1n the century the

3 24

t::ie

cc ;::~os i. ti ·J ~"!

as a whol t: :..· ecei ·ves

may also be ti.oted fro m t l.1c isola ted

whol e composition.
a bcut 1880 c::
euc~

iY3.S

~ore

whic ~1

t -- t h e

3e~ t e nc e

The c or:J.p v:.nior: o-::
li tcrat ure,

a ttention.

co~po ::: i t

i on from

wa s t au,:sht !1.ot so

in its mm ri _;:ht, but as a scurce of coI!l:)o si ti.or..

to ;:; ics.
Schcol!J.o.sters re s ortcC. to :r.any su p:;;lementary
<d G:s i n order to stimula te interest in cou_;J osi ti::m.•
One of the .?ar: i e st d e-Tr:.ces was t he exhibi tior:., l:e.:.d
u sual:L.y a t the close of t he school yea;:: 1

best compositions were recd.
into the coc:·.mencem.ent

e;~ercise

This develop ed

societi

~s

off~re d

which the
~ radually

for v;h i.c h seniors v.1ere

required to prepare a graduation essay.
frequentl y

t~ t

Pri zes were

as ar. . add ed incentive.

Li tera.ry

c:i.r.:. school pap ers also afforded opportunity

for the ancouragement of composition..

Probably the most

widely used device was the rhetorical, frequently
held once a week, for the reading otooinpositions and

.

'

\ ,J •_,i

326

C.!!.AP':' EP VI

CONCLUSION
'!'he cc r1clu sicns

in

t~e

rcr:c ~ ed

in

~ ::~s

stuC.~:"

1J'il2. "be

!ntrc ~ uctio~.

I.

'/I:hc~n un~

where was .!I:ng2.i.sh cowpcsi ticn .£' irst

te.ught in P..rn.erica:: seccnC.ary schools?

bro ught it into t he

Wha t in.flu enc es

curricul~m?

Composition t2 ac:iing was l:itrod.uced into
.Al1i:: rican sec or:dar7/ schools in l '751 by :3enj&r.ir. Franl-clin,

wto in that ye :•. r
~ wo

oy~.:ned

:us academy in

influ ences l ed to its

(1) 9opula r deaand for

incl~sion

~ore

?~i lad eJ_?hia.

in the curri culam:

pr actical subj ects than

t hose tau ght i-:i t': he Latin g ra~:nar sch'?cls; ar.d (1~) the
po?ularizatio~

in the colonies of the educational .

t heories of such Jlen

a3

Loclce, Turnbull, and Milton,

advocates of inc:-!;ased attenti::m ta the vernacular.
II. Sow ::oa;iidl:,r was t:=-:e t 8ac }::ing of English

composition introduced into A111erican secondary schools?

academy was short-lived, other schools gradually began
to teach composition.

As

earl~

as 1763 it had entered

•.[

327

schc ol :-3 .

OV f:l l
0

~ion

ins t ru ct! cn

~efn r c ~80 0.

:c~
__.. ,_~n+
,~
...,,

o

sc l·oo.,

:=...V l•e
'"
-

··~_ i 0a"
1 "'
....

mo r e prau tical

..

~.

...._.,

. ,.

i'

"C.ll.J
c l ~.
.

,...

-~

.....1 ~-

,..n.,_d
.._v ,_
'-"

ct,,.~-:
(.;V-6

~

~~pects

Furt h;X

~nce ntive

to

Ame ric an .:3chools :_::ere ins1Ji1·ed to en;ulat :ton.

t ~e

t ea c ~in g

J :r-o::n 18 26

furnished by t :.::.e

journals of educat:!.on whic h zave space to a discussion

o~

tll-.:; subjec t wa s Henry Bar::.ard, wl~G a3 h l:: <it.d of the

education system in the state s of Connecticut and Rhode :

Island was able to put into practice his ideas about
position.

A

cont~

growing interest in- composition teaching

: 28

is indicated by the appearance of c orn?Q sition textbooks.
i ~;

Before 18 32 the::-e we.re no im.portant t ,c:xts , but
:

that year appeared Park er's ?;:·ogre s si ve Exe rcises,

wb.i ch h ad a .remarkable sale.

The 3tream of textbooks

whicn followed attests to t h e incri-.; aSt3d a ttention paid
to

(~omposition.

Although by 1867 composition was included
in the course of study of the majority of city hi,gh schools

as shown by Barnard's survey, instruction in the subject was largely incidental.

Usually there was no

3e9arate course in composition, and mention ot the sub-

J ect was relegated to a footnote, ncomposi tion and
declamation throughout the course.n

In the college pre-

parator-y C·' .)Urse, even as late e.s the close of the nine-

t.eenth century, it was

written expression.

custom ~.ry

to amt the work in

In the commercial courses, however,

whlch began to a !)pear about the middle

or

the nineteenth

century, composition 1.nva.?iably found a place.

Similarly,

in the education of girls it was considered an important
item, taking the place of the declamation taught to the
boys ..
Why

was eomposition considered of such small

importance before 1890?

One powerful reason was the

dominance of F.nglish grammar, which had entered the

3 29

curr:..culim a t t he same ti21.e composition did .

The

g r'.i!!l..in \ir cre t i'.lod o t learning writt en expr e ssion had

5::.."'eater _;)rssti ge_, sin c e it

~lad

:'o r y ears been the

a ccepted met hod of teac!ling Lat in .

ent husiasm f or

g r a.rrL~ar

given a chance.

When, a bout 1875, t he

began to su bside, compos ition was

F..owever , even when the

~ast e r

was

favorably di sposed toward the t eaching of composition,
the subject received little attention because of the
increased burden placed on the instructor.

When a s i ngle

schoolmaster had to teach tan or twelve subjects, there
was little time le.f t ro r the r eadini of essays.
ticul a r~ y

Par-

in t h e classical, or college preparatory,

course composition was likely to be slighted.
ex~ression

Written

VJas not a prerequisite for college entrance,

but Greek and Latin were.

If anyone ventured t o

c::-iticise t h e prepar atory school.s for t heir neglect
of composition, they invariably replied that written
expression '.Tas a dequately taught throu gh translation

from the Greek and Latin.

In addi tion, there was a

widespread belief that composition ability is innate,
that everyone should be able, without instruction, to

write correctly the language he has been speaking from
childhood.

And finally, there was no recognized method

of teaching compo11tion.

..;

In a curriculum where the pre-

..
j,-..

.......

...._,.,~~:.............. ~-- -~···- --~-- -

~

330

vailing meth od was the memoriter on<9, composition
cc ul d scarcely hope tc r .:.rld a 9la ce .
.,....
I _' ........
.

Wher.:; did Eng ::.ish

~cm.p os i ti o n

i

:recognized part of 'the curr:!.cu : !. um?

·,~'hH t

0ecome a

in f~ u ences

led

to its incl usion in the cours e of study?
The la s t decade o.:.. the :nineteenth century mark s

t.he establi shment of com;>ositian a s a recognized
of the curriculum.

~a rt

.At that time it lost its incidental

character and became an essential part of the regular

English work.

The final triumph of composition ca.o.e a s

a result o.f a movement within the seho ·: l system as
well a s o-f pres3ure bro1.1ght to bear by t he colleges.

New York State, which as early as 1818 had stipulated
the i!lc .:. u aion of compo si ti on as a condition for sharing
the state literary fund, assum€'<1 a ,;>osi ti on of lsadership

when,

in 1877 1 composition was oade a ) rerequisite for

graduation from the three-year general course.

In 1890 1

cor:ii-)os1t1on w.h ich had previously been associated with

rhetoric, was listed by itself as a regents' subject.
A more general reform is . indicated by the report of the

Eng l ish Conference of the Committee of Ten in 1894,
which made English, including composition, as important

a part of' the curriculwa
classical languagea.

&$

mathematics and the

Equally important, however, 1s the

influence of the colleges, for to the close of the

331

nineteenth cent ury,

s e c 0 ~ dar:,c

doninated by the coll g es.
t h1~

s chools were l argely

The :iarvard

l~e ;, or t s

of

Commit tee on Composition a.rd ..'.1hetori c b y revealing

t h e composition ..'. efici enci es o.:· enter i ng students

~1ad

a salutary effect not only on those schools w;:ich pre -

pared fo r entrance to HG.rvard, bu t, because o.f t he wi de
publ icity given the reports, on secondary schools in
Al tho~gh individual colleges had s e t up r e-

general.

quirements

i~

composition as early as 187.0, the i r

influence did not make itself powerfully felt until
groups of colleges came together t o deter,,!l.ine uniform

entrance requirements.

The most L ;portarit of these

·: leetings was the joint conference of repre3entati ves

of the Association of Colleges and

I're~)aratory

Schools

of the Mi ddle States and Maryland, the Commission of
Coll ~ ges

of New England, and the Association of

Coll eges and

in 1894.

P~e~aratory

Schools of New England held

Endorsing in general t:1.e .reeo!!lmendations of

t he Committee of Ten, the Joint conference prescribed
an examination in two parts, which would give attention
to both literature ar.i.d coepo si ti on.

Al though the

college entrance requirements had some bad effects
on the teaching of composition in the high school,.
in general they helped the cause of composition by the

032

empha sis placed on its

t~e a cbi.J."'lg.

IV. Wh ut were the met hod s used ir:. t i.;a c hing
ITngl i 3h c ·Jmpo s i ti on ·t r om 1750 to 1 300?

?or many y 1::ars t h e

do ~i nant

aL: of' c omposi-

ti on instruction in t he sec Gndary school w·, s not t 0
t ea.c h t h e child t h e a.rt o f wri tten communi c ation s .;
SlCh as to develo o t b.e X n'lers of t h e mind.

-

he wrestled

nth

-

'~

To t hat end

subjects which were f'ar beyond his

comprehension; and to make t ile task even more difficult, he had t o develop hi3 essay according
foroal plan borrowed

fl"O Cl

t lle Latin.

t~

a very

The objective in

the teaching of composition was t he scme as that in
the teaching

of

l :m guages

mental discipline.

mathematics and t he classical

underwent a slight modification.

About 1880 this aim
No longer was com-

position con sidered merely as a means of developing
mental po wer, but received recognition as a form of

communication, the :naJor goal. of whic h was accuracy.

Content was sacrificed. to the mechanics of writing,
and exercises in the correction of false synta..>: became

popular.

