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I

BU LL I 0 N S'S

G RAM MAT I CAL

S ER I ES.

I

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v'¥"-

BULLIONS'S

SCI-IOOL GRAMMAR:
WITH

PRACTICAL LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN

COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS.

A

REVISED

EDITION

OF THE

COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR, AND INTRODUCTORY TO
THE PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.

I

I

BY

..

PETER BULLIONS, D. D.,
AUTHOR OF Tri SERIES OF ENGLISH~ LA.TIN, AND GREEK GRA.MMA.RS,
Loi.TIN .I.ND GREEK BE.I.DEBS, ETC .

"'-~>:<Y-C. ~-c-a-.·~·c

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0 f: ·~''/A ·:-,:.\': 11, ·.-~ .,~

NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY SHELDON & COMP ANY,
498 & 500 BROADWAY.

1870.
C../

'f'E\\Oi,~

.

ENTERED according to Act of Congrcos, in the year 1870, by th;;E>
EXECUTORS OF PETER BULLIONS,

C\

\ 'l::,

O

1

In the Clerk's Office of the District Cou rt of the United States for the
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PREFACE.

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Tms book h as been carefully revised, in order t o have it serve
m ore completely as a school-book for those pupils who have not
time allowed, in their school s tudies, for a profitable use of all
contained in a treatise such as the author's " Analy tical and Prn,etical Gmmmn,r of the English Language." To pupils who may
be favored with tim e for a more extended course of instruction,
and who may r equire the larger book in high er classes, this little
boolt>will be serviceable ; as in both b ooks th e Definitions n,nd
Rules are substantin,lly tlie so.me throughout, and am presented
in the same order.
E ach " Lesson" of this book presents one topic for study, by
such a met.hod as will secure n,n intelligible comprehen'sion and a
pmctical application of the principles of Grammar contained in
t he lesson. (See Lesson 10, page 18.) After the large type,
which presents the subject in concise language, is an "Illustration," which, in simple, familiar language, explaius the full, pra~~
tical meaning of the definitions. The "Observations" are to be
used at the option of the t eacher. The "Questions" are so
framed as to bring out the leading facts contaiued in the preceding text. [It is recommended, that so far as practicable, the
pupils be encouraged to recite "topically," without the formal
11s3 of the questions.] Following the questions are many and
v aried "Exm·cises" for tbe pract.ical application of the knowledge acquired, and to fix it in the most effectual manner on the
understanding. The importance of these exercises can no t be
over estimated, and they should on no account be neglected.
Su]Jjoined is the requirement that the pupils are to construct
language in accordance with the principles, etc., under consideration, and thus show to the teach er their understn,ncling of the
lesso n. By this last feature , " ComposiU.on" soon becom es
pbn,sin'.l' and profitable to pupils.

iv

PREFACE.

A simple and practicable system of Analysis of Sentences,
which has been fou.nd so useful in the Analytical and Practical
Grammar, is presented in this book in its proper place. After a
pupil has studied Etymology, he will easily understand this
"Analysis," and can readily apply its principles throughout
Syntax, when correcting the "Exercises" on the Rules, etc.

The lessons on "Punctuation," "Capitals," etc., have been enlarged, and practical ·exercises and suggestions may be added at
the discretion of the t eacher.
Some Introductory Exercises have been inserted as preliminary
to the more formal study of the Etymology. These Exercises
will interest beginners in the uses of correct language, and prepare their minds for the reg uiar "Lessons." Some classes may
be profi tably entertained by frequent use of these and similar
exercises from the teacher.
In making new plates for the present edition, the publishers
have taken occasion to present it in more attractive form. Its
improved typographical appearance will commend it to its many
friends.
~

The numbers in parentheRis, in the text, in full-faced
figureE, r efer to the current numbers in this Grammar. Where
fuller explanation is desirable, the foot-notes refer to the sectl nns of the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and the manual
of Analysis, Parsing, and Composition.

C 0 N T E NT S.
*•*

PA G1'~

!ii

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES, .•........ .... •. • · .. .. · · · · · · · • .. • · · · · · · ·
D EFINITION AND DIVISION, 1-5 ....... ... . . . .. . ....... . .. · · · · · · · · · ·

1

PART Jl'IRST.-ORTHOGRAPHY.
;Letter.a and Syllables, .G-.·2.G. ................. ... .. .... . ... ·..

2-3

PART SECOND.-ETYMOLOGY.
Dfo-ision .Of W:ord;s, .27-30......... ... ...... .. ... . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .
Parts of Speech, 31-35.... .. . . .. ... ...... ... . ...... .. .... .. .. .. ..
Of Nouns, .36 . ..... .... .. . . .. . . ... .. ........ . ........ . .. ,. · . . .... · · ..
Person, 46-52.. . ... .... .... . .... . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gender, 5 .3 -:IJ.1 . ... . .......... · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · .. · • · · · · · · · · "..
Number, G»-7.7 . . .. . ...... . . .. • · · · · ...... · · · · · · · · · · · ·" · · · · "" · · · ·
Caoe, 78-90 .... .... . . .. .. ...... . ... ........... ....... · ··· . .. · ··· ·
Of the Artfole, 01-101......... ... . . . . .... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . .
Of the .ilcl,icctive 1 102-126 .. .. ... . .... . ......... .. .. ..... .. . .....
Comparison of, 111 . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
P 1'onuun,• , 127 .. ........ .. .............. · · · · · · ·· ..... .. · · ··· · .. .. · ·

4

4
5
7

1~

14
lG
18

21
~

~~;.,i~~~~{';:~5: ::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::... ~(i
ReJati ".C, 1.4~ . ... .. .... . · .. . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

gf

Exe·r cis es on Nouns, Articles, Adjectives, and Pronouns. ......... . ....

32
34

l~JJe:~ti~~~i~iG1~~.~: :·::.::::::: ·.: :: :: :: :::::: :::::::::::::::: ::··:: ::
Of

MAY, 1870.

The flqures in full-faced type are to the numbers of the paraqraplls.

;~;',];:'or~~'j}:J.i~·n· o~'. .~'.~;::::::: :: . :: : : : : . : :: : : : : . : : : : : : . : : : : : : : : ~~

::.~~rJf1.~t9:
The Verb

· :'.

U: UA1

To Love,', 274.............. . . .......... .. . ... . .... . .... . ..
Negative Form .of tJJ.e Verb, 278 ...... . .......... .. · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · ·
Interrogative Form, 281.. .. . . . ...... . .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. .... . .. . . . . . . . .
Progressive Form of the Active Voice, 285. . ...... ... ... . ..........
PasBive Voice, 287 .. . . . .. .... .. . .... . .. . . .. ........ .. .... . ... .... . ~
Defective and lmper•onal Verbs, 290-292 .......... . ... .......... · · · · ·
I rregular Verbs. ·288 ....... . .. . . .............. ... ...... . ... .. .. ... · ... ..
A<lvc,.bs, 293.. . . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .... . .. ... . ...
Preposftions, 302 .. . .... . . . ... ... .... ... .. . ... .. . . . . . . ... . ... ... ..
Couj>inction.•, 311 ................ ... . .. .. . . ... .. .... .. ... . ..... .. · ·
Inte ·1:J cc tions 1 317 .. .. ..... ...... . . .. ... .............. .. . . . ..... .. ...
How to Distinguish the Parts of Speech, 321...... .. . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . . .
H

~~

G"

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"1,0•

69
76
78

81
83
84

CONTENTS.
Pa1·s·i.ny, :-J2G. .. .....
PAGE
Moue! or, 3 2/J ...... · · • · · · · • · · · .. · · · · .... •• • · · · .. ·. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . 8ti

Exercise" in, 330.. . .

87
....... . ..... . .. . . .. .... 88

.. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : .. · · · · · · · · .. · . · ·• . •.. . . . .

SUGGESTIONS

P AUT TRIRD.-SYNTAX.
Analys is .of Se. n t <•n ce s, D efini tion ~ 331
P a r ts of u Sentence. 3 J.O
'
··

····· ··· ·· ··. . .. .... ....

.. • · · · · .. . .. ... . .

90
91

Sing le Sentc11ct::s, 3J5 . . ..
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ... .. . ..
SUBJECT OF A SEN'rENCE 3GO
· · · · .. • .. · · · · · · · .. · • ·
Mod 1fica t1 ou s o t: .w.;' .
.. · · ·· · · .. .. · · · · .. · · · · · · · ·.. .. .. .. .... ..
Moc1 1ncar.ions or Mo uifying \y~;·~is · 370 · ·· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. ... .
THE PREDI CA 'rE 372 .
'
················ ········.....
. M_odiJicn ti on 'o1: 8 1i1 · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · .. · · · · · · .... · .. · · • · ·.. ... .. .

93
!14
95
96

_ C l:ls~ c s of Scn t.cnce::i

L 1m1t1ng C!au ::;e~ .":88

o;;i/ .. .... · · · · · · · ·

U7
98

· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . .. . .. .......

99

Compo uuJ. S c nt e~ c e g 'jiJ<j · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .... . ....
Ci11ss illca ti on of Sent~n·c~; · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · .. .. .. · · · .. .. · · . .. . .. .. .
D ·i1·t-! ct'i ons f fn· ~L ·ua.ly s ·i~· .
.Models, 4 0 4 . ....
'
· · · · · · · .. · · · · .... · · · · · · · .. .. . . . . ......
Con s t'l•u ct i on nf ._i.,· e·,~- ~:~~~~ ~~- · ~·(/// ·· ··· · ·· · ·· .. .... .. . ... .. . · ·· · ·· · ·
P arts of Syn tax 407
'
.. · · · · .. · · " · .. · · · ·
............

100
102
108
103
104
107
Rules of ~Y'Ufax: 411~-.~~·3 .. · · .. · · · · · · · · · · ··
.. .. · ·· · · · · · · ·· 108
I .- SunsTAK CES IN APr081T1Q
"1'< ',jJ'i:: ... .... .. .. · · ·· · · · · · .... · · 109
II.- .ADJECT!VE AND SUBS'l'AN1'IVE 414 .. .. ... . .... . . . . .... . . . . 109
III.-r,rn ARnc LE 4:t 4
'
· · · · · .. .. · .. .. · · .. . .. ... . 119

40'3 . .... .•.. •..... .. ..... ........... .. ..

1

~:=~;~~~~;; r:~Nx~~:~t!~~; : ~~:~:::::: : : :: ::::::::::::::::

m

VI.- SUEJECT NOMINATIVE 441 '
<> .. .. . .. ....... . .. . . . . ..... 114
VlL -NOMINA"rI VE AB S OLU T~ 4i,j'" .. . ' . .. ...... . . .. . · ··· . . .. · ··· 11 6
VIII.-Vmm AND ITS SUBJ ECT 44!/. . ..... . .. ... . . .... . . . ..... 11 7
l~. -TuE P REDICAT E 8 UB STA,NTIVE . ".1:°5'8 ..... .... ' ' .... ' · · · · · · · · · 117
X.- OBJECT OF A VERB. 4UO
'
...... . . .. . . . ..... . . . .... ll!J
XL-OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREi·~s·11:,0·N. "4ii9'" ..... ..... .. ... .... 120
XII.-I'REPOSI1'!0NS AFTER CE!tTAIN W ORDS ·475 ..... .... .. .... . l 22
XIIL - THE I'OSSESS !Vll CASE 4 " 9
'
......•• .. .. . ... 124
X! V.-SunrnNc TrVE Moon. 4sJ · · · · · · · · · · · .. · ...... .. .. · · · · · .. .. 12G
XV.-INF!N!TIVE Moon 4!J'>
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · · · • .. . ... . 127
xyr. - ~0NsTnucT10N o.: PA;.r;c,;,p~E·s · iih · .. ·· .. · · · · · · .... · · · · 1:18
X~· IT.-'IJ IE ORDER OF Tnrn 514
'
. ..... . . .. .. ..... . . ... . 130
x-v rn .- coNsTnucTroN oF AnYEnns · iia · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · .. · · ·..... 133
XIX .-CON H JNC TlONS 5 2·- ... . .. '. .. .'. . :: ~ .. .. .. .. . .. . .......... . . 134

. ... .... ........... .. . . .

137

Ell i r>llis , 5~17....
,
· ··· · · · · · ·· · ··· · · · · · · · · · ···· · · · · · · ·· . . . .
Not admis. iblc 5 49 · · · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · ·
• · · · .. · .. · .. · . . .... . .
Syntact~· cal J>a,:s in q; ~i~d·~1 ·~r· /;i;·i ~ · ~ · · ····· · ··· ·· ··· ·· ·· ·· ·· ··

141

143
144

Capi tal s, r; s 1
· .. .. · · · · · · · ...... · · · . . ... · · ·
Co1n7, ns itfrn 1 • :~ .~-.~ • . .. • • • · ' • . . . . • • .. • • • • • • • . . · " • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. •
eon i? t ~n cti o n of se'n't'f' Y~c e ~ " fii) 2' ... ... ....... .. .. . .. ... ............
Exercises in Composi tion,' G09 ."::: · ." : .":: :: : :: .. · .... · · · · .. · .. · · .. ..
. . ... .. ....... . ...... .

152
154

X X. -PREP OSl'f lONS ,

XX L-INT E RJECT IO N~

9

54<':.

54 :! ... . ........ . .. . . .... . . .... .. .. ... . . .. .. 141

P1n~:.~.:(:~~~~1~ ::.~ ~~i.~~e_,_ .~··~.~:

:'· :·····.": .·." ." :::::." :::." ." ::::::::::::::~:~

0

PART FOUilTH.-PilOSODY.
Elo cuti on , G11 .. . . . ........... .. .. ..
······· ·····
Ye ,r s ijicciti on, G.? 1 ... .
APP.ENDIX. · · · ·· ·

148

156
160

·····
···· ·· ····
.... .... .. .... ........ ... ......··....
............

1G4

·· ········ ···· ·· ····· ········· · .. .. ..... .. . .. . ..

166

163

TO

TEACHERS.

A manual of English Grammar can give little more than the
outlines of the science ; and these, to be brought within reasonable compass, must be stated in very concise form. A fruitful
source of failure and diRappointment in the study of Grammar
is found in the willing-ness of teachers to rest in the bare statement of the author, and to confine the instruction for the most
part to the mastery by the pupil of the formal definitions and
rules. These are but the framework, the foundation upon which
to build.
Since it is the .office of grn.mmar to teach us how to write mid
speak correctly, manifestly that method of study, and those
exercises, are most profitable which afford the largest and most
careful ·practice, in writing and speaking- in the application of the
i·ules and principles which the Grammar sets forth.
In presenting to the public this revised edition of a little work
which has so long stood the test of practical use in the school
room, the following hints, as aids to its more successful teaching,
are submitted, especially to the consideration of teachers of limited
experience.
1. The first essential is tlwroiiah prepwrat-ion by the
teacher, involving familiarity with !2!ach subject, and with the
scope and relation of the whole. "\Ve can not teach better than
we know; and this preparation involves not simply such a
knowledge of Grammar as shall aid us ourselves in the correct
use 0f language, but that fuller and more exhaustive study which
will enable us to arlapt Us teachinas to the comprehension
of those who look to us for instruction.
2. Each new subj ect shoulq be carefully illustrated before
the pupil undertakes the · task of committing to memory the
formal definitions, in order that he may clearly apprehend its
meaning, and that unnecessary obstacles may be removed .
3. Copious blackbowrd illust1·ations and examples
should always accompany the lessons, especially giving judicious

viii

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.

classifications of principles, divisions, and distinctions of the
several subjects of study, and showing the relations of parts to
each other.
Generally, th ere are three stages in every recitation :

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

(1.) Brief 1•eview of the zn•eced·i ng lesson, (if related to
the current one,) tracing its connection and bearing.

(2.) ReC'itcition and thorough d ·i.sc1,t,ss·i on of the lesson
of the day, the teacher at first eliciting any additional thoughts
or illustrations the pupils have to give, and then enlarging as
the case demands, until it is thoroughly comprehended. ·· The
teacher should not be contented with the simple fact that the pupil
has recited a lesson verbatim ; but will see to it, also, that he has
an intelligent notion of what it is designed to teach.
Lessons should be assigned and explanations given suited rather
to the least intelligent than to the briglitest m embers of a class,
and the recitation and instruction should reach the individuals· of
the class so far as m ay be practicable.
(3.)

Assigning the next day's lesson, as before sug-

gested.
This, it will be seen, in some degree goes over each lesson three
times in three successive days, and should result in its mastery.

4. Any skillful study of English Grammar must give special
prominen ce to· v1·actical exercises ·in composU·i on, applying the principles illustrated and enforced in the several lessons.
The very fiill antl explicit di1 •ection.'I for such exercises
accompanying each lesson in this manual, will not fail to commend themselves to the judicious. teacher. They should bo
extended as the practical n ecessities of the class may seem to
require.
5. Every teach er using this M:anual should also be provided
with a copy of the PRACTICAL GRAMMAR and of the Analysis,
and should mak e use of the foot-notes to give further illustration and elaboration to subjects that may seem to need it.
6. It is recommended that the Manual of "ANALYSIS, PARSING,
taken up in connection wi'th the (]iammar,
in such portions us shall best illustrate and enforce the teachings
of the several lessons, or aid in their practical application.
AND CmIPOSITJON " be

Language, either spoken or written, is made up of wo1·d.>.
Each word is the sign of some idea; ru;id by the proper
selection and arrangement of _w ords, we 11,re _e_!lab~ed to expre,ss
our ideas in a correct and intelligent manner.
By careful . att~nticm to the ~neani?'W ,and 1:el~tfon of
words, as they a1:e used in writing or speaking, we find that some
are employed to express the nanies of things, .others to indicate their qiiaUties ; some express action or state of some
person or thing, ~d others are used _in COD:necti~n ,with these to
point out the t·i·11".e, plnce, .1na,n n,e_r, .~l~pree, etc., of such
action or state ; some denote certain 1·elat'ions of things to each
other, and 'other8 again chiefly to connect ~he different p~rts of a
sentence to each other.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
Thus, although there are many thousapd words in the English
language, all are classified grammatically into only riine different
kinds, called P<.w ts of 'Speech. A. word is of one kind or another, according to its use in a sentence.
Let us now observe the uses a,nd na1nes of the dllferent
kinds of words in the following
SENTENCE.- " The boy rolled a round stone upon the floor,
and oh.! h~w swiftly it did go.'' '

[*•* The teacher will write this sentence on the blackboard.]

Q. Is there any p _e rson named in this sentence?
Q. Is there any place named ?
Q. Is there any thing named?
Q. What, then, are the words "boy," " .fl.oar," and "stone .?"
4.ns. They art') names.

x

xi

CLASSIFJCATION OF WORDS.

CLASSIT'ICATION OF WORDS.

Mention other names :

Q. What, then, is an adjecti'V e?

- - Of things you c"u see,
- - Of thin g s you cau helll",
- - Of things you can th'inlc of.

Q. In the part of the sentence, ·•It did go swiftly," what "did
go?,,

Q: For what, then, is the word "it" used in this sentence?

In Grnmmar, names are called Nouns or SitbstanUves,

Q. What, then, is a noun ?
Ans. A ·1 w·ttn is the name of any pwrson, place, or thing (36),
[i:2W"' Exercise the pupil on nouns by asking him to write a number on the
slate or blackboard; also by giving bim 8enteuces in which they occur and
requiriug liim to point them out.

For Exerdt.es see pages 6 aud 7. ' IJo

ti!< same uith ti! > otlic.- Pa1•ts of S i> ecd<, as they are dQ/Zued.]

Q, ·what word is before boy in thi8 sentence ?-before round
.~tone ?

Q. Why, then, is "the" put before "boy?" (94.)
Q. 'W hy is "a" put before " round stone?" (93.)
Q, Can you give other nouns and put these little words a or

the before them ?
[Let the pupil turn to page 18 (Exercises) and prefix: these words, in the
same way, to the words in the list, beginning ·with

[Write the defir.it·io11.]

a

chair."]

Q, ·what word instead of a do you put before the word "owl?"Does this word m ean the same as a?
Q. Can you tell the ilifference between a man, and the man?

Q, What are these words "the" and "a," and what do they
show? Ans, They are Articles, and show the manner in
which the nouns "boy" and "stone" are used.
Q. What, then, is an article?
.Ans. An nrticle is a word put before a noun to show the manner
in 1ohich it is used. [Lesson 9.] For Exercises see page 18.

Q. '\Vhat word is before "stone?"
- - What kind of stone is it ?-Mention other kinds of stones.
vVrite twenty other nouns, and put before each of them some
word to tell the kind.
[In tho Exeroises, page 20, let the pupils point out the ndject!ves.]

Q. What are these words called that tell what kind of thing?
(See 102.)

(It is used instead of the noun "stone.")
Words used instead of nouns are named P1·onouns.

(121.)

Q. What, then, is a pronoun? [Write the definition.]
Q. Can you read the sentence "Give me the pears you bought of
him ; I want them," and put uonn,.; in the place of the
words " me," ''you/' " him," and "them? "

Q. Look again at the sentence; what did the boy do?
Q. What is said of the stone? (Ans It did go upon the floor.)
Q. What, then, does the word "rolled" tell us of?
.Ans. The action of the boy.
Q. What does " diq go " tell us of?
.Ans. The state of the stone after the boy rolled it.
[For other Exerci•cs, see page 27.)
Words ·of this kind, such a1> " rolled " and " did go" are
named Vm·bs. [Put the definition on the blackboard.]
The subject of n verb is that of which the verb tells or
affirms something. Tb us, in the sentence, "boy" 's the subject of the verb " rolled," and " it" (standing for stone) is the
subject of the verb " did g9."
Q. What, then, is a verb?
Ans, A. ve1·b iR a wO'rd or words used to express the act, being, or
state of its subject ; as, I write; he exists; time flies. [Exercises, p. 38.]
Take the list of nouns, (page 11, Exercises) and t ell something
of each. JVrite out the sentences.

Q. H ow did the stone go?
Q. What does "swiftly " tell us?
.Ans. The manner in which the .stone "ilid go."
Q. If you say "the stone did go very swiftly," what does the
word " very " do?
.Ans. It modifies the meaning of the word "swiftly."

xii

CLASS~FIOATION

OF WQR,D.S.

CL.A.S~IF!CATION OF WORDS.

Q. What would "very " here tell us? Ans. .A. circumstance. a];)lijut
the motion of the stone. It did go very swiftly.

Q. If you were to say "_a very round stone," what would " very"
be used for? Ans. To modify the adjective "round."
Words of this kind, such as " swiftly " and " very " are named

.A.dve1·bs.
Q. What, then, is an adverb? (See ·29_3.)

xiii

Q. · What are y01i going· to learn by studying Grammar?
An8. The way to put these P arts of Speech properly together,
so as to speak and writ~ the English ·language c.orrectly.
NOTE.-Let the teacher take other appropriate sentences and
go over them in the same way until the pupils can readily tell
the Parts of Speech in their simplest uses.

Point out the ad.verbs Qn page ·78,.Exeroise II.

Q. 'What is the use of the word " upon" in the sentence?
Li ns. It shows the relat"tan between the '' floor" and "rolled."
Q. If you add to the sentence so that t.!1e latter part w:ill -read
"how swiftly it did go under the table," what relation docs
the word "under" show? A i:zs. T4e .relation of t}l._e ve~·.b
"dicl go" to the noun "table."
·words of this kind are named Prepasit·~ons.
Q. What, then, is a prepos'ition.f

(3.03.)

Q. This sentence has two parts connected ·by one word. Name
the parts. Ans. (1) "The boy rolled a round .ston,e upon the
floor." (2) "Oh! how swiftly it did go I " -

Q. What word j oins these two parts of the sentence?
Words that join words and sentenc<>s are called Conjunctfo,n s.
Q. What, then, is a conjunction? A ns. A conjumtion is a '/J!(Yrd
which connects words, phrases, or sentences. (311.)

Q. What is "oh ! " here? Ans. I t is a word expressing surprise

Examples ·of the Pm·ts of Speech.
The teacher may now write upon the blackboard a sentence
with illustrations,· similar to the following:
Carlo was a noble dog ; he swam bravely towards the shore ; but
alas ! he was drowned.
1. Noun ...•. .. as, wheat, dogs, etc ..... . Carlo (was)
2. Article...... a, an, the .... .. ..... . a
3. .Adjective.. . . . first, larger; etc ...... noble (dog)
4. Pronoun ..... I, they; who; etc. __ .. . he
5. Verb ...•....
6. Advei·b ... .. .
7. Preposition .. .
8. Conjunction . .
9. I nterjection .. .

walks, has gone, etc . . swam
here, largely, etc ..... bravely
on, from, into, etc ... . toward.! (the shore)
and, both, or, etc ..... . but
oh! ah-! etc ......... . ala8! (he was droffiled)

[Write upon the blackboard the definition of each of the !'arts ~!
speech, in a series of lessons, nnd illustrate each fUlly-the pupil comm1tt.ing the de!lnition tlwroughly to memory.]

at seeing the stone rolling.
Such words are called Intmjections.

(31?'.)

Write five sentences containing interjections.

Q. How many kinds of words are there,in _this sentenc;e.?
Ans. Nine.

Q. What are they ca]\ed in English Gr~=ar?
A ns. T~1ey are c~lled Pm·ts of Speech. (31.)

Q. Can all the words in our language be cla;:;sed µnder these nine
Parts .o f Speech ? Ans. Yes.

After an exercise like the foregoing, it may be profitable to

b·n-ild up n sentence, by successive additions of words, to
illustrate the different pa1•ts of speech, and to exercise the
pupil in discriminating the use of words in simple composition.
Commence with some noun, as "birds," and by suitable ques· ·
tions, let the pupils add successive elements, e.g., What part of
speech is this?

XlV

CL.A.SSIFICATION OF

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

S!ate something a bird does or can do. [Sing.]
of speech is sing? "

"What part

A word is the sign of an idea; as, book, sweet, write.
A plwase is the simplest expression of a thought not affirmed. (835 .)

*it:* Teacher or pupil ·w ·rites the sentence, uBirds ~ing."

Put before it some word to tell the kind of birds.
as before.]

xv

worms.

[Question

How or when, etc., do birds sing?

A p1•opos'ition is a single statement or affirmation.

A sentence is the expression of a proposition.

(332 .)

(.'$.'lfJ.)

A clrt'ttse is a dependent part of a sentence, containing a
subject and a verb. (834.)

Where do birds sing? [In the grove.]
What word joins "grove~· to the rest of the sentence, and
shows ?"elation between th,em ?

*** Any expres~ion containing the verb in any of its moods,
is a clause or a sentence, and not a phrase.

So ?roceecl t? de·velop a sentence, somewhat as in the preceding
exercises we discussed Parts of Speech in the one there given.

Sentences.

Pl'elfanina1·y ..Definitions.

Every sentence consists of two 11a1·ts, the subj ect and the
predicate. (340-849.)

The simplest form of language is a word, as a name or sign.

T~u.t for which it .~tmia: is called an iclea, that is, an image
or picture of sometlung m the mind, something that the mind
knows.
Inverting this order, we have the following:

Suell perception or consciousness is called an idea of the
object, quality, act, manner, etc.
A spoken or written sign, standing for such idea is called a
'

Wh en.we are con~cious of some 1•elation to each other of two
are said to think. The operation of the mind
18
called thonf!ht, and the weirds when put together are called
a plwase; as, Green grass.

?r more ideas, we

. We_ may affirm-state our opinion or judg-men.t-of two ideas,
or denying o~e of the other; as, G1·ass is grecn.-Ice is
n?t cold. The express10n of such judgment is called a p'l'oposit1on, and the words taken together make a 80 : 1. tencB.~
1
• ffirmmg

Anal.-• 28.

'30.

The p1·ecl-icate is the statement or affirmation which we
make of the subject.
The following are examples:

An obj~ct, or_ a quali ty, or the doing of something, or the manner, etc., m which something is done, is perceived by the mind.I

'Wi!1'll.

The s·t iuject is the word or words standing for that of which
we speak.

Sull}ect.

Predicate.

Birds ... sing.
Sugar ... is sweet.
The bad boy . .. tore his book.
The lame man ... limps on his lame leg.
The boy who studies ... will improve rapidly.
The fear of the Lord ... is the beginning of wisdom.
The stars which we see at night . .. disappear when the sun rises.
NoTE.-Pupils should be thoroughly exercised in distinguishing
between the subject and the predicate, until they can readily
name each in any sentence whose meaning they can understand.
All that is not subject is predicate, and all that is not predicate
is subject.
The very first st.ep in the analysis of sentences is to inculcate
the necessity of separating every sentence into two parts-t1rnt

xvi

CLASSiFICATION OF WORDS.

of which the statement or affirmation is made and th t h ' h ·
said of it.
'
a w 1c is
. 1. The substantive in the subj ect (nominative case) is of
itself often in~iifflcient, and the fitness of the predicate is frequently deternnned by the limiting words; as,

A generous man .... will be honor ed.
A selfish man· · · ·will be despised.
2 . .Simil~rly, although the ve1•b is the principal word in the
predicate, it may be so modified by other words, that, with the
sahme verb, the sense of the predicate shall be essentially
c anged:
(1.) By an

adverb; as,
The man· .. . walked slowly.
The man· · .. walked rapidly.

(2.) By an

objective; as,

1. Lwnf!uage is the means by which we express
our thoughts.

It .. .. tastes sweet.
It .... tastes sour.

2. The expression of our thoughts by sounds is Spolcen
Lanynage ; the expression of them by letters (7) is TV1'it-

_ S. With the same vm·b, the predication of different subJects may be satisfied by a change of the siibord'i1iat

e

Our friends.' ..• . treat us with kin dness.
Our enemies . ... treat us with .contempt.

***

!.-Definition and Division.

[Commit 'lJejlnitions and :Rules a ccu1·ately l o memorJ>.]

att1·ibute; as,

words.

GRA.MM _,_~R.

[REFERENCEs.-The figures enclosed in parentheses in the t ext
r efer to the sections in this grammar. The foot-notes, correspond·
ing with the small index figures in th e text, refer to the section8
of the Analytical and Practical English Grammar (A. & .P. Gr.),
and to the Manual on Analysis, Parsing, and Composition (Anal.),
belonging to this series.]

LESS 0 N

He .... wore a hat.
He . . . . wore a cap.
(3.) By an

ENGLISH

For further discussion and exercises' see' "Analys1s.
" "

NOTE TO TEACIIERS.-The preceding exercises are intended
o~ ly as suggestions for oral lessons, which the skillful teacher
will extend or modify at pleasure. The pupil should not have
a~y part of this Introduction assigned as a task to be comm1ttP~ to m emory: the text in the " Lessons" furnishes ample
maten al for that, after the principles it embodies have been carefully set before the inind of the learner.

ten Llinyiuiye (1.~). or P1·inte<l Lm•guaye (.13).

3. English Grarnrnm• is the art of speaking
and writing the English Language with propriety.

4. It is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography,'
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

5. Orthorrrciphy treats of letters (6); EtymolSyntax of sentences (:331); and
Prosody of elocut·ion and versification (610).

O(/Y of }Vords (27);

QUESTIONS.-What is Language f
What is Spoken Language?
Written f
What is English Grammar?
Into how many parts is it
divided f
:Mention them.
What does Orthography treat of?
EtymolSyntax?
Pro&ody ?
ogy f

2

LE'ITEl\S

A~D

LETfERS AND SYLLAflLES.

SYLL.\BLES

PART FIRST--ORTHOGRAPHY.
LE S S 0 N 2 .- Letters and Syllables.

6. o .'rthog_r_a phy treats of letters and the proper
mode of combmmg them into syllables and words.
7. A lette1· is a mark or character usecl in fnrininy ct
and denotes a sound of the human voice as b-a-d bad
'
'
g -o go, p-u-p-i-1 pupil.

W01Yl,

. 8. Some letters represent se-vei•cil sounds, as a in able, cedar,
fall, mat; c in c.3dar, call.
9. Someti'.11es ~wo 01· more letters are used to represent a
sound, as ch m child, ough in though, sh in finish.
. 10. \Vhe_n a let.I.er in a word is not used in pronunciation, it
is called a stlent letter, ns h in hour, e in peace.
1 ~· There are about fo1'ty Elementa1·11 Sounds in the
~nghsh Language, represented in writing or in print by twentys1x letters called the Alphabet :
~i/,,,, ~lleU. - ~a;:.;1J.

12.

$6$~~G'&r:f7%eh#b1.£.A1§.!l'.!2!4rfl'~ VW.%°{'J.
~.f4n ~14u. -rfka/t!
a

'ff' c ct'

e/

)'- ,{

e/ ,{ /

m n o /

f

t

ti , /

u ., w a:

13. ROMAN LETTERS.-CAPITALS.
ABC DEF G HI J K LM N 0 P QR STU V W X

,Y )'•

y z.

3

14. Lette1·s are either Vowels or Con.~ouants.
15. A Vowel makes a free, full sound of itself.
1(). A Consonant can not be fully sounded without a vo"·cl.
11. The Vowels are a e i u n; also, w and y, not befo re
another vowel sounded in the same syllable, as in law, boy.
18. All the other letters are C<Ynsm1.nnts; also, w and y
before a vowel sound ed in the same syllable, lU3 in wa'l', youth.
l!i. A Diphthort{J is the union of two vowels in one sound,
as ou in oitt, oi in oil .
20. A Tri7>htlwng is the union of three vowels in one
sound , us eau in beauty.
21. A Hyllable is a distinct sound, uttered by one impulse
of the voice, and represented by one or more letters, n.6 fa1·m,
ea-glc, a-e-ri-aJ .
22. A word of one syUnble is a Monosyllcible, as man.
23. A word of two syllables is a DissyUable, as man-ly.
24. A word of three syllable8 is a Tri8yllable, as man-li-ncss.
25. A word of four or 1no1·e syllables is a Polysyllable,
as Em-i-g1·a-tion, l n-sub-or-di-na·tion.

26. Spelling is the art of expressing words by
their proper letters.'
<)UEST.CONS. -What Is Orthography1
What i• a Letter?.
When
is a Letter called silent?
How many .EJomentary Sounds are there in English?
How many Letter• are there i . How are they divided?
What
is a Vowel ?-a Consonant?
Name the Vowels.
When are w and y
vowels?
When Consonante?
What is a Diphthong?
A Triphthong?
What i• a Syllable?
What is a Word of one Syllable called?
Of two?
Of three?
Of four or more ?
What is Spelling?

Roman Letters.-Small.
a b c d e f g

~

i j k I m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.

IT.ALIG LETTERS.-GAPITA L S.
ABC DE FGHIJ KLMNO P QRS T UV W X

Italic L etterB.-Small.
a b c d e f U h i j k l rn n o p q r s t u v w x y z.
REMARKs.-Italic letters are generally used for emphasis.

YZ.

NOTE TO TEACIIERs.-Before a new lesson is assigned to the class, its subject-matter should be carefully exemplified by 01·al exe1'cise1<, fam iliar
quest.ions, and bl«ckboar<l ill1tsln1Hons, so that Its scope may be fully
apprehended-not for the purpose of relieving the pupil of his labor, but of
making it possible for him to perform it understandingly. Use additional
qnestions as they may sugg;:...t themselves; and in the reviews, let the pupil
'recite to1'>·lcally tvi.thout questions.
Anal. & Practical Grammar-• 51-76.

4

NOUNS.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

PART SECOND--ETYMOLOGY
LESS 0 N 3. - Division of Words.

2(. Etymology treats of the classe.'I of
words, and of the changes of the form of words,

5

· • boy; boy is
· a common noun ' and is the
qualifying or descr1bmg
snbject of strikes; strikes is a ~erb, and tells w~at the boy does.
John is a noun, and is the object of the verb strilces.
What is Inflection?
QUESTIONS.-What does EtymoI ogy t rea t O f?
hat is Derivation?
What are the nine classes of Words .called?
Na.rue
':
Which are inflected?
Under ')'hat other name is the Inflection
~/;~rds treated of? What is Par~ing? What does etc. (28) mean?

by inflection and by derivation.
28. Inff,ect,i on is the change of form or termination which
a word undergoes to express the different relations of person,
gender, number, case, comparison, voice, mood, tense, etc.; as,
He sees great men ; a greater man saw him.
29. Derivation is the change in a word from its simple
primitive word; 2 thus, manly, manhood, mankind are derived
fro1n " 1nan."
30. fVords, in respect to their meaning and use, are divided into nine classes, called

PARTS OF SPEECH.

.11. Tim names of the parts of speech in our
language are Noun, Article, Adfective, Pronoun, Verb,
Adverb, Preposit,ion, Oonfunction, and Interfection.

LESSON 4.-Nouns.
[.1le:view tl•e two preceding .Lessons, and ansJper lite questions.]

36. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or
thing ; as, John, L ondon, book.
3'1. Nouns are either Common or Proper.
38. A Common Nown is ~ na~e applied to all
things of the same sort; as, boy, city, river. .
39. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an
indivilhial person or thing only; as, John, London,
the Ohio.
40. A Noun is also called a Substantive.
41. A Substanti'Ve is a noun, or any word or part of a sentence used as a noun .
.Thus: The man has gone. He reads. To read well requires
much practice. That industry leads to success needs no proof.
These substantives are subjects of the several verbs "has gone,"
"reads," "re~?11"es," "needs." (See Lesson 39.)

32. Of these. the Noitn, Pronoun, and Verb and some
Adverbs are inflected (.111, 296).
3.'J. In grammar, the inflection of Nouns, Pronouns, and
Verbs is usually treated of as "A.cC'idents" (45, 132, 202).
A(~jectives and

84. Parsing is the taking of the words of a sentence separately to tell to what class each belongs,
and then describing it (324).
:J/;. ILLUSTRATION.-" The bad boy strikes John" is a sentence.
Each of these words is a part
speech, and holds a certain
relation to other words in the sentence. We parse these words
when we tell what parts of speech they are and describe them.
Thus, the is an article and belongs to boy; bad is an adjective

oi

Analysis, Parsing & Composition,-' 225-242.

'

42. ILLUSTRATION.-1. Every thing of which a person can
s~eak, hear, or think, has a name ; that name in grammar is called
a noun. Names common to all things of the same sort or _class, ~re
called Conunon nouns; as, man, woman, day, river, city.
2. Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, nn~
not common to all, are called .Prover nonns; as, John, Friday, Thames, London. Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts or

8

9

GENDER.

GENDER;

in which it is 1.i sell. Moreover, as the name of the speak er
or of the person spok en to, is seldom expressed (the pronoun I or
thou being used in i ts stead), a noun is very rarely in either '
the first or the second person. 1

5'i'. The masculine and feminine genders of nouns
are distinguished in three ways-

EXERCISES.
[Jn the following e"ercises point out the noun s and prononns (126), and
tell their persons. ]

The teacher said to Jane, I am pleased with your progress.-Thou art the man.1- - John, whern are you going?- -Mary,
does J ames study grnmmar ?- -We, the people of t he State, do
ordain.- - Go along-, Joseph.- -The earth is a round balL- E arth and sky I how beautiful ye are.--Man is the servant of
God. - -H ence ! home! ye idle creatures !- - Gazing upon the
same moon tlmt smiles for you, the Indian lover wooed hi s mate.
QUESTI ONS.-What does person denote?
H ow many persons nre
there ?
When is a noun in the first person ?
When in the eecond ?
W hen in the third?
To what rnrt of nouns do the fir st and the second ·
p erson• belong? vVby 1 To what does the third belong 1 Why? Does
person make any difierenf'e in the meaning or the form of the noun f
What
then doee it deno:e?
l s the name of the speaker, or the person spoken to,
often mentioned?
What woi'ds ~re used instead of them?

L ESSON 6.- Gender.
[J?e,,ie•P the bPO preccdin,r1 Lessons , and ans1rer the questions.]

53. G ender is tl1e distinction of noun s and pron ouns with ?•eym•ll to Sex. There are three genders, t he jJJasculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
54. Nouns and pronouns denoting rrutles are M a.scuUne; as, rnan, boy- king, z.ion-l--he.
5/). Nonns and pronouns denoting f enictles are
F e·m ;inine; as, womctn, _qirl,-queen, lioness,- I -slte.
5 6. Nouns and pronouns denoting neither nutles
nm• fein-ales are :Neut er ; as, books, houses, it.
A. & P. Gr.-' 119, 1 2 0.

