BROWN'S GRAMMAR IMPROVED.
THE

INSTITUTES
OF

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.,
METHODICALLY ARRANGED ;
WITH

COPIOUS LANGUAGE LESSONS;
ALSO

A KEY TO THE EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.
DESIGNED ~'OR TUl'

USE OF SCHOOLS , ACADEMIES, AND PUIVATE STUDENTS.

/
BY1,./
'·

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GOOLD BROWN,
,,
AUTHOR OF THE GRAM.MAR OF ENGLISH GR AMMARS.

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"Ne quis i(Jitur tanquamparvafastidtae Grammattces

e /emenea."-QUINTILIAN.

A NEW AND REVISED EDITION,
Wl'l'H EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND CONS'l'HUC'l'ION.

BY HENRY KIDDLE, A.M.,
LATE BUPEllINTENDENT 01' COldllON SOBOOL8 1 l!IEW Y_QRlt CI'XY. ,

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NEW YORK:

vVILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY,
56 & 58 LA.F A.YETTE PLACE.

1882.

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17 tl. .
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ADVERTISEMENT.
THE excellence of DnowN's GnA!l!MA ns, both as trcntiscs :mcl srhonl mnnnnlR, has been
very generally ncknowlec;ged; but the system of instruct ion embod iecl therein has ueen
found to be at Yarinnce, in some important r espects, with that most generally in u&e "t
the present time, and favored lly the best ccln cntors. Experience h as shew n that mere
pnrsing, however familiar it mny r ende r the pupil wlth definitions and rul es, by mechanical r epetition , does n ot fully a ttain the most important entl of grammatical instruction, to make the lcnrn er expert and accurate iu the u se of ianguage, us well us intelligent
in respect to its principles and rules.
In the present edition of these grammars, the more m odern Rystem of imtrnction hns
been introduced: copious exercises in con stru ction and composition ha ve been inserted
in connection with th ose of nnaly sis and parsing, t:rns finpplying a complete Rerics of
practical LANGUAGE LESSONS, and in rnri11 g to the student a thorough critical knowledge
of his mother tongue. Til e car efully a rranged <'Xerci;;cs in corr~ct ion, or False Syntax,
inserted under each rnlc,- covering as they do t'1c whole ftcld of ~y n tactical criticism , will be found to contribute greatly to th is rc,ult.
The arbitrary n1C'tho<I of pre,;e nting elaborate and concise definitio ns without any previous exposition of the id eas c•n wh ich they depen d, has been modified by the insertion,
where r equisite, of carefully r.onstrn ctcd developme11t lesson.•, adapted to the g rade of
this work, so that nothing, either in the nse of tPrm8 or the expression of though t, might
anticipate the needed ~xplanat:on.
Numerous corrections imd alterations hnvc been marle, but not snch ns to interfere
essentially with the original system of grnmmar con tni ncd in th ese workR, but with the
exclusive object of adaptin g the m to a more approved Hystem of practical instruction.
The improvement in the t ypograph y of thi8 new edi tion will n ot fail to commend the books
to general favor.
With these alterations, the pnblisticrs h ope that these \l'Orks will be fonncl more u seful
to the public, and will prove a more vnluable aid to teachers in imparting instruction in
this really importnnt branch of education.
NEW

Yonx, July 1, 1882.

Enterc,1, rrccording to Act of
GOOLD

Congres ~,

in the year 1856, by

BROWN,

In the Clerk's office of t he Distrkt Court of the District of Mils8achnsetts.

COPYRIGHT,
WILLIAM WO OD & CO::IIPANY.
1882.

Tnow's
PRINTING AND B OOKBINDING COMPANY,
201-213 East Twelfth Street,
NEW Yom;:.

PREFACE.
•
"Neque enim aut aliena f!ituperare, met 1wstra Jactantius praeclicare, animus est.''
1. LANGUAGE is the principal vehicle of thought; nnil so numerons and important
are the end s to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what mnnner th o
affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will ev• r
entitle it to a considerable shine of attention in civilized communities, nnd t o an important place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation to its
origin-whether we consider it !\ special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of inilustrya natural en dowment, or a n artificial invention,-certain it iR, that, in the present slnle
of things, our knowledge of it dependR, in a great m easure, if not entirely, on the .v oluntary exerci se of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities afforded us. One mny
indeed 11cquire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as t o enj oy the ordinary
advantages of speech; and he who is sntfafied with the dialect h e has so obtain ed, will
find no occasion for treatises on gra mmar ; but he who i s desirous either of r eli s hing the
beauties of literary composition, or of expressing his sentiments with propriety and ease,
mn•t make the principles of language his study.
2. It is n ot the ·business of the grammarian to gil'e law to language, but to teach it,
agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, nncl
with which his instru
vhich critics
denominate GOOD USE
ciple, which
o the quaint
is equally o:i;posed to f
peculiarities of ancien
rity. Those
rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority, mny be called the
Instit utes of Grammar.
·
3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language; to
expres.• them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth; to il·
lust rate them by appropriate examples and exercises ; and to give to the whole all pos~iblc
advantage from method in the arrangement, are the objects of the following work. T~
nuthor has not deviated much from 'the principles adopted in the most approved gram·
mars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not liis
design to introduce novelties, but to form a practfcal digP.st of established rules. He hna
not labored to 8ubvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial,
but to improve upon it, in its present applicatio n to our tongue.
4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect ; and amendm ent may be rlesirabl e,
where 8ubversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain tho
principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the ~tudent, the
writer has in general adopted those d octrines which am already best known; and has
contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of inculcating
them. The scope of his labors has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines
anew ; and, with a scrnpulous regard to the best uRage, to offer, on that authority, some
furthu contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. The errors of former
grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose; ancl of their deficiencies
the reader may judge, wh en he secs in what manner they are here supplied.
5. This trea tise being intended for general use, and adapted to Bil classes of learners,
wa.• designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, disencumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct informntion on the subj ect.
Littl e r egard has therefore been paid to gainsayers. GrammarianR have ever clisputc·rl,
and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt most in philological
controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham:
"The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes,
Produces sapless le!\ves instead of fruits,"
Ii. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge everything to be ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphiloaophical, render the whole ground forever
disputable, and weary themselves in beating the, air. So variouR have been the notions
of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some
of their books. Amidst this rage for apeculation on a subj ect purely practical, various
attempts have been mado to overthrow that system of instruction which long u se has

IV
rendered venerable, and long experience proved to he trnef11l , B11t it is manifestly mnch
easier .to raise even µlausible objeetluns against this sy,tern , than to invent another lc"s
object10nablc. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved . Their
history will give no encouragement to fntnre innovators.
7. While some have thu s wasted their en ergies in eccentric flight s, vainly ~npposing
that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories ; others, with more
success, not bettP.r deserved, hnve multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by i>bridging or modifying the books they had u sed in childhood. So that they who are at nil
acquainted with the origin,1md character of the various compends thus introduccll into
our schools, cannot but des1r<> a work which shall deserve " more exten"i ve and more
permnnent patronage, bnsed npon better c lnims. For, as Lord Bacon observPs, the nurnber of ill-written books is not be rli minishecl by ceasing to write, but by 'II riting othcr8
which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the ~p nriou s .
8. The nature of the subject almost •mtirely precludes invention. Th e author hns,
however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in
works of this sort; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned and
popular of his predecessor•. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and write
for himself, he trusts it will be evident th>tt few have excellect him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictatr,s of that authority which gives law
to language.
.
9. All science is laid in the nat nre of things; and he only who .seeks it th ere, .c an
rightly guide others in the paths of knuwledge. He alone can know whether hi~ predecessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgment ind ependent of theirs. Bnt
with what sh,.meful servility have many fol sc or faulty definitions and rnles been copied,
and copied from one grammar to another, a s if authority had canoni,ed their errorA, or
none had eyes to see them! Whatsoeve r is dignified nnd fair, b nlso modest nnd r easonable; but modest y docs not consist in having n o opinion of one·s own, nor rea son in
following with blind partiality the foot.-teps of others. Grammar unsupported by
auth ority is, indeed, mere fiction. Bllt what apology is thiR, for that authorship which
has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall he who cannot writ.' for
himself, improve upon him who can? It iH not deference to merit, but impudent pretense, prac ticing on the credulity of ignorance ! Commonnes• alone exempts it from
scrutiny, and the success it has is but the wages of its own worthlessness! To read and
be informed, is to mak:e a proper nse of books for the advancement of learning; but to
assume to be an authnr by editi ng mere commonp laces and stolen criticisms, is equally
beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man.
10. Grammar bein g a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent
person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly
on the subject should ex hibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem that
a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the
q.rt of speaking and writing well ; so that correctness of language and neatness of style
are M rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have been, however,
several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talen~,
to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But these, for an obvious
reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of success ; and even the most
meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability
which does h on or to ttemselves, while it givea cause to regret their lack of an inducement
to further labor. The mere grammnrian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a
r eward; and to those who were best qunlified to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence.
11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with
most of the grammatical treatises already publi shed, the author conceived that the
objects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be bPtter effected than they had been in any
work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements here
offered are neither few nor incon;;iderable. H e d oes not mean, however, to d epreciate
the labors, or to detract from the merits, of tho!'e who h ave gone before him and taught
with acknowledged skill. H e h as studiously endeavored to avail himself of all the light
they have thrown upon the subject. For his owu information, he has carefully perused
more than two hundred Engli sh grammars, and has glanced over many others that were
not worth reading . With this publication in view, h e has also resorted to the original
source,; of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has
seen and heard of our vernncular tongue, but has sought with some diligence the analogies
of speech in the structnrn of several other lnngunges.
12. His progress in compiling this work h"s been slow, and not unattended with labor
and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises
already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject,
he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate
obj ec t-the production of a practical school grammar.
13. Ambitious of making not a large bnt an acceptable book, he has compressed into this
volume the most essential !larts of a mass of materinlti from which he could as easily have

PREFACE.

v

fonned a folio. Wheth<'r the toil be compem;ated or not, is 11 matter of little consequence;
he h:ts neither written for bread, nor built castleR in the air. He is too well versed in the
history of his theme, too well aware of·the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge any
con fid ent anticipations of success ; yet he wili not deny that his hopes are large, beiu g
conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the r eader to a thorough perusal of the following pages. A grammar Rhould speak for it<elf. In a work of this nature, every word
or tittle which does not recommend the .performance to the understanding and taste of
the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet, if some small errors have
escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to print with perfect
accnracy a work of this s:ze, in which so many little things should be 9bserved, remembered, 11n1l made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity
may not sometimes baffl<>, and minuteness sometimes elude, To most persons grammar
8Jc111s a dry and difficult subject; but there is a dispositi.m of mind, to which what is
nr<lnous, is for that very reason alluring. The difflcultieR encountered in boyhood from
the use of a miserable epitome, and the deep impression of n few mortifying. blunders
made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar; circumsta nces having
Rince favored this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued tho study, with an assid..:ity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense.
14. This work contahrn 11 full series of exercises adapted ·to its several parts, with
notices of the manner in which they are to be u sed, a ccording to the place assigned
them. The examples of false syntax, placed under the rules, are to be corrected orally;
the four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subj ect, are t o be written
out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author bas been
studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those only which
were very Rhort. He h ns, in general, reduced each example to a Ringle line. And, in
this ma nner, h o hns been al.lie to present, in this small volume, 11 series of exercisefi, more
vnrious thnn are given in nny other grammar, nnd nearly equal in number to all that
arc contained in Murray's two octavos. It is believed that a grammatical treatise at onco
so com preheneivo and concise, has n ot before been offered to the public.
15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, Is, to cause the principal d~fini­
tions and rn'eA to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they ml\y ever afterward s be
r cl\d ily applied. Ornl instruction may smooth the way, and facilitate the labor of the
le>nner; b11t the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar, withont
imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will it avail anything for
the stud ent to r ehea rse definitions and ruleAof which he makes no practie11l application.
In etymology and syntax, h e should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of
his book, and th en applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a
good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult; and the exercise ig well
calcnlatcd to improve the memory, and strengthen all the faculties of the mind .
Hi. The m Jde of instruction h ere recommended is the r esult of long and Puccessful experience. There is nothing in it which any p erson of common abilities will find it
d itlicnlt to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and exn:nple, rule a nd praxie, which no man who means to tench grammar well, will ever de>ert,
\\·ith the hope of finding a n other m ore rational or more ensy. The book itself will mako
r.ny one a grammarian, who will tnke the trouble to olJRerve and practice what it teaches;
r.nd even if some instructors should not adopt the re1•diest and most efficient method of
rnaking th eir pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to in struct by it as effectually as they can by any other. ·Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our langllt1gP, so as t o have some tolerable sldll in teaching it, will here find almost everything
that is trne in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper h ead, 80 as t o be
ensy of reference. And perhaps there nre f.ew, however learned, who, on a perusal of
the volume, would not be furn ished with some important rules and facts which had n ot
before occurred to their own obstrv11tion.
17. '!'he greatP.st p eculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to Gpeak or
write a grcnt den!, and the teacher very little. But both Rhould constantly remember that
r;rnm:nnr is the art of speaking and writing well; an art which can n o more be acquired
withont practice thar, that of dancing or swimming. And each should be car eful to perform h is part handsomely-without drawling, omitting, stopping, h esita ting, falterin g,
mi scalling, r eiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquoting, mispron otmdng, or nny of the thousand faults which render utterance disagr eeable and inelegant. It ia the learner's diction that is to b" improved; and the >ystem will be found
well calculated to effect th at object, l>ecnuse it demands of him, not only t o answer qucs·
t ions on grammar, but also t o make a prompt and prncticii,l application of what he h a'
just learn ed. If the c!Ms be tolerable readers, it will not be n ecessary for the teacher t o
my much ; and·, in g eneral, he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should,
however, carefully superintend their rehearsals; give the word to the n ext, when any one
errs; anrl order the exercise in such 11 manner that either his own voice, or the example
of his best scholars, may gradnn.lly correct the ill habits of the nwkwnrd, till all lel\rn t c
recite with clen.rncss, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible t c
others,
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vu

PI:,EFACE.

PREFACE.