The colleges urged and aany schools attempted

daily practice in writing in order t o

develop accuracy.

If the student had received composition

instruction in the elementary sclx>ol, his task. in 'the

>,

333

seconc! ary scho ls would not have been sc :'8r!nidabl e .
'

3u t h.i s oP-1 y preparati:::m W;:<. S memorization o :C'

the

w:lic h was believed to in sure ::>ro fici·ency i:a written

expression.

.About 18 30, when ?estalo zzi an ideas were

intro duced into t his coun t I'"'J , co.mpo :s i ti on .:'"'ound its

way into the elementary school.
particularly for beginners

Textbooks designed

af> j_)ear.~d.

.

··Practice \'fas now

recognized as a preliminary t o the study of'

_;>r ~ ncipl e s.

Reforcrs also follo wed in methods.

clif~icult

Although

subjects still found a place, efforts were made to
arrJuse the interest of pupils.
~deled

Preliminary discussions

upon the Pestalozzian object lessons assisted

the student in the preparation of his composition.
Gradually the i dea grew tha t children must ha ve
practice if thej• are to l earn t o write, and b'; the end

of t...'1e nineteenth century it was firmly esta blished.

Before composition instruction as such came

into the curriculum. translati on from the classical
languages was considered ample preparation for writing
the ';lother tongue.

So firml y es tablished was t hat i dea

that even down to the close

of the nineteenth century

many schools omitted composition instruction for

3 34

college

preparator ~

stu de:i.ts.

Earvard co.: lege,

however, in t::e la s t d ecad e of tru= century :'evealed

t he l nade uacies o: t hat system.
gxar.a.ination o f textbooks in use before 1900
r ·eveal s the association of composition wit h oth er
phases of Engl ish instruction.

Ontil a.bout 13 50 ,

composition was a handmaiden of gra.n:U!lar, serving a s a
means of in.c ulcating rules of grammar.

·The earliest

textbooks pr:>vided one-sentence exercises, but the
l at er ones made provision f .J r long composi t1ons.
Beginr..ing about 1850, composition wa s taught in

tion with rhetoric.

con.~ec-

Brief exercises providing practice

in t h e r hetorical principles studied gave way to full

length

co ~positi on s.

Finally, in the last two decades

of the nin eteenth century, composition and literature
were closely correlated.
Of the many devices used to stimulate interest
in composition, the rhetorical

used.

was the most frequently

It was supplemented by annual exhibitions,

prizes, l.iterary societies, and school papers.
It is evident that a century and a half of

endeavor (1750 to 1900) failed to evolve a clear-cut
method or teaching Engl ish composition.

One reason for

. i

335

the fa i lure is t }1at for :nest of t :-iat
posi tio~w a s

1

c urriculum.

pe :r ~ od

Eng".2.is h com-

striving hard t o find a ?lace in the
Witb t h e d efi ~: i te establ i shment o! co!'!-

position during t h e l as t decade o::..., t he

n i n etee~1th

centur:.r,. edu cators, instead of s pending t heir energies
vindi cating composition teaching, c ould begir: ex;ier i -

·menting.

A new era in the h.istor:,r of co~position

teaching had commenced.

i

r

~:.,.,-

.

":..-

~ ~·-;.,~. ~~~*1~-=1:>!;· .f.·~r.-·
.

,}

>

Z36

Appendix A
Spec L~ ens

of "Translation English"

The t"o l ~ov1ing S'.)eC L !18US

0

r

'
11 t i~ ans la ti on

Lnglishn Cl.re .from the examina.tion ;:>aper.s 01· ca r..:..~ idat i::s

f or admission to t he f reshman class of Harvard

Coll ~ ge,

1atin
From Cicero's speech for Cornelius Balbus
"There.fore, for these reasons he was given over
!rom the 'state by Cnaius ?o!!i.pey. · The accus e r does
not J any this, but blames it. · ·rnus they i'.!ish the fortunes of a perfectly L.'1.nocent !!!an, and t he deed of a most

excellent general to be condemned.

Th8refore t h e life of

Cornelius, the deed of Pompey is brought (called) to

trial. You grant t hat this man was born of a very
honoraole family in that state in which he v•as. born,
aod from his youth up laying aside evar~/thing else,
he s 9ent his ti;ne in : m r wars, and with our commanders,
and was absent from no task , no siege, and no battle.
Al.1 these t h ings are not only full o f 1)raise bot also
t h e )eculiar t raits or Cornelius, nor is there any blame
in t hese things. Whence therefore is the charge?
Because Pompey gave hi~ over from the state. A
charge against this man? Surely least of all, unless
honor is t '") be considered a disgrace. Against wh•; m
therefore? In actual fact against no one, but in the
argument of the accuser against him alone who did the
giving. If he led on oy influence had gained over by
~eward a less worthy man, nay even if a good man, but
oot so deserving: if, finally he said that so!'!ething
h ad be en done not contrary t o what was allowed,
but contralj· t o what was fit ting, nevertheless all bla;ne
of this kind, ought to be rejected by you, 0 judges.
Now indeed, what is being said? What does the
accuser say? Thr1t Pompey has done what was not allowed

337

him?

This is more weighty than if he said. that t hat

had been done b . hir:: whic h was .::iot fittJ.ng.

Fo r there
are some thil·~gs w:llch are not fitting, even if t h e ~
~re -:t"'lo-wed .
3ut wha tever :'...s n'Jt allowed, 1;)er~ai::.,1~r
is not fitting.nl

Greek
From the Iliad of Homer
agai~

"Jioreover Achilles lamented ·the father

~"ld

then

Patroklos, and tha lamenting of the~ went (arose)
throughout the l10use. Moreover when godlike Achilles

had satisfied hi:n.se.lf

~1th

weepini, to him from

:us

hair came sweat and from his limbs and imrn.ediately he
rose from :us seat and took the old ::ian by the hand
gray beard and gray head and ••• and addressing him
he s;io::..te ·wi:l.ged 7iords: rro wr,3tched one indeed you
have many bad things in your heart. How did you
endure alone to go to the shi}JS of the .Acha.eans in the
eyes of a man who killed for you many and noble sons?
Thero · is a heart of iron t o you. But come s1t down
on your chair and let us allow sorrows to lie firmly
in our nearts although grieving. for not any deed is
of chill weeping tor thus the god• allot to wre.t ched
mortals to live sorrowing, but they themselves are
without eare."2

1. See Harvard College, Rept. of the Com, on Comp. · and
Rhet., cl8921 1 159.

.· ,_..,\
.~

2. Ibid., 163.

:>: -"" .. ,.,

~

I

.
,

Ap pendi.x 3
H.e co:n,:,cnd a t ions of t ~:e Co!lfer er:c e c:: Cni .t orm
Entrance ;·~ eq i.:#.rementa .ir: :~ng2.l s h , 15941
Genera::.

r e c~ :mr:.r:nd.a

t :. en s

1. That t he t i!!!e allo wed f or t t.e F.ngli sh cxamir:.<::.tion
f or entrance t o colleg e be no t less t han t wo hours.

2 . That the books pr es cribed be divided into two
grcu ~) S -- one f or r e ading , t h e other f or ~::ore

careful study.

3 . That in connection with the reading and study
of the req uired books paral l el or subsi diary
readi ng be encouraged.
·
4 . Tha t a considerable amount of 'En g lis l-: :i)o etr:.'
be committed to memory in preparatory st udy.
0 .

That the essentials of

~gl i sh grain.mar, even i f t h er e
is no examination in that. sub.feet, ce n.ot neglected
in p re ~ aratory study.

Though the C'.)nferenc e be l ieves t hat the correction oi bad English is useful in pr eparatory study, it
doe s not f avor a n exa:::!ination i n t his subject as a
r equirement for ad.~ission to college

Entrance requirements
Note -- No candidate will be accepted in Engl i sh
whose work is notably defective in ~oint of spelling,
punctuation, idio:n or division into ?aragraphs.
l. Reading. A c ertain number of books will be set for
reading. The candidate wi ll be r equi:-ed to present
evidence of a. general knowledge of t he subject-matter,
and to answer sim.ple questions on the lives of the
authors. The form of examination will usually be the
writing
a p~ragraph or two on each or several topics,
to be chosen by the candidate from a conside~able number--

or

l. OniT.

or

the St. ot B.

?.,

High School Departxµent,

SUSh Annpal Bepor\ (1898J 1 843-44.
.

(\~.,;r-:,.

...:• .. ,,.

·~....

_[_:_.

.