1. By

d iffer ent corresponding wo·r ds; as,

Masculine. F eminine.

Bachelor maid
belle
Beau
· girl
Boy
Brother sister
doe
Buck
cow
Bull
filly
Colt
duck
Drake
countess
Earl
mother
Fathe~
nun
Friar
Gander goose

Masculine.

F eminine.

11l1¥culine. F eminine.

G~ntleman

lady
roe
mare
wife
she
queen
Juno
woman
lass
lady
mistress
niece

Pupa
Ram, buck
Samuel
Sir
Son
Stag
Sloven
Steer
Swain
Uncle
Wizard
Youth

Hart
Horse
HUBband
He
KingJupiter
Man
Lad
Lord
Master
Nephew

mamma
ewe
Sarah
madam
daughter
hind
slattern
h eifer
nymph
aunt
witch
maiden

*** Some words of this class are compounded by prefix ing
another distinguishing word ; as,
Masculine.

F eminine.

Masculine.

F eminine.

Landlord
Schoolmaster
Grand/ather

l:i.ndlady
schoolmistress
grandmother

StepBon

stepdaughter
peahen

Peacock

2. By a difference of terniination; as,
Masculine.

Feminine.

Masculine.

Abbot
Actor
Administrator
Ambassador
Arbiter
Author
Augustus
Bn.ron
Benefactor
Bridegroom
Count
D eacon

abbess
actress
administratrix
ambassadress
e.rbitress
authoress
Augusta
baroness
benefactress
bride
countess
deaconess

Duke
Emperor
Enchanter
Executor
Governor
H eir
Hero
Host
J ew
Lion
Marquis
Mayor

4"..(.

Feminine.

duchess
empress
enchantress
executrix
governess
h eiress
h eroine
hostess
j ewess
lioness
marcbion e£S
m ayoress

.
J

14

CA.SES

CASES OF NOUNS.

Chair, fox, tabl e, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, arm, boy,
girl : dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, day, toy, leat; knife,
wife, loaf. An apple (96), a pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a
b ell.
[2. Writ e the s ·i nuular of the following plurals:]

Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, tables,
trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, churches, matches,
mice, days, keys, staves, horses, mules, cows, sheep, goats, etc.

15

OF NOUNS.

81. The Possessi-ve case denotes that to which
something belongs;' as, The lady's fan. (47"9.)
82. The Objective case denotes the object of some
action or relat10n; 2 as, James assists Thomas; they live
in Albany.

Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, mouse; fatherin-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fish erman, washerwoman,
cousin-genrnm, etc.

83. The norninat'ive and object'ive cases of nouns are
auiw ·i n fo ·r rn.
84. The possess·i ve singular is formed by adding an
apost1·ophe (') and s, to the nominative ; as John's book.
85. When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed by
adding au apost1·· ophe only; as, Ladies' hats.

[4. T ell the uender and the n?<m1>er of the following nouns: give the
plu?•al and the rule for forming it; thue., u House,'' a noun, neuter, singu~

INFLECTION OF NOUNS.

bushe~.

[3. T ell the plw•al of the following i••reu·u lm• nouns:)

lar; plural 1

H

houses."

H

The plural is commonly formed," etc.]

House, boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, emperor,
governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, lord, box, bush, rush,
g:lose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, loaf, study, coach, toy, mouth,
watch, h ero, chw·ch, tree, way, wife, half, fish, table, mother,
apple, cherry, star, sun, moon, planet, ea.rth, sky, mour.tain,
river, sea, etc.
[5. JV·rit e sho1·t sentences, each containing at least one of the nouns in
the preceding list.]

LESS 0 N 8 .-Cases of Nouns.
[ :Ren"e1P ll•e lll1·ee precedinu Lessons, and answer lite que&tion1. J

'18. Case is the state or co1uUt·i o·n of a nouR
with respect to the other words in a sentence.
'i'9. Nouns have th1•ec cases; the Nominative,
Possess1:ve, and Obfective.
80. Th o N01ninati1Je case comm only expresses
that of which something is said, or declared;' as,
The sun shines.
He is a scholar.
Anal.- ' 145, 14G.

A. & P. Gr.- ' 1G4.

86. Nouns are thus declined:
Singular.

Nom.

Plural.

Singular.

Lady
Ladies
Poss.
Lady's
Ladies'
Obj.
Lady
Ladies
87. Proper names generally have no

John
John's
John
plural.

PAR.SING OF THE NOUN.

88. A noun is parsed etymological'l'!f, ·by telling its gender, number, and case; thus, "The lady's fan
is lost."
Lady's, a noun, feminjne, in the possessive a~,guZar.
Ob.~ervaflions.

89. When the nominative singular ends ill ss, or -letters of a
similar sound, the s ·after the apostrophe is sometimes oinitted, in
order to avoid too close a suceession of hissing sounds ; as, "for
goodneRs' sake;"-" for conscience' sake." This however is seldom
done, unless the word following begins with s; thus we do not
say "the prince' feather," but the "prince's feather."
NoTE.-A noun in the possessive case Hntits the noun to which it is joined.

fJO. The object'ive case, with of befo1·e it, following
another noun , is generally equivalent to the vossess·i ve; thus,
Anal.-' 149.

A. & P. Gr.-' 1G6.

'166.

·'

20

THE ADJECTIVE.

kind of a horse? ·what kind of a stone? What kind of a way?
The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective.

Obsm·vaU01is.
109. Othe1• prirt.;; <>f speech, when used to qualify or
limit a noun, or pronoun, perform the part of atVectives, and
should be parsed as sucl1; as, A gold ring, a he bear, the then
king, the above remark, etc. Sometimes ::m entire plwase or
clause performs the office of an adjective ; as, "The love of
money." What Jove? "The boy who stud·ies." What kind of boy?

110. Adject'ives are often use<l as nouns; as, "God rewards the good, and punishes the b:id." " The virtuous are the
most happy." Adj ectives thus used are plural: they denote more
than one.
QUESTIONS .-Wh at is nn adjective ?
What are adjectives denoting number called 1
What is a numeral adjective?
How many classes
of numer11l adjectives are there?
"\Vhat nre the cardinal numbers?
Whnt.
do they cxpre•B?
What are the ordin:il numbers ?
What do they express 1
·when do nouns or other parts of speech become adJective•?
Of what number are they considered?
Arc adjectives ever used as nouns?

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following exercise, let the pupil fir•t point out the nouns, and
ti.en the adjcct·ive.• ; and tell how be knows them to be so.]

A round table, a. pretty dog, a little mouse, a low chair, a small
book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty books, ugly faces, a beautiful flower, a rich man , fresh fish, a wild horse, a short man, an
old hat, a fierce dog, a good pen, a wise king, an honest man,
tame rabbits, a fine day, a sweet apple, a long stick, a little handsome old woman, a thick square book, a large white cat, a new
book, a clean white frock, a full cap, an empty mug, a warm
room, a wet towel, a cold rainy night, a cloudy sky, windy
weather, hard frost , deep snow. The sky is bright.--It tastes
swect.--Snow is white,--Ice is cold.
[2. In the rihove exercises, let the pupil take ench noun and pr~fi x to it as
many adjective£:. as he cnn think of eo as to make sense ; as, for example,
H tublc, 11 hi gh table, low table, long table, etc., etc., and in reciting put the
emphasis on the udiective.
•
3. Let him take each adjective, anu add to it ns many nouns ns he can think
of, so as to make sense; as, u round,,, a round ball, a round hale, a round
lumae, a round cake, etc., nnd put the emphasis on the noWl.
4. Wl'ite out these exercises.]
1

COMPARISON OF ADjECTIVES.

21

LESS 0 N 11 .-Comparison of Adjectives.
[.1lePi'eH' iite precedi"ng .Lesson,, and aus:wer the questioru.]

111. Adj ectives usually have three forms, culled
degrees of comparison; the Positive, Compara. tive, and Superlative.
112. The Positive expresses the quality siinply;
as, John is tall.
11.1. The Com1Jarative expresses the quality in
a higher degree in one object than another; as, James
is taller than John.
114. The· Superlative expresses the quality in
the highest degree in one object compared with two or
more; as, Joseph is the tallest of all.
115. Adjectives of o'n e syllable form the comparative by
adding er to the positive; and the superlative, by adding e:;/, ;
ns, sweet, sweeter, sweetest.
116. Adjectives ending in e silent, drop e before e1· nnd est; 1
ns, large, larger, largest.
117. Adjectives of mO'IZ/ - than one syllable nre commonly compared by prefixing 1n01·e and 1nost; ns, beautiful,
more beautiful, most beau tiful.
REMARK.-Some prefer to regard the words more and most as
adverbs, modifying the adjective.

118. To these rules there are some exceptions. Adj ectives of
two syllablPs are sometimes compared by er and est; as, our tenderest cares; a Jw,ppier state; and adjectives of one syllable are
sometimes compared by prefixing more and most; as, more wise,
most fit .2
119. A lower deg1•ee of comparison is expressed by prefixing less and least to the positive ; as, less beautiful, least
beautiful.8
A. & P. Gr. ' 66.

'216.

• 217. tl18.

COMPA RISON OF ADJECTIVES.

22

23

CO:llPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

Obsm·vati'ons.
120. D ·i ssyllables en ding in le after a mute are generally
com pared by ei• or est; as, a~le cibler ablest Aft~r
.
V is changed into i before er
. as. dry
happy. ha'l'l
· !.iappiest;
.
• it , is not ch
, ries
,J]ner,
y with a vowel' before
.. d'·
as, gay, gayer, gayest.
,
a ng a ,

~nd e~t

d;iec;nsdo~art1 t:

Q UESTIONS. - How many degrees of comparison are there?
What
doc• the positive denote ?-the comparative ?-the superlative?
How are
monosyllables compared ?-words of more than one syllable? - dissyllables
in le alter a mute i in y after a consonant ?
What sort of adjectives double
the final consonant b efore er and est f
What adjectives are not compared?
What adjectives are compared irregularly?

p ARSING

THE ADJECTIVE.

1'>
·
~ 1 • So me a d"
Jectlves
form the supe1·lati've by addin
::oostst/o the
of the word; as, uppm', uppermost. So
, Jore most, 1nndmost.
12~. When the positive ends in a single consonant preceded
a srngle vo wel, the consonant is doubled before er· and est . as
1iot, hotter·, hottest.'
' '

126. Adjectives are parsed by stating their class,
the degree of comparison (if compared), and the
nouns which they qualify.

123. Some adjectives do not admit
son, viz. :

[1. P oint out the adjectives in the following Exercise : parse them; compare them; thus, a good father; n Good," an adjective, positive degree, qual~
iJies "father," compared irregularly, good, better, best.
2. P oint out the nouns, and tell their genderand number as directed; thus,
"rather,', a noun, masculine, singular.]

en~.

under~

?Y

0 .,.

',/

c01npa1"i-

1st. Such as denote r~nuib er; as, one, two; thi?'d, f ourth.
r - -- fir1u1 ·e or shape; as, circular, squai·e.
2d . - - 3d. --~---.- post·1u·e, or pos'ition; as, p erpendiwla1·, horizontal.
4th. Those o'. au absolute or su,per•lative signification;
true, p erfect, universal, chief, extreme.2
as,

Adjecti1Jes compr.wed in·egulrwly.
124.
..

some adj ectives are compared irreg ular' y,

Positive.

Good
Bad, evil or ill
Little
Much or many
Late
Near
Far
F ore
Old

as follows.

Superlative.

Comparative.

best

better
worse
less
more
later
nearer
farth er
form er
older or elder

EXERCISES.

A. good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, wild horses,
young colts, a sweeter apple, the wisest prince, green trees, the
honest farmers, the m ost virtuous people, the richer tradesman,
the better scholar, the tallest girl, the finer sheep, large oranges,
the merriest fellows, the old soldier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the
tamest rabbits, the little m ouse, the lon gest stick, a wider table,
a most excellent thing, the highest house, the most fruitful

garden .
N UMERALs.-Four m en, the fourth day, six days, the seventh
day, 365 days, ten h orses, the first time ;-of four houses, the first
is of wood; the second, of stone ; the third and the fourth, of
brick..
[3. Turn bacl•, and go over the adjectives .in the exercise, Lesson 10,
in

~he same way.
4. In both exercises, change singular noun• into plural, and plural Into sin·
gulnr; give the rule fo!' the plural, and then read the phrn•e so chunged ;
thus, Father, pl. fathers . " The plural Is commonly formed by adding B to

the singular ," good fathers.
5. lV1'ite S entences containing any or the adjectives In fue preceding
list, or any others you can think of. Teacher may give a new list to be used
In the same wny ,]
A. & P . Gr. ' GO.

II.

2i!3, ti.

;'

24

25

PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

LESS 0 N 12.-Pronouns.

They stand di1•ectly for the nouns which they represent. The
place of any personal pronoun may be supplied by its noun.

[.7fep£e1.v the /Jpo precedin/J .Lesson s_, and ans111er lite queslt"ons .]

1 Z'i. A P rono·u n is a word used instead of a

1.'J6. The sin'lple personal pronouns are I, thou, he,
she, it ; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they.

J ohn is a good boy; he is diligent in his
The boy who studies will learn.
128. The word to which the pronoun relates and
'
for which it stands, is called its ctnteceden,t.

One used in a general sense to represent a person, may be regarded as a p e1·sonal pronoun; as, " One can never know, etc."
137. I is of the ffrst person, and denotes the speake1'.
i3 8. Tho'u is of the secoud person , and denotes the person

. 129. Sometimes a p1·onoun is used us a substantive 1 (40)
JD a general sense, without any antecedent expressed. as Hi

139. H e, she, 'it, are of the th'h·d person, and denote the
person or thing spoken of·

n on~ ; as,

studies.

who st udies will learn.

'

'

e

130. A pronoun someti mes has another pronoun for its an te-

spoken to.

140. The personal pronouns are thus inflected :

cedent ; as, Y ou and I must attend to owr duties.2

131. Pronouns may be divided into four classes; Personal, Relative, I nterrogative, and Adjective.
of P ersonal , Relative, ~nnd I n t erroga. 132. The A<;ciclents
.
t1 ve pronoun s, like those of nouns, are P e1·son, Gende 1·
JYunibe1., and Geise. [APPENDIX IV, 4.]
'

133. ILLt;STRATION.-Generally pronouns ure used to avoid
the too frequent repetition of the nouns for which th ey st d
'l'lrn ~ , rns
· t e_a d of saymg,
·
.[ohn is a good boy ; J ohn is diligentanin·
Johns studies; we say, "John is a good boy · he is dilige t · l ·
'
n JD •is
s tudies."
134. Some pronouns relate to nouns or substantives. as "He
who studies will learn ; " others are used to ask guestlon~ . as
" Wllat did h e say? " and others are used, lik e adjectives, in' con'.
n ection with nouns; as, "1lfy book," " Tllat horse." But, though
a pronoun m ay indicate a noun, it does not express any quality
of it as an adj ective docs.

I.-Pe1•so1utl P1·onoitns.

135. P ersonal Pronouns are those which disti_nguish · the person by their form. They are either
simple or compound.
A. & P. Gr.

i

109.

'730.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

1. m . or f.
2. m. or f.
3. masc.
3. f em.
3. neut.

Nam.

Poss.

Oqj.

Nam.

Poss.

Obj.

I
Thou
He
She
It

mine
thine
his
h ers
its

me
thee
him
hers
it

·we
You
They
They
They

ours
yours
theirs
theirs
theirs

us
you
them
them
them

Observatfons.
141. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like,
we is frt>quently applied tu one pe1'SOn; thus an flditor writes,
"We think."
142. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for
. the singular and the plural, and h as always a plu1·al verb.
Thou is used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important
object -i n nature ; or to mark special · emphasis; or, in the
language of contempt. The plural form, ye, is now but seldom
used.

143. Th e pronoun it has a variety of uses :
1. R egiilcwly us the neuter pronoun of the third person ; as,
Life is short ; it should be improved.
2. As an indefhiite sub,ject of the verb to be, followed by
a substantive in any person or number; as It is I . It is you. It
is they ; or after the verb in interrogative sentences; as, Who is it'!
~

26

PERSON AL PRONOUNS.

3. As an int1·od1ict01•y subject before a verb followed by a
clause ; 1 as, It is certain that lie ioitt never rnend. It
18 wron;; to be idle.
4. lndcfin'itd/I
·
1 verb s, (291) ; as, It
. ,,, beco
,, re unpersona
h ail s, It m.ins, etc.
~ubslan t1ve

5. As a mere expletive ; as, Come and trip it as you go.
liJ~ th
noun, be followed by the nam~ of the ~~ii~;
possessed. Thus, we can say, Mary's book, but not" hers book ."
and yet we can say equally well, "It is Mary's," or "it is her;."
In both these last expressions, the name of the thing possessed is
not expressed but implied.2

144. The possessi:ve case of the pronoun can not

poss~ssi ve of the

. ,*** IIM·s, its, ou1·s, yo1ws, theirs, should never be written her's
its, our's, your 's, their's.
'
Cmnpoiind Pm·sonal Pronouns.

1 415. The C0111.,pound pm·sonctl pronouns are
M11self, thyself, himself, herself, itself; with
then· plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
14'.;·

T~ese

pronouns are used, without change of form, in the
no1ninritive
and .th e. objective cases· They Jiave no posses·
.
s1v~ . In th ~ nommat1ve they are emphatic, and are added to
t he1 r rnspect1ve personal pronouns or nouns, or are used instead
of _tJ1c:11 ; as," I rnyselj did it; " "hirnself shall come." In the
ob! ective t~li ey are rpflexive, showing- tl1 nt t.he agent is also the
obJect of lns own act ; as, " Judas went and hanged hirnself."
Oiwself and yourself are used as compounds correspondinO" to
as, "We ourself will foll~w."
ou mus o it y ourself."

~~and youtadpp~ied to in dividuals;

PARSING.

14'Y. '.1'he personal pronouns may be parsed briefiv
thus;
£ . . I )is .a pronoun of th e first IJerson, mascu11·n• e ( or..
emmrn e , m the nominative singular.
Anal.

1

120, 1,'J l .

A. & P . Gr. • 241.

PERSONAL

PRONOUNS.

QUESTIONS.-What Is a pronoun?
H ow are pronouns divided?
What is a personal pronoun ?
Why Is it called personal!
What are
they 1
Decline the first-the second-the third.
Of what person is 1 ?thou ?- he, she, i i t
What does the first person denote ?-the second !-the
In what cases are
third ?
T o what class do myself, thyself, etc., belong ?
they nsed 1
How are they applied in the nominative ?- in the objective?
How is you applied ?- tlwu f - it !

EXERCISES.
[1. Go over the following list of p ron;nns and t ell their person. Go over
them again and tell their gender ,· again, and tell their number ,· again, and
tell their case ; and lastly, tell their geml111\ number, and case , togethe r.]

I, thou, we, me, us, thine, h e, him, she, h ers, they, th ee, them,
its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, them, us, we,
thou, thine,. ye, ours, yours. Himself, yourselves, h erself, themselves, ourself, yourself, itself.
[2. P oint out the p.-on01~ns in the following Exercifie. Parse them by telling their person, gender, number, and case; thus, h me," a pronoun, first person, mnsculin'e, in the objective, singular.
8. Point out the nou-ns and parse them; the a<Uectives and parse them,
compare and tell the degree of comparison.
4. Read over each sentence, and tell for what each of the pronoun• stands ;
thns, me stands for the speaker; you for the person spoken to, etc.)

Give me t he pears yc;.1 bought of him ; I like them better than
the apple h e bought ; it was sour. She told us what we said t o
h er , and they h eard her. Put it on, will you? He likes th em
because they are sweet. T ake them to John. I gave them to
her. vVe will do it, if you wish. The men said th1>.y would do
it. The g irl said sh e did not know them. Th e boy thought he
knew them. You and I went with them to meet li er after she
had seen him. He and I can do it, though you can .not. James
bought that book ; it is therefore his, and not h ers.
"Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth."
" H ou or
thy father and thy mother , that t11y days may be lon~ in the land
which the Lord thy God giveth thee." " As ye would that oth ers
should do t o you, do ye even so to them." " He who loves money
more than honor, will rate it above honesty." " One that is
perfectly idle will be perfectly weary." " Praise not the unworthy, though they roll in riches."
[5. T ake any easy •·eading les son, and go over It in the same way.
6. Road the preceding exercises, using nouns instead of p.-onottns.]

28

29

RELATIVE PlWNOUNS.

RELATIVE :PRONOUNS.

LESSON 13 ·-II. · Relative
.
.
Pronouns.

wise after the name of a person used merely as a word ; as, "The
court of Quee:i Elizabeth, which was but another name for pru-

[J'le:view lite p1·eoedino
'{/ .L e-:>•son,, and ans>Per lite questions

14

J

.

8.
i·~ one that relates
t
d A Relative Prono~in
~
o,
an
.
connects
its
clause
with,
a
be.Do t
1
noun or pronoun ·
re l ' ca led the antecedent . as
"Th e master who taught us."
u

J

'

149
. commonly a n
. •. 1. The antecedent is
oun or pronoun .
sometimes a phrase ( 'JS )
• 5 or a clause (334).
'
2. The antecedent is alwa s l" ,.
r elative clauses; 1 as,
Y united or ex plained by the
The boy who reads .
He who does well , ~ill be rewarded .
1-0 James
. is sick, which accounts fio r h'1s' a b sence.
o~ • Relat1 ve Pronouns are Sfanple or Cornpound.

1o 1. The si'niple
which that
d. z re1af ive pronouns are . who
'
' an w1iat
Who a d ' . h
'
in both numbers . and . ·tl
.
n wmc are a.like
'
arn ms mfl.ected :
Stnq. and Plur.

Who

Stnq. and Piur.

Which

dence and economy."
1;;4 . IVhich was formerly applied to persons as well as
things, and is so used in the common version of the Scriptures.

155. :l'hat is often used as a relative, instead of
who or which. It is applied both to persons and
thinffS ; as, the man that walks ; the stone that rolls.
156. fVhat, as a relative pronoun, is applied to
things only, and is never used but when the antecedent is omitted; as,
"This is what I wanted"=that which' l wanted.'
Observations on the Relative.

15'1. The c01,npoiind 'r elatives ·are whoever,
whosoever, whatever, and whatsoe'l'er, and are
· equivalent to the relative and a general, or indefinite
antecedent; as,
8

" W?wsoe ver committeth sin, is the servant of sin;" that is,
"any one," or "every one who committeth sin," etc. "Whatsoe1ier
things are of good report ; " i. e. "All things (without exception)
which are of good report." [See A. & P. Gr. 752.]
158. The office of the r elative is twofold.- lst. It is used to

eonnect its clause with the ant~edent foll the pi;;rpose of further
describing it. 'rhus used , it is said to be a,dditi'Vc; as, "Light
is a body which moves with great celerity "=and it moves, etc.
2d. It is used to connect its clause with the a.:ntecedemt for the
purpose of limiting or :restricti:ng it like an adjective or adjunct.
Thus used , it is said to be -restrictive ; as, " The man who is
good is happy "=The aood man is happy.
159. 1-Vllilch and what are sometimes used as ad,jecU.ves,
and have a noun following them ; as, "Tell me what books you
are reading ; " "Which things are an allegory." In th is sense
which applies either to p~rsons or things, and in meaning is

Anal.-' 115,

equivalent to this or these.
A. & P. Gr.-•:w;;.

·'

30

INTERROGATIVE

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

. 1GO. JVho, and also wh'ich and
.
f0llowina, are somcti'1nes
d
.
what, without a noun
~
use as inde:fi 'te
do not know who will be
· p . ri-i p1•ono·i ins; as I
0 ur next resident.
'

p ARSING THE RELATIVE.
181. The relative pronoun i
gentler, number person
d s parsed by stating its
(The ()'ender n~mb . ' lan case, and its antecedent.
.
b
'
er, anc person are alway th
as those of the antecedent.) .
'
< s
e sa;me
"The .boy who."-" Wlw,, i· s a re1ative
. 1)rono
·
.
1.
nomrnative sin"'ufar
and rei.ers
'
mascu me, m
o
· ,
to "boy" un,
't
Q UF:STIONS Wh .
as I s antecedent.

tl. l C

.
.at is n relative pronou 9
Wh .
it relnt.es c.•lled?
' Vhnt is the r .
n.
_nt is the word to which
are the relative pronouns?
,:i,~{~r use of the ;elat1ve pronoun
What
ap plied to?
Why is th t
d is who applied to?
What is which
WI t
a use as a relative ?
T
. rn rnrt of n relative is what P Whnt
. . o what is it applied?
word s are whoever etc 1
Wh .
" . does it rnclnde? What sort of
1 t
'
.
en wlticlt and what
f 11
w ia part of speech are they•
I
.
are o owed by nouns
How arc the ~ender numb . d n parsmg the relative what are mentioned
o
'
er, an person of the relative determined ?

f

EXERCISES.
[1. Is it proper to say-the man •<'ho, or the man wiLi 1 .,
the dog who, or the dog which ?c ".

why?
why?
why?

the tree who, or the tree which?
the fami ly who or the famil
bl h
2. In the folio win"
'
Y w c 1 why?
which it relntes.
" senteuces, point out the •·c la.tivc, ancl the word to
3. Whnt is the use of the relative In the ft
the third ? etc.] (158.)
rat sentence? in the second? In

The boy who fitudies will improve I 1
the truth, but all hate him h d.
o;e the man who tells
w 0 ea1s m falsehood D 0
rememb er the man whom we met? Th
.
·
you
lost. It is the rnme book tl , t
bere is the book which you
,
la
you OU"'ht
Th t · h
0
w110 has been kind to us ' an d w·h ose hand ·:is evea is t e lady
poor.
h
r open
1 igent t at maketh rich
. h It is the hand of the dT
H toththe
g ivet to the poor lendeth to the Lor
'
.
e . at
Solomon built H e who
d. 'lhe temple which
·
preserves me to whom 1
b
.
•
whose I am • and whom I 8 erve, is
eternal.
· owe my eing;
[4. In the preceding sentences whcrev r
cla·' .tse fo r an adject.ive; us, ,;The b e p~sslble.'. change the relative
w ·n tc out the sentences.]
oy w!,o stuaieB=studious boy; and

PlWNOUNS •

31

Inte1••royati·v e P1·01iottns.

162. Who, ioh1ich, and what, wlien used in
asking questions, arc called Inter'i"Of}ative pronouns.
163. The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is found
in the nnswe1· to the question; as, "Who did this ?" "J olm
did it." John is the antecedent.

164. As· interrogatives, who is applied to persons
only; wh·i ch and what, either to persons or things.
What is indeclinable.
1.65. Who, which, and what, used responsively,
are indefinite pronouns; i as, "I know wh~ did it."
PARSING.

166. Interrogative Pronouns are parsed by stating
the gender, number, and case. Thus,
" Who saw the accident ? " Who is an interrogative pronoun,
masculine or feminine, third person, in the nominative s.i ngular.
"vVho did that? John."
Who is an interrogative pronoun,
masculine, in the nominative singular. I ts antecedent is" John"
in the answer to the question.
QUESTIONS.-Wbatnre the interrogative pronouns!
Why are they
called interrogative 1
As an interrogative, what is w!w applied to ?-which ?
- what ?
In parsing the interrogative, what is mentioned?

EXEROISEK.
[1. Point ont in which or the following sentences, who, which and what are

relatives; in which intcrrogn.tives; in which indefinites. Parse the interrog·
ative and indefinite pronouns.]

Who steals my purse steals trash.--To whom did you give
that book ?--What I di) thou knowest not now.--Who you
i•re, what you are, or to whom you belong no one knows.-What shall I do ?--Who built that house ?--Do you know by
whom that house was built ?--Is that the man who built that
house ?- -Which book is yours ?--Do you know which book is
yours?--\Vhat is wanted ?--I lmow what is wanted.
[2. lf'1"i.t c spntences, each of which shall contain one of these pronouns in
one or other of these different senses.]
A. & P. Gr.-' ;t84.

32

.ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
Possessive Case.

P ossessive Pr01wun.

LESS 0 N

[.1?ePie1P ilte b 11op1·ecedi'ng Lessons_, and ans111er the quest ions. ]

16'/ . Adjective Pronouns are words used ·
som eti mes like adjectives to qualify a noun, and
sometimes like pronouns to stand in stead of nouns.
There are four sorts ; viz., the Possessive, Distributive,
and Indefinite.
1fi8. 'l'he Possessive pronouns are such as den ote possession. They are rny, thy, h'is, hm·, its,

o·t w, your, thei1•.
1G9. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as taken separately. They are each, every,
eithe'r , neithe1•.'
1'10 . The D e11ionst1•ative pronouns point out
objects defi ni tely. They are th·l s and that, with their
plurals, these and those.
1'I1. Th e In.definite pronouns denote persons or
things indefi nitely. They are none, any, all, S'uch,
'whole, son'ie, both, one, other, anothm·. The
1

three last are inflected like nouns.
Obse1·vation,t;.

a· . ti Ye) Is sometimes added ton po•·
NoTZ.-The word o·wn. {properly .an a JCC ,, u tM"r own ,, H the lioy,8 O'Wt"
sessive to make it emphatic ; ail, ~.my own,
i
,
book."-.A.. & P. Gr. 2 95.
·
174. His and h e1·, followed by a noun, are possessive
p ro .
nouns ; n ot followed by a n oun, they are personal pron~uns.

175. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, and sometim es a conjunction; thus,

D ern. That uook is mine.
Rel. I t is the liook that I bought.
Conj. I r eatl, that I m ay l earn.
- d finites ~ay also be reckoned such '\VOrds as
176. Among m e
.. al etc --the compounds w hoeve-1",
Few
nany,
seve. ,
-•
d
1
n 0 -' J' '
•
t
and who which, au
wha.teve1·, 'l.v lu chsoever, e c., '
what, in r esponsive sentences.' (165.)
- .
d - b th numbers - but it can n ot be JOmed
1
*** 1.rone s u se m o
'
to a n oun.
P.A.RSING.

1 ';' 'd. Adjective pronouns are"..parsed b~ sta:ing their
class, u.nd the w01•d which they quaUfy . thus, .
" My book."

172 . These pron ouns are called ad,jective, because, like adj ectives, they either are, or may be, followed by a noun
which t h ey limit.
.17.'J. Possessi'l'e p1·onouns have the same m eaning as
the possessive case of the personal pron ouns to which they relate,
but a re used differently. Th e possessive pronoun must al ways
h ave a noun after it, the possessive case of the personal, neve1~ as
it always refers to a n oun previously expressed; thus,

This b.ook is mine.
That pen is hers.
This hat is yowrs.
The house is theirs.

This is rny book;
That is her pen ;
This is yowr h at;
It is their h ouse ;

14.-Adjective Pronouns.

33

"''y is

_,,,_,

a possessive adj ective pronoun; and quali-

fi es book.

h

•

sorts of adjective pronouns are t ere ronouns ?
w ·hat is a possessive
Name them.
Why called a<!Jec
p
What Is s di•tributive propronoun ? Name the possess1vte Pt~oenop~~:oun? Name them.-An indefithem -A demons ra iv
and the
noun? N ame
I
h t are posse•sive pronouns
nite pronoun. Name them.
n w s
?
In what do they differ?
al pronouns the •nme
h
ll
- "own" u sed?
W en are.
P osses>ive case of fperson
ti use of each
ow is
t
s
Give nu example o - l~
-rsonal•?
In how many ~ifl'eren way
his and her pos•~ss1 ves ?- when pe
d?
Bow are adjective pronouns
is H that,, ueed?
Bow is H none,, use
Q UES TIO'NS. - How many tive

pp1a~r~se~d~?~~~~~~~:;---:;--;p- -~~-,---:-~~~~~~~~~
A.

&:;

P. Gr.- 1 292-295.

' 2 96-301.

;_

A.

&;

P.

Gr.--

1

28'1.

34

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercise, point out the adject-ive prono1tns, and
parse them ; the nouns, and parse them. Point out the personal pronouus
in the possessive case.]

My book , her shoes, your horse, their father, his brother, every
hour, that table, these quills.--'l'his is my book ; that book is
yours.--Where is my hat ?--These apples are good; give some
to your broth ers.- - ! will give one to each.--1 have given them
all a.way, every one. - -!£very day try to do good to some person.
--This book will do as well as that one.--Every boy should
keep his own books --Do good to all men-injury to none. - This book is.mine-that is yours.

35

VERBS.

EXERCISES.

LESSON 16.-Verbs.
.1 "'8 A Ve·rb is a word or words used to express
I
'
.
b• t '
the act, being, or state of its su ~ec ' .as,
I write ; grass is green ; the letter has been written.

of

179. The subject
a verb is that person or thing whose
act, being, or sto.te the verb expresses.

ClasS'ificat-ion of Verbs.
180. 1. In relation to their nican'ing and office in a sentence :
't ·
d AttribuVerbs are of three kinds ; Transitive, Intransi i~e, an

tive.
2. In rel ation to their f01·m verbs are R egular, I rregular, and

LESS 0 N

15 .-Exercises.

NOUNS, AI:.TI CLES, ADJECTIVES, AND PRON OUNS.

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the a1'ticlcs, and parse them;the n oun s, nnd pn ri-:.e them ;-the ac~jcct'i·ves and parse them ;-the pro·

D efective ( l 91).
a· t'
.
d tenses they are 1s m3 In the formo.tion of 0,om.poun
,.
·
.A il '
(936)
[AFPENDIX IV, a.]
guished as Principal and ux iary.- ""
•

1.li ean 'in!J atu.l Use of V e1·bs.

11ouni:; 1 and parse them :]

I fo und my hat upon your tab1e ; but where is yours ? --Who
put that glove in my cap ?--Have you seen th e book which my
father gave to m e ?--That rod of yours is longer than min e, but
not so long as J ohn's.--Those trees h ave lost their leaves.- E very book on that shelf is mine ; I will give you a list of them.
- -Keep this knife for my sake ; it is a good one.--All men are
morto.l; time waits for no one ; a wise man will improve every
moment to some useful purpose.--An idle man will come to
poverty; but he that is diligent increases his store.--They that
walk with the wise shall be wise; but a companion of fools shall
be dest royed.- -Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that
would borrow of thee, turn not thou away.
Wl'i.t e othe1• s e ntences containing the parts of speech above 'no.med, and
parse them as directed.
[1. Review thoroughly from Lesson 10, answering promptly and accurately
all the questions.

2. Rel'icw from the begi nni ng topically, reciting accurately nil tho dofin\.
lions and rnlos. This may rc~n i rc two or three recitations. 1V1'itc additional exercise::; uncle!" c1d1 l cs~on.]

181 . A Tf'ans'itive T erb expresses an act d?ne
·
.
tl er '. as ' James strikes
by one person or thmg to ano i
the table ; The table is struck by J ::i.mes.
182. An Int-r ans'itive Ve1·b expresses the being or state of its subj~ct, or au act n ot done to
another; as, I am; h e sleeps; you ritn.
183 An Attributive Ve·r b asserts and con~e~~s
" •
. .
an atWibute
with
its sub'JeCt '. 1 as, " Srww I S wh·ite.
Obse1·vatlons.
an act thr.t
T1·an8"it·i ve verbs o.re t.1tose w h'ich express
.
.
~ ., ' . ' . . from the actor t o the person or thing acted upon '
pa.~s cs OI. e 1
.
t
"loves"
expresses the
rr 1
Here "He" is t 11e nc or,
ns, n.e oves u s.
· '
Tho same thing co.n
act nnd us the ohject loved, or acted upon.
l
d by 11'm"
'•
'
.
thuo " W e are OVCJ
i
.
be expressed by a nother form ;

1 S4

0

•

VERBS.

Of
two forms
. called the active voice,
the second
th of the. verb. ' th e fi rst is
anclthese
• e paRme v01ce. (204.)

· 't'ive verbs are verbs not transitive whether
tl 185 • Int1·a
' 1,isi
icy ex press act10n or not Th
f:
'
complete p1·ediccite (340).
of
a

;:dm:~e o~m

namely, that of the active voice/ as, 1

~hemselves

am/yo:v:~~

,:

t~:; :.::.·

186. Att1·ibutive verbs i·equire to complete the predi
::

37

VERBS.

36

~omelwo:cl

or worcls expressing a quality or

circumstan~

niec of the subject.
·
187. Sometimes a verb usuall i t
't'
tJ•ans'it ive by b .
f: 11
'cl
y n rans1 ive, beconz es
11•1

.
emg 0 owe by n noun of n similnr sirrnifi·
" l run ' . ,, · transi'ti' ve , " 1 run nrace"
°
cation
A l b; as, intransitive,
. ..
so y tho ad iht10n of a.nother word . as 'nt
la z "'
..
· , i rans1't'ive " . I
u.g i, transitive, " I laugh at him."
'
verb is sometimes used m
. an in
. t,ran.<>i.
ti·188.
· . A transitive
b
. ve .~ense, w en the nature of the act and not its effect .
s1dered ; thus, trunsitive, " The boy ?'eads a book . ,, . t. is. ~on­
" The boy reads well."
' m ransit1ve,

. 1_89 .. Transitive, intransitive, and attributive verbs
distmgwshed by the sense, as follows:
may be
verb in the active voice (201':'\
.
•.·1st. Af trans'itive
·
..,, requires
an
o• j cct
a
ter
it
to
corn
plete
the
sense
.
as
The
bo
t
di
, . I
.
.
'
,
y s u es gram1,ia1,
m tie
b
tl passive
, voice the verson or thing that rece1. ves t h c act
ccornes
ie subj ect.
An ·i nt1·ansiUve' verb re qmres
.
aft 't b
h
no ob'~ect
. er i , ut t e sense is complete without it . as H . 't .
rule A
tt ' b .
, . e si s, you
.
n ci 1·i u.tive verb requires af ter it, to complete t1ie
sen~c, some '".orcl, phrase, or clause, not an object, to limit or explam the subj ect; as, "The sun is bright."
~d. I~ th~ use of the tJ•ansitive verb, there nre always tlwee
t 1nngs implied; the act01·, the act, and the object acted u
use _of the ·i ntransU-ive, there are only two-the
J<:-Ct or thmg spoken of, ancl the str.ite 01• action ascribed to 't
of the att1·ibutive verbs, there are three-the
J cct, the ve1·b, and the attribute.

~'.1, ~he
~'.1.t.lrn us~

s~~~~
su~~

190. ILL'GSTRATION.-Tbe vm·b is n neccssa1•y w01·d in
every sentence (846). 'With out it, we can neither affirm nor

deny, nor express any fact or proposition. As we wish to express
an act or state in a variety of ways ; as, present, past, future,
actua.I, contingent., conditionnl, etc., so there is o. vnriety of forms
assumed by the verb in order to express these things. Two im·
portnnt things roust be attended to :
1. Distinguish the ve·r b from every other pnrt of speech.
This cnn ensily be done, if the pupil will only remember thnt
every word thnt tells us w hnt n person or thing is or does, or w hnt
is done ton person or thing, is n verb. Thus, when we say," John
writes," we know that "writes" is· a verb, because.it tells us what
"John" does.
2. Discriminnte when a verb is tranllitive, when intransitive,
and when attributive, as described above (189).
QUESTIONS.-What is a verb? What is the subject of a verb? How
are 'erbs di,ided, iu relation to their manner and use ?-in r ellltion to their
form ?--iu tile formation of compound tenses?
What is a transitive verb?
-an intran sitive ?--an attributive?
What do transitive verbs express?
In how many forms can a transitive verb express any thing!
What are
How many form-s bave intransitive verbs?
Does a
the•e forms called?
_How!
Are some verbs
verb usually intransitive ever become transitive !
used transitively and intransitively!
What requires an object after It to
complete the sense?
What requires no object after it!
What does an
attributive verb r equire after it to complete the sense!
In the use of the
tran•itive , what three things are implied!
What in the u se of the intransitive verb?
What in the use of the attributive verb!
How do you know
which word in a sentence is a verb!
Bow do you know whether the verb
is tro.nsitlve-intransitive-attrib11tive !

EXERCISES.