18. The cxercige of pnr;;ini:: commen c<'s immedintcly nfter the first le~son of 0tymology,
imd is cnrried on progressively till it embraces all the-doctrines that nre applicable t o i t.
If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the fitudent per- fcctly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It r equires just
enough of thought to keep the miu<l nttentiv e to what the lips are uttering; while .it ndvanccs by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without
excui;c>, if he does not know wlrnt to Ray. Being neither wholly extemporaneous n or
wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy's converHation, and more
case than a formal recitation, or declamation; nn d is therefore an exerciRe well calculated
to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluen cy in ordinary speech-a species of elocution as valuable as any other.
19. The befit il1struction is thnt "·hich ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill
in practice; and grammar is best tallgl1t by that process which brings its doctrines most
directly home to the habits ns well n;o to the though ts of the pupil-which the most effcctunlly conquers inattention, nnd leaves the deepest impress of Fhamo npon blundering
ignornncc. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importanco
than that of par:;ing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less u sefnl, ns a means of instruct ion, is the practice of correctiug false syntax orally, by regular aiH1 logical forms of nrgnment; nor does this
nppcnr to have been more ably c1ircctcc1 to\\"anl the pllrposes of discipline. There is so
much to be done, in order to effect whnt b des irnlJ!e in the management of these things,.
nnd so little prospect that c lncntion will c1·cr Le generally raised to a just appreciation
of that study which, more thl\n all other s, form.~ t h1i min<l to hnbits of correct thmkin g ;
th at, in reflecting upon the state of the scieuce at the pre8ent t ime, and upon the means
of its improvement, the nuthor cannot but sympathize, in some degree, with the sadn?ss
of the learned Snnctins; who tells UR that he had •·always lamented, and often with
tcnrs, thnt while other bnmches of learning were excellently taught, grammar, which i~
the foundation of all others, lay so much nc>glcctcd, an d that for this n eglect there seemed
to be no ndequate remedy."-l'ref. to .Minerva. The grammatical u se of language is. in
sweet alli:mce with the morn!; and n si milnr r egret rncms t o have prompted the followmg
exclamation of the Christian poet:
"Sacred Interpreter of hum an thought,
H ow few respect or use thee a s they ought I " -Cowper.

ber, fdminlne gender, and nominative case.·• And then the definitions of all these things·
sh.ould have followed in r egular numer ical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong,
for virtue addressed becomes an Individual; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct
contradiction of what he says of the word, in his section on gender; he gives the person
wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou ; he repeats the definite article three times
unnecessarily, and in&erts two needless preposit10nR, making them different where .the relation is precisely th.e same ; and all this, in a sentence of two lines, to tell the propertieR
of th.e noun Virtue /-But, in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the proper·
ties of the parts of speech ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all
of them are perfectly familiar, and' till he can discern, with the quickness of thought,
what is true or false in the descri(Jtion of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these
the author omits: and, on account of this omission, hi~ whole method of etymological
parsing is miserably deficient.
23. Secondly-from his syntactical parsing: "Vice degrades us." . Here his form for
the word Vice is-" Vice is a common Rubstantive or the third pef'>on, in the singular nnm.
ber, and the nominative case.'' Now,. when the learner is told that thio is the Ryntactical
parsing of a noun , and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, th"t to ad.
vance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely to omit the ven.
der-thi• being th e only differenoe between the two form s. But even this difference had
no other origin than the compiler's carcles•ness in preparing·his octavo book of exercisee
-the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then? Is tlie syntactical pars:
ing of a noun to be precisely the same a~ the etymological? Never. But Murray, and
nll who admire and follow hi• work, arc oontent to parse many words by halves-making
a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both pnrts of the exercise, everything which con.
Rtituws the ditforencc. He should here .have said-" Vice IS a common noun of the third
person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case; and is the subject of d.e·
grade.j ; according to the rule which sa.ys, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a
verb muet be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is-vice degrades." This i~
the whole de:icription of the word, with itR construction; and to say less is to leave tho
matter unfinishc<l.
.
2~. 'rhirJly-from his" mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences: 'The man
is prudent which speaks little.' Th.is sentence," says MmTay, "is incorrect; because
tohich is a pronoun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antecedent
man, whic~ is masculine. But a pronoun Rhould agree with. its antecedent in gender,
etc., acconlmg to the fifth rule of syntax.
Which should therefore be who a relative
pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent mmi; and the sentence should stand thus: •The
man is pruden t who speaks little.' " Again : " '.After I visit.ed Europe, I returned to
America.' This -~entence," says h.e, "i-Y not correct, because the verb vi->lted is in the imp erfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time
r eferred to by the verb returned, to which it re lates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax,
when veros are used that, in point of time, relate to each other. the order of time should
be ob•erved. The imperfect tense visited should therefore have bem1 had visited, in the
pin perfect ten,;e, r epresenting the action of viaiting, not only as past, but al.Ro as prior to
the time of returning. The sentence corrected would stmw tlms: 'After I liad visited
Europe, I returned to America.'" These are the fir8t two exampleK of Murray'8 verbal
corrections, and Lh e only one• retained by Alger in his tmp1·oved, recopy-rigli.ted editin11
of M11rray'o Exercises. Yet, in each of them, i• the arii:umentfltion palpably fal •e ! In
t he :ormer, truly, which shoul<l b e who; but not because which is of lhe neuter yender;
bnt because the application of that relative to persons iH now nearly obsolete. Cnn any
gramma.rian forget .that, in speR.king of brute animals, mal~ or female, we commonly uoe
wn.ich, and never who ? Bnt if whlclt must needs be neuter,- the world is wrong in this .
.A• for the latter example, it is righ t as it stands, and the correction is,- in. some sort tautologic>ll. '!'he conjunct.ive aclvcrb after makes one of the aetions subsequent to the ~ther,
and giHs to the vi•ittng all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. "After
I visited Europe," i:; equivalent to "When I h.ad visited Europe." The whole argument is
therefore void.
25. These few brief i!Ju3trations, out of thousn.ncls that might be addnced in proof of
the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced to show
that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not be~n treated
with that care and ability which. its importance demands. It is hardly to be supposed
that men unnsed to a t eacher's. duties can be qualified to compose such books ao will most
facilitate his labors. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in r~pect to
grammar, the evidences of failure are . constantly inducing changes from one system to
another, and 11.lmost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same
dis11.ppointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an experienced teacher. long and
nssidllou~ly devote~ to the st~dy, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplymg the aid and guidancfl which they require.
. ~6. From the doctrines of gramm11.r novelty is rigi<lly excluded. They consist of detail:; to which taste can lend no charm and genius no embelliohment. A writer may express them with neatness and perspicuity-their importance alone can commend them to
1wtice. Yet, in <lrnwing hi~ illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian

20. No dirccliom, either oral or written, can ever enable the h eedless and the unthi1:king to s peak or wriLe well. Th at must i mle~d be an admirable lJook which can attract lev1l.y
1o ><Ober rettectiun, teach thoug h t!eRsness tl'c trne m eaning of words, raise vulgarity from
its fon<lncs• for low cxamplc8, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of ~pee c h,
nnd en.use grnmrnatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers themselves are
so often lamen tably deficient in them. Yet something may be effected by means of a
better book, if a better can be introduce<l. And what withstands?- Whatever there is of
i ~ nor a nce or error in relation to the preniises. And is it arrogant t o S!\Y there is much?
Alas l in r egard to this, as well ns to many a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm,
,Jfttllri non .mnt sicut m ultis viclent?ff-Many things arc not ns they seem to many. Common errors are npt to concenl themselves from the common mind; nnd the appeal to r easnn nnd just authority is often frw;trntcrl, because a wrong head d efies both. But, apart
from this, ther e are difficult ies: multiplicity l>Crplcxes choice ; inconvenience nttcnds
chnnge; improvement requires effort; conflicting theories demand i:xamination; the
principles of the science arc unprofitnbly disputed; the end i s often divorced from the
means; and much that belies the title has been publi shed unrler the name.
21. It is certain that the printed formulnries most commonly furnished for tha important exercises of parsing anrl correctin g, arc 0ither so awkwardly written, or so negligently
foll owed ns to mnke grnmma.r in th e moutlrn of onr juvenile orators, little else than a
crude and faltering j>lrgon. M{nray cvid<·nlly in t ended that his bo<'.k of exercises shonl<l
be co nstantly used with his· grn nnnar ; but he made the examples Iz:1 the former so <lull
and prolix, that few learner;;, if nny, h ave ever gone throu~h the senes a!5"reea~ly t o Ins
direction. The publishing of them in n separate volume hns probably glVen nse to the
absurd practice of endeavoring to t each hi s g rnrnmar without them. The forms of parsing and correcting which thi8 author furnishes are also mioplaced; an<l when ~ound by
the learner. are of little uFe. They are so verbose, awkward, irreguh•r, nnd deficient, thnt
the pupil m·ust be a dull boy, or utterly ignornnt of grammar, if he cannot ei:cpreos the f_ac~s
cxtempornneously in better Englisr.. When we consider ho\~ exceedingly u;nportant It IS
that the business of a sch ool should proceed without loaR of tlme, and that, m the ornl exerciseR here spoken of, each vnpil •honld go through his part vromptly, clearly, correctly,
nnd fully, we cannot think it a light objec1ion that t hese forms, so often to be repeat_ed ,
nrc badly written. Nor does the objection lie agninst this writer only: Ab uno disce
omnes. But the reader may demand some illu strntions.
22. First-from his etyn1ological parsing: ·• 0 Virtue! how amiable thou art I " Hero
his form for the word Virtue is-" Virtue is a common .<;ubstantive nf the neuter gemler,
of the third person, in the sin gnlnr 1111111bc r. anrl tlw nominative case." It _shoultl h iwo
\JL'{! n- " Vi1·tue i s a c1: 1111non 11ou11, }ll'r:·;<. uifieil j) l' UJH1'!' 1 uf Lia.: ~ec·01u l lJC'! 'Suu, E'lng nlar 11tu11~

viii

Pl!EFAC:E.

PHEFACE.

mny select some gems of thought, which will fa sten on the memory a worthy Rentlmen~,
or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Snch examples have been taken from various authors and interspersed through the following pages.
<.n. The ~oral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmo8t importance, it is especially incumbent on all those who are ende:woring to confer the benefits of intellectual
culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may
have an improper tendency. nnd be ultimately prejudicial to those whom ttey instruct.
In preparing this trentise for publication, the author has been solicitou ~ to avoid everything that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupnlous reader; and, of the
several thoui;ands of quotations given, h e truRts that the greater part will be consider ed
valuable on account of the sentiments they contain.
28. He has n ot thought it n eedful, in a work of this kincl, to encumber his pages with
a useless parade of names and r eferen ces, or to distinguish very minntely what is copied
and what is original. All strict definitions of til e 8ame thing are necessarily similar. The
doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own langnage and illustrated
by that of others. Where anlhority was r equisite, names ham been inserted; n.nd in
general also where there wn.s room. In the doctrinal parts of the volnme, not only qnotations from others but most examples macle for the occasion, are marked with guillcm et s, to distinguish them from the main t ext ; while, to n.lmost everything which iB
r eally taken from any other known writer, a name or r eference is addec1. In tile exercises
for correction few references have been given ; b ecause it is no credit to any author, to
hnve written bad English. But the intelligent reader wil! i·ecognize as quot,nions a large
portion of the examples, and know from what works they are taken. T o the school-boy
this knowledge is neither important n or interesting.
29. Many of the definitions nnd rules of grammar h ave so long been public property,
nnd have been printed under so m1rny names, that it is difficnlt, if not impossible, to
know to whom they originally belonged. Of these. the author h as freely availecl himself,
thongb seldom without some amendment; while he h as carefnlly abatained from everything on which he supposed there coulcl now be any indiviclual claim. He h:>s therefore
fewer per~onal obligations to ackn ow ledge, than most of those who are r eputed to have
written with sufficient originality on tb e snbject.
30. In truth, not a line has here been copied with any view to Fave the labor of composition; for, n ot to compile an English grammar from others already ~xtant, bu~ to
compose one more directly from the so nrces .of the art, was thP; tnsk which the writer
proposed to him self. And though the theme 1s not one upon .which~ man. may h opo to
write well with little r eflection, it is trne, that the parts of this treatise wh1eh h 1we cc:st
him the most labor, arc those which "consist chiefly of materials selected fro m the writings of others." 'l'hesc, however, are n ot the didactical porti~n s of the bo?k, but the
proofs and examples; which, according to the custom of the ancient grammanans, ought
to be taken from other authors. But r,o much have the makers of our modern grammars
been allowed t o presume upon the r espect and acquiescence of their r e:><lerR, that the
ancient exactness on this point woulct often appear pedantic. 1ofany p~rase8 a1?d sentP.11ces either original or nnonymous will thercforn be found among the illustrations of
the following work; for it was not supposed that any r ender would d emand for. every
thing of this kind the authority of a great name. An on{·mo:rn e.xamples are sufficient to
elucidate principl es. if not to cAt.'1.bh sb them; and cluc1dat10n 1s oft en the wle pnrpose
for which an example is needed.
.
.
:n. The author iR well aware that no writer on grammar has an y nght to propose
him•elf as authority for what h e teaches; for every lnn g.uage, being t.he col!lm?~ property of all who use it, ought to be carefully gnar<l e ~ agmnst any caprice of .md1v uJu al ~,
n11d especially against thnt which might attempt to impose e:ron eons or arbitrary d.efimtions and rules. "Since the matter of which we are treating,''. says the ph1lolog1st of
Salamanca "is to be verified, first by r eason , nnd th en by testimony and u si;ge, none
ought to ,;onder if we sometimes deviate from the trnck of great m en; for, v.:1th wha~­
'"'cr authority ar.y grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have c.onfirmed his
ns~crtions by r eason, and al so by examples, he shall win n o confidence m respect to
Krnmmnr. For, as Seneca says, Epistle \J5, ' Grammarians are th~ !7'.'-ar~1~ms, not the
ontlwra, of language.' "-Minerva, Lib. L Cap. ii. Yet, as wh at. 1s rntmt1vely seen to
be true or fal se, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many pom ts m gram~a_r r;eed
nnthing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated; n ay, it woulcl Reem an rninnon s
rctlection on the under standing of the r eader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot b"t
ba evirlent to nll who speak th e language.
.
32. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable r1val.ry, s? far as they
become competitors for the same prize; but in compPlition there is n othmg d1shonorablP,
while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means.
It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a fa~ se apology ;
anrt it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which pro.mpts
11 man to discln.im in one way what h e a ssnm cs in another-or to underrate the dul1e$ of

more of the matter than the generality of English grammarianR; and he who begins
with saying that "little can be expected" from the office he assumeR, must be wrongfully
contradicted wh en he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech,
nor even the nbility to write respectably on common topics, makes a man a critic among
critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of theBC qualifications alone, a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank
only by courtesy-a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior
pretensions may be accepted and honored under the name.
:l3. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical
authorship h:is been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere
serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed; and, what is most remarkable, even for
:m indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several
writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence I
And thus the p:ilm of wperior· skill in grammar, has been borne away by a professed
compiler: who had so mean an opinion of what hift theme required, as to deny it even
the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, thnt, under the wing of such
auth ority, m:iny writers have oincc sprung up, to improve upon this most happy rleRign;
while all who were competent to the task, have beev. discouraged from attempting anything like a complete grammar of our lan g uage f ·what motive shall excite a man to
long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give ma~tership no hope of preference, nnd where the praise of his ingennity nnd the reward or hi• labors must 11eeds
be inconsirlerable, till some honored compiler usurp them both, and bring hi s "most u seful matter" before the world under better auspices? If the love of lea rning supply such
a motive, who that has generously yielded to the Impulse, will not now, like Johnson,
feel himself reduced to an "humble drudge "-or, ·like Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a rnbject as grammar?
34 . Since the first erlition of this work, more than two hundred new compends, many
of them professing to be abstracts of Murray with improvements, have been added to
our list of English grammars. The author has examined about one hundl'ed and fifty,
and seen advertisem ~nts or notices of nearly half as many more . . Being various in character, they will of course be variously CRtimated; but, so far as he can judge, they are,
without exception, works of liLtle or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized
or long preserved from o\Jlivion. For which reason, he would have bee11 inclined e ntirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them ham
c.)lmnitted npou the followin~ digest, were it not possible that by such a frittering-away
of his work, he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others
which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of. learning, that
in the production of these Institutes far more has be.en done for the grnmmar of our Jangn:>ge, than any single hand had before achieved within the limits of a school·book, and
that with perfect fairness towards other writers; he c.i.nnot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whawver el~e may befall; and that the multitude
of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would
forl>car to publish under his name or their own what they find only in- the following
pages.
.
::15. The mei·e rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough for
nny ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility,
without entering a warfare for life to defend u.nd preserve it. Accidental coincidPnces in
books a re nnfrequent, a11d n ot often such as to excite the 1m•picion of the most 6ensitivc.
Bnt, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is not ea•y,
in this beu.ten track of literature, for persons of little readi11g to know what is, or 1s not,
original. Dates mnst be accurately observed. Many things mn•t be minutely compared, And who will und ertake such a task, but he that is personally interest ed? Of
the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what
pioneer, or with what labor, their way was cast up for them. And even of thoRC who are
honestly engaged in t eaching, not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits
of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform
more ensily to fashion than to truth; and, even of some things within their reach, the
maj ority seem content to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that
that which Is intrinsically best, wlll be everywhere preferred; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But common sense might dictate that learning
is n ot encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of l.Jooks, prefer a pair of
scissors to the pen.
36. Tho real history of grammar is littl e known ; and many erroneous Impressions are
entertained concerning it: because the story of the system most generally receiv ed, has
n zver been fully told; and thnt of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never worth
telling. In the distribution of grnmmatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the
hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying: "Unto every one
that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance; but from h·m that hath not,
shall be taken away even that which he hnth." Some whom fortune has made J?Opular,

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xi

PREFACE.