~

,•
..

~~~-' --:.:.-~-~:~~:L- .~- . ~~-;;£~-

339

p i:;r ha.ps 10 o r 15 -- set before !1im i n the examination
paper. The t .i:· eat;nemt of t h ese topics is desi gned t :::
test t h e cc::.r. :t::.d.ate' s poY1er of c l e a r and c.ccurate
expression, a.r:.d will call i."'Q r only a general \{ nowl ed.ge
or t:..-,e substance of t~1t- book s. I n pl a ce ·? f a pa.rt or
the whole of t '.:.is test, t he c a ,: cl i date ?!la:r ,?resent an
exercise book, )r::i ] erl. y certi t :'.. ed. by ht s i nstruc tor,
containi ng coa.positions or oth e r ;vritter: worl:: done in
connection with the readi ng or t he book s.

cThen fellows the list of book s
prescribed for

1895-1 89 8~

This part of t h~ exarn.in:::.tion
the t ~ orcagh study of each or the , orks
named below. The examination will be upon subjectm.atter, form, and structure.
2 . Study and :practice..

presu~poses

t.The

reac!~ng

list follo ws.

Th e

final section, i'fReq 1Jirements f or
a.."1 advanced examination" is concerned only with iiterature~

·. ·;

l
l

.

.... ..-.,,

1

·1
I

~-· ·-- .:__j

340

Ap pendix C
Sp ,=: c L.::en Exa"J.ination ? a~ers in En gl ish
( rt~J.rva:r ::J )

1874.

A s hort English composition is .required, correct
,_:m nctuation, grfil'l.rn.ar, and exf)ression.
Thirty lines will be suffi ci ent. Ma4:e at l east t wo
•
paragra9hs.
Su bJ act: the story o.r the Cask ets, in the
"Merchant of Venice•;
or, the story of Sha.kespere•s 11Te:npest";
or, the story of Rebecca, in Scott's "Ivanhoe.~
i :'l s p elling ,

1875
Eac h candidate i3 required to write a

s r~ ort

English

composition, correct in spelling, punctuation, grammar,

and expression. This composition m.u st be at l east f i f ty
lines long, and be properly divided into ~aragraphs.
One of the following subjects must be taken: -The Character of Dr. Primrose.
An Account of the Te-nt-scene between
Brutus and Cassius.
The Argument of Marmion.

1881

or

Write a short composition upon one
gi 'fen below.

the subjects

Before begimiing to write, consider what you have
to say on the subJect selected, and arrange your thoughts
in logical order.
Aim at quality rather than quantity of work.
Carefully revise your composition, correcting all
errors in punctuation, gra.i:miar, division by paragraphs,
and expression, and ma.king each sentence as clear and

1. From

~

ftept•• ot the Pres. and Treae. ot Hari.

(1886-87 , App ...

iei.

·

.

.

.

341

forcible as po ssible . If t L:::.e
of the r evised worl-c.

? 1~r:'.lits ,

ma t:: ei

B.

clean

co ~)Y

I. The Story of ttHaml e t."
II. Hanl~t and the Ghost.

III. The Character o;· ?olonius.
n. ..~~ ~<
h1
~
IV. Th
.. '~?
-- .:. a t e O-r -..:i
_..._a.

v.

Ha:.J.lst' s Sp e e c1"' to t he ?lay·? rs.
VI. The Fight between Laertes and HamlQt.
VII. The Charact er o f Haml e t's :,roth er ..
VIII. Haml et as a Gentleman.

1887

Write a com.position -- with SJecial 11ttention to
clearness of arrangement, accuracy of expression, and
quality rather than quantity of matter -- on one of the
following subject•: -1. An outline of the Story of Quentin Durward.
s. The Escape of Isabelle of Croye from
the Castle Hall of Schonwaldt.
:: . How Quentin Durward Outwitted t h e Bohemian Hayraddin.
4 . The Character of King Louis XI. as rep re.sented by Scott.

s.

The Meeting of Louis II. and the Duk e

of Burgundy, at Peronne.

6. A Glimpse of William de la

I~t arc k ,

the Boar of Ardennes.

Spe.c imens of Bad English1

, Correct on this paper all the errors you discover

1n the following sentence•: -1. Being commissioned to rel i eve the beleaguered

city, she aat out at the head of a force whose numbers
were swelled by accessions all along the march.
2. It is not too much to say that he is known
roost. and best by a single atory; one Which we read in
childhood and seem never to quite forget.

l • .!,lli., 162.

l

- --'

342

a...~d

3 .. It is ;nost eff'i cacio us when t aken :'asti :ng
;nixed with a..'1 equal quantity af :1ot wat er •
.4.... •

nr.::>
....., -

i -~

:iarck•

,

i· ....
n

~·h- o,..
.s. ·t '

~--

"'aw.

..,.

";03

. 1..J. -

\'~ l""Ul d n o t
-

..

'oe

su ppor t ed , even by hi s own band , i n .any f ar t her a.ct of
i wmedi ate vi Dl ence.
5 . Tom stared at me, a..nr..'.!. I "'>~ i s.he d I wa s a t i1ome .
6 . 1>!r. Hastings did not reveal t his t o filr. :Aa:rley,
who, by t h e way~ had f allen in lo··r n with ~ i s s Hard castl e, whom he thou ght was t he :barmai d ..
7. Wh en every worldly maxim -arrayed i tself .
against him; when blasted in f ,:)rtun e , and di s grac e a..'1d

danger darkened around his name she loved hi m t he
more ardently for .his very sufferings.
8. Lri seeing Kiss Anderson's Jul.let I think
I have seen the part as well acted a s I am likel y t o.
9 • There was a grand baloon ascension which
landed in· West Wareham.
10. Last Saturday evening we celebrated the first
annual existance or our paper W!lid the enthusiasm of
hundr r1ds of people.

11. Probably there was never known such a gatl: er i ng
in t0"Wn since its rou.nda.t1on, and t he reSJlt of an establisl">...ment of a newspaper in town with such a widespread oirculation showa fairly what and who pursu es
its columns.
l2. He was one whom nature seemed to have first !!lade

generously and then to have added music as a dominant
power.
13 . A feeli ng of sympathy for his fellow man, although
i n bond age, has at last induced the faclllty to put into
execution the long-dreamt of idea of laying board-walks
throughout the college yard.
14. Some ot this wax Olysses gave to each sailor to
put in his ears and prevent him hearing the Sirena.
15. One finda in the reviews of to-day, articles
ranging from a sermon t o a story and of course aany
excellent ones, but the efficacy or these latter are
d estroy ed by the stiff, unfamiliar style in which they

a.re written and which usually does away with whatever
i n terest we may take in

t..he

subj ect.

16 . We wish t o congr atulate '87 on her well-earned
success, aa °h'/ winning this race ~he placed the victor's
wreath on her head which will be remembered long after
the member• of the present seniors are scattered in
the four corners of the world.
17. Soliciting your inquirey ei·t her 1n person or
letter bef'ore you shall locate your home at this Island
in the Ocean.

043

·At tend to f orn as well

~

~s

to

~ubstanc e .

l . Select any fi fle o f t he :foll o w.: .ng s ub j e cts and wr ite

a paragr aph or t wo on eac h :
a . New Year's 1':-?Ve a t t he red house.
b . Si l as Marn er ' s gold .
c . Silas Ma r ner and t h e chur ch :i t Lan ter!1 Yard .
d . Godfrey Cass and his brother.
e . The coming of Eppie ..
f . The draining of the ston e-pi ts.
g . Godfrey Ca3s' con:fession to h.is wife.
b. The character of Si l as Marner.
1. A comparison of the si.sters Nancy and ?riscill a

Lam.meter.

j. The inhabitants of Raveloe.

k. Epp1e's wedding.
l. The escape of Charle s 2 f r o:-u ~oo d stock.
m. Cromwell. be::'96re the 9ictu:re o f Cha rles 1.
n. Evangeli ne in the south.
o. The .1eath of Gabriel.
2, a. Tell the story of t he Merchant of Venice, s howing
how :nan:y and 1ahat stories are interwoven in it.
b. State clearly the argument of Shylock and t hat
of Portia in the trial scene.
c. Quote, if you can, any lO lines of the play
which you especially like. If you are unable to quo t e

10 lines, give the substance of Bassanio'! s-oeech as
he makes the choice of the caskets.
d. Give your opinion of the treatment Shylock receives
throughout the ?lay.
e. Onder what oiroumstances is the 'music of the
s pheres' mentioned L"l the play? Wha. t is said about it?

1. Jon~a, Richard, ~· ~·, 614.

Ap;iendix D
'

CoI"nell Oni ;1ersi t y Entra:1ce Exarri:na i; ionsl

1890

Eng:ish
I

Make a neat copy of' the following, correcting
whatever may be faulty in s pelling or punctuation:
· wo dignity is perfect which does not at some
point aly itself" with the misterious. The connexion
of the ma.le-coach wit ~ the state and the executive
goTernm.ent gave to .the whol male-establishment an
ofici·a.1 grandeur which did us servise on the roads a.n.d
invested us with sesonible terrors. Not t he less
impressive were these terrors because these
legal limmits were imperfectly assertained. Look
at tbo41e turnpike gaits with what defferencial. hurry
with what an otiiedient start they fly open at. our
ap~oach.
Look at that long line of carters ahed
a wdac'1ously usurping the very crest of the road.
As soon as the (iredful blast of our horn reaches them
with proclam.at1on of our aproach see vd.th . what fren.Sy
of tl"epedat.ion they fly to their horses heads and ·
de:pprecate our rath. Treason they feel to be their ·
crime each individual carter feels himself under the
bann

or

confiscation and attainder.

The douts which

.'~'

\
\ ,;:\
,,
we

razed as to our powers did more to rap them in terror ·
by rap) ing them in uncertainty than could have been
erected by the sharpest defeni tio-ns of the law from
the Quarter Sessions. We
our parts (we the eollec-

on

tive male I mean) did our utmost to exalt . the i dea of