.,.,:i;s,

[1. bl the following Exerc\ses,.polnt 011t the
and t ell how you know
them to be verbs; th11s, ••learn" is a verb, because it tells u• what "boys"
do; ~~ rides" is n. verb, because it tells us wbat Ha man,, does, etc.
2. Tell which verbs are transitive, which intransitive, and which attributive,
and how you know them to be such; thus,·~ learn" is transitive, because it tells
what ~ boys'' do to Iese.ans; H rides 11 is intransitive, because what H a man,,
does is not done to any other person or thing ; " tastes" is attrib11tive, beClillBe it atJ:l,·ms the 11.ttrib11tive or q11allty ••soar" of the subject "apple."]

1

Boys learn lessons.- -A man rides.-·-The apple tastes sour.
- -We read n book . --My dog llarks.- -The fire burns.- The fire burns me.- -He took their apples.- -You saw them.
--We touched it.- -They strlke her.- -1 threw a stone at
his window.- -They killed my rabbit.- -The horses eat their
corn.- -The cows drink wnter.--1 can ride well.- -A ride

38

FORMS OF VERBS.

FORMS OF VERBS.

improves the health.--Th t
a man walks fast.--America was
discoverP-d by c I b
0 um us.- -A long walk ·
aml you.- -Sheep are animals.
• tires me.--1 love her
[In the following sentences, i t takes t·w o
.
make the verb ; and these t
' and eomct1mes t hree u,·orcl s to
word.)
wo or three are always parsed tog ethe,. as one

"dI will watei· the garden ·- - James can wn. te a Jette. y
n e on my horse.-Robert .11 .
1 . - ou may
·ll
wi
a1ve a book to
y
w 1 give you a book--You "'
you.-- es, he
must li ght the candle.--Your
father has sold his h .
oise.--1 h ave bouc ht h "
J · llD.--John will
your coat --He h ld 1
b rush
8 ou
·11
I
·
1iave brushed · t b ,.
w 1
rnve written his let t b ,.
.
l
eiore.--James
t .
er e1ore nwht
H
h
·
en 1t alrnady.--He should lJe told" . ·~- .e may ave writh ave been misinformed.
of his m1Stake.--He may

39

194. A Defective Verb is one in which some of
the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs (290).
.Aux:mm·y Ve1•bs.
195. The AuxiUary or helping verbs are those by the h elp
of which verbs are inflected. They are the following, which, except be, are used as auxiliaries only in the present and the past
tense ; viz. :
Pres. Do, h ave, shall,
will,
may, can,
am, must
P ast. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, - . 19(). The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all its tenses.
197. B e (Pres. Ind. am ,) do, and have are also principal
verbs :
As Principals-I a,m a man ; I do the work; I have a horse.
As Auxiliaries-I am loved ; I do speak ; I have heard.

LESS 0 N 17 .-Forms of Verbs.

Observations. -

[ '.Rm1i e1>' iltorou,r7/J.{y l/1, e .J'l1'eced··
r
inu ..uesson
.]

191. In respect of f<n"'Jn

b
.
R egular, I rregular, and Defective~er s are divided into
t 192 . A Ber;nla·r Ver•b is one that fo rms its p

e'~Sc (2.12 ) in the
voice (2 U5) and it

a_s

t

Indicative m 0 0 d 9
p
·
(,.,.15), active
adding ed ~o' t i ;
ast partic'i ple (251) by
t l
10
resent ; as, Present act . p t
etc eG ; Past participle, acted.
'
, as '
N .B.-Yerbs ending in e silent dro
p ron nncintion or ~ome form s r' . p thee b efore ed ; as love, loved.'l The
written fo rm ; Um~1 stop ato o dse; ~rnl regular verbs is diffe l'ent from the
walk, wulkeu , walkt etc ,
ppe , is p ronounced Flopt; bar, barred bard .

fo /:: 3: PAna stI;•regufo,.
Verb is
t ense

no;

one that doe,;
m the Indicative . t"
.
Past p ctrti ciple by add"mg el l to theacPresent
ive, and. its
' as,
P rescn t, write ,. Pa s t wrot e ; p ast participle, written
(288).

it::s

198. The aux ilia1·y (or h elping) verbs are so called, because, by t heir h elp, the verb is enabled to express v a1"iet-ies of
time and manner of acting or b eing, which it could not do without them. The auxiliary always stands before its verb, and the
two are regarded in pa1·s·in(J as one word; as, I will write,
1

he has written, we m ay write.
199. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation ;
will, purpose or r esolution; ma.y, liberty ;...ca.n, ability. Thoe
past tense of these verbs is should, would, migh;t, collld; but in
this tense these verbs express the idea of time very indefinitely.~
200. In affirmative sentences, will, in the first person, intim ates r esolution and promising; as, " I ~Dill go;" in the second
and third, it commonly foretells; as, "You will be happy."
201. Shall, in the first person, only foretells ; as, "I shall go
to morrow ; "-in the second and third, it promises, commands, or
threatens ; a as, " Thou shalt not steal."
fJ U ES T IONS .-How are verbs divided In respect of form?
What Is a
What are the
r egular verb ?-an lrregnlar· verb ?-a defective verb!

AnaJ.- • 201,
A. & P. Gr.- ' GG .

211.

•217.

A.&P.Gr.-•335-344.

40

INFLECTION OF VERBS.

':rNFLECTION OF VERBS.

principal defective vcrbs 1 Why are au ii '
are principal verbs as well as auxilia x iary verbs so called? What verbs
1
will distinguished f
ry
How are the auxiliaries shall and

EXERCISES.
[ll'-dte the Pust ten ..e, and Past

verbs

ft8

in the succeeding exercise

ti•· ,• .

No. ~:]

t•:•ple of the

following regular

F ear, love, look, hope, show, learn move w h
desire return obl'
~
"
, .
, as , clean, walk,
•
ige, orm, <Orce, pumsh support t
t
h
'
,
, urn, ouc '
dist.urb, place, try, deny, cry, delay.
[~I- Chlnnge the following verbs from the Past tense into the Present·]

protected' com pos ed • i avore d , turned hated mixed
·
b 1J'· ar rnd,
d
preached, hunted, c;ushed, 'warned'.

p~~~~:~: l::e~~~:~e~~shed,

[3. and
Iu the
following list' tell which verb 8 are regular, and which are irregular;
why:]

Presene.

Past.

Pase Participle.

Spoil
Go
Take
·write
Hope

spoiled
went
took
wrote
hoped
ran
froze
spied
obeyed

spoil ed
gone
taken
written
hoped
run
frozen
spied
obeyed

Run
Freeze
Spy
Obey

LESSON 18 .- Inflection of Verbs.
[R e,..ie1fl lite 11110 preceding Lessons.]

202. The Accidents of Verbs are Voices M d
T enses, Nltnibers, and Pel'sons (33). oo s,
Of Vofoe.

203. Voice is a particular form of the verb wh' h
shows the 1''elaUon of the subject or th.'
ic
ken of, to the action expressed by the ve;·b.
mg spo-

41

204. Transitive verbs have two voices, called
the A ctive and the Passive.
205. The Active Voice represents the subject
of ihe verb as acting upon some object; as, James
strikes the table.
20(), Here the verb "strikes," in the active voice, indicates
what its subject, " James," does to the object, tahle.

20'i'. The Passive Voice represents the subject of the verb as cwted upon by some person or
thing; as, The table is struck by James (281)208. Here the v-erb "is struck," in the passive voice, indicates
what is done to the subj ect;" tahle," by James.
209. Intrwns"it,i ve verbs have the form of the active voice.
A few admit a passive form, but not a passive sense ; thus, I am
come, means the same thing as, I have come.
210. Wben a verb, usually intransitive, is niade trans'it'ive (187), it is then capab1e ·of a 11assive VO'ice; as, "My
race is run." "He is laughed at by me."

211. lLLUBTRATION.-Both the ·active and the passive voice
express precisely the same act, but each in a different way. ·with
the active voice, the subject does the act, or is active; with t he
passive voice, the subject fa acted upon, or is passive. The words
ac.tive and passi·ve then strictly belong to the subject, but are properly used to distinguish those voices or forms of the verb which
show that the subject acts, or is acted upon: that is, the form of
the verb which represents its subject as active, is called the Active voice; and that which represents its subject as passive, is
called the Prrssive voice.
212. Remembering, then, that tl1e sub,ject of a verb is the
person or thing spoken of. when , in any sentence, we see that that
subject <u;ts, we .know that the verb is in the active voice; thus,
when we say, "Cain killed Abel ," we see that "Cain," the person
spoken of, is r epresented as acting, and therefore " killed" is in
the active voice. Again, when we say, "Abel was killed by Cain,"
the subject or thing spoken of is Abel : it is represented as acted
upon, and therefore " was killed" is in the passive voice.

\.

80

CON JUNCTIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

81

2. The antecedent term is always limited by the p1•epoS'i-

tiunal plwase, wh ich is in char:icter, adjective or adverbial,
according as the ant ecedent is a substantive or some other
word ; 1 as, He WAL1;s with y1·eat rnpiclity. It is a WORK ofmucl~
merit. There was another LARGE . of understanding.
NoTE .-For :t fuller discu ssion of prepositions, their uses and classiJication,
see A. & P. Gr. 538-554.

PARSING.

31 O. The preposition is p::i.rsed by stating what
part of speech it is, and the words between which
i t shows the relation; thus,
"Before honor is humility. " "Before " is a preposition, and
shows the relation between " honor" and " humility."
<)UESTIONS.-What is n preposition?
Jn what case is th e noun or
pronoun, after a preposition?
When an obj ective does not follow n preposition, what part of speech Is it to be considered?
What is the relnted
word before the preposition called 1-the one after it?

EXERCISES.
[1. P oint out the preposiUons In the following exercises.
2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and the word to
which it is related; thus, " I went from Albany to New York." Tho preposition f1·om , stands before Albany, and shows Its relation to the verb,
"went." So, also, io stands b efore New York, and shows its relntion to
H

went.', ]

I went from London to Bath.--The king walked about the
garden with his son .--They dined without me.--1 fell off a
ship into the river near (to) the bridge.--This box of wnfers
is for you.--Charles put it upon the table against the inkstand.--Turn clown the lane through the gate.--1 shall go
up the road after him .--Run to that tree near the house.--lt
stands between the trees.--Put it on the table at the side of
the house.- - I found the knife amon g the ashes under the
grate.--Sit by me.- - John is at school.--They all went
except me.

LESS 0 N 3 3.-Conjunctions.

...311.

A Conjunction is a word which connects
words, phrases, or sentences; as,
" You and I must study; but h e may go and play." "Two
nnd two make four."
***Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences; for example, see
the first chapter of Genesis.

812. Conjunctions are of two classes: Copulative and Disjunctive. [APPENDIX IV, S.]
31.1. A copiilati·i'e conjunction unites the meaning of the
terms which it connects. There are 'two kinds1. Connective, which simply connects the meaning of two
united sentences ; as, " 'fhe sun shines, and the day is warm."
2. Co'ntin:tu.tUve, which add on a limiting clause, and extend the sense of the prinCipal; ~. " W e will go, ichen my
brother arrives."
'
NoTE.- The latter generally introduce lllld conn ect a subordinate clause,
which limits the principal clause, or •ome -part thereof.
·

314. A disjnnct·i ve conjunction is one which, whil e it j oins
two sentences together, disconnects t heir meaning. There are
two kinds of disjunctives-·
1. D-ist1·•ibuUve, which simply disconnect, or distribute, the
meaning of the united s~ntences ; as, " You may go, 01· you may
stay."
2. .Adver.~nUve, which contrast the m eaning of united sentences ; as, " He will go, but I will stay."

.A List of Conjunct'ions.

[3. l'<t»sc the words in preceding Exercises.]

Also, and, because, both, for, if, since, that, then,
th erefore, wh erefore, although, as, as well -as, but, either,
except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, still.

A. & P. Gr.- ' 59G, 2.

315. Ons. The copulative conjunctions connect things that

82

CON JUNCTIONS.

INTERJECTIONS.

are to be taken together; as, "You and I (i. e. both of us) must
go." The disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be
taken separately, or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, "You or
•
I (i.e. the one or the other, but not both) must go."

LESSON 34.-Interjections.

NoTE.-When conjunctions connect sente'nce.'I, they do not connect ·ind i.v itltuil ·wo1•ds iu the sentence. When they connect wo1·ds, the w,_ords
connected. must be of the sume clu.ss,-if nouns, of the su'1 ne case; if verbs,
eame moocZ «nil tense, and with the same subject; if' adjectives or adverb8, they must ZimU the same word' (526).

PARSING.

316. Conjunctions are parsed by stating to .what
clciss th ey belong, and the WO'J"lls, plwases, or
sentences which they join togethe'I'; thus,
"You and I must study." And is a conjunction, copulative,
connective, aud connects You and L
QUESTIONS.-What is a conjunction?
How many kinda of .conjunctions are there?
What are the copulative ?
How many classes f
Define each, and give an example.
The disjunctive?
How are they distinguished?
Give an example of each.
How do these two classes differ f
How are conjunctions parsed?

EXERCISES.
[1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class to which

each belongs, and the words or sentences which they connect.
2. Parse all the words in order.]

Henry and Charles read their lessons.- - ! or he will be there.
- -1 will be with you, unless you call.--! slept well, though
the dog harked.--Read that you may learn.--John says that
h e will do it.- -As he write~ , so do I read; for I am fond of
reading.--Neither the boys nor the girls are asleep.--! would
call if I could, but I can not.--Take care lest you fall.--Two
and two make four.--He is better than I thought lie was,
though he behaved ill.--Since that has happened, I must go.
--Do to others as you would that they should do to you.-1 study that I may improve.--When the sky falls, we shall
catch larks.--If we study, we &hall leo,rn.--Not only the
men, but also the women were present.
A. & P. Gr.- ' 573, 955,

83

31'1'. An Interjection is a word used in exclamations, to express some e1notion of the mind ; as, Oh!
what a sight is here! Well done!
A List of Interject·ions.

Adieu ! ah ! alas! alack ! away ! aha! b~gone !
hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo ! hum! hush!
huzza ! hist! heydey ! lo! 0 ! Oh! 0 strange!
0 brave! psha;y ! see! well-a-day! etc.
Observations on Interjections.
318. The Interjection is thrO'll)'TI,. ~n among the other words in
a sentence, but does not affect the·i1• const1·uctfon.
319. 0 is used to ·express wishing or exclamation, and
should be prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct
address ; as, "0 Virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " Oh is used
detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it. It
implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh I what
a sight is here."
PARSING.

820. Interjections are parsed by naming them as
such, stating why, and the emotion expressed.
QUESTIONS.- What is nn 1111,etjxtion !'
Name some of them.
Does
the interjection aft"ect the construction of the other words in a sentence f
How do O and Oh differ in meaning?
How, in the manner of writing
them?
How are interjections parsed ·?

EXERCISES.
[1. Point out the Interjection• in the Exerci•es.
2. Name nil t he other parts of speech, and parse them.]

Rah I I am glad to see you.--Well-a-day ! I did not expect
this.--Alas I I am ruined.--Indeed ! is that true ?--What !

85

PARTS ·OF SPEECH.

PARTS OJ!' SPEECH.

is it possible ?--Lo ! there h e is.- -Hem ! I do not think so.
- -0 what a benefi.t education is !--A.h ·! you ate a happy
fellow.-- Hush ! what was that ?- -Ha I ha! ha! how laughable that is !--Ho! come this way. - -Ah ! poor fell ow, h e is
t o be pitied.--Hurrah I we have finished our lesson.--Come I
n ow for the next.

2. A word that makes sense before the word thing, is commonly
an adjecUve; as, A. goo~t~g..;1 .1111. old thing.. .
3. A 'ver·b makes sense.with I, thou, he, or to before it; as, I u rite;
he wi>ites ; to teach.
4. Th_e a.ni>wer to the questi,on, H= 1' When ? Where 7 is generally an ad·v erb;. as, B.o.w do you. do ? Very well. When did
you arrive? Yesterday. Where do you live? I live· here.

84

LESSON 35.-How to distinguish the Parts of
Speech.
321 . The m·licles, p 'r on ouns, p1•epos'it'ions, conjnnct'ions, an d 'intm;ject'ions, are so few in number, that
they may be easily committed to memury. · [APPENDIX IV, 9.]
32.'2 . T he other four, namely, the noun, -adjective, ve1-b,
and atl'l:erb, will be best distinguished by comparing their
mean ing· and use with the dejiniti<Jns of these p11.rts of speech
iu their place ; thus,
1. Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a
noun .: because " A noun is the ·name of any person , place,
or thing."
2. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or distinguishing it, is an adjective; because "An adjective is
a word used to qualify a substantive."
3. A wonl that expresses what 11 person or thing deres, or is, or
what is done to a person or thing, is a ve1•b; because "A verb
is a word used to express the act, bei ng, or state of its subject."
4. A word that modifi es another by expressing a circumstance
of time, place, manner, et-c., is an ad:1:e·1 'b; because "An ad.
verb," etc. (293.)
.'J?,"J. Th e following t ecli:nfr:<tl inetholl, t110ugh neither
very accurate nor certain , may assist the young pupil in distin.
guishing tli~se fo nr parts of speech; but the preceding should
al way s be preferred.
1 A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase, "I
speak of," is a noun; as, A man; I speak -of mon-ey .

Obse1·vati-01is.
324;. Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part
of speech, and sometimes as another, ·aceording to their 1neani1t({ and use in the place where they are used ; thus,
THAT,

MUCH,

D emonstrative Pronoun; as, '.'Give me. that book."
R elative P'tllrwun; !IS, "It is.the same that. I bought ."
{
Conjunction;_ as, " l a.rn g~ad that you a;a c.olllJl."

{

.Adverb; as, ••Jt is much better· to give. than to receive."
.Adjective; as, "In much ~do:m is· mu.ch- ~ ef, " .
1Youn; as, " .W here 'fTIA(.()h 1s given, muck IS requited."

SINCE,

Conjunction; as, "Since we must .part."
·
P reposition; as, "Since that time."
{
.Adverb ; as," Your friend has gone long since."

BUT,

Conjunction; as, "Poor but honest."
P reposition ; as, "All but one."·
{
Adverb; as, "He has but just enough."

ONLY

'

{ .Adjective ; as, " An only son ."
Adverb; as, "It is only eviL"

*** TV-rite additional sen tences. containing·these words.in the
several senses indicated above.
82."J. When the same w..ord is in one place a prepo.~it-ifm,
and in anoth er a con.function, let it be remembered that th e
preposition is followed by an objective case; the conjunction is
not. For additional suggestions upon certain of the parts of
speech, see APPENDIX III, and A. & P . Gr.-AP.PENDIX I.
QUESTIONS.-How may we most readily distinguish articles, proHow do you rlist.innouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections?
guish the ,noun from other parts of speech ?-the adjective ?-the verb ?-tho
adverb?

86

ETYMOLOG ICAL PARSING.

PARSING.

LES S 0 N 3 6 ._:Parsing.

S26. Pcvrsin,g is the resolving of a sentence into
its elements, or parts of speech. Words are parsed two
ways : Etymolog'ically and Syntactically.
1. In Etymolog'ical pwrsing, the pupil is required to state
the pa.rt of speech to which a word belongs, and to describe it by
its accidents and uses.

2.. In Syntact'ical parsing, the pupil is required, besides
parsmg the word etymologically, to state its 1·elat'io1i to
othm• wonls in the sentence, and the rules by which these
relations are governed.
N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert
in etymological parsing. This he can hardly fail to be, if h e has
attended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given.
Lessons from the reading book, or sentences from any plain
writer, may now be analyzed and parsed, as already directed.
To assist furth er in this, observe the following
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

32'1. In order to parse a sentence, ~t is necessary
to itnde'r stand its proper nieaning. Then, in
parsing it, let the following gene1•al princ'iples
be remembered, viz. :
1. Every .A1·ticle,. A<T;jective, A<~jectfoe JYrononn, or
Pa1·ticiple, belongs to some nonn or pronoun, expressed

or understood.
2. The s1tl~ject of a verb, i. e. the person or thing spoken of, is
usually in the nom/lnaUve.
3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nonil.na.Uve case, when
spoken of, is the subject of a verb, expressed or understood,
i.e. it is that of which the verb affirms. To this there are a few
exceptions.
NoT:E.-A word Is rxpres.•ed, when it appears in the sentence: It is
?"'d~1'stood, when it is implied hut does not appear. Thus, "Mary's. paper
is white, but John's is brown;" in the first member of the sentence "paper "
la •~'Pressed, in tho la•t. It is understood.

87

4. Every ve1·b in the iu'dicative, potential, or subjunctive
mood, must have a subject in the nominative case, expressed or
understood, i.e. something of which it affirms.
5. Every 't1•ansit'ive verb in the active voice, and every
p1·epos·i t'lon, governs a noun or pronoun in the objective
case; and every objective case is the object of a transitive verb in
the active voice, or of a preposition.
6. Every verb in the infln'itive mood depends upon a verb
or adject'ive; sometimes a noun; and sometimes it stands
after the conjunction, tha1·i or as.
Q UESTIONS .-What la parsing!
How many kiads of parsing are
there f
What le done in etymological parsing !-in syntactical parsing!
What is necessary before parsing a sentence?
To what does ev.e ry article,
In what case is the snbjPct of a verb?
,When a
adjective, etc., belong?
noun or pronoun in the nominative case is e?oken of,, what must it have?
What must every verb in the indicative, potential, or subJunctlve mood have.?
What case does every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposition, have after it ?
By what Is the objective .c ase always governed?
When a verb is in the infinitive mood, by what is It governed?
[For the answer to the following questions, go back to the pages indicated.]
How is a noun parsed? (88)-an article? (101)-an adjective? (126)' (147 161 166 177)-a verb? (.275)-an adverb? (302)a pronoun.
'
'
'
.
j t'
, (
)
a preposition? (310)- a conjunction? (316) - an mter ec 10~ · •320 •

Parse all these as directed in the places referred to, and as described in the
next Lesson.

LESSON 37.-Etymological Parsing.
:MODEL.

328. "Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet
wiser."

Give ... . a verb, transitive, irregular; give, gi'IYing, gave, given ; in
the imperative, active, second per~on, singular. Its subject
is tlwu understood, and its object, inbtruction.
Instruction ... . a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the
object of give.*
.
.
To . ... a preposition ; it points out the relation between Its object, man, and give.

* The person and class of the noun
TRATION ,

p. 16, note.

are omitted for reasons stated, h.Lue-

88

89

ETY1lOLOGICAL PARSING.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

article, indefinite, belongs to man.
Wi8e . ··. a common adj ective; compared, wise, wiser, ioisest; and
expresses a quality of man.

loveth inBtrucUon loveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof

A:.· . .an

11Ian · ... a noun, m~sculine, in the objective singular; pl. men.
A nd . .. . a conJ Lmctwn, and connects the members.
Ile . .•. a pronoun of the third person, rnnsculiiie, in the nominative singular; the subject of will be, and sLamls for
man.
Will be . .. . a verb attrihntive, irregular; am, being, was, been; in
the future, indicative, third person, singular, anJ affirm.s
of its subject, he.
Y et ..• . an adverb, modifying wiser .
Wiser. · ·.an adj ective, comparative degree · wise wiser, w.i,sesCand belongs to man, or is predicated' of h~
::~~9 .

As a further exercise, the pupil may be required
~o give a reason for every thing affirmed in the p1;ccedmg model; thus,
·
Whyhdo_ you say that give is a verb?
Why trans 1· t1·..• e '·
Wh
Whyirre.gulnr!
Y t e imperati ve ?
Why the secoud person?
Why •ingular?
Wily do you say that instruction is a noun 1
gulnr ?
Why the objective? etc.

Why neuter?

Why sill.-

EXER CISES IN PARSING.
:~:~() . After th e same manner ns in the precedin 0rr Lesson parse

and practice on the following

'

111ax ims f01• Young and Old.
I. EARLY P1~rY . -Remember now thy Creator in tb e days of
t l_'! youth; wlule the evil days come not, nor the years draw
moh, when thou silalt say, I have no pleasure in them.

Chil<.lren, ohey your parents ; honor thy father and mother, is
the firs t comm andm ent with promise.
At wbiRe son h eftreth ft fath er's instruction, but a scorner heareth
no re uke. ·--The ey e tiiat moclmth at his father, and despiseth
,
~~ obey l11s mother, the ravens of the valley shall pluck out and
ie young eagles shall eat it.--A wi se son maketh a 'glad
father, but a foolish son is the h eaviness of his mother.--Whoso

is brutish.
II. EDUCATION.-Train up a child in.the way he should go, and
when he is old he will not depart from it._
Quin til ian recommends to all parents the timely education of
their children; advising to train them up in learning, good manners, and virtuous exercises; siI)ce we commonly retain those
things in age whi<;b. we.6Iltertaine.d in youth,
'Tis education forms the common mind;
Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined.
An i:::tdustrious and virtuous education of children is a better
inheritance for them than a great estate.
III. PROSPERITY AND ADVERSITY.-If I must make choice
either of continual prosperity or adversity, I would choose the
latter ; for in adversity no good man can want comfort, whereas,
in prosperity, most men want discretion. Adversity overcome. is
the greatest glory ; and, willingly undergone, the greatest virtue;
sufferings are but the trials of gii.llant. spirits.

IV . .A....>roER.-Tha continJlan~ of anger is hatred; the continuance of hatred becomes m.ali<;e ; that anger is not warrantable
which has suffered the sun to go down upon it. Let all men
avoid ro.sh speaki ng. One unquiet, perverse disposition, distempers the jieace and unity of a whole family, or society-as one
jarring instrument will spoil a whole concert.
V. Rrn1rns.-Riches beget pride ; pride, impatience; impatience, revenge; revengP, war.; war, poverty; poverty, humility;
humilit y, patience; patience, peace ; and peace, riches.
'fhe shortest way to be rich, is not by enlarging our estates,
but by contracting our desires. A great fortune in thB hands of a
fool, is a great misfortune. The more riches a fool ha{!, the

greater fool he is.
PERSEVERANCK-It is astonishing to see how much can be
done by perseverance. Jessie is not so smart as either of her sisters, yet it strikes me, she will grow up the most sensible woman
of the three; and what do you think is the reason? Why, beeauses lie never says she can not do a thing, but tries, over and
over again, till she does it.

PARTS OF A SENTENCE.

91

Ice is cold.--In truth.--God is good.--Life is short, and
it should be well improved.--Truth will prevail.--Birds
sleep ill the open air, and awake e!J.rly in the morning.--To be
sure.--The grass of the prairies is good food for cattle.--How
many men were there ?--Listen to good ady;ce.

PART THIRD.-SYNTAX.
LE SS ON 38.-Analysis of Sentences.

,'$.'31. Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats
of the proper <l!J•1·a·n gentent and connection of
words in a sentence.
332. A PrOJJOSUion is a single statement or affirmation;
as, "Bees make l.oney."- " It will be cold in winter."

LESSON 39.-Parts of a Sentence.

333. A Sentence ~s such an assemblage of words as exp1·esses a p1·oposition and makes complete sense; * as, Jolin

340. Every sentence consists of two parts,- the
Sttbject and the Predicate.

studies.-He will leave to-mor1·ow.-Buy the book, if it is a good
one.- Go to sclwol early. - Do you go to sclwol .~

334. A Claiise is a sentence used in another sentence to
limi,t it, or any part of it ; as, If John study, he will improve.
(SSS.) It is an element of a sentence containing within itself a
subject and a predicate.
335. A P ln-ase is two or more words rightly put together,
but not making complete sense or expressing a proposition; as
"A gooll boy." "By and by." "In trutl•, he did it."
33G. The term 7Jlwci,se, in grammar is now generally limited to the p1·eposil'ion and its 1·egimen as an adjunct of the
antecedent term. (3 09. )
331. Infi,n-iUves and. Pm·ticiples with th eir regimen are
clauses. (See Anal. 13G.)
338. A word, phrase, or clause used to qualify or limit
another word, is called an adjiinct.
339. When the adjunct is in the predicate and affirmed of
the subject, it is called an att1·ibute; as, Snow is wldte.
EXERCISES.
[In t~e following, which are .~entences ?-which nre clanses Y-which nre
ph-rases ?- which are a.djuncts ?-which adjuncts are attrUnttc.• ?]
•The word "proposition" refers to the substance of what Is stated.
sentence is the Jnni:nage which expresses it,

The

341. The Siibject is that of which the affirmation is made;
as, "Life is short." "Birds sing." "Haste makes waste."
342. The subject of a sentence is commonly a noun or pronoun, or a clause used as a substantive ; as, God is good; he does
good.- To be a good sclwlar is an honor. - " 'l'hat the world is a
gphere, has been abundantly shown."- " D ust thou art, _to dust
returnest, was not spoken of the soul."
343. The Predicate is that which is affirmed of the subj ec.t ; as, " Life is short." "Rome was not bwflt in a day."
344. The predicate properly consists of two parts-the att1·ibute affirmed of the subject, and the copulli, by which th e
affirmation is made. Thus, in the sentence, " God is love," God
is the subj ect, and is love is the predicate, in which love is the
attribute, and is the copula.

845. In the analysis of a sentence, first find the ent·fre sub1ect, and the ent'ire precUcate, before any discussion of

0

iudi~idual words; for alt hough there is gen crr.lly a leading sub-

stantive, and always a principal verb; yet for the purposes of discourse the affirmation is made not of the noun simply, but of all
the words, phrases, and clauses that limit it- and although it is
th e verb that affirms, yet the affirmation is incomplete unleRs we
also take into account all the elements that modify the verb. The
following are examples:

92

PARTS OF A SENTENCE.
Suqject.

846. The att1·ibute ai;td copul.a a.re often expressed by one
word, which in that case must be a vm·b; as,_" The fire burrUJ,"
="The fire is burning." H ence,
847. The att1'ibiite may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective,
a preposition with its case, an ad/verb, an infinitive Ol' pm·t of a
sentence, connected with the subject by an attributive verb as a
copula. 1
848. The att1"ibutive verbs are such as, be, become,
seeni, etc; and the passive forms of deem, call, name, conside1",
etc.; as, He became wise. He was called a benefactor.j
849. The Ve1·b of the predicate is called the Afjfrme1".

EXERCISES.
[In the following sentences mention the aflirn~e» of each predicate-the
att·r ilmt c-the co11·u la. Mention the subject ot' each- the predicate of each.]
Snow i s white.- -Ice is always cold. --Birds f!y.-- Home
should be pleasant.--The fields are green in the spring.--Be
sure that truth will prevail.- -Does he go to school ?--To learn
a lesson well is commendable.--The man saw him.--Horses.
eat hay.- - John and Jane will Come, if invited.- -Crows are
never thA whiter for washing themselves.--Between virtue and
vice, there is no middle path.
[ Wdft? ndditional sentences, with another predicate for each of these subjccte, and another subject for each predicate.]
1

603.

93

Prldicate.

Birds fiy.
Grass is green.
Good boys obey th eir parents.
A. good ma.n, is respected by alL
A. bad man is not respected.
The lazy boy moves slowly.
The active boy moves rapidly.
The man whom you saw came while you were gone.
The industrious m11n. enjoys. the,f.ru.it_of his labor.
NOTE.-The teacher should illustrate fully by use of the blackboard, ques.
tiouing the pupils lllltil this distinction Is perfectly Ull.derstood.

A. & P. Gr. -

CLASSES ·oF SENTENCES.

LESS-ON 40.-.:Claf:fses of S-entences.

3-50. Sentences as to the Forni of the affirrnatio1~ or
mode of expressing it, are divided into four classes, viz.:
1. Decla1·at01·y, or such as declare a thing ; as, " God is
love."
2. Inte9"1"0!]atorrv, or such as ask a question; as, " Lovest
thou me?"
or such as express a command, entreaty,
-3 • I 1n..-1e1·ative
:L '
'
"
etc. (2 18); as," John, go home." "Grant me my requ~st.
4. Exclronatory, or such as contain an exclamation ; as,
" See how he runs I "
351. Sentences are '1'1·ansitive; In'transit·i ve, or Att1·ibu·t ive, according to the kind of VArb in the predicate. (1 81,

1 82, 183.)

352. As to the Number _of Propositions
they contain, sen'tences are divided into two -classes,
S-lngle and Compou,nd.
..
8"'8 A. Single Se)IJt·ence 1 expresses only one propoSltion;
iJ
•
"John
runs."- " J ohn runs faster t h anth e d og. " - "I will go
as,
·
h
bl "
if the sun shines."-" John and James left t :eta e.
354. A 01 npou,nll Sentence consists of two or more sing'.e
sentences so united as to express se·ve1·al 1•elated Jn'OJ)Osi• 2 as "John runs and James walks.""- " The wicked ftee
t L·01.8
•1
'
d
l°"
when no mr.n pursueth, but the righteous are bol as a ion.

c

EXERCISES.

[State which of the

foll~wing sentences are ~inyle 1 .which compound,

and of each whether declaratory, interrogatory, ~er_at1ve, or exclamatory,
and why ?-transitive, int1·ciu.sitive1 or att1"'-buhve, and why.]