PREFACE.

very foremost rank among grammnrian s, anci lhruwn the IC'arning nnd talents of others
into the Fhade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity.
37. Few writern on .::ri1mmar h a ve been more n oted than Lily and Murray. A law
wa.~ made Jn Englanci by Henry the Eighth, commantl ing Lily's grnmmar •·only cverywh"rc to be taught, for the u se of learners and for the hurt in changing of schoolemaisters. "-Pref. to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by menns of a specif\! inquiry
directeci to be made by the bishopH at their skited visitations, this law, for three hundre.L
years, imposed the book on nil the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain,
that about one-half of what has thn• gone unll cr the name of Lily, ( •· because," says one
of the patentees, "he had so considerable a luinct in the composition,") was written by
Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who impruvctl the work after Lily's death. tSee
Ward's Preface to the book, 17!!3.) And ,,f tl 1e other half, history incidentally tells, that
neither the scheme nor the text was o rig inal. '.l'hc Printer's Grammnr, London, 1787,
speaking of the art of type-foundil'g says: " The l i:alian;; in a sh ort t ime· brought it to
that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior
to the beRt types of the present age; ns may be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus L eoniceuus, and printed at Padu:i on Jnnuary 14, 1-174; from whom our grammaria1t, Lily, ha.~ taken the entire sclteme of his grammar, ancl transcribed tlte greatest pai·t
thereof, without pavin(l any r1·gar cl to the m e11io1·y of this author." The historian then
proceed,; to speak ahout types. See a l<o the Hi story of Printing, 8vo, L ondon, 1770.
This is the grammar which bears up on its tille page: " Quam sola11i Regia ~fajestas in

debted for more than n hundred and twenty para!n"apha; anrl even in these there are
many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were taken from
Priestley; yet it wns he, 11t whose doctrines were pointed most of those "positionH 11nd discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To HOme, however, his own alterations
may have given rise; for, where he "persuades himself he is not destitute of originality,"
he is often arguing against the text of hill own earlier editions. Wehster's well-known
complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital; for there was
no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passageR in question were not
worth copying, On per•picuity and accuracy, about sixty p11ges were extracted from Blnir;
and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are mi..erably deficient in
both. On the law of language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell: which, with a few
exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the same as Walker 's; the third
one, however, is a gross hluuder; and the fourth, a needle"8 repetition. W ero this a
place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might
easily be shown tha t almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of tho
learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those
who have since ahridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon. Lyon, Miller,
Alger ., M>\ltby, IngerHoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene,
Woodward, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to observe, how
frequently a gramm11tical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his prcdcccs"1lre,
has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to
copy him tr.nn to write for themselves.
41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the revfows, and made
common stock in tralle,-being published, both in England and in America, bv bookscllcra of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by those who
were most interested in the sale of them,-have been eminently successful with the public; and, in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has
thi. force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written in nict of his populnri ty. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed
upon Murray as a g rammarian. A r ecent eulogist computes, that, "at least five millions
of copies of his various !!Chool-books have been printed:" particularly commends him for
his " crmd or and libernlity toward rival authors; " nvcrs that, "he went on, exnmining
mhl correcting his grammar, throug h all its forty editions, till he brought it to a degree
of perfection which will r ender it as permanent as the English language itaelf;" censures
(1md not without rca"on) the "presumption" of those "superficinl critics" who have
attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honors; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but as a mark of "his exemplary d iffidence of his
own m erits, " add s (in very bad Engli•h), "Perhnps there n ever was an author whose
111ccess and fame were more unexpected bv Mmae/.f, than Ltndley Murrav."-Tli.e Friend,
Vol. iii., p. 33.
42. In a New York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there WILS inser~d
a "Caution to the Public," by Coll ins & Co., his American correspondentl! and puhlishers,
in which are set forth the unpnrallcled success and merit of the work, "as it came in purity
from the pen of the author;" with an earne~t remonstrance against the several revi~ed
editiony which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other pl11ces, and ngainst tho
unwarrantable liherties taken by American teacherll, in altering the work, under prct "n~ of improving it. In this article it"ia stated, "that the u;!wle of these mutilated editi?ns ~ve been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they have met
with his decided disapprobation. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen,
"will al!I"ee with him, that, 'the rights of living autlw1'8, and tho interests of science awl
literature, demanded the abolition of this ungenfrous practice.'" Herl", then, we h11ve
the opinivn l\nd feeling of Murray himself upon this tender point of right. Here we i.cc
the tables turned, and other m en judging·it "scarcely necessary to apoloJizc for the use
which they have made of their predecessors' labors.''
. 43. It is not intend ed by the introduction of these notices to impute to Murr:iy anythmg more or less than whnt his own wordR plainly imply; except t .ose inl\ccuracics an<l
deficiencies which fitill disgmce his work ns a literary performance, and which of course
he clid n ot discover. H e himself knew that ho had .not brought the book to such perfection as has heen ascrihed to it; for, by way of apology for his freqmmt altcr11tion•, he
snys, "Works of this nature acimit of repeated improvements, and are, perhaps. never
complete." Dut it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions; and, in order to obtain from some an i:npartial examination of tho following pngcs, it seems n eces..<;ary first
to convmcc them that it i~ pn>8ib/e to compose a better grammar t han Mnrrny' s, without
b eing pnrticulnrly ind ebt ed to him. If this treatise is not ~nch, a great deal of time has
l.Jcen thrown away upon a nscleR-~ project; nnd if it i~, the achievement is no fit subject
for either pride or envy. It differs from hiH, an<l from every grammar bMcd upon his, ns
a n ew map, drnwn from a ct1111l v.nd minute s111"vey•, <lifters from an old one. compilctl
chiefly from others ntill older nnd confesseclly ntill more imperfect. The r egion nnd the
scope 11re CH<c11tia lly the name ; the tracing and the colorino: arc mm ·e orieinnl; n~cl (if

omnibus scholi$ aoi::e ndam pracipit."
38. M11rray wa.~ an intelligen t and very wor thy mnn. to who~e various labor s in th<>
compilation of hooks our schools arc under many ohligations. But in original thought
and <:ritical skill he fell far below m rJst of "the authors to whom," he confesses, "the
grammatical part of his compilation i" principally indebtedfo1· its materiuls; namely,
Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridnn, Walker, Coote, Bl:\ir, and Camp!Nll."-lntrod. to Gram., p. 7. It is certain nnd evident that h e entered upon his ta:;k
with a very immfficient prepamtion. His hiography informs us, that, ·• Grnmmnr did
not particularly e ngage hi8 attention, until a short time before the puhlication of his firot
work on that suuject;" that, .. His grammnr, as it appeared in the fir :;t edition, was
completed in r ••ther less than a ycnr-th oug h h e hnd an intervening illness, which for
several weeks stop ped the pro.~ ress of the work ; " and thnt, ''the Exercises and Key were
o.lso comp0sc1t in abo11t a y ear. "-Life of L. lilurray, p. 188. From the very first sentence
of his bool,, it appears that he entertained but a l0w and most erroneous idea of the duties
of thnt sorL of character in which he was about to come before the public. He improperly
inm:.dne1I, as many others have done, that "li t tle can be expected" from a modern grammwian, o r (as he chose to express it) '·from a new comp ilatio11, uesides a careful selection of the most nseful matter, and some degree o[ improvem en t in the mode of ndapting it
to the untler,;t.:J.nci in.>;, and the gradual progress of learncrs."-b1trod. to Gram., Svo, p. 5;
l:lmo. p. ::!. As if, to be master of his own art- to th ink and write well himself, were no part
of a grammarian';; bu<ines,; ! And aga111, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefull y sele<:tcd, co11ld need a burnish or a foil from other lrnnds than those which fashioned them I
39. Murmy',; general idea of the d octrines of g rammnr was judicious. He attempted
no broad innov11tion on what had been previously taught; for h e had n eith er the vanity
to suppose h e could give currency to novel t ies, nor the folly to waste his t ime in labors
utterly nugatory. By t u rning his own abilities to their best account, he seems to lmve
<\ .me much to promote 1md facilitate the "tu1ly of our lnnguage. But his notion of g rammatical authorship, cuts off from it nil prcLcnsc to literary merit, for the sake of doing
good ; auci, taken in any other se nse than a .-; a force<l apology for his own aSS!1mpti ons,
his lang uage on this po int is highly injurious toward th e very nnthors whom h e copied.
To jn;;tify himself, h e ungenerou sly placeJ them, in common with other ", under a degradini< necessity which no able grammnrian ever folt, ancl which every man of genius or
Je,.rning must repudiate. If non e of our older grammars di8prove hi" assertion, it is time
to have a new one thnt will; for, to expect the perf~ction of grnmmar from him who
c:rnaot treat the subject in a style a t once odginnl rmd pure is nbs lll d. H e says, " Th e
l!J'CDtcr part of an English grammar mnst 11 e"e'· ..aril11 be a compilation;" an<l adds, with
-c0forence to his own, ·• origina iity bel ong• t» but a small portion of it. This I have
acknowk1lgcd ; and I tru st th i.~ acknowledgement will protect me from all attacks,
grounded on any supposed unjust nnd irregular assumptions.''-Letter, 1811. 'l'he
acknowlcd ~ ment on which he thns r dies d oc5 nut appcnr to hnve been made till his
grammar had gone through sev eral editions. It wns then insertecl as follow s : "In a
w or k whi ch professes to ue a compilatio n, and wh ich, f rmn the nature ancl ctesign of it,
m11st consi.-t chietiy of material ,.; se lected from th" writings of others, it is scarcely nece.•san; tu aw1 ·11yhc for the usci which the corn)liler has made of his prodeccssor'o lahors, or
fo1· 11mitti11(} to i11.•e1·t lheir name., ."-fntrocl. to GNtm., Svo, p. 7 ; 12rno, p. 4.
40. Fur the nature an•I desig n of a book, whatever they may he, th e author alone is
answerable; !Jut the natnre and tlcsign <!f r;rammw-. am no less r c pugnnnt to the strain
of this apology, thnn to the vast 1111mbe r of er rors a nd 1lefccts which were overlooked by
1\f11rrr1v in hi :-; wm·k of con111iL1ti nn. ']'hf'rc i s no 11art of the volurn c n1orc n cc11ratc~ thnn

PREFACE.

11

4,1. He who make; 11 new gmmm11r does nothing for the adv11ncement of lcnrning unhiR performance excel all earlier ones designed for the i;ame purpose; nnd nothing for
si own h'lnor unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity a11<1
ste. A good style naturally commenrls itself to every render-even to him who cannot
11 why it is worthy of preference. Hence th ere is reason to believe that the true princi<'R of practical grammar, deduced from custom nnd sanctioned by time, will never be
:ncmlly superseded by anything which in1lividunl caprice may substitute. In the repub' of letters there will always be some who' can dist ing"Ui sh merit; and it is impossil>le
.at these should ever be converted to 11ny whimsical theory of language, which goes to
ake void the learning of past ages. There will always be some who can di~cern the difrence between originality of style and innovation in doctrine-between a due r egarcl to
.e opinions of oth ers anrl nn actual u surpation of th eir text; and it is in cr crlible that
.ese should ever be S:ltisfied with nny mere compilation of grammar, or with any such
1thorship as either confeBses or betray s the writer's own in compctc1Jee. For it is not
ue that "an English grammar must n ecessarily l>e," in any consideral>le degree, if at all,
a compilation ; " nay, on such a theme, and in •· the grammatical part'' of the work, a ll
mpilation, beyontl a fair u se of authori"ies regularl y quoLcd, or of materif\ls either volunrily furnished or free to all, most nnavoitlal>ly implies-not conscious "al>ility," gener1sly doing honor to rival merit-nor •· exemplary diffidence" modestly veiling its own1t mudequate skill and inferior talents bribin g the public by the sp oils of genius, and
eking precedence by • nch m eans as not even the purest desire of doing good cn n justify.
45. All praise of cxcelh·nce must needs be comparative, because the thing it!;elf iR so.
) excel in grammar is buL to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence
·nsists. H en ce there is no tixed point of perfecti on beyond which such learning may not
' carried. The limit to improvement is not s<> much in the nutnre of the subject :is in
e powers of the mind, and in the inducement;; to exert them upon u theme so humble
1d so uninviting. Dr. J ohnson snggests in his masterly preface, '·that u whole life
.nnot bo Hpent upon by11tax and etymology, a11d that evd1 a whole life would n ot be 8uf:icnt." Who then w.ll suppose, in the face of ~ uch facts anrl confegsions as have been
:hibited, that either in the faulty publication s of Murray, or amon)!; the various moLlifitions of them by other hand•, we have any such work as deserves to be made a perma·nt standard of in~truction in English grammar? The author of this treatise will n ot
" tend that it is perfect; though he h as best0w ccl upon it no inconsiderable pains, that
e narrow limits to which it must n eeds be confin ed, might be tilled up to the utmost admtage of the lt·arner, as well A s to til e best direction a11d greatest relief of the t r ach er.
46. A KEY to the Oral Exercises ill Fa/.,e Syntax is in serted in the Grammar, that the
1pil may be enabled fully to prepare him self for that kind of class recitation s. B ~ing
:qna111ted with the rule, and having recn th e correction, he ma:1 be expected to state the
ror and the rea"on for the change, without embnrraosment or deiay. It i~ the opinion
•omc teach~rs that no Key in aid. of the stud ent should be g iv• n . Accordingly many
·ammars, not destitute or exercises in fal se syntax, are published without either formules
correction, or a Key to show tho ri ght rending. But Engli,;h grammar, iu any extenve exhibition of it, is a study dry and difficnlt enough for the young, when we have nsed
1t best endea,·ors to free it from 1111 ol>scuntics and douhts. The author thinks he
.s learned frum experience, thnt, with explicit h elp of this sort, most pupils will not
ily gain more knowledge of the art in a given time, but in the end find their acquisitions
.ore satisfactory nnrl more permanent.
47, A scp irate KEY to the Exercises f or Wri ting is puhli.hed for the convenience of
·ncherR and private learners. For nn obviou s rea son this Key should not be put into the
.1mls of the school boy. Being a distin ct volume, it may be had, bound by itself or with
1e Grnmmur. 'l'ho,;e teachers who desire to exercise their pupils orally in correcting
Lise grnmmnr w ithout a Key,. can at any time mnke use of this series of examples for su ch
nrposc.
48. From the first edition of the following treatise there was made by the author, for
1c use of young learners, a brief abstract, entiUed, •·Tile First Lfi~eR of Engli~h Gram•r11·;" in which nre eml>rnced all th e lcadin.<i: doctrines of the ongmnl work, with a new
·ries of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important in the gram1ar of the language was neces>iarily excluded from this epit ome ; nor was it designed for
10se who can learn a larger book without wearing it ont. But economy, as well ns conenience, demandR small nnd cheap trentises for children; and thore teachers w_h o aprovc of this system of grammntical in struction will find man y r easons for pre~errmg tho
'ir•t Line• to any other compend, as nn mtroduction to the stucly of these In Rt1tutes.
49. Having unrlertaken and prosecuted thi s work, with the hope of facilitating t h e
t.udy of the English Lant?;nage, and thu s pro1110Li11g the improvement of the young, the
uthor now present• his finished Jal>ors to the candor nncl discernment of those to whom
, committed the important business of instrnction. l•OW far h e has snccecderl in the exention of his dCflign is willingly left to the just decision of those who are qualified to
udge.
>S