our priveledges by the insolense lrlth which we wealded
them. .Wether this fnsolense rested up on law that
.

1.

\

~~

!', ·

'

l~
~· ,:

.
.,
·

1

\
-_,
V'

1. Cornell Oniver1it7, Question Pig9rs Oaad at \he Exam11rtft""
tion tor .Admis$10A ·fnd at $he ;tmination for Oniver· sity Scholarshipf, 1890, 1894.

\ .::

.1· ·

;,

345

~ ave

it a sancion or upon con .sc i.c·u s ) o v;r:r t :Z1 at hautily

desp enc ed wit h that sanc i cn ; equall y it spo.% e f rom a
potencial station an::i t h e a gent in :::i ..:. cb ~articl ar
insolense of t h e . ~ioment wa s vi ersd r s verensial:. y 'l S
one h av in ~ a~th6~ity.
II

Write a composition of not less
any one of the following subjects:

t i'1 ~m

50 0 words o::::

a.
l . The personal c haracter of Gol d&'li th.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

?he hardships of Gold$mith 1 s early l ife in London .
?rorrlnent li tarary merits cf the V!car of Walcefield.
The old a..--id t he New 8choolma.ster ( Elia) •
Detach ed Thoughts on Booi(S and Rea ding.
?opular Fallacies.
b.

1. Narrate t he stor y o f

l:~angeline

do·:m t o the d e) arture

from Acadia.
2. Desc:ribe the cons piracy agains t Caesar.

·) . The Robbery o f Silas Marner.
4 . The scene at t he Rainbow Inn following Silas M:arn:;;r' s

appearance.
5. ~:tss ?yncheon's shopkeeping.
6. The escape of Quentin Durward and Isa belle f rom t he
Castle.

1894

Questions.
Time, one hour.
(100 words t o each question .)

1.
2.
3•
4.

The Quarrel between Cassius and Brutus.
Bassanio'• Choice of Casket.
Sending of the Fiery Cross.
Description of 'W estminster Abbey.
(Answer any two of the above questions.
use Historical Present.)

Do not

,

·-.,~- ~ ··-- .

______

I

..__ - ---""

246

Essa·~r s.

T:L..~ e, two

~:a iJ rs -

'

'!'hr~e essay s in all ,

;: a.ch one not le ss t r.can 200
words. Select fro m. the :t'ollo"iin g li s t of s ubj c:cts.
But do not wr:!. t e ':1o re t han one e ssay u-oon any one booL-c.
Do not use His t rL~ a:::.. Present.

5 . Fox's alli ance wit t1 Bu t e .

One :Jaragrao l1 t:::

:~a c

· of

these two h f:: ads:

a. ?ersonal char acter of Fox.
b. Character of hi s management of publ ic aff airs.
6 • .Rela tions o;." Eng.:.an.d. and.

J!.m, ~ rica.

One )aragra;;h t-:

each of these two head s:
a. Character of Rockingham, and of Burke.
b. Repeal of the Sta.I!:.p Act.
7. Rele.te the events witnessed b)I Roald.n and his
grandmother ir. the Abbey of Kenna.quhair, a t t he
installation of Fatber Ambrose :!.S Abbot. I!Q

paragranhs.

8. Queen Mar y 's

esca.~e .

One Jaragra.;iti

t·. ~

-· E.c h of

these heads;
a. Roland m~~ing the fal se keys.
b. The escape itself.
9 . The drowning of Ham and Steerfor th.

Two 'Jaragra ,) hs.

10. Character of Miss Betsey Trotwood, of Mr. Dick.
One paragraph t ·::- ~ach.

·!

Th.:"ee Co::n.po :.?i tio·-.s o':." ;.::io ut 1 7'70

The

fcllo w i ~ g co ~9 csit io ns

"illustrate t'.h
·J---.:> ·

state of bewi.lder:!l.ent in whicl-1 ch ildren' 3 :ni !1d s a!'e

pl a ced when calL.:d on to wr ::. te without any hel p or
zu idance on s ome abst:i."act rn:

were Tiritten

; en r~ral

subj oct.

They

a hundred miles from a Massachusetts
.,
school" about the year 1770.~
~ot

Alllerican Scenery
~J e can see a great deal o :' t:.U. s when we trave2.
into different parts of the country and view t he
various scenes of antiquity.
It is deli ghtful to travel into it, and see it,
t hose who have money enough, but poor peopl e must do
otherwise.
'!here ar.e a great many kinds of scenery, some of
ghost, some imagination, and some of real life, so

that we have all sorts a.11d all kinds.

We imagine one

when there really is not one, and 1t may a pp ear to be
ver;; beautiful to us at ti ~ es, and at others not so.

"1'he comparative degree of a Mariner's Compass and the

Art . of

Printing~'

The Mariner's . Compass.

This instrument governs a vessel at sea, and
guides the mariner through the voyage. It always points
north, and the vessel goes in any direction by the means

1. See A\}d.nson. W.P., •Composition", The lass. Teacher,
XIX (June, 1866), 190-5.
... ,

'

...

li

_J

348

1

.
01

<>
w.

rU (ider
.
'

'"h
-l nh
n ;;..-.i......
.. -'

t·~rn
°
._.
.. ~

.;...._. t

<=>,..,.,."' "'D
.., ·'"'...., "u U-"'S"'
.,.(,, ,), _
"-' . r...::.
J..
._

J. ..i.. ._ J.:..a.

ar 0 t- h"" """
..,._1

.., .. "" .,,..1.. •

:'ihen a ve ssel is lost at s e a, it is •1ery soon lmown,
an-: a ~ r e at 2:,:ci tement m.s.r~ e ,;tt :and about it, and
p c~ opl -::;

thin.le it strang e. One will say it is fire,
or it ":ot shi;;>-wrecli::ed a..11.d t her e is no knowing anyt hi i:g
a bou t it, till a ve s sel arriYes an _l br ing s news t h:.:1 t
t hey discovered it at suc h .a pL1ce. It t :1en br i::g s
j oy and gl a dness ta ever; he-: art t h3.t i s in tere sted i :;:-: it .

The ltrt of Printing.

Men would be totally ignorant of it, were it not
t ~1.1S art.
'Xhe great men ot modern times once began
by t :i.'"1e stamp of t he t yp e which had the letter A upon it.
They commenced with that and went on by degrees, and,
in time, becamB very intelli gent men ar1d became
enlightened.
Ir a vessel is lost at sea, it is .'.!lade by the t ypes
making an i:~ :pression on t he papers and is co ~ ied from
one paper into another.
for

How Paper is Made.
First, pedlers go roun nn c gather rags,. and gives tin
ware and. woodden ware and sutch.. They then go and sell
it to people tha t o·t:ns mills made on purpose for making
paper. then they do have a lot of womans hierd to cut

up the rags md t hey cut them a bout 2 inches long and
s. bout one in widh they put t h em in a large bilar and
biles them and does ~meth ing else with them. linen

rags makes best

paper~

white rags makes white paper and

they youse rie-straw to make brown paper, they Y•J Ust
to have a paper mill as we go down on the ~lains a bout

six year s ago.

i

~

l

I

!

A Si mpl 2 , Didac tic Theme
i

The

t~ollmvi ng

model

~

~fro ~'?l

w1:__-:..:.a:1 .RllS -:- el.l 1 3

A Grammar of Compositi·J n ( p!J ~ 1 37-1 39 ) s hows tha

treatment of a simpl8, di dacti c theme.

Peace •
.i. Definition..*
all men.

?eace is t he t.iltimate wish of

2. Cause. For, in what ever manr.er we desire to
exercise our faculties, in the a cqui ring of knowledge,
riches, or houor5', we all look forward to a state of ;> ea.ce
\:.i nd t:ranquilli ty 1 in which alon~ we thi11_1.\: that we can
enjoy thrun. In this ha '.J ,) Y state i t is, t hat the
merchant expects to enJoy :us ric hes, t he soldi er t c
be secure fro -'!l toils and dangers, and t i1e statesnan
to lay aside his anxious cares.
0. Hi~tory. So agreeable to the mind of man is a
state of _?eace and tranquillity, t hat all the poets Df
anti quity imagined such a state to have existed in t he
.~gas immediately subsequent to t he creation o!' ;:ian, and
to have eontinued till human depravity gave rise t o discord and str ife. The Divine Being ha s s hown us, that
he h1.mself regards peace as one of the greatest benefits
t.hat can be con!erred on :man. Peace on earth was the
benediction announced by the angels on the birth of
th e Saviour; and, at t h is birth, under the reign of
the Roman Emperor Au gustus, the whole world was in a
state of peace.
4. Extent. In every well-ordered community, ?e~ce
is the ai m and the enJoyment of all rar..ks; and it is
only the prevalence of selfish feel i ngs, false views
of' honor, and col".rupt passio ns, which prevents its being
enjoyed by all the nations o.f t he earth .

I

*

This term is here employed in an arbitrary sense.

.I

~l

j

350

5.

E:fe cta~

Peace gives t he human

~acultiG s

li ::i~rt y to ~x;1and t,1er.:ise=. ves; al·/~ it has ~:; een generally
s t y l ed the Nurse of . :': .rts; : o r , '.Yl1en a ne..ti.cn is a t
peace, t he r e .:.re rooID, a.ml i. e i sure, ar:.~"l taste ±'or
illprovf,m:-:mt s of e very kind.
But ~ o-n ......~ v~w
~0
i"• ~s
. ,...,.&.
._.
_ S· 1r ~~ ~~
.. .. .~
, ,;,.., A ~•·~ mnv ~e
l.J
'
found , -,'.ihar :r..ot · a ccom par:i .fd oy virtue, to be 9roduct i ve
.i...:

-1. ..l.

..,~-

_. ~vi:;.;

~.Q...,i

t,,

•

o f almost as many evil s es war i t s 2l:'. The riches
acquired in pea ce, are apt t 0 give a taste fo r

luxury anci. prodigality ; and t~1.ese e1:c esses generally
l ead t o pro f ligacy. The qui.et anc~ ease which men enj oy

i n a state of peace, have a tend(;ncy t o make them careless a..."ld irreligious; and t he s e d ispo:si tions open the
way t .-: every other vice. It· is in a state o f peace

that t hose feelings are cherished, • h1ch generate war:
security begets sel£-sufficiency, i n solence; and insolence, quarrels. Thus peace 1 the most desirable thing

oc earth, i!J.ay-, by the depravity of t t .ose who ars net
virtuous enough to bear it, become pro ductive of the

most dreadful scourge of' human nature, -- a state o f war.

Append.ix G
A Contac:;;or-a:ry Account of Compos:.!. tion

Instruct i .)n :1bo u t 18 40

A teacher describes the 0xperience t hat he.,
as a boy, had with composit ion i n an academy about

18~10: l