Birds f!y.--Do any fish fly ?--Fie is a ge~tleman a:id a
schobr.- -Brinome the book and I will read it. - -Wnte to
0
me.--Ah 1. I see 1·t.- -The tide rises twice in twenty-four
b
hours.--The land is good, but th e buildings are old.- - o y~ u
intend to buy the farm ?--Yes : and I shall build a house on it.
- -By improvin g the land I shall have better crops.- -Who
made the noise ?- -Charles, sir.
~~~~--:--:-::-:---~~~~~

'605 .

Allni.-' 49 , 2.

Allal.- 1 53.

• 84'-J.07,

94

BINGLE SENTENCES.

95 \

LESSON 41.-Single Sentences.

LES S 0 N 4 2.-The F=!ubject.

855. Si:ngle Sentences (expressing only one
complete proposition) are of three kinds: viz., Shnple, Composite, and Complex.

360. · The subject of a sentence is either grammatical or logical.

356 . A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, one
aflfrmer, and, if transitive or attributive, one object or attribute;
as, Horses run.-John strikes Thomas.-Sugar is sweet.-Tho
boy reads (the paper).

I

THE SUBJECT.

357. The Simple Sentence may be enlcwgell1-1. By an adjnnct word or phrase in any or all of its parts; as," Wise meu
use rightly their time." 2. By the substitution of a claiise for
its subj ect, object, or attribute; as, "1'o be angry is to be mau:"

358. The C01nposite Sentence, in expressing one proposition, may have two or 111.ore su_~jects, ajfirmers, objects, or
(],ttributes, and is said to be compound in the pa1·t thus affected;
as, '"l'iine and t-icle wait for no man." "He studies and recites
grammar." "The sky is bright n.nd clear."
859 . The C01nplex Sentence is a single sentence containing . a snborclinate or <.lepenllent clatise which limits the

361. The g1·annnatical subject is the person or thing
spoken of, unlimited by other words; as, "Horses are stl'Ong."
862. The log'ical subject is the person or thing spoken of,
together with all the words, phrases, or clauses by which it is
limited or defined. Thus: in the sentence, "Every man at his
best estate is vanity,"-:the grammatical subject is "man;" the
logical is, "Eve1·y man at his best estate."
363. A 1•elative clause which limits a grammatical subject is called an aifjectlve adjunct; as, " The boy wlw studies
will improve."- (Studious boy.) 1
364. When the grammatical subject has no Umit·iny
w01·· ds connected with it, then it and the logical subject are
the same ; as, "GOD is good."-"Birds sing sweetly in the
spring."

365. The subject of a proposition is either simple
or compound.

principal clause, or some part of it; as, "The boy who studies
will excel."-" We will go when the train leaves."

366. A s·i 1nple 8U,b,ject .consists of one subject of thought;
a.s, Snow is white. The boiler of the steamboat exploded.

EXERCISES.

367. A c01npoiind siibjeet consists of two or more simple
subj ects, to which belongs the same predicate; as, You and I are
friends.-Time and tide wait for no man.-Two and tliree are five.

[In the following single sentences, which are simple'! which are comvositc with compound subject? with compound predicate? which are
co m1>tcx sentences, and why?]

EXEROJSES.

Grass is green.--W ood and coal will burn.--Coal burns
readily when properly ignited.--He can read and write well.
- -I will gnish the work when you wish m e. - - I f the road is
good, we can travel fast.--I bought a book and a slate for a
good boy.--And now abideth faith, hope, and charity.--That
is gold which is worth gold.--Learn to unlearn what you have
learned amiss.

[In the ·following sentences, which is the g1·am·1 11natical, and which the
lo rrical subj ect! State whether simpk or compound-limil'3d or unlimited.
Distinguish the Bimpk and the compaund subjects. Point out the Hnbjcct
and the predicate in each.]

Anal.-' 56.

Anal.-' 115.

The fear of t~e Lord is the beginning of wisdom.--All men
have not faith.--The memory of the just is blessed.--Happy
is the man that findeth wisdom.--The blessing of the Lord

----96

MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT.

maketh rich.--V\.rise men lay up knowledge.--The rich and
the poor meet together.-· Wealth makes many friends.-J ames and John are cousins.- -A grammatical subj ect is unlimited.--Some dogs are savage.--The white horse died.
[WT ite predicates to the following compound subjects:]

John and J ames.--He and she.--You and 1.--The rich
and poor.--Virtue and vice.--Heat and cold.

:MODIFICATIONS OF THE MODIFYING WORDS.

91

EXERCISES.
[In the following sentences, point out the u ·r amm atica l subject-the
ZoyfoaZ-aud stato how the grammatical subject is modified.]

A wise man foreseeth evii.--\.Visdom's ways are pleasantness.--Treasures of wickedness profit nothing.--He that
.walketh uprightly waj~eth snrely.--Nature does nothing in
vain.--Socrates, the philosopher, died by poison.--A desire
t o excel will stimulate to exertion.

LESSON 43.-Modifications of the Subject.

368. A g1·wmmatical subject, being a noun
or pronoun, may be modified, limited, or described in
various ways; as,
1. By a noun in appos'i'tion ;' as, "Milton, the poet, was
blind."
2. By a noun in th e possess·i ve case; as, ".Aaron's rod
budded."
3. By D:n <.u]Jwu:t plwase; as, " .The works of Nature arc
beautiful."
4. .By an cidjective wo1·<l (i.e. an article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle); as, "A gooa name is better
t.han riches."
5. By a 1·elaUve and its clause; as, " He who does no good,
does harm."
6. By an ·i nfinUive clause; as, "A desire to learn is praiseworthy."
7. By a clliuse in apposition; 2 as, "The fact that he was
a sehola?', was manifest."
8. Each grammatical subject may h ave seve1•al modifications ; as, "Several stars of less magnitude which we had not
observed before now appeared."
869. \.Vben the grammatical subject is an ilnfinoit·i ve, or a
pm·tiC'iple used as a nouu, it may be 1nod'ijied like the verb
in the predicate (884).

LESSON 44_-Modifications of the Modifying
Words.

3'10. Jlf.odifying or li1niting W01'ds may
themselves be modified.
1. A noiin modifying another may itself be modified in all
the ways in which a noun, being a grammatical subject, is

modified.
2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified(!.) By an adjimct pl11rase; as," Be a m an just -in your
dealings."
(2.) By an advm·b; as, "A truly good man hates evil."
(S.) By an ·i nftnit·i ve; as, "Be swift to hewr, slow to
speak."
S. An adverb may be modified. (1.) By an a~ju,nct ph1•ltSe; as," Agreeably to Nature."
(2.) By anothe1· adverb; as, " Yours, very sincerely."

37' 1. A nio<lifted g1•amnuiUcal sub,ject regarded as a
complex idea, may itself be modified; 1 as, " The OLD black horse
is dead ; " " The FIRST two lines are good."
EXERCISES.
[In the following sentences, by what words are the mocHfy·Lnu no!tns
modified I-the a<lject'!·v cs 7-the advcTbs ?]

A. ·& P. Gr.- ' 7168.

A. & P. Gr.- ' 689 .

5

98

99

THE PREDICATE.

:MODIFIO.A.TIONS OF THE PREDICATE.

Great wealth properly used is a blessing.-·-The very best
remedy for certain evils is exercise.--Trnly great men are far
above worldly pride.--You.r very kind letter has been received.
--The river flows very rapidly.

[Ir. the following sentences, name the subject and tho predicate- state
whether the predicate is lli-mpie or com1wiind-tell what i• tlie !J1"ft11tmatical, and what is the wy'ical predicate.]

LESSON. 45.-The Predicate.

.'J'i'2. I. The preclica,te, like the subject, is either
grarnrnatical or logical.

EXERCISES.

'fhe wind blows.--The fire burns.--Man is mortal.- Wisdom is the principal thing.--He that tilleth his la~d shall
be satisfied with bread.--The way of a. fool is right in his own
eyes.--A soft answer turneth O:way wrath.--The fields are
green.--Cresar came, saw, and conquered.---John reads and
writes wen:---The cities of the enemy were plundered and
burned to the ground.--The night was dark and rainy.--He
is a colonel in the regular army.

.'J73. The g?'funmatical predicate consists ·of the attrib1tte
and copula, not modified by other wordtl.

374. The citt1·ibute, which together with the copula forms
the predicate, may be expressed by a noiin or p1·01uJ-uu-James
is a scholar-James is he; an adjective-James is diligent; a
pcwl'iC'iple-James is learned; a p ·r epositfon with "its 1·egimen-James is in health; and sometimes an ad·v e-rb-John
is not so.
375. The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive or
other dApendent clause ; as, "To obey is to enjoy."-" The
order is that we must go."
376. The logical predicate is the grammatical, together
with all the words and phrases and clauses that modify it :Thus, "Nero was cruel to his snbjects,"-grammatioal predicate,
"was crnel "-logical, "was cruel to his subjects."

-177. Wlrnn the grammatical predicate has no modifying
t11rms connected with it, t.he grammatical and logical predicates
are the same; as, "Life.i;s short."- " Time flies."

3'18. II. The predicate, like the subject, is either
simple or compound.
.17r>. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one
attribute; as, "Truth is mighty."

880. A r:omponnll predicate consists of two 01· mor!l
simple predicates, affirmed of the same subject ; as, " Truth is
mi'.g l!ty and will p1·ernil."

LESSON 46.-Modifications of the Predicate.

381. A grarnr_natical predicate may be
niod'tjiea or limited in various ways.
:J82. When the attribute in the grammatical predicate is a noitn, .it is modified1. By a noun or p1·onoun limiting or dciscribing the attribute; as, "He is John the Baptist."-" Ho is my friend."
- "He is my jatlter's fri@d."
2. By an adject'ive or parUci11le limiting tho attribute ; as,
"Solomon was a wise king."

:38.'J. When the affirmer

(.'149) contuins the

a:ttr:ibute, it m~y be modified1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the
object of the verb; as, "We love liim."-" John reads
Homer."
2. By an advm·b.; as, "Johu reads well."
3. By an ad,junct; as, "They live in London."
4. By an i11fi,nitive; as, "Boys l oYe to play.''
5. By a !mh.'lfm1.tive clause; as, "Plato taught thct the
001d i8 immortril."

100

LIMITING CL.A.USES.

384. An infiniUve or pm·t,i c'iple may be modified in all
r espects as the finite verb in the predicate.

*** The object of a tranRitive sentence, or any substantive in
t he obj ective case, m ay be modified in all the ways in which a
s ubj ect may be modified.
385. A 11wd·i fyin(J clause, if a dependent proposition,
m ay be modified in both its subj ect and predicate aa other propo·
sitions.

LIMITING

CLAUSES.

101

391. An advM'b'i al clause performs the office of an adverb; a 8 , •'He goes to school to learn."-" He is wiser than his

brother."
.'~92. The clause on which another depends is called the leading clause, its subject the leading subject, and its predicate the
leading predicate.

386, All other modifying wo·rds may themselves be
modi fied, as similar words are, when modifj ing the subject.

393. In a complex single sentence, the dependent
clauses are usually connected by relatives, conjunctive
adverbs, or conjunctions; tbus-

387. Seve1•al nw<lificaUons are sometimes connected
wi th the same predicate ; as, "He reads a good book carefully
every evening."

R elative,- " The apples 'l'IIAT Me in .the basket are sold,''
Conjunctive Adverb,-" We shall go WHEN the cars go."
Co11junction.-" The miser lives poor THAT he may die rich!'

EXERCISES.

,'Jf)4, The connecting w01·d is sometimes oniitted; as, "This
is the book (which) I lost."

[In t.he following sentences, distinguish the urammaticaZ predfoatestate whether the attribute is a no un, or whether it is contained in the
a!llrmer or verb- state how it is modified.]

His father and mother are dead: they died a year ago,-Hanni bal crossed the Alps.--Livy and Tacitus were Roman
h istorians. -His inten tion was to destroy the fleet,--Time
flies rapidly.--Sincerity and truth are the basls of every virtue.
- - I wish that he would come soon.

LESS 0 N 47.-Limiting Clauses.

3 88. Clauses limiting single sentences, or the
members of compound sentences, may be classified as
to their office into substantive, adnominal, and
adverbial.
:I .Sf), A su.bstnntive clause performs the office of a noun;
as, " That I said. so is most true."-" H e loves to do right."
3!J O. An adnmnfruil clause limits like an adject'ive; as,
"The boy who studies will improve,''-" The master directed him
to study."- " ' I dmfrP.d, he \Jer:~~mc ¥.'.,';i.u."

395, A dep endent clau.se is frequently abridged by
omi tting the connecting word and changing the verb of the
predicate into a participle or infinitive ; as, ""When we 11ave
finished our lessons, we will play "-Abridged, "H11-ving finished
our lessons, we will play."
39fi. When the dependent clause is the ob,ject of the verb in
the leading clause, it may often be changed for the infin'it'ille
w'ith a su.bject; as," I know that he is a scholar"-Abridged,
"I know him to be a scholar."

397, When in such cases the subject of the dependent clause
ifl the same as the subj ect of the principal clause, it is omitted
in the abridged form; as," I wished that I might go "-Abridged,
"I wished to go!'
398. A dependent clause may be abridge<l by substituting an equivalent qualifying word or an adjunct ; as, " The
man who is honest will be respected "-Abridged, " The honest
man will be respected."

EXERCISES.
[l. Abridue the following propositions, and write them out:]

When our work is finished, we will play.--When I had
visited Europe, I retW'ned to America,--It is said that" the

--

-

103

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.

love of money is the root of all evil ;" daily observation shows
that it is so.

and the good.--Righteousness exalteth a na.tion.--Johu is
taller than I, though I am older than he.

102

[2. In the following compound sentences, name the 1nembera-name the

(2. Ext•md the following abridged propositions, and wrUe them:]

Time past can never be recalled.--Tb.e roud leading to the
C::Stle was blocked up.- - I know it to be genuine.- -You know
hi~ to be yo~r friend.- - vVe hold these principles to bo selfeV1dent.--H1s being successful is doubtful.--The war bein
ended, trade revived.
.
g

connectinf} words.]

The weather was fine, and the roads were excellent, but we
were unfortunate in our companions.--Beauty attracts admira·
tion, as honor (attracts) applause.--Time is ever advancing, but
it leaves behind it no traces of its fl.i ght.--When I was a child
I spake as a child, but when I became a man I put away childish
things.- -He may go, or he may stay.--He was not a good
speaker, yet he was an admirable writer.

LESS 0 N 48.-Compound Sentences.

Classification of Sentences.

r~:t~;;:;:~.
[l. F onM · · · .. · · · ~limperative.
Exdamatory.

399. A conipouncl sentence consists of two or
more single sentences so united as to express several
related propositions_; as, " The man walked, and the
boy ran."

400. The propositions which make up a compound

u.i
µq

sentence are called me1nbers.

Q

40_1. Th e ?1ie1nbe1•.-; of a compound sentence are u1·ammattcally nulependent of each other; each will make

Z.
µqrn

~

sense by itself.

iI
I

2· NATURE

AFFIRMATION.

.
l

3 NUMBER

***

After stating the members, and h ow they are connected
'
analyze each as if it were a single sentence.

402. The members of a cornponnd sentence are conn ect ed by such conjunctions as and 01· nor but yet etc . as
"The harvest is passed, the summer 'is
saved."

~oded, an'd

V:e

{ Transitive.
OF

OF
PROPOSITIONS.

Intransitive.
.
Attrib·u.tive.

j
l

. l e.....
S:ing

{s·

l e.
Cimp
ompos1' t e..
Complex:.

{.!l

Subject.
..,§ Affirmer.
o
.
fl Object.
0 Attribute.

Com ound. j No logical relation.
p

1Logical sequence.

.

ar~ no~

In such sentences, the connective is· often omitted.

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following eentences, state which are ainu l r., and which are
In the compound eentences, point out the 1neuibe1·s.]

co,,n7Joitncl.

. W e may not always have time to read, but we always have
tune to reffoct.- -Time passes quickly, though it appears to
move slowly.-- Cure for yourself, and others will care for you.
--The eyes of the Lord are in every place beholding the evil

LESSON . 49.-Directions for Analysis.
403. 1. State whether the sentence is sinale or c01npoitnd; whether t1•ansit'ive, int1·ans'it'ive, or att1·ibutivr~ ; whether decla1·ato'r y, inte1·'r ogato·r y, inipm·atfoe, or exclaniato1·11.
2. If single, state wh ether it is siniple, coniposite, or c01nplex .
3. Name the logical suf)ject and the logical p1·edicate.

104

MODELS OF ANALYSIS.

MODELS OF ANALYSIS.

4. Name the gra11i matica.l sul>,ject.
5. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the gramm atical subj ect is 11t0dijied in the logical.
G. Show by what modifying words, if any, each rnod-i/'yfrig
w01·d is modified.
7. Na me the (/1'aJnmatical p1·ed'icate,
8. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, it is niodifi ed in the l ogical .
!l. Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if any,
each m .odif'ying wm·lt is m od ified.
10. If the senten ce is cmnpound, m ention the 1nmnbe1·s.
11. Show how the members are connected.
12. .Analyze each m ember as a single sentence, by showing its subject, predicate, etc., as above.
N. B.-In anal yzing senten ces, it will be necessary always to
s·1.1.p pltJ words left out by elli psis, and to su11ply th e antecedent
to the relative iclw t, and t o the compound relatives wlioever, whosoevm', whatei•er, wlwtso~ver ; m aking also the change which is
necessary in the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is
supplied.'
1liodels of Analysis.

2. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.
This is a s·inule sentence, si1nz>le, d ecla1·at01·y, attributi·v e.
The logical subject is The f ear of the L ord.
'fhe logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom.
The gramm atical subj ect is fea1•. It is limited by the adjunct,
of the L01·d, and shown to be limited by the article ihe.
(368, 4.)
The grammati cal predicate is ·i s beginnin(J, in which is is the
verb or copula, and b eginning the attribute. It is modifl ed
by the adjunct of' wisdom, and shown to be limited by the.

(382.)

3. Two and two make four.
This is a s·inglc sentence, composite (with a compound subject),

d eclw·atory, trans'itive.
The logical subj ect is two (tnd two, compound.
The logical predicate is make four.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The grammatical predicate is make; it is modified by its object
j'ou1·.

4. Will th e king fight .and not conqued

404. 1. God is good.
This is a single sentence, simple, because it contains a sinO"le
affirmation ; lleclarcito·1·y t ecause i t declares somethil~a ·
att1·ibuti-l'e- i t affirm s th e attribu te good of the subject
God is the logical subj ect, because it is that of which the quality
good is affi rm ed.
.
Is good is th e logical predicate, b ec'l.use it affirms of its subject. L~ is the verb or copula, and goo<l is the attribute.
In this sentence, the grmnmatical subj ect and predicate are t h e
same as the logical, becanae they are not modifi ed by other
words.

God.'

Or, more bl'icfiy, thns :-The logical subject is God. The logical
predicate is 1.s good, in which is is the verb or copda, and
yoorl t he attri bute. The grammatical subject and pred icate
a re th e same as the logical.
A. & P. Gr.- ' 2 66.

105

This is a single sentence, composite, (with a compound predicate)
inten·ogat01·y, used intranlfitively, (object omitted.)
The logical subject is the king.
The logical predicate is will fight and not conqum-, compound.
The grammatical subj ect is the same as the logical.
'fhe first grammatical predicate is will ftyht; the second is
not conqi~e1·; they are connected by and.

5. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.
This is a single sentence, simple, ·i mperative, t1'a1Mitive.
The logical subj ect is thon understood.
The grammatical subj ect is the same as the logical.
The logical predicate is R emember
thy Creator in tlie days oj

now

thy you th.
The grammatical predicate is Remeni bm·. It is modified by
now, an adverb of time, also by its obj ect Creator, limited by

106

DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.

the possessive adjective pronoun thy. It is further modified by
the adjuncts in the days of thy youth. In the first of these
adjuncts, the term days is limited by the second adjunct, and
shown to be so by the definite article the.

G. "A good man does what (=that which) is right,
from principle."
This is a single sentence, complex, declaratory, transitive, containing one leading affirmation and one dependent clause, connected by which.
The logical subject of the whole sentence is A good man; the
logical predicate is does iohat is right from p1'inciple.
The leading affirmation is A good man does that f1°om principle.
The dependent clause is which i~ right, and is restrictive of that
in the leading proposition, the antecedent to wkich, the connecting word.
In the first or leading clauseTbe logical subject is A good man'
'rhe logical predicate is does that from principle.
The grammatical subject is man, qualified by good, and shown to
be indefinite by a.
The gram matical predicate is does, modified by its object that,
and the adjunct from principle; that is modified by the relative clause.
In the second or dependent clause'rhe Jogi cnJ subject. is which. It also connects its clause with the
antecedent that, and restricts it.
The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula,
and right is the attribute.
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the
Jogicltl. 1

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

107

The logical predicate is exalteth a nation. .
.
The grammat:cal subject is the same as the logical..
.
'!'he grammatical predicate is exµlteth (265). It ~s m?d1fied by
its object nation, and this is shown to be used mdefimtely by
the article a prefixed.
.
The second member, Bin is a reproar,h to any peop~, is also a
single, simple sentence, attributive, and connect~ with the pr&ceding member by the conjunction but, expressmg contrast or
opposition.
Of this member, the logical subj ect is sin.
The logical predicate is is a reproach to any pe<Yf!le.
The <Trammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The ~rummatical predicate is is a reproac,h, of which is ~s the
copula, and reproach the attribute, shown to be used !~defi­
nitely by the article a prefixed. It is modified by. the adj~nct
to any people. In this adjunct, the word peop_le is ~sed i~ a
general or unlimited sense. as intimated by iha mdefinite adJective pronoun any prefixed.

EXERCISES.
[Thus analyze the following sentences:]

Man is mortal.--All men are mortal.--The man and woman
· d t o-d ay.--He sold bis lion;e and wagon --The hand of
arrive
the diligent maketh rich.--The Jove of money is t he root of all
evil.-·-A fri end in need is a friend indeed.--He that trusteth
in his riches shall fall--If I do not go you rnust.--The fire
bnrns fiercely wlien the wind blows it.--It was I who wrote th e
Jetter, and he carried it to the post office.--He gave the book
to some one, I know not to whom.

7. Righteousness exnJteth a natio:o.; but sin is a
reproach to any people.

LE s so N 5 o.-Constn1ction of Sentences.

'l'bis is a compound sentence, consisting of two members, connected by bitt. Declamtory.
The first member, "Righteousness exalteth a nation," is a single,
simple sentence, transitive, of which
The logical subject is R.ight eousne8.~.

405 • Wm•ds are a'Y'ranged in sentences, according to certain 'Y'Ules, called the Rules of Syntax.

A. & P. Gr.-' 610, 624.

40G. General Principles.
1. In every sentence there must be a ve1·b and its subject,
expressed or understood.

..
108

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION.

109

2. Every a?·ticle, adjective, adjective p1·onoun, or
pa1't'iC'iple, must have a substantive, expressed or understood.
3. Every sul>ject has its own vm·b, expressed or understood.
4. Every fiwite ve1'b (that is, every verb not in the infinitive
or participial mood) has its own subject in the nominative case,

411. RuLlJ !.-Substantives denoting the smne
person or thfrig, agree .i n case; as, Cicero, the om-

expressed or understood.

tor.

5. Every possessive case limits a noun or substantive.

6. Every objective case is the object of a transitive verb in
the active voice, or of a prepo~ition ; or denotes circumstances of
time, value, weight, or measure. (4'13.)
7. The infinitive niood depends upon a verb, noun, or adjective.
8. Every adv01•b limits a verb, adjective, or adverb.
ll. Conjunctions unite words and phrases that stand in the
same relation in a sentence. They also serve to connect members and clauses in complex and compound sentences.

LESSON 5 1.-Substantives in Apposition.

Carlo, the large dog, is dead.

412. Words thus used are said to be in apposiUon.
413. ExPLANATION.-A noun is placed in apposition after
another noun, to express some attribute, de.~C'ript'ion, or
avpellation, belonging to it. Both nouns must be in tho
same member of the sentence, that is, in the subject, or the predicate. This Rule applies to all words used substantively, and it
is only when the ~ord in apposit.ion is a pronoun that there iii
any danger of error, because in pronouns only the nominative
and objective are different in form. The word in apposition is
sometimes connected with the preceding by the words as, being,
and the like.

**·* The exceptions to these general principles will appear in
the Rules of Syntax.

EXERCISES.*

Parts of Syntax.

[1. In the following Exercise, point out the words In appoaition. See
If they are in the same case. If they are, the sentence is right; If not, it Is
wrong, and must be corrected. In the following, some sentences are rLyht,
others wrong"]

40';. The Rules of S11ntax may all be r eferred to three
heads ; viz., Concord, or agreement, G01Jernment, and Position.
408. Conc01•d is the ayreernent one word has with
another in gender, number, case, or person.
409. Govm·nrnent is the powm• which one word has in
determining the mood, tense, or case of another word. The word
g overned by another word is called its regimen. (309.)
410 . Po.~'ition means the place which a word occupies in
relation to other words in a sentence.

*** In the English language, which has but few inflections,
the 11wrvn'i11g of a sentence often depends much on the 11osition1 of its words.
A. & P. Gr.-• 541, 755, 759, 83Z.

First in the hearts of his countrymen i.a Washington, the
hero, the statesman, and the patriot.-- La Fayette, the friend of
Washington, is no more.--Your brother has returned, him who
went abroad.- -. I bought this paper from a bookseller, be who
liv;is opposite ; will you please to give it to that boy, he that
stands by the door ?- -Is your sister well, her that was lately
sick ?-- Hand that book to John, he who reads so well.- -The
premium for tho best writer is given to Thomas, he who took so
much pains to excel.- -Brutus slew Cresar, him who was the
great conqueror.- -Solomon,. king of Israel, built a temple for
Jehovah, his Lord.- -The President, Lincoln, was assassinated.
• N. B.-Throughout the Ex e rcl ~es in Syntax-first, co1•rect the errors,
and ·w ·r if <.: the exe1•ciH cs ae corrected; PcconO, n-nrr.lyze orally the senten ce~ correcterl; thirdly, par~c any worrl e t~.,nologically; nnd, last1y 1 parse
•yntactically the word or \'lords to wh:ch the rule refers. (552.)

110

ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE.

ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE.

--Us, boys, were there.--Him, being a child, was for.

420. .A<lject'ives should not be used as adverbs; thus,
miserahle poor ; sings elegrmt, should be; miserahly poor ; sings
elegantly. 1

given.
[2. H"rlte correct sentence s, each to contain a noun, or a noun and
its pronoun, in apposition.]

LESS 0 N 5 2.-Adjective and Substantive.

414. RULE II.-1. An adjective or a pm•ticiple qualifies tlte substanUve to whidi it belongs;
as, "A good man." " A horse wearied by labor."
.An adjective used as an attriln.ite (844:) in the predicate
must qualify the subject; 1 as, "Suga1· is SWEET."

2. Adjectives denoting one qual~fy nouns in the
singu,lm·-adjectives denoting 1nore thctn one
qualify nouns in the pl·w ral; as, "This man." "These
men." "Six feet."
415. ExPLANATION.-This Rule applies to all adjective
wor<ls, namely, adjecti·ves, adjective p'l'onouns, and ;xzrticVj}lea.
These being indeclinable in En gliisb, there is danger of error only
in the use of such as imply number.

Observations.
416. AdJectives denotfog one are thia, that, one, each, every,
either, neither; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third, etc.

411. Adj ectives denoting 1·1io1·e than one are these, those,
1ncmy, several; and the cardinal numerals, two, three, four, etc.

418 . Some adjectives implying number cari be joined with
either S'inyu-llw 01• pl1wcil nouns. according to the sense;
as, some, no, etc.; thus, Some man- some men.

4.19 . ExcEPTION.-Wben a nou,u, following the numeral io
used in an ruUective sense (.lOf> ), it has not the plural t ermin ation : thus, we sa.y, A four inch plank; a three foot wall; a four
lwrse team: a ten acre field, etc.
A. & P. Gr. ·-' G./U ,

111

421. When two or more objects are contrasted, this and
these refer to the last mentioned, that and tlwi,;e to the first;
as," Virtue and vice are opposite qualities; that ennobles the
mind, tkia debases it."

422. COMPAlUSON.-1. When two ob}ects are compared, the
c01nparative degree is commonly USP.d ; when tnore than
two, the superlat-ive; as, "He is talle·r tha.r>. his father."
"John is tallest amongst us."
2. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper; thus,
"James is more taller than John,"-omit more. "He-is the most
wisest of the three,"-omit most.

423. PosITION.-.An adjective is generally put before its
• noun; but in the following instances it is put -afte·r : 1. When
it qualifies a p1·onO'ttn. 2. When othet• wo1·ds depend on
the adjective. 3. When the quaUty results from the acl:ion
expressed by the Vefb. 4. When the adj@c~ivG ill pP¢icaU:d.~
[•.• For other varieties and exceptions, see A. & P. Gr. 677-706 .]

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercise, point ou~ tho «;dJcctivea, ~d the .ml>atantivca (41) which they_ qualify. 'l'ell which denote one, and which
more than one, and make the substantives singular or plural as the· adjectives
req;tire.)

A well six fathom deep.--.A pole ten feet fong.--.A field
twen t y rod wide.--1 have not seen him this ten days.-~Th ose
sort of people are comm.on,-.-. These kind qf things are useless.
--You will find the remark in the second or third pages.- .
Each have th eir · own place, and they know it.--The second
and third page were torn.
[2. 1Vrite short sentencP-s, each of which shall contain an adjective of
number (416-418), and n substantive In the number required by the adjective. Thus, Every man had a pole six f eet long.]

A. & P. Gr.-' 686.

'705.

1J 2

THE AHTICLE.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

113

EXERCISES.

LESS 0 N 5 3.-The Article.
424. RULE III.-1. The article a or an is put
before common nouns in the shig,ula'I'' number,
when used 'iridejinitely; as, "A man"- "An apple ;"
that is, " any man"- " any apple."

2. The article the is put before common nouns,
either s-inyula1' or plnral, when used definitely; as, "The sun rises "- "The . city of New
York."
425. EXPLANATION,-It is impossible to give a precise Rule
for the use of the article in every case, The best general rule is,
to observe what the sense requires. The following usages may
be noticed, (For others, see A. & P. Gr. 707-728.)

Obse1·vations.
426. The article is omUted before a nouu that is un-U1nited, or that stands for a whole species; as, Man is mortal;
and before the names of minerals, metals, arts, etc, Some nouns
denoting the species have the article always prefixed ; as, The
dog is a more grateful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble
animal, Others n ever h ave it; thus, L ead is softer than iron.
Wood is lighter than stone.

427. The last of two nouns aftm• a compa1•at'ive,
shot1ld have no artiele when they both r efer to one pm·son or
thing ; ~s, He is a better reader than writer.
4 ,2 8. When two or m01•e ad/jectives, or epithets, are used

sanie noun, the article should be placed before the
first. and oniitte<l before the rest; but whl'n they belong to
cUfferent subj ects, the article is 1wejixe<l to erwh; thus,
"A red and white rose," indicates one rose, partly red and partly
white. "A r ed and a white rose," means two roses, one red and
one white. "Johnson, the bookseller and st.atloner," denotes one
,person. "Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," denotes two.
to qualify the

[1. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the article. Show

why they a re wrong, and correct them.]

A great talents without a virtue are dangerous.- -A man is
mortal.- -A time tlies.--The money is soarce.-·- John is a
better farmer than a scholar.--The black and the white spaniel
runs fastest.- -The black and white spaniel run together. - 'l'he time and the tide wait for no man.-.- A red and a white
rosP. grows on this bush.--'l'he black and white man came together.- -Smith, the tanner and currier, entered into partnership.--Smith, the tanner and the currier, is a man of a great
industry.
[2. TVrUe short sentences, each of which ~hall contain t.he article a or
an, or the ;- others, which shall contain nouns without an <wticle.]

LESS 0 N 54.-Personal Pronouns.
429. RuLE IV.-Personal pt•onouns agree
with the words for which they stand, in gender,
nu,.mber, and person; as, All that a man hath,
will he give for his life.
ExPLANATION.-Only personal and possessive pronouns
have 1Uffm·ent f01"'11lS for the several genders, numbers and
persons, and this Rule means, that when any of these pronouns
is ~sed, it must be of the same gender, number, and person, with
the noun for which it stands.

Speci.al Ru.les.
43 0. RULE 1. When a pronoun refers to two 01• 11w1·e
worrl.<> ta.ken togethe1·, it becomes plu1·al, a;nd if the words
a?·e of different perMns; it prefers the first person to the second,
anclthe second to the thi1°<l; as, "He and she did tluir duty."
-"John and you and I will do OUR duty."
431. RULE 2. W?ien a pronou.n refers to two 01• mo·r e
words in the singnlar, taken sepa1Yttely; or to one of them
exclusively, it must be sinyula1·; as, " A clock or a w<itch moves
merely as it is moved."

114

115

RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.

RELATIVE ANJi) ANTECEDENT.

432. RULE 3.-But if either of the words referred to is
plti1·al, the pronoun must be plural also; as, " N either he
nor they trouble themselves."

it. (158.) Consequently, the relative is always regarded as of
the same gender, person, and number as its' antecedent; and if
the subject of a finite verb, the verb will be of the same number
and person also. The relative has the same form i.n all genders.
For remarks -respecting the antecedent, and the use of who
and wh'ich, see Lesson 13.

Obse1"vatfons.
4tJ3. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular,
many as one whole, should be in the neute1· .s·i ny ·1tla1·; but when the noun expresses many as indi·v 'idi1als,
the pronoun should be pl'lwal; as, " The army proceeded on
its march."-" The court were divided in their opinions."
expres~ing

434. The word containing the answeJ•to a question (16.'J),
must be tn the san-ie case as the word that a.sks it ; us, " Who
said that? " Ans. " I (said it).'~ "Whose books are these?"
Ans. "John's."
[***For other Notes and Observations, see A. & P . Gr. 730 --741.]

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercise, point out the personal and pos.9eRsive
pronouns (~6S) and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun,
if necessary, for one of the same gender, number, and person, with its noun .]

Give to every man their due.--Answer not a fool according to
her folly.--Take handfuls of DBhes and sprinkle it toward
heaven.--Rebecca took raiment and put them upon Jacob.-Thou and hA shared it between them.--Who is there ? Me.
--Who did that? Him.--Whom did you meet? He.-Whose pen is that? Her or mine's.--.Virtue forces her way
through. obscurity, and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded.

LESSON 5 5.-Relative and Antecedent.

435. RULE V.-The 'r elat'ive agrees with its antecedeJit in gender, nwniber ancl pe'r son; as,
"Thou who speakest."-" The book which was lost."
436. EXPLANATION.-The relative stands instead of the noun
or pronoun called its antecedent, and also connects. the idea expressed in its clause wit.h the antecedent, eith er for the purpose
of further tlescr"ib-in(f it, or of Um·i ti1t(f and 1·• est1"icting

Special Rules.
4/J7.
.~onified;

lion."
438.

animcils ;

RULE

1.-Who is applied _to

.per.,~ons

or things per-

as, "The man who."- " The f()'J) who had n ever seen a
RULE 2.- Which
118, "

is applied to thinys, and inferior

The house whieh; " " The dog which.''

439. RULE 3.-That, as a relative, is used 'instead of
who 01• which1. After the snpe1·lative degree, the ·words sa11ie, all, and
sometimes -no, surne, ·and any; and generally in 1·est1·ictive clauses; as, " It is tb.e best that can be got."
2. When the antecedent includes both ve1•sons and tltinys;
as, "The man and the horse that we saw yesterday."
3. After the inter1·ogative who, 11;nd sometimes after the
personal pronouns ; as, " Who that knows him will believe it."-" I that speak in righteousness."
4. Generally, when the propriety of who or whieh, is doubtful; us, "The child that was .placed in the midst."
44·0. REMARK.-The 1·elative as the ·object of a verb, generally precedes the verb on which it depends; 118, "Tho mnu
WHOM I Baw, is here."- " I have found that WHICH I lost."
[•.•For other remarks, see A. & P . Gr. 743-759.]

EXERCISES.
[1. Point out the relative, _and the noun or pronoun to which it refers.
Tell the use of the relative and its clause in ench sentence. Alter the relative, if necessary, as required by its antecedent, according to Sun-RULE 1.
(437.) If the relative is in the nominative, put its verb int.be same number
and person as the relative or the antecedent. ·Give a reason for each change.)

The'friend which I love.--The vice whom I hate.--There
is the dog who followed us;-·-They which seek wisdom, find

116

SUBJECT NOMINATIVE.

it.- -.All which beauty, all which wealth e'er irave.- -" I
who speak unto you, ·am he."--It is the best situation which
can be got.--The man and the horse whom we saw.
[2. 1Jl·r it e t e·n sho'rt sentences, each of which shall cont.ain one or more
of the following nouns or pronouns limited by n relat ive and it.s clause ; viz.,
.A.fan, house, doJ, tree, fi eld, hat, boot, chair,· I, thO'u, he, we, you, they; thus,
u rrhere h; the nian who makes baskets.,,
Parse the sentences, and tell the
number and person of tlie relative, and why. ]

LESS 0 N 5 6.-Subject Nominative,

441. RULE VI.-The subject of a finite verb is
put in the no·n iinative; as, "I am."- "Tlwu art."
-"f{e is."-"1'7tey are."- "Time flies."
442. ExPLANATIONS.- A fin'ite verb is a verb limited hy
ve·r son and ntmibe1', i. e. a verb in the indicative, potential,
subjunctive, or imperative mood.
44,'J. The subject of a finite verb may be a noun, a prononn, an hifin'itive 1noud, a pa1·ticiple ?J,Sed as a noun,
or a si~lJstcinUve clause. Any of these, when the subject of

a verb, may be regarded as a substantive in the nominative. 1
NoTE.- ln con1prwntive sentences, 2 the substantives in th e
second member must be in the sa11ie case as the corresponding
substantives in the first; us, "One vice costs more than many
virt·ues (cost)."- "He r eads more than shi (reads)."

EXERCISES.
[In cn ch oentence, point out the ve?'b and its subject . If the Rnbjcct Is
not iu the right case, change it.]

Rim and me are of the same nge.--Suppose you ancl me go.
- - Them a1·e excellent.---It is probahle that h er and me will
ret urn. - -Robert is taller than me, but I am as strong as him.
- -I am older than him ; 'but he is taller than me.
A. & P. Gr.-' 7G1-?G7.

NOMINATl!VE ABSOLUTE.

117

LE S SON 5 7.-Nominative Absolute.

444. RuLE VIL-A .<n.tbstantit'e whose case depends on no other word, is put in the n.01ninative

absolute.
Special Rules.
44.'>. RULE 1.-A substanUve with a pa.1 ·ticiple, whose
case depends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute ;
U8, "He being gone, only two remain."
446 . RULE 2.- A substantive denoting a person or thing adlh'essed, without a verb or governing word, is put in the nominative; as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly." " P lato, thou reasonest well."

44'1. R,ULE 3.-A substantive unconnected in mere exclamatior., is put in the nominative; as, "0 the t imes !- 0 the manners!"
448. RULE 4.- A substantive used by pleonaMn ,1 bqfore
an affirmation, is put in the nominative; as, "Your fathers, where
nrc they?"
•.• Under these Rules, a mistake can be made only in the cace of pronouns.

EXERCISES.
[Point out the word In the case absolute or indepen<lent: if wrong, put
It In the right case, and state why it should be in the nominative.]

Me being absent, the business was neglected.- -'rhee being
present, h e would not tell what he knew.- -Oh ! happy us, surrounded with so many blessings.--Thee too! Brutus, my son I
cried Cresar overcome.

LESS 0 N 5 8.-Verb and its Subject.

449. RuLE VIII.-A ve'r b agrees with its subject in number and person; as, "I read; " " Thou
readest ; " " H e reads;" " We read," etc.

Anal.-'l 135.

A. & P . Gr.-' 1044, 2.

119

VERB AND ITS SUBJECT.

THE PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE.

450. Ei...TLANATION.-This Rule means, that a verb musttakrl
the form or termination denoting the same number. n.nd person
wi t.h its subj ect. This Rule and the Special Rules under it apply,
i.Jso, when the subj ect is an infinitive or other clause, See under
Rule VI.

455. RULE 4.- When 8tllistantiDes taken together, are of diff e·r ent pm·sons, the verb agrees with the one next to it; as,

118

EXERCISES.
[1. Iu the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs-which the sttb-

j ec ts-whether the verb and its subject agree-and if not,.muke them agree
by putting the verb in the person and number of its subject.]

You was there.--Th ey was absent.--Your brothers. has
been abroad.--Has your sisters come h ome ?--Was you present ?--The letters has comc.- -Fair words costs uothiug.- There is no rost:s without thorns.--So much of ability and
merit are seldom found.--In the work of education the order of
siuclies are important. The value of the jewels are very great.
[2. Take the verb to write, and make it ngree with r...:.with you-with hewith they- in all the tenses of the indicative mood. 'l.'ake any other verb, and
do the same.)

LESS 0 N 5 9.-Verb and its Subject.
Sp ecial R.-ules unclm· R.-ule VIII.

"James or I am in the wrong." Better," Jn.mes is in the wrong,
or I am."

456. OBs.-vVhen the substantives are of diiferent numbers,
the plural number is usually placed last; as, "Neither the cap·
taiu nor the sailors were e~ved."
457'. RULE 5.-1. A collective noun expressing many, con