GOOLD BROWN.

Revised,

LYNN, MASS.,

1854.

POSTSCRIPT TO THE PREF ACE.
THE school-book now pretty well-known a s "Brown's Institutes of English Grammar," was my first attempt at a uthorship in the ch11racter of n grammarian: and, satisfacto ry as it has been to the many thousands who have used it, it has nevertheless, like
all other n ot incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible of sundry important emendations.

So that I must believe with Murray, that, "Works of this nature

admit of r epeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete."

It cannot, how-

ever, be said in my favor, as it ha.s been in commendation of this author, that, "He went
on examining a nd correcting his gra=ar through all tts forty edition-Y, till h e brought
it to the utmost degree of perfection;" but something has been done in this way,-three
or four of the early editions of the Institutes having been severally retouched and improved by the author's hand ; and now, an undiminished demand for the work having
continued to spread its reputation, I have at length the satisfaction to have endeavored
yet once again to rend er it still more worthy <if the public favor.
The time which h ns elapsed since the author 'first published this work, has been
mainly spent in labors and studies tending very directly to enlarge and mature his
knowledge of English Gmmmar. ; and, especially, to better his acquaintance with the
great variety of books and essays which have been written upon it.

The principal result

of these labors and studies has been given to the world in his large work entitled "The
Grammar' of English Grammars."

To conform the future editions of these Institutes

more nearly to the t ext of this large Grammar; to supply some deficiencies which have
been thought to lessen the comparntive value of the former work, to divide the book
more systematically into chapters ar.d subdivisions, and to correct a few typographical
errors which had crept in, were the objeGtS contemplated in the revision which has now
been effected.

1n m11king these improvements, I have not forgotten that alterations in a popular
class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly .undesirable. The writer who ventures at
all upon them. is ever liable to subject his patrons and best friends to more or less inconvenience; and for this he should be very sure of having proi;ented, in every instance, a n
nmple compensation. It is believed that t~e changes which the present revision exhibits,
though they are neither few nor unimportan.t , need not prevent, in schools, a. concurrent
u se of old editions with the new, till the former m1ty be sufficiently worn out. What has
been added or chnnged, will therefore lack no justification; and the author .will rest,
with sufficient assnrance, in the hope that the intelligent patronage which has hitherto
been giving more and more publicity to hiR earliest teachings, will find decidedly, and
without mistake, in this improved form of the work, the best common school Grammar
now extant.

GOOLD IlROWN.

xv

CONTENTB.

PAOE

VIII. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction,

TADLE OF CON TENT S.

IX. Verbs,
.

PAGG

)

PREFACE, •

(j\)

Exercises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis Ill.), 70 ; Exc1·cises in Construction, 71 ; Composition, 72.

. iii- :\.":ii

X. Participles,

INTRODUCTORY.
Language,

17
PART 1.-0RTHOCRAPHY.

I. Letters,

19

25

108

XII. Conjunctions,

112

XIII. Pre.positions,

112

XIV. Interjections,

114

XV. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction,

27

Species and Figure of 'Vorcls, 27 ; Rules for the Figi.re of
Words, 27.

IV. Spelling,

XI. Adverbs, .

Classes, 112.

Diphthong• antl Triphthongs, 213 ; Syllab:cation, 26.

Ill. Words,

105

Classes, 105.
Classes, 108; Conjunctive Adverbs, 110; Modifications, 111.

Names of the L etters, 20 ; Classes of the L etter•, 21 ; Classes
of the Consonants, 21 ; Powers of t he L etters, 2~ ; Forms
of t he L etters, 2-1; Rnles for the Use of Capitals, 2±.

II. Syllables,

73

Classes, 73 ; Modifications-Moods, 75; T enses, 'i6; Inflect ions-Person s and Numbers, 78; t onj ugat ion of Verbs,
80 ; Irregular Verbs, 97 ; D efective Verbs, 103 .

28

115

Phrases, 115; ExerciRes in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis IV.),
118; Exercises in Construction, 119.

Questions for Review,

120

Rules for Spelling, 28.

Questions for Review,

ao

Exercises for Writing,

:J2

PART 11.-ETYMOLOCY.
I. The Sentence,
II. The Parts of Speech,
1 •

- ,~,

·.: i:

41
44

Classes, 44; Exercises for \Vriting, 45.
''.~ .... ~~-'t-~

•.

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. ~:.::· j';
~

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45

Classes, 4G; Modification s-Persons, 47; Numbers, 48 ; Genders, 51; Cases, 52; D eclension of Nouns, 53.

V. Analysis, Parsing, and Construction,

M

I

:ii

VI. Adjectives,
Classes, 59 ; Modifications-Comparison, 61.
VII. Pronouns,
Classes, 64; llfo<;lification s, 65; D~cle n si on of Pronoun s, ~ll;
Compountl P ersonals, 67 ; Relatives and I nterrogatives, 67 ;•
Compound R elatives, 68.

130

Rule I., Articles, 130; Rule II., Adl'ectives, 136; Rule III.,
Adverbs, 144; Rule IV., Particip es, 14S; Rule V., Prepositions, 153.

157

Rule . VI., Nominatives1 157; Rule VII., Apposition! 158;
Rule VIII., Verb ana Subject, 161; Rule IX., Col ective
Nominative, 166; Rule X .1 Two or more Nominatives, 167;
Rule XL Singular Nommatives, 170; Ru.le XII., Verbs
Connected, 173; Rule XIII., Subject and Attribnte, 175 ;
Rule XIV. ; Pronoun and Antecedent, 178; Rule XV., Collective Antecedents, 188; Rule XVI., Connected Antecedents, 189 ; Rule XVIL, Connected Antecedents, 191.

Ill. Covernment,

Exer cises in Analysis and Parsing (Praxis II.), 5G ; Constr uction and Composition, 57.

"

~:

IV. Nouns,

127

II. Agreement, .

Definitions of T erms, 42; Exercises in Parsing (Prax is I.), 43.

Ill. Articles,

126

Rules of Syntax,

I. Relati<m,

Exercises, 40.

\

PART 111.-SYNTAX.
Introductory D efinition s,

5()

64

192

Rule XVIII., Possessives, 192 ; Rule XIX., Object of the
Verb, 196; Rule XX.;Obj ect of the Preposition, 198 ; Rule
XXI., Infinitives, 200.

IV. Miscellaneous Rules,

.

Rule XXII., Infinitives, 203: Rule XXIII. , Subjunctive
Mood, :d04 ; Rule XXIV., Independent Case. 206; Rule
XXV., Conjunctions, 208; RulcXXVI .. Interjections, 211.
Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax, 212.

203

·]

I

.~·,

CONTENTS.

XVl

PAGE

', '

.. ~'·.', : ··~ ~ ,,.

V. Arrangement, .
Rules and Illustrations, 216 ; General Rule, 217.
VI. Exercises in Analysis, Parsing, and Construction (Praxis V.),
Phrases, 220; Clauses, 225; Compound Sentences, 232; Miscellaneous sentences, 235; Sentences of Peculiar or Irregular Construction, 248.
Questions for Review,
PART IV.-PROSODY.
I. Punctuation,
I. The Comma, 252; II. The Semicolon, 2"7 ; III. The Colon,
258 ; IV. The Period, 258 ; V. The Dash. 259 ; VI. 'l'hc
Eroteme, 260 ; VII. The Ecphoneme, 2lil ; VIII. 'l'he
Cur,·es, 261 ; IX. Other Mark•, :!02.
Exercises in Punctuation,
II. Utterance,
Pronunciation, 274 ; Elocution, 275.
Ill. Figures,
Figures of Orthography, 276; Figures of Etymology, 277;
Figures of Syntax, 278; Figures of Rhetoric, :!7li.
Exercises in Figures (Praxis VI.),
IV. Versification,
Quantity, 290; Rhyme, 291 ; Poetic l!'cct, 291 ; Scanning,
202.
Exercises in Scanning,
Questions for Review,

2Hi

21U

INTRODUCTORY.
248

251

264
274
276
283
2DO
207
301

APPENDIX 1.-COMPOSITION.
Preliminary Exercises,
Original Composition, .
Letter-Writing,
Heading, 306; Address, 301 ; Body, 308; Closing, 308; Superscription, 308.

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

APPENDIX 11.-QUALITIES OF STYLE.
Purity,
Propriety,
Precision,
Perspicuity,
Unity, .
Strength,

APPENDIX 111.-POETIC DICTION.
Poetical Peculiarities,

304
305
3013

::Jll
312
312
313
313
314
315

APPENDIX IV.
Key to Examples of False Syntax,

-- -

-- --- - -- -

310

LANGUAGE.
We can think of any object which we have seen-a tree, for example
-so as to see it in the mind, like an image or picture. This mental
image or picture is called an idea of the tree. The word tree enables
us to express the idea, either in speaking or writing. Words serve to
bring to the mind the ideas of things previously observed. Thus we·
may think of various things, and" recall to our minds the-ideas of them
by such words as the following:-

A horse.
A white horse.
A soldier on horseback.
A lady riding a black horse.
A horse running away with a carriage.
In a similar manner may be brought to the mind the ideas of things
heard,_ smelt, tasted, or felt. Thus:-

Thunder.-The thunder peals.
A rose.-The rose smells sweetly.
An orange.-The orange has a sweet and acid taste.
Velvet.-Velvet is soft and smooth to the touch.
When we try to think of these things, we find that, although we can
seem to hear, smell, taste, or feel them, we cannot do this so clearly as
we can see in the mind a tree, a horse, or other object of sight. Hence
we say, the ideas of things seen are clearer than those obtained through
any of the other senses.
In thinking we combine ideas in various ways. Thus:-

The bird builds its nest in the tree.
Here we have several ideas combined in a single thought :-of the
bird, of building, of a nest,_ of a tree;' and these are related to each other
in various ways :- the bird builds; the nest is built; the nest is in the
tree. There are, thus, four ideas of things, and several ideas of their
relations one to another.

------------·----

.

I:I

18

LANGUAGE.

We cann ot think without constantly using m any ideas ; and we cannot
think clearly or communi cate our thoughts to other persons without
u sing words to represent those ideas. These words joined together ill"
the right way make language •
......
.

-· ;

"\

'•

.,

Language is the expression of our thoughts in speaking or in writing.
There are two kinds of language : spoken language and
written language.
OBS. 1.-LANGUAGE, in the primitive sen se of the term, embraced only
vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth; but, after lett ers were in vented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, spoken and icritten ; so that the term language now signifies any

series of sounds or letters f oTined ·into wo1'ds and ernpl,oyed fo1' the e:L']Yl'ession of tlwught.
"
OBS. 2.-Letters claim to be a part of language, not m erely b ecause
they r epresent articul ate sounds, or spoken words , but because they form
words of th emselves, and have the power to become intelligible signs of
thought, even independently of sound. Literature b eing the counterpart of speech, an d more plenteous in words, the p erson who cannot
read and write is about as d efi cient in language as the well-instructed
deaf mute : perhaps, more so ; for copiou~ness, even of speech, results
from letters.

By grammar we learn how to use language correctly
both in speaking and in writing.
English grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly.
It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate
word s, and spelling.
Etymology treats of the different parts of speech,
with their classes and modifications.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government,
an<l arrangement, of word s in sentences.
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and
versification.

PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate
words, and spelling.
1.-LETTERS.

A letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, commonly
representing some elementary sound of a word.
An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or primary sound of the human voice, used in speaking.
The sound of a letter is commonly called its power:
when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be
silent or mute.
· The letters in the English alphabet are twenty-six ; the elementary sounds in the language are about thirty-six.
A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with
their names, their classes, their powers, and their farms.
The letters are printed, written, or otherwise represented
in a variety of forms. The following are the four chief modes\
of representation :1. Roman : A a, B b, 0 c, D d, E e, Ff, G g, H h,
I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, 0 o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t,
U u, V v, Vv w, X x, Y y, Z z.
2. Italic: .Aa,Bb, Oc,Dd,Ee,Ff, Gg,I-Ih,Ii,
J j, K k, L l, M' m, N n, 0 o, Pp, Q q, R r, S s, T t,
Uu, Vv, Ww, X x, Yy, Zz.

20

ORTHOG R APHY.

3. Seri pt :

Q./

a,

~ I, Cf3 c,

# (;~ / ?; 7re !!,
& o, :!!PI, ~1, !l!Jl 1,, d/tf.,

I <fl?, o!rt 1,

df7

011 m, <21P n ,
QTt, 62! et, @;)' v, ~ w,

.'

f$ (]),

<JI,, 9J·

4. Old English: Q\. a, B b, Qt c, iID i), <!E c, $f, (!fl) g,
£} 11, J' i, 1l j, ii\ k, t l, JlU tn, N n, ® o, 1)l p, ®. q, lll r,
£i s, Qt: t, R n,

b u, b:l w, :X )'., l!! !2•

Z 1·

=-~$ ·

:',,! ·-), :-·~ ;
I

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Names of the Letters.
The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and
written in English, are A, B ee, Gee, Dee, E, E.ff, Gee, .Aitch,
I, J ay, K ay , Ell, Em., E n, 0, Pee, Kue, .Ar, E ss, Tee, U, Vee,
Double -ii, Ea;, TVy, Zee.