From the exercises of the first composition day
I was excused, but was requested tq pay strict attention,
that I >night in fUture do likewise. I was quite familiar
Murra7's series of 3eaders, and I must confess t hat
I coul.d hardly distinguish between the exercises of some
of the composi tiona I h eard, _and t i ~ose ot Blair, Addison,
J oh.n:son, e to. Many o f theu1 sounded wonderfully
correct, and ! have no do ubt, to t his day, t hat t hey
were; f or in them I traced striking resemblances t o
the aforesaid authors. Others again were no·t so
cla3sical, for one young l ady read Irving's Grave,
w~ th

as completely as she could copy it

fro ~

the book.

Others again were to me perfect enigmas, and beyond
my comprehension.
I know not the eff ect they produced on others, but
they had an awful ef1.. ect on me, for I knew that on
the next time I would have t o rise and read , i n
as nearly the same way as I could ; for the teac her •••
greatly prided himself on the reputation of his school

for compositions.
I sweat great drops even in anticipation, but
when .he gave out t he subjects, and "the 1!.Rortance of
well-spent youth" was given t o ~e as the subJect for my
first unaided composition, my miae~ies seeined to me
greater than I could bear. How ! tried •nc tried to
write, and how the more I tried the less ~rogress I

made, can n:::>t be written on paper. I at last a~·>p ealed to
my room-mate ror advice; he only lau ghed at my troubles,
and told me to take my composition . rom books or news-

papers, as the greater part of the rest did. He s howed
me how he patched up many of his, by taking a par~graph
here and there, where he could make it hit his subJect.

1. See The Conn, Com, Sch. Jour., XVI (May, 1861), 151-156.

t
.

,

~

.

Be also s l1cwed me a great lJils o;~ the S?eeches o r. . con-

gressmen, from whi c.."1 he stole, wh~ne v e r he wa s allow;Jd
to c hoose his own subject. ae t"'ur ther de cl a:r~.;d,

t hat as very few read these s peeches , b:a l"an no ri "k

cf being c au ght. M.y d esire t o obey rnyf teacher , and t ;;
a ):;f~a r well before my fellow .;JUpil s, ove ~·ca.111e my s ens e
o f the wrong I did, and I &ll sorry t o say , that my

compo sitions troubled me only i n Tly consci ence, for the
remaL1der o f that session.
A .:lry, abstr3ct subj ect was generally given by
the teacher, and he seemed t o be sati sfi ed if he got

h is three pages of l etter pap er, for correction.
Once, during the year, I saw a boy qorrected for
copying a piece verbatim from t he old Engl ish Reader.

__

. -.~
,.,....._....._.....;" .:.~

353

App endix H

Essay s f rom the -J ournal of Carolin e Chest er,
Student at t he !..i tct1f ield School.

May 20 1 1816.

"Wh.3t would we ?ay what ransom give
For one short moment more to live ,
One hour ·t o s pend in tho ughtful care
In duty penitence & prayer.n

Opon the Ri ght Improvement of Time.
Time is a most invalu able blessing given us t o prepare
for eternity, and to 11uprove· it aright oaght to be ~~ e
great concern of our life. The space of time allotted
us for to spend on this earth is so short that were we
to employ every moment to prepare for the great and
awful char...ge which a.waits us, it Would be no more t han
sufficient, but how many hours and even da~· s do we waste
in idle eonversat1on, frivolous reading and an unnecessar y
attention to dress not remembering that for all these
t hings God will bring us into judgment.' If we would
only remember, That time once lost never returns the
tioments which are oast ¥e ~ ast for ever" we should
surely be more deligent lsic] to improve it aright
for it is incumbent on us to do that that when lt is
pa st we may have the pleasure o! reflecting that it ha s
not been m1semployed. ~ just sense of the importance
of time is Tery essential to the right management of it.
I know of' a young lad; who rises be.fore sun-rise and
devotes every hour of the day to some particula.r atudy
or eoployment when she rises she :..cnows 1f her life is
preserved what she 1hall do each hour of the day,
she -agrees with t he Poet Who say s "Order is heavens
f irst law" -- It is our duty to remember that
t he fifty years or man must make provision for the
last" and not postpone religion till old age for soon
the night of death wi ll arrive when no man can work ."l

1. See Vanderpoel, Kore Chronicles qf a Pioneer fchoo!,
166.

.'

'·

Saturday 1 July 27, 1816.

Prejudice is def:i_ned (b~y :'.!r. Walk er) preposs s ssion, hurt,
injury 1 it is t he ·~ f f' s et of 9reconcei ved i deas or impressions acting on the mind and blinding every view
op posed to those impressions. A _iH:rson who i s 9rej udiced cannot but judge partially he sees with wrong

eyes, he hears wi t h wrong ears and judges with wrong
feelings, he is so much biassed by self' love t hat he

would be willing to condemn the person against whom
he is preJudiced without hearing his discourse -- ?rejudice eannot with propriety be called the e rr~r of weak
minds since many persons of strong intellectual powers
are often swayed by it; t hough doubtless there are
some who will not let their feelings lead them to deviate
f rom the right paths -- Prejudice is but anot her name
for Party Spirit and has proved t he greatest foe to
national greatness and glory; its blighting influ '3nce
has even reached ·t he s-0cial circle and chilled many a
heart open to affection and truth, for prejudice is
ever opposed to truth a..~d too strongly biassed to allow
or free enquiry. We often let the "eye of our mind"
prejudice US t:· again.st others i f the countenances are not
prepossessing but t his is wron.g aa we can scarcely ever
Judge of persons by t heir face• and we fre¢uently read
in History of pE:rsons who were very beautiful & y et
posseased cruel capricious &. tyrannical dispositions,
~ we ourselves have seen t hose who at first sight have
by their beauty prejudiced ua in their favour but upon
acquaintance we have found to possess very bad dispositions, we have also known others whom we were prejudiced
against but when we had been in their company a short
time we found to possess a most excellent understanding
and disposition these examples clearly prove that ·;.e
very often Judge erroneously & therefore ought not to
to~ hagty opinions •••
Or the terms Prejudice, BigotrY, Candor and
Liberality, Dr. Aikins in letters to his son give

a happy exemplification -- •When Jeaus preached
Prejudice cried •ca.~ ~Y good thing come out or
Nazarethl Crucify crucify him exclaimed Bigotry,
Why what eV11 hathe he done remonstrated Candor &
Liberality, drew trom his words this inference 11 In every
nation he that rearrth ·God and worketh ri.g hteousness is
acceptf:!d with

l.

~.,

hi:n."

180.

Appendix I

An I l lustration of a Discussion of Obj ects
as a ?reli.minary to Composition
After t he intr oduction of Pe stalozzian i ,_:eas,

the discussion of o bj ects was recommended as a Jrel iminary to written expression.

The follo wing lesson is an

extract from a pape r r ead by Mr. L.W. Russell of

Watertown at the Schoolmasters' Meeting:
"Schola rs, you may tal:rn pencils and paper, and

write as many notes as you can while I t;uest1on you and

give some facts about the subject for t hi s week's written
exercise. How many have ever seen a pine-tree?" All
hands are up: but one say s, "What kind of pine do you
mean., sir? a "I mean a white pine; but how many ki:nds
of pine are there?" Several different names are given
which are shown t '.1 be only local names of the three
kir..ds found in this region, the white, the Norway, and
t he pitch.
"Please tell me how t hi.s tree looks." A variety
of answers are given; as, it is tall, straight; the
bark is rough; the· bark is smooth, etc. "Do you think

that the bark is smooth on old trees?" -- "Mo.

It is

smooth on young . trees, but rough on old ones." -"Right. Note down as many or the se things as you can
as we proceed. Can any one tell how high the tallest
or the p1Iles growf" Various answers are given.
\fhere the pupils are at fault., fact~ s hoold be give,-. and
the truth made known. "How many have seen the Bunker
Hill Monument? Do you suppose t hat pines ever grow
as high as that?" Nearly all think not. They are told
of' the height of some .e ven higher. A tree taller
than Bunker Bill Monument l

intere sted in the pine,.

They are beginning to be

"How do t h e branches grow

from the tree?" One says thick; another, in rings;
another in a 1p1ralJ still others, out straight, flat _,
etc. The. manner in whic!1 they grow is shown, and the
proper terms or description decided upon. •Row many
have seen a pine that has been blown. do'Wn by the wind?

.,Ji
__

,.....
,~;

356

How did t he roo ts look? Did t hey ap}ear to have
~nmetra ted deepl~r into the ground?
Do the r oe ts d ee~(/
r-a ;J i dly? Why not? TT One boy say s, "I know; they aroe
3.l: f ull o ::~ fat , and we s plit t h em up t o get t orches s o
'f'! e can see to s pear fi s h :.n t 11e ni;ht."
"V erry we.::..l ..
.3ut is Tfatt t l.1e right name for t b.e substance that
burns with so brilliant a li ght? 11