sidered as one whole, has a verb in the singula1·; as, "The
company was large."
2. But when a collect'ive noun expresses many, considered as
in<i.ivid-uali;, the verb must be plu1·al; as, "My people do not

consider."

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercises, pGt the verb in the number required by
the Rule, and give the·Rule for the correction.]

(1.) Forty head of cattle was grazing in the meadow.-Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for one dollar.---{2.) Life and
death is in the power of the tongue.--Out of the same mouth
proceedeth blessing and cursing.---(3.) Either the boy or the
girl were present.---(4.) I or you am to blame.---(5.) The
people was numerous.--The deer were caught.
[2. lVritc the sentences as corrected.]

45.1. RULE 1.-.A s·i ny'Ulm· noun used in a . pliwal
sense, has a verb in the pl-ural; as, " Ten sail (meaning
ships) are in sight."

452. RULE 2.-Two or more substantives singula1·, taken toyethe·r , have a verb in the plu1•til; as, "James and J ohn are
here."

453. Exc.-But when subRtantives connected by and denote
one person or thing, the verh is singular ; as, " Why is dust and
ashes proud?"'
454. RULE 3.-Two or m.ore substantives singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion of the r est, have a verb in the
singu-lnr; as, "James or John attends."- " The dog or the cat
makes the noise."

LE S SO N 6 0 .-The Predicate Substantive.

458. RuLE IX.-The predicate substantive
after an attributive verb, is put in the same case as
the subject before it; as,. "It is .]."-" He shall be
called JOHN."-~' I took it to be mi±." .
459. ExPLANATION.-Verhs having the same case after as
before them, are chiefly those which signify to be, or to· becmne; passive verbs of na1ning, 11uiking, choosi.ng, and
the like; as, "John became a scl1olar ;" "David was made king."

] :20

121

OBJECT OF A VERB.

OBJECT OF A VERB.

'l'hc s ubstantive before the finite verb is the subject, the one after
it is tlw ]l'redicate, and the verb is the copula. Hence they all
f rirm a simpl e sentence; and tho ugh the n ouns denote the same
person or thing, nnd arc in the same case, they are not in apposition, as in RULE I ; but the substantive after a verb is pr edicated
of ihnt before it.

usually placed after the verb-1•elative and inte1•rogati-ve
. pronouns, usually bej'o1·e it. (440.)

468. The infinit'ive mood, a pm·Uciple us~d as a n.o~,
or a substantive Clause, may be the object of. a transit:ve
active verb; as, " Boys love to play ."- " H e practised reading
aloud."-" I know what he will do."

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercises, in each sentence, point out the vc1•b to
which the Rule applies, nnd the nouu or pronoun betore and after it.
2. Tell the case of tho one before, and why. Put the one after the verb in
the ,'Ja1nc ca.se as the one before it, g ive the Rule for the change, and show
how it applies. Tell the subject and predicate in each sentence.]

It is me.- -It could not have been them.- - ! am cer tai n it
was not m e.--That is the man who I thought it to be.- - Is
that thee ?--vVhom did they say it was ?- - I understood it to
h ave been he. --vVus it m e that said so ?--It could not have
been m e ; but it might have been him, or h er; or both.
[:J. H"r ite si n iila1• cwr·r cct sentence s, in each of which shall .b e one
of the following verbs, with the same caoe after it as before it, viz., is, ars,
became, w as made, sltall be cllosen , to oe, to be called, UJ be appointed. Apply
the Ru ic as above.]

EXERCISES.
(1. In the following Exercisee, point out the transiHve vm·b-its subject-its object,-put that object in the proper case-tell what that case is,
und why.]

He loves h er and I.--Did th ey hurt ye ?- -We know h e and
tliey.--He an d they we know.--The friend who I love.- Take care who you admit.- -! will not give ye up.--He who
yotl ign orantly worship, declare I unto you.--Let you and l g·o.
--This is the boy who I saw.
JV1'ite a number of sentences, each of which shall contain a tran[Q
~- verb in· the
·
fol• •,
eitive
active voice; such as, do, ~uive, wuch ' hurt , love 1 etc
h
lowed by a personal pronoun in the proper case. Parse them, and give t e
Rule.]

Special Ru.Zes.

LESS 0 N 61.-0bject of a Verb.

460. R U LE X.-A substantive being the object
of ct t·r ansiti·ve vm·b in tlte active voice, is put in the
objective case; as, "We love him."-"Wlwm did you
send ?"
461. EXPLANATION.-The transitive verb in the active voice,
always tells what its subject does _to some other person or t hing,
called its object. The rule m eans, that this object must always
b e put in the objective case. This rule is liable t-0 be violated
only when th e object is a pronoun, beca use in all other words the
n ominative and the obj ective case are aUke in f01•ni. (83.)

464. RuLE 1.-An int1·ans-itive verb can ltave no object;
as, "Repenting him of his design "-omit him.
4(i5. RULE 2.- Int1·ansit'ive verbs used in a transi t~~e
sense (187), govern the objective case; 1 as, "He runs a race. "I laugh at him."
46fi. RULE 3.-Int1·wisi tive verbs do not admU a
passive vo'ice, except wl1en used transitively (210); as, " My
race is run." 2
4fi7. RULE 4.- A transitive verb <loes not adniit a
p1·eposition ajt!!'f it; as, "I will n ot allow of it ;"-omit of.
468. RuLE 5.- Verbs signifying to nmne, appoint, constitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz.:
the dfrect denoting the pers01t or thing acted upon; and the
'inrli 1·ect, 'denoting the 1·esult of the act expressed; as, "They
named him Jolin ." 3

462. Nouns and personal pronouns in the obj ective case, are
A. & P . Qr.-' 805, SQ(;,

6

•

807.

• 810-814.

Anal.-' 88, 1.

122

OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREPOSITION.

OBJECTIVE AFTER A PREPOSITION.

123

EXERCISES UNDER THE SP ECLAL . RULES.

EXERCISES-

[Show how the Rule is violated in each of the following sentences, und
correct the error.]

[1. Point out the preposition and the word· which is its object. Put
that word in the proper ca•e, if not in it already. Give the Rule.]

(1.) Robert plays himself with his lessons.--He lies him
down on the grnss.- -(2.) They expatiated themselves la rgely.
- -Planters grow cotton.--Sit thee do,vn.- -(3.) I am resolved to go. - -Is your father returned ?- -He is almost perished with cold.- -(4.) They do not want for any thing.--His·
servants ye are, to whom ye obey.- - False accusation can not
diminish from his real m erit. - (5.) H e was chosen for a
Senator.

· This belongs to my father and 1.--Who did you get it from?
- -Who sh all we send it t o ?--Divide it between ye, or give
it to him and 1.--This is a small matter between you and I.
- -Who did you give it to ?--Who do you work for?

LESS 0 N 6 2.-0bjective after a Preposition.
RULE XL-A substantive being the object
p1•epos'ition,, is put in the objective case; as,

469.
~fa

"To whom much is given, of him much shall Le required."
470. ExPLANATION.-This rule can be viol ated only in the
use of pronouns.
471. TVhmn and which sometimes depend u pon a prepositi on at some distance after them . But this should generally be
avoided; tlm8, "This is he whom I gave it to,"-better-" to
whom I gave it."
472. The preposition is sometimes oniitted. It is then
said to be understood; thus, "Give (to) me that book." Here,
" me" is the objective after "to," understood.

Special R11,le.
473. RuLE.- Nouns denoting· t'inie, valiie, weight, or
niea,.<nwe are commonly put in the ob,jecUve ca:Je uiitlwut a.
gorerning word; as, "He was absent six months last year."-" It
cost ·a shilling."- " l t is not worth a cent."- " It weighs a pound."
- " The wall is six fe et high , and two f eet t.hick."
This may be called the objective of tinie, value, weight,
e~~.

[2. In this way, 101.,ite. a. number of shor t sentences, each of which shnll
contain a preposition (see the list, 3 0 6), followed by a personal or relative
pronoun in the proper case. Parse the sentence•, l)nd give the .~ule for the
case after-the preposition.]
'

474. When the prepositions to, at, in stand before names
of places, the following usage should be carefully obtierved, viz. :
1. To-is used after words denoting mot'ion tow<u·d; as,
"He went to Spain ; but, in this case, it is omitted before
home; as, "He went home."
2. .At-is· used before the · names of lwuses, villages,
towns, and foreign · cities ; as, " He resides at the
Mansion house--at Geneva-at Lisbon."
3. In-is . used befor e names of countr'ies and large
cities; as, "He lives in England-in London.;' But
before these, at is used after t he verbs touch, an"i·ve,
land ; and sometimes. after the verb to be.
4. In speaking of one's residenet> in a city, at is used before
the number, and in (generally understood), before the
st1·eet.
5. Into-is used after a verb implying: ·1n0Uon; as, " He went
into the house. In, after a verb implying absence oj'
'fliotion; as, He is in the h ouse.

EXERUISES.
[ (474.) In the following sentences, change the preposition used, for that
which usage requires, and give the special Rule.]

I have bee~ to home a~l day.--Have .you been to Boston?
--They live in Union ViHage; formerly they lived at New
York.--He has been at England, and has just returned to
home.--W e touched in France on our way to home.--He
lives to W ashiniton, at B Street, but resided formerly in No.. 50

v'

124

125

PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN WORDS.

PREPOSITIONS AFTER CERTAIN WORDS.

~roadway, ~~w York.--! saw. him go in the barn a moment

Prejudice against.
Profit by. Share in or of. Sick of.
Prevail (to persuade) with, on, Similar to.
upon; (to overcome) ove1·, Swerve from.
Taste (meaning capacity or incliagainst.
nation) ji:n',-(meaning actual
Protect (others) from,-(ourenjoyment), of
selves) against.
Tax with, (e. g. a crime),-for the
·Provide with or for.
state.
Reconcile (for friendship) to,Unite (transitive) to; (intrans.)
(for cQnsistency) with.
with.
Reduce (to subdue) under,-(in
other cases) to; as, to pow- Value upon, or on.
Worthy of,- sometimes the of is
der.
understood.
Regardfor,-in regard to.

:~neces.t--Six is contained into thirty, five times. - -He is inr.o
ore.

(2. 1Vrite sho1·t sentences each f hi
.
some city village co t
'
o w ch shall contain the name of
0
ti on towa~d, or b; th~~.[ ~ ·~;e. preceded by 8 verb or word denoting mo.
ti on.)
r .e, ve, dwelt, etc., and the appropriate prcposl·

b

LESSON 63.-Prepositions after certain words.
4'15. RULE XII.-Oertain words and pll/J•ases
shhould be followed by appropriate prepositfons ;
T us'
Accuse of
Acquit of
Acquiesce in.
Adapted to.
Ask or inquire of a person, for
what we wish to see- after
what we wish to hear of.
Believe in, sometimes on.
Betray to a person,-into a thing
Call on a person,-at a place. ·
Change for,-to,-into.
Co.mpare with, in respect to qual1ty,-to, for illustration.
Confide in.
Conformable, consonant to, ?oitli.
Conversant with men,-in things.
Copy from life, nature,-cifter a
parent.
Dependent upon.
Die of disaase,--by an instrument or violence,-for another.
Differ from. Diflicult.y in.
D'.minis? from,-diminutfon of.
D1sappomted in what we have
-of what we expect.
'

Discourage from.
Discouragement to.
Engaged in a work,-jO?· a tim~.
Equal to, with.
Exception f1'om,-.sometimes to.
Expert at (be.fore a noun),-in
(before an active participle).
Fall under disgrace ; from a
t ree ; into a pit ; on the iee.
Familiar, to, witli. A thinll' is
familiar to us ; we with
Fond of Free from.
Glad of something gained by
ourselves,- at something that
befalls another.
Independent of
Indulge with what is not hubituaI,-in what is habitual.
Insist upon.
Made of
Marry to.
Martyr for. Need of.
Observation of. Offensive to.
Prevail (to persuade' with on
1tpo~,-(to O'vercoi'.ne), ~ver'.

it

against.

[For additional instances, see A. & P_. Gr. ·834.]

476. EXPLANATION.-As words connected by prepositions,
are differently related, care must be taken to employ the preposition which best expresses the relation intended. The sense and
the practice of correct writers will here be our best guide. The
preceding are only a few examples out of many.
477. 0Bs.-The same preposition that follows the verb or
n<ljecUve, usually follows the noun derived from it ; W!, Con' fide in,-confidence in,-confident in.
4'18. Wluit jn·eposition to use often depends W! much
upon what follows, W! upon what goes before; W!, "To fall
from a height"-" into a pit"- " in battle."
EXERCISES.
[1. Chanue the preposition where necessary in each of the following
sentences, for that required by the Rnle.]

He was accu~ed with robbery, and acquitted from the charge.
- - I have been calling upon an old friend.- -Call in the post
office.--! differ with you in that matter.- - John died by consumption, Henry died of the sword, and Robert is sick with the
jaunrlice.--Try to profit from experience.- -Y ou have a taste
of poetry.- · -Conversant in men and things.- -Compare this
piece to that, and see which is the best.--! could never bear t.he
taste for tobacco.- -This is an exception against the general rule.
(2. W1·ite short sentences, each or whlch shall contain one or more of
the words in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate preposition.]

126

127

THE ·P OSSESSIVE CASE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

L E S S 0 N 6 4.-The Possessive Gase.

~ For several particulars 1:.elonging to this Rule, see A. & P.
Gr. 840-856.

4?'9 .. Ru~E XIII.-A substanUve that UniUs
1
foe si~nification of anothm·, denoting a different JJerson
or thmg,1 must be put in the possessive case · as " Virtue's reward."-"John's books."-" The sun'; ray~."

EXERCISES.
[1. In the following Exercise•, point out the noun or pronoun which
limits, and the noun whose signification Is limited by it; and if I.he. laLter is
understood, supply it. Put the lim'itln(I wonL in the 1wssess-.vo earn.
When several words coming together should be in the poss.;ssive, or wben
the name is complex, add the sign of the possessive('•) to the proper term.
ll'l'lte out the exercises when corrected.]

. 480. ExPL,~NA~ION.-The noun or pronoun in the possessiv.e, always lun'lts the no'Un that governs it, and denotes a
dijfe1·ent person or thing : Thus, " Virtue's reward ; " the latter

The boys book.--The girls bonnet.--The Ladys book, a
birds nest, a bear skin.--A mothers tenderness, and a fathers
care, are natures gifts for mans advantnge.--A horse tooth.- J ames and Thomas feet are cold.--Williams and Marys reign.
--Sheldon's & Company's bookstore is in New York.--James
loss is Thomas gain.--The Farmers Guide.--The Scholars
Companion.--The Court's session is ·put off.--The m\)eting's
president was appointed.

word does. not mean reward in general, or any indefinite reward,
but ~ particular reward, viz., Virtue's. This Rule applies to the
r elative pronoun, and to the possessive case of the personal ·pro.
noun, when the noun denoting the thing possessed is understood.
as, "That book is mine." When expressed, the possessor ~
denoted by the possessive adjective pronoun;• as, "That is my
book."

(2. lFrite short sentenoes, each of which shall contain two nouns, one
limiting the other. Put the limiting word in the proper case.]

Obse1•vations.
48.1. ~hen several nouns come together in the possessive
case, 1mplymg cmnmon possess·i on, the sign of the possessive
('s) is annexed to the last, and ·u nde1·· stood to the rest; as,
"Jane and Lucy's books," i. e. hooks the common property of
Jane and Lucy.
482. But if common possession is not implied, or if severnl
words intervene, the sign of the poEsessive should be annexe<l
to each; as "Jane's and Lucy's books," i.e. books, some of
which are Jane's and others, Lucy's.

48.1. 'When a name is c01nplex, eonsisting of more terms
than one, the S'iftn of the possessive is annexed to the last only·
as. " Julius Cresar's Commentaries."- " The Bishop of Londcn'~
Charge."
484. The noiin limited by the possessive is frequently
iinde1·stood; as, " He stays at his fath er's " (house).
4~5.

The preposition of, with the objective, is frequently

eqw1:1xilent to the possessive, but not al ways ; as, A picture ·
of my fa~lter means a portrait of him. My fath er's picture may
mean a picture belonging to him.
Anal.-' 149.

A. & P. Gr.-' 84~.

LESSON 65.-Subjunctive Mood.
·,

486. RULE XIV.-The subjunctive mood is
used in dependent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and futurity are expressed; aB,
"If he cont'inue to study, he will improve." •
487. W?ien contingency or do'UlJt only, and not futurity, is
implied, the indicati'l'e or potential is used; as, "If he ha.~
money, h e keeps it."
488. EXPLANATION.-Doubt and futurity are both implied
when the auxiliary sha,ll or sh01,1,l<l, referring to future time,
can be inserted before the verb without changing the meaning ;
thus, "Though he fall," and "Though he should falL" mean the
same thing. It is only in the present tense and third person
A. & P . Gr.-' 857-864.

Anal.-1 222-224:.

r
128

129

INFINITIVE MOOD.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

singular, that there is danger of error under this Rule, except in
the verb to be.

Special Rules.
493. RULE 1.-0ne verb being the subject of anothor, is put
in the ·i .njiuitive; as, " To study is profitable."
494. RULE 2.- A ve?·b in tlw infi:n'itive may be the object

489. REMA.me- Many of the best writers, and some distinguished grammarians, often use the subjunctive present; when
m ere doubt or contingfmcy is expressed, and not futurity. A
contrary practice of u sing the indicative where both doubt and
fu t urity are implied, now begi ns to prevail ; thus, "If he contin-u.es to study, hu will improve." But the weight of good authority still is evidently in favor of the preceding Rules. A
g eneral adherence to them would have this advantage, that the
mood used would be a certain guide to the sense intended.
490. SuB-RULE.- Lest and that, annexed to a command,
require the su.b,ju.nctive mood; as, "Love not sleep, le~t thou
come to poverty."-" Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob;
either good or bad."

4fJ1. The su.b.fttnctfoe mood, in the past tense, expresses
a supposition with respect to something present. but implies a
denial of the thing supposed ; as, " If I were a nightingale, I
would sing;" implying, "I am not."

EXERCISES.

of another verb; 1 as," Boys love to play."
495, RULE 3.- The infinitive, as the subject or object of ci verb,
sometimes has a sub.feet of its own in the ob,jective case; ns,
"For us to do so, would b e improper. "- " I know him to be
prudent."
49G. ·when the subject of the infinitive is not the sw1w
as that of the principal verb, it is always in the . objective case.
The subject is not repeated when it is the same as that of the
principal verb; as, "I desire to play."

491. RuLE 4.-1'he i11finit-ive is u.sed as a p1·e<licate nominative after any verb as a copula; as,." Yon are to blame."
498. RULE 5.-To, the lfign of the infinitive, is not 1ised
after the verbs bi-d, _da1·e, nee<l, mak.~, see, ltea1-, feel,
and let, in the active voice, nor after let in the pass·i've; as, " I
saw him do it ;" not" to do it."

[In the following sentences, state whether the verb following "if" or
11
though,, should be in the subjnncti've or indicat'ive mood 1 and \Vhy;
and make the necessary correction .]

499. RuLE 6.- The infini~ive is used to expres.~ the Jm.1·pose,
end, or design of the preceding act;• as, "Som?. who came to

If there be a rule, it should be observed.- -Tbough he be
rich, he is not happy.--If the mail arrives to-morrow, we shall
have letters.- -If he studies diligently when h e goes to school,
h e will improve.--If he is discreet when h e goes abroad, he
will gain friends.--If he have money, h e must have ea:ned it.

scoff: remained to pray."
500. RULE 7. - In cmnpm·isons, the infiniti·ve mood is put
so-as too, or than; ·as, " Be so good as to read this."
a•.,.ter
. "
- J'"Too old to' learn."-" Wiser than to un d ertak e it.

- EXERCISES.

LESSON 66.-Infinitive Mood,
492. RULE XV.-The infinitive 1nood is governed by vm·bs, noun.s, or a,d_jr~ ct'ives; 1 as, "I
desire to learn."- " A cles-ire to learn."-"A nxious to
learn.''
Anal.-'155.

[1. Jn the follow ing sentences, tell which verb is in the ·lnfin-it·i vc moort,
nnd upon what it depends. State whether it is the S1tbje.c~ or obje~t of
the principal verb. Insert or omit to, the sign of the ln1!mt1ve, and give a
rea•on according to the Rule.]

Strive learn.- -Ccase do evil.--Learn do well.--He needs
not to write.--I would make you to take care.- -He dares not
to do a wicked action; nor will h e dare do it.--1 h eard him t o
say so.--He was h eard say so.--Let James to do this.- -Bid
A. & P. Gr.-' 80.'!- b'71.

'J

88:J.

Anal.-' 136, 18::, 6.

130

131

COXSTRUCTION OF P AR'l'I CIPLES.

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES.

him to speak to me.--Did you see him to do that ?--No; but
I heard him to do it.--Did you hear the bell to ring ?--Make
him to go. -.-He was made go.

508. The sense will often be the same, if both the article and
the preposition 1.Je omitted; but the one should not be omitted
wi tlto ut the omission of the other; thus, " By observing th ese
rllles." ln sornb cases, lwwever, these two modes exvress very
differen t ideas, aud t lierefore attention to the sense is necessary,
as directed in tile following rule.
509. RULE 3.- Wilen the ve1·bctl noun expres,qes something
1
of which the '/'W 'lln foll owing denotes the doe1", it should have
the w ·ticle wul the p 'r eposition; as, " It was told in the
hearing of the witness/'-But when it expresses sometlting of
wkich the noun JOllowing does not denote the doer, but the obj ect, both should be omitted; as, " The court spent much time in
!tearing the witness."
510. Of, when followed by anothe1· p1·eposition, can
never be used after the verbal noun; thus, "By attending to
these rules;" can not be changed into, "By the attending of to
these rules."
511. R ULE 4.- (1.) Th.&past participle, and not the past
tense, slwnld be u.sed after the auxiliaries have and be ; as, " I
have written" (not wrote).-" The ietter is written" (not wrote).
(2.) So also, the past pm·t-iciple should no t be used for the
past tense; as, " He ran ; " not " He run." " I saw; " not
"I seen."
512. EXPLANATION.-This Rule can be violated only when
~he past tense and past participle differ in spelling.
513. The participle in ing is sometimes used in a passive
sense after the verb to be, to expreRs the continued suffering of
an action ; as, "The house is building;" not is being built. 1

[2. ll'ritr. s hm·t sentences , in each of which shall be one verb In the
infinitive mood, a• the subject of another verb-as the object-to express the
cud or de•i::;n-with to properly omit.ted-with a s ubject of its own in the
objective case.]

L E S S 0 N 6 7.-0onstruction of Participles.

501. RuLE XVI.-Participles have the construction of nouns, adject'lves, and vm·bs. 1
502. REMARK.-To participles used in these ways, the Rules
of Syntax for nouns, adj ectives, and verbs may g enerally oo
applied.~

SpeC'ial Rules.
503. RULE 1.- When the p1·esent or p erf ect pcwticiple i.~
nsed as a noun, a no1tn befm·e it is p ut in the possessive case ; as, "Much depends on the pupil's composing frequently."

504. E xPLANATION.-The present participle is used as a
ve·r bal nonn, whenever it is the s1tbject of a verb or the
olJject of a transitive verb or preposit ion. Under this Rule, the
verbal noun may be modified in all respects as the verb.

505. A pronoun before the verbal noun must be the posses.
sive pronoun, and not th e posse~sive case; as, " Much depends on
your composing frequently," (not you·n .)
506. RULE 2.-- When tlie present pr.t1•tic-iple used ris a
uonn, has an a1·ticle or acl:jective before it, the preposition
of' follows; as, " By the observing of these rules."-"A complete
forsaking of the truth."

507. ExPLANATION.- When used in this way, the participle
is regard erl as a nonn simply, and has not the government or
modifications of the verb.
Anal.-'

J o)(J .

A. & P. G:-.-' llfll-907.

EXERCISES.
[(R ULE 1.)-In the following Exercise, tell which Is the vr.rbal noun, and
how yon h"llow it to be usecl as ~uch. If a noun stands before it, put that

n oun in the proper case, and give the Rule.]

My brother being sick, is the cause of his absence.- -A man
mak ing a fortune, depends partly on him pursuin:i: a proper course.
- - Joh n at.tem;iting too much, was the cause of bis failure.
- - Hers going away was not obRerved.
A. & P. Gr.- ' 901J , and Appcudix !K.

132

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES.

[(RULE 2).-In the following Exercise, point out the participial .noun,
and tell how you know it to be so used. See what words are before and nfter
i t, nnd if not right, according to the rule, make them so, and give the rule for
the change.)

Learning of any thing well r equires application.--The doing
our duty is commendable.--By reading of good books the mind
is improved.- -Of the making many books there is no end.- J3y exercising of our faculti es they are improved.--The giving
to every man his own is a sacred duty.
[(RULE 3).-Consider whether the noun following the present participle denotes the doe,., or the object of the act expressed by it, and correct the sentence accordingly.]

At hearing the ear, they shall obey.--Because of provoking
his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them.--The greatest
pain is felt in the cutting of ·the skin.--By obtaining of klrowledge, you will gain respect.
[(RULE 4). 1.-In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands after
the auxiliary have, or be, change it into the past parti ciple, and give tbe
rule for the change.)

He should have wrote.--Have you spoke to the master ?- - I
nm almost froze.- -She had just began to read.--Jnmes has
broke his arm.- -You should have drove more slowly.- -He
]·as drank too much, and should be took home.--He might have
r oJe if he had chose.--The thief has stole the spoons; .r seen
liim do it.- - John has shook the desk.--The boys book is
tore, and he has went to get another.
[2. Correct the following e1·,.ors, and give a reason for the change.]

I seen him an hour ago.--I done what you told me.--James
rnn a mil e in ten minutes, and had not began to be tired.--The
school begun yesterday.--He ought to havt:i went, or at least to
have wrote.--Thut is wrong, you had not ought to done it.
[3. W?'if e s 1w1·t sentence.• , in each of which shall he one of the follow~
ing verbs, in the present-perfect or past-perfect Indicative active, viz., begin ,
run, ~01-ite, freeze, eat, drink. Parse the sen tences, and apply the Rule.
4. W 1"i.te short sentences, with the following verbs in the paHsi v e voice;
viz. , write, begin, shake, sink, iipeak, give. Purse them, and apply the Rule.
5. In the preceding exe rcises under Rulea 2, 8, nnd 4, change the pa-rtici 1•Te for a fl:nUe ve1' T>, und the other word• so to correspond that the same
sense mny be expre•secl.]

133

THE ORDF.R OF TIME.

LE S S ON 6 8.-The Order of Time.
5 14. RULE XVII.-In the use of verbs, and words
that in po'int of Ume relate to each other, the 01·d<:1'
of t'ime must be observed; as, "l have known bun
th ese many years " -not " I know hirn these many
years."
.
515. EXPLAN A.TION .-This Rule is general, and here also the
sense is the best guide. 'fhe following principles may be noticed
h ere:
1. That which is always t1•ue, is expressed in the present
tense; us, Vice produces misery.
2. That which is past, but viewed us continued in the
present, is expressed in the p1·esent-pe11'ect te1~e ; 1 us, I
have been at school six months.
3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall, will, 1nay, can, can
be associn.teu in a sentence with other verbs in the preseut
only; those with miyh~, could, would, should, with ve1·bs
in the 1HLSt ; as, I go now that I may be in time.-! went that I
might be in time. 2
4. The p1•esent 'inftwiUve e:s-presses what is cotemporary
with, or subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the per3
fect 'i,uftn'it'i'Ve expresses what is antecedent to that time.

EXERCISES.
[1 . In the following sentences, point ont the verb :"'~ich Is wrong In respect
of te1tse . Put it in the proper tense, and tell why it 1s changed.]

It was said that fever always produced thirst; that b eat always
expanded metals ; and that truth was immutuble.--He is now
absent a week.--I have been abroad last year. --If he woulcl
lencl mo thn.t book, I will be obliged to him.-- He can do it if he
would. ·--I intended to have written: but I still hoped he would
have come. --Rome ·~s said to be built seven hundred years before the Christian era.- -Nero is said to persecute the Christians.
--He bas been gone long before I knew it.
A. & P. Gr.-' 011.

'916.

s

920, 921 . .

134

135

CONSTRUCTIOY OF ADVERBS.

CONSTRU'CTION OF ADVERBS.

[2. 1V'r 'ite short sentc·n ce.'f, and express, in each, something which yon
hoped, feand, desired, intended, to do yesterday, before yesterday ;-which
you hope, fear, etc. , lo do. to-da y, to-morrow. Also what some one did ycstcnlny,-beforc yestcrday,-always does,-<loes now,- -has just now done_
will do to-morrow,-before to-morrow night.]
'

522. So is often used elliptically for an adjecUve, a
noun or a whole sentence; as, " They are rich; we are not

LESS 0 N 6 9.-Construction of Adverbs.

516. RULE XVIII.-Adoerbs modify verbs,
cul;jectives, and otlier ad,u erb8 ; as, "John speaks
1

distinctly; he is remarl~ably diligent, and reads very
correctly."

'
so."-"lle
is a good sclwlar, and I toId you so. "

528. Only, solely, chiefly, 1nerely, too, also~ and
perhaps a few others, are soroetimesjoined to substant,w es;
as," Not only the men, but the women alw were present." A
prepositional phrase used as an adverbi al adjunct of a verb, may,
as a whole, be limited by an adverb; as," He went NEARLY over
the hill."
REMARK-In composition, great care must be exercised in the
position of the adverbs only, mm·~ly: ~oie'.y, chie~y, and a few
others; as, "Only acknowledge their m1qmty; acknowl edge only
their iniquity."

Special Ru.les.

524. A negative is often made by the syllables <Us, in, i?n,
un, etc., prefixed to a word. When this is. tl~e. case, a~other

51'1. RULE 1,-Adve1,·bs should not be used as addecnor arf;jectit•es as adverbs; as, "The preceding (not
the aboce) extract." (420.)

neO'ative is sometimes used, to express a d1mlIDshed kmd of
aIBrmation ; as, " He was not unkind." The negative terms are
such as no, not, neither, no?'', never, etc.

518. RULE 2.-Two 1'W{Jlttives are equii1alent to an af;_
ffrmati ve, and should n ot be used unless affirmation is in -

Gr. 923-941.]

tives,

[For a fuller account of the constmction and use of adverbs, see A. & P.

tended; as, " I can not drink any (not no) more ;" or, "I can
drink no m ore!'

019 . RULE 3.- A d verbs a'!'e jor the most part placed befo1·e
after a, verb in the simplej01·m , and after the
fi 1·.-t anx ilia1•y in the comp ou nd form ; as, " He is vm·y atten·
tive, behaves well. and is much es teemed." 2
G20. EXPLANATION.- This is to be considered only as a
<lf~je cti'i:es,

g en e1'al Rule, to which ther e are many exceptions. Indeed
no rnle for the position of the adverb can he given, which is not
l inble to exceptions. Th e best direction for the use of this Rule,
is to place the adverb where th e sense requires, having due regard to the harmony of the sentence. This Rule applies to
adjuncts, or adverbial phraseR, us well as to adverbs.
1)2 J. TFhere should not be used for in which, except
-when the rl'fer ence is to place; ns, " Tb e si\uation in which (not
where) I left him ;" because "situation" does not here refer to
place,
-----~·------~--~~·

A. & P. Gr.-' 923, 924.

'940.

EXERCISES.
[Adverbs being undcclinable, mistakes are liable to be made c~iefly. In
their J)O si tion; or in using as adverbs, words that are not eo; or 1n us~g
adverbs where other word• are required. Correct the- errors In the followrng
sentences, as the Rnles require:
(RULE 1).-1. Point out the m.odif'yinrJ words In the following sentences. If not adverbs, make them so, and give the Rule.]

Come quick.-James does that very good.--That was done
excellent,--Time moves rapid,--Apparent slow , people accomplish much if sufficient steady.--You can read excellent
well.--lt is real cold.
[2. In the following, point out the adverb Improperly used. Show why It
Is so· chan<>e it for the proper term, and give the Rule.)

T~ne o~ten infirmities.--Come the soonest day possiblc.- The soonest time wlll be late enough.--The then ministry
opposed the measure.--The condition where I found him was
truly bad.--He was here last year, since when I have not seen
him.

136

CONSTRU CTION OF ADVERBS.

137

CON JUNCTIONS.

[3. IV1•ite slw1't sentences, each of which shall contain an advc1•l1
('!9.'r- 302) , modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it is placed us
d irnct"d in (,il!J, 520) .

(R uLil 2) .-1. P oint ont the two nc!Jritivc,y in the following sentences.
Show why they are wrong ; correct them, and g ive the Hnle.]

l can not eat no m ore.--He is not able to walk no further.
--\.Ve can not do that in no way.- -He will never be no taller.
- -Never do nothing of the kind .--Time and tide will not
wait for no man. - -No man never did that.--You must not
drink no mora.
[2. lVl'ite short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the follow ·
ing words~ 'WOi'l/iy, just, d·iscreet, kind, obliging, agreeable, happy,firm, etc.
Then prefix to the~ e words the appropr iate n egative prefix mentioned above.
'rhen insert n negative word in each sentence, and mark the difference of
meaning with each change; thus, · He is a worthy man," u He is un un·
worthy man,., •· He i::; not au unworthy man ,,,
1

(RcrLE 3). -1. In the following sentences, place the adverb as the Rnle
directs, provided tue sense will thereby be clearly expressed.]

A man industrious eminently.--He is agreeable always - -.
He sweetly sings, charmingly converses, and prudently conducts
himself on all occasious.--He unaffoctedly spoke.--He manfully has coutende:.l. for t he prize, and certainly will obtain it.
--Ti me will wait never.--He co uld have not done it.--He
will be always trusty. --Th'.lt disaster might have easily been
preventc::l..--Thnt ,Piece was exec nted beautifully.
[2. T he foll owing sentences have the adve rb placed according t o tbe Rnlc,
but the -'Wn.<;t~ ruul ha1·11ion11 of the scutencc evidently require it to be in
a differen t po;;ition. Make the change.]

Men contend frequently for trifies.--1 only saw three persons. - -Of the boo ks I sent him , h e only read one.- - James
can very well read.-- You should slowly write.- -He mig!1t
plainly have told him.--Ho not only saw her pleased, but
gr0atly pleased.
[3. 1Vri.t e n nnmber of ~hort sentence$, cnch of which shall contain one or
m o re adnH'h.; correctly pbced. (Sec List, 2 94.)
4. 1Y1·il,! .'4ho1•t .~entences, each of wh ich s_hall contain one of the followin g adverb ~, viz., only, merely, solely, cl!illfly,.ji.rst, at least, nnd tell the
word wl1ich they modify. Place the adverbs in as many different. positions,
in each sentence, us you can, so as to muke sense, and mark the change o!
m oaning. ]

LESSON 7 0.-Conjunctions.

525. RuLE XIX.- Conjunctions connect
WO'rds, phrases, or sentences; as, "He and I
must go; but you may stay." 1 (315, note.)
Special Rules.

526. RULE 1.-Conjunctions connect the sanie 1nood.~ and
of vm·bs, and the sa11ie cases of rw1tns and p1"onouns; as, "Do good, and seek peace."-" Honor thy father
and mother."-"He and I saw it."
ten.~es

527. ExPLANATION.-The reason of this rule is, that words
thus connected are generally in the sa1lte construct-ion:
that is1 nouns and pronouns connected must be in the same case,
becaus e they are subjects of the same verb, or objects of the same
verb, or preposition ; and verbs thus connected have usually tho
same subject. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use
of pronouns.
528. "When conjunctions connect <liffm·ent moods and
tenses, or when a contrast is stated with but, not, thvu.gh, etc.,
the subject ·i s generally 1·epeated; as, "He may return, but he
will not remain."
529. The relative afte1• than, is usually in the objective case; as, "Alfred, than whom," etc.
530. After verbs of doubtinu, f earing, denying, the
conjunction that should be used, and not lut, but, but tlwt i ns,
" They feared that (not l~t) he w.oiild die."
531. Conjunctions are sometimes understood between
words or sentences connected ; i as, "John, Charles, James, and
E dward were in the boat."
532. In the cornpound tenses, verbs connected in the
same t ense have the anxiUar·y ex1)ressed with the first, an<l
nnclm·8t<;orl ,t o the rest; as, " John ca.n read, write, and spell."
When different t enses are connect ed, the auxiJ!ary must always
be expressed ; as, '' He has come, but he will not stay."
A. & P. Gr.-' 941:>.

'954:.

,j

42

1400DS.

MOODS.

NOTE.-Notwithstanding the snme act may be expressed by the active and
the passive voice. the writer or speaker makes choice of the one or the other,
according us he wi shes to give prominence to the actor, the act, or the person
or thing affected by the act (see Analysis ~88).
QUESTIONS.-What belongs to the Inflection of verbs?
What ls
meant by wice .?
How many voices has tbe transitive verb in English Y
What are they?
How does the active voice represent its subject?
How
What voice have intransitive vei:bs?
does the passive voice represent it?
Have they ever a pr.ssive form?
Have they ever a passive sense?
When
intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in the passive voice I

EXERCISES.
[In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, as on the
first, in the following mauner: Who is the persou spoken of in this sentence I
- Ans.-John. -What i s said of John ?-Ans.-He studies.-·Does the
word studies represent John as acting, or as acted upon ?-Ans.-As acting.
- In what voice then is "studies? "-Ans.-Active voice.-Change the
sentence e.o as to make •\grammar,, the thing spoken of, and express the
same meaning.-Ans.-" Grammar is studied by John."-Analyze this
sentence in the same way as the other.]

J ohn studies grammar.- -Cain slew Abel.--Nouh built the
ark.--The temple was built by Solomon.--Columbus discovered America.--Pride ruins tbousands.--Most men are governed by custom.--I have written a letter.--Them that honor
me, I will honor.--Perseverance overcomes all obstacles.

216. The Potent'lal mood declares, not the fact
expressed by the verb, but only its possibi!ity; ~r the
liberty, power, w-ill, .or obligation, of the subJect w1th respect to it; as,
'l'he wind ma]! blow ; We may walk or ride; I can swim; He
would not stay; You should obey your parents.
Both the indicative and potential moods may be UBed in interrogative sentences. Have you written? May I go?
21?'. The Subjwiictive mood represents t~~ fact
expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional,
desirable, or cont,ingent ; as,
"If he go away I will go with _him."-"0 that men were wise l"
NoTE.-This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it."

218. The Iniperati ve ·mood commands, exhorts,
entreats, or permits ; as,
Do this·; R emember thy Creator; H ear, 0 my people; Go thy

[.ti?e:vie•P lhe preeeding Lesson, and ans•Per lhe que&/ions-.]

213. JJ'Iood is the mode or manner of expressing the
signification of tbe verb.
214. Verbs have six moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Iinperative,
InjiniUve, and PartiC'ip'i al.
215. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed by the verb simJJly, and without limitation; as,
H e loves; He is loved.

.

w~

219. The Infinitive mood expresses the meamng
of the verb in a general manner, without any distinction of person or number, and commonly has to before
it; as, To love.

*.,*
LESSON 19.-Moods.

43

For the uses of the infinitive see 492-500.

220. The Participial mood is used ~o a:sume
action or state of some subject: 1. As contmumg or
incomplete; as, " I saw him running." 2. As complete
,
or finished ; as, " We saw him ruined."
The particlple is al ways used in the same sentence with _another
verb, and can not be used a1one.

Obser·v ations.
221. The.form of the subjunctive mood differs fro~ that
of the indicative on1y.in the second and the third person smgular
of the present tense. The verb " to be" differs also in the past
tense.

44

p<;NSES.

MOODS,

222. The imperaUve mood, strictly speaking, has only the
second person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, ex·
horting, etc., the language of address is always used; thus," Let
him love," is equivalent to "Let thou him (to) love;" where Let
is the proper imperative, and love the infinitive depending on it.
(494).

223. The ·i nftnUive mood is often used as a vm·bal noun
as th e subject of another verb; as, Tu p lay is pleasant; or as the
ubject of a transitive verb; as, "Boys love to play." It has
always a Sllbject uf its own 1 expressed or implied, but its use
is some~imes so general that it is unimportant to ascertain its
subj ect, or impossible to designate any pa1·t'icular person or thing
as such.

**·:+

The use of the infinitive as a verbal noun does not deprive
it of any attribute as a verb; 2 for, if trrrnsitive, it may be followed
by an object; as, To forgive injuries is a duty. Strictly speaking, it is the infinitive clause which is used as a substantive, and
not the verb alone. (See Analysis, 116.)

224. A pa1·ticiple always Tuts a subject 1 expressed or
understood, to which it relates.

225.

we regard the mode or manner in
which an action presents itself to our minds, we may consider it
eith er as an actual reality, or as a possibility , or as o; contingency,
or as a command, or as general and indefinite, or as merely assuming an act of some subject. The expression of these different
circumstances gives rise to what are called moods. Thus we may
say, lw goes, or lie may go, or if lie go, or go, or to go, or going.
Th ese six forms of expression indicate the six moods as given
above.
ILLUSTRATION.-If

Q 'UES1'IONS.-What is mood 1
How many moods are there? What
cloes the Indicative mood declare ?-the Potential?
What does the subjuncWhat does the Imperative mood do 1
What does
tive m ood rcpre•ent?
th e Infi niti ve mood ex:pre"8 ? How is the Participial mood used 1 In what
parts does the Subjtmctive differ from the Indicative 1
How many perBons
has the Imperative mood 1
What Is a frequent use of the infinitive mood?

Anal.-'13G, 1.

2

15/J, 2, 8.

45

LESS 0 N 2 0.-Tenses.
[J'i?epie.P tlte /JPO JJreoedin(J Lessons.]

226. Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which
serve to point out the disUnct'lons of tim,e.
227. 1.'i:ine is naturally divided into P ·r esent, Pa.~t, and
Future · and an action may be represented, in any of these
periods, :ither as ·i nc01nplete and conUnwing, or as comletecl at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, only
tvo of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of the
verb. The others are form~d by the aid of auxiliary verbs ; thus,
PRE.'IENT.

PAST·
FUTURE.