'

,t

21

LE'l'TERS.

Ons. 1.-The nam es of the letters, as expressed in the m odern Ian·
gn ages, are m ostl y framed with ref erence to their p owers, or sounds. Yet
js there jn En gli sh n o letter of which the name .is always identical with
its power; for A , E , I, 0, and U, are the only letters which can name
them selves, and all these h iwe oth er sounds than those which their
names express.
Ons. 2. - Those letters which name themselves, take for their names
those sounds whi ch th ey usually represent at the end of ·an accented
syllable; thus th e n ames, A , E, I, 0, U, are uttered with the sounds
given to the sam e letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel,
Enoch, I~ciac, Obed, Urim ; or in the first syllables of the common words,
p aper, p enal,, p ilot, potent, p1tpil. Th e other letters, m ost of which can
n ever b e per fectly sounded alon e, h a,'e n ames in which th eir powers
are combined with oth er sounds m ore vocal ; as, Bee, (Jee , Dee,- E U,
Em, En, - J ay, l foy, }foe. But, in this respect , the terms Aitch and
Double· u are irregular ; because they h ave n o obvious reference to the
powers of the letters thus n amed.
Ons. 3-Letters, like all other things, must b e learned and spoken of by
their names ; yet, as the simple ch aracters are b etter known and m ore
easily exhibited th an their written n ames, the form er are often substi·
tuted for the latter , and are read as the words for whi ch they are assumed.
Ons . 4.-The letters, on ce learned, may b e u sed nnn(l,mecl ; and so are
they always used, except in oral sp elling, or when som e of their own
number are to be p articularized.

Classes of the Letters.
. The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels
and consonants •
A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when
uttered alone ; as, a, e, o.
·
.A. cor:is~r:iant is a letter which cannot be peifectly
uttered till 1omed to a vowel · as b c d
' ' ' ' .
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y .
All the other letters are consonant.
·W
Y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel
heard m the same syllable; as in wine &wine wliine . ye
l
•
'
'
J ' '
¥et, yoittri : m all oth er cases, these .letters are vowels ; as
m newly, dewy, eye-brow/ Yssel, Ystadt, yttria.

o:·

Classes of Consonants.
The consonants are divided into semivowels and
mutes.
A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly
~onnded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable
its sound may be protracted · as l n z in al a"' az
.
' ' ' ' '
' '"'
A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all
without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath ,· as k p t in ak aM1 at
.

..

'

'

'

'

'

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•

The semivowels are f, h, j, l, m., n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c
and g soft : but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ;
and th~ sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as
an aspirate, or strong breath.
Four of the semivowels,-l, m, n, and r,-are termed liquids,
on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others _
v, w, y, and z,--are likewise more vocal that the aspirates. '
The mutes are eight ; b, d, le, p, q, t, and c and g hard :
three of these,- lc, q, and c hard--sound exactly alike : b, cl,
and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest.

22

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Ons. 1.-The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity,
and, in respect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal
authority. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, di~
vided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared
that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern
writers, however, not well satisfied with this ancient distribution of the
elements of learning, have contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both
sounds and letters into new classes, with various n ew names. Dr. Rush,
. author of '' the Philosophy of the Human Voice," resolves the letters
into " wnics, subwnics, and awnics;" and avers that "consonants alone
may form syllables." Other authors h ave used the terms vocals, subvocals, and aspii'ates in classifying the elementary sounds.
Ons. 2. - Certain consonants or consonantal sounds are often distinguish ed in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one being
called flat and the other sharp : as, b and p; d and t; g hard and k ,j and ch; v and f; th tlat and th sharp ; z and sharp s; zh and sh.
These, with reference to each other, are sometimes termed cor1·elatives
or cognates.

'f-·

Powers of the Letters.

-,

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, • · r

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The powers of the letters are properly those elementary
sounds which their figures ar e used to represent ; but letters
formed into words are capable of communicating thought
independently of sound.
The vowel sounds which form the basis of the English language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly
familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are beard
at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill,
old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of it in bull.
In the formation of words or syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out,
owl,- and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain
motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will
severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the
same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of
words by an f; as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, f ell, file, fill, fold,
fond , fool, fuse, f uss, full. Again, into as many more with a
p ; as, pale, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool,
pule, purl, pull.

LETTERS.

23

The simple consonant sounds iri English are
twenty-two : they are marked by b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n,
ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh is
written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of s in
pleasure, or z in azure.
All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words:
buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh,
shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again: most of
them may be repeated in the same word if not in the same
·syllable ; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle,
lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush,
tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union, dizzies, vision.
OBS. 1.-The possible combinations and mutations of ·the twenty-six
letters of our alphabet are many millions of millions. But those clusters
which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily
uttered, there are. more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording of speech.
Thus it is, that from principals so few and simple as about six or seven
and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer ;
we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice t o explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages.
Ons. 2. -Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth
differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each ; but
the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same
vo_wel power.
Ous. 3. - Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by
letters. About half of them are sometimes words: the rest are seldom,
if ever, used alone even t o form syllables. But the reader may easily
learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let
us note them as plainly as possible: eigh, ii, ah, awe, eh, l!, eye, l, oh,
o, oo, yew, u, a. Thus the eight lorig scitinds, eigh, al1, awe, eh, eye, olt,
ooh, yew; are, or may be words; but the six less vocal, called the short
vowel sounds, as in at, e_t, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in
connection with consonants ; except the first, which is perhaps the most
frequ ent sound of the vowel A or a -a sound sometimes given to the
ioord a, perhaps most generally; as in the phrase, "twice a day."
Ons. 4. - With u s, the consonants J ·and X represent, not simple, but
complex sounds: h ence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to
dzh; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word,
and the latter begins none.
To the initial X of foreign words, we
always give the simple sound of Z; as in X ei·xes, l'COec.

24

I

•,.

·.. · . -~- . , I

25

SYLLABLES.

ORTHOGRAPHY;

Ons. 5.-The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of k, and is constantly followed by !'
and some vowel or two more in the same syllable ; as in quake, quest,
quit, quoit. C is hard, like k, before a,- o, and u; and soft, like s, before
e, i, and y: thus the syllables ea, ee, ci, eo, cu, cy, are pronounced ka, se,
si, ko , kit, sy . S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces
with the latter; hence the syllables, sea, see, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded
ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh; .as
in oeean, social. Ch commonly represents the sound of tsh; as in chu rcli.
Ons. 6.-G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels.
G is always h ard, or guttural, before a, ·o, and u; and generally soft,
like j, before e, i, or y: thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced g(t, je, j i, go, {flt, jy.

RU~E V . -OBJI\)CT PERSONIFIED.

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly
iJidividual, should begin with a capital ; as,
''Come, gentle SJYring, ethereal mi~dness, come."
RULE VI.-WORDS DERIVED.

Words derived from proper names of persons or places should begin
'with capitals ; as, N ewtonian, Grecian, Roman.
RULE VII. - I AND

0.

The words I and 0 should always be capitals; as, "Out of the depths
have I cried unto thee 0 Lord."
RULE VIII.-IN POETRY.
~

\_<~

-

".-.J

I~

®Ji) <!Englisq. In writing, we use the

t

~·: ·

,.

I

Forms of the Letters.
In the English language, the Roman characters are generally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, the

r,.i

",',.

'

··j_

~I

: ~/ ;•

'.~'(: ;;;'.:

~' !:

Every line in poetry, except what is r egarded as making but one
verse with the line preceding, sh ould begin .with a. capital; as,
" Our sons their fathers' failing language see,
And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."-Pope.

d?ctpt.

The letters have severally two forms, by which they are
distinguished as capitals and small letters.
Small letters constitute the body of every work, and capitals are used for the sake of eminence a.nd distinction.

Riiles for the use of Capitals.

RULE IX.-EXAMPLES, ETC.

A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, should begin
with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know thyself.'" "Virgil says, 'Labor conquers all things.'"
RULE X.-CHIEF WORDS.

Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. Proper
names fr equently h ave capitals throughout.

RULE 1.-TITLES OF BOOKS.

Th e titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, should
be printed in capitals. When books are merely mentioned, the chief
words in th eir titl es begin with capitals, and the other letters are small;
as, ''Pope's Essay on Man."
R ULE Il.-Fms T WORDS.

The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately
numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital.
RULE III.-NAMES OF DEITY.

All names of the Deity sh ould begin with capitals; as, God, Jehoval1,
the .Almighty, the Supreme Being.
R ULE IV.-PIWPER NAMES,

Titles of office or hon or, and proper names of every description , should
begin with capitals; as, Ohief Justiee Hale, ·William, Lo ndon , the Park,
the .Albion , the Speet<:ttor, the Thames.

11.-SYLLABLES.

A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one
sound, and is either a word or a part of a word; as, a, an,
ant.

In every word there are as many syllables as there are
distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a
word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three
syllables,
trisyllable ; and a word of four 9r more
syllables, a polysyllable.

a

26

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Diphthongs and Triphthongs.

A diphthong is two vowels joined· in one syllable;
as, ea in beat, ou in !Jound.
A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both
the vowels are sounded; as, oi in vowe.
An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which
only one of th e vowels is sounded; as, oa in loaf.
A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable;
as, eau in bea,u, iew in view.
A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which.. all
the vowels ai·e sounded; as, uoy in buoy.
An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which
only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in
beauty, iou in anxioitS.
Syllabication.
In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed
chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to observe,
as far as practicable, the following rules :RULE !.-CONSONANTS.

Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs
which they modify in u tterance; as, ap-os-tol-i·cal.
RULE ll.-VOWELS.

Two vowels, coming togeth er, if they make not a diphthong, must be
11arted in dividing the syllables; as, a-e-ri-al.
RULE III.-TERMINATIONS.

Derivative and gra~matical terminations should generally be sepa·
rated from the radical words to which they have been added ; as,

lutl'ln-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed.

..:. !
'I

.t

.:· ; ·:)

RULE IV.-PREFIXES .

Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-plaee, out-rirle, uplift: but if their own iirirnitive meaning be disregarded, the case may
be otherwise ; thus re-crelite and rec-1·eate are words of different import.

WORDS.

27

RULE V.-CoMPoufil>s;

Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words
which compose them; as, no-where ..
RULE Vl.-FULL LINES.

At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable must never be broken.

111.-WORDS.

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as
the sign of some idea,. or of some manner of thought.
Species and Figure of Words.

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative,
and as simple or compound. The former division is
called their species; the latter, their figure.
A primitive word is one that is not formed from any
simpler word in the language ; as, harni, great, connect.
A derivative word is one that is formed from some
simpler word in the language ; as, hatrmkss, g1'eatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected.
A simple word is one that is not compounded, not
composed of other words; as, watch, man, never, tlie, wss.
A compound word is one that is cornposed of two
or more simple words ; as, watcliman, nevertheless.
Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookstore,
lwusekeeper : others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen; as, glass-liouse, sclwolmaster.
Rules for the Figure of Words.
! .-Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as
forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart.
IL-When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the
same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided.

<:

28
1 ;.

.-

....

ORTHOGRAPHY.

III.-Words oth erwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen
to require.
·
IV.-When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence,
none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of h alf a word.

..:~;:,~~~:;.:· ,
I

I

i.

29

SPELLING.

.V.-Wh en the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce ; as, w-day, t,o~
night, to-morrow; or when each retains its original accent, so that the
compound has more ~lrnn one, or one that_ is movable; as, first-bonJ,
lumgei·-on, laughwr-loving, the hyphen should be inserted between them.
VI.-Wh en a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as wawhword, statesmcin, gendeman, and the parts are such· as admit
of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted betw een them.

RULE i l l.-DOUBLING.

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they
end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel
. after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that
begins with a vowel: as, rob, 1·oboer; permit, permitting; acquit, ac·.
quittal, acquitting .
Exc.-X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled.
RULE

IV.-No

DOUBLING.

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when
the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an
additional syllable : as,· toil, tcriting; v~it, visited; gene1·al, generalize.
Exc.-But l and s final are sometimes doubled (though according to
Webster, improperly), when the last syllable is not accented; as travel,
traveUm·; bias, biussed.

IV.-SPELLINC.

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper

letters.
Ons.-This important art is to be acquired rath er by means of the
spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the
study of written rules. The orthography of our language is attended
with much uncertainty and perplexity: m any words are variously
spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the
orthography of such words as are uniformly spelled and frequently used,
is justly considered disgraceful. The following rules may p1·event
some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to be
accui·ate.

Rules for Spelling.
RULE !.-FINAL F, L, OR

S.

Monosyllables ending inf, l, ors, preceded by a single vowel, double
the final consonant; as, staJJ; mill, pass: except three inf-clef, if, of;
three in l-bul, sal, sol; and eleven ins-as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his,
tltis, us, thus, pus.

RULE V.-RE'l'AINING.

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any
additional termination, not beginning with the same letter ; as in the
following derivatives: seeing, blissful, oddJ,y, hilly, stiffness, illness, .smallness, carelessness, agreement, agreeable.
Exc.-The irregular words, fled, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spi7t, ~halt,
wut, bleat, past, and the derivatives from the word pontijJ; are exceptions to this rule.
RULE VI. -FINAL

E.

The fil1al e nmte of a primitive word, is generally omitted before an
additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, 1·atable; force,
forcible; rave, raving; eye, eying.
Exe. - Words ending in ce or ge, retain the ·e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g ; as, pe(WB, peacea bte ; cltangd, changeable ; outrage, out1·ageous.
RULE VII.-FINAL

E.

RULE IL-OTHER FINALS.

The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness; lodge,
lodgement.

·words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or 8, do not double
th e fin al lette1·: except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, b'lt1'1', purr,
yarr, butt, /;u~z , fuzz, and some proper n:unes.

Exc.-When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometime8 omitted:
as, t1·ue, truly ; awe, awful .: and sometimes i·etained ; as, rue, rueful ;
shoe, shoeless.

:l

30

ORTHOGRAPHY.
RULE VIII.-FINAL Y.

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is
changed into i before an additional termination: as, merry, merrier;
m11rriest, ml!'l'1'ily, men·iment; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful,

pitiable.
Exc.--Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of i; as,
pity, pityi11g. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 6th, change
i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying.
Ons.-When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed; as, day, days;
valley, valleys; mone11, moneys; monkey, monkeys.
RULE IX. -COMPOUNDS.

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words
whiCh compose them; as, hei·eof, wherein, lwrsl!'lnan, recall, uphill,

shellfish.

31

What are the names of the letters in English ?
Which of the letters 11a.me themselves, and which do not ?
What are the names of all in both numbers, singular and plural?
lll.-CLASSES OF LETTERS.

Ii:to what general classes are the letters divided?
What is a vowel ?
' Who.t is a consonant?
What letters are vowels ?-What, consonants?
When are w and y consonants, and when vowels?
How a.re the consonants divided ?