itNow what will you say of t h 2 appeara.'lce of t he
tr ee as a wb.ole? n Different ..answers bring out t he words,
grand, splendid , sublime , noble, majestic, and others.
Here, without entering into a tedious discussion of
the aear..ings of words, t he proper terms oi' descripti on
must be selected. "Shall we then call the Pine t he
King of the forest?" "No, sir. The Oak ia t he king;
we wilJ. call the Pine the Queen of t he forest." "Very
well; we will inarr:r them then, The Oak and Pine, King
and Queen. Express t hat in your written exercise a s
:prettily as you can."

Example
"This is t he ta.llest tree that is found in the
eastern forest~. It someti ~ es grows to the height of
two hundl"ed f eet in New England. One was recently cut
in ~ astern New York, two hundred and forty feet high,
and one whic h grew in Lancaster, N. H., was two hundr ed
and sixty-four feet high, forty-two feet higher than
Bunker Hill ~onume nt. The bark is rough on old trees,
but smooth on young ones. The pine is ver.l straight
and erect, and tapers very gradually to t h e top. For
t_i;,is reaaon it. is much uaed for ahip• s masts 1 flagstaffs, etc. !he branches grow in whorls from the
trunk, and at right angles rl t h it, one whorl coming·
out each yea.r. By this means the age of a young tree
may be told, and, also, how much it grows .in a. year.
\'
"If the Oak on account or its ma.Jestic and sturdy· ; h.
appearance deserves the name of King or the forest; .so . ('\
the Pine for its light, graceful, airy &tJp earance 1 In'.:: ri t~. ,' k i'
the title of Queen.
. ~ . ·;'c \\
"The roots are foum near the surface of the ground, ~.. \ \t !
and for this reason it is e asily blown over, when left . · v~\;
alone. 'fhe roots do not readily . decay. This is on
' ( \~~ ~~
account of their being tilled with reain. •l
. ·,:~~~ :
1

,::,;:\ ~;,;·

~

l. See The ¥a1s, Teagher, XIX (June, 1866), 193-95.

-

Id

.

:

•)

~-

'

\ \

·I

. ' ,\ '; ·j;
'. ! '
-~--

,...,
~,­

-·

.

•"·'-----

. i;

•

- ~ -- - _f, ; ,_.,.~'.

..
"

;:.'.)jl,>\,.~~-·;.;o.i.!:""-·~~ik'~=~~d.·-,,._-,.;11;;•.,:J:~·?:~ ·:~};. ~:···)M."i~ i·~~.~ ·::~~,.~ ~.~~- .

3 57

I. Priillary Sources

t

Connecticut.

.A nnual Eeports of the Board of Education

of the State of Connecticut ••• together with the
Annual Re ports of the Secretary of the Board, 1867,
'69, '72, '73, '75 , '76, '-79 - 1 87, '89-1900.

Maine.

Hartf~

Reports of the State Superintendent of Common

Schools of the State of Ma_i ne, 1880, '81, 1·95.
Augusta.

~

Reports

of the State Superintendent of Public

Schools, 1897,

1

99.

Augusta.

Massachusetts. Annual Re ports of the .Board of Education,
together with the Annual Reports of the Secr etary of
the Board, 1838-1859, 1862-190.0. Boston.
~
Boston. Annual Report of the School Committee of
the City of Boston, 1857.

'N ew Hampshire.

Boston ..

J.nnual Reports of the Superintendent of

Public Instruction, 1875, '76, '79-'81. Concord.

New Jersey. Annual Reports of the SUperintendent of
Public Schools of the State of New Jersey, 1862,
'64. Trenton.
~ Annaal Reports of the State Superintendent of
Public Instruction, 1869. Trenton.
·
Re v'orts or the State Board of Education and State
----Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1870, 171,
'74-•76, '78-'BO. Trenton.
____ Annual Reports of the Board of Education and of
the Superintendent of Public Instruction or New.
Jersey, 1891, '92, t95, '97-1900. Trenton,
_ _....Archives of the State of New .Jersey. lst series,
vols. 1-33.

Newark, New Jersey, 1880-1928;

sel'ies, vols. 1-5.

Trenton.

1901-1917.

Bew York.

2nd

Anruial Reports of the Examination Depart.ntent,'\ · ···'
1894-97. Albany. . ' .
. '' ' '
.· .
\~;: -~ t'.~
Annual Reports or the High Schoel Depar~ent,
· ~. i{ .::
---ra38-l900. Albany.
.
...· .· . ,
\ ~'if<
_
.Annual Reports of the Regeni;s ot th~ .tJn.i veraity
.·it~
of the State of Bew York, 1837-41, 1843-46.- .1847-55 1
'\i\
l.S57-1900. Albany.
.
.
· ·
·
· \ ,
· Annual Re~orl of 'he Superintebdeat of m.mon Schools · · ;~,.:

----Ot

the state of lew York, 1844. · ilbarq •

;:;.5s

'""
.,
.
re.t."lllSy
J..vania.

Repor
·
t s o.....,.

~

t 1~

~ie

,.... ·

.

....

O\Uper 2. n~.e

Instruction of t !.1e Commonwea :L th
1880-3 3 , 1357-36, 1898-19'.)0.

0 1'

nd eni...... O.i.....

P
~

u ,o.~.......4 c

?ennsylvania,

Harrisburg.

Rhode Isl a11.d . Annual '2. e oc:: ts of the .3o a r-d of' .Education
to geth er witb. the lmnual Re 1;or ts of' the Commi ssioner
1 37"
" ".1.
...,i:- .n
n:.-.."a
"'1 <:~u
~- .., ,...
, , ..:..,
.,,,,.,r,
o f· ;.'~ u ·D1·.:La _q._
... c ,~1 00 l ~
. ~r..,, ·e I- ~
... , -18~
u '·)
. ~.i..
.-; ·~, ,J .

-.
/,

Pro1.ridence.

Vermont.

Annual i:tenorts of the St ate Suoer intendent
of Common Sc hocl .3 , 13 51. Mont pel .ier. "

Annual neports of t.he Vermont Board of :8ducation
with

the Reports of the

Burlington.
Biennial Re port of' the

with the aeport of the

1865-66.

Secretary~

! ermont

,
Board of Edqcation,
1872. Mo11tpelier.

oec ~· etary,

Report of the i ermont Board of Education w.:!.th the
Report of t 1:1e Secretary made t.o the Board, 1874.

2nd Biennial Report. Rutland.
Vermont SchJ ,)l Reports made by the State Superinten-

dent of &lucation• 1880, Rutland;

1886, Spr-ingfi'elC.,

Mass.; 1888, Burlington; 1390, •96 , '38, 1300 ,
Montpelier.

'f.
,.

B. Contemporary Educational Treatis es
and Textbooks in Met~ods
Abbot, Jacob.

]~he

Teacher.

Boston.

1836.

r.cn Am e rican Educat:!.cn 1t.

Boucher, Jona.than.

In

A View of the Causes and Consequences of the
American Revolution in 13

Diacour~es.

1797.

London.

Davis, W.W. Composition Writing: A practical guide
containing model lessons and hints to teachers and
pupils.
~

\".'!

J;I OW.le,

Chicago.

ww.. B •

PJ....

1864.

The Teacher's Institute.

New York ..

1867.

Franklin, BenJamin. Proposals Relating to the Education
of Youth in Pensilvania. Facsimile Reprint issued
by the Roaenbach Fellowship in Bibliography.
Philadelphia: On1vers1ty of Pennsylvania Press.
1931.
__ The Writings of Benjamin Franklin. Collected and
edited with a Lite and Introduction by Albert B.
Smyth. 10 Tola. ·. Bew York, Londont Jlacuiillan Co.

1905-7.

.

...
"'

'·-

Yols. III and I •

'

~··~""j'.

11.

,,,~·

••

~--~>ii.. ...:....~_.._

·-

-ti

~ --~·~--·----·~--

--

--

..LR.~-·.......... ~.,,~~ .. w~-;;:;;.· ~~.4~~~~ ·

1

3 59

~ 8 a c L ing

Hi nsdal e, B.A.

D. Appl e ton and Co.

t he Langua ge Arts.

A t-i e w Di 3co11ery o f

Hool e , Charl e s.

New ::'. a r t.: :

18 96.
t ~1e

Ol d Art of

,.t ,.o....:.·r. by· J a 'i'...., . _p..._,,,.._
Andr ew Crook at t he Gr een Dragon i n Pauls Churchyard . 1660.

4 .,..,~
'"
"' .._.,,
1' '1•· ~.L..L..
.!.- "'
, .,, (...._
L ..._ l.~

Bch& •·ol
"' •
)
~ ,..,

K@ agyJJ J19 h n 3 sl.

with

Lonrt,..,ri
.... .._4 ,_.1 ,. ... •
•

1 ,,.
...;:> ,..
- ;.-,4";

~

An Essay on En glish Education, To ge t :.-,0r

some Observations on t he pre sent

T3ac:ii ng t h e English Lan gu ag e.

Loclce, .John.

Some

.

~o d e

of

Harrisbur g , Pa.

Thou ghts Concernin g· Educ a tion.

introduction and notes by R. H. Quick .
Cambridge. 1889.

2nd

18 24 ..

Yli t~1

~·
'

Milton, John. Prose Works. Ed ited by Charles Symmons.
7 vols. London. 1806. Vol. I.
Sheridan, Thomas. Br i tish Education: or, The Source
of t h e Disorders. of Great Britain, BeL jg An Essay
towards proving that the I!!.rnorality, Ignorance, and
false Taste, wh ic ~ · sc generally 9reva1l, are t he
natural and necessary Consequences of t :i.e pr e sent
defeeti ve System of &lucati on ... r.. ondon. 1756.

Turnbull, George. Observa tions upon Li beral Education
in all its ~ran ches, etc. London. 1742.
Wick orsham, James Py le.

Philadelphia.

Methods

r1f Instr1.1cti ~, n.

c. 1865.

·

W"; r..ne, R.

Essays on Education by Milton, Lock e, and
the Aut~ors of the Spectator, etc. London. 1761.

c.
' l

Textbooks in Composition,
Grammar, and Rhetoric.

Bingham, Caleb. Juvenile Letters; being a Correspondence between Children, from eight t c f ift.e en
years of age. Second edition. Boston. 1803 •
.Boyd, J ·am.es R.

Elements of English Co,m position, Gramma-

tical, Rhetorical, Logical and P::actical.

.a..S.Ba.~nes

&

Brookfield, F. First Book in Composition.
A.S.Barnes & Co. 1865.

~.~

... '·

~-

New York:

Burr1 1860.

New York:

360

-~

Br Am, Goold.

The Institutes of

~2.is h

q:rammar.
Stereoty pe edition. Re vised . by the aut".-1or. New
Yo r i" : Pu bli.s h ed by Samu el S~ and Williar:i Wood .

1353.

£iull i ons, ?etar.

?ra ctical Le s:s o n s in Eng;_i sh Gr a:.L·,a r,

a.nd Composition; for young beginners: · b eing an
introd uction to "The Prin ciples of Engl :!. sh Gra::--.rn.ar n,

with copious exercises, and directions f'or. t heir
use. A new edition revised and corrected . New
York .

1855.

Chittenden, Lucy A. The Elements o:f Engl ish Composition.
A preparation for rhetoric. Fourth edition.
Chicago.

188 5.

Felch, w. A comprehensive grammar presenting some new
views of the structure of language; designed t a
explain all the relations of words in English syntax;