5Action continuing; as, I love, I do love, I am loVing·.
(.Action completed; as, I have loved.
5.Action continuing; as, I loved, I did love, I was loving.
1Action completed; as, I had loved.
5 .Action continuing ; as, I shall or will love.
1 Action compfoted; as, I shall have loved.

N
The time of the action expressed by a verb, may be further distin·
. OTE.d b . a• " He came yesUrday ; " "He will come soon·. "
guished by au a ver , ,

228. The tenses in English are six; namely, the

P1·esent, the Present-per/ect; the Pas fr, the
Pcist-perfect, the Futur·e, and the Futur>epe1"fect.
T enses of the Indicative Mood.

229. The Indicative mood bas all the six tenses;
they are used as follows :
230. The Present tense expresses what is going on
at the present time ; as, I love you. I am loved.
231~ The Present-pe1"fect tense represei:ts :i.~
act.ion or e\ent as con,,,plete<Z at the p1•esent ti·m e,
or in a period of which the present forms a part; as,
1
"John' has cut his finger." " I 1tave so ld my horse·" "I
have done nothing this week."

46

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS.

. 232.

~he

Past tense expresses what took place

m _pets~ time; as, " God said, let there be ligb t ;" " The
slup sailed when the mail arrived."
233. The Past-pm'fect tense represents an action
o_r event as conipleted at or before a certain past
~1 me; as, "I !tad wallced six mil es that day; " "All the
Judges had taken their places before Sir Roger came."
23~. The Pttture tense expresses what will take
place m fttture ti1ne; as, "I will see you again and
your hearts shall rejoice."
·
'

. 235. The Putiwe-pe1"fect intimates th at an acor event will be c01npleted at or before a certain
time, yet t,uture; as, " I shall have got my lesson '
t~on

before ten o clock to-morrow."

?8G.

The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called

Smiple tenses; those with an auxiliary, are called Cmnpound
tenses. (180, 3.)

LESSON 21.-Tenses of the Other Moods.

23'1. The Pote·n tial mood has four tenses; the
P1·esent, the Present-per/ect the Pctst and
the Pnst-perfect.
'
'
2.']S, The tenses in this mood ind icate the ti1ne not of th

a~t ex~resse~ by the verb, but

of the Ube1·ty, po~.ver, will:
ubliyatwn, expressed by the anxiUm·y or sign of the
tense ·' th us, " I may write,
· " does not express the
' act of writin
as present, but only the liberty to write, expressed-by the au il" r;
may.
x mry
01

I 2.~9fl _Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood ls
ess e ~1te, an~ depends not so much on the tense as on otke1·
ioo rd8 with wlnch it stands connt>cted Tl . . th
.
ally with th~ Past tense.I
.
ns is e case espcc1A. & P. Gr.-' 42S-.J32.

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS.

41

240. The Subjunctive mood in its proper form,
bas only the present, tense. The verb to be bas the
p1·esent and the JHtst.
The indicative and potential moods are also used in dependent
clauses. (484).

241. The ImperaUve mood may always be
regarded as p1•esent; i. e. the command, etc., is
present, though the doing of th e act commanded is
future.
242. The I.nftniti1Je mood bas two tenses; the
Present and the Perfect.
243. These do not so much indicate the time of the action as
its state-the p1·esent, incomplete or indefinite; the i>e1·fect,
completed or finish ed at the time indicated by the principal verb
or some other word with which it is connected.

244. The Pa'i•tici.p ial mood has three tenses; the
Present, the Pcist, and the Perfect; as, Active,
Lovin,q, loved, having loved.'
having been loved.'

Passive, Be,ing loved, loved,

245. Since the Participial mood does not ajfl1"1n, but only
assume an action or state of its subject, it partakes of the char·
acter of the adject'ive, and limits or qualifies the aubject to
whlch it refers.
Observations on the Tenses.
246. The Present tense is used to express, 1st-the simple
eX'i stence of the fact ; as, " He speak8." 2d-what is habitual
or always tnie; as, " He takes snuff." 3d--in h'isto'l'ical
nci1Tcttion,a it is used for the past; as, " Cresar leaves Gaul,"
for "Cresar left Gaul."
247'. The P 'resenf,-perfect is used, 1st-To express what
has taken vlcice at the present time, or in a period of
time of which the present forms a part ; as, " My father has
arrived." 2d-'1' 0 express an act or state con~inued through a
period of time reaching to, and incln<liny the 1n-esent ; as,
A. & P. Gr. - ' 455.

• 403, 40.J, 405.

48

49

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS.

NUMBER iND PERSON.

"He h ~s [ nowj studied six months." 3dlouu
8-Utee cmn1Jleted
h .h
To express l1Il act
fi
• w en t e reference ·
t
. i_s no to the act of
nishing, but to the thino- finished , .
has written poems."
"
as still cxistm g ; as, " Milton

255. A participle may take a prefix and become a verbal
aclject·i ve ; as, " Unauthorized use of his credit."
Q UES TIOJYS.-Whnt are tenses?
How is time naturally divided~

248. The time indicated b th p
.
e11tfrel·ypast ho,ve
.y
e ast t ense is regarded as
,,
-ver n ear· as "I
h'
It is also used to express what , ,
saw im a mom ent ago."
" Sl
was customary in
t t'
1e attended church regularly."
. pas rme ; as,
. 249. The Past tenses of tho Potential
.
defi . t .
'and the SubJttnct ·w e mood , are leos
'
m e Ill regard t 0 t'

tenses in the Indicative.

imo, than the same

250. The Present Pm·t·i ci )le
.
and has an active signification . a; Jam~:ii:e~~ds. always in ing,
many verbs, however• it !1as ""'
- 's'o a ,passive
. s· ilding
'fi · · a house. In
igm cation ;l as, The
h ouse was building, when the wall fell.
v 251.
·
IThe Past Partic·i·ple h as th e same form · b h
owes. n the active voice its si nific t'
.
.
Ill
ot
never used except in conne~tion ~th th: ion i_s_ active, and it is
as, He has concealed a dagger
d
h' auxiliary have or had ,'
·
.
. .
un er 1s cloak ·- In th
.
,
e passive
voice, its SJgmfication "is passive . as H h
under his cloak.2
'
' e as a dagger concealed

participle.

·

[llef01·e proceeding lo l11e ne:el L euon, re11ie111 llwroughly from '
lite beginning in two 01· l111·ee 1·ecitalions.]

LES S 0 N 2 2.-Number and Person.
[.1le11iew l11e l/wee prececling Lessons, and ans111e1· the questions.]

256. Every tense of the verb, except in the Infini-

** ~ Teacher illustrate this difference fully.
252. The Pm'fect Pm·ticiple is al
has an active signification in th
t'
. ways compound, and
'fi . .
e ac ive voice 11nd a p · .
.
'
assJVe sig·
m cation m the passive voice.
258. The participle in -ing
is ofte
cipial noun having the n
. , t'
n used as a verbal or parti•
, omma 1ve and the obiect'
" l ivef case, but
not
the
possessive
In
th.
.
·
is c1mracter the partici
P o a transitr,·e verh may still retain the
or it may be divested of it b . .7 . n1nent of the 't:erb,
·
Y msertmg an article b £
t b.e preposition of after it '. as, I n 1rnepmv
.
. come ored it, and
his
or, I n the keei1ino"
mnn
ments •
" o>f h'is commandments
tl
.
iere IS a great
rewnrrl. a
'

~ ov~·

In each of these, bow may an action or st.ate be represented?
How many
tenses arc there in the English verb?
How many has the Indicative moocl?
What arc they?
What does the Preseut tense express ?-the Past ?-t~o
Future ? What does the Present-perfect tense represent ?-the Past-perfect ?
What does the Future-perfect tense intimate ? How muny tenses bus tho
Potential mood ?-tne Subjunctive ?-tbe Imperative ?-the Infinitive ?- the
Participial? In what different ways is the present tense used ?-the Presentperfect ?-the Past?
Has the participle in ing ever a passive signification ?
Give an example.
How is tbe perfect participle used?
Describe the
use of the present participle as a verbal noun? How do participles become
a1ljoctives ? What are such adjectives usually called ? Do they admit of
comparison?
Give au example of a_verbal adjective derived from a

~

.254 . . ~ome participles, faying aside the id
.
.
ply q nab1 y ing a noun becom
, . . .
ea of time, and s1m.
such arlmit of compar,i son.
tw·ip·~al acl;jecti·ves, and as
mo.qt amusiiu/ story A ' t d,
amusing-a mO?·a amusing- a
- - - __
· ____ ·
mos evoted fri end.

:sp::

A.&P. Gr . -'4~~G~,~4Vr-~,7~.---,~4;,~
~.~
9-.--:---:-----1 462.
.....

ti\~.e and Participial moods, has two Num,be1·s, the
Singular and the Plural ;

an.d each of these has

th'ree Pm·sons, except in the Imperative, whi.ch has
only the Second.*

257. The singular number is used with 11 subject in the singular, and the plural number with a subject in the plural (4-46).

258. The Fi'rst person asserts of the person
speaking; its subject is always I in the singular, and
we in the plural ; as, I write; we write.
2l)9. The Second person asserts of the person
s1)olcen to; its subject is always tho1t in the sin'gular,
and ye _or you in the plural; as, Thou writest; ye or

yoit write.
• Strictly speaking the verb itself has neither number nor person, but certain forms to correspond with the number and person of tho •ubject.

3

50

CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

NUMBER AND PERSON.

•. Inh t~e second
person the plu1·al J+'or1n
use2d<>p
10! t e
1
'
is generally
81ngu ar ; as, John, you are idle.
•

f!61. The Th:irll person asserts of the

!~1:; ~~o:~:1:t~~ ~~s subject is ~ny noun, 0;~:~~r~~

used as ~
' ' I tey, or any substantive clause t
That I n_~un ; . as, John reads; he walks; tltey run.
sai so, IS most true . To succ d . b . '
requires close attention.
'
ee in usiness

51

IJUESTION.S.-How many. numbers bas each tense?
What mood bas
no distinction of number or person?
How many persons are in each nwnber?
What mood has only the second person?
Of whom does the first
person assert?
What is its subject in the singular ?-in the plural?
Of
What is its subject in the singular?
whom does the second per•on assert?
-in the plural ?
Of whom or what does the third person assert?
What
is its subject ?
What parts in each tense are alike?
How is the second
person singular formed iu the p'r esent indicative?-in the pust tense? When
is the third person singular of the present indicative formed by adding es, or
eth.?-Wben by adding s, or th, or eth·f
How is it formed when the verb
ends in y after a consonant ?-in ie 1

EXERCISES.

Obsm·vations.
262. The f01·ms of the verb i th
persons pl'tWal, are o.l ways like the fin • te fir.st, se~ond, and third
1.1 pe1 son singular.

2 6.'J. The second person sinrrulu 0 f h
.
active, ends in ~t or est .
ti "' l r
t e pr esent mdicative
'
' ' us, iou ovest · thou readest . f h
,-o t. e
past, generally in st; as, thou lovcdst ,
both numbers in this tense are alike. . All the other persons m
264. Verbs that end ins sh ch
person singular of the pres 't . 'di '. z, x, ?r o, form the third
(65) as He t '
en Ill cative active, by adding es .
'
eaciies. All others add s,· as, h e lous,-1·eads.'
(See 274.)

2(;5. An ctnc·ient form now little
address, has the ending eth 'in the th'° ;used excep~ in solemn
t each eth, readeth, doetli saith. as "All i::lt person smgular ; as,
give for his life."
'
' '
a a man hath will h e
266. Verbs end' ·
·
into i before th e te;;~~:~t'?/ wit~ a consonant before it, change y
.
.
,
ions est, es, eth, ell; but not before
i~],g, a:;, try, tnest, tries, ti·ieth, t1ied, truing.
Verbs end'
.
Bl ent preceded bv i h
.
• ing; as, lie., lying.
mg lll e
'> •
,
c ange ie. mto
y before
~ 6 1· The I 11 finit'ive
mood ' or any substantive clause
sometime
'
s expresses that of which a
'
fore the snb·•ect of th
b
pers?n speaks, and is there·'
e ver · When 1t do
't ·
1
regard ed as the third
.
es so 1 is a ways
it i~ in tl1e
t
pe1son, and a pronoun standing instead of
'
neu er "'
o-ender ·' as ' 110 Pl ay is
. pleasant; it promotes
health.
2

Anal.

i

120.

A. &P, Gr.-• 869.

[1. Tell the second peTson singular of the following verbs, and how it is

formed.
2. Tell the thiTcl person, and bow it is formed.
3. Prefix thou to each verb, when put in the second person singulnr; as,
u thou tellest;,, and he to each, when put in the third: af', H he tells.,,
Instead of t/wu, use the pronoun you, and change the verb to the proper
form, Write out these exercises.
4. W1•ite Sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following
verbs.]

Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, h ear, taste,
touch, handle, write, pay, eat, drink, warm, teach, go. do, fill, play,
stand, sell, buy, study, copy:
(5. In the following words, tell which are in the ftTst person, and why;in the second, and why ;-in the thiT<L, and why,
6. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pTono1•n of the same person and number as the verb; as, I love, th(JU lovest, etc.]

Love, lovest, l oves, , runs, runnest, sleep, teach, preaches,
teacbest, writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, teaches, speaks,
read, readest, sews, pay, look, walks, jump, hop, skip, laughs, sing,
cry, criest, study, studies.

LE S S 0 N

2 3 .- Conjugation of Verbs.

(Tbe pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this Lesson, till he is able to tell
every part at once and correctly-and to give promptly any part of the verb
that may be required,]

268. The Con}ttgation of a verb is the regular
combination and arrangement of its several moods,
tenses, nitmbers, and persons.

THE VERB TO BE.

52

THE VERB TO BE.

l'A,ST TENSE.

269. In the active voice, most verbs have two
form,!j ; the Common ; as, I read; ancl the Progressive; as, I mn reading (285 ).
270. Besides these, in the present and the past indicative
active, there is a third form call ed the E1nphatic; as, I do
The other tens;is, and also the progressive and
r ead, I did i·eacl.
the passive for m, are rendered emphatic by placing a greater
stress of voice on the first auxiliary; as, I have read- I am reading- it is read.
271. The 1n·incipal parts of the verb are the P1·esent
T ense Inrlica.t foe , the Present Pm·Uciple, the Pa.~t
T ense Indicctti'!Je, and Past Pa·r t'ic·i1Jle. In parsing, the
mentioning of these parts is called conjugat'ing the verb.
Present.

Present Part.

Past.

Past Part.

Loving,
Loved,
Loved.
PASSIVE,
Being loved,
Was loved, Been loved.
272. A synopsis of a verb consists of the first person singular of each tense in the finite moods, and the forms of the several
tenses of the infinitive and participial moods.
A CTIVE,

Love,
Am loved,

The Verb TO BE.

2'1:-J. The attr'ibutive irregular verb To Be is
inflected through all its moods and tenses, as follows:

Plural.
Singular.

1. W e were.
2. You were . .
3. 'fhey were.

1. 1 was.
2. Thou wast.
3. He was.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had.been.

z.

Thou hadst been.
3. H e had been.

FU'J;URE TENSE.

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.

.
7 ll have wiU· have.-Infl.ect with each.
Signs, s ia
,
l. We shall h ave been.
shall
have
been.
I
1
2. you shall lm ve been.
Thou shalt have been.
3. They shall have been.
3. H e shall have been.

2:

Potential Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.

Present, am. Present P art., being. Past, was. P ast Part., been.

PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.

Pt-ural.

1. I am.
2. Thou art.
3. He is.

1.

'-'' e are.

2. You are.
3. They are.
PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have been .
2. Thou h ast been.
3. He has been.

Sign, ltave.
1. We have been;
2. You have been.
3. They have been.

Sign, hall.
1. We had been.
2. you had been.
3. They had been.

will ·-Inflect with each.
S1. 0crns, s7i all
· ,
1. We shall he.
1. I shall be.
2. you shall be.
2. Thou shalt be.
3. They shall be.
3. He shall be.

P1"indpal Parts.

Indicative Mood.

53

Signs, may, can, m

wit -Inflect with each.
.
. Plural.

Singular.

1. w e may be.
2. you may be.
3. They may be.

1. I roay be.
2. Thou mayst be.
3. H e may b e.

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE.

Sio-ns may have, can have,
0

'

1. I m ay have been.
2. T hou mayst have been.
S. H e may have been.

or must have.-Infl.ect with each.
1. We may h ave been.
2 You may lmve been.
3. 'fhey may have been.
·

THE VERB TO BE.

THE VERB TO LOVE.

PAST TENSE.

EXERCISES.

Signs, might, could, would, should -Infl '
.
·
ect with each.
1. I might he.
Plural.
1
· We might be.
2.. Thou mightst be
2
3. He might be.
·
· You might be.
3. They might be.

[1. Let the pupil tell the t e.ise , mood, p e1•son, and .iiimbe1· of the fol·
lowing words-parts of the verb to be; thus, "Am," present, indicative, first

Singular.

person, singular.
2. Let him parse the same words; thus, u Am" is a verb, attributive ,
irregular; am. was, been; in the present, indicative, first person, singular.]

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we.are, hast been, has been,
we have b een, hadst been, we had been, you have been, she has

PAST- PERFECT TENSE:

Signs, might have, cou ld 1.iav~, would have, should have.-lufl.ect
w1th each.

1· I might have been.
2· Thou mightst have been.

3· He might have been.

1. \Ve might have been.
2· you might have been.
3· They might have been.

Subjunctive Mood *
PRESENT
Singular.

TENSE.
Plural.

1. If I be.
2. If thou be.
3. If he be.

1. If we be.
2. If you be.
3. If they be.

If I w ere.
If thou were or wert.

If

he were.

1. lf we were.
2. If you were.
3. If they were.

Snow is white; he was a good roan; we have been younger;
she has been happy ; it had been late; we are old ; you will be
wise ; it will be time; if they be thine ; be cautious; be heedful

Imperative Mood.
Singular.

2. Be, or be thou.

been, we were, they had been.
I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall be, it
will be, tbou wilt have b een, we h ave been, they will have been,
we shall have ·been; am, it is.
·
I can be, mayst be, canst be, she m ay be, you may be, h e must
be, they should be, mightst be, h e would be, it could be, wouldst
be, you could be, he may have been, wast.
We may have been, mayst have been, they m ay h ave been, I
might have been, you shoUld have been, wouldst have been ; (if)
thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were.
Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, been,
having been, if we b e, if they b e, to be.
[3. In the following sentences, pa1•se. the 'wo1•ds in order; thus, u Snow,,
11
is a noun, neuter, the nominative singular, becau-e.e the subject of is."
n Is ,, i s a verb attributive irregular ; am, being, was, been; in the present,
indicative, third person, singular. "White" is an adjective, qualifies srww;
compared, white, whiter, whitest. ]

PAST TENSE.

1.
2.
3.

55

Plural.

2. Be, or be ye or you.

youth ; we may be rich.

Infinitive Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.

PERFECT TENSE.

To be.

To have been.

P articipial Mood,
P RESENT' Beino,,,.

p AST, Been.

(oR PARTICIPLES)

. vmg
PERFECT • Ha
.

b een .

• Both the inclica.t ive and the pote ti
clauses to express con tingency with n .al mood are used in dependent
If I have been, If I was, If I harl be:nconiunction pre~xed ; thus, If I am,
been, If 1 mav be, etc.
' If I shalJ or will be, If I shall have

LESS 0 N 24.-The Verb TO LOVE.
2'i' 4. The regular verb To Love, in the common
form, is inflected through all its moods and tenses, as
follows:

5G

THE VEl~B TO LOVE.

THE VERB TO LOVE.

.ACTIVE

FUTU RE-PERFEC'r 'fENsE •

VOICE_

Signs, .~hall have, will have.- Inflect with each.

Principal Pm·ts.
Present, love. P1·esent P<wt., loving. Past, loved. Past P art., loved.

I ndicative Mood.

57

1. We shall hs,ve loved.
2. You shall have loved.
3. They shall hFe loved.

1. I shall have loved.
2. Thou shalt have loved
3. He shall have loved.

PRESENT TENSE.*
Singular.

Plu ..al.

1. I love.
2. Thou lovest.
3. He loves (or loveth).

Potential Mood.

1. vVe love.
2. You love.
8. They love.

PRESENT- PERFECT TENSE.

Sign, ltave.
1. We have loved.
2. You have loved.
3. They have loved.

1. I have love<l.

2. 'rhou hast loved.
3. He h as or hath loved.

p .A.ST TENSE.

1. I loved.
2. Thou lovedst.
3. He loved.

t

1. We loved.
2. You loved.
3. They loved.

PRESENT TENSE.

I

Slgns, may, can, must ....:...Inf!ect with each.
1. We may love.

1. I may love.
2. Thou mayst love.

2. You may love.
3. They may love.

3. He may love.

PRESENT-PERFF.CT TENSE.

Signs, may have, can have,* must have.-Inflect with each .
1. I may have loved.
2. Thou mayst have l oved.
3. He may have loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.

Sign, had.
1. I h ad loved.
2. Thou hatlst loved.
3. He had loved.

1. We bad loved.
2. You had loved.
3. They had loved.
FUTURE TENSE.

Signs, shall, will.--Inflect with each.
1. I shall love.
1. V\l' e shall love.
2. Thou shalt love.
2. You shall love.
3. He shall love.
3. Th ey shall love.

* PRESENT

TENSE.

(Emphatic form.)

1. I do love.
1. We do love.
2. Thou dost love.
2. You do Jove.
3. H e does or doth love.
8. They do love.
t PAST TENSE. (I!Jmpliatic form.)
1. I did Jove .
1. We did love.
2. Thou didst love.
2. You did Jove.
8. He did love.
3. They did love.

1. We may have loved.
2. You may have loved.
3. They may have loved.

PAST TENSE.

Signs, might, could, would, should.-Inflect with each.

1. I might love.
2. 'l'hou ruightst love.
3. He might love.

1. We might love.
2. You might love.
3. They might love.

PAST-PERFECT TFNSE.

cou'd have, would have, should have.- Inflect
Signs, might 1iave,
'
with each.
1

1. I might have loved.
2. Thou migbtst have loved.
3. He might have loved.
• Can

1. We might h ave loved.
2. You might have loved.
3. They might have loved.

have is not used in affirmative sentences.

58

EXERCISES ON THE VERB.

Subjunctive Mood.*

QUESTIONS.-What I• the conjugation of a verb?
:How is a verb
Conjugate the verb lov~ in the active voice.
Suy the inconjugated?
dicative-present-past-future-the present-perfect-the past-perfcct--future~ay the first person singula!' in each tense-the second-the
perfect.
third-the fir st person plural-the second-the third. . Say the emphatic
What are the signs (or auxiliaries) of the
form, in the present-in the past.
present-perfect ?-the past-perfect ?-the· future ?-the future-perfect.1-the
su\Jjunctive present ? etc.
What is the sign of the infinitive!
Name the
participles.

PRESENT TENSE.
P lu.m1.

Singulai·.

1.
2.
3.

If I love.

1.
2.
3.

If thou love.
If he love.

If we love.
If you love.
If t hey love.

EXERCISE L

Imperative Mood.
Plural.

Singular.

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou.
Emphatic form . 2. Do thou love.

2. Love, or love ye or you.
2. Do ye or you love.

Infinitive Mood.
PRESENT, To

love.

PERFECT,

P articipial Mood,
PRESENT,

Loving.

59

THE VERll TO LOVE.

P AST,

to have loved.

(oR P ARTICIPLES.)

L oved.

PERFECT,

Having loved.

[1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, .rwod, and voice
of each verb; thus, H He loves,,, present, indicative, active.

2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number; thus, loves, third
person, singular.
3. Go over it again, and join these together; and so tell the tense, mood,
voice, number, and person; and always in this order·; as, loves, present, indi·
cative, active, third person, singular.•]
[N.B.-,The pronoun is no part of the verb, but h elps to show its person and
number; and the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separately, but always
with the verb; so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the pastperfect potential, are parsed together as one word; thus, have loved, the
present-perfect, indicative, active.
*** This Exercise should be r epeated till the pupil can do It correctly,
rapidly, and ea• ily, and without missing, either in the number or order of the
things to be stated.)
N

PARSING.

2'i'5 . A ve1:b. is ~arsed ?Y stating its kind (i. e.,
whether transitive, mtrans1tive, or attributive) ; its
forni, (whether regular or irregular); conjngating
it, and telling in what tense, 1nood, 'OOice, nu1nber and pm·son, it is found; also its subject; thus,
"He loves us." L oves is a verb, tran sitive, regular; love, loving,
loved, ·lovedl ; found in the present ' indica.tive ' active., th'ir d person, smgu ar ; aud affirms of its subject, he.

N.B.-It is important in parsing to •taie every thing belonging to a word in
as few words as possible, and always in the same order.
* The presen'. subjunctive or elliptical form, is nsed when both contingency and futurity are implied; the indicative is used when con tin enc
~~ly,. an~ not futurity is implied. In parsing, the latter may be call: d th~
mdicativ~ use~ subj nnctively," being the indicative mood in form , and ren1
de red EUbJnnctive only by the conjunction prefixed Th' · t
the other tenses in this mood.
.
l B lB rue a so or
The e'.1tphatic forms of the present subjunctive are, If J do love, if thou
t
do l~ve, if he do love, etc. ; of the past, If J did love if thou ctidst lo ,
Ri rn the indicative.
'
ve, e c.,

He loves, they love, I have loved, you will love, thou teachest,
they will learn, he has written, I had given, J ames will go, Jobn
may come, he might read, they would have studied, they did
study.-Write thou, come ye.--To love, to sing, to h avepiayed,
reading, sleeping, runnin~, loved, learned, having loved, having
gone, birds fly , horses galloped, the fire burns, the sun did shine,
the m oon has changed.
[N.B.-Pupile may b e r equired to write out exercises of this kind for
themselves, and parse them as directed above.]

EXERCISE IL
[Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and·revie•o thor·
oughly LESSON 16, and the exercises on it; then
•In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love thou, imperative,
act.i ve, second person, eingular.
In the infinitive, omit the person and number, and say thus, To love; present, inflnitiVe, nctive.
In the particJ.ple, name only the tenso imd voice; thus, loving ; prelient
participle, active.

60

EXERCISES ON THE VERB.

1. Tell which words are verbs, and why; and whether t.-ans-it-ive, int1·a·n s ·i U·ve, or ath"ib·u tivc, and why.

2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the preceding
Exercise.
3. Go over it again, and .parse each verb by puttinu all these toyetller;
thuti, loves, is a. verb, tru.ns1Uve, regular, lll the present, indicative, active, third
person, oingular.]

He loves us, I will love hlm.--Good boys will study their les.
sous.--Chlldren love play.--The dog killed my rabbit.- J am es has written a letter.--Cows eat bay.--A fire warms
the room.--l3ring some wood.--! have studied grammar.-Girls may write letters.--Your sister can sing.--He would
like to hear a song.--Give that book to me.--1 will give this
book to you.--Lend m e your pen.- -Cbildren should obey
th eir parents ; they should love God.--Remember the Sabbath
day, to keep it.- - All men must die.--Time waits for no ·mll.'1.
--Do good to all men.--John will m end my pen; I will thank
him.--You would oblige me by assisting me to learn this lesson.
--Tell Henry to shut the door.--Snow is white.--The
apple tastes sweet.--vVasbington was a wise and just man.
" .A.nd be opened bis mouth, and taught them, saying, Blessed
are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.-Blessed are they that mourn : for they shall be comforted.- Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.--Blessed
are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they
shall be filled."

EXERCISE III.
1. THE NOMINATIVE CASE.

2'16. A verb in the active voice tells what some peTson or
thing doeR. That person or thing then is its subject, and, in
the indicative, potential, subjunctive, and imperative moods, is
always in th e nominative case; thus, in the first sentence of the
preceding Exercise, the word "l011es," tells what "lie" does; lie,
therefore, is its subj ect, and is in th e nominative case.
[Point out the vc•·b in each sentence of the preceding Exercise; tell what
word is its subject, and why? What case is the subject in ?]
·

2. THE OBJECTIVE CASE.

277, A transitive verb in the active voice tells what its sub.
ject does to some person or thing. That person or thing is the

61

NEGATIVE FORM.

and is in t.h e objective case. Thus, in the
l011es 1s a transitive verb, and_te~s
&b~ve sentence, "He loves us," Us, then, is its object, and is ID
what its subject, he, does to us.
\he objective case
the V«Jrb; the object'ive case
The sub_ject is usually before
generally follows it.

object of the verb,

I

EXERCISE IV.•
PARSING.
.
nd arse eacf• word In older ;-the
a dip ted (10 l) ·-the adjective& as
[Go over the preceding Exercise,
b
ticles as rec ,
,
. ted

nouns as directec1, (SS) ; t ear . t d (l 4 7). and the verbs as direc
directed, (126) ; the pronouns as du:ec e '
'

•

(lt75.)]

LESSON 25.-Negative Form.
.
deny by placing the word not
27 8. The verb
is made to l
t not . " and between the
,,
. as " Thou oves
,
•fter
the
simple
iorm
,
•
~
b . the compound ,~.0~
• ~ '• as , " I do not
auxiliary and the ver _i~ .
d not is placed between

" When two auxiliaries are use '
love.
1
l ved
.
. .
them . as I would no~ ,w,ve o
27~. ~n the infi11:iti1'e and _pa1·tici1Jles, the negative is
.
In
t first . as, Not to love ; not loVIDg.
'
. . dom used with the negative.
280. The simple form is sel th compound oT e1nZJlt<.t,tic
·the present and the past ~~:~~llo,:'.mg synopsis will show the
fo1··1n is more common. .
mauner of using the negative.
pu

INDICATIVE

'

!,

MOOD.

2. Thou dost not love, etc.
PRESENT. 1. I do not love.
. Thou hast not loved, etc.
uuEs. PERF. 1. I have not loved. 2 . Thou didst not love, etc.
2
PA.ST.
1. I did not love.
2. Thou hadst not loved, etc.
PAST PERF. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou Wilt not love, eto.
FUTURF..
1. I wHl not l ove. 2. Thou shalt not have loved, ete;
FUT. PERF. 1. I shall not have
loved.

62

INTERROGATIV•E FORM.

INTERROGATIVE FORM.

INDICATIVTI

POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT.
PRES. PERF.
PAST.
PAST PERF.

1. I can not love.
1. I may not have
l oved.
1. Imightnotlove.
1. I might not have
l oved.

2. Thou canst not love, etc.
2. Thou mayst not have loved,
etc.
2. Thou mightst not love, etc.
2. Thou mightst not have loved,
etc.

· P RESENT.
PRES. PERF.
PAST.
P AST PERF.

FUTURE .
FoT. PERF.

1.

If I

do not love.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

2. If thou do not love, etc.

Sing. 2. Love not, 01· do not thou Plur. 2. Love not, or do not ye
love.
love.
INFINITIVE MOOD.

Not to love.

. PERF.

Not to h ave loved.

P A.RTICIPIAL MOOD.
PRESENT.

Not loving.
PERF.

. PRESENT.
PRES. PERF.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT.

MOOD.

2. Dost thou love ? etc.
1. Do I love?
2. Hast thou loved ? etc.
1. Have I loved?
2. Didst thou love ? etc.
1. Did I love ?
2. H adst thou loved? etc.
1. Had I loved ?
2. Wilt thou love? etc.
1. Shall I love 'I
1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved ? etc.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.

63

(PAST.

Not loved.)

Not having loved.

LESSON 26.-Inter+ogative Form.
281. The verb is mad e to ask a, question by placing the
subject after the simple form; as, Lovest thou? and between the
auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, Do I love?
·when there are two auxiliaries the subj ect is placed between
them; as, Shall I have loved ?

282. The subju.ncUve, impe1·at'ive, and injinU·i ve
moods, and the participles, can not have the interrogative
forms.
283. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interroga,.
tively. The following synopsis will show how the verb is put
into the interrogative form.

PAST.
. PAST PERF.

1. May I love?
1. May I have loved?
1. Might I love ?
1. Might I have
loved?

2. Canst thou love ? etc.
2. Canst thou have loved? etc.
2. Couldst thou love? etc.
2. Couldst thou have loved?
etc.

284. Ons. Inte1·1·oyative sent1mces are made negat:ive
by placing th e negative either before or after the nominative; as,
Do I not love ? Do not I love?
QUESTIONS .-How Is a verb made negative!
Where Is the n egative
placed in the simple form ?
Where, in the compound form?
Where,
Where, in the infinitive and participles ?
when there are two auxiliaries?
Say the indicative present in the negative form throughout ;-the other tenses.
Ilow is the verb made interrogative?
Where is the nominative placed in
Where, in the compound form?
Where, when there
the simple form?
are two auxiliaries?
What parts of the verb can not be used interrogaSay the indicative present throughout, interrogatively?
tively?
Say the .
other tenses.

EXERCISES.
[1. Put the ve1•b, In the following sentences, into the neoative form.
2. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the inten·ooative form,
and 1v1"ite o'llt the exercise.
3. Distinguish the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in the pre-

ceding Exercise,

rv.

(277 .)]

I love you.--You loved me.--James studies grammar.-Your father has come.- -He will go soon.--The ship foundered
at sea. -- John would eat apples.- -Apples will grow on this
tree.--The horse wil1 run a race.--The fox had caught the
goose.--Rabbits eat clover.--Study overcomes most difficulties.--Labor promotes health.- -Wealth makes the man.--

64

PROGRE~SIVE FORM.

Poverty scatters friends.--The ships sail.--The sun has set.
The moon rose.--The stars will shine.
N.B.-Let the pupils im·ite simiiur exercises for themselves, and parse
them.

65

p ASSIVE VOICE.

[" Parse the above verbs In the progressive form; thus, "We are writing; "

"a~·~ uniti?UJ,'' is a verb, trans., irreg.;

w1'ite, writing, wrote,

~J"itlen;

(28 6)

in the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form .]

LESSON 28.-Passive Voice.
LESS 0 N 27 .-Progressive Form.
ACTIVE VOICE.

285. The Progress'ive fm·ni of the verb is
inflected by prefixing the verb to be, through all its
moods and tenses, to the prese·n t :fJU'r ticiple; thus,
PRESENT.
1. I am writing.
2. Thou art writing, etc.
PRES. PERF. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou h ast been writing,
etc.
PAST.
1. I was writing.
2. Thou wast writing, etc.
PAST PERF. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing,
etc.
FuTURE.
1. I shall be writing.
2. Thou shalt be writing, etc.
FUT. PERF. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have
been writing, etc.
been writing.
[In this manner go through the other moods and tenEes.]

286. NOTE. Verbs which, in the common form imply conUnnance, do not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I
ain loving," (if proper) would mean nothing more than, " I lo·ve."
EXERCISES.
[Change the following verbs from the simple into the p1•og1•cssive form:]

He writes, they read, thou t eachest, we have learned, h e had
written, they go, you will build, I ran, .John bas done it, we
taught, he stands, he stood, they will sta.nd, they may read, we
can sew, you should study, we might bave r ead.
[Change the following, from the progressive into the s·imple form:]

vVe are writing, they were singing, they have ])een riding, we
might be walking, I may h ave been sleeping, they are coming,
thou art teaching, th11y have been eating, h e has been moving, we
have been defending, they had beeri. running.

287'. The Passive Voice is inflected by adding
the past participle passive to t he auxiliary verb to
be, through all its moods and tenses; thus,
Present.

Present Part.

.A.m loved.

Being loved .

Past.

Was loved.

Past Part.

Loved.*

Indicative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
Plum!.

Singular.

1. We arA loved.
2. You are loved.
3. They are loved.

1. I am loved.
2. Thou art loved.
3. He is loved.

PRESENT-PERFlWT TENSE.

Sign, l!ave.
1. We have been loved.
2. You have been loved
3. They have been loved.

1. I have been loved.
2. Thou hast been loved.
3. He has been loved.

PAST TENE\E.

1. vVe were loved.
2. You were loved.
3. They were loved.

1. I was loved.
2. Thou wast loved.
3. He was loved.

PAST-PERFECT TENSE.

Sign, l!ad.
1. I bad been loved.
2. Thou hadst been loved.
3. He bad been loved.

1. We bad been loved.
2. You liad been loved.
3. They had been loved.

• The ,,.8t particii•l·e is used by itself in a pa8sive Aense without an
1

auxiliary.

[Sec

AI'PENDIX

TI.]

66

PASSIVE VOICE.

PASSIVE VOICE.

Subjunctive Meod.

FUTURE TENSE.

PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.

Signs, shall, will.-Infiect with each.
Sin(}Ular.

Pl!tral.

l. I shall be loved.
2. 'fhou shalt be loved.
3. He shall be loved.

1. We shall be loved.
2. You shall be loved.
3. They shall be loved.

Singular.

1. If we be loved.
2. If you be loved.
3. If they be loved.

If I be loved.
If thou be loved.
3. If he be loved.

1.
2.

PAST TENSE.*

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.

Signs, shall have, uJill liave.-lnfiect with each .
1.
I
shall
have been loved.
1 · We shall· h ave b een 1oved
2 'Ih
.
OU shalt have been loved. 2. y OU shall have been Joved
8. He shall have been loved.
3. They shall have been loved.

Potential Mood.

1. If I were l oved.
2. If thou were or wert loved.
3. If he were loved.

Singular.

Plural.

1. I may be loved.
2. Thou mayst be loved.
3. He may be loved.

1. We may be loved.
2. You may be loved.
3. They may be loved.

PRESENT-PERFECT . TENSE.

Signs, may have, can have, must have.-Infiect with each.
1. I may have been loved.
1. We may have been loved.
2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved.
3. He may have been loved.
3. 'fhey may have been loved.
PAST TENSE.

I

Signs, might, could, would, should.-Infieet with each.
1. I might be loved.
1. We might be loved.
2. Thou mightst be loved.
2. You might be loved.
3. He might be loved.
8. They might be loved.
PAST-PERFECT TENSE.

Sig ns, might have, could have, would have, should have.-Inflect
with each.
1. vVe might have been loved.
1. I might. have been loved.
2. Thou _mightst have been loved. 2. You might liave been loved.
3. He might have been loved.
3. They might have been loved.

l. If we were loved.
2. If you were l oved.
3. Jj they were loved.

Imperative Mood.
Plural.

Singular.

2. Be ye or you ·loved.

2. Be thou loved.

Infinitive Mood. ·

PRESENT TENSE.

Signs, mai;, can, must.-Infiect with each.

67

Present. To be loved.

P erf. To have been loved.

P articipial Mood.
P RESENT.

Being· l oved.
PAST. Loved.
P ERFECT. Having been loved.

EXERUISE L
ON THE 'PASSIVE VOICE.
[1. T ell the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words in the
passive voice ;-change them into the active form .
·
2. Go over the exercise again, and paree each word in order; thus, "They,"
ia a pronoun of the third person, ma~c uline (or feminine), in the nominative
plural, the subject of are loved: "are krved," ls a verb, tran sitive, In tbe
present, indicative, passive, third person, plural, because its subject," they,"
is third person, plural.]

They are l oved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is loved ;
she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been loved ; I have
been loved; thou hadst been loved ; we shall be loved; thou wil t
be loved; th3y will be loved; I shall have been loved; you will
b11ve been loved.
•All the tenses of the indicntive and potential are need in conditional
clau,es with n conjunction prefixed. to express Jlresent contingency: thus, If

I ani i01:e1. If I have been l01;ed, If I was loved, l.f I had been loved, If I
shall or will be loved, If I shall have been loved, If 1 m ay be loved , etc.

\

68

He can be loved; thou mayst be loved; she must be loved;
they might be loved; ye would be loved ; they should be loved;
I could be loved; thou mayst have been loved; it may have been
loved; you might have been loved; if I be loved; if thou wert
loved; though we be loved; though they be loved. Be thou
loved ; be ye loved ; you be loved. To be loved; loved ; having
ueen loved; to have been loved; being loved.
[3. Change the preceding, from the passive to the active progressive
form.]

EXERCISE IL

Noiin, .Artfole, .AdJective, Pronoiin, Verb . ·
[1. In the following Exerci•e, tell which words are articles-which are

nouns-and why ;-which are adjectives-and why ;-which are pronouns-and why ;- which are verbs-and why.
·
2. Point out the verb•; tell whether transitive or intransitive-and why;active or passive-and why.
3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper or com·
man-and why ;-singnlar or plural-and why ;-their gender-and why.]

He has learned his lesson.- -! loved him because he was good.
- -A good man will forgive those who may have injured him.
- -Love your enemies; do good to them that hate yon.- Remember your Creator in the days of your youth.-- We are
commanded to love our neighbor as ourselves.- -That book was
pri nted in New York.- -The winter has been cold, but the
ground was covered with snow.- - Columbus discovered America.
America was discovered by Columbus.- - ! have been studying
grammar.- -It is never too late to learn that which is good and
usefnl.-- Peter Parley has written some pleasing books.- Good uoys love reading.- -Study to understand what you read.
- -A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is heavi·
ness to his mot)ler.
[4 . Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word In order, as
heretofore directed.]
*,,*It will now be Important to r eview thoroughly and reiiealedly from
Lesson 23, particularly Lessons 28, 26, nnd 28, with the Exercises uncler t.bem.
Thi ; will require ~eve ral recitations. And while that is going on, the pupil
may al~o go forward with Lesson 29, conjugating from memory the ·l1•·r catt·

lar ve1·l1s, in such portions daily as the teacher may direct.
[5. 1V1•ite shm·t sentences, each of which ehall contain one of the fol·
lowing irregular verbs .. Use all of the forms here given.]

69

IRREGULAR VERBS.

PASSIVE VOICE.

L ESSON 29.- Irregular Verbs.

288. Irregula1" VeTbs are those that do not
form their past tense and past participle by adding ed
to the present; as, Am, was, been.
289. They may be conveniently Q.ivided mto tlwee classes:
1. Those which have only one form, for the three parts
given ; viz. :
Present.

Bet
Burst
Cast
Cost
Cut
Hit
Hurt
Knit
Let
Put
(luit
Rap
Read
Rid
Set beShed
Shred
Shut
Slit
Spit
Split
Spread beSweat
Thrust
Wet
Whet

Past.

Past Participle.

bet 1·
bet r*
burst
burst
cast
cast
cost
cost
cut
cut
hit
hit
hurt
hurt
knit r
knit r
let
let
put
put
quit r
quit r
r rapt
'J' rapt
read
read
rid
rid
set beset beshed
shed
shred
shred
shnt
shut
slit, slitted
slit
spit
spit (spat, obsolete)
split
split
spread bespread be1' sweat
r sweat
thrust
thrust
1' wet
rwet
rwhet
r whet

*Those verbs that are also conjugated regularly are marked with nn "'·

When two forms are given, .t/Le first is most used.

70

2. Those that have two
PaJJt.
Present.

Abide
Beat
Bend
Bereave
BJscech
Betide
Bless
Bind unBleecl
Bresd
Bring
Build reBurn
Buy
Catch
Cling
Come beCreep
Deal
Dig
Drec.m
Dress
Dwell
Feed
FeP.l
Fight
Find
Flee
Fling
Gi ld
Gird be- enGrind
Ifang
Have
H ear
Hold be- with·
K 2ep
Kueel

IRREGULAR VERBS.

IRREGUL.Ali VERBS.
{01"1'/'tS

abode
beat
bend 1•
1• bereft
besought
r betid
1·· blest
bound imbled
bred
brought
built re- r
1· burnt
bought
caught 1•
clung
came becrept
dealt 1·
dug 1·
1· dreamt
1· drest
dwelt 1•
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
'J' gilt
r girt be- enground
hung
had
h eard
held be- withkept
'1' knelt

for the part.s given ; v.iz.:
Past Participle.

abode
bei;.ten, beat
bent 1·