What letters are semivowels, and which of these are aspirates?
What letters are called liquids, and why?
How many and which are the letters reckoned mutes?
IV.-POWERS, OR SOUNDS.

Exe. -In p ermanent compounds, the words full and all drop one l;
as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they retain both ; as,

full-eyed, all-wise, save-all.

Q'Uestions for Review.
I .-INTUODUCTORY.

What is an Idea ?
What is a Thought ?
What is Language ?
What is the use of Grammar ?
What is English Grammar?
How is it divided?
Of what does Orthography treat?
Of what does Etymology treat?
Of what does Syntax tre~,t?
Of what does Prosody treat?
II.-LETTERi.

.·,

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

Of what does Orthography treat?
What is a Lettei·?
What is an elementary sound of a word ·?
What name is given to the sound of a letter ?-What epithet, to a letter not
sounded?
How many letters are there in English ?-How many sound~ do they represent?
In what does a know ledge of the letters consist ?
What variety is noticed in letters that are always the same ?
What different sorts of types, or letters, are used in English?

What is meant, when we speak of "the powers of the letters? "
In what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds ?
. How may these sounds be modified to form words or syllables t
Can you form a word from ea.ch by means of anf?
Will you form another such series with a. p ?
How many and what are the consonant sounds in EngliEh ?
In what series of words may a.11 these sounds be heard ?
In what series of words i4 each of them heard more than once ?
Do our letters admit of combinations enough?
What do we derive from these elements of language?
V.-FORMS OF THE LETTERS.

What is said of the employment of the several styles of letters in English?
What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ?
What is said of small letters, and why are capitals used?
How many rules for capitals are given, and what are their heads?
What says Rule 1st of title8 of books ?-Rule 2d, offlrst word8 ?-Rule 3d, of
names of Deity ?-Rule 4th, of proper names ?-Rule 5th, of objects person'{fied ?-Rule 6th, of wo1·d8 derived ?-Rule 7th, of I and 01-Rulc
8th, of poetry ?-Rule 9th, of examples, etc.?-Rule 10th, of chief woi·ds?
VI.-SYLLABLES.

What is a syllable?
Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear?
What is a word of one syllable called ?-a word of two syllables ?-of three?
·
---0f four or more ?
What is a diphthong~
What is a proper diphthong ?-an improper diphthong?
What is a triphthong?

.. ,

33

ORTHOGRAPHY.

EXERCISES FOR WRITING.

What is a proper triphthong ?-An improper triphthong?
What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ?
How many rules of syllabication are given, and what are their heads?
'What says Rule 1st, of consonants ?-Rule 2d, of nowels ?-Rule 3d, of tei·minations ?-Rule 4th, ofpre.jixes ?-Rule 5th, of compounds ?-Rule 6th,
of lines full?

5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led aside, she
commonly recalled them.. by h er emissary conscience, before habit h ad
·
time to enchain tl~em.

32

VIL-WORDS.
What is a word ?
How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure.
What is a primitive word?
What is a derivative word?
What is a simple word?
What is a compound word?
How do permanent compounds differ from others?
H ow many are the rules for the figure of words, and what are their heads ?
What says rule 1st, of compnuncls?-Rule 2d, of simples?-Rule 3d, of the
sense?-Rule 4th, of ellipses ?-Rule 5th, of the hyphen ?-Rule 6th, of
using no hyphen?

(). Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the erymanthian
boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian birds.
The christian
religion h as brought all mythologic stories and milesian fables into disrepute.

7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did: but all these
a.re to no purpose; the world will not live, think, or love as i do.-o
wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father Micipsa !
8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth,
and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth !
!l. Those ~ho pretend to love p eace, should remember this maxim:
" it is the second blow that makes the battle."

II.-CAPITALS.

VIII.-SPELLING.

What is spelling ?
How is this art to be acquired ?
How many rules for spelling are there, and what are their heads?
What says Rule 1st of.final!, l, on ?-Rule 2d, of uther .finals ;-Rule 3d, of
the doubling of consonants ?-Rule 4th, against ihe doubling of consonants ?-Rule 5th, of retaining ?-Rule Uth, of .finale ?-Rule 7th, of
.finale ?-Rule 8th, of.final y ?-Rule 9th, of compounds?

Exe,r cises for WTiting.
!.-CAPITALS.

These exercises are classified according to rules on pages 24, 25.
1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english language,
Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's english synonymes,
Walker's key to the pronunciation of proper n ames, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions of purley.
2. gratitude is a delightful emotion. the grateful heart at once performs its duty and endears itself t o others.
:l. What madness and folly, to deny the great first ciiuse ! Shall
mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not fear the omnipot ent ? shall h e n ot reverence the everlasting one ?-'The fear of the lord
is the beginning of wisdom.'
4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the m edes, persians,
bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many other nations, in an
expedition against greece,

MISCELL~'<EOUS.

'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip.- ' thus,' said
diogenes, 'do I trample on the pride of plato. '-'true,' replied plato;
'but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes ? '
the fath er in a transport of joy, burst into the following words : ' o
excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human virtue ! o
glorious leader! o wondrous youth! '
epaniinondas, the the.b an general, was remarkable for his love of
trpth. he never told a lie, even in jest.
and pharaoh said to Joseph, ''say to thy brethren, 'do this-hide your
beasts, and go to the laud of Canaan.' "
who is sh e that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips over yonder
plain ? h er name is health : she is the daughter of exercise and temperance.
to the penitent sinner, a m ediator and intercessor with the sovereign
of the universe, appear comfortable n am es.
the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the birth
and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of the immediate family of adam, after his fall.
on what foundation stands the warrior's pride,
how just his hopes, let swedish charles decide.
in every leaf that trembles to the breeze,
i hear the voice of god among the trees.

2*

34

ORTHOGRAPHY.
!IL - SYLLABLES.

Divide the f olk>wing words into their proper s'!fllables :Ado, adorn , adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, b esp eak, bestow,
between, encroach, in crust, foreknow, forestall, forsw ear, uuderanged,
preterit, retrace, unoiled, uurepaid, unresting, underbid,, upholder,
withal.
Civil, color, copy, d amask , dozen, ever, feather, gather, h eaven,
lemon, m eadow, n ever, orange, punish, robin, shovel, timid, whither,
ben efit, canister, gen erous, academical, several, miserable, tolerable,
epidemic, paralytic, liberal, charact eristic, experimental.
Folio, genial, genius, glossy, junior, mover, satiate, seizure, vitiate,
ambrosia, convenient, ingenious, omniscience, p eculiar, substanti ate,
sociable, partiality, p ecun.iary, annunciate, enunciate, appreeiate,
associate, expatiate, negotiate ,
Eastern, pall et, stormy , England, anthill, cowslip, far ewell, foretop,
h ogsh ead, h omeward, sandstone, forever, husbandman, paiustaker,
bookseller, acquittal, requisition, architecture, machinery, aqueduct,
arable , horrible, inflammation, impossible, preferable, perilous, business,
preferred.
IV.-FIGURE

OF WORDS.

Cqrrcct the erroi·s in tlief ollowing, according to tlte rules on pages 27, 28.

/.

1. The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth.
The cross row has ever had some thing of a magic spell in it.
The old fa shion ed are apt to think the world grows worse.
The stealing of water m elons may lead to house breaking.
A good cloth es brush h elps gr eatly t o make a gentle man.
2. An ill-tongu e is a feru·ful corrupter of good-manners.
Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors.
St. Paul admoni sh es Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables.
Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants.
New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day.
3. They that li ve in glass-houses should not throw stones.
A glass h ouse is a house in wl1ich glass is m anufactured.
A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one.
Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honor.
The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird.
4. Let school and m eeting-houses b e pl easantly located .
The teapot and k ettle are now d eemed indispensable.
Both the ten and the eight syllable v erses are iambics.
Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are m en and wom en.
A k etch is a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast.

EXERCISES FOR WRITING.

35

5. The bloodyminded man seldom dwells long in safety.
A tiresmith puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them.
Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered.
Timehonored custom may be souldestroyiug folly.
Is evenhanded honesty expected in slavemerchants ?
6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought.
The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast.
Rain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky water.
V . - SPELLING.

In tlte following exercises tlte pupil is required to co1'1'ect the errors in
rpelling according to tlte rules on pages, 28, 29, .30.

I.
1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him.
Good m en pas by offences, and take no revenge.
Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel.
2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction.
To er is human; to forgive, divine.
A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp.
3. It ofte n requires deep diging, to obtain pure water.
Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy.
He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting.
4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded.
Contempt leaves a deepper scar than auger.
Of all tame animals the fiatterrer is the most mischievous.
5. Smaln ess with talness makes the figure too slender.
Heedlesn ess is always in d anger of embarrasment.
The recklesn ess of license · is no attribute of fredom.
6. Good examples are very couvinceing teachers.
Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey .
• Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem.
7. Wise m en m easure time by their improvment of it.
Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness.
Encouragment increases with success.
8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable.
Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance.
Before thou denyest a favor, consider the request.
9. Good-wit is a more powerful motive than constrnint.
A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose.
The path of fame is altogether an uphil road.

i, I

36

<:-·

,-, ,

-.;

.c

I

ORTHOGRAPIIY.

EXERCISES FOR WRITING.

II.

To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the d eaf.
A bigotted judge n eeds no time for deliberation.
The gods of this world have many worshippers.
5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers.
Fearlesness conquers where blamelesness is armor-bearer.
6. Many things are .chiefly valued for their rareity.
Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable.
Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable.
7. Treach ery lurks beneath a guilful tongue.
Disobedience and mischief dese rve chustisment.
By self-examination, we discover the lodgements of sin.
The passions often mislead the judgement.
8. To be happy without holyness is impossible.
And, all within, were walks and allies wide.
Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such.
Without fire, chimnies are useless.
9. The true philanthropist d eserves a universal pasport.
Ridicule is generally but the froth of ii-nature.
All mispent time will one day be regretted.

1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly.
Repetition makes snrnl transgressions great.
R eligion regulates the wil and affections.
2. To carry a fnl cupp even, requires a steady h and.
Idl eness is the n est in which mischief lays its egs.
The whole journey of life is besett with foes.
3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety.
A bad begining is unfavorable to success.
Very fruitful trees often need to be proped.
4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping.
R eligion purifies, fortifi es, and tranquillizes the mind.
They had all been closetted together a long time.
5. Blesed is h e whose transgresion is forgiven.
Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness.
Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step.
6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and th.i end.
We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves.
A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause.
7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges.
To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment.
He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances.
8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing h our.
Wi sdom resc ues the decaies of age from aversion.
Vallies are generally more fertile than hills.
9. Cold numn ess had quite bereft her of sense.
A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery.
Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothful!.
Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs.

III.
1. H e that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping.
Pictures that r esemble flowers, smel only of paint.
Misdemeanors are the pioneers of gros vices.
2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt.
Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction.
Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow.
3. YOU are Safe in forgeting benefits you have confered.
He has run well who has outstriped his own errors.
See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging.
4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement.
Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish.

IV.-MISCELLANEOUS.
Fiction may soften, without improveing the h eart.
Affectation is a sprout that should be uiped in the bud.
·
A covettous person is always in want.
Fashion is compareable to au ignis-fatuus.
Fair appearances somtimes cov~r foul purposes.
Garnish not your commendations with flatterry.
Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake.
Medicines should be administerred with caution.
We have h ere no continueing city, no abideiug rPst.
Many a trapp is laid to ensnare th e feet of youth.
We are caught as sillyly as the bird in the net.
By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows.
To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words.
We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded.
We may be succesful, and yet disappointed.
In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words.
H e is in great danger who parlies with conscience.
Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises.
A true fri end is a most valueable acquisition.
It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes.
Weigh your sub;ect we!, before you speak positivly.
Difficulties are often increased by rnismanagrneut.

37

38

ORTHOGRAPHY.
Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured .
Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselv es.
Corrupt sp eech indicates a distemperred mind.
Asseveration does not all ways remove doubt.
H yp ocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clothei ng.
Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster.
V. -MISCELLANEOUS.

A downhil road may be travell ed with ease.
D iste mpered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain.
Let yo m own unbiassed judgm ent determine.
A kn ave can often undersel his honest n eighbors.
Xenophanes p refered reputation to wealth .
Trne politeness is the ofspring of benevolence.
Levellers are generally the dupes of designning m en.
Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty.
Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubb nrd of dainti es ?
Mi sery acquaints a man with strange b edfellers.
The li beral man ties his purse with a beau-not.
Double-deelers are se ldom long in favor.
Th e ch aracters of the crosrow h ave wrought wonders.
The plagim·y is a jacdaw deck ed with stolen plumes.
All virtues are in agrement; all vices, at var)•ance.
P erso nnal li berty is every man's n atural birthrite.
Th ere, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend.
Th e birds fram e to th y song their ch earfull ch ernpping.
There fl ggs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose.
Lysander goes t wice a day t o the choccolat-house.
Years following years steal s nmthing every day.
The so ul of the slo!h fu ll does but drowse in his body.
What think yo n of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ?
Justice is h ere h old ing the stilliards fo r a balance.
The Immi ng-bird is somtimes no bige r than a bmnble-he.
The muskittues will make yo u as spoted as a samon ·trout.
Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vi ce.
Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant.
H e who catches fli es, emulates the nat-snaper.
The froggs h ad long lived unmolested in a horspond .
"These are villanons creatures," says a blokh ede d Loy.
Th e robbin-read-breast ti! o: late h rid rest,
Aud children sacred h eld a martin's n est.

PART II.
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the different parts of speech , with
their classes and modifications.
1.-THE SENTENCE.
In the utterance of any defin ite thought, such as, Bird.' fly- The .mn
sltines- Pisltes swim, there is obviously som e person or thing spok en of,
and som ething said of that person or thing. Th e former is called the
subject, and the latter the predicate. When united so as to m ak e
complete se nse, these form what is called a proposition ; and a
proposition, or a combin ation of two or more propositions, forms a sen c
tence.
· Thus 1lfan is mortal is a senten ce containing one proposition ; and Art
ia long, nnd time is fl eeting is a sentence containing two propositions.
The distinction between the subject and the predi cate of a sentence
should be clearly understood. This distinction is m arked in the following sentences: Subjects.
Birds
The flowers
Perse verance
The love of truth
An h onest man

Predicates.
sing.
are fading.
overcomes all obstacleR.
will prevail over enor.
is the noblest work of God.

The followin g definiti ons will n ow be understood.

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete
sense; as, " Reward sweetens labor."- " The fear of the Lord
is the beginning of wisdom."

40

~r
~.
~·\

r'

•;

"

ETYMOLOGY.

Every sentence must contain two principal parts ; namely,
the subject and the predicate.
·whatever is directly spoken of in the sentence is the sub·
ject; as, "The sun has .set."-" Can you write?"
That which is said of"the subj ect is the predicate; as,
"Beauty f ades."
Any combination of the subj ect and predicate is called a
proposition.
\Vords added to other words in a sentence to modify or limit
their meaning are called adjuncts; as, "A good scholar
rapidly improves."
Sentences; ar e divided, with respect to the nature of the
propositions which they contain, into four classes; declara•
tive, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.
A sentence is declarati ve, when it expresses an affirmation
or negation ; interrogative, when it expresses a question ; imp erative, when it expresses a command; and exclamatory,
when it expresses an exclamation.