and make the study of grammar and composition one
and the same _process. Abridged from a work preparing
for publication. Boston: Oti 3, Bro3ders, and Co.
1837.

Frazee,

Rev. Bradford. An Improved Grammar of t he
Language, on t he Inductive System; with which
elem.entar:~ and ~rogressive Lessons in Composision are
combined. Boston: B.B. Mussey. 1845.
F:nglis~

Frost, John. Easy Exercis es in Composition:
for the use of beginners. Philadelphia:
and Co. 18~9.

Desi gned
Marshall

w.

Greene, Samuel s. A Treatise on the Structure of the
English ~anguage; or the analysis and classification
of sentences and their component parts with illustrations and exercises. Adapted to the use of
schools. Phila d elphi~ and Boston. 1860.
Hart, John s. First Lessons in. Composition.
phia. 1870.
~ . ta~!1:ual

of Composition and Rhetoric.

Hill, Adams Sherman.
York. 1893

Philadel-

Philadelphia.

The Foundatiolis of Rhetoric.

New

The Principle• ot Rhetoric and their J..pplicaiion.

Bew York·.

1893.

'

.

•

,

'

I

- ----'- , _____;._J

361

Hill , David J. Tha El aments of Hh,-: toric a.."'ld Compo sition.
~~ew York.
c. 1878 .

I rvin g , David . The Zl ement 3 .:::>f Engl i s h Composi t io n ;
3ervin g a s a s equel t o the s tudy o f gr am':llar. The
.fi f't h edi tion. London. 1 8 21.

Kello gg , Brainer d . A Taxt-book on l he toric > supJl amenting t he development of t he Sc ience with
EXhaustive pr a ctic e i n composition. New Yor k, 1881 .

"ij
'r

!

f '.1

'
•'

Sara E. H. Les sons in Engl ish, ada pt ed t o
the study of American classics. Bosto n: Gi nn and
Co. 1892.

Loc~""Wo o d,

;

A Practical Guide to Compos! t i onJ
with Pro gressive Exercises 1n Prose and Poetry;
embellished with cuts. Hartford. 1838.

:Jorley, Cha rl es.

'

"

Murray , L1:1dl ey.

English Grammar, Adap t ed t :.' t h e

Diffe rent Cla s s es of Learners.
Newcomer, Alphonso G.

Elements of Rhe toric:.

in Plain Prose Composition.

_

Brookfield.

1823 .
A Course

New Yorl{. . 1898.

A Practical Course in Engli sh Com.position.

Bosto:r;. .

1893.

Oram, Elizabeth. First Lessons in English Gram.mar and
CompositionJ with exercises in the elements of pronunciation, words for dictation, and subjects for
compos.:1,.tion. New York: ?aine and Burgess. 1846.
Parker, Richard Green.
New York. 1844.

Aids to English Composition.

Progressive Exercises in English Co :.'.: position. 29th
Stereotype Edition. Boston: Published by Ro bert
S. Da vi s. 1840.
Pinneo, T. s. Gui de to Composition: .A Series of
Practical Lessons, Designed to timplity the art of
writing composition: for beginners. Cincinnati,
Chicago, New York . c. 1884.
'

.Advanced Course ot Compos! tion
and Rhetoric; A series or practical le1.1on1 on the
origin, history, and peculiarities of the Inglish
language, punctuation, taste, t he pleasure-s, ot t he

Quackenbos, George P.

362

imagination, fig ur es, st7le and its essential
;iroperties, criticism, a n d. the various d e ~1a rtn ents

of prose and 9oetical composition; illust:rat i: > d
wi t ll copious exerci ses.
Co. 1~o.~ 79. •

New Yo rk:

D. Appl eton and
:i

First Lesso n s in Composition, in whi ch t he ;irinci9l ·2 s

of t ~'le a.rt are developed in connection 11it:1 the
principles of grammar ; embracir.g full di r ections
on the subject of punctuation; with copious exercises.

98th t housand.

Reed, Alonzo, and
English:
in which

~ellogg,

New York.

1859.

Braine~d.

Higher Lessons in

A Work on English Grarr~:ar and Com.position

the science of the language is made tributary to the q.rt of expression ••• New York: Charles
E. }lerrill Co. 1878.

Roux, Alphonse.
tion.

New Zetetic Meth.ad for Engl ish Composi -

New Yorlt, Philad elphia, Boston.

1847.

Russell, Will iam. A Grammar of Composition: including
a practical review of the principles of rhetoric,
a series of exercises in rhetorical ana:.ysis, and
six introductory courses of composition. New Haven.
A.Ii. Maltby and Co. Pri:lt.

Scott, F.N. and

Denn~y,J.V.

1823.

Composition-Rhetoric.
Boston and

Designed for use in secondar-,1 school3·.
Chicago: All yn and Bacon. c. 1897.
Shaw, Edward Rec

New

Yor~:

English Composition by

Henry Holt and Co.

Practi c'.·~ .

1892.

Smith, Roswell C. Engl ish Grammar on the Pr oductive
System: a ineth od of instruction recently adopted
in Germany and Switzerland.

Hartford.

1841.

Stereotype edition.

Smith, Mrs. Spencer. First Lessons in English Composition. Boston: Hickling, Swan and Brown. 1856.

Swinton, William. Language Lessons; . An Introductory
Grammar and Composition for Intermediate and
Grammar Grades. New York. 1874.
_New Language Lessons:

Composition.

New York:

An Elementary Gra..qm.a r and

Harper and Brothers.

1886.

363

School Conrposi ti on:

Being Advanced Language-

Le ssons for Grammar Schools.
I3ros. 1874.

New York:

Har per and

A School I!anual of · 1n gl is h Co np osi ti on f or Ad vane r:: d
Grammar Grades, and for F!ig!1 Schools, Academies,
etc.

Har .:: ;er &.: 3 roth ers.

New York:

1878.

Tower, D.B. and '?weed, B.F. A Grammar ot' Composition;
or, Gradual Exercises . in Wr i ting the English Language.
New York:

Daniel Burgess and Company.

1856.

We l d, Allen H. English Grammar, illustrated by
:Exercises in Composition, Analyzing, and Parsing.
Improved edition. Buffa.lo: Phinney and Co. 1854.
Progressive English Grammar:

illustrated with

copious exercises in Analysis, Parsing, a."ld Com;:osi- .

tion, adapted to Schools and .Academies of every grade.
Assisted by an exµer1enced teacher. Boston: Brown,
Taggard and Cbase. 1860.
Whately, Richard. Elements o f Rhetoric. American ·
edition from the 6th London edition, revised.
New 1ork, etc. 1846.

o.

Miscellaneous

The American Catalogue of Books:

or, English Guide to

American Literature, giving the full title of
original works published in the o.s. since the
year 1800. London. 1856.
Clews, Elsie W.

Edu cationa.1 Legi sla ti on and AdJ!linistra-

tion of the Colonial Governments.

New York.

1899.

Coon, Charles L. North Carolina Schools and Academies,
1790-1840. A Documentary History. Raleigh. 1915.

:.:vans, Charles. American Bibliography: A Chronolo gical
Dictionary of all Books, Pamphlets, and Periodical
Publications Printed in the United States of America ••
1639-1820. 12 sols, 1639-1799. .Chicago: Printed
privately for the author. 1903-1934.

I

- ,~ ·- J

364

"

.
Franklin, Benjamin. ::!en:wirs of t ::~e Life and Writings
o ':: 3enjamin Fra.rL:clin •• ,. Written by himself to
a late period,, arid continued to t he time of his
death by his :~:ra..'1.dson; . Willi.am I emple Frank lin.
London, 1818., !

Hinsdale, B. A. Docu3ents Il ~ u s: rative of .Am ericah
Educational History. I n a eport of the Onited States
Com.missioner o f Ed ucation, 18 92-93.
Washing ton. 1895.

Vol. 2.

New England's First Fruits (1643), Sabin's Reprints,
Quarto Series, No. VII. New York. 1865.
Shurtleff, N.B. (Edited by) Records of the Governor
and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England.
5 vols. Eost0n. 1853-54. Vol. II~
'./dr:terbotham, w. An Historical; · Geographical, ComI!lercial,.. and Philosophical View of the Uni t ed States
of' America, and of the Euro p ean Settlements in Am ,'.!rica

and the West-Indies.

New York..

1796.

4 vols.

First American edition.

Vols. II, III.

II. Periodicals.

A. Journals of Education
The Academy:

A Journal of Secondary Education.

(Associated Academic . Principals of the State of

New York)

Edited by G.A. Bacon.

Vols. I - VII.

Syracuse, New York, and Boston • . 1886-1892.
III and IV. .

American Annals of Education and Instruction.
wm. - C. Woodbridge. Vols. I - IX. Boston.

Vols.

Edited by
1830-39.

American Journal of Education. Edited by Henry Barnard.
Vols. l-c2, 34 (l}, Hartford, Conn. 1855-1884 •
.Am.e rican Journal of Education. Edited by William Russell.
iols. I • f ._ Boston. 1826-30.

Common School Journal. Edited by HoracE) Jlann: Vols.
I - X; by Wm. B. Fowle: Vols. XI - XIV. Boston.
1839-1852. '

Conne ct icut Common School J ournal.
Hartford , Conn .

18 38-66 ..

by Henry Barnard.

Vol s . I

Vols. : - Y..XI.

Vols. I 211d

r r edited

XXI; V, TfI, VIII, X,

XV!, XVIII in part.
Sduca ti onal i<.0 view. · Vols. l - 76.
1 9 28. Vols. 3 , 6> 7.

!~ew

Yorl-:. 1391-

Massechusetts Teacher: a journal of school and home
education. (Massachusetts Teachers• Associ a t icn)
Vols. I - 7.XVII. Boston.
XXVI - XXVII.

1848-74.

R.I.Schoolmaster. Vols. I - XX.
Vols. I, IV, V.
The School R0view.

Providence.

1855 - 74.

A Journal of Secondary Education.

Vols. l - Ithaca,
Vols. 1-5, 14.
B.

Vols. I - X.XIII,

Ha.~il ton,

New York, etc., 1893 -

Articles in 1Uscellaneoua Periodicals

Butler, Nicholas ~urray. nThe Reform of nigh School
Education". Harp er's weekl y, 38 (Jan. 13, 1894),
42-4a.
"The Reform of Secondary Education in the Onited
States". Atlantic ~or.t hly , 73 (Mar. 1894), 375.

J

El t ot,Charles. "Wherein Popular d!:ducation Ras Failed".
Forum, 14 (Dec. 1892), 4U-28. ,
Gayley, Charles Mills.

California" .

"Engl ish in the Oniversity of'