r bereft
besought
1' betid
r blest
bound unbled
bred
brought
built re- 1•
1• burnt
bought
caught 1•
clung
come becrept
dealt 1•
dug 1·
T dreamt
1· dr est
dwelt 1•
fed
felt
fought
found
fl ed
flung
r gilt
1· girt be- enground
bung
had
h eard
lield, holden be- withk ept
knelt '1'

Present.

PaJJt.

laid beLay beled misLead misr leant
Lean
. r leapt
Leap
r learnt
Learn
left
Leave
lent
Lend
lied
Lie
r lit
Light
lost
Lose
made
Make
meant
Mean
m et
Meet
'J' past
Pass
paid rePay rer pent
Peu, to enclose
r ent
Rend
rode
Ride
ran
Run
said
Say
sought
Seek
sold
Sell
sent
Send
shone 1•
Shine
shod
Shoe
shot
Shoot
sat
Sit
slept
Sleep
slung
Sling
slunk
Slink
1• smelt
Smell
sped
Speed
r spelt
Spell
spent misSpend misr spilt
Spill
spoilt r
Spoil
stood with,.
Stand with- etc.
r stove
Stave
r staid
Stay

.

71

Pcut Participle.

laid beled misr leant
r leapt
'I' learnt
left
lent
lied
'l' lit
lost
made
meant
met
rp!l:llt
'
paid rer pent
rent
imde, ridden
run
said
sought
sold
sent
shone r
shod
shot
sat (sitten, obsokte)
slept
slung
slunk
r smelt
sped
r spelt
spent misr spilt
r spoilt
stood with1• stove
r staid

•

72

IRREGULAR VERBS.

Present.

Past.

Past Participle.

Stick
S ting
Strike
String
Sweep

stuck
stung
struck
strung
swept

Swing

S\VUng

stuck
stung
·struck, stricken
strung
swept
swung
taught mistold
thought bewept
won
wound 1•
wrought 1•
wrung r

Teach mittTell
Think be' Veep
vVin
Wind
vVork
• vVring

taught rnistold
thought bewept
won
wound 1•
wrought 1•
1· wrung

3. Those wLich have th1·ee f01·' 11iS for the parts given; viz.:
been
was
Am
arisen
arose
Arise
a waked
awoke 1·
Awake
1· baken
baked
Bairn
born
B:iar, to bring forth bare, bore
bornefo·rbore, bare forBear for· begun
began
Begin
bidden, bid
bade, bid
Bid
bitten, bit
bit
Bite
blown
blew
Blow
broken , broke
broke, brake
Break
chidden, chid
ch id
Chide
chosen
chose
Choose
cleaved
Cleave, to ad1iere 1· clave
cloven, cleft
clove, cleft
Cleuve, to 1pUt
1• clad
clothed, clad
Clothe
crowed
1· crew
Crow
dared
1· durst
Dare, to venture
dived
1· dove
Di Ye
done mis- undid mis- unDo mis- undrawn
drew
Draw
drunk
D.rink
drank
driven
drove
Drive

73

IRREG UL.A.R VERBS.
Past.

Present.

ate, eat
fell beflew
forbore
forgot
forsook
froze
freighted
got, gat begave for- miswent
graved engrew
r hove
hewed
hid
knew
laded
lay
loaded
mowed
rang, rung
rose <Ir
rived
sawed
saw
r sod
shook
shaped misshaved
1• shore
showed
shrunk, sbrar:k
sung, sang
sunk, sank
slew
slid r
slung, slang
smote

Eat
Fall beFly
Forbear
Forget
Forsake
Freeze
Freight
Get beGive for- misGo
Grave enGrow
Heave
Hew
Hide
Know
Lade
Lie to lie down
Load
Mow
Ring
Rise aRive
Saw
See
Seethe
Shake
Shape misShave
Shear
Show
Shrink
Sing
Sink
Slay
Slide
Sling
Smite

4

Past Participle.

eaten
fallen befl.own
forborne
forgotten, forgot
forsaken
frozen
fraught 1•
gotten. got begiven for- misgone
1• graven en,.
grown
,.. . hoven
1· hewn
hidden, hid
known
laden
lain
r laden
1·· mown
rung

risen <Ir
riven
1· sawn
seen
1• sodden
shaken
1• shapen mis1• shaven
shorn
1• shown
shrunk, shrunken
sung
sw1k
slain
slidden, slid r
slung
smitten, smit

1•

74
Present.

Sow
Speak beSpin
Spring
Steal
Stride beStrive
Strow beSwear
Swell
Swi!n

Take be- underTear
Thrive
Throw
Tread
Wax
ViTear
·weave
Write

DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

Past Participle.
sown 1·
sowe1
spoken bespoke, spake bespun
spun, span
sprung
sprung, sprang
stolen
stole
strode, strid bestridden, strid b.estriven
'1' strove
1· strown bestrowed besworn
swore, sware
r swollen
swelled
swum
swum, swam
taken be- undertook be- undertorn
tore (tare, obsolete)
r th.riven
rthrove
thrown r
threw 1•
trodden, trod
trod (trode, obs.)
1· waxen
waxed
worn
wore
woven
wove
written (writ, obs.)
wrote (writ, obs.)
Past.

Into how many cla•se•
may they be divided?
What are they?
Are any verbs both regular and
Since there is no list of regular . verbs,
irregular?
Give an example.
bow may we know what verbs are regular?
Is." am" regular or irre~nlur
-and why?

75

nominative. Tell which nouns or pronouns are in the nominative-and
y ;-in the objective-and why.
4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form-in the p•·oy1·csstve form-in the ••eyative form-in the ·lntcr1·oyative form-in the
neyat'Lve-i,n .te·r rogati'Ve form. ]

EXERCISE IL
[1. In the following Exercise, point out which verbs axe regular, and
which axe i1'rcyula.r-and why.
2. lVrite short sentences with each verb, as In the preceding Exyciae,
and do with each as there directed, ln Nos. 2, 3, 4.]

Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, bunt, count,
reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, teach, wipe, am,
draw, bruise, water, kriow, wash, spoil.
[3. Take the sentences containing t1·wnsiti ve verbs, and express the
same idea by the pauiv11 form; tbns, supp_Qse. the senteD£~ to be, "James
loves praise;" passive form, "Praise is loved .by Jame~"
4. Parse the sentences so changed.]

LESSON $ 0 .-Defective and Impersonal Verbs.

QUESTIONS.-What are irregular verbR?

EXERCISE L
[l. Name the 1wesent and past tenses, indicative mood, a11d the
present and past pa1•ticiples of the following verbs; thus, Take, took,

taken.
2. 1'1•-i te a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with c·acb verb, In
the present tense-in the perfect tense-in the past tense-in any tense;
thus, We take breakfast early. John wok my bat. I h..ave taken bis coat,]

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch,
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get., give, go,
feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay,
ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite,
speak, stand, tell, win, write.
[3. In the eentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are transitfve, and which are int1'ftn.• itive- and why. Point out the subject in
eucb sentence, that is, the person or thing- epoken of, and parsed
the

in

290. I>efec.tive verb.'I are those in which some
of the . parts are Wftnting.. They are i'l'Tegular,
and chiefly auxiliim•y. These afe,Present.

Can
May
Must
Ought
Quoth

Past.
could
might

ought
quoth

Past Part.

Present.

Shall
Will
Wis
Wit or}
Wot

Past.
should
would
wist

Past Part.

wot

Imrperative,-Beware.

291. Impersonal ve'Pbs are those which as.sert
the existence of some action or state, but refer it to
no particular subject. They are preceded by the
pronoun it, and are always in the third person singular; as, it seems; it becomes, etc.
'

76

ADVERBS.

ADVERBS.

77

292. To this head may be referred such expressions as, It
hails, it snows, it rains, it thunders, it behooveth, it frk etli; and
perhaps also, methinks, metliought, meseems, me.~eemed, in which,
instead of it, tlrn first personal pronoun in the objective case, me,
is prefixed to the third lleraon singular of the verb.
QUESTIONS.-What is a defective verb?
Are they regular or irregular?
What are they?
What tenses do the most of them have?
What
tense has must ?-ought 1
I s it proper to say "I had ought to read?" ·
Why 1
What is au impersonal verb 1
By what are they preeeded 1
Ir
what person and number are they ? What other word besides "it" ia
sometimes put before impersonal verbs?

LESS 0 N 31.-Adverbs.
[.1?epie1P lite p1·ecedinu Lesson.]

293. An Adve'r b is a word used to modify a
verb, an ctdjective, or another allt,erb, or to denote some circumstance respecting it; as, Ann speaks
distinctly: she is remarkably diligent, and reads very
correctly. [ APPl<lNDIX IV, 6.]
294. Adverbs have been divided into· various classes, according to their signification. The chief of these are such as denote,
1. Quality or 11:Iminm• simply ; as, well, ill, bravely, prudently, softly, with very many others, formed from adjectives by
adding ly, or changing le into ty; thus, tame, tamely; sensible,
sen1rwly, etc.
2. Place ; as, he1·e, there, where; hithe1', thithe?'; hence.
3. ~l1inie; as, now, then, when; soon, often, seldom; ever.
4. Di.reel-ion; as, upward, downwa?·d, backwa1·d, forward.
5. Aff/..'l'lnation; as, vM'ily, t1·uly, undoubtedly, yea, yes.
6. Neg£ition; as, nay, no, not, nowise, n ever.
7. Intm·1·ogat'ion; as, how, why, when, wherefore.
8. Cmnpa,rison; as, mo1·e, most; less, least; as, so, thus.
9. Qua,nt'ity; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently
10. Ordm•; as, first, secondly, thirdly.
11. Uncm·ta,inty; as, perhaps, pe1·adventwe, perchance.
12. Conjunctive Ad·v m·bs; as, when, where, how, wliile.

ObservaUons.
295. The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by
expressing in one word what would otherwise require two or
more ; as, here, for "in this place ;" nobly, " in a noble manner."
296. Some adverbs admit of comparison, like adjectives;
as, soon, sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most nobly. .A. few
are compared irregiila1·ly; a.s, weU, better, be.it; badly, or ill,
worse, wo1·st.
297. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which siguifies at, or on; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart.
298. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually
reckoned adverbs; the corresponding as and so are adverbs also ;
thus, It is as high as Heaven.
....
299. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc., are often
expressed by two or more words constituting an advm·bial
ph1·ase ; as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at
oength, not a.t all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and
by, to and fro, which may be parsed together as adverbs, or by
supplying the ellipsis ; thus, in a short space; in a general way.
300. A Conjnnctive Atlve1·b is one that modifies two
different words, and connects the clauses to which they belong;
as," I will see you when you com~.'' "He i~ happy where he is." 1
301. The1·e, commonly ::.n adverb of place, is often used as
an introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear,
etc. ; as, "There is no chance.'' "There are five boys here.''~
PARSING.

302. An adverb is parsed by stating its clctss, and
the word which it 11iodijies; thus,
"Ann speaks distinctly."
and modifies "speaks.''

Distinctly is. an adverb of manner,

QT!ESTIONS.-What is an adverb!
In the sentenee, "Ann •peaks
Why? · Into how many classes are
distinctly," which is the adverb?
Name tbe first three-the seconcl three-the
adverbs commonly divided?
next three-the last three.
How are adverbs formed from adj ectives?
What is the ·chief use of adverbs 1
How are adverbs compared like
adjectives ?
Give an example,.
Are an y comparecl irregularly?
Give

A. & P, Gr.-' 534.

78

PREPOSITIONS.

an example.
What is an adverbinl phrase?
Give examples.
H ow
are such phrases to be pa rsed?
For what do conjunctive adverbs stand 1
How 10 tltere used?
How are adverbs parsed?

305. NoTE.-A preposition may b e 'followed by an infinit-ive mood, a
phrase, or n clause, used as a substo.ntive 1 instead of a noun or pronoun;
as, "We are about to depart." - " Honored for /laving dane his duty."-" The
crime of being a y1YUn(J man."

EXER CISE L
[l. In tbe following list of adverbs, point out the class to which each
belongs.

2. Co m 1uire those that admit of comparison.
3. W ·rit e a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one
or more of the adverbs in the follow ing list.; and ptt1·se the sentences.]

. Here, there, softly, boldly, wisely, seldom, upward, once, twice,
hi therto, yesterday, how, more, little, secondly, enough, perhaps,
yes, no, truly, not, already, hence, whence, better, sufficiently,
wisely, somewh er e.

•

79

PREPOSITIONS.

EXERCISE II.
[1. In the following sentences, tell what words are articles- what words
are nouns, and why-adjectives, nnd why-pronouns, and why-verbs and
why-whether trau~ithe or in trans., and why-regular or irregular, and 'why.
2. Which words are adverbs ?- why? What do they modify? Parse.]

P eter wept bitterly.--He is h ere now.- -She went away
yesterday.--They came to-day.--They will perhaps buy some
to-morrow.--Ye shall know hereafter.--She sang sweetly.
- -Cats soon lea.rn to catch mice.- -Mary rose up hastily.
--They t lia.t have enough may soundly sleep.- -Cain wickedly slew his brother.- - I saw him long ago.--He is a very good
m a.n.- -Sooner or later all must die.--You read too little. - They talk too much.

LE S S 0 N 3 2 .- Prepositions.

308. A Preposition is a word which shows
the 1•elation between a noun or a pronoun following
it and some other word in the sentence; as,
" The book is upon the table." "The book is under the table."
"They speak concerning virtue." [ APPENDlX IV, 7.]
304. In th ese sentences, the preposit ions, "itpon" and
" under," show the relation between "table " and "book :" and
" conce?'liing " sho>vs the relation between "virtue" and "speak."

306. The principal words of this class are contained in the
following-

List of P1·epositwns.
About
Above
A.cross
After
Against
Along
Amid }
Amidst ·
Among }
Amongst
Around
At
Athwart
Ila ting
Before .
Behind

Below
Beneath
Beside }
Besides ·
Between
Betwixt
Beyond
But
By
Concerning
Down
During
Ere
Except
Excepting
For

From
In
Into
Notwithstanding
Of
Off
On
Out of
Over
Past
Pending
Regardil1g
Respecting
Round
Save
Since

Through
Throughout
T-ill
To
Touching
Toward I
Towards)
Under
Underneath
Until
Unto
Up
Upon
With
Within
Without

Obse1'Vations on Prepositions.
307. Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun, which
is its object after it, to be in the objective case; as, I gave
the paper to him. When any word in the preceding list is not
foll owed by an objective case, it is generally an advm•b; as,
He rides about.
:308. But, in such phrases as cast iip, hold out, fall on,
the words up, out, on, may be consid~red as a part of the verb,
rather than as prepositions or adverbs.
3 09 • .1. Of the words related, that before the preposition is
called the antecedent term of the rel ation; and that which
follows it is called the subsequent term, or the 1·eginien of
the preposition. The preposition and its regimen together con·
stitute a p1·eposiHonal phrase. (335.)
A. & P. Gr.-' 1140.

138

139

CON JUNCTIONS.

CONJUNCTIONS.

53.1. RULE 2.-Gertain words in the antecedent 'lnember
of (o sentence, r equire corresponding cannectives in the guj;sequent
one : thus,

tence, the other t erm · should stand in the other nie11ibe1•.
After " tho ugh," '"yet " is sometimes understood.

1. In clauses or words simply connected-

Both
Eithe1·
Neithe1·
1V/1.ethm·
Though

requires and; as, "Both he and I came."
- - - 01• .; as, "JJJither he &r I will come."
- - - nor; as, ".Neither he n or I cam e."
- - 01·; as, "TVhether he or I came."
- - - yet; as, "Tliough h e slay me, yet will I
trust in him."

Not only - - - bnt also .; as, "Not only he, but also hi.9
brot her goes."
/;.'J4. In clauses connected so as to imply compari.<;onThe conipa1·ative de111·ee requires than; as, " He is taller
than I am."
Other requires than; as, "It is no otlter than he."
Else
than ; as, " VVhat else do you expect than
this."
As
as (expressing equality) ; as, "He is a.stall
(Ui I am."
so (expressing comparison); as," As thy day
As
is, so shall thy strength be."
So
as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ;
as, " H e is not so learn ed as his
brother."

So

that (expressing con.~equ ence) ; as, "He is
so weak, that he cannot walk."
Such
as (expressing similarity) ; as, " He, or such
as he."
S u ch
that (with a finite verb to express a consequence); 11.'l, " The difference is sucli
that all will perceiv e it."
535. NOTE.-As and so, in the members. of a comparison,
are properly adverbs.
536. EXPLANATION.-This Rul e means, that when any of the
corresponding t erms above, stands in one uiember of a sen·

5.11. RULE 3.-When a subsequent clause, or part of a
sentence, is eonunon to two different but connected antecedent
clauses, it must be equally appl'ieable to both; as, " That work
always has been, and always will be, admired."
538. ExPLANATION.-In order to see whether sentences are
correct according to this Riile, join the 1nmnbe1· of the sentence
com1non to the two clauses, to each of thmn sepcwately,
so as to make two sentences. If both of the sentences o.r<>
grammatically correct, o.nd express the sense intended, the sent ence is right-if not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. Thus,
for example, "He has not, and h e can not, be censured," is wrong,
because if you add the member" be censured," to the first clause,
it will make " He has not be censured," which is incorrect, according to Snb-Rnle 4 under Rule XVI. This must be corrected by
inserting "been" after "has not," so as to read, "He has not
been, and he can not be, censured." The different clauses should
be correctly marked by punctuation.

539. This rule is often violated in sentences in which there
are two comparisons of a different nature and g overnm ent. Thus,
"He was more beloved, but not so much admL·ed as Charles."
Here, " as Charles," is applicable to the clause " so much admired,"
but can not be connected with" more beloved." In such sentenceR
as this, the proper way is, to complete the construction of the
first member, and leave that of the second understood; as "He
was more beloved than Charles, but not so much admired" (as
Charles).

EXERUISES.
[(RULE 1.)-1. In the following, p oint out the connected verbs. If they
have the sa.me sul>ject, put them in the same nwo<l and ten.• e. If they
must be in different moods or tenses, 1•epeat the subject; and if that is a
n oun, repeat it by its pronoun. Point out ttie connected nouns or pronouns,
and put them in the same case.)

He reads and wrote well.--If h e say it, and does it, I am cont ent.--If he be at home, and is well, give him the letter.- -My
father has read the book, and will return it to-morrow.-James
and me ran all the way.--That is a small matter between you

140

CONJUNCTIONS.

PREPOSITIONS .A.ND INTERJECTIONS-

and 1.--Him and I are great friends, and so are Mary and me.
- -Nobody knows that better than her and me.

than I expected.--·This house is larger, but not so conve.nie.nt
as that one.--1 ever have, and I ever will say so.- - " He depends and confides in me," is as correct as," He confides aad
depends upon me."--I am older, but not so feeble as Thomas.
--Warm weat.her is pleasant, but not so bracing· as cold.-Iron is more useful, but not so valuable as gold or silver.

[2. JV1·Ue short sen.tent.es, in which two or more verbs are connected in
the same mood and ten.••, and notice particularly (53 1) . Put the verbs
In the present-in the past-and iu the present-perfect, etc. lli.:prn;s the same
ideas, with the verbs in the p<iss ·i 've voice.
3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different moods nud
tenses, paying attention to (028) ; write others, containing two or mor~
nouns or pronouns connected in the 1mme case.
(RULE 2.)-1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following sentcncee,
mako the second correspondent to the first, or the first to the second, as the
eense requires. Supply the correspondent term where improperly omitted.)

He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for him.-T hough he slay me, so will I trust in him.--Tbis is so far as I
am able to go.--This book is equally good as that one.-~othing is so bad as it can not be worse.--He was not only
diligent, but successful in his stutlies.--lt is neither cold or
hot.
[2. W»Ue c01·rect sentences, each of which eh<ill contain one pail- ot
the cmTesponding terms above, and state what they express.
3. Iu the following sentences, point out the co1nparaUve; degree, or
other correspondent terms, and make the one correspond to the other, according to the Rule.)

James writes better as I do.--There were more besides him
engaged in that business.--No more but two can play at this
game.--The days are lon ger in summer besides they are in
winter.--Has James no other book but this ?--This is such
conduct that I did not expect.- - l t can be no other but h e. - They had no other book except this one.--1 would rather read
as write.--He bad no sooner done the mischief but be repented.
[2. ff'1 ·ite -<h01·t sentence s, each of which shall contain a word in the
comparative degree, or the word other or :iuch followed by the proper cor·
respondent term .
(RU L E 3).-1\Iake trial of ihe following sentences, as directed In the explanation. If ellher of the clauses, when joined with the member of the
sent ence common to both, makes a grammatical error, point it ont ancl
correct it.]

He always has, and h e always will, be punctual.--Tbey
might, and probably were. good.--James is taller, but not so
etrong as, his brother.--His book is not so good, though larger

141

LESS 0 N 71.-Prepositions and Interjections.

540. RuLE XX.-A preposition shows the relation between the subseq,u ent of its phrase and the
word which the phrase l'i'fnUs; as, "The book
lies ON the table."-" The fear OF the Lord is · the beginnin,q OF wisdom."-" I run confident OF success.''
541. EXPLANATION.-Wbatever word is liniited or dBscribed by the prepositional phrase as a whole, is the anteced<->nt term of the relation. The principal substantive in the
objective case is the subsequent term. The antecedent is most
frequently a verb; as, " He lives in Boston." Often a noun; as,
"The love of wisdom." . Sometimes nn adjective; as, "There was
another large of understanding." The prepositional phrase n8ually follows the antecedent; but it is sometimes placed before it;
as," This is he of whom I spoke." "Of making many books there
is no end."

542. RULE XXL - Inter,jection.~ ltai:e no
01·wm1na,tical connection with the other words
in a sentence.
54:J. After interjections, pronouns of the first person,.nre
commonly in the objective case; those of the second, in the
noniinative; as, "Ah me!"-" 0 thou!" In neither, however, does the case depend on the interjection. In the objective,
there is an omission of the governing word ; as, "Ah (pity) m e ! "
In the nominative, they are in the nc.minative independent, denoting the pers')n addressed.

142

GENERAL l•ULE.

ELLIPSIS.

143

EXERCISES.

LESS 0 N 7 2.-General Rule.

54-1. In even; _sentence, the worcls employed, and
the order in winch they are w1•pa·n ged, should be
such as clecwly and properly to express the idea
intended; and, at the same time, all the par·ts of the
sentence ~hould correspond, and a regular and dependent
construction be preserved throughout.
54;;. EXPLANATION.-Tliis m ay be reg:uded as a ycnm·al
RL£le, ap~hcable to every case, and therefore comprehending all
the prccedrng. Though these embrace almost every thing belonging to the proper construction of sentences, yet there will
somot1mos occur, inst.ances of impropri ety in the nsc, and arrangement, and connection of words, for the avoidincr or correcting of which, no very specific rules can be given.
"'
5 4 (;. Among the evUs to be avoiderl under this Rule
are the following,'
1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly convey th e idea intended, or which convey anuthe1· with
equal propriety.
2. The r:i1·1·ange1nent of words or clauses in such a way that
tl~ e1r relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or
difficult to be perceived.
3. Th e ~epm•citiug of ad,juncts from their principals, by
placmg them so that they may be joined to words to
which they do not belong.
4. The separating of ·r elative claitses improperly from their
antecedents.

5. Using . injudiciously, or too frequently, the thfrd }lers?1uil or po;;;;e;;si·v e 1n·onoun, especially iu indirect
discourse.
A. & P. Gr.-' 974-976.

[1. The following sentences are not a ·,.mn11•a.tically incorrect, bnt,
from some of the causes ju&t mentioned, are obscure, inelegant, ambigu~
ous, or unintelligible. Point out the impropriety, correct it, and "ive a
reu•on for the correction.]

(1) The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wh eeled
about, and halted with the river on their back.-(2) Parmenio
had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the fu~her of Alexander,
as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way into Asia.
--(3)" Lost, a new umbrella belonging to a gentleman with
a cnri1msly carved ivory head.---(4) Claudius was canonized
among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man.-(5) A former went to a lawyer and told him that his bull had
gored bis ox.
(2. lF»ite the sentences as corrected.]

LESSON 73.-Ellipsis.

54?'. RuLE 1.-.An Ellips'is, or omission of icords,
is arlmiss'lble, when they can be suppl'ied by the
m·i nd with such certainty and read-iness as not to obswre the sense. Thus,
Instead of saying, "He was a learned man , and h e was a wise
man, and h e was a good man;" we say, "He wa.s a learned, wise,
and good man."

548. EXPLANATION.-There is a constant tendency among
men, to express their ideas in the fewest wur<ls possible.
Whenever, therefore, a word can be spared· from a sentence without obscuring its meaning, that word is often left out. This is
called ellipsis. Thus, instead of the full form of the sentence,
as follows: " I i'ise at six hours of the clock in the morning, I
breakfast at seven hours of the clock in the morning, I go to
school at nine hours of the clock, and study till twelve hours of
the clock," we can say, (and be equally well understood), " I rise
at six, breakfast at seven, go to school at nine, and study t~ll

144

145

ELLIPSIS NOT ALLOW ABLE.

MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING.

twelve." This is the origin of abbreviated sentences; and in
order to parse such, or to unuerstand their grammatic& construction, the words left o ut must be supplied.

seldom omitted ; and the relative itself, if in the nominative case,
never. The n.rticle should be repeated when a different form of it
is required; as, ".Ll. horse and an ox."

EXERCISES.

EXERCISES.

[1. In the following sentencee, l eave out such words as may be omitted
without obscuring the sense.)

[In the following sentences, point out the imprope1' elHpsis. Show why
it Is improper, and correct it.]

He had an affectionate father and an affectionate mother.- Y ou may read, or you may write, as you please.--Will you
study, or will you not s tudy ?- - I have been at L ondon, and I
have seen the queen.--A house and a garden.--He would
neit her go, nor would he send.
[2. In the following sentences, supply the wo1'ds left out, so as to show
their full co.n struction.]

It is six o'clock; we may study till seven.--We have done
it, but you have not.-John will read, and Thomas write letters.
--This apple is larger than that, but not so sweet.--Give this
apple to James, that to Robert, and the other to Mary.--1 have
heard and read much about Washington and the Revolution.-" Sun, stand thou still upon Gideon ; and thou, Moon, in the
valley of Ajalon."

LESS 0 N 7 4.-Ellipsis not Allowable.
549. RULE 2.-An ellipsis is not allowable,
when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, · or
be attended with an impropriety; ' for example" W'e speak that we do know, and t estify tha~ we have seen,"
should be, " We speak that which we do know, and testify that
which we have seen."
550. ExPLANATION.-The sense will always be · obscured,
when on account of improper ellipsis, the const1·ucUon of the
sentence is rendered doubtful, or is not clearly and readily perceived. When a sentence or clause is emphatic, ellipsis is less
allowable. The antecedent to the relative, except in poetry, is

Cicero made orations, both on public and private occasions.-He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew.--Thou hast that is
thine.--Thine the kingdom, the power, and the glory.--Depn.rt in peace, be ye warmed, clothed, and filled.--I gladly
shunned who gladly fled from me.--That is the best can be
said of him.--He has a h ouse and orchard.--We must all go
the way we shall not return.

LESS 0 N 7 5.-Model of Syntactical Parsing.
551. In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides
parsing the word etymologically, (326, 1.) to state its 1·elafion
to othe1·• words in the sentence, and the rules by which these
relations are governed. To illustrate this more ciearly, the sent ence parsed etymologically (328) is here parsed syntactically.

" Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be yet
wiser."
Give . ...... .is a verb, transitive, irregular; give, giving, gave,
given; in the imperative, active, second person, singular, and agrees with its subject thou, understood.
Rule VIII. "A verb agrees," etc.
Instruction . . is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of
give. Rule X. "A substantive being the obj ect," etc.
To . ....•.. . is a preposition, nnd expresses the relation between
the verb give and man,.us the remote object of the
verb. 1 Rule XX. "A preposition shows the relation," etc.

- - - -------·- - -- A. & P. Gr.-' 1149 .

Anal.- 1 83, 2.

7

1±6

MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING.

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.

A ....... . . . is an article, ,i ndefinite, belongs to man, and shows
it to bP used ind efinitely. Rule III. " The urtide a
or an is put," etc.

LE S S 0 N 7 6.-Promiscuous Exercises.

Wise .... . .. . is an adjective, compared, wise, u;iser, u;isest ; . and
e::q re3ses a quality of rnan . Rule II. "An adj ective or a participle," etc.

Man .. .. . .. .is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, the
object of to. Rule XI. "A substantive being the
obj ect," etc.

And ....... . is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two
clauses.

Rule XIX. "Conjunctions connect," etc.

He . ........ is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nominati ve, singular; stand s instead of man, with which
it agrees. Rule IV. "Pronouns agree," etc., and is
the subject of wilt be. Rule VI. "The subject of a
finite verb," etc.
W ill be . ... .. is a verb, attributive, irregular; am, being, was,
been ; in the future, indicative ; third person, singular ; and affirms of its subject he, with which it
agrees. Rul e VIII. "A verb agrees," etc.
Y et . . . . .... is an adverb, modifying wiser. Rule XVIII.
verbs modify," etc.

"Ad-

Wiser ..... . . is an adjective, comparative degree;. wise, wiser,
wisest; and qualifies he (representing man) of
which it is predicated. Rule II. "An adjective or
a participle," etc.
[Questions similar to those suggested at the close of
proper here aloo.

LESSON

37, may be

For Exercises in Syntactical Parsing, the pupil may now return to LESSON
3H, or ta ke an y plain passage iu the ordinary reading books used in the school,
as the teacher may direct.]

*.,.* .Classes of suitable age and culture may take up the regular
study of the manual of "Anrtlys·i .~ , Pru•sing, and Compositfon," prepared to accompany this series.

'

'f

147

552. In order to correct the following Ex~cises, examine
each sentence carefully, an<l see wherein it is wrong. See, first,
whether words t hat should agree, do so-the 'Ve1·b with its subj ect-the nu11te'r al adjective with its noun-the p1·01u>un,
personal and relative, with its suhstanti'V e; secondly, whether
nouns and pronouns are in the case which the word on which
they depend requires ; and lastly, whether the words are a1·1•anged in the order which the Rul es require. Having found
the error, correct it, and give the rule for the correction. These
Exercises, when corrected, or in the time of correcting, 1nay be
W'r 'itten out, analyzed, and parBed.
L John writes beautiful--! shall never do so no more.-The train of our ideas are often interrupted.--Was you present
at last meeting ?--He need not be in so much haste.--He dare
not act otherwise than he does.--Him who they seek is in
the house.--George or I is the person.--They or he is much
to be blamed.--The troop consist of fifty men.--Those set of
books was a valuable present.--That pillar is sixty foot high.
--His conduct evinced the most extreme vanity.--Tbe trees
.are remarkable tall.
2. He acted bolder than was expected.--This ls he who I
gave the book to.--Eliza always appears amiably.--Who do
you lodge with now ?--He was born at London, but he died in
Bn.th.--If he be sincere, I am satisfied.--Her father and her
were at church.--The master requested him and I to read more
distinctly.--It is no more but his due.--Flatterers flatter as
long, and no longer than they have expectations of gain.- John told the same story as you told.--This is the largest tree
which I have ever seen .
3. Let he and I read the next c1rnpter.--She lB free of pain.
--Those sort of dealings are unjust.--David the son of Jesse,
was the youngest of his brothers.--Y ou was very kind to him,
be said.--Well, says I, what does thou think of him now?-James is one of those boys that was kept in at school, for bad
behavior.--Thou, James, will deny the deed,--Neither good
nor evil come of themselves.--W e need not to be afraid.--~It
is all fell down.

148

PUNCTUATION.

PUNCTUATION.

4. He expected to have gained m ore by the bargain.--You
should drink plenty of goat milk.--It was him who spoke first.
---Do you like ass milk ?--Is it me that you mean ?--Who
did you buy yf>ur gl'a mmar from ?--If one takes a wrong
method at first setting out, it will lead th em astray.--Neither
m an uor woman were present.--! am more taller than you.
--She is the same lady who sang so sweetly.- -After the
most strai test sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee.--Is not
thy wickedness great? and thine iniquities infinite ?--There is
six that studies grammar.

2. V\'hen the logical subject of a verb is long, a comma is usually inserted Lefore the verb; as, " .A. i;teady and undivided attention to one subj ect, is a sure mark of a superior mind."
3. A comma is generally used between the members of a compound sentence; as, "Crafty men contemn studies, simple men
admire them, and wise men use them."
4. Two words of the same class connected by a conjunction
-have no comma between them ; as, "The, earth and the moon are
planets." "He is a wise and good man." When the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted ; as, "He is a plain,
honest man."
5. More than two words of the same class connected by conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as,
"Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the
words connected are adjectives, the last should have no comma ;
as, "He was a brave, wise and prudent man."
6. Nouns in apposition are usually separated by a comma; as,
"Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a noun in apposition,
unlimited, is not so separated; as, "Paul the apostle."
7. The nominative independent and the nominative absolute
with the clauses depending upon them, have a comma after
them ; as, "I am, Sir, your obedient servant." "The time of
youth being precious, it should be improved."
8. A comma is generally placed after an adverb or adverbial
phrase at the commencement of a sentence ; as, "First, Secondly,
In general, Indeed,".
1
!J. When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted; as,
"Rending makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and
writing, an exact man." 1

LES SON 77.-Punctuation.
553. Pnnctitation is the art of div'iding a written composit iou iuto senteuces, or parts of sentences, by points or stops.
5S4. Th e design of these points is to show the niearl-'ing
more clearly, and also to serve as a guide to the pauses and
infl ections required in reading.
ilt>5. Th e principal 1na1·lcs used for these purposes are
the following:

T he c01nma (, ), the semicolon (; ), the colon (: ), the
1ierioll or full stop (. ), the note of inte1•1·or1ation (? ), the
note of exclamation (I), the pa1·enthesis ( ), and the
da8h (.:__).
·
· 5;)6. No very definite rule can be given for the l e~gth, iu
r eading, of the pauses indicated by these marks. As a general
rul e, however, the comma represents the shortest pause : the
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; a colon, a pause
doulJl e that of the semicolon: and a period, a pause double that
of the colon.

Conuna.
55(. The comma usually separates those parts of a sent ence which, though very closely connected in sense and constru ction, r equire a pause between th em.
1. In short simple sentences, the comma is not used ; as, "Hope
is n uce3sltry in every condi tiou of life."

Smnicolon.

558. The seTnfoolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, which are less closely connected than those which nre
separated by a comma.
.'>59. Th e p~rtA of a sentence separated by a semicolon should
coutain in themselves a complete and independent proposition,
A. & P. Gr.-' 989-1000 .

•

-.

150

PUNCTUATION.

but still h(l,ving a connection with the other parts ; as, " Straws
after the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." 1

~wirn

Colon.
560. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or
more parts, less closely connected than those which are separated
by a semicolon; bt1t not so independent as to require a period ;
as, "Study to acquire the habit of thinking: no study is more
important." It is also used before a direct quotation.~

Pm·iod.
/561. The pe1·· fod is used when a sentence is coniplete,
with respect to the construction and the sense intended · as
"God made all things." "Have charity towards all m en." '
'
562. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters,
sections, etc., also afte1· all abbreviations; as, A. D., M. A, Art. II.,
Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc.

563. But no pause is used between the differe:it portions of a
person's nam e when not o.bbreviated. Thus, we must not write,
John, A. Smith, or Jo.mes. Brown; but John A. Smith: James
Brown.

5<;4. Such expressions, however, as, 1st, 2nd, 3's, Svo, etc.,
being not strictly abbreviations, do not require a period after
them.

Note of Inte1'1·ogatfon.

PUNCTUATION.

151

The Dash.
1'<67
The dash is used where a sentence is left unfinished :
DJ•
. ~

also to denote a significant pause-an unexpected turn m e se~timent-or that the first clause is common to all the rest; as lll
this definition.

Othe1· Characte1·s used in JVriting.
5r.s. Pa1·enthesis () includes a clause inserted in the body
of a sentence, but which may be omitted without injuring the
constructiou of the sentence; as, " Know ye not, brethren, (for I
speak to them that know the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth."
569. B1·ackets [] are used to enclose a word or phrase, explaining correcting; or supplying a deficiency in a sentence ; as,
"J ames 'told John that he [John] was to studY· "
570. The Apostrophe (') is used when a l etter or le.tters
are omitted; as, e'er for ever, tho' for though, or to mark the possessi ve case.
57.1. Qtwtat'ion marks (" ") enclose words and passages
quoted from another.
572. The I:Iyphen ( - ) is used to connect compound words;
as, la~dog, hqrse-jockey : but in permanent compounds, the
hyphen is not used. Also at the · end of a line to show t~at. one
or more syllables of the last word are carried to the next hne.
5 7 3. S ect'ion ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter
in to portions.
574. Ptwag1•aph ( ~) denotes the beginning of a new

5<;5. The note o.f ·i nten·or;ation is placed at the end of a
sentence in which a qitesUon is asked; as, " What have you

subj ect.

done'? "

have one common term, or three lines in poetry lmvmg the same
rhyme, called a triplet.
.57(;. Ellipsis(--) or(***) is used when some letters
are omitted; o.s, K--g or K*'"g for King.
577. The Caret ( A ) is used to show that some word is
either omitted or interlined.
57
The Index ( W) is usecj. to point out anything that
requires special attention.

Note of' Exclwnation,
56G. The note of exclamatfon iR used after expressions of
pas.~ion, o.nd after .«olenin invocatfon.~; as,
" Hail! holy light!" "Offspring of heaven, first.born ! " "Oh I
that he would come ! "

emotion or

A. & P. Gr.-• 1007-1()12.

•

• 1013-1017,

.

575. The B 'r ace ( ,.....,_) is used to connect '."ords wlueh

s.

Hi2

153

CAPITALS.

CAPITALS.

;";'{f). The vowel 1na1·ks are: 'the Diceresis (··)on the last
ol' two concurrent vowels showing that they are not to be pronounced as a diphthong : the Acute accent ( ' ): the Grave ('):
the long sound ( - ) : the short sound ( ~ ).

680. The 1na1·ks of 1·efe1··wnce are: the Aste1·islc ( *); the
D a,r;gcr ( t) ; the Double Dctgger ( t) ; the Parallel ( II ). sometimes also the §, if. also small letters or figures referring to
notes at the foot of the page.

L E S S 0 N 7 8. -Capitals.
5 81. The letters commonly used in printing am distinguished
and represented as follows :
(1.) CAPITAL LETTERS.

5. The fh•st word of every line in poet1·y; as,
Life is real, life- is earnest,
And the grave is not its goal:
"Dust thou art, to dust returnest"
Was not spoken of the soul.
6. The appellations of the De-ity; as, God, Most High,
the Almighty, the Supreme Being, etc.
7. Adjectives derived from the p1·ope1• na'r nes of places; as,
Grecian, Rom::tn, English, etc.
8. The first wo1·d of a direct qiwtation_, when the quotation 1 would form a complete sentence by itself; as, Always
remember the maxim, "Know thyself;" Solomon ~a~s, ."Pride
oeth before destruction." But when the quotation is mdirect, so
~snot to form a complete sentence by itself, the first ~ord does
not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon says that pride goeth

(2.) SMALL CAPITALS.

before destruction.

(3.) Italic L etters.

1'son-ified
. 2 as • "Come, gentle
9. Common nouns, w h en Pe
·
'
Spring."
10. Every substantive and principal word .'.n ,;he tUle_s ~f
books; as, " Euclid's Elemimts of Geometry;
Goldsnnth s

(4.) Lower case* (small letters.)

i582. In composition, the following words begin with capital
letters:
1. The fi1·st wm·<"l of every book, chapter, le_tter, note, or any
other piece of writing; for examples, see the first word of this
book, its chapters, etc.
2. The first word after a period; also after a note of interrogaiion, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one
after it, are independent of each other ; 1 as. " Love is stronger
than death." " V\That did he to thee? How opened he thine
eyes ? " " Gone to be married ! Gone to swear a peace I Gone
to he friends ! "
3. Propm· nanies, that is, names of persons, places, ships,
etc. ; ~ as, George vVashing ton, General Grant, Judge Story, Sir
'Walter Scott, America. The Ohio. Sheldon & Co., Broadway,
N ew York.
4. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in capital s; as, 0 my Country! how I love t hee!

* So called by printers.

A. & P. Qr.-' 77, 2.

'77, 3.

Deserted Village."
11. Historical eras, remarkable events, extraordina_ry physi_cal
h enomena, and generally, all word.a which are used m a speci_al·
~ize d sense ,, as , =e
Iron .Age, Magna Cllarta, l"The, Dec/,aratwn
.i. ,.
of Independence, 1'/ie Pola1· Sea, Aurora B orea is, etc,
NOTE -Other words besides the preceding may begin with capital•'. ';he~
·
kably emphatic or the principal subject of the compos1t10n.
they are remar
'
, ,,

... . .

EXERCISES.
th
· takes and give e. reason for the
[In the following Exercises, correct e mis
'
correction; aloo punctuate properly.]

in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth
dear sir your note is received sorry am i to be told of your sickness--i hope you may speedily recover
~~~~~~~~~-