Exm·cises.
1. P oint ou t tlie. subjoct and tlte predicate in the following sentences,
and state to which of the fo1tr classes ericlt sentence btlong.~.
''~:

j

. •

.....)
~

7

~

t

•

t ~ ..

I .

Ons. - In interrogative and exclamatory sentences, the words are usually transposed; in imperative sentences, the subject is often understood ; as, "Bring me a slate; "in which the sub;ect is tlwu or you, .
understood.
The troe bears fruit. The ox bears a yoke. The carpenter ust>s a
saw. Avarice causes crime. The miser loves gold. The boy h as tolt!
an untruth. The merchant has made a fortun e. The river overtlowed
its banks. Lend Ch arles a book. Hns Mary received the letter? Will
Ri chard return soon ? How hard a task h e has ! The scholar's diligence
deserves a reward. Do not injure your neighbor. How kindly h e
treated his schoolmate ! Has Robert found his pencil ?
2. Write predicates for the following subjects.

F lowers. Oranges. Industry. Honesty. An industrious boy. A dishon est clerk. An amiable disposition. A good chrLracter. Georgtt
Wasltin gton. Napoleon E onaparl e. Queen Vi ctoria.

THE P.ARTS OF SPEECH.

41

S. Write subjects for tlte f.ollowing predicates.
- - is writing. - - - was too late. - - - did not improve.
- - will be rewarded. - - - should be treated with kindness.
- - brings misery. - - - is a source of happiness.
4. I nsert as many adjuncts as possible to tlte subject and predicate of
eaclt of tlte following sentences.
Example.
The horses ran.
The wild horses ran away very swiftly.
Th ~ ship sailed. Flowers bloom.
Flowers fade. Birds fly. The
. sun shines. The scholar improves. The oxen are grazing. The man
is ploughing. The dog is barking. The woman is washing. The storm
The wind blows. The lightning flashes. The thunder peals.

11.-THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
The words that compose a sentence are used for various purposes in
connection with the subject or predicate. Some are names of persons
or things ; some .express action ; some, quality; others, relation ; ·and
some are used to connect words or propositions.
For this reason the words or parts of a sentence have been arranged in
classes, called the Parts of Speech.

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are
· ten; namely, the article, the noun, the adjective,
the pronoun, the verb, the participle, the adverb,
the conjunction, the preposition, and the inter·
jection.
An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification ; as, T he air, t!w
stars; an island, a ship.
A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing,
that can be known or mentioned ; as, George, York, man,

apple, truth.
An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun,
an-d generally expresses quality; as, A wise man; a new
book. You two are diligent.

42

,)

ETYMOLOGY.

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: as, "The
boy loves his book; lie has long lessons, and lie learns them
well."
A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted
ipon : as, I mn, I rule, I ani ?"uled; I love, thou lovest, he
loves.
A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun.
It is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the
verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles : two simple and one compound; as, 1, r'Uling; 2,
ntled; 3, having 1'Uled.
An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an
adjective, or another adverb; and generally expresses time,
place, degree, or manner ; as, " They are now lwre, studying very diligently."
A conjunction is a word used to connect words or
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of
the terms so connected ; as, "Thon and h e are happy,
because you are good."
A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is
generally placed before a noun or a pronoun; as, "The
paper lies bqfore me on the desk."
An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as,
Ok! alas ! ali ! pok ! psliaw ! avaunt !
Definitions of Terms.
A definition of anything or class of things is such a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from
every thing else, by briefly telling what it is.
A rule of grammar is some law, more or less general,
by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of
language.

EXERCISES IN P AR'3ING.

43

A praxis is a method of exercise, showing the learner how
to proceed. (The word literally signifies action, doing, practice, or formal use.)
An example is a particular instance or model, serving to
prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth.
An exercise is some technical performance required of
the learner, in order to test his knowledge or skill by use.
Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or
of some related word or words, according to the definitions
and rules of grammar.

Exercises in Parsing.
Praxis !.-Etymological.
Jn tlte Fint Praxis, it is required of tlte pupil, after analyzing tlte sentence, by pointing out tlte subject and p1·erlicnte, witlt tlie adju11ctli in eaclt,
w di.1tingui.~lt tlte different pm·ts of speeclt, and to assign n 1·erison for
suclt distinction, by citing tlte JYl ope1· definition, and adapting it to eaclt
particular case. 1'lms :0

EXAMPLE PARSED.

" The patient OX submits to the yoke, and m eekly performs th e bbor
required of him."
1. Su,bm.ils is a verb, because it sigrl.ifies action;
Pet'forma is also a verb, for the same rE:nson.
2. Ox is a noun, because it iR the name of n thing;
Yoke and labor are nouns, for the same rc-.n.son.
3. Tile is an article, because it limits the signification of o:r, 110J.:e 1 or la:JfJ1'- the
nonn before which it is placed.
4. Paltent is an adjective, been.use it expresses the quality of the oz.
5. l:ltm is a pronoun, becnuRO it itJ used im;tead of the noun ox.
6. Rtqttirecl is n participle, becaus~ it expresses action lih..-e a verb, und qualifies
the noun labor like nu adjective.
7. Meekly is nn adverb, bccl\use it is added to the verl> pe'l'.{mwi.i:;, nnd expresses
manner.
8. An.cl is n conjunction, because it connects th e predicates contn:n:ng the verlla
subniits and performs.
9. To is a preposition, because it expresseB the rclat:on of the verb submits to the
noun 11oke.
..Note.-·'l'hc number~ nre here used to in<licnte the order in which i;he pup:l Rhonli1 , nt
fin:t, be reqnired to distinguh•h the pa-:-ts of ijpeech in th e sentenceH give n in t ~ li:-> cxer-

cine. The verb iR mad~ the first in thh~ F.C'ricp., be.cnm~e .jt is the wonl to which 1\ll others
h!!.ve nn immC'<linte or remote rela ion, nncl hernmw it iR ensily recognized, anci, when
discovered, lead,:; the mind necessarily ton kno\vled"l~ of th e other µnrts of epeceh <..'Onl·

57

ETYMOLOGY.

.ANALYSIS, PAiiSING, AND CONSTRUCTION.

Ons.-The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the same
case as the subject to which it i·efers; as, "It is I, be not afraid."" Wlw is she ? "-"They believed it to be me."

Integrity inspires confidence. Perseverance overcomes all obstacles.
Generosity always m akes fri ends. Pleasure's call always wins an eager
attention. Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous sentiment.
The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. The enterprising
merchant has just returned from Europe. Every person highly praised
William's noble conduct. Riotous indulgence very soon destroys the
liodily vigor. Where did your kind father purch ase that interesting
Look ? Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. Indulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. The beautiful scenes
of nature ever excite the admiration of mankind.

56

In analyzing a simple sentence, point out :1. The subject.

2.
3.
4.
S.

The predicate.
The subject noun and its adjuncts.
The predicate verb and its adverbial adjuncts.
{The object and its adjuncts, or
The attribute and its adjuncts.

EXAMPLE 2. -

ANALYZED.

Filial ingratitude is a shameful crime.

Exercises in ..Analysis and Parsing.
Praxis 11.-Etym ological.

In the Seconcl I'raxis, it is required of the pupi'Z: to cl,assify and analyze the sentence as in the JYl'eceding praxis ; to point out, in addition,
the adjitncts in eacli of the principal pm·ts, and distinguish their classes ;
and to pa1'Se the sentence by distinguisliing the dijf'erent parts of speech,
and the classes and modifications of the nouns, dU.tinguisMng also tlte
m·ticle as definite or indeji1iite. Thus :EXAMPLE 1.-

ANALYZED AND PAJtSED.

"The Ath enians carefully observed Solon's wise laws. "
ANALYSis.-This is n simple dcclarntive sentence. The subj ect iR the Aell.enians; the
nre<licnte is carefully obsen1ed Solon's wise laws.
Tho subject noun is Atitenian8,
limited by tho Adjunct lhe ; the ~l'!ldlaate verb ia OhirVcd , and itij acjj1111~ts am the "dvcrb can.fully nnd the object laws; the adjuncts of the object o.re &lon's and wise.

A simple declarative sentence.
Subject, filial ingratitude: predicate, is a shameful crime.
Subject noun, tngratitttde; adjunct, filial.
.
Predicate verb, is; a.cljunct., the attribute Crime; arljuncts of the attribute, a and
shameful.

Honesty is the best policy. Liberty is a great blessing. Rose lea\·es
are very fragrant. William soon became a very good scholar. The
contract was pronounced fraudul ent. Cool blows the summer breeze.
The sky suddenly grew black. The soul of the diligent shall be made
fat. The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. He was born a
lord. Washington was twice elected President. How wonderful is
sleep! When was Victoria crowned queen of England ? Columbus
was undoubtedly an extraordinary man. The distant hills look blue.
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.

Construction a nd Composition.
l., .~ RSINO.-The is th e definite nrticlc, because it limits the noun Athenians.
Athenians is a proper noun, because it iR t..he namo of a pa.rticulnr people; of the thtrd
person, because they are spoken of; of the plural number, because the noun denotes
more than one; or the common gender, because it includes both sexes; nnd in the n omi ~
native case, becau se it i ~ the subject of th o verb observed.
Canifully is an· adverb, because it iB added 'to tho verb obse1'tJed, and expresses
manner.
Observecl is n verb, l:>ecaui;:c i t cxprcsseR action.
Solon's is a proper nonn, because it is the name of a. pnrticulnr individual; it is of the
third pcrnon, singular number, mnsculine gender, and in the possessive case, because it
indicates the possession of laws.
1Viae is an ndjcctivc, becnuse it is added to the noun lawa.
Law s i1; a common noun, becnnse it iR the name of a. cln!ls of things; of the third peri:;on, plu ral nnmbcr, neuter gender, and in the ol.Jjcctivc cnsc, l:lccnusc it is the object of
the vcrl.J ub~e1·ved ,

Construction is the combination of words into sentences.
Composit ion is the combination of sentences to express connected thought.
Ons. - In a composition the sentences are related to each other by the
thoughts which they express. Without this connection, or logical relati on, sentences do not form a composition. Thus the sentences in the
preceding exercise for analysis do not form a composition, because the
thoughts which they express are not logically related to one another.
3'"

58

59

ETYMOLOGY.

ADJECTIVES.

Exercises.

it, etc., are repeated in close succession. There are too many short sen-

.c onstruct the following:-

A sentence with a noun, a verb, and adjuncts of each.
A sentence with a subject noun, a predicate verb, and an object with itJ
acijuncts.
A sentence with a subject p1·onoun, a predicate verb, and an attribute
noun, with or without adjuncts.
A sentence with an adjective attribute, with 01· without adjuncts.
Write tlt?·ee sentences of any of tli ese kinds desc1·ibing a tree.
W1·ite four 8€ntences desc1·ibing a fl sh.
Write fi ve sentences about a clock.
W?·ite several sentences f orming a ,qh01·t composition upon a horse.
Cautions.

1. Do not use the same word too often, nor express the
same thought more than once.
2. Avoid all slang expressions.
3. Do not use too many short sentences in succession. Join
some of them together so as to make the style more pleasing.
4. Be careful to spell all the words correctly, to use cap itals
according to the rules, and to place a period at the end of
each sentence. "When sentences are united, they should be
separated by a comma (,). Phrases sbould also, usually, be
set off by a comma.

Faults.-The ideas are not well arranged.

Certain words, curious,

tences coming t ogether, making the style unpleas;ant. There are repetitions of the same thought, in the first and last sentences ; and there are
mistakes in capitals and punctuation. Some of the words are ill-ch osen,
and there are slang expressions.
In the following these faults are corrected:
The Owl.

The owl is a curious bii'd. It has large eyes like those of a
cat ; and during the day, it hides away in dark places, because it is not able to bear the dazzling light of the sun. At
night it flies about, seeking its prey, which consists of birds,
i;nice, moles, insects, etc. There are several kinds of owls, as
the eagle owl, the screech owl, and the cat owl. Some of
these birds are quite large. The hooting of an owl at night
is a very dismal sound ; and once, when I heard a screech owl
in the woods, I was really frightened, for I did not know what
it was. Did you ever hear an owl hoot?
W1i te a similar compo,qition on eaclt of the following subjec t~.
The Horse. The Cow. The Eagle. 'l'he Camel. The Elephant.
The Lion. The Ostrich. The Canary Bird. The Mocking Bird. The
Crow.

Criticise the following :The Owl.

The owl is a curious kind of bird. It has curious large
eyes. It cannot see in the Light. it hides away in the daytime in dark places. the sun dazzles his eyes. He comes out
at night and goes flyin g around looking after his prey. It
catches birds and moles and mice and other animals it also
catches insects. There are a good many kinds of owls, such
as the Eagle owl, the Cat owl the Screech owl and others.
Did you ever hear an Owl hoot in the night? It makes a Kind
of mournful sound, i was awfully scared one night h earing a
screech owl in the woods. I couldn't think wh at it was. Owls
are very funny creatures.

Vl.-ADJECTIVES.

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun,
and generally expresses quality.

Classes.
Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely,

common, proper, numeral, pronominal, par·
ticipial, and compound.
A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or
adjective denoting quality or situation· as Good bad
'
'
'
peacifiil, wa1'like-eastern, weste1'n, ou'te1',' inner.

COMPOSITION.

305

Both of these exercises of condensation and expamimi should be continued for some time, as they cultivate special faculties of the mind,
most Important to be addressed in training the pupil in the production
and expression of thought.

APPENDIX I.

4. Select a piece ef poetry, and req uire the pupils to expres.~
the same thoughts in prose, using .a plainer and less figurative
style.

COMPOSITION.

Be careful to select only such pieces as are fully adapted to the pupils'
comprehension.

AFTER studying carefully the Rules for Punctuation. (page ·
252), the pupil will be sufficiently advanced to apply to.~s own
compositions· the various principles and r~les reqmsi~e for
their full correction. The following suggest10ns are designed
to afford a guide to the teacher and ~upil~ for a series ~f
rrraded exercises in composition, in contmuat10n of the pract~­
~al language t·essons already inter spersed through this
work.
In connection with th ese exercises, the pupils should be required to study carefully tho ·
principles a.nd rules contained in Appendix II.

P1·eli11iinary Exercises.
I. Read a story, biographical sketch, or incident in history;

and require the pupils to reproduce it in their own language, as
f ar as possible.
This exercise sh ould be continued sufficientiy long to familiarize the
pupils with the narrative style of composi~i?n, and to t~ach. them to
avoid the awkward expressions and repet1t10ns customary with th.ose
un trained in this branch of composition. The simplest and easiest
narrnti ves should at first be selected.

2. Write out, or otherwise give to the pupils, a full acco~nt of
any particular incident or event, and require the11.i to abridge or
condense it, omitting all but the most important circumstances ..
3. Write a brief account of any incident or event, and .require
the pupils to expand it, adding any circums~ances winch they
may conceive could have existed or occurred in connection With
the f acts stated.