The Dial, XVII (July 16, 1894) 29-30.

Gurnsey v. Pitkin •. The Monthl.f1 Law .Reporter, n.s. 12
(Sept. 1859) 307.
.

Hill, A. s. nEnglish in the Schools•. Harper's New
Monthly Ma ga~ine, 71 (June 1885), 1 22-1 33.
Sampson, Martin W. ftEngl1sh at Indiana On1vers1ty".
The Dial, XVII (Jul71 1894), 5.
·

366

III. Secondary Sources

or

A. H::_s tories

3ducation and of Insti tutions.

'

Adam s, O. F. Some .?amous American Schools.
:i . E3tas. 1903.

Boston:

Brown, r.:1mer Ellsworth. The :laking ot Our Mi ddle School s .
New York: Longmans, Green and Co. 1918 .
Bush , George Gary . History of i.ducation in New
Hampshire. O. s. Bureau of Education Circular of
Information, 1898, No. 3 . Washi~gton. 1898.

Cunningham., Frank ij . Familiar Sketches of t he Phillips
Exeter .Academy and Surroondings. Boston: J.R.Osgood
& Co.

1883.

.

Hertzler, Silas. The Ri se of the Publi c High School in
Connecticut. Bal ti ~ore: \·;arwick and York . 1930.
Historical and Statistical Record
of the Oniversity of the State of New York, 17841884. A.lbany: Weed, Parsons & Co. 1885 .

Hough, Frank2.in E.

Ingli s, A. J. The Rise o i' the Hi gh School in Massachusetts. Teachers College Contributions to Educa tion,
No. 45. New York: Teacb.ers College, Colu ~bia
University. 1911.
Jacobs, Lucy. A Historical S"'etch of Sherwood Select
S<:hool. Read before the Old Scholars' Association
at its first annual :reunion, iune 17th, 1911.
J'enks, Henry F. ~ Edited by ) Catalogue of the Boston
Public Latin School with an Hi storical SkAtch.
Boston. 1888.

Lull 1 H.G. Inherited T~ndencies of Secoodai-1 Instruct1on .1n the Onited i:>tates. Ontversity of California
Publications• Education, Vol~ 3, #3, .PP• 155-281.
April 15 1 1913.

in

Lyman, Rollo La Verne. English Grammar
American ·
Schools before 1850. Reprint ed from Depart~ent
of the Interior, Bureau or Education Bulletin, 1921,
Bo. 12. Chicago, Illinois. 1922.

1

,,·1

j.
I

'I
!

l{ay~s,

'i;dward. ] istor77 07: Educat i on in ~!ississi_'.)pi.
0 . S. .Du·re au o f.' .i~ducation, Circ1Jl.ar af In:'clr'.:1a tion
-~k ;::, , 1899 .
?iashi::1;;ton. 1 89:-J .

Mont gomery, Thoma s Harrt sor4. A ITi sto:ry o:"' t he Uni ~1er­
si ty. or ?a.'1.nsylva...'1.ia from i ts .fl'oundation to A . D.
1770. Phil ad el ~1 hia. 1900.
?lorrison, A. J. The Beginning s o f .Pu bl i c Education
i:l Virginia, 1776-1860. Richrncnd . 1917~
I

I

J

I

-~ u !' eau

The History or Education in Jelaware.
of Education, Circular of Information ;#3,

1893.

Washington.

?owell, Lyman ?.

I

. I
I

Pratt, Daniel J.

1893 •

Annals of Public Education in the

State of' New York, from 1626 to 1746.

.Albany.

1872.

S eybolt~

Robert Prancis. Source Studies in American
Colonial Education: The Private School. University
of Illinois Bull etin

Urba.."'la.

..

;,\_

#re.

University of Illinois,

1925.

Stei..."ler, Bernard c. History of Education in 14~ r;land.
o. s. Bureau of Education, Circular of Informa tion
#2, 1894.

Washington. · 1894.

Stout, John E. The Development of High-School Curricula
in the North Central States from 1860 to 1918.
Supplementary Educational Monograph #15. The
Oniversity of Chicago, C hicago~ Illinois. 1921.
Swett, Joti..n.

Pedagogics.

Amerlca.n ?ublic Schools, History and

New York:

American Book Co.

c. 1900.

Tolman, William H.
History of Higher Education i ~
Rhode Island. o. S. Bureau of Education, Circular of
In!'ormation /fl.

Wa shington.

1894.

Vanderpoel, Emily Noyes (Compiled by) Chronicles of a
Pioneer. School :from 1792 to 1833, Being the History of
Miss Sara..li Pierce and her Litchfi eld School.

bridge, Mass.:

_

Oniversity Press.

1903.

Ca:i-

Kore Chronicles of a Pioneer School trom 1792 to. 1835, ·
Being added history on the Litchfield F.eme.le A~ademy
,
kept by Miss Sarah Pierce and her Nephew .J'ohn .Pter.ce

Brace • . New Yorkt

The Cadmus Book Shop.

1927. ·

368

mat"'On
""he
q
.,,..,
,,~.;n
-~
o '!'e
"C_,. 1.;_"'1
0-<"
';:t
~
"-,
:.~ Oster
_,
•
J. !
...,, egi
.,
._.1.....
.!. ..:,..
0,
- 0 -'·;:- t h
!. ~
·""
C;.
.., . nP
l. C'
. .l.
4 ,n -.!..:;-n b·
'.;.Q,_.
1 rl er n OU
""' ;..
,.,.,...,
L 0 n "~• on •
l ',,.lt"'9
·. J j ,e c"""
vJ ,.,_
'- ""n d •
.J , •

-

Th e; Curri c ulum an d Tex t-bo oks o f 'Sn glish Sc'.1oo l s i n
the Fi r s t J alf of t he 1 7th Cen tur:r . 'l'ransact1ona
o f t h e .3.i. blio graphical So cL~ ty , VI. Lo mlon. 190 3 .
The Sngli s h ·-' ram.mar Schools t o 1660 :
Cu r riculum and :)ract ic e . Ca:ibridge .

t h eir
1 J tJ5 .

B. College Ca talogues, Entra nce
nequirements, and Examination s.
Col lege o f New Jersey. Catalogue of t he Of f i cers and
Students of t he Coll ~ ge of New Jersey , f or t he
Academical Year, 1870- 1 '71. Princeton, New Jersey .
18 70.

Cornell Oniversity.

question Papers used a t t he

Examin ation f or Admi ssion and a t t h e ExSl:lina ti on for
University S c hol arsh ~. :ps. Ith aca., ~lew l o r ic. l.390-1301 .
·r h e Cornell Un iversity Re gister..

by t he Oniversity.

Harris, Wm. T.

Ith.:i.ca, P'..lbl ish ed

1880-1900.

Requirements for Ad.'!iission t o Freshman

Clas s i n College s, On1 versi ties, and Sc hools o f

Technolo gy .

In Rep ort of t he Commissioner of

Educ a tion, 1896-97, I, 457-612.

J ones, Richard.

\~ ashington.

Coll ege- Entran ·e English.

18 98.

4th Annual

Re po r t of the Exa."!lination Dep a rtment of t h e Oni ver-

si t y of t he St ate of New York, 1336.

Leighton, R. F.

Albany~

E.::.:rvard Examinat ion Papers.

1897.

Boston.

1881.

,.

'·

'\
h

Ni ghtingal e, A. ?.

Re c~ irements

Coll e ges o f t he Oni t ed St ates.

for Admission to
New York .

..

. ii\'··~
.. ,· ...
.'•

.\

1879. ·
\

\ '\:'

l\~
·~··1

.\-

I

·~/

, •(

J~

I

J

~

C. Associations:
Proceeding• and Committee Reports

!

.
i

Association of the Colleges and Preparatory Schools in
the Kiddle States and Maryland. Proceedings, 18931900.

j
I

1893, 1894.

l
•
,,~

~""':"

.....

....... -

. '-'.

Uil:JW!.<"""'~"~

---.1...--.. ~

..

~.:~;.x

JI

,,

--~_'!,.•_;·"

069

11 ege
Co .J..-4..

11 ,,,,,oc-1 ~ t "' 0"'
.... ._ r;.l. -""' .1..:.

.ti...:> ~

?roceeding s.

,-.. -i>
. ,;1 . •

''"1

....i.. ....

· ...<r~
, 0
· ~ .....:.. :.. ....

~
.i.. :::l t 0
~t,..u
...,.. s

!'.)-r':i

~ ... .:..LL

.,-.·n l ~.,., ..:;
....<F.·:i
_!. ~;;.• ~·. - 1-l !. .i.t~

•

1889.

Dexter, F . 3 . Inf ~ u en~e o:i'.' the Sng .:.. ish tJni vers:.t:iea
I in the Development of .N ew Engla.'11.d . In ?roceedings
, 0.::.. the ~Ias sac husetts ]t.sto:-ical Soc:i e ty, 187'3-1880 .
Volume XVII , ~540 c t sec. •

National _(i;du catio nal

~ssoci a tio n .

. Jo11rna l o:' ?:-o-

ceedings and Addresses, 1894 .
··Report of

t ~1 e

Req,uire~".l ents,

Committee or.. Coll z:ge-m t r a:r::,_: 1,:. ;
.July, 1899.

Published by th;:: Associa-

tion.

Report of the Col.lllnittee on Secondary School Studir;s
(commonly known as the Report of the Committee of Ten)
Washington: U.S. Bureau .o.f Education. 1893.
New England Associa tion of Coll eges and P:-eps.:ra tory
Schools. Addresses and P 1~oceedings, 1888, 1883,
1894.

D. Miscellaneous.
Arnold, Thomas. Miscellaneous Works. First A.mericar:
Edition with Nine Aaditional !!:ssays. New Yo r k :
D. Appleton and Co. 1845.

Bache, Alexander Dallas . Report on Education in
Europe, to the Trustees of the Girard Coll s ge for
Orphans. Phi l adelphia. 1839.
Brubachar, John
York. 1921.

s..

Henry Barrutl!d on Educatior..

Nel'<

Carpenter, G. R., Baker; E.T., and Scott, F. N.
Teaching of English. New York, London, etc.
Longmans , Green & Co. 19 27•

Eggleston, Edward. · The Transit of Civilization from
England to America in the 17th Century. New York. 1901
Harris, Wm. T.

Tl' Education in the Several States".
In
Report of the Onited States Commissioner of Education

189~94.

Vol. 2.

Washington.

1896.

070

Har""Tard Coll:: ge. Ar.nual Rep orts a f t he ?r•as1.d ent and
Treasurer of Harvard College , 1866-87.
Cambridge ,.
.
Mn~; s.

-'Ir

- ...

1888.

Harvard University.. Twenty Yes.rs of Sc~wel .:wd Coll2ge
Engli s h .. Camb:r-idg e. 1896.

Report of t .r.e Committee on Col?lposition anc R.h e t:) ri c
to the Board of Overseers of Harvard Co.l lnge.
e,1892J, 1895, 1897.

Inglis, Alexander James.

tion.

Boston:

Princi ples of Secc-ndar:,' Educa-

Roughton Mifflin Co. c. 1918.

Kni ght, Edgar W. (Edited by) Reports on European
Education by John Griscom,, Victor Cousin,
Calvin E: . Stowe. New York. 1930.

Mirrielees, Lucia B. Tea.Ch ing Compo s ition i n High School.
Chicago, New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co. c. 1931.
Quick, Robert H. Educational Hero:rmers..
D. Appleton & Co. 1892.

New York :

Quincy, Edmund. Life of Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts.
Boston. 1868.
Reports' of the Cases Argu~d and Deter:;iinad in the Su oreme
Court of the State of "ermont. £nd ed. St. Paul:
1890. Vol. cE.
Stowe, Charles l~dward and Lyman Beooher~ · Sarriet
Beecher Stowe: The Story of h.c r Life. · Boston::
Houghton Mi.fflin Co. 1911.

Trusler, Harry r-taymond.

Milwaukee, Wiscon sin.

Essentials of' School Law.
1927.

I

l

l
!