A. & P. Qr,- ' 1123.

'1046.

• 77.

154

CO~IPO::il'l I ON.

-.-the bo~ton courier makes fun of a learned disquisition in the
phil~delph1a press--george washington was the greatest general
of his age--yonder comes the powerful king of day

COMPOSITION.

155

· 585. In committing his own ideas to writing, in the form of
compositfons, then, all he has to do, is to endeavor to select the
prope,1· WO'l ds, and to conibine and a'r range these so as to
express his meaning correctly, according to the Rules with which
he is now supposed to be familiar. The few following hints may
be useful:
0

h~ste thee nymph and bring with thee
mu-th and youthful jollity

.hail holy light offspring of heaven--holy holy holy lord god
of sabaoth- -macauleys history of england- -prescotts conquest of mexico- -dickens h ousehold words--the evano-elfcal
~o nt!1ly--the edinburgh review--remember the sayin~ that
is wri tten death is swallowed up in victory- -th e grec1an
· sao-es
were more learned than the roman--the erie canal pas~es
~hrough .the state of new york- - be it enacted by the senate and
1ouse of representatives that etc-o my country how 1·
for the
t h
.
weep
.
e--un o t ee do 1 lift up mine eyes o thou that dwellest
m the he~vens--lessons at home in spelling and reading-pa~ 1 pnce . s. cents--the resources of. califoruia comprising
agnculture mmmg etc.

General Dfrections to Youny Composers.
586. Spell every word con•ectly.* Pay proper attention
oo the use of capitals; always using them where they should
be, and never where they should not be. (See 582.)
58';'. Carefully avoid all vulgm• exp1•essfons and cant
phrases, and never use words which you do not understand, or
which do not correctly express your meaning.
588. At the end of the line, never d'ivide a word of one
syllable, nor any word in the middle of a syllable. If there
should not be room at the end of the line for the whole syllable,
do not begin it at all, but carry it to the next line.

E'"S ffO N 7 9 .-composition.
583. Coniposition is the putting of words together in sent ences, for the purpose of expressing our ideas in w1·itiny in th
best manner, according to the Rules of ~·anuna'r, ~d th:
best usayes of the language.

5~4. Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar."and
especrn.11! those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed

w1t~ . a view to exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of compo1>1t10~"

589. When you have written what you intended, look over
it cm·efully; see if you can improve it by a betteJ• choice of
words, or by a better arranye111ent of them, so as to express
your meaning more clearly (544); and mark the changes proposed.

590. Copy the whole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a
manner as you can, guarding against · blots and erasures, which
disfigure any writing, dotting your i's, crossing your t's, and
pointiny the whole as well as you are able (553), so that any
person, as well as yourself, may easily read and understand it.

1. ~Y l~ading him to va1•y his ideas, and to express the
same idea m different forms.

591. Try to make every new composition bette1• Utan the
one bef01•e it. Never write carelessly, and though it may be

2. ~y enabling him to det,ect and co1•rer.t m·r01·s which often
occ11r m the co~st:uction of sentences ; and so to put him on his
guard agamst sumlar errors.

somewhat difficult at first, a. little practice will soon make it easy.

3, B.y t he exercise of forming c01•rect sentence.'! for himself
acc ordmg to the particular directions laid down under the variou~
R u 1es,
0

*** For additional suggestions and directions, see" ANALYSIS,
PARSING AND COMPOSITION," p. 181, and the" ANALYTICAL AND
PUACTICAL GRAMMAR," of this series.
* For the principal rules for spelling deriYatiYea, consult the dictionary, or
A. & P. Gr.-151-76.

156

157

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTI:NCES.

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

LESS 0 N 80.-Construction of Sentences.

11 in words as attt-tbutes in the
[Write simple sentences, using the fo ow g
predicate.]

592 . Although no excellence in composition is attainable
without adeq'unte 1wtions of the subject of which we write,
v.nc.l ·i ntelligent thU'ttght in determining nnd adjusting the
rcln tions of ideas and in selecting the proper words to express
th em ; yet practice in the uiechanical const1·uction of sim.
pie sentences may render important aid, and give facility, ease,
and elegance to our style.
593. Let the following and similar Exercises be used judici.
ously in connection with the study of the regular lessons in tlw
grammar. The teacher may extend these Exercises, and should
in all cases seek to furnish new and fresh material.

594. A single proposition requires for its enunciation at least
two w01·ds, sometimes three ; as,
John . . .,.. comes.
Paper ... . is white.
595. Tbe subject in its simplest form, may be expressed: 1.
By a nown; as, "Gold is heavy;" 2. By a p1·onoun; as,
"She is wise ; ' 3. By an iufi.nUive; as, To play is pleasant ;
4. By a pm·t-ic,iple; as, Walking is a beneficial exercise.
596. The p1·e<licnte in its simplest form consists of the
copula ancl an att1·ibute ; as, God is good: or it may consist of only a ve1•b, containing in itself both copula and attribute; as, John walks (=is walking). (346-348.)
597. 'l'he att1·ilntte may be, 1. A noun; as, Music is an
art; ~- An f't<l,ject·ive; as, Solomon was wise; 3. A pa;1·ticiple; as, The boy was injured; 4. An infinitive; as, I am to
[JO; 5. A p1•epos'itfonal clause; a~, The affair is of consequence.

EXjJJROISES.
[Compose simple sentences, employing the following words as subjects: ]

Exam.ple.-The bread is wholesome.
Breiid- fruit-school-books-pens-pencils-pupils- children
- cxercise-water--plants- to study-wc-ca.rpet-work-to play
-copper-gold-the dog- the horse-the ' elephant, etc.

Exainple.-The sky is blue.
.
Tall-short-narrow-w1'd e -w h i' t e - "'CYreen- bright - mce
sweet-strong - icUe-diligent.
.
i te and write out the sentence._]
be
[ Put the following verbs m the pred ca •
Spoke- screamed-wrote-ran- saw - will come - may
allowed-must study.
l
d
[• • These lists may be enlarged at the discretion of the teacherb. • t
In• the sentences written as abo·ve, po~·nt out the su ~ec an
· · l word m each.
p1'edicate; name t h e pnnc1pa

E x tension of Subject and Predicate.
th sub ·ect and 1n•ed'icate may be enlm·yed
5!>8. Both e
.1 ' ·
d l'miting or explaining the

or expanded in various ways by wor t! l
principal' elements. (368, .181.)
h limiting words are necessary to express any
599 Wh en sue
t
John wrote
comple~e sense, they are called cornpletnen s; as,
(i Zettel/' - He became sick:
d
,
h
dded at the pleasure of the speaker, an
(;QO. When t ey are a
lete roposition they are
p
'dl' along the
mny be omitted and still leave a comp
ck horse ran rapi Y
called adj'uncts; as, Th e old bla
to the sense

road.

6 OI .

Com~l:-ments and ~~~~:::i::~t :;:::"urselves intel·

of all pr~pos1t10ns. W ~h ~ are however, many instances in

ligibly w1~hout _th.em'. wou18; leav; the sense very indefinite or
which their om1ss1on . .
. a miserable being." Take
" An avaricious m an is
.
obscure ; as,
d
"
.
er"ble"
· · us" an
mis "' , and the r emamder,
away ".An av.an~'.o .
nve but an indefinite significatioJ1.
"ltfnn is a being, will co
Y . th root of all evil,'' becomes,
.
"
Similarly, "The love of money is "e
when deprived of its complements, Love is root.

EXERCISES.
l . the following expressions as complements,
[ 1VrUe sentences, emp OJlllg
or as adjuncts. ]
. .

Exarn I.es - The little bird is smgmg.
p . The practice of v·i rt·ue brings its reward.

158

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

Little-of virtue-in the scho.o l-at home-this young-the
kind-his father-an honest.
[*• * Extend these examples at pleasure.]

Gompl e;nent,; f01• Predicates,
fi02. Predfoates of sentences may, it is evident, be exf en<led, at the will of the speaker, in an almost endless variety

of ways. Thus, take the proposition " He gave." We may ask ,
What did h e give? He gave bread- to whom ?-to the poorwh en ?-during the winter season-how ?-kindly. With all
these additions, we have the following: " He kindly gave bread
to the poor during the winter season.

EXERCISES.
[W,.ite sentences, in which the oxteJ>sioJ> of the p1'edicate shall be
supplied from the following:]

Many reasons-with a great army-in security-in g reat haste
- to his own residence-wit h many excuses-a month in the
country-near the city-over the hill-since the day before yesterday, etc.

OO:J. Th<" pupil may now be required to compose sentences in
which both 1;ubject and predicate are extended or enlarged by limiting words; as,
1. A man of abO'ut forty years of age was tlien conducted into
tlie room.

2. The tree in ?nJ/ garden is growing m&re beautiful ei'ery day.
3. Tlie bright colors of the rainbow extended across the wliole
sky.
Hermit lived-;-we marched-a man dropped-the horses were
left- the men drank-people pretend-they arrived-inhabitants
fl ocked- birds began-pillar stands-London is supplied.

The Introduct01'1f Clause.
G.04. In order to add grace and harmony to composition, the
f'l.l~')l/.nct, wh en it expresses U11-ie, 1Jla.ce, or 11-ianne'r , is often
placed at the b eyinn'iny of a sentence, and followed by a
comma. Such introductory clause should generally be short.
The foll owing are examples:

CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.

159

I n the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.
Du1-ing thut long struggle, he was true to hls country.
I n the mi<U.t of tlw conjusivn, he escaped.

EXERCISES.
[Compose sentences with the following ·l nt·1 ·oductory clauses.]

In the mean time- Early the next morning-notwithstanding
these difficulties- In every part of our land-in ancient timesever since the beginning Of spring-soon after these events-not
knowing what to do-by dint of inquiry, etc.

<;05, Sometimes th e subject is preceded by two or mo'r e
introductory phrases or clauses, as follows:
With these words, and witli a look of disdain, she passed on.
[Compose sentences, using the following:]

On the following day, my arrangement~ l;>eing ~11 completed.
- -Last year, about the middle . of Augu.st.- -In the va1ley of
the Nile, not far from Cairo, etc.
G06. REMARK-Sometimes a limiting clause or cfrcumstance is placed immediately after the subject; as, Man, at his
best e8tate, is vanity.
607. CAUTION.-Gen&ally a circumstance or limiting phrase
should not be inserted between the principal clauses of a senteJ:!ce,
as it will be sometimes doubtful to whfoh it belongs; as, "Having
finished the manuscript, wpon the deatli of liia fatlier, he procured
its publication."
AmpUfication.

G08. As au additional e:xercise to give practical application to
the preceding, the pupil may take the simplest form of sentence
and add to it all the qualifying words and circumstances which
can , without any violation of probability, be annexed to it; a~,
1. The brothers walked.
2. The brothers walked towards the river.
3. The brothers walked together towards the river.
4. The brothers walked together in silence towards the river.
5. In the evening, the brothers walked together towards the
river.

160

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.
EXERCISE'S IN COMPOSI'fION.

. 6'. In the cool of the evening, the two brothers walked together
m silence towards the river.
7. In the cool of the evening, the two brother-s, arm in arm,
walked together in silence towards the river which flows alonrr
the bottom of their g arden, etc.
b
[Ampl ify the following, as shown above.]

H e took lcavo of his friend.--The traveler was r eceived.-The brother came.--They sailed.--The men saw.--I desire.
--He told us a story.--Thcy had reached home.--The
people were gfad, etc.
NOTE.-The learner may sometimes be assisted in this Exercise
by asking the questions how? when! where? by whom? etc.
with the simple proposition.

LESS 0 N 81.-Exercises in Composition.
'.

(;09. The more simple exercises in composition are, for young
beginners, so much the bett er. They should not be required to
write 11bout any thing with which they are not perfectly familiar.
1. Th e following is a very simple !ll1d easy exercise. A class
f pupils may be directed to look at a certain pictU1·e in the
eading or Spelling Book or Geography, or any other book at
. and; and th~ tecicher 1:11ay excite their .atten tion by aslcinq
011ie qnestwns, or tellrng them somethmg respecting it, and
hen direct each one, either iu his seat or at home, to w1•ite a
le8c1·iption of the picture, together with any ideas that occur
·O him on the subj ect.
This m ethod will furnish an endless
ariety of easy and useful exercises.
2. The teacher ·may reud or relate some simple nan;ative
r gi.ve a familiar description of some object ; and pupils muy b~
eqmred to 1·epPoduce the same, from m emory, in their own
anguage. The lessons in geograph y, hi story, ancl other subjects
t t he daily school exercises, m ay similarly be 1·ep1·oduced in
niting.

3. From pictures, the att ention m ay be turned to real ob, ··ects. The class may now be directed to any object or objects

>ithin their view, which th ey may be ruquired to describe and

161

give their ideas about, as before; for example, the school-house
and its furnit.ure-the business of the day, in the form of a
journal-the principal objects in view to the south of the school·
house- to the north-to the east-to the west. Ea:ch may be
directed to describe his own house, and the leading objects in
view from it in different directions, .o.r any object which he may
choose to select.
4. Another class of easy and interesting subjects may be found
in describing familiar objects in nat·u1•al lt'ist01"y-the various
season3 of the year, with their employments and amusementsthe various operations of the former, and different mechanic arts
-narratives of .n.n.J accidents, or .striking events that may have
occurred.
5. Short familiar epistola1•y co1•1·esponclence. real or
imaginary. One pupil may be directed .to write to :an~ther concerning any thing he pleases. A post-office might be set up in
the school, with its letter-box, to be opened at stated seasons,
and its contents reacl for the amusement and instruction of the
school. This exercise, because voluntary, would be entered into
with spirit, and prove of great benefit.
6. For the ptupose of giving readinens and celerity 1n composition, and compelling abst1·action of the mind from every other
interest save that in hand, there is no exercise -of :greater value
th'1Il that of i1nproniptu c01iiposif!ion .
l1Iethod. Let the pupils of a class be :seated in order, with
slate and pencil, or other writing material in hand. When all
are in readiness, t h e teacher announces a simple theme adapted
to the capacity of the class, and at a signal :all begin to write.
At the expiration of three, five, or tea minutes, upon the giving
of 1111other ~ignal, all cease. No emendations are now to be
made.
'I'he teacher may now call upon one and another of the pupils
to read what they have" written, and when a little confidence
has been created by experience, the pupils, and afterwards th e
teacher, mny, in a kindly -spirit, .critkisH the several perform·
ances, and make such suggestions as seem pertinent.
After a time, these impromptu exercises may be made a drill
preliminary to a more elaborate essay on the .same subject, to be
written out by each pupil

160
6. In the cool of the evening, the two ,broth~r\! walk~d ,toge~~er
.
' .., . '·.,.,,~.,,,,JM••~f~~>I
~- .,,9 U>;..
1
• '. ~ .,,.., _ "· ""
in silence towards the river.
. ., ••
• ~.,
.
.·
. ·~
.'!t':'"X·.· :.; 'i '-' ,y,:t ~1;1~ " . rn ·l
7. In the cool of the evening, the two b.ro~h~1·s, arm ~- ~.
walked together in silence towards the river \yhich' flo~s along .
the bottom of their garden, etc. .
,. .:,
·
·r.
[ AmvUfy the following, as shown above.)

.

.

.

He took leave of his friend:--The1 tra.;~ler wa:i'~e~eived'.~" • ·
The brother came.--They sailed.--The men s'aw.-·-· I d~si;e. ·
--He told us a story.--They · had reached h!Jme:- ·-The'
people were glad, etc.
· · ·!~.. " ~:·:· ··~·_:7 if"'11 .. ~~. ·-r~f·l~l~~•

•

,,

, __ _

•

'(,.

_FI.. ·t

N OTE.-The learner may sometimes be aSBiste?-,.in.',~Jiii! .~:x:_ef.c)f/~
by asking the questions h{)'_IJ)1 when1 wli~re? · by ., whomf' e~~
with the simple proposition.
> :,·
:-:··d
~

;...-.

--•.--:.t-..- _..
"'.'-""·.-,.--~-t-;,,,-·:;·~;~
,.

, ;, 1

• •.' /

'I

•

-1~;~· ... }../ ' ~ ~ -~tl~~i . .~_' r
"~:

'• : ,

r .. \," •

I·

~-·~).•t) \

LE S S 0 N 8 1 .~E;er,<?.l~.~\> ._ ~ 1qqm:i;>~-~~t,,~~1?>·~·. _
,

,

"f~

1
•I

r' t

'f...,

i J-i\/ ·""£·"':-l' ...f~• t';

609. The more simple ex~rcises ~. co~pos~t~?.n. ~~· f~f.!~~$ ~

beginners, so muc~ the .better-_ They s]io,~~"Di°t. be _reqwr~~ .~~,.
write a.bout any thillg with which they are not perfectly famili8.r.
'
,
'Ji ... I I ~
u ,\, 1
.h
.
1 • The following is a very simple' ;;,-1
and••_easy
e:x:erclSe.
A class. ·
".l'I
If_·~ •·• •":' .~ ·~' i\
of pupils may be directed to look o.t a 'c!lrt~n lzf?t:u;.i:e ~1?- .~~~ -· .
Reading or Spelling Book or Geography,' or 1!-fiY other _p ook_at'; ,'
ho.nd · and the teacher may-excite iheir "'a tiention by iisking
tf.·f ..
smne questions, or telling them something re~pecting \t, and.
then direct each one, either in his seat or at home:);oJwrite td '
<lescription of the p~c~iµ-e, together ~th ariy ideas that oC<io/'.:
to him on the sQ.bject. This . method wiJ+ fqrnish an !lnclJess .
.
d
fu]'
.
/ ' . • ,(l ,.),1L· ~I• 8J1 • :.', )-U .~
variety of easy an use exercises.
.
,·t- ·'• __ ..,. ; -.-.~r:"'"~it':l
.,
·~\· r.
2. The teacher may read or relate some stmple 1!-arr,at/1'f!:.:
or give a familiar description of some .objec~; an.~ J?:11Pils~ mi;Y, p~ ·
required to 1·eprocluce the same, froi:n memory,,in their. own
lan<Tuao-e. The lessons in geography, history, and otl{er subjects .•.
ot tl1e daily school exercises, may similarly' be 1·ej>rod~ced'. i~· _
..
.
'... ,,.,... . ,. .
wntrng.
·
3. From pictures, the attention may be turn~ to :real ob.:.
jects. The class may now be direct!l(} -~o. an;r: 'obje_\:e or objec~s
within their view; which they may be required to 'ctescri~e.·· and,"'
,

•

•

1.

~·

• ...

~·

.

'

-·

162
The time allotted,, ~n<:l. the patj.icular, 9e~J;~.\18 ~~pl~:r~·.f?!':(
be varied as each teacher's genius_ ~d 6.l[Pjl~ence, a:itfhe1 ~\U;\~
of the class, may dict&te...· • · -:r .:.' ,,~ ·"">".'i -~ 1 ·.-~"'···; /-.' .:.;:_ : 1
7. Themes on familim• subjects. lll!l.x· :c.ex,~,'\Je ,l!!'§lgn~d,
such as the following.:
.. "
.-·:~ ,..1; 1 ,~.,
.,, fl
· Point out the evils of the following vices. and .lmp1opri0~e~, .
and make · such remarks respecting them as yo~. ,think..· PfQl!er,;
viz., Lying, Stea.ling, Swearing,, Disobedi.enpe, ~~. fN~n~s •. 'S_!lbbath-breaking, Discont0ntment, Intemperance, Ill-nature, Viole~·
p!lBSions, Penuriousness.. . Idleness, Cruelty ta ..animals, Bad co~:
pany, etc.
, 1 •. :
, • , •~ •
,_ tl(--..~::>:~.-i. t."' ~~ · , .. 1 -~.·.t"' '..
Point out the. beoofits, arising fr~m Trµth, , 'I!.Pn~sty, Sopi;i,Elty,
Love to God, Love to men, Good nat ure, Industry, Con~~n.tme~.t,
Kindness to the poor, .Keeping good company,, P;!o~r r~~se- ·
men ts, etc., and make s¥cli rem.a.rk11, ;.:oR: :~W~P.f~ ~es~~\" .

es

··-l'""•'· ·»f'•/r".,1··--,_r.tr·~.qn.t~~
In all cases. with b"ginners, it i.& ¥te.r ,tq :c!l(li4gl.~he~_·f gl v.p
their <>Wll' thoughts on familiar subj ects Wij.]:l ,'\'lf~()!l-,..t4'f,Y, Mi~

ingthem.

r

acquainted, than to give tht;iti· subjects. of ~•. abatra~~ - 11at'\1'.N Rr
of which they can not be suppol>.6d to h~ve mu.~1t ~~?~ledge: .I n
the former Cll.Se, they will be ~~ely to.. giye , ~~tti;r, OWf, t~o;ugfts
in their own way; in the latter, ,they •.~¥}rave ~~' r~~()~,. ~? .
books, and instead of giving. their own ideas~ will b~. apt to copr,
the writings of others, 'vithont. pe•haps~ , ~~~~ ,' llf'~er~t~~§. ,
them.
·
'
8. When the compositions. are prepared,,:_·t he ~T~~( 'i?.~ ·
G1·am:ma1· should be pointed o~t and. ex~laii;!ed .; .?fiJs~k,~~
in m•tlwgra:P,hY~ cnp'itals~ punctuat·t on,_e~c..,~rr~.~P.~~
or pointed out to be corrected. and .then the wP..? le, fOPie'1 !n a "
correct and plain ma~er, into a. book )fept for ~]t!l~ :E(UrIJR~e. r, "'~·
Compositions of a higher order than those wliich have . b~~!1--.
suggested, would be above the years- and ~cquir~men~s ~f ,7~ose ·
for whom this little work is intended. and wp~d the,refore' ~~·
'
•
. ..
...
:,,
improper.
,
.,
.1
Having gone through these ..LeBSOD/I, pJlpµsr}h()}l,gh ;y:o~n~,,
will be well prepared for taking up, with ea\)e and adV!l-ntag~!
the " Analytical and Practic~ Grammar of _tP,e English l ~­
guage," and the maniial.of " Analysis, f'arsing,'.~d .Compo~-~~~~i~
and for going through a more tporough and cnt~cal course:" ·i'~i:
~'

~

~r,"':

~-'

......

164

PlWSODY.

PROSODY.

N<mn Qr aqjective.

Vll1'b.

c6ntract
present
presage
perfume
absent

contract
present
presage
permme
absent
619. In dissyllables formed by affixing a termination, the
ffrst syllable is commonly accented ; as, childish, kingdom, toilsome.
()20. Dissyllables formed by p~·efix·ing a syllable to the
radical wcmi generally have the accent on the last syllable; as,
to retli.in, to beseem, to best6w.

II. Vm·siftcation.

6 ,'!1. Versification is the .arrangement of acertain number of long and sh'Ort syllables according to certain rules. Composition so arranged is called
Verse or Poetry.
622. V e1·se is of two kinds: Rhyme and Blank verse.
Rhyme iR a similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or
more lines arranged in a certain order. Poetry consisting of such
lines, is sometimes called Rhyme. Blank-1.:m·se is poetry
without rhyme.

G23. Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain number of parts called Feet. The arrangement of these feet in a
line according to the ·accent, is called 11-Ieter; and the ilividing
of a line into its component feet is called Scanwing.
<i24. All feet u sed in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds :
four of two syllables, and four of three syllables; the long syllable being marked by a st raight line .(-) and the short, by a curve,
(~) as follows:
·
IJissyllable.

A Trochee - .._,
An Iambus ~ A Spoudee - A P yrrhic ~ ~

TriS?)llable.

A Dactyl - ~ ~
An Amphibrach ~ An Anaprest ~ ~ A Tribrach ~ ~ ~

~

625. In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are
short.

165

626. The Meters in most common use, are the Iamb'ic,
Tl•ochaic, and .A.napwstic.
627. Iamb'ic Meter is adapted to grave and serious subj ects; it has the second, fourth, and other even syllables, accented
or long ; and the first, third, and other uneven syllables, unaccented or short. , Of this. verse there are, various kinds, some
having two feet, some three, some four, some five. This last is
called heroic m easure, and is the same that is used by Milton,
Young, Thomson, Pollok, etc.

628. In iambie verse set to music, especially in sac.red songs,
stanzas with alternate lines of four and three feet are called common meter; when all the.lines have four feet each, long meter.
Stanzas having three feet in the first, second, and fourth lines,
and four in the third are called short meter.

629. When the last, line_oi a .stanza is eJi;tended to six feet,
it is called .A.lexandrine.

630. Trochaic Meter is quick and lively, and adapted· to
g ay and cheerful composition. It comprises verses of one and a
half, two, three, four, five, and sometimes six feet·; sometimes
followed by an additional syllable.
6.'Jl. Anapwstfo Metm• consists of lines of two, three,
four Meters or Anaprests, with sometimes an additional syllable.

16'7

APPENDIX.

APPEND IX.
I. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.
By an element we mean one of the simplest parts or
principles of any thing. It performs a distinct office or function.
Thus,
An element of a word is a letter or a sound.

These are of three kinds(1 .) Complenienta.MJ, such as complete the affirmation
made by a. transitive verb-the f!bject; as, He studies gramma1·; or that made by an attributive verb-the attribute; as,
Sugar is sweet.-He became wise.

(2.) Adjurwtive, used directly to limit or define other .elements. These are adjecUve and advei•bial; as, A good boy
studies his lesson.-A very good boy studies attentively.
(3.) Attendants, including- (a) Connectives, conjunctions,
and prepositions; and (b) Words of euphony and exc~amations.
This scheme may be presented as follows:
SUBJECTIVE.

Principal. . . . . { AFFIRMATIVE.

SENTENTIAL
ELEMENTS.

C
{Objective.
OlllPLEMENTARY. . Attributive.

The elements of a phuise are the words of which it is <iom.
posed.

Acljective.

The elements of a sentence are the separate words, phrases,
or clauses which give specific character to the proposition.
NOTE.-Frequcntly seve1·al wo1•ds, constituting a phrase
or a clause, make, taken together, only one sentential eleTnent. Thus,
Several stars of less magnitude now appeared.
The boy who studious ( == studious) will improve.
In every sentence there must be a subject (generally a noun
or pronoun) and its vei·b. Other elements may be added to
limi t, modify, or enlarge the ideas which these contain. Hence,

The .elements of a sentence are of two kinds, p1'incipal and
subordinate.
· 1. P1•incipal Elements are those necessary to th~ structure of any sentence. (Grammatical subject and grammatical
predicate, 361, 373.)
2. Subordinate Elements are those which modify or
limit the principal elements. A subordinate element may limit
a11other subordh2ate ~lemant .

ATTENDANT. . .. ...

{

Connectives.
Words of Euphony.
Interjections.

In the preliminary analysis of sentences, by the foregoing1. Tell the subject and the predicate.
2. Say, The p1..incipal element in the subject is--, limited
by the adjunct, ~vord, phrase, or clause, - -, etc.

3. The p1•incipal element in the predicate (the ~ffirmer)
i s - -, (if transitive), limited by the object--. or, (if attributive), used to affirm the attribute - - of the subject--,
and further limited by the adverbial adjunct, (word, phrase,
or clause), - -.
[*•* See Analysis, 37-40; A. & P . Gr.-594 .]

II. THE PASSIVE VOICE.
An analysis of the English verb will show that in the passive
·vofoe there is, strictly speaking, only one form, viz., the past
participle, bavina- the followin_i uses and QODnectiona:

168

APPENDIX.

1. J oined directly with. a substantive (its subject), to express
the recefring of an act; as, He saw me ruined, and helped me.
2. Used as an att1·ib-ute of the subject, after an attributive
verb, most co= only the verb t-0 be; as, I am liurt.- He was
despised.

169

APP1rn:n:rx.
I V . S YNOPTICAL TABLES.

f aidin the pupil- in seeing at one view the lead~ng
For the pu.rpose o
. ti g f the different parts of speech, the followlllg
characteristics and dlstinc ons o
.
synoptical view is presented:

Instead of the commonly received method of parsing the passive voice, in ull the moods and tenses, we may separate it into
the verb to be as a copula, and the past participle used as an
attribute.

1. Table of Nouns.
First.
P erson.. { Second.
'fhird.

j Sensible,

Class names. · · · l Rational.
Collective names·

III. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND
CONJUNCTIONS . .
Many adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions were originally
nowns or verbs, which have become entirely or almost obsolete, or are abbreviated modes derived from other parts of speech.
The following are examples :
·

Common . . . . . Namea Qf maUrials.
.
Names of msamres, etc.

I

rn
S
o

;z:;

virtue."

Con}nnctions.
Since, from seon, to see, (participle.)
L est, from lesan, to dismiss.
Anll, imperat ive, from an old verb, meaning to add.
Yet, from ,qetun, to obtain, etc.

***

For some curious notes on this subject, see Noah Web,

ste1"s Grammar and Tooke' a "Divers-ions of Purley."

·

Tabl~ of

ARTICLES ... ......... . .

i

s.
;;J
rn
j
0

~

1 OF QUALITY.. ....

•

{ Nominatj.ve.
case . . . . Possesaive.
Objective.

the Artieles.

DEF,INITR ... . . . ..........

rri

j Singular.

.

2•

1

Excevt, (verb), to leave out, etc.

6

{Qualities; 8 Number. l Plural.
<
\ Abstract . . . . . . . Actions.
States.

Fcu·ewcll, from an old verb, meaning to go, etc.
P1·evos'itions.
Beyond, from be ;ind r;angan, to go, and well.
Athwa1·t, from an old verb, meaning to twist.
Anwng, from an old verb, meaning to mix.
Bnt, from an old verb, (be-utan), to be out.
Conce1'niny, participle: used absolutely; as, "Concerning

~

{Particular names.
Proper · · · · · · · In transition staf,e.'

Advm·bs.
A gluist, from aoaze, to look with astonishment.
.A go, a contraction of rtr;one, from go.
As·1.i-iuler , from p:irticiple as11nde1·ed, separated.

Masculine.
Gender.. { Feminine.
Neuter.

al

INDEFINITE ...... . ....

Tl.,,,.

i

A, before a consonant.

An, before a vowe\.

Tcible of Adjectwes.

i

Sensible .. . .... · · · ........ · • .... · · as, ~~·
Co11;1parative. . .. . . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . ..
Ple'itint..
Rational. .............. · · .. .. .... ·

i

J Cardinal. •.. One.
{Numeral.. Definite ... · 1 Ordinal'. .. . ·~~!t. many
Indefinite... .. .. . .. .. .. ..
;·
2. OF QUANTITY ... · Distributive, ...... ·· ·· .. · · · '··· · ·· .. · ·~ac1ii.
:Measure . .......... · · .. · · · .. · · .. · · • .. · uc

JTime ....... · · ··· ··· · ·· · ··· · ·········· ·~~fum.

~~ii~ii:.·:.'.·:.'.·::::::::.'.: :: '. '. '. :::: :: :,:Alµencan.

t;

3. CmouMBTANTIAL. (

f:;

J Descriptive.··· .... ·· .. .. · ........ · • ..
4. PARTICll'IAL. · · .. · 1 Verbal (compound) ........ .. · .. . ..... U

!;;j

A~~~~f~d.

. d In constructing tables and other synopt;ical
*•* Pupils mny be exercise h d "elements" or parts
of eentences,
.
.
statements of the parts of epeec ' an
at the option of the teacher.

-----

.A. & P . .or.-

' lJ)/f.

170

APPENDIX.

4. Table of Pronouns.
I,
Simple ...... . . . { Thou,
He, she, it.

rP•nM•a<. ···
I
.Relati ve. · · · ·

zj

00

{
Compound ·· · · ·

ll

:::>

6. Table of Adve'rbs.
We,
You,
They.

{Myself,
'l' hyself. yourself,
H1 m•elf, herself,
itsel[

s·imple ··· · ·· · · {Who,
Which,
CQmpound .. . .

Ourselves,,
Youritelves,

Themselves.

That,
What.

ADVERBS
EXPRESS

{ Who(so)ever,
Whicb(so)ever,
What(so)ever.

~ / Inten·ouative . .. . . .... . . . . ... . . {~~~~\?
rPos

0

"

• • •• • • •

IJ' -t-''--ti

.

Adjecttve · · · ·

ses°"'ve

"' rwu

1. Manner . ... .. . ... . . ... ... as, Jnstly, bravely, slowly.
2. Place .. . ... .. , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Here, there, ·whither.
3. Tim e .. . .. .. . ...... .. . ... . .
Now, then, when, often.
4. Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Upward, 'd ownward.
5. Affirmation... ........... . Certainly, truly, yes.
6. Neuation.... .. . ... . . . . ... .
Nay, not, nowise.
7. :J.nte1'rouation ... .. .. . ...
How? why? when?
s. Co'mparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . More, most, as.
9. Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Much, some, enough.
10. 01'de••.. . ... . ...... . ...... .
First, secondly, thirdly.
11. Uncertainty .... :...... . ...
P erhaps, probably.
12. Connection (Conjunctive .Adverbs, 300.)

{My, thy, his, ~er, its, one's.
Our, your, their.

{ Each,

7, Table oi P1·epositions.
.

Either,
Neither.

ve · ·.. Every,

1.

{Rest in .. .. . . .. . . . .. as, He is in the house.
PLACE. • • . • • • • • .

.

{ This, these.
I>emoMtrative. . That, those.

1

Motion to or from..
Rest or motion.. . . .

Time and place . . . .
2. ·TIME. . . . . ... .. . { ""
__ ,

One,
Other,
Another,
etc.

None,
Any
Inde.fini · · · · · · { All, '
Such,

te

,.me vu,.y . . . . . .... .

3 . .A.GENT

on

INSTRUMENT . . . . .. ... ... ..

4. CAUSE •. .. ... . ... . . • • • . • . ••. . .. .. . . • .•

5. Table of the Ve1·b.

r ~ ~~{T1·ansHive, {M~~·J (
~ ::::; ~ Int1'ansi tive,

"'< '<;> !:

Separation .. .. .. . .. .

'/Indicative

,..; . ~ Att1'i biitive.

··

~ ·

l

~
~~

~~

,.; i;s

Past-perf.
Future.

Aversion .. . . . . ... . .

I Sing.
I Plural.

5. MISCELLANEOUS Substitution .. . . ... .
IDEAS • .. . •... .

{Present.

r,.,.cuu.lcw,

i:I:;;,::::.~.~.;. {~£i[t,g• }
so:;

{~;::~~~rf.
)
Past.

Inclination . ... .... .

F~~~

"'.§ {.Reu-ula 1·,

~~

Written.

/Have,
Be,

Auxi Ha1·11; ~aal,,
as,.. . . . . . . . . Must,
Shall,
Will.

171

.APPENDIX.

Potential. ..

~~~t-perf.

Opposition' . . . . •.. ..

;;;;;::·f.Jj ~: ~:~::

Subjunctive. {
Imperattve ... .Preseut.

r~n

,,.,,ni ti ve. . . {Present.
Perfect.
j Present.

Pai·ttctptaz · 1~=~~e~t.

Possession . . .... ..•.
Reference. . .... . . ··

ta. Pers.

He ·went into the house.
Over.

At noon, at the table.
Till noon.

By his power.

For my sake.
Without.
For.
Auainst.
Instead of.
Of.
Tottchinu.
Auainst.

8. Table of Conjunctions.
00

.

5g:: lCOPULATIVE ... · · · · · ·
0

t'i

~
Z

8

{Connective .. . · · · · as,
ContinuatiVB. · ·..

' .

,

{.Diatr.lbut.ve •· · · ••
DISJUNCTIVE· • • · • • • •

..4.dwraat1111 .. .. · ·

{ And, also, likewise.
Moreover, for, etc.
{Before, where, after, if,
unless, until, etc.
{Or, nor.
Either, ' neither.
{ But, nevertheless.
Yet, still, wllereaa, •te.

APPEN'DIX.

9. Table ofi the Parts of'Speech.

*•*

The Parts . of. Speech and their most cQmmou· characteristics and
accidents, may be presented at one view, as follows :

·

Nouns....

~

~:'.J

Name& of measures.
Qualities.
Abstract.. ( Ac.tions.

Pronouns-.............

Relative.
Interroqative.
A!-Oective.

Transitive { Act!~e.
· PaaSive.
U/JfJ • • • • • • • { Intransitive;
A,ttributive.

es

~:

I

~

•
Regumr.
Ve> ,bs. · · · FiJrm .. .. . {Irregular.
P efective.

Connection { Prlnc~pal.

·Auxiliary.

1.
.
.
2.
.. . ( Ado ect.ves .... .. . .. .. · { 3.
4.

·

~:'.':~~: . ..

{Personal.

dl"i
~ '°"
J:l ~
~Q

First.

common. 1~.::::~E::::.·1s. )1:::::::. Ji~r
j
{
Proper .. ... .......... ...

.. z~

1

( N enter.
Number .. { PS!nlg. l
ura .

Case ....

.J ~g:~~:

}{Simple.
}

1~~

{~:::::::
Distributive.
Demonstrative.
Indeftnite.
Indicative.
Potential.
Subjunctive.
Imperative.
Infinitive,
Participial.

Of Quality.
Of Quantity .

Circumstantial.

~~ J
Participial.
db
.
{
Definite.
§~ A•·ticles · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Indefinite.

]'.;l [Aave..bs ..... . .... .... {r~Luon.

Manner, etc. (294 .)

",,;

gjµ::i

· { copuIa t'ive.

Connective.
· · · · · · · · · · · · { Continuative.
. .
.
. . .
D1sJunctive ............ { D1str1bnttve.
Adversative.
{P!ace.
.
~m~
Prepos•tions.. .. .. . .. Agent, or Instrumeut.
Cause .
Mis.ce!Jaueoua.
•

•

<:::; {Con;} unctions.. .. . .. .

0,., E-

o

~~
~z

fi:o
o

.. a:i

~8

d~ {Inte:rjecti,ons, ~§

g~

'"'~

vnriou.a .em.o.tions.

EaJp.lettvaa, or Words of Euphwl;y.

..

~ai
~

..

1. Of Qljajity,
2. Of Quantity.

[Adjectives... .. .. ..... { 8.

.t

Clrcumatant~
~.

4. Particlp!aJ:

o~ A t. 0 l
(Definite.
~ ~ ,._ .. ' ea•··· "" · • • .. · (-Indefinite.

8~

.,
en

: .1

{Place.
•
Tim&. ·
A.dve1 ba• •. • , •.•.• , • • • A~tion,
Manner, e~c.. (2_1!,_4f>

.. rJi

,

·

\'.

•

J •

~ ..J

t

·
{ Connective.-

:ll f"l { Co1>Junotiona...
•
-;t::;
... .. ~opnlative. · · · · ·· · · · · · · Contlnnative.
·
,
nnc:tiv~ . • , 1 " • • , ••. 1lDletrlbnt!ve.
oo
·· ·
• "l'Adversatlve.
~l"l
Place,,
•
,
~§ '
Time.
, ' ··
Preporitiona... •.. . .. { Agent, or Inet1'1llllent,
..
C""'
Cause.
---,;
·· ' ~
.. al
l1!.ace14vMn" .. .
"E-

~g
lllE-<

1~ {Inte,,.,tl.41jJ~nH, ...,..,.,... ,vario11B..~ ~·~~
~.,_ .. ~
'
.
!~ ~11}et,Jv~or W~lls ot.E11p~~ ., · ~·.