5. Require the pupils to write an analysis of any piece of
prose or poetry, giving the topics treated, with the arguments and
illustrations employed, etc.
Begin with easy pieces, and advance gradually to more difficult ones.
Do not give argumentative pieces at first. This exercise, when skillfully
employed, is a most excellent on e, as it will go far to impart to the
mind habits of regular, logical thought.

6. Require the pupils to write out criticisms of selected pieces,
making observations on the thottghts, their arrangement.and relation to the subject, as well as the modes of expression employed.
Th ese exercises will prepare the mind for writing compositions on
miscellaneous subj ects. This is a · task which should n ever be Imposed without the preliminary exercises. Many pupils are permanently
disgusted with composition by being required to perform this impossible task.

01·iginal Composition .
7. Assign a subject, or theme, and suggest the mode of treatinent, writing down for the pitpils the topics which 1:<hou.ld be con-·
sidered and discussed, with the arrangement to be employed.
This exercise should be pursued until the pupils' minds have become
accustomed to the di scovery of topics. It is designed to affoi:d training
in what is called, in rhetoric, Invention.
During the exercise, the teachers sh ould require the pupils to suggest
the topics, before deciding himself what is proper.

8. Reverse the a.bove exercise; that is, select an appropriate
subject, and require the pupils to disCO'ver the topics which should

306

APPENDIX.

be treated under it, and to write, by properly arranging them, an
analysis of the mode of treatment.
This should be done at first so as to afford a b.-ief sketch or outline, •
which afterward may be expanded or filled in, by suggesting illustra- ·
tions, arguments, etc., under each topic. As considerable exercise of '
this kind will be n eeded, the pupils should be required to write out in·
full only an occasional composition; but the analysis should be copied in
a book, and preserved by the pupil, for the next exercise, which is the
writing of compositions on selected themes.

9. Require the pupils to write compositions on subjects either
selected for them or suggested by their own minds.
It is preferable, at this stage, tliat the pupils should select their own
subj ects, as a general thing, in order to give full scope to the original
suggestions of the mind, and to the unfolding of any special talent or
genius for composition, which will often be found to show itself under
the training her~ outlined, if it be faithfully persevered in.

LETTER-WRITING.
In connection with the above exercises, the pupils sMUld
be instructed in letter-writing. This will include the
proper forms, as shown below.

Heading.
The heading consists of the name of the place (sometimes
the street and number) from which the letter is sent, and the
date,-inclucling month, day, and year. This should be written a line or two from the top of the page, and should be
commenced so that it may end near the margin of the sheet .
at the right. Thus :·
New York, May 10, 1882.
Or, when the street is mentioned :56 Lafayette Place,
New York, May 10, 1882.

LETTEH.-WRITING.

307

Address.
. The address should, in formal letters, follow on the next
li;teh, nebar the left side of the page, usually a little to the right
0
e ody of the letter. Thus :Mr. 'l.7wmas 11. Brown,
Springfield, Ill.,
Sir,
Or, in less formal letters :Mr. William A. Thompson,_
Dear Sir,
Or, as implying greater intimacy :Mr. John B. Smith,
JWy deai· Sir,
Where the address is to a company, the f 11 .
used : o owmg may be

111essrs. William Wood &; Co.,
New York,
Gentlemen,

In le~s formal lette.rs, the address may be written below and
at the left of the signature, at the end. of the letter.
. Other forms o~ add~ess will be required according to ci.rcu~s~ances, varymg with the p ersons addressed and the terms
of mtimacy that exist. Thus :BA. B. Pal~ier, Esq.; John Porter, M.D. ; Dr. John Porter;
. ,; C. Baldwin, LL.D.; Rev. H. J. Davis, or Rev. Mr. Davis .
"'oah Porter, D.D., LL.D.; etc.
'
W~en ladies are addressed, the following are customary :-

Miss Brown; Miss Kate Field ; Mrs. George Burns; Jr.Irs.
General Grant ; etc.
These may be followed by :

, Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Sirs, Gentlemen; Madam, Dear
Ma~am, My de~r. llfadam, Ladies ; Dear Mr. Hart, Jr.Iy dear llfr.

Sinith; Dear l!rwnd, My dear Friend, etc.

308

APPENDIX.

The title Hon. is applied to persons holding high governmental positions; His Excellency is sometimes applied to tho
President of the United States and to State Governors.

309

SUPERSCRIPTION.

The following are examples :-

Body. ·
The body of the letter
n ext below the address, and a little to the right of it. Tho
style will vary with the character of the letter. Business letters should be formal, brief, and to the point. Friendly ~
respondence requires an easy, familiar style, for the acquisition of which the study of good models will be very useful
A few specimens for the opening are here given :·

Yours of the 5th inst. is just received, etc.
Yoiir favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc.
Your esteemed favor of the 10th inst. is at hand, etc.
1 ain in receipt of yours, etc.
Yours of the 20th ult. has remained unanswered until now, etAl.

L

Closing.
'rhe forms of closing, followed by the signature, are various.
A few are here given :-

Respecif1illy yoiirs ; Very respectfully yours ; Truly yours;
Yoiirs truly; Very truly yours; Your obedient servant; Your
obedient, humble servant; Yours cordially ; Faithfully yours;
Yours affectionately; Ever affectionately yours; As ever, your
friend ; etc.

L_

Superscription.
Write the name about midway between the top and bottom
of the envelope ; under this write the address, commencing
e:LCh line a little farther to the right than that above iL
Great care should be taken to make the address as legible 88
possible.
Affix the postage stamp to the right-hand comer at the top
of the envelope.

olffJr'lct
/%ife c@a._,

!%.

APPEXDIX.

310

~d rJ,.,c~nc7 d

g/_ ~<Une/t

APPENDIX II.

r}zeouke ~Lanr.k'1-,

QUALITIES OF STYLE.
is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is
not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has
some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being
that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes, not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even
of national peculiarity. The words which an author employs, may be
proper, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax; and yet his
style may have great faults.
To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise,
diffuse,-neat, negligent,-nervous, feeble,-simpl e, affected, - easy,
stiff,-perspicuous, obscure,-elegant, florid,-are employed. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally
excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the
different endowments by which genius is distinguish ed, require this
diversity. But in forming his style, the learner should remember, that
a n egligent, feeble, affected, stiff, or obscure style, is always faulty;
and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are qualities always to be aimed at.
In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing
and writing something, is indispensably n ecessary. Without exercise
and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object
will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired suoh a knowledge
of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, h e
should devote a stated portion of his time to compooition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is
well calculated to strengthen them. And ·if he has opportunity for
r eading, h e m ay, by a diligent p erusal of the best authors, acquire both
language and taste, as well as sentiment; and these three are the essential qualifications.of a good writer.
In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here
offer no more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and
phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety, and precision; and, with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity, and strengtli.
Under each of these h eads, 've shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good
style.
STYLE

\_
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!!! J'/aULM, d~. ~,

c{~c#tae

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c.!%Jej-'1-eaen/a/£:uea,
@faa.1''n//a-n,

~ CfJ.

1.-Purlty.
Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases 011!.1·, as
belong to the language which we write or speak.

312

313.

APPENDIX.

QU.A.LITIES OF STYLE.

PRECEPT 1.-Avoid the unnecessary u se of foreign words or idioms:
as fraicheur, liautew', delicatesse, politesse, noblesse ; he ?'epented ltim·
self; it sei·ves to an excellent purpose.
PRECEP'r 2. -Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated
words; as, whiwm, erewltile, whoso, ·albeit, moreover, aforetime, me·

PRECEPT 1.-Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment : as in, "Return again ;-return back again ;-converse together;
-rise up ;-fall down ;-enter in ;-a mutual likeness to each other;the la.ttei· end ;-liquid streams ·;-,qrateful thanks ;-the last of all;throughout the wlwte book." '' Whenever I go, he alicav> m eets m e
there."-" Where is he at.? In there."-" Nothing else but that.""It is odious and luiteful. "-"His faithfuln ess and fiddity should be
rewarded."
PRECEPT 2.-0bserve the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, and employ those words which are the must suitable; as, "A
diligent scholar may acq uire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards,
win prizes, and get high honor, though he earn no money." These
six verbs have nearly the same m eaning, and yet they cannot well Le
changed.

tli.inks.
PRECEPT 3 .-Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, jlutteration,
inspectator, judgemat'ical, incumbei·ment, connexity, electei·ized, martyr··
ized.
PRECEPT 4.-Avoid bombast, or affectation o! fin e writing. It is
ri d iculous, however serious the subj ect: as, "Personifications, however I
rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude; analogies, howe ver imposing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison; can
n e ver expose the consequences of sin to the extent of ~act, 01· the range
of d emonstration. "-Anonymous.

11.-Propriety.
Propri ety of language consists in the selection and right construction,
of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which
we intend t o express by them .
PRECEP'l' 1.-Avoid low and provincial expressions: such a.s, "Sa11~
I ;"-" Thin ks 1 to myself; "-'' 1'o get into a scrape;"-" Stay h e1:e
while I return."
PRECEPT 2. -In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are
m erely poetical: such as, mm·n, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; ''what time the winds arise."
PnECEPT 3. -Avoid technical t erms; except where they are necessary, in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are
proper.
P1mcErT 4.-Avoid the r ecurren ce of words in different senses, or
such a repetition of words as den otes paucity of langu age ; as, "His
own ?'ertson might have suggested better rea.wns. "-"Gregory favored
the undertaking, for no other reason than this, that the manager, in
countenan ce, favored his friend."-" I want to go and see what he

wan ts."
PnECEP'r 5.-Supply words that are wanting: thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his form er services," say, "This action increased the merit of his former services."
PnECEP'l' 6.-Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His
memm·y shall b e lost on the earth."-" I long since learned to like
n othing but what you do. "
PnECEP'l' 7. -Avoid unintelligible and in consistent expressions ; as,
" I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion."- " These
words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning."
PRECEP'r S.-Obser ve the n atural ord er of things or events, and do
not vut the cart befm·e the lwi·se ; as, "The scribes taught and studied
the law of Moses."-·'' They can n either return to nor leave their houses."
-"He tumLled, head ovei· 7teel'3, into the water ."

111.-Precision.
Precision con sists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the
expression exactly t o the thought, so as to exhiLit neither more nor less
than is intended Ly the author.

, , IV.-Perspicuity.
Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a
quality so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no
.m erit can atone. "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only
glimmer through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader."Blair. P erspicuity, being the most important property of language, and
an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to
a degree of positive b eauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that
frees us from all suspense in regard to the m eaning ; that '·' carries us
throu gh th e subject without embarrassment or confusion; and th at always
flows like a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom."
PRECEPT 1.-Place adjectives, relative pronouns, parti ciples, adverbs,
and explanatory phrases, as near as possible to the words to which they
r elate, and in such a situation as the sen se requires . . The following sent ences are deficient in p erspicuity : " Reverence is the veneration paid
to superior sanctity, intermixed with a certain d egree of awe." "The
Romans unde1·stood liberty, at least, as well as we." "Taste was never
made to cater for vanity."
PnECEP'l' 2.-In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words.
PRECEP'r 3.-Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words n ecessary to
preserve the sel'l.se. The foll owin g senten ces require the words inserted
in crotchets: " R estlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoym ent of p eace, and [Jin·] the performance of our duty ."-Murmy's K e,11.
"The Christian r eligion gives a more lovely character of God, than any
[otlter] religion ever did.":--Ibid.

V.-Unity.
Unity consists in avoiding u seless breaks or pauses, and k eepin g one
object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every senten ce, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity.
PRECEP'l' 1.-Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following example
lacks the very quality of which it speaks: "But most of all, in a singl e
sentence, is required the sti·ictest unity. It may consist of parts, indeed,
Lut these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the impression upon the mind, of one object, not of many. "-Mun·ay's Grmmnm'.
PRECEP'r 2.-Ti·eat differ ent topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error : " The two volumes are,
indeed, intimately connected, and constitute one u11iform system of English grammar. "-Murray's Preface.
14

3Ji

APPENDIX.

PRECEPT 3.-In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the
pal subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong ·g
der, number, and ca.se ; and tltey are alt of the third person wlu1~ .tpoota.:
of, and of the second wlten spoken to. "-Murray's Grammar.
PnECEPT 4.-Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively
mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from "'t.hlt
principal subject.

APPENDIX III.

Vl.-Strength.
Strength consists in giving to the several words and members, of a·
sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the ~
advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. A con •
style is the most favorable to strength.
PnECEPT 1.-Place the most important words in the situation in whi~
they will make the strongest impression.
·
·
PHECEPT 2. -A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be \he
concluding one.
,
PRECEPT 3. - When things are to be compared or contra.sted, their~
semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some reseJI?.•
blance in the language and construction be preserved.
.
P1rncEP'l' 4.-It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with ID.
adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which maJ.
either be omitted or be introduced earlier.
•

POETIC DICTION.
POETUY a.s defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of passion, or of
enlivened 'imagination, formed, most commonly, into regula~ nu~bers."
The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of
speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figur~s
which have been treated of under the h ead of prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aiin of a poet is to please and to move ; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that h e speaks. ~e ·~~y,
and he ought to, have it in his view to instruct and. rnfori_n; but ~t is mdirectly, and by pleasink ':l'n d n:o".ing! that he acc~mphs~es t~is _end.
The exterior and most obvious distmct10n of poetry is versification , yet
there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar as to be hardly distinguishable from prose ;· and there is .also .a species of prose so me a.sured in its cadences, and so much raised m its tone, as to approach
very nearly to poetical numbers.

Poetical Peculiarities.
The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the
po.ets indulge, and are indulged:! .-They very often omit the articles; as,
"What dreadful pleasure I there to stand sublime,
Like shipwreck'cl mariner on desert coast! ,,_Beattte.

II.-They abbreviate many nouns; as, ~maze, for amazement; accJ,aim, for acclamation; consult, for oonsultatum; corse, for curpse ; eve,
or even for evening ; fount, for fountain ; ·ltelm, for hdrn_et ; lament, for
lament~twn; morn, for morning ; plaint, for wniplaint; targe, for
target ; weal, for wealth.
III.-They employ several nouns that are not used in prose,_ or ~re
used but rarely; as, benis()n, boon, emprise, fnne ; gue1·don, guuie, ire,
ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, stitlty, wdkin, yore.
.
IV.-They introduce the noun sdf after another noun of the possP.ssive
case; as,
1. "AfHict"ion's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb,
Affliction's aeif deplore• thy youthful doom."-Bvron.
2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's aelf."-Thomson..

V.-They place before the verb nouns, or other words, ~hat usually
come after it ; and, after it, those that usually come before it ; as,
1. "No jealousy their dawn of lo"e o'ercai;:t,
Nor blasted were their wedded cta11a with strife."-Beattie.
2. "No hi ve ho.st tllou of hoarded sweets.,,
3. "Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove.,,-IAnglwrne.
4. Follows th e loosen'd aggravated roar."-Thonuon.
Ii. .. That purple grows the prlmrose.pale."-Langlwrne.
H

